,illustration3 ,plate ,i4 ,from ,original ,drawings ,,chinese ,,looms4 ,see ,page #aai4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,silk1 ,,cotton1 ,,linen1 ,,wool1 ,,and ,,other ,,fibrous ,,substances2 ,,including ,,observations ,,on ,,spinning1 ,,dyeing ,,and ,,weaving4 ,,also ,,an ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,pastoral ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,ancients1 ,,their ,,social ,,state ,,and ,,attainments ,,in ,,the ,,domestic ,,arts4 ,,with ,,appendices ,,on ,,pliny',s ,,natural ,,history2 ,,on ,,the ,,origin ,,and ,,manufacture ,,of ,,linen ,,and ,,cotton ,,paper2 ,,on ,,felting1 ,,netting1 ,c4 ,,deduced ,,from ,,copious ,,and ,,authentic ,,sources4 ,,illustrated ,,by ,,steel ,,engravings4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,harper ,,brothers1 #hb ,,cliff ,,street4 #ahde4 ,entered1 according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahde1 ,,by ,,harper ,,brothers1 ,in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,united ,states1 for the ,southern ,district of ,new ,york4 ,,to ,,the ,,people ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states1 ,,this ,,volume ,,is ,,respectfully ,,inscribed4 ,,preface4 ,history1 until a recent period1 was mainly a record of gigantic crimes and their consequent miseries4 ,the dazzling glow of its narrations lighted never the path of the peaceful ,husbandman1 as his noiseless1 incessant exertions transformed the howling wilderness into a blooming and fruitful garden1 but gleamed and danced on the armor of the ,warrior as he rode forth to devastate and destroy4 ,one year of his labors sufficed to undo what the former had patiently achieved through centuries2 and the campaign was duly chronicled while the labors it blighted were left to oblivion4 ,the written annals of a nation trace vividly the course of its corruption and downfall1 but are silent or meagre with regard to the ultimate causes of its growth and eminence4 ,the long periods of peace and prosperity in which the ,useful ,arts were elaborated or perfected are passed over with the bare remark that they afford little of interest to the reader1 when in fact their true history1 could it now be written1 would prove of the deepest and most substantial value4 ,the world might well afford to lose all record of a hundred ancient battles or sieges if it could thereby regain the knowledge of one lost art1 and even the ,pyramids bequeathed to us by ,egypt in her glory would be well exchanged for a few of her humble workshops and manufactories1 as they stood in the days of the ,pharaohs4 ,of the true history of mankind only a few chapters have yet been written1 and now1 when the deficiencies of that we have are beginning to be realized1 we find that the materials for supplying them have in good part perished in the lapse of time1 or been trampled recklessly beneath the hoof of the war-horse4 ,in the following pages1 an effort has been made to restore a portion of this history1 so far as the meagre and careless traces scattered through the ,literature of ,antiquity will allow4--,of the many beneficent achievements of inventive genius1 those which more immediately minister to the personal convenience and comfort of mankind seem to assert a natural pre-eminence4 ,among the first under this head may be classed the invention of ,weaving1 with its collateral branches of ,spinning1 ,netting1 ,sewing1 ,felting1 and ,dyeing4 ,an account of the origin and progress of this family of domestic arts can hardly fail to interest the intelligent reader1 while it would seem to have a special claim on the attention of those engaged in the prosecution or improvement of these arts4 ,this work is intended to subserve the ends here indicated4 ,in the present age1 when the resources of ,science and of ,intellect have so largely pressed into the service of ,mechanical ,invention1 especially with reference to the production of fabrics from fibrous substances1 it is somewhat remarkable that no methodical treatise on this topic has been offered to the public1 and that the topic itself seems to have almost eluded the investigations of the learned4 ,with the exception of ,mr4 ,yates's erudite production1 8,textrinum ,antiquorum10 we possess no competent work on the subject2 and valuable as is this production for its authority and profound research1 it is yet1 for various reasons1 of comparative inutility to the general reader4 ,that a topic of such interest deserved elucidation will not be denied when it is remembered that1 apart from the question of the direct influence these important arts have ever exerted upon the civilization and social condition of communities1 in various ages of the world1 there are other and scarcely inferior considerations to the student1 involved in their bearing upon the true understanding of history1 sacred and profane4 ,to supply1 therefore1 an important desideratum in classical archology1 by thus seeking the better to illustrate the true social state of the ancients1 thereby affording a commentary on their commerce and progress in domestic arts1 is one of the leading objects contemplated by the present work4 ,in addition to this1 our better acquaintance with the actual condition of these arts in early times will tend1 in many instances1 to confirm the historic accuracy and elucidate the idiom of many portions of ,holy ,writ4 ,how many of the grandest discoveries in the scientific world owe their existence to accident6 and how many more of the boasted creations of human skill have proved to be but restorations of lost or forgotten arts6 ,how much also is still being revealed to us by the monumental records of the old world1 whose occult glyphs1 till recently1 defied the most persevering efforts of the learned for their solution6 ,to be told that the ,egyptians1 four thousand years ago1 were cunning artificers in many of the pursuits which constitute lucrative branches of our modern industry1 might surprise some readers3 yet we learn from undoubted authorities that such they were4 ,they also were acquainted with the fabrication of crapes1 transparent tissues1 cotton1 silk1 and paper1 as well as the art of preparing colors which still continue to defy the corrosions of defacing time4 ,if the spider may be regarded as the earliest practical weaver upon record--the generic name ,textori1 supplying the root from which is clearly derived the ,english terms1 texture and textile1 as applied to woven fabrics1 of whatever materials they may be composed--the wasp may claim the honor of having been the first paper-manufacturer1 for he presents us with a most undoubted specimen of clear white pasteboard1 of so smooth a surface as to admit of being written upon with ease and legibility4 ,would the superlative wisdom of man but deign1 with microscopic gaze1 to study the ingenious movements of the insect tribe more minutely1 it would not be easy to estimate how much might thereby be achieved for human science1 philosophy1 and even morals6 ,for those who love to add to their fund of general knowledge1 especially in the department of natural history1 the author trusts that much valuable and interesting information will be found comprised in those pages of this work which delineate the habits of the ,silk-,worm1 the ,sheep1 the ,goat1 the ,camel1 the ,beaver1 c42 while another department1 being devoted to the history of the ,pastoral ,life of the ,ancients1 will naturally enlist the sympathies of such as take a deeper interest in the records of ages and nations long since passed away4 ,from a mass of heterogeneous1 though highly valuable materials1 it has been the design of the author to select1 arrange1 and conserve all that was apposite to his subject and of intrinsic value4 ,thus has he endeavored to render the piles of antiquity1 to adopt the words of a recent writer1 well compacted--a process which has been begun in our times1 and with such eminent success that even the men of the present age may live to see many of the thousand and one folios of the ancients handed over without a sigh to the trunk-maker4 ,the ample domains of ,learning are fast being submitted to fresh irrigation and renewed culture1--the exclusiveness of the cloister has given place to an unrestricted distribution of the intellectual wealth of all times4 ,what civilization has accomplished in the physical is also being achieved in the mental world4 ,the sterile and inaccessible wilderness is transformed into the well-tilled garden1 abounding in luxurious fruits and fragrant flowers4 ,it is the golden age of knowledge--its ,paradise ,regained4 ,the ponderous works of the olden time have been displaced by the condensing process of modern literature2 yielding us their spirit and essence1 without the heavy1 obscuring folds of their former verbal drapery4 ,we want real and substantial knowledge2 but we are a labor-saving and a time-economizing people1--it must therefore be obtained by the most compendious processes4 ,except those with whom learning is the business of life1 we are too generally ignorant of the mighty mysteries which ,nature has heaped around our path2 ignorant1 too1 of many of the discoveries of science and philosophy1 in ancient as well as modern times4 ,to meet the exigencies of our day1 a judgment in the selection and condensation of works designed for popular use is demanded--a facility like that of the alchymist1 extracting from the crude ores of antiquity the fine gold of true knowledge4 ,the plan of this work naturally divides itself into four departments4 ,the first division is devoted to the consideration of ,silk1 its early history and cultivation in ,china and various other parts of the world2 illustrated by copious citations from ancient writers3 ,from among whom to instance ,homer1 we learn that embroidery and tapestry were prominent arts with the ,thebans1 that poet deriving many of his pictures of domestic life from the paintings which have been found to ornament their palaces4 ,thus it is evident that some of the proudest attainments of art in our own day date their origin from a period coeval at least with the ,iliad4 ,again we find that the use of the distaff and spindle1 referred to in the ,sacred ,scriptures1 was almost as well understood in ,egypt as it now is in ,india2 while the factory system1 so far from being a modern invention1 was in full operation1 and conducted under patrician influence1 some three thousand years ago4 ,the ,arabians also1 even so far back as five centuries subsequent to the deluge1 were1 it is stated on credible authority1 skilled in fabricating silken textures2 while1 at a period scarcely less remote1 we possess irrefragable testimony in favor of their knowledge of paper made from cotton rags4 ,the inhabitants of ,phnicia and ,tyre were1 it appears1 the first acquainted with the process of dyeing3 the ,tyrian purple1 so often noticed by writers1 being of so gorgeous a hue as to baffle description4 ,the ,persians were also prodigal in their indulgence in vestments of gold1 embroidery and silk3 the memorable army of ,darius affording an instance of sumptuous magnificence in this respect4 ,an example might also be given of the extravagance of the ,romans in the third century1 in the fact of a pound of silk being estimated literally by its weight in gold4 ,the nuptial robes of ,maria1 wife of ,honorius1 which were discovered in her coffin at ,rome in #aedd1 on being burnt1 yielded #cf pounds of pure gold6 ,in the work here presented1 much interesting as well as valuable information is given under this section1 respecting the cultivation and manufacture of ,silk in ,china1 ,greece and other countries4 ,the second division of the work1 comprising the history of the ,sheep1 ,goat1 ,camel1 and ,beaver1 it is hoped will also be found curious and valuable4 ,the ancient history of the ,cotton manufacture follows--a topic that has enlisted the pens of many writers1 though their essays1 with two or three exceptions1 merit little notice4 ,the subsequent pages embody many new and important facts1 connected with its early history and progress1 derived from sources inaccessible to the general reader4 ,the fourth and last division1 embracing the history of the ,linen manufacture1 includes notices of ,hemp1 ,flax1 ,asbestos1 c4 ,this department again affords a fruitful theme for the curious1 and one that will be deemed1 perhaps1 not the least attractive of the volume4 ,completing the design of the work1 will be found the ,appendices1 comprising rare and valuable extracts1 derived from unquestionable authorities4 ,of the ,ten ,illustrations herewith presented1 five are entirely original4 ,it is hoped that these1 at least1 will be deemed worthy the attention of the scholar as well as of the general reader1 and that their value will not be limited by their utility as elucidations of the text4 ,among these1 especial notice is requested to the engraving of the ,chinese ,loom1 a reduced fac-simile1 copied by permission from a magnificent ,chinese production1 recently obtained from the ,celestial ,empire1 and now in the possession of the ,presbyterian ,board of ,foreign ,missions in this city4 ,another1 equally worthy of notice1 represents an ,egyptian weaving factory1 with the processes of ,spinning and ,winding2 also a reduced fac-simile1 copied from ,champollion's great work on ,egypt4 ,the ,spider1 magnified with his web1 and the ,indian ,loom1 it is presumed1 will not fail to attract attention4 ,throughout the entire work1 the most diligent care has been used in the collation of the numerous authorities cited1 as well as a rigid regard paid to their veracity4 ,as a work so elaborate in its character would necessarily have to depend1 to a considerable extent1 for its facts and illustrations1 upon the labors of previous writers1 the author deems no apology necessary in thus publicly and gratefully avowing his indebtedness to the several authors cited in order at the foot of his pages2 but he would especially mention the eminent name of ,mr4 ,yates1 to the fruits of whose labors the present production owes much of its novelty1 attractiveness1 and intrinsic value4 ,new ,york1 ,oct4 #ast1 #ahde4 ,,contents4 ,,part ,,first4 ,,ancient ,,history ,,of ,,silk4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,spinning1 ,,dyeing1 ,,and ,,weaving4 ,whether ,silk is mentioned in the ,old ,testament--,earliest ,clothing--,coats of ,skin1 ,tunic1 ,simla--,progress of ,invention--,chinese chronology relative to the ,culture of ,silk--,exaggerated statements--,opinions of ,mailla1 ,le ,sage1 ,m4 ,lavoisn1 ,rev4 ,j4 ,robinson1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,clarke1 ,rev4 ,w4 ,hales1 ,d4,d41 ,mairan1 ,bailly1 ,guignes1 and ,sir ,william ,jones--,noah supposed to be the first emperor of ,china--,extracts from ,chinese publications--,silk ,manufactures of the ,island of ,cos--,described by ,aristotle--,testimony of ,varro--,spinning and ,weaving in ,egypt--,great ingenuity of ,bezaleel and ,aholiab in the production of ,figured ,textures for the ,jewish ,tabernacle--,skill of the ,sidonian women in the ,manufacture of ,ornamental ,textures--,testimony of ,homer--,great antiquity of the ,distaff and ,spindle--,the prophet ,ezekiel's account of the ,broidered ,stuffs1 etc4 of the ,egyptians--,beautiful eulogy on an industrious woman--,helen the ,spartan1 her superior skill in the art of ,embroidery--,golden ,distaff presented her by the ,egyptian queen ,alcandra--,spinning a domestic occupation in ,miletus--,theocritus's complimentary verses to ,theuginis on her industry and virtue--,taste of the ,roman and ,grecian ladies in the decoration of their ,spinning ,implements--,ovid's testimony to the skill of ,arachne in ,spinning and ,weaving--,method of ,spinning with the ,distaff--,described by ,homer and ,catullus--,use of ,silk in ,arabia #ejj years after the flood--,forster's testimony #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,silk ,,manufacture ,,continued ,,to ,,the #d,,th ,,century4 ,,spinning1 ,,dyeing1 ,,and ,,weaving4--,,high ,,degree ,,of ,,excellence ,,attained ,,in ,,these ,,arts4 ,testimony of the ,latin poets of the ,augustan age--,tibullus--,propertius--,virgil--,h orace--,ovid--,dyonisius ,perigetes--,strabo4 ,mention of silk by authors in the first century--,seneca the ,philosopher--,seneca the ,tragedian--,lucan--,pliny--,josephus--, saint ,john--,silius ,italicus--,statius--,plutarch--,juvenal --,martial--,pausanias--,galen--,clemens ,alexandrinus--,caution to ,christian converts against the use of silk in dress4 ,mention of silk by authors in the second century--,tertullian--,apuleius--,ulpian --,julius ,pollux--,justin4 ,mention of silk by authors in the third century--lius ,lampidius--,vopiscus--,trebellius ,pollio--,cyprian--,solinus--,ammianus-- ,marcellinus--,use of silk by the ,roman emperors--,extraordinary beauty of the textures--,use of water to detach silk from the trees--,invectives of these authors against extravagance in dress--,the ,seres described as a happy people--,their mode of traffic1 etc4--7,macpherson's opinion of the ,chinese47--,city of ,dioscurias1 its vast commerce in former times4--7,colonel ,syke's account of the ,kolissura silk-worm--,dr4 ,roxburgh's description of the ,tusseh silk-worm47 #bb ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,silk ,,manufacture ,,from ,,the ,,third ,,to ,,the ,,sixth ,,century4 ,,spinning1 ,,dyeing1 ,,and ,,weaving4--,,high ,,degree ,,of ,,excellence ,,attained ,,in ,,these ,,arts4 ,fourth ,century--,curious account of silk found in the ,edict of ,diocletian--,extravagance of the ,consul ,furius ,placidus--,transparent silk shifts--,ausonius describes silk as the produce of trees--,quintus ,aur ,symmachus1 and ,claudian's testimony of silk and golden textures--,their extraordinary beauty--,pisander's description--,periplus ,maris ,erythri--,dido of ,sidon4 ,mention of silk in the laws of ,manu--,rufus ,festus ,avinus--,silk shawls--,marciannus ,capella--,inscription by ,m4 ,n4 ,proculus1 silk manufacturer--,extraordinary spiders' webs--,bombyces compared to spiders--,wild silk-worms of ,tsouen-,kien and ,tiao-,kien--,m4 ,bertin's account--,further remarks on wild silk-worms4 ,christian authors of the fourth century--,arnobius--,gregorius ,nazienzenus--,basil--,illustration of the doctrine of the resurrection--,ambrose--,georgius ,pisida--,macarius--,jerome--,chrysostom --,heliodorus--,salmasius--,extraordinar y beauty of the silk and golden textures described by these authors--,their invectives against ,christians wearing silk4 ,mention of silk by ,christian authors in the fifth century--,prudentius--,palladius--,theod osian ,code--,appollinaris ,sidonius--,alcimus ,avitus4 ,sixth century--,boethius4 7,manufactures of ,tyre and ,sidon--,purple--,its great durability--,incredible value of purple stuffs found in the treasury of the ,king of ,persia47 #da ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,silk ,,manufacture ,,continued ,,from ,,the ,,introduction ,,of ,,silk-,,worms ,,into ,,europe1 ,a4 ,d4 #ecj1 ,,to ,,the ,,fourteenth ,,century4 ,a4 ,d4 #ecj4--;,introduction of silk-worms into ,europe--,mode by which it was effected--,the ,serinda of ,procopius the same with the modern ,khotan--,the silk-worm never bred in ,sir-hind--,silk shawls of ,tyre and ,berytus--,tyrannical conduct of ,justinian--,ruin of the silk manufactures--,oppressive conduct of ,peter ,barsames--,menander ,protector--,surprise of ,maniak the ,sogdian ambassador--,conduct of ,chosroes1 king of ,persia--,union of the ,chinese and ,persians against the ,turks--,the ,turks in self-defence seek an alliance with the ,romans--,mortification of the ,turkish ambassador--,reception of the ,byzantine ambassador by ,disabul1 king of the ,sogdiani--,display of silk textures--,paul the ,silentiary's account of silk--,isidorus ,hispalensis4 ,mention of silk by authors in the seventh century--,dorotheus1 ,archimandrite of ,palestine--,introduction of silk-worms into ,chubdan1 or ,khotan--,theophylactus ,simocatta--,silk manufactures of ,turfan--,silk known in ,england in this century--,first worn by ,ethelbert1 king of ,kent--,use of by the ,french kings--,aldhelmus's beautiful description of the silk-worm--,simile between weaving and virtue4 ,silk in the eighth century--,bede4 ,in the tenth century--,use of silk by the ,english1 ,welsh1 and ,scotch kings4 ,twelfth century--,theodoras ,prodromus--,figured shawls of the ,seres--,ingulphus describes vestments of silk interwoven with eagles and flowers of gold--,great value of silk about this time--,silk manufactures of ,sicily--,its introduction into ,spain4 ,fourteenth century--,nicholas ,tegrini--,extension of the ,silk manufacture through ,europe1 illustrated by etymology--,extraordinary beauty of silk and golden textures used in the decoration of churches in the middle ages--,silk rarely mentioned in the ninth1 eleventh1 or thirteenth centuries #ff ,,chapter ,v4 ,,silk ,,and ,,golden ,,textures ,,of ,,the ,,ancients4 ,,high ,,degree ,,of ,,excellence ,,attained ,,in ,,this ,,manufacture4 ,manufacture of golden textures in the time of ,moses--,homer--,golden tunics of the ,lydians--,their use by the ,indians and ,arabians--,extraordinary display of scarlet robes1 purple1 striped with silver1 golden textures1 c41 by ,darius1 king of ,persia--,purple and scarlet cloths interwoven with gold--,tunics and shawls variegated with gold--,purple garments with borders of gold--,golden chlamys--,attalus1 king of ,pergamus1 not the inventor of gold thread--,bostick--,golden robe worn by ,agrippina--,caligula and ,heliogabalus--,sheets interwoven with gold used at the obsequies of ,nero--,babylonian shawls intermixed with gold--,silk shawls interwoven with gold--,figured cloths of gold and ,tyrean purple--,use of gold in the manufacture of shawls by the ,greeks--#d1jjj1jjj sesterces 7about #aej1jjj7 paid by the ,emperor ,nero for a ,babylonish coverlet--,portrait of ,constantius ,,ii4--,magnificence of ,babylonian carpets1 mantles1 c4--,median sindones #hd ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,silver ,,textures1 ,,etc41 ,,of ,,the ,,ancients4 ,,extreme ,,beauty ,,of ,,these ,,manufactures4 ,magnificent dress worn by ,herod ,agrippa1 mentioned in ,acts xii4 #ba--;,josephus's account of this dress1 and dreadful death of ,herod--,discovery of ancient ,piece-goods--,beautiful manuscript of ,theodolphus1 ,bishop of ,orleans1 who lived in the ninth century--,extraordinary beauty of ,indian1 ,chinese1 ,egyptian1 and other manufactured goods preserved in this manuscript--,egyptian arts--,wise regulations of the ,egyptians in relation to the arts--,late discoveries in ,egypt by the ,prussian hierologist1 ,dr4 ,lepsius--,cloth of glass #ic ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,silk-,,worm1 ,,etc4 ,preliminary observations--,the silk-worm--,various changes of the silk-worm--,its superiority above other worms--,beautiful verses on the ,may-fly1 illustrative of the shortness of human life--,transformations of the silk-worm--,its small desire of locomotion--,first sickness of the worm--,manner of casting its ,exuvi--,sometimes cannot be fully accomplished--,consequent death of the insect--,second1 third1 and fourth sickness of the worm--,its disgust for food--,material of which silk is formed--,mode of its secretion--,manner of unwinding the filaments--,floss-silk--,cocoon--,its imperviousness to moisture--,effect of the filaments breaking during the formation of the cocoon--,mr4 ,robinet's curious calculation on the movements made by a silk-worm in the formation of a cocoon--,cowper's beautiful lines on the silk-worm--,periods in which its various progressions are effected in different climates--,effects of sudden transitions from heat to cold--,the worm's appetite sharpened by increased temperature--,shortens its existence--,various experiments in artificial heating--,modes of artificial heating--,singular estimate of ,count ,dandolo--,astonishing increase of the worm--,its brief existence in the moth state--,formation of silk--,the silken filament formed in the worm before its expulsion--,erroneous opinions entertained by writers on this subject--,the silk-worm's ,will #ih ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,general ,,observations ,,on ,,the ,,chinese ,,mode ,,of ,,rearing ,,silk-,,worms1 ,,etc4 ,great antiquity of the silk-manufacture in ,china--,time and mode of pruning the ,mulberry-tree--,not allowed to exceed a certain height--,mode of planting--,situation of rearing-rooms1 and their construction--,effect of noise on the silk-worm--,precautions observed in preserving cleanliness--,isan-mon1 mother of the worms--,manner of feeding--,space allotted to the worms--,destruction of the ,chrysalides--,great skill of the ,chinese in weaving--,american writers on the ,mulberry-tree--,silk-worms sometimes reared on trees--7,m4 ,marteloy's experiments in #agfd1 in rearing silk-worms on trees in ,france7--,produce inferior to that of worms reared in houses--,mode of delaying the hatching of the eggs--,method of hatching--,necessity for preventing damp--,number of meals--,mode of stimulating the appetite of the worms--,effect of this upon the quantity of silk produced--,darkness injurious to the silk-worm--,its effect on the ,mulberry-leaves--,mode of preparing the cocoons for the reeling process--,wild silk-worms of ,india--,mode of hatching1 c4--7,observations on the cultivation of silk by ,dr4 ,stebbins--,dr4 ,bowring's admirable illustration of the mutual dependence of the arts upon each other47 #aai ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,spider4 ,,attempts ,,to ,,procure ,,silken ,,filaments ,,from ,,spiders4 ,structures of spiders--,spiders not properly insects1 and why--,apparatus for spinning--,extraordinary number of spinnerules--,great number of filaments composing one thread--,raumur and ,leeuwenhoeck's laughable estimates--,attachment of the thread against a wall or stick--,shooting of the lines of spiders--#a4 ,opinions of ,redi1 ,swammerdam1 and ,kirby--#b4 ,lister1 ,kirby1 and ,white--#c4 ,la ,pluche and ,bingley--#d4 ,d',isjonval1 ,murray1 and ,bowman--#e4--;,experiments of ,mr4 ,blackwall--,his account of the ascent of gossamer--#f4 ,experiments by ,rennie--,thread supposed to go off double--,subsequent experiments--,nests1 ,webs1 and ,nets of ,spiders--,elastic satin nest of a spider--,evelyn's account of hunting spiders--,labyrinthic spider's nest--,erroneous account of the ,house ,spider--,geometric ,spiders--,attempts to procure silken filaments from ,spiders' bags--,experiments of ,m4 ,bon--,silken material--,manner of its preparations--,m4 ,bon's enthusiasm--,his spider establishment--,spider-silk not poisonous--,its usefulness in healing wounds--,investigation of ,m4 ,bon's establishment by ,m4 ,raumur--,his objections--,swift's satire against speculators and projectors--,ewbank's interesting observations on the ingenuity of spiders--,mason-spiders--,ingenious door with a hinge--,nest from the ,west ,indies with spring hinge--,raft-building ,spider--,diving ,water-,spider--,rev4 ,mr4 ,kirby's beautiful description of it--,observations of ,m4 ,clerck--,cleanliness of ,spiders--,structure of their claws--,fanciful account of them patting their webs--,proceedings of a spider in a steamboat--,addison--,his suggestions on the compilation of a 8,history of ,insects0 #ach ,,chapter ,x4 ,,fibres ,,or ,,silken ,,material ,,of ,,the ,,pinna4 ,the ,pinna--,description of--,delicacy of its threads--,raumur's observations--,mode of forming the filament or thread--,power of continually producing new threads--,experiments to ascertain this fact--,the ,pinna and its ,cancer ,friend--,nature of their alliance--,beautiful phenomenon--,aristotle and ,pliny's account--,the ,greek poet ,oppianus's lines on the ,pinna1 and its ,cancer friend--,manner of procuring the ,pinna--,poli's description--,specimens of the ,pinna in the ,british ,museum--,pearls found in the ,pinna--,pliny and ,athenus's account--,manner of preparing the fibres of the ,pinna for weaving--,scarceness of this material--,no proof that the ancients were acquainted with the art of knitting--,tertullian the first ancient writer who makes mention of the manufacture of cloth from the fibres of the ,pinna--,procopius mentions a chlamys made of the fibres of the ,pinna1 and a silken tunic adorned with sprigs or feathers of gold--,boots of red leather worn only by ,emperors--,golden fleece of the ,pinna--,st4 ,basil's account--,fibres of the ,pinna not manufactured into cloth at ,tarentum in ancient times1 but in ,india--,diving for the ,pinna at ,colchi--,arrian's account #agd ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,fibres1 ,,or ,,silken ,,material ,,of ,,the ,,pine-,,apple4 ,fibres of the ,pine-,apple--,facility of dyeing--,manner of preparing the fibres for weaving--,easy cultivation of the plant--,thrives where no other plant will live--,mr4 ,frederick ,burt ,zincke's patent process of manufacturing cloth from the fibres of this plant--,its comparative want of strength--,silken material procured from the ,papyfera--,spun and woven into cloth--,cloth of this description manufactured generally by the ,otaheiteans1 and other inhabitants of the ,south ,sea ,islands--,great strength 7supposed7 of ropes made from the fibres of the aloe--,exaggerated statements #ahe ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,mallows4 ,,cultivation ,,and ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,mallow ,,among ,,the ,,ancients4--,,testimony ,,of ,,latin1 ,,greek1 ,,and ,,attic ,,writers4 ,the earliest mention of ,mallows is to be found in ,job xxx4 #d4--,varieties of the ,mallow--,cultivation and use of the ,mallow--,testimony of ancient authors--,papias and ,isidore's mention of ,mallow cloth--,mallow cloth common in the days of ,charlemagne--,mallow shawls--,mallow cloths mentioned in the ,periplus as exported from ,india to ,barygaza 7,baroch7--,calidsa the ,indian dramatist1 who lived in the first century ,b4 ,c4--,his testimony--,wallich's 7the ,indian botanist7 account--,mantles of woven bark1 mentioned in the ,sacontla of ,calidsa--,valclas1 or ,mantles of woven bark1 mentioned in the ,ramayana1 a noted poem of ancient ,india--,sheets made from trees--,ctesias' testimony--,strabo's account--,testimony of ,statius ,ccilius and ,plautus1 who lived #afi ,b4 ,c4 and #ahd ,b4 ,c4--,plautus's laughable enumeration of the analogy of trades--,beauty of garments of ,amorgos mentioned by ,eupolis--,clearchus's testimony--,plato mentions linen shifts--,amorgine garments first manufactured at ,athens in the time of ,aristophanes #aia ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,spartum ,,or ,,spanish ,,broom4 ,,cloth ,,manufactured ,,from ,,broom ,,bark1 ,,nettle1 ,,and ,,bulbous ,,plant4--,,testimony ,,of ,,greek ,,and ,,latin ,,authors4 ,authority for ,spanish ,broom--,stipa ,tenacissima--,cloth made from ,broom-bark--,albania--,italy--,france-- ,mode of preparing the fibre for weaving--,pliny's account of ,spartum--,bulbous plant--,its fibrous coats--,pliny's translation of ,theophrastus--,socks and garments--,size of the bulb--,its genus or species not sufficiently defined--,remarks of various modern writers on this plant--,interesting communications of ,dr4 ,daniel ,stebbins1 of ,northampton1 ,mass4 to ,hon4 ,h4 ,l4 ,ellsworth #bjb ,,part ,,second4 ,,origin ,,and ,,ancient ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,sheep4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,sheep',s ,,wool4 ,,sheep-,,breeding ,,and ,,pastoral ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,ancients--,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,scriptures1 ,,etc4 ,the ,shepherd ,boy--,sheep-breeding in ,scythia and ,persia--,mesopotamia and ,syria--,in ,iduma and ,northern ,arabia--,in ,palestine and ,egypt--,in ,ethiopia and ,libya--,in ,caucasus and ,coraxi--,the ,coraxi identified with the modern ,caratshai--,in ,asia ,minor1 ,pisidia1 ,pamphylia1 ,samos1 c4--,in ,caria and ,ionia--,milesian wool--,sheep-breeding in ,thrace1 ,magnesia1 ,thessaly1 ,euba1 and ,botia--,in ,phocis1 ,attica1 and ,megaris--,in ,arcadia--,worship of ,pan--,pan the god of the ,arcadian ,shepherds--,introduction of his worship into ,attica--,extension of the worship of ,pan--,his dances with the nymphs--,pan not the ,egyptian ,mendes1 but identical with ,faunus--,the philosophical explanation of ,pan rejected--,moral1 social1 and political state of the ,arcadians--,polybius on the cultivation of music by the ,arcadians--,worship of ,mercury in connection with sheep-breeding and the wool trade--,present state of ,arcadia--,sheep-breeding in ,macedonia and ,epirus--,shepherds' dogs--,annual migration of ,albanian shepherds #bag ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,sheep-,,breeding ,,and ,,pastoral ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,ancients--,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,scriptures1 ,,etc4 ,sheep-breeding in ,sicily--,bucolic poetry--,sheep-breeding in ,south ,italy--,annual migration of the flocks--,the ram employed to aid the shepherd in conducting his flock--,the ram an emblem of authority--,bells--,ancient inscription at ,sepino--,use of music by ancient shepherds--,superior quality of ,tarentine sheep--,testimony of ,columella--,distinction of the coarse and soft kinds--,names given to sheep--,supposed effect of the water of rivers on wool--,sheep-breeding in ,south ,italy1 ,tarentum1 and ,apulia--,brown and red wool--,sheep-breeding in ,north ,italy--,wool of ,parma1 ,modena1 ,mantua1 and ,padua--,origin of sheep-breeding in ,italy--,faunus the same with ,pan--,ancient sculptures exhibiting ,faunus--,bales of wool and the shepherd's dress--,costume1 appearance1 and manner of life of the ancient ,italian shepherds #bef ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,sheep-,,breeding ,,and ,,pastoral ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,ancients--,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,scriptures1 ,,etc4 ,sheep-breeding in ,germany and ,gaul--,in ,britain--,improved by the ,belgians and ,saxons--,sheep-breeding in ,spain--,natural dyes of ,spanish wool--,golden hue and other natural dyes of the wool of ,btica--,native colors of ,btic wool--,saga and chequered plaids--,sheep always bred principally for the weaver1 not for the butcher--,sheep supplied milk for food1 wool for clothing--,the moth #bhb ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,goats-,,hair4 ,,ancient ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,goat--,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,scriptures1 ,,etc4 ,sheep-breeding and goats in ,china--,probable origin of sheep and goats--,sheep and goats coeval with man1 and always propagated together--,habits of ,grecian goat-herds--,he-goat employed to lead the flock--,cameo representing a goat-herd--,goats chiefly valued for their milk--,use of goats'-hair for coarse clothing--,shearing of goats in ,phrygia1 ,cilicia1 c4--,vestes caprina1 cloth of goats'-hair--,use of goats'-hair for military and naval purposes--,curtains to cover tents--,etymology of ,sack and ,shag--,symbolical uses of sack-cloth--,the ,arabs weave goats'-hair--,modern uses of goats'-hair and goats'-wool--,introduction of the ,angora or ,cashmere goat into ,france--,success of the ,project #bic ,,chapter ,v4 ,,beavers-,,wool4 ,isidorus ,hispalensis--,claudian--,beckmann--,bea vers'-wool--,dispersion of ,beavers through ,europe--,fossil bones of ,beavers #cji ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,camels-,,wool ,,and ,,camels-,,hair4 ,camels'-wool and ,camels'-hair--,ctesias's account--,testimony of modern travellers--,arab tent of ,camels'-hair--,fine cloths still made of ,camels'-wool--,the use of hair of various animals in the manufacture of beautiful stuffs by the ancient ,mexicans--,hair used by the ,candian women in the manufacture of broidered stuffs--,broidered stuffs of the negresses of ,senegal--,their great beauty #cab ,,part ,,third4 ,,ancient ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,cotton ,,manufacture4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,great ,,antiquity ,,of ,,the ,,cotton ,,manufacture ,,in ,,india--,,unrivalled ,,skill ,,of ,,the ,,indian ,,weaver4 ,superiority of ,cotton for clothing1 compared with linen1 both in hot and cold climates--,cotton characteristic of ,india--,account of ,cotton by ,herodotus1 ,ctesias1 ,theophrastus1 ,aristobulus1 ,nearchus1 ,pomponius ,mela--,use of ,cotton in ,india--,cotton known before silk and called ,carpasus1 ,carpasum1 ,carbasum1 c4--,cotton awnings used by the ,romans--,carbasus applied to linen--,last request of ,tibullus--,muslin fillet of the vestal virgin--,linen sails1 c41 called ,carbasa--,valerius ,flaccus introduces muslin among the elegancies in the dress of a ,phrygian from the river ,rhyndacus--,prudentius's satire on pride--,apuleius's testimony--,testimony of ,sidonius ,apollinaris1 and ,avienus--,pliny and ,julius ,pollux--,their testimony considered--,testimony of ,tertullian and ,philostratus--,of ,martianus ,capella--,cotton paper mentioned by ,theophylus ,presbyter--,use of ,cotton by the ,arabians--,cotton not common anciently in ,europe--,marco ,polo and ,sir ,john ,mandeville's testimony of the ,cotton of ,india--,forbes's description of the herbaceous ,cotton of ,guzerat--,testimony of ,malte ,brun--,beautiful ,cotton textures of the ancient ,mexicans--,testimony of the ,abb ,clavigero--,fishing nets made from ,cotton by the inhabitants of the ,west ,india ,islands1 and on the ,continent of ,south ,america--,columbus's testimony--,cotton used for bedding by the ,brazilians #cae ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,spinning ,,and ,,weaving--,,marvellous ,,skill ,,displayed ,,in ,,these ,,arts4 ,unrivalled excellence of ,india muslins--,testimony of the two ,arabian travellers--,marco ,polo1 and ,odoardo ,barbosa's accounts of the beautiful ,cotton textures of ,bengal--,csar ,frederick1 ,tavernier1 and ,forbes's testimony--,extraordinary fineness and transparency of ,decca muslins--,specimen brought by ,sir ,charles ,wilkins2 compared with ,english muslins--,sir ,joseph ,banks's experiments--,extraordinary fineness of ,cotton yarn spun by machinery in ,england--,fineness of ,india ,cotton yarn--,cotton textures of ,soonergong--,testimony of ,r4 ,fitch--,hamilton's account--,decline of the manufactures of ,dacca accounted for--,orme's testimony of the universal diffusion of the ,cotton manufacture in ,india--,processes of the manufacture--,rude implements--,roller gin--,bowing4 7,eli ,whitney inventor of the cotton gin--,tribute of respect paid to his memory--,immense value of ,mr4 ,whitney's invention to growers and manufacturers of ,cotton throughout the world47 ,spinning wheel--,spinning without a wheel--,loom--,mode of weaving--,forbes's description--,habits and remuneration of ,spinners1 ,weavers1 c4--,factories of the ,east ,india ,company--,marvellous skill of the ,indian workman accounted for--,mills's testimony--,principal ,cotton fabrics of ,india1 and where made--,indian commerce in ,cotton goods--,alarm created in the woollen and silk manufacturing districts of ,great ,britain--,extracts from publications of the day--,testimony of ,daniel ,de ,foe 7,author of ,robinson ,crusoe47--,indian fabrics prohibited in ,england1 and most other countries of ,europe--,petition from ,calcutta merchants--,present condition of the ,city of ,dacca--,mode of spinning fine yarns--,tables showing the comparative prices of ,dacca and ,british manufactured goods of the same quality #ccc ,,part ,,fourth4 ,,ancient ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,linen ,,manufacture4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,flax4 ,,cultivation ,,and ,,manufacture ,,of ,,flax ,,by ,,the ,,ancients--,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,scriptures1 ,,etc4 ,earliest mention of ,flax--,linen manufactures of the ,egyptians--,linen worn by the priests of ,isis--,flax grown extensively in ,egypt--,flax gathering--,envelopes of ,linen found on ,egyptian mummies--,examination of mummy-cloth--,proved to be ,linen--,flax still grown in ,egypt--,explanation of terms--,byssus--,reply to ,j4 ,r4 ,forster--,hebrew and ,egyptian terms--,flax in ,north ,africa1 ,colchis1 ,babylonia--,flax cultivated in ,palestine--,terms for flax and tow--,cultivation of ,flax in ,palestine and ,asia ,minor--,in ,elis1 ,etruria1 ,cisalpine ,gaul1 ,campania1 ,spain--,flax of ,germany1 of the ,atrebates1 and of the ,franks--,progressive use of linen among the ,greeks and ,romans #ceh ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,hemp4 ,cultivation and ,uses of ,hemp by the ,ancients--,its use limited--,thrace ,colchis--,caria--,etymology of ,hemp #chg ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,asbestos4 ,uses of ,asbestos--,carpasian flax--,still found in ,cyprus--,used in funerals--,asbestine-cloth--,how manufactured--,asbestos used for fraud and superstition by the ,romish monks--,relic at ,monte ,casino #cij ,,appendices4 ,,appendix ,a4 ,,on ,,pliny',s ,,natural ,,history4 ,sheep and wool ,price of wool in ,pliny's time--,varieties of wool and where produced--,coarse wool used for the manufacture of carpets--,woollen cloth of ,egypt--,embroidery--,felting--,manner of cleansing--,distaff of ,tanaquil--,varro--,tunic--,toga--,undul ate or waved cloth--,nature of this fabric--,figured cloths in use in the days of ,homer 7#ijj ,b4 ,c47--,cloth of gold--,figured cloths of ,babylon--,damask first woven at ,alexandria--,plaided textures first woven in ,gaul--#aej1jjj paid for a ,babylonish coverlet--,dyeing of wool in the fleece--,observations on sheep and goats--,dioscurias a city of the ,colchians--,manner of transacting business #dja ,,appendix ,b4 ,,on ,,the ,,origin ,,and ,,manufacture ,,of ,,linen ,,and ,,cotton ,,paper4 ,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,linen ,,paper ,,proven ,,to ,,be ,,of ,,egyptian ,,origin--,,cotton ,,paper ,,manufactured ,,by ,,the ,,bucharians ,,and ,,arabians1 ,a4 ,d4 #gjd4 ,wehrs gives the invention of ,linen paper to ,germany--,schnemann to ,italy--,opinion of various writers1 ancient and modern--,linen paper produced in ,egypt from mummy-cloth1 ,a4 ,d4 #abjj--,testimony of ,abdollatiph--,europe indebted to ,egypt for linen paper until the eleventh century--,cotton paper--,the knowledge of manufacturing1 how procured1 and by whom--,advantages of ,egyptian paper manufacturer's--,clugny's testimony--,egyptian manuscript of linen paper bearing date ,a4 ,d4 #aajj--;,ancient water-marks on linen paper--,linen paper first introduced into ,europe by the ,saracens of ,spain4 7,the ,wasp a paper-maker--,manufacture of paper from shavings of wood1 and from the stalks or leaves of ,indian-corn47 #djd ,,appendix ,c4 ,,on ,,felt4 ,,manufacture ,,and ,,use ,,of ,,felting ,,by ,,the ,,ancients4 ,felting more ancient than weaving--,felt used in the ,east--,use of it by the ,tartars--,felt made of goats'-hair by the ,circassians--,use of felt in ,italy and ,greece--,cap worn by the ,cynics1 ,fishermen1 ,mariners1 ,artificers1 c4--,cleanthes compares the moon to a skull-cap--,desultores--,vulcan--,ulysse s--,phrygian bonnet--,cap worn by the ,asiatics--,phrygian felt of ,camels'-hair--,its great stiffness--,scarlet and purple felt used by ,babylonish decorators--,mode of manufacturing--,felt ,northern nations of ,europe--,cap of liberty--,petasus--,statue of ,endymion--,petasus in works of ancient art--,hats of ,thessaly and ,macedonia--,laconian or ,arcadian hats--,the ,greeks manufacture ,felt #ijj ,b4 ,c4--,mercury with the pileus and petasus--,miscellaneous uses of ,felt #dad ,,appendix ,d4 ,,on ,,netting4 ,,manufacture ,,and ,,use ,,of ,,nets ,,by ,,the ,,ancients--,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,scriptures1 ,,etc4 ,nets were made of ,flax1 ,hemp1 and ,broom--,general terms for nets--,nets used for catching birds--,mode of snaring--,hunting-nets--,method of hunting--,hunting-nets supported by forked stakes--,manner of fixing them--,purse-net or tunnel-net--,homer's testimony--,nets used by the ,persians in lion-hunting--,hunting with nets practised by the ancient ,egyptians--,method of hunting--,depth of nets for this purpose--,description of the purse-net--,road-net--,hallier--,dyed feathers used to scare the prey--,casting-net--,manner of throwing by the ,arabs--,cyrus king of ,persia--,his fable of the piper and the fishes--,fishing-nets--,casting-net used by the ,apostles--,landing-net 7,scap-net7--,the ,sean--,its length and depth--,modern use of the ,sean--,method of fishing with the ,sean practised by the ,arabians and ancient ,egyptians--,corks and leads--,figurative application of the ,sean--,curious method of capturing an enemy practised by the ,persians--,nets used in ,india to catch tortoises--,bag-nets and small purse-nets--,novel scent-bag of ,verres the ,sicilian prtor #dcf ,,list ,,of ,,plates4 ,i4 ,frontispiece--,chinese ,looms4 to face page ,,ii4 ,egyptian ,looms1 with the ,processes of ,spinning and ,winding1 #ic ,,iii4 ,silk ,worm1 ,cocoons1 ,chrysalis1 ,moths1 and ,pinna #aah ,,iv4 ,spiders1 with the ,processes of ,spinning and ,weaving #agb ,v4 ,indian ,loom1 with the ,process of ,winding off the ,thread #cae ,,vi4 ,egyptian ,flax-gathering4 ,magnified ,fibres of ,flax and ,cotton #cei ,,vii4 ,map1 showing the ,divisions of the ,ancient ,world1 coloured according to the ,raw ,materials principally produced in them for ,weaving #djj ,,viii4 ,caps worn by ,cynic ,philosopher1 ,vulcan1 ,ddalus1 ,ulysses1 and a ,desultor4 ,caps worn by ,modern ,greek ,boy and ,fisherman4 ,mysian ,cap or ,phrygian ,bonnet4 ,coins in the ,british ,museum #dae ,,ix4 ,statue of ,endymion4 ,hats worn by ,shepherds and ,athenian ,ephebi4 ,coins in the ,british ,museum #dcd ,x4 ,hunting-scenes in bas-reliefs at ,ince-,blundell4 ,egyptians with the ,drag-,net #dfd ,,part ,,first4 ,,ancient ,,history ,,of ,,silk4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,spinning1 ,,dyeing1 ,,and ,,weaving4 ,whether ,silk is mentioned in the ,old ,testament--,earliest ,clothing--,coats of ,skin1 ,tunic1 ,simla--,progress of ,invention ,chinese chronology relative to the ,culture of ,silk--,exaggerated statements--,opinions of ,mailla1 ,le ,sage1 ,m4 ,lavoisn1 ,rev4 ,j4 ,robinson1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,clarke1 ,rev4 ,w4 ,hales1 ,d4,d41 ,mairan1 ,bailly1 ,guignes1 and ,sir ,william ,jones--,noah supposed to be the first emperor of ,china--,extracts from ,chinese publications--,silk ,manufactures of the island of ,cos--,described by ,aristotle--,testimony of ,varro--,spinning and ,weaving in ,egypt--,great ingenuity of ,bezaleel and ,aholiab in the production of ,figured ,textures for the ,jewish ,tabernacle--,skill of the ,sidonian women in the ,manufacture of ,ornamental ,textures--,testimony of ,homer--,great antiquity of the ,distaff and ,spindle--,the prophet ,ezekiel's account of the ,broidered ,stuffs1 etc4 of the ,egyptians--,beautiful eulogy on an industrious woman--,helen the ,spartan1 her superior skill in the art of ,embroidery--,golden ,distaff presented her by the ,egyptian queen ,alcandra--,spinning a domestic occupation in ,miletus--,theocritus's complimentary verses to ,theuginis on her industry and virtue--,taste of the ,roman and ,grecian ladies in the decoration of their ,spinning ,implements--,ovid's testimony to the skill of ,arachne in ,spinning and ,weaving--,method of ,spinning with the ,distaff--,described by ,homer and ,catullus--,use of ,silk in ,arabia #ejj years after the flood--,forster's testimony4 ,to please the flesh a thousand arts contend3 ,the miser's heaps of gold1 the figur'd vest1 ,the gem1 the silk-worm1 and the purple dye1 ,by toil acquir'd1 promote no other end4--,peristeph4 ,hymn4 x4 ,whether silk is ever mentioned in the ,old ,testament cannot perhaps be determined4 ,in ,ezek4 xvi4 #aj and #ac1 8silk0 is used in the common ,english bible for 1 which occurs no where except here1 but which1 as appears from the context1 certainly meant some valuable article of female dress4 ,le ,clerc and ,rosenmller translate it 8serico20 ,cocceius1 ,schindler1 ,buxtorf1 in their ,lexicons1 and ,dr4 ,john ,taylor in his ,concordance1 give the same interpretation4 ,augusti and ,de ,wette in their ,german translation make it signify 8a silken veil40 ,others give different interpretations4 ,the only ground1 on which silk of any kind is supposed to be meant1 is that in the ,alexandrine or ,septuagint version is translated 1 and is explained by ,hesychius to mean 8the silken web fitted to be placed over the hair of the head0 7 71 and that other ancient ,greek lexicographers also suppose a silken garment to be meant4#a ,but the meaning of is in reality as obscure as that of 4 ,jerome could not discover it1 and concluded that the word was invented by the ,greek translator4 ,it is now extant no where else except in a passage of the comic ,pherecrates preserved in ,athenus4 ,schneider1 followed by ,passow1 supposes it to mean some garment made of hair1 and quotes to this effect the explanation of ,pollux 7#b4 #bd471 4 ,although1 therefore1 the term in question may possibly have denoted some elegant and costly ornament for the head1 made at least partly of silk1 yet this opinion appears to rest altogether upon the assumption1 first1 that the ancient lexicographers are accurate in their use of the epithet 1 and secondly1 that the ,alexandrine version is accurate in adopting the word 4 #a ,see ,schleusner1 ,lexicon in ,,lxx41 v4 4 ,in ,isaiah xix4 #i1 according to ,king ,james's ,translators and ,bishop ,lowth1 mention is made of those 8that work in fine flax10 in the original 4 ,rosenmller adopts nearly the same interpretation1 which is founded upon the use of the verb or in the ,chaldee and ,syriac dialects to denote the operation of combing flax1 wool1 hair1 and other substances4 ,in this sense the word has been taken by the author of the ,alexandrine ,version1 2 by ,symmachus1 who instead of uses 2 and by ,jerome1 8qui operabantur linum pectentes40 ,in the ,targum of ,jonathan and in the ,syriac ,version the same root is taken to denote silk2 ,targ4 ,syr4 ,both of these seem to admit of the following literal translation1 8those who make silken tunics10 or in ,latin1 8,factores tunicarum e sericis40 ,kimchi supposes to mean silk webs1 observing that silk is called by the ,arabs4 ,the same opinion has been adopted by ,nicholas ,fuller#b1 ,buxtorf1 and other modern critics4 ,kennicott1 however1 arranges the words in two lines as follows1 ,according to this arrangement1 which seems most suitable to the rules of grammatical construction1 we have three co-ordinate phrases in the plural number1 denoting three different classes of artificers4 ,the second1 1 would by its termination denote female artificers1 viz4 women employed in combing wool1 flax1 or other substances4 ,on the whole we are inclined to adopt this explanation of the word1 as it appears to be attended with the least difficulty1 either grammatical or etymological4 #b ,miscellanea ,sacra1 l4 ii4 c4 #aa4 ,silk is mentioned ,prov4 xxxi4 #bb4 in ,king ,james's ,translation1 i4 e4 the common ,english version1 and in the margin of ,gen4 xli4 #db4 ,but the use of the word is quite unauthorized4 ,after a full examination of the whole question ,braunius#c decides that there is no mention of silk in the whole of the ,old ,testament1 and that it was unknown to the ,hebrews in ancient times4 8,there can be no doubt10 says ,professor ,hurwitz1 8that manufactures and the arts must have attained a high degree of perfection at the time when ,moses wrote2 and that many of them were known long before that period1 we have the evidence of ,scripture4 ,it is true that inventions were at first few1 and their progress very slow1 but they were suited to the then condition and circumstances of man1 as is evident even in the art of clothing4 ,placed in the salubrious and mild air of paradise1 our first parents could hardly want any other covering than what decency required4 ,accordingly we find that the first and only article of dress was the chagora1 the belt1 7not aprons1 as in the established version74 ,the materials of which it was made were fig leaves2 7,gen4 iii4 #g47 the same tree that afforded them food and shelter1 furnished them likewise with materials for covering their bodies4 ,but when in consequence of their transgressions they were to be ejected from their blissful abode1 and forced to dwell in less favourable regions1 a more substantial covering became necessary1 their merciful ,creator made them 7i4 e4 inspired them with the thoughts of making for themselves7 coats of skins4 7,gen4 iii4 #ba47 ,the original word is c'thoneth1 whence the ,greek the tunic1 a close garment that was usually worn next the skin1 it reached to the knees1 and had sleeves 7in after times it was made either of wool or linen47 ,after man had subdued the sheep 7,hebrew caves from to subdue#d7 and learned how to make use of its wool1 we find a new article of dress1 namely the simla1 an upper garment3 it consisted of a piece of cloth about six yards long and two or three wide1 in shape not unlike our blankets4 ,this will explain ,gen4 ix4 #bc1 #8,and ,shem and ,japheth took a garment1 and laid it upon both their shoulders1 and went backward and covered the nakedness of their father4' ,it served as a dress by day1 as a bed by night1 7,exod4 xxii4 #bf17 #8,if thou at all take thy neighbour's raiment to pledge1 thou shalt deliver it unto him by that the sun goeth down2 for that is his covering only2 it is his raiment for his skin3 wherein shall he sleep8' ,and sometimes burdens were carried in it1 7,exod4 xii4 #cd17 #8,and the people took their dough before it was leavened1 their kneading-troughs being bound up in their clothes upon their shoulders4' 8,in the course of time various other garments came into use1 as mentioned in several other parts of ,scripture4 ,the materials of which these garments were usually made are specified in ,leviticus xiii4 #dg-ei1 #8,the garment also that the plague of the leprosy is in1 whether it be a woollen garment or a linen garment1 whether it be in the warp or woof1 of linen or of woollen2 whether in a skin1 or in anything made of skin1 c4'0 #c ,de vestitu ,heb4 ,sacerdotum1 l4 #a4 cap4 viii4 #h4 #d ,there is not the least shadow of truth in support of such a deduction2 and particularly so since the general tenor of the ,scriptures leads to a very different conclusion4 ,we are1 therefore1 not authorized to give our support to any such hypothesis4 ,the history of the ,sheep and ,goat is so interwoven with the history of man1 that those naturalists have not reasoned correctly1 who have thought it necessary to refer the first origin of either of them to any wild stock at all4 ,such view is1 we imagine1 more in keeping with the inferences to be drawn from ,scripture ,history with regard to the early domestication of the sheep4 ,abel1 we are told1 was a keeper of sheep1 and it was one of the firstlings of his flock that he offered to the ,lord1 and which1 proving a more acceptable sacrifice1 excited the implacable and fatal jealousy of his brother ,cain4 7,see ,part ii4 pp4 #bag and #bic47 ,in our search for the distant origin of any art or science1 or in looking through the long vista of ages remote even to nations extinct before our own1 we are favored with satisfactory evidence so long as we are accompanied with authentic records3 beyond1 all is dark1 obscure1 tradition1 fable4 ,on such ground it would be credulous or rash in the extreme to repeat as our own1 an affirmation1 when that rests on the single testimony of one party or interest1 especially when that is of a very questionable character4 ,it is even safer1 when history or well authenticated records fail us1 to appeal to philosophy1 or to the well known laws of mind1 from which all arts and science spring4 ,the former favors us with the commanding evidence of certainty and decision2 and though the latter may only afford the testimony of analogy1 yet1 is its probability more safe1 at least1 than what rests on misguided calculations or on the legendary tales of artifice and fiction4 ,we have1 however1 authentic testimony that the inventive faculty existed at a very early period4 ,the peculiar condition of man at that time must have afforded many imperative occasions for its exertion4 ,hence we read that 8,jabal was the father of such as dwell in tents0 7i4 e4 inventor of tent-making72 that 8,jubal1 his brother1 was the father0 7inventor7 of musical instruments3 such as the kinnor1 harp1 or stringed instruments1 and the ugab1 organ1 or wind instruments2 that 8,tubal-cain was the instructor of every artificer in brass and iron1 the first smith on record1 or one to teach how to make instruments and utensils out of brass and iron2 and that the sister of ,tubal-cain was ,naamah1 whom the ,targum of ,jonathan ben ,uzziel affirms to have been the inventrix of plaintive or elegiac poetry#e4 ,here is then an account of the inventive faculty being in exercise #cejd years before the ,christian era2 or #aaef years prior to the deluge2 or #hjd years before the earliest period assigned to the ,chinese for the discovery of silk4 ,and of whatever arts or sciences existing amongst men prior to the deluge1 there is no difficulty in conceiving the possibility of the transmission of the leading and most essential parts1 at least1 to the post-diluvians1 by the family of ,noah4 #e ,as a proof that the inventive faculty1 as to every thing truly useful to man1 originally proceeded from the only 8,giver of every good and perfect gift10 consult ,isa4 xxviii4 #bd-bi3 and also a beautiful comment by ,dr4 ,a4 ,clarke on1 8,and thou shalt speak unto all that are wise hearted1 whom ,i have filled with the spirit of wisdom40 ,exod4 xxviii4 #c3 and also on1 8,i have filled him with the spirit of ,god in wisdom1 and in understanding1 and in knowledge1 and in all manner of workmanship2 to devise cunning works1 to work in gold1 and in silver1 and in brass2 and in cutting of stones1 to set them1 and in carving of timber1 to work in all manner of curious workmanship40 ,exod4 xxxi4 #c1 #d1 and #e4 ,but instead of giving our unqualified assent to what has been servilely copied from book to book from the most accessible account1 we shall advert to the great discrepancy relative to ,chinese chronology1 amongst those who have had equal access to their records4 ,thus the time of ,fohi1 the first emperor1 has been said to be #biea ,b4 ,c41 by some #baih ,b4 ,c41 and by others #bjeg1 or about #cjj years after the deluge3 of ,hoang-ti1 #bgjj ,b4 ,c41 by ,mailla it is quoted at #bfjb ,b4 ,c41 by ,le ,sage at #beig ,b4 ,c41 and by ,robinson and others at #agjc ,b4 ,c4 ,similar disagreements might1 would our limits allow1 be observed concerning the rest1 and particularly of the emperors1 ,hiao-wenti1 ,chim-ti1 ,ming-ti1 ,youen-ti1 ,wenti1 ,wou-ti1 and ,hiao-wou-ti4 ,even in more modern times1 and relative to a character so notorious as ,confucius1 no less than three dates are equally affirmed to be true4 ,as to ,hoang-ti1 who is said to have begun the culture of silk1 we are inclined to prefer the latter account1 #agjc ,b4 ,c41 which makes him contemporary with ,joseph1 when prime minister over the land of ,egypt4 ,as a confirmation of this1 it may be stated1 that by referring to the account given of nine#f of the patriarchs at this period1 we shall find that the average age of human life1 before much greater1 soon after rapidly declined4 ,now the average duration of the reigns of the first three#g ,chinese emperors1 including ,hoang-ti1 was #aah years2 of the five that immediately succeeded1 only #fh years4 ,after this1 until the ,christian era1 the average duration of a single reign did not exceed #bc years1 and thence until the present time not #ac years4 ,since1 therefore1 the average duration of the reign of the first three emperors bears an evident and fit proportion to that of the age of man at the period specified1 though not at any other before or after1 being in the former case as much too small as it would in the latter be too great1 the opinion now offered is the only one that can be consistent with these striking facts2 and1 if duly considered1 presents an argument strongly corroborating this view of the subject4 #f ,peleg1 ,reu1 ,serug1 ,nahor1 ,terah1 ,abraham1 ,isaac1 ,jacob and ,joseph3 ,gen4 xi4 #af-bf2 xlvii4 #bh2 and l4 #bf4 #g ,fohi1 ,eohi ,chinun1 and ,hoang-ti4 ,to attempt to establish any greater certainty1 in a case of this nature1 the ,chinese during the dynasty of ,tschin1 having1 to conceal the truth1 destroyed everything authentic1 would be in vain4 ,it would be even more rational to have recourse to the ,vedas1 or sacred books of the ,brahmins1 or to records in the ,sanscrit1 were it not a well known fact1 that nearly all ancient nations1 except the ,jews1 actuated by the same ambition1 have betrayed a wish to have their origin traced as far back as the creation4 ,and in the gratification of this passion none are so notoriously pre-eminent as the ,egyptians1 ,hindoos1 and ,chinese4#h ,for them the limits of the creation itself have been too narrow1 and days1 weeks1 and even months too short1 unless multiplied into years4#i #h ,see ,dr4 ,a4 ,clarke's remarks3 end of ,gen4 #i ,see pp4 #fh1 #gd1 #aai and #bid4 ,the chronology relative to the early culture of silk1 as found in ,chinese documents1 for several irrefragable objections already assigned1 is exceedingly questionable1 and therefore we are by no means pledged to affirm that either in the authenticity of the books1 or in the correctness of the dates have we any faith4 ,m4 ,lavoisn dates the commencement of the ,chinese dynasties at ,a4 ,m4#aj #ahaf1 or #aei years after the deluge4 ,the ,rev4 ,j4 ,robinson of ,christ ,col41 ,cam41 at ,a4 ,m4 #aidg4 ,we have already given as strong reasons1 as under the extreme incertitude of the case1 can1 perhaps1 be offered1 for preferring the latter2 the important points may be briefly stated1 thus3 ,end of the deluge #aaafeg ,a4 ,m4 ,fohi1 first emperor1 began to reign #aidg ,a4 ,m4 ,noah died #bjjg ,a4 ,m4 ,eohi ,chinun1 second emperor1 began to reign #bjfa ,a4 ,m4 ,hoang-ti1 the third emperor1 began to reign #bbja ,a4 ,m4 ,hoang-ti after establishing the silk culture1 died #bcja ,a4 ,m4 ,hoang-ti was therefore contemporary with ,joseph when administering the affairs of ,egypt4#ab ,but would we know what account the ,chinese themselves give relative to the earliest introduction of the silk culture1 we shall find it in the ,french version of the ,chinese ,treatises1 by ,m4 ,stanislas ,julien1 or in the following words of pages #gg and #gh1 as translated and published in #ahch1 at ,washington1 under the title of 8,summary of the principal ,chinese ,treatises upon the ,culture of the ,mulberry1 and the rearing of ,silk-worms40 #aj ,a4 ,m4 signifies ,anno ,mundi1 that is in the year of the ,world4 ,the ,year of ,our ,lord always commences on the first day of ,january1 the day on which ,christ was circumcised1 being eight days old4 ,from the ,creation until the birth of ,christ1 was #djjd years4 ,tirin places the birth of ,christ in the #cfth year of ,herod1 the #djth of ,augustus1 the #bhth from the battle of ,actium1 the #gdith of ,rome1 and the #dth of the #aic;d ,olympiad4 #aa ,it will here not be improper to observe that the ,samaritan text and ,septuagint version of the ,hebrew1 carry the deluge as far back as to the year #cgaf before ,christ2 or #ajjj years before the ,chinese account of ,hoang-ti4 ,on this subject see the ,new ,analysis of ,chronology1 by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,hales1 ,d4,d4 #dto41 #c vol4 #ab ,joseph died in the #bcfith year from the ,creation4 ,in the book on silk-worms1 we read3 8,the lawful wife of the emperor ,hoang-ti1 named ,si-ling-chi1 began the culture of silk4 ,it was at that time that the emperor ,hoang-ti invented the art of making garments76740 ,the same fact is mentioned more in detail in the general history of ,china1 by ,p4 ,maill1 in the year #bfjb1 before our era 7#dddg years ago74 8,this great prince 7,hoang-ti7 was desirous that ,si-ling-chi1 his legitimate wife1 should contribute to the happiness of his people4 ,he charged her to examine the silk-worms1 and to test the practicability of using the thread4 ,si-ling-chi had a large quantity of these insects collected1 which she fed herself1 in a place prepared for that purpose1 and discovered not only the means of raising them1 but also the manner of reeling the silk1 and of employing it to make garments40 8,it is through gratitude for so great a benefit10 says the history1 entitled ,wai-ki1 8that posterity has deified ,si-ling-chi1 and rendered her particular honors under the name of the goddess of silk-worms40 7,memoirs on the ,chinese1 vol4 #ac1 p4 #bdj47 ,we have seen that the most probable account relative to the time of ,fohi1 said to have been the first ,chinese emperor1 is that he reigned #bjeg years before the ,christian era1 or in the year of the world #aidg4 8,according to the most current opinion10 says ,m4 ,lavoisn1 8,china was founded by one of the colonies formed at the dispersion of ,noah's posterity under the conduct of ,yao1 who took for his colleague ,chun1 afterwards his successor4 ,but most writers consider ,fohi to have been ,noah himself76740 ,now the deluge terminated ,a4 ,m4 #afeg1 and ,noah lived after the deluge #cej years#ac1 and therefore died ,a4 ,m4 #bjjg2 and as ,fohi is said to have reigned #aad years1 before ,eohi ,chun or ,chinun succeeded him1 he was contemporary1 at least1 with ,noah4 ,the ark rested on ,mount ,ararat1 which is generally allowed to be one of the mountains of ,armenia1 to the east of the head of the ,tigris4 ,and here the same author remarks1 that 8in rather less than a century and a half1 after the birth of ,peleg1 it is supposed that ,noah1 being then about his #hdjth year1 wearied with the growing depravity of his descendants1 retired with a select company to a remote corner of ,asia1 and there began what in after ages has been termed the ,chinese monarchy40#ad ,this view of the subject1 we believe1 coincides perfectly with the reputable testimonies presented by ,mairan1 ,bailly1 ,guignes1 and ,sir ,william ,jones1 and demonstrates that the transit of more central aborigines1 since the deluge1 to the extremes of ,china1 was perfectly feasible1#ae and a matter of even high probability4 #ac ,gen4 ix4 #bh4 #ad ,clarke's 8,treatise on the ,mulberry-tree1 and ,silk-worm10 pp4 #ad1 #ah1 #bj1 #ba1 #bg1 and #cd4 #ae ,see chap4 iv4 p4 #fg4 ,also ,plate ,,vii4 7,map47 ,the first ancient author1 who affords any evidence respecting the use of silk1 is ,aristotle4 ,he does not1 however1 appear to have been accurately acquainted with the changes of the silk-worm2 nor does he say1 that the animal was bred or the raw material produced in ,cos4 ,he only says1 8,pamphile1 daughter of ,plates1 is reported to have first woven it in ,cos40 7,see ,chapters ii4 iii4 and iv4 of this ,part47 ,long before the time of ,aristotle a regular trade had been established in the interior of ,asia1 which brought its most valuable productions1 and especially those which were most easily transported1 to the shores opposite this flourishing island4 ,nothing therefore is more likely than that the raw silk from the interior of ,asia was brought to ,cos and there manufactured4 ,we shall see hereafter from the testimony of ,procopius1 that it was in like manner brought some centuries later to be woven in the ,phnician cities1 ,tyre and ,berytus4 ,the arts of spinning and weaving1 which rank next in importance to agriculture1 having been found among almost all the nations of the old and new continents1 even among those little removed from barbarism1 are reasonably supposed to have been invented at a very remote period of the world's history#af4 ,they evidently existed in ,egypt in the time of ,joseph 7#agjj years before the ,christian era71 as it is recorded that ,pharaoh 8arrayed him in vestures of fine linen40 7,genesis xli4 #db47 ,two centuries later1 the ,hebrews carried with them on their departure from that ancient seat of civilization1 the arts of spinning1 dyeing1 weaving1 and embroidery2 for when ,moses constructed the tabernacle in the wilderness1 8the women that were wise-hearted did spin with their hands1 and brought that which they had spun1 both of blue1 and of purple1 and of scarlet1 and of fine linen40 7,exod4 xxxv4 #be47 ,they also 8spun goats' hair20 and ,bezaleel and ,aholiab 8worked all manner of work1 of the engraver1 and of the cunning workman1 and of the embroiderer1 in blue1 and of purple1 and in scarlet1 and in fine linen1 and of the weaver40 ,these passages contain the earliest mention of woven clothing1 which was linen1 the national manufacture of ,egypt4 ,the prolific borders of the ,nile furnished from the remotest periods1 as at the present time1 abundance of the finest flax#ag2 and it appears1 from the testimony both of sacred and profane history1 that linen continued to be almost the only kind of clothing used in ,egypt till after the ,christian era#ah4 ,the ,egyptians exported their 8linen yarn10 and 8fine linen10 to the kingdom of ,israel1 in the days of ,solomon1 7#b ,chron4 i4 #af2 ,prov4 vii4 #af27 their 8fine linen with broidered work10 to ,tyre1 7,ezek4 xxvii4 #g47 #af ,according to ,pliny1 ,semiramis1 the ,assyrian queen1 was believed to have been the inventress of the art of weaving4 ,minerva is in some of the ancient statutes represented with a distaff1 to intimate that she taught men the art of spinning2 and this honor is given by the ,egyptians to ,isis1 by the ,mohammedans to a son of ,japhet1 by the ,chinese to the consort of their emperor ,yao1 and by the ,peruvians to ,mamaoella1 wife to ,manco-,capac1 their first sovereign4 ,these traditions serve only to carry the invaluable arts of spinning and weaving up to an extremely remote period1 long prior to that of authentic history4 #ag ,paintings representing the gathering and preparation of flax have been found on the walls of the ancient sepulchres at ,eleithias and ,beni ,hassan1 in ,upper ,egypt1 and are described and copied by ,hamilton4--8,remarks on several parts of ,turkey1 and on ancient and modern ,egypt10 pp4 #ig and #bhg1 plate #bc4 #ah ,herodotus1 book ii4 c4 #cg1 #ha4 7,see ,plate ,,vi47 ,the women of ,sidon before the ,trojan war1 were especially celebrated for the skill in embroidery3 and ,homer1 who lived #ijj years ,b4 ,c41 mentions ,helen as being engaged in embroidering the combats of the ,greeks and ,trojans4 ,the transition from vegetable fibre to the use of animal staples1 such as wool and hair1 could not have been very difficult2 indeed1 as already stated1 it took place at a period of which we possess no very authentic written record4 ,the instrument used for spinning in all countries1 from the earliest times1 was the distaff and spindle4 ,this simple apparatus was put by the ,greek mythologists into the hands of ,minerva and the ,parc2 ,solomon employs upon it the