,,transcriber',s ,,note ,the ,table of ,contents has been created by the transcriber1 and is placed in the public domain4 ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,table footnotes are denoted by number1 and the footnotes have been placed under the table where they occur1 as in the original text4 ,footnote #f is referenced four times from the table on page #fb4 ,footnote #g is referenced four times from the table on page #fc4 ,basic fractions are displayed as etc2 other fractions are shown in the form a-b1 for example #g-af or #be-cb1 as in the original text4 ,some wide tables have been split into two parts1 with the first column repeated4 ,all tables are displayed best if a monospace font is used4 ,the ,table of ,contents has been created by the transcriber1 and is placed in the public domain4 ,minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,water ,,supply ,,of ,,the ,,world1 ,,arranged ,,in ,a ,,comprehensive ,,form ,,from ,,eminent ,,authorities1 ,,containing ,a ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,methods ,,of ,,water ,,supply1 ,,pollution ,,and ,,purification ,,of ,,waters1 ,,and ,,sanitary ,,effects1 ,,with ,,analyses ,,of ,,potable ,,waters1 ,,also ,,geology ,,and ,,water ,,strata ,,of ,,hamilton ,,county1 ,,ohio1 ,,statistics ,,of ,,the ,,ohio ,,river1 ,,proposed ,,water ,,supply ,,of ,,cincinnati--,,together ,,with ,a ,,number ,,of ,,valuable ,,tables ,,and ,,diagrams4 ,,by ,,thomas ,j4 ,,bell1 ,assistant ,superintendent of the ,cincinnati ,water-,works4 ,,cincinnati3 ,,peter ,g4 ,,thomson1 ,,publisher4 #ahhb4 ,,copyright1 #ahhb1 ,,by ,,peter ,g4 ,,thomson4 ,,contents ,,page ,chapter ,i4 #e ,chapter ,,ii4 ,river ,pollution4 #ae ,chapter ,,iii4 ,purification of ,waters4 #bg ,chapter ,,iv4 ,system of ,supply4 #cf ,chapter ,v4 ,historical and ,statistical4 #fh ,chapter ,,vi4 ,other ,articles4 #ib ,chapter ,,vii4 ,cost of ,constructing ,water-,works4 #abe ,,index4 #acb ,,introduction4 ,the original intention of this work was to arrange a treatise1 in the form of a compilation1 of general and local information on water supply1 in all its bearings1 with special reference to ,cincinnati1 in view of the fact that the question of a new supply would become an important one when the 8,markley ,farm ,project0 presented a more tangible form4 ,as the work progressed1 its scope became broader1 so much so that the author was induced to depart somewhat from the original idea1 and arrange the plan in a more comprehensive form for general use4 ,to condense a large amount of information in a few pages1 so as to make it interesting as well as intelligent1 is a work requiring patience and diligence4 ,while the work may be of little service to the profession1 it is hoped those connected with water-works and the general reader will find sufficient compensation for the time lost in its perusal4 ,the authorities quoted are the highest1 and the general facts are from the most reliable sources4 ,considerable space is given to pollution of water1 believing it to be the most important question that bears on the subject before us4 ,water-works officials will find useful information in the work1 which is so frequently desired and sometimes difficult to obtain4 ,due acknowledgments are made for information derived from the following works3 ,rivers ,pollution ,commission1 7,london17 #ahgd2 ,humber's ,water ,supply of ,cities and ,towns2 ,fanning's ,water ,supply ,engineering1 7,new ,york17 #ahgf2 ,history and ,statistics of ,american ,water-,works1 by ,j4 ,james ,r4 ,croes1 ,c4 ,e41 ,engineering ,news1 7,new ,york17 #ahha2 ,hughes' ,water-,works1 ,weale ,series2 ,hydraulic ,engineering1 ,weale ,series2 ,die ,stdtische ,wasserversorgung1 ,von ,e4 ,grahn1 7,mnchen17 #ahgh2 ,practical ,hydraulics1 by ,thomas ,box1 7,london17 #ahgc2 ,kirkwood's ,filtration of ,river ,waters1 7,new ,york17 #ahfi2 ,ohio ,state ,geological ,works1 #ahgj2 ,u4 ,s4 ,census ,reports1 #ahha2 ,the ,national ,board of ,health ,bulletins2 ,the ,sanitary ,engineer and ,engineering ,news2 ,catch ,water ,reservoirs1 by ,c4 ,h4 ,beloe1 ,london4 ,january1 #ahhb4 ,t4 ,j4 ,b4 ,,history ,,of ,,water ,,supply4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,it is an historical fact that the water supply of ,rome1 during the first century of our era1 was so abundant 8that whole rivers flowed through the streets of ,rome40 ,the quantity was estimated at #cge million gallons per day1 an equivalent to #cge gallons for each inhabitant4 ,this supply was conducted to the city through nine costly and marvelous conduits of brick and stone1 that tunneled hills and crossed rivers and ravines in the boldest manner1 presenting most skillful engineering ability4 ,the number was afterwards increased to fourteen4 ,the principal aqueducts were3 ,aqua ,martia1 erected ,b4 ,c4 #dca1 was #ch miles in length1 part of which was composed of #g1jjj arches4 ,aqua ,claudia1 a subterranean channel for #cf miles2 #aj miles a surface conduit1 #c miles a vaulted tunnel1 and #g miles on lofty arcades1 had a capacity for delivering #if million gallons daily4 ,new ,anio was #dc miles in length4 ,some of these aqueducts were made of three distinct arches1 one above the other1 that conveyed waters from sources of different elevations4 ,constantinople presents remains of the skill possessed by the ,romans in the numerous subterraneous reservoirs1 covered with stone arcades supported by pillars4 ,pont du ,gard is another relict that supplied the town of ,nismes1 ,france4 8,it consists of #c tiers of arches1 the lowest of #f arches1 supporting #aa of equal span in the center tier1 surmounted by #ce of smaller size4 ,its height is #ahj feet1 the channel way being #e feet high by #aj feet wide2 the capacity was estimated at #ad million gallons per day40 ,in ,mexico and ,peru are found water channels of marvelous length1 while ,india is noted for the numerous impounding reservoirs of wonderful dimensions1--the ,poniary reservoir1 having an area of #ej1jjj acres1 and banks #ej miles in extent4 ,while the ancients have left monuments of their skill in gathering and conducting waters1 modern science has been1 and is1 endeavoring to leave a reputation for its devotion to the knowledge of pollution in1 and purification of waters required for mankind4 ,the vast amount of literature devoted to this subject1 containing a varied scope of discussions1 arguments and analyses1 has a tendency to lead one to the conclusion that wholesome water scarcely exists4 ,in fact1 the theory advanced by the ,massachusetts ,state ,board of ,health1 in their ,fifth ,annual ,report1 is not so premature4 ,they say3 8,the time may come when it will be necessary to supply our drinking water from sedulously guarded but limited sources of supply1 and to furnish for manufacturing and other uses less pure water4 ,this plan is partly carried out in ,paris1 and it is the purpose to enlarge it1 although much of the water is unfit to drink4 8,the injurious character of a water1 impregnated with sewage matter1 might not be discovered for years4 ,you might go on using it for years and might not be discovered1 and you might have some outbreak of disease in the place1 which nevertheless might be connected with the use of that sewage water40 ,the ,rivers ,pollution ,commission of ,great ,britain struggled with this subject for six years1 and at last resolved upon the following classification of potable waters3 #a4 ,spring water4 ,wholesome1 #b4 ,deep well water4 very palatable4 #c4 ,upland surface water4 #d4 ,stored rain water4 moderately ,suspicious1 #e4 ,surface water from cultivated lands4 palatable4 #f4 ,river water to which sewage gains ,dangerous1 access4 palatable4 #g4 ,shallow well water4 ,the constituent parts of pure water1 in volumes1 are two parts of hydrogen and one of oxygen1 and by weight one part hydrogen and eight parts oxygen4 ,when pure it is transparent1 tasteless1 inodorous1 and colorless1 except when seen in considerable depths4 ,but having such high solvent powers and affinity for almost every substance in nature1 one can account for suspicions that science places on all waters1 for it is never free from impurities4 ,and well it may not1 if doctors are to be believed1 for they tell us1 that chemically pure water is not best for man2 that good potable waters have from one to eight grains weight in each gallon of certain impurities diffused through them4 ,impurities are arranged under the following general heads3 ,rain ,water--,atmospheric influences4 ,spring and ,well ,water--,mineral properties4 ,rivers1 ,lakes--,vegetable and animal organisms4 ,but what can we consider good drinking water8 ,dr4 ,frankland1 of ,england1 has given the following as a minimum limit of mechanical and chemical impurities held in suspension or solution1 to be considered bad or polluted liquid3 ,a4 ,every liquid which has not been submitted to precipitation1 produced by a perfect repose in reservoirs of sufficient dimensions1 during a period of at least six hours2 or which1 having been submitted to precipitation1 contains in suspension more than one part by weight of dry organic matter in #ajj1jjj parts of liquid2 or which1 not having been submitted to precipitation1 contains in suspension more than three parts by weight of dry mineral matter1 or one part by weight of dry organic matter in #ajj1jjj parts of liquid4 ,b4 ,every liquid containing in solution more than two parts by weight of organic carbon1 or three parts of organic nitrogen1 in #ajj1jjj parts of liquid4 ,c4 ,every liquid which1 when placed in a white porcelain vessel to the depth of one inch1 exhibits under daylight distinct color4 ,d4 ,every liquid which contains in solution1 in every #ajj1jjj parts by weight1 more than two parts of any metal1 except calcium1 magnesium1 potassium and sodium4 ,e4 ,every liquid which in every #ajj1jjj parts by weight contains in solution1 suspension1 chemical combination or otherwise1 more than #j4e metallic arsenic4 ,f4 ,every liquid which1 after the addition of sulphuric acid1 contains in every #ajj1jjj parts by weight more than one part of free chlorine4 ,g4 ,every liquid which in every #ajj1jjj parts by weight contains more than one part of sulphur1 in the state of sulphuretted hydrogen or of a soluble sulphuret4 ,h4 ,every liquid having an acidity superior to that produced by adding two parts by weight of hydrochloric acid to #ajjj parts of distilled water4 ,i4 ,every liquid having an alkalinity greater than that produced by adding one part by weight of caustic soda to #ajjj parts of distilled water4 ,j4 ,every liquid exhibiting on its surface a film of petroleum1 or hydrocarbon1 or containing in suspension1 in #ajj1jjj parts1 more than #j4e of such oils4 ,but to arrive at a fair and impartial conclusion1 authorities now agree that analyses and investigations must be often1 and for a prolonged period of not less than one year4 ,the aim of modern scientists1 in their analyses1 is to detect the amount of organic 7especially sewage7 contamination4 ,dr4 ,frankland's method is by the estimation of organic carbon and nitrogen1 while ,wanklyn1 ,chapman1 and ,smith reach their conclusions by estimation of nitrogenous organic matter1 by breaking up the organic bodies and separating their nitrogen in the form of albuminoid ammonia4 ,ammonia is the measure of that portion of organic matter not decomposed but in state of or capable of undergoing putrefaction4 ,the maximum amount of free ammonia permissible in good drinking water is 4#e of a grain per #ajjj gallons1 and of albuminoid ammonia 4#i of a grain per #ajjj gallons4 ,upon the above basis the relative merits of the following waters may be formed3 ,,number ,,of ,,grains ,,of ,,sewage ,,in ,,each ,,thousand ,,gallons4 ,albumi- ,free noid ,cities4 ,source4 ,date4,author-,ammonia4,ammonia4 ,remarks4 ity4 ,grains4 ,grains4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,philadelphia,schuylkill #ahgd ,booth #a4ag #a4gf ,fairmount4 ,garrett 8 8 8 8 #e4he #e4aa ,belmont4 8 8 8 8 #g4ca #e4ab ,flat ,rock4 8 8 8 8 #a4df #g4ca ,perkiomen4 8 8 8 8 #ag4ej #h4ge ,spring ,garden4 8 ,delaware 8 8 #be4gd #aa4gj ,london ,artesian ,well 8 8 none #a4ge ,bryn ,maws4 8 ,thames 8 8 #a4jj #e4ca ,detroit ,detroit #ahgi ,stearns #c4ji #g4bi ,hydrant4 ,hoboken ,passaic #ahhj ,leeds #a4gb #ai4bb ,hydrant water4 ,jersey ,city ,passaic 8 8 #b4if #bb4bh 8 ,patterson ,passaic 8 8 #a4ej #cj4ij 8 ,new ,york ,croton 8 8 #a4fj #ae4gj 8 ,brooklyn ,long ,island 8 8 4#ej #d4hj 8 ,boston ,lake 8 8 #g4fj #ce4fj 8 ,cochituate ,rochester ,hemlock ,lake 8 8 4#ij #ac4jj 8 ,philadelphia,schuylkill 8 8 4#fj #aj4ej 8 ,wilmington ,delaware 8 8 #b4jj #ag4ej 8 ,baltimore 8 8 #b4ij #aa4gj 8 ,washington ,potomac 8 8 #c4ej #ae4gj 8 ,oswego 8 8 #b4jj #ae4bj 8 8 ,well 8 8 #d4ij #ab4cj 8 ,cincinnati ,ohio ,river 8 8 #f4gj #ad4jj 8 8 8 8 ,stuntz 4#hg #a4dj ,markley ,farm1 best condition4 8 8 8 8 #b4de #cf4db ,markley ,farm1 worst condition4 8 8 8 8 #c4ae #d4cg ,dayton ,sand ,b'ch best condition4 8 8 8 8 #b4cc #ad4bd ,dayton ,sand ,b'ch worst condition4 8 8 8 8 #ac4dh #aa4fg ,eden ,reservoir1 best condition4 8 8 8 8 #ab4bj #db4ej ,eden ,reservoir1 worst condition4 8 8 8 8 #b4ib #i4aj ,pump ,house1 best condition4 8 8 8 8 #d4dc #gi4gc ,pump ,house1 worst condition4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,the ,rivers ,pollution ,commission value the quality of water by the previous sewage or animal contamination1 as they term it4 ,this expression is obtained by taking1 as a standard of comparison1 the amount of total combined nitrogen 7which is assumed as #aj parts71 in solution1 in #ajj1jjj parts of average ,london sewage4 ,the parts of nitrogen obtained1 in the form of nitrates1 nitrites1 and ammonia1 less 4#jcb part of #ajj1jjj for that portion in rain1 is that nitrogen derived from animal matter4 ,animal matters dissolved in water1 such as those contained in sewage1 the contents of privies and cess-pools1 or farm-yard manure1 undergo oxidation in lakes1 rivers and streams very slowly1 but1 in the pores of an open soil1 very rapidly4 ,when this oxidation is complete1 they are resolved into mineral compounds2 their carbon is converted into carbonic acid2 and their hydrogen into water2 but their nitrogen is transformed partly into ammonia and chiefly into nitrous and nitric acids4 ,the following table is a compilation of their analyses3 ,,potable ,,waters1 ,,from ,,analyses ,,by ,,rivers ,,pollution ,,commission1 7#ahgd17 7,,parts ,,of #ajj1jjj ,,parts47 ,organic ,organic ,previous ,carbon4,nitrogen4 ,sewage4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- parts parts ,rain-water1 collected in leaden gauges 4#jgj 4#jae #db 8 8 8 from roofs1 etc41 for 4#beg 4#jhj #abjca domestic use ,dew or hoar frost collected on leaden gauges 4#bfd 4#jgf #aecf ,sea-water 4#bgh 4#afe #ajc ,upland surface1 from non-calcareous strata 4#bgh 4#jcc #j 8 8 from calcareous strata 4#cdf 4#jcg #cc ,land drainage water1 from sewage farms 4#jhb 4#aia #ajddc ,deep well waters1 in the chalk below ,london clay 4#jic 4#jbh #gig ,spring waters1 from the chalk 4#jdd 4#jaj #ceaa ,bristol1 from springs and deep wells 4#agb 4#jbd #affbj ,edinburgh1 from springs and streams-- 4#ade 4#jbf #bjbj water filtered ,glasgow1 from ,loch ,katrine 4#bjd 4#jag #j ,liverpool1 ,green ,lane well 4#jbj 4#jbj #chdj 8 ,rivington ,river1 gravity supply1 4#bdc 4#jca #j unfiltered 8 8 8 gravity supply1 4#baj 4#jbi #j filtered ,birmingham1 from ,bourne ,river1 normal 4#baa 4#jci #bdhj 8 8 8 8 in flood 4#fdj 4#jei #chij 8 8 8 8 filtered 4#dfj 4#jde #bgbj 8 from ,aston well 4#jcd 4#jjf #addj 8 mixed waters--river and well 4#jdj 4#jaj #achj ,london1 ,thames water from ,hampton 4#bdf 4#jcc #cbgj ,grand ,junction ,works 8 8 8 after subsidence 8 8 8 4#bfb 4#jdb #cbgj 8 8 8 after filtration 8 8 8 4#bca 4#jcb #cadj ,jacob's ,shallow ,well1 at ,sheffield #a4bjj 4#abf #eij ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,they consider reasonably safe water1 when it is derived from deep wells1 7say #ajj feet17 or from deep-seated springs1 although it contains previous animal sewage1 but does not exceed #aj1jjj parts in #ajj1jjj parts of water4 ,suspicious or doubtful water is1 first1 river or flowing water which exhibits any proportion1 however small1 of previous sewage2 and1 second1 well or spring water containing #aj1jjj to #bj1jjj parts4 ,dangerous water is1 first1 river or flowing water which exhibits more than #bj1jjj parts of previous animal contamination2 second1 river or flow water containing less than #bj1jjj parts of previous contamination1 coming from sewage discharged into it directly1 or mingling with it as surface drainage2 third1 well or deep-seated springs containing more than #bj1jjj parts1 because previous contamination is in direct proportion to the amount of such contamination4 ,the value of an analysis1 sanitarily considered1 is questioned4 ,mr4 ,simon1 medical officer of ,her ,majesty's ,privy ,council1 testified1 before the ,royal ,commission on ,water ,supply1 on this point1 as follows3 8,there are dangerous qualities of water supply with regard to which1 so far as ,i know1 chemists are totally unable to measure1 even to demonstrate the fatal influences that a water may have4 ,a water may be1 for instance1 capable of spreading the cholera1 but chemists be unable to identify the particular contamination which produces that effect4 ,it is1 ,i think1 a matter of absolute demonstration that1 in the old epidemics1 when the south side of ,london suffered so dreadfully from cholera1 the great cause of the immense mortality there was a badness of the water supply then distributed in those districts of ,london40 ,prof4 ,frankland says3 8,that we have no reason to believe that the injurious character of either sewage or of the gases from a drain depends fundamentally upon the quality of that sewage or of that gas4 ,in all probability it far more depends upon the quality of the sewage1 namely1 what it consists of4 ,now1 what is the nature of the poisonous matter in the atmosphere or in the sewage8 ,we do not know that1 at all2 therefore you can not possibly say when that poisonous matter is got rid of from the water or from the air4 ,chemical analysis can not do it1 for its limit is by the power of weighing and measuring4 ,it is not sufficiently advanced1 and is one of the poorest things possible to reach those delicate points40 ,vital statistics are sources of reliable information2 and from them we can learn more of the propagation or dissemination of certain diseases through the water supply1 and the relation of water to health4 ,the cholera epidemics of ,great ,britain exhibit striking examples4 ,the following are tabulations from the ,rivers ,pollution ,commission ,report1 #ahgd3 ,,london4 ,,year4 ,,character ,,of ,,water4 ,,mortality4 ,,rate ,,per #aj1jjj4 #ahcb ,polluted #e1bge #ca4d #ahdi ,very much polluted #ad1acg #fa4h #ahed ,less polluted #aj1gch #db4i #ahff ,much less polluted #e1eif #ah4d ,between the years #ahdi and #ahed1 the water supply was much improved by removal of intakes to purer sources4 ,the area of intense cholera of #ahff was confined within the limits of the foul or unfiltered water supply by the ,east ,london ,company2 and1 when notified and stopped the rate of deaths immediately decreased4 ,it was almost exactly the area of this particular water supply1 nearly if not absolutely filling it1 and scarcely at all reaching beyond it4 ,,manchester ,,and ,,salford4 ,,year4 ,,character ,,of ,,water4 ,,number ,,of ,,deaths4 #ahcb ,used polluted water #hij #ahdi ,used polluted water #a1aae #ahed ,used pure water #ej #ahff ,used pure water #hh ,in #ahea the new supply of unpolluted upland-surface water was introduced in place of shallow wells4 ,,glasgow4 ,,year4 ,,character ,,of ,,water4 ,,number ,,deaths4 ,,rate ,,per #aj1jjj4 #ahcb ,polluted water #b1hdb #adj #ahdi ,polluted water #c1ggb #ajf #ahed ,polluted water #c1hhf #aai #ahff ,pure water #fh #a4f ,in #ahei the present source1 ,loch ,katrine1 was first used for water supply4 ,,paisley ,,and ,,charleston4 ,,year4 ,,character ,,of ,,water4 ,,number ,,of ,,deaths4 #ahdi ,polluted water #ahb #ahed ,polluted water #agc #ahff ,pure water #g ,the testimony of ,dr4 ,daniel ,richmond1 the medical officer of ,paisley1 before the ,rivers ,pollution ,commission of #ahgd1 in reference to the cholera epidemics1 is of sufficient interest to be embodied verbatim3 8#a4 ,have you any complaint to make of the water supply8 ,no4 ,the water that we have in ,paisley is of a very superior character1 and there is an unlimited supply to the whole of the inhabitants4 ,the supply is constant1 and ,i regard that as one of the greatest blessings the people ever received4 8#b4 ,is there any water used which is obtained from wells8 ,none4 ,during the last epidemic of cholera the wells were ordered to be entirely shut up4 8#c4 ,when did the last epidemic of cholera occur8 ,four years ago4 ,but ,i should say it was not epidemic in ,paisley then4 ,it was threatened in #ahff4 8#d4 ,had you any cases of cholera then8 ,no4 ,there was a danger felt about it1 but ,i had no fear of it2 and ,i expressed that opinion before the ,sanitary ,committee1 that we should have no attack of cholera1 and that the city of ,glasgow would not have it4 8#e4 ,on what did you found that opinion8 ,upon the unlimited supply of pure water that we had1 and on the supply of pure water that ,glasgow had obtained from ,loch ,katrine4 8#f4 ,was your prediction fulfilled in both cases8 ,yes4 8#g4 ,when had you cholera last in ,paisley8 ,was it in #ahed8 ,in #ahed4 8#h4 ,had you an attack of cholera in #ahdi8 ,yes4 ,a very sharp attack4 8#i4 ,what was the state of the water supply in #ahdi8 ,in #ahdh and #ahdi the town was but partially supplied with water1 and some of the large suburbs1 such as ,charleston1 were not supplied with the town's water4 ,charleston was supplied with water from wells4 ,there was one well that belonged to ,baille ,smith1 which supplied a large quadrangle of buildings2 that well was at the bottom of an incline1 surmounted by buildings on all sides except one4 ,those wells took a supply from the surface4 ,they were surrounded by dung-pits1 and the wells imbibed the impurities of the dung-pits4 ,i took occasion to warn the people of the district not to use water from the wells1 but to get the town's water4 ,i recommended the authorities to open pipes connected with the town's water1 and to supply ,charleston with pure water2 and very soon after that was done the cholera disappeared from that district4 ,at the last threatened visitation of cholera1 in #ahff1 the ,sanitary ,committee took the precaution to remove all the handles from the pumps1 and they had the wells shut up4 8#aj4 ,do you think there is a direct connection between the water supplied to a town and the propagation of cholera8 ,i believe that there is a very intimate connection between the use of impure water and the propagation of cholera2 and the proper antidote to that is a free and unrestricted supply of pure water40 ,in ,calcutta the yearly death rates from cholera averaged nearly #d1jjj from #ahda to #ahgj4 ,when water-works were introduced the rate of deaths were3 #ahgj #a1efj #ahga #gij #ahgb #a1jfh #ahgc #a1acd ,the famous ,broad ,street pump1 in ,london1 in #ahdh1 killed #ejj persons in a single week4 ,in #ahff many deaths occurred from the use of water from a famous pump in ,brooklyn4 ,all trouble was brought to an end when the health officers removed the handle4 ,typhoid fever and diarrhea are universally traced to impure water1 and numerous examples can be given that were directly due to this cause4 ,the enterprising town of ,rugby1 on the ,cincinnati ,southern ,railroad1 furnished us with a case of this nature4 ,in ,millbank ,prison1 ,england1 typhoid fever was especially fatal until the year #ahed1 when the supply was taken from an artesian well in ,trafalgar ,square1 instead of the ,thames2 and immediately thereafter1 and up to ,april1 #ahgb1 a period of eighteen years1 there have been only three deaths from typhoid fever4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,river ,,pollution4 ,this subject is possibly most interesting to ,cincinnati1 because of its direct application to our source4 ,river water is next to the most suspicious of waters1 and the character is the bone of contention among scientists4 ,just how far and how much sewage may be admitted1 and what influences are exerted to destroy it1 are interesting discussions1 part of which we have quoted4 ,the ,rivers ,pollution ,commission of ,great ,britain arrived at the conclusion 8that there is no river in the ,united ,kingdom long enough to effect the destruction of sewage by oxidation40 ,and a direct contradiction of the statement by the eminent physician1 ,dr4 ,letheby1 medical officer to corporation of ,london1 8that if sewage matter be mixed with twenty times its bulk of ordinary river water1 and flow a dozen miles1 there is not a particle of that sewage to be discovered by chemical means40 ,the experiments of this commission show 8that scarcely two-thirds of the sewage was destroyed in a flow of #afh miles1 at the rate of one mile per hour1 or after the lapse of a week40 ,investigations of the ,rivers ,pollution ,commission on ,sewage ,pollution are as follows3 ,,reduction ,,by ,,oxidation ,,in ,,running ,,water4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,percentage ,,of ,,reduction ,,of ,,name ,,of ,,length ,,of ,,flow,,temperature ,,organic ,,element4 ,,river4 ,,in ,,miles4 ,,centigrade4--------------------------- ----- ,,in ,,org4 ,,carbon4,,in ,,org4 ,,nitrogen4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,irwell #aa #f to #h #d4e #j 8 #aa #ab #j #aa4h 8 #aa #ag #bi4f #j ,mersey #ac #d to #d4h #bj4h #ag4i ,darwin #ac #f4h to #aj #j #ac4b4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,reduction ,,of ,,sewage ,,by ,,aeration4 ,one volume of filtered ,london sewage mixed with nine volumes of water1 the mixture contained 4#bfg organic carbon and 4#jha organic nitrogen4 ,after agitation and freely exposed to the air and light every day1 and being syphoned1 in a slender stream1 from one vessel to another1 the result1 after #if hours1 was 4#bej organic carbon1 and 4#jeh organic nitrogen2 and1 after #aif hours' test1 was 4#b organic carbon1 and 4#jed organic nitrogen4 ,temperature1 #bj centigrade4 ,the above results would correspond to a flow of #if miles1 at rate of one mile per hour1 with a reduction in per cent of #f4d organic carbon1 and #bh4d organic nitrogen2 or a flow of #aib miles1 at rate of one mile per hour1 with a reduction in per cent of #be4a organic carbon1 and #cc4c organic nitrogen4 ,test of a mixture of fresh sewage with ,thames water1 and enclosed in stopped bottles1 and opened to air at following intervals1 with results opposite the respective periods3 ,,per ,,cent ,,of ,,sewage ,,destroyed4 #a4 ,period of #bd hours #f4h #b4 ,period of #bd hours #h4i #c4 ,period of #dh hours #ad4c #d4 ,period of #bd hours #e4d #e4 ,period of #bd hours #e4h #f4 ,period of #bd hours #b4a ---- ,total #dc4c ,dissolved oxygen contained in the enclosed water was determined by boiling off the dissolved gases4 ,,reduction ,,of ,,urine ,,by ,,aeration ,urine1 in proportion of one gallon 7imperial7 to #c1jgg gallons of water1 exposed to the air and briskly agitated3 ,,parts ,,in #ajj1jjj ,,parts4 ,,date4 ,,organic ,,carbon4 ,,organic ,,nitrogen4 ,feb4 #ag1 #ahgd1 4#bhb 4#bdc 8 #ah1 8 4#bih 4#bea 8 #ai1 8 4#bdd 4#bee 8 #bd1 8 4#bbe 4#bec 8 #be1 8 4#bad 4#bei 8 #bh1 8 4#bad 4#bgf ,results show that fresh urine with a large volume of water is1 under atmospheric influences1 more permanent and indestructible than sewage4 ,the agents of destruction of sewage are3 ,infusorial animals4 ,aquatic plants4 ,fish4 ,chemical ,oxidation4 ,dilution4 ,deposition4 ,sir ,benjamin ,brodie1 in his evidence before a former ,river ,pollution ,commission1 stated3 8,that it was simply impossible that the oxidizing power acting on sewage running in mixture with water over a distance of any length is sufficient to remove its noxious quality2 that the oxygen in the water and on its surface does not exercise any rapidly oxidizing power on organic matter40 ,he believed 8that an infinitesimally small quantity of decayed matter is able to produce an injurious effect upon health2 that if a large proportion of organic matter were removed by oxidation1 the quantity left might be sufficient to be injurious to health4 ,to destroy organic matter the most powerful oxidizing agents are required4 ,we must boil it with nitric acid and chloric acid and the most perfect chemical agents4 ,to think to get rid of organic matter by exposure to the air for a short time is absurd40 ,prof4 ,frankland1 one of the ,rivers ,pollution ,commission of #ahgd1 says3 8,that ,i should rely upon dilution quite as much and more than upon the destruction of injurious matter2 that the flow of a river has a most natural influence in the removal of subsidence of a large proportion of the suspended impurities both organic and mineral1 especially if the flow be sluggish in places40 ,prof4 ,brodie stated3 8,there are causes operating1 as we all know1 to destroy the sewage which1 to a certain extent1 will effect that end2 but the question1 as ,i understand it1 is1 whether those causes are really adequate to destroy the sewage1 not partially but absolutely and entirely1 during a given course of the river8 ,i do not think1 in the present state of our knowledge1 to pronounce an absolute opinion upon that point4 ,but if you ask whether it is wise to drink water into which you have put sewage1 knowing that you have no means of getting that sewage out of it1 that is a question which any one can answer for himself1 assuming always the injurious character of sewage40 ,the fifth annual report of the ,board of ,health of ,massachusetts 7#ahge71 contains the following1 on the effects of oxidation1 dilution1 and deposition3 8,oxidation4--,although it is not practical1 in the case of a running stream like the ,merrimack1 to trace the progress of the destruction of the organic material by oxidation1 yet there is no doubt that a certain amount is so destroyed4 ,the presence of nitrogen in the form of nitrites and nitrates is mainly due to the oxidation of nitrogenous organic material4 ,in the last report of the ,board1 the reasons are given which lead to the belief that the effects of oxidation have been overrated1 although they are not1 on the other hand1 to be depreciated4 8,deposition4--,much waste material1 thrown into rivers1 is made up wholly or in part of substances insoluble in water4 ,a portion1 and a very considerable portion1 even in a running stream is deposited upon the bottom or stranded upon the banks4 ,at the time of spring freshets much that during the summer may have been deposited at one part of the stream1 in the bed or on the banks1 is washed up again1 and mingling with the earthy materials1 held in suspension1 is swept onward to the sea or enveloped in the earthy matter1 especially if this be of a clayey nature1 is deposited lower down the stream4 ,these spring freshets are relied upon for cleansing banks used for infiltration4 8,dilution4--,by far the most important reason of the apparent disappearance of sewage and other waste material1 is the fact that the amount of solid matter is so small compared with the volume of water into which it is thrown1 that it is disseminated through the mass and thus lost to observation1 and in many cases to chemical test4 8,analyses of water1 below and above ,lawrence and ,lowell1 showed no increase in chlorine4 ,the substance can not escape from the water in gaseous form1 nor does it deposit in insoluble combination1 yet first inspection would lead to a conclusion that no real increase existed4 ,the facts are that the reduction was due to dilution1 and not to any destruction or decomposition4 ,much depends of course upon the size of the stream into which the refuse is thrown4 ,thus1 while into the ,merrimack at ,lowell1 even during the minimum summer flow of #b1ajj cubic feet per second1 it would be necessary to throw more than #ajj tons of solid matter daily in order to increase the amount in the water by one grain to the gallon2 another and smaller stream might be hopelessly fouled by a single factory40 ,the effects of dilution are shown in the analysis of the ,schuylkill ,river--there being less sewage at ,fairmount ,dam1 the nearest to the outlet1 than any point above4 ,it is estimated that #cjj1jjj inhabitants1 exclusive of those in ,philadelphia1 live within the water-shed of this river1 less than #aej miles above ,philadelphia1 the undiluted sewage from these persons amounting annually to #aej1jjj tons4 ,in addition to this pollution #ae1jjj1jjj gallons daily flow from #aae establishments located on the banks1 not considering the #eg collieries and #gf anthracite furnaces4 ,yet with all this contamination the water at ,fairmount1 chemically considered1 is as pure as most sources4 ,the chemists in their report say3 8,having now shown that the ,schuylkill water is about as good a water as we might wish to find for a large city in its mineral and organic content4 8,since the present water is good enough1 we may keep it so1 and even improve it by a system of sewage gradually extended up both sides of the river1 especially the left bank1 above the influence of ,monayunk1 and by procuring sufficient legislative power to control the escape of sewage or possibly injurious manufacturing residue4 ,the long line of many miles would tend greatly to the purification of the water by aeration1 deposition1 or abstraction of possibly injurious substances from the water by the time it reached within using distance of the city40 ,the increase of solid matter in the ,schuylkill has been as follows3 #ahdb1 #d1dba grains in #a1jjj gallons4 #ahed1 #f1aji grains in #a1jjj gallons4 #ahfb1 #g1jdj grains in #a1jjj gallons4 #ahge1 #h1aci grains in #a1jjj gallons4 ,the recent analysis by ,prof4 ,stuntz of the ,ohio ,river1 also shows the effects of dilution4 7,the results express the number of pounds of sewage in one million gallons47 ,,general ,,worst ,,general ,,condition ,,condition ,,average ,,lbs4 ,,lbs4 ,,lbs4 ,at pumping works1 #a4ha #aa4ci #d4ah ,at mouth ,eggleston ,avenue sewer1 #d4da #ag4ia #aa4af ,at ,storrs and ,lower ,river1 #a4if #aj4jj #e4id ,although increased by the whole sewage of the city in addition to ,licking ,river1 ,covington1 and steamboat contamination1 the proportion of sewage at ,storrs in its worst condition is chemically shown to be little better than at the pumping works4 ,,thames ,,river4 ,although the water of the ,thames has been submitted to analyses by different chemists1 on many hundred occasions1 no constituent which could be pronounced noxious1 has been detected2 but the history of the water traced in the inorganic constituents above referred to1 always reveals that which is1 indeed1 well known to be the fact--its previous contamination with sewage or animal matters--7,rivers ,pollution ,commission1 #ahgd47 ,the area of water-shed drainage of the ,thames above pumping station is #c1fge square miles1 the minimum summer flow of #cej millions of gallons daily4 ,there are one million persons above the intakes of pumping works4 ,the whole river and its principal tributaries are under strictest sanitary regulation1 which the government is able to enforce1 notwithstanding a great mass of sewage is poured into the stream4 ,the ,rivers ,pollution ,commission1 of #ahgd1 sum up their investigation of the ,thames and ,lea ,rivers as follows3 8#ast4 ,that the river receives the sewage from a large number of towns and other inhabited places1 the washings of a large cultivated land1 and the filthy discharge from many industrial processes and manufactures4 8#b;d4 ,that the water is used for bathing1 washing of sheep and cattle1 and dirty linen and putrid carcasses of animals float upon its surface4 8#c;d4 ,that it is the common water way for a large amount of dangerous polluting matter1 etc4 8#dth4 ,that in time of flood a large proportion1 both of the suspended and dissolved filth1 is conveyed down to the intakes1 and in ordinary weather considerable portion of soluble organic matter makes its way