,,our ,,atomic ,,_w                     
by ,c4 ,jackson ,crav5                  
,,! ,,/ory ,,( ,,atomic ,,en]gy         
,u4,s4 ,,atomic ,,en]gy ,,commission    
,division ( ,te*nical ,in=mation        
,und]/&+ ! ,atom ,s]ies                 
,! ,und]/&+ ! ,atom ,s]ies      ,nucle> 
en]gy is play+ a vital role 9 ! life ( e
 man1 woman1  & *ild 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates  
today4 ,9 ! ye>s ahead x w affect       
increas+ly all ! peoples ( ! e>?4 ,x is 
ess5tial t all  ,am]icans ga9 an und]/&+
 ( ?is vital =ce if !y are to  dis*>ge  
?\ghtfully _! responsibilities z citiz5s
 & if !y  are to realize fully ! myriad 
b5efits t nucle> en]gy (f]s  !m4    ,!  
,unit$ ,/ates ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission
 provides ?is booklet to help  y a*ieve 
su* und]/&+4                            
,edw>d ,j4 ,brun5kant                   
,edw>d ,j4 ,brun5kant1 ,director        
,division ( ,te*nical ,in=mation        
,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,atomic ,,en]gy        
,,commission      ,dr4 ,gl5n ,t4        
,seaborg1 ,*airman    ,james ,t4 ,ramey 

,wilfrid ,e4 ,johnson    ,dr4 ,!os ,j4  
,?ompson    ,dr4 ,cl>5ce ,e4 ,l>son     
,,our ,,atomic ,,_w                     
by ,c4 ,jackson ,crav5                  
,,cont5ts        ,,! ,,greeks ,,7       
,,curi\s ,,ab\t ,,matt]                 
#a    ,,! ,,atomic ,,!ory ,,is          
,,confirm$                              
#b    ,,ca?ode ,,rays ,,%[ ,,atoms      
,,conta9 ,,small] ,,p>ts                
#c    ,,radioactive ,,atoms ,,discov]$  
#e    ,,ru!r=d ,,f9ds ,,! ,,atomic      
,,nucleus                               
#f    ,,! ,,proton ,,is ,,recogniz$     
#h    ,,isotopes ,,are ,,discov]$       
#i    ,,! ,,al*emi/s' ,,dream ,,comes   
,,true                                  
#aj    ,,"s ,,p>ticles ,,h ,,no         
,,electric ,,*>ge                       
#ac    ,,matt] ,,is ,,en]gy2 ,,en]gy    
,,is ,,matt]                            
#ad    ,,nuclei ,,conta9 ,,en]gy        
#ae    ,,*ronology                      
#ah    ,,fission ,,is ,,expla9$         
#bj    ,,! ,,fission ,,bomb ,,is        

,,explod$                               
#bc    ,,nucle> ,,en]gy ,,is ,,ne$$ ,,= 
,,! ,,future                            
#be    ,,fusion ,,has ,,pot5tial        
#bf    ,,isotopes ,,h ,,_m ,,uses       
#bi    ,,radioisotopes ,,at ,,"w        
#cj    ,,! ,,atomic ,,en]gy ,,commission
                                        
#ca    ,,t[>d ,,an ,,int]national ,,atom
                                        
#cc    ,,sugge/$ ,,ref]5ces             
#ce                       ,unit$ ,/ates 
,atomic ,en]gy ,commission              
,division ( ,te*nical ,in=mation        
,libr>y ( ,congress ,catalog ,c>d       
,numb]3 #fc-fdiah                       
#aifc2 #aifd 7,rev47                    
,illu/ration3 ,! cov] is a "t-expos$    
photograph ( an animat$      model ( a  
uranium-#bce atom4 ,! c5t] repres5ts !  
nucleus1      greatly exagg]at$ 9 size4 
,! f9e l9es repres5t ! electrons        
:irl+ ab\t ! nucleus4      ,c\rtesy     
,union ,c>bide ,corporation    ,c4      
,,jackson ,,crav5 is a tea*]'s tea*] z  

well z a /ud5t's tea*]1  & has _h an    
active c>e] aid+ und]/&+ ( atomic en]gy 
z a  memb] ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,t5nessee   
faculty & on ! /aff ( !  ,oak ,ridge    
,in/itute ( ,nucle> ,/udies4 ,he has    
conduct$ %ort c\rses  to in/ruct gr\ps (
 high s*ool sci5ce tea*]s 9 nucle>      
en]gy1  & has s]v$ 9 a key capacity 9   
tra9+ ,in/itute  demon/ration-lectur]s  
:o visit high s*ools ?r\gh\t ! nation4  
,dr4 ,crav5 work$ dur+ ,_w ,w> ,,ii = ! 
,manhattan ,project1 :i*  built ! fir/  
atomic bomb4 ,he e>n$ ba*elor's &       
graduate degrees  at ! ,univ]sity (     
,nor? ,c>ol9a1 & lat] taught physics &  
ma!matics at ,delta ,/ate ,tea*]s       
,college & at ,furman & ,emory          
,univ]sities4    ,8 rese>* int]e/s      
include infr>$ spectroscopy1 gase\s     
diffusion  ?r\gh por\s m$ia1 & !        
physical prop]ties ( fib]s4             
,,our ,,atomic ,,_w                     
,by ,c4 ,jackson ,crav5      ,! /ory (  
atomic en]gy evolves f ! curiosity ( p  
conc]n+ ! nature & /ructure ( matt]1 !  

/uff ( :i* all    mat]ial ?+s are made4 
,! ,greeks ,7 ,curi\s ,ab\t ,matt]      
,c]ta9 philosoph]s ( anci5t             
,greece--,democritus = "o--7  fasc9at$  
by ! "q3 :at is matt]8 ,y c imag9e "o ( 
!  philosoph]s say+ to 8 pupils3        
8,g5tlem51 let u consid] a piece (      
*eese4 ,) a knife we c cut  x 9 two1 ?us
 obta9+ small] pieces4 ,we c !n cut "o (
 ^!  small] pieces 9 two1 obta9+ /ill   
small] pieces4 ,we c ?9k  ab\t repeat+  
?is process ov] & ov] to get small] &   
small]  pieces ( *eese4 ,n[ c ?is       
process be cont9u$ )\t limit1 or  w a "t
 come :5 we arrive at ! smalle/ possible
 piece (  *eese8 ,9 o!r words1 is !re a 
piece s small t we mu/ h at  lea/ t mu* 
or none1 ) no *oice 9 betwe580    ,x is 
probable t mo/ p :o ?\ght ab\t ?is "q at
 all  dur+ ! next two ?\s& ye>s answ]$ !
 la/ "q 9 !  negative4 ,! prevail+      
notion 0 t matt] 0 cont9u\s1 ) no       
!oretical limit z to h[ small a piece ( 
*eese1 or any?+ else1  might be4    ,?is
 concept 0 humor\sly express$ by !      

,briti% ma!matician  ,augu/us ,de       
,morgan 7#ahjf-ahga7 9 ^! l9es3         
,great fleas h little fleas ^u _! backs 
to bite 'em1    ,& little fleas h less] 
fleas1 & s1 ad inf9itum4                
,! ,atomic ,!ory ,is ,confirm$      ,de 
,morgan evid5tly did n keep up ) ! late/
 developm5ts 9  sci5ce1 h[ev]1 because  
two ye>s be=e 8 bir?1 ,john ,dalton1 an 
,engli% s*ooltea*]1 _h *ang$ ! atomic   
!ory ( matt] f a  philosophical         
speculation into a firmly e/abli%$      
pr9ciple4 ,!  evid5ce t conv9c$ ,dalton 
& _m o!r contempor>y sci5ti/s (  !      
reality ( atoms came f quantitative     
*emical analysis4    ,dalton knew t _m  
*emical sub/ances c\ld be sep>at$ into  
two or  m simpl] sub/ances4 ,*emicals t 
c\ld be sep>at$ fur!r 7  call$ comp\nds2
 ^? t c\ld n 7 call$ elem5ts4 ,c>eful   
exp]im5ts by ,dalton & o!rs %[$ t :5ev] 
two or m  elem5ts comb9$ *emically to   
make a comp\nd ! relative am\nts (  !   
elem5ts _h to be c>efully adju/$ to fit 
a def9ite proportion  9 ord] to h no    

elem5ts left ov] aft] ! reaction 0      
f9i%$4  ,= example1 if hydrog5 & oxyg5 7
 comb9$ to =m wat]1 !  weight ( oxyg5 _h
 to be eight times ! weight ( hydrog52  
o!rwise1 ei!r "s hydrog5 or "s oxyg5    
w\ld be left ov]4    ,?is fundam5tal    
tru? is n[ call$ ! ,law ( ,def9ite      
,proportions4  ,ano!r important         
pr9ciple1 call$ ! ,law ( ,multiple      
,proportions1 is  illu/rat$ by hydrog5  
p]oxide1 :i* is made up ( ! same two    
elem5ts t are f\nd 9 wat]4 ,! weight (  
oxyg5 9 hydrog5  p]oxide1 h[ev]1 is #af 
times ! weight ( hydrog5 or exactly     
twice  ! relative weight f\nd 9 wat]4   
,^! pr9ciples ( *emical comb9ation      
conv9c$ ,dalton t ea*  *emical elem5t   
consi/s ( small1 indivisible units1 all 
j alike1  call$ atoms1 & t ea* *emical  
comp\nd also has basic units1  call$    
molecules1 :i* _c be divid$ )\t r$uc+ ! 
comp\nd  into its elem5ts--t is1 de/roy+
 x z a comp\nd4 ,he visualiz$ a         
molecule ( a comp\nd z =m$ by ! unit+ ( 
individual atoms (  two or m elem5ts4 ,x

