,direct ,conv]sion ( ,en]gy ,illu/ration3 uncaption$ ,by ,william ,r4 ,corliss ,u4,s4 ,,atomic ,,en]gy ,,commission ,division ( ,te*nical ,in=mation ,,"o ,,( ,a ,,s]ies ,,on ,,und]/&+ ,,! ,,atom ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,atomic ,,en]gy ,,commission ,dr4 ,gl5n ,t4 ,seaborg1 ,*airman ,james ,t4 ,ramey ,dr4 ,g]ald ,f4 ,tape ,wilfrid ,e4 ,johnson ,nucle> en]gy is play+ a vital role 9 ! life ( e man1 woman1 & *ild 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates today4 ,9 ! ye>s ahead x w affect increas+ly all ! peoples ( ! e>?4 ,x is ess5tial t all ,am]icans ga9 an und]/&+ ( ?is vital =ce if !y are to dis*>ge ?\ghtfully _! responsibilities z citiz5s & if !y are to realize fully ! myriad b5efits t nucle> en]gy (f]s !m4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission provides ?is booklet to help y a*ieve su* und]/&+4 ,edw>d ,j4 ,brun5kant ,edw>d ,j4 ,brun5kant ,director ,division ( ,te*nical ,in=mation ,,cont5ts ,,introduction #a ,,direct ,,v]sus ,,dynamic ,,en]gy ,,conv]sion #c ,,laws ,,gov]n+ ,,en]gy ,,conv]sion #h ,,!rmoelectricity #ab ,,!rmionic ,,conv]sion #af ,,magnetohydrodynamic ,,conv]sion #ai ,,*emical ,,batt]ies #bb ,,! ,,fuel ,,cell3 ,a ,,cont9u\sly ,,fuel$ ,,batt]y #bd ,,sol> ,,cells #bf ,,nucle> ,,batt]ies #bh ,,advanc$ ,,concepts #cj ,,sugge/$ ,,ref]5ces #cc ,,answ]s ,,to ,,problems #cd ,libr>y ( ,congress ,catalog ,c>d ,numb]3 #fd-fagid ,,ab\t ,,! ,,au?or ,illu/ration3 ,william ,r4 ,corliss ,,william ,r4 ,,corliss is an atomic en]gy consultant & writ] ) #ab ye>s ( indu/rial exp]i5ce includ+ s]vice z ,director ( ,advanc$ ,programs = ! ,m>t9 ,company's ,nucle> ,division4 ,mr4 ,corliss has ,b4,s4 & ,m4,s4 ,degrees 9 ,physics f ,r5ssela] ,polyte*nic ,in/itute & ! ,univ]sity ( ,colorado1 respectively4 ,he has taught at ^? two in/itutions & at ! ,univ]sity ( ,wiscons94 ,he is ! au?or ( ,propulsion ,sy/ems = ,space ,flight 7,mc,graw-,hill #aifj71 ,space ,probes & ,planet>y ,exploration 7,van ,no/r& #aife71 ,my/]ies ( ! ,univ]se 7,cr[ell #aifg71 ,sci5tific ,satellites 7,,gpo #aifg71 & coau?or ( ,radioisotopic ,p[] ,g5]ation 7,pr5tice-,hall #aifd71 z well z num]\s articles & pap]s = te*nical j\rnals & conf]5ces4 ,9 ?is s]ies he has writt5 ,neutron ,activation ,analysis1 ,p[] ,reactors 9 ,small ,packages1 ,,snap--,nucle> ,reactor ,p[] 9 ,space1 ,comput]s1 ,nucle> ,propulsion = ,space1 ,space ,radiation1 & 0 coau?or ( ,p[] f ,radioisotopes4 ,,introduction ,a fla%light batt]y supplies electricity )\t mov+ me*anical p>ts4 ,x conv]ts ! *emical en]gy ( its cont5ts directly into electrical en]gy4 ,e>ly direct conv]sion devices su* z ,volta's batt]y1 develop$ 9 #agie1 gave ! sci5ti/s ,amp]e1 ,o]/$1 & ,f>aday _! fir/ exp]im5tal supplies ( electricity4 ,! lessons !y le>n$ ab\t electrical en]gy & its intimate relation ) magnetism spawn$ ! mighty turboelectric en]gy conv]t]s--/eam & hydroelectric turb9es--:i* p[] mod]n civilization4 ,we h improv$ ^u ,volta's batt]ies & h come to rely on !m z portable1 usually small1 p[] s\rces1 b only rec5tly has ! *all5ge ( nucle> p[] & space exploration focus$ our att5tion on new me?ods ( direct conv]sion4 ,to supply p[] = use 9 out] space & also at remote sites on e>?1 we ne$ p[] s\rces t are reliable1 light 9 weight1 & capable ( unatt5d$ ,op]ation = long p]iods ( "t4 ,nucle> p[] plants us+ direct conv]sion te*niques hold promise ( surpass+ conv5tional p[] s\rces 9 ^! attributes4 ,9 addition1 ! inh]5tly sil5t op]ation ( direct conv]sion p[] plants is an important advantage = _m milit>y applications4 ,! ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission1 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,def5se1 & ! ,national ,a]onautics & ,space ,adm9i/ration collectively sponsor t5s ( millions ( doll>s wor? ( rese>* & developm5t 9 ! area ( direct conv]sion ea* ye>4 ,9 p>ticul>1 ! ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission supports m ?an a doz5 rese>* & developm5t programs 9 !rmoelectric & !rmionic en]gy conv]sion 9 indu/ry & at ! ,los ,alamos ,sci5tific ,laboratory1 & o!r direct conv]sion rese>* at ,argonne ,national ,laboratory & ,brookhav5 ,national ,laboratory4 ,reactor & radioisotopic p[] plants utiliz+ direct conv]sion are be+ produc$ "u ! ,,aec's ,,snap#a program4 ,"s ( ^! units are pres5tly 9 use p[]+ satellites1 ,arctic & ,ant>ctic wea!r /ations1 & navigational buoys4 ,fur!r applications are n[ be+ /udi$1 b ! co/ ( direct conv]sion appe>s too great to p]mit its g5]al use = electric p[] 9 ! ne> future4 ,direct te*niques w be us$ fir/ :]e _! special advantages outweigh high] co/4 ,,direct ,,v]sus ,,dynamic ,,en]gy ,,conv]sion ,dom9ance ( ,dynamic ,conv]sion ,we live 9 a _w ( motion4 ,a ma9 task ( ! eng9e] is to f9d bett] & m effici5t ways ( trans=m+ ! en]gy lock$ 9 ! sun's rays or 9 fuels1 su* z coal & ! uranium nucleus1 into en]gy ( motion4 ,almo/ all ! _w's en]gy is n[ trans=m$ by rotat+ or reciprocat+ ma*9es4 ,we c\ple ! en]gy ( explod+ gasol9e & air to our automobile's :eels by a reciprocat+ eng9e4 ,! turbog5]ator at a hydroelectric plant extracts en]gy f fall+ wat] & turns x into electricity4 ,su* rotat+ or reciprocat+ ma*9es are call$ dynamic conv]t]s4 ,a ,new ,level ( ,sophi/ication3 ,direct ,conv]sion ,a revolution is 9 ! mak+4 ,we "k n[ t we c =ce ! heat-&-electricity-c>ry+ electrons resid+ 9 matt] to d our bidd+ )\t ! use ( %afts & pi/ons4 ,?is is a lead+ accompli%m5t ( mod]n te*nology3 en]gy trans=mation )\t mov+ p>ts4 ,x is call$ direct conv]sion4 ,! !rmoelem5ts %[n above ! turbog5]ator 9 ,figure #a illu/rate ! contra/ betwe5 direct & dynamic conv]sion4 ,! !rmoelem5ts conv]t heat into electricity directly1 )\t any ( ! int]v5+ ma*9]y se5 9 ! turbog5]ator4 ,illu/ration3 ,figure #a ,direct conv]sion devices1 su* z ! spokelike lead telluride !rmoelectric elem5ts inside ! ,,snap #c radioisotope g5]ator %[n above 7c\rtesy ,m>t9 ,company71 conv]t heat into electricity )\t mov+ p>ts4 ,9 contra/1 ! ,,snap #b dynamic conv]t] %[n bel[ ,,snap #c 7c\rtesy ,?ompson ,ramo ,wooldridge1 ,inc47 includes a high-spe$ turb9e1 an electric g5]ator1 & pumps to produce electricity f heat4 7,na,k is a liquid mixture ( sodium & potassium47 ,,direct ,,v]sus ,,dynamic ,,conv]sion ,,snap #c ,,less ,,?an #e ,,watts #e ,,snap #b #cjjj ,,watts #bd ,,alt]nator ,,rotor ,,alt]nator ,,/ator ,,turb9e ,,rotors ,na,k ,,pump ,,diffus] ,na,k ,,pump ,,rotor ,,m]cury ,,jet ,,boo/] ,,pump ,,m]cury ,,c5trifugal ,,pump ,,m]cury ,,?ru/ ,,be>+ ,,m]cury ,,be>+ ,,m]cury ,,be>+ ,:y is ,direct ,conv]sion ,desirable8 ,!re are places :]e en]gy conv]sion equipm5t mu/ run = ye>s )\t ma9t5ance or breakd[n4 ,also1 !re are situations :]e ! ultimate 9 reliability is requir$1 su* z on sci5tific satellites & p>ticul>ly on mann$ space flights4 ,direct conv]sion equipm5t seems to (f] great] reliability ?an dynamic conv]sion equipm5t = ^! purposes4 ,we %\ld recognize t our belief 9 ! sup]iority ( direct conv]sion is bas$ m on intuition ?an pro(4 ,x is true t direct conv]t]s w nev] ?r[ pi/on rods or run out ( lubricant4 ,yet1 "s satellite p[] failures h be5 caus$ by ! degradation ( sol> cells "u ! bomb>dm5t ( sol> protons4 ,! o!r types ( direct conv]sion devices describ$ 9 ! foll[+ pages may also break d[n 9 ways z yet unkn[n4 ,/ill1 today's k gives u hope t direct conv]sion w be m reliable & tru/wor?y ?an dynamic conv]sion4 ,direct conv]sion equipm5t is beg9n+ to be adopt$ = small p[] plants1 produc+ less ?an #ejj watts1 design$ to op]ate = long p]iods ( "t 9 out] space & "u ! ocean4 ,"s day1 l>ge c5tral-/ation p[] plants may use direct conv]sion to improve _! effici5cies & reliabilities4 ,h[ is ,en]gy ,trans=m$8 ,:at is en]gy & h[ d we *ange x8 ,en]gy is a fundam5tal concept ( sci5ce involv+ ! capacity = do+ "w4 ,k9etic or me*anical en]gy is ! mo/ obvi\s =m ( en]gy4 ,x is def9$ z ,e mv :]e ,e en]gy 7express$ 9 j\les7 m mass ( ! mov+ object 79 kilograms7 v velocity 79 met]s p] second7 ,en]gy c also be /or$ 9 *emical & nucle> sub/ances or 9 ! wat] beh9d a dam4 ,9 ^! quiesc5t /ates x is call$ pot5tial en]gy4 ,if ! pot5tial en]gy 9 a sub/ance is abundant & easily releas$1 ! en]gy-ri* sub/ance is call$ a fuel4 ,,en]gy ,,conv]sion ,,matrix ,illu/ration3 ,figure #b ,to f9d h[ "o =m ( en]gy is conv]t$ into ano!r1 />t at ! prop] column & move d[n until ! column int]sects ) ! desir$ r[4 ,! box at ! int]section w give typical conv]sion processes & examples4 ,,f ,,electromagnetic ,,*emical ,,nucle> ,,!rmal ,,k9etic ,,electrical ,,gravitational 7,,me*anical7 ,,to ,,electromagnetic ,*emilum9esc5ce ,gamma reactions ,!rmal radiation ,accel]at+ ,electromagnetic ,unkn[n 7fireflies7 7,co s\rce7 7hot iron7 *>ge radiation#b ,a-bomb 7cyclotron7 7,,tv transmitt]7 ,phosphor#b ,electrolum9esc5ce ,,*emical ,photosyn!sis ,radiation ,boil+ ,dissociation by ,electrolysis ,unkn[n 7plants7 catalysis 7wat]_//eam7 radiolysis 7production ( ,photo*emi/ry 7hydraz9e plant7 ,dissociation alum9um7 7photographic ,ionization ,batt]y *>g+ film7 7cl\d *amb]7 ,,nucle> ,gamma-neutron ,unkn[n ,unkn[n ,unkn[n ,unkn[n ,unkn[n reactions 7,be ,ben7 ,,!rmal ,sol> absorb] ,combu/ion ,fission ,friction ,resi/ance-heat+ ,unkn[n 7hot sidewalk7 7fire7 7fuel elem5t7 7brake %oes7 7electric /ove7 ,fusion ,,k9etic ,radiomet] ,sol> ,muscle ,radioactivity ,!rmal expansion ,motors ,fall+ objects cell#b 7alpha p>ticles7 7turb9es7 ,electro/riction ,a-bomb ,int]nal combu/ion 7son> transmitt]7 7eng9es7 ,,electrical ,photoelectricity ,fuel cell#b ,nucle> ,!rmoelectricity#b ,,mhd#bc ,unkn[n 7light met]7 ,batt]ies#b batt]y#b ,!rmionics#b ,conv5tional ,radio ant5na ,!rmomagnetism#b g5]ator ,sol> cell#b ,f]roelectricity#b ,,gravitational ,unkn[n ,unkn[n ,unkn[n ,unkn[n ,ris+ objects ,unkn[n 7rockets7 ,! ,en]gy ,conv]sion ,matrix ,=ms ( en]gy are int]*angeable4 ,:5 gasol9e is burn$ 9 an automobile eng9e1 pot5tial en]gy is fir/ turn$ into heat4 ,a portion ( ?is heat1 say #be1 is !n conv]t$ into me*anical motion4 ,! rema9d] ( ! heat is wa/$ & mu/ be remov$ f ! eng9e4 ,a multitude ( processes & devices h be5 f\nd :i* make ^! trans=mations f "o =m ( en]gy to ano!r4 ,_m ( ^! are li/$ 9 ! blocks 9 ,figure #b4 ,a/]isks ref] to direct conv]sion processes1 ! subject matt] ( ?is booklet4 ,to demon/rate h[ ?is diagram is to be read1 let u use x to trace ! en]gy trans=mations involv$ 9 an automobile eng9e4 ,we beg9 ) sunlight because all coal & oil deposits 7! fossil fuels7 receiv$ _! initial *>ge ( en]gy 9 ! =m ( sunlight4 ,! fir/ conv]sion1 !re=e1 is f electromagnetic en]gy to *emical en]gy via photosyn!sis 9 liv+ ?+s4 ,we trace ! trans=mation by mov+ d[n ! column m>k$ ,electromagnetic ,en]gy until x int]sects ! horizontal r[ label$ ,*emical ,en]gy4 ,!re we see photosyn!sis li/$ 9 ! block4 ,! next conv]sion is f *emical en]gy to !rmal en]gy via combu/ion4 ,we trace ?is by mov+ d[n ! ,*emical ,en]gy column to ! ,!rmal ,en]gy r[2 combu/ion is li/$ 9 ! appropriate block4 ,! ?ird & f9al conv]sion takes place :5 !rmal en]gy is trans=m$ into me*anical en]gy via ! int]nal combu/ion eng9e4 ,by ! repeat$ use ( ! ,en]gy ,conv]sion ,matrix 9 ?is way1 we c *>t any en]gy trans=mation4 ,problem #a ,cont9ue ! automobile example by go+ ?r\gh ! matrix twice m %[+ h[ me*anical en]gy is conv]t$ into /or$ *emical en]gy 9 ! c>'s batt]y4 ,problem #b ,if #a gram ( gasol9e 7ab\t a tablespoonful7 yields #dh1jjj j\les ( !rmal en]gy :5 burn$ ) air1 h[ fa/ c x make a #ajjj kilogram c> g8 ,assume ! c> />ts f re/ & its eng9e is #be effici5t4 ,answ]s to problems are on page #cd4 ,,laws ,,gov]n+ ,,en]gy ,,conv]sion ,! ,big ,picture3 ,!rmodynamics ,to ! be/ ( our k1 en]gy & mass are always cons]v$ toge!r 9 any trans=mation4 ,?is summ>y ( exp]i5ce has be5 made into a key/one ( sci5ce3 ! ,law ( ,cons]vation ( ,en]gy & ,mass4 ,x /ates t ! total am\nt ( mass & en]gy _c be alt]$4 ,?is law applies to ev]y?+ we d1 f driv+ a nail to laun*+ a space probe4 ,:ile ! consci5ce ( ! sci5ti/ insi/s t he cont9ually re*eck ! tru? ( ?is law1 x rema9s a bulw>k ( sci5ce4 ,! ,law ( ,cons]vation ( ,en]gy & ,mass is also call$ ! ,fir/ ,law ( ,!rmodynamics4 ,x is relat$ to ! ,second ,law ( ,!rmodynamics1 :i* also gov]ns en]gy trans=mations4 ,! ,second ,law says1 9 effect1 t "s en]gy w unavoidably be lo/ 9 all heat eng9es4 ,! fir/ two laws ( !rmodynamics h be5 p>aphras$ z 7#a7 ,y c't w92 7#b7 ,y c't ev5 break ev54 ,let u look at !m fur!r4 ,y ,c't ,w9 ,we us$ to ?9k t en]gy & mass 7 cons]v$ indep5d5tly1 & = _m practical purposes we /ill consid] !m s cons]v$4 ,b ,e9/e9 unit$ ! two ) ! fam\s equation ,e mc :]e ,e en]gy 79 j\les7 m mass 79 kilograms7 c spe$ ( light 7#cjj1jjj1jjj met]s p] second7 ,notice ! resemblance to ! k9etic en]gy equation %[n e>li]4 ,en]gy _c appe> )\t ! disappe>ance ( mass4 ,:5 en]gy is lock$ up 9 a fuel1 x is /or$ z mass4 ,9 ! gasol9e combu/ion problem1 #a gram ( gasol9e 0 burn$ ) air to give #dh1jjj j\les ( en]gy4 ,e9/e9's equation says t 9 ?is case mass disappe>$ 9 ! am\nt m ,e_/c 7#d4h #aj7_/7i #aj7 #e4c #aj kilogram 7half a billion? ( a gram7 ,b1 :5 an ,h-bomb is explod$1 grams & ev5 kilograms ( mass are conv]t$ to en]gy4 ,9 direct conv]sion processes we d n ne$ to worry ab\t ^! mass *anges1 b at ea* po9t we mu/ make sure t all en]gy is acc\nt$ =4 ,= example1 9 out] space all en]gy releas$ f fuels 7ev5 food7 mu/ ultimately be radiat$ away to empty ,space4 ,o!rwise ! vehicle temp]ature w keep ris+ until ! ,space%ip melts4 ,y ,c't ,ev5 ,break ,ev5 ,any eng9e] is annoy$ by hav+ to ?r[ en]gy away4 ,:y is en]gy ev] wa/$8 ,! ,second ,law ( ,!rmodynamics guides u "h4 ,exp]i5ce has %[n t heat _c be trans=m$ into ano!r =m ( en]gy ) #ajj effici5cy4 ,we c't expla9 ,nature's idiosyncracies1 b we h to live ) !m4 ,s1 we accept ! fact t e eng9e t />ts out ) heat mu/ ultimately wa/e "s ( t en]gy 7,figure #c74 ,illu/ration3 ,figure #c ,a typical heat eng9e %[+ heat input1 useful p[] output1 & ! unavoidable wa/e heat t mu/ be reject$ to ! environm5t4 ,a pressure-volume diagram is %[n und]nea? = a clos$ gas-turb9e cycle4 ,circl$ numb]s correspond4 ,! en]gy produc$ is repres5t$ by ! %ad$ area4 ,simil> diagrams c be made = all heat eng9es z an aid 9 /udy+ _! p]=mance4 ,a ,,typical ,,heat ,,eng9e ,,heat ,,9 ,,heat ,,s\rce ,,reactor1 ,,boil] ,,electricity ,,out ,,en]gy ,,conv]t] ,,pump ,,fluid ,,pipe ,,radiator ,,wa/e ,,heat ,,out ,,pressure-,,volume ,,diagram ,,heat ,,9 ,,en]gy ,,out ,,gas ,,pressure ,,wa/e ,,heat ,,out ,,gas ,,volume ,direct conv]sion devices are no exception4 ,consequ5tly1 e !rmoelectric elem5t or !rmionic conv]t] w h to provide = ! disposition ( wa/e heat4 ,! design] w try1 h[ev]1 to make ! eng9e effici5cy high s t ! wa/e heat w be small4 ,figure #d %[s ! ext5sive wa/e heat radiator on a ,,snap #ej p[] plant plann$ = deep space missions4 ,illu/ration3 ,figure #d ,model ( ,,snap #ej p[] plant plann$ = deep space missions %[+ ext5sive wa/e heat radiator4 ,! sy/em w provide #cjj to #ajjj kil[atts ( electrical p[]4 ,c>not ,effici5cy ,9 #ahbd ,sadi ,c>not1 a "y ,fr5* eng9e]1 conceiv$ ( an idealiz$ heat eng9e4 ,?is ideal eng9e _h an effici5cy giv5 by e #a - ,tc_/,th 7,th - ,tc7_/,th :]e e ! s-call$ ,c>not effici5cy 7no units7 ,tc ! temp]ature ( ! wa/e heat res]voir 79 degrees ,kelv91 ,k#d7 ,th ! temp]ature ( ! heat s\rce 79 ,k7 ,unhappily1 ,tc _c be made z]o 7& e !re=e made equal to #a1 :i* is #ajj effici5cy74 ,physici/s h %[n absolute z]o to be unatta9able1 al?\gh !y h approa*$ to )9 a hundr$? ( a degree 9 ! laboratory4 ,wa/e heat1 s9ce x mu/ be reject$ to ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e1 out] space1 or wat] 7riv]s1 ! ocean1 etc471 mu/ be reject$ at ,tc great] ?an #cjj,k4 ,! reason = ?is is t ^! physical res]voirs h av]age temp]atures ar\nd #cjj,k 7ab\t #hj;,f7 !mselves4 ,! fact t ,tc mu/ be #cjj,k or m is a basic limitation on ! ,c>not effici5cy4 ,! loss 9 effici5cy ) increas$ ,tc expla9s :y a jet plane has a h>d] job tak+ (f on a hot day4 ,"o way to improve ! ,c>not effici5cy1 :i* is ! maximum effici5cy = any heat eng9e1 is to raise ,th z high z possible )\t melt+ ! eng9e4 ,= a coal-fir$ electrical p[] plant1 ,th #fjj,k & ,tc #cjj,k1 s t e #a - #cjj_/fjj #j4e #ej ,! actual effici5cy is some:at less ?an ?is ideal value because "s p[] is div]t$ to pumps & o!r equipm5t & to unavoidable heat losses4 ,lat] on1 we %all see t magnetohydrodynamic 7,,mhd7 g5]ators hold prospects = increas+ ,th by hundr$s ( degrees4 ,ev]y?+ t has be5 said ab\t ! ,second ,law ( ,!rmodynamics 7,y c't ev5 break ev57 applies to heat eng9es1 :]e we beg9 ) !rmal en]gy4 ,suppose in/ead t we />t ) k9etic or *emical en]gy & conv]t x into electricity )\t turn+ x into heat fir/4 ,we c !n escape ! ,c>not effici5cy /rait jacket4 ,*emical batt]ies p]=m ?is trick4 ,s d fuel cells1 sol> cells1 & _m o!r direct conv]sion devices we %all discuss4 ,?us1 we circumv5t ! ,c>not effici5cy limitation by us+ processes to :i* x does n apply4 ,problem #c ,"s space p[] plants contemplate us+ ! space cab9 heat 7,th #cjj,k7 to drive a heat eng9e :i* rejects its wa/e heat to ! liquid-hydrog5 rocket fuel /or$ at ,tc #bj,k4 ,:at w\ld be ! ,c>not effici5cy ( ?is eng9e8 ,,!rmoelectricity ,aft] #adj ,ye>s3 ,seebeck ,makes ,good ,! olde/ direct conv]sion heat eng9e is ! !rmoc\ple4 ,take two diff]5t mat]ials 7typically1 two dissimil> metal wires71 jo9 !m1 & heat ! junction4 ,a voltage1 or electromotive =ce1 c be measur$ across ! unheat$ t]m9als4 ,t4 ,j4 ,seebeck fir/ notic$ ?is effect 9 #ahba 9 8 laboratory 9 ,b]l91 b1 because ( a mi/ak5 int]pretation ( :at 0 involv$1 he did n seek any practical application = x4 ,only rec5tly has any real progress be5 made 9 us+ 8 discov]y = p[] production4 ,to use ! analogy ( ,a4 ,f4 ,j(fe1 ! ,russian pione] 9 ?is field1 !rmoelectricity lay undi/urb$ = ov] a hundr$ ye>s l ,sleep+ ,beauty4 ,! ,pr9ce t awoke h] 0 ! semiconductor4 ,z long z ineffici5t metal wires 7 us$1 textbook writ]s 7 correct 9 ass]t+ t !rmoelectricity c\ld nev] be us$ = p[] production4 ,! secret ( practical !rmoelectricity is !re=e ! creation ( bett] !rmoelectric mat]ials4 7,creation is ! "r ^w s9ce ! be/ mat]ials = ! purpose d n exi/ 9 nature47 ,to p]=m ?is al*emy1 we fir/ h to und]/& ! ,seebeck effect4 ,electrons & ,holes ,let's exam9e ! latticework ( atoms t make up any solid mat]ial4 ,9 electrical insulators all ! atoms' out] electrons#e are held tightly by val5ce bonds to ! neighbor+ atoms4 ,9 contra/1 any metal has _m relatively loose electrons :i* c w&] freely ?r\gh its latticework4 ,?is is :at makes metals good conductors4 ,,!rmoelectricity ,illu/ration3 ,figure #e ,!rmoelectric c\ple made f p- & n-type semiconductors4 ,! impurity atoms 7,i7 are diff]5t 9 ea* leg & contribute an excess or defici5cy ( val5ce electrons4 ,heat drives bo? holes & electrons t[>d ! cold junction4 ,tc ,,wa/e ,,heat ,,out ,,electrons ,,load ,,cold ,,junction ,,holes ,,electrons p ,,semiconductor n ,,semiconductor ,,hot ,,junction ,th ,,heat ,,9 ,simplifi$ ,sket* ( ,atomic ,lattice ,,hole ,,electron ,,val5ce ,,bonds ,,semiconductor ,,lattices ,i ,impurity atom ,figure #e sugge/s ! latticework ( a semiconductor4 ,x is call$ a semiconductor because its conductivity falls f> %ort ( t ( ! metals4 ,! few electrons available = c>ry+ electricity are suppli$ by ! delib]ately introduc$ impurity atoms1 :i* h m ?an en\gh electrons to satisfy ! val5ce-bond requirem5ts ( ! neighbor+ atoms4 ,)\t ! impurities1 we w\ld h an insulator4 ,) !m1 we h an n-type semiconductor4 ,! n is = ! extra negative electrons4 ,a p- or positive-type semiconductor is also includ$ 9 ,figure #e4 ,"h ! impurity atom does n h en\gh val5ce electrons to satisfy ! val5ce-bond ne$s ( ! surr\nd+ lattice atoms4 ,! lattice has be5 %ort-*ang$ & is1 9 effect1 full ( positive holes4 ,/rangely en\gh1 ^! holes c w&] ?r\gh ! mat]ial j l positive *>ges4 ,! electron-hole model does n h ! precision ! physici/ likes1 b x helps u to visualize semiconductor behavior4 ,! ,seebeck effect is demon/rat$ :5 pieces ( p- & n-type mat]ial are jo9$ z %[n 9 ,figure #e4 ,heat at ! hot junction drives ! loose electrons & holes t[>d ! cold junction4 ,?9k ( ! holes & electrons z gases be+ driv5 ?r\gh ! latticework by ! temp]ature diff]5ce4 ,a positive & a negative t]m9al are ?us produc$1 giv+ u a s\rce ( p[]4 ,! l>g] ! temp]ature diff]5ce1 ! bigg] ! voltage diff]5ce4 ,note t j "o !rmoc\ple leg c produce a voltage across its l5g?1 b c\ples made f p & n legs are sup]ior4 ,practical ,!rmoelectric ,p[] ,g5]ators ,! fir/ nucle>-heat$ !rmoelectric g5]ator 0 built 9 #aied by ! ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission's ,m\nd ,laboratory 9 ,miamisburg1 ,ohio4 ,x us$ metal-wire !rmoc\ples4 ,9 contra/1 ! ,,snap #c s]ies !rmoc\ples %[n 9 ,figure #a are ?ick lead telluride 7,pb,te7 semiconductor cyl9d]s ab\t two in*es long4 ,9 contra/ to ! !rmoc\ple wires' effici5cy ( less ?an #a1 ,,snap #c s]ies g5]ators h ov]all effici5cies exce$+ #e4 ,?is value is /ill l[ comp>$ to ! #ce-dj obta9$ 9 a mod]n /eam p[] plant1 b ,,snap #c g5]ators c op]ate unatt5d$ 9 remote localities :]e /eam plants w\ld be totally unacceptable4 ,look aga9 at ! !rmoelem5ts 9 ,figure #a & ! s*ematic1 ,figure #e4 ,und]ly+ ! app>5t simplicity ( ! !rmoelectric g5]ator are ext5sive developm5t ef=ts4 ,! ,figure #a !rmoelectric c\ple1 = example1 %[s ! fruits ( ?