,transcriber's ,note3 ,this is a complete unabridged transcription of ,lionel ,gile's translation of ,the ,art of ,war4 ,see additional notes at the end of the book4 ,sun ,tz on the ,art of ,war ,,the ,,oldest ,,military ,,treatise ,,in ,,the ,,world ,translated from the ,chinese with introduction and critical notes ,,by ,,lionel ,,giles1 ,m4,a4 ,assistant in the ,department of ,oriental ,printed ,books and ,,mss4 in the ,british ,museum ,london ,,luzac ,co4 #aiaj ,printed by ,e4 ,j4 ,bbill1 ,leyden 7,holland74 ,to my brother ,captain ,valentine ,giles1 ,r4,g4 in the hope that a work #bdjj years old may yet contain lessons worth consideration by the soldier of to-day this translation is affectionately dedicated ,,contents ,page ,preface vii ,introduction ,sun ,wu and his ,book xi ,the ,text of ,sun ,tz xxx ,the ,commentators xxxiv ,appreciations of ,sun ,tz xlii ,apologies for ,war xliii ,bibliography l ,chap4 ,i4 ,laying plans #a ,,ii4 ,waging ,war #i ,,iii4 ,attack by ,stratagem #ag ,,iv4 ,tactical ,dispositions #bf ,v4 ,energy #cc ,,vi4 ,weak ,points and ,strong #db ,,vii4 ,manuvring #ee ,,viii4 ,variation of ,tactics #ga ,,ix4 ,the ,army on the ,march #hj ,x4 ,terrain #ajj ,,xi4 ,the ,nine ,situations #aad ,,xii4 ,the ,attack by ,fire #aej ,,xiii4 ,the ,use of ,spies #afj ,chinese ,concordance #agf ,index #aib ,,preface ,the seventh volume of 8,mmoires concernant l'histoire1 les sciences1 les arts1 les murs1 les usages1 c41 des ,chinois0#a is devoted to the ,art of ,war1 and contains1 amongst other treatises1 8,les ,treize ,articles de ,sun-tse10 translated from the ,chinese by a ,jesuit ,father1 ,joseph ,amiot4 ,pre ,amiot appears to have enjoyed no small reputation as a sinologue in his day1 and the field of his labours was certainly extensive4 ,but his so-called translation of ,sun ,tz1 if placed side by side with the original1 is seen at once to be little better than an imposture4 ,it contains a great deal that ,sun ,tz did not write1 and very little indeed of what he did4 ,here is a fair specimen1 taken from the opening sentences of chapter #e3-- ,de l'habilet dans le gouvernement des ,troupes4 ,sun-tse dit3 ,ayez les noms de tous les ,officiers tant gnraux que subalternes2 inscrivez-les dans un catalogue part1 avec la note des talents de la capacit de chacun d'eux1 afin de pouvoir les employer avec avantage lorsque l'occasion en sera venue4 ,faites en sorte que tous ceux que vous devez commander soient persuads que votre principale attention est de les prserver de tout dommage4 ,les troupes que vous ferez avancer contre l'ennemi doivent tre comme des pierres que vous lanceriez contre des ufs4 ,de vous l'ennemi il ne doit y avoir d'autre diffrence que celle du fort au foible1 du vuide au plein4 ,attaquez dcouvert1 mais soyez vainqueur en secret4 ,voil en peu de mots en quoi consiste l'habilet toute la perfection mme du gouvernement des troupes4 ,throughout the nineteenth century1 which saw a wonderful development in the study of ,chinese literature1 no translator ventured to tackle ,sun ,tz1 although his work was known to be highly valued in ,china as by far the oldest and best compendium of military science4 ,it was not until the year #aije that the first ,english translation1 by ,capt4 ,e4 ,f4 ,calthrop1 ,r4,f4,a41 appeared at ,tokyo under the title 8,sonshi0 7the ,japanese form of ,sun ,tz7#b4 ,unfortunately1 it was evident that the translator's knowledge of ,chinese was far too scanty to fit him to grapple with the manifold difficulties of ,sun ,tz4 ,he himself plainly acknowledges that without the aid of two ,japanese gentlemen 8the accompanying translation would have been impossible40 ,we can only wonder1 then1 that with their help it should have been so excessively bad4 ,it is not merely a question of downright blunders1 from which none can hope to be wholly exempt4 ,omissions were frequent2 hard passages were wilfully distorted or slurred over4 ,such offences are less pardonable4 ,they would not be tolerated in any edition of a ,greek or ,latin classic1 and a similar standard of honesty ought to be insisted upon in translations from ,chinese4 ,from blemishes of this nature1 at least1 ,i believe that the present translation is free4 ,it was not undertaken out of any inflated estimate of my own powers2 but ,i could not help feeling that ,sun ,tz deserved a better fate than had befallen him1 and ,i knew that1 at any rate1 ,i could hardly fail to improve on the work of my predecessors4 ,towards the end of #aijh1 a new and revised edition of ,capt4 ,calthrop's translation was published in ,london1 this time1 however1 without any allusion to his ,japanese collaborators4 ,my first three chapters were then already in the printer's hands1 so that the criticisms of ,capt4 ,calthrop therein contained must be understood as referring to his earlier edition4 ,in the subsequent chapters ,i have of course transferred my attention to the second edition4 ,this is on the whole an improvement on the other1 though there still remains much that cannot pass muster4 ,some of the grosser blunders have been rectified and lacunae filled up1 but on the other hand a certain number of new mistakes appear4 ,the very first sentence of the introduction is startlingly inaccurate2 and later on1 while mention is made of 8an army of ,japanese commentators0 on ,sun ,tz 7who are these1 by the way871 not a word is vouchsafed about the ,chinese commentators1 who nevertheless1 ,i venture to assert1 form a much more numerous and infinitely more important 8army40 ,a few special features of the present volume may now be noticed4 ,in the first place1 the text has been cut up into numbered paragraphs1 both in order to facilitate cross-reference and for the convenience of students generally4 ,the division follows broadly that of ,sun ,hsing-yen's edition2 but ,i have sometimes found it desirable to join two or more of his paragraphs into one4 ,in quoting from other works1 ,chinese writers seldom give more than the bare title by way of reference1 and the task of research is apt to be seriously hampered in consequence4 ,with a view to obviating this difficulty so far as ,sun ,tz is concerned1 ,i have also appended a complete concordance of ,chinese characters1 following in this the admirable example of ,legge1 though an alphabetical arrangement has been preferred to the distribution under radicals which he adopted4 ,another feature borrowed from 8,the ,chinese ,classics0 is the printing of text1 translation and notes on the same page2 the notes1 however1 are inserted1 according to the ,chinese method1 immediately after the passages to which they refer4 ,from the mass of native commentary my aim has been to extract the cream only1 adding the ,chinese text here and there when it seemed to present points of literary interest4 ,though constituting in itself an important branch of ,chinese literature1 very little commentary of this kind has hitherto been made directly accessible by translation4#c ,i may say in conclusion that1 owing to the printing off of my sheets as they were completed1 the work has not had the benefit of a final revision4 ,on a review of the whole1 without modifying the substance of my criticisms1 ,i might have been inclined in a few instances to temper their asperity4 ,having chosen to wield a bludgeon1 however1 ,i shall not cry out if in return ,i am visited with more than a rap over the knuckles4 ,indeed1 ,i have been at some pains to put a sword into the hands of future opponents by scrupulously giving either text or reference for every passage translated4 ,a scathing review1 even from the pen of the ,shanghai critic who despises 8mere translations10 would not1 ,i must confess1 be altogether unwelcome4 ,for1 after all1 the worst fate ,i shall have to dread is that which befell the ingenious paradoxes of ,george in ,the ,vicar of ,wakefield4 ,,introduction ,sun ,wu and his ,book4 ,ss-ma ,ch#8ien gives the following biography of ,sun ,tz3#d-- ,sun ,tz ,wu was a native of the ,ch#8i ,state4 ,his ,art of ,war brought him to the notice of ,ho ,lu1#e ,king of ,wu4 ,ho ,lu said to him3 ,i have carefully perused your #ac chapters4 ,may ,i submit your theory of managing soldiers to a slight test8 ,sun ,tz replied3 ,you may4 ,ho ,lu asked3 ,may the test be applied to women8 ,the answer was again in the affirmative1 so arrangements were made to bring #ahj ladies out of the ,palace4 ,sun ,tz divided them into two companies1 and placed one of the ,king's favourite concubines at the head of each4 ,he then bade them all take spears in their hands1 and addressed them thus3 ,i presume you know the difference between front and back1 right hand and left hand8 ,the girls replied3 ,yes4 ,sun ,tz went on3 ,when ,i say 8,eyes front10 you must look straight ahead4 ,when ,i say 8,left turn10 you must face towards your left hand4 ,when ,i say 8,right turn10 you must face towards your right hand4 ,when ,i say 8,about turn10 you must face right round towards the back4 ,again the girls assented4 ,the words of command having been thus explained1 he set up the halberds and battle-axes in order to begin the drill4 ,then1 to the sound of drums1 he gave the order 8,right turn40 ,but the girls only burst out laughing4 ,sun ,tz said3 ,if words of command are not clear and distinct1 if orders are not thoroughly understood1 then the general is to blame4 ,so he started drilling them again1 and this time gave the order 8,left turn10 whereupon the girls once more burst into fits of laughter4 ,sun ,tz said3 ,if words of command are not clear and distinct1 if orders are not thoroughly understood1 the general is to blame4 ,but if his orders are clear1 and the soldiers nevertheless disobey1 then it is the fault of their officers4 ,so saying1 he ordered the leaders of the two companies to be beheaded4 ,now the ,king of ,wu was watching the scene from the top of a raised pavilion2 and when he saw that his favourite concubines were about to be executed1 he was greatly alarmed and hurriedly sent down the following message3 ,we are now quite satisfied as to our general's ability to handle troops4 ,if ,we are bereft of these two concubines1 our meat and drink will lose their savour4 ,it is our wish that they shall not be beheaded4 ,sun ,tz replied3 ,having once received ,his ,majesty's commission to be general of his forces1 there are certain commands of ,his ,majesty which1 acting in that capacity1 ,i am unable to accept4 ,accordingly1 he had the two leaders beheaded1 and straightway installed the pair next in order as leaders in their place4 ,when this had been done1 the drum was sounded for the drill once more2 and the girls went through all the evolutions1 turning to the right or to the left1 marching ahead or wheeling back1 kneeling or standing1 with perfect accuracy and precision1 not venturing to utter a sound4 ,then ,sun ,tz sent a messenger to the ,king saying3 ,your soldiers1 ,sire1 are now properly drilled and disciplined1 and ready for ,your ,majesty's inspection4 ,they can be put to any use that their sovereign may desire2 bid them go through fire and water1 and they will not disobey4 ,but the ,king replied3 ,let our general cease drilling and return to camp4 ,as for us1 ,we have no wish to come down and inspect the troops4 ,thereupon ,sun ,tz said3 ,the ,king is only fond of words1 and cannot translate them into deeds4 ,after that1 ,ho ,lu saw that ,sun ,tz was one who knew how to handle an army1 and finally appointed him general4 ,in the ,west1 he defeated the ,ch#8u ,state and forced his way into ,ying1 the capital2 to the north1 he put fear into the ,states of ,ch#8i and ,chin1 and spread his fame abroad amongst the feudal princes4 ,and ,sun ,tz shared in the might of the ,king4 ,about ,sun ,tz himself this is all that ,ss-ma ,ch#8ien has to tell us in this chapter4 ,but he proceeds to give a biography of his descendant1 ,sun ,pin1 born about a hundred years after his famous ancestor's death1 and also the outstanding military genius of his time4 ,the historian speaks of him too as ,sun ,tz1 and in his preface we read3 8,sun ,tz had his feet cut off and yet continued to discuss the art of war40#f ,it seems likely1 then1 that 8,pin0 was a nickname bestowed on him after his mutilation1 unless indeed the story was invented in order to account for the name4 ,the crowning incident of his career1 the crushing defeat of his treacherous rival ,p#8ang ,chan1 will be found briefly related on p4 #dj4 ,to return to the elder ,sun ,tz4 ,he is mentioned in two other passages of the ,shih ,chi3-- ,in the third year of his reign #eab ,b4,c4 ,ho ,lu1 ,king of ,wu1 took the field with ,tz-hs i4e4 ,wu ,yan and ,po ,p#8ei1 and attacked ,ch#8u4 ,he captured the town of ,shu and slew the two prince's sons who had formerly been generals of ,wu4 ,he was then meditating a descent on ,ying the capital2 but the general ,sun ,wu said3 8,the army is exhausted4#g ,it is not yet possible4 ,we must wait04444#h ,after further successful fighting1 in the ninth year #ejf ,b4,c41 ,king ,ho ,lu of ,wu addressed ,wu ,tz-hs and ,sun ,wu1 saying3 8,formerly1 you declared that it was not yet possible for us to enter ,ying4 ,is the time ripe now80 ,the two men replied3 8,ch#8u's general1 ,tz-ch#8ang1#i is grasping and covetous1 and the princes of ,t#8ang and ,ts#8ai both have a grudge against him4 ,if ,your ,majesty has resolved to make a grand attack1 you must win over ,t#8ang and ,ts#8ai1 and then you may succeed40 ,ho ,lu followed this advice1 beat ,ch#8u in five pitched battles and marched into ,ying4#aj ,this is the latest date at which anything is recorded of ,sun ,wu4 ,he does not appear to have survived his patron1 who died from the effects of a wound in #dif4 ,in the chapter entitled 7the earlier portion of which ,m4 ,chavannes believes to be a fragment of a treatise on ,military ,weapons71 there occurs this passage3#aa ,from this time onward1 a number of famous soldiers arose1 one after the other3 ,kao-fan1#ab who was employed by the ,chin ,state2 ,wang-tz1#ac in the service of ,ch#8i2 and ,sun ,wu1 in the service of ,wu4 ,these men developed and threw light upon the principles of war 774 ,it is obvious that ,ss-ma ,ch#8ien at least had no doubt about the reality of ,sun ,wu as an historical personage2 and with one exception1 to be noticed presently1 he is by far the most important authority on the period in question4 ,it will not be necessary1 therefore1 to say much of such a work as the ,wu ,yeh ,ch#8un ,ch#8iu1 which is supposed to have been written by ,chao ,yeh of the #ast century ,a4,d4 ,the attribution is somewhat doubtful2 but even if it were otherwise1 his account would be of little value1 based as it is on the ,shih ,chi and expanded with romantic details4 ,the story of ,sun ,tz will be found1 for what it is worth1 in chapter #b4 ,the only new points in it worth noting are3 #a7 ,sun ,tz was first recommended to ,ho ,lu by ,wu ,tz-hs4 #b7 ,he is called a native of ,wu4#ad #c7 ,he had previously lived a retired life1 and his contemporaries were unaware of his ability4#ae ,the following passage occurs in ,huai-nan ,tz3 8,when sovereign and ministers show perversity of mind1 it is impossible even for a ,sun ,tz to encounter the foe40#af ,assuming that this work is genuine 7and hitherto no doubt has been cast upon it71 we have here the earliest direct reference to ,sun ,tz1 for ,huai-nan ,tz died in #abb ,b4,c41 many years before the ,shih ,chi was given to the world4 ,liu ,hsiang 7,b4,c4 #hj-i7 in his says3 8,the reason why ,sun ,wu at the head of #cj1jjj men beat ,ch#8u with #bjj1jjj is that the latter were undisciplined40#ag ,tng ,ming-shih in his 7completed in #aacd7 informs us that the surname was bestowed on ,sun ,wu's grandfather by ,duke ,ching of ,ch#8i #edg-dij ,b4,c44 ,sun ,wu's father ,sun ,p#8ing1 rose to be a ,minister of ,state in ,ch#8i1 and ,sun ,wu himself1 whose style was ,ch#8ang-ch#8ing1 fled to ,wu on account of the rebellion which was being fomented by the kindred of ,t#8ien ,pao4 ,he had three sons1 of whom the second1 named ,ming1 was the father of ,sun ,pin4 ,according to this account1 then1 ,pin was the grandson of ,wu1#ah which1 considering that ,sun ,pin's victory over ,wei was gained in #cda ,b4,c41 may be dismissed as chronologically impossible4 ,whence these data were obtained by ,tng ,ming-shih ,i do not know1 but of course no reliance whatever can be placed in them4 ,an interesting document which has survived from the close of the ,han period is the short preface written by the great ,ts#8ao ,ts#8ao1 or ,wei ,wu ,ti1 for his edition of ,sun ,tz4 ,i shall give it in full3-- ,i have heard that the ancients used bows and arrows to their advantage4#ai ,the ,lun ,y says3 8,there must be a sufficiency of military strength40#bj ,the ,shu ,ching mentions 8the army0 among the 8eight objects of government40#ba ,the ,i ,ching says3 8 #8army' indicates firmness and justice2 the experienced leader will have good fortune40#bb ,the ,shih ,ching says3 8,the ,king rose majestic in his wrath1 and he marshalled his troops40#bc ,the ,yellow ,emperor1 ,t#8ang the ,completer and ,wu ,wang all used spears and battle-axes in order to succour their generation4 ,the ,ss-ma ,fa says3 8,if one man slay another of set purpose1 he himself may rightfully be slain40#bd ,he who relies solely on warlike measures shall be exterminated2 he who relies solely on peaceful measures shall perish4 ,instances of this are ,fu ,ch#8ai#be on the one hand and ,yen ,wang on the other4#bf ,in military matters1 the ,sage's rule is normally to keep the peace1 and to move his forces only when occasion requires4 ,he will not use armed force unless driven to it by necessity4#bg ,many books have ,i read on the subject of war and fighting2 but the work composed by ,sun ,wu is the profoundest of them all4 ,sun ,tz was a native of the ,ch#8i state1 his personal name was ,wu4 ,he wrote the ,art of ,war in #ac chapters for ,ho ,l1 ,king of ,wu4 ,its principles were tested on women1 and he was subsequently made a general4 ,he led an army westwards1 crushed the ,ch#8u ,state and entered ,ying the capital4 ,in the north1 he kept ,ch#8i and ,chin in awe4 ,a hundred years and more after his time1 ,sun ,pin lived4 ,he was a descendant of ,wu4#bh ,in his treatment of deliberation and planning1 the importance of rapidity in taking the field1#bi clearness of conception1 and depth of design1 ,sun ,tz stands beyond the reach of carping criticism4 ,my contemporaries1 however1 have failed to grasp the full meaning of his instructions1 and while putting into practice the smaller details in which his work abounds1 they have overlooked its essential purport4 ,that is the motive which has led me to outline a rough explanation of the whole4#cj ,one thing to be noticed in the above is the explicit statement that the #ac chapters were specially composed for ,king ,ho ,lu4 ,this is supported by the internal evidence of ,i4 #ae1 in which it seems clear that some ruler is addressed4 ,in the bibliographical section of the ,han ,shu1#ca there is an entry which has given rise to much discussion3 8,the works of ,sun ,tz of ,wu in #hb p#8ien 7or chapters71 with diagrams in #i chan40 ,it is evident that this cannot be merely the #ac chapters known to ,ss-ma ,ch#8ien1 or those we possess to-day4 ,chang ,shou-chieh in his refers to an edition of ,sun ,tz's of which the 8#ac chapters0 formed the first chan1 adding that there were two other chan besides4#cb ,this has brought forth a theory1 that the bulk of these #hb chapters consisted of other writings of ,sun ,tz--we should call them apocryphal--similar to the ,wn ,ta1 of which a specimen dealing with the ,nine ,situations#cc is preserved in the ,t#8ung ,tien1 and another in ,ho ,shih's commentary4 ,it is suggested that before his interview with ,ho ,lu1 ,sun ,tz had only written the #ac chapters1 but afterwards composed a sort of exegesis in the form of question and answer between himself and the ,king4 ,pi ,i-hsn1 author of the ,sun ,tz ,hs ,lu1 backs this up with a quotation from the ,wu ,yeh ,ch#8un ,ch#8iu3 8,the ,king of ,wu summoned ,sun ,tz1 and asked him questions about the art of war4 ,each time he set forth a chapter of his work1 the ,king could not find words enough to praise him40#cd ,as he points out1 if the whole work was expounded on the same scale as in the above-mentioned fragments1 the total number of chapters could not fail to be considerable4#ce ,then the numerous other treatises attributed to ,sun ,tz#cf might also be included4 ,the fact that the ,han ,chih mentions no work of ,sun ,tz except the #hb p#8ien1 whereas the ,sui and ,t#8ang bibliographies give the titles of others in addition to the 8#ac chapters10 is good proof1 ,pi ,i-hsn thinks1 that all of these were contained in the #hb p#8ien4 ,without pinning our faith to the accuracy of details supplied by the ,wu ,yeh ,ch#8un ,ch#8iu1 or admitting the genuineness of any of the treatises cited by ,pi ,i-hsn1 we may see in this theory a probable solution of the mystery4 ,between ,ss-ma ,ch#8ien and ,pan ,ku there was plenty of time for a luxuriant crop of forgeries to have grown up under the magic name of ,sun ,tz1 and the #hb p#8ien may very well represent a collected edition of these lumped together with the original work4 ,it is also possible1 though less likely1 that some of them existed in the time of the earlier historian and were purposely ignored by him4#cg ,tu ,mu1 after ,ts#8ao ,kung the most important commentator on ,sun ,tz1 composed the preface to his edition#ch about the middle of the ninth century4 ,after a somewhat lengthy defence of the military art1#ci he comes at last to ,sun ,tz himself1 and makes one or two very startling assertions3--8,the writings of ,sun ,wu10 he says1 8originally comprised several hundred thousand words1 but ,ts#8ao ,ts#8ao1 the ,emperor ,wu ,wei1 pruned away all redundancies and wrote out the essence of the whole1 so as to form a single book in #ac chapters40#dj ,he goes on to remark that ,ts#8ao ,ts#8ao's commentary on ,sun ,tz leaves a certain proportion of difficulties unexplained4 ,this1 in ,tu ,mu's opinion1 does not necessarily imply that he was unable to furnish a complete commentary4#da ,according to the ,wei ,chih1 ,ts#8ao himself wrote a book on war in something over #ajj1jjj words1 known as the 4 ,it appears to have been of such exceptional merit that he suspects ,ts#8ao to have used for it the surplus material which he had found in ,sun ,tz4 ,he concludes1 however1 by saying3 8,the ,hsin ,shu is now lost1 so that the truth cannot be known for certain40#db ,tu ,mu's conjecture seems to be based on a passage in the 8,wei ,wu ,ti strung together ,sun ,wu's ,art of ,war10#dc which in turn may have resulted from a misunderstanding of the final words of ,ts#8ao ,kung's preface3 4 ,this1 as ,sun ,hsing-yen points out1#dd is only a modest way of saying that he made an explanatory paraphrase1#de or in other words1 wrote a commentary on it4 ,on the whole1 the theory has met with very little acceptance4 ,thus1 the says3#df 8,the mention of the #ac chapters in the ,shih ,chi shows that they were in existence before the ,han ,chih1 and that later accretions are not to be considered part of the original work4 ,tu ,mu's assertion can certainly not be taken as proof40#dg ,there is every reason to suppose1 then1 that the #ac chapters existed in the time of ,ss-ma ,ch#8ien practically as we have them now4 ,that the work was then well known he tells us in so many words3 8,sun ,tz's #ac ,chapters and ,wu ,ch#8i's ,art of ,war are the two books that people commonly refer to on the subject of military matters4 ,both of them are widely distributed1 so ,i will not discuss them here40#dh ,but as we go further back1 serious difficulties begin to arise4 ,the salient fact which has to be faced is that the ,tso ,chuan1 the great contemporary record1 makes no mention whatever of ,sun ,wu1 either as a general or as a writer4 ,it is natural1 in view of this awkward circumstance1 that many scholars should not only cast doubt on the story of ,sun ,wu as given in the ,shih ,chi1 but even show themselves frankly sceptical as to the existence of the man at all4 ,the most powerful presentment of this side of the case is to be found in the following disquisition by ,yeh ,shui-hsin3#di-- ,it is stated in ,ss-ma ,ch#8ien's history that ,sun ,wu was a native of the ,ch#8i ,state1 and employed by ,wu2 and that in the reign of ,ho ,l he crushed ,ch#8u1 entered ,ying1 and was a great general4 ,but in ,tso's ,commentary no ,sun ,wu appears at all4 ,it is true that ,tso's ,commentary need not contain absolutely everything that other histories contain4 ,but ,tso has not omitted to mention vulgar plebeians and hireling ruffians such as ,ying ,k#8ao-shu1#ej ,ts#8ao ,kuei1#ea ,chu ,chih-wu#eb and ,chuan ,sh-chu4#ec ,in the case of ,sun ,wu1 whose fame and achievements were so brilliant1 the omission is much more glaring4 ,again1 details are given1 in their due order1 about his contemporaries ,wu ,yan and the ,minister ,p#8ei4#ed ,is it credible that ,sun ,wu alone should have been passed over8#ee ,in point of literary style1 ,sun ,tz's work belongs to the same school as ,kuan ,tz1#ef the ,liu ,t#8ao1#eg and the ,yeh ,y1#eh and may have been the production of some private scholar living towards the end of the 8,spring and ,autumn0 or the beginning of the 8,warring ,states0 period4#ei ,the story that his precepts were actually applied by the ,wu ,state1 is merely the outcome of big talk on the part of his followers4#fj ,from the flourishing period of the ,chou dynasty#fa down to the time of the 8,spring and ,autumn10 all military commanders were statesmen as well1 and the class of professional generals1 for conducting external campaigns1 did not then exist4 ,it was not until the period of the 8,six ,states0#fb that this custom changed4 ,now although ,wu was an uncivilised ,state1 is it conceivable that ,tso should have left unrecorded the fact that ,sun ,wu was a great general and yet held no civil office8 ,what we are told1 therefore1 about ,jang-ch#fc and ,sun ,wu1 is not authentic matter1 but the reckless fabrication of theorising pundits4 ,the story of ,ho ,l's experiment on the women1 in particular1 is utterly preposterous and incredible4#fd ,yeh ,shui-hsin represents ,ss-ma ,ch#8ien as having said that ,sun ,wu crushed ,ch#8u and entered ,ying4 ,this is not quite correct4 ,no doubt the impression left on the reader's mind is that he at least shared in these exploits2 but the actual subject of the verbs 1 1 and is certainly 1 as is shown by the next words3 4#fe ,the fact may or may not be significant2 but it is nowhere explicitly stated in the ,shih ,chi either that ,sun ,tz was general on the occasion of the taking of ,ying1 or that he even went there at all4 ,moreover1 as we know that ,wu ,yan and ,po ,p#8ei both took part in the expedition1 and also that its success was largely due to the dash and enterprise of ,fu ,kai1 ,ho ,lu's younger brother1 it is not easy to see how yet another general could have played a very prominent part in the same campaign4 ,ch#8n ,chn-sun of the ,sung dynasty has the note3#ff-- ,military writers look upon ,sun ,wu as the father of their art4 ,but the fact that he does not appear in the ,tso ,chuan1 although he is said to have served under ,ho ,l ,king of ,wu1 makes it uncertain what period he really belonged to4#fg ,he also says3-- ,the works of ,sun ,wu and ,wu ,ch#8i may be of genuine antiquity4#fh ,it is noticeable that both ,yeh ,shui-hsin and ,ch#8n ,chn-sun1 while rejecting the personality of ,sun ,wu as he figures in ,ss-ma ,ch#8ien's history1 are inclined to accept the date traditionally assigned to the work which passes under his name4 ,the author of the ,hs ,lu fails to appreciate this distinction1 and consequently his bitter attack on ,ch#8n ,chn-sun really misses its mark4 ,he makes one or two points1 however1 which certainly tell in favour of the high antiquity of our 8#ac chapters40 8,sun ,tz10 he says1 8must have lived in the age of ,ching ,wang #eai-dgf1 because he is frequently plagiarised in subsequent works of the ,chou1 ,ch#8in and ,han dynasties40#fi ,the two most shameless offenders in this respect are ,wu ,ch#8i and ,huai-nan ,tz1 both of them important historical personages in their day4 ,the former lived only a century after the alleged date of ,sun ,tz1 and his death is known to have taken place in #cha ,b4,c4 ,it was to him1 according to ,liu ,hsiang1 that ,tsng ,shn delivered the ,tso ,chuan1 which had been entrusted to him by its author4#gj ,now the fact that quotations from the ,art of ,war1 acknowledged or otherwise1 are to be found in so many authors of different epochs1 establishes a very strong probability that there was some common source anterior to them all1--in other words1 that ,sun ,tz's treatise was already in existence towards the end of the #eth century ,b4,c4 ,further proof of ,sun ,tz's antiquity is furnished by the archaic or wholly obsolete meanings attaching to a number of the words he uses4 ,a list of these1 which might perhaps be extended1 is given in the ,hs ,lu2 and though some of the interpretations are doubtful1 the main argument is hardly affected thereby4#ga ,again1 it must not be forgotten that ,yeh ,shui-hsin1 a scholar and critic of the first rank1 deliberately pronounces the style of the #ac chapters to belong to the early part of the fifth century4 ,seeing that he is actually engaged in an attempt to disprove the existence of ,sun ,wu himself1 we may be sure that he would not have hesitated to assign the work to a later date had he not honestly believed the contrary4 ,and it is precisely on such a point that the judgment of an educated ,chinaman will carry most weight4 ,other internal evidence is not far to seek4 ,thus1 in ,,xiii4 #a1 there is an unmistakable allusion to the ancient system of land-tenure which had already passed away by the time of ,mencius1 who was anxious to see it revived in a modified form4#gb ,the only warfare ,sun ,tz knows is that carried on between the various feudal princes 771 in which armoured chariots play a large part4 ,their use seems to have entirely died out before the end of the ,chou dynasty4 ,he speaks as a man of ,wu1 a state which ceased to exist as early as #dgc ,b4,c4 ,on this ,i shall touch presently4 ,but once refer the work to the #eth century or earlier1 and the chances of its being other than a bon fide production are sensibly diminished4 ,the great age of forgeries did not come until long after4 ,that it should have been forged in the period immediately following #dgc is particularly unlikely1 for no one1 as a rule1 hastens to identify himself with a lost cause4 ,as for ,yeh ,shui-hsin's theory1 that the author was a literary recluse1#gc that seems to me quite untenable4 ,if one thing is more apparent than another after reading the maxims of ,sun ,tz1 it is that their essence has been distilled from a large store of personal observation and experience4 ,they reflect the mind not only of a born strategist1 gifted with a rare faculty of generalisation1 but also of a practical soldier closely acquainted with the military conditions of his time4 ,to say nothing of the fact that these sayings have been accepted and endorsed by all the greatest captains of ,chinese history1 they offer a combination of freshness and sincerity1 acuteness and common sense1 which quite excludes the idea that they were artificially concocted in the study4 ,if we admit1 then1 that the #ac chapters were the genuine production of a military man living towards the end of the 8,ch#8un ,ch#8iu0 period1 are we not bound1 in spite of the silence of the ,tso ,chuan1 to accept ,ss-ma ,ch#8ien's account in its entirety8 ,in view of his high repute as a sober historian1 must we not hesitate to assume that the records he drew upon for ,sun ,wu's biography were false and untrustworthy8 ,the answer1 ,i fear1 must be in the negative4 ,there is still one grave1 if not fatal1 objection to the chronology involved in the story as told in the ,shih ,chi1 which1 so far as ,i am aware1 nobody has yet pointed out4 ,there are two passages in ,sun ,tz in which he alludes to contemporary affairs4 ,the first is in ,,vi4 #ba3-- ,though according to my estimate the soldiers of ,yeh exceed our own in number1 that shall advantage them nothing in the matter of victory4 ,i say then that victory can be achieved4 ,the other is in ,,xi4 #cj3-- ,asked if an army can be made to imitate the shuai-jan1 ,i should answer1 ,yes4 ,for the men of ,wu and the men of ,yeh are enemies2 yet if they are crossing a river in the same boat and are caught by a storm1 they will come to each other's assistance just as the left hand helps the right4 ,these two paragraphs are extremely valuable as evidence of the date of composition4 ,they assign the work to the period of the struggle between ,wu and ,yeh4 ,so much has been observed by ,pi ,i-hsn4 ,but what has hitherto escaped notice is that they also seriously impair the credibility of ,ss-ma ,ch#8ien's narrative4 ,as we have seen above1 the first positive date given in connection with ,sun ,wu is #eab ,b4,c4 ,he is then spoken of as a general1 acting as confidential adviser to ,ho ,lu1 so that his alleged introduction to that monarch had already taken place1 and of course the #ac chapters must have been written earlier still4 ,but at that time1 and for several years after1 down to the capture of ,ying in #ejf1 ,ch#8u1 and not ,yeh1 was the great hereditary enemy of ,wu4 ,the two states1 ,ch#8u and ,wu1 had been constantly at war for over half a century1#gd whereas the first war between ,wu and ,yeh was waged only in #eaj1ge and even then was no more than a short interlude sandwiched in the midst of the fierce struggle with ,ch#8u4 ,now ,ch#8u is not mentioned in the #ac chapters at all4 ,the natural inference is that they were written at a time when ,yeh had become the prime antagonist of ,wu1 that is1 after ,ch#8u had suffered the great humiliation of #ejf4 ,at this point1 a table of dates may be found useful4 ,b4,c4 #ead ,accession of ,ho ,lu4 #eab ,ho ,lu attacks ,ch#8u1 but is dissuaded from entering ,ying1 the capital4 ,shih ,chi mentions ,sun ,wu as general4 #eaa ,another attack on ,ch#8u4 #eaj ,wu makes a successful attack on ,yeh4 ,this is the first war between the two states4 #eji ,ch#8u invades ,wu1 but is signally defeated at ,y-chang4 or #ejh #ejf ,ho ,lu attacks ,ch#8u with the aid of ,t#8ang and ,ts#8ai4 ,decisive battle of ,po-ch1 and capture of ,ying4 ,last mention of ,sun ,wu in ,shih ,chi4 #eje ,yeh makes a raid on ,wu in the absence of its army4 ,wu is beaten by ,ch#8in and evacuates ,ying4 #ejd ,ho ,lu sends ,fu ,ch#8ai to attack ,ch#8u4 #dig ,kou ,chien becomes ,king of ,yeh4 #dif ,wu attacks ,yeh1 but is defeated by ,kou ,chien at ,tsui-li4 ,ho ,lu is killed4 #did ,fu ,ch#8ai defeats ,kou ,chien in the great battle of ,fu-chiao1 and enters the capital of ,yeh4 #dhe ,kou ,chien renders homage to ,wu4 ,death of ,wu ,tz-hs4 or #dhd #dhb ,kou ,chien invades ,wu in the absence of ,fu ,ch#8ai4 #dgh ,further attacks by ,yeh on ,wu4 to #dgf #dge ,kou ,chien lays siege to the capital of ,wu4 #dgc ,final defeat and extinction of ,wu4 ,the sentence quoted above from ,,vi4 #ba hardly strikes me as one that could have been written in the full flush of victory4 ,it seems rather to imply that1 for the moment at least1 the tide had turned against ,wu1 and that she was getting the worst of the struggle4 ,hence we may conclude that our treatise was not in existence in #eje1 before which date ,yeh does not appear to have scored any notable success against ,wu4 ,ho ,lu died in #dif1 so that if the book was written for him1 it must have been during the period #eje-dif1 when there was a lull in the hostilities1 ,wu having presumably been exhausted by its supreme effort against ,ch#8u4 ,on the other hand1 if we choose to disregard the tradition connecting ,sun ,wu's name with ,ho ,lu1 it might equally well have seen the light between #dif and #did1 or possibly in the period #dhb-dgc1 when ,yeh was once again becoming a very serious menace4#gf ,we may feel fairly certain that the author1 whoever he may have been1 was not a man of any great eminence in his own day4 ,on this point the negative testimony of the ,tso ,chuan far outweighs any shred of authority still attaching to the ,shih ,chi1 if once its other facts are discredited4 ,sun ,hsing-yen1 however1 makes a feeble attempt to explain the omission of his name from the great commentary4 ,it was ,wu ,tz-hs1 he says1 who got all the credit of ,sun ,wu's exploits1 because the latter 7being an alien7 was not rewarded with an office in the ,state4#gg ,how then did the ,sun ,tz legend originate8 ,it may be that the growing celebrity of the book imparted by degrees a kind of factitious renown to its author4 ,it was felt to be only right and proper that one so well versed in the science of war should have solid achievements to his credit as well4 ,now the capture of ,ying was undoubtedly the greatest feat of arms in ,ho ,lu's reign2 it made a deep and lasting impression on all the surrounding states1 and raised ,wu to the short-lived zenith of her power4 ,hence1 what more natural1 as time went on1 than that the acknowledged master of strategy1 ,sun ,wu1 should be popularly identified with that campaign1 at first perhaps only in the sense that his brain conceived and planned it2 afterwards1 that it was actually carried out by him in conjunction with ,wu ,yan1#gh ,po ,p#8ei and ,fu ,kai8 ,it is obvious that any attempt to reconstruct even the outline of ,sun ,tz's life must be based almost wholly on conjecture4 ,with this necessary proviso1 ,i should say that he probably entered the service of ,wu about the time of ,ho ,lu's accession1 and gathered experience1 though only in the capacity of a subordinate officer1 during the intense military activity which marked the first half of that prince's reign4#gi ,if he rose to be a general at all1 he certainly was never on an equal footing with the three above mentioned4 ,he was doubtless present at the investment and occupation of ,ying1 and witnessed ,wu's sudden collapse in the following year4 ,yeh's attack at this critical juncture1 when her rival was embarrassed on every side1 seems to have convinced him that this upstart kingdom was the great enemy against whom every effort would henceforth have to be directed4 ,sun ,wu was thus a well-seasoned warrior when he sat down to write his famous book1 which according to my reckoning must have appeared towards the end1 rather than the beginning1 of ,ho ,lu's reign4 ,the story of the women may possibly have grown out of some real incident occurring about the same time4 ,as we hear no more of ,sun ,wu after this from any source1 he is hardly likely to have survived his patron or to have taken part in the death-struggle with ,yeh1 which began with the disaster at ,tsui-li4 ,if these inferences are approximately correct1 there is a certain irony in the fate which decreed that ,china's most illustrious man of peace should be contemporary with her greatest writer on war4 ,the ,text of ,sun ,tz4 ,i have found it difficult to glean much about the history of ,sun ,tz's text4 ,the quotations that occur in early authors go to show that the 8#ac chapters0 of which ,ss-ma ,ch#8ien speaks were essentially the same as those now extant4 ,we have his word for it that they were widely circulated in his day1 and can only regret that he refrained from discussing them on that account4#hj ,sun ,hsing-yen says in his preface3-- ,during the ,ch#8in and ,han dynasties ,sun ,tz's ,art of ,war was in general use amongst military commanders1 but they seem to have treated it as a work of mysterious import1 and were unwilling to expound it for the benefit of posterity4 ,thus it came about that ,wei ,wu was the first to write a commentary on it4#ha ,as we have already seen1 there is no reasonable ground to suppose that ,ts#8ao ,kung tampered with the text4 ,but the text itself is often so obscure1 and the number of editions which appeared from that time onward so great1 especially during the ,t#8ang and ,sung dynasties1 that it would be surprising if numerous corruptions had not managed to creep in4 ,towards the middle of the ,sung period1 by which time all the chief commentaries on ,sun ,tz were in existence1 a certain ,chi ,t#8ien-pao published a work in #ae chan entitled 8,sun ,tz with the collected commentaries of ten writers40#hb ,there was another text1 with variant readings put forward by ,chu ,fu of ,ta-hsing1#hc which also had supporters among the scholars of that period2 but in the ,ming editions1 ,sun ,hsing-yen tells us1 these readings were for some reason or other no longer put into circulation4#hd ,thus1 until the end of the #ahth century1 the text in sole possession of the field was one derived from ,chi ,t#8ien-pao's edition1 although no actual copy of that important work was known to have survived4 ,that1 therefore1 is the text of ,sun ,tz which appears in the ,war section of the great ,imperial encyclopaedia printed in #agbf1 the ,ku ,chin ,t#8u ,shu ,chi ,ch#8ng4 ,another copy at my disposal of what is practically the same text1 with slight variations1 is that contained in the 8,eleven philosophers of the ,chou and ,ch#8in dynasties0 #ageh4 ,and the ,chinese printed in ,capt4 ,calthrop's first edition is evidently a similar version which has filtered through ,japanese channels4 ,so things remained until ,sun ,hsing-yen #ageb-ahah1 a distinguished antiquarian and classical scholar1#he who claimed to be an actual descendant of ,sun ,wu1#hf accidentally discovered a copy of ,chi ,t#8ien-pao's long-lost work1 when on a visit to the library of the ,hua-yin temple4#hg ,appended to it was the ,i ,shuo of ,chng ,yu-hsien1 mentioned in the ,t#8ung ,chih1 and also believed to have perished4#hh ,this is what ,sun ,hsing-yen designates as the or 8original edition 7or text70--a rather misleading name1 for it cannot by any means claim to set before us the text of ,sun ,tz in its pristine purity4 ,chi ,t#8ien-pao was a careless compiler1#hi and appears to have been content to reproduce the somewhat debased version current in his day1 without troubling to collate it with the earliest editions then available4 ,fortunately1 two versions of ,sun ,tz1 even older than the newly discovered work1 were still extant1 one buried in the ,t#8ung ,tien1 ,tu ,yu's great treatise on the ,constitution1 the other similarly enshrined in the ,t#8ai ,p#8ing ,y ,lan encyclopaedia4 ,in both the complete text is to be found1 though split up into fragments1 intermixed with other matter1 and scattered piecemeal over a number of different sections4 ,considering that the ,y ,lan takes us back to the year #ihc1 and the ,t#8ung ,tien about #bjj years further still1 to the middle of the ,t#8ang dynasty1 the value of these early transcripts of ,sun ,tz can hardly be overestimated4 ,yet the idea of utilising them does not seem to have occurred to anyone until ,sun ,hsing-yen1 acting under ,government instructions1 undertook a thorough recension of the text4 ,this is his own account3-- ,because of the numerous mistakes in the text of ,sun ,tz which his editors had handed down1 the ,government ordered that the ancient edition of ,chi ,t#8ien-pao should be used1 and that the text should be revised and corrected throughout4 ,it happened that ,wu ,nien-hu1 the ,governor ,pi ,kua1 and ,hsi1 a graduate of the second degree1 had all devoted themselves to this study1 probably surpassing me therein4 ,accordingly1 ,i have had the whole work cut on blocks as a text-book for military men4#ij ,the three individuals here referred to had evidently been occupied on the text of ,sun ,tz prior to ,sun ,hsing-yen's commission1 but we are left in doubt as to the work they really accomplished4 ,at any rate1 the new edition1 when ultimately produced1 appeared in the names of ,sun ,hsing-yen and only one co-editor1 ,wu ,jn-chi4 ,they took the 8original text0 as their basis1 and by careful comparison with the older versions1 as well as the extant commentaries and other sources of information such as the ,i ,shuo1 succeeded in restoring a very large number of doubtful passages1 and turned out1 on the whole1 what must be accepted as the closest approximation we are ever likely to get to ,sun ,tz's original work4 ,this is what will hereafter be denominated the 8standard text40 ,the copy which ,i have used belongs to a re-issue dated #ahgg4 ,it is in #f pn1 forming part of a well-printed set of #bc early philosophical works in #hc pn4#ia ,it opens with a preface by ,sun ,hsing-yen 7largely quoted in this introduction71 vindicating the traditional view of ,sun ,tz's life and performances1 and summing up in remarkably concise fashion the evidence in its favour4 ,this is followed by ,ts#8ao ,kung's preface to his edition1 and the biography of ,sun ,tz from the ,shih ,chi1 both translated above4 ,then come1 firstly1 ,chng ,yu-hsien's ,i ,shuo1#ib with author's preface1 and next1 a short miscellany of historical and bibliographical information entitled ,sun ,tz ,hs ,lu1 compiled by ,pi ,i-hsn4 ,as regards the body of the work1 each separate sentence is followed by a note on the text1 if required1 and then by the various commentaries appertaining to it1 arranged in chronological order4 ,these we shall now proceed to discuss briefly1 one by one4 ,the ,commentators4 ,sun ,tz can boast an exceptionally long and distinguished roll of commentators1 which would do honour to any classic4 ,ou-yang ,hsiu remarks on this fact1 though he wrote before the tale was complete1 and rather ingeniously explains it by saying that the artifices of war1 being inexhaustible1 must therefore be susceptible of treatment in a great variety of ways4#ic #a4 ,ts#8ao ,ts#8ao or ,ts#8ao ,kung1 afterwards known as ,wei ,wu ,ti ,a4,d4 #aee-bbj4 ,there is hardly any room for doubt that the earliest commentary on ,sun ,tz actually came from the pen of this extraordinary man1 whose biography in the ,san ,kuo ,chih#id reads like a romance4 ,one of the greatest military geniuses that the world has seen1 and ,napoleonic in the scale of his operations1 he was especially famed for the marvellous rapidity of his marches1 which has found expression in the line 8,talk of ,ts#8ao ,ts#8ao1 and ,ts#8ao ,ts#8ao will appear40 ,ou-yang ,hsiu says of him that he was a great captain who 8measured his strength against ,tung ,cho1 ,l ,pu and the two ,yan1 father and son1 and vanquished them all2 whereupon he divided the ,empire of ,han with ,wu and ,shu1 and made himself king4 ,it is recorded that whenever a council of war was held by ,wei on the eve of a far-reaching campaign1 he had all his calculations ready2 those generals who made use of them did not lose one battle in ten2 those who ran counter to them in any particular saw their armies incontinently beaten and put to flight40#ie ,ts#8ao ,kung's notes on ,sun ,tz1 models of austere brevity1 are so thoroughly characteristic of the stern commander known to history1 that it is hard indeed to conceive of them as the work of a mere littrateur4 ,sometimes1 indeed1 owing to extreme compression1 they are scarcely intelligible and stand no less in need of a commentary than the text itself4#if ,as we have seen1 ,ts#8ao ,kung is the reputed author of the 1 a book on war in #ajj1jjj odd words1 now lost1 but mentioned in the 4#ig #b4 ,mng ,shih4 ,the commentary which has come down to us under this name is comparatively meagre1 and nothing about the author is known4 ,even his personal name has not been recorded4 ,chi ,t#8ien-pao's edition places him after ,chia ,lin1 and ,ch#8ao ,kung-wu also assigns him to the ,t#8ang dynasty1#ih but this is obviously a mistake1 as his work is mentioned in the 4 ,in ,sun ,hsing-yen's preface1 he appears as ,mng ,shih of the ,liang dynasty #ejb-eeg4 ,others would identify him with ,mng ,k#8ang of the #crd century4 ,in the 1#ii he is named last of the 8,five ,commentators10 the others being ,wei ,wu ,ti1 ,tu ,mu1 ,ch#8n ,hao and ,chia ,lin4 #c4 ,li ,ch#8an of the #hth century was a well-known writer on military tactics4 ,his has been in constant use down to the present day4 ,the mentions 7lives of famous generals from the ,chou to the ,t#8ang dynasty7 as written by him4#ajj ,he is also generally supposed to be the real author of the popular ,taoist tract1 the 4 ,according to ,ch#8ao ,kung-wu and the ,t#8ien-i-ko catalogue1#aja he followed the text of ,sun ,tz1 which differs considerably from those now extant4 ,his notes are mostly short and to the point1 and he frequently illustrates his remarks by anecdotes from ,chinese history4 #d4 ,tu ,yu 7died #hab7 did not publish a separate commentary on ,sun ,tz1 his notes being taken from the ,t#8ung ,tien1 the encyclopaedic treatise on the ,constitution which was his life-work4 ,they are largely repetitions of ,ts#8ao ,kung and ,mng ,shih1 besides which it is believed that he drew on the ancient commentaries of ,wang ,ling and others4 ,owing to the peculiar arrangement of the ,t#8ung ,tien1 he has to explain each passage on its merits1 apart from the context1 and sometimes his own explanation does not agree with that of ,ts#8ao ,kung1 whom he always quotes first4 ,though not strictly to be reckoned as one of the 8,ten ,commentators10 he was added to their number by ,chi ,t#8ien-pao1 being wrongly placed after his grandson ,tu ,mu4 #e4 ,tu ,mu 7#hjc-heb7 is perhaps best known as a poet--a bright star even in the glorious galaxy of the ,t#8ang period4 ,we learn from ,ch#8ao ,kung-wu that although he had no practical experience of war1 he was extremely fond of discussing the subject1 and was moreover well read in the military history of the ,ch#8un ,ch#8iu and ,chan ,kuo eras4#ajb ,his notes1 therefore1 are well worth attention4 ,they are very copious1 and replete with historical parallels4 ,the gist of ,sun ,tz's work is thus summarised by him3 8,practise benevolence and justice1 but on the other hand make full use of artifice and measures of expediency40#ajc ,he further declared that all the military triumphs and disasters of the thousand years which had elapsed since ,sun ,wu's death would1 upon examination1 be found to uphold and corroborate1 in every particular1 the maxims contained in his book4#ajd ,tu ,mu's somewhat spiteful charge against ,ts#8ao ,kung has already been considered elsewhere4 #f4 ,ch#8n ,hao appears to have been a contemporary of ,tu ,mu4 ,ch#8ao ,kung-wu says that he was impelled to write a new commentary on ,sun ,tz because ,ts#8ao ,kung's on the one hand was too obscure and subtle1 and that of ,tu ,mu on the other too long-winded and diffuse4#aje ,ou-yang ,hsiu1 writing in the middle of the #aath century1 calls ,ts#8ao ,kung1 ,tu ,mu and ,ch#8n ,hao the three chief commentators on ,sun ,tz 771 and observes that ,ch#8n ,hao is continually attacking ,tu ,mu's shortcomings4 ,his commentary1 though not lacking in merit1 must rank below those of his predecessors4 #g4 ,chia ,lin is known to have lived under the ,t#8ang dynasty1 for his commentary on ,sun ,tz is mentioned in the and was afterwards republished by ,chi ,hsieh of the same dynasty together with those of ,mng ,shih and ,tu ,yu4#ajf ,it is of somewhat scanty texture1 and in point of quality1 too1 perhaps the least valuable of the eleven4 #h4 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n 7#ajjb-ajfj71 commonly known by his 8style0 as ,mei ,shng-y1 was1 like ,tu ,mu1 a poet of distinction4 ,his commentary was published with a laudatory preface by the great ,ou-yang ,hsiu1 from which we may cull the following3-- ,later scholars have misread ,sun ,tz1 distorting his words and trying to make them square with their own one-sided views4 ,thus1 though commentators have not been lacking1 only a few have proved equal to the task4 ,my friend ,shng-y has not fallen into this mistake4 ,in attempting to provide a critical commentary for ,sun ,tz's work1 he does not lose sight of the fact that these sayings were intended for states engaged in internecine warfare2 that the author is not concerned with the military conditions prevailing under the sovereigns of the three ancient dynasties1#ajg nor with the nine punitive measures prescribed to the ,minister of ,war4#ajh ,again1 ,sun ,wu loved brevity of diction1 but his meaning is always deep4 ,whether the subject be marching an army1 or handling soldiers1 or estimating the enemy1 or controlling the forces of victory1 it is always systematically treated2 the sayings are bound together in strict logical sequence1 though this has been obscured by commentators who have probably failed to grasp their meaning4 ,in his own commentary1 ,mei ,shng-y has brushed aside all the obstinate prejudices of these critics1 and has tried to bring out the true meaning of ,sun ,tz himself4 ,in this way1 the clouds of confusion have been dispersed and the sayings made clear4 ,i am convinced that the present work deserves to be handed down side by side with the three great commentaries2 and for a great deal that they find in the sayings1 coming generations will have constant reason to thank my friend ,shng-y4#aji ,making some allowance for the exuberance of friendship1 ,i am inclined to endorse this favourable judgment1 and would certainly place him above ,ch#8n ,hao in order of merit4 #i4 ,wang ,hsi1 also of the ,sung dynasty1 is decidedly original in some of his interpretations1 but much less judicious than ,mei ,yao-ch#8n1 and on the whole not a very trustworthy guide4 ,he is fond of comparing his own commentary with that of ,ts#8ao ,kung1 but the comparison is not often flattering to him4 ,we learn from ,ch#8ao ,kung-wu that ,wang ,hsi revised the ancient text of ,sun ,tz1 filling up lacunae and correcting mistakes4#aaj #aj4 ,ho ,yen-hsi of the ,sung dynasty4 ,the personal name of this commentator is given as above by ,chng ,ch#8iao in the ,t#8ung ,chih1 written about the middle of the twelfth century1 but he appears simply as ,ho ,shih in the ,y ,hai1 and ,ma ,tuan-lin quotes ,ch#8ao ,kung-wu as saying that his personal name is unknown4 ,there seems to be no reason to doubt ,chng ,ch#8iao's statement1 otherwise ,i should have been inclined to hazard a guess and identify him with one ,ho ,ch#8-fei1 the author of a short treatise on war entitled 1 who lived in the latter part of the #aath century4#aaa ,ho ,shih's commentary1 in the words of the ,t#8ien-i-ko catalogue1 8contains helpful additions0 here and there1 but is chiefly remarkable for the copious extracts taken1 in adapted form1 from the dynastic histories and other sources4 #aa4 ,chang ,y4 ,the list closes with a commentator of no great originality perhaps1 but gifted with admirable powers of lucid exposition4 ,his commentary is based on that of ,ts#8ao ,kung1 whose terse sentences he contrives to expand and develop in masterly fashion4 ,without ,chang ,y1 it is safe to say that much of ,ts#8ao ,kung's commentary would have remained cloaked in its pristine obscurity and therefore valueless4 ,his work is not mentioned in the ,sung history1 the ,t#8ung ,k#8ao1 or the ,y ,hai1 but it finds a niche in the ,t#8ung ,chih1 which also names him as the author of the 8,lives of ,famous ,generals40#aab ,it is rather remarkable that the last-named four should all have flourished within so short a space of time4 ,ch#8ao ,kung-wu accounts for it by saying3 8,during the early years of the ,sung dynasty the ,empire enjoyed a long spell of peace1 and men ceased to practise the art of war4 ,but when ,chao ,yan-hao's rebellion came #ajch-db and the frontier generals were defeated time after time1 the ,court made strenuous enquiry for men skilled in war1 and military topics became the vogue amongst all the high officials4 ,hence it is that the commentators of ,sun ,tz in our dynasty belong mainly to that period40#aac ,besides these eleven commentators1 there are several others whose work has not come down to us4 ,the ,sui ,shu mentions four1 namely ,wang ,ling 7often quoted by ,tu ,yu as 72 ,chang ,tz-shang2 ,chia ,hs of ,wei2#aad and ,shn ,yu of ,wu4 ,the ,t#8ang ,shu adds ,sun ,hao1 and the ,t#8ung ,chih ,hsiao ,chi1 while the ,t#8u ,shu mentions a ,ming commentator1 ,huang ,jun-y4 ,it is possible that some of these may have been merely collectors and editors of other commentaries1 like ,chi ,t#8ien-pao and ,chi ,hsieh1 mentioned above4 ,certainly in the case of the latter1 the entry in the ,t#8ung ,k#8ao1 without the following note1 would give one to understand that he had written an independent commentary of his own4 ,there are two works1 described in the ,ssu ,k#8u ,ch#8an ,shu#aae and no doubt extremely rare1 which ,i should much like to have seen4 ,one is entitled 1 in #e chan4 ,it gives selections from four new commentators1 probably of the ,ming dynasty1 as well as from the eleven known to us4 ,the names of the four are ,hsieh ,yan2 ,chang ,ao2 ,li ,ts#8ai2 and ,huang ,chih-chng4 ,the other work is in #d chan1 compiled by ,chng ,tuan of the present dynasty4 ,it is a compendium of information on ancient warfare1 with special reference to ,sun ,tz's #ac chapters4 ,appreciations of ,sun ,tz4 ,sun ,tz has exercised a potent fascination over the minds of some of ,china's greatest men4 ,among the famous generals who are known to have studied his pages with enthusiasm may be mentioned ,han ,hsin 7d4 ,b4,c4 #aif71aaf ,fng ,i 7d4 ,a4,d4 #cd71aag ,l ,mng 7d4 #bai71aah and ,yo ,fei 7#aajc-aada74aai ,the opinion of ,ts#8ao ,kung1 who disputes with ,han ,hsin the highest place in ,chinese military annals1 has already been recorded4#abj ,still more remarkable1 in one way1 is the testimony of purely literary men1 such as ,su ,hsn 7the father of ,su ,tung-p#8o71 who wrote several essays on military topics1 all of which owe their chief inspiration to ,sun ,tz4 ,the following short passage by him is preserved in the ,y ,hai3#aba-- ,sun ,wu's saying1 that in war one cannot make certain of conquering1#abb is very different indeed from what other books tell us4#abc ,wu ,ch#8i was a man of the same stamp as ,sun ,wu3 they both wrote books on war1 and they are linked together in popular speech as 8,sun and ,wu40 ,but ,wu ,ch#8i's remarks on war are less weighty1 his rules are rougher and more crudely stated1 and there is not the same unity of plan as in ,sun ,tz's work1 where the style is terse1 but the meaning fully brought out4#abd ,the 1 ch4 #ag1 contains the following extract from the 8,impartial ,judgments in the ,garden of ,literature0 by ,chng ,hou3-- ,sun ,tz's #ac chapters are not only the staple and base of all military men's training1 but also compel the most careful attention of scholars and men of letters4 ,his sayings are terse yet elegant1 simple yet profound1 perspicuous and eminently practical4 ,such works as the ,lun ,y1 the ,i ,ching and the great ,commentary1#abe as well as the writings of ,mencius1 ,hsn ,k#8uang and ,yang ,chu1 all fall below the level of ,sun ,tz4#abf ,chu ,hsi1 commenting on this1 fully admits the first part of the criticism1 although he dislikes the audacious comparison with the venerated classical works4 ,language of this sort1 he says1 8encourages a ruler's bent towards unrelenting warfare and reckless militarism40#abg ,apologies for ,war4 ,accustomed as we are to think of ,china as the greatest peace-loving nation on earth1 we are in some danger of forgetting that her experience of war in all its phases has also been such as no modern ,state can parallel4 ,her long military annals stretch back to a point at which they are lost in the mists of time4 ,she had built the ,great ,wall and was maintaining a huge standing army along her frontier centuries before the first ,roman legionary was seen on the ,danube4 ,what with the perpetual collisions of the ancient feudal ,states1 the grim conflicts with ,huns1 ,turks and other invaders after the centralisation of government1 the terrific upheavals which accompanied the overthrow of so many dynasties1 besides the countless rebellions and minor disturbances that have flamed up and flickered out again one by one1 it is hardly too much to say that the clash of arms has never ceased to resound in one portion or another of the ,empire4 ,no less remarkable is the succession of illustrious captains to whom ,china can point with pride4 ,as in all countries1 the greatest are found emerging at the most fateful crises of her history4 ,thus1 ,po ,ch#8i stands out conspicuous in the period when ,ch#8in was entering upon her final struggle with the remaining independent states4 ,the stormy years which followed the break-up of the ,ch#8in dynasty are illumined by the transcendent genius of ,han ,hsin4 ,when the ,house of ,han in turn is tottering to its fall1 the great and baleful figure of ,ts#8ao ,ts#8ao dominates the scene4 ,and in the establishment of the ,t#8ang dynasty1 one of the mightiest tasks achieved by man1 the superhuman energy of ,li ,shih-min 7afterwards the ,emperor ,t#8ai ,tsung7 was seconded by the brilliant strategy of ,li ,ching4 ,none of these generals need fear comparison with the greatest names in the military history of ,europe4 ,in spite of all this1 the great body of ,chinese sentiment1 from ,lao ,tz downwards1 and especially as reflected in the standard literature of ,confucianism1 has been consistently pacific and intensely opposed to militarism in any form4 ,it is such an uncommon thing to find any of the literati defending warfare on principle1 that ,i have thought it worth while to collect and translate a few passages in which the unorthodox view is upheld4 ,the following1 by ,ss-ma ,ch#8ien1 shows that for all his ardent admiration of ,confucius1 he was yet no advocate of peace at any price3-- ,military weapons are the means used by the ,sage to punish violence and cruelty1 to give peace to troublous times1 to remove difficulties and dangers1 and to succour those who are in peril4 ,every animal with blood in its veins and horns on its head will fight when it is attacked4 ,how much more so will man1 who carries in his breast the faculties of love and hatred1 joy and anger6 ,when he is pleased1 a feeling of affection springs up within him2 when angry1 his poisoned sting is brought into play4 ,that is the natural law which governs his being4444 ,what then shall be said of those scholars of our time1 blind to all great issues1 and without any appreciation of relative values1 who can only bark out their stale formulas about 8virtue0 and 8civilisation10 condemning the use of military weapons8 ,they will surely bring our country to impotence and dishonour and the loss of her rightful heritage2 or1 at the very least1 they will bring about invasion and rebellion1 sacrifice of territory and general enfeeblement4 ,yet they obstinately refuse to modify the position they have taken up4 ,the truth is that1 just as in the family the teacher must not spare the rod1 and punishments cannot be dispensed with in the ,state1 so military chastisement can never be allowed to fall into abeyance in the ,empire4 ,all one can say is that this power will be exercised wisely by some1 foolishly by others1 and that among those who bear arms some will be loyal and others rebellious4#abh ,the next piece is taken from ,tu ,mu's preface to his commentary on ,sun ,tz3-- ,war may be defined as punishment1 which is one of the functions of government4 ,it was the profession of ,chung ,yu and ,jan ,ch#8iu1 both disciples of ,confucius4 ,nowadays1 the holding of trials and hearing of litigation1 the imprisonment of offenders and their execution by flogging in the market-place1 are all done by officials4 ,but the wielding of huge armies1 the throwing down of fortified cities1 the haling of women and children into captivity1 and the beheading of traitors--this is also work which is done by officials4 ,the objects of the rack#abi and of military weapons are essentially the same4 ,there is no intrinsic difference between the punishment of flogging and cutting off heads in war4 ,for the lesser infractions of law1 which are easily dealt with1 only a small amount of force need be employed3 hence the institution of torture and flogging4 ,for more serious outbreaks of lawlessness1 which are hard to suppress1 a greater amount of force is necessary3 hence the use of military weapons and wholesale decapitation4 ,in both cases1 however1 the end in view is to get rid of wicked people1 and to give comfort and relief to the good4444#acj ,chi-sun asked ,jan ,yu1 saying3 8,have you1 ,sir1 acquired your military aptitude by study1 or is it innate80 ,jan ,yu replied3 8,it has been acquired by study40#aca 8,how can that be so10 said ,chi-sun1 8seeing that you are a disciple of ,confucius80 8,it is a fact10 replied ,jan ,yu2 8,i was taught by ,confucius4 ,it is fitting that the great ,sage should exercise both civil and military functions1 though to be sure my instruction in the art of fighting has not yet gone very far40 ,now1 who the author was of this rigid distinction between the 8civil0 and the 8military10 and the limitation of each to a separate sphere of action1 or in what year of which dynasty it was first introduced1 is more than ,i can say4 ,but1 at any rate1 it has come about that the members of the governing class are quite afraid of enlarging on military topics1 or do so only in a shamefaced manner4 ,if any are bold enough to discuss the subject1 they are at once set down as eccentric individuals of coarse and brutal propensities4 ,this is an extraordinary instance of the way in which1 through sheer lack of reasoning1 men unhappily lose sight of fundamental principles4#acb ,when the ,duke of ,chou was minister under ,ch#8ng ,wang1 he regulated ceremonies and made music1 and venerated the arts of scholarship and learning2 yet when the barbarians of the ,river ,huai revolted1#acc he sallied forth and chastised them4 ,when ,confucius held office under the ,duke of ,lu1 and a meeting was convened at ,chia-ku1#acd he said3 8,if pacific negotiations are in progress1 warlike preparations should have been made beforehand40 ,he rebuked and shamed the ,marquis of ,ch#8i1 who cowered under him and dared not proceed to violence4 ,how can it be said that these two great ,sages had no knowledge of military matters8#ace ,we have seen that the great ,chu ,hsi held ,sun ,tz in high esteem4 ,he also appeals to the authority of the ,classics3-- ,our ,master ,confucius1 answering ,duke ,ling of ,wei1 said3 8,i have never studied matters connected with armies and battalions40#acf ,replying to ,k#8ung ,wn-tz1 he said3 8,i have not been instructed about buff-coats and weapons40#acg ,but if we turn to the meeting at ,chia-ku1#ach we find that he used armed force against the men of ,lai1#aci so that the marquis of ,ch#8i was overawed4 ,again1 when the inhabitants of ,pi revolted1 he ordered his officers to attack them1 whereupon they were defeated and fled in confusion4#adj ,he once uttered the words3 8,if ,i fight1 ,i conquer40#ada ,and ,jan ,yu also said3 8,the ,sage exercises both civil and military functions40#adb ,can it be a fact that ,confucius never studied or received instruction in the art of war8 ,we can only say that he did not specially choose matters connected with armies and fighting to be the subject of his teaching4#adc ,sun ,hsing-yen1 the editor of ,sun ,tz1 writes in similar strain3-- ,confucius said3 8,i am unversed in military matters40 ,he also said3 8,if ,i fight1 ,i conquer40#add ,confucius ordered ceremonies and regulated music4 ,now war constitutes one of the five classes of ,state ceremonial1#ade and must not be treated as an independent branch of study4 ,hence1 the words 8,i am unversed in0 must be taken to mean that there are things which even an inspired ,teacher does not know4 ,those who have to lead an army and devise stratagems1 must learn the art of war4 ,but if one can command the services of a good general like ,sun ,tz1 who was employed by ,wu ,tz-hs1 there is no need to learn it oneself4 ,hence the remark added by ,confucius3 8,if ,i fight1 ,i conquer40#adf ,the men of the present day1 however1 wilfully interpret these words of ,confucius in their narrowest sense1 as though he meant that books on the art of war were not worth reading4 ,with blind persistency1 they adduce the example of ,chao ,kua1 who pored over his father's books to no purpose1#adg as a proof that all military theory is useless4 ,again1 seeing that books on war have to do with such things as opportunism in designing plans1 and the conversion of spies1 they hold that the art is immoral and unworthy of a sage4 ,these people ignore the fact that the studies of our scholars and the civil administration of our officials also require steady application and practice before efficiency is reached4 ,the ancients were particularly chary of allowing mere novices to botch their work4#adh ,weapons are baneful#adi and fighting perilous2 and unless a general is in constant practice1 he ought not to hazard other men's lives in battle4#aej ,hence it is essential that ,sun ,tz's #ac chapters should be studied4#aea ,hsiang ,liang used to instruct his nephew ,chi#aeb in the art of war4 ,chi got a rough idea of the art in its general bearings1 but would not pursue his studies to their proper outcome1 the consequence being that he was finally defeated and overthrown4 ,he did not realise that the tricks and artifices of war are beyond verbal computation4 ,duke ,hsiang of ,sung#aec and ,king ,yen of ,hs#aed were brought to destruction by their misplaced humanity4 ,the treacherous and underhand nature of war necessitates the use of guile and stratagem suited to the occasion4 ,there is a case on record of ,confucius himself having violated an extorted oath1#aee and also of his having left the ,sung ,state in disguise4#aef ,can we then recklessly arraign ,sun ,tz for disregarding truth and honesty8#aeg ,bibliography4 ,the following are the oldest ,chinese treatises on war1 after ,sun ,tz4 ,the notes on each have been drawn principally from the ,ss k#8u ch#8an shu chien ming mu lu1 ch4 #i1 fol4 #bb sqq4 #a4 ,wu ,tz1 in #a chan or #f chapters4 ,by ,wu ,ch#8i 7d4 ,b4,c4 #cha74 ,a genuine work4 ,see ,shih ,chi1 ch4 #fe4 #b4 ,ss-ma ,fa1 in #a chan or #e chapters4 ,wrongly attributed to ,ss-ma ,jang-ch of the #fth century ,b4,c4 ,its date1 however1 must be early1 as the customs of the three ancient dynasties are constantly to be met with in its pages4#aeh ,see ,shih ,chi1 ch4 #fd4 ,the ,ss ,k#8u ,ch#8an ,shu 7ch4 #ii1 f4 #a7 remarks that the oldest three treatises on war1 ,sun ,tz1 ,wu ,tz and the ,ss-ma ,fa1 are1 generally speaking1 only concerned with things strictly military--the art of producing1 collecting1 training and drilling troops1 and the correct theory with regard to measures of expediency1 laying plans1 transport of goods and the handling of soldiers#aei--;in strong contrast to later works1 in which the science of war is usually blended with metaphysics1 divination and magical arts in general4 #c4 ,liu ,t#8ao1 in #f chan or #fj chapters4 ,attributed to ,l ,wang 7or ,l ,shang1 also known as ,t#8ai ,kung7 of the #abth century ,b4,c4#afj ,but its style does not belong to the era of the ,three ,dynasties4#afa ,lu ,t-ming 7#eej-fbe ,a4,d47 mentions the work1 and enumerates the headings of the six sections1 1 1 1 1 and 1 so that the forgery cannot have been later than the ,sui dynasty4 #d4 ,wei ,liao ,tz1 in #e chan4 ,attributed to ,wei ,liao 7#dth cent4 ,b4,c471 who studied under the famous ,kuei-ku ,tz4 ,the 1 under 1 mentions a book of ,wei ,liao in #ca chapters1 whereas the text we possess contains only #bd4 ,its matter is sound enough in the main1 though the strategical devices differ considerably from those of the ,warring ,states period4#afb ,it has been furnished with a commentary by the well-known ,sung philosopher ,chang ,tsai4 #e4 ,san ,leh1 in #c chan4 ,attributed to ,huang-shih ,kung1 a legendary personage who is said to have bestowed it on ,chang ,liang 7d4 ,b4,c4 #ahg7 in an interview on a bridge4#afc ,but here again1 the style is not that of works dating from the ,ch#8in or ,han period4 ,the ,han ,emperor ,kuang ,wu ,a4,d4 #be-eg apparently quotes from it in one of his proclamations2 but the passage in question may have been inserted later on1 in order to prove the genuineness of the work4 ,we shall not be far out if we refer it to the ,northern ,sung period #dbj-dgh ,a4,d41 or somewhat earlier4#afd #f4 ,li ,wei ,kung ,wn ,tui1 in #c sections4 ,written in the form of a dialogue between ,t#8ai ,tsung and his great general ,li ,ching1 it is usually ascribed to the latter4 ,competent authorities consider it a forgery1 though the author was evidently well versed in the art of war4#afe #g4 ,li ,ching ,ping ,fa 7not to be confounded with the foregoing7 is a short treatise in #h chapters1 preserved in the ,t#8ung ,tien1 but not published separately4 ,this fact explains its omission from the ,ss ,k#8u ,ch#8an ,shu4 #h4 ,wu ,ch#8i ,ching1#aff in #a chan4 ,attributed to the legendary minister ,fng ,hou1 with exegetical notes by ,kung-sun ,hung of the ,han dynasty 7d4 ,b4,c4 #aba71 and said to have been eulogised by the celebrated general ,ma ,lung 7d4 ,a4,d4 #cjj74 ,yet the earliest mention of it is in the 4 ,although a forgery1 the work is well put together4#afg ,considering the high popular estimation in which ,chu-ko ,liang has always been held1 it is not surprising to find more than one work on war ascribed to his pen4 ,such are 7#a7 the ,shih ,liu ,ts#8 7#a chan71 preserved in the ,yung ,lo ,ta ,tien2 7#b7 ,chiang ,yan 7#a ch472 and 7#c7 ,hsin ,shu 7#a ch471 which steals wholesale from ,sun ,tz4 ,none of these has the slightest claim to be considered genuine4 ,most of the large ,chinese encyclopaedias contain extensive sections devoted to the literature of war4 ,the following references may be found useful3-- ,t#8ung ,tien 7circ #hjj ,a4,d471 ch4 #adh-afb4 ,t#8ai ,p#8ing ,y ,lan 7#ihc71 ch4 #bgj-cei4 ,wn ,hsien ,t#8ung ,k#8ao 7#acth cent471 ch4 #bba4 ,y ,hai 7#acth cent471 ch4 #adj1 #ada4 ,san ,ts#8ai ,t#8u ,hui 7#afth cent471 ch4 #g1 #h4 ,kuang ,po ,wu ,chih 7#afjg71 ch4 #ca1 #cb4 ,ch#8ien ,ch#8io ,lei ,shu 7#afcb71 ch4 #ge4 ,yan ,chien ,lei ,han 7#agaj71 ch4 #bjf-bbi4 ,ku ,chin ,t#8u ,shu ,chi ,ch#8ng 7#agbf71 section ,,xxx1 esp4 ch4 #ha-ij4 ,hs ,wn ,hsien ,t#8ung ,k#8ao 7#aghd71 ch4 #aba-acd4 ,huang ,ch#8ao ,ching ,shih ,wn ,pien 7#ahbf71 ch4 #gf1 #gg4 ,the bibliographical sections of certain historical works also deserve mention3-- ,ch#8ien ,han ,shu1 ch4 #cj4 ,sui ,shu1 ch4 #cb-ce4 ,chiu ,t#8ang ,shu1 ch4 #df1 #dg4 ,hsin ,t#8ang ,shu1 ch4 #eg-fj4 ,sung ,shih1 ch4 #bjb-bji4 ,t#8ung ,chih 7circ #aaej71 ch4 #fh4 ,to these of course must be added the great ,catalogue of the ,imperial ,library3-- ,ss ,k#8u ,ch#8an ,shu ,tsung ,mu ,t#8i ,yao 7#agij71 ch4 #ii1 #ajj4 ,i4 ,,laying ,,plans4 ,this is the only possible meaning of 1 which ,m4 ,amiot and ,capt4 ,calthrop wrongly translate 8,fondements de l'art militaire0 and 8,first principles0 respectively4 ,ts#8ao ,kung says it refers to the deliberations in the temple selected by the general for his temporary use1 or as we should say1 in his tent4 ,see #bf4 #a4 ,sun ,tz said3 ,the art of war is of vital importance to the ,state4 #b4 ,it is a matter of life and death1 a road either to safety or to ruin4 ,hence it is a subject of inquiry which can on no account be neglected4 #c4 ,the art of war1 then1 is governed by five constant factors1 to be taken into account in one's deliberations1 when seeking to determine the conditions obtaining in the field4 ,the old text of the ,t#8ung ,tien has 1 etc4 ,later editors have inserted after 1 and before 4 ,the former correction is perhaps superfluous1 but the latter seems necessary in order to make sense1 and is supported by the accepted reading in #ab1 where the same words recur4 ,i am inclined to think1 however1 that the whole sentence from to is an interpolation and has no business here at all4 ,if it be retained1 ,wang ,hsi must be right in saying that denotes the 8seven considerations0 in #ac4 are the circumstances or conditions likely to bring about victory or defeat4 ,the antecedent of the first is 2 of the second1 4 contains the idea of 8comparison with the enemy10 which cannot well be brought out here1 but will appear in #ab4 ,altogether1 difficult though it is1 the passage is not so hopelessly corrupt as to justify ,capt4 ,calthrop in burking it entirely4 #d4 ,these are3 7#a7 ,the ,moral ,law2 7#b7 ,heaven2 7#c7 ,earth2 7#d7 ,the ,commander2 7#e7 ,method and discipline4 ,it appears from what follows that ,sun ,tz means by a principle of harmony1 not unlike the ,tao of ,lao ,tz in its moral aspect4 ,one might be tempted to render it by 8morale10 were it not considered as an attribute of the ruler in #ac4 #e4 #f4 ,the ,moral ,law causes the people to be in complete accord with their ruler1 so that they will follow him regardless of their lives1 undismayed by any danger4 ,the original text omits 1 inserts an after each 1 and omits after 4 ,capt4 ,calthrop translates3 8,if the ruling authority be upright1 the people are united0--a very pretty sentiment1 but wholly out of place in what purports to be a translation of ,sun ,tz4 #g4 ,heaven signifies night and day1 cold and heat1 times and seasons4 ,the commentators1 ,i think1 make an unnecessary mystery of 4 ,thus ,mng ,shih defines the words as 8the hard and the soft1 waxing and waning10 which does not help us much4 ,wang ,hsi1 however1 may be right in saying that what is meant is 8the general economy of ,heaven10 including the five elements1 the four seasons1 wind and clouds1 and other phenomena4 #h4 ,earth comprises distances1 great and small2 danger and security2 open ground and narrow passes2 the chances of life and death4 7omitted by ,capt4 ,calthrop7 may have been included here because the safety of an army depends largely on its quickness to turn these geographical features to account4 #i4 ,the ,commander stands for the virtues of wisdom1 sincerity1 benevolence1 courage and strictness4 ,the five cardinal virtues of the ,chinese are 7#a7 humanity or benevolence2 7#b7 uprightness of mind2 7#c7 self-respect1 self-control1 or 8proper feeling20 7#d7 wisdom2 7#e7 sincerity or good faith4 ,here and are put before 1 and the two military virtues of 8courage0 and 8strictness0 substituted for and 4 #aj4 ,by ,method and discipline are to be understood the marshalling of the army in its proper subdivisions1 the gradations of rank among the officers1 the maintenance of roads by which supplies may reach the army1 and the control of military expenditure4 ,the ,chinese of this sentence is so concise as to be practically unintelligible without commentary4 ,i have followed the interpretation of ,ts#8ao ,kung1 who joins and again 4 ,others take each of the six predicates separately4 has the somewhat uncommon sense of 8cohort0 or division of an army4 ,capt4 ,calthrop translates3 8,partition and ordering of troops10 which only covers 4 #aa4 ,these five heads should be familiar to every general3 he who knows them will be victorious2 he who knows them not will fail4 #ab4 ,therefore1 in your deliberations1 when seeking to determine the military conditions1 let them be made the basis of a comparison1 in this wise3-- ,the ,y ,lan has an interpolated before 4 ,it is obvious1 however1 that the just enumerated cannot be described as 4 ,capt4 ,calthrop1 forced to give some rendering of the words which he had omitted in #c1 shows himself decidedly hazy3 8,further1 with regard to these and the following seven matters1 the condition of the enemy must be compared with our own40 ,he does not appear to see that the seven queries or considerations which follow arise directly out of the ,five heads1 instead of being supplementary to them4 #ac4 7#a7 ,which of the two sovereigns is imbued with the ,moral law8 ,i4e41 8is in harmony with his subjects40 ,cf4 #e4 7#b7 ,which of the two generals has most ability8 7#c7 ,with whom lie the advantages derived from ,heaven and ,earth8 ,see #g1 #h4 7#d7 ,on which side is discipline most rigorously enforced8 ,tu ,mu alludes to the remarkable story of ,ts#8ao ,ts#8ao 7,a4,d4 #aee-bbj71 who was such a strict disciplinarian that once1 in accordance with his own severe regulations against injury to standing crops1 he condemned himself to death for having allowed his horse to shy into a field of corn6 ,however1 in lieu of losing his head1 he was persuaded to satisfy his sense of justice by cutting off his hair4 ,ts#8ao ,ts#8ao's own comment on the present passage is characteristically curt3 8when you lay down a law1 see that it is not disobeyed2 if it is disobeyed1 the offender must be put to death40 7#e7 ,which army is the stronger8 ,morally as well as physically4 ,as ,mei ,yao-ch#8n puts it1 1 which might be freely rendered 8esprit de corps and #8big battalions4'0 7#f7 ,on which side are officers and men more highly trained8 ,tu ,yu quotes as saying3 8,without constant practice1 the officers will be nervous and undecided when mustering for battle2 without constant practice1 the general will be wavering and irresolute when the crisis is at hand40 7#g7 ,in which army is there the greater constancy both in reward and punishment8 1 literally 8clear20 that is1 on which side is there the most absolute certainty that merit will be properly rewarded and misdeeds summarily punished8 #ad4 ,by means of these seven considerations ,i can forecast victory or defeat4 #ae4 ,the general that hearkens to my counsel and acts upon it1 will conquer3--let such a one be retained in command6 ,the general that hearkens not to my counsel nor acts upon it1 will suffer defeat3--let such a one be dismissed6 ,the form of this paragraph reminds us that ,sun ,tz's treatise was composed expressly for the benefit of his patron ,ho ,l1 king of the ,wu ,state4 ,it is not necessary1 however1 to understand before 7as some commentators do71 or to take as 8generals under my command40 #af4 ,while heeding the profit of my counsel1 avail yourself also of any helpful circumstances over and beyond the ordinary rules4 ,capt4 ,calthrop blunders amazingly over this sentence3 8,wherefore1 with regard to the foregoing1 considering that with us lies the advantage1 and the generals agreeing1 we create a situation which promises victory40 ,mere logic should have kept him from penning such frothy balderdash4 #ag4 ,according as circumstances are favourable1 one should modify one's plans4 ,sun ,tz1 as a practical soldier1 will have none of the 8bookish theoric40 ,he cautions us here not to pin our faith to abstract principles2 8for10 as ,chang ,y puts it1 8while the main laws of strategy can be stated clearly enough for the benefit of all and sundry1 you must be guided by the actions of the enemy in attempting to secure a favourable position in actual warfare40 ,on the eve of the battle of ,waterloo1 ,lord ,uxbridge1 commanding the cavalry1 went to the ,duke of ,wellington in order to learn what his plans and calculations were for the morrow1 because1 as he explained1 he might suddenly find himself ,commander-in-chief and would be unable to frame new plans in a critical moment4 ,the ,duke listened quietly and then said3 8,who will attack the first to-morrow--,i or ,bonaparte80 8,bonaparte10 replied ,lord ,uxbridge4 8,well10 continued the ,duke1 8,bonaparte has not given me any idea of his projects2 and as my plans will depend upon his1 how can you expect me to tell you what mine are80#afh #ah4 ,all warfare is based on deception4 ,the truth of this pithy and profound saying will be admitted by every soldier4 ,col4 ,henderson tells us that ,wellington1 great in so many military qualities1 was especially distinguished by 8the extraordinary skill with which he concealed his movements and deceived both friend and foe40 #ai4 ,hence1 when able to attack1 we must seem unable2 when using our forces1 we must seem inactive2 when we are near1 we must make the enemy believe we are far away2 when far away1 we must make him believe we are near4 #bj4 ,hold out baits to entice the enemy4 ,feign disorder1 and crush him4 1 as often in ,sun ,tz1 is used in the sense of 4 ,it is rather remarkable that all the commentators1 with the exception of ,chang ,y1 refer to the enemy3 8when he is in disorder1 crush him40 ,it is more natural to suppose that ,sun ,tz is still illustrating the uses of deception in war4 #ba4 ,if he is secure at all points1 be prepared for him4 ,if he is in superior strength1 evade him4 ,the meaning of is made clear from chap4 ,,vi1 where it is opposed to 8weak or vulnerable spots40 1 according to ,tu ,yu and other commentators1 has reference to the keenness of the men as well as to numerical superiority4 ,capt4 ,calthrop evolves an extraordinarily far-fetched translation3 8,if there are defects1 give an appearance of perfection1 and awe the enemy4 ,pretend to be strong1 and so cause the enemy to avoid you06 #bb4 ,if your opponent is of choleric temper1 seek to irritate him4 ,pretend to be weak1 that he may grow arrogant4 ,i follow ,chang ,y in my interpretation of 4 is expanded by ,mei ,yao-ch#8n into 4 ,wang ,tz1 quoted by ,tu ,yu1 says that the good tactician plays with his adversary as a cat plays with a mouse1 first feigning weakness and immobility1 and then suddenly pouncing upon him4 #bc4 ,if he is taking his ease1 give him no rest4 ,this is probably the meaning1 though ,mei ,yao-ch#8n has the note3 8while we are taking our ease1 wait for the enemy to tire himself out40 ,the ,y ,lan has 8,lure him on and tire him out40 ,this would seem also to have been ,ts#8ao ,kung's text1 judging by his comment 4 ,if his forces are united1 separate them4 ,less plausible is the interpretation favoured by most of the commentators3 8,if sovereign and subject are in accord1 put division between them40 #bd4 ,attack him where he is unprepared1 appear where you are not expected4 #be4 ,these military devices1 leading to victory1 must not be divulged beforehand4 ,this seems to be the way in which ,ts#8ao ,kung understood the passage1 and is perhaps the best sense to be got out of the text as it stands4 ,most of the commentators give the following explanation3 8,it is impossible to lay down rules for warfare before you come into touch with the enemy40 ,this would be very plausible if it did not ignore 1 which unmistakably refers to the maxims which ,sun ,tz has been laying down4 ,it is possible1 of course1 that may be a later interpolation1 in which case the sentence would practically mean3 8,success in warfare cannot be taught40 ,as an alternative1 however1 ,i would venture to suggest that a second may have fallen out after 1 so that we get3 8,these maxims for succeeding in war are the first that ought to be imparted40 #bf4 ,now the general who wins a battle makes many calculations in his temple ere the battle is fought4 ,chang ,y tells us that in ancient times it was customary for a temple to be set apart for the use of a general who was about to take the field1 in order that he might there elaborate his plan of campaign4 ,capt4 ,calthrop misunderstands it as 8the shrine of the ancestors10 and gives a loose and inaccurate rendering of the whole passage4 ,the general who loses a battle makes but few calculations beforehand4 ,thus do many calculations lead to victory1 and few calculations to defeat3 how much more no calculation at all6 ,it is by attention to this point that ,i can foresee who is likely to win or lose4 ,,ii4 ,,waging ,,war4 ,ts#8ao ,kung has the note3 8,he who wishes to fight must first count the cost10 which prepares us for the discovery that the subject of the chapter is not what we might expect from the title1 but is primarily a consideration of ways and means4 #a4 ,sun ,tz said3 ,in the operations of war1 where there are in the field a thousand swift chariots1 as many heavy chariots1 and a hundred thousand mail-clad soldiers1 ,the were lightly built and1 according to ,chang ,y1 used for the attack2 the were heavier1 and designed for purposes of defence4 ,li ,ch#8an1 it is true1 says that the latter were light1 but this seems hardly probable4 ,capt4 ,calthrop translates 8chariots0 and 8supply wagons0 respectively1 but is not supported by any commentator4 ,it is interesting to note the analogies between early ,chinese warfare and that of the ,homeric ,greeks4 ,in each case1 the war-chariot was the important factor1 forming as it did the nucleus round which was grouped a certain number of foot-soldiers4 ,with regard to the numbers given here1 we are informed that each swift chariot was accompanied by #ge footmen1 and each heavy chariot by #be footmen1 so that the whole army would be divided up into a thousand battalions1 each consisting of two chariots and a hundred men4 with provisions enough to carry them a thousand li1 #b4gh modern li go to a mile4 ,the length may have varied slightly since ,sun ,tz's time4 the expenditure at home and at the front1 including entertainment of guests1 small items such as glue and paint1 and sums spent on chariots and armour1 will reach the total of a thousand ounces of silver per day4 1 which follows in the textus receptus1 is important as indicating the apodosis4 ,in the text adopted by ,capt4 ,calthrop it is omitted1 so that he is led to give this meaningless translation of the opening sentence3 8,now the requirements of ,war are such that we need #a1jjj chariots10 etc4 ,the second 1 which is redundant1 is omitted in the ,y ,lan4 1 like above1 is meant to suggest a large but indefinite number4 ,as the ,chinese have never possessed gold coins1 it is incorrect to translate it 8#ajjj pieces of gold40 ,such is the cost of raising an army of #ajj1jjj men4 ,capt4 ,calthrop adds3 8,you have the instruments of victory10 which he seems to get from the first five characters of the next sentence4 #b4 ,when you engage in actual fighting1 if victory is long in coming1 the men's weapons will grow dull and their ardour will be damped4 ,the ,y ,lan omits 2 but though is certainly a bold phrase1 it is more likely to be right than not4 ,both in this place and in #d1 the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan read 7in the sense of 8to injure07 instead of 4 ,if you lay siege to a town1 you will exhaust your strength4 ,as synonyms to are given 1 1 and 4 #c4 ,again1 if the campaign is protracted1 the resources of the ,state will not be equal to the strain4 means literally1 8,if there is long exposure of the army40 ,of in this sense ,k#8ang ,hsi cites an instance from the biography of ,tou ,jung in the ,hou ,han ,shu1 where the commentary defines it by 4 ,cf4 also the following from the 3 8,general1 you have long been exposed to all weathers40 #d4 ,now1 when your weapons are dulled1 your ardour damped1 your strength exhausted and your treasure spent1 other chieftains will spring up to take advantage of your extremity4 ,then no man1 however wise1 will be able to avert the consequences that must ensue4 ,following ,tu ,yu1 ,i understand in the sense of 8to make good10 i4e4 to mend4 ,but ,tu ,mu and ,ho ,shih explain it as 8to make good plans0--for the future4 #e4 ,thus1 though we have heard of stupid haste in war1 cleverness has never been seen associated with long delays4 ,this concise and difficult sentence is not well explained by any of the commentators4 ,ts#8ao ,kung1 ,li ,ch#8an1 ,mng ,shih1 ,tu ,yu1 ,tu ,mu and ,mei ,yao-ch#8n have notes to the effect that a general1 though naturally stupid1 may nevertheless conquer through sheer force of rapidity4 ,ho ,shih says3 8,haste may be stupid1 but at any rate it saves expenditure of energy and treasure2 protracted operations may be very clever1 but they bring calamity in their train40 ,wang ,hsi evades the difficulty by remarking3 8,lengthy operations mean an army growing old1 wealth being expended1 an empty exchequer and distress among the people2 true cleverness insures against the occurrence of such calamities40 ,chang ,y says3 8,so long as victory can be attained1 stupid haste is preferable to clever dilatoriness40 ,now ,sun ,tz says nothing whatever1 except possibly by implication1 about ill-considered haste being better than ingenious but lengthy operations4 ,what he does say is something much more guarded1 namely that1 while speed may sometimes be injudicious1 tardiness can never be anything but foolish--if only because it means impoverishment to the nation4 ,capt4 ,calthrop indulges his imagination with the following3 8,therefore it is acknowledged that war cannot be too short in duration4 ,but though conducted with the utmost art1 if long continuing1 misfortunes do always appear40 ,it is hardly worth while to note the total disappearance of in this precious concoction4 ,in considering the point raised here by ,sun ,tz1 the classic example of ,fabius ,cunctator will inevitably occur to the mind4 ,that general deliberately measured the endurance of ,rome against that of ,hannibal's isolated army1 because it seemed to him that the latter was more likely to suffer from a long campaign in a strange country4 ,but it is quite a moot question whether his tactics would have proved successful in the long run4 ,their reversal1 it is true1 led to ,cannae2 but this only establishes a negative presumption in their favour4 #f4 ,there is no instance of a country having benefited from prolonged warfare4 ,the ,y ,lan has instead of --evidently the mistake of a scribe4 #g4 ,it is only one who is thoroughly acquainted with the evils of war that can thoroughly understand the profitable way of carrying it on4 ,that is1 with rapidity4 ,only one who knows the disastrous effects of a long war can realise the supreme importance of rapidity in bringing it to a close4 ,only two commentators seem to favour this interpretation1 but it fits well into the logic of the context1 whereas the rendering1 8,he who does not know the evils of war cannot appreciate its benefits10 is distinctly pointless4 #h4 ,the skilful soldier does not raise a second levy1 neither are his supply-waggons loaded more than twice4 ,once war is declared1 he will not waste precious time in waiting for reinforcements1 nor will he turn his army back for fresh supplies1 but crosses the enemy's frontier without delay4 ,this may seem an audacious policy to recommend1 but with all great strategists1 from ,julius ,caesar to ,napoleon ,buonaparte1 the value of time--that is1 being a little ahead of your opponent--has counted for more than either numerical superiority or the nicest calculations with regard to commissariat4 is used in the sense of 4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan have the inferior reading 4 ,the commentators explain by saying that the waggons are loaded once before passing the frontier1 and that the army is met by a further consignment of supplies on the homeward march4 ,the ,y ,lan1 however1 reads here as well4 #i4 ,bring war material with you from home1 but forage on the enemy4 ,thus the army will have food enough for its needs4 1 8things to be used10 in the widest sense4 ,it includes all the impedimenta of an army1 apart from provisions4 #aj4 ,poverty of the ,state exchequer causes an army to be maintained by contributions from a distance4 ,contributing to maintain an army at a distance causes the people to be impoverished4 ,the beginning of this sentence does not balance properly with the next1 though obviously intended to do so4 ,the arrangement1 moreover1 is so awkward that ,i cannot help suspecting some corruption in the text4 ,it never seems to occur to ,chinese commentators that an emendation may be necessary for the sense1 and we get no help from them here4 ,sun ,tz says that the cause of the people's impoverishment is 2 it is clear1 therefore1 that the words have reference to some system by which the husbandmen sent their contributions of corn to the army direct4 ,but why should it fall on them to maintain an army in this way1 except because the ,state or ,government is too poor to do so8 ,assuming then that ought to stand first in the sentence in order to balance 7the fact that the two words rhyme is significant71 and thus getting rid of 1 we are still left with 1 which latter word seems to me an obvious mistake for 4 8,poverty in the army0 is an unlikely expression1 especially as the general has just been warned not to encumber his army with a large quantity of supplies4 ,if we suppose that somehow got written here instead of 7a very simple supposition1 as we have in the next sentence71 and that later on somebody1 scenting a mistake1 prefixed the gloss to 1 without however erasing 1 the whole muddle may be explained4 ,my emended text then would be 1 etc4 #aa4 ,on the other hand1 the proximity of an army causes prices to go up2 and high prices cause the people's substance to be drained away4 1 that is1 as ,wang ,hsi says1 before the army has left its own territory4 ,ts#8ao ,kung understands it of an army that has already crossed the frontier4 ,capt4 ,calthrop drops the 1 reading 1 but even so it is impossible to justify his translation 8,repeated wars cause high prices40 #ab4 ,when their substance is drained away1 the peasantry will be afflicted by heavy exactions4 ,cf4 ,mencius ,,vii4 #b4 xiv4 #b1 where has the same meaning as 4 was an ancient measure of land4 ,the full table1 as given by 1 may not be out of place here3 #f #a 2 #ajj #a 2 #ajj #a 2 #c #a 2 #c #a 2 #d #a 2 #d #a 2 #d #a 4 ,according to the ,chou ,li1 there were nine husbandmen to a 1 which would assign to each man the goodly allowance of #ajj 7of which #f4f now go to an acre74 ,what the values of these measures were in ,sun ,tz's time is not known with any certainty4 ,the lineal 1 however1 is supposed to have been about #bj cm4 may include levies of men1 as well as other exactions4 #ac4 #ad4 ,with this loss of substance and exhaustion of strength1 the homes of the people will be stripped bare1 and three-tenths of their incomes will be dissipated2 ,the ,y ,lan omits 4 ,i would propose the emended reading 1 etc4 ,in view of the fact that we have in the two preceding paragraphs1 it seems probable that is a scribe's mistake for 1 having been added afterwards to make sense4 1 literally3 8,within the middle plains there is emptiness in the homes40 ,for cf4 ,shih ,ching ,,ii4 #c4 vi4 #c and ,,ii4 #e4 ii4 #c4 ,with regard to 1 ,tu ,mu says3 1 and ,wang ,hsi3 2 that is1 the people are mulcted not of #caj1 but of #gaj1 of their income4 ,but this is hardly to be extracted from our text4 ,ho ,shih has a characteristic tag3 8,the people being regarded as the essential part of the ,state1 and food as the people's heaven1 is it not right that those in authority should value and be careful of both80 while ,government expenses for broken chariots1 worn-out horses1 breast-plates and helmets1 bows and arrows1 spears and shields1 protective mantlets1 draught-oxen and heavy waggons1 will amount to four-tenths of its total revenue4 ,the ,y ,lan has several various readings here1 the more important of which are for the less common 7read p#8i#b71 for 1 and for 1 which latter1 if right1 must mean 8oxen from the country districts0 7cf4 supra1 #ab74 ,for the meaning of 1 see note on ,,iii1 #d4 ,capt4 ,calthrop omits to translate 4 #ae4 ,hence a wise general makes a point of foraging on the enemy4 ,one cartload of the enemy's provisions is equivalent to twenty of one's own1 and likewise a single picul of his provender is equivalent to twenty from one's own store4 ,because twenty cartloads will be consumed in the process of transporting one cartload to the front4 ,according to ,ts#8ao ,kung1 a #f #d 1 or #fd 1 but according to ,mng ,shih1 #aj make a 4 ,the picul consisted of #gj catties 7,tu ,mu and others say #abj74 1 literally1 8beanstalks and straw40 #af4 ,now in order to kill the enemy1 our men must be roused to anger2 that there may be advantage from defeating the enemy1 they must have their rewards4 ,these are two difficult sentences1 which ,i have translated in accordance with ,mei ,yao-ch#8n's paraphrase4 ,we may incontinently reject ,capt4 ,calthrop's extraordinary translation of the first3 8,wantonly to kill and destroy the enemy must be forbidden40 ,ts#8ao ,kung quotes a jingle current in his day3 4 ,tu ,mu says3 8,rewards are necessary in order to make the soldiers see the advantage of beating the enemy2 thus1 when you capture spoils from the enemy1 they must be used as rewards1 so that all your men may have a keen desire to fight1 each on his own account40 ,chang ,y takes as the direct object of 1 which is not so good4 #ag4 ,therefore in chariot fighting1 when ten or more chariots have been taken1 those should be rewarded who took the first4 ,capt4 ,calthrop's rendering is3 8,they who are the first to lay their hands on more than ten of the enemy's chariots1 should be encouraged40 ,we should have expected the gallant captain to see that such ,samson-like prowess deserved something more substantial than mere encouragement4 ,the ,t#8u ,shu omits 1 and has in place of the more archaic 4 ,our own flags should be substituted for those of the enemy1 and the chariots mingled and used in conjunction with ours4 ,the captured soldiers should be kindly treated and kept4 #ah4 ,this is called1 using the conquered foe to augment one's own strength4 #ai4 ,in war1 then1 let your great object be victory1 not lengthy campaigns4 ,as ,ho ,shih remarks3 8,soldiers are not to be used as playthings4 ,war is not a thing to be trifled with40 ,sun ,tz here reiterates the main lesson which this chapter is intended to enforce4 #bj4 ,thus it may be known that the leader of armies is the arbiter of the people's fate1 the man on whom it depends whether the nation shall be in peace or in peril4 ,in the original text1 there is a before the 4 ,,iii4 ,,attack ,,by ,,stratagem4 #a4 ,sun ,tz said3 ,in the practical art of war1 the best thing of all is to take the enemy's country whole and intact2 to shatter and destroy it is not so good4 ,so1 too1 it is better to capture an army entire than to destroy it1 to capture a regiment1 a detachment or a company entire than to destroy them4 ,a 8army corps10 according to the ,ss-ma ,fa1 consisted nominally of #abejj men2 according to ,ts#8ao ,kung1 a contained #ejj men1 a any number between #ajj and #ejj1 and a any number between #e and #ajj4 ,for the last two1 however1 ,chang ,y gives the exact figures of #ajj and #e respectively4 #b4 ,hence to fight and conquer in all your battles is not supreme excellence2 supreme excellence consists in breaking the enemy's resistance without fighting4 ,here again1 no modern strategist but will approve the words of the old ,chinese general4 ,moltke's greatest triumph1 the capitulation of the huge ,french army at ,sedan1 was won practically without bloodshed4 #c4 ,thus the highest form of generalship is to baulk the enemy's plans2 ,i4e41 as ,li ,ch#8an says 771 in their very inception4 ,perhaps the word 8baulk0 falls short of expressing the full force of 1 which implies not an attitude of defence1 whereby one might be content to foil the enemy's stratagems one after another1 but an active policy of counter-attack4 ,ho ,shih puts this very clearly in his note3 8,when the enemy has made a plan of attack against us1 we must anticipate him by delivering our own attack first40 the next best is to prevent the junction of the enemy's forces2 ,isolating him from his allies4 ,we must not forget that ,sun ,tz1 in speaking of hostilities1 always has in mind the numerous states or principalities into which the ,china of his day was split up4 the next in order is to attack the enemy's army in the field2 ,when he is already in full strength4 and the worst policy of all is to besiege walled cities4 ,the use of the word is somewhat unusual1 which may account for the reading of the modern text3 4 #d4 ,the rule is1 not to besiege walled cities if it can possibly be avoided4 ,another sound piece of military theory4 ,had the ,boers acted upon it in #ahii1 and refrained from dissipating their strength before ,kimberley1 ,mafeking1 or even ,ladysmith1 it is more than probable that they would have been masters of the situation before the ,british were ready seriously to oppose them4 ,the preparation of mantlets1 movable shelters1 and various implements of war1 will take up three whole months2 ,it is not quite clear what were4 ,ts#8ao ,kung simply defines them as 8large shields10 but we get a better idea of them from ,li ,ch#8an1 who says they were to protect the heads of those who were assaulting the city walls at close quarters4 ,this seems to suggest a sort of ,roman testudo1 ready made4 ,tu ,mu says they were 8what are now termed 0 7wheeled vehicles used in repelling attacks1 according to ,k#8ang ,hsi71 but this is denied by ,ch#8n ,hao4 ,see supra1 ,,ii4 #ad4 ,the name is also applied to turrets on city walls4 ,of 7fn yn7 we get a fairly clear description from several commentators4 ,they were wooden missile-proof structures on four wheels1 propelled from within1 covered over with raw hides1 and used in sieges to convey parties of men to and from the walls1 for the purpose of filling up the encircling moat with earth4 ,tu ,mu adds that they are now called 8wooden donkeys40 ,capt4 ,calthrop wrongly translates the term1 8battering-rams40 ,i follow ,ts#8ao ,kung in taking as a verb1 co-ordinate and synonymous with 4 ,those commentators who regard as an adjective equivalent to 8long10 make presumably into a noun4 and the piling up of mounds over against the walls will take three months more4 ,the 7or 1 in the modern text7 were great mounds or ramparts of earth heaped up to the level of the enemy's walls in order to discover the weak points in the defence1 and also to destroy the fortified turrets mentioned in the preceding note4 ,tu ,yu quotes the ,tso ,chuan3 4 #e4 ,the general1 unable to control his irritation1 will launch his men to the assault like swarming ants1 ,capt4 ,calthrop unaccountably omits this vivid simile1 which1 as ,ts#8ao ,kung says1 is taken from the spectacle of an army of ants climbing a wall4 ,the meaning is that the general1 losing patience at the long delay1 may make a premature attempt to storm the place before his engines of war are ready4 with the result that one-third of his men are slain1 while the town still remains untaken4 ,such are the disastrous effects of a siege4 ,we are reminded of the terrible losses of the ,japanese before ,port ,arthur1 in the most recent siege which history has to record4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien reads 444 444 4 ,for the ,y ,lan has 4 ,capt4 ,calthrop does not translate 1 and mistranslates 4 #f4 ,therefore the skilful leader subdues the enemy's troops without any fighting2 he captures their cities without laying siege to them2 he overthrows their kingdom without lengthy operations in the field4 ,chia ,lin notes that he only overthrows the 1 that is1 the ,government1 but does no harm to individuals4 ,the classical instance is ,wu ,wang1 who after having put an end to the ,yin dynasty was acclaimed 8,father and mother of the people40 #g4 ,with his forces intact he will dispute the mastery of the ,empire1 and thus1 without losing a man1 his triumph will be complete4 ,owing to the double meanings of 1 and 1 the latter part of the sentence is susceptible of quite a different meaning3 8,and thus1 the weapon not being blunted by use1 its keenness remains perfect40 ,chang ,y says that is 8the advantage of a prosperous kingdom and a strong army40 ,this is the method of attacking by stratagem4 #h4 ,it is the rule in war1 if our forces are ten to the enemy's one1 to surround him2 if five to one1 to attack him2 ,straightaway1 without waiting for any further advantage4 if twice as numerous1 to divide our army into two4 ,note that does not refer to the enemy1 as in the two preceding clauses4 ,this sudden change of object is quite common in ,chinese4 ,tu ,mu takes exception to the saying2 and at first sight1 indeed1 it appears to violate a fundamental principle of war4 ,ts#8ao ,kung1 however1 gives a clue to ,sun ,tz's meaning3 8,being two to the enemy's one1 we may use one part of our army in the regular way1 and the other for some special diversion40 ,for explanation of and 1 see ,v4 #c1 note4 ,chang ,y thus further elucidates the point3 8,if our force is twice as numerous as that of the enemy1 it should be split up into two divisions1 one to meet the enemy in front1 and one to fall upon his rear2 if he replies to the frontal attack1 he may be crushed from behind2 if to the rearward attack1 he may be crushed in front4 ,this is what is meant by saying that 8one part may be used in the regular way1 and the other for some special diversion40 ,tu ,mu does not understand that dividing one's army is simply an irregular1 just as concentrating it is the regular1 strategical method1 and he is too hasty in calling this a mistake40 #i4 ,if equally matched1 we can offer battle2 ,li ,ch#8an1 followed by ,ho ,shih1 gives the following paraphrase3 8,if attackers and attacked are equally matched in strength1 only the able general will fight40 ,he thus takes as though it were 1 which is awkward4 if slightly inferior in numbers1 we can avoid the enemy2 ,the ,t#8u ,shu has instead of 1 which is hardly distinguishable in sense from in the next clause4 ,the meaning1 8we can watch the enemy10 is certainly a great improvement on the above2 but unfortunately there appears to be no very good authority for the variant4 ,chang ,y reminds us that the saying only applies if the other factors are equal2 a small difference in numbers is often more than counterbalanced by superior energy and discipline4 if quite unequal in every way1 we can flee from him4 #aj4 ,hence1 though an obstinate fight may be made by a small force1 in the end it must be captured by the larger force4 ,in other words3 8,c'est magnifique2 mais ce n'est pas la guerre40 #aa4 ,now the general is the bulwark of the ,state3 if the bulwark is complete at all points1 the ,state will be strong2 if the bulwark is defective1 the ,state will be weak4 cannot be restricted to anything so particular as in ,capt4 ,calthrop's translation1 8divided in his allegiance40 ,it is simply keeping up the metaphor suggested by 4 ,as ,li ,ch#8an tersely puts it3 8,ch#8i1 gap1 indicates deficiency2 if the general's ability is not perfect 7i4e4 if he is not thoroughly versed in his profession71 his army will lack strength40 #ab4 ,there are three ways in which a ruler can bring misfortune upon his army3-- #ac4 7#a7 ,by commanding the army to advance or to retreat1 being ignorant of the fact that it cannot obey4 ,this is called hobbling the army4 ,ts#8ao ,kung weakly defines as 8control10 8direct40 ,cf4 #ag ad fin4 ,but in reality it is one of those graphic metaphors which from time to time illuminate ,sun ,tz's work1 and is rightly explained by ,li ,ch#8an as 4 ,he adds the comment3 4 8,it is like tying together the legs of a thoroughbred1 so that it is unable to gallop40 ,one would naturally think of 8the ruler0 in this passage as being at home1 and trying to direct the movements of his army from a distance4 ,but the commentators understand just the reverse1 and quote the saying of ,t#8ai ,kung3 8,a kingdom should not be governed from without1 an army should not be directed from within40 ,of course it is true that1 during an engagement1 or when in close touch with the enemy1 the general should not be in the thick of his own troops1 but a little distance apart4 ,otherwise1 he will be liable to misjudge the position as a whole1 and give wrong orders4 #ad4 7#b7 ,by attempting to govern an army in the same way as he administers a kingdom1 being ignorant of the conditions which obtain in an army4 ,this causes restlessness in the soldier's minds4 ,ts#8ao ,kung's note is3 1 which may be freely translated3 8,the military sphere and the civil sphere are wholly distinct2 you can't handle an army in kid gloves40 ,and ,chang ,y says3 8,humanity and justice 77 are the principles on which to govern a state1 but not an army2 opportunism and flexibility 771 on the other hand1 are military rather than civic virtues40 1 8to assimilate the governing of an army0--to that of a ,state1 understood4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien has inserted before 1 here and in #ae4 #ae4 7#c7 ,by employing the officers of his army without discrimination1 ,that is1 he is not careful to use the right man in the right place4 through ignorance of the military principle of adaptation to circumstances4 ,this shakes the confidence of the soldiers4 ,i follow ,mei ,yao-ch#8n here4 ,the other commentators make etc4 refer1 not to the ruler1 as in #ac1 #ad1 but to the officers he employs4 ,thus ,tu ,yu says3 8,if a general is ignorant of the principle of adaptability1 he must not be entrusted with a position of authority40 ,tu ,mu quotes 3 8,the skilful employer of men will employ the wise man1 the brave man1 the covetous man1 and the stupid man4 ,for the wise man delights in establishing his merit1 the brave man likes to show his courage in action1 the covetous man is quick at seizing advantages1 and the stupid man has no fear of death40 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien reads 1 which ,tu ,yu explains as 8is utterly defeated40 ,capt4 ,calthrop gives a very inaccurate rendering3 8,ignorant of the situation of the army1 to interfere in its dispositions40 #af4 ,but when the army is restless and distrustful1 trouble is sure to come from the other feudal princes4 ,this is simply bringing anarchy into the army1 and flinging victory away4 ,most of the commentators take in the sense of 1 which it seems to bear also in the ,li ,chi1 1 ,i4 #ah4 is there given as its equivalent1 but ,legge tries notwithstanding to retain the more usual sense1 translating 8draw 444 back10 which is hardly defensible4 ,tu ,mu and ,wang ,hsi1 however1 think means 8leading up to the enemy's victory40 #ag4 ,thus we may know that there are five essentials for victory3 7#a7 ,he will win who knows when to fight and when not to fight4 ,chang ,y says3 8,if he can fight1 he advances and takes the offensive2 if he cannot fight1 he retreats and remains on the defensive4 ,he will invariably conquer who knows whether it is right to take the offensive or the defensive40 7#b7 ,he will win who knows how to handle both superior and inferior forces4 ,this is not merely the general's ability to estimate numbers correctly1 as ,li ,ch#8an and others make out4 ,chang ,y expounds the saying more satisfactorily3 8,by applying the art of war1 it is possible with a lesser force to defeat a greater1 and vice vers4 ,the secret lies in an eye for locality1 and in not letting the right moment slip4 ,thus ,wu ,tz says3 #8,with a superior force1 make for easy ground2 with an inferior one1 make for difficult ground4'0 7#c7 ,he will win whose army is animated by the same spirit throughout all its ranks4 ,ts#8ao ,kung refers less well to sovereign and subjects4 7#d7 ,he will win who1 prepared himself1 waits to take the enemy unprepared4 7#e7 ,he will win who has military capacity and is not interfered with by the sovereign4 ,tu ,yu quotes as saying3 8,it is the sovereign's function to give broad instructions1 but to decide on battle is the function of the general40 ,it is needless to dilate on the military disasters which have been caused by undue interference with operations in the field on the part of the home government4 ,napoleon undoubtedly owed much of his extraordinary success to the fact that he was not hampered by any central authority1--that he was1 in fact1 and in one4 ,victory lies in the knowledge of these five points4 ,literally1 8,these five things are knowledge of the principle of victory40 #ah4 ,hence the saying3 ,if you know the enemy and know yourself1 you need not fear the result of a hundred battles4 ,if you know yourself but not the enemy1 for every victory gained you will also suffer a defeat4 ,li ,ch#8an cites the case of ,fu ,chien1 prince of ,ch#8in1 who in #chc ,a4,d4 marched with a vast army against the ,chin ,emperor4 ,when warned not to despise an enemy who could command the services of such men as ,hsieh ,an and ,huan ,ch#8ung1 he boastfully replied3 8,i have the population of eight provinces at my back1 infantry and horsemen to the number of one million2 why1 they could dam up the ,yangtsze ,river itself by merely throwing their whips into the stream4 ,what danger have ,i to fear80 ,nevertheless1 his forces were soon after disastrously routed at the ,fei ,river1 and he was obliged to beat a hasty retreat4 ,if you know neither the enemy nor yourself1 you will succumb in every battle4 ,the modern text1 represented by the and ,t#8u ,shu1 has 1 which ,i should be inclined to adopt in preference to here1 though the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan both have the latter4 ,chang ,y offers the best commentary on 4 ,he says that these words 8have reference to attack and defence3 knowing the enemy enables you to take the offensive1 knowing yourself enables you to stand on the defensive40 ,he adds3 8,attack is the secret of defence2 defence is the planning of an attack40 ,it would be hard to find a better epitome of the root-principle of war4 ,,iv4 ,,tactical ,,dispositions4 is a very comprehensive and somewhat vague term4 ,literally1 8form10 8body10 it comes to mean 8appearance10 8attitude0 or 8disposition20 and here it is best taken as something between1 or perhaps combining1 8tactics0 and 8disposition of troops40 ,ts#8ao ,kung explains it as 8marching and counter-marching on the part of the two armies with a view to discovering each other's condition40 ,tu ,mu says3 8,it is through the dispositions of an army that its condition may be discovered4 ,conceal your dispositions 771 and your condition will remain secret1 which leads to victory2 show your dispositions1 