,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,bread1 ,,and ,,bread-,,making4 ,,by ,,sylvester ,,graham4 8,bread strengtheneth man's heart40--,,holy ,,writ4 ,,boston3 ,,light ,,stearns1 #a ,,cornhill4 #ahcg4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,entered according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahcg1 by ,,light ,,stearns1 in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of ,massachusetts4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,contents4 ,,history ,,of ,,bread4 ,primitive food of man4 ,bruising and grinding grain4 ,baking4 ,invention of leavened bread4 ,bread among the ,greeks and ,romans--among the ,hebrews4 ,simplicity of the bread now used in many countries4 #i-af ,,laws ,,of ,,diet4 ,reasons why food in its natural state would be the best4 ,concentrated nutriment4 ,interesting experiments on animals4 ,mixtures of food4 ,leavened and unleavened bread4 ,qualifications of the best bread4 #ag-cj ,,material ,,of ,,bread4 ,wheat4 ,extent of climate favorable to it4 ,injured by improper tillage4 ,removal of impurities4 ,washing of grain4 ,separation of the bran from the nutrient particles improper4 ,ancient ,roman bread4 ,public bakers4 ,use of bad flour4 ,adulterations4 ,poisonous agents used to disguise them4 #ca-ej ,,properties ,,of ,,bread4 ,superfine flour injurious--a probable cause of some common disorders4 ,objections to coarse bread4 ,its medical properties4 ,extensive experiments of its use1 by soldiers and others4 ,use among ,european peasantry4 ,selection1 preservation and grinding of wheat4 #ea-gb ,,fermentation4 ,chemical composition of flour4 ,yeast--modes of preparing it4 ,substitutes for it4 ,fermentation1 and its products4 ,vinous1 acetous and putrefactive fermentation4 #gc-hf ,,preparation ,,of ,,bread4 ,mixing4 ,much kneading necessary4 ,rising1 or fermentation4 ,use of alkalies--saleratus and soda4 ,baking4 ,ovens4 ,alcohol in bread4 ,preservation of bread4 #hg-ajb ,,who ,,should ,,make ,,bread4 ,making bread by rule4 ,bakers4 ,domestics4 ,sour bread4 ,an anecdote4 ,mrs4 ,van ,winkle4 ,bad bread need not be made4 ,how cake is made4 ,bread-making a drudgery4 ,excellent example of a mother4 ,eating bad bread4 ,importance of having good bread4 #ajc-abf ,,varieties ,,of ,,bread4 ,rye bread4 ,indian meal bread4 ,use of sour milk or butter-milk4 ,acids4 ,family grinding4 #abg-aca ,,preface4 ,there are probably few people in civilized life1 who--were the question put to them directly--would not say1 that they consider bread one of the most1 if not the most important article of diet which enters into the food of man4 ,and yet there is1 in reality1 almost a total and universal carelessness about the character of bread4 ,thousands in civic life will1 for years1 and perhaps as long as they live1 eat the most miserable trash that can be imagined1 in the form of bread1 and never seem to think that they can possibly have anything better1 nor even that it is an evil to eat such vile stuff as they do4 ,and if there is occasionally an individual who is troubled with some convictions that his bread is not quite what it should be1 he knows not how to remedy the difficulty2 for it is a serious truth1 that1 although nearly every human being in civilized life eats bread of some kind or other1 yet scarcely any one has sufficient knowledge of the true principles and processes concerned in bread-making1 and of the actual causes of the bad qualities of bread1 to know how1 with any degree of certainty1 to avoid bad and secure good bread4 ,i have thought1 therefore1 that ,i could hardly do society a better service1 than to publish the following treatise on a subject which1 whether people are aware of it or not1 is1 in reality1 of very great importance to the health and comfort of every one4 ,it has been prepared for the press with more haste1 under more embarrassments from other engagements1 and with less severity of revision1 than ,i could wish4 ,yet1 whatever may be its defects of arrangement1 method or style1 ,i have taken care to have the principles correct1 and the instructions such as1 if attended to1 will enable every one who is heartily devoted to the object1 to make good bread4 ,i must1 however1 acknowledge1 that ,i have very little expectation that proper attention will be paid to this subject1 so long as the dietetic habits of society continue to be what they are4 ,while the various preparations of animal food constitute so important a portion of human aliment1 the quality of bread will be greatly disregarded and neglected1 and people will continue almost universally to be cursed with poor bread4 ,nevertheless1 ,i trust some good will be done by the little work ,i now send out2 and ,i am not without hope1 that it will be the means of a considerable improvement in the quality of bread1 and1 as a natural and necessary consequence1 an improvement in the health and happiness of those who consume it4 ,that it may prove thus beneficial to my fellow creatures in a high degree1 is my hearty and fervent desire4 ,s4 ,,graham4 ,,northampton1 ,,april #ab1 #ahcg4 ,,treatise ,,on ,,bread4 ,,history ,,of ,,bread4 ,primitive food of man4 ,bruising and grinding grain4 ,baking4 ,invention of leavened bread4 ,bread among the ,greeks and ,romans--among the ,hebrews4 ,simplicity of the bread now used in many countries4 ,in the ,english version of the sacred scriptures1 the term ,bread is frequently used to signify vegetable food in general4 ,thus in ,gen4 iii1 #ai1 the ,lord says to ,adam--8,in the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread 7or food7 till thou return to the ground40 ,see also ,gen4 xviii1 #e1 and xxviii1 #bj1 and ,ex4 ii1 #bj4 ,the most extended sense of the word1 however1 according to general usage1 comprehends all farinaceous vegetable substances which enter into the diet of man2 such as the farinaceous seeds or grain1 nuts1 fruit1 roots1 c4 ,and in this extended sense1 ,bread1 in some form or other1 has been the principal article in the diet of mankind1 from the earliest generations of the human race1 to the present time2 except among the few1 small and scattered tribes1 which have1 perhaps1 ever since the days of ,noah1 in different parts of the earth1 subsisted mainly on animal food4 ,it is nearly certain that the primitive inhabitants of the earth1 ate their food with very little1 if any artificial preparation4 ,the various fruits1 nuts1 seeds1 roots1 and other vegetable substances on which they fed1 were eaten by them in their natural state1 with no other grinding than that which was done by the teeth4 ,as the human family increased1 and population became more dense and extended1 and providential measures more necessary1 the condition and circumstances of society gradually led to the invention and adoption of the simple1 and1 at first1 rude arts of domestic life4 ,among these1 was that of bruising the harder articles of their food1 such as nuts and seeds1 or grain1 on flat stones1 selected and kept for the purpose4 ,by constant use1 these stones in time became hollowed out2 and being thereby rendered more convenient1 men at length began to form mortars and pestles from stones2 and probably the next step was the construction of the rude kind of hand-mills1 which continued in use for many centuries2 and indeed1 which1 with the stone mortars1 have1 throughout all ages and in almost every portion of the earth1 been used in the ruder states of society4 ,when men became acquainted with the use of fire1 they probably often parched their corn or grain before they pounded it2 and afterwards1 they learned to mix it with water into the consistency of dough1 and to bake this1 in an unleavened or unfermented state1 on flat stones before the fire1 or in the hot ashes or hot earth1 or in the rude ovens which they formed1 by digging holes in the earth1 into which they put heated stones1 and slightly covered them with leaves or grass1 and then laid in the article they wished to bake1 and over this strewed some leaves1 and then covered the whole with earth4,a ,this kind of unleavened bread1 undoubtedly constituted a very important1 if not the principal article of artificially prepared food in the diet of the primitive inhabitants of the earth1 for many centuries2 and the same1 or very nearly the same kind of bread continued in general use down to the days of ,abraham2 and it is probable that the unleavened bread used by his descendants at the feast of the ,passover1 before and after they left ,egypt1 was of the same kind4 ,it is hardly possible1 however1 that it could have been otherwise1 than that1 at a much earlier period1 larger quantities of this dough were occasionally made1 than were immediately baked1 and consequently portions of it were suffered to stand and ferment2 and by this means1 men were in process of time learned to make leavened1 or raised bread4 ,at how early a date1 loaf or raised bread came into common use1 it is impossible now to ascertain with any considerable degree of precision4 ,the scriptures do not afford us any evidence that ,abraham was accustomed to such bread2 but the fact that ,moses1 at the institution of the supper of the ,passover1 the night before the ,jews left ,egypt1 commanded them strictly to abstain from leavened bread1 and to eat only the unleavened1 proves conclusively1 that the ,israelites at least1 were then accustomed to fermented1 or raised bread4 ,neither history nor tradition enables us to speak with any degree of confidence in regard to the period at which other nations became acquainted with the art of bread-making2 but from all that has come down to us from ancient times1 we learn that the primitive generations of every nation1 subsisted on fruits and other products of the vegetable kingdom1 in their uncooked or natural state4 8,the ,greeks assert that they were taught the art of making bread by their god1 ,pan2 and ,pliny informs us that this art was not known at ,rome till near six hundred years after the foundation of that city4 ,the ,roman armies1 he says1 on their return from ,macedonia1 brought ,grecian bakers into ,italy4 ,before this time1 the ,romans prepared their meal in a kind of pap or soft pudding2 and on this account ,pliny calls them pap eaters40 ,but though the ,egyptians and ,israelites were probably among the earliest portions of the human family1 who became acquainted with the art of making loaf or raised bread1 the quality of their bread continued to be exceedingly simple and coarse for many generations4 ,even after the establishment of the ,hebrew nation in ,palestine--in the most splendid days of ,jerusalem--at the period of the highest refinement of the ,jews1 in the arts of civil and domestic life1 their fine flour1 from which their choicest bread and cakes were made1 was1 in comparison with modern superfine flour1 extremely coarse1--ground mostly by females1 in hand-mills constructed and kept for that purpose4 ,from ,rome the art of bread-making very slowly found its way over considerable portions of ,europe4 ,a thousand years after ,julius ,csar first entered ,britain1 the rude people of that country were little acquainted with raised bread4 8,even at present10 says ,prof4 ,thomson1 8loaf bread is seldom used except by the higher classes of inhabitants1 in the northern countries of ,europe and ,asia40 ,in ,eastern and ,southern ,asia1 rice constitutes the principal bread-stuff2 and this is generally prepared with great simplicity4 ,in ,middle and ,western ,asia1 and in ,africa1 bread1 though made of different kinds of grain1 is prepared with almost equal simplicity4 ,in ,scotland1 ,ireland1 and indeed throughout ,europe generally1 barley1 oats1 rye1 potatoes1 peas1 beans1 chesnuts1 and other farinaceous vegetables1 constitute the bread-stuff of most of the laboring people1 or peasantry4 ,in the islands of the ,pacific and ,southern oceans1 the bread of the inhabitants consists of the plantain1 bananas1 yams1 bread-fruit1 and other like vegetables1 simply roasted1 baked1 or boiled4 ,bread1 therefore1 of some kind or other1 made of some of the farinaceous products of the vegetable kingdom1 has probably1 in almost every portion of the world1 and every period of time1 been one of the first1 and most important1 and universal articles of food1 artificially prepared by cooking1 which has entered into the diet of mankind2 and hence it has with great propriety been called 8the staff of life40 ,,laws ,,of ,,diet4 ,reasons why food in its natural state would be the best4 ,concentrated nutriment4 ,interesting experiments on animals4 ,mixtures of food4 ,leavened and unleavened bread4 ,qualifications of the best bread4 ,if man were to subsist wholly on alimentary substances in their natural state1 or without any artificial preparation by cooking1 then he would be obliged to use his teeth freely in masticating his food2 and by so doing1 not only preserve his teeth from decay1 and keep them in sound health1 but at the same time1 and by the same means1 would he thoroughly mix his food with the fluid of his mouth1 and thus prepare it both for swallowing and for the action of the stomach1 and by the same means also1 he would be made to swallow his food slowly1 as the welfare of the stomach and of the whole system requires he should4 ,again1 if man were to subsist wholly on uncooked food1 he would never suffer from the improper temperature of his aliment4 ,hot substances taken into the mouth1 serve more directly and powerfully to destroy the teeth1 than any other cause which acts immediately upon them2 and hot food and drink received into the stomach1 always in some degree debilitate that organ1 and through it1 every other organ and portion of the whole system2 diminishing1 as an ultimate result1 the vital power of every part--impairing every function1 and increasing the susceptibility of the whole body to the action of disturbing causes1 and predisposing it to disease4 ,again1 if man were to subsist entirely on food in a natural state1 he would never suffer from concentrated aliment4 ,every substance in nature which ,god has prepared for the food of man1 consists of both nutritious and innutritious matter4 ,the proportions vary in different kinds of food4 ,thus in a hundred pounds of potatoes1 there are about twenty-five pounds of nourishing matter2 while in a hundred pounds of good wheat there are about eighty pounds of nourishing matter4 ,there are a few products of the vegetable kingdom which are still higher in the scale of nutriment1 than wheat2 and on the other hand there is a boundless variety ranging below wheat1 extending down to three or four per cent4 of nourishment4 ,but nature1 without the aid of human art1 produces nothing for the alimentary use of man which is purely a concentrated nutrient substance4 ,and ,god has constructed man in strict accordance with this general economy of nature4 ,he has organized and endowed the human body with reference to the condition and qualities of those substances in nature1 which ,he designed for the food of man4 ,and consequently1 while man obeys the laws of constitution and relation which should govern him in regard to his food1 he preserves the health and integrity of his alimentary organs1 and through them of his whole nature2 and so far as his dietetic habits are concerned1 secures the highest and best condition of his nature4 ,but1 if he disregards these laws1 and by artificial means greatly departs from the natural adaptation of things1 he inevitably brings evil on himself and on his posterity4 ,it has been fully proved that 8bulk1 or a due proportion of innutritious matter in our food1 is quite as important to health as nourishment40 ,human beings may subsist from childhood to extreme old age on good potatoes and pure water alone1 and enjoy the best and most uninterrupted health1 and possess the greatest muscular power and ability to endure protracted fatigue and exposure4 ,but if the purely nutrient matter of the potato be separated out by artificial means1 and human beings1 fed exclusively on this concentrated form of aliment and pure water1 they will soon perish1 because the alimentary organs of man are not constituted and endowed for such kinds of food4 ,and this is true of all animals1 in the higher orders1 at least4 ,we know that dogs fed on sugar and water1 gum and water1 fine flour bread and water1 or any other kind of concentrated aliment1 will soon languish1 and droop1 and emaciate1 and die2 but if a due proportion of proper innutritious substance be mixed with these concentrated forms of aliment1 the dogs will subsist on them and remain healthy4 ,so if horses1 cows1 deer1 sheep1 and other grass-eating animals be fed on grain alone1 they will soon lose their appetite and begin to droop1 and will shortly perish2 but if a due proportion of straw or shavings of wood be given them with their grain1 they will continue to do well4 ,man is affected in the same manner4 ,he cannot long subsist on purely nutritious substances4 ,and the reason is not because these substances have no azote or nitrogen in them2 nor is it because man necessarily requires a variety of alimentary substances1 but simply and exclusively because the anatomical construction and vital powers of the alimentary organs1 are constitutionally adapted to alimentary substances which consist of both nutritious and innutritious matter2 and therefore a due proportion of innutritious matter in the food of man is as essential to the welfare of his alimentary organs1 as a due proportion of nourishment is to the support of his body4 ,again1 if man subsisted wholly on uncooked food1 he would not only be preserved from improper concentrations1 but also from pernicious combinations of alimentary substances4 ,the alimentary organs of man1 like those of the horse1 ox1 sheep1 dog1 cat1 and most or all other animals of the higher orders1 if not in fact1 of all other animals without limitation1 possess the vital capability of so accommodating themselves to emergencies1 that they can be made to digest almost every vegetable and animal substance in nature2 and they can1 by long training1 be educated to digest a mixture of these substances at the same time4 ,nevertheless it is incontestibly