\s&s ( exp]im5tal braz+ te/s4 ,x turns out to be uncommonly difficult to fa/5 !rmoelectric elem5ts to ! s-call$ hot %oe 7metal plate7 at ! bottom4 ,! jo9t has to be /rong1 mu/ )/& high temp]atures1 & mu/ h l[ electrical resi/ance4 ,we see also t ! elem5ts are encas$ 9 mica sleeves to prev5t *emical di/urbance ( ! delicate balance ( impurities 9 ! semiconductor by ! surr\nd+ gases4 ,a fur!r complication is ! extreme fragility ( ! elem5ts1 & ?is has yet to be ov]come4 ,nucle> !rmoelectric g5]ators t provide small am\nts ( electrical p[] h already be5 laun*$ into space abo>d ,dep>tm5t ( ,def5se satellites 7,figure #ab71 in/all$ on l& /ations 9 bo? pol> regions1 & plac$ "u ! ocean4#f ,propane-fuel$ !rmoelectric g5]ators1 su* z %[n 9 ,figure #f1 are n[ on ! m>ket = use 9 camp+ equipm5t1 9 ocean buoys1 & 9 remote spots :]e only a few watts ( electricity are ne$$4 ,! ,russians h long manufactur$ a k]os5e lamp ) !rmoelem5ts plac$ 9 its /ack = g5]at+ p[] 9 wild]ness areas4 ,illu/ration3 ,figure #f ,,g5]al ,,purpose ,,g5]ator ,comm]cially available !rmoelectric g5]ators us+ propane fuel c provide m ?an en\gh electrical p[] to op]ate a portable ,,tv set4 ,c\rtesy ,m9nesota ,m9+ ,manufactur+ ,company4 ,= ! pres5t ! role ( !rmoelectric p[] appe>s to be "o ( special uses su* z ^? j m5tion$4 ,:5 high] effici5cies are atta9$1 !rmoelectric p[] may1 "o day1 supplant dynamic conv]sion equipm5t 9 c]ta9 l[-p[] applications reg>dless ( location4 ,,!rmionic ,,conv]sion 8,boil+0 ,electrons ,out ( ,metals ,l ! !rmoelectric elem5t1 ! !rmionic conv]t] is a heat eng9e4 ,9 its simple/ =m x consi/s ( two closely spac$ metallic plates & resembles ! diode radio tube4 ,:]eas !rmoelectric elem5ts dep5d on heat to drive electrons & holes ?r\gh semiconductors to an ext]nal electricity-us+ device or load1 ! sali5t feature ( ! !rmionic diode is !rmionic emission1#g or1 simply1 ! boil+-(f ( electrons f a hot metal surface4 ,! !rmionic conv]t] %[n 9 ,figure #g p[]s a small motor :5 heat$ by a tor*4 ,metals1 z we h already se51 h an abundance ( loosely b\nd conduction electrons roam+ ! atomic latticework4 ,^! electrons are easily mov$ by electric fields :ile )9 ! metal2 b x takes consid]ably m en]gy to boil !m out ( ! metal into free space4 ,"w has to be done aga9/ ! electric fields set up by ! surface lay] ( atoms1 :i* h unatta*$ val5ce bonds on ! side fac+ empty space4 ,! en]gy requir$ to completely deta* an electron f ! surface is call$ ! metal's "w function4 ,9 ! case ( tung/51 = example1 ! "w function is ab\t #d4e electron volts#h ( en]gy4 ,illu/ration3 ,figure #g ,vacuum type !rmionic conv]t] 9 op]ation4 ,c\rtesy ,g5]al ,electric ,company4 ,z we raise ! temp]ature ( a metal1 ! conduction electrons 9 ! metal also get hott] & move ) great] velocity4 ,we may ?9k ( "s ( ! electrons 9 a metal z =m+ a k9d ( electron gas4 ,"s electrons w ga9 su* high spe$s t !y c escape ! metal surface4 ,?is happ5s :5 _! k9etic en]gy exce$s ! metal's "w function4 ,n[ t we h f\nd a way to =ce electrons out ( ! metal1 we w\ld l to make !m d useful electrical "w4 ,to d ?is we h to pu% ! electrons across ! gap betwe5 ! plates z well z create a voltage diff]5ce to g ) ! hop$-= curr5t fl[4 ,r$uc+ ! ,space ,*>ge ,! emitt$ or boil$-(f electrons betwe5 ! conv]t] plates 7,figure #h7 =m a cl\d ( negative *>ges t w repel subsequ5tly emitt$ electrons back to ! emitt] plate unless c\nt]action is tak54 ,to circumv5t ^! space *>ge effects1 we fill ! space betwe5 ! plates ) a gas conta9+ positively *>g$ p>ticles4 ,^! mix ) ! electrons & neutralize _! *>ge4 ,! mixture ( positively & negatively *>g$ p>ticles is call$ a plasma4 ,! pres5ce ( ! plasma makes ! gas a good conductor4 ,! emitt$ electrons c n[ move easily across x to ! collector :]e1 to cont9ue ! gas analogy1 !y cond5se on ! cool] surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,figure #h ,,!rmionic ,,conv]sion ,!rmionic conv]t]s may be flat-plate types or cyl9drical types4 ,! cyl9drical conv]t] 7a7 is an exp]im5tal type = ultimate use 9 nucle> reactors4 ,c\rtesy ,los ,alamos ,sci5tific ,laboratory4 a ,,insulator ,,cool$ ,,collector ,,inc&esc5t ,,uranium ,,fuel ,,elem5t ,,cesium ,,plasma ,,circulat+ ,,coolant ,,vacuum ,,insulator ,,cesium ,,pool b ,,wa/e ,,heat ,,out ,,load ,,electrons ,,l[ ,,"w ,,function ,,collector ,tc ,,cesium ,,ion ,,plasma ,,fill$ ,,gap ,,boil$ ,,(f ,,electrons ,,high ,,"w ,,function ,,emitt] ,tc ,,heat ,,9 ,result3 ,a ,plasma ,!rmoc\ple ,unless a voltage diff]5ce exi/s across ! plates1 no ext]nal "w c be done4 ,9 ! !rmoc\ple ! voltage diff]5ce 0 caus$ by ! diff]5t electrical prop]ties ( ! p & n semiconductors4 ,bo? ! emitt] & collector 9 ! !rmionic conv]t] are good metallic conductors r ?an semiconductors1 s a diff]5t tack mu/ be tak54 ,! key is ! use ( an emitt] & a collector ) diff]5t "w functions4 ,if x takes #d4e electron volts to =ce an electron f a tung/5 surface & if x rega9s only #c4e electron volts :5 x cond5ses on a collector ) a l[] "w function1 !n a voltage drop ( #a volt exi/s betwe5 ! emitt] & collector4 ,to summ>ize1 !n1 ! !rmionic emission ( electrons creates ! pot5tiality ( curr5t fl[4 ,! diff]5ce 9 "w functions makes ! !rmionic conv]t] a p[] produc]4 ,!re is an int]e/+ comp>ison t helps describe ?is ph5om5on4 ,consid] ! emitt] to be ! ocean surface & ! collector a m\nta9 lake4 ,! atmosph]ic heat eng9e vaporizes ocean wat] & c>ries x to ! cool] m\nta9 elevations1 :]e x cond5ses z ra9 :i* collects 9 lakes4 ,! lake wat] z x runs back t[>d sea level !n c be made to drive a hydroelectric plant ) ! gravitational en]gy x has ga9$ 9 ! transit4 ,! !rmionic conv]t] is simil> 9 behavior3 hot emitt] 7correspond+ to ! sun-heat$ ocean72 cool] collector 7lake72 electron gas 7wat]72 diff]5t electrical voltages 7gravity74 ,)\t gravity ! riv] w\ld n fl[1 & ! production ( electricity w\ld be impossible4 ,!rmionic ,p[] 9 ,out] ,space ,!rmionic conv]t]s = use 9 out] space may be heat$ by ! sun1 by decay+ radioisotopes1 or by a fission reactor4 ,!rmionic conv]t]s c also be made into conc5tric cyl9drical %ells 7,figure #h;a7 & wrapp$ ar\nd ! uranium fuel elem5ts 9 nucle> reactors4 ,! wa/e heat 9 ?is case w\ld be c>ri$ out ( ! reactor to a sep>ate radiator#i by a /ream ( liquid metal4 ,s9ce !rmionic conv]t]s c op]ate at mu* high] temp]atures ?an !rmoelectric c\ples or dynamic p[] plants1 ! radiator temp]ature1 ,tc1 w also be high]4 ,consequ5tly1 space p[] plants us+ !rmionic conv]t]s w h small radiators4 ,once !rmionic conv]t]s are develop$ :i* h high reliability & long life1 !y w provide ! basis = a new s]ies ( light]1 m effici5t space p[] plants4 ,,magnetohydrodynamic ,,conv]sion ,big ,^w1 ,simple ,concept ,magnetohydrodynamic 7,,mhd7 conv]sion is v unlike !rmoelectric or !rmionic conv]sion4 ,! ,,mhd g5]ators use high-velocity electrically conduct+ gases to produce p[] & are g5]ically clos] to