and your condition will become patent1 which leads to defeat40 ,wang ,hsi remarks that the good general can 8secure success by modifying his tactics to meet those of the enemy40 ,in the modern text1 the title of the chapter appears as 1 which ,capt4 ,calthrop incorrectly translates 8the order of battle40 #a4 ,sun ,tz said3 ,the good fighters of old first put themselves beyond the possibility of defeat1 and then waited for an opportunity of defeating the enemy4 #b4 ,to secure ourselves against defeat lies in our own hands1 but the opportunity of defeating the enemy is provided by the enemy himself4 ,that is1 of course1 by a mistake on his part4 ,capt4 ,calthrop has3 8,the causes of defeat come from within2 victory is born in the enemy's camp10 which1 though certainly an improvement on his previous attempt1 is still incorrect4 #c4 ,thus the good fighter is able to secure himself against defeat1 8,by concealing the disposition of his troops1 covering up his tracks1 and taking unremitting precautions0 7,chang ,y74 but cannot make certain of defeating the enemy4 ,the original text reads 1 which the modern text has further modified into 4 ,capt4 ,calthrop makes out the impossible meaning1 8and further render the enemy incapable of victory40 #d4 ,hence the saying3 ,one may know how to conquer without being able to do it4 ,capt4 ,calthrop translates3 8,the conditions necessary for victory may be present1 but they cannot always be obtained10 which is more or less unintelligible4 #e4 ,security against defeat implies defensive tactics2 ability to defeat the enemy means taking the offensive4 ,for ,i retain the sense which it undoubtedly bears in #a-c1 in spite of the fact that the commentators are all against me4 ,the meaning they give1 8,he who cannot conquer takes the defensive10 is plausible enough1 but it is highly improbable that should suddenly become active in this way4 ,an incorrect variant in the ,y ,lan is 4 #f4 ,standing on the defensive indicates insufficient strength2 attacking1 a superabundance of strength4 #g4 ,the general who is skilled in defence hides in the most secret recesses of the earth2 ,literally1 8hides under the ninth earth10 which is a metaphor indicating the utmost secrecy and concealment1 so that the enemy may not know his whereabouts4 ,the of this passage have of course no connection with the 8,nine situations0 of chap4 ,,xi4 he who is skilled in attack flashes forth from the topmost heights of heaven4 ,another metaphor1 implying that he falls on his adversary like a thunderbolt1 against which there is no time to prepare4 ,this is the opinion of most of the commentators1 though ,ts#8ao ,kung1 followed by ,tu ,yu1 explains as the hills1 rivers1 and other natural features which will afford shelter or protection to the attacked1 and as the phases of weather which may be turned to account by the attacking party4 ,capt4 ,calthrop's 8,the skilful in attack push to the topmost heaven0 conveys no meaning at all4 ,thus on the one hand we have ability to protect ourselves2 on the other1 a victory that is complete4 ,capt4 ,calthrop draws on a fertile imagination for the following3 8,if these precepts be observed1 victory is certain40 #h4 ,to see victory only when it is within the ken of the common herd is not the acme of excellence4 ,as ,ts#8ao ,kung remarks1 8the thing is to see the plant before it has germinated10 to foresee the event before the action has begun4 ,li ,ch#8an alludes to the story of ,han ,hsin who1 when about to attack the vastly superior army of ,chao1 which was strongly entrenched in the city of ,ch#8ng-an1 said to his officers3 8,gentlemen1 we are going to annihilate the enemy1 and shall meet again at dinner40 ,the officers hardly took his words seriously1 and gave a very dubious assent4 ,but ,han ,hsin had already worked out in his mind the details of a clever stratagem1 whereby1 as he foresaw1 he was able to capture the city and inflict a crushing defeat on his adversary4 ,for the full story1 see 1 chap4 #cd1 4 ,capt4 ,calthrop again blunders badly with3 8,a victory1 even if popularly proclaimed as such by the common folk1 may not be a true success40 #i4 ,neither is it the acme of excellence if you fight and conquer and the whole ,empire says1 8,well done60 ,true excellence being1 as ,tu ,mu says3 8,to plan secretly1 to move surreptitiously1 to foil the enemy's intentions and baulk his schemes1 so that at last the day may be won without shedding a drop of blood40 ,sun ,tz reserves his approbation for things that 8the world's coarse thumb ,and finger fail to plumb40 #aj4 ,to lift an autumn hair is no sign of great strength2 is explained as the fur of a hare1 which is finest in autumn1 when it begins to grow afresh4 ,the phrase is a very common one in ,chinese writers4 ,cf4 ,mencius1 ,i4 #a4 vii4 #aj1 and ,chuang ,tz1 1 et al4 to see sun and moon is no sign of sharp sight2 to hear the noise of thunder is no sign of a quick ear4 ,ho ,shih gives as real instances of strength1 sharp sight and quick hearing3 ,wu ,huo1 who could lift a tripod weighing #bej stone2 ,li ,chu1 who at a distance of a hundred paces could see objects no bigger than a mustard seed2 and ,shih ,k#8uang1 a blind musician who could hear the footsteps of a mosquito4 #aa4 ,what the ancients called a clever fighter is one who not only wins1 but excels in winning with ease4 ,the original text1 followed by the ,t#8u ,shu1 has 4 ,but this is an alteration evidently intended to smooth the awkwardness of 1 which means literally3 8one who1 conquering1 excels in easy conquering40 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n says3 8,he who only sees the obvious1 wins his battles with difficulty2 he who looks below the surface of things1 wins with ease40 #ab4 ,hence his victories bring him neither reputation for wisdom nor credit for courage4 ,tu ,mu explains this very well3 8,inasmuch as his victories are gained over circumstances that have not come to light1 the world at large knows nothing of them1 and he wins no reputation for wisdom2 inasmuch as the hostile state submits before there has been any bloodshed1 he receives no credit for courage40 #ac4 ,he wins his battles by making no mistakes4 ,ch#8n ,hao says3 8,he plans no superfluous marches1 he devises no futile attacks40 ,the connection of ideas is thus explained by ,chang ,y3 8,one who seeks to conquer by sheer strength1 clever though he may be at winning pitched battles1 is also liable on occasion to be vanquished2 whereas he who can look into the future and discern conditions that are not yet manifest1 will never make a blunder and therefore invariably win40 ,li ,ch#8an thinks that the character should be 8to have doubts40 ,but it is better not to tamper with the text1 especially when no improvement in sense is the result4 ,making no mistakes is what establishes the certainty of victory1 for it means conquering an enemy that is already defeated4 ,the ,t#8u ,shu omits 4 is here 4 ,chia ,lin says it is put for in the sense of 2 but this is far-fetched4 ,capt4 ,calthrop altogether ignores the important word 4 #ad4 ,hence the skilful fighter puts himself into a position which makes defeat impossible1 and does not miss the moment for defeating the enemy4 ,a 8counsel of perfection10 as ,tu ,mu truly observes4 need not be confined strictly to the actual ground occupied by the troops4 ,it includes all the arrangements and preparations which a wise general will make to increase the safety of his army4 #ae4 ,thus it is that in war the victorious strategist only seeks battle after the victory has been won1 whereas he who is destined to defeat first fights and afterwards looks for victory4 ,ho ,shih thus expounds the paradox3 8,in warfare1 first lay plans which will ensure victory1 and then lead your army to battle2 if you will not begin with stratagem but rely on brute strength alone1 victory will no longer be assured40 #af4 ,the consummate leader cultivates the moral law1 and strictly adheres to method and discipline2 ,for and 1 see supra1 ,i4 #d sqq4 ,i think that ,chang ,y is wrong in altering their signification here1 and taking them as and respectively4 thus it is in his power to control success4 #ag4 ,in respect of military method1 we have1 firstly1 ,measurement2 secondly1 ,estimation of quantity2 thirdly1 ,calculation2 fourthly1 ,balancing of chances2 fifthly1 ,victory4 #ah4 ,measurement owes its existence to ,earth2 ,estimation of quantity to ,measurement2 ,calculation to ,estimation of quantity2 ,balancing of chances to ,calculation2 and ,victory to ,balancing of chances4 ,it is not easy to distinguish the four terms very clearly4 ,the first seems to be surveying and measurement of the ground1 which enable us to form an estimate of the enemy's strength1 and to make calculations based on the data thus obtained2 we are thus led to a general weighing-up1 or comparison of the enemy's chances with our own2 if the latter turn the scale1 then victory ensues4 ,the chief difficulty lies in 1 which some commentators take as a calculation of numbers1 thereby making it nearly synonymous with 4 ,perhaps is rather a consideration of the enemy's general position or condition 7 or 71 while is the estimate of his numerical strength4 ,on the other hand1 ,tu ,mu defines as 1 and adds3 8the question of relative strength having been settled1 we can bring the varied resources of cunning into play40 ,ho ,shih seconds this interpretation1 which is weakened1 however1 by the fact that is given as logically consequent on 2 this certainly points to the latter being a calculation of numbers4 ,of ,capt4 ,calthrop's version the less said the better4 #ai4 ,a victorious army opposed to a routed one1 is as a pound's weight placed in the scale against a single grain4 ,literally1 8a victorious army is like an i 7#bj oz47 weighed against a shu 7#abd oz472 a routed army as a shu weighed against an i40 ,the point is simply the enormous advantage which a disciplined force1 flushed with victory1 has over one demoralised by defeat4 ,legge1 in his note on ,mencius1 ,i4 #b4 ix4 #b1 makes the to be #bd ,chinese ounces1 and corrects ,chu ,hsi's statement that it equalled #bj oz4 only4 ,but ,li ,ch#8an of the ,t#8ang dynasty here gives the same figure as ,chu ,hsi4 #bj4 ,the onrush of a conquering force is like the bursting of pent-up waters into a chasm a thousand fathoms deep4 ,so much for tactical dispositions4 ,the construction here is slightly awkward and elliptical1 but the general sense is plain4 ,the ,t#8u ,shu omits 4 ,a #h or ,chinese feet4 ,v4 ,,energy4 here is said to be an older form of 2 ,sun ,tz1 however1 would seem to have used the former in the sense of 8power10 and the latter only in the sense of 8circumstances40 ,the fuller title is found in the ,t#8u ,shu and the modern text4 ,wang ,hsi expands it into 8the application1 in various ways1 of accumulated power20 and ,chang ,y says3 8,when the soldiers' energy has reached its height1 it may be used to secure victory40 #a4 ,sun ,tz said3 ,the control of a large force is the same in principle as the control of a few men3 it is merely a question of dividing up their numbers4 ,that is1 cutting up the army into regiments1 companies1 etc41 with subordinate officers in command of each4 ,tu ,mu reminds us of ,han ,hsin's famous reply to the first ,han ,emperor1 who once said to him3 8,how large an army do you think ,i could lead80 8,not more than #ajj1jjj men1 your ,majesty40 8,and you80 asked the ,emperor4 8,oh60 he answered1 8the more the better0 774 ,chang ,y gives the following curious table of the subdivisions of an army3--#e men make a 2 #b make a 2 #e make a 2 #b make a 2 #b make a 2 #b make a 2 #b make a 2 #b make a 2 #b make a 4 ,a or army corps thus works out at #cbjj men4 ,but cf4 ,,iii4 #a1 note4 ,for 1 see ,i4 #aj4 ,it is possible that in that paragraph may also be used in the above technical sense4 #b4 ,fighting with a large army under your command is nowise different from fighting with a small one3 it is merely a question of instituting signs and signals4 ,one must be careful to avoid translating 8fighting against a large number10 no reference to the enemy being intended4 is explained by ,ts#8ao ,kung as denoting flags and banners1 by means of which every soldier may recognise his own particular regiment or company1 and thus confusion may be prevented4 he explains as drums and gongs1 which from the earliest times were used to sound the advance and the retreat respectively4 ,tu ,mu defines as 8marshalling the troops in order10 and takes as the flags and banners4 ,wang ,hsi also dissents from ,ts#8ao ,kung1 referring to the ordering of the troops by means of banners1 drums and gongs1 and to the various names by which the regiments might be distinguished4 ,there is much to be said for this view4 #c4 ,to ensure that your whole host may withstand the brunt of the enemy's attack and remain unshaken--this is effected by manuvres direct and indirect4 ,for 1 there is another reading 1 8all together10 adopted by ,wang ,hsi and ,chang ,y4 ,we now come to one of the most interesting parts of ,sun ,tz's treatise1 the discussion of the and the 4 ,as it is by no means easy to grasp the full significance of these two terms1 or to render them at all consistently by good ,english equivalents1 it may be as well to tabulate some of the commentators' remarks on the subject before proceeding further4 ,li ,ch#8an3 8,facing the enemy is chng1 making lateral diversions is ch#8i40 ,chia ,lin3 8,in presence of the enemy1 your troops should be arrayed in normal fashion1 but in order to secure victory abnormal manuvres must be employed40 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n3 8,ch#8i is active1 chng is passive2 passivity means waiting for an opportunity1 activity brings the victory itself40 ,ho ,shih3 8,we must cause the enemy to regard our straightforward attack as one that is secretly designed1 and vice vers2 thus chng may also be ch#8i1 and ch#8i may also be chng40 ,he instances the famous exploit of ,han ,hsin1 who when marching ostensibly against ,lin-chin 7now ,chao-i in ,shensi71 suddenly threw a large force across the ,yellow ,river in wooden tubs1 utterly disconcerting his opponent4 ,ch#8ien ,han ,shu1 ch4 #cd4 ,here1 we are told1 the march on ,lin-chin was 1 and the surprise manuvre was 4 ,chang ,y gives the following summary of opinions on the words3 8,military writers do not all agree with regard to the meaning of ch#8i and chng4 ,wei ,liao ,tz #dth cent4 ,b4,c4 says3 #8,direct warfare favours frontal attacks1 indirect warfare attacks from the rear4' ,ts#8ao ,kung says3 #8,going straight out to join battle is a direct operation2 appearing on the enemy's rear is an indirect manuvre4' ,li ,wei-kung #fth and #gth cent4 ,a4,d4 says3 #8,in war1 to march straight ahead is chng2 turning movements1 on the other hand1 are ch#8i4' ,these writers simply regard chng as chng1 and ch#8i as ch#8i2 they do not note that the two are mutually interchangeable and run into each other like the two sides of a circle see infra1 #aa4 ,a comment of the ,t#8ang ,emperor ,t#8ai ,tsung goes to the root of the matter3 #8,a ch#8i manuvre may be chng1 if we make the enemy look upon it as chng2 then our real attack will be ch#8i1 and vice vers4 ,the whole secret lies in confusing the enemy1 so that he cannot fathom our real intent4'0 ,to put it perhaps a little more clearly3 any attack or other operation is 1 on which the enemy has had his attention fixed2 whereas that is 1 which takes him by surprise or comes from an unexpected quarter4 ,if the enemy perceives a movement which is meant to be 1 it immediately becomes 4 #d4 ,that the impact of your army may be like a grindstone dashed against an egg--this is effected by the science of weak points and strong4 1 literally 8the hollow and the solid10 is the title of chap4 ,,vi4 tuan is the ,t#8u ,shu reading1 hsia that of the standard text4 ,it appears from ,k#8ang ,hsi that there has been much confusion between the two characters1 and indeed1 it is probable that one of them has really crept into the language as a mistake for the other4 #e4 ,in all fighting1 the direct method may be used for joining battle1 but indirect methods will be needed in order to secure victory4 ,chang ,y says3 8,steadily develop indirect tactics1 either by pounding the enemy's flanks or falling on his rear40 ,a brilliant example of 8indirect tactics0 which decided the fortunes of a campaign was ,lord ,roberts' night march round the ,peiwar ,kotal in the second ,afghan war4#afi #f4 ,indirect tactics1 efficiently applied1 are inexhaustible as ,heaven and ,earth1 unending as the flow of rivers and streams2 is the universally accepted emendation for 1 the reading of the 4 like the sun and moon1 they end but to begin anew2 like the four seasons1 they pass away but to return once more4 ,tu ,yu and ,chang ,y understand this of the permutations of and 4 ,but at present ,sun ,tz is not speaking of at all1 unless1 indeed1 we suppose with ,chng ,yu-hsien that a clause relating to it has fallen out of the text4 ,of course1 as has already been pointed out1 the two are so inextricably interwoven in all military operations1 that they cannot really be considered apart4 ,here we simply have an expression1 in figurative language1 of the almost infinite resource of a great leader4 #g4 ,there are not more than five musical notes1 4 yet the combinations of these five give rise to more melodies than can ever be heard4 #h4 ,there are not more than five primary colours1 blue1 yellow1 red1 white and black4 yet in combination they produce more hues than can ever be seen4 #i4 ,there are not more than five cardinal tastes1 sour1 acrid1 salt1 sweet1 bitter4 yet combinations of them yield more flavours than can ever be tasted4 #aj4 ,in battle1 there are not more than two methods of attack--the direct and the indirect2 yet these two in combination give rise to an endless series of manuvres4 #aa4 ,the direct and the indirect lead on to each other in turn4 ,it is like moving in a circle--you never come to an end4 ,who can exhaust the possibilities of their combination8 ,the ,t#8u ,shu adds 4 ,the final may refer either to the circle or1 more probably1 to the understood4 ,capt4 ,calthrop is wrong with3 8,they are a mystery that none can penetrate40 #ab4 ,the onset of troops is like the rush of a torrent which will even roll stones along in its course4 #ac4 ,the quality of decision is like the well-timed swoop of a falcon which enables it to strike and destroy its victim4 ,for the ,y ,lan reads 1 which is also supported by a quotation in the #crd cent4 ,b4,c44 in this context is a word which really defies the best efforts of the translator4 ,tu ,mu says that it is equivalent to 8the measurement or estimation of distance40 ,but this meaning does not quite fit the illustrative simile in #ae4 ,as applied to the falcon1 it seems to me to denote that instinct of self-restraint which keeps the bird from swooping on its quarry until the right moment1 together with the power of judging when the right moment has arrived4 ,the analogous quality in soldiers is the highly important one of being able to reserve their fire until the very instant at which it will be most effective4 ,when the 8,victory0 went into action at ,trafalgar at hardly more than drifting pace1 she was for several minutes exposed to a storm of shot and shell before replying with a single gun4 ,nelson coolly waited until he was within close range1 when the broadside he brought to bear worked fearful havoc on the enemy's nearest ships4 ,that was a case of 4 #ad4 ,therefore the good fighter will be terrible in his onset1 and prompt in his decision4 ,tu ,yu defines here by the word 1 which is very like 8decision0 in ,english4 is certainly used in a very unusual sense1 even if1 as the commentators say1 it 4 ,this would have reference to the measurement of distance mentioned above1 letting the enemy get near before striking4 ,but ,i cannot help thinking that ,sun ,tz meant to use the word in a figurative sense comparable to our own idiom 8short and sharp40 ,cf4 ,wang ,hsi's note1 which after describing the falcon's mode of attack1 proceeds3 8,this is just how the #8psychological moment' should be seized in war40 ,i do not care for ,capt4 ,calthrop's rendering3 8,the spirit of the good fighter is terrifying1 his occasions sudden40 #ae4 ,energy may be likened to the bending of a cross-bow2 decision1 to the releasing of the trigger4 8,energy0 seems to be the best equivalent here for 1 because the comparison implies that the force is potential1 being stored up in the bent cross-bow until released by the finger on the trigger4 ,none of the commentators seem to grasp the real point of the simile4 #af4 ,amid the turmoil and tumult of battle1 there may be seeming disorder and yet no real disorder at all2 amid confusion and chaos1 your array may be without head or tail1 yet it will be proof against defeat4 1 literally 8formation circular01 is explained by ,li ,ch#8an as 8without back or front40 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n says3 8,the subdivisions of the army having been previously fixed1 and the various signals agreed upon1 the separating and joining1 the dispersing and collecting which will take place in the course of a battle1 may give the appearance of disorder when no real disorder is possible4 ,your formation may be without head or tail1 your dispositions all topsy-turvy1 and yet a rout of your forces quite out of the question40 ,it is a little difficult to decide whether and should not be taken as imperatives3 8fight in disorder 7for the purpose of deceiving the enemy71 and you will be secure against real disorder40 ,cf4 ,i4 #bj3 4 #ag4 ,simulated disorder postulates perfect discipline2 simulated fear postulates courage2 simulated weakness postulates strength4 ,in order to make the translation intelligible1 it is necessary to tone down the sharply paradoxical form of the original4 ,ts#8ao ,kung throws out a hint of the meaning in his brief note3 8,these things all serve to destroy formation and conceal one's condition40 ,but ,tu ,mu is the first to put it quite plainly3 8,if you wish to feign confusion in order to lure the enemy on1 you must first have perfect discipline2 if you wish to display timidity in order to entrap the enemy1 you must have extreme courage2 if you wish to parade your weakness in order to make the enemy over-confident1 you must have exceeding strength40 #ah4 ,hiding order beneath the cloak of disorder is simply a question of subdivision2 ,see supra1 #a4 concealing courage under a show of timidity presupposes a fund of latent energy2 ,it is passing strange that the commentators should understand here as 8circumstances0--a totally different sense from that which it has previously borne in this chapter4 ,thus ,tu ,mu says3 8seeing that we are favourably circumstanced and yet make no move1 the enemy will believe that we are really afraid40 masking strength with weakness is to be effected by tactical dispositions4 ,chang ,y relates the following anecdote of ,kao ,tsu1 the first ,han ,emperor3 8,wishing to crush the ,hsiung-nu1 he sent out spies to report on their condition4 ,but the ,hsiung-nu1 forewarned1 carefully concealed all their able-bodied men and well-fed horses1 and only allowed infirm soldiers and emaciated cattle to be seen4 ,the result was that the spies one and all recommended the ,emperor to deliver his attack40 ,lou ,ching alone opposed them1 saying3 8,when two countries go to war1 they are naturally inclined to make an ostentatious display of their strength4 ,yet our spies have seen nothing but old age and infirmity4 ,this is surely some ruse on the part of the enemy1 and it would be unwise for us to attack40 ,the ,emperor1 however1 disregarding this advice1 fell into the trap and found himself surrounded at ,po-tng40 #ai4 ,thus one who is skilful at keeping the enemy on the move maintains deceitful appearances1 according to which the enemy will act4 ,ts#8ao ,kung's note is 8,make a display of weakness and want10 but ,tu ,mu rightly points out that does not refer only to weakness3 8,if our force happens to be superior to the enemy's1 weakness may be simulated in order to lure him on2 but if inferior1 he must be led to believe that we are strong1 in order that he may keep off4 ,in fact1 all the enemy's movements should be determined by the signs that we choose to give him40 ,the following anecdote of ,sun ,pin1 a descendant of ,sun ,wu1 is related at length in the 1 chap4 #fe3 ,in #cda ,b4,c41 the ,ch#8i ,state being at war with ,wei1 sent ,t#8ien ,chi and ,sun ,pin against the general ,p#8ang ,chan1 who happened to be a deadly personal enemy of the latter4 ,sun ,pin said3 8,the ,ch#8i ,state has a reputation for cowardice1 and therefore our adversary despises us4 ,let us turn this circumstance to account40 ,accordingly1 when the army had crossed the border into ,wei territory1 he gave orders to show #ajj1jjj fires on the first night1 #ej1jjj on the next1 and the night after only #bj1jjj4 ,p#8ang ,chan pursued them hotly1 saying to himself3 8,i knew these men of ,ch#8i were cowards3 their numbers have already fallen away by more than half40 ,in his retreat1 ,sun ,pin came to a narrow defile1 which he calculated that his pursuers would reach after dark4 ,here he had a tree stripped of its bark1 and inscribed upon it the words3 8,under this tree shall ,p#8ang ,chan die40 ,then1 as night began to fall1 he placed a strong body of archers in ambush near by1 with orders to shoot directly they saw a light4 ,later on1 ,p#8ang ,chan arrived at the spot1 and noticing the tree1 struck a light in order to read what was written on it4 ,his body was immediately riddled by a volley of arrows1 and his whole army thrown into confusion4 ,the above is ,tu ,mu's version of the story2 the ,shih ,chi1 less dramatically but probably with more historical truth1 makes ,p#8ang ,chan cut his own throat with an exclamation of despair1 after the rout of his army4 ,he sacrifices something1 that the enemy may snatch at it4 here 4 #bj4 ,by holding out baits1 he keeps him on the march2 then with a body of picked men he lies in wait for him4 ,this would appear to be the meaning if we retain 1 which ,mei ,yao-ch#8n explains as 8men of spirit40 ,the ,t#8u ,shu reads 1 an emendation suggested by ,li ,ching4 ,the meaning then would be1 8,he lies in wait with the main body of his troops40 #ba4 ,the clever combatant looks to the effect of combined energy1 and does not require too much from individuals4 ,tu ,mu says3 8,he first of all considers the power of his army in the bulk2 afterwards he takes individual talent into account1 and uses each man according to his capabilities4 ,he does not demand perfection from the untalented40 ,hence his ability to pick out the right men and to utilise combined energy4 ,another reading has instead of 4 ,it would be interesting if ,capt4 ,calthrop could tell us where the following occurs in the ,chinese3 8yet1 when an opening or advantage shows1 he pushes it to its limits40 #bb4 ,when he utilises combined energy1 his fighting men become as it were like unto rolling logs or stones4 ,for it is the nature of a log or stone to remain motionless on level ground1 and to move when on a slope2 if four-cornered1 to come to a standstill1 but if round-shaped1 to go rolling down4 ,ts#8ao ,kung calls this 8the use of natural or inherent power40 ,capt4 ,calthrop ignores the last part of the sentence entirely4 ,in its stead he has3 8,so await the opportunity1 and so act when the opportunity arrives0--another absolutely gratuitous interpolation4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien omits 4 #bc4 ,thus the energy developed by good fighting men is as the momentum of a round stone rolled down a mountain thousands of feet in height4 ,so much on the subject of energy4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien omits 4 ,the chief lesson of this chapter1 in ,tu ,mu's opinion1 is the paramount importance in war of rapid evolutions and sudden rushes4 8,great results10 he adds1 8can thus be achieved with small forces40 ,,vi4 ,,weak ,,points ,,and ,,strong4 ,chang ,y attempts to explain the sequence of chapters as follows3 8,chapter ,,iv1 on ,tactical ,dispositions1 treated of the offensive and the defensive2 chapter ,v1 on ,energy1 dealt with direct and indirect methods4 ,the good general acquaints himself first with the theory of attack and defence1 and then turns his attention to direct and indirect methods4 ,he studies the art of varying and combining these two methods before proceeding to the subject of weak and strong points4 ,for the use of direct or indirect methods arises out of attack and defence1 and the perception of weak and strong points depends again on the above methods4 ,hence the present chapter comes immediately after the chapter on ,energy40 #a4 ,sun ,tz said3 ,whoever is first in the field and awaits the coming of the enemy1 will be fresh for the fight2 whoever is second in the field and has to hasten to battle1 will arrive exhausted4 ,instead of 1 the ,y ,lan has in both clauses the stronger word 4 ,for the antithesis between and 1 cf4 ,i4 #bc1 where however is used as a verb4 #b4 ,therefore the clever combatant imposes his will on the enemy1 but does not allow the enemy's will to be imposed on him4 ,the next paragraph makes it clear that does not merely mean1 as ,tu ,mu says1 8to make the enemy approach me10 but rather to make him go in any direction ,i please4 ,it is thus practically synonymous with 4 ,cf4 ,tu ,mu's own note on ,v4 #ai4 ,one mark of a great soldier is that he fights on his own terms or fights not at all4#agj #c4 ,by holding out advantages to him1 he can cause the enemy to approach of his own accord2 or1 by inflicting damage1 he can make it impossible for the enemy to draw near4 ,in the first case1 he will entice him with a bait2 in the second1 he will strike at some important point which the enemy will have to defend4 #d4 ,if the enemy is taking his ease1 he can harass him2 ,this passage may be cited as evidence against ,mei ,yao-,ch#8n's interpretation of ,i4 #bc4 if well supplied with food1 he can starve him out2 is probably an older form than 1 the reading of the original text4 ,both are given in the 4 if quietly encamped1 he can force him to move4 ,the subject to is still 2 but these clauses would read better as direct admonitions1 and in the next sentence we find ,sun ,tz dropping insensibly into the imperative4 #e4 ,appear at points which the enemy must hasten to defend2 march swiftly to places where you are not expected4 ,the original text1 adopted by the ,t#8u ,shu1 has 2 it has been altered to suit the context and the commentaries of ,ts#8ao ,kung and ,ho ,shih1 who evidently read 4 ,the other reading would mean3 8,appear at points to which the enemy cannot hasten20 but in this case there is something awkward in the use of 4 ,capt4 ,calthrop is wrong of course with 8appearing where the enemy is not40 #f4 ,an army may march great distances without distress1 if it marches through country where the enemy is not4 ,we must beware of understanding as 8uninhabited country40 ,sun ,tz habitually uses in the sense of 1 e4g4 supra1 #b4 ,ts#8ao ,kung sums up very well3 8,emerge from the void q4d4 like 8a bolt from the blue01 strike at vulnerable points1 shun places that are defended1 attack in unexpected quarters40 ,the difference of meaning between and is worth noting4 #g4 ,you can be sure of succeeding in your attacks if you only attack places which are undefended4 is of course hyperbolical2 ,wang ,hsi rightly explains it as 8weak points2 that is to say1 where the general is lacking in capacity1 or the soldiers in spirit2 where the walls are not strong enough1 or the precautions not strict enough2 where relief comes too late1 or provisions are too scanty1 or the defenders are variance amongst themselves40 ,you can ensure the safety of your defence if you only hold positions that cannot be attacked4 ,i4e41 where there are none of the weak points mentioned above4 ,there is rather a nice point involved in the interpretation of this latter clause4 ,tu ,mu1 ,ch#8n ,hao1 and ,mei ,yao-ch#8n assume the meaning to be3 8,in order to make your defence quite safe1 you must defend even those places that are not likely to be attacked20 and ,tu ,mu adds3 8,how much more1 then1 those that will be attacked40 ,taken thus1 however1 the clause balances less well with the preceding--always a consideration in the highly antithetical style which is natural to the ,chinese4 ,chang ,y1 therefore1 seems to come nearer the mark in saying3 8,he who is skilled in attack flashes forth from the topmost heights of heaven see ,,iv4 #g1 making it impossible for the enemy to guard against him4 ,this being so1 the places that ,i shall attack are precisely those that the enemy cannot defend4444 ,he who is skilled in defence hides in the most secret recesses of the earth1 making it impossible for the enemy to estimate his whereabouts4 ,this being so1 the places that ,i shall hold are precisely those that the enemy cannot attack40 #h4 ,hence that general is skilful in attack whose opponent does not know what to defend2 and he is skilful in defence whose opponent does not know what to attack4 ,an aphorism which puts the whole art of war into a nutshell4 #i4 ,o divine art of subtlety and secrecy6 ,through you we learn to be invisible1 through you inaudible2 ,literally1 8without form or sound10 but it is said of course with reference to the enemy4 ,chang ,y1 whom ,i follow1 draws no sharp distinction between and 1 but ,tu ,mu and others think that indicates the secrecy to be observed on the defensive1 and the rapidity to be displayed in attack4 ,the ,y ,lan text differs considerably from ours1 reading3 4 and hence we can hold the enemy's fate in our hands4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien has 4 ,capt4 ,calthrop's version of this paragraph is so remarkable that ,i cannot refrain from quoting it in full3 8,now the secrets of the art of offence are not to be easily apprehended1 as a certain shape or noise can be understood1 of the senses2 but when these secrets are once learnt1 the enemy is mastered40 #aj4 ,you may advance and be absolutely irresistible1 if you make for the enemy's weak points2 you may retire and be safe from pursuit if your movements are more rapid than those of the enemy4 ,the second member of the sentence is weak1 because is nearly tautologous with 4 ,the ,y ,lan reads for 4 #aa4 ,if we wish to fight1 the enemy can be forced to an engagement even though he be sheltered behind a high rampart and a deep ditch4 ,all we need do is to attack some other place that he will be obliged to relieve4 ,tu ,mu says3 8,if the enemy is the invading party1 we can cut his line of communications and occupy the roads by which he will have to return2 if we are the invaders1 we may direct our attack against the sovereign himself40 ,it is clear that ,sun ,tz1 unlike certain generals in the late ,boer war1 was no believer in frontal attacks4 #ab4 ,if we do not wish to fight1 we can prevent the enemy from engaging us even though the lines of our encampment be merely traced out on the ground4 ,all we need do is to throw something odd and unaccountable in his way4 ,in order to preserve the parallelism with #aa1 ,i should prefer to follow the ,t#8u ,shu text1 which inserts before 4 ,this extremely concise expression is intelligibly paraphrased by ,chia ,lin3 8even though we have constructed neither wall nor ditch40 ,the real crux of the passage lies in 4 of course 4 ,ts#8ao ,kung defines by the word 1 which is perhaps a case of obscurum per obscurius4 ,li ,ch#8an1 however1 says3 8we puzzle him by strange and unusual dispositions20 and ,tu ,mu finally clinches the meaning by three illustrative anecdotes--one of ,chu-ko ,liang1 who when occupying ,yang-p#8ing and about to be attacked by ,ss-ma ,i1 suddenly struck his colours1 stopped the beating of the drums1 and flung open the city gates1 showing only a few men engaged in sweeping and sprinkling the ground4 ,this unexpected proceeding had the intended effect2 for ,ss-ma ,i1 suspecting an ambush1 actually drew off his army and retreated4 ,what ,sun ,tz is advocating here1 therefore1 is nothing more nor less than the timely use of 8bluff40 ,capt4 ,calthrop translates3 8and prevent the enemy from attacking by keeping him in suspense10 which shows that he has not fully grasped the meaning of 4 #ac4 ,by discovering the enemy's dispositions and remaining invisible ourselves1 we can keep our forces concentrated1 while the enemy's must be divided4 ,the conclusion is perhaps not very obvious1 but ,chang ,y 7after ,mei ,yao-ch#8n7 rightly explains it thus3 8,if the enemy's dispositions are visible1 we can make for him in one body2 whereas1 our own dispositions being kept secret1 the enemy will be obliged to divide his forces in order to guard against attack from every quarter40 is here used as an active verb3 8to make to appear40 ,see ,,iv1 note on heading4 ,capt4 ,calthrop's 8making feints0 is quite wrong4 #ad4 ,we can form a single united body1 while the enemy must split up into fractions4 ,hence there will be a whole pitted against separate parts of a whole1 ,the original text has 1 which in accordance with the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan has been altered as above4 ,i adopt the more plausible reading of the ,t#8u ,shu3 1 in spite of having to refer to ourselves and not to the enemy4 ,thus ,tu ,yu and ,mei ,yao-ch#8n both regard as the undivided force1 consisting of so many parts1 and as each of the isolated fractions of the enemy4 ,the alteration of into can hardly be right1 though the true text might conceivably have been 4 which means that we shall be many to the enemy's few4 #ae4 ,and if we are able thus to attack an inferior force with a superior one1 our opponents will be in dire straits4 ,for 1 the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan have 4 ,tu ,yu1 followed by the other commentators1 arbitrarily defines as 8few and easy to conquer10 but only succeeds thereby in making the sentence absolutely pointless4 ,as for ,capt4 ,calthrop's translation3 8,in superiority of numbers there is economy of strength10 its meaning is probably known to himself alone4 ,in justification of my own rendering of 1 ,i would refer to ,lun ,y ,,iv4 #b and ,,vii4 #be 7#c74 #af4 ,the spot where we intend to fight must not be made known2 for then the enemy will have to prepare against a possible attack at several different points2 ,sheridan once explained the reason of ,general ,grant's victories by saying that 8while his opponents were kept fully employed wondering what he was going to do1 he was thinking most of what he was going to do himself40 and his forces being thus distributed in many directions1 the numbers we shall have to face at any given point will be proportionately few4 #ag4 ,for should the enemy strengthen his van1 he will weaken his rear2 should he strengthen his rear1 he will weaken his van2 should he strengthen his left1 he will weaken his right2 should he strengthen his right1 he will weaken his left4 ,if he sends reinforcements everywhere1 he will everywhere be weak4 ,in ,frederick the ,great's ,instructions to his ,generals we read3 8,a defensive war is apt to betray us into too frequent detachment4 ,those generals who have had but little experience attempt to protect every point1 while those who are better acquainted with their profession1 having only the capital object in view1 guard against a decisive blow1 and acquiesce in smaller misfortunes to avoid greater40 #ah4 ,numerical weakness comes from having to prepare against possible attacks2 numerical strength1 from compelling our adversary to make these preparations against us4 ,the highest generalship1 in ,col4 ,henderson's words1 is 8to compel the enemy to disperse his army1 and then to concentrate superior force against each fraction in turn40 #ai4 ,knowing the place and the time of the coming battle1 we may concentrate from the greatest distances in order to fight4 ,there is nothing about 8defeating0 anybody in this sentence1 as ,capt4 ,calthrop translates4 ,what ,sun ,tz evidently has in mind is that nice calculation of distances and that masterly employment of strategy which enable a general to divide his army for the purpose of a long and rapid march1 and afterwards to effect a junction at precisely the right spot and the right hour in order to confront the enemy in overwhelming strength4 ,among many such successful junctions which military history records1 one of the most dramatic and decisive was the appearance of ,blcher just at the critical moment on the field of ,waterloo4 #bj4 ,but if neither time nor place be known1 then the left wing will be impotent to succour the right1 the right equally impotent to succour the left1 the van unable to relieve the rear1 or the rear to support the van4 ,how much more so if the furthest portions of the army are anything under a hundred li apart1 and even the nearest are separated by several li6 ,the ,chinese of this last sentence is a little lacking in precision1 but the mental picture we are required to draw is probably that of an army advancing towards a given rendez-vous in separate columns1 each of which has orders to be there on a fixed date4 ,if the general allows the various detachments to proceed at haphazard1 without precise instructions as to the time and place of meeting1 the enemy will be able to annihilate the army in detail4 ,chang ,y's note may be worth quoting here3 8,if we do not know the place where our opponents mean to concentrate or the day on which they will join battle1 our unity will be forfeited through our preparations for defence1 and the positions we hold will be insecure4 ,suddenly happening upon a powerful foe1 we shall be brought to battle in a flurried condition1 and no mutual support will be possible between wings1 vanguard or rear1 especially if there is any great distance between the foremost and hindmost divisions of the army40 #ba4 ,though according to my estimate the soldiers of ,yeh exceed our own in number1 that shall advantage them nothing in the matter of victory4 ,capt4 ,calthrop omits 1 and his translation of the remainder is flabby and inaccurate4 ,as ,sun ,tz was in the service of the ,wu ,state1 it has been proposed to read instead of --a wholly unnecessary tampering with the text4 ,yeh coincided roughly with the present province of ,chehkiang4 ,li ,ch#8an very strangely takes not as the proper name1 but in the sense of 8to surpass40 ,no other commentator follows him4 belongs to the class of expressions like 8distance10 8magnitude10 etc41 to which the ,chinese have to resort in order to express abstract ideas of degree4 ,the ,t#8u ,shu1 however1 omits 4 ,i say then that victory can be achieved4 ,alas for these brave words6 ,the long feud between the two states ended in #dgc ,b4,c4 with the total defeat of ,wu by ,kou ,chien and its incorporation in ,yeh4 ,this was doubtless long after ,sun ,tz's death4 ,with his present assertion compare ,,iv4 #d3 7which is the obviously mistaken reading of the ,y ,lan here74 ,chang ,y is the only one to point out the seeming discrepancy1 which he thus goes on to explain3 8,in the chapter on ,tactical ,dispositions it is said1 #8,one may know how to conquer without being able to do it1' whereas here we have the statement that #8victory can be achieved4' ,the explanation is1 that in the former chapter1 where the offensive and defensive are under discussion1 it is said that if the enemy is fully prepared1 one cannot make certain of beating him4 ,but the present passage refers particularly to the soldiers of ,yeh who1 according to ,sun ,tz's calculations1 will be kept in ignorance of the time and place of the impending struggle4 ,that is why he says here that victory can be achieved40 #bb4 ,though the enemy be stronger in numbers1 we may prevent him from fighting4 ,capt4 ,calthrop quite unwarrantably translates3 8,if the enemy be many in number1 prevent him10 etc4 ,scheme so as to discover his plans and the likelihood of their success4 ,this is the first of four similarly constructed sentences1 all of which present decided difficulties4 ,chang ,y explains as 4 ,this is perhaps the best way of taking the words1 though ,chia ,lin1 referring to ourselves and not the enemy1 offers the alternative of 8,know beforehand all plans conducive to our success and to the enemy's failure40 #bc4 ,rouse him1 and learn the principle of his activity or inactivity4 ,instead of 1 the ,t#8ung ,tien1 ,y ,lan1 and also ,li ,ch#8an's text have 1 which the latter explains as 8the observation of omens10 and ,chia ,lin simply as 8watching and waiting40 is defined by ,tu ,mu as 1 and ,chang ,y tells us that by noting the joy or anger shown by the enemy on being thus disturbed1 we shall be able to conclude whether his policy is to lie low or the reverse4 ,he instances the action of ,chu-ko ,liang1 who sent the scornful present of a woman's head-dress to ,ss-ma ,i1 in order to goad him out of his ,fabian tactics4 ,force him to reveal himself1 so as to find out his vulnerable spots4 ,two commentators1 ,li ,ch#8an and ,chang ,y1 take in the sense of 8put on specious appearances40 ,the former says3 8,you may either deceive the enemy by a show of weakness--striking your colours and silencing your drums2 or by a show of strength--making a hollow display of camp-fires and regimental banners40 ,and the latter quotes ,v4 #ai1 where certainly seems to bear this sense4 ,on the other hand1 ,i would point to #ac of this chapter1 where must with equal certainty be active4 ,it is hard to choose between the two interpretations1 but the context here agrees better1 ,i think1 with the one that ,i have adopted4 ,another difficulty arises over 1 which most of the commentators1 thinking no doubt of the in ,,xi4 #a1 refer to the actual ground on which the enemy is encamped4 ,the notes of ,chia ,lin and ,mei ,yao-ch#8n1 however1 seem to favour my view4 ,the same phrase has a somewhat different meaning in ,i4 #b4 #bd4 ,carefully compare the opposing army with your own1 ,tu ,yu is right1 ,i think1 in attributing this force to 2 ,ts#8ao ,kung defines it simply as 4 ,capt4 ,calthrop surpasses himself with the staggering translation 8,flap the wings06 ,can the ,latin cornu 7in its figurative sense7 have been at the back of his mind8 so that you may know where strength is superabundant and where it is deficient4 ,cf4 ,,iv4 #f4 #be4 ,in making tactical dispositions1 the highest pitch you can attain is to conceal them2 ,the piquancy of the paradox evaporates in translation4 is perhaps not so much actual invisibility 7see supra1 #i7 as 8showing no sign0 of what you mean to do1 of the plans that are formed in your brain4 conceal your dispositions1 and you will be safe from the prying of the subtlest spies1 from the machinations of the wisest brains4 is expanded by ,tu ,mu into 4 ,for 1 see ,,xiii1 note on heading4 ,he explains in like fashion3 8though the enemy may have clever and capable officers1 they will not be able to lay any plans against us40 #bf4 ,how victory may be produced for them out of the enemy's own tactics--that is what the multitude cannot comprehend4 ,all the commentators except ,li ,ch#8an make refer to the enemy4 ,so ,ts#8ao ,kung3 4 is defined as 4 ,the ,t#8u ,shu has 1 with the same meaning4 ,see ,,iv4 #ac4 ,the ,y ,lan reads 1 evidently a gloss4 #bg4 ,all men can see the tactics whereby ,i conquer1 but what none can see is the strategy out of which victory is evolved4 ,i4e41 everybody can see superficially how a battle is won2 what they cannot see is the long series of plans and combinations which has preceded the battle4 ,it seems justifiable1 then1 to render the first by 8tactics0 and the second by 8strategy40 #bh4 ,do not repeat the tactics which have gained you one victory1 but let your methods be regulated by the infinite variety of circumstances4 ,as ,wang ,hsi sagely remarks3 8,there is but one root-principle 77 underlying victory1 but the tactics 77 which lead up to it are infinite in number40 ,with this compare ,col4 ,henderson2 8,the rules of strategy are few and simple4 ,they may be learned in a week4 ,they may be taught by familiar illustrations or a dozen diagrams4 ,but such knowledge will no more teach a man to lead an army like ,napoleon than a knowledge of grammar will teach him to write like ,gibbon40 #bi4 ,military tactics are like unto water2 for water in its natural course runs away from high places and hastens downwards4 is ,liu ,chou-tz's reading for in the original text4 #cj4 ,so in war1 the way is to avoid what is strong and to strike at what is weak4 ,like water1 taking the line of least resistance4 #ca4 ,water shapes its course according to the nature of the ground over which it flows2 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan read 1--the latter also 4 ,the present text is derived from ,chng ,yu-hsien4 the soldier works out his victory in relation to the foe whom he is facing4 #cb4 ,therefore1 just as water retains no constant shape1 so in warfare there are no constant conditions4 #cc4 ,he who can modify his tactics in relation to his opponent and thereby succeed in winning1 may be called a heaven-born captain4 #cd4 ,the five elements ,water1 fire1 wood1 metal1 earth4 are not always equally predominant2 ,that is1 as ,wang ,hsi says3 8they predominate alternately40 the four seasons make way for each other in turn4 ,literally1 8have no invariable seat40 ,there are short days and long2 the moon has its periods of waning and waxing4 ,cf4 ,v4 #f4 ,the purport of the passage is simply to illustrate the want of fixity in war by the changes constantly taking place in ,nature4 ,the comparison is not very happy1 however1 because the regularity of the phenomena which ,sun ,tz mentions is by no means paralleled in war4 ,,vii4 ,,man,,uvring4 ,the commentators1 as well as the subsequent text1 make it clear that this is the real meaning of 4 ,thus1 ,li ,ch#8an says that means 8marching rapidly to seize an advantage02 ,wang ,hsi says3 8#8,striving' means striving for an advantage2 this being obtained1 victory will follow20 and ,chang ,y3 8,the two armies face to face1 and each striving to obtain a tactical advantage over the other40 ,according to the latter commentator1 then1 the situation is analogous to that of two wrestlers manuvring for a 8hold10 before coming to actual grips4 ,in any case1 we must beware of translating by the word 8fighting0 or 8battle10 as if it were equivalent to 4 ,capt4 ,calthrop falls into this mistake4 #a4 ,sun ,tz said3 ,in war1 the general receives his commands from the sovereign4 ,for there is another reading 1 which ,li ,ch#8an explains as 8being the reverent instrument of ,heaven's chastisement40 #b4 ,having collected an army and concentrated his forces1 he must blend and harmonise the different elements thereof before pitching his camp4 ,ts#8ao ,kung takes as referring to the or main gate of the military camp4 ,this1 ,tu ,mu tells us1 was formed with a couple of flags hung across4 ,cf4 ,chou ,li1 ch4 xxvii4 fol4 #ca of the ,imperial edition3 4 would then mean 8setting up his opposite that of the enemy40 ,but ,chia ,lin's explanation1 which has been adopted above1 is on the whole simpler and better4 ,chang ,y1 while following ,ts#8ao ,kung1 adds that the words may also be taken to mean 8the establishment of harmony and confidence between the higher and lower ranks before venturing into the field20 and he quotes a saying of ,wu ,tz 7chap4 #a ad init473 8,without harmony in the ,state1 no military expedition can be undertaken2 without harmony in the army1 no battle array can be formed40 ,in the historical romance 1 chap4 #ge1 ,sun ,tz himself is represented as saying to ,wu ,yan3 8,as a general rule1 those who are waging war should get rid of all domestic troubles before proceeding to attack the external foe40 is defined as 4 ,it here conveys the notion of encamping after having taken the field4 #c4 ,after that1 comes tactical manuvring1 than which there is nothing more difficult4 ,i have departed slightly from the traditional interpretation of ,ts#8ao ,kung1 who says3 8,from the time of receiving the sovereign's instructions until our encampment over against the enemy1 the tactics to be pursued are most difficult40 ,it seems to me that the tactics or manuvres can hardly be said to begin until the army has sallied forth and encamped1 and ,ch#8n ,hao's note gives colour to this view3 8,for levying1 concentrating1 harmonising and intrenching an army1 there are plenty of old rules which will serve4 ,the real difficulty comes when we engage in tactical operations40 ,tu ,yu also observes that 8the great difficulty is to be beforehand with the enemy in seizing favourable positions40 ,the difficulty of tactical manuvring consists in turning the devious into the direct1 and misfortune into gain4 is one of those highly condensed and somewhat enigmatical expressions of which ,sun ,tz is so fond4 ,this is how it is explained by ,ts#8ao ,kung3 8,make it appear that you are a long way off1 then cover the distance rapidly and arrive on the scene before your opponent40 ,tu ,mu says3 8,hoodwink the enemy1 so that he may be remiss and leisurely while you are dashing along with the utmost speed40 ,ho ,shih gives a slightly different turn to the sentence3 8,although you may have difficult ground to traverse and natural obstacles to encounter1 this is a drawback which can be turned into actual advantage by celerity of movement40 ,signal examples of this saying are afforded by the two famous passages across the ,alps--that of ,hannibal1 which laid ,italy at his mercy1 and that of ,napoleon two thousand years later1 which resulted in the great victory of ,marengo4 #d4 ,thus1 to take a long and circuitous route1 after enticing the enemy out of the way1 and though starting after him1 to contrive to reach the goal before him1 shows knowledge of the artifice of deviation4 ,chia ,lin understands as the enemy's line of march1 thus3 8,if our adversary's course is really a short one1 and we can manage to divert him from it 77 either by simulating weakness or by holding out some small advantage1 we shall be able to beat him in the race for good positions40 ,this is quite a defensible view1 though not adopted by any other commentator4 of course 1 and and are to be taken as verbs4 ,tu ,mu cites the famous march of ,chao ,sh in #bgj ,b4,c4 to relieve the town of ,o-y1 which was closely invested by a ,ch#8in army4 ,it should be noted that the above is the correct pronunciation of 1 as given in the commentary on the ,ch#8ien ,han ,shu1 ch4 #cd4 ,giles' dictionary gives 8,y-y10 and ,chavannes1 ,i know not on what authority1 prefers to write 8,yen-y40 ,the name is omitted altogether from ,playfair's 8,cities and ,towns40 ,the ,king of ,chao first consulted ,lien ,p#8o on the advisability of attempting a relief1 but the latter thought the distance too great1 and the intervening country too rugged and difficult4 ,his ,majesty then turned to ,chao ,sh1 who fully admitted the hazardous nature of the march1 but finally said3 8,we shall be like two rats fighting in a hole--and the pluckier one will win60 ,so he left the capital with his army1 but had only gone a distance of #cj li when he stopped and began throwing up intrenchments4 ,for #bh days he continued strengthening his fortifications1 and took care that spies should carry the intelligence to the enemy4 ,the ,ch#8in general was overjoyed1 and attributed his adversary's tardiness to the fact that the beleaguered city was in the ,han ,state1 and thus not actually part of ,chao territory4 ,but the spies had no sooner departed than ,chao ,sh began a forced march lasting for two days and one night1 and arrived on the scene of action with such astonishing rapidity that he was able to occupy a commanding position on the 8,north hill0 before the enemy had got wind of his movements4 ,a crushing defeat followed for the ,ch#8in forces1 who were obliged to raise the siege of ,o-y in all haste and retreat across the border4 ,see 1 chap4 #ha4 #e4 ,manuvring with an army is advantageous2 with an undisciplined multitude1 most dangerous4 ,i here adopt the reading of the ,t#8ung ,tien1 ,chng ,yu-hsien and the ,t#8u ,shu1 where appears to supply the exact nuance required in order to make sense4 ,the standard text1 on the other hand1 in which is repeated1 seems somewhat pointless4 ,the commentators take it to mean that manuvres may be profitable1 or they may be dangerous3 it all depends on the ability of the general4 ,capt4 ,calthrop translates 8the wrangles of a multitude06 #f4 ,if you set a fully equipped army in march in order to snatch an advantage1 the chances are that you will be too late4 ,the original text has instead of 2 but a verb is needed to balance 4 ,on the other hand1 to detach a flying column for the purpose involves the sacrifice of its baggage and stores4 is evidently unintelligible to the ,chinese commentators1 who paraphrase the sentence as though it began with 4 ,absolute tautology in the apodosis can then only be avoided by drawing an impossibly fine distinction between and 4 ,i submit my own rendering without much enthusiasm1 being convinced that there is some deep-seated corruption in the text4 ,on the whole1 it is clear that ,sun ,tz does not approve of a lengthy march being undertaken without supplies4 ,cf4 infra1 #aa4 #g4 ,thus1 if you order your men to roll up their buff-coats1 does not mean 8to discard one's armour10 as ,capt4 ,calthrop translates1 but implies on the contrary that it is to be carried with you4 ,chang ,y says3 8,this means1 in full panoply40 and make forced marches without halting day or night1 covering double the usual distance at a stretch1 ,the ordinary day's march1 according to ,tu ,mu1 was #cj li2 but on one occasion1 when pursuing ,liu ,pei1 ,ts#8ao ,ts#8ao is said to have covered the incredible distance of #cjj li within twenty-four hours4 doing a hundred li in order to wrest an advantage1 the leaders of all your three divisions will fall into the hands of the enemy4 #h4 ,the stronger men will be in front1 the jaded ones will fall behind1 and on this plan only one-tenth of your army will reach its destination4 ,for 1 see ,,ii4 #ad4 ,the moral is1 as ,ts#8ao ,kung and others point out3 ,don't march a hundred li to gain a tactical advantage1 either with or without impedimenta4 ,manuvres of this description should be confined to short distances4 ,stonewall ,jackson said3 8,the hardships of forced marches are often more painful than the dangers of battle40 ,he did not often call upon his troops for extraordinary exertions4 ,it was only when he intended a surprise1 or when a rapid retreat was imperative1 that he sacrificed everything to speed4#aga #i4 ,if you march fifty li in order