,the ,,atom and the ,,ocean by ,e4 ,w4 ,seabrook ,hull ,u4,s4 ,,atomic ,,energy ,,commission ,division of ,technical ,information ,understanding the ,atom ,series ,the ,understanding the ,atom ,series ,nuclear energy is playing a vital role in the life of every man1 woman1 and child in the ,united ,states today4 ,in the years ahead it will affect increasingly all the peoples of the earth4 ,it is essential that all ,americans gain an understanding of this vital force if they are to discharge thoughtfully their responsibilities as citizens and if they are to realize fully the myriad benefits that nuclear energy offers them4 ,the ,united ,states ,atomic ,energy ,commission provides this booklet to help you achieve such understanding4 ,edward ,j4 ,brunenkant ,edward ,j4 ,brunenkant1 ,director ,division of ,technical ,information ,,united ,,states ,,atomic ,,energy ,,commission ,dr4 ,glenn ,t4 ,seaborg1 ,chairman ,james ,t4 ,ramey ,wilfrid ,e4 ,johnson ,dr4 ,theos ,j4 ,thompson ,dr4 ,clarence ,e4 ,larson ,the ,,atom and the ,,ocean by ,e4 ,w4 ,seabrook ,hull ,,contents ,,seeking ,,answers #a ,energy for ,exploration #c ,,the ,,world ,,ocean #f ,ocean ,movements #g ,a ,mix of ,elements #aj ,the ,sea's ,interfaces #aa ,the ,sea's ,resources #aa ,,nuclear ,,energy',s ,,role #ac ,radionuclides in the ,sea #ac ,research ,projects #bc ,oceanographic ,instruments #ce ,environmental ,safety ,studies #da ,the ,atom at ,work in the ,sea #db ,ocean ,engineering #ea ,fresh ,water from ,seawater #eb ,radiation ,preservation of ,seafood #ed ,project ,plowshare #ef ,a ,new ,fram #ef ,,the ,,three-,,dimensional ,,ocean #eg ,,suggested ,,references #eh ,united ,states ,atomic ,energy ,commission ,division of ,technical ,information ,library of ,congress ,catalog ,card ,number3 #fg-fbdgf #aifh ,illustration3 uncaptioned frontispiece ,the ,,atom and the ,,ocean ,by ,e4 ,w4 ,,seabrook ,,hull ,,seeking ,,answers ,historians of the future will record that man almost simultaneously unlocked the secret of atomic energy and ventured into new domains beneath the closed doors of the world ocean1 in one of the greatest exploration endeavors of all time4 ,history may also show how these two efforts to benefit mankind became closely interthreaded--how nuclear energy1 in its many forms and applications1 played a major role in the efforts to explore and exploit 8the other three-quarters0 of our planet1 and moreover1 how the very development of a nuclear technology enforced our need to know more about the sea around us4 ,nuclear energy is a fundamental physical phenomenon1 like the actions of the wheel1 the lever1 or the inclined plane4 ,like chemical combustion or electricity1 it is but another means for men to do useful work1 whether that work be in the interests of science1 commerce1 recreation1 or war4 ,to this extent1 nuclear energy is universal1 as applicable in the sea as it is on land or in outer space4 ,wherever man goes and whatever he does1 he requires energy to get him there and energy for his work or play when he arrives4 ,some of the places he now seeks to pioneer are hard to investigate by anyone encumbered with bulky traditional energy sources--coal1 fuel oil1 or storage batteries4 ,the ocean in its full three-dimensional scope is one of these places4 ,the atom is the most concentrated source of energy1 and one of the most diverse4 ,thus1 not only are we able to do familiar things better with nuclear energy 7the nuclear-powered submarine is a dramatic example71 but we are also able to do things never before possible 7such as studying the diffusion of dissolved salts in the open ocean or extending the useful life of seafoods through irradiation74 ,nuclear energy has at last enabled us to realize the predictions of ,jules ,verne's adventure tale1 ,twenty ,thousand ,leagues ,under the ,sea1 and to build a true submarine--a craft whose submerged existence is limited only by the physiological and psychological endurance of its human crew4 ,this fact in itself has added greatly to our need to learn much more about the ocean1 for the sea is an opaque and strange environment in which the deadly game of hunt-and-be-hunted will be won by whoever knows the ocean best4 ,the very fact that we have nuclear energy means we have nuclear wastes2 many of these inevitably find their way into the ocean1 as all things do4 ,we need to know more about the watery world before we can safely allow this inflow to continue4 ,illustration3 ,in #aijj the ,u4 ,s4 ,navy commissioned its first submarine1 the ,,uss ,holland1 which was built by ,john ,p4 ,holland4 ,it is shown in dry dock at ,perth ,amboy1 ,new ,jersey1 in #ahih4 ,illustration3 ,the ,,uss ,plunger1 named after an early ,john ,holland submarine1 which is an example of the ,navy's present fleet of nuclear submarines4 ,in the waters of the seven seas are enough deuterium and tritium to power tomorrow's thermonuclear power plants#a for millions of years4 ,these rare1 heavy varieties of hydrogen1 enormously abundant in the vastness of the sea1 comprise an energy source without limit for all nations1 which need only develop the technological ability to extract them and put them to work4 ,energy for ,exploration ,for this exploration1 men need to put instruments1 navigation beacons 7see figures on pages #df and #dg71 and other devices on the deep ocean floor1 where they must operate for long periods of time unattended and with no external source of power4 ,radioisotope-powered generators1 capitalizing on the energy of disintegrating radioactive atoms1 are almost the only devices capable of fulfilling these requirements4#b ,man also wants to do productive work under the ocean1 such as drilling seafloor oil wells1 mining1 and salvaging for profit some of the tens of thousands of cargoes lost at sea during thousands of years of ocean commerce4 ,eventually1 he even wants to farm the ocean floor4 ,illustration3 ,an artist draws 7using pencil and frosted plastic sheet7 the position of objects in the wreck of a #gth century ,byzantine ship #abj feet down in the ,aegean ,sea4 ,nuclear power will permit historians of the future to remain underwater for long periods exploring shipwrecks or old cities far below the surface4 ,all these activities require energy--energy in an environment where most sources cannot be applied4 ,above all1 man wants to go down himself to explore1 to work1 and perhaps to direct nuclear-powered robots to do even more work4 ,this means that small1 manned1 nonmilitary submersibles will be needed--vessels whose endurance should not be limited by the short life of traditional power sources1 but should draw on the fissioning atomic nucleus1 harnessed in small reactors4#c ,to work effectively in any environment1 we must first know and understand it4 ,this is the job of science4 ,in the quest for knowledge and understanding of the ocean1 nuclear energy provides scientists with better instruments to put down into the depths and wholly new techniques for the direct study of the many oceanic processes4 ,for example1 take the role of radioisotope tracers3 ,for the first time1 these telltale atoms permit us to study the metabolism of tiny plankters1 the often microscopic drifting creatures of the sea that in their incredible abundance form the base of the entire marine food chain1 including fish eaten by humans4 ,even fallout isotopes from nuclear tests enable us to trace important physical oceanographic events1 such as the ponderous process known as overturning1 which transports oxygen-rich surface water to the deeps and nutrient-rich bottom water to the surface4 ,radioisotope tracers also provide a tool for studying the mechanics of littoral transport1 which continually tears down some beaches and builds up others4 ,they also enable us to determine if oceanic processes are likely to concentrate fallout particles and deliver them in dangerous doses through the food chain to our dinner tables4#d ,by using other nuclear energy technology1 we are better able to ascertain the age and composition of deep ocean sediments and the rate at which they are deposited1 how a tsunami 7tidal wave7 propagates across vast distances1 how tides operate in the open ocean1 where the brown shrimp of the ,carolina coast go every fall1 and the migration patterns of tuna1 swordfish1 and other valuable food fish4 ,illustration3 ,navy men preparing for undersea research by feeding ,tuffy1 a friendly porpoise1 which later carried messages for them during the 8,man-,in-,the-,sea0 experiment4 7,also see photos on page #ab47 ,these are just a few of the answers we seek from the world ocean--answers important for more productive fisheries1 more accurate long-range weather forecasting1 possible control of hurricanes and typhoons1 pollution control1 safer and more economical shipping1 better recreation1 and numerous other matters that bear on our health1 well-being1 and day-to-day lives4 ,on all these endeavors the ocean exerts a major influence4 ,and in each1 atomic energy is helping assemble and interpret answers4 ,,the ,,world ,,ocean ,but what of this environment into which1 armed with the atom1 we plunge with such enthusiasm and expectations8 ,a portrait is in order1 which must be brief1 for not all the books ever written about the sea have yet described it fully4 ,the world ocean covers #gj4h of our planet4 ,it contains #cbd1jjj1jjj cubic miles of seawater4 ,living in it are upwards of a million different species of plants and animals4 ,they range from one-celled organisms that can only be seen with a microscope to the largest creature ever to have lived on this earth--the giant blue 7or sulfur-bottom7 whale1 captured specimens of which have exceeded #ij feet in length and #ajj tons in weight4 ,the ocean's depth ranges from #fjj feet or less above continental shelves to more than #ce1jjj feet at the ,marianas ,trench4 ,the mean depth is #ab1dea feet4 ,sea bottom topography includes wide plains1 the world's longest mountain range1 steeply rising individual truncated peaks called guyots 7pronounced gee-ohs71 gentle slopes1 narrow canyons1 and precipitous escarpments4 ,mountains higher than ,everest rise from the ocean floor and never pierce the surface4 ,illustration3 ,underwater mountain traced by the ,woods ,hole ,oceanographic ,institution echo sounder in the ,caribbean area4 ,depth is determined by the time it takes the sound emitted by the instrument to go to the bottom and return to the surface4 ,ocean ,movements ,illustration3 ,six ships checking the ,gulf ,stream's course through the ,atlantic ,ocean over a #b-week period found the variations shown above4 ,illustration3 ,the infrared film photograph shows the edge of the ,gulf ,stream4 ,the visible line between the ,gulf ,stream1 which is on the right1 and ,labrador water is made by ,sargassum weed concentrated at the interface4 ,the ocean is constantly in motion--not just in the waves and tides that characterize its surface but in great currents that swirl between continents1 moving 7among other things7 great quantities of heat from one part of the world to another4 ,beneath these surface currents are others1 deeply hidden1 that flow as often as not in an entirely different direction from the surface course4 ,these enormous 8rivers0--quite unconstant1 sometimes shifting1 often branching and eddying in a manner that defies explanation and prediction--occasionally create disastrous results4 ,one example is ,el ,nio1 the periodic catastrophe that plagues the west coast of ,south ,america4 ,this coast normally is caressed by the cold1 rich ,humboldt ,current4 ,usually the ,humboldt hugs the shore and extends #bjj to #cjj miles out to sea4 ,it is rich in life4 ,it fosters the largest commercial fishery in the world and is the home of one of the mightiest game fish on record1 the black marlin4 ,the droppings of marine birds that feed from its waters are responsible for the fertilizer 7guano7 exports that undergird the ,chilean1 ,peruvian1 and ,ecuadorian economies4 ,every few years1 however1 the ,humboldt disappears4 ,it moves out from shore or simply sinks1 and a flow of warm1 exhausted surface water known as ,el ,nio takes its place4 ,simultaneously1 torrential rains assault the coast4 ,fishes and birds die by the millions4 ,commercial fisheries are closed4 ,the beaches reek with death4 ,el ,nio is a stark demonstration of man's dependence on the sea and why he must learn more about it4 ,there are other motions in the restless sea4 ,the water masses are constantly 8turning over0 in a cycle that may take hundreds of