,transcriber's ,notes ,text printed in italics has been transcribed between underscores1 bold faced text between equal signs4 ,small capitals have been replaced with ,,all ,,capitals4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ,,foods ,,and ,,their ,,adulteration ,,wiley ,,by ,,the ,,same ,,author4 ,,beverages ,,and ,,their ,,adulteration4 ,,outline ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,spring1 well1 and other potable waters4 ,,ii4 ,potable mineral waters4 ,,iii4 ,contamination of waters and how to avoid them4 ,,iv4 ,coffee1 ,tea1 ,cocoa1 ,chocolate1 etc4 ,v4 ,soda ,waters1 ,pops1 ,seltzers1 etc4 ,,vi4 ,fermented ,beverages--,growth of ,raw ,materials1 ,manufacture1 and ,storage3 7a7 ,beers4 7b7 ,wines4 7c7 ,ciders1 ,perrys1 ,meads1 etc4 ,,vii4 ,distilled ,liquors3 7a7 ,whiskey4 7b7 ,brandy4 7c7 ,rum4 7d7 ,gin and other flavored compounds4 7e7 ,imitation and compound liquors4 7f7 ,blends4 7g7 ,cordials1 denatured alcohol1 etc4 ,,viii4 ,so-called temperance drinks4 ,,ix4 ,beverages of a miscellaneous character4 ,octavo4 ,illustrated4 ,in ,preparation4 ,p4 ,,blakiston',s ,,son ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,philadelphia4 ,,foods ,,and ,,their ,,adulteration ,,origin1 ,,manufacture1 ,,and ,,composition ,,of ,,food ,,products2 ,,description ,,of ,,common ,,adulterations1 ,,food ,,standards1 ,,and ,,national ,,food ,,laws ,,and ,,regulations ,,by ,,harvey ,w4 ,,wiley1 ,m4,d41 ,,ph4,d4 ,,with ,,eleven ,,colored ,,plates ,,and ,,eighty-,,six ,,other ,,illustrations ,,philadelphia ,p4 ,,blakiston',s ,,son ,,co4 #ajab ,,walnut ,,street #aijg ,,copyright1 #aijg1 ,,by ,p4 ,,blakiston',s ,,son ,,co4 ,,wm4 ,f4 ,,fell ,,company ,,electrotypers ,,and ,,printers #abbj-bd ,,sansom ,,street ,,philadelphia1 ,,pa4 ,,preface4 ,this manual is descriptive in character and aims to give1 within its scope1 as thoroughly and intelligibly as possible1 an account of the various food-products in common use in their natural and manufactured conditions1 with the usual adulterations which have been found therein4 ,it includes information regarding ,methods of ,preparation and ,manufacture1 ,food ,values1 ,standards of ,purity1 ,regulations for ,inspection1 ,simple ,tests for ,adulterations1 ,effects of ,storage1 and similar matters pertaining to the subject4 ,it has been designed to interest the consumer1 as well as the manufacturer1 the scientific1 as well as the general reader1 all of whom it is hoped will find in it something useful4 ,the consumer is entitled to know the nature of the product offered1 the manufacturer and dealer the best methods of preparation4 ,it will give the physician and sanitarian knowledge of the value of foods1 their proper use and inspection1 and1 while not analytical in purpose1 will provide the chemist with information which will guide him in his work of detecting impurities4 ,it has been thought advisable to give in the appendices extracts from the national laws relating to the subject1 as well as the rules and regulations for their enforcement and official standards of purity1 as these are now of general interest to all classes4 ,in revising the manuscript and in reading the proofs1 especial recognition is made of the valuable aid of ,dr4 ,w4 ,d4 ,bigelow1 ,chief of the ,division of ,foods of the ,department of ,agriculture2 ,dr4 ,f4 ,v4 ,coville1 ,botanist of the ,department of ,agriculture1 and ,dr4 ,b4 ,w4 ,evermann1 of the ,bureau of ,fisheries4 ,acknowledgement is also made of the favors of the ,bureaus of ,plant ,industry1 ,animal ,industry1 and ,forestry4 ,many helpful suggestions from other sources can only be acknowledged in this general way4 ,all opinions respecting adulterations1 misbranding1 nutritive value1 and wholesomeness are the individual expressions of the author and are not to be considered in any other manner4 ,honest and truthful practices of manufacture and labeling are to be promoted in every possible manner4 ,in the end the true1 the ethical1 and the just in these practices will prevail4 ,,harvey ,w4 ,,wiley4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,may #a1 #aijg4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,page ,,introduction #a-aj ,proper ,ration1 #c2 ,social ,function of ,food1 #e2 ,definition and ,composition of ,foods1 #f2 ,classification of ,foods1 #g2 ,explanation of ,chemical ,terms1 #h4 ,,part ,i4--,,meats ,,and ,,meat ,,products #aa-id ,definition1 #aa2 ,edible ,animals1 #aa2 ,classification of ,meat ,foods1 #ab2 ,preparation of ,animals1 #ab2 ,inspection1 #ac2 ,tuberculosis1 #ac2 ,consumers' ,rights1 #ad2 ,slaughter and ,preparation of ,carcasses1 #ad2 ,names of ,parts1 #ae-bj2 ,delivery of ,fresh ,meat1 #ba2 ,storage1 #bc2 ,disposition of ,fragments1 #bc2 ,detection of ,different ,kinds of ,meat1 #bd2 ,dried and ,pickled ,meat1 #be2 ,composition of ,pig's ,flesh1 #bf-cc2 ,preserved ,meats1 #cd-ch2 ,argument of ,small ,quantities1 #ch-dj2 ,preparation for ,canning1 #da2 ,parboiling1 #da2 ,sterilization1 #db2 ,special ,studies of ,canning1 #dc-dh2 ,relation of ,canned to ,fresh ,beef1 #dh2 ,canned ,ham and ,bacon1 #dh-ej2 ,canned ,tongue1 #ej2 ,fat as a ,test for ,adulteration1 #ea2 ,potted ,meats1 #ea-ef2 ,canned ,poultry1 #ef2 ,canned ,horse-meat1 #eg2 ,canned ,cured ,meats1 #ei-fj2 ,magnitude of ,industry1 #fa2 ,general ,observations1 #fb2 ,lard1 #fc-gg2 ,soups1 #gg-gh2 ,beef ,extract1 #gi-hj2 ,beef ,juice1 #hb2 ,soluble ,meats1 #hc2 ,preparations of ,blood1 #hc2 ,beef-tea1 #hd2 ,dried and ,powdered ,meats1 #he2 ,active ,principles in ,meat ,extracts1 #hf2 ,relation between ,juice and ,nutritive ,value1 #hg2 ,nitrogenous ,bases1 #hh-ij2 ,gelatine1 #ij-ib2 ,terrestrial ,animal ,oils1 #ic4 ,,part ,,ii4--,,poultry ,,and ,,eggs ,,and ,,game ,,birds #ie-aaf ,application of ,name1 #id2 ,domesticated ,fowls1 #ie-aaf2 ,chicken1 #ie-ajd2 ,duck1 #ajd2 ,goose1 #aje2 ,pigeon1 #ajg2 ,turkey1 #ajg2 ,forced ,fattening1 #aji2 ,slaughtering and ,preparing for ,market1 #aaa2 ,poisonous ,principles in ,eggs1 #aaf2 ,parasites in ,eggs1 #aaf4 ,,part ,,iii4--,,fish ,,foods #aag-aff ,classification1 #aag2 ,edible ,portion1 #aai2 ,principal ,constituents1 #aai2 ,alewives1 #aba2 ,anchovy1 #abb2 ,black ,bass1 #abb2 ,bluefish1 #abb2 ,carp1 #abc2 ,catfish1 #abc2 ,codfish1 #abd2 ,eels1 #abf2 ,flounder1 #abg2 ,graylings1 #abh2 ,haddock1 #abh2 ,hake1 #abh2 ,halibut1 #abh2 ,herring1 #abi2 ,horse ,mackerel1 #acj2 ,hog-fish1 #acj2 ,mackerel1 #aca2 ,menhaden1 #acb2 ,mullet1 #acb2 ,muskallunge1 #acc2 ,pickerel or ,pike1 #acc2 ,pompano1 #acd2 ,red ,snapper1 #acd2 ,rock ,bass1 #ace2 ,salmon1 #ace-ach2 ,sardines1 #aci-adj2 ,scup1 #ada2 ,shad1 #ada-adb2 ,sheepshead1 #adc2 ,smelt1 #add2 ,spanish ,mackerel1 #add2 ,sturgeon1 #add2 ,caviar1 #ade2 ,striped ,bass1 #adf2 ,sole1 #adf2 ,tautog1 #adg2 ,tilefish1 #adg2 ,trout1 #adg-adh2 ,turbot1 #adi2 ,weakfish1 #adi2 ,whitefish1 #aej2 ,fluorids in ,fish1 #aea2 ,marketing1 #aea2 ,cold ,storage1 #aea2 ,canning1 ,drying1 and ,adulteration1 #aeb2 ,value as ,food1 #aec2 ,shellfish1 #aec2 ,clams1 #aec2 ,lobster1 #aee2 ,crabs1 #aee2 ,crawfish1 #aef2 ,shrimp1 #aeg2 ,aquatic ,reptiles1 #aeg2 ,turtle1 #aeg2 ,terrapin1 #aeh2 ,mussel1 #aeh2 ,oysters1 #aeh-afd2 ,animal ,oils1 #afe2 ,marine ,animal ,oils1 #afe-aff4 ,,part ,,iv4--,,milk ,,and ,,milk ,,products ,,and ,,oleomargarine #afi-baf ,milk1 ,limitation of ,name1 #afi2 ,composition1 #afi2 ,method of ,production1 #afi-agd2 ,cream1 #age2 ,curd ,test for ,purity1 #agf-agh2 ,whey and ,koumiss1 #agi2 ,buttermilk and ,bonnyclabber1 #aha2 ,butter1 #ahb-ahg2 ,oleomargarine1 #ahg-ahi2 ,cheese1 #aij2 ,kinds1 #aia2 ,adulteration and ,misbranding1 #aib2 ,coloring1 #aic2 ,cottage ,cheese1 #aie2 ,american ,cheese ,manufacture1 #aif-bjj2 ,grading ,cheese1 #bjj2 ,cream ,cheese1 #bja2 ,foreign ,types1 #bja-bjb2 ,sage ,cheese1 #bjc2 ,english ,cheese1 #bjc-bje2 ,french ,cheese1 #bjf-bjh2 ,limburger1 #bjh2 ,edam1 #baj2 ,bacterial ,activity1 #baa2 ,chemical ,changes in ,ripening1 #bab-bad2 ,digestibility1 #bad2 ,effect of ,cold ,storage1 #bae2 ,preparations of ,casein1 #bae4 ,,part ,v4--,,cereal ,,foods #bag-bgc ,barley1 #bag-bah2 ,buckwheat1 #bai-bba2 ,indian ,corn 7,maize71 #bbb-bcb2 ,oats1 #bcb-bcf2 ,rice1 #bcf2 ,rye1 #bcg-bci2 ,wheat1 #bci-bdb2 ,wheat ,flour1 #bdc-bde2 ,gluten1 #bde-bdg2 ,bleaching1 #bdg2 ,adulterations1 #bdh2 ,standard ,age and ,substitutes1 #bdh2 ,bread1 #bdi2 ,yeast1 #bej2 ,ferments1 #bej2 ,chemical ,aerating ,agents1 #bea2 ,baking ,powders1 #bea-bed2 ,composition of ,bread1 #bed-bee2 ,comparative ,nutritive ,properties1 #bef-beg2 ,biscuit1 #beh2 ,sugar ,lost in ,fermentation1 #bei2 ,texture of ,loaves1 #bei2 ,macaroni1 #bfj-bfd2 ,cakes1 #bfe-bfg2 ,breakfast ,foods1 #bfg-bga4 ,,part ,,vi4--,,vegetables1 ,,condiments1 ,,fruits #bgc-chh ,succulent ,vegetables1 #bgc2 ,artichoke1 #bgd2 ,asparagus1 #bge2 ,bean1 #bge-bgf2 ,beets1 #bgg2 ,brussels ,sprouts1 #bgh2 ,cabbage1 #bgh2 ,carrot1 #bgi2 ,cauliflower1 #bgi2 ,celery1 #bhj2 ,chicory1 #bhj2 ,cranberry1 #bha2 ,cress1 #bha2 ,cucumbers1 #bha2 ,egg-plant1 ,garlic1 and ,gourds1 #bhb2 ,horseradish1 ,jerusalem ,artichoke1 and ,kale1 #bhb2 ,leek1 ,lettuce1 ,melons1 and ,cantaloupe1 #bhd-bhf2 ,okra and ,onion1 #bhf2 ,parsnip1 #bhg2 ,peas1 #bhg2 ,potatoes1 #bhh-bih2 ,potato ,starch1 #bif-bii2 ,rhubarb1 #bii2 ,squash1 #bii2 ,sweet ,potato1 #bii-cjd2 ,turnip1 #cjd2 ,yam1 #cjd2 ,canned ,vegetables1 #cje-cae2 ,ketchup1 #caf2 ,use of ,refuse in ,ketchup1 #cag2 ,starches as ,foods1 #cag-cba2 ,condiments1 #cba-cbf2 ,fruits1 #cbf-cbi2 ,apples1 #ccj-cce2 ,cherries1 #ccf2 ,grapes1 #ccg-cch2 ,peaches1 #cci-cda2 ,plums1 #cda2 ,quince1 #cdb2 ,small ,fruits1 #cdb-cdc2 ,tropical and ,subtropical ,fruits1 #cdc-cdh2 ,citrus ,fruits1 #cdh-cfi2 ,composition of ,pineapple1 #cfc-cfd2 ,ash of ,tropical ,fruits1 #cfg2 ,sugar and ,acid in ,fruit1 #cfi2 ,canned ,fruits1 #cgj-cgb2 ,fruit ,sirups1 #cgc-cgd2 ,jams1 ,jellies1 and ,preserves1 #cge-cha2 ,manufacture of ,jellies1 #cha-chb2 ,compound ,jams and ,jellies1 #chc2 ,preserves1 #chd2 ,fruit ,butter1 #che2 ,brandied ,fruit1 #chf2 ,importance of ,preserving ,industry1 #chf-chh4 ,,part ,,vii4--,,vegetable ,,oils ,,and ,,fats1 ,,and ,,nuts #chi-dbh ,definition1 #chi2 ,chemical ,characteristics1 #cij2 ,drying and ,non-drying ,oils1 #cia2 ,physical ,characters1 #cib-cic2 ,edible ,vegetable ,oils1 #cid-dac2 ,cottonseed ,oil1 #cig-dja2 ,olive ,oil1 #djb-dje2 ,peanut ,oil1 #djf2 ,rape ,oil1 #djg2 ,sesame ,oil1 #djh2 ,sunflower ,oil1 #dji2 ,cacao-butter1 #daj2 ,coconut ,oil1 #daa2 ,palm ,oil1 #dab2 ,nuts1 #dac-dbh2 ,acorn1 #dad2 ,beechnuts1 ,brazil-nut1 #dae2 ,butternut1 ,chestnut1 #daf2 ,chinese ,nut1 #dag2 ,coconut1 ,filbert1 #dah2 ,hazelnut1 ,hickory-nut1 #dai2 ,peanuts1 #dbj-dbd2 ,pecan1 #dbd-dbe2 ,pistachio1 #dbf2 ,walnut1 #dbf-dbh4 ,,part ,,viii4--,,fungi ,,as ,,foods #dbi-ded ,mushrooms1 ,production1 #dbi-dcj2 ,varieties1 #dcj2 ,food ,value1 #dcj2 ,distinction between ,edible and ,poisonous1 #dcc-dci2 ,types of ,edible ,mushrooms1 #ddj2 ,horse ,mushroom1 #dda2 ,shaggy ,mushroom1 #ddc2 ,fairy ,ring ,mushroom1 #ddc2 ,puff-ball1 #ddd2 ,cepe1 #dde2 ,fly ,amanita1 #ddf2 ,poisoning by ,mushrooms1 #ddh2 ,canned ,mushrooms1 #ddi2 ,truffles1 #dej-dec2 ,food ,value of ,fungi1 #ded4 ,,part ,,ix4--,,sugar1 ,,sirup1 ,,confectionery1 ,,and ,,honey #dee-did ,sugar1 ,origin of ,sugar1 #dee2 ,beet ,sugar1 #def-dfe2 ,cane ,sugar1 #dff2 ,maple ,sugar1 #dfg-dfh2 ,sugar ,refining1 #dfh-dgj2 ,sugar ,production1 #dga2 ,adulteration of ,sugar1 #dga2 ,sugar as ,food1 #dgb2 ,sirup1 ,maple1 #dgb-dgc2 ,cane1 #dge2 ,sorghum1 #dgf2 ,molasses1 #dgg-dgh2 ,mixed ,sirups1 #dgi2 ,adulteration of ,sirups1 #dhj2 ,confectionery1 #dhb2 ,materials1 #dhb2 ,manufacture1 #dhc2 ,crystallized ,fruits and ,flowers1 #dhc2 ,food ,value of ,candy1 #dhc2 ,adulteration of ,confections1 #dhc-dhf2 ,honey1 ,definition1 ,historical1 #dhf2 ,preparation of ,honey1 #dhg2 ,beehives1 #dhh2 ,distribution of ,honey ,industry1 #dhi2 ,comb ,honey1 #dhi2 ,extracted ,honey1 #dij2 ,properties of ,honey1 #dia-dib2 ,adulteration of ,honey1 #dic-did4 ,,miscellaneous #did-dif ,mince ,meat1 #did2 ,pie ,fillers1 #dif4 ,,part ,x4--,,infants' ,,and ,,invalids' ,,foods #dig-ejj ,modified ,milk1 #dig2 ,solid ,infants' ,food1 #dih2 ,invalids' ,food1 #dih-dii2 ,composition ,infants' and ,invalids' ,foods1 #ejj4 ,,appendices4 ,,appendix ,a #eja-eba ,food ,standards1 #eja-eag2 ,law ,relating to ,filled ,cheese1 #eag-eba4 ,,appendix ,b #ebb-ecg ,rules and ,regulations for the ,enforcement of the ,food and ,drugs ,act1 #ebb-ecc4 ,the ,food and ,drugs ,act of ,june #cj1 #aijf1 #ecc-ecg4 ,,appendix ,c #ech-efa ,regulations ,governing the ,meat ,inspection of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 #ech-eef2 ,meat ,inspection ,law1 #eef-efa4 ,,appendix ,d #efb-fae ,food ,inspection ,decisions under the ,food and ,drugs ,act1 #efb-fae4 ,food ,inspections ,decisions under the ,imported ,foods ,act ,f4 ,i4 ,d4's #a-ci1 #efb-ehd4 ,food and ,drugs ,inspections and ,decisions under the ,food and ,drugs ,act ,f4 ,i4 ,d4's #dj-fd1 #ehd-fae4 ,,index1 #faf-fbe ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,colored ,,plates4 ,,page4 #a4 ,beef ,tenderloin1 ,facing #ae #b4 ,beef ,sirloin1 #ae #c4 ,beef ,ribs--,regular ,cut1 #ae #d4 ,beef ,ribs--,spencer ,cut1 #ae #e4 ,sirloin ,butts1 #ae #f4 ,beef ,rib1 #ae #g4 ,beef ,loin1 #ae #h4 ,drying ,figs3 ,smyrna1 ,smyrna ,section1 ,adriatic1 ,adriatic ,section1 #cdi #i4 ,olives3 ,mission1 ,sevillano1 #djb #aj4 ,jordan ,almond1 #dad #aa4 ,peanut 7,arachide71 #dbj ,,fig4 #a4 ,cuts of ,beef1 #af #b4 ,commercial ,cuts of ,beef1 #ag #c4 ,diagram of ,cuts of ,veal1 #ah #d4 ,diagram of ,cuts of ,lamb and ,mutton1 #ai #e4 ,diagram of ,cuts of ,pork1 #ai #f4 ,commercial ,cuts of ,pork1 #bj #g4 ,graphic ,chart ,representing the ,comparative ,influences of ,foods and ,preservatives1 #ci #h4 ,lard ,crystals1 #fg #i4 ,beef ,fat ,crystals1 #fg #aj4 ,kettle for ,rendering ,lard1 #gb #aa4 ,apparatus for ,test of ,adulteration of ,lard1 #gd #ab4 ,chicken ,house1 ,rhode ,island ,experiment ,station1 #if #ac4 ,cow ,stables1 ,mapletown ,farm1 ,sumner1 ,washington1 #agj #ad4 ,apparatus for ,cooling ,milk1 #agb #ae4 ,improvised ,wisconsin ,curd ,test1 #agg #af4 ,milk2 ,broken ,curd in ,whey2 ,matted ,curd1 #agg #ag4 ,curd from a ,good ,milk1 #agh #ah4 ,curd from a ,tainted ,milk1 #agh #ai4 ,curd from ,foul ,milk1 #agh #bj4 ,power ,churn1 ,ready for ,use1 #ahc #ba4 ,power ,churn1 ,open1 #ahd #bb4 ,barley ,starch1 #bah #bc4 ,buckwheat ,starch1 #bbb #bd4 ,section of ,raw ,popcorn1 #bbd #be4 ,section of ,popcorn in ,first ,stage of ,popping1 ,showing ,partially ,expanded ,starch ,grains and ,ruptured ,cell ,walls1 #bbe #bf4 ,section of ,fully ,popped ,popcorn1 #bbf #bg4 ,indian ,corn ,starch1 #bbi #bh4 ,starch ,grains of ,indian ,corn1 under ,polarized ,light1 #bcj #bi4 ,oat ,starch1 #bce #cj4 ,rice ,starch1 #bcg #ca4 ,rye ,starch1 #bch #cb4 ,wheat ,starch1 #bdb #cc4 ,wheat ,starch under ,polarized ,light1 #bdc #cd4 ,kedzie's ,farinometer ,showing the ,parts1 #bdf #ce4 ,kedzie's ,farinometer in ,use1 #bdg #cf4 ,comparative ,appearance of ,breads of ,different ,kinds1 #bei #cg4 ,a ,field of ,durum ,wheat1 #bfa #ch4 ,drought-resistant ,macaroni ,wheats 7,heads and ,grains71 #bfb #ci4 ,potato ,starch1 #bia #dj4 ,potato ,starch under ,polarized ,light1 #bia #da4 ,rasping ,cylinder for ,making ,starch1 #big #db4 ,shaking ,table for ,separating the ,starch from the ,pulped ,potato1 #big #dc4 ,the ,potato ,rasping ,cylinder ,arranged for ,work1 #bih #dd4 ,view of ,indian ,corn ,canning ,factory1 ,showing ,accumulation of ,husks and ,cobs1 #cjh #de4 ,maranta 7,arrowroot7 ,starch1 #cah #df4 ,a ,cassava ,field in ,georgia1 #cai #dg4 ,cassava ,starch1 #cba #dh4 ,scuppernong ,grape ,vine1 ,roanoke ,island1 #cch #di4 ,vineyard ,near ,fresno1 ,california1 #cci #ej4 ,avocado ,tree1 #cdf #ea4 ,fig ,tree ,thirty ,feet ,high ,near ,yuba1 ,california1 #cej #eb4 ,jamaica ,mango ,tree1 #cef #ec4 ,an ,edge of a ,california ,orange ,grove1 #ceh #ed4 ,the ,original ,seedless ,orange ,tree1 #cei #ee4 ,a ,group of the ,washington ,navel ,orange on the ,tree1 #cfj #ef4 ,covered ,pineapple1 #cfa #eg4 ,removing the ,oil ,cakes from a ,cottonseed ,press1 #djj #eh4 ,pecan ,tree1 #cj ,years ,old1 ,morgan ,city1 ,la41 #dbb #ei4 ,five ,forms of ,choice1 ,thin-shelled ,pecans4 ,also ,wild ,nut ,showing ,difference in ,size1 #dbc #fj4 ,full ,grown ,pecan ,tree1 #dbe #fa4 ,common ,mushroom1 ,agaricus campestris1 #ddj #fb4 ,edible ,mushrooms 7,agaricus arvensis ,schaeff471 #dda #fc4 ,shaggy ,mushroom1 ,coprinus comatus1 #ddb #fd4 ,fairy ,ring ,formed by ,marasmius oreades1 an ,edible ,mushroom1 #ddd #fe4 ,puff-ball1 ,lycoperdon cyathiforme1 ,top ,view1 #dde #ff4 ,amanita 7,full ,grown71 #ddf #fg4 ,fly ,amanita ,buttons 7,amanita muscaria71 #ddg #fh4 ,correct ,position of a ,mature ,beet in the ,soil1 #deh #fi4 ,map ,showing ,temperature ,zone in ,which the ,sugar ,beet ,attains ,its ,greatest ,perfection1 #dei #gj4 ,a ,field of ,beets ,ready for ,harvesting1 #dfj #ga4 ,beets ,ready for ,transportation to ,factory1 #dfa #gb4 ,diffusion ,battery1 #dfb #gc4 ,multiple-effect ,evaporating ,apparatus1 #dfc #gd4 ,vacuum ,strike ,pan1 #dfd #ge4 ,sugar ,cane ,field ,ready for ,harvest1 #dfe #gf4 ,cane ,field ,partly ,harvested1 #dff #gg4 ,tapping the ,maple ,trees1 #dfh #gh4 ,transporting the ,sap to the ,sugar ,house1 #dfh #gj4 ,boiling the ,maple ,sap1 #dfi #hj4 ,small ,primitive ,mill for ,extracting ,juice from ,sugar ,cane for ,sirup ,making1 #dgc #ha4 ,mill and ,evaporating ,apparatus for ,sirup ,making in ,georgia1 #dgd #hb4 ,relative ,length of ,canes ,used for ,sirup ,making1 #dge #hc4 ,swarm of ,bees on ,bough of ,tree1 #dhg #hd4 ,artificial ,bee ,hives under ,shade of ,grape ,vine1 #dhh #he4 ,a ,frame ,containing #bd ,boxes of ,honey1 #dhi #hf4 ,showing ,box of ,honey ,partially ,capped1 #dij ,,introduction4 ,the growing importance to manufacturers1 dealers1 and consumers of a knowledge of food products has led to the preparation of the following manual4 ,unfortunately1 many misleading statements respecting the composition of foods1 their nutritive value1 and their relation to health and digestion have been published and received with more or less credence by the public4 ,claims of superior excellence1 which are entirely baseless1 are constantly made for certain food products in order to call the attention of the public more directly to their value and1 unfortunately1 at times to mislead the public with respect to their true worth4 ,it is not uncommon to see foods advertised as of exceptional quality1 either as a whole or for certain purposes4 ,many of the preparations of this kind are of undoubted excellence1 but fail to reach the superior standard or perform the particular function which is attributed to them4 ,particularly has it been noticed that foods are offered for specific purposes or the nourishment of certain parts of the body1 especially of the brain and nerves4 ,we are all familiar with the advertisements of foods to feed the brain1 or feed the nerves1 or feed the skin4 ,it is hardly necessary to call attention to the absurdity of claims of this kind4 ,one part of the body cannot be nourished if the other parts are neglected1 and the true principle of nutrition requires a uniform and equal development and nourishment of all the tissues4 ,it is true that many of the tissues have predominant constituents4 ,for instance in the bones are found large quantities of phosphate of calcium and in the muscles nitrogenous tissues dominate4 ,in the brain and nerves there are considerable quantities of organic phosphorus4 ,all of these bodies1 however1 are contained in normal food properly balanced4 ,it would be contrary to the principles of physiology to attempt to feed the bones by consuming a large excess of phosphorus in the food or the muscles by confining the food to a purely nitrogenous component4 ,such attempts1 instead of nourishing the tissues indicated1 will so unbalance the rations as to disarrange the whole metabolic process1 and thus injure and weaken the very tissues they are designed to support4 ,it seems1 therefore1 advisable to prepare a manual which may be used in conjunction with works on dietetics and on physiology and hygiene and yet of a character not especially designed for the expert4 ,the ,american public is now so well educated that any average citizen is fully capable of understanding scientific problems if presented to him in a non-technical garb4 ,it is1 therefore1 not difficult to see that the great army of manufacturers and dealers in food products1 as well as the still greater army of consumers1 are able to receive and to utilize information concerning food products which is of common interest to all4 ,a dissemination of knowledge of this kind will guide the manufacturer in his legitimate business and protect the public against deceptions such as those mentioned above4 ,in the evolution of society1 economy and efficiency indicate that specializations should be made as completely as possible4 ,for this reason it is advisable that foods of a certain character be manufactured and prepared for consumption on a large scale1 so that due economy and purity may be secured4 ,on the other hand there are many other kinds of foods which1 by reason of their properties1 cannot be prepared on a large scale but must be produced near or at the place of consumption4 ,milk is a type of this class of foods4 ,it is altogether probable1 therefore1 that the consumption of manufactured foods will not decrease but increase even more rapidly than the number of our population4 ,in order that the people may be able to judge of the quality and character of products of this kind1 information readily available appears to be highly desirable4 ,in the other case of the utilization of raw materials1 it is equally important that the people of this country understand their nature and their functions in the digestive process4 ,the great nutritive value of our food is found in the cereals1 the meats1 the fruits1 and vegetables which we consume4 ,a description of foods of this class1 the places of their growth1 the conditions under which they are matured and marketed1 the problems which relate to their storage and transportation1 their composition in respect of nutrition and digestibility1 the dangers which may accrue from their decay1 and the adulterations or sophistications to which they may be subjected are matters of the greatest public importance4 ,a treatise of this kind in order to be of its full value for which it is intended must be concise1 expressed in simple language1 in a form easily consulted1 and yet be of a character which will be reliable and which will give full information on the subject4 ,it is a common habit of speech to divide foods into two great classes1 namely1 foods and beverages4 ,this is not a scientific division1 but is one which has been so well established by custom as to render it advisable to divide this work into two portions1 one devoted to food in the sense just used and the other to beverages4 ,the first volume of this work devoted to foods will treat of those bodies commonly known under the term 8foods10--namely1 cereals1 meats of all kinds1 milk1 vegetables1 nuts1 and fruits4 ,the second volume will embrace the study of beverages1 namely1 natural and artificial mineral waters1 soda waters1 soft drinks1 coffee1 tea1 cocoa1 wines1 cider1 beer and other fermented beverages1 distilled beverages of all kinds1 and mixtures or compounds thereof4 ,in connection with the description of the origin of foods and their general characteristics will be given a statement of their chemical composition1 especially in relation to nutritive properties4 ,the principal adulterations or sophistications to which the food products are obnoxious will be briefly described1 and where simple methods of detecting adulterations are known1 of a character to be applied without special chemical knowledge or skill1 they will be given4 ,an attempt is thus made to lay before those interested1 in as compact a form as possible1 the chief points connected with the production of food1 its manipulation1 and its use for the nourishment of the body4 ,it is not the intention of this manual to enter at all into the subject of cooking or the physiology of foods and nutrition4 ,that is a distinct and separate part of this problem and has already been treated in many manuals4 ,in this connection1 however1 attention may be called to the great importance of proper cooking in the use of food4 ,raw materials of the best character1 prepared and transported in the most approved manner1 may be so injured in the kitchen in the process of cooking as to be rendered both unpalatable and difficult of digestion4 ,on the contrary1 food materials of an inferior quality1 provided they contain no injurious substances1 may be so treated by the skilled cook as to be both palatable and nutritious4 ,the desirability of the dissemination of correct principles of cooking is no less than that of giving information respecting the materials on which the art of cookery is exercised4 ,it may be added that the art of cookery at the present time should not be confined to the mere technical manipulation1 the application of heat and of condimental substances1 but should also have some reference to the actual process of nutrition4 ,foods should be prepared in the kitchen1 not only of a palatable character and properly spiced but also selected in such a manner as to safeguard one of the chief purposes of food1 namely1 the proper nutrition of the body and the avoidance of any injury to digestion4 ,it is commonly admitted that many1 perhaps most1 of the diseases of the digestive tract to which the ,american people are so subject arise from the consumption of rations improperly balanced1 poorly prepared1 or used in great excess4 ,to the intelligent and scientific cook the information contained in this manual will especially appeal4 ,a ,,proper ,,ration4 ,the study of the science of nutrition has revealed the character of nourishment necessary to build the tissues and restore their waste4 ,the term 8food0 in its broadest signification includes all those substances which when taken into the body build tissues1 restore waste1 furnish heat and energy1 and provide appropriate condiments4 ,the building of tissues is especially an important function during the early life of animals as it is through this building of tissues that growth takes place4 ,the restoration of waste of tissues assumes special importance during that period of life when the weight of the body is supposed to be reasonably constant4 ,at this time the waste of tissue in the natural processes is restored by the assimilation of new material in the same proportion4 ,if the assimilation of new material goes on at a greater rate than the waste of old material it manifests itself during the period of expected equilibrium in the deposition of adipose tissue and a consequent abnormal increase in weight4 ,in the after period of life the process of waste is naturally more vigorous than that of assimilation1 and the tendency is manifested1 which is wholly in harmony with the laws of ,nature1 to gradually diminish the weight of the body1 and this continues to the extreme emaciation of old age4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that the food consumed should be adapted to these changing periods4 ,the growing animal needs a larger quantity of food in proportion to its actual weight than the animal which is in a state of equilibrium1 that is1 of mature age1 and the animal which is entering upon the period of old age needs a less quantity of food in proportion to its weight than in either of the other periods of life4 ,thus1 the rations of infants and children should be generous1 the rations of mature man sufficient1 and the rations of old age limited4 ,the food should also contain the various elements which enter into nutrition in the proper quantity4 ,the nitrogenous constituents in food1 when subjected to the ordinary process of digestion1 yield a certain quantity of heat and energy but their more important function is to nourish the nitrogenous elements of the body1 of which the muscles1 hair1 skin1 and finger-nails are types4 ,the mineral constituents of food1 especially phosphorus and lime1 have a general utility in promoting the metabolic functions1 especially in the movement of the fluids of the body through the cell walls1 and at the same time are actual nourishing materials1 entering particularly into the composition of the bones and teeth4 ,the fats and oils which are present in the foods have the capacity of producing large quantities of heat and energy during their combustion in the body1 and thus serve as a source of animal heat and muscular activity4 ,the starches and sugars which are the most abundant elements of our food1 although they have a heat-forming power of less than one-half that of fats1 are largely utilized in the production of heat and energy and in the formation of animal fat4 ,to secure a proper and complete nutrition of the body it is desirable that all these elements should be so adjusted as to provide for complete nourishment without having any one of them in great excess4 ,it is evident that an excess of any one or more of these nutrient materials must necessarily impose on the organs of the body an additional work in securing their proper elimination4 ,this tends to overburden the excretory organs and to cause a premature breakdown thereof4 ,this giving away of the organs may not come for many years1 not1 perhaps1 until advanced life1 but when it comes it necessarily shortens the period of human existence4 ,the term 8balanced ration0 means the adjustment of nutrients in the food in such a way as to secure complete and perfect nutrition without loading the body with an excess of any one element4 ,this is also an important point on the score of economy4 ,a large percentage of all the earnings of man is expended for food products1 and hence these products should be used in a manner to secure the best results possible4 ,if1 by a practice of scientific nutrition1 #aj percent of the value of foods could be saved it would create a fund which1 could it be utilized1 would minister in the highest degree to the comfort and welfare of the human family and form an abundant pension for old age4 ,,social ,,functions ,,of ,,food4 ,in the above paragraphs attention has been directed particularly to the nutritive and economic properties of food4 ,it must not be considered that mere nutrition is the sole object of foods1 especially for man4 ,it is the first object to be conserved in the feeding of domesticated animals1 but is only one of the objects to be kept in view in the feeding of man4 ,man is a social animal and1 from the earliest period of his history1 food has exercised a most important function in his social life4 ,hence in the study of food and of its uses a failure to consider this factor would be regrettable4 ,for this reason it is justifiable in the feeding of man to expend upon the mere social features of the meal a sum which often is equal to or greater than that expended for the mere purpose of nutrition4 ,this part of the subject1 however1 belongs especially to the kitchen and dining room1 and1 therefore1 will not be discussed at greater length at the present time4 ,it is believed that a more careful study of the food he consumes will benefit man in many ways4 ,it will lead to a wider public interest in the problem of the purity of food and the magnitude of the crime committed against mankind in the debasement1 adulteration1 and sophistication of food articles4 ,this study will impart to the social function of food an additional charm1 in that the origin and character of the material consumed will be known and the properties which they possess for nourishing the body understood4 ,this will enable man1 as a social animal1 to so conduct himself at table as to secure the greatest possible pleasure and social benefit therefrom and at the same time avoid any injury which ignorance might permit and invite4 ,it may appear that the inartistic treatment of a subject of this kind1 as indicated in the following pages1 is not one which is calculated to excite any sympathetic interest or appeal to the natural desire for literary and artistic expression4 ,yet the importance of the subject is so great as to warrant the experiment of presenting the matter in this form rather than in any more elaborate and connected way4 ,,definition ,,and ,,composition ,,of ,,foods4 ,food1 in its general sense1 is that which nourishes the body without regard to its physical state1 that is1 it may be solid1 liquid1 or gaseous4 ,more particularly defined1 food is that material taken into the body in the ordinary process of eating which contains the elements necessary for the growth of tissues1 for the repair of the destruction to which the tissues are subjected during the ordinary vital processes and for furnishing heat and energy necessary to life4 ,incident to the utilization of these elements there is consumed1 also1 a considerable quantity of matter inextricably mingled with food in a natural way1 which takes no direct part in nutrition and yet which is useful1 as a mass1 in promoting the digestive processes4 ,these bodies are certain indigestible cellular tissues which are present in foods1 mineral matter1 and other materials which are naturally found in food products4 ,included in this broad definition1 therefore1 are many substances which are usually not thought of in the sense of food2 among these are water and air4 ,air1 however1 would probably be excluded because it is not introduced into the stomach1 that is1 not in quantities which have any significance in the vital processes4 ,water1 on the contrary1 is one of the most indispensable constituents of food and is also used in considerable quantities as a beverage4 ,the water1 itself1 is indispensable to nutrition and is also one of those bodies mentioned above which are necessary to secure the proper conduct of the digestive processes4 ,by means of the oxygen in the air the combustion of food in the various parts of the body is secured1 and thus animal heat and energy developed4 ,in this respect the combustion of a food product is similar in every way to the burning of coal in the production of heat and motion4 ,the same calorific laws which govern the steam-engine are applicable1 in all their rigidity1 to the animal engine4 ,the quantity of heat produced by the combustion of a certain amount of fat or sugar is definitely measured in a calorimeter and is found to correspond exactly to the quantity of heat produced by the ordinary combustion of such bodies4 ,the term 8food10 therefore1 in this respect1 would include the oxygen of the air without which the development of animal heat and energy would be impossible4 ,it also includes those bodies of a liquid character which are classed as beverages rather than as foods4 ,all of these bodies have nutritive properties1 although their chief value is condimental and social4 ,that large class of food products1 also1 which is known as condiments is properly termed food1 since they not only possess nutritive properties but through their condimental character promote digestion and by making the food more palatable secure to a higher degree the excellence of its social function4 ,it is now possible to condense into a distinct expression the definition of food in the following language3 ,food in a general sense embraces those substances taken into the body which build tissues1 restore waste1 and furnish heat and energy4 ,,classification ,,of ,,foods4 ,foods may be considered under different classifications4 ,first1 as to general appearance and use three classes may be made1--foods1 beverages and condiments4 ,as types of the first division of these foods may be mentioned cereals and their preparations1 meat and its preparations 7except meat extracts71 fish1 fowl1 and game4 ,beverages are those liquid food products which are more valued for their taste and flavor than actual nutritive value4 ,as types of beverages may be mentioned wines1 beers1 distilled spirits and liquors of all characters1 tea1 coffee1 cocoa1 chocolate1 etc4 ,under wines1 in this sense1 may be included the fermented beverages made of fruit juices1 such as cider1 perry1 etc4 ,types of condiments are salt1 pepper1 spices1 vinegar1 etc4 ,milk1 although a liquid substance1 is hardly to be considered a beverage1 and on account of its high nutritive properties may be classed1 together with its preparations1 under the first head4 ,foods may also be classified as nitrogenous1 starchy1 oily1 and condimental4 ,nitrogenous foods are those in which the proportion of their material containing nitrogen is large4 ,lean meat may be regarded as a type of nitrogenous food1 since it consists almost exclusively of tissues known as protein and contains nitrogen and sulfur as essential ingredients4 ,the white of an egg is also a typical nitrogenous food and1 to a less extent1 the yolk4 ,among vegetables1 peas and beans are typical foods containing large percentages of nitrogenous matter4 ,the gluten of wheat is also a typical nitrogenous food and the zein of ,indian corn1 corresponding to gluten1 is a nitrogenous material4 ,practically all the vegetables used as foods contain more or less protein in their constituents4 ,among the cereals oats has the largest quantity and rice the smallest of this valuable food material4 ,of oily foods the fat of animals1 including butter1 is a typical representative4 ,all meats1 fish1 fowl1 and game contain more or less fat4 ,of vegetables and fruits there are many which contain large quantities of fat1 such as nuts1 oily seeds1 etc4 ,all vegetables contain more or less fat1 although the succulent vegetables usually contain but little thereof4 ,of starchy foods there are no types in animal food1 the quantity of carbohydrate material therein being extremely limited4 ,the lobster and horse-flesh contain perhaps a little more than #a percent of carbohydrate food1 but most meats contain much less than that4 ,sugar and starch are typical carbohydrate foods4 ,the cereal grains are composed largely of starchy foods1 and so are certain tubers1 such as the potato1 cassava1 etc4 ,of the common cereals rice contains more starch than any other and oats the least4 ,sugars are intimately related to starch and are included under the term starchy food or carbohydrate food4 ,the carbohydrate matter in the flesh mentioned above1 namely glycogen1 is of the nature of a sugar4 ,among the typical sugar foods are beets1 melons1 and fruits1 some of which contain large percentages of sugar4 ,all fruits contain greater or less quantities of sugar1 and that is true1 also1 of all vegetables4 ,of the plants which produce the sugar of commerce there may be mentioned the sugar-cane1 the sugar-beet1 the maple1 and palm trees4 ,the principal sources of the sugar of commerce are the sugar-cane and the sugar-beet4 ,of the condimental foods may be mentioned spices1 including pepper1 mustard1 cinnamon1 allspice1 and other foods of this class4 ,common salt occupies a unique position in food products4 ,it is the only mineral substance which has any value as a condiment in human food4 ,but it also has a more important function than its condimental character1 namely1 it furnishes the supply of hydrochloric acid without which digestion in the stomach could not take place4 ,for this reason common salt must be regarded as an essential food product as well as a condiment4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,chemical ,,terms4 ,inasmuch as this manual is not solely intended for expert chemists and physiologists but also for the general public1 a simple explanation of the use of the terms used in analytical data and tables is advisable4 ,under the term moisture is included all the water which is present in a free state1 that is1 not combined in any way with the ingredients of the material1 and other substances volatile at the temperature of drying4 ,the water is determined by drying to a constant weight at the temperature of boiling water or slightly above4 ,in bodies which are easily oxidized this drying takes place in a vacuum or in an inert gas like hydrogen or carbon dioxid4 ,protein4--,under this term is included all the nitrogenous compounds in a food product which contain in their composition sulfur1 nitrogen1 carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen1 forming that class of tissues represented by the gluten in wheat1 the white of an egg1 muscular and tendinous fibers1 etc4 ,ether ,extract4--,under this term is included the fats and oils1 the term fat being applied to animal fat and the term oil to vegetable products4 ,these bodies are all soluble in ether and therefore are grouped together under the term 8ether extract40 ,there are some fats both in animal and vegetable substances insoluble in ether1 but they exist in minute quantities and therefore are not separated from the extracts1 but the whole matter is given together and represents practically the fats and oils in food4 ,there are also minute quantities of bodies not fats in foods soluble in ether1 and these are included in the ether extract4 ,ash4--,the term ash is applied to the residue left after the burning of food products in the air at a low temperature until the carbon has disappeared4 ,ash is rather an indefinite term and is applied to that residual material of a mineral nature composed of sand or silica and the carbonates or oxids of alkaline earth or alkalies4 ,the ash also contains the principal part of phosphorus present in food products and usually a small proportion of sulfur4 ,these bodies in the ash exist as phosphoric and sulfuric acids or their salts4 ,fiber4--,the term fiber is applied to those carbohydrate products in food which are insoluble in solutions of dilute acid and dilute alkalies at the boiling temperature4 ,inasmuch as these separated bodies are not wholly pure cellulose they are often designated as crude fiber4 ,starch and ,sugar4--,the terms starch and sugar are applied to the carbohydrates in a food product of a starchy or saccharine nature1 together with the other carbohydrates present which are soluble in dilute acids and alkalies4 ,calories4--,the term calorie is used to denote the amount of heat-forming material contained in one unit weight of a food product4 ,the number given represents the number of degrees of temperature produced in a unit mass of water by the heat formed in burning the unit weight of food4 ,the unit weights employed are usually as follows3 ,of the food product1 one gram 7#ae grains72 unit weight of water to be heated1 one kilogram 7#b4b pounds72 unit increment of temperature1 #a;,c4 7#a4h;,f474 ,the expression #djjj calories therefore means that if one gram of food substance in a dry state be burned the heat produced will raise one gram of water through a temperature of #djjj;,c41 or the unit of water 7one kilogram7 through a temperature of #d;,c4 ,for convenience the calories are usually expressed as small calories1 namely #djjj1 instead of large calories1 namely #d4 ,in this manual the expression in terms of small calories1 that is1 the temperature increase of one kilogram of water produced by burning one gram of substance1 multiplied by #ajjj1 will be uniformly employed4 ,,foods ,,and ,,their ,,adulteration4 ,,part ,i4 ,,meats4 ,one great division of human food is meat4 ,technically1 perhaps1 the edible flesh of every animal used for human food might be described as meat4 ,in this manual1 however1 preference is given to the common meaning of the term4 ,the flesh of animals is by common consent divided into three principal classes1 namely1 the flesh of terrestrial mammals1 or animals not provided with wings2 second1 aerial animals1 or animals provided with wings1 and1 third1 aquatic animals4 ,a very common classification of these three kinds of food is flesh1 fowl1 and fish4 ,there are animals1 the flesh of which is eaten by many1 which are not exactly included in this classification2 for instance1 animals of an amphibious nature1 living partly on land and partly on sea4 ,also many of the animals classed as aerial live chiefly upon the earth2 although having wings they do not use them1 such as domesticated fowls4 ,this classification1 however1 is sufficiently exact for the practical purposes of a food manual and1 therefore1 under the head of meat is included the edible flesh of mammals living on the land4 ,animals ,whose ,flesh is ,edible4--,probably the only complete classification of this kind would be to include every animal living on the face of the earth since1 perhaps1 the flesh of every animal living has been more or less eaten by man4 ,in a civilized community1 however1 except in times of disaster and dire necessity1 certain classes of animals only furnish the principal meat food4 ,nearly all the meat food consumed in the ,united ,states is derived from cattle1 sheep1 and swine4 ,goat flesh is eaten only to a limited extent and horse meat scarcely at all1 and the only other meats of importance are those of wild animals4 ,the principal wild animals used for food are the deer1 bear1 rabbit1 and squirrel4 ,many other wild animals1 however1 are eaten and in some cases highly prized4 ,in this manual only the principal meat foods both of domesticated and wild animals will be mentioned4 ,classification of ,meat ,food as ,respects ,age4--,the edible flesh of domesticated animals as well as of wild animals is eaten both in the young and full-grown state4 ,common names1 however1 designate these different classes4 ,for instance1 veal in the growing and beef for the full-grown animal1 lamb for the young and mutton for the full-grown sheep1 pig in the younger and pork in the full-grown swine1 etc4 ,there is no legal limit of age for such a distinction1 but as long as the animal is not fully grown it may be classified under the name representing the young animal4 ,there is a common understanding1 however1 that in the case of veal and lamb the animal must be under one year of age and usually not under two nor more than eight months of age4 ,a classification of this kind is so indefinite1 however1 that no strict definition can be given other than that founded on the general principles above outlined4 ,preparation of ,animals4--,the proper sanitary conditions attending the fattening of animals intended for slaughter are of great importance to the consumer4 ,it is a common understanding that animals intended for slaughter should be plump and healthy4 ,poor animals1 either those which are meager from lack of food or from disease1 are to be rigidly excluded from the slaughter pen4 ,animals intended for slaughter should be fattened under sanitary conditions with plenty of fresh water and fresh air as well as good food4 ,the stalls in which they are fattened should be clean and well ventilated1 and the sanitary conditions surrounding them should be such as to exclude contagious and epidemic diseases and provide the most favorable environment for growth and preparation for the market4 ,it is evident that all these conditions are to be secured by proper inspection of the animals while preparing for the market4 ,the time will1 doubtless1 soon arrive in this country when the supervision of the preparation of animals for the market1 the sanitary conditions under which they live1 and the general environment which surrounds them shall be subjects of local1 municipal1 and state inspection4 ,since the power of the general government cannot extend to states and municipalities1 these corporate bodies should take uniform and scientific action concerning all these matters4 ,national and state conventions of municipal and state sanitary authorities should decide upon uniform systems of inspection and sanitation to which all state and municipal authorities must agree1 so that a uniform and effective method of inspection and sanitation will be secured throughout the country4 ,when animals are transported before slaughter from one state to another the national government is then entitled to inspect and certify respecting the condition of the animal thus to be transported from state to state4 ,by thus combining municipal1 state1 and national inspection the rights of the consumer may be conserved1 and this is the only means by which they can be kept inviolate4 ,it is assumed1 therefore1 that the animal which has been brought for slaughter has been fattened under proper sanitary conditions1 has not been exposed to epidemic or contagious diseases1 and outwardly is not afflicted with any disease of its own4 ,such a healthy animal may then be certified as fattened for slaughter4 ,inspection after ,slaughter4--,the inspection after slaughter is of the utmost importance1 not even second to that of the proper inspection during fattening and before slaughter4 ,the veterinarian1 skilled in his science1 can tell by the inspection of the vital organs of the slaughtered animal whether it is affected with any organic disease4 ,among cattle the most frequent organic diseases are lumpy jaw and tuberculosis4 ,in the case of swine one of the most common of diseases is trichinosis4 ,in the latter case an inspection of the vital organs of the animal is not sufficient4 ,the muscles of the swine1 first and most commonly affected by trichinosis1 must be examined microscopically in order to eliminate the possibility of the flesh of such animals going into commerce untagged or unnoticed4 ,if the flesh of the swine impregnated with trichinosis be thoroughly cooked practically all of the danger to man is eliminated4 ,the consumer1 however1 should not be subjected to the chance of imperfect cooking4 ,a swine affected with trichinosis should either be refused admission into consumption or should be so tagged that the consumer should know the danger to which he is exposed in order to take the necessary precaution to safeguard his health4 ,tuberculosis4--,there is a difference of opinion among veterinary and hygienic experts respecting the disposition which is to be made of carcasses affected with tuberculosis4 ,it is claimed by some that if the tuberculosis is local1 that is1 does not extend beyond the lungs1 there is no reason why the flesh of the animal should be refused to the consumer4 ,the basis of this contention is founded upon the opinion of some of the most eminent veterinarians that bovine tuberculosis and human tuberculosis are entirely distinct diseases and cannot be transmitted either from the cow to man or vice vers4 ,it is not the province of this manual to decide this controversy1 although it is only right that the consumer should be given the benefit of the doubt4 ,therefore1 if the carcass of an animal affected with local tuberculosis is to be passed into consumption it should be plainly marked as the flesh of a tuberculosed animal1--not only the carcass as a whole1 but every piece thereof that is introduced into consumption directly or after canning or mincing4 ,the consumer is thus left free to choose for himself whether to eat such meat or not4 ,there is a universal agreement among hygienists and veterinarians that where tuberculosis is generalized1 that is1 has affected practically all the organs of the body1 the carcasses should be condemned4 ,no one will take exceptions to this ruling1 though it does not appear very plain to the ordinary consumer why a little tuberculosis is not a bad thing if a great deal of it is a very bad thing4 ,there is an unfortunate tendency in many quarters to neglect minute effects and only pay attention to mass action4 ,this does not seem to be a reasonable or desirable method of procedure4 ,the ,right of the ,consumer4--,in all these cases of post mortem inspection it is the right of the consumer to be informed respecting the condition of the animal admitted to slaughter4 ,only the undoubtedly sound and healthy carcass should be given a free certificate4 ,the badly diseased carcass should be condemned and refused admission to consumption4 ,if the partially diseased carcass is to be consumed1 it should be done under such a system of tagging as will absolutely protect any consumer against the use of the partially diseased carcass without his knowledge4 ,summary4--,the general conclusion reached is that the consumer has the right to protection in the character of food which comes upon his table4 ,this protection begins at the time the animals are being fed for slaughter4 ,it continues during the time the animals are slaughtered and afterwards in the preparation of their carcasses for consumption4 ,it does not end until the meat is delivered to the consumer properly certified as being sound and wholesome and warranted to be free from deleterious coloring matter and preservatives4 ,the consumers of this country can have this protection if they demand it4 ,they outnumber the makers of meat products to such an overwhelming extent as to be able to secure proper legislation1 because the manufacturers themselves1 as consumers1 are equally interested with others in this most important point1 and should themselves receive for their families the same protection that the consumer who has nothing to do with the preparation of meat products is entitled to4 ,since the above paragraph was written the ,congress has provided for a complete inspection of meats as outlined therein4 ,slaughter and ,preparation of ,carcasses4--,it is not the purpose of this manual to enter into any discussion of the technique of slaughter and preparation of animals whose meat is intended to be eaten4 ,it is believed that in this country the mechanism of this process is very near perfection1 and especially so in the larger establishments where the highest skill is employed4 ,in small slaughtering establishments and in farm slaughter there are found many points of technique which should be greatly improved4 ,the principal thing to be considered is1 first1 a sudden and in so far as possible a painless death of the animal2 second1 the immediate withdrawal of the blood of the slaughtered animal if slaughtered otherwise than by opening the principal artery2 third1 the removal of the intestines and hair or hide of the animal2 fourth1 immediate cooling at a moderately low temperature until the animal heat is entirely radiated2 fifth1 the cutting of the carcass into the usual form for consumption and the removal and utilization of the dbris for food or other purposes2 sixth1 the delivery of the meat1 if to be eaten in a fresh state1 in a condition secured from contamination and decay until it is in the hands of the consumer2 seventh1 the curing of the meat in a proper manner by salt1 sugar1 vinegar1 and wood smoke1 and the delivery thereof in an uncontaminated form to the consumer4 ,natural ,appearance of ,cuts of ,healthy ,beef ,beef is the most important of any of the meat or flesh foods4 ,to be able to judge of its freshness and freedom from disease is of great practical value4 ,the following colored plates show the appearance of some of the principal cuts of beef in the proper condition for cooking4 ,by comparing the appearance of the beef bought in all markets with these plates it is possible to form a sound judgment of their suitability for consumption4 ,these seven ,plates are reproduced by courtesy of ,armour ,co41 ,chicago ,illustration3 ,,beef ,,tenderloin ,illustration3 ,,beef ,,sirloin ,illustration3 ,,beef ,,ribs--,,regular ,,cut ,illustration3 ,,beef ,,ribs--,,spencer ,,cut ,illustration3 ,,sirloin ,,butts ,illustration3 ,,beef ,,rib ,illustration3 ,,beef ,,loin ,it is not established that any further manipulation than that above outlined is desirable or necessary4 ,the use of any kind of dye or coloring matter directly or indirectly1 of any so-called preservative substance other than those of a condimental nature already mentioned1 or any further manipulation save that to secure low temperature and freedom from infection is not useful1 necessary1 nor desirable4 ,the sooner the manufacturer of these products understands the rights of the consumer in this respect and recognizes the fundamental verity of the above postulates the better it will be for all parties4 ,when these conditions are met all of the many and just objections which have been made to the meats of this country will pass away and they will assume in the markets of the world that position to which their natural merits1 when not interfered with by maltreating during curing1 entitle them4 ,names ,applied to the ,different ,pieces of ,edible ,animals4--,in the preparation of animals for the market experience has shown that they are best cut in certain pieces of a shape determined by the race of the animal itself and to these pieces or cuts certain definite names have been applied4 ,the method of making these cuts is not the same in all parts of this country and various parts of different countries4 ,in the ,united ,states the most common cuts are illustrated in the accompanying figures1 with the names which are attached thereto4 ,the analyses here reported apply to cuts as indicated by the following diagrams4 ,these show the positions of the different cuts1 both in the live animal and in the dressed carcass as found in the markets4 ,the lines of division between the different cuts will vary slightly1 according to the usage of the local market1 even where the general method of cutting is as here indicated4 ,the names of the same cuts likewise vary in different parts of the country4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,cuts ,,of ,,beef4--7,nutrition ,bulletins1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations47 ,the ,cuts of ,beef4--,the general method of cutting up a side of beef is illustrated in ,fig4 #a1 which shows the relative position of the cuts in the animal and in a dressed side4 ,the neck piece is frequently cut so as to include more of the chuck than is represented by the diagram4 ,the shoulder clod is usually cut without bone1 while the shoulder 7not indicated in diagram7 would include more or less of the shoulder blade and of the upper end of the fore shank4 ,shoulder steak is cut from the chuck4 ,in many localities the plate is made to include all the parts of the fore quarter designated on the diagrams as brisket1 cross ribs1 plate1 and navel1 and different portions of the plate1 as thus cut1 are spoken of as the 8brisket end of plate0 and 8navel end of plate40 ,this part of the animal is largely used for corning4 ,the ribs are frequently divided into first1 second1 and third cuts1 the latter lying nearest the chuck and being slightly less desirable than the former4 ,the chuck is sometimes subdivided in a similar manner1 the third cut of the chuck being nearest the neck4 ,the names applied to different portions of the loin vary considerably in different localities4 ,the part nearest the ribs is frequently called 8small end of loin0 or 8short steak40 ,the other end of the loin is called 8hip sirloin0 or 8sirloin40 ,between the short and the sirloin is a portion quite generally called the 8tenderloin10 for the reason that the real tenderloin1 the very tender strip of meat lying inside the loin1 is found most fully developed in this cut4 ,porterhouse steak is a term most frequently applied to either the short steak or the tenderloin4 ,it is not uncommon to find the flank cut so as to include more of the loin than is indicated in the figures1 in which case the upper portion is called 8flank steak40 ,the larger part of the flank is1 however1 very frequently corned1 as is also the case with the rump4 ,in some markets the rump is cut so as to include a portion of the loin1 which is then sold as 8rump steak40 ,the portion of the round on the outside of the leg is regarded as more tender than that on the inside1 and is frequently preferred to the latter4 ,as the leg lies upon the butcher's table this outside of the round is usually on the upper1 or top1 side1 and is therefore called 8top round40 ,occasionally the plate is called the 8rattle40 ,in ,fig4 #b is shown a side of beef with the various cuts indicated as used for commercial designation4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,shank #e4 ,rib #i4 ,clod #b4 ,round #f4 ,flank #aj4 ,neck #c4 ,rump #g4 ,plate #d4 ,loin #h4 ,chuck ,tenderloins1 ,sirloin ,butts and ,strips cut from ,no4 #d4 ,rib ,rolls cut from ,no4 #e4 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,commercial ,,cuts ,,of ,,beef4--7,courtesy of ,armour ,co47 ,in ,fig4 #f 7page #bj7 is shown the interior view of a hog carcass with the cuts indicated as known to the trade4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,,diagram ,,of ,,cuts ,,of ,,veal4--7,nutrition ,bulletins1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations47 ,the ,cuts of ,veal4--,the method of cutting up a side of veal differs considerably from that employed with beef4 ,this is illustrated by ,fig4 #c1 which shows the relative position of the cuts in the animal and in a dressed side4 ,the chuck is much smaller in proportion1 and frequently no distinction is made between the chuck and the neck4 ,the chuck is often cut so as to include a considerable of the portion here designated as shoulder1 following more nearly the method adopted for subdividing beef4 ,the shoulder of veal as here indicated includes1 besides the portion corresponding to the shoulder in beef1 the larger part of what is here classed as chuck in the adult animal4 ,the under part of the fore quarter1 corresponding to the plate in the beef1 is often designated as breast in the veal4 ,the part of the veal corresponding to the rump of beef is here included with the loin1 but is often cut to form part of the leg4 ,in many localities the fore and hind shanks of veal are called the 8knuckles40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,,diagram ,,of ,,cuts ,,of ,,lamb ,,and ,,mutton4--7,nutrition ,bulletins1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations47 ,the ,cuts of ,lamb and ,mutton4--,fig4 #d shows the relative position of the cuts in a dressed side of mutton or lamb and in a live animal4 ,the cuts in a side of lamb and mutton number but six1 three in each quarter4 ,the chuck includes the ribs as far as the end of the shoulder blades1 beyond which comes the loin4 ,the flank is made to include all the under side of the animal4 ,some butchers1 however1 make a larger number of cuts in the fore quarter1 including a portion of the cuts marked 8loin0 and 8chuck0 in ,fig4 #d1 to make a cut designated as 8rib10 and a portion of the 8flank0 and 8shoulder0 to make a cut designated as 8brisket40 ,the term 8chops0 is ordinarily used to designate portions of either the loin1 ribs1 chuck1 or shoulder1 which are either cut or 8chopped0 by the butcher into pieces suitable for frying or broiling4 ,the chuck and ribs are sometimes called the 8rack40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,,diagram ,,of ,,cuts ,,of ,,pork4--7,nutrition ,bulletins1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations47 ,the ,cuts of ,pork4--,the method of cutting up a side of pork differs considerably from that employed with other meats4 ,a large portion of the carcass of a dressed pig consists of almost clear fat4 ,this furnishes the cuts which are used for 8salt pork0 and bacon4 ,fig4 #e illustrates a common method of cutting up pork1 showing the relative position of the cuts in the animal and in the dressed side4 ,the cut designated as 8back cut0 is almost clear fat and is used for salting and pickling4 ,the 8middle cut0 is the portion quite generally used for bacon and for 8lean ends0 salt pork4 ,the belly is salted or pickled1 or may be made into sausages4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,,commercial ,,cuts ,,of ,,pork4--7,courtesy of ,armour ,co47 #a--;,hind ,foot #b--;,ham #c--,rib ,belly #d--;,fat ,back #e--,pork ,loin #f--;,cala ,ham ,butt #g--;,california ,ham #h--;,fore ,foot #i--,neck ,beneath the 8back cut0 are the ribs and loin1 from which are obtained 8spareribs10 8chops10 and roasting pieces1 not designated in the figure4 ,the hams and shoulders are more frequently cured1 but are also sold fresh as pork 8steak40 ,the tenderloin proper is a comparatively lean and very small strip of meat lying under the bones of the loin and usually weighing a fraction of a pound4 ,some fat is usually trimmed off from the hams and shoulders which is called 8ham and shoulder fat0 and is often used for sausages1 etc4 ,what is called 8leaf lard10 at least in some localities1 comes from the inside of the back4 ,it is the kidney fat4 ,as stated above1 cuts as shown in the diagrams herewith correspond to those of which analyses are reported in the table beyond1 but do not attempt to show the different methods of cutting followed in markets in different parts of the ,united ,states4 ,delivery of ,fresh ,meat to ,consumers4--,perhaps the most important aid to the manufacturer1 as well as a protection to the consumer1 which modern science has offered to the public is the possibility of delivering fresh meats to consumers at a low temperature4 ,a well equipped abattoir is provided with apparatus by means of which a constantly low temperature may be maintained in the room where the fresh meat is kept after the preparation described above4 ,when the meats are to be distributed over long distances refrigerator cars or boats are provided where low temperature may be maintained4 ,roast ,beef4--,the parts of the beef which are used for roasting are shown in the diagram1 comprising a considerable portion of the hind quarter of the beef and part of the ribs4 ,the roast is perhaps the most important of the parts of the beef for edible purposes4 ,the average composition of the edible part of roast beef 7before cooking7 is given below3 ,water1 #fj4ad percent ,solids1 #ci4hf ,nitrogen1 #d4dg ,phosphoric acid1 4#ed ,sulfur1 4#bf ,fat1 #aj4dh ,ash1 #a4cj ,protein1 #bg4ie ,beefsteak4--,the most important parts of the beef next to the roast are the parts used for steak4 ,beefsteaks have different names1 such as tenderloin and sirloin1 and when the latter two are joined together by the bone the whole is called porterhouse4 ,there are also round steaks and rump steaks which are less highly prized portions of the meat1 but in nutritive value are probably quite as valuable as the others mentioned4 ,the average composition of the edible part of a large number of samples of beefsteak is given in the following table3#a ,water1 #fc4ie percent ,solids1 #cf4je ,nitrogen1 #d4ed ,phosphoric acid1 4#ei ,sulfur1 4#bg ,fat1 #e4ic ,ash1 #a4dh ,protein1 #bh4cg #a ,means of numerous analyses in ,bureau of ,chemistry4 ,it is seen that the roast beef contains less water1 less protein1 and decidedly more fat than the steak4 ,roast ,lamb4--,the parts of the lamb which are used for roasting are usually the hind quarters1 although all of the parts are roasted at times4 ,the average composition of a number of samples of lamb roast is given in the following table3#b ,water1 #eh4ef percent ,solids1 #da4dd ,nitrogen1 #d4ia ,phosphoric acid1 4#fa ,sulfur1 4#bh ,fat1 #i4ab ,ash1 #a4cj ,protein1 #cj4ga #b ,from numerous analyses made in the ,bureau of ,chemistry4 ,lamb chops or mutton chops are the short ribs with attached flesh of lamb or young sheep4 ,they are considered to be the most desirable part of the young sheep or lamb for edible purposes4 ,the average composition of the edible portion of a number of samples of lamb chops is given in the following table3 ,water1 #fc4ih percent ,solids1 #cf4jb ,nitrogen1 #d4ce ,phosphoric acid1 4#fa ,sulfur1 4#bd ,fat1 #g4ji ,ash1 #a4di ,protein1 #bg4ah ,roast lamb1 as shown by the above data1 has less water1 more fat1 and more protein than lamb chops4 ,preservation of ,fresh ,meats4--,after delivery the meats are at once consigned to refrigerator departments in the markets1 where they are preserved until they pass into the consumer's hands4 ,thus1 a properly fattened1 properly slaughtered1 and properly dressed piece of fresh meat may be brought into the consumer's hands in a manner at once unobjectionable and at the same time one which secures it admirably from contamination of any kind4 ,so perfect are these means of transportation that fresh meat may be sent not only from city to city but across the sea1 and reach the consumer as near perfection as human ingenuity can devise4 ,length of ,storage4--,the question of how long meat can be safely kept in cold storage of this kind is one which has not been decided4 ,it may be said1 however1 that the period should not be extended any longer than is necessary and that the consumers of meat should be provided in ordinary times1 if transportation is undisturbed1 with practically fresh meat4 ,it is evident that if the principal meat-packing centers are ,chicago1 ,omaha1 and ,kansas ,city the cities and parts of the country remote from these localities must have meat somewhat older than those which are near by4 ,if we pass to distant countries1 as for instance1 ,europe1 where fresh meats are received from the ,united ,states or even from ,australia1 the time elapsing between slaughter and consumption must necessarily be long4 ,thus the length of time in which meat should be left in cold storage after it is properly matured depends upon its geographic distribution and is not a matter to be decided arbitrarily4 ,when meats are not only kept in cold storage for transportation but are actually frozen1 as is often the case1 they can1 of course1 be kept for a much longer time than when subjected merely to a low temperature at or slightly above the freezing point4 ,for this reason meats that are to be carried to a long distance and not to be consumed for a long time after preparation are usually frozen and kept so during transport4 ,effect of ,low ,temperature on ,enzymic ,action4--,attention has been called to the fact that low temperature does not inhibit enzymic action1 and1 therefore1 it must be admitted that this continued activity must gradually deteriorate the quality of the product4 ,the question1 therefore1 which is the most important is not how long can meat be kept in a frozen condition but how short a time must it be kept4 ,in all cases1 therefore1 of this kind the consumer is entitled to know the length of time during which his meat has been kept frozen1 and this desirable condition of affairs is easily secured by the necessary local1 state1 and national inspection already mentioned4 ,disposition of ,fragments ,arising ,from the ,dressing of ,beef4--,it is evident that the fragments of sound1 wholesome meat which is dressed for delivery to commerce are themselves edible and hence there can be no hygienic or other objection to preparations made from these fragments1 such as sausage and other minced and comminuted meats which appear upon the market4 ,in other words1 the consumer is entitled to know that because a piece of meat is comminuted is no reason for supposing that it is not edible4 ,sausage1 mince meat1 comminuted meat1 potted1 canned1 and other meats or preparations from these sound1 clean1 edible fragments1 necessarily rejected in the process of preparing fresh meats for curing and for consumption1 are entitled to the same consideration and may be looked upon with the same certainty of purity by the consumer when properly inspected and prepared as the larger pieces4 ,the possibility of detecting any effects of disease in meats by inspection at the time of or after delivery is very remote and therefore the inspection before killing and during the process of manufacture should be a most rigid one in the case of these fragments4 ,such inspection and certification would restore public confidence in the purity and hygienic properties of these meats which not only are nutritious but by the spicing and condimental treatment which they receive are rendered highly palatable and desirable4 ,,detection ,,of ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,meat4 ,when meats are in large pieces they may be recognized by their anatomical characteristics4 ,in order that this may be done1 however1 the piece of meat must either be of a sufficient size to be recognized by its shape and general appearance or must have a bone of sufficient size to indicate its anatomical character4 ,according to the ,german law pieces of meat of less than eight pounds in weight are not supposed to be large enough to be recognized anatomically or otherwise with certainty4 ,this1 however1 is a matter which pertains more to the meat of animals from which the bone is taken rather than to its actual size4 ,it requires some little expert knowledge of the anatomy of animals in order to distinguish these pieces1 but one who is in the habit of purchasing or cutting meats acquires this knowledge without any special study4 ,odor and ,taste4--,each kind of meat may also be detected both by its odor and taste1 as well as by its physical appearance and shape4 ,beef1 mutton1 pork1 and other meats in a proper state of preparation and preservation have characteristic odors and flavors by which they are easily detected4 ,one of the common faults of cooking is the putting together of meats of various kinds in the same oven1 by means of which the odors become so intermingled that in small pieces even the experienced taster may not always be able to discriminate between them4 ,detection of ,meat by ,microscopic ,appearance4--,meats are so nearly related histologically that the microscope is not a certain means of detecting the different varieties4 ,were this the case it would be easy to identify the different kinds of meat which may be found in a finely comminuted mixture4 ,the expert microscopist may have difficulty in discriminating between different microscopic portions of meat1 but the microscope is of practically no advantage to any but an expert and not a very great advantage to him4 ,the fibers of some animals vary in size1 coarseness or fineness of texture1 and other characteristics as much as fibers do from different animals4 ,detection by ,chemical ,examination4--,the most satisfactory method of detecting meats is by means of their chemical examination4 ,there are two distinct points which are kept in view in a chemical examination4 ,one is the presence of glycogen1 which in quantities of more than one percent is characteristic of horse meat4 ,unfortunately1 this test can only be applied to a meat in practically a fresh state1 as the glycogen is rapidly changed into other forms of carbohydrate substances which make it difficult to identify4 ,the chemical examination1 therefore1 which is of the most value is that which is performed upon the fat4 ,the fat of different animals has different physical and chemical characteristics4 ,the fats crystallize in different forms and have different melting points1--also the fatty acids derived therefrom4 ,they absorb different quantities of iodin and bromin1 and have other physical and chemical properties which are peculiar to each variety4 ,a careful examination of the fat1 therefore1 will lead to an approximate degree of knowledge concerning the character of the flesh from which it has been derived4 ,for instance1 lard and beef fat are easily distinguished from each other4 ,in case a minced meat is made wholly of one kind of flesh or of one kind of animal the chemical examination of the fat will1 with a considerable degree of certainty1 lead to its identification4 ,in the same manner1 if a minced meat be made up of equal parts of two different kinds of animals the characteristics of the fats will lead to the identification of the two sources of meat4 ,if1 however1 one kind of meat be mixed in only a small proportion1 say #aj or #ae percent1 of another1 the chemical methods of separation are not to be relied upon4 ,none of these chemical or physical methods1 unfortunately1 is of value in the hands of any but an expert1 and1 therefore1 cannot be regarded as a common means of identification4 ,for this reason the only common manner of identification of the kinds of meats which are sent out to the consumer at large must consist in the general knowledge of their anatomical1 physical1 palatable1 and gustatory properties outlined above4 ,in all cases the consumer must eventually rely upon the official inspection and the label which accompanies the meat or which should accompany it4 ,dried ,meat4--,a very effective method of preserving meat is practiced in certain of the arid regions of the country by exposing it to the dry air and sunlight4 ,meats prepared in this way are often called 8jerked0 meats4 ,the small amount of aqueous vapor in the air is not sufficient to maintain the life of the ordinary fermentative germs1 and they are1 therefore1 destroyed by desiccation4 ,meat which is exposed under such circumstances does not become infected with any fermentative germ1 and the moisture which it contains is rapidly given off in the dry air surrounding it4 ,for this purpose the meat is cut into thin strips and suspended by appropriate means in the air and exposed to the direct sunlight4 ,in a short time the moisture disappears1 and the hard dry pieces keep indefinitely in certain arid regions of this country4 ,the meat also maintains a fair degree of palatability and practically all of its nutrient properties1 so that when properly cooked it is a palatable and nutritious dish4 ,probably of all the methods of preserving meat this one is the least open to objection1 since not even spices or condimental substances are necessary in order to preserve the meat from decay4 ,by reason of the change in its physical appearance1 however1 which makes it less attractive1 this method is not likely to come into general use in the ordinary preservation of meat4 ,dried beef is also prepared by preserving the meat by condimental substances and1 instead of placing it in brine1 drying it artificially4 ,chipped or dried beef is a common article of commerce and is prepared in the manner described above4 ,this meat1 however1 has already been treated with condimental substances1 and hence the drying is only one of the means of preservation4 ,dried or chipped meats are often smoked also as well as desiccated1 so that in their preparation more than one method of preservation is employed4 ,pickled ,meats4--,the method of preserving meats in a liquid environment is sometimes called pickling4 ,all kinds of meat are pickled in this way1 but pork especially4 ,the pickling brine may be simply made of common salt1 though other substances1 such as sugar1 vinegar1 and spices1 are used4 ,the brine also sometimes contains a chemical preservative which is highly objectionable on the general ground of the harmfulness of these substances4 ,the preservative commonly used is either sulfite of soda or boric acid4 ,the making of a pickled meat of this kind should be discouraged4 ,the vinegar which is employed or acetic acid may be injected into the carcass before it is cut up4 ,when the arteries or veins are filled with vinegar in this way it rapidly permeates to all parts of the meat and acts as an excellent and unobjectionable preservative in all cases where an acid taste is desired4 ,it is claimed that carcasses which have been injected with vinegar in this way are easily preserved1 and require far less salt and other condimental substances than when not so treated4 ,as vinegar is a condimental substance used everywhere1 and one which promotes digestion when used in proper quantities1 the preservation of meats or the pickling of meats by a previous injection of vinegar is not objectionable4 ,,composition ,,of ,,the ,,flesh ,,of ,,pigs4 ,extensive investigation of the composition of the flesh of pigs has been made in the ,bureau of ,chemistry 7,bulletin #ec74 ,the pigs upon which these examinations were made were specially bred and fattened at the ,agricultural ,experiment ,station of ,iowa1 and were prepared for the market by the most approved modern style of feeding4 ,they were slaughtered according to the approved method and immediately1 after proper preparation1 the carcasses were placed in cold storage1 where they were kept until removal for the purpose of dissection and preparation of the samples for analyses4 ,expert butchers from ,washington were secured for the dissecting and dressing of the pigs in the manner in which it would be done for the best market4 ,the pigs were of different varieties1 namely1 ,berkshire1 ,no4 #a2 ,tamworth1 ,no4 #b2 ,chester ,white1 ,no4 #c2 ,poland ,china1 ,no4 #d2 ,duroc ,jersey1 ,no4 #e1 ,no4 #f1 ,no4 #g2 ,yorkshire1 ,no4 #h4 ,,table ,a4--,,weights ,,of ,,whole ,,cuts ,,and ,,data ,,relating ,,to ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,air-,,dry ,,samples4 ,,pig ,,no4 #a4--;,,berkshire4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,weights ,,of ,,whole ,,cuts4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,names ,,of ,,cuts4 ,chicago4 ,washington4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,lbs4 ,oz4 ,grams4 ,lbs4 ,oz4,grams4 ,two ,american clear backs1 #ce #j #af1ajb4h #cd #f #ae1eib4e ,meat1 44 44 44 44 ,two clear bellies1 #ai #j #h1hde4b #ai #d #h1gca4h ,meat1 44 44 44 44 ,two short-cut hams1 #bc #j #aj1fei4f #bc #e #aj1egd4f ,meat1 44 44 44 44 ,two ,new ,york shoulders1 #bj #j #i1bih4h #bj #aj #i1cie4e ,meat1 44 44 44 44 ,four feet 7seven hoofs71 #c #jc #a1eid4bd #a1ead4a ,meat1 44 44 44 44 ,spareribs1 #e #j #b1bfh4j #b1bab4j ,meat1 44 44 44 44 ,tenderloins1 #a #j #dec4f #dgj4h ,neck bones1 #b #j #ijg4b #hdb4e ,meat1 44 44 44 44 ,backbones1 #c #j #a1ehg4f #a1ehj4j ,meat1 44 44 44 44 ,trimmings1 #ah #j #h1afd4h #af #i #g1eab4h ,meat1 44 44 44 44 ,tail1 #j #aac4d #cfc4j ,meat1 44 44 44 44 ---------------------------------------- --- ,total1 #acb #j #ei1iie4b #eh1ghi4f ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,preparation ,,of ,,air-,,dry ,,samples4 -------------------------- ,,direct ,weight of ,,determinations ,,on ,air-dry air-dry ,,original ,,material4 ,weight sample of sample ------------------of fresh originalafter ex- ,,names ,,of ,,cuts4 ,water4 ,fat4 sample4material4traction4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,per ct4,per ct4,grams4,per ct4 ,grams4 ,two ,american clear backs1 44 44 44 44 44 ,meat1 #ca4cc #eh4ba #hcc4j #ac4af #aji4f ,two clear bellies1 44 44 44 44 44 ,meat1 #cf4ji #eb4fi #gda4b #ad4cc #ajf4b ,two short-cut hams1 44 44 44 44 44 ,meat1 #fj4bi #bb4ai #ecb4e #bb4ie #abb4b ,two ,new ,york shoulders1 44 44 44 44 44 ,meat1 #ed4ig #bi4ja #ecb4e #ag4fe #id4j ,four feet 7seven hoofs71 44 44 44 44 44 ,meat1 #ei4gh #ag4jd #bba4a #be4aj #ee4e ,spareribs1 44 44 44 44 44 ,meat1 #ej4cc #cj4je #cei4i #bj4ha #gd4i ,tenderloins1 #fg4ad #i4ad #dbg4i #bg4aa #aaf4j ,neck bones1 44 44 44 44 44 ,meat1 #ec4hb #bh4gb #cij4f #bj4jb #gh4b ,backbones1 44 44 44 44 44 ,meat1 #ea4hi #bg4af #cig4e #bb4bd #hh4d ,trimmings1 44 44 44 44 44 ,meat1 #bi4fh #fb4jj #ghc4g #i4gb #gf4c ,tail1 44 44 44 44 44 ,meat1 #bc4ii #fi4be #aii4b #h4gc #ag4d ---------------------------------------- ---- ,total1 44 44 44 44 44 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,preparation ,,of ,,air-,,dry ,,samples4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,removed in ,air-dry preparation sample ,weight of sample4 ,weight plus of water------------------ ,,names ,,of ,,cuts4 of fat4 fat4 removed4 ,water4 ,fat4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,grams4,grams4,grams4,per ct4,per ct4 ,two ,american clear backs1 44 44 44 44 44 ,meat1 #deh4j #efg4f #bfe4d #ca4hf #ed4ih ,two clear bellies1 44 44 44 44 44 ,meat1 #cfb4a #dfh4c #bgb4i #cf4hb #dh4hd ,two short-cut hams1 44 44 44 44 44 ,meat1 #hh4c #baj4e #cbb4j #fj4dg #af4eh ,two ,new ,york shoulders1 44 44 44 44 44 ,meat1 #aeb4i #bdf4i #bhe4f #ec4fd #bh4ga ,four feet 7seven hoofs71 44 44 44 44 44 ,meat1 #cc4g #hi4b #aca4i #ei4ff #ae4bd ,spareribs1 44 44 44 44 44 ,meat1 #ih4f #agc4e #ahf4d #ea4gh #bg4ci ,tenderloins1 #bf4f #adb4f #bhe4c #ff4fg #f4ba ,neck bones1 44 44 44 44 44 ,meat1 #ajj4e #agh4g #baa4i #ed4be #be4gc ,backbones1 44 44 44 44 44 ,meat1 #ajb4a #aij4e #bjg4j #eb4jh #be4fi ,trimmings1 44 44 44 44 44 ,meat1 #dgi4b #eee4e #bbh4b #bi4aa #fa4ag ,tail1 44 44 44 44 44 ,meat1 #acd4g #aeb4a #dg4a #bc4fd #fg4fb ---------------------------------------- -- ,total1 44 44 44 44 44 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #c ,missing hoof1 #f4f grams4 #d ,corrected for missing hoof4 ,preparation of ,samples for ,analyses4--,the meat obtained from all of the cuts of the same kind in each sample was passed through a meat chopper two or three times in order to get an even1 finely divided condition4 ,a portion of known weight was then placed in a dish and dried in a steam oven at a temperature of boiling water or slightly above and heated until the fat had well separated so that it could be poured off into a flask1 with care not to remove any of the water which may have separated with it4 ,small samples were removed before drying for the determination of the exact quantity of fat and water therein1 and the results of these analyses were used for calculating the relative portion of the large samples4 ,samples of skin1 bones1 marrow1 spinal cord1 tendons1 hoofs1 and other parts of the animal were also carefully secured and subjected to analyses4 ,in this way the whole animal was subjected to examination for analytical data1 and at the same time each particular part of it1 in so far as its relation to the market is concerned1 was kept separated4 ,in ,table ,a are found the weight of the whole cut and the data relative to the preparation of the air-dried sample4 ,the data show that there was a slight loss of water during the transit from ,chicago to ,washington4 ,the part of the pig which has the largest percentage of fat is the meat of the tail1 while the smallest percentage is found in the tenderloins4 ,the largest percentage of water in any part of the meat is in the tenderloins and the smallest in the meat of the tail4 ,,table ,b4--,,weights ,,of ,,parts ,,from ,,each ,,cut ,,and ,,data ,,relating ,,to ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,air-,,dry ,,samples4 ,,pig ,,no4 #a4--;,,berkshire4 ,,names ,,of ,,parts ,,and ,,cuts4 ,,weights ,,of ,,parts4 ,from ,total4 ,of entire each cut4 pig4 ,meat 7fat and lean73 ,grams4 ,grams4 ,percent4 ,backs1 #ad1gfg4i 44 44 ,bellies1 #h1bcj4f 44 44 ,hams1 #i1djg4i 44 44 ,shoulders1 #h1ddh4b 44 44 ,feet1 #cbe4c 44 44 ,spareribs1 #a1fhc4h 44 44 ,tenderloins1 #dgj4h 44 44 ,neck bones1 #dic4b 44 44 ,backbones1 #gjd4j 44 44 ,trimmings1 #g1jba4e 44 44 ,tail1 #bia4g 44 44 -------- #ea1hdd4i #hh4ai ,bones3 ,backs1 #aia4a 44 44 ,bellies1 #ha4d 44 44 ,hams1 #hgi4f 44 44 ,shoulders1 #fic4h 44 44 ,feet1 #hjb4f 44 44 ,spareribs1 #ebh4b 44 44 ,neck bones1 #ccf4a 44 44 ,backbones1 #hcc4e 44 44 ,trimmings1 #ga4j 44 44 ,tail1 #bg4a 44 44 -------- --------- ----- ,total1 44 #d1ddd4d 44 ,marrow1 #fi4g #fi4g #j4ab ,total bones less marrow1 44 #d1cgd4g #g4dd ,,table ,c4--,,analytical ,,data ,,for ,,meats4 ,,pig ,,no4 #a4--;,,berkshire4 ----------------------- ,air-dry sample3 ,percent of original ,,names ,,of ,,cuts4material4 ----------------------- ,two ,american backs1 #ac4af ,two clear bellies1 #ad4cc ,two short-cut hams1 #bb4ie 7,fat extracted with ether71 #af4eh ,two ,new ,york shoulders1 #ag4fe ,four feet1 #be4aj 7,fat extracted with ether71 #ae4bj ,spareribs1 #bj4ha ,tenderloins1 #bg4aa ,neck bones1 #bj4jb 7,fat extracted with ether71 #ah4fi ,backbones1 #bb4bd ,trimmings1 #i4gb ,tail1 #h4gc ----------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,percent ,,air-,,dry ,,material4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,nitrogen4 -------------------------- ,of pro- teids in- ,precip- soluble itated ,of in hot by flesh,leci- ,,names ,,of ,,cuts4,water4 ,fat4,total4 water4bromin4bases4thin4,ash4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,two ,american backs1 #c4ad #bj4ee #aa4cb #h4ea #j4fb #b4ai #a4afc4hi ,two clear bellies1 #c4ad #ba4ei #aa4ae #g4gh #j4fe #b4gb #j4iic4he ,two short-cut hams1 #d4ad #ae4dc #aa4he #i4gg #j4dh #a4fj #a4ajd4ah 7,fat extracted with ether71 44 44 #j4bb 44 44 44 #b4dc 44 ,two ,new ,york shoulders1 #b4ca #b4aj #ac4gf #aj4bb #j4gc #b4ha #j4hee4jc ,four feet1 #f4df #f4cb #ac4gc #g4ge #c4jj #b4ih #j4gec4bh 7,fat extracted with ether71 44 44 #j4ac 44 44 44 #b4fh 44 ,spareribs1 #c4ff #h4bc #ac4jc #aj4ca #j4hi #a4hc #a4fhd4hj ,tenderloins1 #e4ad #i4dg #ab4ej #aj4ie #j4bh #a4bg #a4hbd4cj ,neck bones1 #g4bc #aj4ic #ab4be #i4ig #j4ei #a4fi #a4ccd4jb 7,fat extracted with ether71 44 44 #j4ba 44 44 44 #b4ag 44 ,backbones1 #c4cf #f4hh #ac4jc #aj4cf #j4fb #b4je #a4bje4ei ,trimmings1 #c4fi #h4cd #ac4ji #h4ed #a4aa #c4dd #a4afd4bc ,tail1 #d4cj #f4ig #ac4de #aj4ef #j4ih #a4ia #a4ihd4da ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,percent ,,original ,,material4 ---------------------------------------- ------- ,water4 ,fat4 -------------------------------------- ,in ,in steam- steam- ,in pre- dry ,in pre- dry paring mate- paring mate- ,leci- ,,names ,,of ,,cuts4sample4 rial4,total4sample4 rial4,total4thin4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,two ,american backs1 #ca4hf #j4da #cb4bg #ed4ih #b4ga #eg4fi #j4ae ,two clear bellies1 #cf4hb #j4de #cg4bg #dh4hd #c4ji #ea4ic #j4ad ,two short-cut hams1 #fj4dg #j4ie #fa4db #af4eh #c4ed #bj4ab #j4be 7,fat extracted with ether71 44 44 44 44 44 44 #j4dj ---- #j4fe ,two ,new ,york shoulders1 #ec4fd #j4da #ed4jd #bh4ga #j4cg #bi4jh #j4ae ,four feet1 #ei4ff #a4fb #fa4bh #ae4bd #a4ei #af4hc #j4bj 7,fat extracted with ether71 44 44 44 44 44 44 #j4da ---- #j4fa ,spareribs1 #ea4gh #j4gf #eb4ed #bg4ci #a4ga #bi4aj #j4ce ,tenderloins1 #ff4fg #a4ci #fh4jf #f4ba #b4eg #h4gh #j4di ,neck bones1 #ed4be #a4de #ee4gj #be4gc #b4ai #bg4ib #j4bg 7,fat extracted with ether71 44 44 44 44 44 44 #j4da ---- #j4fh ,backbones1 #eb4jh #j4ge #eb4hc #be4fi #a4ec #bg4bb #j4bf ,trimmings1 #bi4aa #j4cf #bi4dg #fa4ag #j4ha #fa4ih #j4aa ,tail1 #bc4fd #j4ch #bd4jb #fg4fb #j4fa #fh4bc #j4ag ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,percent ,,original ,,material4 ----------------------------- ,nitrogen4 -------------------------- ,of pro- teids in- ,precip- soluble itated ,of in hot by flesh ,,names ,,of ,,cuts4,total4 water4bromin4bases4 ---------------------------------------- ,two ,american backs1 #a4di #a4ab #j4jh #j4bi ,two clear bellies1 #a4fj #a4ab #j4ji #j4ci ,two short-cut hams1 #b4gb #b4bd #j4aa #j4cg 7,fat extracted with ether71 #j4jd 44 44 44 ,two ,new ,york shoulders1 #b4dc #a4hj #j4ac #j4ej ,four feet1 #c4de #a4ie #j4ge #j4ge 7,fat extracted with ether71 #j4jb 44 44 44 ,spareribs1 #b4ga #b4ae #j4ah #j4ch ,tenderloins1 #c4ci #b4ig #j4jh #j4cd ,neck bones1 #b4de #a4ii #j4ab #j4cd 7,fat extracted with ether71 #j4jd 44 44 44 ,backbones1 #b4ij #b4cj #j4ad #j4df ,trimmings1 #a4bg #j4hc #j4aa #j4cc ,tail1 #a4ag #j4ib #j4ji #j4af ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,percent ,,original ,,material4 ---------------------------------------- ,nitrogenous substances4 -------------------------- ,pro- teids in- soluble in hot,gelati- ,flesh ,total4 ,,names ,,of ,,cuts4 water4 noids4bases4,total4,ash4 #e ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,two ,american #ih4df backs1 #g4jj #j4ej #j4ia #h4daj4ea #ih4hh ,two clear #ih4aa bellies1 #g4jj #j4ef #a4bb #h4ghj4ee #ih4ec ,two short-cut hams1 #ad4jj #j4fi #a4ae #ae4hdj4if #ii4bh 7,fat extracted #ih4cd with ether71 44 44 44 44 44 ,two ,new ,york shoulders1 #aa4be #j4ha #a4ef #ac4fbj4hi #ih4di #ig4fc ,four feet1 #ab4ai #d4fi #b4cd #ai4bbj4hb #if4hf 7,fat extracted #ih4ae with ether71 44 44 44 44 44 ,spareribs1 #ac4dd #a4ac #a4ai #ae4gfa4jj #ig4ad #ih4dj ,tenderloins1 #ah4ef #j4ej #a4jf #bj4aba4ag #ig4eg #ih4ac ,neck bones1 #ab4dd #j4ge #a4jf #ad4bej4ha #ig4fj 7,fat extracted #ih4fh with ether71 44 44 44 44 44 ,backbones1 #ad4ch #j4hg #a4dd #af4fia4bd #if4ih #ig4ih ,trimmings1 #e4ai #j4fi #a4jc #f4iaj4da #ii4jj #ih4gg ,tail1 #e4ge #j4ef #j4ej #f4haj4ciajj4dd #ii4de ---------------------------------------- ----------- #e ,in this column the totals obtained by both the direct and the indirect determination of water and fat are given4 ,the upper number in each case was obtained by use of the results of direct determinations of these constituents2 for the lower number in each case the results obtained during the preparation of the sample1 and in the analysis of the dry-air sample1 were used4 ,lecithin is not included in the totals given in this table4 ,,table ,d4--,,analytical ,,data ,,for ,,bones1 ,,marrow1 ,,skin1 ,,spinal ,,cord1 ,,tendons1 ,,and ,,hoofs4 ,,pig ,,no4 #a4--;,,berkshire4 ----------------------- ,air-dry sample1 percent of ,,names ,,of original ,,parts4 material4 ----------------------- ,bones1 #eb4fg 7,fat extracted with ether71 #aa4dj ,marrow1 #d4dd 7,fat extracted with ether71 #ag4cf ,skin1 #cf4ic 7,fat extracted with ether71 #ae4ij ,spinal cord1 #h4hj ,tendons1 #ca4ic 7,fat extracted with ether71 #d4ha ,hoofs1 #fc4dd ----------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,percent ,,air-,,dry ,,material4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,nitrogen4 -------------------------- ,of pro- teids in- ,precip- soluble itated ,of ,,names ,,of in hot by flesh,leci- ,,parts4 ,water4,fat4,total4 water4bromin4bases4thin4 ,ash4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,bones1 #e4gbj4eb #f4ah #e4cb #j4aa #j4ge #j4hddi4ei 7,fat extracted with ether71 74#fa7 44 #j4bi 44 44 44 44 74#bh7 ,marrow1 #f4fhj4ai #h4ca #g4jh #j4fe #j4dh 44 44 7,fat extracted with ether71 44 44 #j4jg 44 44 44 #b4fd 44 ,skin1 #h4cac4bh #ae4jb #aj4ie #b4hi #a4ah #j4cc #a4gj 7,fat extracted with ether71 44 44 #j4ae 44 44 44 #a4he 44 ,spinal cord1 #f4jah4bh #h4he #g4jb #a4bf #j4eg 44 44 ,tendons1 #aj4bca4ec #ad4aj #aa4bf #b4bb #j4fb #j4ci #c4ga 7,fat extracted with ether71 44 44 #j4bc 44 44 44 #f4fe 44 ,hoofs1 #g4ada4ce #ad4fc 44 44 44 44 #a4df ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,percent ,,original ,,material4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,water4 ,fat4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,in pre- ,in ,in pre- ,in ,,names ,,of paringresidual paring residual ,leci- ,,parts4 sample4material4,total4sample4material4, total4thin4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,bones1 #ce4ic #c4ja #ch4id #aa4dj #j4bg #aa4fg #j4dd 7,fat extracted with ether71 44 74#jg7 44 44 44 44 44 ,marrow1 #ad4jf #j4cj #ad4cf #ha4ej #j4ja #ha4ea 44 7,fat extracted with ether71 44 44 44 44 44 44 #j4df ,skin1 #dg4ag #c4jg #ej4bd #ae4ij #a4ba #ag4aa #j4ab 7,fat extracted with ether71 44 44 44 44 44 44 #j4bi ---- #j4da ,spinal cord1 #fe4ag #j4ec #fe4gj #bf4jc #j4gc #bf4gf 44 ,tendons1 #ee4af #c4bg #eh4dc #ab4ia #j4di #ac4dj #j4ac 7,fat extracted with ether71 44 44 44 44 44 44 #j4cb ---- #j4de ,hoofs1 #cf4ef #d4ec #da4ji 44 44 #j4hf 44 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,percent ,,original ,,material4 ----------------------------- ,nitrogen4 -------------------------- ,of pro- teids in- ,precip- soluble itated ,of ,,names ,,of in hot by flesh ,,parts4 ,total4 water4bromin4bases4 ---------------------------------------- ,bones1 #c4bf #b4hj #j4jf #j4dj 7,fat extracted with ether71 #j4jc 44 44 44 ,marrow1 #j4cg #j4cb #j4jc #j4jb 7,fat extracted with ether71 #j4ja 44 44 44 ,skin1 #e4ee #d4jd #a4jg #j4dd 7,fat extracted with ether71 #j4jbd 44 44 44 ,spinal cord1 #j4gh #j4fb #j4aa #j4je ,tendons1 #d4ej #c4ei #j4ga #j4bj 7,fat extracted with ether71 #j4ja 44 44 44 ,hoofs1 #i4bh 44 44 44 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,percent ,,original ,,material4 ---------------------------------------- - ,nitrogenous substances4 -------------------------- ,pro- teids in soluble ,,names ,,of in hot,gelati- ,flesh ,,parts4 water4 noids4bases4,total4 ,ash4 ,total4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,bones1 #ag4ej #j4ch #a4be #ai4ac #bf4ab #ie4hf 7,fat extracted with ether71 44 44 44 44 74#jc7 44 ,marrow1 #b4jj #j4ai #j4jf #b4be 44 #ih4ab 7,fat extracted with ether71 44 44 44 44 44 44 ,skin1 #be4be #f4fi #a4cg #cc4ca #j4fcajh4dd #aja4hi 7,fat extracted with ether71 44 44 44 44 44 44 ,spinal cord1 #c4hh #j4fi #j4af #d4gc 44 #ig4ai ,tendons1 #bb4dd #d4dd #j4fb #bg4ej #a4ah #ajj4ea 7,fat extracted with ether71 44 44 44 44 44 44 ,hoofs1 44 44 44 #eh4jj #j4ic #ajj4hh ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,similar data were obtained for all of the other samples used1 but the chemical composition is so nearly the same that it is not advisable to repeat the data for the other varieties4 ,the ,berkshire for which the data are given may be taken as a fair representative of the composition of the varied parts of the meat of pigs4 ,the comparative weights of various parts of the ,berkshire pig are given in ,table ,b4 ,the data show that #hh4ai percent of the weight of the carcass1 after dressing1 is composed of meat1 fat1 and lean1 and #g4ef percent of bone4 ,the complete data for the variety of ,berkshire pig may be taken as a type for the other varieties and is given in ,table ,c4 ,the composition of the bone1 marrow1 skin1 spinal cord1 tendons1 and hoofs of the ,berkshire pig is shown in ,table ,d4 ,the percentages of the various parts of the original material of the ,berkshire pig are found in ,table ,e4 ,,table ,e4--,,revised ,,analytical ,,data4 ,,pig ,,no4 #a4--;,,berkshire4 ,percents original material4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,nitrogenous ,,substances4 ------------------------- ,pro- teids1 in- sol- ,,names uble ,,leci- ,,of ,,cuts in hot,gelati- ,flesh ,,thin4 ,,and ,,parts4 ,,water4 ,,fat4water4noids4 bases4,total4 #f ,,ash4,,total4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,meat3 ,american backs1 #cb4bgeg4fi #g4jj #j4ej #j4ia #h4da #j4ae #j4ea #ii4jc ,american bellies1 #cg4bgea4ic #g4jj #j4ef #a4bb #h4gh #j4ad #j4ee #ih4fg ,short-cut hams1 #fj4bibb4ai #ad4jj #j4fi #a4ae #ae4hd #j4fe #j4if #ii4ic ,new ,york #g shoulders1 #ed4igbi4ja #aa4be #j4ha #a4ef #ac4fb #j4ae #j4hi #ih4fd #g ,four feet1 #fa4bhaf4hc #ab4ai #d4fi #b4cd #ai4bb #j4fa #j4hb #ih4gf ,spareribs1 #eb4edbi4aj #ac4dd #a4ac #a4ai #ae4gf #j4ce #a4jj #ih4ge ,tender- loins1 #fh4jf #h4gh #ah4ef #j4ej #a4jf #bj4ab #j4di #a4ag #ih4fb ,neck bones1 #ee4gjbg4ib #ab4dd #j4ge #a4jf #ad4be #j4fh #j4ha #ii4cf ,back- bones1 #eb4hcbg4bb #ad4ch #j4hg #a4dd #af4fi #j4bf #a4bd #ih4bd ,trimmings1 #bi4fhfb4jj #e4ai #j4fi #a4jc #f4ia #j4aa #j4da #ii4aa #g ,tail1 #bd4jbfh4bc #e4ge #j4ef #j4ej #f4ha #j4ag #j4ci #ii4fb ,bones1 #ch4idaa4fg #ag4ej #j4ch #a4be #ai4ac #j4ddbf4ab #if4cj ,marrow1 #ad4cfha4ea #b4jj #j4ai #j4jf #b4be #j4df 44 #ih4eh #h ,skin1 #ej4bdag4aa #be4be #f4fi #a4cg #cc4ca #j4da #j4fcaja4gj ,spinal cord1 #fe4gjbf4gf #c4hh #j4fi #j4af #d4gc #a4dg #j4dj #ig4ai #i #aj ,tendons1 #eh4dcac4dj #bb4dd #d4dd #j4fb #bg4ej #j4de #a4ahajj4if ,hoofs1 #da4ji #j4hf 44 44 44 #eh4jj 44 #j4icajj4hh ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #f ,lecithin in extracted sample only1 unless otherwise noted4 #g ,result of direct determination on original material4 ,other numbers in this column represent the sum of the percent of water removed in the preparation of sample and the percent of water remaining in the air-dry sample4 #h ,in fat extract4 #i ,in fat extract1 calculated from averages for like cuts4 #aj ,calculated from averages of like cuts4 ,,table ,f4--,,data ,,for ,,the ,,entire ,,dressed ,,animal2 ,,the ,,head1 ,,leaf ,,lard1 ,,and ,,kidneys ,,having ,,been ,,removed4 ,,pig ,,no4 #a4--;,,berkshire4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,weight ,,of ,,each ,,weight ,,of ,,parts-- ,,constituent4 ----------------- ------------------ ,from ,,of ,,names ,,of each ,,entire ,,parts4 cut4 ,total4 ,,pig4 ,water4 ,fat4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,meat 7fat and ,grams4,grams4,per- ,grams4 ,grams4 lean73 cent4 ,backs1 #ad1gfg4i 44 44 #d1gfe4f #h1eai4f ,bellies1 #h1bcj4f 44 44 #c1jfg4e #d1bgd4b ,hams1 #i1djg4i 44 44 #e1fgb4i #b1jhg4f ,shoulders1 #h1ddh4b 44 44 #d1fdd4b #b1dej4f ,feet1 #cbe4c 44 44 #aii4c #ed4g ,spareribs1 #a1fhc4h 44 44 #hhd4g #dij4j ,tenderloins1 #dgj4h 44 44 #cbj4d #da4c ,neck bones1 #dic4b 44 44 #bgd4g #acg4g ,backbones1 #gjd4j 44 44 #cga4i #aia4g ,trimmings1 #g1jba4e 44 44 #b1jhd4j #d1cec4a ,tail1 #bia4g 44 44 #gj4a #aii4a ---------------------------------------- ,total for meats1 44 #ea1hdd4i #hh4aibb1ced4d #bb1gii4f ,bones 7less marrow71 44 #d1cgd4g #g4dd #a1gjc4f #eaj4f ,marrow1 44 #fi4g #j4ab #aj4j #ef4h ,skin1 44 #b1bcb4e #c4hj #a1aba4f #cha4i ,spinal cord1 44 #ee4g #j4ji #cf4f #ad4i ,tendons1 44 #aei4e #j4bg #ic4b #ba4d ,hoofs1 44 #eb4f #j4ji #ba4f #j4d ---------------------------------------- ,total weights1 44 #eh1ghi4f 44 #be1cda4j #bc1ghe4f ,total per- cents of original material1 44 44 44 #dc4aj #dj4df ---------------------------------------- -------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,weight ,,of ,,each ,,constituent4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,nitrogenous substances4 ---------------------------------- ,proteids1 insoluble ,,names ,,of in hot ,gelati- ,flesh ,,parts4 water4 noids4 bases4 ,total4 ,lecithin4 ,ash4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,meat 7fat and ,grams4 ,grams4,grams4,grams4 ,grams4 ,grams4 lean73 ,backs1 #a1jcc4h #gc4h #acd4d #a1bdb4j #bb4ae #ge4c ,bellies1 #egf4a #df4a #ajj4d #gbb4f #aa4eb #de4c ,hams1 #a1cag4b #fd4i #ajh4b #a1dij4c #fa4ae #ij4c ,shoulders1 #iej4d #fh4d #aca4h #a1aej4f #ab4fg #ge4b ,feet1 #ci4f #ae4c #g4f #fb4e #a4ih #b4g ,spareribs1 #bbf4d #ai4j #bj4j #bfe4d #e4hi #af4h ,tenderloins1 #hg4d #b4c #e4j #id4g #b4ca #e4e ,neck bones1 #fa4d #c4g #e4b #gj4c #c4ce #d4j ,backbones1 #aja4c #f4a #aj4a #aag4e #a4hc #h4g ,trimmings1 #cfd4d #dh4d #gb4c #dhe4a #g4gb #bh4h ,tail1 #af4h #a4f #a4e #ai4i #j4ej #a4a ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,total for meats1 #d1ggd4h #cdi4f #eif4e #e1gbj4i #aca4jg #cec4g ,bones 7less marrow71 #gfe4f #af4f #ed4g #hcf4i #ai4be #a1adb4f ,marrow1 #a4d #j4b #j4a #a4g #j4cb 44 #aa ,skin1 #efc4g #adi4d #cj4f #gdc4g #i4ae #ad4a ,spinal cord1 #b4b #j4d #j4a #b4g #j4hb #j4b #ab #ac ,tendons1 #ce4h #g4a #a4j #dc4i #j4gb #a4i ,hoofs1 44 44 44 #cj4e 44 #j4e ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,total weights1 #f1adc4e #ebc4c #fhc4j #g1fed4i #afa4cc #aea4c ,total per- cents of original material1 #aj4de #j4hi #a4af #ac4jb #j4bg #b4eg ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #aa ,in fat extract4 #ab ,in residue and fat extract1 calculated from averages of like cuts4 #ac ,calculated from average of like cuts4 ,the data for the entire dressed animal after the removal of the head1 hoofs1 lard1 and kidneys are shown in ,table ,f4 ,general ,conclusions4--,the composition of the flesh of pigs has been given in detail for two reasons4 ,first1 because the data relative to this point are much more complete than those of any other flesh product and were obtained in a more systematic way4 ,in the second place1 pork is one of the chief meat products of the ,united ,states1--the industry being one of great magnitude1 and pork being a common article of diet among all classes of people4 ,further than this1 the data indicate the general character of fresh meat1 and illustrate as well as that of any of the typical animals the nutritive value and properties of flesh4 ,the study of pork1 therefore1 may be regarded as a typical study of meat products4 ,it is quite as important that all people should be informed respecting the nature of the wholesome meat which they consume and its value as a diet as it is that they should be certain these meats be procured from healthy animals and in a sanitary way4 ,these two classes of knowledge together give a complete scheme of information which the consumers in this and other countries are entitled to have4 ,pork1 by many hygienists1 is regarded as the least desirable of meat products1 and it is not the purpose here to combat that idea4 ,granting1 however1 for the sake of argument1 that pork is a less desirable meat food than those derived from cattle or sheep1 that is all the more reason for knowing particularly everything connected with it4 ,modern investigations have appeared to establish the fact that swine are less subject to those forms of disease1 with the exception of trichinosis1 which tend to infect the meat and make it unfit for consumption than cattle or sheep4 ,the diseases to which swine are usually subject act quickly1 as a rule1 and are speedily fatal1 as in the case of hog cholera1 whereas the diseases most to be feared in cattle and sheep are those of slow activity and those of a nature which is often not revealed until slaughter1 namely1 tubercular diseases4 ,in so far1 therefore1 as infection from disease is concerned1 previous to slaughter1 it appears that the flesh of swine is less objectionable and less open to suspicion than that of cattle or sheep4 ,one of the chief objections to the use of pork in any form1 whether fresh or cured1 has been based upon the unsanitary habits of the animals themselves4 ,with the modern methods of cleanliness and care1 however1 the conditions under which the pigs grow and fatten are1 or should be1 quite as sanitary as those surrounding cattle and sheep4 ,the consumer1 of course1 has the right to insist upon such sanitary conditions and these1 under present laws or those which are to be enacted1 will doubtless be supplied4 ,it is believed that in this country sanitary environments and a sanitary method of feeding will develop types of animals superior to those grown in other countries1 where the population is denser and where the facilities for the proper growth and fattening of the animal are less abundant4 ,it is hoped that the general diffusion of knowledge respecting all food products among our people will aid greatly in securing these very desirable results4 ,,preserved ,,meats4 ,meats which cannot be eaten at the time of or soon after slaughter are necessarily preserved until the time of consumption4 ,it is difficult to draw a definite line between a preserved and a fresh meat4 ,a general distinction is the following3 ,fresh meat is meat which is prepared for consumption without the use of any condiment or preservative1 without sterilization1 and with none of the artificial methods of keeping1 except cleanliness and a low temperature4 ,the above definition1 as will be seen1 covers meat placed in cold storage4 ,a special distinction1 however1 must be made in this case between meat placed in cold storage for the purpose of transportation only and meat placed in cold storage to be kept for an indefinite time4 ,where meats are prepared for consumption by slaughter and appropriate dressing and shipped long distances to the consumer the cold storage car1 ship1 and warehouse become a necessity4 ,there is some reasonable limit for keeping such products1 beyond which they should be differentiated from fresh meats4 ,whenever meats are kept in cold storage so long as to afford the opportunity for the growth of a mould1 or undergo other changes of a chemical or physical character which distinguish them from the fresh products1 they should be placed in a different class4 ,fresh meats may1 therefore1 be divided as follows3 ,class ,i4 ,meats intended for immediate consumption and passed to the consumer within1 at the most1 one week after slaughter4 ,class ,,ii4 ,cold storage meats1 which are placed in refrigerators1 frozen1 and kept for a longer period than one week4 ,there is evidently also a limit to the length of time which meat should remain in cold storage1 no matter how low the temperature may be1 since the action of organisms which produce decay cannot be entirely overcome4 ,the exact limit at which frozen meats can be kept without becoming inedible has not been determined4 ,without this determination1 however1 it is advisable that such limit should not be approached4 ,inasmuch as the supply of fresh meat is practically uniform1 or can be made so by the dealer therein1 there seems no good reason for the storage of meat in refrigerator compartments for a longer time than is necessary for transportation and a reasonable time thereafter for passing into consumption1 except in cases of emergency4 ,it might be safe to say that no meat should be kept in a cold storage warehouse longer than a month after its reception4 ,numerous instances might be cited in which meat may be kept for a much longer time1 but the question for the consumer is not how long a while meats can be kept but how soon they can be placed in his hands4 ,in this connection it should not be forgotten that it is the opinion of perhaps the majority of hygienists and connoisseurs that fresh meat1 especially beef1 improves for a certain length of time in cold storage4 ,it is probable that the fresh beef which is served to the people of the ,united ,states is on an average a month old1 and is said to be improved by keeping this length of time4 ,this is a question1 however1 which is still undetermined1 and it deserves a further investigation4 ,under present conditions it is well to know the truth respecting these matters and to realize that the fresh meat we get1 such as beef and mutton1 is not direct from the shambles but has been kept for at least four weeks in cold storage4 ,effect of ,long ,cold ,storage4--,it has been stated in semi-scientific publications that the flesh of a mammoth incrusted in polar ice and presumably thousands of years old has been found to be intact and edible4 ,this story1 lacking corroboration1 is hardly in harmony with known facts4 ,the author had the opportunity of examining a quarter of beef which had been kept frozen in a warehouse for more than eleven years4 ,this meat was found to be wholly inedible4 ,it had an unpleasant and mummy-like odor1 was light in fiber and color1 having evidently lost a large part of its weight1 and was of a character wholly unsuitable for consumption4 ,this fact appears to show that eleven years is too long a time in which to keep meat frozen4 ,in fact1 it is scarcely worth while1 from a practical point of view1 to discuss so long a limit4 ,only the necessary time for the preparation and transportation of the meat is to be considered1 and the sanitary laws of the nation1 states1 and municipalities should undoubtedly regulate the time of cold storage and see that all packages of meat exposed for sale are plainly tagged as to the date of slaughter1 in order that the consumer may know4 ,in the consideration of the subject of preserved meats there are excluded all meats delivered in the fresh state for consumption and meats kept in cold storage in a fresh state during the necessary time of preparation and transportation say1 on the whole1 from four to eight weeks4 ,meats kept longer than this may generally be considered as preserved meats1 even when cold is the only factor active in their preservation4 ,method of ,preserving ,meats4--,aside from cold storage there are four methods in vogue for preserving meats4 ,these may be classified as follows3 7#a7 ,curing with the aid of condimental substances2 7#b7 treatment with chemical and non-condimental preservatives2 7#c7 sterilization with heat2 7#d7 drying4 ,these all except the second may be regarded as legitimate means of preserving meats4 ,curing with ,condimental ,substances4--,this method of preserving meat has been practiced from the remotest antiquity4 ,the chief condimental substances employed are salt1 sugar1 vinegar1 and wood smoke4 ,with the proper technical skill and knowledge of the process1 meats can be preserved in this way1 and at the same time aromas and flavors developed which are considered most agreeable by the consumer and which give an additional value to the product4 ,it is not to be claimed in any case that condimental preservatives add anything to the nutritive value of the product1 except in so far as condiments themselves aid the digestion by exciting in a perfectly proper way the activity of the glands which secrete the digestive ferments4 ,it is not the purpose here to describe the technical processes used4 ,in general it may be said that the application of salt is the first process1 and this is done as soon after the slaughter as possible to secure the proper cooling of the carcass1 usually from twenty-four to forty-eight hours4 ,the meat1 properly cut into the forms known to commerce1 is carefully packed and heavily salted1 and allowed to remain for some time in contact with the salt or with the brine which is produced therefrom4 ,the salt penetrates to the interior of the flesh and hardens1 to some extent1 the tissues1 abstracting water therefrom1 and1 without being wholly germicidal in character1 prevents the introduction of eggs of insects and the development of ordinary germ life4 ,the salt1 however1 does not entirely inhibit the enzymic action which tends to ripen the meat and make it more palatable4 ,it naturally gives to the meat the salty flavor which is demanded by the taste in a preparation of this kind4 ,sugar is used1 if at all1 always in connection with salt as a preservative for meats4 ,it may be employed in the pure state1 but is usually the yellow or low-grade sugar or molasses4 ,it gives to the preserved meat1 especially ham1 a flavor and quality much appreciated by the consumer4 ,the application of wood smoke is usually the last process after the meats are properly cured in salt and sugar4 ,the pieces are suspended in a convenient room and underneath is built a fire of hard wood1 which is kept smouldering as much as possible in order to produce the maximum of smoke and minimum of heat4 ,oak1 maple1 and hickory woods are most highly prized for this purpose1 since they develop on burning a rich aroma which imparts to the flesh a delicate flavor4 ,the object of curing the meat is1 first1 to prevent decay2 second1 to impart the flavor of the well known condiments mentioned above1 and third1 to favor the development of the enzymic action which has the property not only to make the meat more aromatic than it otherwise would be1 but also more pleasant to the taste4 ,the curing of meat in this respect may be compared to the development of a cheese1 except that the enzymic action in the case of meat is one of minimum extent1 while in the case of cheese it is one of maximum intensity4 ,in addition to the condimental substances above mentioned spices of different kinds are sometimes added4 ,vinegar is also used at times as a condimental substance and is1 to a certain extent1 also a preservative substance1 but vinegar is chiefly used in the preservation of vegetable substances rather than meats in bulk4 ,for meats which are spiced as well as preserved as above1 vinegar is often used as one of the ingredients1 intended as a condimental substance4 ,no other substances than those mentioned above are necessary to the proper curing of meat1 but convenience of application and certain other considerations have led packers of meats1 when not prevented by law1 to abandon the old methods to a certain extent and substitute what is known as the quick-aging process described below4 ,preservation by ,means of ,non-condimental ,chemical ,preservatives4--,the use of non-condimental chemicals in the preservation of meat is practically an industry of the last quarter of a century4 ,up to that time the use of non-condimental chemicals was practically unknown in the meat industry4 ,the chemicals employed are those known as germicides4 ,in the quantities used they neither impart a taste nor odor to a preserved meat1 but by their germicidal properties prevent the development of organic ferments and thus make the preservation of meat far more certain and very much less expensive4 ,by the use of some chemicals the salting1 sugaring1 and smoking of preserved meats may be done with very much less care1 in a very much shorter time1 and at a very greatly reduced expense4 ,for this reason the practice has gained a great vogue1 not as a means of benefiting the consumers1 but rather as a means of enriching the packer and dealer4 ,chemical preservatives are also highly objectionable because they keep meats apparently fresh1 while in reality changes of the most dangerous character may be going on4 ,they thus prevent the display of the red light danger signal4 ,preservatives ,used4--,the principal chemical preservatives used in the curing of meats are borax and boric acid and sulfite of soda4 ,there are many other chemical preservatives which have been employed1 but these are by far the most useful1 the most certain1 and the most widely employed4 ,borax and boric acid1 of the two classes1 are by far the more common4 ,sulfite of soda is used more as a preservative of color1 and is probably found more frequently on fresh than on preserved meats4 ,borax has the property of paralyzing fermentative action and thus securing immunity from decay4 ,its use1 however1 tends to diminish the palatability of the meat because of its restraining influence upon the condimental method of preservation described above4 ,the meats are more quickly preserved1 require less condimental substances1 and the borax probably inhibits1 to a certain degree1 the enzymic action of a favorable kind1 described above4 ,the use of any kind of a chemical preserving agent on meat is most reprehensible1 no matter what they may be4 ,unfortunately1 experts differ respecting the influence of these chemical preservatives upon health4 ,the users of chemical preservatives have employed experts of known fame and distinction to testify in favor of these products1 while the consumer1 perhaps1 is not able to go to the expense of securing expert testimony1 and1 therefore1 as respects numbers of witnesses1 at least1 chemical preservatives have an advantage4 ,in a case of this kind the accused must be considered guilty until proven innocent4 ,it is not sufficient to prove in a given case that borax is not injurious4 ,if it be proven that it is injurious in a single case conviction must ensue4 ,there is no doubt of the fact that the injurious character of borax1 even in small quantities1 has been fully established1 and therefore any amount of testimony to the effect that in individual cases it has not produced injurious results is of no value whatever4 ,if a citizen be robbed and in the course of the prosecution it be shown that there are a million citizens who have not been robbed by this criminal the evidence would be of no value4 ,if it has been shown that the individual citizen has been robbed the prisoner is convicted4 ,no expert would testify that borax has never been injurious1--even those who appear in its favor admit that1 but plead that it is generally used in small quantities1 and1 therefore1 cannot be harmful4 ,the ,argument of ,small ,quantities4--,the fallacy of the argument for small quantities is so evident that it needs only to be presented in brief form to show the intelligent and thinking people of this country the fallacy of the claims of experts in favor of chemical preservatives4 ,the arguments which have been advanced in excuse of the use of preservatives when used in minute quantities have1 perhaps1 been more vigorously urged for salicylic acid than for almost any other substance4 ,this argument has been urged with such vigor and such ingenuity that a further reference may not be out of place here4 ,the principle which is laid down is that a substance which is injurious to health when added to foods1 if not a natural constituent thereof1 or if not added for condimental purposes1 does not lose its power of injury to health because it is diluted or given in small quantities4 ,the only change which is made is to mask the injurious effects produced--to make them more difficult of ascertainment and impossible of measurement4 ,the fallacy of the argument that small quantities of an injurious substance are not injurious may1 perhaps1 be best represented graphically4 ,the accompanying chart 7,fig4 #g7 shows theoretically the normal and lethal dose of a food and a drug or1 as in this case1 a chemical preservative4 ,the chart shows two curves1 one representing a chemical preservative and one representing a food4 ,the normal dose of a food is that quantity of food which maintains a healthy adult body in equilibrium4 ,it is represented in the chart on the right by the number #ajj4 ,if the quantity of food necessary to maintain the equilibrium in a healthy adult body is slightly diminished1 no apparent change is at first experienced and possibly even no discomfort4 ,if1 however1 the quantity of food be still further diminished progressively1 as indicated by following the curve down to the left1 the point is finally reached when no food is given at all and death ensues1 represented by #j on the left hand of the diagram designated 8,lethal dose40 ,as the curve begins to deviate from the perpendicular on the right the degree of injury is very readily noticed and starvation or symptoms of starvation are set up4 ,thus if you follow the perpendicular on the right downward to the point #hj the divergence of the corresponding point of the curve is already measurable4 ,as you descend to #j the magnitude of the measurement increases4 ,it requires but very little further illustration to show how easily the effect of diminishing the normal dose of a food can be measured immediately after the curve begins to vary appreciably from the perpendicular on the right4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,,graphic ,,chart ,,representing ,,the ,,comparative ,,influences ,,of ,,foods ,,and ,,preservatives4 ,let us now consider the perpendicular on the left1 which is marked at the top under the term 8,lethal dose10 namely1 a quantity of the added preservative sufficient to destroy life4 ,the normal dose of such an added chemical preservative is #j and is shown at the base line to the right1 marked 8,normal dose40 ,if you add a very minute quantity of a chemical preservative1 the curve representing it varies so slightly from the horizontal base as to be impossible of measurement by ordinary means4 ,if we follow along to the number #ge on the horizontal base we see the deviation of the curve is sufficiently great to measure4 ,at #ej it is still greater1 at #be still greater1 while at the left of the basic line it is a maximum extending from #j to #ajj1 or the lethal dose4 ,it is easy to show by mathematical data that no matter how small the quantity of an injurious substance or preservative it will still produce an injurious effect which may be infinitely small if the dose be infinitely small4 ,it follows1 then1 as a mathematical demonstration that any quantity of an injurious substance added to a food product must of necessity be injurious1 provided it is in the nature of a drug and the body is in a perfectly healthy1 normal condition4 ,hence the argument which has been so persistently urged in favor of a chemical preservative1 that if in small quantities it is harmless1 is shown to be wholly untenable4 ,while there is no necessity for the addition of a harmful substance1 where no particular benefit is secured thereby1 and where there is no disturbance of the normal state of health1 there can be no possible excuse of a valid nature to offer for the exhibition of even minute quantities4 ,that these minute quantities would not be dangerous in so far as producing any fatal effect is concerned is conceded1 but that in the end they do not produce an injury even in these small quantities is certainly to be denied4 ,the course of safety1 therefore1 in all these cases is to guard the opening of the door4 ,if the admission of small quantities is permitted1 then there can never be any agreement among experts or others respecting the magnitude of the small quantity1 and continued litigation and disagreement must follow4 ,on the other hand1 when the harmfulness of any substance which it is proposed to add to food is established and no reason for its use can be given other than the convenience1 carelessness1 or indifference of the manufacturer1 the exclusion of such bodies entirely from food products follows as a logical sequence and a hygienic necessity4 ,the third method of preparing or preserving meat is by sterilization4 ,of all the various methods which have been proposed there is probably none which is1 theoretically1 so free of objections as the preservation of meat by sterilization1 in other words1 as canned meats4 ,the only important thing is that the raw material used in canning must itself be meat free of disease1 obtained under sanitary conditions1 and subjected to sterilization before any fermentation or decay takes place4 ,pure1 wholesome meat thus prepared and thoroughly sterilized will remain in an edible condition for a reasonable length of time4 ,unfortunately1 as has been shown in the testimony respecting the packing industry of the country1 canned meats have not always been selected solely for freedom from disease and for palatability4 ,the question of diseased meat is discussed in another part of this book and1 therefore1 may not be taken up here4 ,there have been used for canning purposes the fragments and1 perhaps1 inedible portions of carcasses1 and this practice cannot be too severely condemned4 ,this does not mean that these fragments and portions of carcasses are not fit for food1 but they should be collected1 prepared1 and sold as such with plain notices to the consumers of their origin4 ,a cheaper supply of beef would thus be furnished for those in humbler circumstances1 and no imposition of any kind would be practiced because the nature of the meat would be fully understood4 ,preparation of ,meat for ,canning4--,in the following description it is understood that the ordinary processes of canning sound1 properly prepared beef are described4 ,the question of the canning of improper samples is reserved for the remarks on adulterations4 ,there is no uniform practice followed1 as has been carefully ascertained by a study of the different packing houses and processes for selecting and preparing meats for canning4 ,the exigencies of trade determine this to a greater or less extent4 ,when there is a demand in the fresh state for all the beef which can be supplied the canning industry will necessarily suffer4 ,when there is a surplus of beef offered for sale or in case of war1 where the army contracts for large quantities of canned meat1 the opposite conditions probably prevail1 and the best meats are used for canning purposes and those of a less desirable quality offered for sale in the fresh state4 ,the portions of the carcass used1 as described in ,bulletin #ac1 ,part #aj1 ,bureau of ,chemistry1 depend1 to some extent1 upon the market of fresh beef4 ,all of the meat on the fore quarter1 except the shank and the 8third rib10 is usually canned1 and in some cases those portions are not reserved4 ,the cheaper cuts from the hind quarter are also used for preserving purposes4 ,very fat1 and therefore easily marketed1 carcasses are not used for canning purposes except in case of unusual demand as above stated4 ,there are two reasons for this1 one of which has already been outlined1 namely1 that such meat brings a better price in the fresh state1 and1 in the second place1 lean meat has a better appearance in the canned state than the fat meat4 ,for these reasons1 in the proper preparation of the meat for canning1 the more fatty portions1 together with the gristle1 are removed and sent to other parts of the factory for making up into other kinds of food4 ,the meat having been selected1 it is cut into pieces of approximately from one to four pounds in weight1 according to the size of the tins in which it is to be placed4 ,it is important1 for the purpose of appearances1 that the size of the pieces of meat in each tin be approximately the same4 ,also for the process of sterilization the pieces of meat should be practically the same size1 so that they can all be thoroughly sterilized at the same time4 ,if the pieces be of different sizes the small ones would become thoroughly cooked and disintegrated before the large ones became thoroughly sterilized1 and thus the mass which would be presented to the view on opening the can would be unpleasant to the sight4 ,parboiling4--,after the pieces have been selected and dressed they are parboiled before being sterilized4 ,the time of parboiling varies in different packing establishments from eight to twenty minutes1 according to the size of the pieces of meat4 ,in some cases a uniform time for parboiling is prescribed1 irrespective of the size of the pieces4 ,one of the principal reasons for parboiling the meat is to secure the shrinkage1 which always takes place on heating1 before the meat is placed in the tins4 ,the experiments have shown that meats when put in tins in a fresh state and sterilized shrink to about two-thirds of their original volume4 ,parboiling is1 in the essence1 a process of shrinking4 ,when the meat is put at once into boiling water there is less loss of protein matter than when the meat is placed in cold water and heated gradually4 ,the substances removed in parboiling are water1 fat1 soluble mineral matter1 and the meat bases4 ,the fat is removed by becoming rendered1 and rises to the surface where it can be skimmed off4 ,a little over one percent of the protein content of meat is lost by parboiling while the total meat bases lost amount to almost one-third of the total quantity contained in the meat4 ,of mineral matter in the meat as high as #ej percent is lost in parboiling4 ,by shrinking1 parboiling tends to make a more concentrated article and thus favors transportation4 ,practically the nutritive value of a pound of properly canned beef is about one-third greater than that of one pound of the fresh beef of the same kind4 ,hence parboiling may be regarded as a perfectly legitimate and desirable process without which the beef could not be properly prepared for canning4 ,tinning4--,after the meat is properly parboiled it is placed in the tins either by machinery or by hand4 ,to each tin is added a small quantity of a liquid preparation made by the canners and known as soup liquor4 ,this liquor generally contains salt1 and sometimes a little sugar or molasses4 ,the composition of soup liquor is as follows3 ,solids1 4#ib percent ,protein1 4#ji ,meat bases1 4#bc ,ash1 4#bh ,salt1 4#aa ,water1 #ih4cg ,this soup liquor may be regarded as a thin soup4 ,the origin of the liquid analyzed above was not disclosed1 and1 therefore1 no expression can be made of the way in which it was formed4 ,it was probably made from soup stock1 namely1 the waste meat and bones of the factory4 ,there is no objection to a soup liquor of this kind provided it is made from sound1 clean1 and wholesome material4 ,there are two reasons for adding this liquid1 namely1 to fill up the space which would otherwise exist between the pieces of meat and thus aid in the preservation of the material1 and1 second1 to add a condimental substance which makes the contents of the tin more palatable4 ,sterilization4--,after the cans are filled in this way and closed by soldering or otherwise they are placed in retorts which are composed of strong iron or steel boilers1 properly covered and secured1 and when these boilers are full they are subjected to the action of steam heat under pressure4 ,usually a small hole is left in the can through which any gas1 air or other kind1 is expelled from the can4 ,as soon as everything is complete the retorts are opened and the cans are sealed4 ,in all cases1 however1 after sealing the cans they are subjected to a second heating at a temperature of from #bbe to #bej degrees ,f4 ,the time of heating varies from one to two hours4 ,after removal from the retorts the cans are washed with a spray of cold water for several hours1 and they are then dried1 painted1 and labeled4 ,the above is a general description of the process employed which1 however1 is varied to some extent in different packing houses4 ,a modification of the above method consists in exhausting the cans in vacuo and automatically sealing them in the exhausted state1 thus removing all air and other gases therefrom4 ,the cans are then placed upon an endless conveyor and dipped into an oil bath at a temperature of #bdj degrees1 the speed of the conveyer being so regulated that the cans remain in the bath a sufficient length of time to complete sterilization before being carried out at the opposite end4 ,after passing through this bath they are carried automatically into another bath consisting of a solution of carbonate of soda and1 finally1 into a bath of pure water4 ,the cans are then painted and labeled as originally described4 ,,special ,,studies ,,of ,,methods ,,of ,,canning ,,beef ,,made ,,in ,,bureau ,,of ,,chemistry4 ,composition of ,beef ,used for ,canning4--,samples of fresh beef intended for canning purposes1 and examined in the ,bureau of ,chemistry1 have the following composition3 ,water1 #ga4ag percent ,insoluble protein1 #ac4hg ,globulins1 #a4ch ,proteoses1 peptones1 and gelatin1 #a4ca ,meat bases1 #a4ji ,fat1 #i4hi ,ash1 4#if ,salt1 4#jd ,undetermined1 4#cc ,the sample1 of which the above data are representative1 was secured from a mass of meat weighing #cef pounds1 after passing through a sausage grinder and being thoroughly mixed4 ,the above data may therefore be regarded as the representative constituents of the usual grade1 most carefully selected canning beef4 ,effect of ,parboiling4--,a similar lot of meat secured in the same way and from the same carcass weighed #ceh pounds and was parboiled as follows3 ,the meat was placed in water in a steam-jacketed tank1 the temperature of which stood at #aif degrees ,f4 ,the reduction in the temperature caused by the meat was restored by heating the contents of the retort1 and it was kept at #aif degrees ,f4 for #ae minutes4 ,it is thus seen that this parboiling was accomplished at a temperature below the boiling point of water4 ,after the parboiling was completed it was found that the meat weighed #bce pounds1 showing a net shrinkage in weight of #abc pounds4 ,this sample of meat was then tinned in two-pound cans with the addition to each can of two ounces of canning jelly of the following composition3 ,water1 #ie4ah percent ,protein1 #a4ge ,common salt1 #b4he ,ash1 4#bb ,after sterilizing1 the cans were opened and the contents subjected to analysis4 ,the data obtained are as follows3 ,water1 #fb4dg percent ,total protein1 #bd4hh ,insoluble protein1 #bb4be ,proteoses1 peptones1 and gelatin1 #b4fc ,meat bases1 #a4ae ,fat1 #i4hg ,ash1 4#ia ,salt1 4#ai ,composition of ,parboiling ,water4--,the liquor1 after parboiling the above sample1 weighed #bhj pounds and had the following composition3 ,water1 #ii4ab percent ,protein1 4#jf ,meat bases1 4#be ,ash1 4#be ,salt1 4#je ,the above data show that the general effect of parboiling upon the canned meat is to diminish its content of water4 ,only a small quantity of the soluble proteids is found in the liquor1 and the other principal constituents removed1 aside from water1 are the meat bases and mineral content or ash4 ,the fat in the soup liquor was not determined because it rises to the surface and is not in any sense a constituent of the liquor itself4 ,considerable quantities of fat were removed in parboiling1 the amount depending largely upon the temperature4 ,at a low temperature of parboiling1 such as described1 the amount of fat secured is far less than when the temperature of parboiling is higher4 ,,table ,,showing ,,the ,,comparative ,,effect ,,of ,,parboiling ,,and ,,sterilizing ,,upon ,,the ,,fresh ,,beef4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,,composition ,,of ,,canned ,,beef ,,as ,,extracted ,,determined ,,fresh ,,by ,,added ,,in ,,by ,,constituents4,,beef4 ,,boiling4,,canning4 ,,analysis4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,lbs4 ,lbs4 ,lbs4 ,lbs4 ,water1 #bed4h #abb4a #ad4a #adf4h ,protein1 #ei4c 4#a 4#a #eh4e ,meat bases1 #c4i 4#g 4#j #b4g ,fat1 #ce4d #ab4b 4444 #bc4b ,ash1 #c4d 4#g 4#b #b4a ,salt1 4#a 4#a 4#b 4#d ,undetermined1 #a4b 4444 4444 #a4g ----- ----- ----- ----- ,total1 #ceh4a 4444 4444 #bce4d ---------------------------------------- ------ ,preparation of ,canned ,beef with ,more ,intensive ,parboiling4--,in another experiment1 determining the effect of the changes produced upon the fresh meat1 more vigorous preparatory operations were performed4 ,samples were secured from eight healthy carcasses for use in this determination4 ,half of the sample was reduced to sausage and secured for analysis as described1 and the other submitted to parboiling1 sterilizing1 and analysis4 ,,composition ,,of ,,the ,,sample ,,of ,,fresh ,,meat4 ,water1 #fi4cc percent ,total protein1 #af4ha ,insoluble protein1 #ab4fi ,globulins1 #c4jf ,proteoses1 peptones1 and gelatin1 #a4jf ,meat bases1 #a4ab ,fat1 #aj4fh ,ash1 #a4ac ,salt1 4#bd ,the original sample represented over a thousand pounds4 ,the opposite sides of the carcasses were prepared for canning and produced the following amount of articles as sold on the market3 ,total weight of half carcasses1 #a1gfa pounds #c ribs1 #ec #e rolls1 #dc #e loins1 #aff #c tenderloins1 #ac #c sirloin butts1 #bh #c boneless strips1 #bd #h rump butts1 #cf #h flank steaks1 #h #h kidneys1 #i #bd beef hams1 #bfa ,shank meat1 #he ,soft bones1 #aih ,shank bones1 #ajg ,tank tallow1 #acb ,canning meat1 #eih ,the above data show that only about one-third of the whole carcass is suitable for canning purposes4 ,the best and juiciest pieces1 it is noticed1 are cut away and sold for other purposes4 ,in explanation of the above data it should be stated that only the fore-quarters of the carcass were used and not the whole carcass4 ,in the preparation of the sample for analysis1 the same selection was made as for canning1 and only the canning meat was used in the preparation of the sample4 ,parboiling4--,the parboiling of this sample was accomplished in the following manner3 ,the meat was first placed in cold water1 #ej degrees ,f41 and heated by means of injected steam4 ,in five minutes the temperature had reached #abb degrees ,f41 and at the end of eleven minutes the boiling temperature was reached and continued for one hour4 ,the soup liquor resulting from the parboiling weighed #a1ejj pounds and had the following composition3 ,water1 #ii4jh percent ,protein1 4#ji ,meat bases1 4#bc ,ash1 4#bh ,salt1 4#aa ,these data show that1 as in the other cases1 the chief extraction from the meat during parboiling is water and the next most important removal is of meat bases and mineral matter or ash4 ,after sterilization in the usual way the cans were opened and the canned beef subjected to analysis4 ,the composition of the canned beef was as follows3 ,water1 #ef4ah percent ,total protein1 #ca4eg ,insoluble protein1 #bg4id ,proteoses1 peptones1 and gelatin1 #c4fc ,meat bases1 #a4dd ,fat1 #g4gb ,ash1 4#hb ,common salt1 4#jd ,composition of the ,fresh and ,canned ,meat4--,below is found a table similar to that already given for the other sample1 showing the composition of fresh beef and the resulting canned beef4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,,composition ,,of ,,canned ,,beef ,,as ,,extracted ,,determined ,,fresh ,,by ,,added ,,in ,,by ,,constituents4,,beef4 ,,boiling4,,canning4 ,,analysis4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,lbs4 ,lbs4 ,lbs4 ,lbs4 ,water1 #dad4f #bdc4b #ab4i #ahd4c ,proteins1 #ajj4e #a4c 4444 #aja ,meat bases1 #f4g #c4d 4444 #d4f ,fat1 #fc4i #ci4b 4444 #bd4g ,ash1 #f4h #d4b 4444 #b4f ,undetermined1 #e4e 4444 4444 #b4h ----- ----- ----- ----- ,total1 #eih 4444 4444 #cbj ,from the above table it is seen that the shrinkage during parboiling amounts to #df4di percent of the weight of the fresh meat4 ,of this shrinkage #hb4he percent is water1 #ad4aa percent is fat1 #a4ea percent ash1 and #j4hb percent meat bases4 ,it is noticed that more than half of the water originally found in the meat is extracted by parboiling4 ,it seems rather anomalous that boiling a substance with water would extract water from it1 but in the case of meats it is seen that half the water1 or even more1 which a meat contains is extracted from it by boiling in water4 ,the two samples given are extreme cases in the method of preparing meats for canning4 ,in the first instance the meat is placed at once into hot water just below the boiling point and kept there for only a short time4 ,in the second case the meat is placed in cold water and is brought to the boiling point and maintained there for one hour4 ,in the last case the low temperature of the water in which the meat was originally placed favors the extraction of a portion of the soluble protein matter1 namely1 albumins1 globulins1 etc41 while1 on the other hand1 the long-continued boiling to which it was subjected tends to decompose the connective tissues of the meat and causes the loss of small particles of the insoluble protein thus separated by disintegration4 ,although in the last case the shrinkage was much greater than in the preceding experiment1 practically no insoluble protein matter was extracted1 mechanically or otherwise4 ,canning of ,beef without ,parboiling4--,to determine the amount of shrinkage which takes place and the general effect which is produced by canning meats without parboiling1 samples were prepared1 sterilized1 and canned in the usual way1 with the exception of the omission of parboiling4 ,on opening the cans it was found in each case that the meat had shrunk to about two-thirds of its former volume and that the place was occupied by a liquid containing a number of particles of solid matter4 ,the appearance of the sample was much less inviting than that of meat canned after parboiling4 ,an analysis of the sample was made1 with the following results3 ,total weight of sample1 #ca ounces2 weight of canned meat1 #ba ounces4 ,water1 #fc4hc percent ,protein1 #bg4be ,meat bases1 #a4ji ,fat1 #d4fb ,ash1 #a4ja ,salt1 4#jd ,undetermined1 #a4bj ,composition of ,liquid4--,the liquid in the can was examined with the following result3 ,weight of liquor1 #aj ounces4 ,solids1 #f4ic percent ,protein and gelatin1 #a4id ,meat bases1 #a4hd ,ash1 #a4bb ,salt1 #a4ae ,the above data show that the beef lost #cb4jf percent of its weight in the canning1 a little over half of which is water4 ,it appears that less protein matter is extracted when the meat is parboiled by being plunged into boiling water than when it is packed in a can without parboiling and subsequently subjected to the temperature of sterilization4 ,in the former case the soluble proteins in meat near the surface are coagulated before they can diffuse into the surrounding water4 ,in the other case1 owing to the low conductivity of meat1 the temperature at the surface of the can penetrates slowly to the interior and the juices which are extracted from the meat carry with them protein matter in solution which is afterwards precipitated by heat and remains in the liquid as matter coagulated at the temperature of sterilization4 ,it is seen that parboiling has many advantages4 ,it extracts less of the valuable matter from the meat1 it shrinks the meat before packing so that the tins contain more nutrient matter1 and it improves the appearance of the meat to the consumer when opened4 ,relation of ,canned to ,fresh ,meat4--,in the following table is given the number of ounces of canned meat in a number of cans compared with the equivalent amount of fresh beef used in filling them3 ,,no4 ,,of ,,can4 ,,canned ,,beef1 ,,equivalent ,,to ,,fresh ,,beef4 ,ounces4 ,ounces4 #a1 #bi #dd4b #b1 #bi4i #db4f #c1 #bh4e #ch4g #d1 #ab4f #ai #e1 #cj4e #eg #f1 #cj4f #ej4i ---- ---- ,means1 #bf4i #db4a ,it thus appears that a can of #bf4i ounces of beef contains1 as an average content1 an amount of meat equivalent to #db4a ounces of fresh beef1 and retains practically all of the nutrient value of the larger quantity of fresh beef4 ,canned ,ham and ,bacon4--,it seems unnecessary1 as a rule1 to can ham and bacon properly cured and transported in a suitable manner4 ,there are occasions justifying the use of these products in tropical countries and in other places far remote from the sources of manufacture1 and where the preservation of them1 by reason of the character of the climate1 is difficult4 ,the proper preparation of these articles1 packing in tins and sterilizing1 makes it possible to send them to the most distant points and to have them consumed in the most unfavorable climatic conditions4 ,canned ham1 as it is found upon the market1 has a higher percentage of fat and a consequently lower percentage of protein than canned beef4 ,the ham is packed closely and the smaller pieces added for the purpose of filling up interstices between the larger pieces of meat and keeping the can full4 ,it is reasonable to infer that the added meat is pork1 although very probably it may not always be so4 ,composition of ,canned ,ham and ,bacon4--,the character of the canned ham and bacon upon the market may be illustrated by the composition of the following samples 7these samples were purchased in the open market and are presumably representative of the products as commonly sold in the shops73 ,,composition ,,of ,,canned ,,ham ,,and ,,bacon4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,composition ,,of ,,original ,,material4 ------------------------ ,water in fat-free sub- ,,description4 ,water4 stance4 ,fat4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4 ,sliced ,star ham1 #dc4hj #ga4hd #ch4bb ,boneless ham1 #ec4cj #fd4ji #af4hd ,gold ,band sliced ham1 #dh4cg #fh4gb #bi4gh ,boneless cooked ham1 #da4ec #fc4ej #cd4fj ,prosciutto ,scelto in ,fette1 #cf4gg #eg4bg #ce4gi ,lunch ham1 #dj4gd #ei4ec #ca4ef ,huckins sandwich ham1 #cf4ef #gb4ag #di4cd ,ham1 8,coin ,special10 #ej4hg #fi4ab #bf4db ,sliced ,star bacon1 #ae4cd #ba4bd #bg4gi ,beechnut bacon1 #ah4ei #bf4db #bi4ei ,sliced breakfast bacon1 #bj4gc #fg4jf #fi4jg ,gold ,band sliced bacon1 #ai4fi #fb4ii #fh4gd ,fresh pork1 rib and loin1 #ea4hj #gh4cb #cc4hf ---------------------------------------- ----------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,composition ,,of ,,original ,,material4 ----------------------------------- ,nitrogen4 -------------------------------- ,coagu- ,preci- lated pitated pro- by ,meat ,,description4 ,total4 teids4 bromin4 bases4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4 ,sliced ,star ham1 #b4jg #a4fb #j4jf #j4ci ,boneless ham1 #c4ge #c4ae 4#aj 4#ej ,gold ,band sliced ham1 #b4hb #a4hi 4#ji 4#hd ,boneless cooked ham1 #c4jc #b4ej 4#ab 4#da ,prosciutto ,scelto in ,fette1 #c4je #a4if 4#ai 4#ij ,lunch ham1 #c4fh #c4ba 4#af 4#ca ,huckins sandwich ham1 #b4jd #a4gg 4#jg 4#bj ,ham1 8,coin ,special10 #b4id #b4ee 4#cd 4#je ,sliced ,star bacon1 #f4fh #d4ge 4#gd #a4ai ,beechnut bacon1 #e4gd #d4aj 4#bf #a4ch ,sliced breakfast bacon1 #a4jg 4#ib 4#jg 4#jh ,gold ,band sliced bacon1 #a4dj 4#ia 4#aj 4#ci ,fresh pork1 rib and loin1 #b4ae #a4eg 4#be 4#cc ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,composition ,,of ,,original ,,material4 ----------------------------------- ,nitrogenous substances4 -------------------------------- ,gelati- noids and pro- teids ,coagu- preci- ,protein lated pitated 7,n pro- by ,meat ,,description4 #f4be74 teids4 bromin4 bases4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4 ,sliced ,star ham1 #ab4id #aj4ab #j4ch #a4bb ,boneless ham1 #bc4dd #ai4fi 4#fb #a4ef ,gold ,band sliced ham1 #ag4fb #aa4ha 4#ef #b4fb ,boneless cooked ham1 #ah4id #ae4fb 4#ge #a4bh ,prosciutto ,scelto in ,fette1 #ai4jf #ab4be #a4ai #b4ha ,lunch ham1 #bc4jj #bj4jf #a4jj 4#ig ,huckins sandwich ham1 #ab4ge #aa4jf 4#dd 4#fb ,ham1 8,coin ,special10 #ah4ch #ae4id #b4ab 4#af ,sliced ,star bacon1 #da4ge #bi4fi #d4fb #c4gb ,beechnut bacon1 #ce4hh #be4fb #a4fb #d4ca ,sliced breakfast bacon1 #f4fi #e4hj 4#dd 4#be ,gold ,band sliced bacon1 #h4ge #e4fi 4#fb #a4bb ,fresh pork1 rib and loin1 #ac4dd #i4ha #a4ef #a4jc ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,composition ,,of ,,original ,,material4 ------------------------ ,sodium ,,description4 ,ash4 chlorid4 ,total4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4 ,sliced ,star ham1 #c4hf #c4bi #ig4fj ,boneless ham1 #e4dc #d4cd #ig4ed ,gold ,band sliced ham1 #e4jc #d4aj #ih4jg ,boneless cooked ham1 #d4cc #c4ff #ih4be ,prosciutto ,scelto in ,fette1 #h4cg #g4ea #ig4ch ,lunch ham1 #c4hd #c4jh #ih4bf ,huckins sandwich ham1 #a4ge 44 #ii4gi ,ham1 8,coin ,special10 #c4ee #b4ci #ii4ji ,sliced ,star bacon1 #ae4jb #ac4bh #if4bh ,beechnut bacon1 #ai4ij #ag4hd #ii4fc ,sliced breakfast bacon1 #c4jf #b4cg #ii4da ,gold ,band sliced bacon1 #b4eg #b4bg #ih4ee ,fresh pork1 rib and loin1 4#gh ,tr4 #ih4hh ---------------------------------------- ----------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,composition ,,of ,,dry ,,material4 -------------------------------- ,protein 7,n ,sodium ,,description4 #f4be74 ,fat4 ,ash4 chlorid4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4 ,sliced ,star ham1 #bc4jj #fh4ja #f4hg #e4he ,boneless ham1 #ej4ai #cf4jf #aa4fc #i4bi ,gold ,band sliced ham1 #cd4jf #eg4eh #i4gb #g4ic ,boneless cooked ham1 #cb4ch #ei4ag #g4dj #f4bf ,prosciutto ,scelto in ,fette1 #cj4ab #ef4fj #ac4bd #aa4hh ,lunch ham1 #ch4ha #ec4bf #f4dh #e4ai ,huckins sandwich ham1 #bj4ac #gg4gg #b4gf 44 ,ham1 8,coin ,special10 #cg4cg #ec4gg #g4bc #d4hf ,sliced ,star bacon1 #di4ca #cb4hb #ag4gd #ae4fi ,beechnut bacon1 #dd4jf #cf4ce #bd4dd #ba4ia ,sliced breakfast bacon1 #h4dd #hg4ac #c4hf #b4ii ,gold ,band sliced bacon1 #aj4hg #he4fj #c4bj #b4hc ,fresh pork1 rib and loin1 #bg4hg #gj4be #a4fb ,tr4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,adulteration of ,canned ,ham and ,bacon4--,from the above data it is seen that the products are probably true to name1 and are actually ham and bacon4 ,the principal adulterations which are found in these articles are preservatives and coloring matters4 ,the coloring matter usually found is saltpeter which1 in one instance1 was present in quantities of one-tenth of one percent and the average quantity found was one-twentieth of one percent4 ,saltpeter is not used as a preservative1 although it is often claimed by packers that such is the case4 ,in the minute quantities in which it is employed it has little or no effect as a preservative if1 indeed1 it could be deemed a germicidal substance4 ,the principal preservative which is found is boric acid4 ,in fourteen cases examined1 however1 only two contained this preservative1 which shows that there is no necessity for its use on any occasion4 ,under the new meat inspection law all meat products prepared for interstate and foreign commerce are packed under direct supervision of the ,department of ,agriculture1 and contain no harmful color and no chemical preservative4 ,canned ,tongue4--,several varieties of canned tongue are found upon the market known as ox tongue1 lamb tongue1 luncheon tongue1 etc4 ,the tongues of calves1 steers1 sheep1 lambs1 and swine are the ones which are usually canned1 and they may be previously pickled before canning4 ,the average composition of the canned tongue upon the market is shown from the following data based upon the examination of seventeen samples3 ,water1 #ee4ag percent ,fat1 #bj4bc ,protein1 #ai4dc ,meat bases1 #a4bc ,glycogen1 4#bd ,total ash1 #c4ga ,of which common salt1 #b4ij ,the data show that in the canning of tongue a large quantity of fat is present1 more than the true part of the tongue contains4 ,nearly all of the samples examined contained saltpeter1 the largest quantity found being 4#ae percent4 ,adulteration of ,canned ,tongue4--,it is not probable that any meat1 except the tongue itself1 is used for canning1 but the contents may not be true to name4 ,the fat dressing employed is not specified1 and probably its character and amount rest alone with the ideas of the manufacturer relative thereto4 ,presumably the fat should be of the same animal as the tongue4 ,a critical examination of the fat will1 however1 reveal whether or not this is the case4 ,saltpeter is the most common adulteration1 and is used solely to impart or preserve the red color of the fresh meat4 ,boric acid is also occasionally employed4 ,one of the samples contained boric acid4 ,without inspection of the process of manufacture1 it is not possible to be assured of the sanitary conditions of the meats which are sold as canned tongue and also of the sanitary conditions of the canning itself4 ,these are all matters of the highest importance to the consumer1 and should be attested by proper inspection certificates4 ,under the new meat law only the proper articles can be certified by the officials in charge of inspection4 ,examination of ,fat as a ,test for ,adulterations4--,it is evident1 from what has already been said1 that the character of the fats which are used in the canning of preserved meats is not always the same as that of the meat to which they are added4 ,a careful study has been made in the ,bureau of ,chemistry of the fats extracted from different canned meats4 ,the chemical and physical characteristics of these fats are given in the following table3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,source ,,melting ,,chilling ,,iodin ,,maumen ,,degrees ,,butyro- ,,of ,,fat4 ,,point4 ,,point4 ,,number4 ,,number4 ,,refractometer4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,c4 ,c4 ,c4 ,canned roast beef1 #cf4e-dc4ibg4h-cg4jcf4a-ej4fce4f-cf4j #dg4j-ee4e ,canned smoked beef1 #cg4g-da4hbb4j-bi4jej4i-eg4e 44 #ea4j-eh4e ,canned ham and bacon1 #bc4f-cj4eag4e-bd4jdh4e-fh4bci4h-dc4e #di4j-eh4b ,fowl1 #bh4j-cd4jab4j-cf4efg4j-hf4dch4i-eb4j #di4j-fb4e ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,it has been noticed that the crystals deposited by the evaporation of the ether solution of chicken fat resemble beef stearin in shape1 but are much smaller and more delicate4 ,it is seen that the melting point of fat in ham and bacon is rather lower than in leaf lard4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that this fat is not lard or1 at least1 not wholly composed of the best lard1 but probably consists of the fat not usually employed for lard making4 ,potted ,meats4--,there is found on the market a large number of varieties of potted meat4 ,it is difficult to describe in any scientific way these potted meats because the term 8potted0 is employed by all manufacturers to describe a mixture of a great many different articles1 the exact composition of which is usually a trade secret4 ,there is1 apparently1 an understanding among manufacturers that the labels of potted goods are not intended in any way to indicate the variety of meat or principal meats contained in the package4 ,in the absence of any trade1 sanitary1 or chemical standard it is difficult to make any just criticism of the character of the potted goods upon the market4 ,the principal object of mentioning them here is to inform the consumer of the probable character of the potted goods which he may consume1 and to let him understand that it is by no means certain that the name of the meat upon the label describes the character of the meat which he is actually eating4 ,the chief object in the manufacture of potted meat is to make a supply of uniform character and consistency1 and properly spiced and flavored to attract and hold the patronage of the consumer4 ,a certain degree of consistency is established by each manufacturer for each variety of potted goods made1 and to obtain this consistence more or less fat meat of some kind is added4 ,it may thus be of some advantage to add the fat of pork rather than the fat of beef or mixtures of the two4 ,it is claimed by many manufacturers that a single kind of meat does not give the desired flavor in potted and deviled goods4 ,therefore1 meats of different origin are finely ground and mixed together1 and a sufficient quantity of oil or fat added to secure the required physical consistence4 ,for this reason cured meats1 such as beef and pork1 are often preferred for making potted and deviled meats because of the agreeable flavor and aroma which they impart thereto4 ,these meats are therefore used in potting1 although they cost more than corresponding quantities of fresh meat4 ,in a character of goods so variegated as these it is impossible to lay down any rule which may guide the consumer in his choice4 ,the widest latitude is left to the manufacturer1 and the only real protection is in a strict inspection of the factory or factories where such goods are made4 ,it is there only that the character of the materials employed and the quality of the condiments or other substances added can be determined4 ,the day is doubtless rapidly approaching when consumers will be perfectly protected in this matter1 and when no canned1 potted1 or deviled meats of any description will be allowed to enter into commerce without bearing the certificate of competent inspection officers as to the kind of meats used1 their sanitary character1 etc4 ,potted meats should always be carefully sterilized and the contents of the tins should be consumed as soon as possible after they are opened4 ,potted ,beef4--,potted beef1 more than any other product bearing the label of potted1 corresponds more closely to the character of the meat named on its label4 ,of four samples of commercially potted beef examined in the ,bureau of ,chemistry only one appeared to contain any other meat than beef4 ,the composition of the potted beef is shown in the table on page #ec4 ,adulteration of ,potted ,beef4--,from the average data given above it is seen that the principal adulteration in potted beef1 assuming that the meat is beef1 is starch4 ,two of the four samples contained starch1 one more than #ad percent and one more than #aa percent4 ,the admixture of starch is evidently solely for fraudulent purposes1 to increase the weight and bulk with a very much cheaper substance and one for which no necessity for the addition can be claimed4 ,it also increases the quantity of water which the product will carry4 ,saltpeter was found in one of the four samples and boric acid in two4 ,one of the samples contained a large quantity of tin1 due probably to the action of the potted meat upon the tin lining of the can4 ,potted ,deviled ,meats4--,the term 8deviled meat0 is applied to a mixture of finely ground meat with spices1 condiments1 and other substances1 and1 like the term 8potted10 is used rather to indicate a miscellaneous mixture than any single compound4 ,all that has been said respecting the composition of potted meat applies with equal force to deviled meat4 ,if there be any difference at all it is understood by the term deviled that the spices and condiments are more pronounced in character and greater in quantity and the miscellaneous character of the goods more pronounced4 ,under the terms of 8deviled0 and 8potted0 may be found every kind of mixed and miscellaneous finely comminuted meat1 flavored with all kinds of condimental substances and prepared so as to appeal as strongly as possible to the taste and desire of the consumer4 ,,composition ,,of ,,potted ,,beef4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,,composition ,,of ,,original ,,material4 ---------------------------------------- - ,nitrogen4 ---------------- ,water in fat- free ,,sam- sub- ,meat ,,ples4 ,water4 stance4 ,fat4 ,total4 bases4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4 #a1 #bh4bd #ej4cc #dc4hi #c4gf #j4ef #b1 #ea4hj #fd4dj #ai4eh 444 444 #c1 #ed4ib #fb4bj #ab4gj #b4hg 4#fd #d1 #fe4ea #gb4ib #aj4bf #c4ad 4#db ---------------------------------------- ----- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,composition ,,of ,,original ,,material4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,nitrogenous substances4 -------------------------------- ,gelati- ,glyco- noids gen1 ,pro- and pro- calcu- teids teids lated in- preci- to dry ,protein soluble pitated fat-free ,,sam- 7,n in hot by ,meat mate- ,salt- ,,ples4 #f4be74 water4 bromin4 bases4 ,starch4 rial4 peter4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4 #a1 #bc4ej #ai4ej #j4ej #a4ge 444 #j4cb #j4je #b1 444 444 444 444 #ad4bf 444 444 #c1 #ag4id #ab4hh #a4jf #b4jj #aa4ef 4#bb 444 #d1 #ai4fb #ae4jf #a4id #a4ca 444 4#be 444 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,composition ,,of ,,original ,,material4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,heavy metals per ,,sam- ,total ,sodium kilo- ,preser- ,,ples4 ash4 chlorid4 gram4 vatives4 ,total4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,p4 ct4,p4 ct4 ,milli- ,p4 ct4 grams4 #a1 #c4ca #b4dc ,tin #ade4a ,none #ig4bd #b1 444 444 444 444 ,boric acid 444 #c1 #d4ej 444 444 444 do #ii4fi #d1 #b4cj 444 444 444 ,none #if4dd ---------------------------------------- -------- ---------------------------------------- ,,composition ,,of ,,dry ,,material4 -------------------------------- ,protein ,,sam- 7,n ,sodium ,,ples4 #f4be74 ,fat4 ,ash4 chlorid4 ------------------------------------- ,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4 #a1 #cb4ge #fa4ai #d4fa #c4ci #b1 444 #dj4fb 444 444 #c1 #ci4ha #bh4ag #i4ih 444 #d1 #cf4hh #bi4ge #f4fg 444 ------------------------------------- ,it may be said1 in connection with these goods1 that there is no objection whatever to their manufacture and sale provided the meat used in their preparation is sound and sanitary1 the conditions of manufacture clean and free of infection1 and provided the fraudulent additions for the purpose of increasing bulk and weight are excluded1 together with injurious preservatives and coloring matters1 such as borax1 saltpeter1 sulfite of soda1 etc4 ,potted and deviled are not the only terms1 however1 which are used to express miscellaneous mixtures of meat products4 ,the term 8pts0 is also employed for a large class of goods1 among which the principal ones are the familiar pt de foie gras1 which should be made largely of fatty goose livers4 ,composition of ,pts4--,the result of the examination of large quantities of pts in the ,bureau of ,chemistry indicates that they are made up principally of the meat of beef and pork4 ,it is not quite certain in any case that the highly prized livers of fat geese have been employed at all to any considerable extent4 ,there are no forms of comminuted meats of any description which are so objectionable in name as those that are sold under the name of pts1 especially when they are ascribed to a particular composition1 as is the case with pt de foie gras4 ,as has been remarked before1 there is certainly no objection to the manufacture of these mixtures1 but misleading statements concerning them are to be condemned4 ,the manufacturer and consumer of pt de foie gras should establish some standard of the percentage of goose livers which they should contain1 and each package should be accompanied by an official certification that it has been inspected and found to be up to the standard4 ,it is only in this way that the public can be protected against fraud and imposition4 ,where no descriptive word at all is used with the word pt there is no reasonable limit to be placed upon the kind of meat used1 provided it is of a sound and sanitary character4 ,the term pt itself means a mixture and1 therefore1 it is no deception and imposition upon the public to sell a pt of a miscellaneous character1 provided it does not bear any false statement regarding origin or character4 ,the mean composition of forty-three samples of pts and pures is found in the following data3 ,water1 #de4hg percent ,water in fat-free substance1 #ga4ah ,fat1 #ce4da ,protein1 #aa4ib ,meat bases1 4#hb ,starch1 #g4dd ,total ash1 #b4hh ,of which sodium chlorid1 4#ig ,from the above data it is seen that the pts are characterized by a very high percentage of fat and a correspondingly low percentage of protein4 ,a very large majority of the samples examined contained starch1 the highest quantity found being #ae4hj percent4 ,only two of the samples were found to contain saltpeter2 six contained boric acid and three benzoic acid4 ,tin and zinc were found in a few cases4 ,principal ,adulterations of ,mixed1 ,miscellaneous1 ,potted1 ,deviled1 and ,comminuted ,meats4--,as has been observed in the analyses of the commercial articles which have been submitted it is evident that no detection of the adulteration of these minced meats with impure fragmentary1 diseased1 or unwholesome articles is possible in so far as chemical analysis is concerned4 ,a microscopic analysis also often fails to reveal the true character of the meats which have been used in the preparation of these bodies4 ,hence the adulteration of these bodies with diseased1 unwholesome1 unfit1 and unsanitary meats cannot be controlled nor even positively affirmed after the meats are prepared and canned4 ,such adulterations are doubtless frequent and are the most objectionable4 ,the only protection to the consumer is in a certificate of inspection before preparation and packing4 ,the consumer1 by refusing to purchase such comminuted meats in the absence of such a certificate1 would soon compel the manufacturer to secure official inspection and certification of his products4 ,adulteration with ,starch4--,one of the chief adulterants in sausages and prepared meats is starch4 ,it has been said by some hygienists that starch is not an objectionable adulterant on hygienic grounds4 ,this1 however1 is not strictly true4 ,the injection of large quantities of starch into meat tends to unbalance a ration which is fixed with certain quantities of other food and tends to increase the proportion of starchy matter therein4 ,there are many conditions of disordered digestion in which such increases of starch1 unknown to the physician or patient or even known1 are highly objectionable4 ,hence the use of starch as an adulterant in meat of this kind is reprehensible on hygienic grounds4 ,the principal purpose for using starch is deception4 ,starch increases the bulk and weight of goods1 and1 in the process of cooking1 prevents undue shrinkage4 ,the consumer1 therefore1 thinks that he has secured a larger quantity and better quality of meat than he really has1 and is1 to this extent1 defrauded and deceived4 ,preservatives4--,the preservatives which are principally used in meat are borax1 boric acid1 sulfite of soda1 and benzoic acid4 ,all of these preservatives have been shown1 by researches in the ,bureau of ,chemistry1 to be deleterious to health4 ,they should be rigidly excluded from all meat as well as other food products4 ,coloring ,matter4--,dyes are frequently used for coloring sausage and other minced meats4 ,all such dyeing materials are reprehensible1 both on account of the danger to health and deception4 ,preserved meats gradually lose the natural red tint of the fresh meat1 and to that extent the color is an index of the time during which they have been preserved4 ,inasmuch as consumers prefer fresh meats preserved as short a time as possible1 they are deceived and to that extent injured by the use of dyestuffs which impart to preserved meats a fresh appearance4 ,indirect ,coloring ,matter4--,certain chemicals1 which of themselves have no color1 serve to fix and hold1 or even accentuate1 the natural color of meat4 ,the two principal chemicals used for this purpose are saltpeter and sulfite of soda4 ,saltpeter is used generally in preserved meats to retain and accentuate the red color thereof4 ,sulfite of soda is used principally on fresh meats1 where it acts both as a preservative and as a retainer of color4 ,sprinkled over the freshly cut surface of fresh meat1 sulfite of soda preserves the red tint1 and the customer thinks it has just been cut4 ,in this way he is deceived4 ,both of these substances are highly objectionable not only on account of deception but on account of being injurious to health4 ,in the case of saltpeter1 the general opinion concerning its therapeutic action is that it is not a proper substance to mix with foods4 ,it would be highly desirable on the part of the packer1 if he deemed it necessary to use bodies of this kind1 to plainly state upon each package the character and quantity of preservatives and coloring matter employed4 ,the consumer is then left to judge for himself whether or not he desires to eat these bodies4 ,the principal objection to notifications of this kind is that the consumer1 not being an expert as a rule1 cannot form any intelligent opinion respecting the desirability of these substances in food4 ,he is more apt to be guided by common practice in this matter and by his own opinion than by any general principles of chemistry and hygiene4 ,potted ,tongue4--,the term 8potted tongue0 may apply equally to tongue of a single character1 such as beef1 lamb1 pork1 or swine1 or the mixture thereof4 ,the examinations which have been made of the potted tongues of commerce do not indicate whether they are of a single character or whether the tongues are derived from a variety of sources4 ,the mean composition of twenty-one samples bought in the open market1 as found in the ,bureau of ,chemistry1 is given in the following table3 ,water1 #eb4ej percent ,water in the fat-free substance1 #fg4fg ,fat1 #bb4ii ,protein1 #ag4hj ,meat bases1 4#ge ,total ash1 #e4df ,adulteration of ,potted ,tongue4--,in the samples examined above starch was found in four cases1 the largest amount being #aa4f percent4 ,saltpeter was found in eighteen cases1 the largest amount being 4#jf percent4 ,tin was present in thirteen cases and zinc in eight cases4 ,boric acid was found in fourteen cases4 ,from the above it is evident that the principal adulterations in potted tongue1 aside from the use of meats which are not tongue1 and which chemical analysis cannot disclose1 are the addition of starch1 saltpeter1 tin1 and zinc1 the two latter derived either from the solder or from the can in which the goods are placed4 ,canned ,poultry4--,other fresh meats1 in addition to beef and pork1 are canned in a fresh state4 ,in the case of poultry the fowls are dressed and drawn and the whole carcass boiled until the meat is sufficiently cooked to facilitate the separation from the bones4 ,the bones are then removed and the meat is canned and sterilized by practically the same method as practiced with canned beef4 ,game and wild fowl meats are also subjected to the same process of canning as the domesticated chickens1 geese1 ducks1 turkeys1 etc4 ,in general it may be said that there are no differences in the processes employed1 but the important question to the consumer is the character of the raw materials used1 the sanitary conditions which attended their preparation1 and their freedom from admixtures of other meats cheaper in price and of different dietetic values4 ,adulteration of ,canned ,fresh ,meat4--,fortunately the process of sterilization is of such a character1 when properly carried out1 as to exclude all necessity for the addition of any preservative substances to canned fresh meat4 ,the use of ordinary condimental substances in moderate quantities cannot be regarded as an adulteration4 ,hence1 the addition of small quantities of salt1 sugar1 vinegar1 and the ordinary spices1 when used solely for the improvement of the taste and flavor and not for preservative purposes1 is regarded as unobjectionable4 ,the common preservatives used in canned meat are1 first1 those which give color to the meat and preserve its natural red tint4 ,for this purpose saltpeter and sulfite of soda are most commonly employed4 ,red dyes of any description are rarely1 if ever1 found4 ,the preservative which is used most frequently in canned meat is borax or boric acid4 ,that this use is not necessary is evident from the investigations which have been made in the ,bureau of ,chemistry which show that in most cases no preservatives at all are used4 ,the addition of any chemical preservative is1 therefore1 to be regarded as unnecessary and as an adulteration4 ,the use of any diseased1 tainted1 decomposed1 or filthy meat1 even if it is of the same origin as that in the can1 is an adulteration of the most serious character and which can only be effectually controlled by the inspection mentioned above4 ,the adulteration of the meat of fowls of all descriptions by cheaper meats1 such as pork or veal1 even if they be of wholesome and sound character1 is an adulteration said to be often practiced and one which it is difficult to detect if the particles of meat are finely comminuted4 ,standard for ,preserved ,meats4--,the standard for preserved meat is the same as that for fresh meat which is given in the ,appendix 7,circular #ai1 ,office of ,secretary1 ,department of ,agriculture74 ,the meat must be sound1 wholesome1 clean1 freshly taken from the slaughtered animal1 and not one that has died from disease1 suffocation1 or otherwise1 and must conform in name and character to the meat of the animal4 ,frequency of ,adulteration4--,the examination made of numerous samples of canned meat in the ,bureau of ,chemistry shows that the adulteration of these foods is rather common but by no means general4 ,canned ,horse ,meat4--,horse meat is commonly used for human food in many ,european countries1 although it is believed that it is not used to any extent in the ,united ,states4 ,when procured from healthy animals in a proper way there is no hygienic objection to its use1 though it is considered to be somewhat tougher than the flesh of other animals more commonly employed as food1 but that is probably due to the fact that horses are not raised for food purposes and are usually not used for such until they are worn out in domestic service4 ,there are many sentimental and often religious objections to the use of horse meat1 but experience has shown that it is wholesome and nutritious4 ,horse meat is characteristic in containing more natural sugar1 commonly known as glycogen1 than any of the other ordinary meats used for human consumption4 ,it approaches in its content of sugar some of the shell-fish flesh1 such as that of the lobster4 ,practically all of the horse meat which is prepared in this country is exported to ,europe4 ,there are cases1 however1 on record of the sale of horse flesh to domestic consumers4 ,especially could it be used in this way in the form of sausage or other finely comminuted products without much danger of detection4 ,composition of ,horse ,meat4--,a number of samples of horse meat of undoubted origin and wholesomeness have been examined in the ,bureau of ,chemistry and the data tabulated4 ,the average composition of sixteen samples of horse meat1 representing different parts of the carcass1 is shown in the following table3 ,water1 #fi4ha percent ,water in fat-free substance1 #gf4ia ,fat1 #i4fa ,protein1 #ai4dg ,protein insoluble in water1 #ad4hc ,gelatinous protein1 #a4bc ,meat bases1 #a4gj ,glycogen1 #a4hb ,ash1 #a4ja ,composition of ,dry ,material4-- ,protein1 #fg4ih percent ,fat1 #bg4ga ,ash1 #c4ah ,undetermined1 #a4ac ,the high percentage of glycogen in horse meat is one of the safest methods of determining its character when comminuted or cut up into pieces so small as not to be identified by the usual anatomical characteristics4 ,very few other kinds of edible flesh contain as much as one percent of glycogen4 ,glycogen is a transitory product which tends naturally to be broken up into other substances1 and1 hence1 even in horse meat after slaughter1 it may rapidly disappear and thus1 unless the meat is examined at once1 very little glycogen may be found in it4 ,a safer test for horse meat is in the nature of the fat therein4 ,this fat does not tend to change as the glycogen does1 and1 therefore1 in a pure preparation of horse meat even in a finely comminuted state the separation and examination of the fat will lead to a determination of the character of meat employed4 ,the fats of horse meat have a lower melting point1 a higher iodin number1 and a higher heat value when mixed with sulfuric acid than those of beef4 ,indeed1 these differences are so marked as to afford a ready means of detection to the practical chemist4 ,even in the mixture of horse meat with other meat the variation in the character of the fats will be such as to lead to a correct judgment respecting the approximate amount of horse meat which has been used1 provided it forms any notable amount of the mixture4 ,canned ,cured ,meats4--,sterilization is such a certain method of preventing the decay of meats that it has now come into use to a large extent in the final preservation of shipments of cured meats4 ,the object of curing1 as has already been stated1 is not merely to prevent the meat from decaying1 nor is it intended to inhibit entirely enzymic action4 ,on the contrary1 if the method of curing were such as to entirely stop fermentative action1 the flavors and aromas of preserved meats1 upon which their value so much depends1 would be eliminated1 and we would simply have a mass of tasteless meat1 preserved from decay by the application of chemical preservatives of a character to impart neither flavor nor aroma to the meat and at the same time prevent the activity of the various ferments above described4 ,such methods of preparation1 naturally1 should never be of general use1 because in cured meats the consumer demands the flavor which naturally proceeds from the ordinary method of curing4 ,after curing and when subjected to transportation the meats may undergo decomposition and reach their destination in a spoiled state4 ,to avoid this it has been a customary practice to pack the meat in a chemical preservative1 such as borax4 ,this is1 however1 a very objectionable practice because even in the cured state the meat is still absorptive1 and the borax1 which is packed externally upon it1 as a precaution during transit1 must necessarily penetrate to a certain extent to the interior of the meat4 ,by packing cured meat in tins and subjecting these tins to sterilization complete immunity from decay may be secured and there is no damage done to the aroma or flavor4 ,we1 therefore1 find upon the market at the present time in tinned1 canned1 or potted form almost every variety of meat that is used either in a fresh state or after the usual method of curing4 ,canned ,sausage4--,one of the most important of cured meats which is offered for sale is sausage4 ,sausage may be canned either in the fresh or cured state and1 of course1 may be adulterated in both conditions4 ,canned sausage should have a clean bill of health from the local inspector the same as any other meat food4 ,there is1 perhaps1 more room for deception in the manufacture of sausage than in almost any other form of comminuted meat4 ,when properly treated with condimental substances1 such as salt1 spices1 vinegar1 etc41 sausages are highly prized as a food product1 and justly so4 ,in the canned state sausage should undergo no other manipulation than spicing and sterilization at a temperature necessary to kill all fermentative germs and prevent decay4 ,composition of ,canned ,sausage4--,twenty-five samples of canned sausage examined in the ,bureau of ,chemistry had the following average composition3 ,water1 #eh4ea percent ,water in fat-free substance1 #ge4ei ,fat1 #ba4hb ,protein1 #ac4ib ,protein insoluble in water1 #aa4cg ,gelatinous protein1 #a4ba ,meat bases1 4#fg ,ash1 #b4hf ,sodium chlorid1 #a4jb ,the above data show that canned sausage differs from fresh meat largely in its composition1 especially in the much higher content of fat and lower content of water which is found therein4 ,adulteration of ,canned ,sausage4--,the principal adulteration1 as has already been stated1 is in the admixture of meats of unknown and miscellaneous origin and possibly inedible in character4 ,the degree of comminution to which sausage is subjected renders it difficult in the inspection of sausage itself to determine the character of the animal from which it is made4 ,the study of the fat is the most useful guide in such cases4 ,presumably sausage is made almost exclusively of beef and pork1 but1 as a matter of fact1 much which is not eaten under its own name may be found in sausage4 ,next to the introduction of meat of an improper character the most important adulteration is the common use of starch4 ,starch is very much cheaper than meat1 and its abundant use enables a greater profit to be made4 ,it is highly esteemed1 also1 as a 8filler10 on the ground that it prevents the shrinkage of sausage when fried4 ,starch granules under the influence of heat are gelatinous1 holding moisture with tenacity and preventing shrinkage in bulk4 ,the presence of starch in sausage must be regarded as an unjustifiable adulteration unless the amount therein is plainly marked on the label of the package4 ,the use of preservatives in the curing of sausage is a very common practice and1 hence1 canned sausages are found to often contain boric acid or borax and sulfite of soda especially4 ,dyes of various kinds are also used in coloring sausage or its covering1 largely of a coal tar origin4 ,the proper safeguard for the consumer in regard to the character of sausage is in the inspection of the factory4 ,it is highly important that each municipality and state should have a rigid system for the inspection of sausage1 and the sausage thus inspected should bear the certification of the kind of meat used and its general character4 ,the presence of inspectors in factories would prevent the use of preservatives which1 it has been shown by the researches of the ,bureau of ,chemistry1 are prejudicial to health4 ,magnitude of the ,meat ,industry4--,according to the census of #aije1 showing the results of the tabulation of the statistics of slaughtering and meat packing and slaughtering1 wholesale1 for the calendar year #aijd1 forming a part of the census of manufactures of #aije1 which was taken in conformity with the act of ,congress of ,march #f1 #aijb1 the figures indicate that there has been a normal increase in the slaughtering and meat packing industry in the ,united ,states1 as compared with the statistics of #aijj1 which covered the fiscal year ending ,may #cast4 ,comparative figures for #aije and #aijj are shown in the following summary3 ,,percent ,,of #aije4 #aijj4 ,,increase4 ,number of establishments1 #ibi #iba 4#h ,capital1 #bcg1fii1ddj #ahi1aih1bfd #be4f ,salaried officials1 clerks1 etc43 ,number1 #ab1jge #aj1bbg #ah4j ,salaries1 #ac1cgg1ijh #aj1abc1bdg #cb4a ,wage-earners3 ,average number1 #gd1acb #fh1ecd #h4b ,wages1 #dj1ddg1egd #cc1deg1jac #bj4i ,miscellaneous expenses1 #cj1fbc1ajh #bd1jfj1dab #bg4c ,materials used3 ,total cost1 #hje1hef1ifi #fhc1ehc1egg #ag4i ,animals slaughtered3 ,beeves1 #bhi1jdj1icj #bdg1cfe1hab #af4h ,sheep1 #dd1cei1hjd #cg1acg1edb #ai4d ,hogs1 #cbi1gfc1dcj #bgh1gcf1ifa #ah4c ,calves1 #ab1fff1idb #g1cef1efj #gb4b ,all other1 #fa1ije #eei1hci ,all other materials1 #abi1ifc1ieh #aab1dbf1hfc #ae4d ,products3 ,total value1 #iac1iad1fbd #ghe1efb1dcc #af4c ,beef-- ,sold fresh1 #bdg1ace1jbi #baa1jfh1icd #ag4a ,canned1 #g1fig1hae #i1afg1eca #ag4aad ,salted or cured1 #h1ajg1ieb #i1ffa1hcd #af4aad ,mutton-- ,sold fresh1 #cf1hhj1dee #cb1ifc1bai #aa4i ,veal-- ,sold fresh1 #ab1hef1cfi #g1hab1gad #fd4f ,pork-- ,sold fresh1 #ia1ggi1cbc #hd1jai1chg #i4b ,salted1 #aaf1fbf1gaj #hh1fgd1jaf #ca4e ,hams1 smoked bacon1 etc41 #acb1baj1faa #adh1fff1hei #aa4aad ,sausage1 fresh or cured1 #be1jef1cca #ba1dgb1dac #af4g ,all other meat sold fresh1 #i1egi1gah #g1hac1jgh #bb4f ,refined lard1 #gd1aaf1iia #eb1fbj1cdh #dj4h ,neutral lard1 #h1dbc1igc #h1ehh1cej #a4aad ,oleomargarine oil1 #aj1bja1iaa #aa1dhb1edb #aa4bad ,other oils1 #b1eie1iea #c1ddj1ceh #bd4ead ,fertilizers1 #d1cig1fbf #c1cjj1acb #cc4c ,hides1 #dd1acg1hjb #cc1ibe1iaa #cj4a ,wool1 #e1bbi1eba #c1cce1hbd #ef4h ,all other products1 #gf1hhj1ecf #dg1edh1ihc #fa4g #ad ,decrease4 ,,general ,,observations4 ,it is evident1 from the foregoing description of the methods of preparing and sterilizing meat1 that it is a process which commends itself both on account of the economy in the use of meat which it secures and because of the nutritive value of the products obtained4 ,the real value of the products must necessarily depend upon the selection of the raw materials and the sanitary conditions which attend their manipulation4 ,experience has shown that it is not safe to leave these matters to the packers themselves4 ,while1 doubtless1 the greater number of packers will exercise all possible care in the selection of the materials and in their preparation1 human nature is of such a character that when opportunity for deception1 fraud1 and illegitimate gains are presented there are always some who take advantage of them4 ,hence1 it may be safely said that no tinned or canned or sterilized meat of any description should be allowed to enter into consumption except when prepared under the inspection of qualified municipal1 state1 or national officers4 ,the health of the animal furnishing the meat should be ascertained by inspection both before and after slaughter4 ,this inspection should be of the most rigid kind1 and all diseased animals should be excluded from entering into standard products4 ,if it be claimed that there are certain diseases which are local only in character and which do not affect the wholesomeness of the whole carcass1 special provisions can be made for this kind of meat4 ,if admitted into consumption at all1 it should be under a permanent label or tag by which the intended consumer would be informed of the character of the contents of the package4 ,there is a reasonable doubt respecting the suitability for human food of carcasses of animals afflicted in a moderate degree with tuberculosis1 pleuro-pneumonia1 lumpy jaw1 or other contagious or epidemic diseases4 ,in all such cases the rights of the consumers demand that the benefit of the doubt should be given to them and not to the owner1 manufacturer1 and dealer in any of the products they consume4 ,such meat would then enter the market under a separate grade and command a lower price1 and when consumed no one would be deceived respecting its character4 ,it must be admitted1 even if such meat be regarded as wholesome1 that it is of inferior character1 and cannot in any justice demand the right to pass under the name of higher grades of the article4 ,the sanitary conditions under which such meats are prepared are of the highest importance4 ,the slaughter house should be clean1 and provided with good ventilation and natural light4 ,the workmen should be free of disease1 neatly dressed1 and required to observe all necessary sanitary precautions4 ,the dbris and fragments of the packing house should be carefully removed and so disposed of as to prevent any suspicion that any part of them enters any of the products of the factory4 ,municipal1 state1 or national inspection should be frequent1 thorough1 and entirely removed from any possible influence of the packing business itself4 ,competent veterinary experts should pass upon the state of health of each carcass1 and any one found diseased in any way should be subjected to a further careful inspection to see whether it should be admitted1 under proper label and notification1 as human food or consigned to the fertilizer heap4 ,it is only by such inspection as this that the consumer can secure adequate protection4 ,after the meat is once in the can inspection will only reveal whether or not preservatives and coloring matter have been used1 or whether the contents of the can are spoiled or in a state unfit for consumption4 ,no examination of the contents of the can will reveal in a satisfactory manner the state of health of the carcass from which the meat has been secured or the sanitary conditions under which it has been prepared4 ,it is hoped the new methods of inspection established by the ,secretary of ,agriculture will secure the desired purity of meat products4 ,,lard4 ,the fat of swine1 properly separated from the other tissues1 is known as lard4 ,the process of separation is termed 8rendering40 ,various methods of rendering are practiced1 all depending1 however1 upon the use of heat1 which liquefies the fat and gradually frees it from its connective tissues4 ,parts of ,fat ,used for ,lard ,making4--,in the making of lard the highest grades are produced from the fat lining the back of the animal and that connected with the intestines4 ,the sheets of fat which are found lining the back of the animal furnishes a variety known as leaf lard4 ,all parts of the fat of the animal not used in the meats themselves may be used in the manufacture of lard4 ,in the preparation of the carcass1 the parts cut off in trimming the pieces and containing fat are sent to the rendering tank4 ,the leaf lard is also removed by tearing it off from the back of the animal1 and the intestinal fat is separated from the viscera in like manner4 ,there is probably no question of wholesomeness between the lards made from different parts of the carcass4 ,the lard differs in its chemical composition and its physical consistence as determined by its location in the body4 ,inasmuch as it is important that lard should have a certain degree of consistence even in summer time and not become too soft or liquid in character1 the lard which has a high melting point is preferred1 especially during the summer4 ,the lards made from the feet and some other parts of the hog have lower melting points4 ,the different kinds of fat from all parts of the animal might be mixed together and a lard made therefrom representing the average consistence of the fat of the whole body4 ,a small quantity of stearin is often added to raise the melting point1 but the addition of this substance without notice must be regarded as an adulteration4 ,names of ,different ,kinds of ,lard4--,the names applied to the different kinds of lard may be referred principally to the parts of fat used1 such as leaf lard1 intestinal lard1 etc41 or to the method of preparing it4 ,the old-fashioned method of preparing lard for family use consisted in placing the fat in an open kettle and heating usually over the open fire4 ,the rendering takes place as the mass increases in temperature1 so that the residual tissues become browned by the high temperature reached4 ,lard made in this way is of most excellent quality and1 of course1 being made under family supervision1 its character is well understood and the parts of the body used are well known4 ,in the large packing establishments the lard is usually rendered by the application of heat in the form of steam under pressure1 of a suitable temperature to make the character of lard uniform4 ,large yields can be secured in this way with less charring of the residual tissues1 and consequently a finer and whiter color in the lard itself4 ,lard of this kind is sometimes known as steam rendered lard4 ,uses of ,lard4--,the fat of swine prepared as above mentioned1 and known as lard1 finds a very extended use in every kitchen4 ,it is mixed with various forms of bread making materials1 cake1 etc41 and is often known in this sense as 8shortening40 ,it is also employed for lubricating the pans and other culinary utensils used for baking purposes4 ,it is sometimes employed for the purpose of cooking by the process of frying or of introducing the substance to be cooked directly into the hot lard1 as in the frying of oysters1 the making of doughnuts1 and similar operations4 ,lard has come to be looked upon as a necessity in every kitchen1 even of the humblest citizen4 ,many objections are made to the use of lard on hygienic grounds1 and probably on account of its cheapness and general utility it is more freely used in ,american cooking than it should be4 ,in other words1 ,american cooking is under the reproach of being too greasy4 ,there is no reason to question the digestive and nutritive value of lard when used in proper quantities and in proper conditions4 ,it is a typical fat food composed of materials which are almost wholly oxidized in the body and which upon combustion produce a higher number of units of heat than that of any other class of food substances4 ,,composition ,,of ,,different ,,varieties ,,of ,,american ,,lard4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,crys- ,,melt- ,,tal- ,,rise ,,of ,,saponi- ,,ing ,,lizing ,,temper- ,,spe- ,,fica- ,,point ,,point ,,ature ,,cific ,,tion ,,melt- ,,of ,,of ,,with ,,iodin ,,grav- ,,equiv- ,,ing ,,fatty ,,fatty ,,sulfuric ,,ab- ,,ity4 ,,alent4,,point4,,acid4 ,,acid4 ,,acid4 ,,sorbed4,,water4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,per- ,per- ,c4 ,c4 ,c4 ,c4 cent cent ,leaf lard1 4#ijeg #bgb4fd #da4f #dc4j #dj4dj #ci4g #ei4fj 4#afe ,pure leaf lard1 4#ijbh #bha4ja #dd4i #db4h #dj4dj #cg4a #ec4jd 4#jbe ,prime steam lard1 4#ijeb #bgi4jf #ch4d #da4h #ci4ec #cc4g #fc4hd 4#jdj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,adulteration of ,lard4--,the principal adulteration to which lard is subjected is admixture with other and cheaper fats4 ,among the fats which are used for this purpose may be mentioned beef fat and cottonseed oil4 ,beef fat has a higher melting point than lard and cottonseed oil a much lower melting point1 being liquid at ordinary temperatures4 ,a mixture of beef fat and cottonseed oil may1 therefore1 be made1 having approximately the same melting point as lard itself4 ,the addition of this mixture to lard would not alter its melting point to any sensible extent4 ,instead of using the whole cottonseed oil for the purpose mentioned it may be previously chilled and its product of a higher melting point1 or as it is sometimes called1 the stearin of cottonseed oil1 may be used for admixture with lard4 ,large quantities of these mixed fats were formerly made in this country under the name of 8compound lard0 in which the above adulterants were the chief constituents4 ,the laws of the various states are happily of a character which forbids the sale of a mixture of a compound of lard and other fats under the name of lard1 although there is no objection to such admixture from a hygienic and dietetic point of view4 ,there are many hygienists who are of the opinion that the more extended use of vegetable oils instead of lard would be of value to the health of the public4 ,if this be true1 the admixture of a vegetable oil with lard would improve it from a hygienic standpoint4 ,the principal1 perhaps the sole1 objection to such admixtures is their fraudulent character4 ,vegetable oils1 especially cottonseed oil1 being very much cheaper than lard1 their use in lard without notification cheapens the product and defrauds the customer4 ,lard may also be adulterated with its own stearin4 ,in the manufacture of lard oil a residue is left of a much higher melting point and this residue may be mixed with a vegetable oil1 such as cottonseed1 in the production of a compound of approximately the same melting point as lard itself4 ,in a case of this kind both constituents are fraudulent1 in as much as neither the cottonseed oil nor the lard stearin may be regarded in any sense as lard4 ,detection of ,adulterations4--,the presence of cottonseed oil in any form in lard is at once determined by the application of a simple color test known as the ,halphen test4 ,this is not a reliable test in those cases where the animal has been fed cottonseed4 ,halphen ,reaction for ,cottonseed ,oil4--,carbon disulfid1 containing about one percent of sulfur in solution1 is mixed with an equal volume of amyl alcohol4 ,mix equal volumes of this reagent and the oil under examination and heat in a bath of boiling brine for fifteen minutes4 ,in the presence of as little as one percent of cottonseed oil an orange or red color is produced1 which is characteristic4 ,lard and lard oil from animals fed on cottonseed meal will give a faint reaction2 also the fatty acids thereof4 ,this test is more sensitive than the ,bechi test 7nitrate of silver7 and less liable to give unsatisfactory results in the hands of an inexperienced person4 ,it is not affected by rancidity4 ,the depth of color is proportional1 to a certain extent1 to the amount of oil present1 and by making comparative tests with cottonseed oil some idea as to the amount present can be obtained1 but it must be remembered that different oils react with different intensities1 and oils which have been heated from #bjj to #baj ,c4 react with greatly diminished intensity4 ,heating ten minutes at #bej renders cottonseed oil incapable of giving the reaction4 ,cottonseed oil also has the property of reducing silver in silver nitrate to a metallic state4 ,when mixed with a solution of silver nitrate under proper conditions a blackening or precipitation of black metallic silver is observed4 ,this is known as the ,bechi test which is conducted as follows3 ,bechi or ,silver ,nitrate ,test for ,cottonseed ,oil4--,reagent3 ,dissolve #b grams of silver nitrate in #bjj cubic centimeters of #ie percent alcohol and #dj cubic centimeters of ether1 adding one drop of nitric acid4 ,mix #aj c4c4 of oil or melted fat1 #e c4c4 of reagent1 and #aj c4c4 of amyl alcohol in a test tube4 ,divide1 heat one-half in a boiling water bath for ten minutes1 and then compare with portion not heated4 ,any blackening due to reduced silver shows presence of cottonseed oil4 ,other oils which have become rancid1 and lards which have been steamed or heated at high temperature1 contain decomposition products which have a reducing action on silver nitrate4 ,there were found in testing a large number of salad oils some which contained no cottonseed oil1 according to the ,halphen test1 but gave a brown coloration with ,bechi reagent1 and in some cases reduced silver4 ,these same oils on being purified gave no reaction4 ,hence the oils or fats should be purified before testing4 ,to purify the oils and fats1 heat from #bj to #cj grams on water bath for a few minutes with the addition of #be c4c4 of #ie percent alcohol1 shake thoroughly1 decant as much of the alcohol as possible1 and wash with two percent nitric acid1 and finally with water4 ,the oil or lard thus purified will give no reduction at all if it contains no cottonseed oil4 ,heating the oils or fats to #ajj ,c4 or simple washing with two percent nitric acid is not sufficient1 except in a few cases4 ,with oils the use of the ,halphen and ,bechi tests will be found to be useful as a means of approximately determining the amounts of adulteration present4 ,if ,halphen gives a reaction and ,bechi does not1 the adulteration with cottonseed oil is probably less than #aj percent4 ,the admixture of beef fat with lard is best detected by means of the microscope4 ,the fat is dissolved in ether and allowed to slowly crystallize4 ,if it is composed of pure lard the crystal assumes a form which is represented in ,fig4 #h4 ,if1 on the other hand1 beef fat be mixed with lard1 the crystals will assume a radiated fan-shaped appearance shown in ,fig4 #i4 ,even one who is an expert with the microscope may not be able without some difficulty to detect these adulterations by the simple tests above mentioned4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,,lard ,,crystals4 #adj4--7;,bureau of ,chemistry47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,,beef ,,fat ,,crystals4 #adj4--7;,bureau of ,chemistry47 ,commercial ,classification of ,lards4--,in addition to the kinds of lard mentioned above other varieties are known in commerce4 ,neutral ,lard4--,this1 which is one of the best varieties of lard1 is made from the fat derived from the leaf lard of the slaughtered animal in a perfectly fresh state1 that is1 taken immediately after slaughter and before the carcass is cold4 ,the leaf lard1 when it is removed from the animal1 is at once placed in cold storage or put into cold water1 in order to rapidly remove the animal heat4 ,as soon as it is thoroughly chilled it is reduced to a pulp in a grinder and sent at once to the rendering kettle4 ,the fat is rendered at a very low temperature1 from #aje to #abj degrees ,f4 7#dj-ej degrees ,c74 ,it is evident that only a part of the lard is separated at this temperature1 and this part is regarded as being of the best quality1 almost tasteless1 free of acids and other impurities4 ,the residue from the making of neutral lard is sent to other kettles1 where it is subjected to a higher temperature and the remainder of the lard extracted1 which is sold under the name of another grade4 ,neutral lard1 obtained as above1 while still liquid1 is washed with water containing a trace of sodium carbonate1 common salt1 or a dilute acid4 ,the product thus formed is almost neutral in its reaction to litmus paper containing not to exceed 4#be percent of free acid1 but it has more water and mineral matter than is found in the pure rendered untreated lard4 ,the neutral lard made in this way is not used so commonly for culinary purposes but chiefly in the manufacture of oleomargarine4 ,leaf ,lard4--,the residue of lard obtained by rendering the unseparated part of lard from the above process at a higher temperature is also of a high quality and is sometimes improperly designated leaf lard1 a term which should be reserved for the whole product instead of a part obtained by rendering the residual leaf fat4 ,choice ,kettle-rendered ,lard4--,the amount of neutral lard which is demanded in the manufacture of oleomargarine does not by any means exhaust the supply of leaf lard4 ,for making choice kettle-rendered lard the leaf lard together with the fat cut from the back of the animal is rendered in steam-jacketed open kettles and produces a lard of a high quality known as kettle-rendered or choice kettle-rendered lard4 ,the hide is removed from the fat portion of the back used for this purpose before the rendering4 ,both the leaf and pieces of the back are passed through a fine sausage grinder before they enter the rendering kettle4 ,according to the requirements of the ,chicago ,board of ,trade1 choice lard1 which is another term for the above variety1 is to be made from leaf and trimmings only1 either steam-rendered or kettle-rendered1 and the manner of rendering to be branded on each package4 ,prime ,steam ,lard4--,the prime steam lard of commerce is made as follows3 ,the whole head of the hog1 after the removal of the jowl1 is used for rendering4 ,the heads are placed in the bottom of the rendering tank4 ,the mesenteric fat adhering to the small intestines is also used in the tank4 ,any fat that may be attached to the heart or other organs of the animal may also be used4 ,in those factories where kettle-rendered lard is not made the scrap fat from the back of the animals and trimmings are also used4 ,when there is an excess of leaf it is also put in the rendering tank and1 in general1 all the fat portions of the body which are removed in the trimming process4 ,it is thus seen that prime steam lard is a term which may practically represent the average fat of the whole animal4 ,prime steam lard is thus defined by the ,chicago ,board of ,trade3 8,standard prime steam lard shall be solely the product of the trimmings and other fat parts of hogs1 rendered in tanks by the direct application of steam1 and without subsequent change in grain or character by the use of agitators or other machinery except as such change may unavoidably come from transportation4 ,it shall have proper color1 flavor1 and soundness for keeping1 and no material which has been salted shall be included4 ,the name and location of the renderer and the grade of the lard shall be plainly branded on each package at the time of packing40 ,all the lard which is made is subjected to the approval of inspectors both as to the material employed and the method of procedure1 together with the character of the final product4 ,disposition of the ,intestines of the ,hog4--,in the term intestines is included all of the abdominal viscera of the animal but not the thoracic viscera1 namely1 the heart and lungs4 ,the material is handled in the following way3 ,when the animal is opened the viscera are separated1 including the flesh surrounding the anus and a strip containing the external genito-urinary organs4 ,the heart is thrown to one side and the fatty portions trimmed off for lard4 ,the rest of the heart is used for sausage or for fertilizer4 ,the lungs and liver are either used in the manufacture of sausage or for fertilizer4 ,the rectum and large intestines are separated from the intestinal fat and peritoneum and1 along with the adhering flesh and genito-urinary organs1 sent to the trimmer4 ,all flesh from the above-mentioned organs is cut away and the intestine proper is used for sausage casings4 ,the trimmings1 including the genito-urinary organs1 are washed and placed in the rendering tank where lard is made4 ,the small intestine is also separated from the fatty membrane surrounding it and prepared for sausage casings4 ,the remaining material1 consisting of the peritoneum1 diaphragm1 stomach1 and adhering membranes1 together with the intestinal fat1 constitutes the 8guts0 which are subjected to washing in three or four different tanks4 ,in the first tank the stomach and peritoneum are split open1 and also any portion of the intestines which still adhere to the peritoneum4 ,the portions then go from tank to tank1 usually four in number1 and are then ready for the rendering tank4 ,the omentum fat is cut from the kidneys1 and the kidneys with any adhering fat go into the rendering vat4 ,the spleen1 pancreas1 vocal cords1 trachea1 and sophagus also go into the tank4 ,in general it may be said that everything connected with the viscera go into the rendering tank with the following exceptions3 ,first1 that portion of the intestines which is saved for sausage casings2 second1 the liver and lungs2 third1 that part of the heart free from fat4 ,in the killing of small hogs1 where the intestines are not of sufficient size to be suitable for sausage casings1 they also go into the rendering tank4 ,it should be stated here that the grease or lard obtained by the rendering of the above described viscera1 according to the statements of the manufacturers1 is used solely in the manufacture of lard oil and soap1 and does not enter into the lard of commerce4 ,when the processes of manufacture are properly controlled by official inspection the public may be assured that this disposition of the fat obtained by the rendering of the intestinal viscera is secured4 ,butchers' ,lard4--,a considerable quantity of lard is made for commercial purposes by the small butcher for family use1 etc4 ,this lard is made almost exclusively by rendering in the open kettle4 ,in the country where butchering is conducted for family use the ordinary open kettle is placed over an open fire4 ,all parts of the fat of the animal which can be easily separated and the scraps derived from trimming the animal are used for rendering4 ,the offal and refuse of the animal are also rendered separately and the product used for soap grease4 ,the lard made in this way is regarded as perfectly wholesome1 but it is frequently dark-colored from the charring due to rendering over the open fire and by reason of using some portions of the animal1 such as tendons1 from which glue is made4 ,such lard may contain traces or even considerable quantities of glue which1 however1 cannot be regarded as an unwholesome product4 ,the partially browned residues in the kettle in the country are known as 8cracklings0 and are used for soap grease4 ,inedible ,hog ,fat ,products4--,in the shipping of hogs a great many are smothered and others die of disease or are in a condition1 at the time of slaughter1 which renders them unfit for human food1 either by the presence of disease or otherwise4 ,the fats are separated from dead animals of this class and are used for technical purposes such as burning oils1 soap grease1 etc4 ,there are several varieties of these inedible fats of which the following are the principal3 ,white ,grease4--,this grease is made chiefly from hogs which die in transit by being smothered or from freezing4 ,formerly it was the custom to make white grease also from the animals which died of disease1 but the manufacture of this product has been restricted by certain state laws which forbid the use of animals which die of particular diseases1 such as hog cholera1 from being used for any purpose whatever and their carcasses are to be buried so as to remove all danger of infection4 ,brown ,grease4--,brown grease is a product of a lower grade than white grease and is made usually by rendering the whole animal4 ,it is one of the by-products in the manufacture of tankage from condemned animal carcasses1 the tankage being used as fertilizer4 ,both white and brown grease are used chiefly in the manufacture of low grade lard oil and in the making of soap4 ,yellow ,grease4--,yellow grease is a product intermediate in value between white and brown grease4 ,it is made chiefly from the carcasses of animals that die while on the packers' hands4 ,it is used for the same purpose as white and brown grease4 ,pig's-foot ,grease4--,a special variety of grease is made from pigs' feet as a by-product in the glue factory4 ,this grease is used also in making lard oil and soap4 ,it is evident that these varieties of grease are only inedible varieties of lard1 and through proper inspection the public is protected against the use of these varieties of grease in the edible product4 ,lard ,stearin4--,mention has already been made of the fact that by melting a fat and cooling it slowly towards its solidifying point1 certain constituents of the fat which have a higher melting point separate first1 leaving those constituents with a lower melting point still in a liquid condition4 ,those portions of an oil or fat which separate first under such conditions1 are the constituents of the product which is known as stearin1 while the part that remains liquid is the constituent known as olein4 ,lard stearin is made principally for the manufacture of mixtures and is a by-product of the highest grade of lard oil4 ,lard stearin is made as follows3 ,the lard is melted and kept in a crystallizing room at from #ej to #fj degrees ,f41 until it is filled with the crystals of the separated stearin4 ,the product is then wrapped in the form of cakes with cloth4 ,each package contains from #aj to #bj pounds4 ,the cakes are then placed in a large press with suitable arrangements to facilitate the escape of the oil and maintain the low temperature4 ,the pressure is applied very gradually at first1 and as the process advances1 with increasing power4 ,the high grade oil obtained in this way is known as prime or extra lard oil and is used for illuminating and lubricating purposes4 ,the resulting solid product1 which is principally stearin1 is used as one of the adulterants of lard1 that is1 in making a mixture which is sometimes called lard1 composed of lard stearin and cottonseed oil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,tanks ,used for ,producing ,lard ,under ,pressure4--,there are various forms of tanks used for producing steam rendered lard4 ,in the open kettle there is a jacketed arrangement by means of which steam1 at the proper temperature1 is made to act upon the contents of the inner kettle4 ,in the closed kettle the steam may be applied in the form of a jacketed arrangement or introduced directly into the kettle4 ,the residues which remain after the steaming is completed and after the lard has been drawn off are withdrawn from the conical lower portion of the kettle which can be opened for the removal of these residues4 ,a typical kettle for rendering lard is shown in ,fig4 #aj4 ,the fragments of meat to be received are placed in the opening ,m which is then properly closed when the tank is full4 ,steam is admitted and the condensation which is produced at first by the cold contents of the tank is drawn off through a water pipe4 ,after the tank is thoroughly heated and the fat begins to separate the lard will rise above the water and the solid fragments and at the end of the process will fill the upper part of the tank4 ,by means of the cocks at ,d it can be determined to what depth the tank is filled with lard and the lard can be drawn off through these cocks until water begins to flow4 ,the bottom of the tank at ,g is then opened and the residues withdrawn1 dried and ground for tankage4 ,physical ,properties of ,lard4--,specific ,gravity4--,the specific gravity of pure lard is to be determined at some definite temperature1 inasmuch as a statement of its specific gravity without some reference to the temperature at which it is determined is likely to be misleading4 ,it is not convenient to ascertain the specific gravity of a lard at a temperature below its melting point4 ,it is customary1 therefore1 either to take the specific gravity at about #dj degrees ,c41 or at a temperature of boiling water4 ,the average specific gravity of pure lard at #dj degrees ,c4 7#ajd degrees ,f471 regarding water as #ajj1 is #hi1 and at #ajj degrees ,c4 it is #hf1 the weight of water being determined at the point of greatest density1 namely1 #d degrees ,c4 7#ci degrees ,f474 ,unfortunately the specific gravity of pure lard is not very greatly different from that of other oils or other fats used in its adulteration4 ,for this reason it is not of the highest value for determining whether or not the pure article has been subjected to adulteration4 ,melting ,point4--,the melting point of a pure lard is a physical characteristic of great value1 since it is chiefly influenced by the part of the body of the animal from which it is made4 ,the fat which is rendered from the foot of the hog has the lowest melting point1 namely1 about #ce degrees ,c4 7#ie ,f474 ,the fat adhering to the intestines has the highest melting point1 namely1 #dd degrees ,c4 7#aaa degrees ,f474 ,the fat derived from the head of the hog has a slightly higher melting point than that from the feet4 ,the kidney fat has a melting point of #db4e degrees ,c4 7#ajh4b degrees ,f474 ,in the steam rendered lards1 representing the average of lards passed upon by the ,chicago ,board of ,trade1 the average melting point is found to be about #cg degrees ,c4 7#ih4g degrees ,f474 ,the melting point of superior or leaf lard has an average value of about #dj degrees ,c4 7#ajd degrees ,f474 ,color ,reaction4--,a pure high grade lard when mixed on a white porcelain plate with the proper amount of sulfuric or nitric acid should give only a very slight coloration4 ,the production of any considerable quantity of color1 either brown or black1 indicates the presence of organic impurities in the lard4 ,rise of ,temperature with ,sulfuric ,acid4--,the various fats give different degrees of heat when mixed1 under certain conditions1 with strong sulfuric acid4 ,it is possible to determine the approximate degree of the adulteration of lard by applying this test4 ,the operation is a simple one and is conducted in the apparatus shown in ,fig4 #aa4 ,a common test tube about #bd cubic centimeters in length and #e cubic centimeters in diameter is hung as indicated in the figure1 provided with a stopper carrying a thermometer in the center with a bent glass rod stirrer passed loosely through the stopper on the side and a funnel for the introduction of the acid on another side of the thermometer4 ,a coil which is on the stirring rod is so arranged as to permit the bulb of the thermometer to pass through its center4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,manipulation4--,fifty cubic centimeters of the fat or oil to be examined are placed in the test tube and warmed or cooled1 as the case may be1 until the temperature is the one required for the beginning of the experiment1 say #ce degrees ,c42 #aj cubic centimeters of the strongest sulfuric acid at the same temperature are placed in the funnel1 the stopper being firmly fixed in its place2 the test tube containing the oil is placed in a non-conducting receptacle2 the wooden cylinder lined with cork1 used in sending glass bottles by mail1 is found to be convenient for this purpose4 ,the glass rod or stirrer which fits loosely in the stopper1 so as to be moved rapidly up and down1 is held by the right hand of the operator2 with his left hand he opens the glass stop-cock of the funnel and allows the sulfuric acid to flow in upon the oil4 ,the glass stirring rod is now moved rapidly up and down1 for about #bj seconds1 thus securing a thorough mixture of the oil and acid4 ,the mercury rises rapidly in the thermometer and after two or three minutes reaches a maximum1 and then1 after two or three minutes more1 begins to descend4 ,the reading is made at the maximum point reached by the mercury4 ,with pure cottonseed oil1 linseed oil and some other substances the rise of temperature is so great as to produce ebullition in the mass1 causing it to foam up and fill the tube4 ,to avoid this1 smaller quantities of acid should be used or the oil in question be diluted with a less thermogenic one1 so that the maximum temperature may not be high enough to produce the effect cited4 ,chemical ,properties4--,volatile ,acids4--,the quantity of volatile acid arising on the decomposition of a soap made by the saponification of lard is very minute in lard of high quality4 ,the total amount of volatile acid should not be in excess of that necessary to saturate 4#b cubic centimeter of deci-normal alkali solution4 ,fixed ,acid4--,the quantity of fixed acid1 consisting principally of oleic and stearic1 in pure lard should not be less than #ic percent4 ,the total quantity of free acid in lard1 that is1 acid uncombined with the glycerine1 should not exceed one-half of one percent1 and in neutral lard should be much less than this4 ,quantity of ,iodin ,absorbed4--,all common fats and oils have the property of absorbing1 under given conditions1 certain quantities of iodin4 ,lard of the highest quality should not absorb more than #fj percent of its weight of iodin4 ,the lard made from the feet and certain other parts of the animal1 however1 may have a larger iodin number1 