,transcriber's ,note      ,italic text  
is indicated by underscores1 boldface by
 equals signs4  ,other ,notes will be   
found at the end of this e,book4        
,,illustrations      ,,of ,,the         
,,croton ,,aqueduct1      ,,by      ,f4 
,b4 ,,tower      ,,of ,,the             
,,engineer ,,department4                
,illustration      ,new-,york and       
,london3    ,wiley and ,putnam1         
#ahdc4            ,,entered according to
 the ,act of ,congress1 in the year     
#ahdc1 by ,f4 ,b4    ,,tower1 in the    
,clerk's office of the ,district ,court 
of the ,southern    ,district of        
,new-,york4              ,,to      ,,the
 ,,inhabitants      ,,of ,,the          
,,city ,,of ,,new-,,york1      ,,whose  
,,enterprise ,,is ,,strikingly          
,,exemplified      ,,by ,,the           
,,construction ,,of ,,the      ,,croton 
,,aqueduct1      ,,this ,,book      ,,is
 ,,most ,,respectfully ,,dedicated1     
,,by                                    
,,the ,,author4          ,,preface4     

,the views which ,i have given of the   
important points on the line of  the    
,croton ,aqueduct1 are from sketches    
taken for my own satisfaction2  but the 
interest so generally taken in the work1
 has suggested to me  the propriety of  
presenting them to the public in this   
form4 ,having  been engaged in the      
,engineer ,department during the whole  
of the  construction of the ,aqueduct1  
my acquaintance with it would enable  me
 to present more of its details2 but ,i 
have given those of the  construction of
 the ,aqueduct1 and a general outline of
 the structures  connected with it1     
trusting that a more detailed           
description may  emanate from ,,john ,b4
 ,,jervis1 ,esquire1 who1 as ,chief     
,engineer1 gave  ,plans and             
,specifications for the work during its 
construction4    ,a description from    
such source1 accompanied with detailed  
plans of all  the appurtenances of the  
,aqueduct1 with the results of          
experiments  on the flow of water in the

 ,aqueduct1 would be a useful           
contribution  to the cause of science1 a
 valuable work to ,engineers generally1 
and  particularly so to younger members 
of the profession4    ,the history which
 ,i have given of the preliminary       
measures leading  to the accomplishment 
of this work1 has been obtained1 mainly1
 from  printed documents of the ,common 
,council4 ,i have also had conversations
  with persons who were intimately      
concerned in some of those measures1    
and trust that ,i have made the history 
sufficiently full to embrace the        
leading steps which were taken4    ,the 
accounts of the ,aqueducts of ancient   
,rome1 and those built by the  ancient  
,romans in other parts of ,europe1 also 
that of the ,aqueducts of  modern ,rome1
 of ,italy1 ,france1 c41 have been      
mostly obtained from the  ,french work  
of ,j4 ,,rondolet1 in which the account 
of the ,aqueducts of  ancient ,rome is  
translated from the ,latin of           
,frontinus4    ,for the account of the  

,aqueducts of ,mexico and ,south        
,america1 ,i am  indebted1 in a great   
degree1 to 8,bradford's ,antiquities of 
,america10  and 8,ewbank's ,hydraulics40
                                        
,f4 ,b4 ,,tower4          ,,table ,,of  
,,contents4                             
,,page4    ,aqueducts of ,ancient ,rome1
                                        
#ac      ,principal ,aqueducts          
constructed by the ,ancient ,romans in  
other        parts of ,europe1          
#ah      ,aqueducts of ,modern ,rome1   
#bh      ,principal ,modern ,aqueducts  
of ,italy1 ,france1 etc41               
#cj      ,aqueducts of ,mexico and the  
adjacent ,states1                       
#cg      ,aqueducts of ,south ,america1 
#dj      ,fountains1                    
#dg           99       99       99      
99       99      ,history of the        
,progressive ,measures for ,supplying   
the ,city of        ,new-,york with     
,water1                                 
#eg      ,of ,plans ,proposed for       

furnishing the ,city with ,water and of 
the        ,plan adopted1               
#fi      ,sources of the ,croton ,river1
                                        
#ge      ,flow of ,water in the ,croton 
,river1 ,capacity of the ,fountain      
,reservoir1 c41                         
#gf      ,general ,design of the        
,channel-way and ,reservoirs1           
#gh      ,general ,construction of the  
,aqueduct1                              
#ha      ,description of the ,line of   
,aqueduct1                              
#ie      ,appendix1                     
#abe           99       99       99     
99       99    ,,plates4      ,aqueduct 
of ,spoleto1 ,italy1                    
#cb      ,sections of the ,croton       
,aqueduct1                              
#hd  #hf      ,entrance ,ventilator1    
#hh      ,isometrical ,view of ,culvert1
                                        
#ij      ,tunnel and ,gate ,chamber at  
the head of the ,aqueduct1              
#ib      ,view above the ,croton ,dam1  

#ie      ,entablature over the entrance 
to the ,aqueduct1                       
#if      ,view below the ,croton ,dam1  
#ih      ,croton ,aqueduct at           
,sing-,sing1                            
#aja      ,aqueduct ,bridge at          
,sing-,sing1                            
#ajb      ,aqueduct ,bridge for         
,road-way1                              
#ajc      ,croton ,aqueduct at          
,mill-,river1                           
#ajd      ,croton ,aqueduct at ,jewell's
 ,brook1                                
#aje      ,croton ,aqueduct at          
,hastings1                              
#ajf      ,croton ,aqueduct at ,yonkers1
                                        
#ajh      ,croton ,aqueduct at ,harlem  
,river1                                 
#aaj      ,view of the ,jet at ,harlem  
,river1                                 
#aab      ,croton ,aqueduct at          
,clendinning ,valley1                   
#aac      ,aqueduct ,bridge at          
,clendinning ,valley1                   

#aad      ,plan of the ,receiving       
,reservoir1                             
#aaf      ,isometrical ,view of the     
,distributing ,reservoir1               
#aai                                    
8,the radiant aqueducts        ,turn    
their innumerable arches o'er           
,the spacious desert1 brightening in the
 sun1        ,proud and more proud in   
the august approach3        ,high oe'r  
irriguous vales1 and woods1 and towns1  
,glide the soft whispering waters in the
 wind1        ,and here united pour     
their silver streams1        ,among the 
figured rocks1 in murmuring falls1      
,musical ever40                         
,the ,ruins of ,rome4                   
,,introductory ,,chapter4               
,,aqueducts1 ,,fountains1 ,,etc4      ,a
 supply of pure and wholesome water is  
an object so essential to the  health   
and prosperity of a city1 that it should
 form one of the leading  features of   
the public improvements which           
characterize its growth4 ,the           

advantages arising from it are so       
numerous1 and the comforts so great1    
that every effort should be made to     
accomplish it4    ,the means which have 
been resorted to for such purposes in   
almost  every city of importance in the 
,old ,world1 are examples for us of the 
,new1 and should induce us early to     
avail ourselves of that important       
element of health4 ,we contemplate with 
mingled emotions of wonder and          
admiration1 those works of art which    
were achieved by ancient ,rome in  her  
palmy days of wealth and power1 and     
among them we find that her  ,aqueducts 
hold a prominent place4    ,among the   
ruins of cities whose history is        
shrouded in mystery on this  continent1 
we find provisions for bringing water   
from distant sources4  ,in the wilds of 
,central ,america1 the persevering      
traveller finds  ruined cities buried in
 the depths of the forest1 where nature 
is at  work covering and concealing     
them3 among those ruins he tells us of  

the ,aqueduct4 ,we find them also among 
the ruins of cities along the  western  
coast of ,south ,america4 ,with such    
examples before us1 we may  consider    
that by the construction of the ,croton 
,aqueduct for supplying  the ,city of   
,new-,york with water has been secured  
an important measure  for the promotion 
of its growth4    ,many cities of the   
,united ,states have directed their     
attention to this  object1 and some have
 been fortunate in finding a supply of  
water near  at hand1 but others will    
look towards distant sources for a      
supply1 and  will1 ere long1 resort to  
the construction of ,aqueducts4    ,in  
the history of cities built in remote   
periods of antiquity1 we  find mention  
made of plans for supplying water1 and  
among remains of  those cities which are
 found at this day1 are traces of       
,aqueducts4 ,we  have accounts of       
,aqueducts constructed under the reign  
of ,solomon1  and the remains of them   
still existing in ,palestine1 give      

evidence  of an extensive acquaintance  
with the principles of hydraulics among 
the ,hebrew architects4 ,the ,pools of  
,solomon1 which are mentioned by        
travellers who combine in their         
researches a regard for the arts  as    
well as the religion of ,judea1 are     
connected with a scheme for  supplying  
,jerusalem with water4    ,the vast     
expense incurred in the construction of 
,aqueducts by the  ,ancient ,romans1 as 
well in ,italy as in other countries of 
,europe1  proves the value that was     
attached by that people to a plentiful  
supply of pure water1 and the details of
 the plan of construction of  the       
different works1 evince an acquaintance 
with the principles of  hydraulics      
which1 at this day1 is not generally    
accorded to them4  ,that they understood
 the principle that water seeks the     
level of its  source after encountering 
depressions in its conduit1 is          
sufficiently  proved by instances1 in   
works constructed by them1 where the    

inverted  syphon of pipes was used in   
crossing valleys4 ,that this plan was   
not  generally adopted by them in cases 
where great expense has been  incurred  
to maintain the uniform declivity of the
 conduit over valleys1  may be accounted
 for perhaps by the want of proper      
material for the  construction of pipes4
 ,in cases where this plan has been     
adopted  leaden pipes were used1 and    
since it is only within the last century
  that iron pipes have been invented1 we
 may reasonably conclude that           
considerations of such a nature would   
have induced them to adopt the  more    
expensive plan of maintaining the       
general inclination of the  conduit by  
vast structures of masonry4    ,by      
substituting inverted syphons instead of
 maintaining a uniform  declivity in the
 conduit1 would not give the requisite  
discharge of  water at the elevation of 
the terminus of the ,aqueduct1 and      
perhaps  they preferred1 rather than    
diminish this elevation of the supply   

of water1 to incur the expense of high  
structures across valleys4  ,the ,roman 
,emperors1 with all their power and the 
wealth which was at  their command1 knew
 how to perpetuate the glory of their   
reign by the  erection of ,temples1     
,palaces and other public buildings1 and
 what  is more natural than to suppose  
that in the construction of these       
,aqueducts1 which were considered so    
essential to the public welfare1  they  
should encourage works of such          
architectural magnificence8  ,whatever  
the reasons might have been for         
maintaining the elevation of  their     
,aqueducts over valleys by such         
expensive structures1 we have no  right 
to charge them with the want of that    
knowledge which the plan of  some of    
their ,aqueducts clearly proves them to 
have possessed4    ,trusting that it    
will be interesting to the reader1 ,i   
shall present  an account of some of the
 principal ,aqueducts built by the      
,ancient  ,romans1--some of the modern  

,aqueducts of ,italy and ,france2 also  
of  ,aqueducts in other parts of the    
world4 ,this account might be enlarged1 
to embrace a description of more of the 
modern ,aqueducts of ,europe2  but      
sufficient will be presented1 it is     
thought1 to interest without  detaining 
the reader too long in arriving at the  
principal object of  this work1--a      
description of the ,croton ,aqueduct4   
,a view is given of the ,aqueduct of    
,spoleto1 in ,italy4 ,the bridge        
supporting this ,aqueduct is remarkable 
for the slender form of the  piers and  
their great height2 being only ten and a
 half feet thick  and two hundred and   
fifty feet high to the base of the      
arches4 ,this  ,aqueduct was built by   
the ,goths1 a people who gave a model   
for ,church  ,architecture which is much
 admired at the present day4 ,it is said
 that  they borrowed the idea of the    
form of their arch from the opening     
beneath an arbor of trees4    ,the plan 
of the bridge for the ,croton ,aqueduct 

at ,harlem ,river has been  criticised  
on account of the small thickness of the
 piers as compared  with their height1  
and because they were not made piers of 
equilibrium2  that is to say1 having    
their bases broader1 so as to include   
the line  of thrust of the arches1 so   
that if a portion of the bridge were    
removed1 the remainder of the arches and
 piers would maintain their  position4  
,by the present plan the permanency of  
any one individual arch  may be         
considered to depend upon that of the   
whole structure4#a    ,the ,aqueduct of 
,spoleto1 has been standing about eleven
 hundred years  and is still in a       
perfect state of preservation4    ,with 
proper care in preparing the foundations
 of the bridge at ,harlem  ,river1 there
 is no good reason to fear that it will 
be less durable  than that of ,spoleto4 
,,aqueducts ,,of ,,ancient ,,rome4      
,the largest and most magnificent       
,aqueducts of which we have any         
account1 were the work of the ,romans2  

and the ruins of several of them1  both 
in ,italy1 and other countries of       
,europe1 remain to the present  time    
monuments of the power and industry of  
that enterprising people4    ,for #ddj  
years from the foundation of ,rome the  
inhabitants contented  themselves with  
the waters of the ,tiber1 and of the    
wells and fountains  in the city and its
 neighborhood4 ,but at that period the  
number of  houses and inhabitants had so
 augmented1 that they were obliged  to  
bring water from distant sources by     
means of ,aqueducts4 ,appius  commenced 
this scheme of improvement4 ,about #ci  
years after him1 ,m4  ,curius ,dentatus1
 who was censor with ,papirius ,cursor1 
brought water  from the neighborhood of 
the city of ,tibur2 and applied towards 
defraying the expense1 part of the sums 
taken in the spoils of ,pyrrhus4  ,after
 them ,lucius ,papirius1 ,caius         
,servillius ,cepion1 ,lucius ,longinus  
,crassus1 ,quintus ,marcius1 7who       
brought water to ,rome from a spring at 

the distance of nearly sixty miles17    
,marcus ,agrippa1 ,augustus1 and        
others1 signalized themselves by their  
noble ,aqueducts4 ,even ,tiberius1      
,claudius1 ,caligula1 and ,carracalla1  
though in other respects not of the     
best character1 took care of the city in
 this useful article4    ,in the remains
 of these ancient ,aqueducts1 some are  
elevated above the  ground upon a solid 
mass of stone work1 or upon arches      
continued and  raised one above the     
other2 other portions are subterraneous1
 passing  through deep excavations1 and 
in many instances piercing through      
mountains of rock2 such is that seen at 
,vicovaro beyond ,tivoli1 where a       
tunnel of about five feet deep and four 
broad1 pierces a rock for a  distance of
 more than a mile4    ,these ,aqueducts 
were generally built of stone and       
covered by arches  or large flat stones4
 ,at certain distances vents were       
provided to  discharge the water from   
the channel-way2 and cavities were      

formed1  into which the water was       
precipitated1 and where it remained till
 its  mud was deposited1 and ponds in   
which it might purify itself4    ,one of
 these ,aqueducts was formed with two   
channels1 one above the  other3 they    
were1 however1 constructed at different 
periods2 the most  elevated was supplied
 by the waters of the ,tiverone1 ,anio  
novus1 and  the lower one by the        
,claudian water4 ,it is represented by  
,pliny1 as  the most beautiful of all   
that had been built for the use of      
,rome4  ,it was begun by ,caligula1 and 
finished by ,claudius1 who brought its  
waters from two springs called ,cruleus 
and ,curtius4 ,vespian1 ,titus1         
,marcus-,aurelius1 and ,antonius ,pius1 
repaired and extended it2 it is now     
called ,aqua ,felice4    ,the ,aqueduct 
that conveyed the ,aqua ,neroniana to   
,rome1 was built of  brick2 this1 as    
well as the former1 was in some         
instances #gj ,roman feet  high4    ,the
 ,aqueduct that brought the ,aqua       

,marcia into the city was repaired  by  
,agrippa1 who laid pipes from it to     
several parts of the city4    ,the ,aqua
 ,marcia1 ,aqua ,julia1 ,aqua ,tepula1  
entered ,rome in one  and the same      
,aqueduct1 divided into three ranges or 
stories2 in the  uppermost of which     
flowed the ,aqua ,julia1 in the second  
the ,aqua  ,tepula1 and in the lowest   
the ,aqua ,marcia4 ,this accounts for   
the  extraordinary height of this       
,aqueduct1 which far surpassed that of  
any  other in ,rome4 ,from the ruins of 
this fabric1 which are still seen1 and  
are called 8,il castel del ,acqua       
,marcia10 it appears to have been a     
very superb structure4    ,the          
,aqueducts were under the care and      
direction1 first of the censors  and    
diles1 and afterwards1 of particular    
magistrates called 8,curatores          
,aquarum10 instituted by ,agrippa1 to   
whom the ,aqueducts of ,rome were       
objects of particular attention4        
,messala was one of these curatores in  

the reign of ,augustus1 and ,frontinus  
held the same office in that of  ,nerva4
 ,augustus caused all of them to be     
repaired4    ,procopius reckons only    
fourteen ,aqueducts in ancient ,rome2   
but ,victor  has enlarged the number to 
twenty4    ,frontinus1 a man of consular
 dignity1 and who had the direction of  
the  ,aqueducts under the ,emperor      
,nerva1 mentions nine4 ,from other      
accounts  we are informed that nine     
great ,aqueducts existed at ,rome at the
  commencement of the reign of ,nerva4  
,five others were constructed by  that  
,emperor1 under the superintendence of  
,julius ,frontinus2 and it  appears that
 at a later period the number amounted  
to twenty4    ,frontinus1 who had the   
superintendence of the ,roman ,aqueducts
 under the  ,emperor ,nerva1 died ,a4   
,d4 #aja4 ,he gave an account of the    
,aqueducts1  which has since been       
translated into ,french by ,rondolet4   
,the following  table is made up of data
 from that work4    ,the table is       

arranged to show1 ,first1 the name of   
the water or  ,aqueduct2 ,second1 the   
era of its construction2 ,third1 the    
length  of each ,aqueduct in miles and  
decimals2 ,fourth1 the cubic feet       
discharged in #bd hours1 and ,fifth1 the
 gallons in wine measure4               
----------------------------------------
------------------------                
,,name4          ,,era4    ,,length4    
,,cubic ,,feet4  ,,gallons4             
----------------------------------------
------------------------   #a4 ,appian  
,aqueduct1  ,b4,c4 #cab    #aj1cbej     
#c1gjf1ege  #bg1gbd1aha   #b4 ,old ,anio
             #bgc    #cf1fgge           
#h1icb1cch  #ff1hac1hhg   #c4 ,marcian  
#adf    #ef1idag   #i1ebe1cij           
#ga1bdi1iag   #d4 ,tepulan              
#abg   #ad1bcda    #ijc1gie   #f1gfj1chf
   #e4 ,julian                #ce       
#b1ddi1chf  #ah1cba1djg   #f4 ,virgin   
#bb    #ad1caaf   #e1jhe1fbd            
#ch1jdj1dfg   #g4 ,alsietina            
,a4,d4  #ad    #bj1debf     #gif1aeb    

#e1fef1jaf   #h4 ,claudian              
#di    #db1aihi   #i1cef1hag            
#if1ihh1iia   #i4 ,new ,anio            
#ij    #ed1afdd   #i1fbb1hgh            
#ga1igi1abg                             
---------------------------------       
#bdi1cjeh #ej1cgh1iee  #cgf1hcd1cgi     
----------------------------------------
------------------------    ,some       
auxiliary supplies or feeders make the  
total length of the ,roman  ,aqueducts1 
at that period1 exceed #bee miles4      
,the names of the ,roman ,aqueducts are 
taken from those of the ,river or  ,lake
 which supplies them1 or from the       
emperors who caused them to be          
constructed4 ,frontinus gives the       
following as the origin of the name     
,virgin ,aqueduct3 8,it is called the   
,virgin 7,virgo71 because it was a      
young girl who showed some veins to a   
few soldiers who were in search  of     
spring water4 ,those who dug followed   
these veins and found a great  quantity1
 and there is a painting in a little    

temple erected close by  the source     
representing this event40               
,,some ,,of ,,the ,,principal           
,,aqueducts ,,constructed ,,by ,,the    
,,ancient ,,romans ,,in  ,,other ,,parts
 ,,of ,,europe4      ,aqueduct of       
,nismes4    ,this is probably one of the
 most ancient ,aqueducts constructed1   
out  of ,rome1 by the ,romans4 ,it is   
attributed to ,agrippa1 son-in-law of   
,augustus1 to whom that emperor gave the
 government of the country  becoming a  
,roman ,colony4    ,agrippa1 flattered  
by the honors which he received from the
 inhabitants  of ,nismes1 made his      
residence there3 he enclosed the town   
with new  walls1 built baths1 and       
probably the ,aqueduct of the bridge of 
,gard  78pont du ,gard07 for bringing   
water to them4    ,this ,aqueduct is    
nearly thirty miles in length1 forming1 
in its course1  the figure of a         
horse-shoe4 ,it brought water from the  
fountains of ,eura  and ,airan1 situated
 in the neighborhood of the town of     

,uzs4 ,the  bridge of ,gard was about   
the middle part of the work1 and the    
,aqueduct  terminated at ,nismes4       
,this ,aqueduct traversed a very        
mountainous country1 piercing through   
mountains and crossing valleys by means 
of arches upon arches1  forming         
magnificent structures entirely of cut  
stone4 ,the ,aqueduct or  channel-way is
 formed of stone throughout the whole   
length4 ,the bottom  of the interior has
 a curved form1 being an arc of a       
circle2 the sides  are vertical1 and the
 top covered with a flagging of cut     
stone1 except  where it is under ground1
 in which situation the top is covered  
by  an arch of stone4 ,the interior face
 of the walls and the bottom were       
covered with a coat of plastering two   
inches in thickness1 composed of        
quick-lime1 fine sand1 and brick nearly 
pulverized4 ,this coating has  now a    
tenacity and consistence equal to the   
hardest stone4    ,the size of the      
channel-way is the following3 #d feet   

wide and #e feet  high1 except where the
 top is covered with an arch1 in which  
case it is  #g feet high in the         
interior4    ,the descent of the        
,aqueduct is #a foot in #bejj feet1 or  
#b-aa_/ajj feet  per mile4    ,the water
 which flowed in this ,aqueduct formed a
 deposit upon the  sides1 of lime1 until
 nearly half the channel was closed2    
this deposit  amounting to a thickness  
of #aa inches on each side4 ,by the     
height of  this deposit it has been     
ascertained that the water flowed       
generally  with a depth of #c feet4     
,the pont du ,gard is that part of the  
,aqueduct of ,nismes which crosses  the 
deep valley in which runs the ,gardon or
 ,gard4 ,this part1  considered alone1  
is one of the noblest monuments built by
 the ,romans  among the ,gauls4 ,it is  
composed of three ranges of arches one  
above  another4 ,the first range1 under 
which the ,gardon flows1 is formed by   
#f arches2 the second by #aa1 and the   
third by #ce1 all of which are          

semicircular2 supported upon piers of   
greater or less height4    ,the channel 
in which the water flows is upon the top
 of the third range  of arches1 and is  
#afj feet above the water of the river4 
,the whole  length of this bridge is    
about #ijj feet4    ,the bridge of ,gard
 having been broken down at the two     
extremities1  at a period very remote   
and uncertain1 it is thought that this  
destruction may be attributed to the    
,barbarians who invaded the country  of 
,nismes a short time after their first  
invasion1 which is fixed at  the        
commencement of the fifth century1 about
 the year #djf1 and it  is supposed that
 by this means they would deprive the   
inhabitants  of ,nismes of the water    
furnished by the ,aqueduct1 and force   
them to  yield4 ,but by this            
supposition1 which is very probable1 the
 water had  been running in this        
,aqueduct for more than four centuries2 
and this  structure which has been out  
of use during fourteen hundred years1 is

  still in such a state of preservation 
that it could be restored without  a    
very great expenditure of money4        
,,the ,,ancient ,,aqueducts ,,of        
,,lyons4    ,nothing gives a better idea
 of the splendour of the city of ,lyons 
under  the reign of the first ,roman    
,emperors1 than the remains of the      
ancient  monuments4 ,we see there at the
 present day1 remains of temples1 of    
palaces1 of amphitheatres1 of basins for
 mock sea fights1 of baths and  of many 
,aqueducts1 of which three were         
constructed under the reigns of         
,augustus1 of ,tiberius and of          
,claudius1 for conducting water to that 
part of the ancient city situated upon  
the mountain4    ,the first and the most
 ancient of these ,aqueducts1           
constructed by ,mark  ,anthony1 brought 
the waters from ,mount-d',or1 by means  
of two branches  which embraced that    
group of mountains4    ,the water       
furnished by the first ,aqueduct having 
been found  insufficient1 they          

constructed a second one to bring the   
water of the  ,loire4    ,the third     
,aqueduct was built by the ,emperor     
,claudius to furnish water  to the      
palace of the emperors situated upon an 
elevated mountain4 ,the  ,aqueducts     
built at this era are all of the same   
construction2 that is  to say1 from the 
plan and construction adopted by the    
,romans4 ,a fourth  ,aqueduct was also  
constructed for this city1 but there is 
some doubt  whether it was built by the 
,romans4      ,,aqueduct ,,of ,,mount   
,,pila4    ,this ,aqueduct was built by 
,claudius1 who was born at ,lyons1 to   
conduct  water to the emperor's palace1 
situated on the highest part of the     
city4 ,the sources which supplied it1   
were in the neighbourhood of ,mount     
,pila1 and they were brought into the   
main ,aqueduct by branch aqueducts4     
,the main ,aqueduct was forty miles in  
length2 and adding the branches1  the   
length of the ,aqueduct was forty-five  
miles4    ,there were #ac bridges of    

stone to support the ,aqueduct across   
valleys  or over rivers1 two of which   
were not built up to the plane of the   
,aqueduct1 but were crossed by leaden   
pipes which descended on one  side of   
the valley and1 crossing the bridge1    
ascended on the opposite  side4 ,in     
another instance the pipes descended and
 crossed upon a wall  of masonry and    
reached the opposite side of the valley4
 ,one instance1  where pipes were used1 
will give an idea of their general form3
 the  bridge was about #dj feet high and
 the perpendicular height of the        
,aqueduct above it was #adj feet4 ,nine 
leaden pipes of about #h inches         
interior diameter and one inch thick    
were laid upon the inclined planes  and 
across the level part of the bridge2    
thus communicating with the  opposite   
crests of the valley4    ,these bridges 
which were constructed for the support  
of pipes1 were  wider in the bottom of  
the valley and also half way up the     
inclined  plane1 than they were for the 

remainder of the distance2 and this     
form has suggested the idea that the    
pipes of #h inches diameter1 when  they 
reached half way down the plane1        
separated1 each one into two of  #f     
inches diameter which crossed the       
bridge1 and converged into one  again   
half way up the opposite plane4 ,but it 
may be supposed that they  continued of 
the same interior form throughout their 
length1 and that  this extra width was  
made for the purpose of giving an       
opportunity to  fortify the pipes at the
 place where the pressure to which they 
were  subjected was the greatest4       
,construction4    ,they commenced the   
construction by making a trench in the  
ground of  sufficient dimensions for the
 masonry of the ,aqueduct3 upon the     
bottom of this trench was laid a mass of
 masonry #a foot thick1 upon  which two 
walls were built1 each #a foot thick and
 #e feet high1 these  walls standing #b 
feet apart1 and surmounted by a         
semicircular arch of  a thickness of #a 

foot and generally covered with earth #b
 feet deep4  ,the interior had a coat of
 cement plastering1 #f inches thick on  
the  bottom and #a inch thick on the    
sides4 ,the walls were constructed with 
small stones from #c to #f inches in    
thickness1 bedded in mortar so  that no 
spaces could be found between them4     
,they avoided the use of  stones of     
greater thickness than #f inches1       
because the walls built of  small       
stones1 well filled with mortar1 formed 
a mass more solid and  impervious than  
with larger stones1 on account of the   
great quantity of  mortar used4    ,no  
bricks were used in the construction of 
the channel-way of the  ,aqueduct4      
,ventilators were constructed along the 
course of the ,aqueduct #b feet  square1
 and rising above the ground #b or #c   
feet4 ,the ,aqueduct when it  was above 
the ground1 was supported upon a wall of
 masonry1 and the  side walls of the    
channel-way had an increased thickness4 
,when it was  elevated #f or #g feet    

above the ground1 the foundation wall   
was six  feet thick2 but when it had a  
greater elevation it was supported upon 
arches and piers1 and upon the elevation
 depended the span of the arch1  the    
thickness and height of the piers4 ,the 
general declivity in the  channel-way1  
was #a foot in #fdj1 or about #h feet   
per mile4    ,this ,aqueduct supplied   
about #a1bjj1jjj gallons of water in #bd
 hours4  ,the velocity of the water was 
about five times that of the water in   
the  ,aqueducts of ,rome4    ,this work 
was constructed at an immense expense1  
and in substituting  the 8inverted      
syphon10 for high structures across     
valleys1 there is  evidence of the      
intelligence and skill of those who had 
charge of the  construction4    ,a      
fragment of a pipe forming part of this 
reversed syphon1 is  still preserved in 
the museum at ,lyons1 and an instance of
 the  ,romans having laid pipes across  
the beds of rivers1 is given by ,m4     
,gautier1 ,architect1 ,engineer1 c41 in 

his work called 8,trait de la           
,construction des ,chemins10 published  
in #aggh4    ,about #gj or #hj years    
ago1 he was directed by ,mr4            
,pontchartrain1  ,minister of ,state1 to
 repair to ,rochefort1 to conduct spring
 water to  the port from the fountains  
of the city1 which were supplied from a 
source1 though quite insufficient for   
the city1 in the neighborhood4 ,in  his 
researches he discovered a good and     
copious source1 at less than  half a    
league1 but on the other side of the    
river1 the ,charente4 ,many             
difficulties were presented1 because at 
low water vessels might ground  upon the
 pipes and injure them4    ,however1    
,mr4 ,gautier proposed to lay down two  
leaden pipes1 to preserve  a supply in  
case of accident to one1 and to protect 
them by wooden  frames in an effectual  
way against injury1 should vessels lay  
upon the  defence frames during low     
water4 ,mr4 ,begon1 intendant of the    
,marine1  approved the plan1 but it was 

finally rejected4    8,some years       
after10 says ,mr4 ,gautier1 8when ,i had
 charge of the roads  on the ,rhone1 and
 of many other works in the ,province of
 ,languedoc1 and  while at ,arles1 ,i   
heard that a vessel had cast anchor in  
the ,rhone1  opposite the city1 to take 
some loading2 but when the commander    
wanted  to sail again he could not raise
 the anchor4 ,this fact attracted much  
attention1 and many people went to      
witness the singular circumstance4  ,the
 ,captain1 unwilling to lose his anchor1
 sent down a man1 to find  what was the 
matter4 ,the diver reported that the    
anchor was hooked  under something      
round1 but he could not tell what it    
was4 ,a capstan was  applied to raise   
it1 which succeeded4    ,it brought up a
 leaden conduit pipe from the bottom of 
the ,rhone1  which crossed it from the  
,city of ,arles1 towards                
,trinquetaillade1 over  a breadth of    
about #ij toises 7#egf feet7 in a depth 
of #f or #g toises  7about #dj feet17   

the deepest part of the ,rhone4 ,i saw  
some pieces of  this conduit of lead1 #e
 or #f inches in diameter1 about #d     
lines 7one  third of an inch7 thick1 in 
joints of #a toise each soldered        
lengthwise1  and covered by a strip or  
sheet of lead of the same thickness     
covering  the first solder about #b     
inches4 ,the conduit was soldered at the
  joints1 #f feet apart1 by the same    
material1 which made a swell at  that   
distance4 ,on each joint were these     
words in relief ,c4 ,,cantius           
,,poihinus4 ,f4 which was apparently the
 name of the maker or architect1  who   
laid down the conduit pipe in the time  
of the ,romans4 ,i delayed  not to      
inform ,mr4 ,begon1 at ,rochefort1 of   
this discovery1 because he  had always  
favoured my project of conducting water 
along the bottom and  across the        
,charente1 which would not have been    
half so difficult as it  had no doubt   
been1 to lay one across the ,rhone where
 this was found4    ,hence it may be    

believed1 as ,i think now myself1 that  
many things  supposed now-a-days to be  
new and never to have been previously   
invented1 may have been thought of long 
before1 even in remote ages40  ,pp4     
#abi1 #acj4      ,ancient ,aqueduct of  
,metz4    ,this ,aqueduct was built by  
the ,romans when that city was under    
their  dominion2 but it is difficult to 
fix upon the precise era of its         
construction4 ,it is said in the history
 of the city of ,metz that the  ,roman  
legions built roads in the year #gj2 but
 there is reason to  suppose that the   
construction of this ,aqueduct1 as well 
as that of  other important structures  
built by the ,romans at ,metz1 belongs  
to a  time more remote1 and that the    
date of the reign of the first emperors 
may be the era when the legions of ,csar
 occupied the country of the  ,gauls4   
,the total length of the ,aqueduct was  
#ad miles1 and the fall for this        
distance was about #gc feet4    ,the    
channel-way was #f feet high1 by #c feet