years1 yet is essential to bring oxygen down to the creatures of the deeps1 and nutrients 7fertilizers7 up from the sea floor to the surface4 ,here the floating phytoplankton 7the plants of the sea7 build through photosynthesis the organic material that will start the nutrient cycle all over again4 ,enormous tonnages of these tiny sea plants1 rather than being rooted in the soil1 are separated from solid earth by up to several vertical miles of saltwater4 ,sometimes1 too1 there is a more rapid surge of deep water to the surface1 a process known as upwelling4 ,internal waves1 far below the surface1 develop between water masses that have different densities and between which there is relative motion4 ,these waves are much like the wind-driven waves on the surface1 though much bigger3 ,internal waves may have heights of #cjj feet or more and be #f miles or more in length6 ,illustration3 ,a dividing cell of the diatom ,corethron hystrix4 ,diatoms1 one-celled photosynthetic plants1 are the primary producers of organic matter in fresh waters4 ,illustration3 ,ocean currents feed sand from nearby beaches into this 8sandfall01 which is about #cj feet high1 in a submarine canyon off ,baja ,california4 ,among other motions of the sea there are landslides1 or turbidity currents1 which are great boiling mixes of mud1 rock1 sand1 and water rushing down submarine mountainsides at speeds of a mile a minute4 ,they destroy everything in their paths and spread clouds of debris over the abyssal plains like a sandstorm1 producing fanlike deposits radiating far out from the base of the slope4 ,and there are tsunamis1 or seismic sea waves--popularly misnamed 8tidal waves0--that transmit energy from undersea earthquakes or volcanic eruptions4 ,at sea1 these waves are only a few inches high1 but they may travel great distances at #ejj miles an hour4 ,as they approach the shoaling waters of a coast1 they are slowed to about #cj miles an hour and build up great surface waves capable of destroying harbor and coastal installations4 ,a ,mix of ,elements ,the sea is a chemistry1 too4 ,over #fj elements have been discovered in measurable amounts in solution or in suspension in the ocean4 ,many of these are in the form of salts1 making seawater a highly efficient electrolyte1 and a most corrosive fluid4 ,the study of corrosion and techniques for combatting it is a continuous one in which nuclear energy already has a principal role4 ,because the sea is so much a chemistry1 it is a potential source of minerals for the world's growing industrial appetite4 ,all of our magnesium and most of our bromine already are extracted directly from seawater4 ,oil and sulfur are mined from the sea floor or beneath it1 as are coal 7,united ,kingdom and ,japan71 iron ore 7,japan71 tin 7,thailand and ,united ,kingdom71 diamonds 7,southwest ,africa71 and gold 7,alaska74 ,in the layered sediments that cover the ocean-basin floors to depths of thousands of feet1 geologists believe there also may be found some missing chapters of earth history4 ,illustration3 ,nodules such as these containing manganese cover millions of undersea acres on the ocean floor4 ,many nodules are rich in nickel1 cobalt1 zirconium1 and copper4 ,metallurgists are seeking ways to recover the metals from these deposits4 ,the ocean1 by and large1 is an opaque fluid through which light travels only a few hundred feet and most other radiant energy not much more than a few yards2 yet through this same fluid1 sound waves1 by contrast1 have been transmitted and received over distances of many thousand miles4 ,the ,sea's ,interfaces ,what of the interfaces of the sea8 ,above three-quarters of the globe1 water and air are in constant contact1 continually exchanging heat and moisture4 ,this is a major factor in the making of weather and climate4 ,the sea constantly feeds electricity into the atmosphere1 primarily through the electron-scrubbing action of tiny popping bubbles at the sea surface4 ,it also lifts tiny crystals of salt and the remains of microscopic sea creatures into the air4 ,perhaps these are the nuclei on which moisture condenses to trigger hurricanes1 since it is the latent heat of vaporization of air1 made over-moist by long travel over the tropical sea1 that provides a hurricane's energy4 ,along its land edges1 the sea is constantly working on the shore--sometimes gently1 sometimes violently--breaking down rock cliffs1 opening bays and harbors1 closing channels and inlets1 smashing breakwaters and seawalls1 and moving sand up and down and to and from beaches4 ,the ,sea's ,resources ,in summary1 then1 the ocean1 the largest single geographical feature of our planet1 is infinitely varied and infinitely complex4 ,we are learning it bears on our day-to-day living in ways we never suspected4 ,it is the largest resource of food for our exploding population1 the largest resource of minerals with which to support the world's burgeoning industries1 the largest resource of energy1 and1 of course1 it is the largest supply of water4 ,it is mankind's largest dumping ground for the wastes of cities and industries4 ,it is the source of much pleasure and recreation4 ,men already have lived experimentally for weeks at a time on the bottom of the ocean4 ,both sea floor laboratories and military bases are being planned or1 in a few cases1 installed4 ,sea floor mining complexes are in the conceptual design stage4 ,it is only a matter of time before recreational 8aquotels0 are built safely below the sea's restless surface4 ,private sports submarines are an actual1 though costly1 reality4 ,it is not inconceivable that in the not-too-distant future human beings may overflow the land into complete1 self-sufficient communities below the oceans4 ,illustration3 ,in #aife the ,u4 ,s4 ,navy conducted a #de-;day experiment in its 8,man-,in-,the-,sea0 program in which #aj aquanauts lived and worked #bje feet below the surface of the sea off ,la ,jolla1 ,california4 ,their undersea base was ,sealab ,,ii shown at her christening4 ,illustration3 ,sealab ,,ii shown during final checkout before descent4 ,the aquanauts conducted experimental salvage operations1 marine research1 and underwent a series of physiological and human performance tests4 ,,nuclear ,,energy',s ,,role ,the role of nuclear energy in the study1 exploration1 and utilization of the world ocean is best defined by citing the specific oceanographic interests of the ,u4 ,s4 ,atomic ,energy ,commission 7,,aec73 ,development of better instruments and devices for work and study in the ocean1 development of ever-stronger national sea power1 conversion of seawater to fresh water1 possible modification of ocean boundaries1 purely scientific studies to advance knowledge1 and1 indirectly at least1 improving the state of oceanographic engineering4 ,among the technological products of the nuclear age are radionuclides1 neutron sources and other radiation sources1 radioisotope heat and electric generators1 and nuclear reactors4 ,all these are applied to ocean-related endeavors4 ,several divisions of the ,,aec have important oceanic interests4 ,these range from pure oceanographic research to development of specific instruments1 nuclear reactors1 radioisotopic power sources1 and other devices for use in or under the ocean4 ,the ,,aec also conducts extensive marine environmental studies to monitor the effects or ensure the safety of specific projects involving nuclear energy4 ,a statistical summary of specific ,,aec programs in oceanography is shown in ,table ,i on page #ad4 ,radionuclides in the ,sea ,before we can follow the atom down into the sea1 we must understand something about the potentials1 both good and bad1 of this incursion of one of our most advanced technologies into one of earth's least understood environments4 ,this adventurous probing has ramifications for studying both man-produced radioactivity in the sea and the ocean itself as an uncontaminated environment4 ,,table ,i ,,aec ,,oceanography ,,program #aifh ,expenditures ,estimate ,research ,activities ,division of ,biology and ,medicine #d1jjj1jjj ,studies of uptake1 concentration1 distribution and effects of radioisotopes on marine life1 of geochemical cycling of elements1 and of geophysical diffusion and transport4 ,division of ,research #be1jjj ,geological dating of corals and other marine and terrestrial materials4 ,division of ,isotopes ,development #aij1jjj ,radioisotope applications to devices for marine systems1 such as current meters1 analysis and recovery of sedimentary minerals1 and underwater sound transmission4 ,division of ,reactor ,development and ,technology #aig1jjj ,studies of factors affecting dissolution and dispersal of accidentally released radionuclides1 and site evaluations4 ,division of ,space ,nuclear ,systems #bge1jjj ,nuclear power sources for aerospace applications4 ,division of ,military ,applications #hej1jjj ,ocean environmental observation and prediction4 ,total--,research ,activities #e1ecg1jjj ,engineering ,activities ,division of ,reactor ,development and ,technology #e1ijj1jjj ,radioisotope and reactor power development4 ,division of ,naval ,reactors #a1cbj1jjj ,deep submergence research vehicle4 ,total --,engineering ,activities #g1bbj1jjj ,total--,,abc ,oceanographic ,activities #ab1geg1jjj ,radionuclides 7radioactive atoms7 can find their way into the sea from natural radiation sources or from nuclear energy operations undertaken by the ,united ,states and other countries since #aide4 ,specific man-made sources in the past may have included nuclear weapons tested in the atmosphere and under water1 the cooling water and wastes of nuclear reactors1 laboratories and nuclear-powered ships1 containers of radioactive waste disposed of at sea#e1 radioisotope energy devices1 and intentional injection of radioisotope tracers for scientific research4 ,in the future1 they may also include reentry from space of upper-stage nuclear rockets or satellite-borne nuclear energy sources4 ,illustration3 ,the ,nansen bottle1 shown being attached to a hydrographic wire1 is one of the standard tools of oceanology4 ,when a bottle reaches a desired depth1 a sliding weight tips it upside down to collect seawater samples4 ,thermometers on the sides of the bottles record temperature4 ,the device was designed by the ,norwegian oceanographer and explorer1 ,fridtjof ,nansen4 7,see photo on page #ef47 ,in order to evaluate the effects of these materials in the ocean environment1 it is necessary to know many things4 ,just how much radiation is introduced8 ,in what form8 ,where geographically8 ,how are these radionuclides dispersed or concentrated physically1 chemically1 biologically1 and geologically8 ,what is the net result in each case now1 and what will it be many years hence8 ,these questions are not answered easily4 ,there is1 as yet1 no satisfactory laboratory substitute for the open ocean4 ,research for the most part must be conducted at sea1 where tests and measurements are difficult at best1 and where results therefore are often suspect4 ,further1 if we are to study the effects of man-induced changes in a natural environment1 it would have been advantageous to have known the nature of that environment before the changes were introduced--which1 by and large1 in the case of the ocean we do not4 ,so we must start with a contaminated environment and try to separate what we have put there ourselves from what would have been there anyway4 ,it isn't an easy task to make the physical and biological observations that will make this distinction4 ,table ,,ii ,,concentration ,,and ,,amounts ,,of #db ,,of ,,the ,,elements ,,in ,,seawater ,element ,concentration ,amount of element in ,total amount in 7mg_/l7 seawater 7tons mile7 the oceans 7tons7 ,chlorine #ai1jjj4j #hi4e #aj #bi4c #aj ,sodium #aj1ejj4j #di4e x-#aj #af4c #aj ,magnesium #a1cej4j #f4d #aj #b4a #aj ,sulphur #hhe4j #d4b #aj #a4d #aj ,calcium #djj4j #a4i #aj #j4f #aj ,potassium #chj4j #a4h #aj #j4f #aj ,bromine #fe4j #cjf1jjj #j4a #aj ,carbon #bh4j #acb1jjj #j4jd #aj ,strontium #h4j #ch1jjj #ab1jjj #aj ,boron #d4f #bc1jjj #g1ajj #aj ,silicon #c4j #ad1jjj #d1gjj #aj ,lithium #j4ag #hjj #bfj #aj ,rubidium #j4ab #egj #aij #aj ,phosphorus #j4jg #ccj #aaj #aj ,iodine #j4jf #bhj #ic #aj ,barium #j4jc #adj #dg #aj ,indium #j4jb #id #ca #aj ,zinc #j4ja #dg #af #aj ,iron #j4ja #dg #af #aj ,aluminum #j4ja #dg #af #aj ,molybdenum #j4ja #dg #af #aj ,selenium #j4jjd #ai #f #aj ,tin #j4jjc #ad #e #aj ,copper #j4jjc #ad #e #aj ,arsenic #j4jjc #ad #e #aj ,uranium #j4jjc #ad #e #aj ,nickel #j4jjb #i #c #aj ,vanadium #j4jjb #i #c #aj ,manganese #j4jjb #i #c #aj ,antimony #j4jjje #b #j4h #aj ,cobalt #j4jjje #b #j4h #aj ,caesium #j4jjje #b #j4h #aj ,cerium #j4jjjd #b #j4f #aj ,silver #j4jjjc #a #e #aj ,cadmium #j4jjja #j4e #aej #aj ,tungsten #j4jjja #j4e #aej #aj ,chromium #j4jjjje #j4b #gh #aj ,thorium #j4jjjje #j4b #gh #aj ,lead #j4jjjjc #j4a #df #aj ,mercury #j4jjjjc #j4a #df #aj ,gold #j4jjjjjd #j4jb #f #aj ,radium #a #aj #e #aj #aej ,adapted from ,the ,mineral ,resources of the ,sea1 by ,john ,l4 ,mero1 ,american ,elsevier ,publishing ,company1 ,new ,york1 #aifd4 ,many sea creatures are efficient1 selective concentrators of 8trace elements01 which occur in seawater only in minute portions4 ,these elements are difficult enough to detect qualitatively and all but impossible to analyze quantitatively4 ,yet among the elements the sea's plants and animals concentrate are the very materials with which we are apt to be most concerned3 ,strontium1 cesium1 cerium1 ruthenium1 cobalt1 iodine1 phosphorus1 zinc1 manganese1 iron1 chromium1 and others4 ,radioisotopes#f of all these elements occur as by-products of human nuclear activities4 ,many concentrating organisms are microscopic in size and are frequently impossible to raise in captivity4 ,it is apparent that we are faced with a research program of considerable challenge and proportion4 ,we need to know how each marine species concentrates4 ,is it from the food it eats1 by absorption from the water1 or both8 ,does it concentrate an element by continuous accumulation1 or is there a constant turnover of the material in the organism's system8 7,in the first case1 once the creature became radioactive it would remain so throughout its life or until the radioactivity decayed4 ,in the second case1 however1 the radioactivity might be a transient condition1 assuming the creature could find its way into uncontaminated water and were able to flush itself47 ,obviously1 both the cycling time of the radioisotope in the organism and its radioactive half-life#g must be taken into account4 ,even if we should manage to identify all the marine concentrators and gain some insight into their metabolic processes1 this would be only a first step4 ,for example1 one tiny form of planktonic protozoan1 acantharia1 concentrates up to #ae of its own weight of strontium1 including the radioisotope strontium-#ij4 ,it is eaten by larger zooplankton 7animals71 such as copepods1 which are eaten by little fish1 which1 in turn1 are eaten by bigger fish1 etc4 ,somewhere along this food chain1 perhaps1 a fish will come along that is favored for human dinner tables4 ,how much strontium-#ij has that fish accumulated through swallowing its prey and by absorption from the water8 ,is the radioactivity in its scales1 bones1 viscera1 and other usually uneaten portions1 or in its flesh8 ,it is probable1 though as yet by no means proven1 that among the million or so oceanic species of plant and animal life1 there are concentrators of virtually all the #fj or more elements found in seawater4 ,to identify and study them is an enormous undertaking1 which is often possible only by using radioisotopes as tools4 ,and what of the immediate and genetic effects of radiation on each species8 ,studies of reef fish in the nuclear testing area in the ,marshall ,islands have shown that radioiodine in the water caused thyroid gland damage long after the amount of radioiodine remaining in the water was too low to be detected4 ,studies of salmon in the ,columbia ,river have shown some physiological variations between those fish whose eggs and young were reared in radioactive waters and those that were not1 though these variations have not been determined to be statistically significant or different from variations caused by other contaminants4 ,studies are being made of the reproductive efficiency and patterns of sea creatures in a radiation-contaminated environment1 compared with those in an uncontaminated environment1 to learn such things as the numbers1 survival rates1 and sex ratios of the offspring1 and any genetic abnormalities or mutations4 ,many more studies are needed4 ,always1 the task is made difficult by insufficient detailed knowledge of the original natural environment1 the limitations of laboratory experiments1 and the mechanics of trying to follow the reproductive cycles of free-floating or swimming organisms in any statistically meaningful manner through successive generations4 ,one obviously important kind of research deals with the rate1 pattern1 and means by which radionuclides are distributed into the sea from a point source1 such as the mouth of a river or a nuclear test site4 ,transport and diffusion of radioactivity can be1 and are1 influenced by physical1 chemical1 biological1 or geological means1 separately or all at once4 ,this has led the ,,aec to support scientific studies of currents1 upwelling1 downwelling1 convergence1 diffusion1 mixing rates1 air-sea interactions1 chemical and geological processes in the sea1 and the horizontal and vertical migrations of sea life4 ,illustration3 ,this sound instrument record reveals the layers of planktonic sound scatterers on the continental slope east of ,new ,england4 ,each peak originates from an individual group of organisms4 ,in much of the ocean there is an acoustic 8floor01 known as the deep scattering layer 7because of what it does to sound waves71 which is believed to consist primarily of zooplankton4 ,every #bd hours the layer migrates up and down through several hundred feet of water4 ,at night the countless small animals graze in the rich sea-plant pastures near the surface2 during daylight1 back at the lower level1 they undoubtedly are heavily fed upon by larger animals4 ,over a period of time1 the layer accounts for considerable vertical transport of materials4 7,see figure above47 ,other life forms may move materials still farther down1 or1 in some instances1 back up--as when the sperm whale descends to the depths to fight and best a giant squid1 and then returns to the surface to eat it4 ,constantly drifting downward is a great volume of material--the dead bodies1 skeletons1 excrement1 and other waste from sea life at all depths4 ,as it sinks there is a constant exchange of matter between it and the surrounding water through chemical1 physical1 and biological processes4 ,eventually1 the molecules of material added to the bottom sediments may be returned to the water mass by bacteriological action or the eating and living habits of sea floor animals4 ,illustration3 ,a school of skipjack tuna photographed from an underwater observation chamber on the research vessel ,charles ,h4 ,gilbert4 ,biological transport works in other ways1 too4 ,most pelagic 7free-swimming7 fish are great travelers4 ,they account for a tremendous movement of material1 namely themselves1 from one place to another4 ,tuna1 swordfish1 whales1 porpoises1 and sea birds may travel thousands of miles in a single year4 ,such migrations may serve1 variously1 as mechanisms for either dispersal or concentration of elements or nutrients4 ,the anadromous 7river-ascending7 fishes1 such as salmon1 herring1 sturgeon1 and shad1 concentrate in freshwater streams in untold numbers to spawn4 ,after hatching1 the young seek the ocean and scatter widely until they1 too1 feel the urge to return to the rivers and lakes whence they came1 to spawn and die there as did their ancestors4 ,ocean currents may transport concentrations of radionuclides essentially undiluted for thousands of miles4 ,surface currents move at speeds of up to five knots 7nautical miles per hour74 ,normally current waters do not mix readily with the water mass through which they pass4 ,because of the slowness of vertical circulation in the ocean1 radionuclides deposited on the surface of the ocean may take a thousand years to reach the bottom4 ,but the vertical transport sometimes is much more rapid3 ,when the wind piles too much water against a coastline1 the resultant downwelling 7sinking7 may move radionuclides suddenly into the deeper ocean4 ,or1 conversely1 when the wind and the rotation of the earth combine to force the surface water away from the coast1 deep water may suddenly rise to replace it1 a process known as upwelling4 ,illustration3 ,mechanisms of nutrient turnover in the sea4 ,light energy ,dissolved gases ,birds and man ,rivers and ice ,wave action ,surface mixed layer #bj-ajjm ,suspended matter ,elements in true solution ,plants phytoplankton ,animals ,deep water ,elements in true solution in deep water ,buried in sediment ,physical ,processes ,transport by wind ,transport by current ,turbulent mixing ,sedimentation ,transport by animals ,volcanic action ,diffusion ,chemical or ,biological ,processes ,photosynthesis ,dissolving ,upwelling ,decomposition and respiration ,sorption by sediment surface ,redissolving from sediment ,chemical precipitation ,combined ,processes ,sedimentation and decomposition by bacteria ,scavenging ,some recent evidence indicates that the passage of a hurricane across the ocean drives surface water out from the storm center in all directions4 ,this1 too1 produces upwelling4 ,if radionuclides fall on the ,arctic ice pack or on the ,greenland or ,antarctic ice caps1 it may be years before they are released to the sea4 ,in more or less stable conditions at sea1 radionuclides may remain trapped above the thermocline 7a layer of sharp temperature change usually less than #ajj meters below the surface7 for a considerable period4 ,then a severe storm may destroy the thermocline and mix the waters to much greater depths4 ,the process of diffusion in the ocean is not well understood1 due both to the difficulty of the measurements that have to be made and to the variety of other factors affecting both vertical and horizontal transport of materials4 ,here again1 however1 the existence of radionuclides1 introduced artificially at a known time and place1 is materially aiding these investigations by making a particular water mass detectable and traceable4 ,illustration3 ,winds of #ajj knots 7about #aae mph7 whip high waves in the ,caribbean ,sea east of ,guadeloupe ,island during a hurricane4 ,in chemical oceanography1 the ,,aec is concerned with the fact that in some instances our society is introducing elements1 ions1 and compounds that have not been naturally found in the sea1 as well as natural materials in greater concentration than is normal4 ,these may combine with other materials in the sea1 changing into new forms or substances1 or removing them from solution entirely4 ,any change in the chemical composition of the ocean is quite likely to have biological effects1 some of which may prove detrimental to man4 ,a disturbance of the chemical balance of the sea is thought to be responsible1 at least in part1 for the periodic1 disastrous plankton 8blooms0 known as 8red tides04 ,such a sudden1 explosive overpopulation of plankton is a natural phenomenon1 but one that can be triggered by man-made pollution4 ,when it occurs1 plankton multiply so rapidly that the oxygen in the water is depleted and many fish die from suffocation4 ,fortunately1 nuclear energy operations account for an extremely small portion of the chemical contamination of the sea1 when contrasted with the tremendous volume of poisons dumped daily into it in the form of other industrial and municipal waste and agricultural pesticides4 ,research ,projects ,the ,,aec supports oceanographic research conducted by its own laboratories and by other federal agencies1 as well as by non-government research scientists4 ,the ,environmental ,sciences ,branch of the ,division of ,biology and ,medicine has begun the long and complex task of unraveling the mystery of the fate of radionuclides in the ocean4 ,valuable techniques have been developed for the intentional injection of radioisotopes into the sea for specific research4 ,scientists are now able to conduct investigations that were never before possible4 ,in some instances1 traditional scientific concepts and theories have been shattered1 or at least severely shaken1 by new evidence gathered by radioisotope techniques4 ,since #gj of the earth's surface is water1 at least #gj of the radioactive debris lofted into the stratosphere during atmospheric nuclear weapons tests falls into the ocean4 ,an additional small proportion finds its way into the sea as the run-off from the land4 ,in the case of tests at sea1 the majority of radiation immediately falls into the water nearby4 ,for this reason1 the ocean around the sites