 0 obvi\s to him t 9 any molecule ( a   
comp\nd1 ! weight ( ea* atom ( a        
compon5t elem5t bore a  proportionate   
relation%ip to ! weight ( ! entire      
molecule :i*  0 equal to ! proportion1  
by weight1 ( all t elem5t 9 !  comp\nd4 
,& al?\gh ,dalton _h no idea h[ heavy   
any individual atom  really 01 he c\ld  
tell h[ _m times heavi] or light] x 0   
?an an atom ( ano!r elem5t4             
,incid5tally1 ,dalton mi/ak5ly ?\ght t  
"o atom ( oxyg5 0  eight times z heavy z
 "o atom ( hydrog5 in/ead ( #af times z 
heavy4 ,he assum$ a wat] molecule to be 
,,ho in/ead ( ,h,o4                     
,ca?ode ,rays ,%[ ,atoms ,conta9 ,small]
 ,p>ts      ,curiosity ab\t ! fundam5tal
 nature ( matt] 0 mat*$ by equally  avid
 curiosity ab\t ! fundam5tal nature (   
electricity4 ,be=e #ahej  mu* _h be5    
le>n$ ab\t ! behavior ( electric *>ge & 
electric  curr5ts fl[+ ?r\gh solids &   
liquids4 ,real progress 9  und]/&+      
electric *>ge1 h[ev]1 _h to wait = !    
developm5t  ( highly effici5t vacuum    

pumps4    ,ab\t #ahed ,he9ri* ,geissl]1 
a ,g]man glassbl[]1 develop$ an  improv$
 suction pump1 & also succe$$ 9 seal+   
into a glass tube  two wires atta*$ to  
metal electrodes inside ! tube4         
,exp]im5t]s  7 !n able to /udy ! fl[ (  
electricity ?r\gh a ne>-vacuum4 ,a      
,geissl] tube is diagram$ 9 ,figure #a4 
,by ! #ahijs x _h become cle> t ! fl[ ( 
electricity ?r\gh a  highly evacuat$    
tube consi/$ ( a negative electric *>ge 
mov+ at  a v high spe$ along /raight    
l9es betwe5 seal$-9 electrodes4  ,s9ce x
 orig9at$ at ! negative electrode1 or   
ca?ode1 ! invisible  /ream ( *>ge 0 nam$
 8ca?ode rays40        ,illu/ration3    
,figure #a ,geissl] ,tube4      ,,curr5t
 ,,s\rce    ,,ca?ode 7-7      ,,/ream   
,,( ,,electrons      ,,vacuum ,,pump    
,,anode 77    ,al?\gh _m inve/igators   
contribut$ to k ab\t ca?ode rays1  !    
exp]im5ts ( ,joseph ,j4 ,?omson1 a      
,briti% physici/1 are g5]ally  consid]$ 
to h be5 ! mo/ enlight5+4 ,?omson       
arrang$ a  ca?ode-ray tube s t ! rays   

c\ld be deflect$ by magnets & by        
electrically *>g$ metal plates4 ,by     
apply+ c]ta9 well-kn[n  pr9ciples (     
physics1 he 0 able to confirm an        
impression already held  by physical    
*emi/s1 namely1 t electric *>ge1 l      
matt]1 0  8atomiz$0--! /ream ( *>ge     
consi/$ ( a sw>m ( v small  p>ticles1   
all alike4 ,he succe$$ also 9 det]m9+ t 
! spe$ (  ! p>ticles 0 ab\t "o-t5? !    
spe$ ( light4    ,probably ,?omson's mo/
 significant result 0 det]m9+ ! ratio ( 
! *>ge ( ea* little p>ticle to its      
weight4 ,he 0 able to d ?is  by measur+ 
! magnetic =ce requir$ to div]t a /ream 
( *>g$  p>ticles4 7,y c d ?is exp]im5t  
y\rself ) relatively simple  equipm5t47 
,?is *>ge-to-weight ratio prov$ to be   
ne>ly #bjjj times  great] ?an ! already 
kn[n *>ge-to-weight ratio = a positively
  *>g$ hydrog5 atom1 or ion1 :i* until  
!n 0 ?\ght to be !  lighte/ con/itu5t ( 
matt]4 ,x rema9$ to be det]m9$ :e!r     
*>ge or weight caus$ ! diff]5ce4 ,fur!r 
exp]im5tation %[$  t ! *>ges 7          

approximately ! same am\nt 9 ! two      
cases4 ,x  0 !re=e prov5 t ! weight ( ! 
hydrog5 atom1 lighte/ (  all ! atoms1 0 
ne>ly #bjjj times z great z ! weight (  
"o (  ! little negative p>ticles4    ,! 
"n 8electron0 0 giv5 to ! small negative
 p>ticles id5tifi$  by ,?omson4 ,s9ce ! 
electrons _h come f ! ca?ode1 x 0       
app>5t t ! atoms 9 ! ca?ode mu/ conta9  
electrons4 ,?omson  reason$ t electric  
curr5t 9 a wire is a /ream ( electrons  
pass+ successively f atom to atom & t ! 
diff]5ce betwe5  an electrically *>g$   
atom & a neutral atom is t ! *>g$ "o    
has ga9$ or lo/ "o or m electrons4      
,radioactive ,atoms ,discov]$           
,illu/ration3 ,h5ri ,becqu]el           
,c\rtesy ,j\rnal ( ,*emical ,education1 
,discov]y ( ! ,elem5ts1      ,m>y       
,elvira ,weeks4    ,9 #ahif ! ,fr5*     
physici/ ,h5ri ,becqu]el 0 inve/igat+ ! 
relation betwe5 fluoresc5ce & ,x rays1 a
 puzzl+ k9d ( p5etrat+  radiation       
discov]$ a few mon?s e>li] by ! ,g]man1 
,wilhelm  ,ro5tg54 ,v>i\s *emical       

comp\nds fluoresce1 or gl[1 :5 expos$ to
  ultraviolet rays & o!r types (        
radiation4 ,:ile exp]im5t+ )  a l>ge    
numb] ( *emicals1 ,becqu]el discov]$1 q 
by accid5t1  t a comp\nd conta9+ !      
elem5t uranium c1 )\t be+  expos$ to any
 k9d ( radiation1 d>k5 a photographic   
plate completely  wrapp$ 9 heavy black  
pap]4    ,al?\gh no "o realiz$ x at !   
"t1 ,becqu]el _h discov]$ t  atoms ( "s 
elem5ts w at r&om times trans=m !mselves
 into  atoms ( a diff]5t elem5t by      
emitt+ c]ta9 extremely high-spe$  *>g$  
p>ticles4 ,atoms t c d ?is are said to  
be radioactive1  & x 0 ! radiation f    
trans=m+ uranium atoms t d>k5$          
,becqu]el's photographic plate4         
,ru!r=d ,f9ds ! ,atomic ,nucleus        
,illu/ration3 ,erne/ ,ru!r=d1 #ahga-aicg
      ,c\rtesy ,nobel/iftels5    ,we are
 greatly indebt$ to ! imag9ation &      
exp]im5tal skill ( !  ,briti% physici/  
,erne/ ,ru!r=d = ! int]pretation (      
radioactivity 9 t]ms ( ! /ructure (     
atoms4    ,ru!r=d1 born & educat$ 9 ,new

 ,zeal&1 mov$ to ,engl& to "w  "u       
,?omson at ,cambridge ,univ]sity 9      
#ahie4 ,%ortly aft]w>d1  ,wilhelm       
,ro5tg5 9 ,g]many discov]$ ,x rays1     
,becqu]el 9 ,france  discov]$           
radioactivity1 & ,?omson prov$ ! exi/5ce
 ( !  electron4    ,dur+ ! next few     
ye>s1 curiosity ab\t ! fundam5tal nature
 (  radioactivity l$ a numb] ( p to d a 
great deal ( "w4 ,!  elem5t ?orium 0    
f\nd to be radioactive1 & ,m>ie & ,pi]re
 ,curie  discov]$ two new elem5ts1      
polonium & radium1 t 7 also             
radioactive4 ,! radiation f radioactive 
mat]ials 0 f\nd to be (  ?ree k9ds call$
 alpha rays1 beta rays1 & gamma rays4   
,alpha rays  7 fir/ detect$ by ,ru!r=d1 
:o lat] id5tifi$ !m z  positively *>g$  
helium atoms4 ,becqu]el demon/rat$ t    
beta rays1  l ca?ode rays1 consi/ (     
negatively *>g$ electrons4 ,! highly    
p5etrat+ gamma rays 7 prov$ by ,ru!r=d &
 ,e4 ,n4 da ,c4 ,&rade  to be           
electromagnetic radiation simil> to ,x  
rays4    ,ru!r=d1 9 collaboration ) !   