to the pumping works1 and is still present in the water distributed to the consumers4 8#eth4 ,that the water is1 nevertheless1 when efficiently filtered1 free from any offensive taste or odor4 8#fth4 ,that1 notwithstanding the application of partial remedies1 for sewage pollution1 at ,banbury1 ,eton1 and ,windsor1 and the great care exercised by most of the companies in the storage and filtration of the water1 the organic pollution contained in the ,thames water delivered in ,london1 though subject to fluctuations from the greater or less prevalence of floods1 does not diminish4 ,the proportion of organic impurity present in ,thames water1 as delivered in ,london1 was3 8,in #ahfh1 #a1jjj ,in #ahfi1 #a1jaf ,in #ahgj1 #gie ,in #ahga1 #ibh ,in #ahgb1 #a1bdc ,in #ahgc1 #iag 8#gth4 ,that there is no hope of this disgusting state of the river being so far remedied as to preclude the presence of animal and other offensive matters1 even in the filtered ,thames water as delivered in the metropolis4 8#hth4 ,that the ,thames should1 therefore1 as early as possible1 be abandoned as a source of water for domestic use4 8#ith4 ,that the temperature of the water drawn from the company's mains is liable to excessive fluctuations1 being near the freezing point in winter and so warm in summer as to be vapid and unpalatable40 ,the ,lea ,river is also condemned as a source of water supply4 ,prof4 ,chandler1 of ,new ,york1 quotes the authority of eminent scientists1 who say the ,thames1 a short distance above ,london1 is wholesome1 palatable1 and agreeable1 and safe for domestic use1 notwithstanding the large amount of sewage 7the number of grains per gallon being three times that of the ,schuylkill71 although controlled by strict governmental laws4 ,,quality ,,of ,,pollution4 ,scientists tell us that it is not so much the quantity as the quality of the sewage3 8,it is true a large amount of refuse material is of such character as to be1 except in excessive quantities1 of no appreciable influence on the human system2 the addition of the inorganic compounds of lime1 soda1 potash1 etc41 would have no deleterious effect2 in fact1 although the lime compounds increase the hardness of water1 and make it less desirable for washing1 the presence of a moderate amount of mineral substance makes the water more palatable and very probably more wholesome4 8,then1 in case of many waste liquors1 which appear to be very offensive1 the matter which really could be regarded as injurious is comparatively small in amount4 ,if we consider the character of the substances discharged by different manufacturing establishments1 we shall find them very different4 ,some of them are such as to be universally regarded as unfit to admit to any stream2 those1 for instance1 containing lead1 arsenic1 etc42 others1 such as salts of iron1 are scarcely regarded as injurious2 thus1 the discharge of sulphate of iron 7copperas7 into a stream already polluted with sewage matter1 might1 within certain limits1 be of positive advantage4 ,again1 in the case of some of the vegetable dye-stuffs1 the weak-spent dye liquors1 although they communicate a very foul appearance to the water for some distance1 yet contain a comparatively small amount of solid matter1 and1 if discharged into a stream of considerable size1 as soon as disseminated through it1 are diluted to a very great extent4 8,different in character1 however1 from much of the refuse of manufacturing establishments is the sewage coming from dwellings1 or the sewage 7in its more restricted sense of excremental matter from animal sources7 which comes from our manufactories4 ,in fact1 this foul material1 coming from establishments employing a large number of operators1 is likely1 in many cases1 to have a more injurious effect upon the stream into which it is thrown than refuse from the manufacturing operations4 ,there are1 however1 some branches of industry which discharge refuse material offensive and dangerous to health4 ,such material is discharged from tanneries1 wool-pulling and hide-dressing establishments1 slaughter-houses and rendering-houses4 #8,too much stress can not be laid upon the importance of preventing the discharge of such refuse4'0--7,prof4 ,nichols1 in ,fifth ,annual ,report of ,massachusetts ,state ,board of ,health47 8,the discharge of gas works is known to kill fish and destroy lower forms of animal life1 which are important agents in preserving the purity of fresh water4 8,one would not assert that the drainage of a single house would contaminate the water of a large river like the ,merrimack so as to make it unfit for domestic use1 yet we must beware how we depreciate the effect of sewage matter1 even in a large stream40--7,prof4 ,nichols1 in ,fifth ,annual ,report of ,massachusetts ,state ,board of ,health1 #ahge47 8,with small amount of sewage the chances are favorable for the action of atmospheric influences1 and particles of undecomposed material-propagating disease are rendered proportionally small1 owing to the great dilution4 8,a minute quantity may do much harm1 because it is now generally believed1 that it may hold the specific thing that propagates specific diseases4 8,rice water evacuations1 of a cholera patient1 however much diluted1 still remains in liquid1 although chemical test fails to detect it4 8,the carcass of a dead animal1 thrown into a river or pond1 and confined there1 so as not to be borne off bodily1 gradually wastes away1 and1 in a longer or shorter time1 the main part of the carcass has disappeared4 ,what has become of it8 ,a part has been converted into gaseous products of decomposition1 as the offensive odors observed during the decay will testify2 but another portion has been carried off by the stream as soluble nitrogenous organic matter4 ,this nitrogenous matter would be detected a short distance away1 with greater or less ease1 according to the volume of water present2 but in a stream of large size1 or in a lake at no very great distance from the source of contamination1 it would be impossible to discover any offensive matter4 ,there is a limit to the delicacy of our tests3 there is a point beyond which1 at the present1 we are not able to go4 ,at the present time1 a chemical analysis alone is not sufficient to determine the desirability of a given water-supply40--7,rivers ,pollution ,commission1 #ahgd47 8,the action of a float1 upon or near the surface of the water1 is no indication of the movement1 back and forth1 of the sewage in suspension4 ,portions of fresh sewage1 it is true1 will float1 but after maceration the sewage has a specific gravity of about #a4cbe1 and will sink1 in still water1 or very slow currents1 at the rate of one foot per minute2 but in a current of #agj feet a minute1 it will not sink1 but remain in suspension40--7,j4 ,w4 ,adams1 ,c4 ,e41 ,water ,supply ,commission of ,philadelphia1 #ahgd47 8,this evidence1 taken in connection with our own investigations1 appear to us1 conclusively1 to prove3 8#ast4 ,that there is1 at certain times1 in human excreta1 some material capable of producing disease1 of a very fatal character1 in human subjects4 8#b;d4 ,that this morbific matter can be detected only by its specific action upon human subject1 and can not be distinguished1 either by chemical or microscopical analysis1 even in the concentrated excreta1 much less in water mixed with the excreta4 8#c;d4 ,that1 inasmuch as the organic matters of sewage are oxidized and destroyed with extreme slowness in running water1 there is great probability that morbific matter will escape destruction and be conveyed to great distances in rivers and streams40--7,rivers ,pollution ,commission1 #ahgd47 8,carbonates of calcium and lime produce temporary hardness2 while sulphate of lime and calcium and salts of magnesium produce permanent hardness4 8,temporary hardness is objectionable for culinary and manufacturing purposes1 and excessive hardness is productive of disease known as gravel4 ,magnesium salts are especially objectionable1 because they cause diarrha and dyspepsia4 ,goitre1 or swelling of the glands and cretinism1 a kind of insanity1 are charged to this impurity4 8,frequently1 the water happens to be a little off color1 especially after a heavy storm1 and the consumers get an idea that the water is poisoned1 and no amount of re-assuring will prove the reverse4 ,such cases occurred in ,new ,york ,city1 once or twice1 during the late war with the ,south4 ,a little investigation will show the absurdity of such a thing4 8,one-sixteenth of a grain of strychnine is necessary to poison a person4 ,it would1 therefore1 require three and one-half tons of strychnine to have poisoned the ,croton water effectually--a quantity not to be had in the world1 and to procure it would take about three years4 8,if arsenic was desirable1 two grains for each person would be required1 or #aad tons for the whole population of the city at that time4 ,living animals1 when seen under the microscope1 are very formidable in appearance and frightful in motion1 yet they are not objectionable4 ,they only inhabit very pure water4 ,it sometimes happens1 owing1 perhaps1 to some peculiarity of the season1 that these little animals multiply to such an extent as to produce serious annoyance4 8,it is stated that one-sixth of the deaths in ,iceland are caused by little animals being taken into the system4 ,young leeches1 contained in drinking water1 sometimes fix themselves on the pharynx4 ,in ,algiers1 #djj ,french soldiers were sick at one time from this cause40--7,from ,prof4 ,foote's lecture47 ,,contamination ,,of ,,water ,,supply4 ,boston water has become quite offensive from vegetable fermentation1 some say1 although others attribute it to dead fish1 eels1 and animal organisms1 and1 later1 to a green moss4 ,the water tastes1 at times1 like cucumbers4 ,the present trouble is traced to the new 8,sudbury0 supply4 ,the older source1 ,lake ,cochituate1 is1 however1 contaminated by drainage from the town of ,natick1 through ,pegan ,pond4 ,croton water 7,new ,york supply7 has1 at times1 suffered from dead fish and decayed leaves4 ,hartford1 ,yonkers1 ,poughkeepsie1 and ,albany report the presence of microscopic plants and animals in their water1 and these organisms indicate stagnation4 8,any undue preponderance of animal or vegetable life lead to the propagation of new forms of life dangerous to health40 ,springfield 7,massachusetts7 water tastes1 at times1 like green corn2 while ,cambridge is contaminated by the drainage of meadows4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,carpenter1 ,superintendent of ,albany ,water-,works1 reports3 8,there are two distinct causes 7each imparting to the water an odor and taste peculiar to itself7 that have affected our reservoirs1 at different periods1 during the last few years3 the one giving to the water the odor and taste of fish1 the other imparting to it a musty odor and taste sometimes detected in dead wood4 ,in the former1 it is extremely difficult to satisfy consumers that the impurities are not due solely to fish in the reservoir1 while in the latter they are equally confident that the reservoirs are little less than stagnant ponds40 ,the latter is sometimes exceedingly offensive and similar to sulphuretted hydrogen gas4 ,in #ahge he again reports3 8,that all impounded waters in this section of the country are liable to become impure2 that while the impurities have been traced to lower forms of animal organisms1 little is known of the condition that favor their growth2 that the germs of the organism probably come from the atmosphere40 ,chicago will be compelled to move her crib further into the lake1 now two miles from shore1 to get beyond the limits of the ,chicago ,river sewage4 ,st4 ,louis1 like ,cincinnati1 has outgrown its water system 7established in #ahgb at a cost of five millions17 and is obliged to drink muddy water4 ,cleveland extended its aqueduct in #ahgb1 #a miles into the lake in order to escape shore water4 ,detroit1 after considerable discussion1 removed their source of supply three miles above the city1 and constructed new works in preference to expending more money on the old works4 ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 expended #d millions for bringing the water of ,hemlock ,lake thirty miles to the city4 ,baltimore celebrated only last ,october the opening of their new aqueduct1 conveying the waters of ,gunpowder ,river #g miles in distance1 at a cost of over four millions4 ,indianapolis has been compelled to erect new works owing to the contamination of the present source4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,purification ,,of ,,waters4 ,the ,rivers ,pollution ,commission of #ahgd1 says1 as regards filtration3 8,no process has yet been devised for cleaning surface water once contaminated with sewage1 so as to make it fit for drinking40 ,others say it is not safe to trust to dilution1 storage1 agitation1 or filtration for periods of time1 for the complete removal from water of disease-producing elements whatever they may be4 ,dr4 ,frankland states3 8,i believe the noxious parts in sewage is that which is held in mechanical suspension1 not held in solution4 ,i would not say it is impossible to remove it1 but no system of filtration will secure its removal4 ,there are only two processes by which it can be effectually removed--one by boiling for a long time1 and the other by distillation40 ,the methods adopted for filtration of water are3 8#a4 ,infiltration--by intercepting underground currents through natural formations of beds or banks of water-courses4 8#b4 ,filtration--mechanically by artificial beds of sand1 gravel1 etc41 chemically by charcoal1 iron1 etc4 8#c4 ,subsidence--clarification by deposition2 storage reservoirs4 8#d4 ,aeration--spontaneous purification by oxidation4 8#e4 ,covered reservoirs--to prevent atmospheric influences4 8#f4 ,precipitation of carbonates--,clark's ,system40 ,the infiltration system is resorted to where natural means for permeation are found2 the galleries for intercepting the water being constructed in the sand or gravel banks or bed4 ,the clarification1 however1 is necessarily restricted1 owing to the general high rate of filtration4 ,lowell1 ,mass41 has a gallery in the gravel banks of the ,merrimack ,river1 #a1cjj feet in length1 #h feet by #h feet1 the bottom #h feet below the river bed4 ,the capacity is six million gallons1 and rate of flow #aej gallons per square foot in twenty-four hours4 ,lawrence1 ,mass41 has a similar gallery4 ,brookline's 7,mass47 gallery is #gfb feet in length2 #f feet below the river bed4 ,rate of flow is #dij feet per square foot4 ,newark1 ,n4 ,j41 tried the experiment of driven wells4 ,they drove sixty-three-inch tubes #bh feet apart1 #dj feet deep1 into the bank of the ,passaic1 three hundred feet from the shore line4 ,the tubes were attached to three lines of suction pipes1 and the latter united in one twenty-four-inch main for the supply of their five million pump4 ,as their expectations as to the quality and quantity of water were not realized1 a well was substituted4 ,columbus1 ,o41 has a gallery under the ,scioto ,river1 #fjj feet in length1 with a capacity of eight millions daily4 ,toronto1 ,canada1 has a basin excavated in an island of ,lake ,huron1 opposite the city1 #ac feet below low water1 and #c1jij feet in length2 the rate of flow is #eb imperial gallons per square foot for twenty-four hours4 ,lyons1 ,france1 has two covered galleries along the banks of the ,rhone2 the area of bottoms #ag1bjj square feet2 capacity six millions1 and rate of flow at lowest stage #ajj gallons per square foot4 ,toulouse1 ,france1 has three covered galleries along the banks of the ,garonne ,river4 ,the last gallery constructed is #a1ahj feet long2 capacity1 two and a half millions2 rate of flow1 #bbh gallons per square foot of bottom area4 ,perth1 ,scotland1 has a gallery in an island of the ,river ,tay1 #cjj feet long1 #d feet wide by #h feet high1 #b feet below the surface of the river2 rate of flow1 #ahb gallons per square foot per diem4 ,genoa1 ,italy1 has a gallery in the valley of the northern slope of the ,mantine ,alps1 #a1aha feet above the sea level4 ,it is #a1ghj feet long1 #e feet wide and #g to #h feet high1 and extends1 in part1 beneath the bed of the river ,scrivia1 transversely from side to side1 and in part along the bank4 ,it has a delivery of #f1dab gallons for twenty-four hours per lineal foot4 ,the city of ,glasgow made two failures in attempting to furnish a supply by this system4 ,the first experiment was the construction of a reservoir on the northern bank of the ,clyde1 below the level of the river4 ,beneath the bottom of the reservoir was thirty-two-feet cylindrical tunnels made of wedged-shape bricks without mortar4 ,the failure was due to the inability to keep the interstices free from the deposit of impurities4 ,in the second plan1 they excavated shallow wells1 #aj feet in diameter1 #f feet deep1 and #bj feet apart1 in the stratum of sand adjacent to the river4 ,the wells were connected by pipes4 ,the scheme was a worse failure than the first one4 ,it often happens1 as in the case of ,waltham1 ,massachusetts1 in locating these galleries1 that spring water is intercepted in place of the desired water of the flowing stream4 ,the difference in temperature and increased hardness of the spring water1 determine the class of water4 ,,filtration is the artificial method of clarification by mechanical and chemical means4 ,by the mechanical system heavier impurities are held in suspense by percolation of water through carefully prepared beds of sand1 gravel1 coke1 shells1 and like substances4 ,the total area of the ,london filter beds in #ahgd was #fh acres1 and rate of filtration per hour in inches and depth of water1 or head on beds1 were3 ,,rate4 ,,depth4 ,lambeth ,works #aj inches4 #g feet4 ,southwark ,vauxhall #d 8 #d 8 ,grand ,junction #c 8 #d 8 ,west ,middlesex #d 8 #c 8 ,chelsea #f 8 #e 8 ,new ,river #d 8 #e 8 ,east ,london #c 8 #e 8 ,the efficiency of filtration is inversely to rate of flow4 ,humber says3 8,it is now generally admitted that filtration through sand1 to be effective1 should not proceed at a higher rate than #f inches of descent per hour2 or1 in other words1 there should be at least #a square yards of filtering area for each #a1jjj gallons per day4 ,this is1 of course1 exclusive of reserve area1 which will be necessary to permit of at least one bed being cleansed while sufficient area remains in operation in the other beds40 ,the maintenance of these beds enhance the cost of supplying water1 because they must be cleansed frequently--in some cases once a week4 ,the regulation and control of the water consumption is an important consideration1 that the rate of increase will be proportioned to the growth of the city2 and not1 as in this country1 an unaccountable rapid increase due to the profligate use of water that makes filtration impossible4 ,over eleven-twelfths of the water supplied to ,london is filtered with the following efficiency3 ,,before ,,filtration4 ,,after ,,filtration4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,,organic ,,organic ,,organic ,,organic ,,carbon4 ,,nitrogen4 ,,carbon4 ,,nitrogen4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,in parts of,in parts of,in parts of,in parts of #ajj1jjj4 #ajj1jjj4 #ajj1jjj4 #ajj1jjj4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,west ,middlesex ,works 4#bji 4#jga 4#aih 4#jdc ,grand ,junction ,works 4#bfb 4#jdb 4#bca 4#jcb ,southwark ,vauxhall1 ,hampton ,works 4#cba 4#jfc 4#bgc 4#jdb ,battersea 8 4#bci 4#jdg 4#bbf 4#jce ,lambeth ,works 4#bgc 4#jfg 4#beh 4#jch ,chelsea ,works 4#cbe 4#jgf 4#beh 4#jcb ,new ,river1 ,lea ,river 4#bhg 4#jfg -- -- 8 ,new ,river 4#cge 4#jei 4#bbg 4#jdc 8 8 4#cej 4#jhd 4#bdf 4#jdb ,east ,london ,co41 ,lea ,water 4#cfc 4#jhb -- -- ,waltham ,st4 ,res 4#dha 4#jib 4#cje 4#jda ,thames ,water -- -- 4#aei 4#jcj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,dimensions of filter beds for given volumes 7from ,fanning73 ,for #a million gallons per diem #c beds #fj feet #ajj feet4 ,for #b 8 8 8 #c 8 #hj 8 #aej 8 ,for #c 8 8 8 #c 8 #ajj 8 #ahj 8 ,for #d 8 8 8 #d 8 #ajj 8 #ahj 8 ,for #f 8 8 8 #d 8 #ajj 8 #bdj 8 ,for #h 8 8 8 #d 8 #abj 8 #bgj 8 ,for #aj 8 8 8 #e 8 #abj 8 #bgj 8 ,analysis of sand from filter beds 7in #ajj1jjj parts7 ,,organic ,,organic ,,organic ,,matter4 ,,carbon4 ,,nitrogen4 ,as removed from filter bed1 unwashed #aebc4dj #cad4afj #ch4fgd ,after washing #hjd4da #id4iba #af4igc ,it can not be doubted that a small amount of organic matter undergoes oxidation and destruction during the passage of the water through the sand2 but1 independent of this1 it appears1 from the above analytical numbers1 that one ton of dry sand1 washed after previous use1 is capable of removing from water and retaining #af4a lbs4 of peaty matter4 ,chemical filtration may be arranged under the following heads3 #a4 ,by use of alum and borax to reduce turbidity4 #b4 ,dr4 ,gunning's experiment of the waters of the ,river ,maas1 by reducing the turbidity with 4#jcb gramme of perchloride of iron into one litre of water4 #c4 ,dr4 ,bischoff's 7,jr47 process of removing organic matter by spongy iron1 prepared by heating hydrated oxide of iron with carbon4 #d4 ,spencer's process of sand filtration with crushed grains of a carbide of iron4 ,the carbide1 it is claimed1 does not require frequent removal4 #e4 ,sheet-iron strips placed in water decomposes organic matter rapidly4 ,it is recommended by eminent authority4 #f4 ,charcoal is1 possibly1 the best substance for removing organisms chemically2 but its efficiency is destroyed by an insoluble precipitate of either lime or iron4 ,messrs4 ,adkins ,co41 of ,london1 have patented a method to overcome this objection1 by use of charcoal plates that may be easily scraped4 ,filtration through spongy iron 7by ,rivers ,pollution ,commission--,parts in #ajj1jjj parts73 ,,organic ,,organic ,,previous ,,carbon4 ,,nitrogen4 ,,sewage4 ,thames water1 before 4#abj 4#jac #acdj ,thames water1 after 4#jbe 4#jjd #aj ,filtration through animal charcoal3 ,,organic ,,organic ,,previous ,,carbon4 ,,nitrogen4 ,,sewage4 ,grand ,junction ,co4's water1 before 4#afd 4#jcj #cbj ,grand ,junction ,co4's water1 after 4#jaj 4#jjb #iej ,,subsidence is the most popular method of clarification of water by the deposition of heavy matter1 accomplished in large storage reservoirs4 8,if the reservoir be very small and shallow1 and containing not more than a day's supply1 for example1 it is plain there can be but little opportunity for subsidence2 but even in such cases1 if the reservoir be kept full1 or nearly full1 the floating impurities might never enter the circulation4 ,in the case of a large reservoir1 holding many days' supply1 it is quite different4 ,time is then afforded for the heavier impurities to settle to the bottom2 and1 if the water is admitted at one end and taken out at the other end of the reservoir1 very little1 if any1 of the heavier particles can pass into the circulation2 and we can see no reason why any of the superficial impurities1 such as remain on or near the surface1 should ever be allowed to enter the circulation40--7,from ,water ,supply ,commission of ,engineers1 ,philadelphia1 #ahge47 ,fanning says3 8,subsidence does not completely clarify the water even in a fortnight or three weeks' time40 ,london has #bfb acres of subsiding reservoirs for removing the turbidity of the ,thames and ,lea ,rivers1 and used as storage at times of sudden freshets4 ,mere exposure to the air1 even if accompanied by violent agitation1 is comparatively powerless for the removal of polluting organic matter from water4 ,although1 however1 the flow of a river has thus but little effect in purifying the water by the oxidation of the dissolved organic matters1 it has a most material influence in the removal by subsidence of a large proportion of the suspended impurities both organic and mineral1 especially if the flow be sluggish in places4 ,in passing through still pools1 the turbid streams let fall its load of grosser mechanically suspended particles1 and thus the water becomes clearer1 although the dissolved impurity remains nearly as great as ever4 ,it is1 doubtless1 this clarification by subsidence which has led to the very general but erroneous belief in the rapid self-purifying power of running water4 ,,results ,,of ,,subsidence4 ,,subsidence ,,from #ajj1jjj ,,parts4 ,,rivers ----------------------------- ,,mineral ,,organic ,,total ,,matter4 ,,matter4 ,,solids4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,irwell1 after flow of #aa miles 4#hh 4#dh #a4cf ,irwell1 after flow of #aa miles 4#ch 4#hd #a4bb ,mersey1 after flow of #ac miles 4#aj 4#jd 4#ad ,darwin1 after flow of #ac miles 4#ed #a4db #a4if ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,results ,,of ,,subsidence4 ,,per ,,cent ,,of ,,reduction ,,of ,,matter ,,in ,,suspension4 ,,rivers ----------------------------- ,,mineral ,,organic ,,total ,,matter4 ,,matter4 ,,solids4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,irwell1 after flow of #aa miles #dg4h #ej4 #dh4f ,irwell1 after flow of #aa miles #ad4c #cj4i #bb4g ,mersey1 after flow of #ac miles #aj4f #ac4c #aa4c ,darwin1 after flow of #ac miles #cj4c #gi4h #ee4a ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,aeration is the destruction of animate life by oxidation1 and is best accomplished by placing weirs across streams1 sheet flashing1 or spreading of water in thin sheets1 or by roughness of beds or banks of running waters4 ,the benefits may be ascertained1 chemically1 by the presence of nitrates and nitrites4 ,the ,water ,supply ,commission of ,engineers1 for the investigation of the water system of ,philadelphia1 say3 8,this is one of nature's processes for purifying water1 not only of the land1 but of the ocean1 and bodies of water deprived of it1 other processes are apt to set in4 ,it is1 therefore1 desirable that nothing should be done to obstruct this beneficial action4 ,we have been informed that the cutting of ice1 which was formerly allowed on the ,fairmount pool1 has been prohibited or discontinued4 ,we would especially recommend that the cutting of ice on the pool be resumed1 as an important sanitary measure1 on account of the aeration it will afford4 ,if this were done systematically1 it might remedy1 at least to some extent1 the disagreeable odor which we learn is sometimes noticed during the winter40 ,the aeration adopted by ,mr4 ,moore1 ,supt4 of ,cincinnati ,water ,works1 at ,eden reservoir1 improved the purity of the water twenty per cent41 as shown by the analysis of ,prof4 ,stuntz1 who recommends the adoption of the process on a larger scale4 ,covered ,reservoirs1 although used by the ancients1 are now being recommended as highly beneficial to the purity of the water1 by depriving the organic germs of their propagation elements of light and heat of the sun1 preventing freezing of water1 and reducing evaporation to a minimum4 ,paris has two such structures4 ,chelsea 7,london7 ,water-,works has one of ten million capacity that cost #aaj1jjj4jj4 ,the temporary hardness of water is produced by absorption of carbonates1 and may be reduced to softness by3 ,distillation1 ,carbonate of soda1 ,boiling1 ,caustic lime4 ,permanent hardness is produced by sulphates1 chlorides and nitrates of lime1 and magnesia1 and can not be dissipated by boiling4 ,an imperial gallon of pure water can take up but about two grains of carbonate of lime1 but the presence of carbonic acid in the water will enable the same #gj1jjj grains 7an imperial gallon7 to take up twelve1 sixteen1 twenty1 or more grains of the carbonate1 and for each grain so taken up is one degree of hardness by the ,clarke scale4 ,the system patented by ,dr4 ,clarke1 of ,england1 in #ahef1 is the most practical method for the precipitation of lime1 effected by means of a dilution of water with slaked lime1 in the proportion of one of lime-water to ten of hard water4 ,the system is in use in several small places in ,england1 notably ,canterbury1 where #ajj1jjj gallons are reduced1 daily1 at a cost of twenty-seven shillings per million gallons1 with the following results3 ,,total ,,solid ,,impurities4 ,,organic ,,carbon4 ,,organic ,,nitrogen4 ,,hardness4 ,before1 #cc4fj 4#jab 4#jab #bf4c ,after1 #aa4id 4#j 4#j #d4i ,plumstead water-works1 previous to its purchase by the ,kent ,water ,company1 of ,london1 reduced1 daily1 #a1jjj1jjj gallons by the ,clarke method4 ,the new owners1 however1 abandoned it4 ,from the testimony of a number of reputable physicians1 before the ,rivers ,pollution ,commission1 of #ahgd1 hard water1 to a limited extent1 ten degrees1 was not considered injurious1 and1 by some1 absolutely beneficial to health1 although soft water1 for a general water supply1 was preferable4 ,mr4 ,homersham1 ,c4 ,e41 the designer of several of these works1 testified1 before this commission1 that it cost #a1 #gs4 for precipitating #a1jjj1jjj gallons4 ,to introduce this system into ,london1 with a consumption of #ajj1jjj1jjj daily1 the cost1 he says1 would be #c1jjj1jjj for plant1 and requiring over thirty-three acres of ground for basins1 etc4 ,the relative sanitary condition of cities1 in the ,united ,kingdom1 using hard and soft water1 is shown in the following table3 ,,average ,,character ,,average ,,rate ,,no4 ,,of ,,towns4 ,,population4 ,,of ,,water4 ,,of ,,mortality ,,per #aj1jjj4 #bf #gc1cff ,not exceeding #e #bi4a #be #ha1fee ,above #e1 but not #bh4c exceeding #aj #fj #dd1gig ,above #aj #bd4c ,london #c1bed1bfj ,from #af to #cb #bd4f ,the celebrated engineer1 ,mr4 ,bateman1 of ,england1 estimates the saving to ,glasgow1 by soft water1 at #ahj1jjj per annum2 and if ,london used the same character of water1 the equivalent would be #b1jjj1jjj annually4 ,the use of lime1 by private consumers1 is recommended by the trustees of the water department of ,columbus1 ,o4 ,they say that one ounce of lime1 when added to thirty-six gallons of water1 make it superior1 for washing purposes1 to the rain-water usually obtained from the cistern4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,system ,,of ,,supply4 ,the systems of supply may be arranged under three general heads1 viz3 #ast4 ,by springs and wells4 #b;d4 ,by gravitation4 #c;d4 ,by pumping4 ,,springs ,,and ,,wells4 ,we have1 under this name1 nature's resources for supplying our wants1 whose facilities for furnishing the requisite supply depend upon the local rain-fall1 configuration of the land1 and the nature1 or geological formation1 of surface and subsoils4 ,land springs are fed by rain-water1 gravitating through loose permeable soils4 ,the waters are very readily affected by infiltration of surrounding soils1 and their course so easily changed in any direction that the permanence of such a source can not be relied upon4 ,deep springs are fed by the waters falling upon and soaking down to great depths1 and find their way to the surface through some fault1 upheaval or other great geological disturbance1 or between some impermeable strata4 ,the most copious springs are in the tertiary strata1 and the law1 as regards their abundance1 is 8the rarer the visible springs may be1 the more copious they would be found40 ,the permanence of the springs can only be relied upon after careful gauging1 extending over several years4 ,wells may be separated under the following divisions3 ,shallow1 or dug wells4 ,ordinary deep1 or pump wells4 ,artesian wells4 8,shallow and deep wells are those which are sunk through a permeable stratum1 and form1 as it were1 reservoirs1 into which the land springs may filter and accumulate2 whilst artesian wells are those which are sunk through an impervious upper stratum1 to reach a subterranean water-bearing stratum lying1 in its turn1 upon an impervious upholding bed4 ,in the former cases1 the quantity of water obtainable is simply that which can filter through the sides of the well to replace the water removed1 or which may accumulate in any reservoir formed below2 whilst1 in the latter case1 the quantity obtainable will depend simply upon the power of the water-bearing stratum to transmit water4 8,in the case of deep-seated wells1 the probable yield of water must depend1 primarily1 upon the area of permeable strata likely to affect the supply1 and upon the facilities those strata may offer for the passage of water2 and1 secondly1 upon the rate of consumption which takes place in the neighborhood1 for the quantity of water which any particular stratum can supply is only a limited quantity2 so that1 evidently1 if the water be taken at one point1 no more will remain for the other40--7,hydraulic ,engineering1 ,weale's ,series47 ,the above fact is illustrated1 practically1 in ,london1 where the water line of the chalk formation has been permanently lowered to the extent of fifty or sixty feet below ,trinity high-water mark2 and it is even stated that the level of the water in the wells1 near the summit of this formation1 rises1 on the ,monday morning1 in consequence of the cessation of pumping in ,london during the ,sundays4 ,the experience of ,liverpool corroborates this fact3 that the ,windsor well1 having a depth of #baj feet1 affected the surrounding wells to a maximum distance of a mile and three quarters4 ,the celebrated engineer and originator of the well system of ,liverpool1 ,robert ,stephenson1 from long experience and careful observation1 offered the following conclusions 7from ,hughes water-works73 8,that an abundance of water is stored up in the new red sandstone1 and may be obtained1 by sinking shafts and driving tunnels1 about the level of low water4 8,that the sandstone is generally very pervious1 admitting of deep wells drawing their supply from distances exceeding one mile4 8,that the permeability of the sandstone is occasionally interfered with by faults or fissures filled with argillaceous matter1 sometimes rendering them partially1 or wholly1 water-tight4 8,that neither by sinking1 tunneling1 nor boring1 can the yield of any well be very materially and permanently increased1 except so far as the contributing area may be thereby enlarged4 8,that the contributing area to any given well is limited by the amount of friction experienced by the movement of the water through the fissures and pores of the sandstone2 and 8,that there is little or no probability of obtaining1 permanently1 more than about #a1jjj1jjj or #a1bjj1jjj gallons a day from each well1 and this only when not interfered with by other deep wells40 ,statistics of the flow of the ,windsor well show that the yield1 in #ahdc1 was #a1aeb1jjj gallons per day2 in ,may1 #ahdh1 #hjg1jfa gallons2 in ,january1 #ahej1 from #gje1ffg to #fcd1geb gallons4 ,the observations of the ,green ,lane well1 in the same city1 give the decrease in flow1 per annum1 at #d4g to #f per cent4 ,a plan has been proposed1 by ,mr4 ,bailey ,denton1 that1 in order to increase the water-bearing stratum under ,london1 sufficiently for a water supply1 and also secure the well-known benefits of the filtration powers of the chalk1 to let the ,thames water pass down to the chalk1 through the ,london clay1 by means of wells sunk or bored4 ,the objections raised against this plan is the possibility of the wells becoming choked by accumulation of impurities4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,t4 ,fanning in his valuable 8,treatise on ,water ,supply ,engineering10 says3 8,the success of wells1 penetrating deep into large subterranean basins1 upon the first completion1 has usually led to their duplication at other points within the same basin1 and the flow of the first has often been materially checked upon the commencement of flow in the second1 and both again upon the commencement of flow in a third1 though neither was within one mile of either of the others4 ,the flow of the famous well at ,grenelle was seriously checked by the opening of another well at more than three thousand yards1 or nearly two miles distant40 ,,pollution ,,of ,,well ,,water4 ,it is stated that about fifteen millions of the ,british population live in towns and urban districts4 ,even if we assume1 which is not yet the case1 that all these people are supplied by water-works1 the remaining twelve millions of county population