,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,islam ,,by ,dr4 ,t4 ,j4 ,,de ,,bo]1 ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,gron+54 ,,translat$ 7) ! sanction ( ! ,au?or7 ,,by ,,edw>d ,r4 ,,jones ,b4,d4 ,,london ,,luzac ,,co41 #df1 ,,great ,,russell ,,/reet1 #aijc4 ,,translator',s ,,prefatory ,,note4 ,?is edition ( ,dr4 de ,bo]'s rec5t "w is produc$ 9 ! hope t x may prove int]e/+ to n a few ,engli% read]s1 & especially t x may be ( s]vice to y\ng] /ud5ts comm5c+ to /udy ! subject :i* is dealt ) 9 ! foll[+ pages4 ,! translator has aim$ at no?+ m ?an a fai?ful reproduction ( ! orig9al4 ,8 be/ ?anks are due to ! accompli%$ au?or1 = 8 k9dness 9 revis+ ! pro(-%eets ( ! v]sion1 z x pass$ ?r\gh ! ,press4 ,e4 ,r4 ,j4 ,,preface4 ,! foll[+ is ! fir/ attempt :i* has be5 made1 s9ce ! appe>ance ( ,munk's excell5t sket* #a1 to pres5t 9 connect$ =m a ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy 9 ,islam4 ,?is "w ( m9e may !re=e be reg>d$ z a fre% initiation1--n a completion ( su* a task4 ,i c\ld n "k ( all t _h be5 done by o!rs1 9 ! way ( prelim9>y /udy 9 ?is field2 & :5 ,i did "k ( ! exi/5ce ( su* mat]ial1 x 0 n always accessible to me4 ,z = manuscript assi/ance1 x 0 only 9 exceptional cases t ?is 0 at my disposal4 ,con=m+ to ! conditions :i* ,i _h to meet1 ,i h 9 ! foll[+ acc\nt refra9$ f /at+ my au?orities4 ,b any?+ :i* ,i may h tak5 ov]1 ne>ly ^w = ^w or )\t te/+ x1 ,i h m>k$ 9 foot-ref]5ces4 ,= ! re/1 ,i deeply regret t ,i _c duly indicate at pres5t h[ mu* ,i owe1 z reg>ds appreciation ( ! s\rces1 to m5 l ,diet]ici1 de ,goeje1 ,goldzih]1 ,h\tsma1 ,aug4 ,mll]1 ,munk1 ,nldeke1 ,r5an1 ,sn\ck ,hurgronje1 van ,vlot51 & _m1 _m o!rs4 ,s9ce ! completion ( ?is volume an int]e/+ monograph on ,ibn ,s9a #b has appe>$1 :i* f>!r ext5ds its survey ov] ! e>li] hi/ory ( ,philosophy 9 ,islam4 ,x gives rise to no occasion1 h[ev]1 to alt] sub/antially my conception ( ! subject4 ,= all bibliographical details ,i ref] ! read] to 8die ,ori5talis*e ,bibliographie01 ,brockelmann's 8,ges*i*te d] ,arabis*5 ,litt]atur01 & ,ueb]weg--,he9ze's 8,grundriss d] ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie0 ,,ii#c1 p4 #bac sqq4 ,9 ! transcription ( ,arabic names ,i h be5 m he$ful ( tradition & ,g]man pronunciation1 ?an ( consi/5cy4 ,be x not$ only t z is to be pron\nc$ z a s(t s1 & ? l ! correspond+ ,engli% s\nd #c4 ,9 ! ,index ( ,p]sonal ,names1 acc5ts signify l5g?4 ,z f> z possible ,i h conf9$ myself to ,islam4 ,on t gr\nd ,ibn ,gebirol & ,maimonides h receiv$ only a pass+ notice1 :ile o!r ,jewi% ?9k]s h be5 entirely omitt$1 al?\gh1 philosophically consid]$1 !y belong to ! ,muslim s*ool4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 entails no great loss1 = mu* has be5 writt5 already ab\t ! ,jewi% philosoph]s1 :]eas ,muslim ?9k]s h hi!rto be5 sadly neglect$4 ,gron+5 7,ne!rl&s74 ,t4 ,j4 de ,bo]4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,introduction4 ,,page #a4 ,! ,!atre #a-f #a4 ,anci5t ,arabia #a #b4 ,! fir/ ,caliphs4 ,m$9a4 ,! ,%iites #b #c4 ,! ,omayyads4 ,damascus1 ,basra & ,kufa #c #d4 ,! ,abbasids4 ,bagdad #c #e4 ,m9or ,/ates4 ,fall ( ! ,caliphate #e #b4 ,ori5tal ,wisdom #f-aa #a4 ,semitic ,speculation #f #b4 ,p]sian ,religion4 ,zrwanism #h #c4 ,indian ,wisdom #h #c4 ,greek ,sci5ce #aa-cj #a4 ,! ,syrians #aa #b4 ,! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*es #aa #c4 ,edessa & ,nisibis #ab #d4 ,h>ran #ac #e4 ,gonde%apur #ad #f4 ,syriac ,translations #ad #g4 ,philosophy among ! ,syrians #af #h4 ,arabic ,translations #ag #i4 ,! ,philosophy ( ! ,translators #ai #aj4 ,range ( ,tradition #ba #aa4 ,cont9uation ( ,neo-,platonism #bb #ab4 ,! 8,book ( ! ,apple0 #bd #ac4 ,! 8,!ology ( ,ari/otle0 #be #ad4 ,conception ( ,ari/otle #bg #ae4 ,philosophy 9 ,islam #bh ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,philosophy & ,arab ,k4 #a4 ,grammatical ,sci5ce #ca-ce #a4 ,! sev]al ,sci5ces #ca #b4 ,! ,arabic ,language4 ,! ,koran #ca #c4 ,! ,gramm>ians ( ,basra & ,kufa #cb #d4 ,gramm> influ5c$ by ,logic4 ,metrical ,/udies #cc #e4 ,grammatical ,sci5ce & ,philosophy #ce #b4 ,e?ical ,tea*+ #cf-da #a4 ,tradition & ,individual ,op9ion 7,sunna1 ,hadi?1 ,ray7 #cf #b4 ,analogy 7,qiyas74 ,cons5sus ( ! ,congregation 7,idjma7 #cg #c4 ,position & ,cont5ts ( ! ,muslim ,e?ical ,sy/em 7al-,fiqh7 #ch #d4 ,e?ics & ,politics #dj #c4 ,doctr9al ,sy/ems #da-fd #a4 ,*ri/ian ,dogmatic #da #b4 ,! ,kalam #db #c4 ,! ,mutazilites & _! ,oppon5ts #dc #d4 ,human & ,div9e ,action #dd #e4 ,! ,be+ ( ,god #df #f4 ,revelation & ,reason #dh #g4 ,abu-l-,hudhail #di #h4 ,nazzam #ea #i4 ,djahiz #ec #aj4 ,muamm> & ,abu ,ha%im #ed #aa4 ,a%>i #ee #ab4 ,! ,atomi/ic ,kalam #eg #ac4 ,my/icism or ,sufism #fb #d4 ,lit]ature & ,hi/ory #fe-ga #a4 ,lit]ature #fe #b4 ,abu-l-,atahia4 ,mutanabbi4 ,abu-l-,ala4 ,h>iri #fe #c4 ,annali/ic4 ,hi/orical ,tradition #fg #d4 ,masudi & ,muqaddasi #fi ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,! ,py?agorean ,philosophy4 #a4 ,natural ,philosophy #gb-hj #a4 ,! ,s\rces #gb #b4 ,ma!matical ,/udies #gc #c4 ,natural ,sci5ce #ge #d4 ,m$ic9e #gf #e4 ,razi #gg #f4 ,! ,dahrites #hj #b4 ,! ,fai?ful ,bre?r5 ( ,basra #ha-if #a4 ,! ,k>matites #ha #b4 ,! ,bre?r5 & _! ,encyclopa$ia #hb #c4 ,eclecticism #hd #d4 ,k #he #e4 ,ma!matics #hg #f4 ,logic #hi #g4 ,god & ! ,_w #ij #h4 ,! ,human ,s\l #ib #i4 ,philosophy ( ,religion #ic #aj4 ,e?ics #id #aa4 ,influ5ce ( ! ,encyclopa$ia #ie ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,! ,neo-,platonic ,ari/otelians ( ,! ,ea/4 #a4 ,k9di #ig-ajf #a4 ,8 ,life #ig #b4 ,relation to ,!ology #ii #c4 ,ma!matics #ajj #d4 ,god2 ,_w2 ,s\l #aja #e4 ,doctr9e ( ! ,_s 7aql7 #ajb #f4 ,k9di z an ,ari/otelian #ajd #g4 ,! ,s*ool ( ,k9di #aje #b4 ,f>abi #ajf-abh #a4 ,! ,logicians #ajf #b4 ,f>abi's ,life #ajg #c4 ,relation to ,plato & ,ari/otle #ajh #d4 ,f>abi's ,conception ( ,philosophy #aaj #e4 ,8 ,logic #aaa #f4 ,8 ,metaphysics4 ,be+4 ,god #aad #g4 ,! ,cele/ial ,_w #aae #h4 ,! ,t]re/rial ,_w #aag #i4 ,! ,human ,s\l #aah #aj4 ,! ,_s 9 ,man #aai #aa4 ,f>abi's ,e?ics #aba #ab4 ,8 ,politics #abb #ac4 ,! ,future ,life #abc #ad4 ,g5]al ,survey ( ,f>abi's ,sy/em #abd #ae4 ,effects ( 8 ,philosophy4 ,sidji/ani #abf #c4 ,ibn ,maskawaih #abh-aca #a4 ,8 ,position #abh #b4 ,! ,nature ( ! ,s\l #abh #c4 ,! ,pr9ciples ( 8 ,e?ics #abi #d4 ,ibn ,s9a 7,avic5na7 #aca-adh #a4 ,8 ,life #aca #b4 ,8 ,"w #acb #c4 ,bran*es ( ,philosophy4 ,logic #acd #d4 ,metaphysics & ,physics #ace #e4 ,an?ropology & ,psy*ology #aci #f4 ,! ,reason #ada #g4 ,allegorical ,repres5tation ( ! ,doctr9e ( ! ,reason #adc #h4 ,esot]ic ,tea*+ #add #i4 ,ibn ,s9a's ,"t4 ,b]uni #ade #aj4 ,behm5y> #adf #aa4 ,survival ( ,ibn ,s9a's ,influ5ce #adg #e4 ,ibn al-,hai?am 7,alhaz57 #adh-aec #a4 ,sci5tific ,movem5t turn+ ,we/w>d #adh #b4 ,ibn al-,hai?am's ,life & ,works #adi #c4 ,p]ception & ,judgm5t #aej #d4 ,sl5d] effect left by 8 ,tea*+ #aeb ,,*apt] ,v4 ,! ,outcome ( ,philosophy 9 ,! ,ea/4 #a4 ,gazali #aed-afh #a4 ,dialectic & ,my/icism #aed #b4 ,gazali's ,life #aee #c4 ,attitude t[>ds 8 ,"t3 ,ho/ility to ,ari/otelianism #aeh #d4 ,! ,_w z ! ,production ( ,god's ,free ,creative ,might #aei #e4 ,god & ,div9e ,provid5ce #afb #f4 ,doctr9e ( ! ,resurrection #afc #g4 ,gazali's ,!ology #afd #h4 ,exp]i5ce & ,revelation #aff #i4 ,e/imate ( ,gazali's ,position & ,tea*+ #afh #b4 ,! ,epitomi/s #afi-aga #a4 ,position ( ,philosophy 9 ! ,ea/1 aft] ,gazali's ,"t #afi #b4 ,philosophical ,culture #agj ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,philosophy 9 ,! ,we/4 #a4 ,beg9n+s #agb-age #a4 ,! ,age ( ! ,omayyads #agb #b4 ,! ,elev5? ,c5tury #agd #b4 ,ibn ,baddja 7,avempace7 #age-aha #a4 ,! ,almoravids #age #b4 ,ibn ,baddja's ,life #agf #c4 ,! ,"* ( 8 ,works #agg #d4 ,8 ,logic & ,metaphysics #agg #e4 ,8 ,op9ions reg>d+ ,s\l & ,_s #agh #f4 ,! ,individual ,man #agi #c4 ,ibn ,t(ail 7,abubac]7 #aha-ahg #a4 ,! ,almohads #aha #b4 ,ibn ,t(ail's ,life #ahb #c4 8,hai ibn ,yaqzan0 #ahb #d4 8,hai0 & ! ,developm5t ( ,humanity #ahd #e4 8,hai's0 ,e?ics #ahe #d4 ,ibn ,ro%d 7,av]roes7 #ahg-aii #a4 ,8 ,life #ahg #b4 ,ibn ,ro%d & ,ari/otle #ahh #c4 ,logic4 ,atta9ability ( ,tru? #ahi #d4 ,! ,_w & ,god #aia #e4 ,body & ,_s #aic #f4 ,_s & ,spirits #aid #g4 ,e/imate ( ,ibn ,ro%d z a ,?9k] #aif #h4 ,summ>y ( 8 ,views on ! ,relations ( ,!ology1 ,religion & ,philosophy to "o ano!r4 ,practical ,philosophy #aig ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,conclusion4 #a4 ,ibn ,khaldun #bjj-bjh #a4 ,! ,conditions ( 8 ,"t #bjj #b4 ,ibn ,khaldun's ,life #bja #c4 ,philosophy & ,worldly ,exp]i5ce #bjb #d4 ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory4 ,hi/orical ,me?od #bjd #e4 ,! ,subject ( ,hi/ory #bje #f4 ,*>act]ization #bjf #b4 ,! ,arabs & ,s*ola/icism #bjh-bac #a4 ,political ,situation4 ,! ,jews #bjh #b4 ,pal]mo & ,tol$o #bji #c4 ,p>isian ,av]roism 9 ! ,?irte5? ,c5tury #baa ,i4 ,,introduction4 #a4 ,! ,!atre4 #a4 ,9 old5 "t ! ,arabian des]t 01 z x is at ?is day1 ! roam+-gr\nd ( indep5d5t ,b$\9 tribes4 ,) free & heal?y m9ds !y contemplat$ _! monoton\s _w1 ^: highe/ *>m 0 ! raid1 & ^: intellectual treasure 0 ! tribal tradition4 ,nei!r ! a*ievem5ts ( social lab\r1 nor ! accompli%m5ts ( elegant leisure 7 kn[n to !m4 ,only on ! bord]s ( ! des]t1 9 regul>ly con/itut$ communities1 :i* (t5 _h to suff] f ! incursions ( ^? ,b$\9s1 a high] degree ( civilization _h be5 atta9$4 ,?is 0 ! case 9 ! ,s\?1 :]e ! anci5t k+dom ( ! ,que5 ( ,%eba cont9u$ its exi/5ce 9 ,*ri/ian times "u ,abyss9ian or ,p]sian ov]lord%ip4 ,on ! ,we/ lay ,mecca & ,m$9a 7,ya?rib71 by an old c>avan r\te2 & ,mecca 9 p>ticul>1 ) its m>ket safe-gu>d$ by a temple1 0 ! c5tre ( a brisk traffic4 ,la/ly on ! ,nor?1 two semi-sov]eign ,/ates _h be5 =m$ "u ,arab pr9ces3 t[>ds ,p]sia1 ! k+dom ( ! ,lakhmids 9 ,hira2 & t[>ds ,byzantium ! dom9ion ( ! ,gassanids 9 ,syria4 ,9 spee* & poetry1 h[ev]1 ! unity ( ! ,arab nation 0 set =? to "s ext5t ev5 be=e ,mohamm$'s "t4 ,! poets 7 ! #8m5 ( k' = _! p4 ,_! incantations held good z oracles1 fir/ ( all = _! sev]al tribes1 b no d\bt ext5d+ _! influ5ce (t5 beyond _! own p>ticul> septs4 #b4 ,mohamm$ & 8 imm$iate successors1 ,abu ,bekr1 ,om>1 ,o?man & ,ali 7#fbb-ffa7 succe$$ 9 inspir+ ! free sons ( ! des]t1 toge!r ) ! m civiliz$ inhabitants ( ! coa/-l&s1 ) en?usiasm = a jo9t ent]prise4 ,to ?is circum/ance ,islam owes its _w-position3 = ,allah %[$ himself great1 & ! _w 0 q small = ^? :o surr5d]$ !mselves to him 7,muslims74 ,9 a %ort "t ! :ole ( ,p]sia 0 conqu]$1 & ! ,ea/-,roman empire lo/ its faire/ prov9ces1--,syria & ,egypt4 ,m$9a 0 ! seat ( ! fir/ ,caliphs or repres5tatives ( ! prophet4 ,!n ,mohamm$'s brave son-9-law ,ali1 & ,ali's sons1 fell be=e ,moawiya1 ! able gov]nor ( ,syria4 ,f t "t dates ! exi/5ce ( ! p>ty ( ,ali 7,%iites71 :i* 9 ! c\rse ( div]se vicissitudes1--n[ r$uc$ to subjection1 n[ 9 deta*$ places atta9+ p[]1--lives on 9 hi/ory1 until x f9ally incorporates itself ) ! ,p]sian k+dom 9 def9ite opposition to ,sunnite ,islam4 ,9 _! /ruggle aga9/ ! secul> p[] ! ,%iites avail$ !mselves ( e possible weapon1--ev5 ( sci5ce4 ,v e>ly !re appe>s among !m ! sect ( ! ,kaisanites1 :i* ascribes to ,ali & 8 heirs a sup]human secret lore1 by ! help ( :i* ! inn] mean+ ( ! ,div9e revelation fir/ becomes cle>1 b :i* dem&s f its devotees n less fai? 91 & absolute ob$i5ce to1 ! possessor ( su* k1 ?an does ! lett] ( ! ,koran4 7,cf4 ,,iii1 #b #a74 #c4 ,aft] ! victory ( ,moawiya1 :o made ,damascus ! capital ( ! ,muslim empire1 ! importance ( ,m$9a lay ma9ly 9 ! spiritual prov9ce4 ,x _h to cont5t itself ) fo/]+1 p>tly "u ,jewi% & ,*ri/ian influ5ces1 a k ( ! ,law & ,tradition4 ,9 ,damascus1 on ! o!r h&1 ! ,omayyads 7#ffa-gej7 conduct$ ! secul> gov]nm5t4 ,"u _! rule ! empire spread f ! ,atlantic to di/ricts beyond ! fronti]s ( ,india & ,turke/an1 & f ! ,indian ,ocean to ! ,caucasus & ! v walls ( ,con/ant9ople4 ,) ?is developm5t1 h[ev]1 x _h rea*$ its f>!/ ext5sion4 ,arabs n[ assum$ ev]y:]e ! lead+ position4 ,!y =m$ a milit>y ari/ocracy2 & ! mo/ /rik+ pro( ( _! influ5ce is ! fact1 t conqu]$ nations ) an old & sup]ior civilization accept$ ! language ( _! conqu]ors4 ,arabic became ! language ( ,*ur* & ,/ate1 ( ,poetry & ,sci5ce4 ,b :ile ! high] (fices 9 ! ,/ate & ! ,army 7 adm9i/]$ by ,arabs 9 pref]5ce1 ! c>e ( ! ,arts & ,sci5ces fell1 fir/ ( all1 to ,non-,arabs & m5 ( mix$ blood4 ,9 ,syria s*ool-in/ruction 0 receiv$ f ,*ri/ians4 ,! *ief seats ( intellectual culture1 h[ev]1 7 ,basra & ,kufa1 9 :i* ,arabs & ,p]sians1 ,muslims1 ,*ri/ians1 ,jews & ,magians rubb$ %\ld]s toge!r4 ,!re1 :]e trade & indu/ry 7 ?riv+1 ! beg9n+s ( secul> sci5ce 9 ,islam mu/ be s\ght =1--beg9n+s !mselves due to ,hell5i/ic-,*ri/ian & ,p]sian influ5ces4 #d4 ,! ,omayyads 7 succe$$ by ! ,abbasids 7#gej-abeh74 ,to obta9 ! sov]eignty1 ! latt] _h grant$ concessions to ! ,p]sians1 & _h utiliz$ religio-political movem5ts4 ,dur+ ! fir/ c5tury ( _! rule 7i4e4 up to ab\t #hfj71 ?\gh only dur+ t p]iod1 ! greatness ( ! empire cont9u$ to increase1 or at lea/ x held its own4 ,9 ! ye> #gfb1 ,mansur1 ! second rul] ( ?is h\se1 f\nd$ ,bagdad z ! new capital1--a city :i* soon out%one ,damascus 9 worldly spl5d\r1 & ,basra & ,kufa 9 intellectual illum9ation4 ,con/ant9ople alone c\ld be comp>$ to x4 ,poets & s*ol>s1 p>ticul>ly f ! ,nor?-,ea/]n prov9ces1 met toge!r 9 ,bagdad at ! c\rt ( ,mansur 7#ged-gge71 ( ,h>un 7#ghf-hji71 ( ,mamun 7#hac-hcc71 & o!rs4 ,sev]al ( ! ,abbasids _h a lik+ = secul> culture1 :e!r = its own sake or to adorn _! c\rt1 & al?\gh !y may (t5 h fail$ to recognize ! value ( arti/s & le>n$ m51 ^! at any rate c\ld appreciate ! mat]ial b5efits conf]r$ ^u !m by _! patrons4 ,f ! "t ( ,h>un at lea/1 !re exi/$ 9 ,bagdad a libr>y & a le>n$ in/itute4 ,ev5 "u ,mansur1 b especially "u ,mamun & 8 successors1 translation ( ! sci5tific lit]ature ( ! ,greeks into ! ,arabic tongue w5t =w>d1 l>gely ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ,syrians2 & ,ab/racts & ,comm5t>ies be>+ ^u ^! works 7 also compos$4 ,j :5 ?is le>n$ activity 0 at its highe/1 ! glory ( ! empire began to decl9e4 ,! old tribal feuds1 :i* _h nev] be5 at re/ "u ! ,omayyads1 _h seem+ly giv5 place to a firmly-knit political unity2 b o!r controv]sies1--!ological & metaphysical wrangl+s1 su* z 9 l mann] accompani$ ! decay ( ! ,ea/-,roman empire1--7 prosecut$ ) ev]-increas+ bitt]ness4 ,! s]vice ( ! ,/ate1 "u an ,ea/]n despotism1 did n require m5 ( brilliant p>ts4 ,promis+ abilities accord+ly 7 (t5 ru9$ 9 luxuri\s indulg5ce1 or flung away ^u sophi/ry & ! %[ ( le>n+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 = ! def5ce ( ! empire ! ,caliphs enli/$ ! s\nd & heal?y vig\r ( nations :o _h n be5 s mu* s(t5$ by ov]-civilization1--fir/ ! ,iranian or ,iranianiz$ p ( ,khorasan1 & !n ! ,turks4 #e4 ,! decl9e ( ! empire became m & m evid5t4 ,! p[] ( ! ,turki% soldi]y1 upris+s ( city mobs & ( peasant lab\r]s1 ,%iite & ,ismaelite intrigues on all sides1 & 9 addition ! desire = indep5d5ce %[n by ! di/ant prov9ces1--7 ei!r ! causes or ! symptoms ( ! d[nfall4 ,alongside ( ! ,caliphs1 :o 7 r$uc$ to ! position ( spiritual dignit>ies1 ! ,turks rul$ z ,mayors ( ! ,palace2 & all r\nd1 9 ! outly+ regions ( ! empire1 indep5d5t ,/ates 7 gradually =m$1 until an utt]ly a/\nd+ body ( m9or ,/ates appe>$4 ,! mo/ influ5tial rul+ h\ses1 m or less indep5d5t1 7 ! foll[+3 9 ! ,we/1 to say no?+ ( ! ,spani% ,omayyads 7cf4 ,,vi1 #a71 ! ,aglabids ( ,nor?-,africa1 ! ,tulunids & ,fatimids ( ,egypt1 & ! ,hamdanids ( ,syria & ,mesopotamia2 9 ! ,ea/1 ! ,tahirids & ,samanids1 :o 7 by sl[ degrees supplant$ by ! ,turks4 ,x is at ! c\rts ( ^! petty dyna/ies t ! poets & s*ol>s ( ! next p]iod 7! #aj? & #aa? c5turies7 are to be f\nd4 ,= a %ort "t ,haleb 7,aleppo71 ! seat ( ! ,hamdanids1 & = a long] "t ,cairo1 built by ! ,fatimids 9 ! ye> #ifi1--;h a bett] claim to be reg>d$ z ! home ( intellectual endeav\r ?an ,bagdad itself4 ,= ano!r brief space lu/re is %$ on ! ,ea/ by ! c\rt ( ! ,turk1 ,mahmud ( ,ghazna1 :o _h become ma/] ( ,khorasan 9 ! ye> #iii4 ,! f\nd+ ( ! ,muslim ,univ]sities also falls )9 ?is p]iod ( petty ,/ates & ,turki% adm9i/ration4 ,! fir/ "o 0 erect$ 9 ,bagdad 9 ! ye> #ajfe2 & f t date ! ,ea/ has be5 9 possession ( ,sci5ce1 b only 9 ! =m ( /]eotyp$ republications4 ,! tea*] conveys ! tea*+ :i* has be5 h&$ d[n to him by 8 tea*]s2 & 9 any new book h>dly a s5t5ce w be f\nd :i* does n appe> 9 old] books4 ,sci5ce 0 rescu$ f dang]2 b ! le>n$ m5 ( ,transoxiana1 :o1 ^u he>+ ( ! e/abli%m5t ( ! fir/ ,madrasah1 appo9t$ a solemn memorial s]vice1 z tradition tells1 to be held 9 hon\r ( dep>t$ sci5ce1 h be5 %ewn to be correct 9 _! e/imate4 #d ,!n1--9 ! #ac? c5tury1--!re came /orm+ ov] ! ,ea/]n regions ( ,islam ! res\nd+ invasion ( ! ,mongols1 :o swept away :atev] ! ,turks _h sp>$4 ,no culture ev] fl\ri%$ !re aga91 to develope f its own res\rces a new ,art or to /imulate a revival ( ,sci5ce4 #b4 ,ori5tal ,wisdom4 #a4 ,prior to its contact ) ,hell5ism1 ! ,semitic m9d _h proce$$ no f>!r 9 ! pa? ( ,philosophy ?an ! prop\nd+ ( enigmas1 & ! utt]ance ( aphori/ic wisdom4 ,deta*$ obs]vations ( ,nature1 b especially ( ! life & fate ( ,man1 =m ! basis ( su* ?9k+2 & :]e compreh5sion ceases1 resignation to ! almighty & inscrutable w ( ,god comes 9 )\t difficulty4 ,we h become famili> ) ?is k9d ( wisdom f ! ,old ,te/am5t2 & t x 0 develop$ 9 l mann] among ! ,arabs1 is %ewn to u by ! ,bible /ory ( ! ,que5 ( ,%eba1 & by ! figure ( ! wise ,loqman 9 ! ,arab tradition4 ,by ! side ( ?is wisdom !re 0 f\nd ev]y:]e ! ,magic ( ! sorc]]1--a k :i* 0 au!nticat$ by comm& ov] outw>d ?+s4 ,b x 0 only 9 ! prie/ly circles ( anci5t ,babylonia1--"u :at influ5ces & to :at ext5t we d n precisely "k1--t m5 rose to a m sci5tific consid]ation ( ! _w4 ,_! eyes 7 turn$ f ! confusion ( e>?ly exi/5ce to ! ord] ( ! heav5s4 ,!y 7 n l ! ,hebrews1 :o nev] got beyond ! wond]+ /age #e1 or :o saw m]ely an emblem ( _! own po/]ity 9 ! c\ntless />s #f2 !y resembl$ r ! ,greeks :o came to und]/& ! ,_m & ! ,manifold 9 _! sublun>y =ms1 only aft] !y _h discov]$ ! h>mony ( ! ,all 9 ! unity & /ead9ess ( ! movem5t ( ! heav5s4 ,! only drawback 0 t mu* my?ological by-play & a/rological pret5ce 0 int]wov5 ) :at 0 good1 z 9 fact 0 ! case also 9 ,hell5ism4 ,?is ,*aldaean wisdom1 f ! "t ( ,alex&] ! ,great1 became p]vad$1 9 ,babylonia & ,syria1 ) ,hell5i/ic & lat] ) ,hell5i/ic-,*ri/ian ideas1 or else 0 supplant$ by !m4 ,9 ! ,syrian city ( ,h>ran only1 up to ! "t ( ,islam1 ! old hea!nism held its gr\nd1 little affect$ by ,*ri/ian influ5ces4 7,cf4 ,i1 #c1 #d74 #b4 ,( m importance ?an any ,semitic tradition1 0 ! contribution made to ,islam by ,p]sian & ,indian wisdom4 ,we d n ne$ to ent] "h ^u ! "q z to :e!r ,ori5tal wisdom 0 orig9ally influ5c$ by ,greek philosophy1 or ,greek philosophy by ,ori5tal wisdom4 ,:at ,islam c>ri$ away directly f ,p]sians & ,indians may be le>n$ ) tol]able c]ta9ty f ,arabic s\rces1 & to ?is we may conf9e ourselves4 ,p]sia is ! l& ( ,dualism1 & x is n improbable t its duali/ic religi\s tea*+ ex]cis$ an influ5ce ^u !ological controv]sy 9 ,islam1 ei!r directly or ?r\gh ! ,mani*aeans & o!r ,gno/ic sects4 ,b mu* great]1 9 worldly circles1 0 ! influ5ce wield$ by t sy/em :i*1 accord+ to tradition1 came to be ev5 publicly recogniz$1 "u ! ,sasanid ,yezdeg]d ,,ii 7#dch_/i-deg71 viz4 ,zrwanism 7,cf4 ,,iii1 #a1 #f74 ,9 ?is sy/em ! duali/ic view ( ! _w 0 sup]s$$ by sett+ up endless ,"t1 7zrwan1 ,arab4 dahr7 z ! p>am\nt pr9ciple1 & id5tify+ x ) ,fate1 ! out]mo/ heav5ly sph]e or ! movem5t ( ! heav5s4 ,?is doctr9e1 pleas+ to philosophic intellects1 has secur$1 ) or )\t ! guise ( ,islam1 a prom95t place = itself 9 ,p]sian lit]ature & 9 ! views ( ! p1 up to our own day4 ,by !ologians1 h[ev]1 & no less by philosoph]s ( ! ,ideali/ic s*ools1 x 0 disav[$ z ,mat]ialism1 ,a!ism & s =?4 #c4 ,india 0 reg>d$ z ! true l& ( wisdom4 ,9 ,arab writ]s we (t5 come ^u ! view t !re ! bir?place ( philosophy is to be f\nd4 ,by peaceful trad+1 9 :i* ! ag5ts betwe5 ,india & ! ,we/ 7 pr9cipally ,p]sians1 & next z a result ( ! ,muslim conque/1 acqua9tance ) ,indian wisdom spread f> & wide4 ,mu* ( x 0 translat$ "u ,mansur 7#ged-gge7 & ,h>un 7#ghf-hji71 p>tly by means ( ! int]v5+ /ep ( ,p]sian 7,pahlawi7 v]sions1 & p>tly f ! ,sanskrit direct4 ,_m a deliv]ance ( e?ical & political wisdom1 9 ! dress ( prov]bs1 0 tak5 ov] f ! fables & tales ( ,india1 su* z ! ,tales ( ! ,pan*atantra1 translat$ f ! ,pahlawi by ,ibn al-,moqaffa 9 ,mansur's "t1 & o!rs4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 ,indian ,ma!matics & ,a/rology1--! latt] 9 comb9ation ) practical ,m$ic9e & ,magic1--t ma9ly influ5c$ ! beg9n+s ( secul> wisdom 9 ,islam4 ,! ,a/rology ( ! ,siddhanta ( ,brahmagupta1 :i* 0 translat$ f ! ,sanskrit1 "u ,mansur1 by ,faz>i assi/$ by ,indian s*ol>s1 0 kn[n ev5 be=e ,ptolemy's ,almage/4 ,a wide _w1 pa/ & future1 0 !reby op5$ up4 ,! high figures ) :i* ! ,indians work$ produc$ a p[]ful1 p]plex+ impression ^u ! sob] ,muslim annali/s1 j z1 on ! o!r h&1 ,arab m]*ants1 :o 9 ,india & ,*9a put ! age ( our creat$ _w at a few ?\s& ye>s1 expos$ !mselves to ! utmo/ ridicule4 ,nor did ! logical & metaphysical speculations ( ! ,indians rema9 unkn[n to ! ,muslims4 ,^! produc$1 h[ev]1 mu* less effect on sci5tific developm5t ?an did _! ,ma!matics & ,a/rology4 ,! inve/igations ( ! ,indians1 associat$ ) _! sacr$ books & :olly det]m9$ by a religi\s purpose1 h c]ta9ly _h a la/+ influ5ce ^u ,p]sian ,sufism & ,islamic ,my/icism4 ,b1--once = all1--,philosophy is a ,greek conception1 & we h no "r1 9 def]5ce to ! ta/e ( ! day1 to allot an undue am\nt ( space 9 our description to ! *ildi% ?\ghts ( pi\s ,h9doos4 ,:at has be5 advanc$ by ^! m$itative p5it5ts ab\t ! deceptive %[ ( ev]y?+ s5su\s1 may (t5 possess a poetic *>m1 j z x agrees p]haps ) ^? obs]vations on ! evanesc5ce ( all t is e>?ly1 :i* ! ,ea/ _h access to 9 ,neo-,py?agorean & ,neo-,platonic s\rces2 b x has contribut$ j z little ( importance z ^! did1 t[>ds ! explanation ( ph5om5a or ! awak5+ ( ! sci5tific _s4 ,n ! ,indian imag9ation1 b ! ,greek m9d 0 ne$$ to direct ! reflective process to ! k ( ! ,real4 ,! be/ example ( ?is is furni%$ by ,arabic ,ma!matics4 ,9 ! op9ion ( ^? :o "k ! subject be/1 almo/ ! only ?+ ,indian 9 x is ! ,ari?metic1 :ile ! ,algebra & ! ,geometry are ,greek1 prepond]at+ly1 if n exclusively4 ,h>dly a s+le ,indian p5etrat$ to ! notion ( pure ma!matics4 ,numb]1 ev5 9 its highe/ =m1 rema9$ always some?+ concrete2 & 9 ,indian ,philosophy k 9 ! ma9 cont9u$ to be only a means4 ,deliv]ance f ! evil ( exi/5ce 0 ! aim1 & ,philosophy a pa?way to ! life ( bless$ness4 ,h5ce ! monotony ( ?is wisdom1--conc5trat$1 z x 01 ^u ! ess5ce ( all ?+s 9 its ,"o-ness1--z contra/$ ) ! _m-bran*$ sci5ce ( ! ,hell5es1 :i* /rove to compreh5d ! op]ations ( ,nature & ,m9d on all sides4 ,ori5tal wisdom1 ,a/rology & ,cosmology deliv]$ ov] to ,muslim ?9k]s mat]ial ( _m k9ds1 b ! ,=m1--! =mative pr9ciple1--came to !m f ! ,greeks4 ,9 e case :]e x is n m]e enum]ation or *ance concat5ation t is tak5 9 h&1 b :]e an attempt is made to arrange ! ,manifold accord+ to positive or logical po9ts ( view1 we may conclude ) all probability t ,greek influ5ces h be5 at "w4 #c4 ,greek ,sci5ce4 #a4 ,j z ! comm]cial int]c\rse betwe5 ,india & ,*9a & ,byzantium 0 conduct$ pr9cipally by ! ,p]sians1 s 9 ! remote ,we/1 z f> ev5 z ,france1 ! ,syrians came =w>d z ! ag5ts ( civilization4 ,x 0 ,syrians :o br\ght w9e1 silk c4 to ! ,we/4 ,b x 0 ,syrians also :o took ,greek culture f ,alex&ria & ,antio*1 spread+ x ea/w>d & propagat+ x 9 ! s*ools ( ,edessa & ,nisibis1 ,h>ran & ,gonde%apur4 ,syria 0 ! true neutral gr\nd1 :]e = c5turies ! two _w-p[]s1 ! ,roman & ! ,p]sian1 came 9 contact ) "o ano!r1 ei!r z fri5ds or z foes4 ,9 su* circum/ances1 ! ,*ri/ian ,syrians play$ a "p simil> to ! "o :i* 9 lat] days fell to ! %>e ( ! ,jews4 #b4 ,! ,muslim conqu]ors f\nd ! ,*ri/ian *ur* split up into ?ree ma9 divisions1--to say no?+ ( _m sects4 ,! ,monophysite *ur*1 alongside ( ! ,or?odox ,/ate-*ur*1 prepond]at$ 9 ,syria prop]1 & ! ,ne/orian *ur* 9 ,p]sia4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! doctr9al sy/ems ( ^! *ur*es 0 p]haps n )\t importance = ! developm5t ( ,muslim ,dogmatics4 ,accord+ to ! tea*+ ( ! ,monophysites1 ,god & ,man 7 unit$ 9 "o nature 9 ,*ri/1 :]eas ! ,or?odox1 & 9 a /ill m pron\nc$ mann] ! ,ne/orians1 discrim9at$ betwe5 a ,div9e nature & a human nature 9 him4 ,n[ nature means1 above ev]y?+1 en]gy or op]ative pr9ciple4 ,! "q1 accord+ly1 :i* is at issue1 is :e!r ! ,div9e1 & ! human ,will+ & ,act+ are "o & ! same 9 ,*ri/ or diff]5t4 ,! ,monophysites1 f speculative & religi\s motives1 gave prom95ce to ! ,unity 9 ,*ri/ _! ,god1 at ! exp5se ( ! human elem5t3 ,! ,ne/orians1 on ! o!r h&1 emphasiz$1 9 contra/ ) ! ,div9e elem5t1 all t is specially *>act]i/ic ( human ,be+1 ,will+ & ,act+4 ,! latt] view1 h[ev]1 fav\r$ by political circum/ances & conditions ( culture1 (f]s fre] play to philosophical speculations on ! _w & on life4 ,9 po9t ( fact ! ,ne/orians did mo/ = ! cultivation ( ,greek ,sci5ce4 #c4 ,syriac 0 ! language bo? ( ! ,we/]n & ( ! ,ea/]n or ,p]sian ,*ur*2 b ,greek 0 also taught along ) x 9 ! ,cloi/] s*ools4 ,rasa9 & ,k9nesr9 mu/ be m5tion$ z be+ c5tres ( culture 9 ! ,we/]n or ,monophysite ,*ur*4 ,( m importance1 at ! outset at lea/1 0 ! s*ool ( ,edessa1 inasmu* z ! dialect ( ,edessa _h ris5 to ! position ( ! lit]>y language2 b 9 ! ye> #dhi ! s*ool !re 0 clos$ because ( ! ,ne/orian views held by its tea*]s4 ,x 0 !n re-op5$ 9 ,nisibis1 &1 be+ patroniz$ by ! ,sasanids on political gr\nds1 x dissem9at$ ,ne/orian belief & ,greek k ?r\gh\t ,p]sia4 ,in/ruction 9 ^! s*ools _h a pre-em95tly ,biblical & ecclesia/ical "*1 & 0 arrang$ to meet ! ne$s ( ! ,*ur*4 ,h[ev]1 physicians or com+ /ud5ts ( m$ic9e also took "p 9 x4 ,! circum/ance t !y frequ5tly belong$ to ! ecclesia/ical ord] does n d away ) ! di/9ction betwe5 !ological /udy & ! pursuit ( secul> k4 ,x is true t accord+ to ! ,syro-,roman code1 ,tea*]s 7le>n$ ,prie/s7 & ,physicians 7 entitl$ 9 common to exemption f taxation & to o!r privileges2 b ! v fact t prie/s 7 reg>d$ z heal]s ( ! s\l1 :ile physicians _h m]ely to pat* up ! body1 seem$ to ju/ify ! prec$5ce accord$ to ! =m]4 ,m$ic9e always rema9$ a secul> matt]2 &1 by ! regulations ( ! ,s*ool ( ,nisibis 7f ! ye> #eij71 ! ,holy ,scriptures 7 n to be read 9 ! same room ) books t dealt ) worldly call+s4 ,9 m$ical circles ! works ( ,hippocrates1 ,gal5 & ,ari/otle 7 highly priz$2 b 9 ! cloi/]s ,philosophy 0 und]/ood to be fir/ ( all ! contemplative life ( ! ascetic1 & 8! "o ?+ ne$ful0 0 ! only ?+ c>$ =4 #d4 ,! ,mesopotamian city ( ,h>ran1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,edessa1 takes a place ( its own4 ,9 ?is city1 especially :5 x began to fl\ri% aga9 aft] ! ,arab conque/1 anci5t ,semitic paganism comes into association ) ma!matical & a/ronomical /udies & ,neo-,py?agorean & ,neo-,platonic speculation4 ,! ,h>ranaeans or ,sabaeans1 z !y 7 call$ 9 ! #i? & #aj? c5turies1 trac$ _! my/ic lore back to ,h]mes ,trismegi/us1 ,aga?odaemon1 ,uranius & o!rs4 ,num]\s pseudepigraphs ( ! lat] ,hell5ism 7 adopt$ by !m 9 good fai?1 & "s p]haps 7 =g$ 9 _! own circle4 ,a few ( !m became active z translators & le>n$ au?ors1 & _m kept up a brisk sci5tific int]c\rse ) ,p]sian & ,arab s*ol>s f ! #h? to ! #aj? c5tury4 #e4 ,9 ,p]sia1 at ,gonde%apur1 we f9d an ,in/itution = philosophical & m$ical /udies e/abli%$ by ,khosrau ,ano%>wan 7#eba-egi74 ,its tea*]s 7 pr9cipally ,ne/orian ,*ri/ians2 b ,khosrau1 :o _h an incl9ation = secul> culture1 ext5d$ 8 tol]ation to ,monophysites z well z to ,ne/orians4 ,at t "t1 j z 0 ! case lat] at ! c\rt ( ! ,caliphs1 ,*ri/ian ,syrians 7 held 9 special hon\r z m$ical m54 ,f>!r1 9 ! ye> #ebi1 sev5 philosoph]s ( ! ,neo-,platonic s*ool1 :o _h be5 driv5 away f ,a!ns1 f\nd a place ( refuge at ! c\rt ( ,khosrau4 ,_! exp]i5ces !re1 h[ev]1 may h resembl$ ^? ( ! ,fr5* free-?9k]s ( ! #ah? c5tury at ! ,russian c\rt4 ,at all ev5ts !y long$ to get home aga92 & ! k+ 0 suffici5tly lib]al-m9d$ & magnanim\s to all[ !m to g1 & 9 8 treaty ( peace ) ,byzantium ( ! ye> #edi to /ipulate 9 _! case = fre$om ( religi\s op9ion4 ,_! /ay 9 ! ,p]sian k+dom 0 d\btless n :olly devoid ( influ5ce4 #f4 ,! p]iod ( ,syriac translations ( pr(ane lit]ature f ! ,greek ext5ds p]haps f ! #d? to ! #h? c5tury4 ,9 ! #d? c5tury collections ( aphorisms 7 translat$4 ,! fir/ translator1 h[ev]1 :o makes 8 appe>ance av[+ 8 "n1 is ,probus1 8,prie/ & physician 9 ,antio*0 7#a/ half ( ! #e? c5tury874 ,possibly he 0 m]ely an exp\nd] ( ! logical writ+s ( ,ari/otle1 & ( ! ,isagoge ( ,porphyry4 ,bett] kn[n is ,s]gius ( ,rasa91--:o di$ at ! age ( #gj or s1 probably 9 ,con/ant9ople1 ab\t #ecf1--;a ,mesopotamian monk & physician1 ^: /udies1 :i* 7 probably pursu$ 9 ,alex&ria itself1 took 9 ! :ole range ( ,alex&rian sci5ce1 & ^: translations n only embrac$ ,!ology1 ,morals & ,my/icism1 b ev5 ,physics1 ,m$ic9e & ,philosophy4 ,ev5 aft] ! ,muslim conque/ ! le>n$ activity ( ! ,syrians cont9u$4 ,jacob ( ,edessa 7circa #fdj-gjh7 translat$ ,greek !ological writ+s2 b he occupi$ himself besides ) ,philosophy1 & 9 answ] to a "q relative !reto he pron\nc$ t x 0 lawful = ,*ri/ian ecclesia/ics to imp>t ! high] in/ruction to *ildr5 ( ,muslim p>5ts4 ,!re 0 ?us a felt ne$ ( culture among ! latt]4 ,! translations ( ! ,syrians1 p>ticul>ly ( ,s]gius ( ,rasa91 are g5]ally fai?ful2 b a m exact correspond5ce ) ! orig9al is %ewn 9 ! case ( ,logic & ,natural ,sci5ce ?an 9 ,e?ical & ,metaphysical works4 ,mu* t is obscure 9 ^! la/ has be5 misund]/ood or simply omitt$1 & mu* t is pagan has be5 replac$ by ,*ri/ian mat]ial4 ,= in/ance1 ,pet]1 ,paul & ,john w\ld come ^u ! sc5e 9 room ( ,socrates1 ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,de/9y & ! ,gods 7 oblig$ to give place to ! "o ,god2 & ideas l ,_w1 ,et]nity1 ,s9 & ! l 7 reca/ 9 a ,*ri/ian m\ld4 ,! ,arabs1 h[ev]1 9 subsequ5t times w5t to a mu* great] l5g? ) ! process ( adaptation to _! language1 culture & religion ?an ! ,syrians4 ,?is may p]haps be p>tly expla9$ by ! ,muslim horror ( ev]y?+ hea!n1 b p>tly too by _! great] faculty ( adaptation4 #g4 ,ap>t f a few ma!matical1 physical & m$ical writ+s1 ! ,syrians int]e/$ !mselves 9 two subjects1--! fir/ consi/+ ( moraliz+ collections ( aphorisms1 put toge!r into a k9d ( hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 &1 g5]ally1 ( my/ical ,py?agorean-,platonic wisdom4 ,?is is f\nd pr9cipally 9 pseudepigraphs1 :i* be> ! names ( ,py?agoras1 ,socrates1 ,plut>*1 ,dionysius & o!rs4 ,! c5tre ( int]e/ is a ,platonic doctr9e ( ! ,s\l1 subject$ to a lat] ,py?agorean1 ,neo-,platonic1 or ,*ri/ian =m ( treatm5t4 ,9 ! ,syrian cloi/]s ,plato is ev5 turn$ into an ori5tal monk1 :o built a cell = himself 9 ! he>t ( ! wild]ness1 f> away f ! dwell+s ( m51 & aft] ?ree ye>s' sil5t brood+ ov] a v]se ( ! ,bible 0 l$ to a recognition ( ! ,tri-,unity ( ,god4 ,a second subject ( int]e/ 0 add$1 9 ,ari/otle's ,logic4 ,among ! ,syrians1 & = a long] p]iod among ! ,arabs also1 ,ari/otle 0 commonly kn[n almo/ solely z a logician4 ,?is k1 j z 9 ! e>ly s*ola/icism ( ! ,we/1 ext5d$ to ! ,categories1 ! ,h]m5eutics1 & ! fir/ ,analytics z f> z ! ,categorical ,figures4 ,!y /ood 9 ne$ ( ! ,logic 9 ord] to compreh5d ! writ+s ( ,greek ecclesia/ical tea*]s1 s9ce ^!1 at lea/ 9 =m1 7 influ5c$ !reby4 ,b z !y did n possess x complete1 z little did !y possess x pure4 ,!y _h x be=e !m only 9 a ,neo-,platonic r$action1 z may be se51 = example1 f ! "w ( ,paulus ,p]sa1 :i* 0 writt5 9 ,syriac = ,khosrau ,ano%>wan4 ,9 t "w k is plac$ above fai?1 & philosophy is def9$ z ! process by :i* ! s\l becomes consci\s ( its own inn] ess5ce1 9 :i*1 l a ,god z x 71 x sees all ?+s4 #h4 ,:at ! ,arabs owe to ! ,syrians is express$ by ?is circum/ance among/ o!rs1--t ,arab s*ol>s held ,syriac to be ! olde/1 or ! real 7natural7 language4 ,! ,syrians1 x is true1 produc$ no?+ orig9al2 b _! activity z translators 0 ( advantage to ,arab-,p]sian sci5ce4 ,x 0 ,syrians almo/ )\t exception1 :o1 f ! #h? c5tury to ! #aj?1 r5d]$ ,greek works into ,arabic1 ei!r f ! old] ,syriac v]sions or f ^? :i* _h be5 9 "p improv$ by !m1 & 9 "p re-arrang$4 ,ev5 ! ,omayyad pr9ce1 ,khalid ibn ,yezid 7di$ #gjd71 :o occupi$ himself ) ,al*emy "u ! guidance ( a ,*ri/ian monk1 is said to h provid$ = translations ( works on ,al*emy f ,greek into ,arabic4 ,prov]bs1 maxims1 lett]s1 wills1 & 9 %ort :atev] bore on ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 7 at a v e>ly "t collect$ & translat$4 ,b x 0 n till ! reign ( ,mansur t a comm5cem5t 0 made ) ! translation into ,arabic--p>tly f ,pahlawi v]sions--( ^? writ+s ( ! ,greeks :i* deal ) ,natural ,sci5ce1 ,m$ic9e & ,logic4 ,ibn al-,moqaffa1 an adh]5t ( ,p]sian ,dualism1 took a lead+ "p 9 ?is task1 f :om lat] work]s mu/ h m>k$ !mselves (f by _! t]m9ology4 ,none ( 8 philosophical translations h come d[n to u4 ,o!r mat]ial too1 belong+ to ! #h? c5tury has gone amiss+4 ,! e>lie/ specim5 ( ?is "w ( translation :i* we possess dates f ! #i? c5tury1 ! "t ( ,mamun & 8 successors4 ,! translators ( ! #i? c5tury 71 = ! mo/ "p1 m$ical m52 & ,hippocrates & ,gal5 7 among ! fir/ to be translat$ aft] ,ptolemy & ,euclid4 ,b let u conf9e ourselves to ,philosophy1 9 ! n>r[] s5se4 ,a translation ( ! ,timu ( ,plato is said to h come f ,yuhanna or ,yakhya ibn ,bitriq 79 ! beg9n+ ( ! #i? c5tury71 z well z ,ari/otle's #8,meteorology'1 ! #8,book ( ,animals'1 an epitome ( ! #8,psy*ology'1 & ! tract #8,on ! ,_w'4 ,to ,abdalmasikh ibn ,abdallah ,naima al-,himsi 7circa #hce7 is to be ascrib$ a r5d]+ ( ! #8,sophi/ics' ( ,ari/otle1 9 addition to ! ,comm5t>y ( ,john ,philoponus ^u ! #8,physics'1 z well z ! s-call$ #8,!ology ( ,ari/otle'1--a p>aphras$ epitome ( ! ,enneads ( ,plot9us4 ,qo/a ibn ,luqa al-,balabakki 7circa #hce7 is said to h translat$ ! ,comm5t>ies ( ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias & ,john ,philoponus ^u ! #8,physics' ( ,ari/otle1 & 9 "p1 ,alex&]'s ,comm5t>y on ! #8,de g5]atione et corruptione'1 z well z ! #8,placita ,philosophorum' ( ! ,pseudo-,plut>*1 & o!r works4 ,! mo/ productive translators 7 ,abu ,zaid ,hona9 ibn ,i%aq 7#hji8-hgc71 8 son1 ,i%aq ibn ,hona9 7 #iaj or #iaa71 & nephew ,hobai% ibn al-,hasan4 ,see+ t !y work$ toge!r1 !re is a good deal :i* is ascrib$1 n[ to ! "o & n[ to ! o!r4 ,n a little mat]ial mu/ h be5 prep>$1 "u _! ov]sight1 by disciples & subord9ates4 ,_! activity ext5d$ ov] ! :ole range ( ! sci5ce ( t day4 ,exi/+ translations 7 improv$1 & new ones add$4 ,! fa!r pref]r$ to "w at v]sions ( m$ical au?ors1 b ! son turn$ m to ! r5d]+ ( philosophical mat]ial4 ,! "w ( ! translators 0 /ill proce$+ 9 ! #aj? c5tury4 ,among ^? :o especially di/+ui%$ !mselves 7 ,abu ,bi%r ,matta ibn ,yunus al-,qannai 7 #idj71 ,abu ,zak>ya ,yakhya ibn ,adi al-,mantiqi 7 #igd71 ,abu ,ali ,isa ibn ,i%aq ibn ,zura 7 #ajjh71 & f9ally1 ,abu-l-,khair al-,hasan ibn al-,khamm> 7born #idb71 a pupil ( ,yakhya ibn ,adi's1 ( ^: writ+s1 besides translations1 comm5t>ies1 & s =?1 a tract is m5tion$1 on ! ,h>mony betwe5 ,philosophy & ,*ri/ianity4 ,f ! "t ( ,hona9 ibn ,i%aq ! activity ( ! translators 0 almo/ :olly conf9$ to ,ari/otelian & ,pseudo-,ari/otelian writ+s1 & to epitomes ( !m1 to p>aphrases ( _! cont5ts & to comm5t>ies ^u !m4 #i4 ,^! translators are n to be reg>d$ z specially great philosoph]s4 ,_! "w 0 seldom ent]$ ^u spontane\sly1 b almo/ always at ! comm& ( "s ,caliph or ,vizir or o!r p]son ( note4 ,outside ( _! own dep>tm5t ( /udy1 usually ,m$ic9e1 !y 7 *iefly int]e/$ 9 ,wisdom1--t is1 9 pretty /ories ) a moral1 9 anecdotes1 & 9 oracul> say+s4 ,! expressions :i* we m]ely be> ) 9 int]c\rse1 9 n>rative or on ! /age1 z be+ *>act]i/ic utt]ances ) c]ta9 p]sons1 7 admir$ & collect$ by ^! wor?y p = ! sake ( ! wisdom conta9$ 9 !m1 or p]haps ev5 = no m ?an ! rhetorical elegance ( _! =m4 ,z a rule1 ^? m5 cont9u$ true to ! ,*ri/ian fai? ( _! fa!rs4 ,! traditional /ory ( ,ibn ,djebril gives a good idea bo? ( _! way ( ?9k+ & ( ! lib]al-m9d$ness ( ! ,caliphs4 ,:5 ,mansur want$ to conv]t him to ,islam1 he is said to h repli$3 8,9 ! fai? ( my fa!rs ,i w die3 :]e !y are1 ,i wi% also to be1 :e!r 9 heav5 or 9 hell04 ,:]eupon ! ,caliph laugh$1 & dismiss$ him ) a ri* pres5t4 ,only a small portion has be5 sav$ ( ! orig9al writ+s ( ^! m54 ,a %ort diss]tation by ,qo/a ibn ,luqa on ! di/9ction betwe5 ,s\l & ,_s 71 ruh71 pres]v$ 9 a ,lat9 translation1 has be5 frequ5tly m5tion$ & made use (4 ,accord+ to x1 ! ,_s is a subtle mat]ial1 :i* f its seat 9 ! left v5tricle ( ! he>t animates ! human frame & br+s ab\t its movem5ts & p]ceptions4 ,! f9] & cle>] ?is ,_s is1 ! m rationally ! man ?9ks & acts3 !re is b "o op9ion ^u ?is po9t4 ,x is m difficult1 h[ev]1 to pr$icate any?+ sure1 & univ]sally valid1 ( ! ,s\l4 ,! deliv]ances ( ! greate/ philosoph]s occasionally diff]1 & occasionally contradict ea* o!r4 ,9 any case ! ,s\l is incorporeal1 = x adopts qualities1 &1 9 fact1 qualities ( ! mo/ opposite nature at "o & ! same "t4 ,x is uncomp\nd$ & un*angeable1 & x does n1 l ! ,_s1 p]i% ) ! body4 ,! ,_s only acts z an int]m$i>y betwe5 ! ,s\l & ! ,body1 & x is 9 ?is way t x becomes a second>y cause ( movem5t & p]ception4 ,! /atem5t :i* has j be5 giv5 reg>d+ ! ,s\l is f\nd 9 _m ( ! lat] writ]s4 ,b by sl[ degrees1 z ! ,ari/otelian philosophy ?ru/s ,platonic op9ions m & m into ! backgr\nd1 ano!r pair ( opposites come into full view4 ,physicians alone cont9ue to speak ( ! importance ( ! #8ruh' or ,_s ( ,life4 ,philosoph]s in/itute a comp>ison betwe5 ,s\l & ,_s or ,reason 71 aql74 ,! ,s\l is n[ r$uc$ to ! doma9 ( ! p]i%able1 & sometimes1 9 ,gno/ic fa%ion1 ev5 to ! l[] & evil realm ( ! desires4 ,! rational ,_s1--z t :i* is highe/1 t :i* is imp]i%able 9 man--is exalt$ above ! ,s\l4 ,9 ?is notice1 h[ev]1 we are anticipat+ hi/ory3 let u return to our translators4 #aj4 ,! mo/ valuable portion ( ! legacy :i* ! ,greek m9d bequea!d to u 9 art1 poetry1 & hi/orical composition1 0 nev] accessible to ! ,ori5tals4 ,x w\ld ev5 h be5 difficult = !m to und]/& x1 see+ t !y lack$ ! due acqua9tance ) ,greek life1 & ! reli% = x4 ,= !m ! hi/ory ( ,greece began ) ,alex&] ! ,great1 surr\nd$ ) ! halo ( leg5d2 & ! position :i* ,ari/otle held beside ! greate/ pr9ce ( anci5t times mu/ h assur$ly conduc$ to ! acceptance ( ! ,ari/otelian philosophy at ! ,muslim c\rt4 ,arab hi/orians c\nt$ up ! ,greek pr9ces1 on to ,cleopatra1 & !n ! ,roman ,emp]ors2 b a ,?ucydides1 = example1 0 n kn[n to !m1 ev5 by "n4 ,( ,hom] !y _h n pick$ up mu* m ?an ! s5t5ce1 t 8"o only %\ld be ! rul]04 ,!y _h n ! lea/ idea ( ! great ,greek dramati/s & lyric poets4 ,x 0 only ?r\gh its ,ma!matics1 ,natural ,sci5ce & ,philosophy1 t ,greek antiquity c\ld br+ its influ5ce to be> ^u !m4 ,!y _h come to "k some?+ ( ! developm5t ( ,greek ,philosophy1 f ,plut>*1 ,porphyry & o!rs1 z well z f ! writ+s ( ,ari/otle & ,gal54 ,a good deal ( leg5d>y matt]1 h[ev]1 0 m+l$ ) _! in=mation2 & ! acc\nt :i* pass$ 9 ! ,ea/1 ( ! doctr9es ( ! ,pre-,socratic philosoph]s c only be ref]r$ by u to ! pseudepigraphs :i* !y consult$1 or p]haps ev5 to ! op9ions :i* _h be5 develop$ 9 ! ,ea/ itself1 & :i* !y endeav\r$ to support ) ! au?ority ( old ,greek sages4 ,b /ill1 9 e case1 our ?