,transcriber's ,notes3                  
,underscores 80 before and after a word 
or phrase indicate italics          in  
the original text4      ,equal signs 80 
before and after a word or phrase       
indicate bold          in the original  
text4      ,small capitals have been    
converted to ,,solid capitals4          
,illustrations have been moved so they  
do not break up paragraphs4             
,typographical and punctuation errors   
have been silently corrected4           
,,elementary ,,course                   
,,in                      ,,woodwork    
,,designed ,,for ,,use ,,in ,,high      
,,and ,,technical ,,schools             
,,with      ,,one ,,hundred ,,and       
,,thirty-,,four ,,illustrations         
,,by                ,,george ,,alexander
 ,,ross                                 
,,instructor ,,in             ,,woodwork
 ,,and ,,patternmaking                  
,,lewis ,,institute1 ,,chicago          
,,first ,,edition                   ,a4 
,,flanagan ,,company                    

,,chicago 33 ,,new ,,york               
,,copyright1 #aija                      
,,by                 ,a4 ,,flanagan     
,,company          ,,preface4      ,the 
character and object of this book is set
 forth on its title page4  ,it is a     
manual designed principally for the     
practical assistance of  students in    
elementary woodwork in the ,lewis       
,institute4    ,the author has          
endeavored to present the subject in    
such a manner as  to make simple the    
transition from the easier to the more  
difficult  operations2 the exercises    
have been selected after having had a   
thorough test covering a period of three
 years1 and will be found  practical in 
their application to the students in    
,high and ,technical  ,schools in       
elementary woodwork and turning4        
,part one1 the bench work1 is intended  
to cover a period of eight  weeks1 two  
hours per day1 and part two1 wood       
turning1 four weeks1 two  hours per day1
 thus making a course which will be     

found to touch the  principal points in 
elementary work1 at the same time giving
 practice  in the uses of the tools most
 commonly used in carpentry1 joinery and
  wood turning4 ,disston  ,sons'        
,handbook for ,lumbermen has furnished  
many  of the facts presented under      
8,care of ,saws40    ,it has been the   
author's aim in this course to give just
 enough  instruction in the work so that
 the student might be led to study out  
the problems for himself2 by this means 
he is able to study the course  of work 
that follows the second part of this    
book1 i4 e41 ,pattern  ,making4    ,a   
cursory perusal of the work will        
disclose many features which the  author
 feels sure will commend themselves to  
instructors and others  interested in   
this department of school work1 and with
 the hope that  these pages may prove a 
valuable aid to students and teachers   
alike1  this work is presented to the   
public4                                 
,,george ,a4 ,,ross4      ,lewis        

,institute1 ,chicago1 #aija4            
,,table ,,of ,,contents4                
,,page4        ,,care ,,of ,,saws ,,and 
,,equipment                             
#g      ,,exercise ,,in ,,sawing ,,and  
,,planing                               
#ba      ,,the ,,halved ,,joint         
#dg      ,,the ,,mortise ,,and ,,tenon  
,,joint                                 
#ea      ,,keyed ,,mortise ,,and ,,tenon
 ,,with ,,brace                         
#eg      ,,exercise ,,with ,,the        
,,bench1 ,,bead1 ,,rabbet1 ,,and        
,,molding ,,planes  #fb      ,,blind    
,,mortises ,,and ,,tenons ,,with        
,,beading ,,and ,,rabbeting       #ff   
,,dovetail ,,corner ,,joint 7,,common7  
#ga      ,,glass ,,panel ,,door ,,frame 
#gi      ,,bench ,,hook4 ,,use ,,of     
,,shellac                               
#hg      ,,box ,,with ,,sliding ,,top   
#hi      ,,problem ,,in ,,truss ,,work  
#id      ,,problem ,,in ,,stair         
,,building                              
#ajj      ,,problem ,,in ,,stair        

,,railing                               
#ajf      ,,to ,,prepare ,,shellac      
#aad      ,,to ,,prepare ,,glue ,,and   
,,how ,,to ,,use ,,it                   
#aae      ,,to ,,true ,,oil ,,stones    
#aaf          ,,care ,,of ,,saws1 ,,and 
,,equipment4      ,elementary woodwork  
can be more readily learned from small  
pieces of  wood than from large2 so the 
exercises that are here given are of    
such  dimensions that they can be easily
 handled in working out the problems4   
,since it is by what we study and learn 
that we are able to do something  else1 
the student in beginning this work      
should thoroughly familiarize  himself  
with the tools1 their names and uses1 so
 that he may more  readily understand   
their application in the work that      
follows4    ,the equipment for the      
general use of students in each bench   
locker is  as follows3        #a        
#bj-;inch ,rip-,saw4      #a #bj-;inch  
,cross-,cut ,saw4      #a #aj-;inch     
,back-,saw4      #a #h-;inch            

,try-,square4      #a #h-;inch ,bevel4  
#a #h-;inch ,wing ,dividers4      #a    
,marking ,knife4      #a -inch ,hand    
,mortising ,chisel4      #a ,bit ,brace4
      #a -inch1 -inch1 -inch and -inch  
,auger ,bit4      #a ,nail ,set4      #a
 ,mallet4      #a ,hammer4      #a ,oil 
,stone4      #a ,oil ,can4      #a      
,screw ,driver4      #a ,dust ,brush4   
,the equipment of tools in drawer and   
under the care of individual  students  
is as follows3        #a ,number #e     
,bailey ,iron ,plane 7,jack-,plane74    
#a ,number #d ,bailey ,iron ,plane      
7,smooth-,plane74      #a ,marking      
,gauge4      #a -inch1 -inch1 -inch1 and
 #a-;inch ,bevel ,edge ,paring ,chisel4 
#a -inch and -inch ,skew ,turning       
,chisel4      #a -inch and -inch        
,turning ,gouge4    ,tools1 such as     
molding1 beading1 rabbeting1 and plow   
planes are found  in the tool room1 and 
are issued to students on check when    
required4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4  
,fig4 #a shows the double bench equipped

 with rack1 cam and quick acting  vises1
 with the locker for the general tools  
and four drawers on each  side of the   
bench with tools for the use of the     
individual student4  ,carpenters'       
benches are usually about #cc inches    
high1 while cabinet and  pattern makers'
 benches are from #b inches to #d inches
 higher4    ,the careful workman as a   
rule takes great pride in the condition 
in which his bench is kept2 so the      
beginner should see that his  immediate 
surroundings are kept in a neat1        
workmanlike manner1 and with  everything
 in proper place4    ,care should be    
taken to protect the top of the bench   
from injury2 it  should never be marked 
by the chisel or cut by the saw4 ,if    
chiseling  has to be done on the bench1 
place the work on the bench hook or on a
  board1 and in sawing use a bench hook 
such as is shown in ,fig4 #b1 that  has 
a side lip that will protect the bench  
top4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4       
,the bench hook is made by students as  

an exercise1 and is used to  replace    
those hooks that have become worn out4  
,the material1 which is delivered from  
the lumber yard in boards or  planks1   
has to be cut up into lengths and widths
 suitable for the work  to be done4 ,the
 tools used for doing this cutting are  
the rip-saw and  the cross-cut saw4     
,now1 a great amount of time can be lost
 in this work by the student1  for the  
reason of his trying to do work with one
 tool when another  should be used1 and 
especially is this so in regard to saws4
 ,a saw  will cut faster than a chisel  
in some places1 and sometimes make the  
work as good if not better2 so the      
student should learn to file and to     
keep a saw in just as good order as any 
other tool used4    ,we devote          
considerable space here to the saw1 for 
we feel that the saw  as one of the     
principal tools is often neglected1 and 
is not used by  students in their work  
as much as it should be4 ,by a judicious
 use of  this tool much time can be     

saved and a greater amount of ground    
covered  than by trying to use a chisel 
or a jack knife in its stead4    ,saws  
are either reciprocating or continuous  
in action2 the first being  a flat blade
 and a practically straight edge1 making
 a plane cut1 as  in mill1 jig1 and sash
 saws2 the latter either a circular or  
rotating  disc1 cutting in a plane at   
right angles to its axis 7see buzz-saw  
in  shop7 or a continuous ribbon or band
 running on two pulleys1 making  a plane
 or curved cut with a straight edge     
parallel to their axis of  rotation 7see
 band-saw in shop74    ,practically     
speaking1 the teeth are a series of     
knives set on a  circular or straight   
line1 each tooth cutting out its        
proportion of  wood1 and kept from      
cutting more by the teeth on either side
 of it4  ,each tooth should cut the same
 amount and carry out the chips or dust1
  dropping it to the side or below the  
material being sawed4 ,different  kinds 
of woods require teeth different in     

number1 angle or pitch1 and  style of   
filing4    ,the perfect saw is one that 
cuts the fastest and smoothest with the 
least expenditure of power2 to do this  
it is evident that each tooth  should be
 so constructed and dressed as to do an 
equal proportion of  the work1 for if   
any of the teeth are out of line or     
shape they are not  only useless        
themselves but a disadvantage to the    
others4    ,a saw tooth has two         
functions--paring and scraping4 ,a      
slitting or rip  saw for wood should    
have its cutting edge at about right    
angles to the  fibre of the wood1       
severing it in one place1 the throat of 
the tooth  wedging out the piece4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4    ,the       
rip-saw1 ,fig4 #c1 should be filed      
square across1 and the front or  rake of
 tooth should be at about right angles  
to the edge of the saw4    ,after       
jointing and setting1 file one half the 
teeth from each side1  which will give  
to the cutting edge of the tooth the    

slight bevel  it should have for soft   
wood2 for medium hard woods use a finer 
toothed saw1 and file in the same       
manner2 for the very hard1 tough  and   
cross-grained woods1 use a saw still    
finer with the teeth filed  slightly    
beveling1 as ripping cross-grained stuff
 partakes a little of  the nature of    
cross-cutting4    ,in all cases where   
ripping is done1 the thrust of a saw    
should be on  an angle of about #de     
degrees to the material being cut1 as   
shown in  ,fig4 #d4 ,this makes a       
shearing cut1 an advantage that can be  
quickly  demonstrated with an ordinary  
pocket knife1 cutting any piece of soft 
wood4    ,saws are designated by the    
number of points or teeth per inch1 and 
the  selection of a saw depends upon the
 character of wood to be worked4 ,a     
rip-saw should have from #d to #aj teeth
 per inch1 the cross-cut saw from  #f to
 #af teeth per inch4 ,this includes the 
back-saw1 it being filed the  same as a 
regular cross-cut saw4    ,illustration3

 ,,fig4 #d4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4
    ,the harder the wood1 the greater   
the number of teeth the saw should      
have4    ,we will now consider the      
cross-cut saw tooth in regard to rake or
  pitch2 this being one of the most     
important features1 too much care       
cannot be taken to have the correct     
amount of pitch for the duty  required4 
,to illustrate this4 ,fig4 #e represents
 a board1 across which  we wish to make 
a deep mark or score with the point of a
 knife4  ,suppose we hold the knife     
nearly perpendicular as at ,b2 it is    
evident  that it will push harder and   
will not cut as smoothly as if it were  
inclined forward as at ,a4 ,it follows  
then that the cutting edge of a         
cross-cut saw should incline forward as 
at ,c1 ,fig4 #f1 rather than stand      
perpendicular as at ,d1 ,fig4 #g4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4    ,too much  
hook or pitch and too heavy a set are   
very common faults1 not  only           

detrimental to good work but ruinous to 
the saw2 in the first  case1 by having a
 large amount of pitch1 the saw takes   
hold so keenly  that frequently it      
8hangs up0 suddenly in the thrust--the  
result1 a  kinked or broken blade2 in   
the second1 by having too much set1 the 
strain caused by the additional and     
unnecessary amount of set is out of     
proportion to the strength of the blade1
 and it is broken in the same  manner4  
,the most general value of pitch used is
 #fj degrees1 though this  may be varied
 a little1 more or less1 to advantage1  
as occasion may  demand4    ,in all     
cases the size of tooth depends largely 
upon the duty required2  a long tooth   
has the demerit of being weak and liable
 to spring1 but  the merit of giving a  
greater clearance to the saw-dust4 ,the 
throat  space in front of each tooth    
must be large enough to contain the dust
  of that tooth from one stroke2 the    
greater the feed the deeper the dust    
chamber required1 or the more teeth4    