rising as high as #ge or even #hj4 ,properties of ,lard4--,the average properties of different classes of lard in relation to physical and optical conditions are shown in the following table3 ,,re- ,,rise ,,of ,,temper- ,,specific ,,melting ,,fractive ,,ature ,,with ,,iodin ,,gravity4 ,,point4 ,,index4 ,,sulfuric ,,acid4 ,,water4 ,,absorbed4 #ce ,c4 ,c4 #be ,c4 ,c4 ,,percent4 ,,percent4 4#ijec #dj4g #a4dfbj #da4e 4#jgg #fb4dh ,the above table is the average composition of nineteen samples of lard furnished under affidavits of purity and which appear from their chemical and physical properties to be composed purely of the fat of swine taken from those parts of the animal usually devoted to lard making4 ,the average data may be regarded as representing the properties of the ordinary pure commercial lard on the market4 ,average ,properties of ,steam ,lard4--,below is given the average composition of eleven samples of steam lard furnished under affidavit and1 apparently1 as judged by their chemical and physical properties1 composed solely of the fat of swine4 ,steam lards are not of as high a quality as the lards contained in the preceding table4 ,they have usually a distinctively strong odor1 quite different from that of lards which are rendered in open kettles at low temperature and from selected portions of fat4 ,,re- ,,rise ,,of ,,temper- ,,specific ,,melting ,,fractive ,,ature ,,with ,,iodin ,,gravity4 ,,point4 ,,index4 ,,sulfuric ,,acid4 ,,water4 ,,absorbed4 #ce ,c4 ,c4 #be ,c4 ,c4 ,,percent4 ,,percent4 4#ijee #cg4j #a4dfbc #ci4i 4#aji #fb4hf ,properties of ,adulterated ,lards4--,it is possible to mix together the different materials used in making adulterated lard in such a manner as to produce a compound which in some respects resembles the natural product4 ,this compound1 however1 necessarily differs from the natural product in its physical and microscopic properties and in its reaction with various chemicals which give distinct color with the different fats and oils used as adulterants4 ,the mean properties of thirteen samples of mixed or compound lards are shown in the following table3 ,,re- ,,rise ,,of ,,temper- ,,specific ,,melting ,,fractive ,,ature ,,with ,,iodin ,,gravity4 ,,point4 ,,index4 ,,sulfuric ,,acid4 ,,water4 ,,absorbed4 #ce ,c4 ,c4 #be ,c4 ,c4 ,,percent4 ,,percent4 4#ijfj #dj4f #a4dfcd #df4e 4#jih #fc4eh ,these lards1 in addition to the above properties1 show distinct color reaction with sulfuric and nitric acid and with the reagents which are distinctive of cottonseed oil4 ,they are mostly mixtures of lard and tallow stearin with cotton oil or cotton oil stearin4 ,in addition to the adulterations already mentioned as mixing with cottonseed oil may be added the use of coconut oil4 ,it is not probable that in the ,united ,states any adulteration of lard with coconut oil has been made for commercial purposes4 ,such an adulteration1 however1 is practiced in some foreign countries4 ,coconut oil contains considerable quantities of volatile acid1 and1 therefore1 when used as an adulterant of lard1 would increase the normal quantity of volatile acid materially4 ,one sample examined by ,allen1 of ,england1 was found to contain a quantity of coconut oil1 amounting to #cc percent4 ,summary4--,in the preceding pages has been given a description of the character of lard1 the sources from which it is made1 the method of its preparation1 its chemical and physical properties and the common adulterations to which it is subjected4 ,there is no question of the wholesomeness of the usual fats and oils1 or parts thereof1 which are used in the sophistication of lards4 ,the adulteration is intended solely for fraudulent purposes1 that is1 to sell under the name of a higher priced article one of a lower price4 ,there are many persons who prefer to use vegetable oils and fats as substitutes for lard in all cases4 ,it is only fair to the consumer that the character of a fat and oil1 however1 for edible purposes be plainly made known to the purchaser4 ,he is then to judge of the propriety or impropriety of using the articles in question4 ,it seems quite certain that the use of vegetable oils and fats will be greatly increased in this country4 ,all hygienists grant that they are at least equally as wholesome as the animal fat and oil4 ,they are certainly less open to suspicion as having been derived from diseased sources4 ,as a rule1 they are carefully expressed and properly refined1 free from rancidity and from any mechanical or chemical constituents which render them unpalatable or unwholesome4 ,they are generally much cheaper1 perhaps the only exception being that of olive oil4 ,these vegetable oils1 as a rule1 are excellent for salad dressing1 for frying and general cooking purposes and for the ordinary uses to which lard and other animal fats are devoted4 ,a proper labeling of all such packages would increase the quantity consumed1 restoring confidence to the public in the character of the goods purchased1 and prove of mutual benefit to the grower1 the manufacturer and the consumer4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that there are many people who prefer the animal fats1 and so there will probably always be a large field for their use4 ,such consumers are entitled to secure the pure article1 properly prepared from healthy animals and free from rancidity and organic impurities4 ,lard and other animal fats offered in this way will have a greater vogue1 command a greater degree of confidence and secure a larger trade than if sold under conditions engendering suspicion and distrust4 ,,soups4 ,classification of ,soups4--,the soups which are commonly consumed are divided into two great classes--those of animal and those of vegetable origin4 ,any liquid or semi-liquid preparation of a meat or vegetable or the two combined which may or may not carry particles of solid substances is classed with these preparations4 ,soups are generally used at the beginning of a meal1 usually at dinner-time1 and1 as a rule1 do not have any very high nutritive value4 ,that they have a useful function cannot be denied1 since the introduction of a small quantity of a condimental and slightly nutritive warm liquid into the stomach at the beginning of dinner tends to stimulate the secretive glands of the stomach walls to greater activity and thus to promote digestion4 ,soup should be regarded pre-eminently as a condimental and not as a nutritive substance4 ,preparation of ,stock4--,in the making of stock the base of the material1 as a rule1 is that part of the meat and bone soluble in hot water4 ,the best way of preparing this stock is as follows3 ,the meat and bones selected should be fresh1 free from all impurities and be derived solely from healthy animals as soon as they have been slaughtered4 ,inasmuch as the shape of the material used is of little consequence the parts of the carcass that are cut away in the preparation of the usual cuts of the marketable meats are utilized for stock making4 ,the flesh should be cut into fragments of proper size and the bones broken up into small pieces4 ,this material with the appropriate amount of water and salt is placed in a vessel capable of being closed in such a way that no aqueous vapor will escape1 and a slight degree of pressure1 equal to the half of an atmosphere1 can be sustained4 ,simple forms of digesters are made for this purpose which are perfectly safe at low pressure and supplied with a safety valve so as to allow steam to escape if the pressure runs too high4 ,several hours of digestion are necessary for the preparation of stock1 and if an ordinary vessel is used care must be exercised that the liquid does not evaporate so as to make the mass dry4 ,stirring from time to time assists the solution of the soluble substances4 ,after the extraction is complete the liquid contents are poured off and the solid material pressed gently to separate the liquid held in solution4 ,the mass is then put in a cool place and allowed to stand until thoroughly cooled and all the fat particles are collected at the top4 ,the fat is then removed and the resulting liquid strained to remove any solid particles4 ,the clear solution thus obtained is set aside and used as stock in the preparation of the various forms of soups4 ,when properly flavored and used by itself it produces the soup known as consomm4 ,the soup stock made in this way usually contains not less than #ie percent of water and not more than #e percent of nutritive matter4 ,many of the clear soups prepared in this way contain very much less nutritive matter1 sometimes as low as one percent4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that the soup stock is valuable as a condiment and flavoring and not as a food4 ,the number of soups which can be made from soup stock is practically unlimited4 ,they are formed by the admixture1 chiefly of vegetables cut into small pieces1 of starchy materials1 mashed peas or beans1 particles of potato1 fragments of parched bread1 and in fact almost any nutritive and palatable substance which the cook may wish to employ4 ,a soup made from a stock of the above description with pea flour was found to have the following composition3 ,water1 #hh4bf percent ,protein1 #c4ch ,fat1 4#ic ,ash1 #a4ac ,starch and other carbohydrates1 #f4cj ,a soup made with potatoes from stock of the above description was found to have the following composition3 ,water1 #ij4if percent ,protein1 #a4cg ,fat1 #a4ec ,ash1 4#ii ,starch and other carbohydrates1 #e4ac ,the ,french make soups which are very well known and highly valued by cutting vegetables1 such as carrots1 beets1 radishes and other vegetable substances1 into small pieces and adding them to the soup stock4 ,oyster ,soup4--,a soup made of milk1 cream1 flour1 condiments1 oysters and the liquid of oysters is very largely eaten in the ,united ,states4 ,the difference between oyster soup and oyster stew is chiefly in the amount of oysters employed4 ,green ,turtle ,soup4--,a soup stock prepared as above described and flavored with pieces of green turtle is a very common dish4 ,mock ,turtle ,soup4--,a soup made in imitation of a turtle soup in which veal takes the place of turtle for flavoring is known as mock turtle soup4 ,clam ,soup or ,clam ,chowder4--,this is a soup made of clams in the same way that oyster soup is made4 ,when the clams are cut into small pieces and are in great abundance and when potatoes are used in large quantities in the mixture it is known as clam chowder4 ,beef ,extract4--,it is evident that a beef extract is only a soup or a soup stock specially prepared from beef4 ,beef extract first became known by the researches of the celebrated chemist ,liebig1 and has passed from a mere local preparation to an article which is important in commerce4 ,factories have been established in localities far removed from the principal markets of the world1 but where cattle are extremely plentiful1 as in ,south ,america1 and the preparation of beef extract is carried on on a large scale1 the meat of the animal being thrown away after the preparation of the extract4 ,the method of preparing beef extract is practically that described for making a soup stock under pressure4 ,instead of using only the trimmings and refuse of the animal1 however1 usually the whole of the flesh is employed4 ,the bones are sometimes used in the making of a beef extract4 ,the sound1 fresh meat is cut into small pieces and extracted under pressure as already described4 ,after cooking and filtering the product it is brought1 in vacuo1 to a proper consistence4 ,meat extract is1 therefore1 simply a concentrated soup stock4 ,it requires about thirty-four pounds of meat to yield one pound of concentrated extract1 and this extract may be diluted for consumption so as to make from six to seven gallons of beef tea4 ,the composition of the ordinary beef extract of commerce shows that it contains from #ae to #bj percent of moisture1 from #ag to #bc percent of ash and from #ej to #fj percent of meat bases1 that is1 the soluble nitrogenous contents of meat4 ,the bones and tendons are not used in making beef extract on account of the introduction of considerable quantities of gelatine into the material4 ,liebig does not recommend the presence of gelatine in beef extract because1 being cheaper in quality1 it is an adulteration of the genuine article1 which should contain only the pure bases and not the gelatinous principle of the meat in the tendons and bones4 ,character of ,nitrogenous ,bodies in ,beef ,extract4--,when beef extract is prepared according to the ,liebig method those nitrogenous bodies commonly known as meat bases are found in the concentrated extract4 ,in a beef extract which contains a total of #i4bh percent of nitrogen the quantity of nitrogen in the form of nitrogenous compounds which were found therein is as follows3 ,nitrogen in the form of soluble albumin1--trace2 in the form of albumoses1--#a4ag2 in the form of peptone1--trace2 in the form of meat bases1--#f4ha2 in the form of ammonia compounds1--4#dg2 in the form of unenumerated compounds1--4#hc4 ,the chief meat bases which form the principal part of the substance are creatin1 creatinin1 xanthin1 carnin and carnic acid4 ,there are many different forms of beef extract upon the market1 sometimes called by fanciful names and sometimes by the name of the manufacturer4 ,among the fanciful names are some which indicate origin or kind4 ,the extracts which bear the names of the manufacturers are very numerous1 but all of these extracts are essentially of the same character4 ,one of these is a meat extract in which some of the meat fiber is contained4 ,the quantity of meat fiber which is used varies1 but is not very great4 ,a comparison of the dry substance in a preparation of the class mentioned above with the dry substance in meat shows the following relation3 ,,ash ,,and ,,protein4 ,,meat ,,bases4 ,,mineral ,,matter4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,extract1 #di4g #be4f #bd4g ,meat1 #hf4g #g4h #e4c ,the above data show that the extract is essentially different in its composition from dried meat and has added to it a large quantity of meat fiber or the meat rendered soluble by some kind of treatment4 ,nutritive ,properties4--,it cannot be denied that meat extract1 as has been said in the case of soup stock1 contains only a small part of nutritive matter4 ,this nutritive substance is in a state of solution and probably is more readily absorbed than a similar amount of other nutritives in the form of ordinary meat4 ,its chief value as a nutrient1 therefore1 is not in the amount of nutrient material which it contains1 but in the ease and speed with which it may become absorbed into the circulation4 ,in case of illness this is often a very important point4 ,it is not a question so much of the utilization of a large amount of nutrients as the absorption and assimilation in small quantities which will sustain life until the disordered conditions disappear4 ,for these reasons the meat extracts have a value4 ,there is1 however1 little doubt of the fact that in the popular mind a great deal more credit is given to meat extracts than should properly belong to them4 ,they must be regarded principally as condimental and incident to nutrition rather than as nutritive substances4 ,the claims which are made by the manufacturers are sometimes misleading1 as1 for instance1 that one pound of extract contains the nutritive properties of many pounds of meat4 ,such a statement1 of course1 is absurd upon its face and should not be allowed to go unchallenged4 ,even when meat extracts are reinforced by the addition of soluble or comminuted fiber1 as is often the case1 the quantity of nourishment is very small as compared with a similar weight of meat itself4 ,it is not intended by the above remarks to cast any discredit upon the value of beef extract1 as its value has been attested in numerous cases4 ,it is only designed to call attention to the fact that as food these extracts have comparatively little value4 ,they may be useful as stimulants or as condimental substances or as a means of speedily introducing a soluble nutrient in the case of disease where it is extremely important that even small amounts of nutritious material should enter the body4 ,beef ,juice4--,a distinction is made between a beef extract and a beef juice4 ,the latter term applies solely to the liquid naturally remaining in the fresh meat after its proper preparation for consumption1 that is1 after the withdrawal of the blood and the proper cooling and storing of the flesh4 ,the fresh meat is then subjected to strong pressure and the juices which are extracted are concentrated in vacuo to the proper consistence4 ,the meat of old bulls is often used4 ,a true beef juice must be extracted from the cold meat and not with the aid of heat1 hot water or other solvents4 ,it is difficult to preserve an extract of this kind without sterilization1 and the heat required for sterilization is likely to coagulate some of the albuminous material which is expressed4 ,it is a great temptation1 therefore1 in some cases to preserve the beef juice by a chemical preservative other than common salt4 ,boric acid and sulfite of soda may be used for this purpose1 but these substances are objectionable on the score of possible injury to health4 ,glycerine is also used4 ,inasmuch as these juices are usually given to invalids or those whose digestive functions are impaired it is most important that injurious substances should be omitted4 ,in case of pressure it is advisable1 in some cases1 to chop the meat very fine1 and in this comminuted condition extract the juice with cold water4 ,this does not produce any change in the character of the juice and the water is subsequently removed by evaporation at a low temperature in vacuo4 ,beef juices are usually prepared from heated meats4 ,composition of ,beef ,juice4--,the composition of beef juice from different parts of meat which was previously heated externally is shown in the following table4 ,,composition ,,of ,,beef ,,juice ,,and ,,meat ,,extract4 ,,beef ,,meat ,,juice4 ,,extract4 ,water1 #ij4fe #ba4ff ,ash1 #a4cf #bj4df ,na,cl 7salt71 4#ae #e4dg ,p,o 7phosphoric acid71 4#cf #d4ee ,fat1 4#ai 4#ej ,acid 7as lactic71 4#ae #h4db ,nitrogen 7total71 #a4ae #g4ff insoluble and coagulable1 4#fh 4#dh as proteoses1 4#jd #b4jb as peptones1 4#ad #a4ij meat bases1 4#cj #c4je creatin1 4#ge xanthin bases1 4#jd ammonia1 4#ba ,the above analyses show the general character of meat juice extracted first by externally heating the meat and then pressing4 ,they show that there is less nitrogenous bodies present in meat juice than there is in meat extracts4 ,it is evident that meat extracts cannot be heated for sterilization without coagulation of the globulins4 ,when it is advisable to use a beef juice in a case of illness it is far better to prepare it at the time when it is used than to prepare it on a commercial scale and preserve it by any of the chemical means in vogue4 ,meat juice can be very well prepared for domestic use by chopping the meat very fine1 placing it in a vessel1 heating to #adj ,f41 and pressing it by any simple means1 as1 for instance1 with the hand or by using an ordinary lemon squeezer4 ,the juice obtained in this way can be flavored with salt and spices to suit the taste of the patient1 and used immediately4 ,in some cases1 in order to get a greater yield1 pure cold water may be mixed with the chopped meat and a somewhat dilute juice obtained but giving a greater yield of nutritive material for the same weight of meat4 ,various names1 fanciful and otherwise1 are given to the so-called beef juices4 ,these names are either fanciful or1 as in the case of beef extracts1 that of the manufacturer4 ,some of the fanciful names are1 like those already mentioned1 suggestive of origin4 ,some of these have large quantities of coagulable protein1 like albumin1 while others have such small quantities as to indicate that they are not wholly beef juice4 ,in the case of some of these preparations there is some indication that they are prepared chiefly from blood and thus are not true meat juices4 ,naturally there must be particles of blood in a meat juice and the mere occurrence of blood cells would not be an indication that blood itself had been used in its preparation4 ,by reason of these facts the use of so-called meat juices is restricted4 ,they contain relatively very little nutritive material1 they are sometimes preserved with harmful chemicals and they may be made from blood1 and in general there is such a degree of secrecy attending their preparation as to warrant the physician and patient to confine themselves to the domestic article prepared at the time of using4 ,another objection which is not of a hygienic character is found in the great expense of securing a very little nourishment by this means4 ,the quantity of juice which meat will yield is very small and1 therefore1 the relative expense for any given quantity of nourishment is far greater than it is even in the case of beef extract4 ,while in the case of rich patients an objection like this is of little value1 in the great majority of cases it should be given due consideration4 ,soluble ,meats4--,various attempts have been made to put soluble meats upon the market for use1 especially for invalids and in cases of disordered digestion4 ,the principle which underlies the preparation of these meats is to subject them to a certain degree of artificial digestion1 by means of which the protein matter becomes converted into soluble forms1 either albumose1 proteose or peptone4 ,the process which is employed is a simple one1 namely1 the comminution of the meat into as fine particles as possible and its admixture with hydrochloric acid and pepsin4 ,it is then subjected to artificial digestion until a considerable portion of the meat is soluble4 ,another method of preparation is to omit the pepsin and after the addition of hydrochloric acid to place the meat in a digestor where it is subjected to a temperature of steam under pressure for a considerable length of time4 ,a goodly proportion of the meat becomes soluble under this process4 ,after the preparation is completed the residual hydrochloric acid is neutralized by carbonate of soda1 forming common salt1 which gives the proper flavor to the compound4 ,the composition of soluble meat prepared in this way is given in the following table 7,foods and ,principles of ,dietetics1 by ,robert ,hutchinson73 ,water1 #fg4ba percent ,fat1 #e4ic ,albumin1 #aa4jj ,peptone1 #f4ea ,meat extract1 #g4ee ,ash and salt1 #a4gd ,a meat solution of this kind is not really a solution1 since not only is that part which passes into solution contained in it1 but also the residual meat fibers which are not dissolved but so softened by the process that they lose their distinct form and can be rubbed up to a thick pasty mass4 ,the product1 therefore1 consists not only of the part of the meat rendered thoroughly soluble in water by the process1 but also of a residual part1 softened and reduced to a paste4 ,the mass has practically the same nutritive value as an equivalent amount of meat with the claimed advantage that a large portion of it is already soluble4 ,this partial predigestion may be of value in cases of disease or disordered digestion of any kind1 but there is no reason for believing that the healthy stomach requires any sort of artificial predigestion for the proper conduct of its functions4 ,on the other hand1 there is every reason for supposing that any kind of predigestion which is at all effective will in the end prove injurious to healthy digestive organs by depriving them of a part of their normal functions and thus tending to bring them to a condition of feebleness which may result in the omission1 in part1 of the normal functions of the vital organs4 ,preparations of ,blood4--,there is no doubt of the valuable nutritive properties of blood and its preparations are sometimes used as foods4 ,there is a deep-seated prejudice against the use of blood as human food1 doubtless based on older and more effective grounds than even the laws of health promulgated by ,moses4 ,man is an animal of some refinement of character and the sight or use of blood is repugnant to his finer instincts4 ,sometimes blood is dried and powdered and the blood powder mixed with other food4 ,another method is to coagulate the blood1 then remove the coagulated portion and use the residue for food purposes4 ,this preparation1 of course1 contains no coagulable portions of blood1 that is1 the protein thereof known as fibrin4 ,there is no reason for believing that preparations of blood will ever occupy any prominent position in the food supply1 either of persons in health or of invalids4 ,beef ,tea4--,a very common food preparation from beef is that known as beef tea4 ,in all essential particulars beef tea is nothing more than a rich unfiltered soup stock4 ,inasmuch1 however1 as it is constantly prescribed in many kinds of illness and is prepared under certain conditions it should be mentioned specially here in addition to the preparations already described4 ,as in the case of meat juice1 beef tea should always be prepared in the home1 and immediately before using4 ,it is a preparation which can not be properly made and kept without the addition of some preservative which renders it totally unfit for human consumption4 ,the very choicest portion of the beef should be selected in the preparation of beef tea and it should be reduced to a fine state of comminution4 ,the removal of the fat and tendons should be as complete as possible1 as particularly the latter tend to add to the extract more of the gelatine-like principles than is desirable4 ,the fragments should be mixed with a sufficient quantity of cold water to make the desired amount of beef tea1 usually one pound of water to a pound of comminuted beef is a good proportion4 ,the mixture should be kept cold for a considerable length of time with frequent stirrings in order to extract as much as possible of the nitrogenous matter which becomes coagulated by heating4 ,salt may be used not only to promote the solubility but also to give the proper taste4 ,after the lapse of an hour or more the vessel may be covered and gradually warmed4 ,during this warming the mass should be frequently stirred so to as promote the solution4 ,when finally the extraction is complete1 before the tea is administered it should be cooked1 that is1 heated to the boiling-point1 by which process the soluble protein is coagulated but not hardened1 and the material is rendered more palatable4 ,the beef tea should be administered without separating the coagulated fragments of albuminous material1 which is in a state easily digestible1 and adds much to the nutritive value of the mixture4 ,finally the residue of beef may be put into a bag and subjected to pressure to remove as much of the juice contained therein as possible4 ,the difference between beef tea and soup stock1 as will be seen1 is largely in the filtering4 ,the beef tea should retain the coagulated flocks1 while in the soup stock they are removed4 ,one pound of good lean beef and one pint of water yield about one-half pound of good beef tea4 ,as in the case of soup stock1 beef tea is not a very nutritive substance4 ,it is1 however1 stimulating1 and the nourishment which it contains is quickly absorbed4 ,the soft1 coagulated flocks of albumin are readily digested1 and often a patient may be nourished for days on a preparation of this kind when he is in a condition which renders it impracticable to use either solid or other liquid foods4 ,beef tea is also made on a large commercial scale and with some degree of approximation to the home prepared article4 ,for various reasons1 however1 which have already been advanced1 a well made domestic beef tea which can be used as soon as prepared is to be preferred in all cases to the manufactured article4 ,a beef tea properly made contains approximately the following composition3 ,water1 #hh4jj percent ,meat bases1 #c4ej ,protein--soluble and flocculated1 #h4jj ,ash and salt1 #a4ej ,dried and ,powdered ,meats4--,the preparation of dried meat has already been described4 ,there has lately been placed upon the market a number of preparations dried and finely ground1 under various names1 fanciful and those of the manufacturer4 ,inasmuch as ordinary meats are largely composed of water1 it is evident that if the water can be removed without impairing the quality of the meat1 great expense in transportation would be saved and the use of preservatives would be unnecessary4 ,various attempts1 therefore1 have been made to place dried meats upon the market4 ,the meat powders are not only offered in their natural state of desiccation but also are prepared with a more or less previous digestion4 ,one of the most common of these meat powders is known as somatose1 which has been made in large quantities1 and sold throughout all parts of the world4 ,it consists largely of albumoses rather than of peptones1 but this is true of a great many of the so-called peptone preparations4 ,the composition of somatose is represented in the following table 7,allen's ,commercial ,organic ,analyses1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 page #chd73 ,water1 #ad4be percent ,albumin rendered soluble by alkali1 #ba4hc ,albumin1 #c4dj ,albumoses1 #cc4if ,peptone1 #c4jf ,meat bases1 #b4fb ,ash and salt1 #e4cj ,the above data show that the meat still contains nearly #ae percent of moisture and that an alkali has been used to render the protein more soluble4 ,this alkali has increased the quantity of mineral matter over that which would naturally be present4 ,whatever may be the relative value of the prepared protein matter as compared with that in the original meat1 it is seen that a large quantity of it1 practically as much as was in the original meat1 has been preserved in the finished product4 ,whether or not it is advisable to use a preparation of this kind is a question to be left with the physician4 ,it may be said unhesitatingly that in all cases of health somatose could not possibly present any advantage over fresh meat4 ,on the contrary1 for theoretical and practical reasons1 it is certain that it is less valuable4 ,composition of the ,ash of ,meat ,juice and ,meat ,broth4--,the principal mineral component of the natural juice of meat broth or meat extract is phosphate of potassium1 though there are also small quantities of magnesium and smaller quantities of calcium present4 ,in addition to this there is a certain quantity of common salt present1 which is determined1 however1 largely by the method of preparation4 ,the following analysis shows the composition of the ash of a meat juice to which little or no common salt has been added3 ,potassium 7,k71 #cd4dj percent ,sodium 7,na71 #i4gj ,calcium 7,ca71 4#cf ,magnesium 7,mg71 #b4ee ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o71 #bg4jj ,other constituents are not determined in this analysis4 ,the phosphate of potassium may therefore be regarded as the principal natural ash constituent of meat extract and meat juice4 7,zeitschrift fr ,biologie1 ,vol4 ,,xii1 #ahgf47 ,adulteration of ,meat ,extract4--,the principal adulterations of meat extract have already been mentioned4 ,the substances used in preserving it are of the greatest hygienic consequence4 ,these are chiefly salt and glycerol or alcohol4 ,the use of all of these substances is reprehensible4 ,fortunately they are seldom used4 ,another adulteration which has been practiced is mixing the meat extract with extracts of yeast4 ,the extract of yeast has valuable dietetic properties and contains the active principles of fermentation4 ,it also resembles1 in many respects1 physically and chemically1 the extract of meat1 and can1 therefore1 be mixed with meat extract1 and1 being a cheaper article1 forms a mixture which can be sold at a greater profit4 ,the presence of yeast extract in meat extract can easily be determined by treating the mixture with a strong solution of sulfate of zinc and filtering4 ,in meat extract the filtrate obtained is always quite clear1 but when a yeast extract is present the filtrate is turbid4 ,active ,principles ,contained in ,meat ,extract4--,attention has already been called to some of the more important active principles1 namely1 meat bases which form a valuable portion of meat extract4 ,there are various forms of nitrogenous bodies1 however1 besides meat bases1 which become soluble naturally in meat or by the treatment of meat with digestive ferments4 ,lean meat1 as is well known1 consists almost exclusively of protein matter and water4 ,this protein matter is principally insoluble4 ,under the action of digestive ferments the protein of meat becomes broken up into more soluble bodies1 known as albumoses1 proteoses and peptones1--the latter being the final product of solution4 ,these bodies are still true protein bodies containing the elements of sulfur as one of their essential constituents4 ,the meat bases1 on the contrary1 contain the other elements that are in protein but do not have the sulfur element4 ,they belong to that class of bodies which is known as simple amido compounds4 ,all of these bodies are mixed together in meat juice or beef extract1 and it is an important task of the chemist to separate them1 both from an analytical point of view and the determination of their relative abundance4 ,there is also another soluble or semisoluble protein substance in these extracts derived from the tendinous tissues and bones1 namely1 the gelatine or glue4 ,this is quite a common product1 being the soluble protein procured by the digestion of the tendons and bones4 ,it is important1 therefore1 that the chemist should distinguish between the gelatine and the amido bodies4 ,there is also a true and a false protein form of these soluble bodies1 the true one being formed by natural proteolytic ferments and the false one being formed by heat or digestion under pressure of steam4 ,the chemist should also be able to distinguish between the true extract formed directly from the meat and the yeast extract used as an adulteration4 ,it is not the purpose of this manual to enter into the details of how these different bodies may be distinguished from one another1 as that is purely a chemical study4 ,it is due1 however1 to the general reader that some explanation be given of the different classes of bodies which are contained in these extracts4 ,relation between the ,price of an ,extract and its ,nutritive ,value4--,the studies made in the ,bureau of ,chemistry show that there is little relation between the price of a beef extract and its real nutritive value4 ,in three cases of extract which are all well known brands and are of the thick or pasty variety1 showing that a dissolved meat had been added to them1 the average weight of a package costing #de cents was only #ee grams1 or nearly a cent a gram4 ,in another three samples of extract1 also well known brands1 of the same pasty variety and costing little more per package1 it was found that the weight of the more expensive variety was double that of the first1 costing only one-half cent per gram4 ,in the case of the liquid extracts where no pasty material is incorporated there is still greater variation in the relation of the price to the nutritive constituents4 ,an extract which retails for one dollar per bottle contains #ia4fi percent of water and only 4#db percent of nitrogen4 ,another so-called meat extract which retails at #fj cents per bottle must have been wholly an artificial product1 since it contained no creatin or creatinin at all4 ,it was also preserved by the addition of alcohol and contained an artificial coloring matter4 ,the ash existing in these extracts is1 of course1 usually due to the presence of large quantities of common salt4 ,sodium chlorid is added to this extract without any definite rule at all and sometimes in very excessive quantities4 ,in some cases thirty percent of the total extract is composed of common salt4 ,in other words1 a person taking a solution of this kind would be injecting into his stomach a very concentrated brine4 ,when common salt may be sold at the rate of one dollar per pound1 the profit on the transaction is one which ought to make the business exceedingly attractive4 ,the total phosphoric acid in the ash also shows variations1 and if it were not so easy to add artificial phosphoric acid the actual amount present might be taken as a base by which quality could be judged4 ,in the natural extract the total phosphoric acid should be in the proportion to organic phosphoric acid as #aj to #a1 which is the natural condition in which it is found in meat extract4 ,in many cases the amount of inorganic phosphorus is so great as to render it certain that a phosphate1 probably the phosphate of soda1 has been added4 ,in another case the quantity of organic phosphoric acid was very much greater than could have possibly been the case in a natural product1 indicating the addition of lecithin or glycerophosphoric acid4 ,the amount of fat in beef extract1 when properly prepared1 should be very small and should certainly not exceed one percent1 since by the proper method of preparation the fat is largely separated4 ,in the pasty material1 however1 where the meat is reduced to a pulp and retained in the package the amount of fat will be very much greater4 ,the ,nitrogenous ,bases4--,the average nitrogen content of the pasty or solid extracts varies from #f to #i percent4 ,the nitrogen in the meat juice is subject to much greater fluctuation1 depending largely on the content of solids4 ,although a high nitrogen content is not a guarantee of the character or mode of manufacture of an extract1 it is naturally expected and is desirable4 ,the addition of gelatine to extracts is now largely practiced and has been for some years4 ,by adding gelatine the manufacturer raises or maintains a certain nitrogen content1 but supplies the nitrogen in a form lacking in all quickly stimulating qualities1 and the natural flavor of the meat extract nitrogen is lowered4 ,the buyer is consequently deprived of the characteristic essentials of a beef extract although the nitrogen content is relatively high4 ,in many cases only a small proportion of the original gelatine exists in the extract as such4 ,the gelatine is converted by a gradual process of hydration into gelatoses and gelatine peptones4 ,while the separation of gelatine from protein matter is a process in anything but a satisfactory condition1 it is a far simpler process than the detection and separation of gelatoses and gelatine peptones from albuminoses and peptones4 ,the question has not been thoroughly studied up to date4 ,the question of adulteration of meat extracts with gelatine is not the only form of adulteration we have to face4 ,the mixing of varying amounts of yeast extract with meat extracts is being practiced at the present time in some countries4 ,as we have not investigated this question1 we cannot state whether it is practiced in this country at the present time or not4 ,kinds of ,preparations4--,meat preparations of the above types in general may be divided into three classes1 liquid extracts1 pasty extracts and powdered extracts4 ,in addition to the above1 within the last few years beef extract pellets1 some of them being enclosed in gelatine capsules1 have appeared upon the market4 ,the old-time product of ,liebig's extract belongs to the second class1 in which we also find many of our best known brands4 ,the liquid extracts are varied and numerous and their number is rapidly increasing4 ,the amount of meat extractives in some of these liquid products is remarkably small1 the quantity of solids in two or three cases being under #aj percent4 ,alcohol is sometimes met with in these liquid preparations4 ,the meat powders are far less numerous than the extracts of the first two classes4 ,they consist largely1 if not entirely1 of albuminoses and peptones in addition to some insoluble proteid matter4 ,moreover1 it is necessary to distinguish between a meat extract containing large amounts of stimulating amido-acids and relatively small percentages of albuminoses1 peptones and insoluble proteid matter on the one hand1 and1 on the other hand1 an extract1 or1 more properly1 a meat product1 which consists largely of albuminoses1 peptones and insoluble matter and relatively small amounts of amido-acids4 ,the food value of this last group of products is undoubtedly greater than that of the former group1 but being sold as meat extracts1 their value should be based on the amount of extractives they contain and not on their food value4 ,the value of the amido-bodies1 such as the meat bases1 as food1 is of uncertain character1 but we must admit1 as in the case of alcohol1 they can at least be burned and furnish energy to the body4 ,like alcohol1 the value of meat extractives lies principally in their stimulating qualities4 ,the active principles of tea and coffee are on a similar basis4 ,as these simpler amido-bodies are the final links in the long chain of hydrolytic products of the proteid molecule prior to the complete resolution of that molecule into carbon dioxid1 water1 etc41 it is readily seen that an ounce of meat extractives 7the various amido-bodies7 represents a far larger amount of beef than an ounce of albuminoses does4 ,the various protein bodies and amido-acids are closely interwoven and it is impossible to produce amido-acids without producing albuminoses and peptones4 ,consequently1 every commercial meat extract must consist partly of albuminoses1 peptones1 etc4 ,the best of our extracts on the market to-day contain about #ej percent of their total nitrogen in the form of meat base nitrogen4 ,when an extract contains less than #e percent of its nitrogen in the form of meat base nitrogen the term 8extract0 seems to be no longer applicable4 ,it is evident that the product represents much less meat than an extract with #ej percent of its nitrogen in the form of meat base nitrogen1 provided the total nitrogen in both cases is approximately equal4 ,the proteid matter coagulated by heating to boiling1 as well as the proteid matter insoluble in cold water1 are both undesirable factors in an extract of meat4 ,as a rule1 the lower the proportion of these constituents1 the higher the character of the meat extract4 ,the same thing holds true in regard to the presence of albuminoses and peptones4 ,the quantity of total nitrogen in the form of meat base nitrogen in the best extracts reaches #ej percent4 ,in one of the poorest it is #c4hb percent4 ,the food value of the latter product might be greater than that of the former1 but its cost of manufacture and its stimulating value are much less4 ,creatin figures are very interesting and of much value in determining the source and value of an extract4 ,creatin is the principal amido-body found in meat1 consequently we expect to find it or creatinin1 its hydrated form1 in still larger quantities in meat extracts4 ,in several cases which came under our notice where the extract acted suspiciously1 the creatin values were nil1 and in such cases grave doubts exist as to the source of the extract4 ,our best extracts give high creatin as well as high meat base figures4 ,the xanthin bases and ammonia nitrogen figures present a variety of problems4 ,while the xanthin bases are desirable constituents1 ammonia in any amount is not4 ,it is questionable whether the ammonia figures obtained by the magnesium oxid method do not give too high results 7,w4 ,d4 ,bigelow74 ,gelatine4--,gelatine is a substance obtained from the nitrogenous portions of bones1 hide1 horns1 hoofs1 connective tissue1 tendons and other nitrogenous matter of the animal4 ,one of the principal constituents of these bodies is a substance known as collagen4 ,when this is heated either under pressure or without pressure it is changed to gelatine4 ,glue is unrefined gelatine or impure gelatine to which usually some substance has been added to increase its holding power4 ,a type of gelatine known as isinglass is made from the bladders of sturgeons4 ,the general process of manufacturing gelatine is as follows 7,whipple1 ,technology ,quarterly1 ,vol4 ,,xv1 ,no4 #b1 ,june1 #aijb73 8,the hide scraps are first macerated and subjected to the action of a solution of lime or caustic soda in pits for two or three weeks4 ,this dissolves most of the blood and saponifies the fats4 ,the excess of lime or soda is then largely removed by washing and the solution steamed to dissolve the gelatine1 but an excess of heat is avoided4 ,sulfurous acid is used to bleach the gelatine4 ,when of sufficient strength1 the gelatine is allowed to harden in molds or on slabs1 and is ultimately dried in sheets on wire nets4 ,bone gelatine is made in a somewhat similar manner4 ,the bones are crushed1 boiled1 treated with hydrochloric acid1 and the gelatine is dissolved as before1 washed1 bleached and dried in sheets4 ,the process requires a number of weeks40 ,gelatine is also made from bones1 fresh as well as old1 and from the residues of bones used in the manufacture of buttons4 ,the thin slices of the bones are treated with acid until all the phosphate of lime is extracted4 ,they are then treated with lime and the gelatinous residue is then dissolved in warm water and purified for use4 ,the use of gelatine as a food has of late years become very common4 ,the ease with which it can be made into jellies1 the consistence which it gives to ice-cream and its general utility in the cuisine have made it deservedly popular4 ,gelatine is the product of some of the nitrogenous parts of the animal and should be made only from the edible parts thereof4 ,it is particularly abundant in the tendinous portions of the animal and in the tissues about the head1 from which a large part of edible gelatine is made4 ,no portion of the animal which is filthy or unfit for food should ever enter into the composition of the gelatine4 ,if the parts from which the gelatine are made are cured previous to manufacture they should be cured in a perfectly sanitary way1 as carefully as any other part of the meat4 ,there can be no objection to the use of gelatine made from these sanitary materials in foods of all kinds4 ,there is1 however1 a possibility that some of the gelatines on the market may be made from materials wholly unfit for food4 ,the food law forbids the use of animal substances unfit for food either directly or indirectly4 ,as an illustration of this condition of affairs ,i may call attention to the fact that a part of the gelatines sold in the ,united ,states are made from parts of animals slaughtered in ,south ,america4 ,it is not known to the consumer in what conditions these parts are preserved and transported4 ,they may be possibly packed with the hide and sent to ,belgium or other countries in a filthy1 putrid and abhorrent state and these parts be cut from the hides before they are sent to the tanneries and converted into gelatine and sold as edible gelatine4 ,such a possibility should not exist1 and there is no danger of its existence with high class manufacturers4 ,a part of the horns is also used for such purposes1 which being of an inedible portion and unfit for food is not admissible1 under the law1 as a constituent of edible gelatine4 ,all such materials should be excluded in the manufacture of such an important product4 ,further than this1 it may be stated that the line of demarcation between gelatine and glue is not always as well drawn as it should be1 and this is illustrated in the report that the gelatine and glue are manufactured in the same factory1 and the same conditions of odor and insanitation which adhere to glue may attach themselves to the gelatine4 ,such a condition1 of course1 would be an exceptional case1 but its possibility should be excluded4 ,under the food law only those forms of gelatine first described above can be legally made and sold for use in food4 ,adulteration of ,gelatine4--,the adulterations of gelatine are such as those referred to above in the form of raw materials employed which are insanitary and unfit for food4 ,in addition to this1 bleaching agents1 namely1 sulfurous acid or sulfites and mineral acids1 are often employed in the manufacture1 portions of which may remain in the finished article4 ,all of these substances must be regarded as adulterants and as insanitary and unsuitable to gelatine1 and to that extent unfit for human consumption4 ,presence of ,tetanus in ,commercial ,gelatine4--,the ,public ,health and ,marine ,hospital ,service has investigated gelatine to determine whether or not it may be infected with pathogenic germs4 ,the conclusions of the investigation are as follows 7,bulletin ,no4 #i1 ,hygienic ,laboratory73 8,seven samples of gelatine examined2 one showed tetanus spores4 8,two samples showed an oval end-spore rod1 whose identity was not proved1 but1 in stained specimens1 it would be hard to distinguish from tetanus1 if indeed not tetanus with diminished virulence4 8,in tetanus investigations it is important to use freshly made bouillon1 as the organism is apt not to germinate in bouillon over ten days old4 ,the thermal death point of the organism isolated was found to be between twenty and thirty seconds at #ajj degrees ,c4 8,it is important1 therefore1 that gelatine to be used for injections should be boiled at least ten minutes on account of the variability of the thermal death point in different species of tetanus4 ,whether this amount of heating impairs in any way the hemostatic power of gelatine has not been settled1 but in case it does it is believed that the danger from tetanus more than overbalances its therapeutic value4 8,it is suggested that when1 as in hospitals1 there is likelihood of gelatine injections being used for hemostatic purposes the gelatine solution be sterilized by the fractional method on three successive days and kept ready for use in sterile containers40 ,from the data given above it is seen that gelatine may become infected and the material from which it is made for edible purposes should be healthful1 sanitary and fit for food4 ,it is not likely that tetanus germs would prove dangerous when taken into the stomach1 but freedom from infection should be secured if possible4 ,these investigations show the wisdom of the pure food law in forbidding the use of parts of animals unfit for food1 whether manufactured or not1 in the production of food products4 ,it is evident that a sufficient quantity of fresh1 sanitary material or material properly preserved can be obtained in this country or in other countries to supply the needs for edible gelatine without resorting to the use of inedible parts of hides1 horns1 hoofs and other waste and unfit portions of the animal4 ,summary4--,above have been presented some of the principal meat foods1 the analytical data which show their composition1 the processes by means of which they are prepared and the principal methods1 objectionable and otherwise1 by which they are preserved4 ,meat is a staple article of diet among almost all nations of men4 ,the anatomical structure of the human animal indicates that his environment has adapted him to eating meats of all kinds4 ,in other words1 man is an omnivorous animal4 ,he has been developed in an environment in which all kinds of meats and vegetables have ministered to his sustenance1 and thus he is an omnivorous animal both by evolution and necessarily by heredity4 ,that man can live and flourish without meat has been fully established by experiments1 but that man cannot be nourished by meat alone has likewise been fully established1 so that if the human race were necessarily to be deprived either of animal or vegetable foods1 it would be the animal food which must be sacrificed4 ,it is not the purpose of this manual to discuss the relative merits of vegetarianism as compared with the common diet of the human race4 ,it may not be amiss1 however1 to say that probably in the ,united ,states especially1 a larger quantity of meat is eaten than is either necessary or wholesome4 ,the people of our country are better able to supply themselves with expensive foods than those of other countries1 and of the common foods meats are far more expensive than cereals4 ,the eating of larger quantities of cereals and smaller quantities of meat would probably be conducive both to economy and health4 ,it appears to be certain that the meat eating of the future may not be regarded so much as a necessity as it has in the past1 but that meats will be used more as condimental substances than as staple foods4 ,in all meat1 for instance1 that costs #be cents a pound1 such as steaks1 there is over one-third or a half of it which is inedible1 so that the edible portion really costs double that amount4 ,on the contrary1 when a pound of flour or maize is purchased1 the price of which is perhaps only one-eighth that of meat1 the whole of it is edible4 ,thus1 from the mere point of economy as well as of nutrition the superiority of cereals and other vegetable products is at once evident4 ,on the one hand1 a cereal is almost a complete food containing all the elements necessary to nutrition1 and it costs only a few cents a pound4 ,on the other hand1 a steak or roast is only a partial food and it costs much more than cereals4 ,it is hoped that one purpose of this manual may be secured1 namely1 by showing the consumer the actual composition of the different kinds of food and their method of preparation he may be led in the selection of his food to follow the dictates of science and economy to a certain extent rather than merely the impulse of taste4 ,the eating of such large quantities of meat is merely a habit which often is developed in children through the carelessness and ignorance of parents1 much to the detriment of the child as well as to his future health and activity4 ,it is believed that if the true principles of the use of meat were properly inculcated a large saving in the energy of the wage earner as well as those in more affluent circumstances would be secured4 ,sound principles of economy establish a better condition of health and lead to greater activity and fruitful labor4 ,,terrestrial ,,animal ,,oils4 ,terrestrial animal oils are obtained directly from parts of the animals which yield1 at ordinary temperature1 a substance which remains liquid4 ,the fats which are in the feet of the animals are usually more liquid than in any other part of the body1 and hence the natural animal oils are derived largely from the feet4 ,among the most important are sheep's foot oil1 horse foot oil1 and neat's foot oil1 which is obtained from the feet of cattle4 ,these oils are all highly valued for technical purposes1 especially for lubricating1 and for this purpose bring a very high price4 ,they are not used or should not be used for edible purposes1 though they perhaps may sometimes be used in cooking4 ,neat's foot oil1 especially1 on account of its high price1 is often subjected to adulteration1 and is mixed for this purpose with cheap vegetable oils1 such as cottonseed4 ,fish oil is also often used in the adulteration of neat's foot oil1 though the addition of any of these oils to neat's foot oil raises the iodin number to a very high degree1 and hence this addition is easily detected by the chemist4 ,lard ,oil4--,lard oil is one of the most important of terrestrial animal oils4 ,it is made from lard by melting it and allowing it to slowly cool4 ,the stearin in the product crystallizes first1 and when it reaches a condition favoring the separation of the stearin the mass is subjected to straining or pressure1 whereby the olein or liquid portion of the oil is separated1 and thus1 having been freed from the most of its stearin1 remains liquid at ordinary temperature4 ,the residue is known as lard stearin and is largely employed in the preparation of lard to give it a higher melting point and in the manufacture of oleomargarine4 ,lard oil is used to some extent for edible purposes and is itself sometimes employed in the manufacture of oleomargarine when mixed with tallow or tallow stearin4 ,properties of ,lard ,oil4--,it is evident that the chemical and physical properties of lard oil are determined by the completeness with which the stearin is separated4 ,inasmuch1 however1 as the conditions of manufacture are nearly constant1 lard oil has characteristics of a physical and chemical nature which do not vary greatly4 ,the specific gravity of lard oil at #ae degrees is about 4#iaf1 and its iodin number varies from #fh to #ge4 ,when made of the best material it has a neutral taste1 not an unpleasant odor1 and1 therefore1 can be used for edible purposes without introducing any characteristic odor or flavor into the prepared food4 ,in point of fact1 however1 it is not used to any extent for edible purposes except in the manufactured articles above mentioned4 ,when carefully made and of the proper quality pure lard oil should be practically free from free acid4 ,adulterations4--,on account of the high value of lard oil for lubricating and other purposes it has been subjected to extensive adulterations4 ,the addition of cheaper animal oils or vegetable oils has been largely practiced4 ,fish oil1 blubber oil1 and other marine animal oils have also been freely used in the adulteration of lard oil whenever the difference in price has rendered it advisable4 ,these adulterations are of such a character that they can be detected only by the skilled microscopist and chemist4 ,the other animal oils1 both of marine and terrestrial origin1 while important from a technical point of view1 are of no significance in respect of edible qualities4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,poultry ,,and ,,game ,,birds4 ,application of ,name4--,the term poultry for descriptive purposes may be applied to those classes of feathered domesticated birds used for human food4 ,it1 therefore1 includes practically all of the domesticated fowls4 ,the term game bird1 for the purpose of this manual1 is applied to feathered animals which are wild and which are used for human food4 ,this also may apply to almost all wild birds1 since at times they practically all have been used for food purposes4 ,here only those in common use1 both domesticated and wild1 will be referred to4 ,in connection with poultry the eggs of the birds will be considered4 ,,domesticated ,,fowls4 ,the principal domesticated fowls which are used for human food are chickens1 turkeys1 geese1 ducks1 and guinea hens4 ,the most common of all is the chicken1--the next perhaps are turkeys in this country and the goose in ,europe4 ,the others are more infrequently used but are highly prized4 ,chicken4--,the chicken scientifically is known as ,gallus domesticus4 ,for food purposes the chicken is eaten at various ages4 ,the very young chicken is commonly called a broiler and is prepared for the table at varying ages from six to twelve weeks4 ,young chickens are also very commonly called spring chickens1 since they occur in greater abundance in the spring than at any other time4 ,since the introduction of the modern method of incubation1 however1 the spring chicken may be had at all seasons of the year4 ,the 8broiler0 and 8spring chicken0 may be regarded as synonymous terms1 though the larger chicks are usually called spring chickens instead of broilers4 ,full ,grown ,chickens4--,the full grown chicken is better suited for food when still young4 ,the flesh loses flavor and gains in toughness as the chicken grows older4 ,there is no legal limit fixing the division of chickens into different classes with respect to age and the only criterion is the price and taste of the consumer4 ,there is1 perhaps1 no objection to the use of old chickens for food purposes1 provided they are not sold fraudulently as young chicks4 ,the size and toughness of the pieces one often secures when ordering spring chicken is an indication that the age limit is not very definitely established4 ,both hens and roosters are used for food purposes1 but especially the young roosters are devoted to food purposes while the young hens are often kept for the production of eggs4 ,preparation of ,chickens for ,food ,purposes4--,in former times1 when the chickens of commerce were derived chiefly from the farm1 no special preparation was made before the chicken was marketed4 ,the eggs were hatched in the old-fashioned way by the hens and the chicks sold to hucksters or in market1 at various ages and without any special preparation or control4 ,all this has been changed in later times by the introduction of scientific methods of breeding poultry4 ,it has been demonstrated that the breeding and care of poultry require as much scientific and economic attention as is devoted to any other successful business4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,,chicken ,,house1 ,,rhode ,,island ,,experiment ,,station4 ,the ,incubator4--,the introduction of the incubator for the hatching of eggs with the other necessary arrangements for the caring for young chicks has perhaps done more than any other one thing to revolutionize the method of preparing poultry for the market4 ,by the use of the incubator the hatching of chicks is regulated with the utmost degree of nicety4 ,a larger percentage of eggs produce chicks and the expense of the incubating process is greatly diminished4 ,the incubator is in its widest significance a thermostat in which the eggs may be placed and maintained constantly at the temperature of the hen's body1 namely1 about #ajb degrees ,f4 ,the arrangement of the chicken house and the other environments of the young chick are shown in ,fig4 #ab4 ,care of ,young ,chicks4--,the principal points in the care of young chicks are fresh air1 freedom from infection by epidemic or contagious diseases1 exclusion of insect pests1 even high temperature1 and abundance of food4 ,the young chick is especially sensitive to low temperatures and must be protected from cold1 especially from cold rains4 ,for this reason the chicks1 after hatching1 must be kept1 if it is not summer time1 in a room where the temperature can be regulated until they have acquired some degree of strength and vitality4 ,the temperature of the chicken house for the young birds should not be lower than #he or #ij degrees ,f4 ,a temperature of about #ajb degrees ,f4 is found very favorable to the development of the chicks in the eggs1 although the temperature may sometimes fall to #aja or rise to #ajc degrees ,f4 without materially affecting the results4 ,experiments show that too low a temperature arrests the development of the chick4 ,on the contrary there seems to be no indication that an increase of heat1 up to #ajc degrees ,f41 has any tendency to kill the chick in the last stages of development4 ,it is found best in all cases to set the eggs in the incubator as soon after they are laid as possible4 ,where the age of the egg is not known it should be carefully candled1 that is1 held up between the eye and a light in order to determine its condition4 ,in old eggs1 the yolk1 on candling1 becomes more or less diffused with the white and such eggs are to be rejected for incubator purposes as they are not likely to produce chickens4 ,the fertility of the egg must also be assured before placing in the incubator4 ,an unfertilized egg is so much loss in the incubator since it might have been used for food purposes1 since the egg1 for marketable purposes1 when fresh is just as good as a fertilized egg4 ,it is an observed fact that the complete fertilization of the egg1 that is1 the proper union of the male and female germ cells1 is not always complete at the time the egg is laid1 but the mingling of the two elements takes place under proper conditions afterwards4 ,the development will also depend upon the vitality of the germ and its component parts4 ,just1 for instance1 as the color of the feathers1 the size of the body and the general character of the chick may be inherited from either parent1 so the vital qualities are much more strongly shown in some eggs than in others4 ,the proper germination of the egg may also be improved by many of the conditions of environment4 ,in the case of eggs1 any slight change which would interfere with the functions of the yolk or albumin1 both of which are extremely sensitive to change1 would interfere with the growth of the embryo either by depriving it of food or subjecting it to other conditions in which its vitality would be diminished or destroyed4 ,the fertilized egg may be separated from the non-fertilized also by candling4 ,at the ,rhode ,island station it is found that a very good light for candling is the ordinary calcium carbide bicycle lamp1 placed in a proper candling box4 ,this is a strong white light quite equal in power to the electric incandescent light and is not so trying to the eyes4 ,when eggs which have been submitted to incubation permit light to shine through and show the yolk suspended in the upper half of the center as a clearly defined mass1 which quickly reassumes its position in turning the egg with its long axis nearly horizontal1 they are probably infertile or sterile4 ,when1 on the contrary1 the yolk assumes indefinite outlines1 approaching near the upper portion of the shell at the large end or appears with a thick spur upon its upper side1 it may be regarded as having started to incubate4 ,in the later stages the embryo can be plainly seen1 because it becomes opaque and cuts off more of the light4 ,in the incubation of eggs the candling is resorted to during the first few days of the experiment in order that the unfertilized eggs may be separated4 ,the best time for the candling1 if it is practiced only once1 is on the sixth or seventh day of incubation4 ,by that time all the eggs which are fertilized will be so changed as to be easily recognized by the candling process4 ,experience has shown that eggs which are more than two weeks old are not profitable for use in incubators since the percentage that does not hatch is so large4 ,the incubating part of the plant is sometimes placed in the cellar over which the brooding house is built4 ,the brooding of young chicks is of the utmost significance4 ,in ,europe the changes in temperature are much less violent than in this country4 ,the principal brooding houses in the ,united ,states are in the ,north where the temperature often falls in winter to below zero while in the summer it may rise to blood heat1 a difference of over #ajj degrees ,f4 ,for this reason the incubating houses in the ,united ,states are often placed in cellars where the uniform conditions of temperature are more easily secured4 ,there is no objection to this location provided proper care be taken to secure ventilation and the proper content of moisture in the atmosphere4 ,in ,great ,britain the incubating houses are usually placed above ground instead of in cellars4 ,the mean range of temperature in an incubating room in ,great ,britain1 from ,march #ab1 #aijc1 to ,march #cj1 #aijd1 was #aj degrees4 ,the highest temperature registered was #gj degrees on the #bdth of ,june and the lowest #db degrees in ,january4 ,the humidity of the air was also quite constant1 the lowest degree of humidity being #ei and the highest #id4 ,these data show a very even temperature in the room itself4 ,of course the temperature in the incubator is necessarily greater1 being that already referred to1 namely #ajb degrees4 ,early ,market4--,one principal object in the raising of chicks is to force them to an early maturity in so far as size and palatability are concerned4 ,the sooner the young broilers can be made ready for the market the more economy there is in their production4 ,to this end they ought to receive a more abundant and specially prepared kind of food than if they were intended for ordinary farm purposes4 ,in other words1 the forcing process should be pushed as far as possible without interfering with the health and normal functions of the bird4 ,foods which are nutritious and stimulating and promote vigorous growth should be employed4 ,birds prepared in this way for the market are extremely tender and palatable and bring the highest prices where their merits are recognized4 ,artificial ,feeding4--,where chickens of greater age are prepared for the market they are subjected1 during the last two or three weeks previous to sale1 to a forcing process in order to produce more fat and make their flesh more palatable4 ,to this end the chickens are fed from time to time mechanically by passing a tube into the craw and forcing the food therein4 ,fowls prepared in this way bring high prices in the market and the largest profits to the growers4 ,it is a method1 however1 which is not used in the raising of the ordinary poultry found on the market4 ,preparing ,chickens for the ,market4--,chickens are sold in four different conditions in the markets of this country4 ,first1 they are offered alive4 ,a great many purchasers prefer to get their poultry in this way because they can then be certain that it has not been long killed and kept in cold storage or preserved by means of chemicals4 ,it is a very common custom for consumers to have their own chicken coups and buy a number of birds at a time and fatten them particularly for their own use4 ,under the present system of law this method is highly to be commended as a certain way of knowing the age of the poultry consumed4 ,with proper municipal and state regulations of the markets it would not be necessary for the consumer to go to this trouble since when rigid inspection and certification are established1 the age of the chicken offered on the market can be easily ascertained4 ,until such time comes1 however1 on the part of the consumer1 the desirability of securing chickens alive cannot be denied4 ,freshly ,killed ,chickens4--,chickens which have been killed within twenty-four or forty-eight hours and properly kept may be regarded as freshly killed4 ,there is a very wide-spread opinion1 and probably founded on reliable experiments1 that fowls are better if they are kept some time after slaughter1 provided they are kept in a proper way4 ,in the winter time it is customary1 especially in ,europe1 to hang the fowl for a week or ten days exposed to the ordinary temperature1 before consumption4 ,this1 of course1 is a practice which could not be indulged in in warm weather4 ,fowls1 however1 can be hung in cold storage even in the summer time and with the same advantage which accrues by hanging them in ordinary temperature in the winter time4 ,just how long fowls should be kept after slaughter in this way in order to secure a maximum degree of palatability has not been scientifically determined4 ,there is evidently a limit beyond which the keeping of slaughtered fowls should not be indulged in4 ,if a low and even temperature could be secured it may be certain that the hanging of the fowl for a week or ten days is not too long4 ,the temperature1 however1 should not be much above the freezing point4 ,freshly killed chickens are offered in two forms1 namely1 drawn and undrawn4 ,the proper method of keeping a slaughtered chicken has been the subject of very lively discussions4 ,there are many who are advocates of the exposure of the chicken in the undrawn state asserting that in this condition it is less exposed to infection and keeps better during the necessary time elapsing between slaughter and consumption4 ,this argument is advanced chiefly by dealers4 ,on the other hand the consumer1 as a rule1 is in favor of having the chicken drawn before it is exposed for sale1 that is1 as soon as it is slaughtered4 ,there is perhaps much to be said on both sides of this question4 ,if1 however1 chickens are to be secured by the consumer within forty-eight hours after slaughter there can be no very great danger of infection by having them undrawn4 ,the subject is one of sufficient importance to warrant an extended scientific investigation and upon this investigation the municipal and state regulations for the sale of poultry can be based4 ,it is not wise in such cases to be swayed solely by prejudice or sentiment but rather by the facts which can be ascertained by unbiased scientific investigation4 ,because a chicken weighs more undrawn is probably one of the reasons why dealers prefer them in this state4 ,it may be said1 too1 that the intestinal organs are so impenetrable to the diffusion of their contents as not to create any danger of contamination by remaining in the undrawn state4 ,on the contrary1 the keeping of chickens with the intestinal contents undisturbed does not appeal to the imagination of the consumer any more than the freezing of the carcass of a beef or hog with the viscera remaining would appeal to the consumer4 ,if the carcass of a chicken can be better kept undrawn it is evident that the carcass of a steer or hog can also be better kept if subjected to the proper temperature4 ,upon the whole it appears that the safer way would be to have the poultry drawn at the time of slaughter and delivered to the consumer at an early date thereafter4 ,in this way all danger of infection on the cut surfaces becomes avoided4 ,at any rate the consumer should be allowed the choice in the matter which1 at the present time1 is not the case in many parts of this country where only undrawn poultry is exposed for sale4 ,poultry in ,cold ,storage4--,whenever a fowl is kept for a longer period than the week or ten days above referred to for the purpose of improving its flavor and palatability it is necessary that it be placed in cold storage4 ,this method of keeping poultry or other foods is wholly unobjectionable unless carried to excess4 ,poultry is a food product which under the present scientific methods of production can be furnished in a fresh state all the year4 ,the necessity for cold storage1 therefore1 is not so apparent in this case as in that of fruit and other perishable foods4 ,it appears then that cold storage only should be extended to that limit necessary to secure its delivery to the consumer4 ,there can scarcely be any excuse for the placing of poultry in cold storage at certain seasons of the year when they are slightly less in price by reason of the abundant production than at other seasons4 ,the methods of producing poultry are such at the present time that this excess in supply can easily be avoided on the part of the producer and thus maintain an even price and an even supply the year round4 ,the producer as well as the consumer is benefited by such a condition4 ,the necessity1 often1 for cold storage in the limited sense above referred to is acknowledged by all and a reasonable degree of time in cold storage cannot be regarded as in any way measurably harmful with reference to the character of the product4 ,it is probable that as long as four or six months may be regarded as a justifiable limit for securing a proper market for poultry in cold storage though the exact length of time in which it may be left in cold storage will be determined only by careful scientific investigation4 ,there seems to be no necessity whatever for carrying fowls for a longer period and especially1 as has been known1 for a year or even two years4 ,the deterioration1 even if the temperature is far below the freezing point1 is very marked during these long periods of time and actual danger may accrue to the consumer in the possible development of poisonous degradation products in the flesh4 ,municipal1 state1 and national regulations should be of a character to inform the consumer of the exact length of time which the poultry he proposes to purchase has been in cold storage4 ,this is the least which the consumer has the right to know and is a right which the producer and packer should concede without discussion4 ,the unwillingness which has been manifested on the part of dealers in poultry to make public the length of time which it has been in cold storage is of itself a suspicious condition4 ,the argument is constantly heard that the length of time poultry has been in cold storage does not impair its palatability or wholesomeness4 ,if this be true then a statement of the length of time cannot in any way injure the market4 ,but to this reply is made to the effect that if the consumer is told the fowl has been in cold storage a certain length of time he will not purchase it4 ,to this the evident answer is1--why should you deceive the consumer by selling him an article which if he knew its character he would not buy8 ,it is evident that such deception is nothing more nor less than obtaining money under false pretenses4 ,the remedy for the evil of cold storage is the label which will indicate the length of time which has elapsed since the slaughter of the fowl4 ,there is1 perhaps1 no greater blessing which has been conferred upon mankind during the last quarter of a century than the development of cold storage methods of preserving food4 ,the continued prosperity and benefits of this business depend upon a thorough study of the conditions attendant thereon and the elimination of any evil which may be incident thereto4 ,when this is accomplished the absolute confidence which the consumer will have in cold storage will be such that the magnitude of the business will be immensely increased4 ,thus the interests of the consumer and the dealer are one and they should work together to promote their common good4 ,composition of the ,white ,meat of a ,chicken4--,the meat of a chicken1 carefully prepared in the laboratory of the ,bureau of ,chemistry1 was analyzed by separation into the white and dark portions4 ,the composition of the two meats is as follows3 ,,water ,,in ,,fat-,,free ,,meat ,,water4 ,,substance4 ,,fat4 ,,protein4 ,,bases4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,white meat1 #fa4ch #ge4jh #ah4be #ag4jf 4#cg ,dark meat1 #ei4dh #gh4dd #bd4af #ae4id #a4jc ,the above data show that there is a notable difference in the composition of the white and the dark meat4 ,the white meat has much less fat and a correspondingly larger quantity of protein4 ,the quantity of water in the two classes of meat is not very different although there is a slightly less quantity in the dark meat4 ,the dark meat has a much larger proportion of meat bases but as these bases are often considered of little value and sometimes degenerate into poisonous constituents it is seen from this point of view that the white meat is to be preferred to the dark meat4 ,preserved ,chicken4--,practically the only methods of preserving chickens are the canning processes which have already been described and cold storage4 ,chickens may be canned in the same way as has been described for beef and in that way may be kept for a certain length of time without notable deterioration4 ,the pickling of chicken is not very extensively practiced nor is it cured in the ordinary sense of the word1 that is1 by the addition of salt1 sugar1 vinegar1 spices1 and wood smoke4 ,chicken may also be put up in the form of potted chicken1 which has already been described4 ,practically the only methods which are in vogue and which can be commended for preserving chicken are sterilizing or canning and cold storage4 ,these methods1 when not unduly prolonged1 are open to no reasonable objection4 ,the preserving of chickens with spices and condiments may also1 perhaps1 be considered as desirable provided no harmful chemical preservatives are employed4 ,the temptation1 however1 to employ such preservatives is so great as not to be always resisted4 ,adulteration of ,potted ,chicken and ,turkey4--,perhaps there is no other form of potted meat1 with the possible exception of pt de foie gras1 where such an opulent field for sophistication is found as in the case of potted chicken and turkey4 ,the average composition of ten samples of alleged potted chicken and turkey1 found upon the market1 is shown in the following table3 ,water1 #eh4eb percent ,water in fat-free substance1 #ga4bd ,fat1 #ag4ih ,protein1 #ai4ab ,meat bases1 4#if ,glycogen1 4#bf ,total ash1 #b4fg ,of which sodium chlorid1 #a4je ,all but one of the ten samples contained starch but not in very considerable quantities1 the largest amount being #d4ac percent4 ,none of the samples contained saltpeter4 ,this is an interesting point because of the claim of the packers that saltpeter is used solely for preservation purposes4 ,when a meat is expected to be of a white color no saltpeter is found while1 on the contrary1 where the meat is of a red character it is frequently found4 ,tin was present in four samples1 doubtless due to some contamination with the solder or by corrosion of the tin can itself4 ,where tin is present due to the corrosion of the can itself it is always in greater abundance in the old than in the newly canned sample4 ,it is quite certain that the contents of these packages were not made up of chicken and turkey exclusively4 ,the characteristic odor and taste of smoked meats which are found in these packages would indicate that they are used to give flavor and aroma to the mixture4 ,the addition of flavoring materials of this kind1 or 8force0 meats as they are sometimes called1 is not objectionable from any sanitary or dietetic point of view4 ,it is1 however1 an offense against an ethical principle which must be closely followed in a case of this kind if the doors of fraud and adulteration are not to be left wide open4 ,this principle is that no false idea by inference1 omission or otherwise1 should be conveyed to the consumer by the label4 ,some form of expression for potted meat should be used in which the label gives the principal or dominant meat in the mixture1 accompanied by the statement that it is a mixture with other meats also named1 spiced and flavored4 ,under the present condition of affairs a manufacturer who really wishes to put into potted form chicken and turkey with only spices and condiments has to undergo an unfair competition with another manufacturer who uses the same label and reduces the quantity of expensive meat to a minimum or may possibly leave it out altogether4 ,under the new food law this unfair competition will be prevented4 ,adulteration of ,chicken4--,the flesh of chicken is not subjected to any very extensive adulterations4 ,it has been claimed that preservatives are applied externally to fresh fowls but the evidence on this point is not very conclusive4 ,there is1 perhaps1 little doubt that other methods have been practiced but probably without any very great vogue4 ,the use of chemical preservatives in potted chicken is also reprehensible4 ,in general it may be said that there is no very extensive adulteration of chicken meat4 ,the principal objection to the commerce in preserved chicken meat is the use of old chickens1 the unlimited cold storage1 the failure to draw at time of slaughter1 and exposure in the market in an unsanitary condition and for an indefinite time4 ,cheaper meats are sometimes substituted for the genuine article in potted chicken4 ,turkey and pork are said to be used in chicken salad4 ,capons4--,the castration of the male bird produces the capon1 the flesh of which is very highly valued as being superior to that of the male or female chicken4 ,capons are much more extensively used in ,europe than in the ,united ,states but are gradually coming into favor in this country4 ,it is difficult to describe the difference between the taste of the flesh of the capon and the rooster and hen4 ,a greater degree of tenderness and a more delicate taste characterize the flesh of the capon4 ,in ,france1 especially1 the production of capons has been carried to its highest perfection4 ,caponizing should be practiced at an early date in the life of the young bird4 ,in fact1 as soon as the distinction in sex is well marked in the young chicken the removal of the testes should take place4 ,the young fowl is laid upon its left side and the skin is exposed by pulling back the feathers and trimming them off at the proper place until the space between the first and second ribs of the right side is laid bare4 ,an incision is then carefully made and the testes removed by instruments particularly adapted for that purpose4 ,the operation should be done by an expert although theoretically it appears easy of accomplishment4 ,in practice1 however1 it requires an expert to avoid any injury to the bird and to insure a speedy recovery4 ,when done in the proper way1 apparently no great inconvenience attends the operation4 ,there is little blood shed and usually no inflammation when the proper antiseptic measures are provided4 ,the capon develops a bird that apparently has little to do except grow fat and prepare itself for the market4 ,the caponized bird often develops brooding instincts and when eggs are hatched by the heat of the bird the capon makes a better brooder than the hen because of the greater spread of the wings and the larger number of eggs that can be covered in the operation4 ,the larger breeds of birds make the best capons such as the brahmas and plymouth rocks4 ,the capons are fattened and prepared for the market as in the case of other birds4 ,when skimmed milk is made a large portion of the diet the flesh is considered to be of greater value4 ,the best age for marketing a capon is at about twelve months4 ,at that time they have attained their full size and their maximum degree of excellence as a food bird4 ,the feeding should be done upon the principles already described1 namely1 to keep the birds growing in the usual way until about three or four weeks before the market when the extra food is given in as large quantities as possible for quick fattening4 ,in ,europe this extra food is usually given mechanically under the forced system though in this country the mechanical method of feeding capons has not generally been introduced4 ,capons bring a higher price upon the market than the other varieties of chicken1 sometimes the difference being as much as four or five cents a pound4 ,for this reason the growth of capons becomes more profitable to the farmer than that of the ordinary chicken4 ,duck 7,anas boschas74--,the domesticated duck is used very largely for food in all parts of the world4 ,its flavor is not so highly prized as that of the wild duck but it is an excellent article of diet4 ,the production of ducks is conducted in the same manner as the production of poultry in general4 ,they are still chiefly grown upon the farm without any special care but the best results are obtained by the systematic growth of ducks under scientific conditions in poultry houses4 ,the duck is not so extensively used for food as the turkey and chicken but perhaps in this country much more extensively than the goose4 ,the price of the wild duck1 however1 is still sufficiently low to limit to a certain extent the production of the domesticated article4 ,varieties of ,ducks4--,there are many varieties of ducks cultivated for the market4 ,the ,pekin is perhaps the most abundant of all4 ,it is creamy white in color1 has a long and graceful body and has been particularly bred for the market4 ,when ready for the market the average weight of the drake is about eight pounds and the duck seven4 ,the ,aylesbury is also a favorite variety4 ,it is said to be somewhat whiter than the ,pekin in color4 ,it is specially valued in ,england as a market duck4 ,it is somewhat larger than the ,pekin4 ,other varieties of ducks are the ,rover1 the ,cayuga1 the ,gray and ,white ,call1 the ,east ,indian1 the ,crested ,white1 the colored and white ,muscovy1 and the ,indian runner4 ,the latter is a very small duck1 being only about one-half the size of the ,pekin4 ,usually the ducks on the market are not designated by any particular variety and1 in fact1 most consumers are not sufficiently acquainted with the different varieties of duck to be able to ask for any particular one4 ,the mallard1 canvas-back1 and teal are common varieties of the wild duck4 ,composition of the ,flesh of ,ducks4--,the flesh of two varieties of ducks1 namely the ,pekin duck and the ,mallard duck1 was carefully separated in the ,bureau of ,chemistry and subjected to analysis4 ,the composition of the meat of these two ducks is shown in the following table3 ,,water ,,in ,,fat-,,free ,,meat ,,water4 ,,substance4 ,,fat4 ,,protein4 ,,bases4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,pekin duck1 #dg4df #gh4bj #ci4ca #ac4cg 4#dc ,mallard duck1 #fi4jf #ge4ih #g4aa #ai4be 4#fe ,the above data show a striking difference between these two varieties of ducks4 ,the ,pekin duck has a large excess of fat while the ,mallard duck1 which is a wild duck and evidently not very fat1 has a small percentage of fat and a large percentage of protein4 ,it is evident that the flesh of wild fowl would not1 except at a certain season of the year1 approach that of domesticated fowls in the percentage of fat which it contains4 ,goose 7,anser anser74--,the goose is not so commonly used as a food product in this country as in ,europe1--the turkey to some extent has taken its place4 ,the remarks which are applicable to the production of chickens are also applicable to the production of geese4 ,they1 perhaps1 are grown more extensively in the old-fashioned way in this country than chickens or turkeys at the present time since they are used chiefly for the feathers which they produce and not for food4 ,goose is also considered a winter dish both in this country and in ,europe4 ,it is customary in ,europe that the goose be hung even for a longer period before consumption than the chicken4 ,its flesh is made more tender and more palatable by this preliminary exposure4 ,from one to two weeks is not considered too long a time in the winter for hanging in the old country4 ,the remarks relative to cold storage of turkey and chicken apply also to the goose4 ,the goose is1 perhaps1 the most easily artificially fattened of any other poultry birds4 ,this is especially true in those regions where fatty goose livers are so highly prized in the manufacture of pt de foie gras4 ,by long-continued artificial feeding the goose is made excessively fat and the liver especially is changed in its composition by this treatment so as to make it peculiarly suitable for the production of this delicacy4 ,varieties of ,geese4--,the varieties of geese upon the market comprise the following leading breeds4 ,the ,toulouse is perhaps the most extensively raised4 ,it is highly prized on account of its hardihood1 its size and the general appearance of its body4 ,it is of a gray to white color and the wings are a deeper gray or brown4 ,the legs are usually of a deep orange4 ,when ready for the market the average weight of the gander is #bj pounds and the goose #ah4 ,of the other common varieties there are the ,embden1 the ,african1 the brown and white ,chinese1 the white or ,canada1 and the ,egyptian4 ,the latter is a small goose only weighing about half as much as the ,toulouse when ready for the market4 ,the wild goose is highly esteemed as a game bird4 ,feeding of ,young ,geese for the ,market4--,the feeding of geese for the market begins as soon as the hatching is complete4 ,the first meal of the young chicks consists of oat meal1 middlings1 finely chopped dandelions1 lettuce or some similar green stuff1 and milk4 ,the goslings during the first week are kept indoors and should be fed four or five times a day on the mixture above named4 ,after this they may go into a yard where there is plenty of grass1 not overgrown1 and they will thrive on this very well for a time without hand feeding4 ,not more than two feedings a day are necessary between the ages of one and six weeks where plenty of grass is at hand4 ,during this time no better food than ground oats and skimmed milk can be used4 ,during all this period great care is taken that the goslings are not subjected to any disease or to cold4 ,they should be carefully housed in sanitary coups where the temperature does not sink too low and where they are protected from cold rains4 ,after the goslings are eight weeks old they are usually able to take care of themselves in respect of food and need1 perhaps only one feeding a day4 ,if these goslings are hatched in the early spring they may be ready for fattening for the ,christmas market4 ,the geese until shortly before the time for market are allowed to run free in a field1 not too large1 where there are ponds or troughs of water in abundance4 ,in this way the frame of the goose will be sufficiently developed by the time the fattening period comes but there will have been no unusual expense in the production of the fowl until it is prepared for the market4 ,the large frame is necessary in order that the goose may properly fatten4 ,it usually requires about three weeks of artificial feeding to bring a goose into proper condition for the market4 ,if the geese are for the ,christmas market about the #beth of ,november they are put up in sheds for fattening for though they have been well fed during the summer and autumn they cannot be called fat geese until they have gone through a special course of nutrition4 ,while they are confined for fattening1 geese require plenty of fresh air but very little light and these conditions are procured by housing them in large airy sheds without windows4 ,before the fattening season these sheds are thoroughly cleaned and whitewashed and the floor covered with cinders1 ashes1 and charcoal4 ,this mixture is not only a good bedding but is also a good deodorizer1 which is quite important4 ,food troughs are arranged along the walls inside the shed and troughs for water outside in such a way that the birds can reach the water but cannot get into it4 ,clean charcoal is to be put into the shed every day as it is constantly eaten by the geese and is valuable4 ,the foods used are oat meal1 boiled potatoes1 linseed meal or other oil cakes1 and plenty of milk1 usually skimmed4 ,the birds should have all of this that they can eat1 for in the process we are now describing the artificial forcing of food into the craw is not practiced4 ,in three weeks a good goose will increase four or five pounds in weight and this increase brings the goose up from an ordinary bird in good condition to one which is properly fed for the market4 ,the killing of geese is practiced in practically the same manner as that which is described for slaughtering fowls4 ,a goose is a bird of large vitality and dies hard as is the case with most fowls4 ,the feathers should be taken off the body clean1 as they are valuable for commercial purposes4 ,any pin feathers should be cut with a sharp knife so as to make the bird look as clean as possible when brought to the market4 ,the carcass of the goose should not be packed to send to market until it is entirely cold and in this country1 especially1 where the distances are great1 it is advisable to send it packed in ice or in a cold storage car4 ,the average weight of a goose about nine months old thus prepared for the market is about fourteen pounds and the flesh is certain to be more palatable at this age when fattened in the manner above described4 ,domesticated ,pigeon 7,columba livia74--,in the last few years the production of domesticated pigeons has been extensively practiced in this country1 and especially the production of young pigeons which are known as squabs4 ,they are rapidly taking the place of game birds at the hotels and restaurants of the country4 ,the conditions of production1 preparation1 etc41 are the same as those for the ordinary domesticated fowl4 ,there are many varieties of the bird grown2 some1 as the carrier1 for special purposes4 ,the other principal varieties are barbs1 fantails1 jacobins1 runts1 trumpeters1 tumblers1 and turbits4 ,turkey 7,meleagris americana74--,in general the statement which has been made regarding the production of fowls or chickens may be applied also to the production of turkeys4 ,no further comment1 therefore1 is to be made under that head4 ,the old-fashioned method of securing turkeys grown under natural conditions has1 to a great extent1 given way to the production of turkeys on a large scale and under scientific conditions4 ,turkeys1 as a rule1 are not eaten young1 but practically full-grown4 ,in this country the turkey is a dish which is particularly affected for festive occasions such as ,thanksgiving and ,christmas1 though they are eaten largely throughout the whole year4 ,the market1 however1 for turkeys is particularly a ,november and ,december market and the large introduction of turkeys in the market is so timed as to furnish them in proper condition for consumption during those two months4 ,the methods of preparing turkeys for the market1 keeping them in cold storage1 of hanging them previous to consumption and exposing them drawn or undrawn for sale1 are subject to the same remarks as has been made in the case of chickens4 ,turkeys are said to be more difficult to care for1 both on the farm and in the professional poultry factory1 than chickens4 ,they are more subject to disease and more difficult to bring to maturity than chickens4 ,composition of ,meat of ,turkey4--,the flesh of the turkey was separated into two portions1 the white and dark meats1 and these were found to have the following composition3 ,,water ,,in ,,fat-,,free ,,meat ,,water4 ,,substance4 ,,fat4 ,,protein4 ,,bases4 ,white meat1 #ee4ej #gd4gj #be4ga #ah4ca #a4ca ,dark meat1 #ed4ac #ge4gf #bg4gf #af4ge #a4ae ,a comparison of these two analyses show that there is little difference in the content of water in the white and dark meat4 ,the dark meat1 as in the case of chicken1 has more fat and a correspondingly less amount of protein4 ,the quantity of protein in the meat of turkey is about the same as that of chicken4 ,the white meat of turkey differs from the white meat of chicken more in its content of meat bases than in any other way1 except that the meat of turkey contains more fat1 especially the white meat1 than that of chicken4 ,composition of the ,meat of ,chicken1 ,turkey1 ,duck1 and ,goose4--,the composition of the chicken1 turkey1 duck1 goose1 and pigeon as given by ,knig is found in the following table3 ,,water4 ,,protein4 ,,fat4 ,,ash4 ,chicken 7lean71 #gf4bb #ai4gb #a4db #a4cg ,chicken 7fat71 #gj4jf #ah4di #i4cd 4#ia ,young cock 7fat71 #gj4jc #bc4cb #c4ae #a4ja ,turkey1 #fe4fj #bd4gj #h4ej #a4bj ,duck 7wild71 #gj4hj #bb4fe #c4aa #a4ji ,goose 7fat71 #ch4jb #ae4ia #di4ei 4#dh ,the above data show that with the exception of the goose the percentage of fat given in the flesh of the animals is very much less than that found in our own work4 ,even in the fat chicken only a little over #i percent of fat was found4 ,it is believed that the composition of these fowls as given by the work of the ,bureau of ,chemistry more nearly represents the average composition in this country than the data taken from ,knig4 ,importance of ,animal ,food in the ,growth of ,poultry4--,many people suppose that poultry can live upon vegetables alone and this is probably true4 ,experience1 however1 shows that poultry does not thrive and fatten well on purely vegetable food4 ,this fact was brought out very prominently in the experiments at the ,cornell station where poultry of the same origin and character was fed two kinds of diet1 one being partly of animal food and the other purely vegetable foods4 ,the ration of the animal food consisted of ,indian corn meal1 wheat flour1 ground oats1 wheat bran1 wheat middlings1 pea meal1 linseed meal1 meat1 and fresh bone4 ,the vegetable ration consisted of pea meal1 linseed meal1 wheat bran1 ground oats1 ,indian corn meal1 wheat middlings1 gluten meal1 and skimmed milk4 ,before the experiment had been long under way it was noticed that the birds receiving the meat food were developing rapidly and evenly while those that received the purely vegetable diet were becoming thin and uneven in size4 ,the authors of the bulletin say that it was sometimes almost pitiful to see the long-necked1 scrawny1 vegetable-fed birds1 with troughs full of abundant good1 wholesome food before them1 stand on the alert and scamper in hot haste after the unlucky grasshopper or fly which ventured into their pen1 while the contented looking meat-fed ducks lay lazily in the sun and paid no attention to the buzzing bee or crawling beetle4 ,the vegetable-fed birds literally starved to death1 at least many of them1 so that only twenty of the thirty-three with which the experiment was commenced were alive at the close of the fifteen weeks of feeding4 ,the ,forced ,fattening of ,poultry4--,allusion has already been made to the forced fattening of poultry secured by injecting food into the craw in larger quantities than would naturally be taken by the fowl if left to itself4 ,there is much to be said both for and against this method of fattening4 ,in favor of this method it may be stated that the birds fattened in this way are more highly prized by the connoisseur1 are naturally fatter by reason of the enforced idleness of the birds during the fattening process1 thus diminishing muscular activity1 and more tender than the birds left at freedom and forced to secure their own food4 ,from the point of view of the seller1 also1 the birds are heavier and the artificially fattened fowl usually brings a higher price1 pound for pound1 on the market4 ,against the method it is urged that it is barbarous1 imposing upon the birds a diet far beyond normal capacity and thus tending to damage and injure the organs of the body charged with the assimilation of food and the secretion of the waste products4 ,the above indictment is doubtless true is almost every respect4 ,in explanation it may be said that the period of forcing food is always a short one1 rarely extending beyond three weeks1 and1 therefore1 any injury to the organs which might be induced is not of sufficient duration to establish any real form of disease4 ,in other words1 the birds are slaughtered before any lesions of the organs are produced4 ,the livers of the animals1 especially geese1 thus artificially fattened1 take on an extra quantity of fat during this period but it cannot be said that they become really diseased4 ,the fatty livers1 as is well known1 are used particularly in the manufacture of a mixed spiced meat known as pt de foie gras4 ,upon the whole it is believed that no injury is done the bird by this process of feeding which could in any way be regarded as detrimental to the flesh as a food product4 ,in regard to the apparent barbarity of the process little need be said4 ,the slaughter of animals for human food in itself is a barbarous practice from one point of view but if this practice is justified1 as it doubtless is1 by the exigencies of human nutrition1 the slight degree of force which is employed in artificial fattening cannot be condemned4 ,moreover the artificial fattening of the fowl is of necessity a somewhat limited operation and confined to those establishments that are devoted exclusively to the production of high-grade and high-priced poultry for the market4 ,the fattening is done by experts and1 in so far as the experience of feeding men in the same way is concerned1 is not attended with any pain or discomfort other than that incident to a chronically full craw4 ,increase in ,weight4--,there is a larger increase in the weight of artificially fattened poultry over those fed in the ordinary way and allowed to run free than is usually supposed4 ,it is stated by some authors that the average increase in weight of artificially fattened birds is as much as #ce percent4 ,there is no secret connected with the method of artificial fattening as is sometimes supposed4 ,there are perhaps proprietary methods for preparing foods for fattening purposes but there is no secret in the mechanism of the process4 ,in fact the process is so simple that it might be easily taught in a general way so that the farm hand would become an expert in its use and the farmer's poultry instead of being sent to market in a half-emaciated condition might be offered to the public in the best possible shape4 ,poultry running at large use up a large part of the value of their food in the heat and energy developed in the ordinary search for food4 ,when confined and fed artificially this excess of heat and energy is naturally stored as fat4 ,experience has shown that the artificial feeding must be a limited one and the bird must be sent to market as soon as it has reached its maximum of perfection under the process4 ,experience has also shown that in the artificial feeding it is best to have each bird in a small compartment to itself with the cage so arranged that the bird can put its head through a slat in front and thus receive the food from the machine without disturbing any of its neighbors4 ,that the birds are perfectly willing to take the food in this way is evidenced by the fact that they voluntarily put their heads through the apertures to receive their food4 ,each individual coup must be kept scrupulously clean and disinfected and the air in the room kept perfectly fresh and sweet4 ,lime should be used freely in all parts of the coup house in the form of whitewash or sprinkled about the floor or upon the floors of the coups4 ,gypsum or ordinary land plaster is also highly prized as another form of lime which is found to be very valuable4 ,the whitewash must be freely indulged in and at frequent intervals4 ,there are various forms of fattening food used in this country4 ,indian corn meal forms an important part4 ,the presence of certain animal products must not be neglected in the food as it has been shown that fowls thrive better when given1 in their food1 a certain amount of animal matter1 both of flesh and finely ground bone4 ,the fattening food must be in the form of a finely ground paste of the proper consistency to be handled well in the machine4 ,it is a universal practice which custom has shown to be necessary to mix with the food a certain quantity of finely pulverized charcoal1 usually about three pounds of the charcoal to #ig pounds of food4 ,some feeders prefer to mix the paste about twenty-four hours before it is administered1 believing that the slight fermentation thus produced is beneficial4 ,the ,cramming ,machine4--,various forms of machines are employed for introducing the food into the craw4 ,the tube carrying the food is introduced into the esophagus of the bird in a manner to avoid any pain and the apparatus is so adjusted that with a single movement of the machine1 usually operated by the foot1 the proper amount of food is injected4 ,the birds should be arranged according to size so that all of a certain size may have exactly the same quantity of food administered4 ,the operator would thus be saved the difficulty of guessing the different sizes4 ,the arrangement of the coups and the kind of the cramming machine vary greatly4 ,in the beginning of artificial feeding the birds should not be pushed to their full capacity4 ,an increasing quantity of food should be given up to the end of the first week or ten days before the full maximum dose is administered4 ,in general it is found best to take the bird out of the coup for feeding1 holding it under the arm so that the neck can be made perfectly straight and gently inserting the flexible tube which carries the food and thus with the single movement of a lever1 filling the craw4 ,the use of the machine1 however1 is found to be advantageous from a point of economy although it is claimed that the cramming of birds by means of a funnel has been found very efficacious4 ,with a good machine an expert operator can feed about #bej birds in an hour4 ,an important point in the fattening is that the food should be given regularly4 ,slaughtering ,fowls for the ,market4--,it is important that a uniform and proper method be used for killing fowls intended for the market4 ,there are two methods in common vogue1 namely1 by bleeding and by dislocation of the neck4 ,the method of killing is important in order that the proper method of dressing for the market may be secured4 ,a fowl which is offered for sale ought to be attractively dressed and any brutal or defacing method of slaughter makes it impossible afterwards to render the fowl attractive to the customer4 ,in killing by the dislocation of the neck the operator takes the bird by the thigh and top of the wing in the left hand and the head in the right and then draws it steadily until dislocation takes place4 ,the skin remains unbroken and no bruised effect is produced but all the blood in the body drains into the neck and remains there4 ,this method is one especially practiced in ,england 7,journal1 ,board of ,agriculture1 #aijd-e1 page #cjf74 ,where the bird is very large1 as is the case with turkeys1 it may require the full strength of a man in order to produce the dislocation in the manner mentioned4 ,in this case it is often necessary to first hang the bird up by the leg to secure the best results4 ,in killing a fowl by bleeding it is strung up by the legs with its head hanging downward4 ,the operator then gives it a sharp blow with a stick on the back of the head and when he has stunned it by this means he inserts a sharp knife into the roof of the mouth1 penetrating the brain4 ,he also severs the large artery of the throat by rotating the knife and the bird rapidly bleeds to death4 ,this method of killing1 it is seen1 is not a very humane one4 ,if1 for instance1 the sensation of the bird is not destroyed by the first blow the other process must be needlessly painful4 ,this process1 simplified somewhat by omitting the hanging1 is the one commonly followed by professionals in this country4 ,in ,england turkeys which are prepared for the market are plucked but not drawn4 ,one of the newest methods of plucking is known as the ,devonshire style and consists in stripping the feathers clean off the breast and thighs but leaving the neck1 back and wings covered4 ,the fowls are then tied around the legs with a strong cord in such a manner as to show the plumpness of the breast prominently4 ,the methods of preparation of the fowls depend largely on the demands of the market to which they are going4 ,some require the fowls to be clean plucked and others prefer some of the feathers left on4 ,eggs4--,eggs are a common article of diet throughout the world4 ,the eggs of domesticated fowls are those which are principally used for food1 though the eggs of wild fowls1 and birds and reptiles are also edible but on account of the difficulty of getting them and their rarity are not to be considered as a commercial article4 ,the chief sources of supply are the eggs of chickens1 ducks1 and geese4 ,chicken eggs are by far the most important1 duck eggs the next important1 and goose eggs the least important4 ,the eggs of fish also constitute an article of food of considerable value and are extensively used4 ,for instance the fresh eggs of shad are used in large quantities during the whole of the shad season and are often kept in cold storage for use at other times4 ,the eggs of sturgeon are used extensively in the fresh state and when pickled as caviar are highly esteemed throughout the world4 ,these two kinds of eggs are probably the most important of fish eggs used for food purposes4 ,chicken eggs vary greatly in size according to the age and variety of the fowl4 ,the average weight of chicken eggs is #fhj grams per dozen4 ,they vary also in color from pure white to a brownish yellow4 ,duck eggs are larger and also variegated in color4 ,the average weight of duck eggs is #hdg4b grams per dozen4 ,goose eggs are the largest of the three varieties1 varying also in color4 ,they weigh on an average #bbhd4h grams per dozen4 ,eggs also vary greatly in shape1 being generally ovoid but some being much more spherical than others according to the species of the fowl and variety4 ,the number of eggs which a chicken will lay varies greatly4 ,attempts have been made1 with great success1 at experiment stations1 to develop chickens with high laying powers4 ,a hen which will produce over #bjj eggs a year is regarded as a high-grade fowl for egg-producing purposes4 ,eggs are produced more abundantly during the early spring and summer than during the winter months4 ,one of the purposes of scientific egg producing is the development of fowls that will produce eggs more evenly throughout the whole year1 thus avoiding the very great depression in the price of eggs in the spring and the excessively high price of eggs in the winter4 ,composition of ,eggs4--,a large number of eggs have been analyzed in all quarters of the world and found to vary but little in composition in different localities1 and very little also in regard to the variety of the fowl4 ,the egg consists essentially of two portions1--an external highly albuminous portion known as the white and an internal colored portion1 yellow or reddish in tint1 known as the yolk4 ,the white of an egg is composed almost entirely of albumin partially dissolved in water4 ,the yolk of the egg is composed of albumin1 fat1 and a phosphorus-bearing material of high nutritive value known as lecithin4 ,the yolk of an egg is a much richer food product than the white1 containing in addition to the nitrogenous element the fat and mineral bodies necessary to nutrition4 ,both the white and yolk of an egg are composed principally of water as will be seen by the following analytical data3 ,,composition ,,of ,,edible ,,part ,,of ,,eggs4 ,,water4 ,,protein4 ,,fat4 ,,ash4 ,,calories4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,per pound4 ,hen1 #gc4g #ac4d #aj4e #a4j 4444 ,duck1 #gj4e #ac4c #ad4e #a4j #ihe ,goose1 #fi4e #ac4h #ad4d #a4j #ihe ,turkey1 #gc4c #ac4d #aa4b #j4i #hej ,preservation of ,eggs4--,freshly laid eggs may be preserved for several days without any notable deterioration by keeping in a cool place4 ,the temperature of preservation should be as nearly the freezing point as can be secured4 ,the vital processes are continually going on in a fresh egg and hence there is a development of a certain degree of heat due to these activities4 ,for this reason eggs can be placed in an atmosphere below the freezing point of water without being frozen4 ,an additional reason for this is found in the fact that the water which is present in eggs holds the albumin and other bodies in solution and the freezing point of a solution is always lower than that of the solvent alone4 ,for domestic purposes where refrigerating establishments are not available the fresh eggs should be kept in a cool dark place where the temperature is not allowed to go above #ej or #fj degrees4 ,at a higher temperature than this fresh eggs lose their freshness in a remarkably short time4 ,the porous nature of the shell is a condition which favors the deterioration of the egg by the admission of air and microbes into the substance of the egg itself4 ,the preservation of eggs is1 therefore1 materially assisted by coating the egg artificially with a varnish or film of some kind which renders the egg impervious to air and water4 ,one of the cheapest1 simplest1 and best of these coatings1 as has already been noted1 is soluble glass4 ,this is produced by dissolving the chemical substance known as silicate of soda in water1 and dipping the egg into the solution1 removing and allowing to dry4 ,the silicate of soda which is thus left in a thin film over the surface of the egg penetrates and stops the pores and renders the egg shell practically impervious both to air and water4 ,this material has the property of becoming totally insoluble in water when it has once been dried so that even if the egg is afterwards subjected to rain or water in any form the film is not removed4 ,many other methods of coating eggs have been employed and are dependent upon the same principle but are perhaps not so effectual and simple as the inexpensive method above described4 ,cold ,storage4--,eggs either with or without the coating of the surface1 usually without1 may be kept for a considerable length of time without deterioration in cold storage4 ,in this case it is advisable to reduce the temperature to the lowest possible point to retain the semi-fresh condition of the contents4 ,water freezes at #cb degrees1 but for the reasons above mentioned the temperature at which the egg is stored may be reduced notably below #cb degrees without danger of solidifying4 ,the eggs kept in cold storage gradually acquire a taste and aroma which are quite different from the fresh article and the period of preservation should never be prolonged1 probably a month or six weeks is the extreme limit for keeping eggs which can still be regarded as having the qualities of the fresh article4 ,in practice1 eggs are kept often a very much longer time since the principal object of cold storage is to lay in a supply in the spring and summer when they are abundant and keep them over until the next winter4 ,the average age of cold storage eggs is probably more than six months4 ,at this time the eggs have acquired a distinctly unpleasant odor and flavor which enables even one who is not an expert to distinguish between them and the fresh article4 ,such eggs should not be allowed on the market except under their proper designation so that the purchaser may know the character of the product he is getting4 ,there is a determined opposition on the part of those dealing in cold storage eggs against such marking1 an opposition which can only be explained by the fact that the amount of deterioration is fully as great as specified4 ,if cold storage eggs have not been kept long enough to develop any of the objectionable conditions mentioned above and are inferior only in respect of taste and aroma there seems to be no just reason why they should be forbidden sale4 ,they usually bring a lower price than fresh eggs produced at the time of sale and thus are brought more readily within the means of those who are less able to pay the higher prices4 ,cold storage eggs are extensively used for baking purposes and in this condition escape the detection of the consumer4 ,this appears1 however1 to be no just reason for their use without notice4 ,broken ,eggs4--,an extensive industry has been practiced for many years in the product known as broken eggs4 ,in the preparation of broken eggs at times of great abundance1 the eggs are collected and broken and then mixed together in containers of various sizes1 often as large as barrels1 and preserved by the admixture of borax4 ,from two to four pounds of borax are usually employed per #ajj pounds of broken eggs4 ,in this condition the eggs are kept from the time of great abundance until the time of higher prices1 namely1 from six to eight months1 and then sent into commerce4 ,the use of broken eggs of this kind for edible purposes is totally indefensible4 ,while borax prevents the development of bacteria it does not entirely inhibit enzymic action and hence that subtle change of nitrogenous matter which produces poisonous bodies may go on in the presence of borax while apparently the egg itself remains undecomposed4 ,broken eggs were formerly sent to this country in large quantities from ,china and other ,asiatic countries but since the passage of food inspection laws as applied to foreign commerce the importation of this class of food products has been prohibited1 on the ground that they are unfit for human consumption4 ,other preserving agents have been used in place of borax for these products1 but all are open to similar objections4 ,broken eggs are used chiefly by bakers in large cities4 ,dried ,eggs4--,the rapid drying of fresh eggs is perhaps an unobjectionable method of preservation4 ,the drying may take place by spreading the eggs in a thin film on a dry surface1 which is the usual method1 or by forcing the egg product through small orifices under a high pressure into a drying chamber so adjusted as to temperature and size as to secure the desiccation of the minute particles of egg spray before they fall to the bottom4 ,this method is perhaps the best which has yet been developed in the desiccation of such products4 ,the egg powder thus formed is almost devoid of moisture and when properly collected and stored out of contact with the air1 may be kept for a time without deterioration4 ,dry egg products such as have been described made from fresh eggs1 may be considered unobjectionable for a reasonable length of time4 ,unfortunately dried products are sometimes made from decayed eggs4 ,during the past year a factory making a product of this kind was discovered by the food inspector of one of our large cities4 ,egg ,substitutes4--,many products have been put upon the market of a yellow color and containing protein under the guise of eggs4 ,there is a number of so-called egg powders offered for making cakes1 etc41 which contain no egg at all4 ,they are composed of other forms of protein matter1 generally casein from milk1 and colored to resemble the egg in tint4 ,starchy substances are also colored and sold as egg powder4 ,these substances may be regarded as adulterations when sold under the name or in the guise of an egg product4 ,there are no other adulterations of eggs of any consequence practiced except the simulation of egg material by such products as those just mentioned4 ,poisonous ,principles in ,eggs4--,while fresh eggs for most people form a food product entirely devoid of danger1 nutritious and easily digestible1 eggs may easily become injurious and even poisonous4 ,according to experiments made by ,bouchard 7,scientific ,american1 ,august #aa1 #ahif1 page #ie71 even fresh eggs1 unless the sanitary conditions in which the fowls live are well cared for1 may become very poisonous4 ,the fowl producing eggs1 as a rule1 is not a cleanly animal1 and this is especially true of the duck4 ,thus injurious organic material rich in microbes may contaminate the egg and the microbes may penetrate the shell thus rendering the egg unsuitable for consumption4 ,eggs contaminated in this way have given evidence of toxic phenomena even in a fresh state4 ,experiments have shown too that the food material of eggs if directly injected into the blood of an animal produces toxic effects whereas if injected into the stomach no unfavorable effects are produced4 ,egg albumin1 that is1 the albumin of the white of the egg1 when fed in considerable quantities to animals partially escapes digestion and thus becomes a source of irritation and even of poisoning4 ,there are many people who are remarkably sensitive to the influence of eggs and those who possess this idiosyncrasy are injured even by eggs which are perfectly harmless to other people4 ,a large number of species of injurious microbes which infect eggs have been identified4 ,these even are found in fresh eggs in the unsanitary conditions above mentioned4 ,eggs kept for a long while in cold storage or decayed in any way are extremely injurious4 ,fortunately decayed eggs are self protecting since they can only be eaten by accident4 ,if1 however1 decayed eggs be eaten in diluted form by mixing with other foods they may be eaten without their characteristic odor or taste being known and thus great injury arises4 ,it is advised in all cases where eggs are to be kept for some time even in cold storage to varnish them with some substance impenetrable to air4 ,for this purpose1 as has already been mentioned1 soluble glass1 which is chemically a silicate of soda1 has been found extremely effective4 ,any of the varnishes which make the shell of an egg air tight tends to restrain the activities of bacterial life since the bacteria cannot live without air4 ,the officials who inspect food should direct special care to the storing of eggs in order that no damage may result from keeping them too long in cold storage or otherwise4 ,it must not be understood that poisoning by eggs is of common occurrence4 ,in fact it is very rare4 ,the fact that the egg itself1 which is such a common article of diet1 may be unsanitary and improperly kept is a matter of great concern to the consumer4 ,parasites in ,eggs4--,the egg also when produced in unsanitary conditions may become infected with parasites4 ,many of these are apparently harmless1 but some are injurious and even dangerous4 ,the mere fact that parasites may exist in eggs is of itself a sufficient reason for the consumer to insist that the eggs he eats1 like the milk he drinks1 shall be free from all infections due solely to carelessness in production4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,fish ,,foods4 ,,fish4 ,fish furnish a very important and useful part of the animal food of man4 ,both the fish growing in fresh water and in salt water are generally edible4 ,usually the smaller-sized fish are considered more palatable1 but this is not universally the case4 ,the large-sized fish are apt to be coarse1 and have a less desirable flavor than those of smaller size4 ,the size of the fish usually depends upon the magnitude of the body of water in which the species grow1 the largest being in the lakes and oceans1 the medium-size in rivers1 and the smallest in brooks4 ,fish are known chiefly by their common names1 and these names are different for the same species of fish in different parts of the country4 ,for instance1 the term trout covers a multitude of species1 and1 likewise1 under the term sardine a large number of different species or varieties of fish are considered4 ,there is also a large number of varieties known as salmon1 perch1 bass1 etc4 ,in the following table are given the common and the scientific names of the principal food fishes used in the ,united ,states 7see ,report of ,u4 ,s4 ,commission of ,fish and ,fisheries1 #ahhh1 pages #fgi-hfh73 ,acipenserid3 ,acipenser sturio oxyrhynchus1 ,sturgeon4 ,catostomid3 ,moxostoma velatum1 ,small-mouthed red-horse4 ,clupeid3 ,clupea harengus1 ,herring4 pilchardus1 ,sardine4 vernalis1 ,alewife4 sapidissima1 ,shad4 ,salmonid3 ,osmerus mordax1 ,smelt4 ,coregonus clupeiformis1 ,whitefish4 sp41 tullibee or artedi1 ,ciscoe4 ,oncorhynchus chouicha1 ,california salmon4 ,salmo salar1 ,salmon4 subsp4 sebago1 ,land-locked salmon4 ,salvelinus namaycush1 ,lake trout4 fontinalis1 ,brook trout4 ,esocid3 ,esox lucius1 ,pike4 reticulatus1 ,pickerel4 nobilior1 ,muskellunge4 ,anguillid3 ,anguilla rostrata1 ,eel4 ,mugilid3 ,mugil albula1 ,mullet4 ,scombrid3 ,scomber scombrus1 ,mackerel4 ,scomberomorus maculatus1 ,spanish mackerel4 ,orcynus thynnus1 ,tunny4 ,carangid3 ,trachynotus carolinus1 ,pompano4 ,pomatomid3 ,pomatomus saltatrix1 ,bluefish4 ,stromateid3 ,stromateus triacanthus1 ,butter-fish4 ,centrarchid3 ,micropterus salmoides1 ,large-mouthed black bass4 dolomieu1 ,small-mouthed black bass4 ,percid3 ,perca fluviatilis1 ,yellow perch4 ,stizostedion vitreum1 ,wall-eyed pike4 canadense1 ,gray pike4 ,serranid3 ,roccus lineatus1 ,striped bass4 americanus1 ,white perch4 ,centropristis atrarius1 ,sea bass4 ,epinephelus morio1 ,red grouper4 ,sparid3 ,lutjanus blackfordi1 ,red snapper4 ,stenotomus chrysops1 ,porgy4 ,diplodus probatocephalus1 ,sheepshead4 ,scinid3 ,scina ocellata1 ,red bass4 ,menticirrus saxatilis1 ,kingfish4 ,cynoscion regale1 ,weakfish4 ,labrid3 ,hiatula onitis1 ,blackfish4 ,gadid3 ,phycis chuss1 ,hake4 ,brosmius brosme1 ,cusk4 ,melanogrammus glefinus1 ,haddock4 ,gadus morrhua1 ,cod4 ,microgadus tomcod1 ,tomcod4 ,pollachius virens1 ,pollock4 ,pleuronectid3 ,hippoglossus hippoglossus1 ,halibut4 ,platysomatichthys hippoglossoides1 ,turbot4 ,paralichthys dentatus1 ,flounder4 ,pseudopleuronectes americanus1 ,flounder4 ,petromyzontid3 ,petromyzon marinus1 ,lamprey eel4 ,raiid3 ,raia sp41 ,skate4 ,some of the scientific names in the above list have been modified by recent research1 but it is advisable to present the above classification for purpose of reference4 ,the variations from these names will be given in the part of the discussion relating to the food value of fish1 in which the classification of ,jordan and ,evermann is followed4 ,edible ,portion of ,fish4--,as in the case of other animals large parts of fish as taken from the water are inedible4 ,in the preparation of fish the head is usually removed1 especially if the fish be of any size1 and the entrails rejected4 ,if the fish be scaly1 the scales are also removed4 ,the latter vary very greatly in different specimens according to species1 size1 etc4 ,usually the edible portion of the fish is larger in quantity than the inedible1 though this is not by any means universally the case4 ,taking fish of all kinds together it may be said that from #ee to #fj percent of the total weight is edible4 ,this1 of course1 excludes the bones as well as the other portions already referred to4 ,principal ,constituents of the ,flesh of ,fish4--,in the flesh of cattle1 swine1 and other edible animals already mentioned it is seen that the protein is the principal part of the edible portion4 ,in many kinds of meat1 however1 the fat is the principal portion1 as in bacon4 ,in the flesh of fish the albuminoids occupy a more prominent part than in the flesh of domesticated animals or game4 ,in other words the proportion of fat1 which is one of the principal ingredients of the flesh of other animals1 is less than in the other kinds of flesh4 ,the protein in the water-free substance often constitutes over #ij percent of the total matter1 and rarely falls below #hj percent4 ,the next most important constituent of the dry flesh of fish naturally is the fat4 ,the average content of fat in the dry flesh of fish is under #aj1--;it rarely goes above #bj and sometimes falls as low as #b or #c percent4 ,the mineral content of the dry flesh of fish is quite constant4 ,it rarely falls below #d or goes above #h percent2 #e percent may be regarded as a fair average content of mineral matter4 ,the mineral matter consists chiefly of phosphate of potash and lime1 together with some common salt4 ,in the analyses made by ,atwater1 adopted in the following pages1 he grouped together the fish analyzed in proportion to the quantity of the edible portion or flesh which they contained4 ,groupings were also made on account of the dry substance in the flesh and in proportion to the water and fat which they contained4 ,these tables are of value showing in a general way the relative food importance of the different specimens of fish4 ,this classification is given in the following table3 ,,classification ,,of ,,fishes ,,by ,,percentages ,,of ,,flesh1 ,,chiefly ,,muscular ,,tissue ,,in ,,entire ,,body4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,,no4 ,,of ,,specimens ,,kinds ,,of ,,fish4 ,,analyzed4 ,,flesh4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,containing #fj percent or over ,percent4 of flesh4 ,spanish mackerel #a #fe4d ,salmon #d #fd4g ,red snapper #a #fj4j ,containing between #fj and #gj percent of flesh4 ,smelt #b #eh4a ,pike 7pickerel7 #a #eg4c ,cisco #a #eg4c ,butter-fish #a #eg4b ,spent salmon #b #ef4d ,mackerel #e #ee4d ,pompano #b #ed4e ,lamprey eel #a #ed4b ,herring #a #ed4j ,pickerel #b #eb4i ,spent land-locked salmon #b #eb4g ,turbot #a #eb4c ,brook trout #c #ea4i ,muskellunge #a #ej4h ,alewife #b #ej4e ,containing between #ej and #dj percent of flesh4 ,shad #g #di4i ,weakfish #a #dh4a ,cod #b #dg4e ,whitefish #a #df4e ,small-mouthed black bass #a #df4d ,striped bass #e #de4a ,large-mouthed black bass #a #dd4j ,sea bass #a #dc4i ,winter flounder #a #dc4h ,lake trout1 8,mackinaw trout0 #a #dc4g ,kingfish #a #dc4d ,pike perch1 8,wall-eyed pike0 #a #db4h ,mullet #a #db4a ,tomcod #a #dj4a ,porgy #c #dj4j ,containing between #dj and #cj percent of flesh4 ,blackfish #b #ci4i ,white perch #b #cg4e ,yellow perch #a #cg4c ,pike perch #a #cf4h ,red bass #a #cf4e ,sheepshead #a #cd4j ,common flounder #a #cc4b ---------------------------------------- --------- ,,classification ,,of ,,fishes ,,by ,,proportions ,,of ,,fat ,,in ,,the ,,flesh ,,of ,,specimens ,,analyzed4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,no4 ,,of ,,specimens ,,kinds ,,of ,,fish4 ,,analyzed4 ,,water4 ,,fats4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,containing over #e percent ,percent4,percent4 of fats4 ,california salmon #b #fc4f #ag4i ,turbot #a #ga4d #ad4d ,salmon #e #fc4f #ac4d ,lamprey eel #a #ga4a #ac4c ,lake trout #b #fi4a #aa4d ,butter-fish #a #gj4j #aa4j ,herring #a #fi4j #aa4j ,shad #g #gj4f #i4e ,spanish mackerel #a #fh4a #i4d ,salt-water eel #b #ga4f #i4a ,pompano #b #gb4h #g4f ,mackerel #f #gc4d #g4a ,whitefish #a #fi4h #f4e ,halibut #c #ge4d #e4b ,porgy #c #ge4j #e4a ,containing between #e and #b percent of fats4 ,alewife #b #gd4d #d4i ,mullet #a #gd4i #d4f ,white perch #b #ge4g #d4a ,sheepshead #b #ge4f #c4g ,spent salmon #b #gf4g #c4f ,cisco #a #gf4b #c4e ,spent land-locked salmon #b #gh4e #c4j ,striped bass #f #gg4g #b4h ,muskellunge #a #gf4c #b4e ,small-mouthed black bass #a #gd4h #b4d ,weakfish #a #gi4j #b4d ,small-mouthed red-horse #a #gh4f #b4d ,brook trout #c #gg4g #b4a ,containing less than #b1 the majority less than #a percent of fats4 ,sturgeon #a #gh4g #a4i ,smelt #b #gi4b #a4h ,skate #a #hb4b #a4d ,blackfish #d #gi4a #a4d ,bluefish #a #gh4e #a4c ,red snapper #c #gh4e #a4j ,large-mouthed black bass #a #gh4f #a4j ,kingfish #a #gi4b #a4j ,pollock #a #gf4j #j4h ,yellow perch #b #gi4c #j4h ,pike perch1 gray pike #a #hj4i #j4h ,hake #a #hc4a #j4g ,common flounder #b #hd4b #j4g ,grouper #b #gi4d #j4f ,pike 7pickerel87 #a #gi4h #j4f ,sea bass #a #gi4c #j4e ,pike perch1 wall-eyed pike #a #gi4g #j4e ,pickerel #b #gi4g #j4e ,red bass #a #ha4f #j4e ,tomcod #a #ha4f #j4d ,cod #e #hb4f #j4d ,winter flounder #a #hd4d #j4d ,haddock #d #ha4g #j4c ,cusk #a #hb4j #j4b ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,classification ,,of ,,fishes ,,by ,,proportions ,,of ,,water-,,free ,,substance ,,in ,,the ,,flesh ,,of ,,specimens ,,analyzed4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,,no4 ,,of ,,specimens,,water-,,free ,,kinds ,,of ,,fish4 ,,analyzed4,,substance4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,containing over #cj percent of ,percent4 water-free substance4 ,california salmon #b #cf4d ,salmon #e #cf4d ,spanish mackerel #a #ca4i ,herring #a #ca4j ,lake trout #b #cj4i ,whitefish #a #cj4b ,containing from #cj to #be percent of water-free substance4 ,butter-fish #a #cj4j ,shad #g #bi4d ,lamprey eel #a #bh4i ,turbot #a #bh4f ,salt-water eel #b #bh4d ,pompano #b #bg4b ,mackerel #f #bf4f ,alewife #b #be4f ,small-mouthed black bass #a #be4b ,mullet #a #be4a ,porgy #c #be4j ,containing between #be and #bj percent of water-free substance4 ,halibut #c #bd4f ,sheepshead #b #bd4e ,white perch #b #bd4c ,pollock #a #bd4j ,cisco #a #bc4i ,muskellunge #a #bc4g ,spent salmon #b #bc4c ,striped bass #f #bb4c ,brook trout #c #bb4c ,bluefish #a #ba4e ,red snapper #c #ba4e ,spent land-locked salmon #b #ba4e ,small-mouthed red-horse #a #ba4d ,large-mouthed black bass #a #ba4d ,sturgeon #a #ba4c ,weakfish #a #ba4j ,blackfish #d #bj4i ,smelt #b #bj4h ,kingfish #a #bj4h ,yellow perch #b #bj4h ,sea bass #a #bj4g ,grouper #b #bj4f ,pickerel #b #bj4c ,pike perch1 8wall-eyed pike0 #a #bj4c ,pike 7pickerel87 #a #bj4b ,containing between #bj and #ae percent of water-free substance4 ,pike perch1 gray pike #a #ai4b ,tomcod #a #ah4e ,red bass #a #ah4d ,haddock #d #ah4c ,cusk #a #ah4j ,skate #a #ag4i ,cod #e #ag4d ,hake #a #af4i ,common flounder #b #ae4h ,winter flounder #a #ae4g ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,in the scientific names of the food fishes described in the following pages and in the description of their habits1 methods of spawning1 geographic distribution1 etc41 the classification of ,jordan and ,evermann#ae has been followed4 #ae 8,american ,food and ,game ,fishes10 by ,jordan and ,evermann1 #a vol41 large #hvo1 pp4 i to l #a to #egb4 ,twelve colored plates and several hundred full-page plates from photographs from life and text-figures4 ,doubleday1 ,page ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,alewives4--,a fish belonging to a genus very close to that to which the herring belongs is known as alewife4 ,the name of the genus is ,pomolobus4 ,it is commonly known as a herring4 ,for instance1 the fresh-water skipjack or blue herring1--the tailor herring or hickory shad1--and the real alewife or branch herring are all common species of this genus4 ,one specimen of this genus is the fresh-water skipjack or blue herring 7,pomolobus chrysochloris7 found in the larger streams in the ,mississippi valley and also in ,lake ,erie and ,lake ,michigan4 ,it is strictly a fresh-water fish1 but has also been found in salt water on the ,gulf coast4 ,the tailor herring is found along the ,atlantic coast from ,cape ,cod to ,florida4 ,in the ,potomac river it is known as tailor shad or 8fresh-water tailor10 and is highly esteemed as a food fish in ,washington and vicinity4 ,their value is found rather in their coming earlier than the shad than in their true value1 for as soon as the shad come in great abundance there is no longer any market for the alewife4 ,composition of ,alewife4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #gd4da percent ,protein1 #ai4ag #ge4hg percent ,fat1 #d4ib #ai4jh ,ash1 #a4dg #e4gh ,this fish1 it is seen1 has very much less oil in it than the true herring1--in fact1 only a little more than one-half as much4 ,it1 however1 has a correspondingly larger percentage of protein4 ,the tailor herring and hickory shad are distributed along the coast from ,cape ,cod to ,florida4 ,the branch herring 7,pomolobus pseudoharengus7 is found along the ,atlantic coast as far south as ,charleston1 entering fresh-water streams to spawn1 usually two or three weeks ahead of the shad4 ,it occurs also in ,lake ,ontario and in several of the small lakes in northern ,new ,york in which it is land-locked4 ,the summer herring 7,pomolobus stivalis7 also occurs along the ,atlantic coast4 ,anchovy4--,the anchovy is a small fish which is eaten more as a relish in the pickled state than in the fresh state1 and is highly prized by many connoisseurs4 ,anchovies of various species are found on both the ,atlantic and ,pacific coasts1--on the ,atlantic coast from ,cape ,cod to ,brazil and on the western coast from southern ,california southward4 ,these fish reach a length of from #b to #g inches4 ,the very small ones are sometimes known as 8whitebait40 ,those that are pickled and used for food are usually from #c to #f inches in length4 ,composition of ,preserved ,anchovies4-- ,water1 #eg4h percent ,protein1 #bb4c ,fat1 #b4b ,ash 7principally salt71 #bc4g ,black ,bass4--,two species of black bass are well known to the ,american fisherman and to the ,american cuisine4 ,the one is called the small-mouth black bass 7,micropterus dolomieu7 and the other the large-mouth black bass 7,micropterus salmoides74 ,these fishes are found in the fresh waters of the ,united ,states1 especially in the northern portion1 almost everywhere4 ,both species have been propagated both by the ,national and ,state ,fish ,commissions4 ,especially have they been introduced into the northeastern waters where they originally did not occur1 or only in small numbers4 ,bluefish4--,the bluefish 7family ,pomatomid7 is one of the valuable food fishes of our ,atlantic coast4 ,it is a voracious1 carnivorous fish1 and apparently loves to destroy as well as to eat4 ,it is stated that the bluefish copies after the style which was once said to be in vogue in ,rome1 viz41 when its stomach is filled it disgorges it for the purpose of eating a new ration4 ,the size of the bluefish runs from #c to #e pounds1 though occasionally very much larger examples are taken4 ,as a food fish it is said to rank in the estimation of the connoisseur with pompano and ,spanish mackerel4 ,the bluefish is one of the popular fishes in all the large markets of the ,atlantic coast4 ,the flesh has a fine flavor1 but1 like the pompano1 it does not keep well4 ,composition4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #gh4df percent ,protein1 #ai4jb #ij4ac percent ,fat1 #a4be #e4gi ,ash1 #a4bg #e4ia ,a comparison of the flesh of this fish with the pompano shows that it is particularly a protein food1 the fat being even less abundant than the mineral matter4 ,it1 therefore1 is not so well balanced a ration as the flesh of the pompano and other fish in which the fat forms a considerable portion of the edible matter4 ,carp4--,the carp is a fish used very largely for food purposes1 but it has not the fine flavor and character of most fishes4 ,the carp cultivated in ,america is known as the ,german carp 7,cyprinus carpio74 ,the carp belongs to the large family of fishes known as the minnows or ,cyprinid4 ,this family is a large one1 having about #bjj genera and more than #ajjj species1 all of which are inhabitants of fresh water in ,north ,america and ,eurasia4 ,none of this family is highly regarded as food in the sense of flavor and aroma1 except1 perhaps1 some of the smaller species4 ,the nutritive value of the carp1 however1 is probably as great as that of any1 but it is coarser and less attractive to the taste4 ,some of the most common species of this family are the dace1 fallfish1 river chub1 creek chub1 squaw-fish1 and roach4 ,catfish4--,catfish1 of which there are many species1 belong to the family of ,silurid1 and are among the most common fresh-water fishes found in the ,united ,states4 ,they occur in small as well as large fresh-water streams and lakes1 and it is one of the species which the ,american boy most delights in catching with hook and line4 ,the catfish is most conveniently taken after night1 and the smouldering fire and small boy on the bank of a stream is a frequent picture of ,american country life4 ,there are more than #ajj genera of the catfish family and about #ajjj species4 ,only about one-third of the species inhabit salt water4 ,the ,north ,american fresh-water species are confined particularly to the ,atlantic coast1 the ,mississippi valley1 and the ,gulf states4 ,there are no native species of the catfish in the fresh waters of the ,pacific coast4 ,the blue catfish1 known as the ,mississippi catfish1 is the most prominent species 7,ictalurus furcatus74 ,it is found particularly in the ,mississippi river and its large tributaries4 ,sometimes it grows to an immense size1 individuals having been found reaching #aej pounds in weight4 ,if the stream in which the catfish lives runs north and south it will be found in the southern part of the stream in the winter and in the northern part in summer4 ,this fish is highly prized for edible purposes4 ,in the small streams the catfish is correspondingly small and weighs from less than one pound to two or three pounds only4 ,the small catfish1 especially in the small streams tributary to the ,ohio and ,mississippi1 has edible properties which are far superior to the large catfish growing in the rivers themselves4 ,the catfish of the small streams and lakes are commonly known as bullheads1 since the head is large and wide4 ,the name of the most common or best known species is ,ameirus nebulosus4 ,this species is found from ,maine westward and southward4 ,in ,pennsylvania it is known as the ,schuylkill cat1 and everywhere generally throughout the country as a small catfish4 ,codfish4--,one of the most famous food fish of the ,american waters is the codfish4 ,it is a widely distributed fish4 ,there are said to be about #be genera and #adj species4 ,the codfish is particularly a fish of the northern waters4 ,only one genus is found in fresh-water lakes and streams4 ,the ,common ,cod4--,the common codfish 7family ,gadid7 is the species ,gadus callarias4 ,it is rarely found south of the ,virginia coast1 but is especially abundant off the ,new ,england and ,newfoundland coast4 ,the great center of the codfish industry is in the vicinity of ,newfoundland4 ,gloucester1 ,massachusetts1 is the principal town devoted to the codfish industry in the ,united ,states4 ,the cod is an omnivorous fish and especially fond of crustaceans1 mollusks1 and small fish4 ,it also eats vegetation1 and it is stated by ,jordan and ,evermann that all sorts of things have been found in cod stomachs1 such as oil cans1 finger rings1 rubber dolls1 rocks1 pieces of clothing1 etc4 ,the livers of the cod1 especially those of ,norwegian origin1 are extremely valuable1 being the source of cod liver oil1 which is considered by many to be the most valuable medicinal food known4 ,cod liver oil1 while not palatable1 is highly nutritious4 ,the cod livers contain1 according to some authorities1 over #fj distinct chemical substances1 many of which are highly important for their medicinal qualities4 ,the cod move in schools1 but not in such dense bodies as the mackerel1 herring1 and menhaden4 ,their movements are largely controlled by the temperature of the water and their desire for food4 ,this species probably does not reach a greater length than #c feet and a weight of more than #be pounds4 ,the average weight of the large-size cod in ,new ,england waters is about #ae pounds and on the ,grand ,banks of ,newfoundland #bj pounds4 ,the average weight of the small-size cod in these waters is about #ab pounds4 ,it is one of the most prolific of fishes4 ,the ovaries of a #ba-pound cod were found to contain #b1gjj1jjj eggs and of a #ge-pound cod #i1ajj1jjj eggs4 ,the eggs are very small and require about #ccg1jjj to make a quart4 ,the cod is one of the most valuable of all fishes from a commercial point of view and also on account of international relations4 ,on some occasions this country has apparently been on the verge of war with ,great ,britain respecting questions relating to the fisheries on the banks of ,newfoundland4 ,the ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,fisheries has probably done more to propagate the cod than any other variety of fish4 ,more than five hundred million cod fry have been liberated at different times by the ,bureau and the number in one year has approximated #ajj1jjj1jjj4 ,the color of the common cod is green or brown1 but is subject to very great variations1--sometimes it is yellow or red and a variety of tints are assumed4 ,composition4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #hb4fd percent ,protein1 #ae4gg #ie4ac percent ,fat1 4#cf #b4jg ,ash1 #a4bc #g4jh ,these data show that the flesh of cod fish is perhaps the most exclusively nitrogenous of any of the more abundant food fish4 ,the quantity of fat contained therein is less than of the total weight4 ,the flesh of the fresh cod is more largely composed of water than that of the ordinary fish1 containing approximately #hc percent of that substance4 ,the flesh of the cod itself is an unbalanced ration1 and needs to be eaten with butter and potatoes in order to make a complete ration4 ,the hake1 which is sometimes substituted for the cod without the knowledge of the purchaser1 has very much the same chemical constituents1 containing-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #hc4aa percent ,protein1 #ae4bd #ia4jj percent ,fat1 4#fg #c4ig ,ash1 4#if #e4gg ,it is seen that there is very little difference in the chemical composition of these two fishes4 ,this1 however1 does not justify the substitution of the hake for the cod1 inasmuch as the hake is inferior in palatability to the cod4 ,salted and ,dried ,cod4--,in the ,united ,states the cod is particularly devoted to the use of curing and salting1 and in this cured state is even more highly valued1 especially for the making of codfish balls1 than it is in its fresh state4 ,the old-fashioned method of salting and smoking produced a flesh of very high flavor1 yielding under proper treatment in the kitchen a most delicious base for the fish ball4 ,under the modern system of quick curing1 the salting and smoking have largely disappeared and the fish are cured in brine1 and with the help of borax a product is produced which is less palatable than the old-fashioned cured fish4 ,composition of dry ,salted and ,dried ,cod4-- ,protein1 #de4fe percent ,fat1 4#ec ,salt1 #ec4hb ,these data show that more than half of the weight in the water-free state is composed of salt4 ,the codfish is also put up as boned fish in which nothing but the flesh is found1 as desiccated cod1 as shredded codfish and in various other forms4 ,average ,composition of ,codfish ,balls4-- ,water1 #fe4dc percent ,solids1 #cd4eg ,nitrogen1 #a4je ,phosphoric acid1 4#be ,sulfur1 4#aj ,fat1 #g4hd ,ash1 #d4je ,protein1 #f4eh ,the difference between the composition of the fish balls and the average composition of fish is clearly brought out by the data recorded4 ,in the average composition of fish the sum of the fat1 ash1 and protein is greater than the solids obtained by difference by #j4cf percent4 ,in the codfish balls the sum of the ingredients mentioned is less than the solids by difference by #af4aj per cent4 ,this is due to the added potato1 salt1 etc4 ,average ,composition of ,shredded ,codfish4-- ,water1 #df4eb percent ,ash 7chiefly salt71 #bb4ha ,fat1 4#cc ,protein1 #cj4he ,eels4--,the common eel is a fish which is extremely long in proportion to its size and gives the general appearance1 to the uninitiated1 of a snake4 ,the resemblance of the eel to a snake in shape is probably one of the reasons why it is not more highly valued as a food4 ,the eels1 perhaps1 are not to be considered as true fish4 ,the common eel 7,anguilla chrysypa7 is widely distributed throughout most parts of the ,united ,states1 especially the eastern part4 ,it extends southward as far as the ,west ,indies1 and is found in more or less abundance on the ,gulf coast4 ,although a salt-water fish1 it differs from most other eels in its penchant for ascending fresh-water streams4 ,it often goes to the very headwaters1 especially in the rivers of the ,atlantic coast and ,mississippi valley4 ,eels are often found in lakes which seem to have had no communication with the sea1 which shows that they are able to surmount barriers which seem impossible to cross4 ,jordan and ,evermann claim that the eel is really a fresh-water fish and that its real home is in the fresh-water rivers and lakes1 and that it runs down to salt water only at spawning time1 thus showing a quality or characteristic exactly opposite to that of the salmon and shad1 which are true salt-water fish and come into fresh waters for spawning4 ,eels1 like the carp1 are more or less scavengers1 feeding upon all manner of refuse1 especially dead fish4 ,they are very destructive of other fish1 especially of young shad and herring4 ,when nets are placed for shad and herring and the fish are caught therein the eels often invade the net1 and when it is drawn it is filled largely with the skeletons of the fish1 the flesh of which has been removed by the eels4 ,eels have a high value as food fish1 both on account of their nutritive value and their flavor4 ,the average length of the eel is from #b to #c feet1 though much larger examples are sometimes found4 ,composition of the ,eel4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #ga4fj percent ,protein1 #ah4bh #fe4be percent ,fat1 #i4aa #ca4ib ,ash1 #a4ja #c4fj ,these data show that the eel is rather richer in fat than the majority of fish1 although there are some that exceed it in this constituent4 ,conger ,eel4--,the conger eel belongs to the family ,leptocephalid4 ,it inhabits salt water only1 is scaleless1 and grows to much larger sizes than the common eel1 sometimes as long as #g or #h feet4 ,it is not used for food in the ,united ,states1 but is to some extent in ,europe and the ,west ,indies4 ,on the east coast of the ,united ,states they do not occur very frequently4 ,only a few species are known1 and these are of small extent and have little food value4 ,summer ,flounder4--,this fish 7,paralichthys dentatus7 is quite abundant on the ,atlantic coast1 frequenting the coast from ,cape ,cod to the ,carolinas4 ,it reaches a length of from #b to #c feet and has a weight of about #ae pounds4 ,it is caught very extensively off the ,new ,england coast4 ,the principal fishing grounds are in the region of ,block ,island1 ,marthas ,vineyard1 and the eastern end of ,long ,island4 ,there is another species known as the southern flounder 7,paralichthys lethostigmus71 which flourishes from ,charleston southward1 and is found along the entire ,gulf coast4 ,there is also another species on the ,gulf coast called the ,gulf flounder 7,paralichthys albiguttus74 ,there is also a wide flounder or common flatfish 7,paralichthys americanus74 ,it is found on the coast of ,labrador and extends down to the ,carolinas4 ,it is especially abundant along the coast of southern ,new ,england4 ,it is a small species1 rarely being over #bj inches in length1 the average length being from #ab to #ae inches1 and weighs from #b to #c pounds4 ,this species of flounder has been extensively propagated by the ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,fisheries1 as many as #ajj1jjj1jjj fry having been planted in one season4 ,composition of ,summer ,flounder4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #hd4ba percent ,protein1 #ac4hb #hi4jc percent ,fat1 4#fi #d4df ,ash1 #a4bh #h4ae ,the flesh of this fish is particularly rich in water and poor in fat4 ,graylings4--,the graylings belong to a family very closely resembling the ,salmonid4 ,they occur chiefly in northern or ,arctic waters4 ,one species found in ,michigan is known as the ,michigan grayling4 ,it is a fish that is not only distinguished on account of its food value but also on account of its graceful shape and pleasing appearance4 ,another species occurs in ,montana1 and has been distributed very largely by the ,bureau of ,fisheries4 ,it is not a fish which is of any great economic importance4 ,the ,haddock4--,this is a fish very nearly related to the cod1 but it has a smaller mouth and differs in other essentials1 particularly in its chemical constituents1 from the cod4 ,the haddock has a food value which is probably not inferior to that of the cod4 ,it is one of our most abundant fishes1 and by some consumers the flesh is preferred to that of the cod4 ,the usual weight of the haddock is about #c or #d pounds4 ,it is1 therefore1 a much smaller fish than the cod4 ,the species is ,melanogrammus glefinus4 ,on the ,atlantic coast it does not occur north of the ,straits of ,belle ,isle4 ,the haddock is particularly abundant on the ,massachusetts coast in summer4 ,like the cod1 the haddock is well suited for salting1 smoking1 and curing in various ways4 ,it1 however1 has not been used to such an extent as the cod for those purposes1 finding a more ready market in the fresh state4 ,composition4-- ,water1 #ha4fi percent ,protein1 #af4hc ,fat1 4#be ,ash1 #a4bc ,in the dry substance4 ,protein1 #ic4hi percent ,fat1 #a4cd ,ash1 #f4gf ,the flesh of the haddock1 it is seen1 is even more exclusively nitrogenous than that of the cod4 ,the two species resemble each other very closely in composition4 ,the ,hake4--,there are several species of hakes1 family ,merluccid4 ,the common ,european hake is the species ,merluccius merluccius4 ,the hake which is found mostly in ,american waters is ,merluccius productus1 and occurs very abundantly on the ,pacific coast and is largely eaten as food4 ,the flesh1 however1 is rather coarse and not very palatable4 ,another species which is found on our ,atlantic coast from ,new ,england northward is ,merluccius bilinearis4 ,halibut4--,the halibut 7,hippoglossus hippoglossus7 is a fish which is highly esteemed and occurs in great quantities4 ,it is a fish which frequents northern waters1 and especially the ,north ,atlantic on the ,american coast4 ,it has not been taken south of ,montauk ,point1 but extends as far north as the coast of ,greenland1 and is also found about ,iceland and ,spitzbergen in a latitude of #hj degrees4 ,it does not like water above #de degrees ,f41 and is often found in water at the freezing point1 namely1 #cb degrees4 ,the halibut is also found on the ,pacific coast1 especially off ,oregon and ,washington and in ,british ,columbia and ,alaska4 ,it is one of the largest of food fish4 ,the fish weighing about #hj pounds are considered the best for food1 although the halibut sometimes reaches a weight of over #ejj pounds4 ,the male is always smaller than the female and less palatable4 ,the annual value of the halibut fisheries on the ,north ,atlantic coast is probably million dollars4 ,it is probably slightly more than this on the ,pacific coast1--in fact the ,pacific coast fisheries have grown so extensively that halibut is shipped eastward across the continent4 ,vast freight trains known as the 8,halibut ,express0 have been sent across the continent from ,vancouver to ,boston1 making the trip in six or seven days4 ,composition4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #ge4db percent ,protein1 #ah4ce #gg4ah percent ,fat1 #e4ag #ai4cb ,ash1 #a4jf #d4ci ,the halibut is a fish containing considerable quantities of fat1 and is not so peculiarly nitrogenous in its character as the cod or the haddock4 ,it1 therefore1 makes a better balanced ration than either of the other fish4 ,the halibut in the fresh state is esteemed fully as highly as the cod1 and the halibut steak is a very common part of the fish sold upon the market4 ,herring4--,the herrings form a very important group of fishes belonging to the family ,clupeid4 ,there are about #cj genera in the family and #aej species4 ,the herrings are essentially salt-water fishes and are usually found in large schools4 ,many species1 and some of these the most valuable for food1 ascend fresh-water streams for spawning4 ,certain species1 for instance1 are caught at the same season as the shad in the ,chesapeake and ,susquehanna4 ,there are a few species which remain permanently in fresh water4 ,the common herring 7,clupea harengus7 is one of the most important of the food fishes of the whole ,atlantic coast1 and really over almost all the north ,atlantic1 throughout which it is generally distributed4 ,the principal herring fisheries are in the ,north ,sea1 in ,denmark and ,norway4 ,important fisheries are also found off the coast of ,great ,britain1 ,belgium1 ,france1 and the ,united ,states4 ,it is estimated that as many as three billion herring may be found in a shoal covering a dozen square miles4 ,herring shoals of much larger extent are on record4 ,the herring do not frequent southern waters1 but are found in the cool and more northern waters of the ,atlantic4 ,on the coast of the ,united ,states it has been found as far south as ,cape ,hatteras1 though it does not occur very abundantly further south than ,new ,england4 ,the fish at the period of spawning are considered the most valuable for food purposes4 ,the herring is either sold in a fresh state or it may be smoked1 salted1 or pickled1 and in this condition is very extensively used as food4 ,a species of herring is found on the ,pacific coast known as ,california herring 7,clupea pallasii74 ,it does not differ very greatly in its general aspect from its relation on the ,atlantic coast4 ,this species occurs very abundantly in the region of ,puget ,sound1 especially in summer time1 and in southeast ,alaska4 ,they are extremely abundant in ,san ,francisco markets in the spring time1 so much so that it is difficult to find a sale for them4 ,the ,california herring are more highly valued and bring the highest price in the early winter1 when they are the fattest4 ,composition of ,herring4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #fi4jc percent ,protein1 #ah4df #fa4fi percent ,fat1 #aa4ja #ce4ee ,ash1 #a4ej #d4hc ,the above data show that the flesh of herring is particularly rich in fat4 ,in fact the herring is sometimes used as a source of oil4 ,in southeast ,alaska are extensive oil and guano works which utilize the herring for these purposes4 ,horse ,mackerel4--,another species belonging to the mackerel family is the horse mackerel or tuna 7,thunnus thynnus71 which is found in considerable abundance on our ,north ,atlantic coast and on the coast of southern ,california4 ,its common name is 8tuna10 8tunny10 8horse mackerel10 or 8great albacore40 ,the horse mackerel is a fish of very great size and is the very largest of the whole mackerel family4 ,they occasionally attain a length of #aj feet or more and a weight of #aejj pounds4 ,the average dimensions1 of course1 are very much less than this4 ,the horse mackerel does not grow so large in ,europe or upon the ,pacific coast4 ,in these regions a horse mackerel weighing #ejj pounds is considered of an extraordinary size4 ,the very large ones are never taken with hook and line1 but there are records of fish of over #bjj pounds that have been captured in this way4 ,the ,hogfish4--,the hogfish of the ,west ,indies and our southern coasts is another of the wrasse-fishes whose scientific name is ,lachnolaimus maximus4 ,it is called in ,porto ,rico 8el capitan40 ,it often reaches a weight of #bj pounds and a length of from #b to #c feet4 ,the name 8hogfish0 doubtless is derived from the shape of the head1 which resembles somewhat that of the hog4 ,it is valued as a food fish throughout the ,west ,indies4 ,lake ,herring4--,the so-called lake herring is very closely related to the whitefish4 ,the name of the species is ,argyrosomus artedi4 ,the lake herring has a large number of common names1 of which the most widely applied is the term 8,cisco40 ,the terms blueback1 greenback1 and grayback are also applied to these herring4 ,the habitat of this fish is that of the whole region of the ,great ,lakes and north to ,hudson ,bay4 ,it has much the same habitat as the whitefish4 ,the average weight of the lake herring is about one pound4 ,the subspecies 7,argyrosomus artedi sisco7 is found in ,lake ,tippecanoe and other small lakes in ,wisconsin and northern ,indiana4 ,composition of ,cisco4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #gf4ae percent ,protein1 #ai4ab #hj4ge percent ,fat1 #c4dh #ad4ei ,ash1 #a4be #e4be ,mackerel4--,the mackerel is a food fish which is very commonly used in a cured state in the interior of the country and is eaten fresh on the sea coast4 ,its habitat is principally the ,north ,atlantic ocean4 ,on the coast of the ,united ,states it is found from ,cape ,hatteras north to the ,strait of ,belle ,isle4 ,in ,europe it is found from ,norway southward to the ,mediterranean and ,adriatic4 ,the mackerel on the ,atlantic coast usually appear first in the spring near ,cape ,hatteras and following the custom of the shad are found later farther north in the ,new ,england states and also in the ,british possessions4 ,they leave the coast in the inverse order in the autumn1 disappearing first in the northern regions and later in the southern portion4 ,the mackerel is one of the most abundant of fishes in the ,atlantic ,ocean1 traveling in immense schools4 ,there is record of a school which was seen in #ahdh which was at least half a mile wide and #bj miles long4 ,in some seasons the mackerel is extremely abundant and in others very scarce4 ,the average catch is probably about #cjj1jjj barrels4 ,boston and ,gloucester are centers of the mackerel fishing industry4 ,it is estimated that from #aej to #cjj vessels of ,american bottoms are engaged in the mackerel industry4 ,the ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,fisheries has been particularly interested in the propagation of mackerel1 but the result has not been as satisfactory as in the case of many other fishes4 ,the young mackerel or small fishes are known as 8spikes10 8blinkers10 and 8tinkers40 ,when they are about two years old they measure from #e to #i inches in length4 ,the mackerel attains its full size at about the fourth year4 ,the scientific name of the common mackerel is ,scomber scombrus ,linnus4 ,composition of ,mackerel4--,edible portion3 ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #gc4cg percent ,protein1 #ah4bf #ga4ga percent ,fat1 #g4ji #bd4hh ,ash1 #a4bh #d4gh ,the above data show that the flesh of the mackerel is composed of about two-thirds protein and one-third fat and ash4 ,pickled mackerel1 salted mackerel1 and smoked mackerel are perhaps as highly valued for food purposes as the fresh fish itself4 ,menhaden4--,the menhaden is not used chiefly as a food fish but to some extent therefor4 ,it is one of the most abundant fishes taken upon our ,atlantic coast and is used almost exclusively as a source of oil1 the residue being dried and ground for fertilizing purposes4 ,in this sense it has great value because of the high nitrogen content of the residue and also of the considerable quantity of phosphoric acid which is contained therein4 ,the menhaden is known scientifically as ,brevoortia tyrannus4 ,up to #ahhj immense quantities of menhaden were taken off the ,atlantic coast4 ,since that time the supply has not been considered so great4 ,in the year #ahgg it is stated by ,jordan and ,evermann that one oil company took #bj million fish and in one town alone1 namely ,booth ,bay1 #ej million fish were caught4 ,the fecundity of the menhaden is very great1 exceeding that of the shad4 ,more than #adj1jjj eggs have been taken from a single fish4 ,the menhaden are not eaten very extensively in a fresh state as food but preserved in salt they have a considerable value for that purpose4 ,an extract has also been made from the flesh of the menhaden on the same principle of manufacture as is utilized in preparation of meat extracts4 ,the menhaden is known under a great number of common names1 some thirty of which have been enumerated by ,dr4 ,goode4 ,composition of ,menhaden4-- ,water1 #gg4ae percent ,fat1 #c4ia ,protein by difference1 #ah4id ,the water-free flesh contains 7including bones7 #ba4g percent of mineral matter4 ,composition of the ,mineral ,matter4-- ,lime1 #h4fg percent ,phosphoric acid1 #g4gh ,silicic acid1 #a4cc ,potash1 #a4ed ,soda1 #a4jb ,magnesia1 #j4fg ,chlorin1 #j4fi ----- ,total1 #ba4gj ,mullet4--,the mullet belongs to the ,mugilid1 an important family of fishes in which there are several genera and species4 ,the mullet is not particular about its food but is in the habit of swallowing large quantities of mud1 or rather partially swallowing it and separating the refuse and most obnoxious particles by means of the gills4 ,the common mullet or striped mullet 7,mugil cephalus7 is a widely distributed species4 ,this fish is common along the ,atlantic coast and in ,hawaii1 usually traveling in large schools1 and is most abundant in the shallow waters of the coast4 ,it sometimes reaches a length of two feet and is an important food fish4 ,the mullet is very abundant on the ,florida coasts4 ,while the mullet may be regarded as a scavenger1 living principally on mud1 it does not eat any other species of fish1 but is itself eaten by nearly all fishes that can gain access to it4 ,composition of the ,mullet4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #gd4hg percent ,protein1 #ai4cb #gg4ej percent ,fat1 #d4fd #ah4de ,ash1 #a4ag #d4ff ,muskallunge4--,a very noted member of this family is the muskallunge 7,esox masquinongy74 ,it is a native of the ,great ,lakes and is especially found in the upper ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,it is not a very abundant fish1 but is highly prized from the angler's point of view4 ,it is of very great size1 having been found as long as #h feet and weighing over #ajj pounds4 ,two other species of muskallunge are known1 one 7,esox ohiensis or the ,chautauqua muskallunge7 in the ,ohio river basin1 particularly in ,lake ,chautauqua1 where it has been artificially propagated with great success1 and the unspotted muskallunge 7,esox immaculatus71 which occurs sparingly in certain small lakes of northern ,wisconsin and ,minnesota4 ,composition of the ,muskallunge4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #gf4bf percent ,protein1 #ai4fc #hd4hg percent ,fat1 #b4ed #aj4gj ,ash1 #a4eg #f4fc ,the flesh of the muskallunge1 as is seen1 contains about four times as much fat as that of the pickerel1 and forms a ration which is not so unbalanced as that of the pickerel itself4 ,pickerel or ,pike4--,one species 7,esox reticulatus7 is of common occurrence along the ,atlantic coast and also in the fresh-water streams of the southern interior portions of the country4 ,the pike of the ,great ,lakes belongs to the species ,esox lucius ,linnus4 ,it is found in the fresh waters of ,north ,america1 ,europe1 and ,asia1 but is not found on the ,pacific coast except in ,alaska4 ,it reaches in some cases a large size1 having been found as much as #d feet in length and weighing #dj to #ej pounds4 ,the ,kankakee in northern ,indiana is a well-known fishing ground for this species of pike4 ,composition of ,pickerel4--,edible portion3 ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #gi4fh percent ,protein1 #ah4fd #ib4ae percent ,fat1 4#ej #b4dh ,ash1 #a4ah #e4hj ,the flesh of the pickerel1 as is seen1 is almost a pure type of protein4 ,the fat falls to an insignificant quantity1 being only about half as much as the ash4 ,wall-eyed ,pike4--,the wall-eyed pike or pike perch 7,stizostedion vitreum7 is a fish most abundant in ,lake ,champlain1 the ,great ,lakes1 and in eastern ,canadian lakes2 it occurs also in certain small lakes and streams in the upper ,mississippi valley4 ,in some localities it is known as the salmon or jack salmon1 but of course these are misnomers4 ,composition4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #ge4ga percent ,protein1 #ai4jc #gi4ca percent ,fat1 #d4jg #af4gd ,ash1 #a4ai #d4ib ,common ,pompano4--,the pompano 7family ,carangid7 is one of the food fishes which is most highly esteemed along the ,gulf coast4 ,it has been found as far north as ,cape ,cod on the ,atlantic coast1 but does not occur in sufficient numbers to make it of any economic value as a food fish north of ,florida4 ,it is taken chiefly in the ,gulf waters4 ,the average weight of the pompano is from #b to #c pounds1 though very much larger examples are sometimes found4 ,as a food fish there is none that is regarded more highly than the pompano1 especially when it is eaten fresh from the water and prepared in the manner of the creole cooks of ,new ,orleans4 ,composition4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #gb4gh percent ,protein1 #ah4fe #gb4cg percent ,fat1 #g4eg #bd4df ,ash1 #a4jj #c4hb ,these data show that the edible portion of the pompano is valued both for its protein and its fat4 ,the latter exists in quantities of approximately one-third of the former4 ,it is not so much its nutritive value which makes the pompano desirable as a food fish but the extreme delicacy of flavor and the richness of its taste4 ,it does not bear shipping well1 and therefore is found in its greatest perfection only near the place where it is taken4 ,in ,new ,orleans and in ,florida the pompano is one of the principal food fishes furnished by the high-class hotels and restaurants to their guests4 ,red ,snapper4--,the red snapper 7,lutianus aya7 is the most noted fish of all the snapper family 7,lutianid71 although there are others which are highly prized1 such as the gray snapper4 ,it sometimes reaches a length of two or three feet and a weight of from #aj to #ce pounds4 ,it is particularly abundant in the deep waters of the ,gulf of ,mexico and off the west coast of ,florida4 ,the red snapper bears shipping better than most of the ,gulf fish1 and ,pensacola is one of the principal points where the fish are packed in ice as soon as possible after capture and dispatched to northern markets4 ,composition4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #gh4df percent ,protein1 #ai4bj #ia4ge percent ,fat1 #a4jc #d4gj ,ash1 #a4ca #f4je ,this is another one of the fishes in which the edible portion is almost exclusively protein1 the fat appearing only in small quantities4 ,rock ,bass2 ,redeye2 ,goggle-eye 7,ambloplites rupestris74--,the rock bass is a very common fish particularly abundant in the fresh waters of the northern central portions of the ,united ,states4 ,it is the fish which the ,american boy1 living near small streams1 most delights to catch4 ,the size of the rock bass varies largely according to the magnitude of the body of water in which it lives4 ,the average weight of the fish in streams of ordinary size is probably about a pound1 though often it is considerably more4 ,the rock bass has been propagated to some extent by the ,bureau of ,fisheries and has been introduced into waters where it formerly did not occur4 ,salmon4--,the salmon is one of the most important food fishes of the ,united ,states4 ,it belongs to the genus ,oncorhynchus4 ,the five species of this genus are1 in ,america1 confined to our ,pacific coast4 ,of these species the one known as blueback or sockeye is found most abundantly in the ,fraser and ,columbia rivers and in ,alaska1 the silver salmon in ,puget ,sound1 the chinook salmon in the ,columbia1 and the dog salmon along the coast from ,california to ,bering ,sea4 ,the salmon begin running early in the spring and the early run is considered of greater value than the later4 ,the habits of the salmon in the deep waters of the ocean are not very well known4 ,it is only when they come into fresh water for spawning purposes that their life history can be well studied4 ,it is believed1 however1 that they do not go very far from the shore4 ,the run of salmon on the ,pacific coast usually begins about the latter part of ,march and lasts through the spring and greater part of the summer4 ,on account of the great abundance of these fish on the ,pacific coast and the distance from large markets the canning industry has developed with great rapidity4 ,in fact on the ,pacific coast the product of salmon fishing is devoted almost exclusively to canning purposes4 ,in the canning of salmon no particular care is taken1 and perhaps none at all to designate upon the can whether its contents are of the early salmon or the later1 less valuable run4 ,it is claimed by many authorities that the salmon of the ,pacific coast of ,america1 taken all together in their relation to the economic problem of fish food1 are the most important and valuable fish in the world4 ,composition of a ,pacific ,coast ,species4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #fc4fa percent ,protein1 #ag4df #eb4ca percent ,fat1 #ag4hg #di4je ,ash1 #a4jf #b4ib ,composition of ,atlantic ,salmon4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #fc4fa percent ,protein1 #ba4fj #fa4de percent ,fat1 #ac4ch #cf4hh ,ash1 #a4da #c4ha ,the above data show that the ,pacific salmon are richer in fat than the ,atlantic salmon4 ,in fact in the edible portion of the fish the fat is almost as great as the protein4 ,another species of ,pacific salmon is the humpback salmon 7,oncorhynchus gorbuscha71 which appears in great abundance in the rivers of ,alaska1 but not every year1--usually coming in larger quantities in alternating years4 ,as a fish to be eaten fresh1 this is one of the very best of the salmons4 ,owing to the pale color of the flesh1 this species does not hold as high a rank for canning purposes4 ,it cans well1 however1 and the product is very palatable and doubtless very nutritious4 ,the trade-name of the canned product is 8pink salmon10 as its flesh is of a paler color than that of the chinook salmon or red salmon4 ,another species is known as dog salmon4 ,it is found in considerable abundance from ,california northward to ,bering ,strait1 spawning usually late in the fall4 ,it is considered as the least valuable for food purposes1 although it is now coming to be used very extensively by freezing1 in which form it finds a ready market both in this country and abroad4 ,when canned it is put on the market as 8chum40 ,its chief interest at the present time is on account of the fact that it is sometimes sold under the names of better species4 ,chinook ,salmon 7,oncorhynchus tschawytscha74--,this species is also known as quinnat1 king1 ,columbia river1 and ,sacramento river salmon4 ,it is1 next to the sockeye1 the most important of all salmon in commercial value4 ,the individuals of this species reach a larger size than those of any other4 ,they have been known to weigh #ij pounds1 and fish of from #dj to #fj pounds in weight are not infrequently taken4 ,the average weight of the king salmon which are captured in the ,columbia river is probably not far from #bb pounds1 while those that run further south1 for instance in the ,sacramento river1 average #af pounds4 ,another species1 known as silver salmon 7,oncorhynchus kisutch71 also has a number of other names1 mostly of ,eastern or ,russian origin4 ,it is quite an important member of the genus and its average weight is about #e pounds4 ,it is very valuable as a food fish1 only the ,chinook and blueback salmon going ahead of it4 ,it is also a species which bears shipment in a fresh state very well4 ,the silver salmon resembles very closely the ,chinook1 but is easily distinguished therefrom by experienced fishermen4 ,the canned product of this species is usually put on the market as 8medium red0 or 8coho0 salmon1 names which have now come to have a definite meaning and are perfectly understood by the trade4 ,the ,sockeye or ,blueback ,salmon 7,oncorhynchus nerka74--,this is the species which has the greatest commercial value and forms a large part of the catch of the ,pacific coast4 ,it is the most abundant of all the species of salmon in ,alaska4 ,its flesh has a rich red or 8salmon0 color1 and lends itself admirably to canning processes4 ,in palatability and attractiveness as a canned product it is not inferior to any1 unless1 possibly1 the ,columbia river chinook4 ,canning of ,salmon4--,the canning of salmon is one of the most important of the fish industries of the ,united ,states4 ,the immense coast line possessed by the ,united ,states on the west1 which is so vastly extended by the ,alaskan coast and ,aleutian ,islands1 affords the most extensive fisheries of salmon in the world4 ,as has already been stated1 there are no large markets in that region in which the fresh salmon can find a purchaser4 ,the fish1 therefore1 must be neglected as a food product or else prepared in some way to enable them to be shipped to great distances4 ,probably the most unobjectionable way is by canning4 ,the principles of the canning of salmon are not different at all from those which underlie the sterilization of any kind of food4 ,the establishments in which the canning takes place are perhaps the most extensive in the world4 ,the prime necessity in these cases is to secure complete sterilization4 ,in the case of fish any failure to secure the proper sterilization is the more reprehensible1 because fish decompose so readily1 forming fermentative products which are extremely poisonous4 ,cases of poisoning from eating canned salmon have been reported1 and in some cases they may prove fatal4 ,every can of salmon which is to be eaten ought to be examined carefully in order to see if there are any incipient signs of decomposition4 ,a bad smelling or otherwise imperfect can should be rejected without question4 ,only the fish which is perfectly fresh to the taste and odor and which gives no signs of any kind of deterioration should be eaten4 ,when properly prepared1 canned salmon affords a delicacy as well as a food product which can hardly be too highly prized4 ,composition of ,canned ,salmon4--,mean of three samples4 ,water-free substance3 ,protein1 #ec4eb percent ,fat1 #dj4eb ,ash1 #f4bd ,the ,salmon of the ,atlantic ,coast4--,as has already been noted1 the ,pacific salmon belong to a different genus from the common ,atlantic salmon1--,salmo salar4 ,there is a very close resemblance between the two genera1 and the common name 8salmon0 is applied to the individuals of each4 ,the ,atlantic salmon is a fish which has been known from the earliest time4 ,the ,roman people became acquainted with it in the early history of the ,republic1 and especially when they conquered ,gaul and ,britain4 ,it is found distributed over the whole ,north ,atlantic coast1 but especially the northern portion from ,massachusetts northward4 ,the salmon extends1 as far as observations have been made1 beyond even the ,arctic circle1 and the same species is found upon the western and northern shores of ,europe4 ,the salmon enters the ,st4 ,lawrence and has been found as far up as ,niagara ,falls4 ,our principal fisheries for this species are in ,maine and in ,canada1 ,nova ,scotia1 and ,new ,brunswick4 ,they do not extend southward beyond the ,delaware and have rarely been found in that river4 ,the shad and salmon were particularly abundant in early colonial days4 ,the shad were so abundant that they were not regarded as useful for food purposes1 but their value as a fertilizer was taught to the whites by the ,indians4 ,salmon1 apparently1 were equally abundant1 and it was considered an affront to offer salmon more than twice a week even to servants4 ,in this respect they were on the same plane as the diamond back terrapin and canvas back duck1 which were so abundant1 in those days1 that they were a drug on the market4 ,the salmon enters the fresh-water streams for the purpose of spawning4 ,the eggs are largely laid late in the fall1 and in that case do not hatch until the next spring4 ,the ,atlantic salmon often reach a very large size4 ,individuals have been known to weigh from #dj to even #hj pounds4 ,the average weight of the salmon taken in ,maine waters is about #aj pounds each4 ,another valued specimen of salmon is known as the ,sebago salmon 7,salmo sebago71 from the lake in which it occurs4 ,it is a fresh-water fish1 having been doubtless landlocked in some way after originally entering from the sea4 ,still a third species is the famous ouananiche 7,salmo ouananiche71 inhabiting the waters of the ,lake ,st4 ,john region north of ,quebec4 ,composition of ,atlantic ,salmon4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #gf4gd percent ,protein1 #ah4eb #gi4ac percent ,fat1 #c4fj #ae4cb ,ash1 #a4ad #d4ic ,composition of ,sebago ,salmon4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #gh4ed percent ,protein1 #ag4bd #gh4jj percent ,fat1 #b4ih #ac4gd ,ash1 #a4bd #e4gf ,the above data show a striking difference in the composition of the edible portions of ,pacific and ,atlantic salmon4 ,this difference is shown chiefly in the relative proportion of fat4 ,in the ,pacific salmon the fat approaches in quantity the protein1 while in the ,atlantic salmon the protein is much greater than the fat4 ,the ,atlantic salmon is used chiefly in the fresh state for two reasons1 first1 because the catch is very much smaller than that of the ,pacific species while the markets are very much more numerous and very much larger2 second1 because it is commercially more profitable to dealers in the fresh state4 ,in ,europe and ,scotland the salmon is constantly used in a fresh state during the whole of the summer and a dinner is scarcely considered complete without it4 ,it is also very commonly used at luncheon4 ,it is generally eaten cold and offers a food product of high palatability and great nutritive value in so far as the protein is concerned4 ,eaten with plenty of potato1 as it usually is1 it forms a reasonably well-balanced ration4 ,the ,american visitor who is not used to eating salmon every day is likely to find its constant occurrence upon the ,english table in the summer to be a bit trying to his taste4 ,sardines4--,the sardine belongs to the herring family--in fact small herring along the coast of ,maine are put up as sardines4 ,the sardines are very closely related to the herrings1 but there are rather important differences4 ,the ,european sardine1 which is known as the sardine1 is the ,sardinia pilcharda1 and does not occur on the coast of the ,united ,states4 ,the species existing on the ,pacific coast is known as the ,california sardine 7,sardinia crulea74 ,it is quite abundant on the ,california coast and spawns in the open sea4 ,it resembles very strongly the ,european sardine1 but has no teeth4 ,the ,spanish sardine 7,sardinia pseudohispanica7 is found rather abundantly in ,cuba and is often carried northward in the ,gulf ,stream as far as ,woods ,hole or ,cape ,cod4 ,it is about #h inches in length and of high food value1 resembling very closely the ,european sardine4 ,there has been a good deal of discussion as to whether or not small herring which are packed as sardines in the ,united ,states should be allowed1 under the food laws of the various states and of the ,united ,states1 to be sold by that name4 ,the answer to this is that any deception in the label should be avoided4 ,the herring1 however1 belongs to the same genus as the true sardine1 and1 differing from it only in the variation of species1 may have some right to the name4 ,the true ethical principles of trade1 however1 would require that they should be named ,maine sardines or herring sardines and not bear the name simply sardines1 which is reserved exclusively for the species ,sardinia pilcharda4 ,composition of ,canned ,sardines4-- ,water1 #ef4cg percent ,water-free substance1 #dc4fc ,protein1 #bd4hg ,fats1 #ab4ga ,ash1 #e4jj ,sodium chlorid1 #j4fa ,the above data are based upon the analysis of the sample after the oil has been separated by drainage4 ,european ,sardines4--,the sardine is eaten fresh along the ,spanish and ,french coast1 where they are taken in great abundance and form a delicious food in this condition4 ,the number which is given to a single individual is quite generous1 as the writer has had served him on the ,mediterranean coast in ,spain as many as twenty fresh sardines at one order4 ,the number1 however1 was not found any too large when the palatability of the product is taken into consideration4 ,sardines are preserved by salt and smoke and particularly by packing in oil4 ,method of ,packing in ,oil4--,the sardines after proper cleaning are heated in oil for the purpose of sterilizing them4 ,olive oil is usually employed for this purpose1 though some packers prefer to heat the fish in peanut oil1 claiming that it gives them a better color4 ,there seems to be1 however1 no sufficient ground for this claim4 ,the peanut oil is probably used simply because it is cheaper4 ,when the fish are thus sterilized and thoroughly cooked they are placed in boxes in the well known manner in which they are found and covered with oil1 sealed1 and1 if necessary1 again sterilized in order to prevent decomposition4 ,olive oil is the oil usually employed for packing purposes1 though cheaper grades of edible oil are very commonly found in sardines4 ,the substitutes for olive oils which are usually employed are peanut oil1 cottonseed oil1 and sesame oil1 either single or mixed4 ,when the sardines have been previously boiled in a cheaper oil and then packed with olive oil the olive oil will be contaminated with the cheaper oil used in the boiling4 ,adulteration of ,sardines4--,as indicated above1 the chief adulteration of sardines is in the misbranding respecting the nature of the fish and the oil used in packing4 ,a young herring packed in the manner of a sardine properly demands a special label instead of the word 8sardine0 alone4 ,a difference respecting the misbranding in regard to the oil employed is avoided by the statement on the package of the character of the oil used4 ,the phrase 8,sardines packed in oil0 should be construed always to mean in the highest grade oil1 that is1 olive oil4 ,this phrase1 however1 is usually employed when inferior oils are used4 ,inasmuch as oil is not the name of any individual product but of a large class of products1 including that of both animal and vegetable origin1 it is generally held that the term 8oil0 is not a sufficient indication of the character of the oil used4 ,in all cases the packages should designate the special kind of oil used in the preparation4 ,the addition of chemical preservatives to sardines in so far as the author knows1 is not practiced1 at least not to any appreciable extent4 ,the ,french ,fisheries4--,the sardine fisheries in ,france are mostly off the coast of ,brittany1 and are subject to many very serious fluctuations4 ,for instance1 the present year1 #aijf1 has been one of disaster to the ,french fisheries4 ,what is the cause of the disappearance of the pilchard 7the true sardine7 is not known4 ,the fishermen think that large fish have driven the small ones either into the ,bay of ,biscay or the ,mediterranean1 or even to the west shores of ,africa4 ,the fish are thought to originate in the ,mediterranean1 and their name is derived from the fact that they were originally found in great quantities off the coast of ,sardinia4 ,when the spring comes and the fine weather is established they migrate first along the coast of ,spain1 finally reaching the ,french coast some time during the month of ,may4 ,by this time the young fish are nearly grown to a proper size for catching4 ,the fishing1 however1 does not really begin until ,july and is usually finished by ,november4 ,the little town of ,concarneau is the seat of these fisheries4 ,about two thousand small boats go out from this town and at or near this place are also the large canneries and packing establishments4 ,the fishing grounds are about five miles from the coast and the small boats sail out from two to four o'clock in the morning4 ,the fishing is by means of nets and a very important part of the work is the spreading of the bait upon the surface of the water to attract the fish4 ,the principal bait or roque is the roe of the cod1 which sometimes reaches a price of #fj per barrel4 ,sometimes a single boat will use from #cj to #dj barrels of bait4 ,only the most skilled fisherman1 usually the master himself1 is allowed to distribute this precious material4 ,as many as one hundred thousand fish have been caught in the net1 though this magnitude of catch is1 of course1 exceptional4 ,when the fish are brought ashore they are counted into baskets1 about #bjj to a basket1 and those unfit for use are thrown out4 ,they are taken to the canneries as quickly as possible to be cleaned1 boiled1 dipped in oil1 and then hermetically sealed into a tin in which they are sent into commerce4 ,adulteration4--,the chief adulteration of sardines is found in misbranding as to country of origin4 ,the ,french catch has the highest reputation of any in the world and for this reason the label is often made to represent the fish as of ,french origin when in reality they are caught on the shores of ,spain or of other countries4 ,formerly the fish were brought in great numbers from the ,spanish coast into ,france4 ,they were naturally much deteriorated in transit4 ,nevertheless they were tinned and marked as of pure ,french origin4 ,this practice has now been forbidden by law in ,france4 ,the ,norwegian fish known as ,sprtten 7sprats7 on the ,german and ,holland coasts are packed as sardines and sent into this country as sardines4 ,scup4--,the scup is a fish 7family ,sparid7 which is taken in great abundance on our ,atlantic coast in the summer and autumn and is brought in immense quantities to the market4 ,the proper name of the fish is ,stenotomus chrysops4 ,composition4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #gd4ii percent ,protein1 #ah4eb #ge4cc percent ,fat1 #e4aa #ai4be ,ash1 #a4ch #e4fd ,the flesh of this fish is a better balanced ration than that of the red snapper1 the proportion of fat being much larger4 ,shad4--,one of the most important food fishes on the ,atlantic coast is the shad4 ,it is found along the whole ,atlantic coast1 coming into fresh water for spawning1 where it is caught for food purposes4 ,the shad begin to appear in the streams of the south ,atlantic coast early in the winter and as the spring advances they go northward4 ,they appear in the ,potomac in ,april and ,may1 and later in the ,delaware and ,connecticut rivers and other fresh-water streams further north4 ,the fish is1 therefore1 to be had fresh upon the market over a long period of time4 ,the common shad is known scientifically as ,alosa sapidissima 7,wilson74 ,as a result of the work of the ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,fisheries the shad has been introduced into the waters of the ,pacific coast where none was found originally4 ,the shad fry were first introduced into the ,sacramento river and afterward into the ,columbia river4 ,the environments on the ,pacific coast were found congenial4 ,the fish soon found grounds on which they could spawn1 and they have spread over almost the entire length of the ,pacific coast4 ,it has1 of late1 become a very common and abundant food fish on the ,pacific coast and has lost none of its palatability by transplanting4 ,science has not been able to ascertain anything of very great interest respecting the life of the shad in the sea4 ,when they leave the rivers they practically disappear1 and are not known again until the next spawning season returns4 ,for spawning purposes the shad prefer a water temperature of from #ee to #fe degrees4 ,whenever the temperature goes above the latter figure they begin to disappear4 ,the males and females go in separate schools4 ,the males usually precede the females4 ,it is stated by ,jordan and ,evermann that of #fa1jjj shad received at the ,washington market from ,march #ai to #bd1 #ii percent were male4 ,as the season advanced the males became very much less frequent and at the end extremely scarce4 ,the ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,fisheries has taken especial pains to increase the number of shad in all waters4 ,during the spring of #aijj there were artificially planted in the ,atlantic coast streams over #bdj1jjj1jjj young shad4 ,one fish often contains as many as #aej1jjj eggs4 ,the average number1 however1 is about #cj1jjj4 ,shad roe is the most valuable part of the fish and brings a much higher price in the market than an equal weight of fish itself4 ,planked shad is one of the greatest delicacies of the ,washington markets4 ,at ,marshall ,hall1 opposite ,mount ,vernon1 there are given a great many shad bakes during the season4 ,oak wood is placed in long lines and burned1--oak planks are set up on each side of the line of burning wood1 inclined at an angle of about #fj or #gj degrees4 ,on these oak planks the shad are cooked1 held usually by driving a nail through the head1--the cut surface being exposed to the heat of the burning fire4 ,in addition to being cooked in this way the fish absorbs a small amount of the empyreumatic odors of the burning wood4 ,during the baking the shad are treated from time to time with melted butter4 ,there is no other way which a shad can be cooked which renders it so delicious as by this primitive method4 ,the shad1 from an economic point of view1 is third in importance in the ,united ,states1 only the salmon and the cod exceeding it in value4 ,the annual catch of shad on the ,atlantic sea coast numbers from #aj to #bj million1 weighing from #dj to #fj million pounds and worth from one and one-half to two million dollars4 ,composition of ,shad4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #gj4fb percent ,protein1 #ah4ef #fd4cf percent ,fat1 #i4dg #ca4ic ,ash1 #a4ce #d4fb ,of the whole weight of shad the average edible portion amounts to #eb4ce percent1 and the refuse1 counting the bones1 skin1 and entrails is #dg4fe percent4 ,shad ,roe4--,the eggs of shad1 as has already been mentioned1 are regarded as the most valuable portion of the fish4 ,roe shad also are more highly prized as a food fish than the male shad4 ,as a result1 roe shad sell for a much higher price on the market than the male shad4 ,the eggs are quite small1 and as has already been said1 occur in immense numbers1 the average number to a fish being about #cj1jjj4 ,composition of ,shad ,roe4-- ,water1 #ga4b percent ,protein1 #bc4d ,fat1 #c4h ,ash1 #a4f ,aside from the water of the roe1 it is noticed that by far the most abundant component is the protein4 ,this1 of course1 is what would be expected of an egg product4 ,the protein is a little more than six times as great as the fat4 ,the ash contains large quantities of phosphorus1 which exists in the original egg1 largely in the form of lecithin1 in which state it is regarded as most valuable for nourishing the phosphatic tissues of the body4 ,shad roe is eaten almost entirely in the fresh state4 ,it does not produce a pickled or cooked product of anything like the value of the sturgeon eggs4 ,so far as the author knows no form of shad egg preparation similar to caviar is on the market4 ,there are three species of shad in ,america1 but the only one of great importance is the common ,atlantic shad which has been described4 ,the ,sheepshead4--,this abundant and important food fish exists in large numbers along the ,atlantic coast4 ,it also belongs to the ,sparid and its scientific name is ,archosargus probatocephalus4 ,this species is found from ,cape ,cod to ,texas4 ,it is especially found in the vicinity of oyster beds1 where it is destructive to the oysters4 ,it is quite abundant in the ,indian river1 being1 next to the mullet1 the most frequently found fish in those waters4 ,though strictly a salt-water fish1 it often runs up into fresh waters4 ,the fish is distinguished by the number of broad silvery colored bands extending around its entire body4 ,the average weight of the sheepshead is three or four pounds1 though occasionally a fish three or four times that size is captured4 ,composition of ,sheepshead4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #ge4ee percent ,protein1 #ai4ed #hc4dg percent ,fat1 #c4fi #ac4ei ,ash1 #a4bb #e4ad ,the ,smelt4--,the smelt belongs to a family which has a number of species1 some of which are very abundant in ,europe1 where they are highly prized even to a greater extent than in this country for food4 ,the smelt is a small fish1 very long in proportion to its breadth4 ,the ,american smelt 7,osmerus mordax7 is found very abundantly on the ,atlantic coast north of ,new ,york4 ,although a sea fish1 it often enters rivers and becomes landlocked in lakes4 ,it is found abundantly in ,lakes ,champlain and ,memphremagog and many of the ,new ,england and ,nova ,scotian lakes4 ,the smelt in early times was a very abundant fish4 ,composition of the ,smelt4--,edible portion3 ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #gi4af percent ,protein1 #ag4cg #hd4ca percent ,fat1 #a4gi #h4fe ,ash1 #a4fh #h4af ,these data show that the flesh of the smelt is very rich in protein1 the fat falling to a very small proportion of the total edible substance4 ,spanish ,mackerel4--,this is a very highly prized fish and is eaten largely in the fresh state along the ,atlantic coast4 ,its scientific name is ,scomberomorus maculatus4 ,the catch is subject to great variations4 ,in early years the ,spanish mackerel was scarcely known on our coast1 but in the last forty years it has assumed considerable importance4 ,although more abundant than formerly it still commands a very high price4 ,the weight of the full-grown mackerel is usually from five to eight pounds1 though occasionally very large individuals are taken4 ,jordan and ,evermann speak of one which was #da inches long and weighed #be pounds4 ,composition4--,edible portion3 ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #fh4aj percent ,protein1 #bj4ig #fg4be percent ,fat1 #i4dc #bi4ef ,ash1 #a4ej #d4ga ,in this fish it is seen that the fat is a little less than one-third the quantity of the protein4 ,sturgeon4--,the sturgeon belongs to the family of ,acipenserid4 ,they are large fishes frequenting the sea and also the fresh waters of northern regions4 ,most of the species are anadromous1 entering fresh water and ascending the streams in spring4 ,there are two genera belonging to this family and #bj species that are well defined1 although about #ajj nominal species have been described4 ,the white sturgeon or ,oregon sturgeon is found on the ,pacific coast from ,monterey north to ,alaska4 ,it ascends the large rivers during the spring1 notably the ,sacramento1 ,columbia1 and ,fraser rivers4 ,some of them are very large and their value for food and commercial purposes has only been lately recognized4 ,they are principally valuable1 however1 for their eggs or roe1 since it is from the eggs of sturgeon that caviar is made4 ,the roe in the fresh state is worth from #be to #cj cents a pound4 ,the fresh fish are frozen and shipped to ,eastern markets4 ,the common sturgeon 7,acipenser sturio7 frequents the east and north ,atlantic coast and ascends the rivers in the spring1 especially the ,delaware4 ,the quantity of sturgeon taken1 however1 has constantly decreased for several years4 ,the principal part of the caviar made in the ,united ,states is procured from the common sturgeon and the ,lake sturgeon1 which is found in the ,great ,lakes1 the upper ,mississippi ,valley1 and the ,lake of the ,woods4 ,preparation of ,caviar4--,after the eggs have been removed from the fish1 they are placed in large masses upon a stand1 the top of which is formed of a small-meshed screen4 ,on the under side is placed a zinc-lined trough1 about #ah inches deep1 #b feet wide and #d feet long4 ,the operator gently rubs the mass of eggs back and forth over the screen1 whose mesh is just large enough to let the eggs drop through as they are separated from the enveloping membrane4 ,they thus fall into the trough from which they are drawn off into tubs through a sliding door in one end of the trough4 ,after all the roe has been separated1 the tub is removed and a certain proportion of the best ,luneberg salt is added and mixed with the eggs by careful stirring with the hands4 ,this is the most delicate part of the whole process1 and the best results can be obtained by that proficiency which comes from long experience4 ,after adding the salt1 the eggs at first become dry1 but in #aj or #ae minutes the salt has drawn from the eggs their watery constituents and a copious brine is formed1 which is poured off when the tub becomes too full4 ,the salted eggs are then poured into fine-meshed sieves which hold about #aj pounds each1 where they are allowed to drain for #h to #bj hours4 ,the eggs have now become the caviar of commerce1 which is put in casks or cans of various sizes4 ,composition of the ,flesh of ,sturgeon4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #gh4ga percent ,protein1 #ag4if #he4ai percent ,fat1 #a4ij #h4ij ,ash1 #a4dc #f4gb ,composition of ,caviar4-- ,water1 #ff4je percent ,protein1 #ad4cg ,fat1 #h4ig ,ash1 #g4bf ,undetermined1 #c4ce ,of the ash1 #f4af parts of the #g4bf present are common salt4 ,composition of the ,eggs of ,fish4--,attention has been called to the valuable food properties of the eggs of fishes4 ,the roe of a number of fishes is celebrated both for flavor and food value4 ,the two most important roes are those of the sturgeon1 used in the manufacture of caviar1 and the roe of shad1 used principally in the fresh state4 ,composition of ,roe4--,the composition of shad roe1 fresh sturgeon caviar1 and pickled caviar is given in the following table3 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,water4 ,,protein4 ,,fat4 ,,ash4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,percent,percent,percent,percent ,shad roe1 #ga4be #bc4dd #c4gh #a4ec ,fresh caviar1 #ef4ig #bg4hg #b4he #b4ca ,pickled caviar1 #ej4ib #bg4ib #ac4ei #g4eg ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,the above data show a marked difference between the composition of shad roe and sturgeon roe1 the latter being very much richer in fat and also containing a greater quantity of ash4 ,the large quantity of ash in the pickled caviar is doubtless due to the common salt used in the curing4 ,there is not a very great difference between the composition of the roe and that of the flesh of fish4 ,the roe is essentially a nitrogenous food1 also with a considerable quantity of fat and with a certain amount of mineral matter4 ,it contains less water than the flesh of fish1 and1 therefore1 pound for pound in the fresh state has a larger quantity of nutrients4 ,otherwise1 for food purposes1 there is but little difference4 ,it is doubtless true1 however1 that the mineral matters of the roe are somewhat different from those of the flesh of fish in containing a larger quantity of organic phosphorus in the form of lecithin4 ,striped ,bass4--,the striped bass or rock 7,roccus lineatus7 is a fish of the family ,serranid and quite common in the ,potomac4 ,it occurs commonly around the ,atlantic coast4 ,its scientific name is ,roccus lineatus4 ,it is taken in all waters along the coast from the ,carolinas to ,new ,england1 and especially near the mouth of the ,potomac and in ,chesapeake ,bay4 ,it is a fairly common as well as one of the best food fishes at ,washington and in many of the fish markets on the ,atlantic coast4 ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #gg4gj percent ,protein1 #ah4ca #hc4bh percent ,fat1 #b4hc #ab4ej ,ash1 #a4af #e4bb ,sole4--,the term 8sole0 is applied here to certain species of flounders and the two terms are sometimes used synonymously4 ,the true soles1 however1 of which there are several species1 belong to a distinct though closely related family4 ,the species of flounder to which the term 8sole0 is generally given is ,eopsetta jordani4 ,it occurs along the ,pacific coast from ,monterey to ,puget ,sound4 ,large numbers are taken in ,monterey ,bay4 ,the average weight of this 8sole0 is about three pounds4 ,it is highly esteemed as a food fish4 ,they are dried in great numbers by the ,chinese1 who suspend them by strings on a frame placed on the roofs of the houses1 where1 after they become dry1 they strike against each other when moved by the wind1 producing a sound which is something like that emanating from the leaves of a forest4 ,tautog4--,the ,tautoga onitis is one of the wrasse-fishes 7family ,labrid7 and is abundant along the ,atlantic coast from ,new ,brunswick to the ,carolinas4 ,east of ,new ,york it is commonly called the 8tautog40 ,on the ,new ,york coast it is known as 8blackfish10 and further south as the 8oyster fish40 ,tilefish4--,the tilefish is interesting not because of its high food value but because of the fact that it was discovered by accident in #ahgi when a fisherman off the coast of ,nantucket captured #ejjj pounds of a fish which was new to him4 ,the species was also new to science4 ,this fish disappeared as suddenly as it came and no more were caught until #ahib4 ,since then they have been taken rather frequently4 ,the tilefish reaches a length sometimes of three feet and a weight of #cj pounds4 ,it is pronounced by experts to be the equal of the pompano4 ,trout4--,trout1 of which there are many species1 are greatly prized both on account of their value as game fishes1 affording sport for anglers1 and because of their high palatable qualities4 ,they belong to the same family as the ,atlantic salmon and often it is difficult to distinguish by any of its common characteristics a trout from a salmon4 ,this is especially true of trout of western ,america4 ,the species of trout which are most highly prized on the ,pacific coast are the cut-throat trout 7,salmo clarkii71 the rainbow trout 7,salmo iridens71 and the steel-head 7,salmo gairdneri74 ,the familiar silver trout of ,lake ,tahoe is another closely related species4 ,they are distinguished by a remarkable system of spots of a circular form1 black in color1 and of varying size4 ,the ,lake ,tahoe trout which is commonly secured is not the same as the silver trout of ,lake ,tahoe but is of a little different character1 and is also known as the ,truckee ,trout1 8,pogy10 and 8,snipe40 ,it reaches a weight of from three to six pounds and is sometimes served on the dining cars of the ,central ,pacific ,railway1 in running through ,idaho and into ,california4 ,various other species of the trout are found in ,utah1 in the ,rio ,grande and the ,colorado1 and in the lakes of ,colorado4 ,perhaps the most important of these is the steel-head trout occurring along the ,pacific coast4 ,the rainbow trout is also a fish that is highly prized along the ,pacific coast4 ,the brook trout of western ,oregon is also an important fish4 ,the ,trout of the ,great ,lakes4--,the fish known as trout in the ,great ,lakes belong to a different genus from those already mentioned1 namely1 genus ,cristivomer4 ,it has1 however1 the typical spots1 which are of a grayish color instead of red or black like those of the other trout which have been mentioned4 ,the principal species which abounds in the ,great ,lakes is the ,mackinaw trout 7,cristivomer namaycush74 ,it is also found in the large lakes from ,maine westward to the ,pacific ocean and even to northern ,alaska4 ,this is the largest species of trout4 ,the average weight of the fish probably does not exceed #ae or #bj pounds4 ,individual examples have been found weighing over #ajj pounds4 ,there is only one common fish which exceeds it in weight1 namely1 the sturgeon4 ,next to the white fish it is the most important commercial fish of the ,great ,lakes4 ,the supply of lake trout has been diminishing and the price increasing for several years4 ,the spawning season of lake trout begins in ,september and continues until ,december4 ,composition of ,lake ,trout4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #fi4ad percent ,protein1 #ah4bb #fj4aj percent ,fat1 #aa4ch #cf4hj ,ash1 #a4bf #d4ij ,composition of ,brook ,trout4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #gg4gb percent ,protein1 #ah4ig #hf4fb percent ,fat1 #b4aj #i4af ,ash1 #a4ba #e4ci ,the above data show that lake trout has a flesh which approximates in composition that of ,pacific salmon1 being quite rich in fat1 while the brook trout has a composition more like the ,atlantic salmon1 being very rich in protein and poor in fat4 ,trout of all kinds are used practically in only a fresh state4 ,the catch is not large enough to warrant the establishment of canning factories and all that are caught in the northern and central northern lakes and streams find a ready market in a fresh state at much more remunerative prices than could be obtained by canning4 ,it is always a fortunate circumstance when the condition of the catch and of the market are such as to enable the fish to be eaten as fresh as possible from the water4 ,fish is a kind of food which is never improved by keeping in any way and is at its best the minute the fish is taken from the stream4 ,the brook trout do not belong to the same genus as the lake trout but to the genus ,salvelinus4 ,they have a general resemblance1 however1 to that genus4 ,as a fish to be caught by the hook and as a victim of sport the brook trout perhaps occupies the highest place among the fish of the country2 especially is it sought for in the mountain streams1 and it occurs in most parts of the northeastern ,united ,states4 ,it extends from ,maine to northern ,georgia and ,alabama1 especially in the ,appalachian ,mountains and west through the ,great ,lakes to the ,mississippi1 while in ,canada it is found from ,labrador to the ,saskatchewan4 ,the brook trout has been especially cultivated by the ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,fisheries and introduced into waters in the ,united ,states where it is not found naturally4 ,the season for spawning for the brook trout is in the autumn1 when the water is growing colder1 and continues from ,august to ,december1 according to the latitude4 ,in spawning time the fish come up into the smallest parts of the stream where shallow water can be found4 ,the eggs remain until the next spring1 when they are hatched4 ,the brook trout varies greatly in size1 according to the magnitude of the stream4 ,in the small streams it weighs often less than pound1 while in large streams it weighs #b or #c pounds4 ,the large trout has almost disappeared from the small streams as a result of the activity of fishermen4 ,there are many other species of trout which are known in different parts of the country4 ,for instance1 the ,dublin ,pond trout of ,dublin ,pond1 ,n4 ,h41 the ,dolly ,varden trout in the northern ,pacific states and ,alaska1 the ,sunapee trout in the northeastern states1 and the ,blueback trout in ,maine4 ,these fishes all have practically the same quality1 varying only in minute details1 and have the same value as a food4 ,turbot4--,a species of halibut known as ,greenland halibut 7,reinhardtius hippoglossoides7 is also known as turbot in this country4 ,it occurs chiefly off the coast of ,greenland1 and is taken in the very coldest part of the year4 ,the ,european turbot is ,psetta maxima4 ,weakfish4--,the weakfish belongs to the croaker family 7,scinid7 and has a high value as a food fish1 the flesh being rich in flavor and very tender and easily disintegrated1 from which quality it is believed the name 8weakfish0 is derived4 ,the common weakfish is the species ,cynoscion regalis4 ,it is also known in some localities as the squeteague4 ,the fish is rather long in proportion to its breadth and sometimes grows to a large size4 ,examples weighing over #be pounds have been captured4 ,very rarely1 however1 does a weakfish weigh more than #aj pounds1 and the average is perhaps not more than one-half that4 ,the weakfish is1 particularly when young1 a victim of the bluefish1 and great numbers succumb to the ravages of its more powerful enemy4 ,the weakfish is found over the entire length of the ,atlantic and ,gulf coasts as far north as the ,bay of ,fundy4 ,the weakfish sometimes ascends the tidal waters and congregates around the river mouths1 where the food is more abundant4 ,while found on the markets in the ,north1 it is more highly prized in the southern markets4 ,composition4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #gh4ig percent ,protein1 #ag4de #hd4fc percent ,fat1 #b4ci #aa4cg ,ash1 #a4ai #e4fd ,the flesh of the weakfish1 as shown by the above data1 is one in which the protein exists in very much greater proportion than the fat4 ,it is not so rich in protein1 however1 as some of the other species which have been mentioned4 ,whitefish4--,this fish occurs in large numbers in all our ,great ,lakes1 and is an abundant article of food4 ,its scientific name is ,coregonus clupeiformis4 ,it inhabits the whole of the ,great ,lakes regions from ,lake ,champlain to ,lake ,superior4 ,it does not occur in very great abundance1 if at all1 west of ,lake ,superior1 although it has been reported to have been found in the fresh water lakes both to the north and west of that region4 ,the common whitefish prefers the deep water of the lakes1 coming only into shallow water near the shore at spawning time1 which1 in the ,great ,lakes1 is from ,october to ,december4 ,during the months of ,january1 ,february1 and ,march the fishing for whitefish is practically discontinued1 since the fish at that time have returned to deep water and are not accessible4 ,the size of the whitefish in the ,great ,lakes is not so great as the extent of water would indicate4 ,probably three pounds would be an average size1 although the individual fish range from #a to #f pounds4 ,the weight rarely1 however1 exceeds #d or #e pounds4 ,occasionally whitefish have been found weighing as high as #bj pounds1 but this is very rare4 ,the whitefish reaches its full average size about the end of the fourth year4 ,the number of eggs which are found in the female fish is not so large as in the shad1 but usually the number does not fall below #aj1jjj and sometimes reaches as high as #ge1jjj4 ,the eggs are very small comparatively1 and about #cf1jjj of them make a quart4 ,the ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,fisheries has done a great deal to increase the supply of whitefish by planting millions of whitefish fry in suitable water4 ,different ,species of ,whitefish4--,there are many species of whitefish besides the common whitefish which appear in the ,great ,lakes4 ,coulter's whitefish is found in the waters of ,british ,columbia1 but it is not distributed very widely throughout the country4 ,the ,rocky ,mountain whitefish is very widely distributed1 occurring in all suitable waters from the west slope of the ,rockies to the ,pacific4 ,there is also a subspecies of this fish occurring in the headwaters of the ,missouri river4 ,menominee whitefish occur in the lakes of ,new ,england1 ,new ,york1 and the ,great ,lakes1--it is also known as round whitefish1 frostfish1 shadwaiter1 pilotfish1 chivey1 and blackback4 ,composition of ,whitefish4-- ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #fi4hc percent ,protein1 #bb4jf #gf4jj percent ,fat1 #f4di #ba4ea ,ash1 #a4fb #e4cf ,average ,composition of ,fish4#af-- ,water1 #gf4jf percent ,solids1 #bc4id ,nitrogen1 #c4ea ,phosphoric acid1 4#eb ,sulfur1 4#bd ,fat1 #a4de ,ash1 #a4ba ,protein1 #ba4ib #af ,average analysis of cod1 halibut1 bass1 etc41 used at the hygienic table of the ,bureau of ,chemistry4 ,fluorids in ,fish4--,nearly all kinds of fish yield a distinct test for fluorin which is not to be mistaken for an adulteration4 ,the fluorin is found normally in the bones of the fish and sometimes in traces in the flesh4 ,the addition of fluorid as a preservative is highly reprehensible1 and its presence is indicated by the increase in quantity4 ,marketing of ,fish4--,in the food act it is provided that no animals shall be used for food which have died otherwise than by slaughter4 ,whether or not this would apply to fish is a matter of some doubt4 ,unfortunately fish1 as a rule1 are allowed to die by being deprived of oxygen1 which they get from the water as it passes over their gills4 ,the common practice is to take the fish for commercial purposes in seines or other gear and allow them to die1 as it were1 by suffocation4 ,the greater number of fish exposed upon our markets have died in this way and are then packed in ice and kept