true1 that the alimentary organs of man and of all other animals1 can manage one kind of food at a time better than a mixed ingestion2 for it is impossible that the solvent fluids secreted by the stomach and other organs belonging to the alimentary apparatus1 should be at the same time equally well adapted to entirely different kinds of food4 ,i do not say that the alimentary organs of man cannot1 by long habit1 be brought into such a condition as that1 while that condition remains1 they will not manage a mixed ingestion of animal and vegetable food1 with more immediate comfort and satisfaction to themselves and the individual1 than they will an ingestion of pure vegetable food4 ,but this does not militate against the general principle in the least2 for it is nevertheless true1 that the same organs are capable of being brought into a condition in which they will manage an ingestion of unmixed food of either kind1 with less embarrassment and injury to themselves and the whole system1 than they can the mixed food in any condition4 ,hence it is a general law of nature1 concerning the dietetic habits of man1 that simplicity of food at each meal is essential to the highest well-being of the individual and of the race4 ,god has unquestionably provided a great and rich variety of substances for man's nourishment and enjoyment2 but it is equally certain that he did not design that man should partake of all this variety at a single meal1 nor in a single day1 nor season--but from meal to meal1 from day to day1 and from season to season1 varying his enjoyment in strictest consistency with the great laws of his nature4 ,and hence all artificial combinations of alimentary substances1 and particularly those of a heterogeneous kind1 and yet more especially the concentrated forms1 must be more or less pernicious to the alimentary organs1 and through them to the whole system4 ,finally1 if man subsisted wholly on uncooked food1 the undepraved integrity of his appetite1 his thorough mastication and slow swallowing1 and his simple meal1 would greatly serve to prevent his overeating1 and thus save him from the ruinous effects of one of the most destructive causes operating in civic life4 ,whatever may be the material1 therefore1 from which bread is made1 when the artificial preparation is of that simple character which leaves the proportions of nutritious and innutritious properties1 as nature combined them1 and effects little change in the nutritious principles1 and retains the natural requisition for the function of the teeth1 and thus secures the proper chewing of the food and the mixing of it with the fluids of the mouth1 and swallowing of it slowly1 the artificial process militates very little1 if at all1 against any of the physiological or vital interests of the body4 ,but if our artificial process of bread-making1 concentrates the nutrient properties1 and destroys the due proportion between the bulk and nourishment1 and forms improper changes and combinations in the nutrient elements1 and does away the necessity for mastication or chewing1 and presents the food in too elevated a temperature1 or too hot1 and enables us to swallow it too rapidly1 with little or no exercise of the teeth1 and without properly mixing it with the fluids of the mouth1 the artificial process or cooking is decidedly and often exceedingly inimical1 not only to the vital interests of the alimentary organs1 but of the whole human system4 ,in all civilized nations1 and particularly in civic life1 bread1 as ,i have already stated1 is far the most important article of food which is artificially prepared2 and in our country and climate1 it is the most important article that enters into the diet of man2 and therefore it is of the first consideration1 that its character should1 in every respect1 be as nearly as possible1 consistent with the laws of constitution and relation established in our nature2 or with the anatomical construction and vital properties and powers and interest of our systems4 ,if we contemplate the human constitution in its highest and best condition1--in the possession of its most vigorous and unimpaired powers--and ask1 what must be the character of our bread in order to preserve that constitution in that condition8 the answer most indubitably is1 that the coarse unleavened bread of early times1 when of proper age1 was one of the least removes from the natural state of food1--one of the simplest and most wholesome forms of artificial preparations1 and best adapted to fulfil the laws of constitution and relation2 and therefore best adapted to sustain the most vigorous and healthy state of the alimentary organs1 and the highest and best condition of the whole nature of man1 as a general and permanent fact2 and hence it is very questionable whether loaf or raised bread can be made equally conducive to all the interests of our nature1 with the simple unleavened bread4 ,i am aware that many professional men entertain a very different opinion on this subject1 and speak of unleavened bread as being less nourishing and less easily digested4 ,this may be true to a limited extent1 in special cases of impaired and debilitated alimentary organs2 but ,i am confident that as a general fact the notion is entirely erroneous4 8,the whole people of ,asia10 says ,dr4 ,cullen1 8live upon unfermented rice4 ,the ,americans1 before they became acquainted with the ,europeans1 employed1 and for the most part1 still employ their maize in the same condition4 ,even in ,europe1 the employment of unfermented bread1 and unfermented farinace in other forms1 is still very considerable1 and we are ready to maintain that the morbid consequences of such a diet are very seldom to be observed4 ,in ,scotland1 nine tenths of the lower classes of people--and that is the greater part of the whole--live upon unfermented bread and unfermented farinace in other forms1 and at the same time1 ,i am of opinion that there are not a more healthy people anywhere to be found4 ,we give it to all classes and both sexes with advantage40 ,it is incontestibly true1 that if two portions of the same kind of wheat meal be taken and made1 the one into unleavened and the other into leavened bread1 and both be eaten warm from the oven1 the leavened bread will prove much more oppressive and difficult to manage in the stomach than the unleavened4 ,but aside from the changes that are produced by the process of fermentation1 there are many other considerations why unleavened bread of a proper quality and age1 is better adapted to sustain the alimentary organs and general constitution of man1 in their highest and best condition4 ,nevertheless1 it is very certain1 that loaf or raised bread can be made so nearly in accordance with the vital laws and interests of our bodies1 as scarcely to militate against them in any perceptible or appreciable degree4 ,and when ,i say this1 ,i mean not merely its effects on the health and longevity of a single individual1 but its effects upon the human constitution1 through successive generations1 for a thousand years or more4 ,as a general criterion or rule1 then1 in regard to the character of bread1 we perceive that the most perfect loaf or raised bread1 is that which1 being made of the best material1 is light1 and sweet1 and well baked1 and still most nearly retains all the natural proportions and properties of the original material4 ,,material ,,of ,,bread4 ,wheat4 ,extent of climate favorable to it4 ,injured by improper tillage4 ,removal of impurities4 ,washing of grain4 ,separation of the bran from the nutrient particles improper4 ,ancient ,roman bread4 ,public bakers4 ,use of bad flour4 ,adulterations4 ,poisonous agents used to disguise them4 ,among the materials used for making bread in our country--and1 in fact1 of all the known productions of the vegetable kingdom in any country1 wheat is decidedly the best2 and it is a remarkable fact1 that wheat comes nearer to man than perhaps any other plant1 in its power of becoming adapted to different climates1 over a wide extent of the earth's surface1 so that it may almost be said that wherever the human species can flourish1 there wheat can be cultivated4 8,it is not certainly known10 says ,prof4 ,thomson1 8in what country wheat was first produced4 ,mr4 ,bruce informs us that he found it growing wild in ,abyssinia2 and in his opinion1 that kingdom is the native country of the plant4 ,it would seem10 continues the ,professor1 8to be originally an ,african plant1 since it thrives best in ,barbary and ,egypt2 and perhaps the mountains of ,abyssinia1 though within the torrid zone1 may not differ much in point of climate1 from the more northern plains of ,egypt4 ,wheat is perhaps cultivated over a greater extent of the globe than any other plant4 ,excellent crops are raised as far north as ,sweden1 in latitude #fj2 it is cultivated in the ,east ,indies1 considerably within the limits of the torrid zone2 and in the ,north of ,hindostan1 it constitutes a chief article in the food of the inhabitants4 ,in ,india1 however1 the plant seems to have deteriorated4 ,it is always dwarfish1 and the crop is said to be less abundant than in more northern climates40 ,yet a cold climate is not most genial to the nature of this plant4 8,the wheat of ,france is superior to that of ,england2 the wheat of ,italy is still better than that of ,france2 and perhaps the best of all is raised in ,barbary and ,egypt40 ,excellent wheat is raised in the southern1 and western1 and middle portions of the ,united ,states2 and even in the northern and eastern parts of ,new ,england1 very fine crops have been produced4 ,but the wheat and other cultivated products of the vegetable kingdom appropriated to the nourishment of man1 like those on which our domestic animals subsist1 are too generally1 in civilized life1 very considerably deteriorated1 as to their wholesomeness1 by the improper tillage of the soil4 ,i have no doubt that it is true1 as stated by those who have made the experiment1 that the flour of wheat1 raised on a cultivated soil recently dressed with crude1 stable manure1 may readily be distinguished by its odor1 from the flour of wheat raised on a new and undepraved soil1 or from that raised on a cultivated soil which has been dressed with properly digested manure4 ,and if such and similar results of improper tillage can become the sources of serious evil to the human family1 through their effects on the flesh of animals which man devours1 and on the milk and butter which he consumes1 surely the immediate effects of such a deteriorated vegetable aliment on the human system1 must be very considerable4 ,they who have never eaten bread made of wheat1 recently produced by a pure virgin soil1 have but a very imperfect notion of the deliciousness of good bread2 such as is often to be met with in the comfortable log houses in our western country4 ,it is probably true that the new soil1 in its virgin purity1 before it becomes exhausted by tillage1 and debauched by the means which man uses to enrich and stimulate it1 produces most1 if not all kinds of vegetables appropriate for human aliment1 in a more perfect and healthy state1 than any soil which has been long under cultivation1 can be made to do4 ,nevertheless1 by a proper application of physiological principles to agriculture1 many of the evils which now result from improper tillage may easily be avoided1 and the quality of all those vegetable substances which enter into the diet of man may be very greatly improved1 both in regard to wholesomeness and deliciousness4 ,but while the people of our country are so entirely given up as they are at present1 to gross and promiscuous feeding on the dead carcasses of animals1 and to the untiring pursuits of wealth1 it is perhaps wholly in vain for a single individual to raise his voice on a subject of this kind4 ,the farmer will continue to be most eager to increase the number of his acres1 and to extort from those acres the greatest amount of produce1 with the least expense of tillage1 and with little or no regard to the quality of that produce in relation to the physiological interests of man2 while the people generally1 are contented to gratify their depraved appetites on whatever comes before them1 without pausing to inquire whether their indulgences are adapted to preserve or to destroy their health and life4 ,yet if some one does not raise a voice upon this subject which shall be heard and heeded1 there will soon reach us1 as a nation1 a voice of calamity which we shall not be able to shut our ears against1 albeit we may in the perverseness of our sensualism1 incorrigibly persist in disregarding its admonitions1 till the deep chastisements of outraged nature shall reach the very 8bone and marrow0 of the human constitution1 and fill our land with such a living rottenness1 as now in some other portions of the earth1 renders human society odious and abominable4 ,whether1 therefore1 my voice shall be heard and heeded or not1 ,i will obey the dictates of my sense of duty1 and solemnly declare that this subject demands the prompt and earnest attention of every agriculturist and of every friend to the common cause of humanity2 for it is most certain1 that until the agriculture of our country is conducted in strict accordance with physiological truth1 it is not possible for us to realize those physical1 and intellectual1 and moral1 and social1 and civil blessings for which the human constitution and our soil and climate are naturally capacitated4 ,when proper attention has been paid to the character of the wheat itself1 the next thing is to see that it is thoroughly cleansed4 ,sometimes1 in consequence of the peculiarities of the season1 or climate1 or soil1 or some other cause1 there will be a species of disease affecting the wheat and other grains2 and this may be of such a character as not easily to be removed nor counteracted by any means2 but more generally the rust1 and smut1 and dust1 which attach themselves to the skin of the grain1 may1 by proper care1 be so far removed1 as at least to render the meal or flour far more pure and wholesome than it otherwise would be4 ,and here let me remark1 that they are greatly deceived1 who suppose that the bolting cloth which separates the fine flour from the outer skin or bran1 also separates the impurities attached to the outer skin from the flour4 ,by the process of grinding1 these impurities are rubbed from the outer skin1 and made quite as fine as any portion of the flour1 and for the most part pass with the fine flour through the bolting cloth4 ,to remedy this1 it is perhaps generally true1 that in large flouring establishments1 a kind of smut or scouring mill is in operation1 through which the wheat passes1 and is pretty thoroughly rubbed or scoured without being broken2 and after this1 it passes through a screen or winnowing mill1 and thus is tolerably well cleansed and prepared for grinding4 ,yet this process by no means renders the wheat so perfectly clean and wholesome as washing4 ,those who have given little attention to this subject1 will probably think that the trouble of washing all their bread-stuff before it is ground1 would be much greater than any benefit which would result from it4 ,but a short experience in the matter1 would convince every one who has a proper regard for the character of his bread1 that the trouble of washing his grain bears no comparison to the improvement effected by it4 ,indeed1 they who become accustomed to washing their grain1 will soon cease to regard it as a trouble2 and the improvement in the whiteness and sweetness of their bread will be so great1 that they would be extremely unwilling to relinquish the practice4 ,when people are so situated that they can have things as they wish1 they will also find that their bread is much richer1 if the grain is ground but a short time before it is cooked4 ,the best way1 therefore1 is1 for every family to raise or purchase a sufficient quantity of the best new wheat that can be produced by proper tillage in a good soil1 and put that away in clean casks or bins1 where it will be kept perfectly dry and sweet2 and1 according to the size of the family1 take1 from time to time1 as they need it1 one or two bushels1 and wash it thoroughly but briskly in two or three waters1 and then spread it out on a drying sheet or table1 made for the purpose1 and which is considerably inclined1 so that the water remaining with the wheat will easily run off4 ,the skin or bran of the wheat is so well protected by its own oily property1 that little or no water will penetrate it1 unless it be suffered to remain in the water much longer than is necessary4 ,being thinly spread out upon the sheet or table in a good drying day1 it will be sufficiently dry in a few hours for grinding4 ,and ,i say again1 let any one who loves good bread1 wash his grain a few times in this manner1 and he will be very reluctant to return to the use of bread made of unwashed grain4 ,it would be difficult to ascertain at how early a period in the progress of society1 mankind1 in the preparation of wheat for bread-making1 began to put asunder what ,god has joined together1 and to concentrate the more purely nutrient properties1 by separating the flour from the part commonly called the bran4 ,the ,bible speaks of fine flour or meal1 as a portion of the meat offerings of the temple1 but it is not probable this approached very near to the superfine flour of the present time4 ,we are informed also that the ,romans1 more than two thousand years ago1 had four or five different kinds of bread--one of which was made of the purest flour1 from which all the bran was separated4 ,this was eaten only by the rich and luxurious4 ,a second kind1 in more common use1 was that from which a portion of the bran was taken2 and a third kind1 which was more generally used than any other1 was that which was made of the whole substance of the wheat4 ,a fourth kind was made mostly of the bran1 for dogs4 ,but at whatever period in the history of the race1 this artificial process was commenced1 certain it is that in direct violation of the laws of constitution and relation which the ,creator has established in the nature