,engli% *emi/ ,fr$]ick ,soddy1  br\ght  
ord] out ( a *aos ( puzzl+ discov]ies by
 e/abli%+ !  g5]al behavior (           
radioactive atoms4 ,he det]m9$ t c]ta9  
naturally occurr+ atoms ( high atomic   
weight c spontane\sly emit  an alpha or 
a beta p>ticle & !reby conv]t !mselves  
into new  atoms4 ,^! new atoms1 be+ also
 radioactive1 soon] or lat] conv]t      
!mselves into /ill diff]5t atoms1 & s   
on4 ,ea* "t an alpha  p>ticle is emitt$ 
9 ?is sequ5ce1 ! new atom is light] by !
  weight ( ! alpha p>ticle1 or helium   
atom4 ,! dis9tegration process  proce$s 
f /age to /age until at la/ a /able atom
 is produc$4  ,! end product 9 ?is      
8decay0 process 9 naturally occurr+     
radioactive elem5ts is lead4    ,"o     
exp]im5t by ,ru!r=d & 8 co-work]s _h a  
mo/ pr(\nd  effect on ! und]/&+ ( atomic
 /ructure4 ,:at !y did 0 to  direct a   
/ream ( alpha p>ticles at a ?9 piece (  
gold foil4 ,!  results 7 a/oni%+4 ,almo/
 all ! p>ticles pass$ /raight  ?r\gh !  
foil )\t *ang+ direction4 ,( ! few      

p>ticles t  did rico*et 9 new           
directions1 h[ev]1 "s 7 deflect$ at v   
%>p angles4 7,see ,figure #b47          
,illu/ration3 ,figure #b ,ru!r=d's mo/  
fam\s exp]im5t1 :i*      l$ him to !    
concept ( ! nucleus4    ,z a result (   
?is exp]im5t1 ,ru!r=d propos$ a concept 
( !  atom entirely diff]5t f ! "o :i*   
prevail$ at ?is "t4 ,!  prevail+ notion 
0 "o advanc$ by ,?omson :i* conceiv$ (  
an atom  z a blob ( positive electric   
*>ge 9 :i* 7 imb$d$1 9 mu*  ! same way z
 plums are 9 a pudd+1 en\gh electrons to
 neutralize  ! positive *>ge4 ,ru!r=d's 
concept1 :i* quickly set aside          
,?omson's 8plum pudd+0 model1 0 t an    
atom has all ( its positive  *>ge &     
virtually all ( its mass conc5trat$ 9 a 
t9y space at its  c5t]4 7,collisions )  
?is c5t]1 :i* came to be kn[n !reaft]  z
 ! nucleus1 _h be5 responsible = ! %>p  
*anges 9 direction  ( "s ( ! alpha      
p>ticles47 ,! space surr\nd+ ?is nucleus
 is  entirely empty except = ! pres5ce (
 a numb] ( electrons 7#gi 9  ! case ( ! 

gold atom71 ea* ab\t ! same size z !    
nucleus4    ,to illu/rate ,ru!r=d's     
concept1 let u imag9e a gold atom       
magnifi$  s t x is z l>ge z a bale (    
cotton4 ,! nucleus at ! c5t] (  ?is l>ge
 atom w\ld be ! size ( a speck ( black  
pepp]4 ,if ?is  imag9>y bale weigh$ #ejj
 p\nds1 ! little speck at its c5t] w\ld 
weigh #dii p\nds2 ! surr\nd+ cotton     
7correspond+ to empty space  9 ,ru!r=d's
 concept7 conta9+ ! #gi electrons w\ld  
weigh b   p\nd4 ,to express ?is idea    
ano!r way1 any object su* z a gold r+1  
z d5se & solid z x may seem to u1       
consi/s almo/ entirely (  no?+6         
,! ,proton ,is ,recogniz$      ,ru!r=d's
 discov]y ar\s$ int5se curiosity ab\t ! 
nature &  possible /ructure ( ?is       
extremely small1 b all-important1 "p (  
an atom4 ,x 0 assum$ t ! positive *>ge  
c>ri$ by ! nucleus  mu/ be a :ole-numb] 
multiple ( a small unit equal 9 size b  
opposite 9 sign to ! *>ge ( an electron4
 ,?is conclusion 0 bas$  on ! in=mation 
t all atoms conta9 electrons & t an     

undi/urb$ atom is electrically neutral4 
,s9ce x 0 kn[n t a  neutral atom (      
hydrog5 conta9s j "o electron1 x appe>$ 
t  ! *>ge on a hydrog5 nucleus mu/      
repres5t ! fundam5tal unit (  positive  
*>ge1 "s multiple ( :i* w\ld repres5t ! 
*>ge on  any o!r nucleus4 ,sev]al l9es (
 inve/igation comb9$ to e/abli%  q      
firmly t nuclei ( atoms occupy+ adjac5t 
positions on !  p]iodic *>t ( ! elem5ts 
diff]$ 9 *>ge by ?is fundam5tal  unit4  
,s9ce ! hydrog5 nucleus seem$ to play   
su* an important role  9 mak+ up ! *>ges
 ( all o!r nuclei1 x 0 giv5 ! "n  proton
 f ! ,greek 8protos10 :i* means 8fir/40 
,isotopes ,are ,discov]$      ,at a     
hi/oric meet+ ( ! ,briti% ,association =
 ! ,advancem5t (  ,sci5ce held 9        
,birm+ham1 ,engl&1 9 #aiac1 two app>5tly
 unrelat$  l9es ( inve/igation 7        
report$1 ea* ( :i* %[$ t "s  atomic     
nuclei h id5tical electric *>ges b      
diff]5t weights4    ,"o report 0 pres5t$
 by ,fr$]ick ,soddy1 :o _h collaborat$ )
  ,ru!r=d 9 expla9+ ! patt]n ( natural  

radioactivity4 ,soddy  knew t ! nucleus 
( a radioactive atom loses bo? weight & 
positive *>ge :5 x ?r[s out an alpha    
p>ticle 7helium nucleus74  ,on ! o!r h&1
 :5 a nucleus emits a beta p>ticle      
7negative  electron71 its positive *>ge 
increases1 b its weight is practically  
un*ang$4 ,?us ,soddy c\ld d$uce !       
weights & nucle> *>ges (  _m radioactive
 products4 ,9 sev]al cases ! products ( 
two  diff]5t k9ds ( radioactivity _h !  
same nucle> *>ge b  diff]5t weights4    
,s9ce x is ! positive *>ge c>ri$ by !   
nucleus ( an atom :i* fixes ! numb] (   
negative electrons ne$$  to complete !  
atom1 ! nucle> *>ge is really           
responsible = !  ext]ior appe>ance1 or  
*emical prop]ties1 ( ! atom4    ,?is    
conclusion 0 confirm$ by unsuccessful   
ef=ts to sep>ate by  *emical means      
diff]5t radioactive products hav+ ! same
 nucle>  *>ge b diff]5t weights4 ,!     
products might h _h q  diff]5t rates (  
radioactive dis9tegration1 b !y appe>$  
to  consi/ ( *emically id5tical atoms ( 

! same *emical elem5t &  h5ce to belong 
at ! same place on ! p]iodic *>t ( !    
elem5ts4 ,soddy sugge/$ t su* atoms be  
call$ isotopes1 f a  ,greek ^w mean+    
8same place40    ,at ! same meet+1      
,francis ,w4 ,a/on1 an assi/ant (       
,?omson1  describ$ :at happ5$ :5 *>g$   
atoms1 or ions1 ( neon gas 7  accel]at$ 
9 a dis*>ge tube simil> to ! ca?ode-ray 
tube 9 :i*  ,?omson _h discov]$ !       
electron4 ,! rapidly mov+ neon ions 7   
deflect$ by a magnet4 ,s9ce light       
objects are m easily deflect$  ?an heavy
 objects1 ! am\nt ( deflection indicat$ 
! weight4 ,by  mak+ a comp>ison ) a     
famili> gas l oxyg51 ,?omson & ,a/on  7 
actually able to measure ! atomic weight
 ( neon4 ,to _!  surprise !y f\nd two   
k9ds ( neon4 ,ab\t n9e-t5?s ( ! neon    
atoms _h an atomic weight ( #bj1 & !    
rema9d] an atomic weight (  #bb4    ,:at
 ,?omson & ,a/on _h done 0 to %[ t !    
/able elem5t neon  is a mixture ( two   
isotopes4 ,a device t c d :at _!        
app>atus  did is call$ a mass           

spectrograph4 7,see ,figure #c47 ,s9ce  
_! "t1  in/rum5ts ( ?is type h %[n t m  
?an ?ree-f\r?s ( !  /able *emical       
elem5ts are mixtures ( two or m /able   
isotopes2 9  fact1 !re are ab\t #cjj su*
 isotopes 9 all4 ,! numb] ( kn[n        
un/able radioactive isotopes            
7radioisotopes71 natural or man-made1 is
  great] ?an #ajjj & is /ill gr[+6      
,illu/ration3 ,figure #c ,mass          
spectrograph z us$ by ,?omson &         
,a/on to measure ! atomic weight ( neon4
      ,,neon #bj    ,,neon #bb          
,! ,al*emi/s' ,dream ,comes ,true       
,dur+ ! ,middle ,ages ! desire to f9d a 
way to conv]t a base metal  l lead into 
gold 0 ! out/&+ inc5tive = rese>* 9     
*emi/ry4 ,:5 ! important role ( !       
nucleus 9 det]m9+ !  *emical prop]ties (
 an atom became cle> & ! natural        
transmutation accompany+ radioactivity 0
 und]/ood1 ! fasc9at+  idea occurr$ to  
_m p t p]haps man w\ld soon be able to  
alt] ! nucleus ( a /able atom & ?us     
delib]ately conv]t "o  elem5t into      

ano!r4 ,9 a hi/oric lecture deliv]$ 9   
,wa%+ton1 ,d4  ,c41 9 ,april #aiad1     
,ru!r=d said1 8,x is possible t !       
nucleus (  an atom may be alt]$ by      
direct collision ( ! nucleus ) v  swift 
electrons or atoms ( helium 7i4e41 beta 
or alpha p>ticles7 su*  z are eject$ f  
radioactive matt]4444 ,"u favorable     
conditions1  ^! p>ticles mu/ pass v     
close to ! nucleus & may ei!r lead  to a
 disruption ( ! nucleus or to a         
comb9ation ) x40        ,illu/ration3   
,m$ieval ,al*emi/      ,c\rtesy ,fi%]   
,sci5tific ,company    ,_w ,w> ,i began 
%ortly aft] ,ru!r=d made ?is /atem5t1 & 
preoccupation ) w> "w /opp$ 8 exp]im5ts 
) nuclei4 ,9  #aiai1 h[ev]1 he publi%$ a
 pap] describ+ :at happ5s :5 alpha      
p>ticles pass ?r\gh nitrog5 gas4 ,v fa/ 
protons1 or hydrog5  nuclei1 appe> to   
orig9ate along ! pa?s ( ! alpha         
p>ticles4 ,!  foll[+ is f ,ru!r=d's     
pap]3    8,if ?is be ! case1 we mu/     
conclude t ! nitrog5 atom is            
dis9tegrat$ "u ! int5se =ces develop$ 9 