 wide1 constructed with  stone masonry  
and having an arch over the top3 the    
interior face of  the walls and the     
bottom was covered with a coat of       
plastering2 #c  inches thick in the     
bottom1 and #b inches on the sides4     
,from remains of  this ,aqueduct which  
are now found at various points along   
its course1  it appears to have required
 many expensive structures for crossing 
valleys2 in one instance the ,aqueduct  
bridge was #c1fjj feet long1 and  the   
greatest height was #ajj feet4 ,in      
constructing the ,aqueduct over  these  
bridges1 they formed it in two channels 
separated by a wall1 and  each covered  
with an arch2 thus they insured a supply
 of water across  the bridge by one     
channel in case the other required      
repairs4      ,aqueduct of ,bourgas1    
near ,constantinople4    ,three         
,aqueducts exist in the valley of       
,bourgas1 #h miles from                 
,constantinople1 for conducting water   
into the city4 ,one of them  is         

remarkable for the beautiful            
architectural arrangement and the       
solidity of its construction4 ,it is    
#aae feet high1 and was built under  the
 ,emperor ,justinian1 ,a4 ,d4 #ebg4 ,it 
has two ranges of arches1 one  above the
 other1 and the ,aqueduct supported upon
 the second4 ,these  ,aqueducts are in  
some parts unlike those of ,rome1 which 
were formed on  a continuous line for   
many miles1 with a regular inclination  
from the  source to the city1 but are   
interrupted by reversed syphons4        
,instead of  crossing deep and wide     
valleys in the usual manner of stone    
structures1  the ,aqueduct terminates on
 one bank in a reservoir or cistern1 and
 a  pipe is laid from it down the       
sloping side of the hill to a stone pier
  erected at a suitable distance2 the   
pipe rises up the pier to the top  where
 the water is discharged into a small   
cistern nearly as high as  that in the  
reservoir4 ,from the cistern1 another   
conduit pipe descends  to the bottom of 

the pier1 passes along the ground to a  
second pier at  a proper distance and   
rises to another cistern on the top of  
it1 and  so on till it rises on the     
crest of the opposite bank1 where the   
water  resumes its regular motion along 
the ,aqueduct4    ,this plan was        
probably adopted with a view to avoid   
the expense of  constructing a bridge   
which should preserve the general       
inclination of  the channel-way2 but it 
is difficult to imagine any advantage   
arising  from the construction of the   
piers1 instead of laying the pipe along 
the bottom of the valley4      ,modern  
,rome4    ,rome is now supplied with    
water by three ,aqueducts1 being three  
of the  ancient works restored in modern
 times4    ,first1 ,aqua ,virgini1      
called by ,frontinus1 ,aqua ,virgo1 or  
,virgin  ,aqueduct4    ,the trunk of the
 ,aqueduct having been injured1 the     
reparation was began  under the         
,pontificate of ,nicholas ,v4 and       
,sextus ,,iv41 and completed  under that

 of ,pius ,,iv4 in #aefh4 ,this water   
supplies the beautiful  fountain ,trevi1
 thus named from the three discharges   
issuing from it1  or from its being     
placed at the junction of three streets4
 ,the water  this ,aqueduct furnishes is
 #b1cbb1gfb cubic feet 7#ad1afh1hdh     
gallons7  daily1 discharging through #g 
principal conduits1 at #ac public and   
#cg  other fountains4    ,second1 ,aqua 
,felice4 ,this is a part of the ancient 
water of the  ,claudian and ,marcian    
,aqueducts united with many others1 and 
collected  under ,sextus ,v4 ,the daily 
quantity it furnishes is #gbg1afa cubic 
feet1  7#d1dce1fhb gallons17 and        
supplies #af public and #aa other       
fountains4 ,the  ,moses fountain        
discharges from this source4    ,the    
,pauline ,aqueduct1 called ,aqua ,paola1
 is the third of the ancient  works     
restored4 ,the water is collected within
 the territories of ,arcolo  and        
,bassano1 and conducted along the       
ancient ,aqueduct of ,alsietina4  ,this 

was effected under ,pope ,pius ,v41 and 
directed by ,charles ,fontana1  an      
eminent ,hydraulic ,architect1 who      
constructed the great fountain  of ,s4  
,pietro-in-,montorio4 ,additional water 
was also taken from ,lake  ,bracciano by
 ,fontana in #afid1 under ,clement ,x4  
,the whole quantity in #bd  hours is    
#c1cbe1eca cubic feet1 7#bj1bhe1gci     
gallons17 about one third  of which goes
 to feed the fountains of ,st4 ,peters1 
and those of the  ,pontifical ,palace on
 the ,vatican ,hill2 the rest is        
distributed among #h  public and #bc    
other fountains1 as well as to #ba      
work-shops1 7usines7  in ,st4           
,pancras-street4    ,an evidence of the 
durability of these old ,roman          
structures is  furnished in this        
junction of water from ,lake ,bracciano 
by ,cardinal  ,orsini1 under authority  
of ,clement ,x41 upon condition that a  
part of  the water should be used to    
feed a second fountain about to be built
  in ,st4 ,peter's ,square at ,rome1 and

 the rest to be divided between the     
,apostolic ,chamber and the ,house of   
,orsini4 ,from the lake the conduit     
leads to the old ,alsietina ,aqueduct1  
in which it flows #bj miles to  the     
city1 and it was found to be in so      
perfect a state when the trial  was     
first made after the restoration1       
,october #acth1 #afic1 that all the     
water which entered the old ,aqueduct   
was discharged at ,rome without any     
loss1 after its use had been suspended  
nearly #ajjj years4          ,,the      
,,principal ,,modern ,,aqueducts ,,of   
,,italy1 ,,france1 ,,etc4      ,aqueduct
 of ,caserta4    ,this ,aqueduct was    
built by the order of the ,king of      
,naples1 ,charles  ,,iii41 for          
conducting water to his residence which 
he had at ,caserta1 a  town situated    
about fifteen miles north of ,naples4   
,this ,aqueduct was commenced in #agec4 
,it is twenty-seven miles long1  from   
the sources which supply it to the      
gardens of ,caserta4 ,the sources  are  

at the base of the mountain called      
,taburno2 the principal one is  called  
,sorgente de la ,sfizzo2 it is          
afterwards joined by streams from  many 
other sources1 which are in the country 
called ,airola4    ,these waters are all
 joined in one ,aqueduct1 crossing the  
river  ,fanza1 upon a bridge of three   
arches1 built in #agec4 ,again1 in  the 
valley of ,durazzano1 there is another  
bridge of three arches1  upon which the 
,aqueduct crosses the valley1 passing   
over the river1  and extending from the 
mountain called ,santa ,agata de',goti1 
to the  mountain of ,durazzano4    ,this
 ,aqueduct afterwards crosses a deep    
valley1 which it meets between          
,monte-,longano and the hills ,tifata1  
where ancient ,caserta is  situated1    
about the place called ,monte di        
,gazzano4 ,the crossing  of this valley 
required the most important of all the  
constructions  connected with the work4 
,it was accomplished by an ,aqueduct    
bridge1  #agbd feet long and #aij feet  

in height1 composed of three tiers of   
arches1 one above another4 ,the lower   
range has nineteen arches1 the  middle  
twenty-seven1 and the upper one         
forty-three2 making in all  eighty-nine 
arches4    ,the labor of constructions  
under ground for this ,aqueduct was more
  than that above2 it pierced through   
five hills or mountains1 making an      
aggregate length of tunnel of about four
 miles1 and most of this was  through   
rock4    ,to give air and light to the  
channel1 they made pits or wells2 some  
of  which were #bej feet deep1 #aj feet 
diameter at the bottom1 and #d at the   
top4      ,aqueduct ,bridge of          
,castellana4    ,this ,aqueduct was     
built in connection with an ancient     
,causeway1 which  led to                
,civita-,castellana4    ,this ,causeway 
was about #hbj feet long and #cb feet   
wide2 the greatest  height was about    
#acj feet4 ,it was pierced in the middle
 of this extent1  by nine large arches2 
three of which were #hf feet span1 and  

the others  were each #fd feet span4    
,above these arches of the bridge the   
,aqueduct  is built1 the height of which
 is about #eg feet1 and it is sustained 
upon a series of arches of about #ai    
feet span each4      ,aqueduct of       
,montpelier4    ,this ,aqueduct is one  
of the most beautiful works of the kind1
 which  exist in ,france4 ,the length is
 about #c1bjj feet2 it conducts to      
,montpelier the waters of ,saint        
,clement and du ,boulidou4 ,it was      
built by ,m4 ,pitot1 engineer and member
 of the ,academy of ,sciences4 ,he  was 
thirteen years constructing it4 ,this   
,aqueduct is formed by two  ranges of   
arches2 those in the lower tier are     
seventy in number1 and  each #bh feet   
span2 the piers of these arches are each
 #ab feet thick4  ,the arches of the    
second or upper tier are much smaller1  
and are  arranged so that three of them 
come within the space occupied by one of
  the lower arches4 ,they are #i feet   
diameter2 their piers are #d feet and  a

 quarter thick4    ,the greatest height 
of this ,aqueduct is #ij feet4    ,it is
 constructed entirely of cut stone4 ,the
 quantity of water  furnished by it is  
about #cjj1jjj gallons in twenty-four   
hours4      ,aqueduct of ,spoleto4      
,this ,aqueduct was constructed in the  
year #gda1 by ,theodoric1 ,king of  the 
,goths1 to communicate with the town of 
,spoleto1 situated upon the  summit of a
 mountain4 ,it is composed of ten grand 
,gothic arches  each #ga feet diameter1 
supported upon piers of #aj feet        
thickness4 ,the  middle arches which are
 over the river de la ,morgia1 are about
 #cbh  feet high4    ,illustration3     
,napoleon ,gimbrede4 sc4    ,,aqueduct  
,,of ,,spoletto1 ,,italy4    ,on the top
 of this bridge is the ,aqueduct which  
carries the water to  ,spoleto4    ,this
 structure was difficult to execute1 and
 being built of a very hard  stone1     
remains entire at the present day4      
,the total length is #hjj feet1 and the 
breadth is #dd feet4    ,the greatest   

height of this bridge is #dbj feet4     
,aqueduct of the ,prince of ,biscari4   
,this ,aqueduct was constructed by the  
,prince of ,biscari1 in ,sicily1 at  his
 own expense1 across the river          
,saint-,paul1 the ancient ,symte4 ,it   
conducts a pure stream of water to the  
estate of the prince1 and at the  same  
time serves as a public bridge over the 
valley4 ,this bridge is  composed of    
thirty-one arches1 the largest of which1
 over the river1  is #ij feet span4     
,this arch is of ,gothic form1 while all
 the others  are semi-circular4 ,the    
bridge has two tiers or ranges of       
arches2 the  roadway is upon the first  
range1 and the channel for the water1   
upon  the second or upper range4 ,the   
length of the bridge is #bfi feet4  ,the
 height to the top is #abj feet4 ,it is 
said that this magnificent  structure   
was accomplished in two years4          
,aqueduct of ,arcueil4    ,the ,emperor 
,julian built this ,aqueduct to bring   
water to ,paris1 ,a4 ,d4  #cfj2 it      

supplied the palace and hot baths1 but  
was destroyed by the  ,normans4 ,it was 
above nine miles and a half long1 and   
was entirely  under ground1 except the  
stone arcade over a deep valley at      
,arcueil4  ,after its use had been      
suspended #hjj years1 a new and         
beautiful arched  ,aqueduct was built by
 the side of the ruins of the old one1  
and its  final restoration to public use
 was completed in #afcd4    ,part of    
this ancient construction1 consisting of
 two arches  substantially built1 still 
exists1 near the modern ,aqueduct4      
,the ,aqueduct bridge over the valley of
 ,arcueil has twenty-five arches1  is   
#gb feet high and #a1bjj feet in length4
    ,in the interior of the ,aqueduct on
 each side is a parapet which forms a   
walk4 ,on the outside along the whole   
line are various openings1 called       
regards4    ,this ,aqueduct was         
thoroughly repaired in #aggg2 and fresh 
sums of money  have lately been devoted 
to the same purpose by the city of      

,paris4 ,it  supplies #cf1jjj hogsheads 
daily4      ,aqueduct of ,maintenon4    
,this work1 had it been completed1 would
 have been one of the most  remarkable  
of modern times4 ,the project was one of
 the noblest  examples of the enterprise
 which characterized the reign of ,louis
  ,,xiv41 and had it been carried out   
would have presented a work equal in    
grandeur to any of the kind constructed 
by the ,romans4 ,it was projected  by   
,vauban1 and the work was commenced in  
#afhd1 but was abandoned in  #afhh4     
,it was intended to conduct water from  
the river ,eura to ,versailles2  a      
distance of over seventy miles2 and it  
was also contemplated to  continue the  
work to ,st4 ,cloud and to ,paris2 had  
this been done it  would have been over 
ninety miles in length4 ,it was intended
 to be  of a mixed construction2 partly 
by a canal formed by excavations and    
embankments1 and partly by a channel of 
masonry4    ,one of the most remarkable 
structures connected with it1 was the   

,aqueduct bridge across the valley of   
,maintenon4 ,this was designed to be    
entirely of masonry1 having three ranges
 of arches1 one above another4  ,the    
length of this ,aqueduct bridge would   
have been three and a quarter  miles1   
and the height from the lowest part of  
the valley would have  been #bcd feet4  
,the whole number of arches designed for
 this bridge was #fhe4    ,some of the  
piers and arches of the lower tier were 
constructed1 but  have since been       
suffered to crumble and fall4 ,many deep
 valleys were  filled with embankments1 
and the canal was completed for a       
portion of  the distance1 but the course
 of the work is now but faintly marked  
by  the remains of these structures4    
,aqueduct of ,lisbon4    ,the site of   
,lisbon1 as well as the ground in its   
vicinity1 consists  chiefly of limestone
 and basalt1 which render it necessary  
to obtain  good water1 at about three   
leagues distance1 for the beverage1 and 
other uses of the inhabitants4 ,the     

source consists of several springs  that
 are near to the village of ,bellas1 and
 their produce is conveyed  to ,lisbon  
by an ,aqueduct1 constructed of a kind  
of white marble1 and  finished in #agch4
 ,in some parts its course has been     
excavated through  hills2 but near to   
,lisbon it is carried over a deep       
valley1 for a  length of #bdjj feet1 by 
means of several bold arches1 of which  
the  largest has a height of about #bej 
feet1 by a breadth of #aae4 ,the arches 
being pointed have an interesting       
aspect1 particularly when viewed from   
below1 the interior of the spacious     
vaults being not only majestic in       
appearance1 but reverberating every     
sound4 ,the water flows through a  stone
 tunnel1 or covered arch-way1 about #h  
feet wide1 formed in the  middle of the 
structure2 and on each side there is a  
foot-path1 with a  parapet wall1 having 
a sufficient width for two persons to   
walk4 ,the  ,aqueduct enters the town on
 its northern side1 at a place called da

  ,amoreira1 where it branches into     
several others1 in order to supply the  
different fountains1 from which the     
inhabitants are supplied4 ,persons1     
denominated gallegos1 obtain a          
subsistence by selling the water1  which
 they procure at the fountains in small 
barrels1 and afterwards  cry it through 
the streets4      ,aqueducts of ,mexico 
and the adjacent ,states4    ,the people
 who1 in remote times1 inhabited the    
region of ,mexico1 were  advanced in    
civilization and in the arts2 they had  
regularly organized  states and         
established forms of government1 and    
their immense cities1  their roads1     
,aqueducts and other public works1 give 
evidence of the  advanced state of the  
arts among them and their knowledge of  
the  sciences4    ,the location and     
great population of some of their cities
 required a  familiar knowledge of      
hydraulic operations to supply them with
 water2  and hence it would seem as if  
they had cultivated this department of  

the arts equally with others1 for some  
of their ,aqueducts were of a  character
 that would have done honor to ,greece  
or ,rome4 ,nearly all the  ancient      
cities of ,mexico were supplied by them4
    8,the city of ,mexico1 which was    
built on several islands near the  shore
 of the lake1 was connected to the main 
land by four great  causeways or dikes1 
the remains of which still exist4 ,one  
of these to  the south1 the same by     
which ,cortez entered1 was nearly two   
leagues  long--another to the north     
about one league1 and the third at the  
west somewhat less4 ,the fourth         
supported the celebrated ,aqueduct  of  
,chapoltepec1 by which water was        
conducted from springs1 upon an         
insulated hill of that name1 at the     
distance of from two to three  miles40  
,the ,aqueduct of ,chapoltepec was the  
work of ,montezuma1 and also the  vast  
stone reservoir connected with it4      
,this ,aqueduct consisted of two        
conduits formed of solid mason          

work--each five feet high and two paces 
broad--by which the water was           
introduced into the city for the supply 
of various fountains4    ,olid and      
,alvarado commenced the siege of ,mexico
 by attempting to cut  off this supply  
of water1 an enterprise which the       
,mexicans endeavored  to prevent4       
8,there appeared on that side10 says ,de
 ,solis1 8two or three  rows of pipes1  
made of trees hollowed1 supported by an 
,aqueduct of  lime and stone1 and the   
enemy had cast up some trenches to cover
 the  avenue to it4 ,but the two        
captains marched out of ,tacuba with    
most of  their troops1 and though they  
met with a very obstinate resistance1   
they drove the enemy from their post1   
and broke the pipes and ,aqueduct  in   
two or three places1 and the water took 
its natural course into the  lake40     
,humboldt says1 there are still to be   
perceived the remains of another        
,aqueduct1 which conducted to the city  
the waters of the spring of  ,amilco1   

near ,churubusco4 ,this ,aqueduct1 as   
described by ,cortez1  consisted of two 
conduits composed of clay tempered with 
mortar1 about  two paces in breadth1 and
 raised about six feet4 ,in one of them 
was  conveyed a stream of excellent     
water1 as large as the body of a man1   
into the centre of the city4 ,the other 
was empty1 so that when it  became      
necessary to clean or repair the former1
 the water might be  turned into it2    
which was the case also with those of   
,chapoltepec1 8of  which one was always 
in use1 whenever the other required     
cleaning40    ,the gardens of ,montezuma
 were also adorned and nourished with   
streams  and fountains1 and appear to   
have rivalled those of ,asiatic monarchs
  in splendour4    ,the ruins of the    
city of ,tezcuco1 which with its suburbs
 was even  larger than ,mexico1 and     
according to ,torquemada1 contained one 
hundred  and forty thousand houses1     
still betoken an ancient place of great 
importance and magnificence4 ,without   

the walls1 tumuli1 the sepulchres  of   
the former inhabitants1 may yet be      
observed1 and also the remains of  a    
fine ,aqueduct in a sufficient state of 
preservation for present use4    ,two   
miles from ,tezcuco1 the village of     
,huexotla1 situated on the  site of the 
ancient city of that name1 which was    
considered as one  of the suburbs of    
,tezcuco1 exhibits signs of ancient     
civilization1  in the foundations of    
large edifices1 in massive ,aqueducts1  
one of  which1 covered with rose-colored
 cement1 still exists in a perfect      
state1 and in an extensive wall of great
 height and thickness4 ,a  covered way  
flanked by parallel walls proceeds from 
the ancient city1  to the bed of a      
stream now dry1 over which there is a   
remarkable  bridge1 with a pointed arch 
#dj feet high1 and supported on one side
 by  a pyramidal mass of masonry4       
,tlascala was furnished with abundance  
of baths and fountains1 and  ,zempoala1 
like the city of ,tezcuco1 had every    

house supplied with  water by a pipe4   
,iztaclapa1 which contained about ten   
thousand houses1 had its  ,aqueduct that
 conveyed water from the neighboring    
mountains1 and led it  through a great  
number of well cultivated gardens4      
,among the ruins of the city of         
,zacatecas1 are found the remains of an 
,aqueduct2 and at ,palenque is found an 
,aqueduct of stone1 constructed  with   
the greatest solidity4    ,among the    
hieroglyphical ornaments of the pyramid 
of ,xochicalco are  heads of crocodiles 
spouting water1 and much proof may be   
found that  the ancient ,americans were 
acquainted with that property of liquids
 by  which they find their level2 and   
applied it not merely to fountains and  
jets d'eau1 but to convey water through 
pipes to their dwellings4               
,aqueducts of ,south ,america4    ,the  
ancient inhabitants of ,peru1 ,chili1   
and other parts of ,south  ,america were
 undoubtedly a refined1 civilized and   
agricultural people2  they constructed  

extensive cities1 roads1 ,aqueducts1 c4 
,though they  constructed many and      
extensive ,aqueducts for the supply of  
towns and  cities with water1 yet the   
object of the greater part of the public
  works of this kind was for the        
encouragement of agriculture4    8,the  
,peruvians and some of the neighboring  
nations carried the  cultivation of the 
soil to a higher stage of perfection    
than any of  the ,american nations4 ,in 
consequence of the narrow extent of land
  intervening between the mountains and 
the sea1 the rivers in this  region are 
usually of small size1 and the soil1    
being arid and sandy1  needs the aid of 
artificial irrigation4 ,to such an      
extent did they  carry their ingenious  
efforts1 that the sides of the steepest 
mountains  were converted into          
productive fields1 by being encircled   
with  terraces1 supported by stone      
walls1 and watered by canals40    8,upon
 the sides of some of the mountains10   
observes ,mr4 ,temple1 8were  the       

remains of walls built in regular stages
 round them1 from their  base to their  
summits1 forming terraces on which1 or  
between which1 the  ,indians1 in days of
 yore1 cultivated their crops40         
8,frezier says the ,indians were very   
industrious in conveying the waters  of 
the rivers through their fields and to  
their dwellings1 and that  there were   
still to be seen in many places         
,aqueducts formed of earth  and stone1  
and carried along the sides of hills    
with great labor and  ingenuity40    8,i
 have had various opportunities10 says a
 recent traveller1 8of  closely         
examining one of these canals1 which is 
formed at the source  of the river      
,sana1 on the right bank1 and extends   
along a distance of  fifteen leagues1   
without reckoning sinuosities1 and which
 consequently  supplied a vast          
population2 particularly one city1 whose
 ruins still  remain in the vicinity of 
a farm now called ,cojal40    8,these   
,aqueducts were often of great          

magnitude1 executed with much  skill1   
patience and ingenuity1 and were boldly 
carried along the most  precipitous     
mountains1 frequently to the distance of
 fifteen or twenty  leagues4 ,many of   
them consisted of two conduits1 a short 
distance  apart2 the larger of these was
 for general use2 the other and smaller1
  to supply the inhabitants and water   
the fields1 while the first was         
cleansing2 a circumstance in which they 
bear a striking resemblance to  those of
 ,mexico40    ,molina1 in his 8,natural 
and ,civil ,history of ,chili10         
observes1 that  previous to the invasion
 of the ,spaniards1 the natives         
practised  artificial irrigation1 by    
conveying water from the higher grounds 
in canals to their fields4 ,herrera     
says1 many of the vales were            
exceedingly populous and well           
cultivated1 8having trenches of water40 
,the ,peruvians carried the system to a 
great extent4 8,how must we  admire1    
7says ,humboldt17 the industry and      

activity displayed by the  ancient      
,mexicans and ,peruvians in the         
irrigation of arid lands6    8,in the   
maritime parts of ,peru1 ,i have seen   
the remains of walls1  along which water
 was conducted for a space of from #e to
 #fjjj metres1  from the foot of the    
,codilleras to the coast4 ,the          
conquerors of the  #afth century        
destroyed these ,aqueducts1 and that    
part of ,peru has  become1 like ,persia1
 a desert1 destitute of vegetation4     
,such is the  civilization carried by   
the ,europeans among a people1 whom they
 are  pleased to call barbarous40 ,these
 people had laws for the protection of  
water1 very similar to those of ,greece1
 ,rome1 ,egypt1 and all the older       
nations2 for those who conveyed water   
from the canals to their own land       
before their turn1 were liable to       
arbitrary punishment4    ,several of the
 ancient ,american customs respecting   
water1 were  identical with those of the
 oldest nations4    ,they buried vessels

 of water with the dead4 ,the ,mexicans 
worshipped  it4 ,the ,peruvians         
sacrificed to rivers and fountains4 ,the
 ,mexicans had  ,tlaloc1 their god of   
water4 ,holy water was kept in their    
temples4  ,they practised divinations by
 water4 ,the ,peruvians drew their      
drinking  water from ,deep ,wells1 and  
for irrigation in times of drought1 they
  drew it from pools1 and lakes1 and    
rivers4    ,there is reason to believe  
that ,peru1 ,chili1 and other parts of  
the  southern continent1 were inhabited 
by a refined1 or partially refined      
people1 centuries before the time of    
,manco ,capac1 the first ,inca2 and     
that a long period of barbarism had     
intervened1 induced1 perhaps1  by       
revolutions similar to those which1 in  
the old world1 swept all  the once      
celebrated nations of antiquity into    
oblivion4 ,the ancient  ,peruvians had a
 tradition respecting the arrival of    
giants1 who located  themselves on the  
coast1 and who dug wells of immense     

depth through  the solid rock2 which    
wells1 as well as cisterns1 still       
remain4    ,there is much uncertainty   
respecting ,manco ,capac4 ,who he was1  
and  from what country he came1 are     
equally unknown4 ,according to their    
,quippus1 or historical cords1 and the  
opinion of the ,inca1 who  was uncle to 
,garcilasso1 and who communicated to the
 latter all the  knowledge of their     
ancestors then extant1 he made his      
appearance in  ,peru about #djj years   
before the invasion of the ,spaniards4  
,it is said  he was whiter than the     
natives1 and was clothed in flowing     
garments4  ,awed by his presence1 they  
received him as a divinity1 became      
subject  to his laws1 and practised the 
arts he introduced4 ,he founded ,cusco1 
and extended his influence to all the   
nations around4 ,he taught them         
agriculture and many useful arts1       
especially that of irrigating land4     
,his son succeeded him1 and without     
violence greatly extended the limits  of

 the kingdom2 prevailing with the       
natives1 it is said1 by a peaceable  and
 gentle manner1 8to plough1 and manure1 
and cultivate the soil40  ,his          
successors pursued the same mode1 and   
with the same success4 ,the  fifth      
,inca1 we are informed1 constructed     
,aqueducts1 bridges and roads  in all   
the countries he subdued4 ,when the     
sixth ,inca acquired a new  province1 he
 ordered the lands to be 8dressed and   
manured20 the fens  to be drained1 8for 
in that art 7draining7 they were        
excellent1 as is  apparent by their     
works1 which remain to this day2 and    
also they were  7then7 very ingenious in
 making ,aqueducts for carrying water   
into dry  and scorched lands1 such as   
the greatest part of that country is2   
they  always made contrivances and      
inventions to bring their water4 ,these 
,aqueducts1 though they were ruined     
after the ,spaniards came in1 yet       
several reliques and monuments of them  
remain unto this day40    ,the seventh  

,inca1 ,viracocha1 constructed some     
water works1 which1 in  their beneficial
 effects1 perhaps equalled any similar  
undertakings in  any other part of the  
world4 8,he made an ,aqueduct #ab feet  
in depth1 and  #abj leagues in length2  
the source or head of it arose from     
certain  springs on the top of a high   
mountain between ,parcu and ,picuy1     
which  was so plentiful that at the very
 head of the fountains they seemed to   
be rivers4 ,this current of water had   
its course through all the country  of  
the ,rucanas1 and served to water the   
pasturage of those uninhabited  lands1  
which are about #ah leagues in breadth1 
watering almost the  whole country of   
,peru40    ,there is another ,aqueduct  
much like this1 which traverses the     
whole  province of ,cuntisuyu1 running  
above #aej leagues from south to north4 
,its head or original is from the top of
 high mountains1 the which  waters      
falling into the plains of the          
,quechuas1 greatly refresh their        

pasturage1 when the heats of the summer 
and autumn have dried up the  moisture  
of the earth4    8,there are many       
streams of like nature1 which run       
through divers  parts of the empire1    
which being conveyed by ,aqueducts1 at  
the charge  and expense of the ,incas1  
are works of grandeur and ostentation1  
and  which recommend the magnificence of
 the ,incas to all posterity2 for  these
 ,aqueducts may well be compared to the 
miraculous fabrics which  have been the 
works of mighty princes1 who have left  
their prodigious  monuments of          
ostentation to be admired by future     
ages2 for1 indeed1  we ought to consider
 that these waters had their source and 
beginning  from vast1 high mountains1   
and were carried over craggy rocks and  
inaccessible passages2 and to make these
 ways plain1 they had no help  of       
instruments forged of steel or iron1    
such as pickaxes or sledges1  but served
 themselves only with one stone to break
 another4 ,nor were  they acquainted    

with the invention of arches1 to convey 
the water  on the level from one        
precipice to the other1 but traced round
 the  mountain until they found ways and
 passages at the same height and  level 
with the head of the springs40    8,the 
cisterns or conservatories which they   
made for these waters1 at  the top of   
the mountain1 were about #ab feet deep2 
the passage was  broken through the     
rocks1 and channels made of hewn stone1 
of about  two yards long and about a    
yard high2 which were cemented together1
  and rammed in with earth so hard1 that
 no water would pass between1 to  weaken
 or vent itself by the holes of the     
channel4    8,the current of water which
 passes through all the division of     
,cuntisuyu ,i have seen in the province 
of ,quechua1 which is part of  that     
division1 and considered it an          
extraordinary work1 and indeed          
surpassing the description and report   
which hath been made of it4  ,but the   
,spaniards who were aliens and          

strangers1 little regarded the          
convenience of these works1 either to   
serve themselves in the use of  them1 or
 to keep them in repair1 nor yet to take
 so much notice of them  as to mention  
them in their histories1 but rather out 
of a scornful  and disdaining humor1    
have suffered them to run into ruin1    
beyond all  recovery4 ,the same fate    
hath befallen the ,aqueducts which the  
,indians  made for watering their corn  
lands1 of which two thirds at least are 
wholly destroyed1 and none kept in      
repair1 unless some few which  are so   
useful that without them they cannot    
sustain themselves with  bread1 nor with
 the necessary provisions of life4 ,all 
which works are  not so totally         
destroyed but that there still remain   
some ruins and  appearances of them40   
,in describing the temple and gardens at
 ,cusco4 ,garcilasso observes1  8there  
were five fountains of water1 which ran 
from divers places  through pipes of    
gold4 ,the cisterns were some of stone1 

and others of  gold and silver in which 
they washed their sacrifices1 as the    
solemnity  of the festival required40   
,,fountains4      ,artificial fountains 
and jets d'eau are of extreme antiquity2
 they  have been used for beautifying   
public grounds of cities1 and have      
served the purpose of moderating the    
temperature of the air2 in these  cases 
the water has been in some instances    
perfumed4    8,from excavations made at 
,pompeii it appears that in almost every
  street there was a fountain1 and that 
bronze statues1 through which  the water
 issued were common1--several have been 
found1--four or five  are boys of       
beautiful workmanship2 the fluid issued 
from vases resting  on their shoulders1 
or held under their arms1 and in some   
cases from  masks4 ,paintings of elegant
 fountains1 from which the water issued 
in  perpendicular jets1 have also been  
discovered both at ,herculaneum and     
,pompeii40    8,in the middle of the    
square of the ,coliseum1 is a pretty    

remarkable  piece of antiquity1 7says   
,blainville17 though very little minded 
by  most people4 ,here stood anciently1 
a beautiful fountain1 adorned with  the 
finest marbles and columns2 and on the  
top was a bronze statue of  ,jupiter1   
from which issued great plenty of water1
 as may be seen on the  reverse of one  
of ,titus' medals4 ,this fountain was of
 great use both  to the spectators and  
the gladiators in the amphitheatre to   
refresh  themselves4 ,pope ,alexander   
,,vii4 caused it to be repaired1 but    
since his  time it has been entirely    
neglected40    8,during hot weather1    
,augustus the ,roman ,emperor slept     
7observes  ,sentonius7 with his chamber 
doors open1 #8and frequently in a       
portico  with waters playing around     
him4'0    ,the garden water-works of the
 ,duke of ,devonshire at ,chatsworth are
  probably the finest in ,england2 being
 ornamented by many fanciful  devices   
and from a jet of six inches diameter   
the water rises  perpendicularly to the 

height of #ij feet4    ,the most        
remarkable fountain or jet d'eau in the 
world1 is at  ,cassal in ,germany1 where
 the water rises from an orifice of #ab 
inches  diameter to a perpendicular     
height of #bej feet4 ,the source from   
which  it is supplied is at the top of a
 mountain near by1 being about #ejj     
feet above the level of the town4 ,the  
surplus water not used for the  supply  
of the fountain flows down the          
mountain-side forming a beautiful       
cascade4    ,the cities of ,europe      
abound in fountains which in their      
arrangement  furnish beautiful designs  
and are ornamented with specimens of    
workmanship displaying much skill and   
refinement of taste3 a minute           
description of them would1 however1     
occupy too much space1 and since  we    
have had our attention drawn 7on the    
subject of ,aqueducts7 more             
particularly to the works of the        
,romans1 we will revert to the          
,fountains of ,rome4    8,if during the 

most distinguished eras of the ,roman   
state1 the  ,aqueducts conduced to the  
luxurious enjoyments of the wealthy and 
powerful1 yet in modern times1 the      
residents of ,rome have also found  them
 particularly advantageous1 by their    
furnishing occasions for the            
cultivation of those elegant arts1      
which1 in a peculiar manner1 call  forth
 the energies of genius1 and the        
exercise of refined taste1 in  realizing
 and decorating her productions4        
,qualities of this kind appear          
conspicuous in several of the numerous  
fountains which adorn that  celebrated  
city2 and the most intellectual and     
accomplished professors  of sculpture   
and architecture1 have happily united   
beauty and grandeur  in the construction
 of many such admirable edifices4 ,these
 structures  are also characterized by  
great diversity of design1 as well as   
skilful  execution2 hence1 a concise    
description of several of them may be   
interesting40    8,the largest structure

