,transcriber's ,notes3 ,underscores 80 before and after a word or phrase indicate italics in the original text4 ,equal signs 80 before and after a word or phrase indicate bold in the original text4 ,small capitals have been converted to ,,solid capitals4 ,illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs4 ,typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected4 ,the corrections listed in the ,,errata have been applied to the text4 ,,the ,,wine ,,press ,,and ,,the ,,cellar4 ,a ,,manual ,,for ,,the ,,wine-,,maker ,,and ,,the ,,cellar-,,man4 ,by ,e4 ,h4 ,,rixford4 ,,san ,,francisco3 ,,new ,,york3 ,,payot1 ,,upham ,,co4 ,d4 ,,van ,,nostrand4 #ahhc4 ,entered according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahhc1 by ,e4 ,h4 ,,rixford1 ,in the ,office of the ,librarian of ,congress1 at ,washington4 ,c4 ,w4 ,,gordon1 ,steam ,book and ,job ,printer1 ,san ,francisco1 ,cal4 ,illustration ,,preface4 ,in #ahgf the ,mission grape sold in ,california for from #g4ej to #aj per ton1 and foreign varieties for from #ad to #ah per ton1 and consequently many vineyardists in districts remote from the market turned their hogs into the vineyard to gather the fruit4 ,at this time farmers concluded that it would not pay to grow grapes1 and the vines were rooted out of many vineyards1 and the land devoted to the production of more profitable crops4 ,in #ahgh1 however1 the prices were better1 and the ,mission grape brought from #ab to #ad per ton1 and the foreign varieties from #bb to #bf1 and under a growing demand for ,california wines1 the wine makers in the counties of ,sonoma and ,napa have paid during the past three seasons of #ahhj1 #ahha1 and #ahhb1 prices ranging from #af to #bb per ton for ,mission1 and from #bb to #ce for other foreign varieties1 and in some cases even as high as #dj per ton for wine grapes of the best varieties2 the extremes in prices depending upon the activity of the competition in the different localities4 ,although in ,california we are accustomed to speak of the 8,mission grape0 and the 8foreign varieties0 in contradistinction1 it may not be amiss to state for the benefit of other than ,california readers1 that the 8,mission0 is undoubtedly a grape of ,european origin1 and was cultivated by the ,spanish priests at the missions existing in the country at the advent of the ,americans1 and hence the name4 ,and notwithstanding the existence of our grape1 ,vitis ,californica1 the names 8native0 and 8,california grape0 have been applied to the ,mission1 but the word 8foreign0 is never used in describing it4 ,the increase in the price of grapes has followed closely upon the increase in the demand for our wines1 and the production has kept pace with the demand4 ,the annual shipments of wine and brandy from ,california1 commencing with #ahge1 according to the reports published from time to time1 are as follows1 in gallons3 ,year4 ,wine4 ,brandy4 #ahge #a1jca1ejg #db1cah #ahgf #a1aae1jde #ei1iic #ahgg #a1dfb1gib #ach1iib #ahgh #a1hab1aei #abi1aai #ahgi #b1aee1idd #afc1hib #ahhj #b1dhg1cec #ahi1jih #ahha #b1hde1cfe #bji1fgg ,the figures for #ahhb1 as published1 are larger than those for #ahha1 but the figures furnished by ,mr4 ,stone1 the statistician of the ,merchants ,exchange1 give wine #b1gba1dbh1 brandy1 #bah1gib2 from which ,i am led to believe that those for #ahha are too large4 ,the total production of wine for #ahgh has been stated to be from #f1jjj1jjj to #g1jjj1jjj gallons1 for #ahgi1 #g1gij1jjj1 for #ahhj1 #aj1jjj1jjj to #ab1jjj1jjj gallons4 ,notwithstanding the increased acreage of our vineyards1 the product in #ahha fell off one or two million gallons1 and in the second annual report of the ,state ,viticultural ,commission1 just published1 the loss is estimated at one-third of the crop1 making the product #i1jjj1jjj gallons1 or a little less4 ,that of #ahhb is about #aj1jjj1jjj gallons4 ,in #ahhj we had about #fj1jjj acres of vineyards in the ,state1 and according to ,mr4 ,haraszthy's report as ,president of the ,viticultural ,commission1 contained in the report of the commission last mentioned1 the increase during the first two years after the first organization of the commission in #ahhj1 amounts to #dj1jjj acres4 ,since the date of his report1 ,april #ai1 #ahhb1 the acreage must have been largely increased1 and making a liberal allowance for errors1 we must have at least #ajj1jjj acres in vineyards in the ,state at the present time1 which ought to produce1 at a small estimate1 #bj1jjj1jjj gallons of wine in five years from now1 and in five years more1 with the increased product from the greater age of the vines1 and from those planted in the meantime1 the yield ought to be doubled4 ,among those who are now planting vineyards are many who have had no experience in wine making2 and in order that such may have the advantage of the experience of those of other countries who have spent their whole lives in perfecting the art1 and have had the benefit of the knowledge derived from generations before them1 the author has prepared the following work1 in which he has attempted to lay before the reader an account of the methods followed in those portions of ,europe1 especially ,france1 where the finest wines of the world are produced4 ,what is here given is the result of research on the part of the author chiefly for his own benefit2 and in going over the literature of the subject of wine making1 he failed to find a work in the ,english language which is adequate to the needs of the practical wine maker1 or one who intends to become such4 ,there are many good books in the ,french language1 and1 in fact1 the principal works on the subject are to be found in that language4 ,but the authors of many of them have hobbies1 and the practice indicated in a certain connection by one often differs from that pointed out by another4 ,it1 therefore1 became necessary to compare the writings of various authors1 and where they differed in points of practice1 to try and find out the reason therefor4 ,this was not always an easy task2 but the author confidently hopes that the beginner will always find a safe course pointed out to him in the following pages1 and that the experienced viniculturist will have brought to his mind many things forgotten in the multitude of affairs1 and the experimentalist1 to whom we all are looking for further light1 will here find many hints which may assist him in finding out what are the best methods under the conditions in which we find ourselves in the infancy of this absorbing industry4 ,what forcibly strikes one in reading the works of different authors on the subject of vinification is1 that1 notwithstanding the variations in the methods1 there are but few material differences in the practices in different localities in making a given kind of wine4 ,it is true that one method makes a red wine1 a different one makes a white wine1 that grapes of one degree of ripeness and the corresponding practice in vinification produces a sweet wine1 and another a dry wine1 but the author is convinced that the method and practice which will produce the best result in a given case in one locality will also produce the best result in any other4 ,if it is found that in the northern and central portions of ,france it is insisted that the casks be always kept full1 and that in ,spain they are left with a vacant space1 it will also be found that this practice depends upon the alcoholic strength and robustness of the wine4 ,when the grapes of the more northern regions are artificially matured till their saccharine strength approaches that of grapes of more southern climes1 then the wine made from their must may safely be treated according to methods prevailing in the latter regions4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the grapes of hot countries are gathered as soon as their must indicates a density of #bj to #bd per cent41 the wine made from them would be absolutely ruined1 if treated as the wine from overripe grapes1 and it must be cared for as the weaker wines of the northern climes4 ,the essentials1 then1 of good wine making1 which include the treatment in the cellar1 are everywhere the same1 and they only vary with the varieties of wine that are to be produced4 ,the general climate of ,california corresponds in many respects with that of the more southern wine-producing regions of ,europe2 and the percentage of sugar carried in the grapes grown in the southern and interior portions of our ,state is about the same as that of the musts of those regions4 ,the musts produced in the central coast counties and the bay counties of the ,state1 in average seasons1 equal1 if they do not exceed1 in density the musts of the central and northern portions of ,france in their very best seasons4 ,the following tables will afford the figures necessary for a comparison between our wines and those of other countries1 as to alcoholic strength and acidity4 ,the first table is useful as illustrating an advance in wine making in this ,state4 ,the earlier wine makers1 guided by the experience derived from residence in the northern viticultural regions of ,europe1 or by the information from writers of those countries1 allowed their grapes to arrive at an advanced state of maturity without considering the different conditions of climate4 ,musts1 therefore1 that were fit only for sweet wines1 were treated according to dry wine methods1 and no wonder they were found heady1 used as table wines1 with so high a percentage of alcohol4 ,the second table shows that we have learned to produce lighter wines1 which means1 not only that we are growing grapes that carry less sugar than the ,mission1 but chiefly that we do not allow the berries to become overripe1 dried up1 under the ardent rays of our constant sun4 ,the first figures are from a paper read by the late ,major ,snyder before the ,napa ,wine ,growers' ,association1 and published in the ,rural ,press1 ,august #c1 #ahga1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #ff4 ,vol4 per cent4 ,color4 ,name of ,maker4 ,year4 of ,alcohol4 ,white ,craig #ahfg ,foreign grapes #ad4d 8 8 #ahgj ,mission #ac4d 8 ,dresel ,gundlach #ahfa #ad4d 8 8 #ahgj #ac4c 8 8 #ahfb #ab4e 8 8 #ahfg #ac4f 8 ,j4 ,r4 ,snyder #ahfe ,mission #ab4e 8 8 #ahfj #ab4f 8 8 #ahfg #ac4c 8 8 #ahfh #ab4h 8 ,a4 ,f4 ,haraszthy #ahga ,foreign #aa4e 8 8 #ahgj 8 #ab4f ,red ,buena ,vista ,ass'n #ahff #af4e ,white 8 8 #ahga #aa4e ,red 8 8 #ahga #ab4f ,white ,h4 ,winkle #ahfi ,mission #ac4b 8 8 #ahga 8 #ab4e 8 ,l4 ,goss #ahga ,zinfandel #ab4h ,the following figures are from the ,report of the ,commissioner of ,agriculture of the ,united ,states1 for #ahhj1 report of the ,chemist4 ,it will be observed that where the name is followed by a 1 it is that of the ,eastern dealer1 and not that of the maker4 ,,dry ,,red ,,wines4 ,per cent4 ,total by vol4 of acid as ,name4 alcohol4 ,glucose4 tartaric4 ,maker4 ,sonoma ,mission1 '#gi #aj4jc ,none 4#gbb ,gretsch ,mayer4 8 ,zinfandel1 '#gi #i4gh ,trace 4#fic 8 8 ,mission #i4bi do 4#iag ,b4 ,dreyfus ,co4 ,zinfandel #aa4ce do 4#gfh 8 8 ,zinfandel1 '#gh #aj4cj do 4#hbe ,dresel ,co4 ,zinfandel1 '#gi #aa4jh do 4#gih 8 8 ,zinfandel #ab4ca do 4#had ,geo4 ,hamlin ,co4 ,california ,claret #aj4ef do 4#ijc ,zinfandel #ac4bd #j4ah 4#gbf ,,dry ,,white ,,wines4 ,white ,hock #ag4cg #j4ji 4#hee ,white ,hock #ab4hg #j4ji 4#gfg ,muscatel #ac4cd #j4ab 4#gfg ,sonoma ,hock #ab4je #j4ac 4#dbb ,perkins1 ,stern ,co4 ,riesling #aa4bf ,trace 4#hdf ,dresel ,co4 ,hock #aa4ce do 4#ghe 8 8 ,dry ,muscat #aa4dd do 4#fai ,dreyfus ,co4 ,zinfandel #aa4bf do 4#eij 8 8 ,riesling #ab4je do 4#fif 8 8 ,gutedel #aa4gj do 4#gef 8 8 ,hock #i4gj do 4#gbc 8 8 ,sonoma ,mission1 '#gh #aj4ef do 4#fai ,gretsch ,mayer4 8 ,riesling1 '#gg787 #ac4ae do 4#fie 8 8 8 8 '#gi #ac4ae do 4#ege 8 8 8 ,mission1 '#gi #aj4ch do 4#fai 8 8 8 ,gutedel1 '#gi #aa4hg do 4#ehi 8 8 ,dry ,muscat '#gd787 #ab4dj do 4#haf 8 8 ,zinfandel1 '#gh #aa4if do 4#gfa 8 8 8 '#gi #aa4jj do 4#gdj 8 8 ,,port4 ,,sweet ,,wines4 ,california ,port #ba4hi #h4fj 4#gij 8 8 #bj4hi #e4gh 4#eaj ,kohler ,frohling4 8 8 #ah4hh #d4di 4#gee ,dreyfus ,co4 8 8 #ai4hg #e4hh 4#cgj 8 8 8 8 #ae4di #h4fj 4#dhf ,perkins1 ,stern ,co4 8,sunny ,slope8 #ae4ab #aa4eg 4#dcc 8 8 ,los ,angeles #af4eb #aa4ci 4#ejh ,gretsch ,mayer4 ,,sherry4 ,california ,sherry4 #ag4if 4#fa 4#ecb 8 8 #af4ae #b4de 4#gba ,dreyfus ,co4 8 8 #af4hj #b4bj 4#egc 8 8 ,,champagnes4 8,grand ,prize8 med4 dry #ab4di #h4ba 4#hba ,arpad ,haraszthy4 8,eclipse18 extra dry #aa4hg #f4ea 4#hhe 8 8 ,,miscellaneous4 ,gerke's ,white #ad4gd #b4ba 4#fgc ,henry ,gerke4 ,sweet ,muscatel #ah4eh #be4cg 4#gec ,perkins1 ,stern ,co4 8 8 #bb4cf #aa4ei 4#cff ,dreyfus ,co4 8 8 #bb4df #af4id 4#cca 8 8 ,los ,angeles ,muscatel #ag4jh #ac4dd 4#ecc ,gretsch ,mayer4 ,angelica #aa4gi #ab4dh 4#dhi 8 #ac4ij #ac4be 4#cdg ,perkins1 ,stern ,co4 8 #ah4ad #ad4ha 4#dcj ,dreyfus ,co4 8 #ah4gh #af4bj 4#dff ,gretsch ,mayer4 ,california ,malaga #ag4gj #h4ei 4#fei ,henry ,gerke4 ,what is particularly striking in the figures last quoted1 is the remarkably high percentage of acid1 which far exceeds what we had hitherto supposed the acidity of our wines to be4 ,yet as a large proportion of the total acids was volatile1 it may be that the wines had contracted acidity from improper methods of keeping4 ,from ,prof4 ,hilgard's report of the work done in the viticultural laboratory of the ,college of ,agriculture of the ,university of ,california1 during the years #ahha and #ahhb1 we extract ,table ,v given in the appendix4 ,the figures for the averages are our own4 ,this report contains much valuable and interesting information regarding the work done in the laboratory1 and gives many details of the analyses of these wines1 which the limits of this volume will not permit us to give in full4 ,and those who wish to see the results of the most complete analysis of ,california wines ever before made1 are referred to the report itself4 ,it will be noticed that the average total acidity of the different wines mentioned in the table is much lower than that found by the chemist of the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,the wines in this table were furnished by the producer in nearly every case1 a few of them having been produced at the ,university1 and were undoubtedly pure1 and in a fair condition1 as samples of badly kept wine would not likely be furnished by the maker for the purpose of analysis2 and the condition of those analyzed by the chemist at ,washington is1 at least1 doubtful4 ,from analyses by ,r4 ,fresenius and ,e4 ,borgman1 tabulated in the ,journal of the ,chemical ,society1 ,london1 for ,april1 #ahhc1 from ,zeits4 ,anal4 ,chem41 ,,xxii1 #df-eh1 we extract the following figures1 the alcoholic strength being reduced to volume per cent4 as nearly as could be done from the per cent4 by weight in volume without the specific gravity3 ,red ,white ,white ,red ,main4 ,main4 ,hocks4 ,french4 ,french4 ,moselle4 ,max4 #aa4gf #ab4ed #ab4gg #ab4ag #aa4eb #aj4gg ,alcohol ,min4 #aa4gc #aa4jj #h4jj #aa4ah #i4ia #h4gg ,aver4 #aa4ge #aa4gf #aj4hc #aa4fg #aj4eh #aj4jb ,max4 4#fb 4#hj #a4ja 4#ga 4#eh 4#ie ,acid ,min4 4#ed 4#ed 4#dh 4#ed 4#dh 4#fd ,aver4 4#eh 4#fi 4#ff 4#fb 4#ed 4#gi ,and from the analyses given in the work of ,thudichum and ,dupr1 we deduce the following3 ,,thirty-,,five ,,german ,,wines4 ,vol4 per cent4 ,maximum #ad4de ,acid as ,maximum 4#hbc ,alcohol4 ,minimum #i4ae tartaric4 ,minimum 4#daf ,average #aj4jj ,average 4#edc ,,six ,,french ,,clarets4 ,maximum #ab4ch ,maximum 4#fde ,alcohol ,minimum #aj4db ,acid ,minimum 4#edh ,average #aj4ie ,average 4#eic ,,four ,,burgundies4 ,maximum #ad4ig ,maximum 4#ffh ,alcohol ,minimum #aa4ed ,acid ,minimum 4#die ,average #ab4gh ,average 4#efb ,,eleven ,,sherries4 ,maximum #bb4ge ,maximum 4#fbf ,alcohol ,minimum #ag4jc ,acid ,minimum 4#cgb ,average #bj4ic ,average 4#dgf ,,six ,,so-,,called ,,natural ,,sherries4 ,maximum #ah4hg ,maximum 4#eaj ,alcohol ,minimum #af4fj ,acid ,minimum 4#cig ,average #ag4cg ,average 4#ded ,,eleven ,,port ,,wines4 ,maximum #bc4cd ,maximum 4#eaj ,alcohol ,minimum #ah4jd ,acid ,minimum 4#cih ,average #ba4ej ,average 4#dbd ,,ten ,,hungarian ,,wines4 ,maximum #ad4ee ,maximum 4#gaf ,alcohol ,minimum #aa4ee ,acid ,minimum 4#egj ,average #ab4he ,average 4#fcg ,the analyses of many other wines are given1 and many other details which would be of little use to the practical man1 belonging rather to the domain of the chemistry of wines4 ,there is a vast field open to the wine maker of this ,state1 for we have differences of soil and climate suitable for the production of a wonderful variety of wines4 ,but every man must decide for himself what kind of wine his soil and situation are best adapted to produce1 and his aim then should be to produce the best of that kind4 ,thanks to the work of the ,state ,viticultural ,commission1 we are beginning to learn what varieties of grapes are best suited to the different districts of the ,state4 ,it is true that only a beginning has been made1 and the actual work of experimenting in this direction can only be carried on by the practical viticulturists themselves4 ,it is for the ,commission to bring order out of chaos1 and furnish for the information of the public the results of the labors of the experimenters in the field4 ,through the endeavors of the ,commission1 and especially of its chief executive ,viticultural officer1 ,mr4 ,charles ,a4 ,wetmore1 who has an extended knowledge of the different varieties of grapes grown in the ,state1 and where they are produced1 the viticulturists are beginning to compare notes1 and an exchange of knowledge is now going on1 which without the ,commission would be impossible4 ,it is not within the scope of this work to enter into the details of vine planting1 or to point out what particular varieties of grapes should be planted in the different sections1 and probably the time to produce a work which would convey definite and satisfactory information on the latter subject has not yet arrived4 ,as fast as reliable information is acquired1 it will undoubtedly be made known by the ,commission1 and every intended vine grower should carefully study its reports1 as well as to keep himself familiar with the discussions of the local viticultural societies1 and those of the general conventions4 ,if every grower in the ,state will only devote a portion of his ground to the cultivation of the choicest varieties of grapes1 making sure that he knows what he is cultivating1 will use the best methods of vinification1 preserve each kind of wine by itself1 or keep a careful record of his blends1 and will age and rear the different products according to the best and most intelligent methods1 the writer confidently expects that favored spots will be found in time which will produce wines that will compare favorably with the fine wines of ,europe2 and we may even venture to hope that some lucky individual will find that he is possessed of a vineyard that will make his name famous as the producer of a grand wine equal to the most renowned wines of the world4 ,the writer lays claim to but very little originality in the following pages4 ,what the intended wine maker wants is not new1 untried theories1 but the results of the experience of others who have already labored in the field1 in order that he may not spend his time in inventing methods which1 later he learns1 have already been tried by the laborers before him4 ,in this connection1 the author makes his acknowledgments to the following authors and their productions1 as well as to others mentioned in the body of the work4 ,and if1 in some cases1 he has failed to give credit where it is due1 it is because the information remains1 but the source is forgotten4 ,a4 ,,du ,,breuil1 ,les ,vignobles et les ,arbres et ,fruits ,cidre1 ,paris1 #ahge4 ,,dr4 ,,jules ,,guyot1 ,culture de la ,vigne et ,vinification1 ,paris1 #ahfa4 ,,henri ,,machard1 ,trait ,pratique sur les ,vins1 ,bensanon1 #ahgd4 ,,raimond ,,boireau1 ,culture de la ,vigne1 ,traitement des ,vins1 ,vinification1 ,distillation1 etc41 #b vols41 ,bordeaux1 #ahgf4 ,a4 ,,haraszthy1 ,grape ,culture1 ,wines1 and ,wine ,making1 ,new ,york1 #ahfb1 including translations of ,,johann ,,carl ,,leuchs on ,wine ,making1 and ,,dr4 ,l4 ,,gall1 ,improvement in ,wine ,making4 ,l4 ,,pasteur1 on ,fermentation1 ,annales de ,chimie1 #c ,series1 ,vol4 ,,lviii1 p4 #ccj4 ,,joseph ,,boussingault1 ,sur la ,fermentation des ,fruits ,noyau ,annales de ,chimie1 #d ,series1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 p4 #baj4 ,m4 ,,boussingault1 ,expriences pour constater la perte en sucre dans le sucrage du mot de du marc de raisin4 ,annales de ,chimie1 #e ,series1 ,vol4 ,,vii1 p4 #dcc4 ,,andre ,,pellicot1 ,le ,vigneron ,provenal1 ,montpellier1 #ahff4 ,,henry ,,vizitelli1 ,facts about ,sherry1 ,london1 #ahgf2 ,facts about ,port and ,madeira1 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,j4 ,l4 ,w4 ,,thudichum and ,,august ,,dupre1 ,origin1 ,nature1 and ,varieties of ,wine1 ,london1 #ahgb4 ,n4 ,,basset1 ,guide ,thorique et ,pratique du ,frabricant d',alcool et du ,distillateur4 ,j4 ,j4 ,,griffin1 ,chemical ,testing of ,wines and ,liquors1 ,london4 ,l4 ,f4 ,,dubief1 ,trait ,complet ,thorique et ,pratique de ,vinification ou ,art de ,faire du ,vin1 #d ,ed41 ,paris4 ,p4 ,,schutzenberger1 ,on ,fermentation1 ,international ,scientific ,series1 ,new ,york1 #ahgf4 ,e4 ,j4 ,,maumene1 ,trait ,thorique et ,pratique du ,travail des ,vins1 ,paris1 #ahgd4 ,m4 ,w4 ,,maigne1 ,nouveau ,manuel ,complet du ,sommelier et du ,marchand de ,vins 7,manuels-,roret71 ,paris1 #ahgd4 ,,don ,,pedro ,,verdad1 ,from ,vineyard to ,decanter1 a ,book about ,sherry1 ,london1 #ahgf4 ,,gen4 ,e4 ,d4 ,,keyes1 ,letter to ,major ,j4 ,r4 ,snyder1 on ,sherry making1 published in ,san ,francisco ,daily ,evening ,bulletin1 ,may #bi1 #ahgg4 ,,prof4 ,e4 ,w4 ,,hilgard1 ,report of work done in the ,viticultural ,laboratory under the charge of ,f4 ,w4 ,morse1 ,university of ,california1 ,college of ,agriculture2 ,report of #ahhb1 ,state ,printer1 ,sacramento1 #ahhc4 ,august1 #ahhc4 ,,contents4 ,,preface4 ,prices of grapes in ,california from #ahgf to #ahhb1 the ,mission grape1 v2 annual shipments of wine and brandy from ,california1 annual production of wine1 acreage of vines1 probable future production of wine1 vi2 objects of this book1 want of works on the subject in ,english1 method of vinification varies with kind of wine rather than with locality or climate1 vii2 climate of ,california and density of must similar to those of southern ,europe1 viii2 comparison between ,california and ,european wines1 viii-xiii2 ,state ,viticultural ,commission1 xiii2 advice to grape growers1 xiv2 acknowledgments by the author1 list of authorities1 xv4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,gathering ,,the ,,grapes--,,maturity4 ,utensils for picking1 number of pickers necessary1 when to commence1 #a2 when to gather1 successive gathering1 #b2 sorting the grapes1 requisite degree of maturity1 #c2 signs of ripeness1 gathering before complete maturity1 #d2 gathering after complete maturity1 ripeness according to required strength1 #e4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,must4 ,composition1 grape sugar1 #f2 must-scale1 #g2 testing for sugar1 #h2 correcting for temperature1 #aj2 sugar and alcohol1 alcohol in wine1 #aa4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,sugaring ,,and ,,watering ,,must4 ,sugaring1 #ac2 nothing gained by adding sugar1 #ae2 cost of glucose wine1 #af2 experiment with glucose1 the use of glucose condemned1 #ag2 watering1 #ah4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,stemming ,,and ,,crushing4 ,diversity of opinion on stemming1 effect of stemming1 proper practice1 #bj2 to estimate tannin1 stemmers1 #ba2 how to remove the stems1 crushing1 methods of crushing1 #bb2 aerating the must1 crushers1 #bc2 rapidity of operation1 special practice1 #bd4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,fermentation--,,its ,,causes4 ,several different kinds of fermentation1 alcoholic fermentation1 the yeast plant1 #be2 functions of yeast1 normal conditions of the life of yeast1 #bf2 action of various chemical and physical agents1 #bh2 viscous or mannitic fermentation1 lactic fermentation1 #bi2 acetic fermentation1 #cj2 origin of ferments1 #ca2 ,,alcoholic ,,fermentation ,,in ,,wine ,,making3 vinous or alcoholic fermentation1 sugar1 #cb2 alcohol by weight and by volume1 #cc2 fermentation1 its products1 per cent41 sugar to per cent4 alcohol1 different authors1 #cd2 limits of sugar and spirit1 #cf2 temperature1 #cg2 fermenting houses1 #ch4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,red ,,wine4 ,coloring matter1 fermenting tanks or vats1 filling the tanks1 #ci2 open vats1 closed vats1 #dj2 the best practice1 #da2 hermetically sealed tanks1 practice in the ,mdoc1 stirring the pomace in the vat1 #db2 when to draw from the vat1 #dc2 the objections to long vatting1 in making fine wines1 #dd2 how to know when to draw from the vat1 method of drawing from the vat and filling the casks1 #de2 wine presses1 #df2 pressing and press wine1 special practice for fine wines1 ,,treatment ,,of ,,red ,,wines3 insensible fermentation1 #dg2 ulling or filling up1 #dh2 summary of the rules for the treatment of new red wines1 #ej2 treatment of old red wines1 #ea2 summary of rules for the care of old red wines1 #ec4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,white ,,wine4 ,made from both red and white grapes1 differences between red and white wine1 hygienic effect of red and white wine1 #ed2 process of making1 the barrels1 filling the barrels during fermentation1 #ee2 pressing and filling1 different kinds of white wine1 dry white wines1 mellow white wines1 #ef2 sweet white wines1 grand white wines1 #eg2 treatment of white wines1 to keep sweet1 #eh2 dry white wines1 mellow white wines1 #ei2 summary of rules1 racking1 #fj4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,casks4 ,different woods1 oak wood1 storing casks1 #fa2 new casks1 #fb2 old casks1 rinsing chain1 visitor to examine the inside of a cask1 #fc2 empty casks1 washing1 sulphuring casks1 condition to be examined1 #fd2 flatness in the cask1 acidity1 mouldy casks1 #fe2 rottenness1 brandy casks1 caution as to sulphuring1 cask borers1 #ff2 size of casks1 #fg4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,sulphuring4 ,,arresting ,,fermentation4 ,sulphuring casks1 must and wine1 sulphurous oxide or sulphur dioxide1 the sulphurer or sulphur burner1 #fi2 sulphur matches or bands1 to sulphur a cask1 #gj2 to sulphur wine1 sulphuring should be avoided in certain cases1 #ga2 arresting fermentation1 unfermented must1 prepared in two ways1 #gb2 clarification and care of unfermented must1 sulphur flavor1 #gc2 other substances to arrest fermentation1 burning alcohol1 aqueous solution of sulphurous acid1 bisulphite of lime1 #gd2 salicylic acid1 #ge4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,aging4--,,effects ,,of ,,various ,,influences4 ,general considerations1 how new wine differs from old1 development of bouquet and flavor1 old wine1 characteristics of1 #gf2 color1 aroma1 flavor1 influences which develop1 also destroy1 influence of the air1 #gg2 variations of temperature1 influence of heat1 #gh2 aging by heat1 #gi2 preserving wine by heat1 #hj2 influence of cold1 treatment of frozen wine1 #ha2 influence of light1 aging by sunlight1 effect of motion of voyages1 wines suitable for shipment1 #hb2 shipping new wine1 #hc2 other motions1 aging by fining1 aging generally1 #hd2 wines which gain the most by aging processes1 #he4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,general ,,treatment--,,cellars4 ,unfortified or table wines1 deposits1 lees1 etc41 #hf2 to prevent degeneration1 ,,cellars3 temperature1 #hg2 dampness1 ventilation1 evaporation1 #hh2 other precautions1 supports for casks and tuns1 #hi4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,racking4 ,object of1 time for1 conditions indispensable for a good racking1 #ia2 new red wines1 #ib2 old red wines1 new white wines1 first racking1 subsequent rackings1 #ic2 care to be observed1 other precautions1 #id2 different methods of racking1 implements for tipping the cask1 #ie2 racking without contact with the air1 pumps and siphons1 #ig4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,clarification--,,fining4 ,objects of fining1 different substances employed1 gelatinous substances1 #ii2 gelatine1 its preparation1 isinglass1 fish glue1 or ichthyocol1 #ajj2 albuminous substances1 blood1 milk1 white of eggs1 #aja2 clarifying powders1 gum arabic1 addition of salt1 addition of alcohol1 addition of tannin1 preparation1 #ajb2 method of operation1 implements for stirring1 #ajc4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,sweet ,,wines--,,fortified ,,wines4 ,generally1 to increase sugar in must1 without fermentation1 care required1 #aje2 clarification1 boiling must1 left on the lees1 #ajf2 sweet muscat1 pressing1 marc of sweet wines1 amount of alcohol to be added1 density1 furmint wine1 #ajg2 straw wine1 ,,port ,,wine in the ,upper ,douro3 the must1 lagars1 etc41 #ajh2 treading1 fermentation1 ,vizitelli's description1 #aji2 lodges or storehouses1 mixing1 port loses color in wood1 alcoholic strength and loss by evaporation1 #aab2 ,,madeira3 making1 casks1 treatment1 heating house1 heating1 #aac2 solera system1 ullage1 alcohol1 #aad2 ,,sherry3 climate1 vintage1 crushing1 gypsum1 #aae2 pressing1 #aaf2 plastering1 fermenting1 adding spirit1 #aag2 bodegas or storehouses1 changes in the wine1 fino1 oloroso1 basto1 flowers1 #aah2 sweet wine1 vino dulce1 color wine1 vino de color1 arrope1 #aai2 mature wine1 ,,the ,,solera ,,system3 establishing a solera1 #abj2 standard soleras and their foundation1 #aba2 blending for shipment1 #abb2 formulas1 fining1 #abd4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,defects ,,and ,,diseases4 ,divided into two classes1 general considerations1 #abe2 ,,natural ,,defects3 earthy flavor1 its causes1 #abf2 how prevented1 treatment1 #abg2 wild taste and grassy flavor1 greenness1 causes1 #abh2 prevention1 treatment1 #abi2 roughness1 causes1 not a fault1 disappears in time1 how avoided1 #acj2 how removed1 bitterness1 causes1 how prevented1 treatment1 taste of the stems1 #aca2 sourness1 causes1 how prevented1 treatment1 #acb2 alcoholic weakness1 how avoided1 treatment1 #acc2 want of color1 causes1 how guarded against1 treatment1 dull1 bluish1 lead-colored wine and flavor of the lees1 causes1 #acd2 treatment1 #ace2 putrid decomposition1 causes1 #acf2 how avoided1 treatment1 different defects together1 ,,acquired ,,defects ,,and ,,diseases3 flat wines1 flowers1 causes1 #acg2 prevention1 #ach2 treatment1 #aci2 sourness1 acidity1 pricked wine1 causes1 what wine liable to1 #adj2 how prevented1 treatment1 #ada2 experiment before treatment1 #adb2 ,machard's treatment1 other methods1 #add2 cask flavor1 barrel flavor1 causes1 #ade2 treatment1 #adf2 mouldy flavor1 causes1 prevention and treatment1 foreign flavors1 #adg2 ropiness1 causes1 treatment1 ropy wines in bottles1 and other treatment1 #adh2 acrity1 treatment1 bitterness1 #adi2 treatment1 two kinds according to ,maumen1 #aej2 fermentation1 taste of the lees1 yeasty flavor1 #aea2 how prevented1 treatment1 degeneration1 putrid fermentation1 duration of different wines1 #aeb2 treatment1 #aec4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,wine ,,in ,,bottles4 ,when ready for bottling1 how long to remain in wood1 #aed2 how prepared for bottling1 the most favorable time for bottling1 #aee2 bottles1 #aef2 filling the bottles1 #aeg2 corks1 #aeh2 corking machines1 #aei2 preparation of the corks1 driving in corks1 #afj2 sealing corks1 sealing wax1 applying the same1 coloring same1 #afa2 capsules1 capsuling1 piling bottles1 #afb2 racks and bins for bottles1 #afd2 treatment of wine in bottles1 fermentation in bottles1 #afe2 deposits and turbidity1 #aff2 bitterness and acrity1 ropiness1 degeneration and putridity1 #afg2 decantation1 #afh2 operation1 instrument1 #afi4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,cutting ,,or ,,mixing ,,wines4 ,most ,french wines mixed1 when necessary1 effect of1 #aga2 wines of same nature should be used1 fine wines1 #agc2 ordinary wines1 must be allowed sufficient time1 large quantities1 new and old wine1 green wines1 #agd2 white and red wines1 diseased wines1 mixing grapes1 precaution1 #age4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,wine ,,lees1 ,,marc1 ,,and ,,piquette4 ,pomace and lees often placed in the still1 ,,wine ,,lees3 the lees should be cared for1 quantity of wine in lees1 constituents of dry lees1 analysis1 vary1 #agf2 treatment of lees1 #agg2 extraction of wine from the lees1 #agh2 fining the wine from the lees1 #agi2 red wine from lees1 white wine from lees1 pressing the sediment1 #ahj2 use of dry lees1 ,,marc ,,or ,,pomace--,,piquette3 unfermented marc of white wine or of red wine not entirely fermented1 fermented marc of red wine1 washing the marc1 ,pezeyre's method1 #ahc4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,the ,,composition ,,of ,,wine4 ,generally1 #ahe2 table of substances recognized1 #ahf2 alcohol1 estimate of1 #ahg2 ethers1 sugar1 estimate of1 #aij2 mannite1 mucilage and mellowness1 #aia2 pectose1 pectin1 fatty matter1 glycerin1 coloring matter1 aldehydes1 #aib2 acids1 tartaric1 malic1 citric1 pectic1 tannic1 carbonic1 #aic2 acetic1 lactic1 valeric1 succinic1 total acids1 the bouquet1 artificial bouquet1 #aid2 ,maumen's experiment1 #aie2 different substances employed1 iris1 #aif2 strawberry1 gillyflower or stockgilly1 #aig2 vine flowers1 mignonette1 nutmeg1 bitter almonds and fruit pits1 sassafras1 #aih2 other aromas1 effects1 #aii4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,general ,,chapter--,,miscellaneous4 ,proportion of juice to marc1 #bjj2 proportion of wine to grapes1 #bja2 wooden and metal utensils1 #bjb2 cleanliness1 #bjc2 different cellar utensils1 #bjd1 #bje2 ,,useful ,,rules3 to ascertain the weight of a given number of gallons of a liquid1 for reducing must1 for sugaring must1 #bjf2 for fortifying and reducing wines1 to reduce with water1 #bjg2 to reduce with weaker or fortify with stronger wine or alcohol1 ,,plastering1 #bjh2 common practice in ,spain and southern ,france1 objects1 chemical effects1 #bji2 effects on health1 #baj2 plastering sherry1 quantity used1 #bab2 by adding water1 sherry flavor1 #bac4 ,,appendix4 ,sugar tables3 ,table ,i1 ,balling's degrees 7per cent4 sugar71 corresponding degrees ,baum1 and specific gravity at #fc ,f41 #bae2 ,table ,,ii1 ,baum's degrees1 corresponding degrees ,balling 7per cent4 sugar71 and specific gravity at #fc ,f4 #baf2 ,table ,,iii1 ,baum's degrees and corresponding per cent4 sugar1 at #fj ,f4 #bag2 ,alcohol table1 ,table ,,iv1 showing per cent4 by volume for every one-tenth per cent4 from #j4a to #cj per cent41 corresponding per cent4 by weight1 and specific gravity1 #bah-ai2 ,table ,v1 showing amount of alcohol and acid in different ,california wines1 #bbj-bc4 ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,fig4 ,page4 #a4 ,,hydrometer #h #b4 ,,hydrometer-,,jar #i #c4 ,,wooden ,,stemmer #ba #d4 ,,crusher #bc #e4 ,,fermenting ,,vat #da #f4 ,,wine ,,presses #df #g4 ,,ulling ,,pots #di #h4 #i4 ,z ,,funnels #di #aj4 #aa4 ,,rinsing ,,chain #fc #ab4 ,,visitor ,,for ,,examining ,,the ,,inside ,,of ,a ,,cask #ac4 ,,sulphurer #fi #ad4 ,,maumene',s ,,sulphurer #ae4 ,,cask ,,and ,,support #hi #af4 ,,jack ,,for ,,tipping ,a ,,cask #ie #ag4 ,,fork ,,for ,,tipping ,a ,,cask #ah4 ,,implements ,,for ,,tipping ,a ,,cask #if #ai4 #bj4 ,a ,,method ,,of ,,racking #ig #ba4 ,,siphons #bb4 #bc4 ,,rotary ,,force ,,pump #ih #bd4 #be4 ,,implements ,,for ,,stirring #ajc #bf4 #bg4 ,,bottle ,,washer #bh4 ,,bottle ,,drainers #aef #bi4 #cj4 ,,reservoirs ,,for ,,filling ,,bottles #aeg #ca4 ,,bung ,,screw #aeh #cb4 ,,corking ,,machines #aei #cc4 ,,corking ,,machines ,,and ,,needles #afj #cd4 ,,pincers ,,for ,,removing ,,wax #afb #ce4 ,,capsuler #cf4 ,,piling ,,bottles #afc #cg4 ,,bottle ,,racks #afd #ch4 #ci4 ,,burrow',s ,,slider ,,bin #afe #dj4 ,,decanting ,,basket #da4 ,,corkscrews #afi #db4 ,,decanting ,,instrument ,,errata ,on page #baf1 ,table ,,ii1 read #fc ,f1 instead of #ic ,f4 ,on page #bah1 ,table ,,iv1 opposite #ac4f by volume1 read #aa4jj per cent4 by weight1 instead of #aj4aj4 ,on page #bai1 ,table ,,iv1 opposite #ag4jc by weight1 read #bj4i by volume1 instead of #bj4g2 and opposite #bc4d by volume1 read 4#igbea specific gravity1 instead of 4#ifbea4 ,on page #bbb read ,tienturier instead of ,tenturier4 ,,the ,,wine ,,press ,,and ,,the ,,cellar4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,gathering ,,the ,,grapes--,,maturity4 ,the first step in wine making proper1 is the gathering of the grapes1 or 8picking10 as it is usually termed in ,california4 ,utensils for ,picking4--,knives1 scissors1 and pruning shears are used to cut the stems1 and every one will adopt the tool that he finds most convenient in practice2 but if the berries are inclined to drop off1 scissors or pruning shears are preferable4 ,some authors give minute descriptions of receptacles of various sizes and forms in which to gather the grapes1 but the practice in that respect usually followed in this ,state will be found the most convenient4 ,the grapes here are generally picked directly into boxes holding about fifty pounds4 ,the box is provided with an oblong hole at each end near the top1 or three or four holes bored with an inch auger1 by which the picker can easily move it from vine to vine1 and one man can carry it with both hands to the wagon4 ,these boxes are piled on the wagon without emptying1 transported to the wine house1 and brought back empty1 to be filled again4 ,number of ,pickers necessary--,when to ,commence4--,there ought to be a sufficient number of men employed in picking to fill at least one fermenting vat in a day1 in making red wine4 ,if1 however1 circumstances render this impossible1 it would be well to pile up the grapes on a good clean floor1 under cover1 till sufficient are gathered to fill the tank1 and then crush them1 and fill the tank in one day4 7,see ,red ,wine47 ,picking ought to commence as soon as the grapes are of a fair average ripeness1 beginning with the earliest and ending with the latest variety4 ,in the chapter on musts1 we shall endeavor to indicate the requisite maturity of the grapes1 and it will there appear that they may become too ripe by remaining too long on the vine1 so that it is very important that a sufficient number of pickers should be employed to finish the gathering as promptly as possible1 and before too much sugar is developed4 7,see ,musts47 ,when to ,gather4--,it is of little importance at what time of the day the grapes are picked1 whether in the cool of the morning or the heat of mid-day1 or whether the dew is on or off1 as long as they are ripe4 ,in some countries1 however1 and in what are known as bad years1 the grapes do not arrive at complete maturity1 and therefore great care is taken to gather them only in dry weather1 and after the dew has disappeared4 7,see ,fermentation--,temperature47 ,if they are picked during the heat of the day1 fermentation will commence sooner than if picked in the cool of the morning2 and for this reason1 in making white wine from colored grapes1 care should be taken to pick and press them when cool1 if it is desired that the wine should be free from color2 for if the slightest fermentation sets in before pressing1 as it is apt to do if the grapes are warm1 some of the coloring matter is pretty sure to be extracted from the skins and will discolor the wine4 ,successive ,gathering4--,it is sometimes recommended that the grapes should be gathered as they ripen1 by going over a vineyard two or three times1 and picking off not only the bunches that are ripe1 leaving the green ones1 but even picking off separately three or four grapes from each bunch where it is not evenly ripened1 and this is the practice that is followed to-day in making the great white wines of ,france and ,germany2 but it certainly will not be adopted in this ,state while labor is as dear1 and wine is as cheap as it is at present4 ,instead1 that practice will be followed which is recommended by those writers who advise that the grapes of each variety be left on the vines till they are all fairly ripe1 and that they be gathered clean at one picking4 ,where1 however1 different varieties are planted in the same vineyard1 which ripen at different periods1 those only should be picked at the same time which ripen together4 ,gather the early ones first1 and the later ones successively as they ripen1 but pick clean4 ,the same rule also applies to grapes of the same variety1 but grown on different soils and in different situations1 as it is well known that the same variety of vine will ripen its grapes on high land and poor soil1 earlier than on low land and rich soil4 ,sorting the ,grapes4--,it will frequently happen1 however1 that there are some bunches of green grapes1 and they should always be thrown aside1 if picked with the others4 ,sometimes1 also1 there is what is called a second crop1 which ripens so much later than the main one that two gatherings are necessary4 ,in that case it would be injurious to the grapes of the earlier crop to leave them on the vine till the complete maturity of those of the second4 ,careful wine makers1 therefore1 will find it to their advantage1 either to leave the green grapes upon the vines for a second picking1 or1 if all are picked together1 to throw the green ones into a separate receptacle1 or to sort them out from the ripe ones before crushing4 ,those who wish to take extra care will even have the unripe1 rotten1 and dried berries clipped from the bunches with scissors4 ,these extra precautions are those which are observed in making the great wines of ,europe2 but they are not suggested here in the expectation that they will be generally followed by the wine makers of ,california1 but rather for the purpose of indicating the best practices to those who may find out that on account of the varieties they cultivate1 and of the situation and soil of their vineyards1 they too can produce such wines by using the same care4 ,requisite ,degree of ,maturity4--,it is insisted by all intelligent writers on the subject1 that1 with possible exceptions1 which will be mentioned1 the grapes should not be gathered till they have arrived at a state of complete maturity4 ,without this1 wines from the finest varieties of grapes would not possess that beauty of color1 that delicious flavor1 that fragrant bouquet1 and that alcoholic strength which they possess in so eminent a degree4 ,and if it is so necessary that the grapes of fine varieties should be thoroughly ripe1 it is quite as important that those of the poorer varieties should be equally so4 ,for these latter are generally wanting in sugar1 and consequently their wines are feeble in strength1 and as the sugar increases directly with the degree of maturity of the grape1 so the quantity of alcohol in their wines increases accordingly1 and thus by ripeness they make up for their natural defects4 ,signs of ,ripeness4--,complete maturity of the grape is indicated by the concurrence of the following signs3 #a4 ,the stem of the bunch changes from green to brown4 #b4 ,the bunch becomes pendant4 #c4 ,the berry has lost its firmness2 the skin has become thin and translucent4 #d4 ,the berries are easily separated from the stem4 #e4 ,the juice of the grape has acquired an agreeable flavor2 has become sweet1 thick1 and glutinous4 #f4 ,the seeds have become void of glutinous substances4 ,these are the signs given by several ,french authors1 and are here taken from ,prof4 ,du ,breuil1 who says1 nevertheless1 that1 under some circumstances the grapes should be gathered before arriving at the state of maturity indicated by these signs1 and under other conditions should be gathered even later4 ,he says3 ,gathering before ,complete ,maturity4--#a4 ,in certain localities north of the viticultural region the grape hardly ever arrives at the degree of maturity just indicated4 ,yet the crop must be gathered1 or otherwise it would rot on the vines4 ,under these circumstances1 the only thing that can be done is to leave the grapes on the vine as long as they derive any benefit from it4 #b4 ,grapes intended to make sparkling wine should also be gathered before the moment of absolute maturity4 #c4 ,in the southern part of ,france1 white grapes intended for the making of dry wines1 ought to be picked before reaching the last degree of maturity4 ,otherwise1 in that hot climate1 the quantity of sugar in the grape would increase to such an extent that it would be impossible to make a dry wine4 ,this is the practice in making the dry white wines of ,lunel1 of ,coudrieux1 of the ,hermitage1 and of ,saint ,peray4 #d4 ,for all the ordinary red wines of the region inhabited by the olive1 if the gathering of the grapes is delayed till the last degree of ripeness1 the must will contain more sugar than can be transformed into alcohol by fermentation4 ,the result will be that these wines will undergo a sort of continuous fermentation1 which will make its appearance whenever they are moved1 and which will soon change into acetic fermentation4 ,the only way to cure this tendency and to render the wines capable of shipment1 is to strongly fortify them by the addition of spirits4 ,to prevent this difficulty in the first place1 the grapes should be gathered before complete maturity4 ,some very respectable authors1 whose experience has been confined to the colder wine making regions1 tell us that in all cases the grapes should be allowed to remain on the vine as long as they gain in sugar1 and that in order to correct the excess that they would thus in many cases acquire1 they recommend that the must be reduced by water4 7,see ,watering ,musts47 ,gathering after ,complete ,maturity4--,to make sweet wines1 the grapes should remain on the vine until they have developed the greatest possible quantity of sugar4 ,for this purpose the grapes are not only allowed to shrivel before gathering1 but also artificial means are resorted to1 such as twisting the stem1 or drying them on straw after picking1 and even applying heat to them in various ways4 7,see ,sweet ,wines47 ,ripeness according to ,required ,strength4--,if the wine maker will first determine how strong in alcohol he wishes his wines to be1 he may anticipate the result approximately by testing from time to time the amount of sugar contained in the grapes1 and by gathering them at the period when the sugar in the juice shows that1 fermented1 it will produce the desired percentage of spirit4 ,this testing is easily performed by the use of the must-scale or the saccharometer2 and for information on this subject1 the reader is referred to the chapter on musts4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,must4 ,must is the name applied to the juice of the grape before fermentation4 ,composition4--,a good1 average must1 contains in #ajj parts by weight1 the following ingredients1 and in the proportions as indicated1 by weight1 according to ,dr4 ,guyot2 but the amount of sugar would be considered too small in ,california3 ,pure water1 #gh ,grape sugar 7glucose71 #bj ,free acids 7tartaric1 tannic1 etc471 #jj4be ,salts1 or organic acids 7bitartrate71 #a4ej ,mineral salts1 #j4bj ,nitrogenous1 fermentive matter1 ,essential oils1 4#je ,mucilaginous and starchy substances1 ,these constituents vary1 however1 according to variety of grape1 degree of maturity1 soil1 climate1 etc42 and some of them may rise in amount to double the average quantity given1 or may even1 under some circumstances1 descend to the one-fourth of it4 ,although all these ingredients doubtless have important effects upon the quality of the wine produced by fermentation1 the acid giving zest and freshness of taste1 and the other minor ingredients1 smoothness or harshness1 as the case may be1 yet the principal one that we have to deal with is the sugar1 and it is the only one that the practical wine maker will give much attention to1 although in those countries where the grape in some seasons does not ripen1 the amount of acid is an important element to be taken into consideration in testing the specific gravity of the must4 7,see ,composition of ,wines1 for further details47 ,grape ,sugar1 or glucose1 as it is known in chemical language1 as already remarked1 is the most important element entering into the composition of must1 and upon its quantity depends directly the amount of alcohol contained in the wine4 ,the intelligent wine maker1 then1 who wishes to know what will be the alcoholic strength of the wine produced by the must which he is about to subject to the action of fermentation1 will test the must to ascertain what percentage of sugar it contains4 ,this is very easily done by the use of an instrument prepared for the purpose4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,hydrometer4 ,must-,scale4--,a certain quantity of sugar being heavier than the same volume of water--pure cane sugar weighing about one and six-tenths to one of water--it follows that the more sugar there is added to a given quantity of water the heavier it becomes1 and the more it will bear up anything floating on it2 or1 as it is generally stated1 the less of the liquid will be displaced by the floating body4 ,on this principle1 the specific gravity of liquids1 or their weight as compared with water1 is ascertained4 ,the instrument employed is known by the general name of areometer1 but it is now more commonly called a hydrometer1 and various specific names are given to it according to the uses for which it is intended4 ,when constructed for testing the strength of sugar syrups it is called a syrup-scale1 saccharometer1 pse-sirop1 etc41 and those especially for testing musts are called must-scales1 pse-mot1 etc4 ,these latter are constructed on the theory that the liquid contains only cane sugar and water--the difference in specific gravity between cane sugar and grape sugar being disregarded--and that its density depends on the quantity of sugar2 and although the density of must is somewhat affected by other solid matters than sugar contained in it1 yet these instruments1 whether syrup-scales or must-scales proper1 will give results sufficiently accurate for the purposes of the wine maker1 a small allowance being made for the other solids1 as hereafter mentioned4 ,there are three instruments which are the most generally used in this country3 ,oechsle's must-scale1 ,balling's saccharometer or syrup-scale1 and ,baum's syrup-scale1 or pse-sirop4 ,the degrees of ,oechsle's instrument indicate specific gravity in the manner mentioned under ,table ,i2 ,balling's indicates percentages of sugar directly2 and ,baum's degrees are arbitrary4 7,see ,tables ,,ii and ,,iii47 ,there are other instruments used in ,france--the gleuco-nometer1 reading upwards for spirit and down for sugar on the same stem1 corresponding in degrees to ,baum's--and the gleucometer1 which indicates at once the percentage of alcohol which the wine will contain after fermentation4 ,baum's and ,balling's instruments are better suited for use in ,california1 where the musts often show a specific gravity higher than is indicated by ,oechsle's scale1 which frequently is graduated only up to #hj deg41 or #ai4ge per cent4 of sugar4 ,they are all made on the same general plan1 and are usually constructed of glass4 ,the instrument consists of a tube about the size of a pipe-stem1 terminating below in a bulb or expansion1 weighted at the bottom so that it will stand upright and float when placed in a liquid4 ,the scale is marked on the stem1 commencing at the top and numbering downward4 ,the first mark is zero1 and shows how far the hydrometer sinks in pure water4 7,fig4 #a47 ,as hydrometers are not always accurate1 it is safer before using one to have it tested by a chemist or a gauger1 as but few others have the necessary skill or the instruments requisite for that purpose4 ,if1 however1 an instrument which has been tested is accessible1 another one can be easily compared with that by ascertaining if both sink to the same point in the same sugar solutions4 ,,testing ,,for ,,sugar4 ,any person1 provided with one of the hydrometers mentioned1 can easily ascertain the percentage of sugar contained in any must with tolerable accuracy1 providing the grapes from which it is pressed are ripe2 for if they are green1 and contain an undue amount of acid1 the density will be materially affected by that4 ,there is no occasion1 however1 for making wine from green grapes in this ,state4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,hydrometer-,jar4 ,in addition to the hydrometer1 it is necessary to be provided with a thermometer with which to ascertain the temperature of the must4 ,besides the hydrometer and the thermometer1 the only other article necessary is a glass tube closed at the bottom and provided with a foot1 so that it will stand upright1 called the hydrometer-jar4 7,fig4 #b47 ,this jar should have a diameter a little greater than that of the bulb of the hydrometer1 and must be of such a height that the latter instrument will stand upright and float freely in it1 when filled with a liquid4 ,in the absence of the hydrometer-jar1 an empty fruit jar1 or a tall tin cup or can will answer its purpose4 ,in performing the operation1 see that all the articles used are perfectly clean1 more particularly the hydrometer1 for anything that would slightly affect its weight would render the result of the test useless4 ,having taken this precaution1 press the juice from a small quantity of grapes and strain it through a cloth1 and pour sufficient into the hydrometer-jar1 that when the hydrometer is plunged into it1 it will just bring the level of the liquid to the upper edge of the vessel1 or to such a height that the figure on the stem can easily be read4 ,now place the thermometer in the must and ascertain its temperature1 for the instruments are intended to be used at a certain degree of heat1 although three or four degrees variation either way will not materially affect the result4 ,baum's instrument1 as originally constructed1 was graduated for a temperature of #aj ,reamur1 which corresponds with #ed ,f42 but as constructed now-a-days1 is generally graduated for a temperature of #eh or #fj ,f42 and ,balling's and ,oechsle's for a temperature of #fc ,f4 ,some of ,balling's instruments sold in the market are graduated for #fb ,f4 ,if it is found that the temperature is above or below the degree indicated1 it may be lowered by cooling1 or raised by warming1 till about the right temperature is reached4 ,then the hydrometer1 being clean1 should be taken by the stem at the top and gradually lowered into the must until it floats4 ,press it down slightly with the finger and let it come to equilibrium1 being careful that there is not a drop of water on the stem above the surface of the liquid1 nor a bubble of air below4 ,on looking at the stem where it meets the surface1 it will be seen that the liquid there curves upwards around the instrument1 and that the top of this curve marks one degree higher than the general surface4 ,if the reading is taken from the point marked by the top of the curve 7the figures reading downwards71 add one degree1 or in other words1 ascertain the mark on the stem corresponding to the general surface of the liquid4 ,if ,balling's scale is used1 the number at this mark shows the percentage of sugar which the must contains2 if ,baum's is used1 consult ,table ,,ii or ,,iii1 and opposite this number will be found the corresponding per cent4 of sugar4 ,if ,oechsle's scale is used1 find from ,table ,i or ,,ii the specific gravity and the corresponding sugar per cent4 ,under ,table ,i instructions will be found for reading ,oechsle's scale4 ,if ,baum's instrument is used1 and a table is not at hand1 multiply the observed figure by #a4h1 and the product will be nearly the per cent4 of sugar4 ,correction for ,temperature4--,it is known that a sugar solution or a must expands as the temperature increases1 and contracts as it diminishes2 and nice experiments have been performed to show the amount of dilatation and contraction at different temperatures1 and the consequent variation in the specific gravity of the liquid1 but there is considerable difference in the results of the researches of different authors1 and it would seem that further experiments are necessary2 but a rule may be deduced which may be used instead of changing the temperature of the must to make it correspond with that for which the instrument is graduated1 and although not strictly correct1 is sufficient for our purpose2 and that is to add one-half per cent4 to the sugar per cent4 indicated by the hydrometer for every #ae ,f4 above the standard temperature1 and subtract per cent4 for every #ae below4 ,for instance1 if ,baum's instrument shows #bb per cent4 of sugar at #ge ,f41 the actual strength is #bc per cent41 and it would mark that at #fj4 ,if the same instrument shows #bc per cent4 at #de ,f41 the real strength is #bc per cent4 ,in using ,balling's scale graduated at #fc ,f41 the #ae in our example would make #gh for the first supposed case1 and #dh for the second4 ,in most cases the variation in temperature will be so little that it may be disregarded2 but if the test is made soon after the grapes have been exposed to a hot sun1 the must may show a temperature of #ij or #ie ,f41 and it would indicate one per cent4 less than its real sugar strength4 ,but the temperature would go below the freezing point of water before the must would mark one per cent4 too much4 ,as the must contains a small quantity of acids and extractive matter which affect its density1 some authors recommend that from one-tenth to one-fifteenth of the figures indicating the density by ,baum should be deducted1 calling the remainder sugar1 and this is about equivalent to deducting one for every twelve per cent4 of sugar4 ,but if the grapes are ripe and the must is strained1 for all practical purposes all of the solid matter may be called sugar1 considering that we make a pretty liberal allowance of sugar for one per cent4 of alcohol4 ,fresh must should always be taken for the purpose of testing for sugar1 for as alcohol is much lighter than water1 if fermentation has commenced1 it will be impossible to ascertain the amount of sugar by means of the hydrometer4 ,sugar and ,alcohol4--,it will be shown in the chapter on fermentation that1 in actual practice1 it takes about two per cent4 of sugar1 as indicated by the hydrometer1 to produce one per cent4 by volume of alcohol2 therefore1 divide the percentage of sugar contained in the must1 as shown by the hydrometer1 by two1 and the quotient is approximately the per cent4 of alcohol which will be contained in the wine after complete fermentation4 ,alcohol in ,wine4--,a good1 saleable dry wine ought to contain from eleven to twelve or thirteen per cent4 of alcohol2 and to produce such a wine the must should indicate from #bb to #bf per cent4 of sugar by the hydrometer4 ,a wine which is soon to be consumed at home does not require that degree of strength necessary for shipment abroad and for keeping1 and may contain only ten per cent4 of alcohol1 and even less1 and be found a very palatable drink1 and less 8heady0 than that of a higher degree of spirit4 ,and a wine may contain as much as #ad per cent4 of spirit1 and be very acceptable to the wine merchant for mixing with weaker wines4 ,a must which does not contain more than #bd per cent4 of sugar per hydrometer1 if properly managed1 will complete its fermentation1 and if it does not contain less than #bb per cent41 will make a good1 sound1 shipping wine1 which will keep in almost any climate4 ,mr4 ,crabb1 a well known wine maker of ,oakville1 in this ,state1 writes me that such a must will ferment dry in six days1 but that if it contains more than #bd per cent4 of sugar1 fermentation is likely to be arrested by the amount of alcohol1 when it amounts to #ab per cent4 ,this gentleman is an intelligent viniculturist and a practical man1 and it would be safe to follow his advice4 ,mr4 ,arpad ,haraszthy1 who is noted in this connection1 in his lecture on fermentation before the convention of wine growers1 held at ,san ,francisco in ,september1 #ahhb1 indicated #bb per cent4 as a proper degree of sugar in the must2 and it is reported that the wine makers of ,los ,angeles county1 in fixing the prices of grapes in #ahhb1 adopted #bc per cent4 as the standard4 ,undoubtedly the fermentation will be finished sooner1 and will be less troublesome1 if the must contains sugar within the limits of #bb and #bd per cent41 than if allowed to go beyond4 7,see ,maturity47 ,if it should go to #bf per cent4 and beyond1 the chances are that the fermentation will be incomplete1 and that a portion of the sugar will remain in the wine1 which will cause it to ferment when exposed to changes of temperature2 it may become milk sour1 and there will be danger of rapid deterioration4 ,from which it follows that1 except for making sweet wines1 the grapes should be gathered before they develop much more than #bd per cent4 of sugar4 ,supposing1 however1 that picking commences as soon as the must shows #bb per cent41 sufficient force should be employed to finish before it goes beyond the limit indicated4 ,for the writer has seen grapes gathered at the beginning of the season and made into wine which showed #aa per cent4 of alcohol1 when the wine made from grapes of the same vineyard1 gathered too late1 either on account of lack of pickers or of fermenting tanks1 contained #ad4e per cent41 and was still sweet4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,sugaring ,,and ,,watering ,,must4 ,sugaring4--,as early as #aggf1 ,macquer1 in ,france1 found that by adding sugar to the must of green grapes1 he could make wine2 and since his time many authors1 notably ,chaptal1 ,gall1 and ,petiot1 have recommended the addition of sugar to the must of bad years when the grapes did not ripen2 and had the practice been limited to the addition of sufficient sugar of good quality to a must which was deficient in that respect1 but little harm would have been done4 ,the next step1 however1 was to take the must of partly ripe grapes which contained an undue quantity of acid1 and reduce it by the addition of water till the acid corresponded in quantity to that contained in a must of ripe grapes1 and then to add sufficient sugar to bring it up again to the necessary degree of sweetness4 ,this may be permissible in those countries where in some years the grapes do not ripen1 and in order to make a drinkable wine1 water to reduce the acid1 and sugar to give sweetness1 must be added4 ,but this did not satisfy the greed of the artificial wine makers2 they found1 so they say1 that they could press the juice from the grapes1 ferment it by itself1 then add to the marc water and sugar enough to bring it back to its original quantity and sugar strength1 draw off the artificial juice slightly colored by the skins1 and repeat the operation1 and so make three and four times the quantity of wine that could otherwise be made1 and all good wine4 ,it was thought that wine making in ,europe would be revolutionized1 and untold wealth would pour into the coffers of the wine makers4 ,it was found1 however1 that cane sugar was too expensive1 but artificial glucose could be made from grain and potatoes at a very small cost1 and by reason of its cheapness its use