of man1 this process of mechanical analysis is1 at the present day1 carried to the full extent of possibility2 and the farina1 and gluten1 and saccharine matter of the wheat1 are almost perfectly concentrated in the form of superfine flour4 ,nor is this all--these concentrated nutrient properties of the wheat are mixed and complicated in ways innumerable1 with other concentrated substances1 to pamper the depraved appetites of man1 with kinds of food which always and inevitably tend to impair his health and to abbreviate his life4 ,even the bread1 which is the simplest form into which human ingenuity tortures the flour of wheat1 is1 by other causes besides the concentration ,i have named1 too frequently rendered the instrument of disease and death1 rather than the means of life and health1 to those that eat it4 ,in cities and large towns1 most people depend on public bakers for their bread4 ,and ,i have no doubt that public bakers1 as a body1 are as honest and worthy a class of men as any in society4 ,i have no wish to speak evil of any one2 and it is always painful to me to find myself compelled1 in fidelity to the common cause of humanity1 to expose the faults of any particular class of men1 when probably every other class in society is as deeply involved in errors which1 in the sight of ,god1 evince1 at least1 an equal degree of moral turpitude4 ,but public bakers1 like other men1 who serve the public more for the sake of securing their own emolument than for the public good1 have always had recourse to various expedients in order to increase the lucrativeness of their business4 ,to secure custom and profit at the same time1 they have considered it necessary1 that a given quantity of flour should be made into a loaf as large and as white as possible1 and free from any disagreeable taste1 while at the same time it retains the greatest possible weight4 ,from a variety of causes1 the quality and price of flour have always been very unstable4 ,sometimes the crops are small1 or the foreign demand for flour or the home consumption is unusually great1 or the season is unfavorable to the health of grain1 and the wheat becomes diseased1 or the harvest time is unfavorable1 and the wheat sprouts before it is secured1 or large quantities of flour become soured or musty1 or in some other manner damaged4 ,to counteract these things1 and to make the most profitable use of such flour as the market affords them1 the public bakers have been led to try various experiments with chemical agents1 and there is reason to believe that in numerous instances1 they have been too successful in their practices1 for the well-being of those who have been the consumers of their bread4 ,according to treatises on bread-making1 which have within a few years past appeared in ,european scientific journals1 8alum1 sulphate of zinc1 sub-carbonate of magnesia1 sub-carbonate of ammonia1 sulphate of copper1 and several other substances1 have been used by public bakers in making bread2 and some of these substances have been employed by them to a very great extent1 and with very great success in the cause of their cupidity4 ,they have not only succeeded by such means1 in making light and white bread out of extremely poor flour1 but they have also been able so to disguise their adulterations1 as to work in with their flour1 without being detected by the consumers1 a portion of the flour of beans1 peas and potatoes--and even chalk1 pipe clay and plaster of ,paris1 have been employed to increase the weight and whiteness of their bread40 8,the use of alum in bread-making10 says a distinguished chemist1 8appears to be very ancient4 ,it is one of those articles which have been the most extensively and successfully used in disguising bad flour1 and the various adulterations of bread4 ,its injurious action upon the health is not to be compared with that of sulphate of copper1 and yet1 daily taken into the stomach1 it may seriously affect the system40 8,thirteen bakers were condemned on the #bgth of ,january1 #ahbi1 by the correctional tribunal of ,brussels1 for mixing sulphate of copper or blue vitriol with their bread4 ,it makes the bread very white1 light1 large and porous1 but rather tasteless2 and it also enables the bread to retain a greater quantity of water1 and thereby very considerably increases its weight4 ,a much larger quantity of alum is necessary to produce these effects2 but when of sufficient quantity1 it strengthens the paste1 and1 as the bakers say1 #8makes the bread swell large4'0 ,if the statements of our large druggists can be relied on1 the public bakers of our own country probably employ ammonia more freely1 at present1 than any other substance ,i have named4 ,pearlash or saleratus is also used by them in considerable quantities4 ,but even where these adulterations are not practised1 the bakers' bread is very rarely a wholesome article of diet4 ,if any dependence is to be placed on the testimony of several of the principal bakers and flour merchants in ,new ,york1 ,boston and other cities1 the flour which most of our public bakers work into bread1 is of a very inferior quality to what is called good 8family flour10 and for which they pay from one to three dollars less per barrel2 and they sometimes purchase large quantities of old spoiled flour from ,new ,orleans and elsewhere1 which has heated and soured in the barrel1 and perhaps become almost as solid as a mass of chalk2 so that they are obliged to break it up1 and grind it over1 and spread it out1 and expose it to the air1 in order to purify it in a measure from its acid and other bad properties2 and then they mix it with a portion of much better flour2 and from this mixture they can make1 as they say1 the very largest and finest looking loaf4,b ,but should the public bakers always use the best of flour1 their bread1 as a general statement1 would still be very inferior to well made domestic bread1 in point of sweetness and wholesomeness4 ,their mode of manufacturing bread--to say the least of it--destroys much of the virtue of the flour or meal2 and hence their bread is only palatable--even to those who are accustomed to it--within twelve1 or at the longest1 twenty-four hours after it is baked4 ,but ,i must repeat1 that in making these statements1 ,i am not prompted by any unkind feelings towards public bakers2 ,i have no doubt that they are as honest in their calling as any other class of men2 but perhaps there is no other class pursuing an interest founded on the necessities of their fellow creatures1 whose expedients to increase the lucrativeness of their business1 are so immediately and universally injurious to the health of those on whom they depend for support4 ,if any of my statements are thought to be exaggerated or incorrect1 ,i can only say1 that with honest and benevolent intentions1 ,i have diligently sought for the truth2 and if ,i have been in any respect betrayed into error1 ,i have been misinformed by public bakers themselves1 who certainly ought to know the truth in this matter2 and who could have no conceivable reason for making the general character of their calling appear worse than it really is4 ,nevertheless1 ,i have no question that there are individuals in every city employed as public bakers1 who are too honest--too conscientious--too upright in heart1 to be guilty of any practice which they consider fraudulent or improper4 ,still1 truth compels me to declare1 that if we would have good and wholesome bread1 it must be made within the precincts of our own domestic threshold2 and by those whose skill and care are exercised more with a view to secure our health and happiness1 than their own pecuniary interest4 ,,properties ,,of ,,bread4 ,superfine flour injurious--a probable cause of some common disorders4 ,objections to coarse bread4 ,its medical properties4 ,extensive experiments of its use1 by soldiers and others4 ,use among ,european peasantry4 ,selection1 preservation and grinding of wheat4 ,whether our bread is of domestic manufacture or made by the public baker1 that which is made of superfine flour is always far less wholesome1 in any and every situation of life1 than that which is made of wheaten meal which contains all the natural properties of the grain4 ,it is true1 that when much flesh is eaten with our bread1 or when bread constitutes but a very small and unimportant portion of our food1 the injurious effects of superfine flour bread are not always so immediately and distinctly perceived as in other cases4 ,nevertheless1 it is a general and invariable law of our nature1 that all concentrated forms of food are unfriendly to the physiological or vital interests of our bodies4 ,a very large proportion of all the diseases and ailments in civic life1 are originated by causes which are introduced into the alimentary canal as articles of diet2 and disturbance and derangement of function--obstructions1 debility and irritations1 are among the most important elements of those diseases4 ,it is1 probably1 speaking within bounds1 to say that nine tenths of the adults1 and nearly as large a proportion of youth in civic life1 are more or less afflicted with obstructions and disturbances in the stomach and bowels1 and other organs of the abdomen1 the symptoms of which are either habitual costiveness or diarrha1 or an alternation of both2 or frequent and severe attacks of what are called bilious colics1 c41 c42 and in children and youth1 worms1 fits1 convulsions1 c4 ,and ,i cannot but feel confident1 that the use of superfine flour bread is among the important causes of these and numerous other difficulties4 ,i have indeed been surprised to observe1 that in the hundreds of cases of chronic diseases of every form and name1 which have come to my knowledge within the last five or six years1 costiveness of the bowels has in almost every instance been among the first and most important symptoms4 ,and ,i have never known this difficulty1 even after an obstinate continuance of five1 ten1 twenty or thirty years1 fail to disappear in a short time1 after the coarse wheaten bread of a proper character has been substituted for that made of superfine flour4 ,some physicians and other individuals1 without properly examining the subject1 have raised several objections against the coarse wheaten bread4 ,it is said1 in the first place1 that bran is wholly indigestible1 and therefore should never be taken into the human stomach4 ,this objection betrays so much ignorance of the final causes and constitutional laws1 clearly indicated by the anatomical structure and physiological economy of the alimentary organs1 that it scarcely deserves the slightest notice4 ,if the digestive organs of man were designed to receive nothing but digestible and nutrient substances1 they would have been constructed and arranged very differently from what they are4 ,as we have already seen1 everything which nature provides for our sustenance1 consists of certain proportions of nutritious and innutritious matter2 and a due proportion of innutritious matter in our food is as essential to the health and functional integrity of our alimentary organs1 as a due proportion of nutritious matter is to the sustenance of the body4 ,another objection is1 that although bran may serve1 like other mechanical irritants and excitants1 for a while1 to relieve constipation1 yet it soon wears out the excitability of the organs1 and leaves them more inactive than before4 ,here again1 a false statement is urged by inexcusable ignorance2 for it is not true that the bran acts in the manner supposed in this objection2 nor are the effects here asserted ever produced by it4 ,it is true1 however1 that the very pernicious habits of some people1 who use the coarse wheaten bread1 entirely counteract the aperient effects of the bread2 and it is true that others1 depending wholly on the virtues of this bread for peristaltic action1 and neglecting all exercise1 by their extreme inertness1 and indolence1 and overeating1 bring on a sluggishness1 and debility1 and constipation of the bowels1 and perhaps become severely afflicted with piles1 in spite of the natural fitness of the bread to promote regular peristaltic action1 and to prevent all these results4 ,a third objection is1 that though the coarse wheaten bread may do very well for those who are troubled with constipation1 by mechanically irritating and exciting the stomach and bowels1 yet for that very reason it is wholly unfit and improper for those who are afflicted with chronic diarrha4 ,here is still another objection founded in ignorance of the true physiological and pathological principles which it involves4 ,the truth is1 that the coarse wheaten bread1 under a proper general regimen1 is as excellent and sure a remedy for chronic diarrha as for chronic constipation4 ,i have seen cases of chronic diarrha of the most obstinate character1 and which had baffled the highest medical skill and every mode of treatment for more than twenty years1 yielding entirely under a proper general regimen1 in which this bread was the almost exclusive article of food1 and not a particle of medicine was used4 ,and ,i have never known such a mode of treatment to fail of wholly relieving diarrha1 whether recent or chronic2 although a very great number of cases have come under my notice4 ,it is fully evident1 therefore1 that the bran does not act on the digestive organs as a mere mechanical irritant2 for if it did1 it would always necessarily aggravate1 rather than alleviate diarrha4 ,nor does it relieve diarrha on the principle of a narcotic nor of a stimulant2 for the effect of these is always to give an immediate check to that complaint2 and in such a manner as to expose the system to a return of it4 ,but the coarse wheaten bread seems to increase the disease for a short time1 at first1 and then gradually restores the healthy condition and action of the bowels4 ,the mucilage of wheat bran is probably one of the most soothing substances in the vegetable kingdom1 that can be applied to the mucous membrane of the stomach and bowels4 ,chronic constipation and chronic diarrha1 both spring from the same root4 ,where the constitutional vigor of the alimentary canal is very considerable1 continued irritations1 resulting in debility1 will produce constipation2 and these continued causes operating for some time1 will often induce such a state of debility and irritability as is attended with diarrha3--and in other cases1 when this constitutional vigor of the alimentary canal is much less1 diarrha is far more readily induced1 and rendered chronic4 ,coarse wheaten bread1 then1 by its adaptation to the anatomical structure and to the physiological properties and functional powers of our organs1 serves to prevent and to remove the disorders and diseases of our bodies1 only by preventing and removing irritation and morbid action and condition1 and thereby affording the system an opportunity of recovering its healthy and vigorous action and condition4 ,and the thousands of individuals in our own country of every age--of both sexes--of all situations1 conditions and circumstances1 who within the last six years have been benefited by using the coarse wheaten bread1 instead of that made of superfine flour1 are living witnesses of the virtues of that bread4 ,but the testimony in favor of coarse wheaten bread as an important article in the food of man1 is by no means limited to our own country nor to modern times4 ,in all probability1 as we have already seen1 the first generations of our species1 who became acquainted with the art of making bread1 continued for many centuries to employ all the substance of the grain1 which they coarsely mashed in their rude mortars or mills4 ,and even since mankind began1 by artificial means1 to separate the bran from the flour1 and to make bread from the latter1 the more close and discerning observers among physicians and philanthropists1 have perceived and asserted1 that bread made of fine flour is decidedly less wholesome than that made of the unbolted wheat meal4 ,hippocrates1 styled the father of medicine1 who flourished more than two thousand years ago1 and who depended far more on a correct diet and general regimen1 both for the prevention and removal of disease1 than he did on medicine1 particularly commended the unbolted wheat meal bread1 8for its salutary effects upon the bowels40 ,it was a fact well understood by the ancients1 that this bread was much more conducive to the general health and vigor of their bodies1 and every way better adapted to nourish and sustain them than that made of the fine flour4 ,and accordingly1 their wrestlers and others who were trained for great bodily power1 8ate only the coarse wheaten bread1 to preserve them in their strength of limbs40 ,the ,spartans were famous for this kind of bread2 and we learn from ,pliny that the ,romans1 as a nation1 at that period of their history when they were the most remarkable for bodily vigor and personal prowess and achievement1 knew no other bread for three hundred years4 ,the warlike and powerful nations which overran the ,roman ,empire1 and finally spread over the greater part of ,europe1 used no other kind of bread than that which was made of the whole substance of the grain2 and from the fall of the ,roman ,empire to the present day1 a large proportion of the inhabitants of all ,europe and the greater part of ,asia1 have rarely used any other kind of bread4 8,if you set any value on health1 and have a mind to preserve nature10--said ,thomas ,tryon1 student in physic1 in his 8,way to ,health1 ,long ,life and ,happiness10 published in ,london1 in the latter part of the fifteenth century1--8you must not separate the finest from the coarsest flour2 because that which is fine is naturally of an obstructive and stopping quality2 but1 on the contrary1 the other1 which is coarse1 is of a cleansing and opening nature1 therefore the bread is best which is made of both together4 ,it is more wholesome1 easier of digestion1 and more strengthening than bread made of the finest flour4 ,it must be confessed1 that the nutrimentive quality is contained in the fine flour2 yet1 in the branny part is contained the opening and digestive