a close collision  ) a swift alpha      
p>ticle1 & t ! hydrog5 atom :i* is      
lib]at$ =m$ a con/itu5t "p ( ! nitrog5  
nucleus4444 ,!  results z a :ole sugge/ 
t1 if alpha p>ticles or simil>          
projectiles ( /ill great] en]gy 7       
available = exp]im5t1 we  might expect  
to break d[n ! nucle> /ructure ( _m ( ! 
light]  atoms40    ,?is pr$iction has   
c]ta9ly be5 v]ifi$ ?r\gh ! use ( !      
atomic artill]y provid$ by extremely    
p[]ful p>ticle accel]ators1  or 8atom   
sma%]s40#a        ,illu/ration3 ,!      
,bevatron accel]ator at ! ,univ]sity (  
,cali=nia's ,lawr5ce ,radiation         
,laboratory1 ,b]keley1 ,cali=nia1       
%[n aft] rec5t remodel+ 9 :i* x 0       
enclos$ 9 concrete      %ield+4         
,c\rtesy ,lawr5ce ,radiation ,laboratory
    ,patrick ,blackett 9 ,engl& & ,w4   
,d4 ,h>k9s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates soon  prov$
 indep5d5tly t1 dur+ ! nucle> ev5t      
report$ by  ,ru!r=d 9 8 #aiai pap]1 an  
alpha p>ticle comb9es ) a nitrog5       
nucleus & t ! result+ un/able comb9ation

 imm$iately emits a  proton & ends up z 
"o ( ! isotopes ( oxyg54 ,?is 0 ! fir/  
in/ance ( delib]ate transmutation ( "o  
/able *emical elem5t into  ano!r4 ,s9ce 
t "t practically e kn[n elem5t has be5  
transmut$ by bomb>dm5t4 ,! dream ( !    
al*emi/s has be5  p>tially fulfill$ 9 t 
m]cury has be5 *ang$ into gold4 ,we say 
8p>tially fulfill$0 because ! process is
 mu* too exp5sive to be  economically   
pr(itable4                           ,"s
 ,p>ticles ,h ,no ,electric ,*>ge       
,dur+ ! e>ly #aibjs a numb] (           
inve/igators1 includ+ ,h>k9s 9  ! ,unit$
 ,/ates1 ,orme ,masson 9 ,au/ralia1 &   
,ru!r=d & 8  assi/ant ,james ,*adwick 9 
,engl&1 s]i\sly consid]$ !  possibility 
t a neutral p>ticle might exi/ 9 nature1
 possibly  =m$ by ! v close association 
( a proton & an electron4  ,h[ev]1      
/r5u\s ef=ts to produce su* p>ticles by 
comb9+  protons & electrons 7           
unsuccessful4    ,dur+ ^! ye>s ! new    
te*nique ( bomb>d+ all k9ds ( matt]  )  
alpha p>ticles to see :at w\ld happ5 0  

widely exploit$1 &  x gradually became  
cle> t 9 a few in/ances a peculi> &     
highly  p5etrat+ k9d ( radiation 0      
produc$4 ,9 #aicb1 ,*adwick succe$$  9  
%[+ t ! peculi> radiation mu/ consi/ ( a
 /ream (  p>ticles1 ea* weigh+ ab\t !   
same z a proton b hav+ no  electrical   
*>ge4    ,! "n 8neutron0 = a possible   
neutral p>ticle ( ?is type 0  sugge/$ by
 ,h>k9s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 #aiba4 ,mu* 
evid5ce n[  exi/s t ! neutron is a      
fundam5tal p>ticle 9 its own "r &  t x  
%\ld n be ?\ght ( m]ely z a p>ticle =m$ 
by a v  close association betwe5 a      
proton & an electron4    ,! new p>ticle 
discov]$ by ,*adwick 0 de/9$ to play a  
totally  unexpect$ role1 n only 9 !     
hi/ory ( atomic sci5ce b also 9  ! fate 
( nations4 ,x imm$iately outmod$ a      
previ\s concept ( !  nucleus t pictur$ x
 z a clu/] ( protons approximately half 
(  :i* 7 neutraliz$ by electrons cr[d$  
into ! nucleus4 ,a nucleus  is n[ ?\ght 
( z conta9+ j protons & neutrons4    ,! 
neutron 0 also greet$ by nucle> work]s z

 a practically p]fect  k9d ( bullet4    
,unlike *>g$ alpha p>ticles1 un*>g$     
neutrons c  approa* a *>g$ nucleus      
completely unoppos$4 ,x is physically   
impossible = any k9d ( conta9] to hold a
 sw>m ( free neutrons2  !y seep "r ?r\gh
 its walls4                             
,matt] ,is ,en]gy2 ,en]gy ,is ,matt]    
,s f>1 9 ! /ory ab\t man's curiosity    
conc]n+ ! fundam5tal  nature & /ructure 
( matt]1 ! developm5t ( ideas ab\t      
/ructure has be5 emphasiz$4 ,we w n[    
take a brief look at a  developm5t :i*  
/rongly influ5c$ our ideas ab\t !       
fundam5tal  nature ( matt]4    ,9 #ahhg 
reports appe>$ on a fam\s /udy1 (t5     
ref]r$ to z !  ,mi*elson-,morley        
exp]im5t1 :i* 0 aim$ at det]m9+ ! e>?'s 
spe$ ?r\gh absolute space4 ,! entirely  
unexpect$ results ( !  exp]im5t _h a    
great impact on ! concepts ( space & "t4
 ,we w  "h conc]n ourselves ) j "o      
outcome ( ! exp]im5t4    ,9 #aije1 a "y 
,g]man-born physics /ud5t nam$ ,alb]t   
,e9/e91 :o  0 work+ z a pat5t exam9] 9  

,switz]l&1 publi%$ ?ree pap]s1  ea* (   
:i* _h a pr(\nd effect on a diff]5t     
field ( physics4    ,"o ( ! pap]s dealt 
) "s peculi> speculations ab\t space &  
"t :i* began to int]e/ him :5 he 0 /udy+
 !  ,mi*elson-,morley exp]im5t4 ,!      
cont5ts ( ! pap] are n[ ref]r$  to z !  
,special ,!ory ( ,relativity4 ,?is pap] 
conta9s sev]al  pr$ictions t seem$      
incr$ible to ! av]age physici/ ( t day4 
,^! pr$ictions h1 h[ev]1 long s9ce be5  
prov$ valid4        ,illu/ration3 ,alb]t
 ,e9/e9 9 #aije4      ,c\rtesy ,lotte   
,jacobi1 ,hillsboro1 ,new ,hamp%ire     
,"o ( ,e9/e9's pr$ictions _h to d ) !   
equival5ce ( matt]  & en]gy4 ,until     
#aije matt] _h be5 consid]$ z some?+ t  
has mass or in]tia2 en]gy1 on ! o!r h&1 
_h be5 reg>d$ z  ! ability to d "w4 ,x 0
 believ$ t ! two 7 z diff]5t  f ea* o!r 
z1 say1 a squ>e y>d is diff]5t f an h\r4
  ,e9/e9's !ory1 h[ev]1 implies t matt] 
& en]gy are m]ely  two diff]5t          
manife/ations ( ! same fundam5tal       
physical reality1  & t ea* may be       

conv]t$ into ! o!r accord+ to ! fam\s   
equation3                               
,e  ,,mc      :]e        ,e  quantity ( 
en]gy1        ,m  quantity ( matt]1 &   
,c  spe$ ( light 9 a vacuum4            
,nuclei ,conta9 ,en]gy      ,"o m piece 
( in=mation mu/ be fitt$ into ! /ory ( !
 atom  be=e x becomes cle> :y "s p began
 to realize dur+ !  #aibjs t atomic     
nuclei conta9 va/ /ores ( en]gy t might 
"s  day revolutionize civilization4 ,?is
 la/ item has to d ) a nucle>  ph5om5on 
kn[n z ! pack+ fraction4    ,s9ce any   
nucleus consi/s ( a c]ta9 numb] (       
protons & neutrons1  x seems logical t !
 total weight ( ! nucleus c\ld be       
det]m9$ by add+ toge!r ! individual     
weights ( ! p>ticles 9  x4 ,:5 mass     
spectrographs ( suffici5tly high        
accuracy became  available1 h[ev]1 x 0  
f\nd t 9 ! case ( nucle> weights1  !    
:ole 0 n equal to ! sum ( its p>ts6 ,all
 nuclei 7except  hydrog57 weigh less ?an
 ! sum ( ! weights ( ! p>ticles 9  !m4  
,= example1 ! atomic weight ( a proton  

is #a4jjhab & t ( a  neutron is         
#a4jjhic4 7,^! are relative weights bas$
 on an  int]nationally accept$ scale47  
,x w\ld seem !n t a nucleus (  helium   
conta9+ two protons & two neutrons %\ld 
h an atomic  weight ( #b  #a4jjhab plus 
#b  #a4jjhic or #d4jcda4 ,actually !    
atomic  weight ( helium z measur$ by !  
mass spectrograph is only #d4jjci4      
7,see ,figure #d47        ,illu/ration3 
,figure #d ,a case :]e ! :ole is n equal
 to !      sum ( its p>ts4 ,two protons 
& two neutrons are di/9ctly      heavi] 
?an a helium nucleus1 :i* also consi/s (
 two protons      & two neutrons4 ,en]gy
 makes up ! diff]5ce4      ,,helium     
,,nucleus    ,,two ,,protons ,,& ,,two  
,,neutrons    ,:at happ5s to ! miss+    
atomic weight ( #j4jcjb8 ,physici/s n[  
realize t1 z po/ulat$ 9 ,e9/e9's =mula1 
x mu/ be conv]t$  into en]gy6 ,!        
conv]sion occurs :5 ! protons & neutrons
 are  drawn toge!r into a helium nucleus
 by ! p[]ful nucle> =ces  betwe5 !m4    
,:5 ! miss+ atomic weight #j4jcjb is    