,where the teeth are fine the shape  of 
the throat is of special interest4      
,the teeth of a hand-saw should be filed
 so true that on holding it up  to the  
eye and looking along its edge1 it will 
show a central groove  down which a fine
 needle will slide freely the entire    
length4 ,this  groove must be angular in
 shape and equal on each side1 or the   
saw is  not filed properly and will not 
run true4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4    ,fig4 #h  
shows how the groove should appear on   
looking down the edge of  the saw4 ,the 
action should be such that the bottom of
 the cut or kerf  will present the      
appearance as shown in ,fig4 #i1 and not
 as in ,fig4 #aj2  the cutting action is
 shown in ,fig4 #aa1 the cutting being  
done with the  outside of the tooth2 the
 fibre of the wood is severed in two    
places1  and the wood is crumbled out   
from point to point by the thrust of the

  saw4    ,the proper amount of bevel is
 very important1 as is demonstrated by  
the  above figures1 for if too much     
bevel is given the points will score  so
 deeply that the fibres severed from the
 main body will not crumble  out as     
severed but will be removed by continued
 rasping4 ,this is true1  particularly  
in hard woods1 as they require less     
bevel1 as well as  pitch1 than soft     
wood4    ,the next point to be          
considered is the bevel or fleam of the 
point4 ,in  ,fig4 #ab the filer1 as in  
all cases1 files from the heel to the   
point2  which is the only correct way4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4    ,the file 
is supposed to be perpendicular to the  
side of the saw in the  vertical plane  
7see ,fig4 #ac71 at an angle of about   
#de degrees in the  horizontal plane1   
measuring from file line towards heel   
7see ,fig4 #ad74    ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #ac4    ,fig4 #ae is a fair      
representation of many saws that we have
 seen owned  by workmen2 the result of  

owning such tools is shown in the poor  
work  turned out by them4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4    ,as has   
already been said1 the filing should be 
done from the heel of  the saw toward   
the point4 ,many practical saw filers   
contend that this  is wrong2 that the   
filing should be done from the point of 
the saw  toward the handle2 but the only
 support they offer for this theory  is 
that they do away with the feather edge 
that the filing from the  heel of saws  
puts on the cutting face of the tooth4  
,the feather edge  is no objection1 as  
the main part of it is removed when the 
teeth are  side-dressed after the saw is
 set and sharpened4    ,against the     
correctness of filing from point to     
handle may be cited the  following      
objections3    ,where a different angle 
of back is required 7it should be       
remembered  that that angle of face     
should be the same in nearly all        
cross-cut  hand saws1 and that angle of 
back governs angle of point7 it will be 

found very difficult to obtain it       
without changing the angle of face  of  
the tooth1 and as the cutting duty is on
 the long side of the face1  any change 
is1 of course1 of great influence4      
,again1 to file from the  point of the  
saw it is necessary to file with the    
teeth bent toward the  operator4 ,this  
will cause the saw to vibrate or        
chatter1 a thing which  not only renders
 good1 clean1 even filing impossible1   
but breaks the  teeth off the file4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4    ,the      
setting of a saw is an important part of
 the work in keeping a saw  in order1   
and should be done ,,after the saw has  
been ,,jointed1 and before  filing4     
,the set should be uniform throughout1  
as the good working of a saw  depends   
nearly as much on this as on the filing4
 ,one great mistake is  often made in   
setting a saw1 and that is that many try
 to put the set  in the blade instead of
 in the tooth4 ,the set should not go at
 the most  lower than half the length of

 the tooth2 by going lower it is liable 
to  spring the body of the saw1 if not  
break the tooth out4    ,two methods may
 be given for setting saws4 ,the first1 
or old method  7employed before saw-sets
 were invented1 and still used by old   
mechanics7 is to take a hardwood block1 
lay the saw on it1 and with a  nail set 
and hammer set every other tooth on the 
side1 then turn the  blade over and     
repeat the operation on the teeth missed
 from the first  side4 ,it is needless  
to make any comment on this method when 
saw sets  can be bought that are        
absolutely reliable in their operation4 
,the second method is to use the        
saw-set4 ,saw-sets are made in many     
styles1 and can be bought at any        
hardware store4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #af4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4     
,figs4 #af and #ag show two styles of   
saw-sets2 much might be said in  favor  
of each4    ,saw clamps or vises used to
 hold the saw when filing can be bought 
7see  ,fig4 #ah71 but a simple homemade 

vise can be put together by means of    
two pieces of board1 one #c feet #f     
inches long and #f inches wide1 and  one
 #b feet #d inches long and #f inches   
wide4 ,by fastening a piece #b  inches  
thick about #aj inches from the top of  
each1 to act as a fulcrum1  and         
fastening a piece on each board at the  
top to act as jaws1 and  using a wedge  
at the bottom to tighten it up1 a very  
serviceable vise  is obtained 7see ,fig4
 #ai74    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4    ,to assist
 those not skilled in the art of filing1
 there is made a  saw-filing clamp with 
a guide1 of which a cut is here shown in
 ,fig4 #bj4    ,a few general rules may 
be observed in saw-filing3 ,see that the
 file  is held at the same angle        
throughout the operation4 ,file every   
other  tooth on one side1 and when      
filed1 reverse the saw and file the     
other  teeth from the other side4 ,for  
rip saws1 place the file at right angles
  with the saw1 and file the rake of    

tooth at right angles to the edge4      
,after a saw is properly set and filed1 
lay it on a flat board and rub  over the
 points of the teeth on the sides with  
an oil stone2 this will  regulate the   
set and insure smooth cutting1 making   
the filing last  longer4 ,should the saw
 not run true take another cut with the 
oil stone  over the side toward which it
 leads4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4   
,a fast cutting cross-cut saw should    
have deep teeth4    ,much useful        
information on saws can be obtained from
 a small book  published and issued by  
,disston  ,sons1 ,philadelphia1 entitled
 8,hand  ,book for ,lumbermen10 which1  
,i believe1 can be obtained on          
application4    ,the other tools used in
 this course will be taken up in order  
as they  are used in the work4          
,,exercise ,,no4 #a4      ,the following
 operations are designed to give the    
student a ,,training  in the use and    
care of the most commonly used          
carpenters' and joiners'  tools4 ,it is 

not intended that the student will be   
able to finish  each exercise in one    
trial1 as mistakes will be very common  
at the  beginning1 and it is advised    
that at least two or three trials may be
  given for the practice and training   
involved4    ,in ,fig4 #ba is shown the 
working drawing 7mechanical drawing7 of 
a  rectangular block of wood1 and before
 we proceed to do the work  required to 
finish this1 we will study the drawing4 
,in order to represent solid figures    
with their three dimensions1  length1   
breadth1 and thickness1 on a plane      
surface1 i4e41 a sheet  of paper1 we    
must have at least two drawings         
7projections71 but to  simplify the     
reading still further a third drawing is
 given1 sometimes  with additional      
drawings in the form of cross-sections4 
,to understand fully the principle upon 
which a working drawing is made1  we    
will suppose that two transparent planes
 cross each other at right  angles1     
making four right angles as shown in    

,fig4 #bb1 7these angles  to be known as
 the #ast1 #bnd1 #crd1 and #dth angle of
 the co-ordinate  planes71 and          
respectively called the ,horizontal and 
the ,vertical  planes4    ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #ba4    ,two of these angles are
 used in practice1 the #ast and the     
#crd2 the most  modern practice is to   
use the #crd1 although the #ast is still
 used in  some manufacturing            
establishments and by some teachers4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4    ,we will  
take1 first1 the #ast angle1 and compare
 it with the results  obtained from the 
#crd angle4 ,we place the solid         
7exercise #a7 in space  in the #ast     
angle1 and also place a similar one in  
the #crd angle 7see  ,figs4 #bc and     
#bd74    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4    ,by       
projecting the lines back on the        
vertical1 and down on the  horizontal   
plane1 we obtain two views which are    
respectively the  elevation on the      
vertical and the plan on the horizontal 

plane2 to  obtain the third view or end 
elevation1 we have another plane placed 
perpendicular to planes ,h and ,v1 as   
shown in ,figs4 #bc and #bd1 and the    
lines projected back from the left end2 
by opening or revolving these  planes   
into one plane1 as shown in ,fig4 #be1  
we have a working drawing  made in the  
#ast angle4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#be4    ,referring to ,fig4 #bd1 where  
we placed the solid in the #crd angle1  
we  project the lines up on the         
horizontal and to the front on the      
vertical  plane1 and by placing another 
plane at the end1 perpendicular to the  
,h and ,v planes1 we obtain the third   
projection4 ,revolving the planes  into 
one plane 7i4 e41 a sheet of paper7     
,fig4 #bf1 we have the working  drawing 
in the third angle4 ,compare the results
 obtained1 and note the  difference in  
the reading of the drawing4    ,in the  
first angle we see the plan is below the
 elevation1 and in the  third angle the 
plan is above2 the pieces cut out of the

 exercise may  also be noted in the end 
projection by the lines passing through 
the  center of the exercise2 in the     
first angle the line comes out full1 the
  end being exposed1 and in the third   
angle the surface is behind the  full   
end and shows a dotted line4    ,lines  
that are seen are shown as full lines4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4    ,lines    
that are below a surface and are        
required in the reading of a  drawing   
are shown as dotted lines4    ,the      
drawing1 ,fig4 #ba1 calls for a piece   
that is #h inches at its  longest1 #b   
inches at its widest1 and #a inch at its
 thickest point1  and that may be       
designated thus3 piece #h inches  #b    
inches  #a inch  finished4    ,for      
measuring1 a standard rule #b feet long 
that can be folded up is  preferred4    
,the rule is divided into feet1 inches1 
inches1  inches1   inches1 _/ inches1   
etc4 ,on some rules will be found scales
 that  can be used in measuring drawings
 that are drawn to scale4 ,the drawing  

may be of any scale1 using 1 1 #a1 #a1  
#c1 or #f inches to the foot4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4    ,the first
 thing to be done toward carrying out   
the work is to saw out  a piece from the
 plank that is laid on the saw trestles 
7,fig4 #bg74  ,mark with a pencil the   
lines to be sawed2 holding the rule in  
the left  hand1 and the pencil in the   
right1 and placing the index finger of  
the  left hand against the edge of the  
plank1 as shown in ,fig4 #bh1 draw both 
hands toward the body1 thus marking out 
the piece lengthwise2 then  measure the 
length required and place the try-square
 7,fig4 #bi7 against  the edge of the   
plank1 and draw a line along the blade  
through the  point marked4    ,the piece
 should be marked out larger than the   
finished exercise so  that there will be
 stock enough in the piece to perform   
the operations  required1 say #h inches 
#b inches1 the plank being thick enough 
to  provide for the work on the sides4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4    ,having   

8laid out0 the piece on the plank1 take 
the rip-saw and hold it  as shown in    
,fig4 #cj3 saw down the line1 taking    
care that the 8kerf0 is  square to the  
side of the plank2 then take the        
cross-cut saw1 and saw  across the line 
marked4 ,hold the cross-cut saw as in   
,fig4 #cj4    ,after having cut the     
piece from the plank take the jack-plane
 and put  it in good condition for work4
 ,a sectional view of the ,bailey ,iron 
,plane is shown in ,fig4 #ca1 and the   
parts are as follows3                   
,a--,plane-,iron4      ,b--,cap ,iron4  
,c--,the ,iron ,lever4      ,d--,thumb  
piece and ,cam4      ,e--,screw which   
acts as a fulcrum when the thumb piece  
is pushed         into position4        
,f--,thumb screw by which the           
,plane-,iron ,a is regulated for any    
thickness of shaving4      ,g--,lever   
which is in contact with ,plane-,iron4  
,h--,screw which holds the iron bed     
piece in place4      ,i--,bed piece4    
,k--,lever4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4    

#bi4    ,the plane-iron should be ground
 on the grindstone if nicked or rounded4
    ,to grind the plane-iron it should  
be held in the hand as shown in ,fig4   
#cb4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4      
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4    ,apply the
 iron to the stone1 as indicated by     
dotted line ,a1 ,fig4 #cc2  then raise  
it until the proper angle is reached1 a 
position indicated  by full lines ,b4   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4    ,move the 
tool gradually from one side of the     
stone to the other4 ,see  that there is 
plenty of water on the stone4 ,the tool 
should be held  during the operation so 
that it revolves toward the person      
grinding4  ,the tool thus held is not so
 liable to have a 8wire edge0 as it is  
if  held on the stone while it is       
revolving away from the operator4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4    ,the      
8whetted0 edge should never be ground   
away unless the plane-iron is  in very  
poor condition4    ,the grinding is     
complete when the bevel reaches the     

cutting edge1--a  condition which can   
readily be determined by holding the    
finger along  the flat side of the iron 
and having the light fall in the proper 
direction2 a thin bright line will be   
seen which will determine whether  the  
iron is ground enough4 ,the plane-iron  
is shown before it is ground  in ,fig4  
#cd1 and ,fig4 #ce shows it after it is 
ground4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4    ,to whet  
or sharpen the iron an oil stone is     
used4 ,oil stones are of  different     
grades2 a stone of medium hardness is   
best1 as it will cut a  little faster   
and leave a fairly smooth edge2 whereas 
if the stone be  hard much time is      
required to whet the iron1 but it leaves
 a smoother  edge4 ,a coarse stone      
leaves a rough edge4 ,use oil that will 
not become  gummy on the stone4 ,several
 good artificial stones have lately come
 on  the market which give good service4
 ,to sharpen the iron1 apply it as      

shown in ,fig4 #cf1 #a and #b1 and move 
it back and forth as indicated in  ,fig4
 #cg4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4     
,many persons sharpen their plane irons 
as indicated in ,fig4 #ch2 at  first    
thought this may appear to be right1 but
 many mechanics of long  experience     
sharpen the 8iron0 as indicated in ,fig4
 #cf4 ,this method  gives a stronger    
edge1 which is not so liable to get     
nicked when the  iron strikes a knot or 
a hard spot in the work4                
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4    ,great    
care should be taken to avoid giving the
 iron a rocking motion on  the oil      
stone1 as this will round the edge and  
the iron will not be any  sharper than  
it would be if it were in the form shown
 in ,fig4 #ci4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#ci4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4      
,after having whetted the bevel side of 
the iron sufficiently1 turn the  iron so
 that it will rest perfectly flat on the
 stone1 as shown at  #c1 ,fig4 #cf1 and 
whet it in this position2 this will     

remove the 8wire  edge40 ,care should be
 taken to see that the iron is not      
raised in  whetting the flat side2 if   
raised as in ,fig4 #dj the cutting      
qualities  of the edge will be injured4 
,the iron is now sharpened4 ,replace the
 cap iron1 keeping it back  from _/ to  
_/ of an inch from the cutting edge2    
then place it  in position and fasten   
it2 look down the face of the plane and 
see  that the edge protrudes far enough 
to cut the required thickness4 ,the     
adjustments are made by the thumb screw 
,f and lever ,k1 ,fig4 #ca4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4    ,place the
 block already sawed on the bench       
against the bench stop1 ,fig4  #da1 and 
then follow the method here given for   
planing a piece to the  given           
dimensions4      ,,first4    ,plane one 
side true and mark 7#j7 for the 8working
 face40 7,a surface  is said to be true 
when it is perfectly straight across2   
straight  lengthwise1 and free from     
twist74    8,side0 here used means one  