until sold4 ,the ideal way to treat fish would be to transfer them from the seine to a pool of water1 fresh or salt1 in which they are kept alive until they are wanted for cooking4 ,this method is practiced in some very high-grade restaurants and hotels where the diner may pick for himself from the pool the fish he desires to eat4 ,it is evident that for commercial purposes where a cheap food is desirable a method of this kind could not be practiced4 ,it is a question which the hygienist as well as the practical man should consider1 that is1 whether or not it is possible to slaughter the fish and1 as soon as they are taken1 dress them1 pack their carcasses in ice1 and in this way deliver them to the markets4 ,where fish are used for canning or salting purposes they are often slaughtered as soon as caught4 ,this is particularly true of herring captured in the ,potomac and ,susquehanna rivers4 ,it is an interesting problem to study whether or not the flavor and character of the flesh are impaired by the suffocation process subsequent to their capture4 ,in all cases except in cold weather1 the fish after capture1 no matter whether they are allowed to die by suffocation or slaughtered1 should be packed in ice and kept until the market is reached1 which should be at as early a date as possible4 ,fish are never so good as when fresh and the fresher the better4 ,cold ,storage4--,fish is a product which is often found in cold storage in large numbers and kept there for a long time4 ,the usual problem attending the cold storage of food is even more important when applied to fish4 ,in cold storage fish are frozen solid and kept in this state until ready for consumption4 ,just how long the palatability and wholesomeness of fish can be preserved when frozen solid has not been determined4 ,it follows logically that the colder the temperature the less the degree of deterioration1 but it does not follow logically that this temperature can be maintained indefinitely without injuring the character of the product4 ,one thing appears to be certain1 namely1 that the consumer is entitled to know whether in any given case the fish he purchases is a fresh or a cold storage article4 ,at the present time1 in so far as ,i know1 there are no national1 state1 or municipal laws whereby this fact can be ascertained4 ,without raising the question of comparative value or palatability there is no doubt but what the consumer is entitled to know the character of the fish he purchases4 ,canning ,fish4--,allusion has already been made to the practice of canning fish1 especially salmon4 ,great precautions must be used in cases of this kind1 since fish is a food which tends to develop poisonous principles incident to decomposition4 ,canned fish1 therefore1 must be thoroughly sterilized so that no fermentative action tending to produce ptomain poison can possibly take place4 ,it should be the duty of inspectors of food to frequently examine packages of canned fish to determine1 first1 by the external appearance of the can1 and1 second1 by opening a certain number of them1 whether any decomposition has taken place4 ,too great care cannot be exercised in this matter1 since dangerous and often fatal results follow the consumption of spoiled fish4 ,drying and ,salting ,fish4--,the preservation of fish by pickling1 salting1 drying1 and smoking is a great industry and produces some of the most palatable products4 ,mackerel1 herring1 and cod are types of fish which upon proper curing make a most delectable dish4 ,nothing but encouragement should be given to industries of this kind1 but in order that they be of their true value they should be conducted properly with due regard to hygienic principles and for the sole purpose of making a wholesome and palatable product4 ,adulteration of ,fish ,products4--,attention has already been called to the adulteration of salmon by canning an inferior grade or even a different kind of fish under the name of a better species4 ,the same remark may be made respecting all fish1 hake1 haddock1 and cusk being often offered as cod4 ,in the case of sardines a similar practice is in vogue1 and the small herring which are captured off the coast of ,maine are often sold under the name of sardines4 ,the substitution of one variety of fish for another1 however1 is injurious only in the way of fraud1 the substitute fish presumably being of equal wholesomeness to the other under whose name it is sold4 ,on the contrary1 the form of sophistication which permits the introduction of deleterious substances into fish food is highly objectionable from the dietetic point of view4 ,following the general principles of nutrition1 all chemical1 non-condimental preservatives are to be rigidly excluded from fish products4 ,this rule excludes boric acid1 borax1 benzoic acid and benzoates1 sulfites1 formaldehyde1 and all other forms of chemical preservatives4 ,when fish are packed in oil the character of the oil used should be made known to the consumer4 ,especially is this true if from the locality where the fish is preserved and the general method of packing the consumer is led to believe that a high-grade oil such as olive oil has been used4 ,value of ,fish as ,food4--,from the statements which have been made in connection with fish in particular and the analyses which have been given it is seen that fish is a food of a peculiarly nitrogenous character4 ,the edible portions1 exclusive of water1 are at least three-fourths1 and probably more composed of protein4 ,the other edible nutritive product is fat or fish oil4 ,the mineral nutrients compose the remaining edible portion of fish after the protein and fat are considered4 ,the mineral portions of fish cannot be regarded as not nutritious since they contain phosphoric acid and lime1 which are essential ingredients of food4 ,the flesh of fish1 however1 as it has been seen1 is not a complete ration1 but is lacking in carbohydrates1 and for this reason fish should be eaten with potatoes1 rice1 or other highly starchy foods4 ,the value of fish as a food is unquestionable and its more general consumption would doubtless prove beneficial4 ,those who live in the interior of large and extensive regions where fresh water fish are not very abundant do not appreciate the value of fish as food as do those who live upon the coasts washed by salt water and near the interior fresh waters where an abundant supply of fish is secured4 ,,shellfish4 ,clams4--,clams are shellfish which1 though not so extensively used as the oyster1 are valued food products4 ,the clams of commerce are of two kinds4 ,the species known as long or soft clam is abundant on the ,new ,england coast1 and is of considerable commercial importance both fresh and as a canned product4 ,this is the clam used at clam bakes1 for which the ,new ,england coast is famous4 ,its technical name is ,mya arenaria4 ,the other species1 the round or hard clam1 northward known as quahog1 is the most common clam of the markets south of ,new ,york4 ,its scientific name is ,venus mercenaria4 ,a very small round clam is known as the little neck4 ,this has a flavor which is extremely delicate and it takes the place1 in the warm months1 of the blue point oyster on the menus of the hotels and restaurants4 ,the clam may be considered as a supplemental shellfish to the oyster1 being most delicious and most abundant during the closed oyster season4 ,the average weight of the round clam is about #fj grams1 of which about one-fourth is flesh1 one-fourth liquid1 and one-half shell and refuse4 ,there are many specimens very much larger than this but the weight is given for those usually eaten4 ,composition of ,clams4--,edible portion3 ,water1 #gh4eg percent ,protein1 #ad4hf ,fat1 #a4gh ,ash1 #b4di ,undetermined1 #b4cj ,the liquid which escapes upon the opening of the shell is composed chiefly of water and salt and its composition is as follows3 ,water1 #if4jb percent ,protein1 4#fe ,fat1 ,none ,common salt1 #b4ha ,undetermined1 4#eb ,the flesh of clams1 it is seen1 is not very different from that of fish in general4 ,it is composed chiefly of water and of the nutrients the protein is the predominating constituent4 ,the ash content is somewhat higher than is the case with fish4 ,if the flesh and fluid substance of the clam be considered together the composition of the whole mass is represented by the following data3 ,water1 #hf4aa percent ,protein1 #h4ga ,fat1 #a4ja ,ash1 #b4fc ,undetermined1 #a4ed ,composition of ,water-free ,substance of the ,flesh4-- ,protein1 #fi4cg percent ,fat1 #h4cb ,ash1 #aa4fd ,undetermined1 #aj4fg ,composition of the ,dry ,substance of the ,liquid ,portion4-- ,protein1 #af4cg percent ,fat1 4#aj ,ash1 #gj4da ,undetermined1 #ac4ab ,composition of the ,dry ,substance of the ,flesh and ,liquid ,together4-- ,protein1 #fb4ha percent ,fat1 #g4cj ,ash1 #ah4ib ,undetermined1 #aj4ig ,the ,lobster 7,homarus americanus74--,the lobster is a crustacean which occurs along the northern ,atlantic coast4 ,formerly it was so very abundant that it was almost a drug on the market4 ,in the last quarter of a century the increase in the consumption of the lobster has been more rapid than the increased growth1 so that the price has become higher and higher2 and this1 to a certain extent1 is limiting the consumption4 ,the coast of ,maine is especially the fishing grounds for the ,american lobster1 though it is found much further south and also in great abundance further north4 ,the lobster varies greatly in size4 ,the law1 at the present time1 prevents very young lobsters from being sent into commerce4 ,they are usually from #aj4e to #ae inches in length1 though occasionally examples of enormous size are taken4 ,the edible portion of the lobster is the liquid and the flesh of the body1 claws1 and tail4 ,only about one-half the weight of the lobster1 including the liquid1 therefore1 is edible4 ,the rest is refuse4 ,in a lobster weighing a thousand grams 7#b4b pounds71 five hundred grams 7#a4a pound7 will be the average edible portion1 and the other half the refuse and loss4 ,the average lobster of the present day1 perhaps1 weighs scarcely two pounds1 though in former times the weight was very much greater because the younger and smaller lobsters were not sent to the market4 ,the color of the lobster as it comes from the water is dark green1 almost black at times4 ,heat changes the color of the shell1 so that after boiling or baking the lobster becomes red4 ,the flesh of the lobster is decidedly sweet1 owing to the large quantity of glycogen which it contains4 ,there is only one kind of meat that is eaten which approaches the lobster in its content of glycogen1 and that is horse meat4 ,composition of the ,lobster4--,edible portion3 ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #hd4cj percent ,protein1 #aa4fc #gd4jf percent ,fat1 #a4hb #aa4fb ,ash1 #a4fc #aj4ch ,glycogen1 4#fb #c4id ,crabs4--,the crab is a shellfish very highly prized along the whole of the ,atlantic coast4 ,numerous species of crabs are used for food4 ,these are used in two forms--as hard-shelled or soft-shelled crabs4 ,the species most valued is ,callinectes hastatus4 ,it is very abundant on the middle and south ,atlantic coast4 ,crabs are quite abundant on the ,pacific coast also4 ,about #dd percent of the total weight of the crab is edible and #ef percent shell and refuse4 ,in the edible portion about #gg percent is water and #bc percent solid matter4 ,composition of the ,water-free ,substance of the ,crab4-- ,protein1 #gb4ef percent ,fat1 #h4ee ,ash1 #ac4fd ,the flesh of the crab is1 therefore1 essentially a nitrogenous food1 containing only a small quantity of fat4 ,a considerable portion of the ash is common salt4 ,crawfish4--,the crawfish may be regarded as a fresh-water lobster4 ,it is found practically over the whole of the ,united ,states in the fresh waters but is not used to any extent for food purposes1 except on the ,pacific coast4 ,it contains even a less proportion of edible matter than the lobster4 ,the refuse1 shell1 etc41 form about five-sixths of its weight4 ,in the edible portion the water constitutes #ha4bb percent1 while the solid matters are only #ah4gh percent4 ,composition of the ,water-free ,substance of the ,crayfish4-- ,protein1 #he4ai percent ,fat1 #b4de ,ash1 #f4ih ,canned ,lobster1 ,clams1 and ,crabs4--,as in the case of oysters1 there is a large industry in the ,united ,states engaged in the canning of the flesh of lobsters1 clams1 and crabs4 ,the same precautions should be observed in the eating of these canned products as those mentioned in the case of salmon4 ,numerous instances of illness and sometimes of death have been recorded as the result of eating these canned products which have been imperfectly sterilized4 ,when the flesh is canned immediately after the capture of the animal1 before any incipient decomposition has taken place and when the sterilization is perfect1 the canned product can be eaten without fear4 ,where the health of the people is so seriously involved1 the factories where these products are prepared should be carefully inspected either by the municipal1 state1 or federal authorities4 ,all material used in canning which is not perfectly fresh from the water is to be rejected and the processes employed in the preparation and sterilization must be those which will effectively secure a complete immunity from subsequent fermentation and the development of ptomain products4 ,composition of ,canned ,lobster 7,dry ,substance74-- ,protein1 #ha4df percent ,fat1 #d4fd ,ash1 #aa4bc ,as seen from the above the composition of the dry substance in canned lobster1 except content of water1 is not perceptibly different from that of the fresh sample4 ,composition of the ,dry ,substance of ,canned ,crabs4-- ,protein1 #gi4aj percent ,fat1 #g4ee ,ash1 #i4fh ,shrimp 7,crangon vulgaris74--,the shrimp is a highly valued article of food1 especially when it can be had fresh or properly canned4 ,it has been a practice to ship shrimps in bulk preserved with sulfites or boric acid4 ,this is a most reprehensible form of adulteration4 ,canned ,shrimps4--,in the total dry edible portion1 including solids in the liquid contents of the can1 are found3 ,protein1 #hf4hi percent ,fat1 #c4dd ,crude ash1 #h4hd ,in edible portion 7flesh plus liquids73 ,water1 #gj4hj percent ,water-free substance1 #bi4bj ,protein1 #be4ch ,fat1 #a4jj ,crude ash1 #b4eh ,extractives1 #j4bd ,nitrogen1 #d4jf ,total edible portion1 #ajj4jj ,the above data show that the shrimp in the canned state has less water in it than in the fresh state1 and contains one-fourth of its weight of protein4 ,aquatic ,reptiles4--,all forms of turtle may be used for edible purposes1 both of the fresh-water and salt-water species4 ,both the turtle and terrapin are amphibious animals2 that is1 they can live either in the water or on the land4 ,among the turtles the marine variety known as the green turtle is most highly prized for food purposes4 ,its ,latin name is ,chelonia mydas4 ,it grows sometimes to an enormous size1 weighing several hundred pounds1 and specimens weighing #ej and #ajj pounds are not unusual4 ,it is utilized chiefly for making soup1 and green turtle soup is considered of high quality by experts4 ,the flesh is also edible1 and in the making of some varieties of green turtlesoup pieces of the flesh are included4 ,composition of the ,green ,turtle4--,the edible portion of the green turtle has the following composition3 ,water1 #gi4gh percent ,protein1 #ai4hc ,fat1 4#ec ,ash1 #a4bj ,the edible portion of the green turtle is not very large in proportion to its weight1 as it forms only from #bj to #bd percent of the whole weight of the turtle4 ,among the reptiles there are several aquatic species which are used as food4 ,the most noted of these is the diamond-back terrapin1 which is found in the salt-water bays1 lagoons1 and marshes of our ,atlantic coast from ,new ,jersey to ,texas4 ,its center of greatest abundance is in ,chesapeake ,bay4 ,there is no fish or other water animal that has a higher value for edible purposes than the terrapin4 ,the extreme delicacy of its flavor1 the richness of its aroma1 and its easy digestibility give to it a rank which perhaps no other usual food product possesses4 ,in addition to this the increased scarcity of the terrapin1 especially the more famous variety of it1 namely1 the diamond-back1 has gradually increased the cost until at the present time the terrapin is eaten only by the rich4 ,in the ,united ,states it exists along the whole ,atlantic coast from ,new ,york southward and also along the ,gulf coast4 ,formerly it was most abundant on the ,maryland coast1 but the nearness of this field to the great markets of the country has resulted in such a depletion of the stock as to make the terrapin very scarce4 ,many attempts have been made at artificial growing of terrapin and these have been more or less successful1 but have not met with pronounced success which has been expected4 ,the enclosure in which the terrapin are kept1 viz41 the 8crawl10 is a feature in the artificial cultivation or breeding of these marine vertebrates4 ,it is to be hoped that greater success in the future will attend the artificial breeding of terrapin1 since the natural stock seems well on the way to extinction4 ,composition of the ,terrapin4--,edible portion3 ,,fresh4 ,,dry4 ,water1 #gd4dg percent ,protein1 #ba4bc #hc4ac percent ,fat1 #c4dg #ac4ei ,ash1 #a4jb #c4ii ,the ,mussel4--,the mussel may be described as a fresh-water oyster4 ,it occurs in almost all parts of the ,united ,states in the fresh waters and in external appearance resembles to some extent the oyster1 but the shell is usually smoother4 ,in the mussel is often developed concretions of the carbonate of lime in a particular form known as pearls4 ,in fact the chief value of the mussel is in the supply of pearls which they furnish1 since their flesh1 although often eaten1 is not considered very palatable nor desirable4 ,pearls may be found in mussels in every locality1 but in some regions they are more abundant than in others1--for instance1 the mussels of ,wisconsin are especially noted for the occurrence of the pearls4 ,pearls are also frequently found in oysters1 but by no means so frequently as in the mussel4 ,composition of the ,mussel4--,the edible portion of the mussel forms about one-half its weight4 ,water1 #gh4fd percent ,protein1 #ab4ea ,fat1 #a4fg ,ash1 #a4gc ,undetermined1 #e4de ,oysters4--,oysters belong to a class of animals known as mollusks4 ,they grow in salt or brackish water and are found along almost the whole of the coast of the ,united ,states4 ,they exist in the greatest abundance along the coast in the vicinity of ,long ,island ,sound1 ,norfolk1 ,virginia1 along the coast of the ,gulf of ,mexico1 off the coast of ,mississippi1 ,louisiana1 and ,texas1 and along the ,pacific coast from ,san ,francisco to the northern limits of ,washington4 ,size4--,the size of an oyster depends greatly upon its food and also upon its species4 ,there are some varieties which at a given period of growth are naturally very much larger than others4 ,the larger variety grows near ,norfolk and along the ,gulf coast4 ,a smaller species is especially abundant on the ,pacific coast1 though a number of very large specimens of oysters have been found on that coast4 ,age4--,an oyster is eaten at any time after two years4 ,oysters1 however1 three or four years old are1 perhaps1 in all respects the best4 ,the age is determined largely by the appearance of the shell1 experts being able to practically determine the age of an oyster by an examination of the shell4 ,the oyster grows within a shell which is composed almost exclusively of carbonate of lime4 ,the periphery of the shell is ovoid in shape1 irregular1 and the surface1 especially of old oysters1 is corrugated1 rough1 and unattractive4 ,the interior of the shell is smooth and generally white1 but sometimes has a blue or reddish tinge4 ,the shells of edible oysters vary in size from #b to #f inches in length and from #b to #d inches in width4 ,the oysters sold in the market are known by various names1 usually derived from the location from which they come4 ,a small variety distinguished by a blue color on the inside of the shell is known as blue points4 ,the real blue points come only from ,long ,island4 ,another variety named ,rockaway is also a ,long ,island variety1 and should come exclusively from ,rockaway or vicinity4 ,shrewsbury is another highly prized variety from the neighborhood of ,shrewsbury1 ,new ,jersey4 ,buzzards ,bay1 ,james ,river1 ,norfolk1 ,lynnhaven1 ,rappahannock1 ,stony ,creek1 ,saddle ,rock1 etc41 are names commonly found in the trade4 ,unfortunately1 the name of the location is not always an indication of the actual source from which the oysters may have come4 ,for instance the term 8blue point0 is now very commonly given to small oysters not exceeding #b or #b inches in length with a correspondingly diminished breadth4 ,on the contrary 8saddle rock0 is a name given to very large oysters no matter from what region they may come4 ,it is a common practice to separate the oysters taken from one location into groups of similar size and attach to each group a special name which may or may not be indicative of location4 ,cultivation of ,oysters4--,the natural beds of oysters are rapidly exhausted by the free fishing which is in some cases allowed1 and the supply must be kept up by proper cultivation4 ,oyster farming has become a great industry along all parts of the coasts where the conditions are well suited to culture4 ,the ideal conditions are inlets where the oysters are protected from the action of ocean waves and where abundant food can be derived from the low marshy grounds in the vicinity4 ,the laws in force in the states protect the oyster farms from poachers and deeds are given for oyster beds which are beyond the low water line4 ,the conditions of culture vary in various states4 ,the public beds are also protected by law in many states and incipient war is sometimes carried on between the authorities of one state and the poachers from other states4 ,maryland1 especially1 has laws of a very strict character respecting the taking of oysters1 and the state furnishes armed forces for the protection of public beds4 ,season for ,oysters4--,the best season for oysters on the ,atlantic coast of the ,united ,states extends from ,september first to ,may4 ,these dates may also be applied to oysters of the ,gulf and ,pacific coasts4 ,it is commonly said that all months which have an 8,r0 in them are suitable for eating oysters4 ,in point of fact oysters are eaten the year round1 especially on the ,atlantic coast1 though to a very limited extent during the spring and summer months4 ,those who own their own oyster beds are privileged to take oysters at all seasons1 and it is not unusual that a restaurant furnishes oysters during the whole year1 those in the closed season being derived from private beds4 ,life of an ,oyster4--,after an oyster is taken from its bed it may be kept alive for a long time at a temperature which does not rise too high nor sink too low4 ,the best temperature for keeping oysters alive is about #dj to #ej degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,the oysters should be protected from the sunlight by a proper covering in a cool place and kept moist with sea water or brine which is sprinkled over them in such a way as to come in contact with each oyster in the heap4 ,oysters kept under these conditions often remain in an excellent state for consumption for a week or ten days or even longer4 ,if such conditions are maintained oysters may be shipped in bulk to all parts of the country in cars kept cool1 and this is the best way in which oysters should be distributed for consumption in a fresh state4 ,the treating of oysters with fresh water in order to swell them and thus make them appear larger and plumper than they really are is a treatment which is reprehensible in every respect4 ,not only does it deceive the customer in regard to the size of the oyster but it deprives the oyster of its proper taste and flavor4 8,soaked0 oysters quickly lose their flavor1 whereas the oysters kept as above described and sprinkled with brine retain their natural flavor and odor4 ,the objection to the transportation of oysters in this way is that the shell usually weighs many times more than the oyster and the same rate of freight must be paid upon it as upon the oyster itself4 ,nevertheless1 the fact remains that fresh oysters should be eaten directly after removal from the shells4 ,as soon as the shell is removed and the oyster killed by this removal it begins to deteriorate and in a short time its flavor and aroma are impaired4 ,it is a common practice in many cities1 even where oysters are delivered fresh daily from their beds1 to open large quantities of them and put them in tubs and sell them from these tubs to customers4 ,it thus happens that customers often buy oysters that have been opened #bd hours or more and which are naturally of a very changed flavor4 ,strict regulations in regard to the use of fresh oysters1 favoring their being opened when they are ready for consumption or requiring that they should be kept in the condition of palatability and properly kept cool until ready for consumption1 should be observed4 ,shipment of ,opened ,oysters4--,opened oysters are shipped extensively to all parts of the country4 ,after removal from the shell the oysters are washed to remove the natural water1 since this becomes ropy during shipment4 ,they are then packed in wooden tubs of various sizes1 a piece of ice added1 covered1 and delivered to the fast express or freight service4 ,in this way the oysters may be kept free of dangerous deterioration for several days4 ,in such cases care must be exercised to keep the temperature low and to secure a sanitary environment4 ,thus protected the oysters should arrive at their destination without any further change than the necessary loss of flavor caused by the conditions of preparation and transportation4 ,proportion of ,shell and ,oysters4--,the following illustration 7,report of the ,u4 ,s4 ,commissioner of ,fish and ,fisheries for #ahhh1 page #ghd7 shows the relative proportion of the flesh1 liquid1 and refuse for two or three varieties of oysters3 ,name3 ,oysters 78,east ,rivers074 ,locality3 ,cow ,bay1 ,long ,island ,sound1 ,new ,york4 ,received3 ,april #h1 #ahha1 from ,e4 ,g4 ,blackford4 ,description3 ,length1 #b to #e inches2 breadth1 #a to #c inches4 ,,weighings ,,in ,,preparation ,,for ,,analysis4 ,,grms4 ,,lbs4 ,,oz4 ,,percent4 ,flesh1 #eeh4j #a #c4f #aj4bg ,liquid1 #edc4g #a #c4a #aj4ja ,refuse 7shells1 etc471 #d1bhd4g #i #g4b #gh4hf ,loss1 #dg4c 44 #a4g 4#hf ------- -- ---- ------ ,total1 #ea oysters1 #e1dcc4g #aa #ae4f #ajj4jj ,name3 ,oysters 78,sounds074 ,locality3 ,princess ,bay1 ,staten ,island1 ,new ,york4 ,received3 ,november #cj1 #ahha1 from ,dorlon ,shaffer1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,description3 ,thirty oysters in shell4 ,,weighings ,,in ,,preparation ,,for ,,analysis4 ,,grms4 ,,lbs4 ,,oz4 ,,percent4 ,flesh1 #chd4j 44 #ac4e #h4bd ,liquid1 #dcf4j 44 #ae4d #i4ce ,refuse1 #c1haf4j #h #f4f #ha4hg ,loss1 #be4j 44 #j4i #j4ed ------- -- ---- ------ ,total1 #cj oysters1 #d1ffa4j #aj #d4d #ajj4jj ,the above data show that for #ajj pounds of shelled oysters only about #aj pounds of meat are found4 ,there is also about #aj pounds of liquid or juice that escapes when the oyster is opened4 ,there is an average of #hj pounds of shell and other refuse4 ,when it is remembered that1 as will be shown in the table given below1 in #aj pounds of the meat there is over #hj percent of water it is seen that the actual nourishment contained in #ajj pounds of oysters is reduced to a little over #a pound4 ,there is a general opinion that oysters are a very nutritious food and this is true in so far as the nitrogenous element of food1 that is1 the protein1 is concerned1 and in proportion to the quantity present4 ,as a nourishing food the oyster cannot be considered as worthy of any very great esteem4 ,it must be confessed that it will continue to be used as it has been in the past1 that is1 practically1 as a condimental food substance and not to satisfy hunger nor provide the heat and energy of the human activities4 ,process of ,floating4--,reference has already been made to the practice of soaking oysters in fresh water for the purpose of making them more plump and increasing their weight4 ,this1 in the language of the fisherman1 is called 8floating10 8drinking10 or 8laying out40 ,by this process the body of the oyster affects a plumpness and largeness which materially increases its selling qualities1 as it increases its weight and size and1 therefore1 the profits of the dealer4 ,the principle of this process depends upon the fact that when a soft substance like an oyster1 containing a mineral salt in its composition1 is brought in contact with water1 a process of diffusion takes place which is known1 in chemical physics1 as osmosis1 whereby water passes through the cell walls and enters the cells of the oyster and the mineral substance thereof is forced out into the external water4 ,larger volumes of water pass into the cells than accompany the particles of mineral matter to the outside of the cells and the result is a swelling of the oysters and consequent increase in the size and weight by the addition of pure water1 but at the expense of the natural salt1 mostly chlorid of sodium or common salt1 which the oyster contains4 ,the ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,fisheries has been experimenting to show the change which takes place with the following results3-- ,,statistics ,,of ,,weights1 ,,etc41 ,,of ,,specimens ,,of ,,oysters4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,james ,,river4#ag ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,,constituents4 ,from beds4 ,from floats4 ------------------------------------ ,lab4 ,no4 #hb2 #ca ,lab4 ,no4 #hc2 #cd oysters4 oysters4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,shell contents3 ,grms4,lbs4 ,oz4,grms4,lbs4 ,oz4 ,flesh 7body7 #cab4e #aa4j #dab4e #ad4e ,liquids 7liquor7 #aha4e #f4d #bjh4j #g4c ---------------------------------- ,total #did4j #a #a4d #fbj4e #a #e4h ,refuse3 ,shells #bggh4j #f #b4j #bigf4j #f #i4a ,loss#ah #ba4j #j4h #ag4e #j4f ---------------------------------- ,total #bgii4j #f #b4h #biic4e #f #i4g ,total weight of specimen #cbic4j #g #d4b #cfad4j #g #ae4e ---------------------------------------- ---------- ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,potomac ,,river4#ag ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,,constituents4 ,from beds4 ,from floats4 ------------------------------------ ,lab4 ,no4 #he2 #ce ,lab4 ,no4 #hd2 #da oysters4 oysters4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,shell contents3 ,grms4,lbs4 ,oz4,grms4,lbs4 ,oz4 ,flesh 7body7 #cjb4e #aj4g #dae4e #ad4g ,liquids 7liquor7 #bhb4j #aj4j #bfd4c #i4c ---------------------------------- ,total #ehd4e #a #d4g #fgi4h #a #h4j ,refuse3 ,shells #cjag4j #f #aj4d #cchf4j #g #g4d ,loss#ah #bb4e #j4h #ae4b #j4e ---------------------------------- ,total #cjci4e #f #aa4b #cdja4b #g #g4i ,total weight of specimen #cfbd4j #g #ae4i #djha4j #h #ae4i ---------------------------------------- ---------- #ag ,transplanted to beds in ,new ,haven harbor1 ,connecticut1 in ,april1 and taken for analysis the following ,november4 #ah ,loss in opening and weighing1 chiefly water4 ,,comparative ,,percentage ,,composition ,,of ,,oysters ,,before ,,and ,,after 8,,floating40 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,james ,,river ,,oysters ,,potomac ,,river ,,oysters ,,transplanted ,,to ,,transplanted ,,to ,,new ,,haven4 ,,new ,,haven4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,constituents ,,of ,,oysters4 ,as taken ,as taken ,as taken ,as taken from from from from beds4 floats4 beds4 floats4 ---------------------------------------- ,no4 #hb4 ,no4 #hc4 ,no4 #he4 ,no4 #hd4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,in whole specimen3 ,percent4,percent4,percent4,percent4 ,shell contents3 ,flesh #i4di #aa4da #h4ce #aj4ah ,liquids #e4ea #e4gf #g4gh #f4dh ---------------------------------------- ,total shell contents #ae4jj #ag4ag #af4ac #af4ff ,refuse3 ,shells #hd4cf #hb4ce #hc4be #hb4ig ,loss in preparation for analysis #j4fd #j4dh #j4fb #j4cg ---------------------------------------- ,total refuse #he4jj #hb4hc #hc4hg #hc4cd ,total constituents1 shell contents1 and refuse #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,in flesh 7body73 ,water #gg4ii #hb4gg #gg4ij #hb4jf ,water-free substance #bb4ja #ag4bc #bb4aj #ag4id ---------------------------------------- ,total flesh #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,in water-free substance3 ,nitrogen #a4gj #a4dj #a4fe #a4de ,protein 7nitrogen #f4be7 #aj4fc #h4gi #aj4ca #i4ji ,fat 7ether extract7 #b4fa #a4ia #b4cc #a4ic ,ash #b4ba #a4ee #b4ag #a4eh ,carbohydrates1 etc4 7by difference7 #f4ef #d4ih #g4bi #e4cd ---------------------------------------- ,total water-free substance #bb4ja #ag4bc #bb4aj #ag4id ,in liquids3 ,water #id4gd #ie4bb #id4ii #ie4fi ,water-free substance #e4bf #d4gh #e4ja #d4ca ---------------------------------------- ,total liquids #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,in water-free substance3 ,nitrogen #j4ca #j4cd #j4bi #j4cc ,protein 7nitrogen #f4be7 #a4ie #b4ji #a4ha #b4je ,fat 7ether extract7 #j4jd #j4ac #j4jb #j4ja ,ash #b4ed #a4db #b4dg #a4ai ,carbohydrates1 etc4 7by difference7 #j4gc #a4ad #j4ga #a4jf ---------------------------------------- ,total water-free substance #e4bf #d4gh #e4ja #d4ca ,in total shell contents1 flesh1 and liquids3 ,water #hd4ae #hf4ie #hf4ad #hg4cf ,water-free substance #ae4he #ac4je #ac4hf #ab4fd ---------------------------------------- ,total shell contents #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,in water-free substance3 ,nitrogen #a4ai #a4je #j4ii #a4jb ,protein 7nitrogen #f4be7 #g4dd #f4ed #f4bj #f4cg ,fat 7ether extract7 #a4ff #a4ca #a4ba #a4ah ,ash #b4cb #a4ej #b4cb #a4dc ,carbohydrates1 etc4 7by difference7 #d4dc #c4gj #d4ac #c4ff ---------------------------------------- ,total water-free substance #ae4he #ac4je #ac4hf #ab4fd ,in whole specimen3 ,shell contents3 ,water #ab4fb #ad4ic #ac4hi #ad4ee ,water-free substance #b4ch #b4bd #b4bd #b4aa ---------------------------------------- ,total shell contents #ae4jj #ag4ag #af4ac #af4ff ,refuse #he4jj #hb4hc #hc4hg #hc4cd ---------------------------------------- ,total shell contents and refuse #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,in whole specimen3 ,shell contents3 ,nitrogen #j4ah #j4ah #j4af #j4ag ,protein 7nitrogen #f4be7 #a4ab #a4ab #a4jj #a4jf ,fat 7ether extract7 #j4be #j4bb #j4bj #j4bj ,ash #j4ce #j4bf #j4cg #j4bd ,carbohydrates1 etc4 7by difference7 #j4ff #j4fd #j4fg #j4fa ,total water-free substance #b4ch #b4bd #b4bd #b4aa ,water #ab4fb #ad4ic #ac4hi #ad4ee ---------------------------------------- ,total shell-contents #ae4jj #ag4ag #af4ac #af4ff ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,result of ,treatment4--,as shown by the data the first result is one which would naturally be expected1 namely1 that the total weight of the oyster thus inflated with water is increased relatively to the total weight of the shell since no change takes place in the weight of the shell during floating4 ,the gain of weight in the oyster is due to the absorption of the water1 although there is a loss of mineral salt4 ,the average gain of the oyster was1 in round numbers1 #aj percent4 ,the danger of infecting oysters thus treated with any germs1 which may be present in the water or ice used1 should also be taken into consideration4 ,in respect of the composition of the oyster itself when subjected to floating the chief change is in the increase of the water content4 ,as has already been said the process of floating is fatal to the flavor and palatability of the product4 ,adulteration4--,the chief adulterations of oysters are the 8floating0 above described and the treatment of the 8shucked0 oysters with formaldehyde1 boron compounds1 and other preservatives to keep them from spoiling4 ,these processes are thoroughly reprehensible and are rapidly disappearing4 ,the consumer who lives near the source of supply should never eat any but freshly shelled oysters and those at a distance confine themselves to the properly prepared and shipped article4 ,the chief delight of the epicure is the freshness1 and not the quantity of nourishment of this justly prized bivalve4 ,average ,composition of ,oysters3#ai-- ,water1 #fj4jh percent ,solids1 #ci4ib ,nitrogen1 #a4ef ,phosphoric acid1 4#db ,sulfur1 4#ai ,fat1 #i4dh ,ash1 #a4gg ,protein1 #i4gc #ai ,average of samples used at ,hygienic ,table1 ,bureau of ,chemistry4 ,,animal ,,oils4 ,the same distinction is made between oils and fats for animal products as has been made for the vegetable preparations further on4 ,an animal fat remains solid or semisolid at the ordinary temperature of the living room4 ,an animal oil1 on the other hand1 is one which at ordinary temperature is a liquid4 ,animal oils1 as a rule1 are not used for edible purposes directly1 but are used to some extent in cooking1 and to a large extent as medicinal food4 ,inasmuch as these oils are used for medicinal food purposes1 those which are most important in this use may be very properly described in this manual4 ,as these oils are derived both from sea and land animals they are often conveniently divided into marine animal oils and terrestrial animal oils4 ,there is also a marked difference as a rule between the oils of marine origin and those of terrestrial origin4 ,the oils of marine origin1 as a rule1 have a very high iodin number while the animal oils of terrestrial origin have an iodin number not much greater than the fats from which they are derived4 ,this distinction corresponds somewhat closely to those vegetable oils which belong to the drying and non-drying variety4 ,the iodin number represents the percentage of iodin absorbed by a unit weight of substance4 ,if one gram of an oil absorb #j4fg gram of iodin1 the iodin number is #fg4 ,the marine oils correspond to the dry vegetable oils and the terrestrial oils to the non-drying vegetable oils4 ,while this difference is one which is marked1 it does not always exist in each individual case4 ,,marine ,,animal ,,oils4 ,the marine animal oils may be conveniently divided into fish oils1 liver oils1 and blubber oils4 ,of these the liver oils are the most important from an edible point of view or a medicinal edible point of view4 ,the fish oil and blubber oil are used chiefly for illuminating and other technical purposes4 ,fish ,oils4--,these are obtained by rendering from all parts of a fish where fat exists4 ,the herring1 sardine1 salmon1 and the menhaden are the fish which are chiefly used for getting oil of this kind4 ,the fish oils have very much improved in quality since the steamer has taken the place of the sail boat for gathering the fish4 ,during the days of the sail boat the fish were often kept for ten days after seining before they were brought ashore4 ,the decomposition which took place would naturally affect the oil4 ,at the present day the steamers fishing close to the shores deliver their products much more frequently1 often the same day they are caught1 and thus a better quality of oil is produced4 ,in this country menhaden is the chief fish used for obtaining oil4 ,the scientific name of menhaden is ,brevoortia tyrannus4 ,these fish appear in enormous quantities around the ,atlantic coast from ,may until ,november4 ,it is estimated that nearly one-half million tons have been taken of these fish during a season4 ,menhaden oil is rarely if ever used for edible purposes4 ,it is used principally in the leather trade and sometimes in the adulteration of cod liver oil made in ,newfoundland4 ,sardine ,oil4--,sardine oil is principally prepared in ,japan from the ,japan sardine 7,clupea sardinus74 ,it is not used to any extent for edible purposes4 ,it is also prepared to some extent in the boiling of sardines in ,france preparatory to packing in oil4 ,salmon ,oil4--,this oil is obtained in large quantities on the ,pacific coast4 ,it is one of the fish oils which has an agreeable odor and taste and1 therefore1 can be used for edible purposes4 ,it has a specific gravity at #ae degrees of about 4#ibf and its iodin number is about #afj4 ,cod ,liver ,oil4--,the most important of all the animal oils for food purposes is the oil which is obtained from the liver of the cod 7,gadus callarias74 ,cod liver oil is valuable for food purposes not on account of its odor and taste1 which are usually quite disagreeable1 but by reason of the specific effect which it is often said to exercise in cases of emaciation and general disorder of the functional activities of the body4 ,it is a food or medicine1 whichever it may be best called1 which is highly prized in tuberculosis and similar diseases4 ,the oil is chiefly prepared in the ,loffoden ,islands4 ,different classes of oil are prepared which are differentiated chiefly by their color1 the lighter the color the higher the quality of the oil4 ,the chemical composition of cod liver oil is extremely complex1 many different kinds of substances having been found in it by various authorities4 ,the probability is that many of these supposed substances are only mixtures of others4 ,yet it cannot be denied that the number of chemical compounds occurring in cod liver oil is very much greater than that which occurs in ordinary oils4 ,both the medicinal and food values of the oil are often attributed to these bodies which occur in minute quantities4 ,properties4--,cod liver oil at #ae degrees has a specific gravity of 4#ibb4 ,its iodin number varies very greatly but is always high1 ranging from #aej to #ahj4 ,its refractive index is also very high1 namely #a4dg4 ,an important constituent of cod liver oil is cholesterol4 ,cod liver oil contains naturally a small quantity of iodin and this natural compound of iodin is one of the properties to which much of its medicinal virtue has been attributed4 ,the quantity present is extremely minute1 and probably never exceeds 4#jjb of one percent4 ,adulteration of ,cod ,liver ,oil4--,owing to its increasing price cod liver oil has been subjected to many forms of adulteration4 ,the chief adulteration consists in the admixture of fish liver oil of lower quality or the use of blubber oil4 ,seal and whale oils have been used very extensively in the adulteration of cod liver oil4 ,japan fish oil and1 in fact1 all other fish oils which are of a character not to disguise the properties of cod liver oil have been used4 ,it is evident that it is with extreme difficulty that the presence of these adulterants can be detected1 especially if they are used in small quantities4 ,the only certain method of guarantee of the purity of a cod liver oil is in the proper inspection and control of the manufacturing works4 ,the livers of many other kinds of fish are employed in the manufacture of cod liver oil1 but the other varieties have little value as compared with the cod liver oil itself and they are probably used almost exclusively in the adulteration of the genuine article4 ,the ,norwegian cod fish gives a much better character of oil than those coming from the ,atlantic coast of ,america4 ,in fact the latter product is of little medicinal food value and is used chiefly in the leather trade4 ,blubber ,oil4--,blubber oil includes the oils made from seals1 whales1 turtles1 etc41 and is used exclusively for technical purposes1 unless surreptitiously placed in cod liver oil as an adulterant4 ,,part ,,iv4 ,,milk ,,and ,,milk ,,products ,,and ,,oleomargarine4 ,,milk4 ,limitation of ,name4--,by the term 8milk10 unless qualified in some way1 is meant a lacteal secretion of the healthy cow1 free of colostrum and of standard quality4 ,if the milk of other mammals is meant the name of the class of animal is used in connection with the term1 such as ewe's milk1 goat's milk1 etc4 ,milk is one of the most important articles of commerce and1 by reason of its composition1 high nutritive character1 and easy digestibility1 it is not only the natural food of infants but a most important food for children and adults4 ,it is also an indispensable food in many1 if not most1 cases of disease where nutrition is impaired4 ,in some cases life may often be sustained over a critical period by the use of milk as a food where other forms of food would fail of digestion and prove injurious instead of beneficial4 ,the ,united ,states standard for milk is found in ,appendix ,a4 ,average ,composition of ,milk4--,perhaps there is no food substance which has been subjected to so many and such severe analytical tests as milk4 ,hundreds of thousands of analyses have been made in all civilized countries1 not only of the milk of the individual cow but of herds of greater or less size4 ,there is a great variation in the composition of milk in different breeds of cattle and also in different individuals of the same breed4 ,for instance1 the ,holstein breed of cattle affords a milk with a very low content of fat1 sometimes as low as #c4be percent1 and in individual cases lower4 ,on the other hand the ,jersey breed of cattle affords a milk of a very high content of fat1 sometimes reaching as high as #f percent1 and in individual cases very much higher4 ,the content of the nitrogenous element in milk is more stable than that of fat and the common content of casein in milk ranges from #b to #c percent4 ,the sugar in the milk is usually the complementary substance with the fat1 diminishing in relative proportions as the fat increases and vice versa4 ,the average content of sugar in cow's milk is approximately #d percent4 ,the content of mineral substances in milk is also quite constant1 being about #j4gj4 ,the ash contains the phosphoric acid which is one of the essential food components of milk4 ,a milk of fair average quality contains #ab percent of solids and #hh percent of water4 ,this is an expression for milk during the various seasons of the year and from all breeds and kinds of cows4 ,the influence of season has much to do with the quantity of milk produced4 ,it is always greater in the spring and summer months1 when the cows are turned out to pasture and the growth on which they feed is unusually succulent4 ,the increase in volume is not attended with a proportionate increase of solids1 and thus the percentage of solids in spring and summer milk is less than that in the winter milk unless the cows are particularly well fed during the winter on a generous diet1 including large quantities of roots4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,,cow ,,stables1 ,,mapletown ,,farm1 ,,sumner1 ,,washington4 ,the character of the milk is greatly influenced by the environment in which the cow lives4 ,the stable in which the cow is kept should be clean1 well ventilated1 and protected against extreme changes in temperature1 thus being cooler in the summer than the hot air on the outside and much warmer in the winter4 ,an excellent arrangement of the stables to secure cleanliness and good ventilation is shown in ,fig4 #ac4 ,cows should be supplied with an abundant quantity of pure water and should not be allowed access to stagnant pools when pasturing in the summer4 ,every animal giving milk should be examined from time to time by a competent veterinarian to determine1 by the injection of serum or otherwise1 whether or not the animal is afflicted with tuberculosis4 ,every animal infected with tuberculosis should be separated from the herd and destroyed4 ,tuberculosis is an infectious disease and may spread from a single cow to every one in the herd4 ,it is still by some authorities claimed that there is no authentic case of transmission of bovine tuberculosis to the human system4 ,other authorities hold that such transmission is possible1 even if it has not been proven in a particular case4 ,since experts disagree on this point the same rule is applicable here as in other cases of the same kind1 namely1 where experts disagree on a point relating to the public health the benefit of the doubt1 if any1 should be given to the public1 and the advice of those experts followed which is the most radical respecting the protection of health from infection of any kind4 ,it would be difficult to prove1 for example1 in any case of tuberculosis in man that it had been contracted from the sputa of tuberculosed patients1 yet because it is possible1 in the opinion of many experts1 that such infection and transmission of disease can take place1 it is the part of wisdom to guard against it4 ,it is1 ,i think1 a statement which will be accepted by all that it is possible in this country to secure and keep a sufficient number of healthy cows to give the milk supply of the nation4 ,therefore1 it is the duty of the state1 either by municipal1 state1 or federal inspection1 to eliminate1 as far as possible1 and1 if necessary1 at the expense of the state1 every diseased animal from the dairy herd4 ,the farmer whose herd becomes infected through no fault of his can justly claim a compensation for the destruction of his animals for the common good4 ,there is1 perhaps1 no more important point connected with the keeping of sanitary conditions than the proper inspection of the dairy1 not only furnishing milk for family use1 but especially for sale4 ,it is the plain duty of every municipality and state to prohibit the sale of milk to its citizens from dairies which are not periodically and frequently subjected to the most rigid expert inspection4 ,such inspection would not only secure the health of the animals but tend directly toward the cleanliness of the dairy4 ,only by the exercise of unusual care is it possible to keep milk from becoming contaminated4 ,preparation of ,milk4--,every part of the animal1 especially the udders1 should be kept scrupulously clean by proper currying and washing4 ,the milk should be collected in vessels with as small an orifice as possible4 ,as soon as drawn the milk should be strained and artificially cooled to a temperature of at least #ej degrees ,f41 if not lower4 ,a convenient apparatus for cooling the milk is shown in ,fig4 #ad4 ,in this condition1 without being exposed to infection and being protected from every point by closed vessels1 stoppered when necessary by sterilized cotton1 the milk is conducted into sterilized bottles and again stoppered with a sterilized cork of some description4 ,the milk is kept cold until delivered to the consumer and by the consumer should be kept cold until used4 ,by following these precautions it is possible to deliver a pure1 wholesome1 unpasteurized milk in a condition which keeps practically unchanged for even a longer period than twenty-four hours4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,,apparatus ,,for ,,cooling ,,milk4 ,certified ,milk4--,dairies which are inspected either by operation of the law or1 voluntarily1 by a competent body of medical and scientific experts duly authorized to make such inspection furnish to the market what is known as certified milk4 ,each bottle of this milk bears the stamp of certification and this stamp may be used from the time of one inspection until a certain date specified on the stamp when the next inspection takes place4 ,the duty of the inspectors is to see that diseased animals are at once removed from the dairy1 that the sanitary conditions of the stable are perfect1 that the food is abundant and wholesome1 that the milking process is conducted according to the principles above outlined1 and that the proper precautions are taken to prevent infection during the preparation of the milk for the market4 ,the milk should be examined chemically and bacteriologically at each inspection1 or oftener1 to see that it is of a standard quality1 both in respect of the number and character of the organisms which it contains and of its chemical constituents4 ,certified milk is1 of course1 more expensive than non-certified1 inasmuch as the dairy is necessarily called upon to bear the expense of inspection4 ,however1 the superior quality of such milk and its certain freedom from infection more than offsets the increased price1 and makes certified milk the ideal food of a milk character1 not only in the family1 but especially in the hospitals1 orphan asylums and other public institutions4 ,it seems quite certain that in the near future practically all the milk that is sold upon the market of the country will be of a certified quality4 ,pasteurized ,milk4--,when milk is heated to a temperature of about #adj to #afj degrees the greater part of the living organisms contained therein are destroyed4 ,at the same time the temperature is not high enough to give to the milk that peculiar taste which it acquires when boiled4 ,such pasteurized milk1 placed in sterilized bottles1 stoppered with sterilized stoppers and kept in a cool place1 will keep many days and even weeks without apparent deterioration4 ,physicians and hygienists are quite agreed that pasteurized milk is not so wholesome1 especially for children1 as certified milk which has not been subjected to a heat sufficiently high to kill the organisms contained therein4 ,the natural ferments of the milk1 namely1 the enzymes which produce the lactic fermentations1 promote rather than interfere with the digestion of the product4 ,the killing of the beneficial organisms of the milk is only justified when there is danger of pathological germs being present4 ,hence the pasteurization of milk must in this sense be regarded as a substitute for inspection and certification4 ,there may arise cases where pasteurizing even of certified milk may be desirable1 namely1 when from necessity it must be kept for a considerable period before use1 as on shipboard1 and other places inaccessible to a daily supply of fresh milk4 ,pasteurizing is also justifiable in miscellaneous milk supplies1 the origin of which is unknown4 ,it is safer1 by far in this case1 to pasteurize than take the chance of consuming pathological germs4 ,pasteurizing of ,milk4--,a convenient method of pasteurizing milk is recommended by the ,dairy ,division of the ,department of ,agriculture1 which is as follows3 ,directions for the ,pasteurization of ,milk4#bj--,the pasteurization of milk for children1 now quite extensively practiced in order to destroy the injurious germs which it may contain1 can be satisfactorily accomplished with very simple apparatus4 ,the vessel containing the milk1 which may be the bottle from which it is to be used or any other suitable vessel1 is placed inside of a larger vessel of metal1 which contains water4 ,if a bottle1 it is plugged with absorbent cotton1 if this is at hand1 or in its absence other clean cotton will answer4 ,a small fruit jar loosely covered may be used instead of a bottle4 ,the requirements are simply that the interior vessel shall be raised about half an inch above the bottom of the other1 and that the water shall reach nearly or quite as high as the milk4 ,the apparatus is then heated on a range or stove until the water reaches a temperature of #aee degrees ,fahrenheit1 when it is removed from the heat and kept tightly covered for half an hour4 ,the milk is rapidly cooled without removing it from its containers and kept in a cool place4 ,it may be used any time within twenty-four hours4 ,a temperature of #aej degrees maintained for half an hour is sufficient to destroy any germs likely to be present in the milk1 in cold weather1 or when it is known that the milk reaches the consumer soon after milking1 and it is generally safe to adopt this limit4 ,it is found in practice that raising the temperature to #aee degrees and then allowing the milk to stand in the heated water for half an hour insures the proper temperature for the required time4 ,if the temperature is raised above #aee degrees the taste and quality of the milk will be affected4 #bj ,by ,dr4 ,de ,schweinitz4 ,inasmuch as the milk furnished to consumers in large cities in summer contains at the time of delivery an immense number of miscellaneous bacteria1 this procedure may not fully meet the requirements during hot weather1 not only because such milk will not remain sweet for twenty-four hours unless kept in a good refrigerator1 but also because the bacteria not destroyed by the heating may at times produce digestive disturbances in the very young4 ,under such circumstances it is best to keep the bottles in the water until it boils or to use one of the many steamers now on the market4 ,after the bottles have been kept at the boiling point for three to five minutes 7or longer if they are large7 they should be cooled as promptly as possible and kept in a refrigerator until used4 ,the simplest plan is to take a tin pail and invert a perforated tin pie-plate in the bottom1 or have made for it a removable false bottom perforated with holes and having legs half an inch high to allow circulation of the water4 ,the milk-bottle is set on this false bottom1 and sufficient water is put into the pail to reach the level of the surface of the milk in the bottle4 ,a hole may be punched in the cover of the pail1 a cork inserted1 and a chemical thermometer put through the cork1 so that the bulb dips into the water4 ,the temperature can thus be watched without removing the cover4 ,if preferred1 an ordinary dairy thermometer#ba may be used and the temperature read from time to time by removing the lid4 ,this is very easily arranged1 and is just as satisfactory as the patented apparatus sold for the same purpose4 ,any other simple method of procedure will give the same result4 #ba ,before using the dairy thermometer it is best to have it tested1 as it may be unreliable in the upper parts of the scale4 ,average ,content of ,fat in ,american ,milk4--,from the thousands of analyses of ,american milks that have been made it appears that the average content of fat therein is about #c4ij percent4 ,of the different breeds of cows the ,holsteins produce milk with the least content of fat and the ,jerseys with the greatest4 ,it is not unusual to find in the milk of a ,jersey cow a content of #f or #g percent of fat4 ,comparison of ,cow's ,milk with ,other ,varieties4--,human milk differs from milk chiefly in having a much lower content of casein and a higher content of milk sugar4 ,goat's milk has a higher content of casein than milk1 somewhat higher content of fat1 and slightly less sugar4 ,ewe's milk is very rich both in protein and fat4 ,mare's has a low casein and fat content and is exceptionally rich in sugar4 ,ass's milk has less casein and protein than milk but more sugar4 ,cream4--,when milk is allowed to stand for some hours in a cool place or when it is mechanically treated in a separator the fat particles1 being of a less specific gravity1 are separated1 and when they reach a certain degree of consistence they form a product known as cream4 ,the quantity of fat in cream varies according to the method of separation4 ,on standing for a period of about twelve hours in a cool place the separated cream may be removed by skimming and should contain at least #ah percent of milk fat4 ,under the action of the separator1 cream of a much greater content of fat is usually produced1 often reaching as much as #cj percent or more4 ,the separation of cream mechanically in a separator is preferable to the method of time separation by gravity alone4 ,the cream secured by the separator is very much fresher1 as it can be removed as soon as the milk is drawn and cooled4 ,its content of butter fat can also be regulated to the desired amount and1 in the third place1 a more complete separation is secured than by gravity4 ,by the proper manipulation of the separator almost all of the fat in milk is readily removed4 ,cream should be kept under the same conditions as has been described for sanitary milk4 ,when placed in sterilized containers1 properly stoppered and kept cool1 fresh cream will keep sweet as long as milk under similar circumstances4 ,in large dairy industries the separator is practically the only method now employed for securing cream while for farm use the gravity method of standing in a cool place for twelve or twenty-four hours is the commonly practiced method4 ,cream is used on the table with fruit and cereal foods and especially in beverages such as tea and coffee4 ,it is also prescribed by physicians for certain diseases and derangement of the digestive organs where the nitrogen content of milk produces irritation and fails of digestion4 ,cream is not a complete food in the sense that milk is inasmuch as the other constituents of milk are less in proportion as the percentage of fat is increased1 yet cream contains at least a part of all the food elements in milk1 as1 for example1 nitrogenous constituent1 principally1 casein1 milk1 sugar1 and mineral matters4 ,it must be remembered in this case that the fat is the variable element and as that is increased the proportion of other ingredients1 necessarily1 is diminished4 ,the most important use of cream is in the manufacture of butter4 ,standards of ,cream4--,the composition of cream varies with almost every sample4 ,the standards for cream vary in different states and cities4 ,the national standard requires #ah percent of fat4 ,skimmed ,milk4--,the residue which is left from the removal of cream is known as skimmed milk4 ,skimmed milk contains the principle part of the nitrogenous constituents of milk1 the greater quantity of its sugar and a very large quantity of its mineral matter4 ,it is still a very valuable food product1 lacking only the element of fat4 ,when eaten with nuts or other oily food skimmed milk would complete the ration and make a well balanced food4 ,the chief prejudice against skimmed milk is that it has been so often sold for whole milk4 ,when sold and consumed under its own name it is not a fraudulent body and is deserving of a higher place in the dietary than has been ascribed to it4 ,in the large creameries of the country the skimmed milk is usually fed to animals4 ,it is one of the most highly esteemed foods for pigs and poultry1 and is largely used for those purposes4 ,composition of ,skimmed ,milk4--,naturally the composition of skimmed milk would be that of milk corrected for the abstraction of fat4 ,it contains some little fat when prepared by the gravity method and only a very small portion when separated mechanically4 ,the abstraction of the fat increases the relative proportions of sugar and casein4 ,curd ,test for ,purity of ,milk4--,the ,wisconsin curd test is conducted as follows3 #a4 ,sterilize milk containers so as to destroy all bacteria in vessels4 ,this step is very important1 and can be done by heating cans in boiling water or steam for not less than one-half hour4 #b4 ,place about one pint of milk in covered jar and heat to about #ih degrees ,f4 7,figs4 #ae and #af74 #c4 ,add ten drops of standard rennet extract and mix thoroughly with the milk to quickly coagulate4 #d4 ,after coagulation1 cut curd fine with case knife to facilitate separation of whey2 leave curd in whey one-half hour to an hour2 then drain off whey at frequent intervals until curd is well matted4 #e4 ,incubate curd mass at #ih to #ajb degrees ,f4 by immersing jar in warm water4 ,keep jars covered to retain odors4 #f4 ,after #f to #i hours incubation1 open jar and observe odor2 examine curds by cutting the same with sharp knife and observe texture as to presence of pin holes or gas holes4 ,observe odor4 #g4 ,very bad milks will betray presence of gas-producing bacteria by the spongy texture of the curd and will have an off flavor4 #h4 ,if more than one sample is tested at the same time1 dip knife and thermometer in hot water before each time used4 8,normal milk contains practically no organisms but the straight lactic acid bacteria4 ,these germs produce no gas and no bad odors1 but purely lactic acid and the curd formed therefrom is such as is represented in ,fig4 #ag4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,,improvised ,,wisconsin ,,curd ,,test4 ,c1 ,can used to hold sample2 ,p1 pipette for measuring rennet2 ,k1 knife for breaking curd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,a1 ,,milk2 ,b1 ,,broken ,,curd ,,in ,,whey2 ,c1 ,,matted ,,curd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,,curd ,,from ,a ,,good ,,milk4 ,,large1 ,,irregular ,,holes ,,mechanical4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,,curd ,,from ,a ,,tainted ,,milk4 ,,large1 ,,irregular ,,holes ,,mechanical2 ,,small ,,pinholes ,,due ,,to ,,gas4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,,curd ,,from ,,foul ,,milk4 8,milk contaminated by the introduction of dust1 dirt1 fecal matter1 or kept in imperfectly cleaned cans becomes fouled with gas-producing bacteria that break down the milk sugar and so produce gases and usually undesirable odors4444 ,therefore milks showing the presence of gas or bad odors in any considerable degree are milks that have been more or less polluted with extraneous organisms or carelessly handled1 and as a consequence such milks show a type of curd revealed in ,figs4 #ag1 #ah1 and #ai4 ,whey4--,the residue left from milk in the process of the making of cheese is known as whey4 ,whey consists of that portion of milk which is not precipitated by the rennet and which separates when the casein of milk is coagulated and sets in the process of cheese making4 ,the whey contains the principal portion of the water in milk1 the most of the milk sugar therein1 and small quantities of butter and soluble nitrogenous portions 7albumin7 and solid particles which remain suspended in the solution4 ,it may1 therefore1 be properly considered as milk from which the greater part of the nitrogenous portions and fat particles has been separated4 ,the value of whey as a food product consists chiefly in the milk sugar which it contains4 ,it is not very largely used for human food but is valued as a food for young domesticated animals1 especially pigs and poultry4 ,composition of ,whey4--,the whey resulting from the manufacture of cheese contains nearly all the foods of the whole milk with the exception of the casein and fat4 ,it is composed of from #f to #h percent of solids consisting chiefly of milk sugar1 some albumin1 a little fat1 and about #j4f percent of mineral matter4 ,koumiss4--,koumiss originated in ,asia ,minor in the production of a fermented drink from mare's milk1 which is richer in milk sugar than the lactic secretions of most other mammals4 ,by the fermentation of the milk sugar mare's milk is converted into a fermented beverage containing a small percentage of alcohol4 ,in this country koumiss is made almost exclusively from cow's milk and by special fermentation at a low temperature4 ,it is a beverage valued especially by convalescents and invalids and frequently is capable of nourishing the body in diseases which affect the digestive organs when other foods fail of assimilation4 ,it is also a cooling and delicious beverage for those in health when properly prepared and stored4 ,modified ,koumiss or ,kephir4--,koumiss made from cow's milk with the previous addition of milk or cane sugar to increase the alcoholic content cannot be regarded as a natural product but rather one to which the term 8modified0 may be applied4 ,the greater part of koumiss made in the ,united ,states from cow's milk is of this modified variety4 ,cow's milk contains on an average about #d or #e percent of sugar and does not yield a fermented beverage of a sufficient alcoholic content without reducing the actual sugar content of the beverage below the point of palatability4 ,cane sugar is usually employed as the modifying agent4 ,while modified koumiss cannot be regarded as of equal value with the natural article made from mare's milk it is a palatable and wholesome beverage when produced and stored under proper conditions4 ,the quantity of alcohol produced in any case is not very great and the change in composition which renders koumiss so easily assimilable in many cases cannot be due alone to the alcohol formed but to the fermentative changes produced by enzymic action which takes place in the other constituents of koumiss1 especially casein during the process of fermentation4 ,koumiss or kephir1 which is the name applied to koumiss made from cow's milk1 is also prepared with the addition of honey1 in the place of sugar1 and small quantities of wheat flour1 not exceeding #bj parts to #aejj parts of other constituents4 ,koumiss is sometimes artificially fortified by the addition of small quantities of alcohol1 but this practice must be regarded as extremely reprehensible4 ,the alcohol of koumiss is incident to its fermentation and should not be increased beyond the normal amount4 ,one of the important points in the making of koumiss is the control of the temperature which1 during fermentation1 ought not to rise above #ej degrees in order to get the best results4 ,koumiss may be made in the bottle in which it is kept1 in fact1 it is best made so1 and its fermentation then resembles that of champagne4 ,during the process of fermentation the bottle should be shaken at least once a day in order that the part which coagulates cannot be unevenly distributed throughout the mass4 ,the bottle should be strong enough to resist the pressure produced by the carbon dioxid which is formed and the cork should be securely tied in4 ,as in the case of champagne it is best to place the bottle with the cork down4 ,before using1 the bottle containing the koumiss should be well shaken in order to thoroughly mix the contents which form a creamy1 foamy mass extremely palatable1 highly nutritious1 and valuable not only as a beverage but in many cases of disease and disordered digestion as a food4 ,in fact the value of koumiss for medicinal purposes1 that is for medicinal food1 is not thoroughly appreciated by the medical profession4 ,this may be due to the fact that the art of making koumiss is not generally known1 and while the general principles upon which its manufacture is based have been set forth it requires an expert to make a palatable and useful article 78,british ,dairy ,farming0 by ,jas4 ,long74 ,it is worthy of suggestion now that the use of horses for draft purposes has practically been superseded by the automobile and the trolley that the production of real koumiss from mare's milk might become a very useful field of industry in the ,united ,states4 ,it is perfectly certain that the genuine article must possess properties which are not wholly found in the imitations of koumiss which are so common in this country4 ,it is well understood by physicians that a natural product produced from natural material is always superior in character both as a food and medicine to the synthetic or artificial product4 ,whenever1 therefore1 a fermented beverage produced from natural sources is contaminated by artificial products the resulting compound is not so useful nor digestible4 ,for instance1 wine which is made partially from sugar and beer made partially from dextrose1 although they may be healthful and wholesome beverages1 are inferior in quality and character to the real product made from grape juice or barley malt4 ,buttermilk4--,the residue left in the churn in the manufacture of butter is termed buttermilk4 ,there are two distinct varieties of buttermilk1 namely1 that resulting from the churning of unsoured cream and that remaining from the churning of soured and ripened cream4 ,the first kind of buttermilk does not differ in its characteristic essentials from skimmed milk and therefore is not considered here4 ,the second class of buttermilk is far more common and is a beverage of pleasing acid taste4 ,when made from properly ripened cream it is wholesome and delicious1 especially in summer time4 ,its composition is that of cream subjected to enzymic action during the ripening process by which an agreeable degree of acidity is produced due to lactic acid1 together with the incidental changes which take place in the composition of other parts of the liquid due to enzymic action4 ,buttermilk also usually contains small particles of butter itself which escape aggregation during the final process of churning4 ,in well prepared buttermilk1 however1 these particles of butter are not very numerous and they add nothing to the palatability1 although they do add something to the nutritive properties of the beverage4 ,the buttermilk represents that portion of milk which is one of the chief constituents of cream as far as bulk is concerned1 freed practically from its butter fat4 ,it does not differ greatly1 therefore1 in its chemical properties from skimmed milk1 although there is a slight difference in the relative percentages of the milk solids in cream as compared with the same constituents in whole milk4 ,the composition of buttermilk is shown in the following table3 ,,composition ,,of ,,buttermilk4 ,,from ,,sweet ,,from ,,sour ,,cream4 ,,cream4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,water1 #hi4gd #ij4ic ,fat1 #a4ba #j4ca ,milk sugar1 #d4ih #d4eh ,protein1 #c4bh #c4cg ,ash1 #j4gi #j4ha ,acidity1 444 #j4hj ,bonnyclabber4--,bonnyclabber is a term applied to milk which has become soured by lactic fermentation1 producing a gelatinous coagulation of casein which is sufficiently firm at times to prevent the liquid from being poured4 ,clabber may be regarded as a natural cheese curd except that the fat is chiefly on top4 ,it is a beverage or food of a very agreeable taste to most persons and is often eaten with sugar4 ,in the summer it is often formed during hot murky weather1 especially of that character which produces thunder storms4 ,for this reason it is a common supposition that thunder or lightning sours milk4 ,the thunder and lightning1 however1 have nothing to do with this process4 ,the condition of the atmosphere which produces an environment favorable to electrical disturbances of this kind also favors in the highest degree the growth of the organisms which produce the lactic ferments4 ,hence thunder storms and the rapid souring of milk are frequently coincident leading to the popular impression as above mentioned4 ,inasmuch as the souring of milk usually takes place after the cream has risen the composition of clabber is practically that of skimmed milk modified by the lactic fermentation which has taken place4 ,,butter4 ,when cream1 especially cream in which incipient lactic fermentation has been set up1 is subjected to agitation in a churn under proper conditions of temperature the particles of butter therein contained are collected into masses so that the butter can be separated from the residual liquid4 ,this process is technically called churning4 ,the domestic churn in its simplest form is perhaps well known to almost everyone1 especially those who have lived in the country4 ,in the domestic manufacture of butter the cream is collected and set aside until sour1 that is1 until lactic fermentation has set up4 ,when this is sufficiently advanced the cream is placed in a churn1 the simplest form of which is a wooden1 cylindrical vessel of appropriate size1 being much longer than its horizontal diameter4 ,the churn is provided with a dasher1 namely a perforated wooden disk with a handle which passes through a hole in the cover4 ,when the churn is charged the butter is produced by agitation with the dasher4 ,in winter time warm water is added to the mixture in order to raise the temperature to the proper gathering point of butter1 namely #fe to #gj degrees ,f4 ,for the same reason cold water is added in the summer time4 ,the art of the dairy maid is shown in the proper regulation of the temperature to secure the best results4 ,when the cream is properly ripened and the temperature is suitable the gathering of butter will be accomplished in from twelve to thirty minutes4 ,in unfavorable conditions the duration of churning may be for a much longer period4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,power ,,churn ,,ready ,,for ,,use4--7,courtesy of the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry47 ,in dairies and large establishments churning is accomplished by machinery with very different mechanical appliances1 but the principle which underlies the process is the same as those outlined above4 ,the accompanying figures illustrate the process of churning by mechanical means in a modern dairy 7,figs4 #bj and #ba74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,,power ,,churn1 ,,open4--7,courtesy of the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry47 ,treatment of ,butter4--,the crude butter secured by churning is subjected to washing and seasoning processes in order to prepare it for the market4 ,the washing or working of butter is accomplished by means of water4 ,the object of this 8working0 is to separate from the crude butter as much of the curd and other non-fatty constituents of the cream as can be conveniently accomplished4 ,the removal of these mechanical particles not only makes a butter of a higher grade but also one of better keeping qualities4 ,the working of butter also has much to do with its grain or texture1 which is one of the characters of butter to which great attention must be paid4 ,the best grade of butter and that which brings the highest price in the market is that which receives no treatment other than that of the washing and working process to which attention has been called4 ,this kind of butter is known as natural or unsalted or uncolored butter1 that is1 a fresh1 sweet product of an agreeable aroma1 palatable1 of fine texture and grain1 and is the best product of its kind for human consumption4 ,it also brings the highest price on the market and1 by reason of its method of preparation1 the consumer can usually be assured that it is fresh in character4 ,salting ,butter4--,in the ,united ,states1 especially1 consumers of butter generally require that it shall be salted4 ,for this purpose fine grades of dairy salt are used as free as possible from impurities and consisting of fine particles or crystals which rapidly dissolve in the residual moisture of butter4 ,this promotes a uniform distribution of the salt in the form of brine throughout the mass of butter4 ,the existence in butter of undissolved particles of salt is highly prejudicial to its taste and character4 ,the quantity of salt used in butter is determined by the taste of the consumer4 ,the more salt the butter contains the less value it is as butter and hence the quantity should be limited to the smallest possible amount demanded by the consumer's taste4 ,often butters are found in commerce which are so full of salt as to be wholly unpalatable and there is a tendency on the part of the greedy manufacturer to add excessive quantities of salt because it is very much cheaper than the butter itself and thus he hopes to add to the profit of the industry4 ,on the contrary this practice usually results in loss1 since such highly salted butter naturally brings the lowest price4 ,the amount of salt which is used in butter should not exceed two percent4 ,it is a common supposition that salt in butter is a preservative4 ,this is true when used in large quantities1 that is1 in quantities which render the butter somewhat unpalatable4 ,the very small quantity of salt used purely for condimental purposes cannot be regarded as aiding in any material way the preservation of the product4 ,coloring ,butter4--,unfortunately the practice of artificially coloring butter is very prevalent in the ,united ,states4 ,practically all the butter found upon the market1 even in the spring and summer1 is more or less artificially colored1 often with coal tar 7anilin7 dyes which1 to say the least harm of them possible1 are open to suspicion in respect of wholesomeness4 ,the practice of coloring butter produced in winter may be regarded as universal1 though none the less reprehensible on that account4 ,the object of coloring butter is1 undoubtedly1 to make it appear in the eyes of the consumer better than it really is1 and to this extent can only be regarded as an attempt to deceive4 ,if cows are properly fed during the winter months with wholesome1 nutritious food to which a small proportion of roots such as carrots or ruta bagas are added or with yellow maize and clover hay1 even in winter time the butter produced will have an attractive light amber tint which appeals strongly to the sthetic sense of the consumer4 ,the natural tint of butter is as much more attractive than the artificial as any natural color is superior to the artificial4 ,there is the same difference between the natural tint of butter and the artificial as there is between the natural rose of the cheek and its painted substitute4 ,it is claimed1 and perhaps justly1 that the use of certain vegetable colors1 such as annotto1 does not introduce any unwholesome substance into the product4 ,admitting this1 we must next ask whether it deceives the consumer4 ,if so1 it is difficult to understand upon what ethical principal any plea for the artificial coloring of butter can rest4 ,if it is admitted that there is no valid reason why butter should be colored other than the artificial coloring of foods in general1 which is a practice so reprehensible that it is almost universally denounced1 its practice cannot be easily defended4 ,the dairymen of our country are honest and honorable and evidently do not clearly see the false position in which the practice of coloring butter puts them4 ,when the dairymen of our country understand that the naturally colored products will bring the highest price on the market and appeal more strongly to the confidence of the consumer it is believed the artificial coloring in butter will be relegated to the scrap pile of useless processes4 ,it cannot be claimed in any sense that coloring of butter artificially ever adds anything to its value as a nutritive substance4 ,one of the claims for justifying the coloring of butter is that it distinguishes it from oleomargarine4 ,this1 however1 is not the case since1 under the law1 oleomargarine may be colored upon the payment of a tax of ten cents per pound4 ,the consumer has at his disposition a complete protection against fraud in the use of oleomargarine by the operation of state and federal laws1 irrespective of the tint of the product4 ,oleomargarine and butter are distinguished from each other by their natural colors and also by their chemical and physical properties and1 therefore1 there can be no justification for the coloring of butter on the plea that it distinguishes it from oleomargarine4 ,thus1 from every point of view it is evident that the artificial coloring of butter is undesirable4 ,it interferes with the right of the consumer1 who should know the exact character of the product he buys1 and it stands in the way of the prosperity of the manufacturer by keeping upon the market a cheaper product which tends to decrease the price even of that of better quality4 ,standard ,butter4--,according to the standard established by ,congress butter must contain more than #af percent water and not less than #hb4e butter fat4 ,renovated ,butter4--,the law of ,congress which controls the manufacture of renovated butter is executed jointly by the ,treasury and ,agricultural ,departments4 ,the quantity of renovated butter produced during the year ending ,june #cj1 #aije1 was #fj1bij1dba pounds4 ,adulterated ,butter4--,the quantity of adulterated butter which was produced under the authority of the ,act regulating the manufacture of oleomargarine and butter and on which is laid a tax of #aj cents per pound during the fiscal year ending ,june #cj1 #aije1 was #c1fga pounds4 ,these data show that the tax of #aj cents per pound laid upon adulterated butter has practically destroyed the manufacture of that article4 ,normal butter has from #ab to #ad percent of water4 ,it is sometimes rechurned with water to raise the water content to #af percent4 ,such a practice results in adulteration whether the content of water exceeds #af percent or not4 ,influence of ,food upon ,butter4--,the character of butter is very easily affected by the nature of the food consumed by the cow4 ,butter has the faculty of absorbing very readily odors of all kinds4 ,foods1 therefore1 which have characteristic odors impart them to the butter4 ,a most striking instance of this is in the eating of wild garlic4 ,in this case both the milk and the butter are affected to such a degree as to be in many cases unpalatable4 ,hence foods or substances in foods which are aromatic or odoriferous are likely to impart their peculiar odor to the milk1 cream1 and butter4 ,of all the constituents of milk the fat appears to have the highest faculty of absorbing these objectionable odors4 ,therefore1 the feeding of distillery slops is also apt to impart an unpleasant odor to milk and butter1 whereas if these slops be dried and their volatile aromatic principle expelled little discomfort is experienced in their use4 ,the physical characteristics of butter are also changed in a marked degree by the character of the food4 ,butter fat1 as has already been indicated1 is distinguished from other animal fats by its content of soluble and volatile acids of which butyric is the chief4 ,there are certain kinds of foods which decrease or tend to decrease the content of butyric acid in butter4 ,influence on ,melting ,point4--,the character of the food also has a marked influence upon the melting point of butter4 ,the author showed many years ago that the use of cottonseed meal as food for cows tends to raise the melting point of butter4 ,this was regarded as an index of some value for the southern portion of the country1 where a high temperature obtains over a period of six or seven months of the year4 ,if the melting point of butter1 which when normal is about #cc degrees ,c4 7#ia ,f471 could be increased to #ce or #cf degrees ,c4 7#ie ,f471 it would be of immense advantage in these warm climates and1 in fact1 in all parts of the country during the months of ,july1 ,august1 and ,september4 ,there is no apparent tendency to increase the melting point of butter by feeding other oil cakes4 ,transmission of ,other ,principles in the ,food to the ,butter4--,experience has shown that when cows are fed cottonseed meal or its products the quality of cottonseed oil which responds to the color test known as the ,halphen test1 namely1 the production of a red color with carbon disulfid and amyl alcohol1 is transmitted also to the butter4 ,in some cases this reaction is extremely faint while in others it is displayed with an intensity which is claimed by some to be equal to that of the admixture of #e percent of cottonseed oil with the butter4 ,the use of cottonseed meal1 on the contrary1 does not seem to notably affect either the content of volatile acid in the butter nor its refractometer reading4 7,experimental ,station ,record1 ,volume #be1 ,page #gaf47 ,,oleomargarine4 ,oleomargarine is the name applied to any fatty substance which is prepared to be used in the same manner as butter4 ,oleomargarine is defined by ,act of ,congress as follows3 ,an ,act defining butter1 also imposing a tax upon and regulating the manufacture1 sale1 importation1 and exportation of oleomargarine4 7,approved ,august #b1 #ahhf47 8,that for the purposes of this act certain manufactured substances1 certain extracts1 and certain mixtures and compounds1 including such mixtures and compounds with butter1 shall be known and designated as 8oleomargarine10 namely3 ,all substances heretofore known as oleomargarine1 oleo1 oleomargarine oil1 butterine1 lardine1 suine1 and neutral2 all mixtures and compounds of oleomargarine1 oleo1 oleomargarine oil1 butterine1 lardine1 suine1 and neutral2 all lard extracts and tallow extracts2 and all mixtures and compounds of tallow1 beef fat1 suet1 lard1 lard oil1 vegetable oil1 annotto1 and other coloring matter1 intestinal fat1 and offal fat made in imitation or semblance of butter1 or1 when so made1 calculated or intended to be sold as butter or for butter40 ,the manufacture of oleomargarine can only take place in the ,united ,states under the supervision of officials of the ,internal ,revenue4 ,all oleomargarine which is artificially colored a yellow or yellowish tint in semblance of natural butter pays an internal revenue tax of #aj cents per pound4 ,oleomargarine uncolored pays a revenue tax of one-fourth cent per pound4 ,oleomargarine when made under proper sanitary conditions from sanitary raw materials is a wholesome and nutritious article of diet and usually can be sold at a smaller price than butter4 ,it is especially a food product which commends itself to those who are under the necessity of practising strict economy in the cost of food in the family4 ,the principal objection1 and in fact the only valid objection1 to its use is found in the frauds which have been committed in its manufacture and sale4 ,there has been a constant disposition on the part of dishonest manufacturers and dealers1 since the time when oleomargarine became a commercial commodity1 to sell it as butter4 ,although the penalties of national and state laws are very severe in this respect the practice is continued4 ,the opportunity for gain is so great that the cupidity of the manufacturer overcomes his fear of punishment and disgrace4 ,with a more rigid national and state inspection1 it is reasonable to hope that this fraudulent use of oleomargarine can be avoided and the pure1 unadulterated article under its own name be supplied to those who prefer it either on account of its properties or its price4 ,materials ,used in the ,manufacture of ,oleomargarine4--,neutral ,lard4--,one of the principal basic components of oleomargarine is neutral lard or lard stearin1 the properties of which have already been described4 ,beef fat stearin is another basic ingredient of oleomargarine and is the stearin derived from tallow or tallow itself4 ,beef fat has a higher melting point than lard and beef fat stearin a still higher melting point than the tallow4 ,hence it forms an ideal ingredient with which to mix the oily components which enter so largely into the manufacture of oleomargarine4 ,the beef fat or beef fat stearin is easily distinguished by means of the microscope4 ,it forms beautiful radiated fan-like crystals1 the characteristic appearance of which is shown in ,fig4 #i1 page #fg4 ,cottonseed ,oil and ,cottonseed ,oil ,stearin4--,these are also important ingredients of oleomargarine affording the oily or more liquid constituents which1 when mixed with the lard and stearin above mentioned1 form a compound the melting point of which is slightly above that of butter and sufficient to maintain it in an unmelted state even in warm weather4 ,the quantities in which these different ingredients are used vary greatly in different manufacturing establishments and depend largely upon the location where the oleomargarine is to be used4 ,when manufactured for tropical or subtropical regions larger quantities of stearin are employed than when used in temperate zones or for winter consumption1 in which case larger quantities of cottonseed oil and cottonseed oil stearin are employed with the mixture4 ,after the fats are mixed it is usually the practice to churn them with milk in order to give a flavor of butter to the product4 ,in some cases the yolk of eggs is mixed with oleomargarine1 as it is claimed that they impart thereto a firmer and more homogeneous structure which renders the mass better1 especially for cooking purposes4 ,all the ingredients which are used in the manufacture of oleomargarine are made known and recorded in the books of the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue and thus it is a product which it may be said is strictly under government supervision4 ,description of ,process of ,manufacture4--,the fat is taken from the cattle in the process of slaughtering1 and after thorough washing is placed in a bath of clean1 cold water1 and surrounded with ice1 where it is allowed to remain until all animal heat has been removed4 ,it is then cut into small pieces by machinery and cooked at a temperature of about #aej degrees until the fat1 in liquid form1 has separated from the fibrine or tissue1 then settled until it is perfectly clear4 ,then it is drawn into graining vats and allowed to stand a day1 when it is ready for the presses4 ,the pressing extracts the stearin1 leaving the remaining product1 which is commercially known as oleo oil1 which1 when churned with cream or milk or both and with or without a proportion of creamery butter1 the whole being properly salted1 gives the well-known food-product1 oleomargarine4 ,adulteration of ,oleomargarine4--,since the coloring of oleomargarine is permitted upon the payment of a tax1 oleomargarine which is colored cannot be said to be adulterated when the tax has been paid1 although if coloring were not a legalized operation it would be an adulteration4 ,yellow oleomargarine is an imitation of natural butter and its manufacture should be prohibited unless the product is marked 8imitation40 ,the character of the coloring materials used is not prescribed by the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue but as a rule the coal tar dyes are preferred in the coloring of oleomargarine to the vegetable coloring matter such as annotto and saffron4 ,the remarks which have been made in connection with the use of poisonous materials in other products apply to oleomargarine4 ,adulteration with ,egg ,yolks4--,an adulteration which has been practiced in this country is the admixture of preserved egg yolks4 ,usually these yolks are secured in ,china1 broken1 and placed in vessels and preserved with borax or boric acid or salt4 ,these eggs are generally collected during the early spring and summer months and are not sent to the ,united ,states until the fall or winter4 ,the importation of such articles is now prohibited under the food laws of the country so that the adulterations with the imported article is no longer to be feared4 ,it is possible to preserve domestic eggs in the same way1 and the use of them in this manner is regarded as an adulteration1 since such preserved egg products cannot be regarded as suitable for human food4 ,adulteration with ,preservatives4--,fortunately preservatives are not used to any extent in the manufacture of oleomargarine when intended for domestic use4 ,the most suitable preservative in such a case as this would be borax or boric acid4 ,it is not believed that these preservatives are used to any extent when the product is intended for domestic consumption4 ,whether or not preservatives are used in the product sent abroad ,i am unable to say4 ,production of ,oleomargarine4--,according to the report of the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue the quantity of oleomargarine taxed at #aj cents a pound produced in the ,united ,states for the fiscal year ending ,june #cj1 #aije1 was #e1ehd1fhd pounds1 and for #aijf1 #d1hhh1ifh pounds4 ,the quantity produced in #aijf taxed at one-fourth cent a pound was #ej1ede1iad pounds4 ,,composition ,,of ,,oleomargarine4 ,,sol4 ,,sol4 ,,specific ,,in- ,,acid ,,by ,,acid ,,by ,,gravity ,,soluble ,,washing ,,distil- ,,albu- ,,at #dj;,c4 ,,water4 ,,acid4 ,,out4 ,,lation4 ,,salt4 ,,minoids4 4#ijdij #i4cd #ic4ei #j4ab #j4be #c4fd #j4ce ,from the above data it is seen that the objections to the use of oleomargarine are more on the grounds of fraud and deception than in regard to nutritive and dietetic value4 ,the components used in the manufacture of oleomargarine1 when properly made1 are all wholesome and digestible materials such as are consumed in eating various food products4 ,it does not appear1 therefore1 that any valid objection can be made against the use of oleomargarine from a physiological or hygienic standpoint4 ,,cheese4 ,historical4--,the preparation of cheese is one of the oldest of the technical processes4 ,it appears that it was known during the time of ,king ,david1 at least a thousand years before ,christ1 and the ,greeks were acquainted with it before the writings of ,homer4 ,aristotoles and ,hypocrates describe the curdling of milk which at that time appears to have been accomplished by the use of the juice of the fig4 ,the use of cheese was very common in ,rome in the earlier historical days but the most of it was imported from the ,north4 ,csar speaks of the preparation of cheese among the ,german tribes4 ,cheese must1 therefore1 be regarded as one of the very oldest forms of prepared food used by man4 ,it probably is almost1 if not quite1 as old as wine4 ,these historical facts are interesting in showing how from the earliest times man has made use of the natural ferments to prepare food from the raw material4 ,attention must be called in this connection to the fact that many people claim that such foods as these are not natural foods but wholly artificial4 ,the fallacy of such a claim is not difficult to show4 ,an artificial food is one which is prepared out of materials which1 themselves1 are not edible food products or1 at least1 are not digestible or of a character which does not naturally occur by ordinary processes4 ,artificial foods1 therefore1 are purely synthetic1 that is1 made up from the elemental substances1 or they are mixtures or compounds4 ,on the contrary a food like cheese or wine is not a mixture or compound but a natural product from materials which themselves are food products4 ,milk is the raw material of cheese as the must of the grape is of wine4 ,both milk and must are rich and nutritious foods4 ,the changes which each undergoes are in many respects the same4 ,the must of wine undergoes an alcoholic fermentation and the milk sugar of cheese is subjected to a lactic fermentation and its casein to a proteolytic change which materially alters its character4 ,cheese products are a very important part of food materials of the dairy4 ,the term cheese is applied to the solid product produced from milk by coagulation of the casein with rennet or lactic acid and subjecting the solid product thus produced to a process of fermentation and ripening by the addition of appropriate seed material1 seasoning1 and storage at convenient temperature for varying periods of time4 ,in the precipitation of the casein of milk the fat particles become mechanically entangled and form a part of the precipitate4 ,there is a certain quantity of other milk constituents incorporated in the form of water1 milk sugar1 and mineral matter in the precipitated mass4 ,the greater part of the other bodies which the milk contains1 consisting of the milk sugar and a considerable portion of the soluble mineral matter1 are separated in the form of whey4 ,the composition of fresh cheese is that of that part of the milk which is precipitated and which is entangled mechanically in the precipitated matter4 ,the ripened cheese is changed in its chemical constituents mostly as the result of fermentative action upon its nitrogenous constituents1 that is1 the casein1 albumin1 etc41 contained therein4 ,the ferments tend to change the casein into a more soluble form of protein1 while at the same time they develop a flavor and aroma in a way agreeable to the nostril and palate4 ,various forms of moulds and other organisms grow on and in cheeses which influence their palatability and character4 ,the final product of the ripened cheese varies not only with the nature of the original material as determined by the milk itself but with the character of the preparation and the nature of the organisms and ferments which are active during the ripening period1 and also with the time and temperature of storage4 ,kinds of ,cheese4--,it is not necessary and perhaps it would be impossible to attempt an enumeration of all the various kinds of cheese which are offered on the market4 ,the first classification of cheese depends upon the character of the milk used4 ,the term 8cheese0 in this country naturally refers to a product made from cow's milk since that is the principal milk used in the ,united ,states for cheese making4 ,the term is used in this manual in that sense and when there is no qualifying word employed it is always understood that the product in question is made from the cow's milk4 ,this implies that the milk is at least a standard milk1 that is1 a whole milk1 unskimmed and containing not less than #c4be percent of butter fat4 ,according to the definition fixed by the ,congress of the ,united ,states the term cheese is applied not only to this product but also to one containing a larger percentage of fat than this4 ,the term cheese applies both to cheese made from milk and cheese made partially from milk and partially from cream4 ,the term 8full cream cheese0 is also often used in the trade but is likely to be misleading and deceptive4 ,the real significance of the term full cream cheese is that it is made of whole milk or milk unskimmed which contains its full complement of cream4 ,the term 8cream cheese0 is also often used to indicate a cheese made partially of milk and cream4 ,it is evident that the term cream cheese in this sense is misleading1 since it can be properly applied only to a cheese made from cream alone4 ,such cheeses are made but1 inasmuch as cream must have not less than #ah percent of fat in order to be called cream according to the ,united ,states standard1 the cheeses made from such a source are too oily and fatty for ordinary consumption4 ,cheese ,made from ,goat's ,milk4--,goat's milk is also frequently used in making cheese4 ,it is extensively employed in ,france and ,switzerland for cheese making and also in other parts of ,europe1 and to a limited extent in this country4 ,some of the varieties of cheese which are most highly prized are made from goat's milk1 such as ,roquefort4 ,adulteration and ,misbranding of ,cheese4--,the most common form of adulteration or sophistication of cheese is the misbranding thereof in respect of the country where made or in respect of character4 ,this is a form of deception which has long been established in the trade and one which cannot be condoned or excused4 ,there are certain varieties of cheese whose names should be respected and in fact1 in the case of all varieties that have an established character and reputation1 their name should not be applied to other articles made in imitation thereof4 ,in this country there is a national law which prohibits the marking of a food or dairy product falsely as to the state or territory where made4 ,for instance1 a cheese made in ,ohio cannot be marked ,new ,york cheese and peaches grown in ,delaware cannot be marked ,california peaches1 maple sirup made in ,indiana cannot be labeled ,vermont maple sirup1 etc4 ,the ethical principle underlying this law is one which will meet the approbation of every well meaning man and therefore the extending of this principle to other forms of misbranding is an easy step4 ,if it is a violation of the law to mark a cheese made in ,ohio as made in ,new ,york it is certainly a violation of the ethical principle underlying that law to name a cheese made in ,connecticut ,cammerbert4 ,unhappily1 however1 there are cheeses made in the ,united ,states to which foreign names are given1 the universal excuse being that they are cheeses of the same type4 ,in many cases this excuse is not a valid one and in no case is it an accepted one4 ,to name a cheese made from cow's milk the same as that made from ewe's milk is a distinct misbranding in every sense of the term4 ,there should be no difficulty in established varieties of cheese made in this country having names which are not deceptive and not intended to mislead the consumer as to the state1 territory1 or country where made4 ,in one sense all cheese may be said to be of the same type1 but because the taste and odor of a cheese made in the ,united ,states imitates to some extent that of a cheese made in ,france is no excuse for giving the ,french name to the ,american product4 ,a further illustration of this principle is found in the following3 ,the term ,roquefort1 for instance1 is not properly applied to any cheese product except that which is made at or in the vicinity of ,roquefort4 ,in no other part of ,france can cheese be made bearing the name of ,roquefort4 ,the use of the term ,roquefort1 therefore1 in any way upon ,american cheese is a misbranding and an attempt to deceive which usually is successful4 ,there is not so great an objection to the term ,swiss cheese as to ,roquefort1 but there is the same kind of an objection4 ,the cheese which bears the name of ,schweitzer-,kse is very extensively manufactured in ,germany and sold under that name4 ,a similar cheese is also extensively made in this country and sold under the name of ,schweitzer-,kse4 ,in this case there is no particular location or place which originated the name and has the sole right to use the name ,swiss cheese4 ,it is the name of a whole country and not of a location1 and yet it is evident that ,swiss cheese properly can only be made in ,switzerland and not in ,germany or in the ,united ,states4 ,any hard1 tough cheese in which a large number of holes is found and which on cutting makes a flexible1 semi-leathery slice has to a certain extent the appearance and perhaps the taste and flavor of genuine ,swiss cheese4 ,it should not be difficult to find a market for all good cheese made in this country1 under appropriate ,american names indicating their origin4 ,if the term ,swiss cheese is at all allowable on a package it should be placed as a minor part of the label and with the statement that it is of that type4 ,even this transgression is perhaps difficult of excuse4 ,artificial ,coloring4--,next to misbranding and misnaming of cheeses1 perhaps the most common adulteration is that of artificial coloring4 ,the public taste has been led in the matter of cheeses1 especially of ,american origin1 to look for a deep yellow color4 ,this is also associated with the idea of the use of a large quantity of rich1 naturally yellow-colored cream4 ,the addition of an artificial color to a cheese never adds anything to its value1 and to the really sthetic eye detracts much from its appearance4 ,the presence of this rich artificial tint is calculated in many instances to excite a suspicion in regard to the character of the cheese and thus interferes with its proper gustation4 ,there is another more serious objection than the one just mentioned1 namely1 that it is possible from skimmed milk to make a highly colored cheese which would appear to the consumer to be made of whole milk or of milk and cream1 and thus a deliberate deception is perpetrated4 ,the consumer of cheese should demand that artificial coloring of all kinds be omitted from cheese products4 ,moreover1 these colors may of themselves be deleterious in character and there is no restriction1 so far as ,i know1 at this time in the ,united ,states to prevent a manufacturer1 if he so desires or through his ignorance of the use of coloring materials of a poisonous character1 from using any amount4#bb ,the coal tar dyes are cheaper and produce faster and more natural looking tints than the vegetable colors such as annotto and saffron1 and hence1 unless they are prohibited by law1 they are almost universally employed4 ,all of these dyes in a concentrated form are highly poisonous and injurious and several instances are on record of death1 especially in the case of young children1 from eating concentrated colors4 ,the fact that a poison of this kind is diluted by the cheese is no excuse for its use4 ,the only protection which the consumer has1 which is reliable in all cases1 is the prohibition of coloring matter in cheese4 #bb ,written before the passage of the food-bill4 ,by ,act of ,congress of ,june #f1 #ahif1 coloring matter is permitted to be used in cheese in the ,united ,states and doubtless it will continue to be used under this authority until that portion of the ,act is repealed or until the consumer demands an uncolored article4 ,the pure1 natural color of the cheese is universally acknowledged to be best1 most palatable1 and most desirable4 ,preservatives4--,fortunately there is little to be said in regard to preservatives in cheese because they are almost unknown4 ,the addition of a preservative to a cheese at the time of its production would so seriously interfere with the ripening process as to defeat the purpose of storage altogether4 ,hence in so far as preservatives are concerned there is little danger of adulteration4 ,impure ,raw ,materials4--,if cheese be made of standard milk as provided for by the commissioners it must be made of pure1 wholesome material4 ,on the contrary1 inasmuch as there is no official inspection of cheese factories1 it is entirely possible through carelessness1 ignorance1 or design to use in the making of cheese milk which may itself be infected4 ,cheese made from such milk of course would carry the infection of the milk4 ,this is a sort of adulteration which can only be excluded by careful sanitary inspection of cheese factories4 ,filled ,cheese4--,formerly there was a very considerable adulteration of cheese by manufacturing it from skimmed milk and supplying from an artificial source the necessary fat4 ,cottonseed oil1 lard1 and other edible oils are used for this purpose4 ,composition of ,filled ,cheese 7,circular ,no4 #aa1 ,bureau of ,animal ,industry74--,neutral lard is the principal fat which is substituted for milk fat in filled cheese4 ,it is used to the extent of two or three pounds for every #ajj pounds of skimmed milk4 ,the principal objection to a filled cheese is not on account of its containing lard1 which in itself is not unwholesome4 ,but lard is an entirely different fat from milk fat1 and differs in the character of the fermentation which takes place4 ,the characteristic flavors and odors which are contributed by the milk fat in the cheese are entirely wanting1 and the cheese is devoid of aroma and flavor and is nothing more than a mixture of casein with lard4 ,filled cheese is such a poor imitation of the genuine article that it can never have any very great vogue1 and especially under the present law which requires it to be labeled and the payment of a tax4 ,the law relating to filled cheese is found in the appendix4 ,a filled cheese which is on the market not properly stamped and duty paid in harmony with this ,act of ,congress is adulterated1 and they who make and sell it are amenable to the law4 ,the annual report of the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue for the year ending ,june #cj1 #aije1 shows that no receipts were obtained by the tax on filled cheese during that year4 ,if any was made it was made surreptitiously and in defiance of the law4 ,from the above data it is seen that the manufacture and sale of filled cheese in the ,united ,states is almost a thing of the past and this form of adulteration1 assuming that the law is thoroughly executed1 is not now likely to be often met with4 ,cottage ,cheese4--,cottage cheese is a term applied to a product which is usually only a raw material of cheese4 ,it is the fresh1 precipitated1 and unripe milk product1 above described as used in cheese making4 ,it is a highly nutritious and very palatable product1 usually prepared at home and not suitable for keeping or transportation4 ,it is often made from sour milk in which the casein is coagulated by the natural development of lactic acid4 ,the sour milk is placed in a cloth bag and the whey allowed to escape by gravitation4 ,the final portion of the whey may be forced out by pressure4 ,the residue1 when properly seasoned with salt or in any way to suit the taste of the consumer1 is very palatable4 ,cream is often added to this residue which increases the normal amount of fat which it contains4 ,,comparative ,,composition ,,of ,,american ,,and ,,edam ,,cheese4 ,the chemical composition of some of the principal varieties of cheese are shown in the following table3 ,,water4 ,,ash4 ,,fat4 ,,protein4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,american cheese1 #bg4e #d4a #cb4e #bh4ch ,edam cheese1 #cf4cd #d4bd #ca4ag #bb4bh ,the data show that cheese is essentially a nitrogenous and fat food1 containing only small quantities of carbohydrates1 and therefore it is not a complete ration4 ,it is a ration1 however1 which is complementary to a highly starchy diet such as rice or maize bread or potatoes4 ,bread and cheese or potatoes and cheese or rice and cheese1 therefore1 make a well balanced diet1 highly nutritious1 easily digestible1 and quite palatable4 ,manufacture of ,american ,cheeses4--,the large cheeses which are principally found upon the ,american market may be said1 in general1 to resemble the ,cheddar type1 although the calling of these cheeses by the name 8,cheddar0 is misleading1 and to that extent a misbranding of the product4 ,there are two common methods of making these cheeses which are in vogue in the ,united ,states1 namely1 the 8stirred curd0 or 8granular0 method and1 second1 the ,cheddar method4 7,bulletin #ajd1 ,department of ,agriculture of ,pennsylvania1 #aijb47 ,the latter one is the more extensively used4 ,the second product does not differ essentially in character from the first1 though the latter method1 it is claimed1 gives a more solid cheese and one of more uniform character and with a slightly less content of moisture4 ,since the ,cheddar method has practically come into sole use1 displacing the first method1 a description of the ,cheddar method alone will be sufficient to illustrate the method of making large cheeses which are now so common on the ,american market and which have such a well merited reputation4 ,the process is divided into eight parts3 ,first1 coagulating the milk2 second1 cutting the curd2 third1 heating the curd2 fourth1 removing the whey2 fifth1 cheddaring the curd2 sixth1 milling the curd2 seventh1 salting and pressing the curd2 eighth1 curing the cheese4 ,rennet4--,as has been said in the description of cheese making1 the material which is most useful in the precipitation of the curd is rennet4 ,the rennet is the secretion of the stomach of various animals1 that of the calf being most highly priced for cheese making4 ,the fourth stomach of the animal is the one which is used in the manufacture of rennet4 ,the aqueous extract made from these stomachs contains a ferment which has the property of coagulating casein in a very high degree4 ,one part of good rennet preparation from healthy stomachs of calves will coagulate #ajjj parts of milk4 ,in former days rennet was freshly made and used at the factories4 ,at the present time it is largely prepared on a commercial scale and sold to the cheese maker4 ,it is highly important that the rennet used in cheese making should be of the best quality1 as an inferior grade gives a bad taste and color to the cheese4 ,just as in the manufacture of fermented beverages and making of bread the character of the yeast is a dominant factor in the nature of the finished product1 so it is even to a greater degree in the case of rennet4 ,those who purchase the rennet already made should therefore be certain it is of a quality to give the desired character to the cheese4 ,the greater the amount of milk fat in milk the larger the proportion of rennet1 since the milk fat protects to some extent the casein from the action of the ferment4 ,experience has shown also that during the summer the rennet acts more readily upon the milk1 probably due to the higher temperature4 ,care should be taken to avoid the use of any excess of rennet1 since anything more than the amount necessary to conduct the coagulation is apt to add an unpleasant flavor to the cheese4 ,the curd also in such cases is less cohesive and makes a tougher and drier product which does not lend itself so readily to the ripening process4 ,for this reason the rennet which is to be used should always be tested in small quantities of milk beforehand in order that the proper proportion to be used may be known so that the process in a large way may be conducted with certainty and not by guess4 78,british ,dairy ,farming10 by ,jas4 ,long47 ,rennet is sometimes treated with borax to preserve it during transit4 ,in such cases the borax may not all be removed by the whey and is consequently found in ripened cheese4 ,its introduction in this way should be avoided4 ,coagulating the ,milk by ,rennet ,extract4--,this process is often termed by the cheese makers 8setting the milk with rennet40 ,the milk which is used for the purpose of cheese making should be1 in the technical language of the cheese maker1 8ripe10 that is1 containing a sufficient quantity of lactic acid4 ,the principal method of producing the proper amount of lactic acid in milk is by keeping it warm1 namely1 at a temperature of about #hd degrees4 ,at this temperature the most favorable conditions exist in milk for the rapid growth of the lactic acid ferments4 ,if the natural ferments which produce lactic acid are not in sufficient quantity in the original milk it is better1 rather than to wait too long a time1 to start the development of the lactic acid by adding an artificial ferment4 ,lactic ferments are specially prepared for this purpose1 or some previously ripened milk may be added to the mass4 ,this is called a 8starter40 ,from two to five pounds of 8starter0 are usually required for each one hundred pounds of milk4 ,the degree of ripening is ascertained by measuring the quantity of lactic acid present4 ,the proper condition of the milk is tested by means of a rennet preparation and if the milk will coagulate1 when thus tested1 in about one minute or a little more it is an indication that a sufficient amount of acid has been developed to add the rennet for the proper coagulation of the milk4 ,it is important to have the milk in just the right condition in order that the proper operations in cheese making may go on uniformly4 ,care must be taken1 however1 not to have too much lactic acid in the milk4 ,for instance1 #j4b of one percent is too great1 and such a milk is very liable to give trouble in subsequent operations4 ,in the curding of milk by rennet the temperature should be kept between #hb and #hf degrees4 ,the amount of rennet extract1 of course1 varies with its character and strength1 and this is best determined by the cheese maker's experimenting in order that the proper quantity to be added to the great mass of milk may be known beforehand4 ,a sufficient quantity of rennet extract should be used to curdle the milk in fifteen or twenty minutes for a quick-curing cheese1 and in thirty to forty minutes for a slow-curing cheese4 ,the rennet extracts in common use are added at the rate of from one-half to five ounces for #ajjj pounds of milk4 ,before adding1 the extract should be diluted with from #bj to #dj times its volume of water at a temperature of from #he to #ij degrees4 ,the rennet thus diluted acts with uniformity on the milk1 preventing the production of curd of a lumpy character4 ,previous to adding the rennet extract the mass of milk is thoroughly stirred in order to mix the fat therewith and the dilute rennet added evenly and slowly with constant stirring which is continued for several minutes4 ,a gentle stirring of the surface of the milk should be continued until the curd is at least half formed1 in order that the fat may not separate4 ,after the stirring is finished1 a cloth is placed over the top of the vat to keep the surface of the milk from cooling1 and the milk is then left undisturbed until the coagulation is complete4 ,the coagulation goes on gradually until the whole mass of milk is one solid coagulum produced by the changing of casein into paracasein4 ,cutting the ,curd4--,in order that the whey may be separated it is necessary that the curd be cut into pieces4 ,the smaller the pieces of curd1 the more rapidly will the whey escape4 ,as soon as the curd is formed it shows a tendency to contract and this tends to force out the whey4 ,by cutting the extent of the surface from which the whey can exude is amplified and the rapidity of the process is enormously increased4 ,the time at which the curd is to be cut is one of great importance and is determined by the skill and experience of the cheese maker4 ,if the curd is cut when it is too soft there may be large loss of fat and a decreased yield of cheese4 ,if the curd is too hard the whey is more difficultly removed and the quality of the cheeses is not so fine4 ,the following test is used to determine when the curd is in the right condition to cut4 ,the end of the index finger is inserted obliquely into the curd half an inch or more and then slowly raised toward the surface4 ,if the curd breaks apart with a clean fracture without leaving any particles on the finger and the whey which exudes from the broken surface is clear and not milky it shows the proper time has come for cutting4 ,specially devised knives are used for cutting the curd1 which leave it in small cubes of about one-half inch surface4 ,skill in the use of the cutting knife is important and can only be acquired by proper experience4 ,heating the ,curd4--,as soon as the curd is cut the whey begins to go out of it and the curd settles to the bottom of the vat1 the whey being of a higher specific gravity than the curd4 ,after the pieces of curd sink to the bottom the surface easily reunites and1 when broken apart1 additional fat is lost4 ,as soon1 therefore1 as the curd is cut the whole mass is kept in gentle motion by hand stirring or with a wire basket designed for the purpose1 care being taken to avoid breaking or comminuting the cubes4 ,when properly stirred the whey appears clear and is free of small particles of curd4 ,the curd contracts and hardens during this process1 and soon reaches a condition when the surface does not adhere so readily4 ,the vat should be kept warm during the process of separation of the whey1 the temperature being raised to about #ij degrees and finally1 toward the last1 to #ih degrees1 about blood heat4 ,separating the ,curd4--,the precipitated curd is left in contact with the whey for some time1 and during this period some of the lactic acid in the whey unites with the paracasein4 ,the setting of the curd is finished when a small mass which has been squeezed in the hand to remove the whey is pressed against a bar of iron heated to little short of redness1 and it is found that there is left1 adhering to the iron1 fine silky threads4 ,these threads are formed by the compound of lactic acid and paracasein1 and the more of this compound there is the longer will the strings be4 ,when the curd shows by the hot iron test strings one-eighth inch long it is an index that the time has arrived for the separation of the curd from the whey4 ,gathering the ,curd4--,after the whey is removed the cubes of curd are left in the bottom of the vat until they mat or pack together1 a process which is technically known as cheddaring4 ,the curd is sometimes removed from the vat and placed on a special apparatus for this purpose called a curd-sink4 ,when the curd has matted together1 forming a solid mass1 it is cut into blocks #h #h #ab inches4 ,these blocks are turned in the vat in order to facilitate the removal of more whey4 ,the blocks of curd are carefully placed1 one over the other until they form a large mass4 ,the process of solidifying or cheddaring accomplishes two purposes3 ,first1 the whey is expelled to a considerable extent and1 second1 the lactic acid unites with more of the curd1 changing not only its chemical composition but also its physical state from a spongy1 tough1 rubber-like consistence1 with a high water content1 to a mass having a smooth1 velvety appearance and feeling1 and a soft1 somewhat plastic consistency4 ,milling the ,curd4--,this process consists in cutting the lumps of curd into small pieces in order to introduce the salt and to handle it more readily when it is to be placed into hoops for pressing4 ,this process is done by special mills which avoid1 in so far as possible1 the loss of fat4 ,salting and ,pressing4--,salt is added for several purposes1 chiefly for flavoring1 but it also has other uses4 ,it aids in removing the whey1--it hardens the curd and it checks or retards the formation of lactic acid4 ,excessive salting1 however1 is injurious4 ,from #b to #c pounds of salt should be added to the curd made from #ajjj pounds of milk4 ,before putting in the press the curd is cooled to a temperature of about #hj degrees1 and after putting into the mold it is subjected to pressure to give it a proper form1 rather than to remove the whey which is practically all gone by this time4 ,if the whey has not been properly removed before the cheese goes into the press it is almost impossible to get it out then4 ,the pressure should be uniform and continued for at least twenty-four hours4 ,if a screw is used the pressure should be light at first and gradually increased4 ,after the cheese has been in the press about an hour it is removed1 turned1 a cloth adjusted about it1 and the entire surface wiped carefully with a cloth wrung out of hot water4 ,the sizes in which ,american cheeses are made depends largely upon the market1 the more common size being #ae inches in diameter1 and the cheese weighs from #fj to #fe pounds4 ,there is also a very large manufacture of cheese seven inches in diameter1 known as 8,young ,americas0 and weighing only from #h to #aj pounds4 ,curing4--,the higher the temperature to which cheese is exposed in curing the more rapid the curing process will take place1 but the poorer the quality of the cheese4 ,experience has shown that a low temperature1 #ee degrees ,f4 or even less1 gives much better results1 although it requires a greater length of time4 ,if cured at a higher temperature the fat is apt to exude1 and will not be evenly distributed in the cheese4 ,it is1 therefore1 more profitable1 as well as better for the consumer1 to cure at low temperatures1 producing a superior quality with less loss of moisture and a cheese which sells for a better price4 ,moisture in the ,curing ,cellar4--,the cellar in which the curing takes place should contain air with a proper degree of moisture4 ,the relative percentage of moisture in the air as compared with the total amount which it can hold should be from #fe to #ge4 ,this is determined by placing in the curing room a hygrometer which registers the degree of saturation4 ,qualities of ,american ,cheese4--,the quality of cheeses is judged by 7#a7 flavor1 7#b7 body1 7#c7 texture1 7#d7 color1 and 7#e7 general appearance4 ,in regard to flavor it is impossible to describe what is meant4 ,only the connoisseur can determine properly whether a cheese has a flavor which is sound1 healthy1 and indicative of the highest quality4 ,the cheese flavor should be free from any admixture of other flavors4 ,cheese resembles butter in this respect1 that it absorbs and then gives off foreign flavors with great facility4 ,therefore in the whole process of cheese making care must be exercised to exclude every odor or flavor of an undesirable character from the cheese house4 ,flavor4--,under flavor also may be described taste1 which should be of that biting1 incisive character due to proper development of ripening and its attendant bacterial and enzymic products4 ,the various foreign flavors in cheese may be due to the odor of cows or the stable or may suggest 8rotten eggs10 or it may be the flavor of rancid butter due to the decomposition of butter fat in the cheese4 ,body4--,this is also a term which it is difficult to define4 ,an ,american cheese is said to have a perfect body when it is solid1 firm1 and smooth in substance4 ,this quality is ascertained by pressing the cheese between the fingers4 ,when it does not press down evenly between the finger and thumb it is said technically to be 8corky40 ,it is smooth when it feels velvety-like and is not harsh or gritty4 ,texture4--,the term texture applied to ,american cheese refers mainly to its compactness4 ,it is nearly related to body4 ,the texture may be fine and close or porous4 ,the texture is perfect when a cut surface of the inside of the cheese presents to the eye a solid1 compact1 continuous appearance1 free from breaks1 holes1 or lumps4 ,cheese should not show any visible or separated moisture or fat4 ,the texture of ,american cheese should be smooth1 free from breaks1 and fairly hard4 ,the bandage should be smooth and neat1 extending over the edge on each end of the cheese about two inches4 ,color4--,a true and unadulterated cheese should have only the color of the milk from which it is made1 and any other color incident to ripening which is usually green4 ,unfortunately cheeses of ,american origin are often artificially colored4 ,an over-deep yellowish or reddish tint1 therefore1 should be regarded as a mark of inferiority4 ,artificially colored cheese should not rank as high on the market as that of a natural tint1 which is much more pleasing to the eye and much less objectionable to the sthetic taste4 ,color is often added to conceal inferiority in the milk used4 ,the sides of the cheese should be straight and of uniform height all around4 ,the following scale of points is used in judging cheese1 according to the above qualities3 ,flavor1 #de to #ej2 texture1 #cj to #ce2 color1 #aj to #ae2 general appearance1 #e to #ae4 ,cream ,cheese4--,this is a soft cheese which is rapidly growing in popularity4 ,it is made from rich milk or milk and cream mixed together4 ,it resembles in general ,neufchatel1 but it is richer in butter fat and is put up in a different form4 ,the temperature of the room in which the cheese is made is quite important4 ,it should be kept as nearly as possible at #ge degrees4 ,the milk is first warmed to #gj degrees and run through a separator by means of which the cream is taken out1 together with one-half the volume of milk4 ,this makes either dilute cream or very rich milk1 as you may choose to call it4 ,the cream is heated to #hd degrees and about four or five ounces of rennet extract added per thousand pounds4 ,the rennet is carefully and gradually stirred into the mixture1 using about fifteen minutes for the addition4 ,the mass is then allowed to remain at rest until whey is seen around the sides4 ,the whey is then removed by draining1 the resulting curd pressed and mixed with about #c percent of salt4 ,the cheese is not subjected to a curing process4 ,it is molded into flat1 thin cakes about #c by #d inches1 wrapped in parchment paper1 and in this condition packed for shipment4 ,manufacture of ,foreign ,types of ,cheese in the ,united ,states4--,the improvement of cheeses made in the ,united ,states by securing different forms of ferments and utilizing the best method of setting1 pressing the curd1 and ripening used in other countries is worthy of all encouragement4 ,unfortunately a disposition has arisen in our country of giving the names of foreign varieties to the domestic articles4 ,many fancy domestic cheeses are sold under strictly foreign names such as ,cheddar1 ,stilton1 ,cheshire1 ,schweitzer1 ,limburger1 ,camembert1 ,brie1 ,roquefort1 etc4 ,in fact there seems to be no limitation upon the adoption of a name already identified with a distinct type and locality4 ,such a tendency is greatly to be regretted and perhaps it is only necessary to point out to our people the ethical offense which they are committing by such practices to secure their discontinuance4 ,it is1 however1 a perfectly legitimate undertaking to import the ferments which produce the famous cheeses of the world and utilize them to the fullest extent in cheeses of ,american origin4 ,this1 however1 should be done in such a way as to carefully avoid applying the name of the original article to the domestic product4 ,perhaps it would be no ethical offense or no very great offense to place upon the labels of the cheese products a statement that they are of the same type as the foreign product they imitate4 ,this1 however1 should be an explanatory phrase and not a part of the label which attracts principal attention4 ,it is far better that a manufacturer should adopt some local name which would become identified with his product1 and thus become a valuable trade-mark4 ,the attempt to pass domestic cheese under foreign names is an offense against good ethics and also against the law4 ,it is nothing more nor less than misbranding1 and cannot be justified even in the absence of a law forbidding it4 ,success with ,foreign ,ferments4--,considerable success has attended the introduction of the foreign processes into the ,united ,states1 together with the ferments which produce the cheeses abroad4 ,the environment1 however1 cannot be imported and therefore the ferments may rapidly assimilate different properties under changed conditions1 and the continued importation of fresh ferments may be necessary to preserve the type of cheese4 ,some of the principal types of foreign cheeses made in the ,united ,states are those which are mentioned above4 ,a particularly excellent study has been made of the process of making a ,camembert type of cheese in this country4 7,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,bulletin #ga1 #aije47 ,this particular cheese is a type of ,camembert which is made at the ,storrs ,agricultural ,experiment ,station of ,connecticut4 ,for these experiments a cheese maker familiar with the ,camembert manufacture in ,france was secured4 ,the method of making the cheese and also of separating the curd and ripening was as nearly as possible like that used in ,france4 ,the style of the packages was the same1 so that from external appearances it would be quite difficult to distinguish them from the genuine ,camembert cheese of ,france4 ,the success attending these experiments shows that it is possible to improve domestic cheeses by scientific effort in the direction of using the proper ferments4 ,these soft cheeses made in ,connecticut were of good quality and had something of the flavor and type of the ,camembert itself1 though it was not difficult for even a novice to distinguish the two varieties from one another4 ,these studies above referred to have resulted in a marked degree of progress in the knowledge of the real changes which take place in the ripening of cheeses4 ,the officials in charge of the work differ somewhat with the author in respect to the character of the product1 claiming that the making of ,camembert cheese is not dependent upon uniform conditions obtained only in certain localities but rather on securing the proper cultures and conditions which are possible almost anywhere4 ,the fact of the case is that the cheeses made at the ,connecticut station are probably made under much more scientific conditions and much more rigid control than the real ,camembert cheese made in ,france4 ,the success which attended these efforts is only a proof of the statement made above that the introduction of these processes for making fancy cheeses in this country will doubtless result in the development of types of ,american origin of peculiar flavor and quality4 ,such cheeses when properly named and not confused with those of foreign origin will become quite as familiar and well known1 both at home and abroad4 7,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,bulletin #hb1 #aijf47 ,sage ,cheese4--,the consumption of the variety of cheese known as sage cheese is not very large at the present time in the ,united ,states and is restricted to certain localities1 yet it is rapidly growing in favor4 ,consumers who are accustomed to it are willing to pay a larger price for it than for ordinary cheese4 ,sage cheese is made exactly in the same manner as that described for the manufacture of ,cheddar4 ,the flavor of sage is imparted in three different ways1 first1 by adding the sage extract or tea to the milk2 second1 by adding the extract to the curd before salting2 third1 by adding the sage leaves to the curd before salting4 ,the latter method is found to be the most satisfactory requiring the least amount of sage to give any definite flavor4 ,three ounces of sage leaves are found to be sufficient to flavor the curd from #ajjj pounds of milk4 ,the stems and impurities of the sage leaves are carefully removed and the leaves ground to a fine powder before mixing with the curd 7,michigan ,board of ,agriculture1 #aijd74 ,principal ,cheeses of ,england4--,the principal ,english cheeses are ,stilton1 ,cheshire1 ,cheddar1 double and single1 ,gloucester1 ,derby1 and ,leicester4 ,according to ,dr4 ,voelcker1 the finest flavored cheese is ,cheshire1 which differs from any other in being made from milk which is perfectly sweet1 and some authors think its peculiar aroma is due to this fact4 ,on the contrary1 the more general opinion is that the best cheeses are made from milk slightly sour rather than that which is perfectly sweet4 ,cheshire cheese is manufactured by mixing the evening milk1 which is kept cool over night1 with the morning milk1 and then warming the mixture until the temperature is about #ij degrees4 ,the proper quantity of rennet is added and when the cheese is to be extremely yellow also some annotto4 ,after thoroughly mixing1 the mass is left for nearly an hour1 by which time the coagulation is completed4 ,the next operation is the breaking down or cutting up of the fresh curd1 and this is an important process4 ,upon the care which is exercised in doing this depends in a large measure the richness and quality of the finished product4 ,when properly manipulated the whey which is separated will be of a greenish color and clear1 while the proper combination of milk fat and casein which is secured in separating the whey will make a cheese of first class quality4 ,the curd is so dense as to naturally separate from the whey by deposition1 and the latter is thus drawn off by a stopcock properly placed in the vat4 ,the curd is then placed upon a cloth stretched over lattice work in order that the separation of the whey may be complete4 ,finally before passing to the cheese house the curd is treated with eight ounces of salt to twenty pounds of curd4 ,after the cheese is molded it is placed in a warm room for one or two days1 and then taken to the press house where it is subjected to the usual pressure4 ,the pressing process is continued by wrapping the cheese in dry cloths and subjecting to new pressure every day for five or six days4 ,the cheese is then removed to the ripening cellar where it is turned two or three times a week4 ,it is ripe and ready for consumption in less than one year4 ,there are a great many variations from this method of making ,cheshire cheese1 but they all follow the same general plan4 ,manufacture of ,cheddar ,cheese4--,the cheese is made in various parts of ,england though chiefly in ,somerset1 the period of manufacture extending from ,april to ,november4 ,cheddar cheeses are made in large sizes varying from #fj to #ajj pounds each4 ,the temperature of precipitation for ,cheddar cheese is somewhat less than for the ,cheshire cheese1 being about #hj degrees4 ,rennet is used solely in the coagulation1 lactic acid not being liked for that purpose4 ,in the making of ,cheddar often some of the fat escapes in the whey and this is afterwards collected and made into butter4 ,two pounds of salt to #ajj pounds of curd are used4 ,derby cheese is a name applied to cheese made in ,derby4 ,the ,cheddar system of making it is usually employed4 ,gloster cheeses are made on the same plan as that of the ,derby and do not need any further description4 ,leicester cheese is a variety of cheese which is very popular and made chiefly in the county of ,leicester4 ,the coagulation of ,leicester cheese is made at a little lower temperature than that previously described1 varying from #gf to #hd degrees4 ,the curd is allowed to stand for about one-half hour before it is broken up and the whey separated4 ,the best manufacturers of cheese disapprove of the use of artificial coloring and it may be said that eventually it is pretty certain that all cheese makers will come to the same conclusion4 ,the use of coloring matter in cheese1 even of annotto1 adds nothing to its richness1 and tends to deceive the customer into thinking that the milk employed was richer in cream than it really was4 ,the ,leicester cheeses are small in size compared with ,cheddar4 ,about eleven pounds of milk are used to make an ordinary cheese4 ,stilton cheese is probably the most familiar and highly prized of all ,english varieties4 ,it is not always to be obtained1 and many imitations of ,stilton are made and bear its name4 ,the name it bears is from the name of the town where it was first1 and is now1 made4 ,it is a cheese which has been known for about a century and a quarter4 ,it is principally made between ,march and ,september and solely from the milk of cows fed on natural pasture1 that is1 for the finest variety4 ,the use of artificial food for the cows is at once detected in a change for the worse in the character of the cheese4 ,at first the rennet employed was made from the stomachs of lambs instead of cows and in the olden times the cheeses were not considered to be sufficiently mellow and ripe until they were two years old and exhibited spots of green in the interior4 ,the most approved modern process of manufacture is mixing the morning and evening milk and bringing it to a temperature of #gi degrees4 ,rennet is then added and the mass allowed to stand for about an hour and a half4 ,the curd is removed into cloths set in frames for the purpose of allowing the whey to separate4 ,usually about an hour is allowed for the natural separation4 ,the cloths are then tightened and brought closer together to produce slight pressure and placed in a cheese tub1 several of them together1 where they are allowed to remain for twelve hours4 ,usually a longer time is allowed before the curd is cut up4 ,the salt is added in proportion of one pound to #fj pounds of fresh curd4 ,the curd is then placed in tin cylinders with perforated sides1 the cylinder being #ab inches deep and #ab inches in diameter1 and put in a room at about #fe degrees to favor the separation of the whey which requires from six to seven days4 ,the cheeses are then removed from the cylinders1 brought into proper shape by a knife and wrapped with strong cotton cloth and allowed to remain for twelve days longer when they are removed to the drying room and kept at #fe degrees4 ,during this process the original curd placed in the cell loses about one-half its weight so that ten pounds of curd in the end make five pounds of cheese4 ,a very common method also is to make cheese twice a day from morning milk and evening milk separately4 ,extra cream is often added in making ,stilton cheese1 only whole milk or milk and added cream being used4 ,the principal point to be considered with curing is the regulation of the temperature4 ,other varieties of cheese which are known in ,england are mostly named from the localities where they are produced and partake in general of the character of cheeses already described4 ,these are ,lancastershire1 ,wensleydale1 skimmed milk cheese1 butter milk cheese1 potato cheese1 and various forms of soft cheese or those used without being allowed to ripen for any length of time4 ,varieties of ,cheese ,made in ,france4--,there is a general idea that ,france is pre-eminently a cheese making country and this is true in so far as the making of certain brands of cheese which have international reputations is concerned4 ,france1 however1 according to statistics1 imports a larger quantity of cheese than she exports though probably the value of her exports is greater than the imports because of the high character and price of the exported articles4 ,manufacture of ,camembert4--,the first cheese of this variety was made in #agia by ,marie ,fontaine on a farm in the community of ,camembert1 near ,vimontiers4 ,the period of manufacture of ,camembert cheese extends from ,march to ,september4 ,it is made from whole cow's milk from which none of the cream has been extracted4 ,the rennet is added at the temperature at which the milk comes from the cow as nearly as possible and the milk is artificially heated1 the morning and evening milk being mixed1 to this temperature4 ,after the addition of rennet the milk is gently stirred for two or three minutes1 a wooden cover placed over the pan1 and left for five or six hours4 ,the curd is sufficiently set when touched with the finger it does not adhere thereto4 ,the curd is removed from the pan by a spoon and put into cylindrical metal molds open at the end and from these molds the whey is allowed to escape4 ,it requires about two liters of milk to make one cheese4 ,the whey is allowed to drain for about two days4 ,after that time the mold is turned1 a little fine white salt placed upon the top and allowed to drain for another day4 ,after about #dh hours the cheeses are taken from the molds and salted4 ,they are then placed in the drying room upon racks covered with straw4 ,the drying room must be well ventilated and the air which is blown in for ventilation must be strained to be free of dust and insects4 ,care is taken also to exclude the sunlight1 as this is very injurious to the proper development and ripening of cheese4 ,the cheese remains in the dryer from #bj to #be days4 ,the ripening cellar is the next point to which the cheese is removed1 and this cellar is kept as nearly as possible at #ej degrees ,f4 ,the cheeses remain in the ripening cellar about #cj days1 during which time they are frequently turned and carefully watched4 ,the progress of the fermentation which takes place in the cheese is indicated by its appearance4 ,in modern times the manufacture of ,camembert cheese is continued practically throughout the whole year1 but the artificially ripened cheese1 that is1 made during the winter by the aid of artificial heat1 does not compare in quality with the product which is naturally ripened during the summer months4 ,the manufacture of ,camembert cheese has extended to a considerable distance from the original village1 but it is all made in that part of ,france4 ,emmenthaler ,cheese4--,emmenthaler cheese is a variety of ,swiss cheese of the same type as ,gruyre4 ,it is sometimes called the 8cart-wheel0 cheese on account of its immense size4 ,these cheeses are sometimes three or four feet in diameter and of a disk-like shape1 something like a wooden wheel sawed out of a round tree4 ,it is a cheese which was originally made in ,switzerland1 although the manufacture of it has spread over into that part of ,france bordering ,switzerland4 ,it has the general character of ,swiss cheese in texture1 also in composition and nutritive value4 ,brie ,cheese4--,this is one of the most famous of ,french cheeses4 ,it is made in the form of a round flat mass about #af inches in diameter for the grande ,brie and #ab inches in diameter for the petite ,brie4 ,the thickness of the cheese is about one inch4 ,the method of preparation is not very greatly different from that of cheeses in general4 ,during the curing process1 as in the case of ,camembert1 mould develops1 especially on the outside of the cheese1 and the change which goes on in the interior breaks down the casein1 forming a creamy mass of a strong1 piquant flavor4 ,the mould which grows upon the outside of ,brie cheese gives it a strong odor which reminds one of decomposition4 ,brie cheese might be said to resemble in general properties the ,camembert variety of cheese4 ,roquefort cheese is a very popular cheese made in ,france from sheep's milk4 ,when properly ripened it shows a green mould4 ,it is made in a particular way at ,roquefort1 and according to ,knig has the following composition3 ,water1 #cf4he percent ,fat1 #cj4fa ,proteids1 #be4be ,lactic acid1 #a4ij ,ash1 #e4ci ,port ,du ,salut4--,this variety of cheese has a most deserving popularity1 not only upon the ,continent but in the ,united ,states4 ,it is1 however1 not so generally known in this country as the ,roquefort and ,camembert varieties4 ,it was long manufactured by a secret process by the ,trappist monks of ,bricquebec in the ,department of ,manche4 ,the secret of the manufacture of this variety of cheese is guarded with the same jealousy by the monks as is the secret of making the chartreuse liqueur4 ,port ,du ,salut is always put up in very small packages of cylindrical form1 flat1 and about one inch in thickness4 ,the cheese has a number of holes1 in which it resembles the ,swiss cheese4 ,its flesh1 however1 is mellow1 and does not have the toughness nor solidity which characterizes the flesh of ,swiss cheese4 ,although the monks' secret has been well guarded the general method of its manufacture has been described 78,cheese and ,cheese ,making10 by ,jas4 ,long and ,john ,benson74 ,the milk is brought to a temperature of #hf degrees ,f41 and is treated with rennet in such a way as to separate the curd in about one-half hour4 ,the separation of whey is secured in the usual manner1 first1 by allowing broken curd to stand1 and afterwards by pressure4 ,a peculiar form of pressure is said to be used by the monks1--a number of screws are placed side by side on a beam and a number of cheeses may be pressed at the same time4 ,the pressure is applied solely by the hands and so is not very severe4 ,after pressure the cheeses are placed in a ripening cellar1 which is kept at about #ed degrees ,f4 ,care is taken in the ripening that the cheese does not become too dry4 ,pont ,l',evque cheese is well known upon the ,continent1 especially in ,france where it is made4 ,it takes its name from the village where the manufacture is carried on1 which is not very far from ,havre4 ,the cheese is usually put up in a square or oblong package about one inch in thickness and of a size weighing about one pound4 ,it has a tough crust and may be kept for some time after it is ripe with safety4 ,the milk is set at a temperature of #hh degrees and a sufficient amount of rennet added to produce precipitation of the curd in about fifteen minutes4 ,when the curd is stiff enough to be cut and removed it is placed upon a mat made of rye straw through which the whey is allowed to filter4 ,as the whey runs off the curd becomes tougher and the mat is brought together in such a way as to exert gentle pressure4 ,this separation of the whey is continued until the curd can be placed in metal molds which vary in size according to the size of the intended cheeses4 ,the cheese is ripened at a temperature of about #eh degrees in a humid cellar so as not to lose too much water4 ,gervais cheese belongs strictly to the family of fancy cheese1 being made of a mixture of milk and cream4 ,it is produced in large quantities in ,france and finds almost an exclusive domestic market4 ,it is named for its manufacturer1 ,m4 ,gervais4 ,the mixture is set at a very low temperature1 about #fe degrees4 ,the rennet which is used is diluted with water and added in small quantities so that the curd does not separate for eight or ten hours4 ,the whey is separated in a cloth bag and under very gentle pressure4 ,the cheeses are usually sold in only a partially ripe state and the cheese combines the flavor of both cheese and cream4 ,bondon cheese is another cheese which is made largely in the region of ,rouen4 ,the size of the cheese is usually very small1 from seven to nine being made from a gallon of milk4 ,the method of manufacture is more like that of ,gervais and differs from it chiefly in being made solely from milk instead of a mixture of milk and cream4 ,limburger ,cheese4--,limburger cheese is one of the most famous of the different varieties of foreign cheese1 chiefly because of its bad odor4 ,this odor is due to specific forms of ferments introduced during the ripening process4 ,generally ,limburger cheese is made from pure milk1 but occasionally skimmed or partially skimmed milk is used4 ,the milk is set at rather a high temperature1 from #ib to #ajj degrees4 ,after the coagulation has taken place the curd is broken into pieces the size of a hen's egg and allowed to settle to the bottom of the kettle as the whey separates4 ,in ,england a copper kettle is usually employed for the testing vessel4 ,after the whey has separated the curd is taken out and placed in rectangular molds with perforated bottoms1 then laid on tables so that the remaining portion of the whey may drain off4 ,the molds are turned from time to time to promote the separation of the whey and to make the cheeses keep their form4 ,the cheeses are next placed in rows on a flat table with thin pieces of boards between them and subjected to light pressure4 ,during this time they are salted by applying salt externally and rubbing the surface at frequent intervals for three or four days4 ,the salt dissolves and permeates the mass4 ,during the salting and pressing the cheeses are kept at a uniform temperature of about #fj degrees4 ,the curing takes place in cellars1 well ventilated but very moist1 at a temperature of about #fj degrees4 ,as the cheeses ripen they grow soft4 ,the curd takes on its characteristic greasy appearance at the time of the ripening1 becoming1 at first1 a yellow and then a reddish yellow4 ,the softening begins on the outside and proceeds toward the center and the cheese is considered to be marketable when one-fourth of it has taken on its characteristic texture4 ,the softening of ,limburger cheese is due to a ferment which breaks down into a soft mass the casein or paracasein of which the cheese is largely composed4 ,by using the same kind of ferments and by following the same process1 imitations of ,limburger cheese are made in the ,united ,states and other countries4 ,these imitations1 however1 never equal the original in the character of the product nor in flavor or taste1 and should not bear the name of the real article4 ,,composition ,,of ,,limburger ,,cheese4 ,water1 #ce4g percent ,fat1 #cd4b ,casein products1 #bd4b ,milk sugar and undetermined1 #c4j ,ash1 #b4i ,limburger cheese was first made in the ,province of ,lttick in ,belgium4 ,it has1 however1 come to be considered chiefly as of ,german production4 ,the chief cause of the putrefactive fermentation which takes place in ,limburger cheese is the extremely moist condition in which it is kept4 ,for this purpose the atmosphere of the ripening cellar should be almost saturated with aqueous vapor1 containing at least #ie percent of its maximum degree of saturation4 ,this moist atmosphere1 together with the low temperature at which the curing takes place1 keeps the cheese soft and promotes the putrifactive ferments4 ,under these conditions the surface soon begins to get shiny and soft and changes from white to a reddish yellow4 ,this change makes its way to the center1 converting the harsh curd to a soft condition4 ,the time required for this softening of the cheese is from four to six weeks4 78,cheese ,making10 by ,john ,w4 ,decker47 ,edam ,cheese4--,edam cheese is one of the most famous of the cheeses of ,holland4 ,it is made at the town of ,edam1 situated on the ,zuyder ,zee1 about twelve miles northeast of ,amsterdam4 ,the milk from which ,edam cheese is made should be properly acidified as has already been described4 ,the coagulation takes place and the curd is separated much in the same manner as is used in the manufacture of ,cheddar cheese4 ,the curd is held for a time in the vat in a granular condition in order to develop greater acidity and until it will string one-half inch or one inch on the hot iron already described4 ,it is then ready for the mold4 ,the molds are of such a character as to give the cheese a spherical shape about six inches in diameter4 ,each cheese weighs about four pounds4 ,it has a perfectly solid texture and its flavor is something like that of old ,cheddar1 except that it is a little more salty and somewhat harder4 ,it is cured at a temperature of about #fj degrees and at a humidity of about #hj degrees4 ,the curing period is somewhat longer than for most cheeses1 lasting about eight or ten months and even a year4 ,a slow curing is particularly necessary in the production of ,edam cheese4 ,coating with ,paraffine4--,in the curing of cheese sometimes it is coated with paraffine to avoid loss of weight4 ,coating with paraffine does not necessarily interfere with the character of the cheese1 though it is probable that it must interfere in some way with the normal ferments4 ,paraffine is wholly indigestible and may produce injurious effects if swallowed with the cheese4 78,farmers' ,bulletins10 ,nos4 #ahf-aij47 ,fancy ,cheeses4--,there is a large number of cheeses made in which cream enters as a prominent part4 ,it is difficult to give these any particular name and the term 8fancy cheese0 has been applied to this form of cheese as a whole4 ,they are usually put up in small packages or little pots and thus form an article of diet quite distinct from the large press cheese of commerce4 ,in fact they are intended more for condimental purposes and to be eaten in something of the same manner as butter rather than cheese4 ,these cheeses usually are sold for a much higher price and1 therefore1 can be regarded more as a luxury than as a regular article of diet4 ,it might be well to mention some of the more particular varieties of these fancy cheeses4 ,gruyre4--,gruyre is a cheese made in ,switzerland1 where it is much prized and from where it is sent to the various parts of the world4 ,it is a pressed cheese and is rather of a larger size than the fancy cheeses already described1 and it is difficult to say whether or not it should find a place among them4 ,parmesan4--,parmesan is a variety of cheese made in ,italy4 ,it is about the same size as ,gruyre and thus has an intermediate place between the large pressed cheeses of commerce and the fancy cheeses above mentioned4 ,gorgonzola cheese is a very familiar cheese made in ,italy and belongs to the same class as the two preceding ones4 ,it is in one sense a fancy cheese and yet is made in such quantities as to belong rather to the commercial variety4 ,bacterial ,activity in ,cheese4--,modern science has led to the conclusion that the ripening of cheese is due principally to bacterial activity4 ,the changes which take place in the chemical and physical properties of cheese materials1 the flavor and aroma which are developed1 the production of mould and other growths are marks of the activity of organisms of different character1 living and unorganized4 ,due credit must be given to the enzymic 7unorganized7 action in these processes and the enzymes are not regarded as living organisms but1 on the other hand1 as catalytic agents inducing chemical changes similar to those produced in starch by the action of diastase4 ,the peculiar flavors of cheeses which are found in different kinds have been ascribed in late years almost exclusively to the character of bacterial activity4 ,this assumption is perhaps correct1 but it must not be forgotten in this connection that the same species of bacteria1 in changed environments1 does not always produce the same results4 ,the activities of bacteria are peculiarly sensitive to the environment1 such as change of temperature1 physical conditions of different kinds1 locality1 and other factors of a complex nature1 making up the total conditions in which the organisms live4 ,for this reason the attempts to produce peculiar cheeses which belong in particular localities in other localities have not been gustatorily even if technically successful4 ,it is true that cheeses may be made of the types mentioned1 having some of the general characteristics but lacking that indescribable something which after all gives true character4 ,just as it is impossible to make a ,rhine wine in ,california or a ,bordeaux wine in ,new ,york so is it impossible to make a ,cheddar cheese in ,ohio or a ,camembert cheese in ,connecticut4 ,number of ,bacteria4--,the number of bacteria1 per gram1 which appear in cheese varies according to the age of the cheese1 conditions under which it is made1 temperature1 etc4 ,the usual number of bacteria in one gram of cheese varies from five hundred thousand to nearly one hundred million 7#bast ,annual ,report of the ,wisconsin ,agricultural ,experiment ,station74 ,ageing does not seem to increase the number of organisms1 since it has been found by some observers that the maximum number present in cheese is found at the time it is taken from the press4 ,it is difficult also to properly sample a cheese for the number of bacteria1 since they are unequally distributed in different parts thereof1 and the trier1 by means of which the sample is secured1 may show largely differing numbers in different parts of the same cheese4 ,during the process of curing1 especially if the curing be at a high temperature1 the number of organisms decreases4 ,at first the decrease is very rapid and then becomes slower as the cheese becomes riper4 ,the decrease in the number of bacteria when the temperature of curing is raised is somewhat contrary to expectations4 ,it has been found that when a cheese is taken from cold storage1 say at #bd degrees ,f41 and placed in a temperature of #fj degrees ,f41 the decline in the number of bacteria is always greater than when the cheese is retained at the lower temperature4 ,this may be due to the fact that bacteria which have been developed at a low may lose their vitality at a higher temperature4 ,on the contrary1 the development of flavor does not seem to depend upon the number of organisms since the peculiar flavor of cheese is more rapidly developed at the higher temperature1 provided it be not too high1 although this be attended with a diminution in the number of organisms4 ,evidently the conditions which favor the metabolic activities of organisms also favor their destruction1 since when they have performed their functions they undergo natural disintegration4 ,the character of cheese is such that when it is once formed there is no more opportunity given for a rapid proliferation of the organisms4 ,it may be found1 however1 that the development of bacterial life is not the sole or perhaps not the dominant factor in the development of flavors and aromas in cheeses but that this process is due very largely to the enzymic activities obtained from the rennet and which pre-exist in the milk4 ,chemical ,changes ,which ,take ,place ,during the ,ripening of the ,cheese4--,loss of ,weight4--,during the process of ripening of cheese there is considerable loss of weight1 amounting to from #ae to #bj percent of the total weight of the fresh product4 ,this loss is due chiefly to the evaporation of water1 while in the fermentation which takes place volatile bodies are formed which also escape with the water4 ,for instance1 any free gas1 either carbon dioxid1 hydrogen1 or nitrogen1 which is produced will escape1 likewise any alcohol which is formed will at least partially volatilize4 ,there may be also a slight loss due to mechanical attrition1 but that is not of any consequence4 ,owing to the loss of water some of the constituents which may diminish in actual quantity have their percentages proportionately increased4 ,these changes are illustrated by the following analytical data3 ,,milk ,,water4 ,,protein4 ,,fat4 ,,sugar4 ,,ash4 ,fresh cheese1 #dj4db #bd4hj #bh #a4fe #e4dc ,in the dry substance1 4444 #da4fb #df4ii 4444 4444 ,same cheese one year old1 #cc4ab #bg4ce #ca4gj #b4if #d4hg ,in the dry substance1 4444 #dj4hi #dg4dj 4444 4444 ,the quantity of water which is lost in part depends upon the temperature of the store house and the dryness of the air4 ,the loss of water should not be too great1 otherwise the cheese would be dry and the ripening process would not go on in a proper manner4 ,in some of the processes which take place during the ripening of cheese water is formed4 ,if1 therefore1 there is no loss of weight during the process of ripening1 the ripened cheese would have more water than the fresh cheese and this would impair the quality of the product4 ,the loss of a certain part of water1 namely1 from #ae to #bj percent must be regarded as an advantage in the production of cheese4 ,changes in the ,protein4--,the most important chemical changes1 from a digestive point of view1 which take place in the cheese are those which the protein undergoes4 ,this protein substance consists chiefly of casein and undergoes profound alteration due to enzymic action during the process of ripening4 ,the casein which when dry naturally forms a leathery1 tough material changes into a more soluble and softer product1 and during this change there are produced aromas and flavors which add much to the value of the cheese for edible purposes4 ,the character of the coagulation of the cheese originally has much to do with the general changes which the product undergoes during fermentation4 ,the cheese makers for this reason must pay special attention to the rennet which they employ in the production of the precipitate4 ,one of the most important of the changes which the casein undergoes is that which results in the production of ammonia4 ,this indicates a complete decomposition of the protein substance1 at least in part1 so that the total amount of protein which is lost as such may reach as high as #be or #cj percent of that present in the original cheese4 ,there are also produced notable quantities of lucin and other nitrogenous compounds soluble in alcohol4 ,in general it may be said that the changes in the nitrogen constituents of cheese are extremely helpful to digestion4 ,not only is the protein of ripened cheese more soluble but even the parts which remain unchanged as far as the protein constituent is concerned are so affected by the action of fermentation as to render them more readily subject to the action of the digestive ferments in the alimentary canal4 ,there is a popular superstition that the use of cheese at the end of a meal helps to digest the other food which has given rise to the adage 8,cheese1 thou mighty elf1 digesting all things but thyself40 ,there is a base of scientific truth in this expression since in ripe cheese the enzymes remain still in an active form and when taken into the stomach must necessarily exercise an influence of considerable magnitude upon the process of digestion4 ,the custom1 therefore1 which is so universal1 of finishing a dinner with a bit of cheese is evidently based upon sound physiological as well as gastronomical principles4 ,changes in the ,fat4--,the chemical changes which the fat undergoes in the process of ripening the cheese are also of considerable importance4 ,it is claimed by some authors that additional fat is produced from the casein during the process of ripening1 which is the cause of the lardy appearance of some cheeses4 ,many observers have found in ripened cheese a larger percentage of fat than that which was noticed in the fresh cheese4 ,this apparent increase1 however1 may be due to analytical error1 since in the fresh cheese the fat becomes entangled with highly insoluble caseous matter and is difficult of extraction1 whereas after the ripening of the cheese and degradation and breaking up of the caseous tissues the fat is much more readily extracted4 ,while it is not impossible that fat should be formed by the fermentation of the casein it does not seem that it is probable4 ,in examinations which were made of fresh and ripened cheese of the variety known as ,roquefort there was found in the dry substance of the fresh cheese #dj4hj percent of protein and #ec4ia percent of fat4 ,in the same cheese after it was quite old there was found in the dry substance #cg4gh percent of protein and #ef4ad percent of fat4 ,these data serve to bear out the theory that fat is formed from the protein4 ,on the contrary1 it must be remembered that in the fermentation of the protein a number of volatile bodies are formed1 especially ammonia1 and thus the diminution in the percentage of protein is probably due to the loss of volatile bodies1 and the increase in the quantity of fat is therefore a relative one1 probably1 and not absolute4 ,there is no doubt1 however1 of the fact that the quantity or character of the fat does change considerably during the process of ripening4 ,there is no reason for supposing that the fat alone of all the contents of cheese escapes enzymic action4 ,it is profoundly changed in its character by the fermentations to which it is subjected1 and this change1 while it unsuits the fat for butter1 may probably make it more palatable and desirable in cheese4 ,digestibility of ,cheese4--,reference has already been made to the fact that in the ripening of cheese the protein of the milk1 consisting principally of casein1 undergoes certain changes which apparently1 at least1 increase its digestibility4 ,i use the word 8apparent0 because the flavor and aromas which are produced in the ripening of a cheese act as condimental substances and thus naturally excite the glands which secrete the digestive enzymes to greater activity4 ,therefore the increased digestibility may be due in part to the increased activity of the digestive ferments as above described rather than to the changes in the casein itself4 ,it must be admitted1 however1 that these changes during ripening tend to make the casein more granular1 softer1 and to convert it into compounds more easily acted upon1 and are thus favorable to increased digestibility4 ,experimental studies have shown that in a well ripened ,american cheese of the ,cheddar type #ic percent of the protein present in the cheese and #ie percent of the fat are digested4 ,artificial digestion experiments have also shown that the pancreas ferments have much more effect upon cheese digestion than the peptic1 showing that the cheese is more acted upon in the small intestines1 perhaps1 than in the stomach4 ,attention must also be paid to idiosyncrasies in these cases1 as there are many people who find it impossible to digest cheese in any form4 ,the eating of larger quantities than are necessary also tends to derange the digestive organs4 ,a well ripened cheese1 therefore1 should be eaten rather as a condimental substance than as an actual food product1 though its value as a food is fully attested4 78,farmers' ,bulletin10 ,no4 #afb47 ,effect of ,cold ,storage on the ,curing of ,cheese4--,attention has been called1 in the description of different methods of making varieties of cheeses1 to the ordinary temperature at which cheeses are cured4 ,in ,european countries these temperatures are maintained without the use of artificial means4 ,in the ,united ,states it is difficult to maintain a very low temperature in summer time without the use of artificial refrigerators4 ,experimental studies have determined that when the temperature of ripening or storage is reduced to a considerable extent below that usually specified for the standard varieties of cheese the quality of the cheese is superior although the time for storage or ripening is very much prolonged4 ,the artificial curing of cheese has been secured at as low a temperature as #dj degrees4 ,there is also a less loss of weight in cheese cured at this low temperature4 ,a cheese which was cured at #dj degrees when examined by experts scored a mark of #ib4d while the same cheese ripened at #fj degrees scored #ie4 ,another test of a cheese cured at #dj degrees scored #ie4g while the same cheese cured at #ej degrees was marked #id4b and the cheese cured at #fj degrees #ia4g4 ,preparations of ,casein4--,properly in connection with cheese preparations may be mentioned those products which are of a food value1 procured from casein itself4 ,the precipitated casein is prepared for the market by washing1 drying1 and grinding to a fine powder1 and is then sometimes called protein flour4 ,sanose is a mixture consisting of about #hj percent of casein and #bj percent of the protein derived from the white of egg4 ,the addition of the white of egg enables the casein to remain in suspension when mixed with water and thus causes the preparation to resemble milk4 ,casein preparations of this form are practically insoluble in water and1 therefore1 are not perhaps of the best forms of nitrogenous food for invalids4 ,to avoid this insolubility the casein has been combined with alkalies and the preparations are known as nutrose and eucasein4 ,plasma is also a preparation of casein with alkalies which are added in sufficient quantities to give #g percent of ash4 ,these caseinates1 as they are sometimes called1 that is1 combinations of casein with alkalies1 are soluble in water and are found to be to a certain extent digestible and nutritive preparations4 ,casumen and sanatogen are other preparations of casein with alkalies or glycero-phosphate4 ,wonderful claims are made by manufacturers concerning the digestibility and nutritive properties of these preparations4 ,it is doubtful1 however1 if they have much greater value1 if any1 than natural casein in the form of milk or as ripened in cheese4 ,preparations of this kind usually appeal strongly to those who suffer from digestive disorders and therefore high-sounding names1 which are given to practically the same preparations1 lead the seeker after health often to try the same substance under a dozen different appellations4 ,these remarks are not made for the purpose of decrying in any way the merits which these preparations may have but only to illustrate a very marked tendency on the part of many people to attribute extreme virtues to ordinary food substances which are sold under attractive and sometimes deceptive names and whose properties and virtues are advertised in an expert manner4 ,because a food substance consists almost wholly of pure protein is no indication whatever of its exceptionally high food value4 ,protein is only one form of food and a concentrated ration of protein in any of these forms is just as likely to do harm as good4 ,for emergency rations1 for economy in transportation1 and for certain diseased conditions of the digestive organs these preparations are undoubtedly valuable1 but they have little claim upon the general public in a state of health as staple articles of diet4 ,they are much more nutritive than the extracts of beef and other meats which have obtained a vogue wholly out of proportion to their dietetic or medicinal value4 78,foods and ,principles of ,dietetics10 by ,robert ,hutchinson47 ,,part ,v4 ,,cereal ,,foods4 ,,barley 7,,genus ,hordeum74 ,in the ,united ,states barley is not used to any extent as human food4 ,it has all the nutritive properties of the common cereals and may be considered as a food product1 although its chief use is in the making of fermented beverages which will be described in full in the second volume4 ,barley is cultivated chiefly in the northern and western portions of the ,united ,states and is similar to the oat in this respect1 that when the grain is threshed by the ordinary process the first layer of chaff is not separated1 and1 therefore1 it goes into the market unhulled4 ,there are varieties of naked barley which are not much cultivated4 ,the cultivated varieties 7,hordeum sativum ,pers47 belong practically to one species1 although there are very many different varieties grown4 ,the character of barley best suited to malting will be discussed in the second volume4 ,acreage and ,yield of ,barley4--,the area planted to barley in the ,united ,states and other statistical data relating thereto for the year #aijf are as follows3 ,acreage1 #f1cbc1geg ,yield per acre1 #bh4c bushels ,total production1 #agh1iaf1dhd ,price per bushel1 #da4e cents ,value of crop1 #gd1bce1iig dollars ,composition of a ,typical ,unhulled ,barley4--,from a comparative study of a number of samples of ,american barley the following numbers are regarded as typical of the composition of the unhulled barley grown in the ,united ,states3 ,weight of #ajj kernels1 #d4ec grams ,moisture1 #aj4he percent ,protein1 #aa4jj ,ether extract1 #b4be ,crude fiber1 #c4he ,ash1 #b4ej ,starch and sugar1 etc41 #fi4ee ,the important points brought out in the above data are that the percentage of fiber in the unhulled barley is less than one-half that of the unhulled oat1 as stated further on1 while the percentage of ether extract is only about one-half that of the unhulled oat1 and the protein is also decidedly less than in the whole oat4 ,as has been stated1 barley is not very generally used in this country for human food1 but is used in this and other countries as an ingredient of soup4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,,barley ,,starch4 #bjj4--7;,bureau of ,chemistry47 ,protein of ,barley4--,the following protein compounds are found in barley in proportionate weight to the total weight of the seed3 ,leucosin1 #j4cj percent ,hordein1 #d4jj ,edestin1 #a4ie ,proteose1 #a4ie ,insoluble protein1 #d4ej ,as seen from the above table the most important of the soluble proteins is hordein1 which in quantity is almost equal to the insoluble protein of the barley grain4 ,the starch granules of barley are recognized by their distinctive shape and size1 as revealed by the microscope4 ,a typical microphotographic view of barley starch is shown in ,fig4 #bb4 ,,buckwheat 7,polygonum fagopyrum ,l474 ,buckwheat is usually classed with the cereals1 but botanically it does not belong to the order of true grasses to which the cereals belong4 ,buckwheat is commonly grown in many parts of the ,united ,states1 and its seed is highly prized for bread and cake making purposes4 ,the buckwheat is ground and the outer black tough hull separated1 and the flour is used chiefly for making hot breakfast cakes which are much prized throughout the country4 ,properly ground buckwheat flour has a more or less dark tint1 due to fine particles of the outer envelope which escape the bolting process4 ,acreage and ,yield of ,buckwheat4--,this crop is not grown in many states4 ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 and ,michigan produce the largest quantities4 ,the statistical data for buckwheat grown in the ,united ,states in #aijf are as follows3 ,acreage1 #ghi1bjh ,yield per acre1 #ah4f bushels ,production1 #ad1fda1icg ,price per bushel1 #ei4f cents ,total value1 #h1gbg1ddc dollars ,composition of ,buckwheat ,flour4--,the composition of finely bolted buckwheat flour is as follows3 ,moisture1 #aa4hi percent ,protein1 #h4ge ,ether extract1 #a4eh ,ash1 #a4he ,fiber1 4#eb ,starch and sugar1 #ge4da ,calories per gram1 #c1hed ,the above is the composition of a white flour more finely ground and bolted than is advisable for palatable purposes4 ,in the grinding of the above flour the germ which contains a greater part of ether extract is eliminated and also a large quantity of the bodies rich in protein4 ,the composition of a less highly refined flour and one which is more palatable and more nutritious is given in the following data3 ,moisture1 #aa4ai percent ,protein1 #i4ha ,ether extract1 #b4cc ,ash1 #a4ec ,fiber1 4#gc ,starch and sugar1 #gd4da ,calories per gram1 #c1ied ,milling ,process4--,in the preparation of the so-called highest grade of buckwheat flour1 that is1 that which is most carefully ground and thoroughly bolted1 the process employed is as follows3 ,during the process of milling the buckwheat grains pass to a receiving separator which removes all the coarse particles1 stones1 straws1 etc41 by means of a series of sieves4 ,at the same time any dust which they contain is blown out by a current of air4 ,the sifted grains pass next to the scouring machines1 in which they are thoroughly scoured1 cleaned1 and polished4 ,from these machines the grains pass to a separator containing magnets1 by means of which any pieces of metal1 in the form of nails1 screws1 pieces of wire1 etc41 are removed4 ,the grains next pass through a steam dryer for removing the greater portion of the water employed for the scouring4 ,as soon as they are dry they are again treated to a blast of air1 which removes any dirt1 dust1 or light particles which may have been detached during the process of drying4 ,the grains next pass to the shelling rolls1 where the greater part of the outer hulls is removed4 ,this process is accomplished by means of an apparatus which is called a sieve scalper4 ,after the separation of the outer hulls the residue of the material passes to a drying chamber1 where the moisture is reduced to about #aj percent1 thus insuring the keeping qualities of the flour4 ,after drying the grains are ready for the rolls4 ,after entering the rolls the process is practically the same as that which is employed in milling wheat1 consisting of a series of breaks and reductions1 with the attendant bolting and grading1 and this process is prolonged until the flour is practically removed from the feed or middlings4 ,the sifting cloths used in the bolting of buckwheat flour are somewhat coarser than those for wheat1 and this allows some of the dark particles of the inner hulls to pass into the flour1 which gives it a dark color on baking4 ,it is quite possible to make a buckwheat flour as white as that from wheat1 but in this country the public taste requires a darker product1 so that the white flour does not readily sell4 ,the requisite degree of darkness is secured by using bolting cloths which will allow a part of the inner hulls 7middlings7 to pass into the flour4 ,two grades of flour are generally produced--a whiter one in which finer cloths are used1 and a darker flour made by using coarser bolting cloths1 allowing larger quantities of middlings to pass through4 ,the outer hulls which are first removed are used for fuel1 although from their composition it is seen that they contain a large quantity of carbohydrates and might be very profitably used in connection with some highly nitrogenous food1 such as cottonseed meal or flaxseed meal for feeding cattle4 ,the middlings are used principally as cattle food1 and especially by dairymen4 ,the above process1 while it makes a white and fine-looking flour1 is not to be compared with the meal made in the old-fashioned way of grinding between stones and separating the principal part of the outer hull by bolting4 ,this old-fashioned flour is more nutritious1 that is1 it contains more fat and protein1 has a greater fuel value1 or in other words has a greater number of calories and makes a much more palatable cake than the fine modern flour4 ,buckwheat ,cakes4--,buckwheat cakes are prepared from batter made by mixing buckwheat flour into a paste of the proper consistency1 seeding it with yeast1 and allowing it to remain in a moderately warm place until fermentation takes place4 ,the proteins of buckwheat have some agglutinating power1 and thus1 when treated as above1 make a cake capable of a considerable degree of aeration4 ,baking powders are often used as a substitute for yeast and permit of preparation in a few minutes instead of waiting for the fermentation above mentioned4 ,the product made in this way cannot be considered so palatable or nutritious as the old-fashioned product4 ,the batter is baked on a smooth hot iron or soapstone1 polished and kept bright in order to prevent the sticking of the cake4 ,the proper polishing of the iron is a better means of preventing sticking than greasing4 ,the batter is poured over the smooth iron and is of a consistency to flatten out without help and to form a film over the baking iron1 which produces a cake about one-fourth of an inch in thickness4 ,the cake is to be turned as soon as the side in contact with the iron is brown4 ,it is evident that in this baking process there can be no very profound change in the starch granules1 but this does not appear to materially interfere with the digestibility of the product4 ,buckwheat cakes are eaten hot1 usually with butter and sirup4 ,maple sirup1 sorghum sirup1 or cane sirup in a pure state are highly prized for use with buckwheat cakes4 ,these sirups are both condimental and nutritious4 ,mixed sirups made of glucose1 melted brown sugar1 or molasses1 or mixtures of all these bodies are more commonly furnished to the consumer than the pure sirup mentioned above4 ,honey is also used very extensively as a condimental flavor for cakes of this kind4 ,adulterations4--,there is probably no bread or cake making material which is subjected to more extensive adulteration than buckwheat flour4 ,much of what is sold as buckwheat flour may be regarded as imitations of that substance4 ,mixtures of rye flour1 ,indian corn flour1 wheat flour1 and other ground cereals are used as a substitute for buckwheat4 ,there can be no objection from the hygienic point of view to such substitutes but the use of these mixtures under the name of buckwheat can be regarded in no other light than as an unpardonable fraud4 ,detection of ,adulterations4--,there is rarely any mineral adulteration practiced with buckwheat flour and if so it is easily detected by incineration4 ,any content of ash1 unless baking powder has been used1 above #b percent may be regarded with suspicion as indicating an admixture of some mineral substance4 ,the cereal flours used for adulteration are readily detected by the microscope in the hands of an experienced observer4 ,the field of the microscope has only to be compared with the microscopic appearance of genuine buckwheat starch in order to detect the added substance4 ,buckwheat ,starch4--,the microscopic appearance of buckwheat starch is shown in the accompanying figure4 ,the granules of buckwheat starch are very characteristic4 ,they consist of chains or groups of more or less angular granules with a well defined nucleus1 and without rings or with very faint rings4 ,the contour of buckwheat starch is more angular than that of any other common cereal with exception of maize and rice1 and it is this and the relative size which enable the observer to distinguish it from other starches4 ,the size of the granules is quite uniform1 varying usually only from #aj to #ae microns#bc in diameter4 ,in so far as the angular appearance is concerned the granules of buckwheat starch have a general resemblance to that of maize and rice and oats1 but a comparison under the microscope of the three starches reveals lines of distinction which with a little practice would prevent the observer from drawing a false conclusion4 #bc ,a micron is one thousandth of a millimeter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,,buckwheat ,,starch4 #bjj4--7;,courtesy of ,bureau of ,chemistry47 ,,indian ,,corn 7,zea mays74 ,next to wheat the most important cereal used as a human food in the ,united ,states is ,indian corn4 ,according to the magnitude of the crop1 ,indian corn is the leading cereal of the country4 ,statistical data on the production of ,indian corn in the ,united ,states during #aijf are given in the following table3 ,acreage1 #if1gcg1eha ,yield per acre1 #cj4c bushels ,production1 #b1ibg1daf1jia ,value per bushel1 #ci4i cents ,total value1 #a1aff1fbf1dgi dollars ,indian corn is universally employed as food throughout all parts of the country1 but more especially in the ,south1 where the daily dietary is rarely complete without one or more meals in which ,indian corn is served in some form or other4 ,although it is grown much more extensively in the ,north than in the ,south1 it is not so generally used as human food4 ,indian corn grows in all kinds of soil and produces1 under favorable conditions1 large yields in all parts of the country4 ,it is the most important agricultural crop of many states1 namely1 ,indiana1 ,illinois1 ,iowa1 ,missouri1 and ,kansas4 ,it is planted in the late winter and spring in different parts of the country4 ,the planting season varies from ,january in ,florida to ,june in ,maine and ,minnesota and the earlier varieties will mature in #abj days4 ,maize is a crop which requires an abundance of rainfall and a high temperature during the growing season4 ,maize is planted in rows about three and one-half feet apart and in hills of about the same distance apart1 or it may be drilled between the rows so that one stalk grows a distance of about from nine inches to a foot from its fellows4 ,it requires constant cultivation during the early period of its growth and a careful preparation of the seed bed4 ,good farmers give from four to seven cultivations to the growing crop4 ,the field must be kept free of weeds and in good tilth to secure the best results4 ,many hundreds of analyses of the maize kernel have been made1 but a combination of them all in the following data may be regarded as typical of the ,indian corn grown in this country4 ,weight of #ajj kernels1 #ch grams ,moisture1 #aj4ge percent ,ether extract1 #d4be ,protein1 #aj4jj ,fiber1 #a4ge ,ash1 #a4ej ,starch and sugar1 etc41 #ga4ge ,the consideration of the above data shows that ,indian corn is a ration in which the protein is rather low4 ,in other words1 the ratio of protein to the carbohydrates and fat is rather large4 ,it is a food product which is particularly well suited to furnish heat and energy and support a high degree of muscular exertion4 ,for this reason it is a food product which is particularly well adapted to men engaged in hard manual labor4 ,varieties4--,there are many distinct varieties of ,indian corn4 ,sturtevant has published a description of several hundred4 ,these varieties are classified under various subspecies4 ,the polymorphic species1 ,zea mays1 according to ,sturtevant1 can be divided into a number of groups which1 on account of their well defined and persistent characters1 may be considered as presenting specific claims and may properly receive specific nomenclature4 ,the grouping adopted is founded upon the internal structure of the kernel for cultivated varieties1 and the presence of a husk to the kernel in the assumed aboriginal form4 ,hence ,sturtevant offers the names ,zea tunicata for the husk-kernel forms1 ,zea everta for the popcorn1 ,zea indurata for the flint corns1 ,zea indentata for the dent corns1 ,zea amylacea for the soft corns1 and ,zea saccharata for the sweet corns4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,,section ,,of ,,raw ,,popcorn4 #aej4--7;,courtesy of ,bureau of ,chemistry47 ,shows cells with the small angular starch grains closely packed together within them4 ,argument in favor of the specific claims for these groups is based primarily on the convenience thus attained2 secondarily1 on the absence or rarity of intermediate or connecting forms1 so far as present data extend1 and also on the antiquity of the separation4 ,it seems almost certain that in the order of evolution 7excluding from consideration the puzzling sweet corn group7 progress has been from the pops1 through the flints and the dents1 to the softs4 ,certainly the soft corns in some of their varieties present a kernel that is larger1 softer1 and less fitted to the struggle with natural conditions than is the kernel from any of the other groups4 ,yet soft corns are the prevailing form in the mummy burials of ,peru and of our ,southwestern states4 ,the popcorn1 on the contrary1 has stronger regerminative powers than have the other groups1 is better fitted to contend against natural vicissitudes1 and is the kind that has been reported as found growing wild in ,mexico under the name of ,coyote corn1 ,zea canina ,watts4 ,some of these subdivisions may not be accepted by botanists1 but they are convenient for purposes of description4 ,the principal field varieties which are grown are the flint corn1 ,zea indurata1 and the dent corn1 ,zea indentata4 ,,popcorn4 ,this variety of maize is used very largely in the ,united ,states as a delicacy1 and with sugar and cream as a dessert4 ,it is a hard1 small-grained variety which has the property1 when heated1 of exploding with a very great enlargement of the starch grain1 producing a soft and very delicate edible material which is highly prized4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,,section ,,of ,,popcorn ,,in ,,first ,,stage ,,of ,,popping1 ,,showing ,,partially ,,expanded ,,starch ,,grains ,,and ,,ruptured ,,cell ,,walls4 #aej4--7;,courtesy of ,bureau of ,chemistry47 ,in the raw popcorn the starch grains are packed together very closely within the cells4 ,when popping begins there is an expanding of the starch grains1 producing a cavity nearly circular in form in each grain4 ,this causes a rupturing of the cell walls1 though fragments are plainly visible in the early stages4 ,in the fully expanded or popped kernel the starch grains have expanded until each is about half or two-thirds as large as the original cells of the endosperm4 ,the cell walls in this stage are practically obliterated as far as detecting in a section is concerned4 ,the exploding of the starch grains is influenced by the water content of the kernel4 ,it must not be too wet nor too dry2 about #aj or #ab percent is the proper content of moisture4 ,these changes are beautifully shown in the accompanying microphotographs1 ,figs4 #bd1 #be1 and #bf1 by ,mr4 ,howard1 of the ,bureau of ,chemistry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,,section ,,of ,,fully ,,popped ,,popcorn4 #aej4--7;,courtesy of ,bureau of ,chemistry47 ,the fully expanded starch grains are nearly half as large as the original cells in which they were contained4 ,,sweet ,,corn4 ,this is a variety of maize which develops a high sugar content and is eaten while the starch is yet soft1 in other words1 in an unripe state4 ,it is a food product of immense importance in the ,united ,states1 although almost unknown in ,europe4 ,the content of sugar varies from #e to #h percent in the fresh1 soft kernel4 ,the sugar which is present in the kernel rapidly disappears after the husking or removal from the stalk4 ,in order to secure the maximum sweetness the corn should be cooked and eaten as soon as possible after removal from the stalk4 ,where it is not possible to do this it should be placed in cold storage after removal from the stalk and remain unhusked until it is ready for cooking4 ,green corn is universally eaten hot4 ,it is usually cooked by boiling in water1 although it may also be roasted before the fire4 ,it has a high food value1 and the composition of the grains of fresh1 soft1 green corn is shown in the following table3 ,composition of ,fresh ,green ,indian ,corn3 ,moisture1 #gc4jj percent ,starch1 #ac4ej ,sugars1 #f4jj ,protein1 #e4jj ,crude fiber1 #a4bj ,ash1 4#gj ,fat1 4#fj ,maize ,proteins4--,the proteins of maize are composed principally of two zeins4 ,the two forms are differentiated by their behavior toward alcohol4 ,the first form constitutes the zein soluble in alcohol and the second the zein insoluble in alcohol4 ,there are two other proteins in maize existing in small quantities which have been named myosin and vitellin1 respectively4 ,there is also a third unnamed variety and small quantities of albumin4 ,variation in ,maize1 under ,different ,climatic ,conditions4--,it is possible that most of the varieties and subvarieties of maize are simply the existing standard varieties modified by changing environments4 ,there are certain conditions of climate1 soil1 and distribution of rainfall which tend to produce a large1 starchy1 soft grain1 while other conditions tend to produce a small1 hard grain richer in protein4 ,the variations of importance are those of the carbohydrates and the protein1 which are complementary1 since as the protein rises the carbohydrates fall in relative proportion4 ,there is also a marked variation in the carbohydrates1 due to variety and climatic conditions combined4 ,it is1 for instance1 the increase of the sugar at the expense of the starch that produces the body known as sweet maize eaten in the green state1 as already described4 ,even in the sweet variety the relative proportion of sugar varies in different localities and under different conditions of growth4 ,early ,varieties4--,there are certain varieties of maize which are of especial value on account of their early maturation4 ,this is a property extremely valuable in the sweet variety of maize or that eaten in the green state1 since it is important to get these varieties into the market as early as possible and to continue them as long as possible4 ,this is secured by planting the early variety at as early date as possible and planting later maturing varieties at intervals thereafter4 ,by the selection of varieties of different periods of maturing it is possible in the climate of ,washington to offer green corn from neighboring fields on the market from ,july until the advent of a killing frost which is usually the last of ,october or first of ,november4 ,this gives a period of nearly four months during which the green corn may be delivered to the local market4 ,further south the period of supply is longer4 ,canned ,corn4--,immense quantities of green corn are grown for the purpose of canning in order to supply the market during the closed season4 ,the canning industry for green corn is located chiefly in the north4 ,in the eastern states the industry is of great importance1 from ,maryland to ,maine4 ,the northern-grown corns are often preferred as they are supposed to be sweeter and more palatable4 ,in the central western states1 northern ,indiana1 ,michigan1 ,wisconsin1 northern ,illinois1 and ,iowa are the principal centers of the canning industry1 although it is practised to a greater or less extent in almost all parts of the country4 ,adulterations of ,canned ,corn4--,unfortunately in the canning process of corn additions have been made to the product which are of an objectionable nature4 ,chief among these is the use of bleaching agents such as sulfur in the form of burnt sulfur or of sulfite or bisulfite of soda or potash4 ,these bleaching agents impart to the corn a white color which some consumers prefer1 but at the expense of introducing a substance which must be regarded as deleterious to health4 ,still more objectionable is the practice of using saccharin instead of sugar as a sweetening agent4 ,saccharin is a coal tar product which has an intense1 sweet taste1 very persistent1 and when used alone becomes disagreeable4 ,a very small quantity of it is sufficient to impart a very sweet taste to the canned corn at a much less expense than could be secured by using the pure sugar4 ,this form of adulteration is extremely reprehensible both because it deceives the consumer and adds a substance which by most hygienists is regarded as prejudicial to health4 ,the bleaching agent and the artificial sweetener are wholly unnecessary4 ,the manufacturers of sweet corn are expected to use the best and freshest and sweetest materials and cannot be excused for tampering with them in any way which either produces deception or injury to health4 ,sugar added to make an ordinary corn taste like sweet corn is to be regarded as an adulteration unless its use is noted on the label4 ,maize starch is also often added to sweet corn at the time of canning and this practice can only be regarded as an adulteration4 ,detection of ,adulterations in ,sweet ,corn4--,test for ,sulfurous ,acid4--,to about #be grams of the sample 7with the addition of water1 if necessary7 placed in a #bjj-;c4c4 ,erlenmeyer flask1 add some pure zinc and several cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid4 ,in the presence of sulfites1 hydrogen sulfid will be generated and may be tested for with lead paper4 ,traces of metallic sulfids are occasionally present in vegetables1 and by the above test will indicate sulfites4 ,hence positive results obtained by this method should be verified by the distillation method4#bd ,it is always advisable to make the quantitative determination of sulfites1 owing to the danger that the test may be due to traces of sulfids4 ,a trace is not to be considered sufficient as indicating either a bleaching agent or a preservative4 #bd ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agr4 ,bureau of ,chemistry1 ,circular ,no4 #bh1 pp4 #aa-ab4 ,detection of ,saccharin4#be--;,add from #be to #dj c4c4 of water to about #bj grams of the sample2 macerate and strain through muslin2 acidify with #b c4c4 of sulfuric acid 7#a to #c7 and extract with ether4 ,separate the ether layer1 allow the ether to evaporate spontaneously1 and take up the residue with water4 ,if saccharin be present its presence will be indicated by the sweet taste imparted to the water4 ,to confirm this test add from one to two grams of sodium hydroxid1 and place the dish in an oil bath4 ,maintain the temperature of the oil at #bej ,c4 for #bj minutes1 when the saccharin will be converted into salicylic acid4 ,after cooling and acidifying with sulfuric acid1 extract in the usual way and test for salicylic acid4 ,this test1 of course1 presupposes the absence of salicylic acid in the original sample4 ,if salicylic acid is present in the original sample it must be removed before making the test for saccharin4 #be ,ibid41 ,bul4 #fe1 p4 #ea4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,,indian ,,corn ,,starch4 #bjj4--7;,bureau of ,chemistry47 ,starch of ,indian ,corn4--,maize starch has characteristics which enable it to be easily detected by the microscope4 ,the granules of this starch are of a more uniform size than those of wheat and vary from #bj to #cj microns in diameter4 ,occasionally very much smaller granules occur which probably are more of the original size and which have been arrested in growth by the ripening of the grain4 ,the granules of maize starch are more or less polyhedral in form with round angles4 ,the only common cereal starch which they can be mistaken for is rice1 but they are generally larger than the granules of rice4 ,under the microscope with ordinary light they give only the faintest sign of rings but show in most cases a well developed hilum1 which is at times star-shaped or like an irregular cross1 while at other times it has the appearance of a circular depression4 ,the maize starch granular is a type of the angular1 as the wheat is of the sphere or spheroid form4 ,the characteristic appearance of maize starch kernels is shown in the accompanying ,fig4 #bg4 ,viewed with polarized light the starch grains of ,indian corn present deep1 well marked crosses1 which divide each grain into four distinct parts as shown in ,fig4 #bh4 ,it is interesting to note that the angularity of maize starch is greatly influenced by the hardness of the kernels from which the grains are taken4 ,the hard varieties1 such as popcorn1 have very angular grains while those from soft varieties have a great many almost spherical forms4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,,starch ,,grains ,,of ,,indian ,,corn1 ,,under ,,polarized ,,light4 #bjj4--7;,courtesy of ,bureau of ,chemistry47 ,maize ,flour 7,corn ,meal74--,formerly the maize kernel was ground between stones1 bolted to remove the bran1 and the maize flour or corn meal thus produced used directly as a human food4 ,modern milling operations have changed the method of producing maize flour so that not only is the outer bran removed but also1 to a large extent1 the germ itself1 thus diminishing the quantity of fat in the prepared meal4 ,this is notably true of the maize flour which is prepared for exportation4 ,leaving in the flour such a large quantity of fat tends to produce rancidity during shipment4 ,to avoid any change of a deleterious nature which the flour may undergo during shipment1 it is also frequently kiln-dried before being sent to foreign shores and even when intended for domestic consumption at points remote from the mill4 ,while this preparation of maize flour is doubtless important for transportation purposes1 it impairs the palatability and nutritive value of the product4 ,it is advisable to continue to have the maize flour prepared in the old-fashioned way and sent directly into consumption4 ,method of ,preparation4--,one method of preparing the maize flour is as follows3 ,the grains are broken into large pieces and dried with steam heat at a temperature of from #aje to #aaj ,c4 7#bba-bci ,f474 ,the mass while still hot passes into a mill composed of two stones which revolve rapidly in opposite directions4 ,the smaller portions of the meal1 which have been reduced to a kind of gum by the high temperature1 are separated by this process from the covering or the bran of the kernel4 ,a small mass of the starchy matter leaves the mill in the form of small noodles1 which are freed from any particles of bran by sifting4 ,in this manner a mass is obtained which is quite free from fiber and fat4 ,the composition of maize meal prepared by the above process is as follows3 ,moisture1 #i4gj percent ,protein1 #ab4fh ,ether extract1 #a4ai ,ash1 4#fj ,fiber1 4#ce ,starch1 sugar1 and dextrin1 #ga4dh ,this method of preparing maize meal is not used to any extent in this country1 but is said to be commonly employed in ,germany4 ,composition of ,maize ,flour4--,the color of maize flour depends upon the color of the corn from which it is produced1--it may be white or yellow4 ,the starch granules when heated in water to #fb4e ,c4 swell up and become deformed1 except a few1 usually the small ones1 which resist the action of water at that temperature4 ,the starch granules of maize flour under polarized light present a black cross1 very marked and very distinct when the field is obscured4 ,when viewed under polarized light with a selenite plate the starch grains of maize are colored red with a green cross or reciprocally1 and this coloration is very brilliant4 ,as has already been said1 the composition of ,indian corn meal made by the old-fashioned method of grinding and removing only the bran is practically that of the whole grain itself4 ,the composition of degerminated maize meal 7,indian corn flour7 is shown by the following average data3 ,moisture1 #ab4eg percent ,protein1 #g4ac ,ether extract1 #a4cc ,ash1 4#fa ,fiber1 4#hg ,starch and sugar1 #gh4cf ,calories calculated on the moist meal1 #c1hcg ,the above data show that the refined ,indian corn meal has lost more than three-fourths of its fat1 a large portion of its mineral matter1 and also a very considerable proportion of its protein1 due to the separation of the bran which is extremely rich in protein and the germ which is rich both in oil and protein4 ,a mere glance at the data shows that this refined ,indian corn meal is much less nutritious than the natural meal in so far as its content of tissue-forming bodies and its faculty to furnish heat and energy are concerned4 ,in other words1 the calories are very much lower than in the natural corn meal4 ,this is another reason for urging our people to return to the consumption of the old-fashioned material4 ,the ,adulteration of ,indian ,corn ,meal4--,owing to the cheapness of ,indian corn in so far as is known there is no adulteration practiced4 ,the refined ,indian corn flour itself is sometimes used as an adulteration for buckwheat flour1 wheat flour1 and other cereal flours1 but has not itself been subjected to adulteration4 ,corn ,bread 7,indian ,corn ,bread74--,corn bread is a very common diet among all classes of people in the southern states and also to a considerable extent in the north4 ,owing to the lack of agglutinating powers of the nitrogenous constituents of ,indian corn flour1 corn bread cannot be aerated or raised1 as is the case with wheat bread4 ,it is often eaten in an unleavened state4 ,it may be partially leavened by the usual agent1 namely1 yeast or a chemical baking powder4 ,two varieties of bread are very commonly used1 namely1 that made of white flour or meal and that made of yellow4 ,there is apparently no difference in the nutritive values of these two kinds4 ,some consumers prefer the white loaf and some the yellow4 ,composition of ,indian ,corn ,bread4--,the composition of bread depends upon whether the whole grain flour is used from which only the coarse bran has been removed by bolting or whether the decorticated and degerminated meal is used4 ,in the first case bread is made richer in fat and protein and in the second case richer in starch4 ,in the bread will also be found the materials used in its preparation1 namely1 salt1 lard or other fats1 milk1 yeast1 or baking powder residues4 ,the best bread is made from the freshly ground flour of the whole grain from which only the outer covering1 namely1 the coarse bran has been removed4 ,as offered at many of our hotels and some private houses1 corn bread has been so manipulated as to lose a large part of its palatability1 without any compensating improvement of its nutritive properties4 ,,oats 7,,genus ,avena74 ,this cereal is an important food product1 being used very largely in ,europe1 especially in ,scotland1 and also very extensively in this country as human food4 ,the chief use of oats is for cattle food1 especially for horses4 ,it is extraordinarily rich in its nutritive constituents and1 therefore1 is prized highly as a food in the building and restoration of nitrogen tissues1 such as the muscles4 ,the variety in common cultivation is ,avena sativa ,l4 ,oats are grown in almost every part of the ,united ,states1 but chiefly in the northern and western portions4 ,in the southern states the crop is planted in the late autumn or early winter4 ,in the northern states it is chiefly a spring crop1 being sown early in the spring as soon as the ground is in fair condition4 ,the oat crop is one which requires a rather abundant and well-distributed rainfall4 ,a spring drought is very detrimental to the growth of oats1 much more so than wheat or rye4 ,it is a crop which is well suited to be grown under irrigation4 ,there are many varieties of oats in cultivation1 but in general characteristics they all correspond to one description4 ,the husk adheres firmly to the grain1 and when threshed the grain of a common variety of oat carries the first layer of husk or chaff with it4 ,oats1 as bought in the market1 therefore1 consist not only of the kernel or grain but also of this outer1 chaffy envelope4 ,the magnitude of the crop in the ,united ,states is very great1 but only an inconsiderable proportion of the whole is used for human food1 and this chiefly in some form of oatmeal4 ,the statistics of the crop grown in the ,united ,states during #aijf are given in the following table3 ,acreage1 #cj1ieh1gfh ,yield per acre1 bushels1 #ca4b ,total yield1 bushels1 #ifd1ijd1ebb ,price per bushel1 cents1 #ca4g ,total value at farm1 #cjf1bib1igh ,ratio of ,kernel to ,hull4--,numerous examinations of unhulled oats show that the average percentage of kernel to hull for #ajj parts is as #gc to #bg4 ,in the oats grown in the western states the proportion of kernel is relatively higher and in the southern states lower4 ,in the analytical process if the hull or chaff is ground with the grain the proportion of fiber or crude cellulose is very considerably higher than in the class of cereals ground without the chaff4 ,the mean composition of unhulled kernels of oats of ,american growth is represented by the following table3 ,weight of #ajj unhulled grains1 #b4ib grams ,moisture1 #aj4jf percent ,protein1 #ab4ae ,ether extract1 #d4cc ,crude fiber1 #ab4jg ,ash1 #c4df ,starch and sugar1 #eg4ic ,a study of the above data shows that the flour of unhulled oats is rich in fat1 fiber1 and ash4 ,the large percentage of fiber and ash is due to a great degree to the composition of the hulls or chaff4 ,the fat or oil comes chiefly from the germ4 ,composition of ,hulled ,oats4--,inasmuch as the chaff is always separated from the oat flour when the latter is to be used for human food1 the composition of the oat in the hulled state is of greater importance to the present purpose than in the unhulled condition4 ,the means of #agi analyses show the hulled oats to have the following compositions3 ,moisture1 #f4ic percent ,protein1 #ad4ca ,ether extract1 #h4ad ,crude fiber1 #a4ch ,ash1 #b4ae ,starch and sugar1 #fg4ji ,the removal of the hulls1 as is seen1 and the partially dried condition of the grain in the above analysis increases the percentage of other ingredients4 ,the protein and fat are especially large in quantity4 ,oatmeals may be regarded as the richest of the cereal flours1 both in protein and in oil4 ,the ,protein of ,oat ,kernels4--,there are three principal products in the oat kernels characterized by their different degrees of solubility1 namely1 protein soluble in alcohol1 protein soluble in dilute salt solution1 and protein soluble in alkali4 ,the protein soluble in alcohol constitutes about #a4be percent of the whole grain1 the protein soluble in dilute salt solution about #a4e percent1 and the protein soluble in alkali the remainder1 viz41 #aa4be percent4 ,the protein of oats has very little agglutinating power and1 therefore1 oat flour is not suitable for making bread1 or rather it is very little used for that purpose4 ,oat ,products4--,as has been intimated before1 the principal oat products1 as far as food is concerned1 are the various forms of oatmeal commonly classed as breakfast foods4 ,these products are prepared in various forms of agglutination and physical texture but if made from genuine oats1 as there is little cause for doubt1 they have essentially the same composition and nutritive power4 ,it is doubtful if there is any preparation of oatmeal any more nutritious or palatable than the plain oat grain properly cooked4 ,the forms in which the oat products are offered to the public are perhaps more convenient for use and in some cases by reason of heating and preparation require less trouble1 but otherwise they apparently have no advantage over the simple product4 ,the mean composition of a number of oat flour products is shown in the following table3 ,moisture1 #g4ff percent ,protein1 #ae4dh ,ether extract1 #g4df ,crude fiber1 #a4bj ,ash1 #a4bi ,starch and sugar1 #fg4fa ,in the dry substance3 ,protein1 #af4gg percent ,ether extract1 #h4jh ,crude fiber1 #a4ch ,ash1 #a4id ,starch and sugar1 #gc4bj ,calories1 #d1hge ,it is evident from the above average analysis that the products examined are made from the whole kernel without the removal of the germ but with a very careful removal of the hull and bran4 ,the composition of these products compares very favorably with the typical composition of the kernel itself4 ,these data show the high nutritive value of these oat products1 both in respect of fat and protein4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,,oat ,,starch4 #bjj4--7;,courtesy of ,bureau of ,chemistry47 ,adulterations4--,there are very few adulterations of oatmeal4 ,fortunately the price of this cereal is such that the admixture of other cereals would not be profitable4 ,doubtless such admixtures have often been made but evidently1 from the examination of the products upon the open market1 they are not very frequent4 ,the characteristic appearance of oat starch is shown in ,fig4 #bi4 ,oat starch grains average about #aj microns in diameter4 ,there are usually present some grains of somewhat oval shape1 which assist in identifying oat products when present4 ,the starch granules also have a tendency to agglutinate into masses of varying size1 as shown in the photograph4 ,detection of ,adulterations4--,the adulteration of oatmeal with the flour of other cereals can easily be detected by the use of the microscope4 ,oat starch when highly magnified presents a peculiar cellular structure of pentagonal character which might be compared to the effect produced by grinding a large number of faces upon a precious stone4 ,this peculiar appearance is caused by the tendency of the starch granules in oats to become compacted in large masses4 ,the appearance of the separate granules and also the compact aggregate are shown in the figure on the preceding page4 ,the large aggregated masses are of different sizes1 ranging from 4#jb to #a4b millimeters in length4 ,these masses are usually broken up by grinding or pressure and1 therefore1 are not found in very great abundance in the commercial oatmeal4 ,when separated into single granules these are found to be irregular in outline1 due to the compression to which they have been subjected1 more or less pentagonal in structure1 and from 4#jae to 4#jb millimeter in diameter4 ,the starch granules do not show any very marked characteristics under polarized light and have neither lines nor hilum4 ,the above statements can easily be verified by any one who can operate an ordinary microscope1 but before attempting to detect adulteration a careful examination of starch granules1 prepared by the investigator himself1 should be made4 ,,rice 7,oryza sativa74 ,rice is one of the most important food cereals4 ,it furnishes a large part of the food of the inhabitants of ,china and ,japan4 ,it is a food rich in starch and poor in protein1 and furnishes1 therefore1 heat and energy1 and is well adapted for the nourishment of those engaged in hard labor or who undergo extreme physical exertion4 ,the cultivation of rice is rapidly extending in the ,united ,states1 especially in ,louisiana and ,texas4 ,the statistical data relating to the rice crop for #aijf are as follows3 ,acreage1 #ege1jad acres ,production1 #ag1hed1gfh bushels ,yield per acre1 #ca4a ,price per bushel1 #ij4c cents ,total value1 #af1aba1bih dollars ,the adulteration of rice is confined to coating it with talc1 paraffin1 and glucose4 ,the object of this treatment is to give a better appearance to the grain and to protect it from the ravages of insects4 ,the use of indigestible substances such as talc and paraffin is scarcely justifiable4 ,the starch granules of rice have distinctive properties which enable them to be readily recognized under the microscope1 as shown in ,fig4 #cj4 ,the rice starch grains are polygonal in form and have sharp angles4 ,the grains vary in size from #b to #aj microns1 though the latter size is seldom reached1 the most of the grains being about #f microns4 ,the hilum is seldom visible4 ,the grains occur in the rice kernels mostly in groups of a considerable number of the individual grains forming starch masses of ovoid or angular form4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,,rice ,,starch4 #bjj4--7;,courtesy of ,bureau of ,chemistry47 ,,rye4 ,this is the source of the principal supply of bread in many ,european countries1 but is not extensively used in the ,united ,states except among our citizens of foreign birth4 ,it is also extensively used for making whisky4 ,rye belongs to the genus ,secale4 ,only one species 7,secale cereale ,l47 is commonly cultivated1 but this species has a great many different varieties or races4 ,according to the time of sowing there are two great classes of rye1 namely1 that planted in the autumn or early winter and that planted in the early spring1 generally known respectively as winter and spring rye4 ,this is one of the hardiest of cereals1 and grows well in all locations where wheat and other common cereals flourish4 ,the area planted in rye in the ,united ,states in #aijf and the quantity harvested are given in the following table3 ,acreage1 #b1jja1ijd ,yield per acre1 #af4g bushels ,production1 #cc1cgd1hcc ,price per bushel1 #eh4i cents ,total value1 #ai1fga1bdc dollars ,composition of ,rye4--,from a study of many hundreds of analyses of rye of ,american origin the following table may be given as approximating the composition of a typical ,american rye3 ,weight of #ajj kernels1 #b4ej grams ,moisture1 #aj4ej percent ,ether extract1 #a4ej ,protein1 #ab4be ,fiber1 #b4aj ,starch and sugar1 #ga4ge ,ash1 #a4ij ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,,rye ,,starch4 #bjj4--7;,courtesy of ,bureau of ,chemistry47 ,the percentage of moisture in ,american grown rye is usually less than that of ,european origin4 ,the ,american rye1 also1 has smaller kernels as a rule than that of foreign growth4 ,in the content of protein the ,american samples of rye are fully equivalent to those of foreign origin1 and in their mean composition1 except as noted above1 do not differ greatly from that of standard varieties collected abroad4 ,protein of ,rye4--,as is the case with other cereals more than one nitrogenous constituent exists in the rye4 ,three of the principal ones have been separated and named as follows3 leucosin1 gliadin1 and edestin4 ,other proteins belonging to the globulin1 albumin1 and proteose family are also found in small proportions4 ,the gliadin of rye resembles in its chemical and physical properties the gliadin of wheat4 ,there is1 however1 in the rye no protein compound corresponding to the glutenin of wheat1 and1 therefore1 rye flour does not form a gluten similar in quality to that of wheat1 although it comes more nearly doing so than any other cereal4 ,the gliadin of rye is soluble in alcohol1 the leucosin of rye is soluble in water1 and the edestin is soluble in a salt solution4 ,in a typical sample of ,american rye there will be found about #e4af percent of gliadin1 #b4bg percent of edestin and proteose1 #j4ee percent of leucosin1 and #c4ad percent of protein soluble in salt solution4 ,adulteration of ,rye ,flour4--,rye flour is frequently adulterated by the admixture of flours of other cereals4 ,real rye flour is distinguished by the character of the starch granules1 as shown in ,fig4 #ca4 ,rye starch grains are lenticular in form1 and the largest grains are of about #ej microns diameter4 ,they average somewhat larger than wheat starch grains and are characterized by many of the large grains having a fissure in the form of a slit1 cross1 or star1 which is rare in wheat and barley4 ,the rings and hilum are indistinctly seen in some of the grains4 ,rye ,bread4--,this bread may be made leavened or unleavened1 since the analogy in the property of its protein to that of wheat renders the leavening of rye bread somewhat more easy of accomplishment than that of the other cereals1 with the exception of wheat4 ,rye bread made of pure rye flour has a dark color1 sometimes almost black4 ,it is often baked long in advance of the time of eating and keeps well1 is highly nutritious1 and is the staple bread of many ,european countries4 ,a partial rye flour bread is made by mixing rye flour with other flours1 such as wheat1 barley1 ,indian corn1 etc41 and this is the kind which is commonly used in this country and in many portions of ,europe where the light-colored breads are preferred to the dark4 ,the large consumption of bread made from rye and ,indian corn indicates that even if the supply of wheat should become limited there is no reason to fear a famine of bread4 ,it would be easy to substitute bread made wholly or in part of ,indian corn and rye for that made wholly of wheat and thus to supply practically any demand for bread which the increasing population of the earth may make4 ,,wheat 7,,genus ,triticum74 ,in respect of human nutrition wheat is the most important of the cereals4 ,it is grown in the temperate regions of almost every country1 but does not flourish in tropical or subtropical countries4 ,in the ,united ,states the wheat is divided in respect of the period of its growth into two great classes1 namely1 winter or fall planted wheat and spring or spring planted wheat4 ,winter wheat is usually planted from ,september to ,november and spring wheat from the last of ,march to the last of ,april4 ,in this country wheat is not cultivated1 that is1 there is no cultivation of the soil after seeding4 ,the soil is1 however1 plowed and harrowed before planting4 ,in the winter wheat regions the harvesting is in the month of ,june1 though in the southern localities it comes somewhat earlier and in the more northern localities may extend into ,july4 ,in the spring wheat regions the harvesting is from the last of ,july to the middle or end of ,august4 ,the statistics of wheat grown in the ,united ,states during #aijf are as follows3 ,,winter4 ,,spring4 ,acreage1 #bi1eii1ifa #ag1gje1hfh ,yield per acre 7bushels71 #af4g #ac4g ,total yield 7bushels71 #dib1hhh1jjd #bdb1cgb1iff ,total value at farm1 #ccf1dce1jha #aec1hig1fgi ,price per bushel 7cents71 #fh4c #fc4e ,all the different varieties of wheat which are now known are cultivated4 ,the simplest form1 namely1 the one grain wheat is the only one which grows wild1 and the origin of the other varieties of wheat is unknown4 ,botanists recognize three species1 namely--,species #a1 one grain wheat 7,triticum monococcum ,lam472 species #b1 ,polish wheat 7,triticum polonicum ,l472 species #c1 common wheat 7,triticum sativum ,lam474 ,all of these species are distinct1 especially the third one1 of which the most valuable variety is the common wheat1 ,triticum vulgare ,vill4 ,the quality and properties of wheat depend more upon the environment in which it is grown than upon the species to which it belongs4 ,there is perhaps no other field crop in which the environment1 namely1 condition of the soil1 temperature1 precipitation1 etc41 makes a greater difference than in wheat4 ,in general1 the environment and the species together produce two kinds of wheat as far as milling and bread making are concerned1 namely1 the soft or starchy wheat and the hard or glutinous wheat4 ,in the first variety there is a larger percentage of starch in relation to the content or protein matter than in the second4 ,taking the wheat as a whole its average composition is shown in the following table3 ,weight of #ajj kernels1 #c4he grams ,moisture1 #aj4fj percent ,protein1 #ab4be ,ether extract1 #a4ge ,crude fiber1 #b4dj ,ash1 #a4ge ,carbohydrates other than crude fiber1 #ga4be ,dry gluten1 #aj4be ,moist gluten1 #bf4ej ,in regard to protein ,american wheat1 as a rule1 is quite equal to that of foreign origin4 ,this is an important characteristic when it is remembered that both the milling and food value of a wheat depend largely upon the nitrogenous matter which is present4 ,it must not be forgotten1 however1 that merely a good percentage of protein is not of itself a sure indication of the milling value of a wheat4 ,the ratio of gluten to the other protein constituents in a wheat is not always constant1 but it is the gluten content of a flour on which the bread making qualities chiefly depend4 ,gluten4--,the principal part of the protein in wheat is known as gluten4 ,gluten as such does not exist in the wheat but is formed when the pulverized wheat1 that is1 the wheat flour1 is mixed with water by the union of two elements in the wheat1 namely1 gliadin1 which is soluble in dilute alcohol and forms nearly half of the whole protein matter of the wheat kernel1 and glutenin1 a compound insoluble in water1 dilute salt solutions1 and dilute alcohol and which is quite as abundant as gliadin in the wheat kernel4 ,in fact1 the gliadin and the glutenin together make the whole of the protein1 except a little over one per cent4 ,there are three other forms of protein1 as pointed out by ,osborne1 in the wheat kernel1 making altogether nearly #a percent of total protein content4 ,the average quantity of these compounds in the protein of wheat is as follows4 ,constituents3 ,globulin1 #j4gj percent ,albumin1 #j4dj ,proteose1 #j4cj ,gliadin1 #d4be ,glutenin1 #d4ce ----- #aj4jj ,starch in the ,wheat ,kernel4--,the most abundant constituent of the wheat kernel is the starch4 ,the appearance of wheat starch is shown in the figure4 ,wheat starch grains ordinarily show the rings and hilum in a few cases only under the most favorable conditions1 though there are sometimes cases where the striations are quite distinct4 ,the granules of starch vary greatly in size1 being from #e to #aj microns in diameter4 ,there are1 in fact1 two kinds of granules in wheat starch1 one having the appearance under the microscope of irregularly rounded particles in sections like a circular disk1 and the other of elongated particles with a distinct hilum1 as shown in ,fig4 #cb4 ,the appearance of the granules under polarized light is shown in ,fig4 #cc4 ,wheat starch is not very commonly used for commercial purposes but is highly prized for some things1 especially in the sizing of textile fabrics4 ,the germ in wheat is particularly rich in oil and the bran or outside covering in protein4 ,the common idea that the bran is composed mostly of silicious matter is wholly erroneous4 ,on the contrary the bran is a highly nutritious food1 and the objection to it for human food is mostly of a mechanical nature4 ,adulterations4--,wheat grains are never adulterated but they may sometimes contain dirt and foreign seeds1 due to the growth of some body in connection with the wheat itself4 ,standards4--,wheat1 commercially1 is sold under three standards1 namely1 one1 two1 three4 ,the difference is an arbitrary one and not founded upon any chemical data but wholly upon the physical appearance1 degree of moisture1 and freedom from extraneous admixtures4 ,wheat ,products4--,the principal product of wheat is flour4 ,the milling process for wheat is highly interesting both from a chemical and technical point of view1 but cannot be described in full in this manual4 ,the old-fashioned milling of wheat1 namely1 pressing between stones and separation of the flour by bolting has been almost entirely superseded by the modern milling with metal rollers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,,wheat ,,starch4 #bjj4--7;,courtesy of ,bureau of ,chemistry47 ,altogether nearly a hundred different products are made incident or final to the milling of wheat4 ,only those products1 however1 which are used for human food interest us at the present time4 ,chief ,varieties of ,flour4--,the highest grade of wheat flour is known usually by the term 8patent02 a lower grade is known as 8bakers' flour0 and a third as low grade flour4 ,a barrel of flour weighs #aif pounds and requires about #beh pounds of wheat for its manufacture4 ,the whole product from the #beh4ce pounds of wheat is shown in the appended table4 ,in general it may be said that about #ge percent of the weight of the wheat is obtained as merchantable flour of some kind1 about #fj to #gj percent being good grade or straight flour4 ,about #bd percent of the weight of the wheat is obtained as cattle food and about #a percent is lost during the process of manufacture4 ,,product4 ,,pounds4 ,,percentage4 ,patent flour1 #adi4cg #eg4hb ,bakers' flour1 #bi4ac #aa4bh ,low grade flour1 #ag4ej #f4gg ------ ------ ,total flour1 #aif4jj #ge4hg ,bran1 #de4ef #ag4fd ,shorts1 #i4hj #c4gi ,screenings1 #d4ii #a4ic ,waste1 #b4jj #j4gg ------ ------ ,total weight1 #beh4ce #ajj4jj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,,wheat ,,starch ,,under ,,polarized ,,light4 #bjj4--7;,courtesy of ,bureau of ,chemistry74 ,special ,names of ,flour4--,in addition to the classification above mentioned other names are used in many commercial senses for flour4 ,these additional names are 8family10 8red dog10 8blended10 gluten1 etc4 ,many flours are also named after the name of the mill or locality or bear simply fanciful names4 ,graham ,flour4--,this term was originally applied to the coarse1 unbolted flour which was made by grinding the whole wheat4 ,the name1 therefore1 should be applied to all flour made from well grained wheat1 ground1 and unbolted4 ,most of the flours however1 which are sold nowadays as graham flours are produced by a more or less perfect bolting process4 ,from the above it is seen that true graham flour will contain practically the same constituents as the wheat kernel itself and in the same proportion and have the same composition as wheat4 ,entire ,wheat ,flour4--,this name would naturally carry the idea of a flour corresponding to the graham flour above mentioned4 ,it is1 however1 a misnamed trade-mark for a flour produced in a special manner which consists in the removal of the outer or purely branny covering of the grain4 8,entire wheat0 flour1 therefore1 contains all the ingredients of wheat grains1 save those which are found in the outer branny covering4 ,gluten ,flour4--,this is a name applied to a flour which is produced by removing the greater part of the starch from ordinary flour4 ,it is especially recommended for the use of diabetic patients4 ,unfortunately1 the name is very commonly applied to flours made from wheat containing a little higher percentage of protein than the ordinary and sometimes even to an ordinary wheat flour4 ,its use with such a product is purely fraudulent4 ,mixed ,flour4--,the act of ,congress of ,june #ac1 #ahih1 defines mixed flour and imposes a tax upon the manufacture1 sale1 importation1 and exportation of that article4 ,the maximum tax laid upon mixed flour is #d cents on a barrel of #aif pounds4 ,the total number of barrels of mixed flour returned for taxation for the fiscal year ending ,june #cj1 #aije1 was #cfb2 half barrels1 #ei1ddc2 quarter barrels1 #f1bfe2 eighth barrels1 #bd1igd4 ,the total quantity of mixed flour returned for taxation during the year is #e1die1icg pounds4 ,the above data show that the amount of mixed flour offered for sale is a very small part of the total flour manufactured in the ,united ,states4 ,it may be that there is a great deal of flour mixed and sold in violation of the law since it is quite impossible in the inspection of the stores to supervise all the transactions of business deals in flour2 especially is it believed that rye flour and buckwheat flour are often adulterated by mixing with them the flour of other cereals4 ,this adulteration is not one which is at all injurious to health but is simply practiced for the purpose of making a rye or buckwheat flour look whiter or because the added flours are cheaper than the real rye or buckwheat4 ,properties ,affecting the ,commercial ,value of ,flour4--,aside from its nutritive properties wheat flour has a commercial value depending upon its color and texture and upon the gluten which it contains4 ,the character of gluten also varies largely in different varieties of wheat and in wheat grown in different localities4 ,a chemical examination will not always tell the bread making properties of a flour1 and the character of the bread itself depends often quite as much upon the skill of the baker as upon the flour which is used4 ,in cases where loaves are sold by weight1 a flour with a high percentage of tenacious gluten is often preferred1 since it permits of the forming of loaves containing a maximum percentage of water4 ,with a flour rich in gluten it is not difficult to make a palatable loaf which does not bear any evidence of an excess of water1 containing as much as #dj percent of moisture4 ,the baking of bread is an art which is most successfully practiced by professionals1 and the ,american method of home bread making does not always lead to the happiest results4 ,the ideal flour for bread making is one which contains a sufficient quantity of gluten to make a porous and spongy loaf1 but not one which permits an excessive quantity of moisture to be incorporated in the loaf itself4 ,average ,composition of ,different ,varieties of ,flour4--,analyses of a great number of samples of different varieties of flours lead to the following data1 which may be accepted as a very close approximation of the average variety of different grades of flour offered upon the ,american market3 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,pro- ,,pro- ,,teids ,,teids ,,mois- ,n ,n ,,moist ,,name ,,of ,,flour4 ,,ture4 #f4be4 #e4gj4 ,,gluten4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,perct4,perct4,perct4,perct4 ,patent flour1 #ab4gg #aj4ee #i4fb #be4ig ,bakers' and family flour1 #aa4fi #ab4bh #aa4bj #cd4gj ,common market flour1 #ab4bh #aj4ah #i4bh #bd4ee ,miscellaneous flour1 #ab4gc #aj4de #i4eb #bf4hj ,self-raising flour1 #aa4de #i4ge #h4hi #bf4ig ,gluten flour1 #ab4ii #ac4cj #ab4ac #ci4fh ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,starch ,n ,,dry #f4be4 ,,name ,,of ,,flour4 ,,gluten4 ,,oil4 ,,ash4 #bf ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,perct4,perct4,perct4,perct4 ,patent flour1 #i4ii #a4jb #j4dd #gd4gf ,bakers' and family flour1 #ac4jg #a4cj #j4eg #gc4hg ,common market flour1 #i4ba #a4cj #j4fa #ge4fc ,miscellaneous flour1 #aj4bb #a4jh #j4di #ge4bc ,self-raising flour1 #i4fe #j4gj #d4de #gc4ff ,gluten flour1 #ad4hd #a4je #j4ee #gb4aa ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,starch ,n #e4gj4 ,,crude ,,calo- ,,name ,,of ,,flour4 #bf ,,fiber4 ,,ries4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,perct4,perct4 ,patent flour1 #gf4ad #j4ba #c1heh4j ,bakers' and family flour1 #gd4ih #j4bb #c1ibi4f ,common market flour1 #gf4ec #j4bh #c1hhb4e ,miscellaneous flour1 #gf4ae #j4be #c1hdf4c ,self-raising flour1 #gd4ea #j4ba #c1gai4c ,gluten flour1 #gc4bh #j4cb #c1hia4a ---------------------------------------- -------- #bf ,in the first of these columns the starch is calculated by difference1 assuming the protein to be the quantity of nitrogen present multiplied by #f4be1 and in the second column the figure is obtained in the same way1 using #e4gj as the protein factor4 ,separation of ,gluten4--,the character of a wheat flour1 as has already been intimated1 is measured largely by the quantity of gluten which it may contain4 ,the separation of gluten may be accomplished by any one1 even without a chemical training1 by a little practice4 ,it is1 therefore1 one of the tests for the value of a wheat flour which can be easily and generally applied4 ,the principle of separation of the gluten rests upon the fact that when wheat flour is moistened and kneaded into a sticky mass it may be washed with pure water with constant kneading until nearly all the starch has been removed from the mass4 ,meanwhile only that portion of the protein is removed which is soluble in the water and the gluten which is formed by the process of kneading remains as a sticky mass4 ,when this moist mass is kneaded and rolled until all the moisture is taken out of it that can be removed in this way1 it may be weighed and the proportion of moist gluten in the sample determined4 ,it may then be placed in an oven and dried1 and then the proportion of dry gluten secured4 ,the following method is one which is easily applied4 ,place #aj grams of the sample in a porcelain dish and moisten with from #f to #g cubic centimeters of water1 knead1 and allow to stand for an hour4 ,work into a ball1 being careful that none of the material adheres to the dish4 ,holding the mass in the hand knead it in a slow stream of cold water until the starch and all soluble matter are washed out4 ,place the ball of gluten thus formed in cold water and allow to stand for one hour2 remove from water1 press as dry as possible between the hands1 roll into a ball1 and weigh in a flat-bottomed dish4 ,after weighing1 place the ball of moist gluten in the drying oven for twenty hours2 cool and weigh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,,kedzie',s ,,farinometer ,,showing ,,the ,,parts4--7,bulletin #ac1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture47 ,gluten ,tester4--,a simple test for determining the approximate percentage of gluten in flour may be used1 based upon the principle that the viscosity of dough is a measure of its practical gluten content4 ,the name applied to a gluten tester is farinometer4 ,a convenient form of farinometer devised by ,kedzie is shown in the accompanying figure4 ,it is patterned somewhat upon the plan of ,jago's viscometer4 ,the instrument is shown in parts in ,fig4 #cd4 ,the instrument as in use is exhibited in ,fig4 #ce4 ,parts shown in ,fig4 #cd are as follows3 ,no4 #a is the stand or support of the parts4 ,no4 #b is the cap of ,no4 #a1 and discloses the half-inch opening 7half closed by the slide7 through which the dough is forced by the pressure of the rod ,no4 #d4 ,the slide by which this opening is closed is plainly shown2 also the socket for holding ,no4 #c4 ,no4 #c is a brass tube #c inches high and #a inch internal diameter1 with a small knob to fit into the notched opening in the side of the socket seen in ,no4 #b1 to hold ,no4 #c firmly in place4 ,no4 #d is a steel rod inch in diameter and #ab inches long1 with a thin brass cap #a inch in diameter1 beveled slightly so that the front edge fills the barrel of ,no4 #c without friction1 and is yet dough-tight4 ,near the top the rod is marked into inch spaces4 ,in using the farinometer two points are considered3 #a4 ,the water-absorbing power of a flour1 or the percentage of water it will take up to form a dough of a certain consistency4 #b4 ,the viscosity of such dough1 or its resistance to change of form under a uniform force2 e4 g41 the length of time in seconds required to force a cylinder of dough #a inch high through a hole one-half inch in diameter under the pressure of a vertical steel rod #ac inches long and weighing #b pounds avoirdupois4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,,kedzie',s ,,farinometer ,,in ,,use4--7,bulletin #ac1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture47 ,bleaching of ,flour4--,at the present time flour is extensively bleached for the purpose of making an inferior article resemble a superior one4 ,by this means a greater percentage of the flour produced can be rated as of first quality4 ,ozone and oxids of nitrogen developed by electrical discharges are the principal bleaching agents employed4 ,bleached flour should bear a label indicating to the purchaser the character of the manipulation to which it has been subjected4 ,adulterations of ,flour4--,the adulteration of wheat flour is not practiced to any extent in this country4 ,the most common adulteration arises from grinding with wheat foreign seeds and other foreign matter1 rust1 smut1 etc41 which may be present in the grain4 ,other adulterations are the mixture with wheat flour of the starch or flour of maize and other cereals4 ,the adulteration with any form of terra alba or white powdered earthy substance is exceedingly rare4 ,although some attempts have been made to introduce such adulterations in this country they have not reached any commercial success4 ,the adulterations1 with the exception of those with white earthy powders1 are most readily ascertained by microscopic examination for foreign matters and other varieties of starch than grow naturally in the wheat4 ,standard4--,the ,united ,states standard for flour is as follows3 ,flour is the fine1 sound product made by bolting wheat meal and contains not more than thirteen and one-half 7#ac4e7 percent of moisture1 not less than one and twenty-five hundredths 7#a4be7 percent of nitrogen1 not more than one 7#a4j7 percent of ash1 and not more than fifty hundredths 7#j4ej7 percent of fiber4 ,graham flour is unbolted wheat meal4 ,whole wheat flour1 entire wheat flour1 improperly so called1 is fine wheat meal from which a part of the bran has been removed4 ,gluten flour is the product made from flour by the removal of starch1 and contains not less than five and six-tenths 7#e4f7 percent of nitrogen and not more than ten 7#aj7 percent of moisture4 ,age of ,flour4--,the freshly ground flour is most highly esteemed by many consumers on account of palatability and freedom from all danger of mold and ferments4 ,older flours are likely to lose flavor1 become moldy and infested with weavil and other insect pests4 ,the last-named evils are avoided by the use of wheat containing no fungus1 none of the eggs of the weavil1 nor of other insects1 and enclosing the freshly ground flour in packages not accessible to infection4 ,even then it is advisable to consume the flour as soon as convenient after the milling process4 ,many manufacturers and experts contend that flour is improved by keeping for a certain length of time1 and this contention is based on the assumption that the flour assumes a lighter color and improves in flavor on keeping4 ,there is of course a certain limit to improvements of this kind4 ,substitutes for ,flour4--,wholesome ingredients are used in part instead of flour in bread making1 and when that fact is clearly made known the admixture of these substances with flour is not considered an adulteration4 ,bread which is made of an admixture of ,indian corn meal with flour or rye flour with flour or other cereal products is well liked by many people4 ,potatoes are also used very often in bread making4 ,acorns1 buckwheat1 and other farinacious and oily substances are also employed4 ,the admixture of inert substances with flour merely to increase the bulk and weight of the loaf1 even if notified1 cannot be regarded as other than an adulteration4 ,in times of famine such admixtures are sometimes made in order to increase the size and weight of the loaf4 ,such substances are known in times of famine as 8hunger bread40 ,finely ground straw1 bark1 the hulls of nuts1 etc41 are often used for this purpose4 ,these bodies practically have no nutritive value and serve no useful purpose except to deceive the eater respecting the quantity of bread he consumes4 ,,bread4 ,the term 8,bread0 when used alone is understood in this country to apply to bread made from wheat flour or some form of wheat4 ,if made from other cereals a prefix is used to distinguish this fact1 as ,indian corn bread1 rye bread1 etc4 ,the term bread includes also the materials which are used necessarily therewith in the ordinary process of baking4 ,thus1 the term bread would apply to a loaf which contains not only the wheat flour as the base and chief part of its mass but also the yeast or other leavening agent employed1 together with salt1 lard1 or butter used in its preparation4 ,the presence of these bodies1 used in the sense above described1 is not regarded as an adulteration4 ,the term 8bread10 however1 is not to be used to include those other forms of nutriment made from wheat flour in which condimental substances1 especially sugar1 are used to such an extent as to give the dominant taste of the condiment or condiments employed4 ,thus1 the ordinary cake of all descriptions1 tarts1 puddings1 and other edible substances made largely from wheat flour1 but to which the condiment or condiments impart a distinct taste1 are not included under the term bread4 ,in the generic sense the term bread may be used in the largest signification to signify food in general4 ,varieties of ,bread4--,in general all forms of bread may be divided into two great classes1 leavened and unleavened4 ,by far1 the greater quantity of bread consumed belongs to the former class4 ,unleavened bread is used chiefly for certain religious festivals1 in the form of biscuits or in certain varieties of ,indian corn bread such as hoe cake1 johnnie cake1 etc4 ,of the leavened bread there are two distinct classes1 namely1 bread which is baked and eaten cold and bread which is consumed hot from the oven4 ,bread intended to be consumed cold is generally eaten within twenty-four or forty-eight hours from the time of making though some varieties may be kept for an indefinite period4 ,the use of hot bread is not commended by hygienists though it is difficult to see why1 when properly made1 the consumption of a good hot roll can be regarded as injurious4 ,the apparent injury which may result therefrom is probably due to the larger quantity eaten on account of greater palatability than is the case with cold bread4 ,that variety of bread which is baked so as to present a maximum of crust and made of flour which gives a tough consistency to the loaf is most highly regarded both for palatability and nutritive purposes4 ,this form of bread is improperly called ,french or ,vienna rolls in this country4 ,unleavened bread is particularly advisable for use in emergency rations for marching soldiers1 in logging camps1 etc4 ,this bread is compact1 comparatively free of moisture and has a high nutritive value4 ,the leavened bread may be divided into distinct classes in respect of the leavening agent employed4 ,class #a is bread in which the leavening agent is yeast4 ,class #b is bread in which the natural ferments residing in the flour or wheat are utilized for the leavening agent as in the making of that variety known as salt rising bread4 ,class #c includes that form of bread in which the leavening is secured by chemical reagents mixed with the dough4 ,class #d includes that variety in which a leavening reagent such as carbon dioxid or air is mechanically incorporated with the dough during the kneading process4 ,unleavened bread is also divided into several technical forms4 ,the first class includes the biscuit of commerce1 sometimes incorrectly called crackers1 and intended to be used soon after preparation4 ,the second class includes biscuits which are intended for long storage and transportation4 ,the third class includes wafers and other delicate forms of unleavened bread for special use4 ,class #d is the unleavened loaves which are made most frequently from ,indian corn meal and intended to be eaten while still hot4 ,class #e includes any miscellaneous unleavened loaves or cakes made in various ways and for different purposes4 ,in nearly all forms of unleavened bread made from wheat flour the dough is thoroughly beaten1 and mechanically mixed or kneaded1 in order to make it lighter in color and more crisp and hard after baking4 ,yeast4--,bakers' yeast is one form of the ordinary yeast ferments or a mixture thereof producing alcoholic fermentation under proper conditions4 ,all flour contains a certain quantity of sugar which is easily fermented4 ,by the action of the yeast upon this sugar carbon dioxid and alcohol are formed4 ,the particles of carbon dioxid become entangled in the gluten of the wheat flour when it is mixed into a dough and thus make the mass spongy and light4 ,when placed in the oven to be baked these minute particles of carbon dioxid expand still more and produce additional lightness and sponginess of the loaf4 ,the yeast may be propagated from one mass of dough to another1 may be used in a moist state or1 as is very commonly the case1 manufactured in large quantities1 and sold either moist or more commonly in a partially dried and pressed cake4 ,spontaneous ,ferments4--,all cereals contain ferments of a character to produce alcoholic fermentation spontaneously under proper conditions4 ,it is possible even to ferment dough by seed from one loaf to another or by developing a spontaneous fermentation4 ,this method is quite a common one in the rural districts1 and all bread made in this way is known as salt rising bread4 ,it may be made according to the following receipt3 ,a quarter of a pint of fresh whole milk is slowly heated to near the boiling point1 but not allowed to boil4 ,this process will sterilize the milk and prevent the development of a too rapid lactic fermentation in the subsequent processes4 ,the heated milk is added to a quantity of maize meal sufficient to make with the milk a stiff batter1 and the whole is thoroughly mixed4 ,the vessel containing the batter is wrapped with paper and then with a heavy flannel cloth1 and kept in a warm place at a uniform temperature of about blood heat for several hours1 until fermentation is fully established and the batter assumes a definite sour odor4 ,at this point a teaspoonful of salt is stirred into a pint of blood-warm water and into this a sufficient quantity of high-grade wheat flour is stirred to make a moderately stiff batter4 ,this is thoroughly mixed with the sour mass obtained by the previous fermentation and the mixture exposed for from three-fourths to one hour to a blood heat as before4 ,if the fermentation has been well conducted the mass will now be in a sufficiently active state to secure a proper porosity of the loaf4 ,the salt rising thus prepared is mixed with a wheat flour dough made with warm water in sufficient quantities to make from four to six loaves1 the whole mass well kneaded1 molded into loaves and put aside at a temperature of blood heat until the fermentation has proceeded far enough to make the loaf light and spongy4 ,the loaf is then baked in the ordinary way4 ,chemical ,aerating ,agents4--,in this country a very common method of aerating bread is practiced1 based upon the use of certain chemical reagents which when mixed in the dough set free carbon dioxid4 ,these reagents are known as baking or yeast powders and are especially prized by reason of the fact that it is possible with their aid to prepare in a few moments a light spongy loaf or roll which would require from #aj to #bd hours to make by the ordinary fermenting with yeast4 ,the principal objection to the use of baking powder lies in the fact that the residues arising from the chemical reaction are necessarily left in the loaf4 ,while these residues may not have any specific or poisonous properties they increase the quantity of mineral matter in the bread1 and this mineral matter is in the inorganic state and as such does not take any part in the process of nutrition4 ,it can only be regarded as a waste product1 burdening1 to that extent1 the excretory organs of the body4 ,constituents of ,baking ,powder4--,the essential constituents of baking powder are a carbonate of some kind and an acid reagent capable of decomposing this carbonate and setting the carbon dioxid free4 ,the common carbonate of a baking powder is bicarbonate of soda4 ,the classification of baking powders rests upon the acid elements which they contain4 ,they may be classified as follows3 7#a7 ,cream of tartar baking powder1 in which the acid constituent is cream of tartar which is known chemically as acid potassium tartrate4 ,other forms of tartaric acid may be used in baking powders of this class but they are not common4 7#b7 ,phosphate powders1 in which the acid constituent is phosphoric acid usually in the form of the acid phosphate of lime4 7#c7 ,alum powders in which the acid constituent is alum or some form of aluminium sulfate1 usually the basic sulfate of alumina4 ,the acid and basic constituents of these powders may be kept in separate containers and mixed together at the time of making the dough4 ,a more common form is to use them in such a way that until they mix with the dough they do not exert any notable effect upon each other4 ,for instance1 perfectly dry bicarbonate of soda and perfectly dry acid potassium tartrate may be mixed together and kept for quite a while without any notable decomposition of the bicarbonate taking place4 ,in order to render any such possible action minimum in its effect it is customary to add to the mixture a small quantity of starch1 milk sugar1 or some other diluent4 ,these materials tend to keep apart the particles of acid and base and render it possible to make a mixture of them which may be kept for a long while without any notable loss of leavening power4 ,when a cream of tartar baking powder is mixed with dough the moisture of the dough gradually dissolves the two ingredients and in this state a chemical reaction occurs between them4 ,the carbon dioxid is set free as a gas1 commonly known as carbonic acid4 ,the mineral substance which results is a tartrate of sodium and potassium that is a union of tartaric acid with potash and soda4 ,this compound is commonly known under the term of ,rochelle salts4 ,if there be a sufficient quantity of water in the bread to allow the ,rochelle salts to crystallize in the usual way a portion of the water becomes incorporated with the salt4 ,two teaspoonsful of a tartrate baking powder leave a residue of about #aa grams 7#afe grains7 of crystallized ,rochelle salts in the loaf4 ,phosphate ,powders4--,as has already been said1 the acid constituent of phosphate powder is chiefly acid phosphate of lime4 ,in this case the acid phosphate of lime decomposes the bicarbonate of soda with the production of carbon dioxid and leaves a residue consisting of a mixture of sodium and lime phosphate4 ,if in two teaspoonsful of phosphate powder there are approximately #af grams 7#bej grains7 there is formed a crystallized residue1 about an equal weight of phosphate of soda and lime1 which is left in the loaf4 ,alum ,powders4--,perhaps by far the largest part of baking powders used contain alum in some form as the acid constituent4 ,formerly the common substance known as alum or burnt alum was employed but in late years an aluminium basic salt known as basic sulfate of aluminium has largely succeeded the old form of alum4 ,when the reaction takes place in the dough between these two constituents of alum baking powder there is formed an equivalent quantity of sulfate of soda and hydroxid of alumina if the acid constituent be basic aluminium sulfate4 ,the quantity of residue left in the loaf if two teaspoonsful of baking powder be used is about #aa grams 7#afe grains74 ,harmfulness of ,baking ,powder ,residues4--,the question of the harmfulness of the residues left by the various forms of baking powder is one which has been of much interest to the hygienist and physician4 ,it is not claimed in any case that these residues are beneficial4 ,the principal question which has been discussed is which of them is the least harmful4 ,this is a question which it is not proper to enter into in this manual4 ,it might1 however1 not be out of place to say that the use of chemical reagents for leavening bread is not as advisable as the use of the ordinary fermentation4 ,it would be better1 evidently1 if all people used more yeast bread and less baking powder rolls4 ,at the same time the utility and convenience of baking powder cannot be denied1 and this is a factor which must be taken into consideration in the general discussion and final resolution of the question4 ,character of ,alum ,residues4--,every one is agreed that the substance known as alum1 namely1 the sulfate of alumina in conjunction with another mineral or base1 such as soda1 potash1 or ammonia1 is not a desirable constituent of food products4 ,in the manufacture of baking powders containing alum an effort is made to so balance the constituents that when the reaction is completed no undecomposed alum remains4 ,if this condition is secured in every instance the materials which remain in the bread are not alum but the residues above mentioned1 consisting of aluminium hydrate1 and sulfates of soda1 potash1 or ammonia4 ,the residue of chief importance is the hydroxid or hydrate of alumina1 which is the form in which the alumina itself should appear when a complete reaction like that defined above takes place4 ,when the hydroxid of alumina is dried and especially when ignited it is converted into an oxid of alumina which is highly insoluble in water and only slightly soluble in a very dilute acid solution4 ,the claim is made by the manufacturer of alum powders that the aluminium residue which is formed is insoluble in the digestive juices and therefore cannot produce any effect usually ascribed to the soluble salts of aluminium4 ,it is important that the conditions which are found in the baking of a loaf are such as to produce this highly desirable result4 ,the temperature of the interior of the loaf during baking does not rise much above that of boiling water1 although the exterior temperature1 which is sufficient to produce the browning of the crust1 is very much above that temperature4 ,it is evident that as long as any considerable proportion of water remains in the loaf it will be difficult to raise the interior of the loaf to the temperature just mentioned1 and if this were done the caramelization would take place throughout the whole loaf4 ,unfortunately1 from a scientific point of view the investigation of this subject has not been always undertaken under conditions which are wholly beyond criticism4 ,many of the investigations have been in the interest of rival baking powder companies1 and it is very desirable that this matter should be undertaken in a wholly unbiased way and conducted in such a manner as to lead to results which all will accept4 ,chemical and physiological investigations1 which have even as a remote object the promotion of the sale of one compound and the repression of the sale of another1 lose at the outset much of that claim upon the public confidence which such investigations made from a purely scientific point of view should have4 ,general ,statement4--,in respect of the use of chemical leavening agents in general it may be said that they introduce an extraneous product into the bread which is not likely to promote the health and which1 therefore1 on general principles should be excluded4 ,on the other hand1 large experience has shown that the consumption of bread made by these leavening agents does not produce any general effect upon the public health which is noticeable4 ,this1 it is understood1 is not any valid argument in favor of the process4 ,it must also be acknowledged that a fermentation of a bread with yeast also introduces extraneous matter into the food1 viz41 alcohol and congeneric products of fermentation1 and hence this process may be open to a certain extent to the same objection as the one above4 ,it is too early yet to formulate definite principles either of inclusion or exclusion of these products1 and the purpose of this manual is secured when the general character and effects thereof are briefly outlined4 ,composition of ,bread4--,because of the many different methods of bread making which are practised it is not possible to give in a chemical form an analysis which would do more than represent in general the character of the bread in common use4 ,for instance1 the quantity of water which is found in bread varies greatly and the nature of bread itself must be influenced by the character of the flour from which it is made4 ,the flour depends upon the quality of the wheat used in its manufacture4 ,hence the same brand of bread prepared in the same way and baked in the same manner must necessarily vary in composition from season to season and even from day to day4 ,it must be understood also that it is a very common custom in the ,united ,states to use milk in the mixing of dough1 and thus a food product is introduced which of itself is not of constant character4 ,some bakers use whole milk1 others skimmed1 and others sour milk4 ,a very good formula for mixing dough for bread making consists in using the following proportions of ingredients mentioned3 ,flour1 #b1jjj grams ,whole milk1 #ejj ,water1 #fej ,salt1 #be ,yeast cake1 #aj ,when properly leavened and kneaded and baked these quantities of materials will make a loaf of bread weighing #bgej grams4 ,average ,composition of ,bread4--,in the following tables are given the average composition of bread of different classes4 ,class #a is composed of loaves of the so-called ,vienna or ,french type2 ,class #b consists of what is known as home made bread or bread baked at the home and not in the bakery2 ,class #c consists of bread made from graham flour2 ,class #d consists of bread made largely of rye flour2 ,class #e is a second collection of home made bread which may be very properly compared with ,class #b2 ,class #f consists of bread of miscellaneous origin bought on the open market4 ,the data given represent the mean composition of numbers of samples 7,bull4 #ac1 ,bureau of ,chemistry73 ,,mois- ,,ether ,,ture4 ,,protein4 ,,extract4 ,,fiber4 ,perct4 ,perct4 ,perct4 ,perct4 ,,class #a4 #ch4ga #h4ji #a4jf 4#fb ,in the dry substance1 44 #ac4bc #a4gc 4#ig ,,class #b4 #cc4jb #g4bd #a4ie 4#bd ,in the dry substance1 44 #aj4hj #b4ia 4#cf ,,class #c4 #cd4hj #h4ae #b4jc #a4ac ,in the dry substance1 44 #ab4ea #c4ac #a4gd ,,class #d4 #cc4db #g4hh 4#ff 4#fb ,in the dry substance1 44 #aa4hf #a4jb 4#ie ,,class #e4 #cf4af #g4aj #a4ad 4#bf ,in the dry substance1 44 #aa4ag #a4ge 4#da ,,class #f4 #cd4da #f4ic #a4dh 4#cj ,in the dry substance1 44 #aj4ei #b4ba 4#df ,,starch ,,and ,,calo- ,,ash4 ,,sugar4 ,,salt4 ,,ries4 ,perct4 ,perct4 ,perct4 ,,class #a4 #a4ai #ec4gb 4#eg 44 ,in the dry substance1 #a4ie #hc4aj 4#ic #ddeh ,,class #b4 #a4je #ef4ge 4#ef 44 ,in the dry substance1 #a4ee #hd4ge 4#hd #ddig ,,class #c4 #a4ei #ec4dj 4#fi 44 ,in the dry substance1 #b4bi #hb4jf #a4jg #ddcd ,,class #d4 #a4hd #ef4ba #a4jj 44 ,in the dry substance1 #b4gi #hd4cf #a4ej #dcie ,,class #e4 #a4jf #ed4ec 4#eh 44 ,in the dry substance1 #a4fh #he4da 4#ib #dcie ,,class #f4 #a4jj #ef4ah 4#di 44 ,in the dry substance1 #a4ec #he4ff 4#gf #ddja ,a ,typical ,american ,high-grade ,yeast ,bread4--,in conjunction with the actual analyses given above it is of interest to combine as many analytical data as can be conveniently secured for the purpose of determining what the average composition of a high-grade typical yeast bread is4 ,this comparison leads to the following composition3 ,moisture1 #ce4jj percent ,protein1 #h4jj ,ether extract1 4#ge ,starch and sugar1 #ed4de ,fiber1 4#cj ,ash1 #a4ej ,of the ash mentioned in the above analysis 4#ej percent may be ascribed to the natural mineral ingredient of flour and #a percent to added salt4 ,the chief variations from the typical composition of bread made from high-grade flour are found in the moisture and ether extract4 ,the moisture may rise above #dj percent in breads made of flour rich in gluten or sink to #cj percent or under when flour of an inferior gluten content is employed4 ,the quantity of ether extract depends chiefly upon the amount of milk which is used in the making of bread and the amount of fat employed either in the bread itself or in greasing the pan in which it is baked4 ,there is great difficulty in extracting a fatty body which has been mixed with a glutinous material like flour4 ,the analytical data1 therefore1 do not represent in the ether extract all the fat naturally present in the flour plus that added in the making of dough or in baking4 ,the quantity of moisture in bread may also be determined largely by the time of baking and the temperature of the oven4 ,a bread baked for a long while at a low temperature will be much drier than a bread baked quickly at a high temperature4 ,the high temperature solidifies the exterior of the loaf so as to make it difficult for the interior moisture to escape4 ,by quickly baking the bread the temperature of the interior does not reach so high a temperature as in an oven with a low temperature and a long-continued heat4 ,standard for ,moisture4--,the quantity of moisture in bread of standard quality in the ,district of ,columbia may not exceed #ca percent4 ,the average temperature of the baking oven is about #bdj ,c4 7#dfd ,f474 ,quantity of ,sugar in ,bread4--,the quantity of sugar found in fermented bread is always less than that present in the flour1 added in milk1 or otherwise introduced in the preparation of the dough4 ,the sugar disappears largely under the influence of the fermentation due to the yeast4 ,quantity of ,ash4--,the quantity of ash in bread is uniformly higher than the content of mineral matter in the flour4 ,this is due to the addition of common salt which is uniformly employed in all bread1 and in the case of bread made from baking powder the retention of the mineral residues in the loaf increases to that extent the content of ash4 ,with the exception of the ash1 the ether extract or fat1 the sugar1 and the dry material of bread correspond in quantity to the same materials in the flour from which it is made1 except the loss due to the caramelization of the crust4 ,acidity of ,bread4--,the development of the lactic acid ferments is important in regard to hygienic conditions and to palatability4 ,flour contains practically no acid in a free state1 and the acidity of bread is itself due to the changes which take place in its preparation under the influence of the ferments therein4 ,bread baked in the usual manner after the yeast ferments have exerted their activity shows the presence of acetic acid1 lactic acid1 and other acids and salts4 ,the acidity of bread adds to its palatability and also1 doubtless1 to its digestibility4 ,bread1 containing1 as it does1 a large percentage of protein1 is digested in an acid medium4 ,the natural acidity of bread1 therefore1 must be regarded as beneficial4 ,comparative ,nutritive ,properties of ,indian ,corn ,bread and ,wheat ,bread4--,there is a widespread opinion that the products of ,indian corn are less digestible and less nutritious than those of wheat4 ,this opinion amounts to a conviction in most ,european countries1 where the products obtained by the milling of ,indian corn are not regarded as fit for human food in an unmixed state4 ,the above opinion1 it appears1 has no justification either from the chemical composition of the two bodies or from recorded digestive and nutritive experiments4 ,a study of the analytical data of the whole grain shows that in so far as actual nutrition is concerned the maize is fully as nutritious as wheat4 ,in respect of its content of fat ,indian corn and its direct products easily take precedence of all the other cereals1 with the exception of hulled oats4 ,in round numbers ,indian corn flour or bread made therefrom contains twice as much fat or oil as wheat1 three times as much as rye1 twice as much as barley1 and nearly as much as hulled oats4 ,in regard to digestible carbohydrates1 that is digestible starch1 sugar1 dextrin1 and fiber1 ,indian corn flour possesses a higher content than hulled oats and almost the same content as wheat4 ,in regard to digestible protein ,indian corn has nearly the same quantity as the other leading cereals1 except oats4 ,what it lacks1 however1 in its quantity of protein in so far as nutrition is concerned is more than made up in its excess of fat4 ,comparative ,digestibility and ,nutrition of ,wheat and ,indian ,corn from ,experiments ,made in ,south ,dakota ,station1 ,bulletin #ch4--,pigs were fed with ,indian corn and wheat1 or rather the ground ,indian corn and ground wheat1 and it was found that pound for pound there was a greater gain in the case of ,indian corn flour than wheat4 ,for #ajj pounds of flour fed the average gain with ,indian corn was #ba4hc pounds and where wheat flour was used #bj4gi pounds4 ,these experimental data show that in regard to nutritive properties ,indian corn flour cannot be considered inferior to wheat flour4 ,indian corn bread is particularly well suited for persons engaged in hard manual labor4 ,a ration which is composed largely of ,indian corn products and oatmeal is found to be particularly valuable for those engaged in lumbering1 harvesting sugar-cane1 etc4 ,indian ,corn ,flour ,pudding4--,various forms of pudding are prepared from ,indian corn flour4 ,among the most important is that known in the ,new ,england ,states as hasty pudding and in the west and south as mush4 ,a simple method of preparing ,indian corn pudding1 hasty pudding1 or mush is to stir into water1 very slowly1 the ,indian corn flour in such a way as to avoid the formation of lumps4 ,the flour should be sifted into the water either cold or at boiling temperature and the mixture vigorously stirred meanwhile4 ,by this means a thin1 uniform paste is secured which is allowed to cook slowly until quite thick in consistence and until all the starch granules are thoroughly disintegrated4 ,the product is improved by allowing to stand for several hours at near the boiling point after the cooking is finished1 provided precautions are taken not to allow the mass to become too solid4 ,this product is eaten hot with butter1 milk1 or cream1 or is much prized when allowed to cool1 cut into thin slices and fried4 ,a very important dish for the children of working people and farmers of the south and west is mush and milk1 namely the product above mentioned eaten with skim milk4 ,this mixture forms a palatable and wholesome diet4 ,various other forms of pudding are made into which ,indian corn enters to a greater or less degree4 ,composition of ,biscuits4--,the composition of a biscuit or dry unleavened bread does not differ essentially from that of the ordinary bread except in the content of moisture4 ,the biscuits are usually baked in thin cakes or loaves which become heated throughout and sometimes caramelize throughout a large part of their substance4 ,this favors the expulsion of the greater part of the moisture which the dough originally contained4 ,the average composition of biscuits is shown in the following data3 ,moisture1 #g4ac percent ,protein1 #i4dc ,ether extract1 #h4fg ,fiber1 4#dg ,ash1 #a4eg ,salt1 4#ii ,starch and sugar1 #gc4gg ,in the dry substance3 ,protein1 #aj4ah percent ,ether extract1 #i4cc ,fiber1 4#ec ,ash1 #a4gj ,salt1 #a4jh ,starch and sugar1 #gh4gi ,calories1 #d1gee ,the above data show that biscuits vary in composition from bread chiefly in their content of moisture and fat or oil4 ,the moisture1 as is noted1 is very low1 while the quantity of fat which the biscuit contains is from #h to #aj times as great as that contained in flour from which they are made4 ,the salt content and the mineral ingredients of the biscuit are often higher than in bread or flour4 ,inasmuch as a large quantity of fat and salt are used commonly in the manufacture of biscuits the presence of these bodies cannot in any sense be regarded as an adulteration4 ,in forty-eight samples examined only four were free of notable quantities of added fat4 ,in one case over #af percent of fat was found1 and as it has been shown that all the fat which is added is not extracted by ether it is evident that in this case an amount of fat equal to #bj percent of the weight of the flour may have been used4 ,it appears1 from a study of the composition of biscuits1 that it is advisable to use them as a relish or delicacy for eating with cheese1 etc41 in ordinary daily life1 while they become almost a necessity in some form or other in the preparation of emergency rations for marching armies1 on shipboard1 in logging camps1 etc4 ,it is not advisable to employ them in the daily diet to the exclusion of bread4 ,their nutrient contents have1 in comparison with bread1 a lower coefficient of digestibility1 due largely to the added fat4 ,amount of ,sugar ,lost in ,fermentation4--,the total quantity of sugar and other carbohydrates lost in fermentation amounts to about #b percent of the weight of flour used4 ,sometimes it is much greater and sometimes less than this4 ,the nutritive value of the product is diminished in proportion to the extent of the loss of sugar4 ,the carbon dioxid produced during fermentation has no food value1 and the alcohol is largely lost in the form of vapor during the process of baking4 ,about half the loss is due to carbon dioxid and half to alcohol4 ,the alcohol1 although lost mostly during the baking1 serves a useful purpose1--in the expansion of the vapor it aids the carbon dioxid in making the bread more porous4 ,the hydrolysis which takes place in baking converts some of the starch to dextrinoid or saccharoid conditions4 ,it is evident that from #f to #h percent of total starch present in the flour is changed during the fermentation and baking into more or less soluble forms4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--;,,comparative ,,appearance ,,of ,,breads ,,of ,,different ,,kinds4 ,texture and ,size of ,loaves ,made from ,different ,kinds ,of ,flour4--,the variations in bread and size of loaves made from different kinds of flour when the conditions of fermentation and baking are the same depends upon the texture and quantity of the gluten material in the flour4 ,the difference in the appearance and size of loaves is shown by a photograph of the cross-sections of three loaves of bread in ,fig4 #cf4 ,it is seen that the loaves made from graham flour and entire wheat flour are somewhat coarser in structure and are less in size than those made from the same quantity of standard patent flour4 ,,macaroni4 ,the preparation of wheat flour of a high glutenous character and molded into various forms1 usually tubes1 cylindroids1 or fine shreds1 is known in the trade under various names such as noodles1 spaghetti1 and macaroni4 ,an examination of a number of these bodies shows them to have the following average composition3 ,moisture1 #i4ff percent ,protein1 #ab4jb ,ether extract1 4#db ,crude fiber1 4#ef ,ash1 4#gh ,starch and sugar1 #gg4ab ,in the dry substance3 ,protein1 #ac4cc percent ,ether extract1 4#dg ,crude fiber1 4#fb ,ash1 4#hf ,starch and sugar1 #he4cd ,calories1 #d1dbh ,these bodies1 it is seen1 do not have a composition very different from that of a first-class bread except in their content of moisture and protein4 ,they are made from various kinds of wheat1 especially hard wheat which forms a tenacious gluten product well suited to molding into the different forms which these bodies have4 ,their nutritive value is practically the same as that of good wheat bread of the same moisture content4 ,domestic ,macaroni4--,the introduction of varieties of wheat with the properties suitable for making macaroni has been thoroughly exploited by the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,the macaroni wheat grown as a subvariety is known botanically as ,triticum durum4 ,the durum wheats are not regarded as of equal value to the ordinary wheats for general milling purposes and command a lower price4 ,the ,french name is ,bl dur and the ,german name is ,hartweizen4 ,the wheat of this subspecies grows rather tall1 having broad1 smooth leaves of a whitish green color and a very hard cuticle4 ,the heads are comparatively slight in most varieties1 compactly formed1 and occasionally very short4 ,all the durum wheat is bearded and the beards are exceptionally long4 ,the kernels are hard and glassy1 often partly translucent4 ,they are generally yellowish white in color1 occasionally inclined to red1 and the grains are generally rather large4 ,in other aspects this wheat resembles barley and for this reason in ,germany it is often called ,gerstenweizen4 ,the general appearance of these wheats both in the field and in the individual heads is shown in the accompanying figures4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,a ,,field ,,of ,,durum ,,wheat4--7,courtesy of ,bureau of ,plant ,industry47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,,drought-,,resistant ,,macaroni ,,wheats 7,,heads ,,and ,,grains74 #a1 ,kubanka2 #b1 ,nicaragua2 #c1 ,velvet ,don2 #d1 ,black ,don2 #e1 ,wild ,goose4--7,bulletin ,no4 #c1 ,bureau of ,plant ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture47 ,macaroni wheats are well adapted to semi-arid regions2 in fact it may be said that they are the product of such an environment rather than adapted to it4 ,for this reason they are wheats which are able to resist continued dry weather and high temperature4 ,these wheats do not grow well in acid soils but flourish best in an alkaline soil of fine texture and well supplied with humus and the necessary plant foods4 ,the largest quantity of macaroni wheat is grown in east and south ,russia4 ,these wheats have given very good results in the semi-arid regions of the ,united ,states4 ,the appearance of the wheat as it grows in the field is shown in the accompanying plate4 ,the domestic macaroni is now made in many factories in the ,united ,states and there is a continually increasing demand for the domestic article4 ,the hardiest varieties of wheat are used in the manufacture of this article in the ,united ,states1 especially the hard ,kansas winter wheat4 ,composition of ,domestic ,macaroni4--,in the table below is given the mean composition of twenty samples of macaroni of domestic origin1 made from domestic wheat4 ,in the second column is given the mean composition of five samples of imported macaroni4 ,,domestic ,,foreign ,,product4 ,,product4 ,moisture1 #aj4bg #aj4cb ,fat or ether extract1 4#dj 4#ce ,crude fiber1 4#di 4#ec ,protein1 #aa4fa #ab4bg ,starch and sugar1 #gf4eb #gf4aj ,preparation of ,flour for ,macaroni4--,the term ,semolina or ,semola 7,italian7 or ,semoule 7,french7 is usually applied to the flour used in the manufacture of macaroni4 ,in the ,united ,states the flour which is used is obtained by selecting the hardest wheat and preparing the flour in the usual manner4 ,in ,france and ,italy the preparation of semolina is accomplished in separate mills4 ,the devices for grinding are essentially the same as those for producing the best grade flour1 the main difference being that the wheat is moistened slightly before grinding and the flour is less fine than ordinary baking flour4 ,evidently very slight changes in the method of milling would enable the ordinary mill to produce a fine grade of macaroni flour either from the macaroni wheat or from any very hard glutinous wheat grown in the ,united ,states4 ,manufacture of ,macaroni4--,as practiced in the best districts of ,italy1 macaroni is manufactured according to the following method3#bg #bg ,fairchild1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agr41 ,bureau of ,plant ,industry1 ,bulletin #be4 ,the durum wheat is ground into semola and sieved to remove the starchy part of the grains and leave the clear1 light amber1 or glutinous part4 ,three or four grades of quality are made1 and these depend on the size of the sieve meshes4 ,the semola is put into a special iron mixer1 shaped like an old-fashioned artillery mortar1 except that it is square instead of cylindrical1 and furnished in the bottom with special screw-shaped fans with which to stir the paste or dough4 ,boiling water is added to the semola and the dough is mixed for about seven minutes4 ,the mass is then put on a flat1 circular kneading board and kneaded by two sharp-edged parallel beams which rise and fall as the table turns and press into the dough as they descend4 ,a few minutes of kneading are sufficient and the homogeneous dough is then put into the cylinder and the piston descends upon the mass1 forcing it in strings slowly through the perforated plate at the bottom4 ,fifteen minutes are required to convert the gallons of dough into thousands of feet of yellow macaroni4 ,the yellow color is produced by the use of saffron or of a coal tar dye of which a very small quantity is put into each batch of dough4 ,this is a reprehensible practice4 ,as soon as the strings of fresh paste which issue continually from the die are of the proper length they are cut and thrown over a reed pole and carried into the sunlight1 if the weather is fair1 or into sheltered terraces1 protected by curtains from the rain1 if the weather is unfavorable4 ,on bright days the strings of macaroni are exposed to the sunlight only two hours4 ,they must be dried out only slightly before being cellared for the night in dungeon-like underground vaults similar to the ,bavarian beer cellars4 ,for twelve hours or more the poles of macaroni are kept in these damp places1 until the dough has become moist and pliable again and the strings have lost the brittleness that the exposure to the sunlight has given them4 ,from the cellars the poles are carried to shaded storehouses open on all sides to the air but not lighted from above4 ,here1 in great masses of millions of strings1 they hang for several days1 from eight to twenty being required1 depending upon the dryness of the atmosphere4 ,according to the statements of a manager of a factory this process of drying is necessary to give to the brittle paste a horn-like toughness and fit it to withstand the rough handling to which it will be subjected without breaking into small pieces4 ,in all this simple process the one point at which bacteria might have a chance to play a rle is in the first drying1 cellaring1 and subsequent slow drying in the shade4 ,the theory that the water is responsible for the flavor must rest1 it seems to the writer1 on other than bacterial grounds1 for from the appearance of the tank which supplied the hot water the inference is easy that the water is chalybeate1 for the tank was incrusted with iron4 ,,rolls4 ,the term rolls is given to bread usually leavened with yeast or baking powder1 and usually eaten warm1 or hot4 ,the term biscuit is generally but improperly used in this country for hot bread made with baking powder4 ,the composition of rolls varies greatly with their method of preparation4 ,those made with yeast have practically the same composition as ordinary fermented bread1 while those made with a baking powder or with exceptionally large additions of milk1 butter1 or lard vary in composition accordingly4 ,in the making of hot rolls with baking powder1 lard or butter is commonly used to a very large extent as 8shortening40 ,these fatty bodies render the gluten less tenacious1 and the roll is thus easily broken and is without toughness or elasticity4 ,owing to this irregular use of shortening and of mineral matter1 including salt1 the composition of rolls of commerce is extremely variable4 ,in eleven samples of rolls analyzed1 for instance1 the content of moisture varied from #g to #cd4 ,evidently the sample sold as a roll which contained only #g percent of moisture was in point of fact a biscuit and not a roll4 ,the percentage of ether extract in these samples varied from 4#dc to #g4ee4 ,the average composition of the eleven samples is as follows3 ,moisture1 #bg4ih percent ,protein1 #g4dh ,ether extract1 #c4da ,crude fiber1 4#fj ,ash1 #a4ca ,salt1 4#fi ,starch and sugar1 #ei4hb ,in the dry substance3 ,protein1 #aj4df percent ,ether extract1 #d4gd ,crude fiber1 4#gg ,ash1 #a4ha ,salt1 4#ha ,starch and sugar1 #hb4ii ,calories1 #d1ech ,,cakes4 ,wheat flour is one of the principal constituents of that class of sweetened bread known generally as cake4 ,the kind and character of cake vary so greatly that no general statement of any very great value can be made respecting the average composition4 ,in addition to the sugar and flour which are used in the manufacture of cake various flavoring ingredients or essences are employed1 and usually excessive quantities of butter or lard for shortening purposes4 ,in addition to this1 other forms of cake are cooked in oil after the dough is made1 thus adding an additional quantity of fatty matter to the material4 ,eggs are also a common constituent of cakes and these introduce into their composition additional quantities of protein and fat4 ,baking powder is very generally used in this country instead of yeast for the leavening of the cake and thus an additional quantity of mineral matter is introduced into their composition4 ,in the manufacture of sweetened cakes the flour is mixed with eggs and sugar and butter or lard to the proper consistency with or without the use of milk or cream4 ,the cakes are baked in all kinds of sizes and shapes and may be eaten plain or in layers separated by a jelly1 marmalade1 or some other preserve4 ,the exterior of the cake is often frosted with a mixture consisting of the white of egg beaten up with white sugar4 ,the methods of mixing the ingredients of these cakes as well as the method of frosting are so various that it would not be possible to undertake any minute description of them4 ,for flavoring various materials are employed1 either the real article or the imitation thereof1 such as artificial strawberry1 vanilla1 etc4 ,the cake or sweet cake is a very common dainty which is served at dessert4 ,the ordinary cane sugar of commerce is the common sweetening matter usually employed in the refined state although sometimes yellow sugar is used4 ,honey is not so commonly used as a sweetening agent in this country as it is in ,european countries4 ,in the manufacture of one of the common varieties known as ginger cake sugar-cane sirup or molasses is a common ingredient4 ,an examination of a large number of samples of cake shows the following average composition3 ,moisture1 #aa4fe percent ,protein1 #f4bi ,ether extract1 #i4ha ,crude fiber1 #j4ej ,ash1 #a4ag ,salt1 #j4ci ,sugar1 #bd4eg ,starch1 #df4ja ,in the dry substance3 ,protein1 #g4bi percent ,ether extract1 #aa4da ,crude fiber1 #j4eg ,ash1 #a4cj ,salt1 #j4dd ,sugar1 #bg4hd ,starch1 #ea4ei ,calories1 #d1hje ,a study of the individual data shows extremely wide variations from the mean4 ,the ether extract in the moisture samples in some cases amounted to over #ai percent and in the dry substance to over #bd percent4 ,the moisture in one case was over #fd percent while in the dry cake of biscuit character it sinks below #e percent and in one case below #d percent4 ,the average data1 therefore1 are to be considered only as a representative of this class of bodies and not as a type of any particular variety4 ,adulterations4--,it is difficult to speak of adulterations of a substance of the composition of cake4 ,any wholesome flavoring or sweetening ingredient or other wholesome ingredient may be used in the manufacture of a cake of this kind without being an adulterant4 ,from this class of bodies1 however1 there is excluded artificial colors and artificial flavoring essences bearing the name of genuine4 ,a yellow cake which does not owe its color to the eggs or other normal ingredients employed must be regarded as an adulterated article1 especially if the dye used in producing the yellow is one of the coal dyes or coal tar derivatives such as naphthol yellow4 ,the use of imitation fruit flavors such as the so-called strawberry1 blackberry1 raspberry1 vanilla1 etc41 is also to be regarded as an adulteration4 ,the adulteration of cakes may be regarded as confined particularly to these two classes of article assuming that all the other ingredients are wholesome and without injurious effects upon the digestion4 ,the eggs used in cake making should be fresh and palatable4 ,too often pass storage eggs and eggs broken and preserved with borax or formaldehyde and unfit for consumption have been used by the bakers of cakes4 ,mineral coloring matters have sometimes been found in cakes and these are more objectionable by far than the artificial colors above mentioned4 ,where molasses from sugar-cane factories is used in the manufacture of cake a considerable trace of chlorid of tin or of zinc salts may be found therein1 derived from the wash used in the centrifugal when drying sugar crystals or from the process of bleaching the molasses4 ,this must be regarded as a very serious adulteration and molasses of this kind should never be used in the manufacture of cake nor for edible purposes upon the table4 ,sulfurous acid may also be absorbed during the process of bleaching the sugar-cane juices4 ,it is needless to add that cake with its complex character should be eaten as a relish rather than a diet4 ,there is no hygienic or dietetic objection to the mixture of sugar with the flour in the making of ordinary sweetened bread4 ,such bread must be regarded as highly nutritious and as differing from ordinary bread only in a disturbance of the natural food content of the loaf caused by the addition of a carbohydrate to the bread4 ,many of the cakes which are sold contain so small a quantity of sugar that they ought not to be classed with the sweet cake4 ,out of the whole number of samples used in the making up of the above average only four contained so little sugar as to be ineligible to bear the name of sweet cake or sweetened bread4 ,breakfast ,foods4--,a very large variety of cereal preparations are on the market under the general name of breakfast foods4 ,these preparations are made directly from the cereals more or less completely ground by subjecting them to certain manipulations of a fermentative or culinary character by means of which the preparations are made ready for immediate consumption or at least with only a moderate degree of additional cooking4 ,the changes which take place in the preparation of cereals for breakfast foods are of two general characters1 namely1 those produced by fermentative action with malt1 yeast1 or other ferments1 and1 second1 changes produced by heating1 either in the moist or dry state4 ,often both sets of changes are produced in the same product4 ,the general difference1 therefore1 between a so-called breakfast food and the raw material from which it is made is found in the conversion of more or less starch into sugar and the change in the composition of the material produced by moist heat or dry heat4 ,in the latter case the temperature may be raised to the state of considerable caramelization4 ,breakfast foods may also contain added condimental substances1 such as salt1 sugar1 etc41 sometimes used in their preparation4 ,nearly all the cereals or mixtures of cereals are represented in these prepared foods4 ,oats probably occupy the first rank and the preparations of oatmeal have to a large extent in the ,united ,states taken the place of home-prepared oatmeal for the breakfast table4 ,wheat1 barley1 and ,indian corn are not far behind oats in their contributions to the numerous varieties of breakfast foods4 ,the particular methods of preparation are usually trade secrets and at any rate the description of the extensive technical processes would be improper in this manual4 ,the secrets1 however1 are merely methods of manipulation1 since it is certain that the changes of a chemical nature which take place are of the general character or class described above4 ,breakfast foods are usually sold under trade-mark names which may or may not give an indication of their origin or character4 ,sometimes1 in fact1 the trade name gives a false indication and the use of such trade names must be considered as entirely reprehensible4 ,whenever a name used is descriptive it should be used in a practical sense and not for the purpose of misleading or deceiving4 ,breakfast foods may represent practically the whole grain or the grain with a removal of a proportion of the outer covering or they may represent the refined flour from which all or a considerable proportion of the germ and some of the rich nitrogenous ingredients have been removed4 ,the attempt to give a list of the names which have been applied to breakfast foods would consume many pages and be of little value4 ,composition of ,breakfast ,foods4--,in so far as possible the breakfast foods noted in the following tables have been arranged in accordance with the raw material from which they have been produced and the data given represent the average composition of breakfast foods of the classes mentioned4 ,individual variations from the average are often very great4 ,class ,i4--,breakfast foods made from ,indian corn products4 ,class ,,ii4--,breakfast foods made from wheat products4 ,class ,,iii4--,breakfast foods made from oat products4 ,class ,,iv4--,breakfast foods made from starch and tapioca4 ,class ,v4--,breakfast foods made from noodles1 spaghetti1 and macaroni4 ,class ,,vi4--,breakfast foods made from barley4 ,class ,,vii4--,breakfast foods of miscellaneous origin1 that is consisting of those compounds of raw material not specified4 ,,composition ,,of ,,breakfast ,,foods4#bh ,,ether ,,mois- ,,pro- ,,ex- ,,ture4 ,,teids4 ,,tract4 ,,fiber4 ,,class ,i1 ,indian ,corn ,products3 ,perct4 ,perct4 ,perct4 ,perct4 ,in the original substance1 #ab4cc #g4ib #j4eh #j4fg ,in the dry substance1 44 #i4jb #j4ff #j4gf ,,class ,,ii1 ,wheat ,products3 ,in the original substance1 #aj4jh #ab4ja #a4hj #a4dh ,in the dry substance1 44 #ac4cf #b4ja #a4fe ,,class ,,iii1 ,oat ,products3 ,in the original substance1 #g4ff #ae4cb #g4df #a4bj ,in the dry substance1 44 #af4fj #h4jh #a4ch ,,class ,,iv1 ,starch and ,tapioca ,products3 ,in the original substance1 #aa4bi 4#ci 4#jc 4#ac ,in the dry substance1 44 4#dc 4#jd 4#ae ,,class ,v1 ,noodles1 ,spaghetti and ,macaroni3 ,in the original substance1 #i4ff #ab4jb 4#db 4#ef ,in the dry substance1 44 #ac4cc 4#dg 4#fb ,,class ,,vi1 ,barley ,products3 ,in the original substance1 #aj4ib #g4ej 4#hi 4#fg ,in the dry substance1 44 #h4db #a4jj 4#ge ,,class ,,vii1 ,miscellaneous ,products3 ,in the original substance1 #f4da #ab4ha #a4je 4#ii ,in the dry substance1 44 #ac4fh #a4ab #a4jd ,,starch ,,and ,,calories4 ,,ash4 ,,sugar4 ,per ,gram4 ,,class ,i1 ,indian ,corn ,products3 ,perct4 ,perct4 ,in the original substance1 #j4ff #gh4ea 44 ,in the dry substance1 #j4ge #ih4eg #dche ,,class ,,ii1 ,wheat ,products3 ,in the original substance1 #a4ee #ge4fb 44 ,in the dry substance1 #af4gc #hd4jh #ddfb ,,class ,,iii1 ,oat ,products3 ,in the original substance1 #a4gi #fg4fa 44 ,in the dry substance1 #a4id #gc4bj #dhge ,,class ,,iv1 ,starch and ,tapioca ,products3 ,in the original substance1 4#ad #hh4ae 44 ,in the dry substance1 4#af #ii4cg #daic ,,class ,v1 ,noodles1 ,spaghetti and ,macaroni3 ,in the original substance1 4#gh #gg4ab 44 ,in the dry substance1 4#hf #he4cd #ddbh ,,class ,,vi1 ,barley ,products3 ,in the original substance1 4#hf #hj4ce 44 ,in the dry substance1 4#ig #ij4ai #dcdd ,,class ,,vii1 ,miscellaneous ,products3 ,in the original substance1 #a4jf #gh4fh 44 ,in the dry substance1 #a4ac #hd4jg #dddi #bh ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agr41 ,bureau of ,chemistry1 ,bull4 #ac1 ,part ,,ix1 p4 #acde4 ,remarks on ,table of ,analyses4-- ,class ,i1 ,indian ,corn ,products4--,the analytical data show that in the breakfast foods made from ,indian corn products the germ has been quite uniformly removed4 ,the quantity of fiber also shows that the maize flour produced has been very carefully bolted4 ,the ash is almost normal1 showing only a small addition1 probably of salt4 ,the mean quantity of protein is that which would be predicted of an ,indian corn product ground by the most approved milling process in order to make as white a flour as possible4 ,these methods of preparing the flour1 although so common1 are not to be preferred either by reason of palatability or nutritive properties of the products4 ,the old-fashioned milling process makes a more palatable and more nutritious diet and affords a higher degree of heat and energy4 ,the analysis of the ,indian corn products show that they are very much lower in protein than would be expected from an analysis of the whole kernels4 ,the low content of fat in the products is doubtless due to the complete degermination of the grain during the milling and to the further fact that the baking and other preparation of the material tend to occlude the fat particles1 making their extraction quite difficult4 ,class ,,ii1 ,wheat ,products4--,the study of wheat products used as breakfast foods shows that the wheat germ is not removed to any very great extent during the preparation of the raw material4 ,in fact the quantity of ether extract appears somewhat greater than would be expected in pure wheat products1 and this leads to the supposition that oatmeal or ,indian corn must be mixed with the food product in small quantities1 since the ether extract in the case of wheat products is more than three times as great as in the case of ,indian corn products of a similar character4 ,this is an indication either of the use of mechanical methods as stated above or else to the admixture of other bodies without mention4 ,there does not appear to have been any notable quantity of mineral substance1 common salt or otherwise1 added during the process of preparation4 ,the quantity of protein in the product is that which would be predicted from the composition of wheat flour from which the samples are supposed to be made4 ,class ,,iii1 ,oat ,products4--,the oat products have evidently been made without any extensive degermination1 as is shown by the high content of fat or oil4 ,the average composition of oat products shows that genuine oatmeal is used in their preparation and the probability is that little adulteration is practiced4 ,the high content of oil and protein produces a corresponding depression in the quantity of carbohydrates4 ,the high nutritive value of the product1 both in respect of fat and of proteins1 is fully illustrated by the analytical data obtained4 ,the calories1 as will be noticed1 are very much higher than in the corresponding product from ,indian corn1 wheat1 or in fact of any other of the breakfast foods4 ,class ,,iv1 ,products made of starch and tapioca show1 in the analytical data1 that very high-grade starch materials are employed in the preparation of these bodies4 ,the protein1 ether extract1 fiber1 and ash almost disappear4 ,as shown in the data for the dry substance1 more than #ii percent of the whole material consists of carbohydrates1 chiefly starch4 ,the calories are correspondingly diminished since starch and sugar have the least heat value of any class of food products1 except those of a mineral character4 ,foods of this kind are highly unbalanced1 that is1 contain a large excess of starch and sugar1 and are often very prejudicial to the health of persons whose ability to digest starch and sugar has been lessened by disease4 ,class ,v1 ,noodles1 spaghetti1 and macaroni are often used as breakfast foods1 though not by any means so universally as many others in this category4 ,the analytical data show that these bodies correspond very well to the material1 that is to the flour1 rich in gluten1 from which they are supposed to be made4 ,the protein content is high1--the ether extract1 fiber1 and ash low1 and the calories correspond to the chemical composition of the material4 ,class ,,vi1 ,barley ,products4--,barley products are not very commonly used as breakfast foods1 but the malt used in the preparation of other breakfast foods is usually made of barley1 since the barley malt has the highest diastatic value of any of the cereals4 ,class ,,vii1 ,miscellaneous breakfast foods are so called because the character of the materials of which they are made is not known or no statement is made by the manufacturer or dealer concerning them4 ,the analytical data1 of course1 do not lead to any decision regarding the nature of the raw material employed4 ,the percentage of protein1 however1 taken in conjunction with the rather low ether extract1 indicates that they are probably made chiefly from wheat products4 ,much may be said in favor of the use of prepared breakfast foods1 for1 in so far as ,i know1 they are usually palatable1 wholesome1 and nutritious4 ,there are many points which may be urged against their general use1 chief of which is in regard to their cost4 ,there is no cereal now in general use for edible purposes which is worth as much as two cents per pound in the markets of this country1 yet breakfast foods1 which are only prepared cereals1 are often sold for #aj or #ae cents per pound4 ,this is a high price in comparison with the cost of the raw material1 but it must not be forgotten that the cost of manufacture is to be considered4 ,in the second place the cereal foods are undoubtedly best at the moment they are prepared4 ,unless carefully packed1 they may become infected with insects of various kinds1 which certainly add nothing to their value and detract very much from their desirability4 ,in moist climates they become infested with mould and even with bacterial growths4 ,inasmuch as necessarily a large proportion of the prepared cereals remain for an indefinite time unsold1 the consumer is liable at any time to come into possession of one of these deteriorated packages4 ,in the third place there is no reason to believe that a prepared breakfast food is any more digestible1 nutritious1 or favorable to the health of the healthy individual than the broken cereal itself properly cooked4 ,further than this it may be stated that there is no preparation of cereals better than those which are freshly made from the freshly broken or ground grain4 ,if1 therefore1 one has the time to properly prepare the fresh grains of the cereals they will be more palatable and more nutritious and equally as digestible as any of the prepared articles4 ,on the other hand1 there are cases of diseased or disordered digestion in which the prepared cereals will be more digestible1 but this is certainly not the case in a state of health4 ,there is reason to believe1 therefore1 that the demand for prepared cereals will continue1 but the old-fashioned method of preparation of the cereal from the grain will still have its advocates4 ,i think it may be said with certainty that the proper home preparation of a cereal as a breakfast food will not cost any more than the original cereal itself1 and hence the price of this food ought not to be much more than #d cents per pound without counting the added water in its preparation4 ,i believe1 therefore1 that our people of limited means can be safely advised on the score of economy1 palatability1 and nutrition to prepare their own cereals for ordinary breakfast purposes4 ,,part ,,vi4 ,,vegetables1 ,,condiments1 ,,fruits4 ,,succulent ,,vegetables4 ,the term vegetable as applied to food in the broadest sense of the word means that class which distinguishes it from animal food4 ,in a narrower sense1 however1 the term vegetable is used to denote a certain class of food which is of a succulent or juicy nature4 ,while cereals and fruits are vegetables in the broadest sense of the word they are not in the narrow and common meaning4 ,the term 8vegetable0 in this section therefore refers to those substances commonly known as vegetables upon the market and which are characterized by their high water content4 ,on account of this abundance of liquid or juice the term succulent is applied to them4 ,the common vegetables which are included in this class consist of lettuce1 spinach1 potatoes1 cauliflower1 beets1 radishes1 turnips1 cabbage1 green ,indian corn1 peas1 beans1 tomatoes1 yams1 etc4 ,these vegetables contain in a fresh state from #gj to #ie percent of water4 ,many of them can be kept for a length of time without deterioration1 especially the potato and beet1 and for a short time cabbage1 radishes1 etc41 if kept cool and moist4 ,other kinds of vegetables are not easily preserved for any length of lime except in cold storage1 such as lettuce1 peas1 beans1 tomatoes1 etc4 ,if the potato and other starchy tubers are kept out of account these vegetables do not have a very high nutritive value1 as will be seen by the analysis which follows4 ,they have1 however1 an important part in the ration because of their palatability and the effect which they have upon the general activity of the alimentary canal4 ,for instance1 there is very little nourishment obtained in eating a turnip which perhaps is #ie percent water1--yet its palatability1 its condimental character1 and its general salutary effect upon digestion is such as to make it worth while to pay even a high price in proportion to its nutriment4 ,for this reason1 as well as for their nutritive value1 the use of succulent vegetables is to be very highly commended4 ,in general1 as has been said1 these vegetables are eaten in a fresh state or after being kept for a considerable time in cold storage or otherwise4 ,the potato1 for instance1 can be kept by properly covering it in the earth or in bins through the winter4 ,cabbages are also kept in the same way and many other vegetables without apparent deterioration4 ,these vegetables are often desiccated1 and in this way can be kept for a much longer period4 ,unfortunately no method of desiccation has been developed which preserves entirely the palatability of the vegetable1 although its nutrient properties1 which are perhaps the least important of its properties in many respects1 are preserved to a certain extent by desiccation4 ,we may1 however1 leave out of consideration the desiccation of fresh vegetables4 ,certain of the vegetables above mentioned naturally become desiccated on maturity as in the case of peas and beans1 but then they are removed from the category of succulent vegetables4 ,green ,indian corn is also often dried1 but in this process its palatability is to a certain extent impaired even when it is prepared for cooking in such a way as to restore practically all of the water which has been lost4 ,succulent vegetables are eaten either in a raw state or after cooking4 ,for instance radishes and vegetables of this class are rarely cooked4 ,on the other hand1 potatoes1 peas1 and beans are always cooked and practically never eaten raw4 ,green ,indian corn is also universally cooked before eating4 ,there are other vegetables which are sometimes eaten raw and sometimes cooked1 as1 for instance1 the turnip1 while on the other hand the beet1 which is very sweet and naturally would be considered a suitable food for eating in a raw state1 is always cooked before it is consumed4 ,artichoke4--,this vegetable1 while not very extensively grown in the ,united ,states1 is cultivated to a very extensive degree in ,europe4 ,the tubers of the artichoke 7,cynara ,scolymus7 are essentially a carbohydrate food1 growing underground1 and thus belong1 in a measure1 to the same class as the potato1 the yam1 and the beet4 ,the carbohydrates which are present in artichokes do not contain very much starch4 ,in this respect they differ from the potato and the yam4 ,when the starch of the potato and yam is converted by fermentation or otherwise into sugar it forms chiefly dextrose or maltose4 ,on the other hand1 when the carbohydrates of artichokes are converted into sugar they form chiefly levulose4 ,the principal part of the carbohydrate is known as inulin or levulin4 ,the artichoke can be easily kept over a long period of time1 and may remain without much detriment in the ground1 where the winters are not severe1 from autumn until spring4 ,after harvesting it may be kept for some time without any very great loss in its food value4 ,in the following table are given the data showing the composition of the artichoke1 harvested in the autumn and also in the spring3 ,spring3 ,water1 #gi4jc percent ,inulin or levulin1 #ag4gf ,protein1 #a4bg ,ether extract1 4#ah ,ash1 4#ii ,fall3 ,water1 #gi4gj percent ,inulin or levulin1 #af4ic ,protein1 #a4dh ,ether extract1 4#ad ,ash1 #a4jh 7,behrend1 ,j4 fr ,landwirtschaft1 vol4 #eb1 p4 #acd1 #aijd47 ,the above data show that the artichoke1 like the potato1 is a food product poor in protein and in fat and rich in carbohydrate material4 ,in so far as known the carbohydrates of artichokes are equally as digestible and nutritious as those of other tubers4 ,asparagus4--,asparagus 7,asparagus officinalis ,l47--,french1 asperge2 ,german1 spargel2 ,italian1 sparagio2 ,spanish1 esparrago--is a highly prized vegetable and is a native of ,europe4 ,the edible asparagus is the young1 fresh1 undeveloped shoots taken at an early period of growth4 ,they are highly valued when stewed or for use as a salad4 ,there is a number of varieties of asparagus1 among which may be mentioned the ,giant ,dutch asparagus1 the common green asparagus1 white ,german asparagus1 etc4 ,these are different in kind only1 since they all belong to the same botanical species and the variations are produced chiefly by different methods of cultivation4 ,composition4-- ,water1 #ic4if percent ,ash1 4#fg ,protein1 #a4hc ,fiber1 4#gd ,sugar1 starch1 etc41 #b4ee ,fat1 4#be ,asparagus is composed chiefly of water1 which amounts1 in round numbers1 to #id percent of its entire weight4 ,its edible portion is rich in protein as compared with the beet and many other vegetables4 ,it is somewhat richer also in fat than the beet or the turnip4 ,its food value1 as will be seen1 is largely of a condimental character4 ,the ,bean4--,the bean belongs to the family ,fabace4 ,it is a native of ,america and has been cultivated from the earliest times4 ,there are many different varieties of the bean which are cultivated in this country4 ,they grow over the whole range of the ,united ,states4 ,there are early and late maturing varieties4 ,beans are used for food both in the fresh state1 while the pods are tender and can be eaten with the immature beans1 and also in the dry state1 in which condition they are a staple article of food4 ,there are many different varieties of beans which1 while not always botanically identical1 are sufficiently so to warrant the use of the common name4 ,two general classes1 however1 may be distinguished1 namely1 those that grow in small clusters or bunches and those that grow upon vines or tendrils which have to be supported4 ,in regard to the kinds of culture to which beans are subjected there may be mentioned field beans1 which are cultivated over a large area1 and garden beans1 which are cultivated in small gardens for the green markets4 ,kidney ,bean4--,the kidney bean1 or ,french bean1 is a special botanical variety 7,phaseolus vulgaris ,l474 ,it is what is known in ,french as haricot2 in ,german as ,bohne2 ,dutch1 ,boon2 ,italian1 faginolo2 ,spanish1 habichuela4 ,this variety of bean is commonly called a ,french bean and is a native of ,south ,america4 ,it does not seem to have been known before the discovery of the ,american continent and hence is not thought to have grown wild in any other part of the world4 ,the kidney bean is not very well suited to very high northern latitudes1 since it is particularly sensitive to the cold1 even if the temperature is not low enough to produce frost4 ,the kidney bean is cultivated over large areas and is also a garden crop4 ,there are early and late varieties1 so that the season for the kidney bean is a long one4 ,the pods of this bean are distinguished by being long and slender1 and it is particularly valuable for edible purposes while green and is also prized for canning4 ,this is true1 especially1 of that variety which has a tender pod4 ,there is another variety of bean in which the pod is tough1 and this1 of course1 is not so well suited for eating green1 although when very young1 even the tough-podded bean can be used4 ,there are a great many different varieties of kidney beans known1 one of which is called the 8dwarf kidney bean0 on account of its growing only on low bushes and needing no support for the vines4 ,in this variety the pods hang in thick clusters1 the lower ends often touching the ground4 ,butter ,beans4--,there is another large class of beans known as butter beans4 ,this variety is also known as ,geneva1 or plainpalais1 or wax bean4 ,lima ,beans4--,the ,lima bean is also a different botanical species known as ,phaseolus lunatus ,l4 ,it is nearly related to the kidney bean1 being also a native of ,south ,america4 ,the vine is a very long one1 often reaching more than #aj feet if a proper support be offered it4 ,the common ,lima bean is one which matures rather late in the season1 but it is most highly valued for its product1 which is eaten shelled4 ,there are smaller varieties of this bean known as the dwarf ,lima or small ,lima4 ,the total number of varieties of beans which are known and cultivated is1 perhaps1 more than #ajj1 but they belong in general to the large classes specified4 ,average ,composition of ,green1 ,string1 and ,lima ,beans4-- ,lima beans3 ,water1 #fh4df percent ,ash1 #a4fi ,protein1 #g4ae ,crude fiber1 #a4ga ,carbohydrates1 #bj4cj ,fat1 4#fi ,string beans3 ,water1 #hg4bc percent ,ash1 4#gf ,protein1 #b4bj ,crude fiber1 #a4ib ,carbohydrates1 #g4eb ,fat1 4#cg ,the above data are for green ,lima beans with the pod removed and for string beans including the pod4 ,the latter1 it is seen1 are composed largely of water1 containing less than #ac percent of dry matter4 ,of the dry matter almost #bj percent is protein4 ,the soluble carbohydrates1 including the starch and sugar1 are the most important of the ingredients of the dry substance in so far as actual weight is concerned4 ,in the ,lima bean the protein is more than three times as great as in the string bean1 and the starch and sugar almost three times as much4 ,as a nutrient1 therefore1 the ,lima beans are far more valuable than the string beans4 ,these data may be taken as representative of all varieties of green beans1 hulled and unhulled1 the ,lima beans being types of hulled beans and the string variety being the type of beans including the pod4 ,composition of the ,dry ,bean4-- ,water1 #ae4hf percent4 ,ash1 #c4ec ,protein1 #bj4eg ,fiber1 #c4hf ,sugar1 starch1 etc41 #ee4di ,fat1 4#fi ,the analyses show that the dry bean is much richer in protein than the cereals4 ,beets4--,all the varieties of edible beets belong to the common species ,beta vulgaris ,l4 ,french1 betterave2 ,german1 ,salat-,rbe2 ,dutch1 ,betwortel2 ,italian1 barbabietola2 ,spanish1 remolacha4 ,the most important of these beets1 economically1 is the variety which has been cultivated for the purpose of producing sugar4 ,by long years of selection and improvement the sugar content of the natural beet1 which is not more than from four to six percent1 has been brought up to an average of about #ad percent1 often reaching much larger quantities4 ,the sugar beet itself1 in its earlier stages1 makes an excellent vegetable for the table1 being particularly sweet and palatable4 ,its tannin content1 however1 is very high1 and before cooking1 especially1 it has quite a bitter taste1 at times4 ,this disappears in the young beets when they are cooked4 ,the sugar beet has a perfectly white flesh1 inasmuch as the attempt was made in the early period of cultivation to develop a beet without color in order to produce a white sugar with as little trouble as possible4 ,on the other hand the garden beet is usually highly colored1 the red beet being especially prized4 ,the number of varieties of beets in cultivation is very great4 ,among the most important may be mentioned the long blood-red beet1 which is the common garden beet1 the rough-skinned red beet1 the pear-shaped beet1 the turnip-shaped beet1 all of which are of the red color4 ,there is also cultivated for eating purposes a beet with yellow flesh1 though it is not by any means so common as the red garden beet4 ,composition of the ,beet4--,the following data represents the average composition of the red beet used as a vegetable3 ,water1 #hh4dg percent ,ash1 #a4jd ,protein1 #a4ec ,fiber1 4#hh ,sugar1 starch1 etc41 #g4id ,fat1 4#ad ,the above data show that the average garden beet has a little less than #ab percent of solid matter and a little more than #hh percent of water4 ,it is rather poor in protein1 though it is not a vegetable which can be classed as being excessively deficient in nitrogenous constituents4 ,its chief food value1 however1 is in the sugar which it contains1 which is more than #g percent4 ,it is quite deficient in fat4 ,brussels ,sprouts4--,brussels sprouts is a variety of cabbage which is grown over large areas in different countries and has a deservedly high reputation on the table4 ,the ,french name is chou de ,bruxelles2 ,german1 ,brsseler ,sprossen-,kohl2 ,italian1 cavolo a germoglio2 ,spanish1 bretones de ,bruselas4 ,the composition of ,brussels sprouts is practically the same as that of cabbage4 ,cabbage4--,the botanical name of the cabbage is ,brassica oleracea ,l4 and it belongs to the family ,brassicace4 ,it is a plant which is indigenous to both ,europe and ,asia1 and still grows wild in some parts of the ,european continent4 ,it is eaten both raw1 in the form of salad1 slaw1 etc41 and cooked in various methods4 ,it is also subjected to a fermentation1 producing the highly prized dish known as sauer-kraut4 ,its ,french name is chou cabus2 ,german1 ,kopfkohl2 ,italian1 cavolo cappuccio2 ,spanish1 col repollo4 ,the cabbage is a plant which1 as it approaches maturity1 has its leaves folded upon each other in a solid mass1 producing the head4 ,these leaves naturally become bleached and are extremely crisp and tender4 ,the external1 free leaves are not prized as a food4 ,the varieties of the cabbage are almost legion and are produced by different methods of cultivation4 ,composition4-- ,water1 #ij4eb percent ,ash1 #a4dj ,protein1 #b4ci ,fiber1 #a4dg ,starch1 sugar1 etc41 #c4he ,fat1 4#cg ,the above data show that cabbage is composed chiefly of water1 amounting to as much as #ia percent of its weight4 ,its principal food constituents are starch1 sugar1 and digestible fiber4 ,its most valuable food constituent is most probably the protein1 of which it contains a large proportionate quantity4 ,in all its forms cabbage is a wholesome1 if not very nutritious1 dish4 ,carrot4--,the botanical name of the carrot is ,daucus carota ,l4 ,french1 carotte2 ,german1 ,mohre2 ,italian1 carota2 ,spanish1 zanahoria4 ,this plant is indigenous to ,europe4 ,the carrot is naturally a biennial plant1 though it is often produced in a single season1 and especial efforts are made to produce quick-growing carrots4 ,this vegetable is much more common in ,europe than in the ,united ,states1 and when grown here at all it is used chiefly in soups and often for cattle food4 ,there is a large number of varieties of carrots1 but practically all belong to the same botanical species4 ,the flesh is often of a yellow tint1 though blood-red carrots are grown and highly prized4 ,composition4-- ,water1 #hh4ei percent ,ash1 #a4jb ,protein1 #a4ad ,fiber1 #a4bg ,starch1 sugar1 etc41 #g4ef ,fat1 4#db ,it is seen from the above data that the carrot has almost exactly the composition of the garden beet4 ,its principal food value is in the sugar and other carbohydrates which it contains4 ,it also has a notable proportion of protein and has almost #ab percent of solid matter4 ,cauliflower4--,cauliflower is a variety of cabbage the edible portion of which is the extraordinarily modified and thickened flower cluster4 ,it is more tender and delicate in its structure than the common cabbage4 ,the ,french name is choufleur2 ,german1 ,blumenkohl2 ,italian1 cavolfiore2 ,spanish1 coliflor4 ,it is highly prized when prepared for the table with a sauce4 ,it is a dish which is much more common in ,europe than in this country1 where it is not appreciated as it should be4 ,there is a large number of varieties produced1 chiefly by the different methods of cultivation and the effect of environment in which they are grown4 ,composition4-- ,water1 #ij4hb percent ,ash1 4#ha ,protein1 #a4fb ,fiber1 #a4jb ,sugar1 starch1 etc41 #d4id ,fat1 4#gi ,the cauliflower is very close to the cabbage in composition1 having1 however1 a slightly larger proportion of digestible carbohydrates and a much larger proportion of fat4 ,its dietetic value1 however1 is not notably different from that of the cabbage4 ,celery4--,one of the most important vegetables upon the table in this country is celery4 ,the botanical name of celery is ,apium graveolens ,l4 ,the ,french name is celeri2 ,german1 ,sellerie2 ,italian1 sedano2 ,spanish1 apio4 ,celery is indigenous to ,europe4 ,it is eaten in its young state1 and is most valued when the stalks are bleached4 ,this is accomplished by hilling up the earth around them or protecting them from the light by boards or otherwise4 ,kept in the dark in this way the green color fades and the stalks becomes more crisp and brittle4 ,there is a number of varieties of celery1 and these are chiefly due to the different methods of cultivation4 ,celery is not only eaten raw but also stewed and is a common constituent of soup4 ,celery seeds are supposed to have not only a condimental but a medicinal value4 ,chicory4--,the botanical name of chicory is ,cichorium intybus ,l4 ,in ,french it is called chicore sauvage2 ,german1 wilde or bittere ,chichorie2 ,italian1 cicoria selvatica2 ,spanish1 achicoria amarga o agreste4 ,the wild chicory is used chiefly1 even in its cultivated state1 for salad purposes1 the roots not being of any value on account of their smallness4 ,the chicory1 however1 develops under cultivation a large root like the carrot or turnip1 and this variety of chicory is used chiefly on account of the roots1 which1 when they are roasted properly1 are highly prized as a substitute for coffee4 ,the common wild chicory has been used from time immemorial as a salad4 ,the leaves have rather a bitter taste and are more highly prized for salad purposes when mixed with lettuce or other leaves which have a less pronounced flavor4 ,the variety of chicory of which the roots are used as a substitute for coffee is known as 8,brunswick chicory10 or ,magdeburg large-rooted chicory4 ,composition of the ,root4-- ,water1 #gi4bj percent ,ash1 #a4aa ,sugars1 4#fj ,inulin1 #ad4jj ,fiber1 #a4bi ,protein and undetermined1 #c4ej ,starch does not appear to be among the carbohydrates in chicory but inulin takes its place4 ,in this respect chicory resembles the artichoke in its composition4 ,roasted ,chicory4--,when chicory is used as a substitute for coffee or as a substance added to coffee it is roasted1 and its composition is thus materially changed1 as is represented by the following data3 ,moisture1 #ac4c percent ,ash1 #e4i ,sugar1 #ab4d ,inulin1 #d4c ,fiber1 #f4i ,caramel and undetermined1 #eg4b ,from the data of the above analysis the inulin does not appear to have been very largely converted into levulose by roasting1 but rather into the insoluble carbohydrate matter4 ,whether or not1 therefore1 the inulin exists in the large proportion given in the analysis of the fresh chicory is a matter of some doubt4 ,cranberry4--,the cranberry is grown extensively in the swampy grounds of the northern part of the ,united ,states1 especially in ,new ,england1 ,new ,jersey1 and ,wisconsin4 ,it is a red1 hard berry1 not at all pleasant to the taste in its fresh state1 very acid1 but greatly valued during the autumn and winter months when stewed with sugar and served as a sauce1 especially with turkey4 ,its chief use1 in fact1 is to eat with turkey or chicken4 ,the cranberry is a fruit which contains naturally a small quantity of benzoic acid4 ,composition4-- ,water1 #hf4aj percent ,solids1 #ac4ij ,soluble solids1 #h4dc ,acidity1 #a4ih 7,measured as grams of sulfuric acid per #ajj grams of material47 ,cress4--,the botanical name of cress is ,lepidium sativum ,l4 ,french1 cresson alenois2 ,german1 ,garten-,kresse2 ,italian1 agretto2 ,spanish1 mastuerzo4 ,it is a plant which is indigenous to ,persia4 ,it grows in this country in moist gardens and particularly in the warmer parts of the country4 ,the real water cress belongs to a different species1 its botanical name being ,rorippa nasturtium4 ,it grows only in water1 in which it differs from the preceding variety4 ,it is highly prized as an aromatic flavoring material and for table use4 ,there are very many varieties in cultivation4 ,cucumbers4--,the botanical name of cucumber is ,cucumis sativus ,l4 ,french1 concombre2 ,german1 ,gurke2 ,italian1 cetriulo2 ,spanish1 cohombro4 ,the cucumber is indigenous to ,east ,india1 but is now cultivated in all countries4 ,it is a plant which develops vines which often run to great distances4 ,the cucumber is used almost exclusively in its green state1 and the very young cucumbers are most highly prized for making pickles1 though all sizes are used for that purpose1 from the very smallest to the giant variety4 ,the number of varieties cultivated is extremely great4 ,the variety known as the gherkin is highly prized for pickling4 ,composition of the ,cucumber4-- ,water1 #ie4ii percent ,ash1 4#df ,protein1 4#ha ,fiber1 4#fi ,starch1 sugar1 etc41 #a4hc ,fat1 4#bb ,the above data show that the cucumber is not much more than solid water1 there being just enough of other material to give it a flavor and consistence4 ,egg ,plant4--,another vegetable which is highly prized for the table is the egg plant1 ,solanum melongena ,l4 ,french1 aubergine2 ,german1 ,eierpflanze2 ,italian1 petronciano2 ,spanish1 berengena4 ,the egg plant is indigenous to ,india4 ,its name is derived from the shape of some of its varieties1 though many of them have ceased to resemble the egg in appearance4 ,there is a large number of varieties1 but the one which is known as the white egg plant looks more like an egg both in shape and color than most of the others4 ,composition4-- ,water1 #ib4ic percent ,ash1 4#ej ,protein1 #a4ae ,fiber1 4#gg ,starch1 sugar1 etc41 #d4cd ,fat1 4#ca ,the egg plant is a highly succulent vegetable containing only a little more than #g percent of solid matter1 and this is chiefly sugar1 starch1 and other digestible carbohydrates4 ,garlic4--,the botanical name of garlic is ,allium sativum ,l4 ,french1 ail ordinaire2 ,german1 ,gewhnlicher ,knoblauch2 ,italian1 aglio2 ,spanish1 ajo vulgar4 ,this highly prized aromatic vegetable is indigenous to southern ,europe4 ,it is a perennial plant1 and the edible bulbous portion grows chiefly underground4 ,this part is used for spicing food4 ,it is eaten in large quantities by the ,latin nations of southern ,europe1 and is employed throughout the world as a seasoning or flavoring for many dishes4 ,when eaten in excess it makes the breath extremely disagreeable1 as can be witnessed by all who have traveled in the ,latin countries of ,europe and even among the ,south ,germans4 ,garlic is not eaten to any extent by our native citizens1 but is used by our first-class cooks extensively as a seasoning4 ,a little of it is known to go a great way4 ,its composition is very much like that of the onion4 ,a wild garlic grows in the ,united ,states over wide areas4 ,it is often eaten by cows1 and it imparts to the milk a very disagreeable flavor and smell4 ,gourds4--,gourds themselves are not very much used for edible purposes1 but the varieties which include all the species of pumpkin and squash belong to the important vegetable foods in the ,united ,states4 ,the most important member of this family is the pumpkin1 ,cucurbita pepo ,l41 which grows often to an enormous size and has a beautiful yellow color4 ,the ,french name for the pumpkin is potirons2 ,german1 ,melonen oder ,centner ,kurbiss2 ,italian1 zucca2 ,spanish1 calabaza totanera4 ,the pumpkin of ,california1 especially1 is noted for its gigantic proportions4 ,the pumpkin is used very extensively in ,new ,england1 as well as other parts of the country1 for making pies1 and is also used as a sauce4 ,the pumpkin is not eaten raw4 ,as a cattle food it is highly prized in all parts of the country1 and when fed to milch cows it imparts to the butter1 even in the winter1 a delicate amber tint4 ,composition of the ,flesh of the ,pumpkin4-- ,water1 #ic4ci percent ,ash1 4#fg ,protein1 4#ia ,fiber1 4#ih ,sugar1 starch1 etc41 #c4ic ,fat1 4#ab ,it is seen that the flesh of the pumpkin is essentially a watery food1 the chief ingredient of the solid matter being sugar4 ,its value1 therefore1 as a food is more condimental than nutritive4 ,horse-radish4--,the botanical name of horse-radish is ,cochlearia armoracia ,l4 ,french1 raifort sauvage2 ,german1 ,meerettig2 ,italian1 rafano2 ,spanish1 taramago4 ,the horse-radish is prized as one of the principal condimental vegetable substances in common use in the ,united ,states4 ,it is particularly used with oysters and other foods of similar character and as a sauce or spice in a salad4 ,it is indigenous to ,europe1 but is now cultivated everywhere4 ,there are many varieties1 but they are all characterized by a sharp1 pungent taste and odor4 ,adulteration of ,horse-radish4--,other vegetable substances1 as1 for instance1 the more highly spiced aromatic turnips1 are often substituted for horse-radish4 ,jerusalem ,artichoke4--,this is a plant of the aster family 7,helianthus tuberosus ,l47 producing a heavy ovoid head the fleshy parts of which1 including the base to which they are attached1 are highly valued as food1 being usually eaten with a sauce4 ,this plant is more largely cultivated in ,france and other ,european countries than in the ,united ,states4 ,kale4--,kale is a variety of cabbage which is somewhat different botanically from the common cabbage4 ,this form of cabbage does not make a firm head1 but grows only with free leaves4 ,it is especially adapted for use in much the same manner as the common substance known by the housewife as greens4 ,it is a hardy plant and grows well even in cold climates4 ,there are a great many varieties of kale1 and the composition is practically that of the cabbage4 ,leek4--,the leek is of the same variety of plant as the garlic4 ,its botanical name is ,allium porrum ,l4 ,french1 poireau2 ,german1 ,lauch2 ,italian1 porro2 ,spanish1 puerro4 ,the leek is thought to be indigenous to ,switzerland1 though this is not quite certain4 ,it is closely related to the garlic and onion and is valued for the same purposes1 namely1 its highly aromatic condimental character4 ,lettuce4--,among the most valued of the succulent vegetables is the lettuce4 ,its botanical name is ,lactuca sativa ,l4 ,french1 laitue cultive2 ,german1 ,lattich2 ,italian1 lattuga2 ,spanish1 lechuga4 ,lettuce is thought to be indigenous to ,india or ,central ,asia4 ,it has been cultivated1 however1 for so long that its origin is a matter of doubt4 ,there is a legion of varieties of lettuce1 but they all have essentially the same characteristics and have little food value4 ,lettuce is now found practically throughout the whole year in all civilized countries1 being grown under glass in winter so as to furnish a continuous supply for the markets throughout the year4 ,it is used chiefly as salad1 and among the varieties which are most highly prized for this purpose are the cabbage lettuce and the variety known as ,romaine4 ,the ,romaine is distinguished from the common lettuce by the shape of the leaves1 which are much longer and narrower than those of ordinary lettuce4 ,the ,romaine lettuce is more highly prized by most connoisseurs as being more tender and brittle than the first variety4 ,composition4-- ,water1 #ic4fh percent ,ash1 #a4fa ,protein1 #a4da ,fiber1 4#gd ,sugar1 starch1 etc41 #b4ah ,fat1 4#ch ,the data show that lettuce is a highly succulent vegetable4 ,its chief food constituents are protein and sugar4 ,its real value as a food is not shown by chemical analysis because it consists in a delicate1 aromatic flavor which is not revealed by the crucible4 ,melons4--,there are two kinds of melons eaten in the ,united ,states1--the first the watermelon1 and the second the cantaloupe or muskmelon4 ,in ,europe the principal melon which is used is one having deep yellow flesh resembling the color of a pumpkin and known as the ,french melon4 ,the botanical name is ,cucumis melo ,l4 ,french1 melon2 ,german1 ,melone2 ,italian1 popone2 ,spanish1 melon4 ,the ,french melon is indigenous to ,asia1 but only the cultivated varieties are known now4 ,the flesh is very sweet and is1 as has already been said1 usually of a deep yellow color1 though there are many different varieties4 ,cantaloupe4--,this is a general name given to the melons of the ,french type or varieties thereof growing in the ,united ,states4 ,it is supposed to have had its origin in ,italy1 though its history is so old as not to be certain4 ,the cantaloupe is of various sizes and shapes and various degrees of sweetness4 ,in the ,united ,states the variety grown at ,rocky ,ford1 ,colorado1 is noted for its sweetness and general palatability4 ,for this reason many melons not grown at ,rocky ,ford are improperly sold under that name4 ,there are a great many varieties of cantaloupes4 ,generally the flesh of the cantaloupe is green instead of yellow4 ,the cantaloupe is often called muskmelon4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,juice ,,of ,,muskmelons4 ,,from ,,rind ,,of ,,melon4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,series ,,nitro- ,,reducing ,,no4 ,,brix4 ,,gen4 ,,ash4 ,,sucrose4 ,,sugar4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,percent4,percent4,percent4,percent4 #die1 #aa4e 4#ajf #a4bc #c4ii #c4ig #eed1 #h4d 4#jah #j4ff #b4dg #c4fb #ehg1 #e4j 4#jec #j4dg #b4be #b4hd #fac1 #aj4c 4#aef #j4ic #b4gg #c4fd ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ,average1 #h4h 4#jhc #j4hb #b4hg #c4eb ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,juice ,,of ,,edible ,,portion ,,of ,,melon4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,series ,,nitro- ,,reducing ,,no4 ,,brix4 ,,gen4 ,,ash4 ,,sucrose4 ,,sugar4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,percent4,percent4,percent4,percent4 #die1 #ab4i 4#acj #a4bj #f4fj #b4hh #eed1 #h4b 4#jfi #j4hg #d4if #b4dg #ehg1 #e4h 4#jdc #j4ej #b4bf #b4eg #fbc1 #aa4e 4#acd #j4ie #e4ai #b4be ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ,average1 #i4f 4#jid #j4hh #d4ge #b4ed ---------------------------------------- ----- ,watermelons4--,this is an entirely different variety from the ,french melon or cantaloupe4 ,its botanical name is ,citrullus citrullus ,l4 ,french1 melon d'eau2 ,german1 ,wasser-,melone2 ,italian1 cocomero1 ,spanish1 sandia4 ,the watermelon is said to be indigenous to ,africa4 ,it is grown extensively in the ,united ,states1 especially in the southern part4 ,it is a field crop of considerable importance1 especially in the state of ,georgia4 ,the watermelon grows best on a sandy soil1 though it requires it to be well fertilized4 ,the vines1 when they reach their full growth1 cover the entire field4 ,the melons often grow to a very large size1--specimens weighing from #ej to #fj pounds being not unusual4 ,the average size1 however1 is much less than that4 ,the ,georgia melon is somewhat oval in shape1 reaching generally from a foot to eighteen inches in length and from a foot to fifteen inches in diameter4 ,the flesh is generally red and the seeds usually black4 ,the watermelon is in the market from early summer until the late autumn4 ,it bears shipping quite well1 and is sent usually in box cars without crating1 and1 if kept at a low temperature1 will remain palatable for many days or even weeks4 ,the fresh ripe melon1 however1 is far superior in quality to any that are harvested partly green and kept for a long time4 ,about forty or fifty varieties of watermelons grow in the ,united ,states4 ,composition of ,melons4--,the following data show the composition of the flesh of the muskmelon and the watermelon3 ,muskmelon3 ,water1 #hi4ej percent ,ash1 4#fj ,protein1 4#fj ,fiber1 4#ib ,starch1 sugar1 etc41 #h4bj ,fat1 4#ah ,watermelon3 ,water1 #ia4hg percent ,ash1 4#cc ,protein1 4#dj ,fiber1 4#ee ,starch1 sugar1 etc41 #f4fe ,fat1 4#bj ,the above data show that the edible portion of the muskmelon contains more nutrient matter than that of the watermelon1 the difference being chiefly in the content of water and carbohydrates4 ,okra4--,the ,french name for okra is gombo2 ,italian1 ibisco2 ,spanish1 gombo4 ,okra is a vegetable grown very largely in the ,united ,states and especially valued for use in soup making4 ,for this purpose the young seed-vessels are employed4 ,the seed pods of the okra are long1 tapering1 and rigid by reason of quite sharp angles4 ,the okra is often known as gombo or gumbo4 ,composition4-- ,water1 #hg4da percent ,ash1 4#gd ,protein1 #a4ii ,fiber1 #c4db ,starch1 sugar1 etc41 #f4jd ,fat1 4#dj ,onion4--,the botanical name of the onion is ,allium cepa ,l4 ,the ,french name is ognon2 ,german1 ,zwiebel2 ,italian1 cipolla2 ,spanish1 cebolla4 ,the onion is a plant which is valued for edible purposes throughout the whole world4 ,it is supposed to have been indigenous to ,asia1 but its exact origin is not known with certainty4 ,both the pulp and the part of the stem immediately attached thereto are edible4 ,in fact in very young plants the whole plant is edible4 ,its highly aromatic character and flavor rather than its nutritive qualities give it its chief value4 ,the onion is eaten both raw and in various cooked forms4 ,cooking the onion1 especially boiling1 expels a large part of its most pungent character1 so that the cooked onion does not manifest itself so unpleasantly in the breath when eaten as is the case with the raw onion4 ,the onion is also very commonly eaten in this country fried1 especially with beefsteak4 ,the variety of onions cultivated is legion1 but they are due rather to different methods of cultivation1 etc41 than to botanical character4 ,composition4-- ,water1 #hg4ee percent ,ash1 4#eg ,protein1 #a4dj ,fiber1 4#fi ,sugar1 starch1 etc41 #i4ec ,fat1 4#bf ,the onion1 it is seen1 is rather poor in protein but rich in sugar and allied bodies4 ,parsnips4--,the botanical name of the parsnip is ,pastinaca sativa ,l4 ,french1 panais2 ,german1 ,pastinake2 ,italian1 pastinaca2 ,spanish1 chirivia4 ,the parsnip is nearly related to the carrot in its appearance and also its properties4 ,the root is usually long and straight and gradually tapering4 ,it1 however1 often has other shapes1 as is the case with the carrot and beet4 ,composition4-- ,water1 #hj4cd percent ,ash1 #a4jc ,protein1 #a4ce ,fiber1 4#ec ,sugar1 starch1 etc41 #af4ji ,fat1 4#ff ,the above data show that the parsnip is not much richer in nutrients than most of the roots grown1 except in sugar and starch content4 ,the large quantity of carbohydrates gives it its chief food value4 ,these carbohydrates are not by any means all sugar and starch1 but include a very considerable proportion of cellulose which is more or less digestible4 ,peas4--,the botanical name of the pea plant is ,pisum sativum ,l4 ,french pois2 ,german1 ,erbse2 ,italian1 pisello2 ,spanish1 guisante4 ,the pea is quite as highly valued for table use as the bean1 and1 perhaps1 is almost as extensively cultivated4 ,the pea1 however1 is not usually eaten in the pod4 ,it is probably indigenous to ,central ,europe1 but has been so long cultivated that an exact history of its original distribution is not known4 ,there are many different varieties of the pea1 but the one most highly prized is a small and very sweet pea4 ,the larger variety does not have the palatability and other highly prized edible qualities that distinguish the smaller variety4 ,the pea is found in the markets of the ,united ,states throughout the whole year1 being grown under cover in the winter time4 ,it becomes an abundant crop from early in the spring until very late in the autumn4 ,immense quantities of peas are preserved by canning1 and in this condition they retain their edible properties almost without impairment throughout the entire winter4 ,the pea is valued as a food in many forms4 ,composition4-- ,,starch1 ,,sugar1 ,,water4 ,,ash4 ,,protein4 ,,fiber4 ,,etc4 ,,fat4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,green pea1 #gi4ic 4#gh #c4hg #a4fc #ac4cj 4#di ,dry pea1 #ab4fb #c4aa #bg4jd #c4ij #ea4ge #a4eh ,the above data show that the pea is a markedly nitrogenous food1 especially the dry pea4 ,even in the green pea nearly four percent of its weight is protein4 ,a comparison of the composition of the pea with that of the bean shows that the pea is even more nitrogenous in character than the bean4 ,potatoes4--,one of the most important vegetables as well as food products in general is that class of products to which the term potato is given4 ,the term strictly should apply only to that class known as white or ,irish potato 7,solanum tuberosum ,l474 ,the potato1 as indicated by the name1 belongs to a family of plants which is considered poisonous1 but in the cultivated variety the poisonous principle has been practically eliminated4 ,the potato belongs1 essentially1 to the starchy group of foods4 ,if we assume1 which is very nearly correct1 that the average content of water in different varieties of potatoes at the time they are most suitable for edible purposes is #hj percent1 it is found that at least three-fourths of the remaining solid dry matter is starch4 ,the potato contains a trace of sugar and notable quantities of other carbohydrates than starch and sugar1 namely1 fiber4 ,it also contains a very small proportion of nitrogen and mineral matter4 ,the potato is grown chiefly in temperate climates4 ,it flourishes particularly well in the northern part of ,europe1 in ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland1 and in the northern portion of the ,united ,states4 ,the northern part of ,maine1 especially1 is noted for the production of potatoes of high edible qualities4 ,it grows very well also in the southern part of the ,united ,states4 ,the potato may be produced from seed1 but that method of propagation has long since ceased to be practiced for agricultural purposes4 ,the potatoes of commerce are produced from the eyes of the tubers4 ,the best results in the growth of potatoes are secured in the loose somewhat sandy soil into which the roots of the plant can easily penetrate and which gives way readily to make place for the growing tuber4 ,hard1 clay soils are unsuited to the growth of this vegetable4 ,the planting is accomplished in the early spring after a thorough preparation of the seed bed by plowing to the usual depth1 often subsoiling and reducing the surface of the soil to the proper tilth4 ,the cuttings of potatoes or the whole potatoes are planted in rows to a depth of two or three inches1 where they may sprout and even reach the surface at a temperature which at times may fall below the frost point on the surface of the soil4 ,the leaf of the potato1 when it has once appeared above the surface of the soil1 is very susceptible to the action of frost4 ,if killed at an early stage it may grow again without replanting4 ,the potato is a crop which the farmer may plant early in the spring4 ,there are other varieties which are planted later1 even in the middle of summer1 and produce good results4 ,the planting season may continue over a period of two or three months4 ,during the growth of the crop by the cultivation of the soil the surface is kept in good tilth1 the weeds and grass prevented from growing1 and the soil gradually drawn up around the growing tubers with the hoe or plow in the form of ridges4 ,this heaping up of the soil tends to promote the development of the tubers1 affording them a loose and more abundant bedding and a greater supply of plant food4 ,the greatest enemies to which the potato crop is obnoxious are found in the various forms of the potato bug 7,doryphora decemlineata71 which feed upon their leaves4 ,to prevent the ravages of these insects it becomes necessary to dust over the leaves of the growing plants some powerful insecticide which will destroy the life of the insects feeding upon them4 ,the active ingredient of these insecticides is usually arsenic4 ,fortunately the growing tuber does not absorb1 so far as known1 even traces of arsenic1 or at least not more than the merest trace1 which may be used for insecticidal purposes4 ,it is quite impossible in most localities to secure a crop of potatoes without such treatment4 ,the alternative is a constant inspection of the growing plant and the removal and killing of the bugs as they appear1 but this is only practicable over very small areas as its general application would increase the cost of the product beyond the reach of the average consumer4 ,yield4--,potatoes are produced in every state and territory of the ,united ,states4 ,the statistics for the year ended ,december #ca1 #aije1 show that the total area devoted to potatoes in the ,united ,states is #b1iif1geg acres4 ,the largest area in any one ,state is found in ,new ,york1 namely1 #dbh1ihf acres1 and the smallest area1 aside from ,arizona1 not reported1 is found in ,new ,mexico1 namely1 #a1dgj acres4 ,the yield of potatoes for the year is given as #bfj1gda1bid bushels4 ,the largest total yield was in ,new ,york1 the average yield per acre for the country being #hg bushels4 ,the largest yield per acre is reported from ,maine1 namely1 #age bushels1 and the smallest from ,louisiana and ,texas1 namely1 #fd bushels per acre4 ,the average price per bushel for the whole country at the farm is #fa4g cents1 making the total value of the crop #afj1hba1jhj4 ,the highest price per bushel was obtained in ,florida1 namely1 #a4bj1 and the lowest price per bushel in ,nebraska1 namely1 #cg cents4 ,the weight of a bushel of potatoes is #fj pounds4 ,as the average amount of fermentable matter in potatoes grown in the ,united ,states is #bj percent1 the total weight of fermentable matter in a bushel of potatoes is #ab pounds1 which would yield approximately #f pounds or #c4f quarts of alcohol4 ,composition4--,starch content3 ,the quantity of starch in ,american grown potatoes varies from #ae to #bj percent4 ,probably #ah percent might be stated as the general average of the best grades of potatoes4 ,in this connection it must be remembered that at the present time potatoes are grown in the ,united ,states chiefly for table use4 ,generally1 only the imperfect or injured samples are used for stock feeding or for starch making1 and this condition will probably continue as long as good edible potatoes bring a higher price for table use than can be obtained by utilizing them for starch or for feeding purposes4 ,under the microscope the granules of potato starch have a distinctive appearance4 ,they appear as egg-shaped bodies on which1 especially the larger ones1 various ring-like lines are seen4 ,with a modified 7polarized7 light under certain conditions of observation a black cross is developed upon the granule4 ,it is not difficult for an expert microscopist to distinguish potato from other forms of starch by its appearance1 which is well shown in ,figs4 #ci and #dj4 ,many of the granules are quite large1 and most of them are ovoid in shape4 ,the quantity of protein in the potato is quite low compared with that of cereal foods2 in round numbers it may be said to be #b4e percent4 ,the potato contains very little material which is capable of fermentation aside from starch and sugars4 ,sugar content3 ,although the potato is not sweet to the taste in a fresh state1 it contains notable quantities of sugar4 ,this sugar is lost whenever the potato is used for starch-making purposes1 but is utilized when it is used for the manufacture of industrial alcohol4 ,the percentage of sugar of all kinds in the potato rarely goes above #a percent4 ,the average quantity is probably not far from #j4ce percent1 including sugar1 reducing sugar1 and dextrin1 all of which are soluble in water4 ,in the treatment of potatoes for starch making therefore it may be estimated that #j4ce percent of fermentable matter is lost in the wash water4 ,one ,german author1 ,saare1 claims to have found much larger quantities of sugar in potatoes than those just mentioned4 ,the minimum quantity found by this author is #j4d percent1 and the maximum #c4d percent1 giving a mean of #a4i percent4 ,ten varieties of potatoes used for the manufacture of industrial alcohol were examined in the securing of these data4 ,it appears that some varieties have a greater tendency to produce sugar than others4 ,the ,german variety known as 8,daber0 contains the smallest quantities of sugar1 while the variety known as 8,juno0 contains the largest quantities4 ,the percentages of sugar1 as reported by ,saare1 however1 are larger than those reported by other observers1 and probably are larger than are usually found4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,,potato ,,starch 7 #bjj74--7;,courtesy ,bureau of ,chemistry47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,,potato ,,starch ,,under ,,polarized ,,light 7 #bjj74--7;,courtesy ,bureau of ,chemistry47 ,average composition3 ,frazier1 of the ,cornell station1 has collected analyses of a large number of different varieties of potatoes1 and finds them to have the following average composition3 ,water1 #ge4jj percent ,starch1 #ai4hg ,sugars and dextrin1 4#gg ,fat1 4#jh ,cellulose1 4#cc ,ash1 #a4jj ,the following analyses show in detail the composition of potatoes from different localities3 ,analysis of ,maine potatoes3 ,the ,bureau of ,chemistry a few years ago made an investigation in connection with the experiment station in ,maine of the composition of potatoes grown in that state used for table purposes and for starch making4 ,some of the best varieties grown in different parts of the state were subjected to analysis1 and the following results show them to be of quite uniform composition3 ,,analyses ,,of ,,maine ,,potatoes4#bi ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,protein ,,variety4 ,,water4 ,,starch4 ,,fiber4 7,,nitrogen ,,ash4 ,,specific #f4be74 ,,gravity4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,percent4,percent4,percent4 ,percent4,percent4 ,hebron1 #gi4gb #af4id #j4ij #b4ab #j4gf #a4jfjd ,do4 #gh4ac #ah4ei 4#gb #b4jf 4#gh #a4jgie ,white ,elephant1 #gf4ha #ai4if 4#hd #b4ai 4#ii #a4jhfg ,do4 #gf4ib #bj4ch 4#ij #b4ca 4#hg #a4jgdb ,do4 #gh4gd #ae4if 4#fd #b4be 4#ib #a4jhjc ,do4 #ge4ba #ai4ca 4#fa #b4ab 4#hc #a4ajeh ,do4 #ge4hh #ah4ha 4#ef #b4be 4#if #a4jiba ,do4 #gg4dd #ah4ab 4#fc #b4jf 4#hh #a4jijf ,do4 #ge4ef #ah4ad 4#ef #a4ha #a4jd #a4aabi ,do4 #gh4ac #ah4fb 4#fc #a4ge 4#ih #a4jhha ,delaware1 #gf4jb #ai4bj 4#fa #b4jf #a4ja #a4jheb ,do4 #gf4ic #ah4fc 4#fa #b4ai 4#id #a4jijd ,do4 #ge4gb #ah4fc 4#ee #b4ca 4#ie #a4jgde ,do4 #gg4fd #af4bf 4#fa #b4ef 4#ia #a4aabj ,carmen1 #gf4hg #ah4jc 4#ff #b4jf 4#ij #a4jifg ,do4 #gf4eg #ag4jg 4#ei #b4ch 4#gf #a4jhjd ---------------------------------------- --------- ,average1 #gg4jb #ah4bi 4#ff #b4af 4#ia #a4jhha ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #bi ,maine ,agr4 ,exp4 ,sta41 ,bul4 #eg1 p4 #adg4 ,analysis of ,vermont potatoes3 ,analyses made in ,vermont and published in the report of the ,vermont ,experiment ,station for #aija show an average content of starch considerably less than that above given1 namely3 ,water1 #gi4da percent ,starch1 #ad4ea ,sugars and dextrins1 #a4dd ,cellulose1 4#cf ,protein1 #b4bh ,ether extract1 4#jf ,ash1 #a4bf ,undetermined1 4#fh ,composition of ,potatoes used in ,france for ,industrial ,purposes4--,the following is regarded in ,france as an average composition of the potato suitable for industrial purposes3#cj ,water1 #ga4jj percent ,starch1 #ah4jj ,sugar1 etc41 #a4jf ,cellulose1 #a4fe ,protein1 #b4ab ,fat1 4#aa ,ash1 #a4fj #cj 8,encyclopdie ,agricole10 ,e4 ,saillard4 ,the total fermentable matter1 as seen above1 is a little over #ai percent1 not allowing anything for the cellulose which is fermented4 ,as a portion of the cellulose may also become a source of alcohol1 it is observed that the average percentage of fermented matter in the ,french potato used for industrial purposes is not far from #bj percent4 ,the following varieties show a variation in starch content of #f4h percent1 the minimum being #ae4i and the maximum #bb4g percent3 ,red starchy1 #bb4g percent of starch ,shaw1 #bj4e ,institute of ,beauvais1 #ag4g ,kernours1 #ag4i ,white ,elephant1 #af4j ,british ,red1 #af4j ,giant ,blue1 #ae4i ,analysis of ,potatoes from ,german ,sources4--,average composition and starch content3 ,the content of starch in potatoes examined in the laboratory of the ,association of ,german ,spirit ,manufacturers during the year #aije varied from #ab4a to #be4a percent4 ,eleven percent of the total number examined contained between #ab and #ad percent of starch1 #bj percent between #ad and #af percent of starch1 #ac percent between #af and #ah percent of starch1 #bd percent between #ah and #bj percent1 #bd percent also between #bj and #bb percent1 and #h percent between #bb and #be4a percent4 ,these data show that #ef percent of the total number of samples examined contained between #ah and #be percent of starch4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that the general average content of starch in the potatoes used in the ,german distilleries is not far from #ah to #bj percent4 ,the mean composition of potatoes as given by three ,german authorities1 namely1 ,knig1 ,lintner1 and ,wolff1 is as follows3 ,,average ,,analysis ,,of ,,potatoes ,,by ,,three ,,german ,,authorities4 ,k,,nig4 ,,lintner4 ,,wolff4 ,,constituent4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,water1 #ge4dh #gf4j #ge4j ,protein1 #a4ie #b4a #b4a ,fat1 4#ae 4#b 4#b ,starch and sugar1 #bj4fi #ai4g #bj4g ,crude cellulose1 4#ge 4#h #a4a ,ash1 4#ih #a4b 4#i ,the above data show the average content of fermentable matter in ,german potatoes1 as determined by three of their leading authorities1 to be about #bj percent4 ,the potatoes used for the manufacture of alcohol in ,germany are not of the variety raised for edible purposes4 ,in a large number of experiment stations in ,germany systematic efforts have been made for many years to grow a potato rich in starch without respect to its edible qualities4 ,these potatoes are coarser in structure and less palatable than those grown for the table4 ,the object of the cultivation of this class of potatoes is to produce as much starch and other fermentable matters per acre as possible4 ,it is evident that our own experiment stations should undertake work of a similar character if the potato is to be used to any great extent in the manufacture of industrial alcohol4 ,there is no doubt of the fact that success equal to that attained by the ,german experimenters will attend any systematic efforts of this kind in our country4 ,not only will larger crops per acre of potatoes be grown1 but these potatoes will contain larger quantities of starch and other fermentable substances4 ,if the crop of potatoes is to remain at the present average1 namely1 less than #ajj bushels per acre1 profitable returns for alcohol making can not be expected1 either by the farmer or by the manufacturer4 ,a much larger quantity must be grown and1 if possible1 at less expense1 in order that encouraging profits may be realized4 ,maercker1 one of the most celebrated of ,german authors1 states that in certain instances the potato in ,germany reaches a very high starch content4 ,some varieties1 in exceptional instances1 have shown as high as #bi4d percent1 #bh4a percent1 and #bg4c percent1 respectively4 ,in warm1 dry seasons potatoes often are found containing from #be to #bg percent of starch4 ,according to ,maercker1 the sugar content1 including all forms of sugar1 varies greatly4 ,perfectly ripe potatoes contain generally no sugar or only a fractional percentage4 ,when potatoes are stored under unfavorable conditions1 large quantities of sugar may be developed1 amounting to as high as #e percent altogether4 ,in general1 it may be stated that the content of sugar of all kinds will vary from #j4d percent to #c4d percent1 according to conditions4 ,while potatoes grown thus to increase the content of starch are not generally used as food1 yet they are nutritious but not as palatable as those grown especially for table purposes4 ,ash analyses3 ,the mineral matters which the potato extracts from the soil or from the fertilizers which are added thereto consist chiefly of phosphate of potash4 ,the mean average composition of the ash of the potato is shown in the following table3#ca ,potash 7,k,o71 #fj4cg percent ,soda 7,na,o71 #b4fb ,lime 7,ca,o71 #b4eg ,magnesia 7,mg,o71 #d4fi ,iron oxid 7,fe,o71 #a4ah ,phosphoric acid 7,p,o71 #ag4cc ,sulfuric acid 7,,so71 #f4di ,silicic acid 7,si,o71 #b4ac ,chlorin1 #c4aa #ca ,maercker1 8,handbuch der ,spiritusfabrikation10 p4 #ii4 ,this analysis was made upon the so-called pure ash1 deprived of its unburned carbon1 and freed of sand and carbon dioxid4 ,effect of fertilization on the yield and starch content3 ,experience in ,germany has shown not only that liberal fertilization with nitrogen is favorable to the production of a large crop of potatoes1 but also that this is accomplished without decreasing the percentage of starch therein4 ,the following table shows the increase in yield1 percentage of starch1 and amount of starch obtained by nitrogen fertilization1 the results being expressed in hectares#cb and kilograms3 ,,effect ,,of ,,nitrogen ,,fertilization ,,on ,,yield ,,and ,,starch ,,content ,,of ,,potatoes4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,without ,,nitrogen4 ,,with ,,nitrogen4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,yield ,yield ,yield ,yield of of of of tubers starch tubers starch ,,variety ,,of per per per per ,,potato4 ,starch4hectare4hectare4,starch4hectare4 hectare4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,per- ,kilo- ,kilo- ,per- ,kilo- ,kilo- cent4 grams4 grams4 cent4 grams4 grams4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,seed1 #ah4ja #bj1ijj #c1ghj #ah4ag #bd1hgj #d1ejg ,champion1 #ba4cc #ai1eaj #d1aeb #ba4dh #bd1dgj #e1bcc ,imperator1 #ai4jj #bb1efj #d1bce #ah4gj #bf1hcj #e1jjg ,magnum ,bonum1 #ah4da #ai1agj #c1ebb #ah4jg #bb1eaj #d1jeg ,aurelie1 #ai4dg #ah1iej #c1fec #ai4ge #bc1eej #d1fji ,reichskanzler1 #bb4gh #ad1cjj #c1bcf #bb4fa #ag1bej #c1hge ,juno1 #ai4cc #ag1eij #c1dbb #ai4ib #bj1ijj #d1aii ,amaranth1 #bb4dg #af1ahj #c1fai #bb4hd #ah1caj #d1ahh ,charlotte1 #ai4db #ag1jda #c1cje #ai4fg #bj1ggd #d1jha ,gelbfleischige ,zwiebel1 #ai4ig #ai1hhh #c1idf #ai4ia #ba1ggb #d1cbc ,dabersche1 #ba4hb #ag1cgg #c1ggh #ba4hj #bj1cac #d1cii ,weissfleischige ,zwiebel1 #bj4ea #af1hgg #c1ddb #bj4eh #ai1eja #c1icf ,schneerose1 #ah4hd #ai1fec #c1gbd #ah4ff #bb1cdc #d1ahf ,nassengrunder1 #ai4jh #ai1gja #c1gbe #bb4ab #ba1hhi #d1hac ,gelbe ,rose1 #ba4ji #af1hdg #c1edg #bj4fj #bj1agg #d1abi ,hortensie1 #ag4gb #bb1daf #c1ijg #ag4de #bf1cha #d1ecb ,richter's ,lange ,weisse1 #ai4cg #bb1acd #d1bfg #ai4ai #bd1dij #d1ffd ,rosalie1 #ah4bg #ai1hff #c1eeg #ah4be #bb1ahf #d1jjc ,achilles1 #ba4jb #ah1hhf #c1ifb #bj4ic #bj1iac #d1cgf ,alcohol1 #af4dg #af1bgj #b1fgc #af4ca #bj1cci #c1cbg ---------------------------------------- ------ ,average1 #ai4gg #ah1hjf #c1fgc #ai4he #ba1iih #d1ccb ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #cb #a hectare #b4dga acres4 #a kilogram #b4bje pounds4 ,it is evident from the data given in the table that the liberal application of nitrogenous fertilizers increases the yield per acre of tubers and of starch to a very marked extent1 although the average percentage of starch present is increased very little4 ,converting the average data given in the foregoing table into their equivalents in pounds per acre1 we have the following results3 ,without nitrogen--yield of tubers1 #af1gha pounds per acre2 yield of starch1 #c1bgg pounds per acre4 ,with nitrogen--yield of tubers1 #ai1fbi pounds per acre2 yield of starch1 #c1hef pounds per acre4 ,the following varieties of potatoes are considered in ,germany the best for the manufacture of alcohol3 ,wohltman1 ,silesia1 ,agricultural ,union1 ,athenena1 ,prince ,bismarck1 ,richter's ,imperator1 and ,maercker4 ,the latest consular report on the potato as a source of alcohol in ,germany shows the following yields per acre and percentages of starch3 ,,yield ,,and ,,starch ,,content ,,of ,,potatoes ,,grown ,,in ,,germany ,,for ,,alcohol ,,production4 ,,yield ,,per ,,starch4 ,,varieties4 ,,acre4 ,kilograms4 ,percent4 ,professor ,wohltman1 #c1dbj #af4c ,iduna1 #b1hde #af4d ,topaz1 #c1bfj #ag4c ,sas1 #c1iij #ah4c ,leo1 #d1abj #ag4j ,richter's ,imperator1 #d1gfj #ae4d ,silesia1 #c1fge #af4c ,professor ,maercker1 #d1bhj #ad4e ,use of the ,potato4--,in addition to its value as human food the potato has other economical relations4 ,it is used in many countries almost exclusively in the production of starch for the laundry and for general domestic uses4 ,the potato is not very extensively used for starch production in the ,united ,states except in the state of ,maine and perhaps in one or two other localities4 ,the starch of the potato has a particular value for use in the textile industry in the sizing of cloth4 ,practically all of the potato starch which is produced in the ,united ,states is devoted to that purpose1 and for this reason it brings a higher price than the ordinary starch made of ,indian corn4 ,technique of the ,production of ,starch from ,potatoes4--,there is scarcely any manufacturing process which is more simple in its method than the manufacture of starch from potatoes4 ,the process consists simply in the rasping or grinding of the potato to a fine pulp1 which is afterward placed upon sieves in a thin layer and sprinkled with water which detaches the starch granules from the pulp matter1 carries them through the sieve1 and thus separates them from the fibrous portion4 ,it will be interesting to the general reader1 on account of the importance of this product1 to give a brief description of the method employed and the results obtained4 ,potato ,starch4--,in this country potato starch is manufactured chiefly in ,maine1 ,wisconsin1 and ,colorado4 ,the factories are of a very primitive type1 the machinery consisting of a rasper constructed usually by wrapping a wooden cylinder with sheet-iron punctured so that the ragged edges of the hole are on the exterior surface as shown in ,fig4 #da4 ,water is added at the time of rasping1 and the starch pulp goes onto gauze shaking tables where the starch grains are washed through the sieve1 as indicated in ,figs4 #db and #dc4 ,the separated starch and water go into settling tanks4 ,where the starch has settled into a firm mass it is broken up and sent to the drying kiln4 ,potato starch is highly prized as a sizing in the textile industry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,,rasping ,,cylinder ,,for ,,making ,,starch4--7,courtesy ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,,shaking ,,table ,,for ,,separating ,,the ,,starch ,,from ,,the ,,pulped ,,potato4--7,courtesy ,department of ,agriculture47 ,use of the ,potato in the ,manufacture of ,spirits4--,a much more important technical use of the potato is in the manufacture of distilled spirits4 ,distilled spirits made from the potato are not generally used for potable purposes but are devoted to industrial uses4 ,in the ,united ,states1 very little if any distilled spirits are made from the potato4 ,in ,europe1 however1 especially in ,germany1 the industry is one of great magnitude4 ,practically all of the industrial spirits used in ,germany and in many parts of ,europe are made from the potato4 ,the process is a simple one4 ,the pulp of the potato1 or starch1 separated therefrom is subjected to the action of malt or other diastatic action for the purpose of converting the starch into sugar4 ,in some cases this conversion takes place by more strictly chemical means1 namely1 by heating the pulpy matter or the starch separated therefrom in a proper state of dilution1 in contact with an acid at a high temperature and pressure4 ,hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid is usually employed for this purpose4 ,the action of the acid converts the starch into fermentable sugar1 namely1 dextrose1 a form of sugar differing in its quality and character from that produced by malt known as maltose4 ,both sugars1 however1 are fermentable to the same degree and produce1 for equal quantities of sugar1 the same quantity of alcohol4 ,when the starch is converted into sugar by one or the other of these methods it is subjected to fermentation by an appropriate quantity of yeast which is of the same family as that used in the alcoholic fermentation of other saccharine products4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,,the ,,potato ,,rasping ,,cylinder ,,arranged ,,for ,,work4--7,courtesy ,department of ,agriculture47 ,special characters of yeast1 however1 are reserved for special purposes1 since the variety of yeast determines to a certain extent the character of the secondary products which are formed during fermentation and thus determine the character1 flavor1 and aroma of the finished product4 ,after the fermentation has been completed the residue is technically known as beer1 and is subjected to distillation for the separation of the spirit4 ,a description of the process of distillation will be found in the second volume of this manual and is therefore omitted here4 ,radish4--,the botanical name of the radish is ,raphanus sativus ,l4 ,the ,french name is radis2 ,german1 ,radies2 ,italian1 ravanello2 ,spanish1 rabanito4 ,the radish is a vegetable which is found throughout the whole year in all the principal markets of the ,united ,states1 being grown under cover during the cold weather4 ,it is ready for market within a short time after sowing1 so that crop after crop can be grown during the year on the same soil4 ,it is most highly prized when it is young1 as it tends to acquire a pungent and bitter taste as it approaches maturity4 ,the two principal varieties grown1 as respects the roots1 is the one having a long1 tapering root1 and the other a short1 spherical bulb4 ,the latter are more prized for eating purposes4 ,there are many varieties grown4 ,composition of ,edible ,portion4-- ,water1 #ia4h percent ,protein1 #a4c ,fat1 #j4a ,sugar1 and other carbohydrates1 #e4h ,ash1 #j4g ,rhubarb4--,the botanical name for rhubarb is ,rheum ,l4 ,the ,french name is rhubarbe2 ,german1 ,rhabarber2 ,italian1 rabarbaro2 ,spanish1 ruibarbo4 ,rhubarb is a vegetable which is widely distributed in the ,united ,states and grows generally very early in the spring4 ,it is a highly acid plant1 and is used chiefly as a sauce and for making pies4 ,it requires a very large addition of sugar to make it palatable4 ,it has medicinal properties which give it additional value4 ,there are many varieties grown4 ,it is a plant that is ready for use very early in the spring1 being available in the farmer's garden almost before any other vegetable1 and this makes it of still greater value4 ,composition of the ,edible ,stem4-- ,water1 #ib4fg percent ,ash1 4#id ,protein1 4#hc ,fiber1 #a4aa ,sugar1 starch1 etc41 #c4bf ,fat1 #a4ai ,the above data show that the rhubarb is practically valueless as food and is chiefly condimental4 ,in regard to its nutrients the fat is in a larger proportion than in that of almost any other succulent vegetable4 ,squash4--,another variety of the gourd family which is highly prized as a food product is the squash4 ,it is used in the same manner as the pumpkin1 and is highly valued both as a food for man and domesticated animals4 ,composition of the ,flesh of the ,squash4-- ,water1 #hh4ji percent ,ash1 #a4gb ,protein1 4#ib ,fiber1 #a4jd ,sugar1 starch1 etc41 #h4je ,fat1 4#ah ,the above data show that the squash is a much more nutritive substance than the pumpkin4 ,in other respects it is little different in its composition1 being only a dryer form of pumpkin4 ,sweet ,potato4--,the vegetable known as sweet potato is known botanically as ,convolvulus batatas ,l4 ,from the name it is seen that the sweet potato does not belong to the same botanical family as the potato itself4 ,by reason1 however1 of its similar condition of growth and1 to a certain extent1 its chemical composition and uses1 the term potato has1 in this country at least1 become to be universally applied to both1 although the prefix 8sweet0 is quite commonly used with the sweet potato1 whereas if any prefix is used with the potato1 properly so-called1 it is the word 8white0 or 8,irish40 ,the sweet potato is grown extensively in the ,united ,states and in other respects1 agriculturally1 may be regarded as complemental to the potato4 ,while the potato grows best in the northern parts of the country and in mild climates1 the sweet potato flourishes in the greatest abundance in the southern and warmer portions4 ,in respect to the character of the soil the two vegetables are quite similar1 both doing best in a sandy or loose soil1 provided it is sufficiently supplied with plant food for the use of the growing plant4 ,the sweet potato is a thickened root1 and is propagated almost exclusively by means of shoots called 8slips40 ,planting and ,cultivation4--,there is a very distinct difference between the planting of the sweet potato and that of the potato4 ,the former are rarely planted in the field where the crop is to mature4 ,it is quite a universal custom to plant the sweet potato in beds where the young growth can be forced both by means of artificial heat and by a generous mulch of highly nutritious soil4 ,the plants can then be set very early in the spring and by the time they are ready to be transplanted to the field have acquired a considerable size4 ,when ready for transplanting the seed bed is prepared with the same care as that required for the potato4 ,the ridging of the rows1 which in the case of potatoes takes place during cultivation1 is accomplished in the case of sweet potatoes before planting4 ,if the soil is moist and the temperature not too high the young plants are removed from the seed bed and set on top of the apexes in the formed rows4 ,the cultivation of the field during the growth of the crop is sufficient to keep the surface in good tilth and prevent the growth of weeds1 grass1 etc4 ,care must be exercised in the cultivation not to draw the earth away from the ridges which have been formed1 but to increase their size by drawing the earth more and more toward the apex of the ridge4 ,the cultivation is continued until the growing vines practically cover the surface of the soil and thus form a natural mulch1 which not only conserves the moisture and tilth of the soil but also prevents the growth of weeds and grass4 ,the sweet potato1 in respect of its flavor1 is particularly sensitive to the influence of frost1 also the leaves are more sensitive to frost than those of the potato4 ,if a heavy frost is experienced before the tubers are harvested it is apt to impart an unpleasant taste to the potato and injure its edible qualities4 ,for this reason1 if it is not possible to harvest the potato before the advent of frost1 it is advisable to cut the vines at the point where they emerge from the soil4 ,when this has been done the injurious effects of the frost1 above mentioned1 are not experienced4 ,in the southern portion of the country the sweet potato is often allowed to remain in the soil during the greater part of the winter1 and1 if the vines are removed1 it keeps in excellent condition4 ,yield and ,composition of the ,sweet ,potato4--,as has already been mentioned1 there is a general resemblance1 in so far as chemical and nutritive properties are concerned1 between the sweet potato and the potato4 ,the sweet potato is usually colored a yellowish tint1 due to the distribution of more or less xanthophyll throughout its substance4 ,the sweet potato also contains notable quantities of cane sugar1 to which its name is due4 ,it1 however1 contains large quantities of starch and fiber and small quantities of protein1 resembling in this general manner the potato itself4 ,the sweet potato has not been used in the ,united ,states for the making of alcohol4 ,in the ,azores great quantities of sweet potatoes are grown for this purpose1 and make an alcohol of fine quality1 which is used to a large extent in fortifying port wines4 ,there are large areas in the ,united ,states1 especially in the ,southern ,states1 where the sweet potato can be grown in great abundance4 ,the experiments at the ,south ,carolina station show that as high as #aa1jjj pounds of sweet potatoes can be grown per acre4 ,the percentage of starch is markedly greater than in the white or ,irish potato4 ,in all cases over #bj percent of starch was obtained in the ,south ,carolina sweet potatoes1 and in one instance over #bd percent4 ,as high as #b1fjj pounds of starch were produced per acre4 ,in addition to starch1 the sweet potato contains notable quantities of sugar1 sometimes as high as six percent being present1 so that the total fermentable matter in the sweet potato may be reckoned at the minimum at #be percent4 ,a bushel of sweet potatoes weighs #ee pounds1 and one-quarter of this is fermentable matter1 or nearly #ad pounds4 ,this would yield1 approximately1 #g pounds1 or a little over one gallon of #ie percent alcohol4 ,it may be fairly stated1 therefore1 in a general way1 that a bushel of sweet potatoes will yield one gallon of industrial alcohol4 ,the average yield of sweet potatoes1 of course1 is very much less than that given in the ,south ,carolina reports1 where heavy fertilization was practised4 ,on plots to which no fertilizer was added the yield was about #h1jjj pounds of sweet potatoes per acre1 yielding in round numbers #a1ijj pounds of starch4 ,the quantity of sugar in the #h1jjj pounds is about #cej pounds1 which1 added to the starch1 makes #b1bej pounds of fermentable matter per acre4 ,this will yield #a1abe pounds of industrial alcohol of #ie percent strength1 or approximately #afj gallons per acre4 ,the yield of sweet potatoes in the above computation must be regarded as exceptionally high4 ,a safer calculation will be based upon the yield of #ajj bushels of sweet potatoes per acre1 a little above the average of the yield of the potato1 or a total of #e1ejj pounds per acre4 ,one-quarter of this amount is fermentable matter--about #a1djj pounds--which would yield1 approximately1 #gjj pounds of #ie percent alcohol1 or #ajj gallons of #ie percent alcohol per acre4 ,in addition to the sugar in the form of sucrose1 or common sugar1 which the sweet potato contains1 there is also an appreciable amount of non-crystallizable sugars4 ,the total sugars in the sweet potato have not been overstated in the above estimate4 ,in fact1 the contrary1 rather1 is true1 since the two sugars together probably average about six percent of the weight of the potato4 ,if the average quantity of starch in the sweet potato is #bj percent1 which is rather a low estimate1 the total fermentable matter in the sweet potato is #bf percent instead of #be percent1 as estimated above4 ,,changes ,,in ,,composition ,,of ,,the ,,sweet ,,potato ,,of ,,different ,,varieties ,,on ,,storing4#cc ,,first ,,lot 7,november #bh74 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,,original4 -------------------------------- ,,name ,,of ,invert ,,variety4 ,water4 ,starch4 sugar4 ,sucrose4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,percent4,percent4,percent4,percent4 ,georgia ,buck #ge4ce #ac4ac #j4gg #d4ca ,bunch ,yam #gb4cg #ae4ab #a4ji #d4de ,do4 #fg4ii #ai4eh 4#ef #d4di ,horton ,yam #gj4bi #ae4jf #a4je #f4bc ,georgia ,buck #ga4ef #ad4ce 4#gc #f4fa ,vineless ,yam #gj4jc #af4he 4#ed #e4ja ,hanover ,yam #gf4af #ac4fa #a4aj #d4bb ,georgia ,yam #gj4ja #ah4hg #a4jj #d4jh -------------------------------- ,average #ga4gb #ae4hb 4#hf #d4ic ---------------------------------------- --------- ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,,air-,,dry4 -------------------------------- ,,name ,,of ,invert ,,variety4 ,water4 ,starch4 sugar4 ,sucrose4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,percent4,percent4,percent4,percent4 ,georgia ,buck #f4gi #di4fe #b4ic #af4ca ,bunch ,yam #f4fg #ea4jf #c4fg #ae4jd ,do4 #g4bd #ef4gj #a4fa #ac4jb ,horton ,yam #f4bd #dg4eb #c4ca #ai4fg ,georgia ,buck #f4hh #df4ih #b4dj #ba4fc ,vineless ,yam #g4ij #ea4gh #a4fg #ae4dj ,hanover ,yam #g4cg #eb4hi #d4bi #af4dj ,georgia ,yam #g4eg #eh4ag #c4jg #ab4ei -------------------------------- ,average #g4jh #ea4hd #b4hg #af4bf ---------------------------------------- --------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,,water-,,free4 ------------------------ ,,name ,,of ,invert ,,variety4 ,starch4 sugar4 ,sucrose4 ---------------------------------------- - ,percent4,percent4,percent4 ,georgia ,buck #ec4bg #c4ad #ag4ej ,bunch ,yam #ed4ga #c4ic #af4aa ,do4 #fa4ah #a4gd #ad4jd ,horton ,yam #ej4fh #c4ec #bj4ih ,georgia ,buck #ej4de #b4eh #ac4bc ,vineless ,yam #ef4bb #a4ha #af4gb ,hanover ,yam #eg4aj #d4fc #ag4gj ,georgia ,yam #fb4ic #c4cb #ac4fb ------------------------ ,average #ee4hb #c4ji #af4af ---------------------------------------- - ,,second ,,lot 7,january #g74 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,,original4 -------------------------------- ,,name ,,of ,invert ,,variety4 ,water4 ,starch4 sugar4 ,sucrose4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,georgia ,buck #fi4gd #ab4gb #a4ge #i4be ,bunch ,yam #fg4ca #ac4ff #b4jb #i4ij ,do4 #fg4bi #ac4hc #b4dj #i4dc ,horton ,yam #ga4ci #i4eg #b4eg #i4fi ,georgia ,buck #fg4fc #ad4dc #b4ab #g4he ,vineless ,yam #fg4cc #ab4jc #b4ij #aj4ji ,hanover ,yam #gj4ac #ad4ac #a4ff #f4eh ,georgia ,yam #ga4gh #aa4ba #b4bf #h4aj -------------------------------- ,average #fi4jh #ab4gj #b4ba #h4hf ---------------------------------------- --------- ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,,air-,,dry4 -------------------------------- ,,name ,,of ,invert ,,variety4 ,water4 ,starch4 sugar4 ,sucrose4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,georgia ,buck #h4hj #ch4cd #e4bg #bg4hg ,bunch ,yam #i4di #cg4hc #e4fj #bg4dj ,do4 #aj4jj #ch4jd #f4fa #be4id ,horton ,yam #g4ah #ca4je #h4ce #ca4dc ,georgia ,buck #h4df #dj4hj #f4jj #bb4ba ,vineless ,yam #g4ij #cc4ij #h4ai #bh4dd ,hanover ,yam #i4bi #db4ij #e4je #ai4ii ,georgia ,yam #h4fb #cf4cj #g4ca #bf4bd -------------------------------- ,average #h4gb #cg4dj #f4ee #bf4ai ---------------------------------------- --------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,,water-,,free4 ------------------------ ,,name ,,of ,invert ,,variety4 ,starch4 sugar4 ,sucrose4 ---------------------------------------- - ,georgia ,buck #db4jd #e4gh #cj4ef ,bunch ,yam #da4hj #f4ai #cj4bg ,do4 #db4bg #g4cd #bh4hb ,horton ,yam #cc4de #i4jj #cc4hf ,georgia ,buck #dd4eg #f4ee #bd4bf ,vineless ,yam #cf4ha #h4hi #cj4hh ,hanover ,yam #dg4bi #e4eg #bb4jd ,georgia ,yam #ci4gb #h4jj #bh4gb ------------------------ ,average #dj4ii #g4ag #bh4fh ---------------------------------------- - #cc ,south ,carolina ,agr4 ,exp4 ,sta41 ,bul4 #fc1 p4 #be4 ,effect of ,storage on ,composition4--,experiments have shown that the quantity of starch diminishes and the quantity of sugar increases on storing4 ,further1 it may be stated that in the varieties of sweet potatoes which are most esteemed for table use there is less starch and perhaps more sugar than are stated in the above examples4 ,in one instance of an analysis made on the #gth of ,january of stored potatoes1 the starch had fallen to a little less than #ac percent1 while the sugars had increased to over #aa percent in less than six weeks4 ,the total quantity of fermentable matter1 however1 as will be seen1 had not been greatly changed1 although there was probably a slight loss4 ,in the southern agricultural work referred to1 the yam and the sweet potato are considered together4 ,the composition and the changes on keeping are well illustrated by the preceding data4 ,the above data apparently are sufficient to show the high value which attaches to the sweet potato and the yam1 not only as edibles1 but especially for the purpose of making alcohol4 ,it is also seen that the sweet potato would not be a valuable material for making starch alone1 because in starch making the sugar which the sweet potato contains is lost1 whereas in the manufacture of alcohol the sugar and the starch1 as well as any fermentable celluloses or gums in the potato1 are utilized4 ,the following table shows the extent to which this crop is grown in the ,united ,states3 ,,acreage ,,and ,,production ,,of ,,sweet ,,potatoes 7,,including ,,yams7 ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,by ,,states1 ,,in #ahii1 ,,as ,,reported ,,by ,,the ,,twelfth ,,census4 ------------------------------------- ,,states4 ,,acres4 ,,bushels4 ------------------------------------- ,united ,states #ecg1ddgdb1ebf1fif ,alabama #ej1hfe #c1deg1chf ,arizona #ea #d1bii ,arkansas #ac1bga #iih1gfg ,california #a1fjg #bci1jbi ,colorado #bj #b1bia ,connecticut #b #acj ,delaware #b1bfe #bbb1afe ,district of ,columbia #e #ai1icf ,florida #bb1gia #b1jdi1ghd ,georgia #gj1fbj #e1jhg1fgd ,hawaii #ace #i1bhd ,idaho #f #dac ,illinois #g1ecd #eaa1fie ,indiana #c1ihi #bci1dhg ,indian ,territory #a1jfd #hj1cfd ,iowa #b1fhh #bd1fbb ,kansas #d1egj #gd1haj ,kentucky #ad1agh #ibe1ghf ,louisiana #bg1cgb #a1hfe1dhb ,maryland #f1dfi #fgg1hdh ,massachusetts 44444 #bc ,michigan #ga #c1bdb ,minnesota #d #acf ,mississippi #ch1afi #b1hag1chf ,missouri #i1hdd #gdc1cgg ,nebraska #eea #dh1bbd ,nevada #e #ibc ,new ,hampshire #a #f ,new ,jersey #bj1ehh #b1dah1fda ,new ,mexico #dg #f1ahj ,new ,york #gc #h1fha ,north ,carolina #fh1gcj #e1gha1ehg ,north ,dakota 44444 #a ,ohio #c1gif #bdi1gfg ,oklahoma #b1eab #aie1gii ,oregon #bg #b1hbe ,pennsylvania #c1ddc #bcd1gbd ,rhode ,island #a #ajb ,south ,carolina #dh1hca #c1cfi1ieg ,south ,dakota #c #aje ,tennessee #bc1cgd #a1ega1ege ,texas #dc1efa #c1bii1ace ,utah #dj #d1ieh ,vermont #d #cjf ,virginia #dj1fha #d1dgj1fjb ,washington #eb #d1fgb ,west ,virginia #c1cic #bjb1dbd ,wisconsin #d #hf ------------------------------------- ,average ,composition of ,sweet ,potatoes4--,the mean composition of varieties of sweet potatoes as determined by the ,california and ,texas ,experiment stations is shown in the following data3 ,,california ,,station ,,texas ,,station 7#ag varieties74 7#ba varieties74 ,water1 #fi4jj percent #gj4bg percent ,ash1 #a4ae #a4ad ,protein1 #b4jh #b4da ,fat1 #a4jj #j4ii ,total sugars1 #e4ee #f4ha ,starch1 etc41 #bd4bc #bd4jj ,crude fiber1 #b4fb #a4bf ,included in the starch of the above data are the substances soluble in boiling dilute acid and alkali4 ,turnip4--,the botanical name of the turnip is ,brassica napus ,l4 ,the ,french name is navet2 ,german1 ,herbst-,rbe2 ,italian1 navone2 ,spanish1 nabo4 ,the turnip is grown very largely in the ,united ,states both as a vegetable and as a field crop for feeding purposes4 ,the turnip used as a vegetable usually has a spherical bulb4 ,it is a crop that grows late in the autumn4 ,in the central part of the country it is usually sown as a field crop after the harvesting of some of the early crops as1 for instance1 early potatoes1 and is ready for harvest late in the autumn1 just before freezing weather begins4 ,grown as a vegetable1 however1 it is grown early as well as late4 ,it has a spicy1 pungent taste which makes it extremely palatable4 ,it is sometimes eaten raw1 but generally stewed4 ,composition4-- ,water1 #ij4df percent ,ash1 4#hj ,protein1 #a4ad ,fiber1 #a4ae ,sugar1 starch1 etc41 #f4bg ,fat1 4#ah ,the above data show that the turnip is not a very nutritious vegetable and that its chief nutrients are carbohydrates4 ,yam4--,another variety of edible root or substance belonging to the sweet potato class is known as the yam4 ,it is also1 like the sweet potato1 particularly suited to growing in the subtropical or warm climates4 ,the name yam properly belongs to a tropical root similar in appearance to the sweet potato but produced by various species of vines of the genus ,dioscorea1 not belonging even to the same family as the sweet potato4 ,in the southern ,united ,states1 however1 the name yam is applied to certain varieties of the sweet potato with large coarse stems4 ,it is cultivated extensively in the southern part of the ,united ,states1 and is valued both as a food for man and specially for domesticated animals4 ,the character of the soil1 method of planting1 and cultivation are the same as in the case of the sweet potato4 ,it is particularly valued for fattening the variety of swine so common in the ,south1 known as the 8razor-back0 hog4 ,this animal does his own harvesting1 and thus removes from the agriculturist a portion of his labor which is not of the most agreeable kind4 ,composition of ,yams4--,the composition of yams does not differ to any notable extent from that of the sweet potato4 ,other ,uses of the ,yam and ,sweet ,potato4--,in addition to the use of the yam and sweet potato for human food1 reference has already been made to their value as food for domesticated animals4 ,these bodies are particularly relished by hogs and cattle4 ,the feeding of sweet potatoes or yams to milk cows insures a healthy condition of the body1 and also imparts to the milk1 cream1 and butter the distinct amber tint which is regarded as a mark of excellence4 ,thus even in the winter months the butter which is made from milk produced in this way will have the light amber tint1 which should distinguish it from the highly tinted artificially colored product which does so much to bring good butter into bad repute4 ,both sweet potatoes and yams are capable of yielding abundant supplies of distilled spirits4 ,it is probable that under the new law which permits the use of denatured alcohol free of taxation in the arts an abundant supply of this product can be secured from the sweet potato and the yam4 ,there are millions of acres of cheap land of a sandy character in the ,south ,atlantic and ,gulf states where potatoes and yams can be successfully grown under scientific principles of agriculture4 ,if not needed for food purposes as above mentioned1 the residue can be very profitably devoted to the manufacture of industrial alcohol4 ,,canned ,,vegetables4 ,it probably will excite no opposition to state that if fresh1 succulent vegetables can be placed upon the table of the consumer they are to be preferred to the same kind of vegetables preserved in any manner4 ,there are many circumstances1 however1 which render it difficult1 if not impossible1 to secure a regular supply of fresh1 succulent vegetables upon the consumer's table4 ,those who possess abundant wealth may have a proper supply of vegetables at all seasons of the year without resorting to any preserving process other than the refrigeration incident to transportation4 ,but the great majority of consumers must of necessity adapt themselves to the conditions of the market and the proximity of supply4 ,succulent vegetables properly harvested and refrigerated may be sent long distances and over a considerable period of time1 and reach the consumer in practically the same state of freshness and palatability as when first harvested4 ,owing to the exigencies of intermediary supply and the cost of transportation the great industry of keeping succulent vegetables by sterilization has been founded4 ,commonly vegetables prepared in this way are known as 8canned0 vegetables in this country and 8tinned0 in ,england4 ,by availing himself of this process the consumer1 even of moderate means1 is able to command at all seasons of the year and in all locations an abundant supply of wholesome1 fresh1 succulent vegetable materials4 ,principles and ,process of ,canning4--,the sterilization of succulent vegetables depends upon the same principles as that of meat1 already described4 ,the decay of these vegetable substances is due to the action of certain ferments1 either organic or inorganic1 which act as agents in securing the oxidation and decay of the organic material4 ,if the action of these organisms can be prevented or inhibited the food material will remain for a certain length of time1 not yet definitely determined1 in an excellent1 almost perfect state of preservation and without losing1 notably1 any of its nutritive or palatable properties4 ,it is not the purpose of this manual to describe the technique of canning1 further than to illustrate the principles thereof in their relations to wholesome and nutritive food4 ,selection of ,materials4--,it is of the highest importance in the canning industry1 both for the reputation of the manufacturer and the health and comfort of the consumer1 that the vegetables selected for canning be fresh1 free from disease1 and prepared in such a way that all adhering dirt or other foreign substances be excluded4 ,the process of preparation for canning should begin as soon as possible after the harvesting of the vegetables1 since a delay1 especially at the high temperature which usually prevails at the time of canning1 produces rapid deterioration1 both as respects the quality of the vegetable and its flavor4 ,after the proper cleaning and preparation of the fresh vegetables they are next subjected to the process of canning4 ,it is then the vegetables are heated to a temperature of1 or above1 that of boiling water for a sufficient length of time to thoroughly destroy all the living germs and spores contained therein4 ,the degree of temperature and the length of time of heating depend upon the nature of the vegetable substance1 the size of its particles and of the package and the relative difficulty of preservation4 ,where only living organisms are present the proper temperature is that which will destroy the life of the germ4 ,it is well known that spores from which fermentative germs may be developed are more resistant to the action of heat than the germ itself4 ,when1 therefore1 spores of this kind are present1 the temperature of heating must be higher and the time more prolonged1 or1 in lieu of this1 the food should be heated on two or three consecutive days during which time any spores which may have been present will have developed into organisms and been killed4 ,some forms of vegetable materials are sterilized much more readily than others4 ,for instance1 the kernels of green ,indian corn are of such a character and degree of hardness as to resist1 with a considerable degree of success1 the influence of heat on the life of the germs which they contain4 ,in such cases it is customary to previously cook the vegetable substance before placing it in the cans4 ,the cans should contain enough water to fill the interstices between the particles of vegetable matter4 ,it is the practice in many instances to add a little salt and sometimes also sugar to this liquid4 ,when the can is filled and closed the sterilizing is best completed by placing it in a strong boiler1 which is then closed and heated by steam under a pressure of two or three atmospheres or even higher1 namely1 from #cj to #de pounds and over per square inch4 ,by heating under pressure in this way the development of any pressure in the can due to the production of steam is counterbalanced by the pressure without the can1 so that a swelling or cracking of the can cannot take place4 ,if the cans are heated in an open bath of water or brine it is customary to leave a small perforation in the top of the can through which the combined gas of the interior of the can may escape1 and this vent is closed by a small drop of solder applied before or at the time of taking the cans from the bath4 ,the canning of vegetables may also be done in a small way in the household and the principle on which this process is based is exactly the same as that set forth4 ,the vegetables must be properly prepared1 placed in the cans1 and heated a sufficient length of time to destroy germs and spores1 and the vent in the can stopped with solder4 ,for family purposes the use of closed boilers for heating is not practical on account of the expense of securing such apparatus4 ,all kinds of vegetables which are eaten in a cooked state can be preserved by the canning process4 ,this cannot be applied1 however1 to those forms of vegetables which are eaten raw1 such as lettuce1 radishes1 etc4 ,the principal forms of canned vegetables are described below3 ,canned ,beans4--,fresh1 green beans used for canning purposes are generally preserved in the pod and not shelled1 as is the case with the pea4 ,the raw material should be selected with the same care as that which attends the selection of other vegetable products intended for preserving purposes4 ,if the pods are small they may be placed whole in the can4 ,sometimes they are cut into small lengths in order to fit better in the package4 ,as in the case of peas1 the interstices between the particles of beans are filled by the addition of a sufficient quantity of brine of the proper strength to fill the can to the top4 ,the process of sterilization is the same as that for other vegetable substances4 ,cooked beans are also preserved by canning and are often improperly called baked beans4 ,composition of ,typical ,samples of ,canned ,beans4--,the composition of typical samples of canned beans is shown in the following table3 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,,starch ,,and ,,pro- ,,substance4 ,,water4 ,,fat4,,fiber4,,sugar4,,tein4 ,,ash4 ,,salt4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- cent4cent4 cent4 cent4cent4 cent4cent4 ,string beans1#id4cc 4#jf 4#ea #c4jc 4#ib #a4af 4#hj ,unstringed beans1 #ic4ia 4#jg 4#eh #b4ia #a4ad #a4dj 4#ib ,lima beans1 #gi4fh 4#cj #a4af #ac4bd #d4jj #a4fb 4#gg ,canned baked beans1 #fg4ai #c4ah #b4df #ag4hh #g4ad #b4ae #a4jc ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,as in the case of peas it is noticed that the beans in the hull are not a particularly nutritious vegetable in proportion to the quantity consumed and that the protein is the most valuable constituent in the dry matter4 ,adulteration of ,canned ,beans4--,the same adulterations may be found in canned beans as in canned peas4 ,no additional remarks1 therefore1 are needed on this point4 ,both canned peas and beans form condimental1 palatable1 wholesome1 and desirable forms of these leguminous vegetables4 ,the great cheapness with which they can be grown and the improved method of canning make it possible to produce these articles of food in quantities1 and for a price which bring them within the reach of those even in the most humble circumstances4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,,view ,,of ,,indian ,,corn ,,canning ,,factory1 ,,showing ,,accumulation ,,of ,,husks ,,and ,,cobs4 ,as soon as the manufacturer restores absolute confidence in the purity of his products by completely excluding all adulterations the trade in these articles will be greatly increased and immensely greater quantities thereof consumed4 ,canned ,indian ,corn4--,in the ,united ,states a dish which is very extensively consumed throughout all parts of the country is one almost unknown in ,europe1 namely1 succulent ,indian corn4 ,in the growth of ,indian corn1 at the period when the starch is formed in the grain and before it becomes set or hard1 the immature grains make a palatable and excellent food product4 ,in the appropriate season this delicious vegetable substance is eaten principally on the cob4 ,a variety of ,indian corn1 which has already been described1 namely1 sweet corn1 is the one chiefly used for edible purposes in this immature state4 ,the ,indian corn canning industry is a most extensive one in this country4 ,the estimate of the number of cans of ,indian corn produced during the year ended ,dec4 #ca1 #aije1 is #ac1ici1fhc cases of #bd cans each4 ,the principal centers of the industry are found in the ,new ,england ,states1 especially in ,maine1 ,new ,jersey1 ,maryland1 ,new ,york1 ,ohio1 ,iowa1 ,illinois1 and ,indiana4 ,by planting different varieties of ,indian corn which mature at different ages and extending the planting season over a long period1 the canning season1 for instance1 in ,maryland1 may be continued from the last of ,july to the advent of killing frost1 usually the middle or last of ,october4 ,technique of the ,process4--,the ears of sweet ,indian corn are plucked from the stalk together with the husks1 and brought in wagons in this condition to the factory4 ,the husks are removed by hand or machinery and the ears passed through machinery by means of which1 owing to the operation of knives1 the grains are as evenly as possible removed from the cob4 ,care is taken not to cut too close to the cob so as to avoid mingling any of its particles with the corn4 ,the separated grains are put into cans1 treated with a sufficient quantity of water to fill the interstices1 soldered1 and subjected to sterilization4 ,nearly all of these operations are conducted by machinery4 ,the sterilization is often effected by placing the cans upon an endless conveyer dipping into water or brine of the proper temperature and moving slowly through this bath at a pace determined by the length and temperature thereof1 so that upon emerging the sterilization is complete4 ,the cans may also be heated in closed vessels as already described4 ,a typical view of a factory employed in the canning of ,indian corn is given in the accompanying illustration1 ,fig4 #dd4 ,composition of ,canned ,indian ,corn4--,the composition of canned ,indian corn varies so greatly that it is only possible to give analyses of a somewhat general character1 without attempting to express the extremes of composition which may be found4 ,the immature ,indian corn differs from the dry mature variety principally in the following respects3 ,there is usually more sugar1 as compared with the same amount of dry substance1 and less starch and protein than in the matured variety4 ,in fact1 the constituent which is of chief value in the green ,indian corn is the natural sugar which it contains4 ,this natural sweetening cannot be imitated by the addition of sugar although the mixture may be made very sweet by this method4 ,there is a delicacy of flavor and a peculiar palatability in the natural sweetness of ,indian corn which must necessarily be due to the form of combination with other natural ingredients in which the sugar is found1 and not solely to the sugar itself1 which is practically ordinary sugar1 sucrose1 or its inverted product4 ,while there is less starch in the immature kernel of ,indian corn the starch is in a different physical state4 ,in other words1 it has not become solidified into aggregates of solid particles4 ,the starch in this form also appears to be more palatable1 and perhaps somewhat more digestible1 than in its aggregate and solidified condition4 ,as a nutrient the green corn is not so valuable by any means as its equal weight when dry4 ,the percentage of water in green corn is many times as great as in the dry variety4 ,for mere nutritive purposes1 therefore1 it would not be worth while to go to the trouble of canning green ,indian corn4 ,its value is that which is attached to a succulent fresh vegetable1 that is1 it is condimental and hygienic as well as nutritive4 ,the mean analysis of many samples of canned sweet ,indian corn is given below3 ,water1 #ge4ej percent ,dry matter1 #bd4ej ,oil and fat1 #a4bf ,cellulose1 4#gi ,ash1 4#ic ,salt1 4#bc ,protein1 #c4ea ,sugar and starch1 #ag4eh ,these data were obtained on samples bought in the open market1 some of which had been artificially sweetened and to some of which starch had probably been added4 ,the analysis of the fresh green corn is given on page #bbg4 ,adulteration of ,canned ,corn4--,unfortunately many adulterations have been practiced in connection with the canning of ,indian corn which1 while not extensive or applicable to the great mass of material1 have cast an unjust suspicion on the unadulterated product4 ,the trade in this canned product would be vastly increased if the consumer could be assured that all forms of adulteration had been eliminated from the industry4 ,the principal adulterants used are mentioned on page #bbh1 but the following additional statements are pertinent3 ,adulteration with ,starch4--,in order to make a more creamy liquid in the can the addition of starch has been largely practiced4 ,there are two objections to the addition of starch to canned corn4 ,in the first place it unbalances the ration and makes it more or less unwholesome4 ,starch itself is an unbalanced food product1 but ,nature has so distributed the starches in various foods as to present them in the most favorable form for digestion and assimilation1 and when this natural balance is disturbed by artificial means the result is more or less injurious to the organs of digestion4 ,there are many persons to whom starchy foods are not nutritious nor easily digested1 and when persons of this kind consume canned ,indian corn to which starch has been added their health may be injured4 ,the addition of starch1 therefore1 is reprehensible for hygienic reasons4 ,in the second place it is objectionable because it is deceptive1 since the canned product has a richer and better appearance to the eye by this addition than it otherwise would have1 and because more water can be used in the can4 ,adulteration with ,sugar4--,it seems strange to speak of adulterating with sugar1 and yet the addition of sugar without notice to canned ,indian corn may become an adulteration4 ,it has already been mentioned that the nature of ,indian corn for canning purposes depends very largely upon its natural sugar content1 and when corn of the proper sweet variety is selected the addition of other sweetening material is unnecessary4 ,the use of sugar1 therefore1 in connection with canned ,indian corn serves to cover up the defects of a corn whose natural sweetness is below the standard and thus the consumer is deceived4 ,in addition to this1 attention is also called to the fact already stated that no artificial sweetening1 even with sugar1 can produce that delicate and desired saccharine quality which the natural sweet corn possesses4 ,the addition of sugar1 therefore1 to canned ,indian corn without the notice thereof being plainly stated on the label is not to be encouraged4 ,addition of ,saccharin4--,the use of benzoic sulfinid1 or1 as it is commonly known1 saccharin1 to canned corn unhappily is too often practiced4 ,this body1 which has no relation chemically or hygienically to sugar1 which is not a food1 which is wholly indigestible1 and which the majority of experts regard as harmful to health1 should never be placed in canned ,indian corn1 even if its use is notified upon the label4 ,it produces an intense1 but not agreeable1 sweet taste and yet one which the unwary consumer would naturally attribute to the sugar present in the corn itself4 ,thus the consumer is deceived1 and at the same time he is consuming a drug which has valuable uses in medicine but which should only be administered with the consent and by the advice of a physician4 ,it is believed that under the scrutiny of municipal1 state1 and national inspection the use of saccharin in food products will disappear4 ,moreover1 the name saccharin itself is misleading4 ,it is an application of a word which by common usage is attributed to natural sugar substances to a substance which has no relation of any kind to sugar4 ,the use of a word of this kind is evidently objectionable4 ,the canner himself who uses this product often buys it under another name1 which gives no indication of its true character4 ,character of the ,cans4--,it is important that the containers in which canned vegetables are preserved should be of a character to yield no poisonous or injurious substance to the contents therein4 ,what is said here in respect of canned ,indian corn is generally applicable to canned products of all descriptions4 ,the approved standards for food products in the ,united ,states require the following properties for the containers3 8,i4 ,suitable containers for keeping moist food products such as sirups1 honey1 condensed milk1 soups1 meat extracts1 meats1 manufactured meats1 and undried fruits and vegetables and wrappers in contact with food products contain on their surfaces1 in contact with the food products1 no lead1 antimony1 arsenic1 zinc1 or copper or any compounds thereof or any other poisonous or injurious substance4 ,if the containers are made of tin plate they are outside soldered and the plate in no case contains less than one hundred and thirteen 7#aac7 milligrams of tin on a piece five 7#e7 centimeters square or one and eight-tenths 7#a4h7 grains on a piece two 7#b7 inches square4 ,the inner coating of the containers is free from pin-holes1 blisters1 and cracks4 8,if the tin plate is lacquered1 the lacquer completely covers the tinned surface within the container and yields to the contents of the container no lead1 antimony1 arsenic1 zinc1 copper1 or any compounds thereof40 ,souring and ,swelling of ,canned ,corn4--,in all cases where sterilization is not complete1 or where spores remain undestroyed which afterward develop and produce various kinds of ferments1 the canned corn spoils4 ,the contents usually become sour and acquire a bad taste1 and1 in many cases1 on puncturing the container gas escapes4 ,the pressure of this gas in the can is sometimes great enough to produce a swelling1 and hence the technical term 8swelled0 applied to cans of this kind4 ,various forms of ferments are active in producing these conditions4 ,the usual alcoholic ferment does not usually occur by reason of the fact that the yeasts which produce this form of fermentation are readily destroyed in the sterilizing process4 ,ferments which produce lactic1 butyric1 and other acids1 and those which act upon the nitrogenous matter and tend to form various decomposition products are the most common4 ,in the case of canned corn and other canned vegetables the nitrogenous decomposed products are not usually very poisonous4 ,on the other hand in the case of meat1 and especially of fish and crustaceans1 the degradation products from the nitrogen constituents of the food become poisonous and are known collectively under the name of ptomains4 ,if the sterilization has not been complete at the time of preparation1 sweet corn as well as other foodstuffs in similar circumstances undergoes a kind of fermentation which renders it unfit for food4 ,the fermentation is usually due to the greater vitality of spores and fungi1 the real bacteria usually succumbing to the heat of preparation4 ,various gases beside carbon dioxid are produced1 causing the corn to swell4 ,all swelled goods should be rejected for food purposes4 ,canned ,peas and ,beans4--,these leguminous products lend themselves readily to canning purposes1 and are preserved in great quantities in the ,united ,states in this way4 ,peas are always shelled before canning1 and are harvested at a time to secure their greatest succulence4 ,if the peas be too ripe they make a hard1 unpalatable berry which detracts from the value of the canned product4 ,the smaller variety of pea is preferred to the larger for canning1 but1 irrespective of size1 they should be fresh1 succulent1 and not too mature4 ,in the large canning factories the peas are harvested with machines such as are used for the cereals4 ,the harvested material is passed through a shelling machine1 by means of which the pods are opened and the peas separated4 ,the rest of the pods1 stalks1 leaves1 etc41 are very valuable for cattle food or fertilizing purposes4 ,peas1 before canning1 should be separated into different sizes so that all those entering one can may be as nearly uniform in size as possible4 ,this separation not only makes the contents of the can appear more attractive but also renders the sterilization more certain and easy4 ,if a large and small pea are put in the same can the heat of sterilization must be high enough and continue long enough to sterilize completely the large pea1 and this might induce an over-cooking and impair the edible properties of the small one4 ,the technique of the canning process is not at all different except in the preparation of the material1 as described above1 from that of other vegetable canning factories4 ,composition of ,canned ,peas4--,the composition of typical varieties of canned peas compiled from a large number of analyses is shown in the following table3 ,water1 #he4dg percent ,fat1 4#ba ,fiber1 #a4ah ,protein1 #c4eg ,starch and sugar1 #g4gi ,ash1 #a4aa ,salt1 4#fg ,from the above data it is seen that the canned pea does not have a high nutritive value1 considering its bulk4 ,in the canned pea one of the principal food elements in the wet material is the protein which it contains1 both the pea and the bean being very rich in this important food material4 ,adulteration of ,canned ,peas4--,the principal form of adulteration which is practiced in the canning of peas is the addition of sulfate of copper for the purpose of producing an intense green color4 ,the delicate shade of green of the fresh1 succulent pea tends to assume a yellowish tint on canning1 and especially after keeping for some time4 ,to such an extent does this oxidation of the natural chlorophyl go on that in many samples when opened1 instead of a green1 we discover a decidedly yellowish tint4 ,when a copper salt1 such as sulfate1 is heated in contact with a nitrogenous substance1 such as that which exists in the pea1 a chemical combination is formed between the copper and nitrogenous bodies which has an intensely green tint4 ,it is often supposed that the sulfate of copper is added to canned peas to preserve their natural color4 ,this1 however1 is not the case4 ,the copper combination1 as above mentioned1 produces a dye of a very bright green hue4 ,sulfate of copper is a highly poisonous substance1 and for this reason should be excluded from food products4 ,it is only fair to state that those who use this material claim that in the form of the combination produced it remains insoluble during the process of digestion1 and therefore the copper is inert4 ,this claim is not sustained by the facts in the case4 ,it is quite certain that the copper product forming the dye or the excess of the copper which is used remains in a state of very unstable composition which is easily broken up under the action of the acids and enzymes in the digestive organs4 ,it is greatly to the credit of the canners of the ,united ,states that the use of sulfate of copper has never come into use in this country4 ,tests for ,copper4--,fortunately the presence of copper in canned peas is easily ascertained even by the novice4 ,if a portion of the peas be rubbed in a mortar to a fine paste and mixed with water acidulated with two or three drops of hydrochloric acid1 a paste will be formed which on boiling will deposit copper on a clean metallic substance such as silver1 steel1 or iron4 ,if a bright steel knife or a clean iron nail be placed in this paste1 the surface will soon be covered with metallic copper4 ,this simple test shows that the copper is not combined in any such permanent form as is claimed4 ,saccharin4--,the use of saccharin as an imitation of the natural sweet of the pea is1 unfortunately1 very largely practiced and is open to the same objections as were pointed out in the case of ,indian corn4 ,the use of sugar1 salt1 and other condimental substances in canned peas cannot be regarded as an adulteration unless deception results therefrom4 ,it is claimed there is no special variety of pea distinguished by its content of sugar1 and therefore the addition of sugar does not cause one variety of pea to imitate the properties of another4 ,if this be true no deception is practiced1 and1 if the sugar is pure1 no injury is done4 ,in all cases of this kind1 perhaps1 it would be better if the manufacturer would plainly mark on the label the name of the added materials4 ,then there could be no question of the nature of the product4 ,canned ,tomatoes4--,next1 perhaps1 in importance to the industry of canned corn1 is the preservation of tomatoes4 ,immense quantities of these goods are produced annually in the ,united ,states4 ,the technique of the canning process is not at all different from that of canned corn4 ,by reason of the pulpy condition of the material and its freedom from hard and impenetrable matter in the preparation for canning1 the sterilization is accomplished in less time and with greater certainty than in the case of ,indian corn4 ,preparation of the ,raw ,material4--,only fresh1 ripe1 mature1 and sound tomatoes should be used in the preparation of the canned goods4 ,these are delivered by the farmer or contractor in baskets or otherwise to the factory4 ,after sorting and rejecting all those that are unfit1 the portions selected for preservation are treated in the usual manner to secure sterilization4 ,the skins1 cores1 and rejected portions of the tomatoes should be removed to a sufficient distance from the factory to prevent any bad odor or danger of infection4 ,composition of ,canned ,tomatoes4--,the chemical composition of canned tomatoes is shown in the following analysis3 ,water1 #ic4ei percent ,fat1 4#bc ,fiber1 4#fj ,starch and sugar1 #c4dg ,protein1 #a4bi ,ash1 4#ff ,salt1 4#ad ,from the above data it is seen that the tomato is not particularly valuable on account of its nutrient properties4 ,it consists chiefly of water1 and its value as a food product is principally condimental4 ,it must not be denied1 however1 that it has that peculiar value which is possessed by all edible succulent vegetables and fruits1 namely1 it is a means of keeping the digestive processes in good form1 preventing constipation1 and promoting the general metabolic activity4 ,in this sense it is seen that it is more than condimental4 ,it also1 of course1 has a distinct food value1 due chiefly to the carbohydrates it contains4 ,addition of ,sugar and ,spices4--,sugar and other condimental substances are often used in the preparation of tomatoes4 ,in this case it is doubtful whether the addition of pure sugar can be regarded in any sense as an adulteration if properly notified on the label4 ,it is claimed that there is no distinction in the classification of tomatoes based upon their sugar content4 ,if there was a variety of distinctly sweet tomato as distinguished from the ordinary field crop1 then the addition of sugar to the field crop to imitate the sweet of the naturally sweet article would be an adulteration4 ,but even in this case unripe or imperfect tomatoes may be used and sugar added to conceal inferiority4 ,the use of common condimental substances1 such as salt1 spices1 vinegar1 etc41 in the preparation of various products of tomatoes must be regarded as a perfectly legitimate operation4 ,adulteration of ,canned ,tomatoes4--,fortunately there are few adulterations practiced in the case of canned tomatoes4 ,the use of antiseptics to insure the conservation of the contents of the can was formerly practiced to some extent1 salicylic and benzoic acids being the chief antiseptics employed4 ,since it has been made possible to easily1 speedily1 and economically sterilize the contents of the cans1 the use of antiseptics is practically a thing of the past4 ,the most common adulteration of tomatoes1 perhaps1 has been artificial coloring4 ,the use of artificial coloring is resorted to solely for deceptive purposes4 ,where green or immature tomatoes are used1 or other portions and parts of such fruits as are not suitable for the production of the highest grade products1 the naturally red color of the tomato is imitated artificially1 usually by the addition of cochineal or a coal tar dye4 ,the use of artificial color in canned tomatoes has almost ceased in this country4 ,saccharin is also sometimes used as an adulterant to imitate the properties of pure sugar4 ,it has already been intimated that green or unfit tomatoes or the residue of better grades are sometimes prepared and sold as the real article4 ,this is a form of adulteration which is most reprehensible4 ,unfortunately1 except in so far as the artificial color is concerned1 this adulteration is not readily revealed by either chemical or microscopic examination1 although the latter is exceedingly valuable in detecting certain forms of this kind of material4 ,only by a rigid inspection of the factories can this form of adulteration be excluded with certainty4 ,the use of such immature fruits or scraps without notice to the consumer is1 without doubt1 an adulteration of an exceedingly bad type4 ,if there be a desire to make a very cheap grade of the product out of these materials the nature of them should be plainly stated upon the label and then1 perhaps1 there would be a valid excuse for their appearance on the market4 ,other ,canned ,vegetables4--,there is no necessity to enter into the detail of the preparation of other canned vegetables further than to say that practically all vegetables which are offered on the market1 except those which are necessarily eaten in a raw state1 are preserved or can be preserved by the sterilizing process4 ,tomato ,ketchup4--,a sauce which is used in large quantities in the ,united ,states and in other countries is known as tomato ketchup and is manufactured in many parts of the country4 ,tomato ketchup is the pulp of sound1 ripe tomatoes mixed with various condimental substances and flavoring matters to make it palatable and desirable as a sauce4 ,the character of flavor and condimental substances employed is left to the judgment of the manufacturer and the taste of the consumer1 provided the materials are wholesome and sanitary4 ,it has been claimed by some manufacturers that it is impracticable to place this desirable product upon the market without the use of chemical antiseptics4 ,they admit1 as in the case of the manufacture of fruit sirups1 that tomato ketchup can be sterilized and kept properly until the bottle is opened for consumption2 but1 inasmuch as it is used in small quantities and a bottle of it lasts for many days1 it cannot be kept in a proper state except by the use of such preservatives4 ,the principal antiseptics which are used in connection with tomato ketchup are salicylic and benzoic acids4 ,experience has shown that these claims are not of sufficient value to warrant the exception of tomato ketchup from the ordinary regulations respecting pure food4 ,the habit of leaving a tomato ketchup bottle upon the table where the material adheres to the rim and becomes hardened to a gummy paste1 serving as a pabulum for flies1 does not appeal with any great force to the sthetic sense relative to dining rooms4 ,a ketchup bottle carefully opened and used in such a way as to avoid infection and then returned to the ice box can be kept for many days without danger of fermentation4 ,artificial ,colors4--,tomato ketchup is sometimes subjected to artificial coloring4 ,this is done to imitate the color of the best raw material4 ,if red1 ripe1 sound tomatoes are used no artificial color is necessary4 ,use of ,refuse for ,making ,ketchup4--,it has been stated that the ripe1 imperfect tomatoes at the time of harvesting are cooked in large quantities and treated with benzoic acid and stored in large containers until the canning season is over1 after which this material is made into ketchup and artificially colored4 ,further statements have also been made to the effect that the skins1 cores1 and refuse of the cannery have been treated in the same way as indicated below4 ,the proper inspection of the factories would exclude from the preparation of ketchup unfit material of the kind mentioned4 ,it is doubtless true that when the people are finally convinced that the ketchup which is used is made of the best material and contains no artificial color or no harmful antiseptic1 its use will be immensely increased4 ,a manufacturer of ketchup recently made the following statement respecting the utilization of the refuse matter at the cannery3 8,we use in our standard catsup the peelings and small tomatoes4 ,we preserve the pulp with four ounces of sodium benzoate to each #ej gallon barrel1 cooked and whipped through a cyclone pulp machine4 ,it takes two barrels of this stock to produce #fj gallons of catsup1 and we use eight ounces more of sodium benzoate to preserve it40 ,if waste material of this kind is sound and wholesome1 there can be no valid objection to its use if the product be offered for sale under its proper designation4 ,,starches ,,used ,,as ,,foods4 ,edible ,starches4--,attention has already been called to the fact that starch is the principal constituent of many of the common foods1 such as cereals and the different varieties of the potato and other vegetables4 ,starch is often separated from the part of the plant producing it1 and is then largely consumed as food in practically a pure state4 ,starches used in this way are presented in the form of pudding or desserts of some kind1 and are often richly spiced1 highly sweetened1 and often eaten with cream4 ,starch also appears in the market under other names such as tapioca1 arrowroot1 etc4 ,arrowroot4--,the plant which furnishes the substance known as arrowroot belongs to the natural family ,cannace and is principally native of tropical regions4 ,the most important source of the arrowroot of commerce is the ,canna indica4 ,the starch of this plant exhibits in a strong degree certain characteristic qualities of starches derived from this natural family4 ,the hilum in this starch is round and in some varieties double4 ,the appearance of this starch under the microscope is shown in ,fig4 #de4 ,the product of commerce is obtained from the rhizome and tubers4 ,bermuda ,arrowroot4--,the ,bermuda arrowroot is obtained principally from the ,maranta arundinacea4 ,this arrowroot is also produced very largely in ,st4 ,vincent and other ,west ,indian localities4 ,the granules of the starch are very much smaller than in the two species just described4 ,the hilum is prominent1 and frequently takes the shape of a well defined slit instead of the usual round spot4 ,these arrowroots and those of ,south ,african origin are very extensively used for invalid foods where starchy foods are indicated1 which1 however1 is not very often the case4 ,these starches form a firm and semitranslucent jelly-like body when heated to the boiling point in a small quantity of water4 ,the term arrowroot is applied to starch from plants of the origin mentioned because the natives of the country producing them use the bruised rhizomes as a poultice for wounds caused by arrows4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,,maranta 7,,arrowroot7 ,,starch 7 #bjj74--7;,courtesy ,bureau of ,chemistry47 ,canna edulis4--,this species of ,cannace also furnishes a starch of commerce nearly allied to the ,canna indica4 ,the common commercial name of this variety of starch is 8,tous les mois40 ,the starch granules of this species are rather larger than those of the ,canna indica1 and the concentric markings are more delicate and regular4 ,madagascar ,arrowroot4--,there is also produced in ,madagascar an arrowroot from a different form of plant1 namely ,tacca pinnatifida4 ,it is not1 however1 of any very great commercial importance4 ,a similar starch is made from the same plant in ,otaheite4 ,plantain ,meal4--,the plants of the natural family ,musace are important articles of food in many tropical regions1 the plant yielding also1 in addition to the starch1 fibers suitable for textile use4 ,the fruit of the ,musa paradisiaca is chiefly employed for this purpose4 ,it is quite similar in its character to the fruit of the allied species1 ,musa sapientum1 or common banana4 ,the starch granules which make up the plantain meal are remarkable for their long and narrow shape4 ,the lines marking their surface are only faintly distinguishable1 and the hilum is small and somewhat indistinct4 ,plantain meal is not used to any very great extent outside of the country where it is produced4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,a ,,cassava ,,field ,,in ,,georgia4--7,photograph by ,h4 ,w4 ,wiley47 ,sago4--,another form of starch which has a high value as a food product is made from the natural family ,palmace4 ,the palm starch or sago is consumed in immense quantities in many parts of the world1 and is probably in importance only second to the starch derived from the cereals as human food4 ,the starch granules are rather large and coarse1 although very many small granules are found mixed with them4 ,some of the larger granules appear to be partially divided or broken4 ,the hilum is distinct and very long4 ,the sago of commerce is like a tapioca made from the palm starch4 ,it has been subjected to heat while still moist in the process of manufacture1 so that it is quite difficult1 as a rule1 to find the distinct starch granules of the palm in the commercial article4 ,sago is grown principally in the ,moluccas and ,sumatra4 ,south ,african ,arrowroot4--,there are many species of ,marantace cultivated in ,south ,africa from which arrowroot is manufactured4 ,they are of the same variety as that used in ,bermuda and the ,west ,indies4 ,the cultivation of the plant has modified to some extent the action of the starch granules as originally found in the uncultivated plant4 ,the starch granules in the cultivated variety approach more nearly a spherical form4 ,the concentric lines are much more distinct and the hilum more prominent than in the wild variety4 ,tapioca4--,the most important of the starch products used as food is the tapioca4 ,it is made from the plant belonging to the natural family ,euphorbiace1 and is derived particularly from the variety of cassava plant known as ,manihot4 ,attention has been called to the fact that many of the varieties of cassava plant are highly poisonous1 due to the natural development during growth of hydrocyanic acid1 one of the most violent of known poisons4 ,this substance1 however1 is of quite a volatile character1 and when comminuted cassava root is heated or boiled1 all or at least the principal part of the hydrocyanic acid 7prussic acid7 disappears4 ,none of it or at least not more than a trace is found in the food product tapioca4 ,a comparatively sweet variety of cassava that is containing but a small proportion of prussic acid is grown in ,florida and ,georgia4 ,the appearance of a field of cassava is shown in ,fig4 #df4 ,the tapioca of commerce is prepared by the separation of the starch in the usual way by grinding and washing with water4 ,before the starch becomes dry1 in fact1 while it is still containing its maximum degree of moisture1 it is submitted to heat first at a low temperature1 gradually increased until the starch granules are disintegrated or agglutinated into a somewhat firm and gelatinous mass4 ,the heat is then continued at the proper temperature until the water is nearly all driven off4 ,the starch from this plant is sometimes known as ,brazilian arrowroot4 ,the starch granules of the bitter cassava are very small and often angular in shape1 although some of them appear as well rounded spheroids4 ,the hilum is1 as a rule1 clearly distinguished4 ,the microscopic appearance of the grains of cassava starch is shown in ,fig4 #dg4 ,adulteration of ,tapioca4--,the true tapioca should only be made from starch of the cassava4 ,any starch1 derived from any source whatever1 if taken in the moist state may be subjected to the same process of heating1 and forms an imitation tapioca which possesses many of the physical and probably all of the edible properties of the genuine article4 ,the substitution1 however1 of any of the other starches for that of the cassava is at least an imitation1 if not an adulteration1 of the genuine article4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,,cassava ,,starch 7 #bjj74--7;,courtesy ,bureau of ,chemistry47 ,food ,starches ,derived from ,cereals4--,the starches which are derived from the common cereals are also extensively used as food products1 especially the maize starch in the ,united ,states4 ,it is commonly sold as 8corn0 starch1 and is largely used for the purpose already mentioned4 ,it may be in its natural state or it may be previously submitted to the action of heat while still moist1 so that it takes on the character of tapioca or sago4 ,in the ,united ,states the ,indian corn is practically the only cereal which furnishes the food starch in very large quantities1 although rye starch is extensively used for this purpose in other countries4 ,the starches of certain of the legumes1 such as peas and beans1 have also been separated and used for food purposes4 ,they are not1 however1 used to any such extent as would warrant any especial reference to them at this point4 ,starch from the ,peanut4--,the peanut also yields a starch which has sometimes been separated and used for food purposes4 ,the quantity so employed1 however1 is of no consequence as far as magnitude of product is concerned4 ,food ,starch ,derived from the ,potato4--,potato starch is also used very extensively for food purposes1 either in its natural form or when subjected to heat while still moist1 as in the preparation of tapioca and sago4 ,adulteration of ,starches4--,the most common adulteration of starches is rather a misbranding than adulteration4 ,the practice of adding inert white powdered mineral matters to starches is practically unknown in this country4 ,starch sometimes contains sulfurous acid used as a bleach in its preparation4 ,this is an injurious substance and should be excluded from edible starches4 ,the naming of a starch of one kind by the name of another and more valuable kind is simple deception4 ,it is practiced to some extent in this and other countries4 ,starch itself may be used as an adulterant1 as when maize starch is mixed with wheat flour or powdered starch mixed with granulated sugar4 ,this kind of adulteration is quite unknown in this country4 ,the selling of cheaper starches for tapioca and sago is more common than it should be4 ,,condiments4 ,condiments other than ,sugar1 ,salt1 ,vinegar1 and ,wood ,smoke4--,the principal condimental substances which are used for food are of vegetable origin and of a highly aromatic character4 ,condimental substances themselves may have food value1 that is1 contain digestible material which takes part in the metabolic processes4 ,their utility1 however1 and their value do not depend upon the amount of food which they contain1 but upon their aromatic and condimental principles above mentioned4 ,condimental substances are used in a variety of ways1 but in general it may be said that in an air-dried state they are reduced to a fine powder and employed in this way4 ,extracts may also be made from these condimental substances1 either with water or usually with alcohol1 and this extractable matter used as a condiment4 ,the essential oils which they contain are also frequently separated by distillation1 and in this purified and concentrated state are1 after dilution with alcohol1 used for condimental purposes4 ,peppermint oil is a type of this character of condiments4 ,it will be sufficient for the purpose of this manual to mention the principal condimental substances and refer for the character of their composition to the standards of purity established for them under authority of ,congress in ,appendix ,a4 ,allspice1 also known as pimento1 is the dried fruit of the ,pimenta pimenta ,l4 ,anise4--,the anise is a plant which grows from #ad to #af inches in height4 ,its botanical name is ,pimpinella ,anisum ,l4 ,french1 anis2 ,german1 ,anis2 ,italian1 aniso2 ,spanish1 anis4 ,the anise produces abundant seeds1 which are the principal condimental part4 ,the seeds are used either directly in bread and other foods or especially in the manufacture of liqueurs and confections4 ,anise seed is one of the oldest of condimental substances of which historical account has been preserved4 ,bay leaf is the dried leaf of the ,laurus nobilis ,l4 ,in a powdered form it is used as a condimental substance in food1 but it is chiefly employed in flavoring alcohol in the manufacture of the material known as bay rum4 ,capers4--,the capers are obtained by drying the flower buds of the caper bush4 ,the botanical name is ,capparis spinosa ,l4 ,french1 caprier2 ,german1 ,kapernstrauch2 ,italian1 cappero2 ,spanish1 alcaparra4 ,the caper is a plant which is a native of southern ,europe of shrub-like proportions1 growing to a height of from three to five feet4 ,the flower buds are gathered when they are about as large as peas and are preserved by pickling in vinegar4 ,caraway4--,this is a plant which is native to ,europe1 is either annual or biennial1 and belongs to the botanical species ,carum ,carvi ,l4 ,french1 carvi2 ,german1 ,feld-,kmmel2 ,italian1 carvi2 ,spanish1 alcaravea4 ,the seeds contain the aromatic principles which make the caraway valuable as a condiment4 ,the plant often grows wild4 ,the roots have some value as food and are also highly spiced1 but are seldom eaten4 ,the seeds are used very largely for flavoring bread1 especially among the ,germans4 ,they are also used in certain varieties of cheese1 especially that made in ,holland4 ,often they are found in certain candies and other confections4 ,cassia is that variety of cinnamon obtained from other species of cinnamon than ,cinnamomum zeylanicum1 and is not so highly valued for condimental and other purposes as the true cinnamon4 ,cassia buds1 which are often used for condimental purposes1 are the dried immature fruit of any species of the cinnamomum plant4 ,the cinnamon1 as it is offered for condimental purposes1 is usually finely ground1 and the same is true of cassia4 ,celery ,seed4--,the seeds of celery are highly prized for condimental purposes1 either directly or in the form of an extract4 ,the seeds or their extracts are also often recommended for medicinal purposes4 ,cinnamon4--,the cinnamon is the bark of various species of plants belonging to the genus ,cinnamomum4 ,the true cinnamon is derived solely from the bark of ,cinnamomum zeylanicum ,breyne4 ,cloves4--,cloves are dried buds of the ,caryophyllus aromaticus ,l4 ,they are used either in the original dried