 of this kind in ,rome1 is that         
denominated the  ,pauline ,fountain1    
which was built by order of ,pope ,paul 
,v41 with  the materials of ,nerva's    
,forum4 ,this spacious edifice is       
situate on  the highest part of the     
,janiculum hill1 and ,dominica ,fontana1
 and  ,carlo ,mederno1 furnished the    
designs for its construction4 ,the front
  is adorned with six ,ionic columns of 
red granite1 on which an attic  has a   
tablet containing an inscription with   
the pontiff's arms placed  above it4    
,between the columns the spaces are     
open1 and from these  arcades the       
currents of water flow with a loud      
noise1 and in great  abundance4 ,the    
apertures on the sides are smaller than 
the others1 and  in each of those is    
placed a dragon spouting water into the 
spacious  magnificent marble basin      
below4 ,this fountain is furnished with 
water  by the ,aqueduct called ,aqua    
,paolo2 and it runs from the basin1 in a
  very large stream into several canals1

 whence it is employed to work  various 
corn1 paper1 and other mills1 as well as
 to supply fountains  and fish-ponds in 
the gardens and palaces of the opulent40
    8,near to the baths of ,dioclesian1 
and in the square of the ,termini1      
stands the fountain of the ,aqua        
,felice4 ,the edifice is not only       
elegant but fanciful1 and it has three  
arcades ornamented with four  ,ionic    
columns of granite4 ,the middle arcade  
has a colossal statue of  ,moses1       
causing the water to issue from the     
rock2 and at the sides are  two basso   
relievos1 one representing ,aaron       
leading the ,israelites to  the         
miraculous spring1 and the other ,gideon
 selecting the soldiers  to enlarge the 
passage for the water1 which flows in   
great abundance  through three apertures
 into marble basins4 ,the sides are     
adorned  by four marble lions1 with the 
water issuing from their mouths3 two  of
 these are formed of white ,grecian     
marble1 and the other two of  black     

granite4 ,the latter are ,egyptian      
workmanship1 and covered with           
hieroglyphics4 ,this noble fountain was 
erected from a design of ,cav4          
,fontana2 by the order of ,pope ,sixtus 
,v41 and its supply of water is         
obtained twenty-two miles from the      
city40    8,another of these fine       
structures is that called the ,fountain 
of  ,trevi1 in which boldness of design1
 and elegance of architecture  are      
admirably united4 ,the erection of this 
very magnificent edifice  commenced     
during the pontificate of ,clement      
,,xii41 who repaired the  ,aqueducts4   
,niccolo ,salvi designed the grand      
front1 but the work was  completed under
 ,clement ,,xiii41 who decorated it with
 statues1 basso  relievos in marble1 and
 different columns of the ,corinthian1  
,ionic1  and ,composite orders4 ,in the 
centre is a statue representing         
,oceanus1  standing in a car1 drawn by  
two large sea-horses1 guided by         
,tritons4  ,one of the horses appears   

furious and impatient1 whilst1 on the   
contrary1 the other is exhibited as calm
 and placid1 so that both are           
symbolical of the tempestuous or        
tranquil state of the sea4              
#8,bounding to light1 as if from ocean's
 cave1        ,the struggling sea-horse 
paws the lucid wave1        ,while      
health and plenty smile1 and ,neptune's 
form        ,majestic sways the trident 
of the storm4'    8,a statue1           
designating ,abundance1 is placed at the
 right of ,oceanus1  and on the left    
another emblematical of ,health4 ,the   
basso relievo1  which adorns the right  
side1 portrays the ,emperor ,trajan1    
contemplating  a plan of the fountain2  
and that on the left exhibits a girl    
showing  to some soldiers1 the spring   
that supplies it with water4 ,various   
other sculptures decorate this superb   
edifice2 and at the top of  the         
principal front are two figures of      
,fame1 supporting the arms  of the      
,pope4 ,its supply of water is furnished

 by the ,aqua ,virgini1  and it flows in
 very large streams from three arcades4 
,the cost of  constructing this splendid
 and useful fountain was great2 but it  
ranks  among the most interesting       
objects conspicuously embellishing the  
city  of ,rome40    8,the ,piazza       
,novana has a very noble fountain       
standing in its centre4  ,it is composed
 of a large circular marble basin #gi   
feet in diameter1  in the middle of     
which is placed a rock of square form   
with apertures  at the sides4 ,the      
figure of a lion adorns one side1 and   
that of a  sea-horse another4 ,from the 
base to the top of the rock1 the height 
is  about #ad feet2 and on its summit   
stands an ,egyptian obelisk formed of   
red granite1 #ee feet in height1 and    
covered with hieroglyphics4 ,at the     
four sides of the rock are colossal     
marble statues1 which designate the     
four great rivers in different quarters 
of the world3 viz4 the ,danube1  the    
,nile1 the ,ganges1 and the ,plata3 and 

from these statues the water  flows in  
copious streams to the spacious basin   
below4         #8,the ,nile and ,ganges 
from the silver tide3        ,la ,plata 
too1 and ,danube's streams unite        
,their liquid treasures1 copious1 clear 
and bright4'    8,during the summer1 it 
is the custom occasionally to permit the
 water  to overflow the whole square1   
for the entertainment of the people2    
and on midsummer's eve persons amuse    
themselves by wading and driving        
through the flood4 ,this practice has   
sometimes been attended with fatal      
accidents1 and not only men but horses  
have actually been drowned in  the      
attempts to pass it in carriages4       
8,in the month of ,august the area of   
the square is likewise filled with      
water for the purpose of amusement4     
8,the same square likewise contains two 
other fountains1 one of which  consists 
of a capacious marble basin1 having at  
its centre a ,triton  holding a dolphin 
by the tail2 and on the margin of the   

basin are four  heads with the same     
number of ,tritons that spout the water 
from their  mouths4 ,the other fountain 
has not any remarkable characteristics  
to  entitle it to peculiar attention40  
8,where formerly stood the circus of    
,flora is now the site of the ,piazza   
,barberinni1 which has two fountains to 
embellish it3--one of them being        
composed of four dolphins supporting a  
large open shell1 with a ,triton  in the
 middle ejecting water to a great       
height4 ,the other is fanciful1  being  
also formed of an open shell1 from which
 three bees throw out the  water40      
8,in the vicinity of the ,temple of     
,vesta stands a handsome fountain1      
having a capacious basin1 in which some 
,tritons support a large  marble shell4 
,from the centre of the latter1 the     
water spouts to a  considerable height1 
and then descending flows over its      
margin into  the basin beneath4 ,some   
fine fountains adorn the magnificent    
colonnade  in front of the ,cathedral of

 ,st4 ,peter4 ,the ,piazza di ,spagna   
has  likewise for its embellishment1 a  
fountain in the form of an antique      
boat4 ,besides the structures described 
above1 there is a great number  of other
 fountains which evince much diversity  
of taste and ingenuity  in their        
contrivance4 ,but at the different      
villas of the opulent1 the  abundance of
 water is rendered subservient to       
amusing as well as useful  purposes1 and
 several of them are rather singular4   
,the description of  one will convey    
some notion of what is common to many of
 them4    8,the delightful promenades1  
groves1 and gardens belonging to the    
,doria  family1 are interspersed with   
fountains of various forms2 besides     
having a beautiful lake with waterfalls4
 ,statues1 antique basso  relievos1 and 
small fountains1 adorn a kind of        
amphitheatre1 where  a circular edifice 
contains the marble figure of a fawn    
holding a  flute1 on which it seems to  
play different airs3 the music1 however1

  is produced by a machine resembling an
 organ in its construction1 and  motion 
being given to it by the flowing of the 
water from a cascade40    8,perhaps the 
few instances recited above will suffice
 to demonstrate  the different modes    
employed at ,rome1 for calling into     
exercise  genius1 fancy1 and taste1 to  
diversify the public edifices concerned 
with its abundant supply of water2 thus 
rendering them subservient to           
magnificence1 entertainment1 and        
utility4 ,whilst ,john ,dyer resided    
there1 he viewed these celebrated       
fountains with the mingled feelings  of 
the painter and the poet2 hence1        
associating them with other  interesting
 circumstances1 they furnished the      
materials for one of his  most striking 
and pathetic delineations4              
#8,the pilgrim oft1        ,at dead of  
night1 'mid his oraison hears           
,aghast the voice of ,time1 disparting  
towers1        ,tumbling all            
precipitate1 down-dashed1               

,rattling around1 loud thundering to the
 moon2        ,while murmurs sooth each 
awful interval        ,of ever-falling  
waters2 shrouded ,nile1                 
,eridanus1 and ,tiber with his twins1   
,and palmy ,euphrates2 they with        
dropping locks        ,hang o'er their  
urns1 and mournfully among        ,the  
plantive echoing ruins1 pour their      
streams4'0                              
,ruins of ,rome4          ,,history     
,,of ,,the    ,,progressive ,,measures  
,,for ,,supplying    ,,the    ,,city    
,,of ,,new-,,york ,,with ,,water4       
,as early as #aggd1 when the population 
of the city of ,new-,york was only      
twenty-two thousand1 the ,corporation   
commenced the construction of  a        
reservoir and other works for supplying 
water2 and for the purpose  of defraying
 the expense of the undertaking1 issued 
a paper money1  amounting to two        
thousand five hundred pounds1 under the 
denomination  of 8,water ,works ,money10
 and bonds were executed in favor of    

certain  individuals for land and       
materials to the amount of eight        
thousand  eight hundred and fifty pounds
 more4    ,a spacious reservoir was     
constructed on the east line of         
,broadway1  between1 what is now known  
as ,pearl and ,white streets1 and a well
 of  large dimensions was sunk in the   
vicinity of the ,collect4 ,the war of   
the revolution1 which commenced in      
#agge1 and the consequent occupation  of
 the city of ,new-,york by the ,british 
troops1 was the cause of the            
abandonment of the work in its          
unfinished state4    ,in the year #agih1
 ,doctor ,joseph ,brown addressed a     
communication  to the ,common ,council1 
strongly recommending the ,bronx ,river 
as a  source from which to obtain a     
supply of good water for the use of the 
citizens4 ,this recommendation induced  
the ,common ,council to employ  ,william
 ,weston1 ,esquire1 a ,civil ,engineer1 
to examine the subject1 and  he reported
 on the #afth of ,march1 #agii1 in favor

 of the practicability  of introducing  
the water of the ,bronx into the city4  
,neither of these  gentlemen had used   
levels or made any survey of the country
 over which  the water should be        
brought1 nor was there any measurement  
obtained of  the flow of the stream2    
consequently1 their opinion was only    
founded on  personal view1 gained by    
walking over the ground4    ,in ,april1 
#agii1 the ,manhattan ,company was      
incorporated by an act  of the          
,legislature1 and the object of this    
,company was declared to  be1 to supply 
the city with pure and wholesome water2 
but instead  of looking for a supply    
from foreign sources1 they resorted to  
the  plan of furnishing the water from  
wells which they sunk within the  city  
limits4 ,besides these wells of the     
,manhattan ,company there were  others  
subsequently sunk by the ,corporation of
 the city1 as well as  by individual    
enterprise4 ,some of these wells were of
 great depth  and capacity1 having1 in  

some instances1 horizontal excavations  
at  a considerable depth below the      
surface1 branching off from the main    
shaft4 ,efforts of this kind1 however1  
proved unsatisfactory1 and much         
solicitude was felt by the citizens on  
account of the scarcity of  pure water4 
,on the #agth of ,march1 #ahbb1 the     
,mayor among other measures suggested   
by him to the ,common ,council1 brought 
to their consideration1 the  important  
question of supplying the city with pure
 and wholesome water1  and requested its
 reference to a ,committee1 which was   
accordingly done4  ,the ,committee1 of  
which the ,mayor was one1 proceeded to  
the principal  source of the ,bronx     
,river1 in the county of ,westchester1  
known as the  ,rye ,pond4 ,they spent   
two days1 the #bjth and #bast of ,march1
 in exploring  the country adjacent to  
the ,river and ,sound1 and at a meeting 
of the  ,common ,council1 on the first  
of ,april1 the ,mayor1 as ,chairman of  
the  ,committee1 made a report of their 

observations1 and recommended an        
appropriation1 with authority to employ 
a competent engineer to survey  and     
profile the whole line between the city 
and the main source of the  river       
,bronx1 and to ascertain the quantity of
 water it would afford1  and an estimate
 of the probable cost of completing the 
project of  supplying the city with good
 and wholesome water from the aforesaid 
source4 ,the recommendation was         
concurred in1 and the ,mayor employed   
,canvas ,white1 ,esquire1 a ,civil      
,engineer1 to make the said survey and  
estimate4    ,the yellow fever prevailed
 in the city during the summer of #ahbb1
  and shortly after the termination of  
the epidemic1 on the #beth of           
,november1 the ,mayor1 in a             
communication to the ,common ,council1  
on  subjects relative to the            
preservation of the public health1      
stated that  a very important subject   
connected with the health of the city1  
was a  sufficient supply of good water2 

and that on this subject all had been   
done that it was practicable1 under     
existing circumstances1 to perform2     
that arrangements had been made with    
,mr4 ,white1 a ,civil ,engineer of      
repute1 to examine the several sources  
from which a supply was likely  to be   
obtained1 and to furnish correct surveys
 and profiles of the  heights and       
depressions of the country through which
 the water must be  conveyed1 and that  
he had been requested to report as soon 
as it was  practicable4    ,in #ahbc1   
the ,sharon ,canal ,company was         
chartered by the ,state1 and among  its 
duties was that of supplying the city of
 ,new-,york with pure and  wholesome    
water4 ,the work was not1 however1      
undertaken4    ,in ,january1 #ahbd1 ,mr4
 ,white made his report1 which he       
prefaced  as follows3--8,that he had the
 honor of receiving a request from      
,stephen ,allen1 late ,mayor1 to make an
 examination and estimate of  the       
expense of furnishing the city with a   

copious supply of good and  wholesome   
water4 ,agreeably to that request1 ,i   
have made the necessary  surveys1 levels
 and examinations to ascertain the      
practicability  of the project10 c4 c4  
,at the same date1 ,benjamin ,wright1   
,esq41  reported to the ,common ,council
 on the same subject1 which he prefaces 
as follows3--8,in obedience to a request
 of your honorable body1  communicated  
to me by ,stephen ,allen1 ,esq41 late   
,mayor1 in ,november  last1 desiring me 
to assist ,canvas ,white1 ,esq41 with my
 advice and  counsel1 as to the best    
method of supplying the city of         
,new-,york with  plenty of good water1  
,i beg leave to make the following      
report10 c4    ,mr4 ,white reported in  
favor of bringing the water of the      
,bronx to  the city2 taking it from the 
,river at the ,westchester ,cotton      
,factory  pond4 ,the natural flow of the
 ,river at this place1 he stated to be  
#c1jjj1jjj of gallons per day1 in the   
driest season1 and he proposed by       

artificial works at the upper ,rye pond1
 and by lowering the outlet of  this    
pond1 to obtain #c1fjj1jjj gallons more 
per day2 thus furnishing  a daily supply
 of #f1fjj1jjj gallons4 ,the cost of    
bringing the water  to a reservoir near 
the ,park1 was estimated at #a1idi1edb4 
,mr4 ,wright  concurred with him in this
 opinion4    ,in #ahbe a company was    
incorporated by the ,legislature1 and   
called the  8,new-,york ,water ,works   
,company10 with authority to supply the 
city  with pure water4 ,canvas ,white1  
,esq41 was appointed ,engineer to this  
,company1 and in his report to the      
,directors1 he recommended taking the   
waters of the ,bronx at ,underhill's    
bridge2 estimated that #i1ajj1jjj       
gallons of water could be delivered in  
the city daily1 and that the  expense   
would not exceed #a1dej1jjj4    ,the    
charter of this company proved so       
defective in practice1 that they  were  
unable to proceed under it1 and they    
accordingly applied to the  ,legislature

 in #ahbf for an amendment1 authorizing 
the company to take  such of the waters1
 land and materials1 by appraisement of 
indifferent  persons1 as might be       
required for the work4 ,in this         
application1  however1 they were        
defeated1 by the opposition of the      
,sharon ,canal  ,company1 who claimed1  
under their charter1 all the water on   
the route  of their canal4 ,the ,water  
,works ,company was accordingly         
dissolved in  #ahbg4    ,in #ahca1 the  
,common ,council of the city1 impelled  
by a sense of the  importance of a      
supply of pure and wholesome water1     
began to take more  decided steps       
towards the accomplishment of the       
object3 a ,committee  of the ,board of  
,aldermen on ,fire and ,water1          
consisting of ,james  ,palmer1 ,samuel  
,stevens and ,william ,scott1 to whom   
were referred  various communications   
and resolutions on the subject of       
supplying  the city with water1         
presented a report adducing facts and   

arguments  sufficient to prove the      
practicability of the project and the   
ability  of the ,corporation to meet the
 expense2 and prefaced that report as   
follows3--8,that they approach the      
subject as one of vast magnitude and    
importance to an already numerous and   
dense population1 requiring our         
municipal authorities no longer to      
satisfy themselves with speeches1       
reports and surveys1 but actually to    
raise the means and strike  the spade   
into the ground1 as a commencement of   
this all important  undertaking40#b     
,their attention was drawn1 at that     
time1 to the ,bronx ,river1 with the    
ponds at its head1 as the source for    
supply2 but appended to their  report is
 a letter directed to the ,corporation  
and signed ,cyrus ,swan1  8who is       
,president of the ,new-,york and ,sharon
 ,canal ,company10 in which  it is      
asserted1 8it has been ascertained that 
that ,river 7the ,croton7  can be       
carried into the city of ,new-,york1 and

 that without it1 a supply  which shall 
be adequate to the present and future   
wants of the city  cannot be obtained4  
,this ,committee drafted an ,act for the
 ,legislature to pass1 which was        
approved by the ,common ,council1 and   
presented to the ,legislature in  the   
session of #ahcb1 but failed in becoming
 a law4 ,that ,act provided  for the    
appointment of a ,board of              
,commissioners of three persons1 by  the
 ,common ,council1 to superintend the   
execution of the plan and make          
contracts for introducing water into the
 city of ,new-,york4    ,in ,november1  
#ahcb1 a report was made by ,timothy    
,dewey and ,william  ,serrell to        
,benjamin ,wright1 ,esq4 ,they had      
examined the sources of the  ,bronx     
,river and other streams1 and the       
practicability of introducing  the water
 of the ,croton by connecting it with   
the ,sawmill and ,bronx  ,rivers2--they 
did not consider it possible to bring   
the ,croton water to  mingle with those 

of the aforesaid rivers without the aid 
of expensive  machinery1 from the great 
height it would be necessary to elevate 
the  water4 ,they finally recommended   
the ,bronx as a sufficient source1 with 
some artificial reservoirs1 to answer   
all the city purposes4    ,the frightful
 ravages of the cholera1 during the     
summer of #ahcb1 gave  to the subject of
 a supply of pure water a deeper        
interest1 and the  minds of the citizens
 were again aroused to the importance of
 it4 ,the  ,committee of the ,board of  
,aldermen1 on 8,fire and ,water10 ,james
 ,palmer1  chairman1 pursued the subject
 with energy2 exhibiting on all         
occasions  perseverance and industry in 
their researches4    ,myndert ,van      
,schaick1 ,esq41 being a member of the  
,board of ,aldermen  at that time1 was  
familiar with the question of a supply  
of pure and  wholesome water1 and       
holding the situation of ,treasurer of  
the ,board  of ,health1 became deeply   
interested in the measure1 and urged it 

as  a matter of the deepest importance  
to the permanence1 welfare and          
financial interests of the city1 that   
every method should be taken  to        
investigate and probe the subject which 
cautious men could adopt1  and his      
efforts in the subsequent measures and  
provisions of law in  relation to it are
 of the same character4    ,in          
,december1 #ahcb1 ,de ,witt ,clinton1   
,esq41 of the ,united ,states ,corps  of
 ,engineers1 made a report pursuant to a
 request of the ,committee on  ,fire and
 ,water1 in which1 after stating the    
substance of the several  reports in    
favor of the ,bronx as the source of    
supply1 he arrives at  the conclusion1  
that an adequate supply can only be     
obtained from the  ,croton ,river4      
,he proposed to take the waters of the  
,croton at ,pine's bridge1 which  he    
stated to be #ahc feet above the level  
of the ,hudson2 to conduct the  water in
 an open ,aqueduct1 following the line  
of the ,croton and ,hudson  ,rivers1 and

 cross ,harlem ,river on an arch of #ach
 feet in height1 and  #a1jjj feet in    
length4 ,the whole cost he estimated at 
#b1ejj1jjj4    ,it does not appear1     
however1 that any levels were run1 or   
survey made  by ,mr4 ,clinton1 of the   
route he recommended2 but1 that he      
depended on  the information of others1 
together with his personal observation1 
for  the subject matter of his report4  
,in a report made to the ,board of      
,aldermen in ,january1 #ahcc1 it was    
suggested that the failure of the law   
asked for the year previous1  was in    
consequence of a want of sufficient     
information to warrant the  opinion of  
the feasibility of the project1 and it  
recommended that  immediate application 
should be made to the ,legislature1     
asking for the  appointment of a ,board 
of ,commissioners1 with full powers to  
examine  all the plans proposed1 to     
cause surveys1 and to estimate the      
probable  expense of supplying the city 
of ,new-,york with water4    ,the       

,committee recommended that the         
,commissioners should be appointed by   
the ,governor and ,senate1 and that     
their number should consist of five1    
8inasmuch as the object of their        
appointment is to settle conclusively   
the plan to be adopted1 and the amount  
requisite for its performance40  ,this  
report was concurred in by the ,board of
 ,assistants1 and approved  of by the   
,mayor1 ,january #agth1 #ahcc4    ,in   
compliance with the request of the      
,common ,council the ,legislature of    
the ,state1 on the #bfth of ,february1  
#ahcc1 passed an ,act1#c providing  for 
the appointment by the ,governor and    
,senate1 of five persons1 as  ,water    
,commissioners1 whose duty it was by    
said ,act declared to be 8to  examine   
and consider all matters relative to    
supplying the city of  ,new-,york with a
 sufficient quantity of pure and        
wholesome water for the  use of its     
inhabitants1 and the amount of money    
necessary to effect  that object40      

,in pursuance of this law1 the ,governor
 and ,senate appointed the  ,board of   
,water ,commissioners1 consisting of the
 following named  gentlemen3--,stephen  
,allen1 ,william ,w4 ,fox1 ,saul ,alley1
 ,charles  ,dusenberry and ,benjamin ,m4
 ,brown4 ,they were directed to make    
their  report to the ,legislature1 by   
the second ,monday of ,january1 #ahcd1  
and to present a copy thereof to the    
,common ,council of the ,city of        
,new-,york on or before the first day of
 ,november1 #ahcc4    ,the              
,commissioners proceeded in the         
discharge of their duties1 employed  as 
,engineers ,canvas ,white1 ,esquire1 and
 ,major ,d4 ,b4 ,douglass1 of the       
,united ,states ,corps of ,engineers1   
and made all necessary examinations  so 
as to determine1 whether a sufficient   
quantity of pure and wholesome  water   
could be obtained for present and future
 purposes1 whether  its introduction    
into the city would be practicable at an
 elevation  precluding the use of       

machinery1 and also what would be the   
probable  cost of completing the        
projected work4 ,their report satisfied 
the  ,legislature that a supply of pure 
and wholesome water was of great        
importance to the city--that its        
introduction was feasible1 and  that the
 expense was within the financial       
ability of the citizens4  ,accordingly  
an ,act#d was passed by the             
,legislature1 on the #b;d of ,may1      
#ahcd1 which provided for the           
appointment of five ,water              
,commissioners  by the ,governor and    
,senate1 and they were required 8to     
examine and  consider all matters       
relative to supplying the city of       
,new-,york with a  sufficient quantity  
of pure and wholesome water2 to adopt   
such plan as  in their opinion will be  
most advantageous for securing such     
supply1  and to report a full statement 
and description of the plan adopted  by 
them2 to ascertain1 as near as may be1  
what amount of money may  be necessary  

to carry the same into effect2 to report
 an estimate of  the probable amount of 
revenue that will accrue to the city1   
upon the  completion of the work1 and   
the reasons and calculations upon which 
their opinion and estimates may be      
founded2 such report to be made and     
presented to the ,common ,council of the
 city on or before the first day  of    
,january1 #ahcf40    ,it was further    
provided1 that 8in case the plan adopted
 by the  ,commissioners shall be        
approved by the ,common ,council1 they  
shall  submit it to the electors to     
express their assent or refusal to allow
  the ,common ,council1 to instruct the 
,commissioners to proceed in the  work40
    ,the ,commissioners who were        
appointed in #ahcc1 were re-appointed   
under  the ,act of the #b;d of ,may1    
#ahcd4 ,they immediately entered upon   
the  duties of their office1 thoroughly 
re-examined their former work1 and      
decided that the ,croton ,river was the 
only source that would furnish  an      

adequate supply of water for present and
 future purposes4 ,in making  these     
examinations they employed1 as          
,engineers1 ,david ,b4 ,douglass1  ,john
 ,martineau and ,george ,w4 ,cartwright1
 ,esquires4 ,various plans were         
proposed for conveying the water to the 
city1 and estimates made of  the cost of
 the work constructed by either of these
 plans1 but the  one recommended by the 
,commissioners1 and that for which a    
preference  was expressed by the        
,engineers1 ,messrs4 ,martineau and     
,douglass1 was  a closed ,aqueduct of   
masonry4 ,these gentlemen each made an  
estimate  of the cost of bringing the   
water of the ,croton ,river to the city 
of  ,new-,york by a closed ,aqueduct of 
masonry1 and the ,water ,commissioners  
offered1 as the true cost of the work1  
an average of the two estimates4  ,the  
cost of the work1 as estimated for this 
plan and presented by  the ,water       
,commissioners1 7including the cost of  
the city mains and  conduits17 was      

#e1dab1ccf4gb4    ,the report of the    
,water ,commissioners was referred to a 
,committee1  who reported to the ,common
 ,council1 on the #dth of ,march1 #ahce1
 two  resolutions1 the first approving  
the plan adopted by the ,commissioners  
as described in their report2 and the   
second referring the subject to  the    
electors at the ensuing annual election1
 as required by the ,act of  ,may #b;d1 
#ahcd4 ,these resolutions were adopted  
by the ,common ,council1 and  at the    
election in ,april1 #ahce1 the subject  
having been duly submitted  to the      
electors of the city and county of      
,new-,york1 a majority of the  voters   
were found to be in favor of the        
measure4 ,on the #gth of ,may           
following1 the ,common ,council         
8instructed the ,commissioners to       
proceed  with the work40    ,thus       
authorized1 the ,commissioners          
immediately commenced the  preparatory  
measures for the construction of the    
work4 ,david ,b4  ,douglass was employed

 as ,chief ,engineer2 he proceeded in   
the location  of the line for the       
,aqueduct and in preparing plans1 until 
,october1  #ahcf1 when he was succeeded 
by ,john ,b4 ,jervis1 who continued at  
the  head of that department during the 
construction of the ,aqueduct4    ,the  
construction of the work was commenced  
in ,may #ahcg2 and on the  #bb;d ,june1 
#ahdb1 the ,aqueduct received the water 
from the ,fountain  ,reservoir on the   
,croton3--on the #bgth of ,june1 the    
water having been  permitted to traverse
 the entire length of the ,aqueduct1    
entered the  ,receiving ,reservoir at   
the city of ,new-,york1 and was admitted
 into the  ,distributing ,reservoir on  
the #dth of ,july4    ,the              
,commissioners who were appointed in    
#ahcc1 and re-appointed in #ahcd1       
continued in the performance of their   
duties until #ahcg--;in ,march1 of      
which year ,thomas ,t4 ,woodruff was    
appointed in the place of ,benjamin  ,m4
 ,brown1 who resigned his office1 and   

the ,board of ,commissioners thus       
constituted1 continued until ,march1    
#ahdj1 when they were succeeded by      
,samuel ,stevens1 ,john ,d4 ,ward1      
,zebedee ,ring1 ,benjamin ,birdsall and 
,samuel ,r4 ,childs4 ,this ,board of    
,commissioners remained in office until 
,february1 #ahdc1 when they were        
succeeded by the gentlemen who composed 
the former ,board4          ,,of ,,plans
 ,,proposed ,,for ,,furnishing ,,the    
,,city ,,with ,,water1 ,,and ,,of ,,the 
,,plan  ,,adopted4      ,in the course  
of examinations which were made to      
determine sources  whence water could be
 obtained1 questions of deep importance 
presented  themselves in regard to the  
source to be relied upon for a supply1  
also  in reference to the plan which    
should be adopted for conducting the    
water to the city4    ,it was of so much
 importance to the city that the supply 
should be  such as not only to answer   
the present purposes1 but be adequate to
  the future increased demands1 and that

 the quality of the water should  be    
unquestionable1 that it became necessary
 to extend the examinations  over every 
watered district in the vicinity1 in    
order to judge of  the comparative      
merits of different sources4 ,the       
,engineers who were  employed1 traversed
 the country1 gauged the streams1       
reported their  supply1 the quality of  
the water1 and plans which might be     
adopted  for conveying it to the city4  
,it was a field for the exercise of the 
talent and research of the ,engineer3 in
 resorting to a distant stream  for a   
supply1 any plan which he might propose 
for conveying the water1  would         
encounter obstacles requiring skill and 
ingenuity to overcome4  ,he would find  
it necessary to build up the valleys1   
pierce through the  hills1 and span the 
waters of the arms of the sea which     
embrace the  city and make it an island4
 ,structures would be required1 which1  
in  their design1 would find no parallel
 among the public works of this         

country1 and in forming plans for them  
he might study with advantage1  the     
works constructed for similar purposes  
by the ,ancient ,romans4    ,the        
examinations embraced all the sources   
from which a supply of water  might be  
obtained in the neighboring counties of 
,westchester and  ,putnam2 giving a     
comparison of the different streams in  
regard to their  elevation1 their       
capacity1 and the quality of the water4 
,it was decided  that the ,croton ,river
 would supply a sufficient quantity of  
water at  all seasons of the year2 at an
 elevation precluding the use of steam  
or any other extraneous power1 and that 
the quality of the water was            
unexceptionable4 ,other streams were    
found which would furnish water  equally
 pure1 but too limited in quantity at   
certain seasons of the  year1 and not at
 a sufficient elevation4    ,in addition
 to the information furnished by the    
,engineers employed1  the ,water        
,commissioners received communications  

from other sources  suggesting plans for
 supplying the city with water4    ,it  
was suggested that water might be       
obtained from the ,passaic ,falls1  at a
 distance of about eighteen miles from  
the city1 in ,new-,jersey4 ,the         
objections to this project were1 that it
 would be going into another  state1    
that an ,aqueduct bridge over the       
,hudson ,river would obstruct its       
navigation1 and iron pipes laid across  
the bed of the river would be  exposed  
to injury from the anchors of the       
shipping4 ,another plan was  proposed   
which contemplated a permanent dam      
across the ,hudson ,river  extending    
from the city to the ,jersey shore4     
,this dam was proposed to  be built     
about #b feet above the level of high   
tide1 thereby keeping all  the salt     
water below2 and above the dam would be 
the fresh water for  supplying the city1
 which must be pumped up into a         
reservoir by means  of water-wheels1    
which would be operated by the overfall 

of water when  the tide was low1 but    
when the tide was up within #b feet of  
the top of  the dam there would not be  
sufficient fall to propel the wheels4   
,locks  were to be inserted in the dam1 
of a sufficient number to accommodate   
the vessels on the river4 ,the river1 at
 the place where it was proposed  to    
locate the dam1 is over a mile in width1
 and in the channel the  depth below the
 surface to proper foundation for such a
 structure1  would probably be #ej feet4
 ,the difference of tides is about #e   
feet1  which added to the height of dam 
above high tides1 would give #g feet  of
 the top of the dam exposed to the      
pressure of the water on the up  stream 
side when the tide is low4    ,it was   
suggested that the hydraulic power here 
obtained1 could be used  for            
manufacturing purposes1 except that     
portion of it which would  be required  
for elevating the water to the          
reservoir4 ,this plan of  supplying the 
city with water was objected to1 because

 it could not  be accomplished except by
 an ,act of the ,legislature of         
,new-,jersey as  well as that of        
,new-,york1 and it was also questionable
 whether such  obstructions could be    
placed in navigable rivers without      
interfering  with the powers of         
,congress to regulate the commerce of   
the nation4  ,it was feared that in     
locking vessels through1 the salt water 
would  become mingled with the fresh    
above the dam where a supply would be   
taken for the city1 to such a degree1   
that it would render it unfit  for      
domestic use4 ,the quantity of land that
 would be overflowed by the  water set  
back by the dam1 presented another      
objection4 ,the space of  time that the 
tide would be sufficiently low to allow 
the wheels to  work in pumping water    
into the reservoir1 would be entirely   
too short  to insure a supply4 ,this    
objection was offered by ,frederick     
,graff1  ,esq41 the superintendent of   
the ,philadelphia ,water ,works1 who    

stated  that although the dam on the    
,schuylkill ,river is raised #f feet #f 
inches  above the highest tides1 the    
delay in pumping1 occasioned by the     
tides1  averages seven hours out of the 
twenty-four2 and in full moon tides1    
from eight to nine hours4    ,the       
projector of this plan set forth many   
advantages which he thought  would arise
 from the construction of the dam1 but  
the obstruction to  the navigation of   
the river1 the destruction of the shad  
fishery1 and  various objections besides
 those already mentioned1 induced the   
,water  ,commissioners to reject the    
idea of building a dam across the       
,hudson4    ,we have now gone over most 
of the preliminary steps which were     
taken  before deciding upon the source  
for a supply of water4--,having fixed   
upon the ,croton ,river as a stream     
possessing the requisite advantages  for
 a supply1 questions naturally arose as 
to the manner in which it  should be    
conveyed to the city4 ,the distance     

being about forty miles1  over a country
 extremely broken and uneven1 and       
following a direction1  for a portion of
 this distance1 parallel with the       
,hudson ,river1  encountering the       
streams which empty into it and form    
deep valleys in  their courses4 ,it will
 be interesting to notice the different 
plans  which were suggested for forming 
a channel-way to conduct the water4     
,the following modes were presented3--a 
plain channel formed of earth1  like the
 ordinary construction of a canal       
feeder3--an open channel1  protected    
against the action of the current by    
masonry3--an arched  culvert or conduit1
 composed essentially of masonry2 and   
iron pipes4  ,in deciding which of these
 modes should be adopted1 it was        
necessary  to make a comparison among   
them as to their efficiency for         
conducting  the water in purity1 and in 
the quantity required1 their permanency 
as  structures1 and their cost4    ,the 
disadvantages attendant upon an open    

canal were1 that by filtration  through 
the banks there would be a heavy loss of
 water2--the difficulty  of preserving  
the water from receiving the wash of the
 country1 and  preventing injurious     
matter from being thrown into it and    
rendering  it impure1 and the impurities
 which might be contracted by passing   
through different earths4 ,evaporation  
would also occasion a serious  loss of  
water4 ,the banks would be liable to    
failure in seasons of  long-continued   
rains1 and the city depending upon this 
for a supply1  would be cut off1 except 
there should be sufficient in the       
reservoirs  to furnish a supply during  
the period of repairs4 ,the canal could 
never be subjected to a thorough repair1
 because of the necessity  of keeping it
 in a condition for furnishing water    
constantly during  the whole year1 so   
that all repairs would be done under    
great  disadvantages1 and the channel   
would be yearly growing worse until its 
failure might become a public calamity4 