of the wider surfaces in distinction    
from  the narrower surface1 the edge4   
,methods for testing the surface with   
parallel strips1 etc41 will be  shown by
 the instructor4      ,,second4         
,plane one edge perfectly straight      
lengthwise1 and square to the face      
side4 ,mark this edge for the 8working  
edge02 use the try-square1 ,fig4  #bi1  
to test the work4    ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #db4      ,,third4    ,set the   
gauge1 ,fig4 #db1 to the width given in 
the drawing1 and gauge a  line from the 
face edge on both sides2 then plane to  
the gauge lines4    ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #dc4    ,in using the gauge see  
that it is held as shown in ,fig4 #dc1  
and push  away from the body1 having the
 pressure on the gauge as shown by the  
line ,a1 ,b1 ,fig4 #dd4 ,this will keep 
the head of the gauge close to the      
work4 ,do not try to mark a line by     
holding it as in ,fig4 #de1 with the    
spur at right angles to the work1 as it 
will generally follow the fibre  of the 

wood and a crooked1 ragged line will be 
the result4 ,by holding  it as shown in 
,fig4 #dc 7and gently letting the spur  
touch the work1  going over it once or  
twice until the line is of the desired  
heaviness  to work to7 a clear1         
clean-cut line will be obtained4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4              
,,fourth4    ,set the gauge to the given
 thickness 7see drawing for dimension7  
and  gauge a line on both edges from    
face side2 then plane to gauge lines4   
,this1 if done correctly1 will finish   
the four surfaces4 ,it is sometimes     
necessary that the ends of a piece of   
work should be finished smooth2  the    
method of procedure is as follows3      
,mark 7from one end about _/ of an inch7
 a knife line all around 7see  ,fig4    
#df71 placing the head of the try-square
 against the face edge and  the face    
side only2 then take a small block and  
put behind the exercise  as shown in    
,fig4 #dg1 fasten in the vise1 and plane

 to the knife lines4  ,this block will  
save the corners from breaking4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4    ,to finish
 the other end measure the length and   
mark as on the first  end4 ,then if the 
piece is too long to plane1 saw off near
 the line1  using the back-saw as shown 
at ,fig4 #ed1 and then finish with the  
plane  to the lines4    ,illustration3  
,,fig4 #dh4    ,in planing care must be 
taken to see that the plane is held     
firmly on  the work to secure a true    
surface4 ,a rocking motion must be      
avoided4 ,in  order to get the best     
results see that the front of the plane 
is held  down with the left hand1 also  
pressing down and forward with the right
  hand at the same time1 and at the end 
of the stroke lift the front of  the    
plane as shown in ,fig4 #dh2 never let  
it drop as in ,fig4 #di4    ,a proper   
and an improper position to stand while 
planing is shown by  ,figs4 #ej and #ea4
    ,in planing the edge if it is higher

 on one side than the other1 move  the  
plane over to the high side and plane it
 down4 ,fig4 #eb shows the  position of 
the plane4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4
    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4    ,after the
 block is planed true and to the correct
 dimensions1 lay out  the lines across  
the face at the left hand end shown in  
the drawing and  square the lines down  
the depth on the edges2 then set the    
gauge and  mark around the end and notch
 on both edges4 ,beginners will find it 
a  little difficult at first to saw a   
perfectly clean line so as to secure  a 
sharp corner2 by cutting notches with a 
knife point as shown at ,fig4  #ec1 it  
will be easy to secure sharp corners4   
,place the back-saw1 ,fig4  #ed1 in the 
notch1 hold it tightly against the flat 
side1 and saw down  to the desired      
depth1 removing the portion from the end
 with the rip  saw 7see ,fig4 #ee74     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4    ,to remove

 the portion between the sawed lines    
take the chisel1 ,fig4 #ef  7the same   
directions to be used for grinding and  
sharpening a chisel  as are used for the
 plane-iron71 pare lightly 7about half  
through the  width of the piece71 cut   
down to the gauge line1 and then turn   
the  piece around and finish from the   
other side1 leaving a straight surface  
at the bottom of the notch4 ,be careful 
not to take too heavy a cut1  for the   
chisel will be hard to guide if the     
workman has to exert his  whole strength
 to push it through the wood4 ,the      
chisel has a tendency  to go down into  
the work if the flat side is not used as
 a guiding  surface2 this side1 if kept 
in contact with the solid wood1 will    
insure  a straight surface1 and         
consequently accurate work4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4    ,the      
lining on the exercise is made with the 
gauge for the lines running  parallel   

with the edge1 with the square and the  
knife for the lines at  right angles to 
the edge1 and with the bevel1 ,fig4 #eg1
 and the knife  for the oblique lines4  
,figs4 #eh and #ei give methods for     
finding the  angle of #de degrees1 which
 is the angle that is used for the      
oblique  lines4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #eg4    ,too much attention cannot be  
given to the operations in this         
exercise1  for in all work that requires
 material to be prepared1 carelessness  
in detail and inattention to methods1   
etc41 will always appear in the         
finished work4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#eh4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4      
,,exercise ,,number #b4    ,,halved     
,,joint4      ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4
    ,when two pieces of timber of equal 
thickness cross each other and the      
joint is to be flush1 i4 e41 the pieces 
when joined are to form a  flat surface1
 they are halved together2 or1 to put it
 in another way1  a piece is taken out  
of each half its thickness and as broad 

as the  piece which is to cross it1 thus
 allowing the one to drop into the      
other1 as shown in ,fig4 #fj4 ,the      
working drawing is shown in ,fig4 #fa4  
,to make this piece of work1 refer to   
methods and operations given for  the   
preparation of material in the first    
exercise4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 
,special results are sought for by      
specific methods in this exercise4      
,exercises that are not finished 7by the
 methods given7 as they should  be1 are 
thrown out as not coming up to the      
requirements and fall short  of the     
object for which they are designed4     
,the drawing shows two pieces of wood of
 given dimensions crossing  each other  
at right angles and halved together1    
making a flush  joint4 ,requirements3   
,the pieces to be of the exact length1  
breadth1  and thickness called for1     
fitted closely on both sides1 each piece
  to be exactly in the center of the    
other1 and both sides smoothed  off and 
perfectly flat when finished2 the ends  

of the pieces to be  planed square1 and 
the ends of the halving to be fitted    
from the saw4  ,methods3 ,after sawing  
out a piece 7long enough to make both   
pieces1  allowing for work on the ends71
 plane the piece by the methods given   
for planing in the first exercise2 then 
saw it across in the center and  proceed
 to lay out the pieces so that the face 
side of each piece will  come on the    
same side2 this means that the halving  
is cut out of the  face of one piece and
 the back of the other 7see ,fig4 #fj74 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4    ,it will  
be well to consider this problem of     
laying out work as a  problem in        
arithmetic4 ,the pieces called for in   
the drawing are #e  inches long1 #a     
inches wide1 and #a inch thick4 ,the    
piece that crosses  comes exactly in the
 center4 ,therefore we have a problem   
like this3  #e -#a  #d1 which is the    
difference between the length of one    
piece  and the breadth of the other2 but
 the piece comes in the center1 and  so 

we take the difference of the length1   
which is #d1 and divide it  by #b4 #d_/b
  #b1 which will give the distance from 
the end up to the  first edge of the    
cross-piece4 ,as all measurements have a
 beginning  somewhere1 we mark a line   
near the end of the piece as shown in   
,fig4  #fb1 and from this line we lay   
off the distance to the cross-piece1    
marking with a knife point the position 
of the edge4 ,then we lay off  the width
 of the cross-piece1 which is #a1       
leaving the distance to the  other end  
#b1 the same as at the first end4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4    ,having   
found the position of the edges of the  
cross-piece1 we mark a  line across the 
work 7using a knife and a square72 then 
mark the lines  down the edges4 ,now    
taking the gauge1 we gauge from the face
 side of  each piece the depth required4
 ,then we cut a notch inside the lines  
with a knife1 as shown at ,fig4 #ec1    
place the piece on the bench hook1  saw 
down to the gauge lines with the        

back-saw 7position shown in ,fig4  #ed71
 and remove the portions to be taken out
 by the methods given for  the notch in 
the first exercise4    ,then plane the  
ends of each piece perfectly square to  
the face side and  face edge4    ,an    
exercise that was made by a careful     
student and one that was made by  a     
careless student are shown at ,fig4 #fc1
 revealing the final results of  careful
 as against careless work4    ,having   
cut out the center pieces and finished  
the ends we fit them  together1 seeing  
that the surfaces come flush2 then      
smooth off the  surfaces1 being careful 
not to cut too much off the ends1 for   
this will  round the surfaces and thus  
spoil the work4 ,sharp tools are        
essential  to good work4    ,lines drawn
 in their proper places1 and then cut   
to1 will give the  results sought for in
 fitting4          ,,exercise ,,number  
#c4    ,,mortise ,,and ,,tenon4         
,when beams or pieces of wood stand     
square with each other1 and the  strains

 are also square with the pieces and in 
the plane of the frame1  the most common
 junction is the mortise and tenon4     
,a mortise is an opening1 which may be  
square or oblong1 intended  to receive  
the tenon1 and which may go into the    
work only a short  distance1 or may go  
all the way through4 ,where it goes only
 part way  through it is called a blind 
mortise1 and where it passes all the way
  through1 a through mortise4 ,a tenon  
is a projection on the end of a  piece  
and fits into the mortise4 ,the tenon   
usually has two shoulders  formed by    
cutting away the sides1 and should be   
about one third the  thickness of the   
piece4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4    
,there are a number of different styles 
of this joint and methods of  fastening1
 which we will consider later in our    
work4    ,the working drawing shown in  
,fig4 #fd gives the dimensions of the   
pieces1 the material of which is to be  
worked out in one piece1 as  directed in
 the previous exercise1 and then cut up 

into lengths  suitable for the exercise4
 ,the student should commence work on a 
piece  with a full understanding of what
 is required to be done in order to     
finish the work as called for1 and not  
try to make any kind of work do  in     
order to proceed to the next task4      
,notice what is required in this        
exercise3        #ast4 ,that the pieces 
be perfectly straight and square4       
#bnd4 ,that the tenon piece be exactly  
in the center of           the mortise  
piece1 and that the angles be right     
angles           or 8square40           
#crd4 ,that the work be laid out        
systematically1 with the           lines
 in their proper places4        #dth4   
,that the tenon be made altogether with 
the saw4        #eth4 ,that the mortise 
be cut out with the hand                
mortising chisel4        #fth4 ,that the
 tenon fit into the mortise1 and not be 
squeezed4        #gth4 ,that the joint  
fit closely1 and that the work be       
finished off smoothly on the sides1 with

 all the           corners sharp and the
 end of the pieces sawed square4    ,the
 following methods if carried out will  
help the student to finish  the work as 
required4    ,it will be unnecessary to 
repeat hereafter the method of planing1 
as the student by this time should have 
learned to plane the pieces  properly to
 dimensions4    ,after the material has 
been planed1 mark the piece to the      
desired  lengths as shown in ,fig4 #fe1 
and saw off the pieces square on the    
ends4  ,use the knife to mark the lines4
 ,in sawing1 care must be taken to  saw 
on the right side of the line1 for the  
saw will cut out its own  thickness and 
reduce the length of the piece that much
 if the piece is  sawed on the wrong    
side of the line4    ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #fe4    ,leave the tenon piece   
about  inch longer than the drawing     
calls for so  that the tenon will       
protrude through and be finished off    
even with the  mortise piece4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4    ,proceed  

to lay out the work4 ,take the mortise  
piece1 which is #f inches  long1 and    
mark the distance from one end 7#f-a    
#d47 #d_/b  _/     _/ or #b2 locate the 
first point on the face edge2 then      
measure  from this point the width of   
the tenon piece1 which is #a4 ,through  
the points just found draw the lines    
square to the face side4 ,place  the    
square against the face edge and mark   
7on the opposite edge on the  corner71 a
 small cut for both lines 7see ,fig4    
#ff7 and square from the  face side     
across the edge2 lay the piece aside2   
take the tenon piece  and point off the 
distance from the end of the piece to   
the shoulder1  and mark across the face 
and back1 using the square and the knife
 in  marking4 ,prepare the shoulder     
lines for the back-saw1 as shown in     
,fig4  #ec1 taking care that the notch  
is cut on the right side of the line4   
,take the gauge and set it to the       
distance from the face side to the      
first side of the mortise1 and gauge the

 lines for the mortise on both  edges2  
gauge the lines for the tenon4 7,this is
 for a single gauge47  ,take the mortise
 chisel1 ,fig4 #fg1 and make a mark from
 this line 7see  ,fig4 #fh71 which will 
give the thickness of the tenon and the 
width of  the mortise2 set the gauge out
 to the width and gauge the rest of the 
lines4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4    ,take the 
rip-saw and saw down the outside of the 
lines on the tenon  piece the length    
required2 cut off the sides with the    
back-saw4 ,in  sawing split the line so 
that the tenon will be as thick as the  
mortise  is wide4 ,this means that half 
the line is to be left on the work4     
,fasten the mortise piece in the vise1  
putting a piece below to keep it  from  
going down when cutting4    ,place the  
mortise chisel about the center of the  
mortise2 hold it  vertically1 and with  
the mallet drive the chisel down into   
the work2  release the chisel and make a
 new cut1 keeping the flat side of the  

chisel towards the end to which the     
mortise is being cut4 ,fig4 #fi shows   
how the cutting should be done4         
,having reached the end1 turn the chisel
 around1 and cut towards the  other end 
in the same manner4 7,where the mortise 
goes through it will  be unnecessary to 
take the chips from the first side47    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4    ,turn the 
piece over1 and repeat the operation on 
the other side1 when  the chips can be  
easily removed4 ,proceed to test the    
work2 see that the  mortise is straight 
on the ends4 ,generally the student will
 leave the  ends rounding as shown in   
,fig4 #gj2 this1 if the tenon is driven 
into  the mortise1 will squeeze the     
edges out of true 7,fig4 #ga7 and leave 
an  opening on the ends of the mortise1 
as shown in ,fig4 #gb4    ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #ga4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#gb4    ,care should be taken to avoid  
this fault in this exercise4 7,a mortise
  gauge such as a joiner uses is shown  