was forthwith recommended2 and to such an extent was the matter carried1 that one would suppose that in order to make good wine1 it was only necessary to soak a few grape skins in a quantity of sweetened water and let it ferment6 ,the practice1 however1 to the extent mentioned1 did not commend itself to sensible men1 and wine making did not become revolutionized4 ,yet it was to some extent adopted1 and the effect upon the wines of ,burgundy is shown by ,dubrunfaut in his work on ,sucrage de ,mots4 ,he says that starch-sugar 7glucose7 factories were established in ,burgundy1 and from #ahbe to #ahde1 this material was used to strengthen the musts4 ,but complaints arose in ,france and elsewhere against ,burgundy wines2 they had a new flavor1 and unexpected changes in many respects had come over them4 ,a congress of wine makers was held at ,dijon in #ahde1 at which the abandonment of the use of glucose was decreed upon the report of a committee of merchants and proprietors of ,beaune1 which was in effect as follows3 that the long extolled and generally practiced system of sugaring1 and against which a reaction set in some years ago1 ought to be completely abandoned1 as being fatal 7funeste7 to ,burgundy4 ,he considers1 however1 as do some others who condemn the use of glucose1 that the use of refined cane sugar is unobjectionable if used in small quantities and merely to fortify the must when it needs it4 ,there are many authors1 however1 who speak highly of the wines produced by the addition of sugar and water to the skins after the juice has been drawn off1 but it does not seem reasonable that a good wine can be made in that manner4 ,if a good must contained only water1 sugar1 and acids1 then there would be reason for believing that the wine so made would be good4 ,but it is well known that many other ingredients enter into the composition of the juice of the grape which1 in some unknown manner1 have a very important influence upon the wine made from it4 ,attempts have been made to produce an artificial must1 which is carrying the process but little farther than it is carried by some of the writers on the subject2 but ,mr4 ,boireau says that what is produced resembles cider rather than wine4 ,he gives the following composition as approaching very nearly a must for common white wine3 ,refined ,sugar1 #be kilog4 ,tincture of tannin1 #bj gr4 ,crystals of tartaric acid1 #ejj gr4 ,gum arabic1 #a kilog4 ,vine leaves and fresh twigs chopped1 #e kilog4 ,distilled or filtered water1 #a hectol4 ,the author last quoted is a practical man1 and his opinion is valuable4 ,he says1 when the fermentation of this artificial must is most active1 it has analogies with ordinary white wine1 but it costs much more than the natural wine2 and when its fermentation is complete1 it has not a bad taste1 and there is nothing hurtful in its composition1 but that it has not the taste of white wine2 and the only time when it has any analogy to white wine is during the tumultuous fermentation as already mentioned4 ,many attempts have been made to vary the formula1 but without important results4 ,tolerably agreeable drinks are obtained1 but they are not wine4 ,m4 ,boussingault gives his experience in sugaring and watering must2 and the wine produced lacked acid1 color1 astringency1 and was very inferior to the wine first made from the pure juice2 it lacked the fixed substances and aromatic principles4 ,he says that some would prefer it to cider1 but that it only differed from piquette in having a greater degree of alcohol4 ,to give even a summary of what has been written upon this subject would occupy a volume1 but the results arrived at by the more intelligent modern writers and experimenters may be summed up as follows3 #a4 ,that good wine can be made only from the pure juice of the grape4 #b4 ,that in case the grapes do not ripen sufficiently to make a drinkable wine1 water may be added to reduce the acid1 and then sugar enough to bring it up to the average sugar strength2 but in no case should any but the refined cane sugar be used2 artificial glucose1 never4 ,nothing gained by adding ,sugar4--,aside from the question of quality1 it may not be amiss to add a few remarks for the benefit of intended wine makers who may have been led to believe1 by mistaken authors1 that the profits of wine making may be increased by adding sugar and water1 and thereby augmenting the quantity4 ,assuming that it is permissible to use only refined sugar1 it can easily be shown that it is as cheap1 if not cheaper1 to make wine from grapes than from sugar1 as long as grapes can be bought for #cj per ton4 ,a gallon of dry wine of average specific gravity1 containing #aj per cent4 by weight1 or #ab4d by volume1 of alcohol1 weighs about #h pounds1 and contains about 4#hbe of a pound of pure alcohol4 ,to produce a pound of alcohol requires about #b lbs4 of pure grape sugar1 or #b4ach lbs4 of pure cane sugar1 in practice1 according to the chapter on fermentation2 so that to produce the 4#hbe lbs4 of alcohol in one gallon of wine1 requires about #a4hj lbs4 of pure cane sugar4 ,but refined crystalized sugar is not pure sugar 7anhydrous71 as it contains about #aj per cent4 of water2 so1 to make our #a4h of pure sugar1 requires #b lbs4 of ordinary refined sugar4 ,at #aj cents per pound1 which would be cheap for this market1 it would cost #bj cents to make the must for a gallon of wine4 ,supposing that a ton of grapes costs #cj1 and produces #aej gallons of wine1 each gallon would cost #bj cents4 ,so that there is nothing to be gained by adding sugar at #aj cents a pound1 even if a ton of grapes costs #cj a ton1 for the same facts would apply to every pound of sugar added to a must1 as well as in the case supposed1 where all the sugar was supplied4 ,cost of ,glucose ,wine4--,supposing that artificial glucose contains #hj per cent4 of pure 7anhydrous7 sugar1 it would require #b lbs4 to make our gallon of wine2 and if it could be laid down here at #e cents a pound1 the gallon of wine would cost nearly #ab cents1 and this would be equivalent to paying #ah a ton for grapes4 ,when we take into consideration that every pound of glucose and water added to a must will diminish the price of every gallon of wine produced1 it is probable that but little1 if anything1 could be gained even by the use of this article2 for the product will not bring the price of an honest wine1 and in the long run will destroy the reputation of our wines1 and reflect injury upon every wine maker in the ,state4 ,experiment with ,glucose4--,mr4 ,crabb1 of ,oakville1 gave his experience with glucose in a paper read before the ,st4 ,helena ,vinicultural ,club1 in ,july1 #ahhb1 as follows3 ,i took three packages of equal size1 one containing pure grape juice1 the two others containing each equal parts of the same juice and glucose water1 all showing #bc per cent4 sugar by ,balling's saccharometer4 ,the pure juice was dry in #ae days 7the room being cold74 ,one package of the mixture was dry in #cj days2 the other continued in fermentation #fj days1 both emitting a rank offensive odor during the process1 arising from the amount of chalk and sulphuric acid required in its 7glucose7 manufacture4 ,racking at this time appeared to remove the greater part of the offensive odor1 and in #cj days the wine was clear and bright enough to pass for a two-years'-old wine4 ,i now thought it contained a very superior fining principle1 and if a small enough quantity would answer the purpose1 it might be a valuable acquisition4 ,but this was its most favorable period2 it had reached its zenith1 and while the pure juice was now beginning to develop its vinous properties1 the mixture commenced to deteriorate1 becoming flat and insipid1 as any grape juice would by being one-half water1 and the sulphuric acid and chalk 7sulphate of lime7 developing a disagreeable after-taste4 ,notwithstanding that ,i have racked it again and fined it to a perfect condition1 there is not the least improvement1 and ,i believe as it becomes more dry with age1 that the bitter1 nauseous after-taste will become more and more pronounced1 so that one glass of it will leave such a lasting impression on the palate as to never want any more2 whereas1 the package of pure juice is now vinous1 sprightly1 refreshing and inviting4 ,the use of ,glucose condemned4--,on the #afth day of ,july1 #ahha1 the ,st4 ,helena ,vinicultural ,association adopted resolutions condemning in the strongest terms the use of glucose in the making of wine and brandy1 and promising to expose all parties importing or receiving the substance by publishing their names1 and pledging the ,society to use all honorable means to prevent the adulteration of the product of our vineyards4 ,the resolutions passed unanimously1 and were published in the different newspapers4 ,one man in the district1 notwithstanding the warning1 did cause to be shipped to him a quantity of glucose1 and the ,president and ,secretary of the ,society published in several different newspapers1 in ,december1 #ahha1 over their own signatures1 and in the name of the ,association1 a notice reciting the resolutions1 and stating that a person 7giving his name7 8imported eighty barrels of grape sugar1 made from corn1 commonly called glucose1 and used the same1 or the greater part of it1 in the manufacture of wine during the last vintage40 ,we believe that this was an exceptional case1 and that its use in this ,state has been exceedingly rare4 ,watering4--,another question which has been a good deal discussed is1 whether it is better to pick the grapes as soon as they develop sufficient sugar1 or leave them on the vine till they develop an excess1 and then reduce the must with water4 ,dr4 ,guyot having laid it down as a fundamental principle in wine making in ,france1 that the grapes should be left on the vine as late as possible1 and until they have reached the highest point of maturity1 except1 perhaps1 in some of the most extreme southern portions1 he is consistent in counseling the addition of water to the must4 ,but the only reason given by him for it is that it is consonant with his principle previously stated4 ,du ,breuil is also of the same opinion4 ,both are men of high authority1 but it does not appear that either of them ever made wine in a warm climate1 where the grapes would develop so much sugar as to require the addition of water1 if left upon the vine as late as possible4 ,we have1 on the other hand1 the testimony of ,boireau1 who1 speaking on the subject1 says that it is probable that the theoreticians who are in favor of the practice have never made wine of must too rich in sugar and of water4 ,he says1 it is true that the quantity is increased1 and fermentation is complete1 but that the wine so made is only fit for the still1 will not keep and readily turns sour4 ,the ,greeks have followed this practice from time immemorial in the ,archipelago1 where he tasted their wine so made in #ahfe1 and which they can keep with difficulty for one year1 in spite of the addition of a large quantity of rosin1 which they introduce during fermentation4 ,and yet1 these wines are not weak1 having an average of #aj to #aa per cent4 of alcohol4 ,he says that but few grapes give musts too rich in sugar1 if they are gathered as soon as ripe2 for even in viticultural countries situated farthest south1 as the south of ,france1 ,spain1 ,italy1 ,greece1 and ,africa1 the grape just ripe gives a must which does not exceed #ad ,baum1 unless left on the vine until part of the water of vegetation has evaporated4 ,having alluded to both sides of the question1 it would seem to be a fair inference from the foregoing that the safest course would be1 in a hot climate1 to gather the grapes as soon as fairly ripe4 ,this may easily be done1 where each grape grower makes his own wine1 and has immediate supervision of the picking1 and has sufficient men to finish it with promptness4 ,but in the case of large manufacturers who buy their grapes and cannot supervise or order the gathering in the numerous vineyards whose crops they purchase1 it may sometimes be necessary1 when the grapes come in overripe1 and it is not desirable to make sweet wine1 to add a small quantity of water to insure prompt and complete fermentation4 ,when the necessity arises1 great caution should be used1 and the necessity should be avoided when possible4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,stemming ,,and ,,crushing4 ,diversity of ,opinion on ,stemming4--,there is no subject connected with wine making upon which there is a greater difference of opinion than that of stemming4 ,and it would seem that the diversity of practice is not always caused by the different conditions and exigencies of location1 variety of grapes1 etc42 but among the different wine makers in the same locality1 some remove the stems1 and others do not2 from which ,dr4 ,guyot infers that the practice cannot be classed among the essential principles governing vinification1 but is a mere matter of detail1 and that stemming may be practiced or omitted without materially affecting the wine4 ,but ,machard1 a writer of the ,jura1 lays it down imperiously as one of the very essentials of good wine making that the grapes should be fermented with the stems1 and calls stemming a pernicious practice4 ,effect of ,stemming4--,all agree1 however1 that the stems1 during fermentation1 if not removed1 yield tannin to the wine1 and thereby give it astringency4 ,it is also said to increase fermentation1 by furnishing to the must additional germs of fermentation adhering to the stems1 and perhaps acting also in a mechanical way1 by presenting many salient points1 and exposing a greater surface to the action of the ferment4#a ,they also add a certain amount of acid to the wine1 if green4 ,it is evident that they increase the labor of pressing1 by adding to the mass of marc4 #a ,pasteur1 in his ,studies on ,beer1 says that the reason has not yet been discovered1 but that he has no doubt that it may be attributed1 principally1 to the fact that the interstices between the grapes1 and the spaces which the bunch leaves throughout1 considerably increase the volume of air placed at the service of the germs of ferment4 ,proper ,practice4--,if1 therefore1 by reason of the variety of grapes cultivated1 or the soil1 or situation1 your wine is too soft1 lacks life and astringency1 ferment with all or a portion of the stems2 but if your wine is rough1 too astringent1 it will be found beneficial to stem the grapes4 ,if your grapes lack the fermentive principle1 and fermentation is slow and incomplete1 leave the grapes on the stem2 and in the same way the fermentation will be assisted1 if the grapes are overripe4 ,when the grapes are fermented with the stems1 care must be taken that they do not remain too long in the vat1 or the wine may acquire a bitter1 disagreeable flavor1 called by the ,french got de rpe1 or stem flavor1 which is caused by the bitter principle contained therein1 and which is dissolved out by maceration4 ,to ,estimate ,tannin4--,a certain amount of tannin is necessary to the proper clearing of the wine1 which is brought about by the tannin combining with albuminous matters1 and they are then precipitated1 and the wine may be drawn off1 leaving them at the bottom of the cask4 ,it is on the application of this well known principle that ,maumen gives a very simple method of ascertaining whether the grapes should be stemmed or not4 ,he says3 ,first make a small quantity of wine without the stems1 and add tannin1 or1 what is better1 a decoction made by boiling a quantity of stems1 and if sensible precipitation is produced1 it is better to ferment with the stems1 for tannin is wanting2 but if the precipitation is not formed1 the grapes should be stemmed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,wooden ,stemmer4 ,stemmers4--,this is usually effected in ,california by the use of the common hand stemmer1 though some large establishments are using a stemmer run by steam or horse-power4 ,the common stemmer consists of an oblong shallow box or frame1 six or eight feet long by two wide1 or any convenient size1 and about six inches deep1 with a coarse wire netting or grating stretched across the bottom4 ,this grating is usually made of heavy galvanized iron wire1 with inch or inch meshes4 ,instead of having the grating extend the whole length1 a portion at one end may be floored with wood1 upon which a box of grapes can be placed without injuring the grating4 ,the only objection to this stemmer is that the grape juice comes in contact with the metal of the grating1 and it is a well known fact that nearly1 if not all1 of the baser metals are corroded by the acids2 it would be better to replace the wire with a wooden grating1 as in ,france 7,fig4 #c474 ,how to ,remove the ,stems4--,the grapes are dumped from the boxes directly into the stemmer1 and the workman seizes as many as he can easily manage with both hands1 and rubs and rolls them to and fro upon the wire grating1 and the berries1 as they are rubbed off1 fall through the meshes1 and the stems remain in the hand4 ,the few grapes that may remain are removed by raising the mass of stems and forcibly throwing them two or three times upon the grating4 ,sometimes the stems1 with the few grapes clinging to them1 are turned over to another workman1 who1 with a hay fork1 tosses them about upon another grating till all the berries are removed4 ,the stemmer ought to be situated over the hopper of the crusher1 so that the grapes will fall directly into it1 as they are separated from the stems4 ,crushing4--,it is generally considered essential to crush the grapes whether stemmed or not1 although in some special cases1 to be hereafter noted1 crushing is omitted4 ,methods of ,crushing4--,it is well known that in ,europe the grapes are usually crushed by being trodden with the feet of men1 usually barefooted1 but sometimes in wooden shoes1 and many of the best writers of to-day are of the opinion that the wine is better when the grapes have been well trodden with the bare feet1 for by thoroughly rubbing the skins and pounding them into a pulp without breaking the seeds1 they think that more color and aroma are developed than can be obtained by simply crushing them1 as in a machine1 and afterwards fermenting4 ,although the practice of treading is the more common one in ,europe1 yet there are exceptions1 and in some places the crushing is done by rollers and with satisfactory results4 ,in ,california we are accustomed to regard the treading of grapes as an antiquated practice1 and a relic of a past age1 and it is almost universally discarded1 being practiced only occasionally and by ,europeans1 who have not yet wholly fallen into our methods of practice4 ,those who are fastidious in this matter may rest assured1 that if they will drink ,california wine1 they run but very small risk of imbibing a liquid which a man has had his feet in4 ,aerating the ,must4--,there seems to be some confusion on this subject1 for some claim that the must is better exposed to the air1 and prepared for fermentation1 by treading4 ,this may be true of treading in the vat during fermentation1 but simply treading the grapes to crush them does not aerate the must as much as crushing with rollers1 for in the latter case the juice falls through a considerable distance in a finely divided form1 which thoroughly exposes it to the air4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,crusher4 ,crushers4--,the machine generally employed consists of two rollers made of wood1 iron1 or other suitable material1 #f or #h1 or even more1 inches in diameter1 geared together so that they revolve in opposite directions and towards each other1 and so that the grapes will be drawn between them from above4 ,the rollers run near each other1 but do not touch1 so that the grapes will be crushed1 and the seeds remain unbroken4 ,it is operated by one man turning a crank1 either attached to one of the rollers or to a pinion4 ,figure #d represents such a crusher1 except that in the figure the rollers are open-work1 instead of solid1 as they should be4 ,it is surmounted by a hopper which allows the grapes to fall between the rollers as they revolve1 and the whole apparatus should be so placed that the pomace may fall into the fermenting vats1 or be easily conveyed to them or to the press1 accordingly as it is to be made into red or white wine4 ,some stemmers have corrugated instead of plain rollers1 but there is no advantage in this1 and unless they are very nicely adjusted to the motion of the cog wheels1 they may break the seeds1 which is always considered injurious to the wine4 ,rapidity of ,operation4--,five men--one to handle the boxes of grapes1 two to stem1 standing on opposite sides of the stemmer1 one to operate the crusher1 and one to take the stems and remove the remaining grapes and to make himself generally useful--can stem and crush with these hand machines twenty tons of grapes per day1 enough to make three thousand gallons of wine4 ,and the work can be done much more rapidly by the use of the stemmer and crusher combined1 which is to some extent used in the largest establishments4 ,special ,practice4--,boireau says that it has been observed that of the ,mdoc wines1 those made without crushing the grapes have less color than those made from grapes of the same crop which have been crushed1 but that they have a more refined and delicate taste 7plus fins de got71 and that consequently many of the proprietors of the grands crs of the ,mdoc in those years which are favorable to the maturity of the grape do not crush2 they only do it in inferior years1 when the grapes have not become sufficiently ripe1 and when they fear that the wine may not have a suitable color4 ,and in another place he tells us that in those grand wines which are intended to be bottled1 a superabundance of tannin and its consequent roughness may be avoided by complete stemming1 fermenting the whole berries1 and by drawing from the fermenting vat at just the right time4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,fermentation--,,its ,,causes4 ,it is with some hesitancy that ,i attempt to give a brief summary of the results of scientific investigation into this subject1 for fear of going beyond the legitimate limits of a practical work1 as this book is intended preminently for practical men4 ,but as the work would be incomplete without it1 and as a knowledge of the general phenomena of fermentation1 and of the different influences to which it is subject1 are of vast importance to those who will intelligently apply their principles1 ,i give the following as but a brief resum1 and will put it as plainly as the subject will permit4 ,most of the ideas given below are extracted from ,schutzenberger's work on fermentation4 ,there are several different kinds of ,fermentation1 as 7#a7 vinous1 alcoholic or spirituous fermentation2 7#b7 mucous or viscous fermentation2 7#c7 lactic fermentation2 7#d7 ammoniacal fermentation2 7#e7 butyric fermentation2 7#f7 putrifaction2 and 7#g7 acetic fermentation1 or fermentation by oxidation1 and others4 ,alcoholic ,fermentation is that which sugar undergoes under the influence of the ferment or yeast2 and it is now agreed that this ferment consists principally of an aggregation of living organisms1 or an assemblage of microscopic cells4 ,the ,yeast ,plant4--,our author gives them the name of saccharomyces cerevisi1 following those who consider it to be a species of fungus1 and states that it is now very generally admitted that ferments are fungi1 although by some they have been considered animal in their nature4 ,these cells are round or oval1 and are from 4#jjjca to 4#jjjce of an inch in their greatest diameter4 8,they are formed of a thin and elastic membrane of colorless cellulose1 and of a protoplasm1 also colorless1 sometimes homogeneous1 sometimes composed of small granulations40 ,the cells are separate or united two by two4 ,when they are deposited in a fermentable liquid1 as a sugar solution or a must1 small prominences are seen to arise at one or rarely two points1 the interior of which is filled with protoplasm from the mother cell2 these prominences grow until they have attained the size of the original cell1 when the base contracts1 forming a kind of neck1 and immediately they separate from the mother cell1 and under favorable conditions one cell produces several generations1 but by degrees it loses all its protoplasm1 which at last unites in granules swimming in super-abundant cellular juice4 ,the cell ceases to produce1 and dies2 the membrane is ruptured1 and the granular contents are diffused in the liquid4 ,in the manufacture of beer the fermentation is of two kinds3 surface fermentation and sedimentary fermentation1 depending upon a high or a low degree of heat4 ,the surface saccharomyces develop more rapidly than the others1 are larger1 and they bud so rapidly that the cells which issue from each other do not separate1 but remain attached1 forming ramified chains of from six to twelve or more buds4 ,the bubbles of rising gas have a greater hold on these chaplets than on single cells1 which causes the newly formed yeast to rise to the surface during active fermentation4 ,these organisms or fungi produce spores which are sown on the surface of fruits1 and get into the juice by crushing1 when they commence their reproduction by budding4 ,so that the basis or cause of the phenomena which we call fermentation is the growth and reproduction of yeast or ferment1 which is made up principally of the minute organisms just described4 ,functions of ,yeast4--,yeast is a living organism1 belonging to the family of fungi1 genus ,saccharomyces1 destitute of mycelium1 capable of reproduction1 like all the elementary fungi1 by buds and spores4 ,its composition singularly resembles that of other vegetable tissues1 and especially the plants of the same family4 ,it does not differ essentially from other elementary cells1 unprovided with chlorophyll4 ,normal ,conditions of the ,life of ,yeast4--,the conditions which our author calls normal in the life-history of yeast1 are those in which it develops itself and increases with the greatest activity and energy4 ,they are of two orders1 physical and chemical4 ,with respect to physical conditions1 it is only necessary to notice the temperature4 ,that most favorable to the nutrition of yeast1 and that which is found advantageous to other cellular vegetable organisms1 is between #be ,c4 and #ce ,c4 7#gg and #ie ,f47 ,above and below these limits1 the vital manifestations do not cease until we descend below #i ,c4 7#dh4b ,f471 or rise above #fj ,c4 7#adj ,f471 the temperature at which albuminoid principles begin to coagulate4 ,with regard to the chemical conditions1 our author says that the most favorable medium is that which contains the most appropriate nutritive elements4 ,and as yeast contains water1 mineral salts1 especially potassium1 magnesium1 and calcium phosphates1 therefore water and the alkaline and alkaline-earthy phosphates will be necessary4 ,we find1 besides1 a great proportion of nitrogenous substances1 either albuminous or otherwise2 and therefore the food of yeast must contain nitrogen4 ,it is supposed1 however1 that the cells are not directly nourished by albuminoids in the juices of fruits1 the wort of beer1 or yeast water1 but by analogous compounds contained in them1 which have the property of passing by osmose through the membranes2 for the albuminoids themselves1 it is said1 cannot pass through4 ,pasteur has shown by his experiments1 that mineral salts are absolutely necessary to the development and nutrition of the yeast cell2 and ,mayer follows him with details as follows3 ,preparations of iron1 in small quantities1 seem to have no influence2 in larger proportions1 they are injurious4 ,potassium phosphate is indispensable1 and the absence of lime has little effect4 ,magnesium1 on the contrary1 appeared to be very useful1 if not indispensable4 ,the combinations of sodium present no material effects4 ,sugar is one of the most important elements in the nourishment of the yeast cells1 and ,pasteur has shown that1 in alcoholic fermentation1 a part of the sugar is fixed in the yeast1 in the state of cellulose or some analogous body1 for1 when the fermentation is completed1 it is found that more yeast is present than at the commencement4 ,water is necessary1 and the yeast cell manifests its activity1 develops and is nourished within the limits of #dj and #hj per cent4 of water1 though yeast1 dried with precaution1 may regain its power when moistened4 ,and the fact that a solution containing over #ce per cent4 of sugar will not ferment1 is explained on the theory that such a solution takes from the cells by osmose a sufficient quantity of water to lower their hydration below #dj per cent4 ,the cells of the ,saccharomyces cerevisi1 introduced into a liquid medium1 absorb oxygen with great rapidity1 and develop a corresponding quantity of carbon dioxide4 ,this constitutes respiration1 comparable to that of animals4 ,by careful experiments it has been shown that yeast breathes when placed in contact with dissolved oxygen1 and the respiration is more active than that of fishes1 and it plays as important a part in the life of those minute vegetable cells as in the higher forms of vegetable and animal life4 ,oxygen is furnished by atmospheric air1 and fermentation is more rapid when a large surface of the liquid is exposed1 and then the budding is more active4 ,action of various ,chemical and ,physical ,agents4--8,it has long been known that certain chemical compounds1 especially those which coagulate albuminous substances1 and disorganize the tissues1 or which1 by their presence in sufficient quantities1 are incompatible with life1 are opposed to fermentation2 such are the acids and alkalies in suitable proportions1 silver nitrate1 chlorine1 iodine1 the soluble iron1 copper1 and lead salts1 tannin1 phenol1 creosote1 chloroform1 essence of mustard1 alcohol when its strength is above #bj per cent41 hydrocyanic and oxalic acids1 even in very small quantities4 8,an excess of neutral alkaline salts or sugar acts in the same manner1 by diminishing in the interior of the cell the minimum quantity of water1 which is necessary to the manifestation of its vital activity4 8,the red mercury oxide1 calomel1 manganese peroxide1 the alkaline sulphites and sulphates1 the essences of turpentine and of lemon1 etc41 also interfere with1 and destroy alcoholic fermentation4 8,phosphoric and arsenious acids are1 on the contrary1 inactive40 ,experiments have shown that sparks of electricity passing through yeast do not modify its power of changing cane sugar into glucose1 nor its activity as an alcoholic ferment4 ,fermentation is slower in the dark1 and also in a vacuum4 ,flour of sulphur did not sensibly affect fermentation1 but the carbonic acid evolved contained sulphuretted hydrogen4 ,sulphurous acid1 however1 arrests fermentation4 ,yeast is always acid1 but an addition of an excess of different acids arrests the decomposition of sugar4 ,if one hundred times the amount of acid contained in the yeast is added1 fermentation does not take place4 ,m4 ,dumas has shown the action of various salts on yeast1 but the subject has little if any interest for the wine maker4 ,viscous or ,mannitic ,fermentation is also excited1 according to ,pasteur1 by special ferment acting on glucose1 transforming it into a kind of gum or dextrin1 mannite1 and carbon dioxide4 ,this ferment is also formed of small globules united as in a necklace1 whose diameter varies from 4#jjjjdg to 4#jjjjee of an inch4 ,these globules1 sown in a saccharine liquid containing nutritive nitrogenous matter and mineral substances1 always give rise to viscous fermentation4 ,one hundred parts of cane sugar give3 mannite1 #ea4ji2 gum1 #de4dh2 and carbon dioxide1 #f4ah4 ,the liquids which are most apt to produce viscous fermentation can also undergo lactic and butyric fermentation1 but in this case the organized forms of life which are developed in the liquid are of a different nature4 ,the conditions of action necessary to these gummy and mannitic ferments are the same as those which suit alcoholic ferment4 ,the most favorable temperature is #cj ,c4 7#hf ,f47 ,this fermentation is what gives rise to the disease of wines1 called by the ,french la graisse1 or ropiness4 ,white wine is more subject to it than red1 and it is generally due to the want of tannin4 7,see ,ropiness47 ,lactic ,fermentation is the transformation which certain sugars1 as sugar of milk and grape sugar1 undergo1 and by which they are changed into lactic acid4 ,this takes place in the souring of milk4 ,the most favorable temperature for it seems to be about #ie ,f4 ,this also depends on a special ferment4 ,sugar solutions are also capable of butyric fermentation and putrefaction1 and we generally see viscous1 lactic1 and butyric fermentation appear in succession4 ,acetic ,fermentation is to the wine maker and wine dealer1 after alcoholic fermentation1 the most important4 ,fermentable matter and ferment are also concerned in it1 but oxygen also is necessary4 ,it has long been known that the alcohol contained in fermented liquids1 such as wine1 beer1 etc41 will disappear under certain circumstances1 and give place to vinegar or acetic acid1 and that the air1 or rather its oxygen1 plays a part in this reaction4 ,to the chemist the reaction is simple1 and is formulated thus3 ,alcohol4 ,water4 ,acetic ,acid4 ,c,h,o ,o ,h,o ,c,h,o1 or the oxidation may take place by two reactions1 with the production of an intermediate product1 aldehyde3 ,alcohol4 ,aldehyde4 ,c,h,o ,o ,h,o ,c,h,o1 ,aldehyde4 ,acetic ,acid4 ,c,h,o ,o ,c,h,o ,according to ,pasteur1 the oxidation of alcohol is the consequence of the action of a ferment or cryptogam1 ,mycoderma aceti1 and it makes its appearance on the surface of liquids1 while in acetic fermentation1 in the form of a continuous membrane1 mother of vinegar1 either wrinkled or smooth1 which is generally formed of very minute elongated cells1 whose greater diameter varies from 4#jjjjei to 4#jjjaah of an inch2 these cells are united in chains1 or in the form of curved rods4 ,multiplication seems to be effected by the transverse division of the fully developed cells4 ,the conditions of nutrition are similar to those suitable to the alcoholic ferment1 the hydro-carbon matter being supplied by dilute alcohol4 ,it may1 however1 be supplemented by the acetic acid itself2 for if the process is left too long to itself1 the vinegar loses its strength by being consumed4 ,the most favorable temperature is between #gf and #hb ,f4 ,antiseptic agents1 which arrest the development of beer yeast1 act in the same manner on the ,mycoderma aceti4 ,sulphurous acid is especially active in this manner2 hence the use of the sulphur match in sulphuring wine casks4 ,there is another ferment1 ,mycoderma vini1 or flowers of wine1 which is found in wine and other alcoholic liquids exposed to the air when fermentation is over or has become languid1 which resembles in many respects the acetic ferment4 ,it has the power of producing alcoholic fermentation1 and is supposed by some to be derived from the ,saccharomyces4 ,like the ,mycoderma aceti1 it is developed on the surface of fermented alcoholic liquors1 in the form of smooth or wrinkled films or membranes1 but thicker and more compact4 ,it grows with great rapidity1 and it has been calculated that one cell would1 in forty-eight hours1 produce about #ce1cgh cells4 ,these cells are of various forms1 ovoid1 ellipsoidal1 and cylindrical1 with rounded extremities4 ,the ovoid cells have their greater diameter about 4#jjjbcf1 and their smaller one1 4#jjjaeg of an inch4 ,the cylinders have their diameters 4#jjjdg 4#jjjaah in4 ,the nutritive principles are the same as those of the mother of vinegar3 alcohol1 salts and nitrogenous compounds4 ,it also appears capable of utilizing for nutrition the secondary products of alcoholic fermentation1 such as succinic acid and glycerine4 ,its development is most active between #fa and #hf ,f4 7,see ,sherry47 ,origin of ,ferments4--,in order to produce the different kinds of fermentation1 the necessary ferment must be added1 unless it is already contained in the fermentable matter or in the air4 ,in the manufacture of beer and bread1 yeast must be used2 the other kinds of fermentation1 except alcoholic1 can generally be produced by the ferments or their spores furnished by the atmosphere2 but ,pasteur1 in the course of his investigations1 never produced alcoholic fermentation from spores found in the air4 ,but the germs of the ,saccharomyces cerevisi and of ,mycoderma vini seem to be found only on the surface of fruits1 and their stems4#b #b ,ferment cells1 however1 occur in considerable numbers in the neighborhood of places where alcoholic fermentation is carried on1 and the germs1 perhaps1 may be found in the atmosphere near a vineyard1 and in those cases the ferments and their germs may be borne about to some extent by the wind4 ,these different germs1 however1 are all found in the must of grapes1 and in wine1 and are ready to develop whenever favorable conditions offer themselves1 and produce diseases in the wine4 ,it is found that these germs are killed by raising the temperature of the liquid to #adj ,f41 and hence the process of heating wines to preserve them 7which see74 ,leaving the germ theory of fermentation1 we will pass to what is of more practical importance4 ,,alcoholic ,,fermentation ,,in ,,wine ,,making4 ,vinous or ,alcoholic ,fermentation transforms the juice of the grape into wine1 and1 as already shown1 is caused by the yeast or ferment1 which finds its way into the must2 and by this fermentation the sugar of the grape is changed principally into alcohol1 and carbon dioxide1 or carbonic acid gas4 ,and in order to show the relations between the sugar and the alcohol produced1 it is necessary to say something about the chemical constituents of each4 ,sugar4--,in general terms1 cane sugar may be expressed by the chemical formula1 ,c,h,o1 or1 in other words1 one molecule contains #ab atoms of carbon1 #bb of hydrogen1 and #aa of oxygen4 ,and the general term glucose1 or grape sugar1 may be expressed by the formula ,c,h,o1 or one molecule contains #f atoms of carbon1 #ab of hydrogen1 and #f of oxygen4 ,if1 instead of using the word atoms1 we use the word pounds1 the chemical formula may be made clear to the unscientific4 ,taking the formula for cane sugar1 already given1 it simply means that #cdb pounds contain the following ingredients1 in the following proportions3 lbs4 lbs4 #ab parts carbon1 each weighing #ab1 #add #bb 8 hydrogen1 8 #a1 #bb #aa 8 oxygen1 8 #af1 #agf ------ #cdb ,and the formula for glucose means that #ahj pounds contain3 lbs4 lbs4 #f parts of carbon1 #ab1 #gb #ab 8 of hydrogen1 8 #a1 #ab #f 8 of oxygen1 8 #af1 #if ------ #ahj ,and the formula for water means that #ah pounds contain3 lbs4 lbs4 #b parts of hydrogen1 #a1 #b #a part 8 oxygen1 8 #af1 #af ---- #ah ,in fermentation1 it is glucose which is immediately transformed1 although cane sugar ferments also2 but1 before doing so1 it becomes changed or inverted into glucose1 and one molecule takes up a molecule of water1 and produces two of glucose1 thus3 ,cane ,sugar4 ,water4 ,glucose4 ,c,h,o ,h,o #b ,c,h,o #cdb #ah #b #ahj #cfj4 ,or1 in the production of alcohol1 #ajj lbs4 of pure cane sugar are equal to #aje4bf lbs4 of pure grape sugar4 ,the general formula for alcohol is ,c,h,o1 and for carbonic acid ,,co4 ,alcohol by ,weight and by ,volume4--,the quantity of alcohol contained in a given mixture of alcohol and water may be expressed as per cent4 by weight1 or per cent4 by volume4 ,the first method is usually used by chemists1 and the second in commerce4 ,if we have #ajj lbs4 of a mixture of alcohol and water of which #aj lbs4 are alcohol and #ij lbs4 water1 it contains #aj per cent4 of alcohol by weight4 ,if1 however1 we have #ajj gallons of a mixture in which there are #aj gallons of alcohol and #ij gallons of water1 we say that it contains #aj per cent4 by volume of alcohol4 ,this will serve to illustrate the meaning of the terms per cent4 by volume and by weight1 although it is well known that1 owing to shrinkage1 #aj gallons of alcohol and #ij gallons of water do not produce quite #ajj gallons of mixture4 ,whenever merchants and wine makers use the term per cent4 of alcohol1 they mean per cent4 by volume or measure2 and whenever the expression is used in this work1 it is used in that sense1 unless otherwise expressed4 ,fermentation--,its ,products4--,per cent4 ,sugar to per cent4 ,alcohol4--,in theory1 glucose1 during the process of fermentation1 is entirely changed into alcohol and carbonic acid2 the two substances produced containing the same elements as glucose1 and no others4 ,if there was no loss of sugar1 or degeneration1 as it is called1 the reaction would be exactly expressed as follows3 ,glucose4 ,alcohol4 ,carbonic ,acid4 ,c,h,o #b ,c,h,o #b ,,co #ahj #ib #hh ,and the old authorities said1 if #ahj parts of glucose produce #ib of alcohol1 #ajj will produce #ea4aaaa1 thus3 #ahj 3 #ib 33 #ajj 3 x #ea4aaaa1 leaving the balance to be accounted for by carbonic acid #dh4hhhi ---------------- #ajj ,and again1 if it takes #ajj parts of glucose to produce #ea4aaaa alcohol1 how much does it take to produce #a per cent4 by weight8 #ea4aaaa 3 #a 33 #ajj 3 x #a4iefe4 ,these figures are now true only of that part of the sugar which is transformed into alcohol and carbon dioxide4 ,different ,authors4--,pasteur has shown that a portion of the glucose was changed into succinic acid and glycerine1 and as the result of one of the experiments which he gives1 out of a large number1 it appears that #ajj parts of glucose produce about #dh4df of alcohol1 and it would require #b4jfc to produce #a per cent4 of alcohol by weight1 and #a4fe to produce #a per cent4 by volume4 ,but this eminent chemist's experiments were conducted in the laboratory1 and under the most favorable circumstances1 so that no loss by evaporation could occur--conditions under which fermentation on a large scale is never carried on4 ,dr4 ,guyot states that it takes about #a4e per cent4 of grape sugar to produce #a per cent4 of alcohol1 which is even less than is required according to ,pasteur1 and is manifestly too little4 ,and the statement has been made1 that a must containing #bj per cent4 of sugar will produce #ac per cent4 of alcohol1 which is impossible4 ,j4 ,j4 ,griffin quotes ,pasteur1 and estimating the average loss to be #d per cent4 of the sugar1 deduces the figures 4#dhha as the per cent4 by weight of alcohol produced by #a per cent4 of grape sugar4 ,dubief says that it takes #a4g per cent4 of cane sugar to produce #a per cent4 of alcohol by volume4 ,mr4 ,joseph ,boussingault gives his experiments on musts fermented in small vessels under conditions similar to those under which fermentation is carried on in wine making on a large scale2 and the result of his researches is that the product in alcohol is about #ij per cent4 of what the chemical theory calls for3 say1 4#df by weight for #a of sugar1 or #a4g glucose for #a per cent4 of alcohol by volume4 ,mr4 ,m4 ,boussingault gives it as the result of his experiment1 that it takes #a4h per cent4 of sugar to produce #a per cent4 of alcohol4 ,so that it is pretty safe to say that it takes on an average about #a4h of sugar to make #a of alcohol1 making some allowance for loss by evaporation1 etc4 ,as has already been stated in the chapter on ,musts1 #a per cent4 for every #ab should be deducted from the percentage of sugar shown by the hydrometer for other matters than sugar4 ,if1 therefore1 we have a must which shows #bd by the saccharometer1 we will deduct two1 and call the remainder #bb1 sugar4 ,although it is not strictly correct to say that #bb divided by #a4h will give the per cent4 of alcohol which may be expected after fermentation1 owing to the well known variation between per cent4 by weight and by volume1 as the figures increase1 yet it is sufficient for all practical purposes4 ,let us then divide #bb1 the supposed sugar in the must1 by #a4h1 the amount required to produce #a per cent4 of alcohol1 and we obtain #ab and a fraction4 ,now the total indication by the saccharometer was #bd per cent42 if we divide this by two we get the same result in round numbers4 ,hence the rule3 one-half of the figure indicating the total per cent4 by the saccharometer 7hydrometer7 is approximately the per cent4 of alcohol to be expected in the wine4 ,owing to the fact that the loss by evaporation and degeneration may vary greatly in different cases1 this will be only a rough estimate1 but it will prove as satisfactory as any method that can be adopted1 and it corresponds very closely with the statement made by ,n4 ,basset1 that in actual practice1 a must of #bj per cent4 gives only #g4hh per cent4 of alcohol by weight1 which corresponds with #aj per cent4 by volume1 nearly2 and it is the rule given by ,petiot and ,dr4 ,gall for a natural must4 ,it seems1 however1 from what follows below1 that this is only true of a normal must1 but that a different rule applies to one of a very high degree of sugar4 ,limits of ,sugar and ,spirit4--,it is said that when a solution or a must contains over #ce per cent4 of sugar1 it will not ferment2 nor will a wine or other alcoholic mixture which contains #bj per cent4 of spirit ferment4 ,boireau says that the maximum of alcohol which a wine can attain by the fermentation of the richest must is between #ae and #af per cent41 and those wines which show a higher degree have been fortified4 ,he says that the highest degree of spirit ever observed by him in a natural red wine was #ae4d per cent41 when it was a year old2 from that time the strength diminished1 but the wine always remained sweet4 ,there is1 however1 a remarkable case given1 and which seems to be well authenticated1 of an ,australian wine which contained naturally1 by fermentation1 #cb4d of ,british proof spirit1 which is equal to about #ah4ba per cent4 ,and ,vizitelli states that ,mr4 ,ellis1 of the firm of ,graham ,co41 asserts that perfectly fermented ,alto ,douro wine will develop #cb proof spirit1 or #ah per cent4 of alcohol1 and when made exclusively from the ,bastardo grape1 as much as #cd1 or about #ai per cent4 of spirit4 ,and ,mr4 ,vizitelli adds that he is satisfied from what he saw at ,jerez1 that sherry wines which have had merely #a or #b per cent4 of spirit added to them will in the course of time indicate #cd4 ,to produce these results would seem to require more than #ce per cent4 of sugar1 according to our rule2 but while it is approximately correct to say that #b per cent4 of sugar produces #a per cent4 of alcohol as long as we are dealing with a must of #bd or #be per cent4 and under1 it may not be true of a must of #cj to #ce per cent41 for the other solid matters probably do not increase in proportion to the sugar4 ,therefore1 to reconcile this high degree of alcohol with the statement that a must containing over #ce per cent4 of sugar will not ferment1 we must use ,pasteur's figures1 and then we will find that by them #ce per cent4 of sugar is capable of producing over #bj per cent4 of alcohol4 ,temperature4--,the temperature most favorable to fermentation--that is1 at which it commences most promptly1 and goes on the most rapidly--is between #gg and #ie ,f41 and it does not cease until the temperature descends below #di1 or rises above #adj4 ,if the temperature is favorable1 fermentation ought to commence in ten or twelve hours from the time the pomace is put into the vat1 or the juice into the barrel4 ,in countries where the weather is cold at the wine making season1 it is necessary that the grapes should be gathered in the heat of the day1 or fermentation will be long in commencing2 and if the weather continues unfavorable1 so that the grapes do not become warmed by the sun1 it is even necessary to heat a portion of the must artificially1 and pour it into the vats or casks1 or to raise the temperature of the fermenting house4 ,mr4 ,maumen also recommends that the vats be surrounded with mats of loose straw1 four or five inches thick1 to be kept in place by a covering of linen cloth2 and in this way the temperature produced by the fermentation may be maintained in cool weather1 without resorting to fires in the fermenting house4 ,it is not necessary1 however1 that the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere should be as high as that indicated as most favorable to fermentation2 for it commences readily in a temperature of about #gj1 and the liquid will soon rise to #he or #ie1 by the heat developed during the process2 and unless the surrounding temperature descends below #fe1 this heat will be maintained1 and the fermentation will not be checked4 ,dr4 ,guyot says1 however1 that1 to make fine wines1 it should be maintained at #fh1 at least2 and that1 in other cases1 it should not be allowed to fall below #fj4 ,fermenting ,houses4--,it is important not only that fermentation should commence promptly1 but that it should be maintained regularly2 and although a great amount of heat is developed by fermentation1 yet the must is liable to cool during the night and cold days1 unless the vats and casks are protected from the change of temperature1 whereby the fermentation may be checked1 to the injury of the wine4 ,the natural conclusion is that the must ought to be fermented in closed places4 ,in ,california1 however1 it is not necessary to construct the fermenting house with the same care required in colder climates1 where it is deemed desirable to furnish them with double windows and doors4 ,it cannot be denied that good wine is made in this ,state1 in places where the vats remain out of doors1 shaded only by trees2 but the practice is not to be encouraged1 for the fermentation will be checked if the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere goes to #fj and below4 ,in constructing a fermenting house1 it ought to be so arranged1 when practicable1 as to be on a lower level than that of the stemmer and crusher1 and higher than the cellar2 for then the pomace and must can be run immediately into the vats and casks1 and1 after the first fermentation1 the wine can be drawn off through a hose into the casks in the cellar1 thereby saving time and labor4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,red ,,wine4 ,red wines are made from colored grapes1 and the color is extracted from the skins during fermentation4 ,the coloring matter is blue1 but is changed to red by the action of the acids in the must4 7,see ,coloring ,matter--,oenocyanine47 ,in order to develop this color1 the grapes are fermented1 skins and juice together1 and the press is only brought into requisition after the first fermentation is completed4 ,fermenting ,tanks or ,vats4--,the tanks or vats in which red wine is fermented1 in ,france are generally made of oak1 sometimes of masonry1 but in this ,state redwood has been almost universally adopted1 and ,i am not aware of any serious inconveniences from its use4 ,it is advisable before using them the first time1 to steam them for several hours1 or thoroughly soak them to extract the coloring matter of the wood4 ,the capacity depends upon the quantity of wine to be made in a season1 varying from #ajjj gallons to #bejj gallons and more1 and a sufficient number should be provided that when wine making has commenced1 it can be carried on without interruption till the crop is worked up4 ,the number of workmen must be considered as well as the amount of grapes1 and everything ought to be so arranged that the fermentation will be finished in the first tank filled1 by the time the last one is full1 so that the first can be emptied and filled again1 and then the second1 and so on4 ,a hole must be bored in each vat two or three inches from the bottom by which to draw the wine through a faucet4 ,and some kind of a strainer must be put over this hole inside to keep back the marc--a piece of perforated tin1 a grating of small sticks1 or a bundle of straw or vine cuttings kept in place by a stone4 ,filling the ,tanks4--,in order that the whole mass in one tank may be equally fermented1 it should receive its full complement of grapes in one day4 ,by putting in part of the grapes one day and part another1 not only will some of them complete their fermentation before the others1 but the addition of fresh grapes to the fermenting mass will interrupt the fermentation1 and prove injurious to the wine4 ,the vats must not be filled to their full capacity1 for during violent fermentation the marc1 consisting of skins and seeds1 or those with the stems1 rises to the top1 brought up by the bubbles of carbonic acid which are constantly rising1 and a portion of the boiling and foaming mass may be carried over the top1 and much wine thereby be lost4 ,they should only be filled to within a foot or a foot and a half of the top1 and a little experience will show the proper practice4 ,guyot says that they should only be filled to five-sixths of their capacity at most4 ,another reason for not filling the tank is that a layer of carbonic acid gas will occupy the space left vacant by the pomace1 and prevent the contact of the air and the consequent souring of the wine1 by the changing of a portion of the alcohol into acetic acid--vinegar4 ,red wine is fermented in open vats1 vats loosely covered1 or in vats hermetically sealed1 and good wine is made in each way4 ,in ,open ,vats1 other conditions being equally favorable1 fermentation commences more promptly and is sooner ended1 owing to the free access of the air1 a certain amount of oxygen1 as already shown1 being necessary to fermentation4 ,although fermentation will continue away from the air when once started1 it will be slow4 ,the objections to open vats are1 that although there is a layer of carbonic acid resting above the must1 yet it is liable to be disturbed and become mixed with the air1 and if the fermentation is long continued1 a portion of the wine may become sour4 ,those who employ open tanks should also avail themselves of those conditions under which the wine will complete its fermentation in a few days1 and should draw off promptly4 ,closed ,vats4--,by using closed vats fermentation will be longer in commencing1 and will proceed more slowly1 but as already intimated1 the wine can with safety be left longer in them than in open tanks4 ,when it is necessary to develop much color1 it would be advisable to use covered tanks1 for the longer the wine is left in contact with the skins1 the darker it becomes4 ,the covering should be close enough to prevent the immediate contact of the open air1 and yet allow the escape of gas--of close boards1 but not luted1 unless provided with a safety valve4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,illustration ,the ,best ,practice1 however1 in all cases1 whether the vats are closed or not1 is to have a false head resting directly upon the pomace1 and which will keep the latter submerged during the whole process of fermentation4 ,in this way good color will be developed1 and the marc will be kept from the air1 and the danger of souring will be avoided4 ,in figure #e1 ,a represents a fermenting vat with the front half removed1 showing the false head in place4 ,this head is made of several pieces which can be laid one by one upon the pomace1 and maybe perforated with auger holes as represented in ,c1 or may be a wooden grating1 ,d4 ,these pieces or sections together constitute the head ,b1 and are kept in place by two cross pieces1 e e1 which are held down by blocks bolted or pinned to the inside of the tank4 ,g is a stave with a block1 f1 attached1 and ,h the same1 showing the cross piece1 e1 slipped under it4 ,when the tank is filled to the required height1 the false head is put in1 resting on the pomace1 the ends of the cross pieces are slipped under the blocks1 and everything is ready4 ,as soon as the fermentation becomes violent1 the whole will be submerged in the bubbling wine4 ,hermetically ,sealed ,tanks4--,closely covered tanks must be provided with a safety valve or pipe for the discharge of carbonic acid gas1 leading and discharging into a vessel of water1 which completely prevents contact with the air4 ,under pressure the fermentation is much slower1 and is not so complete4 ,yet great advantages are claimed for this method by some writers who maintain that by keeping the cover cool with wet straw or cloth1 or by using a safety tube in the form of a worm passing through a condenser on the top of the vat1 the vapors are condensed and fall back into the liquid1 preventing loss of alcohol1 and increasing the aroma1 and that the wine acquires a superior fineness and velvety smoothness under the pressure of the gas4 ,boireau says that this latter quality is caused by the complete dissolution of the mucilaginous matters2 and ,pasteur has shown that more glycerine is produced when the fermentation is slow1 which may contribute to the mellowness and smoothness4 ,practice in the ,mdoc4--,mr4 ,boireau says that the greater part of the grand red wines of the ,mdoc1 the prime ,st4 ,emilion1 and the prime ,graves1 are fermented in closed vats2 though a certain number of the viniculturists still follow the old custom1 and make their wine in open vats4 ,stirring the ,pomace in the ,vats4--,in ,burgundy1 and in some other parts of ,france1 it is considered necessary to give the mass a thorough stirring 7foulage7 during the active fermentation1 in order that all parts may be equally exposed to the action of the ferment1 and also that a good color may be developed2 and for this purpose men enter into the vats and thoroughly mix the pomace and stir it about with their naked bodies and limbs1 a practice not only disgusting in the extreme1 but dangerous for the men1 who are exposed to the poisonous effects of carbonic acid4 ,it is by no means a general practice1 and is of doubtful utility1 even if it should be done by other agents than the naked human body4 ,it is evident that two opposing forces are at work when the must is stirred during fermentation4 ,by the aeration fermentation would naturally be increased2 but ,dr4 ,guyot shows that stirring actually diminishes its activity1 and he advocates the practice in order that the fermentation be not too tumultuous4 ,the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere being lower than that of the fermenting mass1 aeration by stirring must1 by lowering the temperature1 diminish the activity of the fermentation4 ,mr4 ,haraszthy1 in his lecture before the ,convention of ,viniculturists in #ahhb1 recommended that the mass be stirred when the fermentation commences to lag1 on the theory that by thus mixing again the yeast with the liquid1 so exposing it again completely to the action of the ferment1 fermentation would start again with renewed vigor4 ,it can easily be stirred with poles provided with shoulders or short cross pieces4 ,it has already been stated that the must is sufficiently aerated by crushing the grapes with rollers1 and where the vats are provided with a false head to keep the pomace submerged1 the wine will have sufficient color without the stirring2 and it would seem that the wine would clear sooner if the lees were not stirred into it near the end of fermentation4 ,where the vats are not covered1 and the grapes are not stemmed and not kept submerged1 a crust or cap is formed on the top of the fermenting mass1 which sours and rots if long exposed to the air1 and the mixing of this with the liquid has a most deleterious effect upon the wine4 ,when to ,draw from the ,vats4--,when the first or active fermentation in the vats is completed1 the new wine must be drawn off into pipes1 and thus be separated from the marc1 consisting of skins1 seeds1 and sometimes stems1 and also from the heavy lees which has settled in the vats1 and it is important to know the proper time to do this4 ,the duration of active fermentation depends upon several causes and conditions as already indicated1 such as heat1 the amount of sugar contained in the must1 whether the vats are covered or open1 the immersion of the marc1 and whether the grapes are stemmed1 etc4 ,it may be completed in four or five days1 or it may continue for fifteen or twenty days4 ,in case of musts poor in sugar it may rarely terminate in twenty-four hours4 ,in some parts of ,france the grapes are allowed to macerate for weeks and even months 7for they cannot ferment actively for that length of time71 and what might be good wine1 thus is often spoiled4 ,the ,objections to ,long ,vatting are that the marc will absorb an undue amount of alcohol1 as is shown when it is submitted to distillation in brandy making1 for marcs which have remained long in the vats with the wine yield more spirits1 and1 of course1 the wine is deprived of so much strength4 ,this objection1 however1 would have but little force where the grapes are stemmed4 ,another and more serious objection is1 that by a long exposure to the air which is apt to take place when the vats are not closely covered1 some of the alcohol will be changed to vinegar1 and the wine will rapidly degenerate1 and become sour4 ,long contact with the seeds1 skins and stems also produces a foreign taste in the wine known to the ,french as got de rpe1 stem flavor2 and it is obvious that if the marc is allowed to remain in the liquid till it macerates and rots1 it will acquire a still more disagreeable aroma and flavor4 ,it is also said that some varieties of grapes which will not produce a wine with a bouquet1 when allowed to remain long in the tank1 will develop it in a vatting of short duration4 ,the only advantage to be gained by leaving a wine in the vat after the active fermentation is finished1 is in the way of color4 ,when it is desirable--if it ever is--to produce a dark-colored wine at the expense of other good qualities1 it may be left in the vat to soak4 ,such wines have their use1 and that is to mix with those which lack color1 but it is much better to mix in a quantity of grapes which naturally produce good color4 ,in making ,fine ,wines1 a dark color is not looked for nor desired1 but rather a bright and lively red2 and they should be allowed to remain in the vat only long enough to convert the greater part of the sugar into alcohol4 ,how to ,know when to ,draw from the ,vat4--,it is said in general terms that the wine should be drawn from the vat when the active fermentation is finished4 ,this is known by the taste of the wine by those long familiar with the vinous flavor which takes the place of the sweet taste of the sugar2 it is also recognized by the cessation of the production of carbonic acid and the consequent bubbling1 the falling of the temperature1 the settling down of the marc1 and by the clearing of the liquid4 ,if the must or new wine shows from #j to #a by ,baum's hydrometer1 or from #j to #b by ,balling's saccharometer1 nearly all the sugar will have been converted into alcohol2 ,i say nearly all1 for all the sugar is not converted till long after the wine is drawn from the vat4 ,boireau says that the fermentation is yet incomplete when the hydrometer marks several degrees of density1 and the liquid is warm1 sweetish1 and muddy4 ,he says1 moreover1 that care should be taken that active fermentation has entirely ceased before putting the wine in pipes1 for if it is still sweetish and fermenting1 it will remain sweet a long time1 and ferments will