\ghts mu/ turn fir/ ( all to "s ,greek orig9al4 #aa4 ,x may be affirm$ g5]ally t ! ,syro-,arabs took up ! ?read ( philosophy1 precisely :]e ! la/ ( ! ,greeks _h let x fall1 t is1 ) ! ,neo-,platonic explanation ( ,ari/otle1 along ) ^: philosophy ! works ( ,plato 7 also read & exp\nd$4 ,among ! ,h>ranaeans1 & = a long "t 9 sev]al ,muslim sects1 x 0 ,platonic or ,py?agorean-,platonic /udies :i* 7 prosecut$ ) mo/ ard\r1--) :i* mu* t 0 ,/oic or ,neo-,platonic 0 associat$4 ,extraord9>y int]e/ 0 tak5 9 ! fate ( ,socrates1 :o _h suff]$ a m>tyr's dea? 9 hea!n ,a!ns = 8 rational belief4 ,! ,platonic tea*+ reg>d+ ! ,s\l & ,nature ex]cis$ great influ5ce4 ,! ,py?ian utt]ance3 8,"k ?yself01--h&$ d[n z ! motto ( ! ,socratic wisdom1 & int]pret$ 9 a ,neo-,platonic s5se1--0 ascrib$ by ! ,muslims to ,ali1 ,mohamm$'s son-9-law1 or ev5 put into ! m\? ( ! ,prophet himself4 8,he :o kn[s himself1 kn[s ,god 8 ,"l !reby03 ?is 0 ! text = ,my/ic speculations ( all k9ds4 ,9 m$ical circles & at ! worldly c\rt1 ! works ( ,ari/otle came m & m into fav\r1 fir/ ( all ( c\rse ! ,logic & a few ?+s f ! ,physical writ+s4 ,! ,logic--s !y ?\ght--0 ! only new ?+ ! ,/agyrite _h discov]$3 9 all ! o!r sci5ces he agre$ ?r\gh\t ) ,py?agoras1 ,emp$ocles1 ,anaxagoras1 ,socrates & ,plato4 ,accord+ly ,*ri/ian & ,sabaean translators1 & ! circle influ5c$ by !m1 drew _! psy*ologico-e?ical1 political & metaphysical in/ruction )\t hesitation f ! ,pre-,ari/otelian sages4 ,:at bore ! names ( ,emp$ocles1 ,py?agoras c41 01 naturally1 spuri\s4 ,_! wisdom is trac$ ei!r to ,h]mes or to o!r wise m5 ( ! ,ea/4 ,?us ,emp$ocles mu/ h be5 a disciple ( ,k+ ,david's1 & aft]w>ds ( ,loqman ! ,wise3 ,py?agoras mu/ h sprung f ! s*ool ( ,solomon1--& s on4 ,writ+s :i* are cit$ 9 ,arabic works z ,socratic are1 9 s f> z !y are g5u9e1 ,platonic dialogues 9 :i* ,socrates appe>s4 ,_! quotations f ,plato--n to speak ( spuri\s writ+s--h a m or less compreh5sive range3 !y are tak5 f ! ,apology1 ,krito1 ! ,sophi/es1 ,pha$rus1 ! ,republic1 ,pha$o1 ,timu & ! ,laws4 ,t does n mean1 h[ev]1 t !y possess$ complete translations ( all ^! works4 ,?is mu* is c]ta91--t ,ari/otle did n reign z sole "l f ! v outset4 ,plato1 z !y und]/ood him1 taught ! ,creation ( ! _w1 ! ,sub/antiality ( ! ,spiritual1 & ! ,immortality ( ! ,s\l4 ,t tea*+ did no h>m to ! ,fai?4 ,b ,ari/otle1 ) 8 doctr9e ( ! ,et]nity ( ! ,_w1 & 8 less spirituali/ic ,psy*ology & ,e?ics1 0 reg>d$ z dang]\s4 ,muslim !ologians ( ! #i? & #aj? c5turies1 f v>i\s camps1 wrote !re=e aga9/ ,ari/otle4 ,b circum/ances alt]$4 ,philosoph]s arose by-&-by :o reject$ ! ,platonic doctr9e ( ! ,"o ,_w-,s\l1 ( :i* ! s\ls ( m5 are only transi5t p>ts1 & s\ght gr\nds = _! hope ( immortality f ,ari/otle :o attribut$ s great a significance to ! ,individual ,sub/ance4 #ab4 ,! conception :i* 0 ent]ta9$ ( ,ari/otle 9 ! p]iod mo/ remote1 is be/ %[n by ! writ+s :i* 7 foi/$ ^u him4 ,n only did !y get 8 g5u9e works ) ,neo-,platonic int]pretations atta*$ to !m1--n only 0 ! treatise3 8,on ! _w0 unhesitat+ly ackn[l$g$ z ,ari/otelian1 b he 0 also reg>d$ z ! au?or ( _m late-,greek productions1 9 :i* a ,py?agoris+ ,platonism or ,neo-,platonism1 or ev5 a b>r5 ,syncretism 0 q frankly taught4 ,let u take "h z our fir/ example 8! ,book ( ! ,apple0 #g1 :]e9 ,ari/otle plays ! same "p z ,socrates 9 ! ,pha$o ( ,plato4 ,z 8 end draws ne>1 ! ,philosoph] is visit$ by "s ( 8 disciples :o f9d him 9 a *e]ful frame ( m9d4 ,?is leads !m to reque/ _! dep>t+ ,ma/] to give !m "s in/ruction ab\t ! ,ess5ce & ,immortality ( ! ,s\l4 ,!reupon he disc\rses some:at z foll[s3--8,! ,ess5ce ( ! ,s\l consi/s 9 kn[+1--9 fact1 9 ,philosophy1 :i* is ! highe/ =m ( kn[+4 ,a p]fect k ( ! tru? con/itutes !re=e ! bless$ness :i* aft] dea? awaits ! s\l :i* is devot$ to kn[+4 ,& j z kn[+ is rew>d$ ) a high] k1--s ! puni%m5t = n-kn[+ consi/s 9 a deep] ignorance4 ,& really1 !re is no?+ 9 ,heav5 or ,e>?1 aft] all1 except kn[+ & n-kn[+1 & ! recomp5ce :i* ^! two sev]ally br+ ) !m4 ,f>!r1--virtue is n ess5tially diff]5t f kn[+2 nor does vice diff] ess5tially f n-kn[+4 ,! relation ( virtue to kn[+1 or ( vice to n-kn[+1 is l t ( wat] to ice3 i4e4 x is ! same ?+ 9 a diff]5t =m4 ,9 kn[+1--:i* is ! div9e ess5ce ( ! ,s\l1--! ,s\l f9ds naturally its only true joy1 & n 9 eat+ & dr9k+ & s5sual pleasure4 ,=1 s5sual pleasure is a flame :i* m]ely w>ms = a %ort "t2 b ! ?9k+ ,s\l1--:i* longs = its deliv]ance f ! murky _w ( ! s5ses1--is a pure light t %$s a radiance f> & wide4 ,! ,philosoph] !re=e is n afraid ( dea?1 b meets x gladly1 :5 ! ,deity summons him4 ,! enjoym5t1 :i* 8 limit$ k af=ds him "h is a gu>antee to him ( ! rapture :i* ! unveil+ ( ! great _w ( ! ,unkn[n w procure him4 ,ev5 already he kn[s some?+ ( ?is1 = x is only ?r\gh k ( ! invisible1 t ! prop] e/imate ( ! s5sible1 on :i* he prides himself1 is at all possible4 ,he :o comes to "k 8 own self 9 ?is life1 possesses 9 t v k ( himself ! assurance ( compreh5d+ all ?+s ) an et]nal k1--i4 e4 ( be+ immortal40 #ac4 ,9 ! second place ! s-call$ 8,!ology ( ,ari/otle0 may be ref]r$ to4 ,9 x ,plato is repres5t$ z ! ,ideal-,man1 :o ga9s a k ( all ?+s by means ( an intuitive ?9k+1 & ?us has no ne$ ( ! logical res\rces ( ,ari/otle4 ,inde$1 ! highe/ reality--,absolute ,be+--is n appreh5d$ by ?9k+1 b only 9 an ec/atic ,vision4 8,(t5 0 ,i alone ) my s\l01 says ,ari/otle-,plot9us1 on ?is po9t4 8,dive/$ ( ! body1 ,i ent]$ z pure sub/ance into my prop] self1 turn+ back f all t is ext]nal to :at is )94 ,i 0 pure kn[+ !re1 at once ! kn[+ & ! kn[n4 ,h[ a/oni%$ ,i 0 to behold beauty & spl5d\r 9 my prop] self1 & to recognize t ,i 0 a "p ( ! sublime ,div9e _w1 end[$ ev5 ) creative life6 ,9 ?is assurance ( self1 ,i 0 lift$ above ! _w ( ! s5ses1 ay1 ev5 above ! _w ( spirits1 up to ! ,div9e /ate1 :]e ,i beheld a light s fair t no tongue c tell x1 nor e> und]/&04 ,! s\l =ms ! c5tre ( ! discussions 9 ! #8,!ology' also4 ,all true human sci5ce is sci5ce ( ! s\l or k ( self1--k ( its ess5ce1 x is true1 com+ fir/1 & next 9 ord]1 ?\gh less complete1 k ( ! op]ations ( t ess5ce4 ,9 su* k1 to :i* exce$+ly few atta91 ! highe/ wisdom consi/s1 :i* does n admit ( be+ fully und]/ood 9 ! =m ( ideas1 & :i* !re=e ! philosoph] l a skilful arti/ & wise lawgiv] repres5ts1 = u m51 9 ev] beautiful figures 9 religi\s s]vice4 ,9 ?is function precisely1 ! wise man comes =w>d z ! pot5t1 self-suffic+ magician1 ^: k lords x ov] ! multitude1 see+ t !y rema9 always b\nd 9 ! fett]s ( outw>d ?+s1 ( pres5tations & desires4 ,! s\l /&s 9 ! c5tre ( ! ,all4 ,above x are ,god & ,intellig5ce1 b5ea? x--,matt] & ,nature4 ,its com+ f ,god ?r\gh ,intellig5ce into ,matt]1 its pres5ce 9 ! body1 its return on high--^! are ! ?ree /adia 9 :i* its life & t ( ! _w run _! c\rse4 ,matt] & ,nature1 ,s5se-p]ception & ,pres5tation "h lose _! significance almo/ entirely4 ,all ?+s exi/ by ,intellig5ce 71 aql74 ,intellig5ce con/itutes all ?+s1 & 9 ,intellig5ce all ?+s are ,"o4 ,! ,s\l too is ,intellig5ce1 b1 s long z x /ays 9 ! body1 x is ,intellig5ce 9 hope1 ,intellig5ce 9 ! =m ( long+4 ,x longs = :at is above1 = ! good & bless$ />s1 :i* sp5d _! contemplative exi/5ce z s\rces ( light1 exalt$ above pres5tation & ef=t4 ,t !n is ! ori5tal ,ari/otle1 z he 0 ackn[l$g$ by ! e>lie/ ,p]ipatetics 9 ,islam #h4 #ad4 ,we ne$ n wond] t ! ,ea/]ns did n succe$ 9 rea*+ an unadult]at$ conception ( ! ,ari/otelian philosophy4 ,our critical app>atus = discrim9at+ betwe5 ! g5u9e & ! spuri\s 0 n 9 _! possession4 ,x mu/ h prov$ ev5 m difficult = !m1 to famili>ize !mselves ) ! _w ( ,greek civilization1 ?an = ! ,*ri/ian s*ol>s ( ! ,middle ,ages1 :i* _h nev] entirely lo/ liv+ t\* ) antiquity4 ,9 ! ,ea/ m5 rema9$ dep5d5t on ,neo-,platonic r$actions & int]pretations4 ,a "p ( ! sci5tific sy/em1 to wit1 ! ,politics ( ,ari/otle1 0 a-want+2 & s1 z a matt] ( c\rse1 ! ,laws or ! ,republic ( ,plato took its place4 ,only a few 7 aw>e ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two4 ,ano!r det]m9+ motive des]ves notice4 ,9 _! ,neo-,platonic s\rces ev51 ! ,muslims came ^u a h>moniz+ exposition ( ! ,greek philosoph]s1 & !y felt con/ra9$ to adopt x4 ,! fir/ adh]5ts ( ,ari/otle 7 b\nd to assume a polemical & apologetic attitude4 ,9 opposition to1 or 9 con=mity )1 ! voice ( ! ,muslim community1 !y requir$ a coh]5t philosophy1 9 :i* ! ,"o ,tru? mu/ be f\nd4 ,! same rev]5ce1 :i* ,mohamm$ 9 8 day _h paid to ! sacr$ writ+s ( ! ,jews & ( ! ,*ri/ians1 0 %ewn aft]w>ds by ,muslim s*ol>s t[>ds ! works ( ,greek philosoph]s2 b ^! le>n$ m5 exhibit$ great] famili>ity ) _! models1 & less orig9ality4 ,9 _! eyes ! old philosoph]s 7 inve/$ ) an au?ority1 to :i* x 0 _! duty to submit4 ,! e>lie/ ,muslim ?9k]s 7 s fully conv9c$ ( ! sup]iority ( ,greek k t !y did n d\bt t x _h atta9$ to ! highe/ degree ( c]ta9ty4 ,! ?\ght ( mak+ f>!r & indep5d5t inve/igations did n readily occur to an ,ori5tal1 :o _c imag9e a man )\t a tea*] z be+ any?+ else ?an a disciple ( ,satan4 ,9 accordance1 !re=e1 ) ! prec$5t set by ,hell5i/ic philosoph]s1 an attempt _h to be made to demon/rate ! exi/5ce ( ! h>mony betwe5 ,plato & ,ari/otle1--&1 9 p>ticul>1 to %elve tacitly ^? doctr9es :i* gave (f5ce1 or to exhibit !m 9 a s5se :i* 0 n too decid$ly contr>y to ,muslim ,dogmatics4 ,9 ord] to hum\r ! oppon5ts ( ,ari/otle or ( ,philosophy 9 g5]al1 prom95ce 0 giv5 to wise & edify+ say+s out ( ! philosoph]'s works1--bo? ! g5u9e & ! spuri\s1--t s ! way might be prep>$ = ! reception ( 8 sci5tific ?\ghts4 ,to ! initiat$1 h[ev]1 ! tea*+ ( ,ari/otle1 l t ( o!r s*ools & sects1 0 set =? z a high] tru?1 to :i* ! positive fai? ( ! multitude & ! m or less firmly e/abli%$ sy/em ( ! !ologians 7 m]ely prelim9>y /eps4 #ae4 ,muslim ,philosophy has always cont9u$ to be an ,eclecticism :i* dep5d$ on _! /ock ( works translat$ f ! ,greek4 ,! c\rse ( its hi/ory has be5 a process ( assimilation r ?an ( g5]ation4 ,x has n di/+ui%$ itself1 ei!r by prop\nd+ new problems or by any peculi>ity 9 its endeav\rs to solve ! old ones4 ,x has !re=e no important advances 9 ?\ght to regi/]4 ,& yet1 f a hi/orical po9t ( view1 its significance is f> great] ?an t ( a m]e int]m$i>y betwe5 classical antiquity & ,*ri/ian ,s*ola/icism4 ,to foll[ up ! reception ( ,greek ideas into ! mix$ civilization ( ! ,ea/ is a subject ( hi/orical int]e/ possess+ a *>m entirely its own1 especially if "o c =get at ! same "t t once !re 7 ,greeks4 ,b ! consid]ation ( ?is occurr5ce becomes important also by its pres5t+ an opportunity = comp>ison ) o!r civilizations4 ,philosophy is a ph5om5on s unique--s ?or\ghly indig5\s & indep5d5t a gr[? ( ,grecian soil--t "o might reg>d x z be+ exempt f ! conditions ( g5]al civiliz$ life1 & z be+ explicable only p] se4 ,n[ ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy 9 ,islam is valuable1 j because x sets =? ! fir/ attempt to appropriate ! results ( ,greek ?9k+1 ) great] compreh5siv5ess & fre$om ?an 9 ! e>ly ,*ri/ian dogmatics4 ,acqua9tance ) ! conditions :i* made su* an attempt possible1 w p]mit u to rea* conclusions1 by way ( analogical reason+s--?\gh ) precaution1 & = ! pres5t at lea/1 to a v limit$ ext5t--z to ! reception ( ,graeco-,arab sci5ce 9 ! ,*ri/ian ,middle ,ages1 & w p]haps tea* u a little ab\t ! conditions "u :i* ,philosophy arises 9 g5]al4 ,we c h>dly speak ( a ,muslim philosophy 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! t]m4 ,b !re 7 _m m5 9 ,islam :o c\ld n keep f philosophiz+2 & ev5 ?r\gh ! folds ( ! ,greek drap]y1 ! =m ( _! own limbs is indicat$4 ,x is easy to look d[n on ^! m51 f ! high wat*-t[] ( "s ,s*ool-,philosophy1 b x w be bett] = u to get to "k !m & to compreh5d !m 9 _! hi/orical environm5t4 ,we mu/ leave to special rese>* ! trac+ ( ea* ?\ght up to its orig94 ,our aim 9 :at foll[s c be no?+ m ?an to po9t out :at ! ,muslims con/ruct$ out ( ! mat]ials :i* 7 be=e !m4 ,,ii4 ,,philosophy ,,& ,,arab ,,k4 #a4 ,grammatical ,sci5ce4 #a4 ,by ,muslim s*ol>s ( ! #aj? c5tury ! sci5ces 7 divid$ into #8,arab ,sci5ces' & #8,old'- or #8,non-,arab ,sci5ces'4 ,to ! =m] belong$ ,gramm>1 ,e?ics & ,dogmatics1 ,hi/ory & ,k ( ,lit]ature2 to ! latt] ,philosophy1 ,natural ,sci5ce & ,m$ic9e4 ,9 ! ma9 ! division is a prop] "o4 ,! la/-nam$ bran*es are n only ^? :i* 7 det]m9$ ! mo/ by =eign influ5ces1 b ^? too :i* nev] became really popul>4 ,& yet ! s call$ #8,arab ,sci5ces' are n altoge!r pure native products4 ,!y too arose or 7 develop$ 9 places 9 ! ,muslim empire :]e ,arabs & ,non-,arabs met toge!r1 & :]e ! ne$ 0 awak5$ ( reflect+ on ^? subjects :i* conc]n mank9d ! mo/1--,spee* & ,poetry1 ,law & ,religion1--9 s f> z diff]5ces or inadequacies appe>$ !re94 ,9 ! mode 9 :i* ?is came ab\t1 x is easy to trace ! influ5ce ( ,non-,arabs1 p>ticul>ly ( ,p]sians2 & ! "p tak5 by ,greek ,philosophy 9 ! process ass]ts itself 9 ev]-gr[+ importance4 #b4 ,! ,arabic language1--9 :i* ! ,arabs !mselves took p>ticul> delight1 = its copi\s vocabul>y1 its weal? ( =ms & its inh]5t capability ( cultivation1--0 peculi>ly fitt$ to take a lead+ position 9 ! _w4 ,if x is comp>$1 = example1 ) ! unwieldy ,lat91 or ev5 ) ! turgid ,p]sian1 x is f\nd to be specially di/+ui%$ by ! possession ( %ort ,ab/ract-=ms1--a prop]ty ( great s]vice 9 sci5tific expression4 ,x is capable ( indicat+ ! f9e/ %ades ( mean+2 b j because ( its ri*ly develop$ /ock ( synonyms1 x (f]s temptations to deviate f ! ,ari/otelian rule1--t ! use ( synonyms is n p]missible 9 exact sci5ce4 ,a language s elegant1 expressive1 & difficult )al1 z ,arabic 01 necess>ily invit$ mu* exam9ation1 :5 x _h become ! polite language ( ! ,syrians & ! ,p]sians4 ,above all1 ! /udy ( ! ,koran1 & ! recital & int]pretation ( x dem&$ pr(\nd att5tion to be devot$ to ! language4 ,unbeliev]s1 also1 may h ?\ght t !y c\ld po9t out grammatical errors 9 ! sacr$ ,book2 & !re=e examples 7 ga!r$ out ( anci5t poems & out ( ! liv+ spee* ( ! ,b$\9s1 to support ! expressions ( ! ,koran4 ,to ^! examples rem>ks 71 no d\bt1 add$ ^u grammatical accuracy 9 g5]al4 ,on ! :ole1 ! liv+ usage =m$ ! /&>d1 b 9 ord] to save ! au?ority ( ! ,koran1 x 0 c]ta9ly n appli$ )\t artifice4 ,?is proce$+ 0 reg>d$1 all ! same1 by simple believ]s1 ) a measure ( suspicion4 ,masudi tells u ev5 ( "s gramm>ians f ,basra1 :o1 :5 on a pleasure trip1 took to go+ ?r\gh a ,koran ,imp]ative1 & = t reason787 7 s\ndly cudgell$ by c\ntry folk engag$ 9 date-ga!r+4 #c4 ,! ,arabs trace _! grammatical sci5ce1 l s _m o!r ?+s1 to ,ali1 to :om is ascrib$ ev5 ,ari/otle's trip>tite division ( spee*4 ,9 reality ! /udy began to be cultivat$ 9 ,basra & ,kufa4 ,its e>lie/ developm5t is involv$ 9 obscurity1 = 9 ! ,gramm> ( ,sibawaih 7 #ghf7 we h a f9i%$ sy/em1--a colossal "w--1 :i*1 l ,ibn ,s9a's ,canon ( ,m$ic9e 9 aft] times1 c\ld only be expla9$ by lat] g5]ations z ! production ( _m s*ol>s work+ 9 collaboration4 ,we are b ill-in=m$ ev5 on ! po9ts ( diff]5ce betwe5 ! s*ools ( ,basra & ,kufa4 ,! ,basra gramm>ians1 l ! s*ool ( ,bagdad 9 subsequ5t times1 mu/ h conc$$ a great influ5ce to ,qiyas 7,analogy7 9 ! det]m9ation ( grammatical ph5om5a1 :ile ^? ( ,kufa all[$ _m idiomatic =ms :i* div]g$ f ,qiyas4 ,on ?is gr\nd1 to m>k ! contra/ betwe5 ! ,basra gramm>ians & ^? ( ,kufa1 ! =m] 7 call$ #8! ,logic p'4 ,_! t]m9ology diff]$ 9 detail f t ( ! ,kufa s*ool4 ,_m1 ^: heads _h be5 turn$ by logic1 9 ! op9ion ( ! g5u9e ,arabs1 mu/ h gone decid$ly too f> 9 _! capti\s criticism ( ! language2 b on ! o!r side caprice 0 rais$ to ! position ( rule4 ,x 0 f no m]e accid5t t ! s*ool ( ,basra 0 ! fir/ to avail itself ( logical res\rces4 ,g5]ally speak+1 x 0 at ,basra t ! influ5ce ( philosophic doctr9es fir/ appe>$1 & among its gramm>ians 7 to be f\nd _m ,%iites & ,mutazilites1 :o readily p]mitt$ =eign wisdom to influ5ce _! doctr9al tea*+4 #d4 ,grammatical sci5ce1 9 s f> z x 0 n conf9$1 to ! collect+ ( ,examples1 ,synonyms c41 :5 s det]m9$ by ! subjects specially treat$1 0 affect$ by ! ,ari/otelian ,logic4 ,ev5 be=e ! ,muslim era1 ,syrians & ,p]sians _h /udi$ ! treatise 1 ) ,/oic & ,neo-,platonic additions4 ,ibn al-,moqaffa1 :o at fir/ 0 intimate ) ! gramm>ian ,khalil 7v4 infra71 !n made accessible to ! ,arabs all t exi/$ 9 ,pahlawi ( a grammatical or logical nature4 ,9 con=mity !re) ! v>i\s k9ds ( ,s5t5ces 7 enum]at$1--at "o "t five1 at ano!r eight or n9e1 z well z ! ?ree p>ts ( spee*1--,n\n1 ,v]b & ,p>ticle4 ,aft]w>ds "s s*ol>s1 l ,djahiz1 includ$ syllogi/ic figures among ! ,rhetorical figures2 & 9 lat] repres5tations !re 0 mu* disputation ab\t ,s\nd & ,idea4 ,! "q 0 discuss$ :e!r language is ! result ( ord9ance or a product ( nature2 b gradually ! philosophic view prepond]at$1 t x came by ord9ance4 ,next to ,logic ! influ5ce ( ! prep>atory or ma!matical sci5ces falls to be notic$ "h4 ,l ! prose ( ord9>y int]c\rse & ! rhymes ( ! ,koran1 ! v]ses ( ! poets 7 n only collect$ b also arrang$ accord+ to special pr9ciples ( classification1--= example1 accord+ to metre4 ,aft] ,gramm> ,prosody arose4 ,khalil 7 #gia71 ! tea*] ( ,sibawaih1 to :om ! fir/ application ( ,qiyas to grammatical sci5ce 0 attribut$1 is said ev5 to h creat$ metrical sci5ce4 ,:ile language came to be reg>d$ z ! national1 conv5tional elem5t 9 poetry1 ! notion 0 ent]ta9$ t :at 0 natural1 & common to all populations1 w\ld be f\nd 9 _! metre4 ,?abit ibn ,qorra 7#hcf-ija7 !re=e ma9ta9$1 9 8 classification ( ! sci5ces1 t metre 0 some?+ ess5tial1 & ! /udy ( metre a natural sci5ce1 & !re=e a bran* ( philosophy4 #e4 ,grammatical sci5ce1 nev]!less1 limit$ z x 0 to ! ,arabic language1 reta9$ its peculi>ities1 ^u :i* ?is is n ! place to ent]4 ,at all ev5ts1 x is an impos+ production ( ! ke5ly-obs]v+ & dilig5tly-collect+ ,arab intellig5ce1--a production ( :i* ! ,arabs might well be pr\d4 ,an apologi/ ( ! #aj? c5tury1 :o 0 engag$ 9 combat+ ,greek philosophy1 said3 8,he :o is acqua9t$ ) ! subtleties & pr(undities ( ,arab poetry & v]sification1 kn[s well t !y surpass all su* ?+s z numb]s1 l9es & po9ts1 :i* are wont to be advanc$ 9 pro( ( _! op9ions1 by p :o idly dream t !y are capable ( und]/&+ ! ess5ce ( ?+s4 ,i _c see ! sub/antial advantage ( ?+s l numb]s1 l9es & po9ts1 if1 9 spite ( ! trifl+ pr(it :i* may att5d !m1 !y d h>m to ! ,fai? & are foll[$ by consequ5ces1 aga9/ :i* we h to invoke ! help ( ,god40 ,m5 w\ld n h _! delight 9 ! m9utiae ( _! language di/urb$ by g5]al philosophic speculations4 ,_m a ^w-=m1 orig9at+ ) ! translators ( =eign works1 0 held 9 dete/ation by puri/ ,gramm>ians4 ,! beautiful art ( calligraphy1 m decorative 9 its nature ?an con/ructive1 l ,arabic art 9 g5]al1 became develop$ 9 noble1 delicate =ms1 & met ) a wid] expansion ?an sci5tific rese>* into ! language4 ,9 ! v *>act]s ( ! ,arabic spee*1 we may /ill see ! subtlety ( ! intellig5ce :i* =m$ !m1 al?\gh at ! same "t we may see a lack ( en]gy1 :i* is obs]vable 9 ! entire developm5t ( ,arab culture4 #b4 ,e?ical ,tea*+4 #a4 ,! believ+ ,muslim1 9 s f> z cu/om did n ma9ta9 its dom9ion ov] him1 _h at fir/ ! ,^w ( ,god & ! example ( ,8 ,prophet z 8 rule ( conduct & op9ion4 ,aft] ! ,prophet's dea?1 ! ,sunna ( ,mohamm$ 0 foll[$1 9 cases :]e ! ,koran gave no in=mation1--t is to say1 m5 act$ & decid$1 z ,mohamm$ _h decid$ or act$1 accord+ to ! ,tradition ( 8 ,companions4 ,b f ! "t ( ! conque/ ( c\ntries 9 possession ( an old civilization1 dem&s :i* 7 altoge!r new 7 made ( ,islam4 ,in/ead ( ! simple conditions ( ,arab life1 usages & in/itutions 7 met ) !re1 9 reg>d to :i* ! ,sacr$ ,law gave no precise direction1 & to meet :i* no tradition or int]pretation ( tradition pres5t$ itself4 ,e day add$ ?us to ! numb] ( individual cases :i* _h n be5 provid$ =1 & yet ab\t :i* "o _h to come to a decision1 :e!r accord+ to cu/om1 or 8 own s5se ( "r4 ,9 ! old-,roman prov9ces1 ,syria & ,mesopotamia1 ,roman law mu/ h long cont9u$ to ex]cise an important influ5ce4 ,^? juri/s :o attribut$ to _! own op9ion 7,ray1 op9io7 alongside ( ! ,koran & ,sunna1 a subsidi>y au?ority to det]m9e ! law1 7 call$ #8,adh]5ts ( ! ,ray'4 ,"o ( !m1 ,abu ,hanifa ( ,kufa 7 #gfg71 ! f\nd] ( ! ,hanifite ,s*ool1 became specially fam\s4 ,b ev5 9 ,m$9a1 be=e ! appe>ance ( ! s*ool ( ,malik 7#gae-gie71 z well z 9 t s*ool1 a h>mless ?\gh re/rict$ def]5ce 0 at fir/ paid to ! ,ray4 ,by sl[ degrees1 h[ev]1 & 9 ! c\rse ( oppos+ a ,ray :i* 0 becom+ a pretext = mu* arbitr>9ess1 ! view ga9$ gr\nd1 t 9 ev]y?+ ! ,tradition 7hadi?7 respect+ ! ,sunna ( ! ,prophet 0 to be foll[$4 ,!reupon traditions 7 collect$ f all qu>t]s1 & expla9$--& 9 l>ge numb]s ev5 =g$--2 & a sy/em ( crit]ia to det]m9e _! g5u95ess 0 =m$1 :i*1 h[ev]1 laid m /ress ^u ! ext]nal evid5ce & ! appropriat5ess ( ! tradition>y mat]ial ?an ^u consi/5cy & hi/oric tru?4 ,z a consequ5ce ( ?is developm5t1 ! #8p ( ! ,ray'1 :o 7 *iefly locat$ 9 ,iraq 7,babylonia71 7 n[ confront$ by ! #8,adh]5ts ( ! ,tradition'1 or ! ,m$9a s*ool4 ,ev5 ,%afii 7#gfg-hbj71 ! f\nd] ( ! ?ird s*ool ( ,law1 :o 9 g5]al held to ! ,sunna1 0 numb]$ ) ! p>tisans ( ,tradition1 9 contradi/9ction no d\bt to ,abu ,hanifa4 #b4 ,logic introduc$ a new elem5t into ?is controv]sy1--viz4 ,qiyas or ,analogy4 ,!re _h be51 ( c\rse1 /ray applications ( ,qiyas1 ev5 9 e>li] times2 b1 to lay d[n ,qiyas z a pr9ciple1 a f\ndation or a s\rce ( law1--presuppos$ ! influ5ce ( sci5tific reflection4 ,al?\gh ! t]ms ,ray & ,qiyas may be us$ z synonyms1 yet !re is 9 ! latt] t]m1 less sugge/ion ( ! pres5ce & op]ation ( individual pr$ilection ?an !re is 9 ,ray4 ,! m "o grew accu/om$ to employ ,qiyas 9 grammatical & logical rese>*es1 ! m readily c\ld he include ?is pr9ciple 9 ! in/itutes ( jurisprud5ce1 :e!r by way ( reason+ f "o in/ance to ano!r1 or f ! majority ( in/ances to ! rema9d] 7i4e4 analogically71 or by way ( seek+ r = "s common gr\nd gov]n+ v>i\s cases1 f :i* ! conduct prop] 9 a p>ticul> case might be d$uc$ 7i4e4 syllogi/ically7 #i4 ,! application ( ,qiyas appe>s to h come into use1 fir/ & mo/ ext5sively1 9 ! ,hanifite s*ool1 b aft]w>ds also 9 ! s*ool ( ,%afii1--?\gh ) a m limit$ range4 ,9 connection !re)1 ! "q--:e!r language 0 capable ( express+ ! ,univ]sal1 or c\ld m]ely d5ote ! ,p>ticul>--became important = e?ical doctr9e4 ,! logical pr9ciple ( ,qiyas nev] atta9$ to great repute4 ,mu* m emphasis 0 laid1--next to ! ,koran & ! ,sunna1 ! hi/oric f\ndations ( ! ,law--1 ^u ! ,idjma1 t is1 ! ,cons5sus ( ! ,congregation ( ! fai?ful4 ,! ,cons5sus ( ! ,congregation or1 practically1 ( ! mo/ influ5tial le>n$ m5 9 x1--:o may be comp>$ to ! fa!rs & tea*]s ( ! ,ca?olic ,*ur*1--is ! ,dogmatical pr9ciple1 :i*1 conte/$ only by a few1 has prov$ ! mo/ important in/rum5t 9 e/abli%+ ! ,muslim ,e?ical ,sy/em4 ,!ory1 h[ev]1 cont9ues to assign a c]ta9 subord9ate place to ,qiyas1 z a f\r? s\rce ( moral guidance1 aft] ,koran1 ,sunna & ,idjma4 #c4 ,! ,muslim ,e?ical ,sy/em 7al-fiqh #8! k'7 take into acc\nt ! entire life ( ! believ]1 = :om ! ,fai? itself is ! fir/ ( all duties4 ,l e innovation ! sy/em at fir/ enc\nt]$ viol5t opposition3--comm&m5t 0 n[ turn$ into doctr9al !ory1 & believ+ ob$i5ce into ab/ruse pursuit ( k3 t call$ = prote/ation alike f pla9 pi\s p & f wise /atesm54 ,b gradually ! #8kn[+' m5 or m5 le>n$ 9 ! ,law 7ulam1 or 9 ! ,we/1 faqihs7 7 recogniz$ z ! true heirs ( ! prophets4 ,! ,e?ical sy/em 0 develop$ be=e ! ,doctr9al1 & x has be5 able to hold ! lead+ position up to ! pres5t day4 ,ne>ly e ,muslim kn[s some?+ ( x1 see+ x is "p ( a good religi\s upbr++4 ,accord+ to ! great ,*ur*-fa!r ,gazali1 #8! ,fiqh' is ! daily bread ( believ+ s\ls1 :ile ! ,doctr9e is only valuable z a ,m$ic9e = ! sick4 ,we are n call$ ^u "h to ent] into ! m9utiae ( ! f9e-spun casui/ic ( ! ,fiqh4 ,! ma9 subject h&l$ 9 x is an ideal righte\sness1 :i* c nev] be illu/rat$ 9 all its purity 9 our imp]fect _w4 ,we are acqua9t$ n[ ) its pr9ciples1 & ) ! position :i* x holds 9 ,islam4 ,let u m]ely add a brief notice ( ! division ( moral acts :i* 0 =mulat$ by e?ical tea*]s4 ,accord+ to ?is classification !re are3 #a4 ,acts1 ! practice ( :i* is an absolute duty & is !re=e rew>d$1 & ! omission ( :i* is puni%$3 #b4 ,acts :i* are recomm5d$ by ! ,law1 & are ! subject ( rew>d1 b ! neglect ( :i* does n call = puni%m5t3 #c4 ,acts :i* are p]mitt$1 b :i* 9 ! eyes ( ! ,law are a matt] ( indiff]5ce3 #d4 ,acts :i* ! ,law disapproves (1 b does n hold z puni%able3 #e4 ,acts :i* are =bidd5 by ! ,law & :i* dem& unconditional puni%m5t #aj4 #d4 ,greek philosophic enquiries h _h a two-fold influ5ce ^u ! ,e?ics ( ,islam4 ,) _m ( ! sect>ies & my/ics1 bo? or?odox & h]etic1 an ascetic sy/em ( ,e?ics is f\nd1 col\r$ by ,py?agorean-,platonic views4 ,! same ?+ appe>s ) philosoph]s1 :om we %all aft]w>ds meet aga94 ,b 9 or?odox circles ! ,ari/otelian deliv]ance1--t virtue consi/s 9 ! j mean--1 f\nd mu* acceptance1 because some?+ simil> /ood 9 ! ,koran1 & because1 g5]ally1 ! t5d5cy ( ,islam 0 a ca?olic "o1--"o conciliatory ( opposites4 ,m att5tion inde$ 0 giv5 to ,politics ?an to ,e?ics1 9 ! ,muslim empire1 & ! /ruggles ( political p>ties 7 ! fir/ ?+ to occasion diff]5ce ( op9ion4 ,disputes ab\t ! ,immat1 i4e4 ! head%ip 9 ! ,muslim ,*ur*1 p]vade ! entire hi/ory ( ,islam2 b ! que/ions discuss$ h commonly m ( a p]sonal & practical ?an a !oretical importance1 & !re=e a hi/ory ( philosophy does n ne$ to consid] !m v fully4 ,h>dly any?+ ( philosophic value em]ges 9 !m4 ,ev5 9 ! c\rse ( ! fir/ c5turies !re 0 develop$ a firm body ( con/itutional law canonically express$2 b ?is1 l ! ideal sy/em ( duty1 0 n p>ticul>ly he$$ by /rong rul]s1--:o view$ x z m]e !ological brood+1--:ile1 on ! o!r h&1 by weak pr9ces x c\ld n be appli$ at all4 ,j z little is x wor? our :ile to exam9e m9utely ! num]\s #8mirrors ( ,pr9ces'1 :i* 7 su* fav\rites1 9 ,p]sia especially1 & 9 ^: wise moral saws1 & maxims ( political sagacity1 ! c\rtly circles f\nd edification4 ,! weight ( philosophic endeav\r 9 ,islam lies on ! !oretical & intellectual side4 ,) ! actual proce$+s ( social & political life !y are able to make b a scanty compromise4 ,ev5 ! ,art ( ! ,muslims1 al?\gh x exhibits m orig9ality ?an _! ,sci5ce1 does n "k h[ to animate ! crude mat]ial1 b m]ely sports ) ornam5tal =ms4 ,_! ,poetry creates no ,drama1 & _! ,philosophy is unpractical4 #c4 ,doctr9al ,sy/ems4 #a4 ,9 ! ,koran !re _h be5 giv5 to ,muslims a religion1 b no sy/em1--precepts b no doctr9es4 ,:at is contr>y to logic !re91--:at we acc\nt = by ! %ift+ circum/ances ( ! ,prophet's life1 & 8 v>y+ moods1--0 simply accept$ by ! fir/ believ]s1 )\t ask+ que/ions ab\t ! ,h[ & ,:y4 ,b 9 ! conqu]$ c\ntries !y 7 fac$ by a fully-=m$ ,*ri/ian ,dogmatic z well z by ,zoroa/rian & ,brahmanic !ories4 ,we h laid frequ5t /ress already ^u ! great debt :i* ! ,muslims owe to ! ,*ri/ians2 & ! doctr9al sy/em has c]ta9ly be5 det]m9$ ! mo/ by ,*ri/ian influ5ces4 ,9 ,damascus ! =mation ( ,muslim ,dogmas 0 affect$ by ,or?odox & ,monophysite tea*+1 & 9 ,basra & ,bagdad r p]haps by ,ne/orian & ,gno/ic !ories4 ,little ( ! lit]ature belong+ to ! e>lie/ p]iod ( ?is movem5t has come d[n to u1 b we _c be wrong 9 assign+ a consid]able influ5ce to p]sonal int]c\rse & regul> s*ool-in/ruction4 ,n mu* 0 le>n$ 9 ! ,ea/ at t "t out ( books1 any m ?an x is to-day3 m 0 le>n$ f ! lips ( ! tea*]4 ,! simil>ity betwe5 ! olde/ doctr9al tea*+s 9 ,islam & ! dogmas ( ,*ri/ianity is too great to p]mit any "o to d5y t !y are directly connect$4 ,9 p>ticul>1 ! fir/ "q ab\t :i* !re 0 mu* dispute1 among ,muslim ,s*ol>s1 0 t ( ! ,fre$om ( ! ,w4 ,n[ ! fre$om ( ! w 0 almo/ univ]sally accept$ by ,ori5tal ,*ri/ians4 ,at no "t & 9 no place p]haps 0 ! ,w-problem--fir/ 9 ! ,*ri/ology1 b aft]w>d 9 ! ,an?ropology--s mu* discuss$ f e po9t z 9 ! ,*ri/ian circles ( ! ,ea/ at ! "t ( ! ,muslim conque/4 ,besides ^! consid]ations :i* are p>tly ( an a priori "*1 !re are also deta*$ notices :i* indicate t "s ( ! e>lie/ ,muslims1 :o taught ! ,fre$om ( ! ,w1 _h ,*ri/ian tea*]s4 ,a numb] ( purely philosophic elem5ts f ! ,gno/ic sy/ems1 & aft]w>ds f ! translation-lit]ature1 associat$ !mselves ) ! ,hell5i/ic-,*ri/ian influ5ces4 #b4 ,an ass]tion1 express$ 9 logical or dialectic fa%ion1 :e!r v]bal or writt51 0 call$ by ! ,arabs1--g5]ally1 b m p>ticul>ly 9 religi\s tea*+--a ,kalam 771 & ^? :o advanc$ su* ass]tions 7 call$ ,mutakallimun4 ,! "n 0 transf]r$ f ! individual ass]tion to ! entire sy/em1 & x cov]$ also ! introductory1 elem5t>y obs]vations on ,me?od1--& s on4 ,our be/ designation = ! sci5ce ( ! ,kalam is #8,!ological ,dialectics' or simply #8,dialectics'2 & 9 :at foll[s we may translate ,mutakallimun by #8,dialecticians'4 ,! "n ,mutakallimun1 :i* 0 at fir/ common to all ! ,dialecticians1 0 9 lat] times appli$ specially to ! ,antimutazilite & ,or?odox !ologians4 ,9 ! latt] case x might be well1 foll[+ ! s5se1 to r5d] ! t]m by ,dogmati/s or ,s*oolm54 ,9 fact :ile ! fir/ dialecticians _h ! ,dogma /ill to =m1 ^? :o came lat] _h only to exp\nd & e/abli% x4 ,! introduction ( ,dialectics into ,islam 0 a viol5t innovation1 & x 0 vehem5tly d5\nc$ by ! p>ty ( ! ,tradition4 ,:atev] w5t beyond ! regul> e?ical tea*+ 0 h]esy to !m1 = fai? %\ld be ob$i5ce1 & n1--z 0 ma9ta9$ by ! ,murdjites & ,mutazilites--1 k4 ,by ! latt] x 0 laid d[n )\t res]ve t speculation 0 "o ( ! duties ( believ]s4 ,ev5 to ?is dem& ! times became reconcil$1 = accord+ to tradition ! ,prophet _h said already3 #8,! fir/ ?+ :i* ,god creat$ 0 ,k or ,reason'4 #c4 ,v num]\s are ! v>i\s op9ions :i* f\nd utt]ance 9 ! days ev5 ( ! ,omayyads1 b especially 9 ^? ( ! e>ly ,abbasids4 ,! f>!r !y div]g$ f "o ano!r1 ! m difficult x 0 = ! m5 ( ! ,tradition to come to an und]/&+ ) !m2 b gradually c]ta9 compact doctr9al collections /ood out di/9ctly1 ( :i* ! rationali/ sy/em ( ! ,mutazilites1 ! successors ( ! ,qad>ites1 0 mo/ widely ext5d$1 p>ticul>ly among ,%iites4 ,f ,caliph ,mamun's "t d[n to ,mutawakkil's1 x ev5 receiv$ ,/ate recognition2 & ! ,mutazilites1 :o _h be5 9 e>li] days oppress$ & p]secut$ by ! temporal p[]1 n[ became ,inquisitors ( ! ,fai? !mselves1 ) :om ! sword suppli$ ! place ( argum5t4 ,ab\t ! same "t1 h[ev]1 _! oppon5ts ! ,traditionali/s comm5c$ to build up a sy/em ( belief4 ,^u ! :ole !re 0 no lack ( int]m$i>y =ms betwe5 ! naive ,fai? ( ! multitude & ! ,gnosis ( ! dialecticians4 ,9 contra/ to ! spirituali/ic /amp ( ,mutazilitism ^! int]m$i>y =ms took an an?ropomorphic "* ) reg>d to ! doctr9e ( ! ,deity1 & a mat]iali/ic "* ) reg>d to ! !ory ( man & ! univ]se 7,an?ropology & ,cosmology74 ,! s\l1 = example1 0 conceiv$ ( by !m z corporeal1 or z an accid5t ( ! body1 & ! ,div9e ,ess5ce 0 imag9$ z a human body4 ,! religi\s tea*+ & art ( ! ,muslims 7 greatly av]se to ! symbolical ,god-,fa!r ( ! ,*ri/ians1 b !re 0 an abundance ( absurd speculations ab\t ! =m ( ,allah4 ,"s w5t s f> z to ascribe to him all ! bodily memb]s toge!r1 ) ! exception ( ! be>d & o!r privileges ( ori5tal manhood4 ,x is impossible to discuss 9 detail all ! ,dialectic sects1 :i* (t5 made _! fir/ appe>ance 9 ! =m ( political p>ties4 ,f ! /&po9t ( ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy x is en\gh to give "h ! *ief doctr9es ( ! ,mutazilites1 9 s f> z !y c lay claim to g5]al int]e/4 #d4 ,! fir/ "q1 !n1 conc]n$ man's conduct & de/9y4 ,! =]unn]s ( ! ,mutazilites1 :o 7 call$ ,qad>ites1 taught ! ,fre$om ( ! human ,w2 & ! ,mutazilites1 ev5 9 lat] times1 :5 _! speculations 7 direct$ m to !ologico-metaphysical problems1 7 fir/ & =emo/ po9t$ to z ! support]s ( ! doctr9e ( ,div9e ,righte\sness1--:i* gives rise to no evil1 & rew>ds or puni%es man accord+ to 8 des]ts--1 &1 9 ! second place1 z ! confessors1 or av[$ support]s ( ! ,unity ( ,god1 i4e4 ! abs5ce ( prop]ties f 8 ,ess5ce consid]$ p] se or ! pr$icateless "* ( ! ess5tial nature ( ,god4 ,! sy/ematic /atem5t ( _! doctr9es mu/ h be5 influ5c$ by ! ,logicians 7v4 ,,iv1 #b #a72 = ev5 9 ! fir/ half ( ! #aj? c5tury1 ! ,mutazilite sy/em began ) ! confession ( ! ,unity ( ,god1 :ile ! doctr9e ( ,god's ,righte\sness1 ann\nc$ z x is 9 all 8 works1 is relegat$ to ! second place4 ,! responsibility ( man1 z well z ! hol9ess ( ,god1 :o is incapable ( directly caus+ man's s9ful actions1 _h to be sav$ by ass]t+ ! fre$om ( ! ,w4 ,man mu/ !re=e be "l ( 8 actions2 b he is "l ( ^! only1 = few ent]ta9$ any d\bt t ! en]gy :i* conf]s ability to act at all1 & ! p[] ( do+ ei!r a good or a bad action come to man f ,god4 ,h5ce ! num]\s subtle discussions1--amalgamat$ ) a criticism ( ! philosophic conception ( ,"t--on ! "q :e!r ! p[]1 :i* ,god creates 9 man1 is be/[$ previ\s to ! action1 or co9cid5tally & simultane\sly !re)3 ,=1 did ! p[] prec$e ! act1 !n x w\ld ei!r h to la/ up to ! "t ( ! act1 :i* w\ld belie its accid5tal "* 7cf4 ,,ii1 #c #ab71 or h ceas$ to exi/ be=e ! act1--9 :i* case x might h be5 disp5s$ ) altoge!r4 ,f human conduct speculation pass$ on to consid] ! op]ations ( nature4 ,in/ead ( ,god & man1 ! anti!sis 9 ?is case is ,god & nature4 ,! productive & g5]ative p[]s ( nature 7 recogniz$ z means or proximate causes2 & "s endeav\r$ to inve/igate !m4 ,9 _! op9ion1 h[ev]1 nature h]self1 l all ! _w1 0 a "w ( ,god1 a creature ( 8 wisdom3 ,& j z ! omnipot5ce ( ,god 0 limit$ 9 ! moral k+dom by 8 hol9ess or righte\sness1--s 9 ! natural _w x 0 limit$ by 8 wisdom4 ,ev5 ! pres5ce ( evil & mis*ief 9 ! _w 0 acc\nt$ = by ! wisdom ( ,god1 :o s5ds ev]y?+ = ! be/4 ,a production or object ( ,div9e activity1 evil is n4 8,god may be able1 inde$10--s an e>li] g5]ation _h ma9ta9$--8to act wick$ly & unreasonably1 b he w\ld n d x40 ,! lat] ,mutazilites taught1 on ! o!r h&1 t ,god has no p[] at all to d any?+ :i* is 9 ?is way repugnant to 8 nature4 ,_! oppon5ts1 :o reg>d$ ,god's unlimit$ might & unfa?omable w z directly op]ative 9 all do+ & effect+ 7 indignant at ?is tea*+1 & comp>$ its prop\nd]s to ! duali/ic ,magians4 ,consi/5t ,monism 0 on ! side ( ^! oppon5ts1 :o did n c>e to turn man & nature into creators--next to & "u ,god--( _! acts or op]ations4 #e4 ,! ,mutazilites1 x is cle> f ! =ego+1 _h a diff]5t idea ( ,god f t :i* 0 ent]ta9$ by ! multitude & by ! ,traditionali/s4 ,?is became specially evid5t1 z speculation advanc$1 9 ! doctr9e ( ! ,div9e attributes4 ,f ! v beg9n+ ! ,unity ( ,god 0 /rongly emphasiz$ 9 ,islam2 b t did n prev5t m5 f be/[+ ^u him _m beautiful names foll[+ human analogy1 & ascrib+ to him sev]al attributes4 ,( ^! ! foll[+ came gradually into greate/ prom95ce1 "u ! influ5ce assur$ly ( ,*ri/ian dogmatics3--viz43 ,wisdom1 ,p[]1 ,life1 ,w1 ,spee* or ,^w1 ,sight & ,he>+4 ,! la/ two ( ^!--,sight & ,he>+--7 ! fir/ to be expla9$ 9 a spiritual s5se1 or entirely set aside4 ,b ! absolute ,unity ( ! ,godhead did n appe> to be compatible ) any plurality ( co-et]nal attributes4 ,w\ld n t be ! ,tr9ity ( ! ,*ri/ians1 :o be=e n[ _h expla9$ ! ?ree ,p]sons ( ! ,"o ,div9e ,be+ z attributes8 ,9 ord] to avoid ?is inconv5i5ce !y s\ght sometimes to d]ive sev]al attributes out ( o!rs by a process ( ab/raction1 & to ref] !m to a s+le "o--= in/ance to ,k or ,p[]--& sometimes to appreh5d !m ea* & all z be+ /ates ( ! ,div9e ess5ce1 or to id5tify !m ) ! ess5ce itself1 9 :i* case ( c\rse _! significance ne>ly disappe>$4 ,occasionally an attempt 0 made ?r\gh ref9em5ts ( phraseology to save some?+ ( t significance4 ,:ile1 = example1 a philosoph]1 d5y+ ! attributes1 ma9ta9$ t ,god is by 8 ess5ce a ,be+ :o kn[s1 a ,mutazilite dialectian express$ x ?us3 ,god is a ,be+ :o kn[s1 b by means ( a k1 :i* ,he himself is4 ,9 ! op9ion ( ! ,traditionali/s ! conception ( ,god 0 9 ?is way be+ robb$ ( all its cont5ts4 ,! ,mutazilites h>dly got beyond negative det]m9ations1--t ,god is n l ! ?+s ( ?is _w1--t he is exalt$ above ,space1 ,"t1 ,movem5t1 & s on2 b !y held fa/ to ! doctr9e t he is ! ,creator ( ! _w4 ,al?\gh little c\ld be ass]t$ reg>d+ ! ,be+ ( ,god1 x 0 ?\ght he c\ld be kn[n f 8 works4 ,= ! ,mutazilites z well z = _! oppon5ts1 ! ,creation 0 an absolute act ( ,god1 & ! exi/5ce ( ! _w an exi/5ce 9 "t4 ,!y en]getically combat$ ! doctr9e ( ! et]nity ( ! _w1--a doctr9e support$ by ! ,ari/otelian philosophy1 & :i* _h be5 widely spread ?r\gh\t ! ,ea/4 #f4 ,we h already f\nd #8,spee*' or #8! ,^w'1 giv5 z "o ( ! et]nal attributes ( ,god2 &1 probably by way ( con=mity ) ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e ( ! ,logos1 !re 0 taught 9 p>ticul> ! et]nity ( ! ,koran :i* _h be5 reveal$ to ! ,prophet4 ,?is belief 9 an et]nal ,koran by ! side ( ,allah1 0 d[nright idolatry1 accord+ to ! ,mutazilites2 & 9 opposition !reto ! ,mutazilite ,caliphs proclaim$ x z a doctr9e accept$ by ! ,/ate1--t ! ,koran _h be5 creat$3 ,:oev] d5i$ ?is doctr9e 0 publicly puni%$4 ,n[ al?\gh ! ,mutazilites 9 ma9ta9+ ?is dogma 7 m 9 h>mony ) ! orig9al ,islam ?an _! oppon5ts1 yet hi/ory has ju/ifi$ ! latt]1 = pi\s ne$s prov$ /rong] ?an logical conclusions4 ,_m ( ! ,mutazilites1 9 ! op9ion ( _! bre?r5 9 ! fai?1 7 f> too ready to make light ( ! ,koran1 ! ,^w ( ,god4 ,if x did n agree ) _! !ories1 x receiv$ ev] new int]pretations4 ,9 actual fact reason _h m weight ) _m ?an ! reveal$ ,book4 ,by comp>+ n only ! ?ree reveal$ religions toge!r1 b ^! also ) ,p]sian & ,indian religi\s tea*+ & ) philosophic speculation1 !y rea*$ a natural religion1 :i* reconcil$ opposites4 ,?is 0 built up on ! basis ( an inborn k1 univ]sally necess>y1--t !re is "o ,god1 :o1 z a wise ,creator1 has produc$ ! _w1 & also end[$ ,man ) reason t he may "k 8 ,creator & di/+ui% betwe5 ,good & ,evil4 ,contra/$ ) ?is ,natural or ,rational ,religion1 acqua9tance ) ! tea*+ ( revelation is !n some?+ adv5titi\s1--an acquir$ k4 ,by ?is cont5tion ! mo/ consi/5t ( ! ,mutazilites _h brok5 away f ! cons5sus ( ! ,muslim religi\s community1 & _h ?us actually put !mselves outside ! g5]al fai?4 ,at fir/ !y /ill appeal$ to t cons5sus1--:i* !y 7 able to d z long z ! secul> p[] 0 fav\rably dispos$ to !m4 ,t condition1 h[ev]1 did n la/ long1 & !y soon le>n$ by exp]i5ce :at has (t5 be5 taught s9ce1--t ! communities ( m5 are m ready to accept a religion s5t d[n to !m f on high1 ?an an enlight5$ explanation ( x4 #g4 ,foll[+ up ?is survey let u take a clos] view ( "o or two ( ! mo/ consid]able ( ! ,mutazilites1 t ! g5]al picture may n be want+ 9 individual features4 ,let u fir/ glance at ,abu-l-,hudhail al-,allaf1 :o di$ ab\t ! middle ( ! #i? c5tury4 ,he 0 a fam\s dialectician1 & "o ( ! fir/ :o all[$ philosophy to ex]cise an influ5ce on _! !ological doctr9es4 ,t an attribute %\ld be capable ( inh]+ 9 a ,be+ 9 any way is n conceivable1 9 ! op9ion ( ,abu-l-,hudhail3 ,x mu/ ei!r be id5tical ) ! ,be+ or diff]5t f x4 ,b yet he looks ab\t = "s way ( adju/m5t4 ,god is1 accord+ to him1 kn[+1 mighty1 liv+1 ?r\gh k1 might & life1 :i* are 8 v ess5ce2 & j z m5 _h done ev5 be=e ?is1 on ! ,*ri/ian side1 he t]ms ^! ?ree pr$icates ! ,modi 7wudjuh7 ( ! ,div9e ,be+4 ,he agrees also t he>+1 see+ & o!r attributes are et]nal 9 ,god1 b only ) reg>d to ! _w :i* 0 aft]w>ds to be creat$4 ,besides1 x w\ld be easy en\gh = him & = o!rs1 :o 7 affect$ by ! philosophy ( ! day1 to int]pret ^! & simil> expressions--su* z ,god's #8behold+' on ! la/ day1 #aa--;9 a spiritual s5se1 s9ce g5]ally !y reg>d$ see+ & he>+ z spiritual acts4 ,= example1 ,abu-l-,hudhail ma9ta9$ t motion 0 visible1 b n palpable1 because x 0 n a body4 ,! ,w ( ,god1 h[ev]1 is n to be reg>d$ z et]nal4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,abu-l-,hudhail assumes absolute decl>ations ( ,w z be+ diff]5t bo? f ! ,be+ :o wills & ! object :i* is will$4 ,?us ! absolute ,^w ( ,creation takes an int]m$iate position betwe5 ! et]nal ,creator & ! transi5t creat$ _w4 ,^! decl>ations ( ,god's ,w =m a k9d ( int]m$iate ess5ce1 to be comp>$ ) ! ,platonic ,ideas or ! ,sph]e-spirits1 b p]haps reg>d$ r z immat]ial p[]s ?an z p]sonal spirits4 ,abu-l-,hudhail di/+ui%es betwe5 ! absolute ,^w ( ,creation & ! accid5tal ,^w ( ,revelation1 :i* is ann\nc$ to m5 9 ! =m ( comm& & prohibition1 appe>+ z matt] & 9 space1 & :i* is ?us significant only = ?is transi5t _w4 ,! possibility ( liv+ 9 accordance ) ! ,div9e ^w ( revelation1 or ( resi/+ x1 exi/s !re=e 9 ?is life alone4 ,b9d+ injunction & prohibition presuppose ,fre$om ( ,w & capability ( act+ 9 accordance !re)4 ,on ! o!r h& 9 ! future life !re are no obligations 9 ! =m ( laws1 &1 accord+ly1 no long] any fre$om3 ev]y?