to outmanuvre the enemy1 you will lose the leader of your first division1 and only half your force will reach the goal4 is explained as similar in meaning to 3 literally1 8the leader of the first division will be torn away40 ,cf4 ,tso ,chuan1 #aith year3 8,this is a case of the falling tree tearing up its roots40 #aj4 ,if you march thirty li with the same object1 two-thirds of your army will arrive4 ,in the ,t#8ung ,tien is added3 8,from this we may know the difficulty of manuvring40 #aa4 ,we may take it then that an army without its baggage-train is lost2 without provisions it is lost2 without bases of supply it is lost4 is explained by ,tu ,yu as 8fodder and the like20 by ,tu ,mu and ,chang ,y as 8goods in general20 and by ,wang ,hsi as 8fuel1 salt1 foodstuffs1 etc40 ,but ,i think what ,sun ,tz meant was 8stores accumulated in dpts10 as distinguished from and 1 the various impedimenta accompanying an army on its march4 ,cf4 ,chou ,li1 ch4 xvi4 fol4 #aj3 444 4 #ab4 ,we cannot enter into alliances until we are acquainted with the designs of our neighbours4 4 ,li ,ch#8an understands it as 8guard against10 which is hardly so good4 ,an original interpretation of is given by ,tu ,mu1 who says it stands for or 8join in battle40 #ac4 ,we are not fit to lead an army on the march unless we are familiar with the face of the country--its mountains and forests1 its pitfalls 1 defined as 7,ts#8ao ,kung7 or 7,chang ,y74 and precipices1 1 defined as 4 its marshes 1 defined as 4 and swamps4 1 defined as 4 #ad4 ,we shall be unable to turn natural advantages to account unless we make use of local guides4 #ab-ad are repeated in chap4 ,,xi4 #eb4 #ae4 ,in war1 practise dissimulation1 and you will succeed4 ,according to ,tu ,mu1 stands for 4 ,cf4 ,i4 #ah4 ,in the tactics of ,turenne1 deception of the enemy1 especially as to the numerical strength of his troops1 took a very prominent position4#agb ,move only if there is a real advantage to be gained4 ,this is the interpretation of all the commentators except ,wang ,hsi1 who has the brief note 8,entice out the enemy0 7by offering him some apparent advantage74 #af4 ,whether to concentrate or to divide your troops1 must be decided by circumstances4 #ag4 ,let your rapidity be that of the wind1 ,the simile is doubly appropriate1 because the wind is not only swift but1 as ,mei ,yao-ch#8n points out1 8invisible and leaves no tracks40 your compactness that of the forest4 ,it is hardly possible to take here in its ordinary sense of 8sedate10 as ,tu ,yu tries to do4 ,mng ,shih comes nearer the mark in his note 8,when slowly marching1 order and ranks must be preserved0--so as to guard against surprise attacks4 ,but natural forests do not grow in rows1 whereas they do generally possess the quality of density or compactness4 ,i think then that ,mei ,yao-ch#8n uses the right adjective in saying 4 #ah4 ,in raiding and plundering be like fire1 ,cf4 ,shih ,ching1 ,,iv4 #c4 iv4 #f3 8,fierce as a blazing fire which no man can check40 in immovability like a mountain4 ,that is1 when holding a position from which the enemy is trying to dislodge you1 or perhaps1 as ,tu ,yu says1 when he is trying to entice you into a trap4 #ai4 ,let your plans be dark and impenetrable as night1 and when you move1 fall like a thunderbolt4 ,the original text has instead of 4 ,cf4 ,,iv4 #g4 ,tu ,yu quotes a saying of ,t#8ai ,kung which has passed into a proverb3 8,you cannot shut your ears to the thunder or your eyes to the lightning--so rapid are they40 ,likewise1 an attack should be made so quickly that it cannot be parried4 #bj4 ,when you plunder a countryside1 let the spoil be divided amongst your men2 ,the reading of ,tu ,yu1 ,chia ,lin1 and apparently ,ts#8ao ,kung1 is 1 which is explained as referring to the subdivision of the army1 mentioned in ,v4 #a1 #b1 by means of banners and flags1 serving to point out 77 to each man the way he should go 774 ,but this is very forced1 and the ellipsis is too great1 even for ,sun ,tz4 ,luckily1 the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan have the variant 1 which not only suggests the true reading 1 but affords some clue to the way in which the corruption arose4 ,some early commentator having inserted as the sound of 1 the two may afterwards have been read as one character2 and this being interchangeable with 1 must finally have disappeared altogether4 ,meanwhile1 would have been altered to in order to make sense4 ,as regards 1 ,i believe that ,ho ,shih alone has grasped the real meaning1 the other commentators understanding it as 8dividing the men into parties0 to search for plunder4 ,sun ,tz wishes to lessen the abuses of indiscriminate plundering by insisting that all booty shall be thrown into a common stock1 which may afterwards be fairly divided amongst all4 when you capture new territory1 cut it up into allotments for the benefit of the soldiery4 ,that this is the meaning1 may be gathered from ,tu ,mu's note3 4 ,the gives the same advice3 4 means 8to enlarge0 or 8extend0--at the expense of the enemy1 understood4 ,cf4 ,shih ,ching1 ,,iii4 #a4 vii4 #a3 8hating all the great ,states40 ,ch#8n ,hao also says 8quarter your soldiers on the land1 and let them sow and plant it40 ,it is by acting on this principle1 and harvesting the lands they invaded1 that the ,chinese have succeeded in carrying out some of their most memorable and triumphant expeditions1 such as that of ,pan ,ch#8ao who penetrated to the ,caspian1 and in more recent years1 those of ,fu-k#8ang-an and ,tso ,tsung-t#8ang4 #ba4 ,ponder and deliberate ,note that both these words1 like the ,chinese 1 are really metaphors derived from the use of scales4 before you make a move4 ,chang ,y quotes as saying that we must not break camp until we have gauged the resisting power of the enemy and the cleverness of the opposing general4 ,cf4 the 8seven comparisons0 in ,i4 #ac4 ,capt4 ,calthrop omits this sentence4 #bb4 ,he will conquer who has learnt the artifice of deviation4 ,see supra1 #c1 #d4 ,such is the art of manuvring4 ,with these words1 the chapter would naturally come to an end4 ,but there now follows a long appendix in the shape of an extract from an earlier book on ,war1 now lost1 but apparently extant at the time when ,sun ,tz wrote4 ,the style of this fragment is not noticeably different from that of ,sun ,tz himself1 but no commentator raises a doubt as to its genuineness4 #bc4 ,the ,book of ,army ,management says3 ,it is perhaps significant that none of the earlier commentators give us any information about this work4 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n calls it 8an ancient military classic10 and ,wang ,hsi1 8an old book on war40 ,considering the enormous amount of fighting that had gone on for centuries before ,sun ,tz's time between the various kingdoms and principalities of ,china1 it is not in itself improbable that a collection of military maxims should have been made and written down at some earlier period4 ,on the field of battle1 ,implied1 though not actually in the ,chinese4 the spoken word does not carry far enough3 hence the institution of gongs and drums4 ,i have retained the words of the original text1 which recur in the next paragraph1 in preference to the other reading 8drums and bells10 which is found in the ,t#8ung ,tien1 ,pei ,t#8ang ,shu ,ch#8ao and ,y ,lan4 is a bell with a clapper4 ,see ,lun ,y ,,iii4 #bd1 ,chou ,li ,,xxix4 #ae1 #bi4 of course would include both gongs and bells of every kind4 ,the ,t#8u ,shu inserts a after each 4 ,nor can ordinary objects be seen clearly enough3 hence the institution of banners and flags4 #bd4 ,gongs and drums1 banners and flags1 are means whereby the ears and eyes of the host ,the original text1 followed by the ,t#8u ,shu1 has for here and in the next two paragraphs4 ,but1 as we have seen1 is generally used in ,sun ,tz for the enemy4 may be focussed on one particular point4 ,note the use of as a verb4 ,chang ,y says3 8,if sight and hearing converge simultaneously on the same object1 the evolutions of as many as a million soldiers will be like those of a single man06 #be4 ,the host thus forming a single united body1 it is impossible either for the brave to advance alone1 or for the cowardly to retreat alone4 ,chang ,y quotes a saying3 8,equally guilty are those who advance against orders and those who retreat against orders40 ,tu ,mu tells a story in this connection of ,wu ,ch#8i1 when he was fighting against the ,ch#8in ,state4 ,before the battle had begun1 one of his soldiers1 a man of matchless daring1 sallied forth by himself1 captured two heads from the enemy1 and returned to camp4 ,wu ,ch#8i had the man instantly executed1 whereupon an officer ventured to remonstrate1 saying3 8,this man was a good soldier1 and ought not to have been beheaded40 ,wu ,ch#8i replied3 8,i fully believe he was a good soldier1 but ,i had him beheaded because he acted without orders40 ,this is the art of handling large masses of men4 #bf4 ,in night-fighting1 then1 make much use of signal-fires and drums1 and in fighting by day1 of flags and banners1 as a means of influencing the ears and eyes of your army4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien has the bad variant for 4 ,with regard to the latter word1 ,i believe ,i have hit off the right meaning1 the whole phrase being slightly elliptical for 8influencing the movements of the army through their senses of sight and hearing40 ,li ,ch#8an1 ,tu ,mu and ,chia ,lin certainly seem to understand it thus4 ,the other commentators1 however1 take 7or 7 as the enemy1 and as equivalent to or 8to perplex0 or 8confound40 ,this does not agree so well with what has gone before1 though on the other hand it renders the transition to #bg less abrupt4 ,the whole question1 ,i think1 hinges on the alternative readings and 4 ,the latter would almost certainly denote the enemy4 ,ch#8n ,hao alludes to ,li ,kuang-pi's night ride to ,ho-yang at the head of #ejj mounted men2 they made such an imposing display with torches1 that though the rebel leader ,shih ,ss-ming had a large army1 he did not dare to dispute their passage4 ,ch#8n ,hao gives the date as ,a4,d4 #gef2 but according to the ,new ,t#8ang ,history1 #fa1 it must have been later than this1 probably #gfj4 #bg4 ,a whole army may be robbed of its spirit2 8,in war10 says ,chang ,y1 8if a spirit of anger can be made to pervade all ranks of an army at one and the same time1 its onset will be irresistible4 ,now the spirit of the enemy's soldiers will be keenest when they have newly arrived on the scene1 and it is therefore our cue not to fight at once1 but to wait until their ardour and enthusiasm have worn off1 and then strike4 ,it is in this way that they may be robbed of their keen spirit40 ,li ,ch#8an and others tell an anecdote 7to be found in the ,tso ,chuan1 year #aj1 #a7 of ,ts#8ao ,kuei1 a protg of ,duke ,chuang of ,lu4 ,the latter ,state was attacked by ,ch#8i1 and the ,duke was about to join battle at ,ch#8ang-cho1 after the first roll of the enemy's drums1 when ,ts#8ao said3 8,not just yet40 ,only after their drums had beaten for the third time1 did he give the word for attack4 ,then they fought1 and the men of ,ch#8i were utterly defeated4 ,questioned afterwards by the ,duke as to the meaning of his delay1 ,ts#8ao ,kuei replied3 8,in battle1 a courageous spirit is everything4 ,now the first roll of the drum tends to create this spirit1 but with the second it is already on the wane1 and after the third it is gone altogether4 ,i attacked when their spirit was gone and ours was at its height4 ,hence our victory40 7chap4 #d7 puts 8spirit0 first among the 8four important influences0 in war1 and continues3 8,the value of a whole army--a mighty host of a million men--is dependent on one man alone3 such is the influence of spirit60 a commander-in-chief may be robbed of his presence of mind4 ,capt4 ,calthrop goes woefully astray with 8defeat his general's ambition40 ,chang ,y says3 8,presence of mind is the general's most important asset4 ,it is the quality which enables him to discipline disorder and to inspire courage into the panic-stricken40 ,the great general ,li ,ching 7,a4,d4 #ega-fdi7 has a saying3 8,attacking does not merely consist in assaulting walled cities or striking at an army in battle array2 it must include the art of assailing the enemy's mental equilibrium40 1 pt4 #c4 #bh4 ,now a soldier's spirit is keenest in the morning2 ,always provided1 ,i suppose1 that he has had breakfast4 ,at the battle of the ,trebia1 the ,romans were foolishly allowed to fight fasting1 whereas ,hannibal's men had breakfasted at their leisure4 ,see ,livy1 ,,xxi1 liv4 #h1 lv4 #a and #h4 by noonday it has begun to flag2 and in the evening1 his mind is bent only on returning to camp4 #bi4 ,a clever general1 therefore1 ,the 1 which certainly seems to be wanted here1 is omitted in the ,t#8u ,shu4 avoids an army when its spirit is keen1 but attacks it when it is sluggish and inclined to return4 ,this is the art of studying moods4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien1 for reasons of 8avoidance of personal names of the reigning dynasty10 reads for in this and the two next paragraphs4 #cj4 ,disciplined and calm1 to await the appearance of disorder and hubbub amongst the enemy3--this is the art of retaining self-possession4 #ca4 ,to be near the goal while the enemy is still far from it1 to wait at ease ,the ,t#8ung ,tien has for 4 ,the two characters are practically synonymous1 but according to the commentary1 the latter is the form always used in ,sun ,tz4 while the enemy is toiling and struggling1 to be well-fed while the enemy is famished3--this is the art of husbanding one's strength4 #cb4 ,to refrain from intercepting is the reading of the original text4 ,but the quotes the passage with yao#a 7also meaning 8to intercept071 and this is supported by the ,pei ,t#8ang ,shu ,ch#8ao the ,y ,lan1 and ,wang ,hsi's text4 an enemy whose banners are in perfect order1 to refrain from attacking an army drawn up in calm and confident array3 ,for this translation of 1 ,i can appeal to the authority of ,tu ,mu1 who defines the phrase as 4 ,the other commentators mostly follow ,ts#8ao ,kung1 who says 1 probably meaning 8grand and imposing04 ,li ,ch#8an1 however1 has 8in subdivisions10 which is somewhat strange4 --this is the art of studying circumstances4 ,i have not attempted a uniform rendering of the four phrases 1 1 and 1 though really bears the same meaning in each case4 ,it is to be taken1 ,i think1 not in the sense of 8to govern0 or 8control10 but rather1 as ,k#8ang ,hsi defines it1 8to examine and practise10 hence 8look after10 8keep a watchful eye upon40 ,we may find an example of this use in the ,chou ,li1 ,,xviii4 fol4 #df3 4 ,sun ,tz has not told us to control or restrain the quality which he calls 1 but only to observe the time at which it is strongest4 ,as for 1 it is important to remember that in the present context it can only mean 8presence of mind40 ,to speak of 8controlling presence of mind0 is absurd1 and ,capt4 ,calthrop's 8to have the heart under control0 is hardly less so4 ,the whole process recommended here is that of ,,vi4 #b3 4 #cc4 ,it is a military axiom not to advance uphill against the enemy1 nor to oppose him when he comes downhill4 ,the ,y ,lan reads for 4 #cd4 ,do not pursue an enemy who simulates flight2 do not attack soldiers whose temper is keen4 #ce4 ,do not swallow a bait offered by the enemy4 ,li ,ch#8an and ,tu ,mu1 with extraordinary inability to see a metaphor1 take these words quite literally of food and drink that have been poisoned by the enemy4 ,ch#8n ,hao and ,chang ,y carefully point out that the saying has a wider application4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien reads 8to covet0 instead of 4 ,the similarity of the two characters sufficiently accounts for the mistake4 ,do not interfere with an army that is returning home4 ,the commentators explain this rather singular piece of advice by saying that a man whose heart is set on returning home will fight to the death against any attempt to bar his way1 and is therefore too dangerous an opponent to be tackled4 ,chang ,y quotes the words of ,han ,hsin3 8,invincible is the soldier who hath his desire and returneth homewards40 ,a marvellous tale is told of ,ts#8ao ,ts#8ao's courage and resource in ch4 #a of the ,san ,kuo ,chih1 3 ,in #aih ,a4,d41 he was besieging ,chang ,hsiu in ,jang1 when ,liu ,piao sent reinforcements with a view to cutting off ,ts#8ao's retreat4 ,the latter was obliged to draw off his troops1 only to find himself hemmed in between two enemies1 who were guarding each outlet of a narrow pass in which he had engaged himself4 ,in this desperate plight ,ts#8ao waited until nightfall1 when he bored a tunnel into the mountain side and laid an ambush in it4 ,then he marched on with his baggage-train1 and when it grew light1 ,chang ,hsiu1 finding that the bird had flown1 pressed after him in hot pursuit4 ,as soon as the whole army had passed by1 the hidden troops fell on its rear1 while ,ts#8ao himself turned and met his pursuers in front1 so that they were thrown into confusion and annihilated4 ,ts#8ao ,ts#8ao said afterwards3 8,the brigands tried to check my army in its retreat and brought me to battle in a desperate position3 hence ,i knew how to overcome them40 #cf4 ,when you surround an army1 leave an outlet free4 ,this does not mean that the enemy is to be allowed to escape4 ,the object1 as ,tu ,mu puts it1 is 8to make him believe that there is a road to safety1 and thus prevent his fighting with the courage of despair40 ,tu ,mu adds pleasantly3 8,after that1 you may crush him40 ,do not press a desperate foe too hard4 ,for 1 the ,t#8u ,shu reads 8pursue40 ,ch#8n ,hao quotes the saying3 8,birds and beasts when brought to bay will use their claws and teeth40 ,chang ,y says3 8,if your adversary has burned his boats and destroyed his cooking-pots1 and is ready to stake all on the issue of a battle1 he must not be pushed to extremities40 ,the phrase doubtless originated with ,sun ,tz4 ,the ,p#8ei ,wn ,yn ,fu gives four examples of its use1 the earliest being from the ,ch#8ien ,han ,shu1 and ,i have found another in chap4 #cd of the same work4 ,ho ,shih illustrates the meaning by a story taken from the life of ,fu ,yen-ch#8ing in ch4 #bea of the 4 ,that general1 together with his colleague ,tu ,chung-wei1 was surrounded by a vastly superior army of ,khitans in the year #ide ,a4,d4 ,the country was bare and desert-like1 and the little ,chinese force was soon in dire straits for want of water4 ,the wells they bored ran dry1 and the men were reduced to squeezing lumps of mud and sucking out the moisture4 ,their ranks thinned rapidly1 until at last ,fu ,yen-ch#8ing exclaimed3 8,we are desperate men4 ,far better to die for our country than to go with fettered hands into captivity60 ,a strong gale happened to be blowing from the north-east and darkening the air with dense clouds of sandy dust4 ,tu ,chung-wei was for waiting until this had abated before deciding on a final attack2 but luckily another officer1 ,li ,shou-chng by name1 was quicker to see an opportunity1 and said3 8,they are many and we are few1 but in the midst of this sandstorm our numbers will not be discernible2 victory will go to the strenuous fighter1 and the wind will be our best ally40 ,accordingly1 ,fu ,yen-ch#8ing made a sudden and wholly unexpected onslaught with his cavalry1 routed the barbarians and succeeded in breaking through to safety4 ,certain details in the above account have been added from the 1 ch4 #gh4 #cg4 ,such is the art of warfare4 ,chng ,yu-hsien in his inserts after 4 ,i take it that these words conclude the extract from the which began at #bc4 ,,viii4 ,,variation ,,of ,,tactics4 ,the heading means literally 8,the ,nine ,variations10 but as ,sun ,tz does not appear to enumerate these1 and as1 indeed1 he has already told us 7,v4 #f-aa7 that such deflections from the ordinary course are practically innumerable1 we have little option but to follow ,wang ,hsi1 who says that 8,nine0 stands for an indefinitely large number4 8,all it means is that in warfare we ought to vary our tactics to the utmost degree 444 ,i do not know what ,ts#8ao ,kung makes these ,nine ,variations out to be the latter's note is 1 but it has been suggested that they are connected with the ,nine ,situations0--of chap4 ,,xi4 ,this is the view adopted by ,chang ,y3 see note on 1 #b4 ,the only other alternative is to suppose that something has been lost--a supposition to which the unusual shortness of the chapter lends some weight4 #a4 ,sun ,tz said3 ,in war1 the general receives his commands from the sovereign1 collects his army and concentrates his forces4 ,repeated from ,,vii4 #a1 where it is certainly more in place4 ,it may have been interpolated here merely in order to supply a beginning to the chapter4 #b4 ,when in difficult country1 do not encamp4 ,for explanation of 1 see ,,xi4 #h4 ,in country where high roads intersect1 join hands with your allies4 ,see ,,xi1 #f1 #ab4 ,capt4 ,calthrop omits 4 ,do not linger in dangerously isolated positions4 is not one of the ,nine ,situations as given in the beginning of chap4 ,,xi1 but occurs later on 7ibid4 #dc1 q4v474 ,we may compare it with 7,,xi4 #g74 ,chang ,y calls it a 1 situated across the frontier1 in hostile territory4 ,li ,ch#8an says it is 8country in which there are no springs or wells1 flocks or herds1 vegetables or firewood20 ,chia ,lin1 8one of gorges1 chasms and precipices1 without a road by which to advance40 ,in hemmed-in situations1 you must resort to stratagem4 ,see ,,xi4 #i1 #ad4 ,capt4 ,calthrop has 8mountainous and wooded country10 which is a quite inadequate translation of 4 ,in a desperate position1 you must fight4 ,see ,,xi4 #aj1 #ad4 ,chang ,y has an important note here1 which must be given in full4 8,from 10 he says1 8down to this point1 the ,nine ,variations are presented to us4 ,the reason why only five are given is that the subject is treated en prcis 774 ,so in chap4 ,,xi1 where he discusses the variations of tactics corresponding to the ,nine ,grounds1 ,sun ,tz mentions only six variations2 there again we have an abridgment4 ,i cannot understand what ,chang ,y means by this statement4 ,he can only be referring to #aa-ad or #df-ej of chap4 ,,xi2 but in both places all the nine grounds are discussed4 ,perhaps he is confusing these with the ,six of chap4 ,x4 ,all kinds of ground have corresponding military positions1 and also a variation of tactics suitable to each 774 ,in chap4 ,,xi1 what we find enumerated first #b-aj are the situations2 afterwards #aa-ad the corresponding tactics4 ,now1 how can we tell that the 8,nine ,variations0 are simply the 8variations of tactics corresponding to the ,nine ,grounds08 ,it is said further on #e that #8the general who does not understand the nine variations of tactics may be well acquainted with the features of the country1 yet he will not be able to turn his knowledge to practical account4' ,again1 in chap4 ,,xi #da we read3 #8,the different measures adapted to the nine varieties of ground 77 and the expediency of aggressive or defensive tactics must be carefully examined4' ,from a consideration of these passages the meaning is made clear4 ,when later on the nine grounds are enumerated1 ,sun ,tz recurs to these nine variations4 ,he wishes here to speak of the ,five ,advantages see infra1 #f1 so he begins by setting forth the ,nine ,variations4 ,these are inseparably connected in practice1 and therefore they are dealt with together40 ,the weak point of this argument is the suggestion that 8five things0 can stand as a 1 that is1 an abstract or abridgment1 of nine1 when those that are omitted are not less important than those that appear1 and when one of the latter is not included amongst the nine at all4 #c4 ,there are roads which must not be followed1 8,especially those leading through narrow defiles10 says ,li ,ch#8an1 8where an ambush is to be feared40 armies which must not be attacked1 ,more correctly1 perhaps1 8there are times when an army must not be attacked40 ,ch#8n ,hao says3 8,when you see your way to obtain a trivial advantage1 but are powerless to inflict a real defeat1 refrain from attacking1 for fear of overtaxing your men's strength40 towns ,capt4 ,calthrop says 8castles0--an unfortunate attempt to introduce local colour4 which must not be besieged1 ,cf4 ,,iii4 #d4 ,ts#8ao ,kung gives an interesting illustration from his own experience4 ,when invading the territory of ,hs-chou1 he ignored the city of ,hua-pi1 which lay directly in his path1 and pressed on into the heart of the country4 ,this excellent strategy was rewarded by the subsequent capture of no fewer than fourteen important district cities4 ,chang ,y says3 8,no town should be attacked which1 if taken1 cannot be held1 or if left alone1 will not cause any trouble40 ,hsn ,ying1 when urged to attack ,pi-yang1 replied3 8,the city is small and well-fortified2 even if ,i succeed in taking it1 't will be no great feat of arms2 whereas if ,i fail1 ,i shall make myself a laughing-stock40 ,in the seventeenth century1 sieges still formed a large proportion of war4 ,it was ,turenne who directed attention to the importance of marches1 countermarches and manuvres4 ,he said3 8,it is a great mistake to waste men in taking a town when the same expenditure of soldiers will gain a province40#agc positions which must not be contested1 commands of the sovereign which must not be obeyed4 ,this is a hard saying for the ,chinese1 with their reverence for authority1 and ,wei ,liao ,tz 7quoted by ,tu ,mu7 is moved to exclaim3 8,weapons are baleful instruments1 strife is antagonistic to virtue1 a military commander is the negation of civil order60 ,the unpalatable fact remains1 however1 that even ,imperial wishes must be subordinated to military necessity4 ,cf4 ,,iii4 #ag4 7#e71 ,x4 #bc4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien has before 1 etc4 ,this is a gloss on the words by ,chu-ko ,liang1 which being repeated by ,tu ,yu became incorporated with the text4 ,chang ,y thinks that these five precepts are the referred to in #f4 ,another theory is that the mysterious are here enumerated1 starting with and ending at 1 while the final clause embraces and as it were sums up all the nine4 ,thus ,ho ,shih says3 8,even if it be your sovereign's command to encamp in difficult country1 linger in isolated positions1 etc41 you must not do so40 ,the theory is perhaps a little too ingenious to be accepted with confidence4 #d4 ,the general who thoroughly understands the advantages that accompany variation of tactics knows how to handle his troops4 ,before in the original text there is a which is obviously not required4 #e4 ,the general who does not understand these1 may be well acquainted with the configuration of the country1 yet he will not be able to turn his knowledge to practical account4 ,literally1 8get the advantage of the ground10 which means not only securing good positions1 but availing oneself of natural advantages in every possible way4 ,chang ,y says3 8,every kind of ground is characterised by certain natural features1 and also gives scope for a certain variability of plan4 ,how is it possible to turn these natural features to account unless topographical knowledge is supplemented by versatility of mind80 #f4 ,so1 the student of war who is unversed in the art of varying his plans1 even though he be acquainted with the ,five ,advantages1 will fail to make the best use of his men4 ,ts#8ao ,kung says that the are 8the five things that follow20 but this cannot be right4 ,we must rather look back to the five 8variations0 contained in #c4 ,chia ,lin 7who reads here to balance the 7 tells us that these imply five obvious and generally advantageous lines of action1 namely3 8if a certain road is short1 it must be followed2 if an army is isolated1 it must be attacked2 if a town is in a parlous condition1 it must be besieged2 if a position can be stormed1 it must be attempted2 and if consistent with military operations1 the ruler's commands must be obeyed40 ,but there are circumstances which sometimes forbid a general to use these advantages4 ,for instance1 8a certain road may be the shortest way for him1 but if he knows that it abounds in natural obstacles1 or that the enemy has laid an ambush on it1 he will not follow that road4 ,a hostile force may be open to attack1 but if he knows that it is hard-pressed and likely to fight with desperation1 he will refrain from striking10 and so on4 ,here the comes in to modify the 1 and hence we see the uselessness of knowing the one without the other--of having an eye for weaknesses in the enemy's armour without being clever enough to recast one's plans on the spur of the moment4 ,capt4 ,calthrop offers this slovenly translation3 8,in the management of armies1 if the art of the ,nine ,changes be understood sic1 a knowledge of the ,five ,advantages is of no avail40 #g4 ,hence in the wise leader's plans1 considerations of advantage and of disadvantage will be blended together4 8,whether in an advantageous position or a disadvantageous one10 says ,ts#8ao ,kung1 8the opposite state should be always present to your mind40 #h4 ,if our expectation of advantage be tempered in this way1 we may succeed in accomplishing the essential part of our schemes4 1 according to ,tu ,mu1 is equivalent to 1 and is paraphrased by ,chang ,y as 4 ,tu ,mu goes on to say3 8,if we wish to wrest an advantage from the enemy1 we must not fix our minds on that alone1 but allow for the possibility of the enemy also doing some harm to us1 and let this enter as a factor into our calculations40 #i4 ,if1 on the other hand1 in the midst of difficulties we are always ready to seize an advantage1 we may extricate ourselves from misfortune4 ,a translator cannot emulate the conciseness of 8to blend thoughts of advantage with disadvantage10 but the meaning is as given4 ,tu ,mu says3 8,if ,i wish to extricate myself from a dangerous position1 ,i must consider not only the enemy's ability to injure me1 but also my own ability to gain an advantage over the enemy4 ,if in my counsels these two considerations are properly blended1 ,i shall succeed in liberating myself4444 ,for instance1 if ,i am surrounded by the enemy and only think of effecting an escape1 the nervelessness of my policy will incite my adversary to pursue and crush me2 it would be far better to encourage my men to deliver a bold counter-attack1 and use the advantage thus gained to free myself from the enemy's toils40 ,see the story of ,ts#8ao ,ts#8ao1 ,,vii4 #ce1 note4 ,in his first edition1 ,capt4 ,calthrop translated #g-i as follows3 8,the wise man perceives clearly wherein lies advantage and disadvantage4 ,while recognising an opportunity1 he does not overlook the risks1 and saves future anxiety40 ,this has now been altered into3 8,the wise man considers well both advantage and disadvantage4 ,he sees a way out of adversity1 and on the day of victory to danger is not blind40 ,owing to a needless inversion of the ,chinese1 the words which ,i have italicised are evidently intended to represent #h6 #aj4 ,reduce the hostile chiefs by inflicting damage on them2 ,chia ,lin enumerates several ways of inflicting this injury1 some of which would only occur to the ,oriental mind3--8,entice away the enemy's best and wisest men1 so that he may be left without counsellors4 ,introduce traitors into his country1 that the government policy may be rendered futile4 ,foment intrigue and deceit1 and thus sow dissension between the ruler and his ministers4 ,by means of every artful contrivance1 cause deterioration amongst his men and waste of his treasure4 ,corrupt his morals by insidious gifts leading him into excess4 ,disturb and unsettle his mind by presenting him with lovely women40 ,chang ,y 7after ,wang ,hsi7 considers the to be military chastisement3 8,get the enemy10 he says1 8into a position where he must suffer injury1 and he will submit of his own accord40 ,capt4 ,calthrop twists ,sun ,tz's words into an absurdly barbarous precept3 8,in reducing an enemy to submission1 inflict all possible damage upon him40 make trouble for them1 is defined by ,ts#8ao ,kung as 1 and his definition is generally adopted by the commentators4 ,tu ,mu1 however1 seems to take it in the sense of 8possessions10 or1 as we might say1 8assets10 which he considers to be 8a large army1 a rich exchequer1 harmony amongst the soldiers1 punctual fulfilment of commands40 ,these give us a whip-hand over the enemy4 and keep them constantly engaged2 1 literally1 8make servants of them40 ,tu ,yu says 8prevent them from having any rest40 hold out specious allurements1 and make them rush to any given point4 ,mng ,shih's note contains an excellent example of the idiomatic use of 3 8cause them to forget pien 7the reasons for acting otherwise than on their first impulse71 and hasten in our direction40 #aa4 ,the art of war teaches us to rely not on the likelihood of the enemy's not coming1 but on our own readiness to receive him2 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan read 1 but the conciser form is more likely to be right4 not on the chance of his not attacking1 but rather on the fact that we have made our position unassailable4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan insert after the first 1 and omit 4 #ab4 ,there are five dangerous faults which may affect a general3 7#a7 ,recklessness1 which leads to destruction2 8,bravery without forethought10 as ,ts#8ao ,kung analyses it1 which causes a man to fight blindly and desperately like a mad bull4 ,such an opponent1 says ,chang ,y1 8must not be encountered with brute force1 but may be lured into an ambush and slain40 ,cf4 ,wu ,tz1 chap4 ,,iv ad init43 8,in estimating the character of a general1 men are wont to pay exclusive attention to his courage1 forgetting that courage is only one out of many qualities which a general should possess4 ,the merely brave man is prone to fight recklessly2 and he who fights recklessly1 without any perception of what is expedient1 must be condemned40 ,the ,ss-ma ,fa1 too1 makes the incisive remark 8,simply going to one's death does not bring about victory40 7#b7 cowardice1 which leads to capture2 is explained by ,ts#8ao ,kung of the man 8whom timidity prevents from advancing to seize an advantage10 and ,wang ,hsi adds1 8who is quick to flee at the sight of danger40 ,mng ,shih gives the closer paraphrase 8he who is bent on returning alive10 that is1 the man who will never take a risk4 ,but1 as ,sun ,tz knew1 nothing is to be achieved in war unless you are willing to take risks4 ,t#8ai ,kung said3 8,he who lets an advantage slip will subsequently bring upon himself real disaster40 ,in #djd ,a4,d41 ,liu ,y pursued the rebel ,huan ,hsan up the ,yangtsze and fought a naval battle with him at the island of ,ch#8ng-hung4 ,the loyal troops numbered only a few thousands1 while their opponents were in great force4 ,but ,huan ,hsan1 fearing the fate which was in store for him should he be overcome1 had a light boat made fast to the side of his war-junk1 so that he might escape1 if necessary1 at a moment's notice4 ,the natural result was that the fighting spirit of his soldiers was utterly quenched1 and when the loyalists made an attack from windward with fireships1 all striving with the utmost ardour to be first in the fray1 ,huan ,hsan's forces were routed1 had to burn all their baggage and fled for two days and nights without stopping4 ,see 1 chap4 #ii1 fol4 #ac4 ,chang ,y tells a somewhat similar story of ,chao ,ying-ch#8i1 a general of the ,chin ,state who during a battle with the army of ,ch#8u in #eig ,b4,c4 had a boat kept in readiness for him on the river1 wishing in case of defeat to be the first to get across4 7#c7 a hasty temper1 which can be provoked by insults2 ,i fail to see the meaning of ,capt4 ,calthrop's 8which brings insult40 ,tu ,mu tells us that ,yao ,hsiang1 when opposed in #ceg ,a4,d4 by ,huang ,mei1 ,tng ,ch#8iang and others1 shut himself up behind his walls and refused to fight4 ,tng ,ch#8iang said3 8,our adversary is of a choleric temper and easily provoked2 let us make constant sallies and break down his walls1 then he will grow angry and come out4 ,once we can bring his force to battle1 it is doomed to be our prey40 ,this plan was acted upon1 ,yao ,hsiang came out to fight1 was lured on as far as ,san-yuan by the enemy's pretended flight1 and finally attacked and slain4 7#d7 a delicacy of honour which is sensitive to shame2 ,this need not be taken to mean that a sense of honour is really a defect in a general4 ,what ,sun ,tz condemns is rather an exaggerated sensitiveness to slanderous reports1 the thin-skinned man who is stung by opprobrium1 however undeserved4 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n truly observes1 though somewhat paradoxically3 8,the seeker after glory should be careless of public opinion40 7#e7 over-solicitude for his men1 which exposes him to worry and trouble4 ,here again1 ,sun ,tz does not mean that the general is to be careless of the welfare of his troops4 ,all he wishes to emphasise is the danger of sacrificing any important military advantage to the immediate comfort of his men4 ,this is a shortsighted policy1 because in the long run the troops will suffer more from the defeat1 or1 at best1 the prolongation of the war1 which will be the consequence4 ,a mistaken feeling of pity will often induce a general to relieve a beleaguered city1 or to reinforce a hard-pressed detachment1 contrary to his military instincts4 ,it is now generally admitted that our repeated efforts to relieve ,ladysmith in the ,south ,african ,war were so many strategical blunders which defeated their own purpose4 ,and in the end1 relief came through the very man who started out with the distinct resolve no longer to subordinate the interests of the whole to sentiment in favour of a part4 ,an old soldier of one of our generals who failed most conspicuously in this war1 tried once1 ,i remember1 to defend him to me on the ground that he was always 8so good to his men40 ,by this plea1 had he but known it1 he was only condemning him out of ,sun ,tz's mouth4 #ac4 ,these are the five besetting sins of a general1 ruinous to the conduct of war4 #ad4 ,when an army is overthrown and its leader slain1 the cause will surely be found among these five dangerous faults4 ,let them be a subject of meditation4 ,,ix4 ,,the ,,army ,,on ,,the ,,march4 ,the contents of this interesting chapter are better indicated in #a than by this heading4 #a4 ,sun ,tz said3 ,we come now to the question of encamping the army1 and observing signs of the enemy4 ,the discussion of 1 as ,chang ,y points out1 extends from here down to 7 #a-ag71 and from that point down to 7 #ah-ci74 ,the rest of the chapter consists of a few desultory remarks1 chiefly on the subject of discipline4 ,pass quickly over mountains1 ,for this use of 1 cf4 infra4 #c4 ,see also 1 ch4 #a4 fol4 #b 7standard edition of #ahgf73 2 ,shih ,chi1 ch4 #bg ad init43 4 and keep in the neighbourhood of valleys4 ,tu ,mu says that here 4 ,the idea is1 not to linger among barren uplands1 but to keep close to supplies of water and grass4 ,capt4 ,calthrop translates 8camp in valleys10 heedless of the very next sentence4 ,cf4 ,wu ,tz1 ch4 #c3 8,abide not in natural ovens10 i4e4 8the openings of large valleys40 ,chang ,y tells the following anecdote3 8 ,wu-tu ,ch#8iang was a robber captain in the time of the ,later ,han1 and ,ma ,yan was sent to exterminate his gang4 ,ch#8iang having found a refuge in the hills1 ,ma ,yan made no attempt to force a battle1 but seized all the favourable positions commanding supplies of water and forage4 ,ch#8iang was soon in such a desperate plight for want of provisions that he was forced to make a total surrender4 ,he did not know the advantage of keeping in the neighbourhood of valleys40 #b4 ,camp in high places1 ,not on high hills1 but on knolls or hillocks elevated above the surrounding country4 facing the sun4 4 ,tu ,mu takes this to mean 8facing south10 and ,ch#8n ,hao 8facing east40 ,cf4 infra1 #aa1 #ac4 ,do not climb heights in order to fight4 is here simply equivalent to 4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan read 4 ,so much for mountain warfare4 ,after 1 the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan insert 4 #c4 ,after crossing a river1 you should get far away from it4 8,in order to tempt the enemy to cross after you10 according to ,ts#8ao ,kung1 and also1 says ,chang ,y1 8in order not to be impeded in your evolutions40 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien reads 8,if the enemy crosses a river10 etc4 ,but in view of the next sentence1 this is almost certainly an interpolation4 #d4 ,when an invading force crosses a river in its onward march1 do not advance to meet it in mid-stream4 ,it will be best to let half the army get across1 and then deliver your attack4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan read for 1 without change of meaning4 ,wu ,tz plagiarises this passage twice over3--ch4 ,,ii ad fin41 2 ch4 ,v1 4 ,li ,ch#8an alludes to the great victory won by ,han ,hsin over ,lung ,ch at the ,wei ,river4 ,turning to the ,ch#8ien ,han ,shu1 ch4 #cd1 fol4 #f verso1 we find the battle described as follows3 8,the two armies were drawn up on opposite sides of the river4 ,in the night1 ,han ,hsin ordered his men to take some ten thousand sacks filled with sand and construct a dam a little higher up4 ,then1 leading half his army across1 he attacked ,lung ,ch2 but after a time1 pretending to have failed in his attempt1 he hastily withdrew to the other bank4 ,lung ,ch was much elated by this unlooked-for success1 and exclaiming3 8,i felt sure that ,han ,hsin was really a coward60 he pursued him and began crossing the river in his turn4 ,han ,hsin now sent a party to cut open the sandbags1 thus releasing a great volume of water1 which swept down and prevented the greater portion of ,lung ,ch's army from getting across4 ,he then turned upon the force which had been cut off1 and annihilated it1 ,lung ,ch himself being amongst the slain4 ,the rest of the army1 on the further bank1 also scattered and fled in all directions40 #e4 ,if you are anxious to fight1 you should not go to meet the invader near a river which he has to cross4 ,for fear of preventing his crossing4 ,capt4 ,calthrop makes the injunction ridiculous by omitting 4 #f4 ,moor your craft higher up than the enemy1 and facing the sun4 ,see supra1 #b4 ,the repetition of these words in connection with water is very awkward4 ,chang ,y has the note3 8,said either of troops marshalled on the river-bank1 or of boats anchored in the stream itself2 in either case it is essential to be higher than the enemy and facing the sun40 ,the other commentators are not at all explicit4 ,one is much tempted to reject their explanation of altogether1 and understand it simply as 8seeking safety40 ,cf4 in ,,viii4 #ab1 and infra1 #i4 ,it is true that this involves taking in an unusual1 though not1 ,i think1 an impossible sense4 ,of course the earlier passage would then have to be translated in like manner4 ,do not move up-stream to meet the enemy4 ,tu ,mu says3 8,as water flows downwards1 we must not pitch our camp on the lower reaches of a river1 for fear the enemy should open the sluices and sweep us away in a flood4 ,this is implied above in the words 4 ,chu-ko ,wu-hou has remarked that #8in river warfare we must not advance against the stream1' which is as much as to say that our fleet must not be anchored below that of the enemy1 for then they would be able to take advantage of the current and make short work of us40 ,there is also the danger1 noted by other commentators1 that the enemy may throw poison on the water to be carried down to us4 ,capt4 ,calthrop's first version was3 8,do not cross rivers in the face of the stream0--a sapient piece of advice1 which made one curious to know what the correct way of crossing rivers might be4 ,he has now improved this into3 8,do not fight when the enemy is between the army and the source of the river40 ,so much for river warfare4 #g4 ,in crossing salt-marshes1 your sole concern should be to get over them quickly1 without any delay4 ,because of the lack of fresh water1 the poor quality of the herbage1 and last but not least1 because they are low1 flat1 and exposed to attack4 #h4 ,if forced to fight in a salt-marsh1 you should have water and grass near you1 and get your back to a clump of trees4 ,li ,ch#8an remarks that the ground is less likely to be treacherous where there are trees1 while ,tu ,yu says that they will serve to protect the rear4 ,capt4 ,calthrop1 with a perfect genius for going wrong1 says 8in the neighbourhood of a marsh40 ,for the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan wrongly read 1 and the latter also has instead of 4 ,so much for operations in salt-marshes4 #i4 ,in dry1 level country1 take up an easily accessible position ,this is doubtless the force of 1 its opposite being 4 ,thus1 ,tu ,mu explains it as 8ground that is smooth and firm10 and therefore adapted for cavalry2 ,chang ,y as 8level ground1 free from depressions and hollows40 ,he adds later on that although ,sun ,tz is discussing flat country1 there will nevertheless be slight elevations and hillocks4 with rising ground to your right and on your rear1 ,the ,y ,lan again reads for 4 ,tu ,mu quotes ,t#8ai ,kung as saying3 8,an army should have a stream or a marsh on its left1 and a hill or tumulus on its right40 so that the danger may be in front1 and safety lie behind4 ,wang ,hsi thinks that contradicts the saying in #b1 and therefore suspects a mistake in the text4 ,so much for campaigning in flat country4 #aj4 ,these are the four useful branches of military knowledge ,those1 namely1 concerned with 7#a7 mountains1 7#b7 rivers1 7#c7 marshes1 and 7#d7 plains4 ,compare ,napoleon's 8,military ,maxims10 no4 #a4 which enabled the ,yellow ,emperor to vanquish four several sovereigns4 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n asks1 with some plausibility1 whether is not a mistake for 8armies10 as nothing is known of ,huang ,ti having conquered four other ,emperors4 ,the ,shih ,chi 7ch4 ,i ad init47 speaks only of his victories over ,yen ,ti and ,ch#8ih ,yu4 ,in the it is mentioned that he 8fought seventy battles and pacified the ,empire40 ,ts#8ao ,kung's explanation is1 that the ,yellow ,emperor was the first to institute the feudal system of vassal princes1 each of whom 7to the number of four7 originally bore the title of ,emperor4 ,li ,ch#8an tells us that the art of war originated under ,huang ,ti1 who received it from his ,minister ,fng ,hou4 #aa4 ,all armies prefer high ground to low1 8,high ground10 says ,mei ,yao-ch#8n1 8is not only more agreeable and salubrious1 but more convenient from a military point of view2 low ground is not only damp and unhealthy1 but also disadvantageous for fighting40 ,the original text and the ,t#8u ,shu have instead of 4 and sunny places to dark4 #ab4 ,if you are careful of your men1 ,ts#8ao ,kung says3 8,make for fresh water and pasture1 where you can turn out your animals to graze40 ,and the other commentators follow him1 apparently taking as 4 ,cf4 ,mencius1 ,v4 #a4 ix4 #a1 where means a cattle-keeper4 ,but here surely has reference to the health of the troops4 ,it is the title of ,chuang ,tz's third chapter1 where it denotes moral rather than physical well-being4 and camp on hard ground1 must mean dry and solid1 as opposed to damp and marshy1 ground4 ,this is to be found as a rule in high places1 so the commentators explain as practically equivalent to 4 the army will be free from disease of every kind1 ,chang ,y says3 8,the dryness of the climate will prevent the outbreak of illness40 and this will spell victory4 #ac4 ,when you come to a hill or a bank1 occupy the sunny side1 with the slope on your right rear4 ,thus you will at once act for the benefit of your soldiers and utilise the natural advantages of the ground4 #ad4 ,when1 in consequence of heavy rains up-country1 a river which you wish to ford is swollen and flecked with foam1 you must wait until it subsides4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan have a superfluous before 4 #ae4 ,country in which there are precipitous cliffs with torrents running between1 1 explained by ,mei ,yao-ch#8n as 4 deep natural hollows1 1 explained as 8places enclosed on every side by steep banks1 with pools of water at the bottom40 confined places1 8natural pens or prisons10 explained as 8places surrounded by precipices on three sides--easy to get into1 but hard to get out of40 tangled thickets1 1 explained as 8places covered with such dense undergrowth that spears cannot be used40 quagmires 1 explained as 8low-lying places1 so heavy with mud as to be impassible for chariots and horsemen40 and crevasses1 is explained by ,mei ,yao-ch#8n as 8a narrow difficult way between beetling cliffs10 but ,ts#8ao ,kung says 1 which seems to denote something on a much smaller scale4 ,tu ,mu's note is 8ground covered with trees and rocks1 and intersected by numerous ravines and pitfalls40 ,this is very vague1 but ,chia ,lin explains it clearly enough as a defile or narrow pass3 1 and ,chang ,y takes much the same view4 ,on the whole1 the weight of the commentators certainly inclines to the rendering 8defile04 ,but the ordinary meaning of 7a crack or fissure7 and the fact that above must be something in the nature of a defile1 make me think that ,sun ,tz is here speaking of crevasses4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan read for 1 with the same meaning2 the latter also has after --a palpable gloss4 should be left with all possible speed and not approached4 #af4 ,while we keep away from such places1 we should get the enemy to approach them2 while we face them1 we should let the enemy have them on his rear4 #ag4 ,if in the neighbourhood of your camp ,the original text has 1 but has been generally adopted as yielding much better sense4 there should be any hilly country1 is 1 according to ,chang ,y4 ponds surrounded by aquatic grass1 hollow basins filled with reeds1 ,the original text omits and 1 so that and join to make a pair3 8ponds and basins40 ,this is plausible enough at first sight1 but there are several objections to the reading3 7#a7 is unlikely to have got into the text as a gloss on 2 7#b7 it is easy to suppose1 on the other hand1 that and afterwards 7to restore the balance of the sentence7 were omitted by a copyist who jumped to the conclusion that and must go together2 7#c7 the sense1 when one comes to consider it1 actually requires 1 for it is absurd to talk of pools and ponds as in themselves suitable places for an ambush2 7#d7 ,li ,ching 7#ega-fdi ,a4 ,d47 in his 8,art of ,war0 has the words3 4 ,this is evidently a reminiscence of ,sun ,tz1 so there can be little doubt that stood in the text at this early date4 ,it may be added that the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan both have 1 and the latter also reads for 4 or woods with thick undergrowth1 ,i read with the ,y ,lan in preference to 1 given in the original text1 which is accepted by the commentators without question4 ,the text of the ,t#8u ,shu up to this point runs as follows3 4 they must be carefully routed out and searched2 for these are places where men in ambush or insidious spies are likely to be lurking4 ,the original text omits 1 which has been restored from the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan4 ,the ,t#8u ,shu omits as well1 making a substantive4 ,on ,chang ,y has the note3 8,we must also be on our guard against traitors who may lie in close covert1 secretly spying out our weaknesses and overhearing our instructions4 ,fu and chien are to be taken separately40 #ah4 ,when the enemy is close at hand and remains quiet1 he is relying on the natural strength of his position4 ,here begin ,sun ,tz's remarks on the reading of signs1 much of which is so good that it could almost be included in a modern manual like ,gen4 ,baden-,powell's 8,aids to ,scouting40 #ai4 ,when he keeps aloof and tries to provoke a battle1 he is anxious for the other side to advance4 ,probably because we are in a strong position from which he wishes to dislodge us4 8,if he came close up to us10 says ,tu ,mu1 8and tried to force a battle1 he would seem to despise us1 and there would be less probability of our responding to the challenge40 #bj4 ,if his place of encampment is easy of access1 he is tendering a bait4 is here the opposite of in #ah4 ,the reading of the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan1 1 is pretty obviously corrupt4 ,the original text1 which transposes and 1 may very possibly be right4 ,tu ,mu tells us that there is yet another reading3 4 #ba4 ,movement amongst the trees of a forest shows that the enemy is advancing4 ,ts#8ao ,kung explains this as 8felling trees to clear a passage10 and ,chang ,y says3 8,every army sends out scouts to climb high places and observe the enemy4 ,if a scout sees that the trees of a forest are moving and shaking1 he may know that they are being cut down to clear a passage for the enemy's march40 ,the appearance of a number of screens in the midst of thick grass means that the enemy wants to make us suspicious4 ,whenever the meaning of a passage happens to be somewhat elusive1 ,capt4 ,calthrop seems to consider himself justified in giving free rein to the imagination4 ,thus1 though his text is here identical with ours1 he renders the above3 8,broken branches and trodden grass1 as of the passing of a large host1 must be regarded with suspicion40 ,tu ,yu's explanation1 borrowed from ,ts#8ao ,kung1 is as follows3 8,the presence of a number of screens or sheds in the midst of thick vegetation is a sure sign that the enemy has fled and1 fearing pursuit1 has constructed these hiding-places in order to make us suspect an ambush40 ,it appears that these 8screens0 were hastily knotted together out of any long grass which the retreating enemy happened to come across4 #bb4 ,the rising of birds in their flight is the sign of an ambuscade4 ,chang ,y's explanation is doubtless right3 8,when birds that are flying along in a straight line suddenly shoot upwards1 it means that soldiers are in ambush at the spot beneath40 ,startled beasts indicate that a sudden attack is coming4 ,an example of fou#d in the meaning of 8ambuscade0 may be found in the ,tso ,chuan1 #ith year3 4 ,in the present passage1 however1 it is to be distinguished from just above1 in that it implies onward motion on the part of the attacking force4 ,thus1 ,li ,ch#8an defines it as 1 and ,tu ,mu as 4 #bc4 ,when there is dust rising in a high column1 it is the sign of chariots advancing2 when the dust is low1 but spread over a wide area1 it betokens the approach of infantry4 8high and sharp10 or rising to a peak1 is of course somewhat exaggerated as applied to dust4 ,the commentators explain the phenomenon by saying that horses and chariots1 being heavier than men1 raise more dust1 and also follow one another in the same wheel-track1 whereas foot-soldiers would be marching in ranks1 many abreast4 ,according to ,chang ,y1 8every army on the march must have scouts 77 some way in advance1 who on sighting dust raised by the enemy1 will gallop back and report it to the commander-in-chief40 ,cf4 ,gen4 ,baden-,powell3 8,as you move along1 say1 in a hostile country1 your eyes should be looking afar for the enemy or any signs of him3 figures1 dust rising1 birds getting up1 glitter of arms1 etc40#agd ,when it branches out in different directions1 it shows that parties have been sent to collect firewood4 ,there is some doubt about the reading 4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan have 1 and ,li ,ch#8an proposes 4 ,a few clouds of dust moving to and fro signify that the army is encamping4 ,chang ,y says3 8,in apportioning the defences for a cantonment1 light horse will be sent out to survey the position and ascertain the weak and strong points all along its circumference4 ,hence the small quantity of dust and its motion40 #bd4 ,humble words and increased preparations are signs that the enemy is about to advance4 8,as though they stood in great fear of us10 says ,tu ,mu4 8,their object is to make us contemptuous and careless1 after which they will attack us40 ,chang ,y alludes to the story of ,t#8ien ,tan of the ,ch#8i ,state1 who in #bgi ,b4,c4 was hard-pressed in his defence of ,chi-mo against the ,yen forces1 led by ,ch#8i ,chieh4 ,in ch4 #hb of the ,shih ,chi we read3 8,t#8ien ,tan openly said3 #8,my only fear is that the ,yen army may cut off the noses of their ,ch#8i prisoners and place them in the front rank to fight against us2 that would be the undoing of our city4' ,the other side being informed of this speech1 at once acted on the suggestion2 but those within the city were enraged at seeing their fellow-countrymen thus mutilated1 and fearing only lest they should fall into the enemy's hands1 were nerved to defend themselves more obstinately than ever4 ,once again ,t#8ien ,tan sent back converted spies who reported these words to the enemy3 #8,what ,i dread most is that the men of ,yen may dig up the ancestral tombs outside the town1 and by inflicting this indignity on our forefathers cause us to become faint-hearted4' ,forthwith the besiegers dug up all the graves and burned the corpses lying in them4 ,and the inhabitants of ,chi-mo1 witnessing the outrage from the city-walls1 wept passionately and were all impatient to go out and fight1 their fury being increased tenfold4 ,t#8ien ,tan knew then that his soldiers were ready for any enterprise4 ,but instead of a sword1 he himself took a mattock in his hands1 and ordered others to be distributed amongst his best warriors1 while the ranks were filled up with their wives and concubines4 ,he then served out all the remaining rations and bade his men eat their fill4 ,the regular soldiers were told to keep out of sight1 and the walls were manned with the old and weaker men and with women4 ,this done1 envoys were despatched to the enemy's camp to arrange terms of surrender1 whereupon the ,yen army began shouting for joy4 ,t#8ien ,tan also collected #bj1jjj ounces of silver from the people1 and got the wealthy citizens of ,chi-mo to send it to the ,yen general with the prayer that1 when the town capitulated1 he would not allow their homes to be plundered or their women to be maltreated4 ,ch#8i ,chieh1 in high good humour1 granted their prayer2 but his army now became increasingly slack and careless4 ,meanwhile1 ,t#8ien ,tan got together a thousand oxen1 decked them with pieces of red silk1 painted their bodies1 dragon-like1 with coloured stripes1 and fastened sharp blades on their horns and well-greased rushes on their tails4 ,when night came on1 he lighted the ends of the rushes1 and drove