quality2 and there is as great a necessity for the one as the other1 for the support of health3 that which is accounted the worst is as good and beneficial to nature as the best2 for when the finest flour is separated from the coarsest and branny parts1 neither the one nor the other has the true operations of the wheat meal4 ,the eating of fine bread1 therefore1 is inimical to health1 and contrary both to nature and reason2 and was at first invented to gratify wanton and luxurious persons1 who are ignorant both of themselves1 and the true virtue and efficacy of natural things40 8,baron ,steuben has often told me10 says ,judge ,peters1 8that the peculiar healthfulness of the ,prussian soldiers1 was in a great measure to be attributed to their ammunition bread1 made of grain1 triturated or ground1 but not bolted2 which was accounted the most wholesome and nutritious part of their rations40,c 8,the ,dutch sailors1 in the days of their naval glory1 were supplied with the same kind of bread40 8,during the war between ,england and ,france1 near the close of the last century10 says ,mr4 ,samuel ,prior1 a respectable merchant of ,salem1 ,new ,jersey--8the crops of grain1 and particularly wheat1 were very small in ,england1 and the supplies from ,dantzic1 the ,netherlands and ,sweden being cut off by the ,french army1 and also the usual supplies from ,america failing1 there was a very great scarcity of wheat in ,england4 ,the ,british army was then very extensive1 and it was exceedingly difficult to procure provisions for it1 both at home and abroad--on land and sea4 ,such was the demand for the foreign army1 and such the deficiency of crops at home and supplies from abroad1 that serious fears were entertained that the army would suffer1 and that the continental enterprise of the ,british government would be defeated in consequence of the scarcity of provisions2 and every prudential measure by which such a disastrous event could be prevented1 was carefully considered and proposed4 ,william ,pitt was then prime minister of state1 and at his instance1 government recommended to the people generally throughout ,great ,britain1 to substitute potatoes and rice as far as possible1 for bread1 in order to save the wheat for the foreign army4 ,this recommendation was promptly complied with by many of the people4 ,but still the scarcity was alarmingly great4 ,in this emergency1 parliament passed a law 7to take effect for two years7 that the army at home should be supplied with bread made of unbolted wheat meal1 solely for the purpose of making the wheat go as far as possible1 and thus saving as much as they could from the home consumption1 for the better supply of the army on the continent4 8,eighty thousand men were quartered in barracks in the counties of ,essex and ,suffolk4 ,a great many were also quartered throughout the towns1 at taverns1 in squads of thirty or forty in a place4 ,throughout the whole of ,great ,britain1 the soldiers were supplied with this coarse bread4 ,it was deposited in the store-rooms with the other provisions of the army2 and on the day that it was baked1 and at nine o'clock the next morning1 was distributed to the soldiers--who were at first exceedingly displeased with the bread1 and refused to eat it1 often casting it from them with great rage1 and violent execrations4 ,but after two or three weeks they began to be much pleased with it1 and preferred it to the fine flour bread4 8,my father10 continues ,mr4 ,p41 8whom ,i have often heard talk these things over1 was a miller and a baker1 and resided in the county of ,essex1 on the border joining ,suffolk1 and near the barracks containing the eighty thousand soldiers4 ,he contracted with government1 to supply the eastern district of the county of ,essex1 with the kind of bread ,i have mentioned3 and he used always to send me with it to the depositories on the day it was baked3 and though ,i was then a youth1 ,i can still very distinctly remember the angry looks and remarks of the soldiers1 when they were first supplied with it4 ,indeed they often threw their loaves at me as ,i passed along1 and accompanied them with a volley of curses4 ,the result of this experiment was1 that not only the wheat was made to go much farther1 but the health of the soldiers improved so much and so manifestly1 in the course of a few months1 that it became a matter of common remark among themselves1 and of observation and surprise among the officers and physicians of the army4 ,these gentlemen at length came out with confidence and zeal on the subject1 and publicly declared that the soldiers were never before so healthy and robust2 and that disease of every kind had almost entirely disappeared from the army4 ,the public papers1 were for months filled with recommendations of this bread1 and the civic physicians almost universally throughout ,great ,britain1 pronounced it far the most healthy bread that could be eaten1 and as such1 recommended it to all the people1 who very extensively followed the advice3--and the coarse wheaten bread was very generally introduced into families--female boarding schools1 and indeed all public institutions4 ,the nobility also generally used it2 and in fact1 in many towns1 it was a rare thing to meet with a piece of fine flour bread4 ,the physicians generally asserted that this wheaten bread was the very best thing that could be taken into the human stomach1 to promote digestion and peristaltic action2 and that it1 more than anything else1 would assist the stomach in digesting other things which were less easily digested1 and therefore they recommend that a portion of it should be eaten at every meal with other food4 8,still1 after this extensive experiment had been made with such happy results1 and after so general and full a testimony had been given in favor of the coarse wheaten bread1 when large supplies of superfine flour came in from ,america1 and the crops at home were abundant1 and the act of parliament in relation to the army became extinct1 most of the people who had before been accustomed to the use of fine flour bread1 now by degrees returned again to their old habits of eating fine bread4 ,many of the nobility1 however1 continued to use the coarse bread for a number of years afterwards4 ,general ,hanoward1 ,squire ,western1 ,squire ,hanbury and others living near my father's1 continued to use the bread for a long time1 and some of them still used it when ,i left home and came to ,america1 in #ahaf40 ,the testimony of sea captains and old whalemen is equally in favor of wheaten bread4 8,i have always found10 said a very intelligent sea captain of more than thirty years' experience1 8that the coarser my ship bread1 the healthier my crew is40 ,a writer in ,rees' ,cyclopdia1 7article ,bread7 says--8,the inhabitants of ,westphalia1 who are a hardy and robust people1 and capable of enduring the greatest fatigues1 are a living testimony to the salutary effects of this sort of bread2 and it is remarkable that they are very seldom attacked by acute fevers1 and those other diseases which are from bad humors40 ,in short1 as ,i have already stated1 the bread of a large portion of the laboring class1 or peasantry1 throughout ,europe1 ,asia and ,africa1 and the islands of the ocean1 whether leavened or unleavened--whether more or less artificially prepared1 is made of the whole substance of the grain from which it is manufactured3 and no one who is sufficiently enlightened in physiological science to qualify him to judge correctly in this matter1 can doubt that bread made in the best manner from unbolted wheat meal1 is far better adapted to the anatomical structure and physiological powers of the alimentary organs of man1 than bread made of superfine wheat flour2 and consequently1 the former is far more conducive to the health and vigor and general well-being of man than the latter4 ,if1 therefore1 mankind will have raised bread which in every respect most perfectly conforms to the laws of constitution and relation established in their nature1 and is most highly conducive to the welfare of their bodies and souls1 then must it be well made1 well baked1 light and sweet bread1 which contains all the natural properties of the wheat4 ,and if they will have this bread of the very best1 and most wholesome kind1 they must1 as ,i have already stated1 see that the soil from which their wheat is raised1 is of a proper character1 and is properly tilled1--that the wheat is plump--full-grown--ripe1 and free from rust and other diseases2 and then1 before it is ground1 they must see that it is thoroughly cleansed1 not only from chaff1 cockles1 tares1 and such like substances1 but also from all smut1 and every kind of impurity that may be attached to the skin of the kernel4 ,and let every one be assured that this is a matter which really deserves all the attention and care that ,i suggest4 ,if human existence is worth possessing1 it is worth preserving2 and they who have enjoyed it as some have done1 and as all the human family are naturally endowed with the capabilities to enjoy it1 certainly will not doubt whether it is worth possessing2 nor1 if they will properly consider the matter1 can they doubt that its preservation is worthy of their most serious and diligent care4 ,and when they perceive how intimately and closely the character of their bread is connected with the dearest interests of man1 they will not be inclined to feel that any reasonable amount of care and labor is too much to be given to secure precisely the right kind of bread4 ,i repeat1 then1 that they who would have the very best bread should certainly wash their wheat1 and cleanse it thoroughly from all impurities1 before they take it to the mill2 and when it is properly dried1 it should be ground by sharp stones which will cut rather than mash it3 and particular care should be taken that it is not ground too fine4 ,coarsely ground wheat meal1 even when the bran is retained1 makes decidedly sweeter and more wholesome bread than very finely ground meal4 ,when the meal is ground1 it should immediately be spread out to cool before it is put into sacks or casks3--for if it is packed or enclosed in a heated state1 it will be far more likely to become sour and musty4 ,and ,i say again1 where families are in circumstances to do wholly as they choose in the matter1 it is best to have but little ground at a time2 as the freshly ground meal is always the liveliest and sweetest1 and makes the most delicious bread4 ,when the meal is thus prepared and brought home1 whether in a barrel or sack1 the next thing to be attended to1 is1 that it be placed and kept in a perfectly clean1 and sweet1 and well ventilated meal room4 ,it should on no consideration be put into a closet1 or pantry1 or store-room1 which is seldom aired1 and more rarely cleansed2 and into which all manner of rubbish is thrown2 or even where other kinds of provisions are kept4 ,if the meal be put into a pantry or store-room which is confined and dirty1 and into which old boots and shoes1 and old clothes and pieces of carpet1 and other things of this kind1 are thrown--or where portions of vegetable or animal substance1 whether cooked or uncooked1 are habitually or even occasionally put and permitted to remain1 it must be expected1 as a matter of course1 of necessity1 that the quality of the meal will be considerably deteriorated by the impurities with which the air of the place will be loaded1 and which will be continually generated there4 ,people generally have but a sorry idea of what constitutes true cleanliness2 but they may be assured that they cannot be too deeply impressed with the importance of keeping their meal room as clean and sweet and well aired as possible4 ,,fermentation4 ,chemical composition of flour4 ,yeast--modes of preparing it4 ,substitutes for it4 ,fermentation1 and its products4 ,vinous1 acetous and putrefactive fermentation4 ,having procured good wheat1 cleansed it thoroughly1 and got it properly ground1 and placed in the meal room1 the next step is to take a portion of the meal and manufacture it into good bread4 ,but in order that this may be done in the most certain and perfect manner1 it is important that the properties of the meal and the principles concerned in bread-making should be well understood4 ,according to the statement of ,prof4 ,thomson1 of ,edinburgh1 one pound of good wheat meal contains ten ounces of farina or starch1 three ounces of bran1 six drams of gluten and two drams of sugar2--and it is because wheat contains such proportions of these substances that it makes the very best loaf bread4 ,the farina or starch is the principal nourishing property2--the saccharine matter or sugar is also highly nutrient2 but in the process of making loaf bread1 it serves mainly1 by its vinous fermentation1 to produce the gas or air by which the dough is raised and the bread made light4 ,the gluten is likewise a very nutrient property1 but in loaf bread1 it principally serves1 by its cohesiveness1 like gum elastic1 or ,india rubber1 to prevent the gas or air formed by the fermentation of the sugar1 from escaping or passing off2--and the gas being thus retained1 inflates or puffs up the dough1 and makes it porous and light4 ,the bran1 with its mucilaginous and other properties1 not only adds to the nutritiousness of the bread1 but eminently serves to increase its digestibility1 and to invigorate the digestive organs1 and preserve the general integrity of their functions4 ,the wheat which is raised in ,virginia and the southern states generally1 contains a larger proportion of gluten than that which is raised in the western part of the state of ,new ,york4 ,hence bakers are able to make a larger loaf of bread out of a pound of southern flour than they can out of a pound of western flour2 and consequently some of them have endeavored to make their customers believe that the southern flour is the most profitable4 ,it certainly is the most profitable for the baker2 but it is not the most profitable for the consumer4 ,the next thing indispensably necessary to the making of good bread1 is good lively sweet yeast1 or leaven1 to produce what is called the panary1 or more properly1 the vinous fermentation of the saccharine matter1 or sugar4 ,some bread-makers will do best with one kind of yeast or leaven1 and some with another4 ,i have generally found that people do best with those materials to which they have been most accustomed2 but ,i am sorry to find so general a dependence on breweries for yeast4 ,to say nothing of the impure and poisonous substances which brewers employ in the manufacture of beer1 and which always affect the quality of their yeast1 ,i am confident that domestic yeast can be made of a far superior quality4 ,however light and good in other respects that bread may be which is made with brewers yeast1 ,i have rarely if ever seen any in which ,i could not at once detect the disagreeable properties of the yeast4 ,there are various ways of making domestic yeast4 ,one of the simplest1 and perhaps the best1 is the following1 which was communicated to me by one of the best bread-makers ,i ever saw3 8,put into one gallon of water a double handful of hops2--boil them fifteen or twenty minutes1 then strain off the water while it is scalding hot2--stir in wheat flour or meal till it becomes a thick batter1 so that it will hardly pour2--let it stand till it becomes about blood warm1 then add a pint of good lively yeast1 and stir it well2 and then let it stand in a place where it will be kept at a temperature of about #gj ,f4 till it becomes perfectly light1 whether more or less time is required2 and then it is fit for use2--or if it is desired to keep a portion of it1 let it stand several hours and become cool2 and then put it into a clean jug and cork it tight1 and place it in the cellar where it will keep cool2 and it may be preserved good1 ten or twelve days1 and even longer40 ,another way by which yeast when thus made may be preserved much longer1 and perhaps more conveniently1 is1 to take it when it has become perfectly light1 and stir in good ,indian meal until it becomes a hard dough3 then take this dough and make it into small thin cakes1 and dry them perfectly1 without baking or cooking them at all4 ,these cakes1 if kept perfectly dry1 will be good for several weeks and even months4 ,when yeast is needed1 take some of these cakes 7more or less according to the quantity of bread desired7 and break them fine and dissolve them in warm water1 and then stir in some wheat flour till a batter is formed1 which should be kept at a temperature of about #fj ,f4 till the yeast becomes light and lively1 and fitted for making bread4 ,others1 in making this yeast1 originally put into the water with the hops1 a double handful of good clean wheat bran1 and boil them up together and strain off the water as above described3 others again1 boil up a quantity of wheat bran without the hops1 and make their yeast in all other respects as above described4 ,the milk yeast is greatly preferred by many2 and when it is well managed1 it certainly makes very handsome bread4 ,the way of making it is simple4 ,take a quart of milk fresh from the cow1 7more or less according to the quantity of bread desired17--a little salt is generally added1 and some add about half a pint of water blood warm1 but this is not essential2--then stir wheat flour or meal into the milk till it forms a moderately thick batter2 and then cover it over1 and place it where it will remain at a temperature of from #fj to #gj ,f4 till it becomes perfectly light4 ,it should then be used immediately3 and let it be remembered that dough made with this yeast will sour sooner than that made with other yeast2 and also that the bread after it is baked will become extremely dry and crumbly much sooner than bread made with other yeast4 ,yet this bread1 when a day old1 is exceedingly light and beautiful3 albeit some dislike the animal smell and taste which it derives from the milk4 ,in all these preparations of yeast and dough1 it should ever be recollected that 8the process of fermentation cannot go on when the temperature is below #cj ,f41 that it proceeds quite slowly at #ej1 moderately