derive their water almost exclusively from shallow wells1 and these are1 so far as our experience extends1 almost always horribly polluted by sewage and by animal matter of the most disgusting origin4 ,as the contents of the water-hole or well are pumped out1 they are immediately replenished from the surrounding disgusting mixture1 and it is not therefore very surprising to be assured that such wells do not become dry even in summer4 ,unfortunately1 excrementitious liquids1 especially after they have soaked through a few feet of porous soil1 do not impair the palatability of water2 and this polluted liquid is consumed from year to year without a suspicion of its character4 ,our acquaintance with a very large portion of this class of potable waters1 has been in consequence of the occurrence of severe outbreaks of typhoid fever amongst consumers of this character of water4 8,the samples of water from deep unpolluted wells were obtained from wells or bore-holes of a depth rarely less than #ajj feet1 and reaching in one case #a1bhe feet4 ,in many cases these wells were partly or wholly supplied by surface-polluted water4 ,such water1 when it penetrates only to shallow wells still retains a considerable proportion of its polluting organic matter in an unoxidized condition3 but when it descends through one hundred feet or upwards of porous soil or rock1 the exhausted filtration to which it has been subjected in passing downwards through so great a thickness of material1 and the rapid oxidation of the dissolved organic matters in a porous and aerated medium1 afford a considerable guarantee that all noxious constituents have been removed40--7,rivers ,pollution ,commission1 #ahgd47 8,deep wells may become polluted1 either by admission of soakage from the superficial strata into the shaft of the well1 or by access of polluted water through open fissures in the rock in which the well is sunk40--7,rivers ,pollution ,commission1 #ahgd47 8,even where wells are sunk to great distance 7one was sunk at ,bondy1 near ,paris1 to a depth of #bdg feet71 the surrounding soil is not free from danger of pollution by the soaking of the foul liquid into the side of the well40--7,fifth report ,massachusetts ,state ,board of ,health47 ,the following table shows the average analysis of ten worst examples of well water 7parts in #ajj1jjj parts73 ,,av4 ,,carbon ,,nitrogen ,,depth4 ,,organic4 ,,organic4 ,,chlorine4 ,,hardness4 ,shallow wells1 -- #a4efj 4#bda #af4ef #fc4bd ,deep wells polluted1 -- 4#cfc 4#jib #i4de #cf4bg ,deep wells unpolluted1 #chj 4#aea 4#jcb #ad4ad #bg4d ,,artesian ,,wells4 ,artesian is the name applied to water-springs rising above the surface of the ground by natural hydrostatic pressure1 or boring a small hole down through a series of strata to a water-bearing bed inclosed between two layers4 ,it was first practiced in #aajj1 in province of ,artois1 ,france1 whence it derives its name4 8,the second and tertiary geological formations1 such as those underneath ,london and ,paris1 often present the appearance of immense basins2 the boundary or rim of the basin having been formed by an upheaval of the subjacent strata4 ,in these formations it often happens that a porous stratum1 consisting of sand1 sandstone1 chalk1 and other calcareous matter1 is included between two impermeable layers of clay1 so as to form a flat1 porous #8,u' tube1 continuous from side to side of the valley1 the outcrop on the surrounding hills forming the mouth of the tube4 ,the rain filtering down the porous layer to the bottom of the basin1 forms there a subterranean pore1 which1 with the liquid or semi-liquid column pressing upon it1 constitutes a sort of huge natural hydrostatic bellows2 sometimes the pressure on the superincumbent crust is so great as to cause an upheaval or disturbance of the valley1 and there can be little doubt that many earthquakes that are manifestly not of volcanic origin1 are due to this simple cause40--7,ninth edition ,encyclopedia ,britannica47 8,an overflow results only when the surface that supplies the water-bearing stratum is at an elevation superior to the surface of the ground where the well is located1 and the water-bearing stratum is confined between impervious strata4 ,in such cases the hydrostatic pressure from the higher source forces the water up to the mouth of the bore40--7,fanning ,water ,supply47 8,in the tertiary formations the porous layers are not so thick as in the secondary1 and1 consequently1 the occurrence of underground lakes is not on so grand a scale2 but there being more frequent attenuation of these sandy beds1 we find a greater number of them1 and often a series of natural fountains may be obtained in the same valley preceding from water-bearing strata at different depths1 and rising to different heights4 8,it does not follow that all the essentials for an ,artesian well are present1 though two impermeable strata1 with a porous one between1 may crop out around a basin4 ,there must be1 in the first place1 continuity of the permeable bed for the uninterrupted passage of the water1 and there must be1 on the other hand1 no flaw or breach in either of the confining layers by which the water might escape4 ,to one or the other of the causes is due the failure of many attempts to find ,artesian wells1 where1 from appearances1 they might be expected4 ,it has occasionally happened that on deepening the bore1 with the hope of increasing the flow of water1 it has ceased altogether1 doubtless from the lower confining layer being pierced1 and the water allowed to escape by another outlet4 8,the subterranean bore is frequently of small extent1 and of the nature of a channel rather than of a broad sheet of water2 and the existence of one spring is no guarantee that another will be found by merely boring to the same depth in the neighborhood4 8,the preliminary theoretical determination of the existence of these ,artesian conditions is in itself a difficult matter1 and can be arrived at only by a thorough acquaintance with the geological disposition of the district40--7,ninth edition ,encyclopedia ,britannica47 8,the question of a supply of water from deep wells1 made by boring1 and commonly called artesian1 has been somewhat discussed in ,philadelphia1 but there is no probability that an adequate supply1 for the general use of the city could be obtained in that manner2 and the quality of the water obtained from such wells varies very much in different localities1 depending upon the nature of the strata from which the water is procured1 and this ,commission can not recommend any dependence upon such plans for the general city supply1 attended1 as they are1 with great expense and extreme uncertainty1 and being1 in every case1 more or less experimental40--7,philadelphia ,water ,supply ,commission of ,engineers1 #ahge47 ,the flowing water of the ,kissingen spring1 ,bavaria1 is produced by carbonic acid gas4 ,,temperature ,,of ,,wells4 ,invariably the temperature of water from great depths is higher than at the surface1 this being due to some unknown source of heat in the interior of the globe4 ,in ,scotland1 the rate of increase of temperature1 after permanent degree has been attained1 is about one degree ,fahrenheit for every forty-eight feet of descent4 ,at ,grenelle1 the temperature was found to be #a4h degrees for every #ajf feet of descent below the point of constant temperature4 ,the average rate of increase of temperature is one degree for a descent of from forty to fifty feet4 ,the temperature of the boring at ,columbus increased1 below the permanent line1 one degree in every seventy-one feet4 ,,examples ,,of ,,artesian ,,wells4 ,the famous well at ,grenelle1 ,france1 was commenced1 by the government1 in #ahcd1 and after repeated failures and discouragements almost to abandonment1 notwithstanding the urgent representations of the scientist ,arago1 that water would be found1 the end was accomplished at the depth of #a1gih feet1 in the year #ahdc4 ,the diameter of the bore is #c inches2 capacity1 #fjj gallons per minute2 temperature of water1 #hb degrees2 height of flow1 #abh feet4 ,the expense attending this boring was #cjj1jjj francs4 ,the ,passy well1 near ,paris1 supplied from the same water-bearing stratum of the ,grenelle1 is #a1ibc feet deep2 #b #d inches bore at bottom2 capacity1 #e1ehb1jjj gallons per day2 height of flow1 #ed feet4 ,the ,la ,chapelle well was started in #ahff1 with a gigantic bore of five feet seven inches1 and by ,november1 #ahfi1 had reached a depth of #a1haa feet1 the intention of the engineer being to extend it to a depth of #b1iej feet4 ,at the part of ,paris named ,butte-aux-,caelles1 a well was started1 in #ahff1 of six and a half feet diameter1 to be carried down to a depth of #b1fjj to #b1ijj feet4 ,the ,kent ,water-,works1 of ,london1 is supplied by wells in the chalk formation1 yielding #i1jjj1jjj gallons daily4 ,this great flow is due to what is known as a fault in the ,london basin strata4 ,st4 ,louis has a well #c1adg feet deep4 ,louisville has a three-inch well1 #b1jhf feet deep1 with a capacity same as the ,grenelle well4 ,there have been nine artesian wells successfully bored in ,cincinnati1 a description of which will be found on page #ajg4 ,charleston1 ,south ,carolina1 has an artesian well #a1igj feet deep1 from which pure soft water1 of #ij temperature1 flows ninety feet above the surface4 ,it has five inch tubing on top and two and three-fourths inch diameter at bottom4 ,the cost was #b1ejj4jj1 and the time required in sinking was a little more than a year4 ,there is also an artesian well1 in the same city1 #a1bej feet deep1 which discharges #be1jjj gallons a day1 of water1 at a temperature of eighty-eight degrees1 strongly impregnated with sodium and magnesium4 ,the desert of ,sahara has a number of well borings1 some yielding as high as #a1ejj1jjj gallons daily4 ,the depth varies from #acj to #djj feet1 and temperature #gj to #gg degrees4 ,the ,ohio ,state authorities undertook to supply the capital by an artesian well4 ,after two failures1 in attempting to tube out the quicksand1 they succeeded 7in ,november1 #aheg7 in piercing through the rock1 and at a depth of #adi feet a vein of water was struck that continued to wash away the borings for nearly #ajj feet below4 ,on the #ast of ,october1 #ahgj1 a depth of #b1gge feet was reached1 but no flowing water obtained1 when the undertaking was abandoned for want of an appropriation4 ,the record of the boring is tabulated as follows3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,system4 ,,group4 ,,strata4 ,,thickness4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,feet4 #a ,drift4 ,alluvial ,clay1 sand1 and gravel4 #abc drift4 ,base of #b ,devonian4 ,hamilton4 ,dark bituminous shale4 #ae ,helderberg4 ,dark and gray limestone with bands of chert4 ,niagara4 ,sandy above1 darker and #fbf #c ,upper argillaceous below4 #d ,silurian4 ,clinton4 ,red1 brown1 and gray shales #afb and marls4 ,hudson #e ,lower ,trenton4 ,greenish calcareous shale4 #ajeh #f ,silurian4 ,calciferous4 ,light drab sandy magnesian #dge #g limestones4 ,potsdam4 ,white sand-rock1 calcareous4 #caf ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,temperature of well at bottom1 #hh degrees1 being uniform for #ij feet1 at #ec degrees1 will make an increase of one degree for every additional #ga feet4 ,it was the opinion of ,prof4 ,newberry1 that1 if water was successfully struck1 it would be of a saline character4 ,dubuque1 ,iowa1 is supplied by a spring accidentally struck while tunneling in a neighboring drift4 ,at the upper basin of the ,thames ,river there are seven springs1 whose capacity is estimated at #cb1jjj1jjj gallons daily4 ,liverpool1 ,england1 has four wells1 with a combined capacity of #f1jjj1jjj gallons daily4 ,birmingham1 ,england1 has four wells1 from which the water company derives #h1jjj1jjj gallons daily4 ,washington has over #djj wells1 and ,cincinnati about #cjj1 nine of which are artesian1 that were bored by private enterprise4 ,the deepest well in the world is near ,berlin--#daid feet deep without piercing the salt formation4 ,,well ,,boring4 ,the art of boring into the earth was practiced by the ,chinese #b1jjj years ago1 the feature of their system being the percussive action of a tool suspended by a flexible rope4 ,the system now practiced in ,great ,britain1 and on the ,continent1 is that in which the tools are attached to rods1 consisting of a number of lengths1 from ten to thirty feet long1 joined by a separate collar1 with a combined vertical and definite rotary motion1 produced by a swivel joint in the upper length1 or by suspending the rod to a 8dog40 ,an ordinary well is first sunk to such a depth that the water below will rise1 through the boring1 into it4 ,the object is to partly facilitate the object of boring1 but chiefly to enable the pumps to be fixed without too great a length of suction4 ,in deep wells1 windlasses1 driven by steam power1 are used for operating the tool2 the size of rod being1 usually1 #a inch square2 but for an eight foot boring1 a #d inch square rod was used4 ,to reduce the jarring and vibration1 where borings are of considerable depth1 the rods are hollow1 in order to give same rigidity and resistance to torsion with less weight1 and made buoyant1 when working in water1 by filling the rod with cork or light wood4 ,a sliding joint1 known as the 8,ouyenhausen joint10 is frequently used to bring the jarring only on that portion of the boring rod below4 ,a shell pump is employed1 in combination with the boring tool1 for gathering the detritus1 which obviates frequent raising of rod4 ,free-falling tools1 guided by sliding joint1 with catch or pall to raise same1 are largely used4 ,the weight of tool depends upon the depth and character of boring1 that of the ,la ,chapelle well being four tons4 ,in the oil-well boring of ,pennsylvania1 the rope 7with about #ej feet of iron bar1 sliding jaws1 sinking bar1 flat drill and sand pump attached7 are exclusively preferred4 ,,practical ,,examples ,,of ,,wells ,,as ,,sources ,,of ,,supply ,,only4 ,where the surface soil and underlying drift possess sufficient porous qualities for absorption of a large portion of the rain-fall1 together with the natural benefits of the impervious stratum beneath1 having a proper axis of inclination favorable for conducting the infiltration of adjoining water-sheds1 a large supply of water may be secured by the construction of dug wells for intercepting the subterraneous water4 ,fanning has computed the following available quantities1 under favorable circumstances1 for percolation1 from one square mile of porous gathering area 7the mean annual rain being assumed at forty inches depth74 ,,ratio ,,of #a-ab ,,of ,,volume ,,of ,,percolation ,,no4 ,,of ,,persons ,,it ,,month4 ,,mean ,,annual ,,rain4 ,,in ,,dry ,,years4 ,,would ,,supply ,,at ,,five ,,inches4 ,,cubic ,,feet4 ,,cubic ,,feet ,,daily4 ,january1 4#gcg #a1gab1aih #aa1bfd ,february1 4#gif #a1dgi1hgh #i1gcf ,march1 #a4jgj #b1bcg1bdb #ad1gai ,april1 4#had #eff1hfa #c1gbi ,may1 #a4dfb #chg1igd #b1eeb ,june1 4#ifd #hh1bhb #eha ,july1 #a4jgg #ea1aaj #ccf ,august1 #a4bea #cj1bjb #aii ,september1 #a4jae #df1dfd #cje ,october1 #a4jgf #ihi1igf #f1egb ,november1 4#icg #b1agf1hch #ad1cba ,december1 4#hja #b1fjd1cjg #ag1acc ,the city of ,brooklyn gathers its supply by intercepting ponds4 ,the source is the southern slope of ,long ,island1 with a drainage area of #fj4be square miles4 ,the plain is composed of fine sand1 which is saturated with excellent water1 the surface of which rises twelve feet per mile from the tide level at the shore1 and which appears at the surface of the ground in springs and streams1 where depressions occur in the ground level4 ,the minimum observed flow occurred in #ahhj1 and was equal to #i4d inches on the water-shed4 ,the available supply is1 at times1 quite small4 ,the city of ,lynn uses a driven well partly1 of which they say1 in their annual report for #ahhj3 8,the doubtful character of any underground supply of water1 especially when it is drawn from beneath a territory occupied by a densely settled community1 makes frequent examination of its quality a duty not to be disregarded4 ,we invite attention1 however1 to the fact that the chemical examination of the well water has shown an increasing quantity of foreign matter mingling with it as pumping proceeded1 and that this increase suggests an inflow of water to the wells from some other source than that from which it was at first drawn40 ,this method of securing water1 however1 is largely resorted to in the origin of water-works for small cities4 ,the ,sanitary ,engineer 7,vol4 v1 ,no4 #e7 refers to a proposed well for ,lincoln1 ,nebraska1 a town of #ae1jjj inhabitants1 that the contractor proposed to dig for the sum of #aj1jjj4 ,the estimated capacity will be ten million gallons a day1 and the editor of the paper observes3 8,if a large well is sunk in a very saturated and porous soil1 it will probably furnish the amount required for the city 7one million gallons7 at first1 possibly a great deal more4 ,but in five years' time it is not hazardous to predict that such a well will not yield enough water for ,lincoln4 ,as for furnishing ten million gallons a day for any length of time1 there is no well in the world1 which we know of1 of such a capacity1 and all experience is against the probability of such an one being discovered40 ,,gravitation is that system of supply where the rain-water drainage of elevated water-sheds is gathered in natural or artificial storage basins1 and conveyed through conduits by gravitation to the point of supply4 ,the important points entering into the consideration of this method are3 #a4 ,character of water2 present and future contamination4 #b4 ,water-shed2 present and future requirements for quantity and availability1 with proper knowledge of the geology of the surrounding country4 #c4 ,rain-fall1 absorption and evaporation4 #d4 ,elevation and distance of source4 #e4 ,route of conduit4 #f4 ,cost of construction4 ,the practical objections to the system are3 #a4 ,contamination of source by surface drainage of cultivated lands2 pollution of feeding streams1 or growth of vegetation4 #b4 ,necessity for large impounding reservoirs for storage of water during rainy seasons1 requiring immense puddled walls1 whose stability is questioned4 #c4 ,the uncertainty of dependence on the requisite rain-fall1 and liability of short supply1 or a possibility of water-famine4 #d4 ,the large expenditure at the outstart for construction of supply that must be ample for future demands4 ,surface waters from calcareous cultivated lands are polluted with but a moderate amount of organic matter2 but1 as some of this matter is almost always of animal origin1 they are always undesirable1 and may at any time become dangerous for domestic use4 ,if necessity compels their use1 great care ought to be taken to secure their efficient filtration before they are delivered to consumers4 ,this affords some1 though by no means complete1 protection from the propagation of zymotic disease through the agency of such waters4 ,they are generally very hard1 and1 unless artificially softened1 occasion a great waste of soap when used for washing4 ,of all the waters of this description1 those which flow from the surface1 or from the drains of sewage farms1 are generally most impure1 because the time during which the foul sewage is exposed to the purifying action of plant and soil is reduced to a minimum4 ,surface water from non-calcareous soil is generally soft but usually turbid and subject to animal contamination4 ,such water should always be carefully filtered4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,land ,,drainage ,,water ,,from ,,sewage ,,farms 7,,parts ,,by ,,weight ,,of #ajj1jjj ,,parts74 ,,previous ,,total ,,organic,,organic,,chlorine4 ,,sewage ,,hardness4 ,,impuri-,,carbon4 ,,nitro- ,,or ,,animal ,,ties4 ,,gen4 ,,contamin- ,,ation4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,worst ,condition4 #id4 #b4afj 4#bgd #ac4aj #aj4jij #ce4eh ,best 8 #bd4fj 4#ajh 4#jee #d4je #ag4ibj #i4bj ,average 8 #fd4jb 4#ihb 4#aia #f4cf #aj4ddc #cc4ji ,much depends upon the knowledge of the climatic influences and rain-fall1 extended1 as it should be1 through years of observation in determining the available quantity of water4 ,engineers1 however1 are liable to be too sanguine of the resources from water-sheds1 by assuming1 as a general rule1 the average1 rather than the minimum1 rain-fall4 ,in #ahfh nearly all the cities and towns of ,england1 supplied by gravitation1 suffered a water-famine1 because of the overestimate of the available rain-fall1 and in an insufficient provision of storage for an unusually long drought4 ,although the rain-fall for the year was above the average1 yet it was unequally distributed4 ,the authorities of ,manchester were obliged to publish official notices cautioning the inhabitants against waste1 and1 on the #c;d of ,august1 limited the supply to the city to twelve hours of the day1 stopped the street watering1 and diminished the trade supplies by one-half4 ,in the middle of ,september the general supply of the town was further limited to eight hours per day4 ,many persons were prosecuted for waste or undue use of water4 ,liverpool1 ,sheffield1 ,bristol1 and several other large cities were obliged to resort to like severe methods enforced at ,manchester4 ,new ,york has been using every gallon that the aqueduct is capable of supplying2 and1 during the drought of last summer1 when the head of water at ,croton ,lake was diminished1 the capacity of the aqueduct was so reduced that the flow of water to the city was reduced1 and a water-famine averted only by a ,providential rain-fall4 ,the rule observed among engineers1 in ,great ,britain1 in determining the calculated rain-fall1 is the deduction of one-sixth from the average rain-fall of twenty years for an average annual rain-fall of the three driest consecutive years in that period4 ,but1 as ,mr4 ,homersham1 ,c4 ,e41 observes1 the axiom in mechanics1 that the strength of a beam is the strength only of its weakest parts1 applies also to gravitation water-works1 their real strength or power of supply being only the minimum quantity they may be reduced to4 ,allowance for absorption depends upon the geological formation and stratification1 and for evaporation1 upon local influences4 ,the following is taken from ,hughes' ,water-,works3 8,a flat1 low-lying country is seldom well adapted for the impounding of water by embanking across the valleys4 ,in such a district1 long and shallow embankments would be required1 and these would cause the water to spread out over a great area with a very shallow depth4 ,under these circumstances1 the water is apt to vegetate and become highly impure4 ,again1 in low-lying districts of flat countries the rain-fall is seldom nearly so great as in upland districts1 so that much larger drainage areas must be sought40 ,in addition to the general configuration of the valleys1 which ought to be deep and with precipitous sides1 flanked by lofty hills1 there are several other points which require attentive examination in projects for collecting water from drainage areas3 #a4 ,the area of water-shed4 #b4 ,the geological character of the soil as affecting its capacity to absorb rain1 and to allow the infiltration of water through it4 #c4 ,the character of the surface soil as affording soluble ingredients which may be taken up by the water and serve to contaminate its quality4 ,in this point of view1 districts of decomposing peat1 districts of arable agricultural land richly manured1 and places thickly covered with population1 are often highly objectionable4 #d4 ,the rain-fall of the district1 and especially the minimum fall in any one year4 #e4 ,the nature of the surface-soil as affording facilities for procuring puddle and constructing retentive reservoirs4 #f4 ,the consideration of compensation to mill-owners and possibly to land-owners where the water is used for irrigation4 ,the geological structure is extremely important in estimating the capacity of a drainage area4 ,it is not alone the rain which falls on the sloping surface of the hills1 and finds its way by gravitation to the lower levels2 but the effect of springs is also very great in augmenting the quantity of water4 ,many drainage areas are also valleys of elevation1 in which the strata dip in opposite or anticlinal directions on opposite sides of the valley4 ,in this case it is evident that much of the rain falling on a porous surface will insinuate itself between the partings of the strata1 and flow off in a direction contrary to that of the surface drainage4 ,from ,mr4 ,beardmore's work we take the following1 as the proportion or percentage of rain-fall which flows off the surface3 8,from twenty examples we have #hi as the largest per centage1 the lowest #bi per cent41 and the average #fd per cent4 8,the ,eaton ,brook water-shed1 in ,madison ,county1 ,new ,york1 of #f1hjj acres1 with steep slope and compact soil1 underlaid by hard greywacke rock1 elevated #a1cej feet above the sea1 availed #ff per cent4 of the rain-fall as surface flow4 8,a similar water-shed1 ,madison ,brook1 gave #ej per cent4 ,experiments by ,wm4 ,mc,alpine1 for ,albany water-works1 shows that from a water-shed of #b1fjj acres1 #da per cent4 of the rain-fall was carried off by the streams from ,may till ,october1 inclusive1 while from ,november till ,april1 #gg4f per cent4 was so carried off40 ,in ,england the allowance for absorption and evaporation ranges from nine to nineteen inches per annum4 ,in this country it is from #ge to #ajj per cent4 greater4 ,we produce from 8,fanning's ,water ,supply0 the following table of experiments on evaporation from surfaces of shallow tanks3 ,cambridge--,length of trial1 one year2 evaporation in inches1 #ef4jj ,salem 8 8 8 8 #ef4jj ,syracuse 8 8 8 8 #ej4bj ,ogdensburgh 8 8 8 8 #di4cg ,dorset1 ,england 8 three years 8 8 #be4ib ,oxford 8 8 five 8 8 8 #ca4jd ,bombay 8 five 8 8 8 #hb4bh ,croton average1 six1 8 mean evap4 equal #ha #ci4ba per cent4 of rain-fall4 ,lea ,bridge1 ,london 8 seven 8 average rain-fall #bg4g annual evap4 min4 #ab4jfg 8 8 max4 #be4ada ,the following from the same author of the minimum flow of streams in cubic feet per second1 per each square mile of water-shed3 ,from #a square mile 4#jhc ,from #aj square miles 4#a ,from #be square miles 4#aa ,from #ej square miles 4#ad ,from #ajj square miles 4#ah ,from #bej square miles 4#be ,from #ejj square miles 4#dj ,from #a1jjj square miles 4#ce ,from #a1ejj square miles 4#ch ,from #b1jjj square miles 4#da ,from the different surfaces1 its ratio of the annual rain1 including floods and flow of springs1 is approximately as follows3 ,,per ,,cent4 ,from mountain slopes or steep rocky hills1 #hj to #ij ,from wooded swamp lands1 #fj to #hj ,from undulating pasture and woodland1 #ej to #gj ,from flat cultivated land and prairie1 #de to #fj ,,monthly ,,evaporation ,,from ,,reservoir4 7,from ,fanning47 ---------------------------------------- --- ,,jan4,,feb4,,mar4,,apr4,,may4,,june4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,mean ratio--inches4#cj 4#ce 4#ej 4#hj #a4dea4gj ---------------------------------------- ---- ,,july4,,aug4,,sept4,,oct4,,nov4,,dec4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,mean ratio--inches#a4he #b4jja4de 4#ge 4#ej 4#ce ,,average ,,available ,,rain-,,fall ,,for ,,storage ,,purposes4 7,from ,fanning47 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,jan4,,feb4,,mar4,,april4,,may4,,june4 --------------------------- ,gain by rain--inches #b4jjb4bab4dj #b4ic #c4dgb4hh ,loss by evaporation--in4 4#fj 4#gja4jj #a4fj #b4ijc4dj --------------------------- ,difference--,gain inches #a4dja4eaa4dj #a4cc 4#eg -- ,difference--,loss inches -- -- -- -- -- 4#eb ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,july4,,aug4,,sept4,,oct4,,nov4,,dec4,, total4 -------------------------------- ,gain by rain--inches #b4ii #c4jjb4fg #b4ecb4dhb4bd #cb4 ,loss by evaporation--in4#c4gj #d4jjb4ij #a4eja4jj 4#gj #bd4 -------------------------------- ,difference--,gain inches -- -- -- #a4jca4dha4ed #h4 ,difference--,loss inches 4#ga 4#hj 4#bc -- -- -- -- ,,summary ,,of ,,flow ,,of ,,rain-,,fall ,,in ,,cu4 ,,ft4 ,,per ,,minute ,,per ,,square ,,mile4--7,from ,fanning47 ,,at ,,lake ,,at ,,croton ,,cochituate ,,basin ,,cu4 ,,feet4 ,,cu ,,feet4 ,january1 #ii4ag #ib4dh ,february1 #aej4db #adg4fi ,march1 #agd4gf #agg4jb ,april1 #afi4hj #acb4fc ,may1 #aca4hj #afd4di ,june1 #dd4bg #aae4ab ,july1 #de4bg #dh4cg ,august1 #di4ae #gj4bb ,september1 #db4hd #he4ii ,october1 #fb4de #ha4jh ,november1 #ge4ij #abd4ib ,december1 #gh4id #ajf4bc ,,aqueducts4 ,the plan1 as adopted by ,mr4 ,hawskley at ,liverpool1 and ,mr4 ,bateman at ,glasgow1 of subterranean pipes1 is now universally followed by engineers4 ,and there is no longer any excuse for incurring the outlay which must attend the erection of monumental structures1 such as were necessary in the times of the ancient ,romans4 ,the engineer of ,marseilles ,conduit adopted the 8,pont du ,gard0 plan for conducting the waters of the ,durance1 in preference to iron pipes1 and constructed the splendid folly1 8as ,humber terms it10 of the aqueduct 8,roquefavour40 ,the dimensions are3 ,length1 #a1bhi feet4 ,height1 #bff feet4 #ast tier of #ab arches each #di feet span4 #b;d tier of #ae arches each #eb feet span4 ,upper tier of #ed arches each #af feet span4 ,the cost was #gej1jjj1 while inverted syphon pipes could have been laid for one-third of this sum4 ,the aqueduct for ,glasgow is thirteen miles in tunnels1 #c miles of iron-piping across valleys1 and nine miles of opening cutting and bridges4 ,there are eighty distinct tunnels1 and twenty-five important iron and masonry aqueducts4 ,on the line is the ,drymen bridge on masonry piers1 eighteen feet apart1 with two pipes surrounded by wood lagging1 a forty-eight-inch syphon at ,aberfoyle ,road1 and a lofty bridge at ,ballewan1 seventy feet in height4 ,the ,aberdeen water-works has a thirty-six-inch syphon1 #a1bjj feet in length1 across ,cullen ,burn1 supported by granite piers4 ,the ,croton aqueduct is a masonry channel lined with brick4 ,the bottom is an inverted arch with cord #f4ge feet1 and versed sine #j4ge feet2 side walls are #d feet high1 and battered so that at the top they are #g #d apart1 and surmounted with a semi-circular arch4 ,the interior is #h4fd feet high1 and area #ec4cd square feet4 ,the grade is #j4jba feet per #ajj feet1 total length #ch miles4 ,it crosses the ,manhattan ,valley #b miles in extent1 with two #cf-;inch1 one #dh1 and one #fj-;inch cast-iron pipes1 and over the ,harlem ,river by granite bridge1 known as ,high bridge1 #ajj feet above high water1 composed of seven #ej-;feet and eight #hj-;feet spans4 ,the conduit over the bridge consists of two #cf-;inch cast-iron pipes1 and a wrought pipe #g feet #f inches in diameter1 resting upon saddles1 supported by cast-iron standards placed #ab feet apart between the #cf-;inch pipes4 ,the aqueduct over ,cabin ,john ,creek1 of ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 water supply1 consists of a single arch of masonry #bbj feet span1 is the largest masonry arch in the world4 ,the rise is #eg feet #g inches1 thickness of crown #d feet #b inches1 and at spring #f feet #b inches4 ,water is conveyed in an iron pipe #i feet in diameter1 built in solid masonry4 ,the bridge over ,georgetown ,creek1 on line of ,washington ,conduit1 is #bjj feet span with two cords of iron pipe #d feet in diameter1 #a inches thickness1 used as water conductors4 ,the pipes were first lined with staves of resinous pine #c inches thick to prevent freezing1 but have been taken out4 ,no allowance is made for expansion or contraction4 ,a similar plan is in use at ,philadelphia1 over the valley of ,wissahikon1 consisting of two #bj inch cast-iron flange pipes serving as top members of a series of inverted bow-string trusses4 ,there are four spans1 each #afi feet #i inches4 ,center span #ajj feet above ordinary level of the water4 ,the ,boston aqueduct crosses the ,charles ,river by syphon pipes--two1 #cj inches1 and the other #cf inches in diameter4 ,starting from a pipe chamber on the western side of the valley1 the pipe descends #eb4aa feet below the level of conduit1 and rests on a masonry bridge of three arches4 ,one of the syphons for supplying ,madrid1 ,spain1 crosses a valley #d1efj feet in length1 consisting of four lines of cast-iron pipes three feet in diameter4 ,dublin is supplied through #cj1ccf yards of #cc-;inch and #h1bgb yards of two lines of #bg-;inch cast-iron pipes--#bj1jjj yards laid through private property4 ,the average fall is #bj feet per mile4 ,there are three relief-tanks on line of #cc-;inch pipe4 ,the capacity of this pipe was calculated at sixteen millions per day1 while the actual delivery exceeded twenty millions4 ,toronto is supplied by a #d-;foot wooden pipe1 #g1jjj feet in length1 under pressure4 ,manchester1 ,n4 ,h41 has a wooden penstock1 six feet in diameter1 #fjj feet in length1 that conveys supply to water wheels1 under a head of twelve feet at entrance and thirty-eight feet at outlet4 ,the new conduit for water supply of ,baltimore is a continuous tunnel1 seven miles long1 running from the dam to the receiving reservoir--8,lake ,montebello40 ,in its construction no open cuts were made2 all work being done by drifting4 ,its depth below the surface of ground varies from #fe to #cfj feet4 ,the internal diameter is #ab feet2 the fall is one foot per mile2 capacity #agj millions daily4 ,fifteen shafts were sunk during the constructive work4 ,two miles of the tunnel were through material that required to be arched with brick2 the remaining distance was through very hard rock that did not require arching4 ,the cost of this structure was about two millions of dollars4 ,chicago has two tunnels under ,lake ,michigan1 parallel with each other1 #df feet apart1 extending to a crib1 located in the lake1 two miles from the shore4 ,the first one was started1 in #ahfd1 under adverse criticism1 and successfully completed in #ahfg4 ,the cost1 with the crib1 was #deg1hjj4 ,it is five feet horizontal diameter1 and #e #b vertical diameter1 and made of brick4 ,the second one was built in #ahgb-'gd2 is five feet in diameter1 lined with brick4 ,it extends from the ,north ,side ,works1 a further distance of #bj1jjj feet1 under the city and ,chicago ,river to ,west ,side ,works4 ,the cost of this tunnel1 under the river1 was #dad1jjj1 and under the city #edc1jjj4 ,the nature of the excavation was generally through stiff blue clay with occasionally pockets of quicksand4 ,the ,sudbury conduit1 of ,boston ,water-,works1 is sixteen miles long1 with a grade of #a4jef feet per mile4 ,the top is a semicircle of nine feet diameter1 and the bottom is an arc of #ac4bb feet radius1 struck from a center #e4ec feet above the crown of the arch4 ,the sectional area is #ef4ge square feet4 ,the foundation is of concrete2 the side walls and spandrel backing of rubble stone masonry2 the lining of brick1 four inches thick1 and the arch of brick1 twelve inches thick4 ,the ,charles ,river is crossed by a granite bridge1 #dge feet long and #ge feet high1 with two segmental and five semicircle arches4 ,on the line of the ,vanne conduit there is an aqueduct made entirely of 8beton10 which spans the valleys and quicksands in the great forest of ,fontainebleau1 between ,la ,vanne ,river and ,paris4 ,,conduit ,,data4--7,from ,fanning47 ,,depth ,,of,,hydraulic ,,sine ,,of ,locality4 ,,width ,,height ,,water ,,mean ,,inclination ,,in ,,feet4,,in ,,feet4,,in ,,feet4 ,,radius4 ,,of ,,water ,,surface4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,cochituate1 ,boston #e4 #f4ccc #f4ccc #a4dag 4#jjjjdif ,croton1 ,new ,york #g4dg #h4deh #f4jhc #b4cda 4#jjjba ,washington #i4 #i4 #c4dfe #a4hgc 4#jjjae ,brooklyn #aj4 #h4ffg #e4 #b4ebd 4#jjja ,sudbury1 ,boston #i4 #g4ffg #e4c -- 4#jjjb ,baltimore #i4 #i4 -- -- -- ,loch ,katrine1 ,glasgow #h4 #h4 #f4he #b4ebe 4#jjjaehg ,canal of ,isabel ,,iii1 ,mad4 #g4jeb #i4ahd -- -- -- ,vanne1 ,paris #f4f #f4f #e4 -- 4#jjja ,dhues1 8 #b4c #c4e -- -- 4#jjja ,pont du ,gard1 ,nismes #d4 -- #c4ccc -- 4#jjjd ,pont ,pyla1 ,lyons #a4hcc -- #a4hcc -- 4#jjaff ,metz #c4afg -- #b4afg -- 4#jja ,,velocity ,locality4 ,,per ,,second,,coeffic-,,daily ,,delivery ,,total ,,daily ,,in ,,feet4 ,,ient ,m4,,at ,,given ,,depth1 ,,capacity1 ,u4,s4 ,,gallons4 ,u4,s4 ,,gallons4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,cochituate1 ,boston #a4 4#jjdeb #af1cih1jjj #af1ejj1jjj ,croton1 ,new ,york #b4bah 4#jjfdc #ei1cdj1jjj #ajj1jjj1jjj ,washington #a4hic 4#jjeje #bg1efj1jjj #ajj1jjj1jjj ,brooklyn -- -- -- #gj1jjj1jjj ,sudbury1 ,boston -- -- -- #gj1jjj1jjj ,baltimore -- -- -- #agj1jjj1jjj ,loch ,katrine1 ,glasgow #a4gabf 4#jjhgf #fj1jjj1jjj #fj1jjj1jjj ,canal of ,isabel ,,iii1 ,mad4 -- -- -- #eb1jjj1jjj ,vanne1 ,paris -- -- -- #bc1ejj1jjj ,dhues1 8 -- -- -- #e1ejj1jjj ,pont du ,gard1 ,nismes #b4 -- -- #ad1jjj1jjj ,pont ,pyla1 ,lyons #b4ie -- -- -- ,metz #b4gch -- -- -- ,,dams4 ,the disastrous failures of earth dams has excited suspicion as to the stability of such structures2 but when we consider the immensity of the dams in ,india1 our concern should be only for the care and attention given to their construction4 ,there the material used is well puddled2 then a drove of cattle is turned loose on the fill1 to stamp the earth thoroughly4 ,this method is repeated in layers until the required height is reached4 ,often the ,sepoys do the stamping4 ,the ,veranun reservoir dam is twelve miles in length2 and the amount of earth1 of which it is composed1 will encircle the globe with a belt six feet in thickness4 ,there is a dam on the island of ,ceylon made of huge stone blocks strongly cemented together and covered over with turf1 making a solid barrier of fifteen miles in length1 one hundred feet wide at the base1 sloping at top to forty feet1 and extending across the lower end of a spacious valley4 ,,dimensions ,,or ,,reservoir ,,dams4--7,from ,c4 ,h4 ,beloe47 ,,name ,,of ,,works4 ,,name ,,of ,,maximum ,,depth ,,ratio ,,of ,,reservoir4 ,,of ,,reservoir4 ,,slopes4 ------------------ ,,inner4 ,,outer4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,bolton ,water-,works,heaton4 #ce #c to #a #b to #a 8 8 8 ,wayoh4 #gf 8 #b to #a ,liverpool ,roddlesworth4 #fd 8 #b to #a 8 8 #gh 8 8 8 ,anglezark4 #ce 8 8 ,bradford ,stuben4 #ee 8 8 8 ,chelker4 #cf 8 8 8 ,barden4 #fh 8 8 8 ,doe ,park4 #eb 8 8 8 ,silsden4 #gh 8 8 8 ,gwmwith4 #ff 8 8 ,rhyl ,district ,llanefwydd4 #eb 8 8 ,warrington ,w4 ,w4 -- #ac #a to #a 8 ,,name ,,of ,,works4 ,,puddle ,,walls4 ----------------------------- ,,width ,,width ,,max4 ,,thick- ,,thick- ,,of ,,top,,of ,,dye ,,depth4,,ness ,,at ,,ness ,,at ,,batter4 ,,bank4 ,,wash4 ,,surface4 ,,top4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,bolton ,water-,works #f #h #c #d #a in #ae #ac #f #ab 8 8 8 #gj #bj #f #h #a in #ab #bb #aje ,liverpool #abj -- #f #a in #ab #af #fj 8 -- -- #f #a in #ab #ah -- 8 #ej -- -- -- #cj -- ,bradford #dj #ab #f #a in #ah #ab #ae 8 #cj #ab #f #a in #ab #ab -- 8 #fd #ae #f #a in #ae #ab #bd 8 #gh #ab #f #a in #ah #ab #ae 8 #dj #ab #f #a in #bd #ab #ae 8 #ej #ad #f #a in #ah #ab #dj ,rhyl ,district #aai #i #c #a in #ah #aj #ab ,warrington ,w4 ,w4 -- -- -- -- #c -- ,one of the recent dams of the ,croton supply1 made of concrete1 is thirty-one feet at the base1 eight and one-half feet at top1 six hundred and seventy feet long1 and seventy-eight feet high4 ,the main embankment1 which forms ,lough ,vartry of the ,dublin ,water-,works1 is sixty-six feet high at its deepest part1 and the greatest depth of water1 sixty feet4 ,it is #a1fdj feet long on the top1 and twenty-eight feet wide1 which forms a public road4 ,the base1 at the deepest part1 is #chj feet wide2 the inner slope being #c to #a1 and the outer slope #b to #a1 and the total quantity of earthwork in it is #cbj1jjj cubic yards4 ,the puddle wall in the embankment is six feet wide at the top 7one foot below the top bank71 and eighteen feet wide at the level of the old river bed4 ,it was carried1 for its entire length1 down into solid rock4 ,the dam of ,bradlee basin1 ,boston1 is #b1jjj feet in length1 twenty feet wide on top1 one hundred and fifty feet at the base1 and greatest height thirty-five feet4 ,in the center of the bank is a puddle wall ten feet thick at the base1 and four feet at the top1 founded on the rock4 ,the earth embankment was laid in layers1 well watered and rolled4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,large ,,gravitation ,,works4 ,,distance,,no4 ,,acres ,,capacity ,,height ,,of ,,capacity ,,of ,,of ,,srce ,,of ,,water ,,of ,,storage4,,srce ,,above ,,aqueduct ,,popula- ,,in ,,shed4 ,,in ,,gallons4,,city ,,datum,,in ,,gallons4 ,,tion4 ,,miles4 ,,in ,,feet4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,new ,york #dj #baf1hdd #i billions #afj #ib millions#a1baf1ejj ,boston #af #ajj1jjj -- #acd #hf 8 #dab1jjj ,baltimore #g -- #gfe millions #afe #agj 8 #ccb1aij ,liverpool -- #aj1jjj #d billions -- #ag 8 #fjj1jjj ,manchester #ah #ai1cij #f 8 #gij #ci 8 #gej1jjj ,glasgow#a #be #dg1hjj #ab 8 -- #ej 8 #eej1jjj ,dublin #ba4f #ad1jhj #b 8 #fib #bj 8 #ccj1jjj #a ,gorbals not included4 ,the dam for diverting the waters of ,gunpowder ,falls1 for supply of ,baltimore1 is built of rubble and white marble upon solid rock4 ,thickness at base is sixty-two feet2 depth of foundation below original surface is thirteen feet2 width of the overflow is three hundred feet4 ,the wings extend into the hill on each side two hundred and fifty-six feet4 ,the height from the extreme foundation to the overflow is twenty-nine feet4 ,the filling of the clay and earth on the inside is forty-five feet at the base4 ,liverpool1 ,eng41 designs constructing a masonry dam1 at the source of the new supply in ,wales1 eighty-four feet in height4 ,,pumping ,,system4 ,the divisions of power are3 ,wind ,power4 ,water ,power4 ,steam ,power4 ,and the methods of supply by3 ,reservoir4 ,stand ,pipe4 ,direct or ,holly ,plan4 ,the value of a pumping system recommends itself on the point of economy in construction1 for the outlay is in proportion to the existing necessities1 which can be increased as the demands require4 ,the original water consumers are not1 therefore1 taxed so heavily for future exigencies of gravity works4 ,this idea can be better illustrated by the comparative cost of construction and maintenance of gravitation and pumping works3 ,,baltimore ,,chicago ,,gravitation4 ,,pumping4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,available capacity for daily supply #bjj millions #abj millions ,largest daily consumption in #ahhj -- #gc 8 ,total valuation of works #aj 8 #h4h 8 ,bonded indebtedness #i 8 #c4i 8 ,annual interest #ddj thousands#bhc thousands ,annual current expenses #hg4e 8 #bjf 8 ,annual maintenance1 including interest at #e per cent on total valuation #ehg4e 8 #fdf 8 of works4 ,,boston ,,cincinnati ,,gravitation4 ,,pumping4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,available capacity for daily supply #hf millions #cf millions ,largest daily consumption in #ahhj #bh 8 #ch 8 ,total valuation of works #ah 8 #g 8 ,bonded indebtedness #ab 8 #a4f 8 ,annual interest #fai thousands#ajh thousands ,annual current expenses #baa 8 #bjj 8 ,annual maintenance1 including interest at #e per cent on total valuation #a1aaa 8 #ej 8 of works4 ,the reservoir system is the most preferable of the three methods1 when natural elevation can be secured1 for the pumping service is distinct from the distribution2 and1 where reservoirs of large capacities are obtainable1 a closer margin for reserve pumping power can be adopted1 besides a storage reservoir provides for contingencies that may arise1 and allow cessation of pumping during the turbidity of water source1 caused by sudden freshets4 ,the stand-pipe is adopted where the elevated grounds are not sufficient for reservoir purposes1 to give a desirable water pressure2 or where reservoirs may not be desired1 but to secure the head and provide for a constant and reliable action of the pump that is not obtained by a direct system4 ,the direct system1 commonly called the ,holly ,plan1 does away with reservoir and stand pipe1 and delivers the water directly into the mains under a pressure usually fifty pounds per square inch for domestic use1 which is increased to one hundred pounds when fires occur4 ,in the ,holly ,plan1 a reserve power is used for fire purposes1 besides mechanical device for regulating and controlling the variable pressure4 ,in either the stand pipe or direct system1 a reserve power should be provided equal to the largest daily consumption4 ,from a compilation of general information concerning water-works of the ,united ,states and ,canada1 published by the ,holly ,manufacturing ,company in #ahgh1 we arrange the following3 #ahh cities and towns use steam-power for water supply4 #ajd 8 have gravity works 8 #cb 8 use water-power 8 #aj 8 have gravity and steam works 8 #bg 8 use steam and water-works 8 #b 8 have gravity1 steam1 and water-powers 8 ,of the above number of pumping works-- #aci have reservoir system4 #ih have direct system4 #af have stand-pipe system4 #d have direct and reservoir combined4 #a has the three systems combined4 #a has stand-pipe and direct combined4 ,the expense of pumping water by steam and water-powers1 also the practical yearly duties of various pumping engines1 are given in the tables on pages #fa and #fd1 compiled from annual reports for #ahhj3 ,,practical ,,duties 7,,without ,,deductions7 ,,of ,,pumping ,,engines 7,,yearly ,,average74 7,from ,annual ,reports of #ahhj47 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,non ,,rotative4 ,,rotative4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,,worth- ,,cornish4 ,,holly4 ,,low ,,high ,,ington4 ,,pressure4,,pressure4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,louisville1 ,ky4 -- #ddahieae -- -- -- -- #deeddchd -- -- -- -- -- -- #eieejjjj -- ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 -- -- -- #efjjdijj -- -- -- -- #fhcghjjj -- ,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ,toronto1 ,canada #chdggjcj -- -- -- -- #chgbfhij -- -- -- -- ,toledo1 ,o4 #cfciiigc -- -- -- -- ,boston2 high service #eajfcjjj -- -- -- -- ,charleston1 ,mass4 #ebhdedjj -- -- -- -- ,columbus1 ,o4 -- -- #bhgehace -- -- ,chicago1 north side -- -- -- #ebieffhd -- ,chicago1 west side -- -- -- -- -- ,phila41 ,schuylkill -- #bdcdbjjj -- -- -- -- #cecfjjjj -- -- -- #cijjjjjj -- -- -- -- ,phila41 ,belmont #cgijjjjj -- -- -- -- #ddhgjjjj -- -- -- -- ,phila41 ,delaware -- -- -- -- #cijjjjjj ,phila41 ,roxborough #chbhjjjjcfbhjjjj -- -- -- ,phila41 ,frankfort #bgjjjjjj -- -- -- -- ,lawrence1 ,mass4 -- -- -- -- -- ,dayton1 ,o4 -- -- #aejjjjjj -- -- -- -- ,cleveland1 ,o4 #dbcigahecjcfadig -- -- -- #caibefcf -- -- -- ,lynn1 ,mass4 -- -- -- -- -- ,pawtucket1 ,r4 ,i4 -- -- -- -- -- ,lowell1 ,mass4 #eiaabhca -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #ddcjdijg ,cincinnati1 ,o4 -- -- -- #chjadbhc #chieceag -- -- -- -- #dehhfidd ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,compound4 ---------------------- ,,leavitt4,,miscellaneous4,,miscellaneou s4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,louisville1 ,ky4 -- -- #bjbhjejbb -- -- #aiegbecf -- -- -- ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 -- -- -- -- -- -- ,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 -- #gjiiadac -- -- #gjcbgeie -- ,toronto1 ,canada -- -- -- -- -- -- ,toledo1 ,o4 -- -- -- ,boston2 high service -- -- -- ,charleston1 ,mass4 -- -- -- ,columbus1 ,o4 -- -- -- ,chicago1 north side -- -- -- ,chicago1 west side -- #ehhjhdie -- ,phila41 ,schuylkill -- #digbfjjj -- -- #eefccjjj -- -- -- -- ,phila41 ,belmont -- -- -- -- -- -- ,phila41 ,delaware -- -- -- ,phila41 ,roxborough -- -- #bhchjjjjc ,phila41 ,frankfort -- #egafjjjj -- ,lawrence1 ,mass4 #ihehcagf -- -- ,dayton1 ,o4 -- -- -- ,cleveland1 ,o4 -- #bieehgfi -- -- -- -- ,lynn1 ,mass4 #ibhdcejf -- -- ,pawtucket1 ,r4 ,i4 -- -- #ifjdfhafd ,lowell1 ,mass4 -- #gfajhjab -- -- -- -- ,cincinnati1 ,o4 -- -- #baffedgde -- -- -- ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,remarks4-- #b ,blake pump2 #c ,knowles2 #d ,corliss2 #e ,low pressure1 direct acting4 ,the term1 duty of a pumping engine1 is a conventional one1 used by engineers to measure the relative merits of performance1 or effective work1 expressed by the ratio of product in foot pounds of the weight water into the height it is lifted1 to one hundred pounds of the coal consumed to lift the water4 ,the following tables of expert trials are taken from 8,manual for ,engineers and ,steam ,users10 by ,john ,w4 ,hill1 ,m4 ,e4 7#ahgh71 with a few additions3 ,,performance ,,of ,,pumping ,,engines4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,location4 ,,date4 ,,engine4 ,,designer4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,united ,mines1 ,sept4,cornish single cylinder1 ,taylor ,cornwall #ahdb jacketed ,carn ,brea1 #ahda ,cornish compound1 jacketed ,james ,sims ,cornwall ,lynn1 ,mass4 ,dec4 ,compound beam and fly-wheel1 ,e4 ,d4 ,leavitt #ahgc jacketed ,lowell1 ,mass4 ,june ,compound beam and fly-wheel1 ,simpson #ahge jacketed ,lawrence1 ,mass4,may ,compound beam and fly-wheel1 ,e4 ,d4 ,leavitt #ahgf jacketed ,trenton1 ,n4 ,j4 ,mar4 ,compound beam and fly-wheel1 ,wm4 ,wright #ahgf jacketed ,milwaukee1 ,wis4,may ,compound beam and fly-wheel1 ,r4 ,w4 ,hamilton #ahge jacketed ,marion1 ,ind4 ,feb4 ,single cylinder yoke and ,dean #ahgg fly-wheel1 condensing ,haarlem ,meer1 ,june ,compound beam annual cylinder ,gibbs ,dean ,holland #ahdh ,chicago ,dec4 ,single cylinder beam and ,d4 ,c4 ,creiger #ahgd fly-wheel1 unjacketed ,chicago ,april,compound beam and fly-wheel1 ,quintard ,works #ahgg unjacketed ,chicago ,april,compound beam and fly-wheel1 ,quintard ,works #ahgg unjacketed ,chicago ,april,compound beam and fly-wheel1 ,quintard ,works #ahgg unjacketed ,cincinnati ,nov4 ,horizontal crank and fly-wheel1 #ahgb two engines coupled1 ,shield non-condensing ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,duty ,,for ,,one ,,location4 ,,hundred ,,capacity4 ,,authority4 ,,pounds ,,coal4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,united ,mines1 #aad1cfa1gjjf -- ,pole4 ,cornwall ,carn ,brea1 #aja1gjb1jjjf -- ,pole4 ,cornwall ,lynn1 ,mass4 #ajc1ibc1bae #d1ich1ebh ,experts' ,contract ,trial4 ,lowell1 ,mass4 #aag1cej1ajjf -- ,evans' ,annual ,report4 ,lawrence1 ,mass4 #if1bja1ijj ,each eng'e ,experts' ,contract ,trial4 #d1igi1bcd ,trenton1 ,n4 ,j4 #hd1ejj1jjj #b1jhf1ebc ,slade4 ,milwaukee1 ,wis4 #gf1iee1ebj ,each eng'e ,expert's ,contract ,trial4 #h1fhc1gbj ,two eng'es ,marion1 ,ind4 #di1bca1bjg ,two eng'e ,cook4 cupled #a1ejj1jjj ,haarlem ,meer1 #hj1jjj1jjjfbjj1jjj1jjj ,appleton's ,dictionary4 ,holland ,two eng'es ,chicago #fe1hbd1eha ,two eng'es ,experts' ,contract ,trial4 cupled #cf1jjj1jjj ,chicago ,west engine #af1afj1dgj ,experts' ,contract ,trial4 #ii1jhb1cjj ,chicago ,east engine #ae1ega1igj ,experts' ,contract ,trial4 #if1jff1hjj ,chicago #ge1jjj1jjj -- ,theron ,skeel4 ,cincinnati #dc1eff1agh #d1gjb1hje ,hermany4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #f ,said to be average duty2 all others obtained by special tests4 ,the capacity is stated in delivery of gallons per day of twenty-four hours4 ,,performance ,,of ,,pumping ,,engines4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,location4 ,,date4 ,,engine4 ,,designer4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,cincinnati ,nov4 ,vertical single cylinder crank ,scowden #ahgb and fly-wheel1 condensing ,cincinnati ,nov4 ,vertical single cylinder crank ,scowden #ahgb and fly-wheel1 condensing ,cincinnati ,nov4 ,vertical direct acting single ,shield #ahgb cylinder1 condensing ,louisville #ahgc ,cornish ,scowden ,newark1 ,n4 ,j4 #ahgj ,compound duplex ,worthington ,cleveland1 ,o4 #ahgc ,cornish ,allaire ,works ,jersey ,city #ahef ,cornish ,w4 ,point ,foundry ,charleston1 ,mass4#ahgb ,duplex ,worthington ,providence #ahgd ,radial cut off ,geo4 ,h4 ,corliss ,providence #ahgd ,compound duplex ,worthington ,new ,bedford1 ,mass#ahfi ,beam and fly-wheel ,mc,alpine ,brooklyn1 ,no4 #a #ahfj ,single cylinder beam ,wright ,cleveland1 ,o4 #ahge ,compound duplex ,henderson ,cincinnati1 ,o4 ,mar4 ,compound direct acting ,warden #ahgi ,columbus1 ,o4 ,feb4 ,crank and fly-wheel1 ,b4 ,holly #ahgf four engines coupled ,pawtucket1 ,r4 ,i4 -- ,compound beam and ,h4 ,corliss fly-wheel1 steam jacket ,geo4 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 #ahgi ,holly1 four cylinders1 ,holly ,co4 with fly-wheel ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,duty ,,for ,,one ,,location4 ,,hundred ,,capacity4 ,,authority4 ,,pounds ,,coal4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,cincinnati #cg1ghi1iij #d1fea1ihg ,hermany4 ,cincinnati #cd1jfd1igg #d1bfc1big ,hermany4 ,cincinnati #bc1ehj1fhg #aa1hdg1dha ,hermany4 ,louisville #cg1ecf1gcjg #c1haf1ege ,journal ,a4 ,s4 ,c4 ,e4 ,newark1 ,n4 ,j4 #gg1aeg1hdj -- ,bailey4 ,cleveland1 ,o4 #da1ggd1ieeg #e1gaa1ihh ,journal ,a4 ,s4 ,c4 ,e4 ,jersey ,city #gb1aae1cif -- ,copeland ,worthen4 ,charleston1 ,mass4 #ef1icg1fdcg -- ,journal ,a4 ,s4 ,c4 ,e4 ,providence #be1hfe1jjj -- ,smith1 ,graff ,reynolds4 ,providence #ec1ebh1baj -- ,smith1 ,graff ,reynolds4 ,new ,bedford1 ,mass #ei1ccf1dig -- ,hoadley ,francis4 ,brooklyn1 ,no4 #a #fj1gih1bjj #ae1dci1fec ,smith1 ,graff ,worthen4 ,cleveland1 ,o4 #ca1ifh1jjfg #h1djj1jjj ,annual ,report4 ,cincinnati1 ,o4 #ec1ieg1ieg #b1jjj1jjj ,hill4 ,columbus1 ,o4 #bd1jde1iea -- -- ,pawtucket1 ,r4 ,i4 #acc1ebb1jij -- ,contract ,trial4 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 #hf1agf1cae #f1ejb1jjj ,park ,benjamin4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- 7,a4 ,s4 ,c4 ,e4 is the ,american ,society of ,civil ,engineers47 #g ,said to be average duty2 all others obtained by special tests4 ,the capacity is stated in delivery of gallons per day of twenty-four hours4 ,,cost ,,of ,,pumping ,,one ,,million ,,gallons ,,of ,,water1 7,from ,annual ,reports1 #ahhj47 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,cost ,,of ,,pumping ,,one ,,million ,,gallons4 ,,millions ,,average ,,cost ,,of --------------------- ,,city4 ,,of ,,gallons ,,lift ,,coal ,,for ,,for ,,for ,,pumped4 ,,in ,,feet4,,per ,,ton4 ,,wages4 ,,coal4 ,,repairs ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 #iidd #ej4 #b4ff #a4eg #b4he 4#ae ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 #iheg #bbe4 #b4ff #c4ag #h4ai 4#ca ,charleston1 ,mass4 #cdcd #aej4h #d4ha #b4jc #e4gc 4#ji ,boston1 ,mass4 #hef #aaf4d #e4jg #d4cb #d4hb -- ,philadelphia1 ,penn4 #acbcb #abd4 #c4cd #b4fd #c4gb 4#da ,philadelphia1 ,penn4 #ghhg #ajj4 #c4cd #a4cc 4#aj 4#ce ,columbus1 ,o4 #iab #age4 #a4cg #h4aj #c4dh 4#af ,chicago1 ,ill4 #abced #ajd4 #d4jj #a4gc #c4cf 4#aj ,chicago1 ,ill4 #hfdh #ih4 #c4fj #b4cb #b4fg -- ,dayton1 ,o4 #chg #abg4 #b4gj #af4fh #h4hh -- ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 #aaaif #afc4 #d4dj #c4jc #e4bg -- ,pawtucket1 ,r4 ,i4 #cbe #bfb4 #d4hf #g4eg #e4ea -- ,toledo1 ,o4 #aaic #afj4 #b4bh #d4cb #d4fc -- ,montreal1 ,can4 #cjie #afe4 -- -- -- -- ,montreal1 ,can4 #deb #afe4 -- #g4bh #h4he #c4jb ,lowell1 ,mass4 #gga #afe4 #d4dj #c4jg #d4be 4#bj #eb #aff4 #d4dj #c4gd #e4ed -- ,cincinnati1 ,o4 #bcbe #aga4 #b4gi #f4ec #e4ch #b4jf ,cincinnati1 ,o4 #diei #bde4 #b4hf #d4jj #g4ff #a4ei ,cincinnati1 ,o4 #efc #bic4 #c4ae #ab4ej #h4di #b4fi ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,cost ,,of ,,pumping ,,one ,,million ,,cost ,,per ,,gallons4 ,,million -------------- ,,one ,,city4 ,,for ,,hundred ,,remarks4 ,,stores4 ,,total4 ,,ft4 ,,high4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 4#ah #d4ge #i4ej ,low service4 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 4#cf #ab4jc #e4cd ,high service4 ,charleston1 ,mass4 4#cj #h4ae #e4dj ,boston1 ,mass4 4#dg #i4fi #h4cj ,high service4 ,philadelphia1 ,penn4 #a4di #h4bg #f4fh ,steam4 ,philadelphia1 ,penn4 4#bj #a4ih #a4ih ,water4 ,columbus1 ,o4 4#da #ab4ae #f4ij ,holly4 ,chicago1 ,ill4 4#di #e4fh #e4db ,north works4 ,chicago1 ,ill4 4#cf #e4ae #e4bd ,west works4 ,dayton1 ,o4 -- #bh4cf #bb4cc ,holly4 ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 -- #aj4hd #f4fe -- ,pawtucket1 ,r4 ,i4 4#ej #ac4eh #e4ag -- ,toledo1 ,o4 -- #i4be #e4gg -- ,montreal1 ,can4 -- #a4ih #a4bj ,water4 ,montreal1 ,can4 #a4je #bj4bj #ab4ec ,steam4 ,lowell1 ,mass4 4#cb #g4hd #d4gc ,morris engine4 4#bj #i4dh #e4fi ,worthington engine4 ,cincinnati1 ,o4 4#dj #ad4cg #h4dj ,low service4 ,cincinnati1 ,o4 4#db #ac4fg #e4eh ,middle service4 ,cincinnati1 ,o4 4#fe #bd4cc #h4cj ,high service4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,stand ,,pipe4 ,new ,york has a stand-pipe1 for high service use1 #agj feet high4 ,cleveland has a stand-pipe #adh feet high1 #cf inches in diameter4 ,the stand-pipe at ,louisville is #dh inches in diameter1 #acb feet high1 made of to -inch wrought-iron plates1 the whole incased in wood4 ,the ,mt4 ,auburn ,high ,service at ,cincinnati is supplied by two wrought-iron tanks 7which answer the same purpose of stand pipes71 each #fj feet in diameter and #ch feet high1 and made of wrought-iron sheets #ej by #adj1 to #g-af in thickness4 ,the water surface is #dhc feet above low water4 ,the cost of each tank was #ae1jjj4 ,the water-tower at ,toledo consists of a wrought-iron stand pipe1 around which is built a masonry structure of solid stonework #cf feet square1 commencing #af feet below the natural surface1 with a vertical thickness1 under base of stand-pipe1 of #g feet2 thence1 with octagonal opening around the pipe1 to a point near #c feet above the surface of the ground1 at which point its inner diameter is #af feet1 and outer dimensions #cj feet square4 ,from this point1 to a further height of four feet1 the wall is composed of ashlar-face and brick backing2 thence to a point #gj feet above the foundation of solid brick-work with octagon interior and exterior squares1 the corners terminating in buttress walls2 the top to be octagonal battering to an external diameter at the top of #ad feet4 ,the total height is #bbd feet1 and the cost about #be1jjj4 ,a steel plate stand-pipe designed by ,j4 ,d4 ,cook1 civil engineer for ,springfield1 ,ohio1 is in course of erection by the ,stacey ,manufacturing ,company of ,cincinnati1 which will be #aab feet high1 #cj feet in diameter1 thickness of lower ring being #be-cb1 and upper ring #c-af4 ,the estimated cost is #ce1jjj4 ,the stand-pipe of ,southwark and ,vauxhall ,water-,works1 ,london1 is #agh feet high1 made of three columns of cast-iron pipe1 the center one extending #ej feet higher than the other columns4 ,the side pipes are #cj inch1 and center #dh inch in diameter4 ,the ,grand ,junction works1 ,london1 has a similar structure of two columns #aec feet high1 incased in a brick structure4 ,the stand-pipe of ,east ,london ,co4 is #bdj feet high and #c feet in diameter4 ,,husband',s ,,patent ,,balance ,,valve4 ,this patent is designed to supersede the costly stand-pipe4 ,fixed vertically1 as near to the engine as practicable1 is a strong casting provided with two short-flanged branches1 the lower one being connected with the discharge outlet from the pumps1 and the upper one with the delivery main4 ,between these branches a gun-metal valve of the double-seat description is placed1 and is connected to an additional water-tight hat working on the top of the valve-seating4 ,the seating is firmly held down by bolts passing through it and fastened to the casing4 ,a ram lined with gun-metal1 and of the same diameter as the upper valve1 is secured water-tight into it by a colter1 and works vertically up and down1 passing through a stuffing-box packed with cup leather1 bolted to the upper portion of the casing4 ,the head of the ram works in a cross-guide lashed with gun-metal1 and supported by four strong vertical pillars4 ,the ram is loaded with weights nearly equal to the minimum load of the engine2 the lowest weight is provided with lugs working loosely over the vertical pillars1 which are provided with adjusting nuts and leather washers1 for the purpose of preventing the valve from falling heavily and injuring its seating4 ,the action of the apparatus is as follows3 ,the water1 on entering the casing from the pumps1 acts upon the under side of the upper valve4 ,the area of the valve is the same as that of the ram1 which1 being loaded somewhat under the working load of the engine1 is immediately lifted1 raising the valve with it1 and thus giving the water free access to the delivery main4 ,in the event of the main being fractured at any point beyond the valve1 the pressure within the main is suddenly reduced on account of the great escape of water1 and is1 consequently1 unable to support the loaded valve1 which immediately closes2 thus the working load of the engine is retained1 and the possibility of accident by racing prevented4 ,,fuel ,,expense ,,for ,,pumping ,,compared ,,on ,,duty ,,bases4--7,fanning47 ,,duty ,,in ,,number ,,million ,,gallons ,,pumped ,,daily1 ,,one ,,hundred ,,feet ,,high4 ,,million ,,coal ,,in ,,furnace ,,at #h ,,per ,,ton4 ,,foot ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,pounds4 #a #b #c #d #f #h #aj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #ajj #a1bgg4hf #b1eef #c1hcd #e1aaa #g1ffg #aj1bbc #ab1ggi #ij #a1dai4he #b1hdj #d1bfj #e1fgi #h1eai #aa1cei #ad1aih #hj #a1eig4cb #c1aie #d1gib #f1chi #i1ehd #ab1ggh #ae1igc #gj #a1hbe4ea #c1fea #e1dgg #g1cjb #aj1iec #ad1fjd #ah1bee #fj #b1abi4gf #d1bfj #f1chi #h1eai #ab1ggi #ag1jch #ba1bih #ej #b1eee4gb #e1aaa #g1ffg #aj1bbc #ae1ccd #bj1ddf #be1eeg #dj #c1aid4fe #f1chd #i1ehd #ab1gfi #ai1afh #be1ecg #ca1idf #cj #d1bei4ec #h1eai #ab1ggi #ag1jch #be1eeg #cd1jgf #db1eie #bj #f1chi4cj #ab1gfh #ai1afh #be1ecg #ci1ccf #ea1agd #fc1hic ,,dimensions ,,and ,,cost ,,of ,,constructing ,,pumping ,,engines4 ,,when ,,max4 ,,cap-,,diameter ,,of ,,city4 ,,built4 ,,kind ,,of ,,tower4 ,,acity ,,in ,,sys4 ,,cyl4 ,,mil4 ,,gal4 ,,in ,,inch4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,chicago #ahgf ,compound condensing beam and #cj #dh ,h4,p4 fly-wheel4 #gf ,l4,p4 8 #aheg ,low-pressure beam and fly-wheel #ac #fj single eng4 8 #aheg ,double engine beam and fly-wheel4 #ah #dd 8 #ahgb ,double engine beam and fly-wheel4 #cf #gj 8 #ahec ,single engine beam and fly-wheel4 #g #dd ,cincinnati #ahej ,single engine fly-wheel4 #d #de 8 #ahfe ,single engine direct acting4 #bj #ajj 8 #ahgd ,double engines fly-wheels #g #bh and beams4 8 #ahfi ,double horizontal engines1 #d #ah fly-wheel4 8 #ahgd ,compound dir't acting4 #b #ad ,h4,p4 #bb ,l4,p4 ,st4 ,louis #ahge ,double1 with beam and one #be #ej ,h4,p4 fly-wheel4 #hj ,l4,p4 ,,diameter ,,city4 ,,stroke ,,and ,,stroke ,,cost4 ,,remarks4 ,,in ,,feet4 ,,of ,,pumps4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,chicago #f ,h4,p4 #ea #aj #edc1ejj with #f boilers4 #aj ,l4,p4 8 #aj #dj #f #ei1jjj 8 #b 8 8 #h #bh #h #aab1ejj 8 #a boiler4 8 #aj #eg #aj #ahh1djj 8 #c boilers4 8 #i #cd #e #bd1ejj 8 #a boiler4 ,cincinnati #h #ah #h #cj1jjj with #fj ft4 iron col4 8 #ab #df #ab #bjj1jjj -- 8 #h #be #h #ii1jjj ,plunger #af 8 8 #e #ac #e #ah1jjj with #a boiler4 8 #b #aj #b #h1fjj -- ,st4 ,louis #g ,h4,p4 #de #h #bhj1jjj ,plunger #cb dia4 #aa ,l4,p4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,historical ,,and ,,statistical4 ,new ,york was supplied by dug wells until #ahdb1 when the ,croton water was brought1 by gravitation1 into the city1 through a brick aqueduct1 thirty-eight miles in length1 crossing the ,harlem ,river by 8,high ,bridge40 ,the area of the water-shed of the ,croton is #cch4hb square miles4 ,the storage capacity nine billion gallons4 ,the capacity of the aqueduct is ninety-two millions of gallons per day4 ,there are three distributing reservoirs3 ,one of #aej million4 ,one of #abjj 8 in ,central ,park4 ,one of #bd 8 ,one of #aj 8 for high service4 ,the population is #a1bjf1ejj2 miles of water-pipe1 #ejj--the largest being seventy-two inches in diameter2 the average daily consumption of water ninety-five millions2 number of taps1 #gg1jjj4 ,all buildings are assessed by frontage-tax besides usual water rates4 ,the meter rate is #g cents per thousand gallons4 ,the original cost of the gravitation works was about nine millions2 present water-works valuation is thirty-two millions4 ,an additional supply from ,bronx ,river is now in course of construction4 ,the water will be conducted through an aqueduct1 of forty-eight inch cast-iron pipe1 twenty miles in length4 ,during last summer a water-famine was prevented by a ,providential rain-fall4 ,philadelphia was supplied with water1 systematically1 in #ahja2 previously1 wells were the only source4 ,the system of supply is pumping by steam and water-power1 thirty-seven per cent4 being done by the water-wheels in #ahhj4 ,the available capacity of water-wheels is #cf1jjj1jjj gallons daily4 ,during summer there is a deficiency of power4 ,capacity of all the pumps #ga4h million gallons4 ,there are #af reservoirs1 with a total capacity of #bjj millions4 ,the distribution of water is divided among the various works in relation to respective elevation4 ,the population1 in #ahhj1 was #hdf1ihd4 ,miles of pipe1 #gdf4 ,daily average consumption1 in #ahhj1 #eg4g millions4 ,largest daily consumption #hj millions4 ,number of meters #cj4 ,total receipts1 in #ahhj1 were nearly #a millions of dollars2 and expenditures nearly #djj1jjj4 ,laying of water-pipes assessed on abutting property4 ,total profits1 since #ahee1 over twelve millions of dollars4 ,the pumping stations and performance for #ahhj are3 ,,stations4 ,,per ,,cent ,,of ,,water ,,lift ,,source ,,of ,,pumped ,,in #ahhj4 ,,in ,,feet4 ,,supply4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,fairmount1 water-power4 #cg4ce #ij ,schuylkill ,river ,schuylkill1 steam-power4 #be4if #abj 8 8 ,belmont1 8 8 #af4gh #bjg 8 8 ,delaware1 8 8 #i4de #acc ,delaware 8 ,roxborough1 8 8 #e4eb #cdf ,schuylkill 8 ,chestnut ,hill1 8 8 4#jb #abe 8 8 ,frankford1 8 8 #d4ej #bjc ,delaware 8 ,,stations4 ,,power4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,fairmount1 water-power4 #g ,turbine water-wheels4 ,schuylkill1 steam-power4 #b ,cornish and #b ,compound ,engines4 ,belmont1 8 8 #e ,worthingtons4 ,delaware1 8 8 #a ,worthington1 #a low1 #a high pressure4 ,roxborough1 8 8 #a ,cornish1 #a ,worth41 and #a ,knowles4 ,chestnut ,hill1 8 8 #a horizontal high pressure4 ,frankford1 8 8 #a compound and #a ,worthington4 ,brooklyn4--,water-works introduced in #ahei4 ,the system is by pumping1 with reservoir distribution4 ,the source is the southern slope of ,long ,island ,sound1 ten to twenty-two miles from ,east ,river4 ,the water is gathered from a drainage area of #fj square miles by intercepting ponds1 and conducted1 through masonry conduit1 to the pump well1 seven miles from ,east ,river4 ,the natural flow1 from these ponds1 into the conduit being insufficient during summer time1 pumping engines were erected1 #ahgd1 at ,watts' and ,smith's ponds to meet the deficiency4 ,the storage reservoir1 built in #ahgc-'gf1 has a water surface of #bej acres1 and a capacity of one billion gallons4 ,there are three low-pressure beam-engines1 with a combined capacity of #dd millions daily4 ,the distributing reservoir is #c1djj feet from pumping wells1 at #afc feet elevation and with a capacity of #afj millions4 ,population1 in #ahhj1 was #eff1fhi4 ,miles of pipe1 #cea4 ,daily average consumption of water1 in #ahhj1 #cj millions4 ,largest daily consumption #dh millions2 number of taps1 #fj1jjj2 meters1 #hei2 original cost of works1 #e1bjj1jjj4 ,chicago4--,the first works were constructed by the ,chicago ,city ,hydraulic ,company in #ahdj1 ,lake ,michigan being the source4 ,the superiority of this water1 as compared with well water1 so manifested itself during the cholera of #ahdi-'ej that the works became a public institution1 under whose control they were enlarged1 in #ahed1 after plans of ,wm4 ,j4 ,mc,alpine1 ,c4 ,e4 ,the system is constant pumping through stand-pipe distribution1 #abj feet above city datum4 ,there are two pumping stations--,north ,side and ,west ,side--the latter being the new works1 erected in #ahgd4 ,the source is ,lake ,michigan4 ,previous to #ahfg the intakes were near the shore2 and1 in order to secure pure water1 a brick tunnel1 five feet wide by five feet two inches in depth1 was built under the lake1 a length of two miles1 to a crib located in the lake4 ,a second tunnel1 #e ft4 in diameter1 parallel to the first1 and forty-six feet apart1 was constructed to the ,north ,side ,works1 thence continuing under the city1 a distance of #bj1jjj feet1 to the ,west ,side ,works4 ,the ,north ,side ,works has four engines1 with a combined capacity of #fd millions2 and the ,west ,side ,works two engines1 with a capacity of #df millions4 ,in #ahef a twenty-four inch wrought main was laid in the ,chicago ,river2 but1 before brought into use1 was injured by pile-driving1 and had to be relaid4 ,in #ahfi all the submerged mains were abandoned1 because of frequent accidents1 and brick tunnels1 six feet in diameter1 were built under the river4 ,the statistics for #ahhj were3 ,population1 #ejc1cjd2 miles of pipe1 #dej2 daily average consumption1 #eg4d million gallons2 number of meters1 #b1jjj4 ,cost of ,west ,side ,works1 with new tunnel1 #a1fjj1jjj4 ,total cost of works1 #h1fdd1jjj4 ,boston4--,in #ahce there were #b1gfg wells in use1 thirty-three of which were artesian1 besides a water-works under the control of 8,the ,aqueduct ,corporation40 ,out of the whole number of wells only seven furnished water soft enough to use for washing4 ,in #ahdj there was great complaint of the deficiency of wells1 and in one case it was stated that a well from which many drew their water1 was kept locked except at certain hours4 ,during this time there were #ef reservoirs1 each holding #cjj to #djj hogsheads4 ,in #ahdh water was first introduced from ,lake ,cochituate1 through a brick conduit 7except the cast-iron syphon over ,charles ,river71 oviform in shape1 large end down1 #f4cc feet high and #e feet wide4 ,its length is #ad4fbg miles1 with a total fall of #d4bf feet4 ,it has a capacity of delivering #af million gallons daily1 with a velocity of one foot per second4 ,the area of water surface1 at full water1 of ,lake ,cochituate is #hjj acres2 when drawn down #aj feet or level of the flow line of conduit1 the area is #dhi acres4 ,elevation is #acd4cf feet1 and bottom of conduit at dam #aba feet above tide level4 ,there are two granite dams #ejj feet apart4 ,the first dam was built on quicksand1 and after filling of the lake1 springs boiled up and washed away the sand4 ,the new supply from ,sudbury ,river was inaugurated in #ahgh4 ,the drainage is #gh4bd square miles4 ,the conduit is #af miles long1 with a grade of #a4jef feet per mile4 ,it is built of concrete and rubble masonry1 lined with brick4 ,it crosses the ,charles ,river by granite bridge #dge feet long and #ge feet high4 ,its sectional area is #ef4ge square feet1 and capacity #gj millions daily4 ,there are two earth embankment reservoirs1 one of #abj millions and the other of #eej millions capacity1 besides four stone masonry structures of #bb millions capacity combined4 ,one of the latter is used for high service1 is #bai feet above tide1 and has a capacity of #g millions4 ,the ,roxbury ,high ,service is supplied by two #bj by #cf pumps1 through a stand-pipe #e feet in diameter and #hj feet high4 ,there is also a couple of temporary high service works4 ,there are several cast-iron syphons of #bj and #bd-;inch pipes1 with ball and socket points1 submerged in the rivers4 ,a crack in one of these #bj-;inch pipes was stopped by pine wedges1 and then covered with an india-rubber band1 secured by iron clamps4 ,the work was done by a diver1 and occupied three weeks4 ,the ,mystic ,water-,works1 of ,charleston1 became a part of the ,boston ,water ,system in #ahgc1 by annexation4 ,the population is #dab1jjj2 miles of pipe1 #ejj2 daily average consumption1 #cf millions2 number of water takers is #fh1ccd4 ,there are #a1cac meters in use4 ,the value of the works to ,december1 #ahhj1 was #ah1ced1gaf4ag4 ,st4 ,louis4--,the first water-works was built at foot of ,bates ,street in #ahcj1 eight years after it became an incorporated city4 ,the old works were entirely abandoned in #ahgb1 when the new works1 built after the design of ,jas4 ,p4 ,kirkwood1 civil engineer1 were