often remain in suspension1 which will render the wine difficult to clear1 and liable to ferment and become sour4 ,method of ,drawing from ,vats and filling ,casks4--,if the pipes are on the same level with the vat1 or higher1 the new wine is run from the vat through a faucet into buckets and carried in them to the casks and poured into these through a funnel1 or is run into a large receptacle or tub placed immediately under the faucet and pumped into the casks by means of a force pump4 ,but the more expeditious way is to have the casks ranged on a level lower than the bottom of the fermenting tank1 and then to run the wine directly into them through a hose attached to the faucet4 ,of course1 careful men must be in attendance to watch the operation1 and close the faucet as soon as the cask is filled1 and immediately transfer the hose to an empty one1 so that the wine may not run over and waste4 ,where the wine is drawn from more than one vat1 it should be equally distributed through all the casks1 so that the quality may be as nearly uniform as possible4 ,if the press wine is to be mixed with the vat wine1 the casks should only be filled to three-fourths or four-fifths of their capacity1 in order to leave room for the former4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,wine ,presses4 ,wine ,presses4--,wine presses are constructed in several different forms1 and the force is applied by means of a simple lever1 consisting of a long timber weighted at the end and rigged with a rope and pulley to raise and lower it1 or by means of a large screw4 ,hydraulic presses are also used in large establishments4 ,it is not necessary here to give a detailed description of a press of either kind1 for the prospective wine maker will examine the different ones and see them in action1 and choose according to his means and necessities4 ,fig4 #f represents screw presses4 ,a very simple one1 however1 and which can be made by any carpenter1 consists of a box two or three feet square1 and a foot or more high4 ,this box1 however1 is made up of sections1 each of which is five or six inches high2 and they should be constructed of strong two-inch timber1 well mortised together1 and perforated with small holes through which the wine may ooze out4 ,the height1 and consequently the capacity of the box or receptacle will depend upon the number of sections used4 ,a broad board constitutes the bottom of the press and should be larger than the receptacle itself1 and be provided with a rim open in the middle of the lower side1 and having a shallow spout for the wine to run through4 ,this bottom is firmly placed so as to incline slightly forward1 the sections are placed on it1 one on the other1 till the box is of the desired height1 then the marc from the vat is filled in and a head or follower fitted to the inside of the box is placed on the marc1 and pressure is applied with a lever4 ,this lever is a strong piece of timber with its fulcrum end placed in a mortise in a large tree1 or adjusted in any other suitable manner1 allowing free play to the other end to which is attached the rope and pulley to facilitate its movement4 ,pressing and ,press ,wine4--,in the manufacture of all but fine wines1 it is the usual practice to mix the press wine with the wine from the vat4 ,and as the wine remaining in the pomace is about one-fourth of the whole1 it will be equally distributed among all the casks by filling with it the vacancy left in them4 ,if a light pressure is first applied1 the wine of the first pressing will differ but little from the vat wine4 ,after this1 however1 the marc should be spaded and stirred and pressure applied again1 and the process repeated till the wine no longer flows4 ,during the last pressing it is necessary to apply so much force that a great amount of coloring matter is pressed from the skins1 and tannin from the seeds1 and also from the stems when not removed1 and the advantage of color may be more than counterbalanced by the excess of tannin4 ,there may be danger of giving the wine too much astringency by mixing the last pressings4 ,special ,practice for ,fine ,wines4--,mr4 ,boireau indicates the practice in making common wines1 as follows1 as a warning to those who can make fine wines4 ,he says that the wine which the marc contains is removed by pressing it almost to dryness1 and that the wine thus obtained is very muddy1 very harsh1 and sometimes sour1 particularly when the upper part of the crust has not been removed1 where open vats are used and the marc not submerged4 ,the greater part of the proprietors of the ordinary growths have the deplorable habit of mixing the press wine1 without clearing it1 with the limpid part drawn from the vat4 ,he says that it should be kept separate1 or otherwise the better part of the wine will be made muddy and difficult to clear4 ,,treatment ,,of ,,red ,,wine4 ,insensible ,fermentation4--,after the wine has undergone its active fermentation1 has been drawn from the vat and been filled into casks1 the latter should be at once stored in a suitable place above ground of even1 moderate temperature1 or in an underground cellar whose temperature is not much below #fj ,f4 ,the new wine still contains some sugar1 and a slow fermentation goes on1 bubbles of gas are given off1 and sediment falls to the bottom4 ,this is called the secondary or insensible fermentation1 and when this is finished and no more gas arises1 the wine has become clear4 ,a good deal of the carbonic acid that rises in bubbles is not produced by the insensible fermentation1 but has become dissolved in the wine during the active fermentation1 and is gradually given off with the new gas produced4 ,while the gas is produced in the cask1 it must not be closely bunged1 but the bung-holes should be loosely covered with a vine leaf1 a block1 an inverted bung1 or a bag of sand1 so that the gas may escape4 ,various patent bungs have been devised with the same object4 ,the wine should be tasted at each filling of the cask during this period to ascertain whether the insensible fermentation has entirely ceased1 which may be known from the fact that it has lost the peculiar pungent flavor of the carbonic acid4 ,as soon as this fermentation is ended1 the casks should be tightly bunged with conical bungs1 which can be easily removed during the period when it is necessary to fill up frequently4 ,ulling or ,filling ,up4--,owing to the escape of gas and to evaporation1 vacant spaces are rapidly formed in the casks which must be filled with the same kind of wine as that contained in them4 ,it is well to keep a certain amount of the wine of each vintage in smaller vessels1 to be used for this purpose1 such as barrels1 kegs1 demijohns1 and bottles1 according to the extent of the vintage4 ,if one vessel is partly emptied1 the remaining wine should be put into a smaller one4 ,it is absolutely necessary that all of the casks be kept full or the wine will spoil4 7,see exceptions under ,sweet ,wine47 ,for this purpose1 during the first week they should be filled every day or two1 then two or three times the next week1 and later1 once a week1 once in two weeks1 and finally once a month4 ,this is governed a good deal by the rapidity of the evaporation1 which depends upon the cellar or place of storage4 ,this operation is performed by means of any vessel with which the wine can easily be poured into the bung-hole2 the convenient utensil1 however1 is a vessel in the form of a small watering pot with a long spout1 with which the bung can easily be reached4 7,figs4 #g and #h47 ,a good substitute is an ordinary tin funnel with a flexible rubber tube attached to the small opening4 ,where the casks are piled up in the cellar so that the bungs cannot otherwise be reached1 a funnel called the ,z funnel 7fig4 #i7 is used1 which is provided with a long spout or tube turning at right angles to the upper part1 and whose tip turns down1 and which can easily be passed between the casks to the bung4 ,if1 however1 the bung cannot be reached1 a small hole is bored in the upper part of the head of the cask1 and the wine put in with a ,z funnel whose tube turns at right angles but does not turn down at the tip 7fig4 #aj47 ,the vent is opened in the highest part of the bulge1 and wine is poured into the funnel whose tip is in the end hole till it rises to the vent1 which is then closed1 and the funnel is removed and the hole closed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,fig4 #h4 ,ulling ,pots4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,z ,funnel4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,z ,funnel4 ,as some wine is liable to be lost in ulling a cask whose bung is out of sight1 to avoid this1 an instrument in the form of a watering pot1 similar to figs4 #g and #h1 has been devised1 but whose top is entirely covered1 the wine being poured into it through a tube which is closed with a cork when in use4 ,the vent is near the tip of the spout on the under side1 so that the wine will run as long as the cask is not full1 but will stop as soon as the vent is covered by the wine rising in the cask4 ,it is convenient to have a stopcock on the spout4 ,many of these implements are provided with a socket to hold a candle4 ,summary of the ,rules for the ,treatment of ,new ,red ,wines4 #a4 ,put the casks1 well bunged1 in a cellar or other well closed place1 and keep them constantly full1 by frequently and regularly filling them with wine of the same kind4 #b4 ,rack the wine as soon as the insensible fermentation has ceased and the wine has become limpid1 i4 e41 about ,december2 rack again before the vernal equinox2 towards the summer solstice2 and also near the autumnal equinox4 ,racking should always be done1 if possible1 during cool weather4 7,see ,racking47 #c4 ,to prevent secondary fermentations1 draw off the wine whenever by tasting you recognize by the flavor that it is commencing to work4 ,if the wines are bright1 avoid fining1 and so preserve their fruity flavor2 but if they remain muddy after the second racking1 fine them after the third drawing off with the whites of eggs1 and leave them the shortest possible time on the finings4 ,mr4 ,boireau says that by such treatment wines will be obtained limpid and free from secondary fermentations1 and that grand wines will so preserve their fruity flavor2 while if they are allowed to work again after the cessation of the insensible fermentation1 they will lose their fruity flavor and mellowness1 and become too dry4 ,in order to avoid this dryness produced by secondary fermentations1 which will considerably diminish the value of the wines1 and especially of grand wines1 some wine makers place the casks with the bung on one side after the ,june racking2 this practice should not be followed1 for the elevation of the temperature at that season is liable to set them fermenting4 ,the idea is in all cases to avoid mixing the lees with the wine1 and if young wines are to be shipped before the arrival of the period of the first racking1 they should nevertheless be carefully drawn off1 if they have already become clear1 for to mingle again the lees with wine1 predisposes it to secondary fermentations1 and renders it difficult to clarify4 ,treatment of ,old ,red ,wines4--,wines after the fourth racking are treated as old wines4 ,when they have acquired a clean taste1 are limpid and no longer ferment1 the casks should be carefully filled and tightly bunged1 and they should be stored in a suitable place1 with the bung turned to one side4 ,the bung being thus constantly wet swells and exactly fills the hole1 the wine keeps better1 there is less loss by evaporation1 and constant filling up is avoided4 ,if it happens that by bad treatment the wines are not clear and behave badly1 they should receive the necessary treatment1 and be clarified before permanently put away with the bung at the side4 ,in cellars and other well closed places1 old red wine1 clean-tasting1 bright and quiet1 stored in good1 well hooped casks1 need only two rackings per year1 one in ,march and the other in ,september1 unless for some reason it loses its limpidity by entering again into fermentation1 which will be discovered by tasting from time to time4 ,in that case1 it should immediately be drawn off without regard to the date of the former racking1 and then fined4 ,care should be taken not to leave ullage in the cask of old wine1 by frequent samplings and tastings4 ,and when it occurs1 in order to avoid its effects1 the wine may immediately be drawn into a smaller cask1 and this is necessary more frequently in airy storehouses where the evaporation is greater than in cellars4 ,boireau says that if these rules are carefully observed the wines will improve1 and develop all the qualities which by their nature they are susceptible of acquiring4 ,the greater or less degree of fineness which they acquire by aging under proper conditions results principally from two causes3 ,the first is the deposit of coloring matter and divers salts which the new wine contains in dissolution1 and which become insoluble by entering into new combinations1 and which in their turn are removed at each racking1 with the lees2 the second cause is the transformation of the tannin1 which gives the wine a certain degree of roughness1 into gallic acid1 and its extraction in the insoluble combinations which it forms with the different principles contained in the wine and with the finings which are introduced4 ,it follows that old wine loses part of its color and soluble salts1 and a great part of the tannin which it originally contained4 ,its taste is more delicate1 its flavor1 which was masked by these different matters1 comes out better1 its bouquet commences to develop1 and its mellowness is more pronounced4 ,these remarks are more particularly applicable to grand wines1 for in many of the ordinary ones the fruity flavor which they have when new is lost before the end of the first year1 because the mucilages and pectine1 which give them their mellowness1 are either precipitated with the lees or are destroyed by insensible fermentation4 ,in general these wines lack firmness1 body and tannin1 and many of them show a strong tendency to lose their color4 ,the time necessary for wines to remain in wood in order to acquire the highest degree of perfection which they can acquire in casks1 depends upon the quality of the wine2 wines of strength and body require more time than feeble ones4 ,our author says that1 on the average1 the poorest wines of the ,mdoc become bright about the end of two years1 and if they are kept longer1 they lose their mellowness4 ,but on the other hand1 the firm and full-bodied wines of the same localities require to remain in wood a year longer to arrive at perfect maturity4 ,certain wines strongly charged with tannin1 coming from certain localities1 and those made from the verdot grape1 are long in developing1 but they keep so much the longer4 ,when they have attained their entire development and the separation of the lees is complete1 they must be bottled1 for they will lose their qualities if left in casks4 ,in bottles they arrive at perfection2 they acquire bouquet while they preserve their mellowness1 but in casks1 they finally lose their fruity flavor and velvety smoothness1 and become dry4 ,and he gives the following3 ,summary of ,rules for the ,care of ,old ,red ,wines4 #a4 ,they should be kept in places perfectly closed1 and before turning the bung to one side1 we should be satisfied that they are perfectly bright1 quiet1 and well behaved4 #b4 ,they should be drawn from the lees twice a year2 the casks should be kept full2 and they should be kept from secondary fermentations by watching and opportune racking4 #c4 ,keep down the loss by evaporation by all means possible1 and keep them in close cellars1 in strong1 well hooped casks1 and avoid ullage4 #d4 ,bottle them before they lose their fruity flavor1 and as soon as they cease to deposit4 ,thus will they acquire all the qualities of which by their nature they are susceptible4 ,but if they are kept in places to which the air has free access1 the evaporation will be great2 and if the casks are left with ullage caused by too frequent sampling1 or too infrequent racking1 they will work1 become dry1 lose their mellowness1 and become slightly affected by acetic acid1 produced by contact with the air4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,white ,,wine4 ,made from both ,red and ,white ,grapes4--,as the color of grapes resides entirely in the skins1 with the exception of a few varieties such as the ,tienturiers and the ,american variety ,lenoir1 which have colored juice1 with these exceptions1 white wine may be made from both white and colored grapes4 ,differences between ,red and ,white ,wine4--,instead of putting the pomace into fermenting vats1 it is taken immediately to the press1 and the juice is fermented by itself1 free from stems1 skins1 and seeds1 and is therefore not only free from the coloring matter contained in the skins1 but also from the numerous matters that are contained in red wine1 extracted from the pomace during fermentation4 ,it is true that white wine may be made from white grapes by the process that is employed in making red wine from colored grapes1 but then it ceases to be what is commonly called white wine1 and possesses all the characteristics of red wine except its color1 which of itself has little effect upon the wine1 except to change its appearance2 for when white wine has been colored by the addition of a small quantity of very dark wine1 it remains white wine still in all its other characteristics1 and the difference is readily detected by experts4 ,hygienic effects of ,red and of ,white ,wine4--,dr4 ,guyot says that white wines generally are diffusible stimulants of the nervous system2 if they are light1 they act rapidly upon the human organism1 and excite all its functions4 ,but they escape as readily by the skin and excretory organs1 and their effect is of short duration4 ,red wines1 on the other hand1 are tonic and persistent stimulants of the nerves1 muscles1 and digestive organs2 their action is slower and more prolonged2 they do not increase perspiration or the excretions1 and their action generally is astringent1 persistent1 and concentrated4 ,process of ,making4--,as the must comes from the press it is either immediately run into casks1 or is first put into a vat to settle4 ,in the latter case it is allowed to stand in the settling vat from twelve to twenty-four hours1 and a large portion of the yeasty parts settle to the bottom1 a thick scum rises to the surface1 and the must becomes partially cleared4 ,the scum is then skimmed from the top1 and the liquid is drawn off into casks1 leaving the heavy lees4 ,by this means a great part of the fermentive matter is immediately removed1 and the wine does not ferment as thoroughly nor as rapidly as it otherwise would1 and retains a portion of its sugar and its sweetness longer4 ,in the ,champagne districts the musts for sparkling wines are thus treated4 ,if the weather is very warm1 it may not be practicable to do this1 because fermentation will set in before the must has time to settle4 ,if1 however1 it is desired to make a dry wine1 the must is not put into a settling vat1 but is run from the press directly into the casks4 ,the ,barrels in which white wine is fermented and stored are generally of small size1 of a capacity of from #cj to #aej gallons1 or say #ej or #fj gallons on an average1 and it is considered in ,france that it preserves its good qualities in casks of moderate size better than in large ones4 ,it is to be understood1 however1 that it is considered advisable in most parts of ,france that white wine should retain a portion of its sweetness and be mellow rather than dry2 but if it is desirable to make a dry wine1 larger casks may be used for fermenting and storing4 7,but see ,summary of ,rules1 below1 and ,casks47 ,filling the ,barrels during ,fermentation4--,a question upon which there is some difference of opinion1 is whether the casks should be immediately filled to their full capacity and kept filled up during the first fermentation1 so that the scum and foam will be thrown out of the bung1 or whether a vacant space shall be left in each barrel1 so that all the matter thrown up by the fermentation shall remain4 ,the objections to allowing the wine to boil over are that much good wine is thereby lost1 and the outside of the barrels and the floor of the fermenting house or cellar becomes foul4 ,when the active fermentation ceases1 whatever has been thrown up in the form of a dirty scum will settle to the bottom with the rest of the lees1 and is no more injurious than the latter4 ,if1 however1 the foam is allowed to run over by keeping the barrels full1 a portion of the yeasty parts will be thrown out1 fermentation will not go on as tumultuously nor be as complete1 and the wine will longer retain a portion of its sweetness4 ,so that the practice in this behalf1 as in most others where there is a diversity of practices in making white wine1 depends upon whether it is desired to make a very dry wine1 or one that retains a portion of its sugar4 ,but in the ,champagne districts1 although they allow the marc to settle1 they do not allow it to run over in fermenting4 ,pressing and ,filling4--,the pomace is pressed in the same manner as the marc of red wine1 in two or three different pressings4 ,the usual practice is to fill the barrels with an equal amount of must from each pressing1 so that the contents of all shall be uniform in quality4 ,if it is known beforehand how much wine can be made from a given quantity of grapes1 the requisite number of barrels will be provided for each lot1 and the must of each pressing will be equally distributed in all4 7,see ,general ,chapter47 ,different kinds of ,white ,wine4--,boireau divides white wines into three classes3 dry1 mellow1 and sweet1 whose characteristics depend essentially upon the density of their musts4 ,in ,dry ,white ,wines fermentation is complete1 and all the sugar that is appreciable by the taste or the hydrometer1 except the small amount changed into other substances1 is transformed into alcohol and carbonic acid4 ,the grapes are gathered as soon as ripe1 and are not allowed to shrivel4 ,the density of the must rarely exceeds #ac ,baum4 ,mellow ,white ,wines are those which preserve a small quantity of sugar after the tumultuous fermentation has ceased1 and which gives them mellowness and unctuosity4 ,to produce these wines1 it is necessary to increase the density of the must1 which is accomplished in the ,gironde by leaving the grapes upon the vines until they shrivel and turn brown 7white grapes are used71 and they are gathered by several successive pickings4 ,the density of the must is from #ab to #ae ,baum4 ,these wines occupy the place between dry wines and sweet wines4 ,white ,sweet ,wines 7vins de liqueur7 are those which preserve a considerable portion of their sugar1 which renders them very sweet4 ,and in order that they may retain their sweetness in aging1 the must should mark #ae to #bj ,baum4 ,the ,grand ,white ,wines of ,france and ,germany do not require any different treatment from that already described1 except that the greatest care is exercised in assorting the grapes and allowing them to arrive at the period of greatest maturity1 and1 of course1 they are made from the choicest varieties4 ,in describing the condition in which the grapes are when gathered1 the ,french use the word pourris1 which is usually translated rotten4 ,but ,boireau says that it must not be supposed that the grapes are spoiled 7gts7 because they are pourris2 the condition which is sought is a sort of natural dessication effected by the heat of the sun1 which evaporates a part of the water of vegetation and concentrates the saccharine matter1 as well as the savory and aromatic principle1 and bakes the grape1 as it were4 ,if the weather remains dry1 the grapes remain for a fortnight perfectly ripe without any deterioration of the skin1 but little by little it changes from yellow or golden to brown1 loses its consistency and rots1 or rather cracks and gives way4 ,it is then that dessication commences2 the rays of the sun penetrate the thin pellicle and volatilize the water of vegetation4 ,in order to better accomplish this result a portion of the leaves are removed from the vine when the grapes are nearly ripe4 ,those grapes only are picked which are sufficiently shriveled2 if only a part of the cluster is ripe1 a few grapes are removed at a picking4 ,the vines are usually gone over in this manner three times4 ,at ,barsac and ,sauternes the white wines are known by three different names1 indicating in their order their strength and sweetness3 ,the first1 or sweetest1 are called ttes2 the second1 centres2 and the third1 queues2 or head wines1 middle wines1 and tail wines4 ,if the must does not indicate more than #ab1 #ac1 or #ad ,baum1 the wine cannot be expected to preserve its sweetness and mellowness in aging4 ,if it is desired to make the sweet head wines1 having the inimitable flavor 7got de roti7 which they get from the great maturity of the grapes1 the density must be allowed to increase till ,baum's instrument marks #ah to #bj4 ,wines from must of #af ,baum will preserve their sweetness for a long time1 but as they develop a large amount of alcohol1 it is preferable that they be sweeter1 and that the must mark #ah to #bj4 ,as these wines do not develop more than #ae to #af per cent4 of alcohol by fermentation1 they will not bear transportation through tropical climates with safety1 and it is necessary to add spirit enough to raise the strength to #ah per cent4 ,if1 however1 they are carefully managed1 and kept in a cool cellar1 they will remain sweet4 ,treatment of ,white ,wines4--,during the active fermentation they should be left in a moderately warm place of even temperature1 and until the foaming has ceased4 ,then1 they may be stored in a cooler place if desirable1 or may be left where they are4 ,but then the bungs should be loosely closed with a chip or anything that will allow the escape of gas1 and the casks must be filled up every two or three days4 ,when the gas has ceased1 they should be bunged tight1 and filled up once or twice a week1 according to the rapidity of evaporation1 until the first racking4 7,see below47 ,to keep ,sweet4--,if it is desired that the wine should preserve a portion of its sweetness and remain mellow1 care should be taken not to disturb it after it has commenced depositing1 for thereby the sediment and ferment will be again mingled with the wine and its fermentation rendered more active1 all its sugar may be transformed1 and the wine become dry4 ,fermentation may be checked at any period by sulphuring1 as is described under the proper head 7see ,sulphuring and ,unfermented ,must71 and so the wines may be made dry or sweet at will2 but if the sweet ones contain less than #ae per cent4 of alcohol they will ferment4 ,by sulphuring they may be kept sweet from one vintage to another1 even if the musts have not a high degree of sugar2 but they must be constantly kept under the influence of sulphurous acid and protected from the air4 ,but the frequent sulphuring and racking which they must necessarily undergo gives them an odor and a flavor of sulphur2 and if they are not watched they ferment4 ,the care to be given to white wines after the first racking depends upon their character4 ,in the ,case of ,dry ,wines1 whose sugar has all been transformed1 the same attentions are to be bestowed as in the case of new red wines1 and the rules laid down are referred to4 7,see ,red ,wine47 ,mellow ,white ,wines1 that is1 those which retain a portion of their sweetness after the tumultuous fermentation1 particularly if they do not carry #ae per cent4 of alcohol1 require the greatest amount of care in order to preserve their mellowness in aging2 for if left to themselves they will again enter into fermentation1 and become dry4 ,such wines should be preserved against all ulterior fermentations1 and should be made perfectly bright and freed from ferments1 but this should be done with as little fining or filtration as possible1 which diminishes their mellowness4 ,it may be well to note that the less alcohol that mellow wines have1 the more susceptible they are to fermentation1 and the consequent loss of their mellowness4 ,those which have #ae per cent4 and have kept their mellowness after the first fermentation1 do not lose it as readily as those of a lesser degree4 ,if they have less than #ae per cent4 of spirit and are sweet1 to retain their sweetness1 they must be completely clarified to free them from ferments2 and in some cases it is necessary not only to rack them1 but at the same time to sulphur them1 and fine them with gelatine after adding tannin4 ,such wines1 not having naturally terminated their fermentation1 which was arrested by sulphurous acid1 reiterated rackings1 the extraction of ferments1 and the lowering of the temperature--have a natural tendency to ferment2 and the arrested fermentation readily recommences if the wine is left to itself1 if vigilance is relaxed1 if the temperature increases1 or if subjected to the movement of transportation4 ,on the contrary1 in those which have acquired the largest amount of alcohol possible by fermentation 7between #ae and #af per cent471 no new spirit is formed at the expense of the sugar1 except in case of loss of strength by evaporation or other enfeebling cause4 ,summary of ,rules for the treatment of mellow white wines1 according to ,boireau3 #a4 ,they should be stored in perfectly closed places1 in strong1 well hooped casks4 #b4 ,the casks should always be kept tightly bunged1 and constantly full1 by frequent and regular ullings1 with bright wine of the same quality1 and having the same temperature4 #c4 ,they should become bright1 be protected against secondary fermentations1 and freed from the yeast which they contain by rackings during the first year1 according as their lees are deposited4 ,fining should not be resorted to except when they cannot be cleared by racking at the proper time 7rigorously protected from contact with the air7 into a cask sulphured with a double square of a sulphur match4 #d4 ,when they have been three or four years in wood1 if they are not then bottled1 they should be racked and transferred to tuns where they receive the same care2 the tuns should be first tempered with wines of the same class4 #e4 ,they must be constantly watched and frequently tasted to assure one's self that they do not enter into fermentation2 if they do1 they must be racked at once4 ,racking4--,when they remain calm after the insensible fermentation is terminated1 whether they are old or young1 they should be racked three times each year2 first1 at the sprouting of the vine in the spring1 in ,march1 before the equinox2 secondly1 at the flowering of the vine in ,june1 before the summer solstice2 and thirdly1 at the ripening of the grape in ,september1 before the autumnal equinox4 7,see ,racking47 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,casks4 ,casks are almost universally made of oak1 though other material has been tried1 but generally to be abandoned in favor of the first named4 ,large1 covered tanks of redwood are used to some extent in ,california for storing red wine1 being first well steamed to extract the coloring matter of the wood1 but they are not considered desirable1 and had better be replaced by oak casks4 ,oak ,wood4--,in ,france very nice distinctions used to be made as to the kind and nationality of the wood used1 the shook from the north1 ,dantzig1 ,lubeck1 ,memel1 ,riga1 and ,stettin1 taking the first rank1 that from ,america the second1 and that known as ,bosnian1 from the southern provinces of ,austria and the north of ,turkey in ,europe1 the third1 and that of ,france the fourth4 ,that from ,america is the most pliable1 but is liable to be found worm-eaten4 ,all kinds of oak wood contain in different proportions fourteen different principles1 several of which are dissolved by wine1 and among the most important of which are tannin1 gallic acid1 a bitter extractive1 mucilage1 vegetable albumen1 and several of pronounced smell and taste4 ,the ,bosnian oak contains the most tannin and soluble matter1 and is suitable for highly colored wines4 ,but now-a-days there is not so much stress laid upon the quality of the wood as formerly4 ,their extracts serve often to correct some of the defects of the wine1 and many of them are neutralized by the ingredients of the latter4 ,by the introduction of their tannin and albumen the clarification of wine is facilitated2 but none but new wine whose insensible fermentation is not yet completed should be put into new casks1 for they cause older wines to lose their transparency1 and give them a woody flavor which may last a long time4 ,therefore1 temper your new casks with new wine4 ,storing ,casks4--,casks should be kept in a closed place1 not so dry as to cause much shrinkage1 nor so damp as to cause mould4 ,in ,california during the summer1 there is no danger from the latter1 but the former should be guarded against4 ,in winter1 the reverse is the rule4 ,where casks are to be kept a long time empty1 they should be sulphured and tightly bunged1 and the sulphuring should be repeated every six months4 ,but they must be carefully washed before putting wine into them4 ,they are less liable to be attacked by the borer if stored in a dark place4 ,new ,casks4--,before putting wine into a new cask1 it is ordinarily sufficient to give it a thorough washing with boiling water4 ,pour in one or two gallons of hot water1 bung it up1 and roll it and shake it about till it is thoroughly rinsed1 letting it rest awhile on each end1 and not only will this sufficiently cleanse the cask1 but will show if there are any leaks4 ,when the water is nearly cold1 let it run out1 and thoroughly rinse with cold water1 and turn down the bung-hole and leave till well drained4 ,mr4 ,maigne recommends that a couple of pounds of salt be dissolved in the first water1 and that the second washing be made with a decoction of peach leaves4 ,often the casks are soaked for a day with cold water1 then washed with lime water1 prepared by adding four pounds of lime to two gallons of boiling water for a #ajj-;gallon cask4 ,after thorough agitation1 it is washed with cold water4 ,sometimes1 too1 the cask is washed with a gallon or so of boiling wine1 but it is an unnecessary waste4 ,mr4 ,boireau says that when it is necessary to put old or very delicate wines into new casks1 the greater part of the soluble matters can be extracted in the following manner3 ,pour in about two gallons of boiling lye made from ashes or potash1 or other alkaline substance1 such as slacked lime or pulverized chalk1 etc41 for they will dissolve out more of those soluble matters than pure water4 ,after thoroughly agitating the cask1 pour out the lye1 and repeat the process2 afterwards rinse with boiling water1 and run it out before cold2 then wash with cold water acidulated with one-tenth part of sulphuric acid1 which enfeebles the solubility of these matters2 finally1 rinse with cold water and drain4 ,these latter operations may be avoided by first washing with hot water1 and then filling the casks with common wine of the color of that intended to be put into them1 and leaving them for about two weeks4 ,and before filling them with a grand red wine1 it will be well to moisten the inner walls of the cask with a glass or so of good1 old brandy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,rinsing ,chain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,visitor4 ,old ,casks1 or those which have been in use1 should be well washed as soon as emptied1 and the washings should be repeated with clean water until it runs out perfectly clear4 ,oftentimes the cask will have more or less lees adhering to its inner walls1 which cannot be removed by an ordinary washing1 but it will be necessary to make use of the rinsing chain4 ,this chain is about six feet long1 consisting of links made of square iron whose corners will more readily detach the lees4 ,one end is attached to a long conical bung to keep it from falling into the cask1 and the other is armed with a square block of iron of a size to easily go into the bung-hole 7fig4 #aa74 ,after pouring in two or three gallons of boiling water1 leave the cask for a while so that the lees may become softened1 then introduce the chain by the bung-hole1 and close it with the bung at the other end of the instrument4 ,thoroughly roll and agitate the cask until the chain and its iron block have removed the lees so that they will run out with the water4 ,repeat the operation with clean water as often as necessary1 and rinse till the water runs out limpid1 and let the cask drain4 ,to ,examine the ,inside of a ,cask1 an instrument called a visitor is used4 ,this is simply a piece of heavy wire bent into a loop or handle at the upper end1 with the lower end turned up and bent around into the form of a small ring into which a candle can be inserted 7fig4 #ab74 ,put a piece of a candle into this candlestick or socket1 light it1 and lower it into the cask through the bung1 and the interior can be inspected4 ,empty ,casks should not be allowed to remain long without ,washing2 as soon as the lees are removed1 they should be rinsed as already mentioned1 and they should not be put to drain in the sun1 for the heat will transform the alcohol remaining into vinegar in a few hours4 ,sulphuring ,casks4--,if the cask is to be kept empty for some time1 after it has been washed and then drained for a few minutes1 it should be sulphured by burning in it a piece of sulphur match about an inch square1 and it should then be left to drain dry4 ,after twenty-four hours1 burn in it three or four inches of the match1 and bung it up with the gas in it4 ,store it in a suitable place as described for new casks1 and sulphur it every three months4 7,see ,sulphuring47 ,condition to be ,examined4--,in using an old cask1 as well as a new one1 the first thing to ascertain is if it leaks4 ,if the hoops are loose1 they should be driven2 then pour in two or three pails of water1 and stand the cask alternately on each end1 and if it is found to leak1 soak it till it is tight4 ,if the leaks cannot be stopped by driving the hoops and by soaking1 it must be repaired4 ,the next thing to ascertain is1 if the cask has become sour1 mouldy1 or has been otherwise injuriously affected1 as it is liable to be if put away without being carefully washed and cared for4 ,this can be ascertained by examining with the visitor1 or by smelling4 ,if1 when the candle or a piece of lighted sulphur match is lowered into the cask1 it ceases to burn1 the cask probably contains a noxious gas1 which must be expelled4 ,this may be done by blowing in the bung-hole with a hand-bellows till the air is changed1 or by standing the cask on its lower end with the hole in the upper head open1 and the open bung turned towards the wind4 ,if1 however1 it is in the condition which the ,french call event1 which corresponds with that diseased condition of wine called by the same name and which we call flatness1 the gas being carbonic acid1 and heavier than air1 will run out of its own accord if the open bung is turned down and the cask left for a while in that position4 ,flatness in the ,cask1 as we will call it for want of a better term1 ,boireau says1 consists in the disengagement of carbonic acid gas which is produced in the interior1 and is generally found in casks which have been bunged up without washing1 and which gives them an odor of stagnant lees with slight acidity1 and will extinguish the sulphur match4 ,after the bad air has been expelled the cask should be well washed with the use of the chain4 ,a cask which has contained wine that has become flat should receive the same treatment4 ,if a large tun is to be treated1 the foul air should be expelled1 and a man should not enter till a light will burn in it4 7,see the disease1 ,flatness47 ,acidity will be found in the cask if it is left for several days uncared for2 the alcohol contained in the wine remaining on the inside of the cask acidifies in contact with the oxygen of the air1 and is soon changed into acetic acid1 and the change is much more rapid in a high temperature4 ,instead of being simply flat1 the cask is now really sour1 and smells of vinegar4 ,the treatment consists in either removing or neutralizing the acid4 ,the first can be done by steam4 ,turn the bung-hole down1 and conduct a jet of steam into the cask either through the faucet-hole or the bung2 the water condensed from the steam charged with acid runs out at the bung-hole1 and the process must be continued till the water no longer has an acid flavor4 ,where it is not convenient to use steam1 rinse the cask by using the chain1 and scald it out with hot lye made from wood ashes or potash1 or with quicklime dissolved in hot water4 ,give it several rinsings with the alkaline solution without allowing it to cool1 and1 if possible1 fill it with cold water and let it soak three or four days1 and rinse as usual4 ,if the water is allowed to remain longer in the cask it may become stagnant4 ,mouldy ,casks4--,casks may become mouldy inside when left in a damp place1 if the bungs are left out1 or if they are leaky through defective staves or hoops1 sometimes even when they have been sulphured1 and much more if they have not been4 ,this condition is recognized by a mouldy smell4 ,the surest way to treat a mouldy cask is to take out the head1 and give it a thorough scrubbing with a stiff broom and water4 ,if after removing the mould the staves resume the color of wine-stained wood1 it is proof that the wood has not been affected1 and the head may be replaced1 and the cask rinsed in the usual way4 ,if1 however1 after removing the mould1 the wood is found to be of a brown color1 it is more or less rotten4 ,rottenness is due to the same causes as mouldiness1 and when the inside of a cask is decayed1 it is no longer fit for wine4 ,if1 however1 the mouldy cask is brown only in spots1 they should be entirely scraped off1 and then it may be used4 ,but it is best not to put good wine into such casks1 for there is danger of spoiling it4 ,brandy ,casks1 when emptied1 should simply be bunged up1 without washing1 as the alcohol remaining will have a preservative effect4 ,they should not be kept in a place which is too damp4 ,do not ,sulphur ,old ,brandy or ,whisky ,casks which have recently been emptied or in which any alcohol remains1 or you may cause a disastrous explosion4 ,in preparing new casks for the reception of brandy1 they should be washed and left to drain for twenty-four hours and until they are dry1 and if they are to be kept some time1 throw in a glass or two of brandy1 bung tightly1 and roll and shake till the inside is moistened with the liquor4 ,if they are to be used at once1 they ought to be first soaked with water for three or four days to remove the woody taste4 ,boireau says that common wines may be put into brandy barrels1 or even oil barrels which have not become rancid 7olive oil barrels1 ,i presume71 but that fine wines should never be put into them4 ,he also adds that wine should not be put into casks which have been used for rum1 kirsch1 vinegar1 absinthe1 vermouth1 or any other liquor having a strong odor1 traces of which will be preserved in the pores of the wood1 even after the staves have been scraped4 ,cask ,borers4--,there is a beetle which is very destructive of casks in ,california1 which ,mr4 ,j4 ,j4 ,rivers1 curator of the museum of the ,university1 describes as ,sinoxlylon declive of the family of ,bostrichidae4 ,in a paper read before the ,anthrozoic ,club1 and reported in the ,rural ,press1 ,vol4 ,,xx1 p4 #aec1 #ahhj1 he states that at the request of ,mr4 ,schram1 of ,napa county1 he experimented with the insect in order to ascertain a remedy for the ruin caused by it4 ,he says that 8,its primary mischief is caused by the habit of the parent insect boring a hole three or more inches for the purpose of depositing eggs4 ,as casks are usually much less than three inches in thickness1 the beetle taps the liquid contents1 and loss accrues by leakage4 ,the remedy ,i first thought of was to select some species of wood suitable for cask making that would be unpalatable to this insect4 ,my endeavors in that way have resulted in failure for the reason that this beetle appears to have no particular dislike to oak1 chesnut1 pine1 whitewood1 and several of the eucalypti4 ,the next step was to saturate the outside of the cask with a strong solution of alum water applied hot1 and when dry1 a coat of linseed oil1 this latter to prevent the alum from being washed out1 as it would be in time4 ,this proved a success1 for all the examples treated with the solution were untouched1 while the unprepared were riddled by the borer40 ,the insect is more destructive to casks stored in light places2 it is therefore better to keep them in the dark4 ,the ,size of the ,casks is a matter of a good deal of importance4 ,for shipping1 the ordinary pipe or puncheon holding from #aej to #bjj gallons is of a convenient size for handling1 but for storing it is better to use as large a vessel as possible1 and where the quantity stored is large1 tuns of from #ajjj to #cjjj gallons or more in size are far preferable4 ,in the first place1 it is a well known fact that wine made at the same time1 of grapes of like varieties1 from the same vineyard1 and under the same apparent conditions1 turns out quite differently in different casks1 and the contents of one cask may far excel in quality that of another4 ,in order to insure uniformity in a large quantity of wine1 it is necessary to store it in large receptacles4 ,another1 and perhaps still more important consideration1 is that there is much less loss by evaporation when the wine is stored in large casks4 ,the evaporation in a small barrel will be almost as great as in a cask three or four times the size1 and to keep the small one full will require about the same amount of wine at each ulling1 which must be performed nearly as often4 ,there are two reasons for this3 first1 because the staves of small casks are thinner1 and secondly1 because in them a greater surface of wine is exposed to evaporation1 according to the volume1 than in the case of the larger vessel4 ,guyot says1 however1 that the larger the receptacles1 other conditions being equal1 the more rapid the development of the wines1 and the sooner they go through the periods of their life1 and arrive at decrepitude4 ,he says that the greater part of wines1 especially light wines and white wines1 cannot endure a long sojourn in tuns1 vats1 and cisterns4 ,they go through the phases of their life with a rapidity fatal to their good qualities2 nevertheless1 this fact may be utilized to hasten the epoch when wine may be used or put upon the market2 also to produce dry wines1 to vinify sweet ones1 and to age those of good body4 ,if1 therefore1 his theory is well founded--and we know that fermentation once established is more active1 if the mass is great--the intelligent man will act in this behalf as circumstances require4 ,it would seem1 however1 that a large mass would be less affected by sudden changes of temperature1 and therefore1 better protected from their consequent ill effects4 ,and ,boireau recommends that white wines be stored in tuns1 when mature1 as already mentioned4 7,see ,aging47 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,sulphuring--,,arresting ,,fermentation4 ,casks are sulphured for the purpose of destroying the activity of the ferments contained in the lees which may remain in them1 and thereby to prevent their moulding or souring1 and must and wine are sulphured to prevent or to check fermentation1 and white wine also to keep it from turning yellow4 ,sulphurous ,oxide1 or ,sulphur ,dioxide1 is produced by burning sulphur4 ,it is a colorless gas1 of a suffocating odor1 and is composed of equal weights of sulphur and oxygen1 or1 one part of the former and two of the latter1 ,,so1 and with water becomes sulphurous acid4 ,it arrests fermentation in two ways3 first1 it absorbs oxygen with avidity1 and thereby removes what may be in the must or wine1 or in the cask1 thus taking away one of the conditions necessary to the life and activity of the ferment4 7,see ,fermentation47 ,in the second place1 by the absorption of oxygen1 sulphuric acid is formed from the sulphurous acid1 in a highly concentrated state1 which is destructive of the life of the ferment4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,sulphurer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,maumen's ,sulphurer4 ,the ,sulphurer1 or ,sulphur ,burner1 the instrument used for the purpose indicated1 consists of a wire with a hook at one end1 and the other attached to the centre of a long1 conical bung 7fig4 #ac74 ,it is convenient to have the upper end pass entirely through the bung1 allowing the latter to move up and down on the wire1 so that the hook can be raised or lowered1 according to the position to be occupied in the cask4 ,this is used by attaching the sulphur match to the hook and lowering it into the cask1 after lighting it4 ,the objection to this form of instrument is1 that the coal or cinder left on the hook1 after burning the match1 may fall into the cask and give the wine an unpleasant flavor4 ,to avoid this1 ,mr4 ,maumen invented a sulphurer1 provided with a deep perforated porcelain cup1 into which the match is placed and in which it burns1 and which retains the carbonized linen 7fig4 #ad74 ,a piece of wire cloth bent into a cup of a similar form and attached to the lower end of the wire answers the purpose very well4 ,sulphur ,matches or ,bands may be purchased1 or they may be easily manufactured4 ,to make them1 melt roll brimstone 7stick brimstone71 or what is better1 flowers of sulphur1 over a slow fire 7sulphur melts at #aae ,c4 or #bci ,f472 tear linen or cotton cloth into strips an inch and a half wide and #aj or #ab inches long1 and dip them into the melted sulphur1 and lay them aside to cool4 ,then dip again1 and repeat the process1 dipping and cooling1 till the coating of sulphur is of the required thickness1 and they should be thickly coated1 or it may be necessary to burn too much linen to get sufficient gas4 ,if the sulphur is overheated1 the match will be dark-colored4 ,sweet scented powders are often added to the sulphur1 whose essential oils are disengaged when the sulphur is burned1 and the cask is perfumed by their vapors4 ,the substances usually employed are ginger1 cinnamon1 the flowers of the stock gilly1 iris1 lavender1 thyme1 violet1 etc41 and the matches prepared with the addition of them is generally preferred4 ,mr4 ,maumen says that the smallest amount of this volatile oil gives a perfume to the wine1 which is generally advantageous1 but ,boireau is of opinion1 however1 that these substances check the combustion of the sulphur1 and in a measure neutralize its action1 and he prefers the sulphur pure4 ,to ,sulphur a ,cask1 take a piece of the sulphur match and light it and lower it into the middle of the cask by means of the sulphur burner1 and lightly put in the bung of the instrument4 ,by applying the ear to the staves1 it can be ascertained if the match is burning4 ,if the air is foul in the cask1 and the match will not burn1 the noxious gas must be expelled as described under the head of ,casks4 ,when the fire is extinguished the burner is withdrawn1 care being taken1 if the hook is used1 not to drop any of the carbonized linen into the cask4 ,if that should happen1 the cask must be washed again4 ,as the burning sulphur fills the cask with gas1 which exerts considerable pressure1 care should be taken that the bung is not blown out into the face of the operator4 ,sometimes a strip of the sulphured cloth is lighted at one end and lowered into the cask1 the other end being secured by putting in the bung4 ,this is objectionable1 because it leaves the debris of the match sticking to the bung and the stave1 which may give a disagreeable flavor to the wine4 ,as already mentioned under the head of ,casks1 never burn a match in a cask containing alcohol4 ,to ,sulphur ,wine1 if the cask is only partly full1 operate the same as in sulphuring an empty cask1 only care must be taken not to lower the match into the wine4 ,here the sulphur burner with a movable bung comes in play4 ,if the cask is full1 the gas may be drawn in by burning a match close to a hole bored in the head of the cask somewhat higher than the faucet1 drawing from the latter at the same time4 ,it is evident that while the wine runs from the lower hole1 the gas will be drawn in at the vent4 ,where it is necessary to leave a cask with a vacancy in it for some time1 flowers and souring may be prevented by burning in it a piece of sulphur match and bunging it up1 and the process should be repeated every two weeks1 and besides as often as the bung is removed for any purpose4 ,it is better always to keep the cask full1 for in time the sulphurous gas will communicate a disagreeable taste to the wine1 which it takes a long time to remove4 ,sulphuring should be ,avoided in ,certain ,cases4--,ropy wines should not be sulphured1 for the presence of oxygen is necessary in order to help their fermentation2 nor should those wines be sulphured which it is desirable to keep in a state of effervescence4 ,sulphur should be very sparingly used in connection with red wines1 as it causes them to lose a portion of their color by rendering insoluble the coloring matter1 and precipitating it2 and for the same reason it is used for bleaching white wines1 and it prevents the latter from turning yellow4 ,liqueur wines which are slow of fermentation should not be sulphured1 for they need all the natural aids to fermentation4 ,fermentation is ,arrested1 sometimes1 in the manufacture of white wines1 by drawing them off into well sulphured casks1 using two or three squares of the match1 if the fermentation is not very tumultuous2 but if it is very active1 it may be treated as mentioned below for musts4 ,and in most cases the proper practice is1 where wine needs sulphuring1 to draw it off into the sulphured cask1 and in this way the oxygen contained in the wine is more thoroughly exposed to the action of the gas4 ,unfermented ,must4--,by sulphuring the must1 fermentation is prevented1 and thereby is produced what the ,french call mute wine2 and it is the must of white grapes as it comes from the press that is more generally subjected to the process4 ,it is first allowed to settle as described in the chapter on white wine1 but it must be drawn from the vat as soon as signs of fermentation appear1 and bubbles of carbonic acid rise to the surface4 ,and to have the must clear1 it must be closely watched1 for as soon as fermentation sets in1 it becomes turbid4 ,the must should be freed from all fragments of stems1 skins1 seeds1 etc41 and should therefore be strained as it runs from the press4 ,it is ,prepared in ,two ,different ,ways4--,first1 the cask must be scalded1 rinsed1 and drained in the usual way1 and then as much sulphur must be burned in it as can be consumed1 or until the match goes out for want of oxygen4 ,then the cask must be rapidly made half full of the must1 and closely bunged4 ,it should then be rolled and thoroughly shaken until the gas has been well absorbed by the juice4 ,the must is then drawn off without allowing it to come in contact with the air 7,see ,racking71 and into another cask which has been sulphured in the same manner1 and is treated as before4 ,while the second cask is being agitated1 sulphur is again burned in the one just emptied1 until it goes out1 and then the must is transferred back in the same manner1 and is again shaken4 ,it is subjected to this operation four times1 and the cask is finally filled with must treated in the same way1 and tightly bunged4 ,the more successful will the operation be1 the more the liquid is kept from contact with the air1 and therefore this method is preferable to the next4 ,the second method is as follows3 burn in an empty cask matches representing a couple of ounces of sulphur2 pour in about five gallons of must1 bung it up and thoroughly shake2 take out the bung and put in another lighted match2 if it will not burn for want of oxygen1 the air must be renewed by blowing in the cask with a bellows4 ,then burn the match in the cask1 and afterwards pour in five gallons more of must1 bung and shake as before4 ,continue the process till the cask lacks about five gallons of being full4 ,then five gallons must be sulphured in another cask1 and the cask filled up with this and tightly bunged4 ,of course1 the sulphur burner must be shortened as the cask fills up4 ,must treated in this manner may be kept for a long time if well clarified1 and the cask is well sulphured at each racking1 or a portion sulphured when it commences to ferment4 ,if it is only necessary to keep the must a short time1 a portion only1 say one-third1 need be sulphured4 ,in that case there will be less odor of sulphur1 and it will soon pass away4 ,clarification and ,care of ,unfermented ,must4--,it should be kept in good1 strong casks1 well hooped and well bunged1 in closed cellars of a constant temperature4 ,the casks should be filled every few days with sulphured must2 and they should be frequently racked to free them from ferments4 ,they should not be exposed to the air when racking1 and should be racked into well sulphured casks4 ,boireau says that the must may be completely clarified before sulphuring1 by introducing about one ounce of tannin per #ajj gallons of must1 and pouring into the casks before completely filling about a quart of water in which has been dissolved about four tablets of gelatine1 and which has become cold4 ,a ,sulphur ,flavor is sometimes communicated to must treated as above1 and is also sometimes acquired by wines which are put into casks which have been sulphured for some time1 without first washing them1 and also by allowing the debris of the sulphur match to fall into the cask2 this flavor is apt to pass away with time if not very pronounced1 or in that case may be removed by racking into a clean cask4 ,but if the wine has a very decided sulphur flavor1 it must be disinfected by wood charcoal4 ,several large pieces#c of coal well cleaned and well dried are introduced into the cask and soaked in the wine1 from which they can be withdrawn by strings attached before putting them in the cask4 ,forty-eight hours are generally sufficient to remove the flavor2 but if necessary1 the process may be repeated1 by changing the charcoal4 ,in operating on white wines1 a large amount of charcoal may be used without inconvenience1 but in the case of red wine1 there seems to be some danger of depriving it of a portion of its color4 ,mr4 ,maumen says1 however1 that the charcoal is liable to deprive the wine of the carbonic acid dissolved in it1 it being an absorbent of that gas1 and thereby rendering the wine more subject to the action of oxygen4 #c ,machard says about #abe grammes to a tonneau1 or #d or #e ounces to #bej gallons of wine4 ,other ,substances have been recommended to ,prevent ,fermentation in a ,must1 but notwithstanding the disagreeable flavor which is communicated by an excessive use of sulphur1 no other agent has been found which is as satisfactory1 on the whole4 ,by ,burning ,alcohol in the ,cask1 the oxygen may be removed1 but the ferments are not destroyed4 ,care must be taken to avoid an explosion4 ,therefore1 the spirit must not be poured into the cask and lighted1 but must be placed in a small vessel and lowered in through the bung1 as in the case of sulphuring4 ,the ,concentrated ,aqueous ,solution of ,sulphurous ,acid has been recommended1 but ,maumen says that not only is its preservation very difficult1 but its management is more difficult than the sulphur match1 and the chances of its being mixed with dangerous substances are considerable2 and therefore no one should think of using it4 ,the ,bisulphite of ,lime has been used to prevent fermentation in wine and cider1 but it does not always give satisfactory results1 and the salt is difficult to keep1 and the use for wine1 at least1 has generally been abandoned4 ,in the experiments of ,proust1 given by ,maumen1 the smallest quantity used was #ae grammes to #ajj kilogrammes of must1 or about one-half ounce to #bc gallons4 ,salicylic ,acid has been much recommended within the past few years1 but like everything else1 it affects the flavor1 if sufficient is used to prevent fermentation4 ,the quantity necessary depends upon the amount of alcohol1 ferments1 etc41 contained in the wine4 ,prof4 ,neubauer1 quoted by ,h4 ,endemann in ,american ,chemist1 says that wine which is yet fermenting should not receive any salicylic acid1 since too large quantities of the substance are required for effective use1 but that it may be used in wine when made to prevent after-fermentation2 that it will prevent disease1 but will not cure wine when diseased4 ,though infallible rules as to quantity cannot be given1 experiments should be made with from 4#jb to 4#jf gramme per litre1 or say from #a4afe to #c4e grains per gallon4 ,a solution of #b grammes 7#cj4hfd grains7 of salicylic acid to #ajj c4c4 7#c4ch fluid ounces7 of alcohol of #hj is employed2 #a c4c4 #j4jb grammes2 #c c4c4 #j4jf grammes2 #fa4dd minims or a little more than one fluidram #a4afe grains1 and #c4g fluidrams #c4e grains4 ,salicylic acid being but sparingly soluble in water1 it is preferable to dissolve in strong alcohol1 and these are convenient proportions4 ,it is said that #ajj grammes 7#c ,ap4 ounces7 will stop the fermentation of #ajjj litres 7about #bfd gals47 of must1 when nearly completed2 #hjj grammes are necessary when in active fermentation2 and #djj will preserve the wine when made4 ,but now the intelligence comes that salicylic acid has an injurious effect upon the teeth and bones1 it having an affinity for calcareous salts 7,boston ,journal of ,chemistry1 ,vol4 ,,xi1 #adc71 and the ,french ,minister of ,agriculture and ,commerce1 on the report of the ,committee of ,public ,hygiene1 recommends that the sale of articles of food adulterated with it be prohibited as injurious to the public health4 7,ib4 ,vol4 ,,xv41 #de47 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,aging--,,effects ,,of ,,various ,,influences4 ,general ,considerations4--,wines1 from the time of their first fermentation down to the time of their degeneration and decay1 are constantly undergoing change4 ,until they have acquired a certain age1 varying in each case with the quality and nature of the liquid1 they do not possess those qualities which make them an agreeable1 healthful beverage4 ,the care to be bestowed upon them in their general treatment not only includes what is necessary for their preservation1 but also what is necessary to age them by developing in them all the good qualities of which they are susceptible1 and the means of preventing and remedying their defects and diseases4 ,a ,new ,wine1 when first fermented1 is quite different from one even a few months old1 in respect to color1 flavor1 and aroma4 ,but the quality which it may acquire depends upon the proportion of different substances which it contains4 ,some wines1 poor in alcohol and deficient in tannin1 will develop their best qualities and begin to degenerate very