+ !re dep5ds on ! absolute det]m9ation ( ,god4 ,nor w !re be any motion 9 ! _w beyond1 = z motion has once _h a beg9n+1 x mu/1 at ! end ( ! _w1 come to a close 9 ev]la/+ re/4 ,abu-l-,hudhail1 !re=e1 c\ld n h believ$ 9 a resurrection ( ! body4 ,human actions he divides into ,natural & ,moral1 or ,actions ( ! memb]s1 & ,actions ( ! he>t4 ,an action is moral1 only :5 we p]=m x )\t con/ra9t4 ,! moral act is ,man's own prop]ty1 acquir$ by 8 own ex]tions1 b 8 k comes to him f ,god1 p>tly ?r\gh ,revelation1 & p>tly ?r\gh ! light ( ,nature4 ,ant]ior ev5 to any revelation man is in/ruct$ 9 duty by ,nature1 & ?us is fully enabl$ to "k ,god1 to disc]n ,good f ,evil1 & to live a virtu\s1 hone/ & upright life4 #h4 ,notewor?y z a man & a ?9k] is a y\ng] contempor>y ( ,abu-l-,hudhail's1 & app>5tly a disciple ( 81 commonly call$ ,al-,nazzam1 :o di$ 9 ! ye> #hde4 ,a fanciful1 re/less1 ambiti\s man1 n a consi/5t ?9k]1 b yet a bold & hone/ "o1--su* is ! repres5tation ( him giv5 u by ,djahiz1 "o ( 8 pupils4 ,! p consid]$ him a madman or a h]etic4 ,a good deal 9 8 tea*+ is 9 t\* ) :at pass$ among ! ,ori5tals z ! ,philosophy ( ,emp$ocles & ,anaxagoras 7,cf4 also ,abu-l-,hudhail74 ,9 ! op9ion ( ,nazzam ,god c d absolutely no evil ?+2 9 fact he c only d t :i* he kn[s to be ! be/ ?+ = 8 s]vants4 ,8 omnipot5ce rea*es no f>!r ?an :at he actually does4 ,:o c\ld h9d] him f giv+ effect to ! spl5did exub]ance ( 8 ,be+8 ,a ,w1 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! t]m1--:i* inv>iably implies a ne$1--is by no means to be attribut$ to ,god4 ,! ,w ( ,god1 on ! contr>y1 is only a designation ( ! ,div9e ag5cy itself1 or ( ! comm&s :i* h be5 convey$ to m54 ,creation is an act p]=m$ once = all1 9 :i* all ?+s 7 made at "o & ! same "t1 s t "o ?+ is conta9$ 9 ano!r1 & s t 9 process ( "t ! v>i\s specim5s ( m9]als1 plants & animals1 z well z ! num]\s *ildr5 ( ,adam1 gradually em]ge f _! lat5t condition & come to ! light4 ,nazzam1 l ! philosoph]s1 rejects ! !ory ( atoms 7v4 ,,ii1 #c #ab71 b !n he c only acc\nt = ! trav]s+ ( a def9ite di/ance1 by reason ( ! inf9ite divisibility ( space1 by po/ulat+ leaps4 ,he holds bodily sub/ances to be compos$ ( #8accid5ts' in/ead ( atoms4 ,& j z ,abu-l-,hudhail c\ld n conceive ( ! inh]5ce ( attributes 9 an ess5ce1 s ,nazzam c only imag9e ! accid5t z ! sub/ance itself or z a "p ( ! sub/ance4 ,?us #8,fire' or #8! ,w>m'1 = in/ance1 exi/s 9 a lat5t condition 9 wood1 b x becomes free :51 by means ( friction1 its antagoni/ #8! ,cold' disappe>s4 ,9 ! process !re occurs a motion or transposition1 b no qualitative *ange4 ,s5sible qualities1 su* z col\rs1 sav\rs & od\rs1 are1 9 ,nazzam's view1 bodies4 ,ev5 ! s\l or ! intellect ( ,man he conceives to be a f9] k9d ( body4 ,! s\l1 ( c\rse1 is ! mo/ excell5t "p ( man3 x completely p]vades ! body1 :i* is its organ1 & x mu/ be t]m$ ! real & true ,man4 ,?\ghts & aspirations are def9$ z ,movem5ts ( ! ,s\l4 ,9 matt]s ( ,fai? & 9 que/ions ( ,law ,nazzam rejects bo? ! cons5sus ( ! congregation & ! analogical int]pretation ( ! ,law1 & appeals 9 ,%iite fa%ion to ! infallible ,imam4 ,he ?9ks x possible = ! :ole body ( ,muslims to concur 9 admitt+ an errone\s doctr9e1 z1 = in/ance1 ! doctr9e t ,mohamm$ has a mission = all mank9d 9 contradi/9ction to o!r prophets4 ,:]eas ,god s5ds e prophet to all mank9d4 ,nazzam1 besides1 %>es ! view ( ,abu-l-,hudhail z to ! k ( ,god & ( moral duties by means ( ! reason4 ,he is n p>ticul>ly conv9c$ ( ! inimitable excell5ce ( ! ,koran4 ,! abid+ m>vel ( ! ,koran is made to consi/ only 9 ! fact t ,mohamm$'s contempor>ies 7 kept f produc+ some?+ l to ! ,koran4 ,he has c]ta9ly n reta9$ mu* ( ! ,muslim ,es*atology4 ,at lea/ ! torm5ts ( hell are 9 8 view resolv$ into a process ( consum+ by fire4 #i4 ,_m syncreti/ic doctr9es1 b all devoid ( orig9ality1 h come d[n to u f ! s*ool ( ,nazzam4 ,! mo/ fam\s man1 :om x produc$ 0 ! elegant writ] & ,natural-,philosoph] ,djahiz 7 #hfi71 :o dem&$ ( ! g5u9e s*ol> t he %\ld comb9e ! /udy ( ,!ology ) t ( ,natural ,sci5ce4 ,he traces 9 all ?+s ! op]ations ( ,nature1 b also a ref]5ce 9 ^! op]ations to ! ,creator ( ! _w4 ,man's reason is capable ( kn[+ ! ,creator1 & 9 l mann] ( compreh5d+ ! ne$ ( a prophetic revelation4 ,man's only m]it is 9 8 w1 = on ! "o h& all 8 actions are int]wov5 ) ! ev5ts ( ,nature1 & on ! o!r 8 entire k is necess>ily det]m9$ f above4 ,& yet no great significance appe>s to accrue to ! ,w1 :i* is d]iv$ f #8kn[+'4 ,at lea/ ,w 9 ! ,div9e ,be+ is q negatively conceiv$ (1 t is1 ,god nev] op]ates unconsci\sly1 or ) dislike to 8 "w4 ,9 all ?is !re is little t is orig9al4 ,8 e?ical ideal is #8! mean'1 & ! /yle ( 8 g5ius is also m$iocre4 ,x is only 9 compil+ 8 num]\s writ+s t ,djahiz has %[n any excess4 #aj4 ,) ! e>li] ,mutazilites reflections on ,e?ics & ,natural ,philosophy pr$om9ate2 ) ^? :o come lat] ,logico-metaphysical m$itations prevail4 ,9 p>ticul> ,neo-,platonic influ5ces are to be trac$ "h4 ,muamm>1 ^: date _c be accurately det]m9$1 al?\gh x may be set d[n z ab\t ! ye> #ijj1 has mu* 9 common ) ^? :o h j be5 nam$4 ,b he is f> m emphatic 9 8 d5ial ( ! exi/5ce ( ,div9e attributes1 :i* he reg>ds z be+ contradictory ( ! absolute unity ( ! ,div9e ess5ce4 ,god is high above e =m ( plurality4 ,he kn[s nei!r himself nor any o!r be+1 = #8kn[+' w\ld presuppose a plurality 9 him4 ,he is ev5 to be call$ ,hyp]-et]nal4 ,nev]!less he is to be recogniz$ z ,creator ( ! _w4 ,he has only creat$ bodies1 x is true2 & ^! ( !mselves create _! ,accid5ts1 :e!r ?r\gh op]ation ( ,nature or by ,w4 ,! numb] ( ^! accid5ts is inf9ite1 = 9 _! ess5ce !y are no?+ m ?an ! intellectual relations ( ?\ght4 ,muamm> is a ,conceptuali/4 ,motion & ,re/1 ,lik5ess & ,unlik5ess1 & s on1 are no?+ 9 !mselves1 & h m]ely an intellectual or ideal exi/5ce4 ,! s\l1 :i* is held to be ! true ess5ce ( ,man1 is conceiv$ ( z an ,idea or an immat]ial sub/ance1 ?\gh x is n cle>ly /at$ h[ x is relat$ to ! body or to ! ,div9e ess5ce4 ,! acc\nt h&$ d[n is confus$4 ,man's w is free1 &1--prop]ly speak+1--,will+ is 8 only act1 = ! outw>d action belongs to ! body 7,cf4 ,djahiz74 ,! s*ool ( ,bagdad1 to :i* ,muamm> seems to belong1 0 conceptuali/4 ,) ! exception ( ! mo/ g5]al pr$icates1--^? ( ,be+ & ,becom+1 x made ,univ]sals subsi/ only z notions or concepts4 ,abu ,ha%im ( ,basra 7 #icc7 /ood ne>] to ,realism4 ,! attributes ( ,god1 z well z ,accid5ts & ,g5us-notions 9 g5]al1 7 reg>d$ by him z some?+ 9 a middle position betwe5 ,be+ & ,n-,be+3 he call$ !m ,conditions or ,modes4 ,he designat$ ,d\bt z a requisite 9 all kn[+4 ,a simple ,reali/ he 0 n4 ,mutazilite ?9k]s indulg$ 9 dialectic quibbl+ ev5 ab\t #8,n-,be+'4 ,!y argu$ t ,n-,be+1 z well z ,be+1 mu/ come to possess a k9d ( reality1 see+ t x may become ! subject ( ?\ght3 at lea/ man tries to ?9k ( #8,no?+' r ?an n ?9k at all4 #aa4 ,9 ! #i? c5tury sev]al dialectic sy/ems _h be5 =m$ 9 ! conte/ aga9/ ! ,mutazilites1 "o ( :i*1 viz4 ! ,k>ramite sy/em1 held its gr\nd till long aft] ! #aj? c5tury4 ,!re arose1 h[ev]1 f ! ranks ( ! ,mutazilites a man ^: mission x 0 to reconcile antagoni/ic views1 & :o set up t doctr9al sy/em :i* 0 ackn[l$g$ z or?odox fir/ 9 ! ,ea/1 &1 lat]1 ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ,islam4 ,?is 0 ,al-,a%>i 7#hgc-ice71 :o und]/ood h[ to r5d] to ,god ! ?+s t are ,god's1 & to man ! ?+s t are man's4 ,he reject$ ! rude an?ropomorphism ( ! ,antimutazilite dialecticians1 & set ,god high above all t is bodily & human1 :ile he left to ! ,deity 8 omnipot5ce1 & 8 univ]sal ag5cy4 ,) him ,nature lo/ all h] efficaci\sness2 b = man a c]ta9 di/9ction 0 res]v$1 consi/+ 9 8 be+ able to give ass5t to ! works :i* 7 accompli%$ 9 him by ,god1 & to claim ^! z 8 own4 ,nor 0 ,man's s5su\s-spiritual be+ int]f]$ )3 ,he 0 p]mitt$ to hope = ! resurrection ( ! body & ! behold+ ( ,god4 ,z reg>ds ! ,koranic revelation1 ,a%>i di/+ui%$ betwe5 an et]nal ,^w 9 ,god1 & ! ,book z we possess x1 :i* latt] 0 reveal$ 9 ,"t4 ,9 ! detail$ /atem5t ( 8 doctr9es ,a%>i %[$ no orig9ality 9 any way1 b m]ely arrang$ & cond5s$ ! mat]ial giv5 him1--a proce$+ :i* c\ld n be c>ri$ out )\t discrepancies4 ,! ma9 ?+1 h[ev]1 0 t 8 ,cosmology1 ,an?ropology & ,es*atology did n dep>t too f> f ! text ( ! ,tradition = ! edification ( pi\s s\ls1 & t 8 !ology1 9 consequ5ce ( a some:at spiritualiz$ conception ( ,god 0 n altoge!r unsatisfactory ev5 to m5 ( high] culture4 ,a%>i relies ^u ! revelation conta9$ 9 ! ,koran4 ,he does n recognize any rational k ) reg>d to ,div9e ?+s t is indep5d5t ( ! ,koran4 ,! s5ses are n 9 g5]al likely to deceive u1 b on ! o!r h& our judgm5t may easily d s4 ,we "k ,god1 x is true1 by our reason1 b only f ,revelation1 :i* is ! "o s\rce ( su* k4 ,accord+ to ,a%>i1 !n1 ,god is fir/ ( all ! omnipot5t ,creator4 ,f>!r he is omnisci5t3 he kn[s :at m5 d & :at !y wi% to d3 he kn[s also :at happ5s1 & h[ t :i* does n happ5 w\ld h happ5$1 if x _h happ5$4 ,moreov] all pr$icates :i* express any p]fection are applicable to ,god1 ) ! proviso t !y apply to him 9 ano!r & high] s5se ?an to 8 creatures4 ,9 creat+ & su/a9+ ! _w ,god is ! sole cause3 all worldly ev5ts proce$ cont9ually & directly f him4 ,man1 h[ev]1 is q consci\s ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 8 involunt>y movem5ts1 su* z %iv]+ & %ak+1 & ^? :i* are c>ri$ out 9 ! ex]cise ( 8 w & *oice4 #ab4 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic !ory :i* ! dialectic ( ! ,muslims has fa%ion$1 is _! doctr9e ( ,atoms4 ,! developm5t ( ?is doctr9e is /ill wrapp$ 9 great obscurity4 ,x 0 advocat$ by ! ,mutazilites b p>ticul>ly by _! oppon5ts be=e ! "t ( ,a%>i4 ,our sket* %[s h[ x 0 held 9 ! ,a%>ite s*ool1 :]e p>tly p]haps x 0 fir/ develop$4 ,! ,atomic doctr9e ( ! ,muslim dialecticians _h its s\rce1 ( c\rse1 9 ,greek ,natural ,philosophy2 b its reception & f>!r developm5t 7 det]m9$ by ! requirem5ts ( !ological ,polemic & ,apologetic4 ,! l ph5om5on may be obs]v$ 9 ! case ( individual ,jews & among believ+ ,ca?olics4 ,x is impossible to suppose t ,atomism 0 tak5 up 9 ,islam1 m]ely because ,ari/otle _h f\ght aga9/ x4 ,"h we h to regi/] a desp]ate /ruggle = a religi\s advantage1 & "o 9 :i* weapons are n *os5 at w3 ,x is ! end t decides4 ,nature has to be expla9$1 n f h]self b f "s div9e creative act2 & ?is _w mu/ be reg>d$ n z an et]nal & div9e ord] ( ?+s1 b z a creature ( transi5t exi/5ce4 ,god mu/ be ?\ght ( & spok5 ( z a freely-work+ & almighty ,creator1 n z an imp]sonal cause or inactive primeval s\rce4 ,accord+ly1 f ! e>lie/ times ! doctr9e ( ! creation is plac$ at ! apex ( ,muslim dogmatics1 z a te/imony aga9/ ! pagan-philosophical view ( ! et]nity ( ! _w & ! effici5t op]ations ( ,nature4 ,:at we p]ceive ( ! s5sible _w1--say ^! ,atomi/s1--is made up ( pass+ #8accid5ts' :i* e mom5t come & g4 ,! sub/ratum ( ?is #8*ange' is con/itut$ by ! 7bodily7 sub/ances2 & because ( *anges occurr+ 9 or on ^! sub/ances1 !y _c be ?\ght ( z !mselves un*angeable4 ,if !n !y are *angeable1 !y _c be p]man5t1 = t :i* is et]nal does n *ange4 ,consequ5tly ev]y?+ 9 ! _w1 s9ce ev]y?+ *anges1 has come into be+1 or has be5 creat$ by ,god4 ,t is ! />t+-po9t4 ,! *angeabl5ess ( all t exi/s argues an et]nal1 un*angeable ,creator4 ,b lat] writ]s1 "u ! influ5ce ( ,muslim philosoph]s1 inf] f ! possible or cont+5t "* ( ev]y?+ f9ite1 ! necess>y exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,b let u come back to ! _w4 ,x consi/s ( ,accid5ts & _! sub/rata1--,sub/ances4 ,sub/ance & ,accid5t or ,quality are ! two categories by means ( :i* reality is conceiv$4 ,! rema9+ categories ei!r come "u ! category ( ,quality1 or else are resolv$ into relations1 & modifications ( ?\ght1 to :i*1 objectively1 no?+ corresponds4 ,matt]1 z possibility1 exi/s only 9 ?\ght3 ,"t is no?+ o!r ?an ! coexi/5ce ( diff]5t objects1 or simultaneity 9 pres5tation2 & ,space & ,size may be attribut$ to bodies inde$1 b n to ! individual p>ts 7,atoms71 ( :i* bodies are compos$4 ,b1 g5]ally speak+1 x is ,accid5ts :i* =m ! prop] pr$icates ( sub/ances4 ,_! numb] 9 e individual sub/ance is v great1 or ev5 inf9ite z "s ma9ta91 s9ce ( any pair :atev] ( opposite det]m9ations1--& ^! include negatives also1--! "o or ! o!r is attributable to e sub/ance4 ,! negative #8accid5t' is j z real z ! positive4 ,god creates also ,privation & ,annihilation1 ?\gh c]ta9ly x is n easy to discov] a sub/ratum = ^!4 ,& see+ t no ,accid5t c ev] h its place else:]e ?an 9 "s sub/ance1 & _c h x 9 ano!r ,accid5t1 !re is really no?+ g5]al or common 9 any numb] ( sub/ances4 ,univ]sals 9 no wise exi/ 9 individual ?+s3 ,!y are ,concepts4 ,?us !re is no connection betwe5 sub/ances3 !y /& ap>t1 9 _! capacity ( atoms equal to "o ano!r4 ,9 fact !y h a great] resemblance to ! ,homoeom]ies ( ,anaxagoras ?an to ! extremely small p>ticles ( matt] ( ! ,atomi/s4 ,9 !mselves !y are non-spatial 7)\t makan71 b !y h _! position 7hayyiz71 & by means ( ?is position ( !irs !y fill space4 ,x is ?us unities n possess+ ext5sion1 b conceiv$ ( z po9ts1--out ( :i* ! spatial _w ( body is con/ruct$4 ,betwe5 ^! unities !re mu/ be a void1 = 7 x o!rwise any motion w\ld be impossible1 s9ce ! atoms d n press ^u "o ano!r4 ,all *ange1 h[ev]1 is ref]r$ to ,union & ,sep>ation1 ,movem5t & ,re/4 ,f>!r op]ative relations betwe5 ! ,atom-sub/ances1 !re are none4 ,! ,atoms exi/ !n1 & enjoy _! exi/5ce1 b h no?+ at all to d ) "o ano!r4 ,! _w is a discont9u\s mass1 )\t any liv+ reciprocal action betwe5 its p>ts4 ,! anci5ts _h prep>$ ! way = ?is conception by _! !ory1 among/ o!r ?+s1 ( ! discont9u\s "* ( ,numb]4 ,0 n ,"t def9$ z ! tale or numb]+ ( ,motion8 ,:y %\ld we n apply t doctr9e to ,space1 ,"t & ,motion8 ,! ,dialecticians did ?is2 & ! #8skepsis' ( ! old] philosophy may h contribut$ its influ5ce 9 ! process4 ,l ! sub/antial1 corporeal _w1--,space1 ,"t & ,motion 7 decompos$ into atoms devoid ( ext5sion1 & into mom5ts )\t duration4 ,"t becomes a succession ( _m individual #8,n[s'1 & betwe5 e two mom5ts ( "t !re is a void4 ,! same is ! case ) ,motion3 betwe5 e two movem5ts !re is a ,re/4 ,a quick motion & a sl[ motion possess ! same spe$1 b ! latt] has m po9ts ( ,re/4 ,!n1 9 ord] to get ov] ! difficulty ( ! empty space1 ! unoccupi$ mom5t ( "t1 & ! pause = re/ betwe5 two movem5ts1 ! !ory ( a ,leap is made use (4 ,motion is to be reg>d$ z a leap+ onw>d f "o po9t 9 space to ano!r1 & ,"t z an advance effect$ 9 ! same mann] f "o mom5t to ano!r4 ,9 reality !y _h no use at all = ?is fanta/ic !ory ( a ,leap3 x 0 a m]e reply to unsophi/icat$ que/ion+4 ,) p]fect consi/5cy !y _h cut up ! entire mat]ial _w1 z x moves 9 space & "t1 into ,atoms ) _! ,accid5ts4 ,"s no d\bt ma9ta9$1 t al?\gh accid5ts e mom5t disappe>1 yet sub/ances endure1 b o!rs made no diff]5ce 9 ?is respect4 ,!y taught t sub/ances1 :i* are 9 fact po9ts 9 space1 exi/ only = a po9t ( "t1 j l ,accid5ts4 ,e mom5t ,god creates ! _w anew1 s t its condition at ! pres5t mom5t has no ess5tial connection ) t :i* has imm$iately prec$$ x or t :i* foll[s next4 ,9 ?is way !re is a s]ies ( worlds foll[+ "o ano!r1 :i* m]ely pres5t ! appe>ance ( "o _w4 ,t = u !re is any?+ l connection or ,causality 9 ph5om5a proce$s f ! fact t ,allah 9 8 inscrutable w does n *oose ei!r to-day or to-morr[ to int]rupt ! usual c\rse ( ev5ts by a miracle1--:i* h[ev] he is able at any mom5t to d4 ,! disappe>ance ( all causal connection accord+ to ! ,atomi/ic ,kalam is vividly illu/rat$ by ! classical in/ance ( #8! writ+ man4' ,god creates 9 him1--& t too by an act ( creation :i* is e mom5t r5ew$--fir/ ! w1 !n ! faculty ( writ+1 next ! movem5t ( ! h&1 & la/ly ! motion ( ! p54 ,"h "o ?+ is completely indep5d5t ( ! o!r4 ,n[ if aga9/ ?is view ! objection is urg$1 t along ) ,causality or ! regul> succession ( worldly ev5ts1 ! possibility ( any k is tak5 away1 ! believ+ ?9k] replies1 t ,allah v]ily =ekn[s ev]y?+1 & creates n only ! ?+s ( ! _w & :at !y appe> to effect1 b also ! k ab\t !m 9 ! human s\l1 & we d n ne$ to be wis] ?an ,he4 ,he kn[s be/4 ,allah & ! ,_w1 ,god & ,man1--beyond ^! anti!ses ,muslim dialectic c\ld n rea*4 ,besides ,god1 !re is room only = corporeal sub/ances & _! accid5ts4 ,! exi/5ce ( human s\ls z incorporeal sub/ances1 z well z g5]ally ! exi/5ce ( pure ,spirits1--bo? ( :i* doctr9es 7 ma9ta9$ by philosoph]s1 &1 ?\gh less def9itely1 by sev]al ,mutazilites1--w\ld n h>monize prop]ly ) ! ,muslim doctr9e ( ! transc5d5t nature ( ,god1 :o has no associate4 ,! s\l belongs to ! _w ( body4 ,life1 ,s5sation1 ,rational end[m5t1 are accid5ts1 j z mu* z ,col\r1 ,ta/e1 ,smell1 ,motion & ,re/4 ,"s assume only "o s\l-atom3 ,accord+ to o!rs sev]al f9] s\l-atoms are m+l$ ) ! bodily atoms4 ,at all ev5ts ?9k+ is atta*$ to "o s+le ,atom4 #ac4 ,x 0 n e good ,muslim t c\ld f9d m5tal repose 9 dialectic4 ,! pi\s s]vant ( ,god might yet1 9 ano!r way1 draw some:at ne>] to 8 ,"l4 ,?is ne$1--exi/+ 9 ,islam at ! v outset1 /r5g!n$ too by ,*ri/ian & ,indo-,p]sian influ5ces1 & int5sifi$ "u m highly develop$ conditions ( civilization1--evok$ 9 ,islam a s]ies ( ph5om5a1 :i* are usually designat$ z ,my/icism or ,sufism4 #ab ,9 ?is developm5t ( a ,muslim ord] ( ,holy m51 or ( a ,muslim ,monki% sy/em1 ! hi/ory ( ,*ri/ian monks & cloi/]s 9 ,syria & ,egypt1 z well z t ( ,indian devotees1 is repeat$4 ,9 ?is matt] !n we h at bottom to deal ) religi\s or spiritual practice2 b practice always mirrors itself 9 ?\ght1 & receives its !ory4 ,9 ord] to br+ ab\t a m intimate relation%ip ) ! ,godhead1 _m symbolical acts & m$iat+ p]sons 7 requir$4 ,su* p]sons !n endeav\r$ to discov] ! my/]ies ( ! symbols = !mselves & to disclose !m to ! initiat$1 & to e/abli%1 besides1 _! own m$iatory position 9 ! scale ( univ]sal be+4 ,9 p>ticul>1 ,neo-,platonic doctr9es1--p>tly drawn f ! turbid s\rce ( ! ,pseudo-,dionysius ! ,areopagite & ! holy ,hi]o!os 7,/eph5 b> ,sudaili87--_h to l5d _! aid 9 ?is "w4 ,! ,indian ,yoga too1 at lea/ 9 ,p]sia1 seems to h ex]cis$ consid]able influ5ce4 ,= ! mo/ "p ,my/icism kept )9 ! pale ( ,or?odoxy1 :i* 0 always s5sible en\gh to all[ a c]ta9 latitude to poets & en?usia/s4 ,z reg>ds ! doctr9e t ,god works all 9 all1 ,dialecticians & ,my/ics 7 agre$2 b extreme ,my/icism prop\nd$ ! f>!r doctr9e t ,god is all 9 all4 ,f ?is a het]odox ,pan!ism 0 develop$1 :i* made ! _w an empty %[1 & deifi$ ! human ,ego4 ,?us ! ,unity ( ,god becomes ,univ]sal ,unity2 8 univ]sal activity ,univ]sal ,exi/5ce4 ,besides ,god1 !re exi/ at ! mo/ only ! attributes & conditions ( ! ,sufi s\ls t are t5d+ t[>ds him4 ,a psy*ology ( feel+ is develop$ by ! ,sufi tea*]s4 ,9 _! view1 :ile our conceptions come to ! s\l f )\t1 & our ex]tions am\nt to ! ext]naliz+ ( :at is )91 ! true ess5ce ( our s\l consi/s 9 c]ta9 /ates or feel+s ( incl9ation & dis9cl9ation4 ,! mo/ ess5tial ( all ^! is ,love4 ,x is nei!r fe> nor hope1 b ,love t lifts u up to ,god4 ,bless$ness is n a matt] ( #8kn[+' or ( #8will+'3 x is ,union ) ! lov$ "o4 ,^! ,my/ics did away ) ! _w 7z ultimately !y did ) ! human s\l7 9 a f> m ?or\gh-go+ fa%ion ?an ! ,dialecticians _h done4 ,by ! latt] ! _w 0 sacrific$ to ! arbitr>y "* ( ,god 9 ,creation2 by ! =m] to ! illum9at+1 lov+ nature ( ! ,div9e ,be+4 ,! confus+ multiplicity ( ?+s1 z t appe>s to s5se & conception1 is remov$ 9 a ye>n+ aft] ! ,"o & ,belov$ be+4 ,ev]y?+1 bo? 9 ,be+ & ,?9k+1 is br\ght to "o c5tral po9t4 ,contra/ ) ?is ! g5u9e ,greek _s4 ,9 x a wi% 0 *]i%$ = a /ill great] numb] ( s5ses1 to enable m5 to get a some:at bett] acqua9tance ) ?is fair _w4 ,b ^! ,my/ics blame ! s5ses = be+ too _m1 because _! numb] br+s disord] into _! felicity4 ,human nature1 h[ev]1 always ass]ts h]self4 ,^? m5 :o r5\nce ! _w & ! s5ses1 frequ5tly run riot 9 ! mo/ s5sual fantasies1 till f> advanc$ 9 life4 ,we ne$ n wond] aft] all1 t _m tr\bl$ !mselves v little inde$ ab\t religi\s doctr9e1 or t ! ascetic morality ( ! ,sufis (t5 w5t to ! o!r extreme4 ,! task ( foll[+ out 9 detail ! developm5t ( ,sufism1 h[ev]1 belongs to ! hi/ory ( ,religion r ?an to ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 ,besides1 we f9d ! philosophical elem5ts :i* x took up1 9 ! ,muslim philosoph]s :om we %all meet ) f>!r on4 #d4 ,lit]ature & ,hi/ory4 #a4 ,arabic ,poetry & ,annali/ic 7 develop$ indep5d5tly ( ! le>n+ ( ! s*ools4 ,b z "t w5t on1 ,lit]ature & ,hi/orical ,composition c\ld n rema9 unt\*$ by =eign influ5ces4 ,a few notices1 confirmatory ( ?is /atem5t1 mu/ suffice u "h4 ,! introduction ( ,islam involv$ no break ) ! poetical tradition ( ! ,arab race1 su* z _h be5 occasion$ by ,*ri/ianity 9 ! ,teutonic _w4 ,! secul> lit]ature ( ! times ev5 ( ! ,omayyads h&$ d[n _m wise say+s1 p>tly tak5 f anci5t ,arabic poetry1 :i* rivall$ ! prea*+s ( ! ,koran4 ,abbasid ,caliphs1 l ,mansur1 ,h>un & ,mamun1 _h m lit]>y culture ?an ,*>lemagne4 ,! education ( _! sons 0 n conf9$ to ! read+ ( ! ,koran3 x embrac$ acqua9tance also ) ! anci5t poets & ) ! hi/ory ( ! nation4 ,poets & lit]>y m5 7 drawn to ! c\rts & rew>d$ 9 pr9cely fa%ion4 ,9 ^! circum/ances1 ,lit]ature und]w5t ! influ5ce ( s*ol>ly culture & philosophical speculation1 al?\gh1 9 mo/ cases1 9 a v sup]ficial mann]4 ,! result is specially exhibit$ 9 sceptical utt]ances1 frivol\s mock]y ( :at is mo/ sacr$1 & glorification ( s5sual pleasure4 ,at ! same "t1 h[ev]1 wise say+s1 s]i\s reflections & my/ic speculations made _! way into ! orig9ally sob] & reali/ic poetry ( ! ,arabs4 ,! place ( ! fir/ natural fre%ness ( repres5tation 0 n[ tak5 by a we>isome play on ?\ghts & s5tim5ts1 & ev5 on m]e words1 metres & rhymes4 #b4 ,! unpleasant ,abu-l-,atahia 7#gdh-hbh71 9 8 effem9ate poetry1 is ne>ly always talk+ ab\t unhappy love & a long+ = dea?4 ,he gives expression to 8 wisdom 9 ! foll[+ c\plet3 8,! m9d guide ?\ ) cauti\s hesitation3 ',ga9/ s9 use ! be/ %ield1 ,r5unciation04 ,:oev] possesses any faculty = appreciat+ life & ! poetry ( ,nature w f9d little to enjoy 9 8 _w-r5\nc+ songs2 & j z little satisfaction w be af=d$ him 9 ! v]ses ( ,mutanabbi 7#ije-ife71 frightfully t$i\s 9 _! cont5ts1 al?\gh epigrammatic 9 _! =m4 ,& yet ,mutanabbi has be5 prais$ z ! greate/ ,arabic poet4 ,9 l mann] p h unduly extoll$ ,abu-l-,ala al-,ma>ri 7#igc-ajeh7 z a philosophic poet4 ,8 occasionally q respectable s5tim5ts & s5sible views are n philosophy1 nor does ! affect$ ?\gh (t5 hackney$ expression ( ^! am\nt to poetry4 ,"u m fav\rable conditions1--= he 0 bl9d & n surpass+ly ri*1--?is man might p]haps h r5d]$ "s s]vice 9 ! subord9ate walks ( criticism z a philologi/ or a hi/orical writ]4 ,b1 9 place ( an en?usia/ic acceptance ( life's duties1 he is l$ to prea* ! joyless ab&onm5t ( !m1 & to grumble g5]ally at political conditions1 ! op9ions ( ! or?odox multitude1 & ! sci5tific ass]tions ( ! le>n$1 )\t be+ able himself to advance any?+ positive4 ,he is almo/ entirely want+ 9 ! gift ( comb9ation4 ,he c analyse1 b he does n hit ^u any syn!sis1 & 8 le>n+ be>s no fruit4 ,! tree ( 8 k has its roots 9 ! air1 z he himself confesses 9 "o ( 8 lett]s1 ?\gh 9 a diff]5t s5se4 ,he leads a life ( /rict celibacy & veget>ianism1 z becomes a pessimi/4 ,z he puts x 9 8 poems 8all is b an idle toy3 ,fate is bl9d2 & ,"t sp>es nei!r ! k+ :o p>takes ( ! joys ( life1 nor ! dev\t man :o sp5ds 8 nights 9 wat*+ & pray]4 ,nor does irrational belief solve = u ! enigma ( exi/5ce4 ,:atev] is beh9d ^? mov+ heav5s rema9s hidd5 f u = ev]3 ,religions1 :i* op5 up a prospect !re1 h be5 fabricat$ f motives ( self-int]e/4 ,sects & factions ( all k9ds are utiliz$ by ! p[]ful to make _! dom9ion secure1 ?\gh ! tru? ab\t ^! matt]s c only be :isp]$4 ,! wise/ ?+ !n is to keep alo( f ! _w1 & to d good dis9t]e/$ly1 & because x is virtu\s & noble to d s1 )\t any outlook = rew>d04 ,o!r lit]>y m5 _h a m practical philosophy1 & c\ld make _! weight m felt 9 ! _w4 ,!y subscrib$ to ! wise doctr9e ( ! ,!atre-,manag] 9 ,goe!'s ,fau/3 8,he :o br+s mu*1 w some?+ br+ to _m04 ,! mo/ p]fect type ( ?is species is ,h>iri 7#ajed-aabb71 ^: h]o1 ! begg> & /roll]1 ,abu ,zaid ( ,s]ug1 tea*es z ! highe/ wisdom3 8,hunt1 in/ead ( be+ hunt$2 ,all ! _w's a wood = hunt+4 ,if ! falcon %\ld escape y1 ,take1 cont5t1 ! humble bunt+3 ,if y f+] n ! d9>s1 ,copp]s /ill are wor? ! c\nt+0 #ac4 #c4 ,! ,annali/ic ( ! anci5t ,arabs1 l _! ,poetry1 0 di/+ui%$ by a cle> p]ception ( p>ticul>s1 b 0 incapable ( tak+ a g5]al grasp ( ev5ts4 ,) ! va/ ext5sion ( ! empire _! view 0 necess>ily wid5$4 ,fir/ a great mass ( mat]ial 0 ga!r$ toge!r4 ,_! hi/orical & geographical k 0 advanc$ by means ( j\rneys und]tak5 to collect traditions1 or = purposes ( adm9i/ration & trade1 or simply to satisfy curiosity1 m ?an x c\ld h be5 by m]e religi\s pilgrimages4 ,*>act]i/ic me?ods ( rese>*1 br\ght to be> ^u ! value ( tradition z a s\rce ( our k1 7 elaborat$4 ,) ! same subtlety :i* !y display$ 9 ,gramm>1 !y portion$ out1 9 endless division & subdivision1 ! ext5d$ field ( _! obs]vation1 9 a fa%ion m truly #8arabesque' ?an lucid2 & 9 ?is way !y =m$ a logic ( hi/ory :i* mu/ h appe>$ to an ori5tal eye mu* f9] ?an ! ,ari/otelian ,organon ) its au/]e /ructure4 ,_! tradition1--9 au!nticat+ :i* !y 71 z a rule1 less p>ticul> 9 practice ?an 9 !ory1--0 by _m made equal 9 value to ! evid5ce ( ! s5ses1 & pref]r$ to ! judgm5t ( ! reason1 :i* s easily admitt$ fallaci\s inf]5ces4 ,!re 7 always p1 h[ev]1 :o imp>tially h&$ d[n contradictory reports1 alongside ( "o ano!r4 ,o!rs1 al?\gh exhibit+ consid]ation = ! feel+s & requirem5ts ( ! pres5t1 did n )hold _! m or less well-f\nd$ judgm5t on ! pa/1 = x is (t5 easi] to be disc]n+ 9 matt]s ( hi/ory ?an 9 ! affairs ( ! liv+ _w4 ,new subjects ( enquiry came up1 toge!r ) new modes ( treatm5t4 ,geography includ$ some:at ( ,natural ,philosophy1 = example 9 ! geography ( climate2 :ile hi/orical composition br\ght )9 ! range ( its description intellectual life1 belief1 morals1 lit]ature & sci5ce4 ,acqua9tance also ) o!r l&s & nations invit$ comp>ison on _m po9ts2 & ?us an int]national1 humani/ic or cosmopolitan elem5t 0 introduc$4 #d4 ,a repres5tative ( ! humani/ic attitude ( m9d is met ) 9 ,masudi1 :o di$ ab\t ! ye> #ief4 ,he appreciates1 & is int]e/$ 91 ev]y?+ t conc]ns humanity4 ,ev]y:]e he is le>n+ some?+ f ! m5 he meets )3 & 9 consequ5ce ! read+ ( books1 :i* occupies 8 privacy1 is n )\t fruit4 ,b x is nei!r ! n>r[1 ev]yday practices ( life & religion1 nor ! airy speculations ( ,philosophy1 t specially appeal to him4 ,he kn[s :]e 8 /r5g? lies2 & up to ! la/1 :5 he is sp5d+ 8 old age 9 ,egypt1 f> f 8 native home1 he f9ds 8 consolation1--! m$ic9e ( 8 s\l1--9 ! /udy ( ,hi/ory4 ,hi/ory = him is ! all-embrac+ sci5ce3 x is 8 philosophy2 & its task is to set =? ! tru? ( t :i* 0 & is4 ,ev5 ! wisdom ( ! _w1 toge!r ) its developm5t1 becomes ! subject ( ,hi/ory2 & )\t x all k w\ld long s9ce h disappe>$4 ,= le>n$ m5 come & g2 b ,hi/ory records _! intellectual a*ievem5ts1 & !reby re/ores ! connection betwe5 ! pa/ & ! pres5t4 ,x gives u unprejudic$ in=mation ab\t ev5ts & ab\t ! views ( m54 ,( c\rse ,masudi leaves x (t5 to ! intellig5t read] to f9d out = himself ! due syn!sis ( ! facts & ! individual op9ion ( ! au?or4 ,a successor ( 81 ! geograph] ,maqdasi1 or ,muqaddasi1 :o wrote 9 ! ye> #ihe1 des]ves to be m5tion$ ) high comm5dation4 ,he j\rney$ ?r\gh _m c\ntries1 & ex]cis$ ! mo/ v>i$ call+s1 9 ord] to acqua9t himself ) ! life ( 8 "t4 ,he is a true ,abu ,zaid ( ,s]ug 7cf4 ,,ii1 #d #b71 b "o ) an object be=e him4 ,he sets to "w 9 critical fa%ion1 & holds to ! k :i* is ga9$ by rese>* & enquiry1 n by fai? 9 tradition or by m]e d$uctions ( ! reason4 ,! geographical /atem5ts 9 ! ,koran he expla9s by ! limit$ intellectual horizon ( ! anci5t ,arabs1 to :i* ,allah mu/ h se5 fit to adapt himself4 ,he describes !n1 s9e ira et /udio1 ! c\ntries & races he has se5 ) own eyes4 ,8 plan is to set d[n1 9 ! fir/ place1 results ga!r$ f 8 own exp]i5ce & obs]vation2 next1 :at he has he>d f tru/wor?y p2 & la/ ( all :at he has met ) 9 books4 ,! foll[+ s5t5ces are extract$ f 8 *>act]ization ( himself4 8,i h giv5 in/ruction 9 ! common subjects ( education & morals3 ,i h come =w>d z a prea*]1 & ,i h made ! m9>et ( ! mosque res\nd ) ! call to pray]4 ,i h be5 pres5t at ! meet+s ( ! le>n$ & ! devotions ( ! pi\s4 ,i h p>tak5 ( bro? ) ,sufis1 gruel ) monks1 & %ip's-f>e ) sailors4 ,_m a "t ,i h be5 seclusion itself1 & !n aga9 ,i h eat5 =bidd5 fruit aga9/ my bett] judgm5t4 ,i associat$ ) ! h]mits ( ,lebanon1 & 9 turn ,i liv$ at ! c\rt ( ! ,pr9ce4 ,9 w>s ,i h p>ticipat$3 ,i h be5 deta9$ z a captive & ?r[n into prison z a spy4 ,p[]ful pr9ces & m9i/]s h l5t me _! e>1 & anon ,i h jo9$ a b& ( robb]s1 or sat z a retail-deal] 9 ! baza>4 ,i h enjoy$ mu* hon\r & consid]ation1 b ,i h likewise be5 fat$ to li/5 to _m curses & to be r$uc$ to ! ordeal ( ! oa?1 :5 ,i 0 suspect$ ( h]esy or evil de$s04 ,we are accu/om$ at ! pres5t day to picture to ourselves ! ,ori5tal z a be+ :o1 9 contemplative repose1 is completely b\nd to 8 ance/ral fai? & usages4 ,?is repres5tation is n q correct1 b /ill x agrees bett] ) ! situation :i* n[ exi/s ?an x does ) ! disposition ( ,islam 9 ! fir/ f\r c5turies1 = dur+ t p]iod x 0 incl9$ to take into its possession n only ! outw>d advantages ( ! _w1 b also ! intellectual acquisitions ( ,mank9d4 ,,iii4 ,,! ,,py?agorean ,,philosophy4 #a4 ,natural ,philosophy4 #a4 ,euclid & ,ptolemy1 ,hippocrates & ,gal51 "s portion ( ,ari/otle1 &1 9 addition1 an abundant ,neo-,platonic ,lit]ature1--indicate ! elem5ts ( ,arabic ,natural ,philosophy4 ,x is a popul> philosophy1 :i*1 *iefly ?r\gh ! in/rum5tality ( ! ,sabaeans ( ,h>ran1 f\nd acceptance ) ! ,%iites & o!r sects1 & :i* 9 due c\rse impress$ n only c\rt circles1 b also a l>ge body ( educat$ & half-educat$ p4 ,/ray portions ( x 7 tak5 f ! writ+s ( ! 8,logician01--,ari/otle1--e4g4 f ! 8,meteorology01 f ! "w 8,on ! ,univ]se01 :i* has be5 attribut$ to him1 f ! 8,book ( ,animals01 f ! 8,psy*ology01 & s on2 b its g5]al "* 0 det]m9$ by ,py?agorean-,platonic tea*+1 by ! ,/oics1 & by subsequ5t a/rolog]s & al*emi/s4 ,human curiosity & piety 7 fa9 to read ! secrets ( ! ,deity 9 ! book ( 8 ,creation1 & !y proce$$ 9 ?is se>* f> beyond practical requirem5ts1 :i* m]ely call$ = a little ari?metic to s]ve 9 ! division ( inh]itances & 9 trade1 & a little a/ronomy besides1 to det]m9e ! prop] times = celebrat+ ! functions ( religion4 ,m5 ha/5$ to ga!r wisdom f e qu>t]1 & 9 s do+ !y manife/$ a conviction1 :i* ,masudi accurately express$1 :5 he said3 8,:atev] is good %\ld be recogniz$1 :e!r x is f\nd 9 fri5d or foe04 ,inde$ ,ali1 ! pr9ce ( believ]s1 is report$ to h said3 8,! wisdom ( ! _w is ! believ]'s /ray$ %eep3 take x back1 ev5 ?\gh x come f ! unbeliev+04 #b4 ,py?agoras is ! presid+ g5ius ( ,ma!matical /udy 9 ,islam4 ,greek & ,indian elem5ts are m+l$ 9 x1 x is true1 b ev]y?+ is reg>d$ f a ,neo-,py?agorean po9t ( view4 ,)\t /udy+ su* bran*es ( ,ma!matics1 z ,ari?metic & ,geometry1 ,a/ronomy & ,music1 no "o1 !y said1 becomes a philosoph] or an educat$ physician4 ,! ,!ory ( ,numb]s1--priz$ m highly ?an ,m5suration1 because x appeals less to ! outw>d vision1 & %\ld br+ ! m9d ne>] ! ess5ce ( ?+s1--gave occasion to ! mo/ extravagant pu]ilities4 ,god is1 ( c\rse1 ! great ,unity1 f :om ev]y?+ proce$s1 :o himself is no numb]1 b :o is ! ,fir/ ,cause ( ,numb]4 ,b above all1 ! numb] ,f\r1--! numb] ( ! elem5ts & s on1--0 held 9 high fav\r by ! philosoph]s2 & by-&-by no?+ 9 heav5 or e>? 0 spok5 ( or writt5 ab\t1 except 9 s5t5ces ( f\r clauses & 9 disc\rses "u f\r heads4 ,! transition f ,ma!matics to ,a/ronomy & ,a/rology 0 rapid & easy4 ,! old ,ea/]n me?ods1 :i* came into _! h&s1 cont9u$ to be appli$ ev5 by ! c\rt-a/rolog]s ( ! ,omayyads1 b ) /ill great] ?or\ghness at ! ,abbasid c\rt4 ,9 ?is way !y arriv$ at speculations :i* ran c\nt] to ! reveal$ ,fai?1 & :i* !re=e c\ld nev] be approv$ ( by ! gu>dians ( religion4 ,! only anti!sis :i* exi/$ = ! ,believ] 0--,god & ! ,_w1 or ?is life & ! next2 b = ! ,a/rolog] !re 7 two worlds1 "o ( ! ,heav5s & ano!r ( ! ,e>?1 :ile ,god & ! life beyond 7 9 ! f> di/ance4 ,accord+ to ! diff]5t conceptions ent]ta9$ ( ! relation :i* subsi/$ betwe5 ! heav5ly bodies & sublun>y ?+s1 ei!r a rational ,a/ronomy 0 develop$1 or a fanta/ic ,a/rology4 ,only a few kept entirely free f ,a/rological delusions4 ,z long1 9 fact1 z ! sci5ce 0 dom9at$ by ! ,ptolemaic sy/em1 x 0 easi] = ! completely un$ucat$ man to je] at :at 0 absurd 9 x ?an x 0 = ! le>n$ inve/igator to disprove ! same4 ,= ! latt] inde$ ?is e>? ) its =ms ( life 0 a product ( ! =ces ( ! heav5s1 a reflection ( cele/ial light1 an e*o ( ! et]nal h>mony ( ! ,sph]es4 ,^? !n :o ascrib$ conception & w to ! ,spirits ( ! />s & sph]es1 held !m z ! repres5tatives ( ,div9e provid5ce1 & ?us trac$ to _! ag5cy bo? :at is good & :at is evil1 seek+ also to =etell future ev5ts f ! situation ( _! orbs1 by means ( :i* !y br+ _! influ5ce to be> ^u e>?ly ?+s 9 accordance ) /eadfa/ laws4 ,o!rs1 x is true1 _h _! d\bts ab\t ?is second>y provid5ce1 on gr\nds ( exp]i5ce & reason1 or f ! ,p]ipatetic belief t ! bless$ exi/5ces ( ! heav5s are ,spirits ( pure intellect1 exalt$ above conception & w1 & 9 consequ5ce above all p>ticul>ity t appeals to ! s5ses1 s t _! provid5tial influ5ce is direct$ only to ! good ( ! :ole1 b nev] c h ref]5ce to any individual occurr5ce4 #c4 ,9 ! doma9 ( ,natural ,sci5ce ,muslim le>n$ m5 collect$ a ri* body ( mat]ial2 b h>dly 9 any case did !y succe$ 9 really treat+ x sci5tifically4 ,9 ! sep>ate ,natural sci5ces1 ! developm5t ( :i* we _c foll[ up 9 ?is place1 !y clung to traditional sy/ems4 ,to e/abli% ! wisdom ( ,god & ! op]ations ( ,nature1--:i* 0 reg>d$ z a p[] or emanation ( ! ,_w-,s\l1--al*emi/ic exp]im5ts 7 in/itut$1 ! magical virtues ( talismans te/$1 ! effects ( ,music ^u ! emotions ( m5 & animals inve/igat$1 & obs]vations made on physiognomy1 :ile attempts 7 also set on foot to expla9 ! wond]s ( ! life ( sleep & ( dreams1 z well z ^? ( soo?say+ & prophecy1 c4 ,z might be expect$1 ! c5tre ( int]e/ 0 ,man1 z ! ,microcosm :i* mu/ comb9e 9 itself all ! elem5ts & p[]s ( ! _w toge!r4 ,! ess5tial "p ( ,man's be+ 0 held to be ! ,s\l2 & its relation to ! ,_w-,s\l1 & its future lot 7 made subjects ( enquiry4 ,!re 0 also a good deal ( speculation ab\t ! faculties ( ! s\l & _! localization 9 ! he>t & ! bra94 ,"o or two adh]$ to ,gal51 b o!rs w5t f>!r ?an he did1 & made out five inn] s5ses correspond+ to ! five out] ones1--a !ory :i*1 along ) simil> natural my/]ies1 0 trac$ to ,apollonius ( ,tyana4 ,obvi\sly ! mo/ div]se attitudes t[>ds religi\s doctr9e 7 possible 9 ! /udy ( ,ma!matical & ,physical ,sci5ce4 ,b ! propa$eutic sci5ces1 z soon z !y came =w>d on _! own acc\nt1 7 always dang]\s to ! ,fai?4 ,! assumption ( ! et]nity ( ! _w1 & ( an uncreat$ matt] 9 motion f all et]nity1--0 readily comb9$ ) ,a/ronomy4 ,& if ! movem5t ( ! ,heav5s is et]nal1 s too are1 no d\bt1 ! *anges :i* take place on e>?4 ,all ! k+doms ( ,nature !n1 accord+ to _m tea*]s1 be+ et]nal1 ! race ( man is et]nal also1 :eel+ r\nd & r\nd 9 an orbit ( its own4 ,!re is !re=e no?+ new 9 ! _w3 ! views & ideas ( m5 repeat !mselves l ev]y?+ else4 ,all t c possibly be done1 ma9ta9$ or kn[n1 has already be5 & w aga9 be4 ,admirable disc\rse & lam5tation 7 exp5d$ ^u ?is !me1 )\t mu* advanc+ !reby ! int]e/s ( ,sci5ce4 #d4 ,! sci5ce ( ,m$ic9e1 :i* on obvi\s gr\nds 0 fav\r$ by ! rul+ p[]s1 appe>s to h prov$ some:at m useful4 ,its int]e/s furni%$ "o ( ! reasons1 & n ! lea/ consid]able1 :i* induc$ ! ,caliphs to commission s _m m5 to translate ,greek au?ors4 ,x is !re=e n to be wond]$ at t ! tea*+s ( ,ma!matics & ,natural ,sci5ce1 toge!r ) ,logic1 also affect$ ,m$ic9e intimately4 ,! old-fa%ion$ doctor 0 dispos$ to be satisfi$ ) "t-hon\r$ magical =mulae1 & o!r empirical exp$i5ts2 b mod]n society 9 ! n9? c5tury requir$ philosophical k 9 ! physician4 ,he _h to "k ! 8natures0 ( foods1 /imulants or luxuries1 & m$icam5ts1 ! hum\rs ( ! body1 & 9 e case ! influ5ce ( ! />s4 ,! physician 0 bro!r to ! a/rolog]1 ^: k comm&$ 8 respect1 because x _h a m exalt$ object ?an m$ical practice4 ,he _h to att5d ! lectures ( ! al*emi/1 & to practise 8 art 9 accordance ) ! me?ods ( ,ma!matics & ,logic4 ,x 0 n en\gh = ! fanatics ( education 9 ! n9? c5tury t a man _h to speak1 believe & behave 9 accordance ) ,qiyas1--t is to say1 ) logical correctness3 he mu/1 ov] & above1 submit to be treat$ m$ically 9 accordance ) ,qiyas4 ,! pr9ciples ( ,m$ic9e 7 discuss$ 9 le>n$ assemblies at ! c\rt ( ,wa?ik 7#hdb-hdg7 l ! f\ndations ( ,doctr9e & ,morals4 ,! "q1 9 fact1 0 ask$1 prompt$ by a "w ( ,gal5's1 :e!r ,m$ic9e relies ^u tradition1 exp]i5ce or rational k1 or :e!r on ! o!r h& x d]ives its support f ! pr9ciples ( ,ma!matics & ,natural ,sci5ce by means ( logical d$uction 7,qiyas74 #e4 ,! ,natural ,philosophy1 :i* has j be5 rapidly sket*$1 actually /ood = ,philosophy ) ! mo/ ( ! s*ol>s ( ! n9? c5tury1 z contra/$ ) !ological dialectic1 & 0 /yl$ ,py?agorean4 ,x la/$ ev5 into ! t5? c5tury1 :5 its mo/ important repres5tative 0 ! fam\s physician ,razi 7 #ibc or #icb74 ,born 9 ,rai he receiv$ a ma!matical education & /udi$ ,m$ic9e & ,natural ,philosophy ) great dilig5ce4 ,he 0 av]se to dialectic & 0 only acqua9t$ ) ,logic z f> z ! categorical figures ( ! ,fir/ ,analytics4 ,aft] hav+ practis$ z director ( ! hospital 9 8 native city & 9 ,bagdad1 he ent]$ ^u 8 travels & resid$ at v>i\s pr9cely c\rts1 among/ o!rs at ! c\rt ( ! ,samanid ,mansur ibn ,i%aq1 to :om he d$icat$ a "w on ,m$ic9e4 ,razi has a high op9ion ( ! m$ical pr(ession & ( ! /udy :i* x dem&s4 ,! wisdom ( a ?\s& ye>s1 conta9$ 9 books1 he prizes m ?an ! exp]i5ces ( ! individual man ga9$ 9 "o %ort life1 b he pref]s ev5 ^! to d$uctions ( ! 8,logicians0 :i* h n be5 te/$ by exp]i5ce4 ,he ?9ks t ! relation betwe5 ! body & ! s\l is det]m9$ by ! s\l4 ,& see+ t 9 ?is way ! circum/ances & suff]+s ( ! s\l admit ( be+ disc]n$ by means ( ! physiognomy1 ! m$ical man has to be at ! same "t a physician ( ! s\l4 ,!re=e he drew up a sy/em ( spiritual m$ic9e1--a k9d ( ,dietetic ( ! ,s\l4 ,! precepts ( ,muslim law1 l ! prohibition ( w9e1 & s on1 gave him no conc]n1 b 8 free?9k+ seems to h l$ him into pessimism4 ,9 fact he f\nd m evil ?an good 9 ! _w1 & describ$ incl9ation z ! abs5ce ( dis9cl9ation4 ,high ?