put in operation4 ,the new pumping stations is at ,bissell's ,point at the northern city limit4 ,the water is taken from ,mississippi ,river1 through a cast-iron tower 7arranged to take water at any level7 sunk in the river to the bed rock1 and conducted by a #ff-;inch iron pipe to the first or low service pumps1 which raises the water from #ae to #ej feet1 according to the stage of the river1 into settling basins 7four in number1 each #be millions capacity72 from thence it flows through a brick conduit #a1ajj feet long1 to the clear well of the high service or main works4 ,the clear water is pumped through a stand pipe into a reservoir on ,compton ,hill1 #hgj feet by #edj feet1 and #bb feet deep1 and #agf feet above city directrix4 ,the low service works has two ,cornish bull and one rotative engine1 and the main works has three combination beam engines with a combined capacity of #dj millions of gallons daily4 ,the sediment in the water amounts1 at times1 to #a4h per cent4 of the total bulk4 ,nine hundred and forty-four parts in one thousand of the sediment is deposited within twenty-four hours in still water4 ,one of the old reservoirs was abandoned entirely for twelve years1 on account of the accumulation of deposit1 being #cj feet in depth4 ,it was cleaned by hydraulic mining1 after a method designed by ,henry ,flad1 civil engineer4 ,the population by last census is #cej1ebb2 miles of pipe1 #bjj2 daily consumption1 #be millions2 number of taps1 #bj1jjj4 ,the cost of the new works was about five millions of dollars4 ,baltimore4--,in #ahad an association was formed for the purpose of introducing a copious supply of wholesome water into the city from ,jones' ,falls4 ,the works were purchased by the city in #ahed for #a1cej1jjj1 and enlarged in #aheg-'fb4 ,the river water is diverted into ,lake ,roland1 an artificial lake of #aaf acres water surface4 ,from this reservoir it is brought through an elliptical conduit1 #c4fb miles1 and discharged into ,hampden ,reservoir4 ,this reservoir is semicircle in form1 #a1jjj feet diameter1 with a water surface of #h acres4 ,it is #bag feet above tide4 ,from this point the water flows through three lines of #cj-;inch cast-iron pipe1 #g1ajj feet in length1 into ,mt4 ,royal ,reservoir1 which is a circular structure #eej feet in diameter with a water surface of #e acres1 and #aej feet above tide4 ,this reservoir supplies that portion of the city below #aab feet elevation4 ,the ,hampden ,reservoir supplies the districts between #aab feet and #ahh feet above tide1 and the high service reservoir the district between #ahh feet and #cbj feet above tide4 ,in #ahfg the ,druid ,lake was constructed with a view of storing clear water1 to be used when ,lake ,roland was muddy4 ,it is made by building an earthen dam 7across a natural valley in ,druid ,hill ,park71 #aai feet high in the middle with a puddled wall in the center #cf feet wide at the bottom4 ,the greatest depth of water is #fc feet4 ,seven lines of cast-iron pipe were originally laid under the embankment1 but broke within two years4 ,five lines of #cj-;inch pipe were then laid through a cut-in rock4 ,its capacity is #dic1jjj1jjj gallons1 with water surface of #ec acres4 ,the high service reservoir is circular1 #ejj feet diameter1 #bj feet deep1 and #cej feet above tide1 and supplied by two ,worthington pumps4 ,the new supply from ,gunpowder ,river is brought through a #ab-;foot conduit #g miles in length1 having a capacity of #agj million gallons1 to ,montebello ,reservoir1 of #hj acres water surface1 and #afc feet above tide4 ,from here it is conveyed partly in tunnel and in open cut #e1cia feet to ,lake ,clifton1 which has a water surface of #cj acres and elevation #afc feet above tide1 and #ca feet deep4 ,provisions are made for six #dj-;inch mains2 two now being used4 ,the new system cost #d1gjd1bfj4hc1 and was formerly inaugurated in ,october1 #ahha4 ,the statistics for #ahhj are3 population1 #ccb1aij2 miles of pipe1 #bgg2 water takers1 #di1jjj2 meters1 #ebd2 outstanding bonds amounting to #i million dollars4 ,buffalo takes its supply from a pier in ,niagara ,river1 and is conducted through a tunnel #bb feet below the river bottom4 ,the system is pumping and reservoir distribution with ,holly plan for fire purposes and supply of higher levels4 ,at the pumping station there are two ,worthingtons--one of #aj million and the other of #ae million capacity--and a condensing beam engine of #h million capacity4 ,a third ,worthington is now in course of erection4 ,there are three ,holly pumps1 one of #a millions2 one of #b millions2 and one of #f millions capacity1 which take their supply from the face main #bj feet below the reservoir1 and pump directly into the mains4 ,the statistics for #ahhj are3 population1 #aee1acg2 miles of pipe1 #ajb2 daily consumption1 #af million gallons2 water-takers1 #i1jii4 ,the original cost of the works was #djj1jjj4 ,present value #c million dollars1 outstanding bonds #b1iej1jjj4 ,washington is supplied from the ,potomac ,river by diverting the waters at ,great ,falls #ag miles above the city1 by a dam of cut masonry with rip-rap backing4 ,its top is #adh feet above tide level at ,washington4 ,the water is conducted through a brick aqueduct #i feet in diameter1 with a grade of #j4ge feet per mile4 ,the reservoir at ,powder ,mill ,branch 7made by damming the stream71 has a water surface of #ej acres1 with a capacity of #agf million gallons4 ,the expectation that the ,potomac water1 which is frequently very muddy1 would have time to settle in this reservoir before being drawn from its outlet was not realized in consequence of the turbidity of drainage water collected by the reservoir itself2 a connecting conduit was therefore built in #ahfd to supply direct from ,potomac ,river1 during freshets1 in ,powder ,mill ,branch4 ,the high levels of ,georgetown or those more than #ij feet above tide level1 are supplied by pumping and reservoir distribution4 ,the reservoir is a hemispherical brick structure1 #abj feet in diameter1 and #bbj feet above tide4 ,the statistics for #ahhj are3 population1 #adg1cjg2 miles of pipe1 #age2 daily consumption of water1 #bf million gallons2 number of taps1 #ag1jjj4 ,cost of aqueduct and its maintenance to ,june #cj1 #ahhj1 was #c4h million dollars1 and for water mains1 #a4g millions4 ,louisville4--,the ,louisville ,water ,company was chartered in #ahed1 and in #ahef the city subscribed to the capital stock to the amount of #eej1jjj4 ,the supply is taken from the ,ohio ,river1 #a miles above the city limits4 ,the intake is #cjj feet from shore1 #ej feet in diameter1 made of a crib of timber filled in with stone1 the mouth of the inlet being #e by #ab feet1 and set #a foot below lowest stage of water4 ,by #ahfe the inlet pipe was half full of silt2 in order to clean it a well was sunk over the pipe1 #aje feet from its end1 the pipe cut1 and then cleaned out4 ,in #ahgg the pipe was again cleansed4 ,anchor ice has given them much trouble4 ,there are two ,cornish beam engines which deliver the water through a wrought-iron stand pipe1 #dh inches in diameter and #acb feet high1 into a reservoir of earth embankments1 #ada feet above low water1 and #c1fej feet from the works4 ,the water surface of this reservoir is #agh by #cgd feet4 ,the new reservoir on ,crescent ,hill is #age feet above low water1 and #b miles from stand-pipe4 ,it has a capacity of #ajj millions4 ,notwithstanding extraordinary care having been taken in the foundations of this reservoir1 leaks and slips occurred soon after it was filled4 ,the statistics for #ahhj are3 ,population1 #abc1fde2 miles of pipe1 #aaj2 daily consumption of water1 #e million gallons2 number of meters1 #bja2 hydraulic elevators4 #ej2 value of the works--construction1 #hjj1jjj2 enlargements1 #b1djj1jjj2 total1 #c4b million dollars4 ,san ,francisco is supplied by the ,spring ,valley ,water ,company from three sources4 ,one from ,lobos ,creek1 #d miles from the city1 where the water is gathered after slow percolation through sand1 and conducted through #bc1gjj feet of wood and masonry aqueduct to the pumping-works 7at zero datum of city level7 at ,point ,black4 ,these engines raise the water into two reservoirs on ,russian ,hill1 respectively #cif feet and #aci feet above city datum4 ,the ordinary yield of the source is #b millions daily4 ,another source is from the mountains of ,san ,mateo ,county1 #ae miles from ,san ,francisco1 where a dam was built in #ahfd1 #fdj feet long1 #bf feet wide on top1 #ie feet high1 with slopes #b and #b to #a foot4 ,a puddle-trench is sunk #bf feet below the natural surface to the rock4 ,after the reservoir was full1 a leak appeared at one end of the dam caused by an unsound rock4 ,while the reservoir was full a shaft was sunk #hj feet deep to the point1 and the rock removed and replaced with puddle4 ,this reservoir is #df feet deep1 and has a capacity of #a1jhc million gallons1 with a water surface of #fib feet above the sea4 ,the water is conducted #ac miles1 through a flume partly of #cj-;inch wrought-iron pipe1 to ,lagunda ,honda ,reservoir1 #cgg feet above the sea1 with a capacity of #cc million gallons4 ,the third supply is brought from the water-shed of ,lock's ,creek1 #b4ge square miles in area1 and #eje feet above tide4 ,this water is conveyed #ag4db miles to ,st4 ,andres ,reservoir through wrought-iron pipes and tunnels lined with solid masonry4 ,the ,st4 ,andres ,reservoir has a capacity of #g1jjj million gallons1 and is formed by an earth dam #fdj feet long1 #be feet wide on the top1 and #ic feet high1 with a puddle-trench #dg feet more to the rock4 ,the cost of the works to #ahge was #h1gdf1ibh4ab4 ,amount paid on dividends to stockholders #d1gja1efb4ah4 ,the population in #ahhj was #bcc1ief1 and daily consumption of water #ag millions4 ,cleveland4--,the water-works were constructed in #ahec after the plans of ,t4 ,r4 ,scowden1 civil engineer4 ,the system is pumping through stand pipe with reservoir distribution4 ,the source is ,lake ,erie1 where the water is taken through a crib located in lake1 #a miles from shore1 and conducted through tunnel under lake to the pump wells4 ,the pumping stations contains two ,cornish1 a 8,henderson0 compound duplex1 and a #aj million ,worthington4 ,the combined capacity is #bh million gallons4 ,another ,worthington engine is being added to the service4 ,the stand pipe is #adh feet high and #cf inches in diameter4 ,the reservoir is made of earth embankments1 #ba feet deep1 with a capacity of #h million gallons4 ,the population for #ahhj was #afj1adb2 miles of pipe1 #abe2 daily consumption of water1 #aj4ah million gallons4 ,total cost of works to ,january #a1 #ahgh1 was #b1djb1jjj4 ,bonded indebtedness1 #a1gbe1jjj4 ,cost of original works1 #ebc1jjj4 ,portland1 ,maine1 is supplied with water from ,lake ,sebago1 which has storage capacity sufficient to supply the largest city of the world4 ,the total area of water-shed is #ebj square miles4 ,the annual receipt of moisture1 including rain and snow1 is #ea billion cubic feet1 while the discharge is #bj billion cubic feet4 ,the water is conveyed partly through a box conduit1 #c #i by #c #f1 an oval brick conduit #e1ddj feet long1 #b by #c1 to a gate-house1 whence two wrought-iron mains1 lined inside and covered outside with best quality ,rosendale cement1 each #af miles long1 distribute the water to the city4 ,one of the mains is #bj inches in diameter for the whole length1 the other #bf and #bd inches1 and respectively #d and #ab miles long4 ,the water system is owned by the ,portland ,water ,company4 ,cincinnati4--,the permanent system of water supply was commenced in #ahag1 when city council granted to the ,cincinnati ,manufacturing ,company the privilege of supplying the city with water for ninety-nine years at an annual consideration of #ajj--the water to flow three feet above the first floor of ,james ,ferguson's kitchen1 on west side of ,vine1 between ,sixth and ,seventh ,streets1 by #ahbj4 ,the first water was drawn from a wooden penstock at ,sycamore ,street and ,lower ,market1 ,july1 #ahba1 being raised by horse-power from ,ohio ,river at the present site of pumping works1 and forced into a wooden reservoir1 and from thence delivered through wooden pipes to water consumers4 ,the ,cincinnati ,manufacturing ,company transferred its privileges1 in #ahbj1 to ,samuel ,w4 ,davis1 and by him sold to ,cincinnati ,water ,company in #ahbe4 ,the entire works were purchased by the city in #ahci1 for the sum of #cjj1jjj1 and consisted of #ai miles of wooden pipes1 #c miles of iron pipe1 reservoir in three compartments of #a1gjj1jjj gallons capacity1 two high pressure pumping engines with a capacity of #d1bjj1jjj gallons per twenty-four hours4 ,the management of the water department was vested first with a board of directors composed of one councilman from each ward4 ,in #ahdg this power was given1 by act of legislature1 to a board of three trustees elected by the people1 and in #ahgf the ,board of ,public ,works was established1 which assumed entire control of all the public works1 including the water-works4 ,the city is supplied by pumping and reservoir system1 with a main and two auxiliary pumping works1 and four distinct reservoir or distributing services4 ,the main work is located on the bank of the ,ohio ,river1 and takes its supply through two stone aqueducts1 each #ajj feet in length4 ,the western one is extended #fj feet further into the channel of the river by two #dj-;inch wrought-iron pipes4 ,the pumping engines at these works are--three double and three single engines with a combined theoretical capacity of #di millions1 with present available capacity of #cb millions4 ,the oldest reservoir1 built in #ahej-'ec1 is a stone structure1 entirely above the surface ground1 made in two divisions #bc feet in depth2 the eastern part being #afc by #aaf feet1 and western #ahj by #aaf feet4 ,its capacity is #e million gallons4 ,the cost was #ej1jjj2 its elevation1 #agf feet above low-water mark in the ,ohio ,river4 ,the largest reservoir is built in a ravine1 where a masonry structure was erected #a1bea feet long1 #abj feet high1 #dh feet in width at the bottom1 and #be feet on top4 ,there are two compartments formed by a masonry wall #cjg feet in length1 #cj feet at the base1 #aj feet on top1 and #fg feet extreme height4 ,the upper part contains #eg millions1 and the lower #dc million gallons1 at #cj feet depth4 ,the elevation of flow line is #bce feet above low water in the ,ohio ,river4 ,the cost was #a1ffj1jjj4 ,the high service ,no4 #a supplies nearly two millions daily to the hill-tops1 pumping into two iron tanks1 each #fj feet diameter by #ch feet high1 #caj feet above the pumping station level1 through #b1gjj feet of #bj-;inch and #d1eja feet of #af-;inch cast-iron pipe4 ,the cost of this service to #ahha1 with forty miles of pipe1 two pumping engines of six million capacity1 tanks1 etc41 was nearly half a million dollars4 ,no4 #b1 high service1 was started in ,june1 #ahha4 ,about #ae1jjj gallons are pumped daily into an iron tank1 thirty feet in diameter by sixteen feet high1 temporarily erected on wooden supports sixteen feet high4 ,the elevation of flow line of tank is #ced feet above the pump station4 ,number of miles of pipe in use 7#ahhj7 #ahi ,number of valves in use #b1ccd ,number of branches or taps #bc1fbg ,number of meters #ede ,number of hydraulic elevators #cah ,daily average consumption of water for #ahhj #ai1dgf1gci ,population #bfj1jjj ,gallons of water per inhabitant per #bd hours #ge ,largest consumption of water for one day1 #ahhj #bg1iea1cia ,the present value of works is #f1ggh1hdg4ee1 distributed as follows3 ,hunt ,street ,pumping ,works #ahd1dge4ih ,front 8 8 8 #a1fif1cef4cc ,third ,street ,reservoir and property #djj1jjj4jj ,mt4 ,auburn ,tanks #ce1jjj4jj ,water ,mains #b1gjf1hfd4eh ,western ,hill ,supply1 ,no4 #b1 ,high ,service #eh1fjc4fa ,garden of ,eden ,reservoir #a1fgj1bbe4ee ,office ,fixtures #e1jjj4jj ,markley ,farm #bb1cba4ej ,the amount of outstanding water-works bonds is #a1fbe1jjj4jj4 ,the water-fund provides for the interest on the entire fund1 and a sinking fund for #fjj1jjj of bonded indebtedness4 ,the department furnishes free water to the fire department and public buildings to the amount of #dj1jjj per annum4 ,the net water-rent receipts for #ahhj were #dii1heg4cf ,net expenses #ahf1ebg4ij ,net interest #ajb1gfh4jj #bhi1bie4ij ----------- ,net gain 7applied to extension of mains7 #baj1efa4df ,toledo established her water-works in #ahgc-'gd1 after plans of ,j4 ,d4 ,cook1 ,c4 ,e4 ,the water is taken from the ,maumee ,river1 through a hexagonal crib1 made of two rows of piling1 with the space filled with broken stone and coarse gravel1 and conveyed1 through wrought-iron pipe and five foot brick conduit five hundred feet long1 to filter gallery of #ai1jjj square feet4 ,the filtering material is #bd inches of broken stone1 #f inches of #b-;inch gravel1 #f inches of #a-;inch gravel1 #f inches of -inch gravel1 #f inches of -inch gravel1 and #bd inches of fine sand4 ,maximum depth of water is four feet4 ,the filtered water is discharged into a clear-water reservoir by means of gathering drains and an effluent pipe1 and thence to the pump well4 ,there are two ,worthington engines1 each of five million capacity1 pumping against a #bfj-;foot lift1 into a stand-pipe4 ,the cost of the works to ,december #ca1 #ahhj1 including interest1 was #a1ade1dgf4fb2 population1 #ej1adc2 miles of pipe1 #df4hg2 meters1 #dj2 taps1 #a1faf2 daily consumption1 #c1bfb1jjj gallons4 ,london is supplied with water by the following companies3 ,,name ,,of ,,source ,,of ,,average ,,daily,,no4 ,,houses ,,estimated ,,company4 ,,supply4 ,,supply4 ,,supplied4,,population4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,kent ,water ,co4 ,chalk ,wells4 #f1hbh1gjj #dc1ija #bej1jjj ,new ,river ,co4 ,lea ,river and #bg1agi1jjj #abc1dic #ijj1jjj other sources4 ,east ,london ,co4 ,lea ,thames #bd1ged1iai #ajg1hea #hjh1hhb ,rivers4 ,southwark ,thames ,river4 #ai1bfd1bej #hj1adf #ejb1cej ,vauxhall ,co4 ,west ,middlesex ,co4 8 8 #aj1dfh1ach #dg1jci #ccb1gib ,grand ,junction ,co4 8 8 #ab1jag1hcj #c81gji #cba1cha ,lambeth ,water ,co4 8 8 #ac1fga1ijj #eb1ebi #cfg1gjc ,chelsea ,water ,co4 8 8 #h1acd1cjj #bh1cie #baj1jjj ,,name ,,of ,,capacity ,,of ,,filter ,,engine ,,power4 ,,company4 ,,subsiding ,,beds4 --------- ,,reservoirs ---------------------- ,,greatest ,,in ,,mil4 ,,gals4 ,,no4,,area ,,in ,,no4 ,,horse ,,lift ,,acres4 ,,power4 ,,in ,,feet4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,kent ,water ,co4 -- -- -- #af #a1bia #cad ,new ,river ,co4 #afi #ac #aa #bb #a1hjd #bgj ,east ,london ,co4 #fje #be #bc #ah #b1dge #cce ,southwark #ff #i #ad #aa #b1jjj #cfj ,vauxhall ,co4 ,west ,middlesex ,co4 #eg #e #h #ag #a1dfa #aie ,grand ,junction ,co4 #ai #d #g #aa #a1hbj #ahj ,lambeth ,water ,co4 #abe #g #d #ag #a1dfj #chj ,chelsea ,water ,co4 -- #g #f #h #a1jbe #age ,the ,east ,london ,company has its intakes further up the ,thames than the other works1 where pumping engines1 of #gej horse-power1 are capable of delivering ten million gallons daily1 through a stand-pipe #bdj feet high and three feet in diameter1 into its subsiding reservoirs4 ,it also takes its supply partly from the ,lea ,river4 ,the ,west ,middlesex ,company is above ,hampton1 and two miles below the ,east ,london ,company's works4 ,the water is drawn from the river every day1 whatever its state may be2 but1 in times of exceptionally foul water1 the intake is reduced as much as possible4 ,close to the ,west ,middlesex ,company is the ,grand ,junction works4 ,near the latter are the works of the ,southwark ,vauxhall ,company4 ,and at ,thames ,ditton1 two miles further down1 are the ,lambeth and ,chelsea works4 ,the ,kent ,water ,company takes its supply1 exclusively1 from deep wells in the chalk4 ,the ,new ,river ,company takes its supply chiefly from the ,lea ,river4 ,it has supplied a large portion of ,london1 for two hundred and seventy years1 through a conduit originally forty miles in length1 which has been shortened by various cuts4 ,the statistics1 as per monthly report for ,july1 #ahge1 were3 ,population1 #c1gac1ajh2 miles of pipe1 #c1jgd2 daily average consumption from ,thames1 #fd1gia1jjj gallons2 daily average consumption from other sources1 #eg1ebh1jjj gallons4 ,total daily average1 #abb1cai1jjj gallons4 ,the ,capital invested in the supply of water by these eight companies represents a total sum of #ea1ijj1jjj4 ,the largest pumping engines in use1 in #ahge1 were3 ,,steam ,,cylinder4 ,,pump4 ,single-acting beam-engine at ,battersea works4 #aab #aj #ej #aj 8 8 at ,grand ,junction4 #ij #aa #ch #aa 8 8 at ,east ,london4 #ajj #aa #ej #aa 8 8 at ,east ,london4 #he #aj #dc #i ,an act of #ahga provides power to compel the companies to give constant supply when the public authorities may demand it4 ,by the act of #ahgb a ,government ,inspector was appointed1 who examines and reports monthly the condition of the works and the character of the water furnished4 ,as the ,london and ,lea ,rivers have been condemned by the ,rivers ,pollution ,commission1 as well as the shallow surface wells1 of which they say1 are not fit for human consumption1 several schemes have been proposed for new or improved sources4 ,mr4 ,bateman proposed to furnish a daily supply1 equal to #bbj million gallons1 from the mountains of ,north ,wales1 where the annual rain-fall amounts from #gj to #aej inches4 ,the cost was estimated at #ea1jjj1jjj4 ,the plan proposed by ,messrs4 ,hemans and ,hassard is to gather the water from the mountains in ,cumberland1 where a supply equal to #bej million gallons daily can be secured for the sum of #fa1jjj1jjj4 ,the ,rivers ,pollution ,commission were of the opinion1 that an ample supply of wholesome water could be secured from the chalk wells and springs1 within a radius not exceeding fifty miles of ,london4 ,liverpool had in #ahgd1 #dic1dje inhabitants4 ,it is supplied with water partly by gravitation and partly by pumping from deep wells in and near the city4 ,the gravitation-works are situated on the slopes of ,rivington ,pike1 a distance about #cc miles4 ,one-third of the storage water is required for compensation purposes4 ,the area of water-shed is #aj1jjj acres2 that of the impounding reservoirs and filter-beds #edi acres1 with a storage capacity of #c billion gallons4 ,the ordinary work of the six filter-beds is #ad million gallons daily4 ,the materials used for filtration are3 #b feet sharp river sand1 clean gravel of the following depths and sizes3 #f inches -inch diameter1 #f inches -inch diameter1 #f inches -inch diameter1 #f inches #a-;inch diameter1 and #f inches #b-;inch diameter2 #f inches of broken stone #d-;inch diameter1 and #ab inches broken stone #f-;inch diameter4 ,the cost of filtration is #a4cg per million gallons4 ,the water1 after filtration1 flows from the clear water tank through a main1 #dd inches diameter and #ah miles in length1 to the service reservoir at ,prescott1 #ajb feet lower than the clear water tank2 to break the pressure in this length there are two small reservoirs4 ,from ,prescott the line is continued by two pipes1 one #dd inches and the other #cf inches in diameter1 a distance of five miles to the service reservoirs1 which are seven in number1 with a water surface area of #cg acres1 and #aad million gallons capacity4 ,they are partly above ground and covered4 ,the quantity delivered through the conduit1 is #aj million gallons daily4 ,there are four pumping stations located at the respective wells1 with five ,cornish and five ,bolton and ,watts' condensing engines4 ,four pumping stations have been abandoned on account of the pollution in well water4 ,part of the town is supplied directly from mains and partly from cisterns4 ,it is now compulsory for all new property to be provided with cisterns1 and that the overflow-pipe be carried outside the premises instead of being connected to soil-pipe or sewer4 ,a special staff of men is employed to make house-to-house inspection of all water fittings and appliances4 ,the cost of the water-works was about #aj million dollars1 and is inadequate4 ,they are now constructing an artificial lake1 #a mile wide by #e miles long1 for impounding the waters of the ,vyrnwy ,river in ,north ,wales1 #ghj feet above the sea level1 and #fg miles distant from the city4 ,the area of water-shed is #bb1jjj acres4 ,the dam will be a masonry structure1 #abj feet extreme depth1 and #ajj feet wide at base2 storage capacity1 #a1ijj million gallons4 ,the cost is estimated at #ae1jjj1jjj1 and daily capacity #eb million gallons4 ,glasgow4--,the present water system was commenced in #ahef1 and completed in #ahei1 after the designs of ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,bateman1 civil engineer4 ,the supply is taken from ,loch ,katrine1 including ,lochs ,drunkie and ,vennachar1 with a drainage area of #dg1hjj acres1 and a storage capacity of #a1dee million cubic feet4 ,the total length of aqueduct is #be miles1 of which #ac are tunneled1 #c of iron pipe across valleys1 and remaining #i miles of open cuttings and bridges4 ,there are #hj distinct tunnels4 ,the capacity of aqueduct is #ej million gallons per twenty-four hours4 ,the amount required for compensation purposes is fixed at #dj million gallons daily1 to be discharged into the ,river ,teith4 ,the cost of the works was #f million dollars4 ,the water is exceptionally soft1 being less than one degree4 ,manchester4--,the new supply was commenced in #ahdh1 designed by ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,bateman1 civil engineer4 ,the source is in the counties of ,derby and ,chester1 #ggg feet above city datum4 ,there are thirteen storage and distributing reservoirs1 with a water surface of #ige acres1 and capacity of #f1deh million gallons4 ,the greatest depth of reservoirs is #hd feet4 ,the conduit is #ah miles in length4 ,the drainage area is #ai1cjj acres4 ,available daily supply is #cc million gallons1 of which #ac millions are required for mill-owners4 ,the average rain-fall is #ej inches1 and mean available resource of #cc inches4 ,the cost of the works was #d million dollars4 ,the population in #ahgd was #gej1jjj2 daily average consumption #af million gallons1 and #eej miles of pipe4 ,edinburgh derives its supply from springs and brooks flowing from the northern slope of the ,pentland ,mountains4 ,the water is collected in storage reservoirs1 with a capacity of #bhj million cubic feet1 three of which are compensating reservoirs for mill-owners4 ,the conduit is #h miles in length1 and varies from #bj to #ae inches in diameter4 ,the water is distributed directly into mains with an equalizing cistern on the ,castle ,hill1 #bbe feet below the source of supply1 and #ccb feet above tide4 ,the capacity of pipe is #bec cubic feet per minute4 ,there were three filter-beds 7in #ahfh7 a short distance below the reservoir embankment4 ,the sand surface of each is #ij by #ij feet4 ,the superficial area of the three filters1 #bd1cjj square feet2 maximum rate of filtration1 #he ,u4 ,s4 gallons per square foot per diem4 ,the spring water is not filtered4 ,the additional works were completed in #ahfh1 which increased the supply to #iib cubic feet per minute1 or #aj1fhe1ggj ,u4 ,s4 gallons per day4 ,dublin secures its water supply from the ,vartry ,river1 #bd miles distant from city1 and #fib feet above low water at ,dublin4 ,the area of water-shed is #ad1jhd acres2 the storage capacity1 #b1djj million gallons4 ,the water is conveyed through a #cc-;inch cast-iron pipe 7with an average fall of #bj feet to the mile7 to the ,stillogram distributing reservoir4 ,there are three receiving tanks on the line1 with self-acting valves to shut off the water in case of pipe bursting4 ,the distributing reservoirs contain #hf million gallons--are #bcj feet above the average head of the city1 and #d miles distant4 ,two #bg-;inch pipes distribute the water to the city from this point4 ,there were seven filter-beds in #ahge1 each #bae feet and #aae feet at the top and #ahg feet by #hi feet at the bottom1 and #aj feet deep4 ,the filtering material is #f feet deep1 composed of #b feet #d-;inch stone1 #b feet gravel1 and #b feet washed sand4 ,the head on filter-bed was increased from #b to #c feet to secure larger supply4 ,the total cost of this new supply was #c million dollars4 ,the water-rate taxation is #bf;d4 per pound4 ,the population in #ahge was #ccj1jjj2 daily average consumption1 #ad million gallons4 ,all plumber fittings must be inspected and stamped1 for which a fee of two cents is charged4 ,this consumption1 by careful inspection1 was reduced from #ai millions4 ,the largest annual rain-fall from #ahfa to #ahgd was #fi4cd inches2 minimum1 #dj4jh inches4 ,fifteen inches is allowed for evaporation1 leaving #be inches for available supply for the dryest year during this period4 ,berlin4--,the water department is owned by an ,english company1 called the ,berlin ,water ,company1 who have had the exclusive privilege of supplying filtered water as required by the contracts since #ahef4 ,after #ahha the ,government has the option of taking stock1 and should the dividends exceed #aj per cent41 one-half of the surplus is to go to the sewerage fund for the proposed sewers4 ,the water is derived mainly from the ,river ,spree1 through a canal reaching to the middle of the river4 ,the pumping station is one mile outside of the city1 in which are located eight double pumping engines1 each pair having two beams1 two pumps1 and one fly-wheel4 ,the first four engines erected have pump-barrels of unequal diameter and stroke1 being respectively1 #ch and #ba inches diameter and #cb and #cf inches stroke4 ,the large barrel was originally used for the delivery of the river water to the filter-beds under a pressure not exceeding #bj feet2 the small barrel delivered the filtered water into the city under a varying pressure of #ij to #abj feet4 ,as now operated1 the four oldest engines pump the river water into the settling or storage basin before filtration2 while the other four deliver the filtered water directly into the city mains1 but the pressure is regulated by a reservoir and stand-pipe along-side of it4 ,the stand-pipe is double-legged1 connected at four points1 each connection having a valve1 except the highest4 ,the highest connection is #bjj feet above the pump-house1 the lowest about #aae1 with others intermediate4 ,the water of the small reservoir1 when full1 stands at about #aaj feet above the pump well4 ,there were eleven filters in #ahge1 with an area of #djj1jjj square feet4 ,during the summer only eight of the beds are used effectually4 ,they are cleaned in winter every month1 and every week in summer4 ,one-half of the old sand is replaced each time of cleansing with new sand4 ,the average rate of filtration is #ij gallons per square foot1 and maximum rate #abj gallons per square foot per twenty-four hours4 ,the filtering materials consist of #bd inches sharp sand1 #c inches of coarse sand1 three courses1 each #f inches in depth1 of gravel1 of the size of a pea1 hazelnut1 and walnut1 and #i inches of granite pieces4 ,the head of water on filter is #ci inches4 ,frequently the river water is pumped directly into the filter-beds without subsidence4 ,the stream is very sluggish in its velocity1 being held back by locks for the purpose of navigation1 the water does not carry sufficient sediment to render subsidence a necessity4 ,there are1 besides1 certain lakes not far above the works through which the river flows1 that are effective settling basins4 ,they1 however1 communicate to the water a dark vegetable tinge4 ,the statistics for #ahge were3 ,population1 #ifi1jjj2 daily average consumption1 #ab million gallons2 number of meters1 #f1iaf4 ,water-rent receipts1 for #ahge1 were #fjj1jjj or #ac cents per thousand gallons1 and expenses were #cgf1jjj1 or #h cents per thousand gallons4 ,the water rents are assessed upon the valuation of the property1 with extra rates for additional water privileges4 ,new works were erected in #ahge-'gg1 with a daily maximum capacity of #ab million gallons4 ,the source is the 8,tegeler ,see40 ,the water is collected1 by infiltration1 in twenty-three cisterns1 each having a separate connection to a suction-pipe1 #cf inches diameter1 #d1jjj feet long1 which leads to the pump wells1 stationed midway on the suction line4 ,the cisterns are circular in form1 with two concentric walls1 the first of stone1 the second of brick1 with an intervening space filled with gravel through which the water percolates4 ,the interstices of the stone are small1 to prevent the washing in of sand1 in which the wells are made4 ,the water is pumped1 by six compound engines1 into a reservoir of two compartments1 whence it flows into a second pumping station at ,charlottenburgh1 where four compound engines raise the water a second time1 with a lift of #abe feet1 into two reservoirs of six million capacity4 ,the water is then distributed into the city by two lines1 one for the north side1 the other for the south side of the city4 ,the first pumping station is four miles from the second works1 and the latter six miles from the city4 ,vienna had a population1 in #ahge1 of #a1jjg1cfe4 ,previous to the application of the new supply1 in #ahgc1 the city was supplied by ten thousand wells2 ten gravitation works1 for suburbs1 public and private buildings1 palaces1 etc42 four pumping works--one for large abattoir1 one for the parks1 a special supply for the main street1 called ,ring ,strasse1 which cost #ge1jjj1 besides several small private works1 and sixty-six public wells for street sprinkling1 etc4 ,the first pumping works was erected in #ahdc1 by ,emperor ,ferdinand ,i41 and given by him to the city4 ,the total cost1 to #ahga1 of this service1 was nearly #a1bjj1jjj1 consisting of three pumping engines1 of ,watts' ,wolf's designs1 with a gross horse-power of #bbj2 three reservoirs1 and a suction and filter canal #bg1jjj feet long4 ,the water is taken from a canal of the ,danube1 and raised forty-seven feet high4 ,the daily delivery was #b1fjj1jjj gallons4 ,in #ahfd1 fifteen projects for supplying the city with water were submitted1 and the plan of securing the spring water from the foot of the ,alps was adopted4 ,work was commenced in #ahgj1 and completed in #ahgc4 ,the cost was nearly #aa1jjj1jjj4 ,the mean quantity secured daily from the springs was originally #cg millions1 the maximum #de millions1 and minimum #e millions4 ,the water is collected in three reservoirs1 located on mountain ridges1 with a capacity of one million gallons4 ,the conduit is fifty miles long1 and has sixteen tunnels1 #e4b miles long1 drifted through rock and cemented1 and nine and one-half miles of masonry bridges4 ,the water is delivered into a reservoir1 arched and covered with ground2 from this it is led into three other covered reservoirs1 with a combined capacity of seven millions4 ,the quantity realized from the springs was not as large as expected1 and additional springs were added to the source at an expense of #bej1jjj4 ,it is now the intention to increase the main pumping works for manufacturing purposes1 so as to reduce the supply of spring water for domestic use4 ,hamburg had a population1 in #ahge1 of #ccg1fjb4 ,the water-works were erected in #ahdi4 ,the water is taken from the ,river ,elbe1 through an arched canal1 to four pump wells 7for subsidence of the water7 with a combined capacity of #ec million gallons4 ,the water is slightly turbid1 except in floods4 ,the pumping station is two miles above the city1 and contains four ,cornwall and one ,wolf engine1 with a total horse-power of #hej4 ,the water is forced through a stand-pipe #bdj feet high1 under a variable pressure1 according to the demand1 into the pipes4 ,there are three reservoirs for equalizing the pressure1 also storage of water4 ,two of them are stone structures2 the other is a covered iron tank on a stone foundation #ci feet high4 ,the maximum consumption was #ai millions daily2 and daily average1 for #ahge1 was #ae millions1 or #de gallons per inhabitant4 ,the cost of pumping one million gallons is #bj1 or #h4cc for one million gallons raised #ajj feet high4 ,frankfort-on-the-,main was supplied