soon after fermentation4 ,such should be consumed as soon as their insensible fermentation is completed2 it is useless to attempt to age them2 while those which are stout1 firm and full-bodied must be kept several years to be completely developed4 ,the ,bouquet and ,distinctive ,flavor of a wine1 according to ,mr4 ,boireau1 generally1 are not perfectly developed until defecation is complete--that is to say1 until1 after several months' repose under proper conditions1 they have ceased to deposit insoluble matters1 and no longer mineral and vegetable salts1 ferments1 and coloring matter are precipitated4 ,old ,wine1 then1 differs from a new wine of the same origin by its color1 its aroma1 and flavor1 and the difference is due to several causes4 ,the ,color of old red wine is less dark on account of the precipitation of a part of the coloring matter1 which1 rendered insoluble by the formation of different combinations1 has been carried down with the lees4 ,the red color becomes tawny in time4 ,the ,aroma of old wine is more agreeable1 being largely due to ethers which are formed by a combination of the alcohol with the acids1 and because the other aromatic principles are no longer masked by the carbonic acid which is disengaged when the wine has been recently fermented4 ,the ,difference in ,flavor is due to several causes1 such as the loss of a great part of the mineral and vegetable salts1 which have become insoluble by combination with the tartaric1 acetic1 and malic acid1 and their consequent precipitation1 and also to the deposit of a portion of the coloring matter4 ,so that when a wine is old1 having been well cared for1 it contains less coloring matter1 vegetable and mineral salts1 acids free and combined1 tannin1 ferments1 mucilage1 alcohol1 etc41 than when first fermented4 ,influences which ,develop1 also ,destroy4--,pellicot1 quoting ,bchamp1 says that a wine ages and improves under influences analogous to those which spoil it1 and he1 himself1 carries the idea a little farther1 and adds1 that the influence which produces the amelioration in a wine--which ages it--will1 after having brought about the improvement1 cause it to deteriorate1 unless its action is opportunely suspended4 ,it must also be understood that certain influences which will greatly improve a strong1 alcoholic1 or a sweet wine1 might in a short time entirely ruin a weaker one1 or a dry wine4 ,influence of the ,air4--,when a wine of ordinary strength1 a table wine1 comes into immediate contact with the air1 a portion of its alcohol evaporates1 it loses its bouquet and flavor1 and if long exposed1 a whitish scum is formed on its surface1 called flowers4 ,these have already been described in the chapter on fermentation as micoderma vini and micoderma aceti4 ,a disagreeable flavor is communicated to the wine which the ,french call got d' vent1 and the wine is said to be vent1 or flat2 and it becomes turbid1 and loses its transparency4 ,sometimes when the wine still contains sugar the flowers are not formed1 but a second alcoholic fermentation sets in1 and it works4 ,if the wine is not immediately freed from contact with the air1 it acidifies1 becomes pricked1 and by degrees turns to vinegar4 7,see ,acetic ,fermentation47 ,and if still longer exposed1 putrid fermentation sets in4 ,sweet wines1 whose alcoholic strength exceeds #af per cent41 and which contain a good deal of sugar1 are not so liable to be injured by the influence of the air4 ,not only does their high degree of spirit interfere with acetic and putrid fermentation1 but an insensible alcoholic fermentation sometimes takes place1 and the supply of alcohol is kept up4 ,but in time1 as the sugar disappears1 the alcohol becomes enfeebled by evaporation1 and then acetic fermentation sets in1 as in the weaker wines4 ,in the sherry countries it is considered necessary that the wine should be exposed to the action of the air1 and therefore the casks are not kept full1 and flowers are considered a good sign4 ,in a few instances1 where the wines are strong enough to bear it1 aging may be hastened by some exposure to the air1 but great care must be taken that they are not left too long under its influence1 or disorganization may ensue4 ,it must1 however1 be laid down as an almost universal rule1 that the casks must be kept full and well bunged4 7,see ,ulling47 ,variations of ,temperature affect wines like other liquids by contraction and expansion4 ,when a full cask is put in a cold place1 the wine contracts and leaves a vacant space2 then it must be filled up or the wine drawn into a smaller cask4 ,if the temperature of the wine in a full cask is raised1 the liquid expands1 and is apt to cause leaks2 the sediment is liable to rise and give the wine a flavor of the lees4 ,influence of ,heat4--,guyot says that the higher the degree of heat to which wines are exposed1 the greater their internal activity4 ,those subjected to #ae1 #bj1 #cj degrees1 ,celsius1 7#ei1 #fh1 #hf ,f471 sooner arrive at maturity1 if young1 at old age1 if ripe1 and at decrepitude1 if old1 than they would at a temperature of #aj ,c4 7#ej ,f47 ,from which the conclusion is drawn1 that wines which have nearly or quite reached their maturity must be protected from heat1 or at least from that of an elevated temperature1 and that old wines should be kept in as cool a place as possible4 ,aging by ,heat4--,on the other hand1 if we wish to hasten the maturity of our wines1 we can do so by keeping them in a warm place rather than in a cool cellar4 ,the younger the wines1 and the more sugar and alcohol they contain1 the more they will gain1 and the less risk will they run if subjected to a temperature of from #fj to #hf ,f4 ,for example1 sweet wines which are only ripe at thirty or forty years will mature in fifteen or twenty years1 at #fh of heat1 and in five or ten years1 at #hf2 a ,bordeaux or a ,hermitage wine which at #ej would be made in eight or ten years1 would certainly be made in four or five years at from #ei to #fh1 and in two or three years at #gg or #hf of heat4 ,he says that a temperature between #dj and #ij ,c4 7#ajd and #aid ,f47 will disorganize many kinds of wine1 particularly red wines and those which have remained long in the fermenting vat1 though it will not have that effect upon all wines4 ,it is well known that the inhabitants of many southern countries are accustomed to expose their wines to a considerable degree of heat to hasten their maturity1 and different methods are employed for the purpose1 and it is important to know what kind of wine will be improved and what injured by the practice4 ,on this subject ,boireau says1 that after many experiments1 he can affirm that if the heat exceeds #cj ,c4 7#hf ,f471 it is injurious to the grand mellow wines of the ,gironde2 also to wines of a delicate bouquet whose alcoholic strength does not exceed #ab per cent4 ,fine wines which possess both an aromatic taste and bouquet1 a fruity flavor1 and a pronounced mellowness1 by heat take on a certain tawny flavor of worn out wine2 but they become dry1 lose their mellowness1 and coolness1 and acquire a cooked flavor1 which changes their nature and gives them an analogy with the wines of the south of ,france4 ,this taste covers their natural flavor and renders them common4 ,he goes on to say that wines subjected to the action of heat in direct contact with the air1 loss by evaporation a part of their alcohol2 the oxygen deprives them of a part of their color1 and if the influence is prolonged1 they become weak and greatly deteriorated4 ,exposed to heat in imperfectly closed vessels1 they deposit1 and take the tawny flavor 7got de rancio7 if their alcoholic strength exceeds #af per cent42 but if feeble in spirit1 and they remain long in this condition1 the oxygen transforms a part of their alcohol into vinegar4 ,in receptacles kept full and well stopped1 they undergo but few constitutional changes1 if the heat does not exceed #aeh ,f42 but1 nevertheless1 a small part of their coloring matter is precipitated1 and their taste is sensibly changed4 ,a flavor of cooked wine is found1 and a slight odor of the lees1 no matter how quick the heating4 ,whatever the kind of wine operated upon1 care must be taken not to carry the heat too high1 for it will decompose and precipitate certain principles in dissolution in the wine1 and change its natural flavor4 ,after cooling1 voluminous deposits will be found1 and the cooking will give the wine a disagreeable flavor and an odor of the residue of a still4 ,the extreme limits of from #aac to #aeh ,f4 should not be exceeded1 and the greater the heat the shorter should be the exposure to it4 ,generally speaking1 the wines which gain the most by heating1 either by artificial means or by leaving them in casks well bunged1 but in ullage1 in warm store rooms1 are strongly fortified liqueur wines4 ,and in order that they be not injured under those conditions1 they should contain at least #ah per cent4 of pure alcohol4 ,and as they will gradually lose a little of their spirit by evaporation1 their alcoholic strength should be taken from time to time1 and they should be kept up to the indicated degree by fortifying4 ,preserving ,wine by ,heat4--,aside from the question of aging wine by the effect of heat1 ,pasteur has attempted to show that wines can be kept without change1 if the temperature is raised for a short time to #acj or #adj ,f4 ,this is on the theory that wines become flat1 pricked1 turned1 or rotten1 owing to secondary fermentations1 and that each change is due to the action of a particular ferment1 as stated in the chapter on fermentation2 and that this degree of heat destroys the action of these ferments--in fact1 kills them4 ,it is owing to the presence of the alcohol1 that they are destroyed by this degree of heat1 for a must which has been raised to the boiling point still ferments according to the experience of ,boireau and of ,pellicot4 ,the first named gives the results of his experiments in heating wines according to ,pasteur's plan4 ,the wine was in bottles1 and the heat was gradually raised to #eb ,c4 7#abe4f ,f47 ,in comparing the wines treated with unheated wines kept under the same conditions1 he found that the wine which had been heated could support contact with the air with less injury than the unheated1 but that nevertheless it became flat1 covered with flowers1 and acidified even in closed vessels which were not completely full2 also that fine wines generally are injured by the process4 ,the wines experimented upon had from #aj to #aj per cent4 of alcohol4 ,it is a costly process to subject wine to a high artificial heat1 and owing to the doubt which yet seems to attend the matter1 but few are likely to go to the expense4 ,influence of ,cold4--,most authors have something to say on the subject of congealed wines1 and undoubtedly the liquid may be concentrated by freezing a portion of the water1 and drawing off the remaining liquid4 ,those living in cold countries can try the experiment1 but it will certainly not be practiced in ,california4 ,mr4 ,boireau says that the liquid remaining acquires a flavor similar to that possessed by wines which have been heated2 that fine wines of a delicate bouquet and flavor acquire a commoner flavor than those in their normal state4 ,treatment of ,frozen ,wines4--,it may not be amiss to indicate what treatment a wine should receive in case it has been frozen and has thawed again4 ,it becomes turbid1 loses part of its color1 and several matters are precipitated1 or remain in suspension1 and it is liable to ferment when the temperature rises4 ,the last named author says that it should be put in a place of even temperature1 and if necessary1 it should be fined2 in which case it should be fortified with a strong wine of the same nature1 or a small amount of brandy4 ,influence of ,light4--,guyot says that the direct light of the sun causes wine to work1 especially red wine1 and that it has an injurious effect upon its composition and color2 and the coloring matter being decomposed1 or modified1 acts upon the other elements and makes the wine turn4 ,and hence the wisdom of putting wine in colored bottles4 ,it is only the direct light of the sun1 however1 that is to be avoided1 for a dim light1 light reflected or polarized1 and moonlight and artificial light are not sufficiently powerful to produce a sensible effect4 ,aging by ,sunlight4--,exposure to the rays of the sun has been resorted to for the purpose of aging wine1 but ,boireau says that it is not favorable to all1 and is least suited to those whose alcoholic strength does not exceed #ae per cent4 ,he says that the direct rays of the sun falling upon bottled wines will promptly precipitate the coloring matter1 and that the effect is greater where the bottles are not completely filled and corked with the needle4 ,if the bottles are wrapped in paper1 or if the wine is in casks1 the aging is less rapid4 ,he shows by experiment that insolation is advantageous only to wines of more than #ae per cent4 of alcohol1 to sweet wines1 and wines fortified up to #ah1 intended to be treated as the wines of ,madeira1 i4 e41 baked4 ,but wines of about #aj per cent4 of spirit will not endure this method of aging without more or less deterioration by souring4 ,effect of the ,motion of ,voyages4--,wines age more rapidly if kept in motion1 and hence1 in part1 the good effect of a long voyage4 ,strong1 sweet wines1 are undoubtedly greatly improved by the motion consequent on transportation1 as well as by the heat1 but constant agitation will cause weak ones to go rapidly through the periods of their existence1 and degenerate4 ,wines ,suitable for ,shipment4--,and ,dr4 ,guyot adds that a wine which does not contain #ab per cent4 of alcohol and #f per cent4 of sugar1 crosses the equator with great difficulty1 even in bottles4 ,in wood it should be young and contain #bj per cent4 of spirit1 or sufficient sugar to make up that amount4 ,for a voyage in ,europe1 or to ,america direct1 he says that the wines of ,bordeaux1 ,burgundy1 and of ,champagne1 of #aj to #ab per cent4 of spirit and #b to #d per cent4 of sugar1 behave well if young or in bottles4 ,mr4 ,boireau1 however1 says that wines proper for exportation1 and which will keep in tropical climates1 where good cellars and good care are generally wanting1 are those which possess naturally or by addition a high alcoholic title1 a solid1 but bright and handsome color1 a clean taste1 and perfect limpidity4 ,sweet1 fortified wines best fulfil these conditions4 ,he says that liqueur wines1 for shipping to the tropics1 should have at least #ah per cent4 of pure alcohol2 below that they ferment1 their saccharine matter is transformed into alcohol1 their strength diminishes1 and they end by becoming pricked4 ,dry wines1 to be sent to those countries1 should have the same strength1 unless the casks are kept full4 ,he adds1 however1 that these remarks only apply to those wines which on their arrival do not receive the usual care1 such as filling the casks1 clarifying and racking1 and are not kept in suitable places2 and that a good firm wine of the south of ,france1 which has naturally at least #ab per cent4 of alcohol1 can be shipped without fortifying4 ,the motion and the high temperature to which wines are subjected in transportation also cause a loss of color by precipitation1 particularly if they lack tannin4 ,wines which are sufficiently strong in alcohol1 but from lack of tannin want firmness and body1 are liable to acidify4 ,therefore1 wines too poor in tannin should not be shipped abroad4 ,the greater part of the wines of the ,gironde having plenty of tannin1 can be safely shipped if fortified to #aa per cent41 and the grand wines of less alcohol are safe if shipped in bottles4 ,in ,shipping a ,new ,wine1 whose sensible fermentation is finished1 the motion often causes a new disengagement of carbonic acid1 and sometimes in sufficient force to burst out a head of the cask1 unless vented4 ,of course1 such wine should not be shipped1 except under conditions which admit of careful supervision4 ,if transported short distances1 a small gimlet hole should be kept open near the bung1 in which three or four straws may be placed with the heads or spikes on1 or a small tin tube with a button at the top may be placed in the hole and bent inside the stave1 having sufficient play to allow the gas to escape4 ,must is shipped in the same way4 ,other ,motion1 such as ,jarring and ,trembling1 produced by loud noises and bypassing teams and by factories1 act injuriously upon wines1 causing them to behave badly and to deteriorate4 ,guyot also says what may be by some deemed fanciful1 that musical sounds hasten the development of wine2 and that most old wines will turn in a cellar transformed into a music hall4 ,fining is also resorted to for the purpose of aging wine1 producing results somewhat similar to the effects of time4 ,but it should be performed with the care and subject to the conditions mentioned in the proper place4 7,see ,fining47 ,aging ,generally4--,before subjecting a wine to any of the processes for artificial aging1 care should be taken1 says ,mr4 ,boireau1 to precipitate the matters held in suspension1 and to render it perfectly limpid4 ,grand wines1 however1 should never be subjected to the treatment1 for if a premature development of bouquet is obtained1 it is at the expense of that precious quality1 mellowness4 ,for to-day1 gourmets and consumers of refined taste do not select wines which have a bouquet1 if they are also dry and harsh to the palate2 such wines are only too plenty4 ,they esteem above all those wines which in aging have kept their fruity flavor1 their velvety smoothness1 that unctuosity which can only be preserved in keeping them in a place having a regular temperature 7averaging #fj71 in well closed receptacles1 by bringing about the defecation of their lees and the deposit of their ferments by opportune rackings without contact with the air1 and by fining them as little as possible4 ,if1 for want of care or suitable places1 the wines work1 enter into fermentation1 their mellowness diminishes1 and when neglected they become dry4 ,the ,wines which ,gain the ,most by the ,aging ,processes mentioned1 are3 #ast1 ,wines excessively rough and overcharged with color2 #b;d1 fortified wines1 whose minimum degree of alcohol is #ah per cent42 #c;d1 sweet wines fortified to #ah or #bj per cent4 ,those which remain too harsh should be fined with a strong dose of gelatine2 continued agitation after this will make them smoother4 ,fortified wines1 dry or sweet1 age very quickly1 if subjected to agitation and afterwards to insolation1 if followed by a complete clarification2 but it is important to fortify them anew1 for the alcohol evaporates1 and below #ae per cent4 they would sour instead of acquiring bouquet4 ,it is also sometimes necessary to add sugar to sweet wines so treated4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,general ,,treatment--,,cellars4 ,unfortified1 or ,table ,wines4--,after what has been said in the last chapter of the different effects produced by the various influences to which wine may be subjected1 it remains to point out the proper care and treatment to be bestowed upon unfortified table wines1 whose alcoholic strength does not exceed #ae per cent4 ,the three essential conditions indicated by ,mr4 ,boireau are3 #a4 ,they should be protected from the contact of the air4 #b4 ,they should be kept in a uniform temperature4 #c4 ,they should be freed from their lees1 ferments1 and deposits2 they must become perfectly clear1 and their degeneration be prevented4 ,it is very important to taste them1 and keep close watch over them by frequent visiting1 in order to prevent secondary fermentations and their consequent injurious results1 particularly in the case of mellow wines1 which thereby transform into alcohol the mucilages and pectines which they contain1 and lose their fruity flavor4 7,see ,red ,wine1 ,white ,wine1 etc47 ,deposits1 ,lees1 etc4--,it is important that they should be freed from ferments and deposits1 for muddy1 troubled wines are predisposed to secondary fermentations1 alcoholic or acetic2 they readily contract the bad taste of the lees1 bitterness1 etc4 ,in all wines1 the work of clearing is constantly going on2 different matters1 among others1 coloring matter1 several mineral and vegetable salts1 etc41 which were dissolved in the wine1 become insoluble1 and these with a portion of the tannin are precipitated to the bottom of the vessel or remain in suspension4 ,it is these matters with the ferments which constitute the lees4 ,wines deposit more or less1 according to their nature and the care bestowed in their making4 ,the most voluminous deposits take place during the first year1 and they diminish in volume and consistency at each racking1 if properly cared for4 ,when they have become well settled and bright1 and have achieved their complete development1 the deposit is almost nothing4 ,but it increases anew when the wine declines and begins to degenerate4 ,to ,prevent this ,degeneration1 and to keep fully developed wines1 they must be put into bottles4 7,see ,wine in ,bottles47 ,,cellars4 ,what has been said in the preceding chapter naturally leads us to the subject of the proper place for storing wine after it has completed its active fermentation4 ,cellars proper are constructed entirely under ground1 and should have vaulted roofs of masonry4 ,if the cellar is under a building1 the arch can safely come within two or three feet of the level of the ground1 but if no building is over it to protect it from the heat of the sun1 it should be four or five feet under ground4 ,many storehouses for wine are constructed partly above and partly below ground1 and others again1 entirely above4 ,undoubtedly those below ground are the best adapted for keeping wines which have arrived at maturity1 and for those of little alcoholic strength1 but when it is desired to rapidly develop and age an immature wine1 it can be sooner accomplished in a place of a higher temperature1 and there also can a strong wine be safely kept4 ,temperature4--,whatever the degree of temperature1 all agree that it should be as nearly uniform as possible2 and to insure this1 the cellar should face the north or east when practicable4 ,the outer door should not open directly into the cellar or storehouse1 but it is better to have the entrance through an outbuilding1 or at least with an outer and an inner door1 at a considerable distance4 ,if the wine house is above ground1 its walls should be of sufficient thickness and of suitable material to prevent changes of temperature1 and it should have a loft or room above1 so that the wine may be protected from the effects of the rays of the sun falling upon the roof2 and it may also be shaded by trees4 ,some of the older writers say that the proper temperature for a cellar is #ej or #eb ,f41 but so low a degree can only be obtained in a well constructed cellar wholly under ground1 and deep1 and is not likely to be obtained in this ,state4 ,boireau1 however1 says that in the ,gironde the average temperature of the cellars is from #ae to #ag ,c41 or #ei to #fb ,f41 and if a person can maintain the temperature of his cellar or storehouse in this ,state uniformly at #fj he will do well4 ,dampness4--,formerly1 when wooden hoops for casks were used1 it was necessary to guard against dampness1 for they soon rotted1 and required to be frequently renewed2 but now with the use of iron in place of wood1 less care is necessary in that respect4 ,it is best1 however1 that they should be sufficiently dry that mould will not form on the cask1 for a bad taste may thereby be communicated to the wine4 ,therefore1 cellars should not be constructed in very damp places1 should have the soil of the floor well compacted1 should be well drained1 and well cemented1 and if necessary1 the floor may be covered with a bed a foot deep composed of a mixture of lime1 sand1 and gravel1 or cinders1 or the like1 well beaten down1 and the whole covered with dry sand4 ,nothing should be left in the cellar which naturally gathers moisture4 ,all mould should be frequently removed1 and the sand removed and replaced with dry sand when necessary4 ,sawdust should not be used on the floor4 ,in ,san ,francisco1 the best cellars have a good asphaltum floor1 and ,i know of nothing better after the odor has passed away4 ,ventilation is necessary at times to prevent too much dampness1 and also to change the air which may become foul4 ,underground cellars can be ventilated by means of a large tube1 such as is used on shipboard1 provided with a broad opening at the top which can be turned in the direction of the wind1 conducting the air into the cellar4 ,storehouses may have small1 movable windows4 ,in order to keep down the temperature1 the proper time to ventilate is during the coolest part of the night in the warmer parts of this ,state4 ,evaporation of the ,wine1 however1 must be guarded against1 which may vary from #c to #aj per cent4 per annum1 according to whether the place of storage is open or closed4 ,in ,france the government makes an allowance in favor of the wholesale merchant of #h per cent41 for loss4 ,and ,boireau says that in dry storehouses where the air is continually renewed by ventilation1 the loss equals the allowed per cent41 and even exceeds it1 particularly if the casks are weak and poor1 hooped in wood1 and if the hoops are not driven when they become dry4 ,the loss may then reach #aj per cent41 without extraordinary leakage4 ,by guarding against too free access of air and heat1 not only will a very considerable loss by evaporation be avoided1 but also other defects which may seriously affect the wine1 such as acidity1 bitterness1 too great dryness1 etc4 ,and moreover1 in poor cellars the wines require much more attention1 such as ulling1 racking1 and frequent tasting1 to protect them from secondary fermentations4 ,other ,precautions4--,from what has been said concerning the influence of light1 motion1 etc41 it results that wine cellars should not be too light1 nor be situated under wagon roads where vehicles frequently pass1 nor near blacksmiths' shops1 or other noisy industries1 such as boiler making1 etc4 ,the vicinity of sinks1 cesspools1 sewers1 and the sources of noisome odors generally1 should be avoided2 and cellars should not be used for storing milk1 cheese1 vinegar1 or any matter liable to ferment1 such as fruit1 vegetables1 etc42 nor should new wines be stored there until their active fermentation has ceased1 for these things may either communicate a bad odor and taste to the wine1 or set up in it secondary fermentations4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,cask and ,support4 ,the ,casks and ,tuns should be supported by strong timbers or masonry1 and should be sufficiently elevated1 so that the wine may be easily drawn off1 and should be securely blocked4 ,fig4 #ae represents a cask supported by timbers resting on brick work4 ,where the casks are arranged in piles1 those in the lower tier should have four blocks or chocks each1 for if they are blocked only on one side1 they are liable to be disturbed1 and the outer ones should also have a large block under the bulge4 ,of course1 the outer blocks should be so adjusted that they cannot be knocked out in passing by1 and in rolling barrels1 etc4 ,the casks of the upper tiers are rolled up on skids1 or inclined planes1 and are then rolled along over scantlings1 laid on the tier below2 and hoisting tackle is often of use in this connection4 ,when1 however1 the cellar is furnished with sufficient large tuns1 the piling of casks may be dispensed with4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,racking4 ,the ,racking of ,wines1 or drawing off1 is performed for the purpose of freeing them from the lees4 ,some of the older writers recommend that wine should be allowed to remain on the lees till ,february or ,march1 but the better practice is to draw it off as soon as it has cleared4 ,if it is allowed to remain long upon the lees1 variations of temperature and secondary fermentations1 storms1 etc41 are apt to cause it to become troubled and muddy1 and acquire a flavor of the lees4 ,boireau says that he has constantly observed that wines in general1 and especially those which have been fined1 if racked as soon as well cleared1 say from two weeks to a month after fining1 according to the kind of finings used1 place of storage1 nature of the wine1 etc41 are generally more limpid1 have a cleaner taste1 and are much less liable to work than if left on the finings for six months1 from one racking to another4 ,wines not fined1 which have become clear naturally by repose1 exhibit the same results2 those which are racked as soon as bright1 are1 in every respect1 of a quality superior to those which have been left upon their lees from one equinox to another4 ,the ,conditions ,indispensable to ,good ,racking are stated by ,mr4 ,machard as follows3 #a4 ,to perform the operation when the weather is dry and clear1 and if possible during a north wind1 for it is only during such weather that the precipitation of the lees can be really complete4 #b4 ,to avoid the operation during damp and rainy weather1 and while violent winds are blowing from the south4 #c4 ,not to proceed during a storm1 because then the lighter parts of the lees rise and produce fermentive movements which are always to be guarded against4 #d4 ,never to draw off a troubled or muddy wine1 for then it must be racked again2 and in that condition the deposits are always mixed with the wine4 #e4 ,moreover1 never rack at the following periods of the vegetation of the vine3 when the buds begin to swell1 at the time of flowering1 and especially at the time when the fruit commences to change color1 in ripening4 #f4 ,never to proceed during the heat of the day1 or a south wind1 but always in the cool of the morning and during a north wind4 #g4 ,to always make use of the sulphur match4 #h4 ,never to leave the wine long exposed to the air4 #i4 ,not to allow the wine to fall too far1 so as not to deprive it of its carbonic acid1 which exerts a conservative effect1 and thus also to avoid too great agitation1 which may be prejudicial4 #aj4 ,finally1 to use the greatest care to free it from the least traces of sediment4 ,i have repeated nearly the language of the author quoted1 at the expense of some repetition1 because the rules are laid down by him more minutely than by the other authors who agree with him in general terms4 ,it is agreed that the most critical periods for wine on the lees are the different periods of the vegetation above mentioned1 which vary somewhat in different climates1 and they should therefore be racked before these epochs arrive4 ,new ,red ,wines1 says ,mr4 ,boireau1 which have been properly made1 which are clear1 which do not work1 and which are kept in closed cellars1 should be drawn off four times during the first year2 the first racking is performed as soon as the insensible fermentation has ceased1 and the wine has become clear1 i4 e41 during the first cold weather of ,december2 the second in ,march1 before the sprouting of the vine1 or at the vernal equinox2 the third before the flowering of the vine1 in ,june2 and the fourth at the autumnal equinox1 in ,september4 ,machard considers that no racking is so important as that of ,march1 and he insists upon it that it should never be omitted1 and that it should be well done1 for if the lees are all removed then1 it may even go safely till the next vintage1 and the ,june or ,july racking be omitted1 except in warm climates2 and then1 as before observed1 it should be done in the cool of the day4 ,instead of waiting till ,september1 the operation is often performed in ,august1 when the grape begins to turn4 ,of course1 the periods change somewhat in different climates1 as already observed1 so that the cellar-man must familiarize himself with the conduct of the wine in his locality1 and govern himself accordingly1 racking before the period arrives when the wine usually works4 ,old ,red ,wines are racked only twice a year1 in the spring and fall1 before the equinoxes1 except in case of their becoming turbid by secondary fermentations1 when they must be racked1 whatever the time of year1 except also in case of certain diseases4 ,if1 however1 the wine has not been well made or properly cared for1 it may show signs of fermentation and alteration1 and need racking at periods different from those above mentioned4 ,if the wine does not clear of itself by the time it should be drawn off1 it may be necessary to clarify it by fining 7which see74 ,but if well made and properly cared for1 it will ordinarily clear itself4 ,new ,white ,wines are racked as soon as they become clear1 and no precise epoch can be fixed for the operation1 because the duration of the fermentation depends essentially upon the density of the must and the temperature4 ,in any case1 it is much more prolonged than that of red wines4 ,it often happens that it continues till the month of ,february1 when the must is very rich in sugar1 especially if the weather is cold late in the fall2 while wines made of grapes from the same vineyard1 made in the same way1 but less rich in the saccharine principle1 may terminate their fermentation in ,december4 ,the racking should always be performed before the weather becomes warm1 for the elevation of the temperature will set the wine working1 and the lees will become mixed with it4 ,ordinarily the most favorable time is the month of ,february4 ,subsequent ,rackings4--,white wine1 new or old1 requires to be racked three times a year1 as stated in the chapter on ,white ,wine2 first1 in ,march1 at the time of the sprouting of the vine1 before the equinox2 secondly1 at the flowering of the vine1 in ,june1 before the summer solstice2 and thirdly1 in ,september1 at the ripening of the grape1 before the autumnal equinox4 7,see ,white ,wine1 ,racking47 ,care to be ,observed4--,contact with the air should be carefully avoided during the operation4 ,the same care should be observed as in racking red wine1 and the operation is performed in the same manner1 always keeping in view that what may be essential to keep a mellow wine in condition1 may to a certain extent be neglected where dryness is desired4 ,a sulphur match ought always to be burned in the cask before wine1 either red or white1 is racked into it1 for thus the germs of fermentation which may be in the cask will be rendered inactive by the sulphurous acid formed1 and which will also absorb with avidity the oxygen1 and thereby in two ways tend to prevent fermentation4 ,the cask1 however1 should not be sulphured till well drained1 or the water remaining will be impregnated with the gas1 which is liable to give a disagreeable sulphur taste to the wine which will not disappear for some time4 7,see ,sulphuring47 ,a cask which has been put away sulphured must for the same reason be washed before using2 and in fact no cask should be used without washing4 ,other ,precautions4--,great care must be taken in all cases not to disturb the sediment by moving the cask1 by pounding on the stave to loosen the bung1 or by driving in the faucet4 ,the latter ought to be opened before inserting it1 so as to allow the air contained in it to escape1 and not to force itself into the cask and trouble the wine1 which it is liable to do by contraction and expansion1 forcing in the faucet4 ,it should be closed as soon as the wine begins to run4 ,it is hardly necessary to say that an empty bucket should be kept under1 when putting in the faucet1 to catch the wine that may escape4 ,care must also be taken that the cask to be filled1 and all the utensils used in and about the racking1 are scrupulously clean1 and buckets1 hose1 funnels1 siphons1 etc41 must be washed carefully every day1 for if allowed to stand with wine in them1 they will become sour4 ,siphons and short tubes can be scoured by means of a brush1 such as is used for cleaning bottles and lamp chimneys1 by attaching it to a long1 stiff wire4 ,different ,methods of ,racking4--,the commonest way is to draw the wine through a faucet into a bucket1 and pour it into the empty cask by means of a funnel4 ,the faucet is placed in a hole bored in the end of the cask1 an inch or more above the lower stave4 ,after the faucet has been placed in position1 vent the cask of wine1 but not before4 ,when the wine no longer runs1 the cask should be slightly tipped forward1 but by a very easy and gradual movement1 so as not to disturb the lees4 ,this may be done by a man carefully lifting the rear end4 ,a kind of hoisting-jack 7fig4 #af7 is used for this purpose4 ,the lower end rests on the ground1 near the rear end of the cask1 and the upper end of the movable rod is placed under the upper chime4 ,on turning the crank the cask is tipped gently forward1 and a ratchet catches the pinion and prevents the return4 ,if there is not sufficient space between the wall and the cask to operate in the manner stated1 one end of the jack is placed against the wall above the cask1 and the power is applied to the upper forward part of the cask by placing the other end behind a forward hoop4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,jack for tipping a ,cask4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,fork for tipping a ,cask4 ,the fork 7fig4 #ag7 is used in the same way1 being lengthened by means of the screw4 ,fig4 #ah represents another contrivance for the same purpose4 ,if only one man is employed1 a lever supported above the cask by two legs straddling it1 and forming the fulcrum1 the rear end provided with a hook which hooks under the chime1 and the other end extending forward beyond the front1 may be used 7fig4 #ai74 ,the workman1 by bearing down on the lever1 or by pulling the strap at the end1 tips the cask forward4 ,when the wine has nearly all run out1 it should frequently be examined by holding a small quantity to the light in a small1 thin glass1 and as soon as the slightest appearance of lees presents itself1 the operation should cease1 and none of the muddy wine should be poured into the other cask4 ,this method has its advantages1 in that the first appearance of cloudiness can be detected1 for the liquid is always under the eye of the operator1 but it has the disadvantage of greatly exposing the wine to the air4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,implement for tipping a ,cask4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,implement for tipping a ,cask4 ,another method which avoids the last objection1 is to securely connect the faucet of the cask of wine with the faucet of the empty one1 to open them both1 and let the wine run from one to the other4 ,if they are both on the same1 or nearly the same level1 a portion only will be transferred1 and then the rest may be forced over by connecting the tube of a hand-bellows tightly with the bung-hole of the cask of wine1 and blowing into it4 ,this is easily done by attaching the bellows by means of a hose to a long1 hollow1 conical bung4 7,see fig4 #bj47 ,as soon as the air is heard in the tube1 close the faucet1 and before removing it1 bung the cask tight4 ,the remaining wine is removed as in the first method4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,a ,method of ,racking4 ,pumps and ,siphons are very useful where wine is to be merely transferred from one cask to another1 but they are not well suited for racking it from the lees1 for it is difficult to make use of them without disturbing the sediment1 and thereby troubling the liquid4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,siphon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,siphon4 ,figs4 #ba and #bb represent two forms of siphons4 ,they may also consist simply of a bent tube4 ,fig4 #ba shows an exhausting tube attached1 by which the air is sucked out with the mouth4 ,fig4 #bc shows a rotary force pump for transferring wine from one cask to another4 ,lever force pumps are also used for the same purpose4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,rotary ,force ,pump4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,clarification--,,fining4 ,when ,necessary4--,wines do not always acquire the desirable state of brightness and limpidity by repose and racking1 and it becomes necessary to clarify them4 ,they may become cloudy through secondary fermentations1 which cause the lees once deposited to rise and become again mixed with the liquid1 or through changes of temperature1 by transportation1 by careless racking1 etc41 and by mixing different kinds together2 or they may fail to clear naturally1 because not possessed of sufficient tannin or albumen to precipitate the different matters held in suspension4 ,weak wines of poor years may contain ferments in excess of their sugar1 which may be removed by clarification1 and so fermentation be checked or retarded4 ,wines1 however1 which are well made and properly cared for1 ought to become bright without recourse to clarification1 and such will be found preferable to1 and will possess more fruitness1 unctuosity1 and color1 than those which have been clarified by several finings4 ,and for these reasons--although it may be necessary to fine such wines as do not naturally clear themselves--care must be observed not to carry the process too far1 and deprive them of the tannin necessary to their preservation1 as well as of too much of their color1 fruity flavor1 and mellowness4 ,the ,different ,substances ,employed for ,clarifying act either chemically and mechanically1 or simply mechanically4 ,among the latter are blotting paper1 either in sheets or in pulp1 fine sand1 and powdered stone1 which are placed in the cask1 and which in falling1 carry down with them the matters which are held in suspension4 ,wine is sometimes clarified by filtering it through woolen bags4 ,those substances which act both chemically and mechanically are albumen and gelatine1 and similar substances4 ,of ,gelatinous ,substances1 two kinds are used1 gelatine1 so-called1 and isinglass1 or fish glue1 and they act in two ways4 ,they are not entirely dissolved in water2 thin1 transparent pellicles remain in suspension1 which form a sort of network in the wine1 and in settling they carry with them other insoluble matters4 ,thus1 their action is mechanical4 ,the portion which is fully dissolved is pure gelatine1 and acts chemically4 ,it combines with the tannin of the wine and forms an insoluble substance1 tannate of gelatine1 which is readily precipitated4 ,gelatine1 so-called1 is prepared from the bones1 skin1 and tendons of animals1 and is sold in tablets or sheets1 and is sometimes chipped or broken into small fragments4 ,it is one of the most powerful of finings1 and causes a loss by precipitation of a considerable portion of the tannin and of the coloring matter of the wine4 ,it should not1 therefore1 be used in clarifying red wines1 except when it is desirable to deprive them of a portion of their roughness caused by an excess of tannin1 or of a portion of their color2 and it should always be employed with caution4 ,it produces more sediment than the two substances next named1 and leaves a bad taste in the wine1 unless perfectly fresh matters have been used in its preparation4 ,for the latter reason1 wine clarified with it should be racked from the finings as soon as cleared4 ,it may be profitably used to clarify common white wines2 and if they are difficult to clarify1 tannin should be added as described below4 ,preparation4--,take about two tablets1 or one ounce1 for one hundred gallons1 or double the quantity1 if the greatest possible effect is desired4 ,dissolve it in a dish over the fire with a little water1 constantly stirring1 and do not allow the water to boil4 ,if previously soaked a few hours in water1 it will dissolve all the more easily4 ,use as directed below4 ,isinglass1 ,fish ,glue1 or ,ichthyocol 7,ichthyocolla of the pharmacists71 is prepared from the swimming bladder of the sturgeon1 and usually comes from ,russia4 ,it acts in the same way as gelatine1 mechanically1 and also by combining with the tannin4 ,this is preminently the fining for white wine4 ,one ounce or more maybe used for #ajj gallons4 ,it should be broken up by pounding it with a hammer on a block of wood1 and should be chopped into small fragments1 so that it may be easily dissolved4 ,put it in a vessel of crockery1 and pour over it of the wine to be clarified sufficient to cover it4 ,add another glass or two of the wine in a few hours1 when the first has been absorbed4 ,after about twenty-four hours it forms a jelly4 ,this should be thinned by adding more wine or warm water1 and it should be thoroughly worked with the hand until completely dissolved1 and then be strained through a piece of linen1 using sufficient pressure to squeeze out the mucilage4 ,it should be thoroughly whipped or beaten1 and more wine is added if too thick4 ,after being prepared1 it may be kept for some time in bottles1 by adding a little brandy4 ,in clarifying sweet white wines1 it is recommended that an ounce or two of cream of tartar be added1 which must first be dissolved in warm water4 ,albuminous ,substances4--,among these are mentioned the blood of animals1 dried or fresh1 and it is a powerful clarifier4 ,about two quarts to #ajj gallons are used1 beaten up with an equal quantity of wine4 ,it is liable to deprive the wine of a portion of its color1 and sometimes conveys a disagreeable flavor1 particularly unless used when quite fresh4 ,it should not be used to clarify old or fine wines1 but may be employed for new and common ones4 ,it is of use in clarifying white wines which have turned yellow1 for it effectually removes this color4 ,it should be used sparingly1 if at all1 for red wines1 and the wine should be drawn from the finings as promptly as possible4 ,milk is also used in the same way and in the same quantity as blood4 ,it is liable to sour1 and a small quantity is apt to remain in the wine4 ,by its use sugar of milk is introduced1 which is liable to undergo lactic and butyric fermentations1 and the flavor of sour milk and rancid butter may be communicated to the wine4 ,this may also be used to decolor white wine which has become yellow4 ,the ,white of ,eggs is the best of the albuminous substances used for clarifying4 ,it is coagulated by the alcohol and tannin1 and forms a precipitate heavier than the liquid1 and as it falls1 carries with it the matters remaining in suspension4 ,if the eggs are fresh1 as they always must be1 there is no danger of communicating any foreign flavor to the wine by their use2 but it is not advisable to use the yolks1 for they injure the wine by decoloring it1 and the sulphur contained in them may communicate the odor of sulphuretted hydrogen4 ,this is preminently the fining for red wine4 ,it is also used for the clarification of white wine1 but ,machard says that it is subject to be condensed in the form of splinters 7esquilles71 which obscure rather than clarify the liquid4 ,the whites of ten or a dozen eggs are used for #ajj gallons4 ,they are beaten up in a small quantity of wine or water before using4 ,clarifying ,powders4--,in addition to the substances mentioned1 there are special preparations in the form of powders1 sold for the purpose1 which are highly recommended by some authors4 ,they are supposed to consist mainly of dried blood2 directions for using are given on the package4 ,gum ,arabic1 about #aj ounces to #ajj gallons1 is also used1 but it is not readily precipitated1 and is apt to remain in dissolution in the wine4 ,salt is often added to the different finings1 by first dissolving a small handful in water4 ,it renders them heavier1 and as it is insoluble in alcohol1 it becomes precipitated1 and thus acts in two ways4 ,many authors recommend its use1 but ,boireau says it should only be employed in clarifying common or very turbid wines4 ,alcohol is added with great advantage if the wines are so weak in spirit that the finings do not act4 ,tannin1 however1 more frequently requires to be added1 for upon it and the alcohol depends the action of the substances employed4 ,if the wine is not lacking in alcohol1 and the finings do not act1 sufficient tannin must be added to produce the desired effect4 ,if the ordinary tannic acid of commerce is employed1 one-half to one ounce for #ajj gallons may be used4 ,dissolve lb4 in a quart of the strongest alcohol1 #ie1 by thoroughly shaking in a bottle of double the size4 ,after standing twenty-four hours it is filtered1 and one gill of the solution contains one ounce of tannic acid4 ,this preparation of tannin1 which is prepared from nutgalls1 is used for tannifying sparkling wines1 because it does not adhere to the inside of the bottle4 ,it is preferable1 however1 in general to employ the tannin derived from the vine itself4 ,for this purpose a strong decoction is made by steeping grape seeds1 which have not undergone fermentation1 in water4 ,they should be coarsely broken1 or bruised1 and boiled for several hours4 ,by adding from one-fourth to one-fifth of its volume of strong alcohol of #he per cent41 it can be kept for future use4 ,the liquor may be filtered before adding the alcohol4 ,instead of the seeds1 sometimes a handful of stems are steeped1 and the liquid is used4 ,tannified wine may be prepared by soaking #ej or #fj lbs4 of the bruised seeds in #ajj gallons of white wine1 for one or two months4 ,it is cared for as white wine4 ,if only one cask is to be treated1 say #ajj gallons1 one-half pound of grape seed may be reduced to powder and put in4 ,it is difficult to lay down a definite rule as to the amount of either preparation to use1 for the reason that the amount of tannin contained in the wine itself varies4 ,three or four gallons of the tannified wine are recommended for #ajj gallons1 and a much smaller quantity of the first mentioned decoction would be equivalent in its effects1 on account of its additional strength4 ,if1 however1 it is found that sufficient has not been used1 the wine must be clarified anew1 and tannin added again4 ,by experimenting on a small quantity of the wine1 the proper quantity may be ascertained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,implements for stirring4 ,method of ,operation4--,after preparing the finings as described under the head of each of the substances already mentioned1 two or three gallons of wine are drawn from the bung by the aid of a siphon1 pump1 or other suitable implement1 the finings are poured in1 and the wine is stirred until thoroughly mixed with them4 ,this may be done with a stick split at the end into three or four prongs 7fig4 #bd71 or by a sort of brush consisting of several small bundles of bristles inserted in a stick and at right angles to each other 7fig4 #be71 or with a sort of bent paddle1 pierced with holes1 called a whip 7fig4 #bf74 ,the wine drawn out should then be replaced in the cask1 which should be completely filled1 and left to rest till the wine is bright4 ,in filling a cask which has recently been agitated1 or into which finings have been put1 a good deal of froth is frequently found which will run out at the bung before the cask is full1 and will prevent the operator from filling it4 ,a few smart blows on the bung stave with a bung starter will break the bubbles and remove the foam4 ,the time required to clarify a cask of wine depends somewhat upon the quality of the wine itself1 and also upon the kind of finings used4 ,the usual time is from two weeks to a month4 ,in no case1 however1 should it be allowed to remain on the finings after it has cleared and has ceased to deposit1 for the sediment may work up again and cloud the wine1 and if left too long in contact with the deposit1 the wine may acquire a disagreeable flavor4 ,if1 after leaving the wine a suitable time1 it still remains turbid and continues to deposit1 it should be racked into a clean cask and fined again1 adding tannin1 if necessary4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,sweet ,,wines--,,fortified ,,wines4 ,generally4--,the ,french give the name vins de liqueur1 liqueur wines1 to sweet wines1 and it is also sometimes applied to fortified dry wines4 ,sweet wines are those which1 after terminating their active fermentation1 still retain a quantity of sugar4 ,in order to produce natural sweet wines1 it is necessary that the must should contain a large amount of sugar2 ,boireau says1 from #af to #be ,baum1 or about #bi to #df per cent4 ,it would seem that the latter figure is too high for a natural sweet wine1 for it probably would not ferment at all1 and to make a wine from a must containing over #ce per cent4 of sugar1 the alcohol must be added4 7,see ,musts47 ,he goes on to say that these wines will contain from #ae to #af per cent4 of natural alcohol1 without addition2 the sugar which they contain makes them heavier than water4 ,to ,increase ,sugar4--,in order to augment the amount of sugar1 the grapes are left on the vine till they become excessively ripe2 in some places the stem of the bunch is twisted on the vine to interrupt the rising of the sap2 the must is also sometimes concentrated by boiling2 sometimes the grapes are picked and exposed to the sun on screens or straw mats1 until they become shriveled1 and sometimes they are dried in ovens4 ,without ,fermentation4--,sometimes sweet wines are made without allowing the must to ferment at all1 by adding alcohol till it contains #ah or #bj per cent4 of spirit2 thus all the sugar is preserved4 ,again1 they are made by mixing with dry wines grape syrup or concentrated must1 and fortifying4 ,care ,required4--,it has already been stated in the chapter on keeping wine that these wines require less care than weaker ones4 ,but ,mr4 ,boireau says that wines1 whether sweet or dry1 whose strength does not exceed #af per cent41 require the same care as ordinary wines4 ,in order that sweet and fortified wines may be kept in storehouses subject to great changes of temperature1 in bottles upright1 or in casks in ullage--in other words1 under the conditions in which brandy can be kept1 they must contain #ah or #bj per cent4 of alcohol4 ,they age sooner in casks than in bottles4 7,see ,aging47 ,clarification of these wines is effected by fining or by filtering4 ,the best finings for the purpose are those containing albumen1 such as the whites of eggs1 though fresh blood may be used1 but only for the commoner wines4 ,if they are very pasty1 tannin should be added1 and then they should be clarified with a strong dose of gelatine4 ,small quantities of wine may be filtered through paper or flannel1 in closed filters4 ,these wines should always be allowed to rest for a while1 and then be racked before shipping1 for it is rare that they do not make a deposit4 7,see ,fining47 ,boiling ,must4--,pellicot says that the common practice in making sweet wines1 is to reduce the volume of the must by one-third1 or even one-half1 by boiling4 ,they clear sooner1 and retain less of the cooked flavor if only a part is boiled1 that is1 if1 after boiling1 one-fourth to one-third of the volume is added of must from the sweetest varieties of grapes4 ,in this way the wines are more agreeable1 and sooner matured4 ,when the boiled must is taken from the cauldron1 it must be briskly stirred with a bunch of twigs1 or the like1 till it ceases to smoke1 in order to remove a disagreeable flavor which wines so made may contract4 ,he gives it as his opinion that the greater part of the sweet wines1 even of southern countries1 are made by boiling the whole or a portion of the must1 in spite of allegations to the contrary2 and he considers it an innocent and legitimate operation1 the only objection being the cooked flavor1 which disappears with age4 ,he excepts1 however1 wine made from very sweet varieties1 which are ripened artificially4 ,he also recommends that when kept in a large cask1 the lees should not be removed1 as they contain a good deal of sugar4 ,as a certain quantity is drawn off1 it may be filled each year with new wine of the same quality4 ,sweet ,muscat4--,in making sweet ,muscat1 fermentation should be checked by the addition of alcohol1 for if allowed to continue too long1 the ,muscat flavor will disappear4 ,and this is usually necessary1 as before stated1 to keep the wines sweet4 ,pressing4--,where the grapes are quite ripe1 and somewhat dry1 it may be difficult to extract the juice without a very powerful press2 under such circumstances ,machard recommends that1 after crushing1 the grapes be put into a vat for twenty-four or forty-eight hours1 according to the temperature1 and until fermentation commences1 which fluidifies the must and makes it run more freely from the press4 ,the ,marc of ,sweet ,wines is useful to mix with poor white wines to give them more sugar and more strength4 ,the amount of ,alcohol to be added varies from two to five per cent41 or more1 depending upon the amount developed by fermentation1 and the degree of sweetness desired4 ,if the must is not allowed to ferment at all1 it must be fortified up to #ah or #bj per cent42 if1 however1 it is so sweet that it will not ferment1 it may be kept without the addition of alcohol1 but it will be syrup1 and not wine4 ,density4--,dubief says that sweet wines should mark a density of from #d to #e ,baum1 and the best of them even #g4 ,furmint ,wine4--,the following is the method given by ,pellicot as practiced by him in making wine from the ,furmint grape4 ,he gathers the grapes when they are very ripe1 and the small berries are half dried1 and then exposes them to the rays of the sun for six or eight days1 upon screens4 ,when ready to crush1 he takes the screens to the crusher4 ,the dryest berries are then removed by shaking the frame1 or with the hand1 and put by themselves2 and the remainder are crushed in the usual manner4 ,then the dry ones are crushed as well as possible1 and the two kinds are mixed together and fermented4 ,owing to the syrupy nature of the must1 it ferments for a long time1 and without much effervescence4 ,when it acquires a suitable flavor1 it is drawn off1 and is then racked several times till clear4 ,where the grapes are trodden1 it is probably necessary to separate the dry grapes from the rest1 and crush them by themselves1 in order that they may be well crushed2 but if a good crusher is used1 it would seem entirely unnecessary4 ,straw ,wines1 according to ,machard1 are made as follows3 ,the ripest bunches are chosen1 and preferably from old vines4 ,they are gathered when the weather is warm and dry4 ,they are spread upon straw1 or hung up in the upper room of a house4 ,they are visited from time to time1 and the rotten berries removed4 ,they are thus left till ,february or ,march1 the time when straw wine is usually made4 ,some1 however1 press in ,december1 but the wine has not the quality of that made later4#d ,when sufficiently dried the grapes are stemmed1 and the remaining rotten berries are removed4 ,they are then crushed and pressed4 ,the pressings are all mixed together4 ,to arrive at perfection1 such a wine1 he says1 must be kept ten1 twelve1 or more years2 that it need not be racked1 nor the casks made full1 and that it requires no fining4 #d ,it must be remembered that he is writing for the cold climate of the ,jura1 where the grapes do not naturally acquire that degree of maturity necessary for sweet wines4 ,,port ,,wine4 ,the ,musts of the port wine grapes grown in the ,upper ,douro1 ,portugal1 show from #bd to #bi per cent4 of sugar1 according to the variety4 ,there are others cultivated in the district which contain less sugar4 ,the sweetest of all is the ,bastardo4 ,the fermentation takes place under cover1 in what is called a lagar1 which is a large stone vat1 about three feet deep4 ,according to ,dr4 ,bleasdale1 it is necessary to gather the grapes as soon as they are completely ripe2 that the lagar or fermenting vat should be filled as promptly as possible2 that the mass should be thoroughly stirred2 that the fermentation should be tumultuous and uninterrupted1 and that the wine should be drawn off when it has developed a vinous smell and flavor1 and astringency and roughness to the taste1 though all the sugar has not been fermented4 ,the defective grapes are picked out1 and only good ones put into the vat4 ,as soon as the fermenting vat is filled1 a sufficient number of men enter into it to complete the treading4 ,three men to each #abj gallons of must are employed1 who with bare feet tread and dance upon the grapes4 ,if fermentation is slow in starting1 more men are put in to impart warmth1 or a quantity of warm must is added4 ,the first treading lasts1 in the instance given by ,dr4 ,bleasdale1 six hours during the first night1 and is continued next day with two men1 where three were employed the first night4 ,men enter again during the active fermentation and tread to keep down the pomace1 and to extract as much coloring matter as possible4 ,then the treaders leave the lagar1 but the fermentation is closely watched4 ,the following graphic description1 which differs in no essential respect from that of ,dr4 ,bleasdale1 is from ,vizitelli3 8,when the mid-day meal is over1 the grapes having been already spread perfectly level in the lagar1 a band of sixty men is told off to tread them4 ,the casa dos lagares#e is a long building with a low pointed roof1 lighted with square openings along one side1 and contains four lagares1 in the largest of which sufficient grapes can be trodden at one time to produce thirty pipes of wine4#f ,as is universally the case in the ,upper ,douro1 these lagares are of stone1 and about three feet in depth4 ,in front of each1 and on a lower level1 is a small stone reservoir1 called a dorno1 into which the expressed juice flows after the treading of the grapes is concluded1 and which communicates by pipes with the huge tonels#g in the adega below1 although not beneath the lagares1 being in fact in the face of the reservoirs1 but on a level some twelve feet lower1 with a long1 wooden staircase leading to it4 ,in front of the lagares runs a narrow stone ledge1 to which ascent is gained by a few steps1 and here while the treading is going on the overseers post themselves1 long staves in hand1 in order to see that every one performs his share of labor4 ,the treaders1 with their white breeches well tucked up1 mount into the lagar1 where they form three separate rows of ten men each on either side of the huge1 overhanging beam1 and placing their arms on each other's shoulders1 commence work by raising and lowering their feet alternately1 calling out as they do so1 #8,direita1 esquerda6' 7,right1 left67 varying this after a time with songs and shoutings in order to keep the weaker and lazier ones up to the work1 which is quite as irksome and monotonous as either treadmill or prison crank1 which tender-hearted philanthropists regard with so much horror4 ,but the lagariros have something more than singing or shouting to encourage them4 ,taking part with them in the treading is a little band of musicians1 with drum1 fife1 fiddle1 and guitar1 who strike up a lively tune1 while their comrades chime in1 some by whistling1 others with castanets4 ,occasionally1 too1 nips of brandy are served out1 and the overseers present cigarettes all round1 whereupon the treaders vary their monotonous movements with a brisker measure4 ,this first treading1 the #8sovar o vinho1' or beating the wine1 as it is called1 lasts1 with occasional respites and relays of fresh men1 for eighteen