industry of the virtuous woman2 to the present day the distaff is used in ,india1 ,egypt1 and other eastern countries4 ,the ancient spindle or distaff was a very simple instrument4 ,the late ,lady ,calcott informs us1 that it continued even to our own days to be used by the ,hindoos in all its primitive simplicity4 8,i have seen10 she says1 8the rock or distaff formed simply of the leading shoot of some young tree1 carefully peeled1 it might be birch or elder1 and1 further north1 of fir or pine2 and the spindle formed of the beautiful shrub ,euonymus1 or spindle-tree40#ai #ai ,the superior fineness of some ,indian muslins1 and their quality of retaining1 longer than ,european fabrics1 an appearance of excellence1 has occasioned a belief that the cotton wool of which they are woven is superior to any known elsewhere2 this1 however1 is so far from being the fact1 that no cotton is to be found in ,india which at all equals in quality the better kinds produced in the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,the excellence of ,india muslins must be wholly ascribed to the skilfulness and patience of the workmen1 as shown in the different processes of spinning and weaving4 7,see ,plate v47 ,their yarn is spun upon the distaff1 and it is owing to the dexterous use of the finger and thumb in forming the thread1 and to the moisture which it thus imbibes1 that its fibres are more perfectly incorporated than they can be through the employment of any mechanical substitutes4 ,spinning among the ,egyptians1 as among our ancestors of no very distant age1 was a domestic occupation in which ladies of rank did not hesitate to engage4 ,the term 8spinster0 is yet applied to unmarried ladies of every rank1 and there are persons yet alive who remember to have seen the spinning wheel an ordinary piece of furniture in domestic economy4 ,we are told that 8,solomon had horses brought out of ,egypt and linen yarn2 the king's merchants received the linen yarn at a price40 7#a ,kings1 x4 #bh47 ,and the linen of ,egypt was highly valued in ,palestine1 for the seducer1 in ,proverbs1 says1 8,i have decked my bed with coverings of tapestry1 with carved works1 with fine linen of ,egypt40 7,prov4 vii4 #af47 ,the prophet ,ezekiel also declares that the export of the textile fabrics was an important branch of ,phnician commerce2 for in his enumeration of the articles of traffic in ,tyre1 he says3 8,fine linen with broidered work from ,egypt was that which thou spreadest forth to be thy sail2 blue and purple from the isles of ,elisha was that which covered thee40 7,ezek4 xxvii4 #g47 ,it deserves to be remarked that the prophet here joins ,egypt with the isles of ,elisha or ,elis1 that is1 the districts of western ,greece1 and thus confirms the ancient tradition recorded by ,herodotus of some ,egyptian colonists having settled in that country1 which the sceptics of the ,german school of history have thought proper to deny4#bj ,spinning was wholly a female employment2 it is rather singular that we find this work frequently performed by a large number collected together1 as if the factory system had been established #cjjj years ago4 #bj ,the sceptical school of history1 founded by ,niebuhr1 in ,germany1 and extended by his disciples to a sweeping incredulity1 far beyond what was contemplated by the founder1 has labored hard to prove1 that the ,greek system of civilization was indigenous1 and that the candid confession of ,herodotus1 attributing to ,egyptian colonies the first introduction of the arts of life into ,hellas1 was an idle tale1 or a groundless tradition4 ,but the examination of the monuments has proved that ,greek art originated in ,egypt2 and that the elements of the architectural1 sculptural1 and pictorial wonders which have rendered ,greece and ,italy illustrious1 were derived from the valley of the ,nile4 ,we have1 however1 many specimens of spinning as a domestic employment4 ,indeed1 attention to the spindle and distaff forms a leading feature in king ,lemuel's description of a virtuous woman4 8,who can find a virtuous woman8 for her price is far above rubies4 ,the heart of her husband doth safely trust in her1 so that he shall have no need of spoil4 ,she will do him good and not evil all the days of her life4 ,she seeketh wool and flax1 and worketh willingly with her hands4 ,she is like the merchant's ships2 she bringeth her food from afar4 ,she riseth also while it is yet night1 and giveth meat to her household1 and a portion to her maidens4 ,she considereth a field1 and buyeth it2 with the fruit of her hands she planteth a vineyard4 ,she girdeth her loins with strength1 and strengtheneth her arms4 ,she perceiveth that her merchandise is good3 her candle goeth not out by night4 ,she layeth her hands to the spindle1 and her hands hold the distaff4 ,she stretcheth out her hand to the poor2 yea1 she reacheth forth her hands to the needy4 ,she is not afraid of the snow for her household3 for all her household are clothed with scarlet4 ,she maketh herself coverings of tapestry2 her clothing is silk and purple4 ,her husband is known in the gates1 when he sitteth among the elders of the land4 ,she maketh fine linen1 and selleth it2 and delivereth girdles unto the merchant40 7,prov4 xxxi4 #aj-bd47 ,hamilton and ,wilkinson have already shown that many of the descriptions of combats we meet in the ,iliad appear to have been derived from the battle pieces on the walls of the ,theban palaces1 which the poet himself pretty plainly intimates that he had visited4 ,the same observation may be applied to most of ,homer's pictures of domestic life4 ,we find the lady of the mansion superintending the labors of her servants1 and using the distaff herself4 ,her spindle made of some precious material1 richly ornamented1 her beautiful work-basket1 or rather vase1 and the wool dyed of some bright hue to render it worthy of being touched by aristocratic fingers1 remind us of the appropriate present which the ,egyptian queen1 ,alcandra1 made to the ,spartan ,helen2 for the beauty of that frail fair one scarcely is less celebrated than her skill in embroidery and every species of ornamental work4 ,after ,polybus had given his presents to ,menelaus1 who stopped at ,egypt on his return from ,troy1 ,alcandra1 consort of his high command1 ,a golden distaff gave to ,helen's hand2 ,and that rich vase1 with living sculpture wrought1 ,which1 heap'd with wool1 the beauteous ,phylo brought2 ,the silken fleece empurpled for the loom1 ,rivall'd the hyacinth in vernal bloom4 ,odyssey1 iv4 ,in the hieroglyphics over persons employed with the spindle on the ,egyptian monuments1 it is remarkable that the word saht1 which in ,coptic signifies to twist1 constantly occurs4 ,the spindles were generally of wood1 and in order to increase their impetus in turning1 the circular head was occasionally of gypsum1 or composition3 some1 however1 were of a light plaited work1 made of rushes1 or palm leaves1 stained of various colors1 and furnished with a loop of the same materials1 for securing the twine after it was wound#ba4 ,sir ,gardner ,wilkinson found one of these spindles at ,thebes1 with some of the linen thread upon it1 and is now in the ,berlin ,museum4 #ba ,the ordinary distaff does not occur in these subjects1 but we may conclude they had it4 ,homer mentions one of gold1 given to ,helen by 8,alcandra the wife of ,polybus10 who lived in ,egyptian ,thebes4--,od4 iv4 #aca4 ,theocritus has given us a very striking proof of the pleasure which the women of ,miletus took in these employments2 for1 when he went to visit his friend ,nicias1 the ,milesian physician1 to whom he had previously addressed his eleventh and thirteenth ,idylls1 he carried with him an ivory distaff as a present for ,theugenis1 his friend's wife4 ,he accompanied his gift with the following verses1 which modestly commend the matron's industry and virtue1 and1 at the same time1 throw an interesting light on the domestic economy of the ladies of ,miletus3 ,o ,distaff1 friend to warp and woof1 ,minerva's gift in man's behoof1 ,whom careful housewives still retain1 ,and gather to their households gain2 ,with me repair1 no vulgar prize1 ,where the famed towers of ,nileus rise#bb1 ,where ,cytherea's swayful power ,is worship'd in the reedy bower4 ,thither1 would ,jove kind breezes send1 ,i steer my course to meet my friend1 ,nicias1 the ,graces' honor'd child1 ,adorn'd with sweet persuasion mild1 ,that ,i his kindness may requite-- ,may be delighted1 and delight4 ,thee1 ivory distaff1 ,i provide1 ,a present for his blooming bride2 ,with her thou wilt sweet toil partake ,and aid her various vests to make4 ,for ,theugenis the shepherds shear ,the sheep's soft fleeces twice a year1 ,so dearly industry she loves ,and all that wisdom points1 approves1 ,i ne'er design'd to bear thee hence ,to the dull house of ,indolence2 ,for1 in that city thou wert framed ,which ,archias built1 ,corinthian named1-- ,fair ,syracuse1 ,sicilia's pride1 ,where troops of famous men abide4 ,dwell thou with him whose art can cure ,each dire disease that men endure2 ,thee to ,miletus now ,i give1 ,where pleasure-crown'd ,ionians live2 ,that ,theugenis by thee may gain ,fair honor with the female train2 ,and thou renew within her breast ,remembrance of her muse-charm'd guest4 ,admiring thee1 each maid will call ,the favor great1 the present small2 ,for love the smallest gift commends1 ,all things are valued by our friends4 ,idyll1 xxviii4 #bb ,miletus was called 8the towers of ,nileus10 from its having been founded by ,nileus1 the son of the celebrated king ,codrus1 who devoted himself for the safety of ,athens4 ,nileus was so indignant at the abolition of royalty on his father's death1 that he migrated to ,ionia4 ,the ,roman and ,grecian ladies displayed not less taste in the decoration of their various spinning implements1 than those of modern times in the ornaments of their work-table4 ,the calathus or qualus was the basket in which the wool was kept for the fair spinsters4 ,it was usually made of wicker-work4 ,thus ,catullus in his description of the nuptials of ,peleus and ,thetis1 says3 ,the softest fleeces1 white as driven snow1 ,beside their feet in osier baskets glow4 ,poema1 lxiv4 ,homer asserts that the ,egyptian queen ,alcandra presented ,helen with a silver work-basket as well as a golden distaff 7,odyss4 iv472 and from the paintings on ancient vases1 we see that the calathi of ladies of rank were tastefully wrought and richly ornamented4 ,from the term qualus or quasillus1 equivalent to calathus1 the ,romans called the female slaves employed in spinning quasillari4 ,the material prepared for spinning was wrapped loosely round the distaff1 the wool being previously combed1 or the flax hackled by processes not very dissimilar to those used at the present day amongst the peasantry in the west of ,ireland4 ,the ball thus formed on the distaff required to be arranged with some neatness and skill1 in order that the fibres should be sufficiently loose to be drawn out by the hand of the spinner4 ,ovid declares1 that ,arachne's skill in this simple process excited the wonder of the nymphs who came to see her triumphs in the textile art1 not less than the finished labors of the loom4 ,oft1 to admire the niceness of her skill1 ,the nymphs would quit their fountain1 shade1 or hill3 ,thither from green ,tymolus they repair1 ,and leave the vineyards1 their peculiar care2 ,thither from fair ,pactolus' golden stream1 ,drawn by her art1 the curious ,naids came4 ,nor would the work1 when finish'd1 please so much ,as while she wrought to view each graceful touch2 ,whether the shapeless wool in balls she wound1 ,or with quick motion turn'd the spindle round4 ,met1 vi4 ,the distaff was generally about three feet in length1 commonly a stick or reed1 with an expansion near the top for holding the ball4 ,it was sometimes1 as we have shown1 composed of richer materials4 ,the distaff was usually held under the left arm1 and the fibres were drawn out from the projecting ball1 being1 at the same time1 spirally twisted by the forefinger and thumb of the right hand4 ,the thread so produced was wound upon the spindle until the quantity was as great as it would carry4 ,the spindle was made of some light wood1 or reed1 and was generally from eight to twelve inches in length4 ,at the top of it was a slit1 or catch1 to which the thread was fixed1 so that the weight of the spindle might carry the thread down to the ground as fast as it was finished4 ,its lower extremity was inserted into a whorl1 or wheel1 made of stone1 metal1 or some heavy material which both served to keep it steady and to promote its rotation4 ,the spinner1 who1 as we have said before1 was usually a female1 every now and then gave the spindle a fresh gyration by a gentle touch so as to increase the twist of the thread4 ,whenever the spindle reached the ground a length was spun2 the thread was then taken out of the slit1 or clasp1 and wound upon the spindle2 the clasp was then closed again1 and the spinning of a new thread commenced4 ,all these circumstances are briefly mentioned by ,catullus1 in a poem from which we have already quoted3-- ,the loaded distaff1 in the left hand placed1 ,with spongy coils of snow-white wool was graced2 ,from these the right hand lengthening fibres drew ,which into thread 'neath nimble fingers grew4 ,at intervals a gentle touch was given ,by which the twirling whorl was onward driven4 ,then1 when the sinking spindle reach'd the ground1 ,the recent thread around its spire was wound1 ,until the clasp within its nipping cleft ,held fast the newly-finish'd length of weft4 ,in order to understand this description of ,catullus1 it is necessary to bear in mind1 that as the bobbin of each spindle was loaded with thread1 it was taken off from the whorl and placed in a basket until there was a sufficient quantity for the weavers to commence their operations4 ,homer incidentally mentions the spool or spindle on which the weft-yarn was wound1 in his description of the race at the funeral-games in honor of ,patroclus3 ,oileus led the race2 ,the next ,ulysses1 measuring pace with pace ,behind him1 diligently close he sped1 ,as closely following as the running thread ,the spindle follows1 and displays the charms ,of the fair spinner's breast1 and moving arms4 ,iliad1 xxiii4 ,in ,india women of all castes prepare the cotton thread for the weaver1 spinning it on a piece of wire1 or a very thin rod of polished iron with a ball of clay at one end2 this they turn round with the left hand1 and supply the cotton with the right2 the thread is then wound upon a stick or pole1 and sold to the merchants or weavers2 for the coarser thread the women make use of a wheel very similar to that of the ,irish spinster1 though upon a smaller construction4 7,for further information on the manufactures of ,india1 their present state1 c41 see ,part ,,iii47 ,the ,reverend ,mr4 ,c4 ,forster of ,great ,britain1 has lately published a very curious work on ,arabia1 being the result of many years' untiring research in that part of the world2 from which we learn the very interesting fact1 that the ancient ,arabians were skilled in the manufacture of silken textures1 at as remote a period as within #ejj years of the flood6 ,mr4 ,forster has1 it appears1 succeeded in deciphering many very remarkable inscriptions found on some ancient monuments near ,adon on the coast of ,hadramant4 ,these records1 it is said1 restore to the world its earliest written language1 and carry us back to the time of ,jacob1 and within #ejj years of the flood4 ,the inscriptions are in three parts4 ,the longest is of ten lines1 engraved on a smooth piece of rock forming one side of the terrace at ,hisn ,ghorab4 ,then there are three short lines1 found on a small detached rock on the summit of the little hill4 ,there are also two lines found near the inscriptions1 lower down the terrace4 ,they all relate to one transaction1 an incident in ,adite history4 ,the tribe of ,ad1 according to ,mr4 ,sale1 were descended from ,ad the son of ,aws or ,uz1 the son of ,aram1 the son of ,shem1 the son of ,noah4 ,the event recorded is the rout and entire destruction of the sons of ,ac1 an ,arab tribe1 by the ,aws or tribe of ,ad1 whom they invaded4 ,in ,mr4 ,forster's book fac similes are given of the inscription2 the ,aditie and the ,hamyaritie alphabet2 and a glossary containing every word in them1 its derivation1 and its explanation2 with notes of copious illustration upon every point which they involve4 ,the first inscription of ten lines is thus translated3 ,we dwelt1 living long luxuriously in the zananas of this spacious mansion2 our condition exempt from misfortune and adversity4 ,rolled in through our channel4 ,the sea1 swelling against our castle with angry surge2 our fountains flowed with murmuring fall1 above ,the lofty palms2 whose keepers planted dry dates in our valley date-grounds2 they sowed the arid rice4 ,we hunted the young mountain-goats and the young hares1 with gins and snares2 beguiling we drew forth the fishes4 ,we walked with slow1 proud gait1 ,,in ,,needle-,,worked1 ,,many-,,colored ,,silk ,,vestments1 ,,in ,,whole ,,silks1 ,,in ,,grass-,,green ,,chequered ,,robes#bc6 ,over us presided kings1 far removed from baseness1 and stern chastisers of reprobate and wicked men4 ,they noted down for us according to the doctrine of ,heber1 ,good judgments1 written in books to be kept2 and we proclaimed our belief in miracles1 in the resurrection1 in the return into the nostrils of the breath of life4 ,made an inroad robbers1 and would do us violence2 we rode forth1 we and our generous youth1 with stiff and sharp-pointed spears2 rushing onward4 ,proud champions of our families and wives2 fighting valiantly upon coursers with long necks1 dun-colored1 iron-gray1 and bright bay4 ,with our swords still wounding and piercing our adversaries1 until charging home1 we conquered and crushed this refuse of mankind4 #bc ,silk is the only material used for human clothing which ,mohammed1 the impostor1 introduces among the luxuries of ,paradise4 7,see the ,koran1 chap4 #ce47 ,on the subject of these inscriptions1 ,mr4 ,forster1 in the dedication of his book to the ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 thus remarks3 8,what ,job 7who1 living in the opposite quarter of ,arabia1 amid the sands of the great ,northern desert1 had no lasting material within reach on which to perpetuate his thoughts17 so earnestly desired1 stands here realized40 8,oh that my words were now written6 ,oh that they were printed in a ,book6 ,that 7like the kindred creed of the lost tribe of ,ad7 they were graven with an iron pen1 and lead1 in the rock forever4 7,for mine is a better and brighter revelation than theirs47 ,for ,i know that my ,redeemer liveth1 and that he shall stand at the latter day upon the earth2 and though1 after my skin1 worms destroy this body1 yet in the flesh shall ,i see ,god3 whom ,i shall see for myself1 and mine eyes shall behold1 and not another40 ,that the ,arabians should have understood the manufacture of silken textures at as remote a period as that supposed by ,mr4 ,forster1 viz41 #ejj years after the flood1 is1 to say the least of it1 exceedingly questionable1 yet it cannot be denied that we are indebted to them for many useful inventions1 and among which may be mentioned the art of making cotton paper#bd4 ,it is no less true that we first received our cotton-wool from countries where the ,arabic language was spoken4 ,to the ,arabs also we are indebted for that almost indispensable article of apparel1 the shirt1 the ,arabic name for which is camees1 whence the ,italian camiscia1 and the ,french chemise#be4 ,in the attempt here made to trace from the dark ages of antiquity the progress of trades and manufactures so widely diffused over the civilised world as those of cotton1 linen1 silk1 wool1 c41 chronological order is followed as closely as the nature of the inquiry will permit4 #bd ,see ,appendix ,b4 #be ,for further information on ,arabia1 see ,parts ,,ii4 and ,,iii4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,silk ,,manufacture ,,continued ,,to ,,the ,,fourth ,,century4 ,,spinning1 ,,dyeing1 ,,and ,,weaving4--,,high ,,degree ,,of ,,excellence ,,attained ,,in ,,these ,,arts4 ,testimony of the ,latin ,poets of the ,augustan age--,tibullus--,propertius--,virgil--,h orace--,ovid--,dyonisius ,perigetes--,strabo4 ,mention of silk by authors in the first century--,seneca the ,philosopher--,seneca the ,tragedian--,lucan--,pliny--,josephus--, saint ,john--,silius ,italicus--,statius--,plutarch--,juvenal --,martial--,pausanias--,galen--,clemens ,alexandrinus--,caution to ,christian converts against the use of silk in dress4 ,mention of silk by authors in the second century--,tertullian--,apuleius--,ulpian --,julius ,pollux--,justin4 ,mention of silk by authors in the third century--lius ,lampidius--,vopiscus--,trebellius ,pollio--,cyprian--,solinus--,ammianus ,marcellinus--,use of silk by the ,roman emperors--,extraordinary beauty of the textures--,use of water to detach silk from the trees--,invectives of these authors against extravagance in dress--,the ,seres described as a happy people--,their mode of traffic1 etc4--7,macpherson's opinion of the ,chinese47--,city of ,dioscurias1 its vast commerce in former times4--7,colonel ,syke's account of the ,kolissura silk-worm--,dr4 ,roxburgh's description of the ,tusseh silk-worm47 ,the next ,authors1 who make mention of silk1 are the ,latin poets of the ,augustan age1 ,tibullus and ,propertius1 ,virgil1 ,horace1 and ,ovid4 ,the ,parthian war1 and the increased intercourse between the ,roman empire and the kingdoms of the ,east1 had been the means of recently introducing every kind of silken goods into more general use1 although these manufactures were still so rare as to be the objects of curiosity and admiration1 and were therefore well adapted to be brought in among the embellishments of poetical imagery4 ,the appearance of the silken flags attached to the gilt standards of the ,parthians 7,florus iii4 #aa47 must have been a very striking sight for the army of ,crassus1 contributing both to inflame their cupidity and to alarm them with a sense of the power of their opponents4 ,the conflict here referred to took place in the year #ed ,b4 ,c4 ,in about #cj years after this date the ,roman empire obtained its greatest extension4 ,in the language of ,petronius ,arbiter 7c4 #aai471 ,th' insatiate ,roman spread his conquering arms ,o'er land and sea1 where'er heaven's light extends4 ,after these words he says1 that among the richest productions of distant climates the ,seres sent their 8new fleeces40 ,the remotest countries thus contributed to increase the luxury of ,rome1 and we shall now see how silk1 one of the most costly and the most admired of its recent acquisitions1 was used by its poets to represent the polish of elevated life and to adorn their language with rich and beautiful allusions4 ,the webs1 which they mention1 are either those still obtained from ,cos1 or those imported from the country of the ,seres4 ,,tibullus4 ,a ,coan vest for girls4 ,l4 ii4 #d4 ,she may thin garments wear1 which female ,coan hands ,have woven1 and in stripes dispos'd the golden bands4 ,l4 ii4 #f4 ,the latter of these two passages is remarkable as showing that the ,coan women practised the elegant art of interweaving gold thread in their silken webs4 ,the gold was no doubt displayed in transverse stripes4 ,,propertius4 ,why thus1 my life1 display thy braided hair1 ,and heave beneath thin ,coan webs thy bosom fair8 ,l4 i4 #b4 ,in the next passage ,propertius is speaking of his own ,poetry1 and alludes to his frequent mention of ,coan garments4 ,if bright she walk in ,coan vest array'd1 ,through all this book will ,coan be display'd4 ,l4 ii4 #a4 ,,on ,a ,,statue ,,of ,,vertumnus4 ,my nature suits each changing form3 ,turn'd into what you please1 ,i'm fair4 ,clothe me in ,coan1 ,i'm a decent lass1 ,put on a toga1 for a man ,i pass4 ,l4 iv4 #b4 ,the texture of the ,coan ,minerva4 ,l4 iv4 #e4 ,who gives no ,coan robe1 but verse instead1 ,artless shall be his lyre1 his verses dead4 ,ibid4 ,the same poet 7,l4 iv4 #h4 #bc47 mentions 8,serica carpenta10 chariots with silk curtains2 and the following line 7,l4 i4 #ad4 #bb47 shows1 that couches with ornamented silk covers were then in use3 ,quid revelant variis ,serica textilibus8 ,propertius also mentions silk under the name of the animal1 which produced it3 ,shines with the produce of th' ,arabian worm4 ,l4 ii4 #c4 #ae4 ,in this line1 as well as in some of those before quoted1 he alludes to the use of silk by females of indifferent character4 ,he probably uses the epithet ,arabian1 because the ,roman merchants obtained silk from the ,arabs1 who received it from ,persia4 ,,virgil4 ,soft wool from downy groves the thiop weaves1 ,and ,seres comb their fleece from silken leaves4 ,georg4 ii4 #abj1 #aba4--,sotheby's ,translation4 ,the poet is here enumerating the chief productions of different countries1 and therefore mentions cotton and silk4 ,the idea1 that silk webs were manufactured from thin fleeces obtained from trees1 will be found recurring in many of the subsequent citations4 ,it may have been founded on reports brought by the soldiers of ,crassus1 or by others who visited the interior of ,asia about the same period4 ,,horace4 ,nor ,coan purples1 nor the blaze ,of jewels can bring back the days1 ,which1 fix'd by time1 recorded stand1 ,by all1 who read the ,fasti1 scann'd4 ,od4 l4 iv4 #ac4 7ad ,lycen47 #ac-af4 ,as if uncloth'd1 she stands confess'd ,in a translucent ,coan vest4 ,sat4 i4 #b4 #aja4 ,these passages allude to the fineness and transparency of silken webs1 which in the time of ,horace were worn at ,rome only by prostitutes1 or by those women who aimed at being as attractive and luxurious as possible in their attire4 ,the former passage shows1 that the silks manufactured in ,cos were dyed with the murex1 8,co purpur40 ,the expression 8,sericos pulvillos0 7,epod4 #h4 #ae47 has been supposed to denote small cushions covered with silk4 ,but the epithet 8,sericos0 implies nothing more than that they were obtained from the ,seres1 who supplied the ,romans with skins as well as silk#bf2 and leather seems to have been a more proper substance than silk for making cushions4 #bf ,plin4 xxxiv4 cap4 #bd4 ,,ovid4 ,sive erit in ,tyriis1 ,tyrios laudabis amictus1 ,sive erit in ,cois1 ,coa decere puta4 ,aurata est3 ipso tibi sit pretiosior auro2 ,gausapa si sumsit1 gausapa sumta proba4 ,ars ,amat4 ii4 #big-cjj4 ,whatever clothing she displays1 ,from ,tyre or ,cos1 that clothing praise3 ,if gold shows forth the artist's skill1 ,call her than gold more precious still3 ,or if she choose a coarse attire1 ,e'en coarseness1 worn by her1 admire4 ,in another passage 7,amores i4 #ad4 #e47 ,ovid compares the thin hairs of a lady to the silken veils of the ,seres1 ,veils such as color'd ,seres wear4 ,we now proceed to the testimonies of authors who wrote either in ,greek or ,latin at the latter part of the ,augustan age1 or immediately after it4 ,,dyonisius ,,periegetes4 1 1 1 1 1 4 7l4 #gee47 ,and the barbarous nations of the ,seres1 who renounce the care of sheep and oxen1 but comb the variously colored flowers of the desert land to make precious figured garments1 resembling in color the flowers of the meadow1 and rivalling 7in fineness7 the work of spiders4--,yates's ,translation4 ,it is worthy of observation that ,dyonisius speaks expressly not only of the fineness of the thread1 but of the flowered texture of the silk4 ,,strabo4 1 4 ,l4 xv4 #fie4 7v4 vi4 p4 #dj4 ,tzschucke47 ,this is repeated by ,eustathius on ,dyonisius ,periegetes#bg4 ,the account seems to have been taken by ,strabo1 perhaps inaccurately1 from ,nearchus4 ,it is doubtful1 whether denoted silken webs in this passage4 ,but whatever ,strabo meant1 he supposed the raw material to be scraped from the bark of trees#bh4 #bg ,l4 #aajg4 p4 #cjh1 ,bernhardy4 #bh ,book ii4 ch4 #c4 p4 #cjg4 ,as contemporary with the authors last quoted1 ,dyonisius and ,strabo1 we may here mention the law passed by the ,roman ,senate early in the reign of ,tiberius1 8,ne vestis ,serica viros fdaret40 ,taciti ,annales1 ii4 #cc4 ,dion4 ,cass4 l4 #eg4 p4 #hfj4 ,reim4 ,suidas in v4 #bi4 ,silk was to be worn by women only4 #bi ,dio ,cassius 7l4 #dc4 p4 #ceh4 ,rheim47 mentions as a report1 that ,julius ,csar employed silk curtains 7 7 to add to the splendor of his triumph4 ,the next emperor ,caligula had silk curtains to his throne 7,dion4 ,cass4 l4 #ei4 p4 #iae4 ,reim471 and he wore silk as part of his dress1 when he appeared in public4 ,dio ,cassius particularly mentions1 that1 when he was celebrating a kind of triumph at ,puteoli1 he put on what he alleged to be the thorax of ,alexander1 and over that a silken chlamys1 dyed with the murex1 and adorned with gold and precious stones4 ,on the following day he wore a tunic interwoven with gold#cj4 ,the use of shawls and tunics of silk was1 however1 except in the case of the extravagances of a ,caligula1 still confined to the female sex4 ,under the earlier emperors it is probable1 that silk was obtained in considerable quantities for the wardrobe of the empress1 where it was preserved from one reign to another1 until in the year #agf ,marcus ,aurelius ,antoninus1 the philosopher1 in consequence of the exhausted state of his treasury1 sold by public auction in the ,forum of ,trajan the imperial ornaments and jewels together with the golden and silken robes of the ,empress#ca4 #cj ,in describing the effeminate dress of the emperor ,caligula1 ,suetonius tells us 7cap4 #eb71 that he often went into public1 wearing bracelets and long sleeves1 and sometimes in a garment of silk and a cyclas4 #ca ,jul4 ,capitol4 c4 xvii4 p4 #fe4 ,bip4 ,,first ,,century4 ,,seneca1 ,,the ,,philosopher4 ,posse nos vestitos esse sine commercio ,serum4--,epist4 #ia4 ,we may clothe ourselves without any commerce with the ,seres4 ,video ,sericas vestes1 si vestes vocand sunt1 in quibus nihil est1 quo defendi aut corpus aut denique pudor possit3 quibus sumtis mulier parum liquid nudam se non esse jurabit4 ,hc ingenti summ ab ignotis etiam ad commercium gentibus accersunter1 ut matron nostr ne adulteris quidem plus sui in cubiculo quam in publico ostendant4--,de ,beneficiis1 ,l4 vii4 c4 #i4 ,i see silken 7,seric7 garments1 if they can be called garments1 which cannot afford any protection either for the body or for shame3 on taking which a woman will scarce with a clear conscience deny1 that she is naked4 ,these are sent for at an enormous price from nations1 to which our commerce has not yet extended1 in order that our matrons may display their persons to the public no less than to adulterers in their chamber6--,yates's ,translation4 ,the ,seres must be supposed to have dwelt somewhere in the centre of ,asia4 ,perhaps those geographers who represent ,little ,bucharia as their country#cb1 are nearest the truth1 and thus far neither ,greeks nor ,romans had penetrated4 ,silk was brought to them 8from nations1 to which even their commerce had not yet extended40 ,hence their inaccurate ideas respecting its origin#cc4 #cb ,the position of ,serica is discussed by ,latreille in his paper hereafter cited4 ,see also ,mannert4 iv4 #f4 #f1 #g4 ,brotier1 ,mm4 de l',acad4 des ,inscrip4 tom4 #df4 ,john ,reinhold ,forster 7,de ,bysso1 p4 #bj1 #ba47 thinks that ,little ,bucharia was certainly the ancient ,serica4 ,sir ,john ,barrow 7,travels in ,china1 p4 #dce-dch47 thinks the ,seres were not the ,chinese4 #cc ,the first author who speaks of the ,seres as a distinct nation1 is ,mela1 iii4 #g4 ,he describes them as a very honest people1 who brought what they had to sell1 laid it down and went away1 and then returned for the price of it4 ,the same account is given by ,eustathius1 on ,dyonisius1 l4 #geb4 p4 #bdb1 ,bernhardy4 ,,seneca1 ,,the ,,tragedian4 ,nec ,moni distinguit acu1 ,qu ,phbeis subditus ,euris ,legit ,eois ,ser arboribus4 ,herc4 tus1 #ffd4 ,nor with ,monian needle marks the web1 ,gather'd by ,eastern ,seres from the trees4 ,seres1 illustrious for their fleece4 ,thyestes1 #cgh4 ,remove1 ye maids1 the vests1 whose tissue glares ,with purple and with gold2 far be the red ,of ,tyrian murex1 and the shining thread1 ,which furthest ,seres gather from the boughs4 ,hyppolitus1 #chf4 7,phdra loquitur47 ,at a very early period the art of dyeing had been carried to a very great degree of perfection in ,phnicia4 ,the method of dyeing woollen cloths purple was1 it is said1 first discovered at ,tyre4 ,this color1 the most celebrated among the ancients1 appears to have been brought to a degree of excellence1 of which we can form but a very faint idea3 8,in oldest times1 when kings and hardy chiefs ,in bleating sheep-folds met1 for purest wool ,phnicia's hilly tracts were most renown'd1 ,and fertile ,syria's and ,juda's land1 ,hermon1 and ,seir1 and ,hebron's brooky sides1 ,twice with the murex1 crimson hue1 they ting'd ,the shining fleeces--hence their gorgeous wealth2 ,and hence arose the walls of ancient ,tyre#cd40 #cd ,old ,tyre was besieged by ,nebuchadnezzar in the second year after the destruction of ,jerusalem1 or #ehd ,b4 ,c4 ,,lucan4 ,candida ,sidonio perlucent pectora filo1 ,quod ,nilotis acus percussum pectine ,serum ,solvit1 et extenso laxavit stamina velo4 ,l4 x4 #ada4 ,her snowy breast shines through ,sidonian threads1 ,first by the comb of distant ,seres struck1 ,divided then by ,egypt's skilful toil1 ,and with embroidery transparent made4 ,the poet is describing the dress of ,cleopatra4 ,he supposes her to have worn over her breast a piece of silk1 woven by the ,seres1 imported through ,sidon into ,egypt1 and then embroidered4 ,by the last process1 in which the ,egyptians greatly excelled1 the threads were in part separated1 so as to exhibit the appearance of lace1 and to allow the white breast of the queen to be visible through the texture4 ,amidst the braidings of her flowing hair1 ,the spoils of orient rocks and shells appear3 ,like midnight stars1 ten thousand diamonds deck ,the comely rising of her graceful neck2 ,of wondrous work1 a thin transparent lawn ,o'er each soft breast in decency was drawn1 ,where still by turns the parting threads withdrew1 ,and all the panting bosom rose to view4 ,her robe1 her every part1 her air confess ,the power of female skill exhausted in her dress4 ,pharsalia1 x4 ,in glowing purple rich the coverings lie1 ,twice had they drunk the noblest ,tyrian dye ,others1 as ,pharian artists have the skill ,to mix the party-color'd web at will1 ,with winding trails of various silks were made1 ,whose branching gold set off the rich brocade4 ,ibid4 ,with this description we compare that of ,seneca1 which represents silk as embroidered in ,asia ,minor1 with the 8,monian needle40 ,,pliny speaks copiously and repeatedly of the manufacture of silk4 ,nevertheless we learn from him scarce anything1 which we did not know from the earlier authorities4 ,his accounts are taken from ,aristotle1 from ,varro1 and probably also from persons who accompanied the ,parthian expeditions1 or who engaged in the trade with inner ,asia4 ,but according to his usual manner1 when he speaks of what he has not himself seen1 he confounds accounts from different witnesses1 which are inconsistent with one another4 ,he asserts that the bombyx was a native of ,cos2 but it is not probable that the women of that island would1 in such case1 have recourse to the laborious operation of converting foreign finished goods into threads for their own weaving4 ,it is1 therefore1 only reasonable to suppose that whatever manufacture was carried on from the raw material1 was1 like that of ,tyre or ,berytus1 composed of unwrought silk imported from the ,east4 ,it is mentioned both by ,theophanes and ,zonares1 the ,byzantine historians1 that before silk-worms were brought to ,constantinople in the middle of the sixth century1 no person in that capital knew that silk was produced by a worm2 a tolerably strong evidence that none were reared so near to ,constantinople as ,cos4 ,pliny's account of the ,coan bombyx is evidently a cloud of fable and absurdity1 in which1 however1 we may discern a few lines of truth1 probably derived from the accounts of the silk-worm of the ,seres4 ,,josephus says1 that the emperors ,titus and ,vespasian wore silk dresses#ce1 when they celebrated at ,rome their triumph over the ,jews4 #ce ,de ,bello ,jud4 vii4 #e4 #d4 ,,saint ,,john4 ,silk 77 occurs but once in the ,new ,testament1 ,rev4 xviii4 #ab4 ,it is here mentioned in a curious enumeration of all the most valuable articles of foreign traffic4 ,,silius ,,italicus4 ,seres lanigeris repetebant vellera lucis4 ,punica4 vi4 #d4 ,seres took fleeces from the woolly groves4 ,munera rubri ,prterea ,ponti1 depexaque vellera ramis1 ,femineus labor4 ,ib4 xiv4 #ffd4 ,the produce of the ,erythran seas1 ,and fleeces comb'd by women from the trees#cf4 ,videre ,eoi 7monstrum admirabile67 ,seres ,lanigeros cinere ,ausonio canescere lucos4 ,ib4 xvii4 #eie1 #eif4 ,the ,seres' woolly groves1 ,o wondrous sight6 ,in the far ,east1 were with ,italian ashes white4 #cf ,see latter part of ,chapter viii4 ,part ,first4 ,in the last passage ,silius is describing the effects of the recent eruption of ,mount ,vesuvius1 ,a4 ,d4 #gi4 ,that its ashes should reach the country of the ,seres1 whether it was in ,persia or ,china1 would indeed have been 8,monstrum admirabile60 ,,statius4 ,seric 7i4 e4 silken7 palls4 ,sylv1 iii4 #d4 #hi4 ,,plutarch dissuades the virtuous and prudent wife from wearing silk#cg4 ,he mentions1 that webs of silk and fine linen were at the same time thin and compact or close#ch4 #cg ,conjugailia ,prcepta1 tom4 vi4 p4 #eej4 ed4 ,reiske4 #ch ,de ,pythi ,orac4 c4 iv4 p4 #eeg4 ,reiske4 ,,juvenal speaks of women1 ,quarum ,delicias et panniculus bombycinus urit4 ,sat4 vi4 #bei4 ,whose beauty e'en a silken veil o'erheats4 ,,martial4 ,nec vaga tam tenui discursat aranea tela1 ,tam leve nec bombyx pendulus urget opus4 ,l4 viii4 #cc4 ,the spider traces not so thin a line1 ,nor does the pendent silk-worm spin so fine4 ,fmineum lucet sic per bombycina corpus1 ,calculus in nitida sic numeratur aqua4 ,l4 viii4 #fh4 ,thus through her silk a lady's body looks1 ,thus count we pebbles in the sparkling brooks4 ,de ,pallatinis domin quod ,serica prelis4 ,l4 xi4 #i4 ,here ,martial alludes to the employment of presses 7prela7 for preserving the garments of silk and other precious materials1 belonging to the ,empress1 in the same way1 in which we now use presses to keep table-linen4 ,he says to a lady 7,l4 ix4 #ch471 ,nec dentes aliter1 quam ,serica1 nocte reponas4 ,your teeth at night1 like silks1 you lay aside4 ,in another passage 7,l4 xi4 #bg47 he speaks of silken goods 7,serica7 as procurable in the ,vicus ,tuscus at ,rome3 and lastly in ,l4 xiv4 ,ep4 #bd1 he mentions ribbons or fillets of silk as used for adorning the hair4 ,tenuia ne madidi violent bombycina crines1 ,figat acus tortas1 sustineatque comas4 ,lest your moist hair defile the ribbons thin1 ,twist it in knots1 and fix it with a pin4 ,,pausanias1 a native of ,asia ,minor1 and an inquisitive traveller in the second century1 gives the following distinct account of ,sericum according to the ideas received among the ,greeks in his time4 ,the threads from which the ,seres make webs1 are not the produce of bark1 but are obtained in the following manner4 ,there is an animal in that country1 which the ,greeks call ,ser1 but which they call by some other name4 ,its size is twice that of the largest beetle4 ,in other respects it resembles the spiders1 which weave under the trees4 ,it has also the same number of feet as the spider1 namely1 eight#ci4 ,in order to breed these creatures1 the ,seres have houses adapted both for summer and winter4 ,the produce of the animal is a fine thread twisted about its legs4 ,the ,seres feed it four years on 8panicum40 ,in the fifth year they give it green reed1 of which it is so fond as to eat of it until it bursts1 and after this the greatest part of the thread is found within its body#dj4 #ci ,this does not apply to the silk-worm1 which has sixteen legs1 in pairs3 six proper legs before1 and ten holders behind4 7,see ,figure #a4 ,plate iii47 #dj ,l4 vi4 #bf4 p4 #abe4 ed4 ,siebel4 ,the most interesting circumstance1 mentioned by ,pausanias1 is the breeding of the silk-worms within doors in houses adapted both for summer and winter4 ,there seems no reason to doubt the truth of this fact2 and1 if admitted1 it proves1 that their country1 the ,serica of the ancients1 lay so far ,north1 or was so elevated1 as to have a great difference of temperature in summer and in winter4 ,it is remarkable1 that in ,china the worms are now reared in small houses1 and this practice has long prevailed in that country#da4 #da ,barrow's ,travels in ,china1 p4 #dcg1 c4 ,rsum des ,traits ,chinois1 c4 traduit par ,julien1 p4 #gj-gb4 #gg-hj4 ,the practice is here shown to have prevailed as early as the fifth century ,b4 ,c4 ,,galen recommends silk thread for tying blood-vessels in surgical operations1 observing that the opulent women in many parts of the ,roman empire possessed such thread1 especially in the great cities#db4 ,he also mentions cloths of silk and gold in his treatise1 c4 #i4 7,hippocratis et ,galeni ,opp4 ed4 ,chartier1 tom4 vi4 p4 #ecc473 #db ,methodus ,medendi1 l4 xiii4 c4 #bb4 8,of this kind are the shawls interwoven with gold1 the materials of which are brought from afar1 and which are called ,seric or silk40 ,,clemens ,,alexandrinus1 dissuading the ,christian convert from luxury in dress1 thus speaks3 1 1 1 1 1 4 ' 1 4--,pdag4 ii4 #aj4 ,but1 if it is necessary to accommodate ourselves to the women1 let us concede to them the use of cloths1 which are a little softer1 only refusing that degree of fineness1 which would imply folly1 and such webs as are excessively labored and intricate2 bidding farewell to gold thread1 and to the ,indian ,seres1 and that industrious bombyx1 which is first a worm1 then puts on the appearance of a hairy caterpillar1 and hence passes1 in the third place1 into a ,bombylius1 or1 as some call it1 a ,necydalus2 and out of which is produced a long thread1 in the same manner as the thread of the spider4 --,yates's ,translation4 ,the use of the epithet 8,indian0 in this passage may be accounted for from the circumstance1 that in the time of the writer silken goods were brought to ,alexandria and other cities of ,egypt from ,india4 ,clemens has evidently borrowed this description from ,aristotle4 ,,second ,,century4 ,,tertullian4 thus describes the ,bombyx3 ,vermiculi genus est1 qui per arem liquando aranearum horoscopis idoneas sedes tendit1 dehinc devorat1 mox alvo reddere2 proinde si necaveris1 animata jam stamina volves4 ,it is a kind of worm1 which extends abodes like the dials of spiders by floating them through the air4 ,it then devours them so as to restore them to its stomach4 ,therefore1 if you kill it1 you will roll living threads4 7,see chap4 ix47 ,in the same treatise 7,de ,pallio1 c4 #d47 we find the following notice3 ,such as ,hercules was in the silk of ,omphale4 ,soon after1 the same author1 speaking of ,alexander the ,great1 says1 ,vicerat ,medicam gentem1 et victus est ,medic veste3----pectus squamarum signaculis disculptum1 textu pellucido tegendo1 nudavit3 et anhelum adhuc ab opere belli1 ut mollius1 ventilante serico extinxit4 ,non erat satis animi tumens ,macedo1 ni illum etiam vestis inflatior delectsset4 ,he had conquered the ,medes1 and was conquered by a ,median garment4 ,when his breast exhibited the sculptured resemblances of scales1 he covered it with a pellucid texture1 which rather laid it bare2 panting from the work of war1 he cooled and mollified it by the use of silk1 exposing it to the wind4 ,it was not sufficient for the ,macedonian to have a tumid mind2 he required to be delighted also with an inflated garment4 ,he afterwards says of a philosopher1 ,he went wearing a garment of silk1 and sandals of brass4 ,again he says of a low character1 8,she exposes her silk to the wind40 ,in his treatise on ,female ,attire he mentions silk in relation to ,milesian wool1 and he concludes that treatise in the following terms3 ,manus lanis occupate1 pedes domi figite1 et plus quam in auro placebitis4 ,vestite vos serico probitatis1 byssino sanctitatis1 purpur pudiciti4 ,employ your hands with wool2 keep your feet at home4 ,thus will you please more than if you were in gold4 ,clothe yourselves with the silk of probity1 with the fine linen of sanctity1 and with the purple of modesty4 ,lastly1 this author says 7,adv4 ,marcionem1 l4 i4 p4 #cgb471 ,imitare1 si potes1 apis dificia1 formic stabula1 aranei retia1 bombycis stamina4 ,imitate1 if thou canst1 the constructions of the bee1 the retreats of the ant1 the nets of the spider1 the threads of the silk-worm4 ,,apuleius4 ,prodeunt1 mitellis1 et crocotis1 et carbasinis1 et bombycinis injecti4 99 99 99 ,deamque1 serico contectam amiculo1 mihi gerendam imponunt4 ,metamorphoseon1 l4 viii4 p4 #egi1 #ehj4 ed4 ,oudendorpii4 ,they came forward1 wearing ribbons1 and cloths of a saffron color1 of cotton1 and of silk1 loosely thrown over them4 99 99 99 ,and they place on me the ,goddess covered with a small silken scarf1 to be carried by me4 ,hic incinctus baltheo militem gerebat2 illum succinctum chlamyde1 copides et venabula venatorem fecerant2 alius soccis obauratis1 indutus serica veste1 mundoque pretioso1 et adtextis capite crinibus1 incessu perfluo feminam mentiebatur4 ,ibid4 l4 xi4 p4 #gfi4 ,one performed the part of a soldier1 girt with a sword2 another had his chlamys tucked up by a belt1 and carried scimitars and hunting-poles1 as if engaged in the chace2 another1 wearing gilt slippers1 a silken tunic1 precious ornaments1 and artificial hair1 by his flowing attire represented a woman4 ,,ulpian4 ,vossius1 in his ,etymologicum ,lingu ,latin1 in the learned and copious article ,,sericum1 says1 8,inter sericum et bombycinum discrimen ponit ,ulpianus1 l4 xxiii4 de aur4 arg4 leg4 #8,vestimentorum sunt omnia lanea1 lineaque1 vel serica1 vel bombycina4'0 ,,julius ,,pollux4 ,the ,bombyces are worms1 which emit from themselves threads1 like the spider4 ,some say1 that the ,seres collect their webs from animals of this kind4 ,l4 vii4 #gf4 p4 #gda4--,khn4 ,,justin evidently refers to the use of silken garments in his account of the customs of the ,parthians1 where he says1 ,they formerly dressed after their own fashion4 ,after they became rich1 they adopted the pellucid and flowing garments of the ,medes4 ,l4 xli4 c4 #b4 ,all doubt1 whether the transparent garments1 mentioned by ,justin1 were of silk1 must be removed by the authority of ,procopius1 from whom we shall hereafter cite ample and important testimony in reference to the time when he lived1 and who in the two following passages expressly states1 that the webs1 called by the ,greeks in his time ,seric1 were more anciently denominated ,median4 ,among the valuable and curious effects of the emperor ,commodus1 which after his death 7,a4 ,d4 #aib47 were sold by his successor ,pertinax1 was a garment with a woof of silk1 of a bright yellow color1 the appearance of which was more beautiful than if the material had been interwoven with threads of gold#dc4 #dc ,vestis subtegmine serico1 aureis filis insignior4--,jul4 ,capitolini ,pertinax1 c4 #h4 in ,scrip4 ,hist4 ,august4 ,,third ,,century4 ,the authorities now quoted supply evidence respecting the use of silk among the ,greeks and ,romans down to the end of the second century4 ,it is rarely mentioned by any writer belonging to the following century#dd2 so far as we have discovered1 only by the three historians now to be quoted1 by ,cyprian1 and by ,solinus4 ,but we have from these historians some remarkable accounts of the regard paid to it by the emperors ,heliogabalus1 ,alexander ,severus1 ,aurelian1 ,claudius ,,ii41 ,tacitus1 and ,carinus1 all of whom reigned in the third century4 #dd ,mannert 7,geogr4 iv4 #f4 #g4 p4 #eag47 attributes the excessive dearness of silk in the third century to the victories of the ,persians1 which at that time cut off all direct communication between ,serica and the western world4 ,,lius ,,lampridius says 7c4 #bf471 that the profligate and effeminate emperor ,heliogabalus was the first ,roman1 who wore cloth made wholly of silk1 the silk having been formerly combined with other less valuable materials1 and1 in consequence of his example1 the custom of wearing silk soon became general among the wealthy citizens of ,rome4 ,he mentions 7c4 #cc7 among the innumerable extravagances of this emperor1 that he had prepared a silken rope of purple and scarlet colors to hang himself with4 ,of the emperor ,alexander ,severus he says 7c4 #dj71 that he himself had few garments of silk1 that he never wore a tunic made wholly of silk1 and that he never gave away cloth made of silk mixed with less valuable materials4 ,the following is the testimony of ,flavius ,vopiscus in his life of the emperor ,aurelian4 ,aurelian neither had himself in his wardrobe a garment wholly of silk1 nor gave one to be worn by another4 ,when his own wife begged him to allow her to have a single shawl of purple silk1 he replied1 ,far be it from us to permit thread to be reckoned worth its weight in gold4 ,for a pound of gold was then the price of a pound of silk4 c4 #de4 ,although the above mentioned restrictions in the use of silk may be partly accounted for from the usual severity of ,aurelian's character1 yet the facts here stated abundantly show the rarity and high value of this material in that age4 ,flavius ,vopiscus further states1 that the emperor ,tacitus made it unlawful for men to wear silk unmixed with cheaper materials4 ,carinus1 on the other hand1 made presents of silken garments1 as well as of gold and silver1 to ,greek artificers1 and to wrestlers1 players1 and musicians4 ,,trebellius ,,pollio1 in his life of ,claudius ,,ii4 7c4 #ad and #ag471 twice mentions white garments of silk mixed with cheaper materials1 which were destined for that emperor4 ,,cyprian1 ,bishop of ,carthage in the third century1 inveighs in the following terms against the use of silk3 ,tu licet indumenta peregrina et vestes sericas induas1 nuda es4 ,auro te licet et margaritis gemmisque condecores1 sine ,christi decore deformis es4 ,de ,lapsis1 p4 #ace4 ed4 ,fell4 ,although thou shouldest put on a tunic of foreign silk1 thou art naked2 although thou shouldest beautify thyself with gold1 and pearls1 and gems1 without the beauty of ,christ thou art unadorned4 ,also in his treatise on the dress of ,virgins he says1 ,sericum et purpuram indut1 ,christum induere non possunt3 auro et margaritis et monilibus adornat1 ornamenta cordis et pectoris perdiderunt4 ,those who put on silk and purple1 cannot put on ,christ3 women1 adorned with gold and pearls and necklaces1 have lost the ornaments of the heart and of the breast4 ,in the same place he gives us a translation of the well-known passage of ,isaiah enumerating the luxuries of female attire among the ,jews3 8,in that day the ,lord will take away the bravery of their tinkling ornaments about their feet1 and their cauls1 and their round tires like the moon1 the chains1 and the bracelets1 and the mufflers1 the bonnets1 and the ornaments of the legs1 and the head-bands1 and the tablets1 and the ear-rings1 the rings1 and nose-jewels1 the changeable suits of apparel1 and the mantles1 and the wimples1 and the crisping pins1 the glasses1 and the fine linen1 and the hoods1 and the veils40 ,isaiah in4 #ah-bc4 ,,solinus1 ,primos hominum ,seres cognoscimus1 qui1 aquarum aspergine inundatis frondibus1 vellera arborum adminiculo depectunt liquoris1 et lanuginis teneram subtilitatem humore domant ad obsequium4 ,hoc illud est sericum1 in quo ostentare potius corpora qum vestire1 prim feminis1 nunc etiam viris persuasit luxuri libido4 ,cap4 #a4 ,the ,seres first1 having inundated the foliage with aspersions of water1 combed down fleeces from trees by the aid of a fluid1 and subdued to their purposes the tender and subtile down by the use of moisture4 ,the substance so prepared is silk2 that material in which at first women1 but now even men1 have been persuaded by the eagerness of luxury rather to display their bodies1 than to clothe them4 ,,ammianus ,,marcellinus4 ,this historian describes the ,seres as 8a quiet and inoffensive people who1 avoiding all quarrels with their neighbors1 are exempt from the distresses and alarms of war1 and not being under the necessity of using offensive arms1 do not even know their use1 and occupy a fertile country under a delicious and healthy climate4 ,he represents them as passing their happy life in the most perfect tranquillity and the most delicious repose amidst shady thickets refreshed by pleasant zephyrs1 and where the soil furnishes so soft a wool1 that after having been sprinkled with water and combed1 it forms cloths resembling silk40 ,marcellinus proceeds to describe the ,seres as being content with their own felicitous condition1 and so reserved in their intercourse with the rest of mankind1 that when foreigners venture within their boundaries for wrought and unwrought silk1 and other valuable articles1 they consider the price offered in silence1 and transact their business without exchanging a word2 a mode of traffic which is still practised in some eastern countries4 ,macpherson1 in the ,annals of ,commerce1 a very valuable work1 thinks that according to all appearances1 the ,seres were themselves the authors of this story1 in order to make strangers believe that their country enjoyed all these benefits by the peculiar blessing of heaven1 and that no other nation could participate in them4 ,the remarks of ,solinus and ,ammianus conspire to show1 how much more common silk had become about the end of the third century1 being then worn1 at least with a warp of cheaper materials1 by men as well as by women1 and not being confined to the noble and the wealthy4 ,these authors likewise dilate upon the use of showers of water to detach silk from the trees on which it was found4 ,according to ,pliny and ,solinus1 water was also employed after the silk was gathered from the trees#de3 and probably the fact was so4 ,silk1 as it comes from the worm1 contains a strong gum1 which would be dissolved by the showers of water dashed against the trees1 and thus the cocoons1 being loosened from the leaves and twigs1 would be easily collected4 ,in the subsequent processes1 water would be further useful in enabling the women to spin the silk or to wind it upon bobbins4 #de 8,the remaining shores are occupied by savage nations1 as the ,melanchlni and ,coraxi1 ,dioscurias1 a ,city of the ,colchians1 near the river ,anthemus1 being now deserted1 although formerly so illustrious1 that ,timosthenes has recorded that three hundred nations used to resort to it speaking different languages2 and that business was afterwards transacted on our part through the medium of one hundred and thirty interpreters40 ,it may be observed that in this use of water art only follows nature4 ,when the moth is ready to leave its cell1 it always softens the extremity of it by emitting a drop of fluid1 and thus easily obtains for itself a passage4 ,in the third volume of the ,transactions of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society 7p4 #edc471 ,colonel ,sykes gives the following account of the process by which the moth of the ,kolisurra silk-worm liberates itself from confinement4 8,it discharges from its mouth a liquor1 which dissolves or loosens that part of the cocoon adjoining to the cord which attaches it to the branch1 causing a hole1 and admitting of the passage of the moth4 ,the solvent property of this liquid is very remarkable2 for that part of the cocoon1 against which it is directed1 although previously as hard as a piece of wood1 becomes soft and pervious as wetted brown paper40 ,in the seventh volume of the ,linnan ,transactions1 is an account by ,dr4 ,roxburgh of the ,tusseh silk-worm4 ,both species are natives of ,bengal4 ,the cocoons require to be immersed in cold water before the silk can be obtained from them4 ,in the latter species it is too delicate to be wound from the cocoons1 and is therefore spun like cotton4 ,thus manufactured it is so durable1 that the life of one person is seldom sufficient to wear out a garment made of it1 and the same piece descends from mother to daughter4 7,see ,chap4 ,,viii4 of this ,part47 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,silk ,,manufacture ,,from ,,the ,,third ,,to ,,the ,,sixth ,,century4 ,,spinning1 ,,dyeing1 ,,and ,,weaving4--,,high ,,degree ,,of ,,excellence ,,attained ,,in ,,these ,,arts4 ,fourth century--,curious account of silk found in the ,edict of ,diocletian--,extravagance of the ,consul ,furius ,placidus--,transparent silk shifts--,ausonius describes silk as the produce of trees--,quintus ,aur ,symmachus1 and ,claudian's testimony of silk and golden textures--,their extraordinary beauty--,pisander's description--,periplus ,maris ,erythri--,dido of ,sidon4 ,mention of silk in the laws of ,manu--,rufus ,festus ,avinus--,silk shawls--,marciannus ,capella--,inscription by ,m4 ,n4 ,proculus1 silk manufacturer--,extraordinary spiders' webs--,bombyces compared to spiders--,wild silk-worms of ,tsouen--,kien and ,tiao-,kien--,m4 ,bertin's account--,further remarks on wild silk-worms4 ,christian authors of the fourth century--,arnobius--,gregorius ,nazienzenus--,basil--,illustration of the doctrine of the resurrection--,ambrose--,georgius ,pisida--,macarius--,jerome--,chrysostom --,heliodorus--,salmasius--,extraordinar y beauty of the silk and golden textures described by these authors--,their invectives against ,christians wearing silk4 ,mention of silk by ,christian authors in the fifth century--,prudentius--,palladius--,theod osian ,code--,appollinaris ,sidonius--,alcimus ,avitus4 ,sixth century--,boethius4 7,manufactures of ,tyre and ,sidon--,purple--,its great durability--,incredible value of purple stuffs found in the treasury of the ,king of ,persia47 ,,fourth ,,century4 ,some curious evidence respecting the use of silk1 both unmixed with linen and with the warp of linen1 or some inferior material1 is found in the ,,edict ,,of ,,diocletian1 which was published ,a4 ,d4 #cjc for the purpose of fixing a maximum of prices for all articles in common use throughout the ,roman ,empire#df4 ,the passage pertaining to our present subject1 is as follows3 ,sarcinatori in veste soubtili replicat7u7r 99 sex ,eidem apertur cum subsutura olosericr 99 quinquaginta ,eidem apertur cum subsutura su7b7seric 99 triginta 7,sub7sutur in veste grossiori 99 quattuor4 ,denarii#dg4 ,to the ,tailor for lining a fine vest #f ,to the same for an opening and an edging with silk #ej ,to the same for an opening and an edging with stuff made of a mixed tissue of silk and flax #cj ,for an edging on a coarser vest #d ,colonel ,leake's translation4 #df ,it was edited ,a4 ,d4 #ahbf1 by ,colonel ,leake1 as a sequel to his ,journal of a ,tour in ,asia ,minor1 and is also published in ,tr4 of the ,royal ,society of ,literature1 vol4 i4 p4 #aha4 #dg ,a ,roman coin of the value of about sixteen or seventeen cents1 called ,denarii from the letter ,x upon it2 which denoted ten4 ,this document proves1 in exact conformity with the passages quoted from ,solinus and ,ammianus1 that silk had come into general use at the commencement of the fourth century4 ,it is also manifest from this extract1 that silk was employed in giving to garments a greater proportion of intricacy and ornament than had been in use before4 ,the authors who make mention of silk in the fourth and following centuries are very numerous4 ,we shall first take the heathen authors1 and then the ,christian writers1 whose observations often have some moral application1 which gives them an additional interest4 ,the unknown author of the ,panegyric on the emperor ,constantine1 pronounced ,a4 ,d4 #cag1 thus mentions silk as characterizing oriental refinement4 ,facile est vincere timidos et imbelles1 quales amna ,grcia et delici ,orientis educunt1 vix leve pallium et sericos sinus vitando sole tolerantes4 ,it is easy to vanquish the timid and those unused to war1 the offspring of pleasant ,greece and the delightful ,east1 who1 whilst they avoid the heat of the sun1 can scarcely bear even a light shawl and folds of silk4 ,the testimony of the ,roman historian ,,flavius ,,vopiscus1 in reference to the practice of the emperor ,aurelian and the dearness of silk during his reign1 has already been produced4 ,this author1 in his life of the same emperor1 makes the following remarks on a display of silk which he had himself recently witnessed4 ,we have lately seen the ,consulate of ,furius ,placidus celebrated in the ,circus with so great eagerness for popularity1 that he seemed to give not prizes1 but patrimonies1 presenting tunics of linen and silk1 borders of linen1 and even horses1 to the great scandal of all good men4 ,the exact period here referred to is no doubt the ,consulship of ,placidus and ,romulus1 ,a4 ,d4 #cdc4 ,in the ,epistles of ,,alciphron 7i4 #ci47 ,myrrhine1 a courtesan1 loosens her girdle1 which probably fastened her upper garment or shawl4 ,her shift was silk1 and so transparent as to show the color of her skin4 ,,ausonius satirizes a rich man of mean extraction1 who nevertheless made lofty pretensions to nobility of birth1 pretending to be descended from ,mars1 ,romulus1 and ,remus1 and who therefore caused their images to be embossed upon his plate and woven in a silken shawl4--,epig4 #bf4 ,in the following line1 he alludes to the production of silk in the usual terms3 ,vellera depectit nemoralia vestifluus ,ser4 ,idyll4 #ab4 ,the ,ser remote1 in flowing garments drest1 ,combs down the fleeces1 which the trees invest4 ,,quintus ,,aur ,,symmachus4 ,this distinguished officer1 in a letter to the ,consul ,stilicho1 apologizes in the following terms for his delay in sending a contribution of ,holoseric pieces1 that is1 webs wholly made of silk1 to the public exhibitions4 ,others have deferred supplying the water for the theatre and the ,holoseric pieces1 so that ,i have examples in my favor4--,epist4 l4 iv4 #h4 ,in a letter to ,magnillus 7l4 v4 #bj47 he speaks of ,subseric pieces1 webs made only in part of silk1 as presents2 ,at your instigation the ,subseric pieces have been supplied1 which my men kept back after the price had been settled2 and likewise everything else pertaining to the prizes which were to be given4 ,,claudian mentions silk in numerous passages4 ,this poet1 in describing the consular robes of the two brothers ,probinus and ,olybrius 7,a4 ,d4 #cie471 represents the ,gabine ,cincture1 by which the toga was girt over the breast1 as made of silk4 ,in the following passage he represents the two brothers1 ,honorius and ,arcadius1 as dividing the empire of the world between them and receiving tributes of its productions from the most distant regions3 ,vestri juris erit1 quicquid complectitur axis4 ,vobis rubra dabunt pretiosas quora conchas1 ,indus ebur1 ramos ,panchaia1 vellera ,seres4 ,de ,,iii4 ,cons4 ,honorii1 l4 #bji-baa4 ,to you the world its various wealth shall send3 ,their precious shells the ,erythrean seas2 ,india its iv'ry1 ,araby its boughs1 ,the distant ,seres fleeces from the trees4 ,in a poem1 which immediately succeeds this in the order of time1 ,claudian describes a magnificent toga1 worn by ,honorius on being appointed a fourth time consul1 by saying1 that it received its color 7the ,tyrian purple7 from the ,phnicians2 its woof 7of silk forming stripes or figures7 from the ,seres2 and its weight 7produced by ,indian gems7 from the river ,hydaspes#dh4 ,again1 in his poem on the approaching marriage of ,honorius and ,maria1 he mentions yellow silk curtains 7l4 #baa47 as a decoration of the nuptial chamber4 #dh ,de ,,iv4 ,cons4 ,honorii1 i4 #fjj1 #fja4 ,again he says 7in ,eutrop4 l4 i4 v4 #bbe1 #bbf4 #cjd4 l4 ii4 v4 #ccg473 ,te grandibus ,india gemmis1 ,te foliis ,arabes ditent1 te vellere ,seres4 ,let ,india with her gems thy wealth increase1 ,the ,arabs with their leaves1 the ,seres with their fleece4 ,he also mentions with delight the use of gold in dress1 as well as of silk4 ,the following passage represents the manner in which ,proba1 a ,roman matron1 near the end of the fourth century1 expressed her affectionate congratulations on the elevation of her two sons to the ,consulship1 by preparing robes interwoven with gold for the ceremony of their installation4 ,with joy elated at this proud success1 ,their venerable mother now prepares ,the golden trabeas1 and the cinctures bright ,with ,seric fibres shorn from woolly trees3 ,her well-train'd thumb protracts the length'ning gold1 ,and makes the metal to the threads adhere4 ,in ,probini et ,olybrii ,consulatum1 l4 #agg-ahb4 ,from these verses we learn that ,proba had herself acquired the art of covering the thread with gold1 and that she then used her gold thread in the woof to form the stripes or other ornaments of the consular trabe4 ,these are afterwards called stiff togas 7tog rigentes1 l4 #bje471 on account of the rigidity imparted to them by the gold thread4 ,the same poet gives an elaborate description of a ,trabea which he supposes to have been woven by the ,goddess ,rome with the aid of ,minerva for the use of the ,consul ,stilicho4 ,five different scenes are said to have been woven in this admirable robe 7regentia dona1 graves auro trabeas71 and certain parts of them were wrought in gold#di4 #di ,in ,i4 ,cons4 ,stilichonis1 ,l4 ii4 #ccj-cei4 ,again1 ,claudian supposes ,thetis to have woven scarfs of gold and purple for her son ,achilles3 ,ipsa manu chlamydes ostro texebat et auro4 7,ep4 #ce47 ,the epigram in which this line occurs1 seems to imply that ,serena1 mother-in-law of the ,emperor ,honorius1 wove garments of the same kind for him4 ,maria1 the daughter of the above-mentioned ,stilicho1 was bestowed by him upon ,honorius1 but died shortly after1 about ,a4 ,d4 #djj4 ,in ,february1 #aedd1 the marble coffin1 containing her remains1 was discovered at ,rome4 ,in it were preserved a garment and a pall1 which1 on being burnt1 yielded #cf pounds of gold4 ,there were also found a great number of glass vessels1 jewels1 and ornaments of all kinds1 which ,stilicho had given as a dowry to his daughter#ej4 ,we may conclude1 that the garments discovered in the tomb of ,maria were woven by the hands of her mother ,serena1 since the epigram of ,claudian proves that she wove robes of a similar description for ,honorius1 and probably on the same occasion4 ,anastasius ,bibliothecarius says1 that when ,pope ,paschal was intent on finding the body of ,st4 ,ccilia1 having performed mass with a view to obtain the favor of a revelation on the subject1 he was directed ,a4 ,d4 #hba to a cemetery on the ,appian ,way near ,rome1 and there found the body enveloped in cloth of gold#ea4 ,although there is no reason to believe1 that the body found by ,paschal was the body of the saint pretended1 yet it may have been the body of a ,roman lady who had lived some centuries before1 and probably about the time of ,honorius and ,maria4 #ej ,surii ,comment4 ,rerum ,gest4 ab anno #aejj1 c4 #ea 8,aureis vestitum indumentis40 ,,de ,,vitis ,,rom4 ,pontificum ,mogunt4 #afjb1 p4 #bbb4 ,pisander1 who belonged to the same period 7#ijj ,b4 ,c47 with ,homer1 speaks of the ,lydians as wearing tunics adorned with gold4 ,lydus observes1 that the ,lydians were supplied with gold from the sands of the ,pactolus and the ,hermus#eb4 #eb ,de ,magistratibus ,rom4 ,l4 iii4 #fd4 ,virgil also represents the use of gold in weaving1 as if it had existed in ,trojan times4 ,one of the garments so adorned was manufactured by ,dido1 the ,sidonian1 one by ,andromache1 and another was in the possession of ,anchises#ec4 ,in all these instances the reference is to the habits of ,phnice1 ,lycia1 or other parts of ,asia4 #ec n4 iii4 #dhc42 iv4 #bfd42 viii4 #afg42 xi4 #ge4 ,he describes an ape ludicrously attired in a silk jacket2 and1 inveighing against the progress of luxury1 he speaks of some to whom even silk garments were a burthen4 ,in elaborate descriptions of the figured consular robes 7the ,trabe7 of ,honorius and ,stilicho1 he mentions the reins and other trappings of horses1 as being wrought in silk#ed4 #ed ,rubra ,serica1 ,de ,,vi4 ,cons4 ,honor4 ,i4 #egg4 ,serica ,frna4 ,in ,i4 ,cons4 ,stilichonis #a4 ii4 ,v4 #cej4 ,the frequent allusions to silk in the complimentary poems of ,claudian1 receive illustration from various imperial laws1 which were promulgated in the same century1 and in part by the very emperors to whom his flattery is addressed1 and which are preserved in the ,,code ,,of ,,justinian4 ,their object was not to encourage the silk manufacture1 but1 on a principle very opposite to that of modern times1 to make it an imperial monopoly4 ,the admiration excited by the splendor and elegance of silk attire was the ground1 on which it was forbidden that any individual of the male sex should wear even a silken border upon his tunic or pallium1 with the exception of the emperor1 his officers and servants4 ,to confine the enjoyment of these luxuries more entirely to the imperial family and court1 all private persons were strictly forbidden engaging in the manufacture1 gold and silken borders were to be made only in the imperial ,gyncea#ee4 #ee ,see the ,corpus ,juris ,civilis1 ,lugduni #afbg1 folio1 tom4 v4 ,codex ,justiniani1 l4 x4 tit4 vii4 p4 #aca4 #acd4 ,,the ,,periplus ,,maris ,,erythr,i4 ,in this important document on ancient geography and commerce1 we find repeated mention of silk in its raw state1 in that of thread1 and woven#ef4 ,these articles were conveyed down the ,indus to the coast of the ,erythrean ,sea4 ,they were also brought to the great mart of ,barygaza1 which was on the ,gulf of ,cambay near the modern ,surat1 and to the coast of ,lymirica1 which was still more remote4 ,the author of the ,periplus states1 that they were carried by land through ,bactria to ,barygaza from a great city called ,thina1 lying far towards the ,north in the interior of ,asia4 ,he of course refers to some part of ,serica4 ,it is remarkable1 that he makes no mention of silk as the native production of ,india4 #ef ,arriani ,opp41 vol4 ii4 ,blancardi1 pp4 #afd4 #agj4 #agc4 #agg4 ,silk is mentioned in two passages of the laws of ,manu1 viz4 ,,xi4 v4 #afh1 and ,,xii4 v4 #fd4 ,it is1 however1 observed by ,heeren1 who quotes passages of the ,ramayana that make mention of silk1 that garments of this material are there represented as worn only on festive occasions1 and that they were undoubtedly ,seric or ,chinese productions#eg4 ,indeed it appears that the cloth made from the thread of the native worms of ,hindostan1 although highly valued for strength and durability1 is not remarkable for fineness1 beauty1 or splendor4 #eg ,ideen ber die ,politik1 c4 der alten ,welt1 i4 #b4 pp4 #fdg4 #fdh4 #ffe-ffh4 #fgg4 #crd edition4 ,gttingen1 #ahae4 ,,rufus ,,festus ,,avienus4 ,this author1 adopting the common notion of his time1 supposes the ,seres to spin thread from fleeces which were produced upon the trees4 ,he also mentions silk shawls 7,serica pallia1 l4 #ajjh47 as worn by the female ,bacchantes of ,ionia in their processions in honor of ,bacchus2 and it is worthy of remark1 that they are not mentioned in the original passage of ,dionysius1 the author whom ,avienus translates1 so that we may reasonably infer1 that the use of them on these occasions was introduced between the time of ,dionysius 7about #cj ,b4 ,c47 and that of ,avienus 7,a4 ,d4 #djj74 ,,martianus ,,capella4 ,beyond these 7the ,anthropophagi7 are the ,seres1 who asperse their trees with water to obtain the down1 which produces silk4 ,l4 vi4 p4 #bbc4 ed4 ,grotii1 #aeii4 ,the following ,inscription is given in ,gruter1 ,tom4 iii4 p4 ,,dcxlv4 ,it was found at ,tivoli1 and expresses that ,m4 ,n4 ,proculus1 silk-manufacturer1 erected a monument to ,valeria ,chrysis1 his excellent and deserving wife4 ,d4 ,m4 ,,valeriae4 ,,chrysidi4 ,m4 ,,nvmivs4 ,,procvlvs4 ,,sericarivs4 ,,conjvgi4 ,,svae4 ,,optim4 ,,benem4 ,,fecit4 ,before proceeding to the ,christian writers of the #dth and following centuries we may now introduce the remarks of ,servius on the passage formerly quoted from ,virgil4 ,he is supposed to have written about ,a4 ,d4 #djj4 ,among the ,indians and ,seres there are on the trees certain worms1 called ,bombyces1 which draw out very fine threads after the manner of spiders2 and these threads constitute silk4 ,it will be seen hereafter1 that these 8,indian ,seres0 were the inhabitants of ,khotan in ,little ,bucharia4 ,the frequent comparison of ,bombyces to spiders by the ancients suggests the inquiry whether they employed the thread of any kind of spider to make cloth1 as was attempted in ,france by ,m4 ,bon4 ,the failure of his attempt is sufficient1 as it appears1 to show1 that the extensive manufacture of garments from this material must have been scarcely possible in ancient times4 ,it is also to be observed1 that the ancients1 when they compare the silk-worm to the spider1 refer to the spider's web1 whereas ,m4 ,bon1 not finding the web strong enough1 made his cloth from the thread with which the spider envelopes its eggs#eh4 #eh ,the most extraordinary account of a spider's web1 which we have ever seen1 is that given by ,lieutenant ,w4 ,smyth4 ,he says1 8,we saw here 7viz4 at ,pachiza1 on the river ,huayabamba in ,peru7 a gigantic spider's web suspended to the trees3 it was about #be feet in height1 and near #ej in length2 the threads were very strong1 and it had the empty sloughs of thousands of insects hanging on it4 ,it appeared to be the habitation of a great number of spiders of a larger size than we ever saw in ,england40 ,narrative of a ,journey from ,lima to ,para1 ,london1 #ahcf1 p4 #ada4 ,for some interesting notices of the great spider of ,brazil the reader is referred to ,caldcleugh's ,travels in ,south ,america1 ,london #ahbe1 vol4 i4 ch4 #b4 p4 #da2 and to the ,rev4 ,r4 ,walsh's ,notices of ,brazil1 ,london #ahcj1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cjj1 #cja4 ,mr4 ,caldcleugh 8assisted in liberating from a spider's net a bird of the size of a swallow1 quite exhausted with struggling1 and ready to fall a prey to its indefatigable enemies40 ,mr4 ,walsh had his light straw hat removed from his head by a similar web extending from tree to tree in an opening through which he had occasion to pass4 ,he wound upon a card several of the threads composing the web2 and he observes1 that1 as these spiders are gregarious1 the difficulties experienced by ,m4 ,bon from the ferocity of the solitary ,european spiders in killing and devouring one another1 would not exist if the attempt were made to obtain clothing from the former4 ,in the forests of ,java ,sir ,george ,staunton 8found webs of spiders1 woven with threads of so strong a texture as not easily to be divided without a cutting instrument40--,account of ,lord ,macartney's ,embassy to ,china1 ,london #agig1 vol4 i4 ch4 #g4 p4 #cjb4 7,see ,chap4 ,,ix47 ,but1 although we have no reason to believe1 that the web of any spider was anciently employed to make cloth1 yet these accounts may have referred to worms1 possibly varieties of the silk-worm1 which spun long threads floating in the air4 ,the common silk-worm spins and suspends itself by its thread1 long before it begins its cocoon4 ,it appears probable1 therefore1 that there may have been wild varieties of this creature1 or perhaps other species of the same genus1 which in the earlier stages of their existence spun threads long enough for use4 ,we ground this conjecture partly on the following passage from ,du ,halde's ,history of ,china#ei4 #ei ,vol4 ii4 p4 #cei1 #cfj1 #hvo4 edition1 ,london1 #agcf4 8,the province of ,chan-tong produces a particular sort of silk1 which is found in great quantities on the trees and in the fields4 ,it is spun and made into a stuff called ,kien-tcheou4 ,this silk is made by little insects that are much like caterpillars4 ,they do not spin an oval or round cocoon1 like the silk-worms1 but very long threads4 ,these threads1 as they are driven about by the winds1 hang upon the trees and bushes1 and are gathered to make a sort of silk1 which is coarser than that made of the silk spun in houses4 ,but these worms are wild1 and eat indifferently the leaves of mulberry and other trees4 ,those who do not understand this silk would take it for unbleached cloth1 or a coarse sort of drugget4 8,the worms1 which spin this silk1 are of two kinds3 the first1 much larger and blacker than the common silk-worms1 are called ,tsouen-kien2 the second1 being smaller1 are named ,tiao-kien4 ,the silk of the former is of a reddish gray1 that of the latter darker4 ,the stuff made of these materials is between both colors1 it is very close1 does not fret1 is very lasting1 washes like linen1 and1 when it is good1 receives no damage by spots1 even though oil were to be shed on it4 8,this stuff is much valued by the ,chinese1 and it is sometimes as dear as satin or the finest silks4 ,as the ,chinese are very skilful at counterfeiting1 they make a false sort of ,kien-tcheou with the waste of the ,tche-kiang silk1 which without due inspection might easily be taken for the genuine article40 ,this account affords a remarkable illustration of many of the expressions of the ancient writers1 such as 8,bombyx pendulus urget opus10 ,martial2 8,per aerem liquando aranearum horoscopis idoneas sedes tendit10 ,tertullian2 8,in aranearum morem tenuissima fila deducunt10 ,servius4 ,in further illustration of the subject1 and as tending to show that the ,kien-tcheou is manufactured from the thread of a silk-worm1 modified in its habits and perhaps in its organization by circumstances1 we shall now quote a few passages from a work having the following title3 8,china2 its costume1 arts1 manufactures1 c41 edited from the originals in the cabinet of ,m4 ,bertin1 with observations by ,m4 ,breton4 ,translated from the ,french4 ,london1 #ahab40 ,vol4 iv4 p4 #ee1 c4 8,the wild silk-worms are found in the hottest provinces of ,china1 especially near ,canton4 ,they live indifferently on all sorts of leaves1 particularly on those of the ash1 the oak1 and the fagara1 and spin a greyish and rarely white silk4 ,the coarse cloth manufactured from it is called ,kien-tcheou1 will bear washing1 and on that account persons of quality do not disdain to wear clothes of it4 ,with this silk also the strings of musical instruments are made1 because it is stronger and more sonorous4 8,entomologists treat but very superficially of the habits of the wild silk-worms1 while they dwell in minute detail on the method of rearing them in ,provence4 8,it is between the nineteenth and twenty-second day of their existence1 that they undertake the great work of spinning their cocoon4 ,they curve a leaf into a kind of cup1 and then form a cocoon as large and nearly as hard as a hen's egg6 ,this cocoon has one end open like a reversed funnel2 it is a passage for the butterfly1 which is to come out4 8,the oak-worms are slower in making their cocoon than those of the fagara and ash1 and they set about it differently4 ,instead of bending a single leaf1 they roll themselves in two or three and spin their cocoon4 ,it is larger1 but the silk is inferior in quality1 and of course not so valuable4 8,the cocoons of wild silk-worms are so strong and compact1 that the insects encounter great difficulty in extricating themselves1 and therefore remain inclosed from the end of the summer1 to the spring of the following year4 ,these butterflies1 unlike the domestic insect1 fly very well4--,the domestic silk-worm is but a variety of the wild species4 ,it is fed on the leaves of the mulberry tree40 7,see chap4 ,,viii47 ,the circumstance that the worms were sometimes fed with oak-leaves is mentioned in ,du ,halde's ,history of ,china1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cfc4 ,here then we have a justification of the ancients in asserting1 both that the silk-worms produced long threads and webs floating in the air like those of spiders1 and that they fed upon the leaves of the oak1 the ash1 and many other trees4 ,it may be recollected1 that ,pliny expressly mentions both the oak 7quercus7 and the ash 7fraxinus74 ,until very lately the use of silk among the ancients was investigated only by philologists4 ,within a few years ,m4 ,latreille1 an entomologist of the highest distinction1 has directed his attention to the subject and has examined particularly the above-cited passages of ,aristotle1 ,pliny1 and ,pausanias#fj4 ,he never supposes the ancient ,sericum to have been the produce of anything except the silk-worm4 ,but of this there are several varieties1 partly perhaps natural1 and partly the result of domestication4 ,he endeavors to explain some parts of ,pliny's description by showing their seeming correspondence with some of the practices actually observed by the ,orientals in the management of silk-worms4 #fj ,m4 ,latreille's paper is published in the ,annales des ,sciences ,naturelles1 tome xxiii4 pp4 #eh-hd4 ,an account of the wild silk-worms of ,china is to be found in the 8,mmoires concernant l',histoire1 les ,sciences1 les ,arts1 c41 des ,chinois10 compiled by the missionaries of ,peking#fa4 ,this account is principally derived from the information of ,father ,d',incarville1 one of the missionaries4 ,it coincides generally with the accounts already quoted from ,du ,halde and ,breton4 ,we extract the following particulars as conveying some further information3 #fa ,tome ii4 pp4 #egi-fja4 ,paris1 #aggg1 #dto4 ,this ,memoir is reprinted with abridgments as an ,appendix to ,stanislas ,julien's ,translation of the ,chinese ,treatise on the ,breeding of ,silk-worms1 ,paris1 #ahcg1 #hvo4 8,the ,chinese annals from the year #aej ,b4 ,c4 to ,a4 ,d4 #fch make frequent mention of the great quantity of silk produced by the wild worms1 and observe that their cocoons were as large as eggs or apricots40 ,the following passage is also deserving of attention3 8,le papillon de ces vers sauvages1 dit le ,pre d',incarville1 est ailes vitres40 ,this information1 if correct1 would prove that there was at least one kind of wild silk-worms in ,china1 which was a different species from the ,phalna ,mori2 for that has no transparent membranes in its wings1 and would not be likely to receive them in consequence of any change in its mode of life4 ,we now proceed to take the ,christian authors of the fourth and following centuries in the order of time4 ,,arnobius 7,a4 ,d4 #cjf47 thus speaks of the heathen gods3 ,they want the covering of a garment3 the ,tritonian virgin must spin a thread of extraordinary fineness1 and according to circumstances put on a tunic either of mail1 or silk#fb4 #fb ,adv4 ,gentes1 l4 iii4 p4 #ehj1 ed4 ,erasmi4 ,,gregorius ,,nazienzenus1 ,,cl41 ,a4 ,d4 #cgj4 ,the following passage contains1 we believe1 the earliest allusion to the use of silk in the services of the ,christian ,church4 1 4 4 ,ad ,hellenium pro ,monachis ,carmen4 tom4 ii4 p4 #ajf4 ed4 ,par4 #afcj4 ,silver and gold some bring to ,god ,or the fine threads by ,seres spun3 ,others to ,christ themselves devote1 ,a chaste and holy sacrifice1 ,and make libations of their tears4 ,yates's ,translation4 ,,basil1 ,,cl41 ,a4 ,d4 #cgj4 ,although this celebrated author was a native of ,asia ,minor1 and had studied in ,syria and ,palestine1 he appears to have known the silk-worm only from books and by report4 ,his description of it in the following passage1 in which we first find the beautiful illustration of the doctrine of a resurrection from the change of the chrysalis1 is chiefly copied from ,aristotle's account as formerly quoted4 1 2 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 4--,hexahemeron1 p4 #gi4 ,a4 ,ed4 ,benedict4 ,what have you to say1 who disbelieve the assertion of the ,apostle ,paul concerning the change at the resurrection1 when you see many of the inhabitants of the air changing their forms8 ,consider1 for example1 the account of the horned worm of ,india1 which 7i4 e4 the silk-worm7 having first changed into a caterpillar 7eruca1 or veruca71 then in process of time becomes a cocoon 7bombylius1 or bombulio71 and does not continue even in this form1 but assumes light and expanded wings4 ,ye women1 who sit winding upon bobbins the produce of these animals1 namely the threads1 which the ,seres send to you for the manufacture of fine garments1 bear in mind the change of form in this creature2 derive from it a clear conception of the resurrection2 and discredit not that transformation which ,paul announces to us all4--,yates's ,translation4 ,when ,st4 ,basil says of the new-born moth1 that 8it assumes light and expanded wings10 the beauty of the comparison in illustrating the ,christian doctrine of the resurrection is enhanced1 when we consider that in its wild state the moth flies very well1 although1 when domesticated1 its flight is weak and its wings small and shrivelled#fc3 but still more beautiful does the figure become1 if we suppose a reference to those larger and more splendid ,phaln which produce the coarser kinds of silk in ,india1 and probably in ,china also4 #fc ,the ,phalna ,atlas1 apparently a native of ,china1 measures eight inches across the wings from tip to tip4 ,basil is the first writer1 who distinctly mentions the change of the silk-worm from a ,chrysalis to a moth4 ,in his application of that fact he addresses himself to his countrywomen in ,asia ,minor1 and his language represents them sitting and winding on bobbins the raw silk obtained from the ,seres and designed to be afterwards woven into cloth4 ,between these two authors1 ,aristotle and ,basil1 we observe a difference of phraseology which appears deserving of notice4 ,while they both describe the women1 not as spinning the silk1 but as winding it on bobbins1 they designate the material so wound by two different names4 ,basil uses the term 1 which might be meant to imply that the silk came from the ,seres in skeins as it comes to us from ,china3 ,aristotle1 on the contrary1 uses the term 1 which can only refer to the state of silk before it is wound into skeins4 ,as it might appear impossible to convey it in this state to ,cos1 we shall here insert from the authorities already quoted1 the ,chinese ,missionaries1 an account of the process by which the cocoons are prepared for winding1 and it will then be seen1 that the cocoons might have been transported to any part of the world4 8,to prepare the cocoons of the wild silk-worms1 the ,chinese cut the extremities of them with a pair of scissors4 ,they are then put into a canvass bag1 and immersed for an hour or more in a kettle of boiling lye1 which dissolves the gum4 ,when this is effected1 they are taken from the kettle2 pressed to expel the lye1 and then laid out to dry4 ,whilst they are still moist1 the chrysalises are extracted2 each cocoon is then turned inside out1 so as to make a sort of cowl4 ,it is necessary only1 to put them again into lukewarm water1 after which ten or twelve of them are capped one upon another like so many thimbles1 to insert a small distaff through them1 when the silk may be reeled off40 ,basil1 in one of his ,homilies1 7,opp4 tom4 ii4 p4 #ec4 #ee4 ed4 ,benedict47 inveighs against the ladies of ,csarea1 who employed themselves in weaving gold2 and he is no less indignant at their husbands who adorned even their horses with cloths of gold and scarlet as if they were bridegrooms4 ,the author of a ,treatise 8,de disciplin et bono pudiciti10 which is usually published with ,cyprian1 and which may be referred to the fourth or fifth century1 thus speaks 7,cypriani ,opera1 ed4 ,erasmi1 p4 #dii473 ,to weave gold in cloth is1 as it were1 to adopt an expensive method of spoiling it4 ,why do they interpose stiff metals between the delicate threads of the warp8 ,the same censure is implied in the following address of ,alcimus ,avitus to his sister4 ,non tibi gemmato posuere nonilia collo1 ,nec te contexit1 neto qu fulguratauro ,vestis1 ductilibus concludens fila talentis3 ,nec te ,sidonium bis coeti muricis ostrum ,induit1 aut rutilo perlucens purpura succo1 ,mollia vel tactu qu mittunt vellera ,seres3 ,nec tibi transfossis fixerunt auribus aurum4 ,no threaded gems have pressed thy sparkling neck3 ,no cloth1 with lines incased in ductile gold1 ,or twice with the ,sidonian murex dyed1 ,has glittered on thee3 thou hast never worn ,the fleeces soft which distant ,seres send3 ,nor are thy ears transfixed for pendent gold4 ,the effect of such exhortations as the preceding1 was to induce piously disposed persons to apply pieces of gold cloth to public and sacred1 instead of private purposes4 ,after this period we find continual instances of their use in the decoration of churches and in the robes of the priesthood4 ,,ambrose1 ,,cl4 ,a4 ,d4 #cgd4 ,seric vestes1 et auro intexta velamina1 quibus divitis corpus ambitur1 damna viventium1 non subsidia defunctorum sunt4--,de ,nabutho ,jezraelit1 cap4 i4 tom4 i4 p4 #eff4 ,ed4 ,bened4 ,silken garments1 and veils interwoven with gold1 with which the body of the rich man is encompassed1 are a loss to the living1 and no gain to the dead4 ,here we think it not out of place to introduce the account of the silk-worm by ,georgius ,pisida1 who flourished about ,a4 ,d4 #fdj1 although he lived at ,constantinople after the breeding of silk-worms had been introduced there4 ,according to him the silk-worm pines or moulders almost to nothing in its tomb1 and then returns to its former shape4 ,the verses are however deserving of attention for their elegance1 and for the repetition of ,basil's idea1 which ,ambrose has left out1 of the analogy between the restoration of the silk-worm and the resurrection of man4 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 ' 4 l4 #abfe-abhb4 ,what law persuades the ,seric worm to spin ,those shining threads1 which1 dyed with purple hue1 ,inflate1 yet check the pride of mighty men8 ,for1 whilst they blaze in grand attire1 the thought ,steals on1--,this splendid robe once cloth'd a worm3 ,type of our resurrection from the grave1 ,it dies within the tomb itself has spun1 ,that perishing abode1 which is at once ,its house and tomb2 in which it rots away1 ,till at the call of time it gladly leaves ,corruption1 and its ancient shape resumes4 ,a little remnant of its mould'ring flesh1 ,by processes unspeakable and dark1 ,restores the wonders of its earliest form4 ,yates's ,translation4 ,,macarius1 ,,cl41 ,a4 ,d4 #cgc4 ,this author gives us an additional proof 7,homil4 #ag1 #i17 that the use of silken clothing was characteristic of dissolute women4 ,,jerome1 ,,cl41 ,a4 ,d4 #cgh4 ,this great author mentions silk in numerous passages4 ,in his translation of ,ezekiel xxvii4 he has supposed silk 7sericum7 to be an article of ,syrian and ,phnician traffic as early as the time of that prophet4 ,in his beautiful and interesting ,epistle to ,lta on the ,education of her ,daughter 7,opp4 ,paris1 #aedf1 tom4 i4 p4 #bj4 ,c471 he says3 ,let her learn also to spin wool1 to hold the distaff1 to place the basket in her bosom1 to twirl the spindle1 to draw the threads with her thumb4 ,let her despise the webs of silk-worms1 the fleeces of the ,seres1 and gold beaten into threads4 ,let her prepare such garments as may dispel cold1 not expose the body naked1 even when it is clothed4 ,instead of gems and silk1 let her love the sacred books1 c4 ,because we do not use garments of silk1 we are reckoned monks2 because we are not drunken1 and do not convulse ourselves with laughter1 we are called restrained and sad3 if our tunic is not white1 we immediately hear the proverb1 ,he is an impostor and a ,greek4--,epist4 ad ,marcellum1 ,de grotatione ,blesill1 tom4 i4 p4 #aef1 ed4 ,erasmi1 #aebf4 ,you formerly went with naked feet2 now you not only use shoes1 but even ornamented ones4 ,you then wore a poor tunic and a black shirt under it1 dirty and pale1 and having your hand callous with labor2 now you go adorned with linen and silk1 and with vestments obtained from the ,atrebates and from ,laodicea4--,adv4 ,jovinianum1 l4 ii4 ,opp4 ed4 ,paris1 #aedf1 tom4 ii4 p4 #bi4 ,in the following he further condemns the practice of wrapping the bodies of the dead in cloth of gold3 ,why do you wrap your dead in garments of gold8 ,why does not ambition cease amidst wailings and tears8 ,cannot the bodies of the rich go to corruption except in silk8--,epist4 ,l4 ii4 ,you cannot but be offended yourself1 when you admire garments of silk and gold in others4--,epist4 ,l4 ii4 ,no4 #i1 p4 #ach1 ed4 ,par4 #afac1 #abmo4 ,,chrysostom1 ,,cl41 ,a4 ,d4 #cih4 2 4 ,comment4 in ,psalm #dh4 tom4 v4 p4 #eag4 ed4 ,ben4 ,does the rich man wear silken shawls8 ,his soul however is full of tatters4 1 4 7,quoted by ,vossius1 ,etym4 ,lat4 p4 #dff47 ,silken shawls are beautiful1 but the production of worms4 ,chrysostom also inveighs against the practice of embroidering shoes with silk thread1 observing that it was a shame even to wear it woven in shawls4 ,such is the change of circumstances1 that now even the poorest persons of both sexes1 if decently attired1 have silk in their shoes4 ,,heliodorus1 ,,cl41 ,a4 ,d4 #cij4 ,this author1 describing the ceremonies at the nuptials of ,theagenes and ,chariclea1 says1 8,the ambassadors of the ,seres came1 bringing the thread and webs of their spiders1 one of the webs dyed purple 7671 the other white40 thiopica1 lib4 x4 p4 #did4 ,commelini4 ,salmasius 7in ,tertullianum de ,pallio1 p4 #bdb47 quotes the following passage from an uncertain author4 1 1 1 4 ,the pleasure of the present life is like the ,indian worm1 which1 having involved itself in the leaf of the tree and having been satisfied with food1 chokes itself in the cocoon of its own thread4--,yates's ,translation4 ,this writer1 whoever he was1 appears to have had a correct idea of the manner in which the silk-worm wraps itself in a leaf of the tree1 on which it feeds1 and spins its tomb within#fd4 #fd ,in the ,royal ,museum of ,natural ,history at ,leyden are eight or ten cocoons of the ,phalna ,atlas from ,java4 ,they consist of a strong silk1 and are formed upon the leaves of a kind of ,ficus4 ,the first layer of the cocoon covers the whole of a leaf1 and receives the exact impress of its form4 ,then two or three other layers are distinctly perceptible4 ,two or three leaves are joined together to form the cocoon4 ,in regard to the looseness of the layers these cocoons do not correspond to ,m4 ,breton's description of the cocoons of the wild silk-worms of ,china1 which are very strong and compact1 and therefore more resemble those of the ,phalna ,paphia4 ,,fifth ,,century4 ,,prudentius1 ,,cl41 ,a4 ,d4 #dje4 ,the following sentence occurs in a speech of ,st4 ,lawrence at his martyrdom3 ,hunc1 qui superbit serico1 ,quem currus inflatum vehit2 ,hydrops aquosus lucido ,tendit veneno intrinsecus4 ,peristeph4 ,hymn4 ii4 l4 #bcg-bdj4 ,see him1 attir'd in silken pride1 ,inflated in his chariot ride2 ,the lucid poison works within1 ,dropsy distends his swollen skin4 ,in another ,hymn to the honor of ,st4 ,romanus we find the following lines3 ,aurum regestum nonne carni adquiritur8 ,inlusa vestis1 gemma1 bombyx1 purpura1 ,in carnis usum mille quruntur dolis4 ,peristeph4 ,hymn4 x4 ,to please the flesh a thousand arts contend3 ,the miser's heaps of gold1 the figur'd vest1 ,the gem1 the silk-worm1 and the purple dye1 ,by toil acquir'd1 promote no other end4 ,in the same ,hymn 7l4 #ajae47 ,prudentius describes a heathen priest sacrificing a bull1 and dressed in a silken toga which is held up by the ,gabine cincture 7,cinctu ,gabino ,sericam fultus togam74 ,perhaps1 however1 we ought here to understand that the cincture only1 not the whole toga1 was of silk4 ,it was used to fasten and support the toga by being drawn over the breast4 ,in two other passages this poet censures the progress of luxury in dress1 and especially when adopted by men4 ,sericaque in fractis fluitent ut pallia membris ,psychomachia1 l4 #cfe4 ,the silken scarfs float o'er their weaken'd limbs4 ,sed pudet esse viros3 qurunt vanissima quque ,qus niteant3 genuina leves ut robora solvant1 ,vellere non ovium1 sed ,eoo ex orbe petitis ,ramorum spoliis fluitantes sumere amictus1 ,gaudent1 et durum scutulis perfundere corpus4 ,additur ars1 ut fila herbis saturata recoctis ,inludant varias distincto stamine formas4 ,ut quque est lanugo fer mollissima tactu1 ,pectitur4 ,hunc videas lascivas prpete cursu ,venantem tunicas1 avium quoque versicolorum ,indumenta novis texentem plumea telis3 ,ilium pigmentis redolentibus1 et peregrino ,pulvere femineas spargentem turpitur auras4 ,hamartigenia1 l4 #bhf-bih4 ,they blush to be call'd men3 they seek to shine ,in ev'ry vainest garb4 ,their native strength ,to soften and impair1 they gaily choose ,a flowing scarf1 not made of wool from sheep1 ,but of those fleeces from the ,eastern world1 ,the spoil of trees4 ,their hardy frame they deck ,all o'er with tesselated spots3 and art ,is added1 that the threads1 twice dyed with herbs1 ,may sportively intwine their various hues ,and mimic forms1 within the yielding warp4 ,whatever creature wears the softest down1 ,they comb its fleece4 ,this man with headlong course ,hunts motley tunics which inflame desire1 ,invents new looms1 and weaves a feather'd vest1 ,which with the plumage of the birds compares3 ,that1 scented with cosmetics1 basely sheds ,effeminate foreign powder all around4 ,,palladius4 ,a work remains under the name of ,palladius on 8,the ,nations of ,india and the ,brachmans40 ,whether it is by the same ,palladius1 who wrote the ,historia ,lausiaca1 is disputed4 ,but1 as we see no reason to doubt1 that it may have been written as early as his time1 we introduce here the passages1 which have been found in it1 relating to the present subject4 ,the author represents the ,bramins as saying to ,alexander the ,great1 8,you envelope yourselves in soft clothing1 like the silk-worms40 7p4 #ag4 ed4 ,bissi47 ,it is also asserted1 that ,alexander did not pass the ,ganges1 but went as far as ,serica1 where the silk-worms produce raw-silk 7p4 #b474 ,in the ,london edition this tract is followed by one in ,latin1 bearing the name of ,st4 ,ambrose and entitled ,,de ,,moribus ,,brachmanorum4 ,it contains nearly the same matter with the preceding4 ,the writer professes to have obtained his information from 8,musus ,dolenorum ,episcopus10 meaning1 as it appears from the ,greek tract1 ,moses1 ,bishop of ,adule1 of whom he says1 ,sericam fer universam regionem peragravit3 in qu refert arbores esse1 qu non solum folia1 sed lanam quoque proferunt tenuissimam1 ex qu vestimenta con ficiuntur1 qu ,serica nuncupantur4 p4 #eh4 ,he travelled through nearly all the country of the ,seres1 in which1 he says1 that there are trees producing not only leaves1 but the finest wool1 from which are made the garments called ,serica4 ,these notices are not devoid of value as indicating what were the first steps to intercourse with the original silk country4 ,it may however be doubted1 whether the last account here quoted is a modification of the ideas previously current among the ,greeks and ,romans1 or whether it arose from the mistakes of ,moses himself1 or of other ,christian travellers into the interior of ,asia1 who confounded the production of silk with that of cotton4 ,,the ,,theodosian ,,code1 published ,a4 ,d4 #dch1 mentions silk 7sericam et metaxam7 in various passages4 ,,apollinaris ,,sidonius1 ,,cl41 ,a4 ,d4 #dgb4 ,describing the products of different countries1 this learned author says 7,carmen4 v4 l4 #db-ej71 ,fert ,assyrius gemmas1 ,ser vellera1 thura ,sabus4 ,th' ,assyrian brings his gems1 the ,ser ,his fleeces1 the ,sabean frankincense4 ,in a passage 7,carmen4 xv471 he mentions a pall1 ,cujus bis coctus aheno ,serica ,sidonius fucabat stamina murex4 ,the ,tyrian murex1 twice i' th' cauldron boil'd1 ,had dyed its silken threads4 ,the expression here used1 indicates that the silk thread was brought from the country of the ,seres to be dyed in ,phnice4 ,in ,horace we have already noticed the 8,co purpur40 ,a passage from the ,burgus ,pontii ,leontii 7,carmen4 xxii471 shows that the same article 7,serica fila7 was imported into ,gaul4 ,in the same author 7l4 ii4 ,epist4 ad ,serranum7 we meet with 8,sericatum toreuma40 ,the latter word probably denoted a carved sofa or couch4 ,the epithet 8sericatum0 may have referred to its silken cover4 ,the same author describes ,prince ,sigismer1 who was about to be married1 going in a splendid procession and thus clothed3 ,ipse medius incessit1 flammeus cocco1 rutilus auro1 lacteus serico4 ,l4 iv4 ,epist4 p4 #ajg4 ed4 ,elmenhorstii4 ,he himself marched in the midst1 his attire flaming with coccus1 glittering with gold1 and of milky whiteness with silk4 ,describing the heat of the weather1 he says3 ,one man perspires in cotton1 another in silk4 ,l4 ii4 ,epist4 #b4 ,lastly1 in the following lines he alludes to the practice of giving silk to the successful charioteers at the ,circensian games3 ,the ,emp'ror1 just as powerful1 ordains ,that silks with palms be given1 crowns with chains3 ,thus marks high merit1 and inferior praise ,in brilliant carpets to the rest conveys4 ,carmen4 xxiii4 l4 #dbc-dbg4 ,,alcimus ,,avitus1 ,,cl41 ,a4 ,d4 #dij4 ,describing the rich man in the parable of ,lazarus1 this author says3 ,ipse cothurnatus gemmis et fulgidus auro ,serica bis coctis mutabat tegmina blattis4 ,l4 iii4 #bbb4 ,in jewell'd buskins and a blaze of gold1 ,silk shawls1 or twice in scarlet dipt1 he wore4 ,avitus also mentions 8the soft fleeces sent by the ,seres40 ,,sixth ,,century4 ,,boethius1 ,,cl41 ,a4 ,d4 #eaj ,nor honey into wine they pour'd1 nor mix'd ,bright ,seric fleeces with the ,tyrian dye4 ,de ,consol4 ,philos4 ii4 ,the ,tyrians are chiefly known to us in commercial history for their skill in dyeing2 the ,tyrian purple formed one of the most general and principal articles of luxury in antiquity3 but dyeing could scarcely have existed without weaving1 and though we have no direct information respecting the ,tyrian and ,sidonian looms1 we possess several ancient references to their excellence1 the less suspicious because they are incidental4 ,homer1 for instance1 when ,hecuba1 on the recommendation of the heroic ,hector1 resolves to make a rich offering to ,minerva1 describes her as selecting one of ,sidonian manufacture as the finest which could be obtained4 ,the ,phrygian queen to her rich wardrobe went ,where treasured odors breathed a costly scent2 ,there lay the vestures of no vulgar art-- ,sidonian maids embroider'd every part1 ,whom from soft ,sidon youthful ,paris bore ,with ,helen1 touching on the ,tyrian shore4 ,here1 as the queen revolved with careful eyes ,the various textures and the various dyes1 ,she chose a veil that shone superior far1 ,and glow'd refulgent as the morning star4 ,iliad1 vi4 ,tyre appears to have been the only city of antiquity which made dyeing its chief occupation1 and the staple of its commerce4 ,there is little doubt that purple1 the sacred symbol of royal and sacerdotal dignity1 was a color discovered in that city2 and1 that it contributed to its opulence and grandeur4 ,it is related that a shepherd's dog1 instigated by hunger1 having broken a shell on the sea shore1 his mouth became stained with a color1 which excited the admiration of all who saw it1 and that the same color was afterwards applied with great success to the dyeing of wool4 ,according to some of the ancient writers1 this discovery is placed in the reign of ,phnix1 second ,king of ,tyre 7five hundred years before the ,christian era72 others fix it in that of ,minos1 who reigned #ici years earlier or1 #adci ,b4 ,c4 ,the honor of the invention of dyeing purple1 is however1 generally awarded to the ,tyrian ,hercules1 who presented his discovery to the king of ,phnicia2 and the latter was so jealous of the beauties of this new color1 that he forbade the use of it to all his subjects1 reserving it for the garments of royalty alone4 ,some authors relate the story differently3 ,hercules' dog having stained his mouth with a shell1 which he had broken on the seashore1 ,tysus1 a nymph of whom ,hercules was enamored1 was so charmed with the beauty of the color1 that she declared she would see her lover no more until he had brought garments dyed of the same4 ,hercules1 in order to gratify his mistress1 collected a great number of the shells1 and succeeded in staining a robe of the color she had demanded4 8,colored dresses10 says ,pliny#fe1 8were known in the time of ,homer 7#ijj ,b4 ,c471 from which the robes of triumph were borrowed40 ,purple habits are mentioned among the presents made to ,gideon1 by the ,israelites1 from the spoils of the kings of ,midan4 ,ovid1 in his description of the contest in weaving between ,minerva and ,arachne1 dwells not only on the beauty of the figures which the rivals wove1 but also mentions the delicacy of shading by which the various colors were made to harmonize together3 #fe ,plin4 viii4 #dh4 ,then both their mantles button'd to their breast1 ,their skilful fingers ply with willing haste1 ,and work with pleasure1 while they cheer the eye ,with glowing purple of the ,tyrian dye3 ,or justly intermixing shades with light1 ,their colorings insensibly unite ,as when a shower1 transpierced with sunny rays1 ,its mighty arch along the heaven displays2 ,from whence a thousand different colors rise ,whose fine transition cheats the clearest eyes2 ,so like the intermingled shading seems ,and only differs in the last extremes4 ,their threads of gold both artfully dispose1 ,and1 as each part in just proportion rose1 ,some antic fable in their work disclose4--,metam4 vi4 ,the ,tyrian purple was communicated by means of several species of univalve shell-fish4 ,pliny gives us an account of two kinds of shell-fish from which the purple was obtained4 ,the first of these was called buccinum1 the other purpura#ff4 ,a single drop of the liquid dye was obtained from a small vessel or sac1 in their throats1 to the amount of only one drop from each animal6 ,a certain quantity of the juice thus collected being heated with sea salt1 was allowed to ripen for three days1 after which it was diluted with five times its bulk of water1 kept at a moderate heat for six days more1 occasionally skimmed1 to separate the animal membranes1 and when thus clarified1 was applied directly as a dye to white wool1 previously prepared for this purpose1 by the action of lime-water1 or of a species of lichen called fucus4 ,two operations were requisite to communicate the finest ,tyrian purple2 the first consisted in plunging the wool into the juice of the purpura1 the second into that of the buccinum4 ,fifty drachms of wool required one hundred of the former liquor1 and two hundred of the latter4 ,sometimes a preliminary tint was given with cocus1 the kermes of the present day1 and the cloth received merely a finish from the precious animal juice4 ,the color appears to have been very durable2 for ,plutarch observes in his life of ,alexander#fg1 that1 at the taking of ,susa1 the ,greeks found in the royal treasury of ,darius a quantity of purple stuffs of the value of five thousand talents1 which still retained its beauty1 though it had lain there for one hundred and ninety years#fh4 #ff ,plin4 ,lib4 vi4 c4 #cf4 #fg ,plutarch1 chap4 #cf4 #fh ,the true value of the talent cannot well be ascertained1 but it is known that it was different among different nations4 ,the ,attic talent1 the weight1 contained #fj ,attic min1 or #fjjj ,attic drachm1 equal to #ef pounds1 #aa ounces1 ,english troy weight4 ,the mina being reckoned equal to #c #ds4 #g;d4 sterling1 or #ad #cc cents2 the talent was of the value of #aic #aes4 sterling1 about #hfa4 ,other computations make it #bbe sterling4 ,the ,romans had the great talent and the little talent2 the great talent is computed to be equal to #ii #fs4 #h;d4 sterling1 and the little talent to #ge sterling4 #b4 ,talent1 among the ,hebrews1 was also a gold coin1 the same with a shekel of gold2 called also stater1 and weighing only four drachmas4 ,but the ,hebrew talent of silver1 called cicar1 was equivalent to three thousand shekels1 or one hundred and thirteen pounds1 ten ounces1 and a fraction1 troy weight4--,arbuthnot4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,silk ,,manufacture ,,continued ,,from ,,the ,,introduction ,,of ,,silk-,,worms ,,into ,,europe1 ,a4,d4 #ecj1 ,,to ,,the ,,fourteenth ,,century4 ,a4 ,d4 #ecj4--;,introduction of silk-worms into ,europe--,mode by which it was effected--,the ,serinda of ,procopius the same with the modern ,khotan--,the silk-worm never bred in ,sir-hind--,silk shawls of ,tyre and ,berytus--,tyrannical conduct of ,justinian--,ruin of the silk manufactures--,oppressive conduct of ,peter ,barsames--,menander ,protector--,surprise of ,maniak the ,sogdian ambassador--,conduct of ,chosroes1 king of ,persia--,union of the ,chinese and ,persians against the ,turks--,the ,turks in self-defence seek an alliance with the ,romans--,mortification of the ,turkish ambassador--,reception of the ,byzantine ambassador by ,disabul1 king of the ,sogdiani--,display of silk textures--,paul the ,silentiary's account of silk--,isidorus ,hispalensis4 ,mention of silk by authors in the seventh century--,dorotheus1 ,archimandrite of ,palestine--,introduction of silk-worms into ,chubdan1 or ,khotan--,theophylactus ,simocatta--,silk manufactures of ,turfan--,silk known in ,england in this century--,first worn by ,ethelbert1 king of ,kent--,use of by the ,french kings--,aldhelmus's beautiful description of the silk-worm--,simile between weaving and virtue4 ,silk in the eighth century--,bede4 ,in the tenth century--,use of silk by the ,english1 ,welsh1 and ,scotch kings4 ,twelfth century--,theodorus ,prodromus--,figured shawls of the ,seres--,ingulphus describes vestments of silk interwoven with eagles and flowers of gold--,great value of silk about this time--,silk manufactures of ,sicily--,its introduction into ,spain4 ,fourteenth century--,nicholas ,tegrini--,extension of the ,silk manufacture through ,europe1 illustrated by etymology--,extraordinary beauty of silk and golden textures used in the decoration of churches in the middle ages--,silk rarely mentioned in the ninth1 eleventh1 or thirteenth centuries4 ,we now come to the very interesting account of the first introduction of silk-worms into ,europe1 which is given by ,procopius in the following terms4 7,de ,bello ,gothico1 iv4 #ag47 8,about this time 7,a4 ,d4 #ecj47 two monks1 having arrived from ,india1 and learnt that ,justinian was desirous that his subjects should no longer purchase raw silk from the ,persians1 went to him and offered to contrive means1 by which the ,romans would no longer be under the necessity of importing this article from their enemies the ,persians or any other nation4 ,they said1 that they had long resided in the country called ,serinda1 one of those inhabited by the various ,indian nations1 and had accurately informed themselves how raw silk might be produced in the country of the ,romans4 ,in reply to the repeated and minute inquiries of this ,emperor1 they stated1 that the raw silk is made by worms1 which nature instructs and continually prompts to this labor2 but that to bring the worms alive to ,byzantium would be impossible2 that the breeding of them is quite easy2 that each parent animal produces numberless eggs1 which long after their birth are covered with manure by persons who have the care of them1 and being thus warmed a sufficient time1 are hatched4 ,the ,emperor having promised the monks a handsome reward1 if they would put in execution what they had proposed1 they returned to ,india and brought the eggs to ,byzantium1 where1 having hatched them in the manner described1 they fed them with the leaves of the ,black ,mulberry1 and thus enabled the ,romans thenceforth to obtain raw silk in their own country40 ,the same narrative1 abridged from ,procopius1 is found in ,manuel ,glycas 7,annal4 l4 iv4 p4 #bji471 and ,zonares 7,annal4 l4 xiv4 p4 #fi4 ed4 ,du ,cange474 ,in the abstract given by ,photius 7,biblioth4 p4 #hj4 ed4 ,rotham7 of the history of ,theophanes ,byzantinus1 who was a writer of nearly the same age with ,procopius1 we find a narrative1 in which the only variation is1 that a ,persian brought the eggs to ,byzantium in the hollow stem of a plant4 ,the method now practised in transporting the eggs from country to country is to place them in a bottle not more than half full1 so that by being tossed about1 they may be kept cool and fresh4 ,if too close1 they would probably be heated and hatch on the journey#fi4 #fi ,transactions of the ,society for encouraging ,arts1 ,manufactures1 c41 vol4 xliii4 p4 #bcf4 ,the authors who have hitherto treated of the history of the silk-worm1 have supposed the ,serinda of ,procopius to be the modern ,sir-hind1 a city of ,circar in the ,north of ,hindostan#gj4 ,notwithstanding the striking similarity of names1 we think it more likely that ,serinda was adopted by ,procopius as another name for ,khotan in ,little ,bucharia4 ,the ancients included ,khotan among the ,indian nations#ga3 and that they were right in so doing is established from the facts1 that ,sanscrit was the ancient language of the inhabitants of ,khotan2 that their alphabetical characters1 their laws1 and their literature resembled those of the ,hindoos2 and that they had a tradition of being ,indian in their origin#gb4 ,since1 therefore1 ,khotan was also included in the ancient ,serica1 a term probably of wide and rather indefinite extent#gc2 the name ,serinda would exactly denote the origin and connexions of the race which occupied ,khotan4 #gj ,in this they have followed ,d',anville1 ,antiquit ,gographique de l',inde1 ,paris1 #agge1 p4 #fc4 #ga ,in proof of this we refer to ,heeren1 ,ideen1 i4 l4 p4 #ceh-chg1 on the ,indian tribes which constituted one of the ,persian ,satrapies1 and in which the inhabitants of ,khotan appear to have been included2 and also to ,cellarii ,antiqui ,orbis ,notitia1 l4 iii4 c4 #bc4 #b4 #gb ,rmusat1 ,hist4 de la ,ville de ,khotan1 p4 #cb4 ,note #a4 and p4 #cg4 #gc ,de ,guignes 7,hist4 ,gen4 des ,huns1 tome i4 p4 v47 expresses his opinion1 that ,serica1 besides the ,north of ,china1 included the countries towards the ,west1 which were conquered by the ,chinese1 viz4 ,hami1 ,turfan1 and other neighboring territories4 ,rennell 7,mem4 of a map of ,hindostan7 agrees with ,d',anville1 that ,serica was at the ,northwest angle of the present empire of ,china4 ,heeren decides in favor of the same opinion1 supposing ,serica to be identical with the modern ,tongut4 ,comment4 ,soc4 ,reg4 ,scient4 ,gottingensis1 vol4 xi4 p4 #ajf4 #aaa4 ,gotting1 #agic4 ,pausanias observes that the ,seres1 in order to breed the insects which produced silk1 had houses adapted both for summer and winter1 which implies that there was a vast difference between the summer and winter temperature of their country4 ,a late oriental traveller says of the climate of ,khotan1 8,in the summer1 when melons ripen1 it is very hot in these countries2 but1 during winter1 extremely cold40--,wathen's ,memoir on ,chinese ,tartary and ,khotan1 in ,journal of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 ,december #ahce1 p4 #fei4 ,on referring to the map1 ,plate ,,vii41 the reader will see the position of ,serica indicated at its ,eastern extremity4 ,as that map is limited to the ,orbis ,veteribus ,cognitus1 only a small space on its border is marked as the country of silk indicated by the yellow color4 ,it is1 nevertheless1 pretty certain that silk may be justly placed next in order to wool4 ,on the other hand1 although ,sir-hind is termed 8an ancient city0 by ,major ,rennell#gd1 we cannot find any evidence that the silk-worm was ever bred there4 ,so far is this from being the case1 that it appears to be a country very ill adapted for the production of silk#ge4 ,it may indeed be true1 as stated by ,latreille1 that ,sir-hind was colonized from ,khotan1 and it may be mentioned as a remarkable circumstance in confirmation of this supposition1 that there is a town called ,kotana a little way to the ,north ,east of the ,city of ,sir-hind4 ,but1 supposing this account to be correct1 it is highly probable that the settlement of ,sir-hind as a colony of ,khotan did not take place till after the year #ecj1 when the breeding of silk-worms was according to ,procopius introduced into ,europe from 8,serinda40 ,rather more than #abj years before this time ,india was visited by the ,chinese traveller1 ,fa ,hian1 who on his way passed some months with great delight and admiration in ,khotan2 and the special object of whose journey was to see and describe all the cities of ,india where ,buddhism was professed4 ,the inhabitants of ,khotan being wholly devoted to that delusion1 the same system must have been established in its colony2 and1 since this zealous pilgrim crossed ,india at no great distance from the spot where ,sir-hind afterwards stood1 we cannot doubt that he would have mentioned it1 if it had existed in his age4 ,he says not a word about it2 and the time is comparatively so short between his visit to ,india and the date of the introduction of silk-worms into ,europe1 that we can scarcely suppose ,sir-hind1 the colony of ,khotan and consequently the seat of ,buddhism1 to have been in existence either at the former or latter period#gf4 #gd ,memoir of a ,map of ,hindostan4 #ge 8,the ,s4 ,w4 portion of the ,circar ,sir-hind is extremely barren1 being covered with low scrubby wood1 and in many places destitute of water4 ,about ,a4 ,d4 #aceg ,feroze the ,third cut several canals from the ,jumna and the ,sutlege in order to fertilize this naturally arid country40--,walter ,hamilton's ,description of ,hindostan1 vol4 i4 p4 #dfe4 #gf;,fo ,kou ,ki1 ou ,relation des royaumes bouddhiques3 ,voyage dans la ,tartarie1 dans l',afghanistan1 et dans l',inde2 traduit du ,chinois et comment par ,rmusat1 ,klaproth1 et ,landresse4 ,paris1 #ahcf1 #dto4 ,in another passage of his history 7,bell4 ,pers4 #a4 #bj47 ,procopius throws some light upon our subject by stating that in consequence of the monopoly of the trade in raw silk by the ,persians1 ,justinian attempted to obtain it through the thiopians of ,arabia1 but found this to be impracticable1 as the ,persian merchants frequented the ports to which the ,indians resorted1 and from them purchased all their cargoes4 ,procopius further states 7,hist4 ,arcana1 c4 #be471 that silk shawls had long been manufactured in the ,phnician cities ,tyre and ,berytus 7to which all who were concerned in the silk trade1 either as merchants or manufacturers1 consequently resorted1 and from whence goods were carried to every part of the earth72 but that in the reign of ,justinian the manufacturers in ,byzantium and other ,greek cities raised the prices of their goods1 alleging that the ,persians had also advanced theirs1 while the imposts were increased among the ,romans4 ,justinian1 pretending to be much concerned at the high prices1 forbade any one in his dominions to sell silk for more than eight aurei per pound1 threatening confiscation of goods against any one who transgressed the law4 ,to comply was impossible1 since they were required to sell their goods at a price lower than that for which they bought them4 ,they therefore abandoned the trade1 and secretly sold the remnant of their goods for what they could get4 ,the ,empress ,theodora1 on being apprised of this1 immediately seized the goods and fined the proprietors a hundred aurei besides4 ,it was then determined1 that the silk manufacture should be carried on solely by the ,imperial ,treasurer4 ,,peter ,,barsames held the office1 and conducted himself in relation to this business in the most unjust and oppressive manner1 so that the silk-trade was ruined not only in ,byzantium but also at ,tyre and ,berytus1 while the ,emperor1 ,empress and their ,treasurer amassed great wealth by the monopoly4 ,,menander ,,protector1 ,a4 ,d4 #efj-egj4 ,in an account of an embassy sent to ,constantinople by the ,avars of ,sarmatia1 this author states1 that the ,emperor ,justinian endeavored to excite their admiration by a display of splendid couches1 gold chains1 and garments of silk#gg4 #gg ,corp4 ,hist4 ,byzant4 ed4 #agbi4 tom4 i4 p4 #fg4 ,the establishment of the ,turkish power in ,asia1 about the middle of the sixth century1 together with subsequent wars1 had greatly interrupted the caravan trade between ,china and ,persia4 ,on the return of peace1 the ,sogdians1 an ,asiatic people1 who had the greatest interest in the revival of the trade1 persuaded the ,turkish sovereign1 whose subjects they were become1 to send an embassy to ,chosroes1 king of ,persia1 to open a negotiation for this purpose4 ,maniak1 a ,sogdian prince1 who was ambassador1 being instructed to request that the ,sogdians might be allowed to supply the ,persians with silk2 presented himself before the ,persian monarch in the double character of merchant and envoy1 carrying with him many bales of silken merchandise1 for which he hoped to find purchasers among the ,persians4 ,but ,chosroes1 who thought the conveyance by sea to the ,persian ,gulf more advantageous to his subjects than this proposed traffic1 was not disposed to lend a favorable ear to the legation1 and rather uncourteously showed his contempt for the ,sogdian traders4 ,he bought up all the silk which the ambassador had carried with him1 and immediately burned it before them2 thus giving the most convincing proof of the little value which it had in his estimation4 ,after this the ,persians and ,chinese united against the ,turks1 who1 to strengthen themselves1 sought an alliance with the ,emperor ,justin4 ,maniak was again appointed ambassador1 and sent to negotiate the terms of the alliance2 but disappointment1 though from a dissimilar cause1 attended this his second embassy4 ,the sight of silk-worms1 and the establishment for manufacturing their produce1 in ,constantinople1 were to him as unwelcome as unexpected2 he however concealed his mortification1 and1 with perhaps an overstrained civility1 acknowledged1 that the ,romans were already become as expert as the ,chinese in both the management of silk-worms and manufacture of their silk#gh2 and when in the fourth year of ,justin ,,ii4 7i4 e4 ,a4 ,d4 #efi47 they went on the same mission to ,byzantium1 they found that here also there was no demand1 since silk-worms were bred there already4 ,soon after this we learn that the ,byzantines sent an embassy to ,disabul1 ,king of the ,sogdiani1 who received the ambassadors in tents covered with variously-colored silks4 #gh ,gibbon's ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 chap4 xlii4 ,,paul1 ,,the ,,silentiary1 ,a4 ,d4 #efb1 mentions silk thread1 used in adorning the vestments in the church of ,st4 ,sophia at ,constantinople4 7,p4 ii4 l4 #cfh47 ,the note of the ,editor1 ,du ,cange1 on the description of the pall1 7#egg471 contains various quotations from ecclesiastical writers1 which mention 8vela rubea ,serica20 8vela alba holoserica rasata20 8vela serica de blattin40 ,these quotations show1 that silk had been introduced into general use for the churches4 ,,isidorus ,,hispalensis1 ,,cl41 ,a4 ,d4 #ege4 ,the etymological work of ,isidore of ,seville may be regarded as a kind of encyclopedia1 exhibiting the general state of knowledge and art at the time when he wrote4 ,hence the following descriptive extracts are well deserving of attention4 ,bombyx frondium vermis1 ex cujus textur ,bombycinum conficitur4 ,appellatur autem hoc nomine ab eo quod evacuetur dum fila generat1 et aer solus in eo remanet4--,origin4 l4 xii4 c4 #e4 ,bombyx1 a worm which lives upon the leaves of trees1 and from whose web silk is made4 ,it is called ,bombyx1 because it empties itself in producing threads1 and nothing but air remains within it4 ,the cloth called ,bombycina1 derives its name from the silk-worm 7,bombyx71 which emits very long threads2 the web woven from them is called ,bombycinum1 and is made in the island of ,cos4 ,that called ,serica derives its name from silk 7sericum71 or from the circumstance1 that is was first obtained from the ,seres4 ,holoserica is all of silk3 for ,holon means all4 ,tramoserica has a warp of linen2 and a woof 7trama7 of silk4--,l4 xix4 c4 #bb4 ,touching these extracts we would remark1 that the testimony of ,isidore must not be considered as proving1 that the silk manufacture still existed in ,cos4 ,his statement was no doubt merely copied from ,varro or ,pliny1 or founded upon the authority of other writers long anterior to his own age4 ,it is indeed probable that silk-worms had by this time been brought into ,greece1 but that he was ignorant of the fact4 ,,seventh ,,century4 ,,dorotheus1 ,,archimandrite ,,of ,,palestine1 ,a4 ,d4 #fja4 4--,doctr4 #b1 as quoted in ,cod4 ,theodos4 ,gothofredi4 ,l4 ,bat4 #affe4 ,for as a man wearing a tunic entirely of silk4 ,,theophylactus ,,simocatta1 ,a4 ,d4 #fbi4 ,this author1 in his ,universal ,history 7l4 vii4 c4 #i471 informs us that the silk manufacture was carried on at ,chubdan1 with the greatest skill and activity1 which was probably the same as ,khotan1 or1 as it was called in his time1 ,ku-tan#gi4 #gi ,itinraire de ,hiuan ,thsang1 ,appendice ii4 ,foe ,koue ,ki1 p4 #cii4 ,we have1 moreover1 the following account of the origin of the growth and manufacture of silk in that country 7p4 #ee1 #ef474 8,the monastery of ,lou-che 7occupied by ,buddhists7 is to the south-west of the royal city4 ,formerly the inhabitants of this kingdom had neither mulberries nor silk-worms4 ,they heard of them in the ,east country1 and sent an embassy to ask for them4 ,the ,king of the ,east refused the request1 and issued the strictest injunctions to prevent either mulberries or silk-worms' eggs from being conveyed across the border4 ,then the ,king of ,kiu-sa-tan-na 7i4 e4 ,koustana1 or ,khotan7 asked of him a princess in marriage4 ,this having been granted1 the king charged the officer of his court who went to escort her1 to say1 that in his country there were neither mulberry-trees nor cocoons1 and that she must introduce them1 or be without silk dresses4 ,the princess1 having received this information1 obtained the seed both of mulberries1 and silk-worms1 which she concealed in her head-dress4 ,on arriving at the frontier1 the officers searched every where1 but dare not touch the turban of the princess4 ,having arrived at the spot1 where the monastery of ,lou-che was afterwards erected1 she deposited the seed both of the mulberries and worms4 ,the trees were planted in the spring1 and she afterwards went herself to assist in gathering the leaves4 ,at first the worms were fed upon the leaves of other plants1 and a law was enacted1 that no worms were to be destroyed or sacrificed until their quantity was sufficiently great4 ,the monastery was founded to commemorate so great a benefit1 and some trunks of the original mulberry-trees can yet be seen there#hj40 #hj ,it may be observed1 that the folds of the turban are not unfrequently used in the ,east to convey articles of value4 ,see ,journal of a ,tour in ,asia ,minor1 by ,charles ,fellows1 ,london1 #ahci1 p4 #baf4 ,in the following passage 7,rgne ,animal1 par ,cuvier1 tom4 v4 p4 #djb417 ,latreille mentions ,turfan as an important city as far as it affected the early silk-trade4 ,in other respects his account coincides with that already given4 8,la ville de ,turfan1 dans la petite ,bucharie1 fut long-temps le rendez-vous des caravanes venant de l',ouest1 et l'entrept principal des soieries de la ,chine4 ,elle tait la mtropole des ,sres de l',asie suprieure1 ou de la ,srique de ,ptolme4 ,expulss de leurs pays par les ,huns1 les ,sres s'tablirent dans la grande ,bucharie et dans l',inde4 ,c'est d'une de leurs colonies1 du ,ser-hend 7,ser-indi71 que des missionaires ,grecs transportrent1 du temps de ,justinien1 les ufs du ver soie ,constantinople40 ,the ,city of ,turfan in ,little ,bucharia was for a long time the rendezvous of the caravans coming from the ,west1 and the principal market for ,chinese silks4 ,it was the metropolis of the ,seres of ,upper ,asia1 or the ,serica of ,ptolemy4 ,the ,seres having been expelled their country by the ,huns1 established themselves in ,great ,bucharia and in ,india4 ,it is from one of their colonies 7of ,ser-indi71 that the ,grecian ,missionaries1 in the time of ,justinian1 brought the eggs of the silk-worm to ,constantinople4 ,a diploma of ,,ethelbert1 ,king of ,kent1 mentions 8,armilausia holoserica10 proving that silk was known in ,england at the end of the sixth century#ha4 ,the usual dress of the earliest ,french kings seems to have been a linen shirt and drawers of the same material next to the skin2 over these a tunic1 probably of fine wool1 which had a border of silk1 ornamented sometimes with gold or precious stones2 and upon this a sagum1 which was fastened with a fibula on the right shoulder4 ,eginhart informs us1 that ,charlemagne wore a tunic1 or vest1 with a silken border 7limbo serico7#hb4 #ha ,dugdale's ,monasticon1 vol4 i4 p4 #bd4 ,adelung's ,glossarium ,manuale1 v4 ,armilausia4 #hb ,examples of it may be seen1 ,i4 in the two figures of ,charlemagne1 executed in mosaic during his life-time1 one of which is preserved in the ,penitentiary of ,st4 ,john ,lateran at ,rome1 and both of these are described by ,spon in his ,miscellanea ,erudit ,antiquitatus 7p4 #bhd472 ,,ii4 in the figure of ,charles the ,bald1 the grandson of ,charlemagne1 which is in the splendid copy of the ,latin ,gospels made for his use1 now preserved in the library at ,munich1 and which may be seen engraved in ,sanft's ,dissertation on that ,,ms4 7p4 #db472 ,,iii4 in the figure of an early ,french king engraved from a ,,ms4 by ,baluzius in his ,capitularia ,regum ,francorum 7tom4 ii4 p4 #acjh472 and ,,iv4 in the first volume of ,montfaucon's ,monumens de la ,monarchie ,franaise4 ,,aldhelmus1 ,,cl41 ,a4 ,d4 #fhj4 ,this author1 who died ,abbot of ,sherburn1 was among the most learned men of his age4 ,in his nigmas1 which are written in tetrastics1 we find the following description of the silk-worm4 ,as it is scarcely possible that he could have seen this creature1 we have cause to admire both the ingenuity and general accuracy of his lines4 ,the ascending to the tops of thorns or shrubs1 such as 8genist10 to which the animal may attach its cocoon 7globulum71 has not been noticed by any earlier author4 ,de ,bombycibus4 ,annua dum redeunt texendi tempora telas1 ,lurida setigeris replentur viscera filis2 ,moxque genistarum frondosa cacumina scando1 ,ut globulus fabricans cum fati sorte quiescam4 ,maxima ,bibl4 ,vet4 ,patrum1 tom4 xiii4 p4 #be4 ,soon as the year brings round the time to spin1 ,my entrails dark with hairy threads are fill'd3 ,then to the leafy lops of shrubs ,i climb1 ,make my cocoon1 and rest by fate's decree4 ,in a book written by this author1 in praise of virginity1 he observes1 ,that chastity alone did not form an amiable and perfect character1 but required to be accompanied and adorned by many other virtues2 and this observation he further illustrates by the following simile taken from the art of weaving3 8,as it is not a web of one uniform color and texture1 without any variety of figures1 that pleaseth the eye and appears beautiful1 but one that is woven by shuttles1 filled with threads of purple1 and many other colors1 flying from side to side1 and forming a variety of figures and images1 in different compartments1 with admirable art40--,bibliotheca ,patrum1 tom4 xiii4 ,,eighth ,,century4 ,,bede1 ,,cl41 ,a4 ,d4 #gja4 ,joseph autem mercatus est sindonem1 et deponens eum involvit sindone4 7,marc4 xv4 #df47--;,et ex simplici sepultura domini ambitio divitum condemnatur1 qui ne in tumulis quidem possunt carere divitiis4 ,possumus autem juxta intelligentiam spiritalem hoc sentire1 quod corpus domini non auro1 non gemmis et serico1 sed linteamine puro obvolvendum sit1 quanquam et hoc significet1 quod ille in sindone munda involvat ,jesum1 qui pura eum mente susceperit4 ,hinc ecclesi mos obtinuit1 ut sacrificium altaris non in serico1 neque in panno tincto1 sed in lino terreno celebretur1 sicut corpus est domini in sindone munda sepultum1 juxta quod in gestis pontificalibus a beato ,pap ,silvestro legimus esse statutum4--,expos4 in ,marcum1 tom4 v4 p4 #bjg4 ,col4 ,agrip4 #afhh4 ,but ,joseph bought a linen cloth1 and1 taking him down1 wrapped him in the linen cloth4 7,mark xv4 #df47--,the simple burial of our ,lord condemns the ambition of rich men1 who cannot be without wealth even in their tombs4 ,that his body is to be wrapped not in gold1 not in silk and precious stones1 but in pure linen1 may be understood by us spiritually4 ,it also intimates1 that he incloses ,jesus in a clean linen cloth1 who receives him with a pure mind4 ,hence the custom of the church has obtained1 to celebrate the sacrifice of the altar1 not in silk1 nor in dyed cloth1 but in earthy flax1 as the body of our ,lord was buried in a clean linen cloth2 for so we read in the pontifical acts1 that it was decreed by the blessed ,pope ,silvester4 ,the latter portion of this extract1 wherein we are informed of the origin of the practice1 universally adopted1 of covering the ,eucharist with a white linen cloth1 must be a later addition4 ,pope ,silvester lived1 as the reader will perceive1 long after the time of ,bede4 ,bede1 in his ,history of the ,abbots of ,wearmouth1 states that the first abbot and founder of the monastery1 ,biscop1 surnamed ,benedict1 went a fifth time to ,rome for ornaments and books to enrich it1 and on this occasion 7,a4 ,d4 #fhe47 brought two scarfs1 or palls1 of incomparable workmanship1 composed entirely of silk1 with which he afterwards purchased the land of three families situated at the mouth of the ,wear#hc4 ,this shows the high value of silken articles at that period4 #hc ,bed ,hist4 ,eccles4 c4 cura ,jo4 ,smith4 ,cantab4 #agbb4 p4 #big4 ,mr4 ,sharon ,turner1 speaking of ,bede1 says1 8,his own remains were inclosed in silk4 ,mag4 ,bib4 xvi4 p4 #hh4 ,it often adorned the altars of the church2 and we read of a present to a ,west-,saxon bishop of a casula1 not entirely of silk1 but mixed with goat's wool40 ,ibid4 p4 #ej4 ,he refers to p4 #ig4 of the same volume1 as mentioning 8pallia holoserica40--,history of the ,anglo-,saxons1 vol4 iii4 book vii4 chap4 #d4 p4 #dh1 #di4 ,,tenth ,,century4 ,about the year #igj ,kenneth1 king of ,scotland1 paid a visit in ,london to ,edgar1 king of ,england4 ,the latter sovereign1 to evince at once his friendship and munificence1 bestowed upon his illustrious guest silks1 rings1 and gems1 together with one hundred ounces of pure gold#hd4 #hd ,lingard's ,hist4 of ,england1 vol4 i4 #bda4 ,london1 #ahai1 #dto4 ,perhaps we may refer to the same date the composition of the 8,lady of the ,fountain10 a ,welsh tale1 recently translated by ,lady ,charlotte ,guest#he4 ,at the opening of this poem ,king ,arthur is represented sitting in his chamber at ,caer-leon upon ,usk4 ,it is said1 ,in the centre of the chamber1 ,king ,arthur sat upon a seat of green rushes1 over which was spread a covering of flame-colored satin1 and a cushion covered with the same material was under his elbow4 ,the mention of silk and satin is frequent in this tale4 #he ,the ,mabinogion1 from the ,llyfr ,coch o ,hergest and other ancient ,welsh manuscripts2 with an ,english translation and notes4 ,by ,lady ,charlotte ,guest4 ,part ,i4 ,the ,lady of the ,fountain4 ,llandovery1 #ahch4 ,,gerbert1 ,,cl41 ,a4 ,d4 #igj4 ,this author1 who became ,pope ,silvester1 mentions garments of silk 7sericas vestes7 in a passage which has been already quoted 7see ,part ,,ii4 chap4 ,v474 ,,twelfth ,,century4 ,,theodorus ,,prodromus1 a romance writer in the twelfth century1 mentions the figured shawls 77 manufactured by the ,seres4 ,the breeding of silk-worms in ,europe appears to have been confined to ,greece from the time of the ,emperor ,justinian until the middle of the twelfth century4 ,the manufacture of silk was also very rare in other parts of ,europe1 being probably practised only as a recreation and accomplishment for ladies4 ,but in the year #aadh ,roger ,i41 ,king of ,sicily1 having taken the cities of ,corinth1 ,thebes1 and ,athens1 thus got into his power a great number of silk-weavers1 took them away with the implements and materials necessary for the exercise of their art1 and forced them to reside at ,palermo#hf4 ,nicetas ,choniates#hg1 referring to the same event1 speaks of these artisans as of both sexes1 and remarks that in his time those who went to ,sicily might see the sons of ,thebans and ,corinthians employed in weaving velvet stoles interwoven with gold1 and serving like the ,eretrians of old among the ,persians#hh4 #hf ,otto ,frisingen1 ,hist4 ,imp4 ,freder4 l4 i4 c4 #cc4 in ,muratori1 ,rerum ,italicarum ,scriptores1 tom4 vi4 p4 #ffh4 #hg ,in ,manuel ,comnenus1 l4 ii4 c4 #h41 tom4 xii4 of the ,scriptores ,hist4 ,byzantin1 p4 #ea4 ed4 ,ven4 #hh ,hugo ,falcandus1 who visited this manufactory ,a4 ,d4 #aafi1 represents it as being then in the most flourishing condition1 producing great quantities of silks1 both plain and figured1 of many different colors1 and enriched with gold4 ,we find in the writings of ,ingulphus several curious accounts of vestments of silk1 interwoven with eagles and flowers of gold4 ,this author1 in his history1 mentions that among other gifts made by ,witlaf1 king of ,mercia1 to the abbey of ,croyland1 he presented a golden curtain1 embroidered with the siege of ,troy1 to be hung up in the church on his birth-day#hi4 ,at a later period1 #aaee1 a pair of richly worked sandals1 and three mitres1 the work of ,christina1 abbess of ,markgate1 were among the valuable souvenirs presented by ,robert1 abbot of ,st4 ,albans1 to ,pope ,adrian ,,iv4#ij4 #hi ,ingulphus1 p4 #dhg1 edit4 #aeif4 #ij ,adrian ,,iv41 was the only ,englishman that ever sat in ,st4 ,peters chair4 ,his name was ,nicolas ,breakspear3 he was born of poor parents at ,langley1 near ,st4 ,albans4 ,henry ,,ii41 on his promotion to the papal chair1 sent a deputation of an abbot and three bishops to congratulate him on his election2 upon which occasion he granted considerable privileges to the abbey of ,st4 ,albans4 ,with the exception of the presents named above1 he refused all the other valuable ones which were offered him1 saying jocosely1--8,i will not accept your gifts1 because when ,i wished to take the habit of your monastery you refused me40 ,to which the abbot pertinently and smartly replied1--8,it was not for us to oppose the will of ,providence1 which had destined you for greater things40 ,without digressing from our subject to question the right of the royal marauder thus tyrannously to sever these unoffending artisans from the ties of country and of kindred1 we may yet be allowed to express some satisfaction at the consequences of his cruelty4 ,it is well for the interests of humanity that blessings1 although unsought and remote1 do sometimes follow in the train of conquest2 that wars are not always limited in their results to the exaltation of one individual1 the downfall of another1 the slaughter of thousands1 and misery of millions1 but occasionally prove the harbingers of peaceful arts1 heralds of science1 and in short deliverers from the yoke of slavery or superstition4 ,in twenty years from this forcible establishment of the manufacture1 the silks of ,sicily are described as having attained a decided excellence2 as being of diversified patterns and colors2 some fancifully interwoven with gold tastefully embellished with figures2 and others richly adorned with pearls4 ,the industry and ingenuity thus called forth1 could not fail to exercise a beneficial influence over the character and condition of the ,sicilians4 ,from ,palermo the manufacture of silk extended itself through all parts of ,italy and into ,spain4 ,we learn from ,roger de ,hoveden1 that the manufacture flourished at ,almeria in ,grenada about ,a4 ,d4 #aaijia4 #ia 8,deinde per nobilem civitatem1 qu dicitur ,almaria1 ubi fit nobile sericum et delicatum1 quod dicitur sericum de ,almaria40 ,scriptores post ,bedam1 p4 #fga4 ,,fourteenth ,,century4 ,according to ,nicholas ,tegrini#ib1 the silk manufacture afterwards flourished in ,lucca2 and the weavers1 having been ejected from that city in the earlier part of the fourteenth century1 carried their art to ,venice1 ,florence1 ,milan1 ,bologna1 and even to ,germany1 ,france1 and ,britain4 #ib ,vita ,castruccii1 in ,muratori1 ,rer4 ,ital4 ,scriptores1 t4 xi4 p4 #acbj4 ,we have seen from different historical testimonies1 that silk was known to the inhabitants of ,france and ,england as early as the sixth century4 ,the fact of its introduction into all parts of the ,north of ,europe is manifest from the use of words for silk in several northern languages4 ,these words appear1 according to the inquiries of the learned orientalists1 ,klaproth and ,abel ,rmusat#ic1 to have been derived from those ,asiatic countries1 in which silk was originally produced4 ,in the language of ,corea silk is called ,sir2 in ,chinese ,se1 which may have been produced by the usual omission of the final r4 ,in the ,mongol language silk is called ,sirkek1 in the ,mandchou ,sirgh4 ,in the ,armenian the silk-worm is called ,chram4 ,in ,arabic1 ,chaldee1 and ,syriac1 silk was called ,seric#id4 ,from the same source we have in ,greek and ,latin 1 ,sericum4 #ic ,journal ,asiatique1 #ahbc1 tom4 ii4 p4 #bdf4 ,julius ,klaproth 7,tableau ,historique de l',asie1 ,paris1 #ahbf1 p4 #eg1 #eh47 says1 that in the year #afe ,b4 ,c4 the inhabitants of the country called by us ,tangut1 who constituted a powerful kingdom1 were attacked by the ,hioung ,nou1 and driven to the ,west1 where they fixed themselves in ,transoxiana1 and that these events led to an uninterrupted communication with ,persia and ,india1 especially in regard to the silk trade4 ,klaproth considers that the ,seres of the ancients were the ,chinese2 but he appears to include under that term all the nations which were brought into subjection to the ,chinese4 ,professor ,karl ,ritter 7,erdkunde1 ,asien1 ,band iv4 #b te ,auflage1 ,berlin1 #ahce1 p4 #dcg47 observes1 in allusion to the authority just quoted1 that all the names of the silk-worm and its products are to be accounted for on the supposition 7which he considers the true one7 that they were first known and cultivated in ,china1 and from thence