dynamic conv]sion concepts4 ,! only concept !y c>ry =w>d f ! prec$+ conv]sion ideas is t ( ! plasma1 ! electrically conduct+ gas4 ,yet !y are commonly classifi$ z direct because !y replace ! rotat+ turbog5]ator ( ! dynamic sy/ems ) a /ation>y pipe or duct4 ,illu/ration3 ,figure #i ,9 ! ,,mhd duct 7a71 ! electrons 9 ! hot plasma move to ! "r "u influ5ce ( =ce ,f 9 ! magnetic field ,b4 ,! electrons collect$ by ! "r-h& side ( ! duct are c>ri$ to ! load4 ,9 a wire 9 ! armature ( a conv5tional g5]ator 7b7 ! electrons are =c$ to ! "r by ! magnetic field4 a ,,mhd ,duct ,,hot ,,plasma ,,9 ,,cool ,,gas ,,out ,,to ,,radiator ,magnetic ,field ,,load ,,electrons b ,,conv5tional ,,g5]ator ,,%aft ,,load ,magnetic ,field ,,armature ,,wire ,,electrons ,9 ! conv5tional dynamic g5]ator1 an electromotive =ce is creat$ 9 a wire t cuts ?r\gh magnetic l9es ( =ce1 z %[n 9 ,figure #i;b4 ,x may be helpful to visualize ! conduction electrons z leav+ "o end ( ! wire & mov+ to ! o!r "u ! influ5ce ( ! magnetic field4 ,! =ce on ! electrons 9 ! wire is giv5 by ,f qv,b :]e ,f ! =ce 79 newtons#aj7 q ! *>ge on ! electron 7#a4f #aj c\lomb7 v ! wire's velocity 79 met]s p] second7 ,b ! magnetic field /r5g? 79 web]s p] squ>e met]#aj7 ,! surge ( electrons along ! l5g? ( ! wire sets up a voltage diff]5ce across ! ends ( ! wire4 ,a g5]ator uses ?is diff]5ce to conv]t ! k9etic en]gy ( ! mov+ wire or armature into electrical en]gy4 ,! wire is kept sp9n+ by ! %aft :i* is connect$ to a turb9e driv5 by /eam or wat]4 ,let u try to elim9ate ! mov+ "p1 ! g5]ator armature4 ,:at we ne$ is a mov+ conductor t has no %aft1 no be>+s1 no we>+ p>ts4 ,! sub/ance t meets ^! requirem5ts is ! plasma4 ,exam9e ,figure #i;a4 ,! ,,mhd g5]ator sub/itutes a mov+1 conduct+ gas = ! wires4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( an ext]nal magnetic field1 ! conduction electrons move ?r\gh ! plasma to "o side ( ! duct :i* c>ries electrical p[] away to ! load4 ,! ,,mhd g5]ator gets its en]gy f an exp&+1 hot gas2 b1 unlike ! turbog5]ator1 ! heat eng9e & g5]ator are unit$ 9 ! /atic duct4 ,! gradual wid5+ ( ! duct %[n 9 ,figure #i;a reflects ! l[] pressure1 cool] plasma at ! duct's end4 ,"s ( ! plasma's !rmal en]gy cont5t has be5 tapp$ (f by ! duct's electrodes z electrical p[]4 ,! ,f\r? ,/ate ( ,matt] ,plasma c be creat$ by temp]atures ov] #bjjj,k4 ,at ?is temp]ature _m high-velocity gas atoms collide ) en\gh en]gy to knock electrons (f ea* o!r & ?us become ioniz$4 ,! mat]ial ?us creat$1 %[n z a gl[+ gas 9 ,figure #aj1 does n behave consi/5tly z any ( ! ?ree famili> /ates ( matt]3 solid1 liquid1 or gas4 ,plasma has be5 call$ a f\r? /ate ( matt]4 ,s9ce we h difficulty 9 conta9+ su* high temp]atures on e>?1 we adopt ! /rategy ( se$+4 ,9 ?is te*nique gases t are ord9>ily difficult to ionize1 l helium1 are made conduct+ by add+ a fraction ( a p]c5t ( an alkali metal su* z potassium4 ,alkali metal atoms h loosely b\nd out] electrons & quickly become ioniz$ at temp]atures well bel[ #bjjj,k4 ,illu/ration3 ,figure #aj ,gl[+ plasma 9 exp]im5tal device at ,g5]al ,atomic's ,john ,jay ,hopk9s ,laboratory1 ,san ,diego4 ,t-%ap$ plasma gun provides data = rese>* 9 !rmonucle> fusion4 ,c\rtesy ,texas ,atomic ,en]gy ,rese>* ,f\ndation4 ,a helium-potassium mixture is a good en\gh conductor = use 9 an ,,mhd g5]ator4 ,9 ?is plasma ! electrons move rapidly "u ! influ5ce ( ! appli$ fields1 ?\gh n z well z 9 metals4 ,! positive ions move 9 ! opposite direction f ! electrons1 b ! electrons are mu* light] & move ?\s&s ( times fa/] ?us c>ry+ ! bulk ( ! electrical curr5t4 ,,mhd ,p[] ,prospects ,! ,,mhd duct is n a complete p[] plant 9 itself because1 aft] leav+ ! duct1 ! /ream ( gas mu/ be compress$1 heat$1 & return$ to ! duct4 ,v high temp]ature mat]ials & compon5ts mu/ be develop$ = ?is k9d ( s]vice4 ,moreov]1 :ile ! duct is simple 9 concept1 x mu/ op]ate at v high temp]atures 9 ! pres5ce ( ! corrosive alkali metals4 ,?is pres5ts u ) difficult mat]ials problems4 ,:5 ! problems are solv$1 probably )9 ! next decade1 ,,mhd p[] plants %\ld be able to provide reliable p[] ) high effici5cy4 ,!y may !n s]ve 9 l>ge space p[] plants1 &1 mo/ important1 !y may provide *eap] electricity = g5]al use ?r\gh _! high] temp]atures & great] effici5cies4 ,,*emical ,,batt]ies ,electricity f ! ,*emical ,bond ,if y vigor\sly knead a lemon to free ! juices & !n /ick a /rip ( z9c 9 "o end & a copp] /rip 9 ! o!r1 y c measure a voltage across ! /rips4 ,electrons w fl[ ?r\gh ! load )\t ! inconv5i5ce ( hav+ to supply heat4 ,y h made y\rself a *emical batt]y4 ,! *emical batt]y 0 ! fir/ direct conv]sion device4 ,two hundr$ ye>s ago x 0 ! sci5ti/s' only cont9u\s s\rce ( electricity4 ,s9ce ! *emical batt]y does n ne$ heat = its op]ation1 x is logical to ask :at makes ! curr5t fl[4 ,:]e does ! en]gy come f8 ,! batt]y has no semiconductors1 b1 l ! !rmoelectric c\ple & ! !rmionic diode1 x uses dissimil> mat]ials = its electrodes4 ,a conduct+ fluid or solid is also pres5t to provide = ! passage ( curr5t betwe5 ! electrodes4 ,9 ! example ( ! lemon1 ! copp] & z9c are ! dissimil> electrodes1 & ! lemon juice is ! conduct+ fluid or electrolyte t supplies positive & negative ions4 ,! batt]y d]ives its en]gy f its complem5t ( *emical fuel4 ,! voltage diff]5ce arises because ( ! diff]5t /r5g?s ( ! *emical bonds4 ,! *emical bond is basically an electro/atic "o2 "s atoms h /rong] electrical aff9ities ?an o!rs4 ,*emical ,reactions ,us$ 9 ,batt]ies & ,fuel ,cells ,consid] ! foll[+ *emical reactions ( common batt]ies toge!r ) "s fuel cell reactions :i* w be discuss$ fur!r 9 ! next section4 ,batt]y ,reactions ,pb ,pb,o #b;,h,,s #b,pb,s,o #b;,h,o ,fe ,ni,o ,fe,o ,ni,o ,zn ,ag,o ,h,o ,ag ,zn7,,oh7 ,pb ,ag,o ,pb,o #b;,ag ,fuel ,cell ,reactions #b,li,h #b,li ,h #b;,cu,br #b;,cu,br ,br #b;,h ,o #b;,h,o 7,bacon cell7 ,pb,i ,pb ,i ,9 pr9ciple all ^! reactions are ! same z ^? go+ on inside ! lemon1 al?\gh ea* type ( cell produces a slightly diff]5t voltage because ( ! v>y+ *emical aff9ities ( ! atoms & molecules involv$4 ,!re are lit]ally hundr$s ( mat]ials :i* c be us$ = electrolytes & electrodes4 ,no heat ne$s to be add$ z ! electro/atic *emical bonds are brok5 & remade 9 a batt]y to g5]ate electrical p[]4 ,! *emical reaction en]gy is transf]r$ to ! electrical load ) almo/ #ajj effici5cy4 ,! ,c>not cycle is no limitation "h2 only 8cold0 electro/atic =ces are 9 action4 ,! reactions _c g on =ev]1 h[ev]1 because ! batt]y supplies ! en]gy conv]t] ) a v limit$ supply ( fuel4 ,ev5tually ! fuel is consum$ & ! voltage drops to z]o4 ,?is defici5cy is rem$i$ by ! fuel cell 9 :i* fuel is suppli$ cont9u\sly4 ,an ,old ,/&by 9 ,out] ,space ,almo/ e satellite & space vehicle has a *emical batt]y abo>d4 ,x is n !re s mu* = cont9u\s p[] production b z a re*>geable electrical accumulator or res]voir to provide electricity dur+ peak loads4 ,! batt]y is also ne$$ to /ore en]gy = use dur+ ! p]iods :5 sol> cells are 9 ! e>?'s %ad[ & !re=e inop]ative4 ,9 ?is capacity ! dep5dable old batt]y s]ves ! mo/ mod]n sci5ce v well