at #fj1 rapidly at #gj1 and very rapidly at #hj40 ,if1 therefore1 it is desired to have the yeast or dough stand several hours before it is used or baked1 it should be kept at a temperature of about #ej4 ,but in the ordinary way of making bread1 a temperature varying from #fj to #gj1 or about summer heat1 is perhaps as near right as it can well be made4 ,prof4 ,thomson gives the following directions for making yeast in large quantities3--8,add ten pounds of flour to two gallons of boiling water2--stir it well into a paste1 let this mixture stand for seven hours1 and then add about a quart of good yeast4 ,in about six or eight hours1 this mixture1 if kept in a warm place1 will have fermented and produced as much yeast as will make #abj quartern loaves0 7of #d lbs4 each47 ,a much smaller quantity can be made by observing due proportions of the ingredients4 ,to raise bread in a very short time without yeast1 ,prof4 ,thomson gives the following recipe3 8,dissolve in water #b ounces1 #e drams and #de grains of common crystallized carbonate of soda1 and mix the solution well with your dough1 and then add #g ounces1 #b drams and #bb grains of muriatic acid of the specific gravity of #a1aba1 and knead it as rapidly as possible with your dough2--it will rise immediately--fully as much1 if not more than dough mixed with yeast--and when baked1 will be a very light and excellent bread40 ,smaller quantities would be required for small batches of bread4 ,a tea-spoonful or more 7according to the quantity of dough or batter7 of super-carbonate of soda dissolved in water1 and flour stirred in till it becomes a batter1 and then an equal quantity of tartaric acid dissolved and stirred in thoroughly1 will in a few minutes make very light batter for griddle or pancakes2 or if it be mixed into a thick dough1 it will make light bread4 ,good lively yeast1 however1 makes better bread than these alkalies and acids3 howbeit these are very convenient in emergencies1 when bread or cakes must be prepared in a very short time2 or when the yeast has proved inefficient4 ,we see then that wheat meal consists of certain proportions of starch1 gluten1 sugar1 bran1 c42 and that in making loaf bread1 we add yeast or leaven1 in order to produce that kind of fermentation peculiar to saccharine matter or sugar1 which is called vinous1 and by which the gas or air is formed that raises the dough4 ,but the sugar is an incorporate part of every particle of the meal1 and is therefore equally diffused throughout the whole mass2 and hence if we would make the very best loaf bread1 the fermentive principle or yeast must also be equally diffused throughout the whole mass1 so that a suitable portion of yeast will be brought to act at the same time on every particle of saccharine matter in the mass4 ,but let us endeavor to understand this process of fermentation4 ,to speak in the language of chemistry1 sugar is composed of certain proportions of carbon1 oxygen and hydrogen4 ,the yeast1 acting on the sugar1 overcomes those affinities by which these substances are held in the constitutional arrangement of sugar1 and the process of decay or decomposition of the sugar takes place1 which is called vinous fermentation4 ,by this process of decay1 two other forms of matter are produced1 of an essentially different nature from each other and from the sugar4 ,one of them is called carbonic acid gas or air1 being formed by a chemical combination of certain proportions of carbon and oxygen4 ,the other is known by the name of alcohol1 and consists of a chemical combination of certain proportions of carbon1 oxygen1 and hydrogen4 ,carbonic acid gas is also produced by animal respiration or breathing1 by the combustion of wood1 coal1 c4 c4 and in other ways of nature and of art3 but neither in nature nor in art is there any known way by which alcohol can be produced1 except by that process of the decay or destruction of sugar called vinous fermentation4 ,the carbonic acid gas1 produced in the manner ,i have stated1 is the air which inflates or puffs up and swells out the bread1 when there is sufficient gluten or other cohesive matter in the dough to prevent its escape4 ,if the dough be permitted to stand too long in a warm place1 the fermentation1 having destroyed most or all of the sugar1 will begin to act on the starch and mucilage1 and destroy their nature1 and produce vinegar2 and therefore this stage of it is called the acetous fermentation3 and if it still be permitted to go on1 it will next commence its work of destruction on the gluten2 and this is called the putrefactive fermentation1 because it in many respects resembles the putrefaction of animal matter4 ,the vinous fermentation1 therefore1 by which the dough is raised and made light1 may be carried to all necessary extent1 and still be limited in its action to the saccharine matter or sugar--leaving the starch and gluten1 and other properties of the meal1 uninjured2 and this is the point at which the fermentation should be arrested by the heat that bakes the dough4 ,if it be permitted to go beyond the sugar1 and act on the mucilage and starch1 and produce acidity1 the excellence of the bread is in some degree irreparably destroyed4 ,the acid may be neutralized by pearlash or soda1 so that the bread shall not be sour2 but still1 something of the natural flavor of the bread is gone1 and it is not possible by any earthly means to restore it2 and this injury will always be in proportion to the extent to which the process of the acetous fermentation is permitted to go in destroying the nature of the starch1 and the bread will be proportionably destitute of that natural sweetness and delicious richness essential to good bread4 ,yet it is almost universally true1 both in public and domestic bread-making1 that the acetous fermentation is allowed to take place2 and saleratus1 or soda1 or some other chemical agent is employed to neutralize the acid4 ,by this means we may have bread free from acidity1 it is true1 but it is also destitute of the best and most delicious properties of good bread2 and generally1 by the time it is twenty-four hours old--and this is particularly true of bakers' bread--it is as dry and tasteless and unsavory as if it were made of plaster of ,paris4 ,many bread-makers mix their saleratus or soda with their yeast1 or introduce it when they mix their dough1 so that if the acetous fermentation does take place1 the acid is neutralized by the alkali1 and therefore1 not being perceived1 it is supposed never to have existed1 and the bread is called sweet and good2 especially if a small quantity of molasses be employed in making the dough4 ,others far more wisely withhold their alkali till the dough is raised enough to mould into the loaf1 and then if it is found to be in any degree acid1 a solution of saleratus or soda is worked into it1 so as just to neutralize the acid1 and no more4 ,this is infinitely better that no have sour bread1 which1 after all1 is almost everywhere met with2 yet the very best bread that can be made in this way is only second best4 ,happy are they who can make good light and sweet bread1 without the use of molasses--without suffering the least degree of acetous fermentation to take place1 and without employing saleratus1 soda1 or any other kind of alkali4 ,the third or putrefactive stage of fermentation rarely takes place in domestic bread-making2 but it is by no means uncommon in public bakeries4 ,indeed it is thought necessary in the manufacture of certain kinds of crackers1 in order to make them split open1 and render them brittle1 and cause them readily to become soft when dipped into water4 ,but dyspepsia crackers1 and all other kinds of bread made in this way are1 to say the least of them1 miserable stuff4 ,for besides the fact that all the best qualities of the flour or meal have been destroyed by fermentation1 the great quantity of alkali employed in neutralizing the acid1 is necessarily injurious to the digestive organs4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,bread4 ,mixing4 ,much kneading necessary4 ,rising1 or fermentation4 ,use of alkalies1 saleratus and soda4 ,baking4 ,ovens4 ,alcohol in bread4 ,preservation of bread4 ,now1 then1 the business of the bread-maker is1 to take the wheat meal1 prepared in the manner ,i have stated1 and with all the properties ,i have described1 and convert it into good1 light1 sweet1 well-baked bread1 with the least possible change in those properties2 so that the bread1 when done1 will present to the senses of smell and taste1 all the delicious flavor and delicate sweetness which pure organs perceive in the meal of good new wheat1 just taken from the ear and ground1 or chewed without grinding2 and it should be so baked that it will1 as a general statement1 require and secure a full exercise of the teeth in mastication4 ,in order to do this1 as we have seen1 it is necessary1 in the first place1 that the wheat should be of the best kind1 and well cleansed1 and the meal properly prepared4 ,in the next place1 it is necessary that the yeast should be fresh1 lively and sweet2 and in the third place1 it is necessary that the dough should be properly mixed1 raised and baked4 ,take then such a quantity of meal1 in a perfectly clean and sweet bread trough1 as is necessary for the quantity of bread desired1 and having made a hollow in the centre1 turn in as much yeast as a judgment matured by sound experience shall deem requisite2 then add such a quantity of water1 milk and water1 or clear milk1 as is necessary to form the meal into a dough of proper consistency4 ,some prefer bread mixed with water alone2 others prefer that which is mixed with milk and water2 and others think that bread mixed with good milk is much richer and better2 while others dislike the animal odor and taste of bread mixed with milk4 ,perhaps the very best and most wholesome bread is that which is mixed with pure soft water1 when such bread is made perfect4 ,but whether water1 milk and water1 or milk alone is employed1 it should be used at a temperature of about blood heat4 ,here let it be understood1 that the starch of the meal is of such a nature that1 by a delicate process peculiar to itself1 it becomes changed into sugar or saccharine matter2 and when the fluid used in mixing the dough is of a proper temperature1 and the dough is properly mixed and kneaded1 this process1 to some small extent1 takes place1 and a small portion of the starch is actually converted into sugar1 and thereby increases the sweetness of the bread4 ,let it also be recollected here1 that the saccharine matter on which the yeast is to act1 is equally diffused throughout the whole mass of the meal2 and therefore if the yeast be not properly diffused throughout the whole mass1 but is unequally distributed1 so that an undue quantity of it remains in one part1 while other parts receive little or none1 then the fermentation will go on very rapidly in some parts of the mass1 and soon run into the acetous state1 while in other parts it will proceed very slowly or not at all2 and consequently large cavities will be formed in some parts of the dough1 while other parts of it will remain as compact and heavy as when first mixed1 and sometimes even more so4 ,i need not say that such dough cannot be made into good bread2 yet it is probably true1 that more than nine tenths of the bread consumed in this country is more or less of this character4 ,nor1 after what ,i have said1 should it seem necessary for me to remark1 that good bread cannot be made by merely stirring the meal1 and yeast1 and water or milk together into a thin dough or sponge1 and suffering it to ferment with little or no working or kneading4 ,bread made in this manner1 if it is not full of cavities large enough for a mouse to burrow in1 surrounded by parts as solid as lead1 is almost invariably full of cells of the size of large peas and grapes2 and the substance of the bread has a shining1 glutinous appearance2 and if the bread is not sour1 it is because pearlash or some other kind of alkali has been used to destroy the acid4 ,the very appearance of such bread is forbidding1 and shows1 at a glance1 that it has not been properly mixed--that the yeast has acted unequally on different portions of the meal1 and that the fermentation has not been of the right kind4 ,but if the yeast be so diffused throughout the whole mass1 as that a suitable portion of it will act on each and every particle of the saccharine matter at the same time1 and if the dough be of such a consistency and temperature as not to admit of too rapid a fermentation1 then each minute portion of saccharine matter throughout the whole mass will1 in the process of fermentation1 produce its little volume of air1 which will form its little cell1 about the size of a pin's head1 and smaller2 and this will take place so nearly at the same time1 in every part of the dough1 that the whole will be raised and made as light as a sponge1 before the acetous fermentation takes place in any part4 ,and then if it be properly moulded and baked1 it will make the most beautiful and delicious bread--perfectly light and sweet1 without the use of any alkali1 and with all the gluten and nearly all the starch of the meal remaining unchanged by fermentation4 ,proper materials1 proper care1 a due amount of labor1 a suitable length of time1 and proper temperature1 are all1 therefore1 necessary to the making of good bread4 ,with your meal1 and yeast1 and water or milk brought together before you1 then1 proceed in the light of the instruction you have now received1 to mix your dough2 and remember that the more thoroughly you knead it1 the more equally you diffuse the yeast throughout the whole mass1 and bring it to act on every particle of the saccharine matter at the same time1 and the whiter1 lighter1 and more delicious you make your bread4 ,who that can look back thirty or forty years to those blessed days of ,new ,england's prosperity and happiness1 when our good mothers used to make the family bread1 but can well remember how long and how patiently those excellent matrons stood over their bread troughs1 kneading and moulding their dough8 and who with such recollections cannot also well remember the delicious bread that these mothers used invariably to set before them8 ,there was a natural sweetness and richness in it which made it always desirable2 and which we cannot now vividly recollect1 without feeling a strong desire to partake again of such bread as our mothers made for us in the days of our childhood4 ,let it be borne in mind1 then1 that without a very thorough kneading of the dough1 there can be no just ground of confidence that the bread will be good4 8,it should be kneaded10 says one of much experience in this matter1 8till it becomes flaky40 ,indeed ,i am confident that our loaf bread would be greatly improved in all its qualities1 if the dough were for a considerable time subjected to the operations of the machine which the bakers call the break1 used in making crackers and sea-bread4 ,the wheat meal1 and especially if it is ground coarsely1 swells considerably in the dough1 and therefore the dough should not1 at first1 be made quite so stiff1 as that made of superfine flour2 and when it is raised1 if it is found too soft to mould well1 let a little more meal be added4 ,when the dough has been properly mixed and thoroughly kneaded1 cover it over with a clean napkin or towel1 and a light woollen blanket kept for the purpose1 and place the bread trough where the temperature will be kept at about #fj ,f41 or about summer heat1 and there let it remain till the dough becomes light4 ,but as it is impossible to regulate the quantity and quality of your yeast1 the moisture and temperature of your dough1 and several other conditions and circumstances1 so as to secure at all times precisely the same results in the same time1 it is therefore necessary that careful attention should be given that the proper moment should be seized to work over and mould the dough into the loaf1 and get it into the oven1 just at the time when it is as light as it can be made by the vinous fermentation1 and before the acetous fermentation commences4 ,if1 however1 by any means there should unfortunately be a little acidity in the dough1 take a small quantity of saleratus1 or1 what is better1 carbonate of soda1 and dissolve it in some warm water1 and carefully work in just enough to neutralize the acid4 ,the best bread-makers are so exceedingly careful on this point1 that they dip their fingers into the solution of saleratus or soda1 and thrust them into the dough in every part1 as they work it over1 so as to be sure that they get in just enough to neutralize the acid1 and not a particle more4 ,i must here repeat1 that they who would have the very best of bread1 must always consider it a cause of regret1 that there should be any necessity to use alkali2 because the acetous fermentation cannot in any degree take place1 without commensurately and irremediably impairing the quality of the bread4 ,and here it should be remarked1 that dough made of wheat meal will take on the acetous fermentation1 or become sour1 sooner than that made of fine flour4 ,this is probably owing principally to the mucilage contained in the bran1 which runs into the acetous fermentation sooner than starch4 ,while the dough is rising1 preparations should be made for baking it4 ,some bake their bread in a brick oven1 some in a stove1 some in a reflector1 and some in a baking kettle4 ,in all these ways very good bread may be baked2 but the baking kettle is decidedly the most objectionable4 ,probably there is no better and more certain way of baking bread well than in the use of the brick oven4 ,good bread-makers1 accustomed to brick ovens1 can always manage them with a very great degree of certainty2 and as a general fact1 bread is sweeter1 baked in this way1 than in any other4 ,yet1 when it is well baked in tin reflectors1 it is certainly very fine2 and so it is also when well baked in iron stoves4 ,but the baking of bread requires almost as much care and judgment as any part of the process of bread-making4 ,if the oven is too hot1 the bread will burn on the