\gh ! value 0 :i* ,razi put ^u ,ari/otle & ,gal51 he did n give himself any special tr\ble to ga9 a m pr(\nd compreh5sion ( _! works4 ,he 0 a devot$ /ud5t ( ,al*emy1 :i* 9 8 view 0 a true art1 bas$ on ! exi/5ce ( a primeval matt]1--an art indisp5sable to philosoph]s1 & :i*1 he believ$1 _h be5 practis$ by ,py?agoras1 ,democritus1 ,plato1 ,ari/otle & ,gal54 ,9 opposition to ,p]ipatetic tea*+ he assum$ t ! body conta9$ 9 itself ! pr9ciple ( movem5t1 a ?\ght :i* might c]ta9ly h prov$ a fruitful "o 9 ,natural ,sci5ce1 if x _h be5 recogniz$ & f>!r develop$4 ,razi's ,metaphysic />ts f old doctr9es1 :i* 8 contempor>ies ascrib$ to ,anaxagoras1 ,emp$ocles1 ,mani & o!rs4 ,at ! apex ( 8 sy/em /& five co-et]nal pr9ciples1--! ,creator1 ! ,univ]sal ,s\l1 ! ,fir/ or ,primeval matt]1 ,absolute ,space1 & ,absolute ,"t or ,et]nal ,duration4 ,9 ^! ! necess>y conditions ( ! actually exi/+ _w are giv54 ,! individual s5se-p]ceptions1 g5]ally1 presuppose an exi/+ ,matt]1 j z ! gr\p+ ( diff]5t p]ceiv$ objects po/ulates ,space4 ,p]ceptions ( *ange f>!r con/ra9 u to assume ! condition ( ,"t4 ,! exi/5ce ( liv+ be+s leads u to recognize a ,s\l2 & ! fact t "s ( ^! liv+ be+s are end[$ ) ,reason1 i4e4--h ! faculty ( br++ ! ,arts to ! highe/ p]fection1--necessitates our belief 9 a wise ,creator1 ^: ,reason has ord]$ ev]y?+ = ! be/4 ,not)/&+ ! et]nity ( 8 five pr9ciples1 ,razi ?us speaks ( a ,creator & ev5 gives a /ory ( ,creation4 ,fir/ !n a simple1 pure1 spiritual ,light 0 creat$1 ! mat]ial ( ,s\ls1 :i* are simple1 spiritual sub/ances1 ( ! nature ( ,light4 ,t ,light-mat]ial or ,upp]-_w1 f :i* s\ls desc5d$1 is also call$ ,reason1 or ,light ( ! ,light ( ,god4 ,! ,light is foll[$ by ! ,%ad[1 f :i* ! ,animal ,s\l is creat$1 = ! s]vice ( ! ,rational ,s\l4 ,b simultane\sly ) ! simple1 spiritual light1 !re exi/$ f ! fir/ a composite =m1 :i* is ,body1 f ! %ad[ ( :i* n[ issue ! f\r 8natures01 ,w>m? & ,cold1 ,dryness & ,moi/ness4 ,f ^! f\r natures at la/ are =m$ all heav5ly & e>?ly bodies4 ,! :ole process1 h[ev]1 is 9 op]ation f all et]nity1 )\t beg9n+ 9 "t1 = ,god 0 nev] inactive4 ,t ,razi 0 an a/rolog] is pla9 f 8 own utt]ances4 ,! heav5ly bodies consi/ inde$1 accord+ to him1 ( ! same elem5ts z e>?ly ?+s1 & ! latt] are cont9ually expos$ to ! influ5ces ( ! =m]4 #f4 ,razi _h to ma9ta9 a polemical attitude 9 two directions4 ,on ! "o side he impugn$ ! ,muslim ,unity ( ,god1 :i* c\ld n be> to be associat$ ) any et]nal s\l1 matt]1 space or "t2 & on ! o!r side he attack$ ! ,dahrite sy/em1 :i* does n ackn[l$ge any ,creator ( ! _w4 ,?is sy/em1 :i* is frequ5tly m5tion$ by ,muslim au?ors1 ) due av]sion ( c\rse1 appe>s to h f\nd num]\s repres5tatives1 ?\gh none ( any importance4 ,! adh]5ts ( ! #8,dahr' 7v4 ,i1 #b1 #b7 are repres5t$ to u z ,mat]iali/s1 ,s5suali/s1 ,a!i/s1 ,believ]s 9 ! transmigration ( s\ls1 & s on2 b we le>n no?+ m def9ite ab\t _! doctr9es4 ,9 any case ! ,dahrites _h no ne$ to trace all t exi/s to a pr9ciple :i* 0 ( spiritual ess5ce & creative effici5cy4 ,muslim ,philosophy1 on ! o!r h&1 did /& 9 ne$ ( su* a pr9ciple1 if x %\ld only con=m 9 "s degree to ! tea*+ ( ! fai?4 ,natural ,philosophy 0 n suit$ = ! fur!rance ( ?is object1 z x %[$ m int]e/ 9 ! manifold & (t5 contr>y op]ations ( ,nature ?an 9 ! ,"o ,cause ( all4 ,su* aim 0 bett] atta9$ by ,neo-,platonic ,ari/otelianism1 ^: logico-metaphysical speculations endeav\r$ to trace all exi/5ce to "o highe/ exi/5ce1 or to d]ive all ?+s f "o supreme op]ative pr9ciple4 ,b be=e we att5d to ?is direction ( ?\ght1 :i* comm5c$ to appe> ev5 9 ! n9? c5tury1 we h /ill to give "s acc\nt ( an attempt to bl5d ,natural ,philosophy & ! tea*+s ( ! ,fai? into a ,philosophy ( ,religion4 #b4 ,! ,fai?ful ,bre?r5 ( ,basra4 #a4 ,9 ! ,ea/1 :]e e religion =m$ a ,/ate )9 ! ,/ate1 a political p>ty inv>iably made its appe>ance 9 ! additional "* ( a religi\s sect1 j to ga9 adh]5ts 9 "s way or o!r4 ,z a matt] ( pr9ciple inde$1 ,islam knew no di/9ction betwe5 m51--no ca/e or social /&+4 ,b prop]ty & education h ! same influ5ce ev]y:]e2 & 9 _! tra9 degrees ( piety & /ages ( k began to be set up1 accord+ z a community or p>ty p]mitt$ ( adju/m5t4 ,?us !re arose secret societies hav+ diff]5t grades1 ( :i* ! highe/ & p]haps ! next highe/ possess$ an esot]ic doctr9e1 :i* borr[$ a good deal f ! ,natural ,philosophy ( ! ,neo-,py?agoreans4 ,9 fur!rance ( _! object1 :i* 0 to conqu] political p[]1 e exp$i5t 0 reg>d$ z lawful4 ,= ! initiat$ ! ,koran 0 expla9$ allegorically4 ,!y trac$ _! my/ic lore1 x is true1 back to prophets ) ,biblical & ,koranic names1 b hea!n philosoph]s 7 at ! bottom ( x all4 ,philosophy 0 completely trans=m$ into a my?ology ( politics4 ,! high intellig5ces & s\ls1 :i* !oretic ?9k]s _h recogniz$ 9 ! />s & planets1 embodi$ !mselves 9 human be+s = ! "w ( actual ,politics2 & x 0 decl>$ to be a religi\s duty to assi/ ^! embodi$ intellig5ces 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( an e>?ly k+dom ( righte\sness4 ,! associations :i* act$ 9 ?is way may be/ be comp>$ to societies1 :i* up to ! days ( ,sa9t-,simonism & k9dr$ ph5om5a 9 la/ c5tury 7 wont to appe> 9 c\ntries :]e fre$om ( ?\ght 0 re/rict$4 ,9 ! second half ( ! n9? c5tury ,abdallah ibn ,maimun1 head ( ! ,k>matite p>ty1 0 ! orig9ator ( a movem5t ( ?is k9d4 ,he 0 a ,p]sian oculi/1 tra9$ 9 ! s*ool ( ! ,natural ,philosoph]s4 ,he prov$ able to associate bo? believ]s & free?9k]s 9 a conf$]acy to endeav\r to compass ! ov]?r[ ( ! ,abbasid gov]nm5t4 ,to ! "o set he 0 a conjur]1 to ! o!r a pi\s ascetic or le>n$ philosoph]4 ,8 col\rs 7 :ite1 because 8 religion 0 t ( ! pure light1 to :i* ! s\l 0 to asc5d aft] its e>?ly w&]+s4 ,! duties inculcat$ 7 contempt = ! body1 disreg>d ( ! ,mat]ial1 community ( goods = all ! conf$]ate bre?r51 z well z self-surr5d] to ! conf$]acy1 & fidelity & ob$i5ce to _! *iefs1 ev5 to dea?1--= ! society _h its grades4 ,9 accordance ) ! sequ5ce ( exi/5ce1 viz41 ,god1 ,reason1 ,s\l1 ,space & ,"t1 !y conceiv$ ! revelation ( ,god to be made 9 hi/ory & 9 ! con/itution ( _! own bro!rhood4 #b4 ,! *ief homes ( ,k>matite activity 7 ,basra & ,kufa4 ,n[ we f9d 9 ,basra 9 ! second half ( ! t5? c5tury a small association ( m51 ^: conf$]acy aims at hav+ f\r grades4 ,we d n "k1 to be sure1 h[ f> ! bre?r5 succe$$ 9 realiz+ ! ideal organization ( _! conf$]acy4 ,to ! fir/ grade belong "y m5 ( f #ae to #cj ye>s ( age1 ^: s\ls are be+ =m$ 9 ! natural way3 ^! mu/ be completely submissive to _! tea*]s4 ,! second grade1--f #cj to #dj ye>s ( age--are introduc$ to secul> wisdom1 & receive an analogical k ( ?+s4 ,9 ! ?ird grade1--f #dj to #ej ye>s ( age--! ,div9e law ( ! _w becomes kn[n 9 m adequate =m3 t con/itutes ! /age ( ! prophets4 ,f9ally1 9 ! highe/ grade1 :5 "o is ov] #ej ye>s old1 he comes to see ! true reality ( ?+s1 j l ! bless$ angels3 he is exalt$ !n above ,nature1 ,doctr9e & ,law4 ,f ?is bro!rhood !re has come d[n to u a progressively-advanc+ ,encyclopa$ia ( ! ,sci5ces ( t day4 ,x consi/s ( #ea 7orig9ally p]haps #ej7 treatises1 ! cont5ts ( :i* are ( su* v>i$ nature & orig9 t ! r$actors or compil]s h n succe$$ 9 e/abli%+ a complete h>mony among !m4 ,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 !re is f\nd 9 ?is ,encyclopa$ia an eclectic ,gno/icism built on a f\ndation ( ,natural ,sci5ce1 & provid$ ) a political backgr\nd4 ,! s*eme sets out ) ma!matical consid]ations1 cont9ually play+ ) numb]s & lett]s1 & proce$s ?r\gh ,logic & ,physics1--ref]r+ ev]y?+1 h[ev]1 to ! ,s\l & its p[]s1--9 ord] to approa* at la/1 9 a my/ical & magical fa%ion1 ! k ( ! ,godhead4 ,! :ole repres5tation is t ( ! doctr9e ( a p]secut$ sect1 ) ! political features peep+ out "h & !re4 ,we see also some?+ ( suff]+ & /ruggle1--some?+ ( ! oppressions to :i* ! m5 ( ?is ,encyclopa$ia or _! pr$ecessors 7 expos$1 & some?+ ( ! hope !y *]i%$ & ! pati5ce !y prea*$4 ,!y seek 9 ?is spirituali/ic philosophy1 consolation or r$emption3 ,x is _! religion4 #8,fai?ful to dea?1'--s runs ! expression--%all ! bre?r5 be1 = to meet dea? = a fri5d's welf>e1 is ! true ,holy w>4 ,9 life's pilgrimage ?r\gh ?is _w1--?us ! obligatory j\rney to ,mecca is allegoriz$--1 "o mu/ aid ! o!r by all ! means 9 8 p[]4 ,! ri* mu/ communicate to o!rs a %>e ( _! mat]ial goods1 & ! wise a %>e ( _! intellectual possessions4 ,b yet k1 z we h x 9 ! ,encyclopa$ia1 0 probably res]v$ = initiat$ memb]s ( ! highe/ grade4 ,x mu/ be all[$1 h[ev]1 t ?is confrat]nity ( ! ,fai?ful ,bre?r5 ( ,basra seems to h l$ a quiet exi/5ce1 z p]haps 0 ! case also ) a bran*-settlem5t ( !irs 9 ,bagdad4 ,! relation ( ! ,bre?r5 to ! ,k>matites may h resembl$ t ( ! m peaceful ,bapti/s to ! revolution>y ,anabapti/s ( ! #8,k+ ( ,sion'4 #ad ,! names ( ! foll[+ h be5 giv5 to u by lat] writ]s1 z hav+ be5 memb]s ( ! ,bro!rhood & collaborators ( ! ,encyclopa$ia1 viz43 ,abu ,sulaiman ,mohamm$ ibn ,mu%ir al-,bu/i1 call$ al-,muqaddasi2 ,abu-l-,hasan ,ali ibn ,h>un al-,z&jani2 ,mohamm$ ibn ,akhm$ al-,nahradjuri2 ,al-,aufi & ,zaid ibn ,rifaa4 ,9 ! "t ( _! activity ! ,caliphate _h already be5 =c$ to make an entire surr5d] ( its secul> p[] into ! h&s ( ! ,%iite dyna/y ( ! ,buyids4 ,probably ?is circum/ance 0 fav\rable to ! appe>ance ( an ,encyclopa$ia1 9 :i* ,%iite & ,mutazilite doctr9es toge!r ) ! results ( ,philosophy 7 compreh5d$ 9 "o popul> sy/em4 #c4 ,! ,bre?r5 !mselves av[ _! eclecticism4 ,!y wi% to collect ! wisdom ( all nations & religions4 ,noah & ,abraham1 ,socrates & ,plato1 ,zoroa/] & ,jesus1 ,mohamm$ & ,ali are all prophets ( !irs4 ,socrates1 & ,jesus & 8 apo/les1 no less ?an ! *ildr5 ( ,ali1 are hon\r$ z holy m>tyrs ( _! rational fai?4 ,! religi\s law 9 its lit]al s5se is pron\nc$ good = ! ord9>y man1--a m$ic9e = weak & ail+ s\ls3 ! deep] philosophic insight is = /rong intellig5ces4 ,?\gh ! body is devot$ to dea?1 dy+ means ris+ aga9 to ! pure life ( ! ,_s1 = ^? :o dur+ _! e>?ly exi/5ce h be5 awak5$ by means ( philosophic consid]ations out ( c>eless slumb] & fooli% sleep4 ,?is is impress$ ) endless repetition1 by means ( leg5ds & my?s ( lat]-,greek1 ,judaeo-,*ri/ian1 ,p]sian or ,indian orig94 ,e transitory ?+ is "h turn$ into an emblem4 ,on ! ru9s ( positive religion & unsophi/icat$ op9ion a spirituali/ic philosophy is built up1 embrac+ all ! k & endeav\r ( human k9d1 s f> z ^! came )9 ! ,bre?r5's field ( view4 ,! aim ( _! philosophiz+ is giv5 z #8! assimilation ( ! s\l to ,god1 9 ! degree possible = man'4 ,9 ?is s*eme1 ! negative t5d5cies ( ! ,bre?r51 are kept some:at 9 ! backgr\nd1 = reasons :i* are q intelligible4 ,b _! criticism ( human society & ( positive religions is exhibit$ ) lea/ res]ve 9 ! #8,book ( ! ,animal & ! ,man'1 9 :i* ! figurative dress makes x possible = !m to repres5t animals z say+ :at might he que/ionable if he>d f a human m\?4 #d4 ,! eclectic "* ( ! s*eme1 & ! f> f sy/ematic me?od adopt$ 9 its subdivisions r5d] x difficult to give a coh]5t exposition ( ! philosophy ( ! ,bre?r54 ,b /ill ! mo/ important t5ets1 ?\gh sometimes loosely connect$1 mu/ "h be set =? ) a measure ( ord]4 ,! m5tal activity ( ,man falls to be divid$1 accord+ to ! ,encyclopa$ia1 into ,art & ,sci5ce4 ,n[ ,sci5ce or ,k is ! =m assum$ )9 ! kn[+ s\l by t :i* is kn[n1 or a high]1 f9]1 m intellectual mode ( exi/5ce ( :atev] is realiz$ 9 outw>d sub/ance4 ,art on ! o!r h& consi/s 9 project+ ! =m f ! arti/-s\l into matt]4 ,k is pot5tially pres5t 9 ! s\l ( ! disciple1 b x becomes actual only ?r\gh ! tea*+ activity ( a ma/]1 :o c>ries k z a reality )9 8 own m9d4 ,b :5ce did x come to ! fir/ ma/]8 ,! ,bre?r5 answ]1 t accord+ to ! philosoph]s he ga9$ x by 8 own reflection1 :ile1 accord+ to ! !ologians1 he receiv$ x ?r\gh prophetic illum9ation2 8b 9 our view !re are v>i\s ways or in/rum5talities by :i* k may be atta9$4 ,f ! int]m$iate position ( ! s\l1 betwe5 ! worlds ( body & ( m9d x results t !re are op5 to x ?ree ways or s\rces ( k4 ,?us by means ( ! s5ses ! s\l is made acqua9t$ ) :at is b5ea? x1 & ?r\gh logical inf]5ce ) :at is above x1 & f9ally ) itself by rational consid]ation or direct intuition4 ,( ^! k9ds ( k ! sure/ & ! mo/ des]v+ ( pref]5ce is k ( "o's self4 ,:5 human k attempts to g f>!r ?an ?is1 x proves itself to be limit$ 9 _m ways4 ,!re=e "o mu/ n philosophize /raight away ab\t que/ions l ! orig9 or ! et]nity ( ! _w1 b make 8 fir/ essays ) :at is simpl]4 ,& only ?r\gh r5unciation ( ! _w1 & righte\s conduct1 does ! s\l lift itself gradually up to ! pure k ( ! ,highe/40 #e4 ,aft] secul> in/ruction 9 ,gramm>1 ,poetry & ,hi/ory1 & aft] religi\s education & doctr9e1 philosophic /udy %\ld beg9 ) ! ma!matical bran*es4 ,"h ev]y?+ is set =? 9 ,neo-,py?agorean & ,indian fa%ion4 ,n only numb]s b ev5 ! lett]s ( ! alphabet are employ$ 9 *ildi% trifl+4 ,x 0 p>ticul>ly conv5i5t = ! ,bre?r5 t ! numb] ( lett]s 9 ! ,arabic alphabet is #bh1 or #d multipli$ by #g4 ,in/ead ( proce$+ accord+ to practical & real po9ts ( view1 !y give ! re9 to fancy 9 all ! sci5ces1 9 accordance ) grammatical analogies & relations ( numb]s4 ,_! ,ari?metic does n inve/igate ,numb] z su*1 b r its significance4 ,no se>* is made = any m suitable mode ( express+ numb] 9 ! case ( ph5om5a2 b ?+s are !mselves expla9$ 9 accordance ) ! sy/em ( numb]s4 ,! ,!ory ( numb] is ,div9e wisdom1 & is above ,?+s1 = ?+s are only =m$ aft] ! patt]n ( numb]s4 ,! absolute pr9ciple ( all exi/5ce & ?\ght is ! numb] ,"o4 ,! sci5ce ( numb]1 !re=e1 is f\nd at ! beg9n+1 middle1 & end ( all philosophy4 ,geometry1 ) its figures address+ ! eye1 s]ves m]ely to make x m easily und]/ood by beg9n]s1 b ,ari?metic alone is true & pure sci5ce4 ,& yet ,geometry too is divid$ into a s5sible =m ( x :i* deals ) l9es1 surfaces & solids1 & a pure or spiritual =m :i* treats ( ! dim5sions or prop]ties ( ?+s1 su* z l5g?1 bread? & dep?4 ,! object bo? ( ,ari?metic & ,geometry is to conduct ! s\l f ! s5sible to ! spiritual4 ,fir/ ( all !n !y lead u to consid] ! />s4 ,n[ ! ,encyclopa$ia (f]s u1 9 its ,a/rology1--& no?+ else c\ld be expect$--tea*+ :i* is exce$+ly fanta/ic & sometimes self-contradictory4 ,! :ole ( x is p]vad$ by ! conviction t ! />s n m]ely =etell ! future1 b directly influ5ce or br+ ab\t e ?+ t happ5s b5ea? ! moon4 ,=tune & mis=tune come equally f !m4 ,jupit]1 ,v5us & ! ,sun br+ =tune2 mis=tune is br\ght1 on ! o!r h&1 by ,saturn1 ,m>s & ! ,moon2 :ile ! effects produc$ by ! planet ,m]cury h 9 !m bo? bad & good4 ,m]cury is ! "l ( education & sci5ce3 we owe to him our k1 :i* comprises bad & good4 ,9 ! same way too ! o!r planets h all _! sev]al sph]es ( influ5ce2 & man 9 ! c\rse ( life1 if he is n prematurely snat*$ away1 exp]i5ces successively ! influ5ces ( ! :ole ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,! ,moon causes 8 body to gr[ & ,m]cury =ms 8 m9d4 ,!n he comes "u ! sway ( ,v5us4 ,! ,sun gives him family1 ri*es or dom9ion2 ,m>s1 brav]y & noble-m9d$ness4 ,!reupon1 "u ! guidance ( ,jupit]1 he prep>es1 by means ( religi\s ex]cises1 = ! j\rney to ! _w beyond1 & he atta9s re/ "u ! influ5ce ( ,saturn4 ,_m m51 h[ev]1 d n live long en\gh1 or are n enabl$ by circum/ances1 to develope _! natural capacities 9 unbrok5 sequ5ce4 ,god !re=e graci\sly s5ds !m 8 prophets1 by ^: tea*+ !y may1 ev5 9 a %ort "t & "u unfav\rable circum/ances1 =m _! natures completely4 #f4 ,accord+ to ! ,encyclopa$ia1 ,logic is relat$ to ,ma!matics4 ,9 fact j z ,ma!matics conducts f ! s5sible to ! intellectual1 s ,logic takes an int]m$iate position betwe5 ,physics & ,metaphysics4 ,9 ,physics we h to d ) bodies2 9 ,metaphysics1 ) pure ,spirits2 b ,logic treats ( ! ideas ( ! latt] z well z ( ! repres5tations ( ! =m] 9 our s\l4 ,yet 9 range & importance ,logic is inf]ior to ,ma!matics4 ,= ! subject ( ,ma!matics is reg>d$ n m]ely z an int]m$i>y1 b also z ! ess5ce ( ! ,all1 :ile on ! o!r h& ,logic rema9s completely re/rict$ to psy*ic =ms z an int]m$i>y betwe5 body & m9d4 ,?+s are regulat$ by numb]s1 b our pres5tations & ideas by ?+s4 ,! logical obs]vations ( ! ,bre?r5 />t f ,porphyry's ,introduction1 & ! ,categories1 ! ,h]m5eutics & ! ,analytics ( ,ari/otle4 ,!y pres5t no?+ orig9al1 or v little4 ,to ! five t]ms ( ,porphyry1 a six?1--! #8,individual'--is add$1 no d\bt = ! sake ( symmetry4 ,?ree ( ^!1--,g5us1 ,species1 ,individual1--are !n call$ ,objective ,qualifications & ?ree1--,diff]5ce1 ,prop]ty1 ,accid5t--,ab/ract or ,conceptional ,qualifications4 ,! ,categories are ,g5us-conceptions1 ( :i* ! fir/ is ,sub/ance1 ! o!r n9e d5ot+ its ,accid5ts4 ,! :ole sy/em ( ,concepts is f>!r develop$ by a division into species4 ,b besides ,division1 !re are ?ree additional logical me?ods 9 use3 ,analysis1 ,def9ition & ,d$uction4 ,analysis is ! me?od = beg9n]s1 because x p]mits a k ( :at is individual4 ,m subtle1 h[ev]1 z disclos+ to u :at is spiritual1--are ,def9ition & ,d$uction1 ! =m] inve/igat+ ! ess5tial nature ( ,species1 & ! latt] t ( ,g5]a4 ,! ,s5ses apprise u ( ! exi/5ce ( ?+s2 b acqua9tance ) ! ess5ce ( ?+s is ga9$ by reflection4 ,! in=mation :i* is convey$ to u by ! s5ses is small1 z x 7 ! lett]s ( ! alphabet4 ,( great] importance consid]ably are ! pr9ciples ( rational k1 j z words h m significance ?an lett]s2 b ! mo/ important k ( all1 lies 9 ! propositions :i* h be5 d]iv$ f ^? pr9ciples1 & :i* ! human m9d ga9s = itself or appropriates1 9 contradi/9ction to t k :i* ,nature or ! ,div9e revelation has imp>t$ to x4 #g4 ,f ,god1 ! highe/ ,be+1 :o is exalt$ above all di/9ctions & oppositions bo? ( ! ,mat]ial & ! ,spiritual1 ! :ole _w is d]iv$ by ! pa? ( ,emanation4 ,if n[ & aga9 a ,creation is spok5 (1 t is only to be und]/ood z a =m ( adaptation to !ological language4 ,! gradation !n ( ! ,emanations is exhibit$ z foll[s3 #a4 ,! ,creative ,_s 71 aql72 #b4 ,! ,passive ,_s1 or ! ,all-,s\l or ,_w-,s\l2 #c4 ,! ,fir/ ,mat]ial2 #d4 ,! ,op]ative ,nature1 a p[] ( ! ,_w-,s\l2 #e4 ,! ,absolute ,body1 call$ also1 ! ,second ,mat]ial2 #f4 ,! ,_w ( ! ,sph]es2 #g4 ,! ,elem5ts ( ! ,sublun>y ,_w2 #h4 ,! ,m9]als1 ,plants & ,animals compos$ ( ^! elem5ts4 ,^! !n are ! eight ,ess5ces :i*1--toge!r ) ,god1 ! ,absolute ,"o1 :o is 9 ev]y?+ & ) ev]y?+--complete ! s]ies ( ,orig9al ,ess5ces correspond+ to ! n9e ,c>d9al ,numb]s4 ,_s1 ,s\l1 ,orig9al ,matt]1 & ,nature are simple2 b ) ,body we ent] ! realm ( ! ,composite4 ,"h all is compos$ ( ,matt] & ,=m1 or1--to adopt ano!r pr9ciple ( division1--( ,sub/ance & ,accid5t4 ,! fir/ ,sub/ances are ,matt] & ,=m2 ! fir/ ,accid5ts or ,prop]ties1 ,space1 ,motion & ,"t1 to :i* 9 ! op9ion ( ! ,bre?r5 may p]haps be add$ ,tone & ,light4 ,matt] is "o2 all plurality & div]sity come f ! ,=ms4 ,sub/ance is designat$ also z ! con/itutive1 mat]ial ,=m1 :ile ,accid5t is ! complet+1 spiritual ,=m4 ,! ,encyclopa$ia does n express itself cle>ly on ^! po9ts4 ,b 9 any case ,sub/antiality is look$ = r 9 ! ,univ]sal ?an 9 ! ,p>ticul>1 & ,=m is put be=e ,matt]4 ,! ,sub/antial ,=m1 l a spectre1 fright5s (f e attempt ( ! philosoph] to inve/igate ?or\ghly ! doma9 ( ! ,mat]ial4 ,! ,=ms w&] at _! own sweet w l lords ?r\gh ! l[] _w ( ,matt]4 ,no trace is discov]able ( any inn] relation betwe5 ,matt] & ,=m4 ,n only 9 ?\ght1 b also 9 reality !y keep !mselves sep>ate4 ,f ! acc\nt :i* has be5 giv5 an idea may n[ be =m$ ( ! /ory ( ,nature z ! ,bre?r5 view$ x4 ,!y h be5 repres5t$ z ! ,d>w9i/s ( ! t5? c5tury1 b no?+ c\ld m inappropriate4 ,! v>i\s realms ( ,nature1 x is true1 yield accord+ to ! ,encyclopa$ia an asc5d+ & connect$ s]ies2 b ! relation is det]m9$ n by bodily /ructure1 b by ! inn] ,=m or ,s\l-,sub/ance4 ,! ,=m w&]s 9 my/ic fa%ion f ! l[] to ! high] & vice v]sa1 n 9 accordance ) inn] laws ( =mation1 or modifi$ to suit ext]nal conditions1 b 9 accordance ) ! influ5ces ( ! />s1 &1 9 ! case ( ,man at lea/1 9 accordance ) practical & !oretical behavi\r4 ,to give a hi/ory ( ,evolution 9 ! mod]n s5se ( ! t]m 0 v f> f ! ?\ght ( ! ,bre?r54 ,= example !y expressly insi/ t ! horse & ! elephant resemble ,man m ?an ! ape does1 al?\gh ! bodily lik5ess is great] 9 ! la/-nam$4 ,9 fact 9 _! sy/em ! body is a matt] ( q second>y consid]ation3 ! dea? ( ! body is call$ ! bir? ( ! s\l4 ,! s\l alone is an effici5t exi/5ce1 :i* procures ! body = itself4 #h4 ,! tea*+ ( ! ,bre?r5 conc]n+ ,nature is !re=e m]g$ almo/ completely 9 ,psy*ology4 ,let u conf9e ourselves "h to ! human s\l4 ,x /&s 9 ! c5tre ( ! ,all2 & j z ! ,_w is a huge man1 ,man is a little _w4 ,! human s\l has emanat$ f ! ,_w-s\l2 & ! s\ls ( all individuals tak5 toge!r con/itute a sub/ance :i* might be d5om9at$ ! ,absolute ,man or ! ,_s ( ,humanity4 ,e individual s\l1 h[ev]1 is involv$ 9 ,matt]1 & mu/ gradually be =m$ into _s4 ,to t end x possesses _m faculties or p[]s1 & ( ^! ! speculative faculties are ! *oice/1 = k is ! v life ( ! s\l4 ,! s\l ( ! *ild is at fir/ l a :ite %eet ( pap]4 ,:at ! five s5ses convey to x is fir/ pres5t$1 !n judg$1 & la/ly /or$ up1 9 ! front1 middle1 & h9d] p>ts ( ! bra9 respectively4 ,?r\gh ! faculty ( spee* & ! art ( writ+1 :i* make up ! numb] ( ! int]nal s5ses to five1 correspond+ to ! numb] ( ! ,ext]nal1 ! cont5ts ( ,pres5tation are !n realiz$4 ,among ! ext]nal s5ses1 ,he>+ takes prec$5ce ( ,sight2 = ,sight1 a m]e slave ( ! mom5t1 is occupi$ ) :at is actually pres5t to ! s5se1 :]eas ,he>+ appreh5ds also :at is pa/1 & is consci\s ( ! h>mony ( ! tuneful sph]es4 ,he>+ & ,sight con/itute ! gr\p ( ! intellectual s5ses1 ^: effect mu/ cont9ue "t )\t end4 ,:ile ,man !n possesses ! ext]nal s5ses 9 common ) ! l[] animals1 ! specific nature ( human reason is notifi$ 9 ,judgm5t1 ,spee* & ,action4 ,reason judges ( good & bad1 & 9 con=mity ) t judgm5t ! w is det]m9$4 ,b 9 p>ticul> ! significance :i* ,language has = ! s\l's life ( cognition is to be emphasis$4 ,a concept :i* _c be d5ot$ by "s expression 9 "s language is n ?9kable at all4 ,! ^w is ! body ( ! ?\ght1 :i* _c exi/ absolutely p] se4 ,b x is difficult to see h[ ?is und]/&+ ( ! relation betwe5 concept & expression is to squ>e ) o!r op9ions ( ! ,bre?r54 #i4 ,at its highe/ /age ! tea*+ ( ! ,bre?r5 becomes a ,philosophy ( ,religion4 ,its purpose is a reconciliation betwe5 ,sci5ce & ,life1 ,philosophy & ,fai?4 ,n[ 9 ^! matt]s m5 diff] greatly4 ,! ord9>y man requires a s5su\s wor%ip ( ,god2 b j z ! s\ls ( animals & plants are b5ea? ! s\l ( ! ord9>y man1 s above x are ! s\ls ( ! philosoph] & ! prophet ) :om ! pure angel is associat$4 ,9 ! high] /ages ! s\l is rais$ also above ! l[] popul> religion ) its s5su\s conceptions & usages4 ,no d\bt ,*ri/ianity & ! ,zoroa/rian fai? appe>$ to ! ,bre?r5 to be m p]fect religi\s revelations4 #8,our ,prophet1 ,mohamm$'1 !y said1 #80 s5t to an unciviliz$ p1 compos$ ( dwell]s 9 ! des]t1 :o nei!r possess$ a prop] conception ( ! beauty ( ?is _w1 nor ( ! spiritual "* ( ! _w beyond4 ,! crude expressions ( ! ,koran1 :i* are adapt$ to ! und]/&+ ( t p1 mu/ be und]/ood 9 a spiritual s5se by ^? :o are m cultur$'4 ,b ! tru? is n pres5t$ 9 its purity ev5 9 ! o!r national religions4 ,!re is a rational fai? above !m all = :i* ! ,bre?r5 moreov] tri$ to f9d a metaphysical d]ivation4 ,betwe5 ,god & 8 fir/ creature1 ! ,creative ,_s1 !re is int]pos$ by way ( hypo/asis ! ,div9e ,_w-,law 7nms74 ,t ,_w-,law ext5ds ov] ev]y?+1 & is ! wise arrangem5t ( a m]ciful ,creator1 :o int5ds evil to no "o4 ,belief 9 a ,god ( ,ang]1 9 ! puni%m5t ( ,hell & ! l1 ! ,bre?r5 decl>e to be irrational4 ,su* a fai? does h>m to ! s\l4 ,! ignorant s9ful s\l f9ds its hell ev5 9 ?is life & 9 its own body4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,resurrection is ! sep>ation ( ! s\l f its body1 & ! great ,resurrection at ! la/ day is ! sep>ation ( ! ,univ]sal s\l f ! _w1 & its return to ,god4 ,?is turn+ to ,god inde$ is ! aim 9 all religions4 #aj4 ,! e?ical sy/em ( ! ,bre?r5 has an ascetic1 spirituali/ic "*1 al?\gh "h too _! eclecticism is %ewn4 ,accord+ to x man is act+ rightly1 :5 he foll[s 8 prop] nature2 #8praisewor?y is ! free act ( ! s\l2 admirable are ! actions :i* h proce$$ f rational consid]ation2 & la/ly1 ob$i5ce to ! ,div9e ,_w-,law is wor?y ( ! rew>d ( be+ rais$ to ! cele/ial _w ( sph]es4 ,b ?is requires long+ = :at is above2 & !re=e ! highe/ virtue is ,love1 :i* /rives aft] union ) ,god1 ! fir/ lov$ "o1 & :i* is ev9c$ ev5 9 ?is life 9 ! =m ( religi\s pati5ce & =be>ance ) all creat$ be+s4 ,su* love ga9s 9 ?is life s]5ity ( s\l1 fre$om ( he>t & peace ) ! :ole _w1 & 9 ! life to come asc5sion to ,et]nal ,light4' ,aft] all ?is we ne$ n wond] t ! body 0 depreciat$ a good deal4 #8,our true ess5ce is ! s\l1 & ! highe/ aim ( our exi/5ce %\ld be to live1 ) ,socrates1 devot$ to ! ,intellect1 & ) ,*ri/1 to ! ,law ( ,love4 ,nev]!less ! body mu/ be prop]ly treat$ & look$ aft] 9 ord] t ! s\l may h "t to atta9 its full developm5t4' ,9 ?is view ! ,bre?r5 set up an ideal type ( human culture1 :]e( ! features 7 borr[$ f ! *>act]i/ics ( v>i\s nations4 #8,! ideal1 & morally p]fect man1 %\ld be ( ,ea/-,p]sian d]ivation1 ,arabic 9 fai?1 ( ,irak1 i4e4 ,babylonian1 education1 a ,hebrew 9 a/ut5ess1 a disciple ( ,*ri/ 9 conduct1 z pi\s z a ,syrian ,monk1 a ,greek 9 ! individual sci5ces1 an ,indian 9 ! int]pretation ( all my/]ies1 b la/ly & especially1 a ,sufi 9 8 :ole spiritual life4' #aa4 ,! attempt to e/abli% 9 ?is way a reconciliation betwe5 k & fai? satisfi$ nei!r side4 ,!ological dialecticians look$ d[n ^u ! int]pretation ( ! ,koran giv5 by ! ,bre?r51 j z ! div9es ( our day look d[n ^u ! ,n4 ,t4 exegesis ( ,c\nt ,tol/oi4 ,& ! m rigid ,ari/otelians reg>d$ ! ,py?agorean-,platonic t5d5cy ( ! ,encyclopa$ia mu* z a mod]n pr(essor ( philosophy is wont to look ^u ,spiritism1 ,occultism1 & ph5om5a ( t nature4 ,b ! writ+s1 or at any rate ! op9ions1 ( ! ,fai?ful ,bre?r5 ( ,basra h ex]cis$ an important influ5ce on ! great body ( ! educat$ or half-educat$ _w1--an influ5ce to :i* eloqu5t atte/ation is borne by ! v fact t s _m manuscripts1 mo/ly ( rec5t date1 are to be met )1 ( ?is ext5sive ,encyclopa$ia4 ,among _m sects )9 ! _w ( ,islam1 su* z ! ,bat9ites1 ! ,ismaelites1 ! ,assass9s1 ! ,druses1 or :atev] may be _! names1 we f9d aga9 ! same doctr9es 9 ! ma94 ,9 ?is =m ,greek wisdom has be/ succe$$ 9 mak+ itself at home 9 ! ,ea/1 :ile ! ,ari/otelian ,s*ool-,philosophy w\ld only ?rive1 ) few exceptions1 9 ! ho?\se-cultivation be/[$ ^u x at ! c\rts ( pr9cely patrons4 ,! great religi\s fa!r1 ,gazali1 is ready en\gh to toss aside ! wisdom ( ! ,bre?r5 z m]e popul> philosophy1 b he does n hesitate to take ov] :at 0 good 9 !m4 ,he owes m to _! body ( ideas ?an he w\ld p]haps h c>$ to av[4 ,& _! treatises h be5 turn$ to pr(it by o!rs besides1 p>ticul>ly 9 ,encyclopa$iac works4 ,! influ5ce ( ! ,encyclopa$ia cont9ues ev5 yet 9 ! ,muslim ,ea/4 ,9 va9 0 x burn$ 9 ,bagdad 9 ! ye> #aaej1 along ) ! writ+s ( ,ibn ,s9a4 ,,iv4 ,,! ,,neo-,,platonic ,,ari/otelians ,,( ,,! ,,ea/4 #a4 ,k9di4 #ae #a4 ,k9di is relat$ 9 v>i\s ways to ! ,mutazilite ,dialecticians & ! ,neo-,py?agorean ,natural-,philosoph]s ( 8 "t1 & we might !re=e h dealt ) him among ! latt]1 ev5 be=e ,razi 7v4 ,,iii1 #a1 #e74 ,b yet tradition ) "o accord repres5ts him z ! fir/ ,p]ipatetic 9 ,islam4 ,:at ju/ification exi/s = ?is tradition>y view w be se5 9 :at foll[s1 s f> z an inf]5ce c be drawn f ! few & imp]fectly-pres]v$ writ+s ( ?is philosoph] :i* h come d[n to u4 ,abu ,yaqub ibn ,i%aq al-,k9di 7i4e4 ( ! tribe ( ,k9da7 0 ( ,arabian orig91 & !re=e 0 call$ ! 8,arabian0 philosoph]1 to di/+ui% him f ! num]\s non-,arab associates ( 81 :o _h tak5 to ! /udy ( secul> wisdom4 ,he trac$ 8 g5ealogy to ! old ,k9da pr9ces1 al?\gh :e!r he 0 entitl$ to d s we ne$ n seek to decide4 ,! ,s\?-,arabian tribe ( ,k9da 0 9 any case f>!r advanc$ 9 outw>d civilization ?an o!r tribes4 ,_m ,k9dite families too _h = long be5 settl]s 9 ,iraq 7,babylonia72 & !re1 9 ! t[n ( ,kufa1 ( :i* 8 fa!r 0 gov]nor1 our philosoph] 0 born1 probably 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! n9? c5tury4 ,he receiv$ 8 education1 x w\ld appe>1 p>tly 9 ,basra1 & !reaft] 9 ,bagdad1 & !re=e 9 ! headqu>t]s ( ! culture ( 8 "t4 ,"h he came to put a high] value ^u ,p]sian civilization & ,greek wisdom ?an ^u old ,arab virtue & ! ,muslim fai?4 ,he ma9ta9$ ev51--no d\bt1 foll[+ o!rs--1 t ,kakhtan1 ! ance/or ( ! ,s\?-,arabians 0 a bro!r ( ,yaunan's1 f :om ! ,greeks 7 desc5d$4 ,x 0 possible to make an obs]vation ( t k9d 9 ,bagdad at ! ,abbasid c\rt1 = !re !y knew ( no nationality1 & reg>d$ ! anci5t ,greeks ) admiration4 ,x is n kn[n h[ long ,k9di rema9$ at c\rt1 or :at position he held !re4 ,he is m5tion$ z a translator ( ,greek works into ,arabic1 & is said to h revis$ & improv$ translations made by o!rs1 = example1 9 ! case ( ! s-call$ 8,!ology ( ,ari/otle04 ,num]\s s]vants & disciples1 ^: names h be5 h&$ d[n to u1 7 probably set to ?is "w "u 8 sup]vision4 ,f>!r1 he may h r5d]$ s]vices to ! c\rt 9 ! capacity ( a/rolog] or physician1 & p]haps ev5 9 ! adm9i/ration ( ! rev5ues4 ,b 9 lat] ye>s he 0 dismiss$1 :5 he ) o!rs 0 made to suff] f ! re/oration ( or?odoxy "u ,mutawakkil 7#hdg-hfa72 & 8 libr>y 0 = a long "t confiscat$4 ,z reg>ds p]sonal "*1 tradition reproa*es him ) hav+ be5 nigg>dly1--a /igma1 h[ev]1 :i* appe>s to h re/$ ^u _m o!r lit]>y m5 & lov]s ( books4 ,! ye> ( ,k9di's dea? is z little kn[n z t ( 8 bir?4 ,he appe>s ?us to h be5 out ( c\rt-fav\r :5 he di$1 or at lea/ to h be5 9 a subord9ate position4 ,x is /range t ,masudi 7v4 ,,ii1 #d #d71 :o _h a great reg>d = him1 is utt]ly sil5t on ?is po9t2 b x seems 9 ! highe/ degree probable f "o ( 8 a/rological treatises t he 0 /ill alive subsequ5t to ! ye> #hgj4 ,! expiry ( "s petty a/ronomical cycle 0 imm95t at t date1 & ?is 0 be+ utiliz$ by ! ,k>matites = ! ov]?r[ ( ! reign+ family4 ,9 ?is matt]1 h[ev]1 ,k9di 0 loyal en\gh to make out ! prolongation1 = ab\t #dej ye>s1 ( ! ,/ate's exi/5ce1 m5ac$ ?\gh x 0 by a planet>y conjunction4 ,8 pr9cely patron might well be satisfi$2 & hi/ory con=m$ to ! "t pr$ict$1 to )9 half-a-c5tury4 #af #b4 ,k9di 0 a man ( extraord9>y erudition1 a ,polyhi/or3 he _h absorb$ ! :ole le>n+ & culture ( 8 "t4 ,b al?\gh he may h set d[n & communicat$ obs]vations ( 8 own z a geograph]1 a hi/orian ( civilization & a physician1 he 0 9 no respect a creative g5ius4 ,8 !ological views be> a ,mutazilite /amp4 ,he wrote specially on ,man's p[] ( action1 & ! "t ( its appe>ance1 i4e4 :e!r x 0 be=e ! act or :e!r x 0 syn*ron\s ) ! act4 ,! righte\sness & ! unity ( ,god he expressly emphasiz$4 ,9 opposition to ! !ory1--kn[n at t "t z ,indian or ,brahmanic1--t ,reason is ! sole & suffici5t s\rce ( k1 he def5d$ prophecy1 :ile yet he s\ght to br+ x into h>mony ) reason4 ,8 acqua9tance ) v>i\s sy/ems ( religion impell$ him to comp>e !m toge!r1 & he f\nd z a common elem5t 9 !m all ! belief t ! _w 0 ! "w ( a ,fir/ ,cause1 ,"o & ,et]nal1 = :om our k furni%es u ) no m precise designation4 ,x is h[ev] ! duty ( ! disc]n+ to recognize ?is ,fir/ ,cause z div9e2 & ,god himself has %ewn !m ! way !reto1 & has s5t !m ambassadors to be> witness = him1 :o are in/ruct$ to promise ev]la/+ bliss to ! ob$i5t1 & to ?reat5 correspond+ puni%m5t to ^? :o d n obey4 #c4 ,k9di's actual philosophy1 l t ( 8 contempor>ies1 consi/s1 fir/ & especially1 ( ,ma!matics & ,natural ,philosophy1 9 :i* ,neo-,platonism & ,neo-,py?agoreanism m]ge into "o ano!r4 ,accord+ to him no "o c be a philosoph] )\t /udy+ ,ma!matics4 ,fanciful play ^u lett]s & numb]s is frequ5tly met ) 9 8 writ+s4 ,ma!matics he also appli$ to ,m$ic9e 9 8 !ory ( ! comp\nd rem$ies4 ,9 fact he bas$ ! efficacy ( ^! rem$ies1 l ! effect ( music1 ^u geometrical proportion4 ,x is "h a matt] ( ! proportionality ( ! s5sible qualities1 w>m1 cold1 dry & moi/4 ,if a rem$y has to be w>m 9 ! fir/ degree1 x mu/ possess d\ble ! w>m? ( ! equable mixture1--9 ! second degree1 f\r times z mu*1 & s on4 ,k9di seems to h entru/$ ! decision ( ?is po9t to ,s5se1 p>ticul>ly to ! s5se ( ,ta/e1 s t 9 him we might h a h9t ( ! proportional relation exi/+ betwe5 /imulus & s5sation4 ,yet t view1 ?\gh q orig9al1 0 ) him a m]e piece ( ma!matical play4 ,h[ev]1 ,c>dan1 a philosoph] ( ! ,r5aissance1 on ! gr\nd ( ?is doctr9e1 reckon$ him among ! twelve mo/ subtle-m9d$ ?9k]s4 #d4 ,9 ,k9di's op9ion1 z has already be5 said1 ! _w is a "w ( ,god1 b ,8 influ5ce 9 its desc5t is transmitt$ ?r\gh _m int]m$iate ag5cies4 ,all high] exi/5ce affects ! l[]1 b t :i* is caus$ has no influ5ce ^u its cause1 /&+ z ?is does above x 9 ! scale ( ,be+4 ,9 all ! ev5ts ( ! _w !re is a p]vad+ causality1 :i* makes x possible = u1 f our k ( ! cause1 to =etell ! future1--= example1 ( ! positions ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,f>!r1 9 any s+le exi/+ ?+1 if x is ?or\ghly kn[n1 we possess a mirror1 9 :i* we may behold ! entire s*eme ( ?+s4 ,x is to ! ,_s or ,m9d t ! high] reality & all activity belong1 & matt] has to dispose itself 9 con=mity ) ! desire ( ! ,_s4 ,midway betwe5 ! ,_s ( ,god & ! mat]ial & bodily _w /&s ! ,s\l1 & x is ! ,s\l :i* fir/ call$ into be+ ! _w ( ! ,sph]es4 ,f ?is ,s\l ( ! _w ! ,human ,s\l is an emanation4 ,9 its nature1 t is1 9 its op]ations1 x is b\nd to ! body ) :i* x is unit$1 b 9 its spiritual ess5ce x is indep5d5t ( ! body2 & ?us ! influ5ces ( ! />s1 :i* are limit$ to physical occurr5ces1 d n affect x4 ,k9di goes on to say t our ,s\l is an uncomp\nd$1 imp]i%able sub/ance1 desc5d$ f ! _w ( reason into t ( ! s5ses1 b end[$ ) a recollection ( its e>li] condition4 ,x does n feel at home "h1 = x has _m ne$s1 ! satisfaction ( :i* is d5i$ to x1 & :i* consequ5tly are att5d$ ) pa9ful emotions4 ,v]ily !re is no?+ con/ant 9 ?is _w ( com+ & go+1 9 :i* we may be depriv$ at any mom5t ( :at we love4 ,only 9 ! _w ( reason is /ability to be f\nd4 ,if !n we desire to see our wi%es fulfill$1 & w\ld n be depriv$ ( :at is de> to u1 we mu/ turn to ! et]nal bless+s ( reason1 to ! fe> ( ,god1 to sci5ce1 & to good works4 ,b if we foll[ m]ely aft] mat]ial possessions 9 ! belief t we c reta9 !m1 we are pursu+ an object :i* does n really exi/4 #e4 ,k9di's !ory ( kn[+ corresponds to ! e?ical & metaphysical duality ( ! s5sible & ! spiritual4 ,accord+ to x our k is ei!r k convey$ by ! s5ses1 or k acquir$ by ! reason3 t :i* lies betwe51--! ,fancy or ,imag9ation1--is call$ a m$iat+ faculty4 ,! s5ses1 !n1 appreh5d ! ,p>ticul>1 or ! mat]ial ,=m1 b ! reason conceives ! ,univ]sal1--species & g5]a1 or ! spiritual ,=m4 ,& j z t :i* is p]ceiv$ is "o ) ,s5se-,p]ception1 s too t :i* is conceiv$ by ! reason is "o ) ,reason itself4 ,"h !n em]ges = ! fir/ "t ! doctr9e ( ! ,reason or ( ! ,_s or ,m9d1 71 aql7 9 a =m 9 :i*1 m]ely modifi$ some:at1 x occupies a l>ge space ) ! lat] ,muslim philosoph]s4 ,x cont9u$ to be a *>act]i/ic feature ( philosophy 9 ,islam ?r\gh\t its :ole c\rse4 ,& j z 9 ! controv]sy reg>d+ ,univ]sals 9 ! ,*ri/ian ,middle ,ages an objective & sci5tific int]e/ is made evid5t also1 s 9 ! philosophical discussions ( ! ,muslims conc]n+ ! ?9k+ ,_s1 ! subjective requirem5t ( intellectual culture is br\ght conspicu\sly to ! front4 ,k9di has a f\rfold division ( ! ,_s #ag3 fir/ ! ,_s :i* is ev] real1--! ,cause & ! ,ess5ce ( all t is spiritual 9 ! _w1--?us )\t d\bt ,god or ! ,fir/ ,_s produc$2 second1 ,_s z ! ,reason+ capacity or ,pot5tiality ( ! human s\l2 ?ird1 z ! ,habit or actual possession ( ! s\l1 :i* x c make use ( at any mom5t1 j z1 = example1 ! writ] c make use ( 8 art2 f\r? & la/1 z ,activity1 by :i* a reality )9 ! s\l may be c>ri$ ov] to ! reality t is )\t4 ,! ,activity la/ nam$ appe>s1 accord+ to ,k9di1 to be ! act ( man himself1 :ile to ! ,fir/ ,cause1--to ! ev]-exi/+ ,_s1--he ascribes ! c>ry+ ( ,pot5tiality into ,habit1 or ! realisation ( ! ,possible4 ,! real ,_s or ,m9d we h ?us receiv$ f above1 & ! ?ird aql is !re=e call$ aql mu/afad1 7,lat4 intellectus adeptus sive adquisitus74 ,! fundam5tal view ( antiquity--t all our k ab\t ?+s mu/ come f a s\rce outside ( u--1 runs1 9 ! =m ( ?is doctr9e ( ! aql mu/afad or ,_s :i* we receive f above1 ?r\gh ! :ole ( ,arabian ,philosophy1 & !nce passes into ,*ri/ian ,philosophy4 ,un=tunately ! !ory is ne>ly correct1 z f> z ?is philosophy is itself conc]n$1 = ! #8,active ,_s'1 :i* has creat$ x1 is 9 reality ! ,neo-,platonic ,ari/otle4 ,man has always attribut$ to 8 ,god or ,gods ! highe/ ( 8 own possessions4 ,muslim !ologians directly attribute to ! div9e ag5cy ! moral actions ( m54 ,b 9 ! op9ion ( ! philosoph]s1 ,kn[+ is ( m importance ?an ,do+4 ,! latt]1 hav+ m to d ) ! l[] _w ( ! s5ses1 may possibly be ,man's own2 b 8 highe/ k1 ! pure ,reason1 comes f above1--f ! ,div9e ,ess5ce4 ,x is cle> t ! doctr9e ( ! ,_s1 z x /&s 9 ,k9di1 goes back to ! #8,n\s'-doctr9e ( ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias 9 8 second book 8,on ! ,s\l04 ,b ,alex&] expressly ma9ta9$ t accord+ to ,ari/otle !re is a ?reefold #8,n\s'4 ,k9di says on ! contr>y t he is repres5t+ ! op9ion ( ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,9 ?is ! ,neo-,py?agorean & ! ,neo-,platonic views unite3 = 9 ev]y?+ ! numb] #8,f\r' mu/ be po9t$ out1 & ,plato & ,ari/otle br\ght into agreem5t4 #f4 ,let u n[ sum up3 ,k9di is a ,mutazilite !ologian & ,neo-,platonic philosoph] ) ,neo-,py?agorean additions4 ,socrates1 ! m>tyr ( ,a!nian hea!nism1 is 8 ideal3 on him1 8 fate & 8 tea*+ he has compos$ sev]al works2 & he seeks to comb9e ,plato & ,ari/otle 9 ,neo-,platonic fa%ion4 ,tradition nev]!less calls him ! fir/ :o foll[$ ,ari/otle 9 8 writ+s2 & assur$ly ?is repres5tation is n altoge!r unf\nd$4 ,9 ! long li/ ( 8 works ,ari/otle takes a prom95t place4 ,he 0 n satisfi$ ) m]ely translat+ him1 b he /udi$ 8 translat$ works & endeav\r$ to improve & expla9 !m4 ,at all ev5ts ! ,ari/otelian ,physics1 ) ! comm5t>y ( ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias1 _h an important influ5ce ^u him4 ,su* ass]tions z t ! _w is only pot5tially un5d+ & n actually s1 & t motion is cont9u\s1 & ! l1 po9t r 9 t direction4 ,! ,natural-,philosoph]s ( t day1 z well z ! ,fai?ful ,bre?r51 said = in/ance1 t motion _h z little cont9uity z numb]4 ,b f>!r1 ,k9di resolutely turn$ away f ! m>vel-mong]+ philosophy ( ! "t1 by decl>+ ,al*emy an impo/ure4 ,t :i* nature alone c\ld produce1 he held to be beyond ! p[] ( man4 ,:oev] !n gives himself up to al*emi/ic exp]im5ts1 is 9 8 op9ion deceiv+ ei!r himself or o!rs4 ,! fam\s physician1 ,razi1 attempt$ to controv]t ?is view ( ,k9di's4 #g4 ,! influ5ce ( ,k9di z a tea*] & an au?or has op]at$ ma9ly ?r\gh 8 ,ma!matics1 ,a/rology1 ,geography & ,m$ic9e4 ,8 mo/ fai?ful & c]ta9ly 8 mo/ notable disciple 0 ,akhm$ ibn ,mohamm$ al-,tayyib al-,s>akhsi 7 #hii71 a gov]nm5t-(ficial & fri5d ( ! ,caliph ,mutadid1 to ^: neglig5ce or caprice he fell a victim4 ,he work$ at ,al*emy & ,a/rology1 /rove to ga9 a k ( ! wisdom & might ( ! ,creator f ! wond]s ( creation1 & prosecut$ ! /udy ( ,geography & ,hi/ory4 ,ano!r disciple ( ,k9di's has become bett] kn[n1--,abu ,ma%> 7 #hhe71 :o1 h[ev]1 owes all 8 reputation to ,a/rology4 ,he is said to h become1 :5 #dg ye>s ( age1 an admir] ( ,k9di's1--?