in the ,marshall ,islands where ,u4 ,s4 tests were conducted has provided a unique opportunity to study the effect of large concentrations of radionuclides4 ,particularly significant studies have been conducted of the absorption of radionuclides by plants and animals living on nearby reefs and islands1 and of both lateral and vertical diffusion rates of elements in the open ocean4#h ,the #aied nuclear test at ,eniwetok ,atoll produced heavier-than-expected local radioactive fallout4 ,since then1 both ,american and ,japanese scientists have studied water-mass movement rates1 using the fallout radionuclides strontium-#ij and cesium-#acg themselves as tracer elements4 ,these nuclides produced in the test have been detected at depths down to #gjjj meters in the far northwestern ,pacific in the vicinity of ,japan4 ,illustration3 ,autoradiograph of a plankton sample collected from a ,pacific lagoon a week after a #aieb nuclear test1 showing concentration of radioisotopes 7bright areas74 ,if this results from simple eddy diffusion1 as some scientists believe1 it is a case of diffusion at a very high rate4 ,other scientists suggest that other factors may have contributed to the vertical transport of the radionuclides to these depths4 ,still others believe that the strontium-#ij and cesium-#acg might not have originated with the ,u4 ,s4 ,pacific tests at all1 but rather with ,russian tests in the ,arctic taking place at about the same time4 ,they propose the theory that a syphoning effect in the ,bering ,strait causes a current to flow out of the ,arctic ,ocean and down under the surface waters of the western ,pacific4 ,in support of this1 ,japanese researchers cite a dissolved oxygen content where these measurements were made that is different from that of other deep water in the area4 ,if this theory should be proved correct1 it would be the first indication that such a current exists4 ,similar investigations have been conducted of the variations in depth of strontium-#ij concentration in the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,in ,february #aifb1 when fallout from #aifa nuclear tests was high1 tests south of ,greenland showed that mixing of fallout was fairly rapid through the top #hjj meters of water4 ,at greater depths a colder1 saltier layer of water contained only about half as much strontium-#ij1 confirming other evidence that interchange between water masses of different physical and chemical properties is comparatively low4 ,work such as this has emphasized the difficulty in making meaningful measurements of man-made radiation in the ocean4 ,one problem is to separate the artificially produced radiation from the natural radiation1 namely that from potassium-#dj 7which accounts for #ig of oceanic radiation7 and from the radionuclides1 such as tritium1 carbon-#ad1 beryllium-#g1 beryllium-#aj1 aluminum-#bf1 and silicon-#cb1 created in the stratosphere naturally by cosmic-ray bombardment4 ,illustration3 ,in #aiee a scientific team aboard the ,u4 ,s4 ,coast ,guard vessel ,roger ,b4 ,taney conducted a survey of ocean fallout in the western ,pacific4 ,they collected marine organisms and water samples at various depths on their #ag1ejj-mile1 #g-week journey4 ,another problem is the sheer physical size of the water sample required to get any measurements at all4 ,up to now there has been no truly effective radiation counter that can be lowered over the side of a ship to the desired depth4 ,it is often necessary to collect a sample of many gallons at great depths and return it to the surface without its being mixed by any of the intervening water4 ,this is difficult at best1 and only rather primitive methods have been developed4 ,none is more than partly satisfactory4 ,a standard system is to lower a large1 collapsed polyethylene bag to the desired depth1 open it1 fill it1 and close it again1 all by remote control1 and then gingerly and hopefully return it to the surface4 ,results do not always agree among samples taken at the same location by different methods or by different scientists4 ,there is still no universal agreement among scientists as to the quantitative validity of any of the measurements1 although as more and better data are gathered there tends to be a greater concurrence4 ,illustration3 ,fifty-gallon sampler ready to be lowered over the side of the research vessel ,atlantis ,,ii in the ,north ,atlantic4 ,such devices are used to obtain samples at fixed intervals from the sea surface to the bottom4 ,the water is analyzed for radioisotope content4 ,recently1 under an ,,aec contract1 a detector for direct measurements of gamma radiation#i in the deep ocean was developed for the ,institute of ,marine ,sciences1 ,university of ,miami1 by the ,franklin ,,gno ,corp4 7,see figure above47 ,this unit incorporates two of the largest plastic scintillation counters#aj ever used in the ocean--each is #af inches in diameter by #ab inches thick4 ,this apparatus may permit direct qualitative and quantitative measurement of radiation at great depths by techniques that will be eminently more satisfactory than water sampling4 ,already tests with the detector have disclosed the existence of cosmic-ray effects at much greater depths than heretofore known4 ,illustration3 ,scintillation counter for use in the deep ocean4 ,illustration3 ,constituent parts4 ,the plastic discs are the radiation detectors4 ,biologists from ,woods ,hole ,oceanographic ,institution in ,massachusetts for the first time have been able to measure the rate of excretion of physiologically important fallout radionuclides by several species of zooplankton--pteropods1 pyrasomes1 copepods1 and euphausids4 ,radioactive zinc and iodine1 it was learned1 are excreted as soluble ions1 while iron and manganese appear as solid particles4 ,however1 the extent to which the intake and excretion of radionuclides and the vertical migration of zooplankton contribute quantitatively to the transport of radioactivity across the thermocline 7and into the ocean deeps7 still can only be guessed4 ,illustration3 ,zooplankton1 mostly copepods1 collected with automatic underwater sampling equipment on board the nuclear submarine ,seadragon while cruising under the ,arctic ice4 ,other plankton research at ,woods ,hole uses radioactive carbon-#ad and phosphorus-#cb as tracers to evaluate rates of growth and nutrient assimilation by algae 7floating green plants74 ,these investigations have revealed that the presence or absence of minute quantities of nutrient minerals in seawater affects the rate at which the algae produce oxygen by the process of photosynthesis4 ,since the energy of all living things--including man--is also made available by photosynthesis1 and since most of the photosynthesis on earth is performed by algae afloat in the oceans1 it is apparent that this research is of more than academic interest4 ,algae1 the original energy-fixers of the 8meadows of the sea01 are also the original food source for the billions of aquatic animals1 and may some day prove a source of food for a mushrooming human population4 ,in a project with more immediate application1 extensive biological and environmental studies of the ,eniwetok ,atoll area in the ,pacific were conducted prior to the first nuclear testing there in #aidh1 and these studies have continued ever since4 ,early in the test series the ,japanese1 who were at first concerned with the possible contamination of their traditional marine food supplies1 were invited to participate in these studies4 ,fisheries radiological monitoring installations were established in ,japan and the ,u4 ,s4 7,the latter was established by the ,,aec and administered by the ,u4 ,s4 ,food and ,drug ,administration47 ,neither station encountered any radiological contamination of tuna or other food fish1 and the ,american unit has now been closed4 ,illustration3 ,this shell of the giant clam ,tridacna gigas shows the position of a layer of strontium-#ij absorbed in #aieh 7black line7 and in #aief 7white line74 ,the inside of the shell 7light layers7 was deposited in #aifd when the clam was collected at ,bikini ,atoll by scientists from the ,university of ,washington1 ,seattle4 ,groups that have cooperated with the ,,aec in marine radiobiological research are the ,university of ,hawaii1 ,university of ,connecticut1 ,virginia ,fisheries ,laboratory1 ,university of ,washington1 ,u4 ,s4 ,office of ,naval ,research1 and ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,commercial ,fisheries4 ,at the ,bureau of ,commercial ,fisheries ,radiobiological ,laboratory in ,beaufort1 ,north ,carolina1 a cooperative effort of the ,,aec and the ,,bcf is concerned with learning the effects of radioactive wastes on one of ,america's most valuable marine resources--the tidal marshlands and estuaries that are essential to the continued well-being of some of our important commercial fisheries4 ,table ,,iii ,,radioisotopes ,,that ,,might ,,be ,,found ,,in ,,an ,,estuarine ,,environment ,isotope ,half-life ,iodine-#aca #h4je days ,barium-#adj--,lanthanum-#adj #ab4h days--#dj hours ,cesium-#ada #cb4e days ,ruthenium-#ajc--,rhodium-#ajc #aj days--#eg minutes ,zirconium-#ie--,niobium-#ie #fe ,days--#ce days1 ,zinc-#fe #bde days ,cerium-#add #bhe days ,manganese-#ed #cad days ,ruthenium-#ajf--,rhodium-#ajf #a year--#cj seconds ,cesium-#acg #cj years ,potassium-#dj #a4c #aj years 7,reprinted from ,radiobiological ,laboratory ,annual ,report1 ,april1 #a1 #aifd1 page #ej47 ,the project has determined that radionuclides are removed from waters in an estuarine environment by several physical1 chemical1 and biological means4 ,for example1 radionuclides are absorbed in river-bed sediments at a rate varying directly with sediment particle size4 ,mollusks1 such as clams1 marsh mussels1 oysters1 and scallops1 not only assimilate radionuclides selectively1 but do so in sufficient quantity and with sufficient reliability to be useful as indicators of the quantity of the isotopes present4 ,clams and mussels are indicators for cerium-#add and ruthenium-#ajf1 scallops for manganese-#ed1 and oysters for zinc-#fe 7most of which winds up in the oyster's edible portions74 ,it was learned that scallops assimilate more radioactivity than any other mollusk4 ,of the total radioactivity1 manganese-#ed accounts for #fj3 ,the scallop's kidney contains #ajj times as much manganese-#ed as any of the other tissues and #cjj times as much as the muscle1 the only part of the scallop usually eaten in this country4 ,illustration3 ,on the left are mussels collected near the ,columbia ,river in an environment containing abnormal amounts of zinc-#fe4 ,illustration3 ,mussels suspended in seawater in research to determine how fast they lose their zinc-#fe radioactivity4 7,photograph taken at low tide47 ,in a surprising unintended result1 it was determined that one acre of oyster beds1 comprising #cjj1jjj individual oysters1 may filter out the radionuclides from approximately #aj1jjj cubic meters 7#ah cubic miles7 of water per week6 ,the ,radiological ,laboratory scientists also have found that plankton are high concentrators of both chromium-#ea and zinc-#fe1 and that zinc apparently is an essential nutrient for all marine organisms4 ,some plants and animals appear to reach a peak of radionuclide accumulation quickly1 which then tapers off even though the radiation concentration in the water is unchanged4 ,while the ,,aec's oceanographic research budgets have not been large1 they have contributed materially to knowledge of the oceanic environment4 ,,aec-sponsored research at ,scripps ,institution of ,oceanography has determined by a process known as neutron activation analysis#aa that the concentration of rare earth elements in ,pacific ,ocean waters appears to be only about one hundredth of the level previously reported4 ,by analysis of naturally occurring radioisotopes1 they have also discovered that it takes from one million to #ajj million years for lithium1 potassium1 barium1 strontium1 and similar elements introduced into the ocean from rivers to be deposited in the bottom sediments4 ,aluminum1 iron1 and titanium are deposited in from #ajj to #ajjj years4 ,they have also found that sedimentation occurs in the ,south ,pacific at a rate of from #j4c to #j4f millimeter per thousand years1 in the ,north ,pacific at a rate several times that figure1 and in the basins on either side of the ,mid-,atlantic ,ridge at a rate of several millimeters per thousand years4 ,the ,university of ,miami has successfully developed two methods for