hours4 ,a long interval now ensues1 and then the treading or beating is resumed4 ,by this time the grapes are pretty well crushed1 and walking over the pips and stalks strewn at the bottom of the lagar1 becomes something like the pilgrimages of old1 when the devout trudged wearily along with hard peas packed between the soles of their feet and the soles of their shoes4 ,the lagariros1 with their garments more or less bespattered with grape juice1 move slowly about in their mauve-colored mucilaginous bath in a listless kind of way1 now smoking cigarettes1 now with their arms folded1 or thrown behind their backs1 or with their hands tucked in their waistcoat pockets1 or raised up to their chins1 while they support the elbow of the one arm with the hand of the other4 ,the fiddle strikes up anew1 the drum sounds1 the fife squeaks1 the guitar tinkles1 and the overseers drowsily upbraid4 ,but all to no purpose4 ,music has lost its inspiration1 and authority its terrors1 and the men1 dead beat1 raise one purple leg languidly after the other4 ,in the still night time1 with a few lanterns dimly lighting up the gloomy casa dos lagares1 such a scene as ,i have here attempted to sketch has something almost weird about it4 ,by the time the treading is completed1 the violent fermentation of the must has commenced1 and is left to follow its course4#h ,accordingly1 as the grapes are moderately or overripe1 and the atmospheric temperature is high or low1 and it is intended that the wine shall be sweet or dry1 this fermentation will be allowed to continue for a shorter or a longer period1 varying from fifteen hours to several days1 during which time the husks and stalks of the grapes1 rising to the surface1 form a thick incrustation4 ,to ascertain the proper moment for drawing off the wine into tonels1 recourse is usually had to the saccharometer1 when1 if this marks four or five degrees1 the farmer knows that the wine will be sweet2 if a smaller number of degrees are indicated1 the wine will be moderately sweet1 while zero signifies that the wine will be dry4 ,some farmers judge the state of the fermentation by the appearance of the wine on the conventional white porcelain saucer1 and the vinous smell and flavor which it then exhibits4 ,when it is ascertained that the wine is sufficiently fermented1 it is at once run off into the large tonels1 holding their #aj to #cj pipes each1 the mosto extracted from the husks of the grapes by the application of the huge beam press being mixed with the expressed juice resulting from the treading4 ,it is now that brandy--not poisonous ,berlin potato spirit1 but distilled from the juice of the grape--is added at the rate of #e to #aa gallons per pipe1#i if it is desired that the wine should retain its sweetness4 ,should1 however1 the wine be already dry1 the chances are that it will receive no spirit at all4 ,the bungs are left out of the tonels till ,november1 when they are tightly replaced1 and the wine remains undisturbed until the cold weather sets in1 usually during the month of ,december4 ,by this time the wine has cleared and become of a dark purple hue4 ,it is now drawn off its lees1 and returned again to the tonel1 when it receives about #e gallons of brandy per pipe4#aj ,in the following ,march it will be racked into pipes preparatory to being sent down the ,douro to the wine shippers' lodges at ,villa ,nova de ,gaia10 a suburb of ,oporto4 #e ,fermenting house4 #f ,a pipe is #ach wine gallons1 or #aae ,imperial4 #g ,tuns4 #h ,it will be noticed that ,dr4 ,bleasdale says that the treading is repeated during active fermentation4 ,probably different practices prevail in different localities4 #i ,about #d to #i per cent--say #e to #aj4 #aj #d4ce per cent4 ,these ,lodges or ,storehouses are large1 one-story buildings above ground1 dimly lighted through small windows1 for ,mr4 ,vizitelli informs us that it is considered that ports mature less perfectly when subject to the influence of the light4 ,but like other fortified wines1 exposure to the air is considered beneficial to them2 and in racking1 they are drawn off into a wooden pitcher holding about five gallons1 and poured into the cask to be filled1 coming freely in contact with the air4 ,all ,wines of ,similar ,character are ,blended together at the lodge1 by mixing in large vats1 sometimes stirred with a large fan operated by machinery4 ,the blending is also performed in casks1 by pouring into each one successively a certain number of gallons of each kind of wine1 so that the contents of all the casks will be uniform4 ,a small quantity of spirit is usually added at the time of cutting4 ,after blending the wine is racked every three months1 until in a condition for shipment1 which may be in from fifteen to twenty-four months1 according to quality4 ,port loses its ,color rapidly in ,wood1 and much of its fullness1 and wines five years old cease to be regarded as shipping wines1 and are then kept in store and used to give age and character to younger wines4 ,it is then a valuable1 old1 mellow1 and tawny wine1 which the merchants of ,oporto themselves drink4 ,port ,wine ,contains from #ah to #bc per cent4 of absolute ,alcohol after fortifying1 the amount of spirit added depending upon how much is developed by fermentation1 and the amount of sugar in the grapes4 ,it is customary to add a small amount whenever it is racked1 and before shipping4 ,the object of these frequent additions is to keep up the necessary strength1 for a certain amount of alcohol is constantly evaporating while the wine is in casks1 and it may fall below the required strength if these additions are not made4 ,mr4 ,vizitelli has fallen into the error of stating that in dry climates wine becomes stronger by the evaporation of its watery parts2 but this is impossible1 for alcohol is more volatile than water1 and whenever there is evaporation in a wine1 it becomes weaker from the loss of alcohol2 and whenever a wine gains strength by keeping1 it is because the sugar contained in it has been transformed into alcohol1 etc41 by fermentation1 as stated in other parts of this work4 ,,madeira4 ,making4--,in the island of ,madeira it is the practice1 according to ,mr4 ,vizitelli1 to tread the grapes thoroughly in a large1 square wooden trough1 or lagar1 in which they are also pressed1 as in sherry making4 ,a great part of the juice is extracted by treading1 being strained through a basket as it runs off into casks4 ,after the grapes have been thoroughly trodden1 the pomace is gathered together and piled in the centre of the lagar1 and pressed and patted with the hands to extract the must1 and this is repeated three times1 and finally the pomace is again raised in a mound1 wound with a rope1 and pressed by means of a heavy beam suspended over the lagar4 ,this primitive method1 however1 can have but little interest for the wine maker1 as the essential practice in making ,madeira1 or rather in the aging of it1 is the application of heat4 ,casks1 ,treatment4--,the must is fermented1 the wine racked and heated1 in casks holding #acj gallons4 ,after heating1 it is stored in casks holding about #djj gallons4 ,it is fermented in these smaller casks with the bung open1 simply covered by a leaf1 till the month of ,november4 ,either before or after the fermentation1 a small quantity of brandy is added1 varying in quantity according to the quality of the must1 but seldom exceeding three per cent4 ,when the wine has well cleared1 it is racked and lotted1 according to quality1 and forwarded to the heating house1 or estufa4 ,heating ,house1 ,heating4--,one of these at ,funchal1 described by ,vizitelli1 consists of a block of buildings of two stories1 divided into four compartments4 8,in the first of these1 common wines are subjected to a temperature of #adj;,f41 derived from flues heated with anthracite coal1 for the space of three months4 ,in the next compartment wines of an intermediate quality are heated up to #acj for a period of four and a half months1 while the third is set apart for superior wines1 heated variously from #aaj to #abj for the term of six months4 ,the fourth compartment1 known as the #8calor1' possesses no flues1 but derives its heat1 varying from #ij to #ajj1 exclusively from the compartments adjacent2 and here only high-classed wines are placed40 ,they receive a further addition of spirit1 after leaving the estufa1 varying in quantity from one to three gallons per cask1 presumably to supply what has evaporated during the heating4 ,wines are also heated by exposing them to the rays of the sun in glass houses4 ,in the day time a temperature of #abj to #acj is secured1 which becomes considerably less during the night1 which change is by many considered detrimental4 ,some again1 put the casks out of doors in the full sunshine4 ,in the estufas mentioned1 the pipes are placed on end in stacks of four1 with smaller casks on the top1 a gangway being left between the different stacks4 ,the casks are vented with a small hole during the process4 ,leaking is common during the exposure to so great a heat1 and it is necessary to inspect the casks once during every day and once during the night4 ,each compartment is provided with double doors1 and after it is filled with wine1 the inner door is plastered so as to stop all the cracks4 ,in entering the estufa1 only the outer door is opened1 entrance through the inner one being made through a small door for the purpose4 ,the man who examines the casks1 coming out after a stay of an hour1 drinks a tumblerful of wine1 and cools off in a tight room provided for the purpose4 ,from #aj to #ae per cent4 of the wine is lost by evaporation while it remains in the heating house4 ,general ,treatment--,alcoholic ,strength4--,the solera system is somewhat in vogue in ,madeira1 as in the sherry country4 ,the practice also of leaving the casks in ullage prevails--a vacant space of ten or a dozen gallons is left4 ,on the south side of the island #e per cent4 is the largest amount of alcohol added1 and on the north side a little more1 which is added at different times4 ,most ,madeira is dry1 or nearly so1 and contains about #ah per cent4 of alcohol on the average4 ,,sherry4 ,climate4--,according to ,general ,keyes1 the climate of the sherry districts of ,spain is a trifle warmer in winter and about the same in summer as that of ,napa ,valley4 ,but the seasons are not so distinctly wet and dry as in ,california1 and the grapes are sometimes rained on while growing1 and are frequently wet while ripening4 ,neverthless1 the south of ,spain is a dry country4 ,the ,vintage begins in the early part of ,september1 at which time the grapes are ripe1 but by no means overripe1 but sweet and luscious4 ,the grapes are picked in the early part of the day1 and spread upon mats in the sun1 where they remain till the evening of the same day1 when they are crushed4 ,general ,keyes says that they are invariably crushed in the evening of the same day1 but ,mr4 ,vizitelli states that they remain on the straw mats from one to three days4 ,as both write from observation1 it would seem that the practice varies1 the time of the exposure to the sun probably depending upon the degree of maturity when picked4 ,the defective berries are carefully removed4 ,the cool of the night for crushing is preferred to the heat of the day1 and to avoid the precipitation of fermentation4 ,crushing4--,mr4 ,vizitelli's description is as follows3 8,the pressing commenced between seven and eight o'clock1 and was accomplished in a detached building under a low tiled roof1 but entirely open in front4 ,passing through the gateway1 and stumbling in the dim light afforded by an occasional lamp fixed against the wall1 over a rudely paved court-yard1 we found ourselves beside a row of large1 stout wooden troughs1 some ten feet square and a couple of feet deep1 raised about three feet from the ground1 and known in the vernacular of the vineyards as lagares4 ,the bottoms of these receptacles were already strewn with grapes1 lightly sprinkled over with yeso 7gypsum71 which if spread over the whole of the bunches1 would not have been greatly in excess of the amount of dust ordinarily gathered by a similar quantity of grapes conveyed in open baskets on the backs of mules from the vineyards to the pressing places in the towns4 ,at ,torre ,breva1 the sixty or more arrobas of grapes 7#aejj lbs47 required to make each butt of wine1 were having from two to four pounds of yeso sprinkled over them1 or about half the quantity which would be used in a moist season4 ,i was assured that at last year's vintage here not a single ounce of yeso was employed in the manufacture of upwards of #gjj butts of wine4 99 99 99 ,rising perpendicularly in the centre of each of the four lagares to a height of about seven feet1 is a tolerably powerful screw1 which is only brought into requisition after the grapes have been thoroughly trodden4 ,a couple of swarthy1 bare-legged pisadores leap into each lagar1 and commence spreading out the bunches with wooden shovels2 and soon the whole eight of them1 in their short drawers1 blue-striped shirts1 little caps1 red sashes1 and hob-nailed shoes1 are dancing a more or less lively measure1 ankle-deep in newly-crushed grapes4 ,they dance in couples1 one on each side of the screw1 performing certain rapid1 pendulum-like movements which are supposed to have the virtue of expressing the juice more satisfactorily from the fruit than can be accomplished by mere mechanical means4 ,their saltatory evolutions ended1 the trodden grapes are heaped up on one side and well patted about with the shovel1 like so much newly mixed mortar4 ,this causes the expressed juice to flow out in a dingy1 brown1 turgid stream through the spout fixed in front of the lagar1 into a metal strainer1 and thence into the vat placed beneath to receive it4 ,fresh grapes are now spread over the bottom of the lagar1 and1 after being duly danced upon1 are shoveled on one side2 and this kind of thing goes on until sufficient trodden murk has been accumulated to make what is called a pile40 ,pressing4--,his description goes on to show that the treaders give place to the pressers1 who1 with wooden shovels1 build up a mound of marc under the screw1 conical in form1 some five feet high1 which is neatly dressed and trimmed1 and then wound around with a straw rope or band1 about four inches wide1 from base to summit4 ,a circular piece of wood is placed on the top1 and the pressure is applied by means of the screw1 the must passing through the interstices of the straw band4 ,treading and pressing goes on nightly for fourteen hours1 with occasional intervals for refreshment4 ,the wine from the press is invariably fermented separately from that of the first run during the treading4 ,all agree that the grapes are crushed without stemming1 but it seems that the practice of pressing with the stems on is not uniform4 ,general ,keyes says that he made careful inquiry on this subject1 and was informed that only a few of the larger stems were removed1 while ,mr4 ,vizitelli states that the sherry wine maker is so much afraid of tannin and roughness in the wine1 that the stems are all removed before the pomace is pressed4 ,this is not important1 however1 as the press wine is inferior1 and is usually distilled4 ,it is almost a universal custom to sprinkle each pressing of grapes with two or three handfuls of gypsum1 or from two to six pounds to a butt of wine of #acj gallons1 and in wet seasons1 even more4 ,gen4 ,keyes gives an instance of one wine maker who made several casks of sherry one year without the use of gypsum1 and he found no material difference in the product1 but he still follows the custom of the country4 7,see ,plastering47 ,fermenting4--,the must is run into casks of about #aej gallons capacity1 which are filled only to within ten or fifteen gallons of their full capacity1 and is left to ferment in a cool shed1 or in a place separate from the storehouse or bodega2 new wine is not fermented in the same room with the old4 ,as soon as the wine falls bright1 which it does at any time from ,january to ,april1 it is racked and placed in the bodega1 with still a vacant space in the cask1 and brandy is added equal to one or two per cent4 to the stronger wines1 and three or four per cent4 to the commoner ones4 ,if the wine is deficient in sugar1 it may clear by ,january1 but if rich1 it may not become bright till ,april4 ,during the active fermentation1 the bungs1 of course1 are left open1 and in the bodega they are left loose1 or laid over the hole4 ,sometimes the wine is left undisturbed in the bodega until required for shipment1 when it is racked1 clarified1 and again fortified4 ,it is considered best1 however1 to rack it once a year4 ,the wine is now well fermented1 and dry1 or nearly so1 and the sugar that may be found in it after shipment1 has been put in by adding a small quantity of sweet wine4 ,the ,bodegas1 or ,storehouses1 in which these wines are stored1 are entirely above ground1 have very thick walls and double doors1 the roof is covered with tiles1 and the floor may consist only of a mixture of sand and loam1 which1 when moistened1 is not muddy1 and when dry1 is not very dusty4 ,they are kept well ventilated1 even at the expense of a good deal of loss by evaporation1 and are comparatively cool1 the rays of the sun being excluded by shutters4 ,as only old or seasoned casks are used for shipment1 the new ones are used for fermenting the must1 and so they are seasoned4 ,changes in the ,wine4--,the young wine in the bodega now1 during the first two years1 undergoes extraordinary changes4 ,that made from the same vineyard and of the same varieties of grapes1 crushed at the same time1 placed in casks side by side1 receiving apparently identical treatment1 develops totally different characters in different butts1 and is classed according to these several characters1 as ,fino1 ,oloroso1 and ,basto4 ,the best is fino1 of a delicate1 soft1 mellow flavor1 and pale in color1 and only from ten to twenty per cent4 take this form4 ,the fino1 at times1 develops into a still finer quality1 producing what is known as amontillado1 the most valued of all4 ,oloroso is a nutty flavored development rather deeper in color1 and of a stouter character2 when old1 it is of great body1 and perfectly dry4 ,the coarse1 inferior kind is called basto4 ,there are still other casks which by bad behavior1 poor fermentation1 or weakness1 are only fit for the still4 ,flowers4--,sherry produces the phenomenon known as flowers of wine 7micoderma vini71 of which a writer under the assumed name of ,pedro ,verdad1 whom ,i have frequent occasion to quote1 says3 8,at every period1 about the flowering of the vine1 and at about vintage time1 the wine begins to #8breed2' that is1 throw up a flor 7flower71 which remains for some time on the surface1 and then falls in sediment to the bottom1 when the wine once more becomes bright4 ,this phenomenon is looked for with great anxiety in the bodegas1 for if it does not occur1 the wine may be assuming some other and less valued character4 ,strange as it may appear10 he says1 8,i have seen the actual flor rise in a bottle in ,england1 just as in the butt in ,spain40 ,vino ,dulce1 or ,sweet ,wine1 is made from the sweeter kinds of grapes1 especially the ,pedro ,jimenes4 ,the grapes are exposed to the sun1 sometimes for a fortnight1 and till they almost become raisins1 and they then go through the ordinary modes of crushing and fermentation4 ,to each butt of this wine about six or seven gallons of spirit are added1 while the must of other grapes have as much as twenty gallons mixed with each cask of must to check the fermentation1 and keep the wine sweet4 ,one-third of the spirit is poured in as soon as a small portion of the must has been put into the cask1 a third when the cask is half full1 and a third when nearly three-quarters full4 ,the reason is obvious1 as the spirit is lighter than the must1 and would otherwise remain on the top4 ,soleras of vino dulce are of a sweet1 luscious flavor1 and of an oily and slightly glutinous consistency4 ,the finer kinds resemble a liqueur1 and are of great value4 ,vizitelli says that sweet wine is used to give softness and roundness to old and pungent wines1 as well as to the cruder1 youthful growths1 and it is remarkable how very small a quantity suffices perceptibly to modify these opposite characteristics4 ,as little as one per cent4 of dulce will impart a softness to the drier wines1 which otherwise they only acquire after being several years in bottle4 ,color ,wine 7,vino de ,color7 is composed of a mixture of white wine and arrope4 ,the latter is a must of white grapes boiled down over a slow fire till it is reduced to one-fifth or one-sixth of its original quantity1 great care being taken to skim it while boiling4 ,this is a dark-colored1 almost black fluid1 of a bitterish taste4 ,it is mixed with from three to five times its volume of white wine1 and the 8color0 is formed4#aa ,it is chiefly used for giving color to young and undeveloped wines4 ,with great age1 the solera of this wine is very valuable1 being of a deep brown color1 and a perfect essence4 #aa ,vizitelli says the arrope is mixed with nine parts of must1 and fermented to make the color1 but the other authors say 8white wine10 instead of 8must40 ,mature ,wines4--,when the wines have assumed their distinctive characters--and this requires from three to five1 or even more1 years--they are used to replenish the soleras4 ,in the shippers' bodega are kept many soleras1 each containing a given number of butts4 ,a solera1 whether classed as fino1 oloroso1 or otherwise1 has its distinctive quality required in the preparation of a wine for shipment4 ,it has been reared and nursed for years with careful attention2 each butt has been tasted from time to time1 and any cask in which a material deterioration has been detected is rejected from the solera1 and probably fortified with spirits1 or distilled4 ,,the ,,solera ,,system4 ,the distinctive feature in the production of sherry is the solera1 which signifies foundation1 and means old wine kept in casks1 which are never moved as long as the solera exists1 and on the foundation of which younger wines are reared4 ,the casks are arranged in groups1 piled in tiers1 and the groups into scales4 ,the distinctive feature of the system is a series1 commencing with a very old wine1 followed by a younger one1 and so on down the scale to the youngest1 so that when wine for blending and shipment is drawn from the group of casks constituting the oldest solera1 they are replenished from the group of casks of the next younger solera1 and these again from those of the next younger1 and so on through the scale1 thus keeping up the characters of the soleras4 ,establishing a ,solera4--,the following from the address of ,mr4 ,pohndorff before the ,viticultural ,convention held at ,san ,francisco in ,september1 #ahhb1 gives a good idea of how to establish a solera3 ,select the finest wines of a year's vintage1 put them away by themselves1 and carefully care for them and nurse them by racking1 etc41 during the year4 ,the next year1 separate the finest wines from the vintage1 always leaving ullage in the casks of three to five gallons1 according to size1 and the bungs loose1 simply laid over the hole4 ,go on in this way for five years4 ,now a fifth of this five-year-old wine may be drawn off for1 and used to establish another solera1 and the casks refilled from the four-year-old wine1 which1 of course1 must be as nearly as possible of the same nature4 ,with the younger wines1 you may do the same1 except those of one and two years old1 which are not yet soleras1 but young wines4 ,you have then a solera of this five-year-old wine1 which is one-fifth four-year-old wine1 and this may be called the mother solera4 ,at the end of ten years more1 you can say that you have a solera fifteen years of age2 though during the period1 you have drawn off periodically a small portion of it and replaced it with the next younger1 always providing that the younger wine is similar1 for this quality is of much greater importance than the difference of a year or two in age1 for wine a year or two younger or older1 if of the same kind1 will not injure the solera1 but its character may be destroyed by mixing with it wine of a different nature4 ,a solera1 then1 really consists of a mixture of wines of different years4 ,the head of each cask is inscribed with the distinguishing mark of its solera1 and the number of butts of which it is composed4 8,the ,standard ,soleras10 says ,gen4 ,keyes1 8are those from which the wine is drawn for shipment1 and their contents have rested in1 and permeated through1 a series of groups called feeders0--a solera sometimes dating back a century1 it is said4 8,at every stage the wine is graded1 so that the best young wine passes ultimately into the oldest and highest priced solera4 ,when there is only a small number of feeders1 say two or three1 in the group next behind the standard solera1 the wine ought not be drawn out for shipment oftener than twice a year2 but when there are many1 say twelve1 the wine for shipment may be drawn out every two months4 ,to make myself understood in this complicated process1 ,i must explain the principle upon which it is founded4 ,when wine is needed for shipment1 a portion is drawn out by siphons from the standard soleras4 ,the amount which may be drawn out with safety1 and the kind of younger wines which are to replace it in the old solera1 requires great skill and experience1 and1 ,i may say1 a natural aptness for the business4 ,the end in view is to draw off from a standard solera such a number of gallons1 that1 being replaced by an equal number of gallons of the younger wines1 the standard of the solera may remain intact4 ,if too much is drawn out1 or if it is replaced from the wrong feeders1 the standard may be injured1 or even destroyed4 ,but if the proper number of gallons are drawn out and replaced by the right sorts from the other casks1 the old solera soon transmutes the younger wines to its standard1 the bodega retains its reputation1 and the owner grows rich40 ,he quotes ,mr4 ,davis1 of ,jerez1 as follows3 8,the age of the first step of a solera scale depends entirely upon the character and price of the oldest grade of that particular solera4 ,for instance1 the first group of wine in a scale of six1 ending in a medium priced sherry1 might be two years old2 whereas1 the first group of wine to permeate through a scale of1 say four1 ending in a wine of great age or value1 would1 perhaps1 require to be fifteen or twenty years old4 ,in proportion to the number of the scale behind the final solera1 so is the frequency with which the wine can be drawn determined4 ,in a scale of twelve1 the final solera might be drawn1 perhaps1 every two months4 ,in a scale of three feeders1 perhaps twice a year40 ,blending for ,shipment4--,in the cellar a book is kept in which is recorded the blend of each shipment made1 the history of the shipment1 and all the facts necessary to its identification1 and a sample bottle of every shipment is also preserved4 ,when an order is received for a quantity of wine of the same kind as a former shipment1 reference is made to the blend book1 and recourse is had to the sample bottle1 due allowance being made for the bottle flavor acquired by the sample1 and the blend is prepared accordingly1 the necessary quantity being taken from each solera1 of which there are many in a shipping bodega1 and allowance is also made for the change that may have occurred in the solera by replenishing4 ,it is needless to add that only experience and natural aptitude fit a man for this delicate operation4 ,if the order is by a sample whose blend is not known1 the sample is brought into the tasting office1 and the blend glass brought into requisition4 ,it is a graduated glass tube1 with forty markings1 corresponding to the number of jarras1 or jars1 which a butt contains1 all shipments being by the butt4 ,the shipping butt contains #acj gallons1 and the cask for storing is about #bj gallons larger4 ,the cellar-man dips out and puts into the graduated glass amounts corresponding to the number of jars to be taken from each solera1 sweet wine being added for sweetness1 and color wine for color4 ,as the sugar added in the sweet wine would excite fermentation1 sufficient aguardiente1 spirit1 must be added to bring its alcoholic strength up to at least #ah per cent4 ,the right blend having been ascertained1 it is left for a while1 and tasted once or twice to make sure that it is correct4 ,if it does not match the sample1 a little of this and that solera is added till it exactly corresponds4 ,the blend is then entered in the blend book1 which gives the number of butts required1 and the amount to be taken from each solera4 ,the book is then handed in to the bodega for the execution of the blend4 ,supposing it to be a ten-butt shipment1 ten butts are brought into the cellar1 having been most carefully examined and rinsed out with spirit4 ,if ten jars are required from a solera of fifty butts1 two jars would be drawn from each of the fifty butts of the solera1 and put into the ten butts1 and so on from each solera2 whatever the number of butts in a solera1 an equal quantity of wine is drawn from each cask4 ,the following samples of blends are given by ,verdad3 ,,ordinary ,,pale ,,sherry4 ,pale soleras1 #bj jarras ,fino soleras1 #af 8 ,vino dulce1 #c 8 ,aguardiente1 #a 8 ---- #dj jarras ,,ordinary ,,golden ,,sherry4 ,pale soleras1 #bb jarras ,oloroso soleras1 #h 8 ,vino de color1 #b 8 ,vino dulce1 #f 8 ,aguardiente1 #a 8 ------ #dj jarras ,,ordinary ,,brown ,,sherry4 ,pale soleras1 #bc jarras ,oloroso1 #d 8 ,vino de color1 #e 8 ,vino dulce1 #f 8 ,aguardiente1 #b 8 ---- #dj jarras ,fining4--,after the blend is complete1 the wine is fined with the whites of eggs and fuller's earth1 a kind of earth found at ,lebrija1 near ,jerez1 and called ,tierra de ,lebrija4 ,for a butt of wine1 a handful of this earth is made into a paste with the whites of ten eggs4 ,the paste is thrown into the cask1 and the wine is stirred in the usual manner4 7,see ,fining47 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,defects ,,and ,,diseases4 ,these are ,divided by ,boireau into two classes3 #a4 ,those defects due to the nature of the soil1 to fertilizers employed1 to bad processes in wine making1 and to the abundance of common1 poor varieties of grapes4 ,it is evident that defects of this class may exist in the wines from the moment when they leave the fermenting vat1 or the press1 and they are as follows3 earthy flavor1 greenness1 roughness1 bitterness1 flavor of the stems1 acidity1 want of alcohol1 lack of color1 dull1 bluish1 leaden color1 flavor of the lees1 and tendency to putrid decomposition4 #b4 ,those vices which wines acquire after fermentation1 and of which the greater part are due to want of care1 or uncleanness of the casks1 and they are3 flatness1 flowers1 acidity 7pricked wine71 cask flavor1 mouldiness1 bad flavors communicated by the accidental introduction of foreign soluble matters1 ropiness1 bitterness1 acrity1 flavor of fermentation1 degeneracy1 and putrid fermentation4 ,general ,considerations4--,before entering on the subject of the correction and cure of defects and diseases1 it is proper to say1 that whatever be the nature of the malady or defect1 especially if the bad taste is very pronounced1 wine once hurt1 however completely cured of the disease1 will never be worth as much as a wine of the same nature which has always had the correct flavor4 ,it is1 therefore1 wiser and more prudent1 says our author1 to seek to prevent the maladies of wines1 than to wait for them to become diseased in order to cure them4 ,of course1 the wine maker should use every endeavor to remedy the natural defects of his wines4 ,and as for the wine merchant and the consumer1 they should reject all vitiated wines1 unless they can be used immediately1 for they lose quality instead of gaining by keeping4 ,moreover1 when a wine has a very pronounced defect1 it can rarely be used alone1 either because deficient in spirit or in color1 or because the vice cannot be entirely destroyed4 ,it would also be a mistake to suppose that the flavor of a diseased wine would be rendered inappreciable by mixing and distributing it throughout a large number of casks of sound wine2 oftener the latter would be more or less injured by the operation4 ,the defect of such a wine should first be removed by treating it by itself1 and then it should be mixed only with the commonest wine in the cellar4 ,each defect and disease will be treated under its proper name1 the cause indicated1 with the means to be employed to prevent1 diminish1 or to remove it4 ,the doses in all cases1 unless otherwise indicated1 are according to ,mr4 ,boireau1 who gives what is required to treat #bbe litres1 but we have increased the dose to what is necessary for #ajj gallons of wine in each case4 ,any one can first try the experiment on a gallon or less by taking a proportional amount of the substances indicated1 leaving the sample corked1 in a cool place1 for at least two days in ordinary cases1 or for eight days in case the wine is fined4 ,,natural ,,defects4 ,earthy ,flavor--,its ,causes4--,it is a natural defect in the wine1 and consists of a bad taste by which the pulp and the skins of the grapes are affected before fermentation4 ,it occurs in wine made from grapes grown on low1 wet1 swampy land1 and on land too heavily manured1 or fertilized with substances which communicate a bad flavor4 ,he says that this must not be confounded with the natural flavor and bouquet of the wine4 ,contrary to the opinion of those nologues who attribute this defective flavor to the presence of essential oils1 he believes that there is a sensible difference between the natural flavor 7sve7 and the earthy flavor4 ,in fact1 the flavor and bouquet of wines made from grapes of the same variety1 but grown in different vineyards1 present considerable differences1 which are due to the different natures of the soils1 to the different processes in wine making1 to climate1 exposure1 age of the wine1 etc4 ,on the other hand1 the taste and odor produced by the natural flavor and bouquet are not entirely developed till the wine is old1 and the clearing is complete2 while the bad taste transmitted from the soil through the sap1 instead of increasing with age1 diminishes1 and often finally disappears4 ,the reason is that this taste being communicated principally by the coloring matters of the skins1 diminishes with the deposit of these matters1 according as the wine becomes clear4 ,it follows that certain wines may have a good flavor1 and even acquire a bouquet in aging1 which while young had a disagreeable earthy flavor4 ,he instances the wines of several crops1 treated by him1 having a fine color1 mellowness1 and #aj per cent4 of alcohol1 which in their early years had an earthy flavor so pronounced that it might almost have been taken for a mouldy taste4 ,this taste diminished gradually1 with proper care1 and finally disappeared toward the third year2 the natural flavor then developed itself1 and the wines acquired an agreeable bouquet in bottles4 ,grapes from young vines planted in moist land1 have an earthy flavor more pronounced than those from older vines1 grown in the same situations1 and this flavor is generally more developed in the heavy-yielding common varieties than in the fine kinds4 ,how ,prevented4--,this flavor may be sometimes diminished or destroyed by draining the soil of the vineyard1 aerating the vines when too crowded1 and by avoiding the planting of trees in the vineyard4 ,if it comes from too much manure1 less should be used1 and less wood left on the vines4 ,great care should be taken to draw such wines from the fermenting vat1 as soon as the active fermentation is finished1 for a long sojourn in the tank with the stems and skins aggravates the defect4 ,the ,treatment of wines so affected differs according to their origin1 their nature1 and their promise of the future2 but the condition necessary in all cases is to promptly obtain their defecation or clarification1 and never to allow them to remain on the lees4 ,they should therefore be drawn off as soon as clear1 and frequently racked to prevent the formation of voluminous deposits4 ,red wines1 which in spite of this defect1 have a future1 and may acquire quality with age1 should be racked at the beginning of winter1 again in the beginning of ,march1 and after the second racking should be fined with the whites of #ab eggs to #ajj gallons of wine2 they are then racked again two weeks after fining4 ,common red wines1 without a future1 dull and poor in color1 and weak in spirit1 are treated in the same manner1 but before fining1 a little more than a quart of alcohol of #fj to #ij per cent4 is added to facilitate the coagulation of the albumen4 ,in treating wines which are firm1 full-bodied1 and charged with color1 after the two rackings1 an excellent result is obtained by an energetic fining with about three ounces of gelatine4 ,earthy white wines should be racked after completing their fermentation1 and after the addition of about an ounce of tannin dissolved in alcohol1 or the equivalent of tannified white wine4 ,after racking1 they should be fined with about three ounces of gelatine4 ,these rackings and finings precipitate the insoluble matters1 and part of the coloring matter1 which is strongly impregnated with the earthy taste1 and the result is a sensible diminution of the flavor4 ,when not very pronounced1 it is removed little by little at each racking4 ,but if it is very marked1 the wine after the first racking should have a little less than a quart of olive oil thoroughly stirred into it4 ,after a thorough agitation1 the oil should be removed by filling the cask4 ,the oil removes with it a portion of those matters in the wine which cause the bad flavor4 ,the wine is afterwards fined as above4 ,some writers recommend that wine having an earthy flavor should be mixed with wine of a better taste1 as the best method of correcting the defect2 but from what has been said in the preceding part of this chapter1 it would seem to be an unsafe practice4 ,the ,wild ,taste and ,grassy ,flavor are due to the same causes1 and are removed in the same way4 ,greenness--,its ,causes4--,this is due to the presence of tartaric acid1 which it contains in excess4 ,it gives a sour1 austere taste to the wine1 which also contains malic acid1 but in a less quantity4 ,when tasted1 it produces the disagreeable sensation of unripe fruit to the palate1 sets the teeth on edge1 and contracts the nervous expansions of the mouth4 ,greenness1 as the term imports1 is caused by want of maturity of the grapes4 ,we all know that acids abound in unripe fruit1 and it is only at the time of maturity1 and under the influence of the heat of the sun1 that they disappear and are changed into glucose or grape sugar4 ,a green wine1 then1 is an imperfect wine1 which1 besides this defect1 generally lacks alcohol1 body1 mellowness1 firmness1 bouquet1 and color1 because the incompletely matured grapes contain much tartaric and malic acid1 and but little grape sugar and other mucilaginous matter1 and because the matters destined to give color to the skins1 as well as the aromatic principles1 are not completely elaborated4 ,the only way to ,prevent this ,defect is to resort to means necessary to increase the maturity of the grape1 or to add sugar to the must1 neither of which will scarcely ever be found necessary in ,california1 where the defect is not likely to exist1 if the grapes are not picked too green4 ,treatment4--,where the sourness is not insupportable1 the wine may be ameliorated by adding a quart or two of old brandy for each #ajj gallons4 ,the wine as it comes from the vat contains much more free tartaric acid than it contains after the insensible fermentation in the cask1 because it combines with the tartrate of potash in the wine and forms the bitartrate of potash1 or cream of tartar1 which is deposited with the lees1 or attaches itself to the sides of the cask4 ,it follows that the wine will be less green after insensible fermentation1 at the first racking1 than when it was new2 but if the greenness is excessive after the insensible fermentation1 the wine still contains much free acid4 ,the excess of acid may be neutralized in wines which are very green by adding the proper amount of tartrate of potash1 which combines with a part of the tartaric acid to form the bitartrate1 which after a few days falls to the bottom1 or adheres to the cask4 ,the dose varies from #aj to #bd ounces per #ajj gallons of wine4 ,five or six gallons of wine are drawn out of the cask1 and the tartrate of potash is thrown in by the handful1 stirring the while as in the case of fining4 ,this treatment does not always succeed2 hence1 the necessity of preventing the defect when possible4 ,when the greenness is not very marked1 the wine may also be mixed with an older wine1 which contains but little acid and plenty of spirit4 ,lime and other alkaline substances will surely neutralize the acid1 but they injure the wine and render it unhealthy1 and should never be used4 ,machard lays great stress upon the addition of brandy to such wines1 because1 he says1 the alcohol will precipitate the excess of acids1 and will also combine with them to form ethers which give a delicate1 balsamic odor to the wine1 which is most agreeable4 7,see ,ethers1 ,bouquet47 ,roughness is due to the astringency given to the wine by the tannin when in excess4 ,tannin is useful for the preservation and the clarification of wines1 and those which contain much1 with an equal amount of alcohol1 keep much longer than those which contain less1 and undergo transportation better1 and are considered more healthful4 ,roughness is ,not a ,fault1 it is rather an excess of good quality1 if the rough wines have no after-taste of the stems1 bitterness1 earthy flavor1 acrity1 and possess a high degree of spirit1 a fruity flavor1 and a good color4 ,such wines are precious for fortifying1 and to assist in aging those which are too feeble to keep a long time without degenerating4 ,when kept without cutting1 they last a long time1 and end well4 ,but they are long in developing4 ,the ,roughness ,disappears in ,time1 because the tannin is transformed into gallic acid1 and besides is precipitated by other principles contained in the wine1 and by finings4 ,an ,excess of ,tannin is ,avoided in strong1 dark-colored1 full-bodied wines by removing all the stems1 and by early drawing from the tank4 ,if the wines are inclined to be soft1 weak1 and with but little spirit1 no attempt should be made to avoid roughness4 ,when wines are put into new casks1 their roughness is increased by the tannin derived from the oak wood of which they are made2 but during insensible fermentation a good deal of the tannin is thrown down with the vegetable albumen contained in the new wine4 ,how ,removed4--,if the wines are of good body and color1 the roughness may be removed by fining them with a strong dose of gelatine1 two or three ounces to #ajj gallons4 ,as this removes a portion of the color1 it should only be resorted to in the case of rough and dark-colored wines1 to hasten their maturity4 ,bitterness and ,taste of the ,stems--,causes4--,bitterness is a disagreeable taste which1 in new wines attacked by it1 comes from the dissolution of a bitter principle contained in the stems1 a principle entirely different from tannin4 ,sometimes it is communicated by the skins of certain varieties of grapes4 ,this is ,prevented by allowing the grapes to reach complete maturity1 and above all by stemming them all1 and by not leaving the wine too long in the fermenting vat4 ,the ,treatment is the same as for the earthy flavor1 and also afterwards pouring in a quart or more of old brandy4 ,the bitterness here mentioned is only that met with in new wines1 and its cause is entirely different from that found in old wines1 which is described further on4 ,the ,taste of the ,stems1 which often accompanies bitterness1 is due to a prolonged immersion of the stems in the wine4 ,it is supposed that this defect1 which gives the wine a wild and common flavor1 comes from an aromatic principle contained in the stems4 ,it is prevented by stemming1 and like natural bitterness1 diminishes with time4 ,the treatment is the same4 ,an unreasonably long vatting is one of the principal causes of bitterness and stem flavor4 ,sourness--,its ,causes4--,sourness1 or heated flavor1 as it is also called1 is due to the presence of acetic acid in the wine4 ,all wines1 even the mellowest1 the best made1 and the best cared for1 contain some acetic acid1 but in so small a quantity as to be inappreciable to the taste4 ,acetic acid is produced in wines during their fermentation in open tanks1 and is due to the contact of the air with the crust of the pomace4 ,this crust or cap1 formed of skins and stems1 brought to the surface by bubbles of carbonic acid rising from the liquid1 is exposed directly to the air1 and the alcoholic fermentation of the liquid part is soon completed1 and under the influence of the air and ferments1 the alcohol is transformed into acetic acid4 ,this transformation is so rapid that when the vatting is too prolonged1 and the temperature is high1 the exterior crust rapidly passes from acetic to putrid fermentation4 ,as long as the tumultuous fermentation continues1 the crust is kept up above the surface by the bubbles of rising gas1 but when it ceases1 the cap falls1 and settles down into the liquid1 and the wine becomes impregnated with the acetic acid4 ,the wine also1 by simple contact with the crust1 acquires a vinegar smell and taste4 ,wines which become pricked by contact with the air after fermentation are treated further on under the head of ,pricked ,wines4 ,how ,prevented4--,the formation of acetic acid during fermentation is prevented by fermenting the wines in closed or partly closed vats1 by avoiding contact of the air1 by keeping the pomace submerged1 and by confining the carbonic acid in the vat4 ,if open vats are used1 they should be only three-fourths full1 so that a layer of gas may rest upon the pomace and protect it from the atmosphere2 or the cap may be covered with a bed of straw as soon as formed4 ,care should be taken to draw off as soon as fermentation is complete4 ,treatment4--,wines affected in this manner cannot be expected to acquire good qualities with age4 ,they may be rendered potable1 but their future is destroyed4 ,therefore1 every precaution should be taken to guard against the defect4 ,they should be separated from their first lees as soon as possible2 consequently1 they should be drawn off as soon as the gas ceases to rise4 ,if they are still turbid1 they should be clarified by an energetic fining1 and they should be racked from the finings the very moment they are clear4 ,they should be afterwards racked to further free them from ferments4 ,if the wines are only heated1 the odor of acetic acid will be sensibly diminished by the above operation2 but if they are decidedly pricked1 the means to neutralize their acid when drawn from the vat1 as indicated for ,pricked ,wines1 should be resorted to4 ,alcoholic ,weakness is due to a want of sufficient spirit1 caused by an excess of water of vegetation1 and the consequent lack of sugar in the grapes4 ,in ,france this defect is generally found in wines coming from young vines planted in very fertile soils1 or from the common varieties1 pruned with long canes1 and producing a great quantity of large1 watery grapes4 ,when wines weak in alcohol contain but little tannin and color1 they rapidly degenerate1 often commencing their decline during their first year1 and before their clarification is completed4 ,how ,avoided4--,this defect can be corrected by planting the proper varieties of vines1 and by avoiding rich soils2 but in the climate of ,california there is but little danger of the wines being too weak1 unless the grapes are late varieties1 and grown in very unfavorable situations4 ,the ,treatment of weak wines is to rid them of their ferments as soon as possible1 in order to avoid acid and putrid degeneration1 to which they are quite subject4 ,this result is obtained by drawing them off as soon as the lees are deposited4 ,if they remain turbid after the second racking1 they should be gently fined with the whites of nine or ten eggs to #ajj gallons4 ,the coagulation of the albumen will be facilitated by adding one or more quarts of strong alcohol to the wine before fining1 and by adding to the eggs a handful of common salt dissolved in a little water4 ,but as these wines1 by themselves1 are short lived1 it is necessary1 in order to prolong their existence1 to mix them with firm wines1 strong in body and rich in color4 ,by adding alcohol1 they are still left dry and without fruity flavor1 while if mixed with a wine of a flavor as nearly like their own as possible1 and having a fruity flavor1 and being firm and full-bodied1 but not fortified1 they will acquire mellowness as well as strength4 ,want of ,color--,causes4--,as coloring matter is not found in the skins of grapes till they are ripe1 green wines produced in years when the grapes do not ripen well1 lack color4 ,the amount of color may be diminished if by excess of maturity the skins of the grapes decay4 ,the method of fermentation also influences more or less the richness of the color4 ,those wines1 in the fermentation of which the pomace is kept constantly immersed in the liquid1 dissolve out more coloring matter than those fermented in open vats in which the crust is raised above the surface of the must4 ,some kinds of grapes naturally develop more color than others4 ,how ,guarded ,against4--,it is therefore obvious1 that the lack of color may be guarded against by gathering the grapes when they are just ripe1 planting the proper varieties1 and keeping the pomace submerged during fermentation1 stirring it up1 if necessary4 ,the ,treatment should be such as to avoid as much as possible the precipitation of the coloring matter4 ,they should1 therefore1 be fined as little as possible1 and gelatine should be carefully avoided4 ,if they must be fined1 use the whites of eggs and in the quantity mentioned for weak wines--#aj to #ajj gallons4 ,of course1 their color may be increased by mixing them with darker colored wines1 but in order not to affect their natural flavor1 they should be mixed only with wines of the same nature and of the same growth4 ,it is not to be supposed that any one will resort to artificial coloring of any kind4 ,dull1 ,bluish1 ,lead-colored ,wine1 and ,flavor of the ,lees--,causes4--,certain wines remain turbid1 and preserve a dull1 leaden color1 even after insensible fermentation4 ,this state may be due to several causes4 ,oftentimes young wines remain turbid because1 for want of racking at proper times1 and for want of storing in proper places1 secondary fermentation has set in1 which has stirred up the lees which had been deposited at the bottom of the cask4 ,this also takes place when new wines are moved before racking4 ,treatment4--,in these cases1 put them into a cellar of a constant temperature1 leave them quiet for a couple of weeks1 and see if they settle naturally4 ,if not1 clarify them by using the finings appropriate to their nature4 ,if they are turbid on account of an unseasonable fermentation1 the first thing to do is to stop the working by racking1 sulphuring1 etc4 ,when1 in spite of all the cares that have been bestowed upon them1 they still remain dull and difficult to clarify1 while undergoing no fermentation1 the cause must be sought in the want of tannin or alcohol4 ,if the difficulty is due simply to lack of spirit1 the treatment consists in adding two or three quarts of strong alcohol to each #ajj gallons1 mixing with the wine a fifth or a tenth of a good-bodied wine of like natural flavor1 and then by fining it with eggs as mentioned for weak wines4 ,if the dull wine has sufficient alcohol1 as shown by a pronounced color1 add about an ounce of tannin dissolved in alcohol1 or the equivalent of tannified wine1 and fine it with one to two ounces of gelatine4 ,bluish or violet color1 accompanied by a flavor of the lees1 often occurs in wines of southern countries1 and is due to an abundance of coloring matter and a lack of tartaric acid4 ,when the violet-colored wine has a good deal of color1 and more than nine per cent4 of alcohol1 the color may be changed to red by mixing with it from one-sixth to one-fourth of green wine1 which contains an excess of tartaric acid1 the natural blue color of the grape being changed to red by the action of the acid2 then about an ounce of tannin1 or the equivalent of tannified wine1 should be added1 that the color may become fixed1 and that clarification may subsequently take place in a proper manner4 ,in default of green wine1 crystalized tartaric acid may be used1 which is very soluble in wine4 ,a small amount should be first experimented with1 in order to learn just how much to use to change the blue of the wine to red1 for we must not forget that this acid gives greenness to the wine and thereby renders it less healthful4 ,if the wines are so weak in alcohol that they have but little color1 and that is blue and dull1 they have a tendency to putridity4 ,in this case1 the blue color is in fact only a commencement of decomposition4 ,it is due to an internal reaction which transforms a part of the tartrate of potash into carbonate of potash4 ,such wines have a slightly alkaline flavor1 and left to themselves in contact with the air1 they become rapidly corrupt1 without completely acidifying4 ,these wines are of the poorest quality4 ,this disease1 which is very rare1 may be prevented by using the proper methods of vinification1 and by rendering them firmer and full-bodied by the choice of good varieties of vines4 ,in the treatment of such wines1 some propose the use of tartaric acid to restore them4 ,this will turn the blue color to red1 but will not prevent the threatened decomposition4 ,mr4 ,boireau prefers the use of about one-sixth of green wine1 which contains an abundance of the acid1 and the subsequent mixing with a strong1 full-bodied wine4 ,putrid ,decomposition--,causes4--,wines are decomposed and become putrid1 on account of little spirituous strength and lack of tannin4 ,the weakness in alcohol is due to want of sufficient sugar in the grapes--to the excess of water of vegetation4 ,we see1 then1 that wine is predisposed to putridity when it is wanting in these two conservative principles1 alcohol and tannin4 ,such wine quickly loses its color2 it never becomes brilliant and limpid2 it remains turbid1 and never clears completely1 but continues to deposit4 ,the tendency to decomposition is announced by a change of color1 which becomes tawny and dull1 which gives it1 though young1 an appearance of worn out1 turbid1 old wine4 ,its red color is in great part deposited1 and it retains only the yellow4 ,if the defect is not promptly remedied by fortifying1 it acquires a nauseous1 putrid flavor of stagnant water2 and it continues turbid1 and is decomposed1 without going squarely into acetous fermentation4 ,how ,avoided4--,to avoid this tendency1 which is rare1 means should be employed to increase the natural sugar in the must1 and by planting proper varieties of grapes1 which will produce good1 firm wines1 and by choosing proper situations for the vineyard1 and employing the best methods of vinification4 ,treatment4--,decomposition may be retarded in several ways3 ,first1 by fortifying the wines1 by adding tannin to them1 and by adding a sufficient quantity of rough1 firm1 alcoholic wine2 second1 in default of a strong1 full-bodied wine1 brandy may be added1 or better1 the tannin prepared with alcohol1 so as to give them a strength of at least ten per cent42 third1 fining should be avoided as much as possible1 especially the use of finings which precipitate the coloring matter1 such as gelatine2 albumen should be used in preference1 as for weak wines2 fourth1 the movements of long journeys1 and drawing off by the use of pumps1 should be avoided1 for they are apt to increase the deposition of the coloring matter4 ,the treatment mentioned will retard the decomposition1 but will not arrest it1 and such wines can never endure a long voyage unless heavily brandied4 ,several ,different ,natural ,vices and ,defects may attack the same wine1 when it should be treated for that which is most prominent4 ,,acquired ,,defects ,,and ,,diseases4 ,flat ,wine--,flowers--,causes4--,flowers of wine are nothing but a kind of mould1 in the form of a whitish scum or film1 composed of microscopic fungi1 the mycoderma vini and mycoderma aceti1 already mentioned under the head of ,fermentation1 and which develop on the surface of wine left in contact with the air4 ,this mould1 or mother1 communicates to the wine a disagreeable odor and flavor1 and also a slight acidity1 which the ,french call vent odor1 or flavor vent1 and which may be called flatness4 ,the development of these organisms is due principally to the direct exposure of the wine to the air1 which favors their growth by the evaporation of a portion of the alcohol which exists at the surface of the liquid which is exposed1 and a commencement of oxidation of that which remains4 ,the result is that the surface of the wine becomes very weak in alcohol1 and having lost its conservative principle1 it moulds4 ,this mould consists1 as before remarked1 of a vast number of small fungi4 ,they have a bad flavor1 and are impregnated with an acidity which comes from the action of the oxygen of the air upon the alcohol1 converting it into acetic acid4 ,this disease develops more or less rapidly1 according to the alcoholic strength of the wine and the temperature of the place where it is kept4 ,those common1 weak wines1 which have only from #g to #h per cent4 of alcohol1 are the first attacked2 on them flowers are developed in three or four days4 ,stronger wines1 which contain from #aj to #aa per cent4 of spirit1 resist twice as long as the weaker ones4 ,fine wines of an equal strength resist better than the common kinds2 and wines which contain more than #ae per cent4 are not affected4 ,during summer they are much sooner affected4 ,machard is of the opinion that this flavor is due to the commencement of disorganization of the ferments remaining in the wine1 which1 as they begin to putrify1 give off ammoniacal emanations4 ,maumen says that it is due to the loss of carbonic acid4 ,to ,prevent ,flatness1 all agree that wines should be protected from the air2 for this purpose they should be kept in casks constantly full1 or in well corked bottles lying in a horizontal position4 ,when it is necessary to leave ullage in the cask1 a sulphur match must be burned1 and the cask tightly bunged4 7,see ,general ,treatment1 ,wine in ,bottles1 ,sulphuring1 etc47 ,in frequently drawing from the cask1 the deterioration is retarded by taking care to admit the least possible amount of air1 just enough to let the wine run1 but the evil cannot be entirely prevented in this way2 and by frequent sulphuring the wine will acquire a disagreeable sulphur flavor2 therefore1 ullage should never be left when it is possible to avoid it4 ,treatment4--,when the wines show flowers1 but have not yet become flat1 as in the case of new wines which have been neglected1 and have not been filled up for a week or more1 and are only affected at the surface1 by filling up1 the flowers may be caused to flow out at the bung4 ,the cask must then be well bunged4 ,it must afterwards be kept well filled1 for besides the flat flavor that the flowers may give the wine1 they will render it turbid on account of the acid ferments introduced1 and cause it to become pricked in the end4 ,wine badly flowered1 and which has acquired a decided flavor of flatness1 without being actually sour1 should be filled up1 and the flowers should be allowed to pass out of the bung2 it should then be racked into a well sulphured cask1 which must be completely filled4 ,the flowers must not be allowed to become mixed with the wine4 ,after racking1 two or three quarts of old brandy to each #ajj gallons should be added1 or a few gallons of firm1 full-bodied wine1 as near as possible of the same natural flavor4 ,it should then be well fined1 using in preference the whites of eggs 7one dozen for #ajj gallons1 and a handful of salt dissolved in a little water71 and then it must be racked again as soon as clear4 ,the object of this treatment is to extract from the wine by racking the mould which causes the bad taste2 to replace by fortifying1 the alcohol lost by evaporation2 and finally1 by fining1 to remove in the lees the acid ferments1 which have developed in the form of flowers4 ,yet those wines which have become badly affected through negligence are never completely restored1 and if they are fine1 delicate wines1 they lose a large part of their value4 ,therefore1 great care should be taken to prevent this disease1 which in the end produces acidity1 for1 often1 neglected wines are at the same time flat and pricked4 ,some authors recommend that such a wine should be again mixed with a good1 sound1 fresh pomace1 which has not been long in the vat1 and allowed to ferment a second time2 this is called passing it over the marc4 ,of course1 this can only be done in the wine making season1 and cannot be resorted to by those who do not make wine themselves1 or who are at a distance from a wine maker4 ,when all else fails1 they recommend that several large pieces of dry1 fresh charcoal be suspended in the wine1 attached to cords to draw them out by1 ,maigne says1 for forty-eight hours1 and ,machard says1 one or two weeks1 renewing the charcoal from time to time till the taste is removed4 ,if the wine has already become acid1 charcoal will not remove the flavor4 ,sourness1 ,acidity1 ,pricked ,wine--,causes4--,acidity is a sour taste caused by the alcohol of the wine being in part changed to acetic acid by the oxygen of the air4 ,it is due to long contact with the air1 and it is the oxygen which produces the change1 as described under the head of ,acetic ,fermentation1 and it is the more rapid1 according as the temperature is more elevated1 and the wine contains more ferments4 ,what ,wines ,liable to4--,all wines whose fermentation is completed1 and which have been fermented under ordinary circumstances--that is1 those which have received no addition of alcohol1 and no longer contain saccharine matter1 are subject to this affection when left exposed to the air4 ,when they have been fortified up to #ah per cent4 of alcohol1 whether sweet or not1 they do not sour until the alcohol has been enfeebled by evaporation4 ,if they contain sugar1 although not fortified1 a new fermentation takes place1 and they do not acidify until the greater part of the sugar has been transformed into alcohol4 ,machard1 however1 says that wines which contain a good deal of sugar do often acidify1 and in the experience of others1 there is a continuous fermentation1 which renders them very liable to become pricked4 ,as the acetic acid is formed at the expense of the alcohol1 the more the wine contains of the former the less will it have of the latter4 ,acidity is ,prevented by giving wines proper care and attention1 and by keeping them in suitable places1 and by using the precautions indicated