,in regard to the open channel  having  
the sides protected by masonry1 the     
objections were found to be  such as    
would apply equally to every species of 
open channel2 namely1  that it would be 
exposed in many situations to receive   
the wash of  the country2 that it would 
be unprotected from the frost1 and      
liable  to be interrupted thereby1 and  
lastly1 that there would be a loss by   
evaporation4 ,it was supposed that these
 objections might be obviated by        
certain precautions2 for example1 the   
wash could be avoided by making         
sufficient side drains2 and the         
interruption liable to occur from frost 
and snow1 and the evaporation1 to a     
certain extent1 could be prevented  by  
closing the channel entirely with a roof
 over the top4 ,the close  channel or   
culvert1 composed essentially of masonry
 seemed to possess  all the requisite   
advantages for conducting the water in a
 pure state  and keeping it beyond the  
influence of frost or any interruption  

which  would be liable to occur to an   
open channel4 ,in point of stability    
this  plan had a decided preference over
 either of the other plans proposed1    
and the only objection offered was the  
cost of the work constructed in  this   
way4 ,to avoid too great expense it was 
proposed to make use of a  mixed        
construction1 using the close channel or
 culvert in situations  where deep      
excavations occurred and it would be    
desirable to fill in  the earth again to
 the natural form1 also where the line  
of ,aqueduct  intersected villages1 and 
using the open channel with slope walls 
for  the residue of the distance4    ,in
 regard to iron pipes for conducting the
 water1 it was found that  a sufficient 
number of them to give the same         
sectional area as would  be adopted by  
either of the other plans would be more 
expensive1 and  considering the great   
distance and the undulating surface over
 which  they would extend1 other        
disadvantages were presented which added

  to the objections1 and the plan was   
considered inexpedient4 ,could a  line  
be graded so as to give a regular       
inclination from the ,fountain          
,reservoir to one at the city1 then the 
expense of laying iron pipes  for       
conducting the proposed quantity of     
water1 would be greater than  for       
constructing a channel-way of masonry2  
and when laid1 the pipes  were thought  
to be less durable4 ,should the pipes   
follow the natural  undulations of the  
ground1 there would be so much          
resistance offered  to the flow of water
 that the discharge would be diminished 
in a very  great degree4    ,the close  
channel or conduit of masonry was       
adopted as the plan best  calculated to 
answer all the purposes of conducting   
the water to the  city4      ,sources of
 the ,croton ,river4    ,the sources of 
the ,croton ,river are principally in   
the county of  ,putnam1 at a distance of
 fifty miles from the city of           
,new-,york2 they  are mostly springs    

which in that elevated and uneven       
country have  formed many ponds and     
lakes never-failing in their supply4    
,there are  about twenty of these lakes 
which constitute the sources of the     
,croton  ,river1 and the aggregate of   
their surface areas is about three      
thousand  eight hundred acres4    ,from 
these sources to the mouth of the       
,croton at the head of ,tappan  ,bay in 
the ,hudson1 the distance is about      
twenty-five miles4 ,the  country        
bordering upon the ,croton is generally 
elevated and uneven1  not sustaining a  
dense population and cleared            
sufficiently to prevent  injury to the  
water from decayed vegetable matter4    
,the river has a  rapid descent and     
flows over a bed of gravel and masses of
 broken rock4  ,from these advantages   
there is good reason to suppose that the
 water  will receive very little        
impurity from the wash of the country   
through  which it flows1 and there is no
 doubt that the sources furnish that    

which is peculiarly adapted to all the  
purposes of a large city4    ,the water 
is of such uncommon purity that in      
earlier days the native  ,indian gave a 
name to the river which signified 8clear
 water40#e      ,flow of ,water in the  
,croton ,river1 ,capacity of the        
,fountain ,reservoir1  c4    ,the medium
 flow of water in the ,croton1 where the
 fountain reservoir  is formed1 exceeds 
fifty millions of gallons in twenty-four
 hours1 and  the minimum flow1 after a  
long-continued drought1 is about        
twenty-seven  millions of gallons in    
twenty-four hours4    ,the dam on the   
,croton ,river is about #ch feet above  
the level which was  the surface of the 
natural flow of water at that place1 and
 sets the  water back about six miles1  
forming the ,fountain ,reservoir which  
covers  an area of about four hundred   
acres4 ,the country forming the valley  
of  the ,river was such as to give bold 
shores to this reservoir generally1  and
 in cases where there was a gentle slope

 or a level of the ground  near the     
surface of water1 excavations were made 
so that the water  should not be of less
 depth than four and a half feet4       
,the great length of this ,reservoir is 
favourable for the purity of the  water 
which enters the ,aqueduct3 spread over 
this large surface1 it  will have an    
opportunity to settle and part with some
 of the impurities  which it receives1  
during rainy seasons1 from the wash of  
the country  through which it flows4    
,the available capacity of this         
,reservoir1 down to the level where the 
water would cease to flow off in the    
,aqueduct1 has been estimated at  six   
hundred millions of gallons4    ,could  
we suppose that the ,croton ,river will 
ever in any season of  drought1 fail to 
furnish a supply greater than would be  
carried off  from this ,reservoir and   
the ,reservoirs at the city by          
evaporation1  we have still a supply of 
water which would be sufficient for one 
million of inhabitants during the space 

of thirty days 7estimating the  amount  
necessary for each inhabitant to be     
twenty gallons for every  twenty-four   
hours47    ,but we may assume the number
 of inhabitants at present to be one    
third  of a million1 and therefore we   
have a sufficient store of water in     
this ,fountain ,reservoir to supply them
 for the space of ninety days1  in the  
emergency before supposed4 ,in addition 
to the quantity in the  ,fountain       
,reservoir1 we have sufficient in the   
,reservoirs at the city  to supply one  
third of a million of inhabitants for   
about twenty-five  days1 at the rate of 
supply before mentioned4 ,thus we find1 
should such  a limit as we have supposed
 ever happen to the supply from the     
,river1  the season of drought cannot   
certainly be supposed to continue during
  the length of time 7about four months7
 that would be required for the  present
 population of the city to exhaust the  
quantity in store when  all the         
,reservoirs are full4    ,the minimum   

flow of water in the river where the dam
 is constructed1  has been stated to be 
twenty-seven millions of gallons for    
every  twenty-four hours4 ,this would be
 a sufficient supply for one million  of
 inhabitants1 and should the population 
of the city increase to one  million and
 a half1 this supply1 together with the 
quantity in store1  will probably be    
sufficient during any season of drought4
 ,there is1  therefore1 no fear in      
regard to the supply for the present1   
and should  the time arrive when the    
city will require more than the present 
facilities afford during low stages of  
the river1 other streams may  be found  
which can be turned into the upper      
branches of the ,croton1  or into the   
,aqueduct along its course4 ,other      
,reservoirs may also be  constructed    
farther up the ,croton to draw from in  
seasons of drought4  ,these suggestions 
would only be useful to provide a supply
 during the  low stages of the river1   
for at other seasons the flow of water  

in the  ,croton would be equal to the   
full capacity of the ,aqueduct4#f       
,general ,design of the ,channel-way and
 ,reservoirs4    ,a description of the  
general design and purpose of the       
channel-way in  connection with the     
,reservoirs will serve to give a clear  
understanding  of the operation of the  
work4 ,having ascertained the elevation 
in  the city at which it would be       
desirable to use the water1 it was  only
 necessary then1 to find a point on the 
,croton ,river where a dam  could be    
constructed that would turn the water   
into a channel having  a gradual descent
 to the required elevation at the city4 
,so that it  may easily be conceived1 it
 is only diverting the water into       
another  channel where it will flow on  
unobstructed4 ,the manner in which water
  is conducted from its natural channel1
 for the purpose of propelling  the     
machinery of manufacturing              
establishments1 by a race-way or other  
channel1 is a simple illustration of the

 operation of this great work4    ,at   
the place where it was determined to    
build the dam across the  ,croton       
,river1 the surface of the natural flow 
of water was about #ch  feet below the  
elevation required as a head for the    
water to flow into  the ,aqueduct       
leading to the city4 ,by going farther  
up the river the  dam would have been of
 less height1 and a point might have    
been found  where it would be only      
necessary to build a dam to turn the    
water1 and  not form a pond of much     
extent above it1 but for such purpose it
 would  have been necessary to go above 
where some important tributaries enter  
the river1 and would have required a    
considerable extension of the           
,aqueduct4 ,it was perhaps desirable to 
form this ,fountain ,reservoir1 so  that
 it would afford a supply of water to   
draw from1 should there at  any future  
time1 in a season of drought1 be more   
required for the use  of the city than  
would be flowing in the river4    ,no   

essential change occurs in the form of  
the channel-way from the  ,fountain     
,reservoir on the ,croton1 to the       
,receiving ,reservoir on the  island of 
,new-,york2 a distance of thirty-eight  
miles1 except in  crossing ,harlem      
,river to reach the island1 and in      
passing a deep valley  on the island1   
where iron pipes are used instead of the
 channel-way of  masonry to provide for 
the pressure consequent upon a          
depression from  the regular plane4     
,at these points the iron pipes descend 
and rise again1 so that when  the water 
is flowing in the channel-way they will 
be constantly full4  ,thus it will be   
perceived that the channel-way of       
masonry will never  be filled entirely1 
so as to occasion a pressure on all its 
interior  surface4    ,the surface of   
the ,fountain ,reservoir is #aff feet   
above the level  of mean tide at the    
city of ,new-,york2 and the difference  
of level  between that and the surface  
of the ,receiving ,reservoir on the     

island  of ,new-,york1 7a distance of   
thirty-eight miles7 is #dg feet1 leaving
  the surface of this reservoir #aai    
feet above the level of mean tide4      
,from the ,receiving ,reservoir the     
water is conducted 7a distance of two   
miles7 in iron pipes to the             
,distributing ,reservoir1 where the     
surface  of the water is #aae feet above
 the level of mean tide4 ,this last is  
the  height to which the water may      
generally be made available in the city4
          ,,general ,,construction ,,of 
,,the ,,aqueduct4      ,plate ,i4 is a  
section of the ,aqueduct showing the    
form of the masonry  used in earth      
excavations4 ,the foundation is formed  
with concrete2 the  side walls of stone2
 the bottom and sides of the interior   
being faced  with brick1 and the top    
covered with an arch of brick4    ,in   
forming the concrete a mortar is made by
 mixing three parts of  sand with one of
 hydraulic lime1 and then mixing about  
three parts of  stone1 broken to a size 

allowing them to pass through a ring an 
inch  and a half in diameter4 ,having   
thoroughly mingled the broken stone  and
 mortar1 the concrete is placed in its  
proper position and form1  and brought  
into a compact state by using a pounder2
 and is then  suffered to remain until  
it set1 or become indurated1 before any 
work  is commenced upon it4 ,the object 
should be to mix as many stones or      
pebbles as will thoroughly bed in the   
mortar1 allowing none of them to  come  
in contact1 but all to be enveloped in  
mortar4 ,this forms a body  which       
becomes indurated and makes a foundation
 under the whole length  of the         
,aqueduct like one continuous stone4 ,it
 attains a degree of  hardness which    
gives it the appearance of the          
conglomerate bearing the  name of       
,pudding-stone1 and is an article of the
 greatest importance  in forming        
foundations for walls of great weight2  
superseding in many  instances1 where   
the soil is soft1 the use of piles or   

other timber  foundation4    ,though we 
have evidence that concrete was used by 
the ,ancient ,romans in  the foundations
 of some of their structures and even in
 the formation  of their roads--such as 
the ,appian-,way1 and though we find it 
used  in the foundations of the feudal  
castles of the ,norman ,barons of       
,england1 still it has not been         
introduced into the general practice of 
architecture until quite a modern date1 
and even at the present time  is not    
widely appreciated in this country as a 
material of so much  importance in      
foundations4    ,the side walls are laid
 up in a character of workmanship styled
  8rough-hammered work20 the stone      
required to be of sound and durable     
quality and laid in a manner to render  
the work water-tight4 ,though  attention
 is given in some degree to insure a    
proper bond to the wall1  yet the point 
more particularly attended to1 is to    
make it compact  and impervious to      
water4 ,the bonding of the wall is not  

by any means  disregarded1 in all       
situations where it is required1 yet the
 position  of the work generally1 where 
it is in excavation below the natural   
surface of the ground1 renders such     
precaution of less importance  than that
 of making it compact4 ,the mortar used 
in these side walls  is formed by mixing
 clean sharp sand with hydraulic lime1  
using the  proportions of three parts of
 the sand to one of the lime2 and these 
are thoroughly mixed and incorporated   
before they are wet2 when this  mixture 
is wet and thoroughly worked1 it is used
 immediately and always  kept properly  
tempered so as to render it plastic1 and
 to prevent any  disposition to become  
hardened before it is in the wall4      
,after the  side walls are finished and 
the concrete between them has received  
its  proper form1 a coating of          
plastering1 about three eighths of an   
inch  in thickness1 is put on over the  
surface of the concrete and on the  face
 of the walls before the interior facing

 of brick is commenced4  ,the           
proportions of this plastering are two  
parts of sand to one of the  hydraulic  
lime4    ,the bricks used in this work  
are generally of quite a different      
character from those used in ordinary   
house-building2 being harder  burnt and 
of a superior quality of material4 ,they
 are required to be  burnt to such a    
degree of hardness that they present a  
cherry red1 or  brownish color1 and give
 a clear ringing sound when struck2 and 
when  broken1 must present a compact and
 uniform texture4 ,all bricks brought   
upon the work which are soft and of a   
pale color1 such as are usually         
denominated salmon brick1 are rejected4 
,those which are used1 possess  nearly  
the hardness and durability of ordinary 
building stone1 and are  calculated to  
resist the action of the water1 to which
 they will be  exposed4    ,the         
advantage of using brick is1 that a     
smooth channel offering little          
resistance to the flow of water can be  

formed with less expense than  with     
stone1 and greater security can be      
obtained against any leakage2  for      
besides the coat of plastering which    
covers the face of the walls  and the   
top of the concrete1 there is also a    
mortar joint between  this plastering   
and the brick work4 ,the bricks being of
 good form and  easily handled1 can be  
more expeditiously and closely laid than
 the  face of a wall of stone1 and      
afford a smooth and uniform face to the 
wall with less expense4 ,they are       
required to be bedded full and flush    
with mortar1 so that on lifting one from
 its position in the work1  no          
imperfections be discovered1 but the    
impress of the brick be found  distinct 
throughout4    ,the proportions of the  
mortar for the brick work1 are two parts
 of sand  to one of hydraulic lime4     
,the inverted arch of brick1 as well as 
the brick facing on the sides1  is four 
inches thick1 and the roofing arch of   
brick is eight inches  thick4    ,after 

the masonry is finished the excavation  
which was done to receive  it1 is filled
 up around it1 and over the top of the  
roofing arch  generally to the height of
 #c to #d feet1 and in some instances of
 deep  excavation1 up to the natural    
surface4 ,if the natural surface be not 
of sufficient height for the top of the 
earth covering1 the earth is  raised to 
the requisite height with proper width  
on the top and slopes  on the sides for 
protection to the ,aqueduct masonry4    
,illustration3 ,i      ,f4 ,b4 ,tower4  
,gimber4      ,illustration3 ,,ii       
,f4 ,b4 ,tower4      ,gimber4           
,illustration3 ,,iii      ,f4 ,b4       
,tower4      ,gimber4                   
,illustration3 ,,iv      ,f4 ,b4 ,tower4
      ,gimber4      ,plate ,,ii4 is a   
section of the ,aqueduct in open cutting
 in rock4    ,after the rock has been   
excavated to the required depth and     
width1  the bottom is levelled up with  
concrete to the proper height and form  
for the inverted arch of brick1 which is

 laid in the manner before  described   
for earth excavation4 ,the side walls of
 stone and brick are  bonded together by
 headers of brick entering the stone    
walls as shown  in the drawing1 and the 
walls of stone are built closely against
 the  sides of the rock and forming a   
junction with it4 ,on the exterior  of  
the roofing arch a heavy spandrel of    
stone masonry 7of the same  character as
 the stone walls beneath it7 is built1  
filling the space  between the arch and 
the rock4 ,after the masonry is         
finished1 the rock  cut above it is     
filled with earth to the same height    
above the  roofing arch as mentioned for
 earth excavation4    ,plate ,,iii4 is a
 section of the ,aqueduct in tunnel     
cutting in rock4    ,the width of the   
tunnel excavation in rock is the same as
 that of open  excavation in rock2 and  
the manner of building the masonry to   
form  the channel-way is the same1 with 
the exception that the rock roof of  the
 tunnel serves as the roof of the       

channel-way1 where it is sound1  but in 
cases where the rock is soft and liable 
to fall1 a brick arch  is built over the
 channel-way1 and the space between its 
extrados1 or  outer surface1 and the    
rock roof is filled with earth closely  
rammed  in4 ,in some instances where the
 tunnel perforated rock which was at    
first quite hard1 the roofing has by    
exposure to the air1 become soft  and   
insecure1 so as to render it necessary  
to turn an arch for its  support4 ,this 
is attended with inconvenience and some 
difficulty after  the channel-way has   
been completed and closed through the   
tunnel4    ,plate ,,iv4 is a section of 
the ,aqueduct in tunnel cutting in      
earth4    ,when the earth is dry and    
compact1 the excavation for the bottom  
and  sides is made of a proper form to  
receive the masonry1 which is built     
closely against it3 the top is excavated
 sufficiently high to give room  to turn
 the arch1 and the space above is       
afterwards filled with earth  closely   

rammed in4 ,where the earth is wet and  
there is difficulty in  making it stand1
 the excavation is made larger1 and     
props of timber  and plank are used to  
support the top and sides until the     
masonry  be completed2 and the whole    
space exterior to the masonry is then   
compactly filled with earth4    ,plate  
,v4 is a section of the ,aqueduct       
showing the manner of  constructing it  
across valleys1 or where the natural    
surface of the  ground falls below the  
plane of grade4    ,in such cases the   
,aqueduct is supported upon a foundation
 wall of  stone laid dry1 and formed by 
using large stones laid in positions  to
 give proper bond1 and to allow small   
broken stone to be closely  packed in1  
filling up all the interstices so as to 
form a compact and  uniform mass4 ,the  
wall is generally allowed to stand some 
months after  it is completed1 before   
the masonry of the ,aqueduct is         
commenced upon  it1 lest by this weight 
being placed upon it before it has found

 its  bearing1 it should settle and     
cause cracks in the masonry4 ,that such 
settlement should in some instances     
occur1 even after the ,aqueduct  is     
completed1 is not surprising1 for       
passing over so many different          
elevations1 and encountering such       
numerous transitions from a hard  soil1 
or from rock1 to valleys of alluvial    
deposit1 it would be beyond  human      
powers of foresight and vigilance to    
prevent it4    ,illustration3 ,v        
,f4 ,b4 ,tower4      ,gimber4      ,to  
render the ,aqueduct more secure in such
 positions1 the concrete  foundation has
 an increased thickness1 and in         
preparing it a greater  proportion of   
hydraulic lime is used2 the proportion  
being two and  a half parts of sand to  
one of lime4 ,the dimensions of the     
stone  side walls and the spandrel      
backing of the roofing arch1 are also   
increased2 and the proportion of        
hydraulic lime to the sand in the       
mortar for these is increased4 ,another 

precaution has been taken to  render the
 work secure1 by plastering the interior
 of the ,aqueduct over  these foundation
 walls4 ,the embankment adjacent to     
foundation walls  has various slopes    
according to circumstances1 and is      
generally  protected with a dry stone   
wall on the face1 and is carried up of  
sufficient width to insure the requisite
 covering over the ,aqueduct  masonry4  
,along side hills an excavation is made 
for the ,aqueduct into the hill1  and a 
protection wall of stone built on the   
lower side so as to support  a covering 
of earth over the masonry2 great care   
being taken to obtain  a deep and firm  
footing for this wall in order to render
 the work  secure4 ,in such a position  
the ,aqueduct is perhaps less secure    
than  in those before described4 ,where 
the soil is wet from springs1 and  the  
formation clay1 there is danger of      
slides2 and in rainy seasons  there is  
danger from the torrents which gather on
 the hill sides and  come down with     

destructive force3 the earth covering is
 liable to be  carried away1 and the    
,aqueduct itself to be undermined4      
,great care has1  however1 been used in 
such cases to form strong paved channels
 for the  passage of the water over the 
top of the ,aqueduct1 or by culverts to 
pass it underneath4                     
,,waste-,,weirs4    ,at suitable places 
on the line of the ,aqueduct1           
waste-weirs are  constructed to         
discharge surplus water4 ,they are      
constructed in one  side of the         
channel-way1 in such manner as to allow 
the water to flow  off when it rises    
above a given level1 and arrangements   
are also made  at these places to close 
the channel-way entirely1 by means of   
stop  planks1 and to discharge the whole
 of the water through waste-gates2  so  
that the water might be running from the
 ,fountain ,reservoir through  a portion
 of the ,aqueduct and discharging from  
these waste-weirs  while the remainder  
of the channel-way1 or portions of it1  

would be  drained so as to admit of     
inspection or repairs4 ,there are six of
 these  waste-weirs constructed for the 
,aqueduct4      ,,ventilators4    ,for  
the purpose of ventilation hollow       
cylinders of stone are erected  over the
 top of the ,aqueduct and rising about  
#ad feet above the surface  of the      
ground1 or earth covering4 ,these occur 
every mile1 and every  third one is     
constructed with a door to afford an    
entrance to the  ,aqueduct4    ,those   
allowing an entrance have an interior   
diameter of #d feet1 and the  others    
have an interior diameter of #b feet2   
each1 however1 slightly  diminishing    
towards the top4 ,an iron grating covers
 the top to prevent  any thing being    
thrown in4    ,plate ,,vi4 is a view of 
an entrance ventilator2 this stands on  
one side  of the ,aqueduct1 where the   
masonry of the side wall is enlarged for
  its base2 we can descend from the door
 and gain an entrance to the            
channel-way by an opening in the side of

 the roofing arch4 ,the sill of  the    
door is about #ab feet above the bottom 
of the channel-way4    ,illustration3   
,,vi      ,f4 ,b4 ,tower4      ,gimber4 
,,entrance ,,ventilator    ,those not   
intended for an entrance stand directly 
over the top of the  ,aqueduct and are  
groined into the roofing arch4          
,besides these ,ventilators1 there are  
openings #b feet square in the top  of  
the roofing arch1 every quarter of a    
mile3 they are covered with a  flag     
stone and the place is marked by a small
 stone monument projecting  above the   
surface of the ground4 ,these may be    
useful to obtain entrance  to the       
,aqueduct1 or to afford increased       
ventilation should it ever  become      
necessary4      ,,culverts4    ,where   
streams intersect the line of ,aqueduct1
 culverts are built to  allow them to   
pass under it4 ,they are simply a stone 
channel-way built  under the ,aqueduct  
of such form and dimensions as will     
allow the stream  to pursue its natural 

direction without causing injury to the 
work4 ,the  foundation of these culverts
 is formed by laying down concrete1 upon
  which an inverted arch of cut stone is
 laid forming the bottom of the         
water-way3 side walls of stone are built
 and surmounted by an arch of  stone4   
,the span1 or width of water way1 of the
 culverts built1 varies  from #a foot to
 #be feet4 ,those of #a foot span have a
 square form for  the water-way1 and are
 constructed by making a foundation of  
concrete1  upon which a flooring of well
 dressed stone is laid forming the      
bottom  of the water-way1 and from this1
 side walls are built and covered by a  
course of thick stone flagging well     
dressed and closely fitted4 ,at each    
end of the culvert a deep wall is built 
underneath so as to prevent  the water  
from doing injury by undermining it4    
,buttresses and wing  walls are built at
 each end of the culvert to guide the   
water to and  from the channel-way1 and 
a parapet wall is built over the top of 

the  channel-way at each end to sustain 
the embankment of earth over the        
culvert4 ,these wing walls and parapets 
have various forms2 sometimes  the      
parapet is built across the top of the  
culvert1 and the wing walls  built at   
right angles to it1 and sloping down to 
the buttresses1 and  sometimes the wing 
walls and parapet form one continuous   
wall of a  semi-circular form1 the top  
sloping up from the buttresses in a     
plane  parallel with the slope of the   
embankment covering the ,aqueduct above4
  ,these culverts are permanently       
constructed1 and in preparing the plans 
for them much skill has been displayed  
in adapting the form and size  which the
 circumstances required1 and much taste 
displayed in the  design for their      
construction4    ,plate ,,vii4 is an    
isometrical drawing of one of the       
culverts with  rectangular wings and    
parapets2 the body of the culvert is cut
 in two  in the drawing1 showing that it
 may be of any length1 according to the 

width of the embankment through which it
 is constructed4 ,the length is         
generally arranged so that the slope of 
the embankment may intersect  the rear  
of the top of the parapet and pursue a  
direction down1  parallel with the slope
 of the top of the wing walls4          
,illustration3 ,,vii            ,scale  
of #d feet to one inch      ,f4 ,b4     
,tower4      ,gimber4        ,gate      
,chamber at the ,head of the ,aqueduct  
and ,grade of the ,water-way of  the    
,aqueduct4    ,plate ,,viii4 is a       
longitudinal section through the tunnel 
and gate  chamber at the head of the    
,aqueduct showing its connection with   
the  ,fountain ,reservoir4 ,this gate   
chamber is not in any way connected     
with the dam itself1 but stands some    
distance from it1 and the water  reaches
 it by means of the tunnel which leaves 
the ,reservoir above the  dam and passes
 through the solid rock of the hill     
against which the  masonry of the dam is
 built1 a distance of over #bjj feet4   

,this tunnel  descends into the         
,reservoir1 so that the centre of it at 
the mouth is  about #ab feet below the  
surface of the water2 any floating      
substance  cannot enter it1 and during  
the winter season when the water is     
frozen  over no obstruction can take    
place to the flow into the ,aqueduct1   
and  during the summer season the water 
will be drawn from a level where it  is 
cooler than at the surface4    ,the gate
 chamber has two ranges1 or sets of     
gates2 one called  regulating gates1 and
 the other guard gates3 the regulating  
gates  are made of gun metal1 and work  
in frames of the same material which    
are fitted to stone jambs and lintels3  
the guard gates are made of  cast iron1 
and work in cast iron frames also       
attached to stone jambs  and lintels4   
,the gates are all managed by means of  
wrought iron rods  attached to them1    
having a screw formed on the upper part 
on which a  brass nut works1 being set  
in a cast iron socket-cap4    ,the      

bottom of the water way1 of the         
,aqueduct1 where it leaves the gate     
chamber is #aa4dj feet below the surface
 of the ,fountain ,reservoir1 and       
#aed4gg feet above the level of mean    
tide at the city of ,new-,york4 ,the    
following table shows the length of the 
,aqueduct as it is divided into         
different planes of descent1 from the   
gate chamber at the ,croton dam to  the 
gate chamber at the ,receiving          
,reservoir on the ,island of ,new-,york4
  ,commencing at the south side of the  
gate chamber at the ,croton dam1        
and the                                 
ft4      miles1   descent    ,the #ast  
plane of ,aqueduct extends              
#bfjii4gb   #d4idc1   #b4id ft4    ,the 
#b;d plane of  ,aqueduct extends        
#adhaba4be  #bh4jec1  #cj4fi ft4        
,length of pipes across ,har4 ,river1   
#acgg4cc   #j4bfa4    ,diff4 of level   
betw'n extremes of pipes                
#b4bi ft4    ,the #c;d plane of         
,aqueduct extends       #ajgcc4ad       

#b4jcc1   #b4be ft4    ,length of pipes 
across ,manhat4 valley1  #daje4ji       
#j4ggg4    ,diff4 of level betw'n       
extremes of pipes                       
#c4hf ft4    ,the #dth plane of         
,aqueduct extends      #ajfhj4hi        
#b4jbc    #a4fj ft4                     
---------   ------   ---------          
#bjaaag4db  #ch4jij   #dc4fc ft4        
,making the whole distance from the gate
 chamber at the ,croton dam to  the gate
 chamber at the ,receiving ,reservoir   
#bjaaag4db feet1 or #ch4ji  miles1 and  
the whole descent #dc4fc feet4    ,the  
descent on the first plane is about #g  
inches per mile4    ,the descent on the 
second and third plane is about #ac     
inches per mile4    ,the descent on the 
fourth plane is about #i inches per     
mile4    ,in crossing ,harlem ,river    
there is a fall of #b feet more than    
there  would have been had the ,aqueduct
 continued across with its regular      
inclination3 this extra fall will afford
 an opportunity to adjust the  number   

and capacity of the pipes 7which descend
 below the level of the  ,aqueduct and  
rise again7 to discharge the full       
quantity of water as  freely as the     
,aqueduct1 or channel-way of masonry1   
would have done had  it continued its   
regular inclination across the valley4  
,in crossing ,manhattan ,valley there is
 an extra fall of #c feet for the  same 
reasons as before stated for that at    
,harlem ,river4 ,in both cases1  by     
using the pipes1 there is a loss of the 
head of water for the ,city             
,reservoirs1 equal to the amount of this
 extra fall2 but this small  loss of    
head was not considered of such         
importance as to induce the  building of
 structures across these valleys up to  
the plane of ,aqueduct  grade4          
,illustration3 ,,viii      ,f4 ,b4      
,tower4      ,gimber4      ,the bottom  
of the water-way of the ,aqueduct at the
 gate chamber where  it enters the      
,receiving ,reservoir1 is #g4hf feet    
below the level of  top water line in   

the ,reservoir1 thus when the ,reservoir
 is full the  water will rise to within 
#g inches of the top of the interior of 
the ,aqueduct at that place1 and the    
height from top water to the  top of the
 interior will increase1 going northward
 according to the  inclination of the   
plane of ,aqueduct grade1 until it reach
 the surface  level of the flow of water
 in the ,aqueduct4    ,the height of the
 interior of the ,aqueduct is #h feet #e
 inches1 and the  greatest width is #g  
feet #e inches4 ,the sectional area of  
the interior  is #ec4cd square feet4 ,on
 the first plane1 the ,aqueduct is      
larger2  being #b4je feet higher at the 
gate chamber1 #b4ca feet higher at      
#bbdd4  feet from the chamber1 and then 
diminishing1 to the head of the second  
plane1 where it assumes the size above  
mentioned and continues of that  size   
throughout the remainder except in      
tunnels1 where it assumes the  forms    
before described4 ,where the ,aqueduct  
on the first plane is  larger1 the width

 across the interior at the spring line 
of the roofing  arch is the same as the 
general width1 but the increase takes   
place  only in the height of the side   
walls1 and the slope of the inner face  
of the walls being the same1 the width  
across at the spring line of the        
inverted arch will be less according to 
the increased height of walls4  ,the    
original design was to continue the     
inclination which the second  plane has1
 up to the ,fountain ,reservoir2 but it 
was considered  desirable to draw from  
this ,reservoir at a lower level1 and   
the head  of the ,aqueduct was depressed
 for that purpose1 and a less           
inclination  adopted for the length of  
the first plane4 ,the roofing arch was  
left  on the same inclination as was    
originally designed1 except for the     
distance of #bbdd4 feet from the gate   
chamber1 where it was built on a  level4
    ,the curves which are used to change
 the direction of the line of the       
,aqueduct are generally formed with a   

radius of #ejj feet2 some have a  radius
 of #ajjj feet1 and in a few instances  
larger ones are adopted1  but the       
majority of them are of #ejj feet       
radius4    ,the velocity of the water in
 the ,aqueduct has been ascertained to  
be  about one mile and a half an hour   
when it is #b feet deep2 this was       
determined by floating billets of wood  
from the ,croton ,dam to ,harlem  ,river
 and noting the time of their passage4  
,such an experiment would  express the  
surface velocity and would give a       
greater velocity than  it would be      
proper to attribute to the whole body of
 water in the  ,aqueduct2 but the depth 
of water in the ,aqueduct will be       
probably #d  feet as soon as it is      
brought into general use1 and then there
 will be  a corresponding increase in   
the velocity of the body of water4 ,this
  velocity of a mile and a half an hour 
may be taken in general terms  as the   
velocity of the water in the ,aqueduct4 
,illustration3 ,,ix      ,f4 ,b4 ,tower4