determining the ages of successive layers of deep ocean sediments based on the relative abundances of natural radioelements1 and thereby has established a chronology of climatic changes during the last #bjj1jjj years during which the sediments were laid down4 ,the ,u4 ,s4 is not alone in its use of nuclear energy as a tool of science4 ,the ,united ,kingdom has carried out radiological studies of the marine environment for many years1 particularly concentrating on the effects of radionuclides from nuclear power plants on the sea immediately contiguous to the ,british ,isles4 ,both the ,european ,atomic ,energy ,community and the ,international ,atomic ,energy ,agency also encouraged marine radiological studies4 ,many laboratories and government agencies in ,europe1 ,north and ,south ,america1 ,africa1 and the ,middle ,east and ,far ,east have well-established and productive programs under way4 ,scientists in many parts of the world have used both natural and intentionally injected radiation to study the coastwise movement of beach materials4 ,british experimenters1 for example1 activate sand with scandium-#df and are thus able to follow its movement for up to four months4 ,pebbles 7shingle7 coated with barium-#adj and lanthanum-#adj are also used as tracers and are good for #f weeks4 ,scientists at the ,university of ,california trace naturally occurring radioisotopes of thorium1 which may be introduced from deposits of thorium sands along river banks4 ,these studies are of immediate practical importance1 for each year the ocean moves billions of cubic yards of sand1 gravel1 shingle1 and rock to and from beaches and along shores4 ,this action destroys recreational beaches1 fills channels1 blocks off harbors1 and in general rearranges the terrain1 often at considerable cost and inconvenience to mariners and other people who use the coast4 ,in another use of radioisotopes in marine research1 studies at the ,,aec's ,oak ,ridge ,national ,laboratory in ,tennessee have revealed radioactivity in the scales of fish taken from waters affected by the laboratory's radioactive waste effluent4 ,it was suggested that this phenomenon might be put to use as a tagging technique in fish-migration studies1 and scientists are now working on a method using cesium-#acd introduced into the fishes' natural diet4 ,illustration3 ,isaacs-,kidd midwater trawl collects samples of oceanic animals off the ,oregon ,coast4 ,these animals are then radioanalyzed to compare the quantity of radioisotopes associated with animals from various depths4 ,the recorder at the trawl mouth indicates the volume of water filtered4 ,some of the most extensive studies of a marine environment ever conducted are those by the ,,aec1 the ,bureau of ,commercial ,fisheries1 and the ,university of ,washington in the ,columbia ,river system and the nearby ,pacific ,ocean4 ,operations at the ,,aec's giant ,hanford facilities some #cjj miles upstream from the ocean result in the release of small amounts of radioactivity to the river and also in raising the river-water temperature4 ,this downstream research is to determine any effects of these changes1 including any that might be detrimental to man4 ,the research encompasses studies of the variations and distributions of the freshwater 8plume0--the outflow from the rivermouth--extending into the nearby ,pacific1 sediment analyses1 studies of the population dynamics of phytoplankton1 and the transport of radionuclides through the food chain4 ,illustration3 ,this core sampler is used to obtain stream bed samples up to #e feet long in the ,columbia ,river4 ,the samples are then analyzed for radioisotope content4 ,as so often happens with basic programs1 this research has produced immediate benefits4 ,new resources of marketable oceanic fish were discovered by the scientists at depths never before fished commercially 7from the edge of the continental shelf to depths of #ejj fathoms and greater74 ,similarly1 commercial quantities of one species of crab have been discovered in the deeper ocean4 ,other findings indicate that crab populations may have seasonal up-and-down migrations that vary according to sex4 ,it appears1 in fact1 that1 except while mating and as juveniles1 the male and female crab populations lead separate lives4 ,this information is important both for more efficient fisheries and for improved conservation of the crab as a food resource4 ,the ,,aec is1 in short1 concerned with virtually every facet of basic oceanography1 and with study of the sea as a whole1 for radionuclides1 like their nonradioactive counterparts1 can and do become involved in every phase of the vast and complex ocean ecology4 ,in the process of pursuing its research interests1 it also provides oceanographers with a whole new family of tools for study4 ,let us now see how atomic instruments contribute to the growing knowledge of the sea4 ,oceanographic ,instruments ,illustration3 ,this radioisotope powered swimsuit heater uses plutonium-#bch to produce #dbj watts of heat4 ,water1 heated by the decay of ,pu1 is pumped through plastic veins partially visible in the undergarment4 ,the cylinder under the diver's arm contains #d capsules of ,pu1 and a battery-pump assembly is contained in the box at his feet4 ,after preliminary tests at the ,naval ,medical ,research ,institute in ,bethesda1 ,maryland1 the unit will be used in ,sealab ,,iii1 the ,navy's underwater research laboratory4 ,the heater was developed by the ,,aec ,division of ,isotopes ,development4 ,the ocean is both a complex and a harsh environment and its study has always demanded that designers of seaworthy instruments and sampling devices be both ingenious and experienced in shipboard requirements4 ,until recently1 these devices tended to be rugged and simple1 if not indeed crude4 ,more refined1 electronic instrumentation has begun to appear in recent years1 but most designs still fail to pass the test of use at sea4 ,even among those that do pass1 there is persistent difficulty in separating desired information-carrying signals from background and system-induced 8noise04 ,this has been a specific problem with current meters designed to be moored in the open ocean and also with one quite sophisticated gamma-ray detector4 ,to meet the clear need for improved devices1 as well as to support its own research and increase utilization of nuclear materials and techniques1 the ,,aec ,division of ,isotopes ,development encourages the development of oceanographic instrumentation4 ,this comparatively young technology already has produced exciting results4 ,the future may be even more revealing as nuclear energy is applied more and more to the study1 exploration1 and exploitation of the ocean4 ,instruments that have been developed under the ,,aec program include a current meter1 a dissolved-oxygen-content analyzer1 and a sediment-density meter4 ,a new1 fast method for determining the mineral content of geological samples also has been perfected4 ,the ,,deep ,,water ,,isotopic ,,current ,,analyzer 7,,dwica7 was developed under a contract with ,william ,h4 ,johnson ,laboratories1 ,inc4 ,it relies on radioisotope drift time over a fixed course to measure seawater flow rates ranging from #j4jjb to #aj4j knots4 ,the device embodies #ab radiation sensors spaced equally in a circle around a radioisotope-injection nozzle4 ,current direction can be determined to within #ae degrees4 ,the mass of tracer isotope injected is very small--less than #aj picograms#ab per injection--and the instrument can store enough tracer material to operate for a year4 ,the tracer can be injected automatically at intervals from #b to #bj minutes1 depending on the current4 ,the device sits on the sea floor1 where its orientation to magnetic north can be determined within #b4e degrees4 ,illustration3 ,the ,deep ,water ,isotopic ,current ,analyzer4 ,isotope ,reservoir and equipressure system ,electric logic circuitry ,pressure protective case ,compass ,sensor ring ,flow baffle plate ,isotope injection point ,illustration3 ,the ,deep ,water ,isotopic ,current ,analyzer4 ,a ,,sediment ,,density ,,probe1 developed under an ,,aec contract by ,lane-,wells ,company1 employs gamma-ray absorption and backscatter properties#ac to determine the density of the sediments at the bottom of lakes1 rivers1 or the ocean1 without the necessity of returning a sediment sample to the surface4 ,it is expected that it can be modified to sense the water content of the sediments4 ,these determinations are valuable not only for research1 but also for activity that requires structures on the ocean floor1 such as petroleum exploration and naval operations4 ,illustration3 ,the ,sediment ,density ,probe4 ,the drawing shows the complete probe4 ,the unit consists of a rocket-like tube #bf feet long and about #d inches in diameter1 containing a gamma-ray-emitting cesium-#acg source1 a lead shield1 and a radiation detector4 ,the device is lowered over the side of a ship and allowed to penetrate the sediment4 ,once in place1 the gamma ray source1 shield1 and detector move together up and down1 inside the probe1 for a distance of #aa feet1 stopping every #bd inches for #d minutes to take a measurement4 ,gamma rays are absorbed in any material through which they pass1 according to its density4 ,a low radiation count at the detector indicates a high-density sediment3 ,more radiation is absorbed and less is reflected back to the detector4 ,conversely1 a high count indicates low density4 ,data are recorded on special cold-resistant film4 ,a number of different sediment measurements can be made in several locations before the unit must be returned to the surface4 ,illustration3 ,oxygen analyzer equipment includes the deep-sea probe 7large device1 center1 including a special ,geiger counter1 the electronic assembly1 a pump1 and power supplies71 cable for transmission of ,geiger counter signals 7back71 and portable scaler 7left74 ,illustration3 ,the latter is also shown aboard a research vessel 7inset7 during tests made at sea4 ,,oxygen ,,analyzer ,the amount of dissolved oxygen in any part of the ocean is a basic quantity that must be determined before some kinds of research can be undertaken4 ,for example1 oxygen concentration is important in determining the life-support capability of seawater and in measuring deep-water mixing4 ,in the past this measurement has had to be determined by laborious chemical methods that may subject the water sample to contamination by exposure to atmospheric oxygen4 ,under an ,,aec contract1 the ,research ,triangle ,institute has developed a dissolved oxygen analyzer that relies on the quantitative oxidation by dissolved oxygen of thallium metal containing a known ratio of radioactive thallium-#bjd4 ,the seawater sample passes through a column lined with thallium4 ,the thallium is oxydized and goes into solution4 ,it then passes between two facing pancake-shaped radiation counters that record the level of beta radiation from the thallium-#bjd4 ,since the rate of oxidation1 and therefore the rate of release of the thallium to solution1 is proportional to the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water1 it is simple to calibrate the device to show oxygen content4 ,the system is sensitive enough to detect one part of oxygen in #aj billion of water4 ,and1 the device can be towed and take readings at depths of up to one mile1 an added advantage that obviates the chances of surface-air contamination4 ,,neutron ,,activation ,,analysis ,nuclear energy is contributing to the more accurate and more rapid analysis of minerals in the sea in at least two different ways4 ,the first employs neutron activation analysis1 which we have already mentioned4 ,this method is valuable not only in analyzing sediments cored from the ocean floor1 but also in the detection and quantitative analysis of trace elements in the water4 ,knowledge of the role of all natural constituents in the ocean is essential to an understanding of the complex interrelationships of the ocean environment1 as we have seen4 ,identification of trace elements also is a necessary preliminary to determining the effects of purposely introduced radionuclides4 ,collection of the minute quantities of trace elements is very difficult at best4 ,once they have been collected and concentrated1 neutron activation analysis provides a means for their identification and measurement4 ,x-,,ray ,,fluorescence is another technique1 used to identify the mineral content of ore or sediment4 ,this system was developed 7for the purpose of