the oxen through a number of holes which he had pierced in the walls1 backing them up with a force of #ejjj picked warriors4 ,the animals1 maddened with pain1 dashed furiously into the enemy's camp where they caused the utmost confusion and dismay2 for their tails acted as torches1 showing up the hideous pattern on their bodies1 and the weapons on their horns killed or wounded any with whom they came into contact4 ,in the meantime1 the band of #ejjj had crept up with gags in their mouths1 and now threw themselves on the enemy4 ,at the same moment a frightful din arose in the city itself1 all those that remained behind making as much noise as possible by banging drums and hammering on bronze vessels1 until heaven and earth were convulsed by the uproar4 ,terror-stricken1 the ,yen army fled in disorder1 hotly pursued by the men of ,ch#8i1 who succeeded in slaying their general ,ch#8i ,chieh4444 ,the result of the battle was the ultimate recovery of some seventy cities which had belonged to the ,ch#8i ,state40 ,violent language and driving forward as if to the attack are signs that he will retreat4 ,i follow the original text here1 also adopted by the ,t#8u ,shu4 ,the standard text reads on the strength of ,ts#8ao ,kung's commentary 1 which shows that his text included the word 4 ,strong as this ground is1 ,i do not think it can counterbalance the obvious superiority of the other reading in point of sense4 not only provides no antithesis to 1 but makes the whole passage absurd2 for if the language of the enemy is calculated to deceive1 it cannot be known as deceitful at the time1 and can therefore afford no 8sign40 ,moreover1 the extra word in 7an awkward locution1 by the way7 spoils the parallelism with 4 #be4 ,when the light chariots ,the same1 according to ,tu ,yu1 as the of ,,ii4 #a4 come out first and take up a position on the wings1 it is a sign that the enemy is forming for battle4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien omits 4 #bf4 ,peace proposals unaccompanied by a sworn covenant indicate a plot4 ,tu ,yu defines as 1 and ,li ,ch#8an as 8a treaty confirmed by oaths and hostages40 ,wang ,hsi and ,chang ,y1 on the other hand1 simply say 8without reason10 8on a frivolous pretext10 as though bore the rather unusual sense of 8important40 ,capt4 ,calthrop has 8without consultation10 which is too loose4 #bg4 ,when there is much running about ,every man hastening to his proper place under his own regimental banner4 and the soldiers fall into rank1 ,i follow the ,t#8u ,shu in omitting after 4 ,tu ,mu quotes the ,chou ,li1 ch4 xxix4 fol4 #ca3 4 it means that the critical moment has come4 ,what ,chia ,lin calls 1 as opposed to 4 #bh4 ,when some are seen advancing and some retreating1 it is a lure4 ,capt4 ,calthrop is hardly right in translating3 8,an advance1 followed by sudden retirement40 ,it is rather a case of feigned confusion4 ,as ,tu ,mu says3 4 #bi4 ,when the soldiers stand leaning on their spears1 they are faint from want of food4 is here probably not a synonym for 1 but 8a weapon40 ,the original text has 1 which has been corrected from the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan4 #cj4 ,if those who are sent to draw water begin by drinking themselves1 the army is suffering from thirst4 ,as ,tu ,mu remarks3 8,one may know the condition of a whole army from the behaviour of a single man40 ,the may mean either that they drink before drawing water for the army1 or before they return to camp4 ,chang ,y takes the latter view4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien has the faulty reading 1 and the ,y ,lan1 worse still1 4 #ca4 ,if the enemy sees an advantage to be gained ,not necessarily 8booty10 as ,capt4 ,calthrop translates it4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan read 1 etc4 and makes no effort to secure it1 the soldiers are exhausted4 #cb4 ,if birds gather on any spot1 it is unoccupied4 ,a useful fact to bear in mind when1 for instance1 as ,ch#8n ,hao says1 the enemy has secretly abandoned his camp4 ,clamour by night betokens nervousness4 ,owing to false alarms2 or1 as ,tu ,mu explains it3 8,fear makes men restless2 so they fall to shouting at night in order to keep up their courage40 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien inserts before 4 #cc4 ,if there is disturbance in the camp1 the general's authority is weak4 ,if the banners and flags are shifted about1 sedition is afoot4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan omit 4 ,if the officers are angry1 it means that the men are weary4 ,and therefore1 as ,capt4 ,calthrop says1 slow to obey4 ,tu ,yu understands the sentence differently3 8,if all the officers of an army are angry with their general1 it means that they are broken with fatigue0 owing to the exertions which he has demanded from them4 #cd4 ,when an army feeds its horses with grain and kills its cattle for food1 is expanded by ,mei ,yao-ch#8n 7following ,tu ,mu7 into 1 which is the sense ,i have given above4 ,in the ordinary course of things1 the men would be fed on grain and the horses chiefly on grass4 and when the men do not hang their cooking-pots ,the ,t#8ung ,tien reads 1 which is much the same as 1 and the ,y ,lan 1 which is manifestly wrong4 over the camp-fires1 showing that they will not return to their tents1 ,for 1 the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan both read 4 you may know that they are determined to fight to the death4 ,for 1 see ,,vii4 #cf4 ,i may quote here the illustrative passage from the ,hou ,han ,shu1 ch4 #ga1 given in abbreviated form by the ,p#8ei ,wn ,yn ,fu3 8,the rebel ,wang ,kuo of ,liang was besieging the town of ,ch#8n-ts#8ang1 and ,huang-fu ,sung1 who was in supreme command1 and ,tung ,cho were sent out against him4 ,the latter pressed for hasty measures1 but ,sung turned a deaf ear to his counsel4 ,at last the rebels were utterly worn out1 and began to throw down their weapons of their own accord4 ,sung was now for advancing to the attack1 but ,cho said3 #8,it is a principle of war not to pursue desperate men and not to press a retreating host4' ,sung answered3 #8,that does not apply here4 ,what ,i am about to attack is a jaded army1 not a retreating host2 with disciplined troops ,i am falling on a disorganised multitude1 not a band of desperate men4' ,thereupon he advanced to the attack unsupported by his colleague1 and routed the enemy1 ,wang ,kuo being slain40 ,the inferior reading of the ,t#8u ,shu for #cd is as follows3 4 ,the first clause strikes me as rather shallow for ,sun ,tz1 and it is hard to make anything of in the second without the negative4 ,capt4 ,calthrop1 nothing daunted1 set down in his first edition3 8,when they cast away their cooking-pots40 ,he now has3 8,when the cooking-pots are hung up on the wall40 #ce4 ,the sight of men whispering together is well explained by ,tu ,mu as 8speaking with bated breath40 in small knots ,the ,shuo ,wn rather strangely defines by the word 1 but the rh ,ya says 8to join0 or 8contract10 which is undoubtedly its primary meaning4 ,chang ,y is right1 then1 in explaining it here by the word 4 ,the other commentators are very much at sea3 ,ts#8ao ,kung says 1 ,tu ,yu 1 ,tu ,mu 1 ,chia ,lin 1 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n 1 ,wang ,hsi 4 or speaking in subdued tones is said to be the same as 4 points to disaffection amongst the rank and file4 is equivalent to 1 the subject of course being 8the general10 understood4 ,in the original text1 which seems to be followed by several commentators1 the whole passage stands thus3 4 ,here it would be the general who is talking to his men1 not the men amongst themselves4 ,for 1 which is the chief stumbling-block in the way of this reading1 the ,t#8u ,shu gives the very plausible emendation 7also read hsi1 and defined by ,k#8ang ,hsi as 8to speak fast074 ,but this is unnecessary if we keep to the standard text4 #cf4 ,too frequent rewards signify that the enemy is at the end of his resources2 ,because1 when an army is hard pressed1 as ,tu ,mu says1 there is always a fear of mutiny1 and lavish rewards are given to keep the men in good temper4 too many punishments betray a condition of dire distress4 ,because in such case discipline becomes relaxed1 and unwonted severity is necessary to keep the men to their duty4 #cg4 ,to begin by bluster1 but afterwards to take fright at the enemy's numbers1 shows a supreme lack of intelligence4 ,i follow the interpretation of ,ts#8ao ,kung3 1 also adopted by ,li ,ch#8an1 ,tu ,mu and ,chang ,y4 ,another possible meaning1 set forth by ,tu ,yu1 ,chia ,lin1 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n and ,wang ,hsi1 is3 8,the general who is first tyrannical towards his men1 and then in terror lest they should mutiny1 etc40 ,this would connect the sentence with what went before about rewards and punishments4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan read 8affection0 instead of 4 #ch4 ,when envoys are sent with compliments in their mouths1 it is a sign that the enemy wishes for a truce4 ,tu ,mu says3 8,if the enemy open friendly relations by sending hostages1 it is a sign that they are anxious for an armistice1 either because their strength is exhausted or for some other reason40 ,but it hardly needs a ,sun ,tz to draw such an obvious inference2 and although ,tu ,mu is supported by ,mei ,yao-ch#8n and ,chang ,y1 ,i cannot think that hostages are indicated by the word 4 #ci4 ,if the enemy's troops march up angrily and remain facing ours for a long time without either joining battle or taking themselves off again1 the situation is one that demands great vigilance and circumspection4 ,capt4 ,calthrop falls into a trap which often lurks in the word 4 ,he translates3 8,when both sides1 eager for a fight1 face each other for a considerable time1 neither advancing nor retiring10 etc4 ,had he reflected a little1 he would have seen that this is meaningless as addressed to a commander who has control over the movements of his own troops4 1 then1 does not mean that the two armies go to meet each other1 but simply that the other side comes up to us4 ,likewise with 4 ,if this were not perfectly clear of itself1 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n's paraphrase would make it so3 1 etc4 ,as ,ts#8ao ,kung points out1 a manuvre of this sort may be only a ruse to gain time for an unexpected flank attack or the laying of an ambush4 #dj4 ,if our troops are no more in number than the enemy1 that is amply sufficient2 ,wang ,hsi's paraphrase1 partly borrowed from ,ts#8ao ,kung1 is 4 ,another reading1 adopted by ,chia ,lin and the ,t#8u ,shu1 is 1 which ,capt4 ,calthrop renders1 much too loosely3 8,numbers are no certain mark of strength40 it only means that no direct attack can be made4 ,literally1 8no martial advance40 ,that is to say1 8chng0 tactics and frontal attacks must be eschewed1 and stratagem resorted to instead4 ,what we can do is simply to concentrate all our available strength1 keep a close watch on the enemy1 and obtain reinforcements4 ,this is an obscure sentence1 and none of the commentators succeed in squeezing very good sense out of it4 ,the difficulty lies chiefly in the words 1 which have been taken in every possible way4 ,i follow ,li ,ch#8an1 who appears to offer the simplest explanation3 8,only the side that gets more men will win40 ,ts#8ao ,kung's note1 concise as usual to the verge of incomprehensibility1 is 4 ,fortunately we have ,chang ,y to expound its meaning to us in language which is lucidity itself3 8,when the numbers are even1 and no favourable opening presents itself1 although we may not be strong enough to deliver a sustained attack1 we can find additional recruits amongst our sutlers and camp-followers1 and then1 concentrating our forces and keeping a close watch on the enemy1 contrive to snatch the victory4 ,but we must avoid borrowing foreign soldiers to help us40 ,he then quotes from ,wei ,liao ,tz1 ch4 #c3 8,the nominal strength of mercenary troops may be #ajj1jjj1 but their real value will be not more than half that figure40 ,according to this interpretation1 means 8to get recruits10 not from outside1 but from the tag-rag and bobtail which follows in the wake of a large army4 ,this does not sound a very soldierly suggestion1 and ,i feel convinced that it is not what ,sun ,tz meant4 ,chia ,lin1 on the other hand1 takes the words in a different sense altogether1 namely 8to conquer the enemy0 cf4 ,i4 #bj4 ,but in that case they could hardly be followed by 4 ,better than this would be the rendering 8to make isolated captures10 as opposed to 8a general attack40 #da4 ,he who exercises no forethought but makes light of his opponents is sure to be captured by them4 ,the force of is not easy to appreciate4 ,ch#8n ,hao says 1 thus referring to the second verb4 ,he continues1 quoting from the ,tso ,chuan3 8,if bees and scorpions carry poison1 how much more will a hostile state6 1 ,,xxii4 #c4 ,even a puny opponent1 then1 should not be treated with contempt40 #db4 ,if soldiers are punished before they have grown attached to you1 they will not prove submissive2 and1 unless submissive1 they will be practically useless4 ,if1 when the soldiers have become attached to you1 punishments are not enforced1 they will still be useless4 ,this is wrongly translated by ,capt4 ,calthrop3 8,if the troops know the general1 but are not affected by his punishments1 they are useless40 #dc4 ,therefore soldiers must be treated in the first instance with humanity1 but kept under control by means of iron discipline4 and 1 according to ,ts#8ao ,kung1 are here equivalent to and respectively4 ,compare our two uses of the word 8civil40 ,yen ,tz ,b4,c4 #dic said of ,ss-ma ,jang-ch3 8,his civil virtues endeared him to the people2 his martial prowess kept his enemies in awe40 ,cf4 ,wu ,tz1 ch4 #d init43 8,the ideal commander unites culture with a warlike temper2 the profession of arms requires a combination of hardness and tenderness40 ,again ,i must find fault with ,capt4 ,calthrop's translation3 8,by humane treatment we obtain obedience2 authority brings uniformity40 ,this is a certain road to victory4 #dd4 ,if in training soldiers commands are habitually enforced1 the army will be well-disciplined2 if not1 its discipline will be bad4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan read3 4 #de4 ,if a general shows confidence in his men but always insists on his orders being obeyed1 ,the original text has 4 is certainly awkward without 1 but on the other hand it is clear that ,tu ,mu accepted the ,t#8ung ,tien text1 which is identical with ours4 ,he says3 8,a general ought in time of peace to show kindly confidence in his men and also make his authority respected1 so that when they come to face the enemy1 orders may be executed and discipline maintained1 because they all trust and look up to him40 ,what ,sun ,tz has said in #dd1 however1 would lead one rather to expect something like this3 8,if a general is always confident that his orders will be carried out10 etc4 ,hence ,i am tempted to think that he may have written 4 ,but this is perhaps too conjectural4 the gain will be mutual4 ,chang ,y says3 8,the general has confidence in the men under his command1 and the men are docile1 having confidence in him4 ,thus the gain is mutual40 ,he quotes a pregnant sentence from ,wei ,liao ,tz1 ch4 #d3 8,the art of giving orders is not to try to rectify minor blunders and not to be swayed by petty doubts40 ,vacillation and fussiness are the surest means of sapping the confidence of an army4 ,capt4 ,calthrop winds up the chapter with a final mistranslation of a more than usually heinous description3 8,orders are always obeyed1 if general and soldiers are in sympathy40 ,besides inventing the latter half of the sentence1 he has managed to invert protasis and apodosis4 ,x4 ,,terrain4 ,only about a third of the chapter1 comprising #a-ac1 deals with 1 the subject being more fully treated in ch4 ,,xi4 ,the 8six calamities0 are discussed in #ad-bj1 and the rest of the chapter is again a mere string of desultory remarks1 though not less interesting1 perhaps1 on that account4 #a4 ,sun ,tz said3 ,we may distinguish six kinds of terrain1 to wit3 7#a7 ,accessible ground2 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n says3 8plentifully provided with roads and means of communication40 7#b7 entangling ground2 ,the same commentator says3 8,net-like country1 venturing into which you become entangled40 7#c7 temporising ground2 ,tu ,yu explains as 4 ,this meaning is still retained in modern phrases such as 1 8stave off10 8delay40 ,i do not know why ,capt4 ,calthrop calls 8suspended ground10 unless he is confusing it with 4 7#d7 narrow passes2 7#e7 precipitous heights2 ,the root idea in is narrowness2 in 1 steepness4 7#f7 positions at a great distance from the enemy4 ,it is hardly necessary to point out the faultiness of this classification4 ,a strange lack of logical perception is shown in the ,chinaman's unquestioning acceptance of glaring cross-divisions such as the above4 #b4 ,ground which can be freely traversed by both sides is called accessible4 ,generally speaking1 8level country0 is meant4 ,cf4 ,,ix4 #i3 4 #c4 ,with regard to ground of this nature1 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien reads 4 be before the enemy in occupying the raised and sunny spots1 ,see ,,ix4 #b4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien reads 4 and carefully guard your line of supplies4 ,a curious use of as a verb1 if our text is right4 ,the general meaning is doubtless1 as ,tu ,yu says1 8not to allow the enemy to cut your communications40 ,tu ,mu1 who was not a soldier and can hardly have had any practical experience of fighting1 goes more into detail and speaks of protecting the line of communications by a wall 771 or enclosing it by embankments on each side 776 ,in view of ,napoleon's dictum1 8the secret of war lies in the communications10#age we could wish that ,sun ,tz had done more than skirt the edge of this important subject here and in ,i4 #aj1 ,,vii4 #aa4 ,col4 ,henderson says3 8,the line of supply may be said to be as vital to the existence of an army as the heart to the life of a human being4 ,just as the duellist who finds his adversary's point menacing him with certain death1 and his own guard astray1 is compelled to conform to his adversary's movements1 and to content himself with warding off his thrusts1 so the commander whose communications are suddenly threatened finds himself in a false position1 and he will be fortunate if he has not to change all his plans1 to split up his force into more or less isolated detachments1 and to fight with inferior numbers on ground which he has not had time to prepare1 and where defeat will not be an ordinary failure1 but will entail the ruin or the surrender of his whole army40#agf ,then you will be able to fight with advantage4 ,omitted by ,capt4 ,calthrop4 #d4 ,ground which can be abandoned but is hard to re-occupy is called entangling4 ,capt4 ,calthrop is wrong in translating 8retreat from it40 #e4 ,from a position of this sort1 if the enemy is unprepared1 you may sally forth and defeat him4 ,but if the enemy is prepared for your coming1 and you fail to defeat him1 then1 return being impossible1 disaster will ensue4 7an example of litotes7 is paraphrased by ,mei ,yao-ch#8n as 8you will receive a check40 #f4 ,when the position is such that neither side will gain by making the first move1 it is called temporising ground4 8,each side finds it inconvenient to move1 and the situation remains at a deadlock0 7,tu ,yu74 #g4 ,in a position of this sort1 even though the enemy should offer us an attractive bait1 ,tu ,yu says 8turning their backs on us and pretending to flee40 ,but this is only one of the lures which might induce us to quit our position4 ,here again is used as a verb1 but this time in a different sense3 8to hold out an advantage to40 it will be advisable not to stir forth1 but rather to retreat1 thus enticing the enemy in his turn2 then1 when part of his army has come out1 we may deliver our attack with advantage4 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n paraphrases the passage in a curious jingle1 the scheme of rhymes being abcbdd3 4 #h4 ,with regard to narrow passes1 if you can occupy them first1 ,capt4 ,calthrop says3 8,defiles1 make haste to occupy40 ,but this is a conditional clause1 answering to in the next paragraph4 let them be strongly garrisoned and await the advent of the enemy4 ,because then1 as ,tu ,yu observes1 8the initiative will lie with us1 and by making sudden and unexpected attacks we shall have the enemy at our mercy40 ,the commentators make a great pother about the precise meaning of 1 which to the foreign reader seems to present no difficulty whatever4 #i4 ,should the enemy forestall you in occupying a pass1 do not go after him if the pass is fully garrisoned1 but only if it is weakly garrisoned4 #aj4 ,with regard to precipitous heights1 if you are beforehand with your adversary1 you should occupy the raised and sunny spots1 and there wait for him to come up4 ,ts#8ao ,kung says3 8,the particular advantage of securing heights and defiles is that your actions cannot then be dictated by the enemy40 ,for the enunciation of the grand principle alluded to1 see ,,vi4 #b4 ,chang ,y tells the following anecdote of ,p#8ei ,hsing-chien 7,a4,d4 #fai-fhb71 who was sent on a punitive expedition against the ,turkic tribes4 8,at nightfall he pitched his camp as usual1 and it had already been completely fortified by wall and ditch1 when suddenly he gave orders that the army should shift its quarters to a hill near by4 ,this was highly displeasing to his officers1 who protested loudly against the extra fatigue which it would entail on the men4 ,p#8ei ,hsing-chien1 however1 paid no heed to their remonstrances and had the camp moved as quickly as possible4 ,the same night1 a terrific storm came on1 which flooded their former place of encampment to the depth of over twelve feet4 ,the recalcitrant officers were amazed at the sight1 and owned that they had been in the wrong4 #8,how did you know what was going to happen8' they asked4 ,p#8ei ,hsing-chien replied3 #8,from this time forward be content to obey orders without asking unnecessary questions4' ,see ,chiu ,t#8ang ,shu1 ch4 #hd1 fol4 #ab ro1 and ,hsin ,t#8ang ,shu1 ch4 #ajh1 fol4 #e vo4 ,from this it may be seen10 ,chang ,y continues1 8that high and sunny places are advantageous not only for fighting1 but also because they are immune from disastrous floods40 #aa4 ,if the enemy has occupied them before you1 do not follow him1 but retreat and try to entice him away4 ,the turning-point of ,li ,shih-min's campaign in #fba ,a4,d4 against the two rebels1 ,tou ,chien-t1 ,king of ,hsia1 and ,wang ,shih-ch#8ung1 ,prince of ,chng1 was his seizure of the heights of ,wu-lao1 in spite of which ,tou ,chien-t persisted in his attempt to relieve his ally in ,lo-yang1 was defeated and taken prisoner4 ,see ,chiu ,t#8ang ,shu1 ch4 #b1 fol4 #e vo and also ch4 #ed4 #ab4 ,if you are situated at a great distance from the enemy1 and the strength of the two armies is equal1 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien reads 4 it is not easy to provoke a battle1 ,ts#8ao ,kung says that means 8challenging the enemy40 ,but the enemy being far away1 that plainly involves1 as ,tu ,yu says1 8going to meet him40 ,the point of course is1 that we must not think of undertaking a long and wearisome march1 at the end of which 8we should1 be exhausted and our adversary fresh and keen40 and fighting will be to your disadvantage4 #ac4 ,these six are the principles connected with ,earth4 ,or perhaps1 8the principles relating to ground40 ,see1 however1 ,i4 #h4 ,the general who has attained a responsible post must be careful to study them4 ,capt4 ,calthrop omits 4 ,out of the foregoing six 1 it will be noticed that nos4 #c and #f have really no reference to the configuration of the country1 and that only #d and #e can be said to convey any definite geographical idea4 #ad4 ,now an army is exposed to six several calamities1 not arising from natural causes1 ,the ,t#8u ,shu reads 4 but from faults for which the general is responsible4 ,these are3 7#a7 ,flight2 7#b7 insubordination2 7#c7 collapse2 7#d7 ruin2 7#e7 disorganisation2 7#f7 rout4 ,i take exception to ,capt4 ,calthrop's rendering of and as 8distress0 and 8disorganisation10 respectively4 #ae4 ,other conditions being equal1 if one force is hurled against another ten times its size1 the result will be the flight of the former4 ,cf4 ,,iii4 #aj4 ,the general's fault here is that of 8not calculating the enemy's strength40 ,it is obvious that cannot have the same force as in #ab1 where it was equivalent to 4 ,i should not be inclined1 however1 to limit it1 with ,chang ,y1 to 8the wisdom and valour of the general and the sharpness of the weapons40 ,as ,li ,ch#8an very justly remarks1 8,given a decided advantage in position1 or the help of some stratagem such as a flank attack or an ambuscade1 it would be quite possible to fight in the ratio of one to ten40 #af4 ,when the common soldiers are too strong and their officers too weak1 the result is insubordination4 8laxity0--the metaphor being taken from an unstrung bow4 ,capt4 ,calthrop's 8relaxation0 is not good1 on account of its ambiguity4 ,tu ,mu cites the unhappy case of ,t#8ien ,pu ,hsin ,t#8ang ,shu1 ch4 #adh1 who was sent to ,wei in #hba ,a4,d4 with orders to lead an army against ,wang ,t#8ing-ts#8ou4 ,but the whole time he was in command1 his soldiers treated him with the utmost contempt1 and openly flouted his authority by riding about the camp on donkeys1 several thousands at a time4 ,t#8ien ,pu was powerless to put a stop to this conduct1 and when1 after some months had passed1 he made an attempt to engage the enemy1 his troops turned tail and dispersed in every direction4 ,after that1 the unfortunate man committed suicide by cutting his throat4 ,when the officers are too strong and the common soldiers too weak1 the result is collapse4 ,ts#8ao ,kung says3 8,the officers are energetic and want to press on1 the common soldiers are feeble and suddenly collapse40 ,note that is to be taken literally of physical weakness1 whereas in the former clause it is figurative4 ,li ,ch#8an makes equivalent to 1 and ,tu ,mu explains it as 8stumbling into a death-trap40 #ag4 ,when the higher officers 1 according to ,ts#8ao ,kung1 are the 8generals of inferior rank40 ,but ,li ,ch#8an1 ,ch#8n ,hao and ,wang ,hsi take the term as simply convertible with or 4 are angry and insubordinate1 and on meeting the enemy give battle on their own account from a feeling of resentment1 before the commander-in-chief can tell whether or no he is in a position to fight1 the result is ruin4 ,ts#8ao ,kung makes 1 understood1 the subject of 1 which seems rather far-fetched4 ,wang ,hsi's note is3 8,this means1 the general is angry without just cause1 and at the same time does not appreciate the ability of his subordinate officers2 thus he arouses fierce resentment and brings an avalanche of ruin upon his head40 ,he takes 1 therefore1 in the sense of 2 but ,i think that ,ch#8n ,hao is right in his paraphrase 8they don't care if it be possible or no40 ,my interpretation of the whole passage is that of ,mei ,yao-ch#8n and ,chang ,y4 ,tu ,mu gives a long extract from the ,tso ,chuan1 1 ,,xii4 #c1 showing how the great battle of ,pi #eig ,b4,c4 was lost for the ,chin ,state through the contumacy of ,hsien ,hu and the resentful spite of ,wei ,i and ,chao ,chan4 ,chang ,y also alludes to the mutinous conduct of ,luan ,yen ibid4 1 ,,xiv4 #c4 #ah4 ,when the general is weak and without authority2 when his orders are not clear and distinct2 ,wei ,liao ,tz 7ch4 #d7 says3 8,if the commander gives his orders with decision1 the soldiers will not wait to hear them twice2 if his moves are made without vacillation1 the soldiers will not be in two minds about doing their duty40 ,general ,baden-,powell says1 italicising the words3 8,the secret of getting successful work out of your trained men lies in one nutshell--in the clearness of the instructions they receive40#agg ,assuming that clear instructions beget confidence1 this is very much what ,wei ,liao ,tz 7loc4 cit47 goes on to say3 4 ,cf4 also ,wu ,tz ch4 #c3 8the most fatal defect in a military leader is diffidence2 the worst calamities that befall an army arise from hesitation40 when there are no fixed duties assigned to officers and men1 8,neither officers nor men have any regular routine0 ,tu ,mu4 and the ranks are formed in a slovenly haphazard manner1 the result is utter disorganisation4 #ai4 ,when a general1 unable to estimate the enemy's strength1 allows an inferior force to engage a larger one1 or hurls a weak detachment against a powerful one1 and neglects to place picked soldiers in the front rank1 the result must be a rout4 ,chang ,y paraphrases the latter part of the sentence 1 and continues3 8,whenever there is fighting to be done1 the keenest spirits should be appointed to serve in the front ranks1 both in order to strengthen the resolution of our own men and to demoralise the enemy40 ,cf4 the primi ordines of ,caesar 78,de ,bello ,gallico10 ,v4 #bh1 #dd et al474 ,there seems little to distinguish from in #ae1 except that is a more forcible word4 #bj4 ,these are six ways of courting defeat1 ,ch#8n ,hao makes them out to be3 7#a7 8neglect to estimate the enemy's strength20 7#b7 8want of authority20 7#c7 8defective training20 7#d7 8unjustifiable anger20 7#e7 8non-observance of discipline20 7#f7 8failure to use picked men40 which must be carefully noted by the general who has attained a responsible post4 ,see supra1 #ac4 #ba4 ,the natural formation of the country is the soldier's best ally2 ,chia ,lin's text has the reading for 4 ,ch#8n ,hao says3 8,the advantages of weather and season are not equal to those connected with ground40 but a power of estimating the adversary1 ,the insertion of a 8but0 is necessary to show the connection of thought here4 ,a general should always utilise1 but never rely wholly on natural advantages of terrain4 of controlling the forces of victory1 is one of those condensed expressions which mean so much in ,chinese1 and so little in an ,english translation4 ,what it seems to imply is complete mastery of the situation from the beginning4 and of shrewdly calculating difficulties1 dangers and distances1 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan read 4 ,i am decidedly puzzled by ,capt4 ,calthrop's translation3 8an eye for steepness1 command and distances40 ,where did he find the word which ,i have put in italics8 constitutes the test of a great general4 ,a somewhat free translation of 4 ,as ,chang ,y remarks1 these are 8the essentials of soldiering10 ground being only a helpful accessory4 #bb4 ,he who knows these things1 and in fighting puts his knowledge into practice1 will win his battles4 ,he who knows them not1 nor practises them1 will surely be defeated4 #bc4 ,if fighting is sure to result in victory1 then you must fight1 even though the ruler forbid it2 if fighting will not result in victory1 then you must not fight even at the ruler's bidding4 ,cf4 ,,viii4 #c fin4 ,huang-shih ,kung of the ,ch#8in dynasty1 who is said to have been the patron of ,chang ,liang and to have written the 1 has these words attributed to him3 8,the responsibility of setting an army in motion must devolve on the general alone2 if advance and retreat are controlled from the ,palace1 brilliant results will hardly be achieved4 ,hence the god-like ruler and the enlightened monarch are content to play a humble part in furthering their country's cause lit41 kneel down to push the chariot wheel40 ,this means that 8in matters lying outside the zenana1 the decision of the military commander must be absolute40 ,chang ,y also quotes the saying3 8,decrees of the ,son of ,heaven do not penetrate the walls of a camp40 ,napoleon1 who has been accused of allowing his generals too little independence of action1 speaks in the same sense3 8,un gnral en chef n'est pas couvert de ses fautes la guerre par un ordre de son souverain ou du ministre1 quand celui qui le donne est loign du champ d'opration1 et qu'il connat mal1 ou ne connat pas du tout le dernier tat des choses40#agh #bd4 ,the general who advances without coveting fame and retreats without fearing disgrace1 ,it was ,wellington1 ,i think1 who said that the hardest thing of all for a soldier is to retreat4 whose only thought is to protect his country and do good service for his sovereign1 1 which is omitted by the ,t#8u ,shu1 is said by ,ch#8n ,hao to be equivalent to 4 ,if it had to be separately translated1 it would be something like our word 8accrue40 is the jewel of the kingdom4 ,a noble presentment1 in few words1 of the ,chinese 8happy warrior40 ,such a man1 says ,ho ,shih1 8even if he had to suffer punishment1 would not regret his conduct40 #be4 ,regard your soldiers as your children1 and they will follow you into the deepest valleys2 look on them as your own beloved sons1 and they will stand by you even unto death4 ,cf4 ,i4 #f4 ,in this connection1 ,tu ,mu draws for us an engaging picture of the famous general ,wu ,ch#8i1 from whose treatise on war ,i have frequently had occasion to quote3 8,he wore the same clothes and ate the same food as the meanest of his soldiers1 refused to have either a horse to ride or a mat to sleep on1 carried his own surplus rations wrapped in a parcel1 and shared every hardship with his men4 ,one of his soldiers was suffering from an abscess1 and ,wu ,ch#8i himself sucked out the virus4 ,the soldier's mother1 hearing this1 began wailing and lamenting4 ,somebody asked her1 saying3 #8,why do you cry8 ,your son is only a common soldier1 and yet the commander-in-chief himself has sucked the poison from his sore4' ,the woman replied3 #8,many years ago1 ,lord ,wu performed a similar service for my husband1 who never left him afterwards1 and finally met his death at the hands of the enemy4 ,and now that he has done the same for my son1 he too will fall fighting ,i know not where'40 ,li ,ch#8an mentions the ,viscount of ,ch#8u1 who invaded the small state of ,hsiao during the winter4 ,the ,duke of ,shn said to him3 8,many of the soldiers are suffering severely from the cold40 ,so he made a round of the whole army1 comforting and encouraging the men2 and straightway they felt as if they were clothed in garments lined with floss silk4 ,tso ,chuan1 1 ,,xii4 #e4 ,chang ,y alludes to the same passage1 saying3 4 #bf4 ,if1 however1 you are indulgent1 but unable to make your authority felt2 kind-hearted1 but unable to enforce your commands2 and incapable1 moreover1 of quelling disorder3 ,capt4 ,calthrop has got these three clauses quite wrong4 ,the last he translates3 8overindulgence may produce disorder40 then your soldiers must be likened to spoilt children2 they are useless for any practical purpose4 ,cf4 ,,ix4 #db4 ,we read in the 1 pt4 #b3 8,injury comes out of kindness40 ,li ,ching once said that if you could make your soldiers afraid of you1 they would not be afraid of the enemy4 ,tu ,mu recalls an instance of stern military discipline which occurred in #bai ,a4,d41 when ,l ,mng was occupying the town of ,chiang-ling4 ,he had given stringent orders to his army not to molest the inhabitants nor take anything from them by force4 ,nevertheless1 a certain officer serving under his banner1 who happened to be a fellow-townsman1 ventured to appropriate a bamboo hat 77 belonging to one of the people1 in order to wear it over his regulation helmet as a protection against the rain4 ,l ,mng considered that the fact of his being also a native of ,ju-nan should not be allowed to palliate a clear breach of discipline1 and accordingly he ordered his summary execution1 the tears rolling down his face1 however1 as he did so4 ,this act of severity filled the army with wholesome awe1 and from that time forth even articles dropped in the highway were not picked up4 ,san ,kuo ,chih1 ch4 #ed1 f4 #ac ro4 vo44 #bg4 ,if we know that our own men are in a condition to attack1 but are unaware that the enemy is not open to attack1 we have gone only halfway towards victory4 ,that is1 as ,ts#8ao ,kung says1 8the issue in this case is uncertain40 #bh4 ,if we know that the enemy is open to attack1 but are unaware that our own men are not in a condition to attack1 we have gone only halfway towards victory4 ,cf4 ,,iii4 #ac 7#a74 #bi4 ,if we know that the enemy is open to attack1 and also know that our men are in a condition to attack1 but are unaware that the nature of the ground makes fighting impracticable1 we have still gone only halfway towards victory4 ,i may take this opportunity of pointing out the rather nice distinction in meaning between and 4 ,the latter is simply 8to attack0 without any further implication1 whereas is a stronger word which in nine cases out of ten means 8to attack with expectation of victory10 8to fall upon10 as we should say1 or even 8to crush40 ,on the other hand1 is not quite synonymous with 1 which is mostly used of operations on a larger scale1 as of one ,state making war on another1 often with the added idea of invasion4 1 finally1 has special reference to the subjugation of rebels4 ,see ,mencius1 ,,vii4 #b4 ii4 #b4 #cj4 ,hence the experienced soldier1 once in motion1 is never bewildered2 once he has broken camp1 he is never at a loss4 ,the reason being1 according to ,tu ,mu1 that he has taken his measures so thoroughly as to ensure victory beforehand4 8,he does not move recklessly10 says ,chang ,y1 8so that when he does move1 he makes no mistakes40 ,another reading substitutes for and for 4 ,the latter variant only is adopted by the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan4 ,note that here means 8at the end of his mental resources40 #ca4 ,hence the saying3 ,if you know the enemy and know yourself1 your victory will not stand in doubt2 ,capt4 ,calthrop makes the saying end here1 which cannot be justified4 if you know ,heaven and know ,earth1 and are transposed for the sake of the jingle between and 4 ,the original text1 however1 has 1 and the correction has been made from the ,t#8ung ,tien4 you may make your victory complete4 ,as opposed to 1 above4 ,the original text has 1 the corruption being perhaps due to the occurrence of in the preceding sentence4 ,here1 however would not be synonymous with 1 but equivalent to 8inexhaustible10 8beyond computation40 ,cf4 ,v4 #aa4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien has again supplied the true reading4 ,li ,ch#8an sums up as follows3 8,given a knowledge of three things--the affairs of man1 the seasons of heaven and the natural advantages of earth--1 victory will invariably crown your battles40 ,,xi4 ,,the ,,nine ,,situations4 ,li ,ch#8an is not quite right in calling these 4 ,as we shall see1 some of them are highly disadvantageous from the military point of view4 ,wang ,hsi more correctly says3 8,there are nine military situations1 good and bad40 ,one would like to distinguish the from the six of chap4 ,x by saying that the latter refer to the natural formation or geographical features of the country1 while the have more to do with the condition of the army1 being 8situations0 as opposed to 8grounds40 ,but it is soon found impossible to carry out the distinction4 ,both are cross-divisions1 for among the we have 8temporising ground0 side by side with 8narrow passes10 while in the present chapter there is even greater confusion4 #a4 ,sun ,tz said3 ,the art of war recognises nine varieties of ground3 7#a7 ,dispersive ground2 7#b7 facile ground2 7#c7 contentious ground2 7#d7 open ground2 7#e7 ground of intersecting highways2 7#f7 serious ground2 7#g7 difficult ground2 7#h7 hemmed-in ground2 7#i7 desperate ground4 #b4 ,when a chieftain is fighting in his own territory1 it is dispersive ground4 ,so called because the soldiers1 being near to their homes and anxious to see their wives and children1 are likely to seize the opportunity afforded by a battle and scatter in every direction4 8,in their advance10 observes ,tu ,mu1 8they will lack the valour of desperation1 and when they retreat1 they will find harbours of refuge40 ,the 1 which appears in the ,t#8u ,shu1 seems to have been accidentally omitted in my edition of the standard text4 #c4 ,when he has penetrated into hostile territory1 but to no great distance1 it is facile ground4 ,li ,ch#8an and ,ho ,shih say 8because of the facility for retreating10 and the other commentators give similar explanations4 ,tu ,mu remarks3 8,when your army has crossed the border1 you should burn your boats and bridges1 in order to make it clear to everybody that you have no hankering after home40 ,i do not think that 8disturbing ground10 ,capt4 ,calthrop's rendering of 1 has anything to justify it4 ,if an idiomatic translation is out of the question1 one should at least attempt to be literal4 #d4 ,ground the possession of which imports great advantage to either side1 is contentious ground4 ,i must apologise for using this word in a sense not known to the dictionary1 i4e4 8to be contended for0--,tu ,mu's 4 ,ts#8ao ,kung says3 8ground on which the few and the weak can defeat the many and the strong10 such as 8the neck of a pass10 instanced by ,li ,ch#8an4 ,thus1 ,thermopylae was a 1 because the possession of it1 even for a few days only1 meant holding the entire invading army in check and thus gaining invaluable time4 ,cf4 ,wu ,tz1 ch4 ,v4 ad init43 8,for those who have to fight in the ratio of one to ten1 there is nothing better than a narrow pass40 ,when ,l ,kuang was returning from his triumphant expedition to ,turkestan in #che ,a4,d41 and had got as far as ,i-ho1 laden with spoils1 ,liang ,hsi1 administrator of ,liang-chou1 taking advantage of the death of ,fu ,chien1 ,king of ,ch#8in1 plotted against him and was for barring his way into the province4 ,yang ,han1 governor of ,kao-ch#8ang1 counselled him1 saying3 8,l ,kuang is fresh from his victories in the west1 and his soldiers are vigorous and mettlesome4 ,if we oppose him in the shifting sands of the desert1 we shall be no match for him1 and we must therefore try a different plan4 ,let us hasten to occupy the defile at the mouth of the ,kao-wu pass1 thus cutting him off from supplies of water1 and when his troops are prostrated with thirst1 we can dictate our own terms without moving4 ,or if you think that the pass ,i mention is too far off1 we could make a stand against him at the ,i-wu pass1 which is nearer4 ,the cunning and resource of ,tz-fang himself i4e4 would be expended in vain against the enormous strength of these two positions40 ,liang ,hsi1 refusing to act on this advice1 was overwhelmed and swept away by the invader4 ,see 1 ch4 #abb1 fol4 #c ro1 and 1 ch4 #dc1 fol4 #bf4 #e4 ,ground on which each side has liberty of movement is open ground4 ,this is only a makeshift translation of 1 which according to ,ts#8ao ,kung stands for 8ground covered with a network of roads10 like a chess-board4 ,another interpretation1 suggested by ,ho ,shih1 is 8ground on which intercommunication is easy40 ,in either case1 it must evidently be 8flat country10 and therefore 8cannot be blocked40 ,cf4 1 ,x4 #b4 #f4 ,ground which forms the key to three contiguous states1 8,our country adjoining the enemy's and a third country conterminous with both40 ,ts#8ao ,kung4 ,mng ,shih instances the small principality of ,chng1 which was bounded on the north-east by ,ch#8i1 on the west by ,chin1 and on the south by ,ch#8u4 so that he who occupies it first has most of the ,empire at his command1 of course stands for the loose confederacy of states into which ,china was divided under the ,chou dynasty4 ,the belligerent who holds this dominating position can constrain most of them to become his allies4 ,see infra1 #dh4 appears at first sight to be 8the masses0 or 8population0 of the ,empire1 but it is more probably1 as ,tu ,yu says1 4 is ground of intersecting highways4 ,capt4 ,calthrop's 8path-ridden ground0 might stand well enough for above1 but it does not bring out the force of 1 which clearly denotes the central position where important highways meet4 #g4 ,when an army has penetrated into the heart of a hostile country1 leaving a number of fortified cities in its rear1 ,after 1 the ,t#8ung ,tien intercalates the gloss 4 it is serious ground4 ,wang ,hsi explains the name by saying that 8when an army has reached such a point1 its situation is serious40 ,li ,ch#8an instances 7#a7 the victorious march of ,yo ,i into the capital of ,ch#8i in #bhd ,b4,c41 and 7#b7 the attack on ,ch#8u1 six years later1 by the ,ch#8in general ,po ,ch#8i4 #h4 ,mountain forests1 ,or simply1 8forests40 ,i follow the ,t#8u ,shu in omitting the before 1 given in the standard text1 which is not only otiose but spoils the rhythm of the sentence4 rugged steeps1 marshes and fens--all country that is hard to traverse3 this is difficult ground4 p#8i#c 7to be distinguished from i#d7 is defined by ,k#8ang ,hsi 7after the ,shuo ,wn7 as 8to destroy40 ,hence ,chia ,lin explains as ground 8that has been ruined by water passing over it10 and ,tu ,yu simply as 8swampy ground40 ,but ,ch#8n ,hao says that the word is specially applied to deep hollows--what ,chu-ko ,liang1 he tells us1 used to designate by the expressive term 8earth-hells40 ,compare the of ,,ix4 #ae4 #i4 ,ground which is reached through narrow gorges1 and from which we can only retire by tortuous paths1 so that a small number of the enemy would suffice to crush a large body of our men3 this is hemmed-in ground4 #aj4 ,ground on which we can only be saved from destruction by fighting without delay1 is desperate ground4 ,the situation1 as pictured by ,ts#8ao ,kung1 is very similar to the 1 except that here escape is no longer possible3 8,a lofty mountain in front1 a large river behind1 advance impossible1 retreat blocked40 ,ch#8n ,hao says3 8to be on #8desperate ground' is like sitting in a leaking boat or crouching in a burning house40 ,tu ,mu quotes from ,li ,ching a vivid description of the plight of an army thus entrapped3 8,suppose an army invading hostile territory without the aid of local guides3--it falls into a fatal snare and is at the enemy's mercy4 ,a ravine on the left1 a mountain on the right1 a pathway so perilous that the horses have to be roped together and the chariots carried in slings1 no passage open in front1 retreat cut off behind1 no choice but to proceed in single file 774 ,then1 before there is time to range our soldiers in order of battle1 the enemy in overwhelming strength suddenly appears on the scene4 ,advancing1 we can nowhere take a breathing-space2 retreating1 we have no haven of refuge4 ,we seek a pitched battle1 but in vain2 yet standing on the defensive1 none of us has a moment's respite4 ,if we simply maintain our ground1 whole days and months will crawl by2 the moment we make a move1 we have to sustain the enemy's attacks on front and rear4 ,the country is wild1 destitute of water and plants2 the army is lacking in the necessaries of life1 the horses are jaded and the men worn-out1 all the resources of strength and skill unavailing1 the pass so narrow that a single man defending it can check the onset of ten thousand2 all means of offence in the hands of the enemy1 all points of vantage already forfeited by ourselves3--in this terrible plight1 even though we had the most valiant soldiers and the keenest of weapons1 how could they be employed with the slightest effect80 ,students of ,greek history may be reminded of the awful close to the ,sicilian expedition1 and the agony of the ,athenians under ,nicias and ,demosthenes4 ,see ,thucydides1 ,,vii4 #gh sqq44 #aa4 ,on dispersive ground1 therefore1 fight not4 ,on facile ground1 halt not4 ,on contentious ground1 attack not4 ,but rather let all your energies be bent on occupying the advantageous position first4 ,so ,ts#8ao ,kung4 ,li ,ch#8an and others1 however1 suppose the meaning to be that the enemy has already forestalled us1 so that it would be sheer madness to attack4 ,in the 1 when the ,king of ,wu inquires what should be done in this case1 ,sun ,tz replies3 8,the rule with regard to contentious ground is that those in possession have the advantage over the other side4 ,if a position of this kind is secured first by the enemy1 beware of attacking him4 ,lure him away by pretending to flee--show your banners and sound your drums--make a dash for other places that he cannot afford to lose--trail brushwood and raise a dust--confound his ears and eyes--detach a body of your best troops1 and place it secretly in ambuscade4 ,then your opponent will sally forth to the rescue40 #ab4 ,on open ground1 do not try to block the enemy's way4 ,because the attempt would be futile1 and would expose the blocking force itself to serious risks4 ,there are two interpretations of 4 ,i follow that of ,chang ,y 774 ,the other is indicated in ,ts#8ao ,kung's brief note3 8,draw closer together0--i4e41 see that a portion of your own army is not cut off4 ,wang ,hsi points out that is only another name for the 8accessible ground0 of ,x4 #b1 and says that the advice here given is simply a variation of 8keep a sharp eye on the line of supplies10 be careful that your communications are not cut4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien reads 4 ,on ground of intersecting highways1 join hands with your allies4 ,or perhaps1 8form alliances with neighbouring states40 ,thus ,ts#8ao ,kung has3 4 ,capt4 ,calthrop's 8cultivate intercourse0 is much too timid and vague4 ,the original text reads 4 #ac4 ,on serious ground1 gather in plunder4 ,on this1 ,li ,ch#8an has the following delicious note3 8,when an army penetrates far into the enemy's country1 care must be taken not to alienate the people by unjust treatment4 ,follow the example of the ,han ,emperor ,kao ,tsu1 whose march into ,ch#8in territory was marked by no violation of women or looting of valuables4 ,nota bene3 this was in #bjg ,b4,c41 and may well cause us to blush for the ,christian armies that entered ,peking in #aijj ,a4,d4 ,thus he won the hearts of all4 ,in the present passage1 then1 ,i think that the true reading must be1 not #8plunder'1 but #8do not plunder'40 ,alas1 ,i fear that in this instance the worthy commentator's feelings outran his judgment4 ,tu ,mu1 at least1 has no such illusions4 ,he says3 8,when encamped on #8serious ground1' there being no inducement as yet to advance further1 and no possibility of retreat1 one ought to take measures for a protracted resistance by bringing in provisions from all sides1 and keep a close watch on the enemy40 ,cf4 also ,,ii4 #i3 4 ,in difficult ground1 keep steadily on the march4 ,or1 in the words of ,,viii4 #b1 8do not encamp40 #ad4 ,on hemmed-in ground1 resort to stratagem4 ,ts#8ao ,kung says3 8,try the effect of some unusual artifice20 and ,tu ,yu amplifies this by saying3 8,in such a position1 some scheme must be devised which will suit the circumstances1 and if we can succeed in deluding the enemy1 the peril may be escaped40 ,this is exactly what happened on the famous occasion when ,hannibal was hemmed in among the mountains on the road to ,casilinum1 and to all appearances entrapped by the ,dictator ,fabius4 ,the stratagem which ,hannibal devised to baffle his foes was remarkably like that which ,t#8ien ,tan had also employed with success exactly #fb years before4 ,see ,,ix4 #bd1 note4 ,when night came on1 bundles of twigs were fastened to the horns of some #bjjj oxen and set on fire1 the terrified animals being then quickly driven along the mountain side towards the passes which were beset by the enemy4 ,the strange spectacle of these rapidly moving lights so alarmed and discomfited the ,romans that they withdrew from their position1 and ,hannibal's army passed safely through the defile4 ,see ,polybius1 ,,iii4 #ic1 #id2 ,livy1 ,,xxii4 #af1 #ag4 ,on desperate ground1 fight4 ,for1 as ,chia ,lin remarks3 8if you fight with all your might1 there is a chance of life2 whereas death is certain if you cling to your corner40 #ae4 ,those who were called skilful leaders of old is omitted in the ,t#8u ,shu text4 knew how to drive a wedge between the enemy's front and rear2 ,more literally1 8cause the front and rear to lose touch with each other40 to prevent co-operation between his large and small divisions2 to hinder the good troops from rescuing the bad1 ,i doubt if can mean 8officers and men10 as ,capt4 ,calthrop translates4 ,this is wanted for 4 the officers from rallying their men4 ,the reading 1 derived from the ,y ,lan1 must be considered very doubtful4 ,the original text has 1 and the ,t#8u ,shu 4 #af4 ,when the enemy's men were scattered1 they prevented them from concentrating2 ,capt4 ,calthrop translates 8they scattered the enemy10 which cannot be right4 even when their forces were united1 they managed to keep them in disorder4 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n's note makes the sense plain3 4 ,all these clauses1 of course1 down to 1 are dependent on in #ae4 #ag4 ,when it was to their advantage1 they made a forward move2 when otherwise1 they stopped still4 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n connects this with the foregoing3 8,having succeeded in thus dislocating the enemy1 they would push forward in order to secure any advantage to be gained2 if there was no advantage to be gained1 they would remain where they were40 #ah4 ,if asked how to cope with a great host of the enemy in orderly array and on the point of marching to the attack1 is like 1 introducing a supposed question4 ,i should say3 8,begin by seizing something which your opponent holds dear2 then he will be amenable to your will40 ,opinions differ as to what ,sun ,tz had in mind4 ,ts#8ao ,kung thinks it is 8some strategical advantage on which the enemy is depending40 ,tu ,mu says3 8,the three things which an enemy is anxious to do1 and on the accomplishment of which his success depends1 are3 7#a7 to capture our favourable positions2 7#b7 to ravage our cultivated land2 7#c7 to guard his own communications40 ,our object then must be to thwart his plans in these three directions and thus render him helpless4 ,cf4 ,,iii4 #c4 ,but this exegesis unduly strains the meaning of and 1 and ,i agree with ,ch#8n ,hao1 who says that does not refer only to strategical advantages1 but is any person or thing that may happen to be of importance to the enemy4 ,by boldly seizing the initiative in this way1 you at once throw the other side on the defensive4 #ai4 ,rapidity is the essence of war3 means 8the conditions of war10 not1 as ,capt4 ,calthrop says1 8the spirit of the troops40 ,according to ,tu ,mu1 8this is a summary of leading principles in warfare10 and he adds3 8,these are the profoundest truths of military science1 and the chief business of the general40 ,the following anecdotes1 told by ,ho ,shih1 show the importance attached to speed by two of ,china's greatest generals4 ,in #bbg ,a4,d41 ,mng ,ta1 governor of ,hsin-ch#8ng under the ,wei ,emperor ,wn ,ti1 was meditating defection to the ,house of ,shu1 and had entered into correspondence with ,chu-ko ,liang1 ,prime ,minister of that ,state4 ,the ,wei general ,ss-ma ,i was then military governor of ,wan1 and getting wind of ,mng ,ta's treachery1 he at once set off with an army to anticipate his revolt1 having previously cajoled him by a specious message of friendly import4 ,ss-ma's officers came to him and said3 8,if ,mng ,ta has leagued himself with ,wu and ,shu1 the matter should be thoroughly investigated before we make a move40 ,ss-ma ,i replied3 8,mng ,ta is an unprincipled man1 and we ought to go and punish him at once1 while he is still wavering and before he has thrown off the mask40 ,then1 by a series of forced marches1 he brought his army under the walls of ,hsin-ch#8ng within the space of eight days4 ,now ,mng ,ta had previously said in a letter to ,chu-ko ,liang3 8,wan is #abjj li from here4 ,when the news of my revolt reaches ,ss-ma ,i1 he will at once inform his ,imperial ,master1 but it will be a whole month before any steps can be taken1 and by that time my city will be well fortified4 ,besides1 ,ss-ma ,i is sure not to come himself1 and the generals that will be sent against us are not worth troubling about40 ,the next letter1 however1 was filled with consternation3 8,though only eight days have passed since ,i threw off my allegiance1 an army is already at the city-gates4 ,what miraculous rapidity is this60 ,a fortnight later1 ,hsin-ch#8ng had fallen and ,mng ,ta had lost his head4 ,see ,chin ,shu1 ch4 #a1 f4 #c4 ,in #fba ,a4,d41 ,li ,ching was sent from ,k#8uei-chou in ,ss-ch#8uan to reduce the successful rebel ,hsiao ,hsien1 who had set up as ,emperor at the modern ,ching-chou ,fu in ,hupeh4 ,it was autumn1 and the ,yangtsze being then in flood1 ,hsiao ,hsien never dreamt that his adversary would venture to come down through the gorges1 and consequently made no preparations4 ,but ,li ,ching embarked his army without loss of time1 and was just about to start when the other generals implored him to postpone his departure until the river was in a less dangerous state for navigation4 ,li ,ching replied3 8,to the soldier1 overwhelming speed is of paramount importance1 and he must never miss opportunities4 ,now is the time to strike1 before ,hsiao ,hsien even knows that we have got an army together4 ,if we seize the present moment when the river is in flood1 we shall appear before his capital with startling suddenness1 like the thunder which is heard before you have time to stop your ears against it4 ,see ,,vii1 #ai1 note4 ,this is the great principle in war4 ,even if he gets to know of our approach1 he will have to levy his soldiers in such a hurry that they will not be fit to oppose us4 ,thus the full fruits of victory will be ours40 ,all came about as he predicted1 and ,hsiao ,hsien was obliged to surrender1 nobly stipulating that his people should be spared and he alone suffer the penalty of death4 ,see ,hsin ,t#8ang ,shu1 ch4 #ic1 f4 #a vo4 take advantage of the enemy's unreadiness1 make your way by unexpected routes1 and attack unguarded spots4 #bj4 ,the following are the principles to be observed by an invading force3 ,the further you penetrate into a country1 the greater will be the solidarity of your troops1 and thus the defenders will not prevail against you4 #ba4 ,make forays in fertile country in order to supply your army with food4 ,cf4 supra1 #ac4 ,li ,ch#8an does not venture on a note here4 #bb4 ,carefully study the well-being of your men1 1 according to ,wang ,hsi1 means3 8,pet them1 humour them1 give them plenty of food and drink1 and look after them generally40 and do not overtax them4 ,concentrate your energy and hoard your strength4 ,tu ,mu explains these words in a rhyming couplet3 2 and ,ch#8n ,hao recalls the line of action adopted in #bbd ,b4,c4 