for flat or flowered wines1 i4e41 by avoiding long contact with the air4 ,flowers are the forerunners of acidity2 yet they do not always appear before the wine is pricked1 especially if the temperature is elevated1 and the alcoholic strength considerable4 ,in general1 wines become pricked without producing flowers when they are exposed to the air at a temperature of #gg to #ajj ,f42 acidity is produced under these conditions in a very rapid manner2 and this is why extra precautions should be taken during hot weather4 ,it should also be remembered that this vice comes either from the negligence of the cellar-man to guard the wines from contact with the air1 or from the bad state of the casks1 and storing in unsuitable places4 ,treatment4--,acetic acid in wine may be in great part neutralized by several alkaline substances2 but1 if used1 there remain in solution in the wine certain salts 7acetates and tartrates7 formed by the combination of the acetic and tartaric acid with the alkaline bases introduced4 ,these alkaline substances not only neutralize the acetic acid1 but also the vegetable acids contained in the wine4 ,these neutral salts are not perfectly wholesome1 being generally laxative in their nature4 ,moreover1 the acetic acid cannot be completely neutralized by the employment of caustic alkalies 7potash1 soda1 quicklime71 and these bases decompose the wine and cause the dissolution and precipitation of the coloring matter1 and render it unfit to drink by reason of the bitterness which they communicate4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 to choose for the treatment of pricked wines1 those alkaline matters which are the most likely to neutralize the excess of acetic acid without altering the constitution of the wine1 without precipitating their color1 and which produce by combination the least soluble and least unwholesome salts4 ,those which should be employed in preference to others are1 carbonate of magnesium1 tartrate of potassium1 and lime water4 ,the following substances should only be employed when it is impossible to obtain those last mentioned1 for the reason that the salts remaining in solution in the wine may cause loss of color1 and even decomposition1 if used in large doses1 i4 e41 wood ashes 7ashes from vine cuttings being preferred as containing much of the salts of potash72 powdered chalk and marble 7composed of the sub-carbonates of lime1 marble dust being the purer72 solutions of the sub-carbonates of potash1 and of the sub-carbonates of soda1 and plaster4 ,in ,using the ,substances1 it is always best to experiment with a small quantity of wine1 being careful to employ a dose proportioned to the extent of the degree of acidity4 ,thus1 to a quart of wine add #ae or #bj grains of carbonate of magnesia 7#a or #b grammes per litre71 little by little1 shaking the bottle the while2 again1 but only when the wine is badly pricked1 slack a suitable quantity of quicklime in water1 and let it settle till the surface water becomes clear4 ,then add to the wine which has already received the carbonate of magnesia1 #e or #f fluidrams of the lime water 7#b centilitres71 and shake the mixture2 then pour in #b or #c fluidrams of alcohol 7#a centilitre71 and finally clarify it with albumen1 using fresh milk in preference1 from #a to #c fluidrams to a quart 7 to #a centilitre to a litre72 cork the bottle1 shake it well1 and let it rest for three or four days1 when by comparing the sample treated with the pricked wine1 the effect will be seen4 ,this treatment varies according to the nature of the wine4 ,if it is green and pricked1 add #ae grains 7#a gramme per litre7 of tartrate of potassium to the magnesia2 and if the wine has a dull color1 after having added the milk1 put in about #c grains 7#bb centigrammes7 of gelatine dissolved in about a fluidram 7 centilitre7 of water2 if the wine is turbid and hard to clarify1 add a little more than a grain 7#h centigrammes7 of tannin in powder1 before putting in the milk and gelatine4 ,of course1 the same proportion should be used in operating upon a larger quantity of wine4 ,if carbonate of magnesium1 which is preferable to all others1 cannot be obtained1 the dose of lime water may be doubled1 and in default of lime1 powdered chalk1 or marble and vine ash may be used1 but with great prudence1 and in smaller proportions1 or solutions of the sub-carbonates of potash and soda4 ,great care should be exercised as to the quantity of the latter used1 and they should not be employed in treating wine slightly attacked4 ,mr4 ,boireau prefers the carbonate of magnesium to any other alkaline substance1 because it affects the color less1 and does not give bitterness to the pricked wines1 nor render them unwholesome1 as do the salts formed by alkalies with a potash1 lime1 or soda base4 ,in medicine1 carbonate of magnesium is used to correct sourness of the stomach 7so also1 we might add1 is carbonate of sodium74 ,for the same reason1 decanted lime water is preferred to the sub-carbonate of lime1 employed in the form of marble dust and powdered chalk2 nevertheless1 lime water in large doses makes a wine weak and bitter4 ,brandy is added to these wines in order to replace the alcohol lost in the production of acetic acid4 ,the preference given to milk for fining is founded upon the fact that it is alkaline1 and therefore assists in removing the acid flavor of the wine while clarifying it4 ,it is alkaline1 however1 only when it is fresh2 skim-milk a day old is acid1 and should not be used4 ,finally1 the tartrate and carbonate of potassium employed to treat green and pricked wines1 are used to neutralize the tartaric acid1 and gelatine and tannin to facilitate the clarification and the precipitation of acid ferments4 ,wines whose acid has been neutralized should be clarified1 and then racked as soon as perfectly clear1 according to the methods pointed out4 ,the acetic acid being formed at the expense of alcohol1 the more acid the less alcohol1 and hence the necessity of adding spirit1 or1 if the acidity is not too pronounced1 of mixing with a full-bodied but ordinary wine2 but those wines should not be kept1 as they always retain acid principles1 become dry1 and turn again at the least contact with the air4 ,if they are very bad1 and their alcoholic strength much enfeebled1 they had better be made into vinegar4 ,machard's ,treatment4--,machard says that the most successful treatment for sour wine employed by him1 is that founded upon the affinity of vegetable substances for acids1 and that he has succeeded beyond his hopes in completely removing the acid from a wine which was so sour that it could not be drank without seriously disagreeing with the person drinking it4 ,this is his method of proceeding4 ,he formed a long chaplet1 six feet or so in length1 by cutting carrots into short1 thin pieces1 and stringing them on a cord4 ,this he suspended in the wine through the bung for six weeks1 and at the end of the time he did not find the least trace of acetic acid1 thereby accomplishing what he had for a long time in vain attempted4 ,he says that this is the only treatment that succeeded with him1 and he confidently recommends it to others4 ,but he advises that the carrots be left in the wine at least a month and a half1 protecting the wine from the air4 ,and he says that there is no danger of injuring the wine by long contact with the carrots1 or by using a large quantity of them4 ,other ,methods4--,maigne says that if the wine is only affected at the surface from leaving ullage in the cask1 the bad air should be expelled by using a hand-bellows2 when a piece of sulphur match will burn in the cask1 the air has been purified4 ,then take a loaf of bread1 warm as it comes from the oven1 and place it upon the bung in such a way as to close it4 ,when the loaf has become cold1 remove it1 rack the wine into a well sulphured cask1 being careful to provide the faucet with a strainer of crape or similar fabric1 so as to keep the flowers from becoming mixed with the wine4 ,it will be observed that the bread absorbs a good deal of the acid1 and the operation should be repeated as often as necessary4 ,another plan is to take the meats of #fj walnuts for #ajj gallons of wine1 break each into four pieces1 and roast them as you would coffee2 throw them1 still hot1 into the cask1 after having drawn out a few quarts of wine4 ,fine the wine1 and rack when clear1 and if the acidity is very bad1 repeat the operation4 ,a half pound of roasted wheat will produce the same effect4 ,he also gives the following method for using marble dust4 ,take of ,white marble1 #ab lbs4 ,sugar1 #ah lbs4 ,animal charcoal1 washed with boiling water1 #f ozs4 ,take of this from #c to #f lbs4 to #ajj gallons of wine1 according to the degree of acidity2 dissolve it in two or three gallons of the wine and pour into the cask4 ,shake it well1 and continue the agitation from time to time1 for twenty-four or thirty-six hours1 till the wine has lost its acidity1 taking care to leave the bung open to allow the escape of the carbonic acid which is generated4 ,at the end of the time1 add of cream of tartar one-half as much as the dose employed2 shake again1 from time to time1 and at the end of five or six hours1 draw the wine off and fine it4 ,if1 at the end of the first twenty-four hours1 the wine is still acid1 add a little more of the powder before putting in the cream of tartar4 ,in answer to the objections that the charcoal removes the color and bouquet of the wine1 and that the acetate of potassium formed injures the wine1 he says that the charcoal would not hurt a white wine1 and would have but little effect upon a red wine2 and as to the bouquet1 that wines which have become sour have none1 and that the acetate of potassium has no perceptible effect upon the health4 ,instead of the preceding powder1 the following may be employed3 ,white marble1 in fine powder1 #ab lbs4 for ordinary wine1 #d ozs4 ,animal charcoal for fine wine1 #b ozs4 ,sugar1 #a lb4 ,from #e to #g lbs4 of this are used for #ajj gallons of wine1 and one-half the quantity of cream of tartar in fine powder is then added1 in the manner above mentioned4 ,cask ,flavor1 or ,barrel ,flavor--,causes4--,this1 says ,mr4 ,boireau1 should not be confounded with the wood flavor derived from oak wood1 and which wines habitually contract when stored in new casks1 and which comes from aromatic principles contained in the oak4 ,this barrel flavor is a bad taste1 which appears to come from an essence of a disagreeable taste and smell1 and which is the result of a special decay of the wood of the cask4 ,this vice is rare4 ,it is impossible for the cooper to prevent it1 for he cannot recognize the staves so affected1 so as to reject them4 ,for those pieces of wood which have a disagreeable smell when worked1 or show reddish veins1 blotched with white1 often produce casks which give no bad taste to the wine1 while other staves selected with the utmost care1 sometimes produce that effect1 and even in the latter case it is impossible to point out the staves which cause the trouble4 ,when such a cask is found1 the only way is to draw off the wine1 and not use the cask a second time4 ,the ,treatment for wines which have contracted a bad taste of the cask1 is to rack them into a sweet cask1 previously sulphured1 to remove them from contact with the wood which has caused the trouble4 ,the bad taste may be lessened by mixing in the wine a quart or two of sweet oil1 and thoroughly stirring it for five minutes1 first removing a few quarts of wine from the cask to permit of the agitation4 ,the oil is removed from the surface by means of a taster1 or pipette1 as the cask is filled up4 ,the wine should then be thoroughly fined1 either with whites of eggs or gelatine1 according to its nature1 and racked at the end of one or two weeks4 ,the reason for the treatment is that the fixed oil takes up the volatile essential oil1 which apparently produces the bad flavor4 ,the olive oil used contracts a decided flavor of the cask4 ,this treatment diminishes the cask flavor1 but rarely entirely removes it4 ,maigne says that to succeed well by this process1 the oil should be frequently mixed with the wine1 by stirring it often for two or three minutes at a time1 during a period of eight days4 ,it is also necessary that the oil be fresh1 inodorous1 and of good quality1 and of the last crop4 ,the same author gives another process1 that of mixing with the wine sufficient sugar or must to set up active fermentation4 ,after the fermentation has ceased1 fine and rack4 ,this author also mentions other methods of treatment1 but as olive oil is the remedy more generally used1 it is not worth while to give them at length2 suffice it to say1 that the substances recommended are1 a roasted carrot suspended in the wine for a week2 a couple of pounds of roasted wheat suspended in the wine for six or eight hours in a small sack2 the use of roasted walnuts1 as mentioned for sourness2 and two or three ounces of bruised peach pits1 soaked two weeks in the wine4 ,mouldy ,flavor--,bad ,taste ,produced by ,foreign ,matters4--,wine contracts a musty or mouldy flavor by its sojourn in casks which have become mouldy inside1 on account of negligence and want of proper care1 as by leaving them empty without sulphuring and bunging4 7,see ,casks47 ,the mould in empty casks is whitish1 and consists of microscopic fungi1 which are developed under the influence of humidity and darkness4 ,the bad flavor appears to be due to the presence of an essential oil of a disagreeable taste and smell4 ,prevention and ,treatment4--,it is prevented by carefully examining the casks before filling them1 and by avoiding the use of those which have a mouldy smell4 ,wines affected by this flavor require the same treatment as those affected with cask flavor4 ,maigne says that this taste may also be corrected by applying a loaf of warm bread to the open bung1 or by suspending in the wine a half-baked loaf of milk bread4 ,the operation should be repeated in three or four days4 ,foreign ,flavors4--,wines which have contracted foreign flavors1 either by being kept in casks which have been used for liquors of decided flavors and odors1 such as anisette1 absinthe1 rum1 etc41 or from contact with substances having good or bad odors1 owe their taste to the dissolution in them of a part of the essential oil which those substances contain1 and should be treated in the same manner4 ,the chief thing is to remove the cause1 by changing the cask1 for if the foreign taste and smell become very marked1 they cannot be completely destroyed2 they can only be rendered tolerable by mixing them with sound wines4 ,ropiness is the name applied to a viscous fermentation which takes place in wine1 making it slimy in appearance4 ,it is met with more particularly in white wines1 which contain albuminous matters in suspension1 and but little tannin4 ,it is not a very serious difficulty1 for it can be easily corrected4 ,it is only necessary to tannify the wine by adding #ab or #ae quarts of tannified wine1 well stirred in with a whip as in fining1 or an ounce or two of tannin dissolved in alcohol for each #ajj gallons4 ,the tannin combines with the viscous matter and precipitates it1 so that in removing the ropiness the wine is fined at the same time4 ,it should be racked from the finings after about two weeks' repose4 ,and we may add that grapes which produce wines predisposed to ropiness ought not to be stemmed1 or the must should be fermented with at least a portion of the stems4 ,mr4 ,machard says that this disease is also due sometimes to lack of tartaric acid1 and that it may be cured by supplying this substance1 and setting up fermentation again4 ,for #ajj gallons of wine1 about a pound of tartaric acid should be dissolved in hot water1 to which the same quantity of sugar is added1 and when dissolved1 the whole is poured warm into the cask containing the ropy wine4 ,then replace the bung1 and give the cask a thorough rolling for six or eight minutes4 ,a small hole is previously bored near the bung and closed with a spigot1 which is removed after rolling the cask1 to allow the gas to escape4 ,after resting two or three days1 the wine1 which we suppose to be a white wine1 should be fined with isinglass4 ,ropy ,wines in ,bottles generally cure themselves1 but they must not be disturbed until the deposit changes color and takes a brownish tinge4 ,then is the time to decant them for drinking4 ,ropiness may also be ,cured by passing the wine over the marc again4 ,but only good1 fresh pomace should be used1 which is but a few days old4 ,this is done by mixing the wine with the marc of three times the quantity of wine1 and stirring from time to time till fermentation is established4 ,after the fermentation1 the press wine may be mixed with the rest4 ,the author does not state whether this is to be done in the case of white wine or red wine1 or both1 but it is apparent that it would be subjecting a white wine to a very unusual operation4 ,fresh lees may also be mixed with the wine instead of the marc4 ,sometimes it is only necessary to let the wine fall into one vessel from another at a little height1 several times1 or to give it a thorough agitation by stirring it1 or by driving it about for a few hours in a vehicle over a rough road4 ,alum has been sometimes recommended1 but it is now condemned as unwholesome4 ,other means have been suggested1 but these will suffice2 and it is agreed by all that tannin is the sovereign remedy4 ,it is best to avoid the use of sulphur in treating ropy wines1 for fermentation is to be encouraged rather than checked4 ,acrity4--,an acrid taste1 with which certain wines are affected as they grow old1 is a sign of degeneration4 ,mr4 ,boireau says that he has reason to believe that this disease is due to the presence of acetic acid1 coupled with the precipitation of the mucilages which give the mellow flavor to wine4 ,it is more often observed in old1 dry wine1 improperly cared for1 and consequently deprived of its fruity flavor4 ,the ,proper ,treatment is to remove the acetic acid by using a gramme or two per litre 7#fj to #abj grains to a gallon7 of carbonate of magnesium4 7,see ,sourness1 ,pricked ,wines47 ,if the acrity is not too great1 wines may be fortified1 or mixed with a strong1 young1 clean-tasting wine of the same nature1 after which they should be fined4 ,bitterness1 which is often a natural defect 7which has already been considered71 becomes an accidental defect when developed in old wines which were previously sound4 ,it is almost always a commencement of degeneration4 ,this bitter taste comes principally from those combinations which are formed by the dissolution of the coloring matter1 and by the precipitation of the mucilaginous substances1 the pectines1 which give the wine unctuosity and its fruity flavor4 ,treatment4--,the way to diminish this bitterness is to fortify and regenerate the bitter wine which has entered on its decline1 by mixing it with wine of the same nature1 but young1 stout1 and full-bodied1 and which have not yet reached maturity4 ,the mixture should be fined with albumen1 and racked after resting a fortnight4 ,the wine may be improved in this way1 but the bitterness will reappear in a few months4 ,it should1 therefore1 be used as soon as possible4 ,machard recommends the following3 ,fine the wine with eggs1 and let it rest till clear4 ,burn in a clean cask a quarter or a half of a sulphur match 7for #fj gallons71 and pour in the bitter wine at once with the smoke in the cask1 after having added to each litre of the wine about one gramme of tartaric acid 7say #fj grains to the gallon71 dissolved in warm water4 ,it must then be mixed with from a fourth to a half of old wine1 firm and well preserved4 ,he says that a new wine to mix with it is not suitable1 not having sufficient affinity for the old4 ,where there is such a difference of opinion as there is between these two authors1 one recommending the mixture of new wine1 and the other forbidding it1 every one had better experiment for himself with a small quantity1 and after the cut wines have become thoroughly amalgamated1 a choice can be made4 ,and yet1 ,mr4 ,machard says that if the bitterness is not very great1 it is better to give them no other treatment than simply mixing them with younger ones1 but which have a tendency to become sour1 or are already slightly pricked4 ,mr4 ,maumene ,distinguishes ,two ,kinds of ,bitterness3 #a4 ,the nitrogenous matters1 under certain circumstances not well understood1 appear to be changed into a bitter product1 and entirely spoil the best wine4 ,this effect depends especially upon the elevation of the temperature and the old age of the wine4 ,he says that he knows of but one way to remove this bitterness1 and that is to add a small quantity of lime4 ,for example1 #be to #ej centigrammes per litre 7say #ae to #cj grains per gallon74 ,the lime should be perfectly new and fresh4 ,it is slacked in a little water or wine1 and poured into the cask2 after stirring well1 it is left to rest for two or three days1 and then racked and fined4 ,probably the lime combines with the nitrogenous matters1 gives an insoluble compound1 which separates from the wine1 and restores to it its former flavor4 ,the wine ought to remain acid after this treatment4 ,he says that it has succeeded with him a great number of times4 #b4 ,another cause of bitterness appears to him to be the formation of the brown resin of ammoniacal aldehyde1 under the influence of oxygen4 ,the ferment which adheres to the inside of the cask gives a little ammonia by decomposition4 ,we see how the wine1 under the influence of the air1 produces a little aldehyde1 the ammoniacal aldehyde1 and finally the very bitter brown resin1 whose formation was made known by ,liebig4 ,it is under these circumstances that sulphuring may be employed as a remedy4 ,the sulphurous acid destroys the resinous matter in taking its oxygen to become sulphuric4 ,there is then made sulphate of ammonia and pure aldehyde4 ,these two substances by no means communicate to the wine the disagreeable flavor of the brown resin from which they are derived4 ,another origin of bitterness is given1 that of the oxidation of the coloring matter1 but there is no positive proof of this any more than there is of the two causes mentioned by him4 ,unfortunately1 the whole matter is hypothetical4 ,fermentation and ,taste of the ,lees--,yeasty ,flavor4--,by the term fermentation in this connection we mean the malady which is known in different parts of ,france by various names1 such as la pousse1 vins monts1 tourns1 tars1 l'chaud4 ,it generally attacks those wines which are grown in low places1 which come from poor varieties of grapes1 or are produced in bad seasons1 are weak1 full of ferments1 and thereby liable to work4 ,mr4 ,boireau gives it the name of got de travail1 working taste1 or fermentation flavor4 ,he says that the taste is due to the presence of carbonic acid1 disengaged during secondary alcoholic fermentation1 by reason of saccharine matter contained in the wine1 or of mucilaginous matters which give them their mellowness4 ,the principal cause of fermentation is the presence of these matters joined with ferments1 and takes place in an elevated temperature4 ,the yeasty flavor comes from the mixture in the wine of the lees and deposits already precipitated1 and which are again brought into suspension by the movement of fermentation4 ,how ,prevented4--,fermentation and the consequent taste of the lees are prevented by making and fermenting the wines under proper conditions1 keeping them in an even temperature1 and by separating them from their lees by well-timed rackings1 as detailed in the chapters on ,general ,treatment1 ,racking1 etc4 ,treatment4--,the working is stopped by racking the wines into sulphured casks1 and placing them in cellars of a cool and even temperature4 7,see ,sulphuring1 etc47 ,if they have become turbid1 they must be fined1 and they must be left on the finings only as long as is strictly necessary for their clarification4 ,machard recommends that about a quart of alcohol for #ajj gallons of wine1 or its equivalent of old brandy1 be introduced into the sulphured cask before drawing the wine into it1 and that it be fined in all cases4 ,degeneration--,putrid ,fermentation4--,we are warned of degeneration in wines a long time in advance1 in divers manners3 by the loss of their fruity flavor1 by bitterness1 acrity1 etc42 but the true symptoms in old wine are1 the more abundant precipitation of their blue coloring matter1 a heavy and tawny aspect1 with a slightly putrid flavor4 ,the principal causes are the same as those mentioned in speaking of the putrid decomposition in new wines1 that is1 feebleness in alcohol1 and lack of tannin4 ,we know that by the time the tannin is transformed into gallic acid1 the alcohol is diminished by slow evaporation1 and it follows that wines which are too old have lost a part of those principles which give them their keeping qualities1 alcohol and tannin4 ,the ,duration of ,different ,wines is exceedingly unequal1 and1 like animate beings1 they display marked differences in constitution4 ,there are very feeble wines1 as we have already seen1 which are in the way of degeneration the first year1 while others1 firm and full-bodied1 gain in quality for four1 six1 ten1 and more years4 ,as soon as it is seen that a wine1 by its taste and appearance1 has commenced to degenerate1 it is important to arrest the degeneration at once4 ,treatment4--,degeneration may be retarded by adding tannin1 but it is preferable1 in most cases1 to mix the wine with younger wines of the same nature1 firm1 full-bodied1 which are improving1 and consequently possess an excess of those qualities which are wanting in the degenerating wine4 7,see ,wine in ,bottles47 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,wine ,,in ,,bottles4 ,when ,ready for ,bottling4--,wines should not be bottled till their insensible fermentation is entirely completed1 have become entirely freed from deposits1 excess of color1 salts1 and ferments1 and have become perfectly bright4 ,if they are bottled before these conditions are fulfilled1 deposits are made in the bottles1 the wines may contract bitterness and a taste of the lees1 and if fermentation is violent1 the bottles may burst4 ,when they are bottled too young they are sure to deposit1 and then they must be decanted4 ,the ,length of ,time that ,they ,require to ,remain in ,wood before being ready for bottling1 depends upon the strength and quality of the wines1 and the conditions under which they are kept4 ,weak wines1 feeble in color and spirit1 mature rapidly1 while firm1 full-bodied wines1 rich in color and alcohol1 require a longer time to become sufficiently ripe to admit of bottling4 ,the older writers say that wines should not be put into glass until they have become fully ripe1 and have become tawny 7if red71 and have developed a bouquet4 ,but ,boireau says that this is not the proper practice4 ,he says that wine is fit for bottling when freed from its sediment1 and when there is hardly any deposit formed in the cask at the semi-annual racking--when its color is bright1 and it has lost its roughness or harshness1 which it possesses while young1 and at the same time preserves its mellowness4 ,if left in the cask till a bouquet is developed1 wines will often be found to be in a decline by the time they are bottled1 and will not keep as long as those bottled previous to the development of their bouquet1 and while they still possess their fruity flavor4 ,but greater precautions must be taken to insure their limpidity1 or they will be liable to deposit heavily in the bottle4 ,and ,machard1 who indicates aroma and color as signs of proper maturity1 though laying more stress upon the taste1 says that it is always better to be a little too soon than to wait till the wine passes the point4 ,some wines are fit for the bottle at one year old1 others require to be kept from two to six years1 and some even ten years1 or longer1 in wood4 ,white wine1 generally speaking1 matures earlier than red4 ,how ,prepared for ,bottling4--,although a wine may appear perfectly limpid to the eye1 yet1 when bottled1 it may make a considerable deposit1 and therefore1 the only safety is to carefully rack and fine it to get rid of the insoluble matters in suspension4 ,if it is not clear after one fining1 it must be drawn off and the process repeated4 ,when fined and cleared1 it is better to rack again into a cask slightly sulphured1 and allow it to rest for three or four weeks before drawing into the bottles2 for if drawn from a cask still containing the finings1 the sediment is liable to be stirred up by the movement of the liquid4 ,if this is not done1 the faucet should be fixed in place at the time of fining and before the wine has settled1 and at the same time the cask should be slightly inclined forward and blocked in that position1 and other precautions must be taken not to disturb the cask after the wine has cleared4 ,if the wine is too feeble to allow of fining without injury1 and one is sure of its perfect limpidity1 the fining had better be dispensed with4 ,very young wines may be bottled after subjecting them to repeated finings1 but it will deprive them of some of their good qualities4 7,see ,fining47 ,it often happens that a well-covered1 or dark-colored wine will deposit considerable color in the bottle after one fining2 such wine should be twice fined1 and twice racked before fining1 say1 once in ,december or ,january1 and again in ,march4 ,the ,most ,favorable ,time for ,bottling is during cool1 dry weather1 but in cellars of uniform temperature1 it may be done at any time4 ,it is better1 if possible1 to avoid warm or stormy weather1 and those critical periods in the growth of the vine referred to in the chapter on ,racking4 ,of course1 the wine should not be bottled if it shows signs of fermentation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,bottle ,washer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,fig4 #bi4 ,bottle ,drainers4 ,bottles should always be carefully washed and drained before using4 ,they are best washed by the use of a machine made for the purpose1 which scrubs them inside--and sometimes1 also1 outside--with a brush 7fig4 #bg74 ,if only a small number of bottles are to be cleaned1 it may be done by using the chain made for the purpose1 or by putting in coarse sand or gravel and water1 and thoroughly shaking them4 ,shot must not be used1 for a portion of the lead will be dissolved by the water1 and if any remains in the bottle it will be acted upon by the wine1 and lead poisoning may result4 ,in many cases it will be necessary only to rinse them out with clean water4 ,whether new or second-hand1 they must be scrupulously clean before using4 ,after the bottles are rinsed1 they should be allowed to drain by leaving them inverted for an hour or two in a dry place2 if they are left in a damp cellar1 they are liable to contract a musty flavor within4 ,they may be drained by placing the necks downward through holes bored in a plank1 by inverting them in boxes or baskets1 or by placing them upon pegs or nails driven into a post1 and inclining upwards sufficiently to leave the opening of the bottle down1 when the neck is slipped over the peg or nail4 ,figs4 #bh and #bi show devices for the purpose4 ,the bottles are sometimes rinsed out with wine1 or if intended to contain very poor1 weak wine1 with a little brandy4 ,this is done by pouring the liquor from one bottle to another4 ,it is best to use bottles uniform in size for each lot of wine1 and certainly to reject those which are cracked1 have large blisters1 and those which are very thin4 ,these latter1 however1 may be employed1 if but little pressure is used in corking1 but they should be placed by themselves1 or on the top of the pile4 ,no one would make use of such bottles except to store wine for his own consumption4 ,clear and transparent bottles are used for white wine1 and those of colored glass for red4 ,hock1 however1 is often put in brownish bottles1 conical in shape4 ,white wines which are perfectly limpid show to advantage in clear bottles1 but red wines1 if stored in such1 are liable to lose their color by the action of light4 ,it is important that the glass of which wine bottles are made should not contain too much soda1 potash1 or lime1 or they may combine with the acids1 and injure the wine4 ,by the use of crude soda1 alkaline sulphites may be formed in the glass1 and communicate an odor of sulphuretted hydrogen to the wine4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,reservoir for filling ,bottles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,bung ,screw4 ,filling the ,bottles4--,if the faucet has not previously been placed in the cask1 it must now be done with great care1 so as not to disturb any lees that may have remained at the last racking4 ,the faucet should be put into the cask open1 as for racking1 and with very light blows of the hammer4 ,a shallow dish or bucket is placed under the faucet in which the bottle stands4 ,an ordinary brass faucet may be used1 or the bottles may be filled much more rapidly by drawing the wine from the cask into a reservoir provided with as many faucets or tubes as bottles which it is desired to fill at the same time 7fig4 #cj74 ,the cask must be vented either by making a gimlet hole or two near the bung1 or the bung must be removed4 ,the latter1 however1 must not be done by blows with the bung-starter1 but by using the bung screw 7fig4 #ca71 or the lees will be stirred up4 ,the bottle should not be placed upright so that the wine will fall directly to the bottom1 but should be slightly inclined so as to permit the wine to trickle down the inside1 or a foam will be formed1 and it will be difficult to fill the bottle4 ,the workman having his empty bottles within reach1 allows a little of the first wine to run into the dish1 or into a bottle1 which is put aside1 as there may be some impurities in the faucet4 ,the workman is seated in front of the cask1 and the empty bottles are placed one at a time under the faucet as described4 ,as soon as one bottle is filled1 it is removed and another put in its place1 without closing the faucet1 and without loss of wine4 ,the sediment would be disturbed by the shocks caused by opening and shutting the faucet4 ,if the needle is used in corking the bottles1 they should be filled within a little more than an inch of the top1 and if corked in the ordinary manner1 only to within about two inches of the opening1 leaving an inch of vacancy below the cork2 always1 however1 depending somewhat upon the length of the corks used4 ,this is continued1 placing the full bottles in a convenient place1 until the wine ceases to run at the faucet4 ,the cask must then be slightly inclined forward1 as described in the case of racking4 ,at this stage1 great care must be taken not to trouble the wine2 and if a few bottles at the end contain that which is not clear1 they should be put aside1 to be decanted after settling4 ,in drawing from the upper tiers of casks in piles1 the basin must be elevated sufficiently to bring the bottle placed in it up to the faucet1 or the latter may be connected with it by a hose4 ,corks4--,only good corks should be used4 ,they are supple and uniform in texture4 ,poor corks are sold in the market1 in which is found a good deal of the dark1 hard portion of the bark1 which are not only liable to break the bottles by the great amount of pressure required to insert them1 but also to discolor the wine1 affect its flavor1 and to permit it to leak out4 ,straight corks are used now-a-days1 somewhat larger than the neck of the bottle1 and are forced in by means of ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,corking ,machines4 ,corking ,machines4--,these machines are of different forms and make1 but are provided with a hollow cone through which the cork is forced by a piston1 compressing it so that it easily goes into the neck of the bottle4 ,some work with a lever1 and some with a crank4 ,in the small hand-machine1 the piston is pushed by the hand4 ,the bottles may be made full enough so that the wine will touch the bottom of the cork1 leaving no vacant space1 if the needle is used in corking4 ,this is a small1 tapering1 half-round1 steel instrument1 one-tenth of an inch in diameter1 with a groove along the flat side4 ,by placing this in the neck with the groove next the glass1 the cork may be forced down to the wine1 the air and surplus wine escaping by the groove4 ,after the cork is driven home1 the needle is removed4 ,a piece of wire1 provided with a handle1 will answer the purpose4 ,the handle of the needle 7either a ring1 or like that of a gimblet71 is attached by a hinge1 and turns down out of the way of the tube and piston of the machine4 ,some bottling machines have a needle attachment4 ,bottles corked by the use of this instrument do not contain a vacant space1 and the wine keeps better1 not being exposed to the action of the air1 which would otherwise remain in the neck of the bottle1 and not being shaken in transportation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,corking ,machines4 ,figures #cb and #cc show corking machines with and without needles4 ,in fig4 #cc two needles are also shown4 ,if the old-fashioned conical corks are used1 they may be driven home with a small mallet1 or wooden paddle1 but the cylindrical corks are preferable1 if the wine is to be kept long4 ,preparation of the ,corks4--,in order to render them more supple1 they are soaked for several hours in water4 ,what is far better1 however1 is to steam them for two or three hours1 or soak them in hot water4 ,they should be allowed to drain1 and then be dipped in wine like that to be bottled4 ,some dip them in alcohol to render them more slippery1 and some again1 put a drop or two of sweet oil on the surface of the water in which they are wet4 ,the ,corks may be ,driven down ,flush with the opening of the bottle1 or they may be left projecting a quarter of an inch1 and if much larger than the neck of the bottle1 a shoulder will be formed1 as in the case of sparkling wines4 ,the object of leaving the corks projecting a third of their length in bottling sparkling wines is1 that they may be forced out with an explosion2 and the shoulder completely closes the bottle1 being wired down4 ,sealing the ,corks4--,if the bottles are stored in a damp place where the corks are liable to rot1 and also if they are to be kept more than two years1 it is well to cover the ends of the corks with wax4 ,this also prevents attacks by insects4 ,the ,sealing ,wax used should be sufficiently adhesive1 but not too hard and brittle4 ,various receipts are given for its preparation1 and the following is given by ,boireau3 ,melt common pitch or turpentine over a slow fire1 taking care not to allow it to boil over4 ,when it is well melted1 remove whatever impurities it contains1 add a little tallow--a little less than an ounce of tallow to a pound of pitch4 ,its natural color is reddish1 and is used without addition of coloring matter4 ,rosin may be substituted for the pitch4 ,instead of making this preparation1 the fruit wax of commerce may be used4 ,about the same quantity of tallow1 however1 should be added1 if sealing wax is used1 or otherwise it will be too brittle4 ,the tallow may be replaced by beeswax with advantage4 ,an excellent bottle wax is said to be made by melting together two pounds rosin1 one pound ,burgundy pitch1 one-fourth pound yellow wax1 and one-eighth pound red wax4 ,the wax may be replaced by three ounces of tallow4 ,if too much tallow is added the cement will be too soft4 ,the ,cement is ,applied ,hot4--,it must be melted1 and the bottle reversed and dipped into it1 so that the wax will cover the end of the cork and a small part of the neck of the bottle1 say down to the ring4 ,it is entirely unnecessary to cover more of the neck of the bottle4 ,coloring ,matter may be added to these different cements1 and any desired color produced4 ,a little more than half an ounce of the following named substances is stirred in to one pound of the melted wax4 ,a brilliant red is produced by vermilion1 a duller red by red ochre1 black with animal black1 yellow with orpiment1 dark yellow with yellow ochre1 and blue with ,prussian blue4 ,green is made by mixing equal parts of blue and yellow1 and other shades may be made by mixing the different colors to suit the taste4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,pincers for ,removing ,wax4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,capsuler4 ,capsules are now much used instead of wax4 ,in preparing the bottled wine for shipment1 where the corks have previously been waxed for storing in the cellar1 capsules are also used4 ,in this case1 the wax is removed before the capsule is put on by means of a pair of pincers with roughened jaws 7fig4 #cd74 ,these capsules in different colors are sold by dealers in corks4 ,they are ,put on by slipping one over the neck of the bottle as far as it will go1 and then pressing it down closely all round4 ,for this purpose1 one turn is made around the end of the capsule with a stout cord fastened at one end1 and the bottle is pushed forward with one hand1 while the loose end of the string is pulled tight with the other1 thus sliding the loop over the capsule and the neck of the bottle1 and pressing it firmly in place4 ,instead of holding the cord with one hand1 it may be attached to a pedal worked by the foot4 ,a machine 7fig4 #ce7 is made with two posts or standards1 one solid1 to which one end of the cord1 ,a1 is attached1 and the other playing on a hinge1 to which the other end is fastened1 and pulled tight by a pedal1 ,b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,piling ,bottles4 ,piling of ,bottles4--,bottles may be stacked on the floor of the cellar in piles consisting of a single or a double range4 ,the bed should be made level by arranging the soil1 or by laying down strips of wood1 and leveling them4 ,the bottles should be laid horizontal4 ,if the neck is down1 the deposit will be on and near the cork1 and will trouble the wine as it runs from the bottle4 ,if the bottom is lower than the neck1 the cork will not be kept wet1 and the wine is liable to be injured by the air1 as the cork is not perfectly air-tight4 ,the bottles should be supported at two points1 the neck and the bottom2 the belly of the bottle needs no support4 ,if two tiers of bottles are put in a pile1 the bottoms are on the outside1 with the necks at the middle of the pile4 ,laths are used to support the bottles1 about three-eighths of an inch thick1 and one inch or more wide4 ,the lower row of one tier is made by laying down at the outside of the pile two laths to support the bottom end of the bottle1 and one thick strip or sufficient laths are laid down to support the neck1 inside the ring1 and keep the bottle level4 ,the next tier may be commenced by laying one or two laths on the necks of the bottles of the first one to support the necks of those of the other1 the necks of the bottles of one tier lapping over those of the bottles of the other2 the bottoms of those of this tier must be sufficiently elevated by laths to keep the bottles level4 ,the next row of bottles is supported by laths laid on those below1 one or two near the outer end of the lower ones1 and a larger number on their necks4 ,in this case the necks all point in1 the bottoms being together 7fig4 #cf74 ,the bottles of each row should be sufficiently separated to allow those of the next row above to be supported by the laths without touching each other1 and should be blocked after adjusting the distances4 ,the piles may be made from three to six feet high1 and must be supported at the ends1 either by the cellar walls or posts4 ,each tier may be made entirely independent of the other1 by supporting the necks of the bottles of the next upper row on laths laid near the bottoms of those of the first row1 one row having the necks pointing out1 and the next one having them pointing the other way4 ,in this case the bottles in a row may be separated an inch or more from each other1 and blocked with bits of cork4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,bottle ,rack4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,bottle ,rack4 ,racks and ,bins for ,bottles4--,instead of piling the bottles1 they may be arranged in bins constructed for the purpose4 ,the simplest is a frame of wood or iron of the desired length and height1 and deep enough to accommodate one or two tiers of bottles4 ,the lower bars on which the first row of bottles rests1 should be so arranged as to support them in a level position1 as already described for piling4 ,if only one tier is to be made1 only two bars at the bottom are necessary1 but if double ranges are to be made1 the frame must be deeper1 and have a middle bar to support the necks of the bottles1 the bottoms all being outside4 ,the bottles are piled in these frames in the manner already described4 ,instead of piling them in simple frames with the use of laths1 racks are made with bars to support each row of bottles by itself1 and so that any one bottle can be taken out without disturbing the rest4 ,if the supports are of wood1 they may be cut1 or if of iron1 bent in a form to fit each bottle1 that is1 in small half-circles in which the bottles rest1 with smaller ones for the necks1 or they may be straight4 ,these bins may be made portable1 and of any size to suit4 7,figs4 #cg and #ch47 ,burrow's ,patent ,slider ,bin1 made in ,england1 has a separate compartment for each bottle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,burrow's ,slider ,bin4 ,treatment of ,wine in ,bottles4--,sometimes it will be found that wine ferments in the bottle1 becomes turbid1 and makes a voluminous deposit1 or may contract various maladies1 such as bitterness1 harshness1 ropiness1 or may become putrid4 ,these effects result principally from bottling the wine too young1 before insensible fermentation and the natural clearing has been completed1 or they may be caused by changes of temperature1 or too great age4 ,fermentation in the ,bottles is due to the same causes as fermentation in casks--changes of temperature1 contact of the air1 etc4 ,it may be avoided by bottling at the proper time1 carefully protecting the wine from the air by corking the bottles hermetically by the use of the needle1 and keeping them in a cellar of even temperature4 ,boireau says that sweet and mellow wines are liable to ferment in bottles1 especially if exposed to a high temperature1 unless their alcoholic strength exceeds #ae per cent4 ,still wines which ferment in the bottle generally must be emptied into casks1 and there treated as indicated in the chapter on ,diseases4 ,temporary relief may be given by putting the bottles in a cooler place1 and uncorking them for an hour or two to allow the gas to escape4 ,deposits and ,turbidity4--,wine1 after being some time in glass1 forms more or less deposit1 according to its age1 quality1 and degree of limpidity at the time of bottling4 ,the deposits consist almost entirely of coloring matter1 and vegetable and mineral salts2 sometimes they adhere to the sides of the bottle1 and in some cases they render the wine turbid1 and again they present the appearance of gravel when the wine contains much tartar4 ,in wines bottled too young1 or which are made by mixing those of different natures1 quite a voluminous deposit may be formed after they have remained a few years in glass4 ,but good1 natural wines1 of good growth1 well cared for1 and bottled under proper conditions1 scarcely commence to deposit at the end of one or two years4 ,the deposit1 however1 will be increased1 if the bottles are frequently disturbed1 are transported long distances1 undergo changes of temperature1 or are kept so long that they begin to degenerate4 ,if there is much deposit1 it is apt to give the wine a bitter or acrid flavor1 or a taste of the lees4 ,therefore1 if the wines are of high quality1 they should be decanted4 ,mr4 ,boireau proceeds to say that if the deposit is small1 and we are dealing with grand wines in bottles1 which have contracted no bad taste1 it is better not to decant them1 for the operation is liable to cause a loss of a portion of the bouquet1 especially if not done with proper precautions4 ,these directions only apply to those bottled wines which have deposited sediment1 but which are nevertheless clear1 and bright1 and of a lively color4 ,those1 however1 which become and remain turbid1 must be fined1 and for this purpose they must be put into casks4 ,if wines containing sediment are brought to the table without decanting1 they are kept in nearly the same position as they occupied in the cellar1 by using small baskets contrived for the purpose4 7,see ,decantation47 ,bitterness and ,acrity1 when not caused by deposits1 are due to loss of the fruitiness and mellowness of the wine1 which then has commenced to decline4 ,the only remedy in case of fine wines which have preserved their bouquet1 is to mix them with younger wines1 mellow and perfectly bright4 ,this should be done by decanting without contact with the air2 but if they are seriously affected1 they must be put into casks and the operation there performed2 then they should be well fined before re-bottling4 ,ropiness in bottled wines1 which is due to lack of tannin1 generally occurs in white wines which have been bottled before perfectly clear1 and while they contained considerable nitrogenous and albuminous matters in suspension4 ,the treatment is indicated elsewhere4 ,in most cases1 if the wines are worn out1 it will be necessary to put them into casks1 and mix them with younger ones of the same quality4 ,degeneration and ,putridity4--,wine may be kept and improved in bottles1 if properly treated1 as long as its constituent principles remain soluble and in combination2 but with the lapse of time1 varying with different kinds1 it begins to lose quality4 ,this degeneration1 says the author last quoted1 announces itself a long time in advance1 in the grand wines1 by a loss of their unctuosity1 of their fruity flavor1 and by a bitter and sometimes acrid taste2 and if they are kept for several years more1 the fragrance of the bouquet is lost1 and they contract a rancio or tawny flavor1 which masks their natural flavor2 they rapidly lose color1 and form a deposit much more considerable than in the earlier years of their sojourn in bottles2 and finally1 when their degeneracy is advanced1 they give off a slightly putrid odor4 ,as soon as high priced wines have attained their entire development in bottles1 in order to prevent their decline1 they should be carefully decanted into bottles with ground glass stoppers1 previously rinsed with wine of the same kind4 ,loss of color1 joined with an abundant deposit1 which is a sure sign of degeneration in the wines of the ,gironde1 do not mean the same in all other kinds4 ,for instance1 the red wines of ,spain 7and we may add1 ,portugal71 and the sweet wines of ,roussillon1 which have a very dark color when young1 almost entirely lose it after three or four years in bottle2 they become tawny1 without degenerating2 but1 quite to the contrary1 their quality is improved4 ,it is observed1 however1 that in wines of these latter classes1 whose alcoholic strength exceeds #ae per cent41 the deposit is not so great1 compared with the amount of coloring matter precipitated1 as in wines of the first mentioned growth1 and that the coloring matter adheres to the sides of the bottle1 instead of falling to the bottom4 ,some of our ,california wines deposit a good deal of color in the bottle1 even when fined4 ,probably a double fining would be advantageous in many cases4 ,as alcohol and tannin are the preservative principles of wines1 those last longest which are best provided with them4 ,the cause of the degeneration of wine is the decomposition of its constituent parts1 which thereby become insoluble1 and are precipitated4 ,the loss of tannin1 which in time is transformed into gallic acid1 takes from feeble wines their best conservator1 and causes precipitation of the coloring matter4 ,and it is observed in practice that wines which contain a great quantity of tannin last longer than those of the same alcoholic strength having less tannin4 ,decantation consists in drawing a wine from the bottle containing it1 so as to leave the sediment behind4 ,it should be done without exposing the wine to the air4 ,the bottles should be brought from the cellar without changing their position1 for if the deposit is disturbed1 and the wine becomes cloudy1 the bottles must rest till it has settled again4 ,for this purpose they are laid in a basket1 or other suitable receptacle1 where they are inclined just enough so that the wine will not run out when the cork is removed 7fig4 #dj74 ,the cork must be drawn without disturbing the sediment1 by using a corkscrew1 which by means of a screw or lever1 gradually removes it1 and without a shock 7fig4 #da74 ,the wine is slowly run into another clean bottle previously rinsed with the same kind of wine4 ,if the wine is in its decline1 rinse the bottles with old brandy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,decanting ,basket4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,corkscrews4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,decanting ,instrument4 ,the ,operation may be ,performed by carefully pouring the wine into the empty bottle through a small funnel1 which is provided with a strainer4 ,by means of a light placed below the bottle1 the sediment can be watched1 and as soon as it is about to run out with the wine1 the operation must cease4 ,the new bottle must be filled up with the same kind of wine and immediately corked4 ,in decanting in this manner1 the bubbling of the air passing into the bottle as the wine runs out1 is very apt to disturb the lees4 ,this may be prevented by using a small tube1 slightly curved1 which connects the air outside with the vacant space in the bottle4 ,in order to prevent access of the air1 however1 an instrument is used consisting of two conical corks1 connected by a small rubber tube4 ,each cork is pierced with two holes2 the one placed in the bottle to be emptied1 besides the hole which receives the rubber hose through which the wine runs1 is provided with one through which a bent tube is placed to admit the air2 the hose passes through the other cork and conducts the wine into the other bottle1 and this cork has another hole for the escape of the air 7fig4 #db74 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,cutting ,,or ,,mixing ,,wines4 ,most ,french ,wines ,mixed4--,maigne1 speaking of the wines of ,france1 says1 that of one hundred wines in the market1 perhaps there are not ten which are not produced by mixing several different kinds4 ,without doubt1 he says1 we should as much as possible preserve the products of the vine as they are given to us2 but there are a multitude of cases where it is absolutely impossible to render them drinkable without mixing1 or as wine men say1 without cutting them with other wines4 ,when ,necessary--,effect of4--,in good years1 almost all wines can be drank in their natural condition1 but when the grapes have not become sufficiently ripe1 the wines1 even of good growths1 lack quality1 or preserve for a long time a roughness more or less marked1 and always disagreeable4 ,it is then necessary to mix them1 especially if common wines1 with better ones1 to make them tolerable4 ,it is not always necessary1 however1 that the season should be bad1 in order that cutting should be proper4 ,wines naturally have1 for a certain time1 an earthy flavor and greenness which are unpleasant1 which disappear by mixing4 ,this is why ordinary wines of a moderate price1 which have been mixed1 are preferred by a great number of consumers to others which are higher in price but left in a state of nature4 ,for example1 a new1 very dark-colored wine of good growth is not an agreeable drink2 but if an old white wine of an inferior growth1 but of good taste and constitution be added1 it will be drank with pleasure4 ,mixing the wine produces results similar to those caused by mixing the fruit1 and it may be done by the wine maker as well as by the merchant4 ,as they come from the vat1 wines manifest the qualities and defects communicated by the vintage1 and which are varied by a multitude of circumstances1 such as the nature of the soil1 varieties of grapes1 temperature of the season1 and the like4 ,wines endowed with qualities which fit them to be kept in their natural condition1 of course1 are not mixed4 ,but those which1 on the other hand 7and they are in the majority71 have too much or too little color1 are weak1 flat1 coarse1 green1 pasty1 rough1 lacking in bouquet1 too strong1 or too light1 cannot be put on the market till they have been cut with other wines capable of giving them the qualities which they lack1 and of remedying their defects4 ,it will be understood that the mixture of a weak wine with a stronger one1 of one lacking color with one which has too much1 a light wine with a generous one1 of a hard wine with a flat one1 etc41 a wine will be produced superior in quality to any one of those used4 ,for these reasons1 in a viticultural district1 when a producer cannot sell his wine of a bad year1 he mixes it with that of the following year1 if the latter is of a better quality2 if he cannot mix it all1 he may use it for ullage4 ,in the same way1 if he has new white wines which become discolored and turn yellow1 he mingles them with very dark red wines1 which then become more agreeable to drink4 ,it is said that the tithe wines used to be of superior quality4 ,in certain communes of ,france1 the inhabitants contributed to the priest's cask a certain amount of their new wine1 and this wine which represented a mixture of all the wines of the commune1 had the reputation of being superior to any one of the others4 ,and the following case1 quoted by ,maigne1 is given for what it is worth4 ,a cask lay in a cellar into which they were accustomed to throw the leavings of all kinds of wine1 such as from broken bottles1 drippings1 etc4 ,it was intended to use the liquid upon diseased trees1 but it was for some time forgotten4 ,when found and brought out1 the cellar-man tasted the singular mixture out of curiosity4 ,it was found to be a delicious liquor1 which gave delight at dessert2 and it was with true grief that they saw its end approach6 ,in order to perform the operation successfully1 an experienced man is required1 who will be guided by his educated taste2 and therefore1 precise rules cannot be laid down1 but there are certain general principles which it may be useful to state4 ,wines of the same ,general ,nature and ,flavor should be used1 and two of such wines may nevertheless be deficient in some particular respects1 so that by mixing1 the defects of the two will be corrected4 ,such wines are mixed1 because they are said to marry better1 and produce a more homogeneous liquid than those of different natures4 ,fine ,wines4--,all agree that fine wines which have a bouquet and a future are best left in their natural condition1 for their distinctive character will be destroyed by mixing with wines of a different nature and quality4 ,boireau says that experience proves that if such wines are mixed while young1 even with old wine of good quality1 they will never acquire that degree of fineness which they would have obtained if left by themselves2 that they sooner loose their fruity flavor1 and are more liable to make a deposit in the bottles4 ,there are cases1 however1 when cutting becomes necessary1 as when the wine from being kept too long in casks1 has commenced to decline1 has lost its fruity flavor1 has become acrid and dry2 when made in a bad1 cold season2 and when they are too poor1 green1 or too feeble to keep well4 ,when wines are too old and worn out1 they should be fortified with young wines of the same kind1 produced1 if possible1 from the same vineyard1 one or two1 or at most1 three years old1 and possessing great mellowness4 ,the amount of new wine to be used will depend upon the degree of degeneracy and the length of time they are to be kept4 7,see ,degeneration47 ,poor1 weak wines1 whose keeping qualities are doubted1 should be mixed with young wine of a good year1 firm and full-bodied1 possessing as nearly as possible the same natural flavor4 ,the foregoing is intended to apply to feeble1 delicate wines which have a flavor and bouquet1 but which are not too green4 ,wines which have a future should not be sacrificed by using them to fortify others which are both feeble and green1 for the excess of tartaric acid contained in the latter will totally destroy the mellowness of those used to fortify them4 ,to mix with such wines1 clean-tasting wines of the south should be used4 ,if the wines are too green1 a portion of the acid may be neutralized1 as described under the head of ,greenness4 ,ordinary ,wines should be treated in such a way as to give them as much as possible the qualities sought in fine wines1 and they should be cut with suitable wines of the same age to give them bouquet1 flavor1 and mellowness1 or at least to remove their excessive dryness--a very difficult thing to do4 ,it may be accomplished1 in part1 by mixing them with wines of the same growth1 but whose bouquet and flavor are very expansive1 and by adding neutral1 mellow wines4 ,sufficient ,time ,must be ,given to the mixture to allow the different wines employed to become intimately combined1 or their different flavors may be detected1 which will not be the case when thoroughly amalgamated4 ,when ,large ,quantities of wine are used1 the mixture is more nearly perfect than if mingled1 cask by cask2 and by operating upon the whole amount at one time in a large vat1 a perfect uniformity will be insured4 ,an ,entirely ,new ,wine should not be mixed with an old one1 as there is not sufficient affinity between them4 ,in an old wine1 says ,machard1 all the constituents are in a state of complete quiet2 they are well combined 7melted7 and homogeneous4 ,if there is mixed with it a wine whose principles are equally well combined1 no ulterior action will result4 ,but if new principles are introduced1 elements of a different nature1 the equilibrium will be disturbed1 there will infallibly result a reciprocal action and disorganization4 ,very ,green ,wines should not be mixed with those containing much sugar for similar reasons1 for the mixture is liable to be thrown into a state of violent fermentation1 which it will be difficult to arrest4 ,the reason given is that the green wine contains a good deal of ferment2 but if both the wines are produced in the south1 where the ferment contained in the dry wine is not abundant1 the mixture may safely be made4 ,so that1 after all1 we get back to the principle1 that wines of widely different natures and origins should not be mixed1 but keeping this in mind1 a sweetish and a dry wine may be used to correct each other4 ,white ,wines may sometimes be mixed with advantage with red ones1 as before mentioned1 but the former should not be employed too liberally4 ,diseased ,wines must not be mixed with sound ones1 except in the few cases mentioned under ,defects and ,diseases4 ,it is especially dangerous to cut a soured or pricked wine with a sound one1 for the whole mass is