spotting gold being smuggled through ,customs7 by ,tracerlab ,division of ,laboratory for ,electronics1 ,inc4 7,,lfe71 under an ,,aec contract4 ,similar equipment was developed simultaneously in ,england for use by prospectors1 geologists and mining engineers4 ,it now may be used at sea in analyzing samples from the sea floor4 ,as is often the case with isotope-based devices1 its operation is really quite simple4 ,when excited by radiation from an isotope 7or any other radiation source71 each element produces its own unique pattern of ,x-ray fluorescence1 that is1 it radiates characteristic ,x rays4 ,by varying filters and measuring the count rate1 oceanographers can detect and measure materials1 such as tin1 copper1 lead1 and zinc4 ,the ,british unit is completely transistorized1 battery powered1 and weighs only #af4e pounds4 ,,rhodamine-,b ,,dye ,the ,,aec also has improved oceanographic research in ways that do not involve the use of nuclear energy4 ,some years ago under the joint sponsorship of the ,,aec ,division of ,reactor ,development and ,technology and the ,division of ,biology and ,medicine1 the ,waterlift ,division of ,cleveland ,pneumatic ,tool ,company developed instrumentation and techniques for detecting the presence of the red dye1 rhodamine-,b1 in concentrations as low as one-tenth part per billion4 ,this method is now widely used both for groundwater studies and in the study of currents1 diffusion1 and pollution in rivers1 lakes1 and the ocean4 ,in many cases1 rhodamine-,b is a better tracer in water than radioisotopes1 due to the greater ease with which it is detected4 ,environmental ,safety ,studies ,the ,,aec ,division of ,reactor ,development and ,technology has supported extensive environmental studies to assess the safety of isotopic power sources 7to be discussed later7 in oceanic environments4 ,one of the most important of these is being conducted by the ,naval ,radiological ,defense ,laboratory at an ocean environmental testing complex near ,san ,clemente ,island off the coast of ,california1 which includes a shore installation and a floating ocean platform4 ,these studies are to determine seawater corrosion of containment alloys and fuel solubility in seawater2 the dispersion of the fuel in the ocean2 the effect of the radioactive material on marine life2 and the radiation hazard to man1 when all significant exposure pathways are considered4 ,in another study the ,chesapeake ,bay ,institute of ,johns ,hopkins ,university investigated potential hazards that might result if radioactive materials were released off the ,atlantic ,coast4 ,five areas along the ,continental ,shelf were examined in detail for environmental factors such as vertical diffusion4 ,the same ,institute made environmental and physical dispersion studies off ,cape ,kennedy1 ,florida1 to predict the fate of any radioactive materials that might be released in aborted launchings of nuclear rockets or nuclear auxiliary power devices for space uses4 ,fluorescent dye was released into offshore1 surf zone1 and inshore locations2 the diffusion was observed1 sampled1 and compared with existing diffusion theory4 ,mathematical models have been developed that can now be used to predict the rate and extent of diffusion in the ,cape ,kennedy area in the event of any radioactivity release from aborted test flights4 ,similar studies have been carried out near the space launching site at ,point ,arguello1 ,california1 by the ,scripps ,institution of ,oceanography4 ,these included collection of data on dispersion1 marine sediments1 and the biological uptake of radioactive plutonium1 polonium1 cesium1 and strontium4 ,the ,atom at ,work in the ,sea ,,nuclear ,,reactor ,,propulsion ,the transformation in undersea warfare tactics and national defense strategy effected by the introduction of nuclear-powered submarines is now well known4 ,navy submarines employing the latest reactors and fuel elements can stay at sea for more than #c years without refueling4 ,polaris submarines on patrol remain submerged for #fj to #gj days4 ,the nuclear submarine ,triton1 tracing ,magellan's route of #djj years earlier1 traveled #cf1jjj miles under water1 moving around the world in #hc days and #aj hours4 ,under-ice transits of the ,arctic ,ocean by nuclear submarines are now commonplace4 ,these feats all are possible because of the nuclear reactors and propulsion systems developed by the ,,aec ,division of ,naval ,reactors1 which also developed the propulsion plants for the ,navy's nuclear surface vessels4#ad ,illustration3 ,,uss ,seadragon and ,skate sit nose to nose on top of the world after under-ice voyages from the ,atlantic and ,pacific ,oceans to the ,north ,pole4 ,illustration3 ,a frogman from the ,seadragon swims under the ,arctic ice in one of the first photographs made beneath the ,north ,pole4 ,,deep ,,submergence ,,research ,,vehicle ,on ,april #ah1 #aife1 ,president ,johnson announced that the ,atomic ,energy ,commission and ,department of the ,navy were undertaking development of a nuclear-powered deep submergence research and engineering vehicle4 ,this manned vehicle1 designated the ,,nr-#a1 will have vastly greater endurance than any other yet developed or planned1 because of its nuclear power4 ,its development will provide the basis for future nuclear-powered oceanographic research vehicles of even greater versatility and depth capability4 ,the ,,nr-#a will be able to move at maximum speed for periods of time limited only by the amount of food and supplies it carries4 ,with a crew of five and two scientists1 the vehicle will be able to make detailed studies of the ocean bottom1 temperature1 currents1 and other phenomena for military1 commercial1 and scientific uses4 ,the nuclear propulsion plant will give it great independence from surface support ships and essentially unlimited endurance for exploration4 ,the submarine will have viewing ports for visual observation of its surroundings and of the ocean bottom4 ,a remote grapple will permit collection of marine samples and other objects4 ,the ,,nr-#a is expected to be capable of exploring areas of the ,continental ,shelf1 which appears to contain the most accessible wealth in mineral and food resources in the seas4 ,exploratory charting of this kind may help the ,united ,states in establishing sovereignty over parts of the ,continental ,shelf2 a ship with its depth capability can explore an ocean-bottom area several times larger than the ,united ,states4 ,the reactor plant for the vehicle is being designed by the ,general ,electric ,company's ,knolls ,atomic ,power ,laboratory1 ,schenectady1 ,new ,york4 ,the remainder of the propulsion plant is being designed by the ,electric ,boat ,division1 ,general ,dynamics ,corporation1 ,groton1 ,connecticut4 ,scientists are already beginning to implant small sea floor laboratories4 ,in the future1 when large permanent undersea installations for scientific investigation1 mining1 or fish farming become a reality1 nuclear reactors like the one designed for research submersibles or the one already in use in ,antarctica and other remote locations#ae will serve as their power plants4 ,,isotopic ,,power ,,sources ,the ocean is a logistically remote environment1 in the sense that conventional combustible fuels can't be used underwater unless supplied with their own sources of oxygen4 ,it is usually extremely costly to take anything heavy or bulky into the deep ocean4 ,even if the two essential components of combustion--fuel and oxygen--could be delivered economically to an undersea base or craft1 the extreme back pressure of the depths would present serious exhaust problems4 ,yet deep beneath the sea is just where we now propose to do large amounts of work requiring huge supplies of reliable energy4 ,the lack of reliable and extended duration power sources is perhaps one of the most critical requirements for expansion of underwater and marine technology4 ,for example1 the pressing need for measurements of atmospheric and oceanic data to support scientific1 commercial1 and military operations will in the future require literally hundreds of oceanographic and meteorological buoys deployed throughout the world to take simultaneous measurements and time-series observations at specific sites4 ,some of these buoys will support and monitor up to #ajj sensors each4 ,these devices record a variety of physical1 chemical1 and radiological phenomena above1 at1 or below the surface4 ,periodically the sensor data will be converted to digital form and stored on magnetic tape for later retrieval by distant shore-based or shipboard radio command1 by satellite command 7for retransmittal to ground stations71 or by physical recovery of the tapes4 ,individually1 each buoy will not require a great deal of energy to operate1 but will have to operate reliably over long periods of time4 ,conventional power sources are being used for the prototype buoys now under development and testing1 but these robot ocean platforms in the future will make excellent use of nuclear energy supplied by isotopic power sources4 ,illustration3 ,the world's first nuclear-powered weather buoy located in the center of the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,this weather station1 part of the ,u4 ,s4 ,navy's ,,nomad system1 is on a barge #aj feet #bj feet1 and is anchored in #ab1jjj feet of water4 ,illustration3 diagram ,,radio ,,antenna ,,weather ,,sensors ,,warning ,,beacon ,,nuclear ,,generator ,the ,,snap-#g;,d isotope power generator has been operating unattended since ,january #aifd on a deep-ocean moored buoy in the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,this ,u4 ,s4 ,navy ,,nomad 7,navy ,oceanographic and ,meteorological ,automatic ,device7 buoy is powered by a #fj-watt1 strontium-#ij radioisotope source1 which was developed by the ,,aec ,division of ,reactor ,development and ,technology4 ,this weather station transmits data for #b minutes and #bj seconds every #c hours4 ,this data includes air temperature1 barometric pressure1 and wind velocity and direction4 ,storm detectors trigger special hourly transmissions during severe weather conditions4 ,the generator operates continuously and charges storage batteries between transmissions4 ,some power is used to light a navigation beacon to alert passing ships4 ,energy from the heat of radioisotope decay has been used on a 8proof-of-principle0 basis in several other instances involving ocean or marine technology4 ,an experimental ,sr isotope-powered acoustic navigation beacon 7,,snap-#g;,e7 now rests on the sea floor in #ae1jjj feet of water near ,bermuda4 ,devices such as these not only will enable nearby surface research or salvage vessels to locate their positions precisely 7something very difficult to do at sea7 and to return to the same spot1 but the beacons also will aid submarine navigation 7see page #dh74 ,a ,u4 ,s4 ,coast ,guard lighthouse located in ,chesapeake ,bay has been powered by a #fj-watt1 ,sr power source1 ,,snap-#g;,b1 for #b years without maintenance or service4 ,this unit was subsequently relocated for use in another application 7described below74 ,illustration3 ,engineers prepare to install the ,,snap-#g;,d generator4 ,the first commercial use of one of these 8atomic batteries0 began in #aife when the ,,snap-#g;,b #fj-watt generator went into operation on an unmanned ,phillips ,petroleum ,company offshore oil platform1 #dj miles southeast of ,cameron1 ,louisiana4 ,the generator operates flashing navigational lights and1 in bad weather1 an electronic foghorn 7see page #di74 ,this unit will be tested for #b years to determine the economic feasibility of routinely using isotopic power devices on a commercial basis4 ,illustration3 ,acoustic pulses4 ,buoyancy tank ,sound amplifier ,nuclear-powered sound source ,ocean bottom ,illustration3 ,the ,,snap-#g;,e isotopic generator powers an undersea acoustic beacon1 which produces an acoustic pulse once every #fj seconds4 ,in addition to being a navigation aid1 the beacon is used to study the effects of a deep-ocean environment on the transmission of sound over long distances4 ,illustration3 ,diagram4 ,total height3 #aj ft #b in ,armored cable ,pressure vessel ,capacitor bank ,fuel capsules ,biological shield ,equipment package ,voltage converter ,depleted uranium ,thermoelectric generator ,system support structure ,illustration3 ,details of the ,phillips ,petroleum platform1 which uses the ,,snap-#g;,b nuclear generator4 ,illustration3 ,the final electrical connection is made from the nuclear generator