in ,fig4 #gc2 it has two spurs1 one     
being adjusted by the thumb screw at the
 end of the shank4 ,we will use  a      
mortise gauge in our work later on47    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4    ,after the
 pieces have been cut1 put them         
together1 having the face  sides        
together1 and finish smoothly4          
,,exercise ,,number #d4    ,,keyed      
,,mortise ,,and ,,tenon1 ,,with ,,brace4
      ,this method of joining timbers is
 sometimes used in heavy frame work1    
but can be used to advantage in light   
frame work that has to be taken  apart1 
such as curtain frames1 etc4    ,in     
,fig4 #gd is shown the assembled and the
 detailed drawings of this  piece of    
work4 ,the experience gained from the   
previous exercises can be  used to      
advantage in working this problem4      
,the requirements in this exercise are  
that all pieces be square and to        
dimensions4    ,that the upright and    
cross-pieces when keyed be square to    
each other4    ,that the brace fit      

snugly1 and form two angles of #de      
degrees back at  its junction with the  
upright and cross-piece4    ,that all   
joints fit closely1 and the whole work  
be smoothed off and  made true4    ,the 
method of laying out the keyed joint is 
somewhat similar to that in  the third  
exercise4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 
,on the upright locate the cross-piece  
7on the face edge71 which is #a  inches 
from the end to the upper edge1 and     
measure the width of the  piece1 which  
is #a inches2 draw the lines square to  
the face side1  deduct the amount of    
splay or bevel that is given to the     
mortise and  tenon from the lower end of
 the mortise1 and add to the upper end  
the  width of the key2 draw the lines1  
and mark them in some manner so that    
they will be known as working lines4    
,figs4 #ge and #gf will show how this   
may be done4    ,from the line which    
locates the lower edge of the           
cross-piece 7using  the square on the   
face edge7 mark the position 7on the    

opposite  corner7 of the lower line on  
the outside edge1 by the method given in
  the previous exercise 7see ,fig4 #ff71
 and square this line across the        
outside edge2 then measure the width of 
the tenon1 plus the width of  the key1  
and square the line across4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4    7,where   
work is to be finished on the faces1    
care should be taken not to  mark the   
work with knife lines1 but if auxiliary 
lines must be used1  then mark them with
 a pencil so that they may be cleaned   
off when the  work is being smoothed47  
,having laid out the keyed mortise lay  
out the brace mortise1 the lower  end of
 which is located #c inches below the   
lower edge of the cross  piece2 the     
drawing gives all the dimensions for    
this4    ,take the cross-piece and lay  
out the tenon in the same way that the  
tenon in ,exercise ,number #c is        
prepared1 using the dimensions that are 
given in the drawing for the work on    

hand4    ,after marking the shoulders of
 the cross-piece lay out the brace      
mortise1 which is #c inches from the    
shoulder to the farthest end1 and  mark 
the other lines as called for in the    
drawing4 ,use the single gauge  as      
directed in ,exercise ,number #c to mark
 the side lines of the mortise  and     
tenon1 and cut the mortise with the     
mortising chisel1 taking care  to cut   
the ends to the proper angle4    ,saw   
the tenon as previously directed1 and   
after the sides have been cut  off1 mark
 the splay on the lower side of the     
tenon and cut it off with  a paring     
chisel4    ,the method of finding the   
length of the brace is of importance1 as
 it  will give the student some idea of 
the application of square root to       
practical work of this kind4    ,the    
hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle   
equals the square root of  the sum of   
the squares of its sides4 ,for example1 
take the triangle  that is formed by the
 upright1 the cross-piece1 and the      

outside of the  brace4 ,we have a       
triangle that has two sides of equal    
length and wish  to obtain the length of
 the brace on its longest side4    ,we  
will designate the angle where the      
cross-piece meets the upright1  ,a1 and 
the lower point of the brace on the     
upright1 ,b1 and the outside  point of  
the brace on the cross-piece1 ,c4 ,then 
we have the side ,,ab1 and  the side    
,,ac1 which we will square and add      
together1 then extract the  square root 
of this sum1 which will give us the     
length of the brace on  the longest     
side1 to which we must add the length of
 the tenons that  go into the upright   
and the cross-piece4 ,the angles at each
 end of the  brace will be #de degrees1 
as the opposite angles of the triangle  
are  equal1 there being #ahj degrees in 
the sum of the three angles2 one of  the
 angles is a right angle 7#ij degrees71 
which we subtract from #ahj  degrees2   
the remainder divided by two will give  
the number of degrees  contained in the 

angle at the ends of the brace4    ,the 
lines at the outside of the tenons on   
the brace are parallel with  the upright
 and the cross-piece respectively4    ,a
 method often used by practical men to  
get the length of short braces  is to   
take a steel framing square and a rule1 
and find the length of  the brace by    
applying the rule to the square as shown
 in ,fig4 #gg4 ,on  the short leg of the
 square will be found a brace measure   
which gives  the length of the sides of 
the triangle and the length of the      
brace1  thus1 _/  #gf4ca4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4    ,bevels   
and tapers are found by applying the    
bevel to the square  according to the   
bevel or the taper required1 such as #a 
inch on one  side and #d inches on the  
other side of the square2 this would be 
called  a taper of #a inch in #d inches4
    ,having cut the pieces to dimensions
 as called for in the drawing1 put  them
 together1 and finish smooth4           
,,exercise ,,number #e4      ,moldings  

and beads are sometimes used to ornament
 work1 but the chief  use of the bead is
 to conceal open joints by the shadow it
 casts4 ,an  example of this may be seen
 in beaded wainscoting or large surfaces
  that are finished with matched        
ceiling4 ,if the boards were put        
together  without a beaded edge1 an     
unsightly crack would be the result from
 the  shrinking and swelling of the     
material4    ,moldings are so varied in 
form that it would be useless to try to 
describe them here4 ,the molding shown  
in the drawing is given for  practice in
 the use of the molding plane4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4    ,a rabbet 
is generally a square corner cut out of 
the edge of a piece so  as to lap over1 
or to make a place for glass1 etc41 as  
in window sash1  glass panel doors1 and 
door frames4 ,the rabbet plane 7see     
,fig4 #gh7 is  so constructed that the  
iron comes out flush with both sides1 so
 that  it will cut out a sharp corner or
 interior angle4    ,to cut the rabbet1 

the iron combination plow1 beading1 and 
rabbeting  plane may be used1 an        
illustration of which is shown in ,fig4 
#gi4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4      
,this tool can be set up as a rabbet    
plane or fillister1 having a fence  to  
guide it along the side and a shoe to   
stop its cutting when the  desired depth
 is reached4    ,the plan and end       
elevation of this exercise is found in  
,fig4 #hj4 ,the  bead plane1 ,fig4 #ha1 
that is used on the edge of the exercise
 is known  as a single quirked bead1 and
 has a fence or guide by which it is    
held  in position while the bead is     
being stuck on the work4                
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4    ,the angle
 bead is made with the same plane1 but  
the work must be turned  in order to cut
 the quirk on the other side4    ,the   
center bead plane 7see ,fig4 #hb7 is a  
double quirked bead plane1 and  requires
 a piece fastened on the work in order  
to guide it4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#ha4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4      

,the guide piece can be held in place by
 several methods2 one method is  to tack
 it on to the work1 but this leaves the 
nail holes in the work4  ,another method
 is to make a piece as shown in ,fig4   
#hc2 if the work is  long a thin strip  
with small blocks fastened on the ends1 
,fig4 #hd1 and  a wedge driven between  
one of the blocks and the work will hold
 it  firmly in place4    ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #hc4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#hd4    ,after planing the piece to the 
desired dimensions we would advise the  
student to follow the following order of
 work3    ,first1 cut the rabbet4       
,second1 stick the center bead and      
cluster of beads or reeding4    ,the    
reeding is done by first sticking one of
 the beads by means of the  guide piece 
and then letting one of the quirks of   
the bead plane follow  in the quirk of  
the bead already stuck4    ,third1 cut  
the edge and angle beads4    ,fourth1   
stick the molding4    ,illustration3    
,,fig4 #he4    ,in ,fig4 #he is shown   

the molding plane held in position for  
work4 ,on  the front end of the plane   
will be found a line1 which must be kept
  vertical when the plane is at work4   
,finish the beads with sand paper in    
order to remove all roughness4    ,bead 
and molding plane irons are ground on an
 emery wheel with a  rounded edge4      
,the sharpening is done with a          
slip-stone4 ,a slip-stone used for beads
  and molding planes is wedge-shaped in 
the cross section1 with rounded  edges  
7see ,fig4 #hf74    ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #hf4    ,where sharp corners     
occur in molding plane irons1 triangular
 and square  slips are used4            
,,exercise ,,number #f4      ,it has    
already been mentioned that a bead is   
used in decoration4 ,an  application of 
the bead as a decoration is given in    
connection with the  use of the rabbet  
in this exercise1 the bead can be       
applied to door  frames where glass     
panels1 etc41 are to be used4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4    ,in ,fig4 

#hg is shown the working drawing4 ,the  
features in this exercise  to be        
specially noticed are the method of     
joining the bead so as to  form a       
continuous bead around the edge1 the    
method of laying out and  cutting the   
shoulder so that the opening in the     
frame will be kept to  size2 the mortise
 and tenon used here is what is called a
 blind mortise  and tenon4    ,having   
noticed these features1 proceed to      
prepare the material1 by  methods       
previously given1 to dimensions called  
for in the drawing4 ,the  requirements  
for this exercise are that all          
measurements be correct1  that all      
joints fit closely1 that the angles be  
right angles1 and that  the work be     
finished in a neat workmanlike manner4  
,the material having been prepared1     
proceed to lay the work out4    ,suppose
 this exercise to be the top of a glass 
panel door2 the pieces  on the sides of 
a door are called the stiles2 the       
cross-pieces are  called the rails1 and1

 according to the position they occupy1 
are  called respectively the top rail1  
the mid-rail1 and the bottom rail4  ,the
 pieces that stand in the center are    
known as muntings4    ,to lay out the   
work1 mark out the mortise on the top of
 the stile about  #a inches from the    
end4 ,it will be noticed that the       
mortise is not so  long as the top rail 
is wide2 the piece that is cut out of   
the tenon is  known as a rebate or      
rabbet4 ,the reason for cutting out this
 piece and  shortening the mortise is to
 strengthen the joint by leaving a piece
  of solid wood so that the mortise will
 not be open on the end4 ,fig4 #hh      
shows the piece marked out for the      
stile2 the arrow heads in the figure    
are known as witness marks and show     
between what lines the cutting is  to be
 done4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4    
,the shoulders on the top rail and on   
the muntings are to be specially        
noticed4 ,in laying out the top rail the
 opening between the munting and  the   

stile is #d inches4 ,the shoulder on the
 face side of the top rail  reaches to  
the farthest side of the bead so as to  
form a close fitting  joint1 and the    
shoulder on the back reaches to the     
bottom of the glass  rabbet4    ,in     
order to keep the opening as called for 
in the drawing and to miter  the bead so
 as to make it continuous around the    
edge1 lay out the work  in the following
 manner3 ,locate a line on the edge of  
the rail that  will represent the side  
of the opening next to the stile1       
leaving  enough for the tenon2 then lay 
off the width of the opening2 draw a    
line which will represent the end of the
 mortise for the munting2 mark  the     
length of the munting mortise4 ,on the  
inside of each end of the  mortise lay  
off the width of the bead which is stuck
 on the munting4    ,return to the first
 line which represents the opening1 and 
add to the  outside of that the width of
 the bead and rabbet2 then from those   
lines  mark across the face from the    

line which will represent the bead1 and 
across the back from the line which     
represents the depth of the glass       
rabbet4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4   
,prepare the shoulder lines for the saw 
as directed in previous work4  ,the     
lines to be drawn on the edge of the    
rail are shown in ,fig4 #hi4    ,the    
shoulders on the munting are prepared in
 the same way as the rail4  ,in marking 
the sides of the mortise and tenon use  
the mortise gauge  7see ,fig4 #gc74     
,cut the mortise and the tenon as       
directed in previous work1 using a      
narrow chisel to remove the chips from  
the mortise4 ,the bead is to be  joined 
so that it will appear continuous2 the  
method of joining is  called mitering4  
,a miter is made by cutting1 at an angle
 of #de degrees1  the pieces to be      
joined4    ,the practical man will try  
many methods of cutting material in     
order  to save time4 ,for instance1 if  
he is to make frames where the corners  
are to be mitered1 he will make a miter 

box4 ,this box 7which is not a  box at  
all7 is three pieces fastened together  
to form a bottom and two  sides1 all of 
which must be true before being nailed  
together2 then by  cutting across the   
sides in both directions with the saw at
 an angle of  #de degrees and square to 
the bottom1 the so-called miter box is  
made1  an illustration of which is shown
 in ,fig4 #ij4 ,iron miter boxes are now
  in general use2 of these ,fig4 #ia is 
a good representation4    ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #ij4    ,in the mitering of the 
bead1 a templet1 which can be made by   
the  student1 is of great service4      
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4    ,a templet
 is a mould or pattern used as an       
auxiliary4 ,the templet for  this work  
is made in the following manner4 ,take a
 piece and rabbet out  one corner as    
shown in ,fig4 #ib2 then cut the ends as
 shown in ,fig4 #ic1  which are at #de  
degrees4 ,with this templet placed on   
the work as shown  in ,fig4 #id1 with a 
chisel cut off the bead1 which protrudes