by the famous general ,wang ,chien1 whose military genius largely contributed to the success of the ,first ,emperor4 ,he had invaded the ,ch#8u ,state1 where a universal levy was made to oppose him4 ,but1 being doubtful of the temper of his troops1 he declined all invitations to fight and remained strictly on the defensive4 ,in vain did the ,ch#8u general try to force a battle3 day after day ,wang ,chien kept inside his walls and would not come out1 but devoted his whole time and energy to winning the affection and confidence of his men4 ,he took care that they should be well fed1 sharing his own meals with them1 provided facilities for bathing1 and employed every method of judicious indulgence to weld them into a loyal and homogeneous body4 ,after some time had elapsed1 he told off certain persons to find out how the men were amusing themselves4 ,the answer was1 that they were contending with one another in putting the weight and long-jumping 774 ,when ,wang ,chien heard that they were engaged in these athletic pursuits1 he knew that their spirits had been strung up to the required pitch and that they were now ready for fighting4 ,by this time the ,ch#8u army1 after repeating their challenge again and again1 had marched away eastwards in disgust4 ,the ,ch#8in general immediately broke up his camp and followed them1 and in the battle that ensued they were routed with great slaughter4 ,shortly afterwards1 the whole of ,ch#8u was conquered by ,ch#8in1 and the king ,fu-ch#8u led into captivity4 ,see ,shih ,chi1 ch4 #gc1 f4 #e ro4 ,it should be noted that1 being a taboo character under the ,ch#8in dynasty1 the name figures as throughout4 ,keep your army continually on the move1 ,in order that the enemy may never know exactly where you are4 ,it has struck me1 however1 that the true reading might be1 not 1 but 8link your army together0 cf4 supra #df1 1 which would be more in keeping with 4 ,capt4 ,calthrop cuts the ,gordian knot by omitting the words altogether4 and devise unfathomable plans4 ,ch#8ang ,y's paraphrase is3 4 #bc4 ,throw your soldiers into positions whence there is no escape1 and they will prefer death to flight4 ,cf4 ,nicias' speech to the ,athenians3 1 1 1 etc4 ,thuc4 ,,vii4 #gg4 vii4 ,if they will face death1 there is nothing they may not achieve4 by itself constitutes the protasis1 and is the interrogative 4 ,capt4 ,calthrop makes the protasis end with 3 8,if there be no alternative but death40 ,but ,i do not see how this is to be got out of the ,chinese4 ,chang ,y gives a clear paraphrase3 1 and quotes his favourite ,wei ,liao ,tz 7ch4 #c73 8,if one man were to run amok with a sword in the market-place1 and everybody else tried to get out of his way1 ,i should not allow that this man alone had courage and that all the rest were contemptible cowards4 ,the truth is1 that a desperado and a man who sets some value on his life do not meet on even terms40 ,officers and men alike will put forth their uttermost strength4 appears to stand for the more usual 4 ,chang ,y says3 8,if they are in an awkward place together1 they will surely exert their united strength to get out of it40 #bd4 ,soldiers when in desperate straits lose the sense of fear4 ,if there is no place of refuge1 they will stand firm4 ,if they are in the heart of a hostile country1 they will show a stubborn front4 ,capt4 ,calthrop weakly says3 8there is unity10 as though the text were 1 as in #bj4 ,but introduces quite a new idea--that of tenacity--which ,ts#8ao ,kung tries to explain by the word 8to bind fast40 ,if there is no help for it1 they will fight hard4 #be4 ,thus1 without waiting to be marshalled1 the soldiers will be constantly on the qui vive2 ,tu ,mu says3 4 ,capt4 ,calthrop wrongly translates 8without warnings40 without waiting to be asked1 they will do your will2 ,literally1 8without asking1 you will get40 ,chang ,y's paraphrase is3 4 without restrictions1 they will be faithful2 ,chang ,y says3 4 without giving orders1 they can be trusted4 ,this last clause is very similar in sense to the one preceding1 except that indicates the soldiers' attachment to their leader1 and the leader's attitude towards them4 ,i rather doubt if can mean 8they will have confidence in their leader10 as the commentary seems to indicate4 ,that way1 the sense is not nearly so good4 ,on the other hand1 it is just possible that here1 as in ,,viii4 #h and infra1 #ee1 may 3 8without orders1 they will carry out their leader's plans40 ,the whole of this paragraph1 of course1 has reference to 8desperate ground40 #bf4 ,prohibit the taking of omens1 and do away with superstitious doubts4 is amplified by ,ts#8ao ,kung into 1 and into 4 ,cf4 the ,ss-ma ,fa1 ch4 #c3 4 ,then1 until death itself comes1 no calamity need be feared4 ,the superstitious1 8bound in to saucy doubts and fears10 degenerate into cowards and 8die many times before their deaths40 ,tu ,mu quotes ,huang-shih ,kung3 8#8,spells and incantations should be strictly forbidden1 and no officer allowed to inquire by divination into the fortunes of an army1 for fear the soldier's minds should be seriously perturbed4' ,the meaning is10 he continues1 8that if all doubts and scruples are discarded1 your men will never falter in their resolution until they die40 ,the reading of the standard text is 8there will be no refuge10 which does not fit in well here4 ,i therefore prefer to adopt the variant 1 which evidently stood in ,li ,ch#8an's text4 #bg4 ,if our soldiers are not overburdened with money1 it is not because they have a distaste for riches2 if their lives are not unduly long1 it is not because they are disinclined to longevity4 ,chang ,y has the best note on this passage3 8,wealth and long life are things for which all men have a natural inclination4 ,hence1 if they burn or fling away valuables1 and sacrifice their own lives1 it is not that they dislike them1 but simply that they have no choice40 ,sun ,tz is slyly insinuating that1 as soldiers are but human1 it is for the general to see that temptations to shirk fighting and grow rich are not thrown in their way4 ,capt4 ,calthrop1 mistaking for the adjective1 has3 8not because money is a bad thing 444 not because long life is evil40 #bh4 ,on the day they are ordered out to battle1 your soldiers may weep1 ,the word in the ,chinese is 8snivel40 ,this is taken to indicate more genuine grief than tears alone4 those sitting up bedewing their garments1 and those lying down letting the tears run down their cheeks4 ,not because they are afraid1 but because1 as ,ts#8ao ,kung says1 8all have embraced the firm resolution to do or die40 ,we may remember that the heroes of the ,iliad were equally childlike in showing their emotion4 ,chang ,y alludes to the mournful parting at the ,i ,river between ,ching ,k#8o and his friends1 when the former was sent to attempt the life of the ,king of ,ch#8in 7afterwards ,first ,emperor7 in #bbg ,b4,c4 ,the tears of all flowed down like rain as he bade them farewell and uttered the following lines3 8,the shrill blast is blowing1 ,chilly the burn2 ,your champion is going--,not to return40#agi ,but let them once be brought to bay1 and they will display the courage of a ,chu or a ,kuei4 was the personal name of ,chuan ,chu1 a native of the ,wu ,state and contemporary with ,sun ,tz himself1 who was employed by ,kung-tz ,kuang1 better known as ,ho ,l ,wang1 to assassinate his sovereign ,wang ,liao with a dagger which he secreted in the belly of a fish served up at a banquet4 ,he succeeded in his attempt1 but was immediately hacked to pieces by the king's bodyguard4 ,this was in #eae ,b4,c4 ,the other hero referred to1 ,ts#8ao ,kuei 7or ,ts#8ao ,mo71 performed the exploit which has made his name famous #aff years earlier1 in #fha ,b4,c4 ,lu had been thrice defeated by ,ch#8i1 and was just about to conclude a treaty surrendering a large slice of territory1 when ,ts#8ao ,kuei suddenly seized ,huan ,kung1 the ,duke of ,ch#8i1 as he stood on the altar steps and held a dagger against his chest4 ,none of the ,duke's retainers dared to move a muscle1 and ,ts#8ao ,kuei proceeded to demand full restitution1 declaring that ,lu was being unjustly treated because she was a smaller and weaker state4 ,huan ,kung1 in peril of his life1 was obliged to consent1 whereupon ,ts#8ao ,kuei flung away his dagger and quietly resumed his place amid the terrified assemblage without having so much as changed colour4 ,as was to be expected1 the ,duke wanted afterwards to repudiate the bargain1 but his wise old counsellor ,kuan ,chung pointed out to him the impolicy of breaking his word1 and the upshot was that this bold stroke regained for ,lu the whole of what she had lost in three pitched battles4 ,for another anecdote of ,ts#8ao ,kuei see ,,vii4 #bg1 note2 and for the biographies of these three bravos1 ,ts#8ao1 ,chuan and ,ching1 see ,shih ,chi1 ch4 #hf4 #bi4 ,the skilful tactician may be likened to the shuai-jan4 ,now the shuai-jan is a snake that is found in the ,ch#8ang mountains4 means 8suddenly0 or 8rapidly10 and the snake in question was doubtless so called owing to the rapidity of its movements4 ,through this passage1 the term has now come to be used in the sense of 8military manuvres40 ,the have apparently not been identified4 ,strike at its head1 and you will be attacked by its tail2 strike at its tail1 and you will be attacked by its head2 strike at its middle1 ,another reading in the ,y ,lan for is 8belly40 and you will be attacked by head and tail both4 #cj4 ,asked if an army can be made to imitate the shuai-jan1 ,that is1 as ,mei ,yao-ch#8n says1 8,is it possible to make the front and rear of an army each swiftly responsive to attack on the other1 just as though they were parts of a single living body80 ,i should answer1 ,yes4 ,for the men of ,wu and the men of ,yeh are enemies2 ,cf4 ,,vi4 #ba4 yet if they are crossing a river in the same boat and are caught by a storm1 they will come to each other's assistance just as the left hand helps the right4 ,the meaning is3 ,if two enemies will help each other in a time of common peril1 how much more should two parts of the same army1 bound together as they are by every tie of interest and fellow-feeling4 ,yet it is notorious that many a campaign has been ruined through lack of co-operation1 especially in the case of allied armies4 #ca4 ,hence it is not enough to put one's trust in the tethering of horses1 is said here to be equivalent to 4 and the burying of chariot wheels in the ground4 ,these quaint devices to prevent one's army from running away recall the ,athenian hero ,sphanes1 who carried an anchor with him at the battle of ,plataea1 by means of which he fastened himself firmly to one spot4 ,see ,herodotus1 ,,ix4 #gd4 ,it is not enough1 says ,sun ,tz1 to render flight impossible by such mechanical means4 ,you will not succeed unless your men have tenacity and unity of purpose1 and1 above all1 a spirit of sympathetic co-operation4 ,this is the lesson which can be learned from the shuai-jan4 #cb4 ,the principle on which to manage an army is to set up one standard of courage which all must reach4 ,literally1 8level the courage of all as though it were that of one40 ,if the ideal army is to form a single organic whole1 then it follows that the resolution and spirit of its component parts must be of the same quality1 or at any rate must not fall below a certain standard4 ,wellington's seemingly ungrateful description of his army at ,waterloo as 8the worst he had ever commanded0 meant no more than that it was deficient in this important particular--unity of spirit and courage4 ,had he not foreseen the ,belgian defections and carefully kept those troops in the background1 he would almost certainly have lost the day4 #cc4 ,how to make the best of both strong and weak--that is a question involving the proper use of ground4 ,this is rather a hard sentence on the first reading1 but the key to it will be found1 firstly1 in the pause after 1 and next1 in the meaning of itself4 ,the best equivalent for this that ,i can think of is the ,german 8zur ,geltung kommen40 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n's paraphrase is3 8,the way to eliminate the differences of strong and weak and to make both serviceable is to utilise accidental features of the ground40 ,less reliable troops1 if posted in strong positions1 will hold out as long as better troops on more exposed terrain4 ,the advantage of position neutralises the inferiority in stamina and courage4 ,col4 ,henderson says3 8,with all respect to the text books1 and to ordinary tactical teaching1 ,i am inclined to think that the study of ground is often overlooked1 and that by no means sufficient importance is attached to the selection of positions 444 and to the immense advantages that are to be derived1 whether you are defending or attacking1 from the proper utilisation of natural features40#ahj #cd4 ,thus the skilful general conducts his army just as though he were leading a single man1 willy-nilly1 by the hand4 ,tu ,mu says3 8,the simile has reference to the ease with which he does it40 means that he makes it impossible for his troops to do otherwise than obey4 ,chang ,y quotes a jingle1 to be found in ,wu ,tz1 ch4 #d3 4 #ce4 ,it is the business of a general to be quiet and thus ensure secrecy2 upright and just1 and thus maintain order4 seems to combine the meanings 8noiseless0 and 8imperturbable10 both of which attributes would of course conduce to secrecy4 ,tu ,mu explains as 8deep and inscrutable10 and as 8fair and unbiassed40 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n alone among the commentators takes in the sense of 8self-controlled40 and are causally connected with and respectively4 ,this is not brought out at all in ,capt4 ,calthrop's rendering3 8,the general should be calm1 inscrutable1 just and prudent40 ,the last adjective1 moreover1 can in no sense be said to represent 4 #cf4 ,he must be able to mystify his officers and men by false reports and appearances1 ,literally1 8to deceive their eyes and ears0-- being here used as a verb in the sense of 4 and thus keep them in total ignorance4 ,ts#8ao ,kung gives us one of his excellent apophthegms3 8,the troops must not be allowed to share your schemes in the beginning2 they may only rejoice with you over their happy outcome40 8,to mystify1 mislead1 and surprise the enemy10 is one of the first principles in war1 as has been frequently pointed out4 ,but how about the other process--the mystification of one's own men8 ,those who may think that ,sun ,tz is over-emphatic on this point would do well to read ,col4 ,henderson's remarks on ,stonewall ,jackson's ,valley campaign3 8,the infinite pains10 he says1 8with which ,jackson sought to conceal1 even from his most trusted staff officers1 his movements1 his intentions1 and his thoughts1 a commander less thorough would have pronounced useless0--etc4 etc4#aha ,in the year #hh ,a4,d41 as we read in ch4 #dg of the ,hou ,han ,shu1 8,pan ,ch#8ao took the field with #be1jjj men from ,khotan and other ,central ,asian states with the object of crushing ,yarkand4 ,the ,king of ,kutcha replied by dispatching his chief commander to succour the place with an army drawn from the kingdoms of ,wn-su1 ,ku-mo and ,wei-t#8ou1 totalling #ej1jjj men4 ,pan ,ch#8ao summoned his officers and also the ,king of ,khotan to a council of war1 and said3 #8,our forces are now outnumbered and unable to make head against the enemy4 ,the best plan1 then1 is for us to separate and disperse1 each in a different direction4 ,the ,king of ,khotan will march away by the easterly route1 and ,i will then return myself towards the west4 ,let us wait until the evening drum has sounded and then start4' ,pan ,ch#8ao now secretly released the prisoners whom he had taken alive1 and the ,king of ,kutcha was thus informed of his plans4 ,much elated by the news1 the latter set off at once at the head of #aj1jjj horsemen to bar ,pan ,ch#8ao's retreat in the west1 while the ,king of ,wn-su rode eastwards with #hjjj horse in order to intercept the ,king of ,khotan4 ,as soon as ,pan ,ch#8ao knew that the two chieftains had gone1 he called his divisions together1 got them well in hand1 and at cock-crow hurled them against the army of ,yarkand1 as it lay encamped4 ,the barbarians1 panic-stricken1 fled in confusion1 and were closely pursued by ,pan ,ch#8ao4 ,over #ejjj heads were brought back as trophies1 besides immense spoils in the shape of horses and cattle and valuables of every description4 ,yarkand then capitulating1 ,kutcha and the other kingdoms drew off their respective forces4 ,from that time forward1 ,pan ,ch#8ao's prestige completely overawed the countries of the west40 ,in this case1 we see that the ,chinese general not only kept his own officers in ignorance of his real plans1 but actually took the bold step of dividing his army in order to deceive the enemy4 #cg4 ,by altering his arrangements and changing his plans1 ,wang ,hsi thinks that this means1 not using the same stratagem twice4 ,he says3 4 he keeps the enemy without definite knowledge4 ,note that denotes the enemy1 as opposed to the of #cf4 ,capt4 ,calthrop1 not perceiving this1 joins the two paragraphs into one4 ,chang ,y quotes as saying3 8,the axiom1 that war is based on deception1 does not apply only to deception of the enemy4 ,you must deceive even your own soldiers4 ,make them follow you1 but without letting them know why40 ,by shifting his camp and taking circuitous routes1 he prevents the enemy from anticipating his purpose4 ,wang ,hsi paraphrases as 8camp on easy ground10 and ,chang ,y follows him1 saying3 4 ,but this is an utterly untenable view4 ,for 1 cf4 ,,vii4 #d4 ,chia ,lin1 retaining his old interpretation of those words1 is now obliged to explain as 8cause the enemy to shift his camp10 which is awkward in the extreme4 #ch4 ,at the critical moment1 the leader of an army acts like one who has climbed up a height and then kicks away the ladder behind him4 ,i must candidly confess that ,i do not understand the syntax of 1 though the meaning is fairly plain4 ,the difficulty has evidently been felt1 for ,tu ,mu tells us that one text omits 4 ,it is more likely1 however1 that a couple of characters have dropped out4 ,he carries his men deep into hostile territory before he shows his hand4 1 literally1 8releases the spring0 7see ,v4 #ae71 that is1 takes some decisive step which makes it impossible for the army to return--like ,hsiang ,y1 who sunk his ships after crossing a river4 ,ch#8n ,hao1 followed by ,chia ,lin1 understands the words less well as 8puts forth every artifice at his command40 ,but in this derived sense occurs nowhere else in ,sun ,tz4 #ci4 ,he burns his boats and breaks his cooking-pots2 ,omitted in the ,t#8u ,shu4 like a shepherd driving a flock of sheep1 he drives his men this way and that1 and none knows whither he is going4 ,the ,t#8u ,shu inserts another after 4 ,tu ,mu says3 8,the army is only cognisant of orders to advance or retreat2 it is ignorant of the ulterior ends of attacking and conquering40 #dj4 ,to muster his host and bring it into danger3--this may be termed the business of the general4 ,sun ,tz means that after mobilisation there should be no delay in aiming a blow at the enemy's heart4 ,with cf4 supra1 #bc3 4 ,note how he returns again and again to this point4 ,among the warring states of ancient ,china1 desertion was no doubt a much more present fear and serious evil than it is in the armies of to-day4 #da4 ,the different measures suited to the nine varieties of ground2 ,chang ,y says3 8,one must not be hide-bound in interpreting the rules for the nine varieties of ground4 the expediency of aggressive or defensive tactics2 ,the use of 8contraction and expansion0 may be illustrated by the saying 1 which almost exactly corresponds to the ,french 8il faut reculer pour mieux sauter40#ahb ,capt4 ,calthrop1 more suo1 avoids a real translation and has3 8the suiting of the means to the occasion40 and the fundamental laws of human nature3 these are things that must most certainly be studied4 #db4 ,when invading hostile territory1 the general principle is1 that penetrating deeply brings cohesion2 penetrating but a short way means dispersion4 ,cf4 supra1 #bj4 #dc4 ,when you leave your own country behind1 and take your army across neighbouring territory1 ,chang ,y's paraphrase is 4 you find yourself on critical ground4 ,this 8ground0 is cursorily mentioned in ,,viii4 #b1 but it does not figure among the ,nine of this chapter or the ,six in chap4 ,x4 ,one's first impulse would be to translate it 8distant ground0 7 is commonly used in the sense of 8distant lands071 but this1 if we can trust the commentators1 is precisely what is not meant here4 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n says it is 8a position not far enough advanced to be called #8facile1' and not near enough to home to be called #8dispersive1' but something between the two40 ,that1 of course1 does not explain the name 1 which seems to imply that the general has severed his communications and temporarily cut himself off from his base4 ,thus1 ,wang ,hsi says3 8,it is ground separated from home by an interjacent state1 whose territory we have had to cross in order to reach it4 ,hence it is incumbent on us to settle our business there quickly40 ,he adds that this position is of rare occurrence1 which is the reason why it is not included among the 4 ,capt4 ,calthrop gives but a poor rendering of this sentence3 8,to leave home and cross the borders is to be free from interference40 ,when there are means of communication ,the ,t#8u ,shu reads for 4 on all four sides1 the ground is one of intersecting highways4 ,from down to the end of #de1 we have some of the definitions of the early part of the chapter repeated in slightly different language4 ,capt4 ,calthrop omits these altogether4 #dd4 ,when you penetrate deeply into a country1 it is serious ground4 ,when you penetrate but a little way1 it is facile ground4 #de4 ,when you have the enemy's strongholds on your rear1 4 and narrow passes in front1 it is hemmed-in ground4 ,when there is no place of refuge at all1 it is desperate ground4 #df4 ,therefore1 on dispersive ground1 ,i would inspire my men with unity of purpose4 ,this end1 according to ,tu ,mu1 is best attained by remaining on the defensive1 and avoiding battle4 ,cf4 supra1 #aa4 ,on facile ground1 ,i would see that there is close connection between all parts of my army4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien has instead of 4 ,the present reading is supported by the of ,chng ,yu-hsien4 ,as ,tu ,mu says1 the object is to guard against two possible contingencies3 87#a7 the desertion of our own troops2 7#b7 a sudden attack on the part of the enemy40 ,cf4 ,,vii4 #ag3 4 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n says3 8,on the march1 the regiments should be in close touch2 in an encampment1 there should be continuity between the fortifications40 ,he seems to have forgotten1 by the way1 what ,sun ,tz says above3 4 #dg4 ,on contentious ground1 ,i would hurry up my rear4 ,this is ,ts#8ao ,kung's interpretation4 ,chang ,y adopts it1 saying3 8,we must quickly bring up our rear1 so that head and tail may both reach the goal40 ,that is1 they must not be allowed to straggle up a long way apart4 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n offers another equally plausible explanation3 8,supposing the enemy has not yet reached the coveted position1 and we are behind him1 we should advance with all speed in order to dispute its possession40 would thus denote the enemy1 being the preposition1 and would retain its usual intransitive sense4 ,cf4 ,,vii4 #d3 4 ,ch#8n ,hao1 on the other hand1 assuming that the enemy has had time to select his own ground1 quotes ,,vi4 #a1 where ,sun ,tz warns us against coming exhausted to the attack4 ,his own idea of the situation is rather vaguely expressed3 8,if there is a favourable position lying in front of you1 detach a picked body of troops to occupy it2 then if the enemy1 relying on their numbers1 come up to make a fight for it1 you may fall quickly on their rear with your main body1 and victory will be assured40 ,it was thus1 he adds1 that ,chao ,sh beat the army of ,ch#8in4 ,see p4 #eg4 ,li ,ch#8an would read for 1 it is not easy to see why4 #dh4 ,on open ground1 ,i would keep a vigilant eye on my defences4 ,as ,wang ,hsi says1 8fearing a surprise attack40 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien reads here 7see next sentence74 ,on ground of intersecting highways1 ,i would consolidate my alliances4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien reads 1 which ,tu ,yu explains as 8watching the market towns10 8the hotbeds of revolution40 ,capt4 ,calthrop translates by the same words as in #ab3 8cultivate intercourse40 #di4 ,on serious ground1 ,i would try to ensure a continuous stream of supplies4 ,the commentators take this as referring to forage and plunder1 not1 as one might expect1 to an unbroken communication with a home base4 ,one text1 indeed1 gives the reading 4 ,cf4 #ac4 ,capt4 ,calthrop's 8be careful of supplies0 fails to render the force of 4 ,on difficult ground1 ,i would keep pushing on along the road4 ,capt4 ,calthrop's 8do not linger0 cannot be called a translation1 but only a paraphrase of the paraphrase offered by ,ts#8ao ,kung3 8,pass away from it in all haste40 #ej4 ,on hemmed-in ground1 ,i would block any way of retreat4 8,to make it seem that ,i mean to defend the position1 whereas my real intention is to burst suddenly through the enemy's lines0 ,mng ,shih2 8in order to make my soldiers fight with desperation0 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n2 8fearing lest my men be tempted to run away0 ,wang ,hsi4 ,tu ,mu points out that this is the converse of ,,vii4 #cf1 where it is the enemy who is surrounded4 ,in #ecb ,a4,d41 ,kao ,huan1 afterwards ,emperor and canonised as ,shn-wu1 was surrounded by a great army under rh-chu ,chao and others4 ,his own force was comparatively small1 consisting only of #bjjj horse and something under #cj1jjj foot4 ,the lines of investment had not been drawn very closely together1 gaps being left at certain points4 ,but ,kao ,huan1 instead of trying to escape1 actually made a shift to block all the remaining outlets himself by driving into them a number of oxen and donkeys roped together4 ,as soon as his officers and men saw that there was nothing for it but to conquer or die1 their spirits rose to an extraordinary pitch of exaltation1 and they charged with such desperate ferocity that the opposing ranks broke and crumbled under their onslaught4 ,see ,tu ,mu's commentary1 and ch4 #a1 fol4 #f4 ,on desperate ground1 ,i would proclaim to my soldiers the hopelessness of saving their lives4 ,tu ,yu says3 8,burn your baggage and impedimenta1 throw away your stores and provisions1 choke up the wells1 destroy your cooking-stoves1 and make it plain to your men that they cannot survive1 but must fight to the death40 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n says epigrammatically3 8,the only chance of life lies in giving up all hope of it40 ,this concludes what ,sun ,tz has to say about 8grounds0 and the 8variations0 corresponding to them4 ,reviewing the passages which bear on this important subject1 we cannot fail to be struck by the desultory and unmethodical fashion in which it is treated4 ,sun ,tz begins abruptly in ,,viii4 #b to enumerate 8variations0 before touching on 8grounds0 at all1 but only mentions five1 namely nos4 #g1 #e1 #h and #i of the subsequent list1 and one that is not included in it4 ,a few varieties of ground are dealt with in the earlier portion of chap4 ,,ix1 and then chap4 ,x sets forth six new grounds1 with six variations of plan to match4 ,none of these is mentioned again1 though the first is hardly to be distinguished from ground no4 #d in the next chapter4 ,at last1 in chap4 ,,xi1 we come to the ,nine ,grounds par excellence1 immediately followed by the variations4 ,this takes us down to #ad4 ,in #dc-de1 fresh definitions are provided for nos4 #e1 #f1 #b1 #h and #i 7in the order given71 as well as for the tenth ground noticed in chap ,,viii2 and finally1 the nine variations are enumerated once more from beginning to end1 all1 with the exception of #e1 #f and #g1 being different from those previously given4 ,though it is impossible to account for the present state of ,sun ,tz's text1 a few suggestive facts may be brought into prominence3 7#a7 ,chap4 ,,viii1 according to the title1 should deal with nine variations1 whereas only five appear4 7#b7 ,it is an abnormally short chapter4 7#c7 ,chap4 ,,xi is entitled ,the ,nine ,grounds4 ,several these are defined twice over1 besides which there are two distinct lists of the corresponding variations4 7#d7 ,the length of the chapter is disproportionate1 being double that of any other except ,,ix4 ,i do not propose to draw any inferences from these facts1 beyond the general conclusion that ,sun ,tz's work cannot have come down to us in the shape in which it left his hands3 chap4 ,,viii is obviously defective and probably out of place1 while ,,xi seems to contain matter that has either been added by a later hand or ought to appear elsewhere4 #ea4 ,for it is the soldier's disposition to offer an obstinate resistance when surrounded1 to fight hard when he cannot help himself1 and to obey promptly when he has fallen into danger4 is rendered by ,capt4 ,calthrop3 8to pursue the enemy if he retreat40 ,but cannot mean 8to retreat40 ,its primary sense is to pass over1 hence to go too far1 to exceed or to err4 ,here1 however1 the word has lost all implication of censure1 and appears to mean 8to pass the boundary line dividing safety from danger10 or1 as ,chang ,y puts it1 8to be deeply involved in a perilous position40 ,the latter commentator alludes to the conduct of ,pan ,ch#8ao's devoted followers in #gc ,a4,d4 ,the story runs thus in the ,hou ,han ,shu1 ch4 #dg1 fol4 #a vo3 8,when ,pan ,ch#8ao arrived at ,shan-shan1 ,kuang1 the ,king of the country1 received him at first with great politeness and respect2 but shortly afterwards his behaviour underwent a sudden change1 and he became remiss and negligent4 ,pan ,ch#8ao spoke about this to the officers of his suite3 #8,have you not noticed1' he said1 #8that ,kuang's polite intentions are on the wane8 ,this must signify that envoys have come from the ,northern barbarians1 and that consequently he is in a state of indecision1 not knowing with which side to throw in his lot4 ,that surely is the reason4 ,the truly wise man1 we are told1 can perceive things before they have come to pass2 how much more1 then1 those that are already manifest6' ,thereupon he called one of the natives who had been assigned to his service1 and set a trap for him1 saying3 #8,where are those envoys from the ,hsiung-nu who arrived some days ago8' ,the man was so taken aback that between surprise and fear he presently blurted out the whole truth4 ,pan ,ch#8ao1 keeping his informant carefully under lock and key1 then summoned a general gathering of his officers1 thirty-six in all1 and began drinking with them4 ,when the wine had mounted into their heads a little1 he tried to rouse their spirit still further by addressing them thus3 #8,gentlemen1 here we are in the heart of an isolated region1 anxious to achieve riches and honour by some great exploit4 ,now it happens that an ambassador from the ,hsiung-nu arrived in this kingdom only a few days ago1 and the result is that the respectful courtesy extended towards us by our royal host has disappeared4 ,should this envoy prevail upon him to seize our party and hand us over to the ,hsiung-nu1 our bones will become food for the wolves of the desert4 ,what are we to do8' ,with one accord1 the officers replied3 #8,standing as we do in peril of our lives1 we will follow our commander through life and death' 7740 ,for the sequel of this adventure1 see chap4 ,,xii4 #a1 note4 #eb4 ,we cannot enter into alliance with neighbouring princes until we are acquainted with their designs4 ,we are not fit to lead an army on the march unless we are familiar with the face of the country--its mountains and forests1 its pitfalls and precipices1 its marshes and swamps4 ,we shall be unable to turn natural advantages to account unless we make use of local guides4 ,these three sentences are repeated from ,,vii4 #ab-ad--;in order to emphasise their importance1 the commentators seem to think4 ,i prefer to regard them as interpolated here in order to form an antecedent to the following words4 ,with regard to local guides1 ,sun ,tz might have added that there is always the risk of going wrong1 either through their treachery or some misunderstanding such as ,livy records 7,,xxii4 #ac73 ,hannibal1 we are told1 ordered a guide to lead him into the neighbourhood of ,casinum1 where there was an important pass to be occupied2 but his ,carthaginian accent1 unsuited to the pronunciation of ,latin names1 caused the guide to understand ,casilinum instead of ,casinum1 and turning from his proper route1 he took the army in that direction1 the mistake not being discovered until they had almost arrived4 #ec4 ,to be ignorant of any one of the following four or five principles ,referring1 ,i think1 to what is contained in #ed1 #ee4 ,ts#8ao ,kung1 thinking perhaps of the in ,,viii4 #f1 takes them to be 8the advantages and disadvantages attendant on the nine varieties of ground40 ,the ,t#8u ,shu reads 4 does not befit a warlike prince4 1 8one who rules by force10 was a term specially used for those princes who established their hegemony over other feudal states4 ,the famous of the #gth century ,b4,c4 were 7#a7 ,duke ,huan of ,ch#8i1 7#b7 ,duke ,wn of ,chin1 7#c7 ,duke ,hsiang of ,sung1 7#d7 ,prince ,chuang of ,ch#8u1 7#e7 ,duke ,mu of ,ch#8in4 ,their reigns covered the period #fhe-eia ,b4,c4 #ed4 ,when a warlike prince attacks a powerful state1 his generalship shows itself in preventing the concentration of the enemy's forces4 ,he overawes his opponents1 ,here and in the next sentence1 the ,y ,lan inserts after 4 and their allies are prevented from joining against him4 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n constructs one of the chains of reasoning that are so much affected by the ,chinese3 8,in attacking a powerful state1 if you can divide her forces1 you will have a superiority in strength2 if you have a superiority in strength1 you will overawe the enemy2 if you overawe the enemy1 the neighbouring states will be frightened2 and if the neighbouring states are frightened1 the enemy's allies will be prevented from joining her40 ,the following gives a stronger meaning to 3 8,if the great state has once been defeated 7before she has had time to summon her allies71 then the lesser states will hold aloof and refrain from massing their forces40 ,ch#8n ,hao and ,chang ,y take the sentence in quite another way4 ,the former says3 8,powerful though a prince may be1 if he attacks a large state1 he will be unable to raise enough troops1 and must rely to some extent on external aid2 if he dispenses with this1 and with overweening confidence in his own strength1 simply tries to intimidate the enemy1 he will surely be defeated40 ,chang ,y puts his view thus3 8,if we recklessly attack a large state1 our own people will be discontented and hang back4 ,but if 7as will then be the case7 our display of military force is inferior by half to that of the enemy1 the other chieftains will take fright and refuse to join us40 ,according to this interpretation1 would refer1 not to the 1 but to the himself4 #ee4 ,hence he does not strive ,for the ,y ,lan reads 4 to ally himself with all and sundry1 1 as in #f1 stands for 8the feudal princes10 or the states ruled by them4 nor does he foster the power of other states4 ,he carries out his own secret designs1 ,for 7read shn#a7 in the meaning of 1 cf4 ,,viii4 #h4 ,the commentators are unanimous on this point1 and we must therefore beware of translating by 8secretly self-confident0 or the like4 ,capt4 ,calthrop 7omitting 7 has3 8he has confidence in himself40 keeping his antagonists in awe4 ,the train of thought appears to be this3 ,secure against a combination of his enemies4 8he can afford to reject entangling alliances and simply pursue his own secret designs1 his prestige enabling him to dispense with external friendships40 7,li ,ch#8an47 ,thus he is able to capture their cities and overthrow their kingdoms4 ,this paragraph1 though written many years before the ,ch#8in ,state became a serious menace1 is not a bad summary of the policy by which the famous ,six ,chancellors gradually paved the way for her final triumph under ,shih ,huang ,ti4 ,chang ,y1 following up his previous note1 thinks that ,sun ,tz is condemning this attitude of cold-blooded selfishness and haughty isolation4 ,he again refers to the warlike prince1 thus making it appear that in the end he is bound to succumb4 #ef4 ,bestow rewards without regard to rule1 ,wu ,tz 7ch4 #c7 less wisely says3 8,let advance be richly rewarded and retreat be heavily punished40 issue orders 1 literally1 8hang0 or 8post up40 without regard to previous arrangements2 8,in order to prevent treachery10 says ,wang ,hsi4 ,the general meaning is made clear by ,ts#8ao ,kung's quotation from the ,ss-ma ,fa3 8,give instructions only on sighting the enemy2 give rewards only when you see deserving deeds40 1 however1 presents some difficulty4 ,ts#8ao ,kung's paraphrase1 1 ,i take to mean3 8,the final instructions you give to your army should not correspond with those that have been previously posted up40 ,chang ,y simplifies this into 8your arrangements should not be divulged beforehand40 ,and ,chia ,lin says3 8there should be no fixity in your rules and arrangements40 ,not only is there danger in letting your plans be known1 but war often necessitates the entire reversal of them at the last moment4 and you will be able to handle a whole army 1 according to ,ts#8ao ,kung1 is here equal to 4 ,the exact meaning is brought out more clearly in the next paragraph4 as though you had to do with but a single man4 ,cf4 supra1 #cd4 #eg4 ,confront your soldiers with the deed itself2 never let them know your design4 ,literally1 8do not tell them words20 i4e4 do not give your reasons for any order4 ,lord ,mansfield once told a junior colleague to 8give no reasons0 for his decisions1 and the maxim is even more applicable to a general than to a judge4 ,capt4 ,calthrop translates this sentence with beautiful simplicity3 8,orders should direct the soldiers40 ,that is all4 ,when the outlook is bright1 bring it before their eyes2 but tell them nothing when the situation is gloomy4 #eh4 ,place your army in deadly peril1 and it will survive2 plunge it into desperate straits1 and it will come off in safety4 ,compare the paradoxical saying 4 ,these words of ,sun ,tz were once quoted by ,han ,hsin in explanation of the tactics he employed in one of his most brilliant battles1 already alluded to on p4 #bh1 ,in #bjd ,b4,c41 he was sent against the army of ,chao1 and halted ten miles from the mouth of the ,ching-hsing pass1 where the enemy had mustered in full force4 ,here1 at midnight1 he detached a body of #bjjj light cavalry1 every man of which was furnished with a red flag4 ,their instructions were to make their way through narrow defiles and keep a secret watch on the enemy4 8,when the men of ,chao see me in full flight10 ,han ,hsin said1 8they will abandon their fortifications and give chase4 ,this must be the sign for you to rush in1 pluck down the ,chao standards and set up the red banners of ,han in their stead40 ,turning then to his other officers1 he remarked3 8,our adversary holds a strong position1 and is not likely to come out and attack us until he sees the standard and drums of the commander-in-chief1 for fear ,i should turn back and escape through the mountains40 ,so saying1 he first of all sent out a division consisting of #aj1jjj men1 and ordered them to form in line of battle with their backs to the ,river ,ti4 ,seeing this manuvre1 the whole army of ,chao broke into loud laughter4 ,by this time it was broad daylight1 and ,han ,hsin1 displaying the generalissimo's flag1 marched out of the pass with drums beating1 and was immediately engaged by the enemy4 ,a great battle followed1 lasting for some time2 until at length ,han ,hsin and his colleague ,chang ,ni1 leaving drums and banner on the field1 fled to the division on the river bank1 where another fierce battle was raging4 ,the enemy rushed out to pursue them and to secure the trophies1 thus denuding their ramparts of men2 but the two generals succeeded in joining the other army1 which was fighting with the utmost desperation4 ,the time had now come for the #bjjj horsemen to play their part4 ,as soon as they saw the men of ,chao following up their advantage1 they galloped behind the deserted walls1 tore up the enemy's flags and replaced them by those of ,han4 ,when the ,chao army turned back from the pursuit1 the sight of these red flags struck them with terror4 ,convinced that the ,hans had got in and overpowered their king1 they broke up in wild disorder1 every effort of their leader to stay the panic being in vain4 ,then the ,han army fell on them from both sides and completed the rout1 killing a great number and capturing the rest1 amongst whom was ,king ,ya himself4444 ,after the battle1 some of ,han ,hsin's officers came to him and said3 8,in the ,art of ,war we are told to have a hill or tumulus on the right rear1 and a river or marsh on the left front4 ,this appears to be a blend of ,sun ,tz and ,t#8ai ,kung4 ,see ,,ix4 #i1 and note4 ,you1 on the contrary1 ordered us to draw up our troops with the river at our back4 ,under these conditions1 how did you manage to gain the victory80 ,the general replied3 8,i fear you gentlemen have not studied the ,art of ,war with sufficient care4 ,is it not written there3 #8,plunge your army into desperate straits and it will come off in safety2 place it in deadly peril and it will survive'8 ,had ,i taken the usual course1 ,i should never have been able to bring my colleagues round4 ,what says the ,military ,classic 778--#8,swoop down on the market-place and drive the men off to fight' 774 ,this passage does not occur in the present text of ,sun ,tz4 ,if ,i had not placed my troops in a position where they were obliged to fight for their lives1 but had allowed each man to follow his own discretion1 there would have been a general dbandade1 and it would have been impossible to do anything with them40 ,the officers admitted the force of his argument1 and said3 8,these are higher tactics than we should have been capable of40 ,see ,ch#8ien ,han ,shu1 ch4 #cd1 ff4 #d1 #e4 #ei4 ,for it is precisely when a force has fallen into harm's way that it is capable of striking a blow for victory4 ,danger has a bracing effect4 #fj4 ,success in warfare is gained by carefully accommodating ourselves to the enemy's purpose4 ,ts#8ao ,kung says3 8,feign stupidity0--by an appearance of yielding and falling in with the enemy's wishes4 ,chang ,y's note makes the meaning clear3 8,if the enemy shows an inclination to advance1 lure him on to do so2 if he is anxious to retreat1 delay on purpose that he may carry out his intention40 ,the object is to make him remiss and contemptuous before we deliver our attack4 #fa4 ,by persistently hanging on the enemy's flank1 ,i understand the first four words to mean 8accompanying the enemy in one direction40 ,ts#8ao ,kung says3 8unite the soldiers and make for the enemy40 ,but such a violent displacement of characters is quite indefensible4 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n is the only commentator who seems to have grasped the meaning3 4 ,the ,t#8u ,shu reads 4 we shall succeed in the long run ,literally1 8after a thousand li40 in killing the commander-in-chief4 ,always a great point with the ,chinese4 #fb4 ,this is called ability to accomplish a thing by sheer cunning4 ,the ,t#8u ,shu has 1 and yet another reading1 mentioned by ,ts#8ao ,kung1 is 4 ,capt4 ,calthrop omits this sentence1 after having thus translated the two preceding3 8,discover the enemy's intentions by conforming to his movements4 ,when these are discovered1 then1 with one stroke1 the general may be killed1 even though he be one hundred leagues distant40 #fc4 ,on the day that you take up your command1 does not mean 8when war is declared10 as ,capt4 ,calthrop says1 nor yet exactly1 as ,ts#8ao ,kung paraphrases it1 8when your plans are fixed10 when you have mapped out your campaign4 ,the phrase is not given in the ,p#8ei ,wn ,yn ,fu4 ,there being no causal connection discoverable between this and the preceding sentence1 must perforce be left untranslated4 block the frontier passes1 is explained by ,mei ,yao-ch#8n as 4 destroy the official tallies1 ,the locus classicus for these tallies is ,chou ,li1 ,,xiv4 fol4 #dj 7,imperial edition73 4 ,the generic term thus appears to be 1 being the special kind used at city-gates and on the frontier4 ,they were tablets of bamboo or wood1 one half of which was issued as a permit or passport by the official in charge of a gate 7 or 4 ,cf4 the 8border-warden0 of ,lun ,y ,,iii4 #bd1 who may have had similar duties47 ,when this half was returned to him1 within a fixed period1 he was authorised to open the gate and let the traveller through4 and stop the passage of all emissaries4 ,either to or from the enemy's country4 #fd4 ,be stern in the council-chamber1 ,show no weakness1 and insist on your plans being ratified by the sovereign4 indicates a hall or temple in the ,palace4 ,cf4 ,i4 #bf4 ,it is not clear if other officers would be present4 ,hardly anything can be made of 1 the reading of the standard text1 so ,i have adopted ,tu ,mu's conjecture 1 which appears in the ,t#8u ,shu4 so that you may control the situation4 ,ts#8ao ,kung explains by 1 and ,ho ,shih by 4 ,another reading is 1 and ,mei ,yao-ch#8n1 adopting this1 understands the whole sentence to mean3 ,take the strictest precautions to ensure secrecy in your deliberations4 ,capt4 ,calthrop glides rather too smoothly over the rough places4 ,his translation is3 8conduct the business of the government with vigilance40 #fe4 ,if the enemy leaves a door open1 you must rush in4 ,this looks a very simple sentence1 yet ,ts#8ao ,kung is the only commentator who takes it as ,i have done4 ,mng ,shih1 followed by ,mei ,yao-ch#8n and ,chang ,y1 defines as 8spies10 and makes an active verb3 8,if spies come from the enemy1 we must quickly let them in40 ,but ,i cannot find that the words have this meaning anywhere else4 ,on the other hand1 they may be taken as two verbs1 1 expressing the enemy's indecision whether to advance or retreat1 that being the best moment to attack him4 ,cf4 ,tao ,t ,ching1 chap4 ,x3 2 also ,li ,chi1 1 ,i4 ii4 #be4 ,it is not easy to choose between this and ,ts#8ao ,kung's explanation2 the fact that occurs shortly afterwards1 in #fh1 might be adduced in support of either4 must be understood in the sense of or 4 ,the only way to avoid this is to put between commas and translate3 8,if we leave a door open1 the enemy is sure to rush in40 #ff4 ,forestall your opponent by seizing what he holds dear1 ,cf4 supra1 #ah4 and subtly contrive to time his arrival on the ground4 ,capt4 ,calthrop hardly attempts to translate this difficult paragraph1 but invents the following instead3 8,discover what he most values1 and plan to seize it40 ,ch#8n ,hao's explanation1 however1 is clear enough3 8,if ,i manage to seize a favourable position1 but the enemy does not appear on the scene1 the advantage thus obtained cannot be turned to any practical account4 ,he who intends1 therefore1 to occupy a position of importance to the enemy1 must begin by making an artful appointment1 so to speak1 with his antagonist1 and cajole him into going there as well40 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n explains that this 8artful appointment0 is to be made through the medium of the enemy's own spies1 who will carry back just the amount of information that we choose to give them4 ,then1 having cunningly disclosed our intentions1 8we must manage1 though starting after the enemy1 to arrive before him0 7,,vii4 #d74 ,we must start after him in order to ensure his marching thither2 we must arrive before him in order to capture the place without trouble4 ,taken thus1 the present passage lends some support to ,mei ,yao-ch#8n's interpretation of #dg4 #fg4 ,walk in the path defined by rule1 stands for 8a marking-line10 hence a rule of conduct4 ,see ,mencius ,,vii4 #a4 xli4 #b4 ,ts#8ao ,kung explains it by the similar metaphor 8square and compasses40 ,the baldness of the sentiment rather inclines me to favour the reading adopted by ,chia ,lin in place of 1 which yields an exactly opposite sense1 namely3 8,discard hard and fast rules40 ,chia ,lin says3 8,victory is the only thing that matters1 and this cannot be achieved by adhering to conventional canons40 ,it is unfortunate that this variant rests on very slight authority1 for the sense yielded is certainly much more satisfactory4 ,napoleon1 as we know1 according to the veterans of the old school whom he defeated1 won his battles by violating every accepted canon of warfare4 and accommodate yourself to the enemy until you can fight a decisive battle4 ,the last four words of the ,chinese are omitted by ,capt4 ,calthrop4 ,tu ,mu says3 8,conform to the enemy's tactics until a favourable opportunity offers2 then come forth and engage in a battle that shall prove decisive40 #fh4 ,at first1 then1 exhibit the coyness of a maiden1 until the enemy gives you an opening2 afterwards emulate the rapidity of a running hare1 and it will be too late for the enemy to oppose you4 ,as the hare is noted for its extreme timidity1 the comparison hardly appears felicitous4 ,but of course ,sun ,tz was thinking only of its speed4 ,the words have been taken to mean3 ,you must flee from the enemy as quickly as an escaping hare2 but this is rightly rejected by ,tu ,mu4 ,capt4 ,calthrop is wrong in translating 8rabbit40 ,rabbits are not indigenous to ,china1 and were certainly not known there in the #fth century ,b4,c4 ,the last sixteen characters evidently form a sort of four-line jingle4 ,chap4 ,x1 it may be remembered1 closed in similar fashion4 ,,xii4 ,,the ,,attack ,,by ,,fire4 ,rather more than half the chapter 7 #a-ac7 is devoted to the subject of fire1 after which the author branches off into other topics4 #a4 ,sun ,tz said3 ,there are five ways of attacking with fire4 ,the first is to burn soldiers in their camp2 ,so ,tu ,mu4 ,li ,ch#8an says3 8,set fire to the camp1 and kill the soldiers0 7when they try to escape from the flames74 ,pan ,ch#8ao1 sent on a diplomatic mission to the ,king of ,shan-shan see ,,xi4 #ea1 note1 found himself placed in extreme peril by the unexpected arrival of an envoy from the ,hsiung-nu the mortal enemies of the ,chinese4 ,in consultation with his officers1 he exclaimed3 8#8,never venture1 never win6#ahc ,the only course open to us now is to make an assault by fire on the barbarians under cover of night1 when they will not be able to discern our numbers4 ,profiting by their panic1 we shall exterminate them completely2 this will cool the ,king's courage and cover us with glory1 besides ensuring the success of our mission4' ,the officers all replied that it would be necessary to discuss the matter first with the ,intendant 774 ,pan ,ch#8ao then fell into a passion3 #8,it is to-day1' he cried1 #8that our fortunes must be decided6 ,the ,intendant is only a humdrum civilian1 who on hearing of our project will certainly be afraid1 and everything will be brought to light4 ,an inglorious death is no worthy fate for valiant warriors4' ,all then agreed to do as he wished4 ,accordingly1 as soon as night came on1 he and his little band quickly made their way to the barbarian camp4 ,a strong gale was blowing at the time4 ,pan ,ch#8ao ordered ten of the party to take drums and hide behind the enemy's barracks1 it being arranged that when they saw flames shoot up1 they should begin drumming and yelling with all their might4 ,the rest of his men1 armed with bows and crossbows1 he posted in ambuscade at the gate of the camp4 ,he then set fire to the place from the windward side1 whereupon a deafening noise of drums and shouting arose on the front and rear of the ,hsiung-nu1 who rushed out pell-mell in frantic disorder4 ,pan ,ch#8ao slew three of them with his own hand1 while his companions cut off the heads of the envoy and thirty of his suite4 ,the remainder1 more than a hundred in all1 perished in the flames4 ,on the following day1 ,pan ,ch#8ao went back and informed ,kuo ,hsn the ,intendant of what he had done4 ,the latter was greatly alarmed and turned pale4 ,but ,pan ,ch#8ao1 divining his thoughts1 said with uplifted hand3 #8,although you did not go with us last night1 ,i should not think1 ,sir1 of taking sole credit for our exploit4' ,this satisfied ,kuo ,hsn1 and ,pan ,ch#8ao1 having sent for ,kuang1 ,king of ,shan-shan1 showed him the head of the barbarian envoy4 ,the whole kingdom was seized with fear and trembling1 which ,pan ,ch#8ao took steps to allay by issuing a public proclamation4 ,then1 taking the king's son as hostage1 he returned to make his report to ,tou ,ku40 ,hou ,han ,shu1 ch4 #dg1 ff4 #a1 #b4 the second is to burn stores2 ,tu ,mu says3 8,provisions1 fuel and fodder40 ,in order to subdue the rebellious population of ,kiangnan1 ,kao ,kng recommended ,wn ,ti of the ,sui dynasty to make periodical raids and burn their stores of grain1 a policy which in the long run proved entirely successful4 1 ch4 #da1 fol4 #b4 the third is to burn baggage-trains2 ,an example given is the destruction of ,yan ,shao's waggons and impedimenta by ,ts#8ao ,ts#8ao in #bjj ,a4,d4 the fourth is to burn arsenals and magazines2 ,tu ,mu says that the things contained in and are the same4 ,he specifies weapons and other implements1 bullion and clothing4 ,cf4 ,,vii4 #aa4 the fifth is to hurl dropping fire amongst the enemy4 ,no fewer than four totally diverse explanations of this sentence are given by the commentators1 not one of which is quite satisfactory4 ,it is obvious1 at any rate1 that the ordinary meaning of 78regiment0 or 8company07 is here inadmissible4 ,in spite of ,tu ,mu's note1 1 ,i must regard 8company burning0 7,capt4 ,calthrop's rendering7 as nonsense pure and simple4 ,we may also1 ,i think1 reject the very forced explanation given by ,li ,ch#8an1 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n and ,chang ,y1 of whom the last-named says3 8burning a regiment's weapons1 so that the soldiers may have nothing to fight with40 ,that leaves only two solutions open3 one1 favoured by ,chia ,lin and ,ho ,shih1 is to take in the somewhat uncommon sense of 8a road10 4 ,the commentary on a passage in the 1 quoted in ,k#8ang ,hsi1 defines 7read sui7 as 8a difficult road leading through a valley40 ,here it would stand for the 8line of supplies10 which might be effectually interrupted if the country roundabout was laid waste with fire4 ,finally1 the interpretation which ,i have adopted is that given by ,tu ,yu in the ,t#8ung ,tien4 ,he reads 7which is not absolutely necessary1 chui being sometimes used in the same sense71 with the following note3 8,to drop fire into the enemy's camp4 ,the method by which this may be done is to set the tips of arrows alight by dipping them into a brazier1 and then shoot them from powerful crossbows into the enemy's lines40 #b4 ,in order to carry out an attack with fire1 we must have means available4 ,ts#8ao ,kung thinks that 8traitors in the enemy's camp0 are referred to4 ,he thus takes as the efficient cause only4 ,but ,ch#8n ,hao is more likely to be right in saying3 8,we must have favourable circumstances in general1 not merely traitors to help us40 ,chia ,lin says3 8,we must avail ourselves of wind and dry weather40 ,the material for raising fire should always be kept in readiness4 is explained by ,ts#8ao ,kung as 8appliances for making fire40 ,tu ,mu suggests 8dry vegetable matter1 reeds1 brushwood1 straw1 grease1 oil1 etc40 ,here we have the material cause4 ,chang ,y says3 8vessels for hoarding fire1 stuff for lighting fires40 #c4 ,there is a proper season for making attacks with fire1 and special days for starting a conflagration4 ,a fire must not be begun 8recklessly0 or 8at haphazard40 #d4 ,the proper season is when the weather is very dry2 the special days are those when the moon is in the constellations of the ,sieve1 the ,wall1 the ,wing or the ,cross-bar2 ,these are1 respectively1 the #gth1 #adth1 #bgth1 and #bhth of the ,twenty-eight ,stellar ,mansions1 corresponding roughly to ,sagittarius1 ,pegasus1 ,crater and ,corvus4 ,the original text1 followed by the ,t#8u ,shu1 has in place of 2 the present reading rests on the authority of the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan4 ,tu ,mu says3 4 ,for 1 both ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan give the more precise location 4 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n tells us that by is meant the tail of the ,dragon2 by 1 the eastern part of that constellation2 by and 1 the tail of the ,quail4 for these four are all days of rising wind4 is elliptical for 4 ,hsiao ,i 7afterwards fourth ,emperor of the ,liang dynasty1 ,a4,d4 #eeb-eee7 is quoted by ,tu ,yu as saying that the days of spring1 of summer1 of autumn1 and of winter bring fierce gales of wind and rain4 #e4 ,in attacking with fire1 one should be prepared to meet five possible developments3 ,i take as qualifying 1 not 1 and therefore think that ,chang ,y is wrong in referring to the five methods of attack set forth in #a4 ,what follows has certainly nothing to do with these4 #f4 7#a7 ,when fire breaks out inside the enemy's camp1 respond at once ,the ,y ,lan incorrectly reads for 4 with an attack from without4 #g4 7#b7 ,if there is an outbreak of fire1 but the enemy's soldiers remain quiet1 bide your time and do not attack4 ,the original text omits 4 ,the prime object of attacking with fire is to throw the enemy into confusion4 ,if this effect is not produced1 it means that the enemy is ready to receive us4 ,hence the necessity for caution4 #h4 7#c7 ,when the force of the flames has reached its height1 follow it up with an attack1 if that is practicable2 if not1 stay where you are4 ,ts#8ao ,kung says3 8,if you see a possible way1 advance2 but if you find the difficulties too great1 retire40 #i4 7#d7 ,if it is possible to make an assault with fire from without1 do not wait for it to break out within1 but deliver your attack at a favourable moment4 ,tu ,mu says that the previous paragraphs had reference to the fire breaking out 7either accidentally1 we may suppose1 or by the agency of incendiaries7 inside the enemy's camp4 8,but10 he continues1 8if the enemy is settled