extended through central ,asia into ,europe4 #id ,see ,schindler's ,pentaglott1 p4 #aiea1 ,d4 ,in the more modern ,european languages we find two sets of terms for silk1 the first evidently derived from the oriental ,seric1 but with the common substitution of l for r1 the second of an uncertain origin4 ,to the first set belong1 ,chelk1 silk1 in ,slavonian4 ,silke1 ---- in ,suio-,gothic and ,icelandic#ie4 ,silcke1 ---- in ,danish4 ,siolc or ,seolc1 ---- in ,anglo-,saxon4 ,also ,siolcen or ,seolcen1 silken2 ,eal1 reolcen1 ,holosericus2 ,seolcpynm1 silk-worm#if4 ,silk1 ---- in ,english#ig ,sirig1 ---- in ,welsh#ih4 ,to the second set belong1 ,seda1 silk1 in the ,latin of the middle ages4 ,seta1 ---- in ,italian4 ,seide1 ---- in ,german4 ,side1 ---- in ,anglo-,saxon4 ,also ,sidene1 silken1 lfric as quoted by ,lye2 ,sidpypm1 silk-worm1 ,junius1 l4 c4 ,sidan1 ---- in ,welsh4 ,satin1 ---- in ,french and ,english#ii4 #ie ,silki trojo ermalausa1 a silk tunic without sleeves4 ,knitlynga ,saga1 p4 #aad1 as quoted by ,ihre1 ,glossar4 ,suio-,goth4 v4 ,armalausa4 #if lfric's ,glossary 7made in the tenth century71 p4 #fh4 ,appendix to ,sumner's ,dictionary4 #ig ,nicholas ,fuller 7,miscellanea1 p4 #bdh47 justly observes1 ,vocabulum ,anglicanum ,selk non nisi ,sericum authorem generis sui agnoscit4 ,selk enim nuncupatum est quasi ,selik pro ,serik1 liter r in l facili commutatione fact4 ,minshew and ,skinner give the same etymology4 #ih ,junius1 ,etymologicum1 v4 ,silk4 ,it appears doubtful1 however1 whether ,junius is here to be depended on4 #ii ,mnage1 ,diction4 ,etym4 de la ,langue ,franaise1 tom4 ii4 p4 #deg1 ed4 ,joult4 ,according to ,abel ,rmusat 7,journal ,asiat4 l4 c47 the merchandise of ,eastern ,asia passed through ,slavonia to the ,north of ,europe in the middle ages1 even without the mediation of ,greece or ,italy4 ,this may account for the use of the terms of the first class1 while it is possible that those of the second have been derived from the ,south of ,europe1 from whence we have seen that silken commodities were also occasionally transported to the ,north4 ,to the evidence now produced from authors and printed documents respecting the history of silk from the earliest times to the period of its universal extension throughout ,europe1 another species of proof may be added1 viz4 that afforded by ,relics preserved in churches1 and by other remains of the antiquities of the middle ages4 ,as examples of this method for illustrating the subject1 the following articles may be enumerated4 ,i4 ,the relics of ,st4 ,regnobert1 ,bishop of ,bayeux in the seventh century4 ,these consist of a ,casula1 or ,chasuble1 a ,stole1 and a ,maniple4 ,they are yet preserved in the cathedral of ,bayeux1 and worn by the ,bishop on certain annual festivals4 ,they are of silk interwoven with gold1 and adorned with pearls#ajj4 #ajj ,see ,john ,spencer ,smythe's ,description de la ,chasuble de ,saint ,regnobert1 in the ,procs ,verbal de l',acadmie ,royale des ,sciences1 ,arts1 et ,belles ,lettres1 de la ,ville de ,caen1 ,sance d',avril #ad1 #ahbj4 ,,ii4 ,portions of garments of the same description with those of ,st4 ,regnobert were discovered ,a4 ,d4 #ahbg on opening the tomb of ,st4 ,cuthbert in the ,cathedral of ,durham4 ,they are preserved in the library of that church1 and accurately described by the ,rev4 ,james ,raine1 the librarian1 in a quarto volume4 ,,iii4 ,the scull-cap of ,st4 ,simon1 said to have been made in the tenth century1 and now preserved in the ,cathedral of ,treves4 ,its border is interwoven with gold4 ,in regard to these interesting relics1 they may with confidence be looked upon as specimens of the manufacture of silk from the seventh to the twelfth century4 ,,iv4 ,in the ,cathedral at ,hereford is a charter of one of the ,popes with the bull 7the leaden seal71 attached to it by silken threads4 ,silk was early used for this purpose in the ,south of ,europe#aja4 ,the ,danish kings began to use silk to append the waxen seals to their charters about the year #ajjjajb4 #aja ,mabillon1 de ,re ,diplomatic1 l4 ii4 cap4 #ai4 #f4 #ajb ,diplomatarium ,arna-,magnanum1 a ,thorkelin1 tom4 i4 p4 xliv4 ,v4 ,silk1 in the form of velvet1 may be seen on some of the ancient armor in the ,tower of ,london4 ,,vi4 ,the binding of ancient manuscripts affords specimens of silk4 ,a ,french translation of ,ludolphus ,saxo's ,life of ,christ in four folio volumes1 among ,dr4 ,william ,hunter's ,,mss4 at ,glasgow1 still has its original binding covered with red velvet1 which is probably as old as the fourteenth century4 ,a curious source of information on the art of book-binding at that period is the ,inventory1 or ,catalogue of the library collected by that ardent lover of books1 ,charles ,v4 of ,france4 ,as this catalogue particularly describes the bindings of about #abjj volumes1 many of which were very elaborate and splendid1 it enables us to judge of the use made of all the most valuable stuffs and materials which could be employed for this purpose1 and under the head of silk we find the following3 8soie10 silk2 8veluyau10 velvet2 8satanin10 satin2 8damas10 damask2 8taffetas10 taffetas2 8camocas20 8cendal20 and 8drap d'or10 cloth of gold1 having probably a basis or ground of silk#ajc4 ,from the few examples of ancient ,catholic vestments that have escaped destruction1 the generality of persons are but little acquainted with the extreme beauty of the embroidery worked for ecclesiastical purposes during the ,middle ,ages4 ,the countenances of the images were executed with perfect expression1 like miniatures in illuminated manuscripts4 ,every parochial church1 previous to the ,reformation1 was furnished with complete sets of frontals and hangings for the altars4 ,one of the great beauties of the ancient embroidery was its appropriate design2 each flower1 leaf1 and device having a significant meaning with reference to the festival to which the vestment belonged4 ,such was the extreme beauty of the ,english vestments in the reign of ,henry ,,iii41 that ,innocent ,,iv4 forwarded bulls to many ,english bishops1 enjoining them to send a certain quantity of embroidered vestments to ,rome1 for the use of the clergy#ajd4 #ajc ,see ,inventaire de l',ancienne ,bibliothque du ,louvre1 fait en l'anne #acgc4 ,paris1 #ahcf1 #hvo4 #ajd ,the art of embroidery seems to have attained a higher degree of perfection in ,france1 than any other country in ,europe2--it is not1 however1 so much practised now4 ,embroiderers formerly composed a great portion of the working population of the largest towns2 laws were specially framed for their protection1 some of which would astonish the working people of the present day4 ,they were formed into a company as early as #abgb1 by ,etienne ,boileau1 ,prvot de ,paris1 under their respective names of 8,brodeurs1 ,dcoupeurs1 ,egratigneurs1 and ,chasubliers40 ,in the last and preceding centuries1 when embroidery1 as an article of dress both for men and women1 was an object of considerable importance1 the ,germans1 and more particularly those of ,vienna1 disputed the palm of excellence with the ,french4 ,at the same period1 ,milan and ,venice were also celebrated for their embroidery2 but the prices were so extravagantly high1 that according to ,lamarre1 its use was forbidden by sumptuary laws4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,silk ,,and ,,golden ,,textures ,,of ,,the ,,ancients4 ,,high ,,degree ,,of ,,excellence ,,attained ,,in ,,this ,,manufacture4 ,manufacture of golden textures in the time of ,moses--,homer--,golden tunics of the ,lydians--,their use by the ,indians and ,arabians--,extraordinary display of scarlet robes1 purple1 striped with silver1 golden textures1 c41 by ,darius1 king of ,persia--,purple and scarlet cloths interwoven with gold--,tunics and shawls variegated with gold--,purple garments with borders of gold--,golden chlamys--,attalus1 king of ,pergamus1 not the inventor of gold thread--,bostick--,golden robe worn by ,agrippina--,caligula and ,heliogabalus--,sheets interwoven with gold used at the obsequies of ,nero--,babylonian shawls intermixed with gold--,silk shawls interwoven with gold--,figured cloths of gold and ,tyrean purple--,use of gold in the manufacture of shawls by the ,greeks--#d1jjj1jjj sesterces 7about #aej1jjj7 paid by the ,emperor ,nero for a ,babylonish coverlet--,portrait of ,constantius ,,ii4--,magnificence of ,babylonian carpets1 mantles1 c4--,median sindones4 ,the use of gold in weaving may be traced to the earliest times1 but seems to be particularly characteristic of oriental manners4 ,it was employed in connexion with woollen and linen thread of the finest colors to enrich the ephod1 girdle1 and breast-plate of ,aaron#aje4 ,the sacred historian goes so far as to describe the mode of preparing the gold to be used in weaving3 8,and they did beat the gold into thin plates1 and cut it into wires1 to work it in the blue1 and in the purple1 and in the scarlet1 and in the fine linen1 with cunning work40--,ex4 xxxix4 #b-h4 ,the historian certainly does not intend to describe the process of wire-drawing1 nor probably the art of making gold thread4 ,it seems likely1 that neither of these ingenious manufactures were invented in his time4 ,the queen described in ,ps4 xiv41 wears 8clothing of wrought gold#ajf40 ,homer mentions a golden girdle1 7,od4 4 #bcb4 4 #edc474 ,he also describes an upper garment1 which ,penelope made for ,ulysses before going to ,illium4 ,on the front part of it a beautiful hunting piece was wrought in gold4 ,it is thus described4 8,a dog holds a fawn with its fore feet1 looking at it as it pants with fear and strives to make its escape40 ,this1 he says1 was the subject of universal admiration#ajg4 #aje 8,and they shall take gold1 and blue1 and purple1 and scarlet1 and fine linen4 ,and they shall make the ephod of gold1 of blue1 and of purple1 of scarlet1 and fine twined linen1 with cunning work4 ,it shall have the two shoulder-pieces thereof joined at the two edges thereof2 and so it shall be joined together4 ,and the curious girdle of the ephod1 which is upon it1 shall be of the same1 according to the work thereof2 even of gold1 of blue1 and purple1 and scarlet1 and fine twined linen4 ,and thou shalt take two onyx stones1 and grave on them the names of the children of ,israel3 six of their names on one stone1 and the other six names of the rest on the other stone1 according to their birth4 ,with the work of an engraver in stone1 like the engravings of a signet shalt thou engrave the two stones with the names of the children of ,israel3 thou shalt make them to be set in ouches of gold4 ,and thou shalt put the two stones upon the shoulders of the ephod for stones of memorial unto the children of ,israel3 and ,aaron shall bear their names before the ,lord upon his two shoulders for a memorial4 ,and thou shalt make ouches of gold2 and two chains of pure gold at the ends2 of wreathen work shalt thou make them1 and fasten the wreathen chains to the ouches4 ,and thou shalt make the breast-plate of judgment with cunning work2 after the work of the ephod shalt thou make it2 of gold1 of blue1 and of purple1 and of scarlet1 and of fine twined linen shalt thou make it40--,ex4 xxviii4 #e-ae4 #ajf 8,the king's daughter is all glorious within3 her clothing is of wrought gold40--,ps4 xlv4 #ac4 #ajg ,od4 4 #bbe-bce4 ,pisander1 who probably lived at the same period with ,homer1 speaks of the ,lydians as wearing tunics adorned with gold4 ,lydus1 who has preserved this expression of the ancient cyclic poet1 observes that the ,lydians were supplied with gold from the sands of the ,pactolus and the ,hermus#ajh4 #ajh ,de ,magistratibus ,rom4 ,l4 iii4 #fd4 ,virgil also represents the use of gold in weaving1 as if it had existed in ,trojan times4 ,one of the garments so adorned was made by ,dido1 the ,sidonian1 another by ,andromache1 and a third was in the possession of ,anchises#aji4 ,in all these instances the reference is to the habits of ,phnice1 ,lycia1 or other parts of ,asia4 #aji in4 iii4 #dhc42 iv4 #bfd42 viii4 #afg42 xi4 #ge4 ,among all the ,asiatics1 none were more remarkable than the ,persians for the display of textures of gold1 as well as every other kind of luxury in dress4 ,a tiara interwoven with gold was one of the presents which ,xerxes gave as an expression of his gratitude to the citizens of ,abdera 7,herod4 viii4 #abj474 ,the ,indians also employed the same kind of ornament 7,strabo1 ,l4 xv4 c4 i4 #fi472 and the ,periegesis 7l4 #hha47 of ,priscian attributes the use of it to the ,arabians#aaj4 #aaj ,in ,europe the nearest approach to oriental habits in regard to dress was made by the ,gauls4 ,their principal men wore collars1 armlets1 and bracelets of gold1 and clothes enriched with the same metal4--,strabo1 ,l4 iv4 cap4 #d4 #e4 ,the history of ,alexander the ,great affords frequent traces of the use of cloth interwoven with gold in ,persia4 ,garments made of such cloth were among the most splendid of the spoils of ,persepolis#aaa4 #aaa ,diod4 ,sic4 ,l4 xvii4 #gj4 p4 #bad4 ,wessel4 ,justin 7,l4 xii47 says that ,alexander1 to avoid offending the ,persians1 ordered his principal attendants to adopt for their dress 8longam vestem auream purpureamque40 ,the dress prescribed was therefore of fine woollen cloth1 or probably of silk1 dyed purple1 and interwoven with gold4 ,among the vast multitudes which preceded the ,king of ,persia when he advanced to oppose ,alexander1 was the band of ten thousand called the ,immortals1 whose dress was carried to the #8ne plus ultra' of barbaric splendor1 some wearing golden collars1 others 8cloth variegated with gold40 ,some idea of the extravagance and pomp of the ,persians on this occasion may be formed from the following passage1 taken from ,rollin's 8,ancient ,history40 8,the order ,darius observed in his march was as follows4 ,before the army were carried silver altars1 on which burned the fire1 called by them sacred and eternal2 and these were followed by the magi1 singing hymns1 and #cfe youths in scarlet robes4 ,after these proceeded a consecrated car1 drawn by white horses and followed by one of an extraordinary size1 which they called 8,the horse of the sun40 ,the equerries were dressed in white1 each bearing in his hand a golden rod4 ,next appeared ten sumptuous chariots1 enriched with curious sculptures in gold and silver2 and then the vanguard of the horse1 composed of twelve different nations1 in various armor4 ,this body was succeeded by those of the ,persians1 called 8,the ,immortals10 amounting to #aj1jjj1 who surpassed the rest of the barbarians in the extravagant richness and splendor of their dress2 for they all wore collars of gold1 and were clothed in robes of gold tissue1 having large sleeves1 garnished with precious stones4 ,about thirty paces from them came the king's relations or cousins1 to the number of #ae1jjj1 apparelled like women1 and more remarkable for the pomp of their dress than the glitter of their arms2 and after these ,darius attended by his guards1 seated on a chariot1 as on a throne4 ,the chariot was enriched1 on both sides1 with images of the gods in gold and silver2 and from the middle of the yoke1 which was covered with jewels1 rose two statues1 a cubit in height2 the one representing ,war1 the other ,peace1 having between them a golden eagle with wings extended4 ,the king was attired in a garment of purple striped with silver2 over which was a long robe1 glittering with gold and precious stones1 and whereon two falcons were represented as if rushing from the clouds at each other4 ,around his waist he wore a golden girdle1 from whence hung scimitar1 the scabbard of which was covered with gems4 ,on each side of ,darius walked #bjj of his nearest relations1 followed by #aj1jjj horsemen1 whose lances were plated with silver1 and tipped with gold4 ,after these marched #cj1jjj foot1 the rear of the army1 and1 lastly1 #djj horses belonging to the king4 8,about #ajj paces from the royal divisions of the army came ,sisygambis1 the mother of ,darius1 seated on a chariot1 and his consort on another1 with female attendants of both queens riding on horseback4 ,afterwards came fifteen chariots1 in which were the king's children1 and their tutors4 ,next to these were the royal concubines1 to the number of #cfj1 all attired like so many queens4 ,these were followed by #fjj mules1 and #cjj camels1 carrying the king's treasure1 and guarded by a body of bowmen4 ,after these came the wives of the crown officers1 and the lords of the court2 then the suttlers1 servants2 and1 lastly1 a body of light armed troops1 with their commanders40 ,at the nuptials of ,alexander purple and scarlet cloths1 interwoven with gold1 were expanded over the guests3 and a pall of the same description covered the golden sarcophagus made to contain his body4 ,among the splendid ornaments of the tent erected not long after at ,alexandria by ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 there were tunics interwoven with gold3 and in the procession on the same occasion1 the colossal statues of ,bacchus and his nurse ,nysa were attired2 the former in a shawl2 the latter in a tunic variegated with gold4 ,probably we may refer to the same country and age the 8golden tunic0 mentioned in one of the ,arundle marbles 7,no4 xxii4 #b474 ,also the tent pitched by ,arsace with hangings of gold and purple tissues1 and the robe of similar materials worn by ,arsace herself1 as described by ,heliodorus 7thiop4 vii471 relate to the customs of the same country4 ,another of the successors of ,alexander1 viz4 ,demetrius ,poliorcetes1 wore purple garments with borders of gold#aab4 #aab ,plutarch1 ,demet4 #da4 ,themistius describes a portrait of one of the kings of ,persia1 who wore1 together with the tiara and the collar or necklace1 a purple shawl interwoven with gold 7,orat4 #bd4 p4 #cfi4 ed4 ,dindorf474 ,during the periods to which the preceding evidence has allusion1 it is not probable that cloth of gold was in use among the ,greeks and ,romans except to a very limited extent4 ,nevertheless it does not appear to have escaped the avidity for every species of excellence1 which in early times distinguished the inhabitants of ,magna ,grcia4 ,for1 when ,pythagoras became a teacher of wisdom and philosophy at ,crotona1 among other lessons of frugality he persuaded the matrons to put off their 8golden garments0 with other fashionable ornaments1 and deposit them in the temple of ,juno as offerings to the goddess#aac4 ,in a passage attributed to ,menander we meet with the mention of a 8golden or purple chlamys0 as a suitable offering to the gods#aad4 ,hedylus of ,samos1 a writer of the same age1 describes a woman of loose morals1 by name ,niconoe1 as wearing a tunic striped with gold 7,brunck's ,analecta1 i4 #dhc474 #aac ,justin1 ,l4 ,,xx4 c4 #d4 #aad ,menandri ,reliqui1 ,meineke1 p4 #cjf4 ,bckh1 ,gr4 ,trag4 ,principes1 p4 #aeg4 ,attalus1 king of ,pergamus1 is said by ,pliny 7,l4 viii4 cap4 #dh47 to have invented the art of embroidering with gold thread#aae4 ,nevertheless we have seen1 that gold was thus used long before the time of ,attalus4 ,but there can be no doubt1 that he established and maintained a great manufacture of these stuffs at ,pergamus2 thus contributing greatly to improve the art1 and bring these cloths into more general use4 #aae ,see ,appendix ,a4 ,the next passage is from ,dr4 ,bostock's translation of the #ccrd ,book1 ch4 xix4 8,gold may be spun or woven like wool1 without the latter being mixed with it4 ,we are informed by ,verrius1 that ,tarquinius ,priscus rode in triumph in a tunic of gold2 and we have seen ,agrippina1 the wife of the ,emperor ,claudius1 when he exhibited the spectacle of a naval combat1 sitting by him covered with a robe made entirely of woven gold4 ,in what are called the ,attalic stuffs1 the gold is woven with some other substance4 ,this art was the invention of one of the kings of ,asia40 ,in ,book xxxv4 c4 #cf4 ,pliny says that ,zeuxis1 to display his wealth at ,olympia1 caused his name to be woven in gold in the compartments of his outer garment4 ,caligula once wore a tunic interwoven with gold4 ,heliogabalus was far more profuse in regard to this kind of splendor4 ,white sheets1 interwoven with gold1 were used at the funeral obsequies of ,nero#aaf4 ,we may here observe1 that the use of gold in dress almost invariably accompanied that of silk4 ,the same ,emperors who took delight in the one1 indulged themselves with the other also4 ,on the contrary1 ,alexander ,severus1 as we shall show when treating of linen in ,part ,,iv41 was economical in both these respects4 #aaf ,suetonius1 ,nero1 #ej4 ,in ,chapters ,,ii4 and ,,iii41 we quoted several passages which make mention of cloth of gold1 from ,tibullus1 ,ovid1 ,seneca the ,tragedian1 ,lucan1 ,dio ,cassius1 ,claudian1 ,virgil1 ,gregorius ,nazienzenus1 and ,basil1 all of which speak of cloth of gold4 ,ovid mentions purple garments variously colored and interwoven with gold1 as belonging to ,bacchus4--,met4 iii4 #eef4 ,publius ,syrus was a writer of the same period4 ,in the following fragment preserved by ,petronius ,arbiter1 he compares the train of the peacock to ,babylonian stuffs enriched with gold and various colors3 ,thy food the peacock1 which displays his spotted train1 ,as shines a ,babylonian shawl with feather'd gold6 ,shawls1 interwoven with gold1 are mentioned by ,galen#aag1 and by ,valerius ,flaccus#aah2 also by ,lucan in the following passage1 where he is describing the furniture of ,cleopatra's palace 7x4 #abe1 #abf473 ,part shines with feather'd gold1 part sheds a blaze ,of scarlet1 intermixed by ,pharian looms6 #aag ,quoted in ,chapter ,,ii4 #aah ,auro depicta chlamys4 ,the following passages also contain evidence on the same subject4 ,,seneca1 ,,the ,,philosopher4 ,as yet figured cloths did not exist3 gold was not woven1 it was not even extracted from the ground4--,epist4 #ia4 ,,lucian describes the tragic actors1 when they performed the part of kings1 as wearing a chlamys interwoven with gold#aai4 #aai ,somnium1 vol4 ii4 p4 #gdb4 ed4 ,hemsterhusii4 ,,apuleius4 ,they carefully spread over the couches1 cloths figured with gold and ,tyrian purple4--,met4 ,,philostratus depicts ,midas wearing a golden robe#abj4 #abj ,imag4 i4 #bb4 ,,nemesianus4 ,in thy scarf's woof much sportive gold display4--,cyneg4 #ia4 ,the poet is addressing ,diana and describing her attire4 ,,ausonius4 ,weave flexile gold within thy shawls1 ,o ,greece#aba4 ,this is the first passage since the time of ,homer1 which mentions ,greece as concerned in weaving with gold4 ,but ,ausonius probably alluded to the ,greeks of ,asia ,minor1 as1 besides the evidence produced from ,basil1 we have seen that ,pergamus was one of the most noted places for these productions1 which were on that account called 8,attalic vestes#abb40 ,when ,ausonius was appointed ,consul at ,rome ,a4 ,d4 #cgi1 his friend and former pupil1 the ,emperor ,gratian1 sent him as a present a toga in which was inserted a figure of ,constantius ,,ii41 wrought in gold4--,ausonii ,gratiarum ,actio1 #ec4 #aba ,epigram #cg4 #abb 8,i find evidence that kings wore the striped toga2 that figured cloths were in use even in the days of ,homer2 and that these gave rise to the triumphal4 ,to produce this effect with the needle was the invention of the ,phrygians1 on which account cloths so embroidered have been called ,phrygionic4 ,in the same part of ,asia king ,attalus discovered the art of inserting a woof of gold7872 from which circumstance the ,attalic cloths received their name7874 ,babylon first obtained celebrity by its method of diversifying the picture with different colors1 and gave its name to textures of this description4 ,but to weave with a great number of leashes1 so as to produce the cloths called polymita 7the polymita were damask cloths71 was first taught in ,alexandria2 to divide by squares 7plaids7 in ,gaul4 ,metellus ,scipio brought it as an accusation against ,cato1 that even in his time ,babylonian coverlets for triclinia were sold for #hjj1jjj sesterces 7about #cj1jjj71 although the emperor ,nero lately gave for them no less than #d1jjj1jjj sesterces 7about #aej1jjj74 ,the prtext of ,servius ,tullius1 covering the statue of ,fortune which he dedicated1 remained until the death of ,sejanus1 and it is wonderful that they had neither decayed of themselves nor been injured by moths during the space of #efj years40--,plin4 ,h4 ,n4 viii4 #fd4 7,see ,appendix ,a47 ,,claudian mentions with delight the use of gold in dress as well as of silk4 ,his testimony has been given in chapter ,,iii4 of this ,part4 ,,sidonius ,,apollinaris mentions the gold in the dress of ,prince ,sigismer4 ,his testimony is also given in chapter ,,iii4 ,,corippus1 describing the accession of ,justin ,,ii4 to the ,empire 7,a4 ,d4 #efe71 mentions 7,l4 ii47 his tunic enriched with gold as part of his imperial costume4 ,,paulinus4 ,misceturque ostro mollitum in fila metellum4 ,de ,vita ,martini1 ,l4 iii4 ,we find the following law in the ,codex ,justinianus3 ,nemo vir auratas in tunicis aut in lincis habeat paragaudas3 nisi hi tantummodo1 quibus hoc propter ,imperiale ministerium concessum est4 ,corpus ,juris ,civilis1 tom4 v4 tit4 viii4 leg4 #b4 ,the 8aurata paragauda0 was a border of gold lace or thread4 ,it appears that ladies might wear it on their tunics1 while men were only permitted to use it in token of their official character as being in the service of the emperor4 ,in allusion to these or similar regulations1 lius ,lampridius 7#cd7 says of the emperor ,alexander ,severus1 ,auratam vestem ministerium nullus vel in publico convivio habuit4 ,the testimony of ,ambrose1 ,jerome1 and ,basil has been given in ,chapter ,,iii41 which see4 ,from the book of ,joshua we learn that the woven stuffs of ,babylon were not confined to domestic use1 but exported into foreign countries4 ,the two chief productions of ,babylonian looms were carpets and shawls4 ,one of the principal objects of luxury in ,asia from the remotest ages1 were nowhere so finely woven1 and in such rich colors as at ,babylon4 ,on the ,babylonian carpets were woven or depicted representations of those fabulous animals the dragon and griffin1 together with other unnatural combinations of form1 probably originating in ,india1 and with which we have become acquainted by the ruins of ,persepolis4 ,it was by means of the ,babylonian manufactures1 that the knowledge of these fanciful and imaginary beings1 was conveyed to the ,western world1 and from them transferred to the ,greek vases4 8,a mantle of ,shinar10 or as our translators have rendered it1 8,a ,babylonish garment10 was secreted by ,achan from the spoils of ,jericho2 and the delinquent speaks of this as being the most valuable part of his plunder#abc4 ,next to carpets and shawls1 the ,babylonian garments called ,sindones were held in the highest estimation4 ,the most costly ,sindones1 were so much valued for their fineness of texture and brilliancy of color1 as to be compared to those of ,media1 and set apart for royal use2 they were even to be found at the tomb of ,cyrus1 which was profusely decorated with every species of furniture in use among the ,persian monarchs during their lives4 #abc 8,when ,i saw among the spoils a goodly ,babylonish garment1 and two hundred shekels of silver1 and a wedge of gold of fifty shekels weight1 then ,i coveted them1 and took them1 and behold1 they are hid in the earth in the midst of my tent1 and the silver under it40--,joshua vii4 #ba4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,ii ,from ,champollion ,,egyptian ,,looms1 with the processes of ,spinning and ,winding4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,silver ,,textures1 c41 ,,of ,,the ,,ancients4 ,,extreme ,,beauty ,,of ,,these ,,manufactures4 ,magnificent dress worn by ,herod ,agrippa1 mentioned in ,acts xii4 #ba--;,josephus's account of this dress1 and dreadful death of ,herod--,discovery of ancient ,piece-goods--,beautiful manuscript of ,theodolphus1 ,bishop of ,orleans1 who lived in the ninth century--,extraordinary beauty of ,indian1 ,chinese1 ,egyptian1 and other manufactured goods preserved in this manuscript--,egyptian arts--,wise regulations of the ,egyptians in relation to the arts--,late discoveries in ,egypt by the ,prussian hierologist1 ,dr4 ,lepsius--,cloth of glass4 ,the ,evangelist ,luke1 in ,acts xii4 #ba4 speaks of the 8royal apparel10 in which ,herod ,agrippa1 king of ,judea1 was arrayed when he received the ambassadors of ,tyre and ,sidon1 sitting in great state upon his throne at ,csarea4 8,and upon a set day1 ,herod arrayed in royal apparel1 sat upon his throne1 and made an oration unto them4 ,and the people gave a shout1 saying1 ,it is the voice of a god1 and not of a man4 ,and immediately the angel of the ,lord smote him1 because he gave not ,god the glory3 and he was eaten of worms1 and gave up the ghost40 ,josephus describes the same garment1 which was a tunic1 as 8all made of silver1 and wonderful in its texture40 ,he adds1 that the king appeared in this dress at break of day in the theatre1 and that the silver1 illuminated by the first rays of the sun1 glittered in such a manner as to terrify the beholders1 so that his flatterers began to call out aloud1 saluting him as a god4 ,he was then seized with the painful and loathsome distemper1 of which he soon after died#abd4 #abd ,ant4 ,jud4 ,l4 xix4 cap4 #h4 #b4 p4 #hga4 ,hudson4 ,we extract the following curious account of the discovery of ,ancient ,piece-goods and manufactured stuffs from a late number of an ,english publication called the 8,mining ,review40 ,discovery of ancient ,piece-goods and manufactured stuffs4--8,it is more than a thousand years since ,theodolphus1 ,bishop of ,orleans1 gave to ,notre ,dame du ,puy en ,velay a beautiful manuscript1 containing the ancient ,testament1 the chronography of ,st4 ,isidor1 and other pieces1 the whole distributed into #ach articles2 which he presented in token of gratitude for his deliverance from the prison of ,angers1 where he was confined in the year #hce4 ,it was on ,palm ,sunday that year1 while ,louis ,le ,debonnaire was passing1 that he began to sing a well-known ,canticle1 which the ,catholic church has since then introduced into its ceremonies4 ,this precious manuscript1 in a state of perfect preservation1 is to be seen in the archives of the ,bishopric of the ,puy en ,velay1 department of the ,haute ,loire4 ,a portion of the manuscript is written on leaves of common parchment1 in letters of red and black1 with a few of gold intermixed4 ,the other portion is inscribed on leaves of parchment1 dyed purple1 with letters of gold and silver1 among which are observed1 ornaments of different kinds and colors1 designated the 8,byzantine style40 ,the manuscript1 remarkable for its beauty and preservation1 is still more valuable for the manufactured stuffs which it contains4 ,when ,theodolphus composed his manuscript1 with the intention of preserving from contact and friction the gold and silver characters 7which1 in time1 would have tended to displace and obliterate them71 he placed between each page a portion of the manufactured tissues peculiar to the era in which he lived4 ,these specimens of the silk1 and other pieces of goods of the time are thus curiously preserved#abe4 ,till lately1 little attention was paid to these tissues1 which are principally of ,india manufacture1 bearing scarcely any analogy to the products of the modern loom4 ,some are ,,cashmere ,,shawls of those patterns1 which the ,french call broucha and espouline1 and are made in the ,indian fashion1 but with this difference1 that they are limited to four colors1 and demonstrate the greatest antiquity by the primitive simplicity of their colors and design4 ,others are ,,crapes and ,,gauzes1 against the luxury of whose transparent tissues1 the fathers of the church at that time so perseveringly fulminated their censures4 ,the rest consist of muslins and ,china-crape of exquisite beauty4 ,the components of the majority of these tissues are of goats' or camels' hair of exceeding delicacy and fineness4 ,like the manufactured stuffs of ancient ,egypt1 painted on the walls of its palaces and tombs1 or substantially preserved amidst the envelopes of mummies1 the designs are limited to four colors1 which are in fact the four sacred ones of ,china1 ,india1 ,egypt1 and the ,hebrew ,tabernacle4 ,nevertheless1 the ,egyptian designs1 identical with those of ,india1 are many of them of exquisite beauty4 ,the consummate skill of the silk and cotton manufacturers of ancient ,egypt1 #djjj years ago1 the beauty and richness of their fabrics--the little alteration which has taken place in the economy or machinery of the factories1 as well as in their product1 has been recently demonstrated in the great work of ,champollion4 ,all the details of the silk and cotton factories of ,egypt1 under the ,pharaohs of the #ahth dynasty 7which then monopolized the commerce of the world1 and sent a colony of weavers1 from the overburthened population of ,lower ,egypt1 to found ,athens1 and the subsequent civilization of ,europe71 are laid open with vivid accuracy in that splendid work#abf1 and brought with all their startling analogies before the eye of the modern reader by drawings from the temples1 palaces1 and tombs which it contains4 ,it proves1 indeed1 that there is 0nothing new under the sun40 #abe ,a shred of gold cloth is preserved in the ,museum of ,antiquities at ,leyden1 which is supposed to have been discovered in one of the ancient tombs at ,tarquinia in ,etruria4 ,in this tissue the gold forms a compact covering over bright yellow silk4 #abf ,see ,plate ,,ii4 ,that the ,egyptians excelled in science and art is evident from their monuments1 paintings1 and sculptures1 whereon they are depicted4 ,it is also proved by ,scripture1 which speaks of the 8wisdom of ,egypt0 with reference to art2 and from the fact that ,egypt was deemed by other nations the fountain of arts and sciences1 and that their philosophers were wont to resort thither to collect some of the 8droppings of ,egyptian wisdom40 ,according to ,diodorus1 all trades vied with each other in improving their own particular branch1 no pains being spared to bring each to perfection4 ,to promote the more effectually this object1 it was enacted that no artisan should follow any trade or employment but that defined bylaw1 and pursued by his ancestors4 ,no tradesman was permitted to meddle with political affairs1 or hold any civil office in the state1 lest his thoughts should be distracted by the inconsistency of his pursuits1 or the jealousy and displeasure of the master in whose service he was employed4 ,they foresaw that without such a law constant interruptions would take place1 in consequence of the necessity or desire of becoming conspicuous in a public station2 that their proper occupations would be neglected1 and many would be led by vanity and self-sufficiency to interfere in matters which were out of their sphere4 ,they considered1 moreover1 that to pursue more than one avocation would be detrimental to their own interests1 and those of the community at large2 and that1 when men1 from a motive of avarice1 engage in numerous branches of art1 the general result is1 that they are unable to excel in any4 ,if any artisan interfered in political matters1 or engaged in any employment other than the one to which he had been brought up1 a severe punishment was immediately inflicted upon him4 ,the eminent ,german hierologist1 ,dr4 ,lepsius1 now employed in ,egypt by the ,prussian government1 after mentioning1 in a recent letter1 the many discoveries he had made of ancient ruins1 tombs1 c41 writes as follows3 8,with the exception of about twelve1 which belong to a later period1 all these tombs were erected contemporaneously with1 or soon after1 the building of the great pyramid1 and consequently their dates throw an invaluable light on the study of human civilization in the most remote period of antiquity4 ,the sculptures in relief are surprisingly numerous1 representing whole figures1 some the size of life1 and others of various dimensions4 ,the paintings are on back grounds of the finest chalk4 ,they are numerous and beautiful beyond conception--as fresh and perfect as if finished yesterday6 ,the pictures and sculptures on the walls of the tombs1 represent1 for the most part1 scenes in the lives of the deceased persons1 whose wealth in cattle1 fish-boats1 servants1 c41 is ostentatiously displayed before the eye of the spectator4 ,all this gives an insight into the details of private life among the ancient ,egyptians4 ,by the help of these inscriptions ,i think ,i could1 without difficulty1 make a 8,court ,calendar0 of the reign of ,king ,cheops#abg4 ,in some instances ,i have traced the graves of father1 son1 grandson1 and even great-grandson--all that now remains of the distinguished families1 which five thousand years ago1 formed the nobility of the land40 #abg ,we do not find in these researches1 that the ancients were acquainted with the arts of spinning and weaving glass1 or of giving it any required shade of color4 ,this invention1 therefore1 must be considered as belonging to the nineteenth century1 and the honor of the discovery is due to ,m4 ,dubus ,bonnel1 an ingenious ,frenchman1 a native of ,lille1 and for which he obtained patents in ,great ,britain1 and various countries of the ,european continent in #ahcg4 8,when we figure to ourselves an apartment decorated with cloth of glass1 and resplendent with lights1 we must be convinced that it will equal in brilliancy all that the imagination can conceive2 and realise1 in a word1 the wonders of the enchanted palaces mentioned in the ,arabian tales4 ,the lights flashing from the polished surface of the glass1 to which any color or shade may be given1 will make the room have the appearance of an apartment composed of pearls1 mother-of-pearl1 diamonds1 garnets1 sapphires1 topazes1 rubies1 emeralds1 or amethysts1 c41 or1 in short1 of all those precious stones united and combined in a thousand ways1 and formed into stars1 rosettes1 boquets1 garlands1 festoons1 and graceful undulations1 varied almost ad infinitum40--,l',echo du ,monde ,savant1 c4 ,no4 #eh1 ,feb4 #ae1 #ahcg4--,translated from the ,french4 ,the warp is composed of silk1 forming the body and groundwork on which the pattern in glass appears1 as effected by the weft4 ,the requisite flexibility of glass thread for manufacturing purposes is to be ascribed to its extreme fineness2 as not less than from fifty to sixty of the original threads 7spun by steam engine power7 are required to form one thread of the weft4 ,the process is slow2 for no more than a yard of cloth can be produced in twelve hours4 ,the work1 however1 is extremely beautiful and comparatively cheap1 inasmuch as no similar stuff1 where bullion is really introduced1 can be purchased for anything like the price for which this is sold2 added to this1 it is1 as far as the glass is concerned1 imperishable4 ,glass is more durable than either gold or silver1 and1 besides1 possesses the advantage of never tarnishing4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,silk-,,worm1 c4 ,preliminary observations--,the silk-worm--,various changes of the silk-worm--,its superiority above other worms--,beautiful verses on the ,may-fly1 illustrative of the shortness of human life--,transformations of the silk-worm--,its small desire of locomotion--,first sickness of the worm--,manner of casting its ,exuvi--,sometimes cannot be fully accomplished--,consequent death of the insect--,second1 third1 and fourth sickness of the worm--,its disgust for food--,material of which silk is formed--,mode of its secretion--,manner of unwinding the filaments--,floss-silk--,cocoon--,its imperviousness to moisture--,effect of the filaments breaking during the formation of the cocoon--,mr4 ,robinet's curious calculation on the movements made by a silk-worm in the formation of a cocoon--,cowper's beautiful lines on the silk-worm--,periods in which its various progressions are effected in different climates--,effects of sudden transitions from heat to cold--,the worm's appetite sharpened by increased temperature--,shortens its existence--,various experiments in artificial heating--,modes of artificial heating--,singular estimate of ,count ,dandolo--,astonishing increase of the worm--,its brief existence in the moth state--,formation of silk--,the silken filament formed in the worm before its expulsion--,erroneous opinions entertained by writers on this subject--,the silk-worm's ,will4 ,it can never be too strongly impressed upon a mind anxious for the acquisition of knowledge1 that the commonest things by which we are surrounded are deserving of minute and careful attention4 ,the most profound investigations of ,philosophy are necessarily connected with the ordinary circumstances of our being1 and of the world in which our every-day life is spent4 ,with regard to our own existence1 the pulsation of the heart1 the act of respiration1 the voluntary movement of our limbs1 the condition of sleep1 are among the most ordinary operations of our nature2 and yet how long were the wisest of men struggling with dark and bewildering speculations before they could offer anything like a satisfactory solution of these phenomena1 and how far are we still from an accurate and complete knowledge of them6 ,the science of ,meteorology1 which attempts to explain to us the philosophy of matters constantly before our eyes1 as dew1 mist1 and rain1 is dependent for its illustrations upon a knowledge of the most complicated facts1 such as the influence of heat and electricity upon the air2 and this knowledge is at present so imperfect1 that even these common occurrences of the weather1 which men have been observing and reasoning upon for ages1 are by no means satisfactorily explained1 or reduced to the precision that every science should aspire to4 ,yet1 however difficult it may be entirely to comprehend the phenomena we daily witness1 everything in nature is full of instruction4 ,thus the humblest flower of the field1 although1 to one whose curiosity has not been excited1 and whose understanding has1 therefore1 remained uninformed1 it may appear worthless and contemptible1 is valuable to the botanist1 not only with regard to its place in the arrangement of this portion of the ,creator's works1 but as it leads his mind forward to the consideration of those beautiful provisions for the support of vegetable life1 which it is the part of the physiologist to study and admire#abh4 #abh 8,insect ,architecture10 vol4 i4 p4 #i4 ,london3 ,charles ,knight ,co41 ,ludgate ,st4 #ahde4 ,this train of reasoning is peculiarly applicable to the economy of insects4 ,they constitute a very large and interesting part of the animal kingdom4 ,they are everywhere about us4 ,the spider weaves his curious web in our houses2 the caterpillar constructs his silken cell in our gardens2 the wasp that hovers over our food has a nest not far removed from us1 which she has assisted to build with the nicest art2 the beetle that crawls across our path is also an ingenious and laborious mechanic1 and has some curious instincts to exhibit to those who will feel an interest in watching his movements2 and the moth that eats into our clothes has something to plead for our pity1 for he came1 like us1 naked into the world1 and he has destroyed our garments1 not in malice or wantonness1 but that he may clothe himself with the same wool which we have stripped from the sheep4 ,an observation of the habits of these little creatures is full of valuable lessons1 which the abundance of the examples has no tendency to diminish4 ,the more such observations are multiplied1 the more we are led forward to the freshest and the most delightful parts of knowledge2 the more do we learn to estimate rightly the extraordinary provisions and most abundant resources of a creative ,providence2 and the better do we appreciate our own relations with all the infinite varieties of ,nature1 and our dependence1 in common with the ephemeron that flutters its little hour in the summer sun1 upon that ,being in whose scheme of existence the humblest as well as the highest creature has its destined purposes4 8,if you speak of a stone10 says ,st4 ,basil1 8if you speak of a fly1 a gnat1 or a bee1 your conversation will be a sort of demonstration of his power whose hand formed them1 for the wisdom of the workman is commonly perceived in that which is of little size4 ,he who has stretched out the ,heavens1 and dug up the bottom of the sea1 is also ,he who has pierced a passage through the sting of the bee for the ejection of its poison40 ,if it be granted that making discoveries is one of the most satisfactory of human pleasures1 then we may without hesitation affirm1 that the study of insects is one of the most delightful branches of natural history1 for it affords peculiar facilities for its pursuit4 ,these facilities are found in the almost inexhaustible variety which insects present to the curious observer4 ,there is1 perhaps1 no situation in which the lover of nature and the observer of animal life may not find opportunities for increasing his store of facts4 ,it is told of a state prisoner under a cruel and rigorous despotism1 that when he was excluded from all commerce with mankind1 and was shut out from books1 he took an interest and found consolation in the visits of a spider2 and there is no improbability in the story4 ,the operations of that persecuted creature are among the most extraordinary exhibitions of mechanical ingenuity2 and a daily watching of the workings of its instinct would beget admiration in a rightly constituted mind4 ,the poor prisoner had abundant leisure for the speculations in which the spider's web would enchain his understanding4 ,we have all of us1 at one period or other of our lives1 been struck with some singular evidence of contrivance in the economy of insects1 which we have seen with our own eyes4 ,want of leisure1 and probably want of knowledge1 have prevented us from following up the curiosity which for a moment was excited4 ,and yet some such accident has made men ,naturalists1 in the highest meaning of the term4 ,bonnet1 evidently speaking of himself1 says1 8,i knew a naturalist1 who1 when he was seventeen years of age1 having heard of the operations of the ant-lion1 began by doubting them4 ,he had no rest till he had examined into them2 and he verified them1 he admired them1 he discovered new facts1 and soon became the disciple and the friend of the ,pliny of ,france#abi0 7,raumur74 ,it is not the happy fortune of many to be able to devote themselves exclusively to the study of nature1 unquestionably the most fascinating of human employments2 but almost every one may acquire sufficient knowledge to be able to derive a high gratification from beholding the more common operations of animal life4 ,his materials for contemplation are always before him4 #abi ,contemplation de la ,nature1 part ii4 ch4 #db4 ,the silk-worm is a species of caterpillar which1 like all other insects of the same class1 undergoes a variety of changes during the short period of its life2 assuming1 in each of three successive transformations1 a form wholly dissimilar to that with which it was previously invested4 ,among the great variety of caterpillars1 the descriptions of which are to be found in the records of natural history1 the silk-worm occupies a place far above the rest4 ,not only is our attention called to the examination of its various transformations1 by the desire of satisfying our curiosity as entomologists1 but our artificial wants incite us likewise to the study of its nature and habits1 that we may best and most profitably apply its instinctive industry to our own advantage4 ,it has been well observed by ,pullein1 a writer on this subject1 that 8there is scarcely anything among the various wonders which the animal creation affords1 more admirable than the variety of changes which the silk-worm undergoes20 but the curious texture of that silken covering with which it surrounds itself when it arrives at the perfection of its animal life1 vastly surpasses what is made by other animals of this class4 ,all the caterpillar kind do1 indeed1 pass through changes like those of the silk-worm1 and the beauty of many in their butterfly state greatly exceeds it2 but the covering which they put on before this mutation is poor and mean1 when compared to that golden tissue in which the silk-worm wraps itself4 ,they1 indeed1 come forth in a variety of colors1 their wings bedropped with gold and scarlet1 yet are they but the beings of a summer's day2 both their life and beauty quickly vanish1 and they leave no remembrance after them2 but the silk-worm leaves behind it such beautiful1 such beneficial monuments1 as at once to record both the wisdom of their ,creator and his bounty to man40 ,we may without impropriety1 here introduce the following truly beautiful comparison of the shortness of human life1 as well as in illustration of this part of our subject1 as evidenced in the ,may-fly4 8,the angler's ,may-fly1 the most short-lived in its perfect state of any of the insect race1 emerges from the water1 where it passes its aurelia state1 about six in the evening1 and dies about eleven at night40--,,white',s ,selborne4 ,the sun of the eve was warm and bright ,when the ,may-fly burst his shell1 ,and he wanton'd awhile in that fair light ,o'er the river's gentle swell2 ,and the deepening tints of the crimson sky ,still gleam'd on the wing of the glad ,may-fly4 ,the colors of sunset pass'd away1 ,the crimson and yellow green1 ,and the evening-star's first twinkling ray ,in the waveless stream was seen2 ,till the deep repose of the stillest night ,was hushing about his giddy flight4 ,the noon of the night is nearly come-- ,there's a crescent in the sky2-- ,the silence still hears the myriad hum ,of the insect revelry4 ,the hum has ceas'd--the quiet wave ,is now the sportive ,may-fly's grave4 ,oh6 thine was a blessed lot--to spring ,in thy lustihood to air1 ,and sail about1 on untiring wing1 ,through a world most rich and fair1 ,to drop at once in thy watery bed1 ,like a leaf that the willow branch has shed4 ,and who shall say that his thread of years ,is a life more blest than thine6 ,has his feverish dream of doubts and fears ,such joys as those which shine ,in the constant pleasures of thy way1 ,most happy child of the happy ,may8 ,for thou wert born when the earth was clad ,with her robe of buds and flowers1 ,and didst float about with a soul as glad ,as a bird in the sunny showers2 ,and the hour of thy death had a sweet repose1 ,like a melody1 sweetest at its close4 ,nor too brief the date of thy cheerful race-- ',tis its use that measures time-- ,and the mighty ,spirit that fills all space ,with ,his life and ,his will sublime1 ,may see that the ,may-fly and the ,man ,each flutter out the same small span2 ,and the fly that is born with the sinking sun1 ,to die ere the midnight hour1 ,may have deeper joy1 ere his course be run1 ,than man in his pride and power2 ,and the insect's minutes be spared the fears ,and the anxious doubts of our threescore years4 ,the years and the minutes are as one-- ,the fly drops in his twilight mirth1 ,and the man1 when his long day's work is done1 ,crawls to the self-same earth4 ,great ,father of each6 may our mortal day ,be the prelude to an endless ,may#acj6 #acj 8,see10 exclaims ,linnus1 8the large1 elegant painted wings of the butterfly1 four in number1 covered with delicate feathery scales6 ,with these it sustains itself in the air a whole day1 rivalling the flight of birds and the brilliancy of the peacock4 ,consider this insect through the wonderful progress of its life1--how different is the first period of its being from the second1 and both from the parent insect6 ,its changes are an inexplicable enigma to us3 we see a green caterpillar1 furnished with sixteen feet1 feeding upon the leaves of a plant2 this is changed into a chrysalis1 smooth1 of golden lustre1 hanging suspended to a fixed point1 without feet1 and subsisting without food2 this insect again undergoes another transformation1 acquires wings1 and six feet1 and becomes a gay butterfly1 sporting in the air1 and living by suction upon the honey of plants4 ,what has ,nature produced more worthy of our admiration than such an animal coming upon the stage of the world1 and playing its part there under so many different masks80 ,the ancients were so struck with the transformations of the butterfly1 and its revival from a seeming temporary death1 as to have considered it an emblem of the soul1 the ,greek word psyche signifying both the soul and a butterfly2 and it is for this reason that we find the butterfly introduced into their allegorical sculptures as an emblem of immortality4 ,trifling1 therefore1 and perhaps contemptible1 as to the unthinking may seem the study of a butterfly1 yet when we consider the art and mechanism displayed in so minute a structure1--the fluids circulating in vessels so small as almost to escape the sight--the beauty of the wings and covering--and the manner in which each part is adapted for its peculiar functions1--we cannot but be struck with wonder and admiration1 and allow1 with ,paley1 that 8the production of beauty was as much in the ,creator's mind in painting a butterfly as in giving symmetry to the human form40 ,silk-worms proceed from eggs which are deposited during the summer by a grayish kind of moth1 of the genus palna4 ,these eggs are about equal in size to a grain of mustard seed3 their color when first laid is yellow2 but in three or four days after1 they acquire a bluish cast4 ,in temperate climates1 and by using proper precautions1 these eggs may be preserved during the winter and spring1 without risk of premature hatching4 ,the period of their animation may be accelerated or retarded by artificial means1 so as to agree with the time when the natural food of the insect shall appear in ample abundance for its support4 ,all the curious changes and labors which accompany and characterize the life of the silk-worm are performed within the space of a very few weeks4 ,this period varies1 indeed1 according to the climate or temperature in which its life is passed2 all its vital functions being quickened1 and their duration proportionally abridged1 by warmth4 ,with this sole variance1 its progressions are alike in all climates1 and the same mutations accompany its course4 ,the three successive states of being put on by this insect are1 that of the worm or caterpillar1 of the chrysalis or aurelia1 and moth4 ,in addition to these more decided transformations1 the progress of the silk-worm in its caterpillar state is marked by five distinct stages of being4 ,when first hatched1 it appears as a small black worm about a quarter of an inch in length4 ,its first indication of animation is the desire which it evinces for obtaining food1 in search of which1 if not immediately supplied1 it will exhibit more power of locomotion than characterizes it at any other period4 ,so small is the desire of change on the part of these insects1 that of the generality it may be said1 their own spontaneous will seldom leads them to travel over a greater space than three feet throughout the whole duration of their lives4 ,even when hungry1 the worm still clings to the skeleton of the leaf from which its nourishment was last derived4 ,if1 by the continued cravings of its appetite1 it should be at length incited to the effort necessary for changing its position1 it will sometimes wander as far as the edge of the tray wherein it is confined1 and some few have been found sufficiently adventurous to cling to its rim2 but the smell of fresh leaves will instantly allure them back4 ,it would add incalculably to the labors and cares of their attendants1 if silk-worms were endowed with a more rambling disposition4 ,so useful is this peculiarity of their nature1 that one is irresistibly tempted to consider it the result of design1 and a part of that beautiful system of the fitness of things1 which the student of natural history has so many opportunities of contemplating with delight and admiration4 ,in about eight days from its being hatched1 its head becomes perceptibly larger1 and the worm is attacked by its first sickness4 ,this lasts for three days2 during which time it refuses food1 and remains motionless as in a kind of lethargy4 ,some have thought this to be sleep1 but the fatal termination which so frequently attends these sicknesses seems to afford a denial to this hypothesis4 ,the silk-worm increases its size so considerably1 and in so short a space of time1--its weight being multiplied many thousand fold in the course of one month1--that if only one skin had been assigned to it1 which should serve for its whole caterpillar state1 it would with difficulty have distended itself sufficiently to keep pace with the insect's growth4 ,the economy of nature has therefore admirably provided the embryos of other skins1 destined to be successively called into use2 and this sickness of the worm1 and its disinclination for food1 may very probably be occasioned by the pressure of the skin1 now become too small for the body which it encases4 ,at the end of the third day from its first refusal of food1 the animal appears1 on that account1 much wasted in its bodily frame2 a circumstance which materially assists in the painful operation of casting its skin3 this it now proceeds to accomplish4 ,to facilitate this moulting1 a sort of humor is thrown off by the worm1 which1 spreading between its body and the skin about to be abandoned1 lubricates their surfaces1 and causes them to separate the more readily4 ,the insect also emits from its body silken traces1 which1 adhering to the spot where it rests1 serves to confine the skin to its then existing position4 ,these preliminary steps seem to call for some considerable exertion1 as after them the worm remains quiet for a short space of time1 to recover from its fatigue4 ,it then proceeds1 by rubbing its head among the leafy fibres surrounding it1 to disencumber itself of the scaly covering4 ,its next effort is to break through the skin nearest to the head1 which1 as it is there the smallest1 calls for the greatest exertion2 and no sooner is this accomplished and the two front legs are disengaged1 than the remainder of the body is quickly drawn forth1 the skin being still fastened to the spot in the manner already described4 ,this moulting is so complete1 that not only is the whole covering of the body cast off1 but that of the feet1 the entire skull1 and even the jaws1 including the teeth4 ,these several parts may be discerned by the unassisted eye2 but become very apparent when viewed through a magnifying lens of moderate power4 ,in two or three minutes from the beginning of its efforts the worm is wholly freed1 and again puts on the appearance of health and vigor2 feeding with recruited appetite upon its leafy banquet4 ,it sometimes happens that the outer skin refuses to detach itself wholly1 but breaks and leaves an annular portion adhering to the extremity of its body1 from which all the struggles of the insect cannot wholly disengage it4 ,the pressure thus occasioned induces swelling and inflammation in other parts of the body2 and1 after efforts of greater or less duration1 death generally terminates its sufferings4 ,worms newly freed from their exuvi are easily distinguished from others by the pale color and wrinkled appearance of their new skin4 ,this latter quality1 however1 soon disappears1 through the repletion and growth of the insect1 which continues to feed during five days4 ,at this time its length will be increased to half an inch2 when it is attacked by a second sickness1 followed by a second moulting1 the manner of performing which is exactly similar to the former4 ,its appetite then again returns1 and is indulged during other five days1 in the course of which time its length increases to three quarters of an inch3 it then undergoes its third sickness and moulting4 ,these being past in all respects like the former1 and five more days of feeding having followed1 it is seized by its fourth sickness1 and casts its skin for the last time in the caterpillar state4 ,the worm is now about one and a half or two inches long4 ,this last change being finished1 the worm devours its food most voraciously1 and increases rapidly in size during ten days4 ,the silk-worm has now attained to its full growth1 and is a slender caterpillar from two and a half to three inches in length 7,see ,figure #a4 ,plate ,,iii474 ,the peculiarities of its structure may be better examined now than in its earlier stages4 ,it can readily be seen that the worm has twelve membranous rings round its body1 parallel to each other2 and which1 answering to the movements of the animal1 mutually contract and elongate4 ,it has sixteen legs1 in pairs3 six in front1 which are covered with a sort of shell or scale1 and are placed under the three first rings1 and cannot be either sensibly lengthened1 or their position altered4 ,the other ten legs are called holders3 these are membranous1 flexible1 and attached to the body under the rings1 being furnished with little hooks1 which assist the insect in climbing4 ,the skull is inclosed in a scaly substance1 similar to the covering of the first six legs4 ,the jaws are indented or serrated like the teeth of a saw1 and their strength is great considering the size of the insect4 ,its mouth is peculiar1 having a vertical instead of an horizontal aperture2 and the worm is furnished with eighteen breathing holes1 placed at equal distances down the body1 nine on each side4 ,each of these holes is supposed to be the termination of a particular organ of respiration4 ,on either side of the head1 near to the mouth1 seven small eyes may be discerned4 ,the two broad appearances higher upon the head1 which are frequently mistaken for eyes1 are bones of the skull4 ,the two apertures through which the worm draws its silken filament are placed just beneath the jaw1 and close to each other2 these being exceedingly minute4 ,at the period above-mentioned the desire of the worm for food begins to abate3 the first symptom of this is the appearance of the leaves nibbled into small portions and wasted4 ,it soon after entirely ceases even to touch the leaves2 appears restless and uneasy2 erects it head2 and moves about from side to side1 with a circular motion1 in quest of a place wherein it can commence its labor of spinning4 ,its color is now light green1 with some mixture of a darker hue4 ,in twenty-four hours from the time of its abstaining from food1 the material for forming its silk will be digested in its reservoirs2 its green color will disappear2 its body will have acquired a degree of glossiness1 and have become partially transparent towards its neck4 ,before the worm is quite prepared to spin1 its body will have acquired greater firmness1 and be in a trifling measure lessened in size4 8,the substance10 says ,mr4 ,porter1 8of which the silk is composed1 is secreted in the form of a fine yellow transparent gum in two separate vessels of slender dimensions1 wound1 as it were1 on two spindles in the stomach2 and if unfolded1 these vessels would be about ten inches in length#aca40 ,this statement is proved to be erroneous1 as the reader will perceive1 at the conclusion of this chapter4 #aca ,porter's 8,treatise on the ,silk ,manufacture10 p4 #aaa4 ,when the worm has fixed upon some angle1 or hollow place1 whose dimensions agree with the size of its intended silken ball or cocoon1 it begins its labor by throwing forth thin and irregular threads1 see ,figure #b4 ,plate ,,iii41 which are intended to support its future dwelling4 ,during the first day1 the insect forms upon these a loose structure of an oval shape1 which is called floss silk1 and within which covering1 in the three following days1 it forms the firm and consistent yellow ball2 the laborer1 of course1 always remaining on the inside of the sphere which it is forming#acb4 #acb ,if at this time any of the threads intended for the support of the cocoon should be broken1 the worm will find1 in the progress of its work1 that the ball1 not being properly poised1 becomes unsteady1 so that the insect is unable properly to go forward with its labors4 ,under these circumstances the worm pierces and altogether quits the unfinished cocoon1 and throws out its remaining threads at random wherever it passes2 by which means the silk is wholly lost1 and the worm1 finding no place wherein to prepare for its change1 dies without having effected it4 ,it may sometimes happen1 but such a thing is of unfrequent occurrence1 that the preparatory threads before mentioned are broken by another worm working in the neighborhood1 when the same unsatisfactory result will be experienced4--,obs4 on the ,culture of ,silk1 by ,a4 ,,stephenson4 ,the silken filament1 which when drawn out appears to be one thread1 is composed of two fibres1 unwound through the two orifices before described2 and these fibres are brought together by means of two hooks1 placed within the silk-worm's mouth for the purpose4 ,the worm rests on its lower extremity throughout the unwinding operation1 and employs its mouth and front legs in the task of directing and uniting the two filaments4 ,the filament is not wound in regular concentric circles round the interior surface of the ball1 but in spots1 going backwards and forwards with a sort of wavy motion4 ,this apparently irregular manner of proceeding is plainly perceptible when the silk is being reeled off the ball2 which does not make more than one or two entire revolutions while ten or twelve yards of silk are being transferred to the reel#acc4 #acc ,mr4 ,robinet1 of ,paris1 made the following curious calculation on the movements a silk-worm must make in forming a cocoon supposed to contain a thread of #aejj metres4 ,it is known1 says ,mr4 ,robinet1 that the silk-worm1 in forming his cocoon1 does not spin the silken filament in concentric circles round the interior surface of the ball1 but in a zigzag manner4 ,this it effects by the motions of its head4 ,now if each one of these motions gives half a centimetre of the silken filament2 it follows that the worm must make #cjj1jjj motions of its head to form it2 and if the labor requires #gb hours in the performance1 the creature makes #ajj1jjj motions every #bd hours1 #d1aff per hour1 #fi per minute1 and a little more than one in a second6 ,at the end of the third or fourth day1 the worm will have completed its task2 and we have then a silk cocoon 7,see ,figure #c4 ,plate ,,iii471 with the worm imprisoned in its centre2 the cocoon being from an inch to an inch and a half long1 and of a yellow or orange color4 ,when the insect has finished its labor of unwinding1 it smears the entire internal surface of the cocoon with a peculiar kind of gum1 very similar in its nature to the matter which forms the silk itself2 and this is no doubt designed as a shield against rain or the humidity of the atmosphere1 for the chrysalis in its natural state2 when of course it would be subject to all varieties of weather4 ,the silken filament of which the ball is made up1 is likewise accompanied1 throughout its entire length1 by a portion of gum1 which serves to give firmness and consistency to its texture2 and assists in rendering the dwelling of the chrysalis impervious to moisture4 ,this office it performs so well1 that when1 for the purpose of reeling the silk with greater facility1 the balls are thrown into basins of hot water1 they swim on the top with all the buoyancy of bladders2 nor1 unless the ball be imperfectly formed1 does the water penetrate within until the silk is nearly all unwound4 ,in figure #d1 plate ,,iii41 the cocoons are drawn two-thirds of the usual size1 and are shown with part of the outward floss silk removed4 ,the continual emission of the silken material during the formation of its envelope1 together with its natural evaporation1 uncompensated by food1 causes the worm gradually to contract in bulk2 it becomes wrinkled1 and the rings of its body approach nearer to each other and appear more decidedly marked4 ,when the ball is finished1 the insect rests awhile from its toil1 and then throws off its caterpillar garb4 ,if the cocoon be now opened1 its inhabitant will appear in the form of a chrysalis or aurelia1 in shape somewhat resembling a kidney-bean 7,see ,figure #e4 plate ,,iii471 but pointed at one end1 having a smooth brown skin4 ,its former covering1 so dissimilar to the one now assumed1 will be found lying beside it4 ,the account which has been given of the progressions of the silk-worm shows1 that1 in its various modifications1 the animal organization of the insect has been always tending towards its simplification4 ,count ,dandolo1 writing upon this subject1 observes1 8,thus the caterpillar is in the first instance composed of animal1 silky1 and excremental particles2 this forms the state of the growing caterpillar3 in the next stage it is composed of animal and silky particles2 it is then the mature caterpillar3 and lastly1 it is reduced to the animal particles alone2 and is termed in this state the chrysalis4 ,the poet ,cowper1 in the following lines1 beautifully illustrates this subject3 ,the beams of ,april1 ere it goes1 ,a worm1 scarce visible1 disclose2 ,all winter long content to dwell ,the tenant of his native shell4 ,the same prolific season gives ,the sustenance by which he lives1 ,the mulberry leaf1 a simple store1 ,that serves him--till he needs no more6 ,for1 his dimensions once complete1 ,thenceforth none ever sees him eat2 ,though till his growing time be past ,scarce ever is he seen to fast4 ,that hour arrived1 his work begins4 ,he spins and weaves1 and weaves and spins2 ,till circle upon circle1 wound ,careless around him and around1 ,conceals him with a veil though slight1 ,impervious to the keenest sight4 ,thus self-inclosed1 as in a cask1 ,at length he finishes his task3 ,and1 though a worm when he was lost1 ,or caterpillar at the most1 ,when next we see him1 wings he wears1 ,and in papilio pomp appears2 ,becomes oviparous2 supplies ,with future worms and future flies ,the next ensuing year--and dies6 ,well were it for the world if all ,who creep about this earthly ball1 ,though shorter-lived than most he be1 ,were useful in their kind as he4 ,it has been already noticed that the progressions of the insects are accelerated by an increase of temperature2 and some variation will equally be experienced where different modes of treatment are followed2 and1 in particular1 where different periods of the year are chosen in which to produce and rear the worm4 ,malpighius1 in his 8,anatomy of the ,silk-worm10 says1 that worms which he hatched in ,may were eleven days old ere they were attacked by their first sickness2 others hatched in ,july were ten days1 and those brought forth in ,august nine days1 before they refused their food1 preparatory to their first moulting4 ,eight days appear to be the most usual term for their first attack2 and by his judicious treatment count ,dandolo shortened even this term by two days4 ,in ,europe1 except where recourse is had to artificial aid1 the term of the