inde$4 ,,! ,,fuel ,,cell3 ,a ,,cont9u\sly ,,fuel$ ,,batt]y ,pot5tial ,fuels ,! batt]y has a v close relative1 ! fuel cell4 ,unlike ! batt]y ! fuel cell has a cont9u\s supply ( fuel4 ,illu/ration3 ,figure #aa ,?is diagram %[s h[ a hydrog5-oxyg5 fuel cell works4 ,! *emical batt]y works 9 ! same way1 except t ! *emicals are diff]5t & are n cont9u\sly suppli$ f outside ! cell4 ,! wat] produc$ by ! ,h-,o cell %[n c be us$ = dr9k+ on space%ips4 ,,anode ,h ,,9 ,,ca?ode ,o ,,9 ,,electrons ,,load ,,koh ,,electrolyte ,k ,,ion ,,oh ,,ion ,,negative ,,ion ,,fl[ #dj;,h #b;,h #d;,h,o #d;e ,o #b;,h,o #d;e #dj;,h ,! hydrog5-oxyg5 cell ( ,figure #aa is typical ( all fuel cells4 ,x ess5tially burns hydrog5 & oxyg5 to =m wat]4 ,if ! hydrog5 & oxyg5 c be suppli$ cont9u\sly & ! excess wat] dra9$ (f1 we c greatly ext5d ! life ( ! batt]y4 ,! fuel cell accompli%es ?is4 ,fuel$ electrical cell w\ld be m descriptive s9ce ! physical pr9ciples are id5tical ) ^? ( ! batt]y4 ,p]haps ! mo/ *all5g+ task contemplat$ = ! fuel cell is to br+ ab\t ! consumption ( raw or slightly process$ coal1 gas1 & oil fuels ) atmosph]ic oxyg54 ,if fuel cells c be made to use ^! abundant fuels1 !n ! high natural conv]sion effici5cy ( ! fuel cells w make !m economically sup]ior to ! l[] effici5cy /eam-electric plants n[ 9 comm]cial s]vice4 ,s f> we h dwelt on ! fuel cell z a cold en]gy conv]sion device t is n limit$ by ! ,c>not effici5cy4 ,a v>iation on ?is !me is possible4 ,take a hydrog5 iodide 7,,hi7 cell1 & heat ! ,,hi to #bjjj,k4 ,"s ( ! ,,hi molecules w collide at high velocities & dissociate into hydrog5 & iod9e3 #b;,,hi ,h ,i2 ! high] ! temp]ature1 ! m ! dissociation4 ,by sep>at+ ! hydrog5 & iod9e gases & return+ !m = recycl+ to ! fuel cell :]e !y are recomb9$1 we h elim9at$ ! fuel supply problem & creat$ a reg5]ative fuel cell4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 also re9troduc$ ! heat eng9e & ! ,c>not cycle effici5cy4 ,! !rmally reg5]ative fuel cell is a true heat eng9e us+ a dissociat+ gas z ! work+ fluid4 ,s*eme = ,project ,apollo ,mo/ ( ! impetus = develop+ ! fuel cell z a practical device comes f ! space program4 ,! cell has admirable prop]ties = space missions t are less ?an a few mon?s 9 duration4 ,x is a clean1 quiet1 vibrationless s\rce ( en]gy4 ,l ! batt]y x has a high electrical ov]load capacity = supply+ p[] peaks & is easily controll$4 ,x c ev5 provide potable wat] = a crew if ! ,bacon ,h - ,o cell is us$4 ,= %ort missions :]e l>ge fuel supplies are n ne$$1 x is also among ! lighte/ p[] plants available4 ,^! compell+ advantages h l$ ! ,national ,a]onautics & ,space ,adm9i/ration to *oose ! fuel cell = "s ( ! fir/ mann$ space v5tures4 ,project ,apollo1 ! mann$ lun> l&+ mission1 is ! mo/ notable example4 ,"h ! fuel cell w be n only an en]gy s\rce1 b also "p ( ! ecological cycle :i* keeps ! crew alive4 ,problem #d ,a mann$ space vehicle requires an av]age ( #b electrical kil[atts4 ,a nucle> reactor !rmoelectric plant hav+ a mass ( #ajjj kilograms1 includ+ %ield+1 c supply ?is p[] = #aj1jjj h\rs4 ,! basic fuel cell has a mass ( #ej kilograms & consumes kilogram ( *emicals p] h\r4 ,! *emical conta9]s weigh #be kilograms4 ,:at is ! longe/ mission :]e ! total weight ( ! fuel cell w be less ?an ! weight ( ! nucle> p[] plant8 ,,sol> ,,cells ,photons z ,en]gy ,c>ri]s ,all our fossil fuels1 su* z coal & oil1 owe _! exi/5ce to ! sol> en]gy /ream t has engulf$ ! e>? = billions ( ye>s4 ,! p[] 9 ?is /ream am\nts to ab\t #adjj watts p] squ>e met] at ! e>?1 ne>ly en\gh to supply an av]age home if all ! en]gy 7 conv]t$ to electricity4 ,! problem is to get ! sun's rays to yield up _! en]gy ) high effici5cy4 ,! sun's visible surface has a temp]ature ar\nd #fjjj,k4 ,any object heat$ to ?is temp]ature w radiate visible light mo/ly 9 ! yell[-gre5 portion ( ! spectrum 7#eejj ,a#aa74 ,our en]gy conv]sion device %\ld be tun$ to ?is wavel5g?4 ,! en]gy packets arriv+ f ! sun are call$ photons4 ,!y travel1 ( c\rse1 at ! spe$ ( light1 & ea* c>ries an am\nt ( en]gy giv5 by ,e hf hc_/ :]e ,e en]gy 79 j\les7 h ,planck's con/ant 7#f4fb #aj j\le-second7 f ! light's frequ5cy 79 cycles p] second c_/7 c ! velocity ( light 7#cjj1jjj1jjj met]s p] second7 ! wavel5g? 79 met]s7 ,us+ ! fact t an ang/rom unit is #aj met]1 ! en]gy ( a #eejj ,a photon c\ld be calculat$ z ,e hf hc_/ 7#f4fb #aj #c4jj #aj7_/7e4ej #aj7 #c4fa #aj j\le #b4b electron volts ,comp>+ ?is result1 #b4b electron volts1 ) ! en]gies requir$ to cause atomic ionization or molecul> dissociation 7an electron volt or s71 we see t x is 9 ! "r range to actuate direct conv]sion devices bas$ on su* ph5om5a4 ,h>ness+ ! ,sun's ,en]gy ,hi/orically1 ! sun's en]gy has mo/ (t5 be5 us$ by conc5trat+ x ) a l5s or mirror & !n conv]t+ x to heat4 ,we c\ld d ?is & run a heat eng9e1 b a m direct av5ue is op54 ,ab\t a decade ago x 0 f\nd t ! junction betwe5 p & n semiconductors w\ld g5]ate electricity if illum9at$4 ,?is discov]y l$ to ! developm5t ( ! sol> cell1 a ?91 lopsid$ s&wi* ( silicon semiconductors4 ,z %[n 9 ,figure #ab1 ! top semiconductor lay] expos$ to ! sun is extremely ?91 only #b4e microns4 ,sol> photons c readily p5etrate ?is lay] & rea* ! junction sep>at+ x f ! ?ick ma9 body ( ! sol> cell4 ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ab ,,! ,,sol> ,,cell ,! photograph %[s ! sol> cell 9 use on a satellite4 ,! sph]ical1 radioisotope1 !rmoelectric g5]ator at ! bottom ( ! satellite is us$ to supplem5t ! sol> cells4 ,9 ! sol> cell1 hole-electron pairs are creat$ by sol> photons 9 ! vic9ity ( a p-n junction4 ,c\rtesy ,u4 ,s4 ,air ,=ce & ,national ,a]onautics & ,space ,adm9i/ration4 p ,,silicon n ,,silicon ,,electron-,,mole ,,pairs ,,junction ,,photons ,,f ,,sun ,,or ,,radioisotope ,,electrons ,,en]gy ,,out ,:5ev] p- & n-type semiconductors are s&wi*$ toge!r a voltage diff]5ce is creat$ across ! junction4 ,! sep>at$ holes & electrons 9 ! two semiconductor regions e/abli% ?is electric field across ! junction4 ,un=tunately1 !re are usually no curr5t c>ri]s 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( ! junction s t no p[] is produc$4 ,! absorption ( sol> photons 9 ! vic9ity ( ! junction w create curr5t c>ri]s1 z ! photons' en]gy is trans=m$ into ! pot5tial en]gy ( ! hole-electron pairs4 ,^! pairs w\ld quickly recomb9e & give up _! newly acquir$ pot5tial en]gy if ! electric field exi/+ across ! junction did n :isk !m away to an ext]nal load4 ,! sol> cell produces electricity :5 hole-electron pairs are =m$4 ,any o!r ph5om5on t creates su* pairs w also g5]ate electricity4 ,! s\rce ( en]gy is irrelevant s long z ! curr5t c>ri]s are =m$ ne> ! junction4 ,?us1 p>ticles emitt$ by radioactive atoms c also produce electricity f sol> cells1 al?