\gh up till !n he _h be5 a fanatical oppon5t ( philosophy1--hav+ be5 attract$ to ! pursuit ( ,a/rology1 by a sup]ficial /udy ( ,ma!matics4 ,:e!r ?is be tru? or fiction1 su* a c\rse ( education is at all ev5ts *>act]i/ic ( t inquisitive grasp+ at half-und]/ood k1 :i* peculi>ly belongs to ! fir/ c5turies ( ,arab ,sci5ce4 ,! s*ool ( ,k9di w5t 9 no way beyond ! ma/]4 ,( its lit]>y activity h>dly any sample has be5 pres]v$ to u beyond a /ray quotation or two4 ,x is ( c\rse possible t 9 ! treatises ( ! ,fai?ful ,bre?r51 some?+ ( x may h be5 sav$1 b ?is _c be det]m9$1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k4 #b4 ,f>abi4 #a4 ,9 ! t5? c5tury ! ,logicians or ,metaphysicians are di/+ui%$ f ! ,natural-,philosoph]s4 ,! =m] foll[ a m rigor\s me?od ?an ! ,dialecticians1 & treat ( o!r subjects ?an ^? :i* are dealt ) by ! ,physical s*ool4 ,!y h repudiat$ ,py?agoras1 to entru/ !mselves to ! guidance ( ,ari/otle1 ( c\rse 9 ,neo-,platonic guise4 ,we h "h to d ) two directions ( sci5tific int]e/4 ,! ,natural-,philosoph]s are m or less conc]n$ ) ! pl5itude ( ! concrete ph5om5a ( ,nature1 z 9 ,geography & ,e?nology4 ,!y inve/igate 9 all directions ! effects ( ?+s1 & ?9k ! ess5tial nature ( ^! is only to be disc]n$ 9 su* effect or work+4 ,:5 !y d asc5d beyond ,nature1 ,s\l & ,_s1 to ! ,div9e ,ess5ce1 !n ! def9ition ( x to :i* !y conf9e !mselves1 or :i* !y adopt by pref]5ce1 is--#8! ,fir/ ,cause'1 or1--#8! wise ,creator'1 ^: goodness & wisdom appe> f 8 works4 ,! ,logicians proce$ 9 a v diff]5t way4 ,! occurr5ce ( ! ,p>ticul> has only a subord9ate value 9 _! eyes1--! value1 m]ely1 ( an illu/ration ( its d$ucibility f ! ,univ]sal4 ,:ile ! ,physici/s />t f effects or op]ations1 ! ,logicians seek to compreh5d ?+s f pr9ciples4 ,ev]y:]e !y enquire aft] ! ,idea or ,ess5ce ( ?+s1 up to ! highe/4 ,= !m1--to make ! contra/ m intelligible by an example--1 ,god is n1 fir/ ( all1 #8! wise ,creator'1 b fir/ ( all #8! necess>ily exi/+ ,be+'4 ,9 ! ord] ( "t ! ,logicians come aft] ! ,physical s*ool1 j z ! ,mutazilite ,dialectic on its "p 7v4 ,,ii1 #c #d & #e7 br\ght )9 ! scope ( its consid]ation fir/ ,god's ,work+1 & !n 8 ,be+4 ,we h already come to recognize ,razi z ! mo/ important repres5tative ( ! philosophical direction tak5 by ! ,physici/s2 & z = ! ,logical & ,metaphysical ef=ts1--= :i* ,k9di & o!rs _h prep>$ ! way1--!y culm9ate ) ,razi's y\ng] contempor>y ,abu ,nasr ibn ,mohamm$ ibn ,t>khan ibn ,uzlag al-,f>abi4 #b4 ,we _c say mu* ) c]ta9ty ab\t ! c\rse ( ,f>abi's outw>d life & tra9+4 ,he 0 a quiet man1 devot$ to a life ( philosophy & contemplation1 %elt]$ by ! p[]ful1 & assum+ at la/ ! dress ( a ,sufi4 ,8 fa!r is said to h be5 a ,p]sian g5]al1 & he himself 0 born at ,wasidj1 a small =tifi$ place 9 ! di/rict ( ,f>ab 9 ,turki% ,transoxiana4 ,x 0 9 ,bagdad1 & p>tly at ! h&s ( a ,*ri/ian preceptor ,yohanna ibn ,hailan1 t he receiv$ 8 education4 ,?is embrac$ bo? lit]>y & ma!matical subjects1 =m+ ! equival5t ( ! #8,trivium' & #8,quadrivium' ( m$ival ,*ri/5dom4 ,"o or two ( 8 writ+s1 p>ticul>ly on ,music1 give evid5ce /ill ( 8 ma!matical tra9+4 ,leg5d cr$its him ) ability to speak 9 all ! languages ( ! _w1 sev5ty 9 numb]4 ,t he und]/ood ,turki% & ,p]sian1--an a priori probability1--is manife/ f 8 works4 ,arabic he writes cle>ly1 & ) a c]ta9 grace1 al?\gh n[ & !n 8 fondness = synonyms & p>allel clauses int]f]es ) ! precision ( philosophical expression4 ,! philosophy 9 :i* ,f>abi 0 initiat$ sprung f ! s*ool ( ,m]v2 & p]haps its memb]s _h giv5 great] att5tion to metaphysical que/ions ?an ! m5 ( ,h>ran & ,basra ) _! m>k$ lean+ to ,natural ,philosophy4 ,f ,bagdad1 :]e he _h long liv$ & work$1 he w5t to ,haleb 7,aleppo71 9 consequ5ce d\btless ( political di/urbances1 & !re he settl$ at ! brilliant c\rt ( ,saif-addaula2 b he mu/ h sp5t 8 clos+ ye>s n at c\rt b 9 retirem5t4 ,he di$ at ,damascus1 :ile on a j\rney1 9 ,decemb]1 #iej2 & x is report$ t 8 pr9ce1 attir$ z a ,sufi1 pron\nc$ ov] him 8 fun]al oration4 ,we are told t he 0 eighty ye>s ( age1 & x is o!rwise probable t he 0 a v old man4 ,8 contempor>y1 & p>tn] 9 /udy1 ,abu ,bi%r ,matta di$ t5 ye>s be=e him1 & 8 pupil ,abu ,zak>iya ,yakhya ibn ,adi 9 ! ye> #iga1 at ! age ( eighty-"o4 #c4 ,! *ronological ord] ( ! works ( ,f>abi has n be5 det]m9$4 ,%ort] treatises 9 :i* he comes into t\* ) ! ,dialecticians & ,natural-,philosoph]s1 if ^! are at all g5u9e 9 ! =m h&$ d[n to u1 may h be5 popul> or juv5ile productions ( 82 b 8 mature p[]s 7 appli$ to ! /udy ( ,ari/otle's writ+s1 = :i* reason ! "n giv5 him by ! ,ea/ 0 #8! ,second ,tea*]'1 t is1 #8! ,second ,ari/otle'4 ,s9ce 8 day ! numb] & ord] ( ! works compos$ by ,ari/otle or at lea/ attribut$ to him1 :i* h be5 p>aphras$ & comm5t$ on aft] ,f>abi's example1 rema9 ^u ! :ole fix$4 ,fir/ come ! eight ,logical treatises1 viz41 ! ,categories2 ! ,h]m5eutics2 ! ,fir/ ,analytics2 ! ,second ,analytics2 ! ,topics2 ! ,sophi/ics2 ,rhetoric2 & ! ,poetics3 ,x is to ^! t ! ,isagoge ( ,porphyry is ! introduction4 ,!n foll[ ! eight treatises :i* deal ) ,physical subjects1 viz41 ,auscultatio ,physica2 ,de ,coelo et ,mundo2 ,de ,g5]atione et ,corruptione2 ! ,meteorology2 ! ,psy*ology2 ,de ,s5su et ,s5sato2 ! ,book ( ,plants2 & ! ,book ( ,animals4 ,la/ly come ! ,metaphysics1 ! ,e?ics1 ! ,politics & s on4 ,! s-call$ 8,!ology ( ,ari/otle0 0 /ill consid]$ by ,f>abi to be a g5u9e "w4 ,9 ,neo-,platonic fa%ion1 & ) "s attempt at adaptation to ! ,muslim fai?1 he seeks to demon/rate t ,plato & ,ari/otle h>monize ) "o ano!r4 ,! ne$ :i* he exp]i5ces is n = a discrim9at+ criticism1 b = a conclusive & compreh5sive view ( ! _w2 & ! satisfaction ( ?is ne$1--:i* is r a religi\s ?an a sci5tific "o1--induces him to ov]look philosophic diff]5ces4 ,plato & ,ari/otle mu/ diff] f ea* o!r only 9 me?od1 9 phraseology1 & 9 relation to practical life3 _! doctr9e ( wisdom is ! same4 ,!y are ! #8,imms' or #8highe/ au?orities' 9 philosophy2 & see+ t !y 7 two1 indep5d5t1 orig9al m9ds1 ! au?ority :i* is con/itut$ by _! agreem5t has m validity 9 ! eyes ( ,f>abi ?an ! fai? ( ! :ole ,muslim community1 :o ) bl9d confid5ce foll[ ! guidance ( "o4 #d4 ,f>abi is c\nt$ among ! physicians1 b he seems n to h be5 9 actual practice4 ,he 0 entirely devot$ to ! spiritual heal+ art4 ,purity ( ,s\l he d5om9at$ ! condition & fruit ( all philosophiz+1 & he dem&$ love ( tru? ev5 ?\gh x %\ld oppose ,ari/otle4 ,!n ! judgm5t has to be tra9$ by means ( ,geometry & ,logic = ! /udy ( physical & m5tal sci5ce4 ,f>abi1 h[ev]1 pays b little he$ to ! sep>ate bran*es ( /udy3 8 p[]s are conc5trat$ on ,logic1 ,metaphysics1 & ! pr9ciples ( ,physics4 ,philosophy = him is ! sci5ce ( all ,be+ z su*1 9 ! acquisition ( :i* sci5ce we come to resemble ! ,godhead4 ,x is ! "o1 all-embrac+ sci5ce1 :i* pictures ! _w to u z a ,univ]se4 ,f>abi's *>ge aga9/ ! ,dialecticians is1 t !y employ z a basis = _! demon/rations ! deliv]ances ( ord9>y consci\sness )\t te/+ !m2 & ! ,natural-,philosoph]s he blames = cont9ually occupy+ !mselves m]ely ) ! effect ( ?+s1 & ?us nev] gett+ beyond ! contra/s ( worldly ph5om5a by atta9+ to a unifi$ conception ( ! ,all4 ,he w\ld confront ! =m] by sett+ ,?\ght on a prop] f\ndation2 & 9 opposition to ! latt] he w\ld ?or\ghly inve/igate ! subject ( ! ,"o ,fir/ ,cause ( all t exi/s4 ,consequ5tly we %all be tak+ ! be/ way to d ju/ice to 8 hi/orical & dogmatic position1 if we endeav\r to give "s acc\nt1 fir/ ( 8 ,logic1 next ( 8 ,metaphysics1 & f9ally ( 8 ,physics & ,practical ,philosophy4 #e4 ,! ,logic ( ,f>abi is n a m]e analysis ( sci5tific ?9k+3 x conta9s 9 addition _m rem>ks on gramm>1 & discussions on ! !ory ( k4 ,:ile gramm> is limit$ to ! language ( "o p1 ,logic1 on ! o!r h&1 has to regulate ! expression 9 language ( ! aggregate intellig5ce ( mank9d4 ,f ! simple/ elem5ts ( spee* x mu/ advance to ! mo/ complex =ms1--f ! ^w to ! s5t5ce1 & on to disc\rse4 ,logic falls into two divisions1 accord+ z its subjects /& relat$ to actuality2 ! fir/ ( ^! compris+ ! doctr9e ( ,ideas & ,def9itions 7tasawwur71 & ! second1 ! doctr9e ( ,judgm5ts1 ,inf]5ces1 & ,pro(s 7tasdiq74 ,ideas1--) :i* are class$ ,def9itions1 ?\gh 9 a m]e loose1 outw>d juxtaposition1--h 9 !mselves no relation to actuality1 t is to say1 !y are nei!r true nor false4 ,among #8,ideas' ,f>abi recognizes "h ! simple/ psy*ological =ms1 t is1 bo? ! repres5tations ( individual objects aris+ f ,s5se-,p]ception1 & ^? ideas :i* h be5 /amp$ ^u ! m9d f ! fir/1 su* z ! ,necess>y1 ! ,actual1 ! ,possible4 ,su* repres5tations & ideas are imm$iately c]ta94 ,a man's m9d may be direct$ to ^!1 & 8 s\l made obs]vant ( !m1 b !y _c be demon/rat$ to him1 nor c !y be expla9$ by d]iv+ !m f :at is kn[n1 see+ t !y are already cle> 9 !mselves1 & t too ) ! highe/ degree ( c]titude4 ,by comb9+ repres5tations or ideas1 judgm5ts result1 & ^! may be ei!r true or false4 ,to obta9 a f\ndation = ^! judgm5ts we h to g back ?r\gh ! processes ( ,inf]5ce & ( ,pro( to c]ta9 propositions orig9ally convey$ to ! und]/&+1 imm$iately obvi\s1 & admitt+ ( no f>!r confirmation4 ,su* propositions1--! fundam5tal propositions or ,axioms ( all ,sci5ce1--!re mu/ be = ,ma!matics1 ,metaphysics1 & ,e?ics4 ,! doctr9e ( ,pro(1 by :i*1 />t+ f :at is kn[n & well-e/abli%$1 we arrive at a k ( some?+ =m]ly unkn[n1 is1 accord+ to ,f>abi1 ,logic prop]ly s call$4 ,acqua9tance ) ! lead+ ,concepts 7! ,categories71 & ) _! syn!sis 9 ,judgm5t 7,h]m5eutics7 & 9 ,inf]5ce 7,fir/ ,analytics7 furni%es only ! introduction !reto4 ,& 9 ! ,pro(-doctr9e ! *ief po9t is to asc]ta9 ! ,norms or pr9ciples ( a univ]sally valid & necess>y ,sci5ce1 :i* ,philosophy has to be4 ,"h ! ,law ( ,contradiction is look$ ^u z ! highe/ ( ^! pr9ciples1 by :i* law ! tru? or necessity ( a proposition1 & at ! same "t ! untru? or impossibility ( ! contr>y1 become kn[n 9 "o s+le cognitive act4 ,f ?is po9t ( view ! ,platonic ,di*otomy is to be pref]r$1 z a sci5tific me?od1 to ! ,ari/otelian ,polytomy4 ,& ,f>abi is n cont5t ) ! =mal side ( ! doctr9e ( pro(4 ,t doctr9e has to be m ?an a me?odology :i* po9ts out ! "r way to ! tru?3 x mu/ itself po9t out ! tru?2 x mu/ g5]ate sci5ce4 ,x n only deals ) judgm5ts z mat]ial = ! syllogism1 b x enquires also into ! tru? :i* !y conta91 ) ref]5ce to ! p>ticul> sci5ces conc]n$4 ,x is n a m]e implem5t2 x is r a con/itu5t "p ( philosophy4 ,z we h se51 ! !ory ( pro( t]m9ates 9 necess>y k1 correspond+ to necess>y exi/5ce4 ,b besides ?is !re is ! great prov9ce ( ! ,possible1 f :i* we c ga9 only a probable k4 ,! diff]5t degrees !n ( probability1 or ! modes 9 :i* we atta9 to a k ( ! ,possible1 are discuss$ 9 ! ,topics1 & ) !m are associat$ ,sophi/ic1 ,rhetoric & ,poetics4 ,9 o!r connections ^! la/ ?ree subjects are ma9ly conc]n$ ) practical aims1 b 9 ,f>abi's h&s !y are comb9$ ) ! ,topics into a ,dialectic ( ! ,seem+4 ,he proce$s to say t true sci5ce c be built up only on ! necess>y propositions ( ! ,second ,analytics1 b t ,probability %ades (f into ! m]e phantom ( tru?1 f ! topical or dialectic judgm5ts d[n to ! poetical4 ,?us ,poetry /&s at ! v bottom ( ! scale1 be+ 9 ,f>abi's op9ion a ly+ & immoral absurdity4 ,9 ! add5dum to ! ,isagoge ( ,porphyry1 our philosoph] has also giv5 expression to 8 views on ! "q ( #8,univ]sals'4 ,he f9ds ! ,p>ticul> n only 9 ?+s & 9 s5se-p]ception b also 9 ?\ght4 ,9 l mann] ! ,univ]sal exi/s n m]ely z an #8accid5t' 9 individual ?+s1 b also z a #8sub/ance' 9 m9d4 ,! m9d ( man ab/racts ! ,univ]sal f ?+s1 b x _h an exi/5ce ( its own be=e ^!4 ,virtually !re=e ! triple di/9ction ( ! #8ante rem'1 #89 re' & #8po/ rem' already occurs 9 ,f>abi4 ,does m]e #8be+' also belong to ! ,univ]sals8 ,is exi/5ce1 9 effect1 a pr$icate8 ,?is "q :i* caus$ s mu* mis*ief 9 philosophy 0 fully & correctly answ]$ by ,f>abi4 ,accord+ to him1 exi/5ce is a grammatical or logical relation1 b n a category ( actuality :i* makes any ass]tion ab\t ?+s4 ,! exi/5ce ( a ?+ is no?+ b ! ?+ itself4 #f4 ,! tr5d ( ?\ght f\nd 9 ! ,logic ass]ts itself also 9 ! ,metaphysics4 ,in/ead ( ! ,*angeable & ! ,ev]la/+1 !re em]ge ! ideas ( ! ,possible & ! ,necess>y4 ,ev]y?+ 9 fact t exi/s1 is1 9 ,f>abi's view1 ei!r a necess>y or a possible ?+2 !re is no ?ird k9d ( ,be+4 ,n[ s9ce all :i* is possible presupposes = its realisation a ,cause1 :ile yet ! *a9 ( causes _c be trac$ back )\t end1 we see ourselves compell$ to assume t !re is a ,be+1 exi/+ ( necessity1 uncaus$1 possess+ ! highe/ degree ( p]fection & an et]nal pl5itude ( reality1 self-suffic+1 )\t any *ange1 :o z absolute ,m9d & pure goodness & ?9k+1--be+ ! ?9k+ & ! ?\ght 9 "o nature1--loves ! all-transc5d+ goodness & beauty ( t nature1 :i* is 8 own4 ,?is ,be+ _c be prov$ to exi/1 because he himself is ! pro( & fir/ cause ( all ?+s1 9 :om tru? & reality co9cide4 ,& x is involv$ 9 ! v idea ( su* a ,be+1 t he %\ld be "o1 & "o only1 = if !re 7 two fir/ & absolute ,be+s1 !y w\ld h to be p>tly alike & p>tly diff]5t1--9 :i* case1 h[ev]1 ! simplicity ( ea* w\ld be de/roy$4 ,a ,be+ :o is ! mo/ p]fect ( all1 mu/ be "o alone4 ,?is fir/ ,exi/5ce1 "o alone1 & ( a v]ity real1 we call ,god2 & s9ce 9 him all ?+s are "o1 )\t ev5 diff]5ce 9 k9d1 no def9ition ( 8 ,be+ c be suppli$4 ,yet man be/[s ^u him ! noble/ names1 expressive ( all t is mo/ hon\r$ & e/eem$ 9 life1 because 9 ! my/ic impulse !reto1 words lose _! usual significance1 transc5d+ all discrepancy4 ,"s names ref] to 8 ess5tial nature1 o!rs to 8 relation to ! _w1 )\t prejudic+1 h[ev]1 ! unity ( 8 ess5ce2 b !y are all to be und]/ood metaphorically1 & we c int]pret !m only accord+ to feeble analogy4 ,( ,god1 z ! mo/ p]fect ,be+1 we ought prop]ly to h also ! mo/ complete idea4 ,at lea/ our ma!matical notions are m p]fect ?an our notions ( physics1 because ! =m] ref] to ! m p]fect objects4 ,b ) ! mo/ p]fect object ( all we f>e z ) ! mo/ brilliant light3 by reason ( ! weakness ( our eyes we _c be> x4 ,?us ! imp]fections inh]5t 9 ,matt] cl+ to our und]/&+4 #g4 ,we are able to see ,god bett] 9 ! regul> gradation ( ,be+s :i* proce$ f him ?an 9 himself4 ,f him1 ! ,"o alone1 comes ! ,all1 = 8 k is ! highe/ p[]3 ,9 8 cognizance ( himself ! _w comes into be+3 ,! cause ( all ?+s is n ! w ( an almighty ,creator1 b ! k ( ! ,necess>y4 ,f et]nity ! ,=ms or ,types ( ?+s are 9 ,god1 & f him et]nally proce$s also 8 own image1 t]m$ #8! ,second ,all' or #8! fir/ creat$ ,_s'1 :i* moves ! out]mo/ cele/ial ,sph]e4 ,9 succession to ?is ,_s1 come1 "o out ( ! o!r1 ! eight ,spirits ( ! ,sph]es1 all ( :i* are unique 9 _! sev]al k9ds & p]fect1 & ^! are ! creators ( ! cele/ial bodies4 ,^! n9e ,spirits1 call$ #8,cele/ial ,angels'1 toge!r =m ! second grade ( ,be+4 ,9 ! ?ird grade /&s ! ,reason1 active 9 ,humanity1 :i* is also t]m$ ! ,holy ,_s & :i* unites heav5 & e>?4 ,! ,s\l is 9 ! f\r? grade4 ,^! two1 ! ,reason & ! ,s\l1 d n rema9 by !mselves 9 _! /rict orig9al ,"o-ness1 b multiply 9 accordance ) ! great numb] ( human be+s4 ,la/ly appe> ,=m & ,matt]1 z ,be+s ( ! fif? & six? ord]s2 & ) !m ! s]ies ( ,spiritual exi/5ces is clos$4 ,! fir/ ?ree grades1 ,god1 ! ,spirits ( ! ,sph]es1 & ! ,active ,reason1 rema9 ,_s p] se2 b ! ?ree :i* foll[1--,s\l1 ,=m & ,matt]1 al?\gh incorporeal1 yet ent] into relation ) ,body4 ,! ,corporeal1 :i* is held to orig9ate 9 ! imag9ation ( ! ,_s1 has also its six grades3 ,cele/ial ,bodies1 ,human ,bodies1 ,bodies ( ,l[] ,animals1 ,bodies ( ,plants1 ,m9]als1 & ,elem5t>y ,bodies4 ,! influ5ce ( ,f>abi's ,*ri/ian preceptor is probably /ill to be se5 9 ^! speculations1 foll[+ z !y d ! numb] ,?ree4 ,t numb] _h ! same significance 9 !m t ! numb] ,f\r _h ) ! ,natural-,philosoph]s4 ,! t]m9ology also be>s out ?is idea4 ,t1 h[ev]1 is m]ely ext]nal3 ,x is ,neo-,platonism t contributes ! cont5ts4 ,"h ! ,creation1 or ,emanation ( ! _w1 appe>s z an et]nal1 intellectual process4 ,by ! fir/ creat$ ,_s ?9k+ ( its ,au?or1 ! second ,sph]e-_s comes into be+2 :ile1 by ! same ,_s ?9k+ ( itself & ?us realiz+ itself1 !re proce$s f x ! fir/ ,body1 or ! upp]mo/ cele/ial ,sph]e4 ,& s ! process goes on 9 necess>y succession1 d[n to ! l[e/ ,sph]e1 t ( ! ,moon1 9 entire accordance ) ! ,ptolemaic ,sph]e-sy/em1--z x is kn[n to e well-educat$ p]son at lea/ f ,dante's 8,comm$ia01--& 9 ! ,neo-,platonic mann] ( d]ivation4 ,! ,sph]es toge!r =m an unbrok5 ord]1 = all t exi/s is a ,unity4 ,! creation & pres]vation ( ! _w are "o & ! same4 ,& n only is ! unity ( ! ,div9e ,be+ portray$ 9 ! _w1 b ! ,div9e righte\sness is also express$ 9 ! beautiful ord] :i* !re prevails4 ,! logical ord] ( ! _w is at ! same "t a moral ord]4 #h4 ,! sublun>y _w ( ?is e>? is1 ( c\rse1 :olly dep5d5t on ! _w ( ! cele/ial sph]es4 ,yet ! influ5ce f above be>s 9 ! fir/ place1 z we "k a priori1 ^u ! necess>y ord] ( ! :ole1 al?\gh 9 ! second place ! individual ?+ also is made to happ51 b only accord+ to natural reciprocal action1 & !re=e by rules :i* exp]i5ce tea*es u4 ,a/rology1 :i* attributes ev]y?+ t is cont+5t or extraord9>y to ! />s & _! conjunctions1 is combat$ by ,f>abi4 ,!re is no c]ta9 k ( ! ,cont+5t2 &1--z ,ari/otle also has taught1--mu* ( :at happ5s on ?is e>? possesses 9 a high degree ! "* ( ! ,cont+5t or ! ,possible4 ,! cele/ial _w1 on ! o!r h&1 has ano!r & a m p]fect nature1 :i* op]ates accord+ to necess>y laws4 ,x c be/[ ^u ?is e>?ly _w only t :i* is good2 & !re=e x is a complete mi/ake to ma9ta9 t "s />s br+ good luck1 & o!rs ill luck4 ,! nature ( ! heav5s is "o1 & x is uni=mly good4 ,! conclusion !n at :i* ,f>abi arrives1 by ^! reflections is ?is3 ,k1 capable ( demon/ration1 & p]fectly c]ta91 is af=d$ by ,ma!matical ,a/ronomy alone2 ! physical /udy ( ! heav5s yields a probable k2 b ! t5ets & vatic9ations ( ,a/rology m]it an exce$+ly hesitat+ belief4 ,ov]aga9/ ! simplicity ( ! cele/ial _w we h ! sublun>y k+dom ( ! f\r natures1--! k+dom ( contra/s & ( *ange4 ,ev5 9 ?is realm1 9 ! mid/ ( its plurality1 we meet ) ! unity ( an asc5d+ s]ies1 f ! ,elem5ts up to ,man4 ,f>abi is unable to advance mu* t is orig9al on ?is subject4 ,true to 8 logical /&po9t1 he gives himself v little conc]n ab\t ! ,natural ,sci5ces1 among :i*1 9 reliance ^u ! orig9al unity ( matt]1 he seems )\t any hesitation to h c\nt$ ,al*emy4 ,we turn at once to 8 ,doctr9e ( ,man or ( ! ,human ,s\l1 :i* pres5ts a measure ( int]e/4 #i4 ,! p[]s or divisions ( ! ,human ,s\l are1 9 ,f>abi's op9ion1 n ( co-ord9ate rank1 b con/itute an asc5d+ s]ies4 ,! l[] faculty is ,mat]ial = ! high]2 & ?is aga9 is ! ,=m = ! fir/1 :ile ! highe/ p[] ( all1 viz4 ,?9k+1 is non-mat]ial1 & is ,=m = all ! ,=ms :i* prec$e4 ,! life ( ! ,s\l is rais$ f ?+s ( s5se to ?\ght1 by means ( ! p[] ( ,repres5tation2 b 9 all ! faculties !re is involv$ ,ef=t or ,w4 ,e !ory has its obv]se side 9 practice2 & ,incl9ation & ,dis9cl9ation are insep>able f ! p]ceptions furni%$ by ! s5ses4 ,to ! repres5tations ( ^! ! s\l takes up an attitude ( ass5t or diss5t1 by affirm+ or d5y+4 ,f9ally1 ,?\ght passes judgm5t on ,good & ,bad1 gives to ! ,w its motives1 & con/ructs ,art & ,sci5ce4 ,all ,p]ception1 ,repres5tation or ,?\ght is att5d$ ) a c]ta9 ef=t to rea* ! necess>y consequ5ce1 j z w>m? radiates f ! sub/ance ( fire4 ,! ,s\l is t :i* gives complet5ess 7,entele*ia7 to ! exi/5ce ( ! body2 b t :i* gives complet5ess to ! exi/5ce ( ! ,s\l is ! ,m9d1 or ! ,_s 7aql74 ,! ,_s only is ! real ,man4 #aj4 ,accord+ly ! discussion turns ma9ly on ! ,m9d or ,_s4 ,9 ! human ,_s ev]y?+ e>?ly is rais$ to a high] mode ( exi/5ce1 :i* is lift$ out ( ! categories ( ! ,corporeal4 ,n[ z a capability or pot5tiality1 ,m9d or ,_s is pres5t 9 ! ,s\l ( ! ,*ild2 & x becomes actual ,_s 9 ! c\rse ( its appreh5sion ( bodily =ms 9 exp]i5ce by means ( ! ,s5ses & ! repres5tative faculty4 ,b ?is transition f possibility to actuality1--! realisation ?us ( exp]i5ce1--is n ,man's own act1 b is br\ght ab\t by ! ,sup]human ,_s1 :i* has sprung f ! la/ ,sph]e-,_s1 t ( ! ,moon4 ,9 ?is way ,man's k is repres5t$ z be+ a contribution f above1 & n a k :i* has be5 acquir$ 9 m5tal /ruggle4 ,9 ! light ( ! ,_s :i* /&s above u1 our und]/&+ descries ! ,=ms ( ! ,corporeal2 & !reby exp]i5ce is amplifi$ into rational k4 ,exp]i5ce1 9 fact1 takes 9 only ! ,=ms :i* h be5 ab/ract$ f ! _w ( ,matt]4 ,b !re are 9 exi/5ce also1--be=e & above mat]ial ?+s1--,=ms & g5]al entities1 9 ! pure ,spirits ( ! ,sph]es4 ,man n[ receives in=mation f ^! #8deta*$ ,=ms'3 x is only by means ( _! influ5ce t 8 actual exp]i5ce becomes explicable to him4 ,f ,god d[n to ! ,_s ( ,mank9d1 ! high] ,=m affects only t :i* imm$iately succe$s x4 ,e int]m$iate ,=m /&s 9 a relation ( #8receptive' activity to :at is above x1 & ( #8conf]r+' activity to :at is bel[ x4 ,9 its relation to ! ,human ,_s1 :i* is influ5c$ f above 7aql mu/afad71 ! ,sup]human ,_s1 produc$ f ! la/ ,sph]e-,_s1 is to be call$ #8active' or #8creative' 7aql fal74 ,yet x is n cont9ually active1 because its effectiv5ess is re/ra9$ by its mat]ial4 ,b ,god is ! completely-real1 et]nally-active ,_s4 ,! ,_s 9 ,man is ?reefold3 accord+ z x is 7#a7 ,possible1 7#b7 ,actual1 & 7#c7 ,influ5c$ f above4 ,n[ 9 ! s5se ( ,f>abi1 ?is means--t 7#a7 ! spiritual pot5tiality 9 ,man is1 by means ( 7#b7 realiz+ ! k :i* is ga9$ by exp]i5ce1 7#c7 l$ to ! k ( ! ,sup]s5sible1 :i* prec$es all exp]i5ce1 & itself induces ! exp]i5ce4 ,! grades ( ,_s & its k correspond to ! grades ( exi/5ce4 ,! l[] /rives wi/fully to rea* ! high]1 & ! high] lifts ! l[] up to its own level4 ,! ,_s :i* /&s above u1 & :i* has l5t to all e>?ly ?+s _! ,=ms1 seeks to br+ ^! scatt]$ ,=ms toge!r t !y may become "o 9 love4 ,fir/ ( all he collects !m 9 ,man4 ,& inde$ ! possibility & tru? ( human k dep5d on ! fact t ! same ,_s :o be/[$ ^u ! ,corporeal its figure1 also gives ,idea to ,man4 ,! scatt]$ ,=ms ( ! e>?ly are f\nd aga9 9 ! ,human ,_s1 & !reby x comes to resemble ! la/ ( ! ,cele/ial ,spirits4 ,unity ) t ,cele/ial ,_s1--& 9 ?is an approa* to ,god1--is ! aim & ! bless$ness ( ! ,_s ( ,man4 ,n[ ! "q :e!r su* a union is possible be=e ,man's dea? is1 9 ,f>abi's op9ion1 ei!r a d\btful "o1 or "o :i* %\ld be answ]$ 9 ! direct negative4 ,! highe/ ?+ t c be atta9$ 9 ?is life1 is rational k4 ,b sep>ation f ! body gives to ! rational s\l ! complete fre$om :i* belongs to _s4 ,b does x !n cont9ue to exi/ z an individual s\l8 ,or is x m]ely a ,mom5t ( ! high] ,_w-,intellig5ce8 ,on ?is po9t ,f>abi expresses himself ambigu\sly1 & ) a lack ( consi/5cy1 9 8 v>i\s writ+s4 ,m51--s ! expression runs1--disappe> 9 dea?2 "o g5]ation foll[s ano!r2 & l is jo9$ to l1 ea* 9 its own class4 ,& =asmu* z rational s\ls are n b\nd to space1 !y multiply )\t end1 j z ?\ght is add$ to ?\ght1 & p[] to p[]4 ,e s\l reflects on itself & all o!rs t are l to x2 & ! m x s reflects1 ! m int5se is its joy 7,cf4 infra1 #ac74 #aa4 ,we come n[ to ,f>abi's practical philosophy4 ,9 8 ,e?ics & ,politics we are br\ght into a some:at clos] relation to ! life & belief ( ! ,muslims4 ,"o or two g5]al po9ts ( view may be br\ght =w>d4 ,j z ,logic has to give an acc\nt ( ! pr9ciples ( k1 s ,e?ics h to deal ) ! fundam5tal rules ( conduct1 al?\gh1 9 ! latt]1 some:at m value is atta*$ to practice & exp]i5ce ?an 9 ! !ory ( k4 ,9 ! treatm5t ( ?is subject ,f>abi agrees sometimes ) ,plato1 & sometimes ) ,ari/otle2 b occasionally1 9 a my/ic & ascetic fa%ion1 he goes f>!r ?an ei!r ( !m4 ,9 opposition to ! ,!ologians1 :o recognize1 no d\bt1 a k ga9$ by ,reason1 b n rules ( conduct taught by ,reason1 ,f>abi frequ5tly affirms ) emphasis t ,reason decides :e!r a ?+ is good or evil4 ,:y %\ld n t ,reason1 :i* has be5 imp>t$ to u f above1 decide ^u conduct1 see+ t ! highe/ virtue c]ta9ly consi/s 9 kn[+8 ,9 vigor\sly acc5tuat$ t]ms ,f>abi decl>es t if "o man knew ev]y?+ t /&s 9 ! writ+s ( ,ari/otle1 b did n act 9 accordance ) 8 k1 :ile ano!r man %ap$ 8 conduct 9 accordance ) ,ari/otle's tea*+1 )\t be+ acqua9t$ ) x1 ! pref]5ce w\ld h to be assign$ to ! =m]4 ,k takes a high] position ?an ! moral act2 o!rwise x c\ld n decide ^u ! act4 ,by its v nature ! ,s\l desires4 ,9 s f> z x p]ceives & repres5ts1 x has a w1 j l ! l[] animals4 ,b man alone possesses fre$om ( *oice1 see+ t ?is re/s ^u rational consid]ation4 ,pure ?\ght is ! sph]e ( fre$om4 ,?us x is a fre$om :i* dep5ds ^u motives furni%$ by ?9k+1--a fre$om :i* is at ! same "t necessity1 inasmu* z 9 ! la/ resort x is det]m9$ by ! rational nature ( ,god4 ,9 ?is s5se ,f>abi is a ,det]m9i/4 ,on acc\nt ( ! opposition (f]$ by matt]1 ! fre$om ( man1 z ?us conceiv$1 c only imp]fectly v9dicate its lord%ip ov] ! ,s5sible4 ,x does n become p]fect till ! rational s\l has be5 enfran*is$ f ! bonds ( matt] & ! wrapp+s ( error1--9 ! life ( ! ,_s4 ,b t is ! highe/ bless$ness :i* is /riv5 aft] = its own sake1 & consequ5tly x is pla9ly ! ,good4 ,su* good ! ,human ,s\l is seek+1 :5 x turns to ! ,_s above x1 j z ! ,spirits ( ! heav5s d1 :5 !y draw ne> to ! ,highe/4 #ab4 ,ev5 9 ! ,e?ics little reg>d is _h to actual moral conditions2 b 9 8 ,politics ,f>abi )draws /ill f>!r f real life4 ,9 8 ori5tal way ( look+ at ?+s1 ! ideal ,republic ( ,plato m]ges into #8! ,philosoph] z ,rul]'4 ,m51 hav+ be5 br\ght toge!r by a natural want1 submit !mselves to ! w ( a s+le p]son1 9 :om ! ,/ate1 be x good or bad1 is1 s to speak1 embodi$4 ,a ,/ate !re=e is bad1 if ! head ( x is1 z reg>ds ! pr9ciples ( ! ,good1 ei!r ignorant or 9 error1 or q deprav$4 ,on ! o!r h& ! good or excell5t ,/ate has only "o type1 t namely 9 :i* ! philosoph] is rul]4 ,& ,f>abi end[s 8 #8,pr9ce' ) all ! virtues ( humanity & philosophy3 he is ,plato 9 ! mantle ( ! ,prophet ,mohamm$4 ,9 ! description ( rul]s repres5tative ( ! ideal ,pr9ce1--= !re may be m ?an "o exi/+ toge!r1 & ,pr9ce & m9i/] may divide gov]n+-virtue & wisdom betwe5 !m1--we come ne>] ! ,muslim political !ory ( t day4 ,b ! expressions are wrapp$ 9 obscurity3 ! l9eage1 = example1 :i* is prop] = a ,pr9ce1 & 8 duty ( tak+ ! lead 9 ! holy w>1--are n cle>ly signifi$4 ,all inde$ is left float+ 9 philosophic mi/4 #ac4 ,morality rea*es p]fection only 9 a ,/ate :i* at ! same "t =ms a religi\s community4 ,n only does ! condition ( ! ,/ate det]m9e ! temporal lot ( its citiz5s1 b also _! future de/9y4 ,! s\ls ( citiz5s 9 an 8ignorant0 ,/ate are devoid ( reason1 & return to ! elem5ts z s5sible ,=ms1 9 ord] to be unit$ anew ) o!r be+s1--m5 or l[] animals4 ,9 ,/ates :i* are 89 error01 & 9 ^? :i* are 8deprav$01 ! lead] alone is responsible1 & puni%m5t awaits him 9 ! _w beyond2 b ! s\ls :i* h be5 l$ into error %>e ! fate ( ! ignorant4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! good & #8kn[+' s\ls only ma9ta9 _! gr\nd1 !y ent] ! _w ( pure ,_s2 & ! high] ! /age ( k to :i* !y h atta9$ 9 ?is life1 ! high] w _! position be aft] dea?1 9 ! ord] ( ! ,all1 & ! m int5se _! bless$ delight4 ,9 all likelihood expressions ( ?is k9d are only ! out] wrapp+ ( a my/ico-philosophical belief 9 ! absorption ( ! ,human ,_s into ! ,_w-,_s & f9ally into ,god4 ,=1--z ,f>abi tea*es1--al?\gh ! _w1 d$uctively consid]$ 7i4e4 logically & metaphysically71 is some?+ diff]5t f ,god1 yet inductively ! pres5t _w is reg>d$ by ! s\l z be+ id5tical ) ! next1 because 9 ev]y?+1 ev5 9 8 ,unity1 ,god is himself ! ,all4 #ad4 ,if we n[ take a g5]al survey ( ,f>abi's sy/em1 x exhibits itself z a fairly consi/5t ,spiritualism1--or1--to be m precise1--,intellectualism4 ,! ,corporeal1--t :i* appeals to ! ,s5ses1--z x orig9ates 9 ! imag9ation ( ! ,_s1 might be designat$ 8a confus$ pres5tation04 ,! only true exi/5ce is ,_s1 al?\gh x assumes v>i\s degrees4 ,god alone is entirely unmix$ & pure ,_s1 :ile ^? ,spirits1 :i* et]nally proce$ f him1 already h 9 !m ! elem5t ( plurality4 ,! numb] ( prim>y ,spirits has be5 det]m9$ by ! ,ptolemaic cosmology1 & corresponds to ! cele/ial hi]>*y4 ,! f>!r any "o ( !m is remov$ f ! fir/1 s mu* ! less "p has x 9 ! ,be+ ( ! pure ,_s4 ,f ! la/ ,_w-,_s ,man receives 8 ess5tial nature1 t is--,reason4 ,!re is no gap 9 all ! sy/em2 ! ,univ]se is a beautiful & well-ord]$ :ole4 ,! ,evil & ! ,bad are ! necess>y consequ5ce ( f9it5ess 9 individual ?+s2 b ! ,good :i* *>act]izes ! ,univ]se is set !reby 9 bold] relief4 ,c ?is fair ord] ( ! ,univ]se1 f all et]nity emanat+ f ,god1 ev] be de/roy$1 or c x ev5 fl[ back to ,god8 ,a su/a9$ /ream+-back to ! ,godhead1 !re d\btless is4 ,! long+ ( ! ,s\l is direct$ to :at is above & advanc+ k purifies x & leads x upw>ds4 ,b h[ f>8 ,nei!r philosoph]s nor prophets h be5 able to return a cle> answ] to ?is "q4 ,& ! wisdom ( bo? ( ^!1--bo? philosophy & prophecy1--,f>abi d]ives f ! creative ,_w-,_s above u4 ,n[ & aga9 he speaks ( prophecy z if x repres5t$ ! highe/ /age ( human k & action4 ,b t _c be 8 real view2--at lea/ x is n ! logical consequ5ce ( 8 !oretical philosophy4 ,accord+ to x ev]y?+ prophetic1--9 dream1 vision1 revelation & s on1--belongs to ! sph]e ( ! ,imag9ation or ,repres5tation1 & ?us takes an int]m$iate position betwe5 ,s5se-,p]ception & pure ,rational ,k4 ,al?\gh1 9 8 ,e?ics & ,politics1 he atta*es a high educational importance to religion1 x is always reg>d$ z inf]ior 9 absolute wor? to k acquir$ ?r\gh pure reason4 ,f>abi liv$ p]petually 9 ! _w ( ! ,intellect4 ,a k+ 9 ! m5tal realm1 a begg> 9 worldly possessions1 he felt happy ) 8 books1 & ) ! birds & fl[]s ( 8 g>d54 ,to 8 p1--! ,muslim community1--he c\ld be only v little4 ,9 8 political & e?ical tea*+ !re 0 no prop] place = worldly matt]s or = ! #8holy w>'4 ,8 philosophy did n satisfy any ne$ app]ta9+ to ! s5ses1 :ile x spoke aga9/ ! life ( imag9ation belong+ bo? to ! s5ses & ! intellect1 z t life gives special expression to itself 9 ! creations ( ,art & 9 religi\s fancies4 ,he 0 lo/ 9 ! ab/ractions ( pure ,_s4 ,z a pi\s1 holy man1 he 0 an object ( wond] to 8 contempor>ies1 & by a few disciples he 0 hon\r$ z ! p]sonification ( wisdom2 b by ! g5u9e s*ol>s ( ,islam he 0 always decri$ z a h]etic4 ,!re 01 ( c\rse1 gr\nd en\gh = ?is3 j z ,natural ,philosophy easily l$ to ,naturalism & ,a!ism1 ! ,mono!ism ( ! ,logicians imp]ceptibly conduct$ to ,pan!ism4 #ae4 ,f>abi _h no great foll[+ ( disciples3 ,abu ,zak>iya ,yakhya ibn ,adi1 a ,jacobite ,*ri/ian1 became kn[n z a translator ( ,ari/otelian works2 b a pupil ( ,zak>iya's came to be m spok5 (1 call$ ,abu ,sulaiman ,mohamm$ ibn ,tahir ibn ,bahram al-,sidji/ani1 :o ga!r$ ab\t him 9 ,bagdad1 9 ! second half ( ! t5? c5tury1 ! le>n$ m5 ( 8 "t4 ,! conv]sational discussions :i* !y conduct$1 & ! philosophical in/ructions :i* 7 imp>t$ by ! ma/]1 h be5 to "s ext5t pres]v$1 & we c cle>ly see ! outcome ( ! s*ool4 ,j z ,natural ,philosophy drift$ into a secret lore1 & ! s*ool ( ,k9di ab&on$ ,philosophy = ! sep>ate bran*es ( ,ma!matical & ,physical ,sci5ce1 s ! logical t5d5cy ( ,f>abi pass$ into a philosophy ( words4 ,di/9ctions & def9itions =m ! subject ( ^! conf]5ces4 ,individual po9ts 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy & 9 ! sev]al sci5ces are discuss$ also1 )\t any sy/ematic connection2 b almo/ nev] does any positive int]e/ 9 ^! subjects appe>4 ,! ,human ,s\l occupies ! =egr\nd entirely1 j z 9 ! case ( ! ,fai?ful ,bre?r51 except t ^! la/ dealt r ) ! m>vell\s op]ations ( ! ,s\l1 :ile ! ,logicians pond]$ ov] its rational ess5ce & its elevation to ! ,supra-rational4 ,! ,sidji/ani ,society trifl$ ) words & concepts1 in/ead ( ) numb]s & lett]s aft] ! fa%ion ( ! ,bre?r52 b ! end 9 bo? cases 0--a my/ical ,sufism4 ,x is !re=e no matt] ( a/oni%m5t t 9 ! le>n$ meet+s ( ,abu ,sulaiman1 z report$ by 8 pupil ,tauhidi 7 #ajji71 ,emp$ocles1 ,socrates1 ,plato & o!rs are (t5] m5tion$ ?an ,ari/otle4 ,a v miscellane\s society came toge!r 9 ^? meet+s4 ,no "q 0 ask$ z to ! c\ntry f :i* any "o came1 or ! religion to :i* he adh]$4 ,!y liv$ 9 ! conviction1--d]iv$ f ,plato1 t e op9ion conta9$ a measure ( tru?1 j z all ?+s %>$ 9 a common exi/5ce1 & all sci5ces 9 an actual k :i* 0 "o & ! same4 ,on t assumption alone c\ld !y h conceiv$ t e "o might />t ) ma9ta9+ t 8 own op9ion 0 ! true "o1 & t ! sci5ce :i* he cultivat$ 0 ! sci5ce mo/ to be pref]r$4 ,& = t v reason !re is no conflict betwe5 ,religion & ,philosophy1 h[ev] vehem5t ! ass]tions may be on ^! two sides4 ,on ! contr>y ,philosophy confirms ! doctr9es ( ,religion1 j z ! latt] br+s ! results ( ,philosophy to p]fection4 ,if ,philosophical ,k is ! ess5ce & end ( ! ,s\l ( man1 ,religi\s ,belief is its life1 or ! way to t end2 & z ,reason is ,god's viceg]5t on e>?1 x is impossible = ,reason & ,revelation to contradict ea* o!r4 ,x is n wor? :ile to acc5tuate p>ticul> po9ts 9 ^! conv]sational discussions1 ! t5or ( :i* we h giv54 ,! appe>ance ( ,sidji/ani & 8 circle is important 9 ! hi/ory ( culture2 b x has no significance z reg>ds ! developm5t ( ,philosophy 9 ,islam4 ,:at 0 to ,f>abi ! v life ( 8 ,_s1 becomes 9 ?is ,society a subject m]ely ( clev] conv]sation4 #c4 ,ibn ,maskawaih4 #a4 ,we h arriv$ at ! po9t ( "t :5 ! t5? c5tury is pass+ into ! elev5?4 ,f>abi's s*ool has app>5tly di$ out2 & ,ibn ,s9a1--de/9$ to awak5 into fre% life ! philosophy ( 8 pr$ecessor1--is /ill a y\?4 ,"h h[ev] we h to make m5tion ( a man1 m alli$1 x is true1 to ,k9di ?an to ,f>abi1 b :o yet agrees ) ! latt] 9 ess5tial po9ts1 by reason ( employ+ ! same s\rces ) him4 ,he af=ds an in/ance also ( ! fact t ! mo/ sagaci\s m9ds ( 8 "t 7 n dispos$ to foll[ ,f>abi into ! region ( ,logico-,metaphysical speculation4 ,?is man is ,abu ,ali ibn ,maskawaih1 physician1 philologi/ & hi/orian1 :o 0 ! treasur] & fri5d ( ! ,sultan ,adudaddaula1 & :o di$ full ( ye>s 9 #ajcj4 ,among/ o!r ?+s he has left u a philosophical sy/em ( ,e?ics :i* up to ?is day is valu$ 9 ! ,ea/4 ,x is a comb9ation ( mat]ial tak5 f ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 ,gal5 & ! ,muslim ,religi\s ,law1 al?\gh ,ari/otle pr$om9ates 9 x4 ,x comm5ces ) a treatise on ! ,ess5tial ,nature ( ! ,s\l4 #b4 ,! ,s\l ( ,man1 z ,ibn ,maskawaih expla9s1 is a simple1 incorporeal sub/ance1 consci\s ( its own exi/5ce1 k & work+4 ,t x mu/ be ( a spiritual nature--foll[s f ! v fact t x appropriates at "o & ! same "t ,=ms ! mo/ oppos$ to ea* o!r1 = example1 ! notions ( :ite & black1 :ile a body c only take up "o ( ! two =ms at a "t4 ,f>!r1 x appreh5ds bo? ! =ms ( ! ,s5sible & ^? ( ! ,spiritual 9 ! same spiritual mann]1 = ,l5g? is n #8long' 9 ! s\l1 nor does x become #8long]' 9 ! memory4 ,accord+ly ! k & endeav\r ( ! s\l ext5d f> beyond its own body3 ev5 ! entire _w ( s5se _c satisfy x4 ,moreov] x possesses an inborn rational k1 :i* _c h be5 be/[$ by ! ,s5ses1 = x is by means ( ?is k t x det]m9es ! ,true & ! ,false1 9 ! c\rse ( comp>+ & di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! objects pres5t$ to x 9 ,s5se-,p]ception1--?us sup]vis+ & regulat+ ! ,s5ses4 ,f9ally1 x is 9 ,self-,consci\sness1 or kn[+ ( its own kn[+1 t ! spiritual unity ( ! s\l is mo/ cle>ly %ewn1--a unity1 9 :i* ?9k+1 t :i* ?9ks1 & t :i* is ?\ght--all co9cide4 ,! human s\l is di/+ui%$ f ! s\ls ( ! l[] animals p>ticul>ly by rational reflection z ! pr9ciple ( its conduct1 direct$ t[>ds ! ,good4 #c4 ,t by :i* a ,be+1 possess$ ( w1 atta9s ! end or ! p]fection ( 8 nature is1 9 g5]al t]ms1 #8good'4 ,a c]ta9 capability1 !re=e1 or disposition1 direct$ to an end is requisite1 9 ord] to be good4 ,b z reg>ds _! capability m5 diff] v ess5tially4 ,only a few1--,maskawaih ?9ks1--are by nature good1 & nev] become bad1 s9ce :at is by nature1 does n *ange2 :ile on ! o!r h&1 _m are by nature bad1 & nev] become good4 ,o!rs1 h[ev]1 :o at fir/ are nei!r good nor bad1 are def9itely turn$ ei!r 9 ! "o direction or ! o!r1 ?r\gh upbr++ & social int]c\rse4 ,n[ ! ,good is ei!r a g5]al good or a p>ticul> good4 ,!re is an absolute ,good1 :i* is id5tical ) ! highe/ ,be+ & ! highe/ k2 & all ! good toge!r /rive to atta9 to x4 ,b = e individual p]son a p>ticul> ,good pres5ts itself subjectively "u ! aspect ( ,happ9ess or ,pleasure2 & ?is consi/s 9 ! full & active manife/ation ( 8 own ess5tial nature1--9 ! complete realisation ( 8 inmo/ be+4 ,speak+ g5]ally1--,man is good & happy1 if he acts z ,man3 ,virtue is human excell5ce4 ,b s9ce humanity is pres5t$ z occupy+ diff]5t levels 9 diff]5t individuals1 ,happ9ess or ! ,good is n ! same = all4 ,& because an individual man1 if he 7 left to 8 own res\rces c\ld n realize all ! good ?+s t might o!rwise be obta9$1 x is necess>y t _m %\ld live toge!r4 ,z a consequ5ce ( ?is condition1 ! fir/ ( duties1 or ! f\ndation ( all ! virtues1 is a g5]al love = humank9d1 )\t :i* no society is possible4 ,x is only along )1 & among o!r human be+s t ! individual man atta9s p]fection2--s t ,e?ics mu/ be ,social ,e?ics4 ,fri5d%ip !re=e is n1 z ,ari/otle w\ld h x1 an expansion ( ,self-love1 b a limitation ( x1 or a k9d ( love ( "o's neighb\r4 ,& ?is1 l virtue 9 g5]al1 c f9d a field ( ex]cise only 9 society1 or 9 citiz5%ip1 & n 9 ! pi\s monk's r5unciation ( ! _w4 ,! h]mit1 :o ?9ks he is liv+ temp]ately & righte\sly1 is deceiv$ z to ! "* ( 8 actions3 !y may be religi\s1 b moral !y c]ta9ly are n2 & !re=e ! consid]ation ( !m does n belong to ,e?ics4 ,besides1 9 ,ibn ,maskawaih's op9ion1 ! ,religi\s ,law :5 rightly appreh5d$1 pre-em95tly accords ) an ,e?ics ( ,b5evol5ce4 ,religion is a moral tra9+ = ! p4 ,its prescriptions1 ) reg>d to ! wor%ip ( ,god 9 common & ! pilgrimage to ,mecca = in/ance1 h pla9ly 9 view ! cultivation ( ! love ( "o's neighb\r 9 ! wide/ acceptation4 ,9 c]ta9 special po9ts ,ibn ,maskawaih has n be5 successful 9 comb9+ h>moni\sly ! e?ical doctr9es ( ! ,greeks1--:i* he incorporates 9 8 ,s*eme1--ei!r ) "o ano!r or ) ! ,law ( ,islam4 ,t h[ev] we pass ov]2 & 9 any case we ought n only to praise 9 g5]al t]ms 8 attempt to give a sy/em ( ,e?ics :i* %\ld be free f ! casui/ry ( ! ,morali/s & ! asceticism ( ! ,sufis1 b also to recognize 9 ! execution ( 8 design ! good s5se ( a man ( wide culture4 #d4 ,ibn ,s9a4 #a4 ,abu ,ali al-,hosa9 ibn ,abdallah ibn ,s9a 7,avic5na7 0 born at ,ef%5e 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,bokh>a1 9 ! ye> #ihj1 ( a family connect$ ) ! public s]vice4 ,he receiv$ 8 secul> & religi\s education at home1 :]e ,p]sian & anti-,muslim traditions 7 /ill full ( life & vig\r4 ,!n ! y\?1 precoci\s alike 9 body & 9 m9d1 /udi$ philosophy & m$ic9e 9 ,bokh>a4 ,he 0 sev5te5 ye>s old :5 he _h ! good =tune to cure ! pr9ce1 ,nukh ibn ,mansur1 & to obta9 ! privilege ( access to 8 libr>y4 ,f t "t =w>d he 0 8 own tea*]1 9 sci5tific rese>* & 9 practice1 & prov$ able to turn to acc\nt ! life & culture ( 8 "t4 ,he kept cont9ually v5tur+ 8 =tunes 9 ! political work+ ( ! small] ,/ates3 ,probably he c\ld nev] h submitt$ to a great pr9ce1 any m ?an to a tea*] 9 ,sci5ce4 ,he w&]$ on f c\rt to c\rt1 at "o "t employ$ 9 ,/ate-,adm9i/ration1 at ano!r z a tea*] & au?or1 until he became vizir ( ,%ems ,addaula 9 ,hamadan4 ,aft] ! dea? ( ?is pr9ce he 0 consign$ to prison by 8 son1 = "s mon?s4 ,he !n proce$$ f>!r afield1 to ! c\rt ( ,ala ,addaula 9 ,ispahan4 ,& at la/1 hav+ return$ to ,hamadan1 :i* ,ala ,addaula _h conqu]$1 he di$ !re 9 #ajcg1 at ! age ( #eg2 & !re 8 grave is po9t$ out to ?is day4 #b4 ,! notion t ,ibn ,s9a pu%$ on beyond ,f>abi & rea*$ a pur] ,ari/otelianism1 is p]haps ! greate/ error :i* has f\nd a foot+ 9 ! hi/ory ( ,muslim ,philosophy4 ,:at did ?is our man ( ! _w 9 reality c>e = ,ari/otle8 ,x 0 n 8 conc]n to commit himself :olly to ! _s ( any sy/em4 ,he took :at 0 to 8 lik+1 :]ev] he f\nd x1 b he _h a pref]5ce = ! %all[ p>aphrases ( ,!mi/ius4 ,?us he became ! great philosoph] ( accommodation 9 ! ,ea/1 & ! true =]unn] ( comp5dium-writ]s = ! :ole _w4 ,he knew h[ to gr\p ) skill 8 mat]ial1 collect$ z x 0 f e qu>t]1 & to pres5t x 9 an intelligible =m1 al?