caterpillar state is usually that which has been already mentioned4 ,sudden transitions from cold to heat1 or vice versa1 are highly injurious to the silk-worm2 but it can bear a very high degree of heat1 if uniformly maintained1 without sustaining injury4 ,count ,dandolo observed1 that 8the greater the degree of heat in which it is reared1 the more acute are its wants1 the more rapid its pleasures1 and the shorter its existence40 ,monsieur ,boissier de ,sauvagues made many experiments on this point4 ,one year1 when by the early appearance of the mulberry leaves1 which were developed by the end of ,april1 he was forced to hurry forward the operations of his filature1 he raised the heat of the apartment in which the newly-hatched worms were placed to #ajj2 gradually diminishing this during their first and second ages to #ie4 ,in consequence of the animal excitement thus induced1 there elapsed only nine days between the hatching and the second moulting inclusively4 ,it was the general opinion of those cultivators who witnessed the experiment1 that the insects would not be able to exist in so intensely heated an atmosphere4 ,the walls of the apartment1 and the wicker hurdles on which the worms were placed1 could scarcely be touched from the great heat1 and yet all the changes and progressions went forward perfectly well1 and a most abundant crop of silk was the result4 ,the same gentleman1 on a subsequent occasion1 exposed his brood to the temperature of #ic to #ie during their first age2 of #hi to #ia in the second age2 and remarked that the attendant circumstances were the same as in his former experiment1 the changes of the worm being performed in the same space of time2 whence he came to the conclusion1 that it is not practicable to accelerate their progress beyond a certain point by any superadditions of heat4 ,in both of these experiments the quantity of food consumed1 was as great as is usually given during the longer period employed in the common manner of rearing4 ,after the second moulting had taken place in the last experiment1 the temperature was lowered to #hb2 and it is remarkable that the worms occupied only five days in completing their third and fourth changes1 although others which had been accustomed to this lower degree from their birth occupied seven or eight days for each of these moultings4 ,it would therefore seem that the constitution of the insects can be affected1 and an impetus given to their functions at the period of their first animation1 which accompanies them through their after stages4 ,so far from this forcing system proving injurious to the health of silk-worms1 ,m4 de ,sauvagues found that his broods were unusually healthy2 and that while the labors of cultivation were abridged in their duration1 much of the attendant anxiety was removed4 ,like other caterpillars1 the silk-worm is not a warm-blooded animal1 and its temperature is therefore always equal to that of the atmosphere in which it is placed4 ,in the silk-producing countries1 where modes of artificial heating have not been studied practically and scientifically1 the difficulty and expense that must attend the prosecution of this heating system1 form abundant reasons why it cannot be generally adopted4 ,the great susceptibility of the insect to atmospheric influences would also in a great degree render unsuitable the more common arrangements for the purpose4 ,the plan of warming apartments by means of stoves1 in its passage through which the air becomes highly heated before it mixes with and raises the general temperature of the air in the chamber1 is liable to this inconvenience1--that the portion so introduced1 having its vital property impaired by the burning heat through which it has passed1 injures1 proportionably1 the respirable quality of the whole atmosphere2 an effect which is easily perceptible by those who inhale it4 ,a better plan of heating has lately been suggested1 and is rapidly coming into practice1 viz41 of warming buildings by a current of hot water 7an ,american invention71 which is1 by a very simple process1 kept constantly flowing in close channels through the apartment1 where it continually gives off its heat by radiation2 and the degree of this being far below the point which is injurious to the vital quality of air1 the evil before alluded to is avoided4 ,if the expense of fuel be not too great1 as compared with that of the labor which would be saved by this invention1 the adoption in silk countries of such a mode of raising and regulating the temperature might1 probably1 prove advantageous4 ,the silk-worm remains in the form of a chrysalis1 for periods which1 according to the climate or the temperature wherein it may be placed1 vary from fifteen to thirty days4 ,in ,india1 the time is much shorter 7,see ,chapter ,,viii472 in ,spain and ,italy1 eighteen to twenty days4 ,in ,france three weeks2 and in the climate of ,england1 when unaccelerated by artificial means1 thirty days will elapse from the time the insect begins to spin until it emerges in its last and perfect form4 ,it then throws off the shroud which had confined it in seeming lifelessness1 and appears as a large moth of a grayish-white color1 furnished with four wings1 two eyes1 and two black horns or antlers which present a feathery appearance 7,see ,figure #f4 plate ,,iii474 ,if left until this period within the cocoon1 the moth takes immediate measures for its extrication3 ejecting from its mouth a liquor with which it moistens and lessens the adhesiveness of the gum wherewith it had lined the interior surface of its dwelling1 and the insect is enabled1 by frequent motions of its head1 to loosen1 without breaking1 the texture of the ball2 then using its hooked feet1 it pushes aside the filaments and makes a passage for itself into light and freedom4 ,it is erroneously said that the moth recovers its liberty by gnawing the silken threads2 but it is found1 on the contrary1 that if carefully unwound1 their continuity is by this means rarely broken4 ,one of the most remarkable circumstances connected with the natural history of silk-worms1 is the degree in which their bulk and weight is increased1 and the limited time wherein that increase is attained4 ,count ,dandolo1 who appears to have neglected nothing that could tend to the right understanding of the subject1 and to the consequent improvement of the processes employed1 had patience enough to count and weigh many hundred thousand eggs1 as well as follow out to the ultimate result his inquiries respecting their produce4 ,he found that on an average sixty-eight sound silk-worm's eggs weighed one grain4 ,one ounce#acd1 therefore1 comprised1 #ci1afh eggs4 ,but one twelfth part of this weight evaporates previous to hatching1 and the shells are equal to one fifth more4 ,if1 therefore1 from one ounce1 composed of #egf grains1 #dh grains be deducted for evaporation1 and #aae for the shells1 #dac grains will remain equal to the weight of #ci1afh young worms2 and1 at this rate1 #ed1ebf of the insects when newly hatched1 are required to make up the ounce4 ,after the first casting of the skin1 #chdj worms are found to have this weight1 so that the bulk and weight of the insects have in a few days been multiplied more than fourteen times4 ,after the second change #faj worms weigh an ounce1 their weight being increased in the intermediate time six fold4 ,in the week passed between the second and third ages1 the number of insects required to make up the same weight1 decreases from #faj to #add1 their weight being therefore more than quadrupled4 ,during the fourth age1 a similar rate of increase is maintained3 thirty-five worms now weigh an ounce4 ,the fifth age of the caterpillar comprises nearly a third part of its brief existence1 and has been described1 by an enthusiastic writer on the subject1 as the happiest period of its life1 during which it rapidly increases in size1 preparing and secreting the material it is about to spin4 ,when the silk-worms are fully grown1 and have arrived at their period of finally rejecting food1 six of them make up the weight of an ounce4 ,they have1 therefore1 since their last change1 again added to their weight six fold4 #acd ,this ounce contains #egf grains2 #h4ecbe of these grains equal seven grains troy4 ,one ounce avoirdupoise is therefore equal to about #ecc grains1 and between #aa-ab and #aa-ac ounce avoirdupoise equals one of the above ounces4 ,it is thus seen that1 in a few short weeks1 the insect has multiplied its weight more than nine thousand fold6 ,from this period1 and during the whole of its two succeeding states of being1 the worm imbibes no nourishment1 and gradually diminishes in weight2 being supported by its own substance1 and appearing to find sufficient occupation in forming its silken web1 and providing successors for our service1 without indulging that grosser appetite which forms the beginning and the end of their desires during their caterpillar existence4 ,the moth enjoys its liberty for only a very brief space4 ,its first employment is to seek its mate2 after which the female deposits her eggs2 and both in the course of two or three days after1 end their being4 ,formation of ,silk4 ,by ,m4 ,h4 ,straus1 of ,durckheim4--8,it is generally admitted by naturalists that the thread of the caterpillar is produced by a simple emission of liquid matter through the orifice of the spinner1 and that it acquires solidity at once from the drying influence of the air4 ,it was easy to entertain such an hypothesis1 for nothing is more simple than the formation of a very fine thread by such a process4 ,but a little reflection will soon show us1 even priori1 that it is not possible2 for how can we comprehend that so fine a fibre1 liquid at the instant of its issue from the aperture1 should instantly acquire such a consistence as to bear the weight of the animal suspended by it1 and at the same time that it is rapidly produced8 ,though the fluid1 holding the silk in solution1 should be quickly volatilised1 it must still be a matter of conjecture1 how the animal suspended by this thread could be able to arrest its issue1 holding on only by the thread itself1 for it cannot pinch the thread1 seeing that it is only in a liquid state inside1 and the thread cannot be glued to the edge of the opening1 as its rapid adhesion would prevent its issue while the animal is spinning4 ,a little examination would satisfy us that silk cannot be produced in this manner1 but that it is secreted in the form of silk in the silk vessels1 and that the spinning apparatus only winds it4 ,the thread is produced in the slender posterior part of the vessel1 the inflated portion of which consists of the reservoir of ready formed silk1 where it is found in the form of a skein2 each thread being rolled up so as to occupy in the silk-worm 7,bombex mori7 a space of only about a sixth part of the real length of the skein4 ,the fact is shown by the following experiment ,i made for the purpose of ascertaining whether the silk is formed in the body of the caterpillars4 #8,take one of the animals when about to form its cocoon1 clean it in common vinegar1 in which it may remain from four to six hours1 open it on the back and extract the silk vessels1 there being one on each side of the alimentary canal4 ,take them up by the hinder end1 just where they begin to swell 7further back the silk is not solid enough71 and draw them out4 ,the membrane forming the vessel is easily torn open1 and the contents expand to six or seven times its original length4 ,the skein having attained its full length by the letting out of its gathers1 we obtain a cord perfectly equal in size throughout1 except at the end1 where it is attenuated4 ,this cord resembles a large horse-hair1 and constitutes what fishermen call 8,florence hair40 ,i ought to add that in simply drawing out the silk vessel1 the ,florence hair is found enveloped in a golden yellow gummy matter1 forming the glutinous portion by which the worm fastens its thread4 ,this must be got rid of by drawing the cord through the fold formed on the inside of the joint of the left fore finger1 converted into a canal by applying to it the end of the thumb4 ,the glutinous substance and the membranes being thus separated1 we have the naked hair4 ,in this state1 before the silk becomes dry and hard1 not only will it be indefinitely divided longitudinally1 which proves its fibrous structure1 but in trying to split it by drawing it transversely1 the little filaments of silk which form it are perfectly separated1 making a bundle of extremely fine fibrils4' ,we cannot better conclude this interesting portion of our subject1 than by quoting the following beautiful lines by ,miss ,h4 ,f4 ,gould3-- ,,the ,,silk-,,worm',s ,,will4 ,on a plain rush hurdle a silk-worm lay1 ,when a proud young princess came that way3 ,the haughty child of a human king1 ,threw a sidelong glance at the humble thing1 ,that took1 with a silent gratitude1 ,from the mulberry leaf1 her simple food2 ,and shrunk1 half scorn and half disgust1 ,away from her sister child of dust-- ,declaring she never yet could see ,why a reptile form like this should be1 ,and that she was not made with nerves so firm1 ,as calmly to stand by a 8crawling worm60 ,with mute forbearance the silk-worm took ,the taunting words1 and the spurning look3 ,alike a stranger to self and pride1 ,she'd no disquiet from aught beside-- ,and lived of a meekness and peace possessed1 ,which these debar from the human breast4 ,she only wished1 for the harsh abuse1 ,to find some way to become of use ,to the haughty daughter of lordly man2 ,and thus did she lay a noble plan1 ,to teach her wisdom1 and make it plain1 ,that the humble worm was not made in vain2 ,a plan so generous1 deep and high1 ,that1 to carry it out1 she must even die6 8,no more10 said she1 8will ,i drink or eat6 ,i'll spin and weave me a winding-sheet1 ,to wrap me up from the sun's clear light1 ,and hide my form from her wounded sight4 ,in secret then1 till my end draws nigh1 ,i'll toil for her2 and when ,i die1 ,i'll leave behind1 as a farewell boon1 ,to the proud young princess1 my whole cocoon1 ,to be reeled and wove to a shining lace1 ,and hung in a veil o'er her scornful face6 ,and when she can calmly draw her breath ,through the very threads that have caused my death2 ,when she finds1 at length1 she has nerves so firm ,as to wear the shroud of a crawling worm1 ,may she bear in mind1 that she walks with pride ,in the winding-sheet where the silk-worm died60 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,iii ,silk-,worm1 ,cocoons1 ,chrysalis1 ,moths and ,pinna4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,general ,,observations ,,on ,,the ,,chinese ,,mode ,,of ,,rearing ,,silk-,,worms1 c4 ,great antiquity of the silk-manufacture in ,china--,time and mode of pruning the ,mulberry-tree--,not allowed to exceed a certain height--,mode of planting--,situation of rearing-rooms1 and their construction--,effect of noise on the silk-worm--,precautions observed in preserving cleanliness--,isan-mon1 mother of the worms--,manner of feeding--,space allotted to the worms--,destruction of the ,chrysalides--,great skill of the ,chinese in weaving--,american writers on the ,mulberry-tree--,silk-worms sometimes reared on trees--7,m4 ,marteloy's experiments in #agfd1 in rearing silk-worms on trees in ,france7--,produce inferior to that of worms reared in houses--,mode of delaying the hatching of the eggs--,method of hatching--,necessity for preventing damp--,number of meals--,mode of stimulating the appetite of the worms--,effect of this upon the quantity of silk produced--,darkness injurious to the silk-worm--,its effect on the ,mulberry-leaves--,mode of preparing the cocoons for the reeling process--,wild silk-worms of ,india--,mode of hatching1 c4--7,observations on the cultivation of silk by ,dr4 ,stebbins--,dr4 ,bowring's admirable illustration of the mutual dependence of the arts upon each other47 ,in ,china1 the tradition of the silk culture is1 as already shown1 carried back into the mythological periods1 and dates with the origin of agriculture itself4 ,these two pursuits or avocations1 namely1 husbandry and the silk-manufacture1 form the subject of one of the sixteen discourses to the people4 ,it is there observed1 that 8from ancient times the ,son of ,heaven directed the plough3 the ,empress planted the mulberry-tree4 ,thus have these exalted personages1 not above the practice of labor and exertion1 set an example to all men1 with a view to leading the millions of their subjects to attend to their essential interests40 ,in the work published by ,imperial authority1 entitled 8,illustrations of ,husbandry and ,weaving#ace10 there are numerous wood-cuts1 accompanied by letter-press explanatory of the different processes of farming and the silk-manufacture4 ,the former head is confined to the production of rice1 the staple article of food1 and proceeds from the ploughing of the land to the packing of the grain2 the latter details all the operations connected with planting the mulberry and gathering its leaves1 up to the final weaving of the silk4 #ace ,the drawing1 plate ,i4 7,frontispiece7 is a faithful copy of a loom represented in this curious work4 ,for this representation of a ,chinese weaving engine1 as well as several translations1 explanatory of the silk-manufacture1 c41 we are indebted to ,walter ,lowry1 ,esq41 ,sec4 to the ,presbyterian ,board of ,foreign ,missions in this city2 who kindly permitted us to copy it from the original plate1 forming a part of the interesting work above referred to1 which is composed of seventy-five volumes1 and was1 as we understand1 presented to the ,board by a ,new ,york merchant4 ,many of the illustrations are extremely beautiful1 reflecting the highest credit upon the artisans of the 8,celestial ,empire40 ,the mulberry-tree is chiefly cultivated in ,ch-kiang1 which province1 together with the only three others that produce fine silk1 namely1 ,kiang-nn1 ,woo-p1 and ,sze-chuen1 is crossed by the thirtieth parallel of latitude4 ,ch-kiang is a country highly alluvial1 intersected by numerous rivers and canals1 with a climate that corresponds pretty nearly to the same latitude as that in the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,the soil is manured with mud1 dug from the rivers1 assisted with ashes or dung2 and the spaces between the trees are generally filled with millet1 pulse1 or other articles of food4 ,the time for pruning the young trees1 so as to produce fine leafy shoots1 is at the commencement of the year4 ,about four eyes are left on every shoot1 and care is taken that the branches be properly thinned1 with a view to giving plenty of light and air to the leaves4 ,in gathering these1 they make use of steps1 as the young trees could not support a ladder1 and would besides be injured in their branches by the use of one4 ,the trees1 with their foliage1 are carefully watched1 and the mischiefs of insects prevented by the use of various applications1 among which are some essential oils4 ,the young trees of course suffer by being stripped of their leaves1 which are the lungs of plants1 and this is an additional reason for renewing them after a certain time4 ,they endeavor in part to counteract the evil effect1 by pruning and lopping the tree1 so as to diminish the wood when the leaves have been gathered4 ,it is surprising1 however1 to observe how soon a tree in those climates will recover its leaves in the summer or autumn1 after having been entirely stripped of them by a typhoon or hurricane4 ,fresh plants are procured by cuttings or layers1 and sometimes from seed4 ,when the trees grow too old for the production of the finest leaves1 and show a greater tendency to fruiting1 they are either removed or so cut and managed as to produce young branches4 ,the principal object1 in the cultivation of the mulberry1 is to produce the greatest quantity of young and healthy leaves without fruit4 ,for this reason the trees are not allowed to exceed a certain age and height4 ,they are planted on the plan of a quincunx#acf1 and said to be in perfection in about three years4 #acf ,in gardening1 the quincunx order is a plantation of trees disposed in a square1 consisting of five trees1 one at each corner and a fifth in the centre1 which order repeated indefinitely1 forms a regular grove or wood1 viewed by an angle of the square or parallelogram1 presents equal or parallel alleys4 ,mr4 ,barrow1 who observed the management of the trees and silk-worms in ,ch-kiang1 confirms the usual ,chinese accounts1 by saying that 8the houses in which the worms are reared are placed generally in the centre of each plantation1 in order that they may be removed as far as possible from every kind of noise2 experience having taught them that a sudden shout1 or the bark of a dog1 is destructive of the young worms4 ,a whole brood has sometimes perished from the effects of a thunder-storm40 ,some notion of the extent of the care required in the management of the worms may be formed from the following extract1 taken from the ,chinese work referred to at the beginning of this chapter4 8,the place where their habitation is built must be retired1 free from noise1 smells1 and disturbances of every kind4 ,the least fright1 makes great impressions on these sensitive creatures2 even the barking of dogs1 c41 is capable of throwing them into the utmost disorder4 ,for the purpose of paying them every attention an affectionate mother is provided1 who is careful to supply their wants2 she is called ,isan-mon1 #8mother of the worms4' ,she takes possession of the chamber1 but not before she has washed herself and put on clean clothes1 which have not the least repulsive smell2 she must not have eaten anything immediately before1 or handled any wild succory1 the smell of which is very prejudicial4 ,she must be clothed in a plain habit1 without any lining1 that she may be more sensible of the warmth of the place1 and accordingly increase or lessen the fire4 ,she must also carefully avoid making a smoke or raising a dust1 which would also be offensive40 ,silk-worms require to be carefully humored before the time of casting their slough4 ,every day is to them a year1 having in a manner1 the four seasons2 the morning being the ,spring2 the middle of the day3 ,summer2 the evening3 ,autumn2 and the night1 ,winter4 ,the chambers are so contrived as to admit of the use of artificial heat when necessary4 ,great care is taken of the sheets of paper on which the eggs have been laid2 and the hatching is either retarded or advanced1 by the application of cold or heat according to circumstances1 so as to time the simultaneous exit of the young worms exactly to the period when the tender spring-leaves of the mulberry are most fit for their nourishment4 ,they proportion the food very exactly to the young worms by weighing the leaves1 which in the first instance are cut1 but as the insects become larger1 are given to them whole4 ,the greatest precautions being observed in regulating the temperature of the apartments4 ,the worms are fed upon a species of small hurdles of basket-work1 strewed with leaves1 which are constantly shifted for the sake of cleanliness1 the insects readily moving off to a fresh hurdle with new leaves1 as the scent attracts them4 ,in proportion to their growth1 room is afforded to them by increasing the number of these hurdles1 the worms of one being shifted to three1 then to six1 and so on until they attain their greatest size4 ,when they have cast their several skins1 reached their greatest size1 and assumed a transparent yellowish color1 they are removed to places divided into compartments1 preparatory to casting forth their silken filaments4 ,in the course of a week after the commencement of this operation1 the cocoons are complete1 and it now becomes necessary to take them in hand before the pup turn into moths1 which would immediately bore their way out1 and spoil the cocoons4 ,when a certain number1 therefore1 have been laid aside for the sake of future eggs1 the chrysalides are killed by being placed in jars under layers of salt and leaves1 with a complete exclusion of air4 ,they are subsequently placed in moderately warm water1 which dissolves the glutinous substance that binds the silk together1 and the filament is wound off upon reels4 ,this is put up in bundles of a certain size and weight1 and either becomes an article of merchandise under the name of 8raw silk10 or is subjected to the loom1 and manufactured into various stuffs1 for home or foreign consumption4 ,the ,chinese notwithstanding the simplicity of their looms 7see frontispiece71 will imitate exactly the newest and most elegant patterns from ,france4 ,they particularly excel in the production of damasks1 figured-satins1 and embroidery4 ,their crape has never yet been perfectly imitated2 and they make a species of washing silk1 called at ,canton 8ponge10 which1 the longer it is used1 the softer it becomes4 ,the ,chinese have from time immemorial been celebrated for the beauty of their embroideries2 indeed1 it has been doubted whether the art was not originally introduced into ,europe by them1 through the ,persians4 ,from what has been said1 it is evident that the raising of the mulberry-tree should first engage the attention of the cultivator1 since its leaves form the almost exclusive nourishment of the silk-worm4 ,it is scarcely necessary that we should in a work of this description enter more fully into the cultivation of the mulberry-tree4 ,this has already been so ably done by ,jonathan ,cobb1 ,esq4 of ,dedham1 ,mass41 ,dr4 ,pascalis of ,new ,york1 ,judge ,comstock of ,hartford1 ,conn41 and ,e4 ,p4 ,roberts1 ,esq4 of ,baltimore1 as to leave no stone unturned1 or any want upon the subject4 ,in such parts of the ,chinese empire where the climate is favorable to the practice1 and where alone1 most probably1 the silk-worm is indigenous1 it remains at liberty1 feeding on the leaves of its native mulberry-tree1 and going through all its mutations among the branches1 uncontrolled by the hand and unassisted by the cares of man4 ,as soon1 however1 as the silken balls have been constructed1 they are appropriated by the universal usurper1 who spares only the few required to reproduce their numbers1 and thus furnish him with successive harvests#acg4 #acg ,mons4 ,marteloy of ,montpelier1 who made many experiments upon the rearing of silk-worms1 presented a memorial upon the subject to the ,french minister1 in compliance with whose recommendation1 a few silk growers of ,languedoc caused an experiment to be publicly made in the open air1 in the garden belonging to the ,jesuits' college at ,montpelier4 ,the whole was placed under the direction of ,mons4 ,marteloy1 who had #abjj livres assigned to him to defray the necessary expenses4 ,the experiment succeeded perfectly4 ,this was in #agfd4 ,in the following year a second trial was made1 and #ahjj livres were set apart for the expenses4 ,owing1 however1 to the unfavorable nature of the season1 this experiment failed entirely1 the heavy and incessant rains making it impossible to keep the food of the worms in a sufficiently dry state4 ,the rearing of silk-worms in the open air was not again attempted in that quarter2 but the partial success led to the adoption among cultivators of a better system of ventilation1 and the production of silk was about this time very much extended throughout ,languedoc4--,obs4 on the ,culture of ,silk1 by ,a4 ,,stephenson4 ,this silk1 the spontaneous offering of nature1 is not1 however1 equal in fineness to that produced by worms under shelter1 and whose progressions are influenced by careful management4 ,much attention is1 therefore1 bestowed by the ,chinese in the artificial rearing of silk-worms4 ,one of their principal cares1 is to prevent the too early hatching of the eggs1 to which the nature of the climate so strongly disposes them4 ,the mode of insuring the requisite delay1 is1 to cause the moth to deposit her eggs on large sheets of paper3 these1 immediately upon their production1 are suspended from a beam in the room1 while the windows are opened to expose them to the air4 ,in a few days the papers are taken down and rolled loosely up with the eggs inside1 in which form they are again hung during the remainder of the summer and autumn4 ,towards the end of the year they are immersed in cold water wherein a small portion of salt has been dissolved4 ,in this state the eggs are left during two days2 and on being taken from the salt and water are first hung to dry1 and then rolled up rather more tightly than before1 each sheet of paper being thereafter inclosed in a separate earthen vessel4 ,some persons1 who are exceedingly particular in their processes1 use a lye made of mulberry-tree ashes1 and place the eggs likewise1 during some minutes1 on snow-water4 ,these processes appear efficacious for checking the hatching1 until the expanding leaves of the mulberry-tree give notice to the silk-worm-rearer that he may take measures for bringing forth his brood4 ,for this purpose the rolls of paper are taken from the earthen vessels1 and hung up towards the sun1 the side to which the eggs adhere being turned from its rays1 by being placed inside1 and thus allowing the heat to be transmitted to them through the paper4 ,in the evening the sheets are rolled closely up and placed in a warm situation4 ,the same proceeding is repeated on the following day1 when the eggs assume a grayish color4 ,on the evening of the third day1 after a similar exposure1 they are found to be of a much darker color1 nearly approaching to black2 and the following morning1 on the paper being unrolled1 they are covered with worms4 ,in the higher latitudes the ,chinese have recourse to the heat of stoves1 in order to promote the simultaneous hatching of the eggs4 ,the apartments in which the worms are kept stand in dry situations1 in a pure atmosphere1 and apart from all noise1 which is thought to be annoying to the worms1 especially when they are young4 ,the rooms are made very close1 but adequate means of ventilation provided3 the doors being open to the south4 ,each chamber is provided with nine or ten rows of frames1 placed one above the other4 ,on these frames1 rush hurdles are ranged2 upon which the worms are fed through their five ages4 ,a uniform degree of heat is constantly preserved1 either by means of stoves placed in the corners of the apartments1 or by chafing-dishes which from time to time are carried up and down the room4 ,flame and smoke being always carefully avoided3 cow-dung dried in the sun is preferred by the ,chinese to all other kinds of fuel for this purpose4 ,the most unremitting attention is paid to the wants of the worms1 which are fed night and day4 ,on their being hatched they are furnished with forty meals for the first day1 thirty are given on the second day1 and fewer on and after the third4 ,the ,chinese believe that the growth of silk-worms is accelerated1 and their success promoted by the abundance of their food1 and therefore1 in cloudy and damp weather1 when the insects are injuriously affected by the state of the atmosphere1 their appetites are stimulated by a wisp of very dry straw being lighted and held over them1 thus causing the cold and damp air to be dissipated4 ,the ,chinese calculate that the same number of insects which would1 if they had attained the full size in twenty-three or twenty-four days1 produce twenty-five ounces of silk1 would give only twenty ounces if their growth occupied twenty-eight days1 and only ten ounces if forty days4 ,in order1 therefore1 to accelerate their growth1 they supply them with fresh food every half-hour during the first day of their existence1 and then gradually reduce the number of meals as the worms grow older4 ,it deserves to be remarked as a fact unnoticed in ,natural ,theology1 that the substance on which this valuable caterpillar feeds1 is the leaf of the mulberry-tree2 and ,providence1 as if to ensure the continuance of this useful species1 has so ordained it that no other insect will partake of the same food2 thus ensuring a certain supply for the little spinster4 ,many persons believe that light is injurious to silk-worms2 but1 so far from this opinion being correct1 the opposite belief would probably be nearer to the truth4 ,in its native state1 the insect is of course exposed to light1 and suffers no inconvenience on that account2 and it has been observed by one who gave much attention to the subject 7,count ,dandolo71 that in his establishment1 8on the side on which the sun shone directly on the hurdles1 the silk-worms were stronger and more numerous than in those places where the edge of the wicker hurdle formed a shade40 ,the obscurity wherein the apartments are usually kept has a very pernicious influence on the air3 the food of the worms emits in light oxygen1 or vital air1 while in darkness it exhales carbonic acid gas1 unfit for respiration4 ,this well-known fact occurs alike with all leaves similarly circumstanced#ach4 ,to the bad effects thus arising from the exclusion of the sun's rays1 another evil is added by the nature of the artificial lights employed1 being such as still further to vitiate the air4 #ach 8,there is in the order of nature a certain1 and very surprising fact2 when the leaves of vegetables are struck by the sun's rays1 they exhale an immense quantity of vital air necessary to the life of animals1 and which they consume by respiration4 8,these same leaves in the shade as well as in darkness exhale an immense quantity of mephitic or fixed air1 which cannot be inhaled without destruction of life4 8,this influence of the sun does not cease even when the leaf has been recently gathered2 on the contrary1 in darkness1 gathered leaves will exhale a still greater quantity of mephitic air4 8,place one ounce of fresh mulberry leaves in a wide-necked bottle of the size of a ,paris pint1 containing two pounds of liquid2 expose this bottle to the sun2 about an hour afterwards1 according to the intensity of the sun1 reverse the bottle and introduce a lighted taper in it2 this done1 the light will become brighter1 whiter1 and larger1 which proves that the vital air contained in the bottle has increased by that which has disengaged itself from the leaves3 to demonstrate this phenomenon more clearly1 a taper may be put in a similar bottle1 that only contains the air which has entered into it by its being uncorked4 ,shortly after the first experiment1 water will be found in the bottle which contained the mulberry leaves2 this water1 evaporating from the leaves by means of the heat1 hangs on the sides1 and runs to the bottom when cooling2 the leaves appear more or less withered and dry according to the liquid they have lost4 ,in another similar bottle place an ounce of leaves1 and cork it exactly like the former2 place it in obscurity1 either in a box1 or wrap it in cloths1 in short1 so as totally to exclude light2 about two hours after1 open the bottle1 and put either a lighted taper or a small bird into it2 the candle will go out1 and the bird will perish1 as if they had been plunged into water1 which demonstrates that in darkness the leaves have exhaled mephitic air1 while in the sun they exhaled vital air04--,,count ,,dandolo',s ,treatise on the ,art of ,rearing ,silk-worms1 p4 #add4 ,an almost incredible quantity of fluid is constantly disengaged by evaporation from the bodies of the insects2 and if means be not taken to disperse this as it is produced1 another cause of unwholesomeness in the air arises4 ,noticing this1 ,count ,dandolo observes1 8,this series of causes of the deterioration of the air which the worms must inhale1 may be termed a continual conspiracy against their health and life2 and their resisting it1 and living throughout shows them to have great strength of constitution40 ,in seven days from the commencement of the cocoons they are collected in heaps2 those which are designed to continue the breed being first selected and set apart on hurdles1 in a dry and airy situation4 ,the next care1 is to destroy the vitality of the chrysalides in those balls which are to be reeled4 ,the most approved method of performing this1 is to fill large earthen vessels with cocoons1 in layers1 throwing in one-fortieth part of their weight of salt upon each layer1 covering the whole with large dry leaves resembling those of the water-lilly1 and then closely stopping the mouths of the vessels4 ,in reeling their silk the ,chinese separate the thick and dark from the long and glittering white cocoons1 as the produce of the former is inferior4 ,we are indebted to ,dr4 ,ure for the two following articles 7extracted from the ,journal of the ,asiatic ,society1 for ,january1 #ahcg71 on wild silk-worms4 ,the first article is from the pen of ,thomas ,hugon1 a resident of ,nowgong1 and relates to wild silk-worms of ,assam4 8,the ,assamese select for breeding1 such cocoons only as have been begun to be formed in the largest number on the same day1 usually the second or third after the commencement2 those which contain males being distinguishable by a more pointed end4 ,they are put in a closed basket suspended from the roof2 the moths1 as they come forth1 having room to move about1 at the expiration of a day1 the females 7known only by their large body7 are taken out1 and tied to small wisps of thatching-straw1 selected always from over the hearth1 its darkened color being thought more acceptable to the insect4 ,if out of a batch1 there should be but few males2 the wisps with the females tied to them are exposed outside at night2 and the males thrown away in the neighborhood1 find their way to them4 ,these wisps are hung upon a string tied across the roof1 to keep them from vermin4 ,the eggs laid after the first three days1 are said to produce weak worms4 ,the wisps are taken out morning and evening1 and exposed to the sun1 and in ten days after being laid1 a few of them are hatched4 ,the wisps being then hung up to the tree1 the young worms find their way to the leaves4 ,the ant1 whose bite is fatal to the worm in its early stages1 is destroyed by rubbing the trunk of the tree with molasses1 and tying dead fish and toads to it1 to attract these rapacious insects in large numbers1 when they are destroyed with fire2 a process which needs to be repeated several times4 ,the ground under the trees is also well cleared1 to render it easy to pick up and replace the worms which fall down4 ,they are prevented from coming to the ground1 by tying fresh plantain-leaves round the trunk1 over whose slippery surface they cannot crawl2 and then transferred from exhausted trees to fresh ones1 on bamboo platters tied to long poles4 ,the worms require to be constantly watched and protected from the depredations of both day and night birds1 as well as rats and other vermin4 ,during their moultings1 they remain on the branches2 but when about beginning to spin1 they come down the trunk1 and being stopped by the plantain-leaves1 are there collected in baskets1 which are afterwards put under bunches of dry leaves1 suspended from the roof1 into which the worms crawl1 and form their cocoons--several being clustered together3 this accident1 owing to the practice of crowding the worms1 which is most injudicious1 rendering it impossible to wind off their silk in continuous threads1 as in the filatures of ,italy1 ,france1 and even ,bengal4 ,the silk is1 therefore1 spun like flax1 instead of being unwound in single filaments4 ,after four days the proper cocoons are selected for the next breed1 and the rest are reeled4 ,the total duration of a breed varies from sixty to seventy days2 divided into the following periods3-- ,four moultings1 with one day's illness attending each1 #bj ,from fourth moulting to beginning of cocoon1 #aj ,in the cocoon #bj1 as a moth #f1 hatching of eggs #aj1 #cf -- #ff 8,on being tapped with the finger1 the body renders a hollow sound2 the quality of which shows whether they have come down for want of leaves on the tree1 or from their having ceased feeding4 8,as the chrysalis is not soon killed by exposure to the sun1 the cocoons are put on stages1 covered with leaves1 and exposed to the hot air from grass burned under them2 they are next boiled for about an hour in a solution of the potash1 made from incinerated rice-stalks2 then taken out and put on a cloth folded over them to keep them warm4 ,the floss being removed by hand1 they are then thrown into a basin of hot water to be unwound2 which is done in a very rude and wasteful way4 8,the plantations for the mooga silk-worm in ,lower ,assam1 amount to #ejjj acres1 besides what the forests contain2 and yield #aejj maunds of #hd lbs4 each per annum4 ,upper ,assam is more productive4 8,the cocoon of the ,koutkuri mooga is of the size of a fowl's egg4 ,it is a wild species1 and affords filaments much valued for fishing-lines4 8,the ,arrindy1 or ,eria worm1 and moth1 is reared over a great part of ,hindostan1 but entirely within doors4 ,it is fed principally on the ,hera1 or ,palma christi leaves1 and gives sometimes #ab broods of spun silk in the course of a year4 ,it affords a fibre which looks rough at first2 but when woven1 becomes soft and silky1 after repeated washings4 ,the poorest people are clothed with stuff made of it1 which is so durable as to descend from mother to daughter4 ,the cocoons are put in a close basket1 and hung up in the house1 out of reach of rats and insects4 ,when the moths come forth1 they are allowed to move about in the basket for twenty-four hours2 after which the females are tied to long reeds or canes1 twenty or twenty-five to each1 and then hung up in the house4 ,of the eggs that are laid the first three days1 about #bjj1 only are kept2 then tied up for seed4 ,when a few of the worms are hatched1 the cloths are put on small bamboo platters hung up in the house1 in which they are fed with tender leaves4 ,after the second moulting1 they are removed to bunches of leaves suspended above the ground1 beneath which a mat is laid to receive them when they fall4 ,when they cease to feed1 they are thrown into baskets full of dry leaves1 among which they form their cocoons1 two or three being often discovered joined together4 8,the ,saturnia trifenestrata has a yellow cocoon of a remarkably silky lustre4 ,it lives on the soom-tree in ,assam1 but seems not to be much used40 ,the second article is from the pen of ,dr4 ,helfer1 upon those wild silk-worms which are indigenous to ,india4 ,besides the ,bombyx mori1 the ,doctor enumerates the following seven species1 formerly unknown3--#a4 8,the wild silk-worm of the central provinces1 a moth not larger than the ,bombyx mori40 #b4 8,the ,joree silk-worm of ,assam1 ,bombyx religios1 which spins a cocoon of a fine filament1 with much lustre4 ,it lives upon the pipul tree 7,ficus religiosa71 which abounds in ,india1 and ought therefore to be turned to account in breeding this valuable moth40 #c4 8,saturnia silhetica1 which inhabits the cassia mountains in ,silhet and ,dacca1 where its large cocoons are spun into silk40 #d4 8,a still larger ,saturnia1 one of the greatest moths in existence1 measuring ten inches from the one end of the wing to the other#aci2 observed by ,mr4 ,grant1 in ,chirra punjee04 #e4 8,saturnia paphia1 or the ,tusseh silk-worm1 is the most common of the native species1 and furnishes the cloth usually worn by ,europeans in ,india4 ,it has not hitherto been domesticated1 but millions of its cocoons are annually collected in the jungles1 and brought to the silk factories near ,calcutta and ,bhagelpur4 ,it feeds most commonly on the hair-tree 7,zizyphus jujuba71 but it prefers the ,terminalia alata1 or ,assam tree1 and the ,bombax heptaphyllum4 ,it is called ,koutkuri mooga1 in ,assam40 #f4 8,another ,saturnia1 from the neighborhood of ,comercolly40 #g4 8,saturnia assamensis1 with a cocoon of a yellow-brown color1 different from all others1 called mooga1 in ,assam2 which1 although it can be reared in houses1 thrives best in the open air upon trees1 of which seven different kinds afford it food4 ,the ,mazankoory mooga1 which feeds on the ,adakoory tree1 produces a fine silk1 which is nearly white1 and fetches #ej per cent4 more than the fawn colored4 ,the trees of the first year's growth produce by far the most valuable cocoons4 ,the mooga which inhabits the soom-tree1 is found principally in the forests of the plains1 and in the villages4 ,the tree grows to a large size1 and yields three crops of leaves in the year4 ,the silk is of a light fawn color1 and ranks next in value to the ,mazankoory4 ,there are generally five breeds of mooga worms in the year2 #a4 ,in ,january and ,february2 #b4 ,in ,may and ,june2 #c4 ,in ,june and ,july2 #d4 ,in ,august and ,september2 #e4 ,in ,october and ,november2 the first and last being the most valuable40 #aci ,see p4 #dj4 ,also p4 #ed4 footnote #fc ,dr4 ,anderson informs us1 that in ,madras the silk-worm goes through all its evolutions in the short space of twenty-two days4 ,it appears1 however1 that the saving of time1 and consequently labor1 is the only economy resulting from the acceleration2 as the insects consume as much food during their shorter period of life1 as is assigned to the longer-lived silk-worms of ,europe4 ,we extract the following paper1 with slight emendations1 from ,ellsworth's ,report of the ,patent ,office for the year #ahdd1 being a communication from ,dr4 ,stebbins of ,northampton1 ,mass#adj41 to the ,editor of the ,american ,agriculturalist1 as having some bearing upon the present subject4 #adj ,see ,chapter ,,xiii4 p4 #baa4 8,as requested1 ,i forward you a sketch of ,mr4 ,gill's cradle for feeding silk-worms1 7,it is not necessary for us to give a drawing of it in a work like the present1 which is chiefly intended for the general reader1 and besides1 this machine is already sufficiently known to silk culturists47 ,i have five patches of mulberry1 7in all1 ten or twelve acres17 two parcels of which you have seen4 ,the one adjoining my garden1 by estimation1 may furnish foliage sufficient for a million and a half of worms4 ,the mulberries consist of the white1 black1 alpine1 broosa1 moretta1 alata1 multicaulis1 ,asiatic1 and large-leaf ,canton4 ,the two latter ,i prefer for my own use--the ,canton for early feeding with foliage1 and the ,asiastic for branch feeding4 ,the ,canton is highly approved of for producing heavy and firm cocoons1 which1 by competent testimony and experiments1 have been found in favor of the ,canton feed as five to eight1 and is the true species used by the ,chinese1 as testified by a resident ,missionary1 the ,rev4 ,e4 ,c4 ,bridgman1 and more recently by ,dr4 ,parker1 while on his late visit to the ,united ,states4 ,i consider the peanut variety of worms the best for producing the most silk of a good quality4 8,from an elevated plat near my cocoonery1 you had a view of our extensive meadows spread out at the foot of ,mount ,holyoke4 ,my cocoonery you have examined1 with its fixtures for feeding silk-worms--the mode of open feeding1 ventilator1 and ventilating cradles4 ,since you left1 the whole has been completed1 with hammocks suspended over the cradles1 easily put in motion1 and so constructed that no offal can drop into the cradles beneath1 nor interfere with the rocking motion or winding2 the arrangement is much admired1 and estimated to accommodate half a million of worms1 or more1 to be fed simultaneously4 ,about half of the cocoonery has hurdles of lattice work1 covered in part with gauze netting four feet wide and the same number of tiers in height4 ,the cocoonery is supposed to be sufficiently open on the sides1 ends1 and roof1 to admit a free circulation of pure air4 ,the flooring is the natural earth4 8,the past winter has been uncommonly severe on grape-vines and fruit2 forest and mulberry trees2 the ,asiatic ,i found the most hardy of any other1 and the ,canton the earliest in foliage4 ,on the #bast and #bb;d of ,may there were severe frosts1 destroying garden vegetables1 and injuring some early mulberry foliage2 added to this1 ice was formed in many places4 ,the accounts from ,vermont and ,new ,hampshire are so disastrous as to delay early feeding2 while in ,northampton1 ,june #ad1 at one of my plantations1 you saw silk-worms in the act of winding1 and others in a good state of forwardness4 ,on the day of your departure1 ,i received a letter from a distant silk grower1 a staunch promoter of the one early and open crop system1 that1 on account of the unpropitious season and condition of his trees1 he would delay fetching out his worms until the last of ,june1 and then make his great effort upon one crop4 8,to provide against premature hatching of silk-worms1 or the disaster of an early frost1 it is advisable to have foliage gathered and dried the year preceding2 which1 being pulverized and moistened with water1 may be given to the worms until new foliage appears2 and they will eat it freely4 8,to obtain the most and best foliage of the mulberry1 it will be necessary every ,spring to cut or head them down within three or four inches of the ground1 and preserve the stalks for bark-silk4 ,i have a quantity of them saved with bark peeled from the large ,asiatics to be used for making bark-silk1 in addition to a quantity of mulberry-leaves preserved for making paper4 ,the whole process1 although not carried out1 as yet1 in this country1 with either1 has been successfully accomplished in ,france1 from proof shown by ,m4 ,frassinet4 ,i am endeavoring to have it tested here1 by subjecting both stalk and peeled bark to the operation of steaming with soap and water1 to facilitate the separation of the bark from the wood1 and the outside cuticle from the fibrous substance of the bark1 before trying the operation of the brake for dressing1 carding1 spinning1 c4 ,should it prove successful1 it will be made public 7,see ,mr4 ,zinke's process1 ,chapter ,,xi474 ,hopes are entertained that what has been done may be done again2 that ,yankee ingenuity and perseverance may prove a match for foreign cheap labor7874 8,the present time has been called the age of invention and improvement4 ,but if 0there is nothing new under the sun0 7a pretty fair illustration of this assertion of the wise man--,vide ,ecclesiastes i4 #i1 #aj4--will be found in this work472 and if what is1 has been and may be again1 then may we hope to be benefitted by the reproduction of astonishing results in all coming time2 and even now1 while there has been anxious inquiry for some easy mode to separate the bark of the mulberry from the wood1 an historical fact has been recently communicated7872 by which1 some two hundred and forty years ago1 in the year #afjj1 an accident occurred1 which resulted in the manufacture of a handsome fabric from the fibrous bark of the mulberry1 with the inference that the bark had been previously used for the manufacture of cordage1 on account of the superior strength of the fibrous bark over that of other materials used for cordage#ada4 8,under date of ,june #f1 #ahdd1 ,i have been favored with a letter from the president of one of the most eminent literary institutions of our country1 who expresses his opinion of the progress of silk culture as follows3 #8,i am gratified to find a renewed and more general interest excited at the present time4 ,if this awaking up to a scientific and practical consideration of the subject is not soon crowned with signal success1 ,i am satisfied it will not be for want of enterprize or skill in our countrymen1 but merely from the high price of labor1 compared with the scanty wages given in other silk-growing countries4 ,even this consideration 7though it may retard for a while the complete success of this department of productive industry71 will not prevent its ultimate triumph4' 8,the above is the opinion of one of the most scientific men of the age1 who1 in early life1 was himself a silk grower4 ,his opinion accords with that of many others of high consideration in the ,united ,states4 8,while viewing the flourishing condition of one of my mulberry patches1 you asked with what it had been manured8 and received for answer1 ashes1 and the deciduous foliage4 ,the foliage1 you thought1 could be gathered for making paper1 and answered1 that there would be sufficient defective foliage left to manure the land2 the foliage is richer than any stable manure1 and stable manure should never be applied to the mulberry4 ,i have not had occasion the last five or six years to use even ashes as a manure1 but keep the land in good tilth by frequent hoeing4 ,if you found these mulberries more flourishing than others you had seen1 it may be attributed1 in a great measure1 to frequent hoeing1 and dressing with the decayed mulberry foliage4 8,the soil is a light sandy loam2 and1 previous to its being stocked with mulberry1 would not yield the value of #aj in any crop2 and now1 my feeder says1 if his worms do well1 he hopes to get #hjj for the crop6 ,a part of this lot being stocked with alpine1 broosa1 and ,asiatic mulberry1 of #f to #aj feet in height1 in rows #c feet apart2 and having grown so vigorously as to shade each other1 and liable to have spotted leaves4 ,i have1 in order to avoid this1 and procure more1 larger1 and better foliage1 cut away or headed down every other row1 within three or four inches of the ground2 and from the stumps have sprung up a multitude of thrifty sprouts1 now fit for use1 and the leaves three times larger than those on the standard trees1 are so fresh and tender1 that in some measure it is hoped1 they may answer the purpose of seedling foliage1 so highly recommended by ,m4 ,frassinet1 who has the following encomium on seedling foliage3 #8that #ajj pounds of such foliage is worth near #bjj pounds of old leaves to make the same quantity of cocoons2 or in fact1 equivalent in value to nearly double the stock of other foliage4' ,i have caused considerable bark to be stripped from the ,asiatic trees cut away for manufacturing purposes2 and ,m4 ,rouviere1 of ,lyons1 has proved that the bark of young shoots1 submitted to the same process as hemp1 yields abundant silk-fibre to make beautiful tissues 7noticed at the close of ,chapter ,,xi474 ,i should advise silk growers to preserve the shoots1 have them barked in the best way1 and the silky fibre rotted1 carded1 spun1 and wove4 ,m4 ,rouviere asserts that it will be not only fine and strong1 but take the most beautiful colors4 ,of the bark1 ropes and nets are made in the ,morea1 and may be applied to great advantage in the manufacture of paper1 together with the foliage4 8,the ,canton and ,asiatic seed sown this year are in a flourishing condition for plantation use1 exclusive of several mulberry plantations which will be for rent1 or growing silk on shares1 next spring4 ,up to the first of ,july1 worms have been uncommonly healthy--the probable effect of more open ventilation than in former years4 8,mr4 ,dabney1 consul at ,fayal1 7now in ,boston7 has two millions of worms at present on feed4 ,s4 ,whitmarsh1 at ,jamaica1 has #cfj of what he calls creolized native eggs1 in constant feed1 which go through the whole course to the cocoon in #bd days4 ,the eggs hatch in #aj days after being laid4 ,he has received the silk report1 and made such improvement as to save1 in all1 nine-tenths of the usual labor4 ,the silk cause at ,jamaica occasions great interest in ,england for its prosperity and success40 ,d4 ,stebbins4 ,northampton1 ,mass41 ,july1 #ahdd4 #ada ,we have abundant testimony that the most beautiful fabrics1 comprising mantles1 c41 as well as cordage1 was produced from the bark of trees1 as early as the year #dab ,b4 ,c4 ,so that ,mr4 ,stebbins's 8historical fact0 is anticipated by #bjab years6 7,see ,chapters ,,xii4 and ,,xiii4 of this ,part47 ,we will now conclude this ,chapter with ,dr4 ,bowling's admirable illustration1 of the mutual dependence of the arts upon each other3-- 8,let us fancy that some thousand years ago1 a mortal1 wandering through an oriental wood1 saw a worm falling from a fruit-bearing tree--that he found this little creature had reached the end of one of its stages of existence1 and was laboriously engaged in shrouding itself in an unknown substance1 like a fine thread of gold1 out of which it constructed its tomb2 that1 attracted by the circumstance1 he found this shroud to consist of a thread hundreds of yards long1 which a very little attention enabled him to detach2 he found he could strengthen the threads by uniting them together1 and they could be applied to various purposes of usefulness2 he thought of winding off the thread2 the reel lends him the first assistance1 but he could not make the reel without the co-operation of a knife1 or some such instrument with a sharp edge4 ,thus the aid of art--of the produce of art--is already called in4 ,with this rude instrument he makes a machine which enables him to reel off the thread coffin of the curious animal4 ,in process of time1 he finds that this fine filament can be applied to the making of garments--garments alike useful and ornamental4 ,now trace the progress of things by which1 from the narrow sphere of his observation and experiment1 his success spreads through the districts he inhabits1 and from them to other lands1 and becomes an object of importance to communicate with the whole family of man4 ,by and by the cocoon1 or its produce1 finds its way to foreign countries1 probably more enlightened than his own1 again to be operated on by a higher intelligence and more practised skill4 ,this associates the thread of the silk-worm with a ship1 with ship-building1 and all its marvellous combinations4--,some wandering merchant probably conveyed the raw material to ,persia2 some adventurous mariner to ,greece or ,italy1 or other regions where it gave a new impulse to science and to thought4 ,but consider for a moment1 before the ship was launched upon the water1 how many elements were necessary for its production2 think of how multitudinous and various the materials which that ship required for its construction1 before the products of that remote country are brought to their ultimate markets for manufacture4 ,i refer to this particular topic1 because it is associated with the prosperity of the districts in which we are1 and ,i wished to carry back your thoughts to the germ whence that prosperity sprung40--,,bowring',s ,lecture at the ,poplar ,institution4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,spider4 ,,attempts ,,to ,,procure ,,silken ,,filaments ,,from ,,spiders4 ,structures of spiders--,spiders not properly insects1 and why--,apparatus for spinning--,extraordinary number of spinnerules--,great number of filaments composing one thread--,raumur and ,leeuwenhoeck's laughable estimates--,attachment of the thread against a wall or stick--,shooting of the lines of spiders--#a4 ,opinions of ,redi1 ,swammerdam1 and ,kirby--#b4 ,lister1 ,kirby1 and ,white--#c4 ,la ,pluche and ,bingley--#d4 ,d',isjonval1 ,murray1 and ,bowman--#e4 ,experiments of ,mr4 ,blackwall--,his account of the ascent of gossamer--#f4 ,experiments by ,rennie--,thread supposed to go off double--,subsequent experiments--,nests1 ,webs1 and ,nets of ,spiders--,elastic satin nest of a spider--,evelyn's account of hunting spiders--,labyrinthic spider's nest--,erroneous account of the ,house ,spider--,geometric ,spiders--,attempts to procure silken filaments from ,spiders bags--,experiments of ,m4 ,bon--,silken material--,manner of its preparations--,m4 ,bon's enthusiasm--,his spider establishment--,spider-silk not poisonous--,its usefulness in healing wounds--,investigation of ,m4 ,bon's establishment by ,m4 ,raumur--,his objections--,swift's satire against speculators and projectors--,ewbank's interesting observations on the ingenuity of spiders--,mason-spiders--,ingenious door with a hinge--,nest from the ,west ,indies with spring hinge--,raft-building ,spider--,diving ,water-,spider--,rev4 ,mr4 ,kirby's beautiful description of it--,observations of ,m4 ,clerck--,cleanliness of ,spiders--,structure of their claws--,fanciful account of them patting their webs--,proceedings of a spider in a steamboat--,addison--,his suggestions on the compilation of a 8,history of ,insects40 ,of spiders there are many species2 most of them extend their labors no farther than merely to make a web to ensnare and detain their food4 ,but others are known to go beyond this1 and spin a bag in the form of a cocoon1 for the protection of their eggs1 nearly similar to that of the silk-worm4#adb #adb ,don ,luis ,nee observed on certain trees growing in ,chilpancingo1 ,tixtala in ,south ,america1 ovate nests of caterpillars1 eight inches long1 which the inhabitants manufacture into stockings and handkerchiefs4--,annals of ,botany1 #b;d1 p4 #ajd4 ,modern naturalists do not rank spiders among insects1 because they have no antenn1 and no division between the head and shoulders4 ,they breathe by leaf-shaped gills1 situated under the belly1 instead of spiracles in the sides2 and have a heart connected with these4 ,but as spiders are popularly considered insects1 it will sufficiently suit our purpose to introduce them here as such4 ,spiders are usually classed according to their difference of color1 whether black1 brown1 yellow1 c41 or sometimes by the number and arrangement of their eyes3 of these organs some possess no fewer than ten1 others eight1 and others again six#adc4 #adc ,porter's 8,treatise on the ,silk ,manufacture10 p4 #afh4 ,some species of spiders are known to possess the power of not merely forming a web1 but also of spinning1 for the protection of their eggs1 a bag somewhat similar in form and substance to the cocoon of the silk-worm4 ,the apparatus by which they construct their ingenious fabrics1 is much more complicated than that which is common to the various species of caterpillars4 ,caterpillars have only two reservoirs for the materials of their silk2 but the spider spins minute fibres from fine papill1 or small nipples placed in the hinder part of its body4 ,these papill serve the office of so many wire-drawing machines1 from which the silken threadlets are ejected4 ,spiders1 according to the dissections of ,m4 ,treviranus1 have four principal vessels1 two larger and two smaller1 with a number of minute ones at their base4 ,several small tubes branch towards the reservoirs1 for carrying to them1 no doubt1 a supply of the secreted material4 ,swammerdam describes them as twisted into many coils of an agate color#add4 ,we do not find them coiled1 but nearly straight1 and of a deep yellow color4 ,from these1 when broken1 threads can be drawn out like those spun by the spider1 though we cannot draw them so fine by many degrees4 #add ,hill's ,swammerdam1 part i4 p4 #bc4 ,from these little flasks or bags of gum1 situated near the apex of the abdomen1 and not at the mouth as in caterpillars1 a tube originates1 and terminates in the external spinnerets1 which may be seen by the naked eye in the form of five little teats surrounded by a small circle1 as represented in ,fig4 #h4 ,plate ,,iv42 this figure shows the garden spider 7,epeira diadema7 suspended by a thread proceeding from its spinneret4 ,we have seen that the thread of the silk-worm is composed of two filaments united1 but the spider's thread would appear1 from the first view of its five spinnerets1 to be quintuple1 and in some species which have six teats1 so many times more4 ,it is not safe1 however1 in our interpretations of nature to proceed upon conjecture1 however plausible1 nor to take anything for granted which we have not actually seen2 since our inferences in such cases are almost certain to be erroneous4 ,if ,aristotle1 for example1 had ever looked narrowly at a spider when spinning1 he could not have fancied1 as he does1 that the materials which it uses are nothing but wool stripped from its body4 ,on looking1 then1 with a strong magnifying glass1 at the teat-shaped spinnerets of a spider1 we perceive them studded with regular rows of minute bristle-like points1 about a thousand to each teat1 making in all from five to six thousand4 ,these are minute tubes which we may appropriately term spinnerules1 as each is connected with the internal reservoirs1 and emits a thread of inconceivable fineness4 ,fig4 #i4 represents this wonderful apparatus as it appears in the microscope4 ,we do not recollect that naturalists have ventured to assign any cause for this very remarkable multiplicity of the spinnerules of spiders1 so different from the simple spinneret of caterpillars4 ,to us it appears an admirable provision for their mode of life4 ,caterpillars neither require such strong materials1 nor that their thread should dry as quickly4 ,it is well known in our manufactures1 particularly in rope-spinning1 that in cords of equal thickness1 those which are composed of many smaller ones united are stronger than those spun at once4 ,in the instance of the spider's thread1 this principle must hold still more strikingly1 inasmuch as it is composed of fluid materials that require to be dried rapidly1 and this drying must be greatly facilitated by exposing so many to the air separately before their union1 which is effected at about the tenth of an inch from the spinnerets4 ,in ,fig4 #aj4 ,plate ,,iv4 each of the threads shown is represented to contain one hundred minute threads1 the whole forming only one of the spider's common threads4 ,in the figure the threads are1 of course1 greatly magnified1 so that1 for the small space represented1 the lines are shown as parallel4 ,the threadlets1 or filaments as they come from the papill1 are too fine to be counted with any degree of accuracy1 but it is evident that very many are sent forth from each of the larger papill4 ,this fact tends to explain the power possessed by the spider of producing threads having different degrees of tenuity4 ,by applying more or less of these papill against the place whence it begins its web1 the spider joins into one thread the almost imperceptible individual filaments which it draws from its body2 the size of this thread being dependent on the number of nipples employed1 and regulated by that instinct which teaches the creature to make choice of the degree of exility most appropriate to the work wherein it is about to engage4 ,raumur relates that he has often counted as many as seventy or eighty fibres through a microscope1 and perceived that there were yet infinitely more than he could reckon2 so that he believed himself to be far within the limit of truth in computing that the tip of each of the five papill furnished #ajjj separate fibres3 thus supposing that one slender filament of a spider's web is made up of #ejjj fibres6 ,leeuwenhoeck1 in one of his extraordinary microscopical observations on a young spider1 not bigger than a grain of sand1 upon enumerating the threadlets in one of its threads1 calculated that it would require four millions of them to be as thick as a hair of his head6 ,another important advantage derived by the spider from the multiplicity of its threadlets is1 that the thread affords a much more secure attachment to a wall1 a branch of a tree1 or any other object1 than if it were simple2 for1 upon pressing the spinneret against the object1 as spiders always do when they fix a thread1 the spinnerules are extended over an area of some diameter1 from every hair's breadth of which a strand1 as rope-makers term it1 is extended to compound the main cord4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,plate ,,iv4 exhibits1 magnified1 this ingenious contrivance4 ,those who may be curious to examine it1 will see it best when the line is attached to any black object1 for the threads1 being whitish1 are1 in otherwise1 not so easily perceived4 ,,shooting ,,of ,,the ,,lines4--,it has long been considered a curious though difficult investigation1 to determine in what manner spiders1 seeing that they are destitute of wings1 transport themselves from tree to tree1 across brooks1 and frequently through the air itself1 without any apparent starting point4 ,on looking into the authors who have treated upon this subject1 it is surprising how little there is to be met with that is new1 even in the most recent4 ,their conclusions1 or rather their conjectural opinions1 are1 however1 worthy of notice2 for by unlearning error1 we the more firmly establish truth4 #a4 ,one of the earliest notions upon this subject is that of ,blancanus1 the commentator on ,aristotle1 which is partly adopted by ,redi1 by ,henricus ,regius of ,utrecht1 by ,swammerdam#ade1 by ,lehmann1 as well as by ,kirby and ,spence#adf4 8,the spider's thread10 says ,swammerdam1 8is generally made up of two or more parts1 and after descending by such a thread1 it ascends by one only1 and is thus enabled to waft itself from one height or tree to another1 even across running waters2 the thread it leaves loose behind it being driven about by the wind1 and so fixed to some other body40 8,i placed10 says ,kirby1 8the large garden spider 7,epeira diadema7 upon a stick about a foot long1 set upright in a vessel containing water4444 ,it let itself drop1 not by a single thread1 but by two1 each distant from the other about the twelfth of an inch1 guided1 as usual1 by one of its hind feet1 and that one apparently smaller than the other4 ,when it had suffered itself to descend nearly to the surface of the water1 it stopped short1 and by some means1 which ,i could not distinctly see1 broke off1 close to the spinners1 the smallest thread1 which still adhering by the other end to the top of the stick1 floated in the air1 and was so light as to be carried about by the slightest breath4 ,on approaching a pencil to the loose end of this line1 it did not adhere from mere contact4 ,i1 therefore1 twisted it once or twice round the pencil1 and then drew it tight4 ,the spider1 which had previously climbed to the top of the stick1 immediately pulled at it with one of its feet1 and finding it sufficiently tense1 crept along it1 strengthening it as it proceeded by another thread1 and thus reached the pencil40 #ade ,swammerdam1 part i4 p4 #bd4 #adf ,intr4 vol4 i4 p4 #dae4 #a4 8,we have repeatedly witnessed this occurrence10 says ,mr4 ,rennie1 8in the fields1 and when spiders were placed for experiment1 as ,kirby has described2 but we very much doubt that the thread broken is ever intended as a bridge cable1 or that it would have been so used in that instance1 had it not been artificially fixed and again accidentally found by the spider4 ,according to our observations1 a spider never for an instant1 abandons1 the thread which she dispatches in quest of an attachment1 but uniformly keeps trying it with her feet1 in order to ascertain its success4 ,we are1 therefore1 persuaded1 that when a thread is broken in the manner above described1 it is because it has been spun too weak1 and spiders may often be seen breaking such threads in the process of netting their webs40 ,the plan1 besides1 as explained by these distinguished writers1 would more frequently prove abortive than successful1 from the cut thread not being sufficiently long4 ,they admit1 indeed1 that spiders' lines are often found 8a yard or two long1 fastened to twigs of grass not a foot in height4444 ,here1 therefore1 some other