in a waste place littered with quantities of grass1 or if he has pitched his camp in a position which can be burnt out1 we must carry our fire against him at any seasonable opportunity1 and not wait on in hopes of an outbreak occurring within1 for fear our opponents should themselves burn up the surrounding vegetation1 and thus render our own attempts fruitless40 ,the famous ,li ,ling once baffled the leader of the ,hsiung-nu in this way4 ,the latter1 taking advantage of a favourable wind1 tried to set fire to the ,chinese general's camp1 but found that every scrap of combustible vegetation in the neighbourhood had already been burnt down4 ,on the other hand1 ,po-ts#8ai1 a general of the ,yellow ,turban rebels1 was badly defeated in #ahd ,a4,d4 through his neglect of this simple precaution4 8,at the head of a large army he was besieging ,ch#8ang-sh1 which was held by ,huang-fu ,sung4 ,the garrison was very small1 and a general feeling of nervousness pervaded the ranks2 so ,huang-fu ,sung called his officers together and said3 #8,in war1 there are various indirect methods of attack1 and numbers do not count for everything4 ,the commentator here quotes ,sun ,tz1 ,v4 #e1 #f and #aj4 ,now the rebels have pitched their camp in the midst of thick grass 771 which will easily burn when the wind blows4 ,if we set fire to it at night1 they will be thrown into a panic1 and we can make a sortie and attack them on all sides at once1 thus emulating the achievement of ,t#8ien ,tan4' ,see p4 #ij4 ,that same evening1 a strong breeze sprang up2 so ,huang-fu ,sung instructed his soldiers to bind reeds together into torches and mount guard on the city walls1 after which he sent out a band of daring men1 who stealthily made their way through the lines and started the fire with loud shouts and yells4 ,simultaneously1 a glare of light shot up from the city-walls1 and ,huang-fu ,sung1 sounding his drums1 led a rapid charge1 which threw the rebels into confusion and put them to headlong flight40 ,hou ,han ,shu1 ch4 #ga1 f4 #b ro4 #aj4 7#e7 ,when you start a fire1 be to windward of it4 ,do not attack from the leeward4 ,chang ,y1 following ,tu ,yu1 says3 8,when you make a fire1 the enemy will retreat away from it2 if you oppose his retreat and attack him then1 he will fight desperately1 which will not conduce to your success40 ,a rather more obvious explanation is given by ,tu ,mu3 8,if the wind is in the east1 begin burning to the east of the enemy1 and follow up the attack yourself from that side4 ,if you start the fire on the east side1 and then attack from the west1 you will suffer in the same way as your enemy40 #aa4 ,a wind that rises in the daytime lasts long1 but a night breeze soon falls4 ,cf4 ,lao ,tz's saying3 8,a violent wind does not last the space of a morning40 7,tao ,t ,ching1 chap4 #bc47 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n and ,wang ,hsi say3 8,a day breeze dies down at nightfall1 and a night breeze at daybreak4 ,this is what happens as a general rule40 ,the phenomenon observed may be correct enough1 but how this sense is to be obtained is not apparent4 #ab4 ,in every army1 the five developments connected with fire must be known1 the movements of the stars calculated1 and a watch kept for the proper days4 ,tu ,mu's commentary shows what has to be supplied in order to make sense out of 4 ,he says3 8,we must make calculations as to the paths of the stars1 and watch for the days on which wind will rise1 before making our attack with fire40 ,chang ,y seems to take in the sense of 3 8,we must not only know how to assail our opponents with fire1 but also be on our guard against similar attacks from them40 #ac4 ,hence those who use fire as an aid to the attack show intelligence2 ,i have not the least hesitation in rejecting the commentators' explanation of as 4 ,thus ,chang ,y says3 8444 will clearly i4e4 obviously be able to gain the victory40 ,this is not only clumsy in itself1 but does not balance in the next clause4 ,for 8intelligent10 cf4 infra1 #af1 and ,lun ,y ,,xii4 #f4 those who use water as an aid to the attack gain an accession of strength4 ,capt4 ,calthrop gives an extraordinary rendering of the paragraph3 8444 if the attack is to be assisted1 the fire must be unquenchable4 ,if water is to assist the attack1 the flood must be overwhelming40 #ad4 ,by means of water1 an enemy may be intercepted1 but not robbed of all his belongings4 ,ts#8ao ,kung's note is3 8,we can merely obstruct the enemy's road or divide his army1 but not sweep away all his accumulated stores40 ,water can do useful service1 but it lacks the terrible destructive power of fire4 ,this is the reason1 ,chang ,y concludes1 why the former is dismissed in a couple of sentences1 whereas the attack by fire is discussed in detail4 ,wu ,tz 7ch4 #d7 speaks thus of the two elements3 8,if an army is encamped on low-lying marshy ground1 from which the water cannot run off1 and where the rainfall is heavy1 it may be submerged by a flood4 ,if an army is encamped in wild marsh lands thickly overgrown with weeds and brambles1 and visited by frequent gales1 it may be exterminated by fire40 #ae4 ,unhappy is the fate of one who tries to win his battles and succeed in his attacks without cultivating the spirit of enterprise2 for the result is waste of time and general stagnation4 ,this is one of the most perplexing passages in ,sun ,tz4 ,the difficulty lies mainly in 1 of which two interpretations appear possible4 ,most of the commentators understand in the sense 7not known to ,k#8ang ,hsi7 of 8reward0 or 8promote10 and as referring to the merit of officers and men4 ,thus ,ts#8ao ,kung says3 8,rewards for good service should not be deferred a single day40 ,and ,tu ,mu3 8,if you do not take opportunity to advance and reward the deserving1 your subordinates will not carry out your commands1 and disaster will ensue40 would then probably mean 8stoppage of expenditure10 or as ,chia ,lin puts it1 8the grudging of expenditure40 ,for several reasons1 however1 and in spite of the formidable array of scholars on the other side1 ,i prefer the interpretation suggested by ,mei ,yao-ch#8n alone1 whose words ,i will quote3 8,those who want to make sure of succeeding in their battles and assaults must seize the favourable moments when they come and not shrink on occasion from heroic measures3 that is to say1 they must resort to such means of attack as fire1 water and the like4 ,what they must not do1 and what will prove fatal1 is to sit still and simply hold on to the advantages they have got40 ,this retains the more usual meaning of 1 and also brings out a clear connection of thought with the previous part of the chapter4 ,with regard to 1 ,wang ,hsi paraphrases it as 8expending treasure and tiring out lit41 ageing the army40 of course is expenditure or waste in general1 either of time1 money or strength4 ,but the soldier is less concerned with the saving of money than of time4 ,for the metaphor expressed in 8stagnation0 ,i am indebted to ,ts#8ao ,kung1 who says3 4 ,capt4 ,calthrop gives a rendering which bears but little relation to the ,chinese text3 8unless victory or possession be obtained1 the enemy quickly recovers1 and misfortunes arise4 ,the war drags on1 and money is spent40 #af4 ,hence the saying3 ,the enlightened ruler lays his plans well ahead2 the good general cultivates his resources4 ,as ,sun ,tz quotes this jingle in support of his assertion in #ae1 we must suppose to stand for or something analogous4 ,the meaning seems to be that the ruler lays plans which the general must show resourcefulness in carrying out4 ,it is now plainer than ever that cannot mean 8to reward40 ,nevertheless1 ,tu ,mu quotes the following from the 1 ch4 #b3 8,the warlike prince controls his soldiers by his authority1 knits them together by good faith1 and by rewards makes them serviceable4 ,if faith decays1 there will be disruption2 if rewards are deficient1 commands will not be respected40 #ag4 ,move not unless you see an advantage2 1 the ,y ,lan's variant for 1 is adopted by ,li ,ch#8an and ,tu ,mu4 use not your troops unless there is something to be gained2 fight not unless the position is critical4 ,sun ,tz may at times appear to be over-cautious1 but he never goes so far in that direction as the remarkable passage in the ,tao ,t ,ching1 ch4 #fi3 8,i dare not take the initiative1 but prefer to act on the defensive2 ,i dare not advance an inch1 but prefer to retreat a foot40 #ah4 ,no ruler should put troops into the field merely to gratify his own spleen2 no general should fight a battle simply out of pique4 ,again compare ,lao ,tz1 ch4 #fh3 4 ,chang ,y says that is a weaker word than 1 and is therefore applied to the general as opposed to the sovereign4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan read for 1 and the latter for 4 #ai4 ,if it is to your advantage1 make a forward move2 if not1 stay where you are4 ,this is repeated from ,,xi4 #ag4 ,here ,i feel convinced that it is an interpolation1 for it is evident that #bj ought to follow immediately on #ah4 ,for 1 the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan have 4 ,capt4 ,calthrop invents a sentence which he inserts before this one3 8,do not make war unless victory may be gained thereby40 ,while he was about it1 he might have credited ,sun ,tz with something slightly less inane4 #bj4 ,anger may in time change to gladness2 vexation may be succeeded by content4 ,according to ,chang ,y1 denotes joy outwardly manifested in the countenance1 the inward sensation of happiness4 #ba4 ,but a kingdom that has once been destroyed can never come again into being2 ,the ,wu ,state was destined to be a melancholy example of this saying4 ,see p4 #ej4 nor can the dead ever be brought back to life4 #bb4 ,hence the enlightened ruler is heedful1 and the good general full of caution4 1 which usually means 8to warn10 is here equal to 4 ,this is a good instance of how ,chinese characters1 which stand for ideas1 refuse to be fettered by dictionary-made definitions4 ,the ,t#8u ,shu reads 1 as in #af4 ,this is the way to keep a country at peace and an army intact4 ,it is odd that should not have the same meaning here as in ,,iii4 #a1 q4v4 ,this has led me to consider whether it might not be possible to take the earlier passage thus3 8to preserve your own army 7country1 regiment1 etc47 intact is better than to destroy the enemy's40 ,the two words do not appear in the ,t#8ung ,tien or the ,y ,lan4 ,capt4 ,calthrop misses the point by translating3 8then is the state secure1 and the army victorious in battle40 ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,spies4 is really a vulgar form of 1 and does not appear in the ,shuo ,wn4 ,in practice1 however1 it has gradually become a distinct character with special meanings of its own1 and ,i have therefore followed my edition of the standard text in retaining this form throughout the chapter4 ,in ,,vi4 #be1 on the other hand1 the correct form will be found4 ,the evolution of the meaning 8spy0 is worth considering for a moment1 provided it be understood that this is very doubtful ground1 and that any dogmatism is out of place4 ,the ,shuo ,wn defines as 7the old form of 7 8a crack0 or 8chink10 and on the whole we may accept ,hs ,ch#8ieh's analysis as not unduly fanciful3 8,at night1 a door is shut2 if1 when it is shut1 the light of the moon is visible1 it must come through a chink40 ,from this it is an easy step to the meaning 8space between10 or simply 8between10 as for example in the phrase 8to act as a secret spy between enemies40 ,here is the word which means 8spy20 but we may suppose that constant association so affected the original force of 1 that could at last be dropped altogether1 leaving to stand alone with the same signification4 ,another possible theory is that the word may first have come to mean 8to peep0 7see 1 quoted in ,k#8ang ,hsi7 which would naturally be suggested by 8crack0 or 8crevice10 and afterwards the man who peeps1 or spy4 #a4 ,sun ,tz said3 ,raising a host of a hundred thousand men and marching them great distances entails heavy loss on the people and a drain on the resources of the ,state4 ,the daily expenditure will amount to a thousand ounces of silver4 ,cf4 ,,ii4 #a1 #ac1 #ad4 ,there will be commotion at home and abroad1 and men will drop down exhausted on the highways4 1 which is omitted by the ,y ,lan1 appears at first sight to be explained by the words immediately following1 so that the obvious translation would be 87enforced7 idleness along the line of march40 ,cf4 ,tao ,t ,ching1 ch4 #cj3 8,where troops have been quartered1 brambles and thorns spring up40 ,the commentators1 however1 say that is here equivalent to --a meaning which is still retained in the phrase 4 ,tu ,mu refers to those who are engaged in conveying provisions to the army4 ,but this can hardly be said to emerge clearly from ,sun ,tz's text4 ,chang ,y has the note3 8,we may be reminded of the saying3 #8,on serious ground1 gather in plunder' ,,xi4 #ac4 ,why then should carriage and transportation cause exhaustion on the highways8--,the answer is1 that not victuals alone1 but all sorts of munitions of war have to be conveyed to the army4 ,besides1 the injunction to #8forage on the enemy' only means that when an army is deeply engaged in hostile territory1 scarcity of food must be provided against4 ,hence1 without being solely dependent on the enemy for corn1 we must forage in order that there may be an uninterrupted flow of supplies4 ,then1 again1 there are places like salt deserts 771 where provisions being unobtainable1 supplies from home cannot be dispensed with40 ,as many as seven hundred thousand families will be impeded in their labour4 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n says3 8,men will be lacking at the plough-tail40 ,the allusion is to the system of dividing land into nine parts1 as shown in the character 1 each consisting of a or 7about #ae acres71 the plot in the centre being cultivated on behalf of the ,state by the tenants of the other eight4 ,it was here also1 so ,tu ,mu tells us1 that their cottages were built and a well sunk1 to be used by all in common4 ,see ,,ii4 #ab1 note4 ,these groups of eight peasant proprietors were called 4 ,in time of war1 one of the families had to serve in the army1 while the other seven contributed to its support 774 ,thus1 by a levy of #ajj1jjj men 7reckoning one able-bodied soldier to each family7 the husbandry of #gjj1jjj families would be affected4 #b4 ,hostile armies may face each other for years1 striving for the victory which is decided in a single day4 ,this being so1 to remain in ignorance of the enemy's condition simply because one grudges the outlay of a hundred ounces of silver in honours and emoluments1 8,for spies0 is of course the meaning1 though it would spoil the effect of this curiously elaborate exordium if spies were actually mentioned at this point4 is the height of inhumanity4 ,sun ,tz's argument is certainly ingenious4 ,he begins by adverting to the frightful misery and vast expenditure of blood and treasure which war always brings in its train4 ,now1 unless you are kept informed of the enemy's condition1 and are ready to strike at the right moment1 a war may drag on for years4 ,the only way to get this information is to employ spies1 and it is impossible to obtain trustworthy spies unless they are properly paid for their services4 ,but it is surely false economy to grudge a comparatively trifling amount for this purpose1 when every day that the war lasts eats up an incalculably greater sum4 ,this grievous burden falls on the shoulders of the poor1 and hence ,sun ,tz concludes that to neglect the use of spies is nothing less than a crime against humanity4 #c4 ,one who acts thus is no leader of men1 no present help to his sovereign1 ,an inferior reading for is 1 thus explained by ,mei ,yao-ch#8n3 4 no master of victory4 ,this idea1 that the true object of war is peace1 has its root in the national temperament of the ,chinese4 ,even so far back as #eig ,b4,c41 these memorable words were uttered by ,prince ,chuang of the ,ch#8u ,state3 444 8,the character for #8prowess' 77 is made up of #8to stay' and #8a spear' 7cessation of hostilities74 ,military prowess is seen in the repression of cruelty1 the calling in of weapons1 the preservation of the appointment of ,heaven1 the firm establishment of merit1 the bestowal of happiness on the people1 putting harmony between the princes1 the diffusion of wealth40 ,tso ,chuan1 ,,xii4 #c ad fin4 #d4 ,thus1 what enables the wise sovereign and the good general to strike and conquer1 and achieve things beyond the reach of ordinary men1 is foreknowledge4 ,that is1 knowledge of the enemy's dispositions1 and what he means to do4 #e4 ,now this foreknowledge cannot be elicited from spirits2 8by prayers or sacrifices10 says ,chang ,y4 are the disembodied spirits of men1 and supernatural beings or 8gods40 it cannot be obtained inductively from experience1 ,tu ,mu's note makes the meaning clear3 1 he says1 is the same as reasoning by analogy2 8knowledge of the enemy cannot be gained by reasoning from other analogous cases40 nor by any deductive calculation4 ,li ,ch#8an says3 8,quantities like length1 breadth1 distance and magnitude1 are susceptible of exact mathematical determination2 human actions cannot be so calculated40 #f4 ,knowledge of the enemy's dispositions can only be obtained from other men4 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n has rather an interesting note3 8,knowledge of the spirit-world is to be obtained by divination2 information in natural science may be sought by inductive reasoning2 the laws of the universe can be verified by mathematical calculation3 but the dispositions of an enemy are ascertainable through spies and spies alone40 #g4 ,hence the use of spies1 of whom there are five classes3 7#a7 ,local spies2 7#b7 inward spies2 7#c7 converted spies2 7#d7 doomed spies2 7#e7 surviving spies4 #h4 ,when these five kinds of spy are all at work1 none can discover the secret system4 is explained by ,tu ,mu as 8the way in which facts leak out and dispositions are revealed40 ,this is called is the reading of the standard text1 but the ,t#8ung ,tien1 ,y ,lan and ,t#8u ,shu all have 4 8divine manipulation of the threads40 ,capt4 ,calthrop translates 8the ,mysterious ,thread10 but ,mei ,yao-ch#8n's paraphrase shows that what is meant is the control of a number of threads4 ,it is the sovereign's most precious faculty4 8,cromwell1 one of the greatest and most practical of all cavalry leaders1 had officers styled #8scout masters1' whose business it was to collect all possible information regarding the enemy1 through scouts and spies1 etc41 and much of his success in war was traceable to the previous knowledge of the enemy's moves thus gained40#ahd #i4 ,having local spies is the emended reading of ,chia ,lin and the ,t#8u ,shu for the unintelligible 1 here and in #g1 of the standard text1 which nevertheless reads in #bb4 means employing the services of the inhabitants of a district4 ,tu ,mu says3 8,in the enemy's country1 win people over by kind treatment1 and use them as spies40 #aj4 ,having inward spies1 making use of officials of the enemy4 includes both civil and military officials4 ,tu ,mu enumerates the following classes as likely to do good service in this respect3 8,worthy men who have been degraded from office1 criminals who have undergone punishment2 also1 favourite concubines who are greedy for gold1 men who are aggrieved at being in subordinate positions1 or who have been passed over in the distribution of posts1 others who are anxious that their side should be defeated in order that they may have a chance of displaying their ability and talents1 fickle turncoats who always want to have a foot in each boat 774 ,officials of these several kinds10 he continues1 8should be secretly approached and bound to one's interests by means of rich presents4 ,in this way you will be able to find out the state of affairs in the enemy's country1 ascertain the plans that are being formed against you1 and moreover disturb the harmony and create a breach between the sovereign and his ministers40 ,the necessity for extreme caution1 however1 in dealing with 8inward spies10 appears from an historical incident related by ,ho ,shih3 8 ,lo ,shang1 ,governor of ,i-chou1 sent his general ,wei ,po to attack the rebel ,li ,hsiung of ,shu in his stronghold at ,p#8i4 ,after each side had experienced a number of victories and defeats1 ,li ,hsiung had recourse to the services of a certain ,p#8o-t#8ai1 a native of ,wu-tu4 ,he began by having him whipped until the blood came1 and then sent him off to ,lo ,shang1 whom he was to delude by offering to co-operate with him from inside the city1 and to give a fire signal at the right moment for making a general assault4 ,lo ,shang1 confiding in these promises1 marched out all his best troops1 and placed ,wei ,po and others at their head with orders to attack at ,p#8o-t#8ai's bidding4 ,meanwhile1 ,li ,hsiung's general1 ,li ,hsiang1 had prepared an ambuscade on their line of march2 and ,p#8o-t#8ai1 having reared long scaling-ladders against the city walls1 now lighted the beacon-fire4 ,wei ,po's men raced up on seeing the signal and began climbing the ladders as fast as they could1 while others were drawn up by ropes lowered from above4 ,more than a hundred of ,lo ,shang's soldiers entered the city in this way1 every one of whom was forthwith beheaded4 ,li ,hsiung then charged with all his forces1 both inside and outside the city1 and routed the enemy completely40 ,this happened in #cjc ,a4,d4 ,i do not know where ,ho ,shih got the story from4 ,it is not given in the biography of ,li ,hsiung or that of his father ,li ,t#81 ,chin ,shu1 ch4 #abj1 #aba4 #aa4 ,having converted spies1 getting hold of the enemy's spies and using them for our own purposes4 ,by means of heavy bribes and liberal promises detaching them from the enemy's service1 and inducing them to carry back false information as well as to spy in turn on their own countrymen4 ,thus ,tu ,yu3 4 ,on the other hand1 ,hsiao ,shih-hsien in defining the says that we pretend not to have detected him1 but contrive to let him carry away a false impression of what is going on 774 ,several of the commentators accept this as an alternative definition2 but that it is not what ,sun ,tz meant is conclusively proved by his subsequent remarks about treating the converted spy generously 7 #ba sqq474 ,ho ,shih notes three occasions on which converted spies were used with conspicuous success3 #a7 by ,t#8ien ,tan in his defence of ,chi-mo 7see supra1 p4 #ij72 #b7 by ,chao ,sh on his march to ,o-y 7see p4 #eg72 and by the wily ,fan ,ch in #bfj ,b4,c41 when ,lien ,p#8o was conducting a defensive campaign against ,ch#8in4 ,the ,king of ,chao strongly disapproved of ,lien ,p#8o's cautious and dilatory methods1 which had been unable to avert a series of minor disasters1 and therefore lent a ready ear to the reports of his spies1 who had secretly gone over to the enemy and were already in ,fan ,ch's pay4 ,they said3 8,the only thing which causes ,ch#8in anxiety is lest ,chao ,kua should be made general4 ,lien ,p#8o they consider an easy opponent1 who is sure to be vanquished in the long run40 ,now this ,chao ,kua was a son of the famous ,chao ,sh4 ,from his boyhood1 he had been wholly engrossed in the study of war and military matters1 until at last he came to believe that there was no commander in the whole ,empire who could stand against him4 ,his father was much disquieted by this overweening conceit1 and the flippancy with which he spoke of such a serious thing as war1 and solemnly declared that if ever ,kua was appointed general1 he would bring ruin on the armies of ,chao4 ,this was the man who1 in spite of earnest protests from his own mother and the veteran statesman ,lin ,hsiang-ju1 was now sent to succeed ,lien ,p#8o4 ,needless to say1 he proved no match for the redoubtable ,po ,ch#8i and the great military power of ,ch#8in4 ,he fell into a trap by which his army was divided into two and his communications cut2 and after a desperate resistance lasting #df days1 during which the famished soldiers devoured one another1 he was himself killed by an arrow1 and his whole force1 amounting1 it is said1 to #djj1jjj men1 ruthlessly put to the sword4 ,see 1 ch4 #ai1 ff4 #dh-ej4 #ab4 ,having doomed spies1 doing certain things openly for purposes of deception1 and allowing our own spies to know of them and report them to the enemy4 is ,li ,ch#8an's conjecture for 1 which is found in the ,t#8ung ,tien and the ,y ,lan4 ,the ,t#8u ,shu1 unsupported by any good authority1 adds after 4 ,in that case1 the doomed spies would be those of the enemy1 to whom our own spies had conveyed false information4 ,but this is unnecessarily complicated4 ,tu ,yu gives the best exposition of the meaning3 8,we ostentatiously do things calculated to deceive our own spies1 who must be led to believe that they have been unwittingly disclosed4 ,then1 when these spies are captured in the enemy's lines1 they will make an entirely false report1 and the enemy will take measures accordingly1 only to find that we do something quite different4 ,the spies will thereupon be put to death40 ,capt4 ,calthrop makes a hopeless muddle of the sentence4 ,as an example of doomed spies1 ,ho ,shih mentions the prisoners released by ,pan ,ch#8ao in his campaign against ,yarkand4 7,see p4 #acb47 ,he also refers to ,t#8ang ,chien1 who in #fcj ,a4,d4 was sent by ,t#8ai ,tsung to lull the ,turkish ,khan ,chieh-li into fancied security1 until ,li ,ching was able to deliver a crushing blow against him4 ,chang ,y says that the ,turks revenged themselves by killing ,t#8ang ,chien1 but this is a mistake1 for we read in both the ,old and the ,new ,t#8ang ,history 7ch4 #eh1 fol4 #b and ch4 #hi1 fol4 #h respectively7 that he escaped and lived on until #fef4 ,li ,i-chi#ahe played a somewhat similar part in #bjc ,b4,c41 when sent by the ,king of ,han to open peaceful negotiations with ,ch#8i4 ,he has certainly more claim to be described as a 2 for the ,king of ,ch#8i1 being subsequently attacked without warning by ,han ,hsin1 and infuriated by what he considered the treachery of ,li ,i-chi1 ordered the unfortunate envoy to be boiled alive4 #ac4 ,surviving spies1 finally1 are those who bring back news from the enemy's camp4 ,this is the ordinary class of spies1 properly so called1 forming a regular part of the army4 ,tu ,mu says3 8,your surviving spy must be a man of keen intellect1 though in outward appearance a fool2 of shabby exterior1 but with a will of iron4 ,he must be active1 robust1 endowed with physical strength and courage2 thoroughly accustomed to all sorts of dirty work1 able to endure hunger and cold1 and to put up with shame and ignominy40 ,ho ,shih tells the following story of ,ta-hsi ,wu of the ,sui dynasty3 8,when he was governor of ,eastern ,ch#8in1 ,shn-wu of ,ch#8i made a hostile movement upon ,sha-yan4 ,the ,emperor ,t#8ai ,tsu 8 ,kao ,tsu sent ,ta-hsi ,wu to spy upon the enemy4 ,he was accompanied by two other men4 ,all three were on horseback and wore the enemy's uniform4 ,when it was dark1 they dismounted a few hundred feet away from the enemy's camp and stealthily crept up to listen1 until they succeeded in catching the passwords used by the army4 ,then they got on their horses again and boldly passed through the camp under the guise of night-watchmen 772 and more than once1 happening to come across a soldier who was committing some breach of discipline1 they actually stopped to give the culprit a sound cudgelling6 ,thus they managed to return with the fullest possible information about the enemy's dispositions1 and received warm commendation from the ,emperor1 who in consequence of their report was able to inflict a severe defeat on his adversary40 ,with the above classification it is interesting to compare the remarks of ,frederick the ,great3#ahf 8,es giebt vielerley ,sorten von ,spions3 #a4 ,geringe ,leute1 welche sich von diesem ,handwerk meliren4 #b4 ,doppelte ,spions4 #c4 ,spions von ,consequenz1 und endlich #d4 ,diejenigen1 welche man zu diesem unglcklichen ,hankwerk zwinget40 ,this of course is a bad cross-division4 ,the first class 78,brgersleute1 ,bauern1 ,priesters1 etc407 corresponds roughly to ,sun ,tz's 8local spies10 and the third to 8inward spies40 ,of 8,doppelte ,spions0 it is broadly stated that they are employed 8um dem ,feinde falsche ,nachrichten aufzubinden40 ,thus they would include both converted and doomed spies4 ,frederick's last class of spies does not appear in ,sun ,tz's list1 perhaps because the risk in using them is too great4 #ad4 ,hence it is that with none in the whole army are more intimate relations to be maintained than with spies4 ,the original text and the ,t#8u ,shu have in place of the first 4 ,tu ,mu and ,mei ,yao-ch#8n point out that the spy is privileged to enter even the general's private sleeping-tent4 ,capt4 ,calthrop has an inaccurate translation3 8,in connection with the armies1 spies should be treated with the greatest kindness40 ,none should be more liberally rewarded4 ,frederick concludes his chapter on spies with the words3 8,zu allem diesem fge ich noch hinzu1 dass man in ,bezahlung der ,spions freygebig1 ja verschwenderisch seyn muss4 ,ein ,mench1 der um eures ,dienstes halber den ,strick waget1 verdienet dafr belohnet zu werden40 ,in no other business should greater secrecy be preserved4 ,tu ,mu gives a graphic touch3 1 that is to say1 all communications with spies should be carried on 8mouth-to-ear40 ,capt4 ,calthrop has3 8,all matters relating to spies are secret10 which is distinctly feeble4 ,an inferior reading for is 4 ,the following remarks on spies may be quoted from ,turenne1 who made perhaps larger use of them than any previous commander3 8,spies are attached to those who give them most1 he who pays them ill is never served4 ,they should never be known to anybody2 nor should they know one another4 ,when they propose anything very material1 secure their persons1 or have in your possession their wives and children as hostages for their fidelity4 ,never communicate anything to them but what it is absolutely necessary that they should know40#ahg #ae4 ,spies cannot be usefully employed ,this is the nuance of ,tu ,yu's paraphrase 4 without a certain intuitive sagacity4 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n says3 8,in order to use them1 one must know fact from falsehood1 and be able to discriminate between honesty and double-dealing40 ,wang ,hsi takes and separately1 defining the former as 8intuitive perception0 and the latter as 8practical intelligence40 ,tu ,mu strangely refers these attributes to the spies themselves3 8,before using spies we must assure ourselves as to their integrity of character and the extent of their experience and skill40 ,but he continues3 8,a brazen face and a crafty disposition are more dangerous than mountains or rivers2 it takes a man of genius to penetrate such40 ,so that we are left in some doubt as to his real opinion on the passage4 #af4 ,they cannot be properly managed without benevolence and straightforwardness4 ,chang ,y says that means 8not grudging them honours and pay20 1 8showing no distrust of their honesty40 8,when you have attracted them by substantial offers1 you must treat them with absolute sincerity2 then they will work for you with all their might40 #ag4 ,without subtle ingenuity of mind1 one cannot make certain of the truth of their reports4 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n says3 8,be on your guard against the possibility of spies going over to the service of the enemy40 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan read for 4 #ah4 ,be subtle6 be subtle6 ,cf4 ,,vi4 #i3 4 ,capt4 ,calthrop translates3 8,wonderful indeed is the power of spies40 and use your spies for every kind of business4 #ai4 ,if a secret piece of news is divulged by a spy before the time is ripe1 he must be put to death together with the man to whom the secret was told4 ,the ,chinese here is so concise and elliptical that some expansion is necessary for the proper understanding of it4 denotes important information about the enemy obtained from a surviving spy4 ,the subject of 1 however1 is not this information itself1 but the secret stratagem built up on the strength of it4 means 8is heard0--by anybody else4 ,thus1 word for word1 we get3 8,if spy matters are heard before our plans are carried out10 etc4 ,capt4 ,calthrop1 in translating 8the spy who told the matter1 and the man who repeated the same10 may appeal to the authority of the commentators2 but he surely misses the main point of ,sun ,tz's injunction4 ,for1 whereas you kill the spy himself 8as a punishment for letting out the secret10 the object of killing the other man is only1 as ,ch#8n ,hao puts it1 8to stop his mouth0 and prevent the news leaking any further4 ,if it had already been repeated to others1 this object would not be gained4 ,either way1 ,sun ,tz lays himself open to the charge of inhumanity1 though ,tu ,mu tries to defend him by saying that the man deserves to be put to death1 for the spy would certainly not have told the secret unless the other had been at pains to worm it out of him4 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan have the reading 444 1 etc41 which1 while not affecting the sense1 strikes me as being better than that of the standard text4 ,the ,t#8u ,shu has 444 1 which ,i suppose would mean3 8the man who heard the secret and the man who told it to him40 #bj4 ,whether the object be to crush an army1 to storm a city1 or to assassinate an individual1 it is always necessary to begin by finding out the names of the attendants1 is a comprehensive term for those who wait on others1 servants and retainers generally4 ,capt4 ,calthrop is hardly happy in rendering it 8right-hand men40 the aides-de-camp1 1 literally 8visitors10 is equivalent1 as ,tu ,yu says1 to 8those whose duty it is to keep the general supplied with information10 which naturally necessitates frequent interviews with him4 ,chang ,y goes too far afield for an explanation in saying that they are 8the leaders of mercenary troops40 the door-keepers and sentries and 4 of the general in command4 1 according to ,chang ,y1 is simply 8a general on active service40 ,capt4 ,calthrop is wrong1 ,i think1 in making directly dependent on 7444 8the names of the general in charge10 etc474 ,our spies must be commissioned to ascertain these4 ,as the first step1 no doubt1 towards finding out if any of these important functionaries can be won over by bribery4 ,capt4 ,calthrop blunders badly with3 8,then set the spies to watch them40 #ba4 ,the enemy's spies who have come to spy on us must be sought out1 is omitted by the ,t#8ung ,tien and ,y ,lan4 ,its recurrence is certainly suspicious1 though the sense may seem to gain by it4 ,the ,t#8u ,shu has this variation3 444 1 etc4 tempted with bribes1 led away and comfortably housed4 is probably more than merely or 8detain40 ,cf4 #be ad fin41 where ,sun ,tz insists that these converted spies shall be treated well4 ,chang ,y's paraphrase is 4 ,thus they will become converted spies and available for our service4 #bb4 ,it is through the information brought by the converted spy that we are able to acquire and employ local and inward spies4 ,tu ,yu expands into 8through conversion of the enemy's spies we learn the enemy's condition40 ,and ,chang ,y says3 8,we must tempt the converted spy into our service1 because it is he that knows which of the local inhabitants are greedy of gain1 and which of the officials are open to corruption40 ,in the ,t#8ung ,tien1 has been altered to 1 doubtless for the sake of uniformity with #i4 #bc4 ,it is owing to his information1 again1 that we can cause the doomed spy to carry false tidings to the enemy4 8,because the converted spy knows how the enemy can best be deceived0 7,chang ,y74 ,the ,t#8ung ,tien text1 followed by the ,y ,lan1 has here the obviously interpolated sentence 4 #bd4 ,lastly1 it is by his information that the surviving spy can be used on appointed occasions4 ,capt4 ,calthrop omits this sentence4 #be4 ,the end and aim of spying in all its five varieties is knowledge of the enemy2 ,i have ventured to differ in this place from those commentators--,tu ,yu and ,chang ,y--who understand as 1 and make the antecedent of 7the others ignoring the point altogether74 ,it is plausible enough that ,sun ,tz should require the ruler to be familiar with the methods of spying 7though one would rather expect 8general0 in place of 74 ,but this involves taking here in quite a different way from the immediately following1 as also from those in the previous sentences4 there refers vaguely to the enemy or the enemy's condition1 and in order to retain the same meaning here1 ,i make a verb1 governed by 4 ,cf4 ,,xi4 #ai1 where is used in exactly the same manner4 ,the sole objection that ,i can see in the way of this interpretation is the fact that the 1 or fourth variety of spy1 does not add to our knowledge of the enemy1 but only misinforms the enemy about us4 ,this would be1 however1 but a trivial oversight on ,sun ,tz's part1 inasmuch as the 8doomed spy0 is in the strictest sense not to be reckoned as a spy at all4 ,capt4 ,calthrop1 it is hardly necessary to remark1 slurs over the whole difficulty4 and this knowledge can only be derived1 in the first instance1 from the converted spy4 ,as explained in #bb-bd4 ,he not only brings information himself1 but makes it possible to use the other kinds of spy to advantage4 ,hence it is essential that the converted spy be treated with the utmost liberality4 #bf4 ,of old1 the rise of the ,yin dynasty ,sun ,tz means the ,shang dynasty1 founded in #agff ,b4,c4 ,its name was changed to ,yin by ,p#8an ,kng in #adja4 was due to ,i ,chih ,better known as ,i ,yin1 the famous general and statesman who took part in ,ch#8ng ,t#8ang's campaign against ,chieh ,kuei4 who had served under the ,hsia4 ,likewise1 the rise of the ,chou dynasty was due to ,l ,ya ,l ,shang1 whose 8style0 was 1 rose to high office under the tyrant ,chou ,hsin1 whom he afterwards helped to overthrow4 ,popularly known as 1 a title bestowed on him by ,wn ,wang1 he is said to have composed a treatise on war1 erroneously identified with the 4 who had served under the ,yin4 ,there is less precision in the ,chinese than ,i have thought it well to introduce into my translation1 and the commentaries on the passage are by no means explicit4 ,but1 having regard to the context1 we can hardly doubt that ,sun ,tz is holding up ,i ,chih and ,l ,ya as illustrious examples of the converted spy1 or something closely analogous4 ,his suggestion is1 that the ,hsia and ,yin dynasties were upset owing to the intimate knowledge of their weaknesses and shortcomings which these former ministers were able to impart to the other side4 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n appears to resent any such aspersion on these historic names3 8,i ,yin and ,l ,ya10 he says1 8were not rebels against the ,government 774 ,hsia could not employ the former1 hence ,yin employed him4 ,yin could not employ the latter1 hence ,chou employed him4 ,their great achievements were all for the good of the people40 ,ho ,shih is also indignant3 8,how should two divinely inspired men such as ,i and ,l have acted as common spies8 ,sun ,tz's mention of them simply means that the proper use of the five classes of spies is a matter which requires men of the highest mental calibre like ,i and ,l1 whose wisdom and capacity qualified them for the task4 ,the above words only emphasise this point40 ,ho ,shih believes then that the two heroes are mentioned on account of their supposed skill in the use of spies4 ,but this is very weak1 as it leaves totally unexplained the significant words and 4 ,capt4 ,calthrop speaks1 rather strangely1 of 8the province of ,yin 444 the country of ,hsia 444 the ,state of ,chu 444 the people of ,shang40 #bg4 ,hence it is only the enlightened ruler and the wise general who will use the highest intelligence of the army for purposes of spying1 ,ch#8n ,hao compares #ae3 4 ,he points out that 8the god-like wisdom of ,ch#8ng ,t#8ang and ,wu ,wang led them to employ ,i ,yin and ,l ,shang40 ,the ,t#8u ,shu omits 4 and thereby they achieve great results4 ,tu ,mu closes with a note of warning3 8,just as water1 which carries a boat from bank to bank1 may also be the means of sinking it1 so reliance on spies1 while productive of great results1 is oft-times the cause of utter destruction40 ,spies are a most important element in war1 because on them depends an army's ability to move4 ,the antecedent to must be either or understood from the whole sentence4 ,chia ,lin says that an army without spies is like a man without ears or eyes4 ,,chinese ,,concordance ,,proper ,,names ,,are ,,indicated ,,by ,,an ,,asterisk ,ai ,,viii4 #ab2 ,x4 #be1 #bf2 ,,xi4 #ah1 #ff2 ,,xiii4 #b4 ,x4 #ba4 an ,,ii4 #bj2 ,v4 #bb2 ,,vi4 #d2 ,,xii4 #bb4 ,cha ,,vii4 #ae4 ch#8a ,i4 #b2 ,,viii4 #ad2 ,,ix4 #ci2 ,x4 #ac1 #bj2 ,,xi4 #da4 chan passim4 ,,xi4 #bh4 chang ,,ix4 #ba4 ,,ix4 #bi4 ch#8ang ,,vi4 #cb1 #cd2 ,x4 #ah2 ,,xi4 #bi499 ,,vi4 #cd4 ,v4 #i4 chao ,,vii4 #bh4 ch passim4 ,v4 #ac2 ,,xi4 #fc4 chn ,,xii4 #d499 ch#8n ,,vii4 #cb2 ,,ix4 #be1 #bg2 ,x4 #ah4 ,,ix4 #bc4 chng ,,iii4 #g2 ,,vii4 #c1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #i1 #aj1 #bb3 ,,viii4 #c2 ,,xi4 #a1 #d1 #aa1 #dg1 #ee2 ,,xiii4 #b4 chng ,v4 #c1 #e1 #aj1 #aa2 ,,vii4 #cb2 ,,xi4 #ce4 ,,iii4 #c1 #ad2 ,,iv4 #af2 ,,vii4 #bc2 ,,xi4 #cb1 #ef1 #fc4 ,,xi4 #ah4 ch#8ng ,,iii4 #d2 ,,xi4 #fb2 ,,xiii4 #d1 #bg4 ,,ii4 #b2 ,,iii4 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f2 ,,viii4 #c2 ,,xi4 #g1 #ee2 ,,xiii4 #bj4 #b ,,ii4 #d1 #ag2 ,,xi4 #ai4 #d ,,ii4 #a1 #ag4 ,,iv4 #ag1 #ah1 #ai4 chi ,i4 #c1 #ab1 #ae1 #af2 ,,vi4 #bb2 ,,vii4 #d1 #bb2 ,x4 #ba2 ,,xi4 #bb4 ,,vi4 #aj2 ,,vii4 #f2 ,,xi4 #ae1 #ai1 #fh4 ,,ix4 #cj4 ,,ii4 #ab4 ,,iii4 #ah2 ,,iv4 #b2 ,,vi4 #ah2 ,x4 #ca2 ,,xi4 #ee4 ,,xiii4 #h4 ,,ii4 #ae4 ,,vi4 #ae1 #cj2 ,,vii4 #bi1 #cb2 ,,viii4 #c2 ,,ix4 #d2 ,x4 #g1 #ae1 #ai1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi2 ,,xi4 #i1 #bi2 ,,xiii4 #bj4 chi ,,ix4 #g1 #ae2 ,,xi4 #fe4 ,,vi4 #be2 ,,xii4 #h4 ,,ix4 #cb2 ,,xi4 #af4 ,v4 #ab4 ,,iii4 #af2 ,,vii4 #be4 ,v4 #ab1 #ac2 ,,vii4 #ag2 ,,ix4 #ab2 ,,xi4 #aj4 ,v4 #ae2 ,,xi4 #ch4 ,,vi4 #d2 ,,vii4 #ca2 ,,ix4 #bi4 ,,iv4 #bj2 ,,vii4 #aa2 ,,xi4 #bb2 ,,xii4 #a4 ,,ii4 #ad4 ,,ii4 #h4 ,,xii4 #d499 ,,ix4 #d2 ,,xi4 #cj4 ,,xi4 #di4 ch#8i passim4 ,,ix4 #bg2 ,,xi4 #ch1 #ff2 ,,xiii4 #bd4 ,,ii4 #ag2 ,,vii4 #bc1 #bd1 #bf1 #cb2 ,,ix4 #cc4 ,,iii4 #d4 ,,ii4 #a4 ,,ii4 #d2 ,,ix4 #bb2 ,,xii4 #c1 #d2 ,,xiii4 #h4 ,,iii4 #aa2 ,,ix4 #ae4 ,,ix4 #dc2 ,,xi4 #af1 #cb4 ,,ii4 #ac2 ,,xiii4 #a4 ,v4 #c1 #e1 #f1 #aj1 #aa4 ,,iv4 #bj2 ,x4 #be4 ,,vii4 #bg1 #bh1 #bi2 ,,xi4 #bb4 chia ,i4 #be2 ,,ii4 #ac1 #ad1 #bj2 ,,xiii4 #a4 ,,ii4 #a1 #ad2 ,,vii4 #g4 ,v4 #d2 ,,xi4 #ed1 #ee4 chia ,,ix4 #ag4 chiang ,v4 #f4 ,v4 #ag1 #ah4 #a ,,xi4 #ah1 #df1 #dg1 #dh1 #di1 #ej4 #d ,i4 #d1 #i1 #aa1 #ac1 #ae2 ,,ii4 #ae1 #bj2 ,,iii4 #e1 #aa1 #ag2 ,,vii4 #a1 #g1 #i1 #bg2 ,,viii4 #a1 #d1 #e1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad2 ,,ix4 #cc2 ,x4 #ac1 #ad1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #ba2 ,,xi4 #ce1 #dj1 #fa2 ,,xii4 #af1 #ah1 #bb2 ,,xiii4 #c1 #d1 #bj1 #bg4 ,,ix4 #ag4 ch#8iang ,i4 #ac1 #ba2 ,,ii4 #ah2 ,,iii4 #aa2 ,,ix4 #bd2 ,x4 #af1 #ai2 ,,xii4 #ac4 chiao ,,iii4 #c2 ,,vii4 #b1 #ab2 ,,viii4 #b2 ,,ix4 #h2 ,,xi4 #a1 #e1 #ab1 #bh1 #dh1 #eb1 #ed1 #ee4 ,i4 #c1 #ab4 ,,ix4 #dd2 ,x4 #ah4 ,i4 #bb2 ,x4 #bf4 ,,ii4 #a4 ch#8iao ,,ii4 #e2 ,,xi4 #fb4 ,,ix4 #bc4 chieh ,,ii4 #aa1 #ab2 ,v4 #f4 ,,vi4 #bg2 ,,xi4 #cc2 ,,xiii4 #ai4 ,,xi4 #ai1 #be4 ,,viii4 #ab4 ,v4 #ac1 #ad1 #ae4 ,,viii4 #i4 ,,xi4 #dh4 ch#8ieh ,,iii4 #af2 ,,xi4 #bc4 ch#8ieh ,v4 #ag1 #ah2 ,,vii4 #be4 chien or ,,vi4 #be2 ,,xiii4 passim4 ,,ix4 #ae4 ,,vii4 #g4 ,,ix4 #ag4 ,,iii4 #aj4 ,,ix4 #aa2 ,,xi4 #ae4 ,,xi4 #fg4 ,i4 #bf2 ,,iv4 #h1 #aj2 ,,vii4 #bc2 ,,ix4 #ca4 ch#8ien ,,ii4 #a2 ,,iv4 #bj2 ,v4 #bc2 ,,vi4 #f1 #ai2 ,,xi4 #fa2 ,,xiii4 #a4 ,,xi4 #db1 #dd4 ,,vi4 #ag1 #bj2 ,,ix4 #i2 ,,xi4 #ae1 #de4 chih passim4 ,i4 #i2 ,,ii4 #d1 #ae2 ,,iv4 #ab2 ,,viii4 #g2 ,,xiii4 #ae1 #bg4 passim4 ,,vi4 #ab2 ,,xi4 #ci4 ,v4 #bb2 ,,xi4 #aa1 #ag2 ,,xii4 #h1 #aa1 #ai4 ,x4 #a1 #f1 #g4 ,,vii4 #c1 #d1 #bb4 ,i4 #g1 #aj1 #ag2 ,,vi4 #bg1 #ca2 ,x4 #ba4 ,,xi4 #df4 ,,xiii4 #bf499 ,v4 #ac4 ,v4 #a1 #ag1 #ah2 ,,vii4 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #cb2 ,,viii4 #f2 ,x4 #bf2 ,,xi4 #ce4 ,,iii4 #af2 ,v4 #ab1 #ac2 ,,vi4 #c1 #i1 #be2 ,,vii4 #d1 #h1 #i1 #aj2 ,,ix4 #ad1 #cg2 ,x4 #ac1 #bj2 ,,xi4 #f1 #bf1 #bi2 ,,xiii4 #b4 chih ,,vi4 #b2 ,,xii4 #ah4 ch#8ih ,,ii4 #a4 ,,ix4 #g1 #h4 chin ,i4 #h1 #ai2 ,,ii4 #aa2 ,,vi4 #bj2 ,,vii4 #ca2 ,,ix4 #ae1 #af1 #ah2 ,x4 #ba4 ,,iii4 #ac2 ,,vi4 #aj2 ,,vii4 #be2 ,,ix4 #ai1 #bd1 #bh1 #ca1 #dj2 ,x4 #bd2 ,,xi4 #di4 ,,ii4 #g2 ,,xi4 #bc4 ,,ii4 #a2 ,,vii4 #bc1 #bd2 ,,xiii4 #a1 #b4 ,,ix4 #ag1 #ci2 ,,xl #bb1 #dh4 ,,xi4 #bf4 ,,xi4 #bh4 ch#8in ,i4 #bc2 ,,ix4 #db2 ,,xi4 #be2 ,,xiii4 #ad4 ,,iii4 #aj2 ,,vii4 #g2 ,,ix4 #da4 ,,vii4 #ah4 ,v4 #bb2 ,,vi4 #bc2 ,,vii4 #cj2 ,,ix4 #ah2 ,,xi4 #ce2 ,,xii4 #g4 ,,ii4 #ag3 ,,vii4 #bc1 #bd1 #bf2 ,,ix4 #cc4 ,,ix4 #ae1 #ag4 ,,vii4 #h4 ,i4 #c4 ,,ix4 #cg4 ,,xii4 #bb4 ,,xi4 #dc4 ch#8ing ,i4 #c1 #ab2 ,,xi4 #ai1 #da1 #ea2 ,,xiii4 #b1 #f4 ,,ix4 #bf4 ch#8ing ,,ix4 #be2 ,,xi4 #a1 #c1 #aa1 #dd1 #df4 chio ,,vi4 #bd4 ,,xiii4 #b4 chiu ,,iv4 #g2 ,,viii4 #d1 #e1 #f2 ,,xi4 #da4 ,,ii4 #b1 #c1 #e1 #f1 #ai2 ,,iii4 #f2 ,,ix4 #ci2 ,,xii4 #aa4 ,,vi4 #aa1 #bj2 ,,xi4 #ae1 #cj4 ch#8iu ,,iv4 #ae2 ,v4 #ba2 ,x4 #bd2 ,,xi4 #be4 ,,ii4 #ab1 #ad4 ,,vii4 #cc2 ,,ix4 #ac4 ,,iv4 #aj4 chiung ,,ix4 #cf4 ch#8iung ,v4 #f1 #aj1 #aa2 ,,vi4 #bh2 ,,vii4 #cf2 ,,ix4 #cd2 ,x4 #cj4 cho ,,ii4 #e4 chou ,,vii4 #bf1 #bh2 ,,xii4 #aa4 ,,xi4 #cj1 #ci4 ,,iii4 #aa3 ,,xiii4 #bf499 ,,ii4 #ad4 chu ,i4 #aj1 #ac2 ,,ii4 #bj2 ,x4 #bc1 #bd2 ,,xi4 #ai1 #bj2 ,,xii4 #af1 #ah2 ,,xiii4 #c1 #be4 ,,ii4 #d2 ,,iii4 #af2 ,,vii4 #ab2 ,,viii4 #aj2 ,,xi4 #b1 #f1 #bh199 #ch1 #eb4 ,,ix4 #de4 ,,ix4 #ac2 ,x4 #ba4 ,,xi4 #fd4 ,,xi4 #f1 #df4 ch#8u #c ,,vi4 #a1 #bd1 #cj2 ,,vii4 #g2 ,,ix4 #a1 #b1 #f1 #h1 #i1 #ab1 #ac3 ,,xi4 #fh4 ch#8u #d ,,ix4 #ag4 ,i4 #bd2 ,v4 #f2 ,,vi4 #e2 ,,ix4 #be2 ,x4 #e1 #f1 #g2 ,,xiii4 #a1 #d4 chuan ,,vi4 #ac1 #ad2 ,,vii4 #be2 ,,xi4 #bj1 #db4 ,v4 #bb1 #bc4 ch#8uan ,i4 #be2 ,,xiii4 #ab4 chui ,,vi4 #aj4 ,,xii4 ,i4 chun ,,ix4 #ce4 passim4 ,,vii4 #f1 #aa2 ,,ix4 #cc2 ,,xi4 #a1 #g1 #ac1 #dd1 #di4 ,,ii4 #ae4 ,v4 #f4 ,,ii4 #ac2 ,,ix4 #h2 ,,xi4 #bi4 ch#8ung ,,vi4 #aj4 ch ,,ix4 #bj1 #be2 ,x4 #c1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #aa2 ,,xi4 #cg4 ,,ii4 #a2 ,,iv4 #aj2 ,,vii4 #f2 ,x4 #cj2 ,,xi4 #fc4 ,,vii4 #b2 ,,viii4 #a2 ,,xi4 #dj1 #ed4 ,,ii4 #a1 #ad1 #ag2 ,,ix4 #bc1 #be4 ,,iii4 #d2 ,,xii4 #b4 ,x4 #be2 ,,xi4 #bi2 ,,xiii4 #h4 ,,vii4 #ac2 ,,xi4 #h1 #eb4 ,,xi4 #fh4 ,,iii4 #d4 ,,xi4 #bd4 ,,xi4 #bd4 ch#8 ,i4 #ae2 ,,ii4 #ac1 #ad2 ,,ix4 #g1 #ae1 #ci2 ,x4 #g1 #aa2 ,,xi4 #bf1 #ch1 #dc4 ch#8 ,i4 #bj2 ,,ii4 #i1 #af2 ,v4 #ai2 ,,vi4 #g1 #cc2 ,,ix4 #dj1 #dc2 ,,xii4 #ae2 ,,xiii4 #e1 #f4 ,,ii4 #b1 #d1 #ac2 ,,iii4 #b1 #f2 ,,viii4 #aj2 ,,xi4 #da4 ,,vi4 #a1 #e1 #bi1 #cj2 ,,vii4 #g3 ,,viii4 #aj2 ,,xi4 #dg4 ,,ix4 #bd2 ,,xi4 #ci4 ,,viii4 #b2 ,,xi4 #a1 #f1 #ab1 #dc1 #dh4 ,i4 #aj4 chan ,,vii4 #g4 ,,ix4 #cc4 ch#8an ,,iii4 #a1 #g2 ,,iv4 #g2 ,x4 #ca2 ,,xii4 #bb4 ,i4 #ag2 ,,iii4 #ae2 ,,vii4 #ba2 ,,xi4 #ee4 cheh ,,viii4 #b2 ,,ix4 #a1 #c1 #d1 #g1 #ae2 ,,xi4 #bb1 #dc2 ,,xii4 #ad4 ,,iv4 #bj2 ,,xi4 #fg4 ,,vii4 #i4 ch#8eh ,,vii4 #cf2 ,,xi4 #ej4 chn ,,iii4 #ab1 #ag2 ,,vii4 #a2 ,,viii4 #a1 #c2 ,,xii4 #bb2 ,,xiii4 #d1 #h1 #bg4 passim4 ,x4 #ab1 #ae4 ch#8n ,,xi4 #ci4 rh ,i4 #d2 ,,ii4 #ae2 ,,iv4 #ag2 ,,vii4 #aj2 ,,xii4 #a4 rh ,,iv4 #aj2 ,,vii4 #bd1 #bf2 ,,xi4 #cf4 ,x4 #be4 passim4 ,fa ,i4 #d1 #aj1 #ac2 ,,ii4 #a2 ,,iii4 #a1 #d1 #g1 #h2 ,,iv4 #af1 #ag2 ,,vii4 #a1 #h1 #i1 #bb1 #be1 #cc1 #cg2 ,,viii4 #a1 #aa2 ,,xi4 #a1 #ef4 ,fa ,v4 #ae2 ,,vii4 #d2 ,,xi4 #bh1 #ch2 ,,xii4 #c1 #f1 #g1 #i1 #aj2 ,,xiii4 #ai4 ,i4 #ac2 ,,ix4 #cf1 #db4 ,,iii4 #c2 ,,xi4 #ed4 fan ,,xiii4 #g1 #aa1 #ac1 #ba1 #be4 ,,ix4 #cd2 ,x4 #d1 #e4 passim4 ,,xi4 #ef1 #eg4 ,,viii4 #ab4 fang ,v4 #bb2 ,,xi4 #ca4 ,,ix4 #ac4 fei ,,ii4 #a1 #ac1 #ad2 ,,xii4 #ae2 ,,xiii4 #a4 ,,iii4 #b1 #f2 ,,iv4 #h1 #i2 ,,ix4 #dj2 ,x4 #ad2 ,,xi4 #bg1 #ec2 ,,xii4 #ag2 ,,xiii4 #c1 #ae1 #af1 #ag4 fn ,,iii4 #e1 #h2 ,v4 #a2 ,,vi4 #ac1 #ad2 ,,vii4 #aj1 #af1 #bj4 ,,iii4 #e2 ,,viii4 #ab4 ,v4 #af4 ,,xi4 #ci4 ,,iii4 #d4 fng ,,vii4 #ag2 ,,xi4 #cj2 ,,xii4 #d1 #aj1 #aa4 ,,ii4 #a2 ,,xiii4 #a4 ,x4 #ai4 fou ,,ix4 #cd4 ,,ix4 #bb4 fu ,,xi4 #fc4 ,,iii4 #e2 ,,ix4 #e1 #db4 passim4 ,,xi4 #ae4 ,v4 #f2 ,,vi4 #bh2 ,,xii4 #bj1 #ba4 ,,viii4 #ad2 ,,ix4 #ag4 ,,ix4 #ag1 #bb4 ,i4 #ad1 #bf2 ,,iii4 #ah4 ,,ix4 #db1 #dd2 ,x4 #ag4 ,,xi4 #ci4 ,x4 #be4 ,,iii4 #aa4 ,hai ,,ii4 #g2 ,,vi4 #c2 ,,viii4 #g1 #i1 #aj2 ,,xi4 #eg1 #ei4 han ,i4 #g4 hao ,,iv4 #aj4 hng ,x4 #ah4 ho ,v4 #e2 ,,vii4 #b1 #af2 ,,viii4 #a1 #b2 ,,ix4 #ci2 ,x4 #ai1 #bd2 ,,xi4 #ab1 #af1 #ag1 #ed2 ,,xii4 #ai4 ,,xi4 #fe4 ,,xi4 #ah4 ,v4 #f4 ,,vii4 #b2 ,,ix4 #bf4 hou ,x4 #bf2 ,,xiii4 #ad1 #be4 ,,ii4 #d2 ,,iii4 #af2 ,,vii4 #ab2 ,,viii4 #aj2 ,,xi4 #b1 #f1 #eb4 passim4 hsi ,,iv4 #a2 ,,xiii4 #bf4 ,,ix4 #aa2 ,,xii4 #bj4 ,,vi4 #ba4 ,,ix4 #ce4 ,,ix4 #ch4 ,,xi4 #cd4 hsia ,,iii4 #c1 #g1 #ag2 ,,iv4 #g1 #i2 ,,vi4 #bi2 ,,ix4 #aa2 ,,xi4 #f1 #ae1 #ee2 ,,xii4 #aj4 ,,xiii4 #bf499 hsia ,i4 #h4 hsiang #a ,v4 #aa2 ,,vii4 #bc2 ,,ix4 #ci1 #de2 ,,xi4 #ae1 #cj2 ,,xiii4 #b4 #d ,,ix4 #a4 ,,vii4 #ad1 #bj2 ,,xi4 #eb2 ,,xiii4 #g1 #i1 #bb4 ,,vii4 #cc2 ,,xi4 #fa4 ,,vi4 #bi2 ,,xiii4 #e4 ,,xi4 #bf4 ,,xi4 #fj4 hsiao ,,iii4 #aj2 ,,ix4 #ag4 hsieh ,,iii4 #d4 ,,ix4 #bb4 ,,ix4 #ch4 hsien passim4 ,i4 #h2 ,v4 #ad2 ,,vii4 #ac2 ,,ix4 #ag1 #ah2 ,x4 #a1 #aj1 #ba2 ,,xi4 #h1 #dj1 #eb4 ,,ix4 #ae2 ,x4 #ad1 #af2 ,,xi4 #bd1 #eh1 #ei4 hsien ,,xiii4 #d1 #bg4 hsin ,i4 #i2 ,,ix4 #de2 ,,xi4 #be4 ,,vii4 #bg1 #cj4 hsing ,i4 #ac2 ,v4 #bb2 ,,vi4 #f1 #bi1 #cd2 ,,vii4 #g1 #ac2 ,,ix4 #db1 #dd2 ,,xi4 #h1 #ac1 #eb2 ,,xii4 #b4 passim4 ,,xii4 #ah3 ,,xiii4 #a1 #bf4 ,v4 #bb4 hsing ,,ii4 #aj1 #aa1 #ac2 ,,xiii4 #a1 #bj4 hsiu ,,iii4 #d2 ,,iv4 #f2 ,,xi4 #be2 ,,xii4 #ae1 #af4 ,,ix4 #ch4 hsiung ,,xii4 #ae4 hs ,,ii4 #ac2 ,v4 #d2 ,,vi4 #aj2 ,,ix4 #cb4 ,,vii4 #ag2 ,,ix4 #ce4 ,,xii4 #d4 hsan ,,vii4 #ba2 ,,ix4 #cd2 ,,xi4 #ef4 ,x4 #ai4 hsn ,v4 #aa4 hu ,i4 #bf2 ,,vi4 #i2 ,,xi4 #cj4 ,,ix4 #cb4 ,,xi4 #fh4 hua ,,vi4 #cc4 ,,vi4 #ab4 ,,vii4 #cj4 huan ,,iii4 #ab2 ,,vii4 #c2 ,,viii4 #i4 ,v4 #aa4 huang ,,ix4 #aj499 ,,ix4 #ag4 hui ,,iii4 #f2 ,v4 #ac4 ,,xi4 #ee4 ,,vi4 #ai4 hun ,v4 #af4 huo ,,ii4 #d1 #af2 ,,xi4 #bg4 ,,vii4 #ah1 #bf2 ,,xii4 passim4 ,,iii4 #ad1 #af4 ,,xi4 #ej4 ,i passim4 ,,ii4 #ag2 ,,iii4 #d2 ,,iv4 #ac2 ,,ix4 #dj1 #db2 ,,xi4 #bd1 #cd1 #ea4 ,i ,i4 #h2 ,,iv4 #aa2 ,,ix4 #i1 #bj1 #da2 ,,xi4 #cg4 ,i4 #e1 #bd2 ,,vi4 #e2 ,,xi4 #fj4 ,,ii4 #ah2 ,,vi4 #ba2 ,,ix4 #bd1 #dj4 ,,iv4 #ai4 ,,iii4 #ae1 #af2 ,,ix4 #ba2 ,,xi4 #bf4 ,i4 #bc2 ,,vi4 #a1 #d2 ,,vii4 #ca4 ,,ii4 #h1 #ab2 ,,viii4 #aj4 ,,vi4 #ba2 ,,xi4 #d4 ,,ix4 #a1 #h4 ,,ix4 #bi4 ,,xiii4 #bf499 ,,xi4 #g4 ,,xi4 #bh4 ,,xi4 #fc4 ,,xiii4 #af4 ,,iii4 #e4 ,,xii4 #d499 ,,ix4 #ag4 passim4 passim4 ,jan ,,ii4 #a2 ,,xi4 #bi1 #cj1 #eh1 #ei4 jao ,,ix4 #cc4 ,,xi4 #ba4 jn passim4 ,i4 #i2 ,,xiii4 #b1 #af4 ,,iii4 #ae2 ,v4 #ba1 #bb2 ,x4 #ac1 #bj4 ,,iv4 #bj2 ,v4 #bc4 jih ,,ii4 #a2 ,,iv4 #aj2 ,v4 #f2 ,,vi4 #ai1 #bj1 #cd2 ,,vii4 #g2 ,,xi4 #bh1 #fc2 ,,xii4 #c1 #d2 ,,xiii4 #a1 #b4 jo ,,iii4 #i2 ,,iv4 #ai1 #bj2 ,,ix4 #h2 ,x4 #e1 #i1 #aa2 ,,xi4 #ah1 #cb1 #cd1 #ci1 #ef4 ,,iii4 #aa2 ,v4 #ag1 #ah2 ,x4 #af1 #ah1 #ai4 jou ,,ix4 #cd4 ,,xi4 #cc4 ju ,,viii4 #ab4 ,,ix4 #ce2 ,,xi4 passim4 ,v4 passim2 ,,vii4 #ag1 #ah1 #ai2 ,x4 #be1 #bf2 ,,xi4 #bi1 #cj1 #ch1 #fh2 ,,xiii4 #bd4 jui ,,ii4 #b1 #d2 ,,vii4 #bh1 #bi1 #cd2 ,,ix4 #bc4 ,k#8ai ,,xi4 #fe1 #fh4 kan ,,xi4 #ah1 #cj4 ,,ii4 #ae4 kang ,,xi4 #cc4 kao ,,vi4 #aa1 #bi2 ,,vii4 #cc2 ,,ix4 #b1 #f1 #i1 #aa1 #bc3 ,x4 #c1 #aj2 ,,xi4 #ch4 ,,xi4 #eg2 ,,xiii4 #ai1 #bc4 kng ,,ii4 #ag4 ko ,,ii4 #a2 ,,xi4 #cg4 k#8o ,,ix4 #cj4 ,,ii4 #a2 ,,ix4 #d1 #e2 ,,xi4 #bj1 #db4 ,,xi4 #bj4 passim4 kou ,,vi4 #aa4 k#8ou ,,vii4 #cf2 ,,ix4 #cd4 ku ,,iv4 #aa2 ,,xi4 #ae4 ,,vi4 #g2 ,,xi4 #bd1 #de1 #dh4 passim4 ,,ix4 #a4 ,,vii4 #bc1 #bd1 #bf4 k#8u ,,xii4 #a4 kua ,,iii4 #ag2 ,v4 #a1 #b2 ,,vi4 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ah2 ,,xi4 #i1 #ae4 ,x4 #a1 #d1 #e4 kuai ,,vi4 #ab4 kuan ,i4 #aj2 ,,xiii4 #aj4 ,,xi4 #fc4 ,i4 #bf2 ,v4 #h4 kuang ,i4 #h2 ,,ix4 #bc4 k#8uang ,i4 #bf2 ,,vi4 #bj4 ,,xiii4 #ab1 #bc4 kuei ,,vii4 #bh1 #bi1 #ce2 ,,xi4 #i4 ,,xiii4 #e4 ,,ii4 #aa1 #ai2 ,,ix4 #aa2 ,,xi4 #ae4 ,,xi4 #bh499 ,i4 #ah4 k#8uei ,,vi4 #be4 ,,ii4 #a4 k#8un ,,ix4 #cf4 kung ,,ii4 #ad2 ,,xiii4 #a4 ,,iv4 #ab2 ,,xiii4 #d1 #bg4 passim4 ,,vi4 #ad4 k#8ung ,,ix4 #cb4 kuo ,i4 #a2 ,,ii4 #c1 #f1 #i1 #aj1 #bj2 ,,iii4 #a1 #f1 #aa2 ,x4 #bd2 ,,xi4 #dc1 #ed1 #ee2 ,,xii4 #ba1 #bb4 ,,iv4 #h2 ,v4 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj2 ,,viii4 #ac2 ,x4 #ad2 ,,xi4 #ea4 ,v4 #ae4 k#8uo ,,vii4 #bj4 ,lai ,,viii4 #aa2 ,,ix4 #d1 #ba1 #bc1 #ch2 ,x4 #b2 ,,xi4 #e1 #ah1 #ci2 ,,xiii4 #ba4 lang ,,xi4 #fd4 lao ,i4 #bc2 ,,vi4 #a1 #d1 #f2 ,,vii4 #ca2 ,,ix4 #ca2 ,,xi4 #bb4 ,,ix4 #ae4 lei ,,vi4 #aa4 ,,iv4 #aj2 ,,vii4 #ai4 li ,,ix4 #cc2 ,x4 #af1 #ag1 #ah4 ,,ii4 #a2 ,,vi4 #f1 #ai1 #bj2 ,,vii4 #g1 #i1 #aj2 ,,xi4 #fa2 ,,xiii4 #a4 ,,vi4 #bc2 ,,xi4 #cc1 #da4 ,,ii4 #b1 #d1 #ac2 ,,iv4 #aj2 ,,vii4 #ca2 ,,ix4 #dj2 ,,xi4 #bb1 #bc2 ,,xii4 #h4 ,,iv4 #ad2 ,,vii4 #ae2 ,,ix4 #bi4 ,i4 #bc2 ,,xi4 #af4 ,,xi4 #fd4 passim4 liang ,,iv4 #ag1 #ah4 ,,ii4 #a1 #h1 #i2 ,,vii4 #aa2 ,x4 #c4 ,,xii4 #af1 #bb4 liao ,,ix4 #dj2 ,x4 #ai1 #ba4 lien ,,viii4 #ab4 ,i4 #ac4 lin ,,vii4 #ac1 #ag2 ,,ix4 #ag2 ,,xi4 #h1 #eb4 ling ,i4 #e1 #ac2 ,,ix4 #d1 #dc1 #dd1 #de2 ,x4 #g1 #bf2 ,,xi4 #be1 #bh1 #ef2 ,,xiii4 #ab1 #bj4 ,,vii4 #cc2 ,,ix4 #ac4 liu ,,ii4 #ad2 ,x4 #ac1 #ad1 #bj4 ,i4 #ae2 ,,viii4 #b2 ,,ix4 #g2 ,,xii4 #ae4 ,,vi4 #ca2 ,,ix4 #f4 lo ,,ix4 #ae4 lu ,,viii4 #ab4 ,,ii4 #ad2 ,,iii4 #d4 ,,xiii4 #a4 ,,ix4 #i4 ,,xiii4 #b4 luan ,i4 #bj2 ,,iii4 #af2 ,v4 #af1 #ag1 #ah2 ,,vii4 #cj2 ,,ix4 #cc2 ,x4 #ad1 #ah1 #bf4 ,v4 #d4 lun ,,xi4 #ca4 lung ,,ix4 #b4 l ,,viii4 #g2 ,,ix4 #da2 ,,xi4 #cg2 ,,xii4 #af4 ,,xiii4 #bf499 ,,iii4 #a4 ,,ix4 #cf4 leh ,,vii4 #ah1 #bj2 ,,xi4 #ac1 #ba4 ,ma ,,ii4 #ad2 ,,ix4 #cd2 ,,xi4 #ca4 mai ,,ii4 #aa4 ,,xi4 #ca4 mei ,,iii4 #ah4 mn ,,xiii4 #bj4 mi ,,iii4 #ac4 ,x4 #cj4 ,,xiii4 #ad4 miao ,i4 #bf2 ,,xi4 #fd4 ,,xii4 #ag4 min ,i4 #e1 #f2 ,,ii4 #bj2 ,,iv4 #bj2 ,,vii4 #bd1 #be1 #bf2 ,,viii4 #ab3 ,,ix4 #dd2 ,x4 #bd4 ming ,,ii4 #bj2 ,,vi4 #i2 ,,vii4 #a2 ,,viii4 #a1 #c2 ,,xi4 #bg2 ,,xii4 #ae4 ,,iv4 #ab2 ,v4 #b2 ,x4 #bd2 ,,xiii4 #bj4 ming ,i4 #ac2 ,,iv4 #aj2 ,x4 #ah2 ,,xii4 #ac1 #af1 #bb3 ,,xiii4 #d1 #bg4 mo ,,ix4 #ad4 ,,xi4 #fg4 ,i4 #aa2 ,,vi4 #bg2 ,,vii4 #c2 ,,xi4 #ci2 ,,xiii4 #h1 #ad4 mou ,,iii4 #c1 #g2 ,,vi4 #be2 ,,vii4 #ab2 ,,viii4 #b2 ,,ix4 #bf3 ,,xi4 #ad1 #bb1 #cg1 #eb4 mu ,,iv4 #aj3 ,,vii4 #bd1 #bf2 ,,xi4 #cf4 ,v4 #bb4 ,,vii4 #bh4 ,nai ,i4 #af2 ,x4 #ca4 nan ,,iii4 #af2 ,,vii4 #c1 #ai2 ,,ix4 #db2 ,x4 #d1 #e1 #ab2 ,,xi4 #h4 nao ,i4 #bb4 nei ,,ii4 #a1 #ac2 ,,ix4 #d2 ,,xii4 #f1 #i2 ,,xiii4 #a1 #g1 #aj1 #bb4 nng passim4 ni ,,vii4 #ce4 ,,vii4 #cc4 niao ,v4 #ac2 ,,ix4 #bb1 #cb4 nien ,,xiii4 #b4 niu ,,ii4 #ad4 nu ,i4 #bb2 ,,ii4 #af2 ,,ix4 #cc1 #ci2 ,x4 #ag2 ,,xii4 #ah1 #bj4 ,,ii4 #ad2 ,v4 #ae4 n ,,xi4 #fh4 ,o ,,vii4 #ce4 ,pa ,,iii4 #e1 #f2 ,,xi4 #ee4 ,,xi4 #ec1 #ed4 pai ,i4 #ae2 ,,iv4 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #ai2 ,v4 #c1 #af2 ,,vi4 #ba2 ,x4 #bj1 #bb2 ,,xi4 #ei4 pan ,,vii4 #i2 ,,ix4 #d1 #bh2 ,x4 #g1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi4 p#8ang ,,ix4 #ag4 pao ,,iv4 #g1 #af2 ,x4 #bd4 ,x4 #bd2 ,,xiii4 #h4 ,,xiii4 #ac4 ,,ii4 #c2 ,,ix4 #cg4 ,,vi4 #d2 ,,vii4 #ca4 pei ,,iii4 #h2 ,,vii4 #g4 ,,vii4 #cd2 ,x4 #ad1 #ai2 ,,xi4 #bc4 ,,vii4 #cc2 ,,ix4 #h1 #i1 #ac1 #af2 ,,xi4 #g1 #de4 ,i4 #bb2 ,,ix4 #bc1 #bd4 ,i4 #ba1 #bd2 ,,vi4 #af1 #ag1 #ah2 ,,ix4 #bd2 ,x4 #e4 pn ,,ix4 #bg4 p#8ng ,x4 #ad1 #ag4 pi ,,xii4 #d499 ,i4 #ba2 ,,iii4 #i2 ,,vi4 #bi2 ,,vii4 #bi2 ,x4 #bd4 ,,ii4 #d4 ,,ii4 #ad4 passim4 ,,iii4 #ah2 ,x4 #b1 #f1 #ca2 ,,xi4 #d1 #e1 #i4 p#8i ,x4 #bf2 ,,xi4 #bi4 ,,viii4 #b2 ,,xi4 #a1 #h1 #ac1 #di4 ,,ii4 #ad2 ,,vii4 #h4 p#8iao ,v4 #ab4 pien ,v4 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj2 ,,vi4 #cc2 ,,vii4 #af1 #bf1 #cb2 ,,viii4 #d1 #e1 #f2 ,,xi4 #da2 ,,xii4 #e1 #ab4 pin ,,ii4 #a4 p#8in ,,ii4 #aj4 ping ,,xi4 #fa4 ,,ix4 #dj2 ,,xi4 #bb4 passim4 p#8ing ,,ix4 #i4 po ,,ii4 #aj1 #aa1 #ac2 ,,iii4 #b1 #ah2 ,,vii4 #g2 ,,ix4 #ab2 ,,xiii4 #a4 #b4 ,,vii4 #cf4 p#8o ,,ii4 #ad2 ,,iii4 #a2 ,,xi4 #ci4 pu passim4 ,sai ,,xi4 #ej4 san ,i4 #d2 ,,ii4 #h2 ,,iii4 passim2 ,,iv4 #ag2 ,v4 #b2 ,,vii4 #g1 #aj1 #bg2 ,,xi4 #f1 #ba1 #dj1 #ef2 ,,xii4 #a2 ,,xiii4 #ad1 #bg4 ,,ix4 #bc2 ,,xi4 #a1 #b1 #aa1 #db1 #df4 sao ,,xii4 #d4 ,,xiii4 #a4 s ,v4 #h4 sha ,,ii4 #af2 ,,iii4 #e2 ,,viii4 #ab1 #ad2 ,,xi4 #f2 ,,xiii4 #bj4 shan ,v4 #bc2 ,,vii4 #ac1 #ah2 ,,ix4 #a1 #b2 ,,xi4 #h1 #bi1 #eb4 passim4 shang ,i4 #e2 ,,iii4 #a1 #c1 #ag2 ,,iv4 #g2 ,,vii4 #i2 ,,ix4 #f1 #ad2 ,x4 #ba2 ,,xi4 #ae1 #fd2 ,,xii4 #aj2 ,,xiii4 #bg4 ,i4 #ac2 ,,ii4 #ag2 ,,ix4 #cf2 ,,xi4 #ef2 ,,xiii4 #ad4 shao ,i4 #bf2 ,,iii4 #i2 ,,ix4 #bc2 ,x4 #ai4 sh ,,vii4 #b2 ,,viii4 #b2 ,,ix4 #cd2 ,,xiii4 #bj1 #ba4 ,,xi4 #bi4 ,,ix4 #ad4 shn ,,vi4 #aa1 #be2 ,x4 #be2 ,,xi4 passim4 ,,viii4 #h2 ,,xi4 #ee4 ,see under hsin4 ,,xi4 #da4 ,,vi4 #i1 #cc2 ,,xiii4 #e1 #h4 ,,xi4 #bd4 ,,xii4 #bb4 shng passim4 ,i4 #b1 #f1 #h2 ,,iv4 #ah2 ,v4 #f1 #aa1 #ag2 ,,vi4 #bc1 #cd2 ,,viii4 #ab2 ,,ix4 #b1 #f1 #i1 #ab1 #ag2 ,,xi4 #eh2 ,,xii4 #ba2 ,,xiii4 #g1 #ac1 #bd4 ,v4 #g2 ,,vi4 #i4 ,,xiii4 #ae4 shih passim4 ,,ii4 #ad4 ,,iv4 #ad2 ,,vi4 #bb2 ,,ix4 #ce4 ,,ii4 #ae2 ,v4 #ab1 #bb1 #bc4 ,v4 #f2 ,,xi4 #fh4 ,i4 #ai2 ,,xi4 #ej4 ,,xi4 #ef4 ,x4 #ad1 #af4 ,i4 #g2 ,v4 #f2 ,,vi4 #cd2 ,,xii4 #c1 #d1 #i4 ,,iii4 #ag2 ,,xi4 #cg4 ,v4 passim4 ,i4 #af1 #ag2 ,,vi4 #cb2 ,x4 #ab1 #ae4 shih ,,ii4 #a1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #ag2 ,,iii4 #h2 ,,vi4 #ad1 #bj2 ,,vii4 #h1 #i1 #aj2 ,x4 #ae2 ,,xiii4 #a4 ,i4 #ac2 ,,iii4 #e1 #ad1 #ae2 ,,xi4 #bc1 #bd1 #bg1 #bh1 #cf4 ,i4 #ba2 ,v4 #d2 ,,vi4 #cj2 ,,ix4 #ab2 ,,xiii4 #ag4 ,,iv4 #c2 ,v4 #c2 ,,vi4 #c1 #ah1 #bb2 ,x4 #bf2 ,,xi4 passim2 ,,xiii4 #af1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd4 ,i4 #a2 ,,iii4 #ad2 ,,xi1 ,,xiii4 passim4 ,,viii4 #aa2 ,,ix4 #ah2 ,,xi4 #ae1 #ca2 ,,xiii4 #bg4 ,,ii4 #a1 #c1 #aj1 #aa2 ,,vii4 #cf2 ,,xi4 #dc2 ,,xii4 #ah2 ,,xiii4 #a4 ,,vii4 #bc2 ,,ix4 #b1 #f2 ,x4 #be4 ,,ii4 #i1 #ae2 ,,vii4 #aa1 #ce2 ,,ix4 #cd2 ,,xi4 #ba1 #di4 shou ,v4 #c2 ,,vii4 #a2 ,,viii4 #a1 #c4 ,,iv4 #e1 #f1 #g2 ,,vi4 #g1 #h1 #ab2 ,,xi4 #dh2 ,,xii4 #ab2 ,,xiii4 #b1 #bj4 ,,xi4 #cj1 #cd4 ,,ix4 #bb4 ,,xi4 #bi4 ,,xi4 #bg4 shu ,,iv4 #ag1 #ah2 ,v4 #a1 #ah2 ,,vi4 #bj2 ,,ix4 #cf2 ,,xii4 #ab2 ,,xiii4 #b4 ,,ix4 #h1 #ba4 ,i4 #ac2 ,v4 #aa4 ,,iv4 #ai4 ,,ii4 #aj4 ,i4 #g4 ,,viii4 #f4 shuai ,,xi4 #bi1 #cj4 ,,xi4 #ch4 shui ,,iv4 #bj2 ,v4 #ab2 ,,vi4 #bi1 #ca1 #cb2 ,,ix4 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #h1 #ad2 ,,xii4 #ac1 #ad4 shun ,,ii4 #ad4 ,,xi4 #fj4 so passim4 ,i4 #c1 #ab2 ,,ix4 #ag2 ,,xiii4 #bj1 #ba4 ss ,i4 #b1 #f1 #h2 ,v4 #f2 ,,vi4 #bc1 #cd2 ,,viii4 #b1 #ab2 ,,ix4 #i1 #aj2 ,x4 #be2 ,,xi4 