by well water4 ,in #ahgb1 a supply was brought into the city from the ,spessart ,mountains1 where the water from #aci springs were gathered together1 and conveyed through an aqueduct #da miles long1 two miles of which is made of cement #i to #ah inches in diameter1 #ch miles of #ad-;inch cast-iron pipe1 and mile of canal4 ,the water flows through a syphon tower4 ,there are two reservoirs--one of #c millions1 and the other of 4#h of a million capacity4 ,the population1 in #ahge1 was #ajc1acf4 ,daily average consumption1 #a million gallons2 miles of pipe1 #fd4 ,leipsic4--,the water-works was built1 by the city1 in #ahff1 at a cost of #ijj1jjj4 ,the water is taken from the ,pleisse ,river1 through an arched aqueduct1 #fef feet long1 to subsiding reservoirs or wells1 two miles in diameter1 and thirteen feet below the lowest stage in the river4 ,the water is pumped into a reservoir1 #adj feet lift1 by two ,wolf engines1 with a power of #abj horse-power4 ,the maximum daily consumption of water1 in #ahgf1 was #b4f millions1 and the minimum was #a4h million gallons4 ,stuttgart had a population1 in #ahge1 of #ajg1ege4 ,it has two kinds of supply--one for drinking1 that of spring water1 and the other for manufacturing and general use4 ,for the latter demands1 the supply is taken partly from the ,neckar ,river1 and pumped through three artificial filter beds2 and partly from lakes1 whose water is conducted1 through cast-iron pipes #ae1jjj feet in length1 to five filter-beds1 and thence into two reservoirs1 #ade feet below the lake4 ,the reservoir1 for the filtered water from the river1 is three miles from the pumping station1 and #ahj feet elevation4 ,seven million gallons are used daily4 ,the spring water is conducted through #bc4f miles of pipe1 into a reservoir of #acb1jaj gallons capacity4 ,the maximum daily consumption of spring water1 in #ahge1 was #ehj1hjj gallons1 and minimum consumption #cfi1fjj gallons4 ,dresden4--,the water-works were erected1 in #ahge1 at a cost of #b1jjj1jjj4 ,the available maximum delivery was #aa4hh million gallons per day4 ,the water is taken from the ,elbe ,river1 through two cast-iron pipes1 #i4h feet below low water1 and conveyed to two wells1 #bc feet in diameter1 dug along-side of the river4 ,the water is pumped1 by six double engines1 with #gbj horse-power1 through #c1fjh feet of pipe1 into a reservoir #aig feet above the pumping station4 ,the maximum daily consumption of water1 in #ahge1 was #c4g million gallons1 and minimum 4#g of a million2 population1 #aig1jjj4 ,in #ahgf there were #b1jdg meters in use4 ,marseilles obtains its water supply from the ,durance ,river1 at a point sixty-two miles from the city4 ,the water is conveyed through an open canal 7excepting the numerous tunnels7 with a fall of six inches per mile4 ,thirty-four millions1 of the #aei millions total daily ordinary flow of the canal1 is considered sufficient for the city1 the balance being available for irrigation and water-power1 while the waste flows into the sea4 ,about one-seventh of the water1 as estimated1 is lost by evaporation and filtration4 ,there were five settling basins1 with a water surface of #bbj acres1 constructed along the line of the canal1 designed to increase the deposition of the heavier particles of sediment by diminishing the velocity of the water4 ,only one of these basins was serviceable in #ahfh4 ,the largest one was used for a short period only1 because of a defect in the construction of the dam2 the others were abandoned because of the neglect in or difficulty of withdrawing the sediment4 ,a costly filter gallery was built at ,longchamp1 consisting of two apartments1 with a series of arches in the center1 forming the bed for the filtering material and the cover for the collecting reservoir for the filtered water4 ,the plan was abandoned in #ahff1 because of the unusual amount of sediment carried down by the ,durance ,river1 which is estimated at one thousandth part of its volume4 ,in #ahfh1 there were from three to four inches of compact mud on the sand beds1 and the gallery used for a reservoir only4 ,subsiding basins have since been constructed4 ,the rate of filtration1 when the gallery was in operation1 was #ij cubic feet to the square foot1 equal to #h1cab1idj ,u4 ,s4 gallons per day for both filter-beds1 or #cf gallons per inhabitant for a population of #bcj1jjj4 ,paris4--,previous to the introduction of the ,vanne supply1 in #ahfe1 the city was supplied from the following sources3 ,,cubic ,,feet4 #a4 ,aqueduct of ,arcueil1 #aj miles long1 built in #afbj-bd4 #ef1dhj #b4 ,canal de l',ourcq1 #fj miles long1 from the ,river #c1fga1bjj ,ourcq1 built in #ahja-bb4 #c4 ,pumping works at ,challiot1 from the ,seine ,river #a1dba1jjj #d4 ,pumping works at ,quai d',austerlitz1 opp4 ,challiot4 #bh1bdj #e4 ,artesian well of ,grenelle #ca1ggj #f4 ,springs on the north side of ,paris1 and of the #ag1fej ,pres4 ,st4 ,gervais4 --------- ,total4 #e1bag1cdj or #ci1jbe1gac gallons per day for #a1fjj1jjj persons1 or #be gallons per head4 ,the ,passey artesian well increased the supply #e millions4 ,the ,vanne supply has1 as its source1 the rivers ,dhuys and ,vanne4 ,the conduit is #hc miles long2 its capacity #bj millions daily4 ,there are projected works 7#ahgf7 to secure the waters of the ,mame that will increase the daily supply #be millions4 ,the waters are generally very impure1 chiefly obtained from navigable streams4 ,none of the water is filtered4 ,there are two covered reservoirs--,mnilmontant and ,montrouge--of vaulted arches1 after the ,roman style4 ,the pumping works are located in the city4 ,the daily average consumption1 in #ahfh1 was #ee1hfa1dgb gallons1 or #cc gallons per head4 ,water is distributed throughout ,paris1 but not more than one-fifth of the houses have water connection4 ,the others are supplied in carts and buckets1 carried by men to the door4 ,about #g1jjj men1 principally natives of ,auvergne1 are employed thusly4 ,it is a custom to let the water run for three hours1 from the public fountains1 in the morning to cleanse the streets4 ,bombay4--,the water-works were commenced in #ahef4 ,the source is in the valley of the ,goper1 where the ,vehar impounding reservoir1 with a storage capacity of #ab1ijj million gallons is located4 ,the maximum depth of the reservoir is #hj feet1 with an area of #a1cid acres4 ,there are three dams--one #hce1 one #eee1 and the other #icf feet long4 ,the extreme height of first dam is #hd feet1 inner slope #c to #a1 and the outer #b to #a4 ,the embankments were made in layers of six inches4 ,the top width of this dam1 which carries a roadway1 is #bd feet4 ,the puddle walls are #aj feet wide at the top1 and have a batter of #a in #h on each side4 ,the trenches1 for the foundations1 were excavated into the solid basalt below the surface rock4 ,the slopes and tops of all the embankments are covered with stone pitching #ab inches in depth1 with another #ab inches of broken stone underneath4 ,the waste weir is #ceh feet long1 with a top width of #bj feet4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,the succeeding articles1 viz43 #a4 ,the ,geology of ,hamilton ,county2 #b4 ,our subterranean water resources and well-boring2 #c4 ,the adjacent water-sheds in ,ohio2 #d4 ,kirkwood's survey for a water supply--#ahfe2 #e4 ,the ,ohio ,river2 #f4 ,scowden's survey for a water supply--#ahgb2 #g4 ,moore's survey for a water supply--#ahhb2 have been prepared expressly for the dissemination of that information bearing upon the proposed new water supply1 that will be useful1 as well as interesting1 to the citizens of ,cincinnati at this particular time4 ,these subjects have their respective bearing on our water supply1--that of the geological structure being especially important1 because we learn from it a more accurate knowledge of our subterranean resources2 of the impossibility of infiltration of the ,ohio ,river waters1 and of the formation and availability of our water-sheds4 ,no4 #a4 ,,geology4 7,arranged from the ,ohio ,state ,geological ,reports1 #ahgc47 ,the rocks of ,ohio are3 ,,system4 ,,group4 ,,strata4 ,,thickness ,,in ,,feet4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,delta sand4 ,quaternary4 ,drift4 ,forest bed4 #bjj ,erie clay4 ,coal4 ,upper coal measure4 -- ,barren 8 ,measures4 ,lower coal measure4 #a1bjj ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,carboniferous4 ,conglomerate4 ,conglomerate4 #ajj ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,lower carb4 ,chester limestone4 #bj ,limestone4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,waverly4 ,cuyahoga shale4 -- ,berea grit4 ,group4 ,bedford shale4 #ejj ,cleveland shale4 ,devonian ,erie4 ,erie shale4 #djj ,huron4 ,huron shale4 #cjj ,hamilton4 -- #bj ,corniferous4 ,sandusky limestone4 #ajj ,columbus 8 ,oriskany4 ,oriskany sandstone4 #aj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,upper ,silurian4,helderburg4 ,water lime4 #ajj ,salina4 ,salina shale4 #dj ,niagara4 ,hillsboro sandstone4 #cj ,niagara limestone4 #ahj #bge ,niagara shale4 #fj ,dayton 8 #e ,clinton4 -- #ej ,medina4 -- #bj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,lower ,silurian4,cincinnati4 ,lebanon beds4 ,eden shales4 #a1jjj ,mt4 ,pleasant beds4 ,calciferous4 ,calciferous #dge ,sand rock4 ,potsdam4 ,potsdam sandstone4 #cjj ,the oldest rocks are designated by ,eozoic system1 consisting of ,laurentian and ,huronian groups1 and are metamorphic rocks underlying a broad belt in ,canada1 from ,labrador to the ,lake of the ,woods1 and thence to the ,arctic ,sea4 ,it is computed that this group of strata attains a thickness of #dg1jjj feet in ,canada4 ,the ,potsdam sandstone1 the first member of the ,silurian system1 rests unconformably on the ,eozoic rocks wherever the two are found in contact4 ,this1 as its name implies1 is a sandstone1 and is the first product of the invasion of the ,eozoic continent by the ancient ocean1 and the action of the shore waves upon the cliffs and surface4 ,it has been reached in the deep borings made at ,columbus1 ,louisville1 and ,st4 ,louis4 ,neither the ,eozoic or ,potsdam stones are exposed in any part of ,ohio4 ,resting on the ,potsdam stone1 is a formation called calciferous sand-rock1 so named in ,new ,york because there it consists of a mixture of lime and sand4 ,this formation holds the lead of central and eastern ,missouri4 ,trenton limestone1 with its underlying strata of chazy1 ,black ,river1 and bird's-eye limestones1 rests on the calciferous sand-rock1 and forms a calcareous mass of #cjj to #fjj feet in thickness4 ,it is exposed in ,new ,york1 ,canada1 ,lake ,superior1 and ,upper ,mississippi1 where one of its members1 the ,galena limestone1 claims special notice as being the repository of all that rupture4 ,upon the ,trenton rests the ,hudson group1 consisting of the ,hudson ,river and ,utica slates1 and composed of mixed calcareous and argillaceous sediments4 ,this group is regarded as an equivalent to the blue limestones1 or ,cincinnati group1 which are of special interest to the inhabitants of ,ohio1 inasmuch as they are the lowest rocks exposed within our territory4 ,these older rocks are brought to the surface by an axis of upheaval1 reaching from ,nashville to ,lake ,erie4 ,they have been still further exposed by the cutting down of the valley of the ,ohio1 near ,cincinnati1 where #hjj feet of the series are exposed to view4 ,the wells on the upper ,cumberland1 in ,kentucky1 were sunk in rocks of the ,hudson age4 ,the earthy limestones of the ,hudson period indicate a shallow and retreating sea1 an approach to land conditions1 and the completion of one circle of deposition4 ,the rocks next in order are3 ,the ,oneida conglomerate marks a period of land subsidence1 or water elevation4 ,it is composed of coarse materials torn from the coast by shore waves4 ,the system is found in central ,new ,york4 ,the ,medina sandstone4--,a period of mechanical sediments4 ,in ,new ,york it is #cjj to #djj feet in thickness4 ,it has been struck in borings for oil in northern ,ohio1 but not well marked4 ,clinton ,group1 in ,ohio1 is represented by a limestone #ae to #bj feet thick1 an outcrop following the line of junction of the ,lower and ,upper ,silurian4 ,niagara ,group is above the ,clinton and occupies a wide-spread and more important formation1 composed of equal masses of limestone and shale4 ,this is the rock that underlies ,chicago4 ,the ,niagara and ,clinton overlie the ,cincinnati ,group4 ,salina is the formation from which the salt is obtained at ,syracuse4 ,in northern ,ohio it overlies the ,niagara1 and contains the gypsum of ,sandusky4 ,this deposition marks the era of a retiring sea1 which left a series of shallow basins that became great evaporating pans4 ,helderburg group is the surface rock of a large area in ,ohio1 and forms a summit of the ,upper ,silurian1 and completes a circle of sedimentary formation corresponding1 in a way1 with that of the ,lower ,silurian4 ,the ,trenton groups are nearly pure carbonate of lime1 while those of the ,niagara series--,clinton1 ,niagara1 and ,waterlime--are highly magnesian4 ,the ,devonian age contains many strange forms of ancient life4 ,in the ,mississippi ,valley1 the ,devonian strata are mostly calcareous1 and much thinner than in ,new ,york and ,pennsylvania1 showing plainly that here1 as in eastern ,canada1 open sea prevailed during this age1 and that the ,cincinnati ,arch formed a land surface probably throughout all the ,devonian ages4 ,the ,devonian system comprise3 ,oriskany sandstones4 ,corniferous limestone4--,an open sea deposit4 ,the average thickness in ,ohio is #ajj feet1 and forms two belts of outcrop on opposite sides of the ,cincinnati arch4 ,the rock contains #bj per cent4 of magnesia4 ,fragments of land plants and limbs of trees are found in this group4 ,hamilton group4--,a soft1 blue limestone in ,ohio4 ,huron shale--exhibits a prevailing black color1 and contains #aj per cent4 of combustible matter4 ,the line of its outcrop is marked by oil and gas springs4 ,it is exposed in ,kentucky and ,tennessee1 on both sides of ,cincinnati anticlinal4 ,it contains a large amount of carbon1 derived from sea-weeds4 ,erie shales is the name given to the ,huron shale in northern ,ohio and ,lake ,erie4 ,the carboniferous system is the highest group of rocks found in ,ohio1 and holds nearly all the beds of coal4 ,as this period is not relative to ,hamilton ,county1 we shall only briefly refer to it4 ,at the period of the formation of the lowest bed of coal1 the level of the carboniferous continent would seem to have been the highest2 for when the stratum of bituminous matter had accumulated to the depth of a few feet1 it was submerged by water1 that brought shales and sandstone1 and spread them in layers of many feet in thickness above it1 before the requisite conditions were reached for the formation of another stratum4 ,the intervals of repose1 when the surface of the land was nearly at a level with the sea1 were marked by the carbonaceous matter1 and the thickness of each stratum measures the length of time during which this state of quiescence continued4 ,the changes of level were apparently all in one direction1 that of submergence4 ,during the epoch of the coal measure1 the surface of the land and at the sea level1 while the first stratum of coal was forming1 was depressed until there had been deposited upon it a series of strata1 which measured in ,ohio1 before being eroded1 fully #b1jjj feet in thickness1 and included at least twelve workable seams of coal1 with a great number of thinner ones4 ,illustration3 ,water ,works ,weather ,chart for #ahhj ,from ,signal ,service ,records ,at the time of the formation of the highest coal-beds1 the ,alleghany ,mountain system was elevated1 and an area including most of the ,states of our ,union was raised above the ocean1 never again1 to the present time1 submerged4 ,the anthracite coal basins of ,pennsylvania were once a part of the ,alleghany coal-field1 but were isolated by the upheaval and erosion of the mountain ridges2 and by this disturbance1 all the rocks were more or less metamorphosed1 and most of the volatile ingredients of the coal driven off1 leaving it in the condition of anthracite4 ,,the ,,deposits ,,of ,,drift4 ,the period immediately following the ,tertiary age but separated from it by we know not how many years presents a complete change in the physical condition1 that during this time the pervading warmth of the ,tertiary was changed to an ,arctic cold4 ,while1 in the former age1 the climate of our ,southern ,states was carried to ,greenland2 in the latter1 or drift period1 the present ,greenland was brought as far south as the ,ohio4 ,this was when we had our icebergs or glacial age4 ,the gravel1 the bowlders1 and an unstratified clay thickly studded with small fragments of rock1 are the glacial surface-covering4 ,mingled with these are found many pebbles and bowlders of crystalline rock1 such as are found north of the great lakes4 ,the finding of large bowlders in fields are the deposit of icebergs that once floated over our country4 ,the glaziers reached as far as ,cincinnati1 planing1 grinding down1 smoothing all rock surfaces1 and excavating the basins of our great lakes4 ,the retreat of the glaciers left clay and bowlders and a great inland sea of fresh water1 filling basins1 before occupied by ice1 #ejj feet above the present surface of ,lake ,erie4 ,at a later period1 by continental elevation or the removal of barriers to drainage1 the water level was gradually depressed until the inland sea was reduced to the comparative insignificance of our great lakes4 ,the descent of the water by motion of the waves1 cut the well-marked terraces and edges4 ,,cincinnati ,,anticlinal4 ,the term1 ,cincinnati ,group1 is now applied to the blue limestone series1 and is an equivalent1 in the geological nomenclature1 to the ,hudson ,group of ,new ,york4 ,its thickness is estimated at #a1jjj feet4 ,the line of upheaval passes from the south line of ,tennessee1 with a direction a little east of north1 through ,cincinnati to ,lake ,erie4 ,throughout its whole length the strata are raised in a distinct arch1 from which they dip away1 on the one side under the ,alleghany coal-field1 on the other beneath the coal basin of ,indiana and ,illinois4 ,the bearing of this axis of elevation is nearly parallel with that of the folds of the ,alleghanies2 that the date of its upheaval was subsequent to the carboniferous1 and anterior to the ,triassic period4 ,the line1 north of ,cincinnati1 extends from the ,ohio ,river in a direction a little east of north to the lake shore1 between ,sandusky and ,toledo4 ,in consequence of the erosion1 which all the region bordering the ,cincinnati ,arch has suffered1 the line of the axis presents no conspicuous topographical features4 ,about ,cincinnati the summit of the arch has been much more deeply and extensively removed than farther north1 yet this is still higher than its northern prolongation4 ,there is every reason to believe1 therefore1 that this was originally the highest part of that portion of the arch within ,ohio1 and1 in common with the ,blue ,grass district of ,kentucky1 the blue limestone area about ,cincinnati is the most elevated portion of the ridge2 that which has been the longest above the sea level and suffered most from surface erosion4 ,we find here a line or tract from which the strata dipped on both sides in opposite directions4 ,the strata1 that are found in the tops of the ,cincinnati hills1 can be followed to the eastern side of ,brown ,county1 where they seem to disappear beneath the river with a marked easterly dip2 while below ,cincinnati1 near ,madison1 ,indiana1 the same beds are carried beneath the river by a strong westerly dip4 ,the ,cincinnati anticlinal1 unlike the folds of the ,appalachian system1 generally has its longer slope to the westward1 and its steeper descent towards the east1 estimated at #ce feet per mile4 ,in the western half of the ,state1 and especially along the summit of the ,cincinnati ,arch1 the dip of the strata is strongly northward1 amounting to about #a1jjj feet between the ,ohio and the lake4 ,the surface of the ,cincinnati ,group is in ,highland ,county1 about #ejj feet above ,lake ,erie1 while on the lake shore it is nearly #djj feet below the lake4 ,these figures do not represent the entire dip1 inasmuch as the crown of the arch is extensively eroded where it crosses the ,ohio in ,clermont ,county4 ,the ,cincinnati section was originally crowned1 there is little reason to doubt1 with the ,lebanon beds the highest rocks of the ,cincinnati group in whole or in part1 which suffered by erosion1 forming our valleys of to-day4 ,the surface of the blue limestone1 near ,lebanon1 is #dda feet above ,lake ,erie1 while the same rocks were found in the ,columbus well to be #gba feet below ,lake ,erie1 a dip of #a1afg feet in a distance of about #gj miles by an air line1 or #af4f feet per mile4 ,toward the northern extremity of the arch the dip is north-west and more rapid1 the strata descending under the ,michigan coal-field4 ,near the lake-shore the minimum dip is #bj feet to the mile1 while on the ,ohio it is #dj feet4 ,the easterly dip is a succession of steps or waves beneath the trough of the ,alleghany coal-field1 the axis of which passes near or beyond our eastern border4 ,this dip is so great that the lowest stratum exposed on the crown of the ,cincinnati arch is on the eastern side of the ,state1 buried about #b1jjj feet beneath the surface4 ,east of the ,ohio all the rocks rise again1 and not only the lowest exposed in our ,state1 but even those which underlie them1 crop out on the flanks and summits of the ,alleghany ,mountains4 ,along the ,kentucky ,river from ,frankfort to ,nicholasville1 and at ,murfreesboro1 ,tennessee1 the basal portion of the blue limestone series is exposed to view2 and if it was originally as thick at these points as elsewhere1 not less than #hjj to #a1jjj feet of the upper part have been removed4 ,,hamilton ,,county4 ,strictly speaking there are no hills in ,hamilton ,county1 the surface being all referable to the tablelands and to the valleys worn in them4 ,the elevated lands1 called hills1 are merely isolated remnants of the old plateau1 which have1 thus far1 escaped the long continued inundation4 ,this isolation is effected by the ,little ,miami1 the ,ohio1 the ,millcreek ,valleys1 and the abandoned channel of the ,great ,miami4 ,the bedded rocks of the ,cincinnati section are as follows3 ,lebanon beds1 #bic feet ,hill quarry beds1 #abe feet ,cincinnati beds proper1 #dbe feet-- ,eden shales1 #bej feet ,mt4 ,pleasant beds1 #ej feet ,river quarry1 #ej feet --- ,total1 #gfh feet ,the ,mt4 ,pleasant beds are so named because1 at the ,ohio ,river bed at this point1 they are the lowest of the exposed beds1 and underlie the lowest beds at ,cincinnati by #ej feet4 ,the ,cincinnati beds have their inferior limit at low water of the ,ohio1 and for an upper boundary the highest stratum found in the ,cincinnati hills4 ,their greatest elevation1 above low water-mark1 is #dej feet4 ,the ,eden1 or middle shale1 is so named because of its prominence in ,eden ,park hills4 ,it has no economical value1 indeed its relation to economical interests are mainly in the way of disadvantages to be overcome1 because of its instable character4 ,of the #bej feet not more than one foot in ten is limestone1 the remainder being shales1 clay1 or soapstones4 ,these shales have scarcely tenacity enough to hold their place in steep descents1 still less1 when they have been removed from their original beds1 can they be made to cohere1 and they form treacherous foundations for buildings erected1 or for roadways constructed upon them4 ,the strata of river quarry-beds are comparatively but little exposed4 ,a moderate amount of building-stone of superior quality is taken from the ,covington quarries4 ,but little can be burned into lime1 but the concretions constitute a hydraulic lime of great energy4 ,the ,lebanon beds1 in contrast to the ,mt4 ,pleasant beds1 are the highest of the ,cincinnati group1 and the location determine their name4 ,the drift formations are divided into-- #a4 ,drift deposits of the highlands and slopes4 #b4 ,drift deposits of the lowlands and valley drift-beds4 ,the upland drift has no uniformity in the order of formations aside from the monotonous deposits of yellow clay1 which1 when filled with water1 becomes quicksand4 ,but little clean gravel occurs in the upland1 and bowlders also are unfrequent4 ,the drift clays come largely from the waste of blue limestone effected by glacial attrition1 while the natural soil has the same origin1 except the work of disintegration has been done by the slow action of the atmosphere4 ,the lowland drift consists of the following terraces1 in a descending order3 ,,feet4 ,soil #b to #e ,gravel and sand with seams of loam1 #dj to #fj ,brick clay with sand and loam1 #bj to #cj ,buried soil with trees1 leaves1 etc41 #e to #aj ,gravel and clay1 #e to #aj -- --- ,total1 #gb #aae ,the gravel of the ,ohio differs from the ,miami in being largely composed of sandstone pebbles instead of limestone4 ,a formation of local occurrences1 known as the blue or ,springfield clay1 is found in a few places1 but in limited1 vertical and horizontal1 extent4 ,the greatest thickness1 of more than #cj feet1 is found on north ,pearl ,street1 above ,pike4 ,the broad valley1 now occupied in part by ,millcreek1 extending from the present valley of the ,great ,miami at ,hamilton to the ,clifton hills1 just north of ,cincinnati1 separates into two branches1 one passing to the north and east of the city1 and entering the valley of the ,little ,miami between ,red ,bank station and ,plainville1 while the other branch is the present valley of the ,millcreek4 ,there are no rocky barriers 7nothing1 in fact1 but the same drift terraces that make the walls of its present course7 to shut out the ,great ,miami from entering the ,ohio valley at the same points where the ,little ,miami and ,millcreek enter4 ,there is every reason to believe that this was once its course4 ,another of the earlier courses of the ,great ,miami1 is now occupied by the ,dry ,fork of the ,white ,water2 still a third of the old channels is found near ,cleves1 ,miami ,township1 where the ,miami approaches within one-half mile of the ,ohio1 but is blocked from entering it by a ridge #aej to #age feet1 composed of glacial drift1 and instead makes a circuitous route of #aj miles for an outlet4 ,the well of ,timothy ,kirby1 in ,cumminsville1 developed the following borings3 ,,feet4 ,soil and brick clay1 #ab ,sand1 #d ,blue clay with gravel1 #cj ,gravel1 #ai ,coarse sand1 #c ,sand1 with fragments of bituminous coal1 #aa ,blue clay with gravel4 7,low water of ,ohio ,river47 #i ,blue clay--fine sand1 sprinkled with coal1 #af ,sand1 water-worn gravel1 blue clay1 with occasional fragments of bituminous clay4 ,shales of blue limestone group1 #dc --- ,total1 #aea ,a remarkable feature of the ,millcreek is here presented1 of the present bed being at a higher level by #abj feet1 than that of the ancient channel1--an erosion that could not have been effected under existing circumstances1 but more probable1 to the glacial period4 ,the coal-field wastes are also unaccountable4 ,no4 #b4 ,,our ,,subterranean ,,water ,,resources4 ,underlying our drift formation is that impervious strata of blue limestone1 #a1jjj feet in thickness1 through which no water can circulate4 ,the lowest limit of this mass of stone is at low water of the ,ohio ,river1 at ,cincinnati1 from which point it anticlines in all directions4 ,there are crevices or pockets1 however1 in which water has been accidentally found4 ,the following are examples3 ,,name ,,of ,,owner4 ,,location4 ,,formation4 ,,depth ,,in ,,feet4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,john ,kaufman4 ,vine ,street4 ,blue clay4 #be ,sand and quicksand4 #gc ,blue clay4 #ee ,quicksand and gravel4 #ce ,limestone4 #be ,soil and quicksand4 #ge ,holder's ,tannery4 ,colerain ,pike4,clay4 #ij ,limestone4 #ej ,alluvial and gravel4 #hj ,freiburg ,workum4 ,main ,street4 ,limestone4 #agj ,,total ,,diameter ,,name ,,of ,,owner4 ,,depth ,,depth ,,of ,,where ,,water ,,in ,,of ,,well ,,boring ,,was ,,found4 ,,feet4,,in ,,feet4,,in ,,inches4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,john ,kaufman4 #be #gc #ee #ce #be #bae #c ,in crevice4 #ge ,holder's ,tannery4 #ij #ej #bae #c #hj ,freiburg ,workum4 #agj #bej -- ,in crevice4 ,the waters of the above wells are necessarily hard1 although that at ,holder's tannery is used for all purposes4 ,the water at ,john ,kaufman's is very turbid4 ,the ,freiburg ,workum well was originally a dug one1 forty feet deep1 but the quantity was insufficient4 ,when they struck the present source1 they destroyed the adjoining surface wells of ,hoffheimer ,bros4 ,a number of failures to secure water in this limestone formation is on record1 but we can notice only a few4 ,at ,rasche ,bros41 tannery1 on ,plum ,street1 opposite ,bank ,street1 they drove a #f inch well through1 respectively1 #af feet of clay1 #d feet quicksand1 #ae feet blue clay1 #gj feet yellow clay1 and solid quarry rock4 ,a pump was then inserted but was inoperative on account of the large amount of sand4 ,they continued the boring to #ahe feet1 striking clay and soapstone1 but found no water1 and abandoned the undertaking4 ,wm4 ,kirkup ,son1 ,pearl and ,ludlow1 bored #fj feet into rock1 for water1 without success4 ,at ,maddox1 ,hobart ,co4's rectifying establishment1 they have pierced the rock #aej feet1 but found no water up to this date4 ,at ,weber's brewery1 on ,mc,micken ,avenue1 an attempt was made to get water in the rock1 and abandoned1 after boring to a depth of #deh feet4 ,the ,cincinnati group is about #a1jjj feet in thickness of blue limestone1 forming1 almost exclusively1 the rocks of ,hamilton ,county1 although an outcrop of the oil stratum has been struck in the wells of the ,cincinnati ,coffin ,company and ,white ,mills ,distillery4 ,at the former establishment1 flowing gas was found at a depth of #hb feet4 ,another well was started1 and at the same depth gas was discovered4 ,the boring of the latter was then continued into the rock to the depth of #afh feet1 when water was found4 ,the water was analyzed by ,prof4 ,wayne with the following result3 ,,grains ,,in ,,each ,,gallon4 ,chloride of ,sodium #cc4ba ,chloride of ,calcium #d4bj ,chloride of ,magnesia #a4ag ,sulphate of ,lime #aj4fd ,carbonate of ,lime #bf4fd ,carbonate of ,magnesia #c4ae ,oxide of ,iron #ab ,the gas burnt out in a few days4 ,white ,mills ,distillery has four wells1 from #d to #f inches in diameter1 and #bbj to #bce feet in depth1 bored through1 respectively1 #ej feet of clay1 #dj feet clay and quicksand1 and balance soapstone or shale and limestone1 where water was found in a crevice1 highly charged with gas and very brackish4 ,the following wells secure their water from drift terraces3 ,,owner4 ,,location4 ,,formation4 ,,depth ,,in ,,feet4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,fill4 #cj ,hulsman ,w4 ,s4 ,john1 ,blue clay4 near ,lib'ty4,quicksand4 #aca ,gravel4 -------- ,windisch1 ,brewery on ,sand4 ,muhlhauser ,co4 the ,canal ,quicksand4 ,gravel4 ,sand4 -------- ,john ,hauck ,brewery on ,quicksand1 yellow4 ,dayton ,st4 8 blue4 -------- ,gravel4 #df ,blue ,clay4 ,emery ,hotel4 ,vine ,st4 bet4,black mud4 #dth and #eth4,quicksand4 #dj ,gravel4 #fj -------- ,w4 ,w4 ,johnson4 ,sycamore ,alluvial4 #ab ,yeatman4 ,gravel4 #fh -------- ,city ,infirmary4 ,hartwell4 ,black loam4 #ab ,blue clay4 #ac ,blue clay mixed with gravel4 #f ,bowlder gravel4 #ae ,quicksand4 #ae ,gravel4 #bi ,,total ,,size ,,of ,,owner4 ,,depth ,,depth ,,bore ,,in ,,remarks4 ,,in ,,feet4,,in ,,feet4 ,,inches4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- #cj ,hulsman #aca #afa #d ,bored to the rock4 -------- ,windisch1 #d ,driven to the ,muhlhauser ,co4 rock4 #ahj #d -------- ,john ,hauck #agj -------- #df ,emery ,hotel4 #dj #fj #adf #c ,from the -------- cellar4 ,w4 ,w4 ,johnson4 #ab #fh #hj #c ,to the rock4 -------- ,city ,infirmary4 #ab #ac #f #ae #ae ,also another #bi #ib #c well #gc feet4 ,upon the limestone lays the drift1 consisting of water-worn pebbles1 gravel1 sand1 and clay4 ,the porous nature of this formation1 with the assistance of a level surface plain1 absorbs a very large percentage of the rain-fall1 and produces a fertile subterranean water supply1 whose depth varies from #cj to #bjj feet4 ,there are in this vicinity about #bej wells that secure the water from this source4 ,the water is strongly impregnated with iron and magnesia--a ferruginous decomposition from the fossil drift-wood found in this formation4 ,the availability of these wells is in proportion to the capacity of the respective pumps attached to them1 but their combined requirements have had no apparent effect1 at present1 on the source4 ,yet the fact can not be disputed1 that this drift supply of water is a very limited one4 ,the practical experience in ,london and ,liverpool substantiate the above fact1 for there the underground sources have been materially lessened by the demands made upon them1 notwithstanding they are the richest resources of this nature1 and vastly superior to ours4 ,prof4 ,orton1 of the ,ohio ,agricultural ,college1 in a valuable paper on the 8,relations of ,geology to the ,water ,supply of the ,country10 refers to the purity of the drift water in the south-western part of the ,state4 ,he says3 8,the broad and fertile terraces of the river valleys constitute1 especially in the south-western corner of the ,state 7,ohio71 the most attractive and most valuable portion of its area4 ,they consist of sand and gravel in large measures1 and to this structure they owe their chief attraction4 ,but this same structure renders them unfit to be used for the water supply of the towns built upon them2 for1 although an abundance of clear and sparkling water can easily be reached1 it must not only be looked upon with suspicion1 but must be positively condemned as unsafe4 8,these gravel-beds are as porous as a sieve1 and there is indisputable proof of the free communication of the water sheet and all the receptacles of impurity that the surface of the ground contains4 ,the only relief is found in the fact that the water sheet is also in free communication with the rivers1 rising and falling with them2 but even this does not free the wells from the poisonous effects of the filth soakage from above4 ,geology turns over to sanitary science the conclusion1 that the drift wells of central and south-western ,ohio are1 in all densely populated districts1 small cities1 towns1 villages1 and hamlets--even in those containing no more than a dozen houses--utterly unfit for human use40 ,the above facts are applicable to all the drift formation1 including that portion protected from immediate filth soakage of blue clay formation4 ,a recent examination of our sewerage system1 by the ,u4 ,s4 ,census ,bureau1 developed the fact that ,cincinnati is polluting its subterraneous soil1 to an alarming degree1 by the vault system4 ,that no city has so neglected the sanitary necessity of tapping the sewers for house drainage than ,cincinnati2 that this nature of carelessness was the cause of ,memphis' sad fate1 which we have escaped because our soil is of sand and gravel1 and susceptible of natural drainage4 ,yet through this same soil passes the water that is used by some #bej well-owners1 still the use of this water is increasing4 ,london was originally supplied by shallow wells in gravel-beds of #aj to #bj feet in depth1 and the direction of its growth was controlled by this water-bearing strata1 until the establishment of the ,new ,river ,water ,company in #afjj4 ,the ,public ,health ,act of #ahgb gives the sanitary authorities power to close these wells4 ,,artesian ,,wells4 ,beneath the ,cincinnati group are the calciferous sand-rock and ,potsdam sandstone1 which are porous and water bearing1 but they rise to the surface nowhere in our ,state4 ,they have been reached1 however1 at this point in several of the deep well-borings1 and flowing water of sulpho-saline nature was found1 at the following locations3 ,,name ,,of ,,owner4 ,,location4 ,,depth ,,size ,,of ,,bore ,,in ,,feet4 ,,in ,,inches4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,rabe's ,distillery ,cumminsville4 #a1djj #d ,millcreek 8 ,west of ,millcreek4 #a1ddj #d ,cincinnati ,gas ,co ,west ,front ,street4 #a1cfj #d 8 8 8 8 8 #a1cfj #d 8 8 ,eastern ,avenue4 #a1dge #f ,moerlein's ,brewery ,north ,elm ,street4 #b1djh #d ,keck's ,fertilizing ,works ,cumminsville4 #a1chj -- ,,capacity ,,name ,,of ,,owner4 ,,depth ,,pressure ,,temper- ,,per ,,hour ,,in ,,feet4 ,,in ,,lbs4 ,,ature4 ,,in ,,gallons4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,rabe's ,distillery #a1djj #ce -- #f1jjj ,millcreek 8 #a1ddj #de -- #af1jjj ,cincinnati ,gas ,co #a1cfj #da #fj #h1cjj 8 8 #a1cfj #dj #fj #h1cjj 8 8 #a1dge #eb #fa #cj1jjj ,moerlein's ,brewery #b1djh -- #fb #bd1jjj ,keck's ,fertilizing ,works #a1chj -- #fj ,through the kindness of ,gen4 ,a4 ,hickenlooper1 ,president of the ,cincinnati ,gas ,company1 the following complete account of the borings at their works on ,front ,street is given1 which will also serve for a description of the above artesian wells4 ,the depth and classification of strata are3 ,filling #e feet4 ,yellow clay #e 8 ,blue clay #bj 8 ,sand and gravel #ij 8 ,soapstone #c 8 ,blue limestone #dj 8 ,blue gray limestone #ej 8 ,sandstone #e 8 ,limestone #chj 8 ,white limestone #bdj 8 ,sandstone #fe 8 ,limestone1 very hard #ae feet4 ,red sandstone #fb 8 ,white sandstone #he 8 ,coarse sandstone #ae 8 ,coarse limestone ,sandstone #adj 8 ,very hard1 flinty limestone ,red and white #be 8 marble ,white marble or flint ----- ,total #a1bej feet4 ,the synopsis of boring is condensed as follows3 ,july #bd1 #ahhj4--,the contractor1 ,john ,j4 ,pfeffer1 drove a #f-;inch iron tube with a heavy sinker1 a few feet at a time1 through #abc feet of drift1 into limestone4 ,a sand-pump was used to remove the loose formation4 ,this portion was completed ,august #b;d1 #aa ,a4 ,m4 ,august #b4--;,commenced drilling a #d-;inch hole through the stone formation at an average rate of #cc feet per #bd hours1 and continued to a depth of #dbe feet1 when the diameter of the hole was reduced to #d inches4 ,the drilling was then continued1 at the rate of #bi feet per #bd hours1 until the #bhth of ,august1 when the socket pulled out of pole attached to sinker at bottom of well1 and at the same moment the top pole1 attached to chain on drilling beam1 broke and fell into the well along-side of the sinker4 ,this accident was repaired ,september #gth1 and drilling resumed1 at rate of #bj feet per #bd hours1 until a depth of #a1jbe feet was reached1 ,october #aa1 #ahhj1 when the drill broke4 ,resumed work1 at rate of #ab feet per #bd hours1 until ,november #e1 #ahhj1 when a depth of #a1bfe feet was reached4 ,at the depth of #a1bbe feet1 the well was tested by sinking a #d-;inch pipe into the well with a bag at lower end to fit tightly into the #d-;inch bore4 ,when the pipe reached a depth of #ae feet below the #f-;inch tubing1 the water flowed over the top of the pipe at surface1 showing a leak around the bottom of the pipe where it was bedded in the rock4 ,november #hth4--,tested well1 and found a pressure of #cj lbs4 per square inch1 and a flow of #ij gallons of water per minute4 ,february #ag1 #ahha4--,when testing well ,no4 #b1 the gauge was placed on this one1 which showed only #ae lbs4 ,the bore was then increased to #d inches1 and drilling continued to a depth of #a1cfj feet1 the last #dj feet being only #c inches in diameter4 ,the additional #abe feet was through alternate formations of sand and limestone2 the last #aj feet through a hard flinty formation4 ,boring into this last formation increased the pressure to #da lbs41 and the flow to #bjj1jjj gallons per day4 ,the outlay of the two wells is placed at #h1jjj4 ,the analysis of the ,moerlein artesian well1 by ,prof4 ,wayne1 gave the following results3 ,,grains ,,in ,,one ,u4 ,s4 ,,gallon4 ,carbonate of ,lime #ai4cd ,carbonate of ,magnesia #i4ac ,chloride of ,sodium #ecd4gg ,chloride of ,potassium #c4ie ,chloride of ,magnesia #ag4bf ,chloride of ,calcium #bb4ai ,sulphate of ,lime #bi4bj ,sulphate of ,potash #b4cj ,iodide of ,magnesium #cj ,bromide of ,magnesium #ci ,oxide of ,iron #dc ,phosphate of ,soda #a4cd ,silica #gi ,loss in analysis #gf -------- ,total #fdb4af ,prof4 ,newberry is of the opinion that soft water is improbable in these deep rocks4 ,no4 #c4 ,,water-,,shed4 ,the courses of our streams show at a glance that a water-shed crosses the ,state from north-east to south-west4 ,this water-shed forms a range of highlands that slope by long and easy descent to the ,ohio in the south1 more rapidly to the lake in the north4 ,this water-shed in its relief is almost insignificant1 its average altitude being only #ejj feet above the lake1 its highest point rising perhaps #a1jjj feet above the bottom valley of the ,ohio4 ,our topographical features may therefore be described of a plain1 slightly raised along a line traversing it from north-east to south-west4 ,the following altitudes will show the topography of the northern divide4 ,the levels are all above ,lake ,erie3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,,survey ,,of ,,dayton ,,and ,,miami ,,canal4 ,,michigan ,r4,r4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,feet4 ,,feet4 ,cincinnati-- #fg ,junction1 ,paulding ,county1 #adg4be below lake1 ,lock #bg4 #ahb4be ,hamilton1 #bi ,delphos1 ,lock #bc4 ,allen ,county1 #baa4 ,dayton1 #ahj ,dayton ,canal1 #aff ,spencerville1 ,lock #ae4 ,allen ,county1 #bgd4 ,troy1 #bgj ,piqua1 #cfj ,lock #ac4 ,st4 ,marys1 ,auglaize ,county1 #bia4be ,sidney1 #dbh ,lock #aj4 8 8 #cac4 ,principal ,summit1 #dcj ,lock #i4 8 8 #cai4 ,wapakoneta1 #cah ,lock #d4 8 8 #cfa4 ,lima1 #cjb ,lock #c4 8 8 #cfg4ej ,cairo1 #bda ,lock #a4 ,bremen ,summit1 ,auglaize ,co41 #chf4cj ,weston1 #ajc ,near ,sidney1 #cgf4jj -- ,troy1 #beg4jj ,perrysburgh1 #fd ,d4 ,m4 ,r4,r4 crossing ,dayton1 #aff4jj ,toledo1 #ab ,basin at ,hamilton1 #cg4jj -- ,upper level of canal at ,cincinnati1 #bc4jj -- ,low water in ,ohio ,river1 below lake1 #acc4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,the actual crest of the divide forms a singularly tortuous line with remarkable variations of altitude4 ,the water-sheds1 with which we are particularly interested1 are found in the counties of ,shelby1 ,mercer1 and ,auglaize1 where we have the water-gap of the head-waters of the ,st4 ,marys and ,auglaize1 as feeders of the ,maumee ,river with the ,wabash and ,big ,beaver ,rivers on one side1 and the ,great ,miami on this side2 with another gap1 between the ,miami and ,mad ,rivers1 and the ,scioto ,river1 found in ,logan and ,hardin ,counties1 in which the highest points of the ,state are found viz41 #a1jjj feet above low water in the ,ohio ,river4 ,these streams descend very rapidly to the level plateau 7#ejj feet above the ,ohio ,river7 passing over lime and magnesia rocks1 through swampy lands and 8cat-head prairies10 the latter composed largely of vegetable accumulations4 ,the population1 through which the ,great ,miami and ,mad rivers flow1 is approximately #cfj1jjj4 ,the available resources of the ,big ,beaver1 ,wabash1 and ,st4 ,mary's water-sheds are collected in ,st4 ,mary's ,reservoir1 a lake of #dg1jjj acres1 for feeding the ,miami ,canal north2 while ,lake ,laramie in ,shelby ,county1 and ,lewistown ,reservoir in ,logan ,county gather the waters of the ,miami1 and being at the summit level1 feed the canal both north and south4 ,this level is #eai feet above low water in ,ohio ,river1 ,st4 ,mary's #dbd feet1 ,eden ,park ,reservoir at ,cincinnati #bce feet1 and ,third ,street ,reservoir #agc feet4 ,the distance in air line from ,cincinnati to ,st4 ,mary's is about #ie miles1 to ,lewistown over #ajj miles4 ,the waters of all the streams named present those features that experience considers most objectionable for a gravity supply1 namely3 8#ast4 ,in the calcareous nature of the soil1 producing hardness of water4 8#b;d4 ,in the low and level plateau of water-sheds from which a minimum surface flow can be realized1 requiring storage reservoirs of large surface area1 that are objectionable1 because2 #a4 ,the loss of water by evaporation3 and #b4 ,the liability to stagnation of water and propagation of vegetation4 8#c;d4 ,the streams are fed by the drainage from richly manured farms1 and the water polluted by vegetation of the swampy lands1 and the sewage of a large and growing population4 ,this condition is intensified1 when we consider the proportional size of the streams to the amount of pollution1 and the fact that the most perfect means of filtration would not suffice to make the water wholesome4 8#dth4 ,the available resources of these water-sheds are now used for feeding the ,miami ,canal1 from which a number of mill-owners secure their power1 whose rights must be protected4 8#eth4 ,the insufficient elevation of the sources for securing a fair hydrostatic water pressure1 and their extreme distance1 causing loss of head by long conduit1 and enormous cost for construction1 for conveying unwholesome water40 ,,riparian ,,rights4 ,the compensation to millers by the ,manchester and ,liverpool ,water-,works was fixed by ,parliament at one third of the available rain-fall4 ,nearly one-half of the present capacity of the ,glasgow supply is used by mill-owners4 ,on this subject ,john ,w4 ,erwin1 resident engineer of the ,ohio ,state ,board of ,public ,works1 says3 8,the riparian right of water-users are great1 and could not be purchased for #b1jjj1jjj4 ,the water for this purpose can not be spared4 ,the canal is fed as far as ,middletown1 by a feeder from ,mad ,river4 ,at ,middletown we feed it from the ,miami1 which furnishes its supply of water to ,cincinnati1 a distance of forty-four miles4 ,the ,middletown ,hydraulic ,company have owned their rights since #ahjh1 long before the canal was constructed2 and when the canal was built there was no surrender of such right1 merely common consent to the use of the water1 but since that time more than double the amount of water is used than was contemplated4 8,by taking water to ,cincinnati from the river1 you injure the power supplied by the river at all points between ,middletown and ,cincinnati1 and you would find great objections raised by users of power along the canal4 ,the power derived from the canal is the life-blood of the town of ,middletown1 and of the mills along its banks--at ,excello1 ,woodsdale1 ,rockdale1 ,hamilton1 ,rialto1 ,port ,union1 ,crescentville1 ,lockland1 and other places4 ,the mills have large interests1 and would not surrender their rights without a struggle4 8,a large portion of the water of the ,miami1 and at the present time we might say half the volume of the water of the river is carried into ,cincinnati by the canal4 ,this is more than was ever contemplated1 and is destined to injure the water-power of the river itself40 ,the abandonment of the canal in the city1 will no doubt be accomplished within a short time1 when provisions should be made to provide a better use for this surplus water than turning it into ,millcreek4 ,monthly and annual quantity of water from rain and snow reduced to water1 in inches and hundredths1 at ,cincinnati1 ,ohio4 ,latitude #ci #f north1 longitude #hd #bi west4 ,,years4,,january4,,february4,,march4,,a pril4 ,,may4 ,,june4 ,,july4,,august4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahef #a4 #b4di #a4ea 4#gc #a4bc #b4bd #c4dc 4#fa ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #aheg 4#ed #a4ih 4#gf #b4gc #e4ec #c4ji #b4ej #b4ib ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #aheh #b4ej #a4gd #a4je #d4cd #h4cb #e4fi #c4ja #g4ig ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahei #b4eh #e4ib #d4ch #g4ec #b4cb #c4bb #a4gd #c4gi ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahfj #a4dc #a4ef 4#da #e4cb #c4fh #a4ee #g4ig 4#ib ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahfa #b4fh #a4ha #b4jh #c4hh #e4ia #c4hj #c4fb #g4aj ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahfb #d4gd #b4cf #e4hd #f4cj #c4cb #c4jb #c4je #a4di ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahfc #e4ee #c4je #d4cg #b4ac #b4hd #c4aa #c4ba #b4ii ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahfd #a4he 4#ii 4#ij #b4dc #b4cd #c4dc #a4be #c4db ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahfe #b4de #b4dc #d4dj #c4hi #g4gb #b4ei #g4gg #b4bf ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahff #b4gd #a4bf #e4jf #b4jc 4#id #d4dd #f4id #b4ge ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahfg #a4da #c4ef #b4ga #b4gd #c4hj #c4gc #a4fj #a4eg ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahfh #c4gb 4#eg #d4hg #b4gb #f4ji #e4fj #a4ba #d4fd ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahfi #a4fj #b4ea #e4jf #b4hg #e4ic #c4fj #e4cf #a4bj ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahgj #e4ce #a4ee #c4bf #a4ei #a4gd #d4hd #b4ch #j4eh ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahga #b4cd #c4ec #c4eg #a4bc #d4ff #b4jb #d4cj #e4bb ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahgb #c4aah #d4ah #b4dch #d4hij #d4cfb #c4ddb #g4abi #b4aia ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahgc #b4hjh #c4gag #a4ij #b4jih #c4hef #c4bia #c4ice #d4gff ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahgd #c4ie #e4ia #c4fe #d4jf #a4ch #b4eh #c4db #a4jc ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahge #a4ei #a4hc #c4fi #b4ab #c4ib #d4hc #i4fc #c4ag ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahgf #i4di #b4ib #e4jg #c4bf #a4be #f4ec #f4ia #f4ch ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahgg #b4cc 4#fg #e4dg #b4cb #a4bf #e4bd #d4be #b4bf ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahgh #d4cc #b4cc #d4jc #c4je #b4ec #e4jc #d4cb #d4aa ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahgi #b4bj #b4bb #e4cj #b4ad #d4bc #e4bb #b4ge #a4agb ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahhj #e4ad #d4ej #d4ae #e4hb #e4gj #i4hf #b4df #d4ja ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahha #c4gf #d4ie #c4ea #c4be #b4bc #g4hb #c4ab 4#gf ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,sum ,,of ,,years4,,september4,,october4,,november 4,,december4,,the ,,year4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahef #c4fb #a4gd #b4ji #b4ai #bb4hh ---------------------------------------- ----------- #aheg 4#ge #d4ib #e4cf #c4hb #cd4ij ---------------------------------------- ----------- #aheh 4#he #d4ff #b4eg #f4da #di4ag ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahei #b4aj #a4bh #d4df #c4ge #db4eg ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahfj #d4cd #a4bh #c4ec #a4he #cc4hd ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahfa #b4ic #c4gg #c4fb #a4aj #da4cj ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahfb 4#ic 4#hj #c4ig #c4ja #ch4hc ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahfc #c4aj #c4he #b4je #c4hj #dj4je ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahfd #h4ff #b4ib #c4dj #b4id #cd4ea ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahfe #e4gf 4#hf 4#ef #c4hi #d4ec ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahff #a4jee #a4he #c4jf #a4ih #dc4fj ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahfg #j4dg #b4je #b4bj #c4jg #bh4ia ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahfh #g4ai #a4cb #a4gj #b4jg #da4fj ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahfi #c4bj #b4ge #c4cj #b4df #ci4hd ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahgj 4#cj #b4gg #a4ej #b4ag #bh4jc ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahga #a4jh 4#ih #c4dj #c4ca #ce4fd ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahgb #c4agj #b4heb 4#hfh #e4ee #ce4dcc ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahgc #b4cdj #c4bab #b4eba #f4hdc #da4aic ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahgd #b4cc #a4ca #e4ce #b4eh #cg4ee ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahge 4#fe #c4je #d4ce #c4ge #db4eh ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahgf #c4ag #d4bf #b4cf 4#hh #eb4dh ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahgg #a4ff #a4he #c4di #c4ce #cd4fe ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahgh #b4hd #b4ci #b4gg #c4hi #da4fb ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahgi #d4ja 4#fe #d4je #g4aa #ea4fj ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahhj #a4cg #b4ih #d4db #d4bf #ed4fg ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahha #b4aj #f4ja #d4jf #e4fg #dg4bd ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahef to #ahga the observations were taken by ,prof4 ,g4 ,w4 ,harper2 #ahgb to #ahgd by the ,city ,water-,works1 and the last years by the ,signal ,service4 ,illustration3 ,,daily ,,stage ,,of ,,the ,,ohio ,,river ,,for #ahhj4 ,no4 #d4 ,,kirkwood',s ,,survey4 ,in #ahfe the common council appointed a special commission to investigate and report upon the best method of obtaining an abundant supply of pure and wholesome water4 ,the committee consisted of ,l4 ,a4 ,harris1 mayor2 ,thos4 ,h4 ,weasner1 president of council2 ,d4 ,t4 ,woodrow1 ,henry ,pearce1 and ,henry ,kessler1 trustees of water-works1 ,geo4 ,f4 ,davis1 ,wm4 ,p4 ,wiltsee1 and ,chas4 ,brown1 who succeeded ,r4 ,b4 ,moore1 members of council2 and ,a4 ,w4 ,gilbert1 city engineer4 ,they secured the services of the most eminent of engineers1 ,john ,p4 ,kirkwood1 of ,new ,york4 ,his instructions were to ascertain the most economical and practical mode of supplying pure water1 either from the gathering grounds by gravity1 or by pumping from the ,ohio ,river4 ,no scheme was to be considered that would not provide at least thirty millions daily1 with resources for future necessities4 ,this limitation rejected ,lick ,run and ,ross ,run entering ,millcreek2 ,west ,fork and ,east ,branch of ,millcreek1 ,duck ,creek and ,sycamore ,creek entering ,little ,miami ,river4 ,those that presented fair prospects for the collection of water as regards quantity were3 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,situation ,,at ,,connecting ,,point4 ---------------------------- ,,elevation ,,above ,,low ,,water ,,at ,,distance ,,from ,,cincinnati1 ,,cincinnati1 ,,feet4 ,,miles4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,i4 ,the great ,miami ,valley-- ,clear ,creek #bgj #di ,gregory ,creek #bbj #ch ,dick's ,creek1 below ,middletown1 was found to be very unfavorable for reservoirs ,,ii4 ,little ,miami ,valley-- ,muddy ,creek #bbb #cb ,turtle ,creek #bbj #cc ,,iii4 ,valley of ,millcreek-- ,west branch of ,millcreek #aif #af ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,drainage ,,degree ,,of ,,area1 ,,hardness1 ,,sq4 ,,miles4 ,,in ,u4 ,s4 ,,remarks4 ,,gallons4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,i4 ,the great ,miami ,valley-- ,clear ,creek #ci4i #ae4ea ,gregory ,creek #af #ac4ca after ,dick's ,creek1 below ,middletown1 boiling4 was found to be very unfavorable for reservoirs ,,ii4 ,little ,miami ,valley-- ,muddy ,creek #aj4be #i4hc ,turtle ,creek #bg #aa4ce ,,iii4 ,valley of ,millcreek-- ,west branch of ,millcreek #bh4e #i4ag ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,the objections to these waters were3 #a4 ,the hardness2 #b4 ,the contamination of richly manured farms2 #c4 ,the uncertainty of the availability of the water-sheds4 ,to produce the thirty millions it required the combined area of ,clear and ,gregory creeks1 besides large storage reservoirs for dry seasons4 ,the distance of latter creek is #ch miles from the city1 and #ae feet below flow-line of ,eden ,reservoir4 ,he considered the waters of the ,ohio most preferable providing the water was taken above the city limits4 ,the plan embraced a pumping service with two lifts1 to be located in ,pendleton1 with storage and settling reservoirs and filter-beds4 ,the elevation of reservoir was #bjj feet above low water1 and would not supply elevations above #age feet4 ,the estimates were3 ,three settling reservoirs1 #cha1dcf4jb ,two filter-beds1 #ead1bbj4ej ,storage reservoir of #ci acres1 #fce1chf4ej ,pumping house and foundations for low service works1 #aid1hbb4hj ,pumping house and foundations for high service works1 #gg1bhe4ge ,pumping engines--two for low service and two for high service1 #cj millions capacity1 #djb1ejj4jj ,force-main1 with river inlets1 #aai1igi4ej ,forty-two-inch supply main to ,third ,street ,reservoir1 #deg1cee4jj ,lands and damages1 etc41 #aje1bbe4jj ,auxiliary pumping engine and reservoir for ,walnut ,hills1 #aej1jjj4jj ------------- ,total1 #c1jch1bad4jg ,the majority of the committee in recommending the plan stated2 8that they regarded the question1 as to the source of supply1 as definitely settled for all time1 that the ,ohio ,river is the only means from whence this city should derive her supply of water4 ,the site is as high up the river as can well be obtained without crossing the ,little ,miami40 ,this latter consideration they thought would be demanded fifty or one hundred years hence4 ,the minority report recommended the retaining of the present system1 and the construction of a new reservoir in ,eden ,park1--the minority report was adopted4 ,had the ,eden ,reservoir been completed within a reasonable period it would have served the purpose intended1 at least for a few years1 but before it was ready for use the consumption of water increased from five1 to seventeen millions daily4 ,no4 #e4 ,,ohio ,,river4 ,the ,ohio ,river above ,cincinnati has a water-shed area1 estimated by ,u4 ,s4 ,census ,bureau1 of #ajj1jjj square miles1 one-tenth of which is of limestone formation4 ,the hardness of the water varies in proportion to the contribution from this formation4 ,the water1 at the mouth of the ,big ,sandy1 is 4#h of a degree hardness2 at ,markley ,farm1 #d to #h2 at ,dayton sand-beach1 #g to #h2 at pump-works1 #f to #h2 ,eden reservoir1 #g to #i2 ,eggleston ,avenue sewer1 #g to #ac2 wells in the banks of the river at ,dayton sand-beach1 #cb to #ci2 and those at ,sedamsville #ej to #fj degrees4 ,the well water is upland surface water4 ,in fact1 all borings in the banks of the river secure1 in more or less degree1 this nature of water4 ,in the south-western part of this ,state1 the river flows over the bedded rocks of the ,cincinnati group1 its waters alternately impinging on one side of its banks1 and depositing its earthy matters1 through the influence of sluggish currents and eddies1 on the opposite side1 and forming what might be termed accidental beds1 as in the case of the ,dayton sand-beach4 ,the material deposited is an argillaceous substance2 and1 with the friction and influence of the water1 is partly transformed into quicksand4 ,the beds do not form a part of the river in low water1 as depicted by the sketch in the last report of the ,board of ,health4 ,the sediment in the ,mississippi water1 at ,st4 ,louis1 is nearly two per cent4 of the bulk of the water2 the largest portion 7#idd in #a1jjj7 depositing itself within #bd hours4 ,the ,ohio ,river water1 at this point1 is1 at times1 almost as bad4 ,the sediment forms a tenacious and impervious clay1 so susceptible of solidification that conductors of river water are only kept open by a constant flow of water4 ,the volume of water passing down the ,ohio ,river is an extremely variable one4 ,no special gauging1 however1 has ever been made to ascertain the quality2 but from the surface velocities1 measured by the ,chief ,engineer of the ,southern ,railway1 we can approximately arrive at the figures ,at #c-;foot stage1 by ,water-,works mark1 the velocity was 4#ig miles per hour4 8 #f 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 #a4abe 8 8 8 8 #ah 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 #c4ea 8 8 8 8 #ba 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 #c4bj 8 8 8 8 #bg 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 #d4gj 8 8 8 8 #ca 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 #d4cj 8 8 8 8 #da 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 #e4jjb 8 8 8 ,the slope of water surface1 from water-works to bridge1 was 4#cfg of a foot for low stage2 for average stage1 4#djc of a foot2 and 4#dae of a foot per mile for high stage4 ,the approximate flow of water in cubic feet per second at the ,southern ,railway ,bridge is #e1jjj feet for minimum stage1 #ajj1jjj feet for mean stage1 and #djj1jjj for maximum stage4 ,the minimum flow of the ,schuylkill is #cgh cubic feet per second2 the ,delaware1 #b1jjj cubic feet2 the ,merrimack1 #b1ajj cubic feet2 and the ,thames ,river1 #gjj cubic feet4 ,investigations of the influence on our climate1 by the removal of the forests1 develop the fact that streams1 utilized for water-power1 have become less constant in their flow than formerly4 ,the ,ohio ,river has of late years exhibited greater fluctuations of levels than ever known1 and has lost its prestige as a reliable channel of navigation4 ,prof4 ,newburg1 in ,vol4 ,i of the ,geological ,survey of ,ohio1 records an instant where a large rock1 at ,smith's ,ferry1 has recently become so fully exposed that on its surface inscriptions were found1 that are ascribed to a race which once populated this country anterior to the nomadic ,indians4 ,there are about #gh villages and towns and #ac cities on the ,ohio ,river between ,cincinnati and ,pittsburgh1 a distance of #dfj miles4 ,the population on this portion of the river1 and its contributing streams1 is over #c millions4 ,the average population1 per square mile of drainage area1 on the ,ohio ,river is #dg2 above ,cincinnati1 #ce2 on the ,great ,miami1 #aji2 on the ,delaware1 #agf2 on the ,hudson1 #agb2 on the ,merrimack1 #ib2 on the ,susquehanna1 #fb2 on the ,connecticut1 #gh2 on the ,potomac1 #ed2 on the ,schuylkill1 #de2 on the ,thames1 above water-works1 #cjj4 ,considerable space has been devoted to ,river ,pollution1 to which attention is directed4 ,the following remarks1 however1 afford comparative results for the ,ohio ,river4 ,the comparative merits of river waters1 as expressed in analytic results of pounds of sewage in each million gallons1 are1 for the ,ohio water at ,dayton sand-beach1 4#hb2 at ,markley ,farm1 #a4jj2 at the pumping works1 #a4ha2 at ,eden reservoir1 #a4gh2 at ,eggleston ,avenue sewer1 #d4da2 the ,croton water1 ,new ,york1 4#ih2 ,glasgow1 ,scotland1 water1 4#fe2 ,thames ,river1 #d4ia2 ,london supply1 #a4cc2 ,fresh pond1 ,cambridge1 ,massachusetts1 #a4ej2 ,mystic ,river1 ,boston1 #a4hg2 ,schuylkill ,river1 ,philadelphia1 #a4eh2 ,merrimack1 above ,lowell1 4#ic2 above ,lawrence1 4#ij2 below ,lawrence1 #a4jc4 ,the ,thames and ,lea ,rivers have been condemned by the ,rivers ,pollution ,commission because1 as they say1 there is no hope of remedying their disgusting condition1 notwithstanding the parliamentary laws for their protection against pollution4 ,the ,schuylkill ,river is the principal source of supply for ,philadelphia1 but its water is very suspicious4 ,above ,reading1 it is unfit for manufacturing and culinary purposes1 owing to the large amount of sulphuric acid4 ,this acid is1 however1 neutralized and considerably reduced before the water reaches ,philadelphia4 ,the ,fairmount pool is polluted by cess-pool and slaughter-house drainage4 ,the following means to restore and maintain the purity of the ,schuylkill water has been suggested by ,dr4 ,cresson3 #a4 ,the diversion of all sewage1 now flowing into the pool of ,fairmount dam1 into another channel4 #b4 ,the diversion of all sewage1 containing fcal and animal matter1 flowing into the river below ,flat ,rock4 #c4 ,the filtration of the sewage from all mills1 to exclude solid matter1 animal or vegetable4 #d4 ,the exclusion of ammonia waste and surface wash from gas-works1 cemeteries1 etc4 #e4 ,the cultivation of fish and of suitable plant life in and upon the waters of the river4 #f4 ,the erection of suitable cascades over the reservoirs1 so as to secure the benefits of aeration to as great extent as possible4 #g4 ,the employment of proper prophylactic and curative agents as occasion may require4 ,boston obtained legislative power to protect ,pegan ,brook from sewage pollution4 ,test cases1 to compel manufacturers to provide some other means of disposing of their drainage1 were carried to the ,supreme ,court1 and decided in favor of the city4 ,similar cases will be brought against other offenders4 ,in the meantime the pollution continues4 ,the same authorities procured a law to protect ,mystic ,lake1 and provide other channels for sewage4 ,the provisions of the act were held to be impracticable1 and the law is now a dead letter4 ,the self-purification of river water is not recognized by some authorities1 but equally good authorities value its merits4 ,the following observations on this subject are particularly applicable to ,cincinnati3 8,the most efficacious means to get rid of the sewage is not to put it into the river at all4 8,a chemist can tell you the amount of organic matter contained in the water1 but that covers an infinite variety of matters4 ,he has no means of discrimination as to what is really the ferment--the infectious material--of cholera from a great number of other organic matters4 8,the question is1 not whether the chemist would find out the organic matter1 so much as it is1 whether the germs that disseminate the disease still have their property further down the river4 ,this can only be solved by the effects4 ,you might go on using the water for years1 and it might not be discovered until some outbreak of disease occurs directly attributable to the water40 ,the practical sanitary experiment would then be solved1 but at the expense of a number of lives4 ,dr4 ,klob1 of ,vienna1 has discovered1 in the evacuations of cholera patients1 millions and millions of microscopic fungi similar in form to a mushroom4 ,there are1 above the ,cincinnati pumping works1 six sewers discharging their filth into the ,ohio ,river1 besides the fcal drainage of no less than five thousand privies1 all within a radius of less than three miles4 ,now1 the quality of such water is readily established1 for we are putting the sewage into the water knowing there are no means to get rid of it4 ,,ohio ,,river ,,statement1 ,,showing ,,the ,,highest1 ,,lowest1 ,,and ,,average ,,stages ,,for ,,each ,,year ,,at ,,cincinnati ,,water-,,works4 ,,average ,,for ,,year4 ,,highest ,,stage4 ,,lowest ,,stage4 ,,the ,,year4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,date4 ,,feet4 ,,in4 ,,date4 ,,feet4 ,,in4,,feet4 ,,in4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #ahcb ,february #ah #fb #aa #ahdg ,december #ag #fb #c #aheh ,june #af #dc #aj ,october #c;d #b #e #ab #aj #ahei ,february #bb;d #ee #e ,september #aith #c #c #ag #g #ahfj ,april #afth #di #b ,october #c;d #e #d #af -- #ahfa ,april #aith #di #e ,july #acth #e #a #ai #a #ahfb ,january #bdth #eg #d ,october #cast #b #d #ag #e #ahfc ,march #abth #db #i ,october #fth #b #f #ae -- #ahfd ,december #bc;d #de #a ,august #fth #c #a #af #h #ahfe ,march #gth #ef #c ,october #aith #e #h #ba #aj #ahff ,september #bf #db #f ,august #agth #d #i #ai #b #ahfg ,march #ad #ee #h ,october #aith #c -- #ag -- #ahfh ,march #cjth #dh #c ,july #bast #e #a #ah #h #ahfi ,april #b;d #dh #i ,august #bast #e #d #ai #h #ahgj ,january #aith #ee #c ,october #dth #c #aj #ag #aj #ahga ,may #acth #dj #f ,october #abth #b #h #aa #aj #ahgb ,april #acth #da #i ,october #adth #c -- #aa #h #ahgc ,december #ahth #dd #e ,october #a8th #c #h #ah #e #ahgd ,january #aath #dg #aa ,september #bb;d #b #d #ae #h #ahge ,august #fth #ee #d ,september #aith #d #c #ah #i #ahgf ,january #bith #ea #i ,september #dth #f #b #ah #b #ahgg ,january #bjth #ec #i ,october #ith #c #c #ae -- #ahgh ,december #aeth #da #d ,october #bdth #d #d #af #i #ahgi ,december #bgth #db #i ,october #bc;d #b #f #ad #f #ahhj ,february #agth #ec #b ,october #bhth #c #i #ag -- #ahha ,february #afth #ej #g ,september #ahth #a #aa #af #aa ,a recent examination of the currents of the river passing the inlets was conclusive that the ,eggleston ,avenue sewer1 #a1jjj feet below1 could have no effect on our water supply4 ,be this as it may1 its proximity taxes our delicate tastes4 ,the location of the inlet of the ,shield aqueduct is not a desirable one1 being at the revetment wall1 past which all the shore water flows4 ,the small aqueduct certainly can not be improved1 its inlet being sixty feet beyond the wall1 where the currents produce the best water obtainable4 ,the value of changing the location of the intakes can be illustrated to a good advantage by the experience of ,london during the cholera epidemic of #ahed4 ,after the epidemic of #ahdi1 the ,lambeth ,water ,company moved their intakes to ,teddington1 beyond the range of ,london sewage2 while their competitor1 the ,southwark ,company1 continued to take its water close to one of the sewers4 ,their respective water-pipes interlaced each other2 and of the #bf1jjj houses supplied by the ,lambeth ,company1 there were only #bid deaths in #ahed1 while in #dj1jjj houses1 supplied by the other company1 there were #b1bhd deaths4 ,,scowden',s ,,survey ,,of ,,markley ,,farm4 ,on the #bith of ,april1 #ahga1 the ,trustees of ,water-,works1 in response to the ,council1 submitted a report to them upon the necessity of a new water supply4 ,on the ensuing #ith of ,june1 the ,council ordered that a competent engineer be employed to examine sites1 and report upon the most suitable location for water-works1 with plans1 estimates of cost1 etc4 ,mr4 ,t4 ,r4 ,scowden was accordingly appointed2 and1 on the #ith of ,september of the same year1 he submitted a supplemental report1 recommending1 in the highest terms1 the 8,markley ,farm0 site4 ,upon his recommendation1 the property was purchased for the sum of #bb1cba4ej1 consisting of #adf acres1 with a river frontage of #b1jjj feet4 ,the principal points upon which the recommendation was based were3 8,the site known as ,markley ,farm is a point where the water of the ,ohio ,river is deep and free from drainage or any other vitiating influence to affect its quality1 perhaps for a century to come1 if ever4 ,the shore is bold1 and1 with the bed of the river1 is of gravel and rock formation1 washed clean by an active current at all seasons of the year4 ,pumping works may be located at this point without any objectionable and expensive inlet-pipe2 while the adjacent hills afford an excellent site for a storage reservoir1 #cjg feet above extreme low water1 and #ge feet above the ,garden of ,eden ,reservoir4 ,on the lower level there is a fine plateau for locating1 not only the pumping house1 but subsiding reservoirs and filtering basins4 8,the force-main extending from the pump house to the storage reservoir will be short1 or about #a1dej feet long1 whereas1 works located on the second site1 or any other sites examined1 would require force mains several thousand feet in length4 ,by the first site1 water from the river would be lifted by the pumps and forced to the reservoir with the least amount of power1 friction1 and expense of fuel to do the work4 ,this site also commands an excellent and safe landing for boats supplying the works with coal4 8,the analyses of waters lately taken at the ,water-,works and at the ,markley ,farm clearly indicate the superior quality1 purity1 and healthfulness of the latter4 8,it has been suggested that the offal from one or more distilleries1 said to be in operation at ,new ,richmond1 some ten miles above the ,markley ,farm1 would leave its taint in the water reaching the latter point4 ,my answer is1 that in this case the river1 so slightly affected at ,new ,richmond1 and flowing ten miles to reach the ,markley ,farm1 would1 from agitation and dilution1 and from the well-known self-purifying property of water1 become pure40 ,regarding the other sites surveyed he said3 8,the second1 but objectionable1 site for water-works was found some three miles above the ,garden of ,eden reservoir1 and about the same distance below the mouth and offensive discharge of the ,little ,miami ,river4 ,this location1 although favorable in many respects1 intercepts the drainage of the upper portion of the city1 and all of that from the ,miami ,valley emptied into the ,ohio ,river1 which renders that site wholly inadmissible for water-works purposes4 8,the valley