 beyond the  templet4    ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #ib4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#ic4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4      
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4    ,at the   
mortises remove part of the bead as     
shown in ,fig4 #ie2 then place  the     
templet in position1 and cut to the     
angle4    ,care should be taken to see  
that the mortises are cut square to the 
edges on the ends1 so that they will not
 squeeze the tenon when putting  the    
work together4    ,after all cutting and
 fitting is done glue the work 7see note
 on glue  at the end of the book71 and  
clamp the pieces together with          
handscrews4  ,handscrews are of the form
 as shown in ,fig4 #if4                 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4    ,in order 
further to strengthen this kind of      
joint1 small iron pins  may be driven   
into the back through the tenon1 but    
they must not come  through the work4   
,the pins may be made by cutting wire   
brads off to the  required length and   
driving them in and setting them below  

the surface  with a nail set4 ,after the
 glue is set finish off the work with a 
smooth plane4          ,,exercise       
,,number #g4    ,,dovetailing4      ,one
 of the most important methods employed 
by the joiner is that  termed           
dovetailing1 which is of three kinds1   
namely1 common1 lap1 and  miter4 ,common
 dovetailing 7see ,fig4 #ig7 shows the  
form of the pins or  projecting parts1  
as well as the excavations made to      
receive them4 ,lap  dovetailing is      
similar to this1 but in that system the 
ends of the  dovetails of the side ,a1  
,fig4 #ih1 are shortened1 and the       
recesses which  are to receive them in  
,b are not cut through when joined      
together2 only  the ledge is visible on 
the return side4    ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #ig4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#ih4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4      
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4    ,miter   
dovetailing 7sometimes also called      
secret dovetailing7 conceals  the       
dovetails1 and shows only the miter at  

the edges4 ,the manner in  which this   
joint is made will be understood from   
,fig4 #ii1 in which the  two parts ,a   
and ,b are given1 each part being       
lettered to correspond  with the        
position it is to occupy when the sides 
are joined4 ,concealed  dovetailing is  
particularly useful where the faces of  
the boards are  intended to form a      
salient angle2 that is1 one which is on 
the outside  of any piece of work2 but  
when the faces form a re-entrant angle1 
that is1 a joint to be seen from the    
inside1 common dovetailing will  answer 
best2 for1 first1 it is stronger1       
because the dovetails pass  entirely    
instead of only partly through2         
secondly1 it is cheaper1 for  the       
dovetails which go through the whole    
wood take up much less time  in working 
than where a miter has to be left2 and  
further1 if well  executed1 the         
dovetails are1 by the very nature of the
 work1 concealed  internally4    ,fig4  
#ajj shows a variation of the common    

dovetail1 used in attaching  the fronts 
of drawers to the sides1 and for similar
 purposes4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#aja4    ,in ,fig4 #aja is given the    
working drawing of the common dovetail1 
and  ,fig4 #ajb1 ,a-,b shows the details
 of each piece4    ,the stock can be    
prepared in one piece 7having it long   
enough so that  if a poor joining is    
made1 the dovetails can be cut off and  
new ones  cut on this piece74 ,after    
planing1 cut in two1 square one end of  
each  piece 7the ends to be joined74 ,to
 lay out the work1 it is advisable to   
lay out the piece with the pins or      
tenons first4 ,from the squared end     
measure in the thickness of the side2   
then mark on both sides1 using  the     
knife to draw the lines4                
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4    ,on the  
face side 7which is the side that would 
be toward the inside of  a box7 lay off 
the lines shown for the pins in the     
detail marked ,a1  ,fig4 #ajb4 ,these   
lines can be drawn from the working edge

 with a gauge1  or1 if the ends are     
perfectly square1 the square can be used
 7the lines  being parallel with the    
edge74 ,from these lines will be drawn  
the  oblique lines across the end with  
the bevel set at a taper of #a inch  to 
#d inches4 ,the bevel can be set by the 
steel framing square1 by the  methods   
already given4    ,after drawing the    
lines saw down the required depth on the
 outside of  the line1 and remove the   
pieces between the pins or tenons by    
first  boring a hole through the piece  
to be removed1 then cutting from both   
sides with the chisel4    ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #ajc4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#ajd4    7,the boring is done with the  
brace1 ,fig4 #ajc1 and the bit1 ,fig4   
#ajd4  ,bits are of different forms2    
,fig4 #aje shows a number of different  
styles74    ,it will be necessary only  
to draw the lines across the end of the 
piece  marked ,b1 ,fig4 #ajb1 as the    
marking of this piece for the recesses  
will  be made by holding in position the

 piece already cut1 and scribing or     
marking the pins or tenons1 then        
squaring the lines across the end4      
,great care must be taken in sawing the 
mortises if a perfect fit is  desired4  
,this can be done only by sawing on the 
inside of the line1  cutting the lines  
in two4 ,the pieces should go together  
by light  driving1 and should be        
perfectly square on the inside4 ,if the 
joint is  satisfactory take apart and   
glue together4 ,after the glue is dry   
the  joint can be smoothed and the ends 
of the pieces cut off and squared to    
the proper dimensions given in ,fig4    
#aja4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4    
,,exercise ,,number #h4    ,,door       
,,frame ,,for ,,glass ,,panel4      ,the
 preceding exercises are only a few of  
the methods employed by the  workmen in 
joining pieces together4 ,the experience
 gained in their  execution will be of  
great help in the work that follows4    
,fig4 #ajf shows the working drawing for
 a small frame door for a glass  panel2 

the details and sections of the pieces  
required are shown in  ,fig4 #ajg4      
,it must be taken into consideration    
that this door is actually to fit  into 
an opening of a given size1 and a little
 forethought will be  necessary to work 
the material so that when all cutting   
and fitting is  done the correct size   
will be the result of the labor         
expended4    ,study the drawing and make
 out a bill of lumber1 noting what work 
must  be done in order to proceed       
intelligently with the work4    ,the    
outside size of the door is #i inches by
 #ab inches1 and the width of  the      
stiles is #b inches4 ,the width of the  
top rail is #a inches1 and the  width of
 the bottom rail is #b inches1 so that  
7allowing a little on the  length of the
 rails so that the tenons would project 
through the stiles  about  inch1 and the
 stiles would project beyond the rails  
about   inch1 leaving what is known to  
workmen as horns7 the bill of lumber    
would be3                        #b     

pieces #ac in  #b  in  #a in4      ,bill
 of ,lumber  #a piece  #i in  #b  in  #a
 in4                      #a piece  #i  
in  #a in  #a in4    ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #ajf4    ,it must also be taken  
into consideration that the door must be
 planed  on the edges and the ends when 
it is all put together2 it will be      
necessary to allow for this work when   
the material is being planed2  having   
the stiles and rails a little over size 
in width will provide  for this4    ,the
 laying out of this exercise is         
important1 for there are several  things
 to be considered2 we must first find   
out the depth of the rabbet  and the    
width of the molding before we proceed  
to lay out the work4    ,it will be seen
 from section drawing ,a1 ,fig4 #ajg1   
that the molding  from the edges of the 
piece to the quirk is _/ inch1 7this is 
the  depth that the molding plane cuts72
 the rabbet is also the same depth2  the
 opening between the stiles is #e       
inches2 to this must be added the  depth

 of the molding and rabbet on both      
sides1 which makes the distance  between
 the shoulders of the rails #e inches4  
,a simple rule to follow in laying out  
work1 where pieces are in pairs  or     
right and left1 is to place the pieces  
together with their faces out  and their
 edges up4    ,placing the rails in this
 position1 lay out the rails4 ,at the   
end draw  a line across the edges4 7,it 
must be remembered that when the pieces 
were sawed out1 they were left a little 
longer than the width of the  door1 so  
that the position of the first line is  
to be determined by  the amount of extra
 stock left74 ,from this line measure   
off the width  of the door and mark     
across the other end4 ,from these lines 
measure in  the width of the stiles1    
which is #b inches2 this gives the width
 of the  opening4    ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #ajg4    ,we saw from ,a1 ,fig4  
#ajg1 that the depth of the molding and 
the rabbet  was _/ inch2 so from the #b 
inch line we measure back on each end _/

  inch2 this gives the lines from which 
the shoulder lines are to be  drawn     
across the faces and the backs of the   
pieces4 ,prepare shoulders  for back-saw
 as directed in other work4    ,now1    
taking the stiles1 and placing them     
together by the rule given1  lay out the
 lines for the extreme length of the    
door1 and from one end  measure in the  
width of the top rail 7#a inches74 ,from
 the other end  measure in the width of 
the bottom rail 7#b inches74 ,from these
 lines  measure back the length of the  
mortises4 ,it will be understood that by
  measuring is meant that lines are to  
be drawn4    ,lines are also needed on  
the back edges of the stiles for the    
mortises1  as the mortise is cut all the
 way through4 ,to obtain those lines    
apply  the method given in exercise ,no4
 #c2 never mark lines across the outside
  of the work unless it is absolutely   
necessary1 and then with pencil  only1  
so that they may be cleaned off when the
 work is being finished4    ,the marking

 of the sides of the mortises and the   
tenons is done with  the mortise gauge  
set to the dimensions given in the      
drawing1 the gauge  to be applied to the
 face side4 ,cut out mortises and tenons
 as in  former work1 using the  inch    
mortising chisel which is found in the  
tool room4    7,all gauging for mortises
 and tenons having been done from the   
face  side1 and all cutting having been 
done to the lines1 it necessarily       
follows that the face side of the door  
will be flush4 ,this is  absolutely     
necessary for the molding and the rabbet
 to match47 ,take  the combination plow 
and set it to cut the rabbet1 applying  
the fence  to the face side and cutting 
the rabbets out of the corners opposite 
to  where the plow is placed4 ,see that 
the shoe is set to stop the plane       
cutting when the desired depth is       
reached4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4 
,fig4 #ajh shows how this may be done4  
,after cutting the rabbet1 stick  the   
molding 7which in this case is called a 

,gothic or ,scotia molding74  ,prepare  
the stiles as shown in ,fig4 #ajg1 ,b4  
,the joining of the molding is to be    
what is known as coping4 ,this is  done 
in the following manner3 ,the molding is
 left projecting beyond  the inside end 
of the mortises1 as shown in ,fig4 #ajg1
 ,b4 ,the molding  on the rails is to be
 cut at an angle of #de degrees4 ,this  
is done by  taking the templet used in  
,exercise ,no4 #f and placing it on the 
rail  as shown in ,fig4 #ajg1 ,c1 and   
cutting the molding with a chisel down  
to  the tenons4 ,this will give the line
 by which the coping is to be cut4  ,the
 cutting is done by using the gouge1    
,fig4 #aji1 one that is ground on  the  
inside preferred2 cut the coping deep   
enough to receive the molding  which    
projects beyond the mortise1 ,fig4 #ajg1
 ,b4 ,the line which will  show at the  
joining of the molding on the face of   
the exercise will  look like a miter    
joint4 ,this joint has the advantage of 
always being  close1 for no amount of   

shrinking or swelling will open it4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4    ,after   
all cutting is done1 put together and   
see if all joints fit2  having tenons   
cut as shown in ,fig4 #ajg1 ,c4 ,this   
allows room for wedges4    ,the wedges  
are cut with a back-saw out of a piece  
of board of the same  thickness as the  
tenons4 ,fig4 #aaj shows how this is to 
be done4    ,if the joints are all      
satisfactory open them enough to allow  
the glue  brush to go between the       
shoulders and the stiles2 put a little  
glue  on both sides of the tenons and   
drive together1 putting clamps or  large
 handscrews on to bring the joints up   
close2 dip the points of  the wedges in 
glue and drive them between the ends of 
the mortise and  the edges of the tenon2
 remove the clamps and let the glue set 
before  smoothing the sides of the work4
 ,the door1 when the wedges are driven  
and clamps removed1 will look as shown  
in ,fig4 #aaa4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#aaj4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4    

,the ends of the tenons and horns are   
sawed off and the edges planed4  ,the   
gouge1 7,fig4 #aji71 has a blade that is
 curved in its section the  whole       
length2 gouges are of different sweeps4 
,the bevel which is ground  on the      
cutting edge may be on the concave or   
the convex side2 and  according to this 
grinding the tools are known as inside  
and outside  gouges4 ,the sharpening is 
done with a slip-stone4    ,after the   
glue is hard enough1 smooth the surface 
with the smooth  plane1 and then take   
sand paper and finish the work4 ,put the
 sand paper  on a block1 being careful  
not to round the surfaces when using it4
          ,,exercise ,,number #i4       
,,bench ,,hook4      7,this exercise may
 be omitted at the option of            
instructor47    ,it will not be         
necessary to give many directions for   
this exercise1 as  the student by this  
time should have learned the sequence of
 operations  in preparing material4 ,the
 special points to be noticed in the    

working  out of this exercise are that  
the sides are cut out with the rip-saw2 
the ends cut with the back-saw2 the     
sides to be finished with the  plane1   
using the rabbet plane to plane the     
corners at the stops at the  ends1 and  
the jack-plane for the rest of the      
surfaces4 ,surfaces are to  be finished 
with sand paper and shellaced4    ,in   
,fig4 #aab will be seen the working     
drawing4 ,the thickness of stock        
required is #a inches4 ,the angle at    
which to set the bevel for the  ends is 
inch in #d inches4 ,all the other       
dimensions are found on the  drawing4   
,after the piece is cut out and finished
 with sand paper1 give it a coat  of    
shellac varnish and let it dry from #h  
to #aj hours4 ,then with ,no4 #jj  sand 
paper smooth the shellac 7but do not cut
 through74 ,after which  give another   
coat4 ,to obtain a glossy surface the   
pores of the wood  must be filled with  
the varnish2 by repeating the operation 
with the  sand paper and giving another 