\gh n )\t sophi/ry4 ,e mom5t ( 8 life 0 fully employ$4 ,9 ! daytime he att5d$ to ,/ate affairs or gave in/ruction to 8 pupils3 ! ev5+ 0 devot$ to ! social enjoym5ts ( fri5d%ip & love2 & _m a night f\nd him engag$ 9 composition1 p5 9 h&1 & goblet )9 rea* le/ he %\ld fall asleep4 ,"t & circum/ances det]m9$ ! direction ( ?is activity4 ,if at ! pr9ce's c\rt he _h ! requisite leisure1 & a libr>y at h&1 he wrote 8 ,canon ( ,m$ic9e or ! great ,encyclopa$ia ( ,philosophy4 ,:ile travell+1 he compos$ epitomes & small] works4 ,9 prison he wrote poems & pi\s m$itations1 b always 9 a pleas+ =m2 9 fact 8 small] my/ical writ+s h a poetic *>m ab\t !m4 ,:5 commission$ to d s1 he put ev5 ,sci5ce1 ,logic & ,m$ic9e into v]se1--a practice :i* came m & m into vogue f ! t5? c5tury onw>ds4 ,add to ?is t he wrote ,p]sian & ,arabic at w1 & y get ! picture ( a mo/ accompli%$ man4 ,8 life 0 sup]abundantly ri* bo? 9 "w & 9 enjoym5t4 ,9 g5iality1 ( c\rse he 0 inf]ior to 8 old] compatriot1 ! poet ,firdausi 7#idj-ajbj71 & 9 sci5tific tal5t to 8 contempor>y ,b]uni 7v4 infra #i71 m5 /ill ( importance 9 our eyes4 ,ibn ,s9a1 h[ev]1 0 ! true expression ( 8 "t2 & ^u ?is fact h be5 f\nd$ 8 great influ5ce & hi/oric position4 ,he did n1 l ,f>abi1 )draw f common life to become imm]s$ 9 ! comm5tators ( ,ari/otle1 b he bl5d$ 9 himself ,greek sci5ce & ,ori5tal wisdom4 ,en\gh comm5t>ies1 he ?\ght1 _h already be5 writt5 on ! anci5t au?ors3 x 0 n[ "t = m5 to con/ruct a philosophy ( _! own1--9 o!r words1 to give a mod]n =m to ! anci5t doctr9es4 #c4 ,9 ,m$ic9e ,ibn ,s9a gives dilig5t endeav\r to produce a sy/ematic acc\nt ( t sci5ce1 b "h he proves by no means an exact logician4 ,he assigns a l>ge place1 at lea/ !oretically1 to ,exp]i5ce1 & describes 9 detail ! conditions "u :i* alone1 = example1 ! efficacy ( rem$ies c be asc]ta9$4 ,b ! philosophical pr9ciples :i* are involv$ 9 ,m$ic9e1 mu/ be tak5 ov] 9 ! =m ( lemmas f ,philosophy itself4 ,philosophy prop] is divid$ into ,logic1 ,physics & ,metaphysics4 ,9 its entirety x embraces ! sci5ce ( all ,exi/5ce z su*1 & ( ! pr9ciples ( all ! sep>ate sci5ces1 :]eby1 z f> z is humanly possible1 ! ,s\l :i* is devot$ to philosophy1 atta9s ! highe/ p]fection4 ,n[ ,exi/5ce is ei!r spiritual1 :5 x is ! subject ( ,metaphysics1 or corporeal1 :5 x is discuss$ 9 ,physics1 or intellectual1 :5 x =ms ! !me ( ,logic4 ,! subjects ( ,physics c nei!r exi/1 nor be ?\ght ( z exi/+1 )\t ,matt]4 ,! ,metaphysical1 h[ev] is q devoid ( ,matt]2 :ile ! ,logical is an ab/raction f ! ,mat]ial4 ,! ,logical has a c]ta9 lik5ess to ! ,ma!matical1 9 s f> z ! subjects ( ,ma!matics may also be ab/ractions f matt]4 ,b yet ! ,ma!matical always rema9s capable ( be+ repres5t$ & con/ruct$1 :ile on ! o!r h& ! ,logical1 z su*1 has its exi/5ce only 9 ! intellect1 z1 = in/ance1 ,id5tity1 ,unity & ,plurality1 ,univ]sality & ,p>ticul>ity1 ,ess5tiality & ,cont+5cy1 & s on4 ,consequ5tly ,logic is ! ,sci5ce ( ! ,det]m9ate ,=ms ( ,?\ght4 ,9 ! m detail$ treatm5t ( 8 subject ,ibn ,s9a con=ms entirely to ,f>abi's ,logic4 ,?is agreem5t w\ld p]haps be m app>5t to u1 if ! logical works ( 8 pr$ecessor 7 extant 9 a m complete =m4 ,he frequ5tly lays /ress on ! defectiv5ess ( ! intellectual con/itution 9 man1 :i* is urg5tly 9 ne$ ( a logical rule4 ,j z ! physiognomi/ inf]s f ! ext]nal features ! "* ( ! nature )91 s ! logician is call$ ^u to d]ive f kn[n premises t :i* is unkn[n4 ,h[ easy x is = ! errors ( appe>ance & desire to ins9uate !mselves into a process ( t k9d6 ,a /ruggle ) ,s5se is requir$ 9 ord] t ! life ( repres5tation may be elevat$ to ! pure tru? ( ! ,reason1 ?r\gh :i* any k ( a necess>y k9d is ga9$4 ,! div9ely-inspir$ man1 b he alone1 c disp5se ) ,logic1 precisely z ! ,b$\9 is indep5d5t ( an ,arabic ,gramm>4 ,! "q ( ,univ]sals is also treat$ 9 a mann] simil> to t :i* is adopt$ by ,f>abi4 ,prior to any plurality1 e ?+ has an exi/5ce 9 ! ,m9d ( ,god & ( ! ,angels 7! ,sph]e-,spirits72 !n z mat]ial =m x ent]s ^u plurality1 to be rais$ f9ally 9 ! intellect ( man to ! univ]sality ( ! ,idea4 ,n[ j z ,ari/otle has di/+ui%$ betwe5 ,fir/ ,sub/ance 7,individual7 & ,second ,sub/ance 7cogitable z a ,univ]sal71 s ,ibn ,s9a simil>ly makes a di/9ction betwe5 ,fir/ & ,second ,notion or ,int5tion 7,man1 int5tio74 ,! ,fir/ is ref]r$ to ! ?+s !mselves1 ! ,second to ! disposition ( our own ?\ght4 #d4 ,9 ,metaphysics & ,physics ,ibn ,s9a is diff]5tiat$ f ,f>abi *iefly ?r\gh ! fact t1 by n d]iv+ ,matt] f ,god1 he places ! ,spiritual at a high] elevation above all t is ,mat]ial1 & 9 consequ5ce height5s ! importance ( ! ,s\l z an int]m$i>y betwe5 ! ,spiritual & ! ,corporeal4 ,f ! conception ( ! ,possible & ! ,necess>y1 ! exi/5ce ( a ,necess>y ,be+ pla9ly foll[s4 ,accord+ to ,ibn ,s9a we %\ld n seek to demon/rate ! exi/5ce ( a ,creator f 8 works1 b r %\ld d$uce1 f ! possible "* ( all t is1 & all t is ?9kable 9 ! _w1 ! exi/5ce ( a ,fir/ & ,necess>y ,be+1 ^: ess5ce & exi/5ce are "o4 ,n only is e sublun>y ?+ ( a #8possible' nature1 b ev5 ! heav5s are1 9 !mselves1 m]ely #8possible'4 ,_! exi/5ce becomes #8necess>y' ?r\gh ano!r exi/5ce :i* transc5ds all #8possibility' & !re=e all plurality & mutability4 ,! #8absolutely ,necess>y' is an unb5d+ ,unity1 f :i* no?+ multiplex c proce$4 ,?is fir/ ,"o is ! ,god ( ,ibn ,s9a1 ( :om _m attributes may ( c\rse be pr$icat$1 su* z ?\ght c41 b only 9 ! s5se ( negation or relation1 & 9 su* a way t !y d n affect ! ,unity ( 8 ess5ce4 ,out ( ! fir/ ,"o accord+ly1--,"o only c proce$1 viz41--! fir/ ,_w-,_s4 ,x is 9 ?is latt] ,_s t ,plurality has its orig94 ,9 fact by ?9k+ ( its own ,cause1 x g5]ates a ?ird ,_s1 ! gov]nor ( ! out]mo/ ,sph]e2 :5 aga91 x ?9ks ( itself1 a ,s\l is produc$1 by means ( :i* ! ,sph]e-,_s ex]cises its influ5ce2 &1 9 ! ?ird place1 inasmu* z x is 9 itself a #8possible' exi/5ce1 !re em]ges f x a ,body1 viz41 ! out]mo/ ,sph]e4 ,& s ! process goes on3 ,e ,_s1 ?us g5]at$1 except ( c\rse ! la/ ( ! s]ies1 lib]ates f itself a tr9ity1--,_s1 ,s\l & ,body2 =1 s9ce ! ,_s _c move ! ,body directly1 x ne$s ! ,s\l to br+ its effectiv5ess into op]ation4 ,f9ally comes ! ,active ,_s 7aql fal71 clos+ ! s]ies1 & g5]at+ no f>!r pure 7sep>ate7 ,_s1 b produc+ & direct+ ! mat]ial ( :at is e>?ly1 z well z corporeal =ms & human s\ls4 ,! :ole ( ?is process1--:i* is n to be repres5t$ z occurr+ 9 "t1 takes place 9 a sub/ratum1--t ( ,matt]4 ,matt] is ! et]nal & pure possibility ( all t exi/s1 & at ! same "t ! limitation ( ! op]ation ( ! ,_s4 ,x is ! pr9ciple ( all individuality4 ,n[ ?is tea*+ mu/ c]ta9ly h pres5t$ a dreadful appe>ance to believ+ ,muslims4 ,mutazilite dialecticians _h d\btless ass]t$ t ,god c d no?+ evil1 & no?+ irrational2 b n[ ,philosophy 0 ma9ta9+ t1 ,god in/ead ( be+ able to d all t is possible is only 9 a position to effect t :i* is 9 its own nature possible1 & t only ! fir/ ,_w-,_s proce$s f him directly4 ,z = ! re/ ,ibn ,s9a makes e endeav\r to con=m to ! popul> belief4 ,ev]y?+ exi/s1 he says1 ?r\gh ,god's appo9tm5t1 bo? ! ,good & ! ,evil1 b x is only ! =m] t meets ) 8 glad approval4 ,evil is ei!r a non-exi/5t ?+1 or1--9 s f> z x proce$s f ,god1--an accid5tal ?+4 ,suppose t ,he1 to avoid ! evils :i* ( necessity cl+ to ! _w1 _h kept x f com+ into be+1--t w\ld h be5 ! greate/ evil ( all4 ,! _w c\ld n be bett] or m beautiful ?an x actually is4 ,! ,div9e ,provid5ce1 adm9i/]$ z x is by ! ,s\ls ( ! ,heav5s1 is f\nd 9 ! _w's fair ord]4 ,god & ! pure ,spirits "k ! ,univ]sal only1 & !re=e are unable to att5d to ! ,p>ticul>2 b ! ,s\ls ( ! cele/ial ,sph]es1 to ^: *>ge falls ! repres5tation ( :at is individual1 & ?r\gh :om ,_s acts ^u ,body1 r5d] x possible to admit a provid5tial c>e = ! individual ?+ & ! individual p]son1 & to acc\nt = revelation1 & s on4 ,f>!r1 ! sudd5 rise & disappe>ance ( sub/ances 7,creation & ,annihilation71 9 contra/ to ! con/ant movem5t1--t is1 ! gradual pass+ ( ! ,possible into ! ,actual1--seem to ,ibn ,s9a to indicate no?+ impossible4 ,9 g5]al1 !re is a pr$om9ant want ( cle>ness 9 8 views reg>d+ ! relation ( ! =ms ( ,exi/5ce1--,_s & ,body1 ,=m & ,matt]1 ,sub/ance & ,accid5t4 ,a place at all ev5ts is left = ,miracle4 ,9 passionate =ms ( excitem5t 9 ! ,s\l1 :i* (t5 g5]ate 9 ourselves great heat or cold1 we h1 accord+ to ,ibn ,s9a1 ph5om5a analog\s to miracul\s effects produc$ by ! ,_w-,s\l1 al?\gh x usually foll[s ! c\rse ( ,nature4 ,our philosoph] himself1 h[ev]1 makes a v mod]ate use ( any ( ^! possibilities4 ,a/rology & ,al*emy he combat$ on q rational gr\nds2 & yet soon aft] 8 dea? a/rological poems 7 attribut$ to him2 & 9 ,turki% ,romance-,lit]ature he appe>s z a magician1 ( c\rse to repres5t an anci5t ,my/ic4 ,ibn ,s9a's !ory ( ,physics re/s entirely on ! assumption t a body c cause no?+4 ,t :i* causes1--is 9 e case a ,p[]1 a ,=m1 or a ,s\l1 ! ,_s op]at+ ?r\gh su* in/rum5tality4 ,9 ! realm ( ! ,physical !re are accord+ly c\ntless ,p[]s1 ! *ief grades ( :i*1 f ! l[] to ! high]1 are--! ,=ces ( ,nature1 ! ,en]gies ( ,plants & ,animals1 ,human ,s\ls & ,_w-,s\ls4 #e4 ,f>abi 0 above all ?+s int]e/$ 9 pure ,reason3 he lov$ ,?9k+ = its own sake1 ,ibn ,s9a1 on ! o!r h&1 is conc]n$ ?r\gh\t ) ! ,s\l4 ,9 8 ,m$ic9e x is man's ,body :i* he looks to2 & simil>ly1 9 8 ,philosophy 8 eyes are fix$ on man's ,s\l4 ,! v "n ( 8 great ,philosophical ,encyclopa$ia is--#8,! ,heal+' 7t is--( ! ,s\l74 ,8 sy/em c5tres 9 ,psy*ology4 ,8 !ory ( human nature is duali/ic4 ,body & ,s\l h no ess5tial connection ) "o ano!r4 ,all bodies are produc$1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! />s1 f ! m+l+ ( ! ,elem5ts2 & 9 ?is way ! human body also is produc$1 b f a comb9ation 9 :i* ! f9e/ proportion is obs]v$4 ,a spontane\s g5]ation ( ! body1 j l ! ext9ction & re/oration ( ! human race1 is !re=e possible4 ,! ,s\l1 h[ev]1 is n to be expla9$ f su* mixture ( ! ,elem5ts4 ,x is n ! insep>able ,=m ( ! body1 b is accid5tal to x4 ,f ! ,giv] ( ,=ms1 t is--f ! ,active ,_s ov] u1 e ,body receives its own ,s\l1 :i* is adapt$ to x & to x alone4 ,f its v beg9n+ ea* ,s\l is an individual sub/ance1 & x developes increas+ individuality ?r\gh\t its life 9 ! body4 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t ?is does n agree ) ! cont5tion t ,matt] is ! pr9ciple ( individuality4 ,b ! ,s\l is ! 8infant prodigy0 ( our philosoph]4 ,he is n a cr$ul\s man1 & he (t5 cautions u aga9/ too ready an acceptance ( my/]ies 9 ! life ( ! ,s\l2 b /ill he has ! art himself ( relat+ _m ?+s ab\t ! num]\s wond]ful p[]s & possible influ5ces ( ! ,s\l1 z x w&]s along ! highly intricate pa?ways ( life1 & crosses ! abysses ( ,be+ & ,n-,be+4 ,! speculative faculties are ! *oice/ ( all ! p[]s ( ! ,s\l4 ,acqua9tance ) ! _w is convey$ to ! rational s\l by ! ,ext]nal & ,int]nal ,s5ses4 ,9 p>ticul> a full acc\nt is giv5 by ,ibn ,s9a ( 8 !ory ( ! ,int]nal ,s5ses1 or ! s5su\s-spiritual faculties ( repres5tation1 :i* h _! seat 9 ! bra94 ,m$ical ,philosoph]s commonly assum$ ?ree ,int]nal ,s5ses or /ages ( ! repres5tative process3 #a4 ,ga!r+ ! sev]al s5se-p]ceptions into "o collective image 9 ! =e "p ( ! bra92 #b4 ,trans=m+ or remodell+ ?is repres5tation ( ! g5]al ,s5se1 ) ! help ( repres5tations already exi/+1 ?us con/itut+ app]ception prop]1 9 ! middle region2 #c4 ,/or+ up ! #8app]ceiv$' repres5tation 9 ! ,memory1 :i* 0 held to reside 9 ! h9d] "p ( ! bra94 ,ibn ,s9a1 h[ev]1 c>ries ! analysis some:at f>!r4 ,he di/+ui%es 9 ! ant]ior portion ( ! bra9 ! ,memory ( ! ,s5sible1--or ! treasure-h\se ( ! collective images1--f ! ,g5]al or ,co-ord9at+ ,s5se4 ,f>!r1 he makes out ,app]ception1--! function ( ! middle region ( ! bra91--to be 9 "p br\ght ab\t unconsci\sly1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! s5sible & appet5t life1 z is ! case also ) ! l[] animals1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 to take place 9 "p consci\sly1 ) ! co-op]ation ( ! ,reason4 ,9 ! fir/ case ! repres5tation pres]ves its ref]5ce to ! individual ?+1--?us ! %eep kn[s ! ho/ility ( ! wolf1--b 9 ! second case1 ! repres5tation is ext5d$ to ! ,univ]sal4 ,!n1 9 ! h9d] "p ( ! bra91 ! ,repres5tative ,memory1 or /ore-h\se ( ! repres5tations =m$ by comb9$ ,s5su\s ,impression & ,rational ,reflection1 foll[s z a fif? p[]4 ,9 ?is way five ,int]nal ,s5ses #ah correspond to ! five ,ext]nal ,s5ses1 al?\gh ) q ano!r ref]5ce ?an ! five ,int]nal ,s5ses ( ! ,fai?ful ,bre?r54 ,! "q :i* is rais$--z to :e!r "o %\ld f>!r sep>ate ,recollection1 z a special faculty1 f ,memory1--rema9s unansw]$4 #f4 ,at ! apex ( ! intellectual p[]s ( ! ,s\l /&s ! ,reason4 ,!re is inde$ a ,practical ,reason also1 b 9 its action we h be5 only multiply+ ourselves m$iately3 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ,self-,consci\sness1 or ! pure recognition ( our ess5tial nature1 ! unity ( our ,reason is directly exhibit$4 ,b in/ead ( keep+ d[n ! l[] p[]s ( ! ,s\l1 ! ,reason lifts !m up1 ref9+ ,s5se-,p]ception1 & g5]aliz+ ,pres5tation4 ,reason1 :i* at fir/ is a m]e capacity = ,?\ght1 becomes elaborat$ gradually1--9 t ,mat]ial :i* is convey$ to x by ! ext]nal & int]nal s5ses1--into a f9i%$ read9ess 9 ,?\ght4 ,?r\gh ex]cise ! capability becomes reality4 ,?is comes ab\t ?r\gh ! in/rum5tality ( exp]i5ce1 b "u guidance & enlight5m5t f above1--f ! #8,giv] ( ! ,=ms'1 :o z ,active ,_s imp>ts ! ,ideas to ! ,reason4 ,! ,s\l ( man1 h[ev]1 does n possess any memory = ! pure ideas ( ,reason1 = memory always presupposes a corporeal sub/ratum4 ,z (t5 !n z ! ,rational ,s\l comes to "k any?+1 t k fl[s to x on ea* occasion f above2 & ?9k+ ,s\ls d n diff] 9 ! range & cont5ts ( _! k1 b 9 ! read9ess ) :i* !y put !mselves 9 communication ) ! ,_s ov] u1 9 ord] to receive _! k4 ,! ,rational ,s\l1 :i* rules ov] t :i* is "u x1 & comes to "k ! high] by means ( ! enlight5m5t giv5 by ! ,_w-,_s1 is !n ! real ,man1--br\ght into exi/5ce1 b z unmix$ ess5ce1 z individual sub/ance1 inde/ructible1 immortal4 ,on ?is po9t ! cle>ness ( ,ibn ,s9a's tea*+ m>ks x (f f t ( ,f>abi2 &1 s9ce 8 "t1 ! assumption ( ! individual immortality ( ! human ,s\ls1 :i* h come into be+1 is reg>d$ 9 ! ,ea/ z ,ari/otelian1 & ! opposite doctr9e z ,platonic4 ,?us a bett] und]/&+ prevails betwe5 8 philosophy & ! accept$ religion4 ,! human body & ! :ole _w ( s5se furni% ! ,s\l ) a s*ool = its tra9+4 ,b aft] ! dea? ( ! body1 :i* puts an end to ?is body = ev]1 ! ,s\l cont9ues to exi/ 9 a m or less close connection ) ! ,_w-,_s4 ,9 ?is union ) ! ,_s ov] u1--:i* is n to be conceiv$ z a complete unification1--! bless$ness ( ! good1 #8kn[+' s\ls consi/s4 ,! lot ( ! o!rs is et]nal mis]y2 = j z bodily defects lead to disease1 s puni%m5t is ! necess>y consequ5ce ( an evil condition ( ,s\l4 ,9 ! same way too1 ! rew>ds ( ,heav5 are apportion$ accord+ to ! degree ( s\ndness or rationality :i* ! ,s\l has atta9$ 9 its life on e>?4 ,! pure ,s\l is com=t$ amid/ ! suff]+s ( ,"t by its prospect ( ,et]nity4 ,! highe/ is ( c\rse1 rea*$ only by a few2 = on ! p9nacle ( ,tru? !re is no room = ! _m2 b "o presses =w>d aft] ano!r1 to rea* ! s\rce ( ! k ( ,god1 well+ =? on its lonely height4 #g4 ,to express 8 view ( ! ,human ,reason1 ,ibn ,s9a employs & expla9s poetical traditions1--a fav\rite proce$+ 9 ! ,p]sian lit]ature4 ,fir/ & =emo/ our int]e/ is awak5$ by ! allegorical figure ( ,hai ibn ,yaqzan4 ,x repres5ts ! asc5t ( ! ,_s out ( ! ,elem5ts1 & ?r\gh ! realms ( ,nature1 ( ! ,s\ls1 & ( ! ,spirits1 up to ! ?rone ( ! ,et]nal ,"o4 ,hai pres5ts himself to ! philosoph] 9 ! =m ( an old man ) an air ( y\? ab\t him1 & (f]s 8 s]vices z guide4 ,! w&]] has be5 /riv+ to rea* a k ( ,e>? & ,heav51 by means ( 8 out] & inn] s5ses4 ,two ways op5 out be=e him1 "o to ! ,we/1 ! way ( ! ,mat]ial & ! ,evil1 ! o!r to ! ,ris+ ,sun1 ! way ( ,spiritual & ev]-pure ,=ms2 & along t way ,hai n[ conducts him4 ,toge!r !y rea* ! well ( ,div9e wisdom1 ! f\nta9 ( ev]la/+ y\?1 :]e beauty is ! curta9 ( beauty1 & light ! veil ( light1--! ,et]nal ,my/]y4 ,hai ibn ,yaqzan is ?us ! guide ( individual1 ?9k+ ,s\ls3 he is ! ,et]nal ,_s :o is ov] mank9d1 & op]ates 9 !m4 ,a simil> mean+ is f\nd by our philosoph] 9 ! frequ5tly remodell$ late-,greek leg5d ( ! bro!rs ,salaman & ,absal4 ,salaman is ! ,_w-,man1 ^: wife 7i4e41 ! ,_w ( ! ,s5ses7 falls 9 love ) ,absal1 & contrives by a /ratagem to wile him into h] arms4 ,b be=e ! decisive mom5t1 a fla% ( lightn+ comes d[n f heav51 & reveals to ,absal ! wantonness ( ! action :i* he _h ne>ly committ$1 & raises him f ! _w ( s5sual enjoym5t to t ( pure spiritual contemplation4 ,9 ano!r passage ! s\l ( ! philosoph] is comp>$ to a bird1 :i* ) great tr\ble escapes f ! sn>es ( ! e>?1 trav]s+ space 9 its flight1 until ! ,angel ( ,dea? deliv]s x f ! la/ ( its fett]s4 ,t is ,ibn ,s9a's ,my/icism4 ,8 s\l has ne$s1 = :i* 8 m$ic9e-*e/ provides no res\rce1 & :i* ! life ( a c\rt _c satisfy4 #h4 ,! !oretical developm5t ( ,e?ics & ,politics may be left to ! tea*]s ( ! #8fiqh'4 ,our philosoph] feels himself on ! level ( a inspir$ p]son1 exalt$ l a ,god above all human laws4 ,religi\s or ,civil ,law is b9d+ only on ! ,_m4 ,mohamm$'s object 01 to civilize ! ,b$\9s2 &1 9 ord] to aid 9 accompli%+ t object1 he prea*$1 among o!r doctr9es1 t ( ! ,resurrection ( ! ,body4 ,!y w\ld nev] h und]/ood ! mean+ ( purely spiritual bless$ness2 & s he _h to educate !m by sett+ be=e !m ! prospect ( bodily pleasure or pa94 ,z = ! ,ascetics1--not)/&+ _! will+ness to r5\nce entirely ! _w & ! s5ses1--!y *ime 9 ) ?is s5su\s multitude 7^: wor%ip ( ,god consi/s 9 ! obs]vance ( outw>d =ms71 9 respect t !y practise _! works ( piety ) an eye to a rew>d also1 ev5 ?\gh x be a heav5ly "o4 ,high] ?an ! _m or ! pi\s /& ^? :o truly wor%ip ,god 9 spiritual love1 ent]ta9+ nei!r hope nor fe>4 ,_! peculi> possession is ,fre$om ( ! ,_s4 ,b ?is secret %\ld n be reveal$ to ! multitude2 & ! philosoph] confides x only to 8 fav\rite pupils4 #i4 ,9 ! c\rse ( 8 travels ,ibn ,s9a met ) _m ( ! le>n$ m5 ( 8 "t2 b x w\ld appe> t ^! int]views did n give rise to any endur+ intimacies4 ,j z he feels indebt$ to ,f>abi alone1 ( all ^? :o prec$$ him1 s ! only p]sons ( 8 own day1 :om he sees fit to ?ank1 are ! pr9ces :o patroniz$ him4 ,he criticiz$ unfav\rably ,ibn ,maskawaih 7v4 ,,iv1 #c71 :om he met ) /ill m frequ5tly4 ,) ,b]uni1 8 sup]ior 9 rese>*1 he conduct$ a correspond5ce1 b x 0 soon brok5 (f4 ,b]uni 7#igc-ajdh7 des]ves a %ort notice "h1 to illu/rate ! "* ( ! "t1 al?\gh ,k9di & ,masudi h a bett] claim to be call$ 8 ma/]s1 ?an ,f>abi & ! y\ng] ,ibn ,s9a4 ,he 0 p>ticul>ly occupi$ 9 ! /udy ( ,ma!matics1 ,a/ronomy1 ,geography & ,e?nology2 & he 0 a ke5 obs]v] & a good critic4 ,= _m a solution ( 8 difficulties1 h[ev]1 he 0 indebt$ to ,philosophy2 & he cont9ually be/[$ att5tion ^u x1 z "o ( ! ph5om5a ( civilization4 ,b]uni br+s into /rik+ prom95ce ! h>mony :i* exi/s betwe5 ! ,py?agorean-,platonic philosophy1 ,indian wisdom1 & _m ( ! ,sufi views4 ,no less /rik+ is 8 recognition ( ! sup]iority ( ,greek ,sci5ce1 :5 comp>$ ) ! attempts & p]=mances ( ! ,arabs & ! ,indians4 #8,india'1 he says1 #8n to m5tion ,arabia1 has produc$ no ,socrates3 !re no logical me?od has expell$ phantasy f sci5ce'4 ,b yet he is ready to d ju/ice to individual ,indians1 & he quotes ) approval ! foll[+1 z ! tea*+ ( ! adh]5ts ( ,aryabhata3 8,x is en\gh = u to "k t :i* is light$ up by ! sun's rays4 ,:atev] lies beyond1 ?\gh x %\ld be ( immeasurable ext5t1 we _c make use (2 = :at ! sunbeam does n rea*1 ! s5ses d n p]ceive1 & :at ! s5ses d n p]ceive1 we _c "k04 ,f ?is we may ga!r :at ,b]uni's philosophy 03 ,only s5se-p]ceptions1 knit toge!r by a logical intellig5ce1 yield sure k2 & = ! uses ( life we ne$ a practical philosophy1 :i* enables u to di/+ui% fri5d f foe4 ,he d\btless did n himself imag9e t he _h said all t c\ld be said on ! subject4 #aj4 ,f ! s*ool ( ,ibn ,s9a1 we h _h m names h&$ d[n1 ?an we h _h writ+s pres]v$4 ,djuzdjani annexes to 8 ,autobiography an acc\nt ( ! life ( ! ma/]4 ,&1 f>!r1 we h "o or two %ort metaphysical treatises by ,abu-l-,hasan ,behm5y> ibn al-,m>zuban1 :i* are ne>ly 9 complete agreem5t ) ! sy/em ( 8 tea*]4 ,b ,matt] appe>s to lose some:at ( its sub/antiality3 z ,possibility ( ,exi/5ce x becomes a relation ( ?\ght4 ,accord+ to ,behm5y>1 ,god is ! pure1 uncaus$ ,unity ( ,necess>y ,exi/5ce1--n ! liv+1 all-produc+ ,creator4 ,true en\gh1 ,he is ! cause ( ! _w1 b ! effect is giv5 necess>ily & syn*ron\sly ) ! cause2 o!rwise ! cause w\ld n be p]fect1 be+ capable ( *ange4 ,ess5tially1 ?\gh n 9 po9t ( "t1 ! exi/5ce ( ,god prec$es t ( ! _w4 ,?ree pr$icates ?us p]ta9 to ! highe/ exi/5ce1 viz41 t x is 7#a7 ess5tially fir/1 7#b7 self-suffic+1 & 7#c7 necess>y4 ,9 o!r words ,god's ess5tial nature is ! ,necessity ( 8 ,exi/5ce4 ,all t c possibly be1--owes its exi/5ce to ?is ,absolutely ,necess>y ,be+4 ,n[ t is q 9 h>mony ) ! doctr9es ( ,ibn ,s9a2 & ! same is ! case ) ! disciple's s*eme ( ! _w & 8 doctr9e ( ,s\ls4 ,:atev] has once atta9$ to full reality1--! v>i\s ,sph]e-,spirits accord+ to _! k9d1 ,primeval ,matt]1 & ! individually diff]5t ,s\ls ( ,m51--all la/s = ev]4 ,no?+ t is completely real c pass away1 inasmu* z ! completely real has no?+ to d ) m]e possibility4 ,! *>act]i/ic ( all t is spiritual is its k ( its own ess5tial nature4 ,w is no?+ else1 9 ,behm5y>'s op9ion1 ?an ! k ( t :i* is ! necess>y outcome ( t nature4 ,f>!r1 ! life & ! joy ( rational s\ls consi/ 9 self-k4 #aa4 ,ibn ,s9a a*iev$ a f>-rea*+ influ5ce4 ,8 ,canon ( ,m$ic9e 0 highly e/eem$ ev5 9 ! ,we/1 f ! #ac? c5tury to ! #af?1 & x is /ill ! au?ority = m$ical treatm5t among ! ,p]sians ( ! pres5t day4 ,on ,*ri/ian ,s*ola/icism 8 influ5ce 0 important4 ,dante plac$ him betwe5 ,hippocrates & ,gal52 & ,scalig] ma9ta9$ t he 0 ,gal5's equal 9 ,m$ic9e1 & mu* 8 sup]ior 9 ,philosophy4 ,= ! ,ea/ he /ood & yet /&s z ! ,pr9ce ( ,philosophy4 ,9 t region ,neo-,platonic ,ari/otelianism cont9ues to be kn[n "u ! =m :i* 0 giv5 x by ,ibn ,s9a4 ,manuscripts ( 8 works ab\nd1--an evid5ce ( 8 popul>ity1--:ile comm5t>ies on 8 writ+s1 & epitomes ( !m1 are c\ntless4 ,he 0 /udi$ by physicians & /atesm51 & ev5 by !ologians3 ,x 0 only a few :o w5t f>!r back & consult$ 8 s\rces4 ,f ! v fir/1 ( c\rse1 he _h _m enemies1 & !y 7 m noisy 9 _! demon/rations ?an 8 fri5ds4 ,poets curs$ him3 !ologians ei!r *im$ 9 ) him1 or tri$ to refute him4 ,& 9 ,bagdad 9 ! ye> #aaej1 ! ,caliph ,mu/&jid consign$ to ! flames ,ibn ,s9a's writ+s1 z "p ( a c]ta9 judge's philosophical libr>y4 #e4 ,ibn al-,hai?am4 #a4 ,aft] ! days ( ,ibn ,s9a & 8 s*ool1 little m att5tion 0 paid to ! cultivation ( ,speculative ,philosophy 9 ! ,ea/]n regions ( ! ,muslim empire4 ,9 ^! l&s ,arabic 0 =c$ m & m to yield to ,p]sian1 bo? 9 life & 9 lit]ature4 ,t ! ,p]sian tongue is n s well adapt$ = ab/ract logical & metaphysical discussion--might be only ( q second>y importance1 9 connection ) ?is decl9e 9 speculation2 b ! conditions ( civilization1 & ) !m ! subjects :i* int]e/$ m51 7 sadly *ang$4 ,e?ics & ,politics came m to ! front1 al?\gh )\t assum+ an actually new =m4 ,b 9 ! lat] ,p]sian lit]ature ! pr$om9ant place 0 unmi/akeably held by ,poetry1 p>tly ( a free-?9k+ t5d5cy1 p>tly1 & inde$ prepond]at+ly1 ( a my/ic k9d1 :i* satisfi$ ! ne$ = wisdom1 exp]i5c$ by p ( culture4 ,f ab\t ! middle ( ! #aj? c5tury1 ! sci5tific movem5t :i* orig9at$ at ,bagdad _h 9 "p turn$ we/w>d4 ,we h already f\nd ,f>abi 9 ,syria1 & ,masudi 9 ,egypt3 ,9 ! latt] c\ntry ,cairo 0 becom+ a second ,bagdad4 #b4 ,9 ,cairo1 at ! beg9n+ ( ! #aa? c5tury1 we come ^u "o ( ! mo/ consid]able ma!maticians & physici/s 9 all ! ,middle ,ages1 ,abu ,ali ,mohamm$ ibn al-,hasan ibn al-,hai?am 7,alhaz574 ,he _h =m]ly be5 a gov]nm5t-(ficial 9 ,basra1 8 native t[n4 ,confid+ too mu* 9 ! practical value ( 8 ma!matical k1 he imag9$ t he c\ld regulate ! inundations ( ! ,nile2 b hav+ be5 summon$ on t acc\nt by ! ,caliph al-,hakim1 he became aw>e1 soon aft] 8 arrival1 ( ! futility ( 8 ef=ts4 ,!reupon he fell into disgrace z a public (ficial1 & w5t into hid+ till ! ,caliph's dea?1 9 #ajba4 ,f t "t he devot$ himself to lit]>y & sci5tific "w1 up to 8 own dea?1 9 #ajch4 ,8 *ief /r5g? is %[n 9 ma!matics & its practical application2 b he also devot$ great att5tion to ! writ+s ( ,gal5 & ,ari/otle1 nor did he conf9e t att5tion to ! physical treatises4 ,by 8 own confession he _h1 9 a _s ( d\bt ab\t ev]y?+1 be5 engag$1 f 8 y\? up1 9 consid]+ ! v>i\s views & doctr9es ( m51 until he came to recognize 9 all ( !m m or less successful attempts to approximate to ! tru?4 ,moreov] tru? = him 0 only t :i* 0 pres5t$ z mat]ial = ! faculties ( s5se-p]ception1 & :i* receiv$ its =m f ! und]/&+1 be+ ?us ! logically-elaborat$ p]ception4 ,to seek su* tru? 0 8 aim 9 ! /udy ( philosophy4 ,9 8 view philosophy %\ld be ! basis ( all ! sci5ces4 ,he f\nd x 9 ! writ+s ( ,ari/otle1 inasmu* z t sage _h be/ und]/ood h[ to knit s5se-p]ception into a coh]5t :ole ) rational k4 ,) eag]ness !re=e he /udi$ & illu/rat$ ,ari/otle's works1 = ! use & pr(it ( mank9d1 z well z to ex]cise 8 own intellect & provide a treasure & consolation = 8 old age4 ,( ^! lab\rs1 h[ev]1 no?+ seems to h be5 pres]v$ = u4 ,! mo/ important ( ,ibn al-,hai?am's writ+s is ! 8,optics01 :i* has come d[n to u 9 a ,lat9 translation & r$action4 ,9 x he %[s himself to be an acute ma!matical ?9k]1 always tak+ pa9s ) ! analysis ( hypo!ses & ( ! actual examples4 ,a ,we/]n1 belong+ to ! #ac? c5tury 7,vitello71 0 able to give a m me?odical acc\nt ( ! :ole subject2 b yet 9 ke5ness ( obs]vation on specific po9ts1 ,ibn al-,hai?am may be reckon$ 8 sup]ior4 #c4 ,ibn al-,hai?am's ?9k+ is express$ 9 q a ma!matical /yle4 ,! ,sub/ance ( a body consi/s1 accord+ to him1 ( ! sum ( its ess5tial attributes1 j z a :ole is equal to ! sum ( its p>ts1 & a concept to ! sum ( its m>ks4 ,9 ! 8,optics0 ! psy*ological rem>ks on ,see+ & on ,s5se-,p]ception 9 g5]al--are ( special int]e/ = u4 ,"h he ex]ts himself to sep>ate ! individual ,mom5ts ( ! ,p]ception1 & to give prom95ce to ! condition ( ,"t z *>act]iz+ ! :ole process4 ,p]ception !n is a comp\nd process1 aris+ out ( 7#a7 s5sation1 7#b7 comp>ison ( sev]al s5sations or ( ! pres5t s5sation ) ! memory-image :i* has be5 gradually =m$ 9 ! s\l z a result ( e>li] s5sations1 & 7#c7 recognition1 9 su* fa%ion t we recognize ! pres5t p]cept z equival5t to ! memory-image4 ,comp>ison & recognition are n activities ( ! ,s5ses1 :i* m]ely receive impressions passively1 b !y devolve ^u ! ,und]/&+ z ! faculty ( judgm5t4 ,ord9>ily ! :ole process goes =w>d unconsci\sly or semi-consci\sly1 & x is only ?r\gh reflection t x is br\ght )9 our consci\sness1 & t ! app>5tly simplex is sep>at$ into its compon5t p>ts4 ,! process ( ,p]ception is gone ?r\gh v quickly4 ,! m practice a man has 9 ?is respect1 & ! (t5] a p]ception is repeat$1 ! m firmly is ! memory-image /amp$ ^u ! s\l1 & ! m rapidly is recognition or p]ception effect$4 ,! cause ( ?is is t ! new s5sation is supplem5t$ by ! image :i* is already pres5t 9 ! s\l4 ,"o might ?us be dispos$ to ?9k t ,p]ception 0 an in/antane\s act1 at lea/ aft] long practice4 ,t1 h[ev]1 w\ld be errone\s1 = n only is e s5sation att5d$ by a correspond+ *ange localiz$ 9 ! s5se-organ1 :i* dem&s a c]ta9 "t1 b also1 betwe5 ! /imulation ( ! organ & ! consci\sness ( ! p]ception an int]val ( "t mu/ elapse1 correspond+ to ! transmission ( ! /imulus = "s di/ance along ! n]ves4 ,t x ne$s "t1 = example1 to p]ceive a col\r1 is prov$ by ! rotat+ circle ( col\rs1 :i* %[s u m]ely a mix$ col\r1 because on acc\nt ( ! rapid movem5t we h no "t to p]ceive ! individual col\rs4 ,comp>ison & ,recognition are1 accord+ to ,ibn al-,hai?am1 ! significant ,m5tal ,mom5ts ( ,p]ception4 ,on ! o!r h& ,s5sation tallies ) ! ,mat]ial2 & ! ,s5se exp]i5c+ ! s5sation exhibits a passive attitude4 ,prop]ly all s5sation is 9 itself a k9d ( discom=t1 :i* ord9>ily does n make itself felt1 b :i* em]ges into consci\sness "u v /rong /imuli1 = example1 ?r\gh too bright a light4 ,a pleasurable "* accrues only to ! complet$ p]ception1 t is to ! recognition :i* lifts ! mat]ial giv5 9 s5sation1 up to ! m5tal =m4 ,! comp>ison & recognition1 :i* are put 9 op]ation 9 ,p]ception1 con/itute an unconsci\s judgm5t & conclusion4 ,! *ild is already draw+ a conclusion1 :5 ( two apples he *ooses ! f9] "o4 ,z (t5 z we compreh5d a connection1 we are conclud+4 ,b1 s9ce judg+ & conclud+ are quickly settl$1 m5 are easily misl$ 9 ?is matt]1 & frequ5tly !y reg>d z an orig9al concept t :i* is m]ely a judgm5t d]iv$ by a process ( ratioc9ation4 ,9 ! case ( ev]y?+ :i* is ann\nc$ to u z an axiom1 we %\ld be on our gu>d & trace x up1 to see :e!r x _c be d]iv$ f some?+ m simple4 #d4 ,?is appeal ( our philosoph] _h little effect 9 ! ,ea/4 ,x is true t 9 ,ma!matics & ,a/ronomy he creat$ some:at ( a s*ool2 b 8 ,ari/otelian philosophy _h comp>atively few admir]s4 ,we "k only "o ( 8 s*ol>s :o is c\nt$ among ! ,philosoph]s1 ,abu-l-,wafa ,mubas%ir ibn ,fatik al-,qaid1 an ,egyptian emir1 :o 9 ! ye> #ajec produc$ a "w made up ( prov]bial wisdom1 anecdotes 9 illu/ration ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 & s on4 ,h>dly any?+ c be trac$ 9 x :i* is ! result ( 8 own ?9k+4 ,x %\ld h be5 pleasant read+4 ,& ! inhabitants ( ,cairo 9 aft] times f\nd edification1--m ev5 ?an 9 su* a "w1--9 ! tales ( ! ,?\s& & ,"o ,nights4 ,! ,ea/ set ! /igma ( h]esy ^u ,ibn al-,hai?am & 8 works1 & n[ x has almo/ completely =gott5 him4 ,a disciple ( ,maimonides1 ! ,jewi% philosoph]1 relates t he 0 9 ,bagdad on bus9ess1 :5 ! libr>y ( a c]ta9 philosoph]1 7:o di$ 9 #abad7 0 burn$ !re4 ,! prea*]1 :o conduct$ ! execution ( ! s5t5ce1 ?rew into ! flames1 ) 8 own h&s1 an a/ronomical "w ( ,ibn al-,hai?am1 aft] he _h po9t$ to a del9eation !re9 giv5 ( ! sph]e ( ! e>?1 z an unhappy symbol ( impi\s ,a!ism4 ,v4 ,,! ,,outcome ,,( ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,! ,,ea/4 #a4 ,gazali4 #a4 ,we h already se5 t ! !ological movem5t 9 ,islam 0 /rongly influ5c$ by ,philosophy4 ,n only ! ,mutazilite1 b also ! ,antimutazilite ,dialectic drew its op9ions & ! argum5ts ) :i* x support$ its own tea*+ or disput$ t ( its oppon5ts1 = ! mo/ "p out ( ! writ+s ( ! philosoph]s4 ,out ( ^! "o took j :at he 0 able to make use (3 ! re/ he left 9 peace1 or else he endeav\r$ to refute x4 ,?us num]\s writ+s came into exi/5ce1 direct$ aga9/ "s p>ticul> philosophical doctr9e1 or "s individual philosoph]4 ,no attempt1 h[ev]1 _h be5 made be=e ! "t ( ,gazali1 to direct an attack f g5]al po9ts ( view & aft] ?or\gh-go+ /udy1 aga9/ ! entire sy/em ( ,philosophy :i* _h be5 built up 9 ! ,ea/ on a ,greek f\ndation4 ,gazali's und]tak+ _h also a positive side4 ,along ) ! ,dialectic :i* s\ght to make ! doctr9es ( ! ,fai? intelligible1 or ev5 to provide !m ) a rational basis1 !re 7 movem5ts 9 ,islam ( a my/icism :i* t5d$ to a conception ( dogma1 pr(\nd & full ( feel+4 ,its wi% 01 n to compreh5d or demon/rate ! cont5ts ( ! ,fai?1 b to le>n !m by exp]i5ce & live 9 !m ?r\gh ! ,_s4 ,! highe/ c]titude ought to belong to ! ,fai?4 ,ought x !n to be 9 ! p[] ( any to trans=m x into a d]iv$ k8 ,or mu/ its t5ets be pr9ciples ( ! ,reason1 nei!r capable ( f>!r pro(1 nor requir+ x8 ,b ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ! ,reason1 :5 once !y are kn[n1 mu/ be univ]sally recogniz$2 & univ]sal recognition is lack+ 9 ! case ( ! t5ets ( ! ,fai?4 ,f :at o!r s\rce does unbelief arise8 ,?us ! que/ion+ proce$$2 & x seem$ to _m t ! only way out ( ^! d\bts 0 to base religi\s doctr9e ^u an inn]1 supra-rational illum9ation4 ,at fir/ ?is came ab\t unconsci\sly1 "u a my/ic impulse1 :]eby ! cont5ts ( moral & religi\s tea*+ 7 (t5 br\ght into neglect4 ,gazali took "p 9 ?is movem5t also4 ,t :i* _h p]haps be5 typifi$ by ! ,salimites & ,k>ramites1 ,antimutazilite sects1 he set =? completely & 9 a dignifi$ /yle2 & ev] s9ce 8 "t ,my/icism bo? su/a9s & cr[ns ! ,temple ( ,le>n+ 9 ,or?odox ,islam4 #b4 ,! /ory ( ?is man's life is a rem>kable "o2 &1 9 ord] to und]/& ! effectiv5ess ( 8 "w1 x is absolutely ess5tial to exam9e x ) a measure ( detail4 ,he 0 born at ,tos 9 ,khorasan 9 ! ye> #ajei1 be+ ?us a c\ntryman ( ! great poet ,firdausi4 ,& j z ! latt] furni%es a pro( ( ! old glory ( ! ,p]sian nation1 s ,gazali 0 de/9$ to be a 8te/imony & ornam5t0 = all future ,islam4 ,ev5 8 e>ly education1--obta9$ aft] 8 fa!r's dea?1 9 ! h\se ( a ,sufi fri5d1--0 r cosmopolitan ?an national 9 its direction4 ,f>!r1 any limitation 0 displeas+ to ! y\?'s re/less & fanciful _s4 ,he did n feel at home 9 ! hair-splitt+ casui/ry ( ! tea*]s ( ,morals ) _! precise =mulas3 he reg>d$ x z a worldly k1 f :i* he turn$ away1 to imm]se 8 _s 9 ! k ( ,allah4 ,!n he /udi$ !ology 9 ,ni%abur ) ! ,imm al-,h>ama91 :o di$ 9 #ajhe2 & at ! same "t he may himself h begun to write & to tea*1 &1 p]haps ev5 ?us e>ly1 to ent]ta9 d\bts ( 8 own sci5ce4 ,!reaft] he 0 9 att5dance at ! c\rt ( ,nizam al-,mulk1 ! ,vizir ( ! ,seldjuk pr9ce1 until 9 #ajia he 0 appo9t$ a ,pr(essor 9 ,bagdad4 ,x 0 dur+ ?is "t at all ev5ts t he busi$ himself mo/ ) philosophy4 ,b x 0 n pure love = ! sci5ce1 :i* impell$ him to t /udy1 b ! long+ ( 8 he>t to f9d a solution ( ! d\bts :i* assail$ 8 und]/&+4 ,n any explanation ( ! ev5ts ( ! _w1 nor any cle>+ up ( 8 own ?9k+1 b peace ( m9d & ! exp]i5ce ( a high] reality con/itut$ ! object :i* he /rove to rea*4 ,he subject$ to a ?or\gh /udy ! writ+s ( ! philosoph]s1 9 p>ticul> ^? ( ,f>abi & ,ibn ,s9a2 &1 foll[+ *iefly ! sy/em ( ! latt]1 he compos$ a ,comp5dium ( ,philosophy1 reg>d+ x objectively1 b /ill ) "s appe>ance ( sympa?y ) its cont5ts4 ,he said1--at fir/ 9 a k9d ( :isp] to pacify 8 own m9d1 b aft]w>ds publicly 9 self-def5ce1--t he compos$ t "w 9 ord] t he might foll[ up ! /atem5t ( ! doctr9es ( philosophy ) ! refutation ( ! same4 ,& t refutation did appe>1 probably n long aft]4 ,x 0 ! fam\s 8,de/ruction ( ! ,philosoph]s01--:i* 0 compos$ 9 all likelihood :ile he 0 /ill 9 ,bagdad1 or %ortly aft] he _h left x4 ,b by ! end ( f\r ye>s1 viz4 9 #ajie1 ,gazali _h discont9u$ 8 "w ( tea*+ 9 ,bagdad1 att5d$ ?\gh x _h be5 ) outw>d success4 ,8 m9d1 cont9ually 9 a /ate ( d\bt1 probably f\nd no satisfaction 9 dogmatic prelections4 ,he 0 alt]nately attract$ & repell$ by 8 own brilliant position1 & he came to ?9k t he c\ld1 & t he %\ld1 fight aga9/ ! _w & its wisdom 9 "s o!r way1 to m purpose4 ,ambition ) him embrac$ f> m ?an ?is _w4 ,pr(\nd] /ill 8 mus+s became2 & dur+ an illness ( 81 ! inn] call pres5t$ itself to 8 s\l4 ,he _h secretly to prep>e = ! "w1 by means ( ,sufi ex]cises1--p]haps ev5 to assume ! "* ( a religi\s & political re=m]4 ,at ! v "t t ! ,crusad]s 7 equipp+ !mselves 9 ! ,we/ aga9/ ,islam1 ,gazali 0 prep>+ himself to be ! spiritual *ampion ( ! ,muslim fai?4 ,8 conv]sion 0 n ( a viol5t "*1 l t ( ,/4 ,augu/9e1 b 0 r to be comp>$ to ! exp]i5ce ( ,/4 ,j]ome1 :o 0 summon$ 9 a dream f 8 ,cic]onian pr$ilections to practical ,*ri/ianity4 ,= t5 ye>s ,gazali travell$ "h & !re1 divid+ 8 "t betwe5 pi\s ex]cises & lit]>y "w4 ,9 ! fir/ "p ( t p]iod x may be conjectur$ t he wrote 8 pr9cipal !ologico-e?ical "w1 8,! ,revival ( ,religi\s ,sci5ces03 t[>ds ! end he endeav\r$ to ex]cise influ5ce z a re=m]4 ,8 j\rney+s l$ him by way ( ,damascus & ,j]usalem--be=e x 0 tak5 by ! ,crusad]s1--,alex&ria1 ,mecca & ,m$9a1 back to 8 home4 ,aft] 8 return ,gazali once m engag$ 9 tea*+ = a %ort "t 9 ,ni%abur2 & he di$ 9 ,tos1 8 native t[n1 on ! #ai? ( ,decemb]1 #aaaa4 ,8 clos+ ye>s 7 *iefly devot$ to pi\s contemplation & ! /udy ( ! ,traditions1 :i* z a y\? he c\ld nev] rememb]4 ,a beautifully complete & r\nd$ life1 9 :i* ! end comes back to ! beg9n+6 #c4 ,gazali passes 9 review ! spiritual t5d5cies ( 8 "t4 ,^! are3 ! ,dialectic ( ! ,!ologians2 ,sufi ,my/icism2 ,py?agorean ,popul> ,philosophy2 & ,neo-,platonic ,ari/otelianism4 ,t :i* ,dialectic desires to e/abli% is also ! object ( 8 own fai?2 b its argum5ts appe> to him r weak1 & _m ( its ass]tions on t acc\nt op5 to "q4 ,he feels mo/ 9 sympa?y ) ! ,sufi ,my/icism3 to x he owes 8 de>e/ possession1 viz41 ! e/abli%m5t ( 8 own fai? 9 ,p]sonality1--s t he c po/ulate z an inn] exp]i5ce t :i* ! ,dialecticians attempt to d]ive by a process ( reason+4 ,he ?anks also ! ,popul> ,philosophy = ! in/ruction x gives1 p>ticul>ly 9 ,ma!matics1 :i* he fully recognizes z a sci5ce1 toge!r ) its ,a/ronomical d$uctions4 ,he conc$es ! validity ( its ,physics1 :]e t is n 9 conflict ) ! ,fai?4 ,b ,ari/otelianism1--z x has be5 taught by ,f>abi & ,ibn ,s9a1 ) z mu* subs]vi5ce to au?ority z has be5 exhibit$ by ! ,!ologians1--seems to him to be ! enemy ( ,islam2 & 9 ! "n ( all ! ,muslim s*ools & t5d5cies ( ?\ght toge!r1 he feels b\nd to d battle ) x1 z f a ca?olic /&po9t4 ,& 9 tru? he does ?is ) ,ari/otle's own weapons1--^? ( ,logic2 = ! axioms ( ?\ght :i* ,logic lays d[n are1 9 8 eyes1 j z firmly e/abli%$ z ! propositions ( ,ma!matics4 ,fully alive to ?is1 he />ts f ! ,pr9ciple ( ,contradiction1 to :i*1 accord+ to 8 cont5tion1 ,god himself submits4 ,( ! ,physico-,metaphysical doctr9es ( ,philosophy !n1 he attacks ?ree 9 p>ticul>3 #a4 ,t ! _w is et]nal2 #b4 ,t ,god takes cognizance only ( ! ,univ]sal1 & t consequ5tly !re is no special provid5ce2 #c4 ,t ! ,s\l alone is immortal1 & !re=e a ,resurrection ( ! ,body is n to be look$ =4 ,9 ! refutation ( ^! doctr9es ,gazali is 9 _m respects dep5d5t on ! ,*ri/ian comm5tator on ,ari/otle1 ,johannes ,philoponus1 :o also has writt5 aga9/ ! doctr9e ( ! et]nity ( ! _w ma9ta9$ by ,proclus4 #d4 7#a7 ,! _w1 accord+ to ! philosoph]s1 is a sph]e ( f9ite ext5t b ( inf9ite duration4 ,f all et]nity1 x proce$s f ,god1 ev5 z ! effect is 9 exi/5ce at ! same "t ) ! cause4 ,gazali1 on ! contr>y1 is ( op9ion t x is n admissible to put su* diff]5t con/ructions on ! notions ( ,space & ,"t respectively2 & he holds t ! ,div9e ,causality %\ld be def9$ z free ,creative ,might4 ,fir/ !n z to ,space & ,"t3 we are z little able to imag9e an out]mo/ b\nd>y ( ,space z a beg9n+ or end ( ,"t4 ,he :o believes 9 an endless ,"t1 mu/1 9 consi/5cy ) t notion ( 81 assume also ! exi/5ce ( an inf9ite ,space4 ,to say t ,space answ]s to ! ext]nal s5se1 & ,"t on ! o!r h& to ! int]nal1--does n alt] ! case1 = we d n aft] all get rid ( ! ,s5sible4 ,j z ,space be>s a relation to ,body1 s does ,"t to ! movem5t ( ,body4 ,bo? are m]ely relations ( ?+s1 creat$ 9 & ) ! ?+s ( ! _w1 or r relations betwe5 our conceptions1 :i* ,god creates 9 u4 ,/ill m important is t :i* ,gazali advances ab\t ,causality4 ,! ,philosoph]s di/+ui% betwe5 an op]ation ( ,god1 ( ,spiritual ,be+s end[$ ) w1 ( ! ,s\l1 ( ,nature1 ( ,*ance & ! l2 b = ,gazali1 j z = ! or?odox ,kalam1 !re is really only "o causality1 t ( ! #8,will+' ,be+4 ,he completely puts aside ! causality ( ,nature1 :i* is r$ucible )\t rema9d] into a relation ( ,"t4 ,we see "o def9ite ph5om5on 7,cause7 regul>ly succe$$ by ano!r def9ite ph5om5on 7,effect72 b h[ ! latt] results f ! =m] is left an enigma = u4 ,( op]ation 9 ! objects ( ,nature we "k no?