      ,w4 ,bennett4    ,,view ,,above   
,,the ,,croton ,,dam4                   
,,description ,,of ,,the ,,line ,,of    
,,aqueduct4      ,the dam1 built to form
 the ,fountain ,reservoir1 is about six 
miles above  the mouth of the ,croton   
,river4 ,the reservoir forms a beautiful
 sheet of  water in the lap of the hills
 in the wild region of the ,croton1 and 
has  received the name of the 8,croton  
,lake40    ,pine's ,bridge over the     
,croton ,river1 which is mentioned in   
the early  history of the country1      
occupied a position which is now about  
the  middle of this ,reservoir1 and     
there is at that place a bridge over the
  ,reservoir resting upon piers and     
abutments4    ,the hills which bound the
 ,croton ,valley where the ,reservoir is
 formed  are so bold as to confine it   
within narrow limits3 for about two     
miles  above the dam the average width  
is about one eighth of a mile2 at this  
distance from the dam the valley opens  
so that for the length of two  miles    

more the width is about a quarter of a  
mile2 here the valley  contracts again  
and diminishes the width until the flow 
line reaches  the natural width of the  
,river at the head of the lake4 ,the    
country  immediately contiguous to the  
shore has been cleared up1 and all that 
would be liable to impart any impurity  
to the water has been removed4  ,this   
gives a pleasing aspect to the lake1    
showing where the hand of  art has swept
 along the shores leaving a clean       
margin4 ,retiring from  the water are   
the richly cultivated slopes with the   
neat farm houses  overlooking the lake1 
or the hills crowned with forest trees1 
while at  intervals a valley or ravine  
opens and empties in its tributary      
stream4    ,plate ,,ix4 is a view taken 
above the dam showing the position of   
the  entrance to the tunnel which leads 
from the ,reservoir to the gate  chamber
 at the head of the ,aqueduct4 ,the     
entablature which is seen on  the left  
against the rock1 is built directly over

 the mouth of the  tunnel1 and from this
 the tunnel extends through the rock to 
the gate  house1 which is seen on the   
right of the picture and some distance  
from  the dam4 ,the structure which is  
seen in the centre of the picture and   
on the ridge of the dam is a gate house 
over a culvert which extends  through   
the body of the dam2 this culvert is #cj
 feet below the surface  of water when  
the ,reservoir is full1 and has gates   
which are operated  by means of rods    
which rise to the interior of the house4
 ,during low  stages of the ,river the  
water which is not drawn off by the     
,aqueduct  may pass through this culvert
 and allow none to pass over the dam4   
,the entrance to the tunnel is protected
 by a screen of timber work4    ,plate  
,x4 is a representation of the          
entablature over the mouth of the       
tunnel1 showing the inscriptions upon   
it1 relating to the date of  the        
commencement of the dam and its         
completion1 the persons who had         

contracts for building it1 and those    
having charge of the work during  the   
time4    ,illustration3 ,x              
,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,croton          
,,aqueduct      ,,commenced #ahcg       
,,completed #ahdb      ,plate ,,xi4 is a
 view taken from a point below the dam  
and shows the  relative positions of the
 dam and the gate chamber at the head of
 the  ,aqueduct4    ,the original       
channel of the ,river where the dam is  
built1 was about  #abj feet wide2 the   
average depth of water at this place was
 about #d  feet2 and the greatest depth 
#aj feet4    ,the left bank of the river
 arose abruptly with rock1 the channel  
was  gravelly1 and on the right bank a  
sandy table land about #c feet above    
the ordinary surface of water extended  
about #hj feet2 then a sandy hill  arose
 on a slope of about forty-five degrees4
    ,in making the plan for a dam at    
this place it was determined to  fill   
the main channel and the table land on  
the right bank with an  embankment of   

earth2 and on the left bank where rock  
was found1 to  build a body of masonry  
against the slope to the requisite      
height for  the surface of the          
,reservoir and connect it with the      
embankment in  the channel2 this masonry
 formed the overfall for the water1 and 
the  rock in the side of the hill       
adjacent to it was excavated down to the
  level of the overfall1 thereby        
extending it into the hill1 making the  
space for the water to pass over partly 
of masonry and partly of rock4  ,the    
embankment extended with a slope on the 
upstream side giving it a  broad base1  
and the lower or downstream side was    
faced with a heavy  wall of stone4      
,there was a timber pier constructed in 
the embankment  extending across the    
channel and faced with plank on the     
upstream side4  ,the overfall was made  
of such length as was thought sufficient
 to pass  all the water of the river    
during its highest stages1 and with the 
view  of adapting it to such purpose1   

examinations were made to find the      
highest marks of floods on the banks of 
the river2 and those who were  engaged  
in determining these marks were guided  
also by the observations  of the        
inhabitants of the vicinity who had long
 known the river in its  various stages4
 ,high freshets were witnessed during   
the construction  of the work1 for in   
the course of two years that the work   
was going up1  all the various changes  
and freshets of rainy seasons were      
experienced1  and those in charge of it 
did not neglect to note the quantity of 
water  flowing on such occasions4       
,illustration3 ,,xi      ,f4 ,b4 ,tower4
      ,gimbrede4 sc4    ,,view ,,below  
,,the ,,croton ,,dam4    ,with such     
opportunities to become acquainted with 
the changes of the  stream they could   
not fail to know the quantity of water  
flowing at  periods of the highest      
freshets1 and knowing it1 to adapt an   
overfall  of sufficient capacity for its
 discharge4 ,for this purpose it was    

thought ample provision was made2 yet at
 the time when the work  was nearly     
completed such a flood occurred as could
 not have been  anticipated from        
previous knowledge of the ,river2 the   
water filling the  entire passage at the
 overfall1 flowed over the top of the   
embankment  where it was not supposed it
 could ever reach4 ,the lower slope of  
this  embankment was covered with a wall
 not calculated to resist the action  of
 the water and it gave way2 the water   
broke through the embankment  and rushed
 along the valley with most disastrous  
consequences4 ,the  breach occurred at  
an early hour in the morning2 and many  
persons were  suddenly aroused from     
their sleep to escape before the        
approaching  waters4 ,dwelling-houses   
and mills were carried away and three   
lives  were lost4 ,two of those who were
 drowned had taken refuge in the tops   
of trees1 but these being swept away    
they were drowned2 while others  who    
were not able to reach the main land1   

but had also taken refuge in  trees1    
were saved4 ,the change wrought by the  
flood1 in the appearance  of the        
country1 was truly wonderful and the    
destruction was complete4  ,night had   
closed over that valley where all was   
happiness and quiet1  but day opened    
upon a scene of desolation4 ,the fertile
 fields were torn  up and covered with  
masses of stone and gravel1 and the     
flood left  marks of its fury far up on 
the hill sides4    ,at the commencement 
of the rain which caused this flood1 the
 ground was  covered with snow to the   
depth of eighteen inches3 the weather   
became  warm and the powerful rain storm
 continued incessantly for forty-eight  
hours4 ,notwithstanding the immense     
volume discharged at the overfall  of   
the dam1 the water was rising1 during   
the night previous to this  disaster1 at
 the rate of fourteen inches per hour   
over the ,reservoir1  covering an area  
of four hundred acres4    ,it occurred  
on the #hth of ,january1 #ahda4    ,in  

repairing the breach it was decided to  
build an extension of solid  hydraulic  
masonry in the place of the portion of  
embankment which was  carried away4     
,the gate house and wing wall1 which is 
seen on the ridge of the dam1  shows    
where the masonry of the original       
structure connected with the  embankment
 which extended across the river4 ,the  
whole length of the  overfall is #bea   
feet4 ,access to the house over the     
culvert1 is gained  by a foot bridge    
which is seen in the picture4 ,the      
masonry of the  original structure has a
 rock foundation1 and the extension of  
the  overfall which is seen on the left 
of the house extending across to the    
embankment has an artificial foundation 
of concrete4    ,the masonry of the dam 
is about #h feet thick at the top and   
#fe feet at  the base2 it is built in a 
vertical form on the upstream side1 with
  occasional offsets1 and the lower face
 has a curved form such as to  pass the 
water over without giving it a direct   

fall upon the apron at  the foot2 this  
apron is formed of timber1 stone1 and   
concrete2 and  extends some distance    
from the toe of the masonry1 giving     
security at  the point where the water  
has the greatest action4 ,a secondary   
dam has  been built at a distance of    
#cjj feet from the masonry in order to  
form  a basin of water setting back over
 the apron at the toe of the main dam   
so as to break the force of the water   
falling upon it4 ,this secondary  dam is
 formed of round timber1 brush wood1 and
 gravel2 it may be seen  in the picture 
directly under the bridge which extends 
across below the  main structure4    ,on
 the upstream side of the masonry of the
 dam1 an embankment of earth  is filled 
in1 extending #bge feet from the masonry
 at the base1 and  extending from the   
masonry with a slope of #a foot in #e on
 the top4    ,illustration3 ,,xii       
,f4 ,b4 ,tower4      ,w4 ,bennett4      
,,croton ,,aqueduct ,,at ,,sing ,,sing4 
,the whole work about the dam possesses 

great interest1 and though it  be       
distant from the city and somewhat      
difficult of access1 will not  fail to  
please those who may take time to visit 
it4 ,just above the  place where the dam
 is constructed the ,river had a bold   
turn and flowed  along at the foot of a 
steep and rugged bank4 ,a road passed   
along at  the base of this hill leading 
to a mill which was situated at the turn
  of the ,river1 before mentioned2 a    
substitute for this road1 which was     
submerged1 has been made along the hill 
side passing on the right of  the gate  
house4 ,enough of the forest has been   
cleared away to admit of  the           
construction of the work1 but the place 
still possesses much of its  original   
wildness1 and to see such beautiful     
mechanical work standing  against the   
rude rocks1--to observe what changes    
have been wrought  in the form of this  
rock to render it subservient to the    
purposes of  the work1 makes us feel    
that there has been a strife there2 but 

it all  shows that art has gained the   
ascendency4    ,the form which has been 
adopted for the face of the extension of
 the  overfall is a reversed or double  
curve which would be easily recognized  
as ,hogarth's line of beauty3 the       
overfall for the original dam has a     
plane face with a curve at the base4    
,walks are formed about the work        
bordered with grass1 giving a neatness  
and finished appearance to the whole2   
and every thing in connection  seems to 
indicate that the vicinity of the       
,croton ,dam will be one of  the resorts
 in summer seasons for the citizens of  
,new-,york4 ,from the  ,croton ,dam the 
,aqueduct passes along the left side of 
the valley of the  ,croton ,river until 
at the mouth of this river it reaches   
the left bank  of the ,hudson1 which it 
pursues1 keeping at a distance of nearly
 half  a mile from the ,river1 until it 
arrives at the village of ,sing-,sing1  
which is eight miles from the dam4 ,in  
the course of this distance the         

,aqueduct passes through four tunnels   
and encounters many valleys and  ravines
 where high foundation walls were       
required1 and culverts for the  passage 
of the streams4    ,at the village of   
,sing-,sing there are two ,aqueduct     
bridges2 one over a  public road-way1   
and the other over the ,sing-,sing      
,kill4 ,these bridges  and the adjacent 
work form a very interesting point on   
the line of  ,aqueduct4    ,plate ,,xii4
 is a view of the ,aqueduct at this     
place3 at the left of the  picture may  
be seen the bridge over the road1 and on
 the right that  over the ,kill4 ,the   
bridge over the road has a span of #bj  
feet1 and the  direction of the road-way
 being not at right angles with the line
 of  ,aqueduct required the arch to be  
built askew2 the arch lies in the       
direction of the road-way1 having the   
ends in planes parallel with the        
direction of the ,aqueduct4 ,this bridge
 is worthy of notice1 but public        
attention is more generally directed to 

the larger one3 that has an  arch of #hh
 feet span and a rise of #cc feet2 the  
form of the arch is  elliptical1 being a
 compound curve drawn from five         
different centres1  or radius points4   
,the ,kill1 or valley over which this   
arch stands1 is a  deep narrow gorge    
worn by a small stream which empties    
into the ,hudson  ,river4    ,the bottom
 of the ravine is about #gj feet below  
the soffit or under  side of the arch4  
,plate ,,xiii4 is another view of the   
large arch taken  from the bottom of the
 valley near it1 and shows the bridge   
which has  been constructed for a public
 road passing under it1 and the mill    
near  by4    ,illustration3 ,,xiii      
,f4 ,b4 ,tower4      ,napoleon          
,gimbrede4 sc4    ,,aqueduct ,,bridge   
,,at ,,sing ,,sing4    ,this arch       
presents a singularly bold appearance1  
vaulting over the  roadway and rising   
high up above the old mill1 and what    
adds much to  this boldness1 is the     
narrowness of the arch1 or small        

distance from  one end of it to the     
other2 being only #bc feet long at the  
springing  line while the span is nearly
 four times this length4 ,the length of 
the arch diminishes towards the crown1  
the ends being in planes not  vertical1 
but inclining towards each other at the 
top4 ,each end has  a batter or         
inclination of one twenty fourth of its 
height1 or half  an inch to the foot4   
,the arch is built of granite1 is #c    
feet thick  at the crown and #d feet at 
the spring or base4 ,the abutments have 
a  foundation of solid rock which was   
excavated in proper form to give  them  
firm footing4 ,the whole structure      
presents a degree of stability  which   
seems to defy the effects of time4 ,the 
,aqueduct has a cast  iron lining over  
this bridge 7as it has over all of this 
character73 it  is formed of plates five
 eighths of an inch thick1 put together 
with  screw-bolts and nuts and the      
joints closely filled with iron cement4 
,this lining is within the brick work of

 the bottom and sides of the            
channel-way1 having four inches of brick
 outside of it and four inside4  ,the   
object of it is to prevent any water    
dripping through the work1  lest by any 
means it should fill the exterior       
masonry of the bridge  with moisture and
 thus render it liable to injury from   
frost4 ,other  precautions are taken in 
forming the masonry about the           
channel-way1 to  prevent this exuding1  
and the whole plan of the work shows    
foresight  and precaution worthy of the 
highest praise4    ,from the ,sing-,sing
 ,kill the ,aqueduct pursues a course   
along the east  bank of the ,hudson and 
the first work of peculiar interest is  
the  ,aqueduct bridge over the road from
 ,tarrytown to ,sing-,sing2 before  it  
reaches this place it passes through    
three tunnels1 over high  foundation    
walls1 and encounters deep excavations4 
,illustration3 ,,xiv      ,f4 ,b4       
,tower4      ,w4 ,bennett4 sc4          
,,aqueduct ,,bridge ,,for ,,road ,,way4 

,plate ,,xiv4 is a view of this bridge3 
it is eleven and a quarter miles  from  
the dam4 ,the arch is #bj feet span and 
has a versed sine or rise of  #e feet4  
,from this the ,aqueduct passes on1     
encounters one tunnel1 and  reaches the 
valley of ,mill ,river1 twelve miles and
 three quarters from  the dam4 ,this    
,river runs through ,sleepy ,hollow and 
enters the ,hudson  about a mile and a  
half above ,tarrytown4 ,the stream is   
#gb feet below  the bottom of the       
,aqueduct1 and the valley being of      
considerable width  required a very     
heavy foundation wall4    ,plate ,,xv4  
is a view of the ,mill ,river ,culvert3 
it is #be feet span and  #agb feet long4
 ,it is about half a mile east of the   
road leading from  ,tarrytown to        
,sing-,sing1 and to follow the course of
 the stream which  passes through it1 it
 is three quarters of a mile to the ,old
 ,dutch  ,church1 near ,tarrytown1 which
 is well known1 and familiar to every   
one  who has read ,irving's 8,legend of 

,sleepy ,hollow40    ,there is much of  
the wildness and beauty of nature about 
this place2  the woods are standing     
close upon the work1--the stream which  
passes  through the culvert displays its
 whitened crests as it tears along  over
 the rocky bed1 and utters its music    
until it is lost in the depth  of the   
forest4 ,the wild vines will soon climb 
the walls and cover  them2 vegetation   
will gather over the work until nature  
and art be  harmoniously wedded4        
,illustration3 ,,xv      ,f4 ,b4 ,tower4
      ,w4 ,bennett4 sc4    ,,croton     
,,aqueduct ,,at ,,mill ,,river4    ,from
 ,mill ,river the ,aqueduct passes the  
village of ,tarrytown and  through one  
tunnel and over several depressions and 
streams1 reaching  ,jewell's ,brook     
which is seventeen and a half miles from
 the dam4 ,this  stream enters the      
,hudson ,river about two miles below    
,tarrytown4 ,the  distance from the     
mouth of the stream to the line of      
,aqueduct is only a  quarter of a mile4 

,plate ,,xvi4 is a view of the work at  
,jewell's ,brook4 ,the culvert for  the 
stream is #f feet span and #adh feet    
long4 ,the larger culvert for a  private
 road is #ad feet span and #ada feet    
long4 ,the wall which supports  the     
,aqueduct at this valley is #ej feet    
high4    ,in this case1 as in many      
others1 the slope wall which covers the 
face of the embankment has an arch      
turned in it over the top of the        
culverts3 the object of this is to      
prevent the direct pressure of  the wall
 upon the top of the parapet wall1 as it
 would tend to displace  the coping or  
injure the parapet itself4              
,illustration3 ,,xvi      ,f4 ,b4       
,tower4      ,j4 ,w4 ,hill4    ,,croton 
,,aqueduct ,,at ,,jewells ,,brook4      
,after crossing ,jewell's ,brook the    
,aqueduct passes along the bank of the  
,hudson through the village of ,dobb's  
,ferry1 where there is a tunnel  and a  
valley requiring a culvert1 and         
continues from this place to the        

village of ,hastings1 where there is an 
,aqueduct bridge over a rail-road  which
 is used for transporting marble from   
the quarry near by1 to the  landing on  
the ,hudson ,river4    ,plate ,,xvii4 is
 a view of this bridge and the view     
under the arch shows  the face of the   
quarry which is near the work2 the      
landing at the river  is near by1 giving
 a very rapid descent from the quarry4  
,the arch has a  span of #af feet and a 
rise of #a foot4 ,this bridge is        
twenty-one miles  from the dam4    ,from
 ,hastings the ,aqueduct continues along
 the bank of the ,hudson until  it      
reaches the village of ,yonkers where it
 leaves the valley of the  ,hudson1 and 
passing through a tunnel of considerable
 length reaches the  valley of          
,saw-,mill ,river4 ,at the crossing of  
this valley there is a  culvert of #bj  
feet span for a public road to pass     
under the ,aqueduct1  and one having two
 arches each #be feet span for the      
river4    ,plate ,,xviii4 is a view of  

the work at ,saw ,mill ,river4    ,the  
water is set back at this place by a dam
 for a mill a short  distance below1    
giving the stream an appearance of more 
magnitude than  it really possesses4    
,this point is #be miles from the dam4  
,the wall  which supports the ,aqueduct 
over this valley is #dj feet high4      
,from ,saw-,mill ,river the ,aqueduct   
passing through one tunnel soon  reaches
 ,tibbit's ,brook1 which it crosses by  
means of a foundation  wall about #cj   
feet high and a culvert of #f feet span1
 and continues  along the south side of 
the valley of this brook1 thence to the 
,harlem  ,river which it crosses at one 
mile from ,mc,comb's ,dam4 ,this        
crossing is  thirty-three miles from the
 ,croton ,dam1 and about ten miles from 
the  ,city-,hall4    ,the distance      
across this valley is about a quarter of
 a mile1 and the  surface of the ,river 
is #abj feet below the bottom of the    
,aqueduct4    ,in all the examinations  
which were made with a view of bringing 

water from ,westchester ,county1 the    
crossing of this ,river1 or arm  of the 
sea1 was regarded as the most formidable
 work that would be  encountered2       
various plans were proposed1 and in     
presenting these plans  the project was 
such as to call into requisition much   
talent and skill4    ,an ,aqueduct      
,bridge built of stone1 having arches   
resting upon piers and  abutments1 was  
proposed so as to continue the ,aqueduct
 across with its  regular inclination4  
,an ,inverted ,syphon of iron pipes was 
proposed2 the pipes to descend to  a    
level near the surface of the ,river1   
and passing along upon a stone          
embankment rise again and connect with  
the ,aqueduct3 in this stone  embankment
 an arch was to be built of sufficient  
dimensions to allow  free passage of the
 water of the ,river4    ,illustration3 
,,xvii      ,f4 ,b4 ,tower4      ,j4 ,w4
 ,hill4    ,,croton ,,aqueduct ,,at     
,,hastings4    ,another plan was        
proposed which1 though novel in its     

application  to such purpose1 was worthy
 of consideration3 this was to build a  
,suspension ,bridge of wire cables      
reaching across the valley1 supported   
at intervals upon suitable stone piers4 
,this1 maintaining the regular          
inclination of the ,aqueduct1 would     
support iron pipes4 ,the design  was a  
bold one1 yet instances where such      
bridges have been constructed  for      
road-ways afford examples of the        
feasibility and permanency of the       
structures1 and prove that the          
application of that principle for this  
purpose was not a visionary project4    
,the plan which was adopted as the most 
suitable under all the  considerations  
of economy and security to the work1 was
 a ,low ,bridge  to support an inverted 
syphon of iron pipes2 and the design of 
it was  as follows3 adjacent to the     
southern shore of the river there was to
  be constructed an arch for the channel
 of the river1 of #hj feet span  and    
springing from abutments #aj feet above 

high water level2 this would  form a    
passage of #hj feet wide1 and the height
 from high water level  to the under    
side of the arch at the crown would be  
#ej feet3 south of  this arch followed  
three other arches on the slope of the  
rocky hill1  of #ce1 #cj1 and #be feet  
span3 south of these arches a foundation
 wall  was designed to continue the     
plane of inclination to the level of the
  ,aqueduct4 ,from the large arch to the
 northern shore of the river an         
embankment of stone was designed for the
 support of the pipes1 and from  this   
wall the table land on the northern     
shore and the slope of the  northern    
side of the valley1 would be excavated  
to a form to give the  proper position  
to the pipes descending from the        
,aqueduct4 ,the lowest  level of the top
 of this stone embankment was designed  
to be #d feet  above flood tide4        
,suitable parapet walls were designed to
 be built  along the sides of the       
embankment to sustain a covering of     

earth over  the pipes4 ,with the form   
which was given to this inverted syphon1
  four pipes1 each of #c feet interior  
diameter1 were found to give a          
discharge of water equal to that of the 
,aqueduct of masonry on the  established
 inclination4    ,in accordance with    
this plan of the ,low ,bridge the work  
for  crossing the ,river was put under  
contract and some progress made in  its 
execution1 when a law was passed by the 
,legislature of the ,state  requiring1  
instead of this1 a structure1 the arches
 of which should  be 7over the channel  
of the river7 at least #hj feet span and
 having a  distance of #ajj feet from   
the level of high water to the under    
side of  the crown2 or to go under the  
channel of the river by a structure     
which  should not rise above the bed1   
and that would leave the present channel
  unobstructed4 ,at this time when the  
work was going on vigorously1  they were
 compelled to abandon the plan which had
 been adopted1 and  devise one which    

would comply with the requirements of   
the law of the  ,legislature4 ,a        
comparison was instituted between the   
plan of a tunnel  under the bed of the  
river and that of a bridge of masonry at
 the  required height above the river4  
,the tunnel would be at least #cjj feet 
long and the top of the masonry  forming
 it1 would be #ah feet below high water 
level4 ,in this tunnel the  iron pipes  
would pass under the ,river and would be
 protected from the  salt water4        
,illustration3 ,,xviii      ,f4 ,b4     
,tower4      ,w4 ,bennett4 sc4          
,,croton ,,aqueduct ,,at ,,yonkers4     
,an estimate of the cost of crossing by 
means of each plan was made1  and the   
result was in favor of the tunnel under 
the bed of the ,river2  but from the    
imperfect knowledge which could at best 
be obtained of  the formation of the    
bed1 there was great uncertainty in the 
estimate  of the cost of the tunnel and 
the time that would be required for its 
completion4 ,the history of the progress

 of work in the tunnel under the        
,thames at ,london warned them of the   
difficulties of such a work and  the    
uncertainty of arriving at a proper     
estimate of the cost4    ,in the        
alternative to which they were driven by
 the ,act of the  ,legislature1 the plan
 of an ,aqueduct bridge of masonry was  
adopted as  the proper one for crossing 
the ,river2 but in establishing its     
altitude  they complied only with the   
requisitions of the law1 and made the   
soffit or under side of the arches at   
the crown1 #ajj feet above common  high 
water level4 ,this would not carry the  
work up to the level of the  ,aqueduct1 
and would render it necessary to connect
 the ,aqueduct on  each side of the     
valley by iron pipes which would descend
 to the level  of the bridge and        
crossing it rise again to the masonry   
channel-way4  ,the plans which were     
before spoken of for a bridge of masonry
 across  this valley1 contemplated a    
structure which would maintain the      

regular  inclination of the ,aqueduct2  
and the channel-way would have been     
formed  of masonry having a cast iron   
lining2 but a more full consideration   
of the subject suggested the propriety  
of using iron pipes over  the bridge1   
even if it had been carried up to the   
grade plane of  the ,aqueduct3 when the 
use of iron pipes was determined upon1  
then  considerations of economy induced 
them to build the work only high  enough
 to comply with the requirements of the 
law4    ,the plan which has been adopted
 for building an ,aqueduct bridge across
  this valley is as follows3 on the     
south shore of the river there is one   
arch of #ej feet span1 across the river 
there are eight arches1 each of  #hj    
feet span1 and on the north shore there 
are six arches each of #ej  feet span2  
making a range of fifteen arches4 ,from 
the extremes of this  range of arches1 a
 foundation wall of dry stone work      
connects with the  ,aqueduct4    ,two of
 the piers in the river have a rock     

foundation and the  foundations for     
those where rock is not obtained is     
formed by driving  piles which are      
placed #b feet from centre to centre1   
and the spaces  between filled with     
concrete to a depth of #c feet below the
 top of them4    ,plate ,,xix4 is a view
 of this bridge1 which1 when completed1 
will be  the most interesting work on   
the whole line of ,aqueduct1 and in its 
appearance will rival the grandeur of   
similar works of the ,ancient  ,romans4 
,the height from the foundations in the 
river1 to the top of the  work is #aej  
feet2 the width across the top is #ba   
feet4 ,the pipes when  laid upon the    
bridge will be covered with earth to    
protect them from  frost4 ,the distance 
between the extremes of the pipes when  
laid across  the bridge will be #acgg   
feet4 ,for a distance of #ah feet at    
each end  of the pipes there is an      
inclination and the remainder of the    
distance  across1 which is #acda feet1  
they are level4    ,the bottom of the   

interior of the pipes on the level part1
 is #ab-h_/aj  feet below the bottom of 
water way of the ,aqueduct on the north 
side1  and #aj-e_/aj below that on the  
south side of the valley4    ,in the    
progress of excavating in one of the    
coffer dams in the  channel of the river
 a portion of a sunken vessel was found 
within  the enclosure2 it had the       
appearance of great age4 ,tradition     
among  the inhabitants of the vicinity  
says that at an early period of the     
,revolutionary war a vessel was scuttled
 and sunk in that part of the  river4   
,illustration3 ,,xix      ,f4 ,b4       
,tower4      ,napoleon ,gimbrede4 sc4   
,,croton ,,aqueduct ,,at ,,harlem       
,,river4    ,to a mind fond of          
antiquarian researches and accustomed to
 invest  objects of such a nature with  
associations of the past1 this ancient  
wreck would furnish a fruitful theme4   
,we are now laying the foundation  of a 
magnificent work3 at the day when this  
vessel was sunk the  ,american people   

were laying the foundation of a new form
 of government  composed of principles  
which should support a fabric of        
enduring  strength and beauty4 ,we are  
now building a work which will stand as 
a monument of the genius and enterprise 
of the age1 but it may be  regarded     
among the fruits of that civil and      
religious liberty which has  been reared
 upon the foundations formed by the     
people of that day4    ,the water is now
 conveyed across this valley by an iron 
pipe of #c feet  interior diameter4 ,in 
the progress of preparing foundations   
for the  piers of the bridge1 an        
embankment has been formed across the   
,river and  the pipe leaving the        
,aqueduct on the north side of the      
valley follows  down the slope of the   
hill1 and crossing over the ,river upon 
this  embankment1 ascends on the south  
side again to the ,aqueduct4 ,at the    
bottom or lowest point in this pipe1 a  
branch pipe of #a foot diameter  has    
been connected1 extending a distance of 

#hj feet from it at right  angles and   
horizontally3 the end of this pipe is   
turned upwards to form  a jet1 and iron 
plates are fastened upon it giving any  
form that may be  desired to the water  
issuing4 ,the level of this branch pipe 
is about  #abj feet below the bottom of 
the ,aqueduct on the north side of the  
valley2 affording an opportunity for a  
beautiful jet d'eau2--such an  one as   
cannot be obtained at the fountains in  
the city4 ,from an orifice  of seven    
inches diameter the column of water     
rises to a height of #aae  feet when    
there is only a depth of #b feet of     
water in the ,aqueduct4    ,to those who
 had watched over the work during its   
construction and  looked for its        
successful operation1 this was          
peculiarly gratifying4 ,to  see the     
water leap from this opening and rise   
upwards with such force  and beauty1    
occasioned pleasing emotions and gave   
proof that the design  and construction 
of the work were alike faultless1 and   

that all the  fondest hopes of its      
projectors would be realized4    ,the   
scenery around this fountain added much 
to its beauty2 there it  stood1--a      
whitened column rising from the river1  
erect1 or shifting its  form1 or waving 
like a forest tree as the winds swayed  
it1 with the  rainbow tints resting upon
 its spray1 while on either side the    
wooded  hills arose to rival its height3
 all around was of nature2 no marble    
basin1--no allegorical figures1 wrought 
with exquisite touches of art  to lure  
the eye1 but a fountain where nature had
 adorned the place with  the grandeur   
and beauty of her rude hills and        
mountain scenery4    ,plate ,,xx4 is a  
distant view of the jet at ,harlem      
,river4    ,from ,harlem ,river the     
,aqueduct passes along the south bank of
 the ,river  for a short distance where 
it rests in the side of the rocky hill1 
and  continues over an uneven surface   
encountering two tunnels before it      
reaches ,manhattan ,valley1 which is    

about #ce miles from the ,croton dam4   
,this valley is four fifths of a mile   
wide where the ,aqueduct meets it1  and 
the depression is #ajb feet below the   
plane of ,aqueduct grade4               
,illustration3 ,,xx      ,f4 ,b4 ,tower4
      ,w4 ,bennett4    ,,view ,,of ,,the
 ,,jet ,,at ,,harlem ,,river4    ,here  
was an opportunity for constructing a   
work of architectural beauty  and       
boldness by building up with arcades of 
arches1 one line above  another1 and    
thus maintain the regular inclination of
 the ,aqueduct2  but considerations of  
economy forbade it4 ,where the ,aqueduct
 reaches  the north side of the valley1 
a gate chamber is formed1 and from      
this1 two pipes of #c feet interior     
diameter descend to the bottom of  the  
valley and ascend on the south side to  
another gate chamber where  they connect
 with the ,aqueduct again4 ,provision is
 made for four pipes  of #c feet        
diameter1 but at present only two are   
laid which answer the  demands of the   

city at this time4 ,at the bottom of the
 valley waste  cocks are provided which 
discharge into a sewer leading to the   
,hudson  ,river1 a distance of half a   
mile4    ,the lowest point in the pipes 
is #ajb feet below the bottom of the    
water  way of the ,aqueduct on the north
 side of the valley4    ,from ,manhattan
 ,valley the ,aqueduct passes through a 
tunnel1 and  following its course the   
next work of interest is at ,clendinning
  ,valley1 which is thirty-seven miles  
from the ,croton ,dam4 ,this valley is  
#aijj feet across1 and the ,aqueduct is 
supported upon a foundation wall  of dry
 stone work having the face laid in     
mortar1 except over three  streets where
 bridges are built1 having an arch of   
#cj feet span for the  carriage-way and 
one on each side of #aj feet span for   
the side walks4  ,these bridges are over
 #ihth1 #iith1 and #ajjth streets4      
,illustration3 ,,xxi      ,f4 ,b4       
,tower4      ,w4 ,bennett4 sc4          
,,croton ,,aqueduct ,,at ,,clendinning  