outside before it is done in the centre2 if it is too cold1 the bread will be heavy1 raw and sour4 ,if the heat is much greater from below than from above1 the bottom of the loaf will burn before the top is done3 or if the heat is much greater from above than from below1 the top of the loaf will burn before the bottom is done4 ,all these points therefore must be carefully attended to2 and no small excuse ought to be considered a satisfactory apology for sour1 heavy1 raw or burnt bread2 for it is hardly possible to conceive of an absolute necessity for such results2 and the cases are extremely rare in which they are not the offspring of downright and culpable carelessness4 ,the best bread-makers ,i have ever known1 watch over their bread troughs while their dough is rising1 and over their ovens while it is baking1 with about as much care and attention as a mother watches over the cradle of her sick child4 ,dough made of wheat meal requires a hotter oven than that made of fine flour2 and it needs to remain in the oven longer4 ,indeed1 it is a general fault of bread of every description1 made in this country1 that it is not sufficiently baked4 ,multitudes eat their bread hot and smoking from the oven in a half-cooked state2 and very few seem to think there is any impropriety in doing so4 ,but they who would have their bread good1 not only a few hours after it comes from the oven1 but as long as it can be kept1 must see that it is thoroughly baked4 ,i have said that the process of vinous fermentation converts a portion of the saccharine matter of the meal into carbonic acid gas or air1 by which means the dough is raised and made light2 and that the same process converts a portion of the saccharine matter into alcohol4 ,the alcohol thus generated is mostly if not entirely driven off by the heat of the oven when the dough is baking2--and in modern times1 ovens have been so constructed in ,england1 as to serve the double purpose of ovens and stills2 so that while the bread is baking1 the alcohol is distilled off and condensed1 and saved for the various uses of arts and manufacture4 ,the question has1 however1 been frequently started1 whether a portion of the alcohol thus generated1 is not contained in the bread when it comes from the oven4 ,this question cannot be answered with entire certainty2 but there are some facts in relation to it of considerable importance4 ,it is perfectly certain that if two portions of wheat meal or flour be taken from the same barrel or sack1 and one portion be made into unleavened bread1 and the other portion be made into the very best fermented or raised bread1 and both be eaten as soon as they are baked1 the fermented bread will digest with more difficulty1 and oppress and disturb the stomach more than the unleavened bread will4 ,indeed it is well known and very generally understood1 that few of the articles which compose the food of man in civic life1 are so trying to the human stomach1 and so powerful causes of dyspepsia1 as fresh-baked raised bread4 ,it is now well known also that alcohol wholly resists the action of the solvent fluid of the stomach1 and is entirely indigestible2 and always retards the digestion of those substances which contain it4 ,how far all this may be true of carbonic acid gas1 is not yet ascertained2 but it is difficult to account for the difference between leavened and unleavened bread1 as above stated1 without supposing that the alcohol or carbonic acid gas1 or both of them1 are in some degree concerned in rendering the leavened bread1 when newly baked1 peculiarly oppressive and injurious to the stomach4 ,this1 be it remembered1 is purely a conjecture of my own2 and ,i am not entirely certain that it is correct2 but ,i see no other way of meeting the difficulty4 ,be it as it may1 however1 it is very certain that when the bread has been drawn from the oven1 and permitted to stand in a proper place twenty-four hours1 either by evaporation or some other means1 it becomes perfectly matured1 and so changed in character1 that it is1 if properly made1 one of the most wholesome articles entering into the diet of man2 and at that age1 there is not the slightest reason to believe that a particle of alcohol remains in the bread4 ,when therefore the bread is thoroughly baked1 let it be taken from the oven and placed on a perfectly clean and sweet shelf1 in a perfectly clean and well ventilated pantry4 ,do not1 as you value the character of your bread1 put it into a pantry where you set away dishes of cold meat1 cold potatoes1 and other vegetables1 and keep your butter1 cheese and various other table provisions--in a pantry which perhaps is seldom thoroughly cleansed with hot water and soap1 and where the pure air of heaven seldom if ever has a free circulation4 ,the quality of your bread should be of too much importance to allow of such reprehensible carelessness1 not to say sluttishness4 ,and if you will have your bread such as every one ought to desire to have it1 you must pay the strictest attention to the cleanliness and sweetness of the place where you keep it4 ,if in baking1 the outer crust should become a little too dry and crispy1 you can easily remedy this by throwing a clean bread or table cloth over it for a short time when it first comes from the oven2 but if this is not necessary1 let the bread stand on an airy shelf1 till it becomes perfectly cool1 and when it is twenty-four hours old1 it is fit for use2 and if it is in all respects properly made1 and properly kept1 it will continue to be sweet and delicious bread for two or even three weeks1 except perhaps in very hot and sultry weather4 ,when we have acquired the art of making such bread as ,i have described1 in the very best manner1 then have we carried the art of cooking to the very height of perfection2 for it is not only true1 that there is no other artificially prepared article in human diet of so much importance as bread1 but it is also true that there is no other preparation in the whole round of cooking1 which requires so much care1 and attention1 and experience1 and skill1 and wisdom4 ,,who ,,should ,,make ,,bread4 ,making bread by rule4 ,bakers4 ,domestics4 ,sour bread4 ,an anecdote4 ,mrs4 ,van ,winkle4 ,bad bread need not be made4 ,how cake is made4 ,bread-making a drudgery4 ,excellent example of a mother4 ,eating bad bread4 ,importance of having good bread4 ,who then shall make our bread8 ,for after all that science in its utmost accuracy can do1 in ascertaining principles and in laying down rules1 there is little certainty that any one1 who undertakes to make bread merely by rule1 will be anything like uniformly successful4 ,we may make a batch of bread according to certain rules1 and it may prove excellent2 and then we may make another batch according to the same rules1 which may be very poor4 ,for if we follow our rules ever so closely1 there may be some slight differences in the quality or condition of the meal or the yeast1 or something else1 which will materially alter the character of the bread1 if we do not exercise a proper care and judgment1 and vary our operations according as the particular circumstances of the case may require4 ,correct rules are certainly very valuable2 but they can only serve as general way-marks1 in the art of bread-making4 ,uniform success can only be secured by the exercise of that mature judgment which is always able to dictate those extemporaneous measures which every exigency and circumstance may require2 and such a judgment can only result from a care and attention and experience which are the offspring of that moral sensibility which duly appreciates the importance of the quality of bread1 in relation to the happiness and welfare of those that consume it4 ,but are we to look for such a sensibility in public bakers8 ,can we expect that they will feel so lively and so strong an interest for our enjoyment and for our physical and intellectual and moral well-being1 that they will exercise all that care and attention and patience1 and watch with that untiring vigilance and solicitude in all the progress of their operations1 which are indispensably necessary in order to secure us the best of bread8 ,or can we reasonably expect to find these qualifications in domestics--in those who serve us for hire8 ,many a female domestic1 it is true1 can make much better bread than her mistress can4 ,many a female domestic has an honest and sincere desire to do her duty faithfully2 but can she be actuated by those sensibilities and affections which alone can secure that careful attention1 that soundness of judgment1 that accuracy of operation1 without which the best of bread cannot uniformly1 if ever1 be produced8 ,no2--it is the wife1 the mother only--she who loves her husband and her children as woman ought to love1 and who rightly perceives the relations between the dietetic habits and physical and moral condition of her loved ones1 and justly appreciates the importance of good bread to their physical and moral welfare--she alone it is1 who will be ever inspired by that cordial and unremitting affection and solicitude which will excite the vigilance1 secure the attention1 and prompt the action requisite to success1 and essential to the attainment of that maturity of judgment and skilfulness of operation1 which are the indispensable attributes of a perfect bread-maker4 ,and could wives and mothers fully comprehend the importance of good bread in relation to all the bodily and intellectual and moral interests of their husbands and children1 and in relation to the domestic and social and civil welfare of mankind1 and to their religious prosperity1 both for time and eternity1 they would estimate the art and duty of bread-making far1 very far more highly than they now do4 ,they would then realize that1 as no one can feel so deep and delicate an interest for their husbands' and children's happiness as they do1 so no one can be so proper a person to prepare for them that portion of their aliment1 which requires a degree of care and attention that can only spring from the lively affections and solicitude of a wife and mother4 ,but it is a common thing to hear women say--8,we cannot always have good bread1 if we take ever so much pains2--it will sometimes be heavy1 and sometimes be sour1 and sometimes badly baked1 in spite of all our care40 ,it may be true that such things will sometimes happen1 even with the best of care2--but ,i believe that there is almost infinitely more poor bread than there is any good excuse for4 ,the truth is1 the quality of bread is a matter of too little consideration2 and therefore too little care is given to the making of it4 ,moreover1 the sense of taste is so easily vitiated1 that we can very easily become reconciled to the most offensive gustatory qualities1 and even learn to love them2 and it is a very common thing to find families so accustomed to sour bread1 that they have no perception of its acid quality4 8,it is very strange10 said a lady to me one day at her dinner table1 8that some folks always have sour bread1 and never know it40 ,she then went on to name a number of families in the circle of her acquaintance1 who1 she said1 invariably had sour bread upon their tables when she visited them--8and they never10 continued she1 8seem to have the least consciousness that their bread is not perfectly sweet and good40 ,yet this very lady1 at the very moment she was thus addressing me1 had sour bread upon her own table2 and although ,i had for many months been very frequently at her table1 ,i had never found any but sour bread upon it4 ,still she was wholly unconscious of the fact4 ,difficult however as most women think it is1 to have good bread always1 yet there are some women who invariably have excellent bread4 ,i have known such women4 ,the wife of ,thomans ,van ,winkle1 ,esq4 of the beautiful valley of ,booneton1 ,new ,jersey--peace to her ashes6--was deservedly celebrated throughout the whole circle of her acquaintance for her excellent bread4 ,few ever ate at her hospitable board once that did not desire to enjoy the privilege again4 ,i know not how often it has been my good fortune to sit at her table2 but the times have not been few2 and though long past1 and she who presided there has slept for years in her grave1 yet the remembrance of those times and of those hospitalities1 awakens in my bosom a deep and fervent sentiment of gratitude while ,i write4 ,never at the table of ,mrs4 ,van ,winkle did ,i eat poor bread2--and of my numerous acquaintances who had sat at her table1 ,i never heard one say he had eaten poor bread there4 ,her bread was invariably good4 ,nay1 it was of such a quality that it was impossible for any one to eat of it1 and not be conscious that he was partaking of bread of extraordinary excellence4 ,mrs4 ,van ,winkle1 said ,i to her one day1 while ,i was feasting on her delicious bread1 tell me truly1 is there either a miracle or mystery in this matter of bread-making1 by which you are enabled to have such excellent bread upon your table at all times1 while ,i rarely ever find bread equally good at any other table1 and at ninety-nine tables in a hundred1 ,i almost invariably find poor bread8 ,is it necessarily so8 ,is it not possible for people by any means to have good bread uniformly8 8,there is no necessity for having poor bread at any time1 if those who make it will give proper care and attention to their business10 replied ,mrs4 ,van ,winkle1 confidently4 8,the truth is10 continued she1 8most people attach very little importance to the quality of their bread2 and therefore they give little care to the preparation of it4 ,if every woman would see that her flour is sweet and good1 that her yeast is fresh and lively1 that her bread trough is kept perfectly clean and sweet1 that her dough is properly mixed and thoroughly kneaded1 and kept at a proper temperature1 and at the proper time moulded into the loaf1 and put into the oven1 which has been properly heated1 and there properly baked1 then good bread would be as common as poor bread now is4 ,but while there is such perfect carelessness and negligence about the matter1 it is not surprising that bread should be generally poor40 ,mrs4 ,van ,winkle was undoubtedly correct4 ,if anything like the care were given to bread-making that its real importance demands1 a loaf of poor bread would rarely be met with4 ,indeed1 if the same degree of care were given to bread-making1 that is devoted to the making of cakes and pastry1 we should far more generally be blessed with good bread4 ,who does not know1 that as soon as girls are old enough to go into company and to give parties1 they begin to notice with great interest the qualities of the different kinds of cake and pastry which they meet with2 and whenever they find anything very nice1 they are exceedingly curious to learn precisely how it was made4 ,and lest memory should be treacherous1 they will carefully write down the exact rules for mixing and cooking it2--8so many pounds of flour1 so many pounds of butter1 so many pounds of sugar1 so many eggs1 and spice to your taste--the eggs to be beaten so and so1 the whole mixed so and so1 and baked so many minutes10 c4 c4 ,and thus with great care and industry they collect and write down1 in a book which they keep for the purpose1 all the recipes they can get hold of1 for making every kind of cake and pastry used in society4 ,and when they are preparing for company1 they rarely if ever order ,dinah or any other domestic to make their nice cake4 ,they do not regard it as a menial office1 but as a highly genteel employment2 and their great desire to have their cake and pastry as good as it can be made1 prompts them to undertake the manufacture of it themselves4 ,and during this operation1 the scales1 the measures1 the clock or watch1 all are brought into requisition2 the ,recipe ,book is placed upon the table before them1 and carefully consulted2 and everything is done with the utmost precision1 and exactitude1 and vigilance4 ,and if the young lady feels any misgiving as to her own judgment1 or taste1 or experience1 she earnestly inquires of ,ma1 or some one else who she thinks is capable of giving her advice in so important a matter4 ,if in the midst of this employment some one knocks or rings at the door1 and a young gentleman is announced1 she is not at all embarrassed1 but perhaps hastens to the parlor with her delicate hands covered with dough1 and with an air of complacency and self-satisfaction1 says--8,good morning1 ,frank--how do you do8 ,i am just engaged in making some cake--,i hope you will excuse me for a few moments40 ,all this shows that she regards the quality of her cake as of very great importance1 and considers it not only perfectly respectable but highly genteel1 for a young lady to be employed in making cake4 ,but in regard to bread and bread-making1 everything is very different2 there is none of this early curiosity to learn how to make good bread4 ,young ladies do not on every occasion when they find excellent bread1 carefully and minutely inquire how it was made1 baked1 c41 and write down the recipe2--but when a batch of bread is to be made for the family1 they either leave it for ,mother or some domestic to make1 or go about it themselves as some irksome and disreputable piece of drudgery2 and consequently they turn the task off their hands with as much despatch and as little trouble as possible4 ,if all things happen to be as they should be1 it is well2 if not1 they must answer for the present4 ,if the yeast happens to be lively and sweet1 very lucky4 ,if otherwise1 still it must be used4 ,if the dough rises well and is got into the oven before it becomes sour1 very fortunate2 if not1 why1 8nobody can avoid mistakes--and bread will sometimes be poor in spite of the greatest care20--and if a batch of miserable bread is the result of such an operation1 then all that remains to be done is to eat it up as soon as possible1 and hope for better the next time4 ,if ,frank or ,charles or ,edward should call while the young lady is engaged in making bread1 she is perhaps quite disconcerted1 and would not for the world have him know what she is doing2--she sends word to