+4 ,f>!r1 any alt]ation is 9 itself inconceivable4 ,t any "o ?+ %\ld become a diff]5t ?+ is incompreh5sible to ?\ght1 :i* may j z well ask ab\t facts z ab\t causes4 ,a ?+ ei!r exi/s1 or x does n exi/2 b n ev5 ,div9e ,omnipot5ce c trans=m "o exi/+ ?+ into ano!r ?+4 ,x creates or else annihilates4 ,& yet x is a fact ( our consci\sness t we d effect some?+4 ,if we #8w' any?+1 & possess ! p[] to c>ry x out1 we claim ! result z our act4 ,action1 proce$+ f a free w1 & consci\s ( ! ex]tion ( p[]1 is ! only causality ( :i* we "k2 & we argue f ?is to ! ,div9e ,be+4 ,b by :at "r8 ,! w>rant = su* a conclusion ,gazali ?9ks t he f9ds 9 8 own p]sonal exp]i5ce ( ! image ( ,god 9 8 s\l2 :ile on ! o!r h& he decl9es to cr$it ,nature ) ! lik5ess to ,god :i* belongs to 8 own s\l4 ,= him accord+ly1 ,god1 9 s f> z he c be kn[n f ! _w1 is ! ,almighty ,be+1 free 9 w & effici5t 9 op]ation4 ,no spatial limit may be set to 8 causative activity1 :i* yet ! philosoph]s d1 :5 !y grant only 8 influ5ce 9 8 fir/ creat$ "w4 ,b on ! o!r h& ,he c limit 8 own "w bo? 9 ,space & ,"t1 s t ?is f9ite _w has only a f9ite duration4 ,t ,god %\ld call ! _w into exi/5ce out ( no?+ by an absolute act ( creation--seems to ! ,philosoph]s to be absurd4 ,!y recognize only an ex*ange ( ,accid5ts or ,=ms 9 ! "o mat]ial1 a pass+ ( ! actual f possibility to possibility4 ,b does no?+ new ev] come !n into be+8 ,is n e appreh5sion ( ! s5ses1--asks ,gazali1--& e spiritual p]ception1 some?+ entirely new1 :i* ei!r exi/s or else does n exi/1 b at ^: com+ into exi/5ce ! contr>y does n cease1 & at ^: vani%+ f exi/5ce1 ! opposite does n make its appe>ance8 ,consid] f>!r ! num]\s individual s\ls :i*1 accord+ to ,ibn ,s9a's sy/em1 mu/ be 9 exi/5ce3 h n ^! come into be+1 absolutely new8 ,!re is no end to ! putt+ ( que/ions4 ,! repres5tative process w&]s ab\t 9 all directions & f>2 & ?\ght leads u on ad inf9itum4 ,! *a9 ( causation c n[h]e be br\ght to an end1 any m ?an ,space or ,"t4 ,9 ord] !n t !re %\ld be a def9ite1 f9al ,exi/5ce1--& 9 po/ulat+ ?is1 ,gazali is at "o ) ! ,philosoph]s--1 we ne$ an ,et]nal ,w z ,fir/ ,cause1 diff]5t f ev]y?+ else4 ,we may at all ev5ts make ?is ackn[l$gem5t to ,gazali1 t ,ibn ,s9a's fanta/ic doctr9e ( ,=ms & ,s\ls makes no /& aga9/ 8 criticism4 #e4 7#b7 ,we h n[ come to ! idea ( ,god4 ,9 ! view ( ! ,philosoph]s1 ,god is ! highe/ ,be+1 & 8 ess5ce is ,?\ght4 ,t :i* ,he kn[s1 comes into exi/5ce1 emanat+ f 8 abundance2 b he has n positively #8will$' x1 = all ,will+ presupposes a defici5cy1--a ne$--1 & is condition$ by "s *ange 9 ! ,be+ t wills4 ,will+ is movem5t 9 ! mat]ial3 completely real ,_s wills no?+4 ,!re=e ,god beholds 8 creation 9 a contemplation :i* is undi/urb$ by any wi%4 ,he recognizes himself1 or ev5 8 fir/ ,creature1 or1 accord+ to ,ibn ,s9a1 ! ,univ]sal1 ! et]nal ,g5]a & ,species ( all ?+s4 ,b accord+ to ,gazali !re mu/ et]nally belong to ,god a ,w1 z "o ( 8 et]nal attributes4 ,9 a conv5tional way he grants1 x is true1 t 9 metaphysical & e?ical consid]ations kn[+ prec$es will+1 b he is conv9c$ t unity ( ,be+ does n m reside 9 kn[+ ?an 9 will+4 ,n only ! multiplicity ( ! objects ( k1 & _! diff]5t relations to ! kn[+ ,subject1 b ev5 ,self-,consci\sness1 or kn[+ ab\t ! kn[+1 consid]$ p] se1 is an endless process4 ,an act ( w is absolutely necess>y to br+ x to a conclusion4 ,9 direct+ ! att5tion & 9 self-commun+ an orig9al 8,will+0 is 9 op]ation2 & ?us ev5 ,div9e k comes to a conclusion z a coh]5t unity1 9 its ,p]sonality1 by means ( an orig9al et]nal ,w4 ,9 place ( ! ass]tion ( ! ,philosoph]s t ,god wills ! _w1 because he ?9ks ( x z ! be/1 ,gazali sub/itutes ! /atem5t3 8,god has cognizance ( ! _w because he wills x & 9 8 will+ x04 ,mu/ n !n ,he1 :o wills & creates all1 h cognizance ( 8 "w d[n to ! smalle/ "p ( its mat]ial8 ,j z 8 et]nal w is ! cause ( all individual ?+s1 s 8 et]nal k embraces at "o & ! same "t e p>ticul> ?+1 )\t ! unity ( 8 nature be+ !reby tak5 away4 ,!re is consequ5tly a ,provid5ce4 ,to ! objection t ,div9e ,provid5ce makes e p>ticul> ev5t a necess>y ev5t1 ,gazali1 l ,/4 ,augu/9e1 replies t ?is =e-k is n di/+ui%able f k 9 memory1--t is to say1 t ,god's k is exalt$ above e di/9ction ( "t4 ,x may be que/ion$ :e!r1 9 ord] to save ! et]nal1 almighty1 creative ,w1 ,gazali has n sacrific$ to t absolute might bo? ! tempor>y "* ( ! _w1 :i* he w\ld l to prove1 & ! fre$om ( human action1 f :i* he sets out1 & :i* he w\ld n altoge!r surr5d]4 ,?is _w ( %ad[s & images1 z he calls x1 vani%es = ! sake ( ,god4 #f4 7#c7 ,! ?ird "q1 ) reg>d to :i* ,gazali sep>ates himself f ! ,philosoph]s1 has less philosophic int]e/4 ,x ref]s to ! ,resurrection ( ! ,body4 ,accord+ to ! ,philosoph]s x is only ! ,s\l t is immortal1 ei!r 9 its individuality or z a "p ( ! ,_w-,s\l3 ,! ,body on ! o!r h& is p]i%able4 ,aga9/ ?is ,dualism1 :i* 9 !ory l$ to an ascetic ,e?ics1 b :i* 9 practice 0 easily conv]t$ into ,lib]t9ism1 ! religi\s & moral feel+ ( ,gazali rose 9 rebellion4 ,if ! fle% is to h its obligations1 x mu/ 9 turn be inve/$ ) its rights4 ,! possibility ( ! ,resurrection _c be d5i$1 = ! reunion ( ! ,s\l ) its 7new7 bodily frame is n m wond]ful ?an its fir/ union ) ! e>?ly body1 :i* has be5 assum$ ev5 by ! ,philosoph]s4 ,surely !n e s\l at ! resurrection-"t may obta9 a new body suit$ to x4 ,b 9 any case ,man's real ess5ce is ! ,s\l2 & x is ( little consequ5ce :at ! mat]ial is1 out ( :i* its heav5ly body is =m$4 #g4 ,ev5 f ^! la/ propositions x is cle> t ,gazali's !ology did n rema9 unaffect$ by philosophical speculation4 ,l ! ,fa!rs ( ! ,we/]n ,*ur*1 he _h1 :e!r consci\sly or unconsci\sly1 appropriat$ a good deal f philosophy2 & = t reason 8 !ology 0 long proscrib$ z a h]etical innovation by ! ,muslims ( ! ,we/4 ,9 reality 8 tea*+ reg>d+ ,god1 ! ,_w1 & ! human ,s\l exhibits _m elem5ts :i* are =eign to ! olde/ type ( ,islam1 & :i* may be trac$ back1--p>tly ?r\gh ! int]v5+ ag5cy ( ,*ri/ian & ,jewi% writ]s & p>tly ?r\gh t ( m rec5t ,muslim au?ors1--to hea!n wisdom4 ,allah1 ,"l ( ! ,worlds1 ,god ( ,mohamm$1 is = ,gazali a liv+ p]sonality x is true1 b yet f> less an?ropomorphic ?an he appe>$ to simple ,fai? or 9 ! ,antimutazilite dogma4 ,! sure/ way ( com+ to "k him mu/ be to refuse to attribute to him any ( ! prop]ties ( 8 creatures4 ,b t does n mean t he possesses no attributes3 ! v rev]se is ! case4 ,! plurality ( 8 qualities does n prejudice ! ,unity ( 8 ,be+4 ,analogies are pres5t$ 9 ! bodily _w3 ,a ?+ c]ta9ly _c be bo? black & :ite at ! same "t1 b x may well be cold & also dry4 ,only1 if ! qualities ( m5 are attribut$ to ,god1 !y mu/ be und]/ood 9 ano!r & high] s5se1 = he is pure ,_s4 ,besides omnisci5ce & omnipot5ce1 pure goodness & omnipres5ce belong to ,him4 ,by means ( ?is omnipres5ce ?is _w & ! next are br\ght 9 a mann] ne>] to "o ano!r ?an by ! usual repres5tation4 ,! conception ( ,god is ?us spiritualiz$4 ,b resurrection & ! future life are also reg>d$ z be+ mu* m spiritual 9 "* ?an ! pres5t life4 ,su* a conception is facilitat$ by ! doctr9e ( ! ,gno/ic ,philosophy1 t !re are ?ree or f\r worlds4 ,"o above ! o!r 9 regul> ord] rise ! ,e>?ly & ,s5sible ,_w ( ,m51 ! ,_w ( ,cele/ial ,spirits1 to :i* our ,s\l belongs1 ! ,_w ( ,supra-cele/ial ,angels1 & la/ly ,god himself1 z ! ,_w ( pure/ ,light & mo/ p]fect ,_s4 ,! pi\s & enlight5$ ,s\l asc5ds f ! l[] _w ?r\gh ! heav5s till x is face to face ) ,god1 = x is ( spiritual nature & its resurrection-body is ( cele/ial ess5ce4 ,9 a mann] correspond+ to ! diff]5t worlds & grades ( ,s\ls1 m5 !mselves diff] f "o ano!r4 ,! man ( s5su\s nature mu/ be cont5t ) ! ,koran & ,tradition3 he %\ld n v5ture beyond ! lett] ( ! ,law4 ,! /udy ( duty is 8 bread ( life2 philosophy w\ld be a deadly poison to him4 ,he :o _c swim %\ld n v5ture into ! sea4 ,h[ev] !re are always p :o g into ! wat] = ! purpose ( le>n+ to swim4 ,!y want to elevate _! fai? into k1 b 9 ! process !y may easily fall into d\bt & unbelief4 ,= !m1 9 ,gazali's op9ion1 a useful rem$y may be f\nd 9 ! /udy ( ,doctr9e & ,polemics direct$ aga9/ ,philosophy4 ,^?1 h[ev]1 h rea*$ ! highe/ degree ( human p]fection1 :o1 )\t any labori\s cogitation1 exp]i5ce 9 !mselves by means ( an inw>d & ,div9e illum9ation ! tru? & ! reality ( ! ,spiritual ,_w4 ,su* are ! prophets & pi\s my/ics1 among :om ,gazali himself may be reckon$4 ,!y see ,god 9 ev]y?+1--,him1 & ,him alone--1 & 9 ,nature j z 9 ! life ( _! own ,s\l2 b !y see ,him be/ 9 ! ,s\l1 = al?\gh x is n ,div9e x has at lea/ a lik5ess to ! ,div9e4 ,h[ alt]$ n[ is e outw>d ?+6 ,t :i* seems to be 9 exi/5ce outside ( u1 becomes a condition or a prop]ty ( ! ,s\l1 :i* 9 ! consci\sness ( its union ) ,god1 advances to ! highe/ bliss4 ,all ?+s !n become "o 9 ,love4 ,! true s]vice ( ,god transc5ds fe> ( puni%m5t & hope ( rew>d1 atta9+ to ,love ( ,god 9 ! ,_s4 ,! p]fect s]vant ( ,god is rais$ above endurance & ?anksgiv+1--:i* con/itute ! obligation ( ! pi\s w&]] ^u ! e>?1 s long z he rema9s imp]fect--1 s t ev5 9 ?is _w he loves & praises ,god ) joy ( he>t4 #h4 ,f :at has be5 said x foll[s t !re are ?ree /ages ( ,belief or ,c]ta9ty4 ,fir/1 ! belief ( ! multitude1 :o believe :at "s man wor?y ( belief decl>es to !m1 = in/ance1 t ,s-&-s is 9 ! h\se2 secondly1 ! k ( ! le>n$1 ga9$ by d$uction3 !y h he>d ,s-&-s speak+1 & conclude t he is 9 ! h\se2 b ?irdly we h ! imm$iate c]ta9ty ( ! #8kn[+' ones1 = !y h ent]$ ! h\se & se5 ! p]son ) _! own eyes4 ,9 contradi/9ction to ! ,dialecticians & ,philosoph]s1 ,gazali ev]y:]e lays /ress ^u exp]i5ce4 ,! =m]1 ) _! ,univ]sal ,ideas1 9 ! fir/ place fail to d ju/ice to ! multiplicity :i* atta*es to ?is _w ( s5se4 ,! s5sible qualities ( ?+s1--ev5 ! numb] ( ! />s = example1--we come to "k only ?r\gh exp]i5ce1 & n f pure ,ideas4 ,mu* less1 h[ev]1 d su* ,ideas exhau/ ! heights & dep?s ( our inn] be+4 ,t :i* ! fri5d ( ,god kn[s intuitively1 rema9s hidd5 = ev] f ! discursive intellect ( ! le>n$4 ,a v small numb] atta9 to ?is height ( k1 :]e !y meet ) ! ,apo/les ( ,god & ,prophets ( all times4 ,x is ! duty !n ( ! ,spirits :o /& at a l[] level to /rive to foll[ !m4 ,b n[ h[ are we to recognize ! sup]ior ,_s :om we ne$ z our guide8 ,t is a "q1 on :i* e religi\sly-det]m9$ sy/em1 :i* _c d )\t human int]m$i>ies1 mu/ f\nd]1 if consid]$ purely 9 ! light ( ! und]/&+4 ,ev5 ,gazali's answ] is indecisive4 ,?is mu* is c]ta9 to him1 t gr\nds furni%$ by ! reason alone _c decide ?is "q4 ,! ,prophet & ,tea*] :o has be5 actually inspir$ by ,god is recogniz$ by m]g+ ourselves 9 8 peculi> p]sonality1 ?r\gh ! exp]i5ce ( an inw>d relation%ip4 ,! tru? ( ,prophecy is au!nticat$ by ! moral influ5ce :i* x ex]cises ^u ! ,s\l4 ,( ! tru?fulness ( ,god's ^w 9 ! ,koran we acquire a moral1 n a !oretical c]ta9ty4 ,! deta*$ miracle is n capable ( conv9c+2 b ! revelation z a :ole1 toge!r ) ! p]sonality ( ! ,prophet1 ?r\gh :om ! revelation has be5 convey$1 produce an irresi/ible impression ^u ! k9dr$ s\l4 ,!n1 :olly c>ri$ away by su* impression1 ! s\l r5\nces ! _w1 to walk 9 ! way ( ,god4 #i4 ,gazali is )\t d\bt ! mo/ rem>kable figure 9 all ,islam4 ,8 doctr9e is ! expression ( 8 own p]sonality4 ,he ab&on$ ! attempt to und]/& ?is _w4 ,b ! religi\s problem he compreh5d$ mu* m pr(\ndly ?an did ! philosoph]s ( 8 "t4 ,^! 7 intellectual 9 _! me?ods1 l _! ,greek pr$ecessors1 & consequ5tly reg>d$ ! doctr9es ( ,religion z m]ely ! products ( ! conception or fancy or ev5 caprice ( ! lawgiv]4 ,accord+ to !m ,religion 0 ei!r bl9d ob$i5ce1 or a k9d ( k :i* conta9$ tru? ( an inf]ior ord]4 ,on ! o!r h& ,gazali repres5ts ,religion z ! exp]i5ce ( 8 inn] ,be+4 ,x is = him m ?an ,law & m ?an ,doctr9e3 x is ! ,s\l's exp]i5ce4 ,x is n e "o :o has ?is exp]i5ce ( ,gazali's4 ,b ev5 ^? :o _c foll[ him 9 8 my/ic flight1 :5 he transc5ds ! conditions ( any possible exp]i5ce1 w at lea/ be con/ra9$ to ackn[l$ge t 8 ab]rations 9 se>*+ = ! highe/ are n less important = ! hi/ory ( ! ,human ,m9d ?an ! app>5tly sur] pa?s tak5 by ! philosoph]s ( 8 "t1 ?r\gh a l& :i* o!rs _h discov]$ be=e !m4 #b4 ,! ,epitomi/s4 #a4 ,9 a hi/ory ( s*ol>ly ,education z conduct$ 9 ! ,muslim nations1 ?is subject w\ld necess>ily h a l>g] space assign$ x3 b "h we %all dismiss x 9 a few words4 ,t ,gazali has annihilat$ philosophy 9 ! ,ea/1 = all "t to come1 is an ass]tion frequ5tly repeat$ b :olly errone\s1 & "o :i* evid5ces nei!r hi/orical k nor und]/&+4 ,philosophy 9 ! ,ea/ has s9ce 8 day numb]$ its tea*]s & /ud5ts by hundr$s & by ?\s&s4 ,! tea*]s ( ! ,fai? h no m discont9u$ _! dialectical argum5ts 9 support ( ,doctr9e ?an ! tea*]s ( ,morals h ab&on$ _! hair-splitt+ casui/ry4 ,g5]al culture too has adopt$ an elem5t ( philosophical le>n+4 ,b x is true t ,philosophy did n succe$ 9 conqu]+ = itself a comm&+ position1 or 9 reta9+ ! consid]ation :i* x once enjoy$4 ,accord+ to an ,arab anecdote a ,philosoph]1 :o _h be5 ?r[n into prison1 on be+ ask$ :at he 0 fit =1 by a man :o want$ to pur*ase him z a slave1 is said to h repli$3 8,= fre$om04 ,philosophy ne$s fre$om4 ,& :]e 0 ?is ,fre$om to be met ) 9 ! ,ea/8 ,fre$om f mat]ial c>es1 fre$om to exemplify unprejudic$ ?9k+1 t5d$ cont9ually to dw9dle away f regions :]e no enlight5$ despots 7 to be f\nd1 able to w>rant & protect x4 ,b t is j a symptom ( ! g5]al decay ( civilization4 ,& al?\gh travell]s f ! ,we/ 9 ! twelf? c5tury prais$ highly ! culture ( ! ,ea/1 x _h1 9 comp>ison ) e>li] times1 at lea/ begun to decl9e4 ,9 no dep>tm5t did !y pass ! m>k :i* _h be5 rea*$ ( old3 ,m9ds 7 n[ too weak to accompli% su* a feat4 ,lit]>y production became /agnant1 & ! only m]it :i* belongs to ! volum9\s compil]s ( ! foll[+ c5turies is t ( elegant selection4 ,e?ical & religi\s doctr9e _h end$ 9 ,my/icism2 & ! same 0 ! case ) ,philosophy4 ,aft] ! "t ( ,ibn ,s9a1 ! ,pr9ce ( ,philosophy1 no "o felt call$ ^u to come =w>d ) indep5d5t views4 ,! day _h come = ,abridgem5ts1 ,comm5t>ies1 ,glosses1 & ,glosses ^u ,glosses4 ,! le>n$ _w occupi$ _! "t 9 s*ool ) "w ( t nature1 :ile ! believ+ multitude plac$ !mselves m & m "u ! guidance ( ! ,d]vi% ord]s4 #b4 ,t :i* g5]al education borr[$ mo/ f philosophical ,propa$eutics 0 a little ,ma!matics c41 naturally exce$+ly elem5t>y z a rule4 ,by sect>ies & my/ics a good deal 0 tak5 ov] f ,py?agorean-,platonic wisdom4 ,9 p>ticul> ^! doctr9es _h to be drawn ^u 9 ord] to support ! belief 9 sa9ts & miracles2 & a b>r5 syncreti/ic ,!osophy 0 trick$ out !re)4 ,! sy/em ev5 enroll$ ,ari/otle among its tea*]s1 ( c\rse ! spuri\s ,ari/otle1 b x turn$ him into a disciple ( ,aga?odaemon & ,h]mes4 ,! m sob]-m9d$ ?9k]s1 on ! o!r h&1 kept to ,ari/otelianism1 s f> z x agre$ ) _! own views or ) ! or?odox ,fai?4 ,! sy/em ( ,ibn ,s9a 0 almo/ univ]sally foll[$ by !m2 & x 0 only a few t w5t back to ,f>abi1 or t endeav\r$ to comb9e ! two4 ,v little notice 0 tak5 ( ,physical & ,metaphysical doctr9es3 ,e?ics & ,politics 7 r m att5d$ to4 ,logic 0 ! only subject univ]sally /udi$2 = x c\ld be admirably convey$ 9 s*ola/ic =m2 &1 z pure ,=mal ,logic1 x 0 an in/rum5t :i* e "o 0 able to make use (4 ,9 fact ) ! res\rces ( ,logic ev]y?+ might be prov$2 & ev5 if ! demon/ration %\ld be recogniz$ z faulty1 !re 0 ?is consolation t ! av]m5t might /ill be true1 al?\gh its demon/ration _h n be5 prop]ly conduct$4 ,ev5 9 ! ,encyclopa$ia ( ,abu ,abdallah al-,khw>izmi1 a production ( ! la/ qu>t] ( ! t5? c5tury1 a l>g] space 0 assign$ to ,logic ?an to ,physics & ,metaphysics4 ,! v same ?+ 0 done 9 _m lat] encyclopa$ias & compilations4 ,! ,dogmati/s also comm5c$ _! sy/em ) logical & epi/emological consid]ations1 9 :i* a traditional eulogy 0 pron\nc$ ov] 8kn[+04 ,& f ! twelf? c5tury onw>ds !re arose a :ole multitude ( sep>ate arrangem5ts ( ! ,ari/otelian ,organon4 ,"h may be m5tion$ only1--z be+ mu* us$1 comm5t$ on1 & s =?1--! works ( ,abh>i 7 #abfd71 :o gave a %ort summ>y ( ! :ole #8,logic' "u ! title ( 8,isagudji0 772 & ! works ( ,qazw9i 7 #abgf74 ,at ! greate/ ,univ]sity 9 ! ,muslim _w1 t ( ,cairo1 ! ,epitomes ( ! #ac? & #ad? c5turies are us$1 up to ?is day4 ,!re ! ^w /ill is1 z = a long "t x 0 ) ourselves3 8,fir/ ( all a ,college ( ,logic01 &1 we ne$ sc>cely add1 ) no bett] result4 ,!y indulge !mselves1 )9 ! limits ( ! ,law1 9 ! luxury ( /udy+ ! rules ( ?9k+ discov]$ by ! anci5t philosoph]s1 b all ! :ile !y smile at ^! m5 & at ! ,mutazilite ,dialecticians1 :o 8believ$ 9 ,reason60 ,,vi4 ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,! ,,we/4 #a4 ,beg9n+s4 #a4 ,we/]n ,nor?-,africa1 ,spa9 & ,sicily are reckon$ z =m+ ! ,muslim ,we/4 ,nor?-,africa1 to beg9 )1 is ( subord9ate importance3 ,sicily is regulat$ by ,spa91 & is soon ov]?r[n by ! ,normans ( ,l[] ,italy4 ,= our purpose ,muslim ,spa9 or ,&alusia fir/ falls to be consid]$4 ,! drama ( culture 9 ! ,ea/ passes "h ?r\gh a second repres5tation4 ,j z ,arabs !re int]m>ri$ ) ,p]sians1 s 9 ! ,we/ !y int]m>ry ) ,spani>ds4 ,& in/ead ( ,turks & ,mongols we h "h ! ,b]b]s ( ,nor?-,africa1 ^: rude =ce is flung into ! play ( m ref9$ civilization ) a blight+ influ5ce ev] on ! increase4 ,aft] ! fall ( ! ,omayyads 9 ,syria 7#gej71 a memb] ( t ,h\se1 ,abd]rakhman ibn ,moawiya1 betook himself to ,spa91 :]e he contriv$ to "w 8 way up to ! dignity ( ,emir ( ,cordova & all ,&alusia4 ,?is ,omayyad ov]lord%ip la/$ = m ?an #bej ye>s1 & aft] a pass+ sy/em ( petty ,/ates1 x atta9$ its greate/ brilliancy "u ,abd]rakhman ,,iii 7#iab-ifa71 ! fir/ :o assum$ ! title ( ,caliph1 & 8 son al-,hakam ,,ii 7#ifa-igf74 ,! t5? c5tury 0 = ,spa91 :at ! n9? 0 = ! ,ea/1--! "t ( highe/ mat]ial & intellectual civilization4 ,if possible1 x 0 m fre% & native "h ?an 9 ! ,ea/1 &1 if x be true t all !oriz+ betok5s ei!r a lack or a /agnation ( ! p[] ( production1 x 0 m productive also3 ,! sci5ces1 & ,philosophy 9 p>ticul>1 _h f> few] repres5tatives 9 ,spa94 ,speak+ g5]ally1 we may say t ! relations ( intellectual life took a simpl] =m4 ,!re 0 a small] numb] ( /rata 9 ! new culture ?an 9 ! old4 ,no d\bt !re 71 besides ,muslims1 ,jews & ,*ri/ians 9 ,spa91 :o 9 ! "t ( ,abd]rakhman ,,iii play$ _! "p 9 ?is cultivat$ life1 ( ! ,arabic /amp1 9 common ) ! re/4 ,b ( adh]5ts ( ,zoroa/]1 a!i/s & su* l1 !re 7 none4 ,ev5 ! sects ( ,ea/]n ,islam 7 almo/ unkn[n4 ,only "o s*ool ( ,law1 t ( ,malik1 0 admitt$4 ,no ,mutazilite dialectic tr\bl$ ! peace ( ! ,fai?4 ,true en\gh ! ,&alusian poets glorifi$ ! tr9ity ( ,w9e1 ,woman & ,song2 b flippant free-?9k+ on ! "o h&1 & gloomy !osophy & r5unciation ( ! _w on ! o!r1 r>ely f\nd expression4 ,on ! :ole1 intellectual culture 0 dep5d5t ^u ! ,ea/4 ,f ! t5? c5tury onw>ds _m j\rneys 9 se>* ( k 7 und]tak5 ?i!r f ,spa91 by way ( ,egypt & z f> z ,ea/]n ,p]sia1 = ! purpose ( att5d+ ! prelections ( s*ol>s ( r5[n4 ,& f>!r1 educational requirem5ts 9 ,&alusia attract$ to x _m a le>n$ ,ea/]n :o f\nd no occupation 9 8 own home4 ,besides1 al-,hakam ,,ii caus$ books to be copi$1 all ov] ! ,ea/1 = 8 libr>y1 :i* is said to h conta9$ #djj1jjj volumes4 ,! ,we/ 0 ma9ly int]e/$ 9 ,ma!matics1 ,natural ,sci5ce1 ,a/rology & ,m$ic9e1 precisely z 0 ! case at fir/ 9 ! ,ea/4 ,poetry1 ,hi/ory & ,geography 7 cultivat$ ) ard\r4 ,b ! m9d 0 n yet 8sickli$ o'er ) ! pale ca/ ( ?\ght01 = :5 ,abdallah ibn ,mas>ra ( ,cordova1 "u ,abd]rakhman ,,iii1 br\ght home ) him f ! ,ea/ a sy/em ( ,natural ,philosophy1 he _h to submit to see 8 writ+s consign$ to ! flames4 #b4 ,9 ! ye> #ajac ,cordova1 8! ,gem ( ! ,_w01 0 laid wa/e by ! ,b]b]s1 & ! k+dom ( ! ,omayyads 0 split up into a numb] ( m9or ,/ates4 ,its second bloom fills up ! elev5? c5tury1--! ,m$icean age ( ,spa91 9 :i* ,art & ,poetry /ill fl\ri% 9 luxuriant gr[? at ! c\rts ( ! v>i\s cities1 ^u ! ru9s ( anci5t spl5d\r4 ,art gr[s ref9$2 poetry becomes sage1 & sci5tific ?\ght subtle4 ,intellectual nutrim5t cont9ues to be fet*$ f ! ,ea/2 & ,natural ,philosophy1 ! writ+s ( ! ,fai?ful ,bre?r51 & ,logic f ! s*ool ( ,abu ,sulaiman al-,sidji/ani f9d admission "o aft] ! o!r4 ,t[>ds ! close ( ! c5tury x is possible to trace ! influ5ce ev5 ( ! writ+s ( ,f>abi1 & ! 8,m$ic9e0 ( ,ibn ,s9a becomes kn[n4 ,! beg9n+s ( philosophical reflection are f\nd *iefly ) ! num]\s m5 ( culture among ! ,jews4 ,ea/]n ,natural ,philosophy produces a p[]ful & q s+ul> impression ^u ! m9d ( ,ibn ,gebirol1 ! ,av5cebrol ( ,*ri/ian au?ors2 & ,bakhya ibn ,pakuda is influ5c$ by ! ,fai?ful ,bre?r54 ,ev5 ! religi\s poetry ( ! ,jews is affect$ by ! philosophical movem5t2 & :at speaks !re9 is n ! ,jewi% ,congregation seek+ aft] ,god1 b ! ,s\l ris+ t[>ds ! ,supreme ,_s4 ,among ! ,muslims1 h[ev]1 ! numb] ( ^? :o address$ !mselves to a ?or\gh /udy ( ,philosophy 0 v limit$4 ,no ma/] ga!r$ ab\t him a num]\s b& ( disciples2 & meet+s ( ! le>n$1 = ! discussion ( philosophical subjects1 7 sc>cely ev] held4 ,! individual ?9k] mu/ h felt v lonely 9 ^! circum/ances4 ,9 ! ,we/1 j z 9 ! ,ea/1 ,philosophy 0 develop$ subjectively2 b "h x 0 m ! conc]n ( a few isolat$ individuals2 &1 besides1 x /ood m ap>t f ! fai? ( ! mass ( ! p4 ,9 ! ,ea/ !re 7 c\ntless int]m$i>y ag5cies betwe5 fai? & k1--betwe5 ! philosoph]s & ! believ+ community4 ,! problem ( ! individual ?9k]1 confront$ by political society & ! fai? ( n>r[-m9d$ fanatical multitudes1 0 accord+ly realiz$ m acutely 9 ! ,we/4 #b4 ,ibn ,baddja4 #a4 ,t[>ds ! end ( ! elev5? c5tury1 :5 ,abu ,bekr ,mohamm$ ibn ,yakhya ibn al-,saig ibn ,baddja 7,avempace7 0 born 9 ,s>agossa1 ! fair k+dom ( ,&alusia 0 approa*+ ! "t ( its disappe>ance 9 a sy/em ( petty ,/ates4 ,x 0 ?reat5$ f ! ,nor? by ! less civiliz$ b yet p[]ful & brave ,*ri/ian knights4 ,b ! ,b]b] dyna/y ( ! ,almoravids came to ! rescue1 :o 7 n only firm] 9 ! fai? b also wis] 9 _! policy ?an ! voluptu\s rul+ race ( ,spa94 ,!n ! "t ( ref9$ culture & free enquiry seem$ gone = ev]4 ,only traditionali/s1 ( ! /ricte/ rite1 v5tur$ to make a public appe>ance1 :ile philosoph]s1 unless !y kept conceal$1 7 p]secut$ or put to dea?4 #b4 ,b b>b>\s lords h _! caprices1 be+ fond ( appropriat+1 at lea/ sup]ficially1 ! culture ( ^? :o h be5 subjugat$ by !m4 ,?us ,abu ,bekr ibn ,ibrahim1 bro!r-9-law ( ! ,almoravid pr9ce ,ali1--:o 0 = "s "t ,gov]nor ( ,s>agossa1 made ,ibn ,baddja 8 intimate fri5d & fir/ m9i/]1 !reby giv+ great (f5ce to 8 ,faqihs & soldi]s4 ,n[ ?is 0 a man1 skill$ bo? 9 ! !ory & practice ( ! ,ma!matical ,sci5ces1 p>ticul>ly ,a/ronomy & ,music1 z well z an adept 9 ,m$ic9e1 & "o :o 0 devot$ to speculative /udies 9 ,logic1 ,natural ,philosophy & ,metaphysics2 & 9 ! op9ion ( ! fanatics he 0 an utt]ly ab&on$ a!i/ & immoral p]son4 ,we "k no?+ m ( ! outw>d life ( ,ibn ,baddja except t he 0 9 ,seville 9 ! ye> #aaah1 aft] ! fall ( ,s>agossa1 & t he compos$ sev]al ( 8 works !re1 aft]w>ds betak+ himself to ! ,almoravid c\rt 9 ,fez1 :]e he di$ 9 #aach4 ,accord+ to tradition he met 8 dea? by poison1 adm9i/]$ at ! in/igation ( a jeal\s physician4 ,8 %ort life1 z he himself confesses1 _h n be5 a happy "o2 & he _h (t5 long$ = dea?1 z a f9al refuge4 ,mat]ial want1 &1 above all1 intellectual isolation1 may h weigh$ d[n 8 spirits4 ,8 extant writ+s abundantly ev9ce t he 0 unable to feel at home 9 t day & t environm5t4 #c4 ,he con=ms almo/ entirely to ,f>abi1 ! quiet1 solit>y ,ea/]n4 ,l him he 0 little giv5 to sy/ematiz+4 ,8 orig9al treatises are b few 9 numb]2 & !y consi/ *iefly ( brief expositions ( ,ari/otelian & o!r philosophical works4 ,8 obs]vations are ( a desultory "*3 ,n[ he makes a beg9n+ 9 "o place2 aga91 he />ts afre% 9 ano!r4 ,9 cont9ually r5ew$ approa*es he endeav\rs to get ne>] ,greek ?\ght1 & to p5etrate f e possible side to anci5t sci5ce4 ,he does n disc>d philosophy1 & he does n deal conclusively ) x4 ,on a fir/ glance1 t produces a puzzl+ impression2 b1 9 ! sombre impulse :i* is ^u him1 ! philosoph] has become aw>e ( ! pa? he is pursu+4 ,9 se>*+ = tru? & righte\sness1 he is com+ ^u ano!r ?+1--unity & joy 9 8 own life4 ,9 8 op9ion1 ,gazali took ! matt] mu* too easily1 :5 he ?\ght he c\ld be happy only 9 ! full possession ( ! tru? compreh5d$ by means ( ,div9e illum9ation4 ,9 8 love = ! tru?1 :i* is conceal$ r ?an reveal$ by ! s5su\s images ( religi\s my/icism1 ! philosoph] mu/ be /rong en\gh to r5\nce t happ9ess4 ,only pure ?9k+1 undi/urb$ by any s5su\s desire1 is privileg$ to behold ! supreme ,godhead4 #d4 ,9 8 logical writ+s ,ibn ,baddja h>dly dep>ts f ,f>abi4 ,ev5 8 physical & metaphysical !ories agree g5]ally ) ! views ( ! ma/]4 ,b p]haps ! mode1 9 :i* he repres5ts ! hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( ! human _s & ! position ( man 9 k & 9 life1 may claim a measure ( int]e/4 ,!re are two k9ds ( exi/5ce1 accord+ to 8 view1--"o :i* is mov$1 & "o :i* is n mov$4 ,t :i* is mov$ is corporeal & limit$1 b its ev]la/+ movem5t _c be expla9$ by f9ite ,body4 ,on ! contr>y1 9 ord] to expla9 ?is endless movem5t1 an un5d+ p[] is ne$$1 or an et]nal ess5ce1 namely ,_s4 ,n[ :ile ! corporeal or ! natural is mov$ f )\t1 & ! ,_s1 itself unmov$1 conf]s movem5t ^u ! corporeal1 ! ,s\l-sub/ance occupies a middle position1 be+ t :i* moves itself4 ,! relation betwe5 ! natural & ! psy*ical pres5ts z little difficulty to ,ibn ,baddja z to 8 pr$ecessors2 b ! great problem is ?is3--#8,h[ are ! ,s\l & ! ,_s relat$ to ea* o!r1 t is to say 9 ,man8' #e4 ,ibn ,baddja />ts ) ! assumption t ,matt] _c exi/ )\t "s ,=m1 :ile ,=m may exi/ by itself1 )\t ,matt]4 ,o!rwise1 9 fact1 absolutely no *ange is ?9kable1 because t is r5d]$ possible only by ! com+ & go+ ( sub/antial ,=ms4 ,^! ,=ms !n1 f ! hylic up to ! purely spiritual1 con/itute a s]ies1 to :i* ! developm5t ( ! human _s corresponds1 9 s f> z x realizes ! rational ideal4 ,man's task is to compreh5d all ! spiritual ,=ms toge!r2 fir/ ! intelligible ,=ms ( all t is corporeal1 !n ! s5sible-spiritual pres5tations ( ! ,s\l1 next ! human ,_s itself & ! ,active ,_s ov] x1 & la/ly ! pure ,spirits ( ! cele/ial sph]es4 ,by ris+ ?r\gh successive /ages f ! individual & s5sible1 ! pres5tation ( :i* con/itutes ! mat]ial on :i* ! ,_s op]ates1 ,man atta9s to ! sup]human & ! ,div9e4 ,n[ 8 guide 9 ?is process is ,philosophy1 or ! k ( ! univ]sal1 :i* issues f k ( ! p>ticul> ?r\gh /udy & reflection1 aid$ h[ev] by ! enlight5+ ,_s f above4 ,contra/$ ) ?is k ( ! univ]sal or ! inf9ite1--9 :i* ,be+1 & becom+ ! object ( cognition co9cide1--all p]ception & pres5tation prove deceptive4 ,?us x is by rational k1 & n by religi\s & my/ical dream+1 ) ! s5su\s inv>iably cl++ !reto1 t ! human ,_s arrives at p]fection4 ,?9k+ is ! highe/ bliss1 = its v purpose is to rea* all t is intelligible4 ,b s9ce t is ! univ]sal1 ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( individual human ,spirits beyond ?is life _c be assum$4 ,x may be t ! ,s\l1--:i* appreh5ds ! p>ticul> 9 ! life ( s5su\s-spiritual pres5tation1 & notifies its exi/5ce 9 sep>ate desires & actions1--has ! faculty ( cont9u+ t exi/5ce aft] dea?1 & ( receiv+ rew>d or puni%m5t2 b ! ,_s or ! rational "p ( ! ,s\l is "o 9 all4 ,x is only ! ,_s ( ! entirety ( ,mank9d1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! "o ,intellect1 ,m9d or ,_s 9 ,humanity1--& t too 9 its union ) ! active ,_s ov] x1--:i* is et]nal4 ,?is !ory1 :i* made its way into ! ,*ri/5dom ( ! ,middle ,ages1 "u ! "n ( ,av]roes' ,!ory1 is ?us f\nd ev5 ) ,ibn ,baddja1 if n q di/9ctly conceiv$1 at all ev5ts m cle>ly giv5 ?an ) ,f>abi4 #f4 ,e man does n rise to su* a height ( contemplation4 ,! great] numb] grope ab\t cont9ually 9 ! d>k2 !y m]ely see ! adumbrations ( ?+s1 & l %ad[s !y w pass away4 ,"s see ! ,light1 x is true1 & ! col\r$ _w ( ?+s1 b v few inde$ recognize ! ess5ce ( :at !y h se54 ,x is only ! latt]1 ! bless$ ones1 :o atta9 to life et]nal1--9 :i* /ate !y !mselves become ,light4 ,b n[1 h[ does ! individual man get to ?is /age ( k & bless$ exi/5ce8 ,?r\gh action direct$ by reason1 & ! free cultivation ( 8 intellectual p[]s4 ,action direct$ by reason is free action1 t is1 action 9 :i* !re is a consci\sness ( purpose4 ,if "o1 = in/ance1 breaks a /one to pieces1 because he has /umbl$ aga9/ x1 he is behav+ )\t purpose1 l a *ild or a l[] animal2 b if he does ?is 9 ord] t o!rs may n /umble aga9/ ! /one1 8 action mu/ be call$ manlike1 & direct$ by reason4 ,9 ord] to be able to live z a man %\ld1 & to act 9 a rational way1 ! individual man1 mu/ z f> z circum/ances p]mit1 )draw f society4 ,! "n borne by ! ,e?ics ( ,ibn ,baddja is 8,guidance to ! ,solit>y04 ,x dem&s self-culture4 ,g5]ally1 h[ev]1 "o may avail himself ( ! advantages att5d+ social life 9 man1 )\t includ+ 9 ! b>ga9 its disadvantages4 ,! wise may associate !mselves 9 l>g] or small] unions2 su* inde$ is _! duty1 if !y light ^u "o ano!r2 & !n !y =m a ,/ate )9 ! ,/ate4 ,naturally !y endeav\r to live 9 su* a mann] t nei!r physician nor judge is necess>y among !m4 ,!y gr[ up l plants 9 ! op5 air1 & d n /& 9 ne$ ( ! g>d5]'s skill4 ,!y keep at a di/ance f ! l[] enjoym5ts & s5tim5ts ( ! multitude4 ,!y are /rang]s to ! movem5ts ( worldly society4 ,& z !y are fri5ds among !mselves1 ?is life ( !irs is :olly det]m9$ by ,love4 ,!n too z fri5ds ( ,god1 :o is ! ,tru?1 !y f9d repose 9 union ) ! sup]human ,_s ( ,k4 #c4 ,ibn ,t(ail4 #a4 ,! sov]eignty ov] ,we/]n ,islam rema9$ ) ! ,b]b]s1 b ! ,almohads spe$ily took ! place ( ! ,almoravids4 ,mohamm$ ibn ,tum>t1 ! f\nd] ( ! new dyna/y1 _h1 f ! ye> #aaba1 come =w>d z ,mahdi4 ,"u 8 successors ,abu ,yaaqub ,yusuf 7#aafc-aahd7 & ,abu ,yusuf ,yaaqub 7#aahd-aaih71 _! sov]eignty1 :i* 0 c5tr$ 9 ,m>occo1 rea*$ its culm9at+ po9t4 ,! ,almohads br\ght ) !m a />tl+ novelty 9 !ology3 ,! sy/em ( ,a%>i & ,gazali1 :i* till !n _h be5 br&$ z h]etical1 0 adopt$ 9 ! ,we/4 ,t meant an infusion ( intellectualism into ! tea*+ ( ! ,fai?1--a proce$+ :i* c\ld n be altoge!r satisfactory ei!r to ! adh]5ts ( ! old ,fai? or to free?9k]s1 b :i* may h incit$ _m to f>!r philosophiz+4 ,hi!rto an attitude ( repudiation _h be5 ma9ta9$ t[>ds all reason+ 9 matt]s ( fai?2 &1 ev5 lat]1 _m politicians & philosoph]s 7 ( op9ion t ! fai? ( ! multitude %\ld n be viol5tly di/urb$1 nor elevat$ to k1 b t ! prov9ces ( ,religion & ( ,philosophy %\ld be kept scrupul\sly sep>ate4 ,! ,almohads 7 int]e/$ 9 que/ions ( !ology1 b yet ,abu ,yaaqub & 8 successors manife/$1 z f> z political conditions p]mitt$1 su* an appreciation ( secul> k1 t philosophy 0 enabl$ to enjoy a brief p]iod ( prosp]ity at _! c\rt4 #b4 ,we f9d ,abu ,bekr ,mohamm$ ibn ,abdalmalik ibn ,t(ail al-,qaisi 7,abubac]7 9 ! position ( ,vizir & ,body-,physician to ,abu ,yaaqub1 aft] hold+ an appo9tm5t z ,secret>y 9 ,granada4 ,8 place ( bir? 0 ! small ,&alusian t[n ( ,guadix1 & he di$ 9 ,m>occo1 ! seat ( ,gov]nm5t1 9 ! ye> #aahe4 ,! life t lies betwe5 appe>s to h be5 by no means ev5tful4 ,he 0 fond] ( books ?an ( m51 & 9 8 sov]eign's great libr>y he ga!r$1 by read+1 mu* in=mation :i* he requir$ = 8 art1 or :i* met 8 ard5t ?ir/ = k4 ,he 0 ! dilettante ( ! philosoph]s ( ! ,we/1 & 0 m giv5 to contemplative enjoym5t ?an sci5tific "w4 ,r>ely did he set himself to write4 ,we ne$ n p]haps put absolute fai? 9 8 ass]tion t he c\ld h fundam5tally improv$ ! ,ptolemaic sy/em4 ,_m ,arabs made a l ass]tion1 )\t c>ry+ x into effect4 ,( ,ibn ,t(ail's poetic v5tures1 "o or two poems h be5 pres]v$ to u4 ,b 8 pr9cipal endeav\r1 l t ( ,ibn ,s9a1 0 to comb9e ,greek ,sci5ce & ,ori5tal ,wisdom into a mod]n view ( ! _w4 ,t 0 to him a p]sonal conc]n1 j z x 0 to ,ibn ,baddja4 ,he too occupi$ 8 m9d ) ! relation ( ! individual man to ,society & its prejudices4 ,b he w5t f>!r3 ,ibn ,baddja1 z a rule made out ! individual ?9k] or a small association ( indep5d5t ?9k]s1 z con/itut+ a ,/ate )9 ! ,/ate1--a copy1 z x 71 ( ! great total1 or a model = happi] times3 ,ibn ,t(ail on ! o!r h&1 turn$ to consid] ! orig9al4 #c4 ,he /ates ! case cle>ly1 9 8 "w 8,hai ibn ,yaqzan04 ,! sc5]y is contribut$ by two isl&s1 on "o ( :i* he sets human society ) its conv5tions1 & on ! o!r an individual man1 :o is be+ develop$ naturally4 ,?is society z a :ole is gov]n$ by l[] impulses1 subject$ only to "s measure ( outw>d re/ra9t by a grossly s5su\s religion4 ,b out ( ?is society two m51 call$ ,salaman & ,asal 7,absal1 cf4 ,,iv1 #d #g71 rise to rational k & control ( _! desires4 ,accommodat+ himself to ! popul> religion1 ! fir/1 :o is ( a practical turn ( m9d1 contrives to rule ! p2 b ! second1 be+ ( speculative disposition & my/ic lean+s1 w&]s (f to ! isl& :i* lay opposite1 & :i* he imag9es to be un9habit$1--!re to devote himself to /udy & ascetic discipl9e4 ,on t isl&1 h[ev]1 our ,hai ibn ,yaqzan1--i4e4 #8! ,active "o1 ! son ( ! ,vigilant'1--_h be5 tra9$ into a p]fect philosoph]4 ,ca/ ^u ! isl& :5 a *ild1 or else br\ght into exi/5ce !re by spontane\s g5]ation1 he _h be5 suckl$ by a gazelle1 & !n _h be5 9 ! c\rse ( "t left1 l a ,rob9son ,crusoe1 & t entirely1 to 8 own res\rces4 ,yet he _h secur$ a mat]ial exi/5ce1 & f>!r1 by obs]vation & reflection1 _h acquir$ a k ( ,nature1 ! heav5s1 ,god1 & 8 own inn] be+1 until aft] sev5 times sev5 ye>s he _h atta9$ to t :i* is highe/1 viz41 ! ,sufi vision ( ,god1 ! /ate ( ec/asy4 ,9 ?is situation he 0 f\nd by ,asal4 ,aft] !y _h come to und]/& ea* o!r1--= at fir/ ,hai 0 /ill )\t spee*1--x 0 f\nd t ! philosophy ( ! "o & ! religion ( ! o!r 7 two =ms ( ! same tru?1 except t 9 ! fir/ =m x 0 some:at less veil$4 ,b :5 ,hai came to "k t on ! opposite isl& an entire p cont9u$ 9 d>kness & error1 he resolv$ to proce$ ?i!r & reveal ! tru? to !m4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 he 0 br\ght to le>n by exp]i5ce t ! multitude 7 incapable ( a pure appreh5sion ( ! tru?1 & t ,mohamm$ _h act$ wisely 9 giv+ ! p s5su\s =ms in/ead ( full light4 ,aft] ?is result !re=e he repair$ aga9 ) 8 fri5d ,asal to ! un9habit$ isl&1 to s]ve ,god 9 _s & 9 tru? till ! h\r ( dea?4 #d4 ,ibn ,t(ail has devot$ by f> ! l>ge/ portion ( 8 romance to ! c\rse ( ,hai's developm5t2 b he _c c]ta9ly h ?\ght t ! individual man1 left to himself1 is able1 ) ! res\rces ( ,nature alone & )\t ! help ( society1 to advance s f> z ,hai did4 ,& yet 8 conception is p]haps r m hi/orical1 ?an c]ta9 views :i* h be5 ent]ta9$ s9ce 8 day1 e4g4 by "s ( ! ,rationali/s ( ! #ah? c5tury4 ,_m little t\*es 9 8 "w %ew t ,hai 0 int5d$ to repres5t humanity z x /&s outside ( revelation4 ,t :i* is accompli%$ 9 him1 is ! developm5t ( ,indian1 ,p]sian & ,greek wisdom4 ,"o or two h9ts po9t+ 9 t direction1 b :i* _c be f>!r foll[$ out "h1 may help to l5d probability to ?is view4 ,?us x is significant1 to beg9 )1 t ,hai lives on ! isl& ( ,ceylon1 ! climate ( :i* 0 held to be su* z to r5d] spontane\s g5]ation possible1 :]e also1 accord+ to ! leg5d1 ,adam1 ! fir/ man1 _h be5 creat$1 & :]e ! ,indian k+ came to ! ,wise ,man4 ,!n ,hai's fir/ religi\s s5tim5t ( wond]1 aft] he _h /ruggl$ up out ( ! prim>y1 animal /age1 ?r\gh %ame & curiosity1 is elicit$ by fire1 :i* has be5 discov]$ by him1--a circum/ance :i* recalls to u ! ,p]sian religion4 ,& 8 f>!r speculations are borr[$ f ,greco-,arabic ,philosophy4 ,! aff9ity to ,ibn ,s9a's ,hai1 :i* ,ibn ,t(ail himself indicates1 is cle>3 ,only1 ! figure ( ,hai 9 ?is case pres5ts a m human appe>ance4 ,) ,ibn ,s9a ! "* ( ,hai repres5ts ! ,sup]human ,_s1 b ! h]o ( ,ibn ,t(ail's romance seems to be ! p]sonification ( ! natural ,_s ( ,mank9d illum9at$ f above2 & t ,_s mu/ be 9 accordance ) ! ,prophet-,s\l ( ,mohamm$ :5 rightly und]/ood1 ^: utt]ances are to be int]pret$ allegorically4 ,ibn ,t(ail has ?us arriv$ at ! same result z 8 ,ea/]n pr$ecessors4 ,religion mu/ /ill be kept up = ! ord9>y man1 because he _c g beyond x4 ,x is only a few :o rise to an und]/&+ ( religi\s symbols2 & v r>ely inde$ does any "o atta9 to ! unre/ra9$ contemplation ( ! highe/ reality4 ,?is la/ tru? he acc5tuates ) ! greate/ emphasis4 ,ev5 if we d f9d 9 ,hai ! repres5tative ( human nature1 we _c ga9say ?is tru?2 = ! repres5tation giv5 sets =? ! supreme p]fection ( ,man z consi/+ 9 subm]g+ 8 own self 9 ! ,_w-,_s1 9 ! mo/ lonely quietude1 & )drawn f all t is s5su\s4 ,x is true t ?is condition is atta9$ only 9 mature age1 9 :i*1 besides1 a human fri5d has be5 met )2 & att5tion to :at is mat]ial1 & to ! arts & sci5ces1 =ms ! natural prelim9>y /age ( spiritual p]fection4 ,?us ,ibn ,t(ail is p]mitt$ to look back )\t regret or %ame ^u 8 life sp5t at c\rt4 #e4 ,we h already met frequ5tly ) ! philosophical views1 :i* ,hai develop$ 9 8 sev5 life-p]iods4 ,b ev5 8 practical behavi\r is specially consid]$ by ,ibn ,t(ail4 ,sufi ex]cises1 z !y are /ill obs]v$ among ! religi\s ord]s ( ! ,ea/1 & z !y _h be5 recomm5d$ ev5 by ,plato & ! ,neo-,platoni/s1 h tak5 ! place ( ! obs]vances ( religi\s wor%ip enjo9$ by ! ,muslim ,law4 ,& ,hai =ms = himself 9 ! sev5? p]iod ( 8 life a sy/em ( ,e?ics :i* has a ,py?agorean appe>ance4 ,hai has set be=e him z ! aim ( 8 action1--to seek = ! ,"o 9 all ?+s & to unite himself to ! absolute & ! self-exi/+4 ,he sees 9 fact all ,nature /riv+ to rea* ?is ,highe/ ,be+4 ,he is f> above ! view t ev]y?+ on ! e>? exi/s = ! sake ( ,man4 ,animals & plants likewise live = !mselves & = ,god2 & ?us he is n p]mitt$ to deal caprici\sly ) !m4 ,he n[ re/ricts 8 bodily wants to :at is absolutely necess>y4 ,ripe fruits are pref]r$ by him1 ! se$s ( :i* he pi\sly consigns to ! soil1 tak+ anxi\s precaution t no k9d may die out ?r\gh 8 avidity4 ,& only 9 extreme ne$ does he t\* animal food1 9 :i* case he seeks 9 l mann] to sp>e ! species4 #8,en\gh = life1 n en\gh = sleep' is 8 motto4 ,t has ref]5ce to 8 bodily attitude t[>ds ! e>?ly2 b ! liv+ pr9ciple b9ds him to ! heav5s1 &1 l ! heav5s1 he /rives to be useful to 8 surr\nd+s1 & to keep 8 own life pure4 ,he !re=e t5ds ! plants & protects ! animals ab\t him1 9 ord] t 8 isl& may become a p>adise4 ,he pays scrupul\s att5tion to ! cleanl9ess ( 8 p]son & 8 clo?+1 & endeav\rs to give a h>moni\s turn to all 8 movem5ts1 9 con=mity ) ^? ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,9 ?is way he is gradually r5d]$ capable ( elevat+ 8 own self above e>? & heav5 to ! pure ,_s4 ,t is ! condition ( ec/asy1 :i* no ?