liable to be lost4 ,mixing ,grapes4--,it is doubtless always better1 when practicable1 to correct defects by mixing the grapes and fermenting the different kinds together1 for then a more homogeneous wine will be formed2 and1 therefore1 the intelligent grape grower will find out the defects of his wine1 and remedy them by planting a sufficient quantity of other varieties for the purpose4 ,precautions4--,care1 however1 must always be taken not to spoil a good wine by cutting it with a very common one1 nor by mixing poor varieties with grapes of fine kinds4 ,cheap wines1 however1 for immediate consumption1 may admit a certain proportion of poor1 common wine1 into their composition1 without inconvenience4 ,in that case1 the ferments of the common sorts will not have time to act and produce serious results4 ,if1 however1 they are to be kept for some time1 or bottled1 the effect will be bad1 for the ferments always abundant in wines from the commoner varieties1 are liable to become decomposed1 and cause a disagreeable1 nauseating flavor4 ,whenever there is a doubt in the mind of the cellar-man as to whether certain wines should be mixed1 it is always best to make a small sample first1 clarify it1 and leave it for a sufficient length of time1 and judge of the result1 before operating upon a large quantity4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,wine ,,lees1 ,,marc1 ,,and ,,piquette4 ,the ,residue of ,wine ,making1 pomace and lees1 are often placed immediately in the still1 and their alcohol distilled off directly1 but the result is better if the wine is first extracted1 and distilled without putting the residue into the boiler1 for it is liable to burn and give a disagreeable burnt flavor to the brandy4 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,boireau1 so often quoted1 for what follows3 ,,wine ,,lees4 ,the ,lees should not be neglected1 because1 for want of proper care1 the wine which is extracted from them will contract a very disagreeable taste1 which is due to its too long sojourn on the deposit1 and which would be prevented by drawing it off in time4 ,therefore1 in order that the wine extracted from them should not lose all its value1 the lees should receive particular attention1 and be stored in places free from variations of temperature4 ,the ,quantity of ,wine ,contained in the ,lees varies from #cj to #ij per cent4 ,from those of fined wines an average of #gj per cent4 may be extracted without pressing4 ,the ,dry ,parts of the ,sediment contain a great quantity of insoluble matters1 tartar1 or argol1 several other vegetable and mineral salts1 divers compounds1 ferments1 mucilaginous matters1 and the residue of animal and vegetable matters 7albumen and gelatine71 which have been employed in fining4 ,an ,analysis of ,dry ,lees by ,mr4 ,braconnot1 a distinguished chemist1 establishes the presence of the following substances3 bitartrate of potash 7cream of tartar71 tartrate of lime1 tartrate of magnesia1 nitrogenous animal matter1 fatty substances1 coloring matter1 gum1 and tannin4 ,the ,composition of ,dry ,lees varies with the age1 nature1 and quality of the wine which produces them2 but in all1 the bitartrate of potash or cream of tartar predominates4 ,the lees of mellow wines contain mucilages1 and we find in the lees deposited by sweet wines great quantities of saccharine matter which may be utilized4 ,the different uses to which dried lees may be put will be mentioned further on4 ,treatment of the ,lees4--,lees will settle by repose1 but the wine which comes from them1 if left long upon the heavy lees1 contracts a disagreeable flavor1 owing to its contact with the insoluble matters forming the sediment1 and with the ferments found in the lees with the residue of the substances used in fining4 ,the surface wine is often in a state of fermentation1 and remains turbid1 contracting at the same time a disagreeable bitterness1 unless soon withdrawn from the influence of the ferments4 ,by proper care and attention1 not only can all the liquid be extracted from the lees1 but the wine so extracted will have no bad flavor1 no vice1 in a word1 will partake of the same qualities as the wine from which the heavy lees were deposited4 ,the casks into which they are to be put should be washed in the same manner as those destined to contain limpid wine1 and double the quantity of a sulphur match employed in the case of racking new red wines1 should be burned in each4 ,as fast as the casks are emptied in drawing off1 the lees are turned into a pail1 and immediately poured into the cask intended for them4 ,in emptying them into the pail1 care should be taken not to introduce dirt1 mould1 etc41 and if there is debris around the bung-hole1 it should be swept away before removing the bung4 ,as soon as the cask is full of lees1 it should be stored1 bung up1 in a proper place1 as mentioned1 and should then be ulled and bunged1 and the date of storing may be marked on it1 with the kind and age of the wine from which it came4 ,when the casks are not completely filled the same day1 and it is necessary to leave them with ullage1 they should be bunged tight1 after having again burned a square of a match in each1 and the sulphuring should be renewed as often as the lees are added1 if left so for several days1 in order to avoid access of air1 and to prevent the action of ferments4 ,in a word1 casks containing lees1 without being full1 should always be well bunged and sulphured1 and guarded from variations of temperature4 ,the casks1 when stored1 should be regularly ulled once a week with limpid wine1 and re-bunged1 and after two weeks' repose1 the first drawing off takes place1 and should be renewed once or twice every month4 ,all the clear wine will be drawn off at each racking1 by following the precautions indicated further on4 ,by drawing off thus frequently1 fermentation1 to which such wine is subject1 will be avoided1 even in summer4 ,thus1 also1 will be avoided the disagreeable taste of the lees1 of acrity and bitterness1 which wine contracts when left long on the deposit1 and moreover1 much more clear wine will be withdrawn4 ,lees from diseased wine should not be mixed with the rest1 but should be put aside and treated according to the malady by which the wine was affected4 ,extraction of ,wine from the ,lees4--,lees preserved under the conditions indicated naturally free themselves from a great part of the foreign substances which they contain1 by rest1 for they are insoluble1 and specifically heavier than wine1 and settle of their own accord4 ,the wine should not be fined till drawn from the heavy lees4 ,the racking off of the clear wine may be performed in two ways1 either by the use of a glass siphon or of a faucet4 ,for the first rackings the glass siphon is most appropriate1 and by its use the boring of holes high up in the end of the cask is avoided4 ,it is introduced about eight inches into the full cask1 a proper vessel to catch the wine is placed under the end1 with another vessel close at hand1 and the wine is started by the breath2 but the siphon must be held with the hand1 or otherwise sustained so that it will not go too deep into the cask4 ,by holding a candle below1 it can be seen if the wine is any way clear2 and as long as it runs sufficiently limpid1 the siphon is lowered into the cask1 little by little1 till the level of the turbid wine is nearly reached4 ,when one bucket is filled1 the other is slipped under the stream without stopping it4 ,two men are usually required1 one to attend the siphon1 and the other to empty the buckets4 ,as soon as the wine runs muddy1 it is stopped4 ,if the cask of lees is sufficiently elevated1 the stem of the siphon may run into a funnel placed in the empty cask4 ,when the casks have all been drawn from1 the remaining heavy lees are filled into those containing the greater quantity1 so as to transfer the least quantity4 ,before filling1 however1 the casks should have a double square of sulphur match burned in each1 to prevent subsequent fermentations4 ,the use of the faucet is preferred1 when the lees are thick1 and the casks which contain them are near the ground1 and are only used for storing lees4 ,in the latter case1 the injury to the cask by boring holes in the head at several heights1 is of little consequence4 ,a greater quantity of wine may be drawn off by the use of the faucet than with the glass siphon1 but it is generally less clear than if carefully done with the latter2 and one man can do the work4 ,first1 it is necessary to ascertain how far down the clear wine reaches1 by means of gimlet holes1 and the faucet-hole should then be bored just above the level of the heavy lees4 ,if the faucet has been placed too low1 the sediment which runs through it at first may be put aside4 ,after the drawing of the clear wine has been repeated several times1 and the thick lees united as above mentioned1 the casks should not be filled until heavily sulphured1 and they must not be disturbed1 for the least agitation may stir up the sediment already formed1 and cause bad flavor in the wine1 and even produce putrid fermentation1 especially in those from fined wines which contain large quantities of animal matter introduced in the finings4 ,casks emptied of heavy lees should be washed with a chain1 to remove the sediment clinging to the inside1 which must not be allowed to dry on4 ,fining ,wines ,extracted from the ,lees4--,these wines often are not sufficiently clear2 and they are generally more difficult to clarify completely by the usual methods than the wines which produced the lees4 ,it is noticeable that these wines have less color and less alcohol than other wines produced in the ordinary way4 ,the difficulty in obtaining their complete clarification arises from the great quantity of insoluble matter which they still hold in suspension1 and their relative feebleness in alcohol and tannin4 ,the want of color is due to the mechanical action of the insoluble matters which the lees contain2 these matters in precipitating carry down a part of the coloring matter remaining in solution in the liquid4 ,it follows that the older the lees1 and the oftener the wine has been drawn from them1 the feebler the color4 ,red ,wines extracted from the lees1 to be completely clarified1 should be fined with a heavy dose of albumen 7the whites of #af or #ah eggs to #ajj gallons71 previously well beaten up in a pint of water in which half an ounce of sea salt has been dissolved to give it density4 ,if the alcoholic strength is below nine per cent1 they should be fortified by the addition of two or three quarts of brandy or alcohol to each #ajj gallons4 ,red wines from this source should not be fined with gelatine1 or it will diminish the color too much4 ,white ,wines of this kind may be fined with albumen also1 if strong in alcohol2 but otherwise1 they should be fined with a heavy dose of gelatine1 three tablets4 ,but before fining they must be tannified by adding #d or #e gallons of tannified wine1 or an ounce of tannin for each #ajj gallons4 ,wines from lees should remain on the finings only long enough to precipitate the matters used1 about ten days2 after which they must be carefully racked1 and cared for like other wines4 ,pressing the ,thick ,sediment4--,after the lees have undergone three or four semi-monthly rackings1 the rest of the wine which they contain may be extracted by pressure1 and this amounts on the average to fifty per cent4 ,more wine might be extracted by further racking1 but by allowing the wine to remain longer in contact with the finings and other sediment1 it will contract the disagreeable flavors already alluded to1 which may be avoided by pressing the lees after the first three or four rackings2 and an excellent result is obtained by using a filter press after the first racking1 and the wine obtained will have no bad taste4 ,the pressing is performed in small sacks about eighteen inches long4 ,they should be made of cotton cloth1 as those made from hemp1 even after being used several times1 give a disagreeable flavor to the wines passed through them4 ,it is not necessary to provide more than sacks enough for one cask of lees4 ,the cloth of which they are made should be fine1 and of close and regular texture4 ,to make a cheap press1 one head of a cask is removed1 and the pieces of this head are fastened together by nailing on two cross pieces to keep it in form1 and enough of the wood around the edge is removed to allow it to pass freely into the cask as a follower4 ,the cask is then placed upright1 and a hole is bored in one of the staves close to the lower head1 into which is placed a faucet4 ,this cask1 which is to contain the sacks1 may be placed high enough to allow the wine to run from the faucet directly into the bung of another cask to hold the wine4 ,if the casks containing the lees are placed on a horse or platform1 the latter may be run from the faucet-hole directly into the sacks1 which may be fastened to the chime with small hooks1 and be kept open with the hand or a small hoop4 ,a dish should be placed under before withdrawing the spigot4 ,or1 to avoid fouling the outside of the sack with the lees1 they may first be run into a tub1 and dipped into the sacks1 the tub being provided with a sack-holder4 ,as soon as a sack is sufficiently filled1 it should be strongly tied with a bow-knot which can be easily untied1 and laid in the cask provided2 and a few small sticks should be placed over the inner end of the faucet so that it may not be stopped by a sack coming in contact with it4 ,sacks are placed in the cask till it is full4 ,the faucet is left open1 so that the wine1 as fast as filtered1 may run through a hose into a well washed and well sulphured cask1 placed in position to receive it4 ,when the cask is full of sacks1 the cover is placed on them and they are allowed to drain for several hours1 weights being gradually placed upon the cover or follower4 ,further pressure is applied by means of a lever rigged for the purpose1 one end made firm1 and the other having weights attached4 ,it is best that the pressure be gradually applied1 leaving the sacks to drain for several hours1 then applying the lever1 but loading it with weights several hours later1 or the next day4 ,when the wine no longer runs1 say twenty-four hours after loading the lever1 the sacks are removed4 ,if the lees are not very thick1 but little will be found in the sacks1 and they may be refilled without removing it1 and subjected to a second pressure4 ,then they must be thoroughly washed with water4 ,lye should not be used4 ,where large quantities of lees are to be pressed1 larger presses may be used1 vats being employed instead of casks4 ,it is impossible to obtain all the wine by simple filtration without pressure1 owing to the fact that the filters soon become foul1 and the wine ceases to pass through4 ,if the first wine which runs off is turbid1 it may be put by itself1 and the clear wine caught separately4 ,it is apt to run turbid when additional weight is applied4 ,use of ,dry ,lees4--,they have a certain value1 and after being removed from the sacks they may be sold to the manufacturers of cream of tartar1 if they are virgin lees4 ,lees from fined wines are of little value for this purpose4 ,they may be dried on well-aired floors1 or in the sun4 ,they are also used for the production of pearlash by burning them4 ,the ash produced is of a greenish gray color1 and is crude pearlash4 ,good lees1 perfectly dry1 produce about #cj per cent4 of this alkali4 ,lees are also valuable as a fertilizer4 ,those from sweet wine contain considerable sugar1 which may be utilized by fermenting and distilling the alcohol produced4 ,this1 however1 will render them less valuable for making cream of tartar1 a portion of which will be dissolved by washing4 ,,marc1 ,,or ,,pomace--,,piquette4 ,marc1 or ,pomace1 is the residue remaining in the vat after the fermentation of red wine1 or in the press1 in making white wine4 ,after being pressed1 it is used in many parts of ,france to make a weak wine called piquette1 for the use of the laborers4 ,for this purpose are utilized all the soluble principles remaining in the marc1 by the following treatment3 #a4 ,the ,unfermented ,pomace of ,white or of ,red ,wine not ,entirely ,fermented1 is well broken and crumbled up so as to finely divide it1 and introduced into tuns1 which are then completely filled with water1 or into a fermenting vat1 adding double its weight of water4 ,after giving it a thorough stirring and mixing1 the first piquette is drawn off4 ,after a maceration of three or four days1 renewing the water several times1 the saccharine matter and soluble salts which the marc contains are completely removed4 ,piquette is fermented in casks and cared for like new wine4 ,the weakest is first consumed4 ,or the marc may be pressed and put into barrels1 keeping it in as solid a mass as possible2 the surface is then covered with sand and the casks closed air-tight4 ,piquette may then be made as needed1 using the marc of one cask1 washing with water till it is exhausted4 #b4 ,the ,fermented ,marc of ,red ,wine is treated as follows3 ,after pressing1 it is immediately put into a large vat4 ,double its weight of water is added1 and after a complete stirring1 it is allowed to macerate one or two days at most4 ,the first piquette is then drained off1 and water is put in several times till the soluble matters are removed4 ,pressed marc is also used for forage1 mixing it with half the quantity of hay4 ,as for making wine from marc by adding sweetened water4 7,see ,watering and ,sugaring ,must47 ,the following method of washing the marc is from an article on the ,distillation of ,marc1 by ,j4 ,pezeyre1 printed in ,le ,parfait ,vigneron1 ,almanach du ,moniteur ,vinicole1 #ahha3 ,six vats or barrels are set up side by side1 each provided with a faucet1 and a movable cover4 ,the faucet is protected inside1 as in the case of the ordinary fermenting vat4 ,to thoroughly exhaust the marc1 it should be washed with six times its weight of water1 or #ajj lbs4 of pomace require #gb gallons of water4 ,the vats being arranged1 are charged with marc1 which is pressed down till it fills the vat to within about ten inches of the top4 ,the marc is kept submerged in the usual way1 by a false1 perforated head4 ,the first vat is filled with cold water1 and left to rest for two hours4 ,the liquid is then drawn off and filled into vat ,no4 #b4 ,no4 #a is then refilled with fresh water4 ,when the liquid in ,no4 #b has remained for two hours1 it is drawn off and put into ,no4 #c4 ,no4 #a is then emptied into ,no4 #b1 and filled with water a third time4 ,the maceration in ,no4 #c having continued for two hours1 its liquid is drawn off and poured into ,no4 #d2 ,no4 #c is filled from ,no4 #b1 and this from ,no4 #a1 which is filled the fourth time with water4 ,no4 #e is filled from ,no4 #d1 and each vat is filled from the preceding one1 until ,no4 #a has received in water six times the weight of the marc contained in it4 ,the liquid from ,no4 #e is poured into ,no4 #f1 and after two hours is drawn from this last vat into the still4 ,when the wine has been drawn from the last vat1 the marc in ,no4 #a having been washed six times with its weight of water1 is exhausted of all its alcohol4 ,it is then refilled with marc1 and becomes ,no4 #f of the series1 and is filled with the liquid from ,no4 #e4 ,each number is thereby carried around the circle1 becoming successively ,no4 #f4 ,in this way the pomace is1 little by little1 deprived of its alcohol1 and the liquid coming from ,no4 #f is rich in spirit1 and when delivered to the still is nearly equal in strength to the original wine4 ,when there is but little marc to operate upon1 the liquid may be drawn off into buckets1 and so filled into the vats2 but time and labor may be saved by using a pump and hose4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,the ,,composition ,,of ,,wine4 ,generally4--,wine is not only composed of alcohol and water1 which are the two most prominent ingredients1 but a great number of other substances have been recognized1 and others still are supposed to exist4 ,some substances which are found in one wine may not exist in another1 or it may exist in a greater or less quantity4 ,we know that alcohol1 water1 and acids exist in all wines1 in varying quantities2 that some are sweet1 and contain sugar1 and that others are dry1 thoroughly fermented1 and contain none4 ,we also know that the alcohol in different wines may vary from #d or #e per cent4 in piquette made by washing the pomace with water1 to #bj or #be per cent4 in the more strongly fortified4 ,and we know generally how a wine is modified as to its taste and effect on the system1 by such substances as water1 alcohol1 sugar1 and acid2 but there are many substances whose effect is but little known1 and others again only known by their effects4 ,the science of chemistry has not yet been able to lay hold of them4 ,substances ,recognized4--,the following table from ,maumen indicates the different substances contained in different wines1 the letter ,f indicating those produced by fermentation1 the others existing in the juice of the grape4 ,it will be observed that the amount of acid tartrate of potash 7cream of tartar7 mentioned is #e4e grammes per litre at most1 and this is the quantity contained in a new wine1 old wines containing only one or two grammes per litre1 and even less4 ,this salt is contained in the grapes1 and is soluble in water1 but insoluble in alcohol1 and1 therefore1 the greater part of it is precipitated as the alcohol increases by fermentation1 and is deposited with the lees4 ,the ,report of the ,university of ,california1 ,department of ,agriculture1 referred to in the preface1 shows the amount contained in different ,california wines and their lees4 ,grammes4 ,water #i volumes1 #ijj to #hia ,common ,alcohol 7,absolute or ,pure71 ,f4 #a volume1 #hj to #gi ,other ,alcohols 7,butyric1 ,amylic1 etc47 ,f4 ,aldehydes 7several87 ,f4 ,ethers 7,acetic1 ,butyric1 nanthic1 etc471 contributing principally to the bouquet ,f4 ,essential ,oils 7several7 ,grape ,sugar 7,dextrose and ,levulose7 ,mannite ,f4 ,mucilage1 ,gum1 and ,dextrin ,pectin ,coloring ,matters 7nocyanine7 ,fatty ,matters 7and ,wax87 ,glycerin ,f4 ,nitrogenous ,matters 7,albumin1 ,gliadin1 etc47 ,ferments ,acid ,tartrate of ,potash ,neutral 7#e4e grammes at most7 ,bodies4 ,neutral ,tartrate of ,lime 8 8 ,ammonia ,acid ,tartrate of ,alumina 7simple1 or with ,potash47 ,vegetable4,acid ,tartrate of ,iron 7simple1 or with ,potash47 ,racemates ,acetates1 ,propionates1 ,butyrates1 ,lactates1 etc4 ,f4 #bj-cj ,salts4 ,sulphates ,nitrates ,mineral4 ,phosphates ,with a base of ,silicates ,potash1 ,soda1 ,lime1 ,chlorides ,magnesia1 ,alumina1 ,bromides ,oxide of ,iron1 ,iodides ,ammonia ,fluorides ,carbonic 7#b4e grammes at most7 ,f4 ,tartaric and ,racemic 7,gluco-tartaric87 ,malic ,citric ,free ,tannic ,acids4 ,metapectic ,f4 ,acetic ,f4 ,lactic ,f4 ,succinic ,f4 ,butyric ,f4------------------ ,valeric8 ,f4#ajjj-ajjj ,a few of the more important ones will be briefly noticed4 ,alcohol is considerably lighter than water1 and from the specific gravity of any mixture of alcohol and pure water1 the quantity of spirit contained in it can readily be ascertained4 7,see ,table ,,iv47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,french ,still4 ,to ,ascertain the ,alcoholic ,strength of ,wine1 if it consisted of a mixture of water and alcohol alone1 it would only be necessary to learn its specific gravity2 but as all wines contain other substances which affect the weight of the liquid1 it becomes necessary to separate the alcohol from the other matters by distillation2 then by adding water enough to make up the original volume of the wine assayed1 we will have simply a mixture of alcohol and water4 ,small stills are sold in the market1 with the necessary instruments accompanying them1 with which to perform the operation4 ,in the accompanying figure 7#dc71 which shows a ,french still1 ,l is a spirit lamp1 ,b a glass boiler with a perforated stopper1 ,s a worm1 contained in the cooler ,d1 which is kept filled with cold water1 as a condenser2 t is a rubber tube connecting the boiler with the condenser1 tightly fitted to the stopper of the former1 and also to the end of the worm4 ,e is a small hydrometer-jar1 of glass1 with a foot1 for measuring the wine to be distilled1 and for catching the distillate as it runs from the worm4 ,it has three marks--the upper one1 m1 indicating the height to which it is to be filled with the wine1 and also a mark and a mark4 ,sometimes it is provided with a groove along one side to carry the thermometer4 ,a represents the hydrometer1 or alcoholometer1 being a spindle1 usually of glass1 similar in form to the saccharometer 7which see71 except that the zero mark to which the alcoholometer sinks in distilled water1 is at the lower end of the stem1 and the degrees are numbered from zero to the upper end1 each figure representing one per cent4 of alcohol4 ,t is a thermometer1 in its place in the jar with the hydrometer2 t is a small glass pipette to assist in filling the jar just to the mark4 ,to make use of the instruments1 measure in the jar1 ,e1 the wine to be distilled1 by filling it up exactly to the upper mark1 m1 using the pipette1 t1 by which a little of the liquid can be sucked up1 and let out1 drop by drop1 by increasing and diminishing the pressure of the finger applied to the upper opening4 ,the wine so measured is poured into the boiler1 ,b1 draining out the last drop1 or the little remaining may be rinsed out with a little water1 which is poured into the boiler with the wine without affecting the result4 ,the boiler is then placed over the lamp and connected with the condenser by means of the rubber tube1 and the condenser filled with cold water4 ,light the lamp1 and place the now empty jar under the lower end of the worm4 ,the vapor of the alcohol first passing from the boiler through the rubber tube into the condenser1 will there condense1 and the liquid running from the worm into the test tube will be almost pure alcohol1 but as the process goes on1 more and more water comes out with the alcohol1 till the spirit has all passed over4 ,if the strength of the wine does not exceed #ad or #ae per cent41 the alcohol will all have passed over when one-third of the wine has been distilled1 as will be shown when the distillate reaches the mark on the glass4 ,if the strength exceeds the above limit1 one-half of the wine should be distilled4 ,if1 therefore1 on testing the wine1 it is found to contain #af per cent4 or more of spirit1 and only one-third was distilled1 another quantity should be distilled1 and about one-half allowed to pass over4 ,it is always safer1 unless the wine is very weak1 to distil over a little more than a third4 ,if you are operating on a wine which foams to such an extent that a portion may pass through the tube into the condenser1 which would spoil the effect of the operation1 this may be prevented by putting into the boiler with the wine a pinch of tannic acid4 ,in operating on a wine which contains an appreciable amount of acetic acid--is pricked--the acid ought to be neutralized before distillation1 as it is volatile1 and will go over with the alcohol and effect the result4 ,this is easily done by adding to the wine caustic soda in drops1 till it completely changes color1 red wine becoming blue1 and white wine1 brown4 ,these precautions1 however1 are generally omitted in analyses for commercial purposes4 ,when the distillation is complete1 add to the distillate sufficient pure water 7distilled water if possible71 to make up the exact volume of wine measured4 ,to do this1 take the jar containing the distillate and hold it perpendicular1 with the upper mark on a level with the eye1 and carefully let in the water1 drop by drop1 by means of the pipette4 ,the surface of the liquid will be seen to curve upward1 owing to the attraction of the glass1 and the tube should be filled till the bottom of the curve touches the mark2 and the same precaution should be taken in measuring the wine in the first place4 ,now we have a mixture corresponding in volume with the wine1 and containing all the alcohol originally contained in the wine1 and a certain amount of water1 and nothing else4 ,as the density of the liquid also depends upon the temperature1 it becomes necessary to have a fixed standard at which the test is made1 and this is #fj ,f4 in this country1 and ,i believe in all countries except ,france1 where it is #ae ,c41 or #ei ,f4 ,as the temperature affects the volume1 it is better to adjust it by cooling the distillate before adding the last few drops of water1 which may be done by dipping the jar into cold water1 or if it is too cold1 by warming it with the hand4 ,the hydrometer used will be adjusted to a temperature of #fj ,f41 or #ae ,c41 which is generally shown by directions accompanying the still1 or will be marked on the instrument4 ,let the hydrometer be perfectly clean and dry1 no moisture on the stem4 ,take the tip of the stem between the thumb and forefinger and lower it into the distillate till it floats1 press it down with the finger very slightly1 and let it come to equilibrium4 ,place the eye on a level with the surface of the liquid1 and see where it cuts the stem1 and the mark shows the percentage of alcohol contained in the wine4 ,remember that the mark to be taken is the one corresponding with the general surface of the liquid1 not the top of the meniscus1 or curve4 ,with care1 a result can be obtained sufficiently accurate for all commercial purposes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,monitor ,still4 ,a table is usually sold with these stills1 showing the corrections for different temperatures1 so that by its use the reduction of the temperature to the standard may be avoided4 ,fig4 #dd represents a still made in ,new ,york1 called the ,monitor ,still4 ,ethers are formed by alcohol in presence of the different acids contained in the wine1 and they take names corresponding to the acids1 occurring as compound ethers1 the most common one being acetic ether4 ,they have a powerful and characteristic odor1 known as the etherous odor1 which is somewhat disagreeable in the pure ether1 but becomes agreeable and resembles the aroma of fruit and flowers when greatly diluted4 ,among the important ethers contained in wine is ,oenanthic ether1 which is said to give to wine its characteristic vinous smell1 which distinguishes it from any other fermented liquor4 ,sugar is contained in many wines1 especially sweet wines1 and exercises an important influence upon the flavor4 ,to ,estimate ,sugar4--,the quantity of sugar contained in a sweet wine may be estimated with sufficient accuracy1 for commercial purposes1 in the following manner4 ,a certain quantity of wine is measured in the jar1 and distilled in the same manner as in the estimation of alcohol 7which see71 or the wine may be placed in a shallow dish on a stove or over a lamp1 and boiled slowly till the volume is reduced one-half1 when the alcohol will be all evaporated2 then the original volume should be restored by adding water4 ,after it has rested for a day or so1 the greater part of the salts will crystallize and be deposited1 when the sugar strength can be ascertained by the use of the saccharometer1 in the usual way 7see page #h74 ,one degree1 however1 should be deducted from the hydrometer reading4 ,mannite1 or the essential principle of manna1 is produced in wine when sugar undergoes viscous fermentation4 ,its flavor is similar to that of sugar1 and its composition is but little different from that of the same substance4 ,mucilage4--,the grand red wines of the ,mdoc1 and of some other portions of the ,gironde1 and also the grand wines of ,burgundy1 says ,boireau1 preserve in aging a pronounced fruity taste1 an unctuosity1 a velvety mellowness1 which1 joined with their flavor and bouquet1 make these wines in good years the delight of the gourmets4 ,this velvety mellowness is found only in those seasons when the grapes ripen well4 ,in poor years1 when the grapes do not become completely ripe1 the wines may have at times more or less distinctive flavor 7sve71 and sometimes even a little bouquet1 but they are dry1 and the mellowness is wanting4 ,many ordinary wines possess while young1 if they have been well made1 and are produced in favorable years1 a marked fruity flavor2 but in the greater part of the wines of this kind1 this mellowness does not last1 and disappears gradually with age1 while in the grand wines of good years1 the unctuosity is more appreciable after the defecation of their lees than while they are new4 ,the substance which in a measure produces this quality is called mucilage by ,maumen and some others4 ,others1 again1 have given it different names4 ,maumen says that it seems to be a sort of intermediary substance between cellulose and dextrin1 and that its nature is not yet known1 but that it is a near neighbor of sugar4 ,mr4 ,boireau believes that the mellowness is produced by a modification of grape sugar1 because1 when not properly cared for1 mellow wines undergo an insensible fermentation1 especially if they are in their first and second years1 and still contain ferments4 ,very often at the end of these secondary fermentations1 the unctuosity has disappeared1 and the wines have become dry4 ,it seems1 accordingly1 that the substance is capable of undergoing the same transformations as sugar under the influence of ferments and heat4 ,pectose is found in green grapes and other fruits1 and by the acids is changed into pectin1 which is the gelatinizing principle1 is soluble in water1 and may have some effect on the mellowness of wine4 ,alcohol precipitates it in the form of jelly4 ,fatty ,matters have been found in wine lees1 which may be extracted from the seeds by long contact during fermentation1 for it is known that the seeds yield such matters4 ,glycerin is mentioned among fatty matters1 but it is known to be produced by the fermentation of sugar1 and is supposed to have its influence on the flavor of wine4 ,the ,coloring ,matter of red wine has received the name of nocyanine4 ,in its pure state it is blue1 but is changed to red by acids4 ,the yellow and brown color of some white wines is due to the oxidation of some of the matters contained in them4 ,the change of color in red wines is also due to the oxidation of the tannic acid1 thereby forming an insoluble compound1 tannomelanic acid1 which is precipitated1 carrying down the nocyanine1 and the wine gradually becomes tawny4 ,aldehydes are produced first in the transformation of alcohol into an acid by oxidation1 acetaldehyde occurring between alcohol and acetic acid1 as mentioned in ,acetic ,fermentation4 ,when a weak wine is exposed to the air it is gradually converted into vinegar1 or acetic acid4 ,if free access of air is permitted1 it may be converted at once into acetic acid1 but if the access of the air is very limited1 or if the wine is rich and strong1 oxidation stops at the first stage1 and aldehyde is formed4 ,it is a colorless liquid of a very suffocating smell1 having an etherous odor1 and is supposed to have an important influence on the flavor and bouquet of various wines4 ,the strong wines of southern countries which are kept in casks in ullage1 exposed to the action of the oxygen of the air1 develop a certain amount of aldehyde in time1 and it is supposed that sherry owes some of its qualities to this substance4 ,acids4--,we can only allude briefly to the acids which have been recognized in wines4 ,the principal one is tartaric acid1 found in considerable quantities in grapes1 and is contained in the argols1 or crude cream of tartar1 bitartrate of potash1 which is deposited on the inner walls of the casks in which the wine is kept4 ,this substance principally gives the acid taste to wine4 ,malic ,acid1 or the acid of apples1 is found2 and of citric acid1 or the acid of lemons1 traces have been recognized2 also pectic acid1 derived from the pectose4 ,tannic ,acid is a very important ingredient in wine1 and is frequently mentioned in this work4 7,see ,fining1 ,tannin47 ,carbonic ,acid4--,it has been shown in the chapter on ,fermentation that carbon dioxide is the gas produced by fermentation4 ,this gas1 ,,co1 was known to the old chemists as carbonic acid1 or carbonic acid gas1 and the latter terms are frequently used in this work in the sense of carbon dioxide1 in accordance with common usage4 ,but modern chemistry teaches us that carbon dioxide1 ,,co1 is not an acid at all1 but in connection with water it takes up a molecule of the latter1 and becomes ,h,,co1 carbonic acid proper4 ,the gas1 however1 as well as the acid1 exists in all wines1 and to the former1 sparkling wines owe their effervescence4 ,its presence is important1 exercising a preservative effect by preventing their oxidation1 and also by keeping in dissolution substances which would otherwise cloud the wine4 ,when the wine is first fermented it is saturated with carbon dioxide1 and while it remains so1 oxygen will not be absorbed1 and hence its preservative effect4 ,mr4 ,maumen even recommends resort to artificial means to restore it1 or to re-saturate the wine in case of its loss4 ,if1 however1 the precautions heretofore indicated for keeping table wines are observed1 the wine will be well preserved4 ,acetic ,acid is the result of oxidation1 or acetic fermentation 7which see71 and lactic acid is derived from lactic fermentation1 but is regarded as accidental in wine1 probably not existing in the must1 though it is found in some wines made from grapes which have been bruised and broken a long time before using4 ,butyric ,acid is the product of butyric fermentation4 ,valeric ,acid is supposed to exist in wine from the distinctive odor which is smelt in it under certain conditions4 ,succinic ,acid has been referred to as one of the products of alcoholic fermentation4 ,the ,total ,acids in wine vary a good deal1 but four or five per mille is a fair average4 ,space will not permit of more details on the various substances contained in wine1 but those who desire further information are referred to the work of ,maumen in ,french1 and that of ,thudichum and ,dupr in ,english4 ,the ,bouquet proper of wines is a perfume containing different odors1 like that of a bouquet of flowers4 ,it is very complex also in its origin1 and the matters contained in the wine which give rise to it are but little known4 ,it is variable1 being different in different wines1 and all the odorous matters doubtless contribute to its existence1 such as nanthic1 and other ethers1 the different alcohols1 aldehydes1 and perhaps even certain essential oils4 ,the varieties of grapes1 the season1 and the soil1 also have their effect1 as well as the method of vinification4 ,it is believed1 however1 that the bouquet is principally due to the ethers4 ,artificial ,bouquet4--,in this connection1 the experiments of ,mr4 ,maumen will be found interesting4 ,he prepared one litre of a liquid similar to wine1 but without a sensible odor1 by adding distilled water to the distillate from a red wine of ,bordeaux4 ,one drop of aldehyde produced no appreciable odor4 ,six drops of acetic ether produced no sensible effect4 ,nor did crystallized acetic acid change the result4 ,he then added #e grs4 #e of cream of tartar1 #j gr4 #ah of succinic acid1 and #bj grs4 of glycerin1 without producing any odor in the liquid4 ,on adding certain ethers a remarkable change was produced4 ,by adding two small drops of nanthic ether 7obtained by distilling fresh wine lees71 the liquid instantly gave an odor of wine4 ,then he added1 drop by drop1 one cubic centimetre 7#ajjjth part by measure7 of essence of pears1 that is1 the following mixture3 #a volume of valero-amylic ether4 #f volumes of alcohol of #cf per cent4 ,the first drops developed a bouquet which belongs to certain wines2 but by adding the whole amount mentioned1 a pear odor was developed1 by which the liquid could be easily distinguished from wine4 ,so he prepared another litre of the liquid containing the same substances1 and added only two or three drops of essence of pears4 ,he then added two drops of ordinary butyric ether1 and the bouquet resembled in a remarkable degree that of a good ,bouzy wine1 and several persons took it for a decolored wine4 ,by varying the experiment1 the bouquet of wines can be imitated in a remarkable manner4 ,for those who are curious in such matters1 ,i translate the following from ,boireau3 ,artificial bouquets are produced by aromatic substances1 or essential oils1 whose aroma is extracted or dissolved out by the help of alcohol4 ,the aromatic principle may be extracted either by a simple alcoholic tincture1 by digestion or distillation1 by dissolving the oils themselves1 etc41 and the process varies with the substance used4 ,the aromatic substances most frequently employed to produce artificial bouquets in non-fortified wines1 commencing with those which form the base and whose aromas are more dominant1 are3 iris1 strawberry1 gillyflower1 the flower of the vine1 mignonette1 nutmeg1 bitter almond1 fruit pits1 sassafras1 etc4 ,the latter are rarely employed alone1 and play a secondary part by mixing with the two first1 iris and strawberry1 whose aromas are quite distinctive4 ,iris4--,there are two varieties of this4 ,the roots only are employed2 they are white1 of an average diameter of #j m4 #jb 7 in471 and of a very irregular form4 ,they are sold in pieces about #j m4 #je 7#b in47 long1 with the rootlets removed4 ,they are largely employed in perfumery4 ,the root of the so-called ,florence iris1 which grows in ,italy and the south of ,france1 has a pronounced violet odor4 ,another variety1 which grows in the north of ,france and in ,germany1 is sold under the name of ,german iris4 ,an experienced person can distinguish the two4 ,the perfume of the iris is with difficulty and incompletely extracted by distillation2 it is obtained by infusing the roots in alcohol1 after first reducing them to a powder by means of a grater4 ,the operation is long1 but indispensable4 ,the powder occurs in commerce1 but in that form the roots lose their aroma1 and it is moreover liable to be adulterated4 ,the tincture is prepared in the following proportions3 old spirit of wine of #he per cent41 #aj litres 7#b gallons72 ,florence iris1 #a kilogramme 7#b lb471 reduced to powder4 ,bung or cork the vessel containing it1 stir it about for a few minutes1 and then put it in a place of at least #fh ,f41 but which does not go beyond #ie4 ,shake it occasionally during two weeks1 and then press and filter it4 ,the tincture has a pronounced violet odor1 and a harsh1 bitter after-taste4 ,it may be employed alone1 in a very small dose1 rarely exceeding #e centilitres per hectolitre 7#ac fluidrams to #bf gallons74 ,oftener1 however1 a few drops of the essential oil of gillyflower1 etc41 are mixed with it4 ,strawberry4--,the preparation of an alcoholic infusion of strawberries is very simple4 ,take fully ripe berries1 pick them over and hull them1 and put them in a keg with a large bung4 ,ten kilogrammes of fruit to #ab litres of old spirits of wine of #he per cent4 7#bb lbs4 to #c gals47 are used4 ,after macerating for twenty-four hours1 the liquor is drawn off and filtered4 ,it is a rose-colored liquor of a very pleasant aroma4 ,then the fruit is crushed1 and brandy of #ej per cent4 is added1 and the whole is allowed to macerate for a month1 and then the marc is pressed4 ,the second tincture has an odor and flavor inferior to the first1 and has more color4 ,it is filtered1 or what is better1 distilled in a water bath4 ,in the latter way spirit of strawberry is obtained4 ,it is preferable to employ the liquor of the first infusion4 ,this aroma is generally used alone1 and is much employed in the manufacture of sparkling wines4 ,sometimes a small quantity of other aromatic substances are added1 allowing the strawberry to predominate4 ,it is the best modifier of the aroma of young wines4 ,the dose varies according to the degree of the aroma1 from #b to #aj centilitres per hectolitre 7 to of a gill1 or #e4d to #bg fluidrams to #bf4d gals47 ,gillyflower1 or ,stockgilly4--,the essential oil of this flower may be extracted by pressure1 by maceration1 or by distillation1 and is found in commerce4 ,to make the bouquet1 the oil is used1 or the concentrated essence1 which is produced by the distillation of the bruised flowers with alcohol of #he per cent41 in the proportion of #cjj grammes of the flowers to #e litres of alcohol 7#aj oz4 to #e quarts74 ,in the absence of an alembic1 the aroma may be extracted by infusion1 as in the case of iris1 by macerating #ajj grammes of the bruised flowers to #a litre of alcohol of #he per cent4 7#c oz4 to a quart7 for eight days1 and filtering4 ,gillyflower is rarely used alone2 but by adding a very small quantity of it to iris1 a good effect is produced1 and the perfume becomes more intimately mixed with the wine1 for the oil of gillyflower is heavier than water2 but this aroma should never predominate1 and is best for old wines without bouquet4 ,vine ,flowers are gathered and the petals infused in alcohol of #he per cent41 in the proportion of #ajj grammes of flowers to #e litres of alcohol 7#c oz4 to #e quarts74 ,after macerating for eight days1 it is distilled in a water bath4 ,this aroma1 which is very volatile1 is used in the dose of #e centilitres to a hectolitre 7#ac4e fluidrams to #bf4d gals47 ,mignonette4--,the perfume of the mignonette1 like that of many other flowers1 is obtained by picking the flowers from their stems1 bruising them1 and placing them upon layers of cotton or pieces of linen impregnated with fresh oil1 or other sweet fats2 oil of ben is preferred4 ,the flowers are renewed every four hours1 till the cotton or the cloth is charged with perfume4 ,the oil or fat is removed by pressure or otherwise1 and the essential oil is dissolved out with alcohol of #he per cent41 which is afterwards separated from the fixed oil1 and filtered4 ,the extract of mignonette so obtained is employed in the proportion of #a to #e centilitres to a hectolitre 7#b4g to #ac4e fluidrams to #bf4d gals47 but oftener it is mixed with other perfumes4 ,nutmeg is employed in the form of spirit distilled from the nuts over the fire1 #ejj grammes of nuts to #aj litres of alcohol 7#a lb4 to #aj quarts71 or in the form of a tincture made with the same proportions of nuts and alcohol1 or a small quantity of the essential oil is mixed with other aromatic substances4 ,this preparation1 particularly the tincture or the distilled spirit1 has a good effect4 ,being heavier than water1 it assists the mixture4 ,bitter ,almonds and ,fruit ,pits4--,their oil is found in commerce1 and its aroma is due to the hydrocyanic 7prussic7 acid contained in it1 which is poisonous1 and therefore the oil should be employed in the smallest doses4 ,sassafras4--,the essential oil is extracted from the wood and bark by distillation1 and can be purchased in the market4 ,it is heavier than wine1 and fixes the lighter perfumes4 ,it is used only secondarily1 and in very small quantities4 ,other ,aromas have been tried1 but they can only be used as auxiliary to the three first named1 iris1 gillyflower1 and strawberry1 because their odors differ essentially from the natural bouquet of mellow wines4 ,effects4--,these preparations give wines a bouquet or aroma which partakes of the substances employed1 but they do not give the distinctive flavor 7sve7 which characterizes fine wines1 and the result only flatters the sense of smell4 ,these perfumes are very volatile1 and it does not require a very delicate or a much experienced palate to distinguish them from the natural bouquet of wine1 and persons of delicate sensibilities are disturbed by them1 if too pronounced4 ,when a wine has been artificially perfumed1 it still preserves its taste and earthy flavor2 it has simply changed its odor4 ,taste it without smelling1 and its distinctive flavor will be recognized4 ,mr4 ,boireau says that1 notwithstanding the contrary announcements of interested manufacturers1 they are not preserved like the natural bouquets and flavors1 but1 little by little1 they become enfeebled1 and are volatilized with time4 ,he says that the trade is inundated with the announcements of pretended nologists1 chemists1 etc41 manufacturers of bouquets decorated with such pompous names as ,mdoc ,flavoring 7,sve du ,mdoc71 ,bouquet of ,bordeaux1 of ,pomard1 ,bordeaux ,extract1 etc41 and all these humbugs are advertised as giving the most ordinary wines the true ,mdoc flavor1 etc41 which1 happily for the producers of ,mdoc1 cannot be done4 ,it is better1 as stated in the chapter on ,cutting ,wines1 to improve wines by mixing them with those having expansible flavors and odors1 rather than use these artificial bouquets4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,general ,,chapter--,,miscellaneous4 ,the ,proportion of ,juice to ,marc1 as stated in ,thudichum and ,dupr's work1 has been found in various grapes as follows3 ,white ,chasselas1 stems removed1 gave by strong pressure1 #ig per cent4 of juice2 marc of skins and seeds1 #c per cent4 ,black ,pinot grapes1 stems removed1 gave #id4h per cent4 of juice1 and #e4b per cent4 of marc4 ,black ,pinot1 pressed with the stems1 gave #ia4h per cent4 of juice1 and #h4b per cent4 of marc1 including stems4 ,black ,pinot1 fermented with the stems and then pressed1 gave #fi4f per cent4 of wine1 and #cj4d per cent4 of marc4 ,in the latter case much wine is absorbed by the stems1 which cannot be removed by pressure4 ,in the first three cases the pressure must have been such as to reduce the marc to near dryness to obtain so high a percentage of juice4 ,in the report of the work done in the ,viticultural ,laboratory of the ,university1 referred to in the preface1 the following figures are found1 and are extracted from ,table ,no4 #a of the report4 ,omitting the two extremes--,feher ,szagos1 #bjc4b1 and ,lenoir1 #aah--we obtain the average of #aeg gallons of grape juice per ton of #bjjj lbs4 in twelve white wines1 and #agd4h gallons per ton in twelve red wines2 the word 8red0 being used in the table to designate the product obtained by fermenting white grapes with the skins and seeds1 as well as to designate 8red wine0 proper4 ,the report says3 8,the red wines1 of course1 produce very much less pomace1 which consists largely of skins and seeds only4 ,the white pomace has much more of the pulp of the grape1 and consequently a much larger amount of water4 ,during the fermentation the internal structure of the grape is destroyed1 the sugar is fermented out1 and only the fibrous structure remains2 even this is to a great extent broken up1 and runs out with the wine when pressed40 ,gallons ,weight ,air- of ,must ,color7pounds7 dried ,gallonsper ton ,,name4 of of ,pomace1,stems1,pomace of of ,wine4 ,grapes4 ,must4,grapes ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,mission-just ripe ,red #ga4ge #ac4ej #c4je -- #f4ch #agg4h 8 fully 8 ,white #ajf4ej #ah4cj #c4ge -- #i4bj #agb4f 8 8 8 ,red #aja4jj #aa4fc #c4if -- #h4ih #agg4h 8 ,white #he4hj #bd4aj #c4jg #h4ga #f4hd #aei4d 8 ,red #gc4ib #ab4bj #b4ia #e4bf #f4cj #agj4e ,zinfandel ,white #hd4jj #bg4cj #e4ge -- #f4bj #adg4f 8 ,red #abf4jj #ac4dj #e4ee -- #aa4jj #agd4f 8 ,white #hg4gh #bi4jg #d4ea #g4ca #f4cb #add4j 8 ,red #hd4bf #aj4if #d4jb #d4id #g4cj #agc4d ,malvoisie ,white #aaf4jj #ah4aj #b4eh -- #i4ij #agj4f 8 ,red #aea4jj #aj4ib #b4fe -- #ad4cj #ahi4d ,charbono ,white #ig4jj #cj4ib #f4ah -- #g4jj #add4b ,burger ,white #gd4jj #bb4jj 4#ig -- #f4dj #agb4h 8 8,red0 #ie4jj #ab4aj #g4cf -- #h4be #agc4f ,chasselas ,white #ajc4hd #ca4ce #b4if #e4ic #g4dg #adc4h 8 8,red0 #gj4dj #ac4ge #b4ib #c4gd #e4ig #afi4f ,golden ,chasselas 8,red0 #aci4gj #ab4bh #d4ef #c4ae #ab4ij #ahd4f ,prolific ,white #ie4jd #bc4ae #c4gj #g4gf #g4ed #aeh4f 8 8,red0 #hf4bd #aa4gc #c4eg #d4bd #g4cj #afi4b ,black ,prince ,white #ajh4bd #be4fj #e4ah #i4ja #h4ac #aej4b 8 8 ,red #ajc4dj #ae4gd #d4df #e4ba #h4ed #afe4b ,feher ,szagos ,white #ib4dj #be4ie #b4ad #d4hi #g4dg #afa4h 8 8 ,red #gg4ii #i4ja #b4bh #b4ee #g4ic #bjc4b ,mataro ,white #aca4fg #ba4dj #f4fi #f4bf #aj4df #aeh4i 8 ,red #ij4bj #ab4ai #e4fj #e4jb #g4gf #agb4j ,lenoir ,red #cc4jj #ag4cj #f4jj #h4ej #a4if #aah4g ,this table contradicts the opinion held by some wine makers1 that the ,mission grape yields a larger percentage of stems than other varieties4 ,the five lots of ,mission grapes analyzed give an average of nearly #c4ce per cent4 of stems1 which is less than the yield of every other variety mentioned1 except ,malvoisie1 ,chasselas1 and ,feher ,szagos4 ,the ,proportion of ,wine to ,grapes4--,it is generally said that it takes about #ab lbs4 of grapes to produce a gallon of wine2 some give the number of pounds as low as #aj2 the product1 however1 is must1 or new wine1 for nothing is taken into consideration for loss by evaporation1 etc41 while aging4 ,some wine dealers here consider that it takes about #ag lbs4 of grapes to produce a gallon of wine ready for consumption4 ,at a meeting of the ,st4 ,helena ,vinicultural ,club1 ,napa ,valley1 in this ,state1 the following facts were stated1 as reported in the newspapers4 ,mr4 ,krug said that he had always thought that #ad lbs4 of grapes would give a gallon of good wine at the time of the second racking in ,march1 ,april1 or ,may4 ,mr4 ,scheffler said he had made last year #ace4f gallons of wine and #h gallons of brandy to the ton of grapes4 ,counting each gallon of brandy as equal to #e of wine1 it was equal to about #agf gallons of wine4 ,that was about the average of ,riesling1 ,chasselas1 ,zinfandel1 ,malvoisie1 etc4 ,the general average was #acf gallons of wine and #h of brandy1 or #abe gallons of good wine and #aj of brandy4 ,mr4 ,heyman said he was glad to get #ade gallons of clear1 marketable wine on the average4 ,mr4 ,pellet said that the very best grapes would make #aej gallons of wine at the first racking1 and this is probably a fair average4 ,wooden and ,metal ,utensils4--,in ,european countries1 and in all properly ordered wine cellars1 wooden utensils are used wherever practicable2 and it ought to be impressed upon the mind of every one who has anything to do with the handling of the liquid1 that metal should never come in contact with wine1 if it can be avoided1 except it be a precious metal like silver4 ,the reason is that wine1 on account of the acids contained in it1 has a powerful effect upon lead1 copper1 zinc1 iron1 etc4 ,whenever such a metal is exposed to the influence of the air1 and of an acid liquor1 the metal is readily oxidized1 and the oxide combines with the acid to form a salt4 ,therefore1 ,mr4 ,maumene says that it is dangerous to keep wine for a few hours in vessels of copper or lead1 on account of the poisonous effects of their compounds4 ,it is bad even to leave it in iron1 zinc1 or tin4 ,among the acids contained in wine1 that which is the most capable of causing oxidation of the metals is the tartaric acid and the crude tartar4 ,so the principal salts formed by the wine in metallic vessels are the bi-tartrates of potash and the oxide of the metal4 ,iron wire wet with wine1 in a few days becomes covered with a very dark1 brown pellicle1 the wine is reduced to a solution of tartrate of iron and potash1 which is of that color4 ,a piece of iron in the wine produces the same result4 ,this salt however1 is not poisonous4 ,but if the acid acts energetically on the iron1 the water will be deprived of its oxygen1 and the hydrogen thereby set free may seriously affect the wine1 by combining with foreign bodies found in it1 producing a detestable flavor and odor4 ,a cask of wine may be completely ruined by a nail4 ,the salts of iron1 therefore1 are not to be feared on account of any deleterious effect upon the system1 but rather on account of the ill effect which they may have upon the color1 the flavor1 and odor of the wine4 ,on the other hand1 the salts of copper and lead are highly poisonous1 and should be carefully avoided4 ,zinc and galvanized iron are also affected by wine1 to the extent that when left in vessels made of either1 it will cause serious indisposition to those who drink it4 ,tin is also dissolved by wine1 forming stannic oxide and stannic acid1 which combine with the coloring matter and render it insoluble1 making the wine cloudy at first1 and finally rendering it nearly colorless4 ,by long contact with tin the wine develops a fetid odor4 ,every wine maker knows how soon his tin vessels used about wine wear out1 and the reason is apparent4 ,cleanliness4--,whether wood or metal utensils are used1 it is one of the essentials in making good1 wholesome wine1 that they should be kept scrupulously clean and neat4 ,stemmers1 crushers1 presses1 buckets1 funnels1 and in fact everything that comes in contact with the liquid should be scrubbed and rinsed often enough to prevent their becoming sour1 or contracting any disagreeable flavor or odor4 ,if metal vessels must be used1 by all means do not allow wine to stand in them4 ,run water through the hose and the pumps after using1 and also before using again4 ,for it is safe to assert that many of the bad odors and flavors met with in wines made by inexperienced persons are often due to want of care in these matters4 ,the necessary care to be bestowed upon the casks has already been mentioned in the proper place4 ,different ,cellar ,utensils which will be found convenient are represented in the following figures3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,tin ,pitchers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,wooden ,pitcher4 ,figures #de and #df are tin pitchers1 and #dg is of wood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,wooden ,vessels4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,wooden ,funnel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,adjustable ,hoop4 ,figure #dh shows wooden vessels not necessary to describe4 ,figure #di is a wooden funnel for casks4 ,figure #ej is an adjustable hoop1 useful in case of leakage in a cask caused by the breaking of hoops4 ,it can be put around a cask and tightened with the screw till a new hoop is put in place4 ,where1 however1 casks are well hooped with iron1 it is not likely to be needed4 ,figure #ea are baskets for carrying bottles4 ,every well ordered cellar should be provided with graduated measures 7figs4 #eb and #ec7 in which to measure the respective proportions to be taken of each kind of wine for cutting4 ,they can be had of any desired capacity1 and graduated decimally1 or otherwise1 as needed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,bottle ,baskets4 ,figure #ed1 instruments of tin for drawing from the bungs of casks in tasting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,fig4 #ec4 ,graduated ,measures4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,tin ,tasters4 ,in the sherry districts1 where the casks are not kept full2 a narrow cup attached to a stick is used to dip out the wine through the bung4 ,the practice of using a piece of hose for this purpose1 by letting one end into the cask and sucking on the other with the mouth till the wine runs1 as it is done in too many cellars in ,california1 is not to be commended to the fastidious4 ,a pump in the form of figure #ee is sometimes useful for drawing wine from casks in certain positions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,hand ,pump4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,for ,removing ,corks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,bucket4 ,figure #ef represents wire implements for removing corks which have been pushed inside a bottle4 ,,useful ,,rules4 ,to ,ascertain the ,weight of a ,given ,number of ,gallons of a ,liquid1 multiply #h4cc by the specific gravity of the liquid1 and the product by the number of gallons4 ,for instance1 suppose we have #ajjj gallons of a must which shows #bb per cent4 sugar4 ,from ,table ,i we obtain the corresponding specific gravity1 #a4jibc 7the figure #a is omitted except at the top of the column71 which shows how much heavier it is than water1 water being #a4 ,now1 one gallon of water at #fj ,f4 weighs #h4cc lbs41 and the temperature of the must should be about the same4 7,see ,must--,testing for ,sugar47 #h4cc multiplied by #a4jibc nearly #i4a1 which is the weight in pounds of one gallon of the must4 ,one thousand gallons would weigh nearly #i1ajj lbs4 ,if ,beaum's hydrometer is used1 ascertain from ,table ,,ii the specific gravity corresponding to the mark on the stem4 ,this rule applies to all liquids whose specific gravity is known--syrup1 wine1 brandy1 alcohol1 etc4 ,the specific gravity of a wine of #ab per cent4 is 4#ihdc1 and by our rule1 one gallon weighs about #h4b lbs4 a little less than a gallon of water4 ,rule for ,reducing ,must from a higher to a lower percentage of sugar3 ,multiply the number of gallons of the must by its specific gravity1 and the product by the difference between the given per cent4 and the required per cent41 and divide by the required per cent4 ,suppose that we have #ajjj gallons of a must of #bg per cent41 how many gallons of water are required to reduce it to #bc per cent8 ,the specific gravity1 by ,table ,i1 is #a4aaed1 and this multiplied by #ajjj #aaae4d1 which multiplied by #d1 the difference between #bg and #bc #ddfa4f1 which divided by #bc gives #aid gallons1 in round numbers4 ,rule for ,sugaring ,must4--,if crystallized sugar is used1 dissolve it and make a strong syrup1 or sugar water1 and the proposition is3 ,given a must of a certain sugar per cent41 and a syrup of a given per cent41 how much of the syrup for each gallon of must is required to produce a must of any required strength1 between the two8 ,first--,multiply the required per cent4 by the corresponding specific gravity4 ,second--,multiply the per cent4 of the must by its specific gravity4 ,third--,multiply the per cent4 of the syrup by its specific gravity4 ,divide the difference between the first and second products by the difference between the first and third1 and the quotient will be the fraction of a gallon required4 ,suppose that we have a must of only #aj per cent4 of sugar1 and a syrup of #fj per cent42 how much of the second should be added to one gallon of the first to produce a must of #bc per cent48 7#bc #a4jifi7 - 7#aj #a4jdja7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #j4bhd of a gallon4 7#fj #a4bhii7 - 7#bc #a4jifi7 ,therefore1 for every gallon of the must1 we add #j4bhd gallons of the syrup4 ,the same rule will apply to the mixing of a strong and a weak must4 ,rules for ,fortifying and ,reducing ,wines and ,weak ,liquors4--,in mixing strong spirits1 it is necessary to make an allowance for contraction1 and tables are prepared for the purpose1 but in mixing wines and weak spirits1 it may be disregarded1 and the following rules will be found sufficient4 ,to ,reduce with ,water4--,having a wine or a weak spirit of a certain per cent4 of alcohol1 how much water is required for each gallon to reduce it to any lower per cent48 ,divide the difference between the given per cent4 and the required per cent41 by the required per cent4 ,suppose a wine or other alcoholic solution of #ae per cent4 by volume1 how much water is required for each gallon to produce one of #aj per cent48 #ae - #aj ---------------- #aj ,therefore1 add one-half gallon of water for each gallon of the wine or weak