him1 either that she is out1 or that she is particularly engaged1 and begs he will excuse her2--or if by any means she happens unexpectedly to be caught at her employment1 she is greatly embarrassed1 and makes the best apology she can for being engaged in such menial services4 ,as a matter of course1 while such are the views and feelings entertained on this subject1 and while such is the manner in which this duty is performed1 it will ever be a mere accident if good bread is made2 and a mere accident if such girls ever become good bread-makers when they are wives and mothers4 ,but if parents1 and especially mothers1 could view this matter in its true light1 how differently would they educate their children4 ,they would then feel that1 grateful as it is to a mother's heart to see her daughters highly refined and elegantly accomplished1 and able to 8make the instrument discourse most eloquent music10 and to transfer living nature1 with all its truth and beauty and sublimity1 to the canvass1 still the art of bread-making1 when considered in all its relations and intimate connections with human health1 and prosperity1 and virtue1 and happiness1 and with reference to the natural responsibilities and duties of woman1 is actually one of the highest and noblest accomplishments that can adorn the female character4 ,and then1 too1 would they consider it of exceedingly great importance1 that their daughters should possess this accomplishment1 even though they may never be in circumstances which will require the exercise of it4 ,some eight or nine years since1 ,i spent several months in the delightful village of ,belvidere1 on the banks of the ,delaware1 in ,pennsylvania4 ,while there1 ,i enjoyed for a number of weeks the kind hospitality of ,s ,s1 ,esq41 a lawyer1 and a gentleman of great moral excellence4 ,mrs4 ,s4 was born and brought up1 ,i believe1 in ,philadelphia4 ,her father was a man of wealth1 and she was the only daughter1 and--almost as a matter of course--was indulged in all that she desired4 ,but there were so many of the elements of a good wife and mother in her natural composition1 that as soon as she entered into those interesting and important relations1 she began to devote herself to the duties of them with a sincerity and conscientiousness which could not fail of success4 ,surrounded as she was1 with wealth1 and every comfort and convenience of life1 and all of its luxuries that she desired1 still she was industrious in her habits1 and vigilantly attentive to all the concerns of her household4 ,she usually kept three female domestics1 who1 by her kind maternal deportment towards them1 were warmly attached to her4 ,she had no difficulty in procuring nor in keeping help1 because she always treated them in such a manner that they loved to stay with her2 and she took much pains to qualify them for the proper discharge of their duties4 ,they evidently loved her1 and were sincerely desirous of performing all their services in such a manner as would be pleasing to her4 ,yet with all these advantages to justify her leaving such a duty to her domestics1 ,mrs4 ,s4 invariably made the family bread with her own hands4 ,regularly as the baking day came1 she went into her kitchen and took her stand beside the bread trough1 and mixed and kneaded the dough1 and put it in its proper place for rising1 and1 in due time1 moulded it into the loaf and baked it4 ,do you always make your bread1 madam8 ,i inquired one day1 as she returned from the performance of that task4 8,invariably10 she replied3 8that is a duty ,i trust no other person to do for me40 ,but cannot your domestics make good bread8 ,i asked4 8,i have excellent domestics10 answered ,mrs4 ,s41 8and they can1 perhaps1 make as good bread as ,i can2 for they have been with me several years1 and ,i have taken pains to learn them how to do my work2 and they are exceedingly faithful and affectionate1 and are always willing to do all they can to please me2 but they cannot feel for my husband and my children as ,i do1 and therefore they cannot feel that interest which ,i do1 in always having such bread as my husband and my children will love and enjoy4 ,besides1 if it were certain their care and vigilance and success in bread-making would be always equal to mine1 yet it is wholly uncertain how long they will remain with me4 ,various circumstances may take place1 which may cause them to leave me1 and bring me into dependence upon those who know not how to make good bread2 and therefore ,i choose to keep my own hand in4 ,but1 apart from all other considerations1 there is a pleasure resulting from the performance of this duty1 which richly rewards me for all the labor of it4 ,when my bread is made and brought upon the table1 and ,i see my husband and children eat it and enjoy it1 and hear them speak of its excellence1 it affords me much satisfaction1 and ,i am glad to know that ,i have contributed so much to their health and happiness2 for1 while my bread is so good that they prefer it to anything else upon the table1 there is little danger of their indulging1 to any injurious extent1 in those articles of food which are less favorable to their health40 ,i need not say that this lady invariably had excellent bread upon her table4 ,but instances of this kind are1 ,i regret to say1 extremely rare1 even in christian communities2 and therefore when such cases are known1 they ought to be held up as most noble examples of female virtue1 and receive such high commendations as their intrinsic merit deserves1 and such as will be calculated to beget in the minds of others an exalted sense of the dignity and importance of such duties1 and prompt every wife and mother to the intelligent and affectionate performance of them4 ,for it should ever be remembered that1 though our children1 while they depend on us for protection1 are also properly the subjects of our government1 yet as soon as they are capable of appreciating our authority and our influence1 they are1 like ourselves1 moral agents1 and ought1 in all respects1 to be governed and nurtured as such2 and therefore it is not enough that we can give them such bread as we think best for them1 and compel them to eat it2 but the grand point at which the mother should always aim1 in this matter1 is1 to place before her children such bread as is the very best for them1 and at the same time1 to make it the most agreeable to them1 and thereby make their duty and their enjoyment perfectly coincide4 ,let no one therefore say she cannot always have good bread1 until she can truly affirm that she has fairly made the experiment2 that she has1 in view of all its relations and bearings1 accurately estimated the importance of the quality of her bread in regard to the welfare of her household1 and1 with a proper sense of her responsibilities as a wife and mother1 has at all times felt that interest and exercised that care and attention which so important a duty demands1 and without which it must ever be a mere accident whether her bread is good or bad4 ,they that will have good bread1 not only for a single time1 but uniformly1 must make the quality of their bread of sufficient importance1 in their estimation and feelings1 to secure the requisite attention to the means by which alone such an end can be made certain4 ,they must not suffer themselves1 through carelessness1 to get entirely out of bread unexpectedly1 and thus be obliged1 without due preparation1 to make up a batch of such materials as they may happen to have at hand1 and bake it in haste1 and hurry it to the table4 ,but they must exercise providence and foresight3 they must know1 beforehand1 when their supply of bread will probably be out1 and when they will need to make another batch2 and they must see beforehand that measures are taken to secure a proper supply of all the requisite materials--see that they are furnished with good meal or flour2 and they must be sure to have the best of yeast or leaven1 when they need it--and when the time comes for them to make their bread1 if by any means the yeast should not be good1 let them throw it away and make good1 before they proceed to make their bread2 for it is infinitely better that the family should even do without bread one day1 and eat roasted potatoes1 than that they should eat poor bread three or four days2 and if1 from any cause1 the bread should be poor1 it is incomparably better to throw it away1 than to set it upon the table1 to disgust the whole family with bread1 and drive them to make most of their meal on something else4 ,if a lady can ever find a good excuse for having poor bread1 she certainly can find none1 except perhaps extreme poverty1 for setting her poor bread on the table the second time4 ,yet1 too generally1 women seem to think that1 as a matter of course1 if they1 by carelessness or any other means1 have been so unlucky as to make a batch of poor bread1 their family and friends must share their misfortune1 and help them eat it up2 and1 by this means1 many a child has had its health seriously impaired1 and its constitution injured1 and perhaps its moral character ruined--by being driven1 in early life1 into pernicious dietetic habits4 ,it was observed many years ago1 by one of the most eminent and extensive practitioners in ,new ,england1 that1 during a practice of medicine for thirty years1 he had always remarked that1 in those families where the children were most afflicted with worms1 he invariably found poor bread2 and that1 as a general fact1 the converse of this was true2 that is1 in those families where they uniformly had heavy1 sour1 ill-baked bread1 he generally found that the children were afflicted with worms4 ,a careful and extensive observation for a few years1 would convince every intelligent mind that there is a far more intimate relation between the quality of the bread and the moral character of a family1 than is generally supposed4 8,keep that man at least ten paces from you1 who eats no bread with his dinner10 said ,lavater1 in his 8,aphorisms on ,man40 ,this notion appears to be purely whimsical at first glance2 but ,lavater was a shrewd observer1 and seldom erred in the moral inferences which he drew from the voluntary habits of mankind2 and depend upon it1 a serious contemplation of this apparent whim1 discloses a deeper philosophy than is at first perceived upon the surface4 ,whatever may be the cause which turns our children and ourselves away from the dish of bread1 and establishes an habitual disregard for it1 the effect1 though not perhaps in every individual instance1 yet1 as a general fact1 is certainly1 in some degree1 unfavorable to the physical1 and intellectual1 and moral1 and religious1 and social1 and civil and political interests of man4 ,of all the artificially prepared articles of food which come upon our table1 therefore1 bread should be that one which1 as a general fact1 is uniformly preferred by our children and our household1--that one1 the absence of which they would notice soonest1 and feel the most1--that one which--however they may enjoy for a time the little varieties set before them--they would be most unwilling to dispense with--and which1 if they were driven to the necessity1 they would prefer to any other dish1 as a single article of subsistence4 ,to effect this state of things1 it is obvious that the quality of the bread must be uniformly excellent2 and to secure this1 ,i say again1 there must be a judgment1 an experience1 a skill1 a care1 a vigilance1 which can only spring from the sincere affections of a devoted wife and mother1 who accurately perceives and duly appreciates the importance of these things1 and1 in the lively exercise of a pure and delicate moral sense1 feels deeply her responsibilities1 and is prompted to the performance of her duties4 ,would to ,god that this were all true of every wife and mother in our country--in the world6--that the true relations1 and interests1 and responsibilities of life were understood and felt by every human being1 and all the duties of life properly and faithfully performed6 ,,varieties ,,of ,,bread4 ,rye bread4 ,indian meal bread4 ,use of sour milk1 or butter-milk4 ,acids4 ,family grinding4 ,i have thus far spoken almost entirely of wheaten bread1 because ,i consider that the most wholesome kind of bread for ordinary use--for 8daily bread40 ,when bread is made of superfine flour1 the same general rules should be observed4 ,rice1 barley1 oats1 rye1 ,indian corn1 and many other farinaceous products of the vegetable kingdom1 may also be manufactured into bread1 but none of them will make so good bread as wheat4 ,good rye1 raised on a sandy soil1 when cleansed and ground in the manner ,i have already described1 and prepared in all respects according to the rules ,i have laid down1 will make very excellent bread4 ,rye1 coarsely ground1 without bolting1 and mixed with ,indian meal1 makes very wholesome bread1 when it is well made4 ,good rye and ,indian bread is far more wholesome for common or every-day use1 than that made of superfine flour4 ,there are various ways of preparing ,indian meal bread2 and when such bread is well made1 it is very wholesome--much more so1 for every-day use1 than superfine flour bread4 8,in a memoir lately read before the ,french ,academy10 says the ,journal of ,health1 8the author undertook to show that maize 7,indian corn7 is more conducive to health than any other grain2 and1 as a proof of this1 the fact was adduced that1 in one of the departments in which this grain was most abundantly and universally used1 the inhabitants were remarkable for their health and vigor40 ,one great drawback to the wholesomeness of ,indian meal bread1 however1 is1 that it is almost universally eaten hot1 and too generally1 pretty well oiled with butter1 or some other kind of animal fat or oil4 ,but ,indian meal bread can be prepared in such a manner as to obviate these difficulties1 and render it very wholesome4 ,barley and oats may be manufactured into very wholesome bread2 but they are little used for such purposes in this country4 ,rice1 peas1 beans1 potatoes1 c41 may also1 by mixing them with a portion of wheat or rye flour1 be manufactured into bread2 but1 as ,i have already stated1 there is no other kind of grain or farinaceous vegetable substance from which so good loaf bread can be made1 as good wheat4 ,in making bread from ,indian meal1 and other kinds of farinaceous substances containing little or no gluten1 yeast or leaven is rarely if ever used to make it light4 ,more generally sour milk or butter-milk and saleratus or soda are used for this purpose2 and they who do not well understand the principle upon which these substances make their bread light1 often greatly impair their own success by their mismanagement4 ,it is1 perhaps1 most common for them to mix their sour milk or butter-milk and saleratus together1 and wait till the effervescence is over1 before they stir in their meal4 ,but by this means they lose the greater part of the gas or air by which their dough should be made light4 ,the true way is1 to take their sour milk or butter-milk1 and stir meal into it till a thin batter is formed1 and then dissolve their saleratus or soda1 and stir that quickly and thoroughly into the batter1 and then hastily add meal till the batter or dough is brought into the consistency desired4 ,if1 instead of sour milk or butter-milk1 a solution of muriatic or tartaric acid is used1 the bread will be equally light4 ,in this case1 the batter should be first made with a solution of saleratus or soda1 and then the solution of acid should be stirred in as above described4 ,batter cakes are made in this manner very light and very promptly4 ,when from any cause batter or dough mixed with yeast fails to rise according to expectations1 the thorough mixing in1 first the solution of muriatic or tartaric acid1 and then the solution of saleratus or soda1 will1 in a few minutes1 make the whole mass very light2 but such cakes and bread are not so sweet and savory as those raised with good sweet yeast4 ,i have said that recently ground meal makes far sweeter and richer bread1 than that which has been ground a considerable time2 but as it is not convenient for many families to send to a mill as often as they would like to have fresh meal1 they are obliged generally to use staler meal or flour than they would choose4 ,yet every family might easily be furnished with a modern patent hand-mill1 constructed after the plan of a coffee mill1 with which they could at all times1 with great ease1 grind their wheat1 and rice1 and corn1 as they want it1 for bread and other purposes4 ,with these mills they can grind their stuff as finely or coarsely as they wish1 for bread or hominy1 and always have it very fresh and sweet4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,light ,,stearns1 ,,publishers ,,and ,,booksellers1 #a ,cornhill1 ,facing ,washington ,street1 ,,boston1 ,keep constantly on hand a general assortment of ,,school1 ,,theological and ,,miscellaneous ,,books1 for sale on the most reasonable terms1 at wholesale and retail--together with a good assortment of ,,stationary4 ,among the works published by them1 they would ask particular attention to the following3 ------- ,,dr4 ,,alcott',s ,,works4 ,we have made arrangements to publish a regular series of works by ,,dr4 ,,alcott1 of which these are a part3 ,,the ,,young ,,mother1 ,,or ,,the ,,physical ,,education ,,of ,,children4 ,second ,edition--,embellished by a ,vignette4 ,,by ,,dr4 ,,wm4 ,a4 ,,alcott4 ,the 8,young ,mother0 is designed as an every-day manual for those who are desirous of conducting the physical education of the young--from the very first--on such principles as ,physiology and ,chemistry indicate4 ,it inculcates the great importance of preventing evil--especially physical evil--by implanting good habits4 ,we believe it to be the only work of a popular character1 written by a medical man1 on this subject1 and that it is1 on this account1 doubly valuable4 ,it is recommended by the ,boston ,medical and ,surgical ,journal1 and by the ,press generally1 as a work which should be possessed by every family4 ,the following remarks by the editor of the ,portland ,christian ,mirror1 