\ght1 no ^w1 no image has ev] be5 able to compreh5d or express4 #d4 ,ibn ,ro%d4 #a4 ,abu-l-,walid ,mohamm$ ibn ,akhm$ ibn ,mohamm$ ibn ,ro%d 7,av]roes7 0 born at ,cordova1 ( a family ( lawy]s1 9 ! ye> #aabf4 ,!re too he made himself ma/] ( ! le>n$ culture ( 8 "t4 ,9 #aaec he is said to h be5 pres5t$ to ! pr9ce ,abu ,yaaqub by ,ibn ,t(ail2 & we possess a report ( t occurr5ce1 full ( "*4 ,aft] ! introductory phrases ( polit5ess ! pr9ce ask$ him3 8,:at is ! op9ion ( philosoph]s ab\t ! heav5s8 ,are !y et]nal1 or h !y be5 br\ght into exi/5ce80 ,ibn ,ro%d cauti\sly repli$ t he _h n giv5 att5tion to philosophy4 ,!reupon ! pr9ce comm5c$ to discuss ! subject ) ,ibn ,t(ail1 &1 to ! a/oni%m5t ( ! li/5]1 %ew$ t he 0 acqua9t$ ) ,ari/otle1 ,plato1 & ! philosoph]s & !ologians ( ,islam4 ,!n ,ibn ,ro%d also spoke out freely1 & won ! fav\r ( 8 high-plac$ ma/]4 ,8 lot 0 fix$3 ,he 0 de/9$ to int]pret ,ari/otle1 z no "o be=e him _h done1 t mank9d might be put 9 complete & g5u9e possession ( sci5ce4 ,he 01 besides1 a juri/ & a physician4 ,we f9d him 9 #aafi 9 ! position ( judge 9 ,seville1 & %ortly aft]w>ds 9 ,cordova4 ,abu ,yaakub1 n[ ,caliph1 nom9ates him 8 ,body-,physician 9 ! ye> #aahb2 b1 a %ort "t aft]1 he is aga9 judge 9 8 native city1 z 8 fa!r & gr&fa!r _h be54 ,circum/ances1 h[ev]1 *ange = ! worse4 ,philosoph]s are pron\nc$ accurs$1 & _! writ+s are committ$ to ! flames4 ,9 8 old age ,ibn ,ro%d is bani%$ by ,abu ,yusuf to ,elisana 7,luc5a1 ne> ,cordova71 b yet he dies 9 ,m>occo ! capital1 on ! #aj? ,decemb]1 #aaih4 #b4 ,x 0 ^u ,ari/otle t 8 activity 0 conc5trat$4 ,all t he c\ld procure ( t philosoph]'s works1 or ab\t !m1 he subject$ to dilig5t /udy & c>eful comp>ison4 ,writ+s ( ! ,greeks1 :i* are n[ lo/ ei!r entirely or 9 "p1 7 /ill kn[n to ,ibn ,ro%d 9 translat$ =m4 ,he goes critically & sy/ematically to "w3 ,he p>aphrases ,ari/otle & he int]prets him1 n[ ) comp>ative brevity1 & anon 9 great] detail1 bo? 9 mod]ate-siz$ & 9 bulky comm5t>ies4 ,he ?us m]its ! "n ( 8! ,comm5tator01 :i* also is assign$ to him 9 ,dante's 8,comm$ia0 #ai4 ,x looks z if ! ,philosophy ( ! ,muslims _h be5 fat$ 9 him to come to an und]/&+ ( ,ari/otle1 j t x might !n expire1 aft] t end _h be5 atta9$4 ,ari/otle = him is ! supremely p]fect man1 ! greate/ ?9k]1 ! philosoph] :o 0 9 possession ( an infallible tru?4 ,new discov]ies 9 ,a/ronomy1 ,art or ,physics c\ld make no alt]ation 9 t respect4 ,( c\rse x is possible to misund]/& ,ari/otle3 ,ibn ,ro%d himself came to h a diff]5t & bett] und]/&+ ( _m a po9t :i* he took f ! works ( ,f>abi & ,ibn ,s9a2 b yet he liv$ cont9ually 9 ! belief t ,ari/otle1 :5 rightly und]/ood1 corresponds to ! highe/ k :i* is atta9able by man4 ,9 ! et]nal revolution ( worldly ev5ts ,ari/otle has rea*$ a height :i* x is impossible to transc5d4 ,m5 :o h come aft] him are frequ5tly put to ! co/ ( mu* tr\ble & reflection to d$uce ! views :i* readily disclos$ !mselves to ! fir/ ma/]4 ,gradually1 h[ev]1 all d\bt & contradiction are r$uc$ to sil5ce1 = ,ari/otle is "o :o is m ?an man1 de/9$ z x 7 by ,provid5ce to illu/rate h[ f> ! human race is capable ( advanc+ 9 its approximation to ! ,_w-,_s4 ,z be+ ! sublime/ inc>nation ( ! ,_s ( ,mank9d1 ,ibn ,ro%d w\ld l to call 8 ma/] ! #8,div9e' ,tea*]4 ,x w be %ewn by :at foll[s1 t ev5 9 ! in/ance ( ,ibn ,ro%d1 unmeasur$ admiration = ,ari/otle did n suffice to br+ ab\t a p]fect compreh5sion ( 8 ?\ghts4 ,he all[s no opportunity to pass ( do+ battle ) ,ibn ,s9a1 &1 ^u occasion1 he p>ts company ) ,f>abi & ,ibn ,baddja1--m5 to :om he owes a great deal4 ,he c>ps at all 8 pr$ecessors1 9 a f> m disagreeable fa%ion ?an ,ari/otle did 9 ! case ( 8 tea*] ,plato4 ,& yet he himself is f> f hav+ got beyond ! int]pretation ( ,neo-,platonic expositors & ! misconceptions ( ,syrian & ,arab translators4 ,frequ5tly he foll[s ev5 ! sup]ficial ,!mi/ius 9 opposition to ! judici\s ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias1 or else he tries to comb9e _! views4 #c4 ,ibn ,ro%d is above all a fanatical admir] ( ! ,ari/otelian ,logic4 ,)\t x "o _c be happy1 & x is a pity t ,plato & ,socrates 7 ignorant ( x6 ,! happ9ess ( m5 is measur$ by ! degree ( _! logical atta9m5ts4 ,) ! disc]nm5t ( a critic he recognizes ,porphyry's 8,isagoge0 z sup]flu\s1 b he /ill c\nts ! 8,rhetoric0 & ! 8,poetics0 z =m+ "p ( ! ,organon4 ,& !n ! odde/ misappreh5sions are met )4 ,= example1 ,trag$y & ,com$y are turn$ into ,panegyrics & ,lampoons2 poetical probability has to be cont5t ) signify+ ei!r tru? capable ( demon/ration1 or deceptive appe>ance2 recognition on ! /age 77 becomes ,apodictic judgm5t1 & s on4 ,( c\rse he has absolutely no conception ( ! ,greek _w2 & t is v5ial1 = he c\ld n h _h any notion ( x4 ,& yet we d n readily excuse "o :o has be5 s sev]e a critic ( o!rs4 ,l 8 pr$ecessors1 ,ibn ,ro%d lays especial emphasis ^u ,gramm>1 z f> z x is common to all languages4 ,?is common pr9ciple1 & !re=e ! univ]sal "o1 ,ari/otle1 he ?9ks1 keeps always be=e him 9 8 ,h]m5eutics1 & ev5 9 ! ,rhetoric4 ,accord+ly ! ,arab philosoph] is also b\nd to adh]e to x1 al?\gh 9 illu/rat+ univ]sal rules he may take 8 examples f ! ,arabic language & lit]ature4 ,b x is univ]sal rules :i* =m 8 object1 = sci5ce is ! k ( ! univ]sal4 ,logic smoo?s ! pa? = ! asc5t ( our cognition f s5su\s p>ticul>ity to pure rational tru?4 ,! multitude w always live 9 ! s5su\s elem5t1 grop+ ab\t 9 error4 ,defective m5tal p>ts & poor education1 & deprav$ habits to boot1 prev5t !m f mak+ any advance4 ,b /ill x mu/ be )9 ! p[] ( "s to arrive at a k ( tru?4 ,! eagle looks ! sun 9 ! face1 = if no be+ c\ld look at him1 ,nature w\ld h made some?+ 9 va94 ,:atev] %9es !re is meant to be se52 & s :atev] exi/s is meant to be kn[n1 7 x only by "o s+le man4 ,n[ tru? exi/s2 & ! love = x :i* fills our he>ts w\ld h be5 all 9 va91 if we c\ld n approa* x4 ,ibn ,ro%d ?9ks t he has come to "k ! tru? 9 ! case ( _m ?+s1 & ev5 t he has be5 able to discov] absolute ,tru?4 ,he w\ld n1 ) ,less+1 h c>$ to resign himself to a m]e se>* = x4 ,tru?1 9 fact1 has be5 giv5 him 9 ,ari/otle2 & f t /&po9t he looks d[n ^u ,muslim !ology4 ,c]ta9ly he recognizes t religion has a tru? ( its own1 b !ology is repugnant to him4 ,x wants to prove :at _c be prov$ 9 ?is way4 ,revelation1 z conta9$ 9 ! ,koran1--accord+ to ! tea*+ ( ,ibn ,ro%d & o!rs1 & simil>ly ( ,sp9oza 9 lat] times1--does n aim at mak+ m5 le>n$1 b at mak+ !m bett]4 ,n k1 b ob$i5ce or moral practice is ! aim ( ! lawgiv]1 :o kn[s t human welf>e c only be realiz$ 9 society4 #d4 ,t :i* especially di/+ui%es ,ibn ,ro%d f ^? :o prec$$ him1 & 9 p>ticul> f ,ibn ,s9a1 is ! unequivocal mode 9 :i* he conceives ( ! _w z an et]nal process ( #8becom+'4 ,! _w z a :ole is an et]nally necess>y unity1 )\t any possibility ( non-exi/5ce or ( diff]5t exi/5ce4 ,matt] & ,=m c only be sep>at$ 9 ?\ght4 ,=ms d n w&] l gho/s ?r\gh dull ,matt]1 b are conta9$ 9 x aft] ! mann] ( g]ms4 ,! ,mat]ial ,=ms1 9 ! guise ( natural =ces1 op]ate 9 an et]nal process ( g5]ation1 nev] sep>at$ f matt]1 b yet des]v+ to be call$ div9e4 ,absolute orig9ation or ext9ction !re is none1 = all happ5+ is a transition f pot5tiality to actuality1 & f actuality back to pot5tiality1 9 :i* process l is ev] g5]at$ by l & by t alone4 ,b !re is a grad$ ord] 9 ! _w ( ,be+4 ,! mat]ial or sub/antial ,=m /&s midway betwe5 m]e ,accid5t & pure 7or sep>ate7 ,=m4 ,sub/antial ,=ms also exhibit v>ieties ( degree1--int]m$iate conditions betwe5 pot5tiality & actuality4 ,&1 f9ally1 ! :ole sy/em ( ,=ms1 f ! ne!rmo/ hylic ,=m up to ! ,div9e ,ess5ce1 ! orig9al ,=m ( ! :ole1 con/itutes "o compact /ructure ris+ ti] ^u ti]4 ,n[ ! et]nal process ( ,becom+1 )9 ! giv5 ,sy/em1 presupposes an et]nal movem5t1 & t aga9 an et]nal ,mov]4 ,if ! _w _h _h an orig91 we might h reason$ f x to ano!r & a simil>ly orig9at$ corporeal _w1 :i* _h produc$ x1 & s on )\t end4 ,if aga9 x _h be5 a #8possible' entity1 we might h inf]r$ a #8possible' entity out ( :i* x _h proce$$1 & s on ad inf9itum4 ,& accord+ to ,ibn ,ro%d1 x is only ! hypo!sis ( a _w mov$ z a unity & ( et]nal necessity1 t yields u ! possibility ( inf]r+ a ,be+1 sep>ate f ! _w1 yet et]nally mov+ x1 :o 9 8 cont9ually produc+ t movem5t & ma9ta9+ ! fair ord] ( ! ,all1 may legitimately be call$ ! ,au?or ( ! _w1 & :o 9 ! ,spirits t move ! ,sph]es1--= e sep>ate k9d ( movem5t dem&s its sep>ate pr9ciple1--possesses ag5ts to give effect to 8 activity4 ,! ess5ce ( ! ,fir/ ,mov]1 or ( ,god1 z well z ( ! ,sph]e-,spirits1 is f\nd by ,ibn ,ro%d 9 ,?\ght1 9 :i* unity ( ,be+ is giv5 him4 ,?\ght :i* is id5tical ) its object is ! sole positive def9ition ( ! ,div9e ,ess5ce2 b ,be+ & ,unity absolutely syn*ronize ) su* ,?\ght4 ,9 o!r words1 ,be+ & ,unity are n annex$ to ! ,ess5ce1 b are giv5 only 9 ,?\ght1 j l all univ]sals4 ,?\ght produces ev]y:]e ! g5]al 9 ! p>ticul>4 ,x is true t ! univ]sal z a disposition is op]ative 9 ?+s1 b ! univ]sal qua univ]sal exi/s 9 ! und]/&+ alone4 ,or1 9 possibility 7or pot5tiality7 x exi/s 9 ?+s1 b x exi/s actually 9 ! und]/&+1--t is1 x has m ,be+1--a high] k9d ( exi/5ce1--9 ! und]/&+ ?an 9 ?+s4 ,if n[ ! "q is ask$1--#8,does ,div9e ,?\ght take 9 m]ely ! g5]al1 or does x take 9 ! p>ticul> too8'1 ,ibn ,ro%d replies1 #8,x does n directly take 9 ei!r ! "o or ! o!r1 = ! ,div9e ,ess5ce transc5ds bo? ( !m4 ,div9e ,?\ght produces ! ,all & embraces ! ,all4 ,god is ! pr9ciple1 ! orig9al ,=m1 & ! f9al aim ( all ?+s4 ,he is ! ord] ( ! _w1 ! reconciliation ( all opposites1 ! ,all itself 9 its highe/ mode ( exi/5ce4' ,x foll[s ( c\rse f ?is !ory1 t !re c be no talk ( a ,div9e ,provid5ce 9 ! ord9>y s5se ( ! t]m4 #e4 ,two k9ds ( ,be+ we "k3 "o :i* is mov$1 & "o :i* causes motion1 ?\gh itself unmov$1--or a corporeal & a spiritual4 ,b x is 9 ! spiritual t ! high] unity or p]fection ( all ,be+ lies1 & t too 9 grad$ ord]4 ,x is ?us no ab/ract unity4 ,! f>!r ! ,sph]e-,spirits are f ! ,fir/1 s mu* ! less simple are !y4 ,all "k !mselves1 b 9 _! k !re is at ! same "t a ref]5ce to ! ,fir/ ,cause4 ,! result is a k9d ( p>allelism betwe5 ! corporeal & ! spiritual4 ,!re is some?+ 9 ! l[] ,spirits :i* corresponds to ! composition ( ! corporeal out ( ,matt] & ,=m4 ,:at is m+l$ ) ! purely spiritual is ( c\rse no m]e ,matt]1 t c\ld suff] any?+1 b yet x is some?+ resembl+ ,matt]1--some?+ :i* has ! faculty ( tak+ to itself some?+ else4 ,o!rwise ! multiplicity ( intelligibilia c\ld n be br\ght into h>mony ) ! unity ( ! ,_s :i* appreh5ds !m4 ,matt] suff]s1 b ,_s receives4 ,?is p>allelism1 ) its subtle di/9ction1 has be5 introduc$ by ,ibn ,ro%d ) special ref]5ce to ! human ,_s4 #f4 ,ibn ,ro%d is firmly ( op9ion t ! human s\l is relat$ to its body1 z ,=m is to ,matt]4 ,he is completely 9 e>ne/ on ?is po9t4 ,! !ory ( num]\s immortal s\ls he mo/ decid$ly rejects1 combat+ ,ibn ,s9a4 ,! s\l has an exi/5ce only z a completion ( ! body ) :i* x is associat$4 ,z reg>ds empirical psy*ology he has anxi\sly endeav\r$ to keep by ,ari/otle1 9 opposition to ,gal5 & o!rs2 b 9 ! doctr9e ( ! 8n\s0 he div]ges f 8 ma/] n inconsid]ably1 )\t be+ aw>e ( x4 ,8 conception1--spr++ f ,neo-,platonic views1--( ! ,mat]ial ,reason1 is peculi>4 ,x is n a m]e aptitude or capacity ( ! human s\l1 nei!r is x equival5t to ! s5su\s-spiritual life ( pres5tation1 b x is some?+ above ! s\l1 & above ! individual4 ,! ,mat]ial ,reason is et]nal1 imp]i%able ,_s1 z et]nal & imp]i%able z ! pure ,reason or ! ,active ,_s ov] u4 ,! ascription ( a sep>ate exi/5ce to ,matt] 9 ! doma9 ( ! corporeal1 is "h transf]r$ by ,ibn ,ro%d1--foll[+ ( c\rse ,!mi/ius & o!rs1--to ! region ( ! spiritual4 ,! ,mat]ial ,reason is ?us et]nal sub/ance4 ,! natural aptitudes1 or ! capacity ( ! human individual = intellectual k ,ibn ,ro%d d5om9ates ! ,passive ,reason4 ,t comes into be+ & disappe>s1 ) m5 z individuals1 b ! ,mat]ial ,reason is et]nal1 l ,man z a race4 ,b a measure ( obscurity rema9s1 & x c\ld h>dly h be5 o!rwise1 ab\t ! relation betwe5 ! ,active ,_s & ! ,receptive ,_s1 7if we may = ! "t use ?is la/ t]m = ! ,mat]ial ,reason74 ,! ,active ,_s r5d]s intelligible ! pres5tations ( ! human s\l1 :ile ! ,receptive ,_s absorbs ^! intelligibilia4 ,! life ( ! s\l 9 individual m5 ?us =ms ! meet+-place ( ?is my/ic pair ( lov]s4 ,& su* places diff] v greatly4 ,x dep5ds on ! entire capacity ( a man's s\l1 & on ! disposition ( 8 p]ceptions1 9 :at degree ! ,active ,_s c elevate ^! to intelligibility1 & h[ f> ! ,receptive ,_s is 9 a position to make !m a portion ( its own cont5ts4 ,?is expla9s :y m5 are n all at ! same /age ( spiritual k4 ,b ! sum ( spiritual k 9 ! _w cont9ues unalt]$1 al?\gh ! p>tition ( x und]goes individual v>iations4 ,by a necessity ( nature1 ! ,philosoph] re-appe>s1 )\t fail1 :e!r an ,ari/otle or an ,ibn ,ro%d1 9 ^: bra9 ,be+ becomes ,idea4 ,x is true t ! ?\ghts ( individual m5 occur 9 ! elem5t ( "t1 & t ! ,receptive ,_s is *angeable1 s f> z ! individual has a "p 9 x2 b consid]$ z ! ,reason ( ! ,human ,race1 t ,_s is et]nally incapable ( *ange1 l ! ,active ,_s f ! la/ ,sph]e above u4 #g4 ,on ! :ole1 ?ree great h]esies set ! sy/em ( ,ibn ,ro%d 9 opposition to ! !ology ( ! ?ree _w-religions ( 8 "t3 fir/1 ! et]nity ( ! mat]ial _w & ( ! ,spirits t move x2 next1 ! necess>y causal nexus 9 all t happ5s 9 ! _w1 s t no place is left = provid5ce1 miracle1 & ! l2 &1 ?irdly1 ! p]i%able nature ( all t is individual1 by :i* !ory individual immortality is also tak5 away4 ,consid]$ logically ! assumption ( a numb] ( indep5d5t ,sph]e-,spirits "u ,god does n appe> to h any suffici5t basis4 ,b ,ibn ,ro%d1 l 8 pr$ecessors1 gets ov] ?is difficulty by ass]t+ t ^! ,sph]e-,spirits d n diff] individually b only 9 k9d4 ,_! sole purpose 0 to expla9 ! diff]5t movem5ts 9 ! sy/em ( ! _w1 s long z its unity 0 /ill unkn[n4 ,aft] ! ,ptolemaic sy/em ( ! _w _h be5 put aside1 & ^! int]m$i>y ,spirits _h become sup]flu\s1 m5 id5tifi$ ! ,active ,_s ) ,god1 z1 = ! matt] ( t1 !y _h ev5 9 e>li] times attempt$ to d1 on speculative & religi\s gr\nds4 ,x 0 m]ely "o /ep f>!r1 to id5tify ev5 ! et]nal ,_s ( ,man ) ,god4 ,ibn ,ro%d did nei!r ( ^! ?+s1 at lea/ accord+ to ! /rict lett] ( 8 writ+s2 b 8 sy/em1 :5 consi/5tly c>ri$ out1 made x possible to take ^! /eps1 & 9 ?is way to arrive g5]ally at a ,pan!i/ic conception ( ! _w4 ,on ! o!r h& ,mat]ialism might easily f9d support 9 ! sy/em1 h[ev] decid$ly our philosoph] cont5d$ aga9/ su* a view2 = :]e ! et]nity1 =m & efficacy ( all t is mat]ial are s /rongly emphasiz$1 z 0 done by him1 ,_s may inde$ /ill receive ! "n ( k+1 b seem+ly by ! fav\r m]ely ( ! mat]ial4 ,ibn ,ro%d des]ves at all ev5ts to be call$ a bold & consi/5t ?9k]1 al?\gh n an orig9al "o4 ,!oretical philosophy 0 suffici5t = him2 b yet he ow$ x to 8 "t & 8 position to come to an und]/&+ ) religion & practice4 ,we may devote a few words to ?is po9t4 #h4 ,ibn ,ro%d (t5 takes ! opportunity ( express+ himself aga9/ ! un$ucat$ rul]s & obscuranti/ !ologians ( 8 own day2 b he cont9ues to pref] life z a citiz5 to a solit>y life4 ,he ev5 ?anks 8 oppon5ts = _m a piece ( in/ruction1--& t is a pleas+ t\* ( "*4 ,he ?9ks t ! solit>y life produces no arts or sci5ces1 & t "o c at ! mo/ enjoy 9 x :at has be5 ga9$ already1 or p]haps improve x a little4 ,b e "o %\ld contribute to ! weal ( ! :ole community3 ev5 wom5 z well z m5 %\ld be ( s]vice to society & ! ,/ate4 ,9 ?is op9ion ,ibn ,ro%d agrees ) ,plato 7= he 0 n acqua9t$ ) ! ,politics ( ,ari/otle71 & he rem>ks ) entire good s5se t a great deal ( ! pov]ty & di/ress ( 8 "t arises f ! circum/ance t wom5 are kept l dome/ic animals or h\se plants = purposes ( gratification1 ( a v que/ionable "* besides1 in/ead ( be+ all[$ to take "p 9 ! production ( mat]ial & intellectual weal?1 & 9 ! pres]vation ( ! same4 ,9 8 ,e?ical sy/em our philosoph] animadv]ts ) great sev]ity ^u ! doctr9e ( ! pr(essors ( ,law1 t a ?+ is good or bad only because ,god s will$ x4 ,on ! contr>y1 says he1 ev]y?+ has its moral "* f nature or 9 con=mity ) reason4 ,! action :i* is det]m9$ by rational disc]nm5t is moral4 ,x is n1 ( c\rse1 ! individual ,reason1 b ! ,reason :i* looks to ! welf>e ( ! community or ,/ate1 to :i* appeal mu/ be made 9 ! la/ in/ance4 ,ibn ,ro%d reg>ds religion also f a /atesman's po9t ( view4 ,he values x on acc\nt ( its moral purpose4 ,x is ,law1 n ,le>n+4 ,he is !re=e con/antly engag$ 9 fight+ ! ,!ologians1 :o wi% to und]/& intellectually1 in/ead ( obey+ ) docile fai?4 ,he makes x a reproa* to ,gazali1 t he has all[$ philosophy to ex]cise an influ5ce ^u 8 religi\s doctr9e1 & !reby has l$ _m into d\bt & unbelief4 ,! p %\ld believe1 exactly 9 accordance ) :at /&s 9 ! ,book4 ,t is ,tru?1--,tru? meant no d\bt = a bigg] sort ( *ildr51 to :om we convey x 9 ! =m ( /ories4 ,:atev] goes beyond ?is1 comes ( evil4 ,= example1 ! ,koran has two pro(s ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 :i* are evid5t to e "o1 viz3 ! ,div9e c>e ( ev]y?+1 especially ( human be+s1--& ! production ( life 9 plants1 animals1 c4 ,^! deliv]ances %\ld n be di/urb$1 nor %\ld ! lit]al acceptation ( revelation be quibbl$ ab\t1 9 ! !ological fa%ion4 ,=1 ! pro(s :i* !ologians adduce ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god c make no /& aga9/ a sci5tific criticism1 any m ?an ! pro( :i* is furni%$ f ! notion ( ! possible & ! necess>y1 9 ,f>abi & ,ibn ,s9a4 ,all ?is leads to ,a!ism & ,lib]t9ism4 ,9 ! int]e/s ( morality1 & !re=e ( ! ,/ate1 ?is semi-!ology %\ld be f\ght aga9/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 philosoph]s :o h atta9$ to k are p]mitt$ to int]pret ! ,^w ( ,god 9 ! ,koran4 ,9 ! light ( ! highe/ tru? !y und]/& :at is aim$ at !re92 & !y tell m]ely j s mu* ( x to ! ord9>y man z he is capable ( appreh5d+4 ,9 ?is way ! mo/ admirable h>mony results4 ,religi\s precept & philosophy are 9 agreem5t ) "o ano!r1 precisely because !y are n seek+ ! same ?+4 ,!y are relat$ z practice & !ory4 ,9 ! philosoph]'s conception ( religion1 he all[s its validity 9 its own doma91 s t philosophy by no means rejects religion4 ,philosophy1 h[ev]1 is ! highe/ =m ( tru?1 & at ! same "t ! mo/ sublime religion4 ,! religion ( ! philosoph]1 9 fact1 is ! k ( all t exi/s4 ,b yet ?is view has ! appe>ance ( be+ irreligi\s2 & a positive religion c nev] be cont5t to recognize ! lead+ position ( philosophy 9 ! realm ( tru?4 ,x 0 only natural t ! !ologians ( ! ,we/1 l _! bre?r5 ( ! ,ea/ %\ld seek to pr(it by ! fav\r ( circum/ances1 & take no re/ until !y _h r$uc$ ! mi/ress to ! position ( ! h&maid ( ,!ology4 ,,vii4 ,,conclusion4 #a4 ,ibn ,khaldun4 #a4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,ibn ,ro%d1 & 8 int]pretation ( ,ari/otle1 h _h extremely little effect ^u ! ,muslim _w4 ,_m ( 8 works1 9 ! orig9al1 are lo/1 & we h !m only 9 ,hebrew & ,lat9 translations4 ,he _h no disciples or foll[]s4 ,9 retir$ corn]s no d\bt _m a free-?9k] or ,my/ic might be met )1 to ^: m9d x look$ suffici5tly fanta/ic to toil e>ne/ly ) philosophic que/ions ( a !oretical k9d2 b ,philosophy 0 n p]mitt$ to influ5ce g5]al culture or ! condition ( affairs4 ,be=e ! victori\s arms ( ! ,*ri/ians ! mat]ial civilization z well z ! intellectual culture ( ! ,muslims retreat$ f>!r & f>!r4 ,spa9 became l ,africa1 :]e ! ,b]b] 0 rul]4 ,! times 7 s]i\s3 ! v exi/5ce ( ,islam 9 ^! regions 0 at /ake4 ,m5 made ready = fight+ aga9/ ! enemy1 or ev5 aga9/ "o ano!r2 & pi\s bre?r5 ev]y:]e =m$ unions = my/ic obs]vances4 ,9 ! ,sufi ord]s ( ^! p1 a few philosophical =mulae at lea/ 7 /ill pres]v$ 9 safety4 ,:51 t[>ds ! middle ( ! ?irte5? c5tury1 ! emp]or ,fr$]ick ,,ii submitt$ a numb] ( philosophical que/ions to ! ,muslim s*ol>s ( ,ceuta1 ! ,almohad ,abdalwahid *>g$ ,ibn ,sab91 f\nd] ( a ,my/ic ord]1 to reply to !m4 ,he did s1 drawl+ =? 9 a p$antic tone ! views bo? ( anci5t & rec5t philosoph]s1 & af=d+ a glimpse ( ! ,sufi secret1--t ,god is ! reality ( all ?+s4 ,! only ?+1 h[ev]1 :i* we c le>n f 8 answ]s1 may be said to be1 t ,ibn ,sab9 _h read books1 ( :i* he ?\ght ! ,emp]or ,fr$]ick _h n ! fa9te/ notion4 #b4 ,9 small ,/ate-sy/ems1 ! ,muslim civilization ( ! ,we/ drift$ away1 n[ ris+1 n[ fall+4 ,b be=e x vani%$ completely1 a man appe>$1 :o endeav\r$ to discov] ! law ( its =mation1 & :o ?\ght to f\nd !re) a new philosophical discipl9e1--! ,philosophy ( ,society or ( ,hi/ory4 ,t rem>kable man 0 ,ibn ,khaldn1 born at ,tunis is ! ye> #accb1 ( a family belong+ to ,seville4 ,!re he also receiv$ 8 upbr++1 & !re he 0 next in/ruct$ 9 philosophy1 p>tly by a tea*] :o _h be5 tra9$ 9 ! ,ea/4 ,aft] /udy+ all kn[n sci5ces1 he occupi$ himself sometimes 9 ! s]vice ( ! ,gov]nm5t1 & sometimes 9 travel1 prov+ ev]y:]e an excell5t obs]v]4 ,he s]v$ v>i\s pr9ces 9 ! capacity ( secret>y1 & he 0 ambassador at sev]al c\rts 9 ,spa9 & ,africa3 z su* he visit$ ! ,*ri/ian c\rt ( ,pet] ! ,cruel 9 ,seville4 ,he 0 also at ! c\rt ( ,tam]lane 9 ,damascus4 ,he _h ?us acquir$ a wide & full exp]i5ce ( ! _w1 :5 he di$ at ,cairo 9 ! ye> #adjf4 ,9 "* p]haps he does n take a high rank2 b a measure ( vanity1 dilettantism & ! l1 may readily be =giv5 to ! man :o1 above all o!rs 9 8 "t1 liv$ = ,sci5ce4 #c4 ,ibn ,khaldn 0 n satisfi$ ) ! ,s*ool-,philosophy1 z he _h come to "k x4 ,8 picture ( ! _w w\ld n fit its conv5tional fram+4 ,if he _h be5 some:at m giv5 to !oriz+1 he might no d\bt h con/ruct$ a sy/em ( ,nom9alism4 ,philosoph]s pret5d to "k ev]y?+2 b ! univ]se seems to him too great to be capable ( be+ compreh5d$ by our und]/&+4 ,!re are m be+s & ?+s1 inf9itely m1 ?an ,man c ev] "k4 8,god creates :at y "k no?+ (04 ,logical d$uctions frequ5tly d n agree ) ! empirical _w ( individual ?+s1 :i* becomes kn[n by obs]vation alone4 ,t we c rea* tru? by m]ely apply+ ! rules ( ,logic1 is a va9 imag9ation3 !re=e reflection on :at is giv5 9 exp]i5ce is ! task ( ! sci5tific man4 ,& he mu/ n re/ satisfi$ ) 8 own individual exp]i5ce2 b1 ) critical c>e he mu/ draw ^u ! sum ( ! collect$ exp]i5ce ( mank9d1 :i* has be5 h&$ d[n4 ,by nature ! s\l is devoid ( k2 b yet by nature x has ! p[] ( reflect+ on ! exp]i5ce :i* is giv51 & elaborat+ x4 ,9 ! c\rse ( su* reflection1 !re frequ5tly spr+s =?1 z if by inspiration1 ! prop] middle t]m1 by means ( :i* ! insight :i* has be5 ga9$ may be arrang$ & expla9$ accord+ to ! rules ( ,=mal ,logic4 ,logic does n produce k3 x m]ely traces ! pa? :i* our reflection ought to take3 x po9ts out h[ we arrive at k2 & x has ! f>!r value ( be+ able to pres]ve u f error1 & to %>p5 ! intellect & keep x to accuracy 9 ?9k+4 ,x is !re=e an auxili>y sci5ce1 & ought to be cultivat$ ev5 = its own sake by "o or two qualifi$ m51 call$ specially to t task2 b x does n possess ! fundam5tal importance :i* is attribut$ to x by ! ,philosoph]s4 ,! pa? :i* x indicates = our reflection to take1 is at ne$ foll[$ by sci5tific tal5t 9 any individual sci5ce1 q indep5d5tly ( logical guidance4 ,ibn ,khaldn is a sob] ?9k]4 ,he combats ,al*emy & ,a/rology on rational gr\nds4 ,to ! ,my/ic rationalism ( ! ,philosoph]s he opposes frequ5tly ! simple doctr9es ( 8 religion1 :e!r f p]sonal conviction1 or f political consid]ations4 ,b religion ex]cises no great] influ5ce ^u 8 sci5tific op9ions ?an ,neo-,platonic ,ari/otelianism4 ,plato's ,republic1 ! ,py?agorean-,platonic ,philosophy1 b )\t its m>vel-mong]+ outgr[?s1 & ! hi/orical works ( 8 ori5tal =]unn]s1 p>ticul>ly ( ,masudi1 h _h mo/ influ5ce on ! developm5t ( 8 ?\ghts4 #d4 ,ibn ,khaldn comes =w>d ) a claim to e/abli% a new philosophical discipl9e1 ( :i* ,ari/otle _h no conception4 ,philosophy is ! sci5ce ( :at exi/s1 develop$ f its own pr9ciples or reasons4 ,b :at ! ,philosoph]s advance1 ab\t ! high ,_s-_w & ! ,div9e ,ess5ce1 does n correspond !reto3 t :i* !y say on ^! subjects is incapable ( pro(4 ,we "k our _w ( m5 mu* bett]2 & a m c]ta9 deliv]ance may be giv5 reg>d+ x1 by means ( obs]vation & inn] m5tal exp]i5ce4 ,"h facts p]mit ( be+ au!nticat$1 & _! causes discov]$4 ,n[1 s f> z ! latt] process is feasible 9 ,hi/ory1 i4e4 s f> z hi/orical ev5ts are capable ( be+ trac$ back to _! causes1 & hi/orical laws capable ( be+ discov]$1 ,hi/ory des]ves actually to be call$ ,sci5ce & a "p ( ,philosophy4 ,?us ! idea ( ,hi/ory z ,sci5ce cle>ly em]ges4 ,x has no?+ to d ) curiosity1 frivol\sness1 g5]al b5efit1 edify+ effect c4 ,x %\ld1 al?\gh 9 ! s]vice ( ! high] purposes ( life1 det]m9e no?+ except facts1 endeav\r+ to f9d out _! causal nexus4 ,! "w mu/ be done 9 a critical1 unprejudic$ _s4 ,! gov]n+ pr9ciple :i* rules "h is ?is1--t ! cause corresponds to ! effect1--t is to say1 t l ev5ts presuppose ! same conditions1 or1 t "u ! same circum/ances ( civilization ! l ev5ts w occur4 ,n[1 z x is a probable assumption t ! nature ( m5 & ( society und]goes no *ange by ! advance ( "t1 or no consid]able *ange1 a liv+ compreh5sion ( ! pres5t is ! be/ means ( inve/igat+ ! pa/4 ,t :i* is fully kn[n & is "u our v eyes p]mits u to =m retrospective conclusions 9 reg>d to ! less fully kn[n ev5ts ( an e>li] "t3 x promises ev5 a glance into ! future4 ,9 e in/ance1 !re=e1 tradition mu/ be te/$ by ! pres5t2 & if x tells u ( ?+s :i* are impossible n[1 we mu/ = t v reason d\bt its tru?4 ,pa/ & ,pres5t are z l "o ano!r z two drops ( wat]4 ,if und]/ood absolutely1 t might h be5 said ev5 by ,ibn ,ro%d4 ,b accord+ to ,ibn ,khaldn x is only q g5]ally valid z a pr9ciple ( rese>*4 ,9 detail x suff]s _m a limitation2 & 9 any case x has itself to be e/abli%$ by facts4 #e4 ,:at !n is ! subject ( ,hi/ory z a philosophical discipl9e8 ,ibn ,khaldn answ]s t x is ! ,social life1--! collective1 mat]ial & intellectual culture ( ,society4 ,hi/ory has to %[ h[ m5 "w & provide !mselves ) food1 :y !y cont5d ) ea* o!r & associate 9 l>g] communities "u s+le lead]s1 h[ at la/ !y f9d 9 a settl$ life leisure = ! cultivation ( ! high] arts & sci5ces1 h[ a f9] culture comes into bloom 9 ?is way out ( rude beg9n+s1 & h[ aga9 ?is 9 "t dies away4 ,! =ms ( ,society :i* replace "o ano!r are1 9 ! op9ion ( ,ibn ,khaldn2 #a7 ,society 9 ! ,nomad condition2 #b7 ,society "u a ,milit>y ,dyna/y2 & #c7 ,society aft] ! ,city type4 ,! fir/ "q is t ( food4 ,m5 & nations are diff]5tiat$ by _! economical position1 z nomads1 settl$ h]dsm51 agriculturi/s4 ,want leads to rap9e & w>1 & to subjection to a mon>* :o w lead !m4 ,?us dyna/ic au?ority is develop$4 ,?is aga9 f\nds = itself a city1 :]e division ( lab\r or mutual assi/ance produces prosp]ity4 ,b ?is prosp]ity leads to deg5]ate idl5ess & luxury4 ,lab\r has 9 ! fir/ place br\ght ab\t prosp]ity2 b n[1 at ! highe/ /age ( civilization1 m5 get o!rs to lab\r = !m1 & (t5 )\t any direct equival5t1 because reg>d or ev5 s]vility to ! upp] classes1 & extortionate treatm5t ( ! l[]1 secure success4 ,b1 all ! same1 m5 are com+ to dep5d ^u o!rs4 ,ne$s are always gr[+ m clamant1 & taxes m oppressive4 ,ri* sp5d?rifts & tax-pay]s gr[ poor1 & _! unnatural life makes !m ill & mis]able4 #bj ,! old w>like cu/oms h be5 ref9$ away1 s t p are no long] capable ( def5d+ !mselves4 ,! bond1--=m$ by a s5se ( belong+ to "o community1 or ! bond ( ,religion1--by ! help ( :i* ! necessity & ! w ( ! *ief knit ! individual memb]s toge!r 9 old] days1 is relax$1 = ! citiz5s are n pi\s4 ,ev]y?+1 !re=e1 is ready to break up f )94 ,& !n appe>s a new & p[]ful nomad race f ! des]t1 or a p n s greatly ov]-civiliz$1 b possess$ ( a firm] public _s2 & x falls ^u ! effem9ate city4 ,!reaft] a new ,/ate is =m$1 :i* appropriates ! mat]ial & intellectual weal? ( ! old culture1 & ! same hi/ory is repeat$4 ,x f>es ) ,/ates & ! l>g] associations ( m51 j z ) s+le families3 _! hi/ory is br\ght to a close1 9 f ?ree to six g5]ations4 ,! fir/ g5]ation f\nds2 ! second ma9ta9s1 z p]haps ! ?ird or ev5 f>!r g5]ations also d2 ! la/ demoli%es4 ,t is ! cycle ( all civilization4 #f4 ,accord+ to ,augu/ ,mll] ! !ory ( ,ibn ,khaldn is 9 con=mity ) ! hi/ory ( ,spa91 ,we/ ,africa & ,sicily1 f ! elev5? to ! fifte5? c5tury1--f ! /udy ( :i*1 9 fact1 x 0 tak54 ,8 own hi/orical "w is a compilation1 x is true4 ,9 detail he is (t5 at fault1 :5 he criticizes tradition ) ! help ( 8 !ory2 b !re is an abundance ( f9e psy*ological & political obs]vation 9 8 philosophical ,introduction1 & z a :ole x is a ma/]ly p]=mance4 ,! anci5ts nev] dealt ?or\ghly ) ! problem ( ,hi/ory4 ,!y h bequea!d to u great works ( art 9 _! hi/orical compositions1 b no philosophical e/abli%m5t ( ,hi/ory z a ,sci5ce4 ,t mank9d1 ?\gh exi/+ f all et]nity1 long fail$ to atta9 to mu* ( ! high] civilization1 0 expla9$ by elem5t>y occurr5ces1 su* z e>?quakes1 floods1 & ! l4 ,on ! o!r h& ,*ri/ian philosophy reg>d$ ,hi/ory ) its vicissitudes z ! realization (1 or ! prep>ation =1 ! k+dom ( ,god ^u ! e>?4 ,n[ ,ibn ,khaldn 0 ! fir/ to endeav\r1--) full consci\sness & 9 a /atem5t amply sub/antiat$1--to d]ive ! developm5t ( human society f proximate causes4 ,! conditions ( race1 climate1 production ( commodities1 & s on1 are discuss$1 & are set =? 9 _! effect ^u ! s5su\s & intellectual con/itution ( man & ( society4 ,9 ! c\rse :i* is run by civilization he f9ds an intimate con=mity to ,law4 ,he se>*es ev]y:]e = natural causes1 ) ! utmo/ complet5ess :i* 0 possible = him4 ,he also ass]ts 8 belief t ! *a9 ( causes & effects rea*es its conclusion 9 an ,ultimate ,cause4 ,! s]ies _c g on )\t end1 & !re=e we argue t !re is a ,god4 ,b ?is d$uction1 z he calls x1 prop]ly means ?is1--t we are n 9 a position to become acqua9t$ ) all ?+s & ! mann] ( _! op]ation3 x is virtually a confession ( our ignorance4 ,consci\s ignorance is ev5 a k9d ( k2 b k %\ld be pursu$1 z f> z possible4 ,9 cle>+ ! way = 8 new sci5ce1 ,ibn ,khaldn consid]s t he has m]ely indicat$ ! ma9 problems1 & m]ely sugge/$ g5]ally ! me?od & ! subject ( ! sci5ce4 ,b he hopes t o!rs w come aft] him to c>ry on 8 inve/igations & prop\nd fre% problems1 ) s\nd und]/&+ & sure k4 ,ibn ,khaldn's hope has be5 realiz$1 b n 9 ,islam4 ,z he 0 )\t =]unn]s1 he rema9$ )\t successors4 ,b yet 8 "w has be5 ( la/+ influ5ce 9 ! ,ea/4 ,_m ,muslim /atesm5 :o1 f ! fifte5? c5tury onw>ds1 drove s _m a ,european sov]eign or diplomati/ to despair1 _h /udi$ 9 our philosoph]'s s*ool4 #b4 ,! ,arabs & ,s*ola/icism4 #a4 ,to ! victor belongs ! bride4 ,9 ! w>s :i* 7 wag$ 9 ,spa9 betwe5 ,*ri/ians & ,muslims1 ! =m] _h (t5 come "u ! influ5ce ( ! attractions ( ,moori% fair ones4 ,_m a ,*ri/ian knight _h celebrat$ 8! n9e-days' religi\s rite0 ) a ,moori% woman4 ,b besides mat]ial weal? & s5sual enjoym5t1 ! *>m ( intellectual culture _h also its effect ^u ! conqu]or4 ,& ,arab ,sci5ce ?us pres5t$ ! appe>ance ( a lovely bride to ! eyes ( _m m5 :o felt _! want ( k4 ,x 0 ! ,jews especially :o play$ ! "p ( mat*mak]s 9 ! transaction4 ,! ,jews _h p>ticipat$ 9 all ! trans=mations ( ,muslim intellectual culture3 _m ( !m wrote 9 ,arabic1 & o!rs translat$ ,arabic writ+s into ,hebrew2 n a few philosophical works by ,muslim au?ors owe _! pres]vation to ! latt] circum/ance4 ,! developm5t ( ?is ,jewi% /udy ( philosophy culm9at$ 9 ,maimonides 7#aace-abjd71 :o s\ght1 *iefly "u ! influ5ce ( ,f>abi & ,ibn ,s9a1 to reconcile ,ari/otle ) ! ,old ,te/am5t4 ,9 "p he exp\nd$ ! doctr9es ( philosophy f ! text ( revelation1 & 9 "p he re/rict$ ! ,ari/otelian philosophy to :at belongs to ?is e>?1 :ile a k ( t :i* is above x1 _h to be ga9$ f ! ,^w ( ,god4 ,9 ! v>i\s ,muslim ,/ates1 at ! "t :5 !y 7 mo/ fl\ri%+1 ! ,jews _h %ewn an int]e/ 9 sci5tific "w1 & !y _h n only be5 tol]at$1 b ev5 reg>d$ ) fav\r4 ,_! position1 h[ev]1 0 alt]$1 :5 ^? ,/ates 7 toge!r ov]?r[n1 & :5 ! decl9e ( _! civilization ensu$4 ,expell$ by fanatical mobs !y fl$ = refuge to ,*ri/ian l&s1 & p>ticul>ly to ,s\!rn ,france1 !re to fulfil _! mission z ! dissem9ators ( culture4 #b4 ,! ,muslim _w & ! ,*ri/ian _w ( ! ,we/ came into contact at two po9ts1--9 ,l[] ,italy & 9 ,spa94 ,at ! c\rt ( ! ,emp]or ,fr$]ick ,,ii 9 ,pal]mo1 ,arab sci5ce 0 eag]ly cultivat$ & made accessible to ,lat9i/s4 ,! ,emp]or & 8 son ,manfr$ pres5t$ ! ,univ]sities ( ,bologna & ,p>is ) translations ( philosophical works1 p>tly r5d]$ f ! ,arabic1 & p>tly direct f ! ,greek4 ,( mu* great] importance & influ5ce1 h[ev]1 0 ! activity ( translators 9 ,spa94 ,9 ,tol$o1 :i* _h be5 re-captur$ by ! ,*ri/ians1 !re exi/$ a ri* ,arabic ,mosque-libr>y1 ! r5[n ( :i*1 z a c5tre ( culture1 _h p5etrat$ f> into ! ,*ri/ian c\ntries ( ! ,nor?4 ,arabs ( mix$ l9eage & ,jews1 "s ( !m conv]ts to ,*ri/ianity1 work$ toge!r !re1 along ) ,spani% ,*ri/ians4 ,fell[-work]s 7 pres5t f all c\ntries4 ,?us co-op]at$ z translators1 = example1 ,johannes ,hispanus & ,gundisal9us 7fir/ half ( ! twelf? c5tury71 ,g]>d ( ,cremona 7#aaad-aahg71 ,mi*ael ! ,scot & ,h]mann ! ,g]man 7betwe5 #abdj & #abdf74 ,we are n yet 9 possession ( suffici5tly detail$ in=mation reg>d+ ! lab\rs ( ^! m54 ,_! translations may be call$ fai?ful1 to ! ext5t t e ^w 9 ! ,arabic orig9al1 or ! ,hebrew 7or ,spani%87 v]sion has "s ,lat9 ^w correspond+ to x2 b !y are n g5]ally di/+ui%$ by an intellig5t appreciation ( ! subject matt]4 ,to und]/& ^! translations ?or\ghly is a difficult ?+1 = "o :o is n conv]sant ) ,arabic4 ,_m ,arabic words :i* 7 tak5 ov] z !y /ood1 & _m prop] names1 disfigur$ beyond recognition1 flit ab\t ) ! air ( gho/s4 ,all ?is may well h produc$ sad confusion 9 ! bra9s ( ,lat9i/ /ud5ts ( ,philosophy2 & ! ?\ghts1 :i* 7 be+ disclos$ afre%1 _h !mselves at lea/ an equally p]plex+ t5d5cy4 ,! activity ( translators kept pace g5]ally ) ! int]e/ %ewn by ,*ri/ian circles1 & ?is int]e/ foll[$ a developm5t simil> to t :i* we _h occasion to obs]ve 9 ,ea/]n & ,we/]n ,islam 7cf4 ,,vi1 #a #b74 ,! e>lie/ translations 7 ^? ( works on ,ma!matical ,a/rology1 ,m$ic9e1 ,natural ,philosophy1 & ,psy*ology1 includ+ ,logical & ,metaphysical mat]ial4 ,z "t w5t on1 p re/rict$ !mselves m to ,ari/otle & comm5t>ies ^u him2 b1 at fir/1 a pref]5ce 0 %ewn = ev]y?+ t met ! crav+ = ! m>vell\s4 ,k9di became kn[n *iefly z a physician & an a/rolog]4 ,ibn ,s9a produc$ a notable effect by 8 #8,m$ic9e'1 & 8 empirical psy*ology1 & also by 8 ,natural ,philosophy & 8 ,metaphysics4 ,comp>$ ) him1 ,f>abi & ,ibn ,baddja ex]cis$ a less consid]able influ5ce4 ,la/ly came ! ,comm5t>ies ( ,ibn ,ro%d 7,av]roes72 & ! reputation :i* !y ga9$1 along ) t :i* 0 secur$ by ,ibn ,s9a's ,canon ( ,m$ic9e1 has be5 longe/ ma9ta9$4 #c4 ,:at !n does ! ,*ri/ian ,philosophy ( ! ,middle ,ages owe to ! ,muslims8 ,! answ] to ?is "q lies prop]ly outside ! scope ( ! pres5t monograph4 ,x is a special task1 :i* necessitates ! ransack+ ( _m folios1 none ( :i* ,i h read4 ,9 g5]al t]ms x may be affirm$ t 9 ! translations f ! ,arabic a tw(old novelty 0 disclos$ to ! ,*ri/ian ,we/4 ,9 ! fir/ place m5 came to possess ,ari/otle1 bo? 9 8 ,logic & 9 8 ,physics & ,metaphysics1 m completely ?an !y _h hi!rto kn[n him4 ,b /ill ?is circum/ance 0 only ( pass+ importance1 ?\gh /imulat+ = ! mom5t1 = erelong all 8 writ+s 7 translat$ mu* m accurately1 direct f ! ,greek into ,lat94 ,! mo/ important result1 h[ev]1 0--t f ! writ+s ( ! ,arabs1 p>ticul>ly ( ,ibn ,ro%d1 a peculi> conception ( ! ,ari/otelian doctr9es1 z con/itut+ ! highe/ tru?1 came to ! k ( m54 ,?is 0 b\nd to give occasion = contradiction1 or = compromise1 betwe5 !ology & philosophy1 or ev5 = d5ial ( ! ,*ur*'s cre$4 ,?us ! influ5ce ( ,muslim ,philosophy ^u ! s*ola/ic developm5t ( ,*ur* dogma 0 p>tly ( a /imulat+1 p>tly ( a dis9tegrat+ "*2 =1 9 ! ,*ri/ian _w1 philosophy & !ology 7 n yet able to proce$ side by side 9 an attitude ( mutual indiff]5ce1 z d\btless happ5$ 9 ! case ( ,muslim ?9k]s4 ,*ri/ian ,dogmatic _h adopt$ too mu* ,greek ,philosophy already 9 ! fir/ c5turies ( its developm5t1 to admit ( su* an attitude3 x c\ld ev5 assimilate a little m4 ,x 0 !re=e relatively easi] to get ! bett] ( ! simple tea*+s ( ,islam ?an ! complicat$ dogmas ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,9 ! twelf? c5tury1 :5 ! influ5ce ( ! ,arabs comm5c$ to op]ate 9 t field1 ,*ri/ian ,!ology exhibit$ a ,neo-,platonic1 ,augu/9ian "*4 ,t "* cont9u$ to be kept up ) ! ,franciscans1 ev5 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,n[ ! ,py?agorean-,platonic t5d5cy1 9 ,muslim ?\ght1 h>moniz$ well ) ?is4 ,ibn ,gebirol 7,av5cebrol1 v4 ,,vi1 #a #b7 01 = ,duns ,scotus1 an au?ority ( ! fir/ rank4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! great ,dom9icans1 ,alb]t & ,?omas1 :o decid$ ! future ( ! doctr9e ( ! ,*ur*1 adopt$ a modifi$ ,ari/otelianism1 ) :i* a good deal out ( ,f>abi1 b especially out ( ,ibn ,s9a & ,maimonides1 agre$ q well4 ,a m pr(\nd influ5ce emanates f ,ibn ,ro%d1 b n till ab\t ! middle ( ! ?irte5? c5tury1 &1 9 fact1 9 ,p>is1 ! c5tre ( ! ,*ri/ian sci5tific education ( t "t4 ,9 ! ye> #abef ,alb]tus ,magnus writes aga9/ ,av]roes2 & fifte5 ye>s lat] ,?omas ,aqu9as controv]ts ! ,av]roi/s4 ,_! lead] is ,sig] ( ,brabant 7kn[n f #abff71 memb] ( ! ,p>isian ,faculty ( ,arts4 ,he does n %r9k f ! rigor\s1 logical results ( ! ,av]roi/ sy/em4 ,& j z ,ibn ,ro%d c5sures ,ibn ,s9a1 s ,sig] criticizes ! great ,alb]t & ! sa9tly ,?omas1 al?\gh 9 t]ms ( ! utmo/ respect4 ,x is true t he assev]ates 8 submission to ,revelation2 b /ill1 8 reason confirms :at ,ari/otle1--z he is exp\nd$1 9 d\btful cases1 by ,ibn ,ro%d1--has taught 9 8 works4 ,?is subtle intellectualism ( 81 h[ev]1 does n please ! !ologians4 ,at ! in/ance ( ! ,franciscans1 x w\ld seem1 :o p]haps wi%$ also to /rike at ! ,ari/otelianism ( ! ,dom9icans1 he 0 p]secut$ by ! ,inquisition1 till he di$ 9 prison at ,orvieto 7circa #abha-abhd74 ,dante1 :o possibly knew no?+ ( 8 h]esies has plac$ ,sig] 9 ,p>adise z ! repres5tative ( secul> wisdom4 ,! two *ampions ( ,muslim ,philosophy1 on ! o!r h&1 he met ) 9 ! ve/ibule ( ! ,inf]no1 9 ! company ( ! great & wise m5 ( ,greece & ,rome4 ,ibn ,s9a & ,ibn ,ro%d !re end ! s]ies ( ! great m5 ( hea!ndom1 t[>ds :om succe$+ ages1 l ,dante1 h s (t5 lift$ up _! eyes 9 admiration4 ,,notes #a ,s4 ,munk1 8,mlanges de ,philosophie juive et arabe01 ,p>is #ahei4 #b ,c>ra de ,vaux1 8,avic5ne01 ,p>is #aijj4 #c ,translator's ,note3 ,9 ?is v]sion ! translit]ation has be5 adapt$ z f> z possible to ,engli% s\nds4 #d ,cf4 ,sn\ck ,hurgronje1 8,mekka01 ,,ii1 p4 #bbh sq4 #e ,job ,,xxxviii4 #f ,g54 ,,xv3#e4 #g ,! dialogue has receiv$ ?is "n f ! circum/ance t dur+ ! conv]sation ,ari/otle holds 9 8 h& an apple1 ! smell ( :i* keeps awake :at rema9s ( 8 vital p[]s4 ,at ! close1 8 h& drops p[]less1 & ! apple falls to ! gr\nd4 #h ,f>!r1 an epitome ( ! ( ,proclus1 0 held ev5 9 lat] times to be a g5u9e "w ( ,ari/otle's4 #i ,examples ( bo? me?ods occur1 b usually ,qiyas is equival5t to ,analogy4 ,h[ev]1 9 ! philosophical t]m9ology :i* owes its orig9 to ! ,translators1 ,qiyas always /&s = 1 :ile is r5d]$ by ! ,arabic mi?l4 #aj ,cf4 ,sn\ck ,hurgronje 9 ,,zdmg1 ,,liii p4 #aee4 #aa ,= ?is ! ,my/ics introduc$ a six? s5se4 #ab ,ascetics 7 call$ ,sufis1 f _! co>se wooll5 g>m5t1 or ,sf4 #ac ,v4 ,rck]ts ,ueb]s4 d4 ,makam5 ,,ii1 p4 #bai4 #ad ,translator's note4--#8,john ( ,leyd5'4 #ae ,cf4 my ,article 8,on ,k9di & 8 ,s*ool0 9 ,/e9's #8,ar*iv fr ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie ,,xiii'1 p4 #aec sqq41 f :i* ,i h tak5 ov]1 )\t mu* alt]ation1 n a little t appe>s 9 ?is *apt]4 #af ,translator's note4--,! ,bagdad ,caliphate la/$ up to ! dea? ( ,mu/assim 7,a4,h4 #fef or ,a4,d4 #abeh71 i4e4 = #djj ,mohamm$an ye>s aft] ,a4,h4 #bef or ,a4,d4 #hgj4 #ag ,! ,arabic aql 77 is usually translat$ by ,reason & ,intellig5ce 7,lat4 intellectus & intellig5tia74 ,i pref] h[ev] ! r5d]+1 ,gei/1 ,_s or ,m9d1 because ! expression includes ,god & ! pure 7sep>ate7 spirits ( ! sph]es4 ,moreov] x is h>d to decide h[ f> ! p]sonification ( ,reason 0 c>ri$ by individual ?9k]s4 #ah ,translator's note4--,accord+ly ,ibn ,s9a's ,five ,int]nal ,s5ses are3 ,a4 ,! ,g5]al or ,co-ord9at+ ,s5se2 #b4 ,memory ( ! ,collective s5se-images2 #c4 ,unconsci\s ,app]ception1 ref]r+ to individuals2 #d4 ,consci\s ,app]ception1 ) g5]alization2 #e4 ,memory ( ! high] app]ceptions4 #ai 8,av]rois1 *e'l gran com5to feo0 ,canto ,,iv4 #bj ,ibn ,khaldn speaks only ( ri* p :o h gr[n poor1 & says no?+ ( ! mis]y ( ! prolet>iate1 & t :i* prevails 9 l>ge cities1 z we "k x4 ,he liv$ too 9 small] cities1 = ! mo/ "p1 & till late 9 life admir$ ,cairo f a di/ance4