state or as a finely ground powder4 ,coriander4--,the aromatic principles of coriander which is used for condimental purposes are the dried seeds of the ,coriandrum sativum ,l4 ,this is a plant which is indigenous to southern ,europe1 growing from two to two and a half feet high4 ,the seeds are used in the manufacture of liqueurs and for seasoning a great number of culinary preparations4 ,it is stated by some authorities that the leaves are used for condimental purposes1 but this is not the case4 ,the leaves as well as the other green parts of this plant have a very unpleasant odor from which the name of the plant is derived4 ,this odor is of a character which would exclude the leaves from use for condimental purposes4 ,cumin ,seed4--,the cumin plant 7,cuminum ,cyminum ,l47 is thought to be indigenous to ,egypt4 ,it is an annual plant1 sometimes growing from four to five inches high4 ,the seeds are the aromatic part and are used for condimental purposes4 ,they have a hot1 acrid taste and a strong aromatic flavor4 ,they are used chiefly for flavoring soups and in the manufacture of pastry of all kinds4 ,they are also found in many kinds of liqueurs4 ,dill4--,the dill plant 7,anethum graveolens ,l47 is indigenous to southern ,europe4 ,it is an annual plant and grows from two to two and a half feet high4 ,the seeds1 which are the condimental part of the plant1 are flat and have a strong and bitter flavor4 ,they are used in this country principally for flavoring a kind of pickle known as the dill pickle4 ,fennel4--,the fennel plant 7,fniculum fniculum ,l47 is indigenous to southern ,europe4 ,it grows both wild and under cultivation4 ,the common garden fennel is biennial in its habits4 ,the seeds contain the condimental properties of the plant1 and the seeds of the cultivated fennel are usually about twice as long as those of the wild variety4 ,they are flat on one side and convex on the other and crossed by thick yellow-colored ribs4 ,the seeds are used chiefly in the manufacture of liqueurs4 ,ginger4--,the ginger is the root of the plant ,zingiber zingiber ,l41 and is one of the most highly prized of the condimental substances4 ,it is a plant which naturally contains a large amount of starch1 which forms nearly half of its weight in the dried state4 ,the roots are often sent into commerce covered with lime1 either for the purpose of preserving them or bleaching them4 ,this is such a common condition that the limed ginger or bleached ginger is recognized as a legitimate article of commerce4 ,mace4--,the mace of commerce is composed of the dried arillus of ,myristica fragrans ,honttyn4 ,mace contains a large quantity of fatty substance1 usually not less than #bj nor more than #cj percent of its total weight4 ,there are several varieties of mace on the market1 the principal one being ,macassar mace1 which is obtained from the dried arillus of ,myristica argentea ,warb4 ,the ,bombay mace is derived from the dried arillus of ,myristica malabarica4 ,marjoram is the dried leaf of the plant known by the botanical name of ,majorana majorana 7,l47 ,karst4 or ,origanum vulgare ,l4 ,this plant is a native of ,europe and is a very common wild plant in ,france1 especially on the borders of the forests4 ,it is also extensively cultivated4 ,it is a perennial4 ,the leaves of the plant are the condimental portions4 ,a plant known as mountain mint is frequently sold as marjoram and has some of its condimental properties4 ,mustard4--,the mustard seed is derived from various species1 distinguished largely by the color of the seeds4 ,for instance1 the white mustard is the seed of ,sinapis alba ,l41 the black mustard the seed of ,brassica nigra 7,l47 ,koch1 and the black or brown mustard the seed of ,brassica juncea 7,l47 ,cosson4 ,the mustard is a widely distributed plant probably indigenous to ,europe4 ,it grows extensively wild and is also largely cultivated4 ,the mustard seed forms one of the most important condiments of commerce4 ,the mustard is often ground before it is sold1 and frequently it is mixed with other spices and with oils and is known as prepared mustard4 ,this latter variety is subjected to all kinds of adulterations1 frequently containing very little mustard but with enough turmeric to give the preparation a yellow color resembling that attributed to the pure article4 ,prepared mustard should be a thick paste composed largely of ground mustard seed together with salt1 spices of different kinds1 and vinegar4 ,it may also be ground in oil4 ,nutmeg4--,nutmeg is the seed of ,myristica fragrans4 ,the seed is sent into commerce with a thin coating of lime1 which1 of course1 must be removed before the nutmeg is used4 ,it is principally used as the unground nut and by grating it into the food which is to be flavored at the time of use4 ,the nut thus retains its flavor much better than when all ground at once and kept for some time4 ,there are many varieties of nutmeg on the market1 the principal ones being the ,macassar1 ,papua1 male1 and long nutmegs4 ,these are all the dried seeds of the ,myristica argentea4 ,pepper4--,pepper is one of the most important of the principal aromatic condimental substances4 ,there are many standard varieties which are known to the trade and which are derived from distinct botanical species4 ,the principal varieties are black pepper1 white pepper1 and paprika pepper4 ,black pepper is the dried immature berry of ,piper nigrum ,l4 ,white pepper is the dried mature berry of ,piper nigrum ,l4 from which the outer and the inner coatings of the seed have been removed4 ,paprika pepper is a red pepper of very mild aromatic qualities grown chiefly in ,hungary and in ,spain4 ,cayenne pepper is a very active aromatic red pepper which is the dried fruit of ,capsicum frutescens ,l4 or ,capsicum baccatum ,l4 ,the red peppers1 therefore1 may be divided into two distinct classes1 namely1 cayenne or hot1 acrid pepper and the paprika or mild-flavored pepper4 ,there is another variety of pepper known on the market as long pepper which is the dried fruit of ,piper longum ,l4 ,saffron is the dried stigma of ,crocus sativus ,l4 ,sage is a common garden plant which is very extensively used for condimental purposes1 belonging to the species ,salvia officinalis ,l4 ,sage is used very extensively by the housewife in the preparation of domestic sausage1 and is perhaps more commonly used in meat products of this description than in other foods4 ,savory or summer savory is a preparation from the leaf1 the blossom1 and tender tips of the branches of ,satureja hortensis ,l4 ,sweet ,basil4--,this plant is indigenous to ,india1 growing usually about one foot high4 ,the botanical name is ,ocymum ,basilicum ,l4 ,french1 basilic grand2 ,german1 ,basilikum2 ,italian1 basilico2 ,spanish1 albaca4 ,the leaves of the plant are the aromatic part and are extensively used for condimental purposes of different kinds4 ,there are many varieties of basil in use4 ,thyme4--,thyme is a plant indigenous to southern ,europe and belongs to the botanical species ,thymus vulgaris ,l4 ,it is a perennial plant and grows in the form of a small dwarf shrub4 ,the plant may be propagated either by cuttings or may be grown from the seed4 ,the leaves and young shoots of the thyme may be used for condimental purposes4 ,some other species of the thyme are also used for condimental purposes1 especially the varieties known as lemon thyme and mother-of-thyme4 ,vegetable ,flavoring ,extracts4--,in speaking of condimental substances it was stated that they were either used directly in a state of fine subdivision for flavoring purposes or their extracts were employed4 ,the use of the extract is often more convenient than the use of the powdered material1 and1 also1 it secures a more even distribution of the flavoring principal throughout the food product4 ,it is doubtful1 however1 if for really condimental purposes there is any advantage in the use of the extracted materials4 ,nevertheless there are many food products in which it would be inconvenient to use the powdered aromatic substance itself and the flavoring extract has become established as a legitimate article of a condimental nature4 ,all the common extracts used in foods are described in the standards of purity established by the ,secretary of ,agriculture by authority of ,congress1 and will be found in ,appendix ,a4 ,,fruits4 ,definition4--,under the term 8fruit0 is included the edible products of many trees and shrubs4 ,the term 8fruit0 in its general sense can be applied to any kind of a food product1 as for instance the fruit of the farm1 the fields1 and the forest1 but in a restricted sense1 as it will be used here1 it is applied to the class of orchard products represented by apples1 peaches1 pears1 etc4 ,fruits1 in a general sense1 include also that class of wild or cultivated edible bodies known as berries4 ,the term 8berry0 is restricted in its present sense to the products of certain small shrubs or vines1 such as gooseberries1 blackberries1 raspberries1 etc4 ,the fruits that grow upon small bushes1 such as the currant and gooseberry1 occupy an intermediate position between the orchard fruits which have been mentioned and berries4 ,orchard fruits are conveniently divided into large and small fruits1 the large fruits being represented by the apple1 pear1 peach1 quince1 etc41 and the small fruit by the cherry and plum4 ,fruits were doubtless among the earliest foods of man1 and this leads to another classification of fruits1 namely1 wild and cultivated4 ,wild fruits1 at the present time1 do not include any large proportion of human foods4 ,there are certain trees growing wild1 such as the mulberry1 the wild cherry1 and others1 which produce delicious fruits1 usually of small size4 ,the term 8fruit0 as used herein does not include that very valuable class of foods known as nuts1 which is considered under a separate classification4 ,general ,characteristics of ,fruits4--,the general characteristics of fruits include their color1 flavor1 odor1 and nutritive properties in so far as we are concerned with them in this manual4 ,they are composed very largely of water1 perhaps #hj percent or more4 ,the solid matter consists of the usual cellulose structure of vegetable bodies1 sugars1 gums1 organic acids1 and mineral matters4 ,fruits are all succulent1 that is1 by reason of their high content of water1 composed chiefly of matters in solution which constitute their juices4 ,all fruits1 therefore1 when subjected to pressure yield a juice which contains the principal portion of their dietetic constituents4 ,the study of the composition of the fruit juices would1 therefore1 naturally accompany a study of the fruits themselves4 ,the chief characteristics of fruit from a dietetic point of view and also a palatable standpoint are their sugars and acids4 ,the characteristic of taste depends on these two constituents principally4 ,in addition to this1 the fruits contain aromatic substances belonging to the class of essential oils and compound ethers which give to them the agreeable odor which adds so much to their value4 ,fruits are naturally colored and these colors1 to which the eye is accustomed1 become marks of distinction and excellence in many cases4 ,the prevailing colors of fruits are red1 yellow1 and green4 ,all shades of colors1 however1 are represented by the mingling of the primary tints4 ,certain colors are associated with certain fruits as1 for instance1 red with the cherry1 raspberry1 etc41 green1 red1 and yellow with apples1 and shades of red and yellow with peaches4 ,these colors are due to the different conditions of the chlorophyll or vegetable coloring matter which the skin of the fruit contains4 ,the three principal color tints which are produced are known as chlorophyll1 green1 xanthophyll1 yellow1 and erythrophyll1 red4 ,the mingling of these three distinct colors in the plant coloring matter forms the various tints which are seen in fruits and which render them so attractive to the eye4 ,the sugars in fruit include both the common sugar 7sucrose7 and invert sugar1 which contains equal quantities of dextrose and levulose4 ,as the sugar is more or less abundant in proportion to the other ingredients the fruit is more or less sweet4 ,the different fruits contain different quantities of sugar1--the richest perhaps is the grape which often in a state of complete maturity may have from #be to #cj percent of sugar4 ,apples contain from five to #ae percent of sugar1 and peaches and pears somewhat less4 ,in fact this range in sugar will cover nearly all the fruits1 large and small1 as well as most of the berries4 ,the quantity of sugar contained in each of the fruits will be especially noted in treating of them individually4 ,one of the most important constituents of fruit from a palatable point of view is found in its organic acids4 ,these vary in different classes of fruits4 ,the most common organic acid in fruit is malic1 which is the chief acid in the apple and allied forms4 ,in citrus fruits1 such as the lemon and orange1 citric acid is the principal organic acid4 ,in grapes the principal organic acid is tartaric4 ,more than one of these acids is1 however1 usually contained in a single fruit1 and other organic acids than those named are found in small quantities in various fruits4 ,the three mentioned may be regarded as the typical acids in fruits4 ,these acids1 if prepared chemically and administered in a pure state1 have practically no food value at all1 and cannot be considered as wholesome material to place in the stomach4 ,when1 however1 they are eaten in their natural state in combination with the potash and other bases which fruits contain1 and mingled1 as ,nature has done1 with the other constituents1 they add not only to the palatability but also to the wholesomeness of the product4 ,this is only another illustration of the fact that natural products are often wholesome and desirable where artificial products of the same kind chemically are hurtful and undesirable4 ,many fruits contain considerable quantities of a carbohydrate allied to some extent in its composition to sugar and starch but which has the property of setting to a semi-resilient mass known as jelly4 ,this constituent in fruit is known as pectin or pectose and is present in greater or less quantities in almost all fruits4 ,it is by the utilization of this component of fruit that the jellies which are so common an article of food are prepared4 ,while in its physical properties the jelly of fruits has some resemblance to the gelatine or jelly of animals1 its chemical composition and nutritive values are entirely different4 ,the gelatine or jelly of animals is essentially a nitrogenous product while the pectin or jelly of fruit is essentially a carbohydrate product4 ,the two1 therefore1 are not to be confounded4 ,nutritive ,uses4--,the edible fruits are not only valuable on account of the nourishment they contain but particularly so because of the general effect which they have upon the digestive operations4 ,their judicious use is conducive to health in many ways4 ,the fruits are mildly laxative1 as a rule1 although there are some exceptions to this4 ,for instance1 in some berries1 like the blackberry1 the quantity of tannin present is sufficient to cause a styptic or binding action4 ,while all the fruits contain tannin it is usually not in such proportions as to produce a constipating effect4 ,on the other hand the combination of the acids1 bases1 pectins1 and sugars favors a free and natural progress of the food through the alimentary canal4 ,the entire withdrawal of fruit from the dietary1 even if the nourishment it supplies be provided in some other way1 would work great damage to health4 ,there are certain dangers1 however1 to be avoided in the general use of fruit4 ,immature and imperfect fruits are unwholesome4 ,fruits are often subjected1 moreover1 to infection with eggs of various kinds of insects1 and these organisms and the larv or eggs thereof may be introduced into the stomach with more or less injurious effects4 ,in the eating of fruit1 care should be exercised in the inspection and proper preparation of the article2 it should be free from infection1 decay1 and insect life4 ,the natural condition in which fruit is eaten is in the raw state1 and in general it may be said that this is the more wholesome and preferable way of eating it4 ,on the other hand the cooking of fruit sterilizes it and makes the consumer secure against any infection from bacteria and insect life1 and in some ways promotes to a certain degree the digestive processes4 ,this is especially true of fruits of a hard or unyielding nature4 ,cooked fruits1 as a rule1 may be considered less desirable than the natural article1 but they deserve mention on account of their freedom from infection1 wholesomeness1 and general dietetic value4 ,some fruits1 such as apples and pears1 contain notable quantities of starch1 especially in the immature state1 and this disappears to a greater or less extent during the process of ripening4 ,at the period of complete maturity the starch is reduced to a minimum and the sugar in the fruit reaches a maximum4 ,after this period the fruit begins to lose in dietetic value1 due to the natural process of decay1 which is not even entirely checked by placing the fruit in cold storage4 ,the sugar gradually ferments and disappears4 ,the fruit becomes more spongy and less palatable and its general properties are impaired4 ,other fruits1 such as the orange and lemon1 berries1 etc41 contain little or no starch at any period of their growth4 ,by careful storage the period of maturity may be prolonged for weeks or even months1 and thus the fruit made available over a very much longer period than would otherwise be the case4 ,under the existing conditions of communication with all parts of the world it is not impracticable for even those who are not blest with wealth to have a daily supply of fresh fruits grown in different parts of the world4 ,in temperate climes fresh fruits are available from ,june until ,may of the following year1 either furnished directly from the orchard or properly preserved by storage4 ,apples4--,the apple is one of the principal fruits in the market both for its crop value and for its general properties4 ,it is the most abundant as well as the most valuable of fruits4 ,the apple is grown practically in all parts of the ,united ,states1 but there are some localities in which the apple tree flourishes in great abundance4 ,among the states which are famous for apple growing may be mentioned ,new ,york1 ,virginia1 ,michigan1 and ,missouri4 ,the varieties of apples are so numerous that it will be useless to attempt to mention them4 ,some of the most important are the ,ben ,davis1 the ,pippin1 the ,winesap1 ,jonathan1 ,rhode ,island ,greening1 ,york1 ,albemarle ,pippin1 ,clayton1 ,early ,harvester1 ,sweet ,june1 ,tompkins ,king1 ,northern ,spy1 ,russet1 ,yellow ,bellflower1 etc4 ,acidity of ,apples4--,one of the chief points in the palatability of apples as well as in their general character is their acidity4 ,while apples are not relished when too sour they are as little relished when too sweet4 ,the sugar and acid in apples are the chief factors in their palatability1 not excluding the delicate flavor imparted by essential oils and ethereal substances which1 though present in such small quantities as not to be measured chemically1 nevertheless are highly important in making up the total effect of palatability and wholesomeness4 ,the chief acid in apples is malic4 ,it exists during all periods of the growth of the apple1 but is more apparent in the green and immature state than in the ripe fruit4 ,the relative quantity of malic acid in respect of sugar and starch is given under the heading of 8,behavior of ,apples ,during ,storage40 ,adulteration of ,apples4--,there is1 of course1 no adulteration of apples in their natural state except the attempt which is sometimes made to deceive the purchaser respecting the character of the whole package by placing the best and most attractive fruit on the top4 ,this is such a well known practice1 though regrettable1 as not to demand any particular comment4 ,the purchaser who has his own interest at stake will usually inspect the bottom as well as the top of the package before buying4 ,the chief forms of debasement are those which are not practiced with any attempt to deceive4 ,they consist in offering apples which are bruised by carelessness in gathering1 or which are infected by insect life4 ,in fact the greatest damage to which the apple is subject is that of the ravages of insects4 ,there are certain kinds of insects which naturally breed in the apple4 ,the egg is often laid in the early development of the fruit and by the time the apples are ready for consumption the larv stage has been reached and the worm has produced ravages to a great extent which are often not indicated by any external appearance4 ,it is evident that the farmer cannot be held responsible in all cases for this condition of the fruit4 ,nevertheless it is only fair to state that in the modern development of the spraying industry the ravages of insect pests can be restrained and controlled1 if not entirely prevented1 by the proper spraying of the fruit4 ,this spraying introduces another danger which cannot be forgotten1 namely1 the remaining upon the surface of the fruit of some of the spraying material itself4 ,if present at all this material is apt to be either at the point of the junction of the stem with the fruit or at the opposite extremity of the apple4 ,for this reason the fruit when eaten raw should be peeled in order that any remaining particles of the poisonous material used in spraying may be removed4 ,it is to the interest of the merchant to present fruit of this kind in the most attractive form1 by the exclusion of bruised1 rotten1 or infected apples and the offering of the sound1 ripe fruit in as presentable a condition as possible4 ,composition of ,apples at ,various ,stages of ,maturity4--,the following table shows the analysis made of one variety of apple1 the ,baldwin1 at various stages of maturity3 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,acidity ,,as ,,malic ,,invert ,,cane ,,acid4 ,,condition4 ,,solids4,,sugar4,,sugar4,,starch4,,per ,,cent4 ,,ash4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- cent4cent4cent4 cent4 cent4 cent4 ,very green1 #ah4dg #f4dj #a4fc #d4ad #a4ad #j4bg ,green1 #bj4ai #f4df #d4je #c4fg 4444 4444 ,ripe1 #ai4fd #g4gj #f4ha 4#ag 4#fe 4#bg ,overripe1 #ai4gj #h4ha #e4bf ,none 4#dh 4#bh ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,the chief point of interest in the above analysis is the gradual decline of the starch4 ,when the apple is overripe the starch is entirely gone4 ,when the apple is ripe only a small part of the starch is found4 ,in the green apple very large quantities of starch are found4 ,the sugar increases as the starch diminishes4 ,there is a little over #ad percent of sugar in the perfectly ripe apple but much less in the green4 ,the acidity calculated as malic acid diminishes as maturity is approached4 ,in general it may be said that in the ripening of an apple the starch is converted into sugar and the acidity is diminished4 ,the composition of apples varies very greatly1 as may be easily understood1 with the variety of the apple examined1 the character of the season in which it grew1 and with the individual apple or sample4 ,the best that can be done in showing the composition of apples is to give some of the most reliable analyses1 covering the largest range of examinations in this and other countries4 ,in the following table are given three sets of analyses of ,american apples and two sets of foreign apples1 the first three being ,american and the second series being foreign4 ,the table gives the number of samples included in the analytical data1 and the mean1 maximum1 and minimum results of the analyses4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,acidity ,,no4 ,,ex- ,,pro- ,,of ,,pressed ,,tein ,,re- ,,sam- ,,total ,,as ,n ,,ducing ,,cane ,,crude ,,ples4,,solids4 ,,ash4 ,h,,so4 #f4be4,,sugar4,,sugar4,,fiber4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per-,per- cent4cent4 cent4cent4cent4cent4cent4 ,series #a3 ,average1 #ac4gg 4#bdj 4#cgf 4#eij #g4jd #d4ei 4444 ,maximum1 #ac #af4dg 4#cbj 4#fgj 4#hjf 4444 #g4gi 4444 ,minimum1 #i4cg 4#agj 4#aij 4#cef 4444 #a4hj 4444 ,series #b3 ,average1 #af4dc 4#bg 4#dhf 4444 #g4ib #c4ii 4444 ,maximum1 #bg #bc4cf 4#cd 4#haa 4444 #aa4ge #f4ha 4444 ,minimum1 #ac4df 4#ag 4#jgc 4444 #e4cd #a4gd 4444 ,series #c3 ,average1 #ac4fe 4#bhh 4#deb 4#fid #h4gc #a4ec #j4if ,maximum1 #bc #af4ee 4#djd 4#hfc #a4jid #aj4hj #b4ha #a4bi ,minimum1 #aj4fj 4#bbh 4#aci 4#dba #f4hi 4#ae 4#gj ,,foreign ,,variety4 ,series #a3 #ag #af4db 4#caj 4#fad 4#ci #g4gc 4444 #a4ih ,series #b3 ,average1 #ae4jg 4#bij 4#bcd 4444 #aj4ab 4#ee 4444 ,maximum1 #e #af4jc 4#cfj 4#cbi 4444 #aj4fi #a4aa 4444 ,minimum1 #ad4jd 4#bdj 4#aij 4444 #i4gg ,none 4444 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,the combination of the average data of the ,american series shows a mean percentage of reducing or invert sugar of #g4ij and of cane sugar of #c4dj4 ,the average ,american apple therefore contains #aa4cj percent sugar4 ,dietetic ,value4--,the wholesomeness of apples is well recognized by all authors on physiology and hygiene1 and the necessity of at least a partial fruit diet is acknowledged by all4 ,inasmuch as the apple is one of the most abundant of fruits1 being produced in enormous quantities and sold often at a very low rate1 its value as a food product is probably not as fully acknowledged by our own people as it should be4 ,through a greater part of the year apples can be made a staple article of diet4 ,they are1 of course1 to be most highly recommended uncooked1 and especially those varieties which have high palatable qualities and a suitable softness of texture4 ,very hard apples1 even if palatable1 are not recommended for eating raw4 ,in a cooked state the apples are scarcely less wholesome and nutritious than in the raw state4 ,it is true that in pastry their good qualities are often counteracted by the poor quality of the pastry envelop which1 by reason of the method of its preparation1 usually with an excessive quantity of lard or some other oil or fat1 is rendered sometimes not only unpalatable but also difficult of digestion4 ,in a stewed condition or prepared in some other unobjectionable manner no adverse criticism can be made upon the quality of the apple as an edible product4 ,it may also be preserved in cans by sterilization by the process described under canned fruits4 ,in this condition the product is known as 8canned apples40 ,when prepared in this way the apples are often flavored with sugar and sometimes with spices4 ,many suggestions are often given as to the proper time for eating apples1 but it probably makes little difference1 so far as their dietary or hygienic character is concerned1 whether they are eaten before or after meals or during meals4 ,since it is advisable1 as a rule1 not to introduce into the stomach continually fresh portions of food1 it may be regarded as safe advice to suggest that the consumption of fruit be made practically a function of the meal and that it be not used indiscriminately1 loading the stomach between meals with additional quantities of material which require digestion4 ,length of ,harvest4--,by selecting varieties that mature early in the summer1 in the early autumn1 and in the late autumn the period for harvesting apples may be prolonged in the northern states from ,august to ,november4 ,during this period1 if the different varieties are properly selected for the maturing time1 the ripe apple can be offered to the markets fresh from the tree during the entire season4 ,as a rule the later maturing varieties are more palatable1 more aromatic1 and more nutritious than those that mature early4 ,pectose ,content of ,apples4--,the juice of apples like the juice of many other fruits has the property of coagulating to a solid or semi-solid material on boiling to a proper consistence and allowing to stand4 ,it is due1 essentially1 to the existence of pectin or pectose bodies as described in the introduction on the chapter on fruits4 ,this is a body allied to the carbohydrates and must be regarded as one of the essential constituents of apples and as imparting to them a characteristic flavor and quality4 ,picking and ,care of ,apples4--,the greatest difficulty experienced in marketing apples is in the danger of bruising either at the time of picking or during transportation4 ,the apple when removed from the tree still remains a living organism with all of its functional activities1 except additional growth1 continuing in full power4 ,as a rule1 at the time of picking the apple is not yet mature1 and unless intended for immediate consumption the utmost care should be exercised that the skin be not broken or the flesh bruised4 ,wherever the flesh of the apple is bruised it lessens its vitality and decay soon begins4 ,this is shown very conclusively in the studies in the ,bureau of ,chemistry1 where it was found that the starch which is still present in apples at the time of picking is gradually converted into sugar during the storage of the apple1 thus increasing the palatability of the fruit4 ,in those parts of the flesh that have been bruised and the vitality impaired the starch remains unchanged during the process of ripening4 ,by the careful picking of the fruit and wrapping in soft papers1 so as to prevent bruising in transit1 apples of the proper character can be transported long distances1 even beyond the seas1 and arrive in good condition4 ,this is an especially important fact in the ,american product1 because our foreign trade in fresh apples is very large and constantly growing4 ,it is useless to attempt to send a bruised or decaying apple on a long journey1 since it will arrive in a condition unfit for consumption and1 further than this1 the organisms which are active in decay are conveyed to the sound fruit1 and thus a whole package may be infected from a single apple in bad condition4 ,storage of ,apples4--,the apple is a crop which is capable of being stored through many months1 especially in winter time1 without any material deterioration4 ,the subject of the storage of apples has been carefully studied in the ,bureau of ,chemistry and the ,bureau of ,plant ,industry1 and the following are some of the conclusions which have been reached3 ,tannin ,principle4--,apples1 as is the case with other fruits1 have a notable content of tannin in some form4 ,this constituent of apples is also active in giving flavor and palatability to the product4 ,it is not present in quantities which render the apple unusually bitter or styptic in its character4 ,inasmuch as tannin is practically a universal constituent of all vegetable substances it must not be neglected as a normal constituent of fruit1 while some of the fruits1 especially the grape1 owe some of their chief characteristics as to flavor and palatability to their tannin content4 ,preparation of ,apples for ,drying4--,the apples usually are brought to the large factories in wagons or by railway and are pared and sliced by machinery4 ,where proper control is exercised all the imperfect1 rotten1 and infected apples are rejected1 and are used either for cattle feeding or sometimes1 unfortunately1 in cider making4 ,the sound apples1 after they are pared and sliced1 are placed in trays and passed to a sulfuring apparatus where they are exposed to the fumes of burning sulfur to prevent their becoming dark upon evaporation4 ,in other words it is essentially a bleaching process4 ,the fumes of sulfur are also strongly antiseptic in character1 and thus the finished product is less likely to decay or become infected with mould than a similar product not exposed to the fumes of sulfur4 ,this process is extensively practiced1 but its extent does not render it immune from proper criticism4 ,of #bd samples of evaporated fruits purchased on the open market #ac samples had been treated with sulfur fumes4 ,this shows that over #ej percent of evaporated fruits are sulfured during the process of preparation and evaporation4 ,the greater number of physiological and hygienic experts agree that the fumes of burning sulfur1 commonly known as sulfurous acid1 are injurious to health4 ,it has been shown by researches in the ,bureau of ,chemistry that sulfurous acid or sulfites have a specific influence upon the red corpuscles of the blood1 tending to diminish them very largely in relative numbers4 ,this acid has also many other influences upon metabolism of an objectionable character4 ,the question is one worthy of very careful consideration--whether for the sake of preserving a light color and securing immunity from mould or decay it is advisable to introduce into a food product any quantity whatever of a substance injurious to health4 ,the answer to this question seems almost unavoidable1 and it is1 and should be1 negative4 ,it is highly advisable that the manufacturer of evaporated apples1 as well as other fruits treated in a similar manner1 should at once begin a series of experimental determinations for the purpose of ascertaining whether or not a product equally as palatable and more wholesome cannot be made without the use of sulfurous acid4 ,the result of this investigation cannot be doubted4 ,there is no doubt whatever1 even at the present time1 that by the elimination of the sulfuring process a product can be made which is far more wholesome1 although perhaps not so presentable as that which is now made4 ,if all manufacturers of evaporated fruits practice the same method there can be no injury in the market as a result of a darker color which the finished product would assume4 ,on the contrary the consumer of this product would soon understand that the darker color was due to a more hygienic method of preparation1 and hence the product would be commended in such a way as doubtless to enter more largely into consumption4 ,instead of the manufacturer being injured by the prohibition of the use of sulfur he would in a very short time be greatly benefited4 ,it is hoped that by the means of general information which is spread abroad concerning matters of this kind among our people and also through the operations of national and state laws the use of injurious substances1 such as the fumes of burning sulfur in connection with food products1 may be entirely discontinued4 ,dried ,apples4--,a very important industry in this country is the preservation of apples by drying or evaporation4 ,the term 8dried0 apples is usually applied to the product which is naturally dried by cutting the apples into convenient sizes and exposing them to the action of the sun4 ,this is more of a domestic than a commercial industry1 and until the introduction of artificial drying was practiced very generally by the farmers' wives of the country4 ,it was not an unusual thing in the autumn to see the roofs of smoke houses or kitchens practically covered with sliced apples exposed to the drying influence of the autumnal sun4 ,in such cases care must be exercised always to have the exposed articles under such control as to enable them to be gathered up and put away when rain is threatening4 ,the dried apple is a wholesome fruit1 although somewhat unattractive in appearance owing to the darkening of the surface during the long exposure necessary to secure the proper degree of evaporation4 ,when properly prepared the dried apple has its moisture content reduced to approximately #cj percent or less4 ,evaporated ,apples4--,the term 8evaporated0 is applied to apples produced on the same principle as 8dried10 but instead of being exposed to the heat of the sun they are artificially dried by evaporation4 ,this industry has reached a great magnitude in this country1 and ,wayne ,co41 ,new ,york1 especially1 may be regarded as one of the centers of the evaporating industry4 ,cherries4--,the cultivated cherry tree is believed by ,bailey and ,powell to have been derived from its ancestral type1 the sour cherry 7,prunus cerasus ,l471 which is characterized by a diffuse and mostly low1 round-headed growth with fruit which is always red1 with soft flesh and very sour taste1 and from the sweet cherry 7,prunus avium ,l471 a tall growing tree with the bark tending to peel off in birch-like rings and with variously colored fruit1 spherical or heart-shaped1 with the flesh hard or soft and generally sweet4 ,there are a great many varieties of these trees4 ,the cherry orchard begins to bear profitably at about the age of five years2 the trees often live to a great age and continue to bear fruit4 ,records of cherry trees over a hundred years old are known4 ,however1 it is believed that about thirty years is the limit for profitable bearing4 ,cherries grow in all parts of the ,united ,states4 ,formerly the crop was a very important one in the ,east1 especially ,new ,york1 but of late years the ,california cherries have been more and more occupying the market4 ,as a rule the ,california cherries are finer in appearance1 larger1 and freer from worms and imperfections1 and possess a flavor which is often equal to that of the best flavored cherries grown in the ,east4 ,composition of ,cherries4--,what has been said respecting the variations in the composition of apples is applicable with equal force to cherries4 ,in the following table is given first the mean composition of six samples of cherries of ,american origin with the maximum and minimum4 ,following this is the mean composition of nine samples of foreign cherries4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,acidity ,,ex- ,,pro- ,,no4 ,,of ,,pressed ,,tein ,,sam- ,,total ,,as ,n ,,total ,,ples4,,solids4 ,,ash4 ,h,,so4 #f4be4,,sugars4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,per-,per- ,per- ,per- cent4cent4 cent4cent4 ,american origin3 ,average1 #bj4ac 4#ddc 4#dcb #a4dbe #aa4aj ,maximum1 #f #ch4hd 4#eba 4#fje #a4gbg #ab4ge ,minimum1 #aa4df 4#djc 4#cbh #a4ajj #h4ih ,foreign origin3 ,average1 #i #ai4gd 4#gc 4#ffe 4#fbj #aj4bd ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,the data show that the average quantity of insoluble matter in cherries is about the same whether of ,american or foreign origin4 ,the total solids represent that part of the cherry which is not water1 including principally the cellulose1 the ash1 and the protein4 ,the quantity of protein1 as is seen1 is quite small1 the average being a little less than #a percent4 ,the total sugar present1 including cane sugar and reducing sugar1 is a little over #aa percent4 ,the analytical table does not give the minute portions of essential oils1 ethereal substances1 and acids to which the juice owes its distinctive flavor4 ,varieties4--,there are a great many trade-names given to different varieties of cherries4 ,in ,new ,york the common varieties are the ,black ,tartarian1 ,black ,eagle1 ,napoleon1 ,yellow ,spanish1 ,windsor1 ,may ,duke1 ,robert's ,red ,heart1 ,governor ,wood1 ,early ,richmond1 etc4 ,a great many cherry trees are also grown in ,iowa4 ,the varieties most prized in ,iowa are the ,malaheb1 the ,mazzard1 ,wild ,bird ,cherry1 ,sand ,cherry1 ,american ,morello1 ,russian ,seedling1 ,northwest1 ,duchess d',angoulme1 and very many others4 ,in ,virginia the principal varieties1 in addition to those mentioned1 which are cultivated1 are the ,coe1 ,early ,purple1 ,kirtland ,mary1 ,rockport1 ,olivet1 ,philippe1 etc4 ,the cherry owes one of its chief values to the fact that it is one of the first orchard fruits to ripen4 ,in the vicinity of ,washington cherries ripen in ,may1 and further north not later than ,june4 ,the cherry1 therefore1 offers a delicious and wholesome fruit early in the season1 and is the precursor of the crops of orchard fruits which begin early in ,may and last until the frosts of autumn4 ,it is eaten raw1 stewed1 or in the form of pie or pudding4 ,for cooking purposes it is desirable that the pit of the cherry be removed4 ,grapes4--,there is no fruit more highly esteemed in this and other countries than grapes4 ,the utilization of grapes for wine making is reserved for discussion in the companion volume to the present manual devoted to beverages4 ,table grapes are grown extensively in this country in ,new ,york1 ,ohio1 ,virginia1 ,missouri1 and ,california4 ,in fact1 such grapes are grown in almost every state1 but those mentioned embrace the principal grape-growing districts4 ,the ,catawba and ,delaware varieties are the chief products of the northern vineyards4 ,many other varieties are produced in ,california1 such as the ,tokay1 ,muscat1 and ,malaga1 while in the ,south one of the principal varieties is the ,scuppernong4 ,the oldest grape vine known in the ,united ,states is the original ,scuppernong stock4 ,i am indebted to ,dr4 ,b4 ,w4 ,kilgore1 of ,raleigh1 ,n4 ,c41 for the following description of the vine and also for ,fig4 #dh4 8,,the ,,scuppernong ,,vine ,,on ,,roanoke ,,island1 ,,north ,,carolina4 8,the old scuppernong grape vine on ,roanoke ,island is probably the oldest fruiting plant in ,america--certainly one of the oldest of which there is definite knowledge4 ,a clear record of it begins in #agig1 when the land on which it was growing was purchased by ,maurice ,baum4 ,previous to his purchase nothing definite is known as to its age or to whom it belonged1 save the fact that it was then a very old vine1 as ,maurice ,baum was told by his father that he had eaten grapes from it when a boy4 ,from ,maurice ,baum the estate1 of which the vine was a part1 descended to his daughter1 ,mahala1 and from her to ,benjamin ,f4 ,meekins1 her son1 who is the present owner4 8,the vine is situated on the northern end and on the eastern shore of the island1 about two miles south of the supposed site of ,fort ,raleigh4 ,it covers an area of about one-fourth of an acre1 and as far back as can be remembered its growth has been stationary1 probably due to a lack of proper training and inducement to spread4 ,the vine has five large trunks averaging two feet in circumference which are indescribably gnarled and twisted4 ,it is still vigorous and yields abundantly1 seemingly unaffected by age in this respect4 ,a conservative estimate of its yield is an average of sixty bushels of grapes a season40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,,scuppernong ,,grape ,,vine1 ,,roanoke ,,island4--7,courtesy ,b4 ,w4 ,kilgore47 ,there is no part of the country1 however1 that grows grapes so abundantly as ,california4 ,many thousands of acres are covered with vines1 both for table use and wine making4 ,the climate is remarkably well suited to produce a grape very rich in sugar4 ,the edible grapes do not have so high a content of sugar as those used for wine making1 as is shown by the data below4 ,composition of ,california ,grapes 7three samples7 7edible portion73 ,water1 #hj4ab percent ,protein1 #a4bf ,sugar1 #af4ej ,pure ash1 #j4ej ,fat1 fiber1 etc41 #a4fb ,the preceding analyses are evidently of grapes for table use4 ,the juice of the wine-making grapes of ,california1 according to the composition of the wine1 contains about #bd percent of sugars4 ,the luxurious growth of the vine in ,california is illustrated by ,fig4 #di1 showing a scene in a vineyard near ,fresno1 ,california4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,,vineyard ,,near ,,fresno1 ,,california4--7,photograph by ,h4 ,w4 ,wiley47 ,peaches4--,one of the most valued orchard fruits in the ,united ,states is the peach4 ,the peach is a tree which is particularly sensitive to the environment in respect of bearing a crop4 ,in many localities where peaches have once been valuable they have ceased to produce with any regularity1 which renders the planting of an orchard inadvisable4 ,the principal danger in the peach tree is the too early blooming and the exposure of the tender fruit to late frosts4 ,the peach tree is also subject to many forms of disease1 one of which1 namely1 the yellows1 has baffled up to the present time the efforts of the experts to diagnose and treat4 ,in planting a peach orchard experience has shown that it is well to plant the trees upon high ground or upon the sides of hills4 ,by being placed on high ground near deep ravines it has been found that the chilling of the air1 which would naturally come with frosts1 makes the air heavier1 so that it rolls down into the valleys1 replacing the air on the hills with fresh portions unchilled and thus protecting the high ground from frost while the low ground is chilled below the freezing point4 ,everyone must have noticed1 especially in the autumn at the time of the first frosts1 that the vegetation in low lying land is usually killed before that on the adjacent hills4 ,the peculiar susceptibility of the peach tree to the environment mentioned above has practically confined the culture of peaches to certain definite localities1 as for instance to ,michigan1 ,connecticut1 ,delaware1 ,maryland1 ,tennessee1 and ,georgia4 ,the danger of late frosts of course does not attach to the peach tree grown in ,california and similarly situated localities4 ,at the present time ,georgia is probably the most important peach-growing state in the ,union1 both on account of the reasonable certainty of the crop and also because of the early date at which the peach can reach the markets of the large cities of the east and central portions of our country4 ,many attempts have been made to protect the peach tree against the danger of premature blossoming and consequent exposure to the late frosts4 ,in the cultivation of the trees it has been desirable to secure a variety which blooms as late in the spring as possible4 ,the building of fires around a peach orchard in the spring when a frost is imminent has sometimes protected the orchard from disaster4 ,this process is known as smudging4 ,another method of protecting the trees from the danger of late frosts is by whitewashing4 ,the colors which absorb heat most readily are black and purple4 ,white is one of the best protections by reason of its reflective power4 ,a whitewashing of the branches of the trees and in fact of all the tree has been practiced with some success as retarding the early bloom of the buds4 ,elaborate studies of this method of treatment have been carried on by the ,missouri station1 and it has been developed that there is a considerable difference between the temperature of whitewashed and unwhitewashed peach twigs4 ,the whitewash is therefore recommended as a means of retarding the development of the buds4 ,the whitewashed trees bloom from a week to ten days later than those which are not thus treated4 ,it is reasonably certain that by means of this kind or by cultivation a peach tree may be produced in any given locality which will put forth its buds from a week to ten days later than the normal period of blooming in that neighborhood4 ,in regions where the winters are severe1 the development of the tree in the early spring may also be prevented by placing straw round about it when the ground is frozen4 ,the straw protects the frozen ground from rapid thawing and thus delays the development of the buds4 ,the varieties of peach trees are legion1 and it is useless to try to name them here4 ,some of the varieties most prized in ,georgia are the ,bishop1 ,champion1 ,crawford's ,early1 ,chinese ,free1 ,crimson ,beauty1 ,crosby1 etc4 ,composition of the ,peach4--,naturally1 the peach varies greatly in its composition according to the variety1 environment1 and general accidental conditions4 ,its chief characteristics1 of course1 are the acid which it contains1 its sugar content1 and the taste and aroma due to the essential oils1 ethers1 etc41 which are developed with proper delicacy in the fruit4 ,the peach also has a distinct flavor associated with small quantities of hydrocyanic acid4 ,this poisonous compound is developed in considerable quantities in the kernel of the fruit1 and there are sufficient traces of the flavor above mentioned in the fruit itself to give a distinct and characteristic taste4 ,the mean composition of some of the different varieties of peaches is given below3 ,water1 #hh4a percent ,protein1 4#g ,fat1 4#a ,ash1 4#g ,sugar and other carbohydrates1 #aj4h ,free and ,cling ,peach4--,peaches may be divided into two great classes in respect of persistence with which the flesh adheres to the pit of the fruit4 ,peaches in which the flesh is separated easily from the pit1 leaving the external surface of the pit dry and clean1 are called freestones1 while in the other variety1 where the flesh is firmly attached to the pit and on the removal of the flesh a portion adheres thereto1 the term 8clingstone0 is applied4 ,there is probably no difference in the value of the two varieties1 but by reason of the ease with which the freestone peach can be utilized for eating and cooking purposes it is sometimes preferred4 ,since the development of rapid means of transportation and the effective manner of cold storage the peach is exposed in the city markets from early spring to late autumn4 ,the peaches in ,florida are ready for the market in ,may and in ,georgia from ,june on1 while in the north the peach ripens at later periods up to ,october4 ,in fact in the north the late peaches are esteemed as better in flavor and quality1 and especially suitable for canning and preserving purposes4 ,uses of the ,peach4--,peaches are perhaps the most esteemed of all the common fruits for eating purposes4 ,on the table the sliced peaches with sugar and cream is a common dish through the whole summer in almost every part of the country4 ,peach cobbler 7a deep pie7 and peach pudding are dishes which are highly esteemed4 ,plums4--7,native ,plums47 ,the following data represent the mean composition of three samples of ,california plums3 ,total solids1 #ba4fj percent ,ash1 4#eb ,acidity1 #a4jj ,protein1 4#dj ,total sugars1 #ac4be ,the plums imported from ,japan and the hybrids produced therefrom are considered of higher value than the native plum4 ,the ,japan plum 7,prunus triflora7 has been introduced into this country for many years4 ,they are larger and handsomer and have better shipping qualities than those of native origin1 except perhaps in a few cases4 ,the trees are also less subject to that great enemy of the plum1 the curculio1 than the native plum4 ,of the plum trees grown in ,georgia the varieties of native trees which are recommended are the ,clifford and the ,wilder1 of ,japan trees the ,lutts1 ,red ,june1 ,abundance1 and ,chabot1 and of the hybrid varieties1 the ,wickson4 ,plums in ,georgia mature from the first of ,june until the middle of ,july4 ,further north the date of maturity is later4 ,the plum1 as well as the cherry1 flourishes especially in ,california1 which is more famous for these fruits than any other state4 ,quince4--,the quince is a fruit which is not very extensively used raw1 but is valued chiefly as a preserve4 ,the quince flourishes in localities that produce good apples1 but the magnitude of the crop is very restricted as compared with apples4 ,,small ,,fruits4 ,blackberries 7,rubus nigrobaccus var4 ,sativus ,bailey74--,among the small fruits one of the most common and abundant is the blackberry4 ,this fruit grows wild over large areas in the ,united ,states1 mostly in the middle portion between the extreme north and south4 ,the brier on which it grows is an annual plant1 springing each year from the roots and dying after bearing fruit4 ,the plant is very largely cultivated1 bearing larger and more presentable berries1 but gaining nothing in flavor and palatability4 ,the berries are generally black when fully ripe1 though red during the ripening stage and sometimes when mature4 ,they are eaten raw1 stewed1 and in pies or 8cobblers40 ,the berry is extensively used for making jams1 jellies1 and preserves1 and for canning purposes4 ,the juice of the berry is used for making a wine1 usually with the admixture of sugar4 ,blackberry cordial is blackberry juice preserved in whisky or brandy4 ,dewberry4--,this is a variety of blackberry in which the vines lie on the ground instead of standing upright4 ,some of the dewberries possess unusual fragrance and palatability4 ,in other respects they conform to the statements relating to blackberries4 ,gooseberry 7,ribes oxyacanthoides ,l474--,the gooseberry resembles very closely the currant in its general properties4 ,in the ,european gooseberry the surface is covered with prickles1 but the ,american variety is smooth4 ,the gooseberry bush is found in most gardens1 affording a fruit of high condimental value4 ,the fruit is eaten raw1 but principally in pies and as preserves4 ,huckleberry 7,gaylussacia resinosa ,torr4 and ,gray74--,the fruit of the huckleberry bush is used very extensively for making pies1 especially in the northeastern parts of the ,united ,states4 ,there are many varieties of the berry on the markets4 ,the blueberry is one variety that is very abundant4 ,the term whortleberry is also applied to this fruit4 ,mulberry 7,morus nigra74--,the mulberry grows wild over extensive areas in the ,united ,states1 especially in the ,ohio valley4 ,it is a tree valued highly for its wood1 which is lasting and excellent for fence-posts4 ,the berries ripen early in the summer or late in the spring and are used as food to a limited extent4 ,raspberry 7,rubus strigosus ,michx474--,the raspberry is nearly related to the blackberry in all of its characters4 ,it is chiefly a cultivated plant1 being less hardy than the blackberry1 and therefore not growing wild to such an extent4 ,the fruit matures just before the blackberry1 and is usually of a red color and of a pleasant characteristic taste4 ,strawberry 7,fragaria ,chiloensis ,ehrh474--,for edible purposes in its fresh state the strawberry is the most important of the small fruits4 ,it is offered on the markets at all seasons of the year--ripening in the winter time in ,florida and ,california and coming into the markets in the late summer in the northern and northeastern states4 ,it grows on vines lying on the ground and ripens early in the spring in the latitude of ,washington1 viz41 from about the middle of ,may4 ,it is eaten raw--often with sugar and cream--more extensively than any other small fruit4 ,the wild strawberry is not so large as the cultivated variety1 but is more highly prized for its aroma and taste4 ,composition of ,small ,fruits4-- ,,sugar1 ,,starch ,,water4 ,,protein4 ,,fat4 ,,etc4 ,,ash4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,blackberries1 #hf4c #a4c #a4j #aj4i #j4e ,cranberries1 #hh4i #j4d #j4f #i4i #j4b ,huckleberries1 #ha4i #j4f #j4f #af4f #j4c ,raspberries1 #hd4a #a4g #a4j #ab4f #j4f ,strawberries1 #he4i #j4i #j4f #g4j #j4f ,,tropical ,,and ,,subtropical ,,fruits4 7,bulletin #hg1 ,bureau of ,chemistry47 ,anona4--,this is a variety of edible fruit grown in the tropics1 especially in ,cuba1 but on account of its restricted production is of little importance4 ,there are three varieties1 known as follows3 ,sweet-sop 7anona7 7,anona squamosa ,l471 sour-sop 7guanabana7 7,anona muricata ,l471 and custard apple 7chirimoya7 7,anona reticulata ,l474 ,the sour-sop is a green1 irregular-shaped1 pod-like fruit1 varying from #c inches to #ab inches in length and about two-thirds as broad near the top1 and curving to a blunt point at the lower end4 ,the skin is thick and covered with numerous small1 hooked briers4 ,the pulp has the appearance of wet cotton and surrounds the numerous seed sacs containing the small brown seeds4 ,a fibrous core runs through the fruit from the stem to the lower point4 ,the fruit weighs from #c4e ounces to #b4b pounds4 ,the flavor is acid1 but not too much so4 ,this fruit is more extensively used in the manufacture of cooling beverages than directly as a food1 but it is also used very extensively for making preserves4 ,the sweet-sop resembles the sour-sop in general character1 but does not attain by any means to so large a size4 ,the fruit is heart-shaped and deeply creased4 ,the pulp contains more sugar and less acid than that of the sour-sop4 ,this variety is eaten fresh and is also used for flavoring beverages1 but is not extensively used for making preserves4 ,the third variety1 known as the custard apple1 varies in color from light green to reddish brown1 and is shaped something like a strawberry4 ,it has a thick skin and black seeds1 and a pulp very similar to that of sweet-sop in flavor4 ,it is eaten chiefly raw1 and is not very extensively used in the manufacture of preserves4 ,composition of the ,sour- and ,sweet-sop ,varieties4-- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,,edible ,,total ,,portion4,,solids4,,sugar4 ,,protein4 ,,ash4 ,,acidity4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- cent4 cent4 cent4 cent4 cent4 cent4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,sour- sop1 #gb4cj #ai4jc #ac4jg #a4fe 4#da 4#ea ,sweet- sop1 #cj4jj #bh4aj #aj4jg #b4ac 4#ib 4#bj ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,the above analyses show that the anona is a fruit which has about half the nutritive value of the banana4 ,it has a much larger percentage of waste1 especially the sweet-sop variety1 where nearly three-fourths of the fruit is not edible4 ,anona ,preserves4--,the anona preserves should be made exclusively with sugar and thus have the character of the fruit modified only by the amount of sugar added4 ,in one sample of preserves analyzed the following data were obtained3 ,total solids1 #ed4cc percent ,total sugar1 #di4ff ,protein1 4#gc ,ash1 4#dc ,acidity1 4#ai ,the above data show that the natural constituents of the fruit have been diminished in quantity in proportion to the amount of sugar added4 ,the ,avocado 7,persea persea74--,the avocado is a fruit which has only lately been introduced into the ,united ,states4 ,its common name is alligator pear and it is already very highly prized4 ,the cultivation of the alligator pear was first undertaken as a novelty1 and its real value as a dessert fruit is only beginning to be appreciated4 ,it is evident that this fruit will have a great vogue in the near future1 and will be in much demand as soon as its production is on a scale which makes it accessible to the people of ordinary means4 ,the edible part of the fruit is a sweet1 soft substance with an agreeable taste and of a semi-solid consistence4 ,it has a nutty and peculiar flavor which is highly prized4 ,in the regions where the alligator pear is grown it is often used in the raw state or after having been treated with a little salt4 ,it is highly prized when served in this manner4 ,it is also often cut into small pieces and put into soup and is said to give a most agreeable odor and flavor thereto4 ,the ripe fruit has different colors2 it may be green1 yellow1 brown or dark purple or a combination of any of these colors4 ,the alligator pear is particularly valued as a salad fruit4 ,composition of the ,avocado4-- ,water1 #ha4aj percent ,protein1 #a4jj ,fat1 #aj4bj ,starch and sugar1 #f4hj ,ash1 4#ij ,the above data show that the alligator pear is not a fruit which is very highly nutritious4 ,its principle nutrient is fat1 the next most important being starch and sugar1 but it is extremely deficient in protein1 and therefore could not be regarded as a balanced ration4 ,its principle value1 therefore1 is mostly on account of its condimental properties rather than for its nutrients4 ,bulletins #fa and #gg of the ,bureau of ,plant ,industry1 ,department of ,agriculture1 give important information regarding the avocado4 ,the accompanying illustration is taken from ,bulletin #gg1 above mentioned4 ,from the amount of fat in the alligator pear it might be regarded as a nut instead of a fruit1 but its paucity of nitrogenous constituents excludes it from that category4 ,bananas 7,musa74--,one of the most abundant and most important of the tropical fruits1 for food purposes1 is the banana4 ,the banana is not grown to any extent for food purposes in the ,united ,states1 though it is produced on a limited scale in southern ,florida4 ,immense quantities of bananas come into this country from the ,central ,american states1 particularly from ,guatemala and ,nicaragua4 ,this fruit can be landed at ,new ,orleans at very small expense for transportation1 and for this reason can be distributed all over the country at a price which looks to be ridiculously small when it is considered that the fruit comes from so great a distance4 ,it is also sent in large quantities to other ports1 notably ,new ,york1 ,boston1 and ,baltimore4 ,for shipping purposes the banana is gathered while still green1 and often the ripening has not reached the stage when the ordinary yellow color which characterizes the ripe fruit is seen when it reaches the markets in the center of the country4 ,the banana is not only valued for its peculiar flavor1 which is pleasant and sweet1 sometimes almost too much so1 but it also has a high nutritive value1 being a substance rich in carbohydrates and growing in such abundance that its price is within the reach of the poorest classes4 ,great quantities of bananas are also grown in ,cuba1 but they are mostly consumed by the native population1 forming one of the principal foods of the island4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--;,,avocado ,,tree4--7,courtesy ,department of ,agriculture47 ,the banana has perhaps less waste than almost any other fruit1 as the whole of the inner portion is edible4 ,in the green fruit there is a large proportion of starch1 which gradually changes into invert sugar in the ripe fruit4 ,in thoroughly mature bananas the quantity of sugar is relatively high and the quantity of starch correspondingly low4 ,bananas are not only eaten raw but also fried and in various other forms4 ,the banana is a fruit which1 when properly cared for1 can be transported over long distances and kept for a long time4 ,when properly prepared the banana forms a nutritious diet1 probably equal in value to the same amount of solid matter contained in the common fresh fruits4 ,one hundred grams may be taken as the average weight of the banana1 although some of them are very much larger4 ,about #gj percent of the banana is edible and #cj percent inedible1 that is1 the skin1 which while not wholly inedible is usually rejected4 ,the banana is essentially a carbohydrate food1 the percentage of protein not usually rising above #a4c4 ,nearly all the carbohydrates in the ripe fruit consist of sugars which are present both as reducing and as cane sugars4 ,the average total percentage of sugar present in the banana is a little over #bj4 ,the composition of the banana is shown in the following table which contains the data of analyses of two samples bought in the open market in ,washington4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,edible ,,solids4 ,,total ,,protein4 ,,ash4 ,,portion4 ,,sugars4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,percent4,percent4,percent4,percent4,per cent4 ,sample #a1 #fb4aj #bf4ac #ba4ga #a4ac 4#hd ,sample #b1 #fd4ej #bf4bd #ba4gf #a4ba 4#hf ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,the analytical data were obtained upon the edible portion and not upon the whole fruit4 ,the bananas which are imported from ,jamaica and ,central ,america are represented by the analyses given above4 ,they are commonly known as the ,johnson banana4 ,smaller fruits with better flavors are grown in ,cuba1--some of them are of a red color like the oronoco and colorado4 ,the indiano is a large1 yellow1 angular fruit with a salmon-colored pulp and a rather disagreeable acid flavor4 ,with reference to the banana as a food product it is seen that1 including the starch and digestible cellulose1 it consists of at least #be percent1 in its edible portion1 of carbohydrates suitable for food purposes4 ,its low content of protein indicates that it is not a well balanced ration1 but should be eaten in connection with beans1 peas1 or other vegetables rich in protein1 or with lean meat in order to secure a proper quantity of protein in the diet4 ,on account of the great abundance of the product and luxuriance of growth in the ,central ,american states1 it is evident that the banana might become a profitable source of industrial alcohol in that locality4 ,cashew 7,maranon7 7,anacardium occidentale74--,the cashew1 of which the principal habitat is ,cuba1 is a small1 oddly shaped1 yellow and red fruit from two to three inches long and from to two inches in diameter at the bottom1 decreasing gradually in diameter toward the top4 ,the seed is small and kidney-shaped and grows outside of the fruit at the lower end4 ,the seed is regarded as poisonous until it has been roasted1 due probably to the presence of hydrocyanic acid4 ,after roasting it is regarded as a delectable edible4 ,the meat of the seed of the cashew resembles the roasted chestnut1 but contains more oil4 ,the pulp is of a dull yellow color1 is tough and very juicy1 with an acid astringent flavor and a disagreeable odor4 ,the fruit is not eaten raw but chiefly in preserves4 ,the composition of the cashew is shown in the following table3 ,composition of ,edible ,portion--#he4i percent4-- ,solids1 #ab4hd percent ,sugar1 #f4gf ,acid1 4#ca ,ash1 4#cf ,the composition is somewhat like that of the hicaco1 but the cashew contains a larger proportion of acid and hence is better suited for preserves4 ,the sample of cashew preserves examined had the following composition3 ,solids1 #ga4bb percent ,sugar1 #ff4hi ,protein1 4#bf ,acidity1 4#jh ,ash1 4#ad ,citrus ,fruits4--,the term 8citrus fruit0 is applied to that class of fruits represented by the orange1 lemon1 grape fruit1 and lime4 ,in the ,united ,states extensive areas are devoted to the production of citrus fruits1 and it is claimed by connoisseurs that some of the best varieties grown anywhere in the world are the products of this country4 ,florida and southern ,california are two localities where the development of the citrus fruit industry has been carried to the greatest extent4 ,the phenomenally cold winter which occurred in ,florida some ten years ago almost ruined the citrus fruit industry in that state for the time being4 ,in the restablishment of it the center of production has been extended farther south than it was before4 ,it is believed that at the present time the industry has been extended sufficiently far south in the ,florida peninsula to avoid any repetition of the great disaster which ruined the citrus groves in certain portions of the state at the time mentioned4 ,the climate of southern ,california is more equable1 and no injury has ever been experienced in that location from very low temperature4 ,in ,florida the oranges are cultivated without irrigation1 while in southern ,california irrigation is universally practiced4 ,the seasonal conditions are therefore under better control in ,california than in ,florida4 ,illustration3 ,,drying ,,figs #a4 ,,smyrna #c4 ,,adriatic #b4 ,,smyrna ,,section #d4 ,,adriatic ,,section ,from ,yearbook1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture1 #ahig ,figs 7,ficus carica ,l474--,the fig is a fruit which is well known in biblical and profane history4 ,together with the grape it is the fruit which is most often mentioned in the ,bible4 ,the importance of the fig as a fruit and food is recognized in all the earlier writings1 both sacred and profane4 ,when dried and pressed into convenient forms it is a food which can be easily transported1 and makes a ration well suited to supply heat and energy1 although deficient in nitrogen in so far as a complete ration is concerned4 ,the fig tree is extensively cultivated in all localities where the temperature permits its growth4 ,it grows in the open in the whole southern part of the ,united ,states1 and ,i have seen fig trees of large size grow in the yard as far north as ,washington4 ,the fig tree grows luxuriantly and to a great size in ,california1 and the fruit1 both fresh and dried1 is of superior excellence4 ,a typical illustration of a ,california fig tree is shown in ,fig4 #ea4 ,the ,smyrna fig has lately been introduced into the southern and western part of the ,united ,states with great success4 ,it grows especially well in the southern part of ,california and ,arizona4 ,the ,smyrna fig is one of the varieties which requires fertilization of the flower through the mediation of an insect4 ,this process is called caprification4 ,although this variety of fig has only been introduced into ,california to any extent in the last five or six years1 the growth of this most highly esteemed variety has so increased that at the present time the output of ,california alone amounts to about twelve million pounds per annum4 ,the ,smyrna and ,adriatic figs1 used largely for drying and preserving purposes1 are seen in their natural colors in the appended colored plate4 ,composition of ,fresh ,figs 7,edible ,portion74-- ,water1 #gi4aa percent ,protein1 #a4eb ,sugar1 #ae4ec ,pure ash1 4#eh ,fat1 fiber1 etc41 #c4bf ,composition of ,dried ,figs4-- ,water1 #bh4gh percent ,total sugar1 #ea4dc ,acid as malic1 4#ga ,protein1 #c4eh ,ether extract1 #a4bg ,cellulose1 etc41 #e4bi ,crude fiber1 #f4ai ,ash1 #b4ge ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--;,,fig ,,tree ,,thirty ,,feet ,,high ,,near ,,yuba1 ,,california4--7,photograph by ,h4 ,w4 ,wiley47 ,the interesting process of caprification is thus described by ,professor ,hugh ,n4 ,starnes of the ,georgia ,experiment ,station3 8,in the base or false ovary of the gall flowers1 which are merely degenerate pistillates1 the egg of the ,blastophaga grossorum or fig wasp--a minute insect--is deposited and develops to maturity4 ,the wingless males emerge first and1 with their powerful mandibles1 cut into the flowers containing the female wasps1 partially release them1 and impregnate them4 ,the gravid females shortly complete the liberating process and1 being winged1 at once seek to escape for the instinctive purpose of laying their eggs4 ,they emerge from the eye of the caprifig1 after squeezing through the mass of pollen-covered anthers protecting the exit1 and seek other fruit in which to lay their eggs4 ,naturally they would enter the nearest caprifig in the proper stage of development4 ,but1 meanwhile1 if the caprifig containing the colony has been plucked from its stem and suspended in the branches of an adjacent ,smyrna tree1 the female on emerging forces her way in a fruit of the latter class1 losing her wings in the process1 and at once begins a frantic scramble around the interior1 searching for the anticipated gall flowers in which to deposit her eggs4 ,failing1 necessarily1 to find them1 and incapable of again taking flight1 she finally curls up and dies heartbroken1 but not until she and her companions have between them pollinated every female flower in the cavity with the plentiful store of pollen conveyed from the caprifig--thereby insuring the development of the fruit40 ,grape ,fruit 7,pomelo7 7,citrus decumana74--,the so-called grape fruit or pomelo is one of the biggest products of the citrus family and also possesses properties which may be regarded as a cross between the lemon and the orange4 ,it is more acid than the orange and more sweet than the lemon4 ,this fruit is perhaps more highly esteemed than any other citrus variety for direct edible purposes1 forming a breakfast dish which is eaten very extensively throughout all parts of the ,united ,states by those who are able to afford the luxury1 for so it still is by reason of the high price of the product4 ,grape fruit grows to a large extent in the ,united ,states1 and its culture is confined to the same region as that where the orange and lemon are grown4 ,composition of ,grape ,fruit 7,pomelo74--,the composition of the pomelo as given for the ,california product 7,station ,report1 #ahib1 p4 #bef7 shows this fruit to have the following composition3 ,average weight1 #ceg4jj grams ,rind1 #bc4ej percent ,seeds1 #c4gj ,edible portion1 #gb4hj ,composition of the juice from the edible portion3 ,total solids1 #ac4bj percent ,total sugars1 #i4ej ,acids 7as citric71 #b4gj ,professor ,colby says in discussing these analyses that the proportion of acid is larger in these samples than the general taste demands4 ,cuban ,grape ,fruit4--,the grape fruit which is grown in ,cuba has quite a different character4 ,its flavor is mild1 and it is almost devoid of the bitter taste which is found in the ,american product1 and which adds greatly to its palatable properties when the consumer becomes accustomed to it4 ,a marmalade is made from the grape fruit similar in all respects1 except the peculiar flavor given by the raw material1 to that made from oranges4 ,it is evident from its high palatable properties and its wholesomeness that grape fruit will become more and more an article of value and be consumed in large quantities throughout the country4 ,guava 7,psidium ,guajava74--,this fruit is grown very extensively in both ,california and ,florida1 also in ,cuba1 where a number of varieties grow wild4 ,the white guava is a small1 round fruit1 grayish-white or yellow in color1 and having an average weight of #a4e ounces4 ,the pear-shaped fruit1 the guava of ,peru1 is about twice the size of the white variety1 but otherwise resembles it very closely4 ,both varieties contain large numbers of small seeds scattered throughout the yellowish-white pulp4 ,as a rule the guava is not eaten raw1 but it is a fruit from which some of the most highly prized jelly pastes and preserves are made4 ,composition of the ,guava4--,the guava contains1 in its fresh state1 an average of a little less than #hj percent of water and a little more than #bj percent of solid matter4 ,the solid materials in guavas are quite insoluble in water1 more than one-half of them not passing into solution4 ,the chief part of the soluble constituents of guavas are the sugars1 and these exist chiefly in the invert state4 ,the total percentage of sugar in guavas in the fresh state averages about six1 the protein amounts to about one percent1 and the ash to a little over one-half of one percent4 ,the value of the guava1 therefore1 is more condimental than nutritive1 and for this reason it is seen why it is not a valuable food product eaten in the raw state4 ,guava ,preserves4--,a large number of preserves are made from the guava1 and these products are well known and relished throughout the country4 ,the preserves are in various forms1 being chiefly pastes1 marmalades1 and jellies4 ,these preparations contain the aromas and flavoring qualities of the fruit1 and when pure contain no added product save sugar4 ,they contain from #fj to #ge percent of added sugar4 ,the preserved products of the guava are generally packed in wooden boxes1 lined with paper1 though some are packed in glass4 ,the crystallized guava1 the guava cream1 and the pastes contain large quantities of added sugar1 namely1 about #hj percent4 ,these preserves naturally have a very low acid content by reason of the quantity of sugar which has been added in their preparation4 ,in this country often the whole fruits are preserved in sugar sirup4 ,hicaco 7,chrysobalanus icaco74--,the fruit of the hicaco is small and round1 varying from one to three inches in diameter4 ,the average weight of each fruit is about oz4 ,the skin is thin and green in color1 shading to red on the side exposed to the sun4 ,it grows on a small shrub and is sometimes called the cocoa plum4 ,the surface is somewhat shrivelled and wrinkled1 and the seed weighs almost half as much as the whole fruit4 ,the fruit is not eaten in a fresh state1 but is used for making preserves4 ,it is sweet to the taste and has a low acid content4 ,the composition of the fresh fruit is shown by the following table3 ,composition of ,edible ,portion--#fh4i percent4-- ,total solids1 #ad4bi percent ,total sugar1 #e4ah ,protein1 4#df ,acidity1 4#aj ,ash1 4#if ,these data show that the hicaco is a fruit low in nutritive value1 in so far as sugar is concerned1 of a low content of protein and very slight acidity4 ,hicaco ,preserves4--,a sample of hicaco preserves was found to have the following composition3 ,total solids1 #fe4jg percent ,sugar1 #fj4jh ,protein1 4#ab ,ash1 4#ad ,acidity1 4#je ,the above data indicate only the change in composition which would come from adding the sugar in the process of manufacture4 ,by reason of the low acidity of the fruit the sugar in the preserves would1 theoretically1 be largely cane sugar4 ,in the case mentioned1 however1 one-third of the sugar was inverted4 ,whether this was accomplished by the action of the acid on the sugar during the process of manufacture or whether by the use of molasses instead of sugar in the preserves does not appear4 ,more likely it is due to the latter4 ,kumquat 7,citrus japonica74--,the kumquat is one of the smallest of citrus fruits4 ,it stands as one extreme of that important family of which the grape fruit or pomelo represents the other4 ,the fruit is oval in shape1 about one inch in diameter1 and is one and one-half inches long4 ,it may be regarded as a dwarf orange1 and was brought into the ,united ,states from ,japan1 although it is a native of ,china4 ,the name--kumquat--is of ,chinese origin and is intended to mean 8,gold ,orange40 ,the kumquat tree1 under favorable circumstances1 reaches a height of #aj or #ab feet and forms a compact1 symmetrical1 and handsome head4 ,the pulp of the fruit is very tender and agreeably acid and the rind is spicy1 as is the case with most of the acid fruits4 ,it is not only valued as a fruit1 but the tree is also highly prized as an ornament4 ,its beautifully colored fruit1 in contrast with its green leaves1 presents a most agreeable spectacle4 ,it is grown in the ,united ,states principally in ,florida4 ,the composition of the kumquat is practically that of the orange4 ,lemons4--,the citrus fruit1 next in importance to the orange1 if not more important1 is the lemon 7,citrus limonum74 ,this fruit is grown extensively in the ,united ,states in the same localities that produce the orange1 that is1 chiefly in ,florida and southern ,california4 ,its method of cultivation1 general treatment1 time of ripening and harvesting are the same as that of the orange4 ,its principal difference from the orange is in its greater acidity and in certain peculiarities of its aromatic and oily substances4 ,from the rind is produced an essential oil which1 while resembling that of the orange in general character1 has distinct properties which easily discriminate it from the orange product4 ,the lemon also has a correspondingly less proportion of sugar than the orange4 ,in #bb analyses of ,california lemons they were found to contain #e4bf percent of acid and only #b4cc percent of sugar4 ,the distinct feature of the lemon1 therefore1 is its acidity4 ,the principal acid present in lemons is citric acid1 though other organic acids are also found4 ,the acids are either free or in combination with a base1 the principal base being potash4 ,on account of its high acidity and low sugar content the lemon is used more as a relish and in the manufacture of acid beverages than directly as a food4 ,there are some varieties known as sweet lemons which are eaten as oranges or used directly for food purposes1 but generally the lemon is too sour and acid for consumption in this manner4 ,lime4--,a species of citrus fruit which is even more acid than the lemon is known as the lime 7,citrus hysrix acida74 ,limes are not eaten directly as food on account of their high acidity1 but their expressed juice is sold throughout the world for beverages and medicinal purposes4 ,the lime also yields an essential oil1 which is very similar in character to that derived from lemons4 ,in fact the lime may be regarded as a very sour lemon1 just as the orange may be regarded as a very sweet one4 ,adulteration of ,lime ,juice4--,unfortunately lime juice is offered on the market often in entirely spurious forms1 that is1 a mixture made up with flavoring of an acid character resembling that of the natural juice4 ,the natural juice is also frequently adulterated by the addition of preservatives4 ,among these1 sulfurous and salicylic acids are perhaps the most frequent4 ,lime juice can be perfectly preserved by sterilization1 and there is no necessity for the use of preservatives therein4 ,in the tropics there is also found a lime of a saccharine character known as the sweet lime1 but this fruit does not have a very great vogue4 ,mamey ,colorado4--,this is a tropical fruit which is very extensively grown in ,cuba1 and derives its local name from a very slight outward resemblance to the mammee 7,mammea americana74 ,these two fruits1 however1 have no botanical or other relation to each other1 nor do they have any internal resemblance4 ,the mamey colorado is chocolate brown in color1 oval or round in shape1 and its average weight is about #a4e pounds4 ,the skin is thick and coarse4 ,the pulp has a yellowish color1 varying to a deep scarlet1 and is slightly fibrous and firm1 but mealy and rather dry4 ,it has a sweetish taste with very little acid flavor4 ,it is eaten chiefly in the fresh state and is also stewed with sugar4 ,the fruit usually contains but one seed1 though as many as four are sometimes found4 ,the seeds are imbedded in a soft core and are irregularly oval4 ,the natural season is from ,december to ,august4 ,these fruits are very largely used for making preserves4 ,the composition of the mamey colorado is as follows3 ,composition of ,edible ,portion--#hf4aj percent4-- ,solids1 #cd4ja percent ,total ash1 4#hj ,acid1 4#aj ,total sugar1 #bb4je ,the analysis shows that the mamey colorado is a fruit which in its edible properties and nutritive value very closely resembles the banana4 ,mamey de ,santo ,domingo 7,mammea americana74--,this is a fruit extensively used in ,cuba and other tropical countries4 ,it is of a light brown color1 from three to ten inches in diameter1 and weighs sometimes as much as #a pounds4 ,the skin is thick and fibrous1 the outer surface being tough and covered with small brown spots4 ,the pulp is dark yellow in color1 firm1 and very juicy4 ,it has a sweet characteristic flavor and a pleasant aromatic odor4 ,the seeds sometimes measure three inches in diameter and cling tenaciously to the pulp4 ,it is very commonly eaten raw and is highly esteemed for preserving purposes4 ,the composition of the mamey de ,santo ,domingo is shown in the following table3 ,composition of ,edible ,portion--#fj4gj percent4-- ,solids1 #ad4ab percent ,total ash1 4#ca ,acids1 4#db ,protein1 4#di ,total sugar1 #i4dg ,the above data show that this fruit is very much less sweet and very much more acid than the mamey colorado and for nutritive purposes is of much less value1 but by reason of its greater acidity and higher flavoring it is more suitable for the manufacture of preserves than the fruit resembling it in external appearances and name4 ,it is used extensively in the manufacture of preserves and marmalades which are so similar in composition as not to be distinguished from each other by their chemical analyses4 ,the compositions of a preserve known as mamey en almibar and a marmalade known as mermelade de mamey are shown in the following table3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,total ,,total ,,solids4 ,,ash4 ,,acids4 ,,protein4 ,,sugars4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,percent4,percent4,percent4,percent4,per cent4 ,mamey en almibar1 #fj4je 4#aed 4#aid 4#cfc #eg4de ,mermelade de mamey1 #fi4gd 4#adi 4#abc 4#bfi #fb4fh ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,,jamaica ,,mango ,,tree4--7,by permission ,american ,nut and ,fruit ,co47 ,mango 7,magnifera indica ,l474--,the mango is a fruit which is highly prized throughout the world4 ,it is a native of southern ,asia1 where it has been known from earliest times4 ,in the ,united ,states the mango is chiefly grown in ,florida as a horticultural crop4 ,the mango is a tree peculiarly sensitive to frost1 and therefore does not grow as far north as oranges4 ,its profitable cultivation at present is confined to the extreme southern part of the ,florida peninsula4 ,the mango is an evergreen tree4 ,in ,florida1 under favorable conditions of growth1 it reaches as high as #dj or #ej feet4 ,it makes a tree of graceful appearance with a dense1 dome-shaped top4 ,the color of the mango fruit is varied2 it may be red1 green1 or yellow1 or a mixture of these colors4 ,the tree and fruit both possess an agreeable odor1 and every part of the tree1 almost1 can be of some economic value4 ,the ripe fruit is a delicious dessert and is wholesome4 ,it is often recommended for its medicinal properties4 ,the rind and fiber1 as well as the unripe fruit1 are acid and full of tannin1 which makes them astringent to the taste4 ,mangos may be eaten in the raw state1 and they are also valued for making preserves1 pickles1 marmalades1 and jelly4 ,a very popular sauce known as mango chutney is prepared from the mango and is largely used in the ,united ,states and ,england1 being mostly imported from ,india4 ,the appearance of the tree is shown in ,fig4 #eb4 ,oranges 7,citrus aurantium74--,this fruit is characterized by its delightful flavor and by the distribution of certain aromatic oils1 especially in the rind1 which give it a peculiar aroma and flavor4 ,the orange has a thick yellow rind which1 while edible1 is not usually eaten1 but is the source of valuable essential oils4 ,a large part of the orange1 as far as weight is concerned1 is not usually eaten2 usually from #be to #dj percent of the weight is in the rind or some inedible portion4 ,the ash of the orange is usually less than one-half of one percent4 ,the predominant organic acid of the orange is citric1 although other organic acids are present4 ,the quantity of protein present in an orange is very small1 usually not exceeding very much a half of one percent4 ,the quantity of sugar varies greatly in different samples4 ,it is present both as cane sugar or sucrose and as reducing or invert sugar4 ,in the very sweet orange the quantity reaches as high as #aj percent or even greater1 while in the sour orange it is less4 ,the principal food value of the orange1 as far as nutriment is concerned1 is its sugar4 ,the orange1 however1 has other valuable properties1 especially from a hygienic standpoint1 aside from its nutriment4 ,the organic salts which it contains1 the organic acids1 and other condimental material make the orange an exceptionally wholesome fruit1 exercising a beneficial effect upon the digestive process and especially aiding in the passage of the undigested food through the alimentary canal4 ,the orange is a fruit which has lasting keeping qualities4 ,it is not unusual to see ripe oranges which are edible hanging on the same tree with the blossoms which are blooming for the next year's crop4 ,in ,california and ,florida the oranges begin to ripen in ,november and may be continuously harvested until the following ,april1 if it be advisable to leave them on the tree for that length of time4 ,owing to the thick and resistant skin of the orange1 it can be kept for a long time without material deterioration after harvesting1 if care be taken to avoid bruising or injuring the fruit in any way while handling4 ,oranges thus harvested and wrapped in paper and kept at a low temperature will keep for weeks and even months1 and still be edible and nourishing4 ,this property of the orange makes it possible to supply the markets of the world practically throughout the entire year with one of the most delicious and nutritious of fruits4 ,in former years the orange was regarded as a luxury1 but at the present time it is a staple article of diet even for people in moderate circumstances1 and is often eaten by those who are poor4 ,in ,fig4 #ec is given a typical illustration of a ,california orange grove4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,,an ,,edge ,,of ,a ,,california ,,orange ,,grove4--7,bureau of ,plant ,industry47 ,the culture of the orange has demanded the highest agricultural and scientific skill1 and perhaps there is no crop produced to which greater attention has been paid4 ,in ,florida1 especially1 the oranges are grown on soil which is not much more than poor sand1 and hence the scientific feeding of the trees1 that is1 the fertilization of the soil in which they grow1 is necessary to success4 ,as a result of this application of science luxuriant crops of oranges are found growing upon sandy soil which without scientific treatment would be almost barren4 ,the soils in southern ,california1 on the other hand1 are very rich in natural plant food1 but this does not obviate the necessity of scientific manuring4 ,oranges grow throughout the year in tropical and semi-tropical regions4 ,it is considered by connoisseurs1 however1 that the oranges grown in the semi-tropical regions1 that is far enough north for a little frost to come during the winter1 but without a sufficient degree of cold to injure the trees1 are of better quality than those grown in tropical regions where frost is unknown4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,,the ,,original ,,seedless ,,orange ,,tree4--7,courtesy ,bureau of ,plant ,industry47 ,the ,seedless ,orange4--,the variety of orange which contains no seed has been widely cultivated in the ,united ,states1 and by reason of the absence of seeds is more highly prized by many than the ordinary orange for edible purposes4 ,since the orange tree has been cultivated by grafting rather than by direct production of the different varieties from the natural seed1 it has been possible to secure a fruit without seeds4 ,whether such an unnatural product will continue to maintain its high rank as an edible product remains to be seen4 ,the seedless orange tree1 from which are descended the greater part of these trees in the ,united ,states1 was secured by ,mr4 ,william ,sanders from ,bahia4 ,its present appearance in the greenhouse of the ,department of ,agriculture is shown in ,fig4 #ed4 ,the naval orange is exceedingly beautiful as it grows upon the tree4 ,a bunch of these oranges growing on the parent tree in ,washington is shown in ,fig4 #ee4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--;,a ,,group ,,of ,,the ,,washington ,,navel ,,orange ,,on ,,the ,,tree4--7,courtesy ,bureau of ,plant ,industry47 ,pineapple4--,the pineapple is a fruit grown very extensively in tropical and also subtropical countries4 ,it is a crop of great importance in ,florida4 ,the flavor and aroma of the pineapple grown in subtropical countries is often preferred to that of the tropical grown fruit4 ,pineapples grow best when sheltered to some extent from the direct rays of the sun4 ,in ,florida it is planted near live oaks1 where a partial shade is secured4 ,it is often artificially covered by means of narrow boards placed near together and yet leaving abundant space for the sunlight4 ,sometimes these covered fields are two or three acres in extent4 ,in ,fig4 #ef is given a representation of the pineapple growing under a covering of this kind in ,florida at the ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 ,lake ,city4 ,formerly pineapples were regarded as great luxuries1 and often were set up in the center of the table as an ornament rather than as a dessert4 ,they have now become very common and are frequently used as a dessert1 for flavoring ice cream1 for preserving1 and for general use as a fruit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,,covered ,,pineapple4--7,courtesy of ,florida ,experiment ,station47 ,adulteration of ,pineapples4--,the only adulterations which are found in pineapples are of course in the canned product4 ,investigations in the ,bureau of ,chemistry show that adulteration is not extensively practiced1 unless the addition of cane sugar without notice can be so regarded4 ,from the point of view of the collection of duties1 the addition of cane sugar without notice is an adulteration1 since under provision of law pineapples canned in their own juice pay one rate of duty and when preserved with sugar pay another4 ,inasmuch as the label of a food product should tell the whole truth concerning it1 the addition of cane sugar1 without notice to that effect upon the label1 is calculated to deceive and should not be practiced4 ,there is no objection of any kind to the use of cane sugar in the canning of pineapples if the label indicates that this has been done4 ,on the other hand there is no reason why the addition of sugar should be practiced4 ,the pineapples are bought and consumed for their natural flavor1 and not on account of the added sugar which they may contain4 ,in the canning of pineapples it is just as easy to secure complete sterilization in their own juice as it is to secure it with the added sirup4 ,in practice1 however1 it is more convenient after filling the cans with the pieces of pines to add a sugar sirup to fill up the spaces than to secure sterilization by the application of heat alone1 which would not cause a sufficient quantity of juice to exude to fill up the interstices of the cans1 and they1 therefore1 would be partially empty4 ,canned ,pineapples4--,there is a very large trade in this country in canned pineapples imported from ,singapore and the ,straits ,settlements and the ,bahamas4 ,the pines are usually canned with the addition of sugar1 and those that come to our ports are as a rule sweetened only with cane sugar4 ,a large number of analyses has been made of these canned pineapples in the ,bureau of ,chemistry and the general data which were secured are presented below3 ,canned pineapples from ,singapore1 average1 maximum1 and minimum composition3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,solids4 ,,sugar4 ,,protein4 ,,ash4 ,,acidity4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,percent4,percent4,percent4,percent4,per cent4 ,average1 #bj4ae #ag4ij 4#df 4#bh 4#cj ,maximum1 #be4cj #be4aj 4#fj 4#cf 4#dc ,minimum1 #ah4ah #ad4hg 4#ci 4#ba 4#af ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,the above data show that it is possible to compute the average quantity of sugar which is added in the preparation of the sample4 ,if we assume in round numbers that the natural pine contains #ab percent of sugar1 we find that approximately eight pounds per hundred of fruit have been added in the preparation of the pines from ,singapore4 ,below is found the average1 maximum1 and minimum composition of ten samples of canned pineapples from the ,straits ,settlements3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,solids4 ,,sugar4 ,,protein4 ,,ash4 ,,acidity4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,percent4,percent4,percent4,percent4,per cent4 ,average1 #ba4jd #ah4de 4#dg 4#bf 4#bf ,maximum1 #bd4bh #ba4id 4#eg 4#cb 4#cb ,minimum1 #ag4cb #ad4ed 4#ci 4#bb 4#ag ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,these data show that the preparation of the pines in the ,straits ,settlements for shipment in cans is the same as that in ,singapore4 ,the average amount of sugar added appears to be about one percent greater4 ,average composition of canned pineapples from the ,bahamas3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,solids4 ,,sugar4 ,,protein4 ,,ash4 ,,acidity4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,percent4,percent4,percent4,percent4,per cent4 ,average1 #ac4gh #aj4fi 4#cd 4#ch 4#eg ,maximum1 #bf4gh #bb4dc 4#df 4#ej #a4ah ,minimum1 #h4ed #f4cc 4#bj 4#bb 4#bb ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,the above data show that nearly all the canned pineapples coming from the ,bahamas must be regarded as canned in their natural juice without the addition of sugar4 ,of the whole number of samples examined1 only four gave any indication of containing added sugar4 ,composition of the ,pineapple4--,the average composition of twenty-two samples of fresh pineapple grown in ,florida1 as determined in the ,bureau of ,chemistry1 is as follows3 ,total solids1 #ac4he percent ,total sugar1 #aa4fi ,protein1 4#dj ,ash1 4#db ,acidity1 4#eb ,of the sugars #d4dd percent existed in the form of invert or reducing sugar and #f4hh percent as cane sugar4 ,these data show that the value of a pineapple as a food product lies chiefly in the sugar which it contains4 ,the ethereal and aromatic properties of the pineapple give to it its chief value as a food1 since it is the flavor and aroma rather than the nutriment in the fruit which make it valued as a food4 ,these flavors and aromas are due to essential oils and ethers or compound ethers1 and they exist in such minute quantities as to escape ordinary chemical investigation4 ,a study of the details of analyses show that there is a wide variation in the percentage of sugar4 ,in two instances the total sugar fell below eight percent1 but those evidently were green and imperfect samples and were not included in the general average4 ,the highest quantity of sugar found in any case of a ,florida pineapple was #ae4bh percent4 ,the data show that in general it may be said that the ,florida pineapple contains nearly #ab percent of its weight of sugar4 ,average ,composition of ,cuban ,pineapples4--,the average composition of #aj samples of ,cuban pineapples examined in the ,bureau of ,chemistry is shown in the following data3 ,total solids1 #ad4eb percent ,sugars1 #aa4hg ,protein1 4#dj ,ash1 4#ce ,acidity1 4#ef ,these data show that the ,cuban pineapple is only a trifle sweeter than that grown in ,florida and has in general the same composition4 ,the ,florida pineapples when placed on the market have qualities which are by most connoisseurs judged to be superior to those of ,cuban origin1 although these qualities are not indicated by any marked difference in the analytical results4 ,the average composition of ,bahama pineapples1 examined in the ,bureau of ,chemistry1 is given in the following table3 ,total solids1 #ad4ha percent ,sugar1 #ab4bb ,protein1 4#dh ,ash1 4#dj ,acidity1 4#gg ,the ,bahama pineapple1 as is seen by the above data1 is somewhat sweeter than the ,florida or ,cuban grown fruit and also has a higher acidity4 ,average ,composition of ,porto ,rican ,pineapples4--,two samples of ,porto ,rican pines1 examined in the ,bureau of ,chemistry1 had the following composition3 ,total solids1 #ae4ia percent ,total sugar1 #ae4cf ,protein1 4#dh ,ash1 4#cg ,acidity1 4#gb ,the other samples of pines coming from ,porto ,rico were so immature that it was found they contained only about one-half the percentage of sugar and one-half the total solids of the ripened fruits4 ,they were probably harvested in an immature state in order to withstand the vicissitudes of transportation4 ,the above data show that the ripe pines of ,porto ,rico are even richer than those of the ,bahamas in sugar and nutritive value4 ,the average1 maximum1 and minimum of all samples of the fresh pine from all countries examined in the ,bureau of ,chemistry show the following composition3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,solids4 ,,sugar4 ,,protein4 ,,ash4 ,,acidity4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,percent4,percent4,percent4,percent4,per cent4 ,average1 #ad4ag #aa4ij 4#db 4#dj 4#fj ,maximum1 #ah4hf #ae4bh 4#eg 4#ee 4#he ,minimum1 #aj4gh #h4bj 4#ba 4#bg 4#cj ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,in order that some idea might be obtained of the composition of the pines grown at ,singapore and ,nassau1 the consuls in those localities were requested to secure the preservation of the pines by sterilization without the addition of any substance1 that is1 their preservation in their natural juice4 ,in this condition the fruit of the pine1 naturally preserved1 was sent to the ,bureau of ,chemistry and subjected to analysis with the following average results3 ,average ,composition 7ten samples from ,singapore74-- ,solids1 #ac4ci percent ,sugars1 #aa4gc ,protein1 4#dh ,ash1 4#ch ,acidity1 4#ci ,average ,composition 7two samples from ,nassau74-- ,solids1 #ac4ah percent ,sugars1 #aj4hf ,protein1 4#dj ,ash1 4#da ,acidity1 4#eh ,the above data show that the pineapples grown in ,singapore and ,nassau are not notably different in composition from those grown in ,florida1 ,cuba1 and ,jamaica4 ,all the data indicate that the pineapples grown in different parts of the world have practically the same composition at the same state of maturity4 ,sapota 7,sapodilla7 7,sapota zapotilla 7,jacq47 ,coville74--,this is a tropical fruit which is grown in large quantities in ,cuba1 where two varieties are known1 differing only in shape1 one being round and the other oval4 ,in the ,havana markets the latter variety is incorrectly known as the nispero4 ,this name1 however1 is properly applied to the fruit loquat 7,eriobotrya japonica74 ,the fruit is small1 weighing usually under two ounces1 has a brown or brownish-green color and in general appearance resembles a smooth1 dark potato4 ,the skin is thick and coarse in texture1 the pulp is yellowish-brown in color1 granular in texture1 and rich in juice4 ,the odor is characteristic1 and the taste is quite sweet4 ,the seeds number from one to five and are contained in a soft open core1--they are of a brownish-black color with a single white stripe4 ,they measure from three-quarters to one inch in length4 ,the fruit comes into use about the first of ,april and lasts until the end of summer4 ,it is a very popular fruit in summer and deserves more attention in the various markets than it has yet received4 ,the sap of the sapota tree and juice of the green fruit when concentrated furnish the material known as chicle1 from which chewing-gum is made4 ,the compositions of the round and long sapota and the natural preserved pulp of the sapota are given in the following table3 ,composition of ,edible ,portion4-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,composition ,,of ,,edible ,,portion4 ------------------------------- ,,edible ,total ,pro- ,total ,,portion4,solids4 ash4 ,acids4 tein4sugar4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,per- ,per- ,per-,per- ,per- ,per- cent4 cent4 cent4cent4cent4cent4 ,round sapota1 #gf4dj #bc4jg #j4chd #j4acb #j4cej #aj4he ,long sapota1 #hj4ij #ba4ja 4#eee 4#afb 4#fej #ab4gf ,natural sapota preserves1 4444 #bb4ie 4#cii 4#jhf 4#bca #aa4cj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,the sapota is also used in the manufacture of preserves by boiling it with sugar in the usual way4 ,the analyses show that the sapota is a fruit which is principally valuable as a carbohydrate food4 ,it has1 however1 very little acid1 and is a much sweeter fruit than the anona and1 therefore1 more pleasant to the taste4 ,star-apple 7,cainito7 7,chrysophyllum cainito74--,the star-apple is one of the less important fruits which abound in ,cuba4 ,it is not very extensively used1 but medicinal properties are attributed to it4 ,three different varieties are sold in the ,havana markets1--one of a white color and two purple4 ,the first attains the size of a small apple1 approaching about seven ounces in weight4 ,there are two kinds of meat in the pulp2 the outer portion is a white1 gelatinous matter which contains the small black seed and is really the edible portion1 and constitutes about one-third the weight of the fruit4 ,the outer fibrous and purple portion of the flesh is inedible4 ,the inner pulp has a sweet characteristic flavor and is eaten raw4 ,no preserves were found made of this in ,cuban markets4 ,the composition of the white star-apple is shown in the following table3 ,composition of ,edible ,portion--#da4hj percent4-- ,solids1 #ad4bc percent ,sugar1 #g4ia ,protein1 4#fg ,ash1 4#ce ,acidity1 4#je ,these data show that the fruit is not of a very high nutritive order1 and on account of its low acidity it is not suitable for the making of preserves4 ,tamarind 7,tamarindus ,indica74--,this fruit belongs to the leguminous family and forms a dark brown pod from one to six inches in length and from three-fourths of an inch to one inch in width4 ,the rind is thin and very brittle4 ,within the pod is found a dark-colored pasty material1 closely attached to the seed sacks and joined to the stem of the pod by coarse fibers4 ,this pasty material constitutes the edible portion of the fruit and has a very sour taste which serves to mask the large amount of sugar1 sometimes as much as #cj percent1 which it contains4 ,the tamarind is remarkable as having the highest content both of acid and sugar of any of the edible fruits which are in common use4 ,it contains more acid1 for instance1 than the sourest lime and more sugar than the sweetest fruit4 ,the tamarind is not very largely used directly for edible purposes but is a component of many refreshing summer beverages and is used for flavoring other products4 ,it has mild purgative properties1 and hence its intermittent use in small quantities tends to keep in proper regulation the mechanical movements which are so necessary to normal digestion4 ,composition of the ,tamarind4-- ,water1 #dg4dg percent ,acid1 #f4jc ,sugar1 #ca4dc ,protein1 #a4cf ,ash1 #a4ef ,the above data show that the tamarind is essentially of a carbohydrate nature1 its chief food value being in the sugar which it contains4 ,on account of its high acidity very little of the sugar which is present is in the form of sucrose or cane sugar1 but is mostly in an invert condition4 ,preparation of ,tamarinds4--,tamarinds are not only used directly but most extensively in the form of tamarind paste which is made up chiefly by the addition of cane sugar to the pulp2 as much as #ge percent of sugar is often added to the making of paste4 ,another form of preparation is called tamarind pulp1 which has practically the same composition as the paste4 ,these two bodies may be called tamarind preserves4 ,the proportion of pulp to added sugar is about as #bj to #hj4 ,mineral ,constituents of ,tropical ,fruits4--,the mineral content of the edible portions of fruits is important1 both from a dietetic and chemical point of view4 ,the mineral substances in fruits not only add to their palatability but also have important functions in digestion and assimilation4 ,the lime and phosphoric acid which the ash of fruits contain are foods that nourish certain tissues of the body1 such as the bones4 ,the other mineral ingredients of fruits take an active part in the circulation of the fluids of the body4 ,since the modern development of physiological chemistry1 what is known as osmotic force1 or the power that causes solutions to pass through membranes1 is believed to be due largely to the mineral constituents of the juices of the body4 ,these mineral constituents are therefore necessary in the food4 ,the following table gives the total quantity of ash in the edible portion of the tropical fruits named1 together with the composition of the ash in respect of its most important constituents 7,bulletin #hg1 ,bureau of ,chemistry73 ,,analyses ,,of ,,the ,,ash ,,of ,,the ,,edible ,,portion ,,of ,,the ,,several ,,fruits4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,description ,,total ,,silica,,potash ,,lime ,,magnesia ,,of ,,sample4 ,,ash4 7,si,o747,k,o747,ca,o74 7,mg,o74 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- cent4 cent4cent4cent4 cent4 ,orange 7china71 #j4eb #a4ja #dj4ffaj4bf #e4bg ,orange 7rough skin71 4#ee 44 #di4ae #b4fb #a4da ,orange 7sour71 4#eg 44 #de4ji #g4ie #b4ag ,grape fruit1 4#ci 44 #dd4ai #g4cd #c4ib ,lime1 4#ih 44 #dc4ja #g4hd #b4cf ,sweet lemon1 4#ih 44 #ed4ce #d4bi #a4jh ,tamarind1 #a4ef #ae4eg 44 4#fh #b4ai #cd ,guava1 4#hd #a4ac #ee4jj #b4dh #a4fd ,banana 7nio71 4#gj 44 #df4df 4#ie 4#db ,banana 7oronoco71 #a4jh 44 #eb4da #a4jb #a4ij ,banana 7colorado71 4#hc 44 #ea4dg 4#cg 4#fe ,mango 7,french71 4#ec 44 #dg4cg #f4ch #a4fb ,mango 7,filipino71 4#da #a4ge #ea4gi #a4gd #c4be ,manga1 4#gh #b4ad #di4cg #b4ch 44 ,guanabana1 4#hf #a4dh #dh4ic 4#dd #b4ag ,anona1 4#hj 4#fc #dg4bg 4#ha #b4jg ,chirimoya1 #a4jd 44 #di4gc #b4ba 4#ff ,sapota1 4#ej 44 #dc4ac #g4di #b4hc ,mamey 7colorado71 4#hj 44 #ej4eg #a4ch #a4cf ,do41 4#hi 44 #dh4bj #a4gc #c4ce ,hicaco1 4#ia 44 #ce4ae #e4hd #d4ea ,cainito1 4#ce 44 #ed4ge #a4ca 44 ,pineapple1 44 44 #ei4ah #i4dd #e4eb ,do41 44 44 #eg4ac #d4hj #c4dd ---------------------------------------- ------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,ferric ,,phosphoric,,sulfuric ,,description ,,oxid ,,acid ,,acid ,,chlorin ,,of ,,sample4 7,fe,o74 7,p,o74 7,,so74 7,cl74 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- cent4 cent4 cent4 cent4 ,orange 7china71 #a4ji #h4ef #b4hd #b4dd ,orange 7rough skin71 #d4ea #g4db #c4db #a4ej ,orange 7sour71 #b4dj #h4gj #b4gb 4#ih ,grape fruit1 #a4bh #aa4ji #c4ci #a4ch ,lime1 44 #h4de #b4fb #d4jg ,sweet lemon1 44 #i4hc #d4ji #a4cb ,tamarind1 44 #d4ii #a4dj 4#dh ,guava1 44 #h4bi #c4eh #e4cc ,banana 7nio71 44 #aj4cf #b4cf #f4ei ,banana 7oronoco71 44 #e4af #c4cb #h4dh ,banana 7colorado71 44 #c4be #b4gg #g4fc ,mango 7,french71 44 #f4di #c4fg #c4hh ,mango 7,filipino71 44 #i4jd #d4hh #a4ef ,manga1 44 #e4eg #c4hd #d4bj ,guanabana1 44 #i4ae #d4ed #c4dj ,anona1 44 #ac4fc #c4ai #c4ea ,chirimoya1 44 #f4eg #d4di #g4dj ,sapota1 44 #b4gd #d4ee #ag4da ,mamey 7colorado71 44 #d4ij #c4ed #ag4cd ,do41 44 #i4ff #c4hj #af4jj ,hicaco1 44 #c4ji #d4gg #ah4fb ,cainito1 44 #aa4jj #e4ej #i4df ,pineapple1 44 #f4ea #c4jd #c4bb ,do41 44 #d4bi #c4fe #d4jh ---------------------------------------- ------------- #cd #b4hh percent sand4 ,the above data show that the percentage of ash in the edible portion of tropical fruits is never very high4 ,in only three instances in the above table does it exceed one percent and in two of those only slightly4 ,the principal mineral constituent is potash1 which in round numbers may be said to constitute one-half of the total ash4 ,of the acid constituents phosphoric acid is the most important4 ,in four cases the amount of phosphoric acid is greater than #aj percent of the total weight of the ash4 ,the proportion of sulfuric acid in the ash is quite constant1 while the amount of chlorin varies from less than one-half of one percent to more than #ah percent4 ,in this case of high ash there is a low content of phosphoric acid1 which leads to the supposition that the chlorin is partially or wholly combined with sodium and potassium4 ,in addition to the elements mentioned above the ash of edible fruits often contains notable quantities of silica and sometimes considerable quantities of sand1 added accidentally or by the collection of dust4 ,the ash of fruit also quite universally contains iron4 ,in some cases the quantity of iron amounts to as much as four percent of the total weight of the ash4 ,the data in the above table are calculated on the percentage of total ash and not on the percentage of pure ash1 that is1 ash deprived of its carbon1 sand1 and carbonic acid4 ,there are some peculiarities in the composition of the ash of tropical fruits to which attention may be called4 ,the citrus fruits contain somewhat larger amounts of lime and iron than ordinary fruits4 ,the ash of the tamarind contains large quantities of silica4 ,the ash of the banana has a low content of lime and magnesia and a high content of chlorin4 ,attention is also called to the fact that in the ordinary combustion of an organic substance to secure the mineral matter notable quantities of the phosphoric acid and chlorin contained may be lost4 ,therefore1 the data for phosphoric acid and for chlorin are probably lower than would be the case if all of these substances present in the fruit had been secured in the ash4 ,the ash of pineapples is not peculiar in any respect1 nor does it contain any marked amount of a constituent by which it can be identified4 ,the pineapple1 as is seen1 contains slightly more potash than the other tropical fruits4 ,,sugar ,,and ,,acid ,,in ,,fruit4 ,the palatable quality of fruit depends largely upon the aromatic substances which they contain in the form of essential oils1 esters1 and ethers1 and especially upon their sugar and acid content4 ,the sweet taste of sugar in fruits and also often in nuts is modified and relieved by the acid or astringent materials1 chiefly tannin1 with which it is associated4 ,in the analyses indicating the composition of fruits and of nuts and also of vegetables the sugar has not always been given separately1 but as one member of a group consisting of sugar1 starch1 and cellulose materials soluble in weak acid and alkalies1 and for this reason deemed to be digestible4 ,it seems advisable to supplement this information with a special table giving the average quantity of sugar and acid found in some of the principal fruits4 ,it must not be forgotten that in individual cases the quantity of sugar and acid may vary largely from the average1 but the following data may be regarded as expressing very accurately the average content of sugar and acid in the common fruits4 ,,sugar4 ,,acid4 ,percent4 ,percent4 ,apples1 ,rhode ,island ,greening1 #aj4ie 4#gj as malic ,winesap1 #aa4ie 4#ej ,northern ,spy1 #aa4hj 4#gj ,apricots1 fresh1 #aa4ja #a4ae dried1 #bi4ei #b4eb ,bananas1 #bj4bh 4#cj sulfuric ,blackberries1 #e4gh 4#gg malic ,cranberries1 #a4eb #b4cd ,currants1 #f4gj #b4bd ,grapes1 #g4ij-bf4dj 4#ei tartaric ,lemons1 4#cg #e4ci citric ,oranges1 #e4fe #a4ce ,peaches1 #g4hh 4#ef sulfuric ,pears1 #i4aa 4#ai malic ,pineapples1 #aa4ej 4#fj sulfuric ,plums1 #ad4ga 4#gg malic ,prunes1 #af4aa 4#cb ,raspberries1 #e4cc #a4dh ,strawberries1 #f4bd #a4aj ,in the above data the acidity is determined as malic acid in apples1 blackberries1 and strawberries1 in which the predominant acid is malic4 ,in cranberries one of the acids is benzoic1 amounting sometimes to as much as #j4je percent1 in grapes tartaric1 in lemons and oranges citric4 ,in the other fruits where the character of the organic acid is not distinctly of one kind1 the total organic acid is estimated as sulfuric acid 7,,so71 not meaning by that1 however1 that the acids are present in the form of sulfuric acid but merely that their quantity was measured in terms of sulfuric acid4 ,,canned ,,fruits4 ,the industry devoted to canning fruits is of less importance in the ,united ,states than that identified with canned vegetables4 ,practically1 nevertheless1 every fruit which has been produced in this country has become a commercial article in the form of canned goods4 ,with the exception of the method of preparation1 the process of canning and other treatments are essentially the same as that of vegetables and therefore does not warrant any further description4 ,in the following data are found a brief description and the composition of the leading varieties of canned fruit3 ,canned ,cherries4--,cherries are one of the fruits which are valued for canning purposes4 ,the pits may or may not be removed1 according to the desire of the manufacturer and the demand of the consumer4 ,the galvanic action which the cherry juice sets up on the tin plate tends to bleach the natural color of the cherry1 and this action can be avoided by coating the interior of the can with a gum or some similar substance which entirely protects the metallic surface from contact with the juice of the fruit4 ,when treated in this way the natural color of the cherry is preserved for a reasonable length of time4 ,adulteration of ,canned ,cherries4--,the only adulteration of canned cherries which is of any consequence is that which relates to artificial coloring4 ,by reason of the tendency to bleach the color1 mentioned above1 it has been quite customary to add an artificial color to the cherry so that the red color may be preserved4 ,coal tar dyes1 under various names1 and an animal dye1 cochineal1 have been used for this purpose4 ,the practice of artificial coloring is reprehensible and may1 in the case of some colors1 be harmful to health4 ,by observing the precautions already mentioned1 the natural color of the cherry may be preserved without artificial color1 and in general this is desirable4 ,the consumer should at all times demand canned cherries which have not been artificially colored4 ,maraschino ,cherries4--,a very common method of treating cherries is to bleach them in a brine of common salt and sulfurous acid until all the natural color has disappeared4 ,the cherries are then thoroughly washed for the removal of the salt and sulfurous acid and at the same time the juice and soluble portions of the cherry are removed1 so that at the end of the washing there is little left but the cellular structure4 ,the cherries are then saturated with sugar or sugar and glucose and colored a deep artificial red by coal tar dye or cochineal4 ,if the natural flavor of cherries has been destroyed by the bleaching an artificial flavor is often added4 ,the product is a cherry of an even deep red tint1 more or less sweet1 according to the use of greater or less quantities of sugar or glucose1 and having a flavor of almond oil4 ,when cherries of this kind are preserved in a solution of alcohol1 flavored or unflavored1 they are called maraschino cherries4 ,the name is taken from a kind of cherry first used in making the product4 ,they are used to a very large extent with certain beverages such as cocktails1 soda water1 mint juleps1 etc41 and also in ice cream and other preparations for the table4 ,little can be said in praise either of the taste or wholesomeness of these preparations and they are valuable chiefly for their supposed attractive appearance4 ,the offense which is committed against the sthetic taste of the individual in the preparation of such a product probably offsets any good effect which comes from attractiveness or ornamentation4 ,the product cannot be regarded in any sense as resembling even in color the natural fruit1 since practically the whole of the natural fruit1 except its cellular structure1 has been withdrawn and artificial substances substituted in place thereof4 ,canned ,peaches4--,a great industry in this country is the canning of peaches4 ,some of the finest and most perfect varieties are used for this purpose4 ,peaches may be canned whole or by slicing in half or quarters and removing the pit4 ,the principles of sterilization are not different from those which have already been described4 ,since the peach is a fruit which decays easily and is thus difficult of transportation1 the establishment of canning factories in the vicinity of large peach orchards renders it possible to preserve this delicate fruit in a condition practically as good as that of the natural article1 and thus makes it accessible to the people in all parts of the country at all seasons of the year4 ,adulteration of ,canned ,peaches4--,fortunately in this case there is no record of adulterations which is of any consequence4 ,the perfection of the method of sterilization has rendered it unnecessary to make further use of antiseptics for canned peaches4 ,the use of the artificial sweetening agent1 saccharin1 is almost unknown and is about the only adulteration which at the present time can be practiced without easy detection4 ,it may be confidently stated that the consumer can rely1 with a fair degree of assurance1 upon the purity of the product which is taken from the can4 ,the only real danger is in the action of the fruit juice upon the imperfect tin plate1 and this is a danger which probably will soon pass away1 since there is a tendency manifested now to so protect the tin by a varnish of some kind as to render it impossible for any electric action to take place which impairs the color or flavor of the fruit and also to exclude the poisonous salts of tin and lead from the contents of the can4 ,adulteration of ,canned ,fruit4--,artificial coloring3 ,the principal adulteration of canned fruit is that due to artificial coloring4 ,there is1 perhaps1 no other form of adulteration which has so little excuse4 ,it only needs a cursory observation of the fruits of ,nature to show that even in the same varieties they differ to a vast degree in natural tint4 ,bright colors are especially prized in fruits4 ,for instance1 the yellow of the peach1 the red of the cherry1 the purple of the plum1 etc4 ,the object of artificial coloring is to make all kinds and varieties of these fruits imitate those of naturally rich color4 ,its sole purpose is deception1 since it can add nothing whatever to the nutritive value4 ,the claim that it adds to the dietetic value of the fruit1 as in other cases of the same kind of argument1 is plainly fallacious4 ,the very moment the consumer realizes he is eating an artificially tinted fruit1 if his temperament be as artistic as should always be the case1 he becomes sensitive to the effort made to deceive him4 ,such artificially colored foods1 thus1 instead of tasting better than they otherwise would1 have a worse taste due to the feeling of antipathy excited by their presence4 ,hence there can be no excuse1 under any circumstances1 for the addition of artificial colors to food products of this kind1 or in fact1 of any kind except those which are purely synthetic and have no relation in composition or in quality to a natural product4 ,with the exception of cherries and berries1 the addition of artificial color to canned fruits is not common4 ,another form of adulteration1 which fortunately is seldom practiced in fruit1 is one which has already been described in sufficient detail1 that is1 the addition of saccharin1 a substance which has even less place in fruits than in vegetables4 ,the addition of a non-sugar1 such as saccharin1 with an intensely sweet taste for the purpose of inducing the consumer to believe that the article is a natural sweet product1 is an adulteration of the most reprehensible type1 to say nothing of the evil effects of the adulterant employed upon health4 ,the addition of spices and other condimental substances to fruit products cannot be regarded as an adulteration1 because they reveal their own presence and are not added for the purpose of imitation or deception4 ,as has been mentioned above1 the manufacturer would save all criticism in such cases by a plain statement upon the label of the nature of the substance added4 ,canned fruits properly preserved retain their natural aroma and flavor better than any other form of canned food and deserve the high estimation in which they are held by the consumer4 ,the time is now rapidly approaching when all such goods will be free of any imitation or adulteration1 and this will add greatly to their value in the markets of the country4 ,the consumer will then only need to have the date of preservation marked on the can to be fully protected4 ,,fruit ,,sirups4 ,the expressed juice of fruits mixed with the proper proportion of sugar produces an important article of commerce known as fruit sirup4 ,these fruit sirups are used principally in the preparation of cooling1 non-alcoholic beverages such as are drunk at the 8soda fountains0 so-called in the ,united ,states4 ,in the preparation of fruit sirups only the choicest and best fruits are to be used4 ,the juice1 after expression1 is properly freed from suspended matter by filtration or sedimentation and is brought to a proper consistence by mixing at once with pure sugar4 ,when it is used as soon as prepared no further preparation in regard to its preservation is necessary1 since juice prepared in this way and kept in an ice-box will keep several days without fermenting4 ,when prepared on a large scale for commercial purposes it becomes necessary to prepare these sirups in some more permanent form4 ,to this end they are subjected to the usual process of pasteurization4 ,on account of their liquid condition1 sterilization1 that is1 the use of a temperature of boiling water1 is rarely necessary4 ,if1 on pasteurization1 a precipitate is formed in these sirups1 they should be heated to the temperature of pasteurization previous to the final processing and any deposited matter be separated by filtration or deposit4 ,the sirup thus clarified is placed in bottles or separate containers and subjected to the pasteurizing process for a sufficient length of time1 and is then ready for the market4 ,these pasteurized sirups1 if stored in a cool place1 will keep almost indefinitely4 ,in all cases where pasteurization is practiced at a very low temperature it is necessary to keep the product at a low temperature1 since1 as is well known1 pasteurization does not kill all the spores1 but does act with deadly effect upon the yeasts which produce alcoholic fermentation4 ,fresh sirups thus prepared and pasteurized are wholesome and palatable and are unobjectionable4 ,composition of ,fruit ,sirup4--,naturally the principal constituent of fruit sirup is the added sugar4 ,the other constituents correspond to those of the juice from which the sirup is made4 ,as one of the principal constituents of fruit juice is sugar1 it is seen that the natural sugar plus the addition makes up practically the total solid components in articles of this kind4 ,adulteration of ,fruit ,sirup4--,fruit sirups have been extensively and unnecessarily adulterated4 ,the principal adulteration is the omission of the pasteurization process and the preserving of the fruit juice by means of an antiseptic4 ,the two antiseptics which have been most commonly employed for this purpose are salicylic and benzoic acids4 ,at the present time1 by reason of prohibitive legislation in respect of salicylic acid1 benzoic acid or its compounds are quite universally employed4 ,these antiseptics are injurious to health and even in small quantities cannot fail to have some deleterious effect upon the system4 ,as they are not necessary in the preservation of fruit sirups1 they should be rigidly excluded therefrom4 ,in justice to those who use antiseptics of this kind it is said that1 as a rule1 they frankly admit that these sirups can be preserved by sterilization1 but that when consumed they are used only in small quantities1 and when the air has access to the remaining portion fermentation is set up4 ,to this the answer may be made that if unstoppered and used under proper conditions to avoid the admission of germs1 and if kept on ice or in a cool place1 fermentation will not set up for several days1 during which time opportunity will be had for disposing of the contents of the bottle4 ,it does not appear that there is any convincing reason to warrant the continuance of the use of preservatives in this kind of products4 ,imitation ,fruit ,sirups4--,by far the most general adulteration of fruit sirups is that of the imitations thereof1 pure and simple1 by synthetic products4 ,the flavors which give to fruits their character and aroma are chemical compounds produced by ,nature and are chiefly of the nature of a volatile oil or compound ether4 ,of these flavors1 the compound ethers especially are readily produced by purely synthetic processes4 ,it is possible1 therefore1 for the chemist to make an approximate imitation of the natural fruit flavor4 ,no difference how great his skill1 however1 or the skill of the mixer1 there is always a gustatory and hygienic difference between the synthetic and the natural product1 and the natural product always has the advantage of the difference4 ,while ,i do not go so far as to say that synthetic flavors or sirups should be excluded in the preparation of non-alcoholic beverages1 ,i do say with emphasis that they should never be used1 except with notification to the consumer1 and never1 under any circumstance1 if they contain any ingredient which is prejudicial to health4 ,one of the principal arguments which has been made against the enactment of the pure food bill has been that it would exclude from the market these synthetic products4 ,at least let them be sold under their proper designations4 ,a law which requires plain and honest branding can hardly be objected to on any ground whatever4 ,,jams1 ,,jellies1 ,,and ,,preserves4 ,the preparation of various fruits or fruit juices with sugar is an important industry both for domestic purposes and for commerce in the ,united ,states4 ,when the fleshy portion of the fruit is treated with sugar sirup and boiled1 it produces the product known as preserves4 ,when a fruit is reduced to a pulp and treated with sugar sirup and boiled1 it makes a product known as jam4 ,when the fruit juice itself is treated with sugar and boiled1 it forms a product known as jelly4 ,the above are general definitions of three important classes of fruit products1 though it is not intended by any means in the definitions to describe the details of preparation4 ,these vary greatly in respect of the method of preparation1 the fruit1 the quantity of sugar used1 the length of time the boiling is continued1 and the consistency of the final product4 ,these definitions merely outline the three distinct classes of products which are made from fruits4 ,selection of the ,fruit4--,in the selection of the fruit for making these sweet products it is highly important that only the very best quality should be used4 ,the fruit should be of a proper degree of maturity1 and yet not overripe4 ,the practice of using immature1 waste1 or partially deformed or decayed fruit for the purposes named cannot be too strongly condemned4 ,the great advantage of preparing these products at the home consists in the fact that the character of the material used is under the immediate supervision of the housewife4 ,in large factories where no official inspection is exercised it is possible that any kind of fruit or any portion of the fruit may be devoted to the purpose4 ,all deteriorated raw material should be rigidly excluded from the factory4 ,various fruits are utilized in different manners in the preparation of the above-named products4 ,large fruits with tough skins1 such as apples1 peaches1 and pears1 are pared1 the cores removed1 and all decayed or infected portions cut away1 and the clean1 fresh1 fleshy portion of the fruit used for manufacturing purposes4 ,small fruits1 such as berries1 after the exclusion of all dirt1 immature or imperfect samples1 and the removal of the stem1 are used in the whole state for the purposes named4 ,it would be manifestly impracticable1 as a rule1 to remove even the seeds of small fruits1 except where jelly is to be manufactured4 ,the fruits1 having been properly prepared1 are mixed with sugar or thick sugar sirup and subjected to heat for two purposes4 ,the first purpose of heat is to sterilize completely the material so that no bacteria1 germs1 or spores may be left alive in the finished product4 ,the second purpose of heating is to concentrate the material to a proper consistence and to thoroughly saturate all portions with sugar sirup4 ,incidentally1 the heating also by the combined action of temperature and free acids in the fruit inverts a large quantity of the cane sugar that is used and thus prevents the finished product from granulating4 ,the crystallization of the sugar in these bodies renders them very much less desirable and suitable for consumption4 ,for this reason1 among others1 the precaution above mentioned1 namely1 that the fruit should not be overripe1 should be observed4 ,it has been seen that overripe fruit diminishes in acidity1 and hence it is less suitable for converting the cane sugar than fruit just short of complete maturity4 ,for this reason1 too1 the more strongly acid fruits are better suited for making these sweetened products than those in which the acidity is less strongly developed4 ,jams4--,as has already been said1 jams differ from jellies in that they contain not only the juice of the fruit but the whole pulp of the fruit or the whole fruit4 ,the methods of preparation in effect produce the same changes upon the sugars that are produced by the fruit juice4 ,the fruit after proper comminution is boiled with large quantities of sugar a sufficient length of time to reduce the fruit flesh to a pulp and to invert more or less of the sugar which is used4 ,the insoluble matter which jam contains consists chiefly of the cellulose and pectose matter in the fruit1 together with the seeds of the small fruit4 ,the various solids are made up of the solid bodies in the fruits1 including the sugars which are added4 ,the character of the ash of the jams is a good indication whether or not they are pure1 that is1 made out of sugar and fruit only4 ,while it is true that the ash of fruit varies1 it is also true that the real ash of fruit has certain characteristics in regard to alkalinity which are not possessed by the ash of adulterated fruit products4 ,for the sake of convenience and reference it is seen advisable to append a table showing the composition of the ash of some of the fresh fruits 7,bulletin #ff1 ,bureau of ,chemistry74 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,p,o4 ,,so4 ,,phos- ,,sul- ,,pure ,k,o4 ,na,o4 ,ca,o4 ,,phoric ,,furic ,cl4 ,,fruit4 ,,ash4 ,,potash4 ,,soda4 ,,lime4 ,,acid4 ,,acid4,,chlorin4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- cent4 cent4cent4cent4cent4cent4cent4 ,apple1 #j4bfd #ee4ba #aa4fi #d4gi #ab4hc #d4fb #j4hc ,apricots1 4#ejh #ei4cf #aj4bf #c4ag #ac4ji #b4fc 4#de ,banana1 #a4jgh #fc4jf #b4cd 4#hf #a4fb #b4cb #bf4ic ,cherries1 #j4ddj #eg4fg #f4hj #d4bj #ae4aa #e4hc #a4hc ,figs1 4#fhb #eg4af #b4ch #aj4ij #ab4gf #c4ij #b4je ,grapes1 4#ejj #ej4ie #f4cb #d4if #ba4bg #d4bh #a4ed ,lemons1 4#ebf #dh4bf #a4gf #bd4hg #aa4ji #b4hd 4#ci ,oranges1 4#dcb #dh4id #b4ej #bb4ga #ab4cg #e4be 4#ib ,prunes1 4#dhf #fc4hc #b4fe #d4ff #ad4jh #b4fh 4#cd ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,from the above table it is seen that there is not a very large percentage of sulfuric acid in the natural ash in fruits1 and very little chlorin1 with the exception of the banana1 in which the ash is principally potassium chlorid4 ,since the ash of glucose1 as it is made at the present time1 consists almost entirely of sulfates and chlorids1 any considerable increase of these ingredients of an ash over the normal may be regarded as an indication that the fruit product from which the ash is obtained contains added glucose4 ,inasmuch as there are chemical and physical methods of detecting glucose which are entirely reliable1 the utility of the composition of ash for this purpose is rather confirmatory than otherwise4 ,since the added sugar is the chief constituent of jams there is little difference in other respects in the composition of jams made from different fruits1 as will be seen by the table of analysis given below3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,total ,,reducing ,,cane ,,total ,,description4 ,,solids4 ,,acidity4 ,,sugar4 ,,sugar4 ,,sugar4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,jams4 ,percent4,percent4,percent4,percent4,per cent4 ,apple1 #fc4bb #j4bhb #be4eb #bi4aa #ed4fc ,blackberry1 #ee4db 4#hea #ah4gg #bi4jj #dg4gg ,grape1 #ef4fd 4#gdd #cc4dd #aa4cc #dd4gg ,orange1 #hj4eb 4#dcc #ac4fa #ed4bc #fg4hd ,pear1 #fa4eb 4#afc #ac4bj #cc4gd #df4id ,peach1 #fe4fe 4#ejj #cf4dh #bc4af #ei4fd ,pineapple1 #gc4ib 4#cad #ad4je #df4dj #fj4de ,plum1 #ej4dc #a4jab #bh4bi #i4gj #cg4ii ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,the characteristics of fruit which give the special flavors to the jams are imparted by constituents such as ethers1 essential oils1 and other aromatic substances1 together with the free acids which are present in such quantities as not to be susceptible of easy quantitative determination by chemical means4 ,the relation which exists between the cane sugar and the invert sugar is not a safe index of the method of preparation1 but is rather an indication of the excess or deficiency of the acid in the fruit employed4 ,the greater the quantity of active acids1 other things being equal1 the larger the quantity of inverted sugar and the smaller the quantity of cane sugar in the finished product4 ,in the following table is given the composition of a number of jams made in the laboratory of the ,bureau of ,chemistry4 ,these analyses are selected from a great many which are available because the character and amount of sugar in the composition of the jam were carefully controlled1 and thus the chemical data afford a base of direct composition4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,total ,,acids ,,ex- ,,serial ,,pressed,,proteids ,,num- ,,description ,,of ,,total ,,as 7,n ,,ber4 ,,sample4 ,,solids4 ,,ash4 ,h,,so4 #f4be74 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4 #bjddf ,apple 7fall pippin7 #fc4bb #j4bj #j4bhb #j4age #bjdad ,blackberry #ee4db 4#dh 4#hea 4#gcg #bjdde ,grape 7fox7 #fa4hj 4#ai 4#fih 4#bjj #bjdaf ,grape 7,ives seedling7 #ef4fd 4#dh 4#gdd 4#ebe #bjddc ,orange 7,florida navel7 #hj4eb 4#dd 4#dcc 4#idd #bjddh ,pear 7,bartlett7 #fa4eb 4#bh 4#afc 4#cab #bjddb ,pineapple #gc4ib 4#cj 4#cae 4#cab #bjdba ,plum 7damson7 #ej4dc 4#ed #a4ajb 4#ebe #bjdbc ,plum 7wild fox7 #fb4aj 4#df #a4cee 4#bab ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,sugars4 ------------------------ ,,serial ,cane ,cane ,,num- ,,description ,,of ,reducing sugar sugar ,,ber4 ,,sample4 sugar4 added4 found4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4 #bjddf ,apple 7fall pippin7 #be4eb #ea4ca #bi4aa #bjdad ,blackberry #ah4gg #dc4ii #bi4jj #bjdde ,grape 7fox7 #ej4jf #ed4ba #c4gj #bjdaf ,grape 7,ives seedling7 #cc4dd #db4de #aa4cc #bjddc ,orange 7,florida navel7 #ac4fa #fi4ac #ed4bc #bjddh ,pear 7,bartlett7 #ac4bj #df4eb #cc4gd #bjddb ,pineapple #ad4je #fj4bj #df4dj #bjdba ,plum 7damson7 #bh4bi #cg4ge #i4gj #bjdbc ,plum 7wild fox7 #bh4gh #dg4hf #bc4bf ---------------------------------------- ------------ ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,polarizations4 -------------------------- ,cane ,,serial sugar ,direct,invert,invert ,,num- ,,description ,,of in- at at at ,,ber4 ,,sample4 verted4#ah ,c4#ah ,c4#hf ,c4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,p4 ct4 ,v4 ,v4 ,v4 #bjddf ,apple 7fall pippin7 #dc4bb #bf4c -#ac4j #d4h #bjdad ,blackberry #cd4jh #bd4f -#ad4f #a4f #bjdde ,grape 7fox7 #ib4if -#i4j -#ad4j #b4b #bjdaf ,grape 7,ives seedling7 #gc4ch #c4e -#aa4h #j #bjddc ,orange 7,florida navel7 #ba4ee #ee4i -#ag4e #b4j #bjddh ,pear 7,bartlett7 #ah4hg #cb4c -#ac4b #a4j #bjddb ,pineapple #bb4ij #eb4c -#aj4c #f4b #bjdba ,plum 7damson7 #gd4db #c4a -#aj4j #a4b #bjdbc ,plum 7wild fox7 #ec4dc #ac4i -#ag4e #j ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,the following table represents the data relating to the composition of jams from samples purchased in the open market1 free from glucose and apparently pure3 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,total ,,reducing ,,cane ,,total ,,description4 ,,solids4 ,,acidity4 ,,sugar4 ,,sugar4 ,,sugar4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,percent4,percent4,percent4,percent4,per cent4 ,apricots1 #gj4ae 4#djg #ch4if #bf4jj #fd4if ,currants1 #ff4cb #a4aag #eb4de #a4fd #ed4ji ,figs1 #fi4hi 4#gdd 4444 #de4ib 4444 ,grape fruit1 #fi4bj 4#chg #bg4jj #ce4ea #fb4ea ,guava1 #hb4df 4#bii #be4ad #eb4gc #gg4hg ,peach1 #fe4fe 4#ejj #cf4dh #bc4af #ei4fd ,strawberries1 #ge4hc 4#dhj #cg4ae #ca4dc #fh4eh ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,the average composition of a large number of pure jams1 some of which were made in the laboratory and some purchased in the open market1 is as follows3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,total ,,reducing ,,cane ,,total ,,solids4 ,,acidity4 ,,sugar4 ,,sugar4 ,,sugar4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,percent4,percent4,percent4,percent4,per cent4 ,average1 #fe4ih 4#ecf #cf4da #bb4ae #eh4ef ,maximum1 #hb4df #a4cee #fa4jb #ed4bc 4444 ,minimum1 #ej4dc 4#afc #ac4bj 4#cj 4444 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,the analytical data show that the jams1 in so far as active food constituents are concerned1 are composed chiefly of sugar4 ,these sugars include both that natural to the fruit and that which has been added4 ,the average content of sugar in round numbers is #eh4e percent1 while in round numbers the average content of solids1 not sugar1 is #g4e percent4 ,it is thus seen that the amount of sugar present in round numbers is eight times as great as that of the other solids4 ,it is also noticed that the percentage of reducing sugar is about one-third greater than the cane sugar1 indicating that the inversion of the sugar1 when the real fruits have been used in the manufacture1 has been carried to such an extent as to avoid any danger of crystallization4 ,these data are all in complete refutation of the claims made by many manufacturers that it is necessary to add glucose in the manufacture of complex products of this kind in order to prevent crystallization4 ,if the real fruit is used in the proper quantity and the manufacture conducted according to the approved method1 there is no danger of crystallization except in those rare cases where the fruits used have little or no acid4 ,adulteration of ,jams4--,the adulterations of jams are practically the same as those which are practiced with jellies4 ,artificial colors have been very extensively used together with the artificial flavors resembling the fruits1 the names of which appear erroneously upon the packages4 ,glucose is used to a large extent in these adulterated goods4 ,in the adulterated articles a preservative is nearly always present4 ,starch is used but very rarely for adulterating articles of this kind4 ,fifty-eight samples of jams which proved to be adulterated were bought on the open market by the ,bureau of ,chemistry1 none of which bore any label or description indicating that it was an adulterated article4 ,the character of the principal adulterant 7glucose7 in each case is revealed at once by the polarization1 which is always strongly right-handed1 and also by other chemical tests for glucose4 ,the quantity of sulfate and chlorid in the ash of these samples is always very considerably increased over that of the natural product4 ,the quantity of glucose in some of the samples is so great as to indicate that practically the whole of the solid matter is composed of this substance4 ,in two samples the alleged jam contained no fruit product whatever4 ,in many cases more than #gj percent of glucose is found and in one instance as high as #gf percent4 ,in a great majority of the cases the glucose is approximately one-half of the whole weight of the jam4 ,in a great many cases the glucose was present in quantities which indicated the utilization of some fruit product4 ,there were a few cases where the amount of glucose fell below #aj percent4 ,artificial coloring matter was present in almost every case1 and in the great majority of cases either benzoic acid or salicylic acid is present as a preservative4 ,the colors used are coal tar dyes and cochineal4 ,it is evident that articles of food adulterated in this manner should not be permitted to bear the name of the natural product1 and in many of the states the local laws forbid the use of a misleading name4 ,the national law1 which was approved on the #cjth of ,june1 #aijf1 also forbids misbranding of this description4 ,in addition to the jams which on their labels bore no indication of the adulterations1 a number of samples of jam were purchased labeled 8,compound10 or in some way indicating that they were not the pure article4 ,thirteen samples of this kind were examined in the ,bureau of ,chemistry and all of them had very large quantities of glucose1 the largest amount present in any one case being #cg percent4 ,they were all artificially colored1 and ten of them contained preservatives1 either benzoic or salicylic acid4 ,jellies4--,in addition to the jellies which were made in the laboratory of the ,bureau of ,chemistry for the purpose of controlling the manufacture1 #dd samples of jelly were bought upon the open market4 ,of these commercial samples #ai contained no glucose1 #ac of them contained glucose1 but were not so labeled1 and #ab were labeled as compound or adulterated articles4 ,nearly all of the commercial jellies were made with apple jelly as the base4 ,the apple jelly and glucose made up practically the total solids1 no matter what name was applied4 ,the flavors were artificial1 and a very large number of the samples contained preservatives4 ,the samples of jelly which contained no glucose were evidently made of the natural fruit1--they contained no artificial coloring matter and in only a few instances did they contain preservatives4 ,on the other hand the jellies which were made of glucose were uniformly colored and contained preservatives4 ,it is of interest here to say a few words about the very cheapest of adulterated jellies which are found upon the market4 ,these jellies were made with some apple juice1 but chiefly of glucose4 ,they contained large quantities of preservatives1 and the ash was rich in sulfates and chlorids except in two instances4 ,in these cases it is possible that the glucose which was used was manufactured by some special process not involving the use of either sulfuric or hydrochloric acid4 ,adulteration of ,jelly4--,jellies are of the class of fruit products which have been extensively adulterated4 ,the markets of the country have been flooded for years with so-called 8compound jellies0 or imitations of jelly4 ,the chief forms of adulteration are the following3 ,the use of apple stock for making all kinds of jelly4 ,attention has already been called to the fact that apples contain a large number of pectose bodies which favor jellification4 ,a common method of manufacturing jelly has been to use a stock of apple juice or cider or a preparation made from the cores1 skins1 and rejected portions of the apple at evaporating factories or from whole rejected apples4 ,this stock is used as a common base for the manufacture of jellies of different kinds4 ,whenever apple juice enters into the composition of a jelly made from any other fruit than the apple it becomes an adulteration4 ,apple juice is not an adulteration in the sense of being an injury to health1 but in the sense of being substituted for other fruit juices4 ,artificial ,coloring4--,in as much as each kind of fruit tends to give to a jelly a particular color1 it is evident that if apple stock is used the natural colors of the other fruits must be imitated4 ,to this end coal tar dyes have been generally employed1 and sometimes vegetable or animal coloring matter to imitate the color of the fruit whose name is given to the product4 ,artificial ,flavors4--,since when apple stock is used as a base of manufacture it imparts to the finished product only the flavor of apples1 artificial chemical flavors resembling other fruits are employed4 ,thus the jellies which1 presumably1 are made from other fruits1 have the particular flavor of those fruits imitated in a wholly artificial way4 ,composition of ,jelly4--,the properties of a jelly1 in respect of its distinct character1 are due solely to the fruit from which it is made4 ,each one of the fruits contains essential oils1 ethereal substances1 acids1 etc41 which give to it a distinct character4 ,these bodies are carried with the fruit juice into the finished product and give to it its distinct characteristics4 ,the sugar1 of course1 in all these products is the same4 ,in the following table are found the data showing the composition of jellies made from different fruits in the ,bureau of ,chemistry4 ,,composition ,,of ,,jelly4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,total ,,acids ,,se- ,,ex- ,,rial ,,pressed,,proteids ,,num- ,,description ,,total ,,as 7,n ,,ber4 ,,of ,,sample4 ,,solids4 ,,ash4 ,h,,so4 #f4be74 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4 #bjdjh;,apple 7fall pippin7 #ei4ah #j4bb #j4bgi #j4age #bjdje;,blackberry #ei4fc 4#cc 4#dge 4#bdc #bjdaj;,crab apple #fc4bh 4#aa 4#aga 4#acg #bjdje;,grape 7,ives seedling7 #fc4ff 4#de 4#ebd 4#age #bjdab;,huckleberry #fc4jb 4#bh 4#bde 4#jfi #bjdce,orange 7,florida navel7 #fh4ef 4#cj 4#aga 4#dah #bjdcg,peach #fi4ih 4#ba 4#bde 4#age #bjdcd,pear 7,bartlett7 #fi4ab 4#cd 4#aha 4#aef #bjdcf,pineapple #hj4bh 4#dc 4#cbh 4#chg #bjdcc,pineapple husk #gf4cd 4#gc 4#ceb 4#cej #bjdjd,plum 7damson7 #de4ef 4#fh #a4abg 4#cej #bjdji,plum 7wild fox7 #ed4di 4#dj #a4jbi 4#ach #bjdaa,plum 7wild fox71 boiled down #gc4ja 4#fe #a4ebi 4#age #bjdjg,mixed fruit #ff4eh 4#ba 4#cfg 4#jfi ---------------------------------------- ------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,sugars4 -------------------------------- ,,se- ,cane ,,rial ,cane ,cane sugar ,,num- ,,description ,reducing sugar sugar in- ,,ber4 ,,of ,,sample4 ,sugars4 added4 found4 verted4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4,p4 ct4 #bjdjh;,apple 7fall pippin7 #bj4gh #ea4gf #cc4jd #cf4ag #bjdje;,blackberry #ab4ea #ed4hi #dd4ij #ah4bj #bjdaj;,crab apple #cd4ic #eg4fa #bc4fh #eh4hh #bjdje;,grape 7,ives seedling7 #cb4bi #fj4bi #cj4eb #di4cc #bjdab;,huckleberry #bd4bg #ec4ci #cb4gd #cg4ed #bjdce,orange 7,florida navel7 #c4ie #fe4ei #fb4eb #d4ia #bjdcg,peach #h4ge #fc4gj #ef4ei #aa4af #bjdcd,pear 7,bartlett7 #f4eh #fc4ji #eh4df #g4cc #bjdcf,pineapple #bb4ac #gb4ih #ef4gj #bh4de #bjdcc,pineapple husk #g4dj #gj4bb #fe4bb #g4ab #bjdjd,plum 7damson7 #ai4ah #ch4jj #bb4fg #dj4ch #bjdji,plum 7wild fox7 #bd4jj #dh4je #be4dh #df4ig #bjdaa,plum 7wild fox71 boiled down #dd4bb #fd4ff #bb4cg #ff4ah #bjdjg,mixed fruit #ci4gj #ei4gb #bd4bb #dj4ch ---------------------------------------- ------------- ---------------------------------------- - ,,polarizations4 ------------------ ,,se- ,,rial ,direct,invert,invert ,,num- ,,description at at at ,,ber4 ,,of ,,sample4 #ah ,c4#ah ,c4#hf ,c4 --------------------------------------- ,v4 ,v4 ,v4 #bjdjh;,apple 7fall pippin7 #bd4j -#bj4f -#a4b #bjdje;,blackberry #dg4j -#bj4a #j #bjdaj;,crab apple #ac4j -#ai4j #j #bjdje;,grape 7,ives seedling7 #bb4c -#ah4i 4#b #bjdab;,huckleberry #bd4a -#bj4a - 4#d #bjdce,orange 7,florida navel7 #fa4c -#bc4a - 4#b #bjdcg,peach #ec4d -#bc4j - 4#f #bjdcd,pear 7,bartlett7 #eb4g -#bf4b -#a4h #bjdcf,pineapple #ej4d -#bf4a #j #bjdcc,pineapple husk #fc4g -#bd4c - 4#f #bjdjd,plum 7damson7 #ag4h -#ab4h #j #bjdji,plum 7wild fox7 #af4g -#ag4h #j #bjdaa,plum 7wild fox71 boiled down #g4f -#bb4f - 4#f #bjdjg,mixed fruit #ad4h -#ag4i #b4b --------------------------------------- ,as is to be expected the chief constituent of these jellies is the sugar which is derived both from the sugar present in the natural juice and from that added in the manufacture4 ,the data show that the quantity of cane sugar inverted varies greatly with the different fruits4 ,some of the fruit juices appear to have little or no effect whatever in the inversion of sugar4 ,this is particularly true of the orange1 the pear1 and the jelly made from the husks of pineapples4 ,manufacture of ,jellies4--,in the manufacture of jellies the fruit juices are separated from the pulpy mass of the fruit1 and these alone are used in the process4 ,the most common method of procedure is to boil the fruit with more or less water until the juices are more or less separated and then to remove them by straining or pressure4 ,the fruits are heated for this purpose with sufficient water to prevent scorching until they are thoroughly softened and then reduced to a pulp4 ,the best jellies are made from juices which are obtained by simply allowing the pulpy mass to drain through cloth4 ,the juices thus obtained are clear and free of any suspended matter4 ,when pressure is used the juices are less clear and contain more or less suspended solid matter4 ,in the preparation of jellies approximately equal portions of pure cane sugar and the strained juices are used1 and the mixture is heated to the boiling point4 ,it is evident that in the manufacture of jelly where boiling is not continued for any length of time the amount of sugar inverted is less than in the manufacture of jams and preserves where the boiling is continued for a greater length of time4 ,the quantity of non-crystallizing material in the juices from which the jellies are made1 namely1 the pectose bodies in fruits1 is sufficient in most cases to prevent the crystallization of the cane sugar in the jelly4 ,the jelly is formed by these pectose bodies being present in the juice in sufficient quantities to become semi-solid on cooling after manufacture4 ,the solidifying may take place in a short time or only after several hours4 ,the juice at the time of completion of the boiling is thoroughly sterilized1 and in this hot condition should be placed in sterilized vessels and covered before setting away with sterilized parchment paper or a thin film of sterilized paraffine4 ,the covering of the surface will prevent the deposition of the seed of moulds and bacteria which often infect the top layer of jellies or other fruit products prepared in a similar manner whose surface is not properly protected4 ,preservatives4--,since the care which is necessary to prepare a jelly in a thoroughly sterilized condition and to protect the exposed surface so that infection thereof cannot take place is a matter of expense and requires great attention to details1 it has been sought to avoid these by the use of chemical preservatives4 ,salicylic acid and benzoic acid or benzoate of soda have been the principal preservatives employed1 and until state and municipal laws introduced a proper inspection or analysis of these products the use of these chemical preservatives was very common4 ,in later years their use has been gradually diminished1 owing to the objections on the part of the laws and the public to the presence of these bodies in the finished products4 ,there are1 however1 still on the market many products which are preserved by salicylic acid1 benzoic acid1 or benzoate of soda or some similar active agent4 ,from the above rsum it is seen that the consumer who buys in the open market is not quite certain that he is getting the product for which he pays4 ,this condition of affairs will doubtless pass away with the advent of the proper inspection of fruits which are used in manufacturing on a large scale and a proper supervision of the manufacturing establishments1 together with a rigid execution of the national and state food laws4 ,under such conditions the adulterations will either disappear from the market or be so labeled as to practically inform the purchaser of their character4 ,marmalade4--,the term 8marmalade0 is applied to a special character of fruit product prepared in the same manner as jam in which the fruit is not so thoroughly pulped4 ,the orange is a fruit which is used very extensively for making marmalade1--an orange marmalade1 in other words1 is only a fruit product of the character of jam and made after the same manner4 ,this class of fruit products is so nearly the same as jam as not to need any special description4 ,adulteration4--,the adulterations to which the marmalades are subjected are practically the same as for jams4 ,in the study of marmalade in the ,bureau of ,chemistry #if samples were examined4 ,of this number #hf were commercial products and #aj were prepared in the laboratory of the ,bureau4 ,of the commercial articles #ah samples1 somewhat less than #bj percent1 contained no glucose4 ,fifty-three contained glucose1 but were not so labeled1 and #ae were labeled as compound or artificial4 ,the percentage of solids in these products varied within a wide limit4 ,the maximum percentage of solids found was #hb4df and the minimum #ec4dc4 ,the average percentage of ash in the marmalade not containing glucose was #j4cb1 and the average alkalinity of the ash as measured by a standard acid was #j4bf4 ,in the adulterated marmalade containing glucose the average percentage of ash was #j4ei1 almost as great as in the pure article1 and the average alkalinity was #j4bi1 somewhat greater than in the pure article4 ,compound ,jams and ,jellies4--,a word should be said respecting the meaning of the word 8compound0 as attached to fruit products1 especially jams and jellies1 since it is a word which has been selected as somewhat more euphonious than the term 8adulterated0 or 8misbranded40 ,so true is this that the word 8compound0 when placed upon a food product indicates at once to the purchaser that the article is a mixture or substitute4 ,the term1 therefore1 indicates the character of sophistication4 ,to such an extent may this be practiced that the actual material named in connection with the word 8compound0 may be absent from the mixture altogether4 ,the term arose first on account of the desire of the manufacturer to leave off of the labels a statement of the exact composition of the contents of the package and to substitute a word of less significance1 and at the same time to comply with certain state laws which require that all fruit products containing glucose be labeled with the word 8compound0 or some similar term4 ,a much simpler and more direct method would be to make the label a truthful one1 indicating1 as nearly as possible1 the character of the product4 ,a compound generally means a jelly or jam made without the fruit named1 that is1 largely of glucose4 ,it also indicates1 as a rule1 that the product is artificially colored and artificially flavored4 ,in these cases the word 8imitation0 is to be preferred1 inasmuch as the mixtures bearing the word 8compound0 can only be regarded in reality as a mixture of unlike substances4 ,general ,conclusions4--,in regard to fruit products made by boiling with sugar1 the general statement that they should be true to name and free from artificial colors1 preservatives1 or other adulterations apparently covers the whole ground4 ,if it is desired to make a cheaper article for the benefit of consumers of small means1 the principles which should guide the manufacturers are plain4 ,the materials which are added should be wholesome and free of deleterious or injurious matter4 ,the poor man1 while entitled to get a cheaper article1 is likewise entitled1 as well as the rich man1 to protection against deleterious substances4 ,in the present state of our knowledge1 glucose is not regarded by the majority of hygienists as a substance injurious to health4 ,if it be injurious it is due more to a lack of care in manufacture than to any inherent properties4 ,pure glucose1 being simply a hydrolyzed production of starch1 cannot be regarded as a substance injurious to health4 ,the objections to glucose which have been legitimately made are due to the fact that the acids which have been used in converting the starch and also the sulfurous acid which has been used in bleaching the product have not been entirely removed4 ,it appears that the glucose used for food purposes can be freed from all objection by inverting the starch with which it is made with diastase and avoiding the use of all bleaching reagents4 ,the glucose thus made would not be water-white1 nor is it desirable for edible purposes that it be so1 since it is always1 except1 perhaps1 in the manufacture of certain candies1 used in connection with naturally colored food products4 ,there is no reason to believe that a glucose made as above and possessing1 as it naturally would1 an amber or reddish color would be made less desirable than a product which is absolutely colorless4 ,this suggestion1 therefore1 is made to the manufacturer of glucose for edible purposes in the interest of public health and to avoid any possible condemnation of the glucose by reason of the method of manufacture1 namely1 that the use of acid in the manufacture of glucose be discontinued1 that malt or some other form of diastase be substituted and that bleaching1 except by passing through animal charcoal1 be entirely omitted4 ,the product made in this way would be free from the objections which have been1 and may in the future still be1 urged with reason against the use of the article at the present time4 ,preserves4--,the term 8preserves0 is a general one which is applied in common language to a preparation of fruit preserved by boiling with sugar until complete sterilization is accomplished4 ,the term in its general application includes the different varieties of preserves which have already been mentioned1 namely1 jams1 marmalades1 etc4 ,it must also be extended to include the class of fruit products known as jellies1 though1 as a rule1 it is not made so comprehensive in meaning1 inasmuch as the jelly does not contain any of the solid particles of fruit4 ,perhaps there is no other part of the food-manufacturing industry which is so universally practiced in the household as the manufacture of preserves4 ,not only is this true of farm life in the country but also of those living in the city4 ,the sterilization of fresh fruit without the use of sugar is not nearly so common as the making of the domestic supply of preserved fruits in the sense above mentioned4 ,there is only one sufficient reason for the preparation of such foods1 namely1 the suspicion which attaches to the manufactured article appearing upon the market4 ,so universal has been the custom of artificially coloring the product1 and of the use of glucose and preservatives1 as to create a general impression among consumers that the articles thus purchased in the open market are adulterated and misbranded4 ,when these preparations are made in the household we are at least assured of the genuineness of the product4 ,it must be admitted that the art and technique of manufacture cannot possibly be so perfect in the home as in the large factories4 ,it follows as a necessary consequence that such goods as those indicated ought to be better and cheaper and more readily preserved if made in large manufacturing centers than when made at home4 ,even those who make the genuine product suffer in common with those who make adulterated articles1 since the suspicion of adulteration attaches to the whole output4 ,the practice of domestic manufacture will undoubtedly continue until the public is fully convinced that better and cheaper articles can be purchased in the open market4 ,peach ,preserves4--,a common practice among the housewives throughout the ,united ,states is to boil peaches with sugar or sugar sirup1 forming the well known product1 peach preserves4 ,preserves of this kind are considered a delicacy1 and1 as they are easily made and kept1 they are a very common article of diet throughout all parts of the country where peaches are grown4 ,fruit ,butter4--,there are several preparations of fruit which differ in some respect from those just mentioned1 to which the term 8butter0 has been applied1 such as apple butter1 peach butter1 etc41 and these are common articles of domestic manufacture4 ,this type of article is illustrated by a description of apple butter4 ,apple butter is made by boiling comminuted1 sound1 carefully selected apples of a proper degree of maturity with cider until the whole mass forms a bulk of the proper consistence4 ,the preparation thus made is treated with certain spices according to the desire of the manufacturer and the taste of the consumer4 ,there is quite a quantity of material insoluble in water in genuine fruit butter4 ,the rest consists of water1 the added sugar1 if any1 and the fruit juice with which the butter is made4 ,adulteration of ,fruit ,butter4--,very extensive adulterations are practiced with fruit butter offered in the open market4 ,in the ,bureau of ,chemistry as high as #cj percent of glucose has been found as an added product4 ,the addition of cane sugar cannot be regarded as an adulteration but the best fruit butters are made without it4 ,artificial colors are sometimes used1 and preservatives1 especially benzoic acid1 are quite common in the commercial article4 ,brandied ,fruit4--,the use of brandy in common with sugar in the preservation of fruit is widely practiced4 ,sometimes alcohol alone is relied upon as a preserving agent4 ,at other times greater or less quantities of cane sugar are used4 ,usually heat is employed in addition to the other preserving agents to complete sterilization4 ,nearly all forms of fruit may be preserved in this way4 ,brandied cherries and peaches are perhaps the most abundant4 ,the quantity of alcohol employed varies between #ae and #bj percent of the total weight of the goods4 ,the quantity of cane sugar used has been found to range from six to #bj percent of the weight of the fruit4 ,fruit preserved in this way cannot be regarded in the light of food solely1 but only as a condimental substance4 ,the eating of any large quantity of food containing that percentage of alcohol could not be accomplished without danger of intoxication4 ,the utilization of such foods upon the table should be of a restricted character1 and1 especially1 they should not be used with children or very young people where the danger from the direct effects of the alcohol is magnified and the possibility of forming the alcohol habit is also present4 ,adulteration of ,brandied ,fruits4--,the principal adulteration of brandied fruit is in the use of alcohol which is not genuine brandy4 ,it is well known that much of the brandy offered in commerce is fictitious1 that is1 is not the pure distilled alcoholic product from sound wine properly aged in wood before using4 ,when brandy is purchased for preserved fruit1 unless special care is taken to secure the genuine article the imitation article may be supplied4 ,instead of the real brandy the manufacturers may use an article which is entirely devoid of any product of the distillation of wine or containing only a small amount thereof4 ,the term 8brandy0 used with the fruit in such a case is a misnomer and the article would be deemed misbranded under the provisions of the law4 ,the manufacturer can assure himself of the purity of the brandy by obtaining it from a bonded warehouse1 since it is made under the supervision of the officials of the internal revenue and kept under such supervision until delivered to the consumer4 ,inasmuch as preparations of this kind are regarded as delicacies and the cost of the product does not enter materially into consideration it is highly advisable that only genuine brandy1 distilled from sound wine and aged in wood for a period of not less than four years1 be employed in the manufacture4 ,importance of the ,canning and ,preserving ,industries4--,the statistics for the canning and preserving industries for the calendar year ending ,december #ca1 #aijd1 form a part of the census of manufactures1 which is made in conformity with the act of ,congress of ,march #f1 #aijb1 and are compared with similar statistics for the census of #aijj1 which covered the fiscal year ending ,may #cast4 ,there has been a large increase in those industries4 ,the slight decrease in the average number of wage-earners is more apparent than real1 and is due largely to the fact that a considerable number were employed in fish canneries under a contract system4 ,the contractor furnishes the laborers and is paid for an agreed quantity of product4 ,the establishment reporting has no record of the number employed by the contractors1 and they were not included in the number reported1 the amount paid for such contract work being included in the item of miscellaneous expenses4 ,fishermen were not included in the census1 and it is possible that a larger proportion of the salted fish was prepared in connection with the actual catch than at the census of #aijj1 thus accounting in part1 at least1 for the decrease in the quantity4 ,,canning ,,and ,,preserving ,,fruits ,,and ,,vegetables1 ,,and ,,fish ,,and ,,oysters4 ,,comparative ,,summary--,,censuses ,,of #aijd ,,and #aijj4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,percent ,,of ,,in- #aijd4 #aijj4 ,,crease4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,number of establishments1 #b1fhg #b1ahb #bc4a ,capital1 #fi1ehi1caf #dg1igj1ghg #de4a ,salaried officials1 clerks1 etc43 ,number1 #c1fjd #b1dah #di4j ,salaries1 #c1baf1ggc #a1ibf1fci #fg4j ,wage-earners3 ,average number1 #ej1beh #ea1iee #c4c #ce ,wages1 #ad1aed1gcj #ab1gei1dei #aj4i ,miscellaneous expenses1 #h1edd1dig #c1bij1dei #aei4g ,materials used1 #fi1had1ccj #eb1bdc1idh #cc4f ,products3#cf ,aggregate value1 #ajg1ecd1dfd #ha1jbj1chd #cb4g ,fruits and ,vegetables-- ,total value1 #gb1egj1igd #dd1dfj1ffe #fc4b ,canned ,vegetables-- ,pounds1 #a1fgb1gei1dcha1adb1cbg1bfe #df4d ,value1 #de1bfb1adh #bh1gcd1eih #eg4e ,canned ,fruits-- ,pounds1 #bie1gfj1cee #bic1fcg1bgc 4#g ,value1 #aa1fdd1jdb #aa1caa1jfb #b4i ,dried ,fruits-- ,pounds1 #cdc1egi1fbc #ha1ahi1djf #cbc4b ,value1 #ae1ffd1ghd #d1dae1jje #bed4h ,fish-- ,total value1 #bd1deb1ecc #bj1edb1fia #ai4j ,canned-- ,pounds1 #bei1dfi1hfa #afg1hcf1hjh #ed4f ,value1 #ae1iff1eac #ad1cjh1gbc #aa4f ,smoked-- ,pounds1 #ce1dci1fai #ba1beb1jff #ff4h ,value1 #b1cfb1gdj #igc1jda #adb4h ,salted-- ,pounds1 #aab1aef1fee #abe1ffi1aca #aj4h #ce ,value1 #f1abc1bhj #e1bfj1ibg #af4d ,oysters-- ,value1 #c1gii1dab #b1jed1hjj #hd4i ,all other products1 #f1gaa1ede #ac1ifb1bbh #ea4i #ce ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ce ,decrease4 #cf ,exclusive of fruits and vegetables valued at #gae1ibj1 fish at #bgd1djc1 and oysters at #ab1ijj1 manufactured by establishments classified as food preparations1 pickles1 preserves and sauces1 slaughtering and meat packing1 wholesale1 etc4 ,importance of the ,industry4--,the importance of the canning industry is not to be measured solely by its commercial extent4 ,the principle of the conservation of food products by sterilization or pasteurization is of immense significance in the nutrition of man4 ,it enables nourishing foods of a perishable character to be kept and transported to great distances and to be used in localities where fresh foods of similar kinds are otherwise unobtainable4 ,such preserved foods mean everything to pioneers1 explorers1 armies1 and navies4 ,the 8winning of the west0 in the ,united ,states has been marked by the dbris of the rusty cans4 ,the roads along which the pioneers who settled the great ,american desert marched since #ahfe have been bordered with the discarded packages in which they carried their foods4 ,it is doubtless true that foods when they can be had fresh are to be preferred to those which have been sterilized4 ,it is also true that many unsterilized foods from unsanitary environments are more dangerous in the fresh state than when they have been exposed to a high temperature4 ,taking into consideration all the circumstances in the case1 it must be conceded that the process of sterilization1 first practiced by ,appert and afterward placed on a scientific basis by ,pasteur1 has proved of almost immeasurable advantage to mankind4 ,thus for this greater reason the character and quality of foods thus preserved should be wholly above suspicion1 and no adulteration or sophistication of any kind should be practiced therewith4 ,the manufacturer is quite as much interested as the consumer in placing the whole output of sterilized foods on a plane above suspicion4 ,,part ,,vii4 ,,vegetable ,,oils ,,and ,,fats1 ,,and ,,nuts4 ,,vegetable ,,oils ,,and ,,fats4 ,the production of a substance known as fat or oil1 composed of oxygen1 hydrogen1 and carbon in the form of a fatty acid and combined with glycerine1 is a function of almost every plant4 ,the fat acids are usually in combination with glycerine1 which plays the part of a base and in so far as its proportion by weight is concerned is much less important than the fatty acid itself4 ,in round numbers it may be said that nine-tenths of all glycerids or fats are composed of a fatty acid and one-tenth of glycerine4 ,when at ordinary temperature this combination is in a liquid form it is called an oil1 and when at ordinary temperature it is in a solid or semi-solid condition it is known as a fat4 ,the term 8ordinary temperature0 means in this connection that of an ordinary living room and not the extremes of outside temperature4 ,in general terms it may be said that the temperatures referred to are included between the minimum of #ej degrees and the maximum of #he degrees ,f4 ,in so far as chemical composition and dietetic properties are concerned1 there is no distinction between the oils and the fats4 ,the names are simply a means of ordinary discrimination which has assumed importance by reason of common usage4 ,there are three of the fatty acids which are particularly important from a dietetic point of view which go to make up the greater part of these fatty and edible vegetable oils and fats4 ,these three acids are oleic1 stearic1 and palmitic4 ,of the three1 oleic acid is by far the most important1 as it constitutes the greater part of nearly all these bodies1 especially of oils4 ,in fact the term 8olein0 and oil are of common origin4 ,palmitic acid exists chiefly in certain forms of vegetable oil and fats1 while stearic acid is a very important constituent of animal oils and fats4 ,these three acids uniting with glycerine form the glycerids which make up the great body of edible and animal oils and fats1 and these principal glycerids are known as olein1 palmitin1 and stearin1 respectively4 ,chemical ,characteristics4--,the chemical composition of these bodies has been pointed out above4 ,there is1 however1 in almost all cases1 some free acid present in the compound1 that is1 an acid which is present uncombined with the glycerine4 ,this free acid is usually present in small quantities and is more abundant in the overripe and older plants than in the freshly matured parts4 ,the natural oil also contains certain other ingredients which may be regarded as impurities1 and which it is necessary to remove from the oils by a process of purification or refining before they are ready for the table4 ,these impurities may be of a mechanical nature1 that is1 consisting of parts of the material itself from which the oil is expressed or of certain juices not oils which are found in the animal tissue1 portions of protein and other forms of nitrogenous matter1 and traces of carbohydrates and gums4 ,the oils have certain definite chemical reactions which are common to them as a class4 ,among these may be cited1 principally1 the faculty of absorbing1 under certain conditions1 the halogens1 namely iodin1 bromin1 and chlorin4 ,without entering into any technical description of this process it is sufficient to say here that the degree of absorption of iodin is in a measure the test for the varieties of oil4 ,the different vegetable oils have1 as a rule1 certain definite relations to the absorption of iodin by means of which they may be to a certain extent identified or separated from similar bodies4 ,the degree of absorption is expressed in the percentage by weight of the oil itself and is known as the iodin number4 ,if1 for instance1 a gram of any particular oil absorbs one gram of iodin1 it is said to have an iodin number of #ajj4 ,many oils absorb more than their own weight of iodin1 while many others absorb very much less4 ,another characteristic of oil is found in the fact that with certain reagents1 such as an acid either in a dilute state or in a concentrated state1 definite colors are produced which are characteristic of the variety of oil in question4 ,as an example of this may be cited the faculty which cottonseed oil has of reducing nitrate of silver to the metallic state1 leaving the silver in that finely divided form which has a black color4 ,this is the only oil in common use which has this faculty1 and hence it may be regarded as a characteristic test4 ,another characteristic chemical property of cottonseed oil is the color which is produced in the ,halphen reaction1 which has already been described4 ,one of the most valuable chemical properties of oil is the amount of heat which is produced when it is burned4 ,inasmuch as oils in relation to their food value are useful chiefly for the production of animal heat1 this chemical property becomes of great hygienic and dietetic significance4 ,of all classes of food products the oils and fats have the highest calorific power4 ,if1 for instance1 it is said in general that one gram of carbohydrates1 such as sugar or starch1 on complete combustion will yield #d1jjj calories1 one gram of protein #e1ejj calories1 then one gram of oil or fat will yield #i1cjj calories4 ,the fats and oils vary among themselves in respect of the number of calories yielded1 but all of them give1 approximately1 the number last mentioned4 ,it therefore follows that oils and fats are the most valuable constituents of food in respect of the production of heat and energy4 ,crystalline ,characteristics4--,the forms of crystals which the fats assume on solidifying are valuable indicators of the nature of the oil4 ,while these crystal forms are not in all cases distinct1 yet they are influenced to a greater or less extent by the nature of the oil itself4 ,thus the presence of any particular oil may very often be ascertained by the examination of the crystals produced by lowering the temperature very slowly or by dissolving the oil in a volatile solvent and gradually evaporating the solvent4 ,tests of even greater delicacy may be obtained by first saponifying the fat or oil1 separating the fatty acid1 and subjecting it to crystallization4 ,distribution of ,oils in ,plants4--,in nearly all cases the part of the plant which contains the most oil is the seeds4 ,in fact all of the vegetable oils which are used for edible purposes are extracted from the seed of the plant4 ,in the case of olives the meaty portion around the seed yields the edible oil of highest value1 but in all other cases of edible oils they are derived from the seeds themselves4 ,it is a mistake to suppose that the seeds are the only parts of the plant that contain oil4 ,it is found in all parts of vegetable substances1 but is usually concentrated in the seed4 ,it is rather an interesting fact to know that in the seeds of plants both the protein and fats or oils are found1 as a rule1 in a highly concentrated state1 while the carbohydrates are not found chiefly in the seed itself1 that is the germ1 but distributed in the fleshy envelope surrounding it or in roots or tubers4 ,the oils and fats are almost all soluble in ether and petroleum ether1 though there are some exceptions to this1 as in the case of castor oil1 which is also insoluble in petroleum ether or gasoline4 ,on the contrary1 oils and fats1 as a rule1 are not soluble in alcohol1 but the fatty acids derived from them are4 ,castor oil is also an exception to this rule1 since it is quite soluble in pure alcohol4 ,drying and ,non-drying ,vegetable ,oils4--,it might be supposed that if one vegetable oil be edible they all would be4 ,this would probably be the case if vegetable oils were all composed almost exclusively of the three classes of glycerids1 which have been mentioned above1 but such is not the case4 ,there are other fatty acids in combination with the glycerids which exist in vegetable oils1 and chief among these may be mentioned linoleic acid1 which exists in considerable quantities in the oil of flax seed1 and gives to it its valuable property of a drying oil which makes it so useful in the manufacture of paints4 ,whenever vegetable oils and fats contain any especial quantity of linoleic acid1 or any other fatty acid which has drying properties1 they are rendered more or less unfit for human consumption4 ,the number of drying oils is very great1 but the most important are linseed oil1 hempseed oil1 and poppyseed oil4 ,other vegetable oils have1 to a certain degree1 drying properties1 and among those which are most marked in this particular may be mentioned cottonseed oil1 sesam oil1 maize or corn oil1 and rapeseed oil4 ,types of the oils which have the least drying properties and which are regarded as types of non-drying oils are olive oil and peanut oil4 ,the castor oil group is distinguished partially from the other vegetable oils because it contains1 or is likely to contain1 more or less of a somewhat poisonous substance1 namely1 ricinolein1 which is peculiar to castor oil and to which its purgative value as a medicine is due4 ,the castor bean also contains a very poisonous nitrogenous base1 ricin1 very small quantities of which may be incorporated in the oil itself4 ,melting ,point and ,solidifying ,point4--,the oils and fats differ greatly among themselves in the temperature at which they become solid or liquid4 ,if a solid fat or oil is subjected to a gradual rise of temperature it does not pass at once or suddenly from a solid to a liquid state1 but there is a gradual liquefying1--thus olein first becomes liquid and the stearin and palmitin become liquid at a higher degree of temperature4 ,the same phenomenon in its inverse order occurs when a liquid fat is cooled until it solidifies4 ,the moment at which the fats become semi-liquid1 liquid1 or semi-solid1 therefore1 is not to be determined with absolute precision1 but only approximately1 and that temperature is designated as the melting or solidifying point respectively4 ,when the process is carefully conducted under standard conditions the different fats and oils have very definite melting or solidifying points1 as determined in the manner described above1 and these temperatures should be sufficient to make the melting and solidifying points valuable indications of the character or kind of oil4 ,physical ,characteristics4--,the difference in the physical characteristics of vegetable fats and oils is even greater than in their chemical composition4 ,unfortunately for the chemist1 the vegetable fats and oils naturally have about the same color or at least very slight variations therefrom1 namely1 an amber tint1 so that1 as a rule1 it is impossible to discriminate between these oils by their mere color alone4 ,the edible oils also have very much the same taste1 so that this physical property is not of any very great diagnostic value4 ,some of the more important physical properties by which the oils are distinguished are the following3 ,refractive ,index4--,the well-known phenomenon which is shown by water of bending sharply a ray of light falling upon it in a direction oblique to its surface is known as refraction1 and the degree of deflection of the ray is a measure of the refractive index4 ,this is easily illustrated by putting a straight stick or rod into still water at an angle to its surface4 ,the stick or rod will appear to be broken or bent at the surface4 ,oils have a higher faculty of deflecting the ray of light than water4 ,for instance1 if in round numbers the refractive index of water is represented by #a4cc1 the refractive index of oil may be represented by #a4dd4 ,the oils differ greatly among themselves in the magnitude of the refractive index1 but these indexes are all approximately of the magnitude last mentioned4 ,hence a determination of the refractive index is a valuable means of helping to discriminate between oils of different kinds4 ,reichert-,meissl ,number4--,attention was called above to the fact that in addition to three special forms of fatty acids there were many others present in oils in small quantities4 ,among these are found acids which are volatile in a current of steam1 which is not the case with the oleic1 palmitic1 and stearic acids4 ,among the most important of the volatile acids is the one which exists in large quantities in butter1 namely butyric acid4 ,the quantity of volatile acid is determined arbitrarily by the amount of a standard alkali solution which will be neutralized by the volatile acid from five grams of fat4 ,in the case of butter1 for instance1 it may be said that in round numbers it requires #bh cubic centimeters of standard alkali to neutralize the volatile acid produced according to the above method of procedure4 ,in cottonseed oil the amount of standard solution required to neutralize the volatile acid obtained in the same way is extremely minute1 amounting to less than one-half cubic centimeter4 ,i have given above a brief description of some of the physical and chemical characteristics of oils and fats in order that the reader not specially trained in chemistry may understand thoroughly the references made to these properties in the general description given of vegetable fats and oils4 ,it is not necessary to be a skilled chemist in order to have a general knowledge of some of the points which are of most interest in this respect4 ,saponification ,value4--,as is well known1 one of the most common uses of oils and fats is in soap making4 ,soap consists of the products of chemical reactions by means of which the glycerine contained in an oil or fat are set free and a mineral or other base substituted therefor4 ,for instance1 lye consists of the hydrate or carbonate of potash and soda4 ,when an oil is heated with a lye the fatty acid leaves the glycerine in the oil and combines with the potash or soda of the lye4 ,the number of milligrams of potash or soda required to saponify one gram of fat or oil is called its saponification value4 ,for instance1 in the case of cottonseed oil it requires1 in round numbers1 #aij milligrams of potash or hydrate of potash 7,,koh7 to replace the glycerine in one gram of oil4 ,the quantity of potash required for an edible oil to make a complete saponification varies1 and hence this number becomes one of the means of distinguishing between them4 ,specific ,gravity4--,the relative weight of a given volume of oil compared with the weight of the same volume of water at the same temperature or at some standard temperature is known as its specific gravity4 ,the oils and fats are universally lighter than water1 and in the comparison the unit weight of water is assumed to be unity or #ajj or #ajjj--usually unity or #ajjj4 ,if the relative weight of water is unity1 then the relative weight or specific gravity of oil is expressed as a decimal fraction4 ,for instance1 if water is taken as unity the specific gravity of oil equals 4#iab2 if the relative weight of water is assumed to be one thousand then the specific gravity expressed above is #iab4 ,unless it is stated otherwise1 in all references to specific gravity of these oils it is assumed that the comparison is between the unit weight of water and oil at the same temperature4 ,this is the most convenient form for comparison for general use1 though for strictly scientific purposes it is customary to refer all specific gravity numbers to water at the temperature of its maximum density1 namely #d degrees ,c4 7#ci degrees ,f474 ,at this temperature a given weight of water has its smallest volume1 in other words its greatest density4 ,when water is raised to a temperature above that mentioned1 it expands and its volume becomes larger4 ,when it is cooled to a temperature below four degrees ,c41 its volume also expands4 ,the variations in the specific gravity of the common oils is not very great1 and therefore the specific gravity is not the most valuable indication in discriminating between these oils4 ,,edible ,,vegetable ,,oils4 ,while there is very little chemical difference between the fats of animals and the oils of plants1 the difference is sufficiently distinguished to secure a proper degree of identification and classification4 ,both classes of bodies are composed of the fatty acids combined with glycerine4 ,the three fatty acids which are most important from the edible point of view and also from the chemical are oleic1 stearic1 and palmitic4 ,when these acids are united with glycerine as the basic element1 they form three classes of oils or fats to which the names olein1 stearin1 and palmitin are respectively given4 ,a distinction may also be made between a fat and an oil by observing its physical consistence at ordinary room temperature of approximately from #gj to #hj degrees ,f4 ,it is usual to speak of the bodies which are liquid at such temperature as oils1 while those that are solid under like conditions are known as fats4 ,a compound of this description does not pass suddenly from one state to another4 ,in the case of a fat1 for instance1 which is solid at ordinary temperature1 it passes by gradual stages from that condition to a slowly softening mass and then to a complete liquid as the temperature is raised4 ,on the other hand1 an oil passes gradually through the same stages to the condition of a solid body as the temperature is lowered4 ,of the different constituents the olein has the lowest melting point1 pure olein being still liquid at quite a low temperature1 approaching even the freezing point of water4 ,stearin and palmitin on the contrary1 if in a pure state1 are solid at a temperature even above that of the room and above that of blood heat4 ,in the mixture of these bodies it is evident that a complicated structure must be present which is composed of different bodies of varying melting points and passing through all different degrees of temperature from a solid to a liquid state or vice vers4 ,it is evident that an oil has a larger proportion of olein in its composition and a fat a larger proportion of stearin and palmitin4 ,animal fats are composed chiefly of olein and stearin1 while strictly vegetable oils are principally olein1 and palm oil is composed chiefly of stearin and palmitin4 ,in butter fat there is introduced an important additional compound of a fatty acid with glycerine1 namely butyrin1 which is made up of a union of glycerine with butyric acid4 ,butter also contains other components or glycerids1 but in small quantities4 ,oleic1 stearic1 and palmitic acids are insoluble in water and not volatile at the boiling point of water4 ,butyric acid is soluble in water and is volatile at the boiling point of water4 ,the first kinds of acid are therefore called 8fixed0 and the second 8volatile40 ,the edible vegetable oils like the animal fats are highly nutritious in the sense that they afford to a greater degree than any other kind of food product the elements necessary to the production of heat and energy4 ,the average number of calories to one gram of edible oil is in round numbers #i1cjj4 ,when this number is compared with the average number of calories in one gram of sugar or starch1 namely #d1jjj1 it is seen that fats and oils are two and one-fourth times as valuable as sugar in the production of heat and energy4 ,since the greater part of the food consumed by an animal is utilized in the production of heat and energy1 it is seen that the fats and oils must be classed as the most concentrated and in that sense the most valuable human foods4 ,the use of edible vegetable oils is also advisable for hygienic purposes4 ,they are readily assimilated and digested1 and they produce a physical effect upon the process of digestion which is a matter of importance4 ,the free use of edible vegetable oils is to be recommended in cases of constipation or where there are mechanical difficulties in the digestive process4 ,in these cases it is consumed in larger quantities than would ordinarily be the case4 ,use of ,edible ,oils4--,the edible oils are used most extensively on the table as the base of salad-dressing4 ,many succulent vegetables1 as has already been stated1 are eaten very commonly with condimental substances such as vinegar1 salt1 spices1 etc41 and as a vehicle for these condimental substances there is nothing superior or even equal to the edible vegetable oils4 ,vinegar1 itself1 owes its active principle1 namely1 its acid1 to a member of the fatty acid series1 so that the mixture of vinegar with oil is not a bringing together of two wholly different substances but of two substances belonging to the same general family4 ,vinegar itself has no value as a food1 but is useful solely for condimental purposes4 ,on the other hand the edible oil is not only condimental1 increasing the pleasant taste of the compound1 but also has a high food value4 ,edible oils may also be used in the place of lard and other animal fats in the preparation of bread and pastry1 serving the purpose of shortening4 ,edible oils are also highly useful as a vehicle for frying foods1 such as oysters1 croquettes1 doughnuts1 etc4 ,the heating of an oil or fat to a high temperature produces a certain degree of decomposition with a development of an aromatic and sometimes unpleasant product known as acrolein4 ,it is not believed that this change is as detrimental to digestion as is commonly supposed4 ,products which are fried in oil1 or boiled in oil1 which is probably a better term1 as described above1 are not to be considered wholly indigestible1 though it cannot be denied that they are not the best things for delicate stomachs or those which are in any way weakened by disease4 ,in the case of a healthy individual1 however1 a moderate quantity of such products may be eaten without any great danger of producing a derangement of digestion4 ,if these bodies are found to be indigestible1 it is probably not due to the fact that they contain large quantities of oil but rather to the decomposition effected by the high temperature and the hardening of the periphery of the bodies to such an extent as to make them difficultly amenable to the activities of the digestive ferments4 ,acorn ,oil4--,the oil of the acorn is sometimes used for edible purposes4 ,it is extracted by pressure1 and the nature of the product depends upon the variety of the acorn4 ,acorn oil has at #ae degrees a specific gravity of 4#iaf and an iodin number of #ajj4 ,it is not of any commercial importance as an edible oil4 ,almond ,oil4--,almond oil is not so commonly used for edible purposes as it is for pharmaceutical preparations4 ,by reason of its flavoring properties1 however1 it may sometimes be used for food purposes1 and a brief description1 therefore1 is advisable4 ,almond oil is obtained from the seed of the bitter almond1 a variety of ,amygdalus communis ,l4 ,it may also be extracted from the seeds of the sweet almond1 but these contain less oil than the bitter almond seed and the oil is not so useful for flavoring purposes4 ,the bitter almond whose seeds are used for the extraction of oil are grown chiefly in ,morocco1 the ,canary ,islands1 ,portugal1 ,spain1 ,france1 ,italy1 ,sicily1 ,syria1 and ,persia4 ,the almond kernel contains about #dj percent of oil4 ,almond oil is said by most observers to be free from stearin1 and it is therefore an oil which is composed almost exclusively of olein4 ,the specific gravity of almond oil at #ae degrees ,c4 is almost exactly that of rapeseed oil1 being only a trifle higher4 ,the average number expressing the specific gravity at that temperature is 4#iah4 ,its iodin value is slightly lower than that of rapeseed oil1 being about #ig4 ,adulterations4--,almond oil is often adulterated with other cheaper oils4 ,among these those which are principally used are cottonseed oil1 walnut oil1 poppyseed oil1 sesam1 peanut1 apricot-kernel and peach-kernel oil1 and lard oil4 ,those most frequently used are the apricot and peach1 since these oils contain the characteristic principle which gives the bitter taste to the kernels of this class in fruits4 ,often almond oils are offered to the trade which are composed exclusively of peach-kernel or apricot-kernel oil4 ,whenever the iodin number of an almond oil runs very high it is an indication that it is composed largely of peach or apricot oil4 ,the detection of small quantities of these oils when added to almond oil is a very difficult matter and can only be accomplished by the expert chemist4 ,cottonseed ,oil4--,one of the most important edible oils in the world1 and especially from the point of view of production in the ,united ,states1 is that derived from the seed of the cotton plant 7,gossypium herbaceum74 ,the cotton plant grows over a wide area in the ,united ,states1 including all of the southern states and extending into southern ,virginia1 southern ,kentucky1 southern ,missouri1 and ,oklahoma4 ,in former years the cotton plant was cultivated solely for its fiber4 ,it is only in the last quarter of a century that the high value of its seed for many purposes has been realized4 ,the seed of the cotton plant is preminently rich in oil and protein4 ,it contains traces of certain poisonous alkaloids1 betain and cholin1 the presence of which renders its indiscriminate use for cattle food in some cases dangerous4 ,in the preparation of oil1 however1 no trace of these poisonous substances is found1 since they exist solely in the non-fatty tissues of the seed4 ,the production and refining of the oil has now grown to be a great industry and has already added much to the wealth of the cotton growers and the comfort and nutrition of the people in general4 ,magnitude of the ,cottonseed ,oil ,industry4--,the average cotton crop of the ,united ,states is about #ab1jjj1jjj bales of about #ejj pounds each4 ,for every bale of cotton there is produced #a1jjj pounds of seed4 ,this would make the average cottonseed crop of the country about #f1jjj1jjj tons4 ,it is estimated that not over two-thirds of this is used in the mills2 this would make about #d1jjj1jjj tons4 ,the average yield of #dj gallons to a ton shows the production of crude oil to be #c1bjj1jjj barrels of #ej gallons each4 ,this oil in refining loses on the average about #h percent1 which would leave #b1idd1jjj barrels of refined oil for edible and other purposes4 ,not less than two-thirds of this oil is used for edible purposes4 ,a conservative estimate would place the quantity used for food between two millions and two millions and a half barrels per annum4 ,the quantity varies with the prices of other fats4 ,cotton seed is brought to the mills from the gins either by rail in box cars or in wagons4 ,on arrival at the mills1 it is stored in large sheds1 known as seed houses4 ,a single seed house will often contain as much as #e1jjj to #aj1jjj tons4 ,the seed is carried into the mill by means of conveyers4 ,it first goes through coarse screens which remove the greater part of the trash and sand1 after which it is passed over magnetized iron plates which remove nails and pieces of iron which may have accidentally gotten into the seed4 ,after the seed is thoroughly cleaned it passes through gins known as linters1 which remove from #dj to #ej pounds of short staple cotton known in the trade as 8linters40 ,this cotton is used for preparing cotton batts1 mattresses1 etc4 ,conveyers carry the seed from the linters to the hullers1 which are rapidly revolving drums covered with cutting knives which chop up the seed4 ,from the hullers the cut-up seed pass over a series of screens where the meats are shaken out while the conveyors carry the hulls to a suitable store house4 ,the hulls are used for cattle food4 ,the meats are carried to the crusher rolls1 through which they pass4 ,these rolls break up oil cells to a large extent and leave the meats in a finely divided condition4 ,from the crusher rolls the meats are carried to steam-jacketed kettles provided with agitators4 ,there they are cooked to the proper point1 which is determined by feel and smell4 ,from the heaters the meats are dropped into cake formers1 where they are formed into shape of cakes between camel's hair press cloths in which they are placed in the heavy hydraulic presses which press out the oil4 ,good press-room work will give out #de gallons of oil to the ton and leave in the cake between #f and #g percent of oil4 ,the crude oil as it leaves the presses varies in color from light sherry to deep claret4 ,the variation is due to local conditions affecting the seed1 also the manner of treatment in cooking4 ,the flavor of the crude oil varies greatly in the different parts of the country4 ,that made in ,georgia and ,carolina has a strong flavor of peanut1 while that made in the ,mississippi ,valley and ,texas has more the flavor of sweet ,indian corn4 ,to prepare crude oil for edible purposes1 it must go through a process of refining2 this is accomplished by agitating in large tanks with caustic soda solution4 ,when the soda is added in the proper amount1 the coloring matter1 free fatty acids1 and vegetable matter contained in the oil are converted into a mucilaginous soap which separates in dark-colored flakes through the oil when heat is applied4 ,when the granulation has reached the proper point1 agitation is stopped1 and the flaky soap stock settles at the bottom of the tank1 leaving a clear1 light1 greenish-golden oil on top4 ,the best practice allows tanks to settle about #ab hours1 after which the soap stock has drawn off and the well settled yellow oil is removed to a settling tank where it is gently heated to remove moisture and remaining soap stock4 ,this produces what is known as prime summer yellow oil4 ,this oil has a sweet flavor and light yellow color4 ,unfortunately when used for cooking it gives off a very disagreeable odor and leaves a bad flavor in the article of food cooked with it4 ,this renders further purification necessary4 ,the oil is heated to temperatures varying from #aej to #bjj degrees ,f4 and agitated in kettles with fuller's earth1 after which it passes through filter presses1 which remove the fuller's earth and leave the oil very nearly white4 ,in this condition the oil is still unfit for cooking purposes1 on account of the peculiar flavor given by the fuller's earth treatment1 which is commonly removed by treatment with steam4 ,details of this deodorizing process vary and are regarded as trade secrets4 ,the oil so prepared is largely used in the preparation of substitutes for lard and similar cooking fats4 ,such oil is a great improvement over the ordinary summer yellow and bleached oils1 but falls short of being an ideal oil4 ,within the last few years a cottonseed oil has been put on the market in which the objections to the use of cottonseed oil as food have been as nearly overcome as the chemical nature of the oil will permit4 ,the oil produced by this process is practically odorless and tasteless and can be used satisfactorily for all culinary purposes4 ,large quantities are used by the bakers in place of lard4 7,david ,wesson47 ,further ,details4--,the cotton seed from various sources is put through a screen to take out the bolls and coarse material4 ,the seed is then put through a gin to remove as far as possible any remaining lint1 of which about #bj pounds per ton of seed are obtained4 ,the clean seed is next sent to a huller composed of revolving cylinders covered with knives1 which cut up both seed and hull4 ,the chips are then conveyed to a screen placed on a vibrating frame1 through which the kernels fall4 ,the hulls are carried by an endless belt to the furnaces1 where they are burned4 ,the kernels of the seed are conveyed to crusher rolls1 where they are ground to a fine meal4 ,the meal is then sent to a heater1 where it remains from twenty to forty minutes4 ,these heaters have a temperature of #baj to #bae degrees ,f4 ,the hot meal is formed into cakes by machinery2 these are wrapped in cloth and placed in the press4 ,about sixteen pounds of meal are put in each cake4 ,the cakes are placed in a hydraulic press1 where a pressure of from #c1jjj to #d1jjj pounds per square inch is applied4 ,the press is also kept warm4 ,the expressed cakes contain only about #aj percent of oil4 ,the cake is sold as cattle food or for fertilizing purposes4 ,the crude oil as thus expressed contains about #a4e percent of free acid1 also a notable quantity of water and solid matters in suspension4 ,the manufacture of cottonseed oil usually takes place in the winter months immediately after the ginning of the cotton is completed4 ,the oil is likely to become rancid if kept unpurified until the hot months4 ,the crude oil is collected in oil tanks at the press and shipped to the refining houses4 ,in winter time when tanks are sent to the north where the temperature is very low the contents of the tank become solid unless protected from the action of the cold4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,,removing ,,the ,,oil ,,cakes ,,from ,a ,,cottonseed ,,press4--7,courtesy of ,david ,wesson47 ,refining ,process4--,the first step in the refining of a crude cottonseed oil is to have it stored in large and deep tanks where it remains at rest for a proper length of time4 ,during this period of rest the heavy mechanical impurities and water settle to the bottom of the tank and are typically known as 8foots40 ,the oily portions of these fats are used in the manufacture of soap and for other technical purposes4 ,the tanks may be connected with steam jackets in order to keep the oil at a proper temperature4 ,during the process of deposition the oil is also treated with an alkali to neutralize the free acid which it contains4 ,the precipitate formed by this process together with the principal part of the soaps produced are recovered with the 8foots40 ,a solution of caustic or carbonated soda is one generally employed in this process of refining4 ,if the admixture of caustic soda occurs at the time of filling the tank1 the contents are kept well agitated for a sufficient length of time to secure an intimate mixture of the oil with the lye4 ,usually the deposition of the solid matter is accomplished in from two to three days4 ,the supernatant oil is of a light yellow color1 but not sufficiently pure to admit of being used for edible purposes4 ,this yellow oil is treated again in a similar manner and allowed to settle a second time1 or it is mixed with some substance which will facilitate the operation1 and subjected to filtration by means of which a perfectly bright oil is secured4 ,if1 during this process1 the oil has never been chilled so as to separate a part of its stearin1 it is called summer oil1 as an indication that it only remains clear during the hot weather4 ,oils intended for winter use are chilled before finally being put into packages1 and the stearin which is separated at this low temperature is removed by filtration4 ,the residual oil which is capable of remaining liquid at a low temperature by reason of the removal of a portion of its stearin1 as above described1 is known in the trade as winter oil4 ,in this process of filtration fuller's earth is frequently employed1 which not only promotes the filtration but also absorbs and retains a large part of the color of the oil1 which thus treated is almost colorless4 ,where cottonseed oil is used for mixing with lard it is highly important that it be practically free of color4 ,when1 however1 it is used for mixing with oleomargarine the more yellow it is the more highly prized4 ,extraction of ,oil by ,means of ,petroleum4--,the light oils which are produced in the refining of petroleum and commonly called gasoline are typical solvents for fat and oil4 ,instead of extracting the oil by the pressure process1 as described above1 a practically complete extraction may be secured by successive treatments with the light petroleum oils4 ,the principle of the process is exactly that of the extraction of sugar from sugar beets by hot water in the process of the manufacture of beet sugar4 ,the cottonseed cake or pressed meal is broken into fragments of approximate size1 placed in tanks1 and treated with successive portions of light petroleum4 ,the extraction is arranged in such a way as to be a continuous one1 that is1 the vessels for handling the oil cakes are arranged en batterie as in the case of beet sugar extraction4 ,by this method all except a mere trace of the oil is extracted from the cake4 ,the light petroleum oils are subsequently separated from the cottonseed oil by distillation and are used again in the process4 ,there is little loss of petroleum oil4 ,where cottonseed oil is used for technical purposes there is no objection to this method of extraction1 and much is to be said in its favor since greater yields of oil are secured4 ,when used for edible purposes1 however1 petroleum extracted cottonseed oil is not of as high a quality as that extracted by pressure4 ,it is difficult to remove all traces of petroleum1 especially the odor1 and there are constituents extracted by petroleum which are not mixed with the oil when it is separated by pressure4 ,it is advisable1 therefore1 that cottonseed oil used for edible purposes be cold-press extracted and not petroleum extracted oil4 ,standard for ,cottonseed ,oil4--,the official standards for cottonseed oil are as follows3 8,cottonseed oil is the oil obtained from the seeds of cotton plants 7,gossypium hirsutum ,l41 ,g4 ,barbadense ,l41 or ,g4 herbaceum ,l47 and subjected to the usual refining processes2 it is free from rancidity2 has a refractive index 7#be degrees ,c47 not less than one and forty-seven hundred ten-thousandths 7#a4dgjj7 and not exceeding one and forty-seven and twenty-five ten-thousandths 7#a4dgbe72 and an iodin number not less than one hundred and four 7#ajd7 and not exceeding one hundred and ten 7#aaj74 8#8,winter-yellow' cottonseed oil is expressed cottonseed oil from which a portion of the stearin has been separated by chilling and pressure40 ,hazelnut ,oil4--,the oil of the hazelnut is to a limited extent used for edible purposes4 ,it is extracted from the seed of the hazelnut tree 7,corylus avellana ,l74 ,the seeds are very rich in oil and are said to contain from #ej to #fj percent thereof4 ,the oil is almost free of stearin and is said to contain only about one percent4 ,the rest of it consists chiefly of olein1 there being but #ab percent of palmitin4 ,while it is an edible oil1 it is used chiefly in the manufacture of perfumes and as a lubricating oil4 ,its high price1 however1 excludes it from any general use1 except for special purposes4 ,its specific gravity at #ae degrees is 4#iaf1 and it absorbs about #hf percent of its weight of iodin4 ,olive ,oil4--,by far the most important of edible oils1 both on account of its abundance and of its palatability1 is olive oil4 ,olive oil has been used from the earliest historical times and probably was the first vegetable oil that was manufactured to any considerable extent in the early history of civilization4 ,its qualities have maintained for it a market among the nations of the world in spite of the fact that many other palatable and wholesome vegetable oils have been produced which1 while not inferior in nutritive value to olive oil1 are so very much cheaper that unless the olive oil possessed peculiar properties it would be forced out of the market4 ,its delicate flavor1 extreme palatability1 high nutritive power1 and other general characteristics have maintained for it a market against the strongest competition4 ,olive oil is procured from the fruit of the olive tree 7,olea ,europa ,l471 and when it is to be used for edible purposes the method of extraction is by pressure4 ,when olive oil is used for technical purposes1 such as lubricating and the manufacture of soap1 it is very commonly secured by extraction with a volatile solvent1 such as petroleum4 ,the olive is very rich in oil1 the quantity varying from #dj to #fj percent4 ,the quality of olive oil upon the market varies in a very great degree according to the country from which it comes1 the degree of maturity of the olive from which the oil is extracted1 the method of expression employed1 and the character of the refining process to which the expressed oil has been subjected4 ,botanically1 there are very many varieties of olive trees and thus nature would impart to the olive peculiarities due to the origin of the oil itself4 ,the environment also has a great deal to do with the character of the olive and necessarily with the character of the oil produced4 ,the olive tree flourishes best in semi-arid regions where the rainfall is not very abundant and the sunlight is not greatly obscured by clouds and the heat is reasonably high4 ,the principal regions1 at the present time1 from which the commercial olive oils are obtained are ,spain1 ,italy1 ,greece1 southern ,france1 and southern ,california4 ,illustration3 ,,olives #a4 ,,mission #b4 ,,sevillano ,from ,yearbook1 ,u4,s4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture1 #ahig ,adulteration of ,olive ,oil4--,by reason of its great value as an edible oil and its high price there is no one of the edible oils which has been subjected to such a systematic and extensive adulteration4 ,by reason of the resemblance in general character of many of the edible vegetable oils to olive oil1 adulterations of the most extensive character may be practiced without indicating to the eye any change in composition4 ,nearly all the edible vegetable oils have the light amber tint which is characteristic of many grades of olive oil1 and the difference between the color of the olive oil and other edible oils is not greater than the difference between the tints of the various olive oils themselves4 ,the connoisseur of extremely delicate taste is usually able to distinguish by the taste any given edible oil from olive oil4 ,if1 however1 any given edible oil be mixed with olive oil in small proportions not exceeding #be to #cj percent1 even the skilled taster will be deceived4 ,in such cases only the chemist who has much skill and practice is able to detect the adulteration4 ,adulteration with ,cottonseed ,oil4--,in the ,united ,states the principal adulteration of olive oil is with cottonseed oil4 ,this is an oil which has already been described as of high nutritive value and to which no objection can be made from any hygienic or dietetic point of view4 ,it is made in great quantities in the ,united ,states1 and when subjected to the most careful refining processes can be offered to the consumer at a price probably not greater than one-fifth that of high-grade olive oil4 ,it becomes the ideal material with which to adulterate olive oil4 ,this adulteration extends often to complete substitution1 the oil in question1 though represented as olive oil both by the dealer and the label1 containing no trace whatever of that substance4 ,such bare-faced substitution has apparently almost passed away under the quickening ethical sense of the manufacturer and merchant and the character of the national and state laws4 ,many of the oils which are used to adulterate olive oil have a greater specific gravity1 hence whenever the specific gravity of an olive oil at #ae degrees goes above 4#iag it is ground for suspicion of adulteration though by no means a positive proof4 ,the presence of cottonseed oil in olive oil is easily detected by the ,halphen test1 which has already been described4 ,in ,europe a very common method of adulteration is with sesam oil1 the properties of which are described below4 ,peanut oil is also extensively used for the same purpose4 ,these two oils are easily detected when mixed with olive oil4 ,the sesam oil is distinguished by the color reaction to be described4 ,peanut oil is distinguished by the saponification of the oil1 separation of the fatty acids1 and consequent crystallization of the arachidic acid1 which produces a crystalline form which is readily recognized by an expert4 ,rapeseed oil and poppy-seed oil are also extensively used as adulterants in ,europe1 but not very extensively in this country4 ,nearly all the oils which are employed in the adulteration of olive oil have high iodin numbers1 and therefore whenever an iodin number is above #hi or #ij it may be regarded as a suspicious circumstance4 ,there are1 however1 many genuine olive oils which would be condemned as adulterated if this test alone were employed4 ,in addition to the oils mentioned1 small quantities of castor oil1 lard oil1 fish oil1 and even of petroleum oil1 have been found as adulterants in olive oil4 ,these1 however1 occur very infrequently1 and it is not likely that they have been employed in this country4 ,if the examination shows that a given sample is free of cottonseed1 sesam1 and peanut oil1 and other characteristics in the sample are those of olive oil1 it may be safely accepted as a pure sample4 ,color of ,olive ,oil4--,the color of the freshly expressed olive oil is usually green or dark from the chlorophyl and other coloring matter derived from the olive4 ,when refined and ready for commerce the oil is of a yellowish-green tint usually4 ,sometimes the oil obtained from the first pressing is almost colorless1 but as a rule an amber-green tint is observed in most of the commercial varieties4 ,lower grade oils are often decidedly green1 but still edible1 due to the admixture of chlorophyl from the green olive employed4 ,the flavor of olive oil is a pleasant and agreeable one1 but differs greatly in oils from different sources4 ,the further north the oils are produced the less pronounced the flavor and the sweeter the taste4 ,the more southern oils1 such as are obtained in the south of ,italy and ,spain1 have a stronger and more pronounced flavor which1 however1 is very much prized by those accustomed to it4 ,large quantities of olive oil are produced also in the ,french and other possessions in the north of ,africa4 ,these1 however1 have a stronger flavor than those produced upon the continent of ,europe and are not so highly prized when used alone4 ,olive oil is almost free of stearin1 being composed chiefly of olein with some palmitin4 ,the amount of free acid in olive oil varies with the character of the olives employed and the age of the oil4 ,on long standing1 without becoming rancid1 olive oil develops a large quantity of free acid4 ,it is a common supposition that rancidity in an oil depends upon the development of free fatty acid1 but this is not the case4 ,if an oil be free of rancidity it may contain a large percentage of free acid without becoming inedible4 ,it is not uncommon to find in olive oil as high as #c percent or more of free acid4 ,this is due to the fact that in the refining of olive oil alkalies are not usually employed1 and therefore any free acid which the natural olive possesses is not neutralized by the alkalies1 as is the case in the refining of cottonseed oil and some other vegetable oils4 ,constituents of ,olive ,oil4--,olive oil consists almost exclusively of olein and palmitin4 ,there is very little1 if any1 stearin in the highest grade oil4 ,if all the solid fatty acid at ordinary temperature be regarded as derived from palmitin1 the quantity of palmitin may be regarded as varying from three to #bj percent1 according to the origin and character of the sample4 ,while the olein and palmitin1 therefore1 may be regarded as the principal constituents of olive oil1 there are others1 also1 existing in smaller quantities4 ,the quantity of free fatty acid varies very greatly in olive oil4 ,it is highly important that the oil be separated from the pomace as speedily as possible1 since any fermentation of the pomace increases the quantity of free fatty acid4 ,the largest number of high-grade oils contain less than three percent of free fatty acid1 but a larger quantity1 as has been stated1 does not render the oil inedible unless actual fermentation has taken place producing rancidity4 ,rancidity appears to be the result of the generation of other acids than oleic1 and also aldehyds1 formic1 butyric1 acetic1 and nanthylic acids have been found4 ,olive oil is a typical non-drying oil and therefore shows a less rise in temperature when mixed with sulfuric acid than other vegetable oils4 ,the specific gravity of olive oil at #ae degrees may be placed at the average figure of 4#iag4 ,it sometimes falls as low as 4#iab and rises as high as 4#iai4 ,it absorbs from #hj to #ij percent of its weight of iodin4 ,in some samples the weight of iodin absorbed is less1 falling as low as #gg percent1 but this is only in very extraordinary cases4 ,occasionally it goes above #ij percent4 ,probably the number #hg would represent about the mean percentage of iodin absorbed by most edible oils4 ,method of ,preparation4--,the very finest quality of olive oil is that derived from the hand-picked olive4 ,just as in the preparation of fruits for the market the very best qualities are carefully picked one by one from the tree1 so in the preparation of the highest grade of oil the olives are picked one by one1 only those of uniform maturity and character being selected4 ,this specially selected fruit is pressed cold1 and the first running from this pressure collected separately is designated in ,english by the term 8virgin oil40 ,virgin olive oil1 therefore1 ranks the highest in quality4 ,unfortunately the use of the term for commercial purposes has not been restricted to the quality of oil to which it actually belongs1 and at the present time the expression 8pure virgin olive oil0 which is placed upon the bottles or containers is no guarantee that this quality of oil is found therein4 ,in fact1 this expression upon the label has been found in many instances of olive oil highly adulterated and belonging to the cheapest grade4 ,it would be impossible here to enumerate all the different names by which olive oil is found upon the market4 ,the consumer has to depend for protection upon his knowledge of the character of the dealer and hereafter1 to a greater extent than ever before1 he may be protected by the application of the pure food laws of the various countries4 ,after the first pressing from which the best oil is secured the resulting pomace is removed from the press1 heated or mixed with hot water1 and again subjected to a much higher pressure from which a second quantity of oil is secured1 still suitable for edible purposes but of a lower quality than that first produced4 ,while the oils which are obtained in this way are used largely for technical purposes such as lubricating1 soap making1 etc41 they are not infrequently employed as edible oils4 ,in the largest establishments for the preparation of olive oil the kernels are separated from the pulp1 but in the smaller works the pulp and kernel are pressed together4 ,finally the residue from the second pressure may be dried and extracted with bisulfid of carbon or petroleum ether1 by which means practically all the residual oil which the cake contains may be secured4 ,oils extracted in this manner are wholly unfit for edible purposes and are used or should be used solely for technical purposes1 among which soap making is perhaps the most important4 ,olive-kernel ,oil4--,an oil is extracted from the kernel of the olive which in some respects of physical and chemical properties resembles olive oil itself4 ,it is usually not considered suitable for edible purposes4 ,its taste resembles more that of almond oil than that of olive oil4 ,some of this oil is doubtless mixed with olive oil when the pulp and kernel of the olive are pressed together1 but the quantity thus secured is not very great and does not introduce into the substance anything which gives a specific reaction4 ,it is by no means as high a grade of oil as that expressed from the flesh of the olive alone4 ,peanut ,oil4--,peanut oil is the refined expressed oil of the peanut1 prepared in the manner above described1 and is highly valued as a table or salad oil and1 unfortunately1 is used very often as an adulterant of olive oil1 the mixture being sold under the name of the more valuable of its constituents4 ,peanut oil contains arachidic acid1 which in combination with glycerine forms one of the constituents which serves to distinguish it particularly from other edible oils4 ,there is no other edible oil which contains arachidic acid in sufficient quantities to lead to any mistake concerning its relationship to peanut oil4 ,renard's ,test for ,peanut ,oil as ,modified by ,tolman4--,place #bj grams of oil in an ,erlenmeyer flask4 ,saponify with alcoholic potash1 neutralize exactly with dilute acetic acid1 using phenolphthalein as indicator1 and wash into a #ejj c4c4 flask containing a boiling mixture of #ajj c4c4 of water and #abj c4c4 of a #bj percent lead acetate solution4 ,boil for a minute1 and then cool the precipitated soap by immersing the flask in water1 occasionally giving it a whirling motion to cause the soap to stick to the sides of the flask4 ,after the flask has cooled1 the water and excess of lead can be poured off and the soap washed with cold water and with #ij percent 7by volume7 alcohol4 ,now add #bjj c4c4 of ether1 cork the flask1 and allow to stand for some time until the soap is disintegrated1 then heat on the water bath1 using a reflux condenser1 and boil for about five minutes4 ,in the oils most of the soap will be dissolved1 while in lards1 which contain so much stearin1 part will be left undissolved4 ,cool the ether solution of soap down to from #ae to #ag ,c41 and let stand until all the insoluble soaps have crystallized out--about twelve hours are required4 ,filter and thoroughly wash the precipitate with ether4 ,save the filtrate for the determination of the iodin number of the liquid fatty acids by the ,muter method4 ,the soaps on the filter are washed back into the flask by means of a stream of hot water acidified with hydrochloric acid4 ,add an excess of dilute hydrochloric acid1 partially fill the flask with hot water1 and heat until fatty acids form a clear1 oily layer4 ,fill the flask with hot water1 allow the fatty acids to harden and separate from the precipitated lead chlorid2 wash1 drain1 repeat washing with hot water1 and dissolve the fatty acids in #ajj c4c4 of boiling #ij percent 7by volume7 alcohol4 ,cool down to #ae ,c41 shaking thoroughly to aid crystallization4 ,from #e to #aj percent of peanut oil can be detected by this method1 as it effects a complete separation of the soluble acid from the insoluble1 which interferes with the crystallization of the arachidic acid4 ,filter1 wash the precipitate twice with #aj c4c4 of #ij percent 7by volume7 alcohol1 and then with alcohol of #gj percent 7by volume74 ,dissolve off the filter with boiling absolute alcohol1 evaporate to dryness in a weighed dish1 dry and weigh4 ,add to this weight #j4jjbe gram for each #aj c4c4 of #ij percent alcohol used in the crystallization and washing if done at #ae ,c42 if done at #bj1 #j4jjde gram for each #aj c4c4 ,the melting point of arachidic acid obtained in this way is between #ga and #gb ,c4 ,twenty times the weight of arachidic acid will give the approximate amount of peanut oil present4 ,no examination for adulterants in olive oil is complete without making the test for peanut oil4 ,the above process to be of any particular value can only be carried out by an experienced chemist1 but the presence of peanut oil may be readily determined by any one who is experienced by following out the above process4 ,where only small quantities of peanut oil are concerned1 namely1 not to exceed five percent1 even in the hands of an experienced chemist1 the above process may not lead to certain results4 ,peanut oil is obtained from the peanut by the ordinary method of hydraulic pressure4 ,the first cold pressing furnishes the oil of finest character for edible purposes4 ,subsequent pressures or pressure with heat furnish an additional supply or a great quantity of oil but not of the same palatability4 ,peanut oil is highly prized as a salad oil either alone or mixed with other oil1 notably olive oil and sesam4 ,the oil is purified by a large settle and by filtration and by the processes usually practiced with other oils of vegetable origin4 ,the oil is easily and completely digested and furnishes an abundant source of heat and energy to the system4 ,the number of calories produced by the combustion of one gram of oil1 either by ordinary burning or by oxidation in the body is about #i1cjj4 ,the cake which is left after the pressing out of the oil is very highly nutritious1 containing still considerable quantities of oil1 the whole of the protein matter1 and other digestible solids of the nut4 ,as before stated1 it is extensively used as cattle food and as fertilizer4 ,it may also be ground to a meal and used as human food1 but furnishes an unbalanced ration in which the protein is far in excess4 ,rape ,oil 7,colza ,oil7 7,brassica campestris ,l474--,there are different kinds of oil which belong to the general class which is known as rape oil or rapeseed oil4 ,the different kinds are derived from different varieties of ,brassica campestris4 ,the ,english names of the three most important varieties are--7#a7 colza oil1 derived from the seeds of ,brassica campestris2 7#b7 rape oil1 derived from the seeds of ,brassica napus ,l42 7#c7 rbsen oil1 derived from the seeds of ,brassica rapa ,l4 ,the character of the oil also varies according to the manner of its extraction4 ,the first pressings from the cold powdered seeds is of a finer quality for salad purposes than the heavier later pressings from the hot seeds4 ,the oil is also sometimes chilled and the crystallized stearin separated in order to keep it in a liquid state during the winter time1 so that the winter and summer varieties are sometimes recognized in trade4 ,there is1 however1 no difference in the other characteristics of the oil4 ,the specific gravity of rape oil at #ae4e degrees ,c41 compared with water at the same temperature1 is about 4#iaf4 ,the variations from this mean number are not very great4 ,rapeseed oil absorbs almost its exact weight of iodin1--the average iodin number being not far from #ii4 ,the ,chief ,adulterations of ,rape ,oil4--,the chief adulteration of rape oil consists in the admixture of cheaper or flavoring oils4 ,among those which are often used in the adulteration of rape oil are linseed oil1 hempseed oil1 poppy-seed oil1 chamomile oil1 cottonseed oil1 the various mustard oils1 refined fish and blubber oils1 rosin oil1 and paraffin4 ,some of these adulterations1 it is seen1 cannot be added to rapeseed oil when used for edible purposes4 ,the chief adulteration of rapeseed oil1 when intended for edible purposes1 is the addition of cottonseed oil4 ,the detection of these various adulterations1 with the exception of that of cottonseed oil1 can be accomplished only by an expert chemist4 ,the presence of cottonseed oil can be detected by the application of the ,halphen test already described4 ,technique of ,extraction4--,the extraction of oil from the rape seed is not different from that of other oily seeds4 ,it is either extracted by pressure1 which is the proper way always when it is to be used for edible purposes1 or when used for technical purposes it may be extracted by means of carbon bisulfid or petroleum ether4 ,when extracted by pressure for edible purposes the oil should be refined by a similar treatment to that applied to cottonseed oil and finally filtered1 preferably after mixing with fuller's earth or other similar material1 in order that it may be perfectly pure and bright and free from suspended matter which interferes with its utility as an edible oil4 ,a very common treatment of the expressed oil1 in order to coagulate and separate the mucilaginous matter which it contains1 is with sulfuric acid4 ,this acid has the very valuable property of coagulating this class of bodies4 ,when treated with sulfuric acid it is necessary that the oil be thoroughly washed many times in pure water in order to remove the last trace of the acid4 ,the residue or oil cake is prized as a cattle food or as a fertilizer4 ,the average content of oil in rape seed is about #cg percent4 ,sesam ,oil4--,sesam oil is very commonly used for salad oil and for the other purposes to which the edible oils are devoted4 ,it is also known as gingili oil and teel oil4 ,sesam oil is obtained by pressure from the seed of the sesame plant1--,sesamum orientale ,l4 ,sesam oil possesses a light amber color when properly made1 is free from any unpleasant odor1 has an agreeable taste1 and when expressed cold produces what is known as the cold-drawn oil which is regarded by many as of equal palatable value with olive oil4 ,sesam oil1 in addition to containing stearin1 palmitin1 and olein1 also contains a small quantity of a glycerid which exists in large quantities in flaxseed oil1 namely1 linolein4 ,when prepared for edible purposes it contains only a small quantity of free acid1 is free from rancidity1 clear1 and brilliant in appearance and has a sweet agreeable taste4 ,the specific gravity of sesam oil at #ae degrees ,c4 varies from 4#ibbe to 4#ibcg4 ,it absorbs from #ajc to #ajh percent of its weight of iodin and has a refractive index at #ae degrees of about #a4dgdh4 ,adulteration of ,sesam ,oil4--,some of the other vegetable oils are cheaper than sesam and are added to it for the purpose of adulteration and cheapening the product4 ,among the most common oils used for the adulteration of sesam are poppyseed oil1 cottonseed oil1 and rape oil4 ,the presence of cottonseed oil in sesam oil is easily distinguished by the ,halphen test already given4 ,the presence of poppyseed oil is revealed by the high iodin number and the high degree of heat produced when mixed with sulfuric acid4 ,only the best variety of cold-drawn sesam oil is used for edible purposes and for making oleomargarine4 ,the inferior qualities are used in soap making1 the making of perfumes1 etc41 and the lowest quality of oil is used for burning purposes4 ,characteristic ,reaction4--,a test which is known as ,baudouin's is extremely delicate and reliable and is easily applied4 ,it consists in the development of a red color when a small quantity of sesam oil is treated with hydrochloric acid in the presence of furfural4 ,the test is easily carried out as follows3 ,place a few drops of a two percent solution of furfural in a test-tube with #aj cubic centimeters of sesam oil or the oil to be tested for sesam and #aj cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid of #a4ai specific gravity1 and shake the mixture well for half a minute4 ,when the tube is left at rest1 if sesam oil be present the aqueous acid layer which forms will have a distinct crimson color4 ,any coloration which is produced by other oils is entirely distinct from this one and therefore can be easily distinguished4 ,geographical ,distribution4--,the sesam plant is grown chiefly for commercial purposes in ,india1 ,china1 ,japan1 and ,west ,africa4 ,the technical preparation of the oil1 in so far as is known1 is not practiced in the ,united ,states4 ,it is pressed and prepared for commerce chiefly in ,france4 ,the seeds are rich in oil1 yielding a larger percentage by pressure or extraction than most of the oil-bearing seeds4 ,sunflower ,oil4--,the oil extracted from the seed of the sunflower is of high quality for edible purposes4 ,although not in general use in this country1 it is very extensively used in ,russia and some other parts of ,europe4 ,there is every reason to believe that a profitable industry could be established in the preparation of edible oils from sunflower seeds4 ,the plant grows in the greatest luxuriance in nearly all parts of the country1 and the yield is sufficiently great to make it an object of more interest to our agricultural population than it is at the present time4 ,the oil is obtained from the seed of the sunflower 7,helianthus annuus ,l474 ,it is of a pure amber tint with an agreeable odor and pleasant taste4 ,as has already been said it is grown largely in ,russia and also in ,indo-,china4 ,the seeds are very rich in oil4 ,before expression the hulls should be removed1 since these form a porous substance1 and if the seeds are crushed with the hulls large quantities of oil are absorbed and cannot be recovered4 ,the method of preparation is the same as that for other edible oils1 the kernel1 after the removal of the hull1 being ground and cold-pressed for the highest grade4 ,by heating and renewing pressure lower grades of oil are secured suitable for soap making4 ,where all the oil is required the extraction with bisulfid of carbon or gasoline is advised4 ,such oils1 however1 are not suitable for edible purposes because of the difficulty of removing the last traces of the solvent4 ,the specific gravity of sunflower oil at #ae degrees is approximately 4#ibe4 ,it absorbs a very high percentage of iodin1 and in this respect it may be classified with the drying oils4 ,its iodin number ranges from #abj to #acj4 ,no specific color reactions have been established by means of which sunflower oil may be readily distinguished from the other edible oils4 ,in fact sunflower oil has not been subjected1 by any means1 to as critical a study as many other vegetable oils4 ,,vegetable ,,fats4 ,the fatty principles in vegetables which are solid at ordinary temperatures are commonly termed fats instead of oils4 ,they present1 as a rule1 a soft mass1 usually of an amber tint and somewhat of the consistence of butter4 ,only a few of these solid fats or semi-solid fats are used for food4 ,among them the most important are palm-nut oil or coconut oil or fat1 though the fat of the cacao also may be regarded as belonging to this group4 ,these solid or semi-solid fats are used to a considerable extent for edible purposes in many parts of the world4 ,coconut fat and cacao fat are used very extensively in this country either in a pure state or in chocolate or cocoa4 ,cacao ,butter4--,cacao butter is the semi-solid fat obtained by pressure from cacao beans1 the seeds of the cacao tree 7,theobroma cacao ,l474 ,these beans are extremely rich in fat1 the content of which varies from #ce to #ej percent4 ,on a large scale the cacao beans are roasted1 ground1 and the fat expressed while still hot by hydraulic pressure4 ,in order to remove the free acid which it contains the carbonates of the alkalies are mixed with the material after grinding and before extraction4 ,in these cases the expressed fat naturally does not contain any free acid1 though the soaps which are formed by this process are apt to contaminate the expressed fat4 ,adulterations4--,by reason of its high price cacao butter is often adulterated by the addition of various fats usually of a vegetable character4 ,those most generally employed are the stearin derived from the coconut fat and the palm-nut fat4 ,the addition of ordinary edible vegetable oils is easily detected by the usual chemical tests and is especially recognized by the increase in the percentage of iodin absorbed4 ,they also reduce the melting point of cacao butter1 and for this reason these oils1 with the exception of coconut1 are not used very extensively as adulterants4 ,beeswax and paraffine wax are also used to some extent as adulterants1 and when used in connection with vegetable oils they serve to keep the melting point from going too low4 ,tallow has also been used quite extensively as an adulterant4 ,the detection of these adulterants is so difficult as to be accomplished only by a skilled chemist4 ,composition4--,cacao butter is composed chiefly of stearin and palmitin1 though other fats and oils are present in small quantities4 ,although it is generally supposed that cacao butter does not tend to become rancid1 this is a mistake1 since1 when exposed to the conditions which favor rancidity1 the fermentation which produces this condition takes place in the butter1 though somewhat more slowly and more incompletely than in many other fats4 ,the specific gravity of cacao butter at #ej degrees ,c4 is 4#hib4 ,it absorbs about #ce percent of its weight of iodin4 ,it has a much lower melting point than palm fats and even lower than butter4 ,its melting point varies from #cj to #cc degrees ,c4 ,cacao butter has some of the properties of ordinary butter and has been recommended as a substitute therefor1 but it is not likely that it will ever come into common use both because it is less desirable than butter and also because of its high price4 ,properties4--,cacao butter has a light amber tint and tends to become bleached on long standing4 ,it has a very pleasant flavor1 reminding one of the flavor of the preparations of chocolate4 ,at ordinary temperature1 #gj degrees ,f41 it is quite solid and sometimes even brittle4 ,coconut ,oil or ,butter4--,this is a very abundant natural fat and is obtained from the kernel of the coconut1 especially the two species ,cocos nucifera ,l4 and ,cocos butyracea ,l4 ,at ordinary temperature coconut oil is of the consistency of fat4 ,its taste is pleasant1 and it possesses an odor which is not disagreeable or undesirable4 ,it differs from cacao butter in the ease with which it becomes rancid1 at which time it takes on a very disagreeable flavor and taste4 ,the coconut oil of commerce is distinguished by different names1 according to the country in which it is made4 ,cochin oil is a variety which is regarded as of the finest quality1 being almost colorless1 and is prepared in ,malabar4 ,ceylon oil is another very important variety made in the neighborhood of and imported from ,ceylon4 ,it is regarded as of somewhat inferior variety to ,cochin oil1 due probably to less care taken in the cultivation of the plant and the preparation of the oil4 ,another variety of coconut oil is known as copra oil4 ,the term 8copra0 is applied to the sun-dried or kiln-dried kernel of the coconut4 ,in this dried state the fruit can be shipped in bulk and large quantities of it can be sent to ,europe or other countries1 where the oil is either obtained by extraction or by compression in a hydraulic press4 ,this is regarded as of the least desirable quality4 ,coconut oil resembles palm-nut oil in its chemical composition1 with the exception of the relative proportion of palmitic acid4 ,the specific gravity of coconut oil or fat at #dj degrees ,c4 is about 4#iab and reduced to #ae degrees ,c4 about 4#ibe4 ,coconut oil absorbs very little iodin1 which is one of its principal characteristic chemical properties4 ,the quantity of iodin absorbed may be taken as about eight percent of the weight of the oil4 ,coconut oil is one of the vegetable fats which resembles butter to some extent in the high content of volatile acid which it contains4 ,if1 under given conditions1 butter may be regarded as having a volatile acid number of #bg1 coconut oil will have upon the same scale a volatile acid number of about #g1 whereas ordinary vegetable oils and fats will have less than #j4e on a similar scale4 ,coconut oil may be regarded as the one edible oil which approximates in constitution ordinary butter4 ,coconut oil has been used very extensively as an adulterant for oleomargarine1 since by reason of its high volatile acid it brings that substance much nearer to the composition of butter or indicates a larger percentage of butter therein than is actually present4 ,while it is used extensively as human food its principal value is for soap making4 ,it appears as an edible fat under various names1 such as 8vegetable butter10 8lactine10 8nucoline10 8palmin10 etc4 ,coconut oil is also very extensively used in the manufacture of candies and confections4 ,adulterations4--,coconut oil is rarely adulterated4 ,about the only adulteration of any consequence is that of the admixture with palm-kernel oil1 which has properties very much like that of coconut oil4 ,these two oils are ordinarily about the same price and therefore there is no inducement to practice adulteration4 ,palm ,oil or ,fat4--,this oil is obtained from the fleshy part of the fruit of the palm tree ,elis ,guineensis ,jacq4 and ,elis melanococca ,gaertn4 ,extensive groves of these trees are found in ,africa and also in the ,philippines4 ,in ,africa they grow particularly upon the western coast4 ,there is a large number of varieties of palm trees that afford this fat1 but the two mentioned are the principal ones4 ,this fat becomes solid at about the temperature of the body4 ,it has a somewhat higher melting point than butter1 which becomes liquid at a temperature of from #cd to #cf degrees ,c4 ,when once solid the fat may be heated to #da or #db degrees before it again becomes liquid4 ,palm oil has rather a pleasant taste and is regarded as an edible fat of high quality1 and is largely used as such by ,europeans and in ,africa and other countries where the fat is produced4 ,the fat also has a very pleasant odor which is said to resemble somewhat that of violets4 ,this pleasant odor is quite persistent and remains even in the fatty acids after they have been converted into soap4 ,palm oil is manufactured in the crudest possible way by the natives1 and immense quantities are lost for this reason4 ,by reason of this crude method1 which leaves the oil in contact with the putrescible matter1 palm oil often comes into the market in a rancid state or at least with a high content of free fatty acid4 ,appreciable quantities of water are also found in the crude article4 ,inasmuch as the natural color of palm oil is somewhat too deep for the taste of the ordinary consumer1 ranging from yellow to a dirty red color1 it is often bleached in the refining process before being sent into commerce4 ,ordinary exposure to the air tends to bleach this oil1 due probably to the bleaching properties which the air sometimes possesses4 ,ozone is also employed as a bleaching agent4 ,the bichromate process of bleaching palm oil is very commonly practiced4 ,by this method the oil is freed from its principal impurities and treated with from one to three percent of potassium bichromate and with hydrochloric acid which decomposes the 8chrome0 liquor1 and in the chemical process which attends this reaction decided bleaching effects are produced4 ,the bleaching agents are withdrawn and the oil thoroughly washed with water until all traces of chromate and mineral acid are removed4 ,adulterations4--,on account of its great cheapness and the fact that the admixture of other oils of lower melting point would detract from its value1 palm oil has not been subjected to any extensive adulteration4 ,the most common adulterations are the impurities which are left in the oil in the slovenly method of manufacture employed by the natives of ,africa4 ,constituents4--,as would be expected from the name1 one of the chief constituents of palm oil is palmitin4 ,if palm oil is saponified and the solid separated from the liquid fatty acid1 the former is found to consist almost exclusively of palmitic acid4 ,the specific gravity of palm oil is taken at a high temperature1 as much as #ej degrees ,c4 or above4 ,the specific gravity at this temperature is about 4#hic4 ,palm oil absorbs a little over one half its weight of iodin4 ,the average iodin number may be regarded as varying from #ec to #ee4 ,aside from the limited use of palm oil for human food it is used chiefly in the manufacture of soap and of candles4 ,it is also used extensively in the tin plate industry to spread over the hot iron surface to preserve it from oxidation until it is dipped into the bath of melted tin4 ,,nuts4 ,the ,acorn4--,many varieties of acorns are used for human food4 ,all of the nuts of the oak family are edible1 but some of the larger and more common varieties contain such a quantity of tannin as to be rather bitter to the taste4 ,the wild acorns were formerly utilized very extensively for the fattening of swine1 producing an article of pork of high palatable value but with the production of a fat of a low melting point1 unsuitable for the manufacture of lard for summer use4 ,the term applied to the natural nuts eaten by swine for this purpose is 8mast10 and formerly 8mast-fed0 pork was an extensive article of commerce4 ,the disappearance of the oak and beech forests1 however1 have practically eliminated this variety of pork from the markets1 at least to any extent which can be called commercial4 ,composition of the ,acorn4--,edible portion1 #fd4d2 refuse1 #ce4f4 ,,edible ,,portion4 ,water1 #d4a percent ,protein1 #h4a ,fat1 #cg4d ,starch and sugar1 #dh4j ,ash1 #b4d ,calories per pound1 #b1gah ,the acorn resembles the chestnut in its composition1 containing more carbohydrates than fat4 ,it is therefore not an oily seed1 but one of a farinaceous character4 ,almonds4--,there are two species of almond trees1 the ,amygdalus communis1 which is the common or sweet almond1 and the ,amygdalus amara1 or the bitter almond which flourishes very extensively in the south of ,europe4 ,california has a climate which1 with artificial irrigation1 is favorable to the growth of the almond1 and practically all that are produced in the ,united ,states for commercial purposes grow in that state4 ,it is also cultivated extensively in ,france1 ,italy1 and ,spain1 large supplies of the almonds of commerce coming from those localities4 ,the almond is delicious when eaten in the green state1 that is when the seed is fully formed but before the hull is hardened4 ,it is rarely eaten in this condition in the ,united ,states1 but forms a common article of diet upon the table of the ,europeans in the early summer4 ,composition of the ,almond4-- ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,total ,,carbo- ,,water4 ,,protein4,,fat4 ,,hydrates4 ,,ash4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,edible portion3 cent4 cent4cent4 cent4 cent4 ,california almonds1 #d4h #ba4j #ed4i #ag4c #b4j ,european almonds1 #f4j #bc4e #ec4j #ad4d #c4a ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,in the ,united ,states the almond is eaten very extensively1 often roasted and salted4 ,in this condition it is found as a relish in many menus4 ,the roasting improves to a certain extent the flavor of the nut1 but the quantity of salt which is used is not always beneficial1 inasmuch as an abundance of salt is eaten with other portions of the food4 ,one of the most valued varieties is the ,jordan almond1 illustrated in the accompanying colored plate4 ,illustration3 ,,jordan ,,almond ,from ,yearbook1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture1 #aijb ,beechnuts4--,the beech tree is a very common forest tree throughout the northern part of the ,united ,states4 ,formerly immense areas in southern ,ohio and ,indiana were covered almost exclusively by the beech tree 7,fagus americana ,sweet74 ,the beechnut is triangular in shape1 resembling buckwheat1 and formerly was produced in immense quantities over the region mentioned above4 ,in the early days it was the principal food for swine4 ,the hogs which are fattened by eating the beechnut and acorn produce a species of pork of a peculiar and very highly prized flavor4 ,the celebrated hams and bacons of the southern ,appalachian ranges were produced from the variety of hogs known as razor-backs fattened on mast1 namely1 the chestnut1 beechnut1 and acorn4 ,the beechnut is also one of the principal winter foods of the squirrel and other animals which store their food for winter use4 ,in the cutting of the forests in the winter often large stores of beechnuts are found stored away by squirrels and birds4 ,the beechnut is not very abundant upon the markets of the country1 but is eaten very largely by those who live in the vicinity of beech woods4 ,composition of the ,beechnut4-- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,total ,,carbo- ,,pro- ,,hy- ,,calo- ,,refuse4,,water4 ,,tein4 ,,fat4 ,,drates4 ,,ash4 ,,ries4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per ,fagus ,americana3 cent4cent4cent4cent4 cent4cent4pound ,edible portion1 4444 #d4j #ba4i #eg4d #ab4b #c4e #c1bfc ,as purchased1 #dj4h #b4c #ac4j #cd4j #g4h #b4a #a1icb ,fagus sylvestris3 ,edible portion1 4444 #i4a #ba4g #db4d #bb4i #c4i 4444 ,as purchased1 #cc4j #f4a #ad4e #bh4d #ae4d #b4f 4444 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,brazil-nut 7,bertholletia excelsa ,humb4 and ,bonpl474--,large quantities of this nut are imported into the ,united ,states from ,brazil and form an important article of food in many localities4 ,this nut is not grown in the ,united ,states4 ,it is also known as cream nut4 ,the nut is triangular in shape and has a dark brown rough exterior4 ,the kernel is highly flavored and quite oily4 ,the tree is so sensitive to the cold that it will not grow successfully even in southern ,florida1 although many attempts have been made to introduce it into that locality4 ,composition of the ,brazil-nut4--,edible portion1 #ej4d2 refuse1 #di4f4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,total ,,carbo- ,,pro- ,,hy- ,,calo- ,,refuse4,,water4 ,,tein4 ,,fat4 ,,drates4 ,,ash4 ,,ries4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per cent4cent4cent4cent4 cent4cent4pound ,edible portion1 4444 #e4c #ag4j #ff4h #g4j #c4i #c1cbi ,as purchased1 #di4f #b4g #h4f #cc4f #c4e #b4j #a1fgh ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,butternut 7,juglans cinerea ,l474--,the butternut is another variety of walnut which grows very extensively in the ,united ,states and has the same geographical distribution as the walnut1 except that the butternut is not so common west of the ,mississippi4 ,the tree does not grow so large as the walnut tree1 nor is its wood so highly valued for commercial purposes4 ,while the walnut is a round nut the butternut is very much elongated1 forming an oval-shaped nut which is very highly valued as a food4 ,the coloring matter of the butternut is practically the same as that of the walnut4 ,the butternut also has a fleshy outer covering not so thick as that of the walnut and which is removed in the same way in the harvesting4 ,composition of the ,dry ,butternut4-- ,,edible ,,portion4 ,,as ,,purchased4 ,refuse1 4444 #hf4d percent ,water1 #d4d percent 4#f ,protein1 #bg4i #c4h ,fat1 #fa4b #h4c ,sugar1 etc41 #c4e 4#e ,the ,chestnut 7,castanea dentata 7,marsh47 ,bork74--,the chestnut tree grows in great abundance wild in the ,united ,states1 especially in the eastern portion on the foothills of the ,alleghanies4 ,in some localities it originally formed vast forests4 ,the value of the timber and the fact that the chestnut grows only on good soil were prominent factors in the destruction of many of the original forests1 especially those covering the arable lands4 ,the trees still grow in great abundance1 especially in the hilly regions4 ,in ,france the chestnut is very widely grown1 and the nut is used very extensively as food by the poor classes4 ,the nuts are often dried and ground to a flour which is mixed with water and baked in thin sheets1 forming a very heavy but a sweet and nutritious cake4 ,the chestnut is used in the preparation of many dishes1 prized even by those in easy circumstances4 ,in ,italy the chestnut is also widely cultivated1 and the nut is ground to form a kind of porridge known as polenta which is very extensively used as food4 ,in the ,apennines a cake made of chestnut flour and baked on hot stones is used under the name of necci4 ,in ,corea the chestnut is said to be a very extensive article of food1 taking the place of the potato4 ,it is eaten raw1 boiled1 roasted1 or cooked with meats4 ,the chestnut differs from the oily nuts in the smaller proportion of fat and the very much larger proportion of sugar and starch1--in fact1 starch is almost missing in some of the oily nuts1 the carbohydrates present in the very oily being chiefly sugars4 ,in the chestnut the starch is more abundant than the sugar1 and for this reason the chestnut meal is more like the meal of the ordinary cereal than that of the oily seeds4 ,the chestnut1 also1 as it is gathered fresh contains a great deal more water than the ordinary fresh seeds1 the quantity ranging from #dj to #ej percent4 ,the average composition of the fresh chestnut1 edible portion1 is represented by the following data3 ,water1 #db4g percent ,protein1 #f4e ,fat1 #f4c ,starch and sugar1 #dc4a ,ash1 #a4d ,the dried chestnuts1 that is1 those which have been kept for several months or which have been artificially dried1 have a composition represented by the following data3 ,water1 #d4h percent ,protein1 #aa4f ,fat1 #ae4c ,sugar and starch1 #fe4g ,ash1 #b4f ,the average weight of the hull of the chestnut is #ae4i percent of the total weight of the fresh nut1 and #bc4d percent of the average weight of the dried nut4 ,the above data are confirmatory of the statement that the meal of the chestnut in its composition is very much like that of the oily cereals1 for instance1 of ,indian corn meal or oats4 ,it1 however1 contains more oil and less protein than the cereals referred to4 ,it is readily seen from the above data that chestnut meal may not properly take the place of ,indian corn as human food4 ,the nut of the chestnut tree ripens at the time of frost4 ,the wild chestnut shrub1 which springs up in great numbers where the original trees are cut away1 is now extensively grafted with cultivated varieties4 ,in ,pennsylvania there are large orchards of the ,paragon chestnut which have been grown in this manner4 ,chinese ,nut 7,nephelium litchi ,cambess474--,this is not a true nut in the ordinary sense of the word1 but is usually classed with nuts4 ,it is a product of ,china and is imported into the ,united ,states for consumption by our ,chinese population4 ,in the fresh state in ,china it has the reputation of being one of the best fruit products of that country1 having flesh of a white color and a flavor resembling that of high-grade grapes4 #da4f percent of the fresh nut is refuse matter4 ,the edible portion has the following composition3 ,water1 #ag4i percent ,protein1 #b4i ,fat1 4#b ,starch and sugar1 #gg4e ,ash1 #a4e ,calories per pound1 #a1dec ,the above data show that in chemical composition the ,chinese nut does not belong to the class of nuts at all4 ,it is a fruit1 its nutritive material being almost exclusively carbohydrates1 while in the true nut the principal nutritive substances are the protein and the oil4 ,coconut4--,the coconuts which are consumed in the ,united ,states are mostly imported4 ,it is estimated that three hundred thousand coconut trees 7,cocos nucifera ,l47 have been planted in ,florida1 and from #ae to #bj percent of them are already bearing4 ,the common name of the tree is the coconut palm4 ,the fruit of the coconut palm is used for many purposes4 ,the immature nuts are often used medicinally1 forming the base of a valuable ointment for external use4 ,the jelly which lines the shell of the more mature nut furnishes a food product of great delicacy and high nutritive value4 ,the milk of the coconut is itself highly esteemed as a delicious article of food4 ,grated coconut is one of the basic constituents of that familiar condimental substance1 ,east ,indian curry4 ,coconut oil is a very highly edible fat from which butter is made4 ,the fat itself is valuable for cooking purposes4 ,the composition of the coconut is shown in the following table3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,total ,,carbo- ,,pro- ,,hy- ,,calo- ,,refuse4,,water4 ,,tein4 ,,fat4 ,,drates4 ,,ash4 ,,ries4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per cent4cent4cent4cent4 cent4cent4pound ,edible portion1 4444 #ad4a #e4g #ej4f #bg4i #a4g #b1ihf ,as purchased1 #dh4h #g4b #b4i #be4i #ad4c 4#i #a1ebi ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,the solid edible portion of the nut is highly oleaginous and contains also a considerable quantity of starch and sugar4 ,coconut milk is much poorer in nutrients than cow's milk1 containing over #ib percent of water1 only 4#d percent of protein1 and only #a4e percent of fat4 ,the carbohydrates contained therein are chiefly sugars4 ,filberts4--,the term filbert1 according to some etymologists1 is a corruption of the term 8full beard10 and is so named on account of its having many long beards or husks4 ,the filbert is the fruit of the cultivated hazel tree 7,corylus avellana ,l474 ,the nut contains a kernel having a pleasant taste and is quite oily and nutritious4 ,it is not cultivated to any extent in this country where we rely principally upon the wild hazel for the hazelnut4 ,the composition of the filbert is shown in the following table 7edible portion1 #dg4i2 refuse1 #eb4a73 ,,edible ,,portion4 ,water1 #c4g percent ,protein1 #ae4f ,fat1 #fe4c ,sugar and starch1 #ac4j ,ash1 #b4d ,calories per pound1 #c1dcb ,the filbert is produced in large quantities on the ,asiatic shore of the ,black ,sea4 ,the region of ,trebizond is the most prolific source of the filbert4 ,hazelnut4--,the hazelnut grows on a small tree or large shrub 7,corylus avellana ,l474 ,the species which grows wild in the ,united ,states is known chiefly as ,corylus america ,walt4 ,it is from this shrub that the common wild hazelnut is obtained4 ,there is also another variety grown in this country1 ,corylus rostrata ,ait4 ,the hazelnut is a small1 nutritious1 and palatable nut of a brown color and grows over a very large area of the ,united ,states1 especially in the northern part of the country4 ,it is quite an article of commerce1 but is not cultivated to any great extent4 ,the cultivated variety1 as has already been stated1 is known as the filbert4 ,composition of the ,hazelnut4-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,total ,,carbo- ,,pro- ,,hy- ,,calo- ,,refuse4,,water4 ,,tein4 ,,fat4 ,,drates4 ,,ash4 ,,ries4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per cent4cent4cent4cent4 cent4cent4pound ,edible portion1 4444 #c4g #ae4f #fe4c #ac4j #b4d #c1dcb ,as purchased1 #eb4a #a4h #g4e #ca4c #f4b #a4a #a1fdd ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,hickory-nut4--,the hickory-nut is another one of the nuts which sometimes is classed with walnuts and grows very extensively wild throughout the ,united ,states1 having the same geological distribution as the walnut and butternut4 ,the hickory tree 7,hicoria ovata 7,mill47 ,britton7 produces a nut of highest quality4 ,on account of the character of the bark1 which becomes detached and often widely separated from the trunk1 it is known as the shagbark or shellbark hickory4 ,another variety of the hickory tree is known as the pignut 7,carya glabra74 ,the nut produced by this tree is much less prized than the other hickories1 often containing a sufficient amount of tannin to make it distinctly bitter4 ,the wood of the hickory is very tough and elastic and is used extensively in the manufacture of spokes for wagon-wheels1 axe-handles1 etc4 ,the young hickory trees grow thickly together and have a slender reed-like growth4 ,they are used extensively in the manufacture of hoop-poles4 ,the hickory has suffered from the advance of the farmer much in the same manner as the walnut and other valuable timber trees4 ,the original trees have almost entirely disappeared4 ,the young trees grow vigorously and in a few years will bear nuts1 and in some localities the care and cultivation of the wild tree has been established for the purpose of securing new forests of nut-bearing trees4 ,the hickory-nut is even more highly prized for eating purposes than the butternut and walnut1 but should be eaten under the same conditions1 namely1 before the passing of the first winter after their production4 ,they1 also1 on account of their high content of oil1 tend to become rancid when they are kept through the warm summer4 ,composition of the ,dry ,hickory-nut4--,edible portion1 #cg4h2 refuse1 #fb4b4 ,,edible ,,portion4 ,water1 #c4g percent ,protein1 #ae4d ,fat1 #fg4d ,sugar and starch1 #aa4d ,ash1 #b4a ,calories per pound1 #c1die ,peanuts4--,the peanut is a widely cultivated plant4 ,it grows extensively in the ,united ,states1 and is especially regarded as a crop of high value in ,north ,carolina and ,virginia4 ,very large quantities of peanuts are grown in ,senegal1 in ,algiers1 in ,egypt1 and in many other localities4 ,the pod containing the seed grows underground1 but is not a part of the roots1 properly so-called4 ,the pods are attached by slender stems to the stalk of the peanut4 ,the pod of the peanut matures underground1 and it may1 therefore1 be regarded as the seed of the plant1 entering and maturing underground4 ,the seeds are immediately covered by a soft envelope and then by several similar coverings4 ,for edible purposes they are much improved by roasting1 which gives them an aromatic1 nutty flavor which is much admired4 ,a striking illustration of the peanut is shown in the accompanying colored plate4 ,peanuts are used as food both directly1 as after roasting1 and indirectly1 by the expression of oil1 which after proper refining is considered of high value for edible purposes4 ,the oil of the peanut forms an edible oil of rich flavor1 pleasant taste1 and high nutritive value4 ,it is used1 either alone or mixed with other edible oils1 notably with olive oil for table purposes and for the making of salad dressing4 ,the residue of the pressings for peanut oil are highly valued as a cattle food1 containing large quantities of nitrogenous nutriment1 and also as a manure4 ,the composition of the peanut varies greatly in different localities4 ,its chief value as a food material lies in the high percentage of protein it contains and the high percentage of fat4 ,the composition of the typical hulled peanut is shown in the following table3 ,water1 #i4b percent ,protein1 #be4h ,fat or oil1 #ch4f ,sugar1 starch1 etc41 #bd4d ,insoluble cellulose1 #b4e ,ash1 #j4i ,only the blossoms which form on the lower part of the stalk produce the fruit1 since it is necessary that the long stem should strike the earth and the young fruit penetrate to the depth of from five to six centimeters in order that the fruit may mature4 ,this method of penetrating the earth is shown very well in the colored figure already mentioned4 ,illustration3 ,,peanut 7,,arachide7 ,from ,huilleries ,calv-,delft 7,holland7 ,the original home of the peanut is not definitely known1 but is supposed to be ,africa4 ,it was first described as occurring on the ,american continent by ,ferdinand de ,oviedo in ,san ,domingo in the beginning of the #afth century4 ,it is now very generally distributed in all the tropical countries in ,south ,america1 ,asia1 and ,africa1 and1 as before described1 grows very well as far north as the northern boundary of ,north ,carolina and in southern ,virginia4 ,peanuts are used for food in all the countries mentioned with previous preparation and roasting4 ,the above data show that the peanut is a food product extremely rich in oil and protein and comparatively poor in carbohydrates4 ,for dietetic purposes it should be eaten with some highly amylaceous substance1 such as potato1 rice1 or tapioca4 ,the value of the peanut for food purposes is not fully realized in this country1 where it is eaten rather as a relish and as an incident to the circus or the picnic4 ,in such cases they are usually consumed in too large quantities and by unbalancing the ration may produce unpleasant effects from which an unreasonable prejudice against this valuable food product might arise4 ,peanut ,butter4--,an oily preparation of the peanut or the oil therefrom deprived of a part of its stearin is known as peanut butter and is used as a substitute for ordinary butter4 ,what has been said of the nutritive value of the oil of the peanut applies also to this product4 ,the butter has the peculiar flavor of the peanut which is not agreeable to all persons1 though1 perhaps1 this fact does not materially interfere with the nutritive value of the product4 ,the nuts are also powdered more or less finely and mixed with other food products4 ,peanuts which grow in northern ,senegambia are regarded very highly for the manufacture of fine salad oil1 and peanut oil is used extensively for this purpose4 ,peanut ,butter and ,peanolia4--,peanut butter and peanolia are used to a considerable extent in the ,united ,states as food products4 ,they are prepared from peanuts1 properly roasted1 ground to a fine powder1 and mixed with an appropriate quantity of salt4 ,the analyses of the samples of these products1 made in the ,connecticut ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 show the following composition3 ,,peanut ,,butter4 ,,peanolia4 ,water1 #b4aj #a4ih ,protein1 #bh4ff #bi4id ,fat1 #df4da #df4fh ,sugar and dextrin1 #f4ac #e4fc ,starch1 #f4ae #e4eh ,insoluble cellulose1 #b4cj #b4aj ,common salt1 #c4bc #d4ie ,ash1 4#hj #a4jh ,the above analyses show that the preparations are produced from the roasted peanuts1 which process reduces the water to about #b percent4 ,the ground1 roasted product is mixed with about #d percent of common salt4 ,the other constituents are the same as those of the peanuts from which the preparations were made4 ,of the carbohydrate content of the peanut about #d percent has been found to be pentosans4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,,pecan ,,tree1 #cj ,,years ,,old1 ,,morgan ,,city1 ,,la4--7,courtesy of ,h4 ,e4 ,van ,deman47 ,where ,peanuts are ,grown4--,virginia is one of the most important of the peanut-growing states1 especially in its southeastern portion4 ,the ,commissioner of ,agriculture of ,virginia reports that about one hundred thousand acres are planted annually in the state of ,virginia1 producing over four million bushels4 ,fifty bushels per acre is considered a good average yield4 ,an important point in the production of good peanuts is the selection of the seeds4 ,the most vigorous and well formed kernels are to be selected for planting1 and especially those that are produced by plants of identical size and shape4 ,by a selection of this kind the quality of the crop can be greatly improved4 ,illustration3 ,,wild ,,nut ,,russell ,,stuart ,,van ,,deman ,,frotscher ,,pabst ,,fig4 #ei4--;,,five ,,forms ,,of ,,choice1 ,,thin-,,shelled ,,pecans4 ,,also ,,wild ,,nut ,,showing ,,difference ,,in ,,size4--7,by permission ,american ,nut and ,fruit ,co47 ,one of the peculiarities of the peanut is that it is an underground legume4 ,all other leguminous fruits mature above the soil4 ,its underground habitat is the reason for its botanical name1 hypoga4 ,if the stem carrying the small1 yellow1 butterfly-shaped flowers and which springs from the axis of the branch above the ground fails to reach the soil no fruit is formed4 ,if the soil is properly cultivated the germ may penetrate of its own accord4 ,however1 art assists nature in this matter and covers up the pods so as to give them a better start4 ,the peanut1 like some other leguminous crops1 develops nodules upon its roots in which the bacteria that assimilate free nitrogen live in symbiotic union with the plant itself4 ,pecan-nut 7,hicoria pecan 7,marsh47 ,britton2 ,carya olivformis ,nuttall74--,the pecan is a nut which is very much valued and grows1 with a most excellent flavor1 in the southern part of the ,united ,states4 ,texas1 ,louisiana1 southern ,alabama1 ,mississippi1 ,georgia1 and ,florida are the principal regions where the pecan grows1 although it is cultivated in some instances much further north4 ,the pecan belongs to the same family as the hickory-nut and is indigenous to the ,united ,states4 ,it grows wild over a large area1 extending from southern ,illinois and ,indiana to the ,gulf4 ,it often forms very large trees in the forests4 ,there are several species of ,hicoria4 ,the fruit of the pecan is especially valued on account of the thinness of the shell and its extremely pleasant and aromatic flavor4 ,as is the case with most nuts1 it is composed chiefly of oil and proteids1 the sugar and starch being in minute proportions4 ,the composition of the fruit of the pecan1 when divested of its hard shell1 is given in the following table3 ,,edible ,,portion4 ,water1 #b4i percent ,protein1 #aj4c ,fat1 #gj4h ,sugar1 starch1 etc41 #ad4c ,ash1 #a4g ,calories per pound1 #c1dde ,for marketing purposes the pecans are now largely grown in orchards1 as the supply of the wild nut is uncertain1 and its texture and flavor are not so fine as the cultivated variety4 ,the cultivated variety may also be grafted upon the wild tree with good effects4 ,the tree begins to bear at four or five years of age4 ,a comparative appearance of the wild and cultivated nut is shown in the accompanying ,fig4 #ei4 ,the tree1 when full grown1 is handsome in appearance1 and is valued as a shade tree as well as a fruit producer4 ,the full grown tree is shown in the accompanying ,figs4 #eh and #fj4 ,pine-nuts4--,in many portions of the western part of our country pine-nuts are consumed largely as food4 ,there are several species of pines yielding edible nuts on the ,pacific coast of the ,united ,states and as far east as ,colorado and ,new ,mexico4 ,these nuts are articles of considerable importance in the commerce of many of the cities of ,california4 ,the principal specimens of pine which yield edible nuts are ,pinus monophylla ,torr4 and ,frem41 ,pinus edulis ,engelm41 ,pinus sabiniana ,dougl4 ,the refuse is usually less than #ej percent of the total weight of the nut4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,,full ,,grown ,,pecan ,,tree4--7,by permission ,field ,columbian ,museum47 ,composition of the ,edible ,portion4-- ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,starch ,,calories ,,and ,,per ,,water4,,protein4,,fat4,,sugar4,,ash4 ,,pound4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,pinus monophylla1 #c4h #f4e #fj4g #bf4b #b4h #c1cbg edulis1 #c4d #ad4f #fa4i #ag4c #b4h #c1cfd sabiniana1 #e4a #bh4a #ec4g #h4d #d4g #c1afa ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,pistachio4--,the nut of the pistachio 7,pistachia vera7 is used very largely for flavoring purposes and also for food4 ,the tree is a native of ,syria but has been cultivated in southern ,europe for many years4 ,the nut produced in ,america1 though somewhat larger than the native ,syrian fruit1 has not half so high a palatable value4 ,the pistachio is grown to some extent in the southern part of the ,united ,states and also in ,california4 ,the kernel of the fruit is green in color and has a flavor which in some respects is reminiscent of almonds4 ,it is used chiefly in this country in the manufacture of confectionery and ice creams4 ,composition of the ,pistachio4-- ,,edible ,,portion4 ,water1 #d4b percent ,protein1 #bb4c ,fat1 #ed4 ,starch and sugar1 #af4c ,ash1 #c4b ,calories per pound1 #c1bce ,walnuts 7,juglans nigra ,l474--,the ,american walnut grows wild over a very large portion of the country1 especially the middle section west of ,maryland to the ,mississippi river4 ,the walnut tree is especially abundant along the ,ohio river1 where it forms in the early summer a dense foliage4 ,the trees often attain a very great size1 reaching a diameter as great as five feet4 ,the walnut trees grow only on rich soil1 hence1 unless the country was very hilly and unsuitable for cultivation1 the walnut forests were the first to fall before the axe of the pioneer4 ,later the demand for walnut lumber completed the devastation of the walnut forests1 until now very often in the regions where fifty years ago the trees were extremely abundant a large walnut tree is rarely seen4 ,the walnut lumber has peculiar lasting powers1 and on account of its natural color and grain is of the highest value for building and ornamental purposes4 ,the early farmers in the ,ohio valley made their rail fences out of walnut trees4 ,the wild nut grows in a dense kernel and is covered with a thick pericarp which is green even at the time when the fruit is ripe4 ,after a frost when the fruit naturally falls from the trees the outer covering disintegrates4 ,when the nuts are gathered by boys the outer covering is usually beaten off with clubs4 ,it contains a coloring matter of a brown or brownish-black tint which the early housewives used for dyeing homespun cloth4 ,the bark of the tree also contains to a greater or less extent the same coloring matter4 ,the kernel of the walnut1 that is1 the edible portion1 is extremely rich in oil and protein and has a very pleasant taste4 ,like other nuts the walnut is best during its first winter1 since on longer keeping the oil tends to become rancid and the fruit unpalatable4 ,white ,walnut 7,juglans regia ,l474--,the white walnut1 commonly known as the ,english walnut1 is grown very extensively in ,france4 ,all the departments of south central and southeastern ,france grow these walnuts as a valued crop4 ,the best walnut orchards are at an altitude of from #fjj to #ijj feet4 ,only the outer or exposed limbs produce perfect nuts4 ,in planting the most important precaution is to give the trees plenty of room1 #ae yards is about the usual distance at which they are planted4 ,the trees are cultivated and fertilized with manure and commercial fertilizers every two or three years4 ,a bearing orchard of these white walnuts in ,france is worth from four to five hundred dollars per acre and may yield a revenue of from seventy-five to one hundred dollars a year per acre4 ,the nuts ripen from the middle of ,september to the end of ,october4 ,these nuts are used largely in ,america as a food1 for which purpose the kernels are carefully extracted in halves1 commonly known as 8walnut halves40 ,in ,france an excellent table oil is expressed from the dry nut which for many culinary purposes is valued as highly as olive oil4 ,after extraction the oil cake is used for stock food4 ,the white walnut is supposed to have been originally introduced from ,persia1 though it is commonly known as the ,english walnut4 ,in the ,united ,states the butternut tree is commonly known as the white walnut4 ,the composition of the kernel of the dry walnut is shown by the following data3 ,edible portion3 ,water1 #b4e percent ,protein1 #af4f ,fat1 #fc4d ,total carbohydrates1 #af4a ,ash1 #a4d ,as purchased3 ,refuse1 #eh4a percent ,water1 #a4j ,protein1 #g4j ,fat1 #bf4f ,total carbohydrates1 #f4g ,ash1 4#f ,general ,discussion4--,a brief description has been given above of the principal edible nuts used in the ,united ,states1 accompanied by a statement of their chemical composition4 ,the character of the food products is well shown by the analytical data4 ,nuts as a whole are extremely oily substances and contain next in importance as a food material1 protein4 ,alone they constitute an unbalanced ration in which the fat and protein are abundantly present at the expense of the starch and sugar4 ,for this reason an exclusively nut diet cannot be recommended1 as it surely tends to unbalance the ratio and to disturb the digestion in the great majority of cases4 ,there are doubtless individuals of a peculiar temperament who can thrive on a diet of nuts alone1 but such a case is exceptional4 ,on the other hand the value of the nut as a food is undeniable1 both as a nutrient and as a pleasant condimental addition to the food4 ,the large percentage of oil in nuts also in many cases is beneficial from the well-known effect of oil in promoting the digestive activities1 mechanical and otherwise4 ,nuts should be eaten in as fresh a state as possible1 especially those of a highly oily character4 ,rancidity not only spoils the taste but interferes largely with their dietetic value4 ,on account of the high amount of oil1 nuts are preminently a heat-forming food and thus can be eaten very freely by those engaged in vigorous bodily exercise and during cold weather4 ,they also form a food especially useful during periods of extreme exertion1 since by their combustion they furnish abundant stores of heat and energy4 ,many fads relating to foods flourish in various localities4 ,among them the school of dietetics1 which advises a diet solely of nuts1 is worthy of mention4 ,it is true that life can be sustained for an indefinite time on a diet of nuts alone4 ,if the nuts are sought in the forests and fields the good effects of the exercise and outdoor life are to be taken into consideration4 ,there is no reason to believe1 however1 that the general condition of mankind1 from a dietetic point of view1 would be improved by an exclusive nut diet4 ,the impossibility of supplying man with such a food product is also a factor in the discussion of the problem that should not be forgotten4 ,,part ,,viii4 ,,fungi ,,as ,,foods4 ,mushrooms4--,certain fungi growing wild or in cultivated soils and having an expanded top on a hooded stem are known as mushrooms4 ,the common form of mushroom 7,agaricus campestris ,l47 grows wild over a large portion of the ,united ,states4 ,it is especially abundant in the autumn1 growing sometimes during the night after a warm rain1 over large areas4 ,when properly cooked it forms a delicious food and condimental substance1 highly prized by connoisseurs and others4 ,belonging to the family of mushrooms1 however1 are many poisonous varieties which1 when eaten inadvertently1 often cause serious illness and sometimes death4 ,for this reason mushrooms sold in the open market should be carefully inspected by experts authorized to see that the poisonous varieties are excluded4 ,it not only requires a good botanist1 but also one skilled in the practical differentiation of the different varieties by physical appearance rather than by botanical analysis1 to properly separate the poisonous from the edible varieties4 ,historical4--,mushrooms have been1 since historical times1 extensively used as human food4 ,in a book written five centuries before the ,christian era1 ,athene1 in his 8,banquet of ,learned ,men10 speaks of the poisoning of a mother and her three children by mushrooms4 ,hippocrates speaks of a girl who had been poisoned by mushrooms and who was cured by the administration of hot honey and by a hot bath4 ,theophrastes and ,nicandre also speak of mushrooms and the poisoning that occurs therefrom4 ,both ,cicero and ,horace make reference to mushrooms4 ,horace advises that ,epicureans should confine themselves to the mushrooms that grow upon meadows and refuse to eat all others on account of the danger from poisoning4 ,ovid also makes frequent allusions to mushrooms and speaks of the influence of warm rains upon their growth4 ,tacitus refers to the use of mushrooms for food1 and ,sutonius1 in his 8,history of the ,twelve ,csars10 relates that the ,emperor ,claudius was poisoned by a dish of mushrooms4 ,it is1 therefore1 evident that from the earliest times mushrooms were extensively used and the poisonous properties of some of the varieties understood4 ,production of ,mushrooms4--,as has already been mentioned1 mushrooms grow wild over a large area of the ,united ,states4 ,they are also cultivated very extensively1 though not so extensively here as in ,european countries4 ,the best place for growing cultivated mushrooms is one where the light is excluded or diffused and where the temperature remains reasonably constant4 ,cellars1 caves1 and the artificial caverns made by quarrying are peculiarly well suited for the growth of different varieties of fungi1 such as mushrooms4 ,the art of growing mushrooms is not easily acquired4 ,the directions given by the best authorities may be rigidly followed and failure ensue4 ,the skill of the grower appears to be born1 not made1 and those who have acquired the art succeed where theoretical knowledge fails4 ,for cultural purposes1 the ,agaricus campestris is most universally employed4 ,soil4--,the soil best suited for the growth of mushrooms is one rich in decayed or decaying vegetable matter4 ,mushrooms are often found growing in localities where a log or stump has decayed or where the inorganic matter from the manure of cattle or horses has been distributed on the soil4 ,artificial beds for the growth of mushrooms are made up largely of organic manurial substances4 ,spores4--,mushrooms are grown from spores4 ,the mushroom produces a brown powdery material which consists of almost innumerable simple cells of ovate shape to which the term 8spore0 has been applied4 ,a spore is not in the strict sense of the word a seed1 but simply a cell which by proliferation produces the new fungus4 ,generally growers do not use these spores directly in seeding mushroom beds4 ,each complete spore1 however1 is1 under favorable conditions1 capable of proliferation or germination1 producing a thread-like growth of a spider-web character which penetrates through the soil1 prepared and manured1 upon which a spore is germinated4 ,this spider-web-like growth1 in the common language of mushroom growers1 is called the spawn1 more properly called the mycelium of the mushroom4 ,when the conditions are favorable1 there are formed on the threads of this mycelium small nodules1 which are the earlier stages of the complete fungus itself4 ,from the beginning of this growth until the final production of the mushroom two or three days or even a week may elapse4 ,the earlier periods of this growth take place under ordinary circumstances1 but the advent of a warm rain or other extremely favorable conditions causes the budding mushroom to grow at an enormously rapid rate4 ,the mushroom may not be said to have a root1 stem1 and leaf1 as is the case with an ordinary green plant1 but is practically a single organism1 assuming different shapes which are represented by the different varieties and species of growth4 ,differing ,varieties of ,edible ,mushrooms4--,there is a very large variety of edible mushrooms differing in form1 size1 and shape from the ,agaricus campestris4 ,in the ,washington markets there are four principal kinds of mushrooms which are found growing wild in the vicinity of the city4 ,these comprise the common mushroom--,agaricus campestris1 the horse mushroom--,agaricus arvensis1 shaggy mushroom--,coprinus comatus1 and the puff-ball--,lycoperdon cyathiforme4 ,conditions of ,growth4--,the proper shed or cellars having been selected1 the first thing to do is to see that the temperature is favorable to the growth of the fungi4 ,temperatures above #fj degrees ,f41 or below #ej degrees ,f41 are not favorable to the growth4 ,the best temperatures are from #ee to #eh degrees4 ,the locality where the mushrooms are grown should be kept very damp and the air highly saturated with aqueous vapor4 ,the reason that mushrooms grow best in covered places1 such as has been mentioned1 is due to the particularly favorable influence which the even temperature mentioned and a practically saturated atmosphere have upon the growth4 ,in localities where the changes of temperature are not very severe1 mushrooms grow very well in the open4 ,in the county of ,kent1 ,england1 ,i have seen mushrooms growing in the open garden1 where1 by covering with straw1 they flourish during the greater part of the year4 ,in the winter time the temperature may be kept quite even by the covering to make abundant crops1 while in the months of ,august1 ,september1 and ,october they grow in the open in great abundance4 ,preparation of ,seed ,bed4--,the seed bed for the growth of mushrooms1 as has already been indicated1 is made principally of well decayed stable or stall manure4 ,the manure must be well fermented1 thoroughly disintegrated1 and exposed for a sufficient length of time to be in the proper condition4 ,mushrooms cannot be obtained until the heat attending the fermentation of manure has entirely disappeared4 ,directions for growing mushrooms cannot be given here1 but those who are intending to enter the business should consult the best authorities and begin in a small way until they acquire the necessary skill before commercial success can be obtained4 ,growth of ,mushrooms in ,france4--,perhaps in no country has the cultivation of mushrooms been carried to such a large extent as in ,france4 ,the principal industries in ,france are confined to those regions where artificial caves have been made by the quarrying of building stone4 ,the most extensive caverns of this kind exist in the neighborhood of ,paris1 near ,bordeaux1 and particularly in the neighborhood of ,sceaux4 ,these artificial caverns are often miles in extent and furnish exceptionally favorable opportunities for the growth of mushrooms4 ,the soils or manures on which they are grown must be carried into these caverns1 and experience has shown that mushrooms do not continue to grow well in the same locality1 and1 therefore1 the place of growth must be moved from time to time to different parts of the caves4 ,the galleries of these abandoned quarries are sometimes of enormous extent and are from #cj to #aej feet below the surface4 ,they are generally from seven to ten feet high1 but occasionally so low that a man cannot stand upright in them4 ,in general they are wide enough for two rows of beds with a foot way #ah inches wide in the center4 ,where a mushroom bed has been well prepared and properly seeded1 it produces about six pounds of mushrooms per square yard4 ,these mushrooms bring1 in the market1 an average of about #ae cents per pound4 ,it is stated by some authorities that the reason the bed ceases to bear after a time and has to be abandoned or moved is not because of the exhaustion of the food but is due to the ravages of an insect or fly which produces a worm which is fatal to the growth of the fungus4 ,at any rate1 it is customary to abandon the beds after they have been bearing for six or eight months and to return to them after a year1 when they are found to again be productive4 ,it is not expected that the general consumer will become an expert in the selection of mushrooms4 ,where mushrooms are exposed in a public market1 it is the duty of the municipal officers in charge of food products to see to it that poisonous varieties are not exposed for sale4 ,it will be of value1 however1 to the reader to have some idea of the general shape of some of the more common edible and poisonous varieties4 ,it is generally supposed that mushrooms1 toadstools1 and puff-balls are entirely distinct species and that only the mushroom1 so-called1 is edible4 ,on the contrary1 there are many edible toadstools and many edible puff-balls1 and all three classes of fungi belong to the same general family4 ,food ,value of ,mushrooms4--,the nutritive value of mushrooms is not exceptionally high1 although there is a popular opinion to the contrary4 ,frequently it has been stated that the mushroom in the vegetable world holds a similar position to beefsteak among meats1 being particularly rich in digestible protein4 ,the analytical data which have been collected from numerous sources on the composition of mushrooms do not bear out this popular impression1 but1 on the contrary1 show that the mushroom is a food product consisting very largely of water and of only very small quantities of protein1 fat1 and carbohydrates4 ,the composition of some of the common mushrooms is shown in the following table 7,farmers' ,bulletin1 ,no4 #gi1 ,mushrooms as ,food73 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,non- ,,albu- ,,albu- ,,total,,minoid,,minoid ,,carbo- ,,nitro-,,nitro-,,nitro- ,,pro- ,,hy- ,,water4 ,,gen4 ,,gen4 ,,gen4 ,,tein4,,fat4,,drates4,,fiber4,,ash4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,common mushroom1#ia4cj #j4fj #j4cf #j4bd #c4gej4bj #c4ej #j4hj #j4ej ,shaggy ,coprinus1#ib4ai 4#de 4#ae 4#cj #b4ha 4#bf #a4dj 4#eg 4#ih ,inky ,coprinus1#ib4ca 4#cf 44 44 #b4be 4#bd 4444 4#gb #a4bi ,common ,morel1 #hi4ed 4#di 4#cg 4#ab #c4jf 4#ej #a4fj 4#ia #a4jh ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,these data may be compared with the composition of the beefsteak3 ,water1 #fb4e percent ,protein1 #ai4e ,fat1 #ag4j ,ash1 #a4j ,from the above data it is seen that the mushroom does not contain anything like the amount of protein found in beefsteak4 ,it has one-third more water1 one-sixth as much protein1 and only one-fortieth as much fat4 ,beefsteak contains no carbohydrates except less than one percent of glycogen1 while the amount of carbohydrates in the mushroom varies from #a4e to #c4e percent4 ,it is evident that the mushroom is principally valuable as a condimental substance and not as a food product4 ,distinction between ,poisonous and ,edible ,varieties4--,it has already been stated that only the expert is able to distinguish between the poisonous varieties of mushrooms and those that are edible4 ,even the skilled botanist1 as well as the expert1 may sometimes make mistakes in this matter4 ,hence the only perfectly sure method of protection against the poisonous varieties is the eating of only those which are cultivated and which are known to be free of poisonous properties4 ,on the other hand1 the wild variety1 by many connoisseurs1 is much more highly valued as being more delicate and palatable4 ,it should also be remembered that the cultivation of mushrooms is not very widely extended1 and if the supply of the wild variety should be excluded there would be a great diminution of the quantity which is accessible to the consumer4 ,this would be an especial hardship in the ,united ,states1 where mushrooms grow wild over such wide areas and so abundantly and where the cultivation of them as compared with some other countries is somewhat restricted4 ,there are some general characteristics by means of which a distinction can be made between the edible and the poisonous varieties4 ,the following rules are given for the rejection of the probably poisonous mushroom by ,george ,francis ,atkinson 78,studies of ,american ,fungi--#aijj073 8,in the selection of mushrooms to eat1 great caution should be employed by those who are not reasonably familiar with the means of determination of the species1 or those who have not an intimate acquaintance with certain forms4 ,rarely should the beginner be encouraged to eat them upon his own determination4 ,it is best at first to consult someone who knows or to send first specimens away for determination1 though in many cases a careful comparison of the plant with the figures and descriptions given in this book will enable a novice to recognize it4 ,in taking up a species for the first time it would be well to experiment cautiously40 ,no ,certain ,rule to ,distinguish the ,poisonous from the ,edible4--8,there is no test like the #8silver-spoon test' which will enable one to tell the poisonous mushroom from the edible ones4 ,nor is the presence of the so-called #8death-cup' a sure sign that the fungus is poisonous1 for ,amanita csarea has this cup4 ,for the beginner1 however1 there are certain general rules1 which1 if carefully followed1 will enable him to avoid the poisonous ones1 while at the same time necessarily excluding many edible ones4 8#ast4--,reject all fungi which have begun to decay1 or which are infested with larv4 8#b;d4--,reject all fungi when in the button stage1 since the characters are not yet shown which enable one to distinguish the genera and species4 ,buttons in pasture lands which are at the surface of the ground1 and not deep-seated in the soil1 would very likely not belong to any of the very poisonous kinds4 8#c;d4--,reject all fungi which have a cup or sac-like envelope at the base of the stem1 or which have a scaly or closely fitting layer at the base of the stem and rather loose warts on the pileus1 especially if the gills are white4 ,amanita csarea1 however1 has a sac-like envelope at the base of the stem and yellow gills as well as a yellow cap1 and is edible4 ,amanita rubescens has remnants of a scaly envelope on the base of the stem and loose warts on the cap1 and the flesh1 where wounded1 becomes reddish4 ,it is edible4 8#dth4--,reject all fungi with a milky juice unless the juice is reddish4 ,several species with copious white milk1 sweet or mild to the taste1 are edible4 8#eth4--,reject very brittle fungi with gills nearly all of equal length where the flesh of the cap is thin1 especially those with bright caps4 8#fth4--,reject all ,boleti in which the flesh changes color where bruised or cut1 or those in which the tubes have reddish mouths1 also those the taste of which is bitter4 ,strobilomyces strobilaceus 7,scop47 ,berk4 changes color when cut1 and is edible4 8#gth4--,reject fungi which have a cobwebby veil or ring when young1 and those with slimy caps and clay-colored spores4 8,in addition1 proceed cautiously in all cases1 and make it a point to become very familiar with a few species first1 and gradually extend the range of species rather than attempt the first season to eat a large number of different kinds4 ,all puff-balls are edible so long as they are white inside1 though some are better than others4 ,all coral-like or club fungi are edible40 ,popular ,distinction between ,toadstools and ,mushrooms4--,there is a general opinion that the toadstool is poisonous and the mushroom is not4 ,there is1 however1 no scientific distinction between the two kinds of fungi1 popularly known as toadstools and mushrooms4 ,the distinction is purely an arbitrary one4 ,the small toadstools are often as delicious and as harmless as the small mushroom4 ,the small mushroom1 on the other hand1 may be as deadly and as undesirable as the worst specimen of toadstool4 ,there is danger especially to two classes of people in the discrimination between the poisonous and edible varieties of mushrooms and toadstools4 ,the first class is composed of those who are practically unaware of the existence of poisonous varieties and the second class of persons are those who claim to be able to tell an edible mushroom from a certain number of tests or claims which they regard as infallible4 ,both of these classes of persons are apt to be deceived or injured by dangerous varieties4 ,the following popular signs of distinguishing between the poisonous and non-poisonous varieties are pronounced worthless by ,gibson 78,our ,edible ,toadstools and ,mushrooms and ,how to ,distinguish ,them073 8,,favorable ,,signs4 #a4 ,pleasant taste and odor4 #b4 ,peeling of the skin of the cap from rim to center4 #c4 ,pink gills1 turning brown in older specimens4 #d4 ,the stem easily pulled out of the cap and inserted in it like a parasol handle4 #e4 ,solid stems4 #f4 ,must be gathered in the morning4 #g4 #8,any fungus having a pleasant taste and odor1 being found similarly agreeable after being plainly broiled without the least seasoning is perfectly safe4' 8,,unfavorable ,,signs4 #h4 ,boiling with a #8silver spoon1' the staining of the silver indicating danger4 #i4 ,change of color in the fraction of the fresh mushroom4 #aj4 ,slimy or sticky on the top4 #aa4 ,having the stems at their sides4 #ab4 ,growing in clusters4 #ac4 ,found in dark1 damp places4 #ad4 ,growing on wood1 decayed logs1 or stumps4 #ae4 ,growing on or near manure4 #af4 ,having bright colors4 #ag4 ,containing milky juice4 #ah4 ,having the gill plates of even length4 #ai4 ,melting into black fluid4 #bj4 ,biting the tongue or having a bitter or nauseating taste4 #ba4 ,changing color by immersion in salt-water1 or upon being dusted with salt4 8,these present but a selection of the more prevalent notions4 ,taken in toto1 they would prove entirely safe1 as they would practically exclude every species of toadstool or mushroom that grows4 ,but as a rule the village oracle bases his infallibility upon two or three of the above #8rules1' and inasmuch as the entire list absolutely omits the only one test by which danger is to be avoided1 it is a seven days' wonder that the grewsome toadstool epitaph is not more frequent40 ,the following tests are regarded as favorable by ,gibson3 #a4 ,avoid every mushroom having a cup or suggestion of such1 at base2 the distinctly fatal poisons are thus excluded4 #b4 ,exclude those having an unpleasant odor1 a peppery1 bitter1 or other unpalatable flavor1 or tough consistency4 #c4 ,exclude those infested with worms or in advanced age or decay4 #d4 ,in testing others which will pass the above probation let the specimen be kept by itself1 not in contact with or enclosed in the same basket with other species4 ,begin by a mere nibble1 the size of a pea1 and gentle mastication1 being careful to swallow no saliva1 and finally expelling all from the mouth4 ,if no noticeable results follow1 the next trial1 with the interval of a day1 with the same quantity may permit of a swallow of a little of the juice1 the fragments of the fungus expelled as before4 ,no unpleasantness following for twenty-four hours1 the third trial may permit of a similar entire fragment being swallowed1 all of these experiments to be made on an empty stomach4 ,if this introduction of the actual substance of the fungus into the stomach is succeeded by no disturbance in twenty-four hours1 a larger piece1 the size of a hazelnut1 may be attempted1 and thus the amount gradually increased day by day until the demonstration of edibility1 or at least harmlessness1 is complete and the species thus admitted into the 8safe0 list4 ,by following this method with the utmost caution the experimenter can at best suffer but a slight temporary indisposition as the result of his hardihood1 in the event of a noxious species having been encountered1 and will at least thus have the satisfaction of discovery of an enemy if not a friend4 ,it may be said that any mushroom1 omitting the ,amanita1 which is pleasant to the taste and otherwise agreeable as to odor and texture when raw1 is probably harmless and may safely be thus ventured on with a view of establishing its edibility4 ,a prominent author on our edible mushrooms 7,mc,ilvaine7 applies this rule to all the ,agarics with confidence4 8,this rule may be established10 he says3 8,all ,agarics--excepting the ,amanit--mild to the taste when raw1 if they commend themselves in other ways1 are edible40 ,this claim is borne out in his experience1 with the result that he now numbers over one hundred species among his habitual edible list out of the three hundred which he has actually found by personal test to be edible or harmless4 8,so numerous are toadstools10 he continues1 8and so well does a study of them define their habits and habitats1 that the writer never fails upon any day from ,april to ,december to find ample supply of healthy1 nutritious1 delicate toadstools for himself and family40 8,in gathering mushrooms one should be supplied with a sharp knife4 ,the mushrooms should be carefully cut off an inch or so below the cap1 or at least sufficiently far above the ground to escape all signs of dirt on the stems4 ,they should then be laid gills upward in their receptacle1 and it is well to have a special basket1 arranged with one or two removable bottoms or horizontal partitions1 which are kept in place by upright props within1 thus relieving the lower layers of mushrooms from the weight of those above them4 ,such a basket is almost indispensable4 8,before preparing mushrooms for the table1 the specimens should be carefully scrutinized for a class of fungus specialists which we have not taken into account1 and which have probably anticipated us4 ,the mushroom is proverbial for its rapid development1 but nature has not allowed it thus to escape the usual penalties of lush vegetation1 as witness this swarming1 squirming host1 minute grubs1 which occasionally honey-comb or hollow its entire substance ere it has reached its prime2 indeed1 in many cases1 even before it has fully expanded or even protruded above ground4 8,like the carrion flies1 the bees1 and wasps1 which in early times were believed to be of spontaneous origin--flies being generated from putrefaction1 bees from dead bulls1 and the martial wasps from defunct 8war-horses0--these fungus swarms1 which so speedily reduce a fair specimen of a mushroom to a melting loathsome mass1 were also supposed to be the natural progeny of the #8poisonous toadstool4' ,but science has solved the riddle of their mysterious omnipresence among the fungi1 each particular swarm of grubs being the witness of a former visit of a maternal parent insect1 which has sought the budding fungus in its haunts often before it has fully revealed itself to human gaze1 and implanted within its substance her hundred or more eggs4 ,to the uneducated eye these larv all appear similar1 but the specialist in entomology readily distinguishes between them as the young of this or that species of fly1 gnat1 or beetle4 8,as an illustration of the assiduity with which the history of these tiny scavenger insects has been followed by science1 ,i may mention that in the gnat group alone over seven hundred species have been discovered and scientifically described1 many of them requiring a powerful magnifier to reveal their identities4 8,specimens of infected or decaying mushrooms preserved within a tightly closed box--and1 we would suggest1 duly quarantined--will at length reveal the imago forms of the voracious larv2 generally a swarm of tiny gnats or flies1 with an occasional sprinkling of small glossy black beetles1 or perhaps a beautiful indigo-blue insect half an inch in length of most nervous habit1 and possessed of a long and very active tail4 ,this insect is an example of the curious group of rove-beetles--staphylinus--a family of insect scavengers1 many of whose species depend upon the fungi for subsistence4 8,even the large woody growth known as #8punk' or #8touchwood1' so frequently seen upon decaying trunks1 is not spared4 ,a huge specimen in my keeping was literally reduced to dust by a single species of beetle4 8,considering the prevalence of these fungus hosts1 it is well in all mushrooms to take the precaution of making a vertical section through stem and cap1 excluding such specimens as are conspicuously monopolized1 and not being too critical of the rest1 for the over-fastidious gourmet will often thus have little to show for his morning walk4 ,i have gathered a hundred specimens of fungi in one stroll1 perhaps not a quarter of which1 upon careful scrutiny1 though fair of exterior would be fit for the table4 ,the fungus hunter par excellence has usually been there before us and left his mark--a mere fine brown streak or tunnel1 perhaps winding through the pulp or stem1 where his minute fungoid identity is even yet secreted4 ,but we bigger fungus eaters gradually learn to accept him--if not too outrageously promiscuous--as a natural part and parcel of our ,hachis aux ,champignons1 or our simple mushrooms on toast1 even as we wink at the similar lively accessories which sophisticate our delectable raisins1 prunes1 and figs1 to say nothing of prime old ,rochefort0 7pages #cc-cd74 ,e4 ,faupin1 the author of the work 8,les ,champignons ,comestibles et ,vnneux10 gives some valuable hints respecting the confusion of edible and poisonous varieties of mushrooms4 ,he also says that the so-called rules which are often formulated to distinguish the good mushrooms from the bad are nearly all misleading4 ,if they are applicable in a few particular cases they surely are not in all1 and consequently ought to be judged as of no value4 ,for instance1 it has been commonly said that the mushrooms whose flesh changes color when exposed are poisonous4 ,this is true for certain kinds but it is not true for others4 ,there are1 indeed1 some mushrooms whose flesh undergoes an alteration when it is exposed and which are1 nevertheless1 of most excellent quality4 ,as an example of this1 the variety known as 8delicious lactaire0 may be cited4 ,on the contrary there are other kinds whose flesh remains white on exposure and which are decidedly poisonous1 as for example ,amanita citrina ,pers4 ,it is also said that a mushroom whose stem is surrounded by a ring is to be considered edible4 ,this indication is altogether deceptive4 ,some of the most poisonous varieties have well formed rings4 ,it is also misleading to credit the action of the juice of the mushroom in coloring a piece of silver4 ,it is said that those mushrooms whose juice blackens silver are poisonous1 while those which do not are harmless4 ,this perhaps is the most dangerous of all the rules to go by1 as some of the most poisonous varieties would be admitted on this test4 ,it is also misleading to suppose1 as is commonly the case1 that mushrooms which are attacked by insects1 larv1 etc41 can be eaten without danger4 ,likewise misleading is the general opinion that mushrooms whose odor is agreeable or which have no appreciable odor are not poisonous4 ,it is high time to eradicate these misleading notions and to let the people know with certainty that aside from the botanical character there does not exist any particular sign nor any particular means of affirming that a given mushroom is edible or poisonous4 ,science alone1 therefore1 has the sole power of teaching to distinguish the poisonous from the non-poisonous varieties4 ,for many years attempts have been made to popularize the science which will give to the people the desired information1 but in spite of these efforts the number of cases of poisoning does not seem to diminish1 and why8 ,the response is evident4 ,it is because the efforts which have been made by mycologists have not yet been appreciated by the mass of people1 and because it has not yet been possible to point out to the public at large the poisonous species4 ,the number of species of poisonous mushrooms which are capable of causing death is happily not very great4 ,the ,amanitas and the ,volvarias are almost exclusively the poisonous species4 ,let it be understood1 therefore1 by the people that there do exist mushrooms which are capable of killing4 ,if the people desire to place themselves out of danger let them begin by learning these varieties4 ,their number is very limited1 as there are only five or six species at most4 ,when they are well known it will be very easy to distinguish them and to recognize all others as edible4 ,following is a list of the most poisonous mushrooms known1 and all that are likely at any time to produce death3 ,amanita phalloides ,fr4 ,amanita citrina ,pers4 ,amanita verna ,bull4 ,amanita virosa ,fr4 ,volvaria gloiocephala1 var4 speciosa 7,fr474 ,amanita muscaria 7,l47 ,pers4 ,amanita pantherina ,,dc4 ,lactarius torminosus 7,schaeff47 ,fr4 ,lactarius rufus ,fr4 ,lactarius zonarius 7,bull47 ,fr4 ,lactarius pyrogalus 7,bull47 ,fr4 ,russula emetica ,fr4 ,russula queletii ,fr4 ,russula ftens 7,pers47 ,fr4 ,boletus felleus ,bull4 ,boletus satanus ,lenz4 ,boletus erythropus ,cke4 ,boletus luridus ,schaeff4 ,entoloma lividum ,bull4 ,the ,most ,poisonous of ,mushrooms4--,the most poisonous of the common mushrooms is known as ,amanita verna ,bull4 ,so active is its poison that this variety has become known as the 8deadly ,amanita40 ,types of ,edible ,mushrooms4--,while it is quite impossible for a manual of this kind to give any directions by which a person1 not an expert1 may make certain distinctions between the edible and poisonous varieties of mushrooms1 it is thought advisable to give a fair technical illustration of the two classes4 ,the common mushroom1 ,agaricus campestris1 is shown in the accompanying ,fig4 #fa1--three-fourths its natural size4 ,the second specimen from the left is young and is in a state of development known as a button4 ,the figure at the extreme left is a larger specimen1 showing the slightly checked surface that sometimes occurs in this species4 ,in fresh specimens the surface is white1 but various shades of light brown1 either checked or plain1 are often found4 ,the specimen at the right shows the gills on the lower surface of the cap4 ,these gills in a newly expanded mushroom1 fresh from the field1 are of a beautiful delicate pale pink color1 often with a touch of salmon4 ,in the older samples the gills turn to a light brown and finally almost to a black color4 ,this discoloration is chiefly due to the development of almost innumerable spores from which new plants are propagated4 ,if the stem of a common mushroom be broken off and the cap be laid gills downward on a piece of white paper1 the spores will drop off and after a few hours will appear as a brown dust4 ,the usual diameter of full-grown specimens of this variety of mushroom is from #a to #c inches1 though many smaller and many larger samples are found4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,,common ,,mushroom1 ,agaricus campestris4 ,,edible4 7,,three-,,fourths ,,natural ,,size47--7,f4 ,v4 ,coville1 ,circular ,no4 #ac1 ,division of ,botany1 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,this variety of mushroom is the principal one which is exposed upon the markets of ,washington4 ,they are especially abundant in the autumn after copious rains often succeeding the usual period of drought in that region4 ,october is the banner month for this variety of mushroom4 ,the mycelium from which the autumn mushroom grows is formed in the spring1 and after the dry period of summer the little spheroid granules formed upon the mycelium are capable of absorbing the moisture of the warm autumnal rains and rapidly expand to the full-grown mushroom4 ,after all the conditions of growth are fulfilled it usually requires only a single night for a button to push through the surface of the soil and expand its cap4 ,mushrooms are particularly obnoxious to the ravages of insects1 and it is always advisable that they should be gathered and eaten immediately after they are formed4 ,the insect larv attack the mature mushroom1 travelling up through the stem into the cap1 and decomposition rapidly follows4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--;,,edible ,,mushrooms 7,agaricus arvensis ,schaeff474--7,f4 ,v4 ,coville47 ,it is easy to determine whether a mushroom is wormy or not by breaking off the stem close to the cap and observing if there are little holes through which the larv have passed upward into the cap4 ,the common mushroom occurs most frequently on lawns and in pastures1 and especially in neglected fields where weeds have been succeeded by a scant covering of grass4 ,sometimes during the spring and summer1 as well as in the autumn1 the common mushroom is found upon the market4 ,these mushrooms usually are produced upon the garbage dumping grounds near the city4 ,the garbage and refuse from the city furnish the manurial conditions required for a speedy development of the mushroom from the mycelium4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,,shaggy ,,mushroom1 ,coprinus comatus4 ,,edible4 7,,three-,,fourths ,,natural ,,size47--7,coville1 ,circular #ac1 ,division of ,botany47 ,the ,horse ,mushroom 7,agaricus arvensis ,schaeff474--,this variety of mushroom is also one which grows in great abundance in the neighborhood of ,washington and in other latitudes affording a similar environment4 ,this specimen is in many respects like ,agaricus campestris but the surface of the cap is somewhat darker colored4 ,the ring on the stem is also wider and thicker than in campestris4 ,this variety also grows larger than campestris1 and the diameter of the cap is commonly from three to six inches4 ,the figure is only about one-half the natural size4 ,the horse mushroom is frequently confounded with the common mushroom1 and there is practically no difference in their edible qualities4 ,it grows preferably in gardens rather than fields1 and especially in gardens which have been heavily fertilized4 ,it also frequently appears in old beds composed of decayed stable manure which has been used for forcing beds for early vegetables4 ,shaggy ,mushroom 7,coprinus comatus ,fr474--,the accompanying ,fig4 #fc represents a group of three specimens of this variety of mushroom growing from a single base4 ,the largest one is already showing signs of liquefaction and decomposition and a part of the cap has already disappeared4 ,one of the peculiarities of this species is that beginning with the edge of the cap the whole mushroom dissolves sometimes within a day1 when it is full grown1 into an inky-black fluid4 ,a portion of this inky fluid has run partly down the white stem of the largest mushroom4 ,the cap of this mushroom1 except when it begins to liquefy1 resembles somewhat the form of a partially closed umbrella4 ,in the early stages of growth the cap1 gills1 and stem are white1 except the apex of the cap1 which is generally dark-colored4 ,the surface of the cap is covered with delicate lacerated scales1 the characteristic from which the name comatus or shaggy is derived4 ,the juice from the fresh sample is colorless as water4 ,when it first begins to turn it is wine-colored1 and until the juice is very deeply discolored the sample is still edible4 ,after the juice has turned completely black it is considered too old to be eaten4 ,this species of mushroom grows best in shady places1 in a soil well supplied with humus4 ,the season in which this variety of mushroom is most abundant is late in the autumn or early in the winter1 when the nights are cold but the ground is not yet frozen4 ,the liquefaction and decay of this mushroom come on so quickly that it is not usually infested with larv which do not have time to develop before the mushroom is reduced to a shapeless mass4 ,the most common organism found is the myriapod1 a thousand-legged worm1 which often finds its way between the gills and stem4 ,this cavity should always be examined for worms of this kind when the mushroom is being prepared for the table4 ,fairy ,ring ,mushroom 7,marasmius oreades ,fr474--,this variety is one which is interesting both on account of its edible properties and by reason of the circular areas in which it often grows4 ,this illustration is about three-fourths of the natural size4 ,the tendency of this variety to grow in the annual form designated is beautifully shown in the accompanying figure1 from a photograph taken on the grounds of the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,the ring in question is seven feet in diameter and the photograph was taken early in ,november4 ,the stem in this variety has no ring1--the gills are few and widely separated and the cap as it becomes fully expanded has a peculiar knob-like projection in the center4 ,this gives a characteristic appearance to this variety of mushroom4 ,the cap and stem are colored a pinkish-buff1 and the gills have a lighter shade of the same color varying in early growth toward a cream tint4 ,the spores are white and can be observed by placing the cap1 as already indicated1 on a dark-colored paper1 preferably black glazed paper4 ,the fairy ring mushroom is one of the commonest species which grows on the lawns in ,washington and vicinity4 ,as many as twenty of these fairy rings have been found on the grounds of the ,department of ,agriculture in one season4 ,in the earlier days1 when superstition was more rife than at present1 these rings were supposed to mark the places of the dances of the fairies4 ,another fanciful cause assigned for the production of the rings was that it was due to the effect of lightning striking the ground and burning the grass in a circle1 and thus favoring the growth of fungi4 ,investigations1 however1 show that the fairy ring is due to a peculiar way in which the mycelium is produced1 which begins at a central point1 growing uniformly in all directions a few inches each year4 ,after a while the central portion1 being older1 begins to die1 and thus a small circular band is formed which each year increases in size1 growing regularly on the outside and dying as regularly on the inside4 ,the fairy rings are not always complete circles1--they are sometimes broken and often are crescent-shaped4 ,this variety of mushroom is quite permanent1 does not tend to decay as rapidly as some1 and resists better than most varieties the attacks of insects4 ,they1 however1 are very small as compared with the other common varieties4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--;,,fairy ,,ring ,,formed ,,by ,marasmius oreades1 ,,an ,,edible ,,mushroom4--7,coville1 ,circular #ac1 ,division of ,botany47 ,puff-balls4--,a typical mushroom known as the puff-ball is the variety known as ,lycoperdon cyathiforme ,bosc4 ,the puff-ball is so plain in its form that a description of its appearance is difficult4 ,usually the outside is colored brown and the covering is more or less irregularly checked1 the white color of the interior showing between the darker1 elevated areas4 ,when still quite young the flesh is solid1 of a milk-white color1 and apparently quite dry4 ,after two or three days it becomes soft1 has a yellowish tint1 develops a watery and later an amber-colored juice as it continues its development through to the later stages4 ,if the mushroom remains ungathered1 the interior dries up into a fine brown powder which is projected into the air when pressed by the finger4 ,it is often blown away by the wind4 ,when the fungus reaches this stage of decay it is very commonly known as 8the devil's snuff-box40 ,finally the spores and other dust-like bodies are blown away1 and there is left only a dry and leathery framework4 ,in the latter stages the puff-ball is not regarded as edible1 not because of its being poisonous1 but on account of its dry and leathery consistency4 ,in the neighborhood of ,washington puff-balls are found commonly in the autumn on lawns and in gardens1 and especially on vacant lots where the soil has remained uncultivated and been closely grazed by cattle4 ,the puff-ball also tends to grow in a fairy ring form1 and in the circular area in which it grows the grass is likely to be darker in color1 showing the existence of a richer soil4 ,it is only while the interior of the puff-ball is still solid and white1 with something like the texture of cheese1 that it has its highest edible properties4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,,puff-,,ball1 ,lycoperdon cyathiforme1 ,,top ,,view4 ,,edible4 7,,three-,,fourths ,,natural ,,size47--7,coville1 ,circular #ac1 ,division of ,botany47 ,cepe 7,boletus edulis ,bull474--,this variety of mushroom is one of the most highly esteemed1 especially in the south of ,france4 ,it is large and has a very large1 half-pear shaped stem4 ,the flesh of this variety of mushroom is white and quite firm in the young mushroom1 but becomes softer with age and assumes on the outside a wine tint4 ,it grows1 especially in the late summer and through the autumn1 wild in the forest4 ,in the extreme south of ,france it sometimes appears as early as ,april4 78,nouvel ,atlas de ,champignons10 ,paul ,dume1 page #de47 78,the ,mushroom ,book10 by ,nina ,l4 ,marshall1 page #aji47 ,the cap is usually from four to six inches in diameter and is a gray1 brownish-red or tawny-brown in color4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--;,,amanita 7,,full-,,grown74 7,,one-,,half ,,natural ,,size47--7,coville1 ,circular #ac1 ,division of ,botany47 ,the ,fly ,amanita 7,amanita muscaria 7,l47 ,fr474--,this is one of the very poisonous varieties of mushrooms4 ,in the illustration the fully matured mushroom is shown at one-half its natural size4 ,this is the most common poisonous mushroom which grows in the ,district of ,columbia and other nearby localities4 ,the points especially to be noticed are the bulbous enlargement at the base of the stem1 breaking into thick scales above1 the very broad drooping ring near the top of the stem1 and the corky particles loosely attached to the smooth1 glossy upper surface of the cap4 ,the stem1 gills1 and the spores are white1 the corky particles commonly of a buff color1 but sometimes varying almost to white4 ,the glossy upper surface of the cap1 beneath the corky particles1 varies from a brilliant red to orange-yellow1 buff1 and even white4 ,commonly in the vicinity of ,washington the coloration is orange in the center1 shading to yellow toward the margin4 ,brilliant red ones are rarely seen in this locality1 but white ones are not infrequent1 especially late in the season4 ,this was the variety of mushroom that lately caused the death of a well known man in ,washington4 ,this poisonous variety is one of the largest1 handsomest1 and most dangerous of mushrooms1 and is one whose poisonous character has been most fully studied4 ,it is abundant in the vicinity of ,washington in the fall1 growing chiefly in the pine woods and1 especially1 in the localities which have been frequented by hogs4 ,the chief active poisonous principle of the fly amanita is an alkaloid called muscarine1 but other poisonous substances whose exact nature has not yet been discovered also occur in the plant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,,fly ,,amanita ,,buttons 7,amanita muscaria74 7,,natural ,,size47 ,when this variety of mushroom is reduced to a paste and exposed where it can be eaten by flies the latter are readily poisoned1 and hence the common name of 8fly amanita40 ,symptoms of ,mushroom ,poisoning4--,the symptoms of poisoning from the fly amanita1 as deduced from a number of cases1 are varied4 ,in some instances they begin only after several hours1 but usually in from one-half to one or two hours4 ,vomiting and diarrhea almost always occur1 with a pronounced flow of saliva1 suppression of the urine1 and various cerebral phenomena1 beginning with giddiness1 loss of confidence in one's ability to make ordinary movements1 and derangement of vision4 ,this is succeeded by stupor1 cold sweats1 and a very marked weakening of the heart's action4 ,in case of rapid recovery the stupor is short and usually marked with mild delirium4 ,in fatal cases the stupor continues from one to two or three days1 and death at last ensues from the gradual weakening and final stoppage of the heart's action4 ,treatment for ,poisoning4--,the treatment for poisoning by ,amanita muscaria consists primarily in removing the unabsorbed portion of the ,amanita from the alimentary canal and in counteracting the effect of the muscarine on the heart4 ,the action of this organ should be fortified at once by the subcutaneous injection1 by a physician1 of atropin1 in doses of from one one-hundredth to one-fiftieth of a grain4 ,the strongest emetics1 such as tartarized antimony or apomorphin1 should be used1 though in case of profound stupor even these may not produce the desired action4 ,freshly ignited charcoal or two grains of a one percent alkaline solution of permanganate of potash may then be administered in order1 in the case of the former substance1 to absorb the poison1 or in case of the latter1 to decompose it4 ,this should be followed by oils and oleaginous purgatives1 and the intestines should be cleaned and washed out with an enema of warm water and turpentine4 ,experiments on animals poisoned by the fly amanita and with pure muscarine show very clearly that when the heart has nearly ceased to beat it may be stimulated to strong action almost instantly by the use of atropin4 ,its use as thus demonstrated has been the means of saving numerous lives4 ,we have in this alkaloid an almost perfect physiological antidote for muscarine1 and therefore in such cases of poisoning its use should be pushed as heroically as the symptoms of the case will warrant4 ,the presence of phallin in ,amanita muscaria is possible and its effects should be looked for in the red color of the blood serum discharged from the intestines4 7,circular #ac1 ,div4 of ,botany47 ,removal of the ,poisonous ,principle4--,in some parts of ,europe the fly amanita is soaked in vinegar and then is eaten with impunity4 ,some of the colored people in ,washington and vicinity are acquainted with this method of treatment1 and the practice of soaking these fungi in vinegar and then eating them is not unknown1 though the majority of colored women in the markets who deal in mushrooms look upon this species with unrestrained horror4 ,the poisonous variety is denatured as follows3 ,the stem is well scraped1 and the gills are removed from the cap and the upper surface peeled off4 ,the mushrooms prepared in this way are boiled in salt and water and afterward steeped in vinegar4 ,they are finally washed in clear water and then cooked in the ordinary manner and eaten without any injurious results4 ,it is not recommended1 however1 that a mushroom which contains so much deadly poison should be eaten at all1 even after a preparation of this kind4 ,any carelessness in the preparation or any failure to carry out the process completely would result fatally4 ,canned ,mushrooms4--,the canning of mushrooms is an industry of large magnitude1 especially in ,france4 ,the young1 unexpanded mushrooms in the form of buttons are those which are usually subjected to the canning process4 ,mushrooms are brought to the factory where they are cleaned and scraped1 the stem cut to a proper length1 thoroughly washed in several washings of clean water1 and taken to a sulfuring furnace where they are exposed to the fumes of burning sulfur for some time4 ,the purpose of this treatment is to bleach the mushroom and make it as white as possible4 ,decayed or deformed buttons are not included in the cans of highest quality4 ,the prepared mushrooms are then placed in cans1 usually of tin1 and preserved by subjecting them to a temperature at or above boiling water until thoroughly sterilized4 ,canned ,pieces and ,stems of ,mushrooms4--,the imperfect portions1 the pieces which are cut away1 and other fragments of the mushroom1 resulting from the preparation of the product described above1 are treated practically in the same manner for sterilizing purposes and are sold to the trade under various names1 the most common of which is ,champignons d',hotel4 ,they also frequently appear under the name of ,champignon ,choix and other deceptive labels4 ,adulteration of ,mushrooms4--,there is no adulteration practiced of fresh mushrooms unless the occasional occurrence of poisonous varieties may be so considered4 ,it is evident1 however1 that the introduction of poisonous varieties is the result of carelessness or mistake and not for any purpose4 ,nevertheless a most exacting supervision over the preparation of fresh mushrooms for the market should be required1 and any failure to exercise this care may be considered as resulting in adulteration or depreciation of the character of the product4 ,in canned mushrooms the presence of sulfurous acid may be regarded as an adulterant1 and such a substance1 believed to be inimical to health1 is not necessary in the preparation of the goods4 ,it is quite certain that the public taste would soon adapt itself to an amber- or brown-colored product in canned mushrooms and value it as highly as the buttons which are white4 ,since the sole purpose of the use of sulfur is for bleaching1 the end secured scarcely justifies the means4 ,it is claimed1 naturally1 that the use of sulfur is also a safeguard in securing a better keeping of the product1 but such an adjunct for keeping purposes is only necessary when the sterilization is not complete4 ,it is to be hoped that the day will soon come when mushrooms bleached with sulfurous acid shall no longer be found upon our market4 ,the use of other preservatives than sulfurous acid has at times been practiced1 but it is not believed that there are many cans of mushrooms offered upon the market which contain any chemical preservatives whatever save the sulfurous acid above noted4 ,since the canned mushrooms are valued principally as a condiment1 the inclusion of imperfect or partially decayed or malformed buttons is extremely unusual4 ,the buttons are separated into sizes of approximately the same magnitude1 so that a can of the product is uniform in size as well as in quality4 ,the customer may be reasonably certain that he is getting a good1 young1 carefully selected product1 free from disease and from accidental impurities which might render the product unwholesome or unpalatable4 ,truffles4--,the truffle has been known almost1 if not quite as long as the mushroom as an edible delicacy4 ,the use of truffles in ,france became very common during the #adth century1 but on account of their high price they remained for a long time a luxury and not a general article of commerce4 ,it is only within the #aith century1 after #ahdj1 that their consumption became general4 ,the truffle belongs to the botanical family ,tuberace4 ,the propagation of truffles is similar to that of mushrooms1 by spores1 which first give rise to a mycelium which by further condensation forms the body of the truffle4 ,this mycelium furnishes the nutritients for the tubercle during a certain time of its early growth4 ,in the cultivation of the truffle1 artificially1 it is necessary to make use of a forest or other similar artificial covering4 ,if trees are planted especially for the development of truffles it requires six or eight years growth before the cultivation of truffles is successful4 ,the truffle grows very readily in the shade of nut-bearing trees and in the shade of the oak4 ,the mycelium does not produce truffles until after several years of vegetation4 ,when it once begins to fructify and produce the truffle it continues to bear for many years4 ,the truffle1 like the mushroom1 grows rapidly4 ,at first1 as has already been stated1 it is nourished by the mycelium1 but when this is exhausted it is nourished by absorbing the nutritious elements from the soil and air4 ,when it reaches maturity and its spores are well formed the truffle acquires its maximum of aroma and palatability4 ,after it has reached maturity it can remain a certain time in the soil without being changed4 ,however1 after a time it is rapidly decomposed and its tissues become the seat of various chemical reactions or it is devoured by insects4 ,cultivation of ,truffles4--,the truffle may only be grown in the midst of very favorable conditions of climate1 altitude1 mellowness of the soil1 moisture1 and proper shade4 ,the planting of truffle trees serves as a vehicle for the spores which are later to give birth to the mycelium which itself produces the truffle4 ,the spores of the truffles usually reach the forests in which they are grown by natural means without being particularly planted4 ,sometimes1 however1 the spores are carried directly to the soil where the new crop is to be grown4 ,geographic ,distribution4--,the truffle1 like the mushroom1 is spread over all parts of the earth4 ,in ,europe it is especially abundant in ,france and ,italy4 ,the provinces in ,france where it grows in greatest abundance are ,provence1 ,dauphin1 ,languedoc1 and ,prigord4 ,principal ,varieties4--,the varieties of truffles are not so numerous as mushrooms1 of which perhaps a thousand different varieties are known1 but still they are sufficiently numerous4 ,one of those frequently cultivated in ,france is known as truffles of ,prigord 7,tuber melanosporum ,vittad474 ,it grows best under the shade of a growing walnut or a young oak4 ,the tubers of these plants1 which are the part valuable for food1 may weigh from #fj to #ejj grams4 ,other botanical varieties which are much cultivated are ,tuber brumale ,vittad41 ,tuber stivum ,mich41 ,tuber magnatum ,vittad41 and many others4 ,harvesting of ,truffles4--,the truffle comes into production from the sixth to the tenth year after planting the appropriate forest trees4 ,it is easy to determine the year when the harvest should begin1 since during the preceding year there is found in the soil some hypogan mushrooms which may be considered as precursors of the truffles4 ,moreover1 the soil under the tree becomes practically free of all vegetation4 ,the truffle ripens from ,november to ,april1 according to its variety4 ,it is important that it should not be harvested except at the period of complete maturity4 ,for harvesting purposes certain animals are made use of1 such as the dog and hog4 ,these animals have a delicate smell in these matters and only bring out of the soil the ripe truffles while they leave the others4 ,man is not able to make this nice distinction1 and harvests all indiscriminately1 from which there results great financial loss4 ,in the harvesting of truffles the ground should be gone over about once in eight days in order that the tubercles may be secured during the whole winter at the proper time of maturity4 ,when the truffles are developed the soil above them is hilled or cracked1 especially after rains4 ,these are the places which are selected for the harvesting when it is done by the hand of man4 ,harvesting by ,means of ,flies4--,when the weather is warm and clear there is seen above the place where the tubers are lying1 a multitude of flies1--these mark the place where the harvest should be made4 ,the best time for this kind of a harvest is about nine o'clock in the morning4 ,good results are not obtainable from this sign except when the sun rises clear and becomes afterward warm4 ,in order to find the flies the husbandman stoops down near the surface of the soil and looks horizontally over it4 ,the colonies of flies are thus easily distinguished1 and below each one of these colonies the truffles are found4 ,this is also an ineffective method because only the overripened tubercles attract the flies while those in their very prime are not thus marked4 ,harvesting with ,hogs4--,the utilization of hogs for harvesting purposes is by far the best and most economical method4 ,it is employed especially in ,prigord and ,midi4 ,the harvesting can be either in the morning or afternoon4 ,the hogs which are used for harvesting should be previously well fed in order to prevent them from eating the truffles which they dig out of the ground4 ,each animal is led with a rope4 ,as soon as the hog gets the scent of truffles it pounces upon them and rapidly uncovers them with its snout4 ,when the weather is favorable a hog can easily smell a truffle at a distance of #aej feet4 ,as soon as the animal has brought the truffle to the surface instead of allowing him to eat it he should be recompensed by giving him some suitable food such as maize4 ,if this little attention is neglected the animal soon becomes discouraged and refuses to work any longer4 ,before leaving the spot the hog assures himself that no other truffles are contained in that neighborhood4 ,when the hog becomes very tired he walks very slowly and with his mouth open4 ,it is then necessary to give him a period of rest before continuing the harvest4 ,if the search for truffles does not bring good results the animal becomes morose1 indolent1 and refuses to obey4 ,sometimes when the hog is hungry and wants to eat the truffles it is necessary to give him a smart blow on the snout with a stick4 ,a special race of hogs is used in this harvesting whose parents have also possessed the skill1 and thus it becomes hereditary4 ,a good hog is able to engage in the harvesting from the age of two to #be years but they do their best work at three or four years4 ,a single animal may be able to harvest from six to #dj pounds of truffles per day1 according to their abundance in the soil4 ,this class of hogs have a very high value1 and are often sold in the south of ,france for this sole purpose at from #cj4jj to #gj4jj per head4 ,harvesting with the ,dog4--,the dog is also employed in regions where truffles are produced1 and especially in those regions where the yield is not so great and where the area to be gone over is very large4 ,the dog is used especially in the ,dauphin1 ,champagne1 ,bourgogne1 ,provence1 and ,languedoc1 and also in the neighborhood of ,paris4 ,these dogs are trained1 as in the case of hogs1 especially for this purpose and should be rewarded when a find is made1 in the same manner as the hog4 ,this recognition of their services should never be forgotten if animals of the greatest skill are to be secured4 ,the dog1 as is the case with the hog1 locates the truffles by the scent and digs with his four paws until the truffles are laid bare1--the husbandman then draws them out of the soil with long forceps4 ,the hog is preferable to the dog because it does the whole harvesting itself1 whereas in the case of the dog the husbandman must finish the operation4 ,the yield of the truffle farm is naturally extremely valuable1 varying with the relative abundance of growth and character of the soil itself4 ,sometimes the yield drops as low as five pounds per acre and sometimes rises as high as #gj pounds per acre4 ,the average price of truffles is #b4jj per pound4 ,the largest yield is found in the truffle farms from the tenth to the twentieth year4 ,properties of ,truffles4--,it is difficult to describe the properties of truffles4 ,they are1 when prepared for the table1 black1 rather firm in flesh1 and have a distinct and most agreeable odor and taste4 ,a good truffle is extremely firm and resists the ordinary pressure of the finger4 ,if it is soft it shows that it is lacking in its best characteristic4 ,the size of the truffle has a marked influence upon its value because the small truffle loses a large part of its weight in the preparation for eating4 ,truffles of good size are those which weigh from #dj to #ej grams1 those of first choice weighing from #fj to #ajj grams4 ,after the truffle passes #ajj grams in weight the increased weight does not proportionately increase the value4 ,the truffles which come from light soil are considered superior to those which come from rich soil4 ,if the soil contains a large quantity of iron the truffles are usually of finer quality4 ,all truffles are not black1 though the best ones1 like those of ,prigord1 are black4 ,others are gray or brown4 ,adulteration of ,truffles4--,commerce in truffles is the subject of considerable fraud on account of the very high price of the genuine article4 ,the principal adulterations are the mixture of the inferior or imperfect varieties with the choicest or best varieties4 ,this adulteration is easily discovered by making a careful examination of the tubercles individually4 ,another fraud which is very much practiced is the introduction of soil into the cracks or crevices in order to increase their weight4 ,this adulteration1 of course1 is easily discovered by anyone who prepares the truffles for the table4 ,another form of adulteration is the mingling with the ripe truffle of those which have not reached maturity4 ,the unripe tubercles have very little flavor or taste and are thus easily distinguished from those which are mature4 ,also practiced is the pressing together with some kind of a glue of a number of smaller truffles in order to form a large mass1 as if it were an entire truffle1 and thus securing a larger price4 ,this is also a fraud easily discovered4 ,still another form of sophistication is the production of artificial truffles made from potatoes and especially those which are partially spoiled which are colored in imitation of the truffle itself4 ,only those who are ignorant of the texture of the truffle can be deceived by this gross imitation4 ,another form of adulteration is the sale of the truffle coming from regions less esteemed for their products for those of other more esteemed regions as for instance1 the sale of truffles from ,sarladais or from ,domme for those of ,prigord4 ,preservation of the ,truffle ,during ,transit4--,for the purpose of keeping truffles in good condition during transit they may be placed in moss1 fine sand1 or powdered chalk4 ,they can be kept in this way for a few days during transit1 but should not be long preserved in this manner4 ,truffles may also be preserved indefinitely by sterilization4 ,it is necessary to do this whenever they are to be sent over long distances or kept for a long time4 ,the methods of sterilizing are not different from those described for ordinary vegetables4 ,truffles are also preserved by desiccation1 but in this case they lose something of their odor and taste and are not so highly esteemed4 ,finally the truffles are sometimes preserved by cooking them and preserving them in wine or olive oil4 7,raymond ,brunet1 8,manuel ,pratique de la ,culture des ,champignons et de la ,truffe407 ,food ,value of ,fungi4--,while the mushroom and the truffle are the principal fungi used as food they are by no means the only kinds4 ,their value1 as has already been indicated1 is rather condimental than nutritive4 ,those1 however1 who have eaten fresh or well preserved mushrooms or truffles1 cooked in the best style of the culinary art1 are fully acquainted with their value4 ,the fear of poisoning does much to restrict the use of the wild mushrooms4 ,the fields and forests are full of many varieties of these fungi1 especially in the autumn4 ,very few of the varieties are poisonous1 but the conservative gourmand hesitates to consume the fruits of his own activity as a collector4 ,in the hills of the ,blue ,ridge ,mountains near ,harper's ,ferry ,i have seen large areas of the forest almost covered with these growths in ,august and ,september1 but the courage leading to their consumption was wanting4 ,,part ,,ix4 ,,sugar1 ,,sirup1 ,,confectionery1 ,,and ,,honey4 ,,sugar4 ,the term 8sugar0 is applied by common consent to the pure sugar commercially prepared from the sugar cane and the sugar beet4 ,these two kinds of sugar are sometimes designated by their own name1 as1 for instance1 the purchaser will ask for cane sugar or beet sugar4 ,when no other name appears the term sugar is applied as above4 ,in ,europe the principal sugar used is that derived from the sugar beet4 ,in the ,united ,states the principal sugar is that derived from the sugar cane4 ,notable quantities of sugar are also found in commerce derived from the maple tree1 a small quantity from sorghum1 and in ,asia a considerable quantity is made from the palm4 ,chemically1 sugar belongs to the class of bodies known as sucrose or saccharose and is a compound in a pure state consisting solely of carbon1 oxygen1 and hydrogen1 typical of that class of foods of which starch is the most important member1 known as carbohydrates4 ,the elements mentioned are combined in sugar in the proportion of #ab parts of carbon1 #bb of hydrogen1 and #aa of oxygen4 ,the quantity of sugar consumed by the people of the ,united ,states is very large4 ,excluding molasses1 honey1 and sirups the quantity consumed in the ,united ,states in the year ending ,december #ca1 #aije1 was #b1fcb1baf tons4 ,there should be added to this the total quantity of sugar found in the articles of diet which are so common in this country in the form of honey1 sirups1 and molasses4 ,origin of ,sugar4--,in the earliest times practically the only sugar which was used by man was that stored by the bees1 namely1 honey4 ,the sugar cane is indigenous to ,asia and was not known as a source of sugar in ,europe until the #acth or #adth century1 when it was brought by ,eastern merchants to ,europe4 ,the discovery of ,america and the introduction of sugar cane into the islands adjacent thereto opened up a new field for the culture of that plant and laid the foundation of the great industry which followed4 ,it was not1 however1 until #ajj years ago that the sugar cane industry assumed anything like the proportions which indicated its subsequent growth4 ,about #agdg sugar cane was introduced into ,louisiana and soon thereafter1 about #agij1 became one of the most important crops of that state4 ,until the beginning of the ,civil ,war ,louisiana produced a large proportion of the cane sugar consumed in the ,united ,states4 ,during the ,civil ,war the industry was almost totally destroyed1 but since then it has grown until it has assumed greater proportions than ever before but constantly diminishing proportions in relation to the total supply4 ,louisiana is somewhat too far north for the most economic production of sugar cane1 since it is subject to injury by frosts4 ,sugar cane is a plant which is very sensitive to cold weather and is usually killed by a hard frost4 ,for this reason its greatest development has occurred in tropical countries1 especially in ,cuba1 the ,hawaiian ,islands1 and in other similar localities4 ,at the present time by far the largest part of the sugar made from sugar cane in the world is produced in ,cuba and the ,hawaiian ,islands1--the ,cuban crop amounting1 in round numbers1 to #a1bjj1jjj tons and the ,hawaiian to about #djj1jjj tons4 ,beet ,sugar4--,the fact that beet sugar is contained in the common garden beet was first discovered by a ,german chemist1 ,margraff1 in #agdg4 ,this important discovery remained dormant for nearly half a century when one of ,margraff's pupils1 the son of a ,french refugee from ,prussia1 named ,achard1 resumed the researches which had been started by ,margraff and obtained results which were then regarded as of an astonishing character4 ,achard's statements were the subject of doubt and of ridicule and even his ,french co-laborers1 members of the academy doubted the accuracy of his work1 while thinking it of sufficient interest to look into further4 ,a commission consisting of some of the most important members of the ,academy of ,science1 among them ,chaptal and ,vauquelin1 investigated the matter and announced that the attempt to make sugar was unsuccessful but thought perhaps the maple tree might be grown in ,france4 ,nevertheless the commission modified the methods of ,achard and obtained better results4 ,this was the beginning of that long series of investigations which has resulted in the establishment of a beet sugar industry1 making in round numbers six million tons of sugar per year1 a quantity considerable greater than that produced from the sugar cane4 ,the name of ,chaptal has been mentioned as belonging to the commission which was appointed to study ,achard's process because it was through the influence of ,chaptal1 who had then become a ,count1 that the ,emperor ,napoleon on ,january #ae1 #ahaa1 issued his decree establishing the beet sugar industry as a national industry of ,france and granting a subvention thereto4 ,this decree ordered that one hundred thousand hectares should be planted in beets in ,france4 ,both the taxes and the octroi were withdrawn upon all sugar produced from beets for a period of four years4 ,there were also to be established1 according to the decree1 four central beet sugar factories1 and it was ordered that the crop of sugar beets in #ahab and #ahac should reach two million kilograms of raw sugar4 ,the disastrous ,russian campaign and the subsequent fall of the ,napoleonic dynasty interrupted but did not destroy the industry4 ,the establishment of an industry by imperial decree is perhaps a novel method of procedure and gave rise at that time to a caricature in which the ,emperor ,napoleon and the young ,king of ,rome figured as the most important characters4 ,the ,emperor was represented as seated in the nursery with a cup of coffee before him into which he was squeezing the juice of a beet4 ,near him was seated the young ,king of ,rome voraciously sucking a beet root while the nurse standing near and steadfastly observing the process is saying to the youthful monarch--8,suck1 dear1 suck1 your father says it's sugar40 ,by reason of the embargo laid on commerce by ,england the cane sugar coming from tropical islands had been kept out of the continent1 so in order to supply the deficiency the ,emperor ,napoleon issued the decree mentioned4 ,due to this impetus the industry grew rapidly in ,france even after the fall of the empire and in the course of #bj years had assumed proportions of commercial importance4 ,about this period ,german scientists became interested in the matter and by studies directed to the improvement of the sugar in the beet and methods of manufacture laid the foundation of a great industry in ,germany which has outclassed the similar industries of all other countries4 ,the production of beet sugar in the ,united ,states was only a few thousand pounds in #ahgi and during that and succeeding years a number of factories were built4 ,all of these1 however1 were unsuccessful except one which was located in ,alvarado1 ,california1 and which has been continuously operated ever since4 ,in #ahhd the ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture undertook anew the investigation of the conditions which were favorable to the sugar beet industry and as a result of these investigations a new start was made on a more substantial basis4 ,the industry has since then extensively grown in importance until at the present time as much sugar is made from the sugar beet in this country as from the sugar cane4 ,in order that an adequate idea of the magnitude of the sugar industry in the world may be had a statistical table is submitted on page #dga1 showing the production of sugar in the world during the year #aijf4 ,the first important report on the beet sugar industry in the ,united ,states was made by ,mc,murtrie as a special report ,no4 #bh on the culture of the sugar beet1 issued in #ahhj by the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,it is there recounted that two ,philadelphians1 as early as #ahhj1 became interested in the beet sugar industry which was then in its infancy in ,europe4 ,eight years later ,david ,l4 ,child undertook in a small way the production of beet sugar in ,northampton1 ,mass41 and issued a small work on the subject1 entitled 8,the ,culture of the ,beet and the ,manufacture of ,beet ,sugar40 ,he reports that he had grown beets that would yield #f percent of sugar which cost not more than #aa cents a pound4 ,he made in all about one thousand1 three hundred pounds of sugar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,,correct ,,position ,,of ,a ,,mature ,,beet ,,in ,,the ,,soil4--7,farmers' ,bulletin #eb47 ,the first factory of any considerable size in the ,united ,states was erected in #ahfc at ,chatsworth1 ,ill41 but this proved to be a financial failure4 ,a beet sugar factory was erected in the ,sacramento ,valley1 ,california1 in #ahfi1 and after various vicissitudes a permanent factory was established at ,alvarado1 as has already been mentioned4 ,in #ahgd as much as #a1ejj1jjj pounds of beet sugar were made in ,california4 ,in #ahgj and #ahga ,new ,jersey and ,massachusetts enacted legislation exempting from taxation for a period of #aj years all property devoted to the production of beet sugar4 ,factories were established in ,massachusetts and in ,delaware later on1 but these all suffered financial reverses4 ,it was not until the latter part of the #hj's that the beet sugar industry in the ,united ,states was placed upon a paying basis1 and even since that date many ventures in the manufacture of beet sugar have resulted in financial loss and in the abandonment of the factories4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--,,map ,,showing ,,temperature ,,zone ,,in ,,which ,,the ,,sugar ,,beet ,,attains ,,its ,,greatest ,,perfection4--7,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #eb1 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,conditions of ,cultivation4--,the sugar beet in the ,united ,states does not produce its maximum content of sugar in areas where the mean temperature for the three months of ,june1 ,july1 and ,august rises above #gj degrees ,f4 ,the southern limit of this area is an irregular1 waving line1 as indicated in the accompanying map 7,fig4 #fi74 ,there are1 of course1 localities where high-grade beets can be produced south of this line1 but in point of fact nearly every successful beet sugar enterprise has been located within the field indicated4 ,there is really no limit to the northern edge of this belt except that of short seasons1 incident to late frosts of spring and early frosts of autumn4 ,to successfully compete in the sugar markets of the world the sugar beet should enter the factory with an average percentage of sugar of not less than #ab4 ,very much richer beets are often produced and in some of the irrigated areas of the west1 where the climate is remarkably dry1 an average percentage of #af and #ah even has been obtained4 ,in the whole beet sugar crop of the ,united ,states the average percentage of sugar in the beet is probably not far from #ac or #ad4 ,in this respect it is seen that the beet is richer in sugar than the average sugar cane of ,louisiana1 which does not contain over #aa or #ab percent of sugar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,a ,,field ,,of ,,beets ,,ready ,,for ,,harvesting4--7,bureau of ,plant ,industry47 ,yield per ,acre4--,the average yield per acre of sugar beets in the ,united ,states is unfortunately very low1 due chiefly to ignorance of the proper method of culture4 ,the sugar beet is more of a garden than a field crop and requires special cultivation and fertilization4 ,the average yield in the ,united ,states has probably not exceeded eight tons per acre1 while the average yield in ,europe is twelve or thirteen tons per acre4 ,in this respect the ,louisiana sugar cane has a marked advantage1 the average crop being over twenty tons1 while thirty and even forty tons are often obtained4 ,as soon as our farmers learn the principles of culture it is certain that the average yield in the ,united ,states will be as great as that in ,europe4 ,a typical field of beets ready for the harvest is shown in ,fig4 #gj4 ,manufacture4--,the manufacture of beet sugar is both a simple and a complicated operation4 ,the simplicity of it consists in the fact that it is only necessary to extract the saccharine juices of the beet1 properly clarify them1 and reduce them by evaporation to a point where the sugar will crystallize4 ,in reality the operation of successful manufacture requires elaborate and costly machinery and a high degree of technical skill4 ,a brief outline of the method will be sufficient for the purpose of this manual4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--;,,beets ,,ready ,,for ,,transportation ,,to ,,factory4--7,bureau of ,plant ,industry47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,,diffusion ,,battery4--7,farmers' ,bulletin #eb47 ,the beets1 after harvesting1 have the tops cut off with a small quantity of the adhering material of the neck of the beet1 which contains large quantities of salts and is not suitable to enter the factory4 ,in ,fig4 #ga is shown a view of a beet field after the harvest4 ,the beets are then thoroughly washed and passed through a slicing machine in which they are cut up into thin slices or ribbons4 ,they then enter a series of tanks1 known as a diffusion battery1 in which they are thoroughly treated with hot water1 by means of which practically all of the sugar which they contain is extracted4 ,the saccharine product obtained1 known as the diffusion juice1 is treated with a large excess of lime1 heated1 and carbonic acid derived from a lime kiln blown through it until the lime is all converted into a carbonate carrying down with it the impurities of the juices4 ,the diffusion juice as it comes from the diffusion battery is usually almost as black as ink4 ,after carbonatation1 as the process above is called1 it is of a clear1 light amber tint4 ,to separate the liquid from the solid matter the whole is passed through a filter press from which the juice emerges bright and clear and the carbonate of lime with its adhering impurities remains in the filter press as hard cakes4 ,this process is repeated in order to secure as great a purity as possible in the juice4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,,multiple-,,effect ,,evaporating ,,apparatus4--7,farmers' ,bulletin #eb47 ,evaporation4--,the purified juice is conducted into multiple-effect vacuum pans1 ,fig4 #gc1 from which the air is partially exhausted by a pump1 the vacuum rising in the series4 ,there are usually three or four of these pans connected together1--the first one having the least air exhausted from it and the last one the most1 that is1 having the highest vacuum4 ,the vapor which arises from the first pan is conducted through the copper coils to the second and serves as the heating agent while the vapor from the second pan passes through the copper coils to the third and so on to the fourth4 ,thus the steam used for evaporating is turned only on the first pan and by this means a great economy in the use of fuel is secured4 ,in this way the juice is evaporated to a sirup4 ,this is usually somewhat colored and if white sugar is made it is bleached by passing through bone-black or by the application of sulfur fumes4 ,when sulfur is used it is often applied first to the unevaporated juice as well as to the sirup4 ,final ,crystallization4--,the sirup is now ready for the final process1 which takes place in what is known as the vacuum strike pan1 ,fig4 #gd4 ,a considerable quantity of sirup is introduced so as to cover the lower coils of this pan and1 after the vacuum is established by a pump1 evaporated to the crystallizing point4 ,an additional quantity of cold sirup is then drawn into the pan1 chilling the mass and thus producing incipient crystallization in the form of extremely minute crystals4 ,the evaporation is now continued with the addition of sirup from time to time1 by which process the sugar crystals begin to grow4 ,in the course of a few hours the pan is full of crystals of the size desired4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,,vacuum ,,strike ,,pan4--7,farmers' ,bulletin #eb47 ,purification of the ,sugar4--,the vacuum is broken and the crystallized mass of sugar drawn into a mixing apparatus whereby all lumps are broken up and a uniform magma secured4 ,this is done while the mass is still warm4 ,were it allowed to cool it would be extremely difficult to break it up4 ,the warm mixture is then passed into the centrifugal machine1 by means of which the molasses is separated from the crystals and these remain as white pure crystals in the pan4 ,the whole process of separating the juice from the massecuite1 as the mass is called1 occupies only a few minutes4 ,thus the sugar is often centrifugalled and in the barrels before it is cold from the vacuum pan4 ,the above is merely the outline of a method which requires complicated apparatus1 often of extensive proportions1 and which could not be described in detail except in a technical work4 ,it gives the reader1 however1 an idea of how the white sugar which he eats is made4 ,often white sugar is not made at the sugar factory1 in which case the bleaching with bone-black1 etc41 is omitted and a brown sugar is produced which afterward goes to the refinery4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--,,sugar ,,cane ,,field ,,ready ,,for ,,harvest4--7,photographed by ,h4 ,w4 ,wiley47 ,growth of ,sugar ,cane4--,the growth of sugar cane is confined to tropical and subtropical regions4 ,in the ,united ,states this crop is grown chiefly in ,louisiana and ,texas4 ,its cultivation does not extend northward beyond the center of ,georgia4 ,typical scenes in sugar cane fields are shown in ,figs4 #ge and #gf4 ,manufacture of ,cane ,sugar4--,in the manufacture of sugar from the sugar cane the first process1 naturally1 after the harvest1 is the expression of the juice from the cane4 ,at the time of harvesting the canes are topped in such a way as to cut off the green portion of the upper part of the stalk and the leaves also are removed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--;,,cane ,,field ,,partly ,,harvested4--7,photographed by ,h4 ,w4 ,wiley47 ,there are two methods of extracting the juice from the cane1 one similar to that described for the sugar beet but used very little4 ,only one or two factories in the ,united ,states use this method of extraction4 ,the most common method of extraction is by passing the canes through heavy mills4 ,these mills are made of great strength so as to bear an immense pressure without breaking4 ,the largest mills have a capacity of grinding from #ejj to #ajjj tons of cane a day4 ,many of them grind only from #bjj to #ejj tons per day4 ,the mills are nearly always placed in series1 that is1 the cane is subjected to a double pressure4 ,the first mill is uniformly composed of three rollers of the same size and set so that the first and second are not quite so close together as the second and third4 ,the second mill also often consists of three rollers the same as the first mill but sometimes only two4 ,occasionally a third is used4 ,it is quite customary to sprinkle the crushed cane as it comes from the first mill with water before it enters the second mill1 thus securing a greater degree of extraction4 ,the residue from the mill is called bagasse and is commonly carried directly to the furnace and used as fuel1 furnishing steam1 to evaporate the juice and drive the mill4 ,the mills extract from #ge to #hj percent of the weight of cane in juice4 ,the sugar cane contains about #hh percent of its weight of sugar juice4 ,it is seen1 therefore1 that a considerable portion of the sugar remains in the bagasse4 ,by the process of diffusion a larger proportion of the sugar is extracted than by milling1 but the resulting juices are very much diluted and require a greater combustion of fuel for evaporation4 ,clarifying the ,juice4--,the juice as expressed from the cane is a dirty-looking mass and requires to be clarified before it is concentrated4 ,it is a very common practice to subject the fresh juice to the fumes of burning sulfur4 ,in all cases the first step in the clarifying is the addition of lime to neutralize the natural acidity of the juice and facilitate the coagulation of the dissolved matter4 ,the limed juice is next subjected to heating and as the boiling point approaches a separation of the suspended and coagulated matter takes place1 the light coming to the top and the heavy falling to the bottom4 ,the common method of separating these bodies is by skimming the top coagulum and settling the bottom portion and drawing off the clear juice therefrom4 ,in addition to this to get a more complete separation the heated juice may be run through a filter press4 ,the clarification of sugar cane juice1 as is seen1 is much more simple than that of beet juice4 ,the method employed for the clarification of beet juice is sometimes used for cane juice but not very frequently4 ,evaporation of ,clarified ,juice4--,after the clarification is completed the further treatment of the juice is exactly the same as that for the sugar beet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,,tapping ,,the ,,maple ,,trees4--7,courtesy ,forest ,service1 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,,transporting ,,the ,,sap ,,to ,,the ,,sugar ,,house4--7,courtesy ,forest ,service1 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,manufacture of ,maple ,sugar4--,the maple trees in the ,united ,states grow chiefly in the ,new ,england states1 especially in ,vermont1 ,new ,york1 ,ohio1 and ,indiana4 ,very little sugar is made in other states4 ,the season of manufacture is at the beginning of spring1 when the sap first begins to run and before the buds of the new leaves have developed very extensively4 ,the season lasts from four to six weeks4 ,in ,new ,england it begins the latter part of ,march and in ,ohio and ,indiana in ,february4 ,the trees are bored and a tubular spile driven into the wood through which the sap escapes into the bucket or other receptacle4 ,figs4 #gg1 #gh1 and #gi are typical scenes in a small maple orchard during the season1 showing tapping of the trees and collection and boiling of the sap4 ,the sap of the maple tree is extremely bright and clear and requires no clarifying4 ,it is usually evaporated in open kettles or pans1 the vacuum process not being employed4 ,the crystallization takes place at the final moment of evaporation and usually the whole mass is sold as sugar1 forming what is known in the cane sugar industry as concrete4 ,maple sugar is never refined1 since in the process of refining the peculiar flavor and odor which give it its chief value would disappear4 ,the quantity of maple sugar made in the ,united ,states is almost negligible from a commercial point of view1 amounting annually to only about #aj1jjj tons4 ,perhaps a greater quantity of maple sap is used in the form of sirup than of sugar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--;,,boiling ,,the ,,maple ,,sap4--7,courtesy ,forest ,service1 ,department of ,agriculture47 ,refining of ,sugar4--,all kinds of raw sugar but maple are refined before entering commerce4 ,the public taste has demanded a pure white sugar and in so far as beet sugar is concerned the refining process is a necessity1 inasmuch as raw beet sugar has a very disagreeable soapy taste and odor which render it unfit for consumption4 ,on the other hand raw cane sugar is aromatic1 fragrant1 and delicious to a far greater degree in the raw state than when it is refined1 since after the refining process it is difficult to distinguish the product of the beet juice from that of the sugar cane4 ,process of ,refining4--,the manipulation attending the refining of sugar is a somewhat simple one1 but experience has shown that it can only be done economically in very large establishments1 many of which cost millions of dollars4 ,the attempt to refine sugar on a small scale makes the product too expensive to compete commercially with the product of the large refinery4 ,the raw sugar is first mixed with water and melted and reduced to the condition of a sirup4 ,in this state it is treated with lime and clarified as has been described for sugar cane juice4 ,sometimes at this stage it is also treated with sulfur fumes1 but not usually4 ,after clarifying the juice is filtered through bags or filter presses so as to free it from all suspended matter4 ,in order to decolorize it it is then passed through large cylinders filled with bone-black from which it emerges quite or almost water-white4 ,when the bone-black loses its decolorizing properties it is removed from the cylinder and reburned in closed retorts1 by which process it regains its power to decolorize the sugar solution4 ,the decolorized juices are next taken into vacuum strike pans1 as has already been described in the manufacture of sugar1 only of a much larger size4 ,in these pans they are evaporated and crystallized and the sugar separated in centrifugals as described above4 ,after the sugar comes from the centrifugal it is placed in a granulating apparatus1 a large revolving drum supplied with a steam jacket from which it emerges dry4 ,granulated sugar is almost chemically pure1 often containing #ii4i percent of pure sugar4 ,the molasses from the centrifugal is diluted1 passed through bone-black1 and reboiled and a new lot of sugar obtained4 ,finally when the product becomes so low in sugar as not to yield a white product lower grades of brown sugar are made1 which are usually sold without drying and contain considerable quantities of moisture and some molasses4 ,the final molasses which no longer crystallizes is sold usually for mixing with glucose to make table sirup4 ,it contains so much mineral matter in solution as to be hardly suitable for food purposes4 ,loaf sugar1 cut loaf1 etc41 are forms of pure sugar which are pressed or cut in the forms in which they appear on the market and then dried instead of being dried in a granulated state as described4 ,powdered sugar is dry refined sugar reduced to a fine powder4 ,in the refining of sugar it is quite customary to wash the crystals in the centrifugal with ultramarine blue suspended in water4 ,this is done in order to form with the blue water and the yellow tint1 which sometimes accompanies the crystals1 a perfectly white appearance1 on the optical principle which shows that when a blue and a yellow tint are mixed a white color results4 ,this process is not required for the first-class product coming from the first crystallization and very often dealers require sugar for special purposes which has not been so treated4 ,it would be advisable if all consumers should demand a sugar of the same character4 ,while the refining of sugar can probably never be abolished it should not be forgotten that the very finest sugar1 from a palatable point of view1 is that made from the maple or sugar cane without refining in which the crystals retain their natural yellow color4 ,if consumers understood thoroughly the value of a sugar of this kind they would demand it instead of the dead white product which is now in vogue4 ,as has been stated a raw sugar of this kind could not be used if made from beets4 ,sugar ,crops of the ,world4--,these figures include local consumption of home production wherever known4 ,willett and ,gray's estimates of cane sugar crops1 ,oct4 #ah1 #aijf3 ,,crop ,,begins3 #aijf-jg4 #aije-jf4 #aijd-je4 ,united ,states-- ,louisiana ,september #bfe1jjj #ccj1jjj #cce1jjj ,texas ,september #ad1jjj #ab1jjj #ae1jjj ,porto ,rico ,january #bcj1jjj #bac1jjj #ade1jjj ,hawaiian ,islands ,november #cie1jjj #che1jjj #chb1egf ,cuba1 crop ,december #a1bej1jjj #a1age1jjj #a1afc1beh ,british ,west ,indies-- ,trinidad1 exports ,january #ej1jjj #ee1jjj #ca1jjj ,barbados1 exports ,january #dc1jjj #di1fhj #da1fjj ,jamaica1 crop ,january #ah1jjj #ah1jjj #af1jjj ,antigua and ,st4 ,kitts ,january #bd1jjj #bd1jjj #bd1jjj ,french ,west ,indies-- ,martinique1 exports ,january #ce1jjj #cc1jjj #bi1ihf ,guadeloupe ,january #cf1jjj #cf1jjj #cf1jjj ,danish ,west ,indies-- ,st4 ,croix ,january #ac1jjj #ac1jjj #aa1jjj ,haiti and ,san ,domingo ,january #ej1jjj #ej1jjj #dg1jjj ,lesser ,antilles1 not named above ,january #ac1jjj #ac1jjj #ac1jjj ,mexico1 crop ,december #aaj1jjj #aje1jjj #ajg1jch ,central ,america-- ,guatemala1 crop ,january #h1jjj #h1jjj #g1fdj ,san ,salvador1 crop ,january #f1jjj #f1jjj #e1ehh ,nicaragua1 crop ,january #e1jjj #e1jjj #d1bce ,costa ,rica1 crop ,january #c1jjj #c1jjj #b1cje ,south ,america-- ,demerara1 exports ,oct4 ,may #abj1jjj #aba1fic #aja1bgh ,surinam1 crop ,october #ac1jjj #ac1jjj #ac1jjj ,venezuela ,october #c1jjj #c1jjj #c1jjj ,peru1 crop ,october #adj1jjj #aej1jjj #aej1jjj ,argentine ,republic1 crop ,june #adj1jjj #acg1cjh #abh1ajd ,brazil1 crop ,october #bfj1jjj #bge1jjj #aie1jjj --------- --------- --------- ,total in ,america #c1bdd1jjj #c1bcc1fha #c1jje1fjh --------- --------- --------- ,asia-- ,british ,india-- ,exports ,december #cj1jjj #ae1jjj #cj1jjj ,siam 7cons'n #cj1jjj tons1 mostly imported7 44444 44444 44444 44444 ,java1 crop ,may #iej1jjj #iic1ijj #a1jjh1ijj ,japan 7cons'n #bfj1jjj tons1 mostly imported7 44444 44444 44444 44444 ,philippine ,islands1 crop ,december #afj1jjj #ace1fbe #ajf1hge ,china 7cons'n large1 mostly imported7 44444 44444 44444 44444 --------- --------- --------- ,total in ,asia #a1adj1jjj #a1add1ebe #a1ade1gge --------- --------- --------- ,australia and ,polynesia-- ,queensland ,june #agj1jjj #agj1jjj #adg1fhh ,new ,south ,wales ,june #bj1jjj #bj1jjj #ba1ebe ,fiji ,islands1 exports ,june #dj1jjj #dj1jjj #dg1jjj ------- ------- ------- ,total in ,australia and ,polynesia #bcj1jjj #bcj1jjj #baf1bac ------- ------- ------- ,africa--,egypt1 crop ,january #fj1jjj #fe1jjj #fj1jjj ,mauritius ,august #bjj1jjj #ahh1cfd #adb1aja ,reunion ,september #cj1jjj #cj1jjj #cj1jjj ------- ------- ------- ,total in ,africa #bij1jjj #bhc1cfd #bcb1aja ------- ------- ------- ,europe--,spain ,december #ae1jjj #ad1eab #ah1eib ------- ------- ------- ,total ,cane sugar crops 7,w4 ,g47 #d1iai1jjj #d1ijf1jhb #d1fah1bhi ,europe ,beet sugar crops 7,f4 ,o4 ,licht7 ,september #f1egj1jjj #f1ied1jjj #d1gjh1geh ,united ,states ,beet sugar crops 7,w4 ,g47 ,july ,oct4 #cde1jjj #bhc1gag #bji1gbb ---------- ---------- --------- ,grand total ,cane and ,beet ,sugar-- ,tons #aa1hcd1jjj #ab1adc1gii #i1ecf1gfi ,estimated decrease in the world's production #cji1gii 44444 44444 ,adulteration of ,sugar4--,in the ,united ,states there are few adulterations of sugar practiced4 ,the product has grown so cheap not only in the ,united ,states but all over the world that adulterations are no longer a paying process and whenever adulteration ceases to pay it requires no law to prevent it4 ,white sugars have been adulterated from time to time by the admixture of white earth or terra alba 7either ground silicate1 ground gypsum1 or ground chalk74 ,i have never found any adulteration of this kind in an ,american white sugar4 ,white flour has also been added to sugar as an adulterant1 but that form of adulteration is not known in this country4 ,the only adulteration which is found in ,american sugar1 in so far as ,i know1 is that incident to the process of manufacture which ,i have described4 ,when sulfur is used in sulfuring the juice before clarifying a trace of sulfurous acid may still adhere to the finished product4 ,when bluing is used the particles of ultramarine blue attach themselves to the sugar crystals and become an adulteration4 ,i have seen sugar so blued that on solution the water would turn blue4 ,sugar granules are also sometimes washed with salts of tin1 a very poisonous compound1 and a trace of these salts may still adhere to the crystals4 ,sugar has also been mixed with dextrose made from starch1 in other words1 from starch sugar1 or as it is ordinarily called1 anhydrous grape sugar4 ,this is a form of adulteration which has been little practiced on account of the difficulty of getting a dry starch sugar in commercial quantities4 ,recent improvements in the manufacture of dextrose have made it more probable that this form of adulteration may be more frequent in the future4 ,as a food product pure dextrose is probably as valuable as sugar1 but if it can be made cheaper it would become a fraudulent adulteration or if added in any way without notice its addition is fraudulent and constitutes an adulteration4 ,there is little1 however1 to fear from this form of adulteration as long as the price of sugar does not go much above #e cents per pound4 ,sugar as a ,food4--,the food value of sugar is well defined4 ,it furnishes next to oil and fat the most complete food for heat and energy that can be consumed1 ranking1 of course1 as starch in this particular4 ,sugar is a quick-acting food and therefore is especially valuable to relieve exhaustion4 ,it is particularly useful for soldiers on a forced march or for people engaged in any extraordinary effort4 ,a lump of sugar eaten occasionally keeps up the strength and prevents exhaustion4 ,the value of sugar as a food is not appreciated as it should be1 since it is valued mostly for its condimental and preservative properties4 ,,sirup4 ,a very common form in which sugar is used in this country is in the form of sirup4 ,the ,united ,states more than any other nation consumes viscous liquid solutions of sugar as a condimental food product1 especially at breakfast on hot cakes and other articles of diet4 ,table sirup is an almost uniform article of diet upon the ,american breakfast table whether in the household1 the hotel1 or restaurant4 ,maple ,sirup4--,among the sirups1 first of all must be mentioned the most valuable and highly appreciated1 namely1 maple sirup4 ,maple sirup is the product of the evaporation of the juice of the sap of the maple tree to a consistency in which only about #be or #cj percent of its weight is water4 ,this is sufficient to prevent the crystallization of the sugar for at least a reasonable length of time4 ,maple sirup is best when freshly made1 and if kept through the summer should be put in tins and tightly sealed while hot4 ,in this condition it will keep its original flavor almost entirely1 whereas if left in barrels or other ordinary receptacles its flavor is impaired4 ,maple sirup is also made by dissolving maple sugar as occasion may require1 but this kind is not so highly prized as that made directly from the maple sap4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,,small ,,primitive ,,mill ,,for ,,extracting ,,juice ,,from ,,sugar ,,cane ,,for ,,sirup ,,making4--7,photograph by ,h4 ,w4 ,wiley47 ,analysis of ,maple ,sirup4--,the average composition of ten samples of maple sirup of known purity is as follows3 ,total solids1 #gj4ej percent ,water1 #ca4dj ,ash1 4#ec ,sucrose1 #fd4aj ,reducing sugar1 #a4cj ,the study of the ash of maple sirup is an important point in connection with its purity4 ,it is distinctly different from the ash of the sugar cane and sorghum1 and its study should not be neglected in all cases where there is any doubt respecting the genuineness of the samples4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,,mill ,,and ,,evaporating ,,apparatus ,,for ,,sirup ,,making ,,in ,,georgia4--7,bulletin #gj1 ,bureau of ,chemistry47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--,,relative ,,length ,,of ,,canes ,,used ,,for ,,sirup ,,making4--7,photograph by ,h4 ,w4 ,wiley47 ,cane ,sirup4--,sugar cane sirup is made by expressing the juice of the sugar cane as described1 clarifying1 and evaporating the juice to a consistency where only about #be or #cj percent of the water remains1 which is sufficient to prevent the sugar from crystallizing for a reasonable length of time4 ,sugar cane sirup is made in hundreds of small factories in the states of ,texas1 ,louisiana1 ,alabama1 ,mississippi1 ,georgia1 ,south ,carolina1 and ,florida4 ,it is usually made in a small way with mills driven by a horse or mule and with primitive methods of evaporation in an ordinary kettle4 ,hard pine wood is burned for the evaporation and the empyreumatic flavor of the pine is often absorbed by the sirup4 ,in ,figs4 #hj and #ha are shown typical apparatus used for the manufacture of sirup from sugar cane in ,georgia and in ,fig4 #hb the relative length of canes ready for manufacture4 ,in factories where modern apparatus is used1 in so far as ,i know1 the vacuum process is not employed4 ,in fact1 except for economy of fuel1 the vacuum process would be objectionable1 since by boiling in an ordinary open kettle a larger quantity of sugar is inverted and thus the tendency to crystallization is diminished4 ,it is a common but reprehensible practice in making sugar cane sirup to subject the freshly expressed juice to the fumes of burning sulfur4 ,this makes a light-colored sirup but introduces a substance highly objectionable and one which destroys to a certain degree the flavor of the product4 ,experiments made by the ,department of ,agriculture show that delicious1 wholesome1 and palatable sugar cane sirup is best made by clarifying the expressed juice solely by means of heat and mechanical separation of the coagulum4 ,the addition of lime or any other clarifying reagent is unnecessary and only makes a sirup of less desirable and less palatable quality4 ,since cane sirup is made uniformly in open kettles or pans there is a slight caramellization of the sirup during evaporation which gives a reddish tint to the product1 which should be a mark of superiority instead of being so often regarded as a mark of inferiority4 ,the consumer should always be suspicious of a sugar cane sirup which is light in color4 ,it is probably a case of 8,greeks bearing gifts0 in the form of sulfurous acid or other injurious bleaching materials4 ,sugar cane sirup is not appreciated by the people of the ,north4 ,in fact it is rarely seen or consumed by them4 ,in its own country1 however1 it is a staple article of diet1 highly esteemed1 wholesome1 palatable1 and nutritious4 ,analysis of ,sugar ,cane ,sirup4--,the average composition of thirteen samples of cane sirup of known purity is as follows3 ,total solids1 #ge4j percent ,water1 #be4h ,ash1 #a4b ,sucrose1 #eb4j ,reducing sugar1 #ag4f ,sorghum ,sirup4--,the sorghum plant 7,sorghum saccharatum7 is grown practically in every state in the ,union1 but principally in ,kansas4 ,some of the very best sorghum sirup made in the ,united ,states1 however1 is made in ,minnesota1 and this plant can be used for sirup making purposes over the whole area of the ,united ,states4 ,the method of manufacture is exactly that of sugar cane sirup4 ,it is made in small mills mostly driven by horse power1 though some large factories have steam apparatus for its manufacture4 ,it should also be made without the use of any other clarifying reagent than heat4 ,sorghum sirup has a peculiar flavor which is not disagreeable to those accustomed to its use4 ,it is extremely wholesome1 highly nutritious1 and palatable4 ,it is a staple article of diet with thousands of families in the ,united ,states1 principally in the northern and central portion4 ,it rarely is made in the ,new ,england states and not very often in those southern states where sugar cane can be used in its place1 since the sugar cane makes a sirup which is preferred by most people4 ,analysis of ,sorghum ,sirup4--,the average composition of ten samples of sorghum sirup of known purity is as follows3 ,total solids1 #gf4j percent ,water1 #bh4f ,ash1 #d4j ,sucrose1 #cf4g ,reducing sugar1 #bf4f ,molasses4--,the term 8molasses0 is properly applied to the saccharine product which is separated from sugar in the process of manufacture4 ,it is well to clearly discriminate in the use of the term in order that no confusion or misunderstanding may arise4 ,to this end the terms 8sirup0 and 8molasses0 may be contrasted4 ,a sirup is the direct product of the evaporation of the juice of a sugar-yielding plant or tree without the removal of any of the sugar4 ,the term molasses applies to the same process with the exception of the fact that sugar has been removed at least partially by crystallization and some kind of mechanical separation of the crystals from the remaining liquid4 ,molasses1 therefore1 to use a term employed in chemistry1 may be considered the 8mother liquid0 which has produced the crystallization of the sugar4 ,the production of molasses has already been sufficiently described in the article on sugar making4 ,the molasses is either separated by gravitation as in the old style of drying sugar or1 as at the present time1 almost exclusively by centrifugal action4 ,the molasses naturally contains all the substances in solution or suspension which are not retained upon the gauze of the centrifugal4 ,it differs from the total mass of evaporated sugar liquid only in the fact that a large portion of the sucrose or crystallizible sugar has been separated4 ,the sugar juices of the cane and sorghum contain considerable quantities of sugar of a kind different from sucrose or common sugar1 namely1 an invert sugar1 a 8reducing sugar10 as it is called1 which consists usually of about equal parts of dextrose and levulose4 ,during the process of manufacture small portions of the sucrose are converted into sugar of this kind thus increasing its quantity4 ,in the final crystallization there is always a portion of sugar uncrystallized remaining as a viscous liquid in contact with the crystallized particles4 ,this natural invert sugar which is in the juice1 the small portion formed from the sucrose during the process of manufacture1 and the part of sucrose remaining uncrystallized in the mother liquid constitutes the molasses4 ,in the washing of sugar the water which is used also passes into the molasses thus diluting it somewhat from its natural consistence4 ,in the sugar refinery the molasses is made up of practically such materials as just mentioned1 but inasmuch as the separation of the sugar is more complete the other portions of the molasses1 namely1 the mineral salts1 particularly appear in a very much larger proportion than in the ordinary molasses as will be seen by the analysis of these bodies4 ,varieties of ,molasses4--,new ,orleans ,molasses4--,the real ,new ,orleans molasses is the product of the manufacture of sugar in the old-fashioned way in the open kettle and without the aid of vacuum pans4 ,in this process the crystallization of the sugar does not take place during the boiling but the concentrated liquid is placed in tanks where the crystallization takes place4 ,when this is complete it is broken up into small fragments and placed in a hogshead standing in an upright position1 the bottom of which is perforated and covered with straw or fragments of sugar cane4 ,when the hogshead is filled with the crystallized mixture1 through the action of gravity the liquid portion gradually sinks and passes out at the bottom of the hogshead4 ,this natural separation of the molasses makes a product of exquisite palatability and one of a character which it is difficult to equal even by the production of high-grade sirup4 ,before the ,civil ,war this kind of molasses was used throughout the ,united ,states4 ,at the present time only extremely small quantities of it are made inasmuch as the open kettle process is practically a lost industry in the ,south4 ,the term 8,new ,orleans molasses0 as used at the present day1 therefore1 applies to a product of quite a different character4 ,sugar ,cane ,molasses4--,since the introduction of modern processes of making sugar1 namely the vacuum pan and centrifugal process1 the character of molasses from the sugar cane factory has constantly deteriorated4 ,this is a natural deterioration due to the improvement in the method of sugar making4 ,much larger quantities of sugar are now obtained in a crystallized state than formerly4 ,the molasses is to this extent impoverished and the impurities contained therein increased proportionately4 ,it is quite common now in the process of manufacture of sugar from sugar cane to secure at least three crystallizations4 ,first ,molasses4--,when the sugar is crystallized in the vacuum pans and separated from the molasses in the centrifugal the product which is obtained is called 8first molasses40 ,usually this molasses is diluted to a sirup and reboiled in connection with the clarified juices direct from the sugar cane and thus a second portion of sugar is obtained or the molasses may be boiled separately and a second crystallization of the sugar separated by the centrifugal4 ,the molasses from this product is called 8second molasses0 and is inferior in quality to the first molasses4 ,third ,molasses4--,the second molasses is reboiled to a thick consistency and placed in wagons1 transferred to a warm room where it is allowed to remain1 sometimes for two or three months1 when a third crystallization takes place4 ,the sugar from this crystallization is separated as usual by the centrifugal1 and a third molasses produced of still greater inferiority4 ,thus1 in the best sugar factories high-grade molasses is not made in the ,united ,states but only that of inferior quality4 ,this molasses is largely used for fermentation1 or is fed to the mules on the plantations4 ,it is also employed to a certain extent for mixing purposes as indicated above4 ,analysis of ,first1 ,second1 and ,third ,molasses4-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,acids ,,total ,,su- ,,dex- ,,levu- ,,albu- ,,and ,,solids4,,crose4,,trose4 ,,lose4 ,,ash4 ,,minoids4,,amids4 ,,gums4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per-,per- cent4cent4cent4cent4cent4 cent4 cent4cent4 ,first1 #hj4jj #ec4fj #h4gf #h4jj #d4jj #j4bj #j4id #d4ej ,second1 #hj4jj #da4gjab4bj #ab4ej #e4ce #j4be #a4ej #f4ej ,third #hj4jj #ca4gjae4jj #af4ej #f4cj #j4cj #b4jj #h4bj ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,the increasing content of dextrose and levulose1 of ash1 acids1 and gums1 and the decreasing content of sucrose or pure sugar are characteristic of the second and third molasses4 ,the above analyses show the progressive change in molasses due to the separation of the successive portions of sugar and indicate the lowering of the quality of the molasses1 at least for food purposes1 as the separation of the sugar becomes more complete4 ,it is evident that in the manufacture of sugar in this way1 in which very probably an effort is made to get the highest possible yield1 the resulting final molasses is a substance quite unfit for human consumption4 ,sugar-house ,molasses4--,attention has already been called to the production of sugar-house molasses or sugar refinery molasses4 ,this is a product which in its physical appearance is far superior to the third molasses of the sugar factory and this superiority is due to the fact that all suspended matter in the refined molasses has been separated by filtration4 ,in so far as soluble materials which are not food is concerned1 however1 the refinery molasses contains even larger proportions than the sugar factory molasses4 ,the refinery molasses is not usually considered suitable for food except when diluted as has been before indicated in the way of mixing sirup4 ,mixed ,sirups4--,by far the greater part of the sirups used in the ,united ,states are mixtures of two or more saccharine substances4 ,the glucose of commerce is the base and perhaps chief constituent of the most of these mixtures4 ,the glucose1 being colorless and of a thick body1 forms an ideal base as far as physical properties are concerned1 for a table sirup4 ,the quantity used varies very largely1 but in general the glucose constitutes by far the larger percentage of the mixed product4 ,since glucose has only a very slightly sweet taste and is devoid of the general palatable properties which make a sirup attractive1 it is colored and flavored with the product of the sugar cane or the maple tree4 ,sorghum sirup is also used very extensively in mixing4 ,the process of mixing is an extremely simple one4 ,the glucose is warmed until it is easily workable and the added sirups or molasses which are used for coloring and flavoring mixed intimately with it4 ,in large factories this is done by mechanical mixers while in a small way it may be done by hand4 ,instead of glucose1 one sirup itself may be used as the base and mixed with another for flavor1 as1 for instance1 in the case of mixed maple sirup4 ,very commonly the brown sugar is melted with water and this is used as a base for the formation of sirups4 ,whichever may be the case the principle of the process remains the same1 namely1 using as the base a cheaper and less palatable material and flavoring and coloring with the more expensive and more palatable material4 ,from a dietetic and commercial point of view there can be no valid objection raised to this method of mixing sirups4 ,the product is1 as a rule1 attractive1 palatable1 and wholesome4 ,attention has already been called to the fact that the final molasses in the sugar refinery1 after all the sugar has been extracted that can possibly be gotten out by the most approved modern process1 is used very extensively for mixing purposes4 ,this molasses has a very high content of soluble salts1 reaching often #h percent or more1 which gives a distinct flavor and character4 ,it also has acquired a certain flavor from repeated filtering over bone-black and in general has a strong and pronounced flavor which gives it a peculiar value as a flavoring agent4 ,it is also a clear product1 free from suspended matter by reason of its repeated filtration4 ,it can thus be mixed with glucose and forms a bright mixture1 devoid of suspended matter and turbidity1 and is attractive to the eye4 ,ten percent of molasses of this kind added to a glucose will make a mixture which is attractive and salable1 and1 it may also be added1 palatable4 ,the other products which are used for mixing with the glucose in the manufacture of table sirup consist of the molasses obtained from cane sugar factories or the sirups made directly from the sugar cane and sorghum4 ,all these bodies have valuable mixing properties and small quantities of them give sufficient color and flavor to the mixed product4 ,adulteration of ,mixed ,sirups4--,the adulteration of mixed sirups consists chiefly of adulterations that are in the materials from which they are made4 ,glucose itself often contains sulfurous acid used for bleaching in the process of manufacture4 ,it also contains considerable quantities of sulfate or chlorid of lime incident to its manufacture and coming from the sulfuric or hydrochloric acid used in the hydrolysis of the starch from which it is made4 ,the molasses which is used for coloring and flavoring may also contain injurious substances4 ,for instance1 sulfurous acid is very extensively used in the manufacture of cane sugar and this acid becomes concentrated in the molasses4 ,lime is used very extensively in the clarification of the juices and this lime is not wholly separated but some of it is concentrated in the molasses4 ,a moderate amount of lime1 however1 is not objectionable4 ,salts of tin are frequently employed in washing the sugar in a centrifugal and these salts are found concentrated in the molasses4 ,the excess of bluing which is used in the centrifugal is also found in the molasses4 ,various forms of acid phosphates are frequently employed in the clarifying of the cane juices and a part of these is also found concentrated in the molasses4 ,in fact the molasses from sugar cane factories very frequently contains such quantities of these added substances as to render it unfit for human consumption4 ,it is true that these substances are diluted when mixed with glucose1 but this is not a sufficient excuse to warrant their employment4 ,it is possible to obtain unobjectionable sirups and molasses for mixing purposes and manufacturers should be held strictly to account if this is not done4 ,in so far as has come to my knowledge there are no adulterants directly added to the mixed sirups except for bleaching purposes4 ,attention should be called1 however1 to still another form of adulteration due to the fact that the molasses from the sugar cane factories is often so dark-colored as to be even unfit for mixing4 ,in such cases it is not uncommon to bleach the molasses by adding zinc and acid producing nascent hydrogen and leaving the salts of zinc1 either the sulfite or chlorid as the case may be1 in the product4 ,molasses containing salts of any of these heavy metals1 namely1 zinc1 tin1 or lead1 should be rigidly excluded from consumption4 ,general ,observations4--,if a sirup is to be considered in the light of the definitions already given1 as the result of evaporation1 after proper clarification of the saccharine juices of sugar-producing plants it is doubtful if the term should be used in connection with the mixed products which have been described4 ,i have used it because these are the commercial designations4 ,since molasses is also used very extensively in the manufacture of these mixed sirups it might be asked if they could not also be as properly called molasses as sirup4 ,in ,england the material which is called molasses in this country is usually known as treacle and the very dark molasses coming from the refinery or the sugar factory is known in both countries as 8black strap40 ,if molasses be concentrated to a high degree and pulled while cooling the product is known as taffy in this country or toffy in ,england1--it is also known as molasses candy4 ,the general conclusion in regard to this matter is that since the processes of sugar making have been so improved as to extract the greater part of the crystallizible sugar1 thus concentrating the residue of an inedible character in the molasses and since1 further1 the use of various chemicals in the clarifying of sugar juices has become general1 all of which are practically concentrated in the molasses1 this latter product has practically ceased to be edible4 ,the laws relating to the distillation of alcohol have been so amended as to permit the production of industrial alcohol1 under conditions prescribed by the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 free of tax4 ,molasses is an excellent material for this purpose and1 in addition to this1 is the cheapest material which can be used4 ,the obvious inference is that this material should be used exclusively for the production of industrial alcohol or for some other technical uses and no longer be prepared for human food4 ,the production of straight1 pure sirups from maple sap and the sap of the sugar cane and of sorghum and1 in certain conditions1 from sugar1 can be easily secured in quantities sufficient to supply the demand not only for the consumption of pure sirups but also for supplying the materials which when mixed with pure glucose produce the mixed sirups of commerce4 ,thus inedible molasses would be eliminated from human food and mixed sirups be rendered unobjectionable articles of diet4 ,,confectionery4 ,the term confectionery is applied to a wide range of products which may in general be described as preparations of saccharine substances with various colors and flavors4 ,a common appellation used in connection with confectionery and one which describes perhaps the major part of the product is the term 8candy40 ,material ,used in the ,preparation of ,confectionery4--,the saccharine materials which are employed in the preparation of confectionery are sugars of various kinds1 namely1 maple1 cane1 and beet sugar together with glucose1 dextrose1 and invert sugar4 ,starch1 which is not a saccharine substance1 is sometimes used as a filler in some forms of confectionery4 ,the colors used are either those of a vegetable character1 such as saffron and annatto1 or derived from the animal substances1 such as cochineal1 or more generally1 that large class of bodies derived from coal tar and generally known under the name of anilin dyes4 ,the flavors employed are either natural flavors1 such as those derived from nuts and fruits1 or their preparations1 extracts1 such as the extract of vanilla1 and synthetic preparations1 including a very large number of artificial flavoring materials resembling to a greater or less degree the natural flavor of fruits1 nuts1 or flowers4 ,chocolate is one of the most common and one of the most highly appreciated flavoring reagents employed1 being largely mixed with sugar before using4 ,not to be included in the permissible materials in the manufacture of confectionery are any powdered mineral substances or mineral substances of any kind 7except such as are incident to the manufacture of the product as the natural constituents of the raw material71 poisonous or harmful colors or flavors1 and fermented1 vinous1 and distilled liquors and drugs of all kinds4 ,under adulterations the question of what is harmful or hurtful in such material will be more fully discussed4 ,method of ,manufacture4--,each manufacturer has his own method of mixing1 flavoring1 and coloring his products and these are mostly trade secrets4 ,a general statement1 however1 may be made regarding the method of procedure4 ,the saccharine substances are usually dissolved in water and brought to the proper consistency by heating4 ,the colors and flavors are added during such part of the process as is most favorable to their incorporation and retention4 ,the mass1 when of the proper consistence1 is molded into the various forms in which candies are found in commerce and in many cases polished in revolving drums of copper or other polishing device4 ,it would be useless to undertake1 even if they were known1 to describe the manifold methods employed to secure the fancy and high-class confections which are found upon the market4 ,crystallized ,fruits and ,flowers4--,when fruits and flowers are treated with sugar sirup which is subsequently allowed to crystallize there are produced what is known as candied or crystallized flowers or fruit4 ,these substances in this case become confections and should be judged by the same standards as the straight candy4 ,food ,value of ,candy4--,the food value of confectionery or candy is not as a rule considered1 since it is eaten more for its flavor and general palatability and attractiveness than for its nutritive properties4 ,nevertheless1 the food value of candy is often very high and is measured chiefly by the sugars it contains4 ,adulteration of ,confections4--,the question of adulteration of confectionery is one which is somewhat difficult to discuss1 since in the definition of confectionery and candies the incorporation of added harmless colors and flavors is regarded as a legitimate process4 ,it is evident that because a confection is colored or flavored there is no reason for the statement that it is adulterated4 ,confections not being a natural product their coloring and flavoring cannot be regarded as deceptive since neither process can be used in any sense to deceive the purchaser4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that any kind of a harmless coloring or flavoring material will be a legitimate addition to confectionery4 ,the question1 however1 of what is harmful or harmless is one difficult to decide4 ,the manufacturer of coloring and flavoring materials and the manufacturer of confectionery are always quite ready to certify that the colors and flavors used are harmless to health4 ,on the other hand the physiological chemist1 who stands apart from the commercial point of view1 may be led with difficulty to adopt the same conclusions4 ,it is evident there are some colors1 especially those of a vegetable character1 which must be regarded as harmless4 ,nearly all vegetables contain natural coloring materials1 either chlorophyll or derivatives therefrom1 which are1 without doubt1 quite harmless4 ,the addition of coloring matter of a vegetable character to confectionery is not regarded as in any way a harmful or deleterious ingredient to the product4 ,the same may be said of animal coloring matter1 since there are also natural constituents of animal substances used such as cochineal1 which1 as is well known1 is derived from an insect1 and hence the addition of such a substance to a food product may be regarded in the present light of our knowledge as harmless4 ,there are also synthetical preparations which from a chemical point of view and in so far as known from the physical point of view are closely identified with vegetable substances4 ,these preparations may1 a priori1 be regarded as substances not injurious to health4 ,on the other hand almost the whole range of mineral colors which formerly were so much used in tinctorial art1 namely1 the oxids and salts of metals such as copper1 chromium1 lead1 arsenic1 etc41 are regarded by practically all authorities as injurious substances and not suitable for introduction into food products4 ,there is left then for consideration in this respect that vast body of coloring matters derived from coal tar and known in general as anilin dyes1 whether directly made from anilin or not4 ,on the question of wholesomeness of these bodies there is much division of opinion4 ,of the many which are known1 however1 only a few are regarded as harmless4 ,perhaps thirty different dyes would cover the whole number which have been pronounced harmless by expert observers4 ,the experts1 however1 who have rendered decisions in this matter do not agree as to the harmlessness of the list just mentioned4 ,some of them include some portions of the list and exclude others from their commendation4 ,it so happens1 therefore1 that only a few so-called anilin dyes have really escaped condemnation at the hands of some of the experts4 ,the general character of anilin dyes and the well known poisonous property of the radical from which they are derived leads to the supposition that it would be very unsafe in any case to make an absolute statement in favor of any of them4 ,these bodies1 as a rule1 undergo no change in the metabolic processes4 ,they pass in and through the cellular tissues of the body and are excreted mostly in the urine and hence place a burden upon the excretory cells which1 although light1 is unnecessary4 ,the possibility1 too1 might be taken into consideration of a direct toxic effect which they may exert although in a minute degree upon the cell structures through which they pass4 ,it is certain that these bodies can exert no beneficial effect upon the structure of the cells and it is hardly likely1 in the doctrine of probabilities1 that they should be neutral4 ,it is advisable1 therefore1 to suggest to the manufacturer of confectionery as well as of the other food products1 but of confections in particular1 the wisdom of seeking some method of producing attractive colors in their products among sources which are open to no suspicion4 ,it might be that this would be attended with some expense and that the dyes which are unobjectionable may be more costly4 ,this1 however1 should be a matter of very small consideration to the manufacturer who has the welfare of the public at heart4 ,the price of confectionery1 as is well known1 is out of proportion to the prices of the raw materials of which it is made4 ,the quantity of coloring matter which confections contain is acknowledged to be minute so that whether the colors cost a dollar or five dollars a pound makes little difference in the actual cost of the product and the highest priced colors would not diminish the percentage of profit to any noticeable degree4 ,aside from the use of harmful colors and flavors1 which are always to be regarded as adulterants1 there are many other practices in connection with the manufacture of confections that may be classed as objectionable4 ,most of these have1 however1 been forbidden by law in the states and in other countries and are now forbidden by our national law4 ,the addition of ground mineral matter was long known as one of the principal adulterations of confectionery4 ,this1 in my opinion1 is no longer practiced in the ,united ,states4 ,the substances used were commonly known as terra alba1 that is1 ground talc1 powdered silicates1 powdered chalk1 or ground marble--in fact any white powdered mineral substance4 ,the object of this adulteration is manifestly to increase the weight4 ,poisonous ,mineral ,colors4--,in the early days of the manufacturing of confectionery salts of lead and compounds of chromium1 as well as compounds of other metals such as copper1 etc41 were employed for coloring purposes4 ,the use of these bodies is now extremely rare1 however1 if it is ever practiced1 and hence may be regarded as a practice of the past4 ,glucose ,containing ,harmful ,substances4--,the bleaching of glucose by sulfurous acid naturally leads to the introduction into candies of this substance4 ,it is present in minute quantities1 however1 and if the glucose is carefully made1 ,i may add1 in negligible quantities4 ,the danger of over-sulfuring must not be forgotten and it is difficult to draw a line of demarkation between what may be regarded as negligible and injurious quantities4 ,the abandonment1 therefore1 of the use of sulfur must be regarded as the only safe way of protecting the consumer against an adulteration of this kind4 ,the use of poisonous flavoring is perhaps more extensive than is generally recognized1 especially of that flavor which is supposed to be characteristic of the kernel of the peach1 namely1 benzaldehyde or its derivatives4 ,there is also a small amount of hydrocyanic acid in the kernels of the peach1 almond1 etc4 ,this is a very deadly substance and no artificial preparation of it should ever be used4 ,if there be any flavor of this kind in a confection it should be derived solely from the almond or similar nuts which contain only minute traces4 ,while nature1 as is well known1 places poisonous substances in many food products1 they have been so skilfully combined as to render their effect the least harmful4 ,when man produces a similar poisonous article artificially and adds it to a food1 the poisonous effect thereof is undoubtedly increased4 ,hence the use of artificial harmful flavors of any kind in a food product1 especially confectionery1 is utterly reprehensible and unpardonable4 ,alcohol4--,alcohol has been placed in different forms in confectionery1 sometimes enclosed as drops within the saccharine substance4 ,this must be regarded as an adulteration of a very reprehensible character1 since these products are eaten so much by children and the danger of injury from the alcohol and the danger of forming a habit from eating it in this way is extremely great4 ,this form of adulteration is specifically forbidden by the national law4 ,in view of the fact that children and young persons of both sexes1 and especially girls1 eat confectionery so largely it is incumbent upon every manufacturer to see that no raw material is employed in his processes and no flavoring or coloring or other added ingredient used which is in any way under suspicion as being a harmful or deleterious substance4 ,manufacturers should remember that a mere certificate of purity from the person making these substances is of little value whatever4 ,even if the statements made in such certificates are true they will always be under suspicion1 because it would be supposed that they were made for the purpose of furthering trade rather than for the protection of the consumer4 ,in the case of two experts of like honesty and like industry1 one employed for the purpose of giving a certificate to the article of food and one whose researches are entirely independent of any commercial relations1 the public will generally give the decision of the latter a greater weight4 ,inspection officers under state and national food and drug acts should give especial attention to the subject of confectionery as an article of diet almost universally employed and consumed by a class of the community most susceptible to injury4 ,,honey4 ,honey is defined as the nectar of flowers1 gathered and stored by the honey bee 7,apis melifica74 ,while the above is a good definition there is often found in honey saccharine exudations of the plant other than the nectar of flowers4 ,many plants contain sugar in their saps and when an exudation of sap takes place and the water in the sap is evaporated a saccharine residue remains which is also gathered by the bee4 ,many trees1 especially of the pine family1 exude a sweet sap when stung by a kind of louse 7aphis7 and this is also gathered by the bees4 ,thus while there may be other exudations of the plant found in honey the fact remains that the true honey is gathered exclusively from the nectar of the flowering plant4 ,a honey which is made by feeding bees sugar sirup or other artificial sugar food cannot be regarded as a genuine article4 ,the feeding of bees1 while a strictly legitimate practice1 should be confined to keeping them over periods of famine or the keeping of them alive during the winter or at other times when they do not have access to the flowering plant4 ,historical4--,honey has been used by man for food from the remotest antiquity4 ,in fact1 in earlier times honey was the only sugar substance at the disposition of man4 ,he had not yet learned the sources of great supply which now are at his command or if he had he was not familiar with the technical processes of preparing the commercial article4 ,honey is approximately a pure saccharine substance and this1 in addition to its peculiar and1 to most people1 pleasant flavor1 not only gave it a vogue in the earlier times of necessity but has maintained it in public favor when other and cheaper sources of saccharine substances have been developed4 ,in fact1 at the present time it might be said that honey owes its value upon the market not to the fact that it is a saccharine body but that it contains flavors and aromas imparted to it by the flower and by the bee which render it a luxury rather than a necessity of life4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--,,swarm ,,of ,,bees ,,on ,,bough ,,of ,,tree4--7,courtesy ,a4 ,i4 ,root ,co47 ,preparation of ,honey4--,while bees stored their honey in hollow trees or other suitable places in earlier times this was a doubtful source of supply4 ,the bee tree is still an object of interest in every neighborhood4 ,many wild animals1 especially bears1 are very fond of honey and these animals were the robbers of the honey bee in the days when such animals roamed the forests4 ,since the removal of the forests to such a large extent in the interest of agriculture the bee tree is becoming a curiosity rather than a matter of common occurrence4 ,wild swarms of bees1 therefore1 at the present time1 find other places for building their hives than the hollows of trees4 ,they are likely to light upon almost any point that affords them a temporary support and attempt1 at least1 to form a colony4 ,unless1 however1 they have some natural protection such as that of a hollow tree1 these attempts are usually unsuccessful4 ,in ,fig4 #hc is shown a swarm of bees1 which1 gathering on the bough of a tree1 have bent it to the ground4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--;,,artificial ,,bee ,,hives ,,under ,,shade ,,of ,,grape ,,vine4--7,courtesy of ,a4 ,i4 ,root ,co47 ,artificial ,hives4--,the artificial hive has now become an inseparable incident in bee culture4 ,the various forms of hives and their relative merits cannot be discussed in this manual4 ,there are many special works on bee culture in which all these mechanical appliances1 which are so favorable to the storing of large quantities of honey1 are described4 ,the most approved form is that which permits the depositing of the combs in small boxes which when filled usually weigh about one pound and which can be easily removed from the comb and are in a condition to send to market4 ,the proper method of locating bee hives is indicated in ,fig4 #hd4 ,the art of bee keeping is not easily acquired and it requires a natural aptitude as well as long study and research to become an expert bee keeper4 ,experts differ in their opinion respecting the relative value of hives1 and rival manufacturers also do much in the way of advertising one or another of these contrivances4 ,all of them that have merits are such as protect the bee1 during the months when it is idle1 from starvation and disease and afford it every possible facility for storing its treasures during the season of activity4 ,distribution of the ,honey-producing ,industry4--,every part of the ,united ,states is suitable in some respects for the production of honey4 ,naturally the extreme northern portion1 where the winters are very severe1 are less favorable than the southern portion for two reasons1 first1 the difficulty of keeping the bees over the winter is greater in the ,north1 and1 second1 the season of activity is much shorter4 ,on the other hand the honey which is gathered from the northern flowers is1 as a rule1 more highly prized than that gathered from the more southern regions4 ,california1 perhaps1 is the greatest honey-producing state in the ,union1 though portions of ,new ,hampshire1 ,pennsylvania1 ,ohio1 and many other states have developed great industries4 ,it is very common also for the farmer to have a number of bee hives1 particularly for storing honey for domestic consumption1 so that the making of honey is almost as common on the farm as the making of butter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4--;,a ,,frame ,,containing #bd ,,boxes ,,of ,,honey4--7,courtesy ,a4 ,i4 ,root ,co47 ,comb ,honey4--,the honey which is produced in the hives and removed without extracting it from the comb is known as 8comb honey40 ,as indicated above1 at the present time large amounts of this product are made by the filling of small boxes of a size intended for the market4 ,this is1 by far1 the most convenient method of handling the product4 ,a frame showing #bd boxes of comb honey as withdrawn from the hive is illustrated in ,fig4 #he4 ,it has also the additional merit of a practical guarantee of the product4 ,in ,fig4 #hf is seen a box of honey in which the capping is incomplete4 ,many mechanical attempts have been made to imitate the genuine comb and in many respects a certain degree of success has been attained4 ,in fact nearly all of the commercial comb honey of the present day is made in combs built upon an artificial base in which the cells of the comb are started and sometimes built to a considerable depth4 ,the bee is then only required to fill out the remaining portion of the cell and1 after filling it with honey1 to cover it over4 ,thus the labor of the bee is greatly diminished in respect of comb building and its energies preserved for a greater production of honey4 ,it must be admitted that honey preserved in the comb has a delicacy and daintiness which does not attach to that which has been separated and sold in a liquid form4 ,the comb honey1 therefore1 commands a fancy price4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,,showing ,,box ,,of ,,honey ,,partially ,,capped4--7,courtesy ,a4 ,i4 ,root ,co47 ,extracted ,honey4--,where honey is to be shipped to any great distance it is found difficult1 if not impossible1 to transport it in the comb1 since the jarring and exposure incident to transit break the delicate cells and allow the honey to escape4 ,for commercial purposes1 therefore1 especially when honey is to be shipped to distant points1 it is separated from the comb at the place of manufacture4 ,the usual method of separation is by centrifugal force4 ,the caps of the cells being removed1 the boxes which contain them are placed in a centrifugal machine and the honey forced out by centrifugal action4 ,the boxes are then returned to the hives where they are refilled by the bees4 ,by this process extracted honey can be made in great quantities and for a much lower price than the same quantity of honey still held in the combs4 ,the principal objection to extracted honey is due to the fact that it has been subjected to such extensive adulterations as will be mentioned further on4 ,there can be no valid objection made to the character of extracted honey when it has been prepared under competent direction and with the skill and care which are required by the professional honey makers4 ,strained ,honey4--,strained honey is a variety of extracted honey which from the broken or fragmentary combs is allowed to flow by gravity or by gentle pressure4 ,in such cases1 naturally1 the cell or honey comb is destroyed4 ,the residual comb is sent to market as beeswax4 ,properties of ,honey4--,honey at ordinary temperature is a viscous liquid of a tint varying from almost colorless to almost black1 according to the character of the flowers and the season in which it is gathered and the length of time of storage4 ,it contains from #ae to #be percent of water and usually has a small quantity of foreign substances1 incident to its manufacture1 such as particles of dust1 pollen1 fragments of bees1 fragments of comb1 etc4 ,honey1 therefore1 is a somewhat concentrated solution of sugars and these sugars are the natural products of the flowers of plants1 modified to some extent1 by passing through the organism of the bee4 ,in passage through the bee the honey is impregnated with a small quantity of an acid1 named from the ant1 formic acid4 ,it also suffers other changes which are very strongly marked in flavor and aroma but which cannot be very readily traced chemically4 ,polarization4--,pure honey1 that is1 honey gathered solely from the saccharine exudations of flowers at the ordinary temperature of the laboratory1 namely1 from #fe to #he degrees ,f41 has the faculty of turning a plane of polarized light to the left1 which is just the opposite of the optical properties of cane sugar4 ,whenever a honey shows a right-handed polarization it is a cause for suspicion respecting its purity4 ,a honey of this kind has either been made by feeding the bees a sugar sirup or by the gathering1 on the part of the bees1 of the saccharine exudation1 before alluded to1 known as honey dew4 ,it is perfectly true that bees may have gathered honey in exceptional cases1 that is1 the saccharine exudations of the plants in general1 which will show a right-handed polarization1 but this occurs so infrequently as to render it advisable to regard such a honey as abnormal in quality4 ,the polariscope1 therefore1 becomes an almost indispensable implement in a study of the purity of honey4 ,water4--,as has already been stated1 the usual content of water in honey is from #ae to #be percent4 ,it very rarely falls below #ae percent and also very rarely goes above #bj percent4 ,in extremely dry periods it is evident that the content of water becomes less1 while in times of rain or at the first advent of the flowers the content of water will be greater4 ,the bee naturally modifies to some extent the content of water in order that the organism may dispose of the product4 ,if the content of water is too small the bee handles the product with difficulty and if the content of water is too large difficulty in gathering and storing the honey on account of the excessive fluidity is experienced4 ,as before intimated1 the color of the honey depends largely upon the flower from which it is made4 ,white clover gives a honey almost water-white and among all the honey-producing flowers is perhaps regarded the most highly4 ,on the other hand a plant like the golden rod1 which flowers later in the summer1 produces honey of a deep yellow and sometimes almost a black tint4 ,the color of honey1 therefore1 indicates not only the season of the year at which it is stored1 becoming darker as the autumn advances1 but also the nature of the flower from which it is produced4 ,ash4--,the content of mineral matter in honey is extremely small and perhaps is largely due to the mechanical entanglement of dust in the nectar rather than the exudation of actual mineral matter itself from the flower4 ,in some cases the amount of mineral matter is so small as to become a mere trace while in other cases it has been found as high as 4#c of one percent4 ,a high content of ash denotes the exposure of the nectar previous to gathering to an infection of dust or to some other abnormal condition4 ,a high ash content1 therefore1 always indicates that further study should be made respecting the purity of the product4 ,sucrose4--,the amount of sugar 7cane sugar7 which is found in honey is in normal conditions not very large1 but in exceptional cases the sugar content1 that is1 the sucrose content1 may reach as high as #h or #aj percent4 ,at such times the honey has only a slightly left-handed polarization or may become right-handed4 ,whenever the content of sucrose in honey reaches as high as #h percent there is ground for suspicion that the bees have been fed on sugar sirup1 or that some other form of adulteration has been practiced4 ,dextrose and ,levulose4--,the two principal saccharine components of honey are the sugars known as dextrose and levulose1 in other words1 taken together1 inverted sugar1 that is1 sugar made by the inversion of cane sugar or sucrose4 ,in the nectar of flowers these two sugars exist almost in the proportion which would be expected if they had been formed from sucrose or ordinary sugar by a simple chemical process4 ,sometimes one of these sugars and sometimes the other may be in slight excess4 ,the names of these two sugars indicate their active properties4 ,dextrose is a right-handed sugar1 that is1 it turns the plane of polarization to the right4 ,in this respect it resembles sucrose or ordinary cane sugar1 although it is not so strongly right-handed4 ,levulose1 as the name implies1 is a sugar which turns the plane of polarization to the left4 ,the temperature of the solution has a very marked influence upon this active property1--the lower the temperature the greater the left-handed rotation4 ,a honey which has a strong left-handed polarization1 therefore1 at ordinary temperature is one in which the levulose is present in full proportion or very slight excess4 ,the other constituents of honey1 namely1 the pollen which is mechanically entangled therein1 the dust or dirt which is mechanically attached thereto1 the formic acid imparted thereto by the bee1 and the other ingredients1 are extremely minute in quantity and are not1 as a rule1 expressed as percentage constituents4 ,in fact the most of them are merely accidental constituents4 ,adulteration of ,honey4--,perhaps there is no common food product1 with the possible exception of condimental substances such as pepper and spices1 that has been subjected to such extensive and general adulterations as honey4 ,the high price of honey1 its position as a luxury as well as a food product1 and its attractive flavor and aroma have all combined to make it a favorite product for adulteration4 ,in addition to this the invention in the last third of a century of an artificial product resembling honey very closely in its physical properties and being itself a saccharine body1 namely glucose1 has put into the hands of the adulterator an ideal substitute for the natural product4 ,there is only one reason why the adulteration of honey with glucose has not been more extensive than it is1 namely1 the ease with which the chemist can detect it4 ,the chemical properties of glucose are very distinct from those of honey itself4 ,in spite of this fact1 however1 the adulteration of honey has been most extensively exploited and until the methods of detecting it were developed it was almost universally practiced4 ,glucose is a water-white saccharine semi-viscous mass made by the hydrolysis of starch with an acid and therefore forms the body upon which the adulterated article can be built4 ,it has a low saccharine value and cannot be used alone but must necessarily be mingled with the honey4 ,the amount of real honey used is1 as a rule1 a minimum to give the flavor and taste of the genuine article to the admixture4 ,it is believed at the present time that this method of adulterating honey is very much less practiced than in former years and this is due1 as has been said1 to the ease with which it can be detected and also1 it may be added1 to the increased rigidity of national1 state1 and municipal inspection1 rendering it difficult to place an adulterated article such as this upon the market without detection4 ,incalculable harm has been done to the honey trade of the country by the practice of this style of adulteration4 ,only liquid honey1 that is separated or strained1 can be easily adulterated with glucose4 ,often1 however1 an attempt has been made to still further deceive the customer by placing a portion of the genuine comb honey in a jar and then filling it with the adulterated mixture1 giving the appearance of the genuine article to a certain extent to the whole4 ,adulteration with ,inverted ,sugar4--,a much more subtle form of adulteration1 and therefore one much more difficult to detect1 is the adulteration of honey with a sirup made from inverted sugar1 that is1 the product obtained from cane sugar by the action of a dilute acid4 ,this chemical process1 as has already been indicated1 converts the cane sugar into a mixture of dextrose and levulose4 ,these sugars are identical1 for chemical purposes1 with the natural dextrose and levulose of honey4 ,the chemist1 therefore1 has a much more difficult task to perform when he attempts to diagnose the presence of artificial dextrose and levulose in a mixture of the natural product4 ,there are1 however1 certain qualities of ash1 as well as other chemical constituents1 which guide him in his work4 ,while his conclusions do not have that definiteness which attaches to the examination of a honey adulterated with glucose they are sufficiently distinctive in most cases to determine whether or not a sophistication has been practiced4 ,adulteration with ,cane ,sugar4--,a very simple form of adulteration and one which cannot be practiced to any extent without being easily detected is the admixture of a sirup of pure cane sugar to honey4 ,as long as the quantity added is not sufficient to change the optical properties1 so that the mixture becomes right-handed in its rotation1 the admixture of a small quantity of cane sugar sirup might escape the detection of the chemist4 ,inasmuch1 however1 as cane sugar exists only in small quantities in honey the regular and persistent occurrence of much cane sugar in a honey would be a just cause for suspicion1 although its occasional occurrence might be due to purely natural causes4 ,,miscellaneous4 ,mince ,meat4--,under the term 8mince meat0 is included a large variety of mixtures used chiefly for pie making and composed of meats1 fruits1 evaporated fruits1 spices1 and sometimes alcohol in some of its forms4 ,it is not possible to describe any particular combination which would be entitled to bear the name alone1 since each housewife and each manufacturer follows a method of her and his own4 ,a general description1 however1 may be given of the manufactured article which1 unfortunately1 has largely displaced the mince meat of domestic manufacture4 ,judged by the name alone1 meat of some kind would be an important constituent of this substance4 ,this1 however1 is not the case4 ,very few of the mince meats contain more than #aj percent of meat1 a large number contain less and quite a large number contain none at all4 ,suet and tallow are sometimes employed as a substitute for meat1 which apparently satisfies the conscience of the manufacturer even if it does not suit the palate of the consumer4 ,evaporated fruits1 such as raisins1 etc41 form important constituents of the mixture and also fresh fruits1 in domestic manufacture1 are very often used4 ,spices of various kinds are also employed and the mixture is sometimes flavored with brandy or some alcoholic beverage4 ,pressed ,mince ,meat4--,the mixture which is above described may be dried and pressed1 or pressed without drying1 into a hard firm cake which renders it more suitable for transportation and improves its keeping qualities4 ,there is perhaps little difference between the unpressed and the pressed mince meat except in the matter of a binder4 ,the binder consists usually of starch or flour1 which serves not only to give additional weight to the mixture but also to hold the particles together4 ,starch or flour is sometimes used in unpressed mince meat also4 ,there is another advantage in using starch or flour1 namely1 that these bodies absorb large quantities of moisture and thus increase the weight of the mixture4 ,mince meat cannot be recommended on sanitary grounds1 since the method of manufacture is not always known and the materials from which it is made are not always selected with the sole view to the excellence of the raw materials and the health of the consumer4 ,the meat when used often represents waste material from the table or factory and the fruits are not necessarily those which look best but probably are those usually of the worst appearance and the combinations are made with a view of meeting the ordinary demands of the market rather than of catering to the tenets of sanitation4 ,it is not the intention of this manual to discourage any kind of legitimate manufacturing industry1 but1 in view of the general character of substances of this kind1 if they are to be used at all1 it seems advisable that they should be made in the home1 of material selected by the housewife and in a manner which requires no special treatment for its preservation1 rather than to be purchased at random in the open market1 made of materials of unknown origin put together by an unknown process4 ,adulteration of ,mince ,meat4--,assuming that the materials which have been selected are wholesome1 sanitary1 and of fine quality1 the principal adulterations to which mince meat is subjected are the addition of chemical preservatives and artificial colors4 ,inasmuch as mince meat is not expected to be of any very definite color the use of artificial colors is not common4 ,on the other hand when mince meat is made in large quantities1 transported long distances1 and sometimes kept for a long while on the shelves of the grocery1 the subject of preservation becomes a matter of serious importance4 ,it is naturally inconvenient to preserve a mixture of this kind by sterilization1 though this has been accomplished4 ,the method of drying and pressing has already been described4 ,this1 of course1 detracts somewhat from the physical appearance of the product4 ,the common method is the addition of a chemical preservative4 ,at the present time ,i believe that benzoate of soda is the one very commonly used1 and it will probably continue to be so used1 by most manufacturers until national and state laws or an enlightened public opinion eliminate it from food products4 ,pie ,fillers4--,nearly allied to mince meat in its character is a large class of substances known as pie fillers4 ,mince meat itself1 as may be seen from the description which has been given of it1 is nothing but a pie filler of a particular kind4 ,unfortunately the demand of the domestic cuisine is for substances prepared1 or partially prepared1 for immediate consumption4 ,in this way the demand for predigested and precooked food has become a very general one and the pie filler is a legitimate effort on the part of the manufacturers to meet this growing demand4 ,it is far easier for domestic purposes to make a pie of an already prepared material than to go to the trouble of constructing the material in the kitchen4 ,a housewife loses sight of the fact that the fresh domestic pie is probably the only one which1 for sanitary and other reasons1 should be admitted to the table4 ,as the pie fillers are as varied