will give some idea of the manner in which it has been noticed in various parts of the country1 though many of the best periodicals have spoken of it in still stronger terms of approbation3 8,the subject of this book is of vital interest to the whole human family1 and is treated by ,dr4 ,alcott with the most intelligible simplicity4 ,we hope it will find its way into the hands of all who are entrusted with the training and rearing of children2 and that its sound views will supplant many of those hurtful maxims and practices which are lamentably prevalent1 and that the existing generation of mankind will be succeeded by a more healthy and a more moral race40 ,price #ge cts4--,by the dozen1 #fb #a-b cts4 ------- ,,the ,,house ,i ,,live ,,in1 ,,or ,,the ,,human ,,body4 ,second ,edition--entirely re-written1 enlarged and improved4 ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,families ,,and ,,schools4 ,,by ,,dr4 ,,alcott4 ,the great difficulty of making a subject which has hitherto been deemed dry and unintelligible1 at once agreeable and interesting to the young mind1 has led the author of this volume to describe the human body as a ,,house4 ,the work treats1 first1 on the ,,frame--consisting of the bones1 muscles1 tendons1 c42 secondly1 of the ,,covering--consisting of the skin1 hair1 nails1 eyes1 ears1 c42 and thirdly1 of the ,,apartments and ,,furniture--by which are meant the interior cavities and organs4 ,nearly every anatomical and physiological term which appears in the work is so used or so explained1 as to be at once clearly understood and apprehended4 ,the subject is illustrated by numerous engravings4 ,the best recommendation of this work is1 that it has been universally approved of by the families and schools where it has been introduced1 and by all medical men who have examined it4 ,it has also received the entire approbation of the ,press1 and is selling rapidly4 ,prices3--#ej cts4 single--#e4dj a dozen4 ------- ,,ways ,,of ,,living ,,on ,,small ,,means4 ,a ,,cheap ,,manual ,,on ,,health ,,and ,,economy4 ,fifth ,edition--,enlarged and ,improved4 ,,by ,,dr4 ,,alcott4 ,this work was prepared to meet the demand of the present exigency4 ,thousands of families1 in the poorer and middling classes of society1 are suffering from their unwise attempts to live in the style of those persons whose means are far greater than their own4 ,the author has endeavored to convince them--in a brief manner--that a very few things only1 are really indispensable to physical and even intellectual comfort and happiness--and that both these are within the reach of all1 even in times like the present1 would they be content to live in a manner at once rational1 simple and healthful4 ,it discusses the following subjects3 ,estates and ,business2 ,houses and ,furniture2 ,equipage and ,servants2 ,dress2 ,food and ,drink2 ,medicine and ,physicians2 ,books and ,schools2 ,customs and ,habits2 ,society2 and gives several interesting ,examples of living on small means4 ,with the emendations and improvements made in this edition1 it is believed the work cannot fail to be regarded by every unprejudiced mind1 as one of the most useful manuals of the day4 ,four editions1 of #ajjj copies each1 were sold in a few weeks4 ,prices3--#be cts4 single--#b4ej a dozen--#bj a hundred4 ------- ,will soon be ready1 ,,the ,,young ,,wife4 ,stereotyped--and ,embellished by a beautiful ,plate and ,vignette4 ,,by ,,dr4 ,,alcott4 ,this work is based on the principle1 that the great business of the wife is ,education--the education of herself and her family4 ,it therefore exhibits the duties of a wife1 especially to her husband1 in a manner at once original and striking4 ,the author presupposes her to have set out in matrimony with christian principles and purposes2 and hence proceeds to inculcate what he deems the best methods of applying them in the routine of daily life and conversation4 ,we believe that no one can rise from the perusal of this volume without a higher respect for female character1 as well as a higher confidence in the divine wisdom of matrimony4 ,the price will probably be the same as that of the ,young ,mother4 ------- ,,library ,,of ,,health1 ,,and ,,teacher ,,on ,,the ,,human ,,constitution4 ,monthly--,price #a a ,year1 in advance4 ,,dr4 ,,alcott1 ,,editor4 ,this is a ,periodical work1 originally called the 8,moral ,reformer and ,teacher on the ,human ,constitution40 ,it is published in numbers of #cb pages each1 in neat book style for binding into a volume1 illustrated by engravings1 and is now on the third year of its publication4 ,the numbers of the two past years are for sale1 bound in two neat volumes4 ,this work discusses1 in a familiar manner1 all subjects connected with physical education and self-management4 ,it treats on the connection of ,,light1 ,,air1 ,,temperature1 ,,cleanliness1 ,,exercise1 ,,sleep1 ,,food1 ,,drink1 ,,climate1 the ,,passions1 ,,affections1 c41 with ,,health1 ,,happiness and ,,longevity4 ,the editor takes the ground that a proper understanding of the constitutional laws of the human body1 and of all its organs and functions1 and a strict obedience thereto1 are indispensable to the highest perfection and happiness--present and future--of every living human being4 ,he deems this knowledge more and more indispensable in proportion to the progress of civilization and refinement4 ,the work is pledged to support no system nor set of principles1 any farther than that system and those principles can be proved to be based on the laws of ,physiology1 and revealed truth1 and on human experience2 and consequently its pages are always open to fair and temperate discussion4 ,the work has recently been warmly approved of by ,,george ,,combe1 7author of the 8,constitution of ,man107 as well as a large number of distinguished men of this country1 among whom are the following3 ,dr4 ,john ,c4 ,warren1 ,dr4 ,s4 ,b4 ,woodward1 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,humphrey1 ,rev4 ,s4 ,r4 ,hall1 ,rev4 ,hubbard ,winslow1 ,rev4 ,r4 ,anderson1 ,rev4 ,baron ,stow1 ,rev4 ,b4 ,b4 ,wisner1 ,r4 ,h4 ,gillet1 ,esq41 ,rev4 ,wm4 ,hague1 ,roberts ,vaux1 ,esq41 ,dr4 ,john ,m4 ,keagy1 ,dr4 ,r4 ,d4 ,mussey1 ,prof4 ,e4 ,a4 ,andrews1 ,rev4 ,l4 ,f4 ,clark1 ,rev4 ,m4 ,m4 ,carll1 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,fay1 ,dr4 ,sylvester ,graham4 ,these recommendations are similar to the following1 received from ,dr4 ,,warren3 8,the ,library of ,health1 is1 in my opinion1 an excellent publication4 ,it seems to be well adapted to aid in the great reform in habits and customs which is now going on in this country and ,great ,britain2 and which1 it may be hoped1 will extend to other parts of the world4 ,i beg leave to recommend this little work to all who are desirous of promoting their health of body and tranquillity of mind40 ,many of the most respectable ,journals in the country1 have also given their testimony in its favor4 ,the following are a very few of them3 ,boston ,medical and ,surgical ,journal1 ,annals of ,education1 ,abbott's ,religious ,magazine1 ,boston ,recorder1 ,christian ,register1 ,christian ,watchman1 ,zion's ,herald1 ,new ,york ,farmer4 ,we feel entire confidence in offering this publication to all who are interested in the improvement which ,dr4 ,alcott is endeavoring to promote4 ------- ,,the ,,young ,,man',s ,,guide4 ,,by ,,dr4 ,,alcott4 ,we keep a good supply of this work on hand at all times1 for sale at wholesale and retail1 at the publishers' lowest prices4 ,it is too extensively known to need comment4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,,dr4 ,,graham',s ,,works4 ------- ,a ,,lecture ,,to ,,young ,,men1 ,,on ,,chastity4 ,,intended ,,also ,,for ,,the ,,serious ,,consideration ,,of ,,parents ,,and ,,guardians4 ,second ,edition--,enlarged and ,improved1 with ,notes4 ,,by ,,dr4 ,,sylvester ,,graham4 ,the second edition of this important work is nearly double the size of the first1 although the price is increased but a trifle4 ,it is selling rapidly4 ,notwithstanding its value is extensively known1 we cannot forbear to insert two or three ,,testimonials4 ,the following remarks1 from the ,annals of ,education for #ahcd1 are from the pen of ,,william ,c4 ,,woodbridge2 whose long and zealous devotion to the cause of education1 and whose extensive travels and researches both in ,europe and ,america1 and special attention to the subject of which he here speaks1 pre-eminently qualify him to judge accurately in the matter3 8,we are rejoiced to see a work published in our country1 on a topic in physiology which the #8artificial modesty' to which we have formerly alluded1 has covered up1 until a solitary1 but fatal vice is spreading desolation through our schools and families1 unnoticed or unknown4 ,the experience of teachers1 the case-books of physicians1 and the painful exposures which accident1 or the dreadful diseases which follow in its train1 have occasionally produced1 have at length forced it upon public attention2 and we hope it will not again be forgotten4 ,the work before us is the result of extensive observation and study2 its usefulness has been tested by its influence as a lecture2 and its views of this evil are in accordance with the experience of the few teachers whom we have known possessed of the moral courage to encounter it4 ,we would offer it to those who have earnestly desired a work on this subject1 as one adapted to their purposes4 ,we would recommend its perusal to every parent and teacher4 ,we would warn them that those who have been most confident of the safety of their charge1 have often been most deceived2 and that the youthful bashfulness which seems to shrink from the bare mention of the subject1 is sometimes the blush of shame for concealed crime4 ,we feel bound to add1 what abundant and decisive evidence has shown1 that ignorance on this subject is no protection from the vice--nay1 that it is often the original cause or encouragement of it2 that it gives tenfold power to the evil example and influence which are so rarely escaped2 and that a cure can be effected only by the most careful instruction and long continued discipline1 both physical and moral1 directed by sad experience1 as is presented in this work40 ,the following brief but highly valuable testimony is from the distinguished superintendent of the ,massachusetts ,lunatic ,hospital at ,worcester3 8,,dear ,,sir3--,the subject of your ,lecture to ,young ,men1 has been much neglected1 although of great importance4 ,this lecture1 while it sounds the alarm to the young1 will not fail to awaken the attention of parents1 if once perused4 ,it is couched in language as delicate as the nature of the subject will admit1 and may be read with propriety and benefit by all4 ,the evil of which it treats1 if ,i mistake not1 is more extensively sapping the foundation of physical vigor and moral purity1 in the rising generation1 than is generally apprehended1 even by those who are awake to the danger1 and who have witnessed the deplorable influence of it upon its victims4 ,yours1 with respect1 ,s4 ,b4 ,,woodward40 ,the following is from ,dr4 ,,alcott2 author of the works advertised on the preceding pages--addressed to ,dr4 ,,graham4 8,,dear ,,sir3--,the subject of your ,lecture to ,young ,men is one of immense importance1 and demands the profound attention of every friend of man4 ,it is vain longer to shuffle it off1 when those whose opportunities best qualify them to give an opinion1 do not hesitate to say that solitary vice is rapidly gaining ground among us4 ,it is a subject which must be met4 ,in this view1 ,i rejoice to find that an increasing demand for your little work has justified the publication of a second edition4 ,i rejoice1 especially1 to see such sound principles in physiology inculcated and warmly enforced4 ,i have no hesitation in saying that it ought to be circulated throughout our country4 ,it would thus not only save many a young person from the murderous fangs of quackery1 but--what is much better--it would prevent the necessity of his applying either to quacks or physicians for relief from a situation in which he ought never to be placed40 ,the following is an extract from a letter written by the chaplain of one of our ,new ,england ,state ,prisons to a brother clergyman in a neighboring state3 8,i have read the book three times1 and derived more benefit from the last1 than from either of the other readings4 ,i like this book4 ,why is it not in the hands of every young man1 especially in cities1 to counteract the influence of indecent pictures and corrupting books8 ,one excellence in ,graham's ,lecture1 as it strikes me1 is1 that it is so purely philosophical4 ,even an atheist might see force in his statements4 ,a man must deny many of the best established principles of science1 before he can deny most of the conclusions to which the lecturer comes40 ,the ,boston ,recorder1 and several other valuable periodicals1 coincide with these testimonials4 ,prices3--#fb #a-b cts4 single--#f a dozen--#de a hundred4 ------- ,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,bread ,,and ,,bread-,,making4 ,,by ,,dr4 ,,graham4 ,there has been for some time a considerable demand for this work1 and it will doubtless have a wide circulation among all classes of society4 ,prices3--#cg #a-b cts4 single--#d a dozen--#cj a hundred4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,,miscellaneous ,,works4 ,we would call attention to the following valuable and interesting works1 by popular writers3 ,,the ,,boston ,,book1 for #ahcf and #ahcg1 being ,specimens of ,metropolitan ,literature4 ,edited by ,h4 ,t4 ,,tuckerman1 and ,b4 ,b4 ,,thatcher4 ,elegantly executed1 and embellished by ,vignettes of the ,great ,tree and ,tri-,mountain4 ,,the ,,italian ,,sketch ,,book4 ,by ,h4 ,t4 ,,tuckerman4 ,second edition--revised and enlarged1 with a plate4 ,,the ,,parent',s ,,present4 ,edited by the author of ,peter ,parley's ,tales4 ,a handsome present for youth2 with cuts4 ,,mogg ,,megone--a ,poem1 descriptive of ,new ,england and its early inhabitants4 ,by ,,john ,,greenleaf ,,whittier4 ,pocket ,edition4 ,,boston ,,mechanic1 and ,journal of the ,useful ,arts and ,sciences4 ,the matter furnished by ,practical ,men4 ,valuable for mechanics and manufacturers2 numerous ,cuts4 ,,scientific ,,tracts1 for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,complete in one volume4 ,by ,b4 ,b4 ,thatcher1 ,dr4 ,alcott1 ,dr4 ,c4 ,t4 ,jackson1 ,dr4 ,sylvester ,graham1 ,william ,ladd1 ,lieut4 ,r4 ,park1 and others4 ,,the ,,moral ,,reformer1 and ,teacher on the ,human ,constitution4 ,edited by ,dr4 ,,alcott4 ,this work contains a large quantity of matter on ,health and ,morals1 as connected with the education of the ,body4 ,with cuts4 ,,remains ,,of ,,melville ,b4 ,,cox1 7,missionary to ,africa17 with a ,,memoir4 ,published under the superintendence of his brother1 ,,gershom ,f4 ,,cox4 ,with a ,portrait1 and death-bed autograph4 ,,slavery ,,and ,,the ,,domestic ,,slave-,,trade ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,letters addressed to the ,american ,union for the ,relief and ,improvement of the ,colored ,race4 ,by ,prof4 ,e4 ,a4 ,,andrews4 ,,the ,,carpenter ,,and ,,his ,,family3 ,,also1 ,,pride ,,subdued4 ,by the author of the 8,black ,velvet ,bracelet10 c4 ,an excellent book for youth4 ,,sketches ,,from ,,sacred ,,history2 containing the ,story of the ,moabitess--the ,story of the ,queen--and the ,story of the ,priest4 ,a good book for youth4 ,,memoir ,,of ,,william ,,wilberforce4 ,by ,,thomas ,,price4 ,second ,american1 from the ,london ,edition4 ,with an elegant ,portrait1 and an ,appendix 7not in the first edition47 ,,memoir ,,of ,,rev4 ,s4 ,,osgood ,,wright1 late ,missionary to ,liberia4 ,by ,b4 ,b4 ,,thatcher4 ,with a ,portrait4 ,,memoir ,,and ,,poems ,,of ,,phillis ,,wheatley4 ,the ,memoir written by a ,relative of the ,mistress of ,phillis4 ,the ,poems from the best ,english ,edition4 ,with a ,portrait4 ------- ,,scientific ,,literary ,,journal ,,for ,,the ,,diffusion ,,of ,,useful ,,knowledge4 ,semi-,monthly--#b a ,year1 in advance4 ,this work is so well known 7it being a continuation of the ,,scientific ,,tracts17 that recommendation is unnecessary4 ,the first volume commenced ,january #a1 this year4 ,we believe all who want a scientific work which can be depended upon for its accuracy as well as general value1 would be highly gratified with this periodical4 ------- ,n4 ,b4--,the most favorable terms will be offered to those who may wish to purchase any of the preceding works by the quantity1 for gratuitous circulation or for any other purpose--and a liberal discount will be made for cash4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,footnotes4 ,footnote ,a3 ,in this same manner the ,sandwich ,islanders cooked all their food1 when they were first discovered4 ,footnote ,b3 ,an aged and very respectable member of the ,society of ,friends1 in ,new ,york1 who had long been extensively engaged in the flour business in that city1 and who had always had his family bread made in his own house1 was one day asked by his daughter1 why he never used the baker's bread3--8,because1 my child10 replied he1 8,i know what it is made of40 ,footnote ,c3 ,see ,memoirs of ,philadelphia ,agricultural ,society4 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bbf4 ,,transcriber',s ,,note4 ,this e,book makes the following corrections to the printed text3 ,pg iv sour milk or buttermilk sour milk or butter-milk ,pg #ch their bread stuff before it is ground their bread-stuff before it is ground ,pg #dd the well being of those who have been the consumers the well-being of those who have been the consumers ,pg #di there are indviduals in every city there are individuals in every city ,pg #gg stir in good indian meal stir in good ,indian meal ,pg #hh ,in order to this ,in order to do this ,pg #abd 8,keep 444 no bread with his dinner1 8,keep 444 no bread with his dinner10 ,pg #acj first the solution of muriatic or tartartic acid first the solution of muriatic or tartaric acid ,advertisements ,,manual ,,on ,,health ,,and ,,ecomomy ,,manual ,,on ,,health ,,and ,,economy ,advertisements ,,scienfitic ,,tracts ,,scientific ,,tracts