passim2 ,,xii4 #ba2 ,,xiii4 #g1 #ab1 #ai1 #bc4 ,i4 #d2 ,,iv4 #ag2 ,v4 #f2 ,,vi4 #cd2 ,,xi4 #dc1 #ec2 ,,xii4 #a1 #d4 ,,ii4 #a4 ,,ii4 #bj2 ,,vi4 #i4 ,,xi4 #ee4 su ,,ii4 #e2 ,,vi4 #aj2 ,,viii4 #ab2 ,,xi4 #ai4 ,,ix4 #dd1 #de2 ,,xii4 #b4 ,,ix4 #cd4 suan ,i4 #bf4 sui ,,ii4 #d2 ,,vi4 #aa1 #ba1 #bb2 ,,viii4 #e1 #f2 ,x4 #g4 ,,xi4 #fg4 sun passim4 ,ta ,i4 #a2 ,,ii4 #ad2 ,,iii4 #aj2 ,x4 #ag2 ,,xi4 #ed2 ,,xiii4 #bg4 ,,ix4 #bc2 ,,xi4 #dc4 tai ,,iii4 #ag2 ,,iv4 #a2 ,v4 #bj2 ,,vi4 #a2 ,,vii4 #cj1 #ca2 ,,viii4 #aa2 ,,ix4 #ad2 ,x4 #h1 #aj2 ,,xi4 #ah2 ,,xii4 #g1 #i4 tai ,,iii4 #ah2 ,x4 #ca4 ,,xiii4 #a4 ,,ii4 #a4 tan ,,ii4 #d1 #ac4 tang ,,ii4 #ae2 ,,xi4 #cj4 t#8ang ,,vii4 #cb4 tao ,i4 passim2 ,,iii4 #ag2 ,,iv4 #af2 ,,vii4 #g2 ,x4 passim2 ,,xi4 #h1 #ai1 #bj1 #cb1 #db2 ,,xii4 #bb2 ,,xiii4 #a1 #h4 ,,vii4 #ad2 ,,xi4 #eb2 ,,xiii4 #ba4 t#8ao ,,iii4 #i4 t passim4 t#8 ,,iv4 #ac4 tng ,,ix4 #b2 ,,xi4 #ch4 ti ,i4 #b1 #d1 #h1 #ac2 ,,iv4 #g1 #ad1 #ah2 ,v4 #f2 ,,vi4 passim2 ,,vii4 #ad1 #bj2 ,,viii4 #b1 #c1 #e2 ,,ix4 #ac1 #ae2 ,x4 #a1 #ac1 #ba1 #bi1 #ca2 ,,xi4 passim4 ,,ii4 #i1 #ae1 #af1 #ah2 ,,iii4 #i1 #aj2 ,,iv4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #ad2 ,v4 #c1 #ai2 ,,vi1 ,,ix1 ,x1 ,,xi1 ,,xiii4 passim4 ,,ix4 #aj4 ,,ix4 #ac4 t#8i ,,xi4 #ch4 ,,xi4 #bh4 t#8iao ,,ix4 #ai2 ,x4 #ab4 ,,ix4 #bc4 t#8ien ,i4 #d1 #g1 #ac2 ,,iii4 #g2 ,,iv4 #g1 #i2 ,v4 #f2 ,,ix4 #ae2 ,x4 #ad1 #ca2 ,,xi4 #f1 #ee2 ,,xii4 #d4 ting ,,ix4 #ad4 t#8ing ,i4 #ae1 #af2 ,v4 #g2 ,,xi4 #ah4 ,,iv4 #aj2 ,,vii4 #ai4 to ,,iv4 #ah2 ,,vi4 #ba2 ,,xiii4 #e4 ,,vii4 #bh1 #bi4 ,,vii4 #bg2 ,,xi4 #ah2 ,,xii4 #ad4 ,i4 #bf2 ,,iv4 #aj2 ,,vi4 #af1 #ba2 ,,vii4 #bf2 ,,ix4 #ba1 #dj2 ,,xi4 #g4 t#8o ,,xi4 #fh4 tou ,v4 #b1 #af2 ,,vi4 #bb2 ,,xi4 #bd1 #ea4 t#8ou ,v4 #d2 ,,xi4 #bc1 #bh1 #dj1 #eh4 tsa ,,ii4 #ag2 ,,viii4 #g1 #h1 #i4 tsai passim4 ,,iii4 #e2 ,,viii4 #ac2 ,x4 #ad2 ,,xi4 #bf4 ,,vi4 #ba2 ,,xiii4 #ah4 ,,ii4 #h4 ,,ii4 #h4 ts#8ai ,,ii4 #aa1 #ab1 #ac2 ,,xi4 #bg4 ,,ii4 #a4 ,,ix4 #bc4 ts#8ang ,,iv4 #g2 ,,ix4 #ag4 tsao ,,xii4 #f4 ts#8ao ,,ix4 #h1 #ba4 ,,xiii4 #a4 ts passim4 ,v4 #ba4 ,,vii4 #ac2 ,,ix4 #g1 #h2 ,,xi4 #h1 #eb4 ,v4 #ba4 ts#8 ,,ix4 #be4 ,,xi4 #bb4 ts#8 ,,vi4 #bb4 tso ,,vi4 #ag1 #bj2 ,,xi4 #cj2 ,,xiii4 #bj4 ,i4 #af2 ,,xii4 #ac2 ,,xiii4 #c4 ,,vi4 #bc4 ,,xi4 #bh4 ts#8o ,,ii4 #b1 #d4 ,,iv4 #ac4 ,,vi4 #bf4 tsou ,,ix4 #bg2 ,x4 #ad1 #ae4 tsu ,i4 #ac2 ,,ii4 #ag2 ,,iii4 #a2 ,v4 #bj2 ,,vii4 #cd2 ,,ix4 #db2 ,x4 #af1 #ah1 #be1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi2 ,,xi4 #af1 #bh1 #cf4 ,,ii4 #c1 #i2 ,,iv4 #f2 ,,vi4 #bd2 ,,ix4 #dj2 ,,xi4 #ba1 #ca4 ,,vii4 #ac2 ,,ix4 #ag2 ,,xi4 #h1 #eb4 tsui ,x4 #bd4 ts#8un ,i4 #b2 ,,xi4 #aj1 #eh2 ,,xii4 #ba4 tsung ,x4 #ah4 ts#8ung ,v4 #ai2 ,,vii4 #cd2 ,x4 #i1 #aa2 ,,xi4 #i1 #ea2 ,,xii4 #h4 ,,iv4 #aj4 tu ,,ii4 #e4 ,,vii4 #be4 t#8u ,,ix4 #bc4 ,,xi4 #fh4 ,,vii4 #d2 ,,xi4 #cg4 ,,viii4 #c2 ,,xi4 #di4 tuan ,v4 #ad2 ,,vi4 #cd4 ,v4 #aa4 ,v4 #d4 tui ,x4 #ag4 t#8ui ,,iii4 #ac2 ,,vi4 #aj2 ,,vii4 #be2 ,,ix4 #bd1 #bh2 ,x4 #bd4 tun ,v4 #af4 ,,ii4 #b1 #d4 ,,iii4 #g4 tung ,,iv4 #g2 ,v4 #ai1 #bj1 #bb2 ,,vi4 #d1 #bc2 ,,vii4 #ae1 #ah1 #ai1 #ba2 ,,ix4 #ba1 #cc2 ,x4 #cj2 ,,xi4 #ag2 ,,xii4 #ag1 #ai2 ,,xiii4 #a1 #d1 #bg4 t#8ung ,,viii4 #d1 #e2 ,x4 #a1 #b1 #c2 ,,xi4 #fc4 ,i4 #e2 ,,iii4 #ad1 #ae1 #ag2 ,,xi4 #cj4 tz ,i4 #a2 ,x4 #be1 #bf2 et al4 ,,iv4 #g2 ,,vi4 #c2 ,x4 #ag2 ,,xi4 #b4 ,,vii4 #f1 #aa2 ,,xii4 #a4 tz#8 passim4 ,wai ,i4 #af2 ,,ii4 #a2 ,,xii4 #f1 #i2 ,,xiii4 #a1 #ab4 wan ,,ii4 #a2 ,,xiii4 #a4 wang ,,ix4 #bc2 ,x4 #b1 #d2 ,,xi4 #e1 #bc1 #bd1 #bh1 #ci1 #de4 ,i4 #b2 ,,vii4 #aa2 ,,xi4 #aj1 #eh2 ,,xii4 #ba4 ,,xi4 #ec1 #ed4 wei passim4 ,,ii4 #ah2 ,,iii4 #ac1 #af2 ,,iv4 #aa2 ,,vi4 #cc2 ,,ix4 #ab4 #dc2 ,,xi4 #ae1 #dj1 #fb2 ,,xiii4 #h4 ,i4 #f2 ,,ix4 #cg4 ,i4 #f2 ,,ii4 #bj2 ,v4 #bb2 ,,vii4 #e2 ,,viii4 #ab1 #ad2 ,,xii4 #ag4 ,x4 #bd4 ,,ix4 #g1 #dj1 #da2 ,,xiii4 #bg4 ,,xi4 #bi4 wei ,,xi4 #ed1 #ee4 passim4 ,v4 #i4 ,,vi4 #cd4 ,,ix4 #ag4 ,,vii4 #f1 #aa2 ,,ix4 #ch4 ,,vi4 #i2 ,,xi4 #ff2 ,,xiii4 #ag1 #ah4 ,,iii4 #h2 ,,vii4 #cf2 ,,viii4 #b2 ,,xi4 #a1 #i1 #ad1 #de1 #ej1 #ea4 ,,ix4 #ag4 wn ,,ix4 #dc4 ,,xii4 #ah1 #bj4 ,,xi4 #ah1 #cj4 ,i4 #aa2 ,,ii4 #e2 ,,iv4 #aj2 ,,vii4 #bc2 ,,xiii4 #ai4 wo ,,vi4 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #bg2 ,x4 #b1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #aj2 ,,xi4 #d1 #e2 ,,xiii4 #ba4 ,,xi4 #bh4 wu passim4 ,,vii4 #cb1 #cc1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf2 ,,ix4 #d1 #ae2 ,x4 #i1 #aa2 ,,xi4 #bb1 #eg2 ,,xii4 #g4 passim4 ,,iii4 #a4 passim4 ,,ii4 #ae2 ,,viii4 #h4 ,,viii4 #ab4 ,,ix4 #aa2 ,,xi4 #bg1 #cj4 ,,ix4 #dj1 #dc4 ,,xi4 #cj499 ,ya ,,xiii4 #bf499 yai ,x4 #a1 #h2 ,,xi4 #i1 #de4 yang ,,xi4 #ci4 ,,vii4 #cd4 ,,ii4 #ag2 ,,ix4 #ab2 ,,xi4 #bb1 #ee4 ,i4 #g2 ,,ix4 #aa1 #ac2 ,x4 #c1 #aj4 yao ,,vii4 #cb2 ,,xiii4 #bg4 yeh passim4 ,,viii4 #aj4 ,,xi4 #ba4 ,,xiii4 #bj4 ,,vii4 #g1 #bf2 ,,ix4 #cb3 ,,xii4 #aa4 yen ,,xi4 #bc4 ,,vii4 #bc2 ,,ix4 #ce2 ,,xi4 #eg4 ,i4 #i2 ,x4 #ah4 ,,xiii4 #e4 ,,xii4 #b4 ,,xi4 #bh4 yin ,,iii4 #af2 ,x4 #g1 #aa4 ,i4 #g2 ,,vii4 #ai2 ,,ix4 #aa4 ,,ix4 #cj4 ,,iii4 #d4 ,,xiii4 #bf499 ,i4 #ag2 ,,ii4 #i2 ,,vi4 #bf1 #ca1 #cc2 ,,xii4 #b1 #e2 ,,xiii4 passim4 ying ,,ix4 #bc4 ,x4 #h1 #i4 ,x4 #be4 ,,vi4 #bh2 ,,xii4 #e1 #f4 ,,ix4 #d1 #e1 #f1 #af1 #ci4 yo ,,vi4 #ae2 ,,ix4 #bf2 ,,xi4 #be4 yu passim4 ,,vi4 #ag1 #bj2 ,,ix4 #i1 #ac2 ,,xi4 #cj2 ,,xiii4 #bj4 yu ,,viii4 #c2 ,,xi4 #i1 #ai4 ,i4 #bj2 ,,vii4 #d2 ,,ix4 #bh4 ,,iii4 #d2 ,,ix4 #ci4 ,,xi4 #ce4 yung passim4 ,i4 #i2 ,,iv4 #ab2 ,v4 #ag1 #ah2 ,,vii4 #be2 ,,xi4 #bh1 #cb4 y ,,ix4 #ad4 passim4 ,v4 #ai4 ,,iii4 #ag4 ,,vi4 #aj2 ,,xi4 #ea4 ,,xi4 #cf4 ,x4 #ag2 ,,xi4 #cj4 ,,iii4 #ag2 ,,xi4 #ai4 ,,vii4 #ab2 ,,xi4 #eb4 ,,vii4 #c1 #d1 #bb2 ,,xi4 #i1 #cg4 y ,,iv4 #f2 ,,vi4 #bd2 ,,xi4 #bg4 ,,iii4 #ag2 ,,vi4 #aa1 #ab2 ,,ix4 #e1 #ad1 #ai1 #ch2 ,,xiii4 #bj4 passim4 yan ,i4 #h1 #ai2 ,,ii4 #aj2 ,,vi4 #bj2 ,,vii4 #ca2 ,,ix4 #c1 #af1 #ai2 ,x4 #a1 #ab1 #ba4 ,,ii4 #ac4 ,,vii4 #f4 ,v4 #af1 #bb1 #bc4 yeh passim4 ,,iii4 #d2 ,,iv4 #aj2 ,v4 #f2 ,,vi4 #cd4 ,,vi4 #ba992 ,,xi4 #cj991 #dc4 ,,xii4 #bj4 yn ,v4 #af4 ,,iii4 #d4 ,,xi4 #bb4 ,,index ,the numerals refer to pages ,abstract ideas of degree1 #ej4 ,accessible ground1 #ajj1 #aja1 #aai4 ,accommodating oneself to the enemy1 #ade1 #adh4 ,adaptation to circumstances1 #bc4 ,aides-de-camp1 #aga4 8,aids to ,scouting10 quoted1 #hh1 #hi1 #ajg1 #afd4 ,alliances1 #fj1 #aai1 #adj1 #adb4 ,allotments of land1 #fb4 ,alps1 crossings of the1 #eg4 ,amiot1 ,pre1 vii1 #a4 ,anger1 succeeded by gladness1 #aei4 ,army1 divisions of the1 #ag1 #cc4 ,army on the march1 #adj4 ,arsenals1 burning of1 #aea4 8,art of ,war10 quoted by ,han ,hsin1 #add4 ,art of war in a nutshell1 #dd4 ,athletics1 #abd4 ,attack1 skill in1 #bh4 ,attack and defence1 #be1 #dd4 ,autumn hair1 #bi4 ,baden-,powell1 ,general4 ,see 8,aids to ,scouting40 ,baggage1 #eh4 ,baggage-train1 #fj4 ,baggage-trains1 burning of1 #aea4 ,bait1 offered by the enemy1 #fh4 ,balancing of chances1 #ca4 ,banners4 ,see ,flags and banners4 ,bases of supply1 #fj4 ,beasts1 startled1 sign of surprise attack1 #hi4 ,belgians at ,waterloo1 #acj4 ,benevolence to spies1 #agj4 ,biot's ,chou ,li1 ix4 ,birds rising1 sign of ambuscade1 #hi4 ,blcher1 #dh4 ,bluster1 #ie4 ,boers1 #ah4 8,book of ,army ,management10 #fc4 ,buff-coats1 #eh4 ,burning one's boats1 #acc4 ,calamities1 six1 #aje4 ,calthrop1 ,capt43 his edition of ,sun ,tz's text1 xxxii2 his translation of ,sun ,tz1 viii2 quoted1 passim4 ,camp1 shifting1 #acc4 ,camping1 #hj sqq4 ,cannae1 battle of1 #aa4 ,casinum1 #adj4 8,catalogue of ,chinese ,books10 xxxiv4 ,chan ,kuo ,ts#81 quoted1 #aj2 referred to1 xxiv4 ,chan ,tou ,ta ,chia ,ping ,fa1 xviii4 ,chang ,ao1 a commentator1 xlii4 ,chang ,hsiu1 #fi4 ,chang ,liang1 li1 #aji1 #aaf4 ,chang ,ni1 #add4 ,chang ,shang-ying1 lii4 ,chang ,shou-chieh1 xvi1 xvii4 ,chang ,tsai1 li4 ,chang ,tz-shang1 a commentator1 xli4 ,chang ,y's commentary on ,sun ,tz1 xl2 quoted1 #e1 #h1 #i1 #aa1 #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 #bd1 #be1 #bg1 #cj1 #cc1 #cd1 #ce1 #ci1 #db1 #dd1 #df1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #ee1 #ef1 #eh1 #fj1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff1 #fh1 #fi1 #gb1 #gc1 #gd1 #ge1 #gf1 #gg1 #gh1 #hj1 #ha1 #hb1 #hc1 #he1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ib1 #id1 #ig1 #ii1 #ajc1 #aje1 #ajg1 #aji1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aai1 #abd1 #abe1 #abf1 #abg1 #aca1 #acb1 #acc1 #acd1 #acf1 #aci1 #ada1 #adb1 #adc1 #ade1 #aeb1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afa1 #afc1 #afg1 #agj1 #aga1 #agb2 referred to1 #f1 #ae1 #ag1 #ca1 #cf1 #de1 #ga1 #hf1 #ie1 #if1 #ajf1 #adg1 #aec1 #agc4 ,ch#8ang mountains1 #abh4 ,ch#8ang-cho1 battle of1 #ff4 ,ch#8ang-sh1 siege of1 #aed4 ,chao ,state1 army of1 #bh1 #adc2 defeated by ,ch#8in1 #aff2 ,king of1 #eg4 ,chao ,chan1 #ajf4 ,chao ,kua1 xlviii1 #aff4 ,chao ,sh1 famous march of1 #eg1 #acf2 his use of spies1 #aff4 ,chao ,yeh1 xiv4 ,chao ,ying-ch#8i1 #gh4 ,chao ,yan-hao's rebellion1 xli4 ,ch#8ao ,kung-wu1 quoted1 xxxvi1 xxxvii1 xxxviii1 xl1 xli4 ,chariots1 #i1 #ia4 ,chariot fighting1 #ae1 #af4 ,chariot wheels1 burying of1 #abi4 ,chavannes1 ,m43 his 8,mmoires ,historiques0 referred to1 xiii1 xvi1 xlvi1 #eg4 ,ch#8n ,chn-sun1 quoted1 xxiii4 ,ch#8n ,hao's commentary on ,sun ,tz1 xxxvi1 xxxviii2 quoted1 #cj1 #dd1 #ef1 #fb1 #fe1 #fi1 #gc1 #ha1 #ic1 #ig1 #ajf1 #ajh1 #aaj1 #aag1 #aah1 #abb1 #abd1 #acc1 #acf1 #ada1 #adg1 #aeb1 #agj1 #age2 referred to1 #ah1 #fh4 ,ch#8n-ts#8ang1 siege of #id4 ,chng1 principality of1 #ajd1 #aaf4 ,chng and ch#8i4 ,see ,tactics1 direct and indirect4 ,chng ,ch#8iao1 xl4 ,chng ,hou1 quoted1 xliii4 ,chng ,hsan's commentary on the ,chou ,li1 xviii4 ,chng ,tuan1 xlii4 ,chng ,yu-hsien's ,i ,shuo1 xxxii1 xxxiv2 referred to1 #cf1 #ec1 #eh1 #gj1 #acf4 ,ch#8ng-an1 city of1 captured by ,han ,hsin1 #bh4 ,ch#8ng-hung1 battle of1 #gh4 ,ch#8ng ,t#8ang1 xvi1 #agc1 #age4 ,chi ,hsieh1 editor of commentaries on ,sun ,tz1 xxxviii1 xli4 ,chi-mo1 siege of1 #ij4 ,chi ,t#8ien-pao's edition of ,sun ,tz1 xxxi1 xxxii1 xxxiii1 xxxvi1 xxxvii4 ,ch#8i ,state1 xii1 xvi1 #abh4 ,ch#8i ,chieh1 #ij4 ,chia ,hs1 a commentator1 xli4 ,chia-ku1 meeting at1 xlvii4 ,chia ,lin's commentary on ,sun ,tz1 xxxvi1 xxxviii2 quoted1 #bj1 #cj1 #cd1 #df1 #ej1 #eg1 #gb1 #ge1 #gf1 #hf1 #ib1 #id1 #ie1 #ig1 #aag1 #abj1 #acc1 #adc1 #adh1 #aeb1 #aeg1 #age2 referred to1 #ea1 #ee1 #fb1 #fe1 #if1 #ajh1 #afd4 ,chia ,y1 referred to1 xlvii4 ,chiang-ling1 town of1 #aaa4 ,chiang ,yan1 a spurious work1 lii4 ,chieh ,kuei1 the tyrant1 #agc4 ,chieh-li1 a ,turkish ,khan1 #afg4 ,ch#8ien ,ch#8io ,lei ,shu1 liii4 ,ch#8ien ,fu ,lun1 referred to1 xxiv4 ,ch#8ien ,han ,shu1 quoted #ha1 #ade1 #afg2 referred to1 li1 #bh1 #cd1 #eg1 #fi2 bibliographical section of1 quoted1 xvii1 xix1 li2 referred to1 xviii1 xx1 liii4 ,ch#8ih ,yu1 #hd4 ,chin ,state1 xii1 xvi1 #ajf4 ,chin ,shu1 quoted1 #gh1 #aaf2 referred to1 #abc1 #afe4 ,ch#8in ,state1 #adb4 ,china's experience of war1 xliv4 ,chinese characters1 elasticity of1 #aei4 ,chinese sentiment opposed to militarism1 xliv4 ,ching1 ,duke of ,ch#8i1 xv4 ,ching-chou ,fu1 #abc4 ,ching-hsing pass1 battle of1 #adc4 ,ching ,k#8o1 #abg4 ,ching ,wang1 period of1 xxiii4 ,chiu ,t#8ang ,shu1 referred to1 #ajd1 #afg2 bibliographical section of1 referred to1 liii4 ,chou ,ch#8in ,shih ,i ,tz1 text of ,sun ,tz in1 xxxi4 ,chou dynasty1 #agd4 ,chou ,hsin1 the tyrant1 l1 #agd4 ,chou ,li1 quoted1 #ad1 #ee1 #fj1 #fh1 #ib1 #adf2 referred to1 xxxix1 xlviii1 #fd2 ,biot's translation of1 ix4 ,chu ,chih-wu1 xxi4 ,chu ,fu's edition of ,sun ,tz1 xvii1 xxxi4 ,chu ,hsi1 corrected by ,legge1 #cb2 quoted1 xliii1 xlvii4 ,chu-ko ,liang1 #df1 #ea1 #gd1 #hb1 #aag1 #abb2 supposititious works of1 lii4 ,chu-ko ,wu-hou4 ,see ,chu-ko ,liang4 ,ch#8u ,state1 xii1 xiii1 xvi1 #abd2 the hereditary enemy of ,wu1 xxvii2 ,viscount of1 #aaj4 ,chuan ,chu1 xxi1 #abh4 ,chuan ,sh-chu4 ,see ,chuan ,chu4 ,chuang1 ,duke of ,lu1 #ff4 ,chuang1 ,prince of ,ch#8u1 #ada1 #afb4 ,chuang ,tz1 referred to1 #bi1 #he4 ,chung ,yung1 xix4 ,circumstances1 art of studying1 #fh4 ,classics1 compared with ,sun ,tz1 xliii4 ,clearness of orders1 #ajg4 ,clever fighter1 the1 #bi1 #da1 #db4 ,cohesion1 #acd4 ,collapse1 one of the six calamities1 #aje1 #ajf4 ,columns1 marching in1 #di4 ,commander1 the1 #b1 #c4 ,see also ,general4 ,commander-in-chief1 killing the1 #ade2 presence of mind of the1 #ff4 ,commentary1 native1 on ,sun ,tz1 ix1 xxxiv sqq4 ,communications1 line of1 #aja1 #aai4 ,compactness1 #fa4 ,confucius1 and the art of war1 xlvi1 xlvii1 xlviii2 contemporary with ,sun ,tz1 xxx2 violates extorted oath1 xlix4 ,constellations1 #aec4 ,contentious ground1 #aae1 #aah1 #acf4 ,contraction and expansion1 #acd4 ,conventional canons of warfare1 #adh4 ,co-operation1 #abi4 ,council-chamber1 sternness in the1 #adf4 ,country1 natural features of1 #fj4 ,courage1 one standard of1 #acj4 ,courant's 8,catalogue des ,livres ,chinois10 lii4 ,cowardice1 #gh4 ,critical ground1 #acd1 #ace4 ,cromwell's use of spies1 #afd4 ,cross-divisions1 #ajj4 ,cunning1 #ade4 ,danger1 bracing effect of1 #aci1 #ade4 ,dangerously isolated ground1 #gb4 ,deception1 war based on1 #f1 #acb4 ,decision1 #cg1 #ch4 ,deductive calculation1 #afc4 ,defence1 skill in1 #bg4 ,deliberation1 #fc4 ,demosthenes1 the ,athenian general1 #aah4 ,desertion1 #acd1 #acf4 ,desperado1 running amok1 #abe4 ,desperate foe1 not to be pressed1 #fi1 #id4 ,desperate ground1 #gb1 #aad1 #aag1 #abj1 #abe1 #abf1 #ace1 #ach1 #adc4 ,deviation1 artifice of1 #eg1 #fc4 ,difficult ground1 #ga1 #aag1 #abj1 #acg4 ,disaffection1 signs of1 #ie4 ,discipline1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #ih1 #aaa4 ,disorder1 seeming1 #ch4 ,disorganisation1 #aje1 #ajg4 ,dispersive ground1 #aad1 #aah1 #ace4 ,disposition of troops1 #bf4 ,dispositions1 concealment of1 #ea1 #eb2 knowledge of the enemy's1 #afc4 ,dissimulation1 #fa4 ,dividing the enemy1 #dg4 ,divination1 to be prohibited1 #abf4 8,divine manipulation of the threads10 #afd4 ,door1 left open by the enemy1 #adg4 ,doorkeepers1 #aga4 ,drums1 #cd1 #fd1 #fe4 ,dust1 sign of the enemy1 #hi4 ,earth1 as opposed to ,heaven1 #b1 #d1 #bg1 #bh1 #aac2 six principles connected with1 #ajd4 ,economy1 false1 #afb4 ,energy1 #ch1 #ci1 #da2 concentration of1 #abd4 ,entangling ground1 #ajj1 #ajb4 ,enterprise1 the spirit of1 #aeg4 ,enticing the enemy1 #ajb4 rh-chu ,chao1 #ach4 rh ,ya1 quoted1 #id4 ,excellence1 supreme1 #ag2 the acme of1 #bh4 ,expenditure on war1 #i1 #aj1 #afj4 ,fabius ,cunctator1 #aa1 #abj4 ,facile ground1 #aae1 #aah1 #ace1 #acf4 ,fan ,ch's use of spies1 #aff4 ,fei ,river1 battle of the1 #be4 ,fng ,hou1 lii1 #hd4 ,fng ,i1 a student of ,sun ,tz1 xlii4 ,fire1 as an aid to the attack1 #aef2 dropping1 #aea1 #aeb2 five ways of attacking with1 #aej2 material for1 #aeb2 proper seasons for attacking with1 #aeb1 #aec2 to be started on the windward side1 #aee4 ,five advantages1 the1 #gb1 #gd1 #ge4 ,five cardinal tastes1 #cf4 ,five cardinal virtues1 #c4 ,five classes of ,state ceremonial1 xlviii4 ,five dangerous faults1 #gg4 ,five developments in attacking with fire1 #aec sqq4 ,five elements1 the1 #ec4 ,five essentials for victory1 #bc1 #bd4 ,five factors in war1 #a4 ,five musical notes1 #cf4 ,five ,pa ,wang1 xlix1 #ada4 ,five primary colours1 #cf4 ,flags and banners1 #af1 #cd1 #fd1 #fe4 ,flat country1 campaigning in1 #hc1 #hd4 ,flight1 #aje4 ,foraging1 #ab1 #ae1 #abc1 #afa4 ,foreknowledge1 #afc4 ,forestalling the enemy1 #adg4 ,forethought1 want of1 #ig4 8,forty-one ,years in ,india10 referred to1 #ce4 ,four seasons1 the1 #ed4 ,frederick the ,great1 quoted1 #dh1 #afh1 #afi4 ,frontier passes1 #adf4 ,frontal attacks1 #de4 ,fu ,ch#8ai1 xvi4 ,fu ,chien1 #be1 #aae4 ,fu-ch#8u1 ,king of ,ch#8u1 #abd4 ,fu ,kai1 xxiii1 xxix4 ,fu-k#8ang-an1 #fc4 ,fu ,yen-ch#8ing1 #fi1 #gj4 ,general1 the1 #d1 #e1 #g1 #h1 #ae1 #af1 #ai1 #ba1 #dd1 #ee1 #ff1 #gg1 #ih1 #ajg1 #aji1 #aaj1 #acj1 #aca1 #acd1 #aeg1 #aei1 #afc1 #aga1 #agd4 ,generals1 professional1 xxii4 ,generalship1 degrees of1 #ag1 #ah2 the highest1 #dh4 ,giles' ,biographical ,dictionary1 quoted1 #abh4 ,giles' ,chinese-,english ,dictionary1 referred to1 #eg1 #acd4 ,gongs1 #cd1 #fd4 ,grant1 ,general1 #dg4 ,great ,wall of ,china1 xliv4 ,greeks1 ,homeric1 #i4 ,grindstone and egg1 #ce4 ,ground1 high and low1 #hd2 of intersecting highways1 #ga1 #aaf1 #aai1 #ace1 #acg2 proper use of1 #acj4 ,grounds1 the nine1 #aad1 #acd1 #ach4 ,guides1 local1 #fj1 #adj4 ,han1 red banners of1 #add4 ,han ,chih4 ,see ,ch#8ien ,han ,shu1 bibliographical section of4 ,han ,kuan ,chieh ,ku1 quoted1 xx4 ,han ,hsin1 xliv1 #bh1 #cc1 #cd1 #ha1 #adc1 #afg2 a student of ,sun ,tz1 xlii2 quoted1 #fh4 ,han ,shu4 ,see ,ch#8ien ,han ,shu4 ,hannibal1 #aa1 #eg1 #ff1 #abj1 #adj4 ,hasty temper1 #gh4 ,hearing1 quick1 #bi4 ,heaven1 #b1 #d4 #bh1 #aac4 ,heights1 precipitous1 #ajj1 #ajc4 ,hemmed-in ground1 #gb1 #aag1 #abj1 #ace1 #acg4 ,henderson1 ,col41 quoted1 #f1 #db1 #dh1 #eb1 #ei1 #aja1 #acj1 #aca4 ,herodotus1 referred to1 #abi4 ,ho ,ch#8-fei1 xl4 ,ho ,kuan ,tz1 referred to1 xxiv4 ,ho ,lu 7or ,ho ,l71 ,king of ,wu1 xi1 xiii1 xvi1 xvii1 xviii1 xxvi1 #e1 #abh4 ,ho ,shih4 ,see ,ho ,yen-hsi4 ,ho-yang1 night ride to1 #fe4 ,ho ,yen-hsi's commentary on ,sun ,tz1 xl2 quoted1 #aa1 #ad1 #af1 #ah1 #ba1 #bi1 #cj1 #cd1 #ef1 #fi1 #gd1 #aaj1 #aae1 #aaf1 #abb1 #adg1 #afe1 #aff1 #afg1 #afh1 #agd2 referred to1 xvii1 #ca1 #dc1 #fb1 #aeb4 ,horses1 tethering of1 #abi4 ,hou ,han ,shu1 quoted1 #aj1 #id1 #acb1 #aci1 #aea1 #aee2 referred to1 xlii4 ,hsi1 the graduate1 xxxiii4 ,hsia dynasty1 #agd4 ,hsiang1 ,duke of ,sung1 xlix1 #ada4 ,hsiang ,chi1 xlix1 #acc4 ,hsiang ,liang1 xlix4 ,hsiang ,y4 ,see ,hsiang ,chi4 ,hsiao ,state1 #aaj4 ,hsiao ,chi1 a commentator1 xli4 ,hsiao ,hsien1 #abc4 ,hsiao ,i1 #aec1 #aff4 ,hsiao ,shih-hsien4 ,see ,hsiao ,i4 ,hsieh ,an1 #be4 ,hsieh ,yan1 a commentator1 xlii4 ,hsien ,hu1 #ajf4 ,hsin-ch#8ng1 town of1 #abb4 ,hsin ,hs1 xiv4 ,hsin ,shu 7by ,ts#8ao ,kung71 xix1 xxxvi4 ,hsin ,shu 7a work attributed to ,chu-ko ,liang71 lii4 ,hsin ,t#8ang ,shu1 referred to1 #fe1 #ajd1 #aje1 #abc1 #afg2 bibliographical section of1 referred to1 xviii1 liii4 ,hsing ,li ,hui ,yao1 quoted1 xliii1 xlviii4 ,hsing ,shih ,pien ,chng ,shu1 xv4 ,hsiung-nu1 #ci1 #aci1 #aej4 ,hs ,ch#8ieh1 quoted1 #afj4 ,hs-chou1 invaded by ,ts#8ao ,ts#8ao1 #gc4 ,hs ,wn ,hsien ,t#8ung ,k#8ao1 liii4 ,hsan ,tsung1 ,t#8ang ,emperor1 xxxii4 ,hsn ,tz1 quoted1 #hj4 ,hsn ,ying1 #gc4 ,hu ,yen1 xiii4 ,hua-pi1 city of1 #gc4 ,hua-yin temple1 xxxii4 ,huai-nan ,tz1 plagiary of ,sun ,tz1 xxiv2 quoted1 xiv4 ,huan1 ,duke of ,ch#8i1 #abh1 #ada4 ,huan ,ch#8ung1 #be4 ,huan ,hsan1 #gh4 ,huang ,ch#8ao ,ching ,shih ,wn ,pien1 liii4 ,huang ,chih-chng1 a commentator1 xlii4 ,huang ,jun-y1 a commentator1 xli4 ,huang ,mei1 #gh4 ,huang-shih ,kung1 li2 quoted1 #aji1 #abf4 ,huang ,ti4 ,see ,yellow ,emperor4 ,huang-fu ,sung1 #id1 #aed1 #aee4 ,human nature1 to be studied1 #acd4 ,humanity1 misplaced1 xlix2 soldiers to be treated with1 #ih4 ,husbanding one's strength1 #fg4 ,husbandry1 impeded by war1 #afa4 ,i river1 #abg4 ,i ,chih1 #agc1 #agd1 #age4 ,i ,ching1 quoted1 xv4 ,i-chou1 #afe4 ,i-ho1 #aae4 ,i ,pu ,ch ,chung1 xliii4 ,i ,shuo4 ,see ,chng ,yu-hsien4 ,i-wu pass1 #aae4 ,i ,yin4 ,see ,i ,chih4 ,iliad1 heroes of the1 #abg4 ,impoverishment of the people1 #ac1 #ad4 ,induction from experience1 #afc4 ,inhumanity1 the height of1 #afb4 ,insubordination1 #aje4 ,intuition necessary in dealing with spies1 #afi4 ,invading force1 principles to be observed by an1 #abc4 ,jackson1 ,stonewall1 #ei1 #aca4 ,jan ,yu1 disciple of ,confucius1 xlvi1 xlviii4 ,jang1 siege of1 #fi4 ,jingles1 #adi1 #aeh4 ,ju-nan1 #aaa4 ,julius ,caesar1 #ab2 his 8,de ,bello ,gallico0 referred to1 #ajh4 ,junction of forces1 #dh4 ,k#8ang ,hsi's dictionary1 referred to1 #aj1 #ah1 #ce1 #fh1 #ie1 #aag1 #aeb1 #aeg1 #afj4 ,kao-ch#8ang1 #aae4 ,kao-fan4 ,see ,hu ,yen4 ,kao ,huan1 afterwards ,emperor1 #acg4 ,kao ,kng1 #aea4 ,kao ,tsu1 first ,han ,emperor1 #cc1 #ci1 #aai4 ,kao ,tsu1 ,sui ,emperor1 #afh4 ,kao-wu pass1 #aae4 ,khitans1 #fi4 ,khotan1 #acb4 ,kiangnan rebels under ,sui dynasty1 #aea4 ,kindness to the soldiers1 #aaj1 #aaa4 ,kou ,chien1 ,king of ,yeh1 xvi1 #ej4 ,ku ,chin ,t#8u ,shu ,chi ,ch#8ng1 quoted1 xvi1 xxxvii1 xxxix2 referred to1 xix1 xli1 li1 liii4 ,see also ,sun ,tz1 ,t#8u ,shu text of4 ,kuan ,chung1 #abh4 ,kuan ,tz1 xxi4 ,kuang1 ,king of ,shan-shan1 #aci1 #aea4 ,kuang ,po ,wu ,chih1 liii4 ,kuang ,wu1 ,han ,emperor1 li4 ,kuei-ku ,tz1 li4 ,k#8uei-chou1 #abc4 ,k#8un ,wai ,ch#8un ,ch#8iu1 xxxvi4 ,kung-sun ,hung1 lii4 ,kuo ,ch#8ao ,shih ,jn ,chng ,leh1 xxxii4 ,kuo ,hsn1 #aea4 ,kutcha1 ,king of1 #acb4 ,ladder1 kicking away the1 #acc4 ,ladysmith1 relief of1 #gi4 ,land-tenure1 ancient system of1 xxv1 #afa4 ,lao ,tz1 the ,tao of1 #b2 quoted1 #aee1 #aeh4 ,see also ,tao ,t ,ching4 ,legge's 8,chinese ,classics10 referred to1 ix1 xxiv1 #bc1 #cb4 ,lengthy operations1 #aj1 #aa4 ,li1 length of the1 #i4 ,li ,chi1 referred to1 #bc1 #adg4 ,li ,ching1 the general1 xliv1 #da1 #abc1 #afg2 quoted1 #ce1 #ff1 #hg1 #aaa1 #aah2 supposed author of a work on war1 lii4 ,li ,ching ,ping ,fa1 lii4 ,li ,chu1 #bi4 ,li ,ch#8an's commentary on ,sun ,tz1 xxxvi2 quoted1 #i1 #aa1 #ah1 #ba1 #bb1 #bd1 #be1 #bh1 #cj1 #cb1 #cd1 #ch1 #df1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #ee1 #fj1 #fe1 #fg1 #fh1 #gb1 #gc1 #ha1 #hc1 #hd1 #hi1 #ib1 #ig1 #aje1 #ajf1 #aaj1 #aac1 #aad1 #aae1 #aag1 #aah1 #aai1 #acf1 #adb1 #aej1 #aeh1 #afc1 #afg2 referred to1 #eb1 #ie1 #abc1 #abg1 #aea4 ,li ,hsiang1 #afe4 ,li ,hsiung1 #afe4 ,li ,i-chi1 #afg4 ,li ,kuang-pi1 #fe4 ,li ,ling1 #aed4 ,li ,shih-min1 afterwards the ,emperor ,t#8ai ,tsung1 xliv1 lii1 #ce1 #ajd1 #afg4 ,li ,shou-chng1 #gj4 ,li ,tai ,chi ,shih ,nien ,piao1 quoted1 #gj1 #aaf1 #aff4 ,li ,t#81 #afe4 ,li ,ts#8ai1 a commentator1 xlii4 ,li ,wei-kung4 ,see ,li ,ching4 ,li ,wei ,kung ,wn ,tui1 lii4 ,liang1 kingdom of1 #id4 ,liang-chou1 #aae4 ,liang ,hsi1 #aae4 ,lien ,p#8o1 #eg1 #aff4 ,lin-chin1 in ,shensi1 #cd4 ,lin ,hsiang-ju1 #aff4 ,line of least resistance1 #ec4 ,liu ,chou-tz1 #ec4 ,liu ,hsiang1 quoted1 xiv1 xxiv4 ,liu ,pei1 #ei4 ,liu ,piao1 #fi4 ,liu ,t#8ao 7attributed to ,t#8ai ,kung71 xxi1 l1 li1 #add1 #agd2 quoted1 #bb1 #fb1 #gh1 #hd4 ,liu ,y1 #gh4 ,livy1 quoted1 #ff1 #abj1 #adj4 ,lo ,shang1 #afe4 ,lo-yang1 #ajd4 ,logs and stones1 rolling1 #da4 ,longevity1 #abg4 ,lou ,ching1 #ci4 ,lu ,state1 #abh4 ,lu ,t-ming1 quoted1 li4 ,l ,kuang1 #aae4 ,l ,mng1 a disciplinarian1 #aaa2 a student of ,sun ,tz1 xlii4 ,l ,pu1 xxxv4 ,l ,shang1 known as ,t#8ai ,kung1 l1 #agd1 #age4 ,see also ,liu ,t#8ao4 ,l ,shih ,ch#8un ,ch#8iu1 referred to1 xxiv1 #cg4 ,l ,wang 7or ,lii ,ya74 ,see ,l ,shang4 ,luan ,yen1 #ajf4 ,lun ,y1 quoted1 xv1 #adf2 referred to1 xlvii1 xlix1 #dg1 #fd1 #aef4 ,lung ,ch1 #ha4 ,ma ,lung1 lii4 ,ma ,tuan-lin1 xl4 ,see also ,wn ,hsien ,t#8ung ,k#8ao4 ,ma ,yan1 #hj4 ,maiden1 coyness of a1 #adh4 ,mansfield1 ,lord1 #adc4 ,mantlets1 #ad1 #ah4 ,marches1 forced1 #ei4 ,marengo1 battle of1 #eg4 8,marshal ,turenne10 quoted1 #gc1 #afi2 referred to1 #fa4 ,marshes1 #fj4 ,measures1 of land1 #ad2 of length1 #cb2 of weight1 #ae1 #cb4 ,mei ,yao-ch#8n's commentary on ,sun ,tz1 xxxviii2 quoted1 #d1 #f1 #g1 #aa1 #bi1 #cd1 #ch1 #dj1 #dd1 #dg1 #fa1 #fc1 #gi1 #hd1 #he1 #hf1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #if1 #ajj1 #ajb1 #aba1 #abi1 #acj1 #aca1 #ace1 #acf1 #acg1 #ach1 #ada1 #ade1 #adg1 #adh1 #aec1 #aee1 #aeg1 #afa1 #afb1 #afc1 #afd1 #afh1 #afi1 #agj1 #agd2 referred to1 #ae1 #bc1 #dc1 #df1 #ea1 #ajf1 #aea4 8,mmoires concernant les ,chinois10 quoted1 vii4 8,mmoires ,historiques10 referred to1 xvi4 ,see also ,chavannes4 ,mencius1 quoted1 xxv1 xliii1 #ad1 #he2 referred to1 #bi1 #cb1 #aab1 #adh4 ,mng ,k#8ang1 xxxvi4 ,mng ,shih's commentary on ,sun ,tz1 xxxvi2 quoted1 #b1 #aa1 #ae1 #fa1 #gg1 #gh1 #aaf1 #acg1 #adg4 ,mng ,ta1 #abb4 ,method1 #b1 #c1 #ca4 8,military ,classic10 #add4 ,military tactics like water1 #ec4 ,military virtues1 #bb4 ,misfortune1 three ways in which a ruler can cause1 #ba sqq4 ,mistakes1 making no1 #cj4 ,modern text of ,sun ,tz4 ,see ,sun ,tz4 ,modification of plans1 #e4 ,moltke1 #ag4 ,moods1 art of studying1 #fg4 ,moral ,law1 the1 #b1 #d1 #ca4 ,mounds1 used in sieges1 #ai4 ,mountains1 #hj4 ,movable shelters1 #ah4 ,mu1 ,duke of ,ch#8in1 #ada4 ,mu-so1 an instrument of torture1 xlvi4 ,mu ,t#8ien ,tz ,chuan1 #aeb4 ,mystification of one's men1 #aca4 ,nang ,wa1 xiii4 ,napoleon ,bonaparte1 #e1 #ab1 #adh2 his passage across ,alps1 #eg2 not hampered by central authority1 #bd2 his 8,maximes de ,guerre10 quoted1 #hd1 #aji2 his 8,penses10 quoted1 #aja4 ,nelson1 at ,trafalgar1 #cg4 ,nervousness1 a sign of1 #ic4 ,nicias1 the ,athenian general1 #aah2 speech of1 quoted1 #abe4 ,night-fighting1 #fe4 ,nine grounds 7or situations71 the1 #gb1 #aad4 ,nine punitive measures1 the1 xxxix4 ,nine variations1 the1 #ga1 #gb1 #gd1 #ach4 8,north hill01 battle of the1 #eg4 ,o-y1 town of1 #eg4 ,omens1 not to be regarded1 #abf4 ,onset of troops1 #cg1 #ch4 ,open ground1 #aaf1 #aai1 #acg4 ,opportunism1 xlix4 ,orders1 not to be divulged1 #adb1 #adc4 ,original text of ,sun ,tz4 ,see ,sun ,tz4 ,ou-yang ,hsiu1 quoted1 xxxiv1 xxxv1 xxxviii4 ,overawing the enemy1 #ada4 ,over-caution1 #aeh4 ,over-solicitude for one's men1 #gi4 ,pa ,chn ,t#8u1 xviii4 ,pa ,wang1 the five1 #ada4 ,pan ,ch#8ao1 #fc2 at ,shan-shan1 #aci1 #aej2 his attack on ,yarkand1 #acb1 #afg4 ,p#8an ,kng1 #agc4 ,p#8ang ,chan1 xii1 #dj4 ,passes1 narrow1 #ajj1 #ajc4 ,peace1 the true object of war1 #afb4 ,pei ,ch#8i ,shu1 referred to1 #ach4 ,pei ,lun1 xl4 ,pei ,t#8ang ,shu ,ch#8ao1 #be1 #cf1 #fd1 #fg4 ,p#8ei ,hsing-chien1 #ajc4 ,p#8ei ,wn ,yn ,fu1 quoted1 #id2 referred to1 xlvi1 #fi1 #adf4 ,pelliot1 ,m41 xxxvi4 ,pi1 battle of1 #ajf4 ,pi ,i-hsn1 xviii1 xxvi1 xxxiv4 ,see also ,sun ,tz ,hs ,lu4 ,pi ,kua1 xxxiii4 ,pi-yang1 city of1 #gc4 ,p#8i1 siege of1 #afe4 ,picked soldiers in front rank1 #ajg1 #ajh4 ,ping ,fa ,tsa ,chan1 xviii4 ,ping ,shu ,yao ,cheh1 #fg4 ,pique1 battles not to be fought out of1 #aeh4 ,pitfalls1 #fj4 ,plagiaries of ,sun ,tz1 xxiii1 xxiv4 ,plans1 baulking the enemy's1 #ag2 change of1 #e1 #acb4 ,plataea1 battle of1 #abi4 ,playfair's 8,cities and ,towns of ,china01 referred to4 #eg4 ,plunder1 #fb4 ,po ,ch#8i xliv1 #aag1 #aff4 ,po ,chiang ,chuan1 xli4 ,po ,p#8ei1 xiii1 xxiii1 xxix4 ,po-tng1 battle of1 #ci4 ,po-ts#8ai1 a leader of the ,yellow ,turban rebels1 #aed4 ,po ,ya1 referred to1 #afj4 ,p#8o-t#8ai1 a spy1 #afe4 ,polybius1 referred to1 #abj4 ,port ,arthur1 siege of1 #ai4 ,presence of mind1 #ff4 ,punishment1 #ie1 #ig1 #ih4 ,rabbits1 not indigenous to ,china1 #adi4 ,rapidity1 #ab1 #fa2 the essence of war1 #abb4 ,rewards1 #ae1 #ie1 #adb4 ,reward and punishment1 constancy in1 #d4 ,riches1 soldiers not to acquire1 #abg4 ,river1 crossing a1 #abi4 ,river warfare1 #ha1 #hb4 ,roberts1 ,lord1 night march of1 #ce2 on ,sun ,tz1 xlii4 ,rout1 #aje1 #ajg4 ,ruin1 one of the six calamities1 #aje1 #ajf4 ,ruler1 military commander independent of the1 #aji2 the enlightened1 #aeg1 #aei1 #agd4 ,rules of warfare1 conventional1 #adh4 ,salt-marshes1 #hc4 ,san ,kuo ,chih1 quoted1 #fi1 #aaa2 referred to1 xxxv1 xli1 xlii4 ,see also ,wei ,chih4 ,san ,leh1 li2 quoted1 #fb1 #aeh4 ,san ,shih rh ,lei ,ching1 xviii4 ,san ,ts#8ai ,t#8u ,hui1 liii4 ,san-yan1 #gi4 8,science of ,war10 quoted1 #aja1 #acj4 ,scouts1 #hh1 #hi4 ,screens1 grass1 #hh4 ,secrecy1 #de1 #aca4 ,secrets1 divulged by a spy1 #agj4 ,sedan1 capitulation of1 #ag4 ,self-possession1 #fg4 ,sensitiveness in a general1 #gi4 ,sentries1 #aga4 ,serious ground1 #aag1 #aai1 #ace1 #acg4 ,seven considerations1 #a1 #d4 ,sha-yan1 #afh4 ,shan-shan1 #aci2 ,king of1 #aej1 #aea4 ,shang dynasty1 #agc4 ,shn1 ,duke of1 #aaj4 ,shn-wu of ,ch#8i1 #afh4 ,shn ,yu1 a commentator1 xli4 ,shepherd driving sheep1 #acc4 ,sheridan1 ,general1 #dg4 ,shih ,chi1 objection to the chronology of1 xxvi2 quoted1 xi1 xiii1 xv1 xx1 xlv1 #dj1 #eh1 #hj1 #hd1 #ij1 #abd1 #abh2 referred to1 xvi1 xxii1 xxiv1 xxxiv1 xlvi1 xlvii1 xlix1 #a4 ,see also ,ss-ma ,ch#8ien4 ,shih ,ching1 quoted1 xvi1 #fa1 #fb2 referred to1 #ad4 ,shih ,huang ,ti1 #abg1 #adb4 ,shih ,k#8uang1 #bi4 ,shih ,l#8iu ,ts#81 lii4 ,shih ,ss-ming1 the rebel leader1 #fe4 ,shu ,ching1 quoted1 xv2 referred to1 xlvii1 xlviii4 ,shu ,lu ,chieh ,t#8i1 xxiii4 ,shuai-jan1 the1 xxvi1 #abh1 #abi4 ,shuo ,wn1 quoted1 #id1 #aag1 #afj4 ,sicilian expedition1 #aah4 ,sieges1 #aj1 #ah1 #ai1 #gc4 ,sight1 sharp1 #bi4 ,signal-fires1 #fe4 ,signals1 #cc4 ,signs1 observation of1 #hh4 ,situations1 the nine4 ,see ,nine grounds4 ,six ,chancellors of the ,ch#8in ,state1 #adb4 8,six ,states0 period1 xxii4 ,skilful fighter1 the1 #cj4 ,skilful leaders of old1 #abj4 ,solidarity of troops1 #abc4 ,sphanes at ,plataea1 #abi4 ,sovereign1 the1 #ee2 the wise1 #afc4 ,spies1 xlix1 #eb1 #adg1 #adh2 converted1 #ij1 #aff1 #agb1 #agc2 doomed1 #afg1 #agb1 #agc2 five classes of1 #afd2 ,frederick's classification of1 #afh2 importance of1 #age2 intimate relations to be maintained with1 #afh2 inward1 #afe1 #agb2 local1 #afd1 #agb2 surviving1 #afg1 #agb2 to be properly paid1 #afb1 #afi4 ,spirit1 an army's1 #fe1 #ff4 ,spirits1 #afc4 8,spy10 evolution of the character meaning1 #afj4 ,spying1 end and aim of1 #agc4 ,ss ,k#8u ,ch#8an ,shu ,chien ,ming ,mu ,lu1 quoted1 l1 li1 lii4 ,ss ,k#8u ,ch#8an ,tsung ,mu ,t#8i ,yao1 quoted1 xx1 xli1 l2 referred to1 xl1 lii1 liii4 ,ss-ma ,ch#8ien1 xiv1 xx2 quoted1 xi1 xii1 xlv2 credibility of his narrative1 xxvi2 his letter to ,jn ,an1 referred to1 xlvi2 his mention of the #ac chapters1 xxx4 ,see also ,shih ,chi4 ,ss-ma ,fa1 l2 quoted1 xvi1 #ad1 #ag1 #gh1 #abf1 #adc4 ,ss-ma ,i1 #df1 #ea1 #abb4 ,ss-ma ,jang-ch1 xxii1 #a1 #ih4 ,stagnation1 #aeg4 ,standard text of ,sun ,tz4 ,see ,sun ,tz4 ,stellar ,mansions1 the twenty-eight1 #aec4 ,stonewall ,jackson1 biography of1 quoted1 #db1 #ei1 #aca4 ,strategy and tactics1 #eb4 ,strength1 great1 #bi4 ,stupidity1 to be feigned1 #ade4 ,su ,hsn1 quoted1 xlii4 ,su ,shu1 an ethical treatise1 li4 ,subdivisions of an army4 #ag1 #cc1 #ci4 ,sui ,shu1 quoted1 #aea2 bibliographical section of1 quoted1 xviii1 xli2 referred to1 xxxvi1 liii4 ,sun ,hao1 a commentator1 xli4 ,sun ,hsing-yen1 xxxii2 his edition of ,sun ,tz1 ix2 his preface1 xxxiv2 quoted1 xvi1 xxix1 xxx1 xxxi1 xxxii1 xxxiii1 xxxvi1 xlviii4 ,sun ,pin1 xii1 xv1 xvi1 #dj4 ,sun ,tz1 archaic words in1 xxiv2 bibliographical description of edition used1 xxxiv2 corruptions in the text of1 xxxi2 difficult passages in1 xxxiv2 state of the text1 #ach2 probable date of the work1 xxviii4 --,modern text1 #be1 #bf1 #bg1 #cc4 --,original text1 xxxii1 xxxiii1 #b1 #af1 #bg1 #bi1 #dc1 #dg1 #ec1 #eh1 #fb1 #fd1 #fg1 #hd1 #hf1 #hg1 #hh1 #ia1 #ib1 #ie1 #ih1 #aac1 #aai1 #aba1 #aec1 #aed1 #afh4 --,standard text1 xxxiv1 #aj1 #eh1 #ia1 #ie1 #aag1 #abg1 #afd4 --,t#8ai ,i ,tun ,chia text1 xxxvi4 --,t#8u ,shu text1 xxxi1 #af1 #ba1 #be1 #bi1 #cj1 #cb1 #cc1 #ce1 #cg1 #dj1 #dc1 #df1 #dg1 #ej1 #eb1 #eh1 #fd1 #fg1 #fi1 #hd1 #hg1 #ia1 #ib1 #id1 #ie1 #if #aje1 #aaj1 #aad1 #aag1 #abj1 #aba1 #acc1 #ace1 #adj1 #ade1 #adf1 #aec1 #aei1 #afd1 #afg1 #afh1 #aga1 #agb1 #age4 --,t#8ung ,tien text1 xxxiii1 #a1 #aj1 #ab1 #ai1 #bb1 #bc1 #be1 #da1 #de1 #dg1 #ej1 #ec1 #eh1 #ei1 #fb1 #fd1 #fe1 #fg1 #fh1 #gd1 #gg1 #ha1 #hc1 #he1 #hf1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi1 #ia1 #ib1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #ih1 #aja1 #ajd1 #ajh1 #aab1 #aac1 #aag1 #aai1 #acf1 #acg1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afd1 #afg1 #agj1 #aga1 #agb4 --,y ,lan text1 xxxiii1 #c1 #g1 #aj1 #ab1 #ad1 #ae1 #ai1 #be1 #bg1 #cg1 #db1 #de1 #dg1 #ej1 #eb1 #ec1 #fb1 #fd1 #fg1 #fh1 #gg1 #ha1 #hc1 #hd1 #he1 #hf1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi1 #ib1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #ih1 #ajh1 #aab1 #aba1 #abi1 #ada1 #aec1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afa1 #afd1 #afg1 #agj1 #aga1 #agb4 ,sun ,tz ,hs ,lu1 xviii1 xxxiv2 quoted1 xxiii1 xxiv1 #aah4 ,sun ,tz ,hui ,chng1 xlii4 ,sun ,tz ,ts#8an ,t#8ung1 xlii4 ,sun ,tz ,wn ,ta1 xvii4 ,sun ,wu1 a practical soldier1 xxv2 conjectural outline of his life1 xxix2 not a man of eminent position1 xxviii2 probable origin of the legend connected with1 xxix2 ,ss-ma ,ch#8ien's biography of1 xi2 supposititious works of1 xvii1 xviii4 ,see also ,sun ,tz4 ,sun ,wu ,sun ,tz1 xvii4 ,sung ,shih1 referred to1 xlii2 bibliographical section of1 xvii1 xxxi1 xxxvi1 lii1 liii4 ,superstitious doubts1 #abf4 ,supplies1 #acg1 #afa3 line of1 #aja4 ,ta-hsi ,wu1 #afh4 ,ta ,ming ,i ,t#8ung ,chih1 quoted1 xxxii4 ,taboo character1 #abd4 ,tactical manuvring1 #ef4 ,tactician1 the skilful1 #abh4 ,tactics1 direct and indirect1 #bj1 #cd sqq42 modification of1 #eb1 #ec2 not to be repeated1 #eb2 variation of1 #bf1 #ga1 #gd4 ,t#8ai ,kung4 ,see ,l ,shang4 ,t#8ai ,kung ,ping ,fa1 li4 ,t#8ai ,p#8ing ,y ,lan1 xvi1 xxxiii1 liii4 ,see also ,sun ,tz1 ,y ,lan text4 ,t#8ai-po ,shan-jn1 quoted1 #acb4 ,t#8ai ,po ,yin ,ching1 xxxvi4 ,t#8ai ,tsung1 the ,emperor4 ,see ,li ,shih-min4 ,t#8ai ,yan ,ching1 referred to1 xxiv4 ,tallies1 official1 #adf4 ,t#8ang1 prince of1 xiii4 ,t#8ang1 the ,completer4 ,see ,ch#8ng ,t'ang4 ,t#8ang ,chien1 #afg4 ,t#8ang ,shu1 bibliographical section of1 referred to1 xxxviii1 xli4 ,see also ,hsin ,t#8ang ,shu and ,chiu ,t#8ang ,shu4 ,tao ,t ,ching1 quoted1 xlix1 #adg1 #aee1 #aeh1 #afa4 ,temple1 used for deliberations1 #g1 #h4 ,temporising ground1 #ajj1 #ajb4 ,tenacity1 #abe4 ,tng ,ch#8iang1 #gh4 ,tng ,ming-shih1 quoted1 xv4 ,terrain1 natural advantages of1 #ajh2 six kinds of1 #ajj4 ,textual criticism and emendations1 #a1 #g1 #ac1 #ad1 #be1 #bi1 #cj1 #cf1 #da1 #dc1 #df1 #dg1 #di1 #ga1 #gd1 #hf1 #hg1 #ia1 #id1 #ii1 #aac1 #aag1 #aba1 #abd1 #abg1 #acc1 #aeh1 #afg4 ,thermopylae1 #aae4 ,three ancient dynasties1 the1 xxxix4 ,thucydides1 quoted1 #abe2 referred to1 #aah4 ,ti river1 #add4 ,t#8ien ,chi1 #dj4 ,t#8ien-i-ko catalogue1 quoted1 xxxvi1 xl4 ,t#8ien ,pao1 xv4 ,t#8ien ,pu1 #aje4 ,t#8ien ,tan1 defender of ,chi-mo1 #ij1 #abj1 #aee2 his use of spies1 #aff4 ,time1 value of1 #ab2 waste of1 #aeg4 ,tou ,chien-t1 ,king of ,hsia1 #ajd4 ,tou ,ku1 #aea4 ,trafalgar1 battle of1 #cg4 ,training of officers and men1 #d4 ,trebia1 battle of the1 #ff4 ,ts#8ai1 prince of1 xiii4 ,ts#8ao ,kuei1 mentioned in the ,tso ,chuan1 xxi2 on the advantage of spirit1 #ff2 threatens ,huan ,kung1 #abh4 ,ts#8ao ,kung or ,ts#8ao ,ts#8ao1 xix1 xxxi1 xxxvi1 xlii1 xliv1 #d1 #ei1 #fi1 #gf1 #aea2 his commentary on ,sun ,tz1 xxxv1 xxxvii1 xxxviii1 xl2 quoted1 #a1 #g1 #i1 #aa1 #ac1 #ae1 #ag1 #ah1 #bj1 #bb1 #bd1 #bf1 #bh1 #cd1 #ce1 #ci1 #dj1 #da1 #dd1 #df1 #ea1 #eb1 #ee1 #ef1 #ei1 #fj1 #fg1 #ga1 #gc1 #ge1 #gf1 #gg1 #gh1 #ha1 #hd1 #hf1 #hh1 #ia1 #id1 #ie1 #if1 #ig1 #ih1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #ajf1 #aaa1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aah1 #aai1 #abj1 #abb1 #abe1 #abf1 #abg1 #aca1 #acg1 #adj1 #adb1 #adc1 #ade1 #adf1 #adg1 #adh1 #aeb1 #aed1 #aef1 #aeg2 referred to1 #ai1 #dc1 #fb1 #acf2 his preface1 xx1 xxxiv2 translated1 xv sqq4 ,tsng ,shn1 xxiv4 ,tso ,chuan1 delivered to ,wu ,ch#8i1 xxiv2 has no mention of ,sun ,tz1 xx1 xxvi1 xxviii2 quoted1 xxvii1 xxix1 xlix1 #ai1 #ei1 #fe1 #hi1 #ig1 #ajf1 #aaa1 #afb2 referred to1 xxi1 xlvii4 ,tso ,tsung-t#8ang1 #fc4 ,tsui-li1 battle of1 xxx4 ,tu ,chung-wei1 #fi1 #gj4 ,tu ,mu's commentary on ,sun ,tz1 xxxvi1 xxxvii1 xxxviii2 quoted1 #d1 #aa1 #ad1 #ae1 #ah1 #ai1 #bc1 #bf1 #bh1 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #cc1 #cd1 #cg1 #ci1 #dj1 #da1 #db1 #dd1 #de1 #df1 #ej1 #eb1 #ee1 #ef1 #eg1 #ei1 #fj1 #fa1 #fb1 #fd1 #fg1 #fh1 #fi1 #ge1 #gf1 #gg1 #gh1 #hj1 #ha1 #hb1 #hc1 #hd1 #hf1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ib1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #if1 #ih1 #aja1 #aje1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aad1 #aae1 #aah1 #aai1 #abb1 #abd1 #abf1 #aca1 #acc1 #acf1 #acg1 #ach1 #adf1 #adh1 #adi1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aed1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afa1 #afc1 #afd1 #afe1 #afg1 #afh1 #afi1 #aga1 #age2 referred to1 #bj1 #fe1 #gc1 #aej2 his preface1 quoted1 xix1 xxxvii1 xxxviii1 xlv4 ,tu ,shu ,chih1 lii4 ,tu ,yu1 xxxiii2 his notes on ,sun ,tz in the ,t#8ung ,tien1 xxxvii2 quoted1 #d1 #f1 #aa1 #ai1 #bc1 #bd1 #cf1 #ch1 #dg1 #ef1 #fj1 #fa1 #fb1 #gg1 #hc1 #hh1 #ia1 #ib1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #ajj1 #aja1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aaf1 #aag1 #abj1 #acg1 #ach1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aff1 #afg1 #afi1 #aga1 #agb2 referred to1 #bh1 #ea1 #gd1 #aee1 #agc4 ,t#8u ,shu encyclopaedia4 ,see ,ku ,chin ,t#8u ,shu ,chi ,ch#8ng4 --,text of ,sun ,tz in the4 ,see ,sun ,tz4 ,tung ,cho1 xxxv1 #id4 ,t#8ung ,chou ,lieh ,kuo1 quoted1 #ef4 ,t#8ung ,chih1 referred to1 xxxii1 xxxvi1 xl1 xli1 liii4 ,t#8ung ,tien1 xvii1 xxxiii1 xxxvii1 lii1 liii4 ,see also ,tu ,yu4 --,text of ,sun ,tz in the4 ,see ,sun ,tz4 ,turenne1 ,marshal1 on deceiving the enemy1 #fa2 on sieges1 #gc2 on spies1 #afi4 ,tz-ch#8an1 saying of1 xlix4 ,tz-ch#8ang4 ,see ,nang ,wa4 8,unterricht des ,knigs von ,preussen10 quoted1 #afh1 #afi4 ,uxbridge1 ,lord1 #e4 ,valleys1 #hj4 ,victory1 halfway towards1 #aaa1 #aab2 without fighting1 #ag4 ,virtues1 the five cardinal1 #c4 ,wan1 town of1 #abb4 ,wang ,chien1 #abd4 ,wang ,hsi's commentary on ,sun ,tz1 xl2 quoted1 #a1 #b1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #bc1 #bf1 #cc1 #cd1 #ch1 #dd1 #eb1 #ec1 #ee1 #fj1 #fa1 #fc1 #ga1 #gh1 #hd1 #ib1 #id1 #ie1 #if1 #ajf1 #aad1 #aag1 #aai1 #abd1 #acb1 #acc1 #ace1 #acg1 #adb1 #aee1 #aeg1 #afi2 referred to1 #fg1 #gf4 ,wang ,kuo1 the rebel1 #id4 ,wang ,liao1 #abh4 ,wang ,ling1 a commentator1 xxxvii1 xli4 ,see also ,wang ,tz4 ,wang ,shih-ch#8ung1 #ajd4 ,wang ,t#8ing-ts#8ou1 #aje4 ,wang ,tz1 quoted1 #d1 #f1 #bd4 ,wang-tz ,ch#8eng-fu1 xiii4 ,war1 want of fixity in1 #ed4 ,warlike prince1 #ada1 #aeh4 ,water1 an aid to the attack1 #aef4 ,waterloo1 battle of1 #e1 #dh1 #acj4 ,weapons1 #ad4 ,weeping1 #abg4 ,wei1 kingdom of1 xxxv2 province of1 #aje4 ,wei river1 #ha4 ,wei ,chih 7in the ,san ,kuo ,chih71 xix1 xxxvi4 ,wei ,i1 #ajf4 ,wei ,liao ,tz1 li2 quoted1 #ce1 #gc1 #ig1 #ii1 #ajg1 #abe2 referred to1 xxiv4 ,wei ,po1 #afe4 ,wei ,wu ,ti4 ,see ,ts#8ao ,kung4 ,well-being of one's men1 to be studied1 #abc4 ,wellington1 his description of his army at ,waterloo1 #acj2 on the eve of ,waterloo1 #e2 saying1 of1 #aaj2 skilful in dissimulation1 #f4 ,wn1 ,duke of ,chin1 #ada4 ,wn ,hsien ,t#8ung ,k#8ao1 quoted1 xxxvii1 xxxviii1 xl1 xli2 referred to1 xxi1 xxiii1 xxxvi1 liii4 ,wn-su1 ,king of1 #acb4 ,wn ,ti1 ,emperor of ,sui dynasty1 #aea4 ,wn ,wang1 l1 #agd4 ,western ,sacred ,mountain1 xxxii4 ,wind1 days of1 #aec2 duration of1 #aee4 8,words on ,wellington10 quoted1 #e4 ,wu1 city of1 xiv2 king of1 #aah4 ,see also ,ho ,lu4 ,wu ,state1 xxv1 #di1 #ej1 #abi1 #aei2 dates in the history of1 xxvii1 xxviii2 first mentioned in history1 xxvii4 ,wu ,ch#8i1 l1 #fd1 #fe1 #aaj2 compared with ,sun ,wu1 xliii2 plagiary of ,sun ,tz1 xxiv4 ,see also ,wu ,tz4 ,wu ,ch#8i ,ching1 lii4 ,wu ,huo1 #bi4 ,wu ,jn-chi1 xxxiii4 ,wu-lao1 heights of1 #ajd4 ,wu ,nien-hu1 xxxiii4 ,wu-tu1 town of1 #afe4 ,wu-tu ,ch#8iang1 #hj4 ,wu ,tz1 xix1 l2 quoted1 #bd1 #ef1 #ff1 #gg1 #hj1 #ha1 #ih1 #ajg1 #aae1 #aca1 #adb1 #aef2 referred to1 xxiv4 ,wu ,tz-,hs1 xxix1 xlviii4 ,see also ,wu ,yan4 ,wu ,wang1 xvi1 #bj1 #age4 ,wu ,yan1 xiii1 xxiii1 #ef2 a spurious treatise fathered on1 xxix4 ,wu ,yeh ,ch#8un ,ch#8iu1 quoted1 xiv1 xviii4 ,wylie's 8,notes10 referred to1 xli1 lii4 ,ya1 ,king of ,chao1 #add4 ,yang ,han1 #aae4 ,yang-p#8ing1 city of1 #df4 ,yangtsze river1 #abc4 ,yao ,hsiang1 #gh4 ,yarkand1 battle of1 #acb4 ,yeh ,shih or ,yeh ,shui-hsin1 his theory about ,sun ,tz1 xxi1 xxiii1 xxv2 on ,sun ,tz's style1 xxiv4 ,yellow ,emperor1 the1 xvi1 #hd4 ,yellow ,turban rebels1 #aed4 ,yen1 ,king of ,hs1 xvi1 xlix4 ,yen ,shih-ku1 #afg4 ,yen ,ti1 #hd4 ,yen ,tz1 quoted1 #ih4 ,yin and ,yang1 #b4 ,yin dynasty1 #agc1 #agd4 ,yin ,fu ,ching1 xxxvi1 #aaa4 ,ying1 capital of ,ch#8u1 xii1 xiii1 xvi1 xxix4 ,ying ,k#8ao-shu1 xxi4 ,yo ,fei1 a student of ,sun ,tz1 xlii4 ,yo ,i1 #aag4 ,y ,hai1 quoted1 xlii2 referred to1 xxxvi1 xl1 lii1 liii4 ,y ,lan encyclopaedia4 ,see ,t#8ai ,p#8ing ,y ,lan4 --,text of ,sun ,tz in the4 ,see ,sun ,tz4 ,yan1 the two1 opponents of ,ts#8ao ,ts#8ao1 xxxv4 ,yan ,chien ,lei ,han1 liii4 ,yan ,shao1 #aea4 ,yeh ,state1 #abi2 compared with ,wu1 xxvi1 #di1 #ej2 first mentioned in history1 xxvii4 ,yeh ,cheh ,shu1 quoted1 xiv4 ,yeh ,y1 xxi4 ,yung ,lo ,ta ,tien1 lii4 ,,corrigenda ,transcriber's note3 the corrigenda listed below has been incorporated into the text4 ,p4 ix1 note3 ,for 8edition0 read 8translation40 #ad1 line #c3 ,for 8by0 read 8in the40 #af1 line #e3 ,for 8,t40 read 8,t#8u ,shu40 #ai1 note3 ,before 8,war0 insert 8,soldiers are not to be used as playthings40 #ag1 #a3 1 etc4 ,the more ,i think about it1 the more ,i prefer the rendering suggested on p4 #aei1 #bb1 note4 #a note1 and p4 #gh1 line #f3 ,insert 8the0 before 8,ss-ma ,fa40 #cc1 note on heading3 ,cf4 ,x4 #ab1 where is translated 8strength10 though it might also be 8conditions40 ,the three words 1 and have been much confused4 ,it appears from the ,shuo ,wn that the last character is post-classical1 so that ,sun ,tz must have used either or in all senses4 #de1 line #a3 ,for 8sublety0 read 8subtlety40 #fc1 line #d3 ,m4 ,chavannes writes in the ,t#8oung ,pao1 #aijf1 p4 #baj3 8,le gnral ,pan ,tch#8ao n'a jamais port les armes chinoises jusque sur les bords de la mer ,caspienne40 ,i hasten to correct my statement on this authority4 #hj1 #ith line from the bottom3 ,for read 4 #aji1 #bc1 note1 and p4 #abf1 #eth line from bottom3 ,for 8,huang ,shih-kung0 read 8,huang-shih ,kung40 #abd1 line #g3 ,for 8,ch#8n0 read 8,ch#8n ,hao40 #acf1 #aath line from bottom3 ,insert 8to0 before 8select40 #aeb1 #b3 ,substitute semi-colon for full stop after 8available40 ,footnotes #a ,published at ,paris in #aghb4 #b ,a rather distressing ,japanese flavour pervades the work throughout4 ,thus1 ,king ,ho ,lu masquerades as 8,katsuryo10 ,wu and ,yeh become 8,go0 and 8,etsu10 etc4 etc4 #c ,a notable exception is to be found in ,biot's translation of the ,chou ,li4 #d ,shih ,chi1 ch4 #fe4 #e ,also written ,ho ,l4 ,he reigned from #ead to #dif ,b4,c4 #f ,shih ,chi1 ch4 #acj1 f4 #f ro4 #g ,i note that ,m4 ,chavannes translates 8le peuple est puis40 ,but in ,sun ,tz's own book 7see especially ,,vii #bd-bf7 the ordinary meaning of is 8army10 and this1 ,i think1 is more suitable here4 #h ,these words are given also in ,wu ,tz-hs's biography1 ch4 #ff1 fol4 #c ro4 #i ,the appellation of ,nang ,wa4 #aj ,shih ,chi1 ch4 #ca1 fol4 #f ro4 #aa ,ibid4 ch4 #be1 fol4 #a ro4 #ab ,the appellation of ,hu ,yen1 mentioned in ch4 #ci under the year #fcg4 #ac ,wang-tz ,ch#8ng-fu1 ch4 #cb1 year #fjg4 #ad ,the mistake is natural enough4 ,native critics refer to the 1 a work of the ,han dynasty1 which says 7ch4 #b1 fol4 #c vo of my edition73 8,ten li outside the ,wu gate of the city of ,wu1 now ,soochow in ,kiangsu there is a great mound1 raised to commemorate the entertainment of ,sun ,wu of ,ch#8i who excelled in the art of war1 by the ,king of ,wu40 #ae 4 #af 4 #ag 4 #ah ,the ,shih ,chi1 on the other hand1 says3 4 ,i may remark in passing that the name for one who was a great warrior is just as suspicious as for a man who had his feet cut off4 #ai ,an allusion to 1 1 ,,ii4 #b3 8,they attached strings to wood to make bows1 and sharpened wood to make arrows4 ,the use of bows and arrows is to keep the ,empire in awe40 #bj ,,xii4 #g4 #ba ,v4 iv4 #g4 #bb 1 #gth diagram 774 #bc ,,iii4 #a4 vii4 #e4 #bd ch4 #a 77 ad init4 ,the text of the passage in the ,t#8u ,shu 71 ch4 #he7 is3 4 #be ,the son and successor of ,ho ,lu4 ,he was finally defeated and overthrown by ,kou ,chien1 ,king of ,yeh1 in #dgc ,b4,c4 ,see post4 #bf ,king ,yen of ,hs1 a fabulous being1 of whom ,sun ,hsing-yen says in his preface3 8,his humanity brought him to destruction40 ,see ,shih ,chi ch4 #e1 f4 #a vo and ,m4 ,chavannes' note1 ,mmoires ,historiques1 tom4 ,,ii1 p4 #h4 #bg ,t#8u ,shu1 ibid4 ch4 #ij3 4 #bh ,the passage ,i have put in brackets is omitted in the ,t#8u ,shu1 and may be an interpolation4 ,it was known1 however1 to ,chang ,shou-chieh of the ,t#8ang dynasty1 and appears in the ,t#8ai ,p#8ing ,y ,lan4 #bi ,ts#8ao ,kung seems to be thinking of the first part of chap4 ,,ii1 perhaps especially of #h4 #cj 4 #ca 4 #cb ,the mentions two editions of ,sun ,tz in #c chan1 namely and 4 #cc ,see chap4 ,,xi4 #cd 4 #ce 4 #cf ,such as the 1 quoted in ,chng ,hsan's commentary on the ,chou ,li1 the and 1 mentioned in the ,sui ,chih1 and the 1 in the ,hsin ,t#8ang ,chih4 #cg ,on the other hand1 it is noteworthy that ,wu ,tz1 which is now in #f chapters1 has #dh assigned to it in the ,han ,chih4 ,likewise1 the ,chung ,yung is credited with #di chapters1 though now in one only4 ,in the case of such very short works1 one is tempted to think that might simply mean 8leaves40 #ch ,see ,t#8u ,shu1 1 ch4 #ddb1 #b4 #ci ,an extract will be found on p4 xlv4 #dj 4 #da 4 #db 4 #dc 4 #dd ,see 4 #de 4 #df ,ch4 #ii1 fol4 #e ro4 #dg 4 #dh ,shih ,chi1 ch4 #fe ad fin3 4 #di ,yeh ,shih of the ,sung dynasty #aaea-abbc4 ,see 1 ch4 #bba1 ff4 #g1 #h4 #ej ,see ,tso ,chuan 1 ,i4 #c ad fin4 and ,,xi4 #c ad init4 ,he hardly deserves to be bracketed with assassins4 #ea ,see pp4 #ff1 #abh4 #eb ,see ,tso ,chuan1 1 ,,xxx4 #e4 #ec ,see p4 #abh4 ,chuan ,chu is the abbreviated form of his name4 #ed ,i4e4 ,po ,p#8ei4 ,see ante4 #ee 4 #ef ,the nucleus of this work is probably genuine1 though large additions have been made by later hands4 ,kuan ,chung died in #fde ,b4,c4 #eg ,see ,infra1 p4 #a4 #eh ,i do not know what work this is1 unless it be the last chapter of the 4 ,why that chapter should be singled out1 however1 is not clear4 #ei ,about #dhj ,b4,c4 #fj 4 #fa ,that is1 ,i suppose1 the age of ,wu ,wang and ,chou ,kung4 #fb ,in the #crd century ,b4,c4 #fc ,ss-ma ,jang-ch1 whose family name was ,t#8ien1 lived in the latter half of the #fth century ,b4,c41 and is also believed to have written a work on war4 ,see ,shih ,chi1 ch4 #fd1 and infra1 p4 #a4 #fd 4 #fe ,see the end of the passage quoted from the ,shih ,chi on p4 xii4 #ff ,in the 1 a classified catalogue of his family library4 #fg ,see ,wn ,hsien ,t#8ung ,k#8ao1 ch4 #bba1 f4 #i ro3 4 #fh ,see ,hs ,lu1 f4 #ad ro3 4 #fi 4 ,here is a list of the passages in ,sun ,tz from which either the substance or the actual words have been appropriated by early authors3 ,,vii4 #i2 ,,ix4 #ag2 ,i4 #bd 774 ,,ix4 #bc2 ,,ix4 #a1 #c1 #g2 ,v4 #a2 ,,iii4 #ah2 ,,xi4 #eh2 ,,vii4 #ca2 ,,vii4 #bd2 ,,vii4 #bf2 ,,ix4 #ae2 ,,ix4 #d 7bis7 774 ,,iii4 #h2 ,,iv4 #g 774 ,,vii4 #ai2 ,v4 #ad2 ,,iii4 #b 774 ,,iii4 #h2 ,,xi4 #b2 ,i4 #ai2 ,,xi4 #eh2 ,x4 #aj ,,vi4 #a 74 ,two of the above are given as quotations74 ,v4 #ac2 ,,iv4 #b 774 ,,ix4 #aa1 #ab2 ,,xi4 #cj2 ,i4 #ac2 ,,vii4 #ai ,,iv4 #g2 ,,vii4 #cb2 ,,vii4 #be2 ,,iv4 #bj ,v4 #bc2 ,,ix4 #dc2 ,v4 #ae2 ,,vii4 #bf2 ,v4 #d ,,xi4 #ci2 ,,viii4 #aa2 ,,vi4 #d 774 ,v4 #d 774 ,,ii4 #bj2 ,x4 #ad 774 #gj ,see ,legge's ,classics1 vol4 ,v1 ,prolegomena p4 #bg4 ,legge thinks that the ,tso ,chuan must have been written in the #eth century1 but not before #dbd ,b4,c4 #ga ,the instances quoted are3--,,iii4 #ad1 #ae3 is said to be equivalent to 2 ,,ii4 #ae3 2 ,,vii4 #bh3 2 ,,xi4 #fj3 2 ,,xi4 #bd3 the use of instead of 7the later form72 ,,xi4 #fd3 2 ,,ix4 #c3 2 ,,iii4 #aa3 and antithetically opposed in the sense of and 2 ,,xi4 #ef3 2 ,,xi4 #ca3 4 #gb ,see ,mencius ,,iii4 #a4 iii4 #ac-bj4 #gc need not be pressed to mean an actual dweller in the mountains4 ,i think it simply denotes a person living a retired life and standing aloof from public affairs4 #gd ,when ,wu first appears in the ,ch#8un ,ch#8iu in #ehd1 it is already at variance with its powerful neighbour4 ,the ,ch#8un ,ch#8iu first mentions ,yeh in #ecg1 the ,tso ,chuan in #fja4 #ge ,this is explicitly stated in the ,tso ,chuan1 ,,xxxii1 #b3 4 #gf ,there is this to be said for the later period1 that the feud would tend to grow more bitter after each encounter1 and thus more fully justify the language used in ,,xi4 #cj4 #gg ,see his preface to ,sun ,tz3-- 4 #gh ,with ,wu ,yan himself the case is just the reverse3--a spurious treatise on war has been fathered on him simply because he was a great general4 ,here we have an obvious inducement to forgery4 ,sun ,wu1 on the other hand1 cannot have been widely known to fame in the #eth century4 #gi ,see ,tso ,chuan1 1 #dth year 7#ejf71 #ad3 8,from the date of ,king ,chao's accession #eae there was no year in which ,ch#8u was not attacked by ,wu40 #hj ,see supra1 p4 xx4 #ha 4 #hb ,see 4 #hc ,alluded to on p4 xvii1 note #c4 #hd ,loc4 cit43 4 #he ,a good biographical notice1 with a list of his works1 will be found in the 1 ch4 #dh1 fol4 #ah sqq4 #hf ,preface ad fin43 8,my family comes from ,lo-an1 and we are really descended from ,sun ,tz4 ,i am ashamed to say that ,i only read my ancestor's work from a literary point of view1 without comprehending the military technique4 ,so long have we been enjoying the blessings of peace60 #hg ,hua-yin is about #ad miles from ,t#8ung-kuan on the eastern border of ,shensi4 ,the temple in question is still visited by those about to make the ascent of the or ,western ,sacred ,mountain4 ,it is mentioned in the ,a4,d4 #adfa1 ch4 #cb1 f4 #bb1 as the 3-- 8,situated five li east of the district city of ,hua-yin4 ,the temple contains the ,hua-shan tablet inscribed by the ,t#8ang ,emperor ,hsan ,tsung #gac-gee40 #hh 4 #hi ,cf4 ,sun ,hsing-yen's remark propos of his mistakes in the names and order of the commentators3 4 #ij 4 #ia ,see my 8,catalogue of ,chinese ,books0 7,luzac ,co41 #aijh71 no4 #dj4 #ib ,this is a discussion of #bi difficult passages in ,sun ,tz1 namely3 ,i4 #b2 #bf2 #af2 ,,ii4 #i #aj2 ,,iii4 #c2 ,,iii ,,vii2 ,,iii4 #ag2 ,,iv4 #d2 #f2 ,v4 #c2 #aj #aa2 #ad2 the headings of the #ac chapters1 with special reference to chap4 ,,vii2 ,,vii4 #e2 #ae #af2 #bg2 #cc1 c42 ,,viii4 #a-f2 ,,ix4 #aa2 ,x4 #a-bj2 ,,xi4 #bc2 #ca2 #ai2 #dc2 ,,vii4 #ab-ad ,,xi4 #eb2 ,,xi4 #ef2 ,,xiii4 #ae #af2 #bf2 ,,xiii in general4 #ic ,preface to ,mei ,yao-ch#8n's edition3 4 #id ,see 1 ch4 #a4 #ie ,loc4 cit43 4 #if ,cf4 ,catalogue of the library of the ,fan family at ,ningpo1 1 fol4 #ab vo3 8,his commentary is frequently obscure2 it furnishes a clue1 but does not fully develop the meaning40 #ig ,see 1 ch4 #ada ad init4 #ih ,wn ,hsien ,t#8ung ,k#8ao1 ch4 #bba1 f4 #i vo4 #ii ,ch4 #bjg1 f4 #e ro4 #ajj ,it is interesting to note that ,m4 ,pelliot has recently discovered chapters #a1 #d and #e of this lost work in the 8,grottos of the ,thousand ,buddhas40 ,see ,b4 ,e4 ,f4 ,e4 ,o1 t4 ,,viii1 nos4 #c-d1 p4 #ebe4 #aja ,loc4 cit4 #ajb ,wn ,hsien ,t#8ung ,k#8ao1 ch4 #bba1 f4 #i3 4 #ajc ,preface to his commentary 7,t#8u ,shu1 1 ch4 #ddb73 4 #ajd ,ibid43 4 #aje ,t#8ung ,k#8ao1 loc4 cit43 4 #ajf ,ibid4 #ajg ,the ,hsia1 the ,shang and the ,chou4 ,although the last-named was nominally existent in ,sun ,tz's day1 it retained hardly a vestige of power1 and the old military organisation had practically gone by the board4 ,i can suggest no other explanation of the passage4 #ajh ,see ,chou ,li1 ,,xxix4 #f-aj4 #aji ,see ,t#8u ,shu1 1 ch4 #ij1 f4 #b vo3 4 #aaj ,t#8ung ,k#8ao1 ch4 #bba1 f4 #aa ro3 4 #aaa ,see 1 ch4 #ii1 f4 #af vo4 #aab ,this appears to be still extant4 ,see ,wylie's 8,notes10 p4 #ia 7new edition74 #aac ,t#8ung ,k#8ao1 loc4 cit43 4 #aad ,a notable person in his day4 ,his biography is given in the ,san ,kuo ,chih1 ch4 #aj4 #aae ,ch4 #ajj1 ff4 #b1 #c4 #aaf ,see p4 #add4 #aag ,hou ,han ,shu1 ch4 #ag ad init4 #aah ,san ,kuo ,chih1 ch4 #ed1 f4 #aj vo 7commentary74 #aai ,sung ,shih1 ch4 #cfe ad init4 #abj ,the few ,europeans who have yet had an opportunity of acquainting themselves with ,sun ,tz are not behindhand in their praise4 ,in this connection1 ,i may perhaps be excused for quoting from a letter from ,lord ,roberts1 to whom the sheets of the present work were submitted previous to publication3 8,many of ,sun ,wu's maxims are perfectly applicable to the present day1 and no4 #aa on page #gg is one that the people of this country would do well to take to heart40 #aba ,ch4 #adj1 f4 #ac ro4 #abb ,see ,,iv4 #c4 #abc ,the allusion may be to ,mencius ,,vi4 #b4 ix4 #b3 4 #abd 4 #abe ,the ,tso ,chuan4 #abf 4 #abg 4 #abh ,shih ,chi1 ch4 #be1 fol4 #a3 444 4 #abi ,the first instance of given in the ,p#8ei ,wn ,yn ,fu is from ,ss-ma ,ch#8ien's letter to ,jn ,an 7see 1 ch4 #da1 f4 #i ro71 where ,m4 ,chavannes translates it 8la cangue et la chane40 ,but in the present passage it seems rather to indicate some single instrument of torture4 #acj 4 #aca ,cf4 ,shih ,chi1 ch4 #dg1 f4 #aa vo4 #acb 4 #acc ,see ,shu ,ching1 preface #ee4 #acd ,see ,tso ,chuan1 ,x4 #b2 ,shih ,chi1 ch4 #dg1 f4 #d ro4 #ace 4 #acf ,lun ,y1 ,,xv4 #a4 #acg ,tso ,chuan1 1 ,,xi4 #g4 #ach ,see supra4 #aci ,tso ,chuan1 1 ,x4 #b4 #adj ,ibid4 ,,xii4 #e2 ,chia ,y1 ch4 #a ad fin4 #ada ,i have failed to trace this utterance4 ,see note #b on p4 xliii4 #adb ,see supra4 #adc 1 loc4 cit43 4 #add ,see supra4 #ade ,viz41 1 the other four being 1 1 and 8worship1 mourning1 entertainment of guests and festive rites40 ,see ,shu ,ching1 ,,ii4 #a4 iii4 #h1 and ,chou ,li1 ,,ix4 fol4 #di4 #adf ,preface to ,sun ,tz3 4 #adg ,see p4 #aff4 #adh ,this is a rather obscure allusion to ,tso ,chuan1 1 ,,xxxi4 #d1 where ,tz-ch#8an says3 8,if you have a piece of beautiful brocade1 you will not employ a mere learner to make it up40 #adi ,cf4 ,tao ,t ,ching1 ch4 #ca3 4 #aej ,sun ,hsing-yen might have quoted ,confucius again4 ,see ,lun ,y1 ,,xiii4 #bi1 #cj4 #aea 4 #aeb ,better known as ,hsiang ,y ,b4,c4 #bcc-bjb4 #aec ,the third among the 7or 7 enumerated on p4 #ada4 ,for the incident referred to1 see ,tso ,chuan1 1 ,,xxii4 #d4 #aed ,see supra1 p4 xvi1 note #d4 #aee ,shih ,chi1 ch4 #dg1 f4 #g ro4 #aef ,ibid41 ch4 #ch1 f4 #h vo4 #aeg 4 #aeh 4 #aei 4 #afj ,see p4 #agd4 ,further details on ,t#8ai ,kung will be found in the ,shih ,chi1 ch4 #cb ad init4 ,besides the tradition which makes him a former minister of ,chou ,hsin1 two other accounts of him are there given1 according to which he would appear to have been first raised from a humble private station by ,wn ,wang4 #afa 4 #afb 4 #afc ,see ,han ,shu1 1 ch4 #dj4 ,the work is there called 4 ,hence it has been confused with the ,liu ,t#8ao4 ,the ,t#8u ,shu attributes both the ,liu ,t#8ao and the ,san ,leh to ,t#8ai ,kung4 #afd 4 ,another work said to have been written by ,huang-shih ,kung1 and also included in the military section of the ,imperial ,catalogue1 is the ,su ,shu in #a chan4 ,a short ethical treatise of ,taoist savour1 having no reference whatever to war1 it is pronounced a forgery from the hand of ,chang ,shang-ying 7d4 #aaba71 who edited it with commentary4 ,correct ,wylie's 8,notes10 new edition1 p4 #ij1 and ,courant's 8,catalogue des ,livres ,chinois10 no4 #ejef4 #afe 4 ,we are told in the that the above six works1 together with ,sun ,tz1 were those prescribed for military training in the period 7#ajgh-he74 ,see ,y ,hai1 ch4 #adj1 f4 #d ro4 #aff ,also written and ,wu ,chi ,ching4 #afg 4 #afh 8,words on ,wellington10 by ,sir ,w4 ,fraser4 #afi 8,forty-one ,years in ,india10 chap4 #df4 #agj ,see ,col4 ,henderson's biography of ,stonewall ,jackson1 #aijb ed41 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #dij4 #aga ,see ,col4 ,henderson1 op4 cit4 vol4 ,i4 p4 #dbf4 #agb ,for a number of maxims on this head1 see 8,marshal ,turenne0 7,longmans1 #aijg71 p4 #bi4 #agc 8,marshal ,turenne10 p4 #ej4 #agd 8,aids to ,scouting10 p4 #bf4 #age ,see 8,penses de ,napolon ,ier10 no4 #dg4 #agf 8,the ,science of ,war10 chap4 #b4 #agg 8,aids to ,scouting10 p4 xii4 #agh 8,maximes de ,guerre10 no4 #gb4 #agi ,giles' ,biographical ,dictionary1 no4 #cii4 #ahj 8,the ,science of ,war10 p4 #ccc4 #aha 8,stonewall ,jackson10 vol4 ,i1 p4 #dba4 #ahb ,see ,giles' ,dictionary1 no4 #ihag4 #ahc 8,unless you enter the tiger's lair1 you cannot get hold of the tiger's cubs40 #ahd 8,aids to ,scouting10 p4 #b4 #ahe ,ch#8ien ,han ,shu1 ch4 #dc1 fol4 #a4 ,yen ,shih-ku in loc4 says3 4 #ahf 8,unterricht des ,knigs von ,preussen an die ,generale seiner ,armeen10 cap4 #ab 7edition of #agid74 #ahg 8,marshal ,turenne10 p4 #caa4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,text ,notes3 #a4 ,the text contains ,chinese characters4 ,character variants matching the printed text are used whenever possible rather than more common versions4 ,only ,unicode normalized form ,c versions were used 7see below74 ,for best results1 insure that the e,reader has the latest ,chinese font packages4 #b4 ,italicized text is indicated with leading and trailing underscores 774 ,superscript text is indicated with a leading caret 774 ,if more than one character1 the text is wrapped in braces774 ,ordinal numbers with superscripts 7i4e4 #ast1 #bnd1 #crd1 etc47 are printed without the caret4 #c4 ,footnotes have been renumbered and placed at the end of the book4 #d4 ,smaller font text blocks such as contained in block quotes and annotation text is indented4 ,the original printed text did not indent this text4 #e4 ,in the ,introduction pages xi and xii1 sentence groups in the quotation from ,ss-ma ,ch#8ien's biography of ,sun ,tz separated by em-dashes are now separated into paragraphs for clarity4 #f4 ,in the original book1 several ,chinese text lines were placed in the top quarter of a page and the translation in the bottom three quarters of the page4 ,this transcription places each ,chinese text line above its corresponding translation4 #g4 ,missing quotation marks1 capitalization1 punctuation1 and spaces silently corrected4 #h4 ,except as mentioned above and in the ,change ,list that follows1 every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible1 including non-standard punctuation1 inconsistently hyphenated words1 etc4 ,the corrigenda has already been incorporated into the text4 ,change ,list 7page numbers from original printed book73 ,page x befel changed to befell ,page xx then changed to them ,page xxv abready changed to already ,page xxxi surrived changed to survived ,page xlviii footnote #a have changed to ,i have ,page xlviii combine two instances of footnote #d ,page #ag according to ,ss-ma ,fa1 changed to according to the ,ss-ma ,fa1 ,page #bi and #fb ,using variant 7,u#gcgb7 in place of 7,u#b;,b#bf;,c7 since the latter code point is not handled by some ,,tts systems4 ,page #ci meaniug changed to meaning ,page #dd succeding changed to succeeding ,page #gj exclained changed to exclaimed ,page #abe changed to ,page #acf ,chang ,y adopts its1 changed to ,chang ,y adopts it1 ,page #aeb the material for changed to ,the material for ,page #aed and #aef ,using variant 7,u#gih;,f7 in place of 7,u#b;,e#c;,b#j1 7 since the latter code point is rare in fonts4 ,page #afh accompained changed to accompanied ,page #aga leaders of mercenary troops404 changed to leaders of mercenary troops40 ,several pages ,using variant 7,u#ifii7 in place of 7,u#bh;,,ef#f7 since the latter code point is not handled by some ,,tts systems4 ,character changes to ,unicode normalized form ,c versions3 7,u,,fa#ef7 7,u#g;,,bc#j7 7,u,,fa#ai7 7,u#gie;,e7 7,u,,fa#db7 7,u#fe;,e#b7 7,u,,fa#a;,a7 7,u#gife7 7,u,,fa#a;,b7 7,u#gih;,f7 7,u,,fa#b;,c7 7,u#iibh7 7,u,,fa#ej7 7,u#gief7