multipli$ by ! squ>e ( !  velocity (    
light accord+ to ,e9/e9's !ory1 x is    
f\nd to  repres5t a trem5d\s am\nt (    
en]gy4 ,inde$1 ! en]gy releas$ 9  =m+ a 
helium nucleus f two protons & two      
neutrons turns out to  be sev5 million  
times t releas$ :5 a c>bon atom comb9es 
) an  oxyg5 molecule to produce a       
molecule ( c>bon dioxide 9 ! famili>    
process ( combu/ion4    ,! g5]al        
behavior ( su* losses 9 atomic weight = 
atoms  ?r\gh\t ! p]iodic table _h be5   
det]m9$ z e>ly z #aibg1  l>gely ?r\gh ! 
"w ( ,a/on1 ! ,engli% sci5ti/ :o        
develop$  ! fir/ mass spectrograph4 ,8  
results %[ t1 9 g5]al1 if two  light    
nuclei comb9e to =m a heavi] "o1 ! new  
nucleus does n  weigh z mu* z ! sum ( ! 
orig9al ones4 ,?is behavior cont9ues  up
 to ! level ( ! s-call$ 8transition     
metals0--iron1 nickel1 &  cobalt--9 !   
p]iodic table4 ,b if two nuclei heavi]  
?an iron are  coalesc$ into a s+le v    
heavy nucleus f\nd ne> ! end ( !        
p]iodic table 7su* z uranium71 ! new    

nucleus weighs m ?an !  sum ( ! two     
nuclei t =m$ x4    ,?us1 if a v heavy   
nucleus c\ld be divid$ into p>ts1 en]gy 
w\ld  be releas$1 & ! sum ( ! weights ( 
! fragm5ts w\ld be less  ?an t ( !      
orig9al nucleus4    ,9 ^! two types (   
nucle> reactions1 a small am\nt ( matt] 
w\ld  actually vani%6 ,e9/e9's ,special 
,!ory ( ,relativity /ates t !  vani%$   
matt] w\ld reappe> z an enorm\s quantity
 ( en]gy4    ,dur+ ! late #aibjs        
sci5ti/s began say+ t a small am\nt (   
matt] c\ld supply en\gh en]gy to drive a
 l>ge %ip across !  ocean4 ,z we "k1 ?is
 pr$iction has s9ce be5 borne out by !  
p]=mance ( nucle> subm>9es & surface    
vessels4        ,illu/ration3 ,! ,,ns   
,savannah 0 ! fir/ c>go-pass5g] %ip     
to be driv5 by nucle> p[]4      ,c\rtesy
 ,/ates ,m>9e ,l9es        ,illu/ration3
 ,! ,nautilus 0 ! ,navy's fir/          
atomic-p[]$      subm>9e4      ,c\rtesy 
,u4 ,s4 ,navy                           
,,*ronology        #ahjj                
,dalton firmly e/abli%es atomic !ory (  

matt]4    #ahij-aijj     ,?omson's      
exp]im5ts ) ca?ode rays prove !         
exi/5ce ( electrons4 ,atoms are f\nd to 
conta9                  negative        
electrons & positive electric *>ge4     
,becqu]el discov]s un/able 7radioactive7
 atoms4    #aije          ,e9/e9        
po/ulates ! equival5ce ( mass & en]gy4  
#aiaa          ,ru!r=d recognizes       
nucleus4    #aiai          ,ru!r=d      
a*ieves transmutation ( "o /able *emical
                  elem5t 7nitrog57 into 
ano!r 7oxyg574    #aibj-aibe            
,improv$ mass spectrographs %[ t *anges 
9 mass p]                  nucle>       
p>ticle accompany+ transmutation acc\nt 
=                  en]gy releas$ by     
nucleus4    #aicb          ,*adwick     
id5tifies neutrons4    #aici            
,discov]y ( uranium fission by ,g]man   
sci5ti/s4    #aidj          ,discov]y ( 
neptunium by ,edw9 ,m4 ,mc,millan &     
,philip ,h4                  ,abelson & 
( plutonium by ,gl5n ,t4 ,seaborg &     
associates at ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia4 

#aidb          ,a*ievem5t ( fir/        
self-su/a9+ nucle> reaction1            
,univ]sity ( ,*icago4    #aide          
,fir/ successful te/ ( an atomic device1
 ne>                  ,alamagordo1 ,new 
,mexico1 foll[$ by ! dropp+ (           
atomic bombs on ,hiro%ima & ,nagasaki1  
,japan4    #aidf          ,u4 ,s4       
,atomic ,en]gy ,commission e/abli%$ by  
,act (                  ,congress4      
,fir/ %ipm5t ( radioisotopes f ,oak     
,ridge goes to                  hospital
 9 ,/4 ,l\is1 ,miss\ri4    #aiea        
,fir/ significant am\nt ( electricity   
7#ajj kil[atts7                  produc$
 f atomic en]gy at te/+ /ation 9 ,idaho4
    #aieb          ,fir/ detonation ( a 
!rmonucle> bomb1 ,eniwetok ,atoll1      
,pacific ,ocean4    #aiec               
,presid5t ,eis5h[] ann\nces ,u4 ,s4     
,atoms-=-,peace                  program
 & proposes e/abli%m5t ( an int]national
                  atomic en]gy ag5cy4   
#aied          ,fir/ nucle>-p[]$        
subm>9e1 ,nautilus1 commission$4        

#aiee          ,fir/ ,unit$ ,nations    
,int]national ,conf]5ce on ,peaceful    
,uses ( ,atomic ,en]gy held 9 ,g5eva1   
,switz]l&4    #aieg          ,fir/      
comm]cial use ( p[] f a civilian reactor
                  takes place 9         
,cali=nia4                  ,%ipp+port  
,atomic ,p[] ,plant 9 ,p5nsylvania      
rea*es                  full p[] (      
#fj1jjj kil[atts4                       
,int]national ,atomic ,en]gy ,ag5cy     
=mally e/abli%$4    #aiei          ,fir/
 nucle>-p[]$ m]*ant %ip1 ! ,savannah1   
laun*$ at ,camd51 ,new ,j]sey4          
,commission+ ( fir/ nucle>-p[]$ ,pol>is 
missile-laun*+ subm>9e ,george ,wa%+ton4
    #aifa          ,a radioisotope-p[]$ 
electric p[] g5]ator plac$ 9            
orbit1 ! fir/ use ( nucle> p[] 9 space4 
#aifb          ,nucle> p[] plant 9 !    
,ant>ctic becomes op]ational4    #aifc  
,presid5t ,k5n$y ratifi$ ! ,limit$ ,te/ 
,ban ,treaty                  = ! ,unit$
 ,/ates on ,octob] #g4    #aifd         
,presid5t ,johnson sign$ law p]mitt+    

private own]%ip                  ( c]ta9
 nucle> mat]ials4                       
,fission is ,expla9$                    
,illu/ration3 ,enrico ,f]mi #aija-aied  
,c\rtesy ,*emical & ,eng9e]+ ,news      
,physici/s welcom$ ! neutron z a bullet 
t c\ld /rike any  nucleus1 unoppos$ by  
electric repulsion4 ,dur+ ! middle      
#aicjs1 a  numb] ( inve/igators1 *ief   
among !m ! ,italian physici/ ,enrico    
,f]mi1 expos$ _m diff]5t isotopes ( !   
*emical elem5ts to beams  ( neutrons to 
see :at w\ld happ54    ,:at usually     
happ5$ 0 t ! bomb>d$ nuclei w\ld absorb 
neutrons1 emit alpha1 beta1 or gamma    
rays1 & *ange into diff]5t  isotopes4 ,!
 id5tification ( ! extremely small      
quantities (  isotopes produc$ requir$ !
 developm5t ( a fanta/ic new bran* (    
*emi/ry kn[n z radio*emi/ry1 or1 z "o   
*emi/ put x1 8phantom  *emi/ry40    ,9  
"s cases ! absorption ( a neutron by a  
nucleus 0 foll[$ by  ! emission ( a     
negative electron 7beta p>ticle74 ,?is  
produc$ an  atom ^: nucle> positive *>ge

 _h be5 increas$ by "o unit &  :i* !re=e
 belong$ at ! next high] place on !     
p]iodic table4  ,f]mi & o!rs !n consid]$
 ! fasc9at+ possibility ( do+  ! same ?+
 to uranium1 ! la/-kn[n elem5t on !     
p]iodic table1  to create previ\sly     
unkn[n *emical elem5ts4 ,! results (    
bomb>d+ uranium ) neutrons turn$ out to 
be extremely complex1 b  x ev5tually    
became cle> t 8transuranic0 elem5ts 7^? 
heavi]  ?an uranium7 c\ld actually be   
made 9 ?is way4#b    ,"s ( ! complex    
results ( bomb>d+ uranium ) neutrons =m$
  an intrigu+ puzzle t kept v>i\s       
inve/igators busy = sev]al  ye>s4 ,9    
#aici ! ,g]man *emi/s ,otto ,hahn &     
,fritz ,/rassmann &  ! physici/s ,lise  
,meitn] & ,otto ,fris* 7 able to ann\nce
 a  solution4 ,! absorption ( a neutron 
by a c]ta9 uranium nucleus  7lat] %[n to
 be t ( ! relatively r>e isotope        
uranium-#bce7 c  result 9 a splitt+1 or 
fission1 ( ! nucleus into two p>ts )    
sep>ate weights t place !m some:]e ne> !
 middle ( !  p]iodic table4             