\gh too mu* bomb>dm5t by su* p>ticles c damage ! cell's atomic /ructure & r$uce its output4 ,! sol> cell is n a heat eng9e4 ,yet x loses en\gh en]gy s t ! sun's en]gy is conv]t$ at less ?an #ae effici5cy4 ,losses commonly occur because ( ! recomb9ation ( ! hole-electron pairs be=e !y c produce curr5t1 ! absorption ( photons too f> f ! junction1 & ! reflection ( incid5t photons f ! top surface ( ! cell4 ,despite ^! losses sol> cells are n[ ! ma9/ay ( nonpropulsive space p[]4 ,,nucle> ,,batt]ies ,en]gy f ,nucle> ,p>ticles ,z we h se51 sol> cells are able to conv]t ! k9etic en]gy ( *>g$ nucle> p>ticles directly into electricity1 b a simpl] & m /raight=w>d way ( do+ ?is exi/s4 ,?is involves direct use ( ! fl[ ( *>g$ p>ticles z curr5t4 ,! nucle> batt]y %[n 9 ,figure #ac p]=ms ?is trick4 ,a c5tral rod is coat$ ) an electron-emitt+ radioisotope 7a beta-emitt]2 say1 /rontium-#ij74 ,! high-velocity electrons emitt$ by ! radioisotope cross ! gap betwe5 ! cyl9d]s & are collect$ by a simple metallic sleeve & s5t to ! load4 ,simple1 b :y don't space *>ge effects prev5t ! electrons f cross+ ! gap z !y d 9 ! !rmionic conv]t]8 ,! answ] lies 9 ! fact t ! nucle> electrons h a million times m k9etic en]gy ?an ^? boil$ (f ! !rmionic conv]t]'s emitt] surface4 ,consequ5tly1 !y are too p[]ful to be /opp$ by any space *>ge 9 ! n>r[ gap4 ,nucle> batt]ies are simple & rugg$4 ,!y g5]ate only microamp]es ( curr5t at #aj1jjj to #ajj1jjj volts4 ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ac ,a ,,nucle> ,,batt]y ,! nucle> batt]y dep5ds ^u ! emission ( *>g$ p>ticles f a surface coat$ ) a radioisotope4 ,! p>ticles are collect$ on ano!r surface4 ,,en]gy ,,out ,,insulator ,,lay] ,,( ,,beta-,,emitt+ ,,radioisotope ,,vacuum ,d\ble ,conv]sion ,9 ! e>li] description ( ! en]gy conv]sion matrix1 we saw t we c\ld g ?r\gh ! en]gy trans=mation process repeat$ly until we obta9$ ! k9d ( en]gy we want$4 ,?is is exemplifi$ 9 a type ( nucle> batt]y :i* uses ! s-call$ d\ble conv]sion approa*4 ,fir/1 ! high-velocity nucle> p>ticles are absorb$ 9 a phosphor :i* emits visible light4 ,! photons ?us produc$ are !n absorb$ 9 a gr\p ( /rategically plac$ sol> cells1 :i* deliv] electrical p[] to ! load4 ,al?\gh effici5cy is lo/ at ea* en]gy trans=mation1 ! d\ble conv]sion te*nique /ill ends up ) an ov]all effici5cy ( f #a to #e1 an acceptable value = p[] supplies 9 ! watt & milliwatt ranges4 ,,advanc$ ,,concepts ,f]roelectric & !rmomagnetic conv]sion are subtle concepts :i* dep5d ^u ! gross alt]ation ( a mat]ial's physical prop]ties by ! application ( heat4 ,devices employ+ su* concepts are true heat eng9es4 ,in/ead ( ! gase\s & electronic work+ fluids us$ 9 ! o!r direct conv]sion concepts1 ! f]roelectric & !rmomagnetic concepts employ patt]ns ( atoms & molecules t are actually re>rang$ p]iodically by heat4 ,f]roelectric ,conv]sion ,f]roelectric conv]sion makes use ( ! peculi> prop]ties ( dielectric#ab mat]ials4 ,b>ium titanate1 = example1 has good dielectric prop]ties at l[ temp]atures1 b1 :5 its temp]ature is rais$ to m ?an #abj;,c1 ! prop]ties get worse rapidly4 ,we _c discuss dielectric behavior ?or\ghly 9 ?is booklet2 suffice x to say t 9 ?is process heat is absorb$ 9 a realignm5t ( molecules )9 ! b>ium titanate latticework4 ,if we n[ place a slab ( b>ium titanate betwe5 ! two plates ( an electrical cond5s] & *>ge ! cond5s]1 z %[n 9 ,figure #ad1 we h a unique way ( conv]t+ heat into electricity directly4 ,:5 ! b>ium titanate is heat$ above its ,curie po9t#ac ( #abj;,c1 ! cond5s]'s capacitance is radically r$uc$ z ! dielectric con/ant falls4 ,! cond5s] is =c$ to dis*>ge & move electrons ?r\gh an ext]nal circuit consi/+ ( ! load & ! orig9al s\rce ( *>ge4 ,useful electrical en]gy is deliv]$ dur+ ?is /ep4 ,figure #ad %[s ! process s*ematically & ma!matically4 ,:5 ! dielectric is cool$1 wa/e heat is giv5 up by ! b>ium titanate1 & ! cycle is complete4 ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ad ,,f]roelectric ,,en]gy ,,conv]sion ,! f]roelectric conv]t] is really an electrical capacitor ^: capacitance is *ang$ by temp]ature4 ,:5 heat is add$1 capacitance drops1 voltage rises1 & ! capacitor is made to dis*>ge ?r\gh ! load4 ,,cycle3 ,swit* #a clos$1 #b op54 ,cond5s] *>ges f batt]y to *>ge ,q at voltage ,v ) capacity ,c4 ,all swit*es op54 ,heat add$1 capacity *anges f ,c to ,c1 *>ge rema9s con/ant1 s voltage *anges f ,v to ,v4 ,swit* #b clos$1 #a op54 ,cond5s] dis*>ges ?r\gh load & batt]y to *>ge ,q at voltage ,v ) capacity ,c4 ,all swit*es op54 ,heat reject$1 capacity *anges f ,c to ,c1 *>ge rema9s con/ant1 s voltage *anges f ,v to ,v4 ,,cycle ,,!n ,,repeats4 ,en]gy suppli$ f batt]y ea* cycle is ,e4 ,en]gy deliv]$ to load & batt]y ea* cycle is ,e4 ,net en]gy conv]t$ is !n ,e - ,e1 ! diff]5ce 9 ! %ad$ areas4 7a7 ,,circuit ,,heat ,,9 ,,b>ium ,,titanate ,,dielectric ,,wa/e ,,heat ,,out ,,swit* #b ,,load ,,swit* #a ,,batt]y 7b7 ,,cycle ,,diagram *>ge volts ,q1 ,q1 ,e1 ,e1 ,v ,v ,v ,,g5]al ,,in=mation3 ,c ,c ,v ,q_/,c ,!rmomagnetic ,conv]sion ,! analog#ad ( f]roelectricity is f]romagnetism4 ,a conv]t] employ+ simil> pr9ciples to ^? 9 f]roelectricity c be made us+ an electrical inductance ) a f]romagnetic core4 ,:5 ! temp]ature ( ! f]romagnetic mat]ial is rais$ above its ,curie po9t1 its magnetic p]meability drops quickly1 caus+ ! magnetic field to collapse p>tially4 ,en]gy may be deliv]$ to an ext]nal load dur+ ?is *ange4 ,in/ead ( en]gy be+ /or$ 9 an electro/atic field1 x is /or$ 9 a magnetic field4 ,f]roelectric & !rmomagnetic conv]sion bo? repres5t a class ( en]gy trans=mations :i* involve int]nal molecul> or cry/all9e re>rangem5ts ( solids4 ,!re is no *ange ( phase z 9 a /eam eng9e1 b ! en]gy *anges are !re nev]!less4 ,9 !rmodynamics su* int]nal geometrical *anges are call$ second-ord] transitions1 z oppos$ to ! fir/-ord] transitions obs]v$ ) heat eng9es us+ two-phase work+ fluids l wat]_//eam4 ,on ! ,fronti] ,o!r pot5tial en]gy conv]sion s*emes are be+ inve/igat$ by sci5ti/s & eng9e]s4 ,^? li/$ 9 ! ,en]gy ,conv]sion ,matrix 7,figure #b7 only scrat* ! surface4 ,9 p>ticul>1 we are j le>n+ h[ to manipulate photons4 ,!re are photo*emical1 photoelectric1 & ev5 photome*anical trans=mations4 ,^! h h>dly be5 tapp$4 ,consid] ! reaction :5 an electron & its antimatt] equival5t1 ! positron1 meet4 ,!y mutually annihilate ea* o!r 9 a bur/ ( en]gy6 ,?is en]gy w be h>ness$ som$ay4 ,:at en]gy conv]sion device are we go+ to use to completely conv]t mass into en]gy8 ,! en]gy requirem5ts = int]/ell> exploration are s great t ^! voyages w be impossible unless a new device is f\nd t c completely trans=m mass into en]gy4 ,!n aga91 we hav5't ! fa9te/ idea ( h[ to control gravitational en]gy1 b we may le>n4 ,! panorama is endless4 ,problem #e ,a #a1jjj1jjj-kilogram space%ip takes (f = ,alpha ,c5tauri1 our ne>e/ />1 #d4c light ye>s away4 ,if x accel]ates to n9e-t5?s ! velocity ( light1 :at is its k9etic en]gy8 ,h[ mu* fuel mass w h to be completely conv]t$ to en]gy to acquire ?is velocity8 ,,sugge/$ ,,ref]5ces ,articles ,fuel ,cells1 ,leon>d ,g4 ,au/91 ,sci5tific ,am]ican1 #bja3 #gb 7,octob] #aiei74 ,a survey ( ! diff]5t types4 ,nucle> ,p[] 9 ,out] ,space1 ,william ,r4 ,corliss1 ,nucleonics1 #ah3 #eh 7,augu/ #aifj74 ,a review ( all nucle> space p[] plants4 ,fuel ,cells = ,space ,vehicles1 ,m4 ,g4 ,del ,duca1 ,a/ronautics1 #e3 #cf 7,m>* #aifj74 ,fuel ,cells1 ,e4 ,gor9 & ,h4 ,l4 ,re*t1 ,*emical ,eng9e]+ ,progress1 #ee3 #ea 7,augu/ #aiei74 ,!rmionic ,conv]t]s1 ,k>l ,g4 ,h]nqvi/1 ,nucleonics1 #ag3 #di 7,july #aiei74 ,! ,revival ( ,!rmoelectricity1 ,abram ,f4 ,j(fe1 ,sci5tific ,am]ican1 #aii3 #ca 7,novemb] #aieh74 ,excell5t hi/orical & te*nical review4 ,! ,photovoltaic ,effect & ,its ,utilization1 ,p4 ,rappaport1 ,,rca ,review1 #bj3 #cgc 7,septemb] #aiei74 ,recomm5d$ = advanc$ /ud5ts4 ,! ,prospects ( ,,mhd ,p[] ,g5]ation1 ,leo ,/eg & ,george ,w4 ,sutton1 ,a/ronautics1 #e3 #bb 7,augu/ #aifj74 ,conv]sion ( ,heat to ,electricity by ,!rmionic ,emission1 ,volney ,c4 ,wilson1 ,j\rnal ( ,appli$ ,physics1 #cj3 #dge 7,april #aiei74 ,recomm5d$ = advanc$ /ud5ts4 ,improv$ ,sol> ,cells ,plann$ = ,,imp-,d1 ,r4 ,d4 ,hibb51 ,aviation ,week ,space ,te*nology1 #hc3 #ec 7,july #bf1 #aife74 ,?9-film ,sol> ,cells ,boo/ ,output ,ratio1 ,p4 ,j4 ,klass1 ,aviation ,week ,space ,te*nology1 #hc3 #fg 7,novemb] #bi1 #aife74 ,books ,direct ,conv]sion ( ,heat to ,electricity1 ,joseph ,kaye & ,john ,a4 ,wel%1 ,john ,wiley ,sons1 ,inc41 ,new ,york #ajjaf1 #aifj1 #chg pp41 #aa4ej4 ,recomm5d$ = advanc$ /ud5ts4 ,select$ ,pap]s on ,new ,te*niques = ,en]gy ,conv]sion1 ,sumn] ,n4 ,lev9e1 7,ed471 ,dov] ,publications1 ,inc41 ,new ,york #ajjad1 #aifa1 #ddd pp41 #c4jj4 ,a repr9t+ ( _m classical pap]s on direct conv]sion4 ,en]gy ,conv]sion = ,space ,p[]1 ,na?an ,w4 ,snyd]1 7,ed471 ,academic ,press1 ,inc41 ,new ,york #ajjjc1 #aifa1 #ggi pp41 #h4ej4 ,a collection ( ,am]ican ,rocket ,society pap]s4 ,man & ,en]gy1 ,alfr$ ,r5e ,ubbelohde1 ,george ,brazill]1 ,new ,york #ajjaf1 #aiee1 #bdg pp41 #e4jj 7h>dback72 #a4be 7pap]back71 f ,p5gu9 ,books1 ,inc41 ,baltimore1 ,m>yl& #babaa4 ,a popul> treatm5t ( en]gy & p[]4 ,motion ,pictures ,! foll[+ films are produc$ by ,educational ,s]vices1 ,inc41 & are available f ,mod]n ,le>n+ ,aids1 ,a ,division ( ,mod]n ,talk+ ,picture ,s]vice1 ,inc41 #c ,ea/ #ed? ,/41 ,new ,york #bb1 ,new ,york4 ,en]gy & ,"w1 #jcaa1 #bi m9utes1 #aej4 ,me*anical ,en]gy & ,!rmal ,en]gy1 #jcab1 #bg m9utes1 #abj4 ,cons]vation ( ,en]gy1 #jcac1 #bg m9utes1 #aej4 ,photo-,electric ,effect1 #jdag1 #bh m9utes1 #bbj4 ,,answ]s ,,to ,,problems ,fir/1 me*anical en]gy drives ! c>'s electric g5]ator4 ,second1 ! electrical en]gy is conv]t$ into *emical en]gy :5 ! batt]y is re*>g$4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,f ! k9etic en]gy equation we get v 7#b ,e_/m7 ,s9ce ! eng9e is #be effici5t1 ! en]gy available to propel ! c> is #dh1jjj #j4be or #ab1jjj j\les4 ,s v 7#bd1jjj_/a1jjj7 #bf #d4i met]s p] second 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 e 7#cjj - #bj7_/cjj #ad_/ae #j4ic #ic ,! crossov] po9t1 t1 9 h\rs is f\nd by equat+ ! nucle> p[] plant mass & t ( ! fuel cell ) its associat$ fuel4 ,! equation is #ajjj #ej #be t t #ahej h\rs #gg days 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,e mv 7#aj7j4i #c #aj77_/b #c4f #aj j\les ,! %ip w use ! same am\nt ( en]gy to decel]ate at its de/9ation4 ,note t ?is calculation assumes a p]fect effici5cy 9 conv]t+ ! en]gy ( matt] annihilation into ! k9etic en]gy ( ! space %ip4 ,! mass consum$ is m ,e_/c 7#c4f #aj7_/7i #aj7 #d4j #aj kg almo/ half ! space%ip mass4 ,footnotes #a,sy/ems = ,nucle> ,auxili>y ,p[]4 #b;,describ$ 9 ?is booklet4 #c,magnetohydrodynamics4 #d,! ,kelv9 temp]ature scale />ts ) z]o at absolute z]o in/ead ( at ! freez+ po9t ( wat]4 ,!re=e1 ,k ,c #bgc2 ,k _/ 7,f #dfj74 #e,t]m$ val5ce or conduction electrons1 ^! are responsible = *emical prop]ties1 bonds ) o!r atoms1 & ! conduction ( electricity4 #f,see ! companion ,und]/&+ ! ,atom booklet1 ,p[] f ,radioisotopes4 #g;,discov]$ by ,?omas ,edison 9 #ahhc4 #h;,an electron volt is equal to ! k9etic en]gy acquir$ by an electron accel]at$ ?r\gh a pot5tial diff]5ce ( #a volt4 ,x is equal to #a4f #aj j\le4 #i;,9 out] space1 wa/e heat mu/ be radiat$ away4 ,! rate at :i* heat is radiat$ is proportional to ! f\r? p[] ( ,tc 7,/efan-,boltzmann law74 #aj,! newton & ! web] are mks 7met]-kilogram-second7 units4 #aa;,an ang/rom unit 7,a7 is a unit ( di/ance measurem5t equal to #aj met]4 #ab;,dielectric mat]ials are nonconductors su* z are ^? us$ betwe5 ! plates ( a cond5s] to increase its electrical capacity4 #ac,! ,curie po9t is ! temp]ature at :i* a mat]ial's cry/all9e /ructure radically *anges & becomes less ord]ly4 #ad;,f]roelectricity & f]romagnetism are v simil>4 ,! equations describ+ ^! ph5om5a are almo/ id5tical except t capacitance is replac$ by its magnetic analog1 inductance1 & s on4 ,?is booklet is "o ( ! 8,und]/&+ ! ,atom0 ,s]ies4 ,comm5ts are invit$ on ?is booklet & o!rs 9 ! s]ies2 please s5d !m to ! ,division ( ,te*nical ,in=mation1 ,u4 ,s4 ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c4 #bjede4 ,publi%$ z "p ( ! ,,aec's educational assi/ance program1 ! s]ies includes ^! titles3 ,accel]ators ,animals 9 ,atomic ,rese>* ,atomic ,fuel ,atomic ,p[] ,safety ,atoms at ! ,sci5ce ,fair ,atoms 9 ,agriculture ,atoms1 ,nature1 & ,man ,c>e]s 9 ,atomic ,en]gy ,comput]s ,controll$ ,nucle> ,fusion ,cryog5ics1 ,! ,uncommon ,cold ,direct ,conv]sion ( ,en]gy ,fall\t ,f ,nucle> ,te/s ,food ,pres]vation by ,irradiation ,g5etic ,effects ( ,radiation ,index to ! ,,uas ,s]ies ,las]s ,micro/ructure ( ,matt] ,neutron ,activation ,analysis ,nonde/ructive ,te/+ ,nucle> ,clocks ,nucle> ,en]gy = ,desalt+ ,nucle> ,p[] & ,m]*ant ,%ipp+ ,nucle> ,p[] ,plants ,nucle> ,propulsion = ,space ,nucle> ,reactors ,nucle> ,t]ms1 ,a ,brief ,gloss>y ,our ,atomic ,_w ,pl[%>e ,plutonium ,p[] f ,radioisotopes ,p[] ,reactors 9 ,small ,packages ,radioactive ,wa/es ,radioisotopes & ,life ,processes ,radioisotopes 9 ,indu/ry ,radioisotopes 9 ,m$ic9e ,r>e ,e>?s ,read+ ,res\rces 9 ,atomic ,en]gy ,rese>* ,reactors ,,snap1 ,nucle> ,space ,reactors ,s\rces ( ,nucle> ,fuel ,syn!tic ,transuranium ,elem5ts ,! ,atom & ! ,ocean ,! ,*emi/ry ( ! ,noble ,gases ,! ,fir/ ,reactor ,:ole ,body ,c\nt]s ,y\r ,body & ,radiation ,a s+le copy ( any "o booklet1 or ( no m ?an ?ree diff]5t booklets1 may be obta9$ free by writ+ to3 ,,usaec1 ,p4 ,o4 ,,box #fb1 ,,oak ,,ridge1 ,,t5nessee #cghcj ,complete sets ( ! s]ies are available to s*ool & public libr>ians1 & to tea*]s :o c make !m available = ref]5ce or = use by gr\ps4 ,reque/s %\ld be made on s*ool or libr>y lett]heads & indicate ! propos$ use4 ,/ud5ts & tea*]s :o ne$ o!r mat]ial on specific aspects ( nucle> sci5ce1 or ref]5ces to o!r read+ mat]ial1 may also write to ! ,oak ,ridge address4 ,reque/s %\ld /ate ! topic ( int]e/ exactly1 & ! use int5d$4 ,9 all reque/s1 include 8,zip ,code0 9 return address4 ,pr9t$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica ,,usaec ,division ( ,te*nical ,in=mation ,ext5sion1 ,oak ,ridge1 ,t5nessee ,may #aifh ,transcrib]'s ,notes --,sil5tly correct$ a few typos4 --,modifi$ "s image ref]5ces to reflect ! pageless fl[able e,book =mat4 --,reta9$ publication in=mation f ! pr9t$ edition3 ?is e,book is public-doma9 9 ! c\ntry ( publication4 --,9 ! text v]sions only1 text 9 italics is delimit$ by und]scores4