process must have been used#adg40 #adg ,kirby and ,spence1 vol4 i4 ,intr4 p4 #daf4 #b4 ,the celebrated ,english naturalist1 ,dr4 ,lister1 whose treatise upon the native spiders of that country1 has been the basis of every subsequent work on the subject1 maintains that 8some spiders shoot out their threads in the same manner that porcupines do their quills#adh2 that whereas the quills of the latter are entirely separated from their bodies1 when thus shot out1 the threads of the former remain fixed to their anus1 as the sun's rays to its body#adi40 ,a ,french periodical writer goes a little farther1 and says1 that spiders have the power of shooting out threads1 and directing them at pleasure towards a determined point1 judging of the distance and position of the object by some sense of which we are ignorant#aej4 ,kirby also says1 that he once observed a small garden spider 7,aranea reticulata7 8standing midway on a long perpendicular fixed thread1 and an appearance caught0 his 8eye1 of what seemed to be the emission of threads40 8,i10 therefore1 he adds1 8moved my arm in the direction in which they apparently proceeded1 and1 as ,i had suspected1 a floating thread attached itself to my coat1 along which the spider crept4 ,as this was connected with the spinners of the spider1 it could not have been formed0 by breaking a 8secondary thread#aea40 ,again1 in speaking of the gossamer-spider1 he says1 8it first extends its thigh1 shank1 and foot1 into a right line1 and then1 elevating its abdomen till it becomes vertical1 shoots its thread into the air1 and flies off from its station#aeb40 #adh ,porcupines do not shoot out their quills1 as was once generally believed4 #adi ,lister1 ,hist4 ,animalia ,angli1 #dto4 p4 #g4 #aej ,phil4 ,mag4 ii4 p4 #bge4 #aea ,vol4 i4 ,intr4 p4 #dag4 #aeb ,ibid4 ii4 p4 #cci4 ,another distinguished naturalist1 ,mr4 ,white of ,selborne1 in speaking of the gossamer-spider1 says1 8,every day in fine weather in autumn do ,i see these spiders shooting out their webs1 and mounting aloft3 they will go off from the finger1 if you take them into your hand4 ,last summer1 one alighted on my book as ,i was reading in the parlor2 ran to the top of the page1 and shooting out a web1 took its departure from thence4 ,but what ,i most wondered at1 was1 that it went off with considerable velocity in a place where no air was stirring2 and ,i am sure ,i did not assist it with my breath#aec40 #aec ,nat4 ,hist4 of ,selborne1 vol4 i4 p4 #cbg4 8,having so often witnessed10 says ,mr4 ,rennie1 8the thread set afloat in the air by spiders1 we can readily conceive the way in which those eminent naturalists were led to suppose it to be ejected by some animal force acting like a syringe2 but as the statement can be completely disproved by experiment1 we shall only at present ask1 in the words of ,swammerdam--#8how can it be possible that a thread so fine and slender should be shot out with force enough to divide and pass through the air8--is it not rather probable that the air would stop its progress1 and so entangle it and fit it to perplex the spider's operations#aed8'0 ,the opinion1 indeed1 is equally improbable with another suggested by ,dr4 ,lister1 that the spider can retract her thread within the abdomen1 after it has been emitted#aee4 ,de ,geer#aef very justly joins ,swammerdam in rejecting both of these fancies1 which1 in our own earlier observations upon spiders1 certainly struck us as plausible and true4 ,there can be no doubt1 indeed1 that the animal has a voluntary power of permitting the material to escape1 or stopping it at pleasure1 but this is not projectile4 #aed ,book of ,nature1 part i4 p4 #be4 #aee ,hist4 ,anim4 ,angl1 #dto4 #aef ,mmoires1 vol4 vii4 p4 #ahi4 #c4 8,there are many people10 says the ,abb de la ,pluche1 8who believe that the spider flies when they see her pass from branch to branch1 and even from one high tree to another2 but she transports herself in this manner2 and places herself upon the end of a branch1 or some projecting body1 and there fastens her thread2 after which1 with her two hind feet1 she squeezes her dugs 7spinnerets71 and presses out one or more threads of two or three ells in length1 which she leaves to float in the air till it be fixed to some particular place#aeg40 ,without pretending to have observed this1 ,swammerdam says1 8,i can easily comprehend how spiders1 without giving themselves any motion1 may1 by only compressing their spinnerets1 force out a thread1 which being driven by the wind1 may serve to waft them from place to place#aeh40 ,others1 proceeding upon a similar notion1 give a rather different account of the matter4 8,the spider10 says ,bingley1 8fixes one end of a thread to the place where she stands1 and then with her hind paws draws out several other threads from the nipples1 which1 being lengthened out and driven by the wind to some neighboring tree or other object1 are by their natural clamminess fixed to it#aei40 #aeg ,spectacle de la ,nature1 vol4 i4 #aeh ,book of ,nature1 pt4 i4 p4 #be4 #aei ,animal ,biography1 vol4 iii4 p4 #dge1 #c;d edition4 ,observation gives some plausibility to the latter opinion1 as the spider always actively uses her legs1 though not to draw out the thread1 but ascertain whether it has caught upon any object4 ,the notion of her pressing the spinneret with her feet must be a mere fancy2 at least it is not countenanced by anything which we have observed4 #d4 ,an opinion much more recondite is mentioned1 if it was not started1 by ,m4 ,d',isjonval1 that the floating of the spider's thread is electrical4 8,frogs1 cats1 and other animals10 he says1 8are affected by natural electricity1 and feel the change of weather2 but no other animal more than myself and spiders40 ,in wet and windy weather he accordingly found that they spun very short lines1 8but when a spider spins a long thread1 there is a certainty of fine weather for at least ten or twelve days afterwards#afj40 ,a periodical writer1 who signs himself ,carolan#afa1 fancies that in darting out her thread the spider emits a stream of air1 or some subtle electric fluid1 by which she guides it as if by magic4 #afj ,brez1 ,flore des ,insectophiles4 ,notes1 ,supp4 p4 #acd4 #afa ,thomson's ,ann4 of ,philosophy1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cjf4 ,a living writer 7,mr4 ,john ,murray7 whose learning and skill in conducting experiments give no little weight to his opinions1 has carried these views considerably farther4 8,the aronautic spider10 he says1 8can propel its thread both horizontally and vertically1 and at all relative angles1 in motionless air and in an atmosphere agitated by winds2 nay more1 the arial traveller can even dart its thread1 to use a nautical phrase1 in the #8wind's eye4' ,my opinion and observations are based on many hundred experiments4444 ,the entire phenomena are electrical4 ,when a thread is propelled in a vertical plane1 it remains perpendicular to the horizontal plane always upright1 and when others are projected at angles more or less inclined1 their direction is invariably preserved2 the threads never intermingle1 and when a pencil of threads is propelled1 it ever presents the appearance of a divergent brush4 ,these are electrical phenomena1 and cannot be explained but on electrical principles40 8,in clear1 fine weather1 the air is invariably positive2 and it is precisely in such weather that the aronautic spider makes its ascent most easily and rapidly1 whether it be in summer or winter40 8,when the air is weakly positive1 the ascent of the spider will be difficult1 and its altitude extremely limited1 and the threads propelled will be but little elevated above the horizontal plane4 ,when negative electricity prevails1 as in cloudy weather1 or on the approach of rain1 and the index of ,de ,saussure's hygrometer rapidly advancing towards humidity1 the spider is unable to ascend#afb40 #afb ,loudon's ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41 vol4 i4 p4 #cbb4 ,mr4 ,murray tells us1 that 8when a stick of excited sealing-wax is brought near the thread of suspension1 it is evidently repelled2 consequently1 the electricity of the thread is of a negative character10 while 8an excited glass tube brought near1 seemed to attract the thread1 and with it the aronautic spider#afc40 ,his friend1 ,mr4 ,bowman1 further describes the arial spider as 8shooting out four or five1 often six or eight1 extremely fine webs several yards long1 which waved in the breeze1 diverging from each other like a pencil of rays40 ,one of them 8had two distinct and widely diverging fasciculi of webs10 and 8a line uniting them would have been at right angles to the direction of the breeze#afd40 #afc ,experim4 ,researches in ,nat4 ,hist41 p4 #acf4 #afd ,mag4 ,nat4 ,hist4 vol4 i4 p4 #cbd4 8,such is the chief evidence in support of the electrical theory10 says ,mr4 ,rennie2 8but though we have tried these experiments1 we have not succeeded in verifying any one of them4 ,the following statements of ,mr4 ,blackwall come nearer our own observations4 #e4 #8,having procured a small branched twig1' says ,mr4 ,blackwall1 #8,i fixed it upright in an earthen vessel containing water1 its base being immersed in the liquid1 and upon it ,i placed several of the spiders which produce gossamer4 ,whenever the insects thus circumstanced were exposed to a current of air1 either naturally or artificially produced1 they directly turned the thorax towards the quarter whence it came1 even when it was so slight as scarcely to be perceptible1 and elevating the abdomen1 they emitted from their spinners a small portion of glutinous matter1 which was instantly carried out in a line1 consisting of four finer ones1 with a velocity equal1 or nearly so1 to that with which the air moved1 as was apparent from observations made on the motion of detached lines similarly exposed4 ,the spiders1 in the next place1 carefully ascertained whether their lines had become firmly attached to any object or not1 by pulling at them with the front pair of legs2 and if the result was satisfactory1 after tightening them sufficiently1 they made them pass to the twig2 then discharging from their spinners1 which they applied to the spot where they stood1 a little more of their liquid gum1 and committing themselves to these bridges of their own constructing1 they passed over them in safety1 drawing a second line after them1 as a security in case the first gave way1 and so effected their escape4 #8,such was invariably the result when spiders were placed where the air was liable to be sensibly agitated3 ,i resolved1 therefore1 to put a bell-glass over them2 and in this situation they remained seventeen days1 evidently unable to produce a single line by which they could quit the branch they occupied1 without encountering the water at its base2 though1 on the removal of the glass1 they regained their liberty with as much celerity as in the instances already recorded4 #8,this experiment1 which1 from want of due precaution1 has misled so many distinguished naturalists1 ,i have tried with several geometric spiders1 and always with the same success#afe4'0 #afe ,linn4 ,trans41 vol4 xv4 p4 #def4 ,mr4 ,blackwall1 from subsequent experiments1 says he is 8confident in affirming1 that in motionless air1 spiders have not the power of darting their threads even through the space of half an inch#aff40 ,the following details are given in confirmation of this opinion4 ,mr4 ,blackwall observed1 the #ast of ,oct41 #ahbf1 a little before noon1 with the sun shining brightly1 no wind stirring1 and the thermometer in the shade ranging from #ee4e to #fd1 a profusion of shining lines crossing each other at every angle1 forming a confused net-work1 covering the fields and hedges1 and thickly coating his feet and ankles1 as he walked across a pasture4 ,he was more struck with the phenomenon because on the previous day a strong gale of wind had blown from the south1 and as gossamer is only seen in calm weather1 it must have been all produced within a very short time4 #aff ,mag4 ,nat4 ,hist41 vol4 ii4 p4 #cig4 8,what more particularly arrested my attention10 says ,mr4 ,blackwall1 8was the ascent of an amazing quantity of webs of an irregular1 complicated structure1 resembling ravelled silk of the finest quality1 and clearest white2 they were of various shapes and dimensions1 some of the largest measuring upwards of a yard in length1 and several inches in breadth in the widest part2 while others were almost as broad as long1 presenting an area of a few square inches only4 8,these webs1 it was quickly perceived1 were not formed in the air1 as is generally believed1 but at the earth's surface4 ,the lines of which they were composed1 being brought into contact by the mechanical action of gentle airs1 adhered together1 till1 by continual additions1 they were accumulated into flakes or masses of considerable magnitude1 on which the ascending current1 occasioned by the rarefaction of the air contiguous to the heated ground1 acted with so much force as to separate them from the objects to which they were attached1 raising them in the atmosphere to a perpendicular height of at least several hundred feet4 ,i collected a number of these webs about mid-day1 as they rose2 and again in the afternoon1 when the upward current had ceased1 and they were falling2 but scarcely one in twenty contained a spider3 though1 on minute inspection1 ,i found small winged insects1 chiefly aphides1 entangled in most of them4 8,from contemplating this unusual display of gossamer1 my thoughts were naturally directed to the animals which produced it1 and the countless myriads in which they swarmed almost created as much surprise as the singular occupation that engrossed them4 ,apparently actuated by the same impulse1 all were intent upon traversing the regions of air2 accordingly1 after gaining the summits of various objects1 as blades of grass1 stubble1 rails1 gates1 c41 by the slow and laborious process of climbing1 they raised themselves still higher by strengthening their limbs2 and elevating the abdomen1 by bringing it from the usual horizontal position into one almost perpendicular1 they emitted from their spinning apparatus a small quantity of the glutinous secretion with which they construct their webs4 ,this viscous substance being drawn out by the ascending current of rarefied air into fine lines several feet in length1 was carried upward1 until the spiders1 feeling themselves acted upon with sufficient force in that direction1 quitted their hold of the objects on which they stood1 and commenced their journey by mounting aloft4 8,whenever the lines became inadequate to the purpose for which they were intended1 by adhering to any fixed body1 they were immediately detached from the spinners and so converted into terrestrial gossamer1 by means of the last pair of legs1 and the proceedings just described were repeated2 which plainly proves that these operations result from a strong desire felt by the insects to effect an ascent#afg40 ,mr4 ,blackwall has recently read a paper 7still unpublished7 in the ,linnan ,society1 confirmatory of his opinions4 #afg ,linn4 ,trans41 vol4 xv4 p4 #dec4 #f4 8,without going into the particulars10 says ,mr4 ,rennie1 8of what agrees or disagrees in the above experiments with our own observations1 we shall give a brief account of what we have actually seen in our researches4 ,so far as we have determined1 then1 all the various species of spiders1 how different soever the form of their webs may be1 proceed in the circumstance of shooting their lines precisely alike2 but those which we have found the most manageable in experimenting1 are the small gossamer spider 7,aranea obtextrix1 ,,bechstein71 known by its shining blackish-brown body and reddish-brown semi-transparent legs2 but particularly the long-bodied spider 7,tetragnatha extensa1 ,,latr471 which varies in color from green to brownish or grey--but has always a black line along the belly1 with a silvery white or yellowish one on each side4 ,the latter is chiefly recommended by being a very industrious and persevering spinner1 while its movements are easily seen1 from the long cylindrical form of its body and the length of its legs4 8,we placed the above two species with five or six others1 including the garden1 the domestic1 and the labyrinthic spiders1 in empty wine-glasses1 set in tea-saucers filled with water1 to prevent their escape4 ,when they discovered1 by repeated descents from the brims of the glasses1 that they were thus surrounded by a wet ditch1 they all set themselves to the task of throwing their silken bridges across4 ,for this purpose they first endeavored to ascertain in what direction the wind blew1 or rather 7as the experiment was made in our study7 which way any current of air set1--by elevating their arms as we have seen sailors do in a dead calm4 ,but1 as it may prove more interesting to keep to one individual1 we shall first watch the proceedings of the gossamer spider4 8,finding no current of air on any quarter of the brim of the glass1 it seemed to give up all hopes of constructing its bridge of escape1 and placed itself in the attitude of repose2 but no sooner did we produce a stream of air1 by blowing gently towards its position1 than1 fixing a thread to the glass1 and laying hold of it with one of its feet1 by way of security1 it placed its body in a vertical position1 with its spinnerets extended outwards2 and immediately we had the pleasure of seeing a thread streaming out from them several feet in length1 on which the little aronaut sprung up into the air4 ,we were convinced1 from what we thus observed1 that it was the double or bend of the thread which was blown into the air2 and we assigned as a reason for her previously attaching and drawing out a thread from the glass1 the wish to give the wind a point d'appui--something upon which it might have a purchase1 as a mechanic would say of a lever4 ,the bend of the thread1 then1 on this view of the matter1 would be carried out by the wind1--would form the point of impulsion1--and1 of course1 the escape bridge would be an ordinary line doubled40 ,such is the opinion of ,mr4 ,rennie1 which is strongly corroborated by what has been said by ,m4 ,latreille--than whom no higher authority could be given4 8,when the animal10 says he1 8desires to cross a brook1 she fixes to a tree or some other object one of the ends of her first threads1 in order that the wind or a current of air may carry the other beyond the obstacle#afh20 and as one end is always attached to the spinnerets1 he must mean that the double of the thread flies off4 ,in his previous publications1 however1 ,latreille had contented himself with copying the statement of ,dr4 ,lister4 8,in order to ascertain the fact10 says ,mr4 ,rennie1 8and put an end to all doubts1 we watched1 with great care and minuteness1 the proceedings of the long-bodied spider above mentioned1 by producing a stream of air in the same manner1 as it perambulated the brim of the glass4 ,it immediately1 as the other had done1 attached a thread and raised its body perpendicularly1 like a tumbler standing on his hands with his head downwards2 but we looked in vain for this thread bending1 as we had at first supposed1 and going off double4 ,instead of this it remained tight1 while another thread1 or what appeared to be so1 streamed off from the spinners1 similar to smoke issuing through a pin-hole1 sometimes in a line1 and sometimes at a considerable angle1 with the first1 according to the current of the air1--the first thread1 extended from the glass to the spinnerets1 remaining all the while tight drawn in a right line4 ,it further appeared to us1 that the first thread proceeded from the pair of spinnerets nearest the head1 while the floating thread came from the outer pair1--though it is possible in such minute objects we may have been deceived4 ,that the first was continuous with the second1 without any perceptible joining1 we ascertained in numerous instances1 by catching the floating line and pulling it tight1 in which case the spider glides along without attaching another line to the glass2 but if she have to coil up the floating line to lighten it1 as usually happens1 she gathers it into a packet and glues the two ends tight together4 ,her body1 while the floating line streamed out1 remained quite motionless1 but we distinctly saw the spinnerets not only projected1 as is always done when a spider spins1 but moved in the same way as an infant moves its lips when sucking4 ,we cannot doubt1 therefore1 that this motion is intended to emit 7if eject or project be deemed words too strong71 the liquid material of the thread2 at the same time1 we are quite certain that it cannot throw out a single inch of thread without the aid of a current of air4 ,a long-bodied spider will thus throw out in succession as many threads as we please1 by simply blowing towards it2 but not one where there is no current1 as under a bell-glass1 where it may be kept till it die1 without being able to construct a bridge over water of an inch long4 ,we never observed more than one floating thread produced at the same time2 though other observers mention several4 #afh ----8,l'un des bouts de ces premiers fils1 afin que le vent ou un courant d'air pousse l'autre extrmit de l'un d'eux au del de l'obstacle40--,dict4 ,classique d',hist4 ,nat41 vol4 i4 p4 #eaj4 8,the probable commencement1 we think1 of the floating line1 is by the emission of little globules of the glutinous material to the points of the spinnerules--perhaps it may be dropped from them1 if not ejected1 and the globules being carried off by the current of air1 drawn out into a thread4 ,but we give this as only a conjecture1 for we could not bring a glass of sufficient power to bear upon the spinnerules at the commencement of the floating line4 8,in subsequent experiments we found1 that it was not indispensable for the spider to rest upon a solid body when producing a line1 as she can do so while she is suspended in the air by another line4 ,when the current of air also is strong1 she will sometimes commit herself to it by swinging from the end of the line4 ,we have even remarked this when there was scarcely a breath of air4 8,we tried another experiment4 ,we pressed pretty firmly upon the base of the spinnerets1 so as not to injure the spider1 blowing obliquely over them2 but no floating line appeared4 ,we then touched them with a pencil and drew out several lines an inch or two in length1 upon which we blew in order to extend them1 but in this also we were unsuccessful1 as they did not lengthen more than a quarter of an inch4 ,we next traced out the reservoirs of a garden-spider 7,epeira diadema71 and immediately taking a drop of the matter from one of them on the point of a fine needle1 we directed upon it a strong current of air1 and succeeded in blowing out a thick yellow line1 as we might have done with gum-water1 of about an inch and a half long4 8,when we observed our long-bodied spider eager to throw a line by raising up its body1 we brought within three inches of its spinnerets an excited stick of sealing-wax1 of which it took no notice1 nor did any thread extend to it1 not even when brought almost to touch the spinnerets4 ,we experienced the same want of success with an excited glass rod2 and indeed had not anticipated any other result1 as we have never observed that either these attract or repel the floating threads1 as ,mr4 ,murray has seen them do2 nor have we ever noticed the end of a floating thread separated into its component threadlets and diverging like a brush1 as he and ,mr4 ,bowman describe 7,see ,fig4 #aa474 ,it may be proper to mention that ,mr4 ,murray1 in conformity with his theory1 explains the shooting of lines in a current of air by the electric state produced by motion in consequence of the mutual friction of the gaseous particles4 ,but this view of the matter does not seem to affect our statements40 ,,nests1 ,,webs1 ,,and ,,nets ,,of ,,spiders4--8,the neatest10 says ,mr4 ,rennie1 8though the smallest spider's nest which we have seen1 was constructed in the chink of a garden-post1 which we had cut out the previous summer in getting at the cells of a carpenter-bee4 ,the architect was one of the larger hunting-spiders1 erroneously said by some naturalists to be incapable of spinning4 ,the nest in question was about two inches high1 composed of a very close satin-like texture4 ,there were two parallel chambers placed perpendicularly1 in which position also the inhabitant reposed there during the day1 going1 as we presume1 only abroad to prey during the night4 ,but the most remarkable circumstance was1 that the openings 7two above and two below7 were so elastic1 that they shut closely together4 ,we observed this spider for several months1 but at last it disappeared1 and we took the nest out under the notion that it might contain eggs2 but found none1 and therefore concluded that it was only used as a day retreat40 ,the account which ,evelyn has given of these hunting spiders is so interesting that we must transcribe it4 8,of all sorts of insects10 says he1 8none have afforded me more divertisement than the venatores 7hunters71 which are a sort of lupi 7wolves7 that have their dens in rugged walls and crevices of our houses2 a small brown and delicately-spotted kind of spiders1 whose hinder legs are longer than the rest4 ,such ,i did frequently observe at ,rome1 which1 espying a fly at three or four yards distance1 upon the balcony where ,i stood1 would not make directly to her1 but crawl under the rail1 till being arrived to the antipodes1 it would steal up1 seldom missing its aim2 but if it chanced to want anything of being perfectly opposite1 would1 at first peep1 immediately slide down again1--till taking better notice1 it would come the next time exactly upon the fly's back3 but if this happened not to be within a competent leap1 then would this insect move so softly1 as the very shadow of the gnomon seemed not to be more imperceptible1 unless the fly moved2 and then would the spider move also in the same proportion1 keeping that just time with her motion1 as if the same soul had animated both these little bodies2 and whether it were forwards1 backwards1 or to either side1 without at all turning her body1 like a well-managed horse3 but if the capricious fly took wing and pitched upon another place behind our huntress1 then would the spider whirl its body so nimbly about1 as nothing could be imagined more swift3 by which means she always kept the head towards her prey1 though1 to appearance1 as immoveable as if it had been a nail driven into the wood1 till by that indiscernible progress 7being arrived within the sphere of her reach7 she made a fatal leap1 swift as lightning1 upon the fly1 catching him in the pole1 where she never quitted hold till her belly was full1 and then carried the remainder home40 ,one feels a little sceptical1 however1 when he adds1 8,i have beheld them instructing their young ones how to hunt1 which they would sometimes discipline for not well observing2 but when any of the old ones did 7as sometimes7 miss a leap1 they would run out of the field and hide themselves in their crannies1 as ashamed1 and haply not to be seen abroad for four or five hours after2 for so long have ,i watched the nature of this strange insect1 the contemplation of whose so wonderful sagacity and address has amazed me2 nor do ,i find in any chase whatsoever more cunning and stratagem observed4 ,i have found some of these spiders in my garden1 when the weather1 towards spring1 was very hot1 but they are not so eager in hunting as in ,italy#afi40 #afi ,evelyn's ,travels in ,italy4 ,we have only to add to this lively narrative1 that the hunting-spider1 when he leaps1 takes good care to provide against accidental falls by always swinging himself from a good strong cable of silk1 as ,swammerdam correctly states#agj1 and which anybody may recognise1 as one of the small hunters 7,salticus scenicus71 known by its back striped with black and white like a zebra4 #agj ,book of ,nature1 part i4 p4 #bd4 ,mr4 ,weston1 the editor of 8,bloomfield's ,remains10 falls into a very singular mistake about hunting-spiders1 imagining them to be web-weaving ones which have exhausted their materials1 and are therefore compelled to hunt4 ,in proof of this he gives an instance which came under his own observation#aga6 8,as a contrast10 says ,mr4 ,rennie1 8to the little elastic satin nest of the hunter1 we may mention the largest with which we are acquainted1--that of the labyrinthic spider 7,agelena labyrinthica1 ,,walckenaer74 ,our readers must often have seen this nest spread out like a broad sheet in hedges1 furze1 and other low bushes1 and sometimes on the ground4 ,the middle of this sheet1 which is of a close texture1 is swung like a sailor's hammock1 by silken ropes extended all around to the higher branches2 but the whole curves upwards and backwards1 sloping down to a long funnel-shaped gallery which is nearly horizontal at the entrance1 but soon winds obliquely till it becomes quite perpendicular4 ,this curved gallery is about a quarter of an inch in diameter1 is much more closely woven than the sheet part of the web1 and sometimes descends into a hole in the ground1 though oftener into a group of crowded twigs1 or a tuft of grass4 ,here the spider dwells secure1 frequently resting with her legs extended from the entrance of the gallery1 ready to spring out upon whatever insect may fall into her sheet net4 ,she herself can only be caught by getting behind her and forcing her out into the web2 but though we have often endeavored to make her construct a nest under our eye1 we have been as unsuccesful as in similar experiments with the common house spider 7,aranea domestica74 8,the house spider's proceedings were long ago described by ,homberg1 and the account has been copied1 as usual1 by almost every subsequent writer4 ,goldsmith has1 indeed1 given some strange mis-statements from his own observations1 and ,bingley has added the original remark1 that1 after fixing its first thread1 creeping along the wall1 and joining it as it proceeds1 it #8darts itself to the opposite side1 where the other end is to be fastened#agb6' ,homberg's spider took the more circuitous route of travelling to the opposite wall1 carrying in one of its claws the end of the thread previously fixed1 lest it should stick in the wrong place4 ,this we believe to be the correct statement1 for as the web is always horizontal1 it would seldom answer to commit a floating thread to the wind1 as is done by other species4 ,homberg's spider1 after stretching as many lines by way of warp as it deemed sufficient between the two walls of the corner which it had chosen1 proceeded to cross this in the way our weavers do in adding the woof1 with this difference1 that the spider's threads were only laid on1 and not interlaced#agc4 ,the domestic spiders1 however1 in these modern days1 must have forgot this mode of weaving1 for none of their webs will be found thus regularly constructed60 #aga ,bloomfield's ,remains1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fd1 note4 #agb ,animal ,biography1 iii4 #dgj1 #dga4 #agc ,mem4 de l',acad4 des ,sciences1 pour #agjg1 p4 #cci4 ,the geometric1 or net-working spiders 7,see ,fig4 #ab4 ,plate ,,iv47 are as well known as any of the preceding2 almost every bush and tree in our gardens and hedge-rows having one or more of their nests stretched out in a vertical position between adjacent branches4 ,the common garden spider 7,epeira diadema71 and the long-bodied spider 7,tetragnatha extensa71 are the best known of this order4 8,the chief care of a spider of this sort10 says ,mr4 ,rennie1 8is1 to form a cable of sufficient strength to bear the net she means to hang upon it2 and after throwing out a floating line as above described1 when it catches properly1 she doubles and redoubles it with additional threads4 ,on trying its strength she is not contented with the test of pulling it with her legs1 but drops herself down several feet from various points of it1 as we have often seen1 swinging and bobbing with the whole weight of her body4 ,she proceeds in a similar manner with the rest of the frame of her wheel-shaped net2 and it may be remarked that some of the ends of these lines are not simple1 but in form of a ,y1 giving her the additional security of two attachments instead of one40 ,in constructing the body of the nest1 the most remarkable circumstance is the using of her limbs as a measure1 to regulate the distances of her radii or wheel-spokes 7,see ,fig4 #ab4 ,plate ,,iv41 which represents the geometric net of the 8,epeira diadema071 and the circular meshes interwoven into them4 ,these are consequently always proportional to the size of the spider4 ,she often takes up her station in the centre1 but not always1 though it is so said by inaccurate writers2 but she as frequently lurks in a little chamber constructed under a leaf or other shelter at the corner of her web1 ready to dart down upon whatever prey may be entangled in her net4 ,the centre of the net is said also to be composed of more viscid materials than its suspensory lines1--a circumstance alleged to be proved by the former appearing under the microscrope studded with globules of gum#agd4 8,we have not been able10 says ,mr4 ,rennie1 8to verify this distinction1 having seen the suspensory lines as often studded in this manner as those in the centre40 #agd ,kirby and ,spence1 ,intr4 i4 #dai4 ,at the commencement of the last century a method was discovered in ,france by ,monsieur ,bon1 of procuring silk from spiders' bags1 and its use was attempted in the manufacture of several articles4 ,mr4 ,bon has1 however1 noticed only two kinds of silk-making spiders1 and these he has distinguished from each other as having either long or short legs1 the last variety producing the finest quality of raw silk4 ,according to this ingenious observer1 the silk formed by these insects is equally beautiful1 strong1 and glossy with that formed by the silk-worm4 ,when first formed1 the color of these spiders' bags is gray1 but1 by exposure to the air1 they soon acquire a blackish hue4 ,other spider bags might probably be found of different colors1 and affording silk of better quality1 but their scarcity would render any experiment with them difficult of accomplishment2 for which reason ,m4 ,bon confined his attention to the bags of the common sort of the short-legged kind4 ,these always form their bags in some place sheltered from the wind and rain1 such as the hollow trunks of trees1 the corners of windows or vaults1 or under the eaves of houses4 ,a quantity of the bags was collected from which a new kind of silk was made1 said to be in no respect inferior to the produce of the silk-worm4 ,it took readily all kinds of dyes1 and might have been wrought into any description of silken fabric4 ,mr4 ,bon had stockings and gloves made from it1 some of which he presented to the ,royal ,academy of ,paris1 and others he transmitted to the ,royal ,society of ,london4 ,this silk was prepared in the following manner3--,twelve or thirteen ounces of the bags were beaten with a stick1 until they became entirely freed from dust4 ,they were next washed in warm water1 which was continually changed1 until it no longer became clouded or discolored by the bags under process4 ,after this they were steeped in a large quantity of water wherein soap1 saltpetre1 and gum-arabic had been dissolved4 ,the whole was then gently boiled during three hours1 after which the bags were rinsed in clear warm water to discharge the soap4 ,they were finally set out to dry1 previous to the operation of carding1 which was then performed with cards differing from those usually employed with silk1 being much finer4 ,by these means silk of a peculiar ash color was obtained1 which was spun without difficulty4 ,mr4 ,bon affirmed that the thread was both stronger and finer than common silk1 and that therefore fabrics similar to those made with the latter material might be manufactured from this1 there being no reason for doubting that it would stand any trials of the loom1 after having undergone those of the stocking frame4 ,the only obstacle1 therefore1 which appeared to prevent the establishing of any considerable manufacture from these spider bags was the difficulty of obtaining them in sufficient abundance4 ,mr4 ,bon fancied that this objection could soon be overcome1 and that the art of domesticating and rearing spiders1 as practised with silk-worms1 was to be attained4 ,carried away by the enthusiasm of one who1 having made a discovery1 pursues it with ardor undismayed by difficulties1 he met every objection by comparisons1 which perhaps were not wholly and strictly founded on fact4 ,contrasted with the spider1 and to favor his arguments1 the silk-worm in his hands made a very despicable figure4 ,he affirmed that the female spider produces #fjj or #gjj eggs2 while of the #ajj1 to which number he limited the silk-worm1 not more than one-half were reared to produce balls4 ,that the spiders hatched spontaneously1 without any care1 in the months of ,august and ,september2 that the old spiders dying soon after they have laid their eggs1 the young ones live for ten or twelve months without food1 and continue in their bags without growing1 until the hot weather1 by putting their viscid juices in motion1 induces them to come forth1 spin1 and run about in search of food4 ,mr4 ,bon's spider establishment1 was managed in the following manner3--having ordered all the short-legged spiders which could be collected by persons employed for the purpose1 to be brought to him1 he inclosed them in paper coffins and pots2 these were covered with papers1 which1 as well as the coffins1 were pricked over their surface with pin-holes to admit air to the prisoners4 ,the insects were duly fed with flies1 and after some time it was found on inspection that the greater part of them had formed their bags4 ,this advocate for the rearing of spiders contended that spiders' bags afforded much more silk in proportion to their weight than those of the silk-worm2 in proof of which he observed1 that thirteen ounces yield nearly four ounces of pure silk1 two ounces of which were sufficient to make a pair of stockings2 whereas stockings made of common silk were said by him to weigh seven or eight ounces4 ,it was objected by some of ,mr4 ,bon's contemporaries1 that spiders were venomous2 and this is so far true that a bite from some of the species is very painful1 producing as much swelling as the smart sting of a nettle4 ,mr4 ,bon1 however1 asserted that he was several times bitten1 without experiencing any inconvenience2 if so1 he was more fortunate or less sensitive than any of the spider-tamers with whom we have been acquainted4 ,it was further asserted1 that this venom extended itself to the silk which the spider produced2 but this assertion was utterly absurd1 as any one who has ever applied a cobweb to stop the bleeding from a cut ought to have known4 ,mr4 ,bon declared with perfect truth1 that the silk1 so far from being pernicious1 was useful in staunching and healing wounds1 its natural gluten acting as a kind of balsam4 ,the honest enthusiasm of the projector1 and the singularity of a regular establishment being formed for rearing and working spiders1 excited a considerable share of public attention4 ,it was1 indeed1 an age of strange speculations1 for nearly at the same time a ,german gentleman broached a scheme for turning tame squirrels and mice to account in spinning2 and companies were formed in ,england1 with large nominal capitals to carry out schemes still more preposterous4 ,so important did ,mr4 ,bon's project appear to the ,french ,academy1 that they deputed the eminent naturalist1 ,m4 ,raumur1 to investigate the merits of this new silk-filament4 ,after a long and patient examination ,m4 ,raumur stated the following objections to ,mr4 ,bon's plan for raising spider-silk1 which have ever since been regarded as insurmountable4 #a4 ,the natural fierceness of spiders renders them unfit to be bred together4 ,on distributing four or five thousand of these insects into cells or companies of from fifty to one or two hundred1 it was found that the larger spiders quickly killed and ate the smaller1 so that in a short space of time the cells were depopulated1 scarcely more than one or two being found in each cell4 #b4 ,the silk of the spider is inferior to that of the silk-worm both in lustre and strength2 and produces less material in proportion1 than can be made available for the purposes of the manufacture4 ,the filament of the spider's-bag can support a weight of only thirty-six grains1 while that of the silk-worm will sustain a weight of one hundred and fifty grains4 ,thus four or five threads of the spider must be brought together to equal one thread of the silk-worm1 and as it is impossible that these should be applied so accurately over each other as not to leave little vacant spaces between them1 the light is not equally reflected1 and the lustre of the material is consequently inferior to that in which a solid thread is used4 #c4 ,a great disadvantage of the spider's silk is1 that it cannot be wound off the ball like that of the silk-worm1 but must necessarily be carded4 ,by this latter process1 its evenness1 which contributes so materially to its lustre1 is destroyed4 ,the ferociousness and pugnacity of the spiders are not exaggerated2 they fight like furies4 ,their voracity1 too1 is almost incredible1 and it is very questionable whether the mere collection of flies sufficient to feed a large number of the spiders would not involve an amount of expense fatal to the project as a lucrative undertaking4 ,the strength of the spiders' filament is1 if anything1 overstated by ,raumur4 ,deficiency of lustre arising from the carding of the filaments is common to the spider-fabric and to spun silk2 this objection would1 perhaps1 not be of very great weight but for the decisive calculation by which ,raumur showed the comparative amount of production between the spider and the silk-worm4 ,the largest cocoons weigh four1 and the smaller three grains each2 spider-bags do not weigh above one grain each2 and1 after being cleared of their dust1 have lost two-thirds of this weight2 therefore the work of twelve spiders equals that of only one silk-worm2 and a pound of spider-silk would require for its production #bg1fdh insects4 ,but as the bags are wholly the work of the females1 who spin them as a deposit for their eggs1 it follows that #ee1bif spiders must be reared to yield one pound of silk3 yet this will be obtained only from the best spiders2 those large ones ordinarily seen in gardens1 c41 yielding not more than a twelfth part of the silk of the others4 ,the work of #bhj of these would therefore not yield more silk than the produce of one industrious silk-worm1 and #ffc1eeb of them would furnish only one pound of silk6 ,although ,raumur's report completely extinguished ,mr4 ,bon's project in ,france1 it was revived in ,england two or three times in the early part of the last century4 ,swift has not neglected to make it a portion of his unrivalled satire against speculators and projectors1 in his account of ,gulliver's visit to the ,academy of ,lagado3 8,i went into another room1 says he1 where the walls and ceilings were all hung round with cobwebs1 except a narrow passage for the artist to go in and out4 ,at my entrance he called out to me not to disturb his webs4 ,he lamented the fatal mistake the world had been so long in1 of using silk-worms1 while we had such plenty of domestic insects1 who infinitely excelled the former1 because they understood how to weave as well as spin4 ,and he proposed further1 that1 by employing spiders1 the charge of dyeing silk should be wholly saved2 whereof ,i was fully convinced1 when he showed me a vast number of flies most beautifully colored1 wherewith he fed his spiders1 assuring us that the webs would take a tincture from them1 and as he had them of all hues1 he hoped to suit every body's fancy1 as soon as he could find proper food for the flies1 of certain gums1 oils1 and other glutinous matter to give a strength and consistency to the threads40 ,,the ,,ingenuity ,,of ,,spiders4--,mr4 ,thomas ,ewbank of ,new ,york1 in a letter to the ,editor of the ,journal of the ,franklin ,institute1 bearing date ,september #bjth1 #ahdb1 gives us the following interesting description of the ingenuity of the ,spider4 8,the resources of the lower animals have often excited admiration1 and though no comprehensive and systematic series of observations have yet been made upon them7871 the time is1 ,i believe1 not distant when the task will be undertaken--perhaps within the next century4 ,but whenever and by whomsoever accomplished1 the mechanism of animals will then form the subject of one of the most interesting and useful volumes in the archives of man4 8,among insects1 spiders have repeatedly been observed to modify and change their contrivances for ensnaring their prey4 ,those that live in fields and gardens often fabricate their nets or webs vertically4 ,this sometimes occurs in locations where there is no object sufficiently near to which the lower edge or extremity of the web can properly be braced2 and unless this be done1 light puffs or breezes of wind are apt to blow it into an entangled mass4 ,instead of being spread out1 like the sail of a ship1 to the wind1 it would become clewed over the upper line1 or edge1 like a sail when furled up4 ,now how would a human engineer act under similar circumstances8 ,but ere the reader begins to reflect7671 he should bear in mind that it would not do to brace the web by running rigging from it to some fixed or immovable object below--by no means2--for were this done1 it could not yield to impulses of wind2 the rigging would be snapped by the first blast1 and the whole structure probably destroyed4 8,whatever contrivances human sagacity might suggest1 they could hardly excel those which these despised engineers sometimes adopt4 ,having formed a web1 under circumstances similar to those to which we have referred1 a spider has been known to descend from it to the ground by means of a thread spun for the purpose1 and after selecting a minute pebble1 or piece of stone1 has coiled the end of the thread round it4 ,having done this1 the ingenious artist ascended1 and fixing himself on the lower part of the web1 hoisted up the pebble until it swung several inches clear of the ground4 ,the cord to which the weight was suspended was then secured by additional ones1 running from it to different parts of the web1 which thus acquired the requisite tension1 and was allowed1 at the same time1 to yield to sudden puffs of wind without danger of being rent asunder4 8,a similar instance came under my notice a few days ago4 ,a large spider had constructed his web1 in nearly a vertical position1 about six feet from the ground1 in a corner of my yard4 ,the upper edge was formed by a strong thread1 secured at one end to a vine leaf1 and the other to a clothes line4 ,one part of the lower edge was attached to a ,penyan sun-flower1 and another to a trellis fence1 four or five feet distant4 ,between these there was no object nearer than the ground1 to which an additional brace line could be carried2 but two threads1 a foot asunder1 descended from this part of the web1 and1 eight or ten inches below it1 were united at a point4 ,from this point1 a single line1 four or five inches long1 was suspended1 and to its lower extremity was the weight1 a living one1 viz4 a worm1 three inches long1 and one-eighth of an inch thick4 ,the cord was fastened around the middle of the victim's body1 and as no object was within reach1 all its writhings and efforts to escape were fruitless4 ,its weight answered the same purpose as a piece of inanimate matter1 while its sufferings seemed not in the least to disturb the unconcerned murderer1 who lay waiting for his prey above4 8,whether the owner of the web found it a more easy task to capture this unlucky worm and raise it1 than to elevate a stone of the same weight1 may be a question7874 ,perhaps in seeking for the latter1 the former fell in his way1 and was seized as the first suitable object that came to hand--like the human tyrant1 7,domitian7 who1 to show his skill in archery1 planted his arrows in the heads of men or cattle1 in the absence of other targets4 ,it may be1 however1 that a piece of stone1 earth1 or wood1 of a suitable weight1 was not in the vicinity of the web4 8,to observe the effect of this weight1 ,i separated1 with a pair of scissors1 the thread by which it was suspended1 and instantly the web sunk to half its previous dimensions--the lower part became loose1 and with the slightest current kept shaking like a sail shivering in the wind4 ,a fresh weight was not supplied by the next morning2 but instead of it two long brace lines extended from the lower part of the web to two vine tendrils1 a considerable distance off4 ,these ,i cut away to see what device would be next adopted1 but on going to examine it the following day1 ,i found the clothes line removed1 and with it all relics of the insect's labors had disappeared40 ,,mason-,,spiders4--,a no less wonderful structure is composed by a sort of spiders1 natives of the tropics and the south of ,europe1 which have been justly called mason-spiders by ,m4 ,latreille4 ,one of these 7,mygale nidulans1 ,,walckn471 found in the ,west ,indies1 8digs a hole in the earth obliquely downwards1 about three inches in length1 and one in diameter4 ,this cavity she lines with a tough thick web1 which1 when taken out1 resembles a leathern purse2 but what is most curious1 this house has a door with hinges1 like the operculum of some sea-shells1 and herself and family1 who tenant this nest1 open and shut the door whenever they pass and repass4 ,this history was told me10 says ,darwin1 8and the nest1 with its door1 shown me by the late ,dr4 ,butt1 of ,bath1 who was some years physician in ,jamaica#age40 #age ,darwin's ,zoonomia1 i4 #bec1 #hvo4 ed4 8,the nest of a mason-spider1 similar to this10 says ,mr4 ,rennie1 8has been obligingly put into our hands by ,mr4 ,riddle of ,blackheath4 ,it came from the ,west ,indies1 and is probably that of ,latreille's clay-kneader 7,mygale cratiens71 and one of the smallest of the genus4 ,we have since seen a pair of these spiders in possession of ,mr4 ,william ,mello1 of ,blackheath4 ,the nest is composed of very hard argillaceous clay1 deeply tinged with brown oxide of iron4 ,it is in form of a tube1 about one inch in diameter1 between six and seven inches long1 and slightly bent towards the lower extremity--appearing to have been mined into the clay rather than built4 ,the interior of the tube is lined with a uniform tapestry of silken web1 of an orange-white color1 with a texture intermediate between ,india paper and very fine glove leather4 ,but the most wonderful part of this nest is its entrance1 which we look upon as the perfection of insect architecture4 ,a circular door1 about the size of a crown piece1 slightly concave on the outside and convex within1 is formed of more than a dozen layers of the same web which lines the interior1 closely laid upon one another1 and shaped so that the inner layers are the broadest1 the outer being gradually less in diameter1 except towards the hinge1 which is about an inch long2 and in consequence of all the layers being united there1 and prolonged into the tube1 it becomes the thickest and strongest part of the structure4 ,the elasticity of the materials1 also1 gives to this hinge the remarkable peculiarity of acting like a spring1 and shutting the door of the nest spontaneously4 ,it is1 besides1 made to fit so accurately to the aperture1 which is composed of similar concentric layers of web1 that it is almost impossible to distinguish the joining by the most careful inspection4 ,to gratify curiosity1 the door has been opened and shut hundreds of times1 without in the least destroying the power of the spring4 ,when the door is shut1 it resembles some of the lichens 7,lecidea71 or the leathery fungi1 such as ,polyporus versicolor 7,,micheli71 or1 nearer still1 the upper valve of a young oyster-shell4 ,the door of the nest1 the only part seen above ground1 being of a blackish-brown color1 it must be very difficult to discover40 ,another mason-spider 7,mygale cmentaria1 ,,latr471 found in the south of ,france1 usually selects for her nest a place bare of grass1 sloping in such a manner as to carry off the water1 and of a firm soil1 without rocks or small stones4 ,she digs a gallery a foot or two in depth1 and of a diameter 7equal throughout7 sufficient to admit of her easily passing4 ,she lines this with a tapestry of silk glued to the walls4 ,the door1 which is circular1 is constructed of many layers of earth kneaded1 and bound together with silk4 ,externally1 it is flat and rough1 corresponding to the earth around the entrance1 for the purpose1 no doubt1 of concealment3 on the inside it is convex1 and tapestried thickly with a web of fine silk4 ,the threads of this door-tapestry are prolonged1 and strongly attached to the upper side of the entrance1 forming an excellent hinge1 which1 when pushed open by the spider1 shuts again by its own weight1 without the aid of spring hinges4 ,when the spider is at home1 and her door forcibly opened by an intruder1 she pulls it strongly inwards1 and even where half-opened often snatches it out of the hand2 but when she is foiled in this1 she retreats to the bottom of her den1 as her last resource#agf4 ,the nest of this spider 7the mason spider7 is represented in ,plate ,,iv4 ,fig4 #ad41 and shows the nest shut4 ,fig4 #ae41 represents it open4 ,fig4 #af4 the spider 7,mygale cmentaria74 ,fig4 #ag4 the eyes magnified4 ,figures #ah and #ai parts of the foot and claw magnified4 ,rossi ascertained that the female of an allied species 7,mygale sauvagesii1 ,,latr471 found in ,corsica1 lived in one of these nests1 with a numerous posterity4 ,he destroyed one of the doors to observe whether a new one would be made1 which it was2 but it was fixed immoveably1 without a hinge2 the spider1 no doubt1 fortifying herself in this manner till she thought she might re-open it without danger#agg4 #agf ,mm4 ,soc4 d',hist4 ,nat4 de ,paris1 ,an4 vii4 #agg ,mm4 ,soc4 d',hist4 ,nat4 de ,paris1 ,an4 vii4 p4 #abe1 and ,latreille1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,gnr4 viii4 p4 #afc4 8,the ,rev4 ,revett ,shepherd has often noticed1 in the fen ditches of ,norfolk1 a very large spider 7the species not yet determined7 which actually forms a raft for the purpose of obtaining its prey with more facility4 ,keeping its station upon a ball of weeds about three inches in diameter1 probably held together by slight silken cords1 it is wafted along the surface of the water upon this floating island1 which it quits the moment it sees a drowning insect4 ,the booty thus seized it devours at leisure upon its raft1 under which it retires when alarmed by any danger#agh40 ,in the spring of #ahcj1 ,mr4 ,rennie found a spider on some reeds in the ,croydon ,canal1 which agreed in appearance with ,mr4 ,shepherd's4 #agh ,kirby and ,spence1 ,intr4 i4 #dbe4 ,among our native spiders there are several1 which1 not contented with a web like the rest of their congeners1 take advantage of other materials to construct cells where1 8hushed in grim repose10 they 8expect their insect prey40 ,the most simple of those spider cells is constructed by a longish-bodied spider 7,aranea holosericea1 ,,linn471 which is a little larger than the common hunting spider4 ,it rolls up a leaf of the lilac or poplar1 precisely in the same manner as is done by the leaf-rolling caterpillars1 upon whose cells it sometimes seizes to save itself trouble1 having first expelled1 or perhaps devoured1 the rightful owner4 ,the spider1 however1 is not satisfied with the tapestry of the caterpillar1 but always weaves a fresh set of her own1 more close and substantial4 ,another spider1 common in woods and copses 7,epeira quadrata87 weaves together a great number of leaves to form a dwelling for herself1 and in front of it she spreads her toils for entrapping the unwary insects which stray thither4 ,these1 as soon as caught1 are dragged into her den1 and stored up for a time of scarcity4 ,here also her eggs are deposited and hatched in safety4 ,when the cold weather approaches1 and the leaves of her edifice wither1 she abandons it for the more secure shelter of a hollow tree1 where she soon dies2 but the continuation of the species depends upon eggs1 deposited in the nest before winter1 and remaining to be hatched with the warmth of the ensuing summer4 ,the spider's den of united leaves1 however1 which has just been described1 is not always useless when withered and deserted2 for the dormouse usually selects it as a ready-made roof for its nest of dried grass4 ,that those old spiders' dens are not accidentally chosen by the mouse1 appears from the fact1 that out of about a dozen mouse-nests of this sort found during winter in a copse between ,lewisham and ,bromley1 ,kent 7,england71 every second or third one was furnished with such a roof4 ,,the ,,water ,,spider4--,we extract the following exquisitely beautiful and interesting fact in nature1 connected with diving operations1 from the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,kirby's ,bridgewater ,treatise3-- 8,the ,water ,spider is one of the most remarkable upon whom that office 7diving7 is developed by her ,creator4 ,to this end1 her instinct instructs her to fabricate a kind of diving-bell in the bosom of that element4 ,she usually selects still waters for this purpose4 ,her house is an oval cocoon1 filled with air1 and lined with silk1 from which threads issue in every direction1 and are fastened to the surrounding plants2 in this cocoon1 which is open below1 she watches for her prey1 and even appears to pass the winter1 when she closes the opening4 ,it is most commonly1 yet not always1 entirely under water2 but its inhabitant has filled it with air for her respiration1 which enables her to live in it4 ,she conveys the air to it in the following manner3 she usually swims upon her back1 when her abdomen is enveloped in a bubble of air1 and appears like a globe of quicksilver#agi2 with this she enters her cocoon1 and displacing an equal mass of water1 again ascends for a second lading1 till she has sufficiently filled her house with it1 so as to expel all the water4 8,the males construct similar habitations by the same manuvres4 ,how these little animals can envelope their abdomen with an air-bubble1 and retain it till they enter their cells1 is still one of ,nature's mysteries that have not been explained4 8,we1 however1 cannot help admiring1 and adoring1 the wisdom1 power1 and goodness manifested in this singular provision1 enabling an animal that breathes the atmospheric air1 to fill her house with it under water1 and which has instructed her in a secret art1 by which she can clothe part of her body with air as a garment1 and which she can put off when it answers her purpose4 8,this is a kind of attraction and repulsion which mocks all our inquiries40 #agi ,her singular economy was first1 we believe1 described by ,clerck 7,aranei ,suecici1 ,stockholm1 #ageg471 ,l4 ,m4 de ,lignac 7,mm4 des ,araign4 ,aquat41 #abmo4 ,paris1 #agii471 and ,de ,geer4 8,the shining appearance10 says ,clerck1 8proceeds either from an inflated globule surrounding the abdomen1 or from the space between the body and the water4 ,the spider1 when wishing to inhale the air1 rises to the surface1 with its body still submersed1 and only the part containing the spinneret rising just to the surface1 when it briskly opens and moves its four teats4 ,a thick coat of hair keeps the water from approaching or wetting the abdomen4 ,it comes up for air about four times an hour or oftener1 though ,i have good reason to suppose it can continue without it for several days together4 8,i found in the middle of ,may one male and ten females1 which ,i put into a glass filled with water1 where they lived together very quietly for eight days4 ,i put some duck-weed 7,lemna7 into the glass to afford them shelter1 and the females began to stretch diagonal threads in a confused manner from it to the sides of the glass about half way down4 ,each of the females afterwards fixed a close bag to the edge of the glass1 from which the water was expelled by the air from the spinneret1 and thus a cell was formed capable of containing the whole animal4 ,here they remained quietly1 with their abdomens in their cells1 and their bodies still plunged in the water2 and in a short time brimstone-colored bags of eggs appeared in each cell1 filling it about a fourth part4 ,on the #gth of ,july several young ones swam out from one of the bags4 ,all this time the old ones had nothing to eat1 and yet they never attacked one another1 as other spiders would have been apt to do 7,clerck1 ,aranei ,suecici1 cap4 viii4740 8,these spiders10 says ,de ,geer1 8spin in the water a cell of strong1 closely woven1 white silk in the form of half the shell of a pigeon's egg1 or like a diving bell4 ,this is sometimes left partly above water1 but at others is entirely submersed1 and is always attached to the objects near it by a great number of irregular threads4 ,it is closed all round1 but has a large opening below1 which1 however1 ,i found closed on the #aeth of ,december1 and the spider living quietly within1 with her head downwards4 ,i made a rent in this cell1 and expelled the air1 upon which the spider came out2 yet though she appeared to have been laid up for three months in her winter quarters1 she greedily seized upon an insect and sucked it4 ,i also found that the male as well as the female constructs a similar subaqueous cell1 and during summer no less than in winter 7,de ,geer1 ,mm4 des ,insectes1 vii4 #cab4740 8,we have recently kept one of these spiders10 says ,mr4 ,rennie1 8for several months in a glass of water1 where it built a cell half under water1 in which it laid its eggs40 ,thus it appears1 that by the successive descents of the little water-spider under the impulsion of its instinct1 produce effects in its subaqueous pavilion equivalent to those produced in the diving-bell1 or diving helmet1 by the successive strokes of the condensing air-pump of scientific man6 ,in the language of the book of ,psalms1 this insect 8,,layeth ,,the ,,beams ,,of0 her 8,,chambers ,,in ,,the ,,waters10 and there secures her subaqueous chambers in the manner described4 ,,cleanliness ,,of ,,spiders4--8,when we look at the viscid material10 says ,mr4 ,rennie1 8with which spiders construct their lines and webs1 and at the rough1 hairy covering 7with a few exceptions7 of their bodies1 we might conclude1 that they would be always stuck over with fragments of the minute fibres which they produce4 ,this1 indeed1 must often happen1 did they not take careful precautions to avoid it2 for we have observed that they seldom1 if ever1 leave a thread to float at random1 except when they wish to form a bridge4 ,when a spider drops along a line1 for instance1 in order to ascertain the strength of her web1 or the nature of the place below her1 she invariably1 when she re-ascends1 coils it up into a little ball1 and throws it away4 ,her claws are admirably adapted for this purpose1 as well as for walking along the lines1 as may be readily seen by a magnifying glass4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,plate ,,iv4 shows the triple-clawed foot of a spider1 magnified1 the others being toothed like a comb1 for gliding along the lines4 ,this structure1 however1 unfits it to walk1 as flies can do1 upon any upright polished surface like glass2 although the contrary#ahj is erroneously asserted by the ,abb de la ,pluche4 ,before she can do so1 she is obliged to construct a ladder of ropes1 as ,mr4 ,blackwall remarks#aha1 by elevating her spinneret as high as she can1 and laying down a step upon which she stands to form a second2 and so on1 as any one may try by placing a spider at the bottom of a very clean wine glass4 8,the hairs of the legs1 however1 are always catching bits of web and particles of dust2 but these are not suffered to remain long4 ,most people may have remarked that the house-fly is ever and anon brushing its feet upon one another to rub off the dust1 though we have not seen it remarked in authors that spiders are equally assiduous in keeping themselves clean4 ,they have1 besides1 a very efficient instrument in their mandibles or jaws1 which1 like their claws1 are furnished with teeth2 and a spider which appears to a careless observer as resting idly1 in nine cases out of ten will be found slowly combing her legs with her mandibles1 beginning as high as possible on the thigh1 and passing down to the claws4 ,the flue which she thus combs off is regularly tossed away4 8,with respect to the house-spider 7,a4 domestica71 we are told in books1 that #8she from time to time clears away the dust from her web1 and sweeps the whole by giving it a shake with her paw1 so nicely proportioning the force of her blow1 that she never breaks any thing#ahb4' ,that spiders may be seen shaking their webs in this manner1 we readily admit2 though it is not1 we imagine1 to clear them of dust1 but to ascertain whether they are sufficiently sound and strong4 8,we recently witnessed a more laborious process of cleaning a web than merely shaking it4 ,on coming down the ,maine by the steam-boat from ,frankfort1 in ,august #ahbi1 we observed the geometric-net of a conic spider 7,epeira conica1 ,,walck47 on the framework of the deck1 and as it was covered with flakes of soot from the smoke of the engine1 we were surprised to see a spider at work on it2 for1 in order to be useful1 this sort of net must be clean4 ,upon observing it a little closely1 however1 we perceived that she was not constructing a net1 but dressing up an old one2 though not1 we must think1 to save trouble1 so much as an expenditure of material4 ,some of the lines she dexterously stripped of the flakes of soot adhering to them2 but in the greater number1 finding that she could not get them sufficiently clean1 she broke them quite off1 bundled them up1 and tossed them over4 ,we counted five of these packets of rubbish which she thus threw away1 though there must have been many more1 as it was some time before we discovered the manuvre1 the packets being so small as not to be readily perceived1 except when placed between the eye and the light4 ,when she had cleared off all the sooted lines1 she began to replace them in the usual way2 but the arrival of the boat at ,mentz put an end to our observations40 ,bloomfield1 the poet1 having observed the disappearance of these bits of ravelled web1 says that he observed a garden spider moisten the pellets before swallowing them6 ,dr4 ,lister1 as we have already seen1 thought the spider retracted the threads within the abdomen4 #ahj ,spectacle de la ,nature1 i4 #eh4 #aha ,linn4 ,trans4 vol4 xv4 #ahb ,spectacle de la ,nature1 i4 p4 #fa4 8,i could wish10 says ,addison1 in #8,the ,spectator1' 8our ,royal ,society would compile a body of natural history1 the best that could be gathered together from books and observations4 ,if the several writers among them took each his particular species1 and gave us a distinct account of its original1 birth1 and education2 its policies1 hostilities1 and alliances2 with the frame and texture of its inward and outward parts1--and particularly those which distinguish it from all other animals1--with their aptitudes for the state of being in which ,providence has placed them2 it would be one of the best services their studies could do mankind1 and not a little redound to the glory of the ,all-wise ,creator40--#8,spectator1' ,no4 iii4 ,although we do not consider ,addison as a naturalist1 in any of the usual meanings of the term1 yet it would be no easy task1 even for those who have devoted their undivided attention to the subject1 to improve upon the admirable plan of study here laid down4 ,it is1 moreover1 so especially applicable to the investigation of insects1 that it may be more or less put in practice by any person who chooses1 in whatever station or circumstances he happens to be placed4 ,nay1 we will go farther2 for since it agrees with experience and many recorded instances that individuals have been enabled to investigate and elucidate particular facts1 who were quite unacquainted with systematic natural history1 we hold it to be undeniable1 that any person of moderate penetration1 though altogether unacquainted with what is called 8,natural ,history10 who will take the trouble to observe particular facts and endeavor to trace them to their causes1 has every chance to be successful in adding to his own knowledge1 and frequently in making discoveries of what was previously unknown4 ,it is related of ,m4 ,plissan1 while a prisoner in the ,bastille1 that he tamed a spider by means of music4 ,this in conjunction with ,evelyn's observations on hunting-spiders is strong proof of our position1 and show that though books are often of high value to guide us in our observations1 they are by no means indispensable to the study of nature1 inasmuch as the varied scene of creation itself forms an inexhaustible book1 which 8even he who runneth may read40 8,it will be of the utmost importance1 in the study here recommended1 to bear in mind that an insect can never be found in any situation1 nor make any movement1 without some motive1 originating in the instinct imparted to it by ,providence4 ,this principle alone1 when it is made the basis of inquiry into such motives or instincts1 will be found productive of many interesting discoveries1 which1 without it1 might never be made4 ,with this1 indeed1 exclusively in view1 during an excursion1 and with a little attention and perseverance1 every walk--nay1 every step--may lead to delightful and interesting knowledge40--8,,insect ,,architecture10 p4 #bai4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,iv4 ,spiders1 with the processes of ,spinning and ,weaving4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,fibres ,,or ,,silken ,,material ,,of ,,the ,,pinna4 ,the ,pinna--,description of--,delicacy of its threads--,raumur's observations--,mode of forming the filament or thread--,power of continually producing new threads--,experiments to ascertain this fact--,the ,pinna and its ,cancer ,friend--,nature of their alliance--,beautiful phenomenon--,aristotle and ,pliny's account--,the ,greek poet ,oppianus's lines on the ,pinna1 and its ,cancer friend--,manner of procuring the ,pinna--,poli's description--,specimens of the ,pinna in the ,british ,museum--,pearls found in the ,pinna--,pliny and ,athenus's account--,manner of preparing the fibres of the ,pinna for weaving--,scarceness of this material--,no proof that the ancients were acquainted with the art of knitting--,tertullian the first ancient writer who makes mention of the manufacture of cloth from the fibres of the ,pinna--,procopius mentions a chlamys made of the fibres of the ,pinna1 and a silken tunic adorned with sprigs or feathers of gold--,boots of