,illu/ration3 ,lise ,meitn] & ,otto     
,hahn 9 _! laboratory 9      ! #aicjs4  
,c\rtesy ,addison-,wesley ,publi%+ ,co4 
,! ann\ncem5t ( ?is discov]y creat$ q a 
/ir among physici/s  because a nucle>   
process ( ?is nature mu/ release a v    
l>ge  am\nt ( en]gy4                    
,illu/ration3 ,scale model ( ! ,,cp-#a  
7,*icago ,pile ,no4 #a7 us$ by          
,enrico ,f]mi & 8 associates on ,decemb]
 #b1 #aidb1 to a*ieve !      fir/       
self-su/a9+ nucle> reaction4 ,alt]nate  
lay]s (      graphite1 conta9+ uranium  
metal &_/or uranium oxide1 7            
sep>at$ by lay]s ( solid graphite       
blocks4 ,graphite 0 us$ to      sl[ d[n 
neutrons to increase ! likelihood (     
fissions4    ,! excitem5t among         
physici/s became ev5 great] :5 x 0      
realiz$  t ?is newly discov]$ process ( 
fission 0 accompani$ by !  release (    
sev]al free neutrons f ! splitt+        
nucleus4 ,ea* new  neutron c\ld1 if     
prop]ly sl[$ d[n by a mod]at+ mat]ial1  
cause  ano!r nucleus to split & release 

m en]gy & /ill m  neutrons1 & s on1 z   
illu/rat$ 9 ,figure #e4 7,a mod]ator is 
necess>y because fa/1 newly releas$     
neutrons are too readily absorb$  by    
uranium-#bch nuclei1 :i* r>ely split47  
,app>5tly all t 0  ne$$ to a*ieve ?is   
spectacul> k9d ( a *a9 reaction 0 to    
assemble en\gh uranium 9 "o place s t ! 
releas$ neutrons w\ld  h a good *ance ( 
f9d+ ano!r ,u nucleus be=e escap+ f  !  
pile4 ,! am\nt ( fissionable mat]ial    
requir$ to su/a9 a *a9  reaction is t]m$
 ! 8critical mass40 ,a team ( sci5ti/s  
l$ by  ,f]mi a*iev$ ! fir/ self-su/a9+  
nucle> reaction on ,decemb] #b1  #aidb1 
"u ! gr&/& at ! ,univ]sity ( ,*icago's  
a?letic  field4 ,?is date is (t5 ref]r$ 
to z ! beg9n+ ( ! ,nucle>  ,age4        
,illu/ration3 ,figure #e ,?is diagram   
%[s :at happ5s 9 a *a9      reaction    
result+ f fission ( uranium-#bce atoms4 
,,/ray ,,neutron    ,u    ,,orig9al     
,,fission      ,,fission ,,fragm5ts     
,"o to ?ree neutrons f fission process  
,a ,,neutron ,,sometimes ,,lo/    ,u    

,,*anges ,,to ,,plutonium    ,u         
,,"o ,,new ,,fission      ,,fission     
,,fragm5t      ,"o to ?ree neutrons aga9
    ,u    ,u      ,,two ,,new ,,fissions
      ,,fission ,,fragm5ts              
,! ,fission ,bomb ,is ,explod$      ,!  
,am]ican sci5ti/s pres5t on t hi/oric   
,decemb] day 7 "p  ( ! trem5d\s         
sup]-secret sci5tific & indu/rial       
complex t  bore ! unreveal+ title       
,manhattan ,di/rict4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates _h
  be5 at w> almo/ a ye>4 ,an uncontroll$
 fission reaction gave promise  (       
produc+ an explosion ( untold           
proportions4 ,?is promise1 c\pl$  ) !   
possibility t enemy sci5ti/s might be   
ne>+ su* a goal1  _h laun*$ a va/ ,alli$
 ef=t4    ,! ,manhattan ,project1 z x 0 
commonly kn[n1 includ$ a v>iety (       
8hu%-hu%0 facilities4 ,ea* ( ^!         
in/allations1 9 ,new ,york1  ,ill9ois1  
,t5nessee1 ,new ,mexico1 ,cali=nia1 &   
,wa%+ton1 _h its own  exp]ts work+ night
 & day to solve ! baffl+ problems       
surr\nd+  developm5t ( a fission weapon4

    ,ord9>y uranium z f\nd 9 nature 0 n 
suitable = an atomic bomb  because less 
?an "o p]c5t ( ! atoms 9 x are          
fissionable isotope  ,u4#c ,x !re=e     
became necess>y to f9d "s means =       
sep>at+  ! r>e ,u f ! l>ge quantity (   
,u4 ,*emi/ry c\ld n d x  s9ce ! two     
isotopes are id5tical *emically4        
,sev]al me?ods ( a*iev+ l>ge-scale      
sep>ation 7 tri$4 ,! mo/  successful &  
economical1 kn[n z 8gase\s diffusion10  
involves  compress+ normal uranium1 9 ! 
=m ( uranium hexafluoride gas1  aga9/ a 
por\s b>ri] conta9+ millions ( holes1   
ea* small] ?an  two-million?s ( an in*4 
,s9ce ! ,u molecules are slightly light]
  ?an ! ,u1 !y b\nce aga9/ ! b>ri] m    
frequ5tly & h  a great] *ance (         
p5etrat+4 ,?us1 al?\gh ! gas at fir/    
conta9s only #j4g ,u1 ! process (       
compression is repeat$ sev]al  ?\s&     
times1 & ! proportion gradually         
increases until !  necess>y conc5tration
 is rea*$4    ,= ?is op]ation an enorm\s
 plant conta9+ a v l>ge b>ri]  area1    

miles ( pip+1 & c\ntless pumps 0 built  
at ,oak ,ridge1  ,t5nessee4    ,at !    
same "t t va/ ef=ts 7 be+ made to       
produce a ,u  bomb1 ano!r project (     
equal importance 0 be+ pursu$ to develop
 a  diff]5t k9d ( fission bomb4         
,unc]ta9ty z to :e!r x w\ld be  possible
 to sep>ate usable am\nts ( ,u l$ to a  
decision to exploit  a highly           
significant discov]y ab\t "o ( !        
transuranic elem5ts4    ,by #aida ,gl5n 
,t4 ,seaborg1 ,edw9 ,m4 ,mc,millan1     
,philip ,h4 ,abelson1 &  o!rs at !      
,radiation ,laboratory1 ,b]keley1       
,cali=nia1 _h id5tifi$  isotopes ( two  
new transuranic elem5ts develop$ :5 !y  
bomb>d$  ,u nuclei ) neutrons4 ,! new   
elem5ts 7 nam$ neptunium &  plutonium   
aft] ! planets ,neptune & ,pluto1 :i*   
lie beyond ,uranus  9 ! sol> sy/em4#d   
,"o isotope ( plutonium1 plutonium-#bci1
 :i*  result$ f ! absorption ( a neutron
 by a ,u nucleus & !  emission ( two    
beta p>ticles1 0 discov]$ to be z       
fissionable z  ,u & h5ce !oretically j z

 feasible = a bomb4 ,s9ce  plutonium is 
*emically diff]5t f uranium1 x (f]$ !   
trem5d\s advantage t x c\ld readily be  
conc5trat$ by  conv5tional *emical      
te*niques4    ,! way to manufacture     
usable am\nts ( plutonium1 an elem5t t  
_h  nev] be=e be5 detect$ on e>?1 is to 
expose uranium to a v  int5se neutron   
bomb>dm5t4 ,! be/-kn[n place to f9d a   
ri* supply  ( neutrons 0 ! he>t ( a     
self-su/a9+ *a9-react+ pile (  uranium4 
,accord+ly1 v l>ge piles1 or reactors1 7
 ru%$ to  completion ne> ! ,columbia    
,riv] at ,han=d1 ,wa%+ton1 to make      
plutonium4        ,illu/ration3 ,fir/   
atomic bomb explosion at ,alamagordo1   
,new      ,mexico1 at #e3cj a4m4 on     
,july #af1 #aide4      ,c\rtesy ,u4 ,s4 
,army    ,on ,july #af1 #aide1 a        
plutonium bomb1 c>efully assembl$ by    
ano!r gr\p  ( sci5ti/s at 8,project ,y10
 ,los ,alamos1 ,new ,mexico1 0          
successfully  te/$ 9 ! ,new ,mexico     
des]t4 ,! heat f t fir/ man-made  nucle>
 explosion completely vaporiz$ a tall   

/eel t[] & melt$  sev]al acres (        
surr\nd+ surface s&4 ,! fla% ( light 0 !
  brighte/ ! e>? _h ev] witness$4    ,a 
,u bomb 0 dropp$ on ,hiro%ima1 ,japan1  
on ,augu/ #f1 #aide4 ,?ree  days lat] a 
plutonium bomb 0 dropp$ on ,nagasaki1   
,japan4 ,ho/ilities  end$ on ,augu/ #ad1
 #aide4                          ,nucle>
 ,en]gy ,is ,ne$$ = ! ,future      ,!   
*ief s\rce ( ! enorm\s quantities (     
en]gy us$ daily by  mod]n civilization  
is fossil fuels 9 ! =m ( coal1          
petroleum1 &  natural gas4 ,conc5trat$  
s\rces ( ^! fuels1 ?\gh l>ge1 are f>  f 
inexhau/ible1 & x has be5 said t future 
hi/orians may  ref] to ! brief "t :5 !y 
7 us$ z 8! fossil-fuel  incid5t40       
,illu/ration3 ,^! lights ( d[nt[n       
,pittsburgh are symbolic (      !       
g5]ation ( electricity by atomic p[] f  
,%ipp+port1      ,p5nsylvania1 ! site ( 
! _w's fir/ full-scale                  
atomic-electric g5]ation /ation         
exclusively = civilian ne$s4      ,homes
 & factories ( ! great] ,pittsburgh area

 are receiv+ !      electricity produc$ 
at ! plant & transmitt$ ?r\gh !         
,duquesne ,light ,company sy/em4 ,!     
,%ipp+port plant is a jo9t      project 
( ,we/+h\se ,electric ,corporation1 ,u4 
,s4 ,atomic ,en]gy      ,commission1 & !
 ,duquesne ,light ,company4             
,c\rtesy ,we/+h\se ,electric            
,corporation    ,! next great s\rce (   
en]gy w probably be nucle> reactors1 9  
:i* controll$ *a9 reactions release     
en]gy f ! l>ge /ore (  fissionable      
mat]ials 9 ! _w4#e    ,! accompli%m5ts (
 nucle> p[] 9 ! propulsion ( %ips h     
already be5 not$4 ,9 addition1 !re is n[
 go+ on 9 indu/rializ$  c\ntries 9      
diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w a l>ge-scale        
developm5t (  nucle> p[] plants =       
production ( electricity4 ,nucle>       
electric  p[] is approa*+ ! po9t :]e x w
 be economically competitive  ) p[] f   
hydroelectric plants or ^? burn+ coal1  
oil1 or gas  z fuels4 ,improvem5ts 9    
nucle> p[] te*nology are rapidly be+    
made1 & x is n[ widely pr$ict$ t be=e ! 