coat of shellac1 a very good surface    
will  be obtained4    ,illustration3    
,,fig4 #aab4    ,care must be taken in  
putting on the shellac varnish not to   
put it on  too thick1 as it sets or     
dries quickly and an uneven coat of     
varnish  is unsightly4 ,spread it       
quickly2 see that plenty of shellac is  
on the  brush2 do not go over it after  
it has once been spread evenly1 as it   
will roll up in small lumps which will  
have to be left to dry before  anything 
can be done to it1 and then it will take
 a great amount of  labor to smooth it4 
,this is one method of finishing with   
shellac varnish4    ,to prepare shellac 
varnish see note4          ,,exercise   
,,number #aj4      ,,box ,,with         
,,sliding ,,top4    ,there are so many  
ways in which a box may be made that it 
would be out  of place here to enumerate
 them all4 ,the joints used here are    
known as  butt joints4    ,fig4 #aac is 
the working drawing2 the details of the 
work are shown in  ,fig4 #aad4    ,the  

first step to be taken in making this   
exercise is to make out a  bill of      
lumber4 ,by the drawing we find the     
length of the box to be  #ab inches1 the
 width to be #g inches1 and the height  
to be #e inches1  allowing  inch on each
 end of the sides for finishing4 ,the   
side pieces  would be #ab inches4 ,the  
thickness of the sides is  inch and the 
ends  are let into the sides  inch as   
shown in ,fig4 #aad1 ,a2 this would     
make the length of the ends #f inches   
finished2 one end being  inch  narrower 
than the other to let the top slide over
 it in the groove on  the sides4 ,the   
width of one end would be #e inches1 and
 of the other #d  inches4 ,the bottom is
 to be let into the sides and ends in a 
groove  which is  inch deep4 ,this would
 make the bottom #aa inches long1 #f    
inches wide1 and  inch thick4 ,the top  
slides in the groove shown in  the      
section at ,b1 ,fig4 #aad1 which is     
inch deep1 and the end of the  top goes 
into the groove in the end of the box1  

which is  inch deep4  ,this would make  
the length of the top #aa inches1 the   
width #f inches1  and the thickness     
inch4 ,the bill of lumber would be as   
follows3        ,bill of    ,sides1  #b 
pieces #ab in    in4      ,lumber       
,top1    #a piece  #aa in  #f in   in4  
,finished      ,cherry or  ,end1    #a  
piece  #f  in  #e  in   in4      ,birch 
,end1    #a piece  #f  in  #d in   in4  
,size4                 ,bottom1 #a piece
  #aa in  #f in   in4    ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #aac4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#aad4    ,the material used in this     
exercise will be planed nearly to the   
thickness by the planing machine1 enough
 being left to smooth the work4  ,select
 and lay out on a board the pieces      
required 7allowing enough for  the work 
on the edges74 ,saw out the pieces2 then
 plane the edges by the  methods given1 
omitting the planing of the face side   
and the back1 but  select and mark the  
sides for the working faces4    ,the    
extremities of the end pieces are to be 

planed perfectly square to  insure a    
close fit against the sides4 ,the method
 of planing the ends  is to plane half  
way through from the edge1 then plane   
from the other  edge1 being careful not 
to let the plane go all the way across1 
as the  corner will be liable to break  
off4    ,it will not be necessary to    
plane the ends of the sides until the   
box  is glued together1 when they can be
 finished off even with the end4    ,to 
lay out and prepare the sides1 place the
 pieces together1 faces out  and edges  
up1 draw a line across the edges at the 
ends for the full  length of the box1   
then measure back the thickness of the  
ends4 ,from  these lines mark across the
 faces of each piece4 ,it will be       
noticed  that one end of each side can  
be sawed across1 but the other end where
  the top enters the grooves will have  
to be cut partly with a saw and  the    
rest of the way with a chisel4 ,prepare 
the ends the same as the  shoulders of  
the tenon1 being careful not to cut the 

groove all the way  across where the top
 enters4    ,gauge the depth to which   
the ends go into the sides1 and after   
sawing  across remove the pieces from   
the corners with a chisel4 ,it will be  
necessary only to have the end pieces   
the correct length1 as there will  be no
 lines to be drawn on them4    ,take the
 plow plane and put a  inch iron into   
it1 and set it for the  grooves that are
 cut out of the sides and the ends4     
,the grooves are all the same distance  
in from the edges and are all  the same 
depth4 ,to protect the bench while using
 the plow1 get a piece  of board and on 
it fasten pieces to hold the work while 
running the  groove4 ,this is done by   
sawing out three or four pieces as shown
 in  ,fig4 #aae1 and fastening them to  
the board as shown in ,fig4 #aaf4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4    ,the     
tongue on the edges of the top and the  
bottom can be made with the  plow by    

fastening the pieces in the vise and    
rabbeting out the corners  as shown in  
,c1 ,fig4 #aad4    ,after all cutting   
and fitting has been done smooth the    
inside of each  piece with the plane2   
then take the steel scraper 7shown in   
,fig4 #aag71  and scrape the surfaces2  
then finish with sand paper2 glue the   
corners2  put the bottom in place and   
fasten together with hand screws and let
  dry4 ,there are no nails used in the  
construction of this exercise4          
,finish the outside of the box in the   
same way that the inside was done4      
,after finishing the outside and the    
top1 use filler or stain to color  the  
wood4 ,the filler is a mixture of fine  
whiting and linseed oil with  a little  
turpentine to act as a dryer1 colored   
with any of the pigments  desired4 ,a   
little experience is necessary in using 
the colors to obtain  the desired shade4
    ,the filler comes already prepared1 
of a cream color1 and must be  colored  
as required4 ,apply the filler with a   

brush1 and let it stand on  the wood for
 a short time2 then rub it off with     
cotton waste or a rag2  then set the    
work aside until the surfaces are       
perfectly hard2 then  give a coat of    
shellac varnish and let it dry4 ,repeat 
the operation two  or three times1 using
 sand paper to smooth each coat of      
varnish4    ,after the varnish is       
thoroughly hard1 take powdered pumice   
and oil or  water1 using a soft rag1 and
 rub the surfaces until they are smooth2
  then take rotten stone and oil and rub
 until it has a fairly bright  gloss4   
,rub with a soft dry cloth1 then finish 
with the palm of the hand  until a      
bright glossy surface is obtained4      
,for polishing see note4      ,,problem 
,,in ,,truss ,,work4    ,the preceding  
work is what might be termed joiner     
work2 the carpenter  also is called upon
 to join timbers1 and uses to a great   
extent the  same joints that the joiner 
does1 but the joiner's work is usually  
where it must bear inspection1 whereas  

the carpenter's work is  generally      
covered over either by plaster or       
casings4 ,a single mechanic  may be able
 to perform every kind of work that is  
required in the  construction of a      
building2 thus the two trades are       
usually spoken of  as one1 i4 e41       
carpenter work4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #aah4    ,in ,fig4 #aah is shown a     
method that is sometimes used in the    
construction of trusses4 ,a truss is    
that part of a roof which supports  the 
purlines1 rafters and sheathing4 ,a roof
 is the covering or upper  enclosure of 
a building with the frame work by which 
it is supported4  ,it may be of almost  
any shape4 ,a light roof is usually of  
moderate  span1 without trusses1 the    
rafters being supported by the walls or 
partitions of the building4 ,a heavy    
roof is employed for wider spans1  and  
the rafters are then supported by the   
purlines and trusses4 ,a truss  is      
usually required for spans of more than 
#bj feet4,a    ,a ,definitions from     

,ricker's ,trussed ,roofs4    ,the span 
of a roof is the horizontal distance    
between the external  surfaces of the   
walls of the building2 its rise is a    
vertical let fall  from its ridge to a  
horizontal line joining the             
intersections of the  external surfaces 
of the walls and the roof surfaces4 ,the
 inclination  of a roof equals the      
angles between its surface and a        
horizontal4    ,the span of a truss is  
the horizontal distance between the     
centers of  its end joints1 and is      
usually the same as that between the    
centers of  the walls1 which support the
 truss4 ,its rise is the vertical       
connecting  its span line and the center
 of the joint at the apex or highest    
point  of the truss4    ,a member of a  
truss is any straight or curved piece   
which connects two  adjacent joints of  
the truss4    ,the upper chord is       
composed of the members which form the  
upper edge or  margin of the truss4     
,each half of the upper chord of a      

triangular truss  is often called a     
principal4 ,the lower chord is composed 
of the members  forming the lower edge  
of the truss4 ,if straight1 this is     
termed the  tie-beam or tie-rod2 the    
first being a wooden timber2 the second1
 one  or more rods of iron4    ,the web 
members connect the joints of one chord 
with those of the  other1 and may be    
radials in case of curved trusses1      
diagonals1  or verticals4 ,they are     
commonly called struts where they resist
  compression1 ties where they resist   
tension1 and strut-ties where they      
resist compression and tension4    ,a   
joint is the connection of two or more  
members whose center lines  must        
intersect at a common point if possible1
 this common point being  the center of 
the joint4    ,the rafters of light     
roofs are not trussed1 but rest directly
 on the  walls1 and support the         
sheathing and covering of the roof4     
,heavy roofs are supported by trusses   
resting on the side walls4    ,the      

sheathing is supported by rafters which 
rest on the purlines1 these  being      
supported by the trusses4    ,the       
drawing1 ,fig4 #aah1 shows the half of a
 truss2 the members are the  upper      
chord1 the lower chord1 and a strut4    
,although carpenter work is usually of a
 rough character1 the joints of  a truss
 should fit snugly so that there will be
 no room to give when  loaded2 so1 for  
the practice1 the student will plane the
 stock either  to the sizes given in the
 drawing or double the sizes1 making the
 whole  truss as time and circumstances 
permit4 7,this to be determined by the  
instructor47    ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#aai4    ,fig4 #aai shows what is termed
 a truss diagram2 the distance from     
point  ,a1 to ,b1 is the distance       
between the center of the walls1 and the
 angle  ,a1 ,c1 ,d1 is the inclination  
or pitch of the roof4 ,the pitch of the 
roof  is determined by the distance the 
peak of the roof rises above the  walls2
 thus if a roof has a quarter pitch1 the

 peak would rise above  the walls one   
quarter the width of the building2 if   
half pitch the peak  would rise one half
 the width of the building1 etc4 ,for   
simplicity in  laying out this problem  
we will make the pitch one half4 ,the   
points  ,a1 ,b1 represent the span of   
the walls2 also the lines ,a1 ,c1 and   
,b1 ,c1  show the outside margin of the 
upper chord of the truss4 ,by bisecting 
,a1 ,b1 and erecting a perpendicular at 
,d1 to ,c1 we divide1 the triangle  ,a1 
,b1 ,c1 into two triangles1 ,a1 ,d1 ,c1 
and ,b1 ,d1 ,c4 ,now1 the line ,a1  ,c1 
is the hypotenuse of the right-angled   
triangle ,a1 ,d1 ,c4 ,we had one        
example of finding the length of the    
hypotenuse of a right-angled  triangle  
in ,exercise ,no4 #d4 ,the workman who  
lays out rafters or trusses  rarely     
takes time to calculate the hypotenuse  
of the triangle1 but  uses the steel    
framing square in the following manner4 
,he obtains the  horizontal distance at 
the bottom of the rafters1 and the      

pitch4 ,take  for example a truss that  
is #cj feet across from point to point1 
and a  pitch of one half2 then the      
distance the peak would rise would be   
#ae  feet4 ,take the framing square and 
lay it on the chord1 taking #ab inches  
on the blade and #ab inches on the      
tongue and mark off #ae triangles as    
shown in ,fig4 #abj1 which is half the  
width of the building4 ,the rise  was   
also #ae feet2 so by using the square as
 shown1 we obtain the rise  and the run 
of the rafter4 ,the line on one side of 
the square gives the  angle at which the
 chord or rafter is to be cut at the    
peak4 ,the line  at the other end of the
 chord gives the line from which to     
measure the  distance the tenon and     
shoulders go down into the tie-beam4    
,the strut  shown in the drawing1 ,fig4 
#aah1 has one joint square1 and the     
other at  an angle of #de degrees4      
,where the pitch is one half1 the angles
 are #de  degrees and right angles4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4    ,the line

 ,e1 ,d1 on the diagram represents a    
tie-rod1 which by the  construction of  
this truss would naturally tend to      
stiffen the  structure by supporting the
 center of the tie-beam4    ,wire1 nuts1
 and washers are supplied 7where the    
student makes a whole  model7 to make   
the tie-strut4    ,the student in       
writing out notes will make two sketches
 of trusses he  may have observed on    
shop visits4 ,the buildings visited     
almost all have  trussed roofs1 either  
wood or iron4      ,,problem ,,in       
,,stair ,,building4    ,two or three    
students may work together on this      
problem4    ,read all through before    
commencing work4    ,the stair and the  
hand-rail may be considered as one      
problem1 since the  hand-rail forms part
 of the completed staircase1 but they   
are separated  into two distinct        
problems for convenience in working them
 out4    ,in ,fig4 #aba1 is shown the   
plan and the elevation of the stair1 the
  dimensions for each piece required are

 calculated by the student from  this   
drawing4 ,the name of each piece also is
 found in ,fig4 #aba4 ,the  nosing is to
 be added to the width of the tread4    
,the nosing is the part  which projects 
beyond the front of the riser4    ,the  
thickness of the stringers is to be     
inch1 the risers  inches1  the treads   
inches1 and the well-hole is to be built
 up as in  practical work1 as shown in  
,fig4 #abb4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#aba4                          ,,form   
,,of ,,bill ,,of ,,lumber4              
,length   ,width   ,thickness      ,wall
 stringer                   8        8  
8      ,outside stringer                
8        8        8      ,risers 7#e    
pieces7               8        8        
8      ,treads plus nosings 7#d pieces7 
8        8        8      ,top tread 7#a 
piece7             8        8        8  
,well-hole piece                 8      
8        8    ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#abb4    ,after the material is         
prepared1 proceed to make the templets4 