in character as the different kinds of pies from which they are made1 no definite standard can be prescribed for them4 ,fruits are1 naturally1 the predominating constituent in these fillers and the condiments and spices used are certainly unobjectionable4 ,if it be possible to prepare spiced fruits and keep them until used for pies there would seem to be no objection to the manufacture1 long before using1 of these substances in large quantities4 ,the difficulty1 however1 of preserving the freshness and aroma of a fruit or other substance used for pie making is so evident as to need no particular emphasis4 ,adulteration of ,pie ,fillers4--,the common adulterations in pie fillers are artificial colors1 when they are designed to represent fruit of a special character1 and preservatives4 ,the same remarks which were made respecting these bodies in mince meat apply with equal force to all kinds of pie fillers4 ,bodies of this kind are evidently only properly made on the premises where they are consumed and immediately used after manufacture4 ,the addition of artificial colors and preservatives in such substances1 while apparently necessary in the present condition of trade1 is wholly objectionable from every other point of view1 and in such case trade conditions should properly give way to the demands of public and private sanitation and hygiene4 ,,part ,x4 ,,invalids' ,,and ,,infants' ,,foods4 ,one of the most important subjects in connection with the food supply is the study of the foods which are offered for the use of infants and invalids4 ,the demands of modern society1 unfortunately1 have deprived the ,american infant in many cases of the food which ,nature intended it to have4 ,it is1 therefore1 a condition1 rather than a theory1 confronting the feeding of the ,american infant4 ,it often is a choice between starvation and an artificial food4 ,a most self-evident fact in connection with infant food is that until an infant reaches the age when it is naturally weaned it should have as a food only milk4 ,the common substitute for mother's milk is cow's milk4 ,the important point in this connection is that the milk should be from a healthy cow1 kept in a sanitary condition1 and the milk should be secured in thoroughly sanitary ways4 ,these methods of preparing milk are1 in fact1 the practical result of modern sanitary theories4 ,the composition of cow's milk is not that of mother's milk4 ,it contains more protein and less milk sugar than the normal milk of the mother4 ,for this reason the cow's milk is often modified to bring it into nearer relationship to the natural mother's milk4 ,when this is done under scientific directions and according to a prescription furnished by a competent physician or physiologist there is no objection to its use provided it is accomplished without exposure of the milk to bacteria or other contamination4 ,the addition of drugs to milk in its preparation for infants' use cannot be generally commended4 ,the citrate of lime or limewater is one of the substances which is often added to milk1 and that1 too1 by the direction of a physician4 ,there are conditions of disease in infants where such a modification is advisable1 but it is doubtful if it is ever so in the case of a healthy child4 ,the same remark may be made respecting the limewater4 ,composition of ,modified ,milk4--,proteids and ash in cow's milk are much higher than in human milk and are brought to the proper degree of reduction by blending with other milk and diluting the milk with water4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,,diluted,,diluted ,,cow',s,,diluted,,diluted ,,three ,,four ,,milk4 ,,once4 ,,twice4 ,,times4 ,,times4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,proteids1 #d4jj #b4jj #a4ce #a4jj #j4hj ,ash1 #j4gj #j4ce #j4bc #j4ah #j4ad ---------------------------------------- -- ,the ingredients commonly employed for modified milk are 7#a7 cream containing #af percent of fat2 7#b7 centrifugally skimmed milk by which the fat has been removed2 7#c7 milk sugar or a standard solution of milk sugar of say #bj percent strength2 and 7#d7 lime water4 ,formul4--,it is obviously impossible to establish formul universally applicable even to healthy infants1 but the following may be regarded as typical1 representing the composition of a modified milk1 to suit the needs of an average growing infant during its first year3 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,period4 ,,fat4 ,,proteids4 ,,sugar4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,percent4,percent4,percent4 #c to #ad days1 #b #j4f #f #b to #f weeks1 #b4e #j4f #f #f to #aa weeks1 #c #a4j #f #aa weeks to #e months1 #c4e #a4e #g #e to #i months1 #d #b #g #i to #ab months1 #d4e #b4e #c4e ---------------------------------------- ----------- 7,albert ,e4 ,leach1 8,food ,inspection and ,analysis407 ,solid ,infant's ,food4--,a large number of infant foods in the solid state are upon the market4 ,these have been studied very carefully by many observers with a view not only of determining their chemical properties but also their relative digestibility4 ,these prepared infant foods are not always made in harmony with the natural demands of young children4 ,as has just been indicated1 they are not1 as a rule1 suitable for infants before the time of weaning1 being better adapted to the use of young children4 ,in the following tables are the data representing the chemical composition of some of the common infants' foods4 ,invalid ,foods4--,the term 8invalid foods0 is applied to almost every kind of a concoction containing a food substance which is administered to an invalid or convalescent1 often for medical purposes rather than for real nutrition4 ,chief among these invalid foods may be mentioned the meat extracts containing that portion of the meat soluble in hot water4 ,these bodies consist chiefly of meat bases together with certain soluble salts and it has long been recognized that they have very little nutritive value4 ,they are also found in concentrated or even a dry state4 ,the unconcentrated invalid foods of this class sometimes contain glycerol 7glycerine7 or alcohol as a preservative4 ,there are also many forms of meat juice supposed to be the direct extract by pressure or otherwise of the natural juice of the meat4 ,since these bodies could not be preserved otherwise than by sterilization1 which would coagulate the albuminous portion1 they are often preserved by the addition of glycerine or some other antiseptic substance4 ,it is doubtful if any of these preserved bodies are proper food for a deranged stomach either in the case of a real invalid or of a convalescent4 ,in addition to these there are a great many so-called predigested or precooked foods which are largely advertised for certain forms of deranged digestion or malnutrition4 ,the market is flooded with brain foods1 nerve foods1 etc41 which1 if they were as poor as their advertising claims are exaggerated1 would be sorry substitutes for the natural food which grown people eat4 ,fortunately these foods are often far better than one would suppose and many of them are wholly unobjectionable in character in so far as composition is concerned1 though the price which one must pay for these nutrients seems out of all proportion to the actual cost of the raw material4 ,following are data showing the composition of some of the more important foods which are advertised as having curative or medicinal qualities or as suitable for infants and invalids1 and thus are brought prominently to the attention of the invalid or convalescent4 ---------------------------------------- ------- ,,cold ,,re- ,,water ,,pro- ,,ducing ,,ex- ,,dex- ,,water4 ,,ash4 ,,fat4 ,,teids4,,sugar4,,tract4,,trin4 ---------------------------------------- ------- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- cent4cent4cent4cent4cent4cent4cent4 ,no4 #a1 #c4gf #c4jb #f4cj #i4ba #eb4ej #gh4gf ,much ,no4 #b1 #b4ab #d4cd #h4gj #ad4jb #di4jb #ge4hj ,no4 #c1 #a4if #c4he #j4fj #aa4jf #eg4if #ha4aj ,no4 #d1 #c4be #b4bj #e4fe #h4ff 444 #hb4jj #aa4ej ,no4 #e1 #a4cg #a4fc #d4ge #i4ac 444 #df4eg #aa4jb ,no4 #f1 #g4ji #j4db #j4bc #ad4dh 444 #c4eh #a4gd ,no4 #g1 #e4gc #j4hf #a4jj #aj4da #bf4cb #cd4eg #g4cj ,no4 #h1 #a4ee #a4bj #a4aj #e4fi #eg4eg #ej4je ,much ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,the above data give a general view of the relations of nutrient in foods of this class4 ,the percentage of mineral matter varies chiefly in proportion to the varying content of common salt4 ,the fat varies from one to about nine percent4 ,protein exists in quantities from nearly six to #ae percent4 ,sugar constitutes the predominant nutritive component of almost all these bodies1 only one showing a small percentage thereof4 ,it is evident that if any one of these types of food be regarded as a standard nearly all the others would prove objectionable4 ,the foods in the following table are largely farinaceous in composition4 ,,composition ,,of ,,infants' ,,and ,,invalids' ,,foods4 7,as determined by ,a4 ,mc,gill1 ,bulletin #ei1 ,laboratory of ,inland ,revenue1 ,ottawa1 ,canada74 ,,mean ,,results ,,of ,,analysis4--,,group ,i4--,,farinaceous ,,foods4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,num- ,,sum ,,of ,,total ,,ber ,,losses,,albumi- ,,of ,,to ,,noids ,,sam- ,,fat ,,by ,,loss ,,alco- ,,from ,,ples ,,petro- ,,to ,,loss ,,hol ,,nitro- ,,num- ,,ana- ,,mois- ,,leum ,,alco- ,,to ,,and ,,gen ,,ber4,,lyzed4 ,,ture4,,ether4 ,,hol4 ,,water4,,water4 #f4be4 ,,ash4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- ,per- cent4cent4cent4cent4cent4cent4 cent4 #a #b #ac4if #j4bi 44 #c4ba #c4ba #a4bd #j4jf #b #e #i4fa #j4fd #d4ia #b4ia #g4hb #aj4ch #a4dh #c #e #i4dd #j4bg #j4gc #c4ia #d4fd #i4di #j4if #d #d #i4ga #j4ad #i4ie #c4fj #ac4ee #h4ed #j4hj #e #e #f4jd #j4gb 44 #c4id #c4id #ac4gg #j4di #f #b #i4ii #j4ac 44 44 #h4hc #h4fj #b4jh #g #i #h4ab #j4dh #j4cd #d4fg #e4jb #ac4hc #j4ec #h #g #i4da #j4da #j4fe #b4bf #b4ia #g4df #j4id #i #b #h4fe #j4he #e4ij #c4gg #i4fg #ab4ah #j4hh ------ #da ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,group ,,ii4--,,mixed ,,foods4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- #aj #b #f4hd #a4ag 44 44 #be4if #h4ge #j4gf #aa #e #d4bb #c4di #bg4hi #f4jj #cc4hi #g4ai #a4je #ab #b #e4ch #j4eg 44 44 #bi4ei #aj4dc #a4jf #ac #b #d4bf #a4fj #ce4bh #d4gc #dj4ja #aa4ch #b4hb #ad #i #b4ee #a4da 44 44 #fc4hg #ad4jj #c4eg #ae #ab #e4gg #j4dh #bh4bd #d4bg #cb4ij #aj4ja #b4eg #af #h #d4gb #j4cj 44 44 #hb4jf #aj4aj #c4ej #ag #d #b4hi #bb4bf 44 44 #fj4aj #ab4ai #c4he #ah #b #d4ib #h4aj 44 44 #df4cj #i4jj #b4jh #ai #i #b4ah #d4de #ci4ed #d4cj #dc4hd #aj4gb #a4fj #bj #b #e4hi #c4ag #db4ed #a4hb #dd4cf #c4fb #j4db #ba #c #j4hj #j4jd 44 44 #if4fj #a4ac #j4ij #bb #b #e4fi #b4ah 44 44 #ch4ba #af4fj #b4gh ------ #fb ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,mean ,,results ,,of ,,analysis4--,,group ,i4--,,farinaceous ,,foods4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,starch1 ,,sugar4 ,,starch1 ,,fiber1------------------------ ,,fiber1 ,,ash1 ,reducing4 ,,etc4 ,,etc4 ---------------- 7,,by 7,,by ,ex- ,,num-,,differ-,,differ- pressed ,per- ,cane ,,ber4 ,,ence74 ,,ence74 as cent4 ,sugar4,,remarks4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,per- ,per- ,per- cent4 cent4 cent4 #a #ha4bh 44 44 44 44 ,arrowroot starch4 #b #fg4ce #gb4jj ,invert4 #e 44 ,wheat starch4 #c #ge4ad #gf4bi ,a trace4 44 ,cereal starches4 #d #fg4df #fg4hh ,maltose4 #c #aj starch4 #e #gf4fj 44 44 44 44 ,wheat starch4 #f #fi4bd 44 44 44 #c ,maize and wheat starches4 #g 44 #gb4ja 44 44 44 ,wheat starch4 #h #gh4ff #gi4da 44 44 44 ,barley starch4 #i #fh4fb 44 44 44 #e ,wheat starch4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,group ,,ii4--,,mixed ,,foods4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #aj #ef4hc 44 ,invert4 #c #bj ,wheat starch4 #aa 44 #di4ca ,lactose4 #a #cj #ab #ec4fb #ed4bh ,maltose4 #bj 44 #ac #dj4ea #db4aj 44 44 #ce #ad 44 #ae4fh ,maltose4 #di #h #ae #dg4gb #ej4ej ,lactose4 #cj ,trace4 #af 44 44 ,maltose4#ej to #fj 44 #ag #a4de #d4dd ,lactose4 #ej 44 #ah #ca4jb 44 #cj #ae ,cereal starches4 #ai #ce4cd #ch4hj #h4if #cf4cd,wheat starch4 #bj #db4gj 44 44 44 #dj ,maize starch and cocoa4 #ba 44 44 ,lactose4#hj to #ij 44 #bb #cd4ed 44 #cj #h to #i ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,appendix ,a4 ,,united ,,states ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,office ,,of ,,the ,,secretary--,circular ,no4 #ai4 ,,standards ,,of ,,purity ,,for ,,food ,,products4 ,,superseding ,,circulars ,,nos4 #ac ,,and #ag4 ,,supplemental ,,proclamation4 ,referring to ,circular ,no4 #ac of this ,office1 dated ,december #bj1 #aijd1 and to ,circular ,no4 #ag of this ,office1 dated ,march #h1 #aijf1 the following food standards are hereby established as superseding and supplemental to those proclaimed on the dates above named4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,june #bf1 #aijf4 ,,letter ,,of ,,submittal4 ,,the ,,honorable ,,the ,,secretary ,,of ,,agriculture3 ,sir3 ,the undersigned1 representing the ,association of ,official ,agricultural ,chemists of the ,united ,states and the ,interstate ,food ,commission1 and commissioned by you1 under authority given by the act of ,congress approved ,march #c1 #aijc1 to collaborate with you 8to establish standards of purity for food products and to determine what are regarded as adulterations therein10 respectfully report that they have carefully reviewed1 in the light of recent investigations and correspondence1 the standards earlier recommended by them and have prepared a set of amended schedules1 in which certain changes have been introduced for the purpose of securing increased accuracy of expression and a more perfect correspondence of the chemical limits to the normal materials designated1 and from which standards previously proclaimed for several manufactured articles have been omitted because of the unsatisfactory condition of trade nomenclature as applied thereto2 and also additional schedules of standards for ice creams1 vegetables and vegetable products1 tea1 and coffee4 ,they respectfully recommend that the standards herewith submitted be approved and proclaimed as the established standards1 superseding and supplementing those established on ,december #bj1 #aijd1 and ,march #h1 #aijf4 ,the principles that have guided us in the formulation of these standards are appended hereto4 ,the several schedules of additional standards recommended have been submitted1 in a tentative form1 to the manufacturing firms and the trade immediately interested1 and also to the ,state food-control officials for criticism4 ,respectfully1 ,,william ,,frear1 ,,edward ,h4 ,,jenkins1 ,m4 ,a4 ,,scovell1 ,h4 ,a4 ,,weber1 ,h4 ,w4 ,,wiley1 ,committee on ,food ,standards1 ,association of ,official ,agricultural ,chemists4 ,,richard ,,fischer1 ,representing the ,interstate ,food ,commission4 ,,washington1 ,d4,c41 ,june #bf1 #aijf4 ,,principles ,,on ,,which ,,the ,,standards ,,are ,,based4 ,the general considerations which have guided the committee in preparing the standards for food products are the following3 #a4 ,the standards are expressed in the form of definitions1 with or without accompanying specifications of limit in composition4 #b4 ,the main classes of food articles are defined before the subordinate classes are considered4 #c4 ,the definitions are so framed as to exclude from the articles defined substances not included in the definitions4 #d4 ,the definitions include1 where possible1 those qualities which make the articles described wholesome for human food4 #e4 ,a term defined in any of the several schedules has the same meaning wherever else it is used in this report4 #f4 ,the names of food products herein defined usually agree with existing ,american trade or manufacturing usage2 but where such usage is not clearly established or where trade names confuse two or more articles for which specific designations are desirable1 preference is given to one of the several trade names applied4 #g4 ,standards are based upon data representing materials produced under ,american conditions and manufactured by ,american processes or representing such varieties of foreign articles as are chiefly imported for ,american use4 #h4 ,the standards fixed are such that a departure of the articles to which they apply1 above the maximum or below the minimum limit prescribed1 is evidence that such articles are of inferior or abnormal quality4 #i4 ,the limits fixed as standard are not necessarily the extremes authentically recorded for the article in question1 because such extremes are commonly due to abnormal conditions of production and are usually accompanied by marks of inferiority or abnormality readily perceived by the producer or manufacturer4 ,,food ,,standards4 ,i4 ,,animal ,,products4 ,a4 ,,meats ,,and ,,the ,,principal ,,meat ,,products4 a4 ,,meats4 #a4 ,meat1 flesh1 is any clean1 sound1 dressed1 and properly prepared edible part of animals in good health at the time of slaughter1 and if it bears a name descriptive of its kind1 composition1 or origin1 it corresponds thereto4 ,the term 8animals10 as herein used1 includes not only mammals1 but fish1 fowl1 crustaceans1 mollusks1 and all other animals used as food4 #b4 ,fresh meat is meat from animals recently slaughtered and properly cooled until delivered to the consumer4 #c4 ,cold storage meat is meat from animals recently slaughtered and preserved by refrigeration until delivered to the consumer4#cg #cg ,the establishment of proper periods of time for cold storage is reserved for future consideration when the investigations on this subject1 authorized by ,congress1 are completed4 #d4 ,salted1 pickled1 and smoked meats are unmixed meats preserved by salt1 sugar1 vinegar1 spices1 or smoke1 singly or in combination1 whether in bulk or in suitable containers4#ch b4 ,,manufactured ,,meats4 #a4 ,manufactured meats are meats not included in paragraphs #b1 #c1 and #d1 whether simple or mixed1 whole or comminuted1 in bulk or in suitable containers1#ch with or without the addition of salt1 sugar1 vinegar1 spices1 smoke1 oils1 or rendered fat4 ,if they bear names descriptive of kind1 composition1 or origin1 they correspond thereto1 and when bearing such descriptive names1 if force or flavoring meats are used1 the kind and quantity thereof are made known4 #ch ,suitable containers for keeping moist food products such as sirups1 honey1 condensed milk1 soups1 meat extracts1 meats1 manufactured meats1 and undried fruits and vegetables1 and wrappers in contact with food products1 contain on their surfaces1 in contact with the food product1 no lead1 antimony1 arsenic1 zinc1 or copper1 or any compounds thereof or any other poisonous or injurious substance4 ,if the containers are made of tin plate they are outside-soldered and the plate in no place contains less than one hundred and thirteen 7#aac7 milligrams of tin on a piece five 7#e7 centimeters square or one and eight-tenths 7#a4h7 grains on a piece two 7#b7 inches square4 ,the inner coating of the containers is free from pin-holes1 blisters1 and cracks4 ,if the tin plate is lacquered1 the lacquer completely covers the tinned surface within the container and yields to the contents of the container no lead1 antimony1 arsenic1 zinc1 or copper or any compounds thereof1 or any other poisonous or injurious substance4 c4 ,,meat ,,extracts1 ,,meat ,,peptones1 ,,etc4 7,schedule in preparation47 d4 ,,lard4 #a4 ,lard is the rendered fresh fat from hogs in good health at the time of slaughter1 is clean1 free from rancidity1 and contains1 necessarily incorporated in the process of rendering1 not more than one 7#a7 percent of substances1 other than fatty acids and fat4 #b4 ,leaf lard is lard rendered at moderately high temperatures from the internal fat of the abdomen of the hog1 excluding that adherent to the intestines1 and has an iodin number not greater than sixty 7#fj74 #c4 ,neutral lard is lard rendered at low temperatures4 ,b4 ,,milk ,,and ,,its ,,products4 a4 ,,milks4 #a4 ,milk is the fresh1 clean1 lacteal secretion obtained by the complete milking of one or more healthy cows1 properly fed and kept1 excluding that obtained within fifteen days before and ten days after calving1 and contains not less than eight and one-half 7#h4e7 percent of solids not fat1 and not less than three and one-quarter 7#c4be7 percent of milk fat4 #b4 ,blended milk is milk modified in its composition so as to have a definite and stated percentage of one or more of its constituents4 #c4 ,skim milk is milk from which a part or all of the cream has been removed and contains not less than nine and one-quarter 7#i4be7 percent of milk solids4 #d4 ,pasteurized milk is milk that has been heated below boiling but sufficiently to kill most of the active organisms present and immediately cooled to #ej ,fahr4 or lower4 #e4 ,sterilized milk is milk that has been heated at the temperature of boiling water or higher for a length of time sufficient to kill all organisms present4 #f4 ,condensed milk1 evaporated milk1 is milk from which a considerable portion of water has been evaporated1 and contains not less than twenty-eight 7#bh7 percent of milk solids of which not less than twenty-seven and five-tenths 7#bg4e7 percent is milk fat4 #g4 ,sweetened condensed milk is milk from which a considerable portion of water has been evaporated and to which sugar 7sucrose7 has been added1 and contains not less than twenty-eight 7#bh7 percent of milk solids1 of which not less than twenty-seven and five-tenths 7#bg4e7 percent is milk fat4 #h4 ,condensed skim milk is skim milk from which a considerable portion of water has been evaporated4 #i4 ,buttermilk is the product that remains when butter is removed from milk or cream in the process of churning4 #aj4 ,goat's milk1 ewe's milk1 et cetera1 are the fresh1 clean1 lacteal secretions1 free from colostrum1 obtained by the complete milking of healthy animals other than cows1 properly fed and kept1 and conform in name to the species of animal from which they are obtained4 b4 ,,cream4 #a4 ,cream is that portion of milk1 rich in milk fat1 which rises to the surface of milk on standing1 or is separated from it by centrifugal force1 is fresh and clean and contains not less than eighteen 7#ah7 percent of milk fat4 #b4 ,evaporated cream1 clotted cream1 is cream from which a considerable portion of water has been evaporated4 c4 ,,milk ,,fat ,,or ,,butter ,,fat4 #a4 ,milk fat1 butter fat1 is the fat of milk1 and has a ,reichert-,meissl number not less than twenty-four 7#bd7 and a specific gravity not less than #j4ije 7#dj ,c47 7------74 7#dj ,c47 d4 ,,butter4 #a4 ,butter is the clean1 non-rancid product made by gathering in any manner the fat of fresh or ripened milk or cream into a mass1 which also contains a small portion of the other milk constituents1 with or without salt1 and contains not less than eighty-two and five-tenths 7#hb4e7 percent of milk fat4 ,by acts of ,congress approved ,august #b1 #ahhf1 and ,may #i1 #aijb1 butter may also contain added coloring matter4 #b4 ,renovated butter1 process butter1 is the product made by melting butter and reworking1 without the addition or use of chemicals or any substances except milk1 cream1 or salt1 and contains not more than sixteen 7#af7 percent of water and at least eighty-two and five-tenths 7#hb4e7 percent of milk fat4 e4 ,,cheese4 #a4 ,cheese is the sound1 solid1 and ripened product made from milk or cream by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or lactic acid1 with or without the addition of ripening ferments and seasoning1 and contains1 in the water-free substance1 not less than fifty 7#ej7 percent of milk fat4 ,by act of ,congress1 approved ,june #f1 #ahif1 cheese may also contain added coloring matter4 #b4 ,skim milk cheese is the sound1 solid1 and ripened product1 made from skim milk by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or lactic acid1 with or without the addition of ripening ferments and seasoning4 #c4 ,goat's milk cheese1 ewe's milk cheese1 et cetera1 are the sound1 ripened products made from the milks of the animals specified1 by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or lactic acid1 with or without the addition of ripening ferments and seasoning4 f4 ,,ice ,,creams4 #a4 ,ice cream is a frozen product made from cream and sugar1 with or without a natural flavoring1 and contains not less than fourteen 7#ad7 percent of milk fat4 #b4 ,fruit ice cream is a frozen product made from cream1 sugar1 and sound1 clean1 mature fruits1 and contains not less than twelve 7#ab7 percent of milk fat4 #c4 ,nut ice cream is a frozen product made from cream1 sugar1 and sound1 non-rancid nuts1 and contains not less than twelve 7#ab7 percent of milk fat4 g4 ,,miscellaneous ,,milk ,,products4 #a4 ,whey is the product remaining after the removal of fat and casein from milk in the process of cheese-making4 #b4 ,kumiss is the product made by the alcoholic fermentation of mare's or cow's milk4 ,,ii4 ,,vegetable ,,products4 ,a4 ,,grain ,,products4 a4 ,,grains ,,and ,,meals4 #a4 ,grain is the fully matured1 clean1 sound1 air-dry seed of wheat1 maize1 rice1 oats1 rye1 buckwheat1 barley1 sorghum1 millet1 or spelt4 #b4 ,meal is the clean1 sound product made by grinding grain4 #c4 ,flour is the fine1 clean1 sound product made by bolting wheat meal and contains not more than thirteen and one-half 7#ac4e7 percent of moisture1 not less than one and twenty-five hundredths 7#a4be7 percent of nitrogen1 not more than one 7#a7 percent of ash1 and not more than fifty hundredths 7#j4ej7 percent of fiber4 #d4 ,graham flour is unbolted wheat meal4 #e4 ,gluten flour is the clean1 sound product made from flour by the removal of starch and contains not less than five and six-tenths 7#e4f7 percent of nitrogen and not more than ten 7#aj7 percent of moisture4 #f4 ,maize meal1 corn meal1 ,indian corn meal1 is meal made from sound maize grain and contains not more than fourteen 7#ad7 percent of moisture1 not less than one and twelve-hundredths 7#a4ab7 percent of nitrogen1 and not more than one and six-tenths 7#a4f7 percent of ash4 #g4 ,rice is the hulled1 or hulled and polished grain of ,oryza sativa4 #h4 ,oatmeal is meal made from hulled oats and contains not more than twelve 7#ab7 percent of moisture1 not more than one and five-tenths 7#a4e7 percent of crude fiber1 not less than two and twenty-four hundredths 7#b4bd7 percent of nitrogen1 and not more than two and two-tenths 7#b4b7 percent of ash4 #i4 ,rye flour is the fine1 clean1 sound product made by bolting rye meal and contains not more than thirteen and one-half 7#ac4e7 percent of moisture1 not less than one and thirty-six hundredths 7#a4cf7 percent of nitrogen1 and not more than one and twenty-five hundredths 7#a4be7 percent of ash4 #aj4 ,buckwheat flour is bolted buckwheat meal and contains not more than twelve 7#ab7 percent of moisture1 not less than one and twenty-eight hundredths 7#a4bh7 percent of nitrogen1 and not more than one and seventy-five hundredths 7#a4ge7 percent of ash4 ,b4 ,,fruit ,,and ,,vegetables4 a4 ,,fruit ,,and ,,fruit ,,products4 7,except fruit juices1 fresh1 sweet1 and fermented1 and vinegars47 #a4 ,fruits are the clean1 sound1 edible1 fleshy fructifications of plants1 distinguished by their sweet1 acid1 and ethereal flavors4 #b4 ,dried fruit#ci is the clean1 sound product made by drying mature1 properly prepared1 fresh fruit in such a way as to take up no harmful substance1 and conforms in name to the fruit used in its preparation2 sun-dried fruit is dried fruit made by drying without the use of artificial means2 evaporated fruit is dried fruit made by drying with the use of artificial means4 #ci ,the subject of sulfurous acid in dried fruits is reserved for consideration in connection with the schedule 8,preservatives and ,coloring ,matters40 #c4 ,evaporated apples are evaporated fruit made from peeled and cored apples1 and contain not more than twenty-seven 7#bg7 percent of moisture determined by the usual commercial method of drying for four 7#d7 hours at the temperature of boiling water4 7,standards for other dried fruits are in preparation47 #d4 ,canned fruit is the sound product made by sterilizing clean1 sound1 properly matured and prepared fresh fruit1 by heating1 with or without sugar 7sucrose7 and spices1 and keeping in suitable1 clean1 hermetically sealed containers and conforms in name to the fruit used in its preparation4 #e4 ,preserve#dj is the sound product made from clean1 sound1 properly matured and prepared fresh fruit and sugar 7sucrose7 sirup1 with or without spices or vinegar1 and conforms in name to that of the fruit used1 and in its preparation not less than forty-five 7#de7 pounds of fruit are used to each fifty-five 7#ee7 pounds of sugar4 #f4 ,honey preserve#dj is preserve in which honey is used in place of sugar 7sucrose7 sirup4 #g4 ,glucose preserve#dj is preserve in which a glucose product is used in place of sugar 7sucrose7 sirup4 #h4 ,jam1 marmalade1#dj is the sound product made from clean1 sound1 properly matured and prepared fresh fruit and sugar 7sucrose71 with or without spices or vinegar1 by boiling to a pulpy or semisolid consistence1 and conforms in name to the fruit used1 and in its preparation not less than forty-five 7#de7 pounds of fruit are used to each fifty-five 7#ee7 pounds of sugar4 #i4 ,glucose jam1 glucose marmalade1#dj is jam in which a glucose product is used in place of sugar 7sucrose74 #aj4 ,fruit butter#dj is the sound product made from fruit juice and clean1 sound1 properly matured and prepared fruit1 evaporated to a semisolid mass of homogeneous consistence1 with or without the addition of sugar and spices or vinegar1 and conforms in name to the fruit used in its preparation4 #aa4 ,glucose fruit butter#dj is fruit butter in which a glucose product is used in place of sugar 7sucrose74 #ab4 ,jelly#dj is the sound1 semisolid1 gelatinous product made by boiling clean1 sound1 properly matured and prepared fresh fruit with water1 concentrating the expressed and strained juice1 to which sugar 7sucrose7 is added1 and conforms in name to the fruit used in its preparation4 #ac4 ,glucose jelly#dj is jelly in which a glucose product is used in place of sugar 7sucrose74 #dj ,products made with mixtures of sugar1 glucose1 and honey1 or any two thereof1 are reserved for future consideration4 b4 ,,vegetables ,,and ,,vegetable ,,products4 #a4 ,vegetables are the succulent1 clean1 sound1 edible parts of herbaceous plants used for culinary purposes4 #b4 ,dried vegetables are the clean1 sound products made by drying properly matured and prepared vegetables in such a way as to take up no harmful substance1 and conform in name to the vegetables used in their preparation2 sun-dried vegetables are dried vegetables made by drying without the use of artificial means2 evaporated vegetables are dried vegetables made by drying with the use of artificial means4 #c4 ,canned vegetables are sound1 properly matured and prepared fresh vegetables1 with or without salt1 sterilized by heat1 with or without previous cooking in vessels from which they take up no metallic substance1 kept in suitable1 clean1 hermetically sealed containers1 are sound and conform in name to the vegetables used in their preparation4 #d4 ,pickles are clean1 sound1 immature cucumbers1 properly prepared1 without taking up any metallic compound other than salt1 and preserved in any kind of vinegar1 with or without spices2 pickled onions1 pickled beets1 pickled beans1 and other pickled vegetables are vegetables prepared as described above1 and conform in name to the vegetables used4 #e4 ,salt pickles are clean1 sound1 immature cucumbers1 preserved in a solution of common salt1 with or without spices4 #f4 ,sweet pickles are pickled cucumbers or other vegetables in the preparation of which sugar 7sucrose7 is used4 #g4 ,sauerkraut is clean1 sound1 properly prepared cabbage1 mixed with salt1 and subjected to fermentation4 #h4 ,catchup 7ketchup1 catsup7 is the clean1 sound product made from the properly prepared pulp of clean1 sound1 fresh1 ripe tomatoes1 with spices and with or without sugar and vinegar2 mushroom catchup1 walnut catchup1 et cetera1 are catchups made as above described and conform in name to the substances used in their preparation4 ,c4 ,,sugars ,,and ,,related ,,substances4 a4 ,,sugar ,,and ,,sugar ,,products4 ,,sugars4 #a4 ,sugar is the product chemically known as sucrose 7saccharose7 chiefly obtained from sugar cane1 sugar beets1 sorghum1 maple1 and palm4 #b4 ,granulated1 loaf1 cut1 milled1 and powdered sugars are different forms of sugar and contain at least ninety-nine and five-tenths 7#ii4e7 percent of sucrose4 #c4 ,maple sugar is the solid product resulting from the evaporation of maple sap1 and contains1 in the water-free substance1 not less than sixty-five one-hundredths 7#j4fe7 percent of maple sugar ash4 #d4 ,massecuite1 melada1 mush sugar1 and concrete are products made by evaporating the purified juice of a sugar-producing plant1 or a solution of sugar1 to a solid or semisolid consistence1 and in which the sugar chiefly exists in a crystalline state4 ,,molasses ,,and ,,refiner',s ,,sirup4 #a4 ,molasses is the product left after separating the sugar from massecuite1 melada1 mush sugar1 or concrete1 and contains not more than twenty-five 7#be7 percent of water and not more than five 7#e7 percent of ash4 #b4 ,refiners' sirup1 treacle1 is the residual liquid product obtained in the process of refining raw sugars and contains not more than twenty-five 7#be7 percent of water and not more than eight 7#h7 percent of ash4 ,,sirups4 #a4 ,sirup is the sound product made by purifying and evaporating the juice of a sugar-producing plant without removing any of the sugar4 #b4 ,sugar-cane sirup is sirup made by the evaporation of the juice of the sugar cane or by the solution of sugar-cane concrete1 and contains not more than thirty 7#cj7 percent of water and not more than two and five-tenths 7#b4e7 percent of ash4 #c4 ,sorghum sirup is sirup made by the evaporation of sorghum juice or by the solution of sorghum concrete1 and contains not more than thirty 7#cj7 percent of water and not more than two and five-tenths 7#b4e7 percent of ash4 #d4 ,maple sirup is sirup made by the evaporation of maple sap or by the solution of maple concrete1 and contains not more than thirty-two 7#cb7 percent of water and not less than forty-five hundredths 7#j4de7 percent of maple sirup ash4 #e4 ,sugar sirup is the product made by dissolving sugar to the consistence of a sirup and contains not more than thirty-five 7#ce7 percent of water4 b4 ,,glucose ,,products4 #a4 ,starch sugar is the solid product made by hydrolyzing starch or a starch-containing substance until the greater part of the starch is converted into dextrose4 ,starch sugar appears in commerce in two forms1 anhydrous starch sugar and hydrous starch sugar4 ,the former1 crystallized without water of crystallization1 contains not less than ninety-five 7#ie7 percent of dextrose and not more than eight-tenths 7#j4h7 percent of ash4 ,the latter1 crystallized with water of crystallization1 is of two varieties--#gj sugar1 also known as brewers' sugar1 contains not less than seventy 7#gj7 percent of dextrose and not more than eight-tenths 7#j4h7 percent of ash2 #hj sugar1 climax or acme sugar1 contains not less than eighty 7#hj7 percent of dextrose and not more than one and one-half 7#a4e7 percent of ash4 ,the ash of all these products consists almost entirely of chlorids and sulfates4 #b4 ,glucose1 mixing glucose1 confectioner's glucose1 is a thick1 sirupy1 colorless product made by incompletely hydrolyzing starch1 or a starch-containing substance1 and decolorizing and evaporating the product4 ,it varies in density from forty-one 7#da7 to forty-five 7#de7 degrees ,baum at a temperature of #ajj ,fahr4 7#cg4g ,c471 and conforms in density1 within these limits1 to the degree ,baum it is claimed to show1 and for a density of forty-one 7#da7 degrees ,baum contains not more than twenty-one 7#ba7 percent and for a density of forty-five 7#de7 degrees not more than fourteen 7#ad7 percent of water4 ,it contains on a basis of forty-one 7#da7 degrees ,baum not more than one 7#a7 percent of ash1 consisting chiefly of chlorids and sulfates4 c4 ,,candy4 #a4 ,candy is a product made from a saccharine substance or substances with or without the addition of harmless coloring1 flavoring1 or filling materials and contains no terra alba1 barytes1 talc1 chrome yellow1 or other mineral substances1 or poisonous colors or flavors1 or other ingredients deleterious or detrimental to health1 or any vinous1 malt1 or spiritous liquor or compound1 or narcotic drug4 d4 ,,honey4 #a4 ,honey is the nectar and saccharine exudations of plants gathered1 modified1 and stored in the comb by honey bees 7,apis mellifica and ,a4 dorsata72 is lvo-rotatory1 contains not more than twenty-five 7#be7 percent of water1 not more than twenty-five hundredths 7#j4be7 percent of ash1 and not more than eight 7#h7 percent of sucrose4 #b4 ,comb honey is honey contained in the cells of the comb4 #c4 ,extracted honey is honey which has been separated from the uncrushed comb by centrifugal force or gravity4 #d4 ,strained honey is honey removed from the crushed comb by straining or other means4 ,d4 ,,condiments 7,,except ,,vinegar ,,and ,,salt74 a4 ,,spices4 #a4 ,spices are aromatic vegetable substances used for the seasoning of food and from which no portion of any volatile oil or other flavoring principle has been removed and which are clean1 sound1 and true to name4 #b4 ,allspice1 pimento1 is the dried fruit of the ,pimenta pimenta 7,l47 ,karst41 and contains not less than eight 7#h7 percent of quercitannic acid#db2 not more than six 7#f7 percent of total ash1 not more than five-tenths 7#j4e7 percent of ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid1 and not more than twenty-five 7#be7 percent of crude fiber4 #db ,calculated from the total oxygen absorbed by the aqueous extract4 #c4 ,anise is the fruit of the ,pimpinella anisum ,l4 #d4 ,bay leaf is the dried leaf of ,laurus nobilis ,l4 #e4 ,capers are the flower buds of ,capparis spinosa ,l4 #f4 ,caraway is the fruit of ,carum carvi ,l4 ,,cayenne ,,and ,,red ,,peppers4 #g4 ,red pepper is the red1 dried1 ripe fruit of any species of ,capsicum4 #h4 ,cayenne pepper1 cayenne1 is the dried ripe fruit of ,capsicum frutescens ,l41 ,capsicum baccatum ,l41 or some other small-fruited species of ,capsicum1 and contains not less than fifteen 7#ae7 percent of non-volatile ether extract2 not more than six and five-tenths 7#f4e7 percent of total ash2 not more than five-tenths 7#j4e7 percent of ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid2 not more than one and five-tenths 7#a4e7 percent of starch1 and not more than twenty-eight 7#bh7 percent of crude fiber4 #i4 ,paprika is the dried ripe fruit of ,capsicum annum ,l41 or some other large-fruited species of ,capsicum1 excluding seeds and stems4 #aj4 ,celery seed is the dried fruit of ,apium graveolens ,l4 #aa4 ,cinnamon is the dried bark of any species of the genus ,cinnamomum from which the outer layers may or may not have been removed4 #ab4 ,true cinnamon is the dried inner bark of ,cinnamomum zeylanicum ,breyne4 #ac4 ,cassia is the dried bark of various species of ,cinnamomum1 other than ,cinnamomum zeylanicum1 from which the outer layers may or may not have been removed4 #ad4 ,cassia buds are the dried immature fruit of species of ,cinnamomum4 #ae4 ,ground cinnamon1 ground cassia1 is a powder consisting of cinnamon1 cassia1 or cassia buds1 or a mixture of these spices and contains not more than six 7#f7 percent of total ash and not more than two 7#b7 percent of sand4 #af4 ,cloves are the dried flower buds of ,caryophyllus aromaticus ,l41 which contain not more than five 7#e7 percent of clove stems2 not less than ten 7#aj7 percent of volatile ether extract2 not less than twelve 7#ab7 percent of quercitannic acid2#dc not more than eight 7#h7 percent of total ash2 not more than five-tenths 7#j4e7 percent of ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid1 and not more than ten 7#aj7 percent of crude fiber4 #dc ,calculated from the total oxygen absorbed by the aqueous extract4 #ag4 ,coriander is the dried fruit of ,coriandrum sativum ,l4 #ah4 ,cumin seed is the fruit of ,cuminum cyminum ,l4 #ai4 ,dill seed is the fruit of ,anethum graveolens ,l4 #bj4 ,fennel is the fruit of ,fniculum fniculum 7,l47 ,karst4 #ba4 ,ginger is the washed and dried or decorticated and dried rhizome of ,zingiber zingiber 7,l47 ,karst41 and contains not less than forty-two 7#db7 percent of starch2 not more than eight 7#h7 percent of crude fiber1 not more than six 7#f7 percent of total ash1 not more than one 7#a7 percent of lime1 and not more than three 7#c7 percent of ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid4 #bb4 ,limed ginger1 bleached ginger1 is whole ginger coated with carbonate of lime and contains not more than ten 7#aj7 percent of ash1 not more than four 7#d7 percent of carbonate of lime1 and conforms in other respects to the standard for ginger4 #bc4 ,horse-radish is the root of ,rorippa armoracia 7,l47 ,hitchcock1 either by itself or ground and mixed with vinegar4 #bd4 ,mace is the dried arillus of ,myristica fragrans ,houttuyn1 and contains not less than twenty 7#bj7 nor more than thirty 7#cj7 percent of non-volatile ether extract1 not more than three 7#c7 percent of total ash1 and not more than five-tenths 7#j4e7 percent of ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid1 and not more than ten 7#aj7 percent of crude fiber4 #be4 ,macassar mace1 ,papua mace1 is the dried arillus of ,myristica argentea ,warb4 #bf4 ,bombay mace is the dried arillus of ,myristica malabarica ,lamarck4 #bg4 ,marjoram is the leaf1 flower and branch of ,majorana majorana 7,l47 ,karst4 #bh4 ,mustard seed is the seed of ,sinapis alba ,l4 7white mustard71 ,brassica nigra 7,l47 ,koch 7black mustard71 or ,brassica juncea 7,l47 ,cosson 7black or brown mustard74 #bi4 ,ground mustard is a powder made from mustard seed1 with or without the removal of the hulls and a portion of the fixed oils1 and contains not more than two and five-tenths 7#b4e7 percent of starch and not more than eight 7#h7 percent of total ash4 #cj4 ,prepared mustard1 ,german mustard1 ,french mustard1 mustard paste1 is a paste composed of a mixture of ground mustard seed or mustard flour with salt1 spices1 and vinegar1 and1 calculated free from water1 fat1 and salt1 contains not more than twenty-four 7#bd7 percent of carbohydrates1 calculated as starch1 determined according to the official methods1 not more than twelve 7#ab7 percent of crude fiber nor less than thirty-five 7#ce7 percent of protein1 derived solely from the materials named4 #ca4 ,nutmeg is the dried seed of the ,myristica fragrans ,houttuyn1 deprived of its testa1 with or without a thin coating of lime1 and contains not less than twenty-five 7#be7 percent of non-volatile ether extract1 not more than five 7#e7 percent of total ash1 not more than five-tenths 7#j4e7 percent of ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid1 and not more than ten 7#aj7 percent of crude fiber4 #cb4 ,macassar nutmeg1 ,papua nutmeg1 male nutmeg1 long nutmeg1 is the dried seed of ,myristica argentea ,warb4 deprived of its testa4 ,,pepper4 #cc4 ,black pepper is the dried immature berry of ,piper nigrum ,l4 and contains not less than six 7#f7 percent of non-volatile ether extract1 not less than twenty-five 7#be7 percent of starch1 not more than seven 7#g7 percent of total ash1 not more than two 7#b7 percent of ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid1 and not more than fifteen 7#ae7 percent of crude fiber4 ,one hundred parts of the non-volatile ether extract contain not less than three and one quarter 7#c4be7 parts of nitrogen4 ,ground black pepper is the product made by grinding the entire berry and contains the several parts of the berry in their normal proportions4 #cd4 ,long pepper is the dried fruit of ,piper longum ,l4 #ce4 ,white pepper is the dried mature berry of ,piper nigrum ,l4 from which the outer coating or the outer and inner coatings have been removed and contains not less than six 7#f7 percent of non-volatile ether extract1 not less than fifty 7#ej7 percent of starch1 not more than four 7#d7 percent of total ash1 not more than five-tenths 7#j4e7 percent of ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid1 and not more than five 7#e7 percent of crude fiber4 ,one hundred parts of the non-volatile ether extract contain not less than four 7#d7 parts of nitrogen4 #cf4 ,saffron is the dried stigma of ,crocus sativus ,l4 #cg4 ,sage is the leaf of ,salvia officinalis ,l4 #ch4 ,savory1 summer savory1 is the leaf1 blossom1 and branch of ,satureja hortensis ,l4 #ci4 ,thyme is the leaf and tip of blooming branches of ,thymus vulgaris ,l4 b4 ,,flavoring ,,extracts4 #a4 ,a flavoring extract#dd is a solution in ethyl alcohol of proper strength of the sapid and odorous principles derived from an aromatic plant1 or parts of the plant1 with or without its coloring matter1 and conforms in name to the plant used in its preparation4 #b4 ,almond extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of bitter almonds1 free from hydrocyanic acid1 and contains not less than one 7#a7 percent by volume of oil of bitter almonds4 #b4dd ,oil of bitter almonds1 commercial1 is the volatile oil obtained from the seed of the bitter almond 7,amygdalus communis ,l471 the apricot 7,prunus armeniaca ,l471 or the peach 7,amygdalus persica ,l474 #c4 ,anise extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of anise1 and contains not less than three 7#c7 percent by volume of oil of anise4 #c4dd ,oil of anise is the volatile oil obtained from the anise seed4 #d4 ,celery seed extract is the flavoring extract prepared from celery seed or the oil of celery seed1 or both1 and contains not less than three-tenths 7#j4c7 percent by volume of oil of celery seed4 #d4dd ,oil of celery seed is the volatile oil obtained from celery seed4 #e4 ,cassia extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of cassia and contains not less than two 7#b7 percent by volume of oil of cassia4 #e4dd ,oil of cassia is the lead-free volatile oil obtained from the leaves or bark of ,cinnamomum cassia ,bl41 and contains not less than seventy-five 7#ge7 percent by weight of cinnamic aldehyde4 #f4 ,cinnamon extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of cinnamon1 and contains not less than two 7#b7 percent by volume of oil of cinnamon4 #f4dd ,oil of cinnamon is the lead-free volatile oil obtained from the bark of the ,ceylon cinnamon 7,cinnamomum zeylanicum ,breyne71 and contains not less than sixty-five 7#fe7 percent by weight of cinnamic aldehyde and not more than ten 7#aj7 percent by weight of eugenol4 #g4 ,clove extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of cloves1 and contains not less than two 7#b7 percent by volume of oil of cloves4 #g4dd ,oil of cloves is the lead-free1 volatile oil obtained from cloves4 #dd ,the flavoring extracts herein described are intended solely for food purposes and are not to be confounded with similar preparations described in the ,pharmacopia for medicinal purposes4 #h4 ,ginger extract is the flavoring extract prepared from ginger and contains in each one hundred 7#ajj7 cubic centimeters1 the alcohol-soluble matters from not less than twenty 7#bj7 grams of ginger4 #i4 ,lemon extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of lemon1 or from lemon peel1 or both1 and contains not less than five 7#e7 percent by volume of oil of lemon4 #i;a4 ,oil of lemon is the volatile oil obtained1 by expression or alcoholic solution1 from the fresh peel of the lemon 7,citrus limonum ,l471 has an optical rotation 7#be ,c47 of not less than #fj in a #ajj-millimeter tube1 and contains not less than four 7#d7 percent by weight of citral4 #aj4 ,terpeneless extract of lemon is the flavoring extract prepared by shaking oil of lemon with dilute alcohol1 or by dissolving terpeneless oil of lemon in dilute alcohol1 and contains not less than two-tenths 7#j4b7 percent by weight of citral derived from oil of lemon4 #aj;a4 ,terpeneless oil of lemon is oil of lemon from which all or nearly all of the terpenes have been removed4 #aa4 ,nutmeg extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of nutmeg1 and contains not less than two 7#b7 percent by volume of oil of nutmeg4 #aa;a4 ,oil of nutmeg is the volatile oil obtained from nutmegs4 #ab4 ,orange extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of orange1 or from orange peel1 or both1 and contains not less than five 7#e7 percent by volume of oil of orange4 #ab;a4 ,oil of orange is the volatile oil obtained1 by expression or alcoholic solution1 from the fresh peel of the orange 7,citrus aurantium ,l47 and has an optical rotation 7#be ,c47 of not less than #ie in a #ajj-millimeter tube4 #ac4 ,terpeneless extract of orange is the flavoring extract prepared by shaking oil of orange with dilute alcohol1 or by dissolving terpeneless oil of orange in dilute alcohol1 and corresponds in flavoring strength to orange extract4 #ac;a4 ,terpeneless oil of orange is oil of orange from which all or nearly all of the terpenes have been removed4 #ad4 ,peppermint extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of peppermint1 or from peppermint1 or both1 and contains not less than three 7#c7 percent by volume of oil of peppermint4 #ad;a4 ,peppermint is the leaves and flowering tops of ,mentha piperita ,l4 #ad;b4 ,oil of peppermint is the volatile oil obtained from peppermint and contains not less than fifty 7#ej7 percent by weight of menthol4 #ae4 ,rose extract is the flavoring extract prepared from otto of roses1 with or without red rose petals1 and contains not less than four-tenths 7#j4d7 percent by volume of otto of roses4 #ae;a4 ,otto of roses is the volatile oil obtained from the petals of ,rosa damascena ,mill41 ,r4 centifolia ,l41 or ,r4 moschata ,herrm4 #af4 ,savory extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of savory1 or from savory1 or both1 and contains not less than thirty-five hundredths 7#j4ce7 percent by volume of oil of savory4 #af;a4 ,oil of savory is the volatile oil obtained from savory4 #ag4 ,spearmint extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of spearmint1 or from spearmint1 or both1 and contains not less than three 7#c7 percent by volume of oil of spearmint4 #ag;a4 ,spearmint is the leaves and flowering tops of ,mentha spicata ,l4 #ag;b4 ,oil of spearmint is the volatile oil obtained from spearmint4 #ah4 ,star anise extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of star anise1 and contains not less than three 7#c7 percent by volume of oil of star anise4 #ah;a4 ,oil of star anise is the volatile oil distilled from the fruit of the star anise 7,illicium verum ,hook74 #ai4 ,sweet basil extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of sweet basil1 or from sweet basil1 or both1 and contains not less than one-tenth 7#j4a7 percent by volume of oil of sweet basil4 #ai;a4 ,sweet basil1 basil1 is the leaves and tops of ,ocymum basilicum ,l4 #ai;b4 ,oil of sweet basil is the volatile oil obtained from basil4 #bj4 ,sweet marjoram extract1 marjoram extract1 is the flavoring extract prepared from the oil of marjoram1 or from marjoram1 or both1 and contains not less than one 7#a7 percent by volume of oil of marjoram4 #bj;a4 ,oil of marjoram is the volatile oil obtained from marjoram4 #ba4 ,thyme extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of thyme1 or from thyme1 or both1 and contains not less than two-tenths 7#j4b7 percent by volume of oil of thyme4 #ba;a4 ,oil of thyme is the volatile oil obtained from thyme4 #bb4 ,tonka extract is the flavoring extract prepared from tonka bean1 with or without sugar or glycerine1 and contains not less than one-tenth 7#j4a7 percent by weight of coumarin extracted from the tonka bean1 together with a corresponding proportion of the other soluble matters thereof4 #bb;a4 ,tonka bean is the seed of ,coumarouna odorata ,aublet 7,dipteryx odorata 7,aubl47 ,willd474 #bc4 ,vanilla extract is the flavoring extract prepared from vanilla bean1 with or without sugar or glycerine1 and contains in one hundred 7#ajj7 cubic centimeters the soluble matters from not less than ten 7#aj7 grams of the vanilla bean4 #bc;a4 ,vanilla bean is the dried1 cured fruit of ,vanilla planifolia ,andrews4 #bd4 ,wintergreen extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of wintergreen1 and contains not less than three 7#c7 percent by volume of oil of wintergreen4 #bd;a4 ,oil of wintergreen is the volatile oil distilled from the leaves of the ,gaultheria procumbens ,l4 c4 ,,edible ,,vegetable ,,oils ,,and ,,fats4 #a4 ,olive oil is the oil obtained from the sound1 mature fruit of the cultivated olive tree 7,olea europa ,l47 and subjected to the usual refining processes2 is free from rancidity2 has a refractive index 7#be ,c47 not less than one and forty-six hundred and sixty ten-thousandths 7#a4dffj7 and not exceeding one and forty-six hundred and eighty ten-thousandths 7#a4dfhj72 and an iodin number not less than seventy-nine 7#gi7 and not exceeding ninety 7#ij74 #b4 ,virgin olive oil is olive oil obtained from the first pressing of carefully selected1 hand-picked olives4 #c4 ,cottonseed oil is the oil obtained from the seeds of cotton plants 7,gossypium hirsutum ,l41 ,g4 barbadense ,l41 or ,g4 herbaceum ,l47 and subjected to the usual refining processes2 is free from rancidity3 has a refractive index 7#be ,c47 not less than one and forty-seven hundred ten-thousandths 7#a4dgjj7 and not exceeding one and forty-seven hundred and twenty-five ten-thousandths 7#a4dgbe72 and an iodin number not less than one hundred and four 7#ajd7 and not exceeding one hundred and ten 7#aaj74 #d4 8,winter-yellow0 cottonseed oil is expressed cottonseed oil from which a portion of the stearin has been separated by chilling and pressure1 and has an iodin number not less than one hundred and ten 7#aaj7 and not exceeding one hundred and sixteen 7#aaf74 #e4 ,peanut oil1 arachis oil1 earthnut oil1 is the oil obtained from the peanut 7,arachis hypoga ,l47 and subjected to the usual refining processes2 is free from rancidity2 has a refractive index 7#be ,c47 not less than one and forty-six hundred and ninety ten-thousandths 7#a4dfij7 and not exceeding one and forty-seven hundred and seven ten-thousandths 7#a4dgjg72 and an iodin number not less than eighty-seven 7#hg7 and not exceeding one hundred 7#ajj74 #f4 8,cold-drawn0 peanut oil#de is peanut oil obtained by pressure without heating4 #de ,the fixing of limits for chemical and physical properties is reserved for future consideration4 #g4 ,sesame oil1 gingili oil1 teel oil1 is the oil obtained from the seeds of the sesame plants 7,sesamum orientale ,l4 and ,s4 radiatum ,schum4 and ,thonn47 and subjected to the usual refining processes2 is free from rancidity2 has a refractive index 7#be ,c47 not less than one and forty-seven hundred and four ten-thousandths 7#a4dgjg7 and not exceeding one and forty-seven hundred and seventeen ten-thousandths 7#a4dgag72 and an iodin number not less than one hundred and three 7#ajc7 and not exceeding one hundred and twelve 7#aab74 #h4 8,cold-drawn0 sesame oil#de is sesame oil obtained by pressure without heating4 #i4 ,poppy-seed oil is the oil obtained from the seed of the poppy 7,papaver somniferum ,l47 subjected to the usual refining processes and free from rancidity4 #aj4 ,white poppy-seed oil1 8cold-drawn0 poppy-seed oil1#de is poppy-seed oil of the first pressing without heating4 #aa4 ,coconut oil#de is the oil obtained from the kernels of the coconut 7,cocos nucifera ,l47 and subjected to the usual refining processes and free from rancidity4 #ab4 ,cochin oil is coconut oil prepared in ,cochin 7,malabar74 #ac4 ,ceylon oil is coconut oil prepared in ,ceylon4 #ad4 ,copra oil is coconut oil prepared from copra1 the dried kernels of the coconut4 #ae4 ,rape-seed oil1 colza oil1#de is the oil obtained from the seeds of the rape plant 7,brassica napus ,l47 and subjected to the usual refining processes and free from rancidity4 #af4 8,cold-drawn0 rape-seed oil#de is rape-seed oil obtained by the first pressing without heating4 #ag4 ,sunflower oil#de is the oil obtained from the seeds of the sunflower 7,helianthus annuus ,l47 and subjected to the usual refining processes and free from rancidity4 #ah4 8,cold-drawn0 sunflower oil#de is sunflower oil obtained by the first pressing without heating4 #ai4 ,maize oil1 corn oil1#de is the oil obtained from the germ of the maize 7,zea mays ,l47 and subjected to the usual refining processes and free from rancidity4 #de ,the fixing of limits for chemical and physical properties is reserved for future consideration4 #bj4 ,cocoa butter1 cacao butter1 is the fat obtained from roasted1 sound cocoa beans1 and subjected to the usual refining processes2 is free from rancidity2 has a refractive index 7#dj ,c47 not less than one and forty-five hundred and sixty-six ten-thousandths 7#a4deff7 and not exceeding one and forty-five hundred and ninety-eight ten-thousandths 7#a4deih72 an iodin number not less than thirty-three 7#cc7 and not exceeding thirty-eight 7#ch72 and a melting-point not lower than #cj ,c4 nor higher than #ce ,c4 #ba4 ,cottonseed oil stearin is the solid product made by chilling cottonseed oil and separating the solid portion by filtration1 with or without pressure1 and having an iodin number not less than eighty-five 7#he7 and not more than one hundred 7#ajj74 ,e4 ,,tea1 ,,coffee1 ,,and ,,cocoa ,,products4 a4 ,,tea4 #a4 ,tea is the leaves and leaf buds of different species of ,thea1 prepared by the usual trade processes of fermenting1 drying1 and firing2 meets the provisions of the act of ,congress approved ,march #b1 #ahig1 and the regulations made in conformity therewith 7,treasury ,department ,circular #af1 ,february #f1 #aije72 conforms in variety and place of production to the name it bears2 and contains not less than four 7#d7 nor more than seven 7#g7 percent of ash4 b4 ,,coffee4 #a4 ,coffee is the seed of ,coffea arabica ,l4 or ,coffea liberica ,bull41 freed from all but a small portion of its spermoderm1 and conforms in variety and place of production to the name it bears4 #b4 ,roasted coffee is coffee which by the action of heat has become brown and developed its characteristic aroma1 and contains not less than ten 7#aj7 percent of fat and not less than three 7#c7 percent of ash4 c4 ,,cocoa ,,and ,,cocoa ,,products4 #a4 ,cocoa beans are the seeds of the cacao tree1 ,theobroma cacao ,l4 #b4 ,cocoa nibs1 cracked cocoa1 is the roasted1 broken cocoa bean freed from its shell or husk4 #c4 ,chocolate1 plain chocolate1 bitter chocolate1 chocolate liquor1 bitter chocolate coatings1 is the solid or plastic mass obtained by grinding cocoa nibs without the removal of fat or other constituents except the germ1 and contains not more than three 7#c7 percent of ash insoluble in water1 three and fifty hundredths 7#c4ej7 percent of crude fiber1 and nine 7#i7 percent of starch1 and not less than forty-five 7#de7 percent of cocoa fat4 #d4 ,sweet chocolate1 sweet chocolate coatings1 is chocolate mixed with sugar 7sucrose71 with or without the addition of cocoa butter1 spices1 or other flavoring materials1 and contains in the sugar- and fat-free residue no higher percentage of either ash1 fiber1 or starch than is found in the sugar- and fat-free residue of chocolate4 #e4 ,cocoa1 powdered cocoa1 is cocoa nibs1 with or without the germ1 deprived of a portion of its fat and finely pulverized1 and contains percentages of ash1 crude fiber1 and starch corresponding to those in chocolate after correction for fat removed4 #f4 ,sweet cocoa1 sweetened cocoa1 is cocoa mixed with sugar 7sucrose71 and contains not more than sixty 7#fj7 percent of sugar 7sucrose71 and in the sugar- and fat-free residue no higher percentage of either ash1 crude fiber1 or starch than is found in the sugar- and fat-free residue of chocolate4 ,f4 ,,beverages4 a4 ,,fruit ,,juices--,,fresh1 ,,sweet1 ,,and ,,fermented4 #a4 ,,fresh ,,and #b4 ,,sweet4 7,schedules in preparation47 #c4 ,,fermented ,,fruit ,,juices4 #a4 ,wine is the product made by the normal alcoholic fermentation of the juice of sound1 ripe grapes1 and the usual cellar treatment1#df and contains not less than seven 7#g7 nor more than sixteen 7#af7 percent of alcohol1 by volume1 and1 in one hundred 7#ajj7 cubic centimeters 7#bj ,c471 not more than one-tenth 7#j4a7 gram of sodium chlorid nor more than two-tenths 7#j4b7 gram of potassium sulfate2 and for red wine not more than fourteen hundredths 7#j4ad7 gram1 and for white wine not more than twelve hundredths 7#j4ab7 gram of volatile acids produced by fermentation and calculated as acetic acid4 ,red wine is wine containing the red coloring matter of the skins of grapes4 ,white wine is wine made from white grapes or the expressed fresh juice of other grapes4 #df ,the subject of sulfurous acid in wine is reserved for consideration in connection with the schedule1 8,preservatives and ,coloring ,matters40 #b4 ,dry wine is wine in which the fermentation of the sugars is practically complete and which contains1 in one hundred 7#ajj7 cubic centimeters 7#bj ,c471 less than one 7#a7 gram of sugars and for dry red wine not less than sixteen hundredths 7#j4af7 gram of grape ash and not less than one and six-tenths 7#a4f7 grams of sugar-free grape solids1 and for dry white wine not less than thirteen hundredths 7#j4ac7 gram of grape ash and not less than one and four-tenths 7#a4d7 grams of sugar-free grape solids4 #c4 ,fortified dry wine is dry wine to which brandy has been added1 but which conforms in all other particulars to the standard of dry wine4 #d4 ,sweet wine is wine in which the alcoholic fermentation has been arrested1 and which contains1 in one hundred 7#ajj7 cubic centimeters 7#bj ,c471 not less than one 7#a7 gram of sugars1 and for sweet red wine not less than sixteen hundredths 7#j4af7 gram of grape ash1 and for sweet white wine not less than thirteen hundredths 7#j4ac7 gram of grape ash4 #e4 ,fortified sweet wine is sweet wine to which wine spirits have been added4 ,by act of ,congress1 8sweet wine0 used for making fortified sweet wine and 8wine spirits0 used for such fortification are defined as follows 7sec4 #dc1 ,act of ,october #a1 #ahij1 #bf ,stat41 #efg1 as amended by section #fh1 ,act of ,august #bg1 #ahid1 #bh ,stat41 #eji1 and further amended by ,act of ,congress approved ,june #g1 #aijf73 8,that the wine spirits mentioned in section #db of this act is the product resulting from the distillation of fermented grape juice to which water may have been added prior to1 during1 or after fermentation1 for the sole purpose of facilitating the fermentation and economical distillation thereof1 and shall be held to include the products from grapes or their residues1 commonly known as grape brandy2 and the pure sweet wine1 which may be fortified free of tax1 as provided in said section1 is fermented grape juice only1 and shall contain no other substance whatever introduced before1 at the time of1 or after fermentation1 except as herein expressly provided2 and such sweet wine shall contain not less than four per centum of saccharine matter1 which saccharine strength may be determined by testing with ,balling's saccharometer or must scale1 such sweet wine1 after the evaporation of the spirits contained therein1 and restoring the sample tested to original volume by addition of water3 ,provided1 ,that the addition of pure boiled or condensed grape must or pure crystallized cane or beet sugar or pure anhydrous sugar to the pure grape juice aforesaid1 or the fermented product of such grape juice prior to the fortification provided by this ,act for the sole purpose of perfecting sweet wine according to commercial standard1 or the addition of water in such quantities only as may be necessary in the mechanical operation of grape conveyers1 crushers1 and pipes leading to fermenting tanks1 shall not be excluded by the definition of pure sweet wine aforesaid3 ,provided1 however1 ,that the cane or beet sugar1 or pure anhydrous sugar1 or water1 so used shall not in either case be in excess of ten 7#aj7 per centum of the weight of the wine to be fortified under this ,act3 ,and provided further1 ,that the addition of water herein authorized shall be under such regulations and limitations as the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 with the approval of the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 may from time to time prescribe2 but in no case shall such wines to which water has been added be eligible for fortification under the provisions of this ,act where the same1 after fermentation and before fortification1 have an alcoholic strength of less than five per centum of their volume40 #f4 ,sparkling wine is wine in which the after part of the fermentation is completed in the bottle1 the sediment being disgorged and its place supplied by wine or sugar liquor1 and which contains1 in one hundred 7#ajj7 cubic centimeters 7#bj ,c471 not less than twelve hundredths 7#j4ab7 gram of grape ash4 #g4 ,modified wine1 ameliorated wine1 corrected wine1 is the product made by the alcoholic fermentation1 with the usual cellar treatment1 of a mixture of the juice of sound1 ripe grapes with sugar 7sucrose71 or a sirup containing not less than sixty-five 7#fe7 percent of sugar 7sucrose71 and in quantity not more than enough to raise the alcoholic strength after fermentation1 to eleven 7#aa7 percent by volume4 #h4 ,raisin wine is the product made by the alcoholic fermentation of an infusion of dried or evaporated grapes1 or of a mixture of such infusion or of raisins with grape juice4 b4 ,,mead1 ,,root ,,beer1 ,,etc4 7,schedule in preparation47 c4 ,,malt ,,liquors4 7,schedule in preparation47 d4 ,,spirituous ,,liquors4 7,schedule in preparation47 e4 ,,carbonated ,,waters1 ,,etc4 7,schedule in preparation47 ,g4 ,,vinegar4 #a4 ,vinegar1 cider vinegar1 apple vinegar1 is the product made by the alcoholic and subsequent acetous fermentations of the juice of apples1 is lvo-rotatory1 and contains not less than four 7#d7 grams of acetic acid1 not less than one and six-tenths 7#a4f7 grams of apple solids1 of which not more than fifty 7#ej7 percent are reducing sugars1 and not less than twenty-five hundredths 7#j4be7 gram of apple ash in one hundred 7#ajj7 cubic centimeters 7#bj ,c472 and the water-soluble ash from one hundred 7#ajj7 cubic centimeters 7#bj ,c47 of the vinegar contains not less than ten 7#aj7 milligrams of phosphoric acid 7,p,o71 and requires not less than thirty 7#cj7 cubic centimeters of decinormal acid to neutralize its alkalinity4 #b4 ,wine vinegar1 grape vinegar1 is the product made by the alcoholic and subsequent acetous fermentations of the juice of grapes and contains1 in one hundred 7#ajj7 cubic centimeters 7#bj ,c471 not less than four 7#d7 grams of acetic acid1 not less than one 7#a4j7 gram of grape solids1 and not less than thirteen hundredths 7#j4ac7 gram of grape ash4 #c4 ,malt vinegar is the product made by the alcoholic and subsequent acetous fermentations1 without distillation1 of an infusion of barley malt or cereals whose starch has been converted by malt1 is dextro-rotatory1 and contains1 in one hundred 7#ajj7 cubic centimeters 7#bj ,c471 not less than four 7#d7 grams of acetic acid1 not less than two 7#b7 grams of solids1 and not less than two-tenths 7#j4b7 gram of ash2 and the water-soluble ash from one hundred 7#ajj7 cubic centimeters 7#bj ,c47 of the vinegar contains not less than nine 7#i7 milligrams of phosphoric acid 7,p,o71 and requires not less than four 7#d7 cubic centimeters of decinormal acid to neutralize its alkalinity4 #d4 ,sugar vinegar is the product made by the alcoholic and subsequent acetous fermentations of solutions of sugar1 sirup1 molasses1 or refiners' sirup1 and contains1 in one hundred 7#ajj7 cubic centimeters 7#bj ,c471 not less than four 7#d7 grams of acetic acid4 #e4 ,glucose vinegar is the product made by the alcoholic and subsequent acetous fermentations of solutions of starch sugar or glucose1 is dextro-rotatory1 and contains1 in one hundred 7#ajj7 cubic centimeters 7#bj ,c471 not less than four 7#d7 grams of acetic acid4 #f4 ,spirit vinegar1 distilled vinegar1 grain vinegar1 is the product made by the acetous fermentation of dilute distilled alcohol1 and contains1 in one hundred 7#ajj7 cubic centimeters 7#bj ,c471 not less than four 7#d7 grams of acetic acid4 ,,iii4 ,,salt4 #a4 ,table salt1 dairy salt1 is fine-grained crystalline salt containing on a water-free basis1 not more than one and four-tenths 7#a4d7 percent of calcium sulfate 7,ca,s,o71 nor more than five-tenths 7#j4e7 percent of calcium and magnesium chlorids 7,ca,cl and ,mg,cl71 nor more than one-tenth 7#j4a7 percent of matters insoluble in water4 ,,iv4 ,,preservatives ,,and ,,coloring ,,matters4 7,schedules in preparation47 ,,law ,,relating ,,to ,,filled ,,cheese4 ,be it enacted by the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives of the ,united ,states of ,america in ,congress assembled1 ,that for the purposes of this ,act1 the word 8cheese0 shall be understood to mean the food product known as cheese1 and which is made from milk or cream and without the addition of butter1 or any animal1 vegetable1 or other oils or fats foreign to such milk or cream1 with or without additional coloring matter4 ,,sec4 #b4 ,that for the purpose of this ,act certain substances and compounds shall be known and designed as 8filled cheese10 namely3 ,all substances made of milk or skimmed milk1 with the admixture of butter1 animal oils or fats1 vegetable or any other oils1 or compounds foreign to such milk1 and made in imitation or semblance of cheese4 ,,sec4 #c4 ,that special taxes are imposed as follows3 ,manufacturers of filled cheese shall pay four hundred dollars for each and every factory per annum4 ,every person1 firm1 or corporation who manufactures filled cheese for sale shall be deemed a manufacturer of filled cheese4 ,wholesale dealers in filled cheese shall pay two hundred and fifty dollars per annum4 ,every person1 firm1 or corporation who sells or offers for sale filled cheese in the original manufacturer's package for resale1 or to retail dealers as hereinafter defined1 shall be deemed a wholesale dealer in filled cheese4 ,but any manufacturer of filled cheese who has given the required bond and paid the required special tax1 and who sells only filled cheese of his own production1 at the place of manufacture1 in the original packages1 to which the tax-paid stamps are affixed1 shall not be required to pay the special tax of a wholesale dealer in filled cheese on account of such sales4 ,retail dealers in filled cheese shall pay twelve dollars per annum4 ,every person who sells filled cheese at retail1 not for resale1 and for actual consumption1 shall be regarded as a retail dealer in filled cheese1 and sections thirty-two hundred and thirty-two1 thirty-two hundred and thirty-three1 thirty-two hundred and thirty-four1 thirty-two hundred and thirty-five1 thirty-two hundred and thirty-six1 thirty-two hundred and thirty-seven1 thirty-two hundred and thirty-eight1 thirty-two hundred and thirty-nine1 thirty-two hundred and forty1 thirty-two hundred and forty-one1 thirty-two hundred and forty-three of the ,revised ,statutes of the ,united ,states#dg are1 so far as applicable1 made to extend to and include and apply to the special taxes imposed by this section and to the persons1 firms1 or corporations upon whom they are imposed3 ,provided1 ,that all special taxes under this ,act shall become due on the first day of ,july in every year1 or on commencing any manufacture1 trade1 or business on which said tax is imposed4 ,in the latter case the tax shall be reckoned proportionately from the first day of the month in which the liability to the special tax commences to the first day of ,july following4 #dg ,these sections regulate the administration and collection of special taxes in general4 7,see ,revised ,statutes of the ,united ,states1 #b;d ed41 #ahgh1 p4 #fbj47 ,,sec4 #d4 ,that every person1 firm or corporation who carries on the business of a manufacturer of filled cheese without having paid the special tax therefor1 as required by law1 shall1 besides being liable to the payment of the tax1 be fined not less than four hundred dollars and not more than three thousand dollars2 and every person1 firm1 or corporation who carries on the business of a wholesale dealer in filled cheese without having paid the special tax therefor1 as required by law1 shall1 besides being liable to the payment of the tax1 be fined not less than two hundred and fifty dollars nor more than one thousand dollars2 and every person1 firm1 or corporation who carries on the business of a retail dealer in filled cheese without having paid the special tax therefor1 as required by law1 shall1 besides being liable for the payment of the tax1 be fined not less than forty nor more than five hundred dollars for each and every offense4 ,,sec4 #e4 ,that every manufacturer of filled cheese shall file with the collector of internal revenue of the district in which his manufactory is located such notices1 inventories1 and bonds1 shall keep such books and render such returns of materials and products1 shall put up such signs and affix such number to his factory and conduct his business under such surveillance of officers and agents as the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 with the approval of the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 may by regulation require4 ,but the bond required of such manufacturer shall be with sureties satisfactory to the collector of internal revenue1 and in a penal sum of not less than five thousand dollars2 and the amount of said bond may be increased from time to time1 and additional sureties required1 at the discretion of the collector or under instructions of the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue4 ,any manufacturer of filled cheese who fails to comply with the provisions of this section or with the regulations herein authorized1 shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction thereof shall be fined not less than five hundred nor more than one thousand dollars4 ,,sec4 #f4 ,that filled cheese shall be packed by the manufacturers in wooden packages only1 not before used for that purpose1 and marked1 stamped1 and branded with the words1 8filled cheese0 in black-faced letters not less than two inches in length1 in a circle in the center of the top and bottom of the cheese2 and in black-faced letters of not less than two inches in length in line from the top to the bottom of the cheese1 on the side in four places equidistant from each other2 and the package containing such cheese shall be marked in the same manner1 and in the same number of places1 and in the same description of letters as above provided for the marking of the cheese2 and all sales or consignments made by manufacturers of filled cheese to wholesale dealers in filled cheese or to exporters of filled cheese shall be in original stamped packages4 ,retail dealers in filled cheese shall sell only from original stamped packages1 and shall pack the filled cheese when sold in suitable wooden or paper packages1 which shall be marked and branded in accordance with rules and regulations to be prescribed by the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue with the approval of the ,secretary of the ,treasury4 ,every person who knowingly sells or offers to sell1 or delivers or offers to deliver1 filled cheese in any other form than in new wooden or paper packages1 marked and branded as hereinbefore provided and as above described1 or who packs in any package or packages filled cheese in any manner contrary to law1 or who falsely brands any package or affixes a stamp on any package denoting a less amount of tax than that required by law1 shall upon conviction thereof be fined for each and every offense not less than fifty dollars and not more than five hundred dollars or be imprisoned not less than thirty days nor more than one year4 ,,sec4 #g4 ,that all retail and wholesale dealers in filled cheese shall display in a conspicuous place in his or their sales room a sign bearing the words 8,filled cheese sold here0 in black-faced letters not less than six inches in length1 upon a white ground1 with the name and number of the revenue district in which his or their business is conducted2 and any wholesale or retail dealer in filled cheese who fails or neglects to comply with the provisions of this section shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor1 and shall on conviction thereof be fined for each and every offense not less than fifty dollars and not more than two hundred dollars4 ,,sec4 #h4 ,that every manufacturer of filled cheese shall securely affix1 by pasting on each package containing filled cheese manufactured by him1 a label on which shall be printed1 besides the number of the manufactory and the district and state in which it is situated1 these words3 8,notice4--,the manufacturer of the filled cheese herein contained has complied with all the requirements of the law4 ,every person is cautioned not to use either this package again or the stamp thereon again1 nor to remove the contents of this package without destroying said stamp1 under the penalty provided by law in such cases40 ,every manufacturer of filled cheese who neglects to affix such label to any package containing filled cheese made by him or sold or offered for sale by or for him1 and every person who removes any such label so affixed from any such package1 shall be fined fifty dollars for each package in respect to which such offense is committed4 ,,sec4 #i4 ,that upon all filled cheese which shall be manufactured there shall be assessed and collected a tax of one cent per pound1 to be paid by the manufacturer thereof2 and any fractional part of a pound in a package shall be taxed as a pound4 ,the tax levied by this section shall be represented by coupon stamps2 and the provisions of existing laws governing the engraving1 issue1 sale1 accountability1 effacement1 and destruction of stamps relating to tobacco and snuff1 as far as applicable1 are hereby made to apply to stamps provided for by this section4 ,,sec4 #aj4 ,that whenever any manufacturer of filled cheese sells or removes for sale or consumption any filled cheese upon which the tax is required to be paid by stamps1 without paying such tax1 it shall be the duty of the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 within a period of not more than two years after such sale or removal1 upon satisfactory proof1 to estimate the amount of tax which has been omitted to be paid and to make an assessment thereof and certify the same to the collector4 ,the tax so assessed shall be in addition to the penalties imposed by law for such sale or removal4 ,,sec4 #aa4 ,that all filled cheese as herein defined imported from foreign countries shall1 in addition to any import duty imposed on the same1 pay an internal-revenue tax of eight cents per pound1 such tax to be represented by coupon stamps2 and such imported filled cheese and the package containing the same shall be stamped1 marked1 and branded1 as in the case of filled cheese manufactured in the ,united ,states4 ,,sec4 #ab4 ,that any person who knowingly purchases or receives for sale any filled cheese which has not been branded or stamped according to law1 or which is contained in packages not branded or marked according to law1 shall be liable to a penalty of fifty dollars for each such offense4 ,,sec4 #ac4 ,that every person who knowingly purchases or receives for sale any filled cheese from any manufacturer or importer who has not paid the special tax herein provided for shall be liable1 for each offense1 to a penalty of one hundred dollars and to a forfeiture of all articles so purchased or received1 or of the full value thereof4 ,,sec4 #ad4 ,that whenever any stamped package containing filled cheese is emptied it shall be the duty of the person in whose hands the same is to destroy the stamps thereon2 and any person who willfully neglects or refuses so to do shall1 for each such offense1 be fined not exceeding fifty dollars or imprisoned not less than ten days nor more than six months4 ,,sec4 #ae4 ,that the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue is authorized to have applied scientific tests1 and to decide whether any substances used in the manufacture of filled cheese contain ingredients deleterious to health4 ,but in case of doubt or contest his decision in this class of cases may be appealed from to a board hereby constituted for the purpose1 and composed of the ,surgeon-,general of the ,army1 the ,surgeon-,general of the ,navy1 and the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 and the decision of this board shall be final in the premises4 ,,sec4 #af4 ,that all packages of filled cheese subject to tax under this ,act that shall be found without stamps or marks as herein provided1 and all filled cheese intended for human consumption which contains ingredients adjudged as hereinbefore provided to be deleterious to the public health1 shall be forfeited to the ,united ,states4 ,,sec4 #ag4 ,that all fines1 penalties1 and forfeitures imposed by this ,act may be recovered in any court of competent jurisdiction4 ,,sec4 #ah4 ,that the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 with the approval of the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 shall make all needful regulations for the carrying into effect the provisions of this ,act4 ,,sec4 #ai4 ,that this ,act shall go into effect on the ninetieth day after its passage1 and all wooden packages containing ten or more pounds of filled cheese found on the premises of any dealer on and after the ninetieth day succeeding the date of the passage of this ,act1 shall be deemed to be taxable under section nine of this ,act1 and shall be taxed1 and shall have affixed thereto the stamps1 marks1 and brands required by this ,act or by regulations made pursuant to this ,act2 and for the purpose of securing the affixing of the stamps1 marks1 and brands required by this ,act1 the filled cheese shall be regarded as having been manufactured and sold or removed from the manufactory for consumption or use on or after the day this ,act takes effect2 and such stock on hand at the time of the taking effect of this ,act may be stamped1 marked1 and branded under special regulations of the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 approved by the ,secretary of the ,treasury2 and the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue may authorize the holder of such packages to mark and brand the same and to affix thereto the proper tax-paid stamps4--,approved ,june #f1 #ahif4 ,,appendix ,b4 ,,united ,,states ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,office ,,of ,,the ,,secretary--,circular ,no4 #ba4 ,,letter ,,of ,,transmittal4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,october #af1 #aijf4 ,,the ,,secretaries ,,of ,,the ,,treasury1 ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,and ,,of ,,commerce ,,and ,,labor4 ,sirs3 ,the ,commission appointed to represent your several ,departments in the formulation of uniform rules and regulations for the enforcement of the food and drugs act1 approved ,june #cj1 #aijf1 has reached a unanimous agreement and respectfully submits the results of its deliberations and recommends their adoption4 ,very respectfully1 ,h4 ,w4 ,,wiley1 ,,james ,l4 ,,gerry1 ,s4 ,n4 ,d4 ,,north4 ,,rules ,,and ,,regulations ,,for ,,the ,,enforcement ,,of ,,the ,,food ,,and ,,drugs ,,act4 ,,general4 ,,regulation #a4 ,,short ,,title ,,of ,,the ,,act4 ,the act1 8,for preventing the manufacture1 sale1 or transportation of adulterated or misbranded or poisonous or deleterious foods1 drugs1 medicines1 and liquors1 and for regulating traffic therein1 and for other purposes10 approved ,june #cj1 #aijf1 shall be known and referred to as 8,the ,food and ,drugs ,act1 ,june #cj1 #aijf40 ,,regulation #b4 ,,original ,,unbroken ,,package4 7,section #b47 ,the term 8original unbroken package0 as used in this act is the original package1 carton1 case1 can1 box1 barrel1 bottle1 phial1 or other receptacle put up by the manufacturer1 to which the label is attached1 or which may be suitable for the attachment of a label1 making one complete package of the food or drug article4 ,the original package contemplated includes both the wholesale and the retail package4 ,,regulation #c4 ,,collection ,,of ,,samples4 7,section #d47 ,samples of unbroken packages shall be collected only by authorized agents of the ,department of ,agriculture2 or by the health1 food1 or drug officer of any ,state1 ,territory1 or the ,district of ,columbia1 when commissioned by the ,secretary of ,agriculture for this purpose4 ,samples may be purchased in the open market1 and if in bulk the marks1 brands1 or tags upon the package1 carton1 container1 wrapper1 or accompanying printed or written matter shall be noted4 ,the collector shall also note the names of the vendor and agent through whom the sale was actually made1 together with the date of purchase4 ,the collector shall purchase representative samples4 ,a sample shall be divided into three parts1 and each part shall be labeled with the identifying marks4 ,all samples shall be sealed by the collector with a seal provided for the purpose4 ,if the package be less than #d pounds1 or in volume less than #b quarts1 three packages of approximately the same size shall be purchased and the marks and tags upon each noted as above4 ,one sample shall be delivered to the party from whom purchased or to the party guaranteeing such merchandise4 ,one sample shall be sent to the ,bureau of ,chemistry1 or to such chemist or examiner as may be designated by the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 and the third sample shall be held under seal by the ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,regulation #d4 ,,methods ,,of ,,analysis4 7,section #d47 ,unless otherwise directed by the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 the methods of analysis employed shall be those prescribed by the ,association of ,official ,agricultural ,chemists and the ,united ,states ,pharmacopia4 ,,regulation #e4 ,,hearings4 7,section #d47 7a7 ,when the examination or analysis shows that the provisions of the food and drugs act1 ,june #cj1 #aijf1 have been violated1 notice of that fact1 together with a copy of the findings1 shall be furnished to the party or parties from whom the sample was obtained or who executed the guaranty as provided in the food and drugs act1 ,june #cj1 #aijf1 and a date shall be fixed at which such party or parties may be heard before the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 or such other official connected with the food and drug inspection service as may be commissioned by him for that purpose4 ,the hearings shall be had at a place1 to be designated by the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 most convenient for all parties concerned4 ,these hearings shall be private and confined to questions of fact4 ,the parties interested therein may appear in person or by attorney and may propound proper interrogatories and submit oral or written evidence to show any fault or error in the findings of the analyst or examiner4 ,the ,secretary of ,agriculture may order a re-examination of the sample or have new samples drawn for further examination4 7b7 ,if the examination or analysis be found correct the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall give notice to the ,united ,states ,district ,attorney as prescribed4 7c7 ,any health1 food1 or drug officer or agent of any ,state1 ,territory1 or the ,district of ,columbia who shall obtain satisfactory evidence of any violation of the food and drugs act1 ,june #cj1 #aijf1 as provided in section #e thereof1 shall first submit the same to the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 in order that the latter may cause notice to be given to the guarantor or to the party from whom the sample was obtained4 ,,regulation #f4 ,,publication4 7,section #d47 7a7 ,when a judgment of the court shall have been rendered there may be a publication of the findings of the examiner or analyst1 together with the findings of the court4 7b7 ,this publication may be made in the form of circulars1 notices1 or bulletins1 as the ,secretary of ,agriculture may direct1 not less than thirty days after judgment4 7c7 ,if an appeal be taken from the judgment of the court before such publication1 notice of the appeal shall accompany the publication4 ,,regulation #g4 ,,standards ,,for ,,drugs4 7,section #g47 7a7 ,a drug bearing a name recognized in the ,united ,states ,pharmacopia or ,national ,formulary1 without any further statement respecting its character1 shall be required to conform in strength1 quality1 and purity to the standards prescribed or indicated for a drug of the same name recognized in the ,united ,states ,pharmacopia or ,national ,formulary1 official at the time4 7b7 ,a drug bearing a name recognized in the ,united ,states ,pharmacopia or ,national ,formulary1 and branded to show a different standard of strength1 quality1 or purity1 shall not be regarded as adulterated if it conforms to its declared standard4 ,,regulation #h4 ,,formulas--,,proprietary ,,foods4 7,section #h1 last paragraph47 7a7 ,manufacturers of proprietary foods are only required to state upon the label the names and percentages of the materials used1 in so far as the ,secretary of ,agriculture may find this to be necessary to secure freedom from adulteration and misbranding4 7b7 ,the factories in which proprietary foods are made shall be open at all reasonable times to the inspection provided for in ,regulation #af4 ,,regulation #i4 ,,form ,,of ,,guaranty4 7,section #i47 7a7 ,no dealer in food or drug products will be liable to prosecution if he can establish that the goods were sold under a guaranty by the wholesaler1 manufacturer1 jobber1 dealer1 or other party residing in the ,united ,states from whom purchased4 7b7 ,a general guaranty be filed with the ,secretary of ,agriculture by the manufacturer or dealer and be given a serial number1 which number shall appear on each and every package of goods sold under such guaranty with the words1 8,guaranteed under the food and drugs act1 ,june #cj1 #aijf40 7c7 ,the following form of guaranty is suggested3 ,i 7we7 the undersigned do hereby guarantee that the articles of foods or drugs manufactured1 packed1 distributed1 or sold by me 7us7 specifying the same as fully as possible are not adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of the food and drugs act1 ,june #cj1 #aijf4 7,signed in ink47 ---- ----4 ,name and place of business of wholesaler1 dealer1 manufacturer1 jobber1 or other parties4 7d7 ,if the guaranty be not filed with the ,secretary of ,agriculture as above1 it should identify and be attached to the bill of sale1 invoice1 bill of lading1 or other schedule giving the names and quantities of the articles sold4 ,,adulteration4 ,,regulation #aj4 ,,confectionery4 7,section #g47 7a7 ,mineral substances of all kinds 7except as provided in ,regulation #ae7 are specifically forbidden in confectionery whether they be poisonous or not4 7b7 ,only harmless colors or flavors shall be added to confectionery4 7c7 ,the term 8narcotic drugs0 includes all the drugs mentioned in section #h1 food and drugs act1 ,june #cj1 #aijf1 relating to foods1 their derivatives and preparations1 and all other drugs of a narcotic nature4 ,,regulation #aa4 ,,substances ,,mixed ,,and ,,packed ,,with ,,foods4 7,section #g1 under 8,foods407 ,no substance may be mixed or packed with a food product which will reduce or lower its quality or strength4 ,not excluded under this provision are substances properly used in the preparation of food products for clarification or refining1 and eliminated in the further process of manufacture4 ,,regulation #ab4 ,,coloring1 ,,powdering1 ,,coating1 ,,and ,,staining4 7,section #g1 under 8,foods407 7a7 ,only harmless colors may be used in food products4 7b7 ,the reduction of a substance to a powder to conceal inferiority in character is prohibited4 7c7 ,the term 8powdered0 means the application of any powdered substance to the exterior portion of articles of food1 or the reduction of a substance to a powder4 7d7 ,the term 8coated0 means the application of any substance to the exterior portion of a food product4 7e7 ,the term 8stain0 includes any change produced by the addition of any substance to the exterior portion of foods which in any way alters their natural tint4 ,,regulation #ac4 ,,natural ,,poisonous ,,or ,,deleterious ,,ingredients4 7,section #g1 paragraph #e1 under 8,foods407 ,any food product which contains naturally a poisonous or deleterious ingredient does not come within the provisions of the food and drugs act1 ,june #cj1 #aijf1 except when the presence of such ingredient is due to filth1 putrescence1 or decomposition4 ,,regulation #ad4 ,,external ,,application ,,of ,,preservatives4 7,section #g1 paragraph #e1 under 8,foods10 proviso47 7a7 ,poisonous or deleterious preservatives shall only be applied externally1 and they and the food products shall be of a character which shall not permit the permeation of any of the preservative to the interior1 or any portion of the interior1 of the product4 7b7 ,when these products are ready for consumption1 if any portion of the added preservative shall have penetrated the food product1 then the proviso of section #g1 paragraph #e1 under 8,foods10 shall not obtain1 and such food products shall then be subject to the regulations for food products in general4 7c7 ,the preservative applied must be of such a character that1 until removed1 the food products are inedible4 ,,regulation #ae4 ,,wholesomeness ,,of ,,colors ,,and ,,preservatives4 7,section #g1 paragraph #e1 under 8,foods407 7a7 ,respecting the wholesomeness of colors1 preservatives1 and other substances which are added to foods1 the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall determine from chemical or other examination1 under the authority of the agricultural appropriation act1 ,public #chb1 approved ,june #cj1 #aijf1 the names of those substances which are permitted or inhibited in food products2 and such findings1 when approved by the ,secretary of the ,treasury and the ,secretary of ,commerce and ,labor1 shall become a part of these regulations4 7b7 ,the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall determine from time to time1 in accordance with the authority conferred by the agricultural appropriation act1 ,public #chb1 approved ,june #cj1 #aijf1 the principles which shall guide the use of colors1 preservatives1 and other substances added to foods2 and when concurred in by the ,secretary of the ,treasury and the ,secretary of ,commerce and ,labor1 the principles so established shall become a part of these regulations4 ,,regulation #af4 ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,raw ,,materials4 7,section #g1 paragraph #a1 under 8,drugs02 paragraph #f1 under 8,foods407 7a7 ,the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 when he deems it necessary1 shall examine the raw materials used in the manufacture of food and drug products1 and determine whether any filthy1 decomposed1 or putrid substance is used in their preparation4 7b7 ,the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall make such inspection as often as he may deem necessary4 ,,misbranding4 ,,regulation #ag4 ,,label4 7,section #h47 7a7 ,the term 8label0 applies to any printed1 pictorial1 or other matter upon or attached to any package of a food or drug product1 or any container thereof4 7b7 ,the principal label shall consist1 first1 of all words which the food and drugs act1 ,june #cj1 #aijf1 specifically requires1 to wit1 the name of the substance or product2 the name of place of manufacture in the case of food compounds or mixtures2 words which show that the articles are compounds1 mixtures1 or blends2 the words 8compound10 8mixture10 or 8blend02 or words designating the substances or their derivatives and proportions required to be named in the case of drugs and foods4 ,all these required words shall appear upon the principal label with no intervening descriptive or explanatory reading matter4 ,second1 if the name of the manufacturer and place of manufacture are given1 they shall also appear upon the principal label4 ,third1 elsewhere upon the principal label other matter may appear in the discretion of the manufacturer4 7c7 ,the principal label on foods or drugs for domestic commerce shall be printed in ,english 7except as provided in ,regulation #ai71 with or without the foreign label in the language of the country where the food or drug product is produced or manufactured4 ,the size of type shall not be smaller than #h-point 7brevier7 caps3 ,provided1 ,that in case the size of the package will not permit the use of #h-point cap type the size of the type may be reduced proportionately4 7d7 ,the form1 character1 and appearance of the labels1 except as provided above1 are left to the judgment of the manufacturer4 7e7 ,descriptive matter upon the label shall be free from any statement1 design1 or device regarding the article or the ingredients or substances contained therein1 or quality thereof1 or place of origin1 which is false or misleading in any particular4 7f7 ,an article containing more than one food product or active medicinal agent is misbranded if named after a single constituent4 ,in the case of drugs the nomenclature employed by the ,united ,states ,pharmacopia and the ,national ,formulary shall obtain4 7g7 ,the term 8design0 or 8devise0 applies to pictorial matter of every description1 and to abbreviations1 characters1 or signs for weights1 measures1 or names of substances4 7h7 ,the use of any false or misleading statement1 design1 or devise shall not be justified by any statement given as the opinion of an expert or other person1 appearing on any part of the label1 nor by any descriptive matter explaining the use of the false or misleading statement1 design1 or devise4 7i7 ,the regulation regarding the principal label will not be enforced until ,october #a1 #aijg1 in the case of labels printed and now on hand1 whenever any statement therein contained which is contrary to the food and drugs act1 ,june #cj1 #aijf1 as to character of contents1 shall be corrected by a supplemental label1 stamp1 or paster4 ,all other labels now printed and on hand may be used without change until ,october #a1 #aijg4 ,,regulation #ah4 ,,name ,,and ,,address ,,of ,,manufacturer4 7,section #h47 7a7 ,the name of the manufacturer or producer1 or the place where manufactured1 except in case of mixtures and compounds having a distinctive name1 need not be given upon the label1 but if given1 must be the true name and the true place4 ,the words 8packed for ----10 8distributed by ----0 or some equivalent phrase1 shall be added to the label in case the name which appears upon the label is not that of the actual manufacturer or producer1 or the name of the place not the actual place of manufacture or production4 7b7 ,when a person1 firm1 or corporation actually manufactures or produces an article of food or drug in two or more places1 the actual place of manufacture or production of each particular package need not be stated upon the label except when in the opinion of the ,secretary of ,agriculture the mention of any such place1 to the exclusion of the others1 misleads the public4 ,,regulation #ai4 ,,character ,,of ,,name4 7,section #h47 7a7 ,a simple or unmixed food or drug product not bearing a distinctive name shall be designated by its common name in the ,english language1 or1 if a drug1 by any name recognized in the ,united ,states ,pharmacopia or ,national ,formulary4 ,no further description of its components or qualities is required1 except as to content of alcohol1 morphin1 etc4 7b7 ,the use of a geographical name shall not be permitted in connection with a food or drug product not manufactured or produced in that place1 when such name indicates that the article was manufactured or produced in that place4 7c7 ,the use of a geographical name in connection with a food or drug product will not be deemed a misbranding when by reason of long usage it has come to represent a generic term and is used to indicate a style1 type1 or brand2 but in all such cases the ,state or ,territory where any such article is manufactured or produced shall be stated upon the principal label4 7d7 ,a foreign name which is recognized as distinctive of a product of a foreign country shall not be used upon an article of domestic origin except as an indication of the type or style of quality or manufacture1 and then only when so qualified that it can not be offered for sale under the name of a foreign article4 ,,regulation #bj4 ,,distinctive ,,name4 7,section #h47 7a7 ,a 8distinctive name0 is a trade1 arbitrary1 or fancy name which clearly distinguishes a food product1 mixture or compound from any other food product1 mixture or compound4 7b7 ,a distinctive name shall not be one representing any single constituent of a mixture or compound4 7c7 ,a distinctive name shall not misrepresent any property or quality of a mixture or compound4 7d7 ,a distinctive name shall give no false indication of origin1 character or place of manufacture1 nor lead the purchaser to suppose that it is any other food or drug product4 ,,regulation #ba4 ,,compounds1 ,,imitations1 ,,or ,,blends ,,without ,,distinctive ,,name4 7,section #h47 7a7 ,the term 8blend0 applies to a mixture of like substances1 not excluding harmless coloring or flavoring ingredients used for the purpose of coloring and flavoring only4 7b7 ,if any age is stated1 it shall not be that of a single one of its constituents1 but shall be the average of all constituents in their respective proportions4 7c7 ,coloring and flavoring can not be used for increasing the weight or bulk of a blend4 7d7 ,in order that colors or flavors may not increase the volume or weight of a blend1 they are not to be used in quantities exceeding #a pound to #hjj pounds of the blend4 7e7 ,a color or flavor can not be employed to imitate any natural product or any other product of recognized name and quality4 7f7 ,the term 8imitation0 applies to any mixture or compound which is a counterfeit or fraudulent simulation of any article of food or drug4 ,,regulation #bb4 ,,articles ,,without ,a ,,label4 7,section #h1 paragraph #a1 under 8,drugs02 paragraph #a1 under 8,foods407 ,it is prohibited to sell or offer for sale a food or drug product bearing no label upon the package or no descriptive matter whatever connected with it1 either by design1 device1 or otherwise1 if said product be an imitation of or offered for sale under the name of another article4 ,,regulation #bc4 ,,proper ,,branding ,,not ,a ,,complete ,,guaranty4 ,packages which are correctly branded as to character of contents1 place of manufacture1 name of manufacturer1 or otherwise1 may be adulterated and hence not entitled to enter into interstate commerce4 ,,regulation #bd4 ,,incompleteness ,,of ,,branding4 ,a compound shall be deemed misbranded if the label be incomplete as to the names of the required ingredients4 ,a simple product does not require any further statement than the name or distinctive name thereof1 except as provided in ,regulations #ai 7a7 and #bh4 ,,regulation #be4 ,,substitution4 7,sections #g and #h47 7a7 ,when a substance of a recognized quality commonly used in the preparation of a food or drug product is replaced by another substance not injurious or deleterious to health1 the name of the substituted substance shall appear upon the label4 7b7 ,when any substance which does not reduce1 lower1 or injuriously affect its quality or strength1 is added to a food or drug product1 other than that necessary to its manufacture or refining1 the label shall bear a statement to that effect4 ,,regulation #bf4 ,,waste ,,materials4 7,section #h47 ,when an article is made up of refuse materials1 fragments1 or trimmings1 the use of the name of the substance from which they are derived1 unless accompanied by a statement to that effect1 shall be deemed a misbranding4 ,packages of such materials may be labeled 8pieces10 8stems10 8trimmings10 or with some similar appellation4 ,,regulation #bg4 ,,mixtures ,,or ,,compounds ,,with ,,distinctive ,,names4 7,section #h4 ,first proviso under 8,foods10 paragraph #a47 7a7 ,the terms 8mixtures0 and 8compounds0 are interchangeable and indicate the results of putting together two or more food products4 7b7 ,these mixtures or compounds shall not be imitations of other articles1 whether simple1 mixed1 or compound1 or offered for sale under the name of other articles4 ,they shall bear a distinctive name and the name of the place where the mixture or compound has been manufactured or produced4 7c7 ,if the name of the place be one which is found in different ,states1 ,territories1 or countries1 the name of the ,state1 ,territory1 or country1 as well as the name of the place1 must be stated4 ,,regulation #bh4 ,,substances ,,named ,,in ,,drugs ,,or ,,foods4 7,section #h4 ,second under 8,drugs02 second under 8,foods407 7a7 ,the term 8alcohol0 is defined to mean common or ethyl alcohol4 ,no other kind of alcohol is permissible in the manufacture of drugs except as specified in the ,united ,states ,pharmacopia or ,national ,formulary4 7b7 ,the words alcohol1 morphin1 opium1 etc41 and the quantities and proportions thereof1 shall be printed in letters corresponding in size with those prescribed in ,regulation #ag1 paragraph 7c74 7c7 ,a drug1 or food product except in respect of alcohol1 is misbranded in case it fails to bear a statement on the label of the quantity or proportion of any alcohol1 morphin1 opium1 heroin1 cocain1 alpha or beta eucain1 chloroform1 cannabis indica1 chloral hydrate1 or acetanilid1 or any derivative or preparation of any such substances contained therein4 7d7 ,a statement of the maximum quantity or proportion of any such substances present will meet the requirements1 provided the maximum stated does not vary materially from the average quantity or proportion4 7e7 ,in case the actual quantity or proportion is stated it shall be the average quantity or proportion with the variations noted in ,regulation #bi4 7f7 ,the following are the principal derivatives and preparations made from the articles which are required to be named upon the label3 ,,alcohol1 ,,ethyl 7,cologne spirits1 ,grain alcohol1 ,rectified spirits1 ,spirits1 and ,spirits of wine73 ,derivatives-- ,aldehyd1 ,ether1 ,ethyl acetate1 ,ethyl nitrite1 and ,paraldehyd4 ,preparations containing alcohol-- ,bitters1 ,brandies1 ,cordials1 ,elixirs1 ,essences1 ,fluidextracts1 ,spirits1 ,sirups1 ,tinctures1 ,tonics1 ,whiskies1 and ,wines4 ,,morphin1 ,,alkaloid3 ,derivatives-- ,apomorphin1 ,dionin1 ,peronin1 ,morphin acetate1 ,hydrochlorid1 ,sulfite1 and other salts of morphin4 ,preparations containing morphin or derivatives of morphin-- ,bougies1 ,catarrh ,snuff1 ,chlorodyn1 ,compound powder of morphin1 ,crayons1 ,elixirs1 ,granules1 ,pills1 ,solutions1 ,sirups1 ,suppositories1 ,tablets1 ,triturates1 and ,troches4 ,,opium ,,gum3 ,preparations of ,opium-- ,extracts1 ,denarcotized opium1 ,granulated opium1 and ,powdered opium1 ,bougies1 ,brown mixture1 ,carminative mixtures1 ,crayons1 ,dover's powder1 ,elixirs1 ,liniments1 ,ointments1 ,paregoric1 ,pills1 ,plasters1 ,sirups1 ,suppositories1 ,tablets1 ,tinctures1 ,troches1 ,vinegars1 and ,wines4 ,derivatives-- ,codein1 ,alkaloid1 ,hydrochlorid1 ,phosphate1 ,sulphate1 and other salts of codein4 ,preparations containing codein or its salts-- ,elixirs1 ,pills1 ,sirups1 and ,tablets4 ,,cocain1 ,,alkaloid3 ,derivatives-- ,cocain hydrochlorid1 ,oleate1 and other salts4 ,preparations containing cocain or salts of cocain-- ,coca leaves1 ,catarrh powders1 ,elixirs1 ,extracts1 ,infusion of coca1 ,ointments1 ,paste pencils1 ,pills1 ,solutions1 ,sirups1 ,tablets1 ,tinctures1 ,troches1 and ,wines4 ,,heroin3 ,preparations containing heroin-- ,sirups1 ,elixirs1 ,pills1 and ,tablets4 ,,alpha ,,and ,,beta ,,eucain3 ,preparations-- ,mixtures1 ,ointments1 ,powders1 and ,solutions4 ,,chloroform3 ,preparations containing chloroform-- ,chloranodyn1 ,elixirs1 ,emulsions1 ,liniments1 ,mixtures1 ,spirits1 and ,sirups4 ,,cannabis ,,indica3 ,preparations of cannabis indica-- ,corn remedies1 ,extracts1 ,mixtures1 ,pills1 ,powders1 ,tablets1 and ,tinctures4 ,,chloral ,,hydrate 7,chloral1 ,u4 ,s4 ,pharmacopia1 #ahij73 ,derivatives-- ,chloral acetophenonoxim1 ,chloral alcoholate1 ,chloralamid1 ,chloralimid1 ,chloral orthoform1 ,chloralose1 ,dormiol1 ,hypnal1 and ,uraline4 ,preparations containing chloral hydrate or its derivatives-- ,chloral camphorate1 ,elixirs1 ,liniments1 ,mixtures1 ,ointments1 ,suppositories1 ,sirups1 and ,tablets4 ,,acetanilid 7,antifebrin1 ,phenylacetamid73 ,derivatives-- ,acetphenetidin1 ,citrophen1 ,diacetanilid1 ,lactophenin1 ,methoxy-acetanilid1 ,methylacetanilid1 ,para-,iodoacetanilid1 and ,phenacetin4 ,preparations containing acetanilid or derivatives-- ,analgesics1 ,antineuralgics1 ,antirheumatics1 ,cachets1 ,capsules1 ,cold remedies1 ,elixirs1 ,granular effervescing salts1 ,headache powders1 ,mixtures1 ,pain remedies1 ,pills1 and ,tablets4 ,,regulation #bi4 ,,statement ,,of ,,weight ,,or ,,measure4 7,section #h4 ,third under 8,foods407 7a7 ,a statement of the weight or measure of the food contained in a package is not required4 ,if any such statement is printed1 it shall be a plain and correct statement of the average net weight or volume1 either on or immediately above or below the principal label1 and of the size of letters specified in ,regulation #ag4 7b7 ,a reasonable variation from the stated weight for individual packages is permissible1 provided this variation is as often above as below the weight or volume stated4 ,this variation shall be determined by the inspector from the changes in the humidity of the atmosphere1 from the exposure of the package to evaporation or to absorption of water1 and the reasonable variations which attend the filling and weighing or measuring of a package4 ,,regulation #cj4 ,,method ,,of ,,stating ,,quantity ,,or ,,proportion4 7,section #h47 ,in the case of alcohol the expression 8quantity0 or 8proportion0 shall mean the average percentage by volume in the finished product4 ,in the case of the other ingredients required to be named upon the label1 the expression 8quantity0 or 8proportion0 shall mean grains or minims per ounce or fluid ounce1 and also1 if desired1 the metric equivalents therefor1 or milligrams per gram or per cubic centimeter1 or grams or cubic centimeters per kilogram or per liter2 provided that these articles shall not be deemed misbranded if the maximum of quantity or proportion be stated1 as required in ,regulation #bh 7d74 ,,exports ,,and ,,imports ,,of ,,foods ,,and ,,drugs4 ,,regulation #ca4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,food ,,products ,,for ,,export4 7,section #b47 7a7 ,food products intended for export may contain added substances not permitted in foods intended for interstate commerce1 when the addition of such substances does not conflict with the laws of the countries to which the food products are to be exported and when such substances are added in accordance with the directions of the foreign purchaser or his agent4 7b7 ,the exporter is not required to furnish evidence that goods have been prepared or packed in compliance with the laws of the foreign country to which said goods are intended to be shipped1 but such shipment is made at his own risk4 7c7 ,food products for export under this regulation shall be kept separate and labeled to indicate that they are for export4 7d7 ,if the products are not exported they shall not be allowed to enter interstate commerce4 ,,regulation #cb4 ,,imported ,,food ,,and ,,drug ,,products4 7,section #aa47 7a7 ,meat and meat food products imported into the ,united ,states shall be accompanied by a certificate of official inspection of a character to satisfy the ,secretary of ,agriculture that they are not dangerous to health1 and each package of such articles shall bear a label which shall identify it as covered by the certificate1 which certificate shall accompany or be attached to the invoice on which entry is made4 7b7 ,the certificate shall set forth the official position of the inspector and the character of the inspection4 7c7 ,meat and meat food products as well as all other food and drug products of a kind forbidden entry into or forbidden to be sold1 or restricted in sale in the country in which made or from which exported1 will be refused admission4 7d7 ,meat and meat food products which have been inspected and passed through the customs may1 if identity is retained1 be transported in interstate commerce4 ,,regulation #cc4 ,,declaration4 7,section #aa47 7a7 ,all invoices of food or drug products shipped to the ,united ,states shall have attached to them a declaration of the shipper1 made before a ,united ,states consular officer1 as follows3 ,i1 the undersigned1 do solemnly and truly declare that ,i am the 444444 7,manufacturer1 4444444444444 of the merchandise herein mentioned and described1 and agent1 or shipper47 that it consists of food or drug products which contain no added substances injurious to health4 ,these products were grown in 44444444 and manufactured in 44444444 by 7,country47 7,country47 44444444444444 during the year 4444441 and are exported from 44444 and 7,name of manufacturer47 7,city47 consigned to 44444 ,the products bear no false labels or marks1 contain 7,city47 no_/some added coloring matter or preservative 4444444441 and are not 7,name of added color or preservative47 of a character to cause prohibition or restriction in the country where made or from which exported4 ,dated at 4444 this 4444 day of 44441 #ai44 4 7,signed73 4444 4444 4444 7b7 ,in the case of importations to be entered at ,new ,york1 ,boston1 ,philadelphia1 ,chicago1 ,san ,francisco1 and ,new ,orleans1 and other ports where food and drug inspection laboratories shall be established1 this declaration shall be attached to the invoice on which entry is made4 ,in other cases the declaration shall be attached to the copy of the invoice sent to the ,bureau of ,chemistry4 ,,regulation #cd4 ,,denaturing4 7,section #aa47 ,unless otherwise declared on the invoice or entry1 all substances ordinarily used as food products will be treated as such4 ,shipments of substances ordinarily used as food products intended for technical purposes must be accompanied by a declaration stating that fact1 and must be so denatured as to prevent their use as foods4 ,,regulation #ce4 ,,bond1 ,,imported ,,foods1 ,,and ,,drugs4 7,section #aa47 ,unexamined packages of food and drug products may be delivered to the consignee prior to the completion of the examination to determine whether the same are adulterated or misbranded upon the execution of a penal bond by the consignee in the sum of the invoice value of such goods with the duty added1 for the return of the goods to customs custody4 ,,regulation #cf4 ,,notification ,,of ,,violation ,,of ,,the ,,law4 7,section #aa47 ,if the sample on analysis or examination be found not to comply with the law1 the importer shall be notified of the nature of the violation1 the time and place at which final action will be taken upon the question of the exclusion of the shipment1 and that he may be present1 and submit evidence1 which evidence 7,form #ae71 with a sample of the article1 shall be forwarded to the ,bureau of ,chemistry at ,washington1 accompanied by report card 7,forms #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 and #bj74 ,,regulation #cg4 ,,appeal ,,to ,,the ,,secretary ,,of ,,agriculture ,,and ,,remuneration4 7,section #aa47 ,all applications for relief from decisions arising under the execution of the law should be addressed to the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 and all vouchers or accounts for remuneration for samples shall be filed with the chief of the inspection laboratory1 who shall forward the same1 with his recommendation1 to the ,department of ,agriculture for action4 ,,regulation #ch4 ,,shipment ,,beyond ,,the ,,jurisdiction ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 7,section #aa47 ,the time allowed the importer for representations regarding the shipment may be extended at his request to permit him to secure such evidence as he desires1 provided that this extension of time does not entail any expense to the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,if at the expiration of this time1 in view of the data secured in inspecting the sample and such evidence as may have been submitted by the manufacturers or importers1 it appears that the shipment can not be legally imported into the ,united ,states1 the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall request the ,secretary of the ,treasury to refuse to deliver the shipment in question to the consignee1 and to require its reshipment beyond the jurisdiction of the ,united ,states4 ,,regulation #ci4 ,,application ,,of ,,regulations4 ,these regulations shall not apply to domestic meat and meat food products which are prepared1 transported1 or sold in interstate or foreign commerce under the meat-inspection law and the regulations of the ,secretary of ,agriculture made thereunder4 ,,regulation #dj4 ,,alteration ,,and ,,amendment ,,of ,,regulations4 ,these regulations may be altered or amended at any time1 without previous notice1 with the concurrence of the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 and the ,secretary of ,commerce and ,labor4 ,the above rules and regulations are hereby adopted4 ,,leslie ,m4 ,,shaw1 ,secretary of the ,treasury4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,victor ,h4 ,,metcalf1 ,secretary of ,commerce and ,labor4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,october #ag1 #aijf4 ,,the ,,food ,,and ,,drugs ,,act1 ,,june #cj1 #aijf4 ,,an ,,act ,for preventing the manufacture1 sale1 or transportation of adulterated or misbranded or poisonous or deleterious foods1 drugs1 medicines1 and liquors1 and for regulating traffic therein1 and for other purposes4 ,be it enacted by the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives of the ,united ,states of ,america in ,congress assembled1 ,that it shall be unlawful for any person to manufacture within any ,territory or the ,district of ,columbia any article of food or drug which is adulterated or misbranded1 within the meaning of this ,act2 and any person who shall violate any of the provisions of this section shall be guilty of a misdemeanor1 and for each offense shall1 upon conviction thereof1 be fined not to exceed five hundred dollars or shall be sentenced to one year's imprisonment1 or both such fine and imprisonment1 in the discretion of the court1 and for each subsequent offense and conviction thereof shall be fined not less than one thousand dollars or sentenced to one year's imprisonment1 or both such fine and imprisonment1 in the discretion of the court4 ,,sec4 #b4 ,that the introduction into any ,state or ,territory or the ,district of ,columbia from any other ,state or ,territory or the ,district of ,columbia1 or from any foreign country1 or shipment to any foreign country of any article of food or drugs which is adulterated or misbranded1 within the meaning of this ,act1 is hereby prohibited2 and any person who shall ship or deliver for shipment from any ,state or ,territory or the ,district of ,columbia1 or to a foreign country1 or who shall receive in any ,state or ,territory or the ,district of ,columbia from any other ,state or ,territory or the ,district of ,columbia1 or foreign country1 and having so received1 shall deliver1 in original unbroken packages1 for pay or otherwise1 or offer to any other person1 any such article so adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this ,act1 or any person who shall sell or offer for sale in the ,district of ,columbia or the ,territories of the ,united ,states any such adulterated or misbranded foods or drugs1 or export or offer to export the same to any foreign country1 shall be guilty of a misdemeanor1 and for such offense be fined not exceeding two hundred dollars for the first offense1 and upon conviction for each subsequent offense not exceeding three hundred dollars or be imprisoned not exceeding one year1 or both1 in the discretion of the court3 ,provided1 ,that no article shall be deemed misbranded or adulterated within the provisions of this ,act when intended for export to any foreign country and prepared or packed according to the specifications or directions of the foreign purchaser when no substance is used in the preparation or packing thereof in conflict with the laws of the foreign country to which said article is intended to be shipped2 but if said article shall be in fact sold or offered for sale for domestic use or consumption1 then this proviso shall not exempt said article from the operation of any of the other provisions of this ,act4 ,,sec4 #c4 ,that the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 and the ,secretary of ,commerce and ,labor shall make uniform rules and regulations for carrying out the provisions of this ,act1 including the collection and examination of specimens of foods and drugs manufactured or offered for sale in the ,district of ,columbia1 or in any ,territory of the ,united ,states1 or which shall be offered for sale in unbroken packages in any ,state other than that in which they shall have been respectively manufactured or produced1 or which shall be received from any foreign country1 or intended for shipment to any foreign country1 or which may be submitted for examination by the chief health1 food1 or drug officer of any ,state1 ,territory1 or the ,district of ,columbia1 or at any domestic or foreign port through which such product is offered for interstate commerce1 or for export or import between the ,united ,states and any foreign port or country4 ,,sec4 #d4 ,that the examinations of specimens of foods and drugs shall be made in the ,bureau of ,chemistry of the ,department of ,agriculture1 or under the direction and supervision of such ,bureau1 for the purpose of determining from such examinations whether such articles are adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this ,act2 and if it shall appear from any such examination that any of such specimens is adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this ,act1 the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall cause notice thereof to be given to the party from whom such sample was obtained4 ,any party so notified shall be given an opportunity to be heard1 under such rules and regulations as may be prescribed as aforesaid1 and if it appears that any of the provisions of this ,act have been violated by such party1 then the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall at once certify the facts to the proper ,united ,states ,district ,attorney1 with a copy of the results of the analysis or the examination of such article duly authenticated by the analyst or officer making such examination1 under the oath of such officer4 ,after judgment of the court1 notice shall be given by publication in such manner as may be prescribed by the rules and regulations aforesaid4 ,,sec4 #e4 ,that it shall be the duty of each district attorney to whom the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall report any violation of this ,act1 or to whom any health or food or drug officer or agent of any ,state1 ,territory1 or the ,district of ,columbia shall present satisfactory evidence of any such violation1 to cause appropriate proceedings to be commenced and prosecuted in the proper courts of the ,united ,states1 without delay1 for the enforcement of the penalties as in such case herein provided4 ,,sec4 #f4 ,that the term 8drug10 as used in this ,art1 shall include all medicines and preparations recognized in the ,united ,states ,pharmacopia or ,national ,formulary for internal or external use1 and any substance or mixture of substances intended to be used for the cure1 mitigation1 or prevention of disease of either man or other animals4 ,the term 8food10 as used herein1 shall include all articles used for food1 drink1 confectionery1 or condiment by man or other animals1 whether simple1 mixed1 or compound4 ,,sec4 #g4 ,that for the purposes of this ,act an article shall be deemed to be adulterated3 ,in case of drugs3 ,first4 ,if1 when a drug is sold under or by a name recognized in the ,united ,states ,pharmacopia or ,national ,formulary1 it differs from the standard of strength1 quality1 or purity1 as determined by the test laid down in the ,united ,states ,pharmacopia or ,national ,formulary official at the time of investigation3 ,provided1 ,that no drug defined in the ,united ,states ,pharmacopia or ,national ,formulary shall be deemed to be adulterated under this provision if the standard of strength1 quality1 or purity be plainly stated upon the bottle1 box1 or other container thereof although the standard may differ from that determined by the test laid down in the ,united ,states ,pharmacopia and ,national ,formulary4 ,second4 ,if its strength or purity fall below the professed standard or quality under which it is sold4 ,in the case of confectionery3 ,if it contain terra alba1 barytes1 talc1 chrome yellow1 or other mineral substance or poisonous color or flavor1 or other ingredient deleterious or detrimental to health1 or any vinous1 malt1 or spirituous liquor or compound or narcotic drug4 ,in the case of food3 ,first4 ,if any substance has been mixed and packed with it so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality or strength4 ,second4 ,if any substance has been substituted wholly or in part for the article4 ,third4 ,if any valuable constituent of the article has been wholly or in part abstracted4 ,fourth4 ,if it be mixed1 colored1 powdered1 coated1 or stained in a manner whereby damage or inferiority is concealed4 ,fifth4 ,if it contain any added poisonous or other added deleterious ingredient which may render such article injurious to health3 ,provided1 ,that when in the preparation of food products for shipment they are preserved by any external application applied in such manner that the preservative is necessarily removed mechanically1 or by maceration in water1 or otherwise1 and directions for the removal of said preservative shall be printed on the covering or the package1 the provisions of this ,act shall be construed as applying only when said products are ready for consumption4 ,sixth4 ,if it consists in whole or in part of a filthy1 decomposed1 or putrid animal or vegetable substance1 or any portion of an animal unfit for food1 whether manufactured or not1 or if it is the product of a diseased animal1 or one that has died otherwise than by slaughter4 ,,sec4 #h4 ,that the term 8misbranded10 as used herein1 shall apply to all drugs1 or articles of food1 or articles which enter into the composition of food1 the package or label of which shall bear any statement1 design1 or device regarding such article1 or the ingredients or substances contained therein which shall be false or misleading in any particular1 and to any food or drug product which is falsely branded as to the ,state1 ,territory1 or country in which it is manufactured or produced4 ,that for the purposes of this ,act an article shall also be deemed to be misbranded3 ,in case of drugs3 ,first4 ,if it be an imitation of or offered for sale under the name of another article4 ,second4 ,if the contents of the package as originally put up shall have been removed1 in whole or in part1 and other contents shall have been placed in such package1 or if the package fail to bear a statement on the label of the quantity or proportion of any alcohol1 morphin1 opium1 cocain1 heroin1 alpha or beta eucain1 chloroform1 cannabis indica1 chloral hydrate1 or acetanilid1 or any derivative or preparation of any such substances contained therein4 ,in the case of food3 ,first4 ,if it be an imitation of or offered for sale under the distinctive name of another article4 ,second4 ,if it be labeled or branded so as to deceive or mislead the purchaser1 or purport to be a foreign product when not so1 or if the contents of the package as originally put up shall have been removed in whole or in part and other contents shall have been placed in such package1 or if it fail to bear a statement on the label of the quantity or proportion of any morphin1 opium1 cocain1 heroin1 alpha or beta eucain1 chloroform1 cannabis indica1 chloral hydrate1 or acetanilid1 or any derivative or preparation of any such substances contained therein4 ,third4 ,if in package form1 and the contents are stated in terms of weight or measure1 they are not plainly and correctly stated on the outside of the package4 ,fourth4 ,if the package containing it or its label shall bear any statement1 design1 or device regarding the ingredients or the substances contained therein1 which statement1 design1 or device shall be false or misleading in any particular3 ,provided1 ,that an article of food which does not contain any added poisonous or deleterious ingredients shall not be deemed to be adulterated or misbranded in the following cases3 ,first4 ,in the case of mixtures or compounds which may be now or from time to time hereafter known as articles of food1 under their own distinctive names1 and not an imitation of or offered for sale under the distinctive name of another article1 if the name be accompanied on the same label or brand with a statement of the place where said article has been manufactured or produced4 ,second4 ,in the case of articles labeled1 branded1 or tagged so as to plainly indicate that they are compounds1 imitations1 or blends1 and the word 8compound10 8imitation10 or 8blend10 as the case may be1 is plainly stated on the package in which it is offered for sale3 ,provided1 ,that the term blend as used herein shall be construed to mean a mixture of like substances1 not including harmless coloring or flavoring ingredients used for the purpose of coloring and flavoring only3 ,and provided further1 ,that nothing in this ,act shall be construed as requiring or compelling proprietors or manufacturers of proprietary foods which contain no unwholesome added ingredient to disclose their trade formulas1 except in so far as the provisions of this ,act may require to secure freedom from adulteration or misbranding4 ,,sec4 #i4 ,that no dealer shall be prosecuted under the provisions of this ,act when he can establish a guaranty signed by the wholesaler1 jobber1 manufacturer1 or other party residing in the ,united ,states1 from whom he purchases such articles1 to the effect that the same is not adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this act1 designating it4 ,said guaranty1 to afford protection1 shall contain the name and address of the party or parties making the sale of such articles to such dealer1 and in such case said party or parties shall be amenable to the prosecutions1 fines1 and other penalties which would attach1 in due course1 to the dealer under the provisions of this ,act4 ,,sec4 #aj4 ,that any article of food1 drug1 or liquor that is adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this ,act1 and is being transported from one ,state1 ,territory1 ,district1 or insular possession to another for sale1 or1 having been transported1 remains unloaded1 unsold1 or in original unbroken packages1 or if it be sold or offered for sale in the ,district of ,columbia or the ,territories1 or insular possessions of the ,united ,states1 or if it be imported from a foreign country for sale1 or if it is intended for export to a foreign country1 shall be liable to be proceeded against in any district court of the ,united ,states within the district where the same is found1 and seized for confiscation by a process of libel for condemnation4 ,and if such article is condemned as being adulterated or misbranded1 or of a poisonous or deleterious character1 within the meaning of this ,act1 the same shall be disposed of by destruction or sale1 as the said court may direct1 and the proceeds thereof1 if sold1 less the legal costs and charges1 shall be paid into the ,treasury of the ,united ,states1 but such goods shall not be sold in any jurisdiction contrary to the provisions of this ,act or the laws of that jurisdiction3 ,provided1 however1 ,that upon the payment of the costs of such libel proceedings and the execution and delivery of a good and sufficient bond to the effect that such articles shall not be sold or otherwise disposed of contrary to the provisions of this ,act1 or the laws of any ,state1 ,territory1 ,district1 or insular possession1 the court may by order direct that such articles be delivered to the owner thereof4 ,the proceedings of such libel cases shall conform1 as near as may be1 to the proceedings in admiralty1 except that either party may demand trial by jury of any issue of fact joined in any such case1 and all such proceedings shall be at the suit of and in the name of the ,united ,states4 ,,sec4 #aa4 ,the ,secretary of the ,treasury shall deliver to the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 upon his request from time to time1 samples of foods and drugs which are being imported into the ,united ,states or offered for import1 giving notice thereof to the owner or consignee1 who may appear before the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 and have the right to introduce testimony1 and if it appear from the examination of such samples that any article of food or drug offered to be imported into the ,united ,states is adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this ,act1 or is otherwise dangerous to the health of the people of the ,united ,states1 or is of a kind forbidden entry into1 or forbidden to be sold or restricted in sale in the country in which it is made or from which it is exported1 or is otherwise falsely labeled in any respect1 the said article shall be refused admission1 and the ,secretary of the ,treasury shall refuse delivery to the consignee and shall cause the destruction of any goods refused delivery which shall not be exported by the consignee within three months from the date of notice of such refusal under such regulations as the ,secretary of the ,treasury may prescribe3 ,provided1 ,that the ,secretary of the ,treasury may deliver to the consignee such goods pending examination and decision in the matter on execution of a penal bond for the amount of the full invoice value of such goods1 together with such duty thereon1 and on refusal to return such goods for any cause to the custody of the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 when demanded1 for the purpose of excluding them from the country1 or for any other purpose1 said consignee shall forfeit the full amount of the bond3 ,and provided further1 ,that all charges for storage1 cartage1 and labor on goods which are refused admission or delivery shall be paid by the owner or consignee1 and in default of such payment shall constitute a lien against any future importation made by such owner or consignee4 ,,sec4 #ab4 ,that the term 8,territory0 as used in this ,act shall include the insular possessions of the ,united ,states4 ,the word 8person0 as used in this ,act shall be construed to import both the plural and the singular1 as the case demands1 and shall include corporations1 companies1 societies1 and associations4 ,when construing and enforcing the provisions of this ,act1 the act1 omission1 or failure of any officer1 agent1 or other person acting for or employed by any corporation1 company1 society1 or association1 within the scope of his employment or office1 shall in every case be also deemed to be the act1 omission1 or failure of such corporation1 company1 society1 or association as well as that of the person4 ,,sec4 #ac4 ,that this ,act shall be in force and effect from and after the first day of ,january1 nineteen hundred and seven4 ,approved1 ,june #cj1 #aijf4 ,,appendix ,c4 ,b4 ,a4 ,i4 ,,order ,,no4 #acg4 ,,regulations ,,governing ,,the ,,meat ,,inspection ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture4 ,,scope ,,of ,,inspection4 ,,regulation #a4 ,all slaughtering1 packing1 meat-canning1 salting1 rendering1 or similar establishments whose meats or meat food products1 in whole or in part1 enter into interstate or foreign commerce shall have inspection under these regulations unless exempted from inspection by the ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,only farmers1 and retail butchers or retail dealers supplying their customers1 may be exempted under the law1 but they are1 nevertheless1 subject to the provision of the law which places a penalty upon any person who shall sell or offer for sale or transportation1 for interstate or foreign commerce1 any meat or meat food products which are diseased1 unsound1 unhealthful1 unwholesome1 or otherwise unfit for human food1 knowing that such meat food products are intended for human consumption4 ,all carcasses and parts of carcasses of cattle1 sheep1 swine1 and goats1 and all meats and meat food products thereof entering into interstate or foreign commerce shall show either that they have been inspected and passed or that they have been exempted from inspection under these regulations4 ,all meats and meat food products on hand ,october #a1 #aijf1 at establishments where inspection has not been previously maintained1 or which have been inspected under previously existing law and regulations1 shall be examined and labeled under these regulations before being allowed to enter into interstate or foreign commerce4 ,,application ,,for ,,inspection ,,or ,,exemption4 ,,regulation #b4 ,the proprietor or operator of each slaughtering1 packing1 meat-canning1 rendering1 or similar establishment engaged in the slaughtering of cattle1 sheep1 swine1 or goats1 or in the packing1 canning1 or other preparation of any food product into which the meats or meat food products of said animals enter in whole or in part1 for interstate or foreign commerce1 shall make application to the ,secretary of ,agriculture for inspection or for exemption from inspection4 ,the said application shall be made in writing1 addressed to the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 and shall state the location of the establishment1 the address of the owner or of a duly authorized officer or agent of the same1 the kinds of animals slaughtered1 the estimated number of animals of any species slaughtered per day and per week1 or the estimated amount of meats or meat food products received from other establishments1 and the character1 quantity1 and proposed disposition of the products of said establishment4 ,blank application forms will be furnished by the ,chief of the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry upon request4 ,if an establishment is not in a sanitary condition1 inspection shall not be established4 ,,exemption ,,from ,,inspection4 7a7 ,if1 in the judgment of the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 the retail butcher or retail dealer who is engaged in supplying his customers through the medium of interstate or foreign commerce should be exempted from ,federal inspection1 a certificate of exemption will be furnished to the applicant for use with transportation companies and other companies and persons in securing the movement of his products4 ,,official ,,number4 ,,regulation #c4 ,if inspection is established under said application the ,secretary of ,agriculture will give said establishment a number by which all its meats and meat food products shall thereafter be known1 and this number shall be used by the inspectors of the ,department of ,agriculture1 and also by the proprietors of said establishment1 to mark the meats and meat food products of the establishment as hereinafter prescribed4 ,establishments having one or more branches may use the same number for all by affixing a serial letter in connection with the number to differentiate the products of the different branches4 ,each establishment at which inspection is maintained must be separate and apart from any other establishment engaged in similar business at which inspection is not maintained4 7a7 ,retail butchers and dealers who have been exempted from inspection under these regulations will be given numbers by which their products will be known4 ,,designation ,,of ,,inspectors4 ,,regulation #d4 ,the ,secretary of ,agriculture will designate an inspector to take charge of the inspection at each establishment where inspection is maintained1 and will detail to said inspector such assistants as may be necessary to carry on properly the work of inspection and supervision at said establishment4 ,for the purpose of enforcing the law and regulations the inspector and all employees under his direction shall have access at all times1 by day or night1 whether the establishment be operated or not1 to every part of said establishment4 ,,office ,,room4 ,,regulation #e4 ,office room1 including light and heat1 shall be provided by proprietors of establishments1 rent free1 for the exclusive use of the inspector and other employees of the ,department on duty at each establishment4 ,the room or rooms set apart for this purpose must be properly ventilated1 conveniently located1 and provided with lockers suitable for the protection and storage of such supplies as may be required2 all to meet the approval of the inspector in charge4 ,,all ,,carcasses ,,and ,,products ,,inspected4 ,,regulation #f4 ,all cattle1 sheep1 swine1 or goats slaughtered at an establishment at which inspection is maintained1 and all meats and meat food products prepared therein shall be inspected1 handled1 and prepared as required by these regulations4 ,,notice ,,of ,,daily ,,operations4 ,,regulation #g4 ,the manager of each establishment at which inspection is maintained shall inform the inspector in charge1 or his assistant1 when work has been concluded for the day1 and of the day and hour when work will be resumed4 ,under no circumstances shall an establishment be operated except under the supervision of an employee of the ,department4 ,all slaughtering must be done within reasonable hours and with reasonable speed1 the character of the establishment being considered4 ,where one inspector is detailed to conduct the work at two or more small establishments where few animals are slaughtered1 the inspector in charge may designate the hours for slaughter4 ,no work shall be performed at establishments where inspection is maintained during any day on which such work is prohibited by the law of the ,state or ,territory in which the establishment is located4 ,,badges4 ,,regulation #h4 ,each employee of the ,department engaged in inspection under these regulations will be furnished with a numbered badge1 which he shall wear over the left breast on the outer clothing while in the performance of his official duties1 and which shall not be allowed to leave his possession4 ,,bribery4 ,,regulation #i4 ,it is a felony1 punishable by fine and imprisonment1 for any person1 firm1 or corporation1 or any agent or employee of any person1 firm1 or corporation1 to give1 pay1 or offer1 directly or indirectly1 to any ,department employee authorized to perform any duty under these regulations1 any money or other thing of value with intent to influence said employee in the discharge of his duty under these regulations4 ,it is also a felony1 punishable by fine and imprisonment1 for any ,department employee engaged in the performance of duty under these regulations to receive or accept from any person1 firm1 or corporation engaged in interstate or foreign commerce any gift1 money1 or other thing of value given with any purpose or intent whatsoever4 ,,sanitation4 ,,regulation #aj4 ,upon receipt of an application for inspection the ,secretary of ,agriculture will cause to be made an examination of the premises1 and will indicate the requirements for sanitation and the necessary facilities for inspection4 ,,regulation #aa4 ,in order that the carcasses of cattle1 sheep1 swine1 and goats1 and the meats and meat food products thereof1 may be admitted to interstate or foreign commerce1 it is necessary under the law that the establishments in which the animals are slaughtered1 or the meats and meat food products are prepared1 cured1 packed1 stored1 or handled1 shall be suitably lighted and ventilated and maintained in a sanitary condition4 ,all work in such establishments shall be performed in a cleanly and sanitary manner4 7a7 ,ceilings1 side walls1 pillars1 partitions1 etc41 shall be frequently whitewashed or painted1 or1 where this is impracticable1 they shall1 when necessary1 be washed1 scraped1 or otherwise rendered sanitary4 ,where floors or other parts of a building1 or tables or other parts of the equipment1 are so old or in such condition that they cannot be readily made sanitary1 they shall be removed and replaced by suitable materials or otherwise put in a condition acceptable to the inspector in charge4 ,all floors upon which meats are piled during the process of curing shall be so constructed that they can be kept in a clean and sanitary condition1 and such meats shall also be kept clean4 7b7 ,all trucks1 trays1 and other receptacles1 all chutes1 platforms1 racks1 tables1 etc41 and all knives1 saws1 cleavers1 and other tools1 and all utensils and machinery used in moving1 handling1 cutting1 chopping1 mixing1 canning1 or other process1 shall be thoroughly cleansed daily1 if used4 7c7 ,the aprons1 smocks1 or other outer clothing of employees who handle meat in contact with such clothing shall be of a material that is readily cleansed and made sanitary and shall be cleansed daily1 if used4 ,employees who handle meats or meat food products shall be required to keep their hands clean4 7d7 ,all toilet rooms1 urinals1 and dressing rooms shall be entirely separated from compartments in which carcasses are dressed or meats or meat food products are cured1 stored1 packed1 handled1 or prepared4 ,they shall be sufficient in number1 ample in size1 and fitted with modern lavatory accommodations1 including toilet paper1 soap1 running water1 towels1 etc4 ,they shall be properly lighted1 suitably ventilated1 and kept in a sanitary condition4 ,managers of establishments must see that employees keep themselves clean4 7e7 ,the rooms or compartments in which meats or meat food products are prepared1 cured1 stored1 packed1 or otherwise handled shall be lighted and ventilated in a manner acceptable to the inspector in charge and shall be so located that odors from toilet rooms1 catch-basins1 casing departments1 tank rooms1 hide cellars1 etc41 do not permeate them4 ,all rooms or compartments shall be provided with cuspidors1 which employees who expectorate shall be required to use4 7f7 ,persons affected with tuberculosis or any other communicable disease shall not be knowingly employed in any of the departments of establishments where carcasses are dressed1 meats handled1 or meat food products prepared1 and any employee suspected of being so affected shall be so reported by the inspector in charge to the manager of the establishment and to the ,chief of the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry4 7g7 ,the fattening of hogs or other animals on the refuse of slaughterhouses will not be permitted on the premises of an establishment where inspection is maintained1 and no use incompatible with proper sanitation shall be made of any part of the premises on which such establishment is located4 ,all yards1 fences1 pens1 chutes1 alleys1 etc41 belonging to the premises of such establishment shall1 whether they are used or not1 be maintained in a sanitary condition4 7h7 ,butchers who dress diseased carcasses shall cleanse their hands of all grease and then immerse them in a prescribed disinfectant and rinse them in clear water before engaging again in dressing or handling healthy carcasses4 ,all butchers' implements used in dressing diseased carcasses shall be cleansed of all grease and then sterilized1 either in boiling water or by immersion in a prescribed disinfectant1 and rinsed in clear water before being again used in dressing healthy carcasses4 ,facilities for such cleansing and disinfection1 approved by the inspector in charge1 shall be provided by the establishment4 ,separate trucks1 etc41 shall be furnished for handling diseased carcasses and parts4 ,following the slaughter of an animal affected with an infectious disease a stop shall be made until the implements have been cleansed and disinfected unless duplicate implements are provided4 7i7 ,inspectors are required to furnish their own knives for use in dissecting or incising diseased carcasses or parts1 and are required to use the same means for disinfecting knives1 hands1 etc41 that are prescribed for employees of the establishment4 7j7 ,meats and meat food products intended for rendering into edible products must be prevented from falling on the floor1 while being emptied into the tanks1 by the use of some device1 such as a metal funnel4 7k7 ,plans of new plants and of plants to be remodeled should be submitted to the ,secretary of ,agriculture4 7l7 ,carcasses or parts of carcasses inflated with air blown from the mouth shall not be marked 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,passed40 7m7 ,carcasses dressed with skewers that have been held in the mouth shall not be marked 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,passed40 ,,interpretation ,,and ,,definitions ,,of ,,words ,,and ,,terms4 ,,regulation #ab4 ,wherever in these regulations the following words1 names1 or terms are used they shall be construed as follows3 ,inspectors and ,department ,employees4--,these terms shall mean1 respectively1 inspectors and employees of the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry4 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,passed40--,this phrase shall mean that the carcasses1 parts of carcasses1 meats1 and meat food products so marked are sound1 healthful1 wholesome1 and contain no dyes1 chemicals1 preservatives1 or ingredients which render meats or meat food products unsound1 unhealthful1 unwholesome1 unclean1 or unfit for human food4 ,rendered into ,lard or ,tallow4--,this phrase shall mean that the carcasses1 parts of carcasses1 meats1 and meat food products so designated have been passed for the preparation of lard or tallow only4 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,condemned40--,this phrase shall mean that the carcasses1 parts of carcasses1 and meat food products so marked are unfit for food and shall be destroyed for food purposes4 ,carcass4--,this word shall mean an animal that has been killed under these regulations1 including all parts which are to be used for food4 ,primal ,parts of ,carcass4--,this phrase shall mean the usual sections or cuts of the dressed carcass commonly known in the trade1 such as sides1 quarters1 shoulders1 hams1 backs1 bellies1 etc41 and entire edible organs1 such as tongues1 livers1 etc41 before they have been cut1 shredded1 or otherwise subdivided preliminary to use in the manufacture of meat food products4 ,meat ,food ,products4--,this term shall mean any product used for food into the composition of which any portion of the carcass enters1 or in the preparation of which any portion of the carcass is used1 including lard1 mince-meat1 extracts1 gelatin1 oleomargarine1 butterine1 soups1 etc4 ,vinegar4--,the word vinegar1 as used herein1 shall mean cider vinegar1 wine vinegar1 malt vinegar1 sugar vinegar1 glucose vinegar1 or spirit vinegar1 as defined by the ,committee on ,food ,standards in ,circular ,no4 #aj1 ,secretary's ,office1 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture4 ,,ante-,,mortem ,,examination ,,and ,,inspection4 ,,regulation #ac4 ,an ante-mortem examination and inspection shall be made of all cattle1 sheep1 swine1 and goats about to be slaughtered before they shall be allowed to enter an establishment at which inspection is maintained4 ,said examination and inspection shall be made in the pens1 alleys1 or chutes of the establishment at which the animals are about to be slaughtered4 ,the proprietors of the establishments at which the said ante-mortem inspection is conducted shall provide satisfactory facilities for conducting said inspection and for separating and holding apart from healthy animals those showing symptoms of disease4 ,all animals showing symptoms or suspected of being affected with any disease or condition which1 under these regulations1 would probably cause their condemnation when slaughtered1 shall be marked by affixing to the ear or tail a metal tag as provided in ,regulation #bj4 ,all such animals1 except as hereinafter provided1 shall be slaughtered separately1 either before regular slaughter has commenced or at the close of the regular slaughter1 and shall be duly identified by a representative of the establishment to the inspector on duty on the killing floor before the skins are removed or the carcasses opened for evisceration4 ,animals which have been tagged for pregnancy and which have not been exposed to any infectious or contagious disease are not required to be slaughtered1 but before any such animal is removed from the establishment the tag shall be detached by a ,department employee and returned with his report to the inspector in charge4 7a7 ,if any pathological condition is suspected in which the question of temperature is important1 such as ,texas fever1 anthrax1 pneumonia1 blackleg1 or septicemia1 the exact temperature should be taken4 ,due consideration1 however1 must be given to the fact that extremely high temperatures may be found in otherwise normal hogs when subjected to exercise or excitement1 and a similar condition may obtain to a less degree among other classes of animals4 ,animals commonly termed 8downers10 or crippled animals1 shall be tagged1 as provided for in ,regulation #bj1 in the abattoir pens for the purpose of identification at the time of slaughter1 and shall be passed upon in accordance with these regulations4 ,,post-,,mortem ,,inspection ,,at ,,time ,,of ,,slaughter4 ,,regulation #ad4 ,the inspector or his assistants shall1 at the time of slaughter1 make a careful inspection of all animals slaughtered4 ,the head1 tail1 thymus gland1 bladder1 caul1 and the entire viscera1 and all parts and blood used in the preparation of meat food products shall be retained in such manner as to preserve their identity until after the post-mortem examination has been completed1 in order that they may be identified in case of condemnation of the carcass4 ,suitable racks or metal receptacles shall be provided for retaining such parts4 ,carcasses and parts thereof found to be sound1 healthful1 wholesome1 and fit for human food shall be passed and marked as provided in these regulations4 ,should any lesion of disease or other condition that would probably render the meat or any organ unfit for food purposes be found on post-mortem examination1 such meat or organ shall be marked immediately with a tag1 as provided in ,regulation #bg4 ,carcasses which have been so marked shall not be washed or trimmed unless such washing or trimming is authorized by the inspector4 ,,disposal ,,of ,,diseased ,,carcasses ,,and ,,organs4 ,,regulation #ae4 ,the carcasses or parts of carcasses of all animals which are slaughtered at an establishment where inspection is maintained1 and which are found at time of slaughter or at any subsequent inspection to be affected with any of the diseases or conditions named below shall be disposed of according to the section of this regulation pertaining to the disease or condition4 ,it is to be understood1 however1 that owing to the fact that it is impracticable to formulate rules covering every case1 and to designate at just what stage a process becomes loathsome or a disease noxious1 the decision as to the disposition of all carcasses1 parts1 or organs not specifically covered by these regulations shall be left to the veterinary inspector in charge4 ,carcasses found1 before evisceration has taken place1 to be affected with an infectious or contagious disease1 including tuberculosis1 shall not be eviscerated at the regular killing bed or bench1 but shall be taken to the retaining room1 or other specially prepared place1 separate from other carcasses1 and there opened and examined4 7a7 ,anthrax1 or ,charbon4--,all carcasses showing lesions of this disease1 regardless of the extent of the disease1 shall be condemned and immediately tanked1 including the hide1 hoofs1 horns1 viscera1 fat1 blood1 and all other portions of the animal4 ,the killing bed upon which the animal was slaughtered shall be disinfected with a #aj percent solution of formalin1 and all knives1 saws1 cleavers1 and other instruments which have come in contact with the carcass shall be treated as provided in ,regulation #aa1 paragraph 7h71 before being used upon another carcass4 7b7 ,blackleg4--,carcasses of animals showing lesions of blackleg shall be condemned4 7c7 ,hemorrhagic ,septicemia4--,carcasses of animals affected with this disease shall be condemned4 7d7 ,pyemia and ,septicemia4--,carcasses showing lesions of either of these diseases shall be condemned4 7e7 ,rabies4--,carcasses of animals which showed symptoms of rabies before slaughter shall be condemned4 7f7 ,tetanus4--,carcasses of animals which showed symptoms of tetanus before slaughter shall be condemned4 7g7 ,malignant ,epizotic ,catarrh4--,carcasses of animals affected with this disease and showing generalized inflammation of the mucous membranes shall be condemned4 7h7 ,hog ,cholera and ,swine ,plague4--7#a7 ,carcasses showing well-marked and progressive lesions of hog cholera or swine plague in more than two of the organs 7skin1 kidneys1 bones1 or lymphatic glands7 shall be condemned4 7#b7 ,carcasses showing slight lesions which are confined to the kidneys and lymphatic glands may be passed4 7#c7 ,carcasses which reveal lesions more numerous than those described for carcasses to be passed1 but not so severe as the lesions described for carcasses to be condemned1 may be rendered into lard1 provided they are cooked by steam for four hours at a temperature not lower than #bbj ,f4 7#d7 ,in inspecting carcasses showing lesions of the skin1 bones1 kidneys1 or lymphatic glands1 due consideration shall be given to the extent and severity of the lesions found in the viscera4 7i7 ,actinomycosis1 or ,lumpy ,jaw4--7#a7 ,if the carcass is in a well-nourished condition and there is no evidence upon post-mortem examination that the disease has extended from a primary area of infection in the head1 the carcass may be passed1 but the head1 including the tongue1 shall be condemned4 7#b7 ,if the carcass is in a well-nourished condition and the disease has extended beyond the primary area of infection1 the disposition shall be made in accordance with the regulations relating to tuberculosis4 7j7 ,caseous ,lymphadenitis4--,when the lesions are limited to the superficial lymphatic glands or to a few nodules in an organ1 involving also the adjacent lymphatic glands1 and the carcass is well nourished1 the meat may be passed after the affected parts are removed and condemned4 ,if extensive lesions1 with or without pleuritic adhesions1 are found in the lungs1 or if several of the visceral organs contain caseous nodules and the carcass is emaciated1 it shall be condemned4 7k7 ,tuberculosis4--,all carcasses affected with tuberculosis and showing emaciation shall be condemned4 ,all other carcasses affected with tuberculosis shall be condemned1 except those in which the lesions are slight1 calcified1 or encapsulated1 and are confined to the tissues indicated in any one of the following five paragraphs1 or to a less number of such tissues1 and excepting also those which may1 under paragraphs 7#f7 and 7#g7 below1 be rendered into lard or tallow4 7#a7 ,the cervical lymphatic glands and two groups of visceral lymphatic glands in a single body cavity1 such as the cervical1 bronchial1 and mediastinal glands1 or the cervical1 hepatic1 and mesenteric glands4 7#b7 ,the cervical lymphatic glands and one group of visceral lymphatic glands and one organ in a single body cavity1 such as the cervical and bronchial glands and the lungs1 or the cervical and hepatic glands and the liver4 7#c7 ,two groups of visceral lymphatic glands and one organ in a single body cavity1 such as the bronchial and mediastinal glands and the lungs1 or the hepatic and mesenteric glands and the liver4 7#d7 ,the cervical lymphatic glands and one group of visceral lymphatic glands in each body cavity1 such as the cervical1 bronchial1 and hepatic glands4 7#e7 ,two groups of visceral lymphatic glands in the thoracic cavity and one group in the abdominal cavity1 or one group of visceral lymphatic glands in the thoracic cavity and two groups in the abdominal cavity1 such as the bronchial1 mediastinal1 and hepatic glands1 or the bronchial1 hepatic1 and mesenteric glands4 7#f7 ,carcasses affected with tuberculosis1 in which the lesions of the disease are located as described in any one of the preceding five paragraphs1 but are slight and in a state of caseation1 or liquefaction necrosis1 or surrounded by hyperemic zones1 and also those in which slight1 calcified1 or encapsulated lesions are found in more visceral organs or more groups of visceral lymphatic glands than are specified in any one of the preceding five paragraphs1 may be rendered into lard or tallow after the diseased parts are removed4 ,the carcasses shall be cooked by steam at a temperature not lower than #bbj ,f4 for not less than four hours4 7#g7 ,carcasses in which the cervical lymphatic glands1 one organ1 and the serous membrane in a single body cavity1 such as the cervical lymphatic glands1 the lungs1 and the pleura1 or the cervical lymphatic glands1 the liver1 and the peritoneum1 are affected with tuberculosis1 may be rendered into lard or tallow after the diseased parts are removed4 ,the carcasses shall be cooked by steam at a temperature not lower than #bbj ,f4 for not less than four hours4 7#h7 ,all condemned carcasses1 parts of carcasses1 or organs showing lesions of tuberculosis shall be deposited in receptacles provided for that purpose1 and shall either be tanked at once or be locked in the 8condemned0 room until such time as an employee of the ,department can see that they are placed in the tank4 7#i7 ,all heads and other parts showing lesions of tuberculosis shall be condemned4 7l7 ,texas ,fever4--,carcasses showing sufficient lesions to warrant the diagnosis of ,texas fever shall be condemned4 7m7 ,parasitic ,ictero-hematuria4--,carcasses of sheep affected with this disease shall be condemned4 7n7 ,mange1 or ,scab4--,carcasses of animals affected with mange1 or scab1 in advanced stages1 shall be condemned4 ,when the disease is slight1 the carcass may be passed4 7o7 ,tapeworm ,cysts4--,carcasses of animals slightly affected with tapeworm cysts may be rendered into lard or tallow1 but extensively affected carcasses shall be condemned4 7p7 ,pneumonia1 ,pleurisy1 ,enteritis1 ,peritonitis1 and ,metritis4--,carcasses showing generalized inflammation of one of the following tissues--the lungs1 pleur1 intestines1 peritoneum1 or the uterus--whether in acute or chronic form1 shall be condemned4 7q7 ,icterus4--,carcasses showing an intense yellow or greenish-yellow discoloration after proper cooling shall be condemned4 ,carcasses which exhibit a yellowish tint directly after slaughter1 but lose this discoloration on chilling1 may be passed for food4 7r7 ,uremia and ,sexual ,odor4--,carcasses which give off the odor of urine or a strong sexual odor shall be condemned4 7s7 ,urticaria1 ,etc4--,hogs affected with urticaria 7diamond skin disease71 ,tinea tonsurans1 ,demodex folliculorum1 or erythema may be passed after detaching and condemning the skin1 if the carcass is otherwise fit for food4 7t7 ,melanosis1 ,etc4--,carcasses of animals showing any disease or injury1 such as traumatic pericarditis1 generalized melanosis1 pseudo-leukemia1 etc41 which causes considerable elevation of temperature or affects the system of the animal1 shall be condemned4 7u7 ,bruises1 ,abscesses1 ,liver ,flukes1 ,etc4--,any organ or part of a carcass which is badly bruised or which is affected by malignant tumors1 abscesses1 suppurating sores1 or liver flukes shall be condemned1 but when the lesions are so extensive as to affect the whole carcass1 the whole carcass shall be condemned4 7v7 ,emaciation and ,anemia4--,carcasses of animals too emaciated or anemic to produce wholesome meat and those carcasses which show a slimy degeneration of the fat or a serous infiltration of the muscles shall be condemned4 7w7 ,pregnancy and ,parturition4--,carcasses of animals in advanced stages of pregnancy 7showing signs of preparation for parturition71 also carcasses of animals which have within ten days given birth to young and in which there is no evidence of septic infection1 may be rendered into lard or tallow if desired by the manager of the establishment1 otherwise they shall be condemned4 7x7 ,immaturity4--,carcasses of animals too immature to produce wholesome meat1 all unborn and stillborn animals1 also carcasses of calves1 pigs1 kids1 and lambs under three weeks of age shall be condemned4 7y7 ,diseased ,parts4--,in all cases where carcasses showing localized lesions of disease are passed or rendered into lard or tallow1 the diseased parts must be removed before the 8,u4 ,s4 ,retained0 tag is taken from the carcass1 and such parts shall be condemned4 7z7 ,careless ,scalding4--,hogs which have been allowed to pass into the scalding vat alive shall be condemned4 7aa7 ,dead ,animals4--,all animals that die in abattoir pens1 and those in a dying condition before slaughter1 shall be tagged as provided in ,regulation #ba1 and in all cases shall be condemned4 ,in conveying animals which have died in the pens of an establishment to the tank they shall not be allowed lo pass through compartments in which food products are prepared4 ,no dead animals shall be brought into an establishment for rendering from outside the premises of said establishment4 8,,retaining0 ,,and 8,,condemned0 ,,rooms4 ,,regulation #af4 ,separate compartments1 to be known as 8retaining rooms10 or other special places for final inspection1 shall be set apart at all establishments at which inspection is maintained1 and all carcasses and parts marked with a 8,u4 ,s4 ,retained0 tag shall be held in these rooms pending final inspection4 ,these rooms shall be rat proof and furnished with abundant light2 the floors shall be of cement1 metal1 or brick laid in cement4 ,they shall be provided with facilities for locking1 and locks for this purpose will be furnished by the ,department4 ,the keys to such locks shall remain in the custody of the inspector or his assistant4 ,immediately after the final inspection of carcasses and parts are marked with 8,u4 ,s4 ,retained0 tags is completed1 those found to be wholesome and fit for human food shall be released by the veterinary inspector conducting the inspection1 who shall remove the 8,u4 ,s4 ,retained0 tags1 and the carcasses shall be removed from the retaining rooms and marked 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,passed10 as provided in ,regulation #bh4 ,the floors and walls of all retaining rooms shall be washed with hot water and disinfected after diseased animals are removed1 and before any 8retained0 animals are again placed therein4 ,carcasses or parts of carcasses found on final inspection to be unsound1 unhealthful1 unwholesome1 or otherwise unfit for human food shall be marked 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,condemned10 as provided in ,regulation #bh1 and shall be removed from the retaining room to the 8condemned0 room1 if not tanked within twenty-four hours4 7a7 ,in each establishment at which condemned carcasses or meat food products are held for more than twenty-four hours after condemnation1 there shall be provided a room entirely separate from all other rooms in the establishment4 ,this room shall be secure and shall be provided with a lock1 the key of which shall remain in the custody of a ,department employee4 ,this room shall be known as the 8condemned0 room1 and shall be kept locked at all times except when condemned meat or meat food product is being taken into or from the said room under the supervision of a ,department employee4 ,all condemned carcasses shall be removed from retaining rooms within twenty-four hours after they are condemned1 except in questionable cases1 when they are held pending the decision of the inspector in charge4 ,condemned carcasses shall not be allowed to accumulate1 but shall be removed from the 8condemned0 rooms1 treated with coloring substances1 or otherwise treated1 as provided in ,regulation #ah1 paragraph 7b71 and tanked within a reasonable time after condemnation4 ,carcasses of diseased animals which are eviscerated in the retaining room or in the specially prepared place under the provisions of ,regulation #ae1 shall1 unless passed1 be removed immediately either to the 8condemned0 room or to the tank4 ,,regulation #ag4 ,bruised ,parts4--,when a portion of a carcass is to be condemned on account of slight bruises1 which cannot be properly removed until the carcass is chilled1 the carcass shall be marked with a 8,u4 ,s4 ,retained0 tag and placed in the retaining room4 ,after chilling1 the affected portion shall be cut out1 marked 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,condemned10 and removed to the tank or locked in the 8condemned0 room1 and the remainder of the carcass shall be marked 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,passed40 ,,tanks ,,and ,,tanking4 ,,regulation #ah4 ,all condemned carcasses1 parts of carcasses1 and meat food products shall be tanked as follows3 7a7 ,after the lower opening of the tank has been securely sealed by an employee of the ,department1 and the condemned carcasses1 parts1 and meat food products are placed therein in his presence1 the upper opening shall be likewise securely sealed by such employee1 whose duty it shall be then to see that a sufficient force of steam is turned into the tank and maintained a sufficient length of time effectually to render the contents unfit for any edible product4 ,tanks for this purpose shall be so located or operated that the fumes and odors therefrom shall not pervade compartments in which carcasses are dressed or edible products prepared4 ,wire and lead seals are provided by the ,department for sealing tanks4 7b7 ,a sufficient quantity of coloring matter or other substance to be designated by the ,department shall be used in connection with the tanking of all condemned carcasses1 parts of carcasses1 meats1 and meat food products1 to destroy them effectually for food purposes4 7c7 ,the seals of tanks containing condemned meats or the tankage thereof shall be broken only by an employee of the ,department4 7d7 ,if an establishment where inspection is maintained fails to permit the treatment and tanking of condemned carcasses1 parts of carcasses1 meats1 or meat food products1 as required by these regulations1 the inspector in charge shall report that fact to the ,department1 in order that inspection may be withdrawn from such establishment4 ,,regulation #ai4 ,any meats or meat food products condemned at establishments which have no facilities for tanking shall be treated as provided in ,regulation #ah1 paragraph 7b71 and removed to an establishment indicated by the inspector in charge and there tanked and rendered under the supervision of an employee of the ,department4 ,,labels1 ,,tags1 ,,and ,,brands4 8,u4 ,s4 ,,suspect0 ,,tag4 ,,regulation #bj4 ,to the ear or tail of each animal inspected under ,regulation #ac which shows symptoms or is suspected of being affected with any disease or condition which1 under these regulations1 may cause its condemnation on post-mortem inspection1 there shall be affixed by a ,department employee at the time of inspection a numbered metal tag bearing the words 8,u4 ,s4 ,suspect40 ,the employee who affixes the tag shall report the number to the inspector in charge4 ,this 8,u4 ,s4 ,suspect0 tag shall remain upon the animal until the preliminary post-mortem inspection at the time of slaughter4 ,if no lesions of disease are then discovered1 the 8,u4 ,s4 ,suspect0 tag shall be removed and forwarded to the inspector in charge1 with a report that the carcass has been inspected and passed1 and the carcass shall be labeled or stamped 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,passed10 as hereinafter provided4 ,,ante-,,mortem ,,condemned ,,tag4 ,,regulation #ba4 ,to the ear of each animal which is found in a dying condition or dead on the premises of an establishment at which inspection is maintained there shall be affixed by a ,department employee a numbered metal tag bearing the words 8,u4 ,s4 ,condemned40 ,the ear bearing the tag shall not be removed from the carcass4 ,the number of this tag shall be reported to the inspector in charge by the employee who affixes it4 ,this tag shall remain on the condemned carcass until it reaches the tank1 and immediately before tanking it shall be removed by the ,department employee who is supervising the tanking and returned with a report to the inspector in charge4 ,,labeling ,,beef ,,for ,,export4 ,,regulation #bb4 ,upon each quarter of each dressed beef carcass inspected and passed for export there shall be placed by a ,department employee a meat-inspection label or mark1 which shall bear the number of the establishment and the words 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,passed40 ,,labeling ,,beef ,,for ,,interstate ,,commerce4 ,,regulation #bc4 ,upon each dressed beef carcass inspected and passed for interstate commerce there shall be placed by a ,department employee at the time of inspection at least ten labels or marks bearing the number of the establishment and the words 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,passed40 ,,labeling ,,canners4 ,,regulation #bd4 ,upon each quarter of each dressed beef carcass inspected and passed1 and which is to be cut up and prepared in the establishment in which the animal was slaughtered or in another establishment where inspection is maintained1 there shall be placed by a ,department employee at the time of inspection one label or mark bearing the establishment number and the words 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,passed40 ,if1 however1 a primal part of any such carcass is to leave the establishment for interstate or foreign commerce1 such primal part1 or the container thereof1 must be labeled1 stamped1 or branded1 under the personal supervision of a ,department employee1 with the establishment number and the words 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,passed40 ,,labeling ,,carcasses ,,of ,,sheep1 ,,calves1 ,,swine1 ,,and ,,goats4 ,,regulation #be4 ,upon the dressed carcasses of sheep1 calves1 swine1 and goats inspected and passed for interstate or export commerce there shall be placed by a ,department employee at the time of inspection at least two labels or marks bearing the number of the establishment and the words 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,passed40 ,,stamp ,,on ,,cloth ,,wrapping4 ,,regulation #bf4 ,when the dressed carcasses or parts thereof of cattle1 sheep1 calves1 swine1 or goats are wrapped or inclosed for shipment for interstate or export commerce in burlap1 muslin1 cheese cloth1 or other similar substance1 the covering shall bear a meat-inspection stamp or other mark on which shall appear the establishment number and the words 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,passed40 8,u4 ,s4 ,,retained0 ,,tag ,,regulation #bg4 ,upon each carcass1 or part or detached organ thereof1 inspected under ,regulation #ad1 in which any lesion of disease or other condition is found that would probably render the meat or any organ unfit for food purposes1 there shall be placed by a ,department employee at the time of inspection a paper tag1 numbered in duplicate1 bearing the words 8,u4 ,s4 ,retained10 attached by a wire and seal4 ,the inspector who attaches this 8,u4 ,s4 ,retained0 tag shall detach the numbered stub thereof and return it with his report to the inspector in charge4 ,the other portion shall accompany the carcass to the retaining ,room4 8,u4 ,s4 ,,condemned ,,stamp40 ,,regulation #bh4 ,upon each carcass1 or part or detached organ thereof1 which is found on final inspection in the retaining room1 or other special place for final inspection1 to be unsound1 unhealthful1 unwholesome1 or otherwise unfit for human food1 there shall be stamped conspicuously by a ,department employee at the time of inspection the words 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,condemned40 ,in addition the 8,u4 ,s4 ,retained0 tag shall remain upon the carcass and shall be stamped with the words 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,condemned40 ,this stamped 8,u4 ,s4 ,retained0 tag shall accompany the carcass to the tank and shall be removed immediately before tanking by the ,department employee who is supervising that operation1 and he shall write or stamp upon the tag the word 8,tanked10 the date1 sign his name1 and return the tag with his report to the inspector in charge4 ,if1 however1 upon final inspection the carcass is passed for food1 the inspector shall stamp the retained tag 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,passed10 and return the tag with his report to the inspector in charge4 ,,marking ,,of ,,primal ,,parts4 ,,regulation #bi4 ,on each primal part1 or organ1 or the container thereof1 which has been inspected and passed1 and which is to leave the establishment for interstate or export commerce1 and which has not been theretofore marked with the words 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,passed10 and the establishment number1 there shall be placed1 under the personal supervision of a ,department employee1 a mark1 stamp1 or brand bearing the words 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,passed0 and the establishment number4 ,when primal parts or organs are shipped between establishments at which inspection is maintained the number of the establishment need not appear4 ,,branding ,,irons4 ,,regulation #cj4 ,when hot branding irons or other instruments are used to label hams1 bacon1 or other primal part with the name of the packer1 or with a trade-mark1 and it is desired1 in addition1 to indicate that the meat has been inspected by the ,department of ,agriculture1 the wording for this purpose1 which shall be in letters and figures of sufficient size to be legible1 shall include the number of the establishment in which the product was produced1 and also the statement 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,passed10 or the abbreviated statement 8,u4 ,s4 ,ins4 ,psd40 ,this marking shall be accepted as the ,united ,states inspection mark4 ,it shall be affixed1 however1 only under the personal supervision of a ,department employee4 8,,special0 ,,stamp4 ,,regulation #ca4 ,upon all meats and meat food products prepared for export with preservatives under ,regulation #ci1 paragraph 7b71 there shall also be stamped or branded1 under the personal supervision of a ,department employee1 the word 8,special40 ,this word 8,special0 shall not be used upon any inspected meats or meat food products not prepared under said ,regulation #ci1 unless it is used in combination with other words4 ,,trade ,,labels4 ,,regulation #cb4 ,upon each can1 pot1 tin1 canvas1 or other receptacle or covering containing any meat or meat food product for interstate or foreign commerce1 except packages on which meat-inspection stamps appear1 there shall be placed1 under the supervision of a ,department employee1 a trade label4 ,this trade label shall contain the words 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,passed1 under the ,act of ,congress of ,june #cj1 #aijf10 in plain letters and figures of uniform size1 the number of the establishment at which the meat or meat food product is last prepared or packed1 and labeled1 and the true name of the meat or meat food product contained in such package4 ,only trade names which are not false or deceptive may be used upon the trade label4 ,a copy of each trade label shall be filed with the inspector in charge for his approval4 ,the inspector in charge shall approve or disapprove each trade label1 and report his action for approval to the ,chief of the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 forwarding the label with his report4 ,only trade labels which have been approved by the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall be used4 ,,regulation #cc4 ,false or ,deceptive ,names4--,no meat or meat food products shall be sold or offered for sale by any person1 firm1 or corporation in interstate or foreign commerce under any false or deceptive name2 but established trade name or names which are usual to such products and which are not false and deceptive1 and which shall be approved by the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 are permitted4 ,trade labels which are false or deceptive in any particular shall not be permitted4 ,a meat food product1 whether composed of one or more ingredients1 shall not be named on a trade label with a name stating or purporting to show that the said meat food product is a substance which is not the principal ingredient contained therein1 even though such name be an established trade name4 ,,tagging ,,reinspected ,,meats ,,and ,,meat ,,food ,,products4 ,,regulation #cd4 ,upon all meats or meat food products1 which are suspected on reinspection of being unsound1 unhealthful1 unwholesome1 or otherwise unfit for human food1 or upon the containers thereof1 there shall be placed by a ,department employee at the time of reinspection the 8,u4 ,s4 ,retained0 tags hereinbefore described4 ,the employee who affixes the tag shall send the numbered stub with his report to the inspector in charge4 ,these tags shall accompany the said meats or meat food products to the retaining room or other special place for final inspection4 ,when the final inspection is made1 if the meat or meat food product be condemned the 8,u4 ,s4 ,retained0 tag shall be stamped 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,condemned10 and shall accompany the condemned meat or meat food product to the tank4 ,immediately before the meat or meat food product is tanked the employee supervising that operation shall write or stamp the word 8,tanked0 and the date upon the said tag1 and sign his name thereto1 and forward the tag to the inspector in charge with his report4 ,if1 however1 upon final inspection the meat or meat food product is passed for food1 the inspector shall stamp the retained tag 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,passed10 and return the tag with his report to the inspector in charge4 ,,reference ,,to ,,united ,,states ,,inspection4 ,,regulation #ce4 ,except as provided in these regulations1 no reference to ,united ,states inspection shall appear upon any meat or meat food product or the container thereof4 ,,reinspection4 ,,reinspection ,,of ,,passed ,,carcasses ,,and ,,parts4 ,,regulation #cf4 ,before being admitted into any cooking1 canning1 sausage1 or other department of an establishment1 also before being packed for shipment1 and at such other times as may be deemed necessary1 all dressed carcasses or parts thereof that have been previously inspected and passed shall be reinspected by an inspector or his assistants1 and if upon any such reinspection any carcass or part thereof is found to have become unsound1 unhealthful1 unwholesome1 or in any way unfit for human food1 the original mark1 stamp1 tag1 or label shall be removed or cancelled and the carcass or part shall be condemned4 ,,reinspection ,,of ,,inspected ,,meats ,,received ,,at ,,official ,,establishments4 ,,regulation #cg4 ,except as provided in ,regulation #da1 only carcasses and parts thereof1 meats1 and meat food products which can by marks1 seals1 brands1 or labels be identified as having been previously inspected and passed by a ,department employee shall be taken into or allowed to enter an establishment at which inspection is maintained4 ,all such carcasses1 parts1 meats1 and meat food products which are brought into one establishment from another1 or which are returned to the establishment from which they issued1 shall be identified and reinspected at the time of receipt1 and shall be subject to further reinspection in such manner and at such times as may be deemed necessary4 ,if upon any such reinspection any carcass or part thereof1 or meat or meat food product1 is found to have become unsound1 unhealthful1 unwholesome1 or in any way unfit for human food1 the original mark1 stamp1 tag1 or label shall be removed or canceled and the carcass1 part1 meat1 or meat food product shall be condemned4 7a7 ,special docks and receiving rooms shall be designated by the establishment for the receipt and inspection of meats or meat food products1 and no meats or meat food products shall be allowed to enter the establishment by any other docks or receiving rooms1 and only in the presence of a ,department employee4 ,,marking ,,passed ,,carcasses ,,or ,,parts4 ,,regulation #ch4 ,all carcasses and parts of carcasses found upon inspection to be sound1 healthful1 wholesome1 and fit for human food which leave the establishment where they are prepared for interstate or foreign commerce shall be designated by a mark1 stamp1 tag1 or label bearing the words 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,passed10 and no carcass1 part of a carcass1 or meat food product which has not been so designated shall be admitted to the canning1 sausage1 or any other department of any establishment where inspection is maintained other than the establishment in which it was prepared1 except as provided in ,regulation #da4 ,,dyes1 ,,chemicals1 ,,and ,,preservatives4 ,,regulation #ci4 7a7 ,no meat or meat food product for interstate commerce1 or for foreign commerce except as hereinafter provided1 shall contain any substance which lessens its wholesomeness1 nor any drug1 chemical1 or dye 7unless specifically provided for by a ,federal statute71 or preservative1 other than common salt1 sugar1 wood smoke1 vinegar1 pure spices1 and1 pending further inquiry1 saltpeter4 ,inspection and sampling of prepared meats and meat food products by ,department employees shall be conducted in such manner and at such times as may be necessary to secure a rigid enforcement of this regulation4 7b7 ,in accordance with the direction of the foreign purchaser or his agent1 meats and meat food products prepared for export may contain preservatives in proportions which do not conflict with the laws of the foreign country to which they are to be exported4 ,when such meats or meat food products are prepared for export under this regulation they shall be prepared in compartments of the establishment separate and apart from those in which meats and meat food products are prepared according to paragraph 7a7 of this regulation1 and such products shall be kept separate and shall be labeled with special trade labels1 approved by the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 and indicating that such products are for export only4 ,special export certificates will be issued for meats and meat food products of this character1 and1 if the products are not exported1 under no circumstances shall they be allowed to enter domestic trade4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,meats ,,and ,,meat ,,food ,,products4 ,,regulation #dj4 ,all processes used in curing1 pickling1 preparing1 or canning meats and meat food products in establishments where inspection is maintained shall be supervised by ,department employees1 and no fixtures or appliances1 such as tables1 trucks1 trays1 vats1 machines1 implements1 cans1 or containers of any kind1 shall be used unless they are clean and sanitary1 and all steps in the process of manufacture shall be conducted carefully and with strict cleanliness4 7a7 ,cured ,meats4--,only meats which bear the mark 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,passed10 or meats in containers which are so marked1 and which upon reinspection are found to be sound1 healthful1 wholesome1 and fit for human food1 shall be taken into any meat-curing establishment where inspection is maintained4 ,any meats which upon reinspection are found to have undergone changes which render them unsound1 unclean1 unhealthful1 unwholesome1 or otherwise unfit for human food1 shall be condemned and be disposed of as provided in ,regulation #ah4 ,no drug1 chemical1 or coloring matter shall be used in any process of curing any meats1 except as provided in ,regulation #ci4 ,all pickling fluids and other solutions or substances used in curing meats must be clean4 ,at the time that cured meats are packed for shipment in interstate or foreign commerce they shall be inspected by a ,department employee1 and any pieces or portions of such meats which are found to have undergone changes which render them unclean1 unsound1 unhealthful1 unwholesome1 or otherwise unfit for human food1 shall be condemned and disposed of as provided in ,regulation #ah4 7b7 ,sausages and ,chopped ,meats4--,all meat entering a sausage establishment where inspection is maintained shall be inspected by a ,department employee when received4 ,no meats which have not been inspected and passed under these regulations at the time of slaughter1 or which1 having been so inspected and passed1 are found upon reinspection by a ,department employee to have undergone changes which render them unsound1 unclean1 unhealthful1 unwholesome1 or otherwise unfit for human food1 shall be employed in the preparation of sausages1 chopped meats1 or similar meat food products4 ,meats or meat food products which are found to have undergone these changes shall be condemned and disposed of as provided in ,regulation #ah4 ,all meat trimmings for sausage shall be carefully inspected and assorted under the supervision of employees of the ,department4 ,no drug1 chemical1 preservative1 or coloring matter shall be placed in or upon sausages or chopped meats for interstate or foreign commerce1 except as provided in ,regulation #ci4 ,the curing of sausages or chopped meats or similar meat food products shall be carried out in the manner prescribed for other meats in section 7a7 of this regulation4 7c7 ,canned ,products4--,all meats or meat food products entering a canning establishment shall be inspected by a ,department employee when received4 ,no meat which has not been inspected and passed at the time of slaughter under these regulations1 or which1 having been inspected and passed1 is reinspected by a ,department employee and found to have undergone changes which render it unclean1 unsound1 unhealthful1 unwholesome1 or otherwise unfit for human food1 shall be allowed to enter into the preparation of canned meats or canned meat food products4 ,no drug1 chemical1 or coloring matter shall be used in canned meats or meat food products for interstate or foreign commerce1 except as provided in ,regulation #ci4 ,if at any time during the handling of any meat or meat food product1 or at any time after the packing or canning of any such product1 any portion or package shall be found to be unwholesome1 unhealthful1 or otherwise unfit for human food1 such portions or packages shall be condemned and disposed of in the manner prescribed in ,regulation #ah4 ,no meat food product which has passed through the various processes of canning shall be removed from the container and recooked1 resterilized1 or repacked1 except under the supervision and with the approval of a ,department employee4 ,,regulation #da4 ,rendering of ,lard and ,tallow4--,the rendering of all fats into lard1 tallow1 oils1 and stearin at establishments where inspection is maintained shall be closely supervised by employees of the ,department4 ,all portions of carcasses rendered into lard and tallow must be clean and wholesome4 ,tanks and vats used for rendering condemned carcasses and refuse products must not be connected in any manner with tanks1 vats1 or other receptacles used for lard or other edible products4 ,unmelted fat which is not marked or stamped 8,u4 ,s4 ,inspected and ,passed0 and which upon inspection is found to be sweet1 clean1 and of healthful appearance may be received1 inspected1 and rendered at a temperature not lower than #agj ,f4 for one hour4 ,,stamps1 ,,stamping1 ,,and ,,certificates4 ,,stamps4 ,,regulation #db4 ,numbered meat-inspection stamps shall be affixed to packages containing meats or meat food products to be shipped or otherwise transported in interstate or foreign trade4 ,no reference to ,united ,states inspection other than that contained on the meat-inspection stamp shall appear on any such package4 ,,regulation #dc4 ,protection for ,stamps4--,stamps shall be affixed in the following manner1 and when they have been affixed they shall be covered immediately with a coating of transparent varnish or other similar substance4 7a7 ,the stamp may be affixed in a grooved space1 made by removing a portion of the wood1 of sufficient size to admit the stamp4 7b7 ,the stamp may be placed on either end of the package1 provided that the sides are made to project at least one-eighth of an inch to afford the necessary protection from abrasion4 ,,regulation #dd4 ,destruction of ,used ,stamps4--,whenever any package of meats or meat food products bearing the meat-inspection stamp shall have been opened and its contents removed for sale the stamp on said package shall be immediately defaced and destroyed4 ,,certificates ,,for ,,exports4 ,,regulation #de4 ,the inspector in charge of an establishment shall issue certificates of inspection for all carcasses of cattle1 sheep1 swine1 and goats1 and the meats or meat food products thereof1 which are to be exported to foreign countries4 ,each certificate shall cite the name of the shipper1 the name of the consignee1 the destination1 the establishment number or numbers on the labels1 the numbers of the stamps attached to the article to be exported1 and the shipping marks4 ,these certificates shall be issued in serial numbers and in triplicate form4 ,only one certificate shall be issued for each consignment unless otherwise directed by the ,chief of the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry4 ,both the original and duplicate certificates shall be delivered to the exporter4 ,the original is to be attached to the bill of lading accompanying the shipment for the information of the customs authorities1 and shall be delivered to the chief officer of the vessel upon which said consignment is to be transported1 and continue with the shipment to destination4 ,the duplicate shall be forwarded by the consigner to the consignee1 to be used by the latter in identifying the shipment at the point of destination by comparison with the original4 ,,counterfeiting1 ,,etc4 ,,regulation #df4 ,it is a misdemeanor1 punishable by fine and imprisonment1 for any person1 firm1 or corporation1 or officer1 agent1 or employee thereof1 to forge1 counterfeit1 simulate1 or falsely represent1 or without proper authority to use1 fail to use1 or detach1 or knowingly or wrongfully to alter1 deface1 or destroy1 or to fail to deface or destroy1 any of the marks1 stamps1 tags1 labels1 or other identification devices provided for by law or by these regulations1 on any carcasses1 parts of carcasses1 or the food product1 or the containers thereof1 or wrongfully to use1 deface1 or destroy any certificate provided for by law or these regulations4 ,,reports4 ,,regulation #dg4 ,reports of the work of inspection carried on in every establishment shall be daily forwarded to the ,department by the inspector in charge1 on such blank forms and in such manner as may be specified by the ,chief of the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry4 ,the proprietors of establishments at which inspection is maintained shall furnish daily to the ,department employees detailed to the various departments accurate information regarding receipts1 shipments1 and amounts of products on which to base their daily reports4 ,weekly reports on sanitation shall be made by the ,department employees in charge of the various departments to the inspector in charge of the station1 and by the inspector in charge to the ,chief of the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry4 ,if any insanitary conditions are detected by any ,department employee such conditions shall be reported immediately to the inspector in charge1 who1 after investigation1 shall report them to the ,chief of the ,bureau4 ,,appeals4 ,,regulation #dh4 ,when the action of any inspector in condemning any carcass or part thereof1 meat1 or meat food product is questioned1 appeal may be made to the inspector in charge1 and from his decision appeal may be made to the ,chief of the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry or to the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 whose decision shall be final4 ,,co,,peration ,,with ,,municipal ,,authorities4 ,,regulation #di4 ,all inspectors in charge are directed to notify the municipal authorities of the character of inspection1 and to coperate with such authorities in preventing the entry of condemned animals1 or their products1 into the local markets4 ,the details of any such proposed coperative arrangement must be first submitted to and approved by the ,chief of the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry4 ,,law ,,under ,,which ,,the ,,foregoing ,,regulations ,,are ,,made4 ,extract from an act of ,congress entitled 8,an ,act making appropriations for the ,department of ,agriculture for the fiscal year ending ,june thirtieth1 nineteen hundred and seven10 ,public1 ,no4 #chb1 approved ,june #cj1 #aijf4 ,,the ,,meat-,,inspection ,,amendment4 ,that for the purpose of preventing the use in interstate or foreign commerce1 as hereinafter provided1 of meat and meat food products1 which are unsound1 unhealthful1 unwholesome1 or otherwise unfit for human food1 the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 at his discretion1 may cause to be made1 by inspectors appointed for that purpose1 an examination and inspection of all cattle1 sheep1 swine1 and goats before they shall be allowed to enter into any slaughtering1 packing1 meat-canning1 rendering1 or similar establishment1 in which they are to be slaughtered and the meat and meat food products thereof are to be used in interstate or foreign commerce2 and all cattle1 swine1 sheep1 and goats found on such inspection to show symptoms of disease shall be set apart and slaughtered separately from all other cattle1 sheep1 swine1 or goats1 and when so slaughtered the carcasses of said cattle1 sheep1 swine1 or goats shall be subject to a careful examination and inspection1 all as provided by the rules and regulations to be prescribed by the ,secretary of ,agriculture as herein provided for4 ,that for the purposes hereinbefore set forth the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall cause to be made by inspectors appointed for that purpose1 as hereinafter provided1 a post-mortem examination and inspection of the carcasses and parts thereof of all cattle1 sheep1 swine1 and goats to be prepared for human consumption at any slaughtering1 meat-canning1 salting1 packing1 rendering1 or similar establishment in any ,state1 ,territory1 or the ,district of ,columbia for transportation or sale as articles of interstate or foreign commerce2 and the carcasses and parts thereof of all such animals found to be sound1 healthful1 wholesome1 and fit for human food shall be marked1 stamped1 tagged1 or labeled as 8,inspected and ,passed02 and said inspectors shall label1 mark1 stamp1 or tag as 8,inspected and ,condemned10 all carcasses and parts thereof of animals found to be unsound1 unhealthful1 unwholesome1 or otherwise unfit for human food2 and all carcasses and parts thereof thus inspected and condemned shall be destroyed for food purposes by the said establishment in the presence of an inspector1 and the ,secretary of ,agriculture may remove inspectors from any such establishment which fails to so destroy any such condemned carcass or part thereof1 and said inspectors1 after said first inspection shall1 when they deem it necessary1 reinspect said carcasses or parts thereof to determine whether since the first inspection the same have become unsound1 unhealthful1 unwholesome1 or in any way unfit for human food1 and if any carcass or any part thereof shall1 upon examination and inspection subsequent to the first examination and inspection1 be found to be unsound1 unhealthful1 unwholesome1 or otherwise unfit for human food1 it shall be destroyed for food purposes by the said establishment in the presence of an inspector1 and the ,secretary of ,agriculture may remove inspectors from any establishment which fails to so destroy any such condemned carcass or part thereof4 ,the foregoing provisions shall apply to all carcasses or parts of carcasses of cattle1 sheep1 swine1 and goats1 or the meat or meat products thereof which may be brought into any slaughtering1 meat-canning1 salting1 packing1 rendering1 or similar establishment1 and such examination and inspection shall be had before the said carcasses or parts thereof shall be allowed to enter into any department wherein the same are to be treated and prepared for meat food products2 and the foregoing provisions shall also apply to all such products which1 after having been issued from any slaughtering1 meat-canning1 salting1 packing1 rendering1 or similar establishment1 shall be returned to the same or to any similar establishment where such inspection is maintained4 ,that for the purposes hereinbefore set forth the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall cause to be made by inspectors appointed for that purpose an examination and inspection of all meat food products prepared for interstate or foreign commerce in any slaughtering1 meat-canning1 salting1 packing1 rendering1 or similar establishment1 and for the purposes of any examination and inspection said inspectors shall have access at all times1 by day or night1 whether the establishment be operated or not1 to every part of said establishment2 and said inspectors shall mark1 stamp1 tag1 or label as 8,inspected and ,passed0 all such products found to be sound1 healthful1 and wholesome1 and which contain no dyes1 chemicals1 preservatives1 or ingredients which render such meat or meat food products unsound1 unhealthful1 unwholesome1 or unfit for human food2 and said inspectors shall label1 mark1 stamp1 or tag as 8,inspected and ,condemned0 all such products found unsound1 unhealthful1 and unwholesome1 or which contain dyes1 chemicals1 preservatives1 or ingredients which render such meat or meat food products unsound1 unhealthful1 unwholesome1 or unfit for human food1 and all such condemned meat food products shall be destroyed for food purposes1 as hereinbefore provided1 and the ,secretary of ,agriculture may remove inspectors from any establishment which fails to so destroy such condemned meat food products3 ,provided1 ,that1 subject to the rules and regulations of the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 the provisions hereof in regard to preservatives shall not apply to meat food products for export to any foreign country and which are prepared or packed according to the specifications or directions of the foreign purchaser1 when no substance is used in the preparation or packing thereof in conflict with the laws of the foreign country to which said article is to be exported2 but if said article shall be in fact sold or offered for sale for domestic use or consumption1 then this proviso shall not exempt said article from the operation of all the other provisions of this act4 ,that when any meat or meat food product prepared for interstate or foreign commerce which has been inspected as hereinbefore provided and marked 8,inspected and ,passed0 shall be placed or packed in any can1 pot1 tin1 canvas1 or other receptacle or covering in any establishment where inspection under the provisions of this act is maintained1 the person1 firm1 or corporation preparing said product shall cause a label to be attached to said can1 pot1 tin1 canvas1 or other receptacle or covering1 under the supervision of an inspector1 which label shall state that the contents thereof have been 8,inspected and ,passed0 under the provisions of this act2 and no inspection and examination of meat or meat food products deposited or inclosed in cans1 tins1 pots1 canvas1 or other receptacle or covering in any establishment where inspection under the provisions of this act is maintained shall be deemed to be complete until such meat or meat food products have been sealed or inclosed in said can1 tin1 pot1 canvas1 or other receptacle or covering under the supervision of an inspector1 and no such meat or meat food products shall be sold or offered for sale by any person1 firm1 or corporation in interstate or foreign commerce under any false or deceptive name2 but established trade name or names which are usual to such products and which are not false and deceptive and which shall be approved by the ,secretary of ,agriculture are permitted4 ,the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall cause to be made1 by experts in sanitation or by other competent inspectors1 such inspection of all slaughtering1 meat-canning1 salting1 packing1 rendering1 or similar establishments in which cattle1 sheep1 swine1 and goats are slaughtered and the meat and meat food products thereof are prepared for interstate or foreign commerce as may be necessary to inform himself concerning the sanitary conditions of the same1 and to prescribe the rules and regulations of sanitation under which such establishments shall be maintained2 and where the sanitary conditions of any such establishment are such that the meat or meat food products are rendered unclean1 unsound1 unhealthful1 unwholesome1 or otherwise unfit for human food1 he shall refuse to allow said meat or meat food products to be labeled1 marked1 stamped1 or tagged as 8,inspected and ,passed40 ,that the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall cause an examination and inspection of all cattle1 sheep1 swine1 and goats1 and the food products thereof1 slaughtered and prepared in the establishments hereinbefore described for the purposes of interstate or foreign commerce to be made during the nighttime as well as during the daytime when the slaughtering of said cattle1 sheep1 swine1 and goats1 or the preparation of said food products is conducted during the nighttime4 ,that on and after ,october first1 nineteen hundred and six1 no person1 firm1 or corporation shall transport or offer for transportation1 and no carrier of interstate or foreign commerce shall transport or receive for transportation from one ,state or ,territory or the ,district of ,columbia to any other ,state or ,territory or the ,district of ,columbia1 or to any place under the jurisdiction of the ,united ,states1 or to any foreign country1 any carcasses or parts thereof1 meat1 or meat food products thereof which have not been inspected1 examined1 and marked as 8,inspected and ,passed10 in accordance with the terms of this act and with the rules and regulations prescribed by the ,secretary of ,agriculture3 ,provided1 ,that all meat and meat food products on hand on ,october first1 nineteen hundred and six1 at establishments where inspection has not been maintained1 or which have been inspected under existing law1 shall be examined and labeled under such rules and regulations as the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall prescribe1 and then shall be allowed to be sold in interstate or foreign commerce4 ,that no person1 firm1 or corporation1 or officer1 agent1 or employee thereof1 shall forge1 counterfeit1 simulate1 or falsely represent1 or shall without proper authority use1 fail to use1 or detach1 or shall knowingly or wrongfully alter1 deface1 or destroy1 or fail to deface or destroy1 any of the marks1 stamps1 tags1 labels1 or other identification devices provided for in this act1 or in and as directed by the rules and regulations prescribed hereunder by the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 on any carcasses1 parts of carcasses1 or the food product1 or containers thereof1 subject to the provisions of this act1 or any certificate in relation thereto1 authorized or required by this act or by the said rules and regulations of the ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,that the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall cause to be made a careful inspection of all cattle1 sheep1 swine1 and goats intended and offered for export to foreign countries at such times and places1 and in such manner as he may deem proper1 to ascertain whether such cattle1 sheep1 swine1 and goats are free from disease4 ,and for this purpose he may appoint inspectors who shall be authorized to give an official certificate clearly stating the condition in which such cattle1 sheep1 swine1 and goats are found4 ,and no clearance shall be given to any vessel having on board cattle1 sheep1 swine1 or goats for export to a foreign country until the owner or shipper of such cattle1 sheep1 swine1 or goats has a certificate from the inspector herein authorized to be appointed1 stating that the said cattle1 sheep1 swine1 or goats1 are sound and healthy or unless the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall have waived the requirement of such certificate for export to the particular country to which such cattle1 sheep1 swine1 or goats are to be exported4 ,that the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall also cause to be made a careful inspection of the carcasses and parts thereof of all cattle1 sheep1 swine1 and goats1 the meat of which1 fresh1 salted1 canned1 corned1 packed1 cured1 or otherwise prepared1 is intended and offered for export to any foreign country1 at such times and places and in such manner as he may deem proper4 ,and for this purpose he may appoint inspectors who shall be authorized to give an official certificate stating the condition in which said cattle1 sheep1 swine1 or goats1 and the meat thereof1 are found4 ,and no clearance shall be given to any vessel having on board any fresh1 salted1 canned1 corned1 or packed beef1 mutton1 pork1 or goat meat1 being the meat of animals killed after the passage of this act1 or except as hereinbefore provided for export to and sale in a foreign country from any port in the ,united ,states1 until the owner or shipper thereof shall obtain from an inspector appointed under the provisions of this act a certificate that the said cattle1 sheep1 swine1 and goats were sound and healthy at the time of inspection1 and that their meat is sound and wholesome1 unless the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall have waived the requirements of such certificate for the country to which said cattle1 sheep1 swine1 and goats or meats are to be exported4 ,that the inspectors provided for herein shall be authorized to give official certificates of the sound and wholesome condition of the cattle1 sheep1 swine1 and goats1 their carcasses and products as herein described1 and one copy of every certificate granted under the provisions of this act shall be filed in the ,department of ,agriculture1 another copy shall be delivered to the owner or shipper1 and when the cattle1 sheep1 swine1 and goats or their carcasses and products are sent abroad1 a third copy shall be delivered to the chief officer of the vessel on which the shipment shall be made4 ,that no person1 firm1 or corporation engaged in the interstate commerce of meat or meat food products shall transport or offer for transportation1 sell1 or offer to sell any such meat or meat food products in any ,state or ,territory or in the ,district of ,columbia or any place under the jurisdiction of the ,united ,states1 other than in the ,state or ,territory or in the ,district of ,columbia or any place under the jurisdiction of the ,united ,states in which the slaughtering1 packing1 canning1 rendering1 or other similar establishment owned1 leased1 operated by said firm1 person1 or corporation is located unless and until said person1 firm1 or corporation shall have complied with all of the provisions of this act4 ,that any person1 firm1 or corporation1 or any officer or agent of any such person1 firm1 or corporation1 who shall violate any of the provisions of this act shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be punished on conviction thereof by a fine of not exceeding ten thousand dollars or imprisonment for a period not more than two years1 or by both such fine and imprisonment1 in the discretion of the court4 ,that the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall appoint from time to time inspectors to make examination and inspection of all cattle1 sheep1 swine1 and goats1 the inspection of which is hereby provided for1 and of all carcasses and parts thereof1 and of all meats and meat food products thereof1 and of the sanitary conditions of all establishments in which such meat and meat food products hereinbefore described are prepared2 and said inspectors shall refuse to stamp1 mark1 tag1 or label any carcass or any part thereof1 or meat food product therefrom1 prepared in any establishment hereinbefore mentioned1 until the same shall have actually been inspected and found to be sound1 healthful1 wholesome1 and fit for human food1 and to contain no dyes1 chemicals1 preservatives1 or ingredients which render such meat food product unsound1 unhealthful1 unwholesome1 or unfit for human food2 and to have been prepared under proper sanitary conditions1 hereinbefore provided for2 and shall perform such other duties as are provided by this act and by the rules and regulations to be prescribed by said ,secretary of ,agriculture2 and said ,secretary of ,agriculture shall1 from time to time1 make such rules and regulations as are necessary for the efficient execution of the provisions of this act1 and all inspections and examinations made under this act shall be such and made in such manner as described in the rules and regulations prescribed by said ,secretary of ,agriculture not inconsistent with the provisions of this act4 ,that any person1 firm1 or corporation1 or any agent or employee of any person1 firm1 or corporation1 who shall give1 pay1 or offer1 directly1 or indirectly1 to any inspector1 deputy inspector1 chief inspector1 or any other officer or employee of the ,united ,states authorized to perform any of the duties prescribed by this act or by the rules and regulations of the ,secretary of ,agriculture any money or other thing of value1 with intent to influence said inspector1 deputy inspector1 chief inspector1 or other officer or employee of the ,united ,states in the discharge of any duty herein provided for1 shall be deemed guilty of a felony and1 upon conviction thereof1 shall be punished by a fine not less than five thousand dollars nor more than ten thousand dollars and by imprisonment not less than one year nor more than three years2 and any inspector1 deputy inspector1 chief inspector1 or other officer or employee of the ,united ,states authorized to perform any of the duties prescribed by this act who shall accept any money1 gift1 or other thing of value from any person1 firm1 or corporation1 or officers1 agents1 or employees thereof1 given with intent to influence his official action1 or who shall receive or accept from any person1 firm1 or corporation engaged in interstate or foreign commerce1 any gift1 money1 or other thing of value given with any purpose or intent whatsoever1 shall be deemed guilty of a felony1 and shall1 upon conviction thereof1 be summarily discharged from office and shall be punished by a fine not less than one thousand dollars nor more than ten thousand dollars and by imprisonment not less than one year nor more than three years4 ,that the provisions of this act requiring inspection to be made by the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall not apply to animals slaughtered by any farmer on the farm and sold and transported as interstate or foreign commerce1 nor to retail butchers and retail dealers in meat and meat food products1 supplying their customers3 ,provided1 ,that if any person shall sell or offer for sale or transportation for interstate or foreign commerce any meat or meat food products which are diseased1 unsound1 unhealthful1 unwholesome1 or otherwise unfit for human food1 knowing that such meat food products are intended for human consumption1 he shall be guilty of a misdemeanor1 and on conviction thereof shall be punished by a fine not exceeding one thousand dollars or by imprisonment for a period of not exceeding one year1 or by both such fine and imprisonment3 ,provided1 also1 ,that the ,secretary of ,agriculture is authorized to maintain the inspection in