end ( ?is c5tury  mo/ new electric p[]  
plants w be nucle>4                     
,fusion ,has ,pot5tial      ,"o ( !     
greate/ puzzles to be solv$ by physici/s
 arose f !  "w ( geologi/s4 ,:5 x became
 cle> t coal & o!r fossil  rema9s ( liv+
 ?+s date f _m hundr$s ( millions ( ye>s
  ago1 x 0 obvi\s t ! e>?'s sun _h be5  
%9+ at a q  /eady rate = an extremely   
long "t4    ,h[ does x manage to d x8   
,:at is its s\rce ( en]gy8 ,*emical     
en]gy suppli$ by combu/ion &            
gravitational pot5tial en]gy  suppli$ by
 contraction are ?\s&s ( times too small
 to h kept  ! sun go+ = su* a long "t4  
,! pr9ciple illu/rat$ by ,figure #d     
sugge/s ! mo/ probable s\rce  ( en]gy = 
! sun & all ! o!r />s z well4 ,x is kn[n
 t  ! sun consi/s *iefly ( hydrog5 & t x
 has a temp]ature (  ab\t #dj1jjj1jjj   
degrees ,fahr5heit ne> its c5t]4 ,sev]al
 k9ds (  nucle> reactions produc$ 9 atom
 sma%]s h demon/rat$ t  hydrog5 nuclei1 
if en]giz$ by be+ heat$ to a v high     
temp]ature1 c actually comb9e1 or fuse1 

to =m helium nuclei4    ,! accompany+   
loss ( weight p] p>ticle indicat$ by    
,figure #d mu/  result 9 ! appe>ance (  
suffici5t en]gy to balance ,e9/e9's     
fam\s equation4 ,9 fact1 calculations by
 ! ,g]man-born ,am]ican  physici/ ,hans 
,a4 ,be! & o!rs %[ t1 bas$ on reasonable
  e/imates ( ! conditions )9 ! sun1     
famili> nucle> reactions  acc\nt = its  
en]gy4 ,! calculations pr$ict1          
fur!rmore1 t !  sun c cont9ue to op]ate 
at its pres5t level = _m billions (     
ye>s4        ,illu/ration3 ,l>ge loop   
prom95ces on ! sun1 caus$ by a          
locally int5se magnetic field4 ,project 
,%]wood1 ! ,u4 ,s4 program      9       
controll$ fusion1 is devot$ to rese>* on
 fusion reactions      simil> to ^? f   
:i* ! sun d]ives its en]gy4             
,c\rtesy ,sacram5to ,peak ,obs]vatory1  
,,afcrl    ,s9ce fusion ( light nuclei  
is produc$ by extremely high            
temp]atures1  fusion ev5ts are call$    
!rmonucle> reactions4 ,! possibility (  
br++ ab\t !rmonucle> reactions on e>? to

 s]ve z a s\rce (  en]gy has naturally  
attract$ mu* att5tion4    ,9 spite ( !  
fact t fusion ( ord9>y hydrog5 atoms    
7ea* (  :i* has "o proton z its nucleus7
 supports ! activity ( ! sun1  ?is      
p>ticul> reaction seems to occur mu* too
 sl[ly to be usable on  e>?4 ,o!r       
isotopes ( hydrog51 call$ deut]ium &    
tritium1  h[ev]1 :i* conta9 "o & two    
neutrons 9 _! nuclei1  respectively1    
fuse mu* m rapidly & seem to be pot5tial
 e>?ly  s\rces ( controll$ !rmonucle>   
en]gy4        ,illu/ration3 ,an e>ly    
phase ( a nucle> detonation at ,eniwetok
      ,atoll dur+ ! #aiea te/s4         
,c\rtesy ,jo9t ,task ,=ce ,?ree    ,!   
fir/ l>ge-scale application ( !rmonucle>
 en]gy 0 !  s-call$ hydrog5 bomb1 or    
8,h-bomb40 ,= a brief "t an explod+     
fission bomb develops a temp]ature (    
hundr$s ( millions ( degrees            
,fahr5heit1 hot en\gh to cause "s light 
nuclei to fuse4 ,9 !  hydrog5 bomb1     
light nuclei ( deut]ium &_/or tritium   
are expos$ to  ?is temp]ature dur+ su* a

 fission explosion4 ,! result+ fusion  (
 ^! nuclei causes ! explosion to be     
hundr$s ( times m  p[]ful ?an t ( !     
fission device alone4 ,9 #aieb ! ,atomic
  ,en]gy ,commission te/-fir$ su* a     
!rmonucle> device at ,eniwetok  ,atoll 9
 ! ,pacific ,ocean4 ,! en]gy releas$ by 
! highly effici5t  device produc$ an    
explosion t completely de/roy$ ! coral  
islet  :]e x 0 detonat$4    ,at su*     
extreme temp]atures all atoms are /ripp$
 ( electrons2 !  result+ mixture (      
nuclei & free electrons is call$ a      
plasma4  ,sev]al laboratories are n[    
work+ on ! problems connect$ )  creat+ &
 conta9+ plasma4 ,ord9>y solid conta9]s 
_c be  us$4 ,on contact ) plasma !y w\ld
 in/antly vaporize & w\ld  cool ! plasma
 bel[ ! temp]ature necess>y = fusion to 
occur4  ,=tunately1 h[ev]1 ! p>ticles t 
make up a plasma1 be+ *>g$              
electrically1 respond to =ces 9 a       
magnetic field4 ,a /rong magnetic  field
 ( prop] %ape ex]ts a l>ge conf9+       
pressure on a body (  plasma 9 a        

high-vacuum *amb]4 ,?us plasma c be     
conta9$ 9 a small  volume well remov$ f 
! walls ( ! *amb] by surr\nd+ !  *amb] )
 suitably design$ l>ge magnets or       
sol5oids to create a  8magnetic bottle40
 ,9 addition1 a sudd5 increase 9 !      
int5sity (  ! field c compress ! plasma2
 ?is compression raises !  temp]ature ( 
! plasma to ne> t requir$ = fusion4     
,illu/ration3 ,?is plasma is be+ pu%$   
outw>d by an int]nal      magnetic field
 z in/abilities gr[ on its int]nal      
surface4 ,!      photo 0 tak5 by means (
 fa/-%utt] photography p]mitt+          
photo sequ5ces at int]vals ( #c to #e   
million?s ( a second4      ,c\rtesy     
,g5]al ,atomic ,division1 ,g5]al        
,dynamics ,corporation    ,fusion (     
light nuclei w\ld be a mu* 8clean]0     
s\rce ( en]gy =  peaceful purposes ?an  
fission ( heavy ones1 because ! 8a%es0 (
  fission reactions are radioactive :ile
 ^? ( fusion 7helium atoms7  are n4     
,great te*nical difficulties mu/ be     
ov]come1 h[ev]1 be=e  a controll$       

!rmonucle> reaction is possible4        
,fusionable mat]ial  mu/ be heat$ to a  
temp]ature ( ov] #ajj million degrees   
,fahr5heit  & mu/ be conta9$ long en\gh 
= an appreciable am\nt ( fusion to      
occur4    ,! greate/ problem enc\nt]$ to
 date is ! extreme in/ability (  !      
plasma & ! correspond+ difficulty (     
ma9ta9+ x at !  prop] temp]ature long]  
?an a few million?s ( a second4 ,_m     
physici/s n[ ?9k t ! successful         
exploitation ( !rmonucle>  en]gy w n    
occur = _m ye>s4 ,:5 & if x is a*iev$1  
h[ev]1 ! deut]ium pres5t 9 ! oceans ( ! 
e>? w repres5t  an almo/ inexhau/ible   
s\rce ( en]gy4                          
,isotopes ,h ,_m ,uses      ,! ability  
to produce & control nucle> reactions is
 affect+1 &  w d\btless cont9ue to      
affect1 human life 9 two out/&+ ways4   
,"o way is by mak+ trem5d\s am\nts (    
en]gy available1 ei!r z  explosions or z
 en]gy releas$ f controll$ reactions =  
peacetime  use4 ,! o!r way is by produc+
 a va/ v>iety ( radioactive  isotopes1  

fir/ 9 ! p>ticle accel]ators 78atom     
sma%]s07 m5tion$  e>li]1 & n[ 9 l>ge    
quantities 9 nucle> reactors4    ,!     
pres5ce ( a radioactive isotope c be    
detect$ by in/rum5ts  l ! famili> ,geig]
 c\nt]2 = ?is reason isotopes make      
wond]ful trac]s4 ,^! telltale atoms1    
:i*1 9 effect1 cont9ually  cry 8,"h ,i  
am10 c trace ! c\rse ( a *emical elem5t 
?r\gh any  k9d ( *emical reaction4      
,*emi/s are tak+ advantage ( ?is new way
  ( tagg+ atoms to /udy reaction patt]ns
 t1 h]et(ore1 h be5  obscure4    ,z a   
consequ5ce1 a sci5ti/'s ability to      
syn!size sc>ce *emicals  is be+         
increas$4 ,! exact role ( num]\s        
ess5tial trace elem5ts  9 ! gr[? &      
metabolism ( liv+ ?+s1 includ+ p1 is    
be+ /udi$ by ! use ( tagg$ atoms4       
,radioisotopes at ,"w                   
,illu/ration3 ,,9 ,,m$ic9e3 ,iod9e-#aca 
reveals spread ( ?yroid      canc] 9    
pati5t's body4        ,illu/ration3 ,,9 
,,space3 ,plutonium-#bch is ! fuel = !  
atomic      g5]ator p[]+ ?is ,,transit  