,,valley4    ,plate ,,xxi4 is a view of 
a portion of the work at ,clendinning   
,valley  showing the three bridges2 and 
comprises a length of about #gjj feet4  
,the greatest height from the foundation
 to the top of the work is #ej  feet1   
and the width at the bottom of the      
,aqueduct is #cj feet4 ,parapet  walls  
are built on the sides of the wall above
 the bottom of the  ,aqueduct to support
 a covering of earth over it4    ,plate 
,,xxii4 is an enlarged view of one of   
the bridges and a portion of  the       
foundation wall and ,aqueduct adjacent  
to it4 ,the ,aqueduct has a  cast iron  
lining over the bridges like that       
described at the ,sing ,sing  ,kill4    
,these bridges are beautiful specimens  
of mechanical work2 indeed the  whole   
structure across this valley has a      
degree of neatness1 finish1  and taste1 
not surpassed by any on the line of     
,aqueduct4    ,to visit this structure  
and follow along its whole extent1 gives
 one  an idea of the magnitude of the   

work which the ,city of ,new-,york has  
accomplished2 particularly when it is   
considered that this is only one  of the
 parts which make up the whole4    ,from
 ,clendinning ,valley the ,aqueduct soon
 reaches the ,receiving  ,reservoir     
which is thirty-eight miles from the    
,croton ,dam4    ,this ,reservoir       
occupies an elevated part of the island 
between #gith  and #hfth streets and    
between the #fth and #gth ,avenues4 ,it 
covers seven  of the city blocks2 is    
divided into two divisions1 one covering
 three  and the other four of these     
blocks4 ,it is #ahbf feet long and #hcf 
feet  wide from outside to outside of   
the top of the exterior walls of the    
embankment1 making an area of           
thirty-five acres4    ,illustration3    
,,xxii      ,f4 ,b4 ,tower4             
,gimber4    ,,aqueduct ,,bridge ,,at    
,,clendinning ,,valley4    ,the         
situation was chosen as one affording   
the proper elevation3 but its  formation
 was such as to present difficulties in 

the way of making the  ,reservoir       
perfectly water-tight2 the surface1 in  
tracing it from #gith  to #hfth street1 
was quite undulating1 a portion of it in
 the southern  division of the          
,reservoir falling below the proposed   
bottom1 and that  portion of the surface
 which was earth1 forming only a        
covering to  the rock1 which over the   
whole island1 presents a singularly     
broken and  uneven formation4 ,in almost
 every instance of excavation1 the rock 
was  found above the proposed bottom of 
the ,reservoir1 and the difficulty  of  
preventing leakage along the surface of 
this rock may easily be  conceived2 but 
considering that measures are taken to  
prevent such an  occurrence1 another    
difficulty is still presented in the    
formation of  the rock3 the veins and   
fissures which are frequent in this     
gneiss  formation would possibly afford 
courses for the water to escape2 the    
rock being unsound in many instances1   
would render such an occurrence  still  

more liable4 ,a ,reservoir has however1 
been constructed here which  proved1    
when it was filled with water1 that     
sufficient precaution was  used to      
prevent leakage1 and that the           
difficulties which presented  themselves
 before the commencement of the work    
were no longer to be  feared4    ,the   
embankments forming the ,reservoir are  
made of good assorted earth1  and a     
portion of the bank is puddled1 or made 
compact and impervious by  wetting the  
earth and using a spade to force it into
 a compact state4  ,they are about #bj  
feet wide on the top1 and increase in   
thickness  towards the base by a slope  
on both sides3 the outside face of the  
,reservoir bank has a slope of #a foot  
horizontal to #c feet vertical3  the    
inside has a slope of #a foot horizontal
 to #a foot vertical4 ,the  outside face
 is protected by a stone wall #d feet   
thick having the face  laid in mortar3  
the inside face is protected by a slope 
wall of stone  laid without mortar1 #a  

foot thick4 ,the top of the bank is #d  
feet above  top water line1 and the     
inside slope wall terminates at #b feet 
above  top water line1 leaving the      
remainder of the face to be covered with
  grass1 so as to present a belt of     
green above the water on the bank       
entirely around the ,reservoir4    ,a   
neat fence bounds the outside and the   
inside of the top bank1 forming  a walk 
of a mile in length around the entire   
,reservoir4    ,the greatest depth of   
water in the northern division is #bj   
feet3 it was  originally intended to    
excavate so as to give the water a depth
 of #bj  feet over the whole1 but a     
quantity of rock was left1 as the       
capacity  was thought to be sufficient  
without taking it out4    ,the southern 
division has #cj feet of water where the
 bottom was filled  in with embankment1 
and #be where excavation was made4 ,a   
portion of rock  was left in this       
division for the same reason as that in 
the northern  division2 the greater part

 of it being in the south-west corner1  
where  it rises above top water line4   
,the capacity of the ,reservoir when    
both divisions are full1 is             
#aej1jjj1jjj ,imperial gallons4    ,the 
surface of water in the northern        
division covers #ah4ac acres1 and  in   
the southern division1 #ab4ge acres2    
making in both nearly #ca acres4        
,plate ,,xxiii4 is a plan of the        
,receiving ,reservoir4    ,the ,aqueduct
 enters a gate chamber at ,a4 where     
there are regulating  gates by which the
 water can be discharged into the       
northern division2  or into the southern
 division by a continuation of the      
,aqueduct within  the ,reservoir bank to
 the angle ,b4 of that division4        
,illustration3 ,,xxiii            ,scale
 #bjj feet to one inch      ,f4 ,b4     
,tower4      ,gimber4    ,,receiving    
,,reservoir    ,a connection pipe of    
cast iron is placed in the division bank
 at ,c4 to  allow the water to flow from
 one division into the other in order to

  equalize the level2 it is placed #aj  
feet below top water line and has a     
stop-cock to close or open it4    ,at   
,d4 is a waste weir1 where surplus water
 may pass off3 it is so  arranged that  
the water1 when it rises to a proper    
level1 will flow  into a well1 and from 
this a brick sewer conducts it off into 
low  grounds1 where it finds its way to 
the ,east ,river4    ,at each place     
where it is designed to discharge water 
from the  ,reservoir1 a gate house is   
built far enough into it to reach the   
greatest depth of water beyond the slope
 of the embankment4 ,these  houses have 
a wall upon three sides1 and the front  
which faces the  centre of the          
,reservoir has a suitable screen of wood
 work and wooden  gates which regulate  
the level below the surface for the     
current  of discharge1 and the iron     
pipes leading from these houses have a  
stop-cock by which the discharge is     
controlled2 this stop-cock is in a      
vault within the ,reservoir bank4       

,the position of these effluent gate    
houses is marked on the plan by the     
letters ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,h1 there being two 
in each division4 ,a foot bridge        
affords convenient access from the bank 
to the house4    ,those houses on the   
east side denoted by ,e1 ,f1 are the    
ones from which  pipes lead to the lower
 or ,distributing ,reservoir1 and those 
on the  west side denoted by ,g1 ,h1 are
 intended for supplying the western part
  of the city north of the ,distributing
 ,reservoir4    ,there is a vault within
 the eastern bank to accommodate the    
pipes  which leave the house ,e1 and    
passing along1 connect with those from  
the house ,f1 and thence the pipes      
continue along #hjth street and the     
#eth ,avenue to the ,distributing       
,reservoir4 ,a vault within the west    
bank  accommodates the pipe which leads 
from the house ,h1 and intersects  the  
one from ,g1 passing out at #hast       
street2 thus in this street a pipe      
draws from the southern division at ,g1 

and a branch of it passing along  within
 the vault draws from the northern      
division at ,h4    ,provision has been  
made on the east side of the ,reservoir 
for supplying  that part of the city    
when it becomes necessary4    ,at       
present there are two pipes leading from
 this to the ,distributing  ,reservoir1 
each #c feet interior diameter1 and they
 are arranged that  both may draw from  
the southern division1 or one from that1
 and one  from the northern division4   
,the pipes are placed at a level below  
the  bottom of the division from which  
they draw3 the bottom of the interior   
of those from the southern division     
being #b feet below1 and that of  those 
from the northern #e feet below4    ,the
 exterior walls of this ,reservoir      
present a face of rough-hammered        
masonry1 finished in a manner to give   
them neatness and durability4    ,as a  
specimen of mechanical work1 this       
,reservoir will not bear a  comparison  
with the lower1 or ,distributing        

,reservoir1 yet the sheet of  water it  
presents1 renders it an object of       
perhaps greater interest4  ,this        
beautiful lake of pure water resting    
upon the summit of the ,island  is truly
 a pleasing object1 and considering its 
size1 is what no other  city can boast  
of having within its limits4    ,the    
,distributing ,reservoir is situated on 
the west side of the #eth  ,avenue      
between #djth and #dbnd streets2 it is  
two miles from the  ,receiving          
,reservoir1 and about three miles from  
the ,city-,hall4    ,illustration3      
,,xxiv      ,f4 ,b4 ,tower4             
,napoleon ,gimbrede4 sc4                
,,distributing ,,reservoir4    ,the     
question may naturally be asked1 why    
this ,reservoir was built1  when the    
receiving one1 of such great capacity1  
is so near at hand8 ,the  reason for    
building it1 was to obtain an efficient 
head of water near  to the densely      
populated parts of the city1 and had the
 formation of  the island been          

favorable1 the ,receiving ,reservoir    
would undoubtedly  have been located    
farther down1 bringing the store of     
water more nearly  in the centre of the 
city4    ,plate ,,xxiv4 is an           
isometrical view of the ,distributing   
,reservoir  showing the front on the    
#eth ,avenue and on #dbnd street4       
,the pipes which leave the ,receiving   
,reservoir follow along the #eth        
,avenue until they reach #dbnd street1  
where they turn and enter the           
,distributing ,reservoir at the base of 
the central pilaster in that  street1   
which in the drawing is shown on the    
right hand side4 ,the  pipes enter at   
the bottom of the ,reservoir and the    
flow of water is  regulated by          
stop-cocks3 the door in the pilaster    
affords an entrance  to the vault where 
these stop-cocks are situated4 ,the     
,reservoir is  divided into two separate
 divisions by a wall4 ,it is designed to
 have  three pipes1 each #c feet        
diameter1 to lead from the ,receiving to

 the  ,distributing ,reservoir and      
arrangements are made to discharge water
  from two of them into one division of 
the ,distributing ,reservoir at  a time1
 or the water may be divided into an    
equal supply for both  divisions4    ,on
 the south side of the ,reservoir a pipe
 of #c feet diameter leaves  each       
division and they are arranged with     
branches so as to draw from  one or both
 divisions4 ,the house standing across  
the division wall  is directly over the 
mouth of the effluent pipes1 and is     
constructed  like those at the          
,receiving ,reservoir1 with a gate and  
screen frame  of timber4 ,the central   
pilaster on #djth street has an entrance
 7like  that on #dbnd street7 to the    
vault where the stop-cocks are situated 
which regulate the discharge from the   
,reservoir4 ,the pipes leave the        
,reservoir at the base of this pilaster 
and from #djth street1 curve into  the  
#eth ,avenue1 which they pursue until   
they reach a convenient point  for      

diverging to the densely populated parts
 of the city4    ,this ,reservoir is    
#dbj feet square on the top1 measuring  
on the cornice  of the main wall2 it is 
#dbe feet square at the top of the      
cornice of  the pilasters1 and #dcf feet
 square at the base1 measuring from     
outside  to outside of the corner       
pilasters1 covering a little over four  
acres4  ,the height of the walls is #de 
feet above the streets around1 and about
  #ej feet above the foundations4       
,the water is #cf feet deep when it     
reaches the level designed for its      
surface 7which is #d feet below the top 
of the walls7 and the surplus1  when the
 ,reservoir is full1 passes into a well 
in the division wall and  is conducted  
by a sewer in #dbnd street to the       
,hudson ,river1 which is  one mile      
distant4    ,the ,reservoir is          
calculated to hold #bj1jjj1jjj gallons4 
,the outside walls are constructed with 
openings in them so that by  entering   
the door on #dbnd street one may walk   

entirely around the  ,reservoir within  
the walls4 ,one object of this          
arrangement is to obtain  the greatest  
breadth with a given quantity of        
material2 another is  to afford an      
opportunity to examine the work so as to
 guard against  leakage2 and another1 to
 prevent any moisture finding its way   
through  to the exterior so as to cause 
injury to the wall by the action of     
frost4 ,this kind of open work of the   
wall rises to within about #h feet  of  
top water line4 ,inside of these walls  
an embankment of puddled  earth is      
formed with suitable breadth of base to 
give security to the  work1 and the face
 of this earth next to the water is     
covered with a  wall of hydraulic       
masonry #a foot thick4 ,the top of the  
embankment  is covered with stone       
flagging1 forming a walk around the top 
of the  ,reservoir4 ,the bottom of the  
,reservoir has a covering of concrete #a
  foot thick2 thus when it is empty     
there will be seen two basins having    

the sides and bottom formed of masonry4 
,a section of the wall of one side of   
the ,reservoir1 including the           
embankment1 is #ag feet wide at the top1
 #ce feet wide #af feet below  the top1 
and #gf feet wide at the bottom3 the    
cornice projects on the  outside and the
 coping on the inside so as to make the 
width of the  top #ba feet4 ,an iron    
railing bounds the outside and inside of
 the walk  around the top4    ,the      
outside of the ,reservoir is built on a 
slope of one sixth its  height1 or two  
inches to the foot1 and an ,egyptian    
cornice projects at  the top of the main
 walls and the pilasters4    ,at the    
entrance on the #eth ,avenue a stairway 
leads up to the top of the  ,reservoir4 
,terraces are built around at the foot  
of the walls and covered with  grass1   
giving a rich finish to the work4       
,this ,reservoir may be considered the  
termination of the ,croton  ,aqueduct1  
and is distant from the ,fountain       
,reservoir on the ,croton1  forty and a 

half miles4    ,the whole cost of the   
work1 exclusive of the pipes in the city
 below  the ,distributing ,reservoir1 is
 about #i1jjj1jjj dollars4 ,adding to   
this  the cost of pipes and arrangements
 for distributing the water in the      
city1 will make the total cost of       
supplying the city of ,new-,york with   
water about #ab1jjj1jjj dollars4#g      
,the water was introduced into the      
,distributing ,reservoir on the #dth of 
,july1 #ahdb1 and the event was hailed  
by the citizens of ,new-,york with  an  
interest scarcely less than that        
pervading the whole ,american people  at
 the remembrance of the event1 the      
anniversary of which1 was on that  day  
celebrated4    ,at an hour when the     
firing of guns and the ringing of bells 
had  aroused but few from their         
slumbers1 and ere the rays of the       
morning  sun had gilded the city domes1 
the waters of the ,croton gushed up     
into the ,reservoir and wandered about  
its bottom as if to examine the         

magnificent structure2 or to find a     
resting place in the temple  towards    
which they had made a pilgrimage4       
,the national flag floated out from each
 corner of the ,reservoir1  and during  
the day thousands of the citizens       
visited it giving  demonstrations of joy
 and satisfaction at the accomplishment 
of this  great work4    ,the #adth of   
,october following was set apart as a   
day for the  celebration of the         
introduction of the water into the city3
 and it was  an occasion of unrestrained
 enthusiasm and joy4 ,multitudes came in
 from  the country around1 and from     
sister cities3--all business was laid   
aside for the pleasing ceremonies of the
 day1 and the ,croton water1  with the  
beauty and grandeur of its fountains1   
met with a welcome which  showed that   
its value was appreciated4    ,the      
advantages1 the comforts and blessings  
of this supply of pure water  will be   
appreciated as the city extends the     
means for its use1 and  the time is not 

distant when she will regard it as a    
treasure which  was cheaply purchased1  
and will proudly point to the noble work
 which  she has achieved not only as an 
example of her munificence1 but as an   
illustration of what art and science can
 accomplish4    ,with cleanly streets1  
and the public parks beautified with the
  fountains which send forth cooling and
 refreshing vapours upon the  air1 the  
citizens will forget to leave the city  
during the warm  months of summer1 and  
the sea-shore1 the mountain-tops1 and   
watering-places1 will fancy their beauty
 has faded1 since they cease  to be     
visited4    ,the foreigner who visits   
this country will find the ,croton      
,aqueduct an  interesting specimen of   
our public works1 and will be pleased   
with a  pedestrian tour along the line  
of work to the ,fountain ,reservoir     
among  the hills of the ,croton4        
,besides becoming acquainted with the   
important  features of the work1 he may 
enjoy much that is beautiful in         

,american  scenery4 ,in his course along
 the ,aqueduct he may see the majestic  
palisades which for a distance wall the 
right bank of the ,hudson2  he may view 
the ,tappan and ,haverstraw bays with   
their ever-varying  scenery1 and the    
dark gorge where the ,hudson emerges    
from the ,highlands  with its white     
bosom4    ,along the ,aqueduct there are
 also many picturesque scenes where the 
mountain stream leaps among the rocks in
 the deep ravine which guides  its      
course to the ,hudson4    ,the country  
is interesting also from the            
associations with which it has  been    
invested by the pen of our novelists4   
,the region of the ,croton  where the   
,fountain ,reservoir is formed1 is a    
part of the district where  the scene of
 the 8,tale of the ,neutral ,ground0 is 
laid2 and one may  fancy there the      
figure of ,harvey ,birch1 beneath his   
pondrous pack1  casting a shadow at     
night along the moon-lit slopes4        
,leaving the valley of the ,croton we   

come out upon the ,hudson at the  head  
of the 8great waters of the ,tappan     
,zee10 beyond which the early           
inhabitants of ,new-,amsterdam dared not
 to voyage without first  8settling     
their family affairs1 and making their  
wills40    ,as we approach ,tarrytown we
 find the localities which were pictured
  in the 8,legend of ,sleepy ,hollow10  
and easily recognize the ,old ,dutch    
,church near which the affrighted       
,ichabod ,crane was so sadly unhorsed by
  the headless ,hessian4 ,we find in    
this vicinity also1 the place noted as  
the 8spot where the unfortunate         
#8,andre' was captured40    ,besides the
 romantic and diversified scenery of the
 ,hudson which is in  view from the line
 of ,aqueduct1 the visitor may find     
highly cultivated  grounds and          
delightful country seats1 and among them
 that of our  distinguished countryman1 
,washington ,irving1 where he sought a  
rural  retirement for his literary      
pursuits4 ,but it is unnecessary to     

speak  further of the objects which are 
calculated to interest the visitor  to  
this part of the country3 we would only 
invite the stranger who  visits the city
 of ,new-,york to go forth and visit her
 noble ,aqueduct3  when he has become   
acquainted with the magnitude and       
grandeur of its  construction1 then he  
may turn aside for prospects to admire  
and  incidents to interest4             
,,appendix4    ,,by ,,charles ,a4 ,,lee1
 ,m4 ,d4      ,,water4    7,chiefly     
compiled from the works of ,thomson1    
,pereira1 ,whewell and  others47        
,water was regarded by the ancients as  
an elementary substance1 and as  a      
constituent of most other bodies4 ,this 
opinion was somewhat modified  by the   
experiments of ,van ,helmont and ,mr4   
,boyle1 who maintained that it  could be
 changed into all vegetable substances1 
as well as into earth2  but it was      
substantially held until the middle of  
the last century1  7#agha17 when ,mr4   
,cavendish proved that this liquid was a

 compound of  oxygen and hydrogen4      
,,natural ,,history4 ,in the inorganized
 kingdom4    ,water is very generally   
diffused over the surface of the globe1 
forming  seas1 lakes1 and rivers2 it is 
mechanically disseminated among rocks1  
constitutes an essential part of some   
minerals1 and always exists to  a       
greater or less extent1 in the          
atmosphere4 ,in the air1 water is       
formed in two states2 as a vapor 7which 
makes about one-seventieth  by volume1  
or one one-hundredth by weight of the   
atmosphere7 it is  supposed to be the   
cause of the blue color to the sky2 and 
in a  vesicular form1 in which state it 
constitutes the clouds4 ,terrestrial    
water forms about three-fourths of the  
surface of the terraqueous  globe4 ,the 
average depth of the ocean is calculated
 at between two and  three miles4 ,now  
as the height of dry land above the     
surface of the sea  is less than two    
miles1 it is evident1 that if the       
present dry land  were distributed over 

the bottom of the ocean1 the surface of 
the globe  would present a mass of      
waters a mile in depth4 ,on the         
supposition  that the mean depth of the 
sea is not greater than the fourth part 
of a mile1 the solid contents of the    
ocean would be #cb1jeh1ici cubic  miles 
7,thomson's ,chemistry47 ,the quantity  
of water mechanically  disseminated     
through rocks1 which serve merely as a  
natural reservoir  for the time1 must   
be1 in the aggregate1 very considerable1
 though  it is impossible to form any   
very accurate estimate of it4 ,even in  
those rocks which merely supply springs1
 the amount of disseminated  water must 
be enormous2 for they so far resemble   
filters1 that are  necessarily charged  
with the fluid before they permit it to 
pass  out4 ,de ,la ,beche has advanced  
the opinion that capillary attraction   
has great power1 both in mechanically   
disseminating water among  rocks1 and in
 retaining it in them when so           
disseminated1 and that it  therefore    

keeps them1 to a certain extent1        
saturated with moisture1 and  assists in
 promoting a more equal flow of water in
 springs4 ,capillary  attraction and    
gravity probably carry water down far   
beyond those  situations where it can be
 returned in springs1 at least cold     
springs1  for there are certain         
circumstances connected with those which
 are  thermal1 which go to prove1 that  
the water thrown up by them may have    
percolated to considerable depths4 ,it  
is very evident that most rocks  contain
 disseminated moisture1 for there are   
few which1 when exposed  to heat1 do not
 give water4 ,sulphate of lime1 for     
example1 or plaster  of paris1 contains 
about #bj per cent41 and common         
serpentine1 as much  as #ae per cent4 of
 it4 ,soap-stone has #d per cent41 and  
even quartz #b  per cent4 of water1 in  
their composition4 ,this fluid exists in
 minerals  either as water of           
crystallization1 or combined as a       
hydrate4    ,but though water is thus   

generally diffused over the surface of  
the  globe1 yet it is not found         
perfectly pure in any place2 even the   
rain and the snow that descend from the 
clouds1 the condensation1 as  it were1  
of a natural distillation1 are slightly 
tainted by saline  matters2 which       
circumstance can only arise from the    
great solvent  power of water enabling  
it to take up a portion of most         
substances  with which it comes into    
contact1 in its natural condition4 ,in  
many  lakes1 and in the ocean1 the      
quantity of saline matter is so great as
  to render it unfit for diluent        
purposes2 but1 when sea-water freezes1  
the saline impregnations are deposited2 
and the ice affords fresh  water4 ,in   
the state in which water is generally   
employed as a diluent1  its             
impregnations are in small quantity1 and
 not usually sufficient  either to dim  
its transparency1 or to give it color1  
smell1 or taste1  and consequently to   
render it unfit for the ordinary        

purposes of life4  ,water1 therefore1   
which is transparent1 colorless1        
inodorous1 and  tasteless1 is called    
good and pure1 and none other can be    
called  such2 though some medical       
writers are of opinion1 that it is not  
necessary it should be in this pure     
state for common use4 ,such opinion     
however is undoubtedly erroneous--      
,,ii4 ,in the organized kingdom4 ,water 
enters largely into the  composition of 
organic substances4 ,it constitutes1 at 
least1 four  fifths of the weight of the
 animal tissues1 being the source of    
their  physical properties1             
extensibility and flexibility4 ,this    
water is  not chemically combined in    
them3 for it is gradually given off by  
evaporation1 and can be extracted at    
once by strong pressure between         
blotting-paper4 ,when deprived of its   
water1 animal matter becomes  wholly    
insusceptible of vitality2 except in the
 case of some of the  lower animals1    
which1 as well as some plants1 revive   

when again  moistened4 ,according to    
,chevreul1 pure water alone can reduce  
organized  substances to this state of  
softness2 although salt water1 alcohol1 
ether1 and oil1 are also imbibed by dry 
animal textures4 ,moist animal  tissues1
 by virtue of their porosity1 allow     
soluble matters1 which  come into       
contact with them1 to be dissolved by   
the water which they  contain1 and which
 oils their pores3 if the matters are   
already in  solution1 they are imparted 
by their solutions to the water of the  
tissues4 ,gaseous substances are taken  
up in the same way4 ,water exists  in   
nearly as large a proportion in         
vegetable as in animal substances4      
,properties4 ,pure water1 as has already
 been stated1 is a transparent  liquid  
without color1 taste1 or smell4 ,some   
have doubted whether it  is entirely    
inodorous1 from the fact that the camel1
 and some other  animals1 can scent     
water to a considerable distance1 and   
also whether  it can be called          

colorless1 as all large masses of water 
have a  bluish-green color4 ,this       
phenomenon is1 however1 probably owing  
to the  presence of foreign matters4 ,it
 refracts light powerfully1 is a slow   
conductor of heat1 when its internal    
movements are prevented1 and an         
imperfect conductor of electricity4 ,it 
is almost incompressible1 a  pressure   
equal to #bjjj atmospheres occasioning a
 diminution of only  one-ninth of its   
bulk2 or1 when submitted to a           
compressing force  equal to #cj1jjj lbs4
 on the square inch1 #ad volumes of this
 fluid are  condensed into #ac volumes2 
proving that it is elastic4 ,water being
 the  substance most easily procured in 
every part of the earth in a state  of  
purity1 it has been chosen by universal 
consent1 to represent the  unit of the  
specific gravity of all solid and liquid
 bodies4 ,a cubic  inch of water at #fj 
,fah4 weighs #bee4e grains2 so that this
 fluid is  about #hae times heavier than
 atmospheric air1 but being the standard

  to which the weight of all other      
substances is referred1 its specific    
weight is said to be #a4 ,accordingly   
when we say that the specific  gravity  
of a body is two we mean that it weighs 
twice as much as  the same volume of    
water would do4 ,water unites with both 
acids and  bases1 but without destroying
 their acid or basic properties4 ,thus  
the crystallized vegetable acids1       
tartaric1 citric1 and oxalic1 are       
atomic combinations of water with acids4
 ,caustic potash 7potassa fusa7  and    
slaked lime may be instanced as         
compounds of water1 and basic           
substances2 these are therefore called  
hydrates4 ,the crystallized  salts1 such
 as alum1 common salt1 sulphate of soda1
 sulphate of  magnesia1 borate of soda1 
7borax17 c41 contain a large amount of  
water as a chemical constituent1 called 
water of crystallization4 ,water        
rapidly absorbs some gases1 as ammonia1 
fluoride of boron1 c41 but it  is       
neither combustible1 nor1 under ordinary

 circumstances1 a supporter  of         
combustion4    ,composition4 ,the       
composition of water is determined both 
by analysis  and synthesis4 ,if this    
liquid be submitted to the influence of 
a  volcanic battery1 it is decomposed   
into two gases1 namely one volume  of   
oxygen and two volumes of hydrogen4     
,these gases1 in the proportions  just  
mentioned1 may be made to recombine1 and
 form water by heat1  electricity1 or   
spongy platinum1 as water consists of   
one equivalent of  hydrogen1 #a and one 
of oxygen1 #h  #i2 and in volume1 of one
 volume of  hydrogen1 and half a volume 
of oxygen1 condensed into aqueous vapor 
or  steam we can easily calculate the   
specific gravity of steam1 for its      
density will be1 4#jfhi 7,sp4 gr4 of    
hydrogen7  4#eeab 7half the ,sp4 gr4  of
 oxygen7  4#fbja4      ,water as        
affected by the laws of ,heat4    ,as   
the extensive and important functions   
which water discharges in  the economy  
of nature1 depend mainly on the manner  

in which it is  affected by the laws of 
heat1 a few remarks on this subject may 
not be  inappropriate to this place4    
,heat is communicated through water in a
 different manner1 from that  observed  
in relation to solids1 for it is not    
conducted as in them1  from one particle
 to another1 but carried with the parts 
of the fluid  by means of an intestine  
motion4 ,water expands and becomes      
lighter  by heat1 and therefore it is1  
that if the upper portion of water be   
cooled below the lower1 the former      
descends1 and the latter rises to  take 
its place4 ,thus a constant             
counter-current is kept up1 and the     
whole body of water has to cool down to 
near the freezing point1 before         
congelation can take place4 ,this       
equalization of temperature1 moreover1  
takes place much more rapidly1 than it  
would do in a solid body2 hence         
alternations of heat and cold1 as day   
and night1 summer and winter1  produce  
in water1 inequalities of temperature   

much smaller than those  which occur in 
a solid body4    ,hence it is1 that the 
ocean1 which covers so large a portion  
of the  earth's surface1 produces the   
effect of making the alternations of    
heat  and cold much less violent than   
they would be if it were absent4 ,the   
different temperatures of its upper and 
lower parts produce a current  which    
draws the seas1 and by means of the     
seas1 the air1 towards the  mean        
temperature4 ,this circulation is also  
carried on between distant  tracts of   
the ocean2 as we see in the case of the 
,gulf ,stream1 which  rushing from the  
,gulf of ,mexico across the ,atlantic to
 the western  shores of ,europe1 carries
 with it a portion of the heat of       
equatorial  climes to the colder        
northern regions1 and bringing back in  
return  a portion of the cold from the  
same higher latitudes4 ,thus1 large     
portions of the earth are rendered      
habitable to man1 which1 without  the   
existence of such a law1 would be doomed

 to perpetual frost  and solitude4 ,this
 influence of the ocean on temperature1 
explains  satisfactorily some           
peculiarities in the climates of certain
 tracts  and islands1 for example1 why  
,london is cooler in summer1 and hotter 
in winter than ,paris4 ,but though water
 expands by heat and contracts  by cold1
 there is even a limit to this law1 for 
had there not been1  the lower parts of 
water would have frozen first1 and thus 
entire  lakes1 rivers and oceans1       
perhaps1 become solid1 and had they     
become  thus frozen1 they would have    
remained so2 for1 as the heat at the    
surface would not have descended far    
through the colder parts1 the main  body
 of the ice must forever have remained  
solid1 as in the arctic  circle4 ,to    
obviate this great disadvantage1 water  
contracts by the  increase of cold till 
we come near the freezing temperature1  
7#dj  ,f47 when it begins to expand and 
continues so to do till it freezes2  at 
#cb ,f4 ,hence1 water at #dj is at its  

greatest density and will lie  at the   
bottom1 with cooler water or ice        
floating above it4 ,however  much the   
surface be cooled1 water colder than #dj
 cannot descend to  displace water      
warmer than itself4 ,hence we never can 
have ice formed  at the bottom of deep  
water1 though it is not uncommon to find
 it  thus situated1 in shallow streams  
or rivers of rapid flow4 ,here the      
temperature of the whole body of water  
is brought down to the freezing  point1 
and in freezing the ice adheres to the  
sides and bottom of the  stream4 ,what a
 beautiful provision is this1 that the  
coldest water  should rise to the       
surface1 and there freeze and remain1   
exposed to  the warmth of the sun-beams 
and the air1 to be speedily dissolved   
upon  the return of spring6 ,this is    
owing to the well known fact1 that in   
the act of freezing a still further     
expansion takes place1 so that  the     
specific gravity of ice is less than    
water of any temperature1  and          

consequently floats upon the surface4   
,we thus see that by the  contraction of
 water by cold1 the temperature of      
various times and  places is equalized1 
though were that contraction without    
limit1 a  great portion of the earth    
would be bound in fetters of ice4 ,such 
a  disastrous result1 is prevented by   
the substitution of expansion for       
contraction1 when the temperature is    
reduced to #dj1 and the benevolent      
purposes of an all-wise ,designer1 are  
made still more manifest by the  further
 expansion of water in the act of       
freezing4 ,as water becomes  ice by     
cold1 it becomes steam by heat4 ,we     
generally understand by  steam the vapor
 of hot water1 but steam or vapor rises 
from water  at all temperatures1 however
 low1 and even from ice4 ,the expansive 
force of this vapor increases rapidly as
 the heat increases1 but yet  in all    
cases the surface of water is covered   
with an atmosphere of  aqueous vapor1   
the pressure1 or tension of which is    

limited by the  temperature of the      
water4 ,if1 therefore1 the vapor is not 
confined1  causing the surface of water 
to be pressed upon1 evaporation will    
take place1 and thus there must1        
according to this law1 always exist  an 
atmosphere of aqueous vapor1 the tension
 of which may be compared  with that of 
our common atmosphere4 ,now the pressure
 of the latter  is measured by the      
barometrical column1 about #cj inches of
 mercury1  while that of watery vapor is
 equal to one inch of mercury at the    
constituent temperature of #hj degrees1 
and to one fifth of an inch at  the     
temperature of #cb degrees4    ,if the  
atmosphere of air by which we are       
supported were annihilated1  there would
 still remain1 an atmosphere of aqueous 
vapor1 arising from  the waters and     
moist parts of the earth1 but in the    
existing state of  things this vapor    
rises in the atmosphere of dry air1 and 
thus its  distribution and effects are  
materially influenced by the vehicle in 