red leather worn only by ,emperors--,golden fleece of the ,pinna--,st4 ,basil's account--,fibres of the ,pinna not manufactured into cloth at ,tarentum in ancient times1 but in ,india--,diving for the ,pinna at ,colchi--,arrian's account4 ,in the preceding chapter we have confined our remarks1 principally1 to the various attempts made to obtain a silken or filamentous material from the spider1 and although those efforts have not been crowned with that degree of success which would render a speculation of the kind worthy of our attention in a pecuniary point of view1 yet1 it must be conceded1 that the subject is scarcely the less interesting2 and ,mr4 ,bon1 the gentleman who first undertook the training of spiders1 has at least given us matter for further interesting speculation4 ,it is now about #ajd years since ,mr4 ,bon commenced his experiments4 ,in this chapter1 we shall proceed to describe the ,pinna of the ancients1 and upon which human ingenuity has been more successfully exercised in seeking1 many feet below the surface of the ,ocean1 for the slender filaments1 the produce of an animal in almost a vegetative state of existence4 ,the ,pinna is a bivalve#ahc shell-fish1 which1 when full grown1 is #ah inches long1 and #f wide at its broad end4 ,it is found near the shores of ,south ,italy1 ,sicily1 ,corsica1 and ,sardinia2 also in the ,bay of ,smyrna1 and in the ,indian ,ocean4 ,it does not fasten itself to rocks in the same position as the muscle1 but sticks its sharp end into the mud or sand1 while the rest of the shell is at liberty to open in the water4 ,in common with the muscle1 it has the power of spinning a viscid matter from its body1 conformably with that of the spider and caterpillar4 ,although the pinna is vastly larger than the muscle1 its shell being sometimes found two feet long1 the threads which it produces are more delicate and slender than those of the muscle1 being in fineness and beauty scarcely inferior to the single filament of the comparatively minute silk-worm4 ,threads so delicately thin1 as may readily be imagined1 do not singly possess much strength2 but the little power of each is made up by the aggregate of the almost infinite number which each fish puts forth to secure itself in a fixed situation1 and preserve it against the rolling of the waves4 ,the threads are1 however1 similar in their nature to those of the muscle1 differing only in their superior fineness and greater length4 ,these fish have1 therefore1 been distinguished by some naturalists1 the one as the silk-worm1 the other as caterpillar of the sea4 #ahc ,an animal having two valves1 or a shell consisting of two parts which open and shut4 ,it has been from a very remote period well known1 that muscles have the power of affixing themselves either to rocks or the shells of one another1 in a very firm manner2 yet their method of effecting this was not understood until explained by the accurate observations of ,m4 ,raumur1 the first naturalist who ascertained that if1 by any accident1 the animals were torn from their hold1 they possessed the power of substituting other threads for those which had been broken or injured4 ,it was found by him1 that if muscles1 detached from each other1 were placed in any kind of vessel and then plunged into the sea1 they contrived in a very short time to fasten themselves both to the vessel's side and one another's shells3 in this process1 the extremity of each thread seemed to perform the office of a hand in seizing upon the body to which it would attach itself4 ,the threads issue from the shell at that part where it naturally opens1 and in affixing themselves to any substance1 form numerous minute cables1 by which the fish steadies itself in the water4 ,each animal is provided with an organ1 which it is difficult to designate by any name1 since it performs the office of so many members1 and is the only indicator of the existence of vital powers in the creature4 ,it is by turns a tongue1 an arm1 and sometimes a leg4 ,its shape resembles that of a tongue1 and is1 therefore1 most frequently called by that name4 ,whenever the fish requires to change its place1 this member serves to drag its body forward1 together with its cumbrous habitation3 in performing a journey1 the extremity of this organ1 which may then be styled a leg1 is fixed to some solid body1 and being then contracted in length1 the whole fish is necessarily drawn towards the spot where it intends to station itself2 and by a repetition of these movements1 the animal arrives at its destination4 ,it is not often that the organ is put to this use1 as the pinna is but little addicted to locomotion3 some naturalists indeed affirm that it is always stable4 ,the purpose to which the tongue is most frequently applied1 is that of spinning the threads4 ,although this body is flat1 and in form similar to a tongue through the greater part of its length1 it becomes cylindrical about the base or root1 where it is much smaller than in any other part3 at this lower end are several ligatures of a muscular nature1 which keep the tongue firmly fixed against the middle of the shell2 four of these cords are very apparent1 and serve to move the tongue in any direction according to the wants of the fish4 ,through the entire length of this member there runs a slit1 which pierces so deeply into its surface1 as almost to divide it into two longitudinal sections2 this performs the office of a canal for the liquor of which the threads are formed1 and serves to mould them into their proper form3 the canal appears externally like a small crack1 being almost covered by the flesh from either side1 but internally it is much wider1 and surrounded by circular fibres4 ,the channel thus formed extends regularly from the tip to the base of the tongue1 where it partakes of the form of the member and becomes cylindric1 producing there a tube or pipe in which the canal terminates4 ,the viscid substance is moulded in this tube into the shape of a cord1 similar to the threads produced from it1 though much thicker1 and from which all the minute fibres issue and disperse4 ,the internal surface of the tube1 wherein the large cord is formed1 is furnished with glands for the secretion of the peculiar substance employed in its production1 and which is always in great abundance in this animal as well as in muscles4 ,raumur observed1 8that although the workmanship of the land and sea animals when completed is alike1 the manner of its production is very different4 ,spiders1 caterpillars1 c41 form threads of any required length1 by making the viscous liquor of which the filament is formed pass through fine perforations in the organ appointed for spinning4 ,but the way in which muscles form their thread is widely opposite2 as the former resembles the work of the wire-drawer#ahd1 so does the latter that of the founder who casts metals in a mould40 ,the canal of the organ destined for the muscle's spinning is the mould in which its thread is cast1 and gives to it its determinate length4 #ahd ,this remark of ,m4 ,raumur confirms the observations of ,m4 ,h4 ,straus1 quoted in ,chapter ,,vii4 that the thread of the silk-worm is not produced by a simple emission of liquid matter through the orifices of the spinner1 or that it acquires solidity at once from the drying influence of the air4 ,indeed1 silk cannot be produced in this manner1 but is secreted in the form of silk in silk vessels1 and the spinning apparatus1 so called1 only unwinds it4 ,mr4 ,straus's observations on this head admit of no argument4 ,the discovery reduces all that has been heretofore written upon the subject to the character of old lumber4 ,raumur learned the manner of the muscle performing the operation of swimming by actually placing some of these fish under his constant inspection4 ,he kept them in his apartment in a vessel filled with sea water1 and distinctly saw them open their shells and put forth their tongues4 ,they extended and contracted this organ several times1 obtruding it in every direction1 as if seeking the fittest place whereon to fix their threads4 ,after repeated trials of this kind1 the tongue of one was observed to remain for some time on the spot chosen1 and being then drawn back with great quickness1 a thread was very easily discerned1 fastened to the place3 this operation was again resumed1 until all the threads were in sufficient number3 one fibre being produced at each movement of the tongue4 ,the old threads were found to differ materially from those newly spun1 the latter being whiter1 more glossy1 and transparent than the former1 and it was thence discovered that it was not the office of the tongue to transfer the old threads one by one to the new spots where they were fixed1 which course ,m4 ,raumur had thought was pursued4 ,the old threads once severed from the spot to which they had been originally fixed were seen to be useless1 and that every fibre employed by the fish to secure itself in a new position was produced at the time required2 and1 in short1 that nature had endowed some fish1 as well as land insects1 with the power of spinning threads1 as their natural wants and instincts demanded4 ,this fact was incontrovertibly established by cutting away1 as close to the body as they could with safety be separated1 the old threads1 which were always replaced by others in a space of time as short as was employed by other muscles not so deprived4 8,the pinna and its cancer friend0 have on more than one occasion been made subjects for poetry4 ,there is doubtless some foundation for the fact of the mutual alliance between these aquatic friends which has been thus celebrated2 yet some slight coloring may have been borrowed from the regions of fancy wherewith to adorn the verse1 and even the prose history of their attachment may be exposed to a similar objection4 ,the scuttle-fish1 a native of the same seas with the pinna1 is its deadly foe1 and would quickly destroy it1 were it not for its faithful ally4 ,in common with all the same species1 the pinna is destitute of the organs of sight1 and could not1 therefore1 unassisted1 be aware of the vicinity of its dangerous enemy4 ,a small animal of the crab kind1 itself deprived of a covering1 but extremely quick-sighted1 takes refuge in the shell of the pinna1 whose strong calcareous valves affords a shelter to her guest1 while he makes a return for this protection by going forth in search of prey4 ,at these intervals the pinna opens her valves to afford him egress and ingress3 if the watchful scuttle-fish now approach1 the crab returns instanter with notice of the danger to her hostess2 who1 timely warned1 shuts her door and keeps out the enemy4 ,when the crab has1 unmolested1 succeeded in loading itself with provisions1 it gives a signal by a gentle noise at the opening of the shell1 and when admitted1 the two friends feast together on the fruit of its industry4 ,it would appear an arduous1 nay1 a task almost impossible for the defenceless and diminutive crab1 not merely to elude its enemies and return home1 but likewise obtain a supply of provender sufficient to satisfy the wants of its larger companion4 ,the following different account of the nature of this alliance is more credible3-- ,whenever the pinna ventures to open its shell1 it is immediately exposed to the attacks of various of the smaller kinds of fish1 which1 meeting with no resistance to their first assaults1 acquire boldness and venture in4 ,the vigilant guard1 by a gentle bite1 gives notice of this to his companion1 who1 upon such a hint1 closes her shell1 and having thus shut them in makes a prey of those who had come to prey upon her3 when thus supplied with food1 she never fails to share her booty with so useful an ally4 ,we are told that the sagacious observer1 ,dr4 ,hasselquist1 in his voyage1 7about the middle of the last century17 to ,palestine1 which he undertook for objects connected with the study of natural history1 beheld this curious phenomenon1 which1 although well known to the ancients1 had escaped the attention of the moderns4 ,it is related by ,aristotle#ahe that the pinna keeps a guard to watch for her1 which grows to her mouth1 and serves as her caterer3 this he calls pinnophylax1 and describes as a little fish with claws like a crab4 ,pliny observes#ahf1 that the smallest species of crab is called the pinnotores1 and being from its diminutive size liable to injury1 has the prudence to conceal itself in the shells of oysters4 ,in another place he describes the pinna as of the genus of shell-fish1 with the further particulars that it is found in muddy waters1 always erect1 and never without a companion1 called by some pinnatores1 by others pinnophylax2 this being sometimes a small squill1 and at others a crab1 which remains with the pinna for the sake of food4 #ahe ,hist4 lib4 v4 c4 #ae4 #ahf ,lib4 ix4 #ea4 #ff4 ,the description of the pinna by the ,greek poet ,oppianus1 who flourished in the second century1 has been thus given in ,english verse3-- ,the pinna and the crab together dwell1 ,for mutual succor in one common shell2 ,they both to gain a livelihood combine1 ,that takes the prey1 when this has given the sign2 ,from hence this crab1 above his fellows famed1 ,by ancient ,greeks was ,pinnotores named4 ,it is said that the pinna fastens itself so strongly to the rocks1 that the men employed in fishing for it are obliged to use considerable force to break the tuft of threads by which it is secured fifteen1 twenty1 and sometimes even thirty feet below the surface of the sea4 ,it is fished up in the ,gulf of ,tarentum by the ,pernonico1 which consists of two semicircular bars of iron fastened together at the ends1 at one of which is a wooden pole1 at the other a ring and cord4 ,the fishermen conduct their boat over the place1 where the pinna is seen through the clear water1 let down the ,pernonico1 and1 having loosened the pinna by embracing it with the iron bars and twisting it round1 draw it up to the boat4 ,the pinna is also obtained by diving4 ,poli1 in his splendid work on the ,sicilian ,testacea 7,parma1 #agie1 folio17 gives beautiful representations of the several species and especially of the ,pinna ,nobilis#ahg4 ,the following description of submarine scenery and operations1 is so vivid and pleasing that we quote it at length4 #ahg ,the figure 7,fig4 #g47 of the ,pinna ,nobilis1 ,plate ,,iii41 is reduced from ,plate ,,xxxiv4 in vol4 ii4 ,pinnis hujusmodi abundant pr cteris litus ,trinacri1 sinus ,tarentinus1 oraque maritima ,crateris ,neapolitani1 potissimum ultra ,promontorium ,pausilypi4 ,equidem persumm adficimur animi jucunditate1 quoties illarum piscationis recordamur1 quam vere jam inchoato inibi facere iterum iterumque consuevimus4 ,est ad ,insulam ,nisit1 qu illa ad septentrionem vergit1 respicitque contra ,pausilypi ,promontorium1 amnissimi maris plaga1 quoddam maris ocium4 ,ibi inter ingentes1 pulcherrimosque marinarum stirpium saltus1 quibus plaga illa undique virescit1 oculosque animumque recreat1 ,pinnarum greges sponte gignuntur2 qu mari tranquillo1 umbrisque ab insul summitate cadentibus1 ab iis qui cymbis insistunt1 ad triginta ferm pedum altitudinem1 subrect1 inque fundo arenoso defix perspicu cerni possunt4 ,urinatores igitur1 sese mari submergentes1 illis arripiendis destinantur4 ,quoniam vero1 ne reiteratis quidem ictibus1 ab aren1 ubi consit sunt1 educi queunt2 arena etenim1 et pondere suo et altissim aquarum mole sibi incumbente fortiter stipata1 urinatorum conatibus valid resistit2 hi maris fundum nacti1 ibique veluti in solo sedentes1 arenam ,pinn circumjectam manibus averrunt1 ,pinnamque deinceps ambabus manibus comprehensam divellere conantur4 ,et si diutius1 quam par est1 spiritum cohibere nequeunt1 ad summa quorum ascendunt1 suberibusque aqu innatantibus inibi de industri positis innituntur1 donec tandem aris haustu recreati1 maris fundum iterum petant1 operamque penitus absolvant4 v4 ii4 p4 #bcj1 #bca4 ,this species of ,pinna is especially abundant on the shores of ,sicily1 in the ,gulf of ,taranto1 and in the ,bay of ,naples1 particularly beyond the ,cape of ,posilipo4 ,it always fills my mind with the greatest delight to recollect the manner of fishing for it1 in which ,i have often taken a part at that spot in the commencement of spring4 ,on the northern shore of the ,isle of ,nisida opposite ,posilipo1 is a most agreeable expanse of water1 where the sea appears to be ever at rest4 ,here1 amidst those vast and most beauteous submarine forests1 with which the coast is decorated in every direction so as at once to charm the mind and refresh the eye1 the ,pinna grows spontaneously in large groups1 and in calm water1 when the shadows fall from the summit of the island1 is clearly seen by persons in boats growing nearly upright and fixed in the sandy bottom at the depth of about thirty feet4 ,there are divers1 whose business it is to bring it up4 ,but1 since it cannot be loosened even by repeated blows1 7for the sand firmly resists the attempts of the diver1 being supported by its own weight and by the super-incumbent water17 in these circumstances he sits down at the bottom of the sea1 brushes away with his fingers the earth which encompasses the shell1 and then endeavors to pull it up by seizing it with both hands4 ,if he is thus likely to be detained at the bottom for a longer time than he can hold his breath1 he ascends to the surface1 supports himself upon corks1 which are in readiness for him1 and1 when he has sufficiently recovered himself by breathing1 he again dives to the bottom to complete his task4 ,the specimens of ,pinna in the ,british ,museum show not only the tuft1 but also the pearls and the mother of pearl4 ,poli found in one specimen of the ,pinna ,nobilis no less than twenty pearls1 of which he has given figures in his splendid work4 ,pliny 7l4 ix4 c4 #ce47 mentions the practice of diving for the ,pinna in the ,mediterranean ,sea in order to obtain pearls from it3 and ,athenus 7l4 iii4 p4 #ic ,casaub47 has preserved extracts from two historical writers1 one of whom accompanied ,alexander on his ,indian expedition1 and who informs us1 that the ,pinna was procured in the ,indian seas1 by diving and for the sake of the pearls4 ,the ,italians call the fibres ,lana ,pesce or ,lana ,penna1 i4 e4 ,fish ,wool1 or ,pinna ,wool4 ,it is not equally good in all places4 ,when the bottom of the sea is sandy1 the shell with its bunch of fibres may be easily extracted1 and they are silky and of a fine color4 ,but in rushy and muddy bottoms so fast do they stick as to be generally broken in drawing up1 and are of a blackish color without gloss4 ,the ,lana ,penna is twice washed in tepid water1 once in soap and water1 and again in tepid water1 then spread on a table to dry3 while yet moist1 it is rubbed and separated with the hand1 and again spread on the table4 ,when quite dry1 it is drawn through a wide comb of bone1 and then through a narrow one4 ,that which is destined for very fine works is also drawn through iron combs1 called scarde 7cards74 ,it is then spun with a distaff and spindle4 ,as it is impossible to procure much of this material of a good quality1 the manufacture is very limited1 and the articles produced1 stockings and gloves1 are expensive4 ,they are esteemed excellent preservatives against cold and damp1 are soft and very warm1 and the finest of a brown cinnamon1 or glossy gold color4 ,the manufacture is chiefly carried on at ,taranto1 the ancient ,tarentum#ahh4 #ahh ,riedesel's ,travels through ,sicily and ,grcia ,magna1 translated by ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,london1 #aggc1 p4 #agh-ahj4 ,de ,salis1 ,travels in the ,kingdom of ,naples4 ,keppel ,craven1 ,tour through the ,southern ,provinces of the ,kingdom of ,naples1 p4 #ahe4 ,d',argenville1 ,lithol4 et ,conchologie1 p4 #ahc1 and ,plate #be4 ,the ,lana ,penna1 having been spun1 is now almost universally knit4 ,but1 as it does not appear that the ancients were acquainted with this process prior to the second century1 whatever garments they made of this material must have been woven4 ,the first proof we possess of its use among them is in ,tertullian1 who lived in the second century 7,de ,pallio1 iii4 p4 #aae1 ,rigaltii74 ,speaking of the materials for weaving1 he says1 ,nec fuit satis tunicam pangere et serere1 ni etiam piscari vestitum contigisset nam et de mari vellera1 quo mucos lanusitatis plautiores conch comant4 ,nor was it enough to comb and to sow the materials for a tunic4 ,it was necessary also to fish for one's dress4 ,for fleeces are obtained from the sea1 where shells of extraordinary size are furnished with tufts of mossy hair#ahi4 7,see ,fig4 #g1 ,plate ,,ii47 #ahi ,in this passage piscari is rather fancifully opposed to pangere and serere4 ,the former of these two terms 7pangere7 refers to tunics of wool1 which was pacta or pexa2 the latter to tunics of cotton and flax1 which were sata4 ,the epithet plautiores1 7etymologically allied to latiores1 and to 17 well describes the large size and expanded form of the ,pinna4 ,procopius informs us 7,de ,edif4 lib4 iii4 c4 #a471 that ,armenia was governed by five hereditary satraps1 who received their insignia from the ,roman ,emperor4 ,among these was a ,chlamys made of the fibres of the ,pinna4 7 1 1 ' 1 47 ,this chlamys was fastened with a fibula of gold1 in which a precious stone was set1 and three hyacinths were suspended from it by golden chains 7 47 ,the chlamys was accompanied by a silken tunic1 adorned with sprigs or 8feathers0 of gold4 ,it is thus described3 1 1 4 ,with the chlamys and tunic were worn boots of red leather1 such as only the emperors of ,rome and ,persia were allowed to wear4 ,st4 ,basil mentions with admiration 8the golden fleece0 of the ,pinna1 which no artificial dye could imitate4 1 4--,hexaem4 vii4 ,whether the tuft of the ,pinna was used for weaving before the time of the authors1 who have now been cited1 seems doubtful4 ,as the ,pinna is frequently mentioned by earlier writers1 both ,greek and ,latin#aij1 but without any reference to the use of its tuft1 it may be regarded as probable1 that this kind of cloth was not invented before the time of ,tertullian4 #aij ,the passages are collected in ,stephani ,thesaurus ,l4 ,grc1 ed4 ,valpy1 p4 #gegi4 ,it is a no less curious question1 ,whence did the ancients obtain the fibres of the ,pinna1 and where was the manufacture of them carried on8 ,it has been commonly said at ,tarentum1 but apparently for no other reason than that the ,pinna is obtained and the manufacture principally carried on at ,taranto in modern times4 ,by referring to the authorities above quoted1 it will be seen that none of them makes any allusion to ,tarentum4 ,consequently we have no direct evidence1 that this was the seat of the ancient manufacture4 ,on the contrary1 we have testimony1 that fine cloths of this substance were made in ,india1 and thence imported into ,greece and other countries4 ,the author of the ,periplus of the ,erythrean ,sea1 a document of an age at least as late as the time of ,tertullian1 states that the business of diving for the wool of the ,pinna was prosecuted near the city called ,colchi in the south of ,india4 ,different species of ,pinna with tufts of fine silk are now no less abundant in the ,indian than the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,the ,periplus of the ,erythrean ,sea presents a sufficient proof1 that this beautiful substance was spun and woven by the ,indians1 whereas we can only suppose from analogy that the manufacture was carried on in ancient times by the ,tarentines4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,fibres1 ,,or ,,silken ,,material ,,of ,,the ,,pine-,,apple4 ,fibres of the ,pine-,apple--,facility of dyeing--,manner of preparing the fibres for weaving--,easy cultivation of the plant--,thrives where no other plant will live--,mr4 ,frederick ,burt ,zincke's patent process of manufacturing cloth from the fibres of this plant--,its comparative want of strength--,silken material procured from the ,papyfera--,spun and woven into cloth--,cloth of this description manufactured generally by the ,otaheiteans1 and other inhabitants of the ,south ,sea ,islands--,great strength 7supposed7 of ropes made from the fibres of the aloe--,exaggerated statements4 ,this plant1 which has hitherto been valued solely as ministering to the luxuries of the table1 has lately had a new interest attached to it from the discovery of a fibre contained in its leaves1 possessing such valuable properties1 that it will1 in all probability1 soon form a new and important article of commerce4 ,the fibres of the pine-apple plant are disposed in fasciculi1 each apparent fibre being an assemblage of fibres adhering together1 of such exceeding delicacy1 as only to measure from #a_/ejjjth to #a_/gjjjth part of an inch in diameter2 viewed under the microscope1 they bear considerable resemblance to silk1 from their glossy1 even1 and smooth texture4 ,they appear altogether destitute of joints1 or other irregularities1 and are remarkably transparent1 particularly when viewed in water3 they are very elastic1 of considerable strength1 and readily receive the most delicate dyes4 ,this last fact appears singular1 when we bear in mind the resistance1 if we may be allowed the expression1 which flax offers to dyes4 ,with much trouble1 and by long processes1 flax will receive a few dark dingy colors3 all light and brilliant ones it wholly resists2 they do not enter the fibre1 but merely dry upon it externally1 and afterwards easily peel1 or rub off1--in short1 it may be said to be painted1 and not dyed4 ,the preparation of the pine-fibre is exceedingly simple4 ,if a leaf of this plant be examined1 it will be found to consist of an assemblage of fibres running parallel from one extremity of the leaf to the other1 embedded in the soft pabulum4 ,all the process necessary is to pass the leaf under a 8tilt hammer10 the rapid action of which1 in a few seconds1 completely crushes it1 without in the slightest degree injuring the fibre1 which remains in a large skein1 and then requires to be rinsed out in soft water1 to cleanse it from impurities1 and be afterwards dried in the shade4 ,so simple and rapid is the process1 that a leaf1 in a quarter of an hour after being cut from the plant1 may be in a state fit for the purposes of the manufacturer1 as a glossy1 white fibre1 with its strength unimpaired by any process of maceration1 which1 by inducing partial putrefaction1 not only materially injures the strength of flax1 but also renders it of a dingy color4 ,the pine-plant abounds both in the ,east and ,west ,indies1 and may be easily propagated from the crown2 offsets from round the base of the fruit1 which often amount to upwards of twenty in number2 and from the young plants which spring from the parent stem2 its cultivation requires but little care or expense1 and is of such hardy growth1 as to be almost independent of those casualties of weather1 which often prove so detrimental to more delicate crops--it is one of those plants which ,nature has scattered so profusely through tropical regions1 whose leaves are thick and fleshy1 to contain a large supply of nourishment1 and covered by a thick1 glazed cuticle2 admitting of so little evaporation1 that many of them will thrive upon a barren rock1 where no other plant would live4 ,also from the large portion of oxalic acid which the leaves contain1 no animal will touch them1 and are1 therefore1 exempt from the trespasses of cattle1 c4 ,indeed no greater proof of the hardiness of the plant can be given1 than the fact1 that in many places where lands have been under tillage1--afterwards abandoned1 and allowed to return to a state of nature1 the pine-apple plant exhibits the only trace of former cultivation2 every other cultivated plant has died away before the encroachments of the surrounding wood1 while they alone remained increasing from year to year1 and spread into large beds4 ,mr4 ,frederick ,burt ,zincke obtained a patent in ,england1 bearing date ,december #i1 #ahcf1 for the following mode of preparing the filaments of this plant1 the 8,bromelia ananas40 ,we give the patentee's own description 7with slight emendations71 as received from the patent office1 ,london1 and which is as follows4 8,i 7the said ,frederick ,burt ,zincke7 do hereby declare that the nature of my said invention consists--,firstly1 in preparing or manufacturing the leaf of the plant1 commonly called the pine-apple1 by bruising1 beating1 washing1 and drying the same1 in such manner as to separate the long fibrous parts from the cuticle pabulum1 and other matter comprising the said leaf4 ,secondly1 in the application of the fibrous substance1 so prepared to various manufactures and purposes1 for which silk1 flax1 cotton1 hemp1 wool1 and other fibrous materials are now used4 ,and further1 ,i describe the manner in which my said invention is to be performed by the following statement3 ,for the purpose of preparing the fibre1 ,i cut the leaves from the pine-apple plant1 at any period from the time of their obtaining their full growth1 till the ripening of the fruit1 for ,i find that if the leaves are taken before they are full grown1 the fibre is less strong1 and if suffered to remain on the plant1 after the ripening of the fruit1 the fibre becomes harsh1 and is more difficult to divest of the extraneous matter4 ,the small thorns having been trimmed from the edge of the leaves1 with a sharp knife1 the leaves should be crushed1 so as to disengage the fibre from the other matter composing the leaf1 for which purpose the employment of a mallet upon a block of wood1 will fully answer the intended purpose4 ,this process of crushing is to be continued until the fibre appears in an assemblage of long silky filaments1 with more or less of the pulpy and other matter of the leaf adhering to them2 to cleanse them from which they are to be well rinsed in soft water1 immediately after having been crushed or beaten1 and then the water should forthwith be squeezed out of them1 by drawing them between the edges of two pieces of wood1 placed parallel to each other1 so as to admit of the fibres being drawn out rather lightly between them1 for if the green matter is allowed to dry on the fibre1 it of course becomes more difficult to cleanse4 ,the washing must be carefully performed1 so as to prevent the fibre from becoming tangled or knotted4 ,the operation of washing or rinsing must be repeated until the fibre be thoroughly cleansed4 ,if it be found difficult to clean the fibre from the extraneous matter1 in consequence of not collecting the leaves from the plant sufficiently early1 or from any other cause1 the operation will be facilitated by boiling the fibre1 after it has been beaten1 and partially purified in a solution of soap in soft water4 ,for this purpose the fibre must be regularly disposed in any suitable vessel1 so as to prevent its becoming tangled1 with sufficient water to cover it1 in which soap has been dissolved1 in the proportion of about #e lbs4 to #ej lbs4 of fibre1 a light weight being then placed upon it1 to keep the fibre beneath the surface of the liquor2 the whole is then to be boiled for the space of three or four hours1 and after boiling1 to be well rinsed out in soft water1 and squeezed as before directed4 ,the fibre having been cleansed by these processes1 is to be gradually dried in the shade1 and occasionally shaken out1 so as to prevent the too close adhesion of the filament in drying1 which would otherwise take place4 ,the fibre may be obtained free from the extraneous matter of the leaf by other modes2 but ,i prefer that which ,i have above described4 ,as to the second part of my said invention1 it is only necessary to observe that from the superiority of this fibre in several respects over those now in common use7871 it is adapted to a vast number of purposes1 in which fibrous materials are now employed2 it is of a glossy white color1 it receives dyes with facility1 it possesses great strength1 and is divisible to an exceeding degree of fineness1 for upon examination each filament that appears a single fibre1 is1 in fact1 a bundle of very delicate fibres1 adhering more or less strongly together4 ,these qualities render it applicable to the manufacture of shawls1 drills1 damask-linens1 plushes1 carpets1 rugs1 lace1 bonnets1 paper2 as a material for rope1 twine1 or thread1 and a variety of other purposes to which silk1 cotton1 flax hemp1 wool1 and other fibrous materials are now applied4 ,as a material for spinning in the ordinary method in which flax is now spun through hot water1 this fibre requires to undergo the process generally in use for bleaching flax4 ,i find the period at which the bleaching can be most conveniently performed1 is when the fibre is in the state called technically 8a roving20 for the coarser yarns the first stages of the bleaching process will be sufficient1 but this operation must be carried further1 in proportion to the fineness of the yarn intended to be spun4 ,the effect of the bleaching upon the fibre is1 to disengage part of the adhesive matter1 which connects the fine filaments together1 and render the yarn susceptible of longation1 between the receiving and delivering rollers in spinning1 after it has passed through the hot water2 ,i therefore claim as my invention1 the preparing and manufacturing into the fibres hereinbefore particularly described2 the leaf of the plant commonly called the pine-apple1 by any mode or modes of preparation1 and also the application of the said fibres1 when prepared and manufactured1 to the several purposes hereinbefore also particularly specified1 the same being to the best of my knowledge 7information1 remembrance1 and belief71 now and not heretofore practised40 ,m4 de la ,rouverie affirms1 that he procured a beautiful vegetable silk from the ,papyfera or paper mulberry2 cutting the bark while the tree was in sap1 beating it with mallets1 and steeping it in water2 he obtained a thread from the fibres1 almost equal to silk in quality2 and this was woven into a cloth the texture of which appeared as if formed of that material4 ,the finest sort of cloth among the inhabitants of ,otaheite1 and other of the ,south ,sea ,islands1 is made of the bark of this tree4 ,according to ,m4 ,chevremont1 ,engineer of ,mines1 8ropes made of aloes have four times the resistance of those of hemp of the same diameter1 and made by the same process7874 ,the fibres of the aloe contain a resinous substance which protects the ropes from the action of moisture3 even at sea1 and renders the tarring of them unnecessary4 ,they are lighter than hempen ropes1 and lose nothing of their strength by being wet7874 ,when plunged into water1 they are shortened only two per cent41 so that they become less rigid than ropes made of hemp78740 ,there appears to be a good deal of exaggeration in regard to the great superiority of the fibres of these plants over cotton1 flax1 c4 ,this is particularly the case in regard to ,mr4 ,zincke1 for although he succeeded in producing some very beautiful specimens of fabric1 in conformity with the foregoing specification1 yet1 the manufacture does not appear to make much progress1 chiefly on account of the inferiority in point of strength of the cloth1 more especially when bleached4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,mallows4 ,,cultivation ,,and ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,mallow ,,among ,,the ,,ancients4--,,testimony ,,of ,,latin1 ,,greek1 ,,and ,,attic ,,writers4 ,the earliest mention of ,mallows is to be found in ,job xxx4 #d4--,varieties of the ,mallow--,cultivation and use of the ,mallow--,testimony of ancient authors--,papias and ,isidore's mention of ,mallow cloth--,mallow cloth common in the days of ,charlemagne--,mallow shawls--,mallow cloths mentioned in the ,periplus as exported from ,india to ,barygaza 7,baroch7--,calidsa the ,indian dramatist1 who lived in the first century ,b4 ,c4--,his testimony--,wallich's 7the ,indian botanist7 account--,mantles of woven bark1 mentioned in the ,sacontla of ,calidsa--,valclas or ,mantles of woven bark1 mentioned in the ,ramayana1 a noted poem of ancient ,india--,sheets made from trees--,ctesias' testimony--,strabo's account--,testimony of ,statius ,ccilius and ,plautus1 who lived #afi ,b4 ,c4 and #ahd ,b4 ,c4--,plautus's laughable enumeration of the analogy of trades--,beauty of garments of ,amorgos mentioned by ,eupolis--,clearchus's testimony--,plato mentions linen shifts--,amorgine garments first manufactured at ,athens in the time of ,aristophanes4 ,the earliest mention of mallows is that given in the book of ,job1 in the following words3 8,for want and famine they were solitary3 fleeing into the wilderness in former time desolate and waste4 ,who cut up mallows by the bushes1 and juniper-roots for their meat40--,job xxx4 #d4 ,we find in ancient authors of a more modern date1 distinct mention of three species of malvaceous plants1 which are still common in the ,south of ,europe4 ,these are1 the ,common ,mallow1 ,malva ,silvestris1 ,linn42 the ,marsh ,mallow1 ,altha ,officinalis1 ,linn42 and the ,hempleaved ,mallow1 ,altha ,cannabina1 ,linn4 ,the ,common ,mallow is called by the ,latin writers ,malva1 by the ,greek 1 or 4 ,this plant was used for food from the earliest times4 ,hesiod represents living on ,mallows and asphodel as the sign of moderation1 contentment1 and simplicity of manners4 1 ' 1 ' ' 4--,op4 et ,dies1 #da4 ,fools6 not to know how much more the half is than the whole1 and how much benefit there is in mallows and asphodel4 ,a dish of these vegetables was probably the cheapest of all kinds of food2 they grew wild in the meadow and by the wayside1 and were gathered and dressed without any labor or trouble4 ,various authors however mention the cultivation of the ,common ,mallow in gardens4 ,see ,virgil1 ,moretum1 #gc4 ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat4 l4 xix4 c4 #bb and #ca4 ,isidori ,orig4 l4 xvii4 c4 #aj4 ,papi ,vocabular4 v4 ,malva4 ,geoponica1 xii4 l4 ,palladuis1 iii4 #bd4 xi4 ll4 ,dioscorides 7l4 ii4 c4 ,,iii47 calls it the ,garden ,mallow4 ,aristophanes 7,plutus #edd47 mentions eating the shoots of mallows instead of bread1 intending by this to represent a vile and destitute kind of living4 ,plutarch 7,septem ,sapientum ,convivium7 says1 8,the mallow is good for food1 and the ,anthericus is sweet40 ,according to ,le ,clerc 7,anthericus7 means the scapus of the asphodel3 if he is right1 this plant was eaten as we now eat asparagus4 ,it is also remarkable that on this supposition ,plutarch mentions the same two plants1 which are also mentioned together by ,hesiod4 ,according to ,theophrastus 7,hist4 ,plant4 vii4 #g4 #b47 the mallow was not eaten raw1 as in a salad1 but required to be cooked4 ,cicero 7,epist4 ad ,fam4 vii4 #bf47 mentions the highly-seasoned vegetables at a dinner given by his friend ,lentulus4 ,having been made ill by them1 he says1 that he1 8who easily abstained from oysters and lampreys1 had been deceived by beet and mallows40 ,probably the leaves of the mallow were on this occasion boiled1 chopped1 and seasoned1 much in the same way as spinach is now prepared in ,france4 ,moschus in the following well-known lines refers to the common mallow together with other culinary vegetables3 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 4 ,mallows1 alas6 die down1 and parsley1 and flourishing fennel2 ,then they spring up afresh1 and live next year in the garden4 ,this is accurately true of the common mallow1 the root of which is perennial1 so that the stems grow up and die down again every year4 ,accordingly ,theophrastus brings it as an example of a plant with annual stems#aia4 #aia ,hist4 ,plant4 l4 vii4 c4 #h4 p4 #adb4 ,heinsii4 #bdj4 ,schneider4 ,horace in two passages signifies his partiality to mallows1 calling them 8leves10 light to digest4 ,let olives be my food1 endive1 and mallows light4 ,od4 l4 i4 #ca4 v4 #af4 ,mallows1 salubrious to a frame o'er-filled4 ,epod4 #b4 #eg4 ,martial recommends this vegetable on account of its laxative effect3 ,utere lactucis1 et mollibus utere malvis4 7iii4 #dg47 ,exoneratarus ventrem mihi villica malvas ,attulit1 et varias1 quas habet hortus1 opes4 7x4 #dh47 ,diphilus of ,siphnos 7as quoted by ,athenus1 l4 ii4 p4 #eh4 ,e4 ,casaub471 after enumerating the medical virtues of the ,common ,mallow1 says1 that 8the wild was better than the cultivated kind40 ,without quoting other classical authorities1 the ancient practice may be illustrated by the observations of modern travellers1 who mention that the ,common ,mallow is still an article of consumption in the same parts of the world4 ,biddulph1 who visited ,syria about the year #afjj1 says1 he 8saw near ,aleppo many poor people gathering mallows1 and three-leaved grass1 and asked them what they did with it1 and they answered1 that it was all their food1 and that they boiled it1 and did eat it40 7,collection of ,voyages and ,travels from the ,library of the ,e4 of ,oxford1 p4 #hjg47 ,dr4 ,sibthorp states1 that the ,malva ,silvestris grows wild in ,cyprus1 and is called 4 ,he also says1 8,the wild mallow is very common about ,athens3 the leaves are boiled and eaten as a pot-herb1 and an ingredient in the ,dolma40 7,memoirs relating to ,european and ,asiatic ,turkey1 edited by ,walpole1 p4 #bde47 ,dr4 ,holland mentions both ,malva ,silvestris and ,altha ,officinalis among the officinal plants1 which he found in ,cephalonia4 7,travels in ,greece1 p4 #edc1 #dto474 ,the ,altha ,officinalis1 or ,marsh ,mallow1 is called by the ,greek authors 1 by the ,latin1 ,hibiscus4 ,theophrastus says1 that it went also under the name of wild mallow#aib4 ,whilst the ,common ,mallow1 though highly esteemed for its medicinal virtues1 was principally regarded as a substantial article of food2 the ,marsh ,mallow1 on the contrary1 seems to have been rarely used except as an article of the ,materia ,medica#aic2 and1 as its peculiar properties were likely to be more matured in the wild than cultivated state1 it does not appear to have been grown in gardens#aid4 ,theophrastus describes it by comparing it with the ,common ,mallow1 and mentions its application1 both internally and externally1 as a medicine#aie4 ,dioscorides 7l4 iii4 c4 #aci47 gives similar details4 ,besides mentioning the proper name of the plant in ,greek and in ,latin1 he calls it1 8a kind of wild mallow40 ,palladius 7l4 xi4 p4 #ahd4 ,bip47 explains 8,hibiscus0 to be the same as 8,altha40 ,see also ,pliny1 l4 xx4 c4 #ad4 ed4 ,bip4 ,virgil alludes to the use of it as fodder for goats1 and as a material for weaving baskets#aif4 #aib ,hist4 ,plant4 l4 ix4 cap4 #ae4 p4 #ahh4 ,heinsii4 #aic ,calpurnius 7,eclog4 iv4 #cb17 mentions the 8,hibiscus0 as used for food1 but only by persons in a state of great destitution4 #aid ,at a later period1 however1 we find the ,altha ,officinalis under the name of 8,ibischa ,mis-malva0 in a catalogue of the plants1 which ,charlemagne selected for cultivation in the gardens attached to his villas4 ,see ,sprengel1 ,hist4 ,rei ,herb4 i4 #bbj4 #aie ,hist4 ,plant4 l4 ix4 cap4 #ai4 p4 #aib4 ed4 ,heinsii4 #aif ,eclog4 ii4 #cj4 and x4 #ga4 ,see ,servius1 ,heyne1 and ,j4 ,,ii4 ,voss41 ad loc4 ,the ,hemp-leaved ,mallow1 ,altha ,cannabina1 is once mentioned by ,dioscorides 7lib4 iii4 c4 #ada474 ,giving an account of hemp1 he distinguishes between the cultivated and the wild4 ,he says of the wild hemp1 that the ,romans called it ,cannabis ,terminalis#aig4 ,after mentioning the medical properties of the plant1 ,dioscorides says1 that its bark was useful for making ropes4 ,the truth of this observation will be apparent to every botanist4 ,the plants belonging to the natural order ,malvace are all remarkable for the abundance of strong and beautiful fibres in their bark#aih4 #aig ,meaning literally ,hedge-hemp4 #aih ,we have the following testimony respecting the actual fabrication of mallow-cloth in modern times3 8,nous avons vu ,madrid1 chez le savant pharmacien ,d4 ,casimir ,ortga1 de ces tissus1 qui nous ont sembl fort remarquables4 ,ils taient faits avec l'corce des ,althas officinalis et cannabina1 et avec celle du ,malva sylvestris40 ,fe1 ,flore de ,virgile1 ,paris #ahbb1 p4 #ff4 ,but of the ,european species there is none superior in the fineness1 the strength1 the whiteness1 and lustre of its fibres1 to the ,common ,mallow1 the ,malva ,silvestris4 ,we have seen that the ancients were familiarly acquainted with this plant2 that it was commonly cultivated in their gardens2 and that they gathered it1 when growing wild1 to be taken as food or medicine4 ,in these circumstances they could scarcely fail to observe the aptitude of its bark for being spun into thread4 ,more especially in places where they had no other native supply of fibrous materials2 in ,attica1 for example1 which probably produced neither hemp nor flax1 it seems in the highest degree probable1 that the fitness of the mallow to supply materials for weaving would not be overlooked4 ,in producing the evidence1 which establishes this as a positive fact1 we shall begin with the latest testimonies and proceed in a reverse order upward to the most ancient4 ,according to this plan1 the first authority is that of ,papias1 who wrote his ,vocabulary about the year #ajej4 ,he gives the following explanations3 ,malbella vestis qu ex malvarum stamine conficitur1 quam alii molocinam vocant4 ,molocina vestis qu albo stamine sit3 quam alii malbellam vocant4 ,these passages clearly describe a kind of cloth made of the white fibres of the common mallow4 ,malbella1 the same with ,malvella1 is a ,latin adjective1 in the form of a diminutive1 from ,malva3 ,molocina1 the same with 1 is a ,greek adjective from 1 and signifies made of mallow4 ,papias1 who seems in compiling his dictionary to have made great use of ,isidore1 perhaps derived these explanations in part from the following passage of the latter author3 ,melocinia 7vestis est71 qu malvarum stamine conficitur1 quam alii molocinam1 alii malvellam vocant4 ,isid4 ,hisp4 ,orig4 xix4 #bb4 ,the cloth called ,melocinea is made of the thread of mallows1 and is called by some ,molocina1 by others ,malvella4 ,the passages of ,papias cannot be taken as a proof1 that mallow-cloth was woven in his day4 ,but that it was in fashion as late as the age of ,charlemagne appears from the following line1 which is quoted by ,du ,cange 7,glossar4 ,med4 et ,inf4 ,lat4 v4 ,melocineus7 from a poem in praise of that monarch1 attributed to ,alcuin3 ,tecta melocineo fulgescit femina amictu4 ,wrapt in a mallow shawl the lady shines4 ,the word 8fulgescit0 aptly describes the lustre of the material under consideration4 ,from the ,periplus of the ,erythrean ,sea#aii we learn1 that cloths made of mallow1 were among the articles of export from ,india1 being brought from ,ozene 7,ugain7 and ,tagara in the interior of the country to the sea-port of ,barygaza 7,baroch74 ,p4 #adf4 #afi1 #agj1 #aga4 #aii ,p4 #adf4 #afi1 #agj1 #aga4 ,arriani ,op4 ed4 ,blancardi1 tom4 ii4 ,the genus ,hibiscus1 ,linn4 is very abundant in ,india4 ,the bark of a certain species of this genus1 especially of ,h4 ,tiliaceus and ,h4 ,cannabinus1 is now very extensively employed for making cordage1 and might unquestionably have been used for making cloth#bjj4 #bjj ,cavanilles1 ,tab4 #eb1 fig4 #a1 represents ,h4 ,cannabinus1 the leaf of which is like that of hemp4 ,tab4 #ee1 fig4 #a1 represents ,h4 ,tiliaceus1 in the description of which we read 8cortice in funes ductili20 and ,cavanilles says1 the inhabitants of the ,south ,sea ,islands 7,australium insularum7 use in their ships and boats ropes made from the bark4 ,h4 ,tiliaceus is also represented in ,rheede's ,hort4 ,malabaricus 7vol4 i4 fig4 #cj474 ,it grows about #ae feet high4 ,dr4 ,wallich 7,cat4 of ,indian ,woods1 p4 #ah47 mentions two other species as used for making cordage from the bark4 ,the late ,mr4 ,john ,hare1 who lived in ,india a long time1 says1 that a coarse kind of cloth1 used for making sacks1 c41 is now woven from ,hibiscus bark4 ,as a further evidence1 that the ,molochina mentioned in the ,periplus were made from the bark of the ,hibiscus1 we may refer to that admirable specimen of ,eastern taste and ingenuity1 the ,sacontla of the great ,indian dramatist ,calidsa4 ,several passages of this poem make mention of the ,valcla1 which the ,sanscrit ,lexicons1 themselves of great antiquity1 explain as meaning either bark1 or a vesture made from it4 ,we learn from ,dr4 ,wallich1 a celebrated ,indian botanist1 that many kinds of ,hibiscus had this quality in an eminent degree1 and1 as their bark was in common use for making all kinds of cordage1 it might undoubtedly be employed for weaving4 ,the ,sacontla is of a date as ancient as the ,periplus4 ,professor ,von ,bohlen 7,das alte ,indien1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dgg47 asserts1 that the author ,calidsa certainly flourished as early as the first century ,b4 ,c4 ,sir ,william ,jones makes him older by several centuries4 7,works1 vol4 vi4 p4 #bjf47 ,the place also agrees as well as the time4 ,the ,hibiscus ,tiliaceus1 according to ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,smith1 is 8one of the most common trees in every part of the ,east ,indies1 thriving in all sorts of situations and soils1 and cultivated for the sake of its shade even more than the beauty of its flowers1 in towns and villages and by road-sides4 ,a coarse cordage10 he adds1 8is made of the bark2 the wood is light and white1 useful for small cabinet-work2 the mucilage of the whole plant is applied to some medical purposes40 ,the ,molochina1 mentioned in the ,periplus1 were brought from ,ozene and ,tagara1 and may have come from still further ,north4 ,the hermitage1 described in the drama1 was at the foot of the ,himalaya ,mountains1 and near the river ,malina1 and1 according to the representations given by the poet1 the ,valclas 7translated by ,sir ,w4 ,jones 8mantles of woven bark10 and by ,chzy1 8vtemens d'corce071 were worn both by the hermits and by the beautiful ,sacontla1 while she was their inmate#bja4 #bja ,translation of the ,sacontla1 ,sir ,w4 ,jones's ,works1 vol4 vi4 pp4 #bag4 #bbe4 #bhi4 ,original1 ed4 ,chzy1 ,paris1 #ahcj1 p4 #g1 l4 #aj42 p4 #i1 l4 #aj2 p4 #bd1 l4 #g42 p4 #aca1 l4 #ad4 ,chzy's translation1 pp4 #aj4 #bg4 #adb4 #adc4 ,see also ,heeren1 ,ideen1 i4 #b4 p4 #fdh4 8,valclas0 are mentioned in precisely the same manner in the ,ramayana1 one of the most noted of the heroic poems of ancient ,india4 ,they are represented as coarse garments worn by ascetics4 ,if the explanation now given be admitted as applicable to the ,molochina of the ,periplus1 it may throw light upon some other passages of ancient authors4 ,ctesias1 in his ,indica#bjb1 mentions 8sheets made from trees40 #bjb ,cap4 #bb4 ,fragmenta1 ed4 ,bhr4 p4 #bec4 #cbf4 ,strabo's account of the webs1 which he calls ,serica1 an account derived from the writings of ,nearchus1 admiral of ,alexander the ,great1 represents those webs as made from fibres1 which were scraped from the bark of trees4 ,this would apply exactly to the supposed use of the ,hibiscus for making cloth4 ,the bark must have been first stript from the tree1 and the fibres then scraped from the inside of the bark4 ,to the same source we may1 we think1 trace the idea of ,arethas 7in ,apoc4 c4 #eg471 that the ,byssus1 ,rev4 xix4 #h41 was 8the bark of an ,indian tree made into flax40 ,although the date of the following inscription1 found at ,rome1 is uncertain1 it may be conveniently brought in here4 ,it is published by ,muratori1 ,novus ,thesaurus ,vet4 ,inscriptionum1 tom4 ii4 p4 #ici4 ,p4 ,,avctivs ,p4 ,l4 ,,lysander4 ,,vestiarivs4 ,,tenviarivs4 ,,molochinarivs4 ,,vot4 ,,sol4 ,muratori in his ,note says1 that 8,vestiarius ,tenuiarius0 was the man who made thin garments1 and 8,molochinarius0 the man who made such garments of a mallow color4 ,the authors1 next in regard to antiquity1 who make mention of ,molochina1 are the writers of the ,latin ,comedy1 ,statius ,ccilius1 who died #afi ,b4 ,c41 and ,plautus1 who died #ahd ,b4 ,c4 ,nonius ,marcellus 7l4 xvi47 quotes the following line from the ,pausimachus of the former dramatist3 ,carbasina1 molochina1 ampelina4#bjc #bjc ,see ,c4 ,c4 ,statii ,fragmenta1 a ,leonhardo ,spengel1 ,monachii #ahbi1 p4 #ce4 ,statius chiefly copied ,menander 7,gellius1 ii4 c4 #af472 but it is not certain that ,menander wrote any play called ,pausimachus4 ,the passage of ,plautus is in the ,aulularia 7,act iii4 ,scene v4 l4 #dj471 where we have a ludicrous enumeration1 extending through more than ten lines1 of all the persons concerned in the manufacture or sale of garments4 ,solearii astant1 astant molochinarii4 ,all the lexicographers and commentators explain ,molochinarius to be one who dyes cloth of the color of the mallow4 ,lanarius was a woollen-draper2 ,coactiliarius1 a dealer in felts1 a hatter2 ,lintearius a linen-draper2 and ,sericarius a silk-mercer4 ,according to the same analogy1 ,molochinarius would mean a dealer in ,molochina1 i4 e4 in all kinds of cloth made from mallows4 ,the class of writers1 which will now be produced as affording testimony respecting the use of the mallow for weaving1 are ,greek authors1 and who instead of the common ,greek terms employ the ,attic term and its derivatives4 has been explained by some of the lexicographers to be a kind of flax 7,see ,julius ,pollux1 ,l4 vii4 #gd474 ,perhaps by this explanation nothing more was intended than that it was a plant1 the fibres of which were used to spin and weave into cloth4 ,it is highly probable that it was the ,malva ,silvestris or ,common ,mallow1 and that it was called 4 ,according to the ,attic lexicons of ,pausanias 7apud ,eustath4 l4 c47 and of ,mris1 was an ,attic term4 ,we now find traces of it in seven ,attic writers1 four or five of whom wrote comedy4 ,these are ,aristophanes1 ,cratinus1 ,antiphanes1 ,eupolis1 ,clearchus1 schines1 and ,plato4 ,i4 ,we shall take first ,aristophanes1 whose comedy called ,lysistrata is frequently quoted by ,pausanias and ,cratinus1 and being still extant throws considerable light upon the subject4 ,it was represented in the year #dab4 ,b4 ,c4 ,lysistrata says 7l4 #aej71 1 8,and if we should present ourselves naked in shifts of amorgos20 showing that these shifts were transparent4 ,accordingly ,mris says1 that the was 1 8a thin web40 ,bisetus in his ,greek commentary on this play1 after quoting the explanations of ,stephanus ,byzantinus1 ,suidas1 ,eustathius1 and the ,etymologicum ,magnum1 judiciously concludes as follows3 8,from all these it is manifest1 that 1 whether they took their name from a place1 from their color1 or from the raw material1 were a kind of valuable robe1 worn by the rich1 fashionable1 and luxurious women40 ,a subsequent passage of the ,lysistrata 7v4 #gcf-gda7 still further illustrates this subject4 ,a woman laments1 that she has left at home her without being peeled 771 and she goes to peel it 774 ,the mallow no less than flax and hemp1 would require the bark to be stript off1 and doubtless the best time for stripping it is as soon as the plant is gathered4 ,,ii4 ,cratinus died about #dbj ,b4 ,c4 ,the following line1 from his comedy called 1 represents a person spinning 4 4 ,cratina ,fragmenta1 a ,runkel1 p4 #bi4 ,,iii4 ,julius ,pollux1 speaking of garments made of 7,l4 vii4 c4 #ac47 quotes the ,medea of ,antiphanes thus3 4 ,this author was contemporary with ,aristophanes4 ,,iv4 ,eupolis wrote about the same time1 and his authority may be added to the rest as proving that garments of ,amorgos were admired by luxurious persons at ,athens#bjd4 #bjd ,see ,harpocration1 p4 #bi4 ed4 ,blancardi4 #afhc4 #dto4 ,also ,pher4 et ,eupolidis ,fragmenta1 a ,runkel1 p4 #aej4 ,v4 ,clearchus of ,soli#bje mentions the use of a cover of ,amorgos for inclosing a splendid purple blanket4 ,this application of it is agreeable to the foregoing evidence1 showing that the amorgine webs were transparent4 ,the silky translucence of the lace-like web of mallow would have a very beautiful effect over the fine purple of the downy blanket4 #bje ,ap4 ,athenum1 ,l4 vi4 p4 #bee1 ,casaub4 ,clearchus probably wrote about #ajj years later than the before-mentioned authors1 but the circumstances related by him may have occurred about the time when those authors flourished1 and even at ,athens4 ,,vi4 schines in an oration against ,timarchus1 the object of which is to hold up to contempt the extravagancies of this ,athenian spendthrift1 in his enumeration of them1 he mentions 7p4 #aah1 ed4 ,reiskii47 that ,timarchus took to his house a 8woman skilled in making cloths of ,amorgos40 ,,vii4 ,plato in the #acth ,epistle1 addressed to ,dionysius1 tyrant of ,syracuse1 which1 if not genuine1 is at least ancient1 proposes to give to the three daughters of ,cebes three long shifts1 not the valuable shifts made of ,amorgos1 but the linen shifts of ,sicily4 ,the mention of amorgine garments by the writers1 who have now been cited1 seems to prove1 that the fashion of making and wearing them first came in among the ,greeks at ,athens in the time of ,aristophanes1 who lived1 as the reader will have observed1 in the fifth century before ,christ4 ,from them the fashion may have extended itself into ,sicily and ,italy1 which will account1 if ,amorgina were the same with ,molochina1 for the striking agreement in this respect between the writers of ,greek and of ,latin ,comedy4 ,in subsequent ages the manufacture seems to have declined1 probably in consequence of the abundance of silk and other rich and beautiful goods imported from ,asia4 ,but the mention of these stuffs in the writings of ,isidore and ,alcuin renders it probable1 that they were brought again into use in the fifth and following centuries of the ,christian era4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,spartum1 ,,or ,,spanish ,,broom4 ,,cloth ,,manufactured ,,from ,,broom ,,bark1 ,,nettle1 ,,and ,,bulbous ,,plant4--,,testimony ,,of ,,greek ,,and ,,latin ,,authors4 ,authority for ,spanish ,broom--,stipa ,tenacissima--,cloth made from ,broom-bark--,albania--,italy--,france-- ,mode of preparing the fibre for weaving--,pliny's account of ,spartum--,bulbous plant--,its fibrous coats--,pliny's translation of ,theophrastus--,socks and garments--,size of the bulb--,its genus or species not sufficiently defined--,remarks of various modern writers on this plant--,interesting communications of ,dr4 ,daniel ,stebbins1 of ,northampton1 ,mass4 to ,hon4 ,h4 ,l4 ,ellsworth4 ,pliny says1 that 8in the part of ,hispania ,citerior about ,new ,carthage whole mountains were covered with ,spartum2 that the natives made mattresses1 shoes1 and coarse garments of it1 also fires and torches2 and that its tender tops were eaten by animals#bjf40 ,he also says1 that it grows spontaneously where nothing else will grow1 and that it is 8the rush of a dry soil40 #bjf ,l4 xix4 c4 #b4 ,the question now arises1 what plant ,pliny intended to describe4 ,clusius1 who travelled in ,spain chiefly with a view to botany1 supposed ,pliny's 8,spartum0 to be the tough grass1 used in every part of ,spain for making mats1 baskets1 c41 which ,linnus afterwards called ,stipa ,tenacissima#bjg4 ,it is not surprising1 that the opinion of so eminent a botanist as ,clusius has been generally adopted4 ,it is1 however1 far more probable1 that the plant1 which ,pliny intended to speak of1 was the ,spartium ,junceum1 ,linn41 so familiarly known under the name of ,spanish ,broom4 #bjg ,clusii ,plant4 ,rar4 ,historia1 ,l4 vi4 p4 #bai4 #bbj4 ,in the first place1 the name ,spartum should be considered as decisive of the question1 unless some sufficient reason can be shown for ascribing to it in this passage a sense different from that which it commonly bore4 ,spartus or ,spartum1 is admitted to be used by all authors1 ,greek and ,latin1 and even by ,pliny himself in another passage#bjh1 to denote the ,spanish ,broom4 ,we learn from ,sibthorp1 that the ,spanish ,broom is still called ,sparto by the ,greeks1 and that it grows on dry sandy hills throughout the islands of the ,archipelago and the continent of ,greece4 ,sparto was indeed properly the ,greek name of this shrub1 the ,latin name being ,genista1 and the use of the ,greek name in ,hispania ,citerior may have been owing to the ,grecian settlements on that coast1 colonized from ,marseilles4 #bjh ,see ,l4 xi4 #h4 where ,pliny says1 that bees obtain honey and wax from 8,spartum10 and compare this with ,aristotle1 ,hist4 ,anim4 ,l4 x4 #dj4 ,besides the passages of ,latin authors referred to by ,schneider and ,billerbeck1 and which it is unnecessary to repeat1 the following from ,isidore of ,seville appears decisive respecting the acceptation of the term4 8,spartus frutex virgosus sine foliis1 ab asperitate vocatus2 volumina enim funium1 qu ex eo fiunt1 aspera sunt40 ,originum ,l4 xvii4 c4 #i4 ,this is the definition of a learned and observant author1 who lived in ,spain1 and who must have been familiar with the facts4 8,frutex virgosus sine foliis0 is a clear and striking description of the ,spanish ,broom1 the leaves of which are so small as easily to escape observation#bji4 ,the ,stipa ,tenacissima1 on the other hand1 is not a shrub with twigs1 but a grass1 which grows in tufts1 the long leaves being as abundant and useful as the stems or straws4 ,clusius himself 7l4 c47 in laying down the distinction between the ,spartum of the ,greeks1 which he supposed to be the ,spanish ,broom1 and the ,spartum of ,pliny1 which he supposed to be the ,stipa ,tenacissima1 asserts that the former is a shrub 7frutex71 the latter a herb with grassy leaves 7herba graminacea folia proferens74 ,it is clear1 therefore1 that the inhabitants of ,spain in the time of ,isidore still used the term ,spartus in its original acceptation1 viz4 to denote the ,spartium ,junceum of ,linnus4 #bji ,dioscorides also describes the ,spanish ,broom to be 8a shrub bearing long twigs without leaves40 ,isidore's etymology1 deducing ,spartus from ,asper1 is manifestly absurd4 ,when the ,stipa ,tenacissima was brought into use for making ropes and for other purposes1 for which the ,spanish ,broom was employed1 the name of the latter would naturally be extended to the former1 and we may thus account for the fact that the ,stipa ,tenacissima is now universally known in ,spain by the name ,esparto4 ,indeed it is possible1 that the employment of the ,stipa ,tenacissima for these purposes may have been as ancient as the time of ,pliny2 and his use of the word 8herba0 in describing it1 as well as the locality which he assigns to it1 the hilly country about ,carthage1 favors the common interpretation1 and perhaps even authorizes the conclusion1 that his account is the result of confounding the two plants together1 so that he says of one supposed plant things1 which were partly true of both1 and partly applicable either to the ,spanish ,broom1 or to the ,stipa ,tenacissima only4 ,but1 even if this be admitted1 it is still possible that the plant1 from whose fibres the 8pastorum vestis0 was manufactured1 was not the grassy ,stipa1 but the shrub1 the ,spanish ,broom4 ,in order to establish this point we now proceed to mention the evidence respecting the application of it to such uses4 ,it has been employed for making cloth in ,turkey1 in ,italy1 and the ,south of ,france1 but in circumstances1 which were either specially favorable to the manufacture1 or where flax could not be cultivated4 ,it is manufactured into shirts in ,albania according to ,dr4 ,sibthorp#baj4 ,nearly a century ago1 ,pope ,benedict ,,xiv4 brought a colony of ,albanians to inhabit a barren and desolate portion of his territory on the sea-coast4 ,here they obtained a very fine1 strong1 durable thread from the ,broom and the ,nettle1 and used it1 when woven1 in place of linen#baa4 ,trombelli1 who relates this fact1 also gives an account of the manufacture of broom-bark in the vicinity of ,lucca1 where the hills1 called ,monte ,cascia1 are covered with this plant#bab4 8,formerly10 he says1 8the people derived no other advantage from the shrub than to feed sheep and goats with it1 and to heat their stoves and furnaces4 ,but their ingenuity and industry have now made it far more profitable4 ,they steep the twigs for some days in the thermal waters of ,bagno a ,acqua near ,lucca4 ,after this process the bark is easily stript off1 and it is then combed and otherwise treated like flax4 ,it becomes finer than hemp could be made2 it is easily dyed of any color1 and may be used for garments of any kind#bac40 ,in the vicinity of ,pisa we find that the twigs of the ,spanish ,broom were in like manner soaked in the thermal waters1 and that a coarse cloth was manufactured from the bark#bad4 #baj ,flora ,grca1 ,no4 #fga4 #baa ,trombelli1 ,bononiensis ,scient4 atque ,artium ,instituti ,commentarii1 tom4 vi4 p4 #aah4 #bab ,trombelli calls the plant ,genista1 and says it is the kind called by botanists 8,genista juncea flore luteo40 ,this is the ,spartium ,junceum of ,linnus4 ,see ,ray1 ,catal4 ,stirp4 ,europ4 and ,scopoli1 ,flora ,carniolica1 #aggb1 tom4 i4 ,no4 #hgj4 #bac ,bononiensis ,scientiarum atque ,artium ,instituti ,commentarii1 tom4 iv4 ,bonon4 #ageg1 p4 #cdi-cea4 ,a similar account of the manufacture of the 8,teladi ,ginestia0 at ,bagno a ,acqua is given by ,mr4 ,john ,strange1 who says he had sent an account of it to the ,society for encouraging ,arts1 ,manufactures1 and ,commerce4 ,lettera sopra l',origine della carta naturale di ,cortona1 ,pisa #agfd4 p4 #gi4 #bad ,mm4 de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 ,paris #agfc4 ,but the manufacture has been carried to a far greater extent in the ,south of ,france4 ,in the ,journal de ,physique1 ,tom4 #cj4 #dto4 ,an4 #aghg4 p4 #bid41 is a paper by ,broussonet ,sur la culture et les usages conomiques du ,gent d',espagne4 ,a minute and highly curious account is here given of the mode of preparing the fibres1 which is practised by the inhabitants of all the villages in the vicinity of ,lodve in ,bas ,languedoc4 ,the shrub abounds on the barren hills of that region1 and all that the people do to favor its growth is to sow the seed in the driest places1 where scarce any other plant can vegetate4 ,after being cut1 the twigs are dried in the sun1 then beaten1 macerated in water1 and treated in the same way as flax or hemp 7,see ,zincke's process1 ,chapter ,,xi474 ,the coarser thread is used to make bags for holding the legumes1 corn1 c42 the finer for making sheets1 napkins1 and shirts4 ,the peasants in this district use no other kind of linen1 not being acquainted with the culture either of flax or hemp4 ,the ground is too dry and unproductive to suit these plants4 ,the linen made of the ,spanish ,broom is as supple as that made from hemp2 it might be even as beautiful as real linen1 if more pains were taken with it4 ,it becomes whiter1 the oftener it is washed4 ,it is rarely sold1 each family making it for its own use4 ,the stalks1 after the rind has been separated from them1 are tied in small bundles1 and sold for lighting fires4 ,let us now see how far ,pliny's account of the ,spartum agrees with these representations of the mode of manufacturing ,broom-bark4 ,the ,spartum1 of which he speaks1 is 8the rush of a dry soil10 a description far more applicable to the young twigs of the ,spanish ,broom than to the grassy stems of the ,stipa ,tenacissima1 or indeed to any other plant4 ,his ,spartum was used for making fires and for giving light 7hinc ignes facesque71 purposes for which the ,stipa ,tenacissima is not at all adapted1 but to both of which the stems and twigs of the ,spanish ,broom are applied4 ,the tender tops of ,pliny's ,spartum served as food for animals4 ,according to ,trombelli sheep and goats feed upon the ,spanish ,broom in ,italy2 but we cannot find that this is the case with the ,stipa ,tenacissima4 ,pliny's ,spartum1 after being steeped in water1 was beaten in order to be made useful 7,hoc autem tunditur1 ut fiat utile72 and this process was quite necessary in preparing the twigs of ,spanish ,broom1 whereas the ,stipa ,tenacissima is most commonly manufactured without going through any such process4 ,clusius indeed states 7l4 c47 that by macerating it in water like flax1 and then drying and beating it1 the ,spaniards of ,valencia make a kind of shoes1 which they call ,alpergates1 also cords1 and other finer articles2 but1 at the same time1 he says1 that it is made into mats1 baskets1 ropes1 and cables1 merely by being dried1 platted1 and twisted1 without any other operation4 ,the same account is given by ,townsend1 who visited the country as late as #aghg1 and who further states1 that 8the esparto rush0 had latterly 8been spun into fine thread for the purpose of making cloth#bae40 ,it seems1 however1 that this had only been done as an experiment1 whereas the accounts which have been quoted show1 that the manufacture of cloth from broom-bark had been long established in ,albania1 ,italy1 and the ,south of ,france4 ,in the latter district more especially1 the entire dependence of the people on this material as a substitute for flax and hemp1 and the primitive mode in which this domestic manufacture was carried on in a retired and mountainous region1 seem to indicate the high antiquity of the practice4 ,all the other authors1 who mention the use of the ,stipa ,tenacissima1 certainly give little countenance to the idea of its fitness to supply a thread for making cloth4 ,mr4 ,carter1 adopting the common opinion that the ,spartum of ,pliny is the ,stipa ,tenacissima1 observes1 that 8at present the meanest ,spaniard would think clothing made from this grass very rough and uncomfortable#baf40 ,we shall only quote one other authority1 that of ,lfling1 the favorite pupil of ,linnus1 who became botanist to the ,king of ,spain1 and whose ,iter ,hispanicum 7,stockholm1 #ageh47 relates particularly to the plants of that country4 ,he follows ,clusius in supposing the ,spartum of ,pliny to be the ,stipa ,tenacissima of ,linnus4 ,he mentions1 that its stem is two or three feet high1 with leaves so long1 thin1 tough1 and convoluted1 that they are admirably adapted for the purposes to which they are applied4 ,he adds1 8,hispanis nominatur ,esparto4 ,usus hujus frequentissimus per universam ,hispaniam ad storeas ob pavimenta lateritia per hyemem3 ad funes crassiores pro navibus ad que corbes et alia utensilia pro transportandis fructibus40 7p4 #aai47 #bae ,journey through ,spain1 vol4 iii4 p4 #abi1 #acj4 #baf ,carter's ,journey1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dad1 #dae4 ,pliny's remark1 that the ,spartum1 of which he speaks1 could not be sown 7qu non queat seri71 is not true of the ,spanish ,broom2 but this is of little importance in the present inquiry1 because it is coupled with the remark1 that nothing else could be sown in the same situation 7nec aliud ibi seri aut nasci potest72 a remark1 which is totally unfounded in fact4 ,the ,spanish ,broom would unquestionably be propagated by its seed1 which is very abundant4 ,from these facts1 the reader will have no difficulty in forming his decision4 ,notwithstanding the respect due to the authority of ,clusius1 into which that of all the subsequent writers seems to resolve itself1 it appears to us that the evidence