satellite4      ,c\rtesy ,! ,m>t9       
,company        ,illu/ration3 ,,9 ,,food
 ,,pres]vation3 ,potatoes /or$ = #ah    
mon?s      at #dg;,f4 ,potato at "r _h  
be5 irradiat$1 t on left _h      n4     
,illu/ration3 ,,9 ,,indu/ry3            
,radioactive iridium 0 us$ to inspect   
! hull ( ! c>ri] ,indep5d5ce4           
,c\rtesy ,te*nical ,op]ations1 ,inc4    
,z s\rces ( radiation1 radioactive      
isotopes are frequ5tly replac+  m       
exp5sive & less conv5i5t s\rces su* z   
radium & ,x-ray  ma*9es4 ,! m$ical      
treatm5t ( diseas$ tissue has be5       
greatly  exp$it$ by ! new s\rces4 ,9    
indu/ry _m applications ( radiation     
s\rces h be5 made4 ,!y are us$1 =       
example1 9 ?ickness gaug+  & 9 mak+     
radiographs to *eck ! quality ( l>ge    
ca/+s4 ,!  /]ilization & pres]vation (  
food is ano!r promis+ use =  inexp5sive 
radioactive s\rces4    ,z a controllable
 means = induc+ g5etic mutations1       
radioactive  isotopes are spe$+ up !    
process ( select+ & develop+  sup]ior   

agricultural products4 ,practically e   
agricultural rese>*  c5t] 9 ! _w has "o 
or m projects "u way :i* involve !  use 
( isotopes4    ,small devices h also be5
 con/ruct$ :i* produce electricity f    
heat g5]at$ by decay ( radioisotopes4   
,su* devices h be5 us$ to  p[] in/rum5ts
 9 a remotely locat$ unmann$ wea!r      
/ation1 a  navigational buoy1 a         
ligh?\se1 an und]wat] navigational      
beacon1 &  space satellites4 ,_m        
additional uses are =ese5 = ^! isotopic 
p[] g5]ators4                           
,! ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission           
,foll[+ ! end ( ,_w ,w> ,,ii a vigor\s  
controv]sy develop$ z to  :e!r atomic   
en]gy developm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates %\ld 
cont9ue  "u milit>y control or be       
transf]r$ to civilian control4 ,!       
propon5ts ( civilian control won out1 & 
a civilian ,atomic ,en]gy  ,commission 0
 e/abli%$ by ! ,atomic ,en]gy ,act (    
#aidf4 ,"u ?is  ,act1 :i* 0 am5d$ 9     
#aied1 ! ,,aec manufactures nucle>      
weapons =  ! arm$ s]vices2 produces     

fissionable mat]ials = bo? milit>y &    
civilian purposes2 fo/]s rese>* &       
developm5t 9 ! basic  sci5ces und]ly+   
atomic en]gy & 9 applications su* z p[] 
production & uses ( radioisotopes2      
regulates ! activities (  private       
organizations us+ atomic en]gy2 &       
di/ributes in=mation  ab\t atomic en]gy4
 7,?is booklet is a small example2 mo/ (
 !  in=mation di/ribut$ is mu* m detail$
 & te*nical47        ,illu/ration3      
,presid5t ,truman signs ! bill creat+ ! 
,u4 ,s4      ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission 
on ,augu/ #a1 #aidf4 ,beh9d ! ,presid5t1
      left to "r3 ,s5ators ,tom         
,connally1 ,eug5e ,d4 ,millik91 ,edw9   
,c4      ,johnson1 ,?omas ,c4 ,h>t1     
,bri5 ,mc,mahon1 ,w>r5 ,r4 ,au/91 &     
,ri*>d ,b4 ,russell4      ,c\rtesy      
,unit$ ,press ,int]national    ,almo/   
all ( ! ,,aec's mat]ials production &   
rese>* &  developm5t activities are     
c>ri$ out "u contract by o!r            
organizations4 ,am]ican indu/ry1        
univ]sities1 & rese>*  organizations    

also are engag$ 9 widespread atomic     
en]gy activities (  _! own1 subject only
 to su* gov]nm5t regulations z are ne$$ 
to  protect national security & public  
heal? & safety4 ,= example1 !  l>ge/    
atomic electric p[] plants n[ 9 op]ation
 9 ?is c\ntry  are privately own$1 z are
 num]\s small atomic reactors us$ =     
rese>*4 ,at ! end ( #aifb "s #gjjj      
firms1 in/itutions or  individuals 9 !  
,unit$ ,/ates held f$]al or /ate lic5ses
 giv+  !m p]mission to use              
radioisotopes4 ,! numb] ( p]sons employ$
 9  atomic en]gy "w 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is
 e/imat$ to be ab\t  #adj1jjj1 ( :i*    
only #hjjj "w = ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t4     
,t[>d an ,int]national ,atom      ,9    
,decemb] #aiec1 ,presid5t ,eis5h[]1 9 a 
memorable address to !  ,g5]al ,assembly
 ( ! ,unit$ ,nations1 propos$ !         
e/abli%m5t "u  ! aegis ( ! ,unit$       
,nations ( an ,int]national ,atomic     
,en]gy ,ag5cy  8to s]ve ! peaceful      
pursuits ( mank9d40 ,?is proposal       
captur$ !  imag9ation ( p ev]y:]e1 &    

negotiations soon began z to !  purpose1
 /ructure1 scope1 & program ( su* an    
organization4 ,9  ,octob] #aief an      
#ha-nation ,unit$ ,nations conf]5ce     
unanim\sly adopt$  a /atute = ! ag5cy1  
:i* came into exi/5ce a ye> lat] )      
headqu>t]s 9 ,vi5na1 ,au/ria4 ,by ! end 
( #aifb ! ,,iaea _h #gh  memb] c\ntries4
 ,its mo/ important "w has be5 assi/+ "s
 ( !  less develop$ nations ( ! _w to   
beg9 programs = peaceful use  ( atomic  
en]gy4        ,illu/ration3 ,on ,decemb]
 #h1 #aiec1 ,presid5t ,dwight ,d4       
,eis5h[]      propos$ be=e ! ,unit$     
,nations ,g5]al ,assembly t an          
,int]national ,atomic ,en]gy ,ag5cy be  
e/abli%$ ?r\gh :i* all      nations c\ld
 %>e k & mat]ials to develop ! peaceful 
uses ( atomic en]gy = ! b5efit ( all    
mank9d4 ,seat$ on !      presid5tial    
plat=m are1 left to "r1 ,mr4 ,dag       
,hamm>skjld1      ,secret>y-,g5]al ( !  
,u4 ,n41 ,madame ,vijaya ,lak%mi ,p&it (
      ,india1 ,presid5t ( ! ,g5]al      
,assembly1 & ,mr4 ,&rew ,cordi]1        

,executive ,assi/ant to !               
,secret>y-,g5]al4      ,c\rtesy ,unit$  
,nations        ,illu/ration3 ,?is      
#aej1jjj-kil[att1 dual-cycle1 boil+-wat]
      reactor1 locat$ #ce miles nor? (  
,naples1 ,italy1 on ! ,g>igliano        
,riv]1 0 built by ,g5]al ,electric "u ! 
,unit$ ,/ates-,euratom      ,jo9t       
,program4 ,x a*iev$ criticality on ,june
 #e1 #aifc4    ,ev5 be=e ! int]national 
ag5cy became an accompli%$ fact1 !      
,unit$ ,/ates s\ght on its own to       
implem5t ! _s ( ,presid5t  ,eis5h[]'s   
proposal4 ,x initiat$ 9 #aiee an        
,atoms-=-,peace ,program  "u :i* !      
,unit$ ,/ates has made bilat]al         
agreem5ts ) "s #dj  nations = ! %>+ (   
in=mation on peaceful uses ( atomic     
en]gy  & "u :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates has     
help$ o!r nations to acquire  nucle>    
reactors & mat]ials = peaceful use4     
,m5tion %\ld also be made ( !           
,int]national ,conf]5ces on ,peaceful   
,uses ( ,atomic ,en]gy :i* ! ,unit$     
,nations held 9 ,g5eva1  ,switz]l&1 9   

#aiee1 #aieh1 & #aifd4 ,! #aiee conf]5ce
 0  p>ticul>ly notewor?y 9 t x m>k$ !   
fir/ "t t sci5ti/s  _h met on a         
worldwide basis to discuss atomic en]gy4
 ,at & foll[+  ?is meet+ mu* in=mation  
previ\sly kept secret 0 made public4    
,sugge/$ ,ref]5ces      ,books          
,atomic ,en]gy1 ,ir5e ,d4 ,jaworski &   
,alex&] ,joseph1 ,h>c\rt1 ,brace        
& ,_w1 ,inc41 ,new ,york #ajjag1 #aifa1 
#bah pp41 #d4ie4    ,atomp[]1 ,joseph   
,m4 ,duk]t1 ,c[>d-,mc,cann1 ,inc41 ,new 
,york #ajjaf1        #aifb1 #abg pp41   
#c4ej4    ,atoms ,today & ,tomorr[      
7revis$ edition71 ,m>g>et ,o4 ,hyde1    
,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,company1 ,new     
,york #ajjcf1 #aiff1 #afj pp41 #c4be4   
,basic ,laws ( ,matt] 7revis$ edition71 
,h>rie ,s4 ,w4 ,massey & ,ar?ur         
,r4 ,qu9ton1 ,h]ald ,books1 ,bronxville1
 ,new ,york #ajgaj1 #aife1 #agh         
pp41 #c4ge4    ,build+ ,blocks ( !      
,univ]se 7revis$ edition71 ,isaac       
,asimov1        ,abel>d-,s*uman1 ,ltd41 
,new ,york #ajjai1 #aifa1 #chj pp41     

#c4ej        7h>dback72 #b4gj 7pap]back7
 f ,e4 ,m4 ,hale & ,company1 ,eau       
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publication in=mation f ! pr9t$ edition3
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