,the  templets required are shown in    
,fig4 #abb4    ,templet ,e1 is used to  
lay out the brackets for the risers and 
treads  on the wall and outside         
stringers2 templet ,g1 to lay out the   
housing  for the treads on the wall     
stringer2 templet ,h1 for the housing   
for the  risers on the wall stringer4   
,now take the piece for the wall        
stringer1 ,a1 ,fig4 #abb1 and draw the  
line ,x1 ,y2 proceed to lay it out4     
,commencing at the bottom1 lay templet  
,e on the piece as shown at #a ,a1  and 
draw lines for the riser and the bottom 
of the tread2 then place  the templet as
 shown by #b ,a1 7remembering that in   
order to have the  bottom step the same 
height as the others the bottom riser   
must be the  thickness of the tread     
narrower than the others4 ,this will be 
seen  by looking at the drawing1 ,fig4  
#abb1 which shows the height of the     
risers74 ,then place templet ,e1 in     
position as indicated by #c ,a1 and     
draw the line for the riser and the     

tread1 and so on until all the  lines   
have been drawn which will represent the
 front of the risers and  the bottom    
side of the treads4    ,after having    
drawn these lines1 take templet ,g1 and 
place it on the  tread line as shown at 
,j1 ,fig4 #abb1 and draw the lines for  
the top of  the steps1 the nosing1 and  
the wedges2 the thickness of the step is
 to  be measured up from the tread line4
    ,now take templet ,h1 place it in   
position on the riser lines1 ,j1 ,fig4  
#abb1 draw lines back of the riser line 
for the thickness of the risers  and the
 wedges2 then proceed to cut out the    
housing in the following  manner3       
,take a center or auger bit the same    
size as the thickness of the step  and  
bore the depth that the housing is to   
be1 as shown at #e ,a1 ,fig4  #abb2 then
 take a chisel and cut out as shown at  
#d ,a1 ,fig4 #abb4 ,this  will give room
 to use the back-saw to cut the rest of 
the lines4 ,now  take a chisel and      
remove the pieces to the depth required1

 which1 in  this case1 is  inch2 cut for
 the risers and remove in the same      
manner4    ,in larger work of this kind 
a router should be used4    ,to lay out 
the outside stringer take templet ,e1   
,fig4 #abb1 and mark as  at ,b1 ,fig4   
#abb4 ,the riser is to form a miter with
 the front of the  bracket2 so it will  
be necessary to begin at the top step   
and saw the  stringer off square to the 
face2 then take a bevel 7which will be  
set  at an angle of #de degrees7 and    
mark from the riser line so that it will
  form a miter4 ,saw down this line2    
then saw the next tread line square  to 
the face4 ,repeat with the bevel as     
before1 and saw the next riser  line1   
and so on until the bottom is reached4  
,c1 and ,d1 ,fig4 #abb1 show  how the   
risers and the treads are to be cut4    
,the ends of the risers are  to be cut  
at an angle of #de degrees to fit the   
bracket on the outside  stringer4 ,the  
end of the step is cut as shown in order
 to receive the  return nosing4 ,the    

dovetails on the end are to receive the 
baluster  which supports the hand-rail4 
,the piece ,f1 which is to form the     
well-hole1 is built up of pieces1  then 
planed out with a round bottom plane4   
,the method of fastening this  piece to 
the stringer is to halve the stringer   
and to cut out the  well-hole piece to  
receive it2 then glue and screw         
together4    ,i1 ,fig4 #abb1 shows what 
the top or landing step is to be4       
,the curves that are shown at the bottom
 and the top of the stringers  are known
 as easings4 ,the student will use his  
own ingenuity in forming  the easing1   
remembering that a little glue will     
fasten pieces together1  and that it is 
not necessary to take a board the whole 
width at those  points of the stringers 
to accomplish this4    ,to put the      
stairs together after all the pieces    
have been prepared1  place the bottom   
riser in place and fasten it in with    
glue and a  wedge2 then toe-nail it into
 the stringer from the back4 ,now fasten

  the outside stringer to the riser1    
bracing it into position2 then fit  the 
second riser and the first tread into   
place2 then fasten with glue  and       
wedges1 and toe-nail the riser and the  
tread to the stringer4 ,the  treads will
 be nailed to the risers so as to unite 
the work firmly  together4    ,another  
method of fastening the riser to the    
tread is to groove the  front edge of   
the tread and have a tongue on the      
riser1 an illustration  of which is     
shown in ,fig4 #abc4    ,illustration3  
,,fig4 #abc4    ,to decorate stairways  
mouldings are used2 generally a cove    
moulding is  fastened under the front   
and the end of the tread1 an            
illustration of  which is shown at ,fig4
 #abd4 ,the hammer is used in this      
problem2 it is  hardly necessary to     
explain its use4    ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #abd4    ,toe-nailing is the     
driving of nails obliquely in order to  
fasten two  pieces that may be at an    
angle to each other1 as illustrated by  

,fig4  #abe4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#abe4      ,,problem ,,in ,,hand        
,,railing4    ,the student1 not having  
had wood turning as yet1 will not       
consider  the making of the turned      
balusters1 such work being introduced in
 the  course in wood turning4    ,in    
commencing work on the hand railing1    
notice the several parts that  have to  
be made2 first1 the newel post2 second1 
the easing at the  bottom of the stairs2
 third1 the straight piece of railing2  
fourth1 the  return or twist at the top4
    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf4    ,fig4
 #abf shows the working drawing for the 
newel post1 the explanation  of which   
will be unnecessary4 ,the easing is the 
bend in the rail before  it strikes the 
newel post4 ,the method of laying out a 
graceful easing  is shown in ,fig4 #abg4
 ,the straight piece of rail is worked  
out with the  hollow and the round      
planes which are to be found in the tool
 room4    ,the return or twist requires 
to be developed by descriptive geometry1

  and to do this we will refer to       
drawing ,fig4 #aba in order to find the 
diameter of the well4 ,it will be       
noticed that one half of the twist is   
parallel with the landing and that the  
curve for that half would be a  true    
quarter circle1 while the other half of 
the twist1 that part which  follows the 
incline of the stairs1 would be part of 
an ellipse4    ,to demonstrate this1    
take a cylinder and cut it at an angle  
to its  axis2 the section through which 
the cylinder was cut would be an        
ellipse1 an illustration of which is    
shown by ,fig4 #abh4 ,to develop this   
part of the ellipse lay out1 on a board1
 by the following method1 a  full sized 
drawing of the rail required4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4    ,on the  
board draw a straight line which will be
 the center line of the  well1 and on   
any convenient point placing the leg of 
the compass 7which  will be set at the  
required radius71 describe a            

semi-circle1 which  will represent the  
diameter of the well given in the plan  
in ,fig4 #aba4  ,now from the           
semi-circle draw lines parallel to the  
center line1 which  will represent the  
outside stringer of the stair and the   
casing on the  landing4 ,fig4 #abi shows
 the development thus far4    ,the rail 
is to be #a inches wide and the         
balusters to be  inch square4  ,the side
 of the balusters which come on the     
outside of the stairs  comes even with  
the stringer1 and the rail is to be     
placed so that the  balusters are on its
 center4    ,from the line which is     
already drawn to show the part which is 
parallel  to the landing1 draw a line   
for the center of the rail1 and on each 
side of the center line lay out half the
 width of the rail4 ,on the  other half1
 which represents the outside stringer  
7the incline of  the twist71 draw the   
center line of the rail for the straight
 part2  then draw lines for the width of
 the rail as on the other half4 ,now1   

to obtain that part of the ellipse      
required1 take the pitch-board ,e1      
,fig4 #abb1 and place it on the drawing 
as shown in ,fig4 #acj2 then draw  lines
 from points ,x1 ,y1 ,z1 perpendicular  
to the center line4 ,now set  the       
compass to the distance ,a1 ,b1 and mark
 the distance ,a1 ,b1 on each  side of  
the point ,y4 ,this gives the width of  
the piece required for the  twist on the
 center line4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#abi4    ,describe the ellipse4 ,the    
major chord would be #b 7,e1 ,f17 for   
the  outside ellipse1 and the minor     
chord is ,g1 ,h1 for the inside4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj4    ,there   
are several methods used in describing  
an ellipse which the  student no doubt  
has used in studying geometry1 but the  
practical  stair builder uses a trammel 
and block4 ,the block is grooved through
  its center as shown in ,fig4 #aca1 and
 the trammel is a strip of wood2 a      
pencil is fastened on one end and pins  
are fixed at points to be found  by     

trial near the middle4 ,fig4 #acb shows 
how the trammel is made4 ,the  pins     
slide in the grooves of the block1 and  
the pencil marks the curve  required4   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aca4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acc4    ,fig4    
#acc gives a very comprehensive idea of 
the pieces before they are  worked down4
 ,the pieces at the right and at the top
 are the moulds1 and  the mould for the 
rail is on the top of the piece which is
 seen in the  front of the figure4      
,after having laid out the lines as     
directed make the moulds or templets    
out of thin stuff2 then mark the stock  
7out of which the pieces of the  rail   
are to be made71 by the templets1 and   
saw them out1 either with a  compass    
saw1 or with the band-saw where it is   
convenient to do so4    ,it will be     
noticed that the piece out of which the 
curved or twisted  piece is made is     
thicker than the piece which is parallel
 with the  landing4    ,after the pieces

 are sawed out1 proceed to lay out the  
lines by which  the rail is to be worked
 out4 ,the templet ,e1 ,fig4 #abb1 is   
used to  obtain the perpendicular and   
the horizontal lines1 from which is     
drawn  the rectangle that is seen on the
 end of the rail1 7in ,fig4 #acc17 and  
the templet seen on the right 7in ,fig4 
#acc7 is used to obtain the  curved     
lines on the top4 ,work off the surplus 
stock on each side of the  rectangle    
with the draw knife and the spokeshave1 
then work off the  top and the bottom1  
taking care to make a graceful curve on 
the top  and the bottom4 ,then mark the 
shape of the rail on the end and work   
out4    ,in ,fig4 #acd is seen the      
finished twist developed from the pieces
 shown  at ,fig4 #acc4    ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #acd4          ,,notes4         
,,to ,,dissolve ,,shellac4    ,put gum  
shellac into a glass or earthen vessel  
7a wooden box coated  inside with glue  
makes a very good vessel in which to    
dissolve  shellac71 and pour over it    

alcohol enough to cover the shellac2    
keep  stirring it until no lumps remain4
 ,this will take from two to three      
hours1 according to quantity4 ,if left  
in a tin can the shellac becomes  very  
dark4 ,to clear it when dark add a      
little oxalic acid and stir  until      
cleared4      ,,to ,,polish ,,with      
,,shellac4    ,dissolve shellac in #ij  
per cent alcohol4 ,stir for two hours1  
though not  continually2 do not allow it
 to stand long enough for lumps to      
settle4  ,after the shellac is dissolved
 the polish is ready for use4    ,now   
take a piece of old soft woolen         
material1 and form it into a ball  about
 the size of an egg in a way to permit  
the lower side to remain  smooth4 ,on   
the latter pour about from one half to  
one thimbleful of  the polish4 ,around  
the whole put a four-cornered piece of  
old linen  about #aj  #ac inches1 and   
fold it around the ball just as you have
 done  with the woolen cloth but in such
 a way that you can hold it by the  end 

of the goods4 ,on the smooth side put a 
few drops of linseed oil1  and then     
begin to polish the surface with a light
 and even pressure in  a circular       
movement from one side to the other1    
forward and backward1  until the entire 
surface receives a slight covering of   
polish4 ,when the  work becomes more    
difficult the ball requires moistening  
by a few drops  of oil2 at the same time
 put a few drops of oil on the plate1   
and the  ball will move easily again4   
,you must observe the work constantly4  
,if  everything is in order the plate as
 well as the ball will keep clean1  but 
if the ball sticks to the plate and gets
 smeary then you will know  that the    
polish is too thick and must be thinned 
with alcohol1 which  you are to put on  
the woolen cloth1 previously removing   
the linen and  putting it back on the   
other side2 that is1 turn the linen rag 
before  putting it back on the ball4    
,after having polished it sufficiently  
so that all the pores of the wood are   

filled and the surface has a  nice      
gloss1 put another soft linen rag around
 the ball1 and moisten  it with a few   
drops of alcohol2 again polish as before
 until the flat  surface has a high     
grade of smoothness and gloss and all   
the greasy  appearance has disappeared4 
,you must be very careful1 however1 to  
apply  but a few drops of alcohol and to
 press these into the ball as well as   
possible2 otherwise the strength of it  
may dissolve the polish in some  places 
entirely4 ,when at last the ball leaves 
but weak traces1 then  polish fast with 
strong strokes forward and backward     
until the ball is  completely dry and   
the surface of the wood very glossy4    
,if you polish the finished surface once
 more after ten days the gloss  will be 
nicer1 as the surface gets harder with  
age4    ,if you want the polish to be   
colored use ,curcuma for yellow1 ,sandal
 for  red1 and ,spanish green for green4
 ,the color is to be put in a thin coat 
between two linen rags1 over which      

should be put a woolen rag4 ,while      
polishing some of the coloring will     
stick to the polish4    ,it is not to be
 expected that by working according to  
these directions  you will learn how to 
polish perfectly1 as there are always   
some  unlooked-for difficulties1 but    
generally you can tell what to do in any
  emergency4      ,,glue4    ,how to    
dissolve and how to use4    ,glue1 which
 one workman finds all right and from   
which he obtains  excellent results1    
may1 in the hands of another workman1   
prove a  failure from many causes1 some 
of which may be that the glue is too    
thick1 or it may have been chilled      
before the pieces were clamped          
together1 or the glue is too thin4 ,the 
workman has to know from  experience    
just how thick the glue has to be for   
the work he has on  hand4 ,a hardwood   
piece of work requires a thinner glue   
than soft  wood4 ,the average           
consistency of glue should be about like
 that of  thin syrup1 and should be     