to the platform's electronic foghorn and two flashing light beacons4 ,illustration3 ,diagram ,fog ,horn ,beacon ,beacon ,snap-#g;,b nuclear generator ,the radioisotope-powered devices previously described were developed by the ,,aec under the ,,snap-#g ,program4#af ,the testing of these units has demonstrated the advisability of developing reliable and unattended nuclear power sources for use in remote environments without compromise to nuclear safety standards4 ,as a result of the success of these tests1 a variety of potential oceanographic applications have been identified4 ,a study1 conducted by ,aerojet-,general ,corporation in conjunction with ,global ,marine ,exploration ,company and ,northwest ,consultant ,oceanographers1 ,inc41 described ocean applications including underwater navigational aids1 acoustic beacons1 channel markers1 cable boosters1 weather buoys1 offshore oil well controls along with innumerable oceanographic research applications4 ,this study was sponsored by the ,,aec ,division of ,isotopes ,development4 ,in order to satisfy the requirements for these and other applications1 the ,,aec has begun developing a series of compact and highly reliable isotope power devices that are designed to be economically competitive with alternative power sources4 ,currently underway are two specific projects1 ,,snap-#ba and ,,snap-#bc4 ,,snap-#ba is a two-phase project to develop a series of compact strontium-#ij power systems for deep-sea and ocean-bottom uses 7#bj1jjj-;foot depths74 ,the first phase of design and component development on a basic #aj-watt system already has been completed1 and a second phase development and test effort now under way will extend through #aigj4 ,a series of power sources in the #aj- and #bj-watt range will be available for general purpose deep-ocean application4 ,the ,,snap-#bc project involves the development of a series of economically attractive strontium-#ij power systems for remote terrestrial uses4 ,this project will result in #be-watt1 #fj-watt1 and #ajj-watt units capable of long-term operation in surface buoys1 offshore oil platforms1 weather stations1 and microwave repeater stations4 ,in addition to the above1 effort is underway by the ,,aec to develop an isotope-fueled heater that will be used by aquanauts in the ,navy's ,sealab ,program 7see page #ab74 ,future activities1 now being planned1 will involve the development of large isotope power sources 7#a-aj electric kilowatts7 and small nuclear reactors 7#ej-ajj kilowatts7 for use in manned and unmanned deep-ocean platforms4 ,ocean ,engineering ,considerable engineering experience has been derived from the work of federal agencies in development of the largest taut-moored instrumented buoy system ever deployed in the deep ocean4 ,developed by ,ocean ,science #ha ,engineering1 ,inc41 it is useful in observation and prediction of environmental changes4 ,the system embodies substantial advances in design4 ,it incorporates1 among other features1 an acoustically commanded underwater winch for adjustment of the mooring depth after the buoy is deployed1 and for recovering a #af1jjj-pound submerged data-recording instrument canister4 ,this buoy system can survive being moored in up to #ah1jjj-;foot depths of the open ocean for upward of #cj days4 ,the very first deep-ocean1 taut-moored buoy system was developed for the government in #aied1 and has since become an important tool for oceanographers and others who seek stable instrument platforms at sea4 ,the buoys have the advantage of minimizing horizontal movement due to currents1 winds1 and waves4 ,the ,national ,marine ,consultants ,division of ,interstate ,electronics ,corporation has developed for the government a system for measuring the propagation of seismic sea waves 7tsunamis74 ,work of these sorts contributes materially to reliable ocean engineering4 ,and the measurements made by these sophisticated instruments contribute to our knowledge of ocean fluid dynamics and wave mechanics4 ,corrosion is a huge1 ever-present problem plaguing oceanographic engineers1 ship designers1 mariners1 operators of desalination plants1 petroleum companies with offshore facilities1 and1 in fact1 everyone who places structures in salt water to do useful work4 ,while the basic mechanisms of corrosion are known1 there are many detailed aspects that are not3 ,for example1 the precise role of bacteriological slimes in causing corrosion on supposedly protected structures4 ,radioisotope tracers now are helping engineers follow the chemical1 physical1 and biological actions in corrosion processes4 ,fresh ,water from ,seawater ,in #aifj the chairman of the board of a large ,u4 ,s4 corporation made a fundamental policy decision for his company3 ,since the greatest critical need of man in the next decade would be fresh water1 his company would begin working to produce large volumes of fresh water--including the development of methods for desalting seawater4 ,his pioneering analysis proved to be prophetic4 ,throughout the world1 more people are using more water for more purposes than ever before4 ,many areas of the world1 including some that are densely populated1 have been parched since the dawn of history4 ,in others where water was once abundant1 not only are natural sources being depleted faster than they are replaced1 but many rivers and lakes have been so polluted that they can now scarcely be used4 ,the world's greatest resource of water is the ocean1 but energy is required to remove the salt from it and make it potable or even useful for agriculture and industry4 ,the energy produced by nuclear reactors is considered economical in the large quantities that soon will be required4 ,the ,,aec and the ,office of ,saline ,water of the ,department of the ,interior1 after a preliminary study1 have joined with the ,metropolitan ,water ,district of ,southern ,california and the electric utility firms serving the area1 to begin construction of a very large nuclear-power desalting plant on a man-made island off the ,california coast4 ,the plant1 when completed in the #aigjs1 will have an initial water capacity of #ej million gallons per day and also will generate about #a1hjj1jjj kilowatts of electricity4 ,additional desalting capacity is planned for addition later to achieve a total water capacity of #aej million gallons per day4 ,illustration3 ,plans to construct a nuclear desalting plant in ,california were announced in ,august #aiff by 7from left7 ,,aec ,commissioner ,james ,t4 ,ramey1 ,secretary of the ,interior ,stewart ,l4 ,udall1 ,mayor ,samuel ,yorty of ,los ,angeles1 and ,joseph ,jensen1 ,board ,chairman of the ,metropolitan ,water ,district of ,southern ,california4 ,plans for other nuclear-powered desalting projects around the world are being discussed by the ,united ,states government1 the ,international ,atomic ,energy ,agency and the governments of many other nations4 ,some of these also may be in operation during the early #aigjs4#ag ,illustration3 ,model of the nuclear power desalting plant to be built on the coast of ,southern ,california4 ,these projects followed extended detailed studies1 including one 8milestone0 investigation at the ,,aec's ,oak ,ridge ,national ,laboratory in ,tennessee1 in which the economic feasibility of using very large nuclear reactors coupled to very large desalting equipment to produce power and water was determined4 ,the significance of these studies was recognized by ,president ,johnson in #aifd1 when he told the ,third ,international ,conference on ,peaceful ,uses of ,atomic ,energy3 8,the time is coming when a single desalting plant powered by nuclear energy will produce hundreds of millions of gallons of fresh water--and large amounts of electricity--every day40 ,it is obvious that today realization of that goal is much nearer4 ,the installation of new and larger desalting plants will in itself require extensive additional oceanographic research4 ,by the nature of their operation these plants will be discharging considerable volumes of heated water with a salt content higher than that of the sea4 ,throughout the ocean1 but particularly in the estuaries1 sea life is sensitive to the concentration of ocean salts and temperature4 ,studies of the effect of such discharges will be an essential part of any large-scale desalination program4 ,radiation ,preservation of ,seafood ,the use of nuclear radiation for the preservation of food is a new process of particular importance for seafood4 ,the ocean constitutes the world's largest source of animal protein food4 ,yet the harvests of the sea can be stored safely1 even with refrigeration1 for far shorter periods than can most other foods4 ,in many parts of the world1 this tendency to spoil makes fish products available only to people who live near seacoasts4 ,many types of seafood1 however1 when exposed to radiation from radioisotopes or small accelerators1 can be stored under normal refrigeration for up to four weeks without deterioration4 ,the process does not alter the appearance or taste of the seafood2 it merely destroys bacteria that cause spoilage4 ,this fact holds promise not only for the world's protein-starved populations1 but also for the economic well-being of commercial fishermen1 whose markets would be much expanded4 ,in support of this program1 the ,,aec has built and is operating at ,gloucester1 ,massachusetts1 a prototype commercial seafood irradiator plant capable of processing #bjjj pounds of seafood an hour4 ,the radiation is supplied by a cobalt-#fj source4 ,private industry is cooperating with the ,,aec in the evaluation of this facility4#ah ,illustration3 ,the first shipboard irradiator was on ,the ,delaware1 a research fishing vessel4 ,fish1 preserved through irradiation soon after they are caught1 have a refrigerated storage life two or three times longer than nonirradiated fish4 ,illustration3 ,the first shipboard irradiator4 ,project ,plowshare ,nuclear explosives are1 among other things1 large-scale1 low-cost excavation devices4 ,in this respect1 with the proper pre-detonation study and engineering1 they are ideally suited for massive earth-moving and 8geological engineering0 projects1 including the construction of harbors and canals4 ,the western coasts of three continents1 ,australia1 ,africa1 and ,south ,america1 are sparsely supplied with good harbors4 ,a number of studies have been undertaken as to the feasibility of using nuclear explosives for digging deepwater harbors4 ,undoubtedly at some time in the future1 these projects will be carried out4 ,in addition1 there are many places in the world where the construction of a sea-level canal would provide shorter and safer routes for ocean shipping1 expedite trade and commerce1 or open up barren and unpopulated1 but mineral-rich lands to settlers and profitable development4 ,the ,,aec ,division of ,peaceful ,nuclear ,explosives operates a continuing program to develop engineering skills for such projects4#ai ,construction of a sea-level canal across the ,central ,american isthmus is one well-known proposal for this 8,plowshare0 program4 ,the use of nuclear explosives in this manner may one day change the very shape of the world ocean4 ,a ,new ,fram ,illustration3 ,fridtjof ,nansen ,just about #gj years ago1 the oceanographer and explorer1 ,dr4 ,fridtjof ,nansen completed his famous voyage aboard the research vessel ,fram1 which remained locked in the ,arctic ice pack for #c years1 drifting around the top of the world while the men aboard her studied the oceanography of the polar sea4 ,now the ,national ,science ,foundation has taken the first steps toward building a modern version of ,fram for ,arctic studies4 ,this time the vessel will be an ,arctic ,drift ,barge containing the best equipment modern technology can offer--including1 it is proposed1 a central nuclear power plant to guarantee heat and power4 ,scheduled for completion sometime in the #aigjs1 this project represents yet another use of the atom in the study of the ocean4 ,,the ,,three-,,dimensional ,,ocean ,the ocean is no longer an area of isolated scientific interest1 nor merely a turbulent two-dimensional surface over which man conducts his commerce and occasionally fights his wars4 ,in today's world1 the ocean has assumed its full third dimension4 ,men and women are going down into it to study1 to play1 to work1 and1 alas1 sometimes to fight4 ,as they go1 they are taking atomic energy with them4 ,in many instances1 only the harnessed power in the nuclei of atoms permits them to penetrate the