which it is thus carried4    ,the       
moisture thus floating at all times in  
the air1 serves for the  support of     
vegetable life1 even in countries where 
rain seldom if  ever falls4 ,it is      
absorbed by the leaves of living plants1
 which  thus increase in weight even    
when suspended in the atmosphere and    
disconnected with the soil4 ,during     
intense heats1 and when the soil is     
parched and dry1 we see the life of     
plants thus preserved until the  earth  
is again refreshed with showers1 and the
 roots supplied with  their wonted      
moisture4    ,clouds1 are produced when 
aqueous vapor returns to the state of   
water2 and this process is called       
condensation4 ,whenever the  temperature
 becomes lower than the constituent     
temperature1 requisite  for the         
maintenance of the vapory state1 some of
 the vapor1 or  invisible steam1 will be
 condensed1 and become water4 ,this may 
be  seen illustrated in the condensation
 of the steam1 as it issues from  the   

spout of a tea-kettle4 ,clouds not only 
moderate the fervor of the  sun1 but    
they also check radiation from the      
earth1 for we find that  the coldest    
nights are those which occur under a    
cloudless winter sky4  ,the use of      
clouds in the formation of rain1 is too 
obvious to need  pointing out more      
particularly4 ,snow is frozen vapour    
aggregated by  a confused action of     
crystalline laws1 and ice is water1     
solidified  while in its fluid state1 by
 the same crystalline forces4 ,these are
 bad  conductors of cold1 and when the  
ground is covered with snow1 or the     
surface of the soil1 or if the water is 
frozen1 the roots or bulbs of  plants   
beneath are protected by the congealed  
water from the influence  of the        
atmosphere1 the temperature of which in 
northern winters1 is  usually very much 
below the freezing point2 and this water
 becomes the  first nourishment of the  
plant1 in early spring4 ,the expansion  
of water  during its congelation1 at    

which time its volume increases one     
twelfth1  and its contraction in bulk   
during a thaw1 tend to pulverize the    
soil1  to separate its parts from each  
other1 and to make it more permeable to 
the influence of the air4    ,when ice  
changes to water1 or water to steam1    
although at an invariable  degree of    
temperature1 yet the change is not      
sudden1 but gradual4  ,when the heat    
reaches the point1 at which thawing or  
boiling takes  place1 the temperature   
makes a stand2 a portion of it          
disappears1 or  becomes latent1 as it is
 called2 thus the temperature of ice    
cannot  be raised1 till the whole is    
thawed1 nor that of boiling water1 till 
it has all been converted into steam2   
all the heat that is applied  being     
absorbed in producing these changes4    
,were it not for this law of  latent    
heat1 thaw and evaporation would be     
instantaneous1 we should be  overwhelmed
 with floods1 at the first glow of      
warmth in the spring1 and  in heating   

water the whole would flash             
instantaneously into steam upon         
reaching the boiling point4    ,it is   
through the same relations of water to  
heat1 that springs are  supplied--for   
these undoubtedly draw their principal  
supplies from  rain4 ,mr4 ,dalton has   
calculated that the quantity of rain    
which falls  in ,england is #cf inches a
 year4 ,of this he reckoned that #ac    
inches flow  off to the sea by the      
rivers1 and that the remaining #bc      
inches are  raised again from the ground
 by evaporation4 ,the #ac inches of     
water  are of course supplied by        
evaporation from the sea1 and are       
carried  back to the land through the   
atmosphere4 ,vapor is perpetually rising
  from the ocean1 and is condensed by   
cold in the hills and high lands1  as is
 easily recognized by the mists and     
rains1 which are frequent in  such      
regions2 whence it descends through     
their pores and crevices1  till it is   
deflected1 collected and conducted out  

to the sea1 by some  stratum or channel 
which is water-tight1 thus keeping up a 
perpetual  and compound circulation4 ,in
 every country these two portions of the
  aqueous circulation have their regular
 and nearly constant proportion2  and   
their due distribution appears to be    
necessary to its organic  health1 to the
 habits of vegetables and of man4 ,this 
circulation goes  on from year to year  
as regularly as that of the blood1 in   
the veins  and arteries of the human    
system1 and though maintained by a very 
different machinery1 is no less clearly 
adapted to its purposes4 ,in  short the 
properties of water which regard heat   
make one vast watering  engine of the   
atmosphere1 7,whewell47    ,,common     
,,water4 ,under this head are included  
the waters commonly known as  rain1     
spring1 river1 well or pump1 lake and   
marsh waters4  ,thomson includes ice1   
and snow water1 spring and river water1 
and lake water under rain water1 as it  
is from this source that  they are      

chiefly supplied4    ,,rain ,,water is  
the purest kind of all natural waters1  
though subject to  some variations4     
,thus1 when collected in large towns or 
cities1 it is  less pure than when      
obtained in the country2 moreover it is 
usually  loaded with impurities at the  
commencement of a shower1 but after some
  hours of continuous rain it becomes   
nearly pure2 for the first water  which 
falls brings down the various foreign   
matters suspended in the  atmosphere4   
,in specific gravity1 it scarcely       
differs from distilled  water4 ,it      
nevertheless generally holds in solution
 common air1 carbonic  acid1 carbonate  
of lime1 chloride of lime1 and a trace  
of nitric acid4  ,if it be collected    
from the roofs of houses1 after it has  
rained for  some time1 it contains      
sulphate of lime and occasionally       
carbonate  of lead4 ,the quantity of    
common air in rain water does not exceed
 #c  cubic inches in #ajj cubic inches  
of water2 it contains more oxygen than  

atmospherical air2 the same quantity of 
rain water contains one inch of         
carbonic acid gas4    ,these            
combinations1 in the small quantities in
 which they exist1 in no  degree injure 
the diluent properties of rain water4   
,it is indeed to  the presence of the   
two elastic gases1 that rain water owes 
the taste  which renders it palatable to
 animals and useful to vegetables4 ,ice 
water1 being destitute of these gases is
 extremely vapid2 fish cannot  live in  
it2 and it does not seem either to      
quench thirst or to be so  complete a   
solvent in the stomach as rain water4   
,carbonate of ammonia  is also another  
ingredient4 ,it is derived from the     
putrefaction of  nitrogenous substances4
 ,when several hundred pounds of rain   
water were  distilled by ,liebig1 in a  
copper still1 and the first two or three
  pounds evaporated with the addition of
 a little muriatic acid1 he  found a    
very distinct crystallization of        
sal-ammoniac1 the crystals  having a    

brown or yellow color4 8,it is worthy of
 observation10 says  ,liebig1 8that the 
ammonia contained in rain and snow water
 possesses  an offensive smell of       
perspiration and animal excrements1 a   
fact which  leaves no doubt respecting  
its origin40 ,it is owing to the        
presence of  carbonate of ammonia that  
rain water owes its softer feel than    
pure  distilled water4 ,according to    
,liebig1 it is the atmospheric ammonia  
which furnishes the nitrogen of plants4 
,the traces of nitric acid which  have  
been detected in the air1 are referable 
to the oxidation of the  constituents of
 ammonia2 and not to the direct union of
 the oxygen and  free nitrogen of the   
atmosphere4 ,dr4 ,pereira states that a 
carbonaceous  7sooty7 substance1 and    
traces of sulphates1 chlorides1 and     
calcareous  matter1 are the usual       
impurities of the first rain water of a 
shower4  ,zimmerman found oxide of iron 
and chloride potassium in rain water2   
other chemists have been able to detect 

no iron in it1 but have found  meteoric 
iron and nickel in dew4 ,brande detected
 in it1 chloride of  sodium1 chloride of
 magnesium1 sulphate and carbonate of   
magnesium1  sulphate of lime1 and oxide 
of manganese4 ,the putrefaction to which
  rain water is subject1 shows that some
 organic matter is present4 ,the  term  
pyrrhin 7from  red7 has been applied by 
,zimmerman to  an atmospheric organic   
substance which reddens solutions of    
silver4  ,whenever rain water is        
collected near large towns1 it should be
 boiled  and strained before use1 as it 
contains less saline impregnation than  
other kinds of natural waters1 it is    
more apt to become contaminated  with   
lead from roofs1 gutters1 cisterns1 and 
water pipes4 ,to purify  rain water and 
render it useful1 for the delicate      
purposes of chemical  experiment1       
,morveau recommends dropping into it a  
little barytic  water and then exposing 
it for some time to the atmospheric air4
  ,this combines with the carbonic acid1

 which being the solvent of the         
carbonate of lime1 both it and the      
carbonate of baryta are precipitated  as
 insoluble salts4 ,instead of exposing  
it to the atmosphere1 it may be  poured 
from one vessel to another2 by which    
means not only the minute  portion of   
barytic water is dispersed through the  
rain water1 and  brought into contact   
with the carbonic acid1 but it involves 
a great  portion of air in its          
substance1 which improves both the taste
 and the  utility of the fluid4    ,snow
 water1 as we have already stated1 is   
destitute of air and  other gaseous     
matters found in rain4 ,according to    
,liebig1 it contains  ammonia4 ,it has  
long been a popular1 but erroneous      
opinion1 that it  was injurious to      
health1 and had a tendency to produce   
bronchocele4  ,but this malady occurs at
 ,sumatra1 where ice and snow are never 
seen2  while1 on the contrary1 the      
disease is quite unknown in ,chili and  
,thibet1 although the rivers of these   

countries are chiefly supplied by  the  
melting of the snow1 with which the     
mountains are covered4 ,ice is  said not
 to quench thirst1 but on the contrary  
to augment it1 and that  the natives of 
the ,arctic regions prefer enduring the 
utmost extremity  of this feeling1      
rather than attempt to remove it by     
eating of snow1#h  7,captain ,ross47    
#b4 ,,spring ,,water4 ,rain water1 when 
it falls on high grounds1 enters the    
soil and filtrates through it1 until it 
is stopped by some natural  obstacle1   
when it pushes upwards1 and welling out 
upon the surface1  forms springs2 the   
water is therefore merely a modification
 of rain  water4 ,during its passage1   
however1 it almost always takes up some 
soluble matters1 which of course vary   
according to the nature of  the soil4   
,it is purest when it passes through    
sand or gravel2 in a  limestone region1 
it always contains more or less of the  
sulphate and  carbonate of lime1 and it 
generally contains a trace of common    

salt1  and the usual proportions of air 
and carbonic acid gas4 ,the presence of 
these is detected by subacetate of lead1
 which displays the smallest  portion of
 carbonic acid or a carbonate1 and      
nitrate of silver1 which  detects the   
muriates by the formation of muriate of 
silver4    ,water from melted ice is    
perfectly wholesome1 and is drunk during
  the summer season1 wherever the       
climate will admit of its being         
collected and preserved at a moderate   
expense4 ,in this form1 it is a         
luxury--almost a necessary--in the      
middle states of this country more      
particularly1 8where10 ,dr4 ,dunglison  
remarks1 8there is not a tavern on  the 
road1 on the eastern side of the ,blue  
,ridge1 that does not furnish  ice to   
the traveller in any abundance40 ,when  
sea-water freezes1 the ice  does not    
contain the salts4 ,consequently1 when  
melted1 it affords fresh  water1 and    
according to the voyagers in high       
northern and southern  latitudes1 the   

water has been found sweet1 soft1 and   
wholesome4    ,river ,water4 ,this is a 
mixture of rain and spring water1 and   
when  deprived of the matters which it  
frequently holds in suspension1 is      
generally of considerable purity4       
,mountain streams1 which generally      
issue from siliceous rocks1 and run over
 stony or pebbly beds1 are1  for the    
most part1 comparatively pure and soft4 
,the river water of  ,new-,england1 and 
the other hilly portions of the ,united 
,states1  is usually of this            
description1 though in the time of      
floods1 and  after heavy rains1 they    
contain much sedimentary matter4 ,river 
water  gradually deposits much of its   
earthy salts as it flows1 and becomes   
purer by exposure2 it therefore         
generally contains less calcareous      
matter than spring water2 its specific  
gravity is less1 and its taste  more    
vapid4 ,it1 however1 more or less       
partakes of the nature of the  soil over
 which it flows2 consequently some      

rivers1 whose waters were  pure and     
excellent at their source1 lose these   
properties before they  mingle with the 
sea4 ,the water of the ,thames1 for     
example1 in ,england1  which is         
originally very soft and pure1 becomes  
so loaded with animal  and vegetable    
matter from the towns and villages on   
its banks1 that  after being kept a     
month or two in a closed cask1 on       
opening it1 a  quantity of sulphuretted 
hydrogen gas1 of the most offensive odor
  escapes1 and the water is so black and
 nauseous as to be unfit for  use4 ,but 
on racking it off1 it clears1 depositing
 a quantity of slimy  mud1 and becomes  
remarkably clear1 sweet and palatable4  
,as the matters  deposited in such      
rivers are merely mingled with the body 
of the  water1 which is too large1 and  
too changing1 to admit of any permanent 
taint from solution1 filtration1 or even
 the natural deposition of the          
ingredients fits them for every domestic
 and medicinal purpose4           99    

99       99       99       99    ,the   
following ,table shows the solid        
contents of the ,thames water#i         
,london1 and of the ,croton water#aj in 
the city of ,new-,york4                 
----------------------------------------
----------------------------            
,,thames ,,water4         ,,croton      
,,water4                                
----------------------------------------
---     ,,quantity ,,of ,,water4        
,brentford4,chelsea4 ,at its     ,in the
        #a ,gallon  #aj lbs4    ,source 
of    ,source   source1   ,city of      
,avoirdupois1 at      the ,grand    of  
the   ,croton  ,new-,york     #fb ,fah41
 or #gj1 grs4   ,junction   ,chelsea    
,lake4     as it          ,avoirdupois4 
,water ,works   ,water            issues
 from                                   
,company4    ,works             the     
pipes4                                  
,company4                               
----------------------------------------
--------------------------              

,grains4    ,grains4  ,grains4          
,grains4     ,carbonate of ,lime1       
#afjjj     #afejj    #adb       #aeb    
,sulphate of ,lime1                     
#jj        #dd       ,chloride of       
,sodium1       #cdjj      #bijj         
,oxide of ,iron1                        
,silica1                   very         
,magnesia1                minute        
,ditto4     #cd        #df              
,carbonaceous ,matter1    portions4     
,chloride of ,magnesium1                
#hf        #ij       ,chloride of       
,calcium1                               
,carbonate of ,magnesia1                
#gj        #hd                          
,solid matter held in                   
solution1               #aidjj          
#aidjj    #bih       #cgj               
,mechanical impurity1       #jcfh       
#jbch     #cd        #df                
----------------------------------------
---   ,total solid matter1       #aigfh 
#aifch    #ccb       #daf               
----------------------------------------

--------------------------    ,analysis 
of the ,croton and ,schuylkill waters1  
by ,j4 ,c4 ,booth1 ,professor  of       
,chemistry to the ,franklin ,institute  
of ,pennsylvania1 and ,h4 ,m4 ,boye1  of
 ,philadelphia4                         
,croton ,water4          ,schuylkill    
,water4                           ,in   
#ajj     gr4 in #a       ,in #ajj       
gr4 in #a                               
parts        gall4        parts         
gall4   ,carbonate of ,lime1            
#de4hf        #b4bic        #ec4fg      
#b4aij   ,carbonate of ,magnesia1       
#ah4gh         4#ici        #aa4hg      
#j4dhd   ,alkaline ,carbonates1         
#af4eg         4#hbh         #d4ec      
#j4ahe   ,alkaline ,chlorides1          
#c4hg         4#aic         #c4ge       
#j4aec   ,oxide of ,iron1               
#b4ba         4#aaj   ,silica1          
#g4ah         4#cei         #i4fh       
#j4cie   ,organic ,matter1              
#e4ec         4#bgf         #j4hh       
#j4jcf                           ------ 

-----                    ,parts1 #ajj4jj
   grs4 #d4iih     ,alumina and ,oxide  
of ,iron1                          #a4hh
          #j4jgg   ,alkaline ,sulphates1
                                #ac4gd  
#j4efj                                  
-----          -----                    
,parts1 #ajj     grs4 #d4jhj    ,the    
,croton water was taken from the ,croton
 dam1 and when perfectly  clear was     
found1 as appears by the above analysis 
to contain #d4iih1  or about five grains
 of solid matter to the gallon4 ,the    
,schuylkill  water was taken from the   
middle basin on ,fair ,mount1 and       
contained  #d4jh grains of solid matter 
to the gallon4 ,the ,croton differs from
  the ,schuylkill water in containing a 
larger amount of the alkaline           
carbonates1 and of the carbonate of     
magnesia1 while it contains less        
carbonate of lime1 and is entirely      
destitute of the alkaline sulphates1  of
 which the ,schuylkill contains #ac4gd  
parts in #ajj of the total solid        

matters1 though amounting to only one   
half a grain to the gallon4    ,it      
appears from the above table1 that the  
amount of impurities  contained in the  
,thames water1 exceeds those of the     
,croton by nearly  six fold1 and that   
the quantity of lime1 held in solution  
in the  former1 surpasses that of the   
latter1 about fifteen times4 ,the       
,thames  water differs also from the    
,croton1 in the circumstance that it    
contains an appreciable quantity of     
chloride of sodium1 or common salt  of  
which the ,croton is entirely free4     
,there are but very few streams to  be  
found1 whose waters contain less than   
#d4af grains of solid matter  to the    
gallon4 ,the carbonate of lime is held  
in solution by carbonic  acid1 forming  
bicarbonate of lime4 ,by boiling1 this  
acid is expelled1  and the carbonate of 
lime is precipitated on the sides of the
 vessel1  constituting the fur of the   
tea-kettle1 and the crust of boilers4   
,river water always contains a quarter  

or less quantity of organic  matter in  
suspension or solution4 ,as a general   
rule1 the quantity is  too small to     
produce any decidedly injurious effect1 
but physicians and  medical writers     
agree in the opinion that water         
impregnated with it to  any great extent
 must be deleterious4 ,where the        
quantity of decomposing  matter is too  
small to produce any immediately obvious
 effects1 it  is difficult to procure   
any decisive evidence of its influence  
on  the system4 ,when the amount is     
considerable1 it causes dysentery and   
fevers1 often of a highly fatal         
character4 ,in a trial at ,nottingham1  
,england1 in #ahcf1 it was proved that  
dysentery of an aggravated form1  was   
caused in cattle by the use of water    
contaminated with putrescent  vegetable 
matter1 produced by the refuse of a     
starch manufactory4 ,the  fish1 7perch1 
pike1 roach1 dace1 c417 and frogs in the
 pond1 through  which the brook ran1    
were destroyed1 and all the animals     

which drank of  the water became        
seriously ill1 and many of them died    
with the symptoms  of dysentery4 ,it    
was1 moreover1 shown1 that the animals  
sometimes  refused to drink the water1  
that the mortality was in proportion to 
the quantity of starch made at different
 times2 and that subsequently1  when the
 putrescent matter was not allowed to   
pass into the brook1 but  was conveyed  
to a river at some distance1 the fish   
and frogs began  to return1 and the     
mortality ceased among the cattle4      
,there are many  instances on record    
where troops have sickened and many died
 of putrid  fever and dysentery1 from   
drinking the water of stagnant pools and
  ditches or of rivers1 as of the river 
,lee1 near ,cork1 7,ireland17 which1  in
 passing through the city1 receives the 
contents of the sewers from  the houses1
 and is otherwise unwholesome4    ,the  
organic matter contained in river water 
consists chiefly of the  exuvi of animal
 and vegetable substances1 but another  

class of  impurities consists of living 
beings1 7animals and vegetables47 ,the  
aquatic animals1 which have1 from time  
to time1 been exhibited in this  city by
 means of the solar microscope1 are     
collected in stagnant pools1  and are   
not found in river or well water4 ,the  
quantity of organic  matter contained in
 the ,croton must be extremely small1 as
 this1  together with the silex1 iron1  
and magnesia1 amount to only #d_/ajths  
of  one grain to the gallon4    ,,well  
,,water1--or pump water1 as it is often 
called in cities1 is  essentially the   
same as spring water1 but liable to     
impregnation1  owing to the land springs
 filtering through the walls1 and       
conveying  impurities into it4 ,this is 
sometimes prevented by lining them with 
cast-iron cylinders1 or by bricks laid  
in water-cement4 ,dr4 ,percival         
affirms1 that bricks harden the softest 
water1 and give it an aluminous         
impregnation4 ,the old wells must1      
therefore1 furnish much purer water     

than the more recent1 as the soluble    
particles are gradually washed  away4   
,it contains a greater proportion of    
earthy salts1 and of air1  and has a    
greater specific gravity than other     
spring waters4 ,owing  to the fact1 that
 it contains a larger quantity of       
bicarbonate and  sulphate of lime1 than 
river water1 it decomposes and curdles  
soap1  and is then denominated hard     
water1 to distinguish it from those     
waters which mix with soap1 and are     
therefore called soft waters4  ,the     
reason that hard water does not form a  
pure opaline solution  with soap1 is1   
because the lime of the calcareous      
salts1 chiefly the  sulphate1 forms an  
insoluble compound with the margaric and
 oleic  acids of the soap4 ,here a      
double decomposition ensues1 the        
sulphuric  acid unites with the alkali  
of the soap1 setting free the fatty     
acids1  which unite with the lime to    
form an insoluble earthy soap4 ,hard    
water  is a less perfect solvent of     

organic matter than soft water2 hence in
  the preparation of infusions and      
decoctions1 and for many economical     
purposes1 as making tea and coffee1 and 
brewing1 it is much inferior  to soft   
water1 and for the same reasons it is   
improper as a drink in  dyspeptic       
affections1 causing irritation1 and a   
sensation of weight  in the stomach4    
,the abundance of this earthy salt in   
the water of  ,paris1 and ,london1 of   
many parts of ,switzerland and this     
country1 cause  uncomfortable feelings  
in strangers who visit these places4 ,it
 is also  said to produce calculous     
complaints in the inhabitants1 a result 
which  might be expected1 owing to the  
low solvent power of the water not      
being sufficient to carry off the animal
 acid1 which concretes in the  kidneys  
to form calculi4#aa ,well water can be  
easily freed from these  earthy salts2  
boiling precipitates the carbonate of   
lime by driving  off the carbonic acid  
which holds it in solution2 and the     

addition of  a little carbonate of soda 
precipitates the lime1 if any exist in  
the  water4 ,many persons prefer the    
taste of hard water to that of soft1 and
  a change from one to the other1       
frequently causes a derangement of the  
digestive organs4 ,the briskness1 and   
rapidity of this and other water  is    
owing to the air1 and carbonic acid     
mixed with it4 ,the air contained  in   
water1 has a larger proportion of oxygen
 than atmospheric air1 and  hence it is 
better adapted for the respiration of   
animals4    ,the water procured from    
wells in the city of ,new-,york1 has    
gradually  been growing more and more   
impure1 as the city has increased in    
size1  until a very large proportion of 
it1 is entirely unfit for culinary  and 
dietetic purposes4 ,that in the lower   
part of the city1 has always  been1 more
 or less1 brackish1 owing to the        
percolation of the salt  water from the 
north and east rivers through the loose 
sandy soil1 thus  giving them a distinct

 saline impregnation4 ,the amount of    
impurities  contained in these waters1  
varies1 therefore1 in different parts of
 the  city1 according to its elevation1 
and the denseness of the population4  ,a
 gallon of water from the well belonging
 to the ,manhattan ,company  in         
,reade-street1 yielded #abe grains of   
solid matter2 while the same  quantity  
of water1 from their well in            
,bleecker-street1 yielded #bj  grains1  
and in #acth street1 #ad grains4 ,a     
gallon of water taken from  four of the 
city wells in the densely populated     
parts of the city  yielded on an        
average1 #eh grains each of solid       
matter4    ,the supply also of well     
water has been gradually diminishing in 
this  city for the last several years4  
,for example1 at the ,chemical ,works   
on the ,north ,river1 at #cc;d street1  
and at an extensive distillery on  the  
,east ,river1 some distance above the   
,alms ,house1 water cannot be  procured 
in sufficient quantities on their       

premises1 where1 but a few  years past1 
it was obtained in great abundance4 ,at 
the ,gas ,works on  the ,collect        
grounds1 where they have a well #bj feet
 in depth1 by #ah  feet in diameter1    
which1 until #ahcd1 furnished water     
freely1 enabling  the engine to raise   
#bj1jjj gallons in ten hours1 in #ahce  
it required  #ad to #af hours to raise  
the same quantity1 and in order to      
continue  the supply1 it was found      
necessary to return the water to the    
well1  after using it for condensing the
 gas4 ,the ,corporation well1 also1  in 
#acth street1 furnished1 for several    
years1 about #abj1jjj gallons  of water 
daily1 but in #ahce1 this quantity was  
reduced down to from  five to ten       
thousand4 ,in order to remedy this evil1
 a well was sunk at  ,jefferson ,market1
 which in a short time deprived most of 
the wells in  that vicinity1 of water2  
thus drying up one source of supply1 in 
order  to increase that of another4     
,there is1 therefore1 every probability 

that had not water been introduced into 
the city of ,new-,york from  abroad1 the
 supply from the wells would1 in a few  
years1 have been  insufficient for the  
economical1 domestic and manufacturing  
purposes of  the inhabitants4 ,it is    
fearful to contemplate the amount of    
decomposing  organic matter contained in
 the wells in the vicinity of ,trinity1 
,st4  ,paul's1 and ,st4 ,john's burying 
grounds1 which for more than a century  
furnished the only water used by those  
residing in their neighborhood4  ,no one
 can doubt that the use of such water1  
as well as that from the  wells on the  
,collect1 and over the greater portion  
of the city below  ,canal-street1 must  
have proved extremely detrimental to the
 health of  the citizens1 and especially
 to children1 and infants4 ,we believe1 
therefore that the introduction of the  
,croton water1 will increase the        
average duration of human life in the   
city of ,new-,york1 from #h to #ab  per 
cent4 ,from #ahae to #ahcf1 it ranged   

from #cj4jh to #bb4je1 7in #ahcf71  but 
the mean duration of life for the last  
#bj years is about #be years2  and the  
ratio of mortality1 according to        
population1 about as #a to #ce4  ,from  
the manner1 however1 in which the       
inspector's reports have been  made1    
from the imperfection of the law1 no    
great confidence can be  placed in the  
returns1--those carried out of the city 
for burial1 not  having been included4  
,from a 8,report on the subject of      
introducing pure and wholesome water    
into the city of ,boston1 by ,l4        
,baldwin1 ,esq41 ,civil ,engineer10 it  
appears that the whole number of wells  
in that city in #ahce1 was #b1gfg4  ,the
 water from #b1jhe of these wells was   
drinkable1 though brackish  and hard1   
and #fhb of them were bad and unfit for 
use4 ,there were only  seven of the city
 wells which yielded soft water         
occasionally and for  washing1 and from 
#cc of them the water was obtained by   
deep boring4  8,within a few years10    

says the ,report1 8it has become common 
in ,boston1  and the vicinity1 to bore  
for water1 and to make what are called  
,artesian wells4 ,but no certain or     
valuable result has grown out of  these 
endeavors4 ,there are #cc bored wells1  
only two of which are stated  as        
furnishing soft water4 ,the same remarks
 will apply to the public  wells of this
 city1 the most of which produce nothing
 but hard and  brackish water1 and none 
of which is sufficiently soft to        
authorize its  use in washing clothes10 
c4    ,,lake ,,water is a collection of 
rain1 spring and river water1 usually   
more or less contaminated with          
putrefying organic matter4 ,it is       
generally soft1 and when filtered1 is as
 good and wholesome as any  other       
description of waters4 ,though lake     
water cannot be characterized  as having
 any invariable qualities2 yet most of  
the ,lakes of the ,united  ,states1     
especially our great ones1 afford a very
 pure water4 ,in many  of our smaller   

lakes the water is more or less         
stagnant1 and of course  very unhealthy4
    ,marsh ,water4 ,this is analogous to
 lake water1 except that it is          
altogether stagnant and is more loaded  
with putrescent matter4  ,the sulphates 
in sea and other waters are decomposed  
by putrefying  vegetable matter1 with   
the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen2 
hence  the intolerable stench from      
marshy and swampy grounds liable to     
occasional inundations from the sea4    
,marsh water cannot be drunk with       
safety either by man or beast4          
,tests of the usual impurities in       
,common ,water4    ,the following are   
the tests by which the presence of the  
ordinary  constituents or impurities of 
common waters may be ascertained4    #a4
 ,,ebullition4--,by boiling1 air and    
carbonic acid gas are expelled1  while  
carbonate of lime1 7which has been held 
in solution by the  carbonic acid7 is   
deposited4 ,the latter constitutes the  
crust which  lines tea-kettles and      

boilers4    #b4 ,,protosulphate ,,of    
,,iron4 ,if a crystal of this salt be   
introduced into  a phial filled with the
 water to be examined1 and the phial be 
well  corked1 a yellowish-brown         
precipitate 7sesquioxide of iron7 will  
be  deposited in a few days1 if oxygen  
gas be contained in the water4    #c4   
,,litmus4 ,infusion of litmus or syrup  
of violets is reddened by a free  acid4 
#d4 ,,lime ,,water4 ,this is a test for 
carbonic acid1 with which it causes a   
white precipitate 7carbonate of lime7 if
 employed before the water is  boiled4  
#e4 ,,chloride ,,of ,,barium4 ,a        
solution of this salt usually yields1   
with  well water1 a white precipitate   
insoluble in nitric acid4 ,this         
indicates the presence of sulphuric acid
 7which1 in common water1 is  combined  
with lime74    #f4 ,,oxalate ,,of       
,,ammonia4 ,if this salt yield a white  
precipitate1 it  indicates the presence 
of lime1 7carbonate and sulphate47      
#g4 ,,nitrate ,,of ,,silver4 ,if this   

occasion a precipitate insoluble in     
nitric acid1 the presence of chlorine   
may be inferred4    #h4 ,,phosphate ,,of
 ,,soda4 ,if the lime contained in      
common water be removed  by ebullition  
and oxalic acid1 and to the strained and
 transparent  water1 ammonia and        
phosphate of soda be added1 any magnesia
 present  will1 in the course of a few  
hours1 be precipitated in the form of   
the  white ammoniacal phosphate of      
magnesia4    #i4 ,,tincture ,,of        
,,galls4 ,this is used as a test for    
,iron1 with solutions  of which it forms
 an inky liquor1 7tannate and gallate of
 iron74  ,if the test produce this      
effect on the water before1 but not     
after  boiling1 the iron is in the state
 of carbonate2 if after1 as well  as    
before1 in that of sulphate4 ,tea may be
 substituted for galls1  to which its   
effects and indications are similar4    
,ferro cyanide of  potassium yields1    
with solutions of the sesqui-salts of   
iron1 a blue  precipitate1 and with the 

proto-salts a white precipitate1 which  
becomes blue by exposure to the air4    
#aj4 ,,hydrosulphuric ,,acid4           
7,sulphuretted ,hydrogen47 ,this yields 
a  dark 7brown or black7 precipitate1 7a
 metallic sulphuret7 with water         
containing iron or lead in solution4    
#aa4 ,,evaporation ,,and ,,ignition4 ,if
 the water be evaporated to dryness1    
and ignited in a glass tube1 the        
presence of organic matter may be       
inferred by the odor and smoke evolved1 
as well as by the charring4  ,another   
mode of detecting organic matter is by  
adding nitrate 7or  acetate7 of lead to 
the inspected water1 and collecting and 
igniting  the precipitate2 when globules
 of metallic lead are obtained if       
organic  matter be present4 ,the        
putrefaction of water is another proof  
of the  presence of this matter4        
,nitrate of silver is the best test for 
the  presence of chloride of soda or    
common salt4 ,by adding a small quantity
  of this to the common well water of   

,new-,york1 a copious1 white1           
flocculent precipitate is immediately   
formed1 which is the chloride of  soda4 
,the same test1 however1 applied to the 
,croton water1 produces no              
discoloration whatever4    ,purification
 of ,common water4 ,by filtration1 water
 may be deprived  of living beings and  
of all suspended impurities2 but        
substances  held in solution1 cannot    
thus be separated4 ,ebullition destroys 
the vitality of both animals and        
vegetables2 expels air1 or carbonic     
acid1 and causes the precipitation of   
carbonate of lime1 but the  water should
 be afterwards subjected to the process 
of filtration4  ,distillation1 when     
properly conducted is the most effectual
 method  of purifying water4 ,but       
distilled water is in general           
contaminated by  traces of organic      
matter4 ,the addition of chemical agents
 is another  mode which has been        
proposed and practised1 for freeing     
water from  some of its impurities4     