of the ,miami forms a water-shed of several hundred square miles in area4 ,upon the surface of this vast plain is deposited the dead carcasses of animals1 and the droppings from cattle of all kinds4 ,the ground is covered with decayed vegetable matter1 and the soaking of stable-yards1 hog-pens1 slaughter-houses1 distilleries1 stagnant pools1 etc4 ,the refuse is washed off by rain storms into the ,miami1 which is the common receptacle1 and thence into the ,ohio ,river4 8,it is only necessary1 first1 to disease the water1 then disease the man2 and it is clear1 therefore1 that water-works located below the ,miami would1 by wholesale pollution1 disease the whole community4 8,there is no city in the civilized world so regardless of the cleanliness and health of its citizens as to adopt a plan of water supply to foist upon them the concentrated filth from sewerage and the impurities of a stream1 the water of which is only fit for mill-power1 manufacturing purposes1 and for cattle to drink2 and ,i did not think that ,cincinnati was emulous of setting the example4 8,with regard to intermediate points between the county line and the mouth of the ,little ,miami ,river1 ,i found the ,ohio ,river lined with sand-bars1 some of which projected from the shore nearly to the middle of the river1 miles in length2 while the bottom or bed of the river was1 for the most part1 covered with logs and craggy stones40 ,his plan embraced the construction of pumping works for raising the water1 first1 from the river into subsiding and filter reservoirs1 and then pumping it a second time into storage reservoirs4 ,the water was to flow1 through #aj miles of #db-;inch supply mains1 into ,eden ,reservoir4 ,the capacity of the pumps was estimated at #fj millions daily4 ,the recapitulation of cost was3 ,for ,engine-,house and ,grounds #cab1gij4jj ,for ,pumping ,engines #gej1jjj4jj ,for ,force ,mains #ib1acj4jj ,for ,storage ,reservoirs #eba1ebi4de ,for ,subsiding ,reservoirs #efj1beb4jj ,for ,clear-,water ,well #ad1ffi4fj ,for principal ,supply ,main1 two lines #a1haa1jgh4jj ,miscellaneous expenses #fj1ejj4jj ------------ #d1aca1idi4je ,add ten per cent #dac1aid4ij ------------- ,total cost #d1ede1adc4ie ,in conclusion1 he said3 8,i1 therefore1 regard the first and best site1 known as the ,markley ,farm1 as one commanding all the advantages sought1 where works may be erected combining greater simplicity of construction1 economy of cost1 and maintenance when put in operation1 than could be built at any of the other points mentioned40 ,no4 #g4 ,,moore',s ,,survey4 ,on the #bc;d of ,january1 #ahhb1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,g4 ,moore1 ,superintendent of the ,cincinnati ,water-,works1 submitted a communication to the ,board of ,public ,works relative to the present condition of the pumping works and its future requirements4 ,from it we arrange the following3 8,the present pumps are deficient2 that during the summer of #ahha the daily demands exceeded1 at times1 their capacity2 and on one particular day there was a deficiency of over six million gallons4 ,the engines are generally of light construction1 and not sufficient for any increased loads4 ,they are expensive in operation and maintenance4 ,first-class engines of to-day would save two-thirds of the fuel used4 ,the principal reliance1 during the summer1 is the large 8,shield0 engine1 which is most extravagant on fuel1 and has a wrought-iron force-main1 of weak material1 intrenched #ce feet below the surface of the street4 ,some of the boilers are of an age that require them to be treated with the greatest care1 and should be condemned4 ,the principal buildings do not afford protection or access to the pumps in case of derangement during average high water4 ,the hill-top service is inadequate1 and a larger and more comprehensive system should be adopted for the supply of the increasing territory4 8,the subject of increasing capacity requires immediate attention2 and should the removal of the works be deemed inadvisable1 it will become essential to at once proceed with the erection of machinery1 buildings1 aqueduct1 and aqua-fort at the old works4 ,the cost of these improvements is placed at #a1cid1jjj2 reserve engine for #ahhd1 #fah1jjj2 and sewer in ,front ,street1 to carry the sewage below the works1 #a1fjj1jjj4 ,total1 #c1fab1jjj40 ,his plan for ,markley ,farm provides for one lift of #cje feet1 with three compound pumping engines of #ajj million capacity1 subsiding and storage reservoirs1 and one effluent-main #fb inches in diameter4 ,the estimate is condensed as follows3 ,aqua-fort and buildings #daj1jjj4jj ,engines and boilers for #ajj million capacity #a1bee1jjj4jj ,three subsiding reservoirs of earth and masonry embankments1 with #ij acres of water surface #a1hcf1ejj4jj ,effluent-main1 including #ee1jjj feet of #fb-;inch pipe1 from the ,farm to ,eden ,reservoir1 and #ah1jjj feet #a1hjd1jjj4jj of #dh-;inch1 from ,eden ,reservoir to ,harrison ,avenue ,contingencies #dfj1jjj4jj ------------- ,total #e1gbe1jjj4jj ,the important question is presented by him1 which the public must decide1 namely1 whether it is a prudent policy to expend four millions of dollars to improve the old works1 and retain all the expensive and unreliable machinery1 and still supply an impure and turbid water2 or to expend an additional two millions for an entire new system1 from a source where a supply of pure and clear water can be secured1 commensurate with the growing city4 ,he also embodies1 by way of comparison1 the following estimate for locating the works on the ,kentucky side of the river3 ,for right of way and property1 ,state and municipal #ejj1jjj ,aqua-fort and buildings #daj1jjj ,three engines1 with boilers complete #a1bee1jjj ,subsiding ,reservoirs #a1hcf1jjj ,effluent-mains1 #bc1jjj feet #ecc1jjj ,tunnel for pumping main #bgj1jjj ,tunnel under the ,ohio ,river1 #c1jjj feet #hbe1jjj ,thirty-inch main to ,eastern ,avenue1 #bb1ejj feet #bja1jjj ,contingencies #eej1jjj ---------- ,total for ,newport plan #f1cha1jjj ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,cost ,,of ,,constructing ,,water-,,works4 ,the cost of constructing water-works varies very much1 according to local features1 geological structure1 and kind of scheme most suitable to the place4 ,in ,great ,britain1 gravitation schemes cost from #aj to #ac1 and pumping schemes from #g to #aj1 per inhabitant4 ,the average cost per head1 for ,london1 was #bj2 for ,liverpool1 #bj2 for ,bradford1 ,england1 #ce2 for ,halifax1 ,england1 #be2 for ,dundee1 ,scotland1 #cj2 for ,glasgow1 #ae2 for ,manchester and ,sheffield 7each7 #ab per head4 ,the average cost for a supply of #bj imperial gallons per day1 per head1 for #ff towns of ,great ,britain having gravitation supplies1 was #h2 for #dh towns1 with pumping system1 #e4hj2 and for #aa towns1 having both systems1 #g4 ,from the annual report of ,chicago1 for #ahhj1 we take the following cost1 per capita1 for water-works construction3 ,detroit1 #bc4aa2 ,newark1 ,n4 ,j41 #ai4jh2 ,wilmington1 ,del41 #bj4gc2 ,buffalo1 #ah4bi2 ,cincinnati1 #bf4bj2 ,milwaukee1 #ai4be2 ,columbus1 ,o41 #ah4ad2 ,louisville1 ,ky41 #be4jd2 ,cleveland1 ,o41 #af4hd2 ,providence1 ,r4 ,i41 #eb4gd2 ,boston 7gravity supply71 #dd4df2 ,manchester1 ,n4 ,h4 7water pumping power71 #bd4bd2 ,hartford1 ,conn4 7gravity71 #ce4fj2 ,new ,york 7gravity71 #cd4ch1 ,st4 ,louis1 #bf4jg2 ,chicago1 #ag4di4 ,the ,engineering ,news1 of ,new ,york1 ,vol4 ,,ix1 ,no4 #d1 contains valuable tables on construction1 and other valuable water-works statistics1 from which the following is compiled3 ,average cost of construction1 per capita1 for ,american cities having stand-pipe system1 with #ej1jjj population1 #bj4gj2 for #cj1jjj1 #ab2 for #ae1jjj1 #af2 for #aj1jjj1 #ac4cj4 ,average cost of construction1 per capita1 for direct pumping system1 for #ge1jjj1 #af2 for #dj1jjj1 #ac4dj2 for #be1jjj1 #ac4hj2 for #ae1jjj1 #ba4gj2 for #aj1jjj1 #af4dj2 for #e1jjj1 from #h to #ab4 ,average cost of construction1 per capita1 for reservoir pumping system1 for #ajj1jjj population1 #bb4ej2 for #ge1jjj1 #ba4ej2 for #ej1jjj1 #ae4be2 for #ce1jjj1 #bb4ej2 for #be1jjj1 #cc4bj2 for #ae1jjj1 #bb4dj2 for #aj1jjj1 from #aj to #cb2 for #e1jjj1 from #h to #dj4 ,average cost of construction1 per capita1 for gravitation works1 for #ej1jjj population1 #bf2 for #cj1jjj1 from #ag to #dj2 for #bj1jjj1 from #af to #cj2 for #aj1jjj1 from #aj to #cj2 for #e1jjj1 from #e to #be2 for #c1jjj1 from #ag to #dj4 ,,revenue ,,and ,,expense4 ,the average water-rent receipts1 for #ahhj1 per mile of water pipe in use1 was #b1jbb for ,chicago1 #c1bjj for ,new ,york1 #a1icb for ,philadelphia1 #b1gcj for ,boston1 #c1cjg for ,brooklyn1 #b1ahc for ,baltimore1 #c1aab for ,st4 ,louis1 #b1fdg for ,cincinnati1 #a1fjj for ,louisville1 #a1faa for ,cleveland1 #a1hba for ,detroit1 #b1jfj for ,buffalo1 #a1ejj for ,milwaukee1 #a1gdf for ,indianapolis2 #a1abh for ,columbus1 ,ohio1 #c1eef for ,pittsburgh1 #cig for ,washington1 and #fah for ,toledo1 ,ohio4 ,the cost of maintenance1 for stand-pipe system1 varies from #aj to #ij per cent4 of revenue2 for direct pumping1 from #cj to #adj per cent4 of revenue2 for reservoir pumping1 for large cities1 from #ab to #cg per cent4 of revenue2 for small cities1 from #ab to #abj per cent4 of revenue2 and new works1 from #ab to #fj per cent4 of revenue2 for gravitation works1 from #ac to #abj per cent4 of revenue4 ,the revenue and the cost of maintenance 7exclusive of interest71 for each #a1jjj gallons of water pumped1 are respectively3 ,philadelphia1 #e4gg and #a4bh cents2 ,st4 ,louis1 #f4ia and #b4ee cents2 ,chicago1 #d4ab and #a4ah cents2 ,detroit1 #d4ji and #hb cents2 ,buffalo1 #c4ej and #a4jj cents2 ,new ,york1 #d4g and one cent2 ,cleveland1 #e4dc and #a4e cents2 ,cincinnati1 #g4ja and #b4f cents4 ,the revenue received1 for each #a1jjj gallons delivered1 is #ae4eb cents at ,liverpool1 ,england2 #ad4ce cents at ,berlin1 ,germany2 #h4ac cents at ,dresden1 and #d cents at ,hamburg4 ,the comparative annual water-rent charges for a large house1 in different cities1 are as follows3 ,columbus1 ,ohio1 #bc4ej2 ,lawrence1 ,mass41 #bj2 ,providence1 ,r4 ,i41 #ca2 ,brooklyn1 #bi4be2 ,buffalo1 #dc4ej2 ,detroit1 #bc4be2 ,cincinnati1 #bh4gc2 ,cleveland1 #ba4ej2 ,chicago1 #cd2 ,philadelphia1 #bg4ge2 ,pittsburgh1 #ga4ej2 ,milwaukee1 #cd4ej2 ,louisville1 #ea4ej4 ,the meter rate charges1 per #a1jjj gallons1 are #aj to #dj cents at ,boston2 #aj cents at ,chicago2 #aj4b at ,cincinnati2 #g to #bj at ,columbus1 ,ohio2 #ae cents at ,brooklyn2 #ac at ,baltimore2 #f to #ab at ,cleveland2 #bj to #cj at ,buffalo2 #ae cents at ,philadelphia2 #g cents at ,new ,york2 and #cj cents at ,providence1 ,rhode ,island4 ,the meter rates1 per #a1jjj ,u4 ,s4 gallons1 at ,stuttgart1 ,germany1 are #aa cents for filtered river water1 #e cents for lake water1 and #ae cents for spring water4 ,the rates1 at ,frankfort-on-the-,main1 are #c4g to #e cents2 at ,hamburg1 ,germany1 #h cents2 at ,leipsic1 #g to #i cents2 at ,berlin1 ,germany1 #f to #be cents2 at ,dublin1 ,ireland1 #f to #aa cents2 and at ,glasgow1 ,scotland1 #ae cents per #a1jjj ,u4 ,s4 gallons4 ,the average dividend paid by the water companies of ,great ,britain1 in #ahgj1 was #g per cent4 ,,water ,,pipes4 ,the different kinds of water pipes in use are made of wood1 cast-iron1 wrought-iron1 and glass4 ,for adapting wrought pipe to practical use1 various methods have been resorted to1 that of coating with asphaltum1 enameling1 galvanizing1 and lining inside and covering outside with cement4 ,the latter method has been adopted by a number of water-works2 but the liability to corrosion1 from imperfect work and material1 has caused its abandonment in a number of places4 ,the ,spring ,valley ,water ,company1 of ,san ,francisco1 have in use a number of wrought-iron riveted pipes1 coated with asphaltum1 of #bj to #db inches in diameter4 ,they are made of ,no4 #ab to #ad iron 7,birmingham wire gauge71 and have a hydrostatic pressure upon them of from #bjj to #djj feet4 ,virginia ,city 7,nevada7 water-works laid two lines of wrought-iron pipe across the ,washoe ,valley1 #g miles wide--one of #ab-;inch riveted pipe1 and the other of #aj-;inch enameled1 lap-welded tubes4 ,the pressure on the pipe at the bottom of the valley is #gej pounds4 ,the enormous pressure has caused a number of rivets to give out4 ,on the test for the respective capacities1 the #aj-;inch pipe delivered #b millions per day1 against two millions for the #ab-;inch pipe4 ,hard water has but little effect on cast-iron pipe1 due to the carbonates2 but soft water attacks it so vigorously1 that it not only gives a turbid appearance to the water1 but seriously weakens the pipe by corrosion1 and the consequent formation of concretions that reduce the capacity of the pipe4 ,hard water also causes the formation of lime deposits1 that offer great impediments to the flow of water4 ,these obstructions are now removed by boring tools forced through the pipe by the hydrostatic pressure4 ,the ,superintendent of the ,halifax 7,n4 ,s47 ,water-,works records the cleansing of a #ab-;inch main1 #cb1jjj feet long1 in three-fourths of an hour4 ,the preservation of cast-iron pipes1 and the prevention of these concretions1 are now accomplished by carefully dipping the pipe1 previously heated to a temperature of #cjj degrees1 in a bath of distilled coal tar1 mixed1 to a proper consistency1 with linseed oil1 or an oil of the tar4 ,the ,rivers ,pollution ,commission condemned the common practice of using hemp in pipe joints1 because it affords a nidus for the breeding1 development1 and decay of animalcul4 ,turned joints were recommended4 ,the results of the observations of this commission prove conclusively than the commonly received opinion1 that soft water necessarily acts upon lead pipes1 is erroneous4 ,the ,loch ,katrine water1 which is notorious for dissolving lead in water exposed to the open air1 yet no symptoms of lead poisoning have been discovered since its introduction1 eighteen years ago4 ,the water will act upon the lead at first1 but will ultimately coat the inside of the pipe with a vegetable deposit that prevents further deterioration4 ,the frictional head1 for a given diameter1 is as the square of the velocity nearly2 and1 for different diameters1 inversely as the diameters4 ,thus the loss of head1 for each #ajj feet of clean cast pipe1 the velocity being three feet per second1 is #a4ce feet for a #c-;inch pipe2 #a4jb for a #d-;inch2 4#fgi of a foot for a #f-;inch2 4#djg of a foot for a #aj-;inch2 4#bee for a #af-;inch1 and 4#bjd of a foot for a #bj inch pipe4 ,the mean coefficient of friction1 for cast-iron pipes of small size1 with velocities of three feet1 is 4#jjfdd for clean pipe2 4#jjhb for slightly tuberculated pipes1 and 4#jab for foul pipes4 ,,weights ,,of ,,cast-,,iron ,,pipe1 ,,with ,,allowance ,,added ,,for ,,bowl ,,and ,,spigot ,,ends4 ,weights in columns per foot lineal4 ,iron 4#bfjd per cubic inch4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,,inter',l ,,diam4 ,,in ,,inches4 ,,thickness ,,of ,,iron ,,shell ,,in ,,inches4 --------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #a #a #a #a #a #a #b ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #b #c #f #i4c #ad #ai #c #d #i #ab4e #ah #bc #d #e #aa #af #bc #cj #cg #dd #ec #e #f4e #ac #bj #bh #cf #dd #ec #fa #f #h #ae #bd #cc #dc #eb #fc #gb #h #aj #bj #cb4e #dd #ef #fh #ha #ic #aj #ad #bf #dj4e #ef #fi #hd #ii #aad #ab #ae #cj #dh #fe #hb #ajj #aag #ace #ad #ah #cf #ed #ge #ie #aae #acg #aei #af #bj #dj #fd #hf #ajh #acj #aed #agf #bj #bf #eb4e #gi #ajg #acd #afb #aij #baf #bd #cb #fc #ie #abg #afj #aib #bbe #bei #cj #dj #gh #aah #aeh #aih #bch #bgh #cah #ceh #ce #de #ij #ace #ahj #bbe #bgj #cae #cfj #dje #dej #die #edj #cf #dg #id #ada #ahh #bce #bhb #cce #chd #dcc #dhc #ecc #ehc #dj #eb #ajd #aef #bjh #bfj #cab #cfd #dac #dfe #eag #efi #fba #db #ee #aaj #afe #bba #bgf #cca #chf #ddb #dif #eeb #fjh #ffb #gah #dh #fc #abe #ahi #beb #cae #cgi #ddd #eaj #egc #fdj #gje #gga #ijdajci ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,water-,,works ,,statistics ,,from ,,reports ,,for #ahhj ,,and #ahha4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,gals4 of ,water ,cities of ,u4 ,s4 ,miles ,popul- per day ,no4 of ,no4 of of ,pipe4 ation4 per head4 ,taps4 ,meters4 ,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 #gg #ij1ijc #ee #b1hcb #aj ,baltimore #ebd #ccb1aij -- #di1jjj #ebd ,boston #ejj #dab1jjj #hg #fi1ejd #a1fca ,brooklyn #cej #eff1hhi #ed #fj1jjj #a1jhe ,buffalo #ajb #aee1acg #abb #i1jii -- ,chicago #dee #ejc1cjd #aad #fg1idi #b1aac ,cincinnati #aif #bfd1jjj #hj #bd1cjj #fjj ,cleveland #abe #afj1adb #fe #aj1jac #djb ,columbus1 ,o4 #ci #ea1ffe #da #b1aef #ecd ,detroit #bji #aaf1cdb #abg #bb1dfe #bi ,hartford1 ,conn4 #ga #db1eec #aai #d1bia -- ,indianapolis #dc #ge1jgd #dj #a1bjj #ab ,jersey ,city #cbc #abj1gbh #abb -- #bbj ,louisville #aaj #abc1fde #cc #g1bbe #bea ,milwaukee #hf #aae1egh #ge #f1hce -- ,new ,york #eaj #a1bjf1eij #hj #hj1jjj #eej ,newark1 ,n4 ,j4 #acf #acf1djj #fg #aj1ife #aej ,philadelphia #gdf #hdf1ihd #fg #aaj1jjj #cj ,pittsburgh #aab #aef1cha #ajb -- -- ,providence #aeb #aja1bee #ca #i1fia #d1jcf ,rochester #aac #hi1cfc #ef #g1ehh #ajj ,san ,francisco #bbj #bcc1ief #gj -- -- ,st4 ,louis #bab #cej1ebb #ga #bj1bjd #ihj ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #age #adg1cjg #agf #ag1jjj -- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,index4 ,,page4 ,,absorption of water1 #di ,,adkins ,,co41 charcoal filter plates1 #ca ,,alum1 use of1 #ca ,,altitudes of ,ohio1 #ig-ii1 #ajb1 #aji1 #aba ,,analyses of filtering materials1 #ca1 #cb ,,analysis of water--,methods of1 #h1 #aj ,sanitary value1 #aa ,surface water1 #dh ,tables of1 #i1 #aj1 #aag ,well water1 #dj1 #ajd1 #aji ,,aqueducts1 date of1 #ef ,description of1 #ec ,examples of1 #e1 #bf1 #ec1 #ga1 #gd1 #hh1 #ij ,roman aqueducts1 #e ,system of1 #ec ,,aeration1 effect of1 #ae1 #af1 #bj ,methods of1 #cc1 #cd ,value of1 #cc ,,arsenic in water1 #be ,,artesian ,,wells--,analysis of1 #aji ,boring and cost of1 #ajg ,at ,cincinnati1 #ajf ,description of1 #dj1 #db1 #dc1 #ajg ,examples of1 #db1 #dc1 #ij ,laws of1 #dj ,temperature of1 #db ,,baltimore--,aqueduct of1 #ee ,dams of1 #eh ,history of1 #gb ,water rates1 #abf1 #abg ,,berlin--,history of water-works1 #he ,meter rates1 #abg ,,bombay--,history of water-works1 #ia ,,bonded indebtedness water-works1 #gc1 #gd1 #gg1 #gi ,,borax1 use of1 #ca ,,boston--,aqueduct of1 #ed1 #ee ,dams of1 #eh ,history of water-works1 #gj ,pollution of water1 #be ,protection of water1 #aah ,water revenue expense1 #abf1 #abg ,,broad ,street pump1 ,london1 deaths from1 #ad ,,buffalo--,history of water-works1 #gc ,water revenue expense1 #abf1 #abg ,,carbide of ,iron1 value of1 #ca ,,carbonates in water1 #bd ,,cast-,,iron water pipes1 #abh ,,charcoal1 value of1 #ca ,,chicago--,his4 of water supply1 #bf1 #gj ,pumping engines1 cost of1 #fg ,tunnels1 description of1 #ee ,water revenue expense1 #abf1 #abg ,,cholera caused by impure water1 #ab1 #aah ,,cincinnati--,altitude of1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aad1 #aba ,anticlinal1 #ig ,aeration of water1 #cd ,cost of engines1 #fd1 #fg ,duty of engines1 #fb ,gravity supply1 water-sheds1 #aji ,hardness of water1 #aae ,history of water-works1 #gg ,kirkwood's survey1 #aac ,markley ,farm1 #abj ,moore's survey1 #abd ,newport plan1 #abe ,pollution of supply1 #aai1 #aba ,protection of supply1 #abd ,scowden's survey1 #abj ,riparian rights of1 #aaa ,water revenue expense1 #abf1 #abg ,well-water supply1 #ajb1 #ajf ,,clark',s system1 #cd1 #ce ,,cleaning water-pipes1 #abh ,,cleveland--,history of water supply1 #bf1 #gf ,,component parts of water1 #g ,,concretions in water pipe1 #abh ,,conduits--,see aqueducts4 ,,construction of water-works1 #aad1 #abe ,,consumption of water1 #aca ,,cost of water-works--,see historical account1 #fh ,,cornish engines1 #fa1 #fb1 #fi1 #ge1 #hc ,,covered reservoirs1 #cd1 #hc1 #ia ,,croton aqueduct1 #ec ,,dams1 #ef1 #eg1 #eh1 #ga1 #gf1 #hc1 #ic ,,dayton 7,ky47 sand-beach1 #aae ,,deposition of water1 #ah1 #bd ,,detroit--,new supply1 #bf ,,dilution of water1 #ah1 #bj ,,dividends of ,water ,companies1 #gf1 #he1 #abh ,,dresden--,history of water supply1 #hi ,,dublin--,aqueduct of1 #ed ,dams of1 #eg ,history of water supply1 #hd ,water rates1 #abg ,,duty1 tables of1 #fa1 #fb ,fuel expense1 #fg ,term of1 #fa ,,edinburgh--,history of water supply1 #hd ,,engines for pumping water1 #fa1 #fb1 #fd1 #fg1 #ha ,,evaporation1 tables of1 etc1 #di1 #eb1 #ij ,,filtration of water1 #bi1 #cb1 #hj1 #hb1 #hd1 #he1 #hf1 #hi1 #ij1 #aad ,,frankfort-,,on-,,the-,,main--,history of water supply1 #hh ,,friction in water pipes1 #abi ,,genoa 7,italy71 filtering gallery1 #bh ,,geology--,structure of1 for gravity supply1 #ej ,,geology of ,ohio1 #ic ,,glasgow--,aqueduct of1 #ec ,cholera epidemics1 #ac ,filtering gallery1 #bh ,history of water supply1 #hc ,value of its soft water1 #ce ,,gravitation--,cost of1 #eh1 #abe ,geological structure1 #ej ,examples of1 see ,chapter ,v1 #fh ,objectionable sites1 #ej ,points on1 #ej ,short supply1 #di ,surface water1 #dh ,system of supply1 #dg ,water-shed resources1 #di1 #ea1 #hd1 #he ,vegetable impurities1 #bf ,,great ,miami ,river1 #aaj1 #aaf ,,grenelle well1 #db ,,hamburg--,history of1 #hh ,water rates1 #abg ,,hardness of water1 #bd1 #cd1 #ce1 #aae1 #abh ,,hemp joint1 effect of1 #abi ,,high service1 examples of1 #fh1 #fi1 #ga1 #gg1 #gh ,,holly system1 #fa1 #fc1 #fd1 #gd ,,husband',s balance valve1 #ff ,,impurities in water1 #g1 #bb1 #bd1 #be1 #bf1 #cd1 #ce ,,india--,dams of1 #eg ,reservoirs of1 #f ,,indianapolis--,new supply1 #bf ,,infiltration1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi1 #hg ,,inspections for waste of water1 #hc1 #he ,,intakes1 change of1 #ab1 #abj ,,intercepting wells1 #df ,,kirkwood',s1 ,j4 ,p4 survey of1 #aac ,,laramie reservoir1 #aaj ,,lead pipes1 effect of soft water1 #abi ,,leipsic--,history of water supply1 #hi ,,lewiston reservoir1 #aaj ,,little ,miami ,river1 #abb ,,liverpool--,history of1 #di1 #eh1 #hc ,well supply1 #cg ,,london--,cholera epidemics1 #ab ,covered reservoirs1 #cd ,filtration and subsidence1 #bi1 #cb ,hardness of water1 #ce ,history of water supply1 #bj1 #hj ,pollution of water1 #bj1 #abj ,projected supplies1 #ch1 #hb ,stand pipes1 #fe ,thames water1 #bj1 #abj ,well supply1 #cg1 #ch1 #ajf ,cost of works1 #abe ,,louisville--,history of water sup41 #ge ,stand-pipe1 #fe ,water revenue expense1 #abf1 #abg ,,lowell--,filtering gallery1 #bg ,,lynn 7,mass47--,wells of1 #df ,,lyons 7,france7--,filtering gallery1 #bh ,,madrid 7,spain7--,aqueduct of1 #ed ,,mad ,,river1 #aaj ,,magnesia1 effect of1 #bd ,,maintenance of water-works1 #fi1 #ge1 #hj1 #hf1 #abg ,,manchester 7,eng471 #ab1 #di1 #hd ,,markley ,,farm1 #aad1 #abj1 #abd ,,marseilles--,history of1 #ec1 #hi ,,meters in use1 #aca ,,mexico--,water channels of1 #f ,,miles of pipe in use1 #aca ,,moore1 ,a4 ,g41 #cc1 #abd ,,newark 7,n4 ,j47--,filtering gallery1 #bh ,,newport plan1 #abe ,,new ,,york--,aqueduct of1 #ed ,dams of1 #eg ,history of1 #fh ,pollution of water1 #bd1 #be ,water revenue expense1 #abf1 #abg ,,ohio ,,river1 #bj1 #ge1 #aad1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aai1 #abj ,,oxidation1 #ae1 #ah ,,oxide of iron1 use of1 #ca ,,paisley--,cholera epidemic1 #ac ,,paris--,history of1 #ij ,,perchloride of iron1 use of1 #ca ,,perth 7,scotland7--,filtering gal41 #bh ,,peru--,water channels of1 #f ,,philadelphia--,aqueduct of1 #ed ,history of1 #fh ,schuylkill ,river1 #ai1 #aah ,water revenue expense1 #abf1 #abg ,,pollution of water1 #ac1 #ag1 #bb1 #be1 #bf1 #aag1 #abj1 #abi ,,pollution of well water1 #ch1 #df1 #aje1 #ajf ,,poniary reservoir1 #f ,,pont ,,du ,,gard aqueduct1 #e ,,population of cities and water-sheds1 #aaf1 #aca ,,portland 7,me47--,history of1 #gg ,,potable water1 #f1 #g1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad ,,puddle walls1 #eg1 #gf1 #ia ,,pumping ,,system--,cost of1 #aad1 #abe ,description of1 #ei ,examples of1 see ,chapter ,v1 #fh ,expense of1 #fd ,engines1 #fa1 #fd1 #fg1 #ha ,survey of1 #aad1 #abb ,tables of1 #ei ,,purification ,,of ,,water--,agents1 #ag ,aeration1 #ae1 #af1 #ai1 #bj ,deposition1 #ah ,dilution1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj ,means of1 #bg1 #aag1 #aah1 #abd ,ohio ,river1 #abb ,oxidation1 #ae1 #ah ,,rain-,,fall--,availability of1 #di1 #ea1 #hd1 #he ,measurements of1 #aab ,storage of1 #eb ,resources of1 #eb ,resources of ,ohio water-sheds1 #aji ,resources for wells1 #df ,,reservoir ,,system--,brick structures1 #gc1 #gd ,covered reservoirs1 #cd1 #hc1 #ia ,deposit in1 #gb ,equalizing reservoirs1 #hh ,examples of1 see ,chapter ,v1 #fh ,impounding reservoirs1 #gf1 #hb1 #hd1 #ia ,iron tanks1 at ,cincinnati1 #gg ,system of1 #f1 #ei1 #fh1 #fi1 #ge ,relief tanks1 #hc1 #he ,,revenue--,water-rent1 #abf1 #abg ,,riparian rights1 compensation1 #hb1 #hd1 #aaa ,,rivers1 flow of1 #aaf ,,river ,,pollution--,description of1 #ae1 #aag1 #aah1 #abb ,population on rivers1 #aaf ,purification of1 #ae1 #bj1 #bd1 #bg1 #cb1 #aag1 #abd ,merrimack ,river1 #ah ,ohio ,river1 #aae ,schuylkill ,river1 #ai1 #aag ,thames ,river1 #bj1 #abj ,quality of pollution1 #ah1 #bb1 #bc1 #aah ,,rochester 7,n4 ,y47--,new supply1 #bf ,,rome--,water supply of1 #e ,,roquefavour aqueduct1 #ec ,,st4 ,,louis1 #bf1 #fg1 #gb1 #abf1 #abg ,,st4 ,,mary',s reservoir1 #aaj ,,st4 ,,mary',s ,,river1 #hi ,,san ,,francisco1 #gf1 #acj ,,scioto ,,river1 #aaj ,,scowden1 ,t4 ,r41 #ge1 #abj ,,sewage in river water1 #i1 #aj1 #bj1 #bc1 #aah ,,sheet-,,iron strips1 use of1 #ca ,,schuylkill ,,river1 #ai1 #aag ,,sources of supply--,lakes1 see ,chapter ,v1 #fh ,rivers--,see ,chapter ,v1 #fh ,springs--,see ,chapter ,v1 #fh ,wells--,see ,chapter ,v1 #fh ,,soft water1 #ce1 #hd1 #abi ,,spencer',s process of1 #ca ,,springs1 #cf1 #hb1 #hd1 #hh1 #ij ,,stagnation of water1 #be ,,stand-,,pipes--,system of1 #ei1 #ff1 #gj1 #gb1 #hf1 #hh ,,statistics of water-works1 #aca ,,stuttgart--,history of1 #hi ,,strychnine in water1 #bd ,,subsidence of water1 #cb1 #hf1 #hi1 #aad ,,systems of supply1 #cf ,,taps--,number of1 #aca ,,thames ,,river1 #bj1 #ba1 #cb1 #aag ,,toledo--,history of1 #fe1 #hj ,,toronto filtering gallery1 #bh ,,turbidity of water1 #cb1 #gb1 #hh1 #ij1 #aae ,,toulouse filtering gallery1 #bh ,,typhoid ,,fever1 cause of1 #ae ,,vital statistics1 #ab1 #be1 #ce1 #abj ,,vienna--,history of1 #hg ,,washington--,aqueduct of1 #ed ,history of1 #gd ,,water--,ammonia in1 #i ,analyses of1 #i1 #aj ,drinking1 #h ,effect on water pipes1 #abh ,impurities in1 #g1 #h ,sewage in1 #i1 #bj1 #aah ,,water ,,companies--,see ,chap4 ,v1 #fh ,dividends of1 #abh ,,water revenue1 #fh1 #fi1 #he1 #hf1 #abf ,,water pipes1 #abh1 #abi ,,water-,,power1 #fd1 #fi ,,weight of pipe1 #acj ,,wells--,abatement of1 #ajf ,availability1 #cg1 #ch1 #dg1 #aje ,boring of1 #dd ,description of1 #cf1 #cg1 #ajb ,examples of1 #cg1 #gj1 #ha1 #hc1 #hg1 #ij1 #ajb ,flow of1 #cg1 #ch ,laws of1 #cf1 #ch ,pollution of1 #ch1 #df1 #he1 #aje ,resources1 #de1 #df ,tables of1 #ajc1 #ajd ,,wooden conduits1 #gg ,,worthington pumps1 #fa1 #fb1 #fi1 #gd ,,wrought-,,iron pipe1 #gg1 #abh ,,zymotic diseases of1 #dh 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,,joseph ,,sharp1 ,,belting and ,,hose1 ,,packing1 ,,lace ,,leather1 ,,and ,,supplies1 #ei ,walnut ,st41 ,,cincinnati1 ,o4 ,,steam and ,,pump ,,packing ,,of ,,every ,,description4 ,,respectfully ,,refer ,,to ,cincinnati ,water ,works4 ,covington1 ,ky4 ,water ,works4 ,,joseph ,,sharp1 ,no4 #ei ,walnut ,st41 ,,cincinnati1 ,o4 99 99 99 99 99 ,j4 ,e4 ,mc,c,r,a,c,k,e,n1 ,,general ,,agent ,,for ,mc,m,a,h,a,n1 ,,porter ,,co4',s ,,sewer ,,pipe1 ,,fire ,,brick ,,and ,,clay1 ,flue ,linings1 ,fire ,clay ,stove ,pipe1 ,,chimney ,,tops4 ,illustration3 ,,cement ,,plaster ,,lime ,,all ,,brands ,,of ,,louisville ,,and ,,english ,,portland ,,cement1 ,louisville ,white ,lime1 ,newark and ,michigan ,plaster and ,hair1 ,zanesville ,pressed ,brick4 ,office1 ,no4 #bba ,e4 ,,front ,,street1 --,,branch ,,yards3-- ,harrison ,ave41 and ,m4 ,c4 ,r4 ,r4--#ecd #ecf ,john ,st4 ,warehouse1 #c1 #e1 #g #i ,butler ,street4 ,,cincinnati1 ,o4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,cope ,,maxwell ,m',f',g ,,company1 ,,hamilton ,,ohio4 ,,steam ,,pumping ,,machinery --,,for-- ,,water ,,works4 ,,constructed ,,after ,,various ,,designs ,,for ,,reservoir1 ,,stand ,,pipe1 ,,or ,,direct ,,pressure ,,systems4 ,,horizontal ,,or ,,vertical1 ,,duplex ,,or ,,separate ,,acting ,,at ,,will4 ,,photos1 ,,drawings ,,and ,,specifications ,,on ,,application4 ,the following are places where ,water ,works ,machinery of the ,cope ,maxwell manufacture is in use3 ,newport1 ,ky4 ,clinton1 ,iowa4 ,anamosa1 8 ,muscatine1 8 ,logansport1 ,ind4 ,milwaukee1 ,wis4 ,fort ,dodge1 8 ,atchison1 ,kansas4 ,desloges1 ,mo4 ,trinidad1 ,col4 ,broadford1 ,pa4 ,pullman1 ,ills4 ,hyde ,park1 8 ,east ,liverpool1 ,ohio4 ,cincinnati1 8 ,springfield1 8 ,athens ,asylum1 8 ,dayton ,asylum1 8 ,longview ,asylum1 8 ,,steam ,,pumps --,,for-- ,mining1 ,mills1 ,factories1 ,fire ,protection1 ,sewage1 ,sugar ,refineries1 ,draining1 ,distilleries1 ,breweries1 ,boiler-,feeding1 and all kinds of ,pumping ,service4 ,,circulars ,,on ,,application4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapman ,,valve ,,manufacturing ,,company1 ,illustration ,manufacturers of ,,steam1 ,,gas ,,and ,water ,valves1 ,,and ,,gate ,fire ,hydrants1 ,,with ,,or ,,without ,,independent ,,nozzles4 ,illustration ,,all ,,valves ,,hydrants ,,furnished ,,with ,,babbett ,,metal ,,seats ,,and ,,non-,,corrosive ,,working ,,parts4 ,illustration ,all ,work ,guaranteed4 ,,general ,,office ,,and ,,works3 ,,indian ,,orchard1 ,,mass4 ,,treasurer',s ,,office3 #gg ,,kilby ,,street1 ,,boston4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,henry ,,ranshaw1 ,,wm4 ,,stacey1 ,,thos4 ,h4 ,,birch1 ,r4 ,j4 ,,tarvin1 ,pres4 and ,manager ,vice-,president4 ,ass't ,manager4 ,sec'y and ,treas4 ,,the ,,stacey ,m',f',g ,,co4 ,gas ,works ,builders1 ,,architectural ,,iron ,,work1 ,oil and ,water ,tanks1 ,lamp ,posts1 ,,iron ,,roofs1 ,,coal ,,elevator ,,cars1 ,,coke ,,crushers1 ,,rolling ,,mill ,,machinery4 ,,all ,,kinds ,,of ,,heavy ,,wrought ,,cast-,,iron ,,work4 #cc1 #ce1 #cg and #ci ,mill ,street1 #af1 #ah1 #bj1 #bb1 #bd #bf ,ramsey ,street1 ,,cincinnati1 ,o4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,crown ,,water ,,meter1 ,,adopted ,,by ,,the ,,department ,,of ,,public ,,works1 ,,new ,,york ,,city4 ,a ,,positive ,,rotary ,,piston ,,meter1 ,,accurate1 ,,durable ,,and ,,simple1 ,,having ,,only ,,one ,,working ,,part4 ,in this new ,meter will be found all the advantages of the best known ,meters1 and none of their defects4 ,it is a positive displacement measurer4 ,it forms no obstruction to the free flow of water4 ,the dial face is always dry and clean1 and the interior structure of brass and hard rubber renders corrosion impossible4 ,we claim that it will register on a finer stream than any other ,meter ever made4 ,for ,illustrated ,circulars1 giving testimonials1 results of tests1 etc41 address ,,national ,,meter ,,company1 ,,sole ,,manufacturers4 ,,john ,c4 ,,kelley1 ,president1 #ea ,chambers ,street1 ,new ,york4 ,n4 ,b4--,,meters ,,furnished ,,of ,,all ,,sizes1 ,,from ,,half ,,inch ,,to ,,ten ,,inches ,,inclusive4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,hugh ,,merrie4 ,established1 #ahfi4 ,,henry ,,verhage4 ,merrie1 ,verhage ,co41 --,,manufacturers-- ,,lead ,,pipe ,,sheet ,,lead --,,and ,,all ,,kinds ,,brass ,,work ,,for-- ,plumbers1 ,gas and ,steam ,fitters1 ,water ,works ,machinists4 ,,dealers ,,in ,,plumbers1 ,,gas ,,steam ,,fitters ,,supplies4 #aa and #ac ,w4 ,seventh ,st4 ,,cincinnati1 ,,ohio4 --,,agents ,,for-- ,,murdock',s ,,hydrants ,,and ,,street ,,washers1 ,,bignall',s ,,pumps ,,and ,,sinks1 ,,tna ,,iron ,,works1 ,,wrought ,,iron ,,pipe1 ,,abendroth ,,bros4 ,,soil ,,pipe ,,and ,,fittings1 ,,star ,,rubber ,,co4',s ,,hose ,,and ,,belting1 ,,jenning',s ,,water ,,closets1 ,,rob',t ,,brown ,,and ,,son',s ,,earthenware4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,cincinnati ,stationary ,engine and ,hydraulic ,,works1 ,,manufacturers ,,of ,,stationary ,,steam ,,engines ,,of ,,the ,,most ,,approved ,,pattern4 ,,the ,,holden ,,ice ,,machines ,,refrigerators1 ,,and ,,all ,,kinds ,,of ,machinery ,castings and ,iron ,forgings of all ,descriptions4 ,,joseph ,,bell1 ,manager1 ,cor4 ,third and ,lock ,streets1 ,,cincinnati1 ,o4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,established1 #ahdf4 ,,wm4 ,,kirkup ,,son1 --,,agents ,,for-- ,,national ,,tube-,,works ,,co4 --,,also ,,manufacturers ,,and ,,dealers ,,in-- ,wrought ,iron ,pipe and ,boiler ,tubes1 ,malleable ,cast-,iron ,pipe ,fittings1 ,brass ,goods1 ,machinists'1 ,steam and ,gas ,fitters'1 ,boiler-,makers'1 ,engineers'1 ,plumbers' ,tools and ,supplies1 ,,brass ,,and ,,composition ,,castings4 ,,salesroom ,,factory--,s4 ,e4 ,,corner ,,pearl ,,ludlow ,,streets4 ,,cincinnati1 ,,ohio4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,henry ,j4 ,,reedy1 ,,manufacturer ,,of ,,horizontal1 ,,vertical ,,and ,,direct ,,acting ,,hydraulic ,,elevators1 --,,for-- ,,freight ,,and ,,passenger ,,service4 ,,works3 ,,eighth1 ,,lock ,,and ,,cleveland ,,streets4 --,,cincinnati4-- ,elevators in all the principal ,cities in the ,united ,states4 ,,send ,,for ,,illustrated ,,catalogue ,,and ,,prices4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,transcriber',s ,,note ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,table cells that were blank or had dots in the original book1 are displayed with a -- in this etext4 ,except for those changes noted below1 all misspellings in the text1 and inconsistent or archaic usage1 have been retained4 ,pg #h3 #8per #ajjj gollons' replaced by #8per #ajjj gallons'4 ,pg #ac3 #8,the testimory ,dr4' replaced by #8,the testimony of ,dr4'4 ,pg #ad3 #8of cholora2 and' replaced by #8of cholera2 and'4 ,pg #ai3 #8the #eg colleries' replaced by #8the #eg collieries'4 ,pg #bc3 #8,massachussets ,state' replaced by #8,massachusetts ,state'4 ,pg #bd3 #8,new ,yory ,city' replaced by #8,new ,york ,city'4 ,pg #be3 #8on the pharanx' replaced by #8on the pharynx'4 ,pg #be3 #8miscroscopic plants' replaced by #8microscopic plants'4 ,pg #ca3 #8,,orrganic ,,carbon' replaced by #8,,organic ,,carbon'4 ,pg #cc3 #8,,to ,,al ,,solids' replaced by #8,,total ,,solids'4 ,pg #cf3 #8through permeable' replaced by #8through a permeable'4 ,pg #cf3 #8which land' replaced by #8which the land'4 ,pg #cf3 #8wells are which' replaced by #8wells are those which'4 ,pg #dj3 #8imperrious strata' replaced by #8impervious strata'4 ,pg #dc3 #8to exend it to' replaced by #8to extend it to'4 ,pg #dd3 #8,divonian4' replaced by #8,devonian4'4 ,pg #dd3 #8argellaceous below' replaced by #8argillaceous below'4 ,pg #de3 #8reduce the jaring' replaced by #8reduce the jarring'4 ,pg #ee3 #8pockets of quick sand' replaced by #8pockets of quicksand'4 ,pg #eh3 #8,,source' replaced by #8,,srce' to save table space4 ,pg #fj3 #8to one hunded' replaced by #8to one hundred'4 ,pg #fj3 #8,states and ,canadas' replaced by #8,states and ,canada'4 ,pg #fc3 #8,american ,society of ,civil ,engineers' abbreviated to #8,a4 ,s4 ,c4 ,e4' in the table4 ,pg #fg3 #8,,system ,,cylinder' replaced by #8,,sys4 ,,cyl4' to save space4 ,pg #gg3 #8at ,sycaamore ,street' replaced by #8at ,sycamore ,street'4 ,pg #hd3 #8reservoir enbankment' replaced by #8reservoir embankment'4 ,pg #hg3 #8private puildings' replaced by #8private buildings'4 ,pg #ij3 #8the depurition of' replaced by #8the deposition of'4 ,pg #ia3 #8and ,moutrouge' replaced by #8and ,montrouge'4 ,pg #ie3 #8a shallowy and' replaced by #8a shallow and'4 ,pg #ajh3 #8,chloride of ,calcuim' replaced by #8,chloride of ,calcium'4 ,pg #aji3 #8average attitude' replaced by #8average altitude'4 ,pg #aji3 #8,,ffet4' replaced by #8,,feet4'4 ,pg #aji3 #8#bc4 ,allen ,coounty' replaced by #8#bc4 ,allen ,county'4 ,pg #aji3 #8,perryshurgh' replaced by #8,perrysburgh'4 ,pg #aai3 #8,,lowest1 ,,amd' replaced by #8,,lowest1 ,,and'4 ,pg #abb3 #8renders that cite' replaced by #8renders that site'4 ,pg #abg3 #8,stuggart1 ,germany' replaced by #8,stuttgart1 ,germany'4 ,pg #abh3 #8also cruses the' replaced by #8also causes the'4 ,pg #acc3 ,entry #8,,high service' moved in front of #8,,holly system'4