depths of the mighty sea and there attain their objectives4 ,illustration3 ,artist's conception of one of three proposed designs for the ,national ,science ,foundation's ,arctic ,drift ,barge4 ,all three designs incorporate a nuclear power source4 ,,suggested ,,references ,books ,the ,bountiful ,sea1 ,seabrook ,hull1 ,prentice-,hall1 ,inc41 ,englewood ,cliffs1 ,new ,jersey #jgfcb1 #aifd1 #cdj pp41 #f4ie4 ,this ,great and ,wide ,sea1 ,r4 ,e4 ,coker1 ,harper ,row1 ,new ,york #ajjaf1 #aifb1 #bce pp41 #b4be 7paperback74 ,exploring the ,secrets of the ,sea1 ,william ,j4 ,cromie1 ,prentice-,hall1 ,inc41 ,englewood ,cliffs1 ,new ,jersey #jgfcb1 #aifb1 #cjj pp41 #e4ie4 ,the ,sea ,around ,us1 ,rachel ,l4 ,carson1 ,oxford ,university ,press1 ,inc41 ,new ,york #ajjaf1 #aifa1 #bcg pp41 #e4jj 7hardback72 #j4fj 7paperback7 from the ,new ,american ,library of ,world ,literature1 ,inc41 ,new ,york #ajjbb4 ,the ,ocean ,adventure1 ,gardner ,soule1 ,appleton-,century1 ,new ,york #ajjag1 #aiff1 #bgh pp41 #e4ie4 ,proving ,ground3 ,an ,account of the ,radiobiological ,studies in the ,pacific1 #aidf-aifa1 ,neal ,o4 ,hines1 ,university of ,washington ,press1 ,seattle1 ,washington #ihaje1 #aifb1 #cff pp41 #f4ge4 ,the ,effects of ,atomic ,radiation on ,oceanography and ,fisheries 7,publication #eea71 ,national ,academy of ,sciences--,national ,research ,council1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #bjdah1 #aieg1 #acg pp41 #b4jj4 ,oceanography3 ,a ,study of ,inner ,space1 ,warren ,e4 ,yasso1 ,holt ,rinehart and ,winston1 ,inc41 ,new ,york1 #ajjag1 #aife1 #agf pp41 #b4ej 7hardback72 #a4bh 7paperback74 ,booklets ,oceanography ,information ,sources 7,publication #adag71 ,national ,academy of ,sciences--,national ,research ,council1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #bjdah1 #aiff1 #ch pp41 #a4ej4 ,a ,reader's ,guide to ,oceanography1 ,jan ,hahn1 ,woods ,hole ,oceanographic ,institution1 ,woods ,hole1 ,massachusetts #jbedc1 ,august #aife 7revised periodically7 #ac pp41 free4 ,the following booklets are available from the ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,u4 ,s4 ,government ,printing ,office1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #bjdjb3 ,undersea ,vehicles for ,oceanography 7,pamphlet ,no4 #ah71 ,inter-agency ,committee on ,oceanography of the ,federal ,council for ,science and ,technology1 #aife1 #ha pp41 #j4fe4 ,marine ,sciences ,research1 ,,aec ,division of ,biology and ,medicine1 ,march #aiff1 #ah pp41 #j4ae4 ,articles ,tools for the ,ocean ,depths1 ,fortune1 ,,lxxii3 #bac 7,august #aife74 ,journey to ,inner ,space1 ,time1 #hf3 #ij 7,september #ag1 #aife74 ,working for ,weeks on the ,sea ,floor1 ,jacques-,yves ,cousteau1 ,national ,geographic1 #abi3 #dih 7,april #aiff74 ,nucleonics1 #bd 7,june #aiff74 ,this special issue on the use of the atom undersea contains the following articles of interest3 ,reactors3 ,key to ,large ,scale ,underwater ,operations1 ,j4 ,r4 ,wetch1 #cc4 ,undersea ,role for ,isotopic ,power1 ,k4 ,e4 ,buck1 #ch4 ,radioisotopes in ,oceanographic ,research1 ,r4 ,a4 ,pedrick and ,g4 ,b4 ,magin1 ,jr41 #db4 ,motion ,pictures #ajjj ,feet ,deep for ,science1 #bg minutes1 color1 #aife4 ,produced by and available from ,westinghouse ,electric ,corporation1 ,visual ,communications ,department1 #c ,gateway ,center1 ,box #bbgh1 ,pittsburgh1 ,pennsylvania #aebcj4 ,this film describes the ,westinghouse ,diving ,saucer1 which is a two-man laboratory used for underwater research4 ,this is the saucer that is used by ,jacques-,yves ,cousteau and was featured in his motion picture ,world ,without ,sun4 ,available for loan without charge from the ,,aec ,headquarters ,film ,library1 ,division of ,public ,information1 ,u4 ,s4 ,atomic ,energy ,commission1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #bjede and from other ,,aec film libraries4 ,bikini ,radiological ,laboratory1 #bb minutes1 sound1 color1 #aidi4 ,produced by the ,university of ,washington and the ,,aec4 ,this film explains studies of effects of radioactivity from the #aidf atomic tests at ,bikini ,atoll on plants and marine life in the area #c years later4 ,return to ,bikini1 #ej minutes1 sound1 color1 #aifd4 ,produced by the ,laboratory of ,radiation ,biology at the ,university of ,washington for the ,,aec4 ,this film records the ecological resurvey of ,bikini in #aifd1 #f years after the last weapons test4 ,desalting the ,seas1 #ag minutes1 sound1 color1 #aifg4 ,produced by ,,aec's ,oak ,ridge ,national ,laboratory4 ,describes various methods of purifying saline water through the use of large dual-purpose nuclear-electric desalting plants4 ,illustration3 uncaptioned ,,photo ,,credits ,page #b ,u4 ,s4 ,navy 7,,usn7 #c ,university of ,pennsylvania ,museum--,national ,geographic ,expedition #e ,,usn #f ,woods ,hole ,oceanographic ,institution 7,,whoi7 #g ,diagram1 ,,whoi2 photo1 ,s4 ,hull #i ,top1 ,oregon ,state ,university 7,,osu72 bottom1 ,university of ,california1 ,san ,diego1 ,scripps ,institution of ,oceanography 7,,sio7 #aj ,lamont ,geological ,observatory of ,columbia ,university #ab ,,usn #ae ,,sio #ai ,r4 ,h4 ,backus4 ,physics ,today 7,november #aife71 8,sound ,reflections ,in and ,under ,oceans10 ,j4 ,b4 ,hersey #bj ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,commercial ,fisheries ,biological ,laboratory1 ,honolulu1 ,hawaii #bb ,,usn #bd ,laboratory of ,radiation ,biology1 ,university of ,washington 7,,lrb7 #bf ,jan ,hahn #bg ,franklin ,,gno ,corporation #bh ,george ,d4 ,grice1 ,,whoi #ca ,,sio #cc ,,osu #ce ,monsanto ,research ,corporation #cg ,,usn #ch ,lane-,wells ,company #ci ,research ,triangle ,institute #dc ,,usn #df1 #dg #dh ,martin-,marietta ,company #di ,the ,photo ,mart #ec ,top1 ,metropolitan ,water ,district of ,southern ,california2 bottom1 ,bechtel ,corporation #ee ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,commercial ,fisheries1 ,fish and ,wildlife ,service2 inset1 ,brookhaven ,national ,laboratory #ef ,norsk ,folkemuseum1 ,oslo1 ,norway1 courtesy ,the ,mariners ,museum1 ,newport ,news1 ,virginia #eg ,national ,science ,foundation #fa ,s4 ,hull ,cover photo courtesy ,james ,butler1 ,,usn ,author's photo courtesy ,general ,dynamics ,corporation ,frontispiece from ,jan ,hahn ,,the ,,cover ,illustration3 ,the ,,atom and the ,,ocean ,the ship on the cover is the trim ,atlantis riding the waves about #bjj miles south of ,bermuda4 ,the first craft built by the ,united ,states as an oceanographic research vessel1 she traveled more than #a1bjj1jjj miles across the seven seas for a period of #cj years4 ,she 8ran0 over #fjjj hydrographic stations and was used for innumerable dredging1 coring1 biological1 physical1 and acoustical research operations4 ,after she was retired from active service at the ,woods ,hole ,oceanographic ,institution in ,massachusetts1 she was sold to ,argentina1 where she has resumed her role as an oceanographic research vessel4 ,,the ,,author ,e4 ,w4 ,,seabrook ,,hull is an experienced writer and editor in technical and engineering fields4 ,he is the author of ,the ,bountiful ,sea1 published in #aifd by ,prentice-,hall1 and ,plowshare1 another booklet in this ,understanding the ,atom ,series4 ,he is the editor of ,ocean ,science ,news and editor and publisher of ,geo,marine ,technology4 ,illustration3 ,e4 ,w4 ,seabrook ,hull ,footnotes #a;,for a description of how these will work1 see ,controlled ,nuclear ,fusion1 another booklet in this series4 #b,these devices1 which will be frequently mentioned later in these pages1 are described in detail in a companion booklet ,power from ,radioisotopes4 #c,see ,nuclear ,reactors1 another booklet in this series1 for a description of the fission process and how reactors operate4 #d;,for a full discussion of other aspects of this topic1 see ,fallout from ,nuclear ,tests1 another booklet in this series4 #e;,for a full discussion of this topic1 and the safety measures taken by the ,,aec in connection with it1 see ,radioactive ,wastes1 another booklet in this series4 #f,radioisotopes1 unstable forms of ordinary atoms1 are distinguishable by reason of their radioactivity1 not by their biological or chemical activity4 #g,the time in which half of the atoms in a quantity of radioactive material lose their radioactivity4 #h;,for more details of these studies1 see ,atoms1 ,nature1 and ,man1 a companion booklet in this series4 #i;,gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic radiation1 similar to ,x rays1 originating in the nuclei of radioactive atoms4 #aj;,instruments that detect and measure radiation by recording the number of light flashes or scintillations produced by the radiation in plastic or other sensitive materials4 #aa;,a method involving use of nuclear reactors or accelerators for identifying extremely small amounts of material4 ,see ,neutron ,activation ,analysis1 a companion booklet in this series4 #ab;,a picogram is one trillionth 7#aj7 of a gram4 #ac;,for an explanation of how similar instruments work1 see ,radioisotopes in ,industry1 a companion booklet in this series4 #ad;,for a discussion of proposed nuclear merchant submarines1 see ,nuclear ,power and ,merchant ,shipping1 another booklet in this series4 #ae,these are described in ,power ,reactors in ,small ,packages1 another booklet in this series4 #af,see ,power from ,radioisotopes1 a companion booklet in this series1 for a more complete discussion of radioisotopes in use4 #ag;,for an explanation of how these will function1 see ,nuclear ,energy for ,desalting1 another booklet in this series4 #ah,see ,food ,preservation by ,irradiation1 another booklet in this series1 for a full account of this installation4 #ai;,details are described in ,plowshare1 another booklet in this series4 ,this booklet is one of the 8,understanding the ,atom0 ,series4 ,comments are invited on this booklet and others in the series2 please send them to the ,division of ,technical ,information1 ,u4 ,s4 ,atomic ,energy ,commission1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #bjede4 ,published as part of the ,,aec's educational assistance program1 the series includes these titles3 ,accelerators ,animals in ,atomic ,research ,atomic ,fuel ,atomic ,power ,safety ,atoms at the ,science ,fair ,atoms in ,agriculture ,atoms1 ,nature1 and ,man ,books on ,atomic ,energy for ,adults and ,children ,careers in ,atomic ,energy ,computers ,controlled ,nuclear ,fusion ,cryogenics1 ,the ,uncommon ,cold ,direct ,conversion of ,energy ,fallout ,from ,nuclear ,tests ,food ,preservation by ,irradiation ,genetic ,effects of ,radiation ,index to the ,,uas ,series ,lasers ,microstructure of ,matter ,neutron ,activation ,analysis ,nondestructive ,testing ,nuclear ,clocks ,nuclear ,energy for ,desalting ,nuclear ,power and ,merchant ,shipping ,nuclear ,power ,plants ,nuclear ,propulsion for ,space ,nuclear ,reactors ,nuclear ,terms1 ,a ,brief ,glossary ,our ,atomic ,world ,plowshare ,plutonium ,power from ,radioisotopes ,power ,reactors in ,small ,packages ,radioactive ,wastes ,radioisotopes and ,life ,processes ,radioisotopes in ,industry ,radioisotopes in ,medicine ,rare ,earths ,research ,reactors ,,snap1 ,nuclear ,space ,reactors ,sources of ,nuclear ,fuel ,space ,radiation ,spectroscopy ,synthetic ,transuranium ,elements ,the ,atom and the ,ocean ,the ,chemistry of the ,noble ,gases ,the ,elusive ,neutrino ,the ,first ,reactor ,the ,natural ,radiation ,environment ,whole ,body ,counters ,your ,body and ,radiation ,a single copy of any one booklet1 or of no more than three different booklets1 may be obtained free by writing to3 ,,usaec1 ,p4 ,o4 ,,box #fb1 ,,oak ,,ridge1 ,,tennessee #cghcj ,complete sets of the series are available to school and public librarians1 and to teachers who can make them available for reference or for use by groups4 ,requests should be made on school or library letterheads and indicate the proposed use4 ,students and teachers who need other material on specific aspects of nuclear science1 or references to other reading material1 may also write to the ,oak ,ridge address4 ,requests should state the topic of interest exactly1 and the use intended4 ,in all requests1 include 8,zip ,code0 in return address4 ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america ,,usaec ,division of ,technical ,information ,extension1 ,oak ,ridge1 ,tennessee ,transcriber's ,notes --,silently corrected a few typos4 --,retained publication information from the printed edition3 this e,book is public-domain in the country of publication4 --,in the text versions only1 text in italics is delimited by underscores4