,alum is often used by the common people
 to  cleanse muddy water1 and ashes and 
pearl-ash to destroy its hardness4      
,when alum is used1 two or three grains 
are sufficient for a quart of  water4   
,the alum decomposes the carbonate of   
lime2 sulphate of lime is  formed in    
solution1 and the alumina precipitates  
in flocks1 carrying  with it mechanical 
impurities4 ,this agent1 however1 adds  
nothing to  the chemical purity of the  
water1 but by converting the carbonate  
into  sulphate of lime augments its     
hardness4 ,caustic alkalies added to    
lime saturate the excess of carbonic    
acid1 and throw down the carbonate  of  
lime1 having an alkaline carbonate in   
solution4 ,professor ,clark  of         
,aberdeen1#ab 7,scotland7 has recently  
patented a plan for the  purification of
 water1 by the addition of lime4 ,the   
lime unites with  the excess of carbonic
 acid in the water1 and forms carbonate 
of lime  7chalk7 which precipitates1    
along with the carbonate of lime held   

previously in solution in the water4    
,the effect of this process is  similar 
to that of ebullition1--as the hardness 
of water is1 however1  owing to the     
sulphate and not the carbonate of       
lime1#ac this plan can  have little or  
no influence in rendering hard water    
soft4 ,alkaline  carbonates soften      
water1 decompose all the earthy salts   
7calcareous and  magnesian carbonates1  
sulphates1 and chlorides7 and           
precipitate the  earthy matters4 ,they  
leave1 however1 in solution1 an alkaline
 salt1 but  which does not communicate  
to water the property of hardness4      
,,sea-,,water includes the waters of the
 ocean and of those lakes1 called       
island seas1 which possess a similar    
composition4 ,the ,dead ,sea1  however1 
varies so much from ordinary sea-water1 
as to rank amongst  mineral waters4     
,the quantity of solid matter varies    
considerably in the waters of  different
 seas1 as the following statement       
proves--      #aj1jjj parts of water of 

,solid constituents4    the             
,mediterranean ,sea1 contain            
#daj grs4    ,english ,channel1         
#chj                        ,at the     
,island of ,fohe1           #cde        
,german ,ocean       ,at the ,island of 
,norderney1      #cdb                   
,in the ,frith of ,forth1           #cab
                        ,at             
,ritzebuttle1                  #cab     
,at ,apemalle1 in ,sleswick1            
#baf                       ,at ,kiel1 in
 ,holstein1              #bjj           
,baltic ,sea        ,at ,doberan1 in    
,mecklenbergh1       #afh               
,at ,travemun1                      #afg
                       ,at ,zoppot1 in  
,mecklenbergh1         #gf              
,at ,carshamm1                          
#ff     ,the average quantity of saline 
matter in sea-water is #c per cent41    
and its specific gravity about #a4jbgd4 
,the composition of sea-water  differs  
also in different localities4 ,iodine   
has been found in the  ,mediterranean   

sea4    ,action of ,water on ,lead4     
,when lead is exposed to atmospheric    
air1  the oxygen of the air combining   
with it1 forms an oxide1 while1 at  the 
same time the carbonic acid of the air1 
unites with it forming a  thin white    
crust1 which is the carbonate of lead4  
,this formation is  accelerated by      
moisture1 and by the presence of an     
unusual quantity of  carbonic acid in   
the atmosphere4 ,the same process goes  
on with still  greater rapidity in pure 
running water4 ,but if water be deprived
 of  all its gases by ebullition1 and   
excluded from contact with the air1  the
 lead will not be acted upon ,if water1 
however1 be exposed to the  air1        
although all the gases have been        
expelled1 a white powder will  soon form
 around the lead1 till1 in the course of
 a few days1 there is  formed a large   
quantity of white1 pearly scales1 which 
partly float  in the water1 but are     
chiefly deposited on the bottom of the  
vessel4  ,in #ab ounces of distilled    

water1 contained in a shallow glass     
basin1  loosely covered to exclude the  
dust1 twelve brightly polished lead     
rods weighing #cdj grains1 will lose #b 
grains in #h days1 and the lead  will   
show evident marks of corrosion2 and    
this action will go on as  long as the  
water is exposed to the air4 ,while     
these changes are going  on1 a small    
quantity of lead will be dissolved1 as  
may be shown by  carefully filtering the
 water acidulating with a drop or two of
 nitric  acid1 and evaporating to       
dryness4 ,sulphuretted hydrogen is also 
a good  test1 occasioning1 where lead is
 present1 first a brown color1 and      
subsequently a black precipitate4       
,christison has proved that the lead    
which is dissolved1 is in the form of   
the carbonate1 and hydrate of the       
oxide1 or1 oxide of lead1 carbonic acid 
and water4    ,the fact is then         
sufficiently established1 that distilled
 water has  the property of dissolving  
lead--,does the same hold true in       

relation  to waters in ordinary use8 ,in
 the year #ahji1 it was first announced 
by  ,guyton ,morveau1 that the salts    
which are held in solution by some      
natural waters1 destroy their property  
of acting on lead1 and that of  these   
modifying circumstances none are more   
remarkable in their action  than the    
neutral salts4 ,dr4 ,christison has     
pursued this investigation  with great  
success1 and has proved that this       
preservative power  exists in the case  
of sulphates1 muriates1 carbonates1     
hydriodates1  phosphates1 nitrates1     
acetates1 tartrates1 arseniates1 c4     
,these  salts1 however1 do not possess  
an equally protective influence1 the    
carbonates and sulphates being most1 the
 chlorides the least energetic  of those
 saline substances commonly met with in 
waters4 ,as a general  rule1 it appears 
that those whose acid forms with the    
lead a soluble  salt of lead1 are the   
least energetic2 while those whose acid 
forms an  insoluble salt of lead1 are   

most energetic4 ,the variable quantity  
of  salts necessary to prevent the      
action of water on lead1 may be seen    
from the following results obtained by  
actual experiment4      ,of acetate of  
soda a #ajjth part of the water is a    
preservative4    ,of arseniate of soda  
#ab1jjjth                               
,of phosphate of soda #cj1jjjth         
,of hydriodate of potash #cj1jjjth      
,of muriate of soda #b1jjjth            
,of sulphate of lime #d1jjjth           
,of nitrate of potash #ajjth            
,the sulphates of soda1 magnesia1 lime1 
and the triple sulphate of  alumina and 
potash1 possess about the same          
preservative power2 which  appears to   
depend on the acid1 not on the base of  
the salt4 ,the general  results of ,dr4 
,christison's investigations1 appear to 
be1 that neutral  salts in various1 and 
for the most part minute1 proportions1  
retard or  prevent the corrosive action 
of water on lead--allowing the carbonate
  to deposit itself slowly1 and to      

adhere with such firmness to the  lead  
as not to be afterwards removed by      
moderate agitation1--adding             
subsequently to this crust other        
insoluble salts of lead1 the acids  of  
which are derived from the neutral salts
 in solution1--and thus at  length      
forming a permanent and impermeable     
screen in the form of a  film over its  
surface1 through which the action of the
 water cannot  any longer be carried on4
 ,these films are composed of the       
carbonate of  lead1 with a little of the
 muriate1 sulphate1 arseniate1 or       
phosphate  of lead1 according to the    
nature of the acid in the alkaline salt1
  which is dissolved in the water4 ,the 
following general conclusions may       
therefore be considered as sufficiently 
established4    #a4 ,lead pipes ought   
not to be used for the purpose of       
conducting  water1 at least where the   
distance is considerable1 without a     
careful  examination of the water to be 
transmitted4    #b4 ,the risk of a      

dangerous impregnation with lead is     
greatest in the  instance of the purest 
waters4    #c4 ,water1 which tarnishes  
polished lead when left at rest upon it 
in  a glass vessel for a few hours1     
cannot safely be transmitted through    
lead-pipes without certain precautions2 
and conversely1 it is probable1  that if
 lead remain untarnished1 or nearly so1 
for #bd hours in a glass  of water1 the 
water may be safely conducted through   
lead-pipes4    #d4 ,water which contains
 less than about an #hjjjth of salts in 
solution1  can not be safely conducted  
in lead pipes without certain           
precautions4    #e4 ,even this          
proportion will prove insufficient to   
prevent corrosion1  unless a            
considerable part of the saline matter  
consists of carbonates  and sulphates1  
especially the former4    #f4 ,so large 
a proportion as a #djjjth part1 probably
 even a considerably  larger proportion1
 will be insufficient1 if the salts in  
solution be in  a great measure         

muriates4    #g4 ,in all cases careful  
examination should be made of the water 
after it has been running a few days    
through the pipes2 for it is  not       
improbable that other circumstances1    
besides those hitherto  ascertained1 may
 regulate the preventive influence of   
the neutral salts4    #h4 ,where the    
water is of sufficient purity to act on 
lead1 a remedy  may be found1 either1 in
 leaving the pipes full of water and at 
rest  for three or four months1 or by   
solution of phosphate of soda2 in the   
proportion of about a #be1fjjth part4#ad
    ,dr4 ,kane1 however1 seems to differ
 from ,dr4 ,christison in opinion on    
this subject2 for after having mentioned
 the crust which gradually  forms on the
 interior of the cistern1 and assists in
 protecting it from  the oxidizing      
action of the air1 he remarks1 8no      
danger is therefore  to be apprehended  
from the supply of water to a city being
 conveyed  through leaden pipes1 and    
preserved in leaden cisterns2 for all   

water  of mineral origin dissolves1 in  
filtering through the layers of rocks   
in its passage to the surface1 a        
sufficiency of saline matters to  serve 
for its protection40    ,now1 to apply  
these results to the water of the       
,croton2 as this holds  in solution only
 about one #ah1jjjth part of salts1 it  
must1 according  to ,christison1 exert a
 corroding influence on the lead-pipes4 
,dr4  ,dana1 of ,lowell1 has lately     
investigated this subject and detected  
lead in the water which had passed      
through the leaden-pipes for the        
distribution of water in the city of    
,lowell4 ,the first examination was     
made from a sample of water taken from  
the source or spring-head before  it had
 entered the leaden pipes1 when the     
specific gravity was found to  be       
#a1jjj1ah4 ,the pint1 on evaporation to 
dryness1 yielded #b4cg grains  of solid 
matter4 ,the solid contents of an       
imperial pint were found to  be1        
,grains4    ,chloride of ,sodium1       

#a4ed    ,chloride of ,magnesia1        
#j4ga    ,sulphate of ,lime1            
#j4abh                                  
------    ,a trace of ,carbonic acid1   
,grains1                                
#b4cgh    ,excess in the course of      
analysis    4#jjh    ,the second        
examination was made of water taken from
 the leaden pipes  when the specific    
gravity was found to be #a4jjj4db4 ,upon
 a pint of  this water being evaporated 
to dryness it yielded two grains of     
solid  matter1 7viz47      ,carbonate of
 lead            #afd  ,grains1         
,organic matter and salts     #jch      
---                                 #bjb
        ,excess in analysis1            
#jjb        ,it therefore has been      
calculated that every gallon of the     
water used  after passing through the   
leaden pipes1 contains #a4cab grains of 
the  carbonate of lead4 ,such water1    
although it would not speedily destroy  
life1 would undoubtedly be attended with
 injurious consequences1 should  its use

 be habitually continued4    ,on the    
other hand1 ,dr4 ,hare of ,philadelphia1
 in reply to a letter  requesting his   
opinion as to the action of the         
,schuylkill water#ae on  lead pipes1    
states that after using the ,schuylkill 
water for #be years  in his laboratory1 
he has never perceived the slightest    
indication of  the presence of lead2 and
 that if there had been any in the      
water1 the  re-agents which he has been 
accustomed to use must have rendered the
  impurity evident4 ,if it be true that 
the ,schuylkill water does not act  upon
 the lead pipes1 it would follow as a   
matter of course1 if the  doctrines     
above laid down be correct1 that the    
,croton1 which contains  very nearly the
 same quantity of saline ingredients1   
would also exert  no influence upon this
 metal4 ,in cases1 however1 where       
injurious  consequences have resulted   
from the agency of lead1 the pipes      
through  which the water was conducted1 
were of considerable length2 suppose for

  example that the pipes are #djjj feet 
long1 and three fourths of an inch  in  
diameter1 each portion of water will    
pass successively over no less  than    
#ghd square feet of lead before being   
discharged2 and it would not  therefore 
be at all remarkable1 if the water were 
found contaminated  with the lead4 ,in  
this city1 however1 the pipes are rarely
 more than #ej  feet in length1         
generally not more than #be1 and        
therefore cannot exert  so deleterious  
an influence as in those of greater     
extent4 ,dr4 ,chilton1  recently        
inspected the ,croton water drawn from  
the leaden pipes1 by  which it is       
introduced into the house of ,mr4 ,g4   
,d4 ,coggeshall4 ,no #dba  ,pearl-street
 in this city1 and found the water      
evidently affected  by the lead4 ,he has
 also obtained similar results in       
several other  instances4 ,if the       
precaution be used1 of not employing the
 water first  drawn from the pipes for  
dietetic and culinary purposes1 no      

injurious  consequences would probably  
attend the use of water conveyed in this
  metal1 but as this is not likely to be
 attended to generally1 it is  expedient
 to employ other measures to guard      
against its deleterious  effects4       
,for this purpose1 various means have   
been suggested1 such as the             
substitution of block-tin and other     
metals not acted upon by water2  but the
 most efficient1 scientific1 and useful1
 as well as the most  economical1 of all
 the plans hitherto proposed1 is that   
introduced by  ,thomas ,ewbank1 ,esq41  
of coating the lead-pipes with tin both 
inside and  out4 ,the process1 which has
 been patented1 consists simply in      
drawing  an ordinary lead-pipe through a
 bath of melted tin1 coated with a layer
  of melted rosin1 which leaves a       
continuous deposit1 of tin upon both    
sides of the pipe1 of sufficient        
thickness1 to effectually prevent  any  
oxidation of the lead4 ,these pipes have
 been highly recommended  by our first  

chemists1 and other men of science1 as  
furnishing an  effectual safeguard      
against the corroding effects of pure   
water ,this  highly ingenious process1  
strengthens the pipe1 without           
diminishing  its elasticity1 and        
although some small portions of the lead
 should  escape being coated1 yet the   
proximity of the tin1 will1 from        
galvanic  action1 probably prevent      
oxidization of the lead4 ,as these pipes
 are  furnished at about eight cents per
 pound1 the usual price of ordinary     
lead-pipe1 there can be no doubt that   
they will be generally adopted by  our  
citizens1--as they have been1 already1  
by the ,corporation1 in the  conveyance 
of the ,croton water1 into the public   
buildings4    ,use of ,water as         
,aliment4 ,water is the beverage        
provided by nature for  all animated    
beings4 ,it is a vital stimulus1 or one 
of the external  conditions essential   
for the manifestations of life4         
,consequently1  without it1 life1 at    

least in the higher order of animals1   
could not be  maintained4    ,considered
 in a dietetical point of view1 water   
serves three important  purposes in the 
animal economy2 namely1 it repairs the  
loss of the  aqueous part of the blood1 
caused by the action of the secreting   
and  exhaling organs2 secondly1 it is a 
solvent of various alimentary           
substances1 and therefore assists the   
stomach in the act of digestion1        
though1 if taken in very large          
quantities1 it may have an opposite     
effect1 by diluting the gastric juice2  
thirdly1 it is a nutritive  agent1 that 
is1 it assists in the formation of the  
solid parts of the  body4    ,as a      
diluent1 water is indispensable to the  
preservation of health4  ,the body being
 composed of solids and fluids1 there   
must be maintained  a certain relative  
proportion of these1 to constitute that 
state of  system called health4 ,in a   
full grown adult1 the solid matter of   
the  body1 by which we mean all that    

substantial part of the frame which  is 
not in constant motion in the vessels1  
amounts to only about one  fifth of the 
weight of the body--,chaussier says1 one
 ninth of the total  weight1 the        
difference1 perhaps1 being owing to the 
fact that there is  a quantity of fluid 
combined with the solids in so intimate 
a manner1  as almost to constitute a    
part of their substance4 ,the diminution
  of the fluid part of the body1 is the 
cause of an uneasy sensation1           
indicating the necessity of repairing   
the waste of fluids1 which we           
familiarly call thirst4 ,this is a      
sensation connected with some  natural  
state of the corporeal functions1 and   
altogether independent of  the          
occasional excitement of foreign bodies1
 although it may be induced  by these4  
,there is a demand for a certain supply 
of liquid which is  the result of       
repletion of the stomach1 and the cause 
of our drinking  at our ordinary meals1 
but this is different from true or      

spontaneous  thirst4 ,true thirst       
occurs1 when we have been some time     
without taking  drink1 7unless the food 
has consisted mainly of fruits and other
  succulent vegetables2 under which     
circumstances1 a person may go for      
months without any desire for drink72   
when the system has been greatly        
excited1 whether by corporeal or mental 
causes2 when acid substances1           
particularly saline bodies1 have been   
taken into the stomach2 and1 in  short1 
in every condition of the system1 which 
favors the inordinate  excretion of     
fluids4 ,the immediate cause of thirst  
appears to be a dry  state of the mouth 
and fauces2 owing to the mucus which    
covers these  parts becoming thick and  
viscid1 though physiologists are not    
agreed  on this point4 ,this may arise  
from the absorption of the fluid parts  
of the saliva2 for it appears to be     
necessary for the due performance  of   
the functions of the palate and the     
tongue1 that the mucus should  possess a

 certain degree of liquidity4 ,the      
sensation of thirst is  generally       
indicative of the necessity of a supply 
of fluid to the  system generally2 for  
although thirst may be momentarily      
assuaged by  wetting the mouth1 or      
holding a thin fluid in it--yet it can  
only be  effectually relieved by        
conveying into the stomach a quantity of
 fluid  sufficient to supply the        
deficiency4 ,this supply is termed      
dilution1  from the fact that the fluid 
is absorbed and carried into the blood1 
which it renders thin1 and the fluids   
themselves are called diluents4         
,thirst1 however1 does not always       
indicate a deficiency of fluids in the  
circulating mass1 and the tongue and    
fauces are occasionally dry and  harsh  
whilst the sensation of thirst is       
absent4 ,some individuals never         
experience the sensation of thirst4 ,mr4
 ,alcott1 who lives entirely  on        
succulent vegetables1 states that he has
 drunk no fluids for more  than a year  

past1 and that he never experiences the 
sensation of  thirst--a similar case is 
mentioned by ,sauvages1 of an individual
 who  never thirsted1 and passed whole  
months of the hottest weather without   
drinking4 ,it is well known that many   
warm-blooded animals such as mice1      
quails1 parrots1 rabbits1 c41 drink but 
very little2 which is supposed  to be   
owing to the circumstance that they have
 very large salivary  glands1 and a     
larger pancreas in proportion to the    
size of their  bodies4 ,in general1 as  
we have already remarked1 thirst is     
indicative  of diminished fluidity of   
the blood and when it is not assuaged by
  taking liquids into the stomach1 or by
 moistening the mouth with them1  or by 
applying them to the surface1 the       
torment which it induces  amounts       
occasionally almost to phrenzy1 and is  
borne with less patience  and greater   
difficulty than hunger2 sometimes       
inflammation of the mouth  and throat   
and intense fever supervene4 ,various   

circumstances connected  with the       
ordinary condition of the body influence
 the sensation of  thirst4 ,thus it is  
greater in infancy and childhood than in
 adult age1  and less in old age2 it is 
greater in women than in men2 it is     
varied  by constitution and temperament2
 by climate2 season2 the nature of  the 
diet2 exercise2 passions of mind1 and   
even by imagination4 ,as an  aliment1   
water is of prime necessity to all      
organized beings4 ,as a  solvent1 it    
reduces to a fluid mass all the         
principles necessary for  the growth of 
animal and vegetable bodies2 which must 
be in a fluid  form1 before they can be 
taken up by the fine lacteal and other  
absorbent vessels1 and thus carried to  
every part of the living tissue4  ,how  
important then1 that this universal     
solvent should be pure1--that  it should
 be free from those foreign ingredients1
 whether of animal1  vegetable or       
mineral origin1 which1 if introduced    
into the system1 tend  to disturb the   

functions of the various organs1 and    
often to occasion  serious derangement  
and disease4 ,but besides its important 
office as  a menstruum1 water is perhaps
 the most important nutrient1 of  all   
those which sustain the existence of    
organized bodies4 ,a great  proportion  
of that which is drunk1 is speedily     
absorbed by the veins1  and carried into
 the circulation1 some time before the  
product of the  digested food is        
introduced by the way of the laeteals4  
,there are  numerous cases on record1   
where persons have lived1 for a         
considerable  length of time1 on water  
alone4 ,in the 8,transactions of the    
,albany  ,institute10 for #ahcj1 ,dr4   
,m',naughten relates the case of a man  
who was  sustained on water alone1 for  
#ec days4 8,for the first six weeks he  
walked out every day1 and sometimes     
spent a great part of the day in  the   
woods4 ,his walk was steady and firm1   
and his friends even remarked  that his 
step had an unusual elasticity2 he      

shaved himself until about  a week      
before his death1 and was able to sit up
 in bed till the last  day40    ,to the 
evils which result from the use of      
impure water1 we have  already alluded1 
although it would require far more space
 than has  been assigned to us in this  
,appendix1 to do them adequate justice4 
,there can be no doubt1 that the chief  
cause of the excess of mortality  in    
cities1 over that of the country1 is to 
be found in the impure  water1 with     
which the former are so generally       
supplied1 and we may  confidently       
predict1 that in consequence mainly of  
the introduction  of the ,croton ,river 
into the ,city of ,new-,york1 no city in
 the world  of equal size1 will surpass 
it in salubrity4 ,to the operation of   
the same cause1 we may doubtless look   
with confidence for a decided           
improvement in personal comeliness and  
beauty4 8,it is evident10 says  ,dr     
,jackson1 8that the health of a whole   
community may be so affected  by        

impurities in water drank by them1 as to
 give a peculiar morbid  expression to  
their countenances which causes the     
observant eye of a  traveller to remark 
it1 while he in vain endeavours to      
account for the  phenomenon4 ,who has   
not remarked the expression common in   
some of our  cities1 as in ,new-,york   
and ,boston1 which is called a 8care    
worn and  anxious expression40 ,this    
expression ,i will venture to assert1 is
 not  so much the result of 8too much   
care10 as it is of abdominal disease1   
produced by the habitual and continued  
use of impure and unwholesome  water1   
which has fixed upon us this morbid     
stamp4 ,i do not know that  the people  
of the cities in question1 are subject  
to more care than  those in other       
districts1 but ,i do know that they use 
every day1 in  many forms1 a variety of 
noxous ingredients1 which they pump up  
from  their wells1 dissolved in the     
water1 and which enters into every  form
 of food and drink they use in their    

houses40 ,mrs4 ,hale1 also1  in her     
excellent ,manual 8,the ,good           
,housekeeper10 remarks1 that 8hard      
water always leaves a mineral matter on 
the skin1 when we use it in  washing1   
which renders the hands and face rough  
and liable to chap4  ,does not this     
water1 if we drink it1 likewise corrode 
and injure the  fine membranes of the   
stomach8 ,the ,boston people1 who       
constantly use  hard water for all      
purposes of cookery and drink1 certainly
 have bad  complexions1 sallow1 dry1 and
 hard looking2 and complaints of the    
stomach or dyspepsia are very common    
among them4#af ,a ,salem gentleman      
declared1 that when his daughters1 who  
frequently visited at ,boston1  passed  
two or three weeks at a time there1 he  
could see a very material  change in    
their complexions4 ,at ,salem there is  
plenty of soft water1  and the ladies of
 that ancient town are famed for their  
beauty1 which  is chiefly owing 7its    
superiority ,i mean7 to a peculiarly    

fair1  delicate tincture of skin        
contrasted with the half petrified      
appearance  of those who are obliged to 
drink hard water always1 and often to   
wash in it40 ,such authority on this    
point we presume will not be  disputed4 
,health1 however1 is no less promoted by
 the internal1 than by the  external use
 of water2 and it is to be hoped1 that  
but a short period  will elapse1 before 
free baths will be provided at the      
public expense1  for the use of the     
poor1 as well as the public generally4  
,daily  ablution should be regarded as  
necessary as daily food or sleep4       
,the advantages which soft water        
possesses over hard1 in the thousand    
economical purposes of life1 are too    
obvious to need particular  remark4 ,the
 lime contained in well water1 renders  
it inapplicable  to the purposes of     
brewing1 tanning1 washing1 bleaching1   
and many  other processes in the arts   
and domestic economy2 and we believe the
  calculation would not be found        

extravagant1 if we should say that by   
the use of the ,croton water #ajj1jjj   
dollars annually will be saved to  the  
inhabitants of ,new-,york1 in the       
articles of soap and soda alone4  ,when 
to this1 we add the increased comfort   
and health of the citizens1  from its   
free external and internal use1--the    
superior cleanliness  of the streets1 by
 the washing away of all stagnant       
matters in the  sinks and gutters1 and  
the consequent purity of the            
atmosphere1--the  diminution of danger  
from fires1 and the consequent reduction
 of rates  of insurance1 with other     
important advantages too numerous to    
detail1  we shall not consider its      
introduction purchased at too dear a    
rate1  even were the expenses attending 
it increased to double the actual       
amount4    ,we need not attempt to      
specify in detail the benefits which are
 likely  to accrue to the city of       
,new-,york from the introduction of an  
abundance  of pure water4 ,its value is 

not to be estimated by dollars and      
cents2 though it might easily be shown1 
that it already saves to the  citizens a
 sum far exceeding the annual interest  
on its cost4 ,we have  already referred 
to its superiority as a solvent of      
vegetable matter1  over the hard well   
water1 formerly used4 ,since then1 we   
have made a  calculation1 by which we   
are satisfied that in the single items  
of tea  and coffee1 it will save to the 
inhabitants of this city annually1  not 
far from #ij1jjj dollars4 ,to this may  
be added the improvement  of the public 
health1 and the consequent saving in    
medicine1 and  physicians' fees1 a sum  
probably exceeding that above specified2
 the  increase of the working days1 and 
the extension of the average period  of 
working ability among the laboring      
classes2 and lastly1 the moral  and     
intellectual advancement of the entire  
population1 attendant upon  the         
improvement of their physical condition2
 each of which is not an  unimportant   

item in the aggregate of public         
prosperity and happiness4    ,such are  
some of the facts connected with this   
important fluid--water4  ,so common and 
abundant is it in nature1 that we are   
apt to overlook its  value2 but we need 
only be deprived of it for a season1    
when we shall  set a due estimate upon  
its importance4 ,pure and sparkling to  
the eye1  bland and refreshing to the   
taste1 whether it bubbles up from mother
  earth1 gurgles in rills1 flows along  
in streams and rivers1 or spreads  out  
in lakes and oceans1 it every where     
proves a blessing1--and ought  to be    
universally regarded as one of the most 
inestimable gifts of  ,providence to    
man4 ,as it is the only fluid capable of
 quenching thirst1  so it is the only   
one compatible with the prolonged       
duration of animal  life--we need not   
add1 that as ,,alcohol1 under all its   
combinations1  fermented and distilled1 
is a deadly poison1 fatal to organized  
beings1  whether they belong to the     

vegetable or animal kingdom1 ,,water can
 in  no case be improved by combining it
 with this deleterious fluid4 ,it  was  
formerly common in this city1 and still 
is so in many places where  the         
well-water is brackish1 to modify its   
taste by the addition of a  quantity of 
brandy1 or some other form of ardent    
spirit1 with a view1  not only of       
rendering it more agreeable to the      
palate1 but also of  correcting the     
deleterious properties1 occasioned by   
the salts held by  it in solution4 ,but 
in all such instances1 the spirit which 
is added  proves far more injurious than
 the small quantity of vegetable and    
mineral matters which it is designed to 
correct4 ,to the latter1 the  system    
becomes in a manner habituated1 so that 
even when pure soft  water can be had1  
the former is often preferred1 as is now
 the case  with many individuals1 who   
prefer our brackish well water to that  
of  the ,croton4 ,but where ardent      
spirit is added1 an artificial appetite 

for stimulants is soon created1--there  
is a constantly increasing  demand for a
 repetition as well as increase of the  
dose1 derangement of  the digestive     
organs succeeds1 and in a large majority
 of instances1  the health is           
irremediably impaired4 ,but fortunately1
 no arguments are  needed in this place 
to convince the citizens of ,new-,york  
that pure  ,croton water needs no       
corrective1--and that it is the sworn   
enemy of  fire1 whether in the shape of 
alcoholic poison1 or that of the more   
simple element--      8  0--,,pindar4   
,,printed ,,by ,,william ,,osborn1      
#hh ,william-street4                    
,,footnotes      #a ,it is proper to    
remark that1 the pier at each extremity1
 of the  range of arches of eighty feet 
span1 has an extra thickness1 making it 
a pier of equilibrium2 this is also the 
case with the one in the centre  of that
 range of arches1 so that on each shore 
and in the centre of the  river this    
additional security has been given4     

#b ,this report was from the pen of     
,samuel ,stevens1 ,esq4    #c ,this ,act
 was drawn up by ,myndert ,van ,schaick1
 ,esq41 and its  character and          
suitableness to obviate former          
difficulties were approved  of by the   
,common ,council1 and the situation of  
,mr4 ,van ,schaick1 as  member of the   
,senate1 no doubt promoted its success4 
#d ,this ,act was prepared by ,myndert  
,van ,schaick1 ,esq41 from materials    
which he had previously collected for   
the purpose1 and it passed into a  ,law1
 and is the one under which1 as its main
 foundation1 the work has  been         
constructed4    #e ,for some general    
remarks on ,water1 its economical and   
dietetical  uses1 an analysis of the    
,croton and the comparative purity of   
that  supplied to different cities1 the 
action of water on lead1 c41 see        
,appendix1 which has been kindly        
furnished by ,charles ,a4 ,lee1 ,m4 ,d41
 of  ,new-,york4    #f ,the ,aqueduct is
 calculated to convey #fj1jjj1jjj       

gallons in  twenty-four hours4    #g    
,this includes1 besides the actual cost 
of constructing the work1  the          
accumulation of interest on loans4    #h
 ,the air in ice and snow water contains
 #cd4h per cent4 of oxygen1  while that 
in rain water contains but #cb per cent4
    #i ,report from the ,select         
,committee of the ,house of ,lords1     
appointed  to inquire into the supply of
 water to the ,metropolis1 p4 #ia1      
#ahdj4  ,analysis by ,r4 ,phillips1     
,esq4    #aj ,analysis1 by ,dr4 ,j4 ,r4 
,chilton1 of ,new-,york4    #aa ,the bad
 effects of hard water on the animal    
system1 are likewise  manifested in     
horses4 8,hard water drawn fresh from   
the well10 says ,mr4  ,youatt1 8will    
assuredly make the coat of a horse      
unaccustomed to it  stare1 and it will  
not unfrequently gripe1 and otherwise   
injure him4  ,instinct1 or experience1  
has made even the horse himself         
conscious of  this2 for he will never   
drink hard water1 if he has access to   

soft2  he will leave the most           
transparent water of the well1 for the  
river1  although the water may be       
turbid1 and even for the muddiest pool4 
,some  trainers have so much fear of    
hard or strange water1 that they carry  
with them to the different courses the  
water that the animal has been          
accustomed to drink and what they know  
agrees with it40    #ab ,repository of  
,patent ,inventions1 for ,october1      
#ahda4    #ac ,it is now well           
ascertained1 that carbonate of lime has 
only a  slight action on soap1 and      
cannot in the proportions in which it   
exists  in potable waters decompose it1 
by giving rise to the formation of a    
clotty precipitate1 as we observe with  
sulphate and nitrate of lime1  and      
chloride of calcium--and this is        
probably owing to the excess of         
carbonic acid which prevents the        
re-action of the calcareous carbonate   
on the oleate and stearate of soda of   
the soap4    #ad ,where water contains a

 large quantity of carbonic acid1 there 
are some facts which appear to prove1   
that it may act on lead1 to an          
injurious extent1 though there may be   
present a large amount of neutral       
salts4    #ae ,containing #d4je grains  
of solid matter to the gallon1 or about 
one  #ah1jjj part4    #af 8,it has been 
computed that the ,boston people have   
drank sufficient  lime1 were it all     
collected1 to build the ,bunker ,hill   
,monument as  high as it was ever       
designed to be carried40                
,transcriber's ,notes      ,punctuation1
 hyphenation1 and spelling were made    
consistent when a  predominant          
preference was found in the original    
book2 otherwise they  were not changed4 
,this includes misspellings of several  
,roman names1  both proper and common4  
,simple typographical errors were       
corrected2 unbalanced quotation  marks  
were remedied when the change was       
obvious1 and otherwise left  unbalanced4
    ,the appearances and hierarchy of   

headings in the original book were      
inconsistent4 ,those inconsistencies    
have been retained here4 ,in  versions  
of this e,book that support hyperlinks1 
references in the ,table  of ,contents  
link to the corresponding headings4     
,illustrations in this e,book have been 
positioned between paragraphs and       
outside quotations4 ,in versions of this
 e,book that support hyperlinks1  the   
page references in the ,list of ,plates 
link to the corresponding               
illustrations4    ,footnotes1 originally
 at the bottoms of pages1 have been     
renumbered and  moved to the end of the 
text4    ,plate ,x1 page #if3 ,in this  
e,book1 the caption shown for this      
,plate  includes only the headings in   
the plaque illustrated in the original  
book4 ,the names of individuals listed  
under those headings are not  included  
here4    ,page #ade3 ,the numbers       
8#a1jjj1ah0 and 8#a4jjj4db0 were printed
 that way4  ,in the first one1 the      
commas almost certainly should be       

periods1 if the  notation in the second 
one is what the author intended4