spirit4 ,to ,reduce with ,weaker ,wine1 or to ,fortify with ,stronger ,wine or ,alcohol4--,having two wines or other weak liquors whose percentages of alcohol are known1 how much of the second is required for every gallon of the first1 to produce a wine of any required strength between the two8 ,divide the difference between the per cent4 of the first1 and the required per cent4 by the difference between the per cent4 of the second and the required per cent4 ,having a wine1 etc41 of #ah per cent41 and another of #h per cent41 how much of the second is required for every gallon of the first to produce one of #ab per cent48 7#ah - #ab7 #f ------------------ - #a 7#ab - #h7 #d ,or one and one-half gallons of the second for every gallon of the first4 ,or1 suppose we have a wine of #ae per cent41 how much brandy of #ej per cent4 must be used for every gallon of the first to produce a wine of #bj per cent48 7#bj - #ae7 #e #a ------------------ ---- ---- 7#ej - #bj7 #cj #f ,or one-sixth of a gallon of the brandy must be used for each gallon of the wine4 ,,plastering4 ,it is a ,common ,practice in ,spain and in the southern part of ,france to plaster the wines1 by adding more or less gypsum1 or plaster of ,paris4 ,it is either thrown upon the grapes before or after crushing1 or is added to the must4 ,gypsum is known to chemists1 when pure1 as calcium sulphate 7sulphate of lime71 but contains a certain amount of water of crystallization1 and is generally found associated with other substances1 such as rock salt1 and calcium carbonate1 or limestone4 ,it is the commonest impurity found in spring water1 and gives water its permanent hardness4 ,much has been written for and against the practice of plastering1 and both sides of the question have strong advocates4 ,objects4--,there are many different reasons given for the practice1 some of which are fanciful4 ,it is claimed that it retards fermentation1 and that red wines under its effects develop more color1 because the marc can be left longer in the fermenting vat2 that the froth of plastered wine is livelier and sooner disappears1 which pleases the merchants2 and that it has a preservative effect upon the wine4 ,it is claimed by some that it renders the wine dryer and harsher1 as it does1 if used to excess1 and by others1 that it unites with a portion of the water of the juice1 and renders the remaining juice richer in sugar4 ,again1 it is added to neutralize a portion of the acid contained in the must4 ,chemical ,effects4--,maumen says that it transforms the potassium salts of the wine into insoluble lime salts and potassium sulphate1 and this may have an important effect upon fermentation1 for some chemists attribute to the acid potassium tartrate the property of holding ferments in solution1 and that potassium sulphate1 even with the freed tartaric acid1 does not possess this power2 that the carbonate of lime contained in the plaster1 in neutralizing the acidity of the tartar1 without doubt contributes to the precipitation of the ferment which this salt held in solution2 and that during the neutralization1 carbonic acid is disengaged1 and the evaporation of the moisture carried up by the gas somewhat lowers the temperature4 ,he supposes that all these causes combined retard the fermentation4 ,p4 ,carles 7,j4 ,pharm4 ,chim4 #e1 #f1 #aah-abc71 says that the calcium sulphate acts on the potassium bitartrate in the juice of the grape1 forming calcium tartrate1 tartaric acid1 and potassium sulphate1 a large proportion of the last two bodies remaining in the wine4 ,that without plastering1 wine contains about two grammes per litre of pure tartaric acid1 whilst after plastering1 it contains double or treble that amount1 and even more1 according to the quantity of potassium bitartrate decomposed4 ,in order to make clear what this chemist says1 in ordinary language1 we will say that the gypsum acts upon the cream of tartar in the grape juice1 sets free a portion of the tartaric acid existing in combination in it1 and also forms tartrate of lime and sulphate of potash4 ,at first sight1 therefore1 it would seem that the addition of gypsum1 or plaster of ,paris1 actually increases the acid1 and this would be true if the gypsum consisted of pure calcium sulphate1 but it always contains more or less calcium carbonate1 and this substance1 which is but another name for chalk1 limestone1 or marble1 precipitates the free tartaric acid1 and the carbonate of lime does what is generally claimed for the gypsum--diminishes the acidity of the wine4 ,but if the calcium carbonate does not exist in sufficient quantity in the gypsum to precipitate all the tartaric acid set free1 the opposite effect would be produced4 ,why not add marble dust at once8 ,the experiments given in ,thudichum and ,dupr's work show that the amount of water withdrawn from must by the addition of even anhydrated plaster is so small as to be unworthy of notice1 being only one-fourth the weight of the plaster used4 ,effects on the ,health4--,this question was examined at ,montpellier1 in ,france1 by a committee of chemists appointed by the court1 and the results of their inquiries are frequently cited by those who are in favor of plastering3 #a4 ,that the plastered wine contains no new mineral substance4 #b4 ,that the quantity of plaster introduced into the wine may be considered null1 because it is entirely changed into potassium sulphate1 a slightly purgative salt1 analogous in this respect to tartar4 ,later1 however1 a commission was appointed by the ,conseil des ,armes1 who reported as follows3 #a4 ,that by the taste1 plastered wines could not be distinguished from the natural ones4 #b4 ,that plaster diminished the intensity of the color4 7,this1 of course1 refers to the direct effect47 #c4 ,that the potassium bitartrate1 one of the most useful principles contained in wine1 is decomposed by plaster1 and that potassium sulphate is formed1 which remains in solution1 and calcium tartrate1 which is precipitated4 #d4 ,that potassium phosphate1 also one of the salts naturally contained in wine1 is equally decomposed by plaster4 #e4 ,that plastering profoundly modifies the nature of wines1 by substituting for the potassium bitartrate a purgative salt in the proportion of from #c to more than #g grammes per litre4 ,and they demand the exclusion of all wine containing more than #d grammes of the sulphate per litre4 ,and ,mr4 ,carles1 above quoted1 concludes that1 owing to the purgative effect of this salt1 potassium sulphate1 the quantity present should not exceed #b grammes per litre1 or half as much as the army commission allow4 ,still later1 we have the instructions of the ,minister of ,justice of ,france to the procureurs ,gnraux1 issued in #ahhj1 as follows3 ,after several judicial decisions relative to the sale of plastered wines1 one of my predecessors expressed to the ,minister of ,agriculture and ,commerce the desire that new experiments should be made in order to establish1 if in the present state of science the immunity accorded to plastered wines by the circular of ,july #ba1 #aheh1 should be maintained4 ,having examined the question1 the consultation committee of public hygiene issued the following notice3 #a4 ,that the absolute immunity which plastered wines enjoy on account of the circular of the ,minister of ,justice dated ,july #ba1 #aheh1 ought no longer to be officially allowed4 #b4 ,that the presence of potassium sulphate in the wines of commerce1 which results from1 plastering the must1 from the mixture of plaster or sulphuric acid with the wine1 or from cutting with plastered wines1 should only be tolerated to the maximum limit of #b grammes per litre 7about #aag grains per gallon74 ,in calling my attention to this notice1 my colleague of agriculture and commerce informs me that he completely concurs4 ,he1 therefore1 instructs the officers to prosecute1 under the laws against adulterations1 the dealers who shall sell wine containing more than the quantity indicated of potassium sulphate1 as dangerous to the health of the consumers4 ,plastering ,sherry--,quantity ,used4--,mr4 ,vizitelli says that during his stay at ,jerez1 he paid particular attention to the plastering question1 saw the gypsum applied in almost a hundred instances1 and questioned the overseers in scores of vineyards4 ,he states that within his own knowledge gypsum is by no means invariably used in the vinification of sherry1 as already stated under the head of ,sherry4 ,and although applied in the majority of cases1 but a few pounds per butt are used1 say #f lbs4 at most in a dry season1 and a little more than double that quantity in years when great dampness prevails4 ,and he argues from the ,montpellier experiment1 already mentioned1 where the committee added #dj grammes of gypsum to a litre of wine1 and found only #a4bdj grammes of sulphate of potash per litre where pure calcium sulphate was used1 and #a4hbh grammes where ordinary plaster was employed1 that when the ,spaniards add the amount which they do to the must in sherry making1 no injury to the wine can occur4 ,it may be proper to suggest1 however1 for the benefit of future inquirers1 that wine1 after insensible fermentation1 contains but a small proportion of the potassium bitartrate which was contained in the grape1 the greater part of it having been deposited with the lees and the marc4 ,wines do not contain tartar enough to furnish #b grammes per litre of potassium sulphate1 nor enough to act upon #a gramme of pure gypsum4 ,but it is far otherwise with grape juice4 ,now #f lbs4 of gypsum to one butt of wine of #ajh ,imperial gallons would be the same as about #e4e grammes per litre1 and if pure1 ought to produce1 on being fully satisfied with the acid potassium tartrate1 as much as #h grammes per litre of potassium sulphate1 and ,mr4 ,carles1 above quoted1 says that it does amount to from #d to #g4e grammes per litre in plastered wines4 ,supposing the following to be the correct reaction1 #a gramme of pure gypsum ought to produce1 with #b4f grammes of cream of tartar1 #a4dgg grammes of sulphate of potash2 and to produce the #b grammes per litre of the latter would only require #a4cec of the former2 and but a little more than #a lb4 of pure gypsum could safely be added to #ajj gallons of must3 ,ca,s,o #b7;,c,h,,ko7 ,c,h,ca,o ,c,h,o ,k,,so ,as the gypsum is usually added to the pomace itself1 or to the grapes before crushing1 it is unsafe to argue from the effects produced by adding it to wine4 ,by ,adding ,water to must1 the effects of plastering may be produced1 if the water is hard by reason of the gypsum contained in it4 ,,sherry ,,flavor4 ,in many ,california wines a flavor called the 8sherry flavor0 is often observed2 and in the red wines may frequently be tasted what would with equal propriety be called a 8port flavor20 and the 8sherry flavor0 would by some be called a 8,madeira flavor40 ,mr4 ,pohndorff stated at the ,state ,viticultural ,convention of #ahhb1 that he was of the opinion that this flavor was due to the oxidation of the wine4 ,if this is so1 the remedy would be to use greater care in its management1 and avoid exposing it to the air1 in fact1 observe just the treatment indicated in this book for all but sweet and fortified wines4 ,without attempting to say anything authoritative on the subject1 the author would suggest that in addition to the above cause1 these flavors are largely due1 first1 to our hot climate2 second1 to over-maturity of the grapes2 and third1 to aging the wine in too high a temperature2 for these conditions all exist in southern countries1 whose wines are apt to have a peculiar flavor1 called by some writers the 8cooked flavor10 which is unobjectionable in a sweet wine4 ,the first is not always within the control of the producer1 but the two last can always be controlled by the grape grower and the cellar-man4 ,illustration ,,appendix4 ,,table ,i4 ,balling's degrees 7per cent4 of sugar71 corresponding degrees ,baum1 and specific gravity at #fc ,f4--,chas4 ,stammer4 ,balling ,balling or per ,specific or per ,specific cent4 ,baum ,gravity cent4 ,baum ,gravity sugar sugar ---------------------------------------- ---------- #a #j4ef #a4jjci #bf #ad4ce #a4aajg #b #a4aa 4#jjgh #bg #ad4ij 4#aaed #c #a4fg 4#jaag #bh #ae4dd 4#abja #d #b4bc 4#jaeg #bi #ae4ii 4#abdi #e #b4gh 4#jaig #cj #af4ec 4#abig #f #c4cd 4#jbcd #ca #ag4jg 4#acde #g #c4hi 4#jbgh #cb #ag4fa 4#acic #h #d4de 4#jcai #cc #ah4ae 4#addb #i #e4jj 4#jcfj #cd #ah4fi 4#adia #aj #e4ef 4#jdja #ce #ai4bc 4#aeda #aa #f4aa 4#jddc #cf #ai4gg 4#aeia #ab #f4ff 4#jdhe #cg #bj4cj 4#afda #ac #g4bb 4#jebh #ch #bj4hd 4#afib #ad #g4gg 4#jegj #ci #ba4cg 4#agdc #ae #h4cb 4#jfac #dj #ba4ia 4#agid #af #h4hg 4#jfeg #da #bb4dd 4#ahdf #ag #i4db 4#jgjj #db #bb4ig 4#ahih #ah #i4ig 4#jgdd #dc #bc4ej 4#aiej #ai #aj4eb 4#jghg #dd #bd4jc 4#bjjc #bj #aa4jg 4#jhcc #de #bd4ef 4#bjef #ba #aa4fb 4#jhgh #df #be4ji 4#baaj #bb #ab4ag 4#jibc #dg #be4fb 4#bafd #bc #ab4gb 4#jifi #dh #bf4ad 4#bbah #bd #ac4bf 4#ajae #di #bf4fg 4#bbgc #be #ac4ha 4#ajfa #ej #bg4ai 4#bcbh ,balling ,balling or per ,specific or per ,specific cent4 ,baum ,gravity cent4 ,baum ,gravity sugar sugar ---------------------------------------- ---------- #ea #bg4ga #a4bchc #gf #dj4cf #a4chid #eb #bh4bd 4#bdci #gg #dj4hd 4#ciei #ec #bh4ge 4#bdie #gh #da4cc 4#djbe #ed #bi4bg 4#beeb #gi #da4ha 4#djib #ee #bi4gi 4#bfji #hj #db4bi 4#daei #ef #cj4ca 4#bfff #ha #db4gh 4#dbbf #eg #cj4hb 4#bgbd #hb #dc4be 4#dbic #eh #ca4cd 4#bghb #hc #dc4gc 4#dcfa #ei #ca4he 4#bhdj #hd #dd4ba 4#ddcj #fj #cb4cf 4#bhii #he #dd4fh 4#ddii #fa #cb4hg 4#bieh #hf #de4ae 4#defh #fb #cc4ch 4#cjah #hg #de4fb 4#dfch #fc #cc4hi 4#cjgh #hh #df4ji 4#dgjh #fd #cd4dj 4#cach #hi #df4ef 4#dggh #fe #cd4ij 4#caii #ij #dg4jb 4#dhdi #ff #ce4dj 4#cbfj #ia #dg4dh 4#dibj #fg #ce4ij 4#ccbb #ib #dg4ie 4#diib #fh #cf4da 4#cchd #ic #dh4dj 4#ejfd #fi #cf4ia 4#cddf #id #dh4hf 4#eacf #gj #cg4dj 4#ceji #ie #di4cb 4#ebji #ga #cg4ij 4#cegb #if #di4gg 4#ebha #gb #ch4ci 4#cfcf #ig #ej4bb 4#ecee #gc #ch4hi 4#cgjj #ih #ej4fg 4#edbi #gd #ci4ch 4#cgfd #ii #ea4ab 4#eejd #ge #ci4hg 4#chbi #ajj #ea4ef 4#eegh ,,oechsle',s ,,must-,,scale indicates specific gravity to three decimal places4 ,when two figures are shown on the scale1 a cipher before them must be understood4 ,for instance3 #hc means #a4jhc1 or #bj per cent41 ,balling2 and #ajf means #a4ajf1 or #be per cent41 ,balling4 ,,table ,,ii4 ,baum's degrees1 corresponding degrees1 ,balling 7per cent4 sugar17 and specific gravity at #fc ,f4 ,balling ,balling or per ,specific or per ,specific ,baum cent4 ,gravity ,baum cent4 ,gravity sugar sugar ---------------------------------------- ----------- #j4j #j4jj #a4jjjj #ac #bc4eb #a4jiib #j4e #j4ij 4#jjce #ac4e #bd4dc 4#ajcd #a #a4hj 4#jjgj #ad #be4ce 4#ajgg #a4e #b4fi 4#jaje #ad4e #bf4bg 4#aabj #b #c4ei 4#jada #ae #bg4ai 4#aafc #b4e #d4di 4#jagg #ae4e #bh4aj 4#abjf #c #e4ci 4#jbac #af #bi4jc 4#abej #c4e #f4bi 4#jbdi #af4e #bi4ie 4#abid #d #g4ai 4#jbhf #ag #cj4hg 4#acci #d4e #h4ji 4#jcbc #ag4e #ca4gi 4#achc #e #i4jj 4#jcfj #ah #cb4gb 4#adbi #e4e #i4ij 4#jcig #ah4e #cc4fe 4#adgd #f #aj4hj 4#jdce #ai #cd4eh 4#aebj #f4e #aa4gj 4#jdgc #ai4e #ce4ej 4#aeff #g #ab4fa 4#jeaa #bj #cf4dd 4#afac #g4e #ac4ea 4#jedi #bj4e #cg4cg 4#affj #h #ad4db 4#jehh #ba #ch4cj 4#agjg #h4e #ae4cb 4#jfbg #ba4e #ci4bd 4#agee #i #af4bc 4#jffg #bb #dj4ag 4#ahjc #i4e #ag4ad 4#jgjf #bb4e #da4aa 4#aheb #aj #ah4je 4#jgdf #bc #db4je 4#aija #aj4e #ah4if 4#jghg #bc4e #db4ii 4#aiej #aa #ai4hg 4#jhbg #bd #dc4id 4#bjjj #aa4e #bj4gh 4#jhfh #bd4e #dd4hh 4#bjej #ab #ba4fi 4#jiji #be #de4hc 4#baja #ab4e #bb4fj 4#jiea #be4e #df4gh 4#baeb - ,balling ,balling or per ,specific or per ,specific ,baum cent4 ,gravity ,baum cent4 ,gravity sugar sugar ---------------------------------------- ----------- #bf #dg4gc #a4bbjc #ci #gc4bc #a4cgad #bf4e #dh4fh 4#bbee #ci4e #gd4be 4#cghj #bg #di4fc 4#bcjh #dj #ge4bg 4#chdf #bg4e #ej4ei 4#bcfa #dj4e #gf4bi 4#ciac #bh #ea4ee 4#bdad #da #gg4cb 4#ciha #bh4e #eb4ea 4#bdfh #da4e #gh4ce 4#djdi #bi #ec4dg 4#bebb #db #gi4ci 4#daah #bi4e #ed4dd 4#begf #db4e #hj4dc 4#dahg #cj #ee4dg 4#bfcb #dc #ha4dg 4#dbfg #cj4e #ef4cg 4#bfhg #dc4e #hb4ea 4#dcbh #ca #eg4cd 4#bgdc #dd #hc4ef 4#ddjj #ca4e #eh4cb 4#bhjj #dd4e #hd4fb 4#ddgb #cb #ei4bi 4#bheg #de #he4fh 4#dede #cb4e #fj4bg 4#biae #de4e #hf4gd 4#dfai #cc #fa4be 4#bigc #df #hg4ha 4#dfid #cc4e #fb4bc 4#cjcb #df4e #hh4hh 4#dgfi #cd #fc4bb 4#cjia #dg #hi4if 4#dhde #cd4e #fd4ba 4#caea #dg4e #ia4jc 4#dibb #ce #fe4bj 4#cbaa #dh #ib4ab 4#ejjj #ce4e #ff4ai 4#cbgb #dh4e #ic4ba 4#ejgi #cf #fg4ai 4#cccc #di #id4cj 4#eaeh #cf4e #fh4ai 4#ccie #di4e #ie4dj 4#ebch #cg #fi4ai 4#cdeh #ej #if4ea 4#ecai #cg4e #gj4bj 4#ceba #ej4e #ig4fb 4#edja #ch #ga4bj 4#cehe #ea #ih4gc 4#edhd #ch4e #gb4bb 4#cfdi #ea4e #ii4he 4#eefh ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,table ,,iii4 ,baum's degrees and corresponding per cent4 of sugar at #fj ,f4 ,baum ,sugar ,baum ,sugar ,baum ,sugar ,baum ,sugar degrees degrees degrees degrees ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #a #a4gb #aa #ai4hh #ba #ch4bi #ca #eg4ca #b #c4ej #ab #ba4ga #bb #dj4ag #cb #ei4bg #c #e4cj #ac #bc4ed #bc #db4jc #cc #fa4bc #d #g4ji #ad #be4cd #bd #dc4ib #cd #fc4ah #e #h4ij #ae #bg4be #be #de4gi #ce #fe4ai #f #aj4ga #af #bi4jf #bf #dg4gj #cf #fg4ai #g #ab4eb #ag #cj4hi #bg #di4fj #cg #fi4ai #h #ad4ch #ah #cb4ge #bh #ea4ej #ch #ga4bb #i #af4bj #ai #cd4fj #bi #ec4db #ci #gc4bh #aj #ah4jd #bj #cf4dj #cj #ee4cf #dj #ge4ce ,,table ,,iv4 ,showing the specific gravities of mixtures of alcohol and water1 containing from #j4a to #cj per cent4 by volume1 of absolute alcohol1 and corresponding per cent4 by weight1 for every #j4a per cent4 by volume1 compared with water at #fj ,f4 ,the specific gravity of absolute alcohol according to ,u4 ,s4 standard being 4#gici1 referred to water at its greatest density as unity1 or 4#gidfa1 referred to water at #fj ,f4 ,per cent4 ,per cent4 ,specific ,per cent4 ,per cent4 ,specific by volume by weight ,gravity by volume by weight ,gravity ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #j4a #j4jh 4#iiihf #c4h #c4jd 4#iidfj #j4b #j4af 4#iiigb #c4i #c4ab 4#iidde #j4c #j4bd 4#iiieg #d4j #c4bj 4#iidca #j4d #j4cb 4#iiidc #d4a #c4bh 4#iidag #j4e #j4dj 4#iiibi #d4b #c4cf 4#iidjc #j4f #j4dh 4#iiiae #d4c #c4dd 4#iichh #j4g #j4ef 4#iiija #d4d #c4eb 4#iicgd #j4h #j4fd 4#iihhf #d4e #c4fj 4#iicfj #j4i #j4gb 4#iihgb #d4f #c4fh 4#iicdf #a4j #j4hj 4#iiheh #d4g #c4gf 4#iiccb #a4a #j4hh 4#iihdd #d4h #c4hd 4#iicag #a4b #j4if 4#iihcj #d4i #c4ib 4#iicjc #a4c #a4jd 4#iihae #e4j #d4jj 4#iibhi #a4d #a4ab 4#iihja #e4a #d4jh 4#iibgf #a4e #a4bj 4#iighg #e4b #d4af 4#iibfc #a4f #a4bh 4#iiggc #e4c #d4bd 4#iibej #a4g #a4cf 4#iigei #e4d #d4cb 4#iibcg #a4h #a4dd 4#iigdd #e4e #d4dj 4#iibbd #a4i #a4eb 4#iigcj #e4f #d4di 4#iibaa #b4j #a4fj 4#iigaf #e4g #d4eg 4#iiaih #b4a #a4fh 4#iigjb #e4h #d4fe 4#iiahf #b4b #a4gf 4#iifhh #e4i #d4gc 4#iiagc #b4c #a4hd 4#iifgc #f4j #d4ha 4#iiafj #b4d #a4ib 4#iifei #f4a #d4hi 4#iiadh #b4e #b4jj 4#iifde #f4b #d4ig 4#iiace #b4f #b4jh 4#iifca #f4c #e4je 4#iiabc #b4g #b4af 4#iifag #f4d #e4ac 4#iiaaj #b4h #b4bd 4#iifjb #f4e #e4ba 4#iijih #b4i #b4cb 4#iiehh #f4f #e4bi 4#iijhf #c4j #b4dj 4#iiegd #f4g #e4cg 4#iijgc #c4a #b4dh 4#iiefj #f4h #e4de 4#iijfa #c4b #b4ef 4#iiedf #f4i #e4ed 4#iijdh #c4c #b4fd 4#iieca #g4j #e4fb 4#iijcf #c4d #b4gb 4#iieag #g4a #e4gj 4#iijbd #c4e #b4gi 4#iiejc #g4b #e4gh 4#iijaa #c4f #b4hh 4#iidhh #g4c #e4hf 4#ihiii #c4g #b4if 4#iidgd #g4d #e4id 4#ihihf ,per cent4 ,per cent4 ,specific ,per cent4 ,per cent4 ,specific by volume by weight ,gravity by volume by weight ,gravity ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #g4e #f4jb 4#ihigd #aa4b #i4jc 4#ihecj #g4f #f4aj 4#ihifa #aa4c #i4aa 4#iheai #g4g #f4ah 4#ihidi #aa4d #i4bj 4#ihejh #g4h #f4bf 4#ihicf #aa4e #i4bh 4#ihdig #g4i #f4ce 4#ihibd #aa4f #i4cf 4#ihdhf #h4j #f4dc 4#ihiaa #aa4g #i4dd 4#ihdge #h4a #f4ea 4#ihhii #aa4h #i4eb 4#ihdfc #h4b #f4ei 4#ihhhf #aa4i #i4fj 4#ihdeb #h4c #f4fg 4#ihhgd #ab4j #i4fi 4#ihdda #h4d #f4ge 4#ihhfa #ab4a #i4gg 4#ihdcj #h4e #f4hc 4#ihhdi #ab4b #i4he 4#ihdai #h4f #f4ia 4#ihhcg #ab4c #i4ic 4#ihdjh #h4g #g4jj 4#ihhbd #ab4d #aj4ja 4#ihcig #h4h #g4jh 4#ihhab #ab4e #aj4aj 4#ihchf #h4i #g4af 4#ihgii #ab4f #aj4ah 4#ihcge #i4j #g4bd 4#ihghg #ab4g #aj4bf 4#ihcfd #i4a #g4cb 4#ihgge #ab4h #aj4cd 4#ihceb #i4b #g4dj 4#ihgfb #ab4i #aj4db 4#ihcda #i4c #g4dh 4#ihgej #ac4j #aj4ea 4#ihccj #i4d #g4eg 4#ihgcg #ac4a #aj4ei 4#ihcai #i4e #g4fe 4#ihgbe #ac4b #aj4fg 4#ihcjh #i4f #g4gc 4#ihgac #ac4c #aj4ge 4#ihbig #i4g #g4ha 4#ihgjj #ac4d #aj4hc 4#ihbhf #i4h #g4hi 4#ihfhh #ac4e #aj4ib 4#ihbge #i4i #g4ig 4#ihfge #ac4f #aa4jj 4#ihbfd #aj4j #h4je 4#ihffc #ac4g #aa4jh 4#ihbec #aj4a #h4ad 4#ihfeb #ac4h #aa4af 4#ihbdb #aj4b #h4bb 4#ihfda #ac4i #aa4bd 4#ihbca #aj4c #h4cj 4#ihfcj #ad4j #aa4cc 4#ihbbj #aj4d #h4ch 4#ihfai #ad4a #aa4da 4#ihbji #aj4e #h4df 4#ihfjh #ad4b #aa4di 4#ihaii #aj4f #h4ed 4#iheig #ad4c #aa4eg 4#ihahh #aj4g #h4fb 4#ihehf #ad4d #aa4fe 4#ihagh #aj4h #h4ga 4#ihegd #ad4e #aa4gd 4#ihafg #aj4i #h4gi 4#ihefc #ad4f #aa4hb 4#ihaef #aa4j #h4hg 4#iheeb #ad4g #aa4ij 4#ihadf #aa4a #h4ie 4#iheda #ad4h #aa4ih 4#ihace ,per cent4 ,per cent4 ,specific ,per cent4 ,per cent4 ,specific by volume by weight ,gravity by volume by weight ,gravity ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #ad4i #ab4jg 4#ihabe #ah4g #ae4ba 4#iggcc #ae4j #ab4ae 4#ihaad #ah4h #ae4bi 4#iggbb #ae4a #ab4bc 4#ihajd #ah4i #ae4cg 4#iggab #ae4b #ab4cb 4#ihjid #ai4j #ae4df 4#iggjb #ae4c #ab4dj 4#ihjhc #ai4a #ae4ed 4#igfib #ae4d #ab4di 4#ihjgc #ai4b #ae4fb 4#igfhb #ae4e #ab4eg 4#ihjfc #ai4c #ae4gj 4#igfga #ae4f #ab4fe 4#ihjec #ai4d #ae4gh 4#igffa #ae4g #ab4gc 4#ihjdb #ai4e #ae4hg 4#igfea #ae4h #ab4hb 4#ihjcb #ai4f #ae4ie 4#igfda #ae4i #ab4ij 4#ihjba #ai4g #af4jd 4#igfca #af4j #ab4ih 4#ihjaa #ai4h #af4ab 4#igfbj #af4a #ac4jf 4#ihjja #ai4i #af4bj 4#igfaj #af4b #ac4ad 4#igiij #bj4j #af4bi 4#igfjj #af4c #ac4bb 4#igihj #bj4a #af4cg 4#igeij #af4d #ac4ca 4#igifi #bj4b #af4de 4#igehj #af4e #ac4ci 4#igiei #bj4c #af4ea 4#igefi #af4f #ac4dg 4#igidi #bj4d #af4fb 4#igeei #af4g #ac4ee 4#igich #bj4e #af4gj 4#igedi #af4h #ac4fc 4#igibh #bj4f #af4gi 4#igeci #af4i #ac4ga 4#igiag #bj4g #af4hg 4#igebi #ag4j #ac4hj 4#igijg #bj4h #af4ie 4#igeah #ag4a #ac4hh 4#ighig #bj4i #ag4jc 4#igejh #ag4b #ac4if 4#ighhg #ba4j #ag4ab 4#igdih #ag4c #ad4je 4#ighgf #ba4a #ag4bj 4#igdhh #ag4d #ad4ac 4#ighff #ba4b #ag4bh 4#igdgh #ag4e #ad4ba 4#ighef #ba4c #ag4cg 4#igdfg #ag4f #ad4bi 4#ighdf #ba4d #ag4de 4#igdeg #ag4g #ad4ch 4#ighce #ba4e #ag4ec 4#igddg #ag4h #ad4df 4#ighbe #ba4f #ag4fb 4#igdcg #ag4i #ad4ed 4#ighad #ba4g #ag4gj 4#igdbg #ah4j #ad4fb 4#ighjd #ba4h #ag4gh 4#igdaf #ah4a #ad4ga 4#iggid #ba4i #ag4hg 4#igdjf #ah4b #ad4gi 4#igghd #bb4j #ag4ie 4#igcif #ah4c #ad4hg 4#igggc #bb4a #ah4jc 4#igchf #ah4d #ad4if 4#iggfc #bb4b #ah4ab 4#igcge #ah4e #ae4jd 4#iggec #bb4c #ah4bj 4#igcfe #ah4f #ae4ab 4#iggdc #bb4d #ah4bh 4#igced ,per cent4 ,per cent4 ,specific ,per cent4 ,per cent4 ,specific by volume by weight ,gravity by volume by weight ,gravity ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #bb4e #ah4cg 4#igcdd #bf4c #ba4ee 4#ifiej #bb4f #ah4de 4#igccd #bf4d #ba4fd 4#ifici #bb4g #ah4ec 4#igcbc #bf4e #ba4gb 4#ifibh #bb4h #ah4fb 4#igcac #bf4f #ba4ha 4#ifjag #bb4i #ah4gj 4#igcjb #bf4g #ba4hi 4#ifijf #bc4j #ah4gh 4#igbib #bf4h #ba4ih 4#ifhif #bc4a #ah4hg 4#igbhb #bf4i #bb4jf 4#ifhhe #bc4b #ah4ie 4#igbgb #bg4j #bb4ae 4#ifhgd #bc4c #ai4jd 4#igbfa #bg4a #bb4bc 4#ifhfc #bc4d #ai4ab 4#igbea #bg4b #bb4cb 4#ifhec #bc4e #ai4bj 4#igbda #bg4c #bb4dj 4#ifhdb #bc4f #ai4bi 4#igbca #bg4d #bb4dh 4#ifhcb #bc4g #ai4cg 4#igbba #bg4e #bb4eg 4#ifhba #bc4i #ai4ed 4#igbjj #bg4g #bb4gd 4#ifgii #bd4j #ai4fb 4#igaij #bg4h #bb4hb 4#ifghi #bd4a #ai4ga 4#igahj #bg4i #bb4ia 4#ifggh #bd4b #ai4gi 4#igagj #bh4j #bb4ii 4#ifgfg #bd4c #ai4hg 4#igaei #bh4a #bc4jg 4#ifgef #bd4d #ai4if 4#igadi #bh4b #bc4af 4#ifgde #bd4e #bj4jd 4#igaci #bh4c #bc4bd 4#ifgcc #bd4f #bj4ac 4#igabi #bh4d #bc4cc 4#ifgbb #bd4g #bj4ba 4#igaah #bh4e #bc4da 4#ifgaa #bd4h #bj4bi 4#igajh #bh4f #bc4ej 4#ifgjj #bd4i #bj4ch 4#igjig #bh4g #bc4eh 4#iffhi #be4j #bj4df 4#igjhg #bh4h #bc4fg 4#iffgg #be4a #bj4ee 4#igjgf #bh4i #bc4ge 4#iffff #be4b #bj4fc 4#igjff #bi4j #bc4hd 4#iffee #be4c #bj4ga 4#igjee #bi4a #bc4ic 4#iffdd #be4d #bj4hj 4#igjde #bi4b #bd4ja 4#iffcb #be4e #bj4hh 4#igjcd #bi4c #bd4aj 4#iffba #be4f #bj4ig 4#igjbc #bi4d #bd4ah 4#iffji #be4g #ba4je 4#igjac #bi4e #bd4bg 4#ifeih #be4h #ba4ac 4#igjjb #bi4f #bd4ce 4#ifehg #be4i #ba4bb 4#ifiib #bi4g #bd4dd 4#ifege #bf4j #ba4cj 4#ifiha #bi4h #bd4eb 4#ifefd #bf4a #ba4ci 4#ifigj #bi4i #bd4fa 4#ifeeb #bf4b #ba4dg 4#ififj #cj4j #bd4fi 4#ifeda ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,the basis of the foregoing table is ,table ,,iii of the ,u4 ,s4 ,manual for ,inspectors of spirits1 giving the respective volumes of absolute alcohol and water in #ajj volumes of spirits of different strengths1 for every #j4e per cent4 by volume1 and the specific gravities1 referred to water at #fj ,f4 ,,table ,v4 ,color ,variety ,name of ,locality4 ,vin- of ,,av ,,aat of ,wine4 ,contributor4 tage4,wine4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,mission1 just ripe,dr4 ,j4 ,strentzel,martinez #ahhj,white #aj4j 4#ecgj 8 8 8 8 8 8 ,red #h4e 4#edjj 8 fully 8 8 8 8 ,white #ab4h 4#cdij 8 8 8 8 8 8 ,red #ac4c 4#ccjj 8 ,george ,west ,stockton #ahha,white #aa4i 4#ffij 8 8 8 8 ,red #ab4f 4#eeij 8 ,prof4 ,g4 ,husman ,napa 8 8 ,white #ac4j 4#dbig 8 ,i4 ,de ,turk ,santa ,rosa #ahhj 8 #aa4i 4#cijj 8 8 8 #ahha 8 #ac4a 4#dejj 8 ,chas4 ,lefranc ,san ,jose 8 ,red #ab4j 4#dbde 8 ,j4 ,de,barth ,shorb,san ,gabriel #ahgc,white #ae4b 4#gcie 8 8 8 #ahha 8 #ab4d 4#dhig 8 ,i4 ,de ,turk ,santa ,rosa #ahgh 8 #ab4j 4#ecdg ,black ,prince ,george ,west ,stockton #ahha 8 #ad4i 4#gjbj 8 8 8 8 8 ,red #ae4b 4#fdej ,malvoisie ,chas4 ,krug ,st4 ,helena #ahhj,white #af4g 4#dbgj 7,malvasia87 8 8 8 ,red #ad4e 4#bdfj 8 ,r4 ,hasty ,clayton 8 8 #ac4h 444 8 ,g4 ,husman ,napa 8 #ahha,white #ad4j 4#dfce 8 8 ,napa 8 8 ,red #ac4e 4#edcj 8 ,t4 ,f4 ,eisen ,fresno #ahgh,white #ac4g 4#ffbb 8 8 8 #ahhj 8 #ag4b 4#eaig ,zinfandel ,chas4 ,krug ,st4 ,helena 8 8 #ab4f 4#fjjj 8 8 8 8 ,red #ab4i 4#cijj 8 ,geo4 ,west ,stockton #ahha,white #ad4a 4#dbjj 8 8 8 8 ,red #ad4c 4#dcgj 8 ,gundlach ,co4 ,sacramento 444 8 #aa4i 4#fgej 8 ,i4 ,de ,turk ,santa ,rosa #ahgi 8 #ac4d 4#fdie 8 8 8 #ahha 8 #ac4b 4#fgej 8 ,g4 ,husman ,napa 8 8 8 #ac4b 4#dggg 8 ,i4 ,de ,turk ,santa ,rosa #ahhj 8 #ab4g 4#fijj ,color ,variety ,name of ,locality4 ,vin- of ,,av ,,aat of ,wine4 ,contributor4 tage4,wine4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,zinfandel ,b4 ,dreyfus ,co4 ,red #ab4d 4#gagj ,charbono ,general ,naglee ,san ,jose #ahhj,white #h4a 4#dgej 8 8 8 8 ,red #f4e 4#ddbj 8 ,j4 ,t4 ,doyle ,santa ,clara 8 #ab4e 4#dcbj ,co4 8 ,mataro ,chas4 ,lefranc ,san ,jose #ahhj,white #ad4a 4#dbde 8 8 8 8 ,red #ab4d 4#ebej ,grenache 8 8 #ahgf 8 #aa4f 4#gibj 8 8 8 #ahha 8 #ab4e 4#cdej ,california 8 8 8 #aj4h 4#gejj ,burgundy ,lenoir ,h4 ,w4 ,crabb ,oakville #ahha 8 #aa4a 4#hjgj 8 8 8 8 8 #aa4i 4#eade ,chasselas ,j4 ,gundlach ,sonoma 8 ,white #ac4e 4#fccg 8 8 8 8 ,,ws #aa4g 4#fdie 8 ,dresel ,co4 8 ,white #ac4e 4#ccge ,rose ,chasselas ,g4 ,husman ,napa 8 #ahha 8 #ab4j 4#cgbj ,golden ,chasselas,chas4 ,krug ,st4 ,helena 8 ,w_/,s #ab4d 4#eibe ,riesling ,dresel ,co4 ,sonoma ,white #ab4e 4#fahj 8 ,b4 ,dreyfus ,co4 8 #ab4i 4#fgej 8 ,j4 ,de,barth ,shorb,san ,gabriel #ahhj 8 #ac4f 4#hcbe 8 ,kramp ,bro4 ,diamond 8 8 #ab4f 4#gebb ,springs ,blanc ,elba 7,elbling87,j4,de ,barth ,shorb,san ,gabriel #ahha 8 #ac4a 4#fhbe ,feher ,szagos ,g4 ,eisen ,fresno 8 8 #aj4f 4#efbe 8 8 8 8 ,w_/,s #aj4b 4#ebej ,prolific ,geo4 ,west ,stockton 8 ,white #ad4e 4#fgej 8 8 8 8 ,w_/,s #ae4f 4#ecdg ,sauvignon ,vert,chas4 ,lefranc ,san ,jose #ahge,white #ac4c 4#fahg ,burger ,chas4 ,krug ,st4 ,helena #ahhj 8 #i4j 4#efbj 8 8 8 8 ,w_/,s #i4b 4#ebej 8 ,r4 ,hasty ,clayton 8 ,white #aa4e 444 ,elvira ,h4 ,w4 ,crabb ,oakville #ahha 8 #aa4i 4#eade 8 ,kramp ,bro4 ,diamond #ahhj 8 #ad4a 4#edge ,springs ,color ,variety ,name of ,locality4 ,vin- of ,,av ,,aat of ,wine4 ,contributor4 tage4,wine4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,malaga ,t4 ,f4 ,eisen ,fresno #ahgg,white #ad4f 4#febe 8 8 8 #ahha 8 #ag4i 4#bage ,madeira ,b4 ,dreyfus ,co4 8 8 #ah4b 444 ,muscat ,i4 ,de ,turk ,santa ,rosa 8 8 #aa4e 4#egge 8 ,t4 ,f4 ,eisen ,fresno #ahgf 8 #af4g 4#ecbe 8 8 8 #ahha 8 #ag4b 4#bbej ,port1 ,zinfandel 8 8 8 ,red #ah4d 4#cdej 8 8 8 8 #ahgh 8 #ba4j 4#dieg ,port ,j4 ,de,parth ,shorb,san ,gabriel #ahge 8 #bb4a 4#cebe 8 8 8 #ahha 8 #bb4i 4#bjdh ,port1 ,tienturier,t4 ,f4 ,eisen ,fresno 8 8 #ah4h 4#cige ,angelica ,j4 ,de,barth ,shorb,san ,gabriel #ahge,white #ah4c 4#chbe 8 8 8 #ahha 8 #ba4h 4#addh ,sherry 7,feher ,szagos7,t4 ,f4 ,eisen ,fresno #ahgg 8 #ah4h 4#cfjj 8 8 dry 8 8 #ahgh 8 #af4a 4#eeej ,,av per cent4 alcohol by volume4 ,,aat ,acid ,as ,tartaric4 ,w_/,s ,with ,skins ,where the name of the locality is followed by 7871 it was omitted from the report4 ,averages4--,in thirteen ,mission wines3 ,alcohol--maximum1 #ae4b2 minimum1 #h4e2 average1 #ab4b4 ,acid--maximum1 4#gcie2 minimum1 4#ccjj2 average1 4#diee4 ,in seven ,malvoisie wines3 ,alcohol--maximum1 #ag4b2 minimum1 #ac4e2 average1 #ad4gg4 ,acid in six--maximum1 4#ffbb2 minimum1 4#bdfj2 average1 4#dgfi4 ,in ten ,zinfandel wines3 ,alcohol--maximum1 #ad4c2 minimum1 #aa4i2 average1 #ac4jg4 ,acid--maximum1 4#gagj2 minimum1 4#cijj2 average1 4#egca4 ,in four ,riesling wines3 ,alcohol--maximum1 #ac4f2 minimum1 #ab4e2 average1 #ab4f4 ,acid--maximum1 4#hcbe2 minimum1 4#fahj2 average1 4#gaid4 ,in four ,port wines1 including two ,zinfandel3 ,alcohol--maximum1 #bb4i2 minimum1 #ah4d2 average1 #ba4a4 ,acid--maximum1 4#djeg2 minimum1 4#bjdh2 average1 4#cbgj4 ,,index4 ,page4 ,acetic acid1 #aid fermentation1 #cj ,acid in ,california wines1 x1 #bbj in ,european wines1 xii increased by stems1 #bj in wine1 x1 xi1 xii1 #aic1 #bbj see acetic1 carbonic1 citric1 tartaric1 malic1 pectic1 tannic1 salicylic1 lactic1 valeric1 succinic and plastering4 ,acidity1 disease1 see sourness4 in casks1 #fe ,acquired defects and diseases1 #acg ,acrity1 #adi in bottles1 #afg ,adjustable hoop1 see utensils4 ,aerating must1 #bc stirring pomace1 #db see treading1 air1 influence of4 port wine1 #aab ,age1 effect on wine1 #ea1 #eb ,aging wine--effect of various influences1 #gf general considerations1 #gf requisite to make agreeable and healthful1 #gf care to age and preserve1 #gf new wine1 #gf different wines require different periods1 #gf development of bouquet and flavor1 #gf old wine1 characteristics of1 #gf color1 aroma and flavor1 #gg influences which develop1 also destroy1 #gg influences on weak wine and strong wine1 #gg influence of the air1 see aerating1 #gg variations of temperature1 #gh influence of heat1 #gh aging by heat1 #gi preserving by heat1 #hj influence of cold and frozen wines1 #ha influence of light1 #hb aging by sunlight1 insolation1 #hb effect of motion and voyages1 #hb-hd wines suitable for shipment1 #hb aging by fining1 #hd generally1 #hd fine before aging1 #hd what wines gain the most by the processes1 #he heating ,madiera1 #aac see casks1 size of ,air1 influence of1 #gg see port1 aerating ,albumen1 see fining4 ,alcohol in ,california wines1 ix1 x1 #bbj in ,european wines1 xii relation to sugar1 #aa1 #bh1 #cd required in dry wine1 #aa to keep wine sweet1 #eh1 #ei1 #ajf1 #ajg in aging by heat1 #hj required in aging by sunlight1 #hb for shipping wines1 #hb by weight and by volume1 #cc burning to arrest fermentation1 #gd lost by evaporation1 #aab natural in sweet wines1 #aje adding in fining1 #ajb to sweet wines1 #aje1 #ajf1 #ajg to port1 #aaa1 #aab to sherry1 #aag1 #abc to ,madeira1 #aad see rules4 amount in port1 #aab in ,madeira1 #aae in sherry1 #abc estimation of1 #ahg limits by fermentation1 #cf ,alcoholic weakness1 #acc fermentation1 see fermentation4 ,aldehyde1 #cj ,almonds1 bitter1 see bouquet1 artificial ,analysis of dry lees1 #agf ,areometer1 #g ,aroma1 see bouquet4 ,arresting fermentation1 #gb see sulphuring1 sulphurous acid by burning alcohol1 #gd aqueous sulphurous acid1 #gd bisulphite of lime1 #gd salicylic acid1 #ge ,arrope1 #aai ,artificial must1 #ad ,balling's saccharometer1 #g1 #h1 #i ,barrels1 see casks4 ,barrel flavor1 #ade ,basket1 decanting1 #afi bottle1 #bje ,bastardo grape1 see port4 ,basto1 see sherry4 ,baum's saccharometer1 #g1 #h ,bins for bottles1 #afd ,bisulphite of lime1 #gd ,bitartrate of potash1 see cream of tartar ,bitter almonds1 see bouquet1 artificial4 ,bitterness1 #aca1 #adi in bottles1 #afg ,blending1 see cutting4 sherry1 #abb ,blood1 see fining4 ,blotting paper1 see fining4 ,bluish wines1 #acd ,boiling must1 #ajf ,borers of casks1 #ff ,bottles1 wine in1 bottling1 etc41 see wine in bottles4 washer1 drainers1 #aef piling1 #afc racks and bins1 #afd baskets1 #bje ,bouquet1 short vatting promotes1 #dd development of1 by age1 #gf1 #gg how lost1 #gg generally1 #aid artificial1 #aid substances used1 #aif iris1 #aif strawberry1 #aig gillyflower1 stock gilly1 #aig vine flowers1 #aih mignonette1 #aih nutmeg1 #aih bitter almonds and fruit pits1 #aih sassafras1 #aih other aromas1 #aii effects1 #aii ,brandy1 shipments of ,california1 vi casks1 empty1 #ff casks for1 #ff ,bung turned to one side1 #ea1 #ec screw1 #aeh ,butyric fermentation1 #bi ,california1 prices of grapes1 vi exports of wine and brandy1 vi product of wine1 vi wines1 alcohol and acid in1 ix1 x1 #bbj wines compared1 ix1 x1 #bbj musts1 viii ,capsules and capsuling1 #afb ,carbonic acid produced by fermentation1 #cd in wine1 #aic ,carbon dioxide1 see carbonic acid4 ,casks1 #fa redwood1 #fa oak1 different kinds1 principles contained in1 #fa temper with new wine1 #fa storing1 #fa sulphured before storing1 #fb new1 preparing1 washing1 #fb old1 washing1 #fc to remove lees1 rinsing chain1 #fc to examine inside1 visitor1 #fc wash empty ones at once1 #fd do not leave in the sun1 #fd examine to ascertain condition1 #fd leaky1 to expel bad air1 #fd flatness in1 acidity in1 mouldy1 #fe rottenness1 #ff brandy1 do not sulphur1 #ff for brandy1 #ff oil casks1 #ff which have contained aromatic liquors1 #ff borers1 #ff size of1 #fg see different wines4 large1 preferable1 #fg why sulphured1 #fi how sulphured1 #gj caution in sulphuring1 #ga filling from vats1 #de of new wine loosely closed1 #dh must be kept full1 #dh bung to one side1 old wine1 #ea1 #ec for white wine1 #ee small for sweet1 large for dry1 #ee filling during fermentation of white1 #ee see froth1 racking4 flavor1 #ade how long wine to remain in1 #aed supporting and arranging1 #hi implements for tipping1 #ie ,cellars1 #hg temperature1 #hg dampness1 floors1 #hh ventilation1 evaporation1 #hh other precautions1 #hi supporting and arranging casks1 #hi for port1 #aab for sherry1 #aah utensils1 #bjd ,cement for corks1 see wax4 ,centres1 see white wine4 ,chain for washing casks1 #fc ,charcoal to remove sulphur flavor1 #gd deprives wine of color and carbonic acid1 #gd ,citric acid1 #aic ,clarification1 clarifying powders1 see fining4 ,cleanliness about wine making1 #id1 #bjc ,climate of sherry districts1 #aae ,coal1 see charcoal4 ,cold1 influence of on wine1 #ha ,color1 increased by long vatting1 #dd dark1 not necessary to fine wines1 #dd precipitated by sulphur1 #ga by blood1 #aja removed by charcoal1 #gd changed by age1 #gg affected by light1 #hb heat and motion1 #hc weakened by fining1 #ii want of1 #acd dull1 bluish1 lead-colored wines1 #acd see port1 tawny4 wine1 see sherry4 ,coloring matter in red wine1 #ci ,composition of wine1 #ahe cream of tartar1 #ahe not composed of alcohol and water alone1 #ahe alcohol1 acid1 and sugar generally1 #ahe table of substances recognized1 #ahf alcohol and estimation of1 #ahg stills for and operation1 #ahg monitor still1 #aij ethers1 #aij sugar and estimation1 #aij mannite1 #aia mucilage and mellowness1 #aia pectose1 pectin1 #aib ,composition of wine1 #ahe fatty matters1 #aib glycerin1 #aib coloring matter1 nocyanine1 #aib aldehydes1 #aib acids1 #aic tartaric1 #aic malic1 #aic citric1 #aic pectic1 #aic tannic1 #aic carbonic1 #aic acetic1 #aid lactic1 #aid butyric1 #aid valeric1 #aid succinic1 #aid total1 #aid bouquet1 natural and artificial1 #aid ,copper affected by wine1 #bjb ,corks1 #aeh preparation of1 #afj sealing for1 #afa utensils to remove1 see utensils4 ,corking machines1 corking1 #aei1 #afj ,corkscrews1 #afi ,cream of tartar1 see plastering1 lees1 composition of wine1 fining4 ,crushing and methods of1 #bb aerating must by1 #bc ,crushing and stemming1 rapidity1 #bd special practice in the ,mdoc1 #bd effect of1 #bd dry grapes1 #ajh ,crushers1 #bc ,cutting wines1 #aga most ,french wines mixed1 #aga when necessary1 effect1 #aga tithe wines1 singular case1 #aga no precise rules1 #aga mix wines of same nature1 #agc fine wines1 #agc ordinary wines1 #agd time must be allowed1 #agd quantity to mix1 #agd mixing new and old wines1 #agd green wine1 #agd white and red wine1 #age diseased wines1 #abe1 #abf1 #age mixing grapes1 #age precaution1 #age ,dampness1 see cellars4 ,decanting wine from bottles1 #ahh basket1 #afi instrument1 #afi ,decomposition of wine1 see diseases4 ,defects and diseases1 #abe division1 general considerations1 #abe better avoided than cured1 #abe not always cured by mixing1 #abf doses in treating1 #abf natural defects1 #abf earthy flavor and causes1 #abf how prevented1 treatment1 #abg wild taste1 grassy flavor1 #abh greenness and causes1 #abh how prevented1 treatment1 #abi roughness1 #acj not a fault1 disappears in time1 #acj to avoid excess of tannin1 #acj how removed1 #aca bitterness and causes in new wine1 #aca how prevented1 treatment1 #aca stem flavor1 #aca sourness and causes1 #acb how prevented1 treatment1 #acb alcoholic weakness1 #acc how avoided1 treatment1 #acc want of color and causes1 #acd how guarded against1 treatment1 #acd dull1 bluish1 lead-colored wine1 flavor of lees1 and causes1 #acd how avoided1 treatment1 #ace putrid decomposition and causes1 #acf how avoided1 treatment1 #acg several natural defects combined1 #acg acquired defects and diseases1 #acg flat wines1 flowers1 and causes1 #acg prevention1 #ach treatment1 #aci sourness1 acidity1 pricked wine and causes1 #adj what wines liable to1 #adj how prevented1 treatment1 #ada pricked wine1 experiments with substances in treating1 #adb ,machard's treatment1 #add other methods1 #add cask flavor1 barrel flavor1 and causes1 #ade treatment1 #adf mouldy flavor1 #adg prevention1 treatment1 #adg foreign flavors1 #adg ropiness1 causes and treatment1 #adh in bottled wines1 #adh1 #afg other treatment1 #adh acrity and treatment1 #adi in bottles1 #afg bitterness1 #adi treatment1 #aej according to ,maumen1 #aej in bottles1 #afg fermentation1 taste of the lees1 yeasty flavor1 #aea how prevented1 treatment1 #aeb in bottles1 #afe degeneration1 putrid fermentation1 #hg1 #aeb in bottles1 #afg duration of different wines1 #aeb treatment1 #aec deposits and turbidity in bottles1 #aff ,degeneration of wines1 #hg1 #aeb see diseases4 ,density of sweet wines1 #ajg musts1 see musts1 different wines1 sugar4 ,deposits1 see diseases1 lees1 wine in bottles4 ,diseases and defects1 #abe ,drainers for bottles1 #aef ,drawing off1 see racking4 from vats1 #dc1 #dd1 #de ,dry grapes1 crushing1 #ajh wines1 see white1 red1 treatment casks for1 #ee ,dull-colored wine1 #acd ,duration of different wines1 #aeb of fermentation1 see fermentation1 different wines4 ,earthy flavor1 #abf ,echaud1 #aea ,effervescent wines not to be sulphured1 #ga ,eggs1 see fining4 ,empty casks1 see casks4 ,estufa1 see ,madeira1 heating house4 ,ethers1 #aij ,european wines1 alcohol and acid in1 xii ,evaporation of wine in cellars1 #hh weakens wine1 #aab see casks1 size of4 ,event1 vent1 see flatness4 ,exports of ,california ,wine and brandy1 vi ,exportation1 see shipping4 ,fatty matters in wine1 #aib ,ferments1 origin of1 #ca destroyed by heat1 #ha see yeast1 saccharomyces4 ,fermentation1 its causes1 #be kinds of1 #be alcoholic generally1 #be yeast plant1 saccharomyces cerevisi1 #be functions of yeast1 #bf normal conditions of the life of1 #bf surface and sedimentary1 #bf physical conditions1 temperature1 #bg chemical conditions1 #bg action of various chemical and physical agents1 #bh viscous or mannitic1 #bi lactic1 #bi butyric and putrefactive1 #bi1 #acf1 #aeb1 #afg acetic1 aldehyde1 #cj mycoderma aceti1 mother of vinegar1 #cj mycoderma vini1 flowers of wine1 #ca origin of ferments1 #ca alcoholic1 in wine making1 #cb sugar1 cane1 grape or glucose1 #cb alcohol by weight and by volume1 #cc its products1 per cent4 sugar to per cent4 alcohol1 #cd different authors1 #cd limits of sugar and spirit1 #cf temperature1 #cg surrounding vats with straw1 #cg fermenting houses1 #ch duration of in red wine1 #dd in white wine1 #ic insensible1 #dg1 #dh arresting1 see sulphuring1 arresting4 by burning alcohol1 #gd aqueous solution of sulphurous acid1 #gd bisulphite of lime1 #gd salicylic acid1 #ge increased by stems1 #bj by open vats1 #dj slow in closed vats1 #dj under pressure and not so complete1 #db disease1 #aea1 #afe in bottles1 #afe see white wine1 filling casks1 different wines1 plastering1 effects of4 ,fermenting houses1 #ch1 #aji tanks or vats1 #ci1 #da1 #ajh material1 size1 number1 arrangement of1 #ci surrounding with straw1 #cg filling1 #ci1 #dj1 #ajh open1 closed1 #dj best practice1 #da hermetically sealed1 cooled with condenser1 #db practice in the ,mdoc1 #db stirring pomace in1 #db1 #ajh drawing from1 #dc1 #dd ,filling vats1 #ci1 #dj casks from vats1 #de during fermentation of white wine1 #ee see froth1 ulling4 ,filtering1 see fining4 ,fining1 #ii when necessary1 objects of1 #ii best avoided unless necessary1 #ia1 #ii caution1 #ii substances employed1 #ii which act mechanically1 blotting paper1 fine sand1 powdered stone1 #ii filtration1 #ii substances which act chemically and mechanically1 #ii gelatinous substances1 #ii gelatine proper1 #ajj its preparation1 #ajj isinglass1 fish glue1 ichthyocol1 #ajj its preparation1 #ajj adding cream of tartar for white wine1 #ajj albuminous substances1 #aja blood1 milk1 #aja white of eggs1 #aja the fining for red wine1 #aja clarifying powders1 #ajb gum arabic1 #ajb addition of salt1 #ajb addition of alcohol1 #ajb addition of tannin1 #ajb method of operation1 #ajc implements for stirring1 #ajc time necessary for1 #ajc new wines1 #ej sweet wines1 #ajf sherry1 #abd to age wine1 #hd before aging1 #hd wines extracted from lees1 #agi1 #ahj ,finings1 see fining4 leaving wine on1 #ia1 #ajd ,fino1 see sherry4 ,fish ,glue1 see fining4 ,flatness1 influence of air1 #gh in casks1 #fe ,flat wine1 #acg ,flavor developed by aging1 #gf1 #gg how lost1 #gg causes of change of1 #gg sulphur1 causes and removal1 #gc foreign1 #adg barrel1 cask1 #ade sherry1 madeira1 port1 #bac fruity1 see fruity flavor4 ,flowers on wine1 #ca1 #gg1 #aah1 #acg ,fortified wines1 see sweet wines4 ,fortifying1 see alcohol4 rule for1 #bjh ,foul casks1 #fd ,french wines generally mixed1 #aga alcohol and acid in1 xii ,froth in filling a cask1 #ajd ,frozen wine1 #ha ,fruity flavor1 how lost1 #ej1 #eb1 #ii preferred by gourmets1 #hd ,fruit pits1 see bouquet1 artificial4 ,funnels1 see utensils4 ,furmint wine1 #ajg ,gallons of must per ton of grapes1 #bjj1 #bja of wine per ton of grapes1 #bja of liquid1 weight of1 #bjf ,galvanized iron affected by wine1 #bjc ,gas in empty casks1 #fd ,gathering grapes1 maturity1 utensils1 #a number of pickers1 #a1 #ab when to commence1 #a time of1 successive gathering1 #b before complete maturity1 #d after complete maturity1 #e ,gelatine1 see fining4 ,general treatment of table wines1 #hf sweet wines1 #aje see different wines ,gillyflower1 see bouquet1 artificial4 ,glass1 materials in1 #aeg ,gleucometer1 gleuco-nometer1 #h ,glucose1 must1 #f for a gallon of wine1 #af cost of glucose wine1 #af effect on ,burgundy1 #ad experiment1 #ag use condemned1 #ag name of user published1 #ah grape sugar1 generally1 #cb ,glue1 fish1 see fining ,glycerine1 produced by fermentation1 #cd in wine1 #ahf1 #aib ,gourmets1 wine preferred by1 #hd ,gout d'vent1 see flatness4 de travail1 #aea ,graduated measures1 see utensils4 ,grand wines should not be aged artificially1 #hd see different practices and treatment1 red wine1 white wine4 ,grapes1 prices in ,california1 v ,mission1 v picking1 #a see gathering1 maturity4 sorting1 #c tons stemmed and crushed in a day1 #bd gallons of wine per ton of1 #bja juice1 see must4 per cent4 of stems in different1 #bja sugar1 #f1 #cb ,grassy flavor1 #abh ,green wine1 mixing1 #agd ,greenness1 #abh ,gum arabic1 see fining4 ,gypsum1 see plastering4 ,head wines1 see white wines4 ,heat1 influence on wine1 #gh aging by1 #gi preserving by1 #hj destroys ferment germs1 #ha see fermentation4 ,heating ,madeira1 #aac ,hoop1 adjustable1 see utensils4 ,houses1 fermenting1 #ch1 #aji ,hydrometer1 #g1 #h1 #i tables1 see appendix4 ,hygienic effects of red and white wine1 #ed ,ichthyocol1 see fining4 ,implements1 see utensils4 ,influences1 effect of various on wine1 #gf which develop1 also destroy1 #gg ,ingredients in wine1 see composition4 ,insensible fermentation1 #dg when finished1 #dh ,insolation1 see sunlight4 ,iris1 see bouquet1 artificial4 ,iron affected by wine1 #bjb1 #bjc ,isinglass1 see fining4 ,juice1 grape1 proportion to marc1 #bjj see must4 ,lactic fermentation1 #bi acid1 #ahf1 #aid see milk1 fining4 ,lagar1 see port1 sherry4 ,lead affected by wine1 #bjb ,lead-colored wine1 #acd ,leaky casks1 see casks4 ,lees1 marc1 piquette1 #agf residues often put in the still1 #agf wine1 #agf should not be neglected1 #agf quantity of wine contained in1 #agf contents of dry parts1 analysis1 #agf composition varies1 #agf treatment of1 #agg wine should not be left long in contact with1 #agh1 #ahj except sweet1 #ajf casks for1 barreling1 #agg sulphuring1 storing1 ulling1 #agg how often to draw wine from1 #agh from diseased wine1 put by themselves1 #agh extracting wine from with siphon1 #agh extracting wine from with faucet1 #agi fining wine extracted from1 #agi wines from lack color1 difficult to clarify1 #ahj red wine from1 to fine1 #ahj white wine from1 to fine1 #ahj pressing thick sediment1 #ahj sacks for1 #aha press for1 #aha applying pressure1 #ahb to remove from casks1 #fc use of dry1 #ahb flavor of1 #acd1 #aea1 #afe see racking1 fining1 etc4 marc or pomace1 piquette1 #ahb unfermented and partly fermented pomace1 #ahc fermented marc1 #ahc ,pezeyre's method of washing1 #ahc deposits1 #hf1 #aff ,light1 influence on wine1 #hb port1 #aab aging by1 #hb ,liqueur wines1 see sweet wines4 ,liquid1 to ascertain weight of1 #bjf ,lime1 bisulphite1 #gd see diseases4 ,loss by evaporation1 see cellars1 casks1 size of4 ,madeira1 #aac making1 casks1 treatment1 #aac adding alcohol1 #aac heating1 heating houses1 #aac general treatment1 #aad solera system1 ullage1 #aad alcoholic strength1 #aae flavor1 #bac ,malic acid1 #ahf1 #aic ,mannite1 #ahf1 #aia ,mannitic fermentation1 #bi ,marc of sweet wine1 use of1 #ajg passing wine over1 #aci proportion of juice to1 #bjj see lees1 marc1 piquette4 ,matches1 sulphur1 #gj ,matters in wine1 see composition4 ,maturity of grapes1 #c signs of1 #d gathering before complete1 #d gathering after complete1 #e according to required strength1 #e for port1 #ajh ,maturity for sherry1 #aae of wine1 see white1 red wine1 aging4 ,maumen's sulphurer1 #fi ,mellowness1 how lost1 #eb1 #hd cause of1 #aia see white1 red wine4 ,measures1 graduated1 see utensils4 ,metal utensils1 wood preferable1 #bjb affected by wine1 #bjb ,middle wines1 see white wines1 centres4 ,mignonette1 see bouquet1 artificial4 ,milk1 see fining4 ,miscellaneous chapter1 #bjj ,mission grape1 v ,mixing pressings1 #de1 #dg see red1 white1 port4 wines1 see cutting4 ,mont1 vin1 #aea ,mother of vinegar1 #cj ,motion1 effect of1 aging1 #hb1 #hd shipping1 #hc ,mouldy casks1 #fe flavor1 #adg ,mucilage1 #ahf1 #aia ,muscat1 sweet1 #ajg ,must1 composition of1 #f grape sugar1 glucose1 #f scale1 saccharometer1 #g1 #h testing for sugar1 #h proper amount of sugar1 #aa1 #ab sugaring1 #ac nothing gained by1 #ae artificial1 #ad cost of1 #af glucose1 experiment with1 #ag condemned1 #ag watering1 #ah when allowable1 #af aerating1 #bc1 #dc rule for reducing1 #bjf why sulphured1 #fi unfermented1 sulphuring1 #gb clarifying1 care of1 #gb prepared in two ways1 #gb proportion of to marc1 #bjj shipping1 #hc of sweet wine1 #eg1 #eh1 #aje of dry white wine1 density1 #ef of mellow wine1 #eg1 #eh of port1 #ajh boiling1 #aja per ton of grapes1 #bja ,california1 viii ,musty1 see mouldy4 ,mute wine1 #gb ,mycoderma aceti1 #cj ,mycoderma vini1 #ca see flowers4 ,natural defects1 #abf ,new red wine1 treatment of1 #dg summary of rules1 #ej white wine1 #eh1 #fj wine differs from old1 #gf influence of heat1 #gh1 #gi shipping1 #hc see racking1 fining4 ,nutmeg1 see bouquet1 artificial4 ,oakwood1 see casks1 vats4 ,oechsle's must-scale1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj ,oenocyanine1 #aib ,old red wine1 treatment1 #ea characteristics1 #eb1 #gf1 #gg wine1 influence of heat1 #gh1 #gi see racking1 albuminous substances1 fining4 ,oloroso1 see sherry4 ,passing wine over marc1 #aci ,pedro ,jimenes grape1 #aai ,pectic acid1 #aic ,pectin1 #aib ,pectose1 #aib ,pse-sirop1 pse mout1 #g ,picking grapes1 #a see gathering4 ,piling bottles1 #afc ,piquette1 see lees1 marc1 piquette4 ,pitchers1 see utensils4 ,plastering1 #bjh common in ,spain and ,south of ,france1 #bjh objects1 #bji chemical effects1 #bji effects on health1 #baj report of committee at ,montpellier1 #baj of conseil des armes1 #baa instructions of ,french ,minister of justice1 #baa sherry and quantity added1 #aae1 #bab chemical reaction1 #bac by adding water1 #bac ,pomace1 per cent4 in different grapes1 #bjj1 #bja see lees1 marc1 piquette4 stirring in vat1 #db ,port wine1 #ajh must1 fermentation1 maturity of grapes1 #ajh filling lagar1 stirring1 drawing off1 sorting grapes1 #ajh treading1 #aji ,vizitelli's description1 #aji adding alcohol1 #aaa1 #aab storing1 racking1 #aaa storehouses1 #aab mixing1 #aab loses color in wood1 #aab alcoholic strength of1 #aab becomes weaker by evaporation1 #aab flavor1 #bac ,pousse1 #aea ,powdered stone1 see fining4 ,powders1 clarifying1 see fining4 ,preserving by heat1 #hj ,pressing and press wine1 red1 #dg white wine1 #ef sweet wine1 #ajg sediment1 #ahj see different wines4 ,pressings1 mixing1 different1 #df1 #dg ,presses1 wine1 #df for lees1 #aha ,prices of grapes in ,california1 v ,pricked wine1 #adj ,proportion of juice to marc1 #bjj wine to grapes1 #bja ,pumps1 #ig1 #ih hand1 see utensils4 ,putrefaction1 putrid fermentation1 decomposition1 #bi1 #hg1 #acf1 #aeb1 #afg ,queues1 see white wine4 ,racking1 objects of1 #ia first time1 #ia1 #ib leaving wine on finings1 #ia rules for1 #ia1 #ib new red wines1 #ej1 #ib before shipping1 #ej old red wine1 #ea1 #ec1 #ic new white wine1 #ic subsequent rackings1 #fj1 #ic care to be observed1 other precautions1 #id lees must not be disturbed1 #id different methods1 #ie by bucket and funnel1 #ie implements for tipping cask1 #ie without contact with air1 #ig pumps and siphons1 #ig see different wines4 ,racks for bottles1 #afd ,rancio flavor caused by heat1 #hj in bottles1 #afg ,red wine1 #ci coloring matter1 #ci fermenting tanks1 or vats1 filling same1 #ci open vats1 closed vats1 #dj best practice1 #da hermetically sealed vats1 #db practice in the ,mdoc1 #db stirring pomace in vat1 #db souring of the crust1 #dc when to draw from vats1 #dc duration of fermentation1 #dd objections to long vatting1 fine wines1 #dd how to know when to draw from vats1 #de method of drawing from vats1 filling casks1 #de wine presses1 #df pressing and press wine1 #dg practice for fine wines1 #dg treatment of new1 #dg insensible fermentation1 #dg storing new1 #dh tasting1 filling up or ulling1 #dh summary of rules for treatment of1 #ej of old1 #ea characteristics of age1 #ea1 #eb grand and common characteristics1 #eb how soon bright1 #eb summary of rules for1 #ec hygienic effects of1 #ed how differs from white1 #ed should be sparingly sulphured1 #ga fining1 see gelatine1 #ajj see blood1 milk1 white of eggs1 #aja red wine extracted from lees1 #ahj put in colored bottles1 #aeg with earthy flavor1 #abh see racking1 fining1 etc4 ,reducing must and wine1 see rules4 ,redwood1 see casks1 vats4 ,rinsing chain for casks1 #fc ,ripeness1 signs of1 #d see maturity4 ,ropiness1 viscous fermentation1 #bi1 #adh1 #afg ,ropy wines should not be sulphured1 #ga ,rotten casks1 #ff ,roughness1 #acj improved by aging1 #he ,rules to ascertain weight of liquid1 #bjf for reducing must1 #bjf for sugaring must1 #bjf for fortifying and reducing wine1 #bjg to reduce with water1 #bjg weaker wine1 #bjh to fortify with stronger wine or alcohol1 #bjh ,saccharometer1 #g1 #h ,saccharomyces cerevuisi1 #be conditions of life1 #bf action of chemical and physical agents1 #bh destroyed by heat and alcohol1 #ha ,sacks for pressing lees1 #aha ,salt in clarifying1 see fining4 ,salicylic acid1 #ge ,sand1 see fining4 ,sassafras1 see bouquet artificial4 ,sealing wax for casks1 #afa to remove1 #afb ,sea voyage1 effect of1 see aging4 ,seeds should not be broken in crushing1 #bc tannin from1 #ajc yield fatty matters1 #aib ,settling and skimming must for white wine1 #ge ,sherry1 #aae climate1 vintage1 crushing gypsum1 #aae pressing1 #aaf stemming1 fermenting1 racking1 #aag fortifying1 #aag1 #abc casks in ullage and open1 #aag a nearly dry wine1 #aah bodegas or storehouses1 #aah seasoned casks alone used1 #aah changes in the wine1 #aah fino1 oloroso1 basto1 #aah flowers1 #aah vino dulce1 or sweet wine1 and preparation1 #aai vino de color1 or color wine1 and preparation1 arrope1 #aai mature wine1 #abj solera system1 #abj establishing a solera1 #abj standard soleras1 #aba drawing the wine1 #abb blending for shipment1 #abb formulas1 fining1 #abc influence of air1 #gh flavor1 #bac ,shipments of wine and brandy from ,california1 vi ,shipping1 rack before1 #ej1 #ajf wine suitable for1 #ab1 #hb new wine or must1 #hc ,shot1 do not clean bottles with1 #aef ,siphons1 #ig of glass1 #agh to clean1 #ie ,skimming and settling must 7white wine71 #ee ,smoothness increased by pressure1 #db ,solera1 see sherry4 ,sorting grapes1 #c1 #ajh for grand white wines1 #eg ,sour casks1 #fe ,sourness1 #acb1 #adj ,spirit1 see alcohol1 see tables in appendix4 ,stems1 effect on fermentation1 #bj how to remove1 #bb when to ferment with1 #bj1 #ba increase tannin1 #bj1 #ba when to remove1 #bj1 #ba effect of too long contact1 #ba flavor1 #ba1 #dd1 #aca per cent4 in different grapes1 #bja ,stemmers1 #ba ,stemming1 diversity of opinion1 #bj effect of1 #bj proper practice1 #bj see sherry1 #aag and crushing1 #bj rapidity of operation1 #bd special practice1 #bd ,stills1 assay1 #ahg1 #aij ,stirring implements1 fining1 #ajc pomace1 see aerating1 treading1 vats1 port4 ,stockgilly1 see bouquet1 artificial4 ,stone1 powdered1 see fining4 ,storing casks1 #fa wine1 see different wines1 cellars4 casks for1 #fg ,straw wines1 #ajh ,strawberry1 see bouquet artificial4 ,substances in wine1 see composition4 ,succinic acid1 #cd1 #aid ,sugar1 grape1 #f testing for in must1 #h in wine1 #aij correction for temperature1 #aj and alcohol1 #aa1 #cd in must of dry wines1 #aa1 #ab1 #ef sweet wines1 #eg1 #aje weight of for a pound of alcohol1 #af for a gallon of wine1 #af crystalized1 purity of1 #af and glucose generally1 #cb limits of in fermentation1 #cf necessary to growth of yeast1 #bg not all converted by first fermentation1 #de to increase in grapes1 #aje in must1 to reduce1 rules1 #bjf see must1 tables in appendix4 ,sugaring and watering must1 #ac carried too far1 #ac effect on burgundy1 #ad artificial must1 #ad nothing gained by sugaring1 #ae cost of glucose wine1 #af experiment with glucose1 #ag glucose condemned1 #ag rule for sugaring1 #bjf watering1 #ah rule for1 #bjg ,sulphur matches or bands1 how made1 #gj flavor1 how caused1 #gc how removed1 #gd ,sulphurer or sulphur burner1 #fi ,sulphuring casks1 #fb1 #fi1 #gj caution1 #ga partly empty1 #gc wine1 #fi1 #ga when to avoid1 #ga from lees1 #agg must1 #fi1 #gb white wine to arrest fermentation1 #fi1 #gb ,sulphurous acid1 #fi arrests fermentation in two ways1 #fi aqueous solution of1 #gd see acetic fermentation1 #ca ,sunlight1 influence on wine1 #hb aging by1 #hb ,sweet1 fortified1 liqueur wines1 #aje defined1 #aje sweetness of must for1 #eg1 #aje natural alcohol in1 #aje increasing sugar in grapes1 #aje without fermentation1 #aje care required1 #aje alcohol necessary to keep1 #aje fining1 rack before shipping1 #ajf boiling must1 #ajf to be kept on lees1 #ajf sweet muscat1 #ajg pressing1 #ajg marc1 use of1 #ajg alcohol1 amount to add1 #ajg density of1 #ajg ,furmint wine1 #ajg straw wines1 #ajh should not be sulphured1 #ga influence of heat1 aging1 #gi1 #hj of sunlight1 #hb casks for1 #ee see air1 influence of1 heat1 influence of1 red wine1 white wine1 port1 ,madeira1 sherry4 ,table wines1 see treatment4 of substances in wine1 #ahf of sugar1 density1 alcohol1 hydrometers1 see appendix4 ,tail wines1 see white wines4 ,tanks1 see fermenting tanks4 ,tannin increased by stems1 #bj1 #ba how to know if sufficient1 #ba excess of1 how avoided #acj how removed1 #ajj1 #aca when added in fining1 #ajb tannic acid1 #ajb1 #aic use and proportions1 #ajb from the vine preferred1 #ajc how prepared from seeds1 #ajc from stems1 #ajc tannified wine1 #ajc soaking seeds in wine1 #ajc ,tar1 vin1 #aea ,tartaric acid1 #aic see wine1 ,california1 ,european1 acid in4 ,tasters1 see utensils4 ,tawny color by age1 #gg see old wine4 flavor by heat1 #hj in bottles1 #afg ,temperature1 correction for in sugar testing1 #aj effect on yeast1 #bg1 #ha in fermentation1 #cg variation of1 aging1 #gh see heat1 cellars1 hydrometers4 ,testing for sugar in must1 #h in wine1 #aij ,ttes1 see white wines4 ,tin1 affected by wine1 #bjc ,tipping casks1 implements for1 #ie ,tithe wines1 see cutting4 ,tourn1 vin1 #aea ,travail1 got de1 #aea ,treading in vat1 #db1 #aji crushing1 #bb1 #aji1 #aac1 #aaf aerating must1 #bc1 #dc ,treatment1 general1 of table wines1 #hf sweet wines1 #aje deposits1 lees1 #hf degeneration1 #hf of ,madeira1 #aac of wine in bottles1 #afe see different wines1 cellars1 racking1 fining1 aging1 etc4 ,tubes to clean1 #ie ,tuns1 see casks1 cellars4 ,turbidity in bottles1 #aff see lees1 deposits1 etc4 ,ulling the casks1 #dh utensils for1 #di ,unfermented must1 #gb clarifying1 care of1 #gc ,unfortified wines1 see treatment4 ,utensils1 wooden or metal1 #bjb effect of wine on metals1 #bjb cleanliness necessary1 #bjc different cellar1 #bjd1 #bje pitchers of tin and wood1 #bjd wooden vessels1 #bjd wooden funnels1 #bjd adjustable hoop1 #bjd bottle baskets1 #bje graduated measures1 #bje tin tasters1 #bje hand pump1 #bje for removing corks1 #bje for stirring1 fining1 #ajc for ulling1 #di bung screw1 #aeh bottle washer1 #aef bottle drainers1 #aef reservoir for filling bottles1 #aeg corking machines1 needles1 #aei1 #afj to remove wax1 #afb capsuler1 #afb bottle racks and bins1 #afd decanting basket1 #afi instrument1 #afi corkscrews1 #afi presses1 wine1 #df lees1 #aha sacks for pressing lees1 #aha for tipping a cask1 #ie rinsing chain1 #fc visitor to examine casks1 #fc crushers1 #bc for racking1 #ie1 #if1 #ig for picking grapes1 #a ,variations of temperature1 aging1 #gh ,valeric acid1 #aid ,vats1 see fermenting vats4 ,vatting1 long1 effects of1 #dd ,ventilation1 see cellars1 #hh ,vessels1 see utensils4 ,vine flowers1 see bouquet1 artificial4 ,vin de liqueur1 see sweet wines4 mont1 tar1 tourn1 #aea dulce1 see sherry4 ,vinegar1 mother of1 #cj see acetic acid1 acetic fermentation4 ,vineyards1 acreage of in ,california1 vi ,vinification1 essentials the same everywhere1 vii ,vinous fermentation1 see alcoholic fermentation4 ,viscous fermentation1 #bi ,visitor to examine casks1 #fc ,voyage1 effect on wine1 see aging4 ,water1 necessary to growth of yeast1 #bg ,watering must1 #ah when allowable1 #ai rule for1 #bjf wine1 rule for1 #bjg ,wax for sealing corks1 #afa how removed1 #afb ,weakness in alcohol1 #acc ,weight of a liquid1 to ascertain1 #bjf ,whip for stirring1 #ajc ,white of eggs1 see fining4 ,white wine1 #ed from red and white grapes1 #ed how differs from red1 #ed hygienic effects1 #ed process of making1 #ee settling and skimming1 #ee to keep sweet1 #ee to make dry1 #ee barrels for1 #ee filling barrels during fermentation1 #ee pressing and filling casks1 #ef different kinds of1 #ef dry white wines1 #ef mellow white wines1 #ef sweet white wines1 see sweet wines4 #eg grand white wines1 #eg ripening the grapes1 pourris1 #eg ttes1 centres1 queues1 head1 middle1 tail1 #eg treatment of1 #eh density of must to keep sweet1 #eh dry wines1 #ei mellow wines1 #ei summary of rules1 racking1 #fj sulphured to keep from turning yellow1 #fi1 #ga bleached with sulphur1 #ga with blood1 milk1 #aja fermentation arrested by sulphuring1 #gb fining1 see gelatine1 #ajj isinglass1 #ajj white of eggs1 blood1 milk1 #aja extracted from lees1 #ahj with earthy flavor1 #abh matures earlier than red1 #aee mixing with red1 #age in transparent bottles1 #aeg ,wild taste1 #abh ,wine1 ,california1 shipments1 vi product1 vi alcohol and acid in1 ix1 x1 #bbj ,european1 alcohol and acid in1 xii ,wine making1 essentials everywhere the same1 vii plastering1 #bjh grand and common1 characteristics1 #eb1 #hd red1 maturity of1 #eb new1 treatment of1 #dg old1 treatment of1 #ea1 #ec see red wine4 why sulphured1 #fi how sulphured1 #ga when to be sulphured1 #ga effect of heat1 #gh1 #gi1 #hj varies in different casks1 #fg dry strength of1 #aa constantly undergoing changes1 #gf influence of heat1 #gh preserving by heat1 #hj weak1 see influence of air4 heat1 sunlight1 see aging4 suitable for shipment1 #hb shipping new1 #hc kinds preferred by gourmets1 #hd which gain most by aging processes1 #he diseased1 see defects and diseases4 what liable to sour1 #adj duration of1 #aeb lees1 see lees4 from lees1 see lees4 composition of1 #ahe proportion of to grapes1 #bja rules for reducing and fortifying1 #bjg mixing1 see cutting4 bad1 often due to want of cleanliness1 #bjc should not be left on the lees and finings1 #agh1 #ahj unless sweet1 #ajf presses1 #df tannified1 #ajc see aging1 white wine1 red wine1 sweet1 fortified1 new wine1 old wine1 grand wine1 general treatment1 frozen wine1 the different kinds4 ,wine in bottles1 bottling1 #aed when ready for bottling1 #aed how long to remain in wood1 #aed how prepared for bottling1 #aee most favorable time for1 #aee bottles1 washing1 bottle washer1 etc41 #aef shot must not be used1 #aef draining1 drainers1 #aef rinsing with wine1 #aef sorting1 #aeg different kinds1 #aeg materials in glass1 #aeg filling1 adjusting casks1 etc41 #aeg reservoirs for1 #aeg corks1 #aeh corking machines1 needles1 #aei1 #afj preparing the corks1 #afj how far inserted1 #afj sealing corks1 #afa sealing wax for1 how made1 how applied1 #afa coloring the wax1 #afa capsules and capsuling1 #afb pincers for removing wax1 #afb capsuler1 #afb piling bottles1 #afb bottle racks and bins1 #afd treatment of wine in bottles1 #afe fermentation in the bottles1 #afe deposits1 turbidity1 #aff bitterness1 acrity1 ropiness1 #afg degeneration and putridity1 #afg decantation1 #afh corkscrews1 baskets1 #afi operation of decanting1 #afi decanting instrument1 #afi ,wood1 wine1 how long to remain in1 #aed ,wooden utensils preferable1 #bjb ,yeast plant1 #be functions of1 #bf surface and sedimentary1 #bf conditions of life1 physical and chemical1 #bf temperature1 #bg action of chemical and physical agents1 #bh water1 sugar1 oxygen1 etc41 necessary1 #bg origin of ferments1 #ca ,yeasty flavor1 see lees1 flavor of4 ,yellows1 see white wine1 sulphuring4 ,yield of juice by different grapes1 #bjj wine per ton of grapes1 #bja ,zinc affected by wine1 #bjb1 #bjc