this act provided for at any slaughtering1 meat-canning1 salting1 packing1 rendering1 or similar establishment notwithstanding this exception1 and that the persons operating the same may be retail butchers and retail dealers or farmers2 and where the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall establish such inspection then the provisions of this act shall apply notwithstanding this exception4 ,that there is permanently appropriated1 out of any money in the ,treasury not otherwise appropriated1 the sum of three million dollars1 for the expenses of the inspection of cattle1 sheep1 swine1 and goats and the meat and meat food products thereof which enter into interstate or foreign commerce and for all expenses necessary to carry into effect the provisions of this act relating to meat inspection1 including rent and the employment of labor in ,washington and elsewhere1 for each year4 ,and the ,secretary of ,agriculture shall1 in his annual estimates made to ,congress1 submit a statement in detail1 showing the number of persons employed in such inspections and the salary or per diem paid to each1 together with the contingent expenses of such inspectors and where they have been and are employed4 ,,appendix ,d4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #a-be4 ,,united ,,states ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,bureau ,,of ,,chemistry1 ,h4 ,w4 ,,wiley1 ,,chief ,,of ,,bureau4 ,,food ,,inspection ,,decisions #a-be4 ,,introduction4 ,for the information of importers and exporters of food products and of the public it is advisable to publish more widely than would be possible by decisions given to individuals or firms the opinions of this ,department rendered by the ,secretary under the existing law relating to the examination of food products before shipment to foreign countries and to the examination of food products imported into this country4 ,the following digest shows the principal decisions rendered to date covering these points1 together with circulars and other printed matter relating thereto4 ,it is proposed hereafter to issue at convenient intervals similar decisions and opinions which may be rendered4 ,h4 ,w4 ,,wiley1 ,chief1 ,bureau of ,chemistry4 ,approved3 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,june #a1 #aije4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #a47 ,,laws ,,under ,,which ,,the ,,food ,,inspection ,,is ,,conducted4 ,to investigate the adulteration of foods1 condiments1 beverages1 and drugs1 when deemed by the ,secretary of ,agriculture advisable1 and to publish the results of such investigations when thought advisable1 and also the effect of cold storage upon the healthfulness of foods2 to enable the ,secretary of ,agriculture to investigate the character of food preservatives1 coloring matters1 and other substances added to foods1 to determine their relation to digestion and to health1 and to establish the principles which should guide their use2 to enable the ,secretary of ,agriculture to investigate the character of the chemical and physical tests which are applied to ,american food products in foreign countries1 and to inspect before shipment1 when desired by the shippers or owners of these food products1 ,american food products intended for countries where chemical and physical tests are required before said food products are allowed to be sold in the countries mentioned1 and for all necessary expenses connected with such inspection and studies of methods of analysis in foreign countries2 to enable the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 in collaboration with the ,association of ,official ,agricultural ,chemists1 and such other experts as he may deem necessary1 to establish standards of purity for food products and to determine what are regarded as adulterations therein2 to investigate1 in collaboration with the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 the chemistry of dairy products and of adulterants used therein1 and of the adulterated products2 to determine the composition of process1 renovated1 or adulterated and other treated butters1 and other chemical studies relating to dairy products1 and to make all analyses of samples required for the execution of the law regulating the manufacture of process1 renovated1 or adulterated butters4444 ,to investigate the adulteration1 false labeling1 or false branding of foods1 drugs1 beverages1 condiments1 and ingredients of such articles1 when deemed by the ,secretary of ,agriculture advisable1 and report the result in the bulletins of the ,department2 and the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 whenever he has reason to believe that such articles are being imported from foreign countries which are dangerous to the health of the people of the ,united ,states1 or which shall be falsely labeled or branded either as to their contents or as to the place of their manufacture or production1 shall make a request upon the ,secretary of the ,treasury for samples from original packages of such articles for inspection and analysis1 and the ,secretary of the ,treasury is hereby authorized to open such original packages and deliver specimens to the ,secretary of ,agriculture for the purpose mentioned1 giving notice to the owner or consignee of such articles1 who may be present and have the right to introduce testimony2 and the ,secretary of the ,treasury shall refuse delivery to the consignee of any such goods which the ,secretary of ,agriculture reports to him to have been inspected and analyzed and found to be dangerous to health or falsely labeled or branded either as to their contents or as to the place of their manufacture or production1 or which are forbidden entry or to be sold1 or are restricted in sale in the countries in which they are made or from which they are exported4444 7,sections of appropriations act of ,march #c1 #aije47 ,be it enacted by the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives of the ,united ,states of ,america in ,congress assembled1 ,that no person or persons1 company or corporation1 shall introduce into any ,state or ,territory of the ,united ,states or the ,district of ,columbia from any other ,state or ,territory of the ,united ,states or the ,district of ,columbia1 or sell in the ,district of ,columbia or in any ,territory any dairy or food products which shall be falsely labeled or branded as to the ,state or ,territory in which they are made1 produced1 or grown1 or cause or procure the same to be done by others4 ,,sec4 #b4 ,that if any person or persons violate the provisions of this act1 either in person or through another1 he shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be punished by a fine of not less than five hundred nor more than two thousand dollars2 and that the jurisdiction for the prosecution of said misdemeanor shall be within the district of the ,united ,states court in which it is committed4 7,act of ,july #a1 #aijb47 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #b47 ,,opinions ,,of ,,the ,,attorney-,,general ,,relating ,,to ,,the ,,scope ,,and ,,meaning ,,of ,,the ,,act ,,of ,,july #a1 #aijb 7#cb ,,stat41 #fcb71 ,,regulating ,,the ,,branding ,,of ,,dairy ,,and ,,food ,,products ,,for ,,interstate ,,commerce4#dh #dh ,published as an unnumbered circular1 ,office of the ,secretary4 ,august #a1 #aijc4 ,in order that a correct understanding might be had as to the scope of the law relating to the branding of dairy and food products1 the opinion of the ,attorney-,general was asked concerning certain features of that act4 ,samples of labels which were used in commercial operations were submitted1 with the request that an opinion be given as to whether or not they conformed to the provisions of the law4 ,two separate opinions were asked of the ,attorney-,general in regard to this law4 ,first1 in the case of a firm1 ---- ----1 established in one ,state and dealing in goods which were grown and manufactured in another ,state1 the labels1 however1 bearing the name and address of the firm in its central place of business1 the direct question asked was3 ,is not the label as it stands a distinct statement that the product bearing it is manufactured and prepared in 7address of the firm given78 ,one particular object of the law appears to be to prevent the utilization of the name of localities which have become noted for the production of a certain food product in connection with other food products of a similar nature made elsewhere4 ,the second point on which the opinion of the ,attorney-,general was asked was as follows3 ,the question which ,i desire to propose to you now is1 whether1 under the provisions of the two acts referred to 7,public--,no4 #aeh1 approved ,march #c1 #aijc1 regulating the importation of goods1 and the act first mentioned above7 it will be possible to prevent the misbranding of foreign products4 ,in other words1 would the provisions of ,public--,no4 #bbc1 referred to first above1 apply to any foreign product entering into interstate commerce1 or do they apply only to articles of food of domestic manufacture8 ,from correspondence conducted with large manufacturing firms1 it is evident that they desire at once to conform to the provisions of these laws if they can only be distinctly made known4 ,to this end ,i have deemed it advisable to publish the decisions of the ,attorney-,general on these questions1 omitting merely the names of the firms specifically referred to1 for the information of manufacturers1 dealers1 and consumers4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,department ,,of ,,justice1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,june #bb1 #aijc4 ,,the ,,secretary ,,of ,,agriculture4 ,,sir3 ,i beg to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the #aath instant1 inclosing one addressed to you by the ---- ---- ,company1 of ,milwaukee1 ,wis41 together with two samples of labels which they have submitted for your approval1 and in which you say3 ,these labels do not seem to fall within either class on which you passed your opinion of ,september #bj4 ,the goods described by these labels purport to be in every respect goods manufactured by the ---- ---- ,company4 ,they say in their letter1 however1 that they purchase all their goods in ,iowa4 ,the question which ,i desire to propound particularly in this respect is the following3 ,is not the label of ---- ----1 as it stands1 a distinct statement that the product bearing it is manufactured and prepared in ,wisconsin8 ,one of the labels considered in the opinion of ,september #bj 7#bd ,opin41 #abe7 read3 8,packed for ---- ---- ,company 7,limited71 wholesale grocers1 ,shreveport1 ,la40 ,the other omitted the words 8,packed for0 and 8,wholesale grocers10 and was in these words3 8,the ---- ,brand ,lima ,beans1 ---- ---- ,company 7,limited71 ,shreveport1 ,la40 ,they were held not to come within the act of ,july #a1 #aijb1 c4 #aceg 7#cb ,stat41 #fcb71 regulating this subject4 ,the labels now submitted 7which are to be used on canned goods7 are substantially alike in form and character4 ,one bears the words 8---- ---- ,daisy ,sugar ,corn1 ---- ---- ,company1 ,milwaukee1 ,wis40 ,in the other1 8,tip ,top0 takes the place of the word 8,daisy40 ,section #a of the act of ,july #a1 #aijb1 provides-- ,that no person or persons1 company or corporation1 shall introduce into any ,state or ,territory of the ,united ,states or the ,district of ,columbia from any other ,state or ,territory of the ,united ,states or the ,district of ,columbia1 or sell in the ,district of ,columbia or in any ,territory any dairy or food products which shall be falsely labeled or branded as to the ,state or ,territory in which they are made1 produced1 or grown1 or cause or procure the same to be done by others4 ,section #b makes a violation of the act a misdemeanor1 punishable by a fine of not less than #ejj or more than #b1jjj4 ,in the opinion of ,september #bj1 after stating that the mere omission of the place of manufacture can not be said to constitute a violation of the law and that the name of the wholesale dealer on the label or brand is not necessarily a representation that he is the producer or manufacturer of the goods1 it was observed3 8,of course1 if goods are manufactured or produced in one ,state1 and the wholesale dealer is a resident of another1 and the label or brand is so worded as to represent the dealer as the producer1 there would be a violation of the law if such commodities were introduced into one state from another40 ,the ---- ---- ,company1 it is stated1 purchases all their goods in ,iowa4 ,but the words 8---- ,daisy ,sugar ,corn1 ---- ---- ,company1 ,milwaukee1 ,wis410 clearly imply that the goods referred to are manufactured or prepared by that company in ,wisconsin4 ,the general public1 unfamiliar with trade practices1 would inevitably reach that conclusion4 ,it seems to me1 therefore1 that these labels come within the statute as above construed4 ,to hold otherwise would be to say that nothing short of direct and positive misrepresentation is inhibited4 ,but that is more than the rule as to the strict construction of penal statutes can be said to require4 ,the act in question aims to prevent the false labeling or branding of food and dairy products entering into interstate commerce4 ,it does not1 however1 undertake to say what shall be held to constitute a false label or brand4 ,each case must therefore rest upon its own particular facts4 ,but wherever the natural inference to be drawn from the form or words of a brand or label is contrary to the fact as to the ,state or ,territory in which the articles referred to are made1 produced1 or grown1 the case would seem to be within both the letter and the spirit of the law4 ,the papers inclosed are herewith returned as requested4 ,respectfully1 ,p4 ,c4 ,,knox1 ,attorney-,general4 ,,department ,,of ,,justice1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,june #ah1 #aijc4 ,the ,honorable the ,,secretary ,,of ,,agriculture4 ,,sir3 ,in your note of ,june #b1 #aijc1 you transmit to me an excerpt from the appropriation act of ,march #c1 #aijc 7#cb ,stat41 #aaeg1 #aaeh71 authorizing the ,secretary of ,agriculture to investigate the adulteration of foods1 drugs1 and liquors1 and forbidding the ,secretary of the ,treasury to deliver to the consignee any such goods imported from a foreign country which the ,secretary of ,agriculture has 8reported to him to have been inspected and analyzed and found to be dangerous to health1 or which are forbidden to be sold or restricted in sale in the countries in which they are made or from which they are imported1 or which shall be falsely labeled in any respect in regard to the place of manufacture or the contents of the package10 and a copy of the act of ,july #a1 #aijb 7#cb ,stat41 #fcb71 in regard to the introduction into any ,state or ,territory or the ,district of ,columbia of any dairy or food products which shall have been falsely labeled or branded as to the ,state or ,territory in which they are made1 produced1 or grown2 and you ask my opinion1 in substance1 whether1 under the provisions referred to1 you have jurisdiction or power to prevent the false labeling or branding of such articles imported from foreign countries after they have passed the custom-house and are delivered to the consignees2 and whether the act last referred to above applies to such articles imported from foreign countries1 or applies only to articles of domestic production4 ,in reply to your question1 ,i have the honor to say that1 under the provisions of the act of ,march #c1 #aijc1 to which you refer1 the jurisdiction and power of your ,department1 and that of the ,treasury ,department1 in respect of the matter here considered1 end with the delivery of the imported article from the custom-house to the owner or consignee1 and this provision of the act confers no power to prevent or punish the false labeling or branding of such imported articles after such delivery to the owner or consignee4 ,the whole power there conferred in this respect is to examine such imported articles before such delivery1 and to refuse delivery if found to come within the ban of the act4 ,whatever power there may be to prevent or punish the false labeling or branding of such imported goods after such delivery must be looked for elsewhere4 ,if the evils of false labeling of such imported articles have reached a magnitude requiring ,congressional legislation1 it would seem almost1 or quite1 as important to prevent such false labeling after the articles have passed the custom-house as before2 and it would seem that ,congress1 while having the matter directly in hand1 has omitted what would have been very appropriate legislation4 ,but this omission cannot be supplied by those called upon to interpret or administer the law4 ,but ,i think the act of ,july #a1 #aijb1 may be resorted to for partial relief from the evil to which you refer4 ,the first section provides3 ,that no person 444 shall introduce into any ,state or ,territory of the ,united ,states or the ,district of ,columbia1 from any other ,state or ,territory of the ,united ,states or the ,district of ,columbia1 or sell in the ,district of ,columbia or in any ,territory1 any dairy or food products which shall be falsely labeled or branded as to the ,state or ,territory in which they are made1 produced1 or grown1 or cause or procure the same to be done by others4 ,the second section provides the penalty for violation of the act4 ,the prohibition is of the introduction into any ,state or ,territory or the ,district of ,columbia from any other ,state or ,territory or the ,district of ,columbia1 and the sale in said ,district or any ,territory1 of dairy or food products which are 8falsely branded or labeled as to the ,state or ,territory in which they are made1 produced1 or grown40 ,it is important to notice that the prohibition extends to falsely labeled articles introduced or brought from another ,state or ,territory1 and is not confined to articles which are made1 produced1 or grown in some other ,state or ,territory of the ,united ,states4 ,if dairy or food products which are falsely labeled or branded as to the ,state or ,territory of their origin are introduced or brought into one ,state or ,territory or the ,district of ,columbia from another ,state or ,territory or the ,district of ,columbia1 or are sold in any ,territory or said ,district1 this is clearly within the prohibition of the act1 no matter whether such articles were of domestic or foreign origin4 ,i repeat the section does not confine or purport to confine its prohibition to the introduction of falsely labeled articles made1 grown1 or produced in this country1 but extends it to all such articles introduced from another ,state or ,territory which are falsely labeled 8as to the ,state or ,territory in which they are made1 produced1 or grown40 ,but1 as ,i have stated above1 the act can give only partial relief4 ,for it is plain from the context that the words 8,state or ,territory0 refer to a ,state or ,territory of the ,united ,states1 and can not be extended to include the wider signification of foreign country4 ,thus1 if articles of foreign origin are imported into ,new ,york1 for example1 and thence introduced into another ,state or ,territory with a label or brand falsely stating their origin as to another foreign country1 the case would not fall within the provisions of the statute4 ,on the other hand1 it is certain that if foreign articles imported into ,new ,york are introduced into another ,state or ,territory with a label or brand showing them to be of ,new ,york make or growth1 such articles would be 8falsely labeled or branded as to the ,state or ,territory in which they are made1 produced1 or grown10 and such introduction would be within both the letter and the spirit and purpose of the act4 ,in this respect ,congress can interfere only with interstate trade4 ,it can prevent the use of false labels of dairy or food products only when they become objects of commerce between different ,states or ,territories4 ,hence1 the prohibition is confined to articles introduced from one ,state or ,territory into another4 ,but this does not imply1 nor is there anything to imply1 that the prohibition is confined also to articles made1 produced1 or grown in the ,state or ,territory from which they are introduced1 or to articles of domestic origin4 ,it is the use of false labels on dairy and food products in interstate commerce which is prohibited4 ,and if it is interstate commerce1 it is quite unimportant whether the articles falsely labeled were of domestic or foreign origin4 ,if an imported article of foreign origin is labeled as of domestic origin1 the article is 8falsely labeled or branded as to the ,state or ,territory in which it is made1 produced1 or grown20 and if such article1 thus falsely labeled1 is introduced from one ,state or ,territory into another or the ,district of ,columbia1 it is a violation of the act4 ,nor does it make any difference in this respect whether the false label or brand be placed on the article before or after leaving the custom-house in a case of foreign importation4 ,if it were required1 a familiar rule of construction might be invoked in support of this interpretation4 ,statutes should be construed in aid of their manifest purpose and object4 ,and when it is considered that the sole purpose of this act is to prevent the use of false labels or brands of dairy or food products1 when articles of interstate commerce1 it is manifest that a construction which limits the prohibition to domestic articles would defeat rather than aid the purpose of the act4 ,indeed1 the greater and more prevalent evil in this respect is not in falsely stating a particular ,state or ,territory as the origin of a domestic article1 but is the labeling of a foreign article as the product of some particular ,state or ,territory1 or vice vers4 ,this is the more serious and prevalent evil1 and in my opinion is as certainly forbidden by the act referred to as is the labeling of an article of one ,state or ,territory as being the product of another4 ,i am1 therefore1 of opinion that the act of ,july #a1 #aijb1 applies not only to domestic articles1 but also to those imported from foreign countries which are labeled as being of domestic origin4 ,respectfully1 ,p4 ,c4 ,,knox1 ,attorney-,general4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #c47 ,,notice ,,to ,,exporters ,,of ,,wines4 ,a ,,recent ,,law ,,passed ,,by ,,the ,,argentine ,,republic4 ,november1 #aijd4 ,the ,argentine ,republic has passed a new law relating to wines1 and especially covering the conditions under which wines are to be imported into that country from foreign countries4 ,there are many provisions of the law which should be known to the producers and exporters of wines from the ,united ,states4 ,the full text of the new law of the ,argentine ,republic is given below3 ,,article #a4 ,only those wines obtained by the fermentation of fresh grapes1 or simply estacionado1 will be considered as natural wines in the ,argentine ,republic4 ,,article #b4 ,for the purpose of the present law and of its penal dispositions the following will not be considered as natural wines3 #a4 ,those manufactured with dried grapes4 #b4 ,those manufactured with the cluster 7bunch74 #c4 ,those to which there shall have been added substances which1 though natural in natural wines1 alter the composition of them or modify the equilibrium of the substances composing a natural wine4 #d4 ,red wines containing more than #c4e percent or less than #b4d percent of dry extract1 the reducing sugar having been deducted4 ,the executive is empowered to authorize a lower limit to the minimum below for bottled or dessert wines4 #e4 ,white wines containing less than #a4g percent of dry extract1 the reducing sugar having been deducted1 with the exception of fine wines in bottles4 #f4 ,mixtures of wines enumerated in the five preceding paragraphs with natural wines4 ,,article #c4 ,the following will be considered as lawful nological practices3 ,for musts3 ,the addition of saccharose 7sugar71 of concentrated must1 of citric1 malic1 tartaric1 and sulfurous acids1 pure and neutralized by pure potassium and calcium carbonates4 ,for wines3 ,the addition of citric1 tartaric1 malic1 tannic1 and carbonic acids1 of potassium and calcium carbonate1 of neutral potassium tartrate1 of sulfites of sodium and calcium1 and of pure sulfurous anhydrids4 ,pure kaolin and pure albumens and gelatins may be employed in the clarification of wines4 ,,article #d4 ,it is absolutely forbidden to add to the wine or to sell as such-- #a4 ,liquids containing foreign coloring matters1 glucose from starch1 mineral acids1 saccharin and other artificial edulcorant matters1 abrastol1 salicylic acid and others analogous thereto1 salts of aluminum1 strontium1 barium1 lead1 and1 in general1 all bodies not normally existing in the musts of grapes4 #b4 ,wines containing more than #b grams of sulfate per liter4 ,a larger proportion will not be tolerated except for dessert wines4 #c4 ,wines containing more than #j4b percent of sodium chlorid4 #d4 ,wines containing per liter more than #bjj milligrams of sulfurous acid and #bj milligrams of free sulfurous anhydrid4 #e4 ,damaged wines or wines altered in consequence of disease may not be sold nor made the object of commerce4 ,these liquids shall be distilled under supervision of agents of the ,treasury or of the national chemical laboratories1 and only the alcohols resulting from their distillation may be utilized4 ,,article #e4 ,the executive is empowered to augment or modify the authorized nological corrections in conformity with the progress of science and the local conditions4 ,he is empowered to add1 likewise1 to those specified in the present law other substances recognized as injurious by their quantity or quality4 ,,article #f4 ,the following treatments followed in the preparation of fine wines are considered legal3 #a4 ,the mixture of several natural wines produced from different classes of grapes or from different harvests4 #b4 ,limited alcoholization in order to insure the preservation of wine4 #c4 ,the addition of concentrated must and of pure alcohol in order to obtain special dessert wines4 #d4 ,the addition of saccharose 7sugar71 of alcohol1 of aromatic and bitter substances1 in order to obtain wines whose composition is similar to vermouth or medicinal wines4 #e4 ,the addition of anhydrous carbonic acid and sugar for the preparation of sparkling wines4 ,the alcoholization authorized by the present law is for the purpose of insuring the preservation of wine4 ,the alcohol employed for this purpose and all other products1 the usage of which is authorized1 must be chemically pure4 ,,article #g4 ,the beverages enumerated in article #b and all other similar beverages shall bear the name of 8artificial beverages10 whatever be their nature or process of manufacture1 with the exception of sparkling wines1 vermouth1 medicinal wines1 and cider4 ,,article #h4 ,in case natural wines should contain a proportion of dry extract inferior or superior to that indicated in paragraphs #d and #e of article #b1 the source of this extract will be determined in so far as it concerns the wine of the country by the analysis of grapes serving for the manufacture of this wine1 and in so far as it concerns foreign wines by information based on official analytical data and of origin4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,,article #aj4 ,beverages which do not comply with the conditions determined by article #a may not be imported1 circulated1 or offered for sale as natural wines1 and must bear upon a part visible to the recipient the indication of the classification to which they correspond according to article #g above4 ,,article #aa4 ,foreign wines which shall be imported into the territory of ,argentine for consumption must be sold in the original casks showing their origin1 or put in bottles under the supervision of ,government agents and accompanied by certificates of analysis from the country where they have been made4 ,imported wines containing more than #c4e percent of dry extract free from reducing sugar shall be sold under the supervision of ,government agents4 ,,article #ab4 ,foreign wines shall be subjected to chemical analysis upon their entrance into the country2 native wines shall be subjected to the same treatment before being delivered for consumption4 ,this analysis will be made in the national laboratories established or to be established in ,buenos ,ayres1 ,rosario1 ,mendoza1 ,san ,juan1 ,entre ,rios1 ,cordoba1 ,catamarca1 ,salta1 and ,tucuman1 and in other localities where the ,government may decide to establish them4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,,article #ad4 ,the infractions of the provisions of article #aj of the law shall be punishable by the confiscation of the merchandise with or without a penalty of #ej centavos per liter or of a month's imprisonment of the offenders for each #a1jjj liters of liquid or fraction thereof4 ,,article #ae4 ,the infractions of the provisions of article #d shall be punished by the destruction of the wines and a fine of #cj paper centavos per liter1 or five days' imprisonment for each #a1jjj liters of liquid or fraction thereof4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,,article #ai4 ,the rules and proceedings established by law ,no4 #chhd will remain in force4 ,from ,january #a1 #aije1 foreign wines containing more than #c4e percent dry extract1 free of reducing sugar1 shall be subjected to the provisions of the tariff4 ,attention is particularly called to the character of the wines which will be admitted and the fact that such wines should be accompanied by an official certificate of composition and also of origin4 ,under the authority of ,congress the ,secretary of ,agriculture is authorized to furnish analyses and certificates of food products intended for export to foreign countries 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 ,no4 #a74 ,under this law exporters who desire analyses of their products to show that they are in conformity with the laws of the country to which they are exported may apply to the ,bureau of ,chemistry of the ,department of ,agriculture for such an investigation4 ,the analysis blanks for making the application1 instructions for taking the samples1 and form of affidavit to accompany the samples will be furnished intending exporters on application4 ,in this connection attention is called to the fact that often ,american food products are rejected at foreign ports1 and as a result thereof complaint is made to the ,state ,department and samples of the rejected foods are furnished for analysis4 ,the ,department of ,agriculture always complies with the requests of the ,state ,department for assistance in adjusting difficulties of this kind4 ,it is evident1 however1 that all such difficulties would be avoided by shippers taking advantage of the provision of the law quoted above1 to secure the proper certification of their products before shipment4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #d47 ,,suggestions ,,to ,,importers ,,of ,,food ,,products4#di #di ,circular ,no4 #ah1 ,bureau of ,chemistry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agr4 ,august #f1 #aijd4 ,in order to facilitate the execution of this law ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 ,no4 #a and to avoid any unnecessary delay in the inspection of products on arrival1 the attention of importers is called to the following suggestions3 #a4 ,the inspection of food products includes foods1 beverages1 and condiments1 and ingredients of such articles4 #b4 ,the inspection1 under the language of the law1 relates to the following points3 7a7 ,to ascertain if the imported products be injurious to health4 7b7 ,if they be falsely branded or labeled in regard to the contents of the packages4 7c7 ,if they be falsely branded or labeled as to the place of manufacture or production4 7d7 ,if they be forbidden entry to or be restricted in sale in the country in which they are made or from which they are exported4 #c4 ,a food product1 in the absence of contrary judicial interpretation1 will be deemed by the ,department of ,agriculture to be adulterated-- 7a7 ,if any valuable ingredient naturally present therein has been extracted4 7b7 ,if a less valuable ingredient has been substituted therefor4 7c7 ,if it be colored1 powdered1 or polished1 with intent to deceive1 or to make the article appear of a better quality than it really is4 7d7 ,if it be a substitute for or imitation of a genuine article and offered under the name of that article4 #d4 ,products will be deemed injurious to health in the absence of contrary judicial determination-- 7a7 ,if any substance1 with the exception of the long-used1 well-known condimental substances1 viz41 common salt1 spices1 sugar 7sucrose or saccharose71 wood smoke1 and vinegar be added thereto for preserving1 coloring1 or other purposes1 which is injurious to health1 either as determined by actual experimental evidence or in the predominating opinion of health officers1 hygienists1 and physiological chemists4 7b7 ,if the products be decomposed1 filthy1 decayed1 or in any unfit condition for human consumption4 #e4 ,products will be considered by the ,department as misbranded in the absence of contrary judicial determination-- 7a7 ,if any false name or property be assigned thereto in the label1 directly or by implication4 7b7 ,if any false statement be contained in the label relating to the place of manufacture or production of the contents of the package1 directly or by implication4 7c7 ,if they be not of the nature1 substance1 and quality commonly associated with the name under which they are sold or offered for sale4 #f4 ,food products will also be excluded from entry into the ,united ,states if they be of a character or kind forbidden entry in the country where they are manufactured or from which they are exported4 #g4 ,food products will also be excluded from the ,united ,states if they are forbidden to be sold or be restricted in sale in the countries in which they are manufactured or from which they are exported4 ,,illustrations4 ,until further notice1 or until the matter shall have been determined by judicial decisions1 or until the permanent standards for the products mentioned have been established by proclamation1 the ,department submits the following illustrations for the guidance of importers1 as an index to the action of the ,department in cases where the product hereinafter mentioned1 and like products1 are offered for import3 #a4 ,wine bearing a classed name1 that is1 brands of wine of high grade1 recognized by law and by commercial usage1 must be true to name2 for instance1 a wine bearing the name ,chateau ,larose must be wine coming from the vineyard covered by that appellation and no other4 ,importers should be ready to furnish certificates1 when asked for1 of conformity of the wine to the label used4 ,stretched wine1 that is1 wine containing a part of the original wine1 or a similar wine from a different vineyard1 should not be labeled with the name of a true1 classed wine4 #b4 ,wine containing sulfurous acid in amount greater than that first mentioned below1 added as a preservative or for other purposes1 should carry upon the label 8,preserved with sulfurous acid10 and the declaration accompanying it should state approximately the quantity of sulfurous acid present4 ,the admission of wines containing not more than #bjj milligrams of sulfurous acid per liter1 added in the usual cellar treatment1 of which not more than #bj milligrams shall be free acid1 is permissible without notification4 ,wines containing more than #cej milligrams per liter of sulfurous acid should not be offered for importation under any conditions4 #c4 ,sugar wines are wines which are made partly by the addition of sugar to the must or otherwise previous to fermentation1 and should bear upon the label 8,sugar wines10 or some similar legend1 and the quantity of sugar employed in their manufacture should be stated in the declaration before the consul4 #d4 ,mixed wines1 that is1 blended wines1 should not bear the name of the vineyard from which a part of the mixture is made unless the label plainly indicates that it is a blend or mixture with other wines4 ,if wine from any other country than that where the mixture is made1 or from which it is exported1 be employed1 a statement to that effect should be found upon the label and in the declaration4 ,wines1 sulfured wines1 sugar wines1 and mixed wines should not contain over #ad percent1 by volume1 of alcohol4 #e4 ,fortified wines1 that is1 wines to which additional alcohol has been added1 under the law of the ,united ,states regulating fortification of wines1 should contain no added alcohol except that derived from the distillation of wine1 and the brandy so used should be properly aged in oak casks in order to be free from injurious compounds such as fusel oils1 etc4 ,raw brandy made from the lees1 pomace1 and refuse of the winery1 and containing excessive quantities of fusel oil and other injurious ingredients1 should not be used in the fortification of wines imported into the ,united ,states4 ,importers are requested to secure such information from their agents abroad as may enable them to certify to the character of the brandy used for fortification when any doubt exists4 #f4 ,brandy 7potable brandy7 is the distillate from wine1 properly aged by storage in wood to eliminate the greater part of the fusel oils1 etc41 which may be present4 ,brandy should contain not less than #de nor more than #ee percent1 by volume1 of alcohol and not more than #j4be percent of total solids 7extract74 ,the content of fusel oils should not exceed #j4be percent4 ,brandy should not be mixed with alcohol from any other source than that of distilled wine4 ,the distillate from the lees1 pomace1 and refuse of the winery1 is not entitled to bear the term 8brandy0 in the potable sense4 8,cognac0 is only admitted as a name in the case of brandies made in ,cognac from wines grown and manufactured there4 ,no artificial color other than that derived from the wood in which they are aged is admitted in brandies4 #g4 ,whisky is the distilled product of fermented cereal grains1 properly aged in wood in order to remove the greater part of the fusel oils1 etc41 produced during the distillation4 ,whisky should not contain less than #de nor more than #ee percent1 by volume1 of alcohol and not more than #j4be percent of total solids 7extract74 ,the content of fusel oils should not exceed #j4be percent4 ,no artificial color other than that derived from the wood in which it is stored is admitted in whisky4 ,blended whisky is whisky made of two or more whiskies4 ,compound or 8rectified0 whisky is whisky made with or without the use of some whisky from neutral1 cologne1 or silent spirits2 that is1 pure alcohol1 to which artificial flavoring and coloring matters may be added4 ,such whiskies should be plainly branded on the label 8,compound0 or 8,compounded10 even if containing a percentage of pure whisky4 #h4 ,beer is the fermented product of cereal grains1 the starch of which has been converted into sugar by malt or malting1 and to which an infusion of hops has been added4 #i4 ,fruit compounds1 such as jams1 jellies1 marmalades1 etc41 are preparations made from pure fruits or fruit juices1 with the addition of sugar4 ,the presence of artificial coloring matter1 flavors1 glucose1 preservatives1 and other added substances is not admitted for the pure products1 and when used the fact should be plainly indicated in the ,english language upon the label4 ,these bodies should not bear the name of any one fruit alone if they are made from mixtures of fruit or fruit juices4 #aj4 ,sausage is the comminuted edible meat of healthy slaughtered animals1 commonly used as food1 mixed with salt and condimental substances4 ,the packages should bear the certificate of an official inspector as to purity1 and if pork1 that it is free from trichin4 ,the addition of preservatives should be plainly stated upon the label1 and if these preservatives be deemed injurious to health1 such sausages can not be admitted4 ,coloring matters when used are under similar restrictions4 #aa4 ,salad 7edible7 oils shall bear the name of the substance from which they are made1 namely1 olive1 cottonseed1 sesame1 peanut1 etc4 ,the designation 8salad oil0 is not sufficient4 ,if mixtures1 this fact should be plainly stated upon the label1 in harmony with the principles already laid down4 ,the ingredients of a mixed oil should have their origin 7country7 named upon the label in order to conform with the provisions of the law4 #ab4 ,vinegar should contain not less than #d percent of acetic acid4 ,the kind of vinegar should be named upon the label1 namely1 cider vinegar1 wine vinegar1 malt vinegar1 spirit vinegar--meaning vinegar derived from the acetous fermentation of cider1 wine1 malt liquors1 or distilled spirits1 respectively4 ,any added coloring or other foreign matter should be noted upon the label and in the declaration4 #ac4 ,labeling4--,if more than one article be present in a food product1 the name of one of the substances alone is not deemed to be a sufficient label4 ,if peas or beans have a portion of copper1 the label should state that fact4 ,the various natural constituents of a food product need not be noted1 for the presence of the usual condimentary substances employed in foods1 viz41 sugar1 salt1 spices1 vinegar1 and wood smoke4 ,the term 8sugar0 is used in its usual signification1 viz41 sugar made from sugar cane1 sugar beets1 maple trees1 sorghum etc4 ,when sugars are made by the artificial hydrolysis of starch1 by an acid or salt1 that fact should be noted on the label by the term 8glucose10 or starch sugar4 8,grape sugar0 is not admitted as a correct term for such products4 ,,general ,,statement4 ,the above specific illustrations indicate the position of the ,department in regard to the general character of food products which may be imported without question4 ,the importer will do well to require his agents in foreign countries to carefully comply with the general principles set forth4 ,in a few words they may be summarized as follows3 ,freedom from deleterious substances1 notification of added foreign substances1 truthfulness in labeling4 ,the standards of purity for food products1 which have been fixed by the ,secretary of ,agriculture in harmony with existing law1 are given in ,circular ,no4 #ac of the ,secretary's ,office and are applicable to imported foods1 which should conform to these established standards4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #e47 ,,proposed ,,regulations ,,governing ,,the ,,labeling ,,of ,,imported ,,food ,,products4#ej #ej ,circular ,no4 #ba4 ,bureau of ,chemistry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agr4 ,november #ag1 #aijd4 7a7 ,,artificial ,,coloring ,,matter 7,,especially ,,sulfate ,,of ,,copper74 ,the use of sulfate of copper as a coloring matter in certain green vegetables has become quite prevalent4 ,sulfate of copper is a substance which in itself acts as a quick emetic and irritant1 and therefore its presence in food products must be looked upon as undesirable4 ,copper sulfate is irritant or mildly escharotic1 and1 when in dilute solution1 stimulant and astringent4 ,at one time it was given in epilepsy and other nervous diseases1 but at present it is never used internally1 except for its influence upon the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane4 ,in chronic diarrhea with ulceration it is often a useful remedy4 ,in doses of #e grains it acts as a powerful1 prompt emetic1 without causing general depression or much nausea1 but it is too irritant to be used freely4 ,a dose of copper sulfate as an astringent is a quarter of a grain 7#af milligrams72 as an emetic1 #e grains 7#ccj milligrams74--7,united ,states ,dispensatory1 #ahth edition1 p4 #dfh47 ,it is claimed by some manufacturers1 chemists1 and hygienists that copper sulfate when added to green vegetables1 forms compounds which are harmless to health4 ,pending investigations which are now making1 all food products colored with sulfate of copper1 or to which sulfate of copper has been added for any purpose1 should contain upon the label a statement in ,english1 in letters not smaller than long primer caps1 as follows3 8,colored with sulfate of copper10 or1 if preferred1 8,prepared with sulfate of copper40 ,a statement of the quantity of copper1 if any1 which may be permitted in food products under the provisions of the law is reserved until further study of the question can be made4 ,food products artificially colored with other substances than sulfate of copper should bear upon the label1 in letters of the size described above1 the legend 8,artificially colored10 or1 if the manufacturer prefers1 the statement 8,colored with anilin dye10 or whatever dye-stuff may be used4 7b7 ,,glucose4 ,manufactured food products in which glucose 7sugar made by hydrolysis with an acid or otherwise from starch7 has been used instead of sugar1 or for other purposes1 should bear upon the label in ,english1 in letters of the size above mentioned1 8,prepared with glucose10 or some statement of similar import4 ,the glucose which is used must be free from arsenic or other injurious substances4 7c7 ,,foods ,,prepared ,,with ,,oil4 ,in countries where olive oil is the common edible oil the expression on food products 8,prepared with oil0 or 8,packed in oil0 will be construed to mean olive oil4 ,where a mixture of oils is used1 or another oil than olive oil1 a statement to that effect should be made upon the label4 ,this regulation in regard to labeling will go in effect on ,march #af1 #aije4 ,importers are requested to immediately acquaint their agents in foreign countries with this ruling1 in order that the proper preparation of the labels may be secured4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #f47 ,,style ,,of ,,label ,,required ,,for ,,imported ,,foods4 ,note size of type4 ,,prepared ,,with ,,glucose4 ,,colored ,,with ,,sulfate ,,of ,,copper4 ,,artificially ,,colored4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #g47 ,,notice ,,to ,,exporters ,,of ,,desiccated ,,fruits4 ,august #ca1 #aijd4 ,the ,governments of ,prussia and ,saxony1 in order to unify the practices of inspectors of desiccated fruits1 have issued decrees fixing the limit of sulfurous acid in desiccated fruits at #j4abe percent4 ,exporters of such products from the ,united ,states are asked to take notice of this regulation and to refrain from sending to the countries named desiccated fruits containing an amount of sulfurous acid in excess of that mentioned above4 ,by authority of ,congress1 the ,department of ,agriculture will inspect cargoes of desiccated fruits intended for exportation1 free of charge to exporters who may request such inspection4 ,on application to the ,bureau of ,chemistry all necessary blanks will be sent4 ,exporters are urged1 in order to avoid refusal or confiscation by other countries1 to avail themselves of this opportunity to ascertain1 before shipment1 the percentage of sulfurous acid contained in goods intended to be exported4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #h47 ,,notice ,,to ,,importers ,,of ,,liquid ,,egg ,,products4 ,december #ad1 #aijd4 ,this ,department has made examinations of invoices of liquid eggs--yolk of egg1 or white of egg1 or the two together--offered for import into the ,united ,states4 ,these food products have been uniformly found preserved with boric acid or borax1 a substance which the investigations in this ,department have shown to be injurious to health4 ,notice is hereby given to importers that the ,secretary of the ,treasury will be requested to refuse admission of food products of this character consulated subsequent to ,december #ae1 #aijd4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #i47 ,,notice ,,to ,,importers ,,of ,,dried ,,egg ,,products4 ,february #bd1 #aije4 ,in regard to the importation of egg products in a dry state1 preserved with boric acid or with other preservatives1 with the exception of salt1 sugar1 vinegar1 or wood smoke1 further importation will be regarded as a violation of the provisions of the existing law4 ,refusal to admit such importations will not be requested of the ,secretary of the ,treasury on invoices consulated prior to ,january #ba1 #aije4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #aj47 ,,treasury ,,decision ,,on ,,refunding ,,duties ,,paid ,,on ,,condemned ,,importations ,,of ,,food ,,products4 ,february #bj1 #aije4 ,the ,secretary of the ,treasury has informed the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 under date of ,february #ag1 #aije1 in regard to the duties paid upon imported food products before the inspection thereof has been completed by the ,department of ,agriculture1 that in case the inspection is of such a character as to require the reshipment of the products in question beyond the jurisdiction of the ,united ,states1 estimated duties paid under such circumstances will be refunded to the importer when delivery has been refused and the merchandise has been either destroyed or exported under the regulations4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #aa47 ,,suspending ,,regulations ,,governing ,,the ,,labeling ,,of ,,imported ,,sardines ,,and ,,other ,,food ,,substances ,,packed ,,in ,,oil4 ,march #a1 #aije4 ,referring to ,circular ,no4 #ba ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 ,no4 #e;c1 respecting the packing of sardines and other food substances in oil1 representations have been made to this ,department1 officially and otherwise1 that in some countries where fish--namely1 sardines--are packed in this way olive oil is not the common edible oil of the country1 and therefore the regulation would not apply4 ,i have directed that investigations be made of the character of the oil found in imported packages of sardines and other fish for the purpose of determining the character of the oil which has been employed4 ,pending the result of these investigations1 and in view of the fact that the packages intended for export to this country were prepared in many cases prior to the publication of the proposed regulations1 that part of the circular referring to the marking of the packages respecting the character of the oil employed will be suspended until the investigations are concluded and until further notice4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ab47 ,,abolishing ,,the ,,rule ,,to ,,admit ,,importations ,,of ,,food ,,products ,,in ,,the ,,case ,,of ,,first ,,notification4 ,march #a1 #aije4 ,at the beginning of the enforcement of the legislation relating to the inspection of imported food products1 in order to fully acquaint importers with the provisions of the law before any penalties were imposed1 the inspecting officers were instructed in cases of first offense1 where no purpose or intent to evade the law could be imputed to the importer1 to pass the invoice under inspection1 with notice that this was done without prejudice to future decisions4 ,the food-inspection law has now been in force since ,july #a1 #aijc1 and it is presumed that every importer is acquainted with its existence and its requirements4 ,notice is therefore given that on and after ,march #af1 #aije1 the exception which has been made in the case of first notification will be abolished4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ac47 ,,provisional ,,standards ,,for ,,the ,,limit ,,of ,,sulfurous ,,acid ,,in ,,imported ,,wines4 ,march #a1 #aije4 ,the regulations in regard to the amount of sulfurous acid permissible in imported wines1 as prescribed in ,circular ,no4 #ah ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 ,no4 #d1 were based upon the regulations adopted by the consulting committee of hygiene of the ,seine4 ,since the publication of these regulations the quantity of sulfurous acid in wines has been the subject of another investigation by an official ,french committee1 with the result that the maximum limit of sulfurous acid in wines in ,france has been increased to #djj milligrams of total acid per liter1 with a toleration of #aj percent4 ,results of the investigations of the ,french committee have been communicated to the ,department of ,agriculture and are under consideration4 ,investigations have also been conducted by the ,department of ,agriculture relating to the effects of sulfurous acid upon health and digestion4 ,pending the final conclusions which may result from a study of all these data the provisional limit of sulfurous acid in imported wines will be established as follows3 ,for dry wines1 as defined in the standards of purity fixed by this ,department in ,circular ,no4 #ac of the ,secretary's ,office1 entitled 8,standards of ,purity for ,food ,products10 #bjj milligrams of total sulfurous acid per liter2 for wines containing not more than #b percent of sugar1 #bej milligrams per liter2 for wines containing not to exceed #c percent of sugar1 #cjj milligrams per liter2 for wines containing over #c percent of sugar1 #cej milligrams of total sulfurous acid per liter4 ,these provisional standards will be in effect until further orders4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ad47 ,,analyses ,,of ,,exports ,,must ,,be ,,made ,,before ,,shipment1 ,,on ,,samples ,,taken ,,from ,,actual ,,cargo4 ,march #aj1 #aije4 ,in the case of an attempt to introduce a condensed beef juice into ,turkey the ,turkish ,government refused to admit the product 8until an analysis thereof and a report on such analysis1 duly certified by the ,government of the ,united ,states and by the ,turkish consul at ,new ,york1 is presented to the ,turkish authorities40 ,application being made to the ,department of ,agriculture1 through the ,department of ,state1 for such certified analysis1 the blank forms used for such certifications were supplied1 when the following features of the case were developed1 as set forth in a letter from the counsel of the company desiring the certificate3 ,the forms which you inclose relate to a specific shipment of goods to any particular country and call for the selection of samples from the particular lot of goods set aside for shipment4444 ,the ,turkish authorities evidently do not require that such analysis and certificate should be presented in connection with each shipment1 but only that a general analysis and certificate should be given4 ,upon the presentation of such general certificate permission can be obtained for the introduction of such goods without subsequent analysis and certificate4 ,in view of these facts the ,department1 under date of ,march #aj1 #aije1 rendered the following decision3 ,i regret that we are not able to adopt the views of the ,turkish authorities of which you speak1 and in harmony therewith make an analysis of your product and give a general certificate1 as you desire4 ,under the regulations established for carrying out the law1 to which the ,secretary of ,state called your attention1 this ,department can only make analyses of samples from the actual cargo before its shipment4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ae47 ,,placing ,,preservatives ,,in ,,vinegar4 ,april #aj1 #aije4 ,food products which are artificially colored will be admitted temporarily provided the color contained therein is not injurious to health4 ,in regard to a preservative in vinegar1 in the first place ,i can see no possible reason why a preservative should be put in vinegar1 which is itself a preservative4 ,in the second place1 not knowing its character ,i could base no opinion on its admissibility4 ,if flavoring matters are placed in vinegar--that is1 aromatic substances--there is no objection whatever to their presence4 ,preservatives1 with the exception of salt1 sugar1 vinegar1 and wood smoke1 are non-condimental1 and therefore can not be excused on the ground that they add any flavor or taste to the substance4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #af47 ,,false ,,labeling ,,of ,,vinegar4 ,april #ba1 #aije4 ,it is held that the term 8vinegar0 applied to products made in ,france and other wine-producing countries where vinegar is made chiefly from wine should apply only to such goods or to vinegar made from cider4 ,the analytical data in a given case show that the vinegar in question is not derived from either of these sources1 but is evidently the product of oxidation of low wines or alcohol4 ,it does not comply with the standard either for vinegar or wine vinegar on page #ad of ,circular ,no4 #acea of the ,secretary's ,office4 ,it is evidently a vinegar such as is described under paragraph #feb of the same page and being such a vinegar should have been so labeled4 ,it is held1 therefore1 that this product is falsely labeled4 #ea #a4 ,vinegar1 cider vinegar or apple vinegar is the product made by the alcoholic and subsequent acetous fermentations of the juice of apples1 is lvo-rotatory1 and contains not less than four 7#d7 grams of acetic acid1 not less than one and six-tenths 7#a4f7 grams of apple solids1 and not less than twenty-five hundredths 7#j4be7 grams of apple ash in one hundred 7#ajj7 cubic centimeters4 ,the water-soluble ash from one hundred 7#ajj7 cubic centimeters of the vinegar requires not less than thirty 7#cj7 cubic centimeters of decinormal acid to neutralize the alkalinity and contains not less than ten 7#aj7 milligrams of phosphoric acid 7,p,o74 #b4 ,wine vinegar or grape vinegar is the product made by the alcoholic and subsequent acetous fermentations of the juice of grapes and contains1 in one hundred 7#ajj7 cubic centimeters1 not less than four 7#d7 grams of acetic acid1 not less than one and four-tenths 7#a4d7 grams of grape solids1 and not less than thirteen hundredths 7#j4ac7 gram of grape ash4 #eb #f4 ,spirit vinegar1 distilled vinegar1 grain vinegar is the product made by the acetous fermentation of dilute distilled alcohol and contains1 in one hundred 7#ajj7 cubic centimeters1 not less than four 7#d7 grams of acetic acid4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ag47 ,,labels ,,attached ,,to ,,wrappers ,,instead ,,of ,,packages2 ,,statements ,,relating ,,to ,,wholesomeness ,,of ,,added ,,substance4 ,,paster ,,labels4 ,april #ba1 #aije4 ,our examination showed that these packages of jams were wrapped with paper1 to which was affixed a paster containing the legend 8,,artificially ,,colored0 in large type1 followed in small type by the phrase 8,with an infinitesimal proportion of absolutely harmless coloring40 ,while there can be no legal objection to the additional phrase1 it will be understood that the determination of this point is especially reserved by law to this ,department4 ,on removing the paper wrappers of the packages the label which appeared on the outside of the packages was found attached to the stone jars1 but the paster was missing4 ,it is a reasonable construction of the law to say that the label required should be the permanent and not the temporary label4 ,in subsequent imports1 therefore1 of goods of this kind it is deemed necessary to have the paster attached directly to or immediately above or below the principal label on the jar itself4 ,the use of a paster is permitted provided it is as firmly attached as the original label in such a way as not to be easily removed1 and further that it is applied to goods which are already labeled before ,march #af1 #aije4 ,in goods packed subsequent to this date it will be required that the part of the label which gives information in regard to added products shall be made an integral part of the original label4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ah47 ,,statement ,,of ,,quantity ,,of ,,added ,,substance ,,in ,,food ,,products4 ,,letter ,,of ,,importer4 ,april #ba1 #aije4 ,we note certain imported tins containing peas labeled 8,this tin contains grain of copper as preservative40 ,permit us to inquire if the ,department accepts this as correct branding4 ,in default1 would your ,department accept 8,prepared with the addition of an infinitesimal amount of sulfate of copper not exceeding grain per tin80 ,pardon us for asking these questions1 our reason being that in thirty-five years' dealing in so-called greened peas by our senior1 not a single case of injury has ever come to his knowledge1 and the bare statement now required on the tins of 8,colored0 or 8,prepared with sulfate of copper0 would appear to the consumer as a new and hitherto unused ingredient fraught with possible danger1 thus seriously injuring the commerce in this article and reducing the revenue derived from its importation4 ,we beg to assure you that we would not thus appear to insist upon qualifying the label1 if we deemed the article injurious1 our personal consumption1 as well as that of numerous friends1 supported by the report of the council of hygiene of ,paris in #ahhi1 appearing to us as absolute proof of the innocuity of vegetables where the chlorophyl is thus fixed4 ,,decision ,,of ,,department4 ,april #bf1 #aije4 ,when a label with letters of proper size and legibility contains the statement that it the food product is colored with sulfate of copper we consider that the conditions required by law are fulfilled4 ,this statement1 however1 should not be in any way connected with any other matters4 ,if the importers desire to put additional labels on1 stating 8,this tin contains grain of copper10 we should have no objections thereto4 ,if1 also1 they should desire to add to the label required the phrase1 8,prepared with the addition of an infinitesimal amount of sulfate of copper not exceeding grain per tin10 we could not reasonably object4 ,this descriptive matter1 however1 should not be connected with the label required1 namely1 8,,colored ,,with ,,sulphate ,,of ,,copper40 ,the fact that the people of this country might object to eating goods thus marked is the strongest argument you could give showing the justice of the marking4 ,the object of the law was to prevent deception being practiced upon our people4 ,if any added supplementary statement is shown to be false by the results of the analysis it would be considered then as a misbranding1 and treated accordingly4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ai47 ,,false ,,branding ,,of ,,mushrooms4 ,,letter ,,of ,,importer4 ,april #be1 #aije4 ,we acknowledge receipt of your letter of the #ahth advising that a certain shipment of mushrooms consigned to us 444 are misbranded1 for the reason that the tins contain nothing but stems and scraps from the cannery4 ,in answer we beg to advise you that the goods in question are not sold by us as regular mushrooms to the trade4 ,this particular packing is used by only the hotel and restaurant trade for the purpose of making a sauce1 and on this account are branded 8,hotels40 ,this is the trade-name given to the character of the goods in question1 and it is always understood that they contain nothing but stems and pieces which are left over in the packing of the other grades4 ,under these conditions we cannot believe that we are importing goods that are misbranded1 and would ask you to kindly release the shipment in question4 ,,decision ,,of ,,department4 ,april #bi1 #aije4 ,in this connection ,i desire to state that the understanding of the trade respecting branding of food products is not one which should always guide the officials in charge of the pure-food law4 ,the object of the law is the protection of the consumers particularly and not of the trade4 ,the addition of the word 8,hotel0 to the word 8,champignons0 in no way describes the character of the product except to those who are initiated in the secrets of the trade4 ,after all1 the consumer is the one who suffers1 as he eats the mushroom sauce1 which is not made of mushrooms at all1 and thus the deception is complete1 although the purchaser may understand the character of the goods4 ,it is extremely doubtful whether under the terms of the law such goods would be entitled to importation under any name1 as they certainly are not to be considered as edible4 ,they should bear the label 8,,fragments ,,and ,,scraps ,,from ,,mushroom ,,cannery10 or 8,,champignons1 ,,pieces ,,and ,,stems0 in order to be properly described4 ,i am not able to see why the patrons of hotels and restaurants should be subjected to a deception of this character4 ,i beg to say1 therefore1 that your explanation does not satisfy me respecting the suitability of this invoice for entry4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #bj47 ,,statements ,,on ,,labels ,,regarding ,,health ,,laws ,,of ,,other ,,countries4 ,may #ag1 #aije4 ,i beg to call your attention to a shipment of beans4444 ,we note after the legend 8,,colored ,,with ,,sulfate ,,of ,,copper0 the additional legend 8,,according ,,to ,,french ,,health ,,laws40 ,inasmuch as the ,french laws do not apply to this country1 the addition of this phrase is regarded as a complication of the labeling1 having for its object to influence the consumer respecting the character of the added product4 ,inasmuch as the ,congress of the ,united ,states has placed upon this ,department the duty of deciding upon the wholesomeness or unwholesomeness of substances added to foods1 we regard such a label as an attempt to forestall the judgment which this ,department may render in accordance with the act of ,congress above referred to4 ,while in the present instance we would not consider the addition of the second legend as a cause for rejecting the articles1 your attention is called to the undesirability of any such statement appearing upon the label1 and it is suggested that in the future it be omitted4 ,attention is further called to the fact that in so far as we can discover by a study of the ,french laws there are no regulations therein respecting the addition of sulfate of copper to food products4 ,in this respect1 therefore1 the second phrase1 8,,according ,,to ,,french ,,health ,,laws10 must be considered as a misstatement4 ,it may be that the addition of copper is not forbidden by the ,french law1 but we do not believe it is added under any regulations thereof4 ,it will be decidedly advisable to omit the phrase4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ba47 ,,relabeling ,,imported ,,food ,,products ,,after ,,arrival ,,in ,,this ,,country4 ,may #bf1 #aije4 ,the purpose of the law in regard to labeling is clear1 namely1 that the labels should be properly attached at the time of packing the goods4 ,should exceptions be made to this principle and importers be allowed to relabel goods offered for import after inspection and refusal of entry1 it would be impossible to secure a proper compliance with the terms of the law4 ,manufacturers and exporters in other countries and importers in this country would prefer in these cases to import the goods as usually labeled and thus1 if the invoices were not inspected1 they would enter without delay4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the invoices were inspected they would feel that they could then exercise the privilege of relabeling4 ,a courtesy of this kind to one importer would necessarily be extended to all1 and for this reason a proper compliance with the purpose of the law would not be secured4 ,the request for permission to relabel is therefore denied4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #bb47 ,,illegible ,,or ,,concealed ,,legends ,,on ,,labels4 ,may #bi1 #aije4 ,there has been presented for the opinion of this ,department a label in brass marked in large letters 8,,conserves ,,alimentaires0 and which by ordinary inspection reveals no legend of any kind relating to any artificial color which has been used in its preparation4 ,by very careful inspection an almost totally illegible label is found printed in extremely small letters in this way3 ,the word 8artificially0 is in the upper left-hand corner surrounding a circular mark near the margin1 and the word 8colored10 similar as to position and letters1 is in the upper right-hand corner4 ,printing the legend 8,artificially colored0 in this way can only be construed as an attempt to comply with the letter of the law and to evade its spirit4 ,this ,department holds that in so far as the purpose of labeling is concerned these words are entirely insufficient4 ,as a result of this decision the packages of goods bearing the label have been declared to be misbranded4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #bc47 ,,labeling ,,of ,,preserves ,,sweetened ,,with ,,cane ,,or ,,beet ,,sugar ,,and ,,glucose4 ,,letter ,,of ,,importer4 ,june #b1 #aije4 ,with reference to the label on preserved strawberries and other fruits imported from ,germany1 etc41 we would thank you to advise us whether you would permit the legend descriptive of the added substance 7part of the original label7 to read1 for instance3 ,,preserved ,,strawberries ,,artificially ,,colored ,,prepared ,,with ,,pure ,,sugar ,,and ,,glucose4 ,the sirup is almost entirely pure sugar1 and it would therefore be an injustice to be compelled to say that it was composed exclusively of glucose4 ,,decision ,,of ,,department4 ,june #e1 #aije4 ,when a label with letters of proper size and legibility contains the statement that the goods are prepared with glucose1 or with sugar and glucose1 we consider that the conditions required by law are fulfilled4 ,manufacturers may add to the label required a statement of the percentage of glucose in the goods4 ,if any statement on the label is shown to be false by the results of the analysis or otherwise1 the package will be considered as misbranded and treated accordingly4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #bd47 ,,adulteration ,,of ,,domestic ,,food ,,products ,,by ,,the ,,addition ,,of ,,preservatives1 ,,coloring ,,matters1 ,,and ,,other ,,ingredients ,,not ,,natural ,,to ,,foods1 ,,not ,,regulated ,,by ,,department4 ,june #ad1 #aije4 ,the ,department of ,agriculture is not authorized by law to make any regulations concerning the above-mentioned substances in food products of domestic manufacture and intended for domestic commerce either within the ,state where made or for interstate purposes4 ,for foods intended for export to foreign countries the ,department is authorized to make examinations and certify whether or not the foods so offered are in harmony with the laws regulating food products in countries to which the products are to be sent4 ,in the case of imported foods the decisions and regulations of the ,department are contained in the circulars and regulations issued herewith4 ,numerous inquiries reach this ,department respecting the addition to food products of preservatives1 coloring matters1 and other ingredients not natural to foods4 ,this ,department has authority of law to fix standards of purity for food products1 and these standards when completed will cover all the points above mentioned in so far as the authority of ,congress extends4 ,the ,department has no authority besides this to establish regulations or conditions affecting the domestic manufacture of and commerce in food products containing the ingredients above mentioned4 ,this power at the present time is exercised1 if at all1 solely by the several ,states4 ,the food standards1 in so far as they have been established1 are embodied in ,circular ,no4 #ac1 ,office of the ,secretary1 which can be had upon application to this ,department4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #be47 ,,food ,,products ,,offered ,,for ,,entry ,,and ,,afterward ,,declared ,,to ,,be ,,for ,,technical ,,purposes4 ,june #ba1 #aije4 ,on ,june #ad this ,department was asked to release an invoice of egg albumen which had been found to be preserved with boric acid1 thus containing a substance prejudicial to health and refused admission on that ground1 on the statement of the importer that the product would be reserved solely for technical purposes4 ,it is manifest that the action of this ,department should not be based upon any statement of the importer made subsequent to the sampling of the invoice for examination4 ,the plain provision of the law requires the inspection of food products when deemed advisable1 and their exclusion in certain circumstances4 ,when a food product is thus excluded under the regular application of the law1 it can not be released and permitted entry on a subsequent declaration that it will be reserved for technical purposes only4 ,any product which may be used either for technical purposes or for food will be regarded as a food product1 irrespective of any declaration subsequent to inspection respecting the use to which it is to be put4 ,the use of a food product for other purposes is incidental1 and should not be construed as exempting food products of that class from examination in the regular way4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #bf4 ,,united ,,states ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,bureau ,,of ,,chemistry1 ,h4 ,w4 ,,wiley1 ,,chief ,,of ,,bureau4 ,,food ,,inspection ,,decision #bf4 ,,labeling ,,imported ,,food ,,products4 ,by reason of representations which were made before this ,department on ,june #ad by a committee representing the importers of ,new ,york1 it is hereby ordered that all cases of inspection of imported food products to date1 where exclusion thereof has been required by reason of misbranding or false labeling1 may be reopened with permission to relabel1 if granted by the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 under supervision of an official detailed from the ,treasury ,department for that purpose4 ,these labels shall be in the form of a paster attached securely to1 or just above or below the principal label1 in a manner not to be easily detached1 and bearing a legend showing the contents of the package not of the nature represented by the principal label1 in letters not smaller in size than long primer capitals of the usual facing1 such labels to be submitted to the proper representative of this ,department and be approved as satisfactory before the release of the invoice4 ,in order to more clearly set forth the requirements of this ,department as contained in ,circulars #ah and #ba of the ,bureau of ,chemistry 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #d and #e7 and in other publications of the ,department1 the following general principles of labeling of food products are to be observed3 #a4 ,a food product should be designated by its usual name1 ,english name preferred1 and need not bear any further description of its components or qualities4 ,food products which are prepared by established processes of refining need not bear upon the label any statement respecting the refining process4 ,for illustration1 the term 8flour0 is sufficient for the food product known by that name2 the term 8olive oil0 is sufficient for the food product known by that name4 ,the usual processes of manufacture and refining in these cases are not required to be stated4 #b4 ,when any foreign substance is added to a food product other than that necessary to its manufacture or refining1 the label should bear a statement to that effect4 ,for instance1 a food product which is artificially colored or to which a preservative has been added should have these facts appear upon the label4 ,if a substance which itself is not a coloring matter be added to a food product for the purpose of preserving or intensifying the natural color of the food1 the name of the substance shall be specifically mentioned1 as1 for instance1 when sulfate of copper is used to intensify or preserve the green color of food products4 #c4 ,where a substance which is generally understood to have specific qualities in the preparation of a food product is replaced by another substance either of a similar nature or entirely different thereto but with some of the same qualities1 the name of the substituted substance should appear upon the label4 ,for instance1 sugar is the usual sweetening substance in the preparation of certain food products4 ,if the sugar is wholly or in part replaced by another substance1 such as glucose1 that fact should appear4 ,if the sweetening substance used be saccharin1 a substance which is not related to sugars at all1 the label should indicate such substitution4 ,where olive oil is used in the preparation of foods and where it is understood by the term 8oil0 that olive oil is indicated1 the substitution of any other edible oil for the olive oil should be noted on the label4 #d4 ,where a substance is made up of fragments or scraps of the material usually known by the name upon the label1 the name of the substance alone will be deemed a misbranding4 ,for instance1 if the fragments of stems and pieces of mushrooms which remain after the canning of the mushrooms themselves be labeled 8mushrooms0 alone it will be deemed misbranding4 ,such a package should be labeled 8pieces and stems of mushrooms0 or some similar appellation4 ,if the cores and peelings of apples be labeled 8apples0 alone a similar condition is presented and the name will be deemed insufficient and misleading4 #e4 ,if any essential or important ingredient of a food product be abstracted1 and such abstraction is not necessary nor usual in the preparation or refining of such food body1 the label should plainly indicate the ingredient thus removed4 ,for instance1 if a portion of the butter fat be removed from milk1 even if there remain a sufficient quantity of butter fat to comply with the standard1 such an abstraction is to be noted on the label4 #f4 ,a food product which is misbranded in respect to the locality or country where it is made1 produced1 or manufactured1 under the provisions of the law is misbranded and is not entitled to entry4 ,for instance1 if the product of one country1 as the olive oils of ,spain1 be sent to an ,italian port and there bottled and labeled as ,italian oil1 such a label will be deemed to be a misbranding4 ,if wine grown in ,algeria or ,italy be bottled in ,france as a ,french wine it will be deemed a misbranded product4 #g4 ,if a food product bear a name which is in any way misleading in regard to the quality1 character1 or origin of the product it is a misbranding under the law and is a sufficient cause for the exclusion of the goods covered by the invoice from entry4 #h4 ,the addition of the ordinary condimental substances to a food product1 such as sugar1 vinegar1 salt1 spices1 and wood smoke1 may be practiced without any notice to this effect appearing upon the label4 #i4 ,food products of any given name are to correspond in quality to the standards established by authority of ,congress for such products1 and if they vary from this standard a notice to that effect is to appear upon the label4 #aj4 ,the presentation of properly labeled food products as outlined above does not insure their admission4 ,such products1 even when properly labeled1 may be refused entry because of threatened injury to health or because they are of a nature forbidden in the country in which they are made or from which they are exported4 #aa4 ,the principal label on a food product1 that is1 the part of the label which declares the character of the product1 should not be connected with any statement relating to the wholesomeness or hygienic qualities of the product itself1 nor should it contain any reference to the laws relating to such products either applying to the country where made or to this country4 ,these are questions which are reserved especially for the consideration of this ,department by act of ,congress1 and any attempt to prejudice the consumer regarding the matter should not be connected in any way with the label itself4 #ab4 ,the actual form and character of the label are left to the judgment of the manufacturer4 ,the regulations require certain notings of added substances to be in the ,english language and of a size and distinctness easily legible and occupying a position directly on the label and not to the side nor on the margin1 nor in any position where the label itself could be read without the attention of the reader being directed to the name of the added substance or other special inscription4 #ac4 ,the privilege of relabeling after arrival at a port in this country1 as hereby extended1 shall cease on and after ,september #a1 #aije1 thus giving ample time for all cargoes now afloat to reach our ports4 #ad4 ,the name of the added substance or of the abstracted substance required by the above regulations should appear as nearly as possible in connection with the name of the food product upon the original label and in a position as conspicuous as that of the food product itself and as legible4 ,the size of type required1 namely1 not smaller than long primer capitals1 is the minimum size which it is deemed would be easily legible to a consumer in looking at a package of food products as offered him in ordinary trade4 ,the letters should be not less in size nor less distinct in facing than the following legend3 ,,colored ,,with ,,sulfate ,,of ,,copper1 and in all cases this descriptive matter is to be printed in the ,english language1 whatever be the language used in naming the food products4 ,in all food products packed subsequent to ,september #a1 #aije1 the descriptive matter mentioned in this circular as necessary for proper labeling will be required to be a part of the original label and not attached as a paster4 ,in food products packed and labeled prior to ,september #a1 #aije1 the paster above described will be admitted upon certificate of this fact until ,may #a1 #aijf1 after which only original labels of correct form are to be admitted as sufficient for the purpose of correct labeling4 ,previous decisions not in harmony with the present order are hereby modified in accordance with the above regulations4 ,approved3 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,june #bb1 #aije4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #bg-cj4 ,,united ,,states ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture4 ,,bureau ,,of ,,chemistry1 ,h4 ,w4 ,,wiley1 ,,chief ,,of ,,bureau4 ,,food ,,inspection ,,decisions #bg-cj4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #bg47 ,,admission ,,of ,,sardines ,,boiled ,,in ,,peanut ,,oil ,,and ,,packed ,,in ,,olive ,,oil4 ,as a result of the conference held between the ,chief of the ,bureau of ,chemistry and the manufacturers and packers of sardines in ,nantes1 ,bordeaux1 and ,paris1 it appears that it is a practice somewhat common among the packers of sardines to boil the fish in peanut oil previous to packing4 ,it is claimed by some manufacturers that this process improves the quality of the fish and also the color1 and is a distinct advantage in the preparation of the fish in packing4 ,subsequent to the boiling in peanut oil the fish are so placed as to secure a perfect drainage1 so that all oil which naturally would exude from the fish is separated therefrom4 ,in this condition they are afterwards packed in pure olive oil4 ,a small quantity of peanut oil remaining in the fish diffuses in this way with the olive oil to such an extent that the oil gives a distinct reaction for peanut oil4 ,pending further investigations of this process and its necessity1 inspectors at the different laboratories are permitted to admit sardines labeled 8,packed in ,olive ,oil0 in which a small quantity of peanut oil is found2 provided the invoice be accompanied by a certificate1 approved by the consul1 to the effect that the oil used in packing the sardines was pure olive oil1 and that previous to the packing the sardines had been treated in hot peanut oil as described above4 ,the regulations1 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #e c and ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #aa1 are therefore accordingly modified1 permitting the importation of sardines labeled 8,packed in ,olive ,oil0 when the quantity of peanut oil therein is found not to exceed #e percent1 as nearly as can be determined with a reasonable toleration for difficulties of analysis1 and variation in duplicates4 ,this amendment is of a provisional nature and will be in force until further investigations can be made and until further ordered4 ,approved3 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,september #bc1 #aije4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #bh47 ,,maximum ,,quantity ,,of ,,sulfurous ,,acid ,,in ,,wines4 ,as a result of a conference between the ,chief of the ,bureau of ,chemistry and ,professor ,gayon and other members of the ,french committee of nology and exporters of wines1 held at ,bordeaux1 ,august #bf1 #aije1 the following modifications of ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ac1 issued ,march #a1 #aije1 are made3 ,it was learned from the ,french expert1 ,professor ,gayon1 who is the principal advisor of the committee of nology1 that steps have already been taken to prevent the excessive use of sulfur1 which1 it is admitted1 in years past has been practiced at times in the preparation of ,french white wines4 ,the quantities of sulfur which are now permitted to be burned are prescribed for each kind of wine in order to avoid any excessive use4 ,it is believed that by these new regulations the wines which are prepared subsequently to the issue of the regulations of ,march #a1 referred to above1 namely1 the wines of the vintage of #aije and of subsequent vintages1 will not contain a quantity of sulfurous acid in excess of the amounts specified in the regulations of ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ac4 ,wines prepared previous to these regulations1 however1 may still contain1 even in the absence of notable quantities of sugar1 more sulfurous acid than would be permissible under the existing provisional standards4 ,with the desire to meet the wishes of the ,french makers and exporters who are endeavoring now to diminish the quantity of sulfurous acid in white wines hereafter made1 it is deemed advisable to modify the provisional regulations slightly to avoid as much as possible any retroactive intent4 ,it is therefore prescribed1 provisionally1 in modification of ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ac1 that wines imported into the ,united ,states from ,france or other countries1 containing not to exceed #cej milligrams of sulfurous acid1 may be admitted without respect to the quantity of sugar contained therein4 ,there will also be permitted a tolerance of #bj milligrams per liter to cover the difference in different samples and the variations incident to duplicate analyses4 ,this modification of ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ac will not apply to the wines of the vintage of #aije nor to succeeding vintages4 ,to wines of these vintages the provisional standards provided in ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ac will still apply until further orders4 ,approved3 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,september #bc1 #aije4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #bi47 ,,coloring ,,matters ,,in ,,synthetic ,,foods4 ,the term synthetic food as herein used is applied to a food product made of a mixture of various other food products and not of itself possessed of any of the characteristics of a natural or uncompounded food4 ,such food products should bear some special name not indicative of natural origin1 character1 or quality4 ,a class of products typifying such synthetic foods is the product known as candy or confection4 ,it has been customary to use harmless artificial colors in such foods in preparing them for consumption4 ,such colors are not calculated to deceive or mislead1 because the foods themselves do not represent any natural food product4 ,the regulations of this ,department applying to imported food products require that such products1 when artificially colored1 should bear a legend on the label to that effect4 ,this regulation should be construed to apply only to food products which of themselves have a natural color and in which the use of artificial colors would tend to mislead or deceive the purchaser4 ,until further orders synthetic food products1 as described above1 not having of themselves any natural color nor bearing any name which would indicate an origin relating to a food product of a definite color1 may contain harmless coloring matter without notice on the label4 ,this permission is not to be construed1 however1 in any way which would permit the use of coloring matter if the product by its name indicates a special origin4 ,for instance1 candies which are sold under the name of chocolates should not be permitted to carry a color imitating the natural color of chocolate1 and this principle should apply to other confections bearing names of definite origin4 ,the ,department will not undertake to specify by name the colors which may be used further than to say that they must be of a harmless character1 not injurious to health1 and must comply with the laws and regulations of the countries from which the food products are imported4 ,approved3 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,september #bg1 #aije4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #cj47 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,packages ,,made ,,of ,,tin ,,plate1 ,,on ,,which ,,labels ,,have ,,been ,,printed ,,for ,,preserved ,,vegetables1 ,,etc41 ,,ordered ,,and ,,delivered ,,to ,,manufacturers ,,prior ,,to ,,september #a1 #aije4 ,from the investigations lately made by the ,chief of the ,bureau of ,chemistry1 it appears that in a few instances ,european manufacturers of preserved vegetables1 intended for export to the ,united ,states1 had provided a large number of packages made of tin1 on which the labels had been printed previous to the manufacture of the tin cans4 ,the printed matter can not be erased from the cans1 nor can it be conveniently covered without destroying the artistic appearance of the packages4 ,these tin cans had been ordered and delivered to the manufacturers before the publication of ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #bf1 requiring the presence of preservatives1 coloring matters1 etc41 to be indicated upon the original label and not attached by means of pasters subsequent to ,september #a1 #aije4 ,in many cases considerable expense has been incurred by the manufacturers in the purchase of these tin cans with the labels printed thereon4 ,inasmuch as these packages were purchased in good faith and were not intended to disregard the regulations of the law relating to imported food products1 permission will be given to use them in packing preserved vegetables for the season of #aijf on the following conditions3 #a4 ,that the tin cans in the possession of manufacturers shall have been ordered and delivered previous to ,september #a1 #aije4 #b4 ,that the manufacturer shall make a statement before the consul in each case of the number of such packages which he had on hand at the date mentioned4 #c4 ,that the manufacturer shall attach a special paster1 in a conspicuous place on the label1 in such a way as to make it practically irremovable1 indicating the presence of the preservative1 coloring matter1 etc41 which may have been used in the preparation of the contents of the package1 by the use of type not smaller than long primer capitals1 as shown in ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #f1 and submit samples thereof to this ,department prior to shipment4 #d4 ,that these packages already on hand may be used for the crop of #aijf1 but not for a longer period4 #e4 ,that the importation of these packages into the ,united ,states under the regulations above mentioned shall not continue longer than ,may #a1 #aijg4 ,approved3 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,september #bi1 #aije4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ca4 ,,united ,,states ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,bureau ,,of ,,chemistry1 ,h4 ,w4 ,,wiley1 ,,chief ,,of ,,bureau4 ,,food ,,inspection ,,decision #ca4 ,,labels ,,on ,,detachable ,,wrappers4 ,in the examination of certain imported goods to ascertain whether the requirements of ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ag1 of ,april #ba1 #aije1 have been complied with1 instances have been found where wrappers on which a part of the label only is printed are used with packages1 and the declarations required in the principal label 7in conformity with the decision referred to and other decisions7 are omitted4 ,inspectors of imported food products will be instructed to regard a package as misbranded if a wrapper is placed over the label attached to the package and the statements on said wrapper omit any of the declarations required on the principal label4 ,an illustration of this ruling is found in the examination of a recent importation on the principal label of which it is stated that salicylic acid was used in the preparation of the sample4 ,the package is inclosed in a wrapper on which is found a part of the label1 namely1 the name of the substance together with the name of the manufacturer1 but no statement of the fact that salicylic acid was used in its preparation4 ,inasmuch as these packages may be sold without the removal of the wrapper1 the wrappers would not in their present form convey the necessary information to the purchaser and consumer4 ,the provisions of this decision will be enforced on and after ,january #a1 #aijf4 ,approved3 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,october #ad1 #aije4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #cb4 ,,united ,,states ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,bureau ,,of ,,chemistry1 ,h4 ,w4 ,,wiley1 ,,chief ,,of ,,bureau4 ,,food ,,inspection ,,decision #cb4 ,,foods ,,entered ,,for ,,the ,,purpose ,,of ,,sale ,,to ,,outgoing ,,ships4 ,an importer has made the following statement relating to the labeling of certain products1 namely3 ,we should like1 however1 to point out to you that our trade is one by itself1 and these goods1 and mostly all the other goods that we import1 are not for consumption in the ,united ,states1 but are shipped by us on board foreign-going vessels4 ,our business is the ship-supply trade1 and these importations are brought in to enable us to give the same supplies to the different vessels as we are in the habit of furnishing in ,great ,britain4 ,under the circumstances1 therefore1 we hope if we furnish bonds or give you a guarantee that any goods1 such as marmalade1 imported by us would not be consumed in the ,united ,states it would enable you to pass the goods as they have been of late4 ,this is a case similar to ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #be1 8,food ,products ,offered for ,entry and ,afterwards ,declared to be for ,technical ,purposes40 ,the principle involved is that a declaration respecting the uses to which a food may be put does not in any way affect its inspection when offered for entry and delivered to the consignee4 ,if a food product be regularly offered for importation into the ,united ,states the subsequent use to which it may be put is not a matter which can affect in any way the duties of the inspecting officers4 ,it is not the duty of these officers to follow the food into consumption nor to see what becomes of it after it is delivered to the consignee4 ,the duty of these officers is to see that the food at the time of inspection conforms to the provisions of the law1 that it has had no injurious substance added to it1 that it is in a state fit for consumption1 that it is properly labeled1 and that it is not of a character forbidden sale or restricted in sale in the country where it is made or from which it is exported4 ,if the foods in question conform to these provisions of the law1 they are permitted to be delivered to the consignee4 ,the purpose of the consignee in securing the goods and the disposition which he makes of them after they are secured do not appear to have any bearing upon the subject of the inspection itself4 ,in the present case it is declared that the goods are intended to be sold to outgoing steamships4 ,at the time of sailing these steamships are subject to the laws of the ,united ,states4 ,the provisioning of these ships is made under the laws of the ,united ,states with articles of food produced in or imported into the ,united ,states4 ,in the enforcement of the law it makes no difference whether the foods are intended for disposition in this way or for ordinary consumption4 ,if it is desired to use such foods for transshipment1 they could be entered in bond1 never passed through the custom-house1 and removed from bond and reshipped4 ,if the foods are treated in this way1 and thus never brought within the jurisdiction of the ,united ,states1 this ,department will have no control over them in any way whatever4 ,they would remain solely under the control of the ,treasury ,department1 and that ,department would see to it that they were reshipped beyond the jurisdiction of the ,united ,states4 ,even in this case it does not seem1 however1 that it would be possible to sell such goods for consumption on ships carrying the ,american flag4 ,the application of the importer for a special ruling1 therefore1 in such cases is denied4 ,approved3 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,october #cj1 #aije4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #cc-cf4 ,,united ,,states ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,bureau ,,of ,,chemistry1 ,h4 ,w4 ,,wiley1 ,,chief ,,of ,,bureau4 ,,food ,,inspection ,,decisions #cc-cf4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #cc47 ,,the ,,importation ,,of ,a ,,beverage ,,under ,a ,,misleading ,,name4 ,a shipment of food product has been offered for importation labeled ,raspberry ,vinegar4 ,on notice that it was held for inspection1 a representative of the importer appeared and stated that the substance was not a vinegar1 but a drink1 and intended to be used as a beverage4 ,in this case the material is held to be misbranded1 as a vinegar is never intended for a beverage1 but only as a condiment4 ,notice is given that after ,may #a1 #aijf1 importations of this description1 or similar thereto1 will not be admitted if misbranded in the manner mentioned4 ,the name of the article1 if descriptive1 must indicate its true character4 ,it is suggested that the term ,raspberry ,beverage is a suitable designation4 ,it will be held1 however1 that if so labeled it must be a beverage made solely from raspberries or raspberry juice1 and not preserved with any substance unmentioned on the label1 except sugar1 vinegar1 or spices4 ,any substance added to such a product must not be injurious to health nor in violation of the laws of the country whence it comes4 ,approved3 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,january #af1 #aijf4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #cd47 ,,preservatives ,,in ,,sausages4 ,an importer has made the following request3 ,about two years ago we had some difficulty with the ,department of ,agriculture on account of an added preservative or acid being found in ,german ,frankfurter sausages4 ,our manufacturer has discontinued using any preservative1 and we find that the sausages do not keep very well without this added preservative4 ,we would ask you to kindly let us know if there is any objection to our using salicylic acid1 boracic acid1 benzoic acid1 or1 in fact1 any preservative1 if it is plainly stated on the label4 ,inasmuch as letters of this nature are occasionally received1 it is deemed advisable to make a general statement concerning the attitude of this ,department in matters of this kind4 ,it is neither practicable nor advisable for the ,department to act in the capacity of scientific adviser to any importer or manufacturer of food products4 ,the ,department should be left free in all cases to decide according to the existing law the fitness of any food product to be delivered to the consignee4 ,it can not1 therefore1 advise in respect of the use of any preservative or any other added substance further than is done in the regular decisions published in this series4 ,the addition of any preservative of any kind to a food product may be objected to for three reasons4 7#a7 ,it may be a case of misbranding when the added body is not mentioned on the label4 7#b7 ,the added substance itself may be deemed to be injurious to health either as the result of present knowledge or of subsequent investigations4 7#c7 ,the added substance may be forbidden by the laws of the country in which the foods are made or from which they are exported4 ,in the case of the ,german sausage referred to1 both boric and salicylic acids are prohibited by the ,german laws4 ,boric acid has been declared by this ,department to be injurious to health4 ,it does not appear that there is any convincing reason for the use of any preservatives in sausages except the usual condimental ingredients--salt1 vinegar1 spices1 and wood smoke4 ,until the results of experiments conducted in the ,bureau of ,chemistry are declared1 small quantities of benzoic acid and benzoates1 salicylic acid and salicylates1 sulfurous acid and sulfites and copper sulfate are permitted in food products when plainly declared upon the label and when not forbidden by the laws of the countries where the foods are produced or from which they are exported4 ,with respect to sulfurous acid in wine1 this decision is not intended to supplant the principles laid down in ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #bh4 ,this permission is given without prejudice to any future decision of the ,department excluding such substances by reason of excessive quantity or as being prejudicial to health1 or for other legal causes4 ,approved3 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,january #af1 #aijf4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ce47 ,,modifying ,,in ,,certain ,,cases ,,provisions ,,in ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ab ,,and ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #bf4 ,experience has shown that in some cases the literal execution of the provisions of ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ab1 of ,march #a1 #aije1 relating to first notice to importer1 and of ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #bf1 relating to the date at which relabeling after arrival in the ,united ,states may be permitted1 namely1 ,september #a1 #aije1 may cause unnecessary annoyance and inconvenience4 ,it is therefore ordered that these two decisions be modified to permit in certain cases the importation of an article not labeled strictly in harmony with the provisions of the food-inspection laws after it is relabeled in a manner satisfactory to the ,department4 ,such action seems especially desirable at the smaller ports1 where exact information respecting the requirements of the inspection of foods is not so easily obtainable4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #bf is also amended so that in certain cases importation after relabeling will be permitted4 ,it is difficult to state exactly in what cases these amendments to ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ab and ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #bf will be applied4 ,in general1 it may be said that where a food product is misbranded1 but no substance deleterious to health has been added1 and where neither the importer nor the shipper has had notice of the existence of the law or of its requirements1 permission to relabel may be given4 ,a similar permission will be extended to all food products already afloat at the time of receiving the first notice1 or which are so advanced in shipment that they can not be countermanded by cable or otherwise4 ,other miscellaneous requests for permission to relabel will be decided upon the merits of the case presented1 and permission to relabel be granted when it is evident that neither negligence nor indifference is responsible for the failure to secure a proper branding of the product4 ,a similar permission will also be granted when it is apparent that the purpose of the law may thereby be fully accomplished4 ,this action is not to be taken in case of food products containing added substances injurious to health or forbidden by the laws of the country from which the substance comes4 ,in this connection it is suggested to importers that all orders for food products in the ,united ,states be given subject to the passing of the inspection at the ports of entry4 ,it will not be considered a sufficient excuse for the importation of improperly branded or otherwise objectionable food products to show that they were paid for before the inspection took place4 ,the law has now been in force long enough to acquaint foreign exporters with its existence and domestic importers with its provisions4 ,it is therefore held that paying for food products before inspection is completed will not be deemed a sufficient excuse for asking for the relabeling1 remarking1 or admission thereof4 ,there are certain other cases in which relabeling of an importation of food products may be permitted1 but in no case will such a courtesy be extended where it is evident that either importer or exporter has had ample opportunity and notice to comply with the provisions of the law4 ,such cases include those where evidently honest attempts have been made to comply with the conditions of the law and where failure has been due to ignorance of the exact nature of the conditions required1 or some unavoidable cause4 ,these amendments are made to prevent unnecessary annoyance and hardships1 and will not be construed in any way to excuse a failure to comply with the conditions of the law where it is evident that these conditions have been fully understood and opportunity afforded for their application4 ,approved3 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,january #af1 #aijf4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #cf47 ,,substances1 ,,ordinarily ,,food ,,products1 ,,intended ,,for ,,technical ,,purposes4 ,the question has been raised on several occasions whether food products which are offered for importation for other purposes than to be used in foods are subject to the inspections of similar products when intended for consumption4 ,it has been held 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #cb7 that it is not the purpose of the law1 nor is it possible1 to follow the ordinary food product into consumption in order to determine to what use it is finally put4 ,the law levying duty on olive oils specifically provides that when such oil is imported for mechanical purposes it is free from duty as an edible oil1 provided it is in a condition of rancidity or other state which renders it unfit for consumption as human food4 ,there is no statute covering a similar condition for other food products4 ,it seems only reasonable1 however1 to apply this principle of law to other food products when it can be done without complicating the question of the ordinary inspection4 ,it is therefore held that a substance which ordinarily is considered a food product1 when offered for importation for technical purposes may be admitted without inspection on the following conditions3 7#a7 ,that in the invoice and accompanying declaration it is specifically stated that the substance in question is to be devoted solely to technical use4 7#b7 ,that the substance be so denatured1 either by natural or artificial means1 as to render it unfit for consumption as human food4 ,this ,department reserves the right to determine in any given case whether or not the denaturing process is of a character which would render it impracticable to recover the article in a form suitable for consumption as human food4 ,when substances ordinarily food products are presented hereafter for import into this country with the invoice and declaration above mentioned and in the denatured condition specified1 they will not be detained for inspection by this ,department longer than is necessary to ascertain the above facts4 ,a denaturing process will be held to be valid provided it so changes the taste of the food product as to make it impossible for it to be consumed for food purposes1 as1 for instance1 by the addition of an excessive quantity of common salt or other denaturing agent which would impart a taste of such a character as to cause it to be rejected by any one attempting to consume it4 ,this decision shall not be considered in any way to change the opinion of this ,department with reference to food products offered as such for importation and afterwards declared to be intended for technical purposes1 as stated in ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #be1 of ,june #ba1 #aije4 ,approved3 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,january #ah1 #aijf4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #cg-ch4 ,,united ,,states ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,bureau ,,of ,,chemistry1 ,h4 ,w4 ,,wiley1 ,,chief ,,of ,,bureau4 ,,food ,,inspection ,,decisions #cg-ch4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #cg47 ,,labeling ,,of ,,chocolates4 ,the question of the proper marking of plain or bitter chocolates and sweet chocolates has arisen on several occasions in the inspection of imported food products1 and1 after full investigation of all the facts of the case and the relations of previous decisions thereto1 it appears that the following points are established3 #a4 ,chocolate1 plain or bitter1 is imported for cooking and not for directly edible purposes4 #b4 ,sweet chocolates are imported practically as a candy or confection4 ,this question is covered to a certain extent in ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #bf1 section #h1 which reads as follows3 #h4 ,the addition of the ordinary condimental substances to a food product1 such as sugar1 vinegar1 salt1 spices1 and wood smoke1 may be practiced without any notice to this effect appearing upon the label4 ,section #i limits the application of section #h4 ,it reads as follows3 #i4 ,food products of any given name are to correspond in quality to the standards established by authority of ,congress for such products1 and if they vary from this standard a notice to that effect is to appear upon the label4 ,it appears from the standards adopted by authority of ,congress 7,circular ,no4 #ac1 ,office of the ,secretary7 that chocolate1 plain or bitter1 can not have any substances added to it not noted in the standard and remain a standard product4 ,if1 therefore1 chocolate1 plain or bitter1 have any starch or other substance added thereto for any purpose whatever1 or sugar in insufficient quantities to make it a sweet chocolate1 the addition of these bodies should be indicated by an appropriate statement on the label4 ,on the other hand1 sweet chocolate1 being intended for and plainly being a confection1 would not require a statement to the effect that sugar had been added or a statement in regard to any of the other substances mentioned in the standard4 ,if1 however1 any foreign substance other than that mentioned in the standard should be added to a sweet chocolate1 a proper statement indicating that fact would be required upon the label4 ,this decision is given without prejudice to revision in case it should become advisable1 as a result of experience1 to further distinguish between these two bodies by some appropriate designation4 8,milk chocolate0 will be considered as a sweet chocolate to which whole milk 7fresh1 evaporated1 or desiccated7 has been added4 ,approved3 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,march #cj1 #aijf4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ch47 ,,labeling ,,of ,,cocoas4 ,cocoas1 in the preparation of which alkalis or other substances have been employed in order to increase the apparent solubility of the product1 should bear on the label a declaration of such treatment4 ,the phrase 8,prepared with ,alkali0 7or alkalis7 or 8,manufactured with ,alkali0 7or alkalis71 or some similar treatment1 would be a sufficient notification4 ,this declaration should also be in keeping with the provisions of ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #bf4 ,the denomination of such products as 8soluble cocoas0 will not answer1 since the term 8soluble10 as used in this connection1 is1 to a certain extent1 misleading4 ,the apparent increased solubility of products treated as above is due rather to the suspension of the particles than to their solubility4 ,the descriptions of the manufacture of these products show that potassium carbonate1 sodium carbonate1 magnesium carbonate1 ammonium carbonate1 and ammonium hydroxid are the principal alkaline salts employed4 ,tartaric acid is also at times used to correct any undue alkalinity produced by these added substances4 ,the subject of the wholesomeness of these added products is reserved for further consideration4 ,approved3 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,march #cj1 #aijf4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ci4 ,,united ,,states ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,bureau ,,of ,,chemistry1 ,h4 ,w4 ,,wiley1 ,,chief ,,of ,,bureau4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ci47 ,,preservatives ,,and ,,artificial ,,colors ,,in ,,macaronis4 ,inspection of recent importations of macaroni1 noodles1 and similar products has shown that these goods sometimes contain chemical preservatives1 such as fluorids1 which are regarded as injurious to health4 ,a small amount of coloring matter is also frequently added to macaroni4 ,it appears that ,martius yellow is often used for coloring these products4 ,this substance is held to be injurious to health and is so classed by the laws of several ,european countries1 especially ,italy1 which has decreed that1 among other colors1 ,martius yellow 7dinitro yellow1 naphthol yellow1 ,manchester yellow1 saffron yellow1 and gold yellow7 must not be used in the preparation of foods4 ,in view of this fact no importation of macaroni colored with ,martius yellow or other colors forbidden by the ,italian law1 or preserved with fluorids or other preservatives injurious to health1 will be permitted after ,june #a1 #aijf1 and all importations of macaroni which contain any permissible coloring matter must be labeled with the words 8,artificially colored10 in accordance with ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #bf4 ,approved3 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,may #a1 #aijf4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #dj-dc4 ,,united ,,states ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,bureau ,,of ,,chemistry1 ,h4 ,w4 ,,wiley1 ,,chief ,,of ,,bureau4 ,,food ,,inspection ,,decisions #dj-dc4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #dj47 ,,filing ,,guaranty4 ,in order that both the ,department and the manufacturer may be protected against fraud it is requested that all guaranties of a general character filed with the ,secretary of ,agriculture in harmony with ,regulation #i1 ,rules and ,regulations for the ,enforcement of the ,food and ,drugs ,act1 ,june #cj1 #aijf1 be acknowledged before a notary or other official authorized to affix a seal4 ,attention is called to the fact that when a general guaranty has been thus filed every package of articles of food and drugs put up under the guaranty should bear the legend1 8,guaranteed under the ,food and ,drugs ,act1 ,june #cj1 #aijf10 and also the serial number assigned thereto1 if the dealer is to receive the protection contemplated by the guaranty4 ,no other word should go upon this legend or accompany it in any way4 ,particular attention is called to the fact that nothing should be placed upon the label1 or in any printed matter accompanying it1 indicating that the guaranty is made by the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,the appearance of the serial number with the phrase above mentioned upon a label does not exempt it from inspection nor its guarantor from prosecution in case the article in question be found in any way to violate the food and drugs act of ,june #cj1 #aijf4 ,approved3 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,october #be1 #aijf4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #da47 ,,approval ,,of ,,labels4 ,numerous requests are referred to this ,department for the approval of labels to be used in connection with articles of food and drugs under the food and drugs act of ,june #cj1 #aijf4 ,this act does not authorize the ,secretary of ,agriculture nor any agent of the ,department to approve labels4 ,the ,department therefore will not give its approval to any label4 ,any printed matter upon the label implying that this ,department has approved it will be without warrant4 ,it is believed that with the law and the regulations before him the manufacturer will have no difficulty in arranging his label in harmony with the requirements set forth4 ,if there be questions on which there is doubt respecting the general character of labels1 decisions under the food and drugs act will be rendered1 of a public character and published from time to time1 covering such points4 ,approved3 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,october #be1 #aijf4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #db47 ,,mixing ,,flours4 ,the following communication has been received respecting the mixing of flours of different cereals3 ,in conformity with the custom of a century or more1 the manufacturers of rye flour1 in order to produce a lighter and more easily worked flour1 have added a proportion of wheat flour to their rye and branded it 8,rye ,flour40 ,this custom simply conforms to the consumers' demand for a whiter loaf and from every standpoint is a perfectly legitimate operation4 ,under the interpretation of the food and drugs act of ,june #cj1 #aijf1 apparent restrictions are placed upon this compounding1 and ,i would therefore respectfully ask your ruling upon the following points3 #a4 ,under this interpretation will it be necessary to add the word 8compound0 to the brands8 #b4 ,will it be necessary in accordance with this interpretation to name in the brand the fact that a wheat admixture has been made1 in addition to the use of the word 8compound10 providing that word is necessary8 #c4 ,referring to paragraph f1 ,regulation #ag1 which reads as follows3 8,an article containing more than one food product or active medicinal agent is misbranded if named after a single constituent10 will it be permissible to still name the rye-wheat admixture 8rye flour08 ,the food and drugs act of ,june #cj1 #aijf1 and the rules and regulations made thereunder1 provide for the proper marking of food product and penalties for misbranding4 ,the act also provides that a food product is not misbranded 8in the case of articles labeled1 branded1 or tagged so as to plainly indicate that they are compounds1 imitations1 or blends1 and the word #8compound1' #8imitation1' or #8blend1' as the case may be1 is plainly stated on the package in which it is offered for sale40 ,keeping in view these provisions of the law1 and rules and regulations made thereunder1 it appears that the mixing of rye flour and wheat flour is not prohibited by the law provided the package is marked 8compound0 or 8mixture10 the word standing alone and without qualification1 and also if the label contain the information which shows that it is properly branded4 ,the mixture may also be denominated a 8blend0 if rye flour and wheat flour be regarded as like substances4 ,it is held that this information in the case mentioned would be a statement of the ingredients used in making the compound4 ,it is further held that the use of an ingredient in small quantity simply for the purpose of naming it in the list of ingredients would be contrary to the intent of the law1 and therefore that the ingredients must be used in quantities which would justify the appearance of their names upon the label4 ,the statement made of the constituents used should be of a character to indicate plainly that the article is a compound1 mixture1 or blend4 ,it is evident from the above explanation that the naming of a mixture of this kind 8rye flour0 would be plainly a violation of the law and the regulations made thereunder4 ,attention is called also to the act of ,congress approved ,june #ac1 #ahih1 ,u4 ,s4 ,revised ,statutes1 sections #cf to #di1 inclusive1 imposing special taxes under the supervision of the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue on mixed flour4 ,approved3 ,w4 ,m4 ,,hays1 ,acting ,secretary4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,october #cj1 #aijf4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #dc47 ,,relabeling ,,of ,,goods ,,on ,,hand4 ,the following is a type of numerous communications received concerning the operation of the food law3 ,the retail grocers of our city1 as well as some of the jobbers1 are very much concerned over stocks of canned goods and other similar goods they might have in stock on ,january #a1 #aijg1 when the new pure-food act goes into effect4 ,we are under the impression that where there is nothing deleterious to health contained in such goods so held it is not the ,department's intention to interfere in any way1 shape1 or form with them4 ,where these goods are held by retailers in our own city does this come within the jurisdiction of the ,national law1 or is it controlled only by ,state laws8 ,similar letters have been received relating to drugs1 medicines1 and other articles affected by the operation of the law4 ,a general answer is deemed advisable1 which1 it is hoped1 wilt cover the cases in question4 ,section 7i7 of ,regulation #ag provides that-- ,the regulation regarding the principal label will not be enforced until ,october #a1 #aijg1 in the case of labels printed and now on hand1 whenever any statement therein contained which is contrary to the food and drugs act1 ,june #cj1 #aijf1 as to character of contents1 shall be corrected by a supplemental label1 stamp1 or paster4 ,all other labels now printed and on hand may be used without change until ,october #a1 #aijg4 ,it is held that under this regulation labels which contain statements relating to the name of manufacturer1 the place of manufacture1 etc41 which are not in harmony with the general meaning of the law may be used if on hand on the #ast of ,january1 #aijg1 the day on which the regulations become effective4 ,any statement1 however1 respecting the character of the contents which is false or misleading should be corrected as indicated4 ,the correction should secure the obliteration of the misstatement either by placing the supplemental label or paster over it or obliterating it in some other way4 ,if the goods contain artificial color or preservative other than ordinary condimental substances 7salt1 sugar1 vinegar1 wood smoke1 spices1 and condiments of all kinds71 that fact should appear upon the supplemental stamp or paster4 ,if any of the words required to be placed upon drugs and foods in the specific wording of the act do not appear upon the label1 such as alcohol1 opium1 etc41 it is held that the correction must include the enumeration of these substances1 as provided for in ,regulations #bh and #bi4 ,if goods that are packed and sealed in a carton which contains the bottle or other package also sealed and labeled were not in the hands of the manufacturer after ,january #a1 #aijg1 but had been already delivered to the jobber or dealer1 it will be held sufficient to mark the external carton alone1 provided the goods are sold only in the unbroken carton4 ,if the container1 however1 holds a large number of separate packages1 it will be necessary that each of the separate packages to be sold as such shall be labeled with the words required specifically by the act4 ,it must not be forgotten that ,regulation #ag1 section 7i71 is for the purpose of avoiding the expense of relabeling articles already packed and branded at the time the regulations go into effect and which necessarily could not have been so packed and branded with any intent to evade the provisions of the law1 and it is expected that jobbers and dealers will do everything in their power to bring the packages now on hand into as close harmony with the provisions of the act and the regulations made thereunder as possible4 ,all articles in the hands of manufacturers1 jobbers1 and dealers on the #ast day of ,january1 #aijg1 which are sold wholly within the ,state in which they are found on that date are exempt from the provisions of the act4 ,thus the use of the supplemental label1 stamp1 or paster is required only on those articles which on or after the #ast day of ,january1 #aijg1 enter interstate commerce or are offered for sale in the ,district of ,columbia and the ,territories4 ,it is believed that the provisions of ,regulation #ag1 section 7i71 can be complied with without great annoyance and expense4 ,it will be deemed sufficient if the supplemental pasters and labels are attached at the time the goods are shipped beyond the ,state line1 that is1 they need not necessarily be attached to such article on the #ast day of ,january1 but at any time thereafter when prepared for interstate commerce4 ,thus the labor of meeting this requirement will be distributed according to the exigencies of actual trade4 ,on and after ,october #a1 #aijg1 the label must be originally properly printed1 and no further amendment will be considered4 ,approved3 ,w4 ,m4 ,,hays1 ,acting ,secretary4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,november #f1 #aijf4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #dd-de4 ,issued ,december #d1 #aijf4 ,,united ,,states ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,bureau ,,of ,,chemistry1 ,h4 ,w4 ,,wiley1 ,,chief ,,of ,,bureau4 ,,food ,,inspection ,,decisions #dd ,,and #de4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #dd47 ,,scope ,,and ,,purpose ,,of ,,food-,,inspection ,,decisions4 ,from the tenor of many inquiries received in this ,department it appears that many persons suppose that the answers to inquiries addressed to this ,department1 either in letters or in published decisions1 have the force and effect of the rules and regulations for the enforcement of the food and drugs act of ,june #cj1 #aijf4 ,the following are illustrations of the inquiries received by this ,department3 ,must we stamp all goods as conforming to the drug and food law1 whether they have alcohol and narcotics therein1 or not8 ,on a brand of salad oil1 which is a winter-strain cottonseed oil1 can it be sold under the brand of salad oil1 or must it state that it is cottonseed oil8 ,it seems highly desirable that an erroneous opinion of this kind should be corrected4 ,the opinions or decisions of this ,department do not add anything to the rules and regulations nor take anything away from them4 ,they therefore are not to be considered in the light of rules and regulations4 ,on the other hand1 the decisions and opinions referred to express the attitude of this ,department in relation to the interpretation of the law and the rules and regulations1 and they are published for the information of the officials of the ,department who may be charged with the execution of the law and especially to acquaint manufacturers1 jobbers1 and dealers with the attitude of this ,department in these matters4 ,they are therefore issued more in an advisory than in a mandatory spirit4 ,it is clear that if the manufacturers1 jobbers1 and dealers interpret the rules and regulations in the same manner as they are interpreted by this ,department1 and follow that interpretation in their business transactions1 no prosecution will lie against them4 ,it needs no argument to show that the ,secretary of ,agriculture must himself come to a decision in every case before a prosecution can be initiated1 since it is on his report that the district attorney is to begin a prosecution for the enforcement of the provisions of the act4 ,in so far as possible it is advisable that the opinions of this ,department respecting the questions which arise may be published4 ,it may often occur that the opinion of this ,department is not that of the manufacturer1 jobber1 or dealer4 ,in this case there is no obligation resting upon the manufacturer1 jobber1 or dealer to follow the line of procedure marked out or indicated by the opinion of this ,department4 ,each one is entitled to his own opinion and interpretation and to assume the responsibility of acting in harmony therewith4 ,it may be proper to add that in reaching opinions and decisions on these cases the ,department keeps constantly in view the two great purposes of the food and drugs act1 namely1 to prevent misbranding and to prohibit adulteration4 ,from the tenor of the correspondence received at this ,department and from the oral hearings which have been held1 it is evident that an overwhelming majority of the manufacturers1 jobbers1 and dealers of this country are determined to do their utmost to conform to the provisions of the act1 to support it in every particular1 and to accede to the opinions of this ,department respecting its construction4 ,it is hoped1 therefore1 that the publication of the opinions and decisions of the ,department will lead to the avoidance of litigation which might arise due to decisions which may be reached by this ,department indicating violations of the act1 violations which would not have occurred had the opinions and decisions of the ,department been brought to the attention of the offender4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,december #a1 #aijf4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #de47 ,,blended ,,whiskies4 ,many letters are received by the ,department making inquiries concerning the proper method of labeling blended whisky4 ,manufacturers are anxious to know the construction placed by the ,department upon this particular part of the food and drugs act of ,june #cj1 #aijf1 and to ascertain under what conditions the words 8blended whisky0 or 8whiskies0 may be used4 ,the following quotation from one of these letters presents a particular case of a definite character3 ,on account of the uncertainty prevailing in our trade at the present time as to how to proceed under the pure-food law and regulations regarding what will be considered a blend of whiskies1 ,i am taking the liberty of expressing to you to-day two samples of whisky made up as follows3 ,sample ,a contains #ea percent of ,bourbon whisky and #di percent of neutral spirits4 ,in this sample a small amount of burnt sugar is used for coloring1 and a small amount of prune juice is used for flavoring1 neither of which increases the volume to any great extent4 ,sample ,b contains #ea percent of neutral spirits and #di percent of ,bourbon whisky4 ,burnt sugar is used for coloring1 and prune juice is used for flavoring1 neither of which increases the volume to any great extent4 ,i have marked these packages 8blended whiskies0 and want your ruling as to whether it is proper to thus brand and label such goods4 ,my inquiry is for the purpose of guiding the large manufacturing interests in the trade that ,i represent4 ,in a subsequent letter from the same writer the following additional statement is made3 ,the reason for wanting your decision or ruling in this matter is just this3 ,no house in the trade can afford to put out goods and run the risk of seizure and later litigation by the ,government on account of the odium that would be attached to fighting the food and drugs act4 ,the question presented is whether neutral spirits may be added to ,bourbon whisky in varying quantities1 colored and flavored1 and the resulting mixture be labeled 8blended whiskies40 ,to permit the use of the word 8whiskies0 in the described mixture is to admit that flavor and color can be added to neutral spirits and the resulting mixture be labeled 8whisky40 ,the ,department is of opinion that the mixtures presented can not legally be labeled either 8blended whiskies0 or 8blended whisky40 ,the use of the plural of the word 8whisky0 in the first case is evidently improper for the reason that there is only one whisky in the mixture4 ,if neutral spirit1 also known as cologne spirit1 silent spirit1 or alcohol1 be diluted with water to a proper proof for consumption and artificially colored and artificially flavored1 it does not become a whisky1 but a 8spurious imitation0 thereof1 not entirely unlike that defined in section #cbdd1 ,revised ,statutes4 ,the mixture of such an imitation with a genuine article can not be regarded as a mixture of like substances within the letter and intent of the law4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,december #a1 #aijf4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #df1 as amended4 ,issued ,march #bb1 #aijg4 ,,united ,,states ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,bureau ,,of ,,chemistry1 ,h4 ,w4 ,,wiley1 ,,chief ,,of ,,bureau4 ,,food ,,inspection ,,decision #df1 ,,as ,,amended4 ,,fictitious ,,firm ,,names4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #df1 ,,issued ,,on ,,december #ac1 #aijf1 ,,on ,,the ,,subject ,,of ,,fictitious ,,firm ,,names1 ,,is ,,hereby ,,amended ,,to ,,read ,,as ,,follows1 ,,for ,,the ,,purpose ,,of ,,obviating ,,any ,,ambiguity ,,that ,,may ,,have ,,existed ,,in ,,the ,,original ,,decision4 ,,the ,,amended ,,portion ,,is ,,set ,,in ,,italics4 ,the following extract from a letter is typical of a question frequently asked3 ,in connection with our manufacture of flavoring extracts1 we produce an article containing a certain percentage of artificial coumarin and vanillin4 ,this product has been placed on the market under the name of ---- and ,company1 a fictitious firm1 although dealers have always understood that it was our product4 ,is there any objection to our continuing to brand the product as manufactured by ---- and ,company8 ,the same question has frequently been asked by importers who state that they desire to assume the responsibility for particular brands4 ,it has been held by the ,attorney-,general 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #b7 that-- the words 8444 ,daisy ,sugar ,corn1 ---- ---- ,company1 ,milwaukee1 ,wis410 clearly imply that the goods referred to are manufactured or prepared by that company in ,wisconsin4 ,the general public1 unfamiliar with trade practices1 would inevitably reach that conclusion4 ,regulation #ah provides that if the name of the manufacturer and the place of manufacture be given1 they must be the true name and the true place4 ,if would appear1 therefore1 that the use of a fictitious name in such a manner that it would be understood to be the name of the manufacturer would be clearly a violation of ,regulation #ah4 ,it is apparent that the provisions of ,regulation #ah will not be fulfilled by the nominal incorporation of a fictitious firm4 ,the regulations require that goods must be actually manufactured by the firm represented on the label as the manufacturer4 ,when a proper name1 other than that of the manufacturer1 is placed upon a label it must not be used in the possessive4 ,for instance1 ,,charles ,,gaston',s ,,olive ,,oil ,,bordeaux can only be properly used on an oil manufactured by ,charles ,gaston at ,bordeaux4 ,the same is true if the designation ,,gaston',s ,,olive ,,oil ,,bordeaux be employed4 ,on the other hand1 the word 8,gaston0 might be used in an adjective sense1 and not in the possessive case as qualifying the words 8olive oil10 in a manner that would indicate that it represented a brand and not a manufacturer1 as ,,gaston ,,olive ,,oil4 ,or1 ,,olive ,,oil1 ,,gaston ,,brand4 ,in such case1 however1 neither given name nor initials should be employed4 ,the word 8,gaston0 should be in the same type as 8olive oil0 and in equal prominence1 thus forming a part of the label4 ,the phrase 8,olive ,oil1 ,charles ,gaston ,brand10 may be used1 in which case the name of the actual manufacturer should appear1 in order that no false indication of the name of the person or firm manufacturing the product may be given4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,february #ba1 #aijg4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #dg47 ,,flavoring ,,extracts4 ,the percentage of alcohol is not required to be stated in the case of extracts sold for the preparation of foods only4 ,it is held1 however1 that extracts which are sold or used for any medicinal purpose whatever should have the percentage of alcohol stated on the label4 ,numerous inquiries are received regarding the proper designation of products made in imitation of flavoring extracts or in imitation of flavors4 ,such products include 8,imitation vanilla flavor10 which is made from such products as tonka extract1 coumarin1 and vanillin1 with or without vanilla extract4 ,they may also include numerous preparations made from synthetic fruit ethers intended to imitate strawberry1 banana1 pineapple1 etc4 ,such products should not be so designated as to convey the impression that they have any relation to the flavor prepared from the fruit4 ,even when it is not practicable to prepare the flavor directly from the fruit1 8imitation0 is a better term than 8artificial40 ,these imitation products should not be designated by terms which indicate in any way by similarity of name that they are prepared from a natural fruit or from a standard flavor4 ,the term 8venallos10 for instance1 would not be a proper descriptive name for a preparation intended to imitate vanilla extract4 ,such products should either be designated by their true names1 such as 8vanilla and vanillin flavor10 8vanillin and coumarin flavor10 or by such terms as 8imitation vanilla flavor0 or 8vanilla substitute40 ,articles in the preparation of which such substitutes are employed should not be labeled as if they were prepared from standard flavors or from the fruits themselves4 ,for instance1 ice cream flavored with imitation strawberry flavor should not be designated as 8strawberry ice cream40 ,if sold as strawberry ice cream without a label the product would appear to be in violation of ,regulation #bb4 ,artificial colors should be declared whenever present4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,december #ac1 #aijf4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #dh47 ,,substances ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,foods4 ,the following letter was recently received at the ,department of ,agriculture3 ,we import a preparation of gelatin preserved with sulfurous acid for the purpose of fining wine4 ,this gelatin is not used as a food and does not remain in the wine1 although a small amount of the sulfurous acid may be left in the wine4 ,please inform us if the sale of this product is a violation of the food law4 ,it is held that the products commonly added to foods in their preparation are properly classed as foods and come within the scope of the food and drugs act4 ,the ,department can not follow a food product into consumption in order to determine the use to which it is put4 ,pending a decision on the wholesomeness of sulfurous acid as provided in ,regulation #ae 7b71 its presence should be declared4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,december #ac1 #aijf4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #di-ec4 ,issued ,february #ah1 #aijg4 ,,united ,,states ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,bureau ,,of ,,chemistry1 ,h4 ,w4 ,,wiley1 ,,chief ,,of ,,bureau4 ,,food ,,inspection ,,decisions #di-ec4 #di4 ,,time ,,required ,,to ,,reach ,,decisions ,,on ,,different ,,problems ,,connected ,,with ,,the ,,food ,,and ,,drugs ,,act1 ,,june #cj1 #aijf4 #ej4 ,,imitation ,,coffee4 #ea4 ,,coloring ,,of ,,butter ,,and ,,cheese4 #eb4 ,,form ,,of ,,label4 #ec4 ,,formula ,,on ,,the ,,label ,,of ,,drugs4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #di47 ,,time ,,required ,,to ,,reach ,,decisions ,,on ,,different ,,problems ,,connected ,,with ,,the ,,food ,,and ,,drugs ,,act1 ,,june #cj1 #aijf4 ,many letters have reached the ,department asking for action on very important questions connected with the food and drugs act which require much study and time to secure all the facts necessary to the rendering of a just decision4 ,it is quite impossible to answer all such letters in detail4 ,the following general statement shows the attitude of the ,department on questions of this kind3 ,all manufacturers and dealers have copies of the law and regulations or can secure them and study them carefully4 ,each manufacturer and dealer should conduct his business as nearly as possible in harmony with the law as he interprets it4 ,when each particular problem involved reaches a solution in this ,department1 it is hoped it will be found that the manufacturers and jobbers have come also to a similar decision in the matter4 ,public notice will be given of each decision as it is issued1 that the manufacturers and dealers may be informed and be able at once to place themselves in line with the decisions of the ,department4 ,in this way it is hoped that all injustice will be avoided in the execution of the law and everyone be given an opportunity to put himself right and to have due notice of decisions which may be made4 ,the ,department will use every endeavor to reach prompt decisions1 but must take time to collect the facts and subject them to a proper study2 otherwise the decisions would not have the value which should attach to them in important matters affecting the execution of the law4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,january #h1 #aijg4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ej47 ,,imitation ,,coffee4 ,a manufacturer writes as follows3 ,we beg to ask for your opinion as regards the hyphenated word 8,cereal-,coffee10 and whether or not we are entitled to its use for a cereal substitute for coffee4444 ,in our opinion the term 8,cereal-,coffee0 would come under the so-called trade-name and distinctive name4 ,it is held that since the product mentioned is not a coffee it can not properly be called by the term mentioned4 ,regulation #bj 7d7 provides that a distinctive name shall give no false indication of character4 ,the use of the name 8cereal-coffee0 might be taken to indicate that the product is coffee or has the properties of coffee1 and hence the use of this term does not comply with the definition of distinctive name4 ,even if the product consist in part of coffee1 the name would not be correct4 ,it is suggested that products of this nature be designated as 8imitation coffee10 as provided in ,regulation #ba 7f74 ,in such case the word 8imitation0 should be in uniform type1 on uniform background1 and should be given equal prominence with the word 8coffee40 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,january #ah1 #aijg4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ea47 ,,coloring ,,of ,,butter ,,and ,,cheese4 ,numerous inquiries1 of which the following is an illustration1 have been received by the ,department3 ,will you kindly inform me concerning the coloring of butter and cheese under the pure-food law8 ,would it be unlawful to color butter and cheese as now practiced8 ,the coloring of butter is specifically permitted in the law of ,august #b1 #ahhf 7#bd ,stat41 #bji71 and the coloring of cheese in the law of ,june #f1 #ahif 7#bi ,stat41 #bec74 ,it is held by the ,department that the food and drugs act does not repeal the provisions of the acts referred to above and the addition of harmless color to these substances may be practiced as therein provided1 and that the presence of coloring matter specifically recognized by acts of ,congress as a constituent is not required to be declared on the label4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,january #ah1 #aijg4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #eb47 ,,form ,,of ,,label4 ,the following is an extract from a letter recently received4 ,we do not understand the requirements of the regulations respecting the arrangement of labels2 that is1 the order in which the various features of the label should be arranged4 ,to meet the requests for the opinion of the ,department regarding the proper arrangement of a label1 the following order is suggested3 #a4 ,name of substance or product4 #b4 ,in case of foods1 words which indicate that the articles are compounds1 mixtures1 or blends1 and the word 8,imitation10 8,compound10 or 8,blend10 as the case may be4 #c4 ,statements designating the quantity or proportion of the ingredients enumerated in the law1 or derivatives and preparations of same1#ec as mentioned under ,regulation #bh2 also statements of other extraneous substances whose presence should be declared1 such as harmless coloring matter1 or any necessary statement regarding grade or quality4 #ec ,attention is called to the fact that the declaration of alcohol and its derivatives is not required in foods4 7,the statements specified in paragraphs #a1 #b1 and #c1 should appear together without any intervening descriptive or explanatory matter47 #d4 ,name of manufacturer 7if given74 #e4 ,place of manufacture 7if given1 or when required in case of food mixtures or compounds bearing a distinctive name74 ,it is stated in ,regulation #ag that if the name of the manufacturer and place of manufacture be given they should appear upon the principal label4 ,although the law does not require that the name of the manufacturer be given1 or the place of manufacture1 except in case of food mixtures and compounds having a distinctive name1 it is held that if they are given they must be true1 and should be placed with the required information on the principal label4 ,the arrangement of the label is the same for both food and drug products and an example of each is given4 ,sample label for food product4 -------------------------------------- ,name of product4 ,,ketchup4 ,declaration required by ,,artificially ,,colored4 paragraphs #b and #c4 ,descriptive matter1 if desired1 but preferably at bottom of label4 ,name of manufacturer1 if ,,blank ,,co41 given4 ,place of manufacture1 if ,,portland1 ,,me4 given4 ,descriptive matter1 if desired4 -------------------------------------- ,sample label for drug product4 -------------------------------------- ,name of product4 ,,cough ,,syrup4 ,declarations required by ,,alcohol1 #aj ,,percent4 paragraphs #b and #c4 ,,morphin1 ,,grain ,,per ,,ounce4 ,,chloroform1 #dj ,,minims ,,per ,,ounce4 ,descriptive matter1 if desired1 but preferably at bottom of label4 ,name of manufacturer1 if ,,john ,,jones ,,co41 given4 ,place of manufacture1 if ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 given4 ,descriptive matter1 if desired4 -------------------------------------- ,any descriptive or explanatory matter that may appear on the principal label1 therefore1 should be placed at the bottom of the label1 or between ,no4 #c and ,no4 #d1 and should be clearly separated from other features of the label by means of a suitable line or space4 ,statements regarding the reason for using alcohol1 artificial coloring matter1 and other extraneous substances1 come under the head of descriptive or explanatory matter1 and should not be interspersed with the declarations required under ,nos4 #b and #c4 ,the information called for under ,no4 #c should be so worded as to give only the required information1 as1 for example1 8alcohol #ag percent0 or 8artificially colored40 ,all numbers used in expressing quantity or proportion of substances required to be stated 7see ,regulation #bh7 should be expressed in the ,arabic notation4 ,each substance required to be declared under ,no4 #c should be printed on a separate line and in type specified in ,regulation #ag 7c74 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,january #ah1 #aijg4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ec47 ,,formula ,,on ,,the ,,label ,,of ,,drugs4 ,many inquiries are received relative to the necessity of giving the formula of medicinal remedies on the label4 ,the following is typical3 ,i should like to know if it will be necessary for me to state on a label the name of the products from which ,i prepare my proprietary medicine in order to conform with the pure food and drugs act4 ,if ,i do this1 it will prohibit me from manufacturing and selling a remedy which is a secret of my own2 and anyone buying it could1 from the label1 tell what ingredients were used in its preparation and make his own supply of this medicine4 ,how does the ,united ,states ,government expect to protect those who have secret medicinal preparations they wish to sell at a profit8 ,if the ,pure ,food ,commission desires1 ,i will send them a sample bottle of my medicine for their inspection and approval4 ,the food and drugs act1 ,june #cj1 #aijf1 does not require the formula of drug products to be given on the label1 but requires only that the quantity or proportion of the ingredients enumerated in the law1 and derivatives and preparation of same 7,regulation #bh71 shall be clearly set forth on the label or labels of all preparations used for the treatment or prevention of disease1 either internally or externally1 for man or other animals4 ,this includes sample packages as well as regular trade packages4 ,the question is also frequently asked whether a medicinal preparation would be exempt from the operation of the law if the formula were given on the label4 ,the formula on the label is very desirable1 but this information is not required by the law4 ,the act forbids the use of any statement1 design1 or device in connection with any drug product which is false or misleading in any particular4 ,a defect of this kind would not be corrected by giving the formula on the label4 ,if the formula is given1 it must be the correct and complete formula4 ,it is held that1 in addition to those substances required by the act to be named1 if only a part of the active medicinal agents used in the manufacture of a drug product are set forth on the label1 such a procedure is misleading and therefore forbidden by the law4 ,all drug products and their labels must conform to the act1 whether the formula is or is not given on the label4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,january #bh1 #aijg4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ed-ei4 ,issued ,march #bc1 #aijg4 ,,united ,,states ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,bureau ,,of ,,chemistry1 ,h4 ,w4 ,,wiley1 ,,chief ,,of ,,bureau4 ,,food ,,inspection ,,decisions #ed-ei4 #ed4 ,,declaration ,,of ,,the ,,quantity ,,or ,,proportion ,,of ,,alcohol ,,present ,,in ,,drug ,,products4 #ee4 ,,method ,,of ,,stating ,,quantity ,,or ,,proportion ,,of ,,preparations 7,,containing ,,opium1 ,,morphin1 ,,etc47 ,,used ,,in ,,manufacturing ,,other ,,preparations4 #ef4 ,,names ,,to ,,be ,,employed ,,in ,,declaring ,,the ,,amount ,,of ,,the ,,ingredients ,,as ,,required ,,by ,,the ,,law4 #eg4 ,,physicians' ,,prescriptions3 ,,the ,,status ,,of ,,packages ,,compounded ,,according ,,to ,,physicians' ,,prescriptions ,,and ,,entering ,,into ,,interstate ,,commerce4 #eh4 ,,the ,,labeling ,,of ,,products ,,used ,,as ,,food ,,and ,,drugs ,,as ,,well ,,as ,,for ,,technical ,,and ,,other ,,purposes4 #ei4 ,,national ,,formulary ,,appendix4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ed47 ,,declaration ,,of ,,the ,,quantity ,,or ,,proportion ,,of ,,alcohol ,,present ,,in ,,drug ,,products4 ,the question of stating the percentage of alcohol present in drug products has caused a multitude of inquiries4 ,the following questions along this line serve as examples3 ,is it necessary to give the amount of alcohol present in ,u4 ,s4 ,pharmacopial or ,national ,formulary products8 ,it seems to me that such a requirement is absurd1 and not contemplated within the spirit of the act4 ,none of them are patent medicines4 ,will ,i be compelled to tell how much alcohol is present in such goods8 ,if we apply for and obtain a serial number1 must we in addition to putting this number on our labels state the percent of alcohol8 ,will it be necessary to give the percent of alcohol present in such products as ether1 chloroform1 collodion1 spirit of nitrous ether1 and similar preparations8 ,the law is specific on the subject of declaring the amount of alcohol present in medicinal agents1 as can readily be seen from the following language3 8,an article shall also be deemed misbranded 444 if the package fail to bear a statement on the label of the quantity or proportion of any alcohol 444 contained therein4 ,no medicinal preparations are exempt1 whether they are made according to formul given in the ,u4 ,s4 ,pharmacopia or ,national ,formulary or formul taken from any other source4 ,the serial number1 with or without the guarantee legend1 does not exempt a preparation from this requirement4 ,the law does not make any statement as to the amount of alcohol that may or may not be employed4 ,it requires1 however1 that whatever amount be present shall be set forth on the label4 ,the percentage of alcohol given on the label should be the percentage of absolute alcohol by volume contained in the finished product4 ,the manner in which it should be printed is shown in ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #eb4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,march #ac1 #aijg4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ee47 ,,method ,,of ,,stating ,,quantity ,,or ,,proportion ,,of ,,preparations 7,,containing ,,opium1 ,,morphin1 ,,etc47 ,,used ,,in ,,manufacturing ,,other ,,preparations4 ,many inquiries are received as to the method of stating the quantity or proportion of preparations 7containing opium1 morphin1 etc47 used in the manufacture of other preparations4 ,of these the following are typical3 ,if the label on the bottle were to bear the words 8,tincture of ,opium10 ,i reason that as this is a definite preparation1 constituting a preparation of opium1 and so definite as to its composition that to any intelligent person it expresses definitely all that it is desirable to express1 the use of this title alone should be sufficient4 ,i feel that as a preparation it is distinct from opium1 and if this particular tincture is used in the manufacture of a preparation the mention of it alone should be sufficient4 ,where extract or tincture of cannabis indica1 or extract of opium1 is employed in making other drug products1 would it not be complying with the law if the use of such articles be clearly indicated on the label as prescribed by the law1 or is it necessary to give the actual amounts of the drugs themselves represented by these preparations8 ,names of drug products bearing any of the names of the ingredients enumerated in the act are construed as representing 8preparations0 within the meaning of the act2 and if the same are clearly declared upon the label as required by ,regulations #ag and #cj1 it will not be necessary to give the actual amount of the primary drugs used or represented by such article4 ,it is desirable1 however1 that the word or words used in the law shall constitute the first part of the name of the product4 ,for example3 8,opium1 ,tincture of20 8,cannabis ,indica1 ,extract of10 followed by the amount of tincture or extract used4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,march #ac1 #aijg4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ef47 ,,names ,,to ,,be ,,employed ,,in ,,declaring ,,the ,,amount ,,of ,,the ,,ingredients ,,as ,,required ,,by ,,the ,,law4 ,many inquiries are coming to this ,department relative to the names that may be employed in declaring the quantity or proportion of the ingredients1 as required by ,congress4 ,the following are representative3 ,the word 8alcohol0 has received so much unfavorable notoriety during the last few years that we hesitate to place it upon our labels4 ,could we not employ some other words in place of it1 such as 8cologne spirits10 8spirits of wine10 8pure grain alcohol10 etc48 ,would it be satisfactory for us to use 8,phenylacetamid10 or the following formula1 ,c,h7,,ch,,co71 for the chemical acetanilid8 ,one of our preparations contains trichlorethidene ethyl alcoholate1 which would undoubtedly under the law be considered a derivative of chloral hydrate4 ,will it be satisfactory for us to use this name on our trade packages in giving the amount of this chemical present in the product8 ,in the manufacture of some of our products we use opium4 ,it would1 however1 be a financial loss to state this fact on the label4 ,could we not say this preparation contains #bj grains of the concentrated extract of the ,papaver somniferum to the fluid ounce8 ,dover's powder is mentioned in the regulations as one of the preparations of opium4 ,it would seem sufficient at first glance that ,dover's powder as a preparation1 if mentioned on the label1 would be all that could be required as to opium4 ,one of the objects of the law is to inform the consumer of the presence of certain drugs in medicines1 and the above terms do not give the average person any idea as to the presence or absence of such drugs4 ,in enumerating the ingredients1 the quantity or proportion of which is required to be given upon the principal label of any medicinal preparation in which such ingredients may be present1 the act uses only common names1 and the permission to use any but such common names for any ingredients required to be declared upon the label is neither expressed nor implied in any part of the law4 ,the term used for acetanilid is 8acetanilid0 and not phenylacetamid4 ,no reference is made to the use of the chemical formula in designating the presence of chemicals4 ,the words 8chloral hydrate0 appear in the act1 but not the chemical name trichlorethidene glycol4 ,it can readily be seen that if the act were not closely adhered to in this connection there would soon be such a confusion and multiplicity of names and phrases that one of the objects of the act would be defeated4 ,the names to be employed in stating the quantity or proportion of the ingredients required by the act to appear on the label of all medicinal preparations containing same are-- ,first4 ,those used in the law for the articles enumerated2 example1 8alcohol10 not 8spiritus rectificatus40 ,second4 ,in the case of derivatives3 7a7 ,the name of the parent substance used in the act should constitute part of the name2 example1 8chloral acetone10 not 8trichlorethidene dimethyl ketone40 7b7 ,the trade-name1 accompanied in parentheses by the name of the parent substance2 example1 8dionin 7morphin derivative740 ,third4 ,names of preparations containing the name of some ingredient used in the act4 ,in such cases the name used in the act should constitute the first portion of the name of the preparation4 7,see ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ee47 ,fourth4 ,common names 7such as laudanum1 ,dover's powder1 etc47 of preparations containing an ingredient enumerated in the law1 provided such name or names are accompanied in parentheses by some such phrase as 8preparation of opium0 or 8opium preparation10 followed by the number of minims or grains1 as specified in the regulations2 for instance1 8laudanum 7preparation of opium71 #dj minims per ounce40 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,march #ac1 #aijg4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #eg47 ,,physicians' ,,prescriptions4 ,,the ,,status ,,of ,,packages ,,compounded ,,according ,,to ,,physicians' ,,prescriptions ,,and ,,entering ,,into ,,interstate ,,commerce4 ,packages resulting from the compounding of physicians' prescriptions under the food and drugs act are the subject of many queries1 of which the following are representative3 ,if a druggist compounds a physician's prescription and sends it into an adjoining ,state1 will it be necessary to state upon the label the amount of alcohol1 morphin1 etc41 that may be present8 ,supposing a regularly licensed practicing physician has patients located in various ,states of the ,union and supplies medicines to them through the mails1 by express1 and otherwise1 do such packages come under the provisions of the law1 and1 if so1 can the required information be given in pen and ink on the label8 ,we treat drug addictions on a very gradual tonic treatment reduction plan4 ,for instance1 if ,john ,doe writes for information as to the home treatment for his addiction1 ,i send him a symptom blank which contains1 among other questions1 an inquiry as to the kind of drug he uses1 how he uses it1 the length of time he has used it1 etc4 ,in addition to giving me a complete history of his case1 he states he is using #aj grains of sulf4 of morphin 7each twenty-four hours71 hypodermically or internally1 as the case may be4 ,in prescribing in his case ,i immediately put him on just one-half of the amount he reports as his daily allowance1 combining same with a bitter tonic4 ,it is necessary for the reduction in drug cases to be made without the patient's knowledge4 ,it is1 of course1 understood by all physicians that you can not trust a drug habitu to properly make his own reductions1 for1 as a matter of fact1 if he knew to what extent ,i was reducing his daily allowance of opiates1 he would imagine the reduction too rapid1 he would get frightened1 and would take to his former drug for relief4 ,treatment prepared in this way ,i do not think would come under the head of a proprietary preparation or a patent medicine1 as ,i prescribe the contents of each bottle to meet the requirements of each individual patient4 ,all instructions as to the conduct of treatment and the use of auxiliary remedies are given by letter2 consequently there are no printed labels or cartons containing any claims concerning the efficacy of this treatment4 ,i would be pleased to have you inform me whether in your opinion ,i would be violating the pure-food law in any manner1 shape1 or form should ,i continue to label my preparations as ,i am now doing1 and in having them prepared in ---- and forwarded direct to my patients in this and other ,states4 ,if a package compounded according to a physician's prescription be shipped1 sent1 or transported from any ,state or ,territory or the ,district of ,columbia to another ,state or ,territory or the ,district of ,columbia by a compounder1 druggist1 physician1 or their agents1 by mail1 express1 freight1 or otherwise1 the label upon such package is required to bear the information called for by ,congress4 ,if1 however1 the patient himself1 or a member of his household1 or the physician himself carries such package across a ,state line1 and such package is not subject to sale1 it is held that such package need not be marked so as to conform with the law1 because such a transaction is not considered one of interstate commerce4 ,the package may be marked so as to comply with the act by either stamp1 pen and ink1 or typewriter1 provided all such written matter is distinctly legible and on the principal label1 as prescribed in ,regulation #ag4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,march #ac1 #aijg4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #eh47 ,,the ,,labeling ,,of ,,products ,,used ,,as ,,foods ,,and ,,drugs ,,as ,,well ,,as ,,for ,,technical ,,and ,,other ,,purposes4 ,frequent requests for information relative to the proper labeling of products bearing the names of foods and drugs1 but used also for technical and other purposes1 are received4 ,the following are typical3 ,we will kindly ask you to advise us in regard to the new law that governs the line of oils4 ,we manufacture a compound product1 so-called 8turpentine10 which contains pure turpentine and a very fine petroleum product4 ,it is used in most branches where pure turpentine is used1 with the exception of medicinal purposes1 for which we do not sell it4 ,we understand that if we were to sell any cottonseed oil so branded as to indicate that it was intended to be used as a food1 as1 for example1 under the brand 8,blank ,salad ,oil10 it would be necessary to observe the requirements of the law referred to2 but we are in doubt and would be glad to have your opinion as to whether a sale or shipment of this oil 7for lubricating purposes7 under the ordinary trade-brand of cottonseed oil1 and without anything to indicate that it was of a quality suitable for use as a salad oil1 would subject us to the provisions of the act4 ,during personal interviews the question of marking chemical reagents has also been discussed4 ,products used in the arts and for technical purposes are not subject to the food and drugs act4 ,it is1 however1 a well-recognized fact that many articles are used indiscriminately for food1 medicinal1 and technical purposes4 ,it is also well known that some products employed for technical purposes are adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this act4 ,inasmuch as it is impossible to follow such products into consumption in order to determine to what use they are finally put1 it is desirable that an article sold under a name commonly applied to such article for food1 drug1 and technical purposes be so labeled as to avoid possible mistakes4 ,the ordinary name of a pure and normal product1 whether sold for food1 drug1 technical1 or other purposes1 is all that is necessary4 ,pure cottonseed oil or turpentine may be sold without any restrictions whatever1 whether such article is sold for food1 medicinal1 or technical purposes1 but it is suggested that a cottonseed oil intended for lubricating purposes1 or a so-called turpentine consisting of a mixture of turpentine and petroleum oils1 used by the paint trade1 be plainly marked so as to indicate that they are not to be employed for food or medicinal purposes4 ,such phrases as the following may be used3 8,not for ,food ,purposes10 8,not for ,medicinal ,use10 or for 8,technical ,purposes ,only10 or 8,for ,lubricating ,purposes10 etc4 ,in order to avoid complication it is suggested that chemical reagents sold as such be marked with such phrases as the following3 8,for ,analytical ,purposes10 or 8,chemical ,reagent10 etc4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,march #ac1 #aijg4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ei47 ,,national ,,formulary ,,appendix4 ,the ,national ,formulary is one of the standards recognized under the law4 ,the question has been asked a number of times whether the appendix of this authority would be construed as part and parcel of the book itself4 ,on page iv of the preface it is distinctly stated that the formul collected in the appendix of the ,national ,formulary are 8no longer designated as #8,n4 ,f4' preparations40 ,this shows that these formul are not integral parts of the book under the law1 which covers only those products of the ,national ,formulary recognized as such by this authority4 ,by this it is understood that if a drug product is sold under a name contained in the appendix of the ,national ,formulary1 it will not be necessary for such product either to conform to the standard indicated by the formula or to declare upon the label its own standard strength1 quality1 and purity if a different formula is employed in its manufacture4 ,such articles are1 however1 subject to the law in every other respect1 as is the case of other medicinal products not recognized by the ,u4 ,s4 ,pharmacopia or ,national ,formulary4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,march #ac1 #aijg4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #fj47 ,,minor ,,border ,,importations4 ,inquiry has frequently been made regarding the application of ,regulation #cc 7requiring a declaration to be attached to the invoice7 to foods and drugs brought into the ,united ,states in small quantities by farmers living near the border4 ,one correspondent says3 ,farmers along the border are in the habit of occasionally bringing in1 in their own teams1 maple sugar in small quantities1 also butter and like articles of food products of their own raising1 and offering the same for entry at the different offices on the frontier4444 ,the main question is as to whether or not the affidavits and other proof required by the pure-food law shall be required in these instances of minor importations of this class of articles4 ,considering the nature of these importations it is held that ,regulation #cc does not apply to them and that they may be imported without the declaration4 ,such products are subject to inspection1 however1 and if found to be in violation of the law will be excluded4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,march #be1 #aijg4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #fa47 ,,cocoa ,,butter ,,substitutes4 ,a manufacturer writes3 ,we use in the preparation of chocolate sticks a guaranteed pure production of cocoanut oil4 ,may this product be sold merely as confectionery1 and not as chocolate sticks8 ,if not1 would it be satisfactory for us to mark the product as 8,chocolate sticks prepared with substitute butter08 ,regulation #bb prohibits the sale1 or offer for sale1 in interstate or foreign commerce or in the ,district of ,columbia or in any ,territory of the ,united ,states1 of a food or drug product which bears no label whatever if said product be an imitation of or offered for sale under the name of another article4 ,it would clearly be a violation of the law to sell an article which was made in imitation of chocolate1 even though it be sold under the general name of a confection4 ,such an article should be labeled in such a manner as to correctly represent its true nature4 ,regulation #be 7a7 provides3 ,when a substance of a recognized quality commonly used in the preparation of a food or drug product is replaced by another substance not injurious or deleterious to health1 the name of the substituted substance shall appear upon the label4 ,it is held that cocoa butter is the only fat that can be used in chocolate4 ,the declaration of foreign fats merely as 8substitute butter0 is apparently not sufficient2 the nature of the fat employed should be stated4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,march #be1 #aijg4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #fb47 ,,guaranty ,,on ,,imported ,,products4 ,many inquiries of the following type have been received by the ,department3 ,we will take it as a favor if you will advise us if 7since our goods are all imported and so must pass the custom-house before being sold7 the fact of their having passed the customs authorities and the ,department of ,agriculture examination is not in itself a guaranty that they conform with the pure-food laws as defined by the act of ,congress approved ,june #cj1 #aijf1 entitled 8,an act for preventing the manufacture1 sale1 or transportation of adulterated or misbranded or poisonous or deleterious foods1 drugs1 medicines1 liquors10 etc4 ,the ,department makes a systematic inspection of imported foods and drugs when they arrive at the custom-houses2 and while such inspection does not include an examination of samples taken from every package of the aforesaid articles1 it is sufficient to indicate that the article is suitable to enter the country and be sent into interstate commerce as long as it retains its identity in the unbroken package4 ,if imported foods and drugs are taken from the original packages and repacked1 they become subject to inspection as if of domestic origin1 and the persons handling and selling said articles are not immune from prosecution in the event that a subsequent inspection discloses that all or any portion of said foods or drugs are adulterated or misbranded according to the provisions of said statute or the regulations made thereunder4 ,only a wholesaler1 jobber1 manufacturer1 or other party residing in the ,united ,states can give a guaranty within the meaning of said act4 ,a foreign manufacturer or other foreign dealer can not give the guaranty prescribed in said law1 nor can the agent of such foreign manufacturer or dealer give said guaranty unless such agent be a resident of the ,united ,states and unless he actually sells the goods covered by the guaranty4 ,the person who owns and sells imported goods can make a guaranty for the purpose aforesaid1 though the goods may be shipped directly by the firm of whom the guarantor buys them to the customer of the guarantor4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,march #be1 #aijg4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #fc47 ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,word 8,,compound0 ,,in ,,names ,,of ,,drug ,,products4 ,many inquiries are received concerning the use of the word 8compound0 in names of drug products4 ,there seems to be a general impression that this word can be applied as a corrective to many misbranded products4 ,the following extracts serve as examples3 ,you have on file our formula 7active agents--croton oil and cascara71 and we would ask if it is possible to call the same 8castor pill compound0 and comply with the regulations8 ,this liniment has been in use for forty years4 ,the ingredients1 each separately and collectively1 are sanitary and highly curative4 ,the one ingredient after which it was named happens to be present in the least proportion4 ,can not the compound be called by the name 8,compound ,sassafras ,cream08 ,an eminent jurist writes3 ,i shall be glad to know the views entertained by your ,department as to when a druggist has satisfied this act by a label or printed matter which he puts on the package or bottle in relation to a compound4 ,take1 for example1 the product put on the market as ,cascarin ,compound1 or ,aloin ,compound4 ,i am impressed with the fact that such label must have added a statement as to what the other ingredients of the compound are4 ,this may not mean1 and probably does not mean1 that the formula must be given or the exact proportions1 but a purchaser has the right to know what is in the compound in order to determine for himself1 or to receive proper advice1 as to whether it is safe to be used4 ,in no case can a preparation be named after an ingredient or drug which is not present4 ,the word 8compound0 should not be used in connection with a name which in itself1 or together with representations and designs accompanying same1 would be construed as a form of misbranding under the act4 ,it is held that if a mixture of drugs is named after one or more but not all of the active medicinal constituents 7not vehicle7 present in a preparation1 the word 8compound0 can be used in connection with the name1 7a7 provided the active constituent after which the product is named is present in an amount at least equal to that of any other active medicinal agent present4 ,example3 ,if it is desired ,lo make a mixture consisting of oil of sandalwood1 balsam copaiba1 and castor oil1 and call this product 8,oil of ,sandalwood ,compound10 the oil of sandalwood should constitute at least #cc percent of the entire mixture4 ,or 7b7 provided the potent active constituent after which the product is named is present in sufficient amount to impart the preponderating medicinal effect4 ,example3 ,if a product is named after the active constituent1 strychnine1 the strychnine or one of its salts should be present in sufficient amount to produce the preponderating medicinal effect of the preparation4 ,or 7c7 provided the complete quantitative formula1 as outlined in the ,united ,states ,pharmacopia and ,national ,formulary1 be given on the principal label4 ,a declaration of the complete quantitative formula1 however1 does not exempt the manufacturer or dealer from giving the information required by the act in the manner prescribed by the regulations4 ,the ounce shall be the unit4 ,the amounts of the ingredients present 7excepting alcohol1 which is to be stated in percent7 shall be given in grains or minims1 and if it is desired the metric equivalent may be given in addition4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,march #bc1 #aijg4 7,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #fd47 ,,labeling ,,of ,,sardines4 ,many inquiries have been made of this ,department respecting the extent to which the term 8sardine0 can be used in food products entering into foreign or interstate commerce4 ,the question of the proper labeling of fish of this kind was submitted by the ,department to the ,department of ,commerce and ,labor1 ,bureau of ,fisheries4 ,after reviewing the nomenclature and trade practices the ,department of ,commerce and ,labor reached the following conclusion3 ,commercially the name sardine has come to signify any small1 canned1 clupeoid fish2 and the methods of preparation are so various that it is impossible to establish any absolute standard of quality4 ,it appears to this ,department that the purposes of the pure-food law will be carried out and the public fully protected if all sardines bear labels showing the place where produced and the nature of the ingredients used in preserving or flavoring the fish4 ,in harmony with the opinion of the experts of the ,bureau of ,fisheries1 the ,department of ,agriculture holds that the term 8sardine0 may be applied to any small fish described above1 and that the name 8sardine0 should be accompanied with the name of the country or ,state in which the fish are taken and prepared1 and with a statement of the nature of the ingredients used in preserving or flavoring the fish4 ,it is held that a small fish of the clupeoid family1 caught upon or near the shores of and packed in oil in ,norway1 or smoked and packed in oil1 is properly labeled with the phrase 8,norwegian ,sardines in ,oil10 or 8,norwegian ,smoked ,sardines in ,oil10 the nature of the oil being designated4 ,in like manner a small fish of the clupeoid family caught upon or near the shores of and packed in ,france may be called 8,french ,sardines in ,oil10 the nature of the oil being specified4 ,following the same practice1 a fish of the clupeoid family caught on or near the shores of and packed in the ,united ,states may be labeled 8,american ,sardines ,packed in ,oil10 or 8,maine ,sardines ,packed in ,oil10 or be given some similar appellation1 the nature of the oil being stated4 ,it is suggested that the name of the particular fish to which the term sardine is to be applied should also be placed upon the label--for example1 8,pilchard10 8,herring10 etc4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,march #bi1 #aijg4 ,,list ,,of ,,food ,,inspection ,,decisions4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #a-ci practically concern imported foods only and were not issued under the food and drugs act1 ,june #cj1 #aijf4 #dj4 ,filing ,guaranty4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #da4 ,approval of ,labels4 #db4 ,mixing ,flours4 #dc4 ,relabeling of ,goods on ,hand4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #dd4 ,scope and ,purpose of ,food ,inspection ,decisions4 #de4 ,blended ,whiskies4 #df4 ,fictitious ,firm ,names2 also ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #df1 as amended4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #dg4 ,flavoring ,extracts4 #dh4 ,substances ,used in the ,preparation of ,foods4 #di4 ,time ,required to ,reach ,decisions on ,different ,problems ,connected with the ,food and ,drugs ,act1 ,june #cj1 #aijf4 #ej4 ,imitation ,coffee4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #ea4 ,coloring of ,butter and ,cheese4 #eb4 ,form of ,label4 #ec4 ,formula on the ,label of ,drugs4 #ed4 ,declaration of the ,quantity or ,proportion of ,alcohol ,present in ,drug ,products4 #ee4 ,method of ,stating ,quantity or ,proportion of ,preparations 7,containing ,opium1 ,morphin1 etc47 ,used in ,manufacturing ,other ,preparations4 #ef4 ,names to be ,employed in ,declaring the ,amount of the ,ingredients as ,required by the ,law4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #eg4 ,physicians' ,prescriptions3 ,the ,status of ,packages ,compounded ,according to ,physicians' ,prescriptions and ,entering into ,interstate ,commerce4 #eh4 ,the ,labeling of ,products ,used as ,food and ,drugs as well as for ,technical and ,other ,purposes4 #ei4 ,national ,formulary ,appendix4 #fj4 ,minor ,border ,importations4 #fa4 ,cocoa ,butter ,substitutes4 ,f4 ,i4 ,d4 #fb4 ,guaranty on ,imported ,products4 #fc4 ,use of the ,word 8,compound0 in ,names of ,drug ,products4 #fd4 ,labeling of ,sardines4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,acid in fruits1 #cfi ,acorn1 #dac oil1 #cif ,adulteration1 frequency1 #eg ,aerating agents1 #bea ,alcohol1 in confectionery1 #dhe industrial1 #big1 #dha ,alewife1 #aba ,allspice1 #cbb ,almond oil1 #cif ,almonds1 #dad ,alum residues1 character1 #bec ,amido bodies1 #hi ,anchovy1 #abb ,animals1 preparation as food1 #ab ,anise1 #cbc ,anona1 #cdc preserves1 #cdd ,appendix ,a1 food standards1 #eja filled cheese1 #eag ,b1 regulations1 food and drugs act1 #ebb food and drugs act1 #ecc ,c1 meat inspection regulations1 #ech meat inspection law1 #eef ,d1 food inspection decisions1 #efb ,applebutter1 #che ,apples1 #ccj acidity1 #ccj adulterations1 #ccj composition1 #cca1 #ccb dietetic value1 #ccb dried1 #cce evaporated1 #cce length of harvest1 #ccc pectose content1 #ccc picking and care1 #ccc preparation for drying1 #ccd storage1 #ccd tannin content1 #ccd varieties1 #ccj ,arrowroot1 #cag ,bermuda1 #cah ,madagascar1 #cai ,south ,african1 #cbj ,artichoke1 #bgd composition1 #bgd ,jerusalem1 #bhc ,ash1 #i of tropical fruits1 #cfh ,asparagus1 #bge ,atropin1 #ddh ,avocado1 #cdd ,b4 ,bacon1 canned1 #dh composition of canned1 #dh1 #di ,baking powders1 #bea alum1 #beb cream of tartar1 #beb phosphate1 #beb residues1 #bec ,bananas1 #cde composition1 #cdg ,barley1 #bag acreage and yield1 #bag composition1 #bag protein1 #bah starch1 #bah ,bay leaf1 #cbc ,bean1 #bge butter1 #bgf green1 #bgf kidney1 #bgf ,lima1 #bgf string1 #bgf ,beans1 adulteration of canned1 #cjh canned1 #cjg1 #cab composition of canned1 #cjg ,bechi test1 #ff ,beechnuts1 #dae ,beef1 adulteration of potted1 #eb commercial cuts1 #ag composition of canning1 #dc potted1 #ec extract1 #gi names1 #hj nitrogenous bodies1 #gi nutritive properties1 #hj fat crystals1 #fg juice1 #ha composition1 #ha preservatives1 #ha trade-names1 #hb potted1 #eb tea1 #hd composition1 #he ,beefsteak1 #ba ,bees1 swarming1 #dhh ,beet sugar1 #def historical1 #deg manufacture1 #dfa-dfd ,beets1 #bgg ,berkshire pig1 analytical data1 #bi1 #cj percentages of parts1 #ca1 #cb ,biscuits1 composition1 #beh ,black bass1 #abb ,black strap1 #dha ,blackberries1 #cdb ,blood1 preparations1 #hc ,bluefish1 #abb ,bondon cheese1 #bjh ,bonnyclabber1 #aha ,brandied fruit1 #che ,brazil-nut1 #dae ,bread1 #bdi comparative nutritive properties1 #bef composition1 #bed1 #bee quantity of ash1 #bef of sugar1 #bef typical1 #bee varieties1 #bdi ,breakfast foods1 #bfg classification1 #bfh composition1 #bfh value1 #bga ,brie1 manufacture1 #bjg ,brook trout1 #adi ,brown grease1 #ga ,brussels sprouts1 #bgh ,buckwheat1 #bai acreage1 #bai adulterations1 #bba cakes1 #bbj composition1 #bai milling1 #bai starch1 #bba ,butcher's lard1 #gj ,butter1 #ahb-ahg adulterated1 #ahf affected by food1 #ahf coloring1 #ahe melting point1 #ahf renovated1 #ahf salting1 #ahc standard1 #ahf treatment1 #ahb ,buttermilk1 #aha ,butternut1 #daf ,c4 ,cabbage1 #bgh ,cacao butter1 #daj composition1 #aha ,cainito1 #cff ,cakes1 #bfe adulteration1 #bff composition1 #bff ,calories1 #i ,camembert1 manufacture1 #bjf ,candy1 food value1 #dhc ,cane sirup1 #dge composition1 #dgf geographical distribution1 #dge sugar1 manufacture1 #dfe1 #dff ,canna edulis1 #cah ,canned corn1 adulteration1 #bbh souring and swelling1 #cab ,canning industries1 importance1 #chf-chh ,canning liquid1 composition1 #dg principles1 #cjf without parboiling1 #dg ,cans1 character1 #caa ,cantaloupe1 #bhd ,capers1 #cbc ,capons1 #ajc ,caraway1 #cbc ,carcasses1 preparation of1 #ad ,carp1 #abc ,carrot1 #bgi ,casein1 preparations1 #bae ,cashew1 #cdh ,cassia1 #cbc buds1 #cbc ,catfish1 #abc ,cauliflower1 #bgi ,caviar1 #ade ,celery1 #bhj seed1 #cbc ,cepe1 #dde ,ceylon oil1 #daa ,cheddar cheese1 manufacture1 #bjd ,cheese1 #aij-baf adulteration and misbranding1 #aib ,american1 #aig artificial coloring1 #aib bacterial activity1 #baa ,cheddar1 #bjc chemical changes during ripening1 #bab-bad ,cheshire1 #bjc comparative composition1 #aii cottage1 #aie cream1 #bja curing1 #bjj digestibility1 #bad effect of cold storage1 #bae filled1 #aid ,french varieties1 #bjf goats' milk1 #aib historical1 #aij kinds1 #aia manufacture1 #aif1 #aig of foreign types1 #bja preservatives1 #aid principal ,english kinds1 #bjc quality of ,american1 #bjj raw materials1 #aid sage1 #bjc salting1 #aii ,stilton1 #bjc ,chemical leavening agents1 #bed preservatives1 preservation1 #cg terms1 explanation1 #h ,cherries1 #ccf canned1 #cgj maraschino1 #cga varieties1 #ccg ,chicken1 #ie adulteration1 #ajc of potted1 #ajb composition of white meat1 #aja ,chicken1 preserved1 #ajb ,chickens1 artificial feeding1 #ii drawn and undrawn1 #ajj fresh killed1 #ii preparation for food1 #if preparing for market1 #ii ,chicks1 influence of temperature1 #ig market1 #ih ,chicory1 #bhj roasted1 #bhj ,chinese nut1 #dag ,chestnut1 #daf composition1 #dag ,cinnamon1 #cbc ,citrus fruits1 #cdh ,clams1 #aec canned1 #aef chowder1 #gi soup1 #gi ,cloves1 #cbc ,coconut butter1 #daa oil1 #daa ,cod1 composition1 #abe common1 #abd liver oil1 adulteration1 #aff salted and dried1 #abe ,codfish1 #abd balls1 #abf ,cold storage1 effect on meats1 #ce ,coloring1 artificial1 #chj matter1 #ee indirect1 #ee ,colza oil1 #djg ,comb honey1 #dhi ,condimental substance1 curing1 #ce1 #cf ,condiments1 #cbb ,confectionery1 #dhb alcohol forbidden1 #dhf manufacture1 #dhb materials1 #dhb mineral colors1 #dhe wholesomeness1 #dhd ,confections1 adulteration1 #dhc ,conger eel1 #abg ,consumer1 rights of1 #ad ,cooking1 #c ,copper1 in peas1 #cac tests1 #cad ,copra oil1 #daa ,coriander1 #cbd ,corn bread1 #bcb canned1 #bbg meal1 #bcj adulteration1 #bcb pudding1 #beg ,cottonseed oil1 #cig ,bechi test1 #ff extraction with petroleum1 #dja ,halphen test1 #fe magnitude of industry1 #cig manufacture1 #cig1 #cih refining1 #cii1 #djj ,crabs1 #aee ,crabs1 canned1 #aef ,cramming machine1 #aaa ,cranberry1 #bha ,crawfish1 #aef ,cream1 #age standards1 #agf ,creatin1 #ij ,cress1 #bha ,cucumber1 #bha ,curd1 cutting1 #aih forming1 #aig gathering1 #aii heating1 #aih milling1 #aii separating1 #aii ,cured meats1 canned1 #ei ,cumin seed1 #cbd ,cuts of beef1 #ae ,d4 ,deviled meats1 potted1 #eb ,dewberry1 #cdb ,dill1 #cbd ,dried meats1 #he ,duck1 #ajd composition1 #ajh varieties1 #aje ,aylesbury1 #aje ,cayuga1 #aje crested white1 #aje ,east ,indian1 #aje gray1 #aje ,pekin1 #aje ,rover1 #aje white call1 #aje white ,muscovy1 #aje ,e4 ,edam cheese1 #baj ,edible oils1 uses1 #cie parts1 names1 #ae ,eels1 #abf ,egg plant1 #bhb substitutes1 #aae ,eggs1 #aab broken1 #aae cold storage1 #aad composition1 #aac dried1 #aae parasites1 #aaf poisonous principles1 #aaf preservation1 #aac ,emmenthaler cheese1 manufacture1 #bjg ,entire wheat flour1 #bdd ,enzyme action1 effect of low temperature1 #bc ,ether extract1 #i ,f4 ,fat1 identification of meats1 #be ,fat products1 inedible1 #gj test for adulteration1 #ea ,fennel1 #cbd ,ferments1 spontaneous1 #bej ,fiber1 #i ,figs1 #cdi caprification1 #cej composition1 #cdi ,smyrna1 #cdi ,filberts1 #dah ,fish1 average composition1 #aea canning1 #aeb classification1 #aag1 #aah by composition1 #abj1 #aba cold storage1 #aea drying and salting1 #aeb edible portion1 #aai eggs1 composition1 #adf food value1 #aec marketing1 #aea oils1 #afe principal constituents1 #aai products1 adulteration1 #aeb ,flavoring extracts1 #cbf ,flavors1 artificial1 #chj ,flesh1 edible1 #aa ,flounder1 summer1 #abg ,flour1 #bdb adulterations1 #bdg age1 #bdh bleaching1 #bdg commercial value1 #bdd composition1 #bde special names1 #bdc standards1 #bdh substitutes1 #bdh varieties1 #bdb ,fluorids in fish1 #aea ,foods1 classification1 #b1 #g composition1 #f condimental1 #h social functions1 #e ,fowls1 slaughtering1 #aaa ,fresh meat1 adulteration of canned1 #eg delivery to consumers1 #ba preservation1 #bc ,fruit1 brandied1 #che butter1 #che definition1 #cbf selection1 #cge sirups1 #cgc adulteration1 #cgd composition1 #cgc imitation1 #cgd ,fruits1 acid content1 #cfi adulteration of canned1 #cgb canned1 #cgj characteristics1 #cbg composition of ash1 #cgf crystallized1 #dhc nutritive uses1 #cbh sugar content1 #cfi ,fungi1 food value1 #ded ,g4 ,garlic1 #bhb ,geese1 feeding1 #ajf ,gelatine1 #ij adulteration1 #ia preparation1 #ij raw materials1 #ij1 #ia ,gervais cheese1 #bjh ,ginger1 #cbd ,glucose1 #dgi harmful constituents1 #dhe used in honey1 #dic ,gluten1 #bda flour1 #bdd separation1 #bde testing1 #bdf1 #bdg ,goggle-eye1 #ace ,goose1 #aje composition1 #ajh varieties1 #ajf ,gooseberry1 #cdb ,gorgonzola cheese1 #baa ,gourds1 #bhb ,grape fruit1 #cea composition1 #cea ,grapes1 #ccg composition1 #cch ,graylings1 #abh ,graham flour1 #bdc ,green turtle1 #aeg soup1 #gi ,gruyre cheese1 #baj ,guava1 #ceb composition1 #ceb preserves1 #ceb ,h4 ,halibut1 #abh ,ham and bacon1 adulteration of canned1 #ej canned1 #dh composition of canned1 #dh ,hake1 #abh ,halphen test1 #fe ,hazelnut1 #dai oil1 #dja ,herring1 #abi ,hicaco1 #ceb ,hickory-nut1 #dai ,hogfish1 #acj ,honey1 adulteration1 #dic ash1 #dib cane sugar adulterant1 #did comb1 #dhi dextrose and levulose1 #dib distribution of industry1 #dhi extracted1 #dij glucose1 #dic historical1 #dhf hives1 #dhh invert sugar content1 #did polarization1 #dia preparation1 #dhg ,honey1 properties1 #dia strained1 #dia sucrose content1 #dib water content1 #dia ,horse mackerel1 #acj meat1 canned1 #eg composition1 #eh detection1 #eh ,horse-radish1 #bhc ,huckleberry1 #cdb ,i4 ,incubator1 #if1 #ig ,indian corn1 #bbb acreage and yield1 #bbb adulteration of canned1 #caj canned1 #cjh comparative digestibility1 #beg composition of canned1 #cji extent of canning industry1 #cji starch1 #bbi varieties1 #bbc ,infants' foods1 #dig composition1 #dii1 #ejj solid1 #dih ,inspection1 #ac ,intestines of hogs1 disposition1 #fi ,introduction1 #a ,invalids' foods1 #dig1 #dih ,j4 ,jams1 #cge1 #cgf adulteration1 #cgh1 #cgi composition1 #cgg1 #cgh compound1 #chc ,jellies1 #cge1 #cgi adulteration1 #chj coloring1 #chj composition1 #chj1 #cha compound1 #chc manufacture1 #cha preservatives1 #chb ,jerusalem artichoke1 #bhc ,k4 ,kale1 #bhc ,kedzie1 farinometer1 #bdf ,kephir1 #agi ,ketchup1 colors1 #cag refuse material1 #cag tomato1 #caf ,kettle-rendered lard1 #fh ,kidney bean1 #bgf ,koumiss1 #agi ,kumquat1 #cec ,l4 ,lake herring1 #acj ,lamb chops1 #bb ,lamb1 commercial cuts1 #ai ,lard1 #fc adulteration1 #fe chemical properties1 #ge color reaction1 #gc commercial classification1 #fh composition1 #fd crystals1 #fg detection of adulterations1 #fe leaf1 #fd melting point1 #gc names of kinds1 #fd oil1 #id adulteration1 #id properties1 #id parts of fat used for making1 #fc physical properties1 #gc properties1 #ge of adulterated1 #gf rendering1 #ga1 #gb rise of temperature1 #gc1 #gd steam1 #fd stearin1 #ga summary1 #gf1 #gg ,leaf lard1 #fh ,leek1 #bhd ,lemons1 #cec ,lethal dose1 #ci1 #dj ,lettuce1 #bhd ,limburger cheese1 #bjh composition1 #bji ,lime1 #ced juice1 adulteration1 #ced ,loaves1 size1 #bei texture1 #bei ,lobster1 #aee canned1 #aef ,m4 ,macaroni1 #bfj composition1 #bfj1 #bfc domestic1 #bfj manufacture1 #bfc ,mace1 #cbd ,mackerel1 #aca ,maize1 #bbb1 #bbc composition1 #bbc early varieties1 #bbg flour1 #bcj1 #bca proteins1 #bbg variation1 #bbg ,mamey ,colorado1 #ced de ,santo ,domingo1 #cee ,mango1 #cef ,maple sirup1 #dgb ash1 #dgc composition1 #dgc sugar1 #dfg1 #dfi ,maranon1 #cdh ,marjoram1 #cbe ,marmalade1 #chb ,meat broth1 composition of ash1 #hf ,meat1 chemical detection1 #bd composition of fresh and canned1 #df detection of different kinds1 #bd disposition of fragments1 #bc dried1 #be extract1 active principles1 #hf adulteration1 #hf kinds of preparations1 #hh1 #hi nitrogenous bases1 #hh relation of price and nutritive value1 #hg food classification1 #ab industry1 magnitude1 #fa juice1 composition of ash1 #hf microscopic appearance1 #bd odor and taste1 #bd preparation for canning1 #dj-da ,meats1 #aa adulterations of comminuted1 #ed deviled1 #ed miscellaneous1 #ed mixed1 #ed potted1 #ed effects of cold storage1 #ce methods of preservation1 #cd1 #ce pickled1 #bf potted1 #ea summary of data1 #ib1 #ic ,melons1 #bhd composition1 #bhe1 #bhf ,menhaden1 #acb ,milk1 #afi average composition1 #afi content of fat1 #agd certified1 #aga character of environment1 #agj comparative composition1 #age curd test1 #agf pasteurized1 #agc preparation1 #aga ,mince meat1 #did adulteration1 #die pressed1 #die ,mixed flour1 #bdd ,mock turtle soup1 #gi ,modified milk1 composition1 #dig ,molasses1 #dgg cane1 #dgh first1 second1 and third1 #dgh refinery1 #dgi sugar-house1 #dgi ,mulberry1 #cdc ,mullet1 #acb ,muscarine1 #ddg ,mushroom1 cepe1 #dde common1 #ddj fairy ring1 #ddc fly amanita1 #ddf horse1 #dda poisoning1 #ddh treatment1 #ddh shaggy1 #ddb1 #ddc ,mushrooms1 adulteration1 #ddi canned1 #ddi composition1 #dcb condition of growth1 #dca cultivation in ,france1 #dca edible types1 #ddj food value1 #ded historical1 #dbi mycelium1 #dcj pieces and stems1 #ddi poisonous and edible1 #dcc1 #dcd removal of poison1 #ddh signs of edible and poisonous1 #dce-dci soil1 #dcj spawn1 #dcj spores1 #dcj varieties1 #ddj ,muskallunge1 #acc ,muskmelon1 #bhd ,mussel1 #aeh ,mustard1 #cbe ,mutton1 commercial cuts1 #ai ,n4 ,napoleon1 decree relating to beet sugar1 #deg ,neat's foot oil1 #id ,neutral lard1 #fh ,nitrogenous bases1 #hh ,noodles1 #bgj ,normal dose1 #ci1 #dj ,nutmeg1 #cbe ,nuts as a diet1 #dbh ,o4 ,oats1 #bcb acreage and yield1 #bcc composition1 #bcd products1 #bcd protein1 #bcd ratio of kernel to hull1 #bcc starch1 #bcf ,oatmeal1 adulteration1 #bce ,oil1 cod liver1 #aff salmon1 #aff sardine1 #aff ,oils and fats1 chemical characteristics1 #chi1 #cij crystalline characteristics1 #cia melting point1 #cib physical characteristics1 #cib refractive index1 #cib ,reichert-,meissl number1 #cic saponification value1 #cic specific gravity1 #cic vegetable1 #chi animal1 #afe distribution1 #cia drying1 #cia terrestrial animal1 #ic ,okra1 #bhf ,oleomargarine1 #ahg adulteration1 #ahi composition1 #aij ,oleomargarine1 manufacture1 #ahi materials1 #ahh production1 #aij ,olive kernel oil1 #dje ,olive oil1 #djb adulteration1 #djb1 #djc color1 #djc constituents1 #djd manufacture1 #dje ,onion1 #bhf ,oranges1 #ceg1 #ceh seedless1 #cei ,oyster1 age1 #aei cultivation1 #aei floating1 #afb1 #afc living1 #afj proportion of shell1 #afa season1 #afj size1 #aei soup1 #gh ,oysters1 #aeh-afa adulteration1 #afd average composition1 #afd ,p4 ,palm oil1 #dab ,paprika1 #cbe ,parboiling1 #da effect1 #dc-de ,parmesan cheese1 #baj ,parsnips1 #bhg ,pts1 composition1 #ed ,peach preserves1 #che ,peaches1 #cci canned1 #cga cling1 #cda composition1 #cda free1 #cda use1 #cda varieties1 #cdj ,peanolia1 #dba ,peanut butter1 #dab oil1 #djf ,renard's test1 #djf starch1 #cbb ,peanuts1 #dbj localities where grown1 #dbb ,peas1 #bhg adulteration of canned1 #cac canned1 #cab composition of canned1 #cac ,pecan-nut1 #dbd ,pectose1 #ccj ,pepper1 #cbe black1 #cbe cayenne1 #cbe red1 #cbe white1 #cbe ,permanganate of potash1 #ddh ,pickerel1 #acb ,pieces of edible animals1 names1 #ag ,pie fillers1 #dif ,pie fillers1 adulteration1 #dif ,pigeon1 domesticated1 #ajg ,pigs1 composition1 #bf1 #bg general conclusions1 #cc weight of parts1 #bf ,pig's-foot grease1 #ga ,pike1 #acb ,pineapple1 #cfj adulteration1 #cfa ,bahama1 #cfc canned1 #cfb composition1 #cfc1 #cfd ,florida1 #cfd ,porto ,rican1 #cfd ,singapore1 #cfe ,pine-nuts1 #dbd ,pistachio1 #dbf ,plantain meal1 #cai ,plums1 #cda varieties1 #cdb ,pomelo1 #cea ,pompano1 #acd ,pont ,l',evque cheese1 #bjh ,popcorn1 #bbe1 #bbg ,pork1 commercial cuts1 #ai1 #bj important meat product1 #cc ,port du ,salut cheese1 #bjg ,porterhouse steak1 #af ,poultry1 application of name1 #ie canned1 #ef cold storage1 #ajj forced fattening1 #aji importance of animal food1 #ajh increase in weight1 #aaj ,potato starch as food1 #cbb manufacture1 #bif ,potatoes1 #bhh acreage1 #bhi ash1 #bid composition1 #bij1 #bib1 #bic effect of manure1 #bie for alcohol1 #bif ,german1 #bic price1 #bhi starch1 #bia sugar content1 #bij sweet1 #bii used in spirit manufacture1 #big white1 #bid yield1 #bhi ,potted tongue1 #ef adulteration1 #ef ,preservatives in meats1 #ee kinds used1 #cg ,preserved meats1 #cd standard1 #eg ,preserves1 #cge1 #chd ,puff-balls1 #ddd ,q4 ,quince1 #cdb ,r4 ,radish1 #bih ,rape oil1 #djg adulterations1 #djh manufacture1 #djh ,raspberry1 #cdc ,ration1 balanced1 #e definition1 #d ,redeye1 #ace ,red snapper1 #acd ,reptiles1 aquatic1 #aeg ,rhubarb1 #bii ,rice1 #bcf acreage and yield1 #bcf starch1 #bcf ,roast beef1 #ba lamb1 #bb ,rock bass1 #ace ,rolls1 #bfd composition1 #bfe ,romaine lettuce1 #bhd ,roquefort cheese1 #baa ,rye1 #bcg acreage and yield1 #bcg bread1 #bci composition1 #bch flour1 adulteration1 #bci protein1 #bch ,s4 ,saccharin1 in canned corn1 #caa in tomatoes1 #cad1 #caf ,saffron1 #cbf ,sage1 #cbf ,sago1 #cbj ,salmon1 #ace-ach ,atlantic coast1 #acg blueback1 #acg canned1 #acg ,chinook1 #acf ,pacific1 #acf ,sebago1 #ach sockeye1 #acg ,salt rising1 #bea ,samples1 preparation for analysis1 #bh ,sapodilla1 #cfe ,sapota1 #cfe ,sardines1 #aci adulteration1 #adj1 #ada ,california1 #aci ,european1 #aci ,french fisheries1 #adj packed in oil1 #adj ,sausage1 adulteration of canned1 #fj canned1 #ei composition1 #ei ,savory1 #cbf ,scup1 #ada ,scuppernong grape vine1 #ccg ,semolina1 #bfc ,sesam oil1 #djh adulteration1 #dji ,baudouin's test1 #dji plant1 #dji ,shad1 #ada roe1 #adc composition1 #adc ,sheepshead1 #adc ,shrimps1 #aef canned1 #aeg ,sirup1 cane1 #dge maple1 #dgb sorghum1 #dgf ,sirups1 adulteration1 #dhj general observations1 #dha mixed1 #dgi ,skimmed milk1 #agf ,small quantities1 argument1 #ch1 #ci ,smelt1 #add ,sole1 #adf ,soluble meats1 #hb1 #hc composition1 #hc ,sorghum sirup1 #dgf ,soups1 #gg composition1 #gh preparation of stock1 #gg ,sour-sop1 #cdc ,spaghetti1 #bgj ,spanish mackerel1 #add ,squash1 #bii ,star-apple1 #cff ,starch1 #i in sausages1 #ee ,starches1 adulteration1 #cbb as foods1 #cag ,steam lard1 #fh ,sterilization1 #db ,sterilizing meats1 general observations1 #fb ,stilton cheese1 manufacture1 #bje ,storage1 length1 #bb ,strawberry1 #cdc ,striped bass1 #adf ,sturgeon1 #add ,sugar1 #i adulteration1 #dga application of name1 #dee as food1 #dgb beets1 cultivation1 #deh geographic area1 #dei yield1 #dfj cane1 growth1 #dfe corn1 #bbf lost in fermentation1 #bei origin1 #dee refining1 #dfi1 #dgj world production1 #dga ,sunflower oil1 #dji ,sulfurous acid1 #ccd ,sweet basil1 #cbf corn1 #bbf adulterations1 #bbh potatoes1 #bii1 #cjj acreage and yield1 #cjc average composition1 #cjc changes during storage1 #cjb composition1 #cja1 #cjb cultivation1 #cjj yield1 #cja ,sweet-sop1 #cdd ,t4 ,tamarind1 #cff composition1 #cfg ,tannin1 #ccd ,tapioca1 #cbj adulteration1 #cba ,tautog1 #adg ,terrapin1 #aeg ,tetanus germs1 #ia1 #ib ,thyme1 #cbf ,tilefish1 #adg ,tinning1 #db ,toadstools1 #dcd ,tomatoes1 adulteration of canned1 #cae canned1 #cad composition of canned1 #cae ,tongue1 adulteration of canned1 #ej canned1 #ej ,treacle1 #dha ,tropical fruits1 ash1 #cfg ,trout1 #adg ,truffles1 #dej adulteration1 #dec cultivation1 #dea geographic distribution1 #dea harvesting1 #dea1 #deb properties1 #dec varieties1 #dea ,tuberculosis1 #ac ,turbot1 #adi ,turkey1 #ajg adulteration of potted1 #ajb composition1 #ajh ,turnip1 #cjd ,v4 ,veal1 commercial cuts1 #ah ,vegetable1 definition1 #bgb oils1 edible1 #cic ,vegetables1 canned1 #cje succulent1 #bgd value1 #bgc ,vegetarianism1 #ic ,w4 ,wall-eyed pike1 #acd ,walnuts1 #dbf ,english1 #dbg white1 #dbg ,watermelon1 #bhd1 #bhe ,weakfish1 #adi ,weight1 relative of canned and fresh meat1 #dh ,wheat1 #bci acreage and yield1 #bdj comparative digestibility1 #beg composition1 #bdj products1 #bdb standards1 #bda starch1 #bda ,whey1 #agi composition1 #agi ,whitefish1 #aej ,white grease1 #gj ,x4 ,xanthin bases1 #ij ,y4 ,yam1 #cjd ,yeast1 #bej ,yellow grease1 #ga ,,list ,,of ,,books ,,on ,,analysis ,,of ,,foods2 ,,chemical ,,products2 ,,detection ,,of ,,poisons ,,and ,,bacteria2 ,,foods ,,and ,,diet2 ,,sanitary ,,science ,,published ,,by ,p4 ,,blakiston',s ,,son ,,co4 ,,philadelphia ,books ,relating to the ,analysis of ,various ,food and ,chemical ,products1 the ,detection of ,poisons1 and ,bacteria4 ,allen4 ,commercial ,organic ,analysis4 ,new ,revised ,editions4 ,a ,treatise on the ,properties1 ,proximate ,analytical ,examination and ,modes of ,assaying the ,various ,organic ,chemicals and ,products employed in the ,arts1 ,manufactures1 ,medicine1 etc41 with ,concise ,methods for the ,detection and ,determination of ,impurities1 ,adulterations1 and ,products of ,decomposition1 etc4 ,revised and ,enlarged4 ,by ,,alfred ,h4 ,,allen1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,public ,analyst for the ,west ,riding of ,yorkshire2 ,past ,president ,society of ,public ,analysts of ,great ,britain4 ,,vol4 ,i4 ,preliminary ,examination of ,organic ,bodies4 ,alcohols1 ,neutral ,alcoholic ,derivatives1 ,ethers1 ,starch and its ,isomers1 ,sugars1 ,acid ,derivatives of ,alcohols and ,vegetable ,acids1 etc4 ,third ,edition1 with numerous additions by the author1 and revisions and additions by ,,dr4 ,,henry ,,leffmann1 ,professor of ,chemistry ,woman's ,medical ,college of ,pennsylvania1 and in the ,wagner ,free ,institute of ,science1 ,philadelphia2 ,vice-,president 7#aija7 ,society of ,public ,analysts1 etc4 ,with many useful tables4 #eeg pages4 ,cloth1 #d4ej ,,vol4 ,,ii--,,part ,i4 ,fixed ,oils1 ,fats1 ,waxes1 ,glycerin1 ,soaps1 ,nitroglycerin1 ,dynamite and ,smokeless ,powders1 ,wool-,fats1 ,dgras1 etc4 ,third ,edition1 with many useful tables4 ,revised by ,,dr4 ,,henry ,,leffmann1 with numerous additions by the author4 #chg pages4 ,cloth1 #c4ej ,,vol4 ,,ii--,,part ,,ii4 ,hydrocarbons1 ,mineral ,oils1 ,lubricants1 ,asphalt1 ,benzene and ,naphthalene1 ,phenols1 ,creosote1 etc4 ,third ,edition1 ,revised by ,,dr4 ,,henry ,,leffmann1 with additions by the author4 #ccj pages4 ,cloth1 #c4ej ,,vol4 ,,ii--,,part ,,iii4 ,acid ,derivatives of ,phenols1 ,aromatic ,acids1 ,resins1 and ,essential ,oils1 etc4 ,third ,edition4 #eei pages4 ,cloth1 #e4jj ,,vol4 ,,iii--,,part ,i4 ,tannins1 ,dyes1 ,coloring ,matters1 and ,writing ,inks4 ,third ,edition1 ,revised1 ,rewritten1 and ,enlarged by ,j4 ,,merritt ,,matthews1 ,professor of ,chemistry and ,dyeing at the ,philadelphia ,textile ,school2 ,member ,american ,chemical ,society4 #ehi pages4 ,cloth1 #d4ej ,,vol4 ,,iii--,,part ,,ii4 ,the ,amines and ,ammonium ,bases1 ,hydrazines and ,derivatives4 ,bases from ,tar4 ,the ,antipyretics1 etc4 ,vegetable ,alkaloids1 ,tea1 ,coffee1 ,cocoa1 ,kola1 ,cocane1 ,opium1 etc4 ,second ,edition4 #eic pages4 ,cloth1 #d4ej ,,vol4 ,,iii--,,part ,,iii4 ,vegetable ,alkaloids concluded1 ,non-,basic ,vegetable ,bitter ,principles4 ,animal ,bases1 ,animal ,acids1 ,cyanogen and its ,derivatives1 etc4 ,second ,edition4 #ecd pages4 ,cloth1 #d4ej ,,vol4 ,,iv4 ,proteids and ,albuminous ,principles4 ,proteods or ,albuminods4 ,second ,edition1 with elaborate appendices and a large number of useful tables4 #ehd pages4 ,cloth1 #d4ej ,autenrieth4 ,the ,detection of ,poisons and ,strong ,drugs4 ,a ,laboratory ,guide4 ,including the ,quantitative ,estimation of ,medicinal ,principles in ,certain ,crude ,materials4 ,by ,dr4 ,,wilhelm ,,autenrieth1 ,university of ,freiburg1 ,baden4 ,authorized ,translation from the ,third ,enlarged ,german ,edition by ,,william ,h4 ,,warren1 ,a4,m41 ,,ph4,d4 7,harv471 ,professor of ,chemistry1 ,medical ,department1 ,washington ,university1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,missouri4 ,illustrated4 ,cloth1 #a4ej ,conn4 ,agricultural ,bacteriology4 ,including a ,study of ,bacteria as ,relating to ,agriculture1 with ,special ,reference to the ,bacteria in ,soil1 in the ,dairy1 in ,food ,products1 in ,domestic ,animals1 and in ,sewage4 ,by ,h4 ,w4 ,,conn1 ,,ph4,d41 ,professor of ,biology1 ,wesleyan ,university1 ,middletown1 ,conn42 ,author of 8,evolution of ,to-day10 8,the ,story of ,germ ,life10 etc4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,cloth1 #b4ej ,bacteria in ,milk and ,its ,products4 ,designed for ,students of ,dairying1 ,boards of ,health1 ,bacteriologists1 and all concerned in the ,handling of ,milk1 ,butter1 and ,cheese4 ,illustrated4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4be ,greenish4 ,microscopical ,examination of ,foods and ,drugs4 ,being a systematically arranged ,course of ,practical ,instruction in the ,methods adopted in the ,analysis of ,foods and ,drugs by means of the ,microscope1 including a description of the ,structure of the more important4 ,designed for the use of ,analysts1 ,pharmacists1 and ,students training for those ,professions4 ,by ,,henry ,g4 ,,greenish1 ,f4,i4,c41 ,f4,l4,s41 ,professor of ,pharmaceutics to the ,pharmaceutical ,society of ,great ,britain4 ,with #afh ,illustrations4 ,octavo4 ,cloth1 #c4ej ,heusler4 ,the ,terpenes4 ,by ,,fr4 ,,heusler1 ,,ph4,d41 ,privatdocent of ,chemistry in the ,university at ,bonn4 ,authorized ,translation and ,revision by ,f4 ,j4 ,,pond1 ,,ph4,d41 ,assistant ,professor of ,chemistry1 ,pennsylvania ,state ,college4 ,cloth1 #d4jj ,leffmann and ,beam4 ,food ,analysis4 ,illustrated4 ,select ,methods in ,food ,analysis4 ,by ,,henry ,,leffmann1 ,m4,d41 ,professor of ,chemistry in the ,woman's ,medical ,college of ,pennsylvania and in the ,wagner ,free ,institute of ,science2 ,pathological ,chemist1 ,jefferson ,medical ,college ,hospital1 ,philadelphia2 ,vice-,president 7#aija7 ,society ,public ,analysts1 etc42 and ,,william ,,beam1 ,a4,m4 ,second ,edition1 ,revised4 ,with many ,tables1 #a ,plate1 and #ed other ,illustrations4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #b4ej ,leffmann4 ,examination of ,water4 for ,sanitary and ,technical ,purposes4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,revised4 ,illustrated4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4be ,analysis of ,milk and ,milk ,products4 ,arranged to suit the needs of ,analytical ,chemists1 ,dairymen1 and ,milk ,inspectors4 ,third ,edition1 ,revised and ,enlarged4 ,illustrated4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4be ,richter's ,organic ,chemistry4 ,the ,chemistry of the ,carbon ,compounds4 ,third ,american ,edition1 ,translated from ,,prof4 ,,ansch,,tz's ,eighth ,german ,edition by ,,edgar ,f4 ,,smith1 ,m4,a41 ,,ph4,d41 ,,sc4,d41 ,professor of ,chemistry1 ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,revised and ,enlarged4 ,illustrated4 #abmo4 ,two volumes4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,aliphatic ,series4 #fbe pages4 ,cloth1 #c4jj ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,carbocyclic and ,heterocyclic ,series4 #fga pages4 ,cloth1 #c4jj ,sayre4 ,organic ,materia ,medica and ,pharmacognosy4 ,an ,introduction to the ,study of the ,vegetable ,kingdom and the ,vegetable and ,animal ,drugs4 ,comprising the ,botanical and ,physical ,characteristics1 ,source1 ,constituents1 ,pharmacopial ,preparations2 ,insects ,injurious to ,drugs1 and ,pharmacal ,botany4 ,by ,l4 ,e4 ,,sayre1 ,b4,s41 ,,ph4,m41 ,dean of the ,school of ,pharmacy and ,professor of ,materia ,medica and ,pharmacy in the ,university of ,kansas2 ,member of the ,committee of ,revision of the ,eighth 7#aijj7 ,decennial ,revision of the ,u4 ,s4 ,pharmacopia1 etc4 ,with ,sections on ,histology and ,microtechnique by ,,william ,c4 ,,stevens1 ,professor of ,botany in the ,university of ,kansas4 ,third ,edition1 ,thoroughly ,revised and containing many new ,engravings4 ,with #cgg ,illustrations1 the majority of which are from ,original ,drawings4 #hvo4 ,cloth1 #e4jj ,sutton's ,volumetric ,analysis4 ,a ,systematic ,handbook for the ,quantitative ,estimation of ,chemical ,substances by ,measure1 ,applied to ,liquids1 ,solids1 and ,gases4 ,adapted to the ,requirements of ,pure ,chemical ,research1 ,pathological ,chemistry1 ,pharmacy1 ,metallurgy1 ,photography1 etc41 and for the ,valuation of ,substances ,used in ,commerce1 ,agriculture1 and the ,arts4 ,by ,,francis ,,sutton1 ,f4,c4,s4 ,ninth ,edition1 ,revised and ,improved4 ,with #aba ,illustrations4 #hvo4 ,cloth1 #e4jj ,thresh ,porter4 ,preservatives in ,food and ,food ,examination4 ,by ,,john ,c4 ,,thresh1 ,m4,d41 ,lecturer on ,public ,health1 ,london ,hospital ,medical ,college1 and ,,arthur ,e4 ,,porter1 ,m4,d41 ,assistant ,medical ,officer of ,health and ,chief ,sanitary ,inspector1 ,city of ,leeds4 #dh ,illustrations4 ,octavo2 xv #dhd pages4 ,cloth1 #d4ej ,united ,states ,pharmacopia4 ,eighth ,decennial ,revision4 ,cloth1 #b4ej2 ,sheep1 #c4jj2 ,flexible ,leather1 #c4ej2 ,interleaved1 ,sheep1 #d4jj2 ,printed on one side of page only1 ,sheep1 #d4jj1 or unbound1 #c4ej4 ,foods and ,diet4 ,burnet4 ,foods and ,dietaries4 ,a ,manual of ,clinical ,dietetics4 ,by ,r4 ,w4 ,,burnet1 ,m4,d41 ,m4,r4,c4,p41 ,physician to the ,great ,northern ,central ,hospital4 ,with ,appendix on ,predigested ,foods and ,invalid ,cookery4 ,full ,directions as to ,hours of ,taking ,nourishment1 ,quantity1 etc4 ,fourth ,edition1 ,revised4 ,cloth1 #a4ej ,davis4 ,dietotherapy3 ,food in ,health and ,disease4 ,by ,,nathan ,s4 ,,davis1 ,,jr41 ,a4,m41 ,m4,d41 ,professor of ,principles and ,practice of ,medicine in ,northwestern ,university ,medical ,school2 ,physician to ,mercy ,hospital1 ,chicago1 etc4 ,with ,tables of ,dietaries1 ,relative ,value of ,foods1 etc4 ,octavo4 ,cloth1 #c4jj ,dulles4 ,accidents and ,emergencies4 ,a ,manual of the ,treatment of ,surgical and ,medical ,emergencies4 ,by ,c4 ,w4 ,,dulles1 ,m4,d41 ,surgeon to the ,rush ,hospital1 formerly ,assistant ,surgeon #b;d ,regiment ,n4 ,g4 ,pa41 etc4 ,sixth edition1 ,revised4 ,with ,illustrations4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4jj ,folsom4 ,entomology4 ,with ,special ,reference to ,its ,biological and ,economic ,aspects4 ,by ,,justus ,,watson ,,folsom1 ,,sc4,d4 7,harvard71 ,instructor in ,entomology at the ,university of ,illinois4 ,with five plates1 one of which is ,colored1 and #cjj other ,illustrations in the ,text4 ,octavo4 ,cloth1 #c4jj ,haig4 ,diet and ,food4 ,considered in ,relation to ,strength and ,power of ,endurance1 ,training1 and ,athletics4 ,by ,,alexander ,,haig1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d4 7,oxon471 ,f4,r4,c4,p41 ,physician to ,metropolitan ,hospital1 ,london4 ,fifth ,edition1 ,revised4 #g ,illustrations4 ,cloth1 #a4jj ,sanitary ,science4 ,newman4 ,bacteriology and the ,public ,health4 ,by ,,george ,,newman1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,d4,p4,h41 ,formerly ,demonstrator of ,bacteriology in ,king's ,college1 ,london1 etc41 ,medical ,officer of ,health of the ,metropolitan ,borough of ,finsbury2 ,joint-,author of 8,bacteriology of ,milk40 ,third ,edition4 #ca ,full-page ,plates and #dh other ,illustrations in the ,text4 ,octavo4 ,cloth1 #e4jj ,notter4 ,the ,theory and ,practice of ,hygiene4 ,second ,edition4 ,a ,complete ,treatise by ,j4 ,,lane ,,notter1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41 ,f4,c4,s41 ,fellow and ,member of ,council of the ,sanitary ,institute of ,great ,britain2 ,professor of ,hygiene1 ,army ,medical ,school2 ,examiner in ,hygiene1 ,university of ,cambridge1 etc42 and ,w4 ,h4 ,,horrocks1 ,m4,d41 ,b4,,sc4 7,lond471 ,assistant ,professor of ,hygiene1 ,army ,medical ,school1 ,netley4 ,illustrated by #ae ,lithographic ,plates and #ach other ,illustrations1 and including many ,useful ,tables4 ,second ,edition1 ,carefully ,revised4 ,octavo4 #ajhe pages4 ,cloth1 #g4jj ,parkes and ,kenwood4 ,hygiene and ,public ,health4 ,a ,practical ,manual4 ,by ,,louis ,c4 ,,parkes1 ,m4,d41 ,d4,p4,h4 7,lond4 ,univ471 ,lecturer on ,public ,health at ,st4 ,george's ,hospital2 ,medical ,officer of ,health and ,public ,analyst1 ,borough of ,chelsea1 ,london1 etc42 and ,,henry ,,kenwood1 ,m4,b41 ,f4,c4,s41 ,assistant ,professor of ,public ,health1 ,university ,college1 ,london1 etc4 ,second ,edition1 ,enlarged and ,revised4 #he ,illustrations4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #c4jj ,rosenau4 ,disinfection and ,disinfectants4 ,a ,practical ,guide for ,sanitarians1 ,health and ,quarantine ,officers4 ,by ,m4 ,j4 ,,rosenau1 ,m4,d41 ,director of the ,hygienic ,laboratory and ,passed ,assistant ,surgeon1 ,u4 ,s4 ,marine ,hospital ,service1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,illustrated4 ,cloth1 #b4jj ,a ,french translation of this book has been published in ,paris4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,inconsistent1 archaic1 obsolete and unusual spelling1 7deliberate7 misspelling1 hyphenation etc4 in ,english as well as other languages have been retained1 except as listed below4 ,this includes proper names as well as scientific names of plants1 animals and micro-organisms4 ,depending on the hard- and software used to read this text and their settings1 not all elements may display as intended4 ,the larger tables may be legible in a wide window or on a wide screen only4 ,the differences in structure and wording between the ,table of ,contents and the text have not been standardised4 ,auto-generated tables of contents may therefore differ from the one on pages vii-ix in this text4 ,except as listed below1 ,the compositions of foodstuffs and other data are given as printed in the source document without further comment1 but some values seem unlikely4 ,caution in the use of these values is recommended4 ,advertisement 8,,by ,,the ,,same ,,author03 this is the work referred to in the text as 8the second volume0 or 8the companion volume04 ,page #ah1 8so as to include a considerable of the portion03 ,the word 8part0 or equivalent is missing4 ,page #abj1 table ,percentages of fat1 heading 8,containing between #fj and #gj percent of flesh03 possibly an error for 8,containing between #fj and #ej percent of flesh04 ,page #agf1 8,normal milk contains 444 and page #agi1 8,milk contaminated by the introduction of dust1 4443 either the closing quote mark is missing1 or the opening quote marks are erroneous4 ,page #ahf1 8butter must contain more than #af percent water03 as printed in the source document1 the word 8not0 is likely to be missing4 ,page #aih1 8the whey being of a higher specific gravity than the curd03as printed in the source document2 probably an error for 444 lower specific gravity4444 ,page #bjc1 8,cheddar1 double and single1 ,gloucester03 the second comma is probably erroneous4 ,page #eac1 8one and forty-seven hundred and four ten-thousandths 7#a4dgjg703 as printed in the source document4 ,page #edg1 8after the final inspection of carcasses and parts are marked03 as printed in the source document4 ,page #egb1 8for the presence of the usual condimentary substances03 8for0 is probably an error for 8or0 or 8nor04 ,page #fjg1 88,an article shall also be deemed misbranded 44403 the source document has no closing quote mark4 ,changes3 ,tables and illustrations have been moved outside text paragraphs2 footnotes have been moved to under the paragraph7s7 or table7s7 in which they are referenced4 ,in some lists and tables the ditto mark 77 or 8,do40 has been replaced with the dittoed text4 ,some tables have been re-arranged or split2 tables have been split in such a way that they may easily be re-combined4 ,some obvious minor typographical1 printing and punctuation errors have been corrected silently4 ,page ix3 8#eaj-eag0 changed to 8#eja-eag04 ,page xi 7list of plates73 plate numbers added2 8,arichide0 changed to 8,arachide0 7also in plate itself74 ,page #d3 8through the cells walls0 changed to 8through the cell walls0 as elsewhere4 ,page #ad3 8any of the meat of flesh foods0 changed to 8any of the meat or flesh foods04 ,page #di1 table3 8,prosciutts0 changed to 8,prosciutto04 ,page #fb3 8pluro-pneumonia0 changed to 8pleuro-pneumonia04 ,page #ha1 table3 8coaguable0 changed to 8coagulable04 ,page #abj1 first table3 8black fish0 changed to 8blackfish0 as elsewhere4 ,page #ace3 8,it belongs to the genus ,orcorhynchus0 changed to 8,it belongs to the genus ,oncorhynchus04 ,page #afd1 second part of large table3 the part of the table on this page has been formatted 7underlining and indentation7 to be consistent with the part on page #afc4 ,page #bgf3 8to any other part of the world0 changed to 8in any other part of the world04 ,page #bha3 8,rorifa nasturtium0 changed to 8,rorippa nasturtium04 ,page #bhg3 8than0 inserted before 8to botanical character04 ,page #cah3 8,tous le mois0 changed to 8,tous les mois04 ,page #cai3 8,musa paradisaica0 changed to 8,musa paradisiaca04 ,page #cbe3 8,casson0 changed to 8,cosson04 ,page #ccf1 table3 heading 8,percent0 deleted from column ,no4 of ,samples4 ,page #cfh 7table73 8,caimito0 changed to 8,cainito04 ,page #chd3 8disastase0 changed to 8diastase0 7#b74 ,page #cih3 8local conditions effecting the seed0 changed to 8local conditions affecting the seed04 ,page #dbg3 8used for dying homespun cloth0 changed to 8used for dyeing homespun cloth04 ,page #ddf3 8,nouvel ,atlas de ,champignon0 changed to 8,nouvel ,atlas de ,champignons04 ,page #eji3 8,capsicum baccattum0 changed to 8,capsicum baccattum04 ,page #eaj3 8,roripa armoracia0 changed to 8,rorippa armoracia04 ,page #eab3 8terpeneless oil or orange0 changed to 8terpeneless oil of orange04 ,page #edg3 8placed and in the retaining room0 changed to 8and placed in the retaining room04 ,page #egg3 8to have the plaster attached0 changed to 8to have the paster attached04 ,page #fjh3 8,dover's power is mentioned0 changed to 8,dover's powder is mentioned04 ,index3 spelling of some entries corrected to agree with the main text 7e4g41 pt1 pompano74