applied hot to the work4 ,sometimes in  
cold  weather the glue 8sets0 quickly2  
then the pieces to be glued should  be  
heated so that the glue may be kept     
soft4 ,when the pieces are put  together
 clamp them up quickly or rub them      
together1 forcing out the  surplus glue 
from the joint4 ,when work is glued     
together it should  stand from eight to 
twelve hours before being handled4      
,when the end grain of wood has to be   
glued1 it should first be sized1  that  
is1 it should be given a coat of glue   
and let dry4 ,this fills the  pores of  
the wood so that when the joint is made 
it will hold4    ,there are two kinds of
 glue1 animal and fish glue4 ,animal    
glue is made  from the refuse of        
slaughter houses and tanneries1 and the 
number of  grades and colors are        
innumerable4 ,fish glue is made chiefly 
from the  entrails and skin of fish1 and
 is mostly in liquid form4    ,to       
prepare glue1 put as much as is needed  
in the glue pot and cover  over with    

cold water2 then let it soak from six to
 ten hours1 according  to the quantity2 
after this place the glue pot in the    
water kettle or  glue heater1 and apply 
heat in any convenient way to the water1
 which  in turn heats the glue4 ,the use
 of the two vessels is to prevent the   
glue from burning4    ,glue should      
always be used as freshly as possible1  
for then it holds  better than when it  
is old4    ,it can be made to stand the 
weather by adding boiled linseed oil4   
,add  the linseed oil to the glue       
slowly1 stirring it all the time1 the   
proportion of oil to glue being two     
ounces of oil to sixteen ounces of      
glue4 ,another method of preparing glue 
to stand the weather1 is to use  skimmed
 milk instead of water when preparing   
it4      ,,to ,,true ,,oilstones4       
,oilstones by their continuous use by   
students become hollow at the  center   
and must be trued up so that plane irons
 and chisels can be  sharpened properly 
on them4 ,there are a number of methods 

that can be  employed to accomplish     
this2 any of them1 if tried1 will give  
good  results3    #ast ,method4 ,take a 
piece of flagstone or any kind of stone 
that has a  flat surface1 and on it     
place sharp sand and wet it with water4 
,take  the oilstone1 and with a circular
 motion rub on the sand until a flat    
surface is obtained4 ,the sand should be
 kept moist during the operation4       
#bnd ,method4 ,take a flat board and on 
it place a sheet of number one and  one 
half sand paper2 moisten slightly and   
rub the oilstone on it until  the       
desired results are obtained4 ,emery    
cloth is also good4    #crd ,method4 ,we
 have obtained the best and quickest    
results from this  method1 which is to  
have an iron plate finely corrugated and
 sprinkle  ,no4 #cj or ,no4 #dj emery on
 it2 rub the oilstone over the plate1   
sprinkling a little emery from time to  
time as the work advances4 ,use  the    
emery dry4 ,an oilstone in very poor    
condition can be trued up by  this      

method in from three to five minutes4   
,a mixture to apply to a hard oilstone  
to make it 8cut0 when sharpening  a     
plane-iron or a chisel1 is to take      
glycerine one part and alcohol  one     
part4 ,this mixture will not become     
gummy1 and an oilstone that is          
sometimes considered worthless while    
using common oils1 will be found  to    
give good satisfaction4                 
,,tools                          ,,for  
,,schools        ,,whittling ,,trays1   
,,with ,,outfits4      ,,sloyd ,,knives4
      ,,venetian ,,iron and ,,tools4    
,,wood ,,carving ,,tools4      ,,clay   
,,modeling ,,tools4      ,,plaster      
,,carving ,,tools4      ,,all ,,the     
,,standard ,,goods1 ,,including         
,,hammers1      ,,saws1      ,,squares1 
,,chisels1      ,,gouges1      ,,bits1  
,,braces1      ,,gauges1      c41 c41 c4
        ,,and ,,the ,,standard ,,benches
 ,,for      ,,one1 ,,two ,,or ,,more    
,,pupils4      ,,send ,,for ,,special   
,,catalogue4        ,illustration       

,,hammacher1 ,,schlemmer  ,,co4         
#bji ,,bowery1 ,,new ,,york1 ,,since    
#ahdh4                       ,,the      
,,brand ,,disston ,,on ,,saws1 ,,etc4   
,,is ,a ,,guarantee ,,of                
,,superior ,,quality and ,,workmanship4 
,d #ajj ,a ,,perfectly ,,proportioned   
,,beautifully ,,finished ,,saw4         
,illustration                           
,,send ,,for ,,our ,,handbook4          
,a ,treatise on the care and use of     
,,saws4                                 
,,mailed ,,free4          ,,files       
,manufactured from our own make of      
,crucible ,steel1              carefully
 ,forged and ,hardened2 correctly shaped
 ,teeth4              ,they are the most
 durable ,,files on the market4         
,we manufacture the ,largest ,line of   
,saws in the world4                     
,circular ,saws1 ,band ,saws1 ,crosscut 
,saws1 ,hand ,saws1 ,back               
,saws1 ,gauges1 ,plumb  ,levels1        
,screwdrivers1 ,try                     
,squares1 ,saw-sets1 etc4               

,,henry ,,disston  ,,sons1 ,inc41       
,,keystone ,,saw1 ,,tool1 ,,steel ,,and 
,,file ,,works1                         
,,philadelphia1 ,,penn4                 
,construction ,work                     
,,in ,,cardboard ,,and ,,paper1         
,,without                   ,,the ,,use 
,,of ,,tools1 ,,with ,,course ,,in      
,,woodwork for ,fifth and ,sixth ,grades
                         ,by ,,robert   
,m4 ,,smith          ,supervisor of     
,manual ,training1 ,chicago ,public     
,schools4        ,a complete course in  
,manual ,training for the first         
four grades4 ,the work is definite1     
practical1 simple1      and connects the
 ,kindergarten with the ,grammar        
grades4 ,the details are complete4 ,the 
materials are      inexpensive4 ,this   
course is now being used in a           
number of the ,chicago ,public ,schools4
            ,,the ,,only ,,practical    
,,book ,,published ,,covering ,,this    
,,work4 ,,its ,,completeness ,,of ,,plan
 ,,and ,,illustration                   

444 ,,makes ,,it ,,invaluable 444       
,,cloth1 #db ,,full ,,page              
,,illustrations1 #ge ,,cents            
,a4 ,,flanagan ,,company1 ,publishers   
#bff ,wabash ,avenue1 ,,chicago         
,illustration3 ,no4 #a ,,manual         
,,training ,,bench                      
,length of ,top             #ej inches  
,width of ,top              #ba inches  
,height                    #cb inches   
,these benches are made of selected hard
 maple throughout1      and are fitted  
with our ,no4 #fj rapid-acting vise4    
,they      are shipped knocked down and 
any boy can set them up4      ,they are 
extremely strong and rigid1 and with our
 steel      and iron vise make an outfit
 practically indestructible4      ,we   
make benches only fitted with our vises1
 and can      furnish any style desired1
 either single or double4               
,cabinetmakers'1 carvers' or special    
designs made to      order4 ,our prices 
are but little1 if any1 higher than     
asked for cheaply made benches with     

wooden vises or cheap      cast-iron    
vises4 ,this is an excellent bench to   
have about      the house1 and is       
suitable for boys from #f years old to  
men of #fj4 ,they are superior benches  
for manual training      and have plenty
 of capacity for the work4              
,manufactured                  only by  
,w4 ,g4 ,,toles  ,,co4                  
,irving ,park4444,chicago1 ,ill4        
,,send ,,for ,,catalogue4               
,manual ,training ,schools              
,should have the very best ,hand        
,saws that can be obtained4444          
,illustration           ,we make a      
,specialty of furnishing the            
,right ,kind--with proper shaped handles
 for       youths and children1 and made
 from our celebrated                    
,,trade                        ,,silver 
,,steel                                 
,,mark           which is the finest    
steel ever used in saws4                
,atkins ,quality ,stands at the ,head   
,,manufactured ,,only ,,by              

,e4 ,c4 ,atkins  ,co41 ,inc'p'd4        
,,factories                             
,indianapolis1 ,ind4                    
,,branch ,,houses3      ,memphis1 ,tenn4
   ,minneapolis1 ,minn4   ,atlanta1 ,ga4
                ,portland1 ,or41   ,new 
,york ,city4                            
,,our ,,motto3                          
8,atkins ,always ,ahead0                
,,six6 ,,six6                           
,,bright ,,new                          
,,books        ,,in ,,the ,,misty       
,,realm ,,of ,,fable          ,by ,,emma
 ,,robinson ,,kleckner            8,the 
book contains all that is best in       
,mythology1          and what it        
presents is made the most of in the way 
it is told40--,,wm4 ,,hawley ,,smith1   
,author and          ,lecturer4         
,this book is admirably adapted as a    
,supplementary ,header for fourth and   
fifth          grades4 ,second ,edition4
 ,cloth4 ,eight full page               
illustrations4 ,many smaller ones4 #afj 
pages1          handsome cover1 list #ej

 cents4        ,,turning ,,points ,,in  
,,teaching          ,by ,d4 ,c4         
,,murphy1 ,,ph4 ,d4                     
,superintendent ,training ,department of
 ,slippery ,rock 7,pa47          ,state 
,normal ,school4            ,dr4 ,murphy
 is a practical teacher2 he knows the   
needs of teachers and has given them a  
book full of          ,new ,methods1    
,ideas1 ,anecdotes and ,helps4 ,some of 
the chapters are3 ,the ,first ,day of   
,school2 ,critical          ,moments in 
the ,school ,room2 ,managing the ,bad   
,boy2          ,managing the ,bad ,girl2
 ,blue ,monday4 ,cloth1 #add            
pages1 #ej cents2 paper1 #be cents4     
,,the ,,student',s ,,guide ,,to ,,music 
,by ,j4 ,n4 ,,whybark            ,in the
 ,student's ,guide to ,music we find    
just what          its name indicates2  
all the necessary rudiments          of 
music2 talks on ,voice ,culture1        
,breathing and          ,theory2 nearly 
#ajj ,exercises in ,sight ,singing for  
classes in unison2 a ,complete          

,dictionary of musical          terms4  
,manila binding1 #fj pages1 #be cents4  
,,norton',s ,,practical ,,studies ,,in  
,,grammar            ,theory and        
,practice are combined2 principles      
and definitions given from the outset1  
but with          little formality2     
abundance of easy examples for          
illustrations2 varied selections from   
standard          literature for        
grammatical and literary study4         
,large type2 several full page and half 
page          illustrations4 ,cloth1    
#bae pages1 price #dj          cents4   
,if the book is adopted the amount paid 
for          the first copy will be     
refunded4        ,,miss ,,hauck',s ,,new
 ,,reproduction ,,stories ,,for         
,,primary ,,grades            #aej      
original and rewritten stories4 ,they   
embrace all subjects1 as ,little        
,stories about          ,nature1        
,stories about ,animals1 ,children1     
,flowers1          ,trees1 ,birds1      
,leaves1 etc4 ,price #ae4        ,a     

,,new ,,help ,,in ,,united ,,states     
,,history          ,by ,o4 ,h ,,marsh1  
,county ,supt41 ,mills ,county1 ,ia4    
,this is not purposed as a patent method
 for          teaching history1 but is  
the result of long          experience  
in the school room and in normal        
institutes4 ,the ,outlines are full1 the
 ,notes          interesting1 the       
,questions suggestive4 ,send            
#be cents for a copy and if not fully up
 to          expectations1 return same4 
,are ,you in the ,dark as to where      
certain          articles in your work  
may be found8 ,write us          for    
,helps in ,school ,entertainments1      
,general          ,work1 ,school        
,blanks1 ,text ,books1 ,school          
,supplies1          ,pictures1          
,supplementary ,reading1 ,etc4          
,a4 ,,flanagan ,,co4 ,,chicago          
,,the ,,new ,,arithmetics               
,,the ,,new ,,practical ,,arithmetic    
,by ,a4 ,w4 ,,rich1 ,professor of       
,mathematics                in the ,iowa

 ,state ,normal ,school4        ,this   
book is the result of practical work in 
the class room1      and furnishes a    
complete course for all ordinary        
purposes4        ,among the ,features of
 ,special ,note are3            #a4 ,a  
set of tables and drills for mental     
work4          ,these cover the         
essential operations of arithmetic      
and are designed to make the pupil      
proficient in          the shortest time
 possible4            #b4 ,a            
presentation of the necessary           
definitions1          principles1 and   
rules in compact form so as to          
indicate clearly the arithmetical       
elements and          relations4        
#c4 ,a great number of model problem    
solutions4 ,the          scope1 the     
varied character1 and the helpfulness of
          these emphasize the thought   
side1 and are of the          highest   
value in developing the reasoning       
powers4            #d4 ,a large variety 
of ,drill ,tables1 ,test ,problems1     

and other means of testing the pupil's  
power as          well as giving him    
mastery over the subject4               
,cloth1 #e  #g inches4                  
#bbb pages4 ,price1 #ej cents4          
,,the ,,new ,,higher ,,arithmetic       
,the need of a good1 practical1 and     
suggestive          higher text in      
arithmetic has long been felt4 ,not     
a book of catch problems1 or a book     
filled with          curious or obsolete
 matter is here presented2 but a        
helpful1 inspiring1 useful text-book4   
,a ,special ,feature ,may be ,mentioned3
            ,the ,model ,solution found 
so valuable in the          ,new        
,practical ,arithmetic1 has been carried
 forward          in this work4 ,to this
 has been added a feature          known
 as 8indicated work10 inventional in its
          nature1 by which the pupil is 
taught to formulate          his        
problems and to express them in clear   
and          definite language4         
,this work is regarded as of high value 

in enabling          a pupil to         
determine promptly the conditions of a  
problem1 and to see the end from the    
beginning and          then proceed by  
logical steps from the beginning to     
the end4                   ,cloth1 #e   
#g inches4                  #cbj pages4 
,price1 #ge cents4             ,a copy  
of both books for #a4jj4 ,if adopted    
or returned money will be refunded4     
,liberal ,terms for ,introduction and   
,exchange4                           ,a4
 ,,flanagan ,,co4 ,,chicago4