preponderates against the use of ,stipa ,tenacissima for making cloth in ancient times1 and points to the conclusion1 that the coarse garments1 to which ,pliny alludes1 were fabricated from the fibrous rind of ,spartium ,junceum4 ,one of the most interesting facts in the geography of plants is the frequent substitution in one country1 of a plant of a certain natural order for another of the same natural order in another country4 ,the ,indians have a plant1 bearing a very close and striking resemblance to the ,spartium ,junceum1 which they employ just as the natives of ,bas ,languedoc employ that plant4 ,we refer to the ,crotalaria ,juncea1 called by the natives ,goni1 ,danapu1 or ,shanapu1 and by us the ,sun-plant1 or ,indian ,hemp4 ,from the bark are made all kinds of ropes1 packing-cloths1 sacks1 nets1 c4 ,in order to improve the fibre1 the plants are sown as close as possible and thus draw up to the height of about ten feet4 ,according to ,dr4 ,francis ,buchanan1 the plant thrives best on a poor sandy soil1 and requires to be abundantly watered4 ,after being cut down it is spread out to the sun and dried4 ,the seed is beaten out by striking the pods with a stick4 ,after this the stems are tied up in large bundles1 about twelve feet in circumference1 and are preserved in stacks or under sheds4 ,when wanted1 the stems are macerated during six or eight days4 ,they are known to be ready1 when the bark separates easily from the pith4 8,the plant is then taken out of the water1 and a man1 taking it up by handfuls1 beats them on the ground1 and occasionally washes them until they be clean2 and at the same time picks out with his hand the remainder of the pith1 until nothing except the bark be left4 ,this is then dried1 and being taken up by handfuls1 is beaten with a stick to separate and clean the fibres4 ,the hemp is then completely ready1 and is spun into thread on a spindle1 both by the men and women4 ,the men alone weave it1 and perform this labor in the open air with a very rude loom40 ,the fabric made from it is a coarse1 but very strong sack-cloth4 8,the fibres1 when prepared10 says ,ironside1 8are so similar to hemp1 that ,europeans generally suppose them to be the produce of the same plant#bag40 #bag ,account of the culture and uses of the ,son-or ,sun-plant of ,hindostan by ,ironside1 in the ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 lxiv43 ,dr4 ,f4 ,buchanan's ,journey1 vol4 i4 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bia42 vol4 ii4 #bbg1 #bce43 ,wissett on ,hemp1 passim43 ,roxburgh's ,flora ,indica1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bei-bfc4 ,the genus ,lupinus 7the ,lupin71 belonging to the same natural order as ,spartium and ,crotalaria1 might probably afford materials of the same kind4 ,mr4 ,strange 7,lettera1 c4 p4 #gj47 mentions the filamentous substance of the ,lupin as adapted for making paper4 ,theophrastus#bah 7,hist4 ,pl4 viii4 #ac47 gives the following account of a bulbous plant1 called by him 1 the root of which supplied materials for weaving3--8,it grows in bays1 and has the wool under the first coats of the bulb so as to be between the inner eatable part and the outer4 ,socks and other garments are woven from it4 ,hence this kind is woolly1 and not hairy1 like that in ,india40 #bah 8,theophrastus relates1 that there is a kind of bulb growing about the banks of rivers1 and that between its outer rind and the part of it which is eaten there is a woolly substance1 out of which they make certain kinds of socks and cloths4 ,but in the copies which ,i have found1 he neither mentions in what country this is done1 nor anything else with greater exactness1 except that the bulb is called eriophoros2 nor does he make any mention at all of spartum1 although he examined the whole subject with great care #cij years before my time1 as ,i have observed in another place 7,viz41 lib4 xv4 #a471 from which circumstance it appears1 that spartum came into use since that time40 ,it is difficult to determine what plant is meant1 though the description seems accurate and scientific4 ,billerbeck absurdly supposes it to be cotton-grass#bai4 ,by former botanists1 men of great eminence1 it was supposed to be ,scilla ,hyacinthoides4 ,sprengel objects1 that this species does not grow in ,greece#bbj4 ,sir ,james ,smith however 7article ,,scilla in ,rees's ,cyclop47 represents it as growing in ,madeira1 ,portugal1 and the ,levant4 ,if this account be true1 ,theophrastus may have been acquainted with it4 ,in another article1 ,eriophorus1 ,sir ,j4 ,smith doubts whether either ,scilla ,hyacinthoides or any other bulb produces wool of such quality and in such quantity as to answer the description of ,theophrastus4 ,but1 we learn from other well-informed botanists1 that various bulbs have under the outermost coats a copious tissue of tough fibres1 fully sufficient to be employed in weaving4 ,this is particularly the case with the genera ,amaryllis1 ,crinum1 and ,pancratium1 as well as ,scilla4 ,the fibrous coats serve as a protection to the interior and more vital parts of the bulb4 #bai ,flora ,classica1 p4 #bj4 #bbj ,german translation of ,theophrastus1 ,notes1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bhc4 ,hoffmansegg and ,link1 who travelled in ,portugal1 in the description of ,scilla ,hyacinthoides1 say1 8,bulbus tomento viscoso tectus#bba40 #bba ,annals of ,botany1 by ,knig and ,sims1 ,lond4 #ahje1 vol4 i4 #aja4 ,sonnini says of the ,scilla ,maritima1 8,the ,greeks of the ,archipelago call it ,kourvara-skilla1 kourvara signifying properly a #8tuft of thread' 7peloton de fil#bbb740 ,does this refer to the fibres mentioned by ,theophrastus8 ,the size of this bulb1 which is the common squill1 used in pharmacy1 seems to favor this supposition4 ,it is often as large as a man's head#bbc4 ,hoffmansegg and ,link#bbd say it grows abundantly on barren hills in ,spain and ,portugal2 but add1 8,the name maritima is not quite proper3 for the plant is seldom met with near the sea-shore1 and sometimes very remote from it40 ,on the other hand1 it must have been so called1 because it was reported by others to grow on the sea-shore2 and ,sir ,james ,smith 7in ,rees's ,cyclopedia7 expressly states1 that it grows on 8sandy shores40 ,redout says the same4 #bbb ,voyage en ,grce1 tom4 i4 ch4 #ad4 p4 #bie4 #bbc 8,bulbus ovatus1 tunicatus1 crassitie fer capitis humani40 ,desfontaines' ,flora ,atlantica1 tom4 i4 p4 #big4 #bbd ,an4 of ,bot4 vol4 i4 p4 #aja4 ,from the account of ,pancratium by ,sir ,james ,edward ,smith 7in ,rees's ,cyclop471 we learn that two species grow in ,greece1 viz4 ,p4 ,maritimum and ,illyricum4 ,the remarks now offered appear to prove1 that there certainly may have been a bulb1 such as ,theophrastus describes1 though we have not sufficient information to decide its genus and species4 ,it may have been the ,scilla ,maritima4 ,it is to be observed1 that he refers also to an ,indian bulb1 having similar properties4 ,perhaps he alluded to some plant of a kind similar to ,agave ,vivipara1 the leaves of which are extensively used in ,india for making cordage#bbe4 #bbe ,dr4 ,f4 ,buchanan's ,journey in ,mysore1 c4 i4 p4 #cf4 ,we cannot better conclude this part of the subject1 than by giving the following interesting communication of ,dr4 ,daniel ,stebbins1 of ,northampton1 ,mass41 to the ,hon4 ,h4 ,l4 ,ellsworth1 a gentleman who has1 in our opinion1 rendered most valuable services1 not only to the people of the ,united ,states1 but to the world at large1 since his appointment to the office of ,commissioner of ,patents4 ,northampton1 ,hampshire ,county1 ,mass4 8,dear ,sir3 ,the favorable notice of silk culture in document ,no4 #aji1 from the ,patent ,office report of ,february1 #ahdc1 is my apology for presenting the enclosed samples of paper1 made of mulberry foliage and bark4 ,unfortunately1 the external cuticle of the bark had not been removed2 producing the spots1 but does not injure the paper for the use intended1 which was for the purpose of depositing silk-worms' eggs upon something dark2 and this being unbleached1 is considered adapted to the habits of the silk-worm1 and is now in successful experiment4 8,the four samples are all of one batch2 the darkest1 having more of the outside cuticle1 was most buoyant1 rose to the top and came off first4 8,a quantity of genuine ,canton foliage1 which retains its verdure in greater perfection and later than any other mulberry1 is gathered1 dried1 and sent to the mill for making paper1 bleached1 without spots1 fit for cotton paper1 as hoped2 and1 if successful1 ,i shall take pleasure in sending you a sample1 to be preserved with the enclosed4 8,i began1 some ten or twelve years since1 to bring silk culture into notice among the members of the ,hampshire ,agricultural ,society1 believing that if we tried the right kind of trees1 7such as used in ,china17 we could raise silk1 yet could not afford to pay #a per tree1 as then asked for multicaulis2 not reflecting how easily they could be propagated by cuttings and layers4 ,under this view of the subject1 ,i wrote to the ,rev4 ,e4 ,c4 ,bridgman1 missionary at ,canton1 ,china1 a native of ,hampshire county1 with the request that he would procure and forward me some mulberry seed of the most approved kind for growing in ,china1 for the use of members of the agricultural society4 ,he promptly attended to the request2 the seed was forwarded and sown in the spring of #ahcd or #ahce4 ,it grew finely1 and developed a splendid leaf4 8,about two years since1 while ,dr4 ,parker1 with a ,chinaman1 was here on a visit1 on being shown the ,canton foliage1 it was readily recognized4 ,as the trees had grown here very luxuriantly1 and developed a larger leaf than in ,china1 ,dr4 ,parker suggested that our soil might be more congenial to the plant than even ,china1 its native soil4 8,soon after receiving the seed from ,canton1 a friend sent me another parcel from the ,south of ,asia1 with high commendations1 that if it would grow here1 it would be of essential benefit to the ,united ,states for raising silk4 ,it succeeded well1 and is more hardy than the white mulberry1 very productive in small branches1 and a good-sized leaf4 ,i named the latter ,asiatic ,canton4 ,these two kinds are highly approved of for feeding silk-worms--the ,canton for leaf-feeding1 and the ,asiatic for branch feeding4 ,i have1 however1 almost every variety which was cultivated during the mulberry speculation--covering1 altogether1 some ten or twelve acres1 besides a large number of young ,canton and ,asiatic seedlings1 of this year's sowing1 from seed of my own raising1 to enlarge the plantations4 8,a few days since1 the ,rev4 ,william ,richards1 of the ,sandwich ,islands1 with the young prince1 called on me4 ,at a former visit1 ,i had supplied him with ,canton mulberry-seed1 silk-worms' eggs1 and dry mulberry foliage to use in case the eggs should hatch on the passage2 but this they did not do until his arrival home4 ,about the same time1 other eggs had been received there from ,china2 but the cocoons raised from them were not one quarter as large as the ,american1 and must have required some #aj1jjj to #ab1jjj to make a pound of silk1 while in ,america #b1djj to #c1jjj would make a pound4 8,mr4 ,titcomb1 also a silk-grower in one of the islands1 having the ,american and ,chinese1 crossed them3 but the crossing produced cocoons so small as to require from #e1jjj to #f1jjj to make a pound of silk1 while not over #c1jjj of the ,american would be required to do the same thing7674 8,mr4 ,richards was shown several pamphlets1 newspapers1 cap and writing paper1 supposed to have been made of mulberry bark4 ,he said rags were not used in ,india#bbf1 ,china1 or the islands1 for making paper1 but they always make it of some vegetable leaf2 that the bark was too valuable for that1 and was used to make fabrics4 7,see ,chapters ,,xi4 and ,,xii4 of this ,part4 ,also ,appendix ,a47 8,we1 as ,americans1 have the appropriate soil and climate for the ,canton and ,asiatic mulberry1 with the pea-nut variety of worms1 which1 being managed with due care and attention1 together with the skill1 ingenuity1 and perseverance of ,americans--and1 in addition1 and could we have the aid of our country to encourage new beginners--we might hope to compete with any nation in the production of silk1 their cheap labor and cheap living to the contrary notwithstanding4 ,there is abundant evidence that worms fed exclusively on the ,canton mulberry have been larger1 and produced heavier cocoons1 by one-third in size of worms and weight of cocoons1 than by other feed4 ,i have supplied an order of the peanut variety of eggs1 to go to ,guatemala2 and ,canton seed1 of my own raising1 to go to ,rio2 and now have an order for a number of the genuine ,canton mulberry trees1 roots1 or cuttings1 to go to ,lima1 where the applicant went on business1 a few years since1 taking with him a few multicaules1 at #b each--now multiplied to #ej1jjj2 who1 without any practical knowledge of raising trees1 reeling and manufacturing silk1 or having seen a silk-worm or reel until he introduced them in #ahdc1 has now presented me with beautiful samples of floss cocoons1 reeled and sewing silk1 done by ladies as a diversion1 without any assistance1 and very little instruction from him4 ,the silk is of good quality4 ,samples had been sent by a mercantile house in ,lima to ,england1 for an opinion of the quality2 but no return had been received when he came away4 ,he has come to this place with a native ,spaniard1 to obtain more perfect information in all the branches of reeling1 twisting1 coloring7671 c42 to procure machinery1 with a view of enlarging operations1 so that he might turn off twenty-five pounds per day of sewings1 cords1 braids1 c4 ,he represents the climate and soil as adapted to the culture of silk1 and could feed every month in the year2 that the necessaries of living are procured with but little labor2 that the laboring population are indolent1 the wealthy classes too proud to labor4 ,he feels confident of success1 and that he can introduce habits of industry by silk culture1 that would counteract their natural indolence2 and he will inform me of his success in due time1 that may be more interesting than speculations upon what he intends doing4 ,he has engaged several to perfect themselves in reeling1 c41 to accompany him when he returns to ,lima with his machinery4 ,he has become so satisfied with the superiority of the genuine ,canton mulberry1 that he has engaged to take it on with him for propagation and use4 8,i have letters from widely different locations1 rendering favorable accounts of this year's success in growing silk1 and in corroboration of the prevalent opinion that the silk cause will finally prevail4 ,i have several letters on this subject--one from a gentleman presiding over one of our most eminent literary institutions1 under date of ,june1 #ahdd4 ,discoursing about the culture of silk1 he writes as follows3 8#8,if this earnest waking up to a scientific and practical consideration of the subject be not soon crowned with signal success1 it will not be for want of enterprize or skill in our countrymen1 but merely from the high price of labor here1 compared with the scanty wages given in other silk-growing countries4 ,even this consideration1 though it may retard for a while the complete success of this department of productive industry1 will not prevent its ultimate triumph4' 8,another gentleman1 under date of ,august1 #ahdd1 writes from the far ,west1 #8that the soil and climate of the ,western and ,south-western ,states are admirably suited to the growth of the mulberry and raising silk-worms1' and that #8eventually the two great staples of the ,western and ,south-western ,states will be silk and wool4' ,it is the opinion of competent skilful silk manufacturers1 who have made critical experiments upon the ,pongee-silk 7so called7 of foreign make1 by tests which they consider satisfactory and decisive1 that it is only a vegetable production1 and that the material was never operated upon by the silk-worm7874 ,there can be no reasonable doubt about the ultimate success of silk-culture in some future years2 but to accelerate that desirable event1 which may constitute an important ,american staple for revenue 7which might not only enrich the ,government1 but reward the labor of personal enterprize71 a bounty is deemed necessary to stimulate and encourage that portion of the agricultural population whose circumstances or health disqualifies them for the more laborious exercises of the fields1 to commence operations upon a new and untried crop4 ,our extensive imports of raw and manufactured silks are encouraged by us as consumers1 instead of being producers4 ,we now contribute to support foreign enterprize and industry1 to produce the article of silk1 which we might1 with proper encouragement1 raise ourselves1 not only for our own consumption1 but for exportation40 ,very respectfully1 yours1 c4 ,daniel ,stebbins4 ,henry ,l4 ,ellsworth1 ,esq41 ,commissioner of ,patents4 #bbf ,abdollatiph who visited ,egypt ,a4 ,d4 #abjj1 informs us 7,chapter iv4 p4 #ahh of ,silvestre de ,sacy's ,french translation1 p4 #bba of ,wahl's ,german translation471 8that the cloth1 rags1 c4 found in the catacombs1 and used to envelope the mummies1 was made into garments1 or sold to the scribes to make paper for shop-keepers40 ,this cloth is proved to be linen 7,see ,part ,,iv4 p4 #cfe71 and the passage of ,abdollatiph may be considered as decisive proof1 which however has never been produced as such1 of the manufacture of linen paper as early as the year #abjj4 ,professor ,tychsen in his learned and curious dissertation on the use of paper from ,papyrus 7published in the ,commentationes ,reg4 ,soc4 ,gottingensis ,recentiores1 vol4 iv4 ,a4 ,d4 #ahbj71 has brought abundant testimonies to prove that ,egypt supplied all ,europe with this kind of paper until towards the end of the eleventh century4 ,the use of it was then abandoned1 cotton paper being employed instead4 ,the ,arabs in consequence of their conquests in ,bucharia1 had learnt the art of making cotton paper about the year #gjd1 and through them or the ,saracens it was introduced into ,europe in the eleventh century4 ,another fact should not be lost sight of1 namely1 8that most of the old ,,mss4 in ,arabic and other oriental languages are written on this sort of paper10 and that it was first introduced into ,europe by the ,saracens of ,spain4 7,for further proof1 see ,appendix ,a4 ,also ,part ,,iv4 already referred to47 ,the amount of silk imported into the ,united ,states annually1 nearly equals that of linen and woollen together1 and is equal to one half of all other fabrics combined4 ,is it not then1 an important consideration1 that this expenditure be saved to the nation8 ,,part ,,second4 ,,origin ,,and ,,ancient ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,sheep4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,sheep',s ,,wool4 ,,sheep-,,breeding ,,and ,,pastoral ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,ancients--,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,scriptures1 ,,etc4 ,the ,shepherd ,boy--,sheep-breeding in ,scythia and ,persia--,mesopotamia and ,syria--,in ,iduma and ,northern ,arabia--,in ,palestine and ,egypt--,in ,ethiopia and ,libya--,in ,caucasus and ,coraxi--,the ,coraxi identified with the modern ,caratshai--,in ,asia ,minor1 ,pisidia1 ,pamphylia1 ,samos1 c4--,in ,caria and ,ionia--,milesian wool--,sheep-breeding in ,thrace1 ,magnesia1 ,thessaly1 ,euba1 and ,botia--,in ,phocis1 ,attica1 and ,megaris--,in ,arcadia--,worship of ,pan--,pan the god of the ,arcadian ,shepherds--,introduction of his worship into ,attica--,extension of the worship of ,pan--,his dances with the nymphs--,pan not the ,egyptian ,mendes1 but identical with ,faunus--,the philosophical explanation of ,pan rejected--,moral1 social1 and political state of the ,arcadians--,polybius on the cultivation of music by the ,arcadians--,worship of ,mercury in connection with sheep-breeding and the wool trade--,present state of ,arcadia--,sheep-breeding in ,macedonia and ,epirus--,shepherds' dogs--,annual migration of ,albanian shepherds4 ,,the ,,shepherd ,,boy4 ,the rain was pattering o'er the low thatch'd shed ,that gave us shelter4 ,there was a shepherd boy1 ,stretching his lazy limbs on the rough straw1 ,in vacant happiness4 ,a tatter'd sack ,cover'd his sturdy loins1 while his rude legs ,were deck'd with uncouth patches of all hues1 ,iris and jet1 through which his sun-burnt skin ,peep'd forth in dainty contrast4 ,he was a glory ,for painter's eye2 and his quaint draperies ,would harmonize with some fair sylvan scene1 ,where arching groves1 and flower-embroider'd banks1 ,verdant with thymy grass1 tempted the sheep ,to scramble up their height1 while he1 reclin'd ,upon the pillowing moss1 lay listlessly ,through the long summer's day4 ,not such as he1 ,in plains of ,thessaly1 as poets feign1 ,went piping forth at the first gleam of morn1 ,and in their bowering thickets dreamt of joy1 ,and innocence1 and love4 ,let the true lay ,speak thus of the poor hind3--,his indolent gaze ,reck'd not of natural beauties2 his delights ,were gross and sensual3 not the glorious sun1 ,rising above his hills1 and lighting up ,his woods and pastures with a joyous beam1 ,to him was grandeur2 not the reposing sound ,of tinkling flocks cropping the tender shoots1 ,to him was music2 not the blossomy breeze ,that slumbers in the honey-dropping bean-flower1 ,to him was fragrance3 he went plodding on ,his long-accustomed path2 and when his cares ,of daily duties were o'erpass'd1 he ate1 ,and laugh'd1 and slept1 with a most drowsy mind4 ,dweller in cities1 scorn'st thou the shepherd boy1 ,who never look'd within to find the eye ,for ,nature's glories8 ,know1 his slumbering spirit ,struggled to pierce the fogs and deepening mists ,of rustic ignorance2 but he was bound ,with a harsh galling chain1 and so he went ,grovelling along his dim instinctive way4 ,yet thou hadst other hopes and other thoughts1 ,but the world spoil'd thee3 then the mutable clouds1 ,and doming skies1 and glory-shedding sun1 ,and tranquil stars that hung above thy head ,like angels gazing on thy crowded path1 ,to thee were worthless1 and thy soul forsook ,the love of beauteous fields1 and the blest lore ,that man may read in ,nature's book of truth4 ,despise not1 then1 the lazy shepherd boy3 ,for his account and thine shall be made up1 ,and evil cherish'd and occasion lost ,may cast their load upon thee1 while his spirit ,may bud and bloom in a more sunny sphere4 ,the inquiry into the origin and propagation of sheep1 no less than of the silk-worm1 may be justly regarded as a subject of the deepest interest4 ,for the management and use of these animals has1 from the earliest dawn of human history1 formed a striking feature in the condition of man4 ,of the materials employed by the ancients for making cloth1 by far the most important was the wool of sheep4 ,we are able to trace with great probability the process of sheep-breeding and of the use of wool for weaving4 ,among the bones of quadrupeds1 found in ancient caves throughout ,europe1 we cannot find on consulting the works of ,cuvier1 ,buckland1 and ,de la ,beche1 that remains of sheep have ever been discovered4 ,this fact affords some reason for presuming1 that the sheep is not a native of ,europe1 but has been introduced there by man4 ,it appears to have been a general opinion among ,zoologists1 that the ,argali1 or ,ovis ,ammon of ,linnus1 which inhabits in vast numbers the elevated regions of ,central ,asia1 is the primitive stock of the whole race of domesticated sheep4 ,agreeably to this supposition we find1 that from the earliest times the inhabitants of ,tartary1 ,persia1 ,mesopotamia1 ,syria1 ,palestine1 and the ,north of ,arabia1 have been addicted to pastoral employments4 ,the tribes of wandering shepherds1 which frequent those countries1 are descended from progenitors1 who led the same life thousands of years ago1 and whose manners and habits are preserved to the present day with scarcely the slightest change4 ,as might be expected1 we have little precise information respecting the ,scythians1 who inhabited the elevated plains of inner ,asia4 ,some of their hordes are distinguished by ,herodotus1 ,strabo1 and others1 under the name of ,nomadic or pastoral ,scythians2 and that this denomination was understood to imply1 that they tended sheep as well as larger cattle may be inferred from what ,herodotus says of their use of felt 7,see ,appendix ,b474 ,strabo1 moreover1 says of a particular tribe of the ,massaget1 that they had 8few sheep10 which implies that the rest were rich in flocks2 and of another tribe he says1 8,they do not till the ground1 but derive their sustenance from sheep and fish1 after the manner of the ,nomadic ,scythians#bbg40 ,but a much more distinct account of the manners of this people is given us by ,justin1 who says1 that they were accustomed to wander through uncultivated solitudes1 always employed in tending herds and flocks 7armenta et pecora74 ,he1 however1 adds1 that they were strangers to the use of woollen garments1 being clothed in skins and furs#bbh4 ,hence it appears1 that they were too rude and ignorant to have acquired the arts of spinning and weaving4 #bbg ,strabo1 l4 xi4 cap4 #h4 p4 #dhf4 ed4 ,siebenkees4 #bbh ,justin1 l4 ii4 cap4 #b4 ,if we may trust to the authority of ,strabo1 the ,medes did not tend sheep2 for he says of them1 8,they eat the flesh of wild animals2 they do not bring up tame cattle#bbi40 ,nevertheless1 their southern neighbors1 the ,persians1 with whom they were united under one government1 had sheep in abundance4 ,these animals are strikingly represented in the bas-reliefs of ,persepolis4 ,in one of them1 which represents a long procession sculptured on the wall of a splendid staircase1 two rams1 attended by keepers1 are accompanied in the same train by horses1 asses1 camels1 and oxen#bcj4 ,herodotus1 in his account of the manners and institutions of the ,persians 7,l4 i4 cap4 #acc471 mentions all these animals together in the following passage3 8,of all days they are accustomed to observe most that on which each individual was born4 ,on this day they set before their guests a more abundant feast than on any other4 ,the wealthy provide an ox1 a horse1 a camel1 and an ass1 roasted whole in furnaces2 and the poor provide the smaller cattle40 ,by 8the smaller cattle10 this author always means sheep and goats4 #bbi ,strabo1 l4 xi4 cap4 #h4 p4 #efg4 #bcj ,see ,ancient ,universal ,history1 vol4 vi4 plates #f4 #h4 ,the superior excellence of the rich plains of ,mesopotamia for the pasture of sheep as well as oxen1 is attested by ,dionysius ,periegetes#bca1 and his account illustrates in an interesting manner the history of ,jacob as contained in the book of ,genesis1 the rapid multiplication of the flocks and herds showing how well the soil and climate were adapted to this pursuit1 and how well the business of tending them was there understood from the earliest times4 ,seldom do we find in any ancient author so beautiful a picture as is presented to us1 when ,jacob arrives at ,padan-aram1 and sees the flocks of sheep and goats assembling from the neighboring pastures in the evening to be watered at the well4 ,rachel appears conducting the flock of her father ,laban1 which she tended1 and ,jacob rolls from the mouth of the well the stone1 which was placed to preserve the water cool and fresh1 and assists his relative and future bride in watering her sheep4 7,gen4 xxix4 #a-aj47 ,also on ,jacob's departure his remonstrance with ,laban presents to us an animated representation of the duties and difficulties of the shepherd's life2 8,these twenty years have ,i been with thee2 thy ewes and thy she-goats have not cast their young1 and the rams of thy flock have ,i not eaten4 ,that which was torn of beasts ,i brought not unto thee2 ,i bare the loss of it3 of my hand didst thou require it1 whether stolen by day1 or stolen by night4 ,thus ,i was2 in the day the drought consumed me1 and the frost by night2 and my sleep departed from mine eyes40 7,gen4 xxxi4 #ch-dj47 #bca ' 1 c4 l4 #iib-iif4 ,in ,english1 8,as for the land1 which lies between the ,euphrates and the ,tigris1 called the land ,between the ,rivers1 the herdsman would not contemn its pastures1 nor he who tends flocks folded in the fields1 and honors with his syrinx ,pan who has horny hoofs40 ,from ,ezekiel we learn1 that ,damascus supplied the ,tyrians with wool#bcb1 and ,jerome1 who well knew the country1 says in his comment on the passage1 that this article was still produced there in his time 7,a4 ,d4 #cgh47bcc4 ,aristotle1 referring to the sheep of ,syria1 mentions a variety with tails1 which were a cubit broad#bcd2 and ,pliny in addition to this circumstance asserts generally the abundance of the ,syrian wool#bce4 ,probably the part of ,syria appropriated more especially to the breeding of sheep1 was the eastern part1 which bordered on ,arabia1 and was distinguished by the same natural features4 #bcb 8,damascus was thy merchant in the multitude of the wares of thy making1 for the multitude of all riches2 in the wine of ,helbon1 and white wool4 ,dan also and ,javan going to and fro occupied in thy fairs3 bright iron1 cassia1 and calamus1 were in thy market4 ,dedan was thy merchant in precious clothes for chariots4 ,arabia1 and all the princes of ,kedar1 they occupied with thee in lambs1 and rams1 and goats3 in these were they thy merchants4 ,the merchants of ,shebah and ,raamah1 they were thy merchants3 they occupied in thy fairs with chief of all spices1 and with all precious stones1 and gold4 ,haran1 and ,canneh1 and ,eden1 the merchants of ,sheba1 ,asshur1 and ,chilmad1 were thy merchants4 ,these were thy merchants in all sorts of things1 in blue clothes1 and broidered work1 and in chests of rich apparel1 bound with cords1 and made of cedar1 among thy merchandise40--,ezekiel xxvii4 #ah-bd4 #bcc 8,et lana prcipua1 quod usque hodie cernimus40 #bcd ,hist4 ,animalium1 l4 viii4 cap4 #bh4 #bce ,plinii ,hist4 ,nat4 l4 viii4 c4 #ge4 ed4 ,bipont4 ,see ,appendix ,a4 ,in no part of the ancient world does sheep-breeding appear to have been more cultivated than in that which we are now approaching4 ,here were the ,moabites1 among whom it was a royal occupation1 and1 as it appears1 the chief source of the revenues of the sovereign3 for it is said in #b ,kings iii4 #d4 8,mesha1 king of ,moab1 was a sheep-master1 and rendered unto the king of ,israel an hundred thousand lambs and an hundred thousand rams with the wool40 ,here on occasion of a war1 which the ,reubenites1 the ,gadites1 and the half-tribe of ,manasseh1 whose territory was to the east of ,jordan1 carried on against the ,hagarites1 they obtained as part of their booty #bej1jjj sheep4 7,i4 ,chron4 v4 #ba47 ,here was ,iduma1 in a part of which ,job is represented to have dwelt1 being possessed of #g1jjj1 and afterwards of #ad1jjj sheep 7,job i4 #c4 xlii4 #ab473 and we have a beautiful allusion to the pastoral habits of the same country in the language of consolation employed by the prophet ,micah 7ii4 #ab473 8,i will surely assemble1 ,o ,jacob1 all of thee2 ,i will surely gather the remnant of ,israel2 ,i will put them together as the sheep of ,bosrah1 as the flock in the midst of their fold3 they shall make great noise by reason of the multitude of men40 ,here also were the ,midianites1 whose flocks were so vast1 that the sheep taken from them by ,moses after his victory amounted to #fge1jjj4 7,num4 xxxi4 #cb47 ,jethro1 the priest of ,midian1 was himself the owner of a numerous flock1 tended by his seven daughters1 whom ,moses assisted in watering them1 when the neighboring shepherds rudely attempted to drive them from the well4 ,he afterwards married one of them1 and was employed by the father as his shepherd2 and1 having occasion according to the practice of the country to conduct the flock from the plains to pasture upon the mountains of ,horeb1 he was thence called to undertake his extraordinary mission for the deliverance of his nation4 7,exod4 ii4 #ae-;iii4 #a47 ,the ,arabs appear from the earliest times to the present day to have bestowed no less attention upon sheep than upon horses4 ,isaiah also records the excellence of the sheep of ,arabia in the following terms addressed by the ,almighty to his people 7,ch4 lx4 #g473 8,all the flocks of ,kedar shall be gathered together unto thee1 the rams of ,nebaioth shall minister unto thee3 they shall come up with acceptance on mine altar1 and ,i will glorify the house of my glory40 ,the habits of the ,nebati1 or ,arabs of ,nebaioth1 are depicted as follows by ,diodorus ,siculus3 8,they live in the open air1 and call a land their country1 which is destitute of habitations1 and has neither rivers nor copious fountains1 such as could satisfy an army of invaders4 ,their law forbids them on pain of death either to sow corn1 to plant fruit-trees1 to use wine1 or to build houses4 ,they submit to this law1 because they think1 that those who enjoy such conveniences may for the sake of them be readily compelled by the powerful to do what they command4 ,some of them rear camels1 and others sheep1 which they pasture in the wilderness#bcf40 #bcf ,diod4 ,sic4 l4 xix4 #id4 p4 #gbb4 ed4 ,steph4 ,strabo 7l4 xvi4 cap4 #d4 p4 #dfj4 ed4 ,siebenkees471 speaking apparently of another division of the ,nebati1 says they have large oxen1 camels1 and white sheep4 ,various ancient authors mention that extraordinary variety of sheep among the ,arabs1 the tail of which grew to so great a size as to require to be supported on a wooden carriage1 which was dragged after the wearer#bcg4 #bcg ,the passages of ancient authors relating to this variety1 with various confirmations from modern travellers1 are quoted with his usual accuracy by ,bochart1 ,hieroz4 l4 ii4 cap4 #de4 p4 #did-dig4 ,ed4 ,leusden4 ,lug4 ,bat4 #afib4 ,we have no reason to believe1 that the ,phnicians employed themselves in the breeding and pasture of sheep4 ,the narrow strip of territory1 which they occupied at the eastern extremity of the ,mediterranean ,sea1 was in general too densely peopled to be adapted for this purpose4 ,their activity1 intelligence1 and enterprize were directed into other channels1 and they supplied themselves from foreign countries with wool for their celebrated manufactures4 ,on the other hand1 the ,hebrews1 who were the immediate neighbors of the ,phnicians1 were altogether an agricultural and pastoral people4 ,the history of the patriarchs1 ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 presents to us beautiful images of the kind of life1 which still continues with little variation among the ,bedouins1 or wandering ,nomads of ,arabia4 ,not only was ,david a shepherd boy2 but1 when he had ascended the throne1 he had numerous herds and flocks superintended by distinct officers4 8,and over the herds that fed in ,sharon was ,shitrai the ,sharonite3 and over the herds that were in the valleys was ,shaphat the son of ,adlai4 ,over the camels also was ,obil the ,ishmaelite3 and over the asses was ,jehdeiah the ,meronothite3 and over the flocks was ,jaziz the ,hagarite4 ,all these were the rulers of the substance which was king ,david's40 7,i4 ,chron4 xxvii4 #bi-ca47 ,the reader cannot fail to call to mind ,david's frequent allusions in the ,psalms to those employments1 which were no less familiar to his own mind than to the rest of his countrymen1 and which supplied to them the most touching comparisons for the expression of their deepest religious convictions4 ,the passage 8,the ,lord is my shepherd3 ,i shall not want4 ,he maketh me to lie down in green pastures3 he leadeth me beside the still waters4 ,yea though ,i walk through the valley of the shadow of death1 ,i will fear no evil2 for thou art with me2 thy rod 7or crook7 and thy staff1 they comfort me0 7,psalm xxiii4 #a1 #b1 #d474 8,he shall feed 7i4 e4 tend7 his flock like a shepherd2 he shall gather the lambs with his arm1 and carry them in his bosom1 and shall gently lead those that are with young0 7,is4 xl4 ii474 8,the pastures are clothed with flocks10 an expression denoting the vast multitudes of sheep1 which overspread the mountains and plains 7,ps4 lxv4 #ac474 8,be thou diligent10 says ,solomon1 8to know the state of thy flocks1 and look well to thy herds4 ,the lambs are for thy clothing1 and the goats are the price of thy field2 and thou shalt have goat's milk enough for thy food1 for the food of thy household1 and for the maintenance of thy maidens0 7,prov4 xxvii4 #bc4 #bf1 #bg474 ,we would particularly refer the reader to the thirty-fourth chapter of ,ezekiel1 where the prophet1 reprimanding the rulers of ,israel under the character of shepherds1 makes some allusion to every circumstance connected with the care of sheep and goats4 ,language very similar is employed by our ,saviour in ,john x4 where he speaks of himself as 8the good shepherd40 ,the whole system and history of the sacrifices both before and after the giving of the ,mosaic law1 might be produced to prove the pastoral habits of this people from the earliest times4 ,the districts of ,bashan and ,carmel1 seem to have attained the highest reputation in respect to the breeding of sheep4 ,bashan1 which lay to the east of the ,jordan in the country adjoining that of the ,hagarites and ,moabites1 already mentioned1 and ,carmel1 the mountainous range near the ,dead ,sea in the south of ,judea4 ,in the latter district ,nabal kept his flocks1 and as he is said to have been 8very great10 and we are at the same time informed that 8he had #cjjj sheep and #ajjj goats0 7,i4 ,sam4 xxv4 #b471 these numbers afford us a precise idea of the wealth of a considerable proprietor in this respect4 ,that the 8rams of the breed of ,bashan10 were particularly celebrated1 we learn from ,deut4 xxxii4 #ad2 and ,ezekiel mentions with distinction 7ch4 xxxix4 #ah47 a sacrifice 8of rams1 of lambs1 and of goats1 of bullocks1 all of them fatlings of ,bashan40 ,it is impossible to conceive a more striking difference in manners and institutions1 than that which must have presented itself to the traveller in very ancient times1 when on crossing the ,isthmus of ,suez he passed from the deserts of ,arabia and ,iduma to the richly cultivated and populous plains of ,egypt4 ,according to the statement already quoted from an ancient historian the wandering tribes of ,nabaioth were forbidden by a positive law to till the ground or to construct settled habitations1 and they lived on the produce of their flocks1 which they continually led from place to place in pursuit of pasture adapted to the season of the year4 ,the ,egyptians1 on the contrary1 appear to have been originally under a prohibition of exactly the opposite kind1 since they cultivated the ground with care1 excelled most other nations in all the arts of life1 and produced the most splendid proofs of their architectural skill1 but were not allowed to keep flocks of sheep and goats4 ,that this was the case at the time1 when ,jacob took his family to sojourn in ,egypt1 is evident from their application to ,pharaoh on arriving in the land of ,goshen1 which was on the eastern border of ,egypt adjoining ,palestine and ,arabia1 to be permitted to remain there on the ground1 that from their youth they had been accustomed to tend flocks1 whereas 8every shepherd was an abomination to the ,egyptians#bch40 #bch ,gen4 xlvi4 #bh4--xlvii4 #f4 ,compare ,josephus1 ,ant4 ii4 #g4 #e4 ,it appears that the ,nabatan law was far more effectual towards the attainment of its object than the ,egyptian4 ,for1 whereas the pastoral tribes of ,arabia have retained their independence and their national peculiarities even to the present day2 the ,egyptians1 on the other hand1 became a prey to foreign invasion1 and among other changes in their customs we have to notice the introduction of the management of sheep4 ,even as early as the time of ,moses the practice had commenced2 for in the account of the effects of the murrain in ,exodus ix4 #c1 we find mention of sheep1 and indeed it is remarkable1 that the domestic animals there enumerated1 viz4 horses1 asses1 camels1 oxen1 and sheep1 are exactly the same1 which1 as we have before shown1 were bred by the ancient ,persians#bci4 ,later historians afford distinct testimony to the same fact4 ,thus ,diodorus ,siculus says1 that 8upon the subsidence of the waters after the inundation of the ,nile the flocks were admitted to pasture1 and the produce of the soil was so abundant1 that the sheep were not only shorn twice1 but also brought forth young twice in the year40 ,herodotus also plainly supposes1 that sheep and goats were bred in ,egypt1 when he contrasts the inhabitants of the ,theban ,nome1 who worshipped ,ammon1 with the inhabitants of the ,mendesian ,nome1 who worshipped ,mendes4 ,the former1 he says1 8all abstain from sheep1 and sacrifice goats20 the latter 8abstain from goats1 which they hold in veneration1 and sacrifice sheep40 ,he1 however1 mentions that the ,thebans slew a ram once a year on occasion of a particular ceremony1 which he describes 7ii4 #db4 #df474 ,the testimony of ,strabo and ,plutarch1 though differing in some particulars from that of ,herodotus1 is to the same general effect4 ,aristotle 7l4 c47 mentions1 that the sheep of ,egypt were larger than those of ,greece4 #bci ,it should be observed1 that the ,hebrew word translated sheep in ,ex4 ix4 #c4 included goats4 ,but1 although these passages show1 that sheep were bred in ,egypt1 we think it evident that their number was very limited4 ,egyptian wool cannot have been of the least importance as an article of commerce4 ,what was produced must also have been consumed in the country4 ,for1 although the chief material for the clothing of the ,egyptians was linen1 and they were forbidden to be buried in woollen or to use it in the temples1 yet ,herodotus 7ii4 #ha47 states1 that on ordinary occasions they wore a garment of white wool over their linen shirt4 ,they also used wool for embroidering4 ,according to ,pliny#bdj the ,egyptian wool was coarse and of a short staple4 ,tertullian records a saying of the ,egyptians1 that ,mercury invented the spinning of wool in their country#bda4 #bdj ,hist4 ,nat4 l4 viii4 #gc4 ,see ,appendix ,a4 #bda ,de ,pallio1 c4 #c4 ,strabo in an instructive manner contrasts the ,ethiopians with the ,egyptians4 ,having observed1 that the boundary between the two nations was the smaller cataract above ,syene and ,elephantine1 he says1 that the ,ethiopians led for the most part a pastoral life without resources1 both on account of their intemperate climate and the poverty of their soil1 and also because they were remote from the civilized world2 whereas the ,egyptians had always lived in a refined manner and under a regular government1 settled in fixed habitations1 and cultivating philosophy1 agriculture1 and the arts#bdb4 ,thus do we find the nomad life recurring immediately to the south of ,egypt4 ,strabo further states1 that the ,ethiopian sheep were small1 and instead of being woolly were hairy like goats1 on which account the people wore skins instead of woollen cloth#bdc4 ,that these sheep were held in some estimation by the ,egyptians is1 however1 manifest from the fact1 that in the splendid procession exhibited at ,alexandria by ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 there were #acj sheep from ,ethiopia1 #cjj from ,arabia1 and #bj from ,euba#bdd4 ,also1 that the pastoral habits of the ,ethiopians were known to the ,romans may be inferred from the allusion1 which ,virgil makes to them in his ,tenth ,eclogue 7l4 #fd-fh473 ,no toils of ours can change the cruel god1 ,though we should flee him through each new abode2 ,whether we drink1 where chilling ,hebrus flows1 ,and winter reigns amid ,sithonian snows2 ,or1 where the elms beneath hot ,cancer bend1 ,our ,ethiopian sheep we fainting tend4 #bdb ,strabo1 l4 xvii4 c4 #a4 #c4 p4 #dgf1 #dgg4 ed4 ,siebenkees4 #bdc ,cap4 #b4 #a4 #c4 p4 #fba4 #fbf4 ,strabo's account is illustrated and confirmed by the traveller1 ,dr4 ,shaw1 who describes a variety of sheep in the interior of ,africa with 8fleeces as coarse and hairy as those of the goat40--,travels in ,barbary1 part iii4 chap4 #b4 #a4 #bdd ,callixenus ,rhodius1 apud ,athenum1 l4 v4 p4 #bja4 ed4 ,casaub4 ,we find1 that the people of ,libya had attained to some distinction in the management of flocks4 ,what ,diodorus says of the ,egyptian sheep is asserted by ,aristotle of those of ,libya1 viz4 that they produced young twice in the year#bde4 ,that sheep-breeding had extended hither in very early times appears from a passage in the ,odyssey1 which1 however1 in consequence of the remoteness of the situation and the imperfect knowledge of geography in the time of the writer1 is mixed with fable1 inasmuch as it represents1 that the ewes brought forth not only twice1 but even three times in the year1 and that the lambs were immediately provided with horns#bdf4 ,that happy clime6 where each revolving year ,the teeming ewes a triple offspring bear1 ,and two fair crescents of translucent horn ,the brows of all their young increase adorn2 ,the shepherd swains1 with sure abundance blest1 ,on the fat flock and rural dainties feast2 ,nor want of herbage makes the dairy fail1 ,but every season fills the foaming pail4 ,pope's ,translation4 #bde ,aristot4 ,problem4 cap4 x4 sec4 #df4 #bdf ,odyss4 iv4 #he-hi4 ,pindar 7,pyth4 ix4 #aa47 distinguishes ,libya by the epithet 1 8abounding in flocks40 ,to the same district of ,africa1 ,virgil alludes in the following passage of the ,georgics1 which is surpassed by few as a happy example of the art of the poet in describing the various modes of pastoral life4 ,why should ,i sing of ,libya's artless swains2 ,her scatter'd cottages and trackless plains8 ,by day1 by night1 without a destined home1 ,for many a month their flocks all lonely roam2 ,so vast th' unbounded solitude appears1 ,while1 with his flock1 his all the shepherd bears1 ,his arms1 his household god1 his homely shed1 ,his ,cretan darts1 and dogs of ,sparta bred4 ,georg4 iii4 #cci-cde4--,warton's ,translation4 ,it is to be observed1 that1 although the ,libyan shepherd according to ,virgil's description led a migratory life1 conducting his sheep from place to place in search of pasture1 yet the scale1 upon which he carried on his operations1 was widely different from that which has always characterized the nomadic tribes of ,asia4 ,the poet represents the ,libyan shepherd as a solitary wanderer1 bearing with him all his arms and implements1 just as a ,roman soldier 7l4 #cdf47 carried his military accoutrements4 ,on the other hand1 as we have seen1 the ,syrian or ,arabian shepherd goes in a kind of state1 with camels and horses to carry his wife and children1 his tents1 and the rest of his equipage2 and he is followed by thousands1 instead of hundreds or perhaps scores1 of sheep and goats4 ,let us now pursue the progress of this employment in another direction1 viz4 towards the north-west1 and across the ,euxine ,sea and the straits connected with it into ,europe4 ,near the eastern extremity of the ,euxine ,sea we meet with a very remarkable instance of the attention paid to the produce and manufacture of wool in a tribe called the ,coraxi4 ,strabo alludes to the value of their fleeces in a passage which we shall produce in speaking of the wool of ,spain1 to which it more directly refers4 ,at present we shall only consider the following evidence preserved by ,joannes ,tzetzes4 1 #bdg4 #bdg ,jo4 ,tzetzes1 ,chiliad4 x4 #cdh-cej1 in ,lectii ,corp4 ,poetarum ,grcorum4 8,anciently ,miletus was famed for carpets3 for of all fleeces the ,milesian were the most beautiful1 although the ,coraxic bore the second prize40 1 1 4#bdh 8,of the ,milesian fleeces many have spoken3 and to the ,coraxic ,hipponax has alluded in his ,choliambic measure1 where he mentions #8a woman enveloped in a ,coraxic shawl4'0 #bdh ,ib4 #cgh-cha4 ,hipponax1 who is here cited by ,tzetzes1 was a satirical poet of ,ephesus1 and flourished about #edj ,b4 ,c4 ,in confirmation of his testimony it may be proved1 that his countrymen and contemporaries had constant intercourse with a port in the vicinity of the ,coraxi4 ,we learn from ,pliny 7l4 vi4 cap4 #e47bdi1 that the ,coraxi were situated near ,dioscurias1 which1 though deserted in his time1 had been formerly so illustrious that #cjj nations1 speaking different languages1 resorted to it4 ,as we learn from other authorities1 ,dioscurias was a colony of ,miletus and one of its chief settlements4 ,miletus also in the time of ,hipponax had risen to the summit of its prosperity1 and was the greatest commercial city in the world next to ,tyre and ,carthage#bej4 ,its chief trade was towards the north and as far as the extremity of the ,euxine ,sea4 ,among the numerous ,asiatic tribes1 which were accustomed to bring their productions to ,dioscurias and exchange them for ,grecian merchandise1 the ,coraxi were1 as we may conclude from the evidence now produced1 a nation of superior enterprize and intelligence1 who sent to the shores of the gean in the vessels of ,miletus their fine wool1 as well as the carpets and shawls1 which they made from it4 #bdi ,see ,appendix ,a4 #bej ,heeren1 ,handbuch1 iii4 #b4 #b4 p4 #ahe4 ,mannert1 ,geographie1 #f4 #c4 p4 #bec1 c4 ,if we had no more exact information than that which has been already cited1 we might infer1 that the ,coraxi occupied part of the modern ,circassia1 a mountainous region admirably adapted to the breeding of sheep4 ,the ,circassians of the present day have numerous herds of cattle and vast flocks of sheep and goats4 ,their vallies are distinguished by beauty and fertility4 ,a late traveller says1 that from whatever country you enter ,circassia1 8you are at once agreeably impressed with the decided improvement in the appearance of the population1 the agriculture1 and the beauty of their flocks and herds#bea40 ,with respect to ,dioscurias1 we are informed1 that 8the memory of its ancient name is still preserved in the present appellation of ,iskouriah#beb40 ,sir ,john ,chardin1 who visited it and calls it ,isgaour1 commends its safety in summer as a road for ships1 but says that it is a complete desert1 where he could obtain no provisions1 the traders who anchor there being obliged to construct temporary huts and booths of the boughs of trees for their accommodation1 whilst awaiting the arrival of the natives of ,mingrelia and ,caucasus#bec4 #bea ,travels in ,circassia1 c4 in #ahce1 by ,edmund ,spencer1 ,esq41 vol4 ii4 p4 #cee4 ,julius von ,klaproth1 in the work quoted below1 says1 7p4 #ehb471 that the wealth of the ,circassians consists principally in their sheep1 from whose wool the women make coarse cloth and felt4 ,in the summer they drive their sheep into the mountains1 but feed them under cover in winter1 and at other times in the plains4 #beb ,dr4 ,goodenough1 in ,journal of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 vol4 i4 p4 #aaj4 ,see also ,major ,rennell's ,map of ,western ,asia4 #bec ,chardin's ,travels1 vol i4 p4 #gg4 #ajh4 of the ,english ,translation4 ,london1 #afhf4 ,but1 besides the general inference that the ,coraxi occupied part of the modern ,circassia1 we are able to determine their abode with still greater precision1 and even obtain some insight into their distinctive characters as a nation4 ,at the south-eastern extremity of ,chirkess1 or ,circassia1 on the northern declivity of ,mount ,elborus1 and about the sources of the ,kuban1 the ancient ,hypanis1 we find a mountain clan1 consisting of rather more than #bej families1 which appears to retain not only the manners and habits1 but even the very name of the ,coraxi4 ,julius von ,klaproth1 to whom we are principally indebted for our knowledge of them1 calls them the ,caratshai#bed4 ,from him we learn the following particulars respecting their appearance1 manners1 and employments4 ,they are among the most beautiful of the inhabitants of ,caucasus1 and more like the ,georgians than the wandering ,tartars of the ,steppe4 ,they are well formed1 and have fine features1 which are set off by large black eyes and a white skin4 ,their language resembles that of the ,nogay-,tartars4 ,they live in very neat houses1 built of pine4 ,their children are strictly and well educated2 and in general it may be said of them1 that they are the most cultivated nation in ,caucasus1 surpassing all their neighbors in refinement of manners4 ,they are very industrious1 and subsist chiefly by agriculture4 ,their soil is productive1 and1 besides various kinds of grain1 yields abundance of grass for pasture4 ,the country around them is covered with woods1 which abound with wild animals1 such as bears1 wolves1 wild goats1 hares1 and wild cats1 whose skins are much prized1 and martins4 ,their dress is chiefly made of woollen cloth1 which they weave themselves from the produce of their flocks1 and which is admired throughout the whole of ,caucasus4 ,they sell their cloth1 called by them ,shal#bee1 their felt for carpeting1 and their furs1 partly to the ,nogay-,tartars and ,circassians1 from whom they purchase articles of metal1 and partly at ,souchom-,kal1 a ,turkish fort on the ,black ,sea1 which contains shops and ware-houses1 and carries on a considerable trade with the ,western ,caucasus4 ,they receive here in return goods of cotton and silk1 tobacco and tobacco-pipes1 needles1 thimbles1 and otter-skins4 ,while the men are employed out of doors1 the women stay at home1 make gold and silver thread1 and sew the clothes of their fathers and brothers4 #bed ,reise in den ,caucasus1 cap4 #bd4 ,the author thus spells the name in ,german characters1 ,ckaratschai4 ,father ,lamberti1 a missionary from the ,society of the ,propaganda at ,naples1 who remained twenty years in that part of ,asia in the seventeenth century1 calls them 8i ,caraccioli10 in which name we observe the addition of an ,italian termination4 ,see his ,relatione della ,colchide1 hoggi delta ,mengrelia1 ,napoli1 #afed1 cap4 #bh4 p4 #aif4 #bee ,the origin of the ,english shawl4 ,such is the account given by a recent and most competent witness of the actual condition of this interesting nation1 who1 though now perhaps reduced in number1 occupy probably after the lapse of #bejj years their original seat at the distance of from forty to eighty miles to the north-east of the same coast1 to which they have always resorted for commercial purposes#bef4 #bef ,souchom-,kal is only twelve miles from ,iscuria1 a single promontory intervening between the bay and river of the former harbor and those of the latter4 ,see ,spencer's ,travels1 vol4 i4 p4 #bie-big1 and his ,map at p4 #bji4 ,we cannot survey the now deserted ,iscuria without observing1 what a mournful contrast the ,euxine presents under the sway of both ,russia and ,turkey to the useful energy1 which more than #bjjj years ago promoted life and the arts of life1 and brought into close and peaceful contact the most refined and the most uncultivated nations1 under the direction of the ,ionians of ,miletus4 ,the beauty1 the bravery1 the activity1 and the independence of a highland clan still represent the skill and enterprize of the ancient ,coraxi2 but the commerce1 which rewarded their industry1 and extended their reputation through the civilized world1 has sunk into insignificance4 ,besides the above notices of the ,coraxi in ,strabo and ,tzetzes we find little said concerning the breeding of sheep in this part of ,asia4 ,aristotle1 however1 mentions the sheep of 8,pontus near ,scythia10 and says that they were without horns#beg4 ,the ,melanchlni also1 who are mentioned by ,herodotus in his account of the ,scythian tribes1 and who lived to the north of the ,coraxi1 were so called1 because they wore black palls4 #beg ,hist4 ,anim4 viii4 #bh4 ,there can be no doubt1 that the use and management of sheep were known from the earliest times throughout nearly the whole of ,asia ,minor1 and that some nations in this region had attained to a superiority in the art before the settlement in it of the ,grecian colonists4 ,the imagery of the ,homeric poems 7supposed to be written about #ijj ,b4 ,c47 affords abundant evidence of these facts4 ,they continually mention shepherds1 who had the care of sheep1 as well as goat-herds1 who managed goats4 ,they speak of the folds1 in which the flocks were secured at night to preserve them from the attacks of wild beasts4 ,the dangers to which the flocks were exposed from both wolves and lions1 are in accordance with similar expressions and incidents in the ,scriptures of the ,old ,testament1 arising from the existence of the same ravenous and destructive quadrupeds in ,palestine4 ,also1 the language both of the ,scriptures and of the ,homeric poems is precisely the same1 in which the king1 ruling his people is compared to the shepherd tending his flock1 or to the strong and large ram1 which leads the sheep#beh4 ,it is to be observed1 that the geographical knowledge expressed in the ,homeric poems extended as far as the promontory of ,carambis on the south coast of the ,euxine ,sea1 and included all ,phrygia1 ,ionia1 and the western half of ,asia ,minor4 #beh ,see ,bochart's ,hierozocon1 l4 ii4 cap4 #dd4 ,de ,gregum ,pastoribus4 ,the ,greek mythology affords similar evidence4 ,the well-known story of ,paris1 adjudging the golden apple1 is founded on the pastoral scenes of ,ida4 ,marsyas also was a shepherd on mount ,ida#bei3 the river ,marsyas1 famed for his contest with ,apollo1 was among the ,phrygian mountains#bfj4 #bei ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #afe4 #bfj ,it appears not impossible1 that1 when ,theocritus in ,idyll4 iii4 #df1 represents ,adonis as 8tending flocks upon the mountains10 he may have referred to the mountains of ,phrygia or of ,ionia4 ,for in another ,idyll4 7i4 #aje-aaj17 he seems to connect the love of ,venus for ,adonis with her love for ,anchises1 as if the scene of both were in the same region4 ,among the various accounts of ,adonis1 one makes him the offspring of ,smyrna2 and ,cinyras1 the father of ,adonis1 is said to have founded the city of ,smyrna in ,ionia1 calling it by that name after his daughter4 7,hyginus1 ,fab4 #eh and #bge47 ,this supposition accounts most satisfactorily for the production of the beautiful elegy on the death of ,adonis by ,bion1 who was a native of ,smyrna4 ,the historical evidence to which we now proceed1 though referring to times much posterior to the mythological1 is more exact as well as more entitled to absolute credit4 ,according to ,strabo the branches of ,mount ,taurus in ,pisidia were rich in pastures 8for all kinds of cattle#bfa40 ,the chief town of this region was ,selge1 a very flourishing city1 and hence ,tertullian1 in a passage1 mentions 8oves ,selgic10 ,selgic sheep1 among those of the greatest celebrity4 ,the superior whiteness of the fleeces of ,pamphylia is mentioned by ,philostratus4 #bfa ,lib4 xii4 c4 #g1 #c4 ,we have reason to believe1 that the ,lydians and ,carians bestowed the greatest attention on sheep-breeding and on the woollen manufacture before the arrival of the ,greek colonists among them4 ,the new settlers adopted the employments of the ancient inhabitants1 and made those employments subservient to a very extensive and lucrative trade4 ,pliny 7viii4 #gc4 ed4 ,bip47 mentions the wool of ,laodicea 7,see ,appendix ,a47 in ,caria2 and ,strabo 7xii4 c4 #g4 p4 #egh4 ,casaub47 observes1 that the country about this city and ,coloss1 which was not far from it1 produced sheep highly valued on account of the fineness and the color of their fleeces4 ,aristophanes mentions a pall1 made of 8,phrygian fleeces#bfb30 and ,varro asserts1 that in his time there were many flocks of wild sheep in ,phrygia#bfc4 #bfb ,aves1 #dib4 #bfc ,de ,re ,rustic1 ii4 #a4 ,the passages above quoted from ,strabo and ,joannes ,tzetzes allude to the very great celebrity of the wool of ,miletus and of the articles woven from it4 ,the passages1 which will now be produced from both ,greek and ,latin authors of various ages1 conspire to prove the distinguished excellence of the wool of ,miletus1 although in many of them the epithet ,milesian may be employed only in a proverbial acceptation to denote wool of the finest quality4 ,the animals1 which yielded this wool1 must have been bred in the interior of ,ionia not far from ,miletus4 ,ctesias describes the softness of camels'-hair by comparing it to ,milesian fleeces#bfd4 ,a woman in ,aristophanes 7,lysist4 #gcb47 says1 she must go home to spread her ,milesian fleeces on the couch1 because the worms were gnawing them4 ,in a fragment of a ,greek comedy1 called ,procris1 of a somewhat later age 7ap4 ,athen4 l4 xii4 p4 #eec71 a favorite lap-dog is described1 lying on ,milesian fleeces3 4 ,therefore make a soft bed for the dog3 throw down for him ,milesian fleeces4 #bfd ,ctesi fragmenta1 a ,bhr1 p4 #bbd4 ,the ,sybarites wore shawls of ,milesian wool#bfe4 ,palphatus explains the fable of the ,hesperides by saying1 that their father ,hesperus was a ,milesian1 and that they had beautiful sheep1 such as those which were still kept at ,miletus#bff4 ,eustathius says1 the 8,milesian carpets#bfg0 had become proverbial4 ,virgil represents the nymphs of ,cyrene spinning ,milesian fleeces1 dyed of a deep sea-green color3 ,the nymphs1 around her placed1 their spindles ply1 ,and draw ,milesian wool1 of glassy dye4 ,georg4 iv4 #ccd4 #bfe ,timus apud ,athenum1 xii4 p4 #eai4 ,b4 #bff ,de ,incred4 #ai4 #bfg ,in ,dionysium1 v4 #hbc4 ,he also alludes to the high price of ,milesian fleeces in the following passage3 ,let rich ,miletus vaunt her fleecy pride1 ,and weigh with gold her robes in purple dyed4 ,georg4 iii4 #cjf4--,sotheby's ,translation4 ,the comment of ,servius on the latter passage is as follows3 ,milesian fleeces1 most valuable wools2 for ,miletus is a city of ,asia1 where the best wools are dyed4 ,the ancient ,greek version of ,ezekiel 7xxvii4 #ah47 enumerates ,milesian fleeces among the articles of ,tyrian importation4 ,columella 7vii4 #b47 and ,pliny 7viii4 #dh47 assert the celebrity of the flocks of ,miletus in former times1 although in their time they were surpassed by the sheep of some other countries4 ,in soft ,milesian wool as fine as possible4--,hippocrates1 vol4 i4 p4 #fhi4 ed4 ,fsii4 ,ye are hairs of sheep1 although ,miletus may boast of you1 and ,italy be in high repute1 and though the hairs be guarded under skins4--,clemens ,alexandrinus1 ,pd4 ii4 #cj4 ,lying on ,milesian carpets4--,aristoph4 ,ran1 l4 #edh4 ,nor do ,i speak of the sheep of ,miletus and ,selge and ,altinum1 nor of those1 for which ,tarentum and ,btica are famous1 and which are colored by nature4--,tertullian de ,pallio1 #c4 ,if1 from the beginning the ,milesians were occupied in shearing sheep1 the ,seres in spinning the produce of trees1 the ,tyrians in dyeing1 the ,phrygians in embroidering1 and the ,babylonians in weaving4--,tertullian de ,habitu ,muliebri4 ,we may now notice ,samos1 as being near the ,ionic coast4 ,athenus 7xii4 p4 #edj4 ,d47 cites two ancient authors who assert that1 when ,polycrates was introducing into ,samos the most excellent of the different breeds of animals1 he chose the dogs of ,laconia and ,molossis1 the goats of ,scyros and ,naxos1 and the sheep of ,miletus and ,attica4 ,respecting the breeding of sheep in ,samos it may be proper to quote the remark of lian 7,hist4 ,anim4 xii4 #dj471 that the ,samians gave some religious honor to this animal1 because a consecrated utensil of gold1 which had been stolen from one of their temples1 was discovered by a sheep4 ,it appears probable1 that the shepherd life was established in ,thrace as early as in any part of ,europe2 for in the ,homeric poems it is called 8the mother of flocks0 7,il4 v4 #bbb474 ,in a much later age the sheep of ,thrace are mentioned by ,nicander 7,nicand4 ,ther4 #ej474 ,we learn from ,plato 7,de ,legibus1 l4 vii4 p4 #cf4 ed4 ,bekker7 that in ,thrace the flocks were entrusted to the care of the women1 who were there compelled like slaves to work out of doors4 ,aristotle speaks of the sheep of ,magnesia1 and says that they brought forth young twice a year#bfh4 #bfh ,problem4 cap4 x4 sec4 #df4 ,a little further south we find sheep from the earliest times in ,thessaly near the river ,amphrysus4 ,here was ,iton1 which ,homer also calls 8the mother of flocks#bfi40 ,it was celebrated for a temple of ,minerva1 who was called from it ,itonis1 or ,itonia#bgj1 and whose worship was transferred from hence to ,botia4 #bfi ,il4 ,b4 #fif4 #bgj ,strabo1 l4 ix4 c4 #b4 #bi4 p4 #deh2 and c4 #e4 #ad4 p4 #fad4 ed4 ,siebenkees4 ,apollonius ,rhodius1 ,argon4 i4 #eea2 and ,schol4 ad locum4 ,alci ,reliqui1 a ,maththi1 ,no4 #ed4 ,that ,euba was famous for sheep we know from the testimony of two different authors cited by ,athenus4 ,that of ,callixenus ,rhodius has been already produced2 and that of ,hermippus occurs in his metrical enumeration of the most excellent and characteristic productions of different countries#bga4 #bga ,athen4 ,deip4 l4 i4 p4 #bg4 ,d4 ,botia appears from very early times to have been rich in flocks4 ,the tragic history of dipus supposes1 that his father ,laius1 the king of ,thebes1 had flocks on ,mount ,cithron4 ,according to ,sophocles 7d4 ,tyr4 #ajbf-aadj47 dipus was delivered to one of the royal shepherds to be there exposed1 and this shepherd through pity committed him to another1 and thus saved his life#bgb4 ,seneca in his free version of ,sophocles 7d4 ,act4 iv4 v4 #hae-hej47 has added a circumstance1 as it appears1 from the practice established in other cases4 ,he says1 that the shepherd of ,laius1 whom he calls ,phorbas1 had many others under him4 ,but1 although it may be doubted whether the flocks of ,laius were so numerous as to require a head shepherd placed over many others1 we learn that his possessions of this description excited contest and warfare among his descendants4 ,their countryman1 ,hesiod1 represents them fighting at the gates of ,thebes 8for the flocks of dipus0 7,op4 et ,dies1 #afc471 an expression1 which must at least be understood to imply1 that sheep constituted a principal part of the king's wealth4 #bgb ,this transaction is represented in ,plate ,,viii4 ,fig4 #e4 ,among the ,elgin marbles in the ,british ,museum we have an interesting inscription relating to a contract made between the city of ,orchomenos in ,botia and ,eubulus of ,elatea in ,phocis1 according to which ,eubulus was to have for four years the right of pasturage for #d cows1 #bjj mares1 #bj sheep1 and #ajjj goats4 ,in the opinion of ,professors ,bckh#bgc and ,ottfried ,mller#bgd this inscription may be referred to the time of the ,peloponnesian war4 ,the supposed effect of the waters of the ,melas and ,cephisos on the fleeces of sheep is a testimony of a much later date1 but proves that sheep1 both black and white1 were bred in that country#bge4 ,varro 7,de ,re ,rust4 ii4 #b47 mentions the practice of covering sheep with skins in order to improve and preserve their fleeces4 ,the ,attic sheep1 thus clothed with skins1 are mentioned by ,demosthenes under the name of 8soft sheep#bgf40 ,the hilly part of ,attica was of course particularly adapted for sheep as well as goats2 and accordingly a letter of ,alciphron 7iii4 #da47 describes flocks of them at ,decelia near ,mount ,parnes about fifteen miles to the north of ,athens4 ,the fame of the ,attic wool is also alluded to by ,plutarch 7,de audiendo1 p4 #gc4 ed4 ,steph471 and by the ,roman poet ,laberius1 who died in the year #dc ,b4 ,c4 ,no matter whether in soft ,attic wool1 ,or in rough goats'-hair you be clothed#bgg4 #bgc ,corpus ,inscrip4 ,grcar41 vol4 i4 p4 #gdj4 #bgd ,orchomenos1 p4 #dga4 #bge ,vitruvius1 viii4 #c4 p4 #bah4 ed4 ,schneider4 ,see also ,dodwell's ,tour1 vol4 i4 p4 #bdb4 ,it was imagined that the water of the ,melas rendered the wool black1 and that of the ,cephisos white4 ,dr4 ,sibthorp1 in crossing the plain of ,botia near ,plata in ,november ,a4 ,d4 #agid1 says1 8,flocks of sheep1 whose fleeces were of remarkable blackness1 were feeding in the plain2 the breed was considerably superior in beauty and size to that of ,attica40--,walpole's ,memoirs on ,eur4 and ,as4 ,turkey1 p4 #fe4 #bgf ,contra ,everg4 et ,mnesid4 p4 #aaee4 ed4 ,reiske4 #bgg ,apud ,non4 ,marcellum4 ,we learn from ,theocritus1 that the shepherds of ,acharn1 one of the ,attic demi1 excelled in playing on the pipe#bgh4 #bgh ,idyll4 vii4 #ga4 ,in the adjoining country of ,megaris was a temple of great antiquity in honor of 4 ,it was said1 that ,ceres was worshipped under that title1 ,,the ,,bringer ,,of ,,flocks1 by those who first kept sheep in the country#bgi4 ,theognis 7v4 #ee47 mentions1 that the people of ,megaris used before his time to wear goat-skins1 which shows the late introduction of the growth and manufacture of wool4 ,here1 as in ,attica1 it was usual to protect the sheep with skins2 and1 as the boys were sometimes seen naked after the ,doric fashion1 ,diogenes1 the cynic1 said in reference to these practices1 he would rather be the ram of a ,megarensian than his son#bhj4 #bgi ,paus4 i4 #dd4 #d4 #bhj ,diog4 ,laert4 vi4 #da4 liani ,var4 ,hist4 xii4 #ef4 ,in the ,peloponnesus1 ,arcadia was always remarkable for the attention paid to sheep4 ,arcadia claims our especial consideration1 because in it the shepherd life assumed that peculiar form1 which has been the subject of so much admiration both in ancient and modern times4 ,here the lively genius and imaginative disposition common to the ,greek nation were directed to the daily contemplation of the most beautiful and romantic varieties of mountain and woodland scenery1 and hence their employments1 their pleasures1 and their religion1 all acquired a rustic character1 highly picturesque and tasteful1 and1 as it appears to us1 generally favorable to the development of the domestic and social virtues4 ,to attempt a full investigation of this subject1 and to show in what degree the want of higher attainments in religious knowledge and moral cultivation was supplied by the peculiar rites1 ideas1 and customs of ,arcadia1 would lead us too far from our proper subject4 ,we only wish to bring forward the principal facts and authorities1 and to give a succint account of the genuine ,arcadian system of religion and manners without attempting to refute at length the opposite views1 which have been adopted by ancient and modern writers4 ,the peculiar ,divinity of ,arcadia1 whose worship had a constant and manifest reference to the principal employments of the inhabitants1 was ,pan4 ,hence he is called by ,virgil and ,propertius 8the ,god of ,arcadia#bha40 ,according to ,herodotus 7ii4 #ade471 ,pan1 the son of ,mercury 7who was born at ,cyllene in ,arcadia1 where ,mercury was previously worshipped17 first saw the light after the ,trojan war1 and about #hjj years before his own time4 ,thus we are able to refer the supposed birth of ,pan1 and consequently the commencement of his worship to about the year #abfj ,b4 ,c4#bhb4 #bha ,virg4 ,buc4 x4 #bf4 and ,georg4 iii4 #che4 ,see also ,propert4 i4 #ag4 #bhb ,hist4 d',herodote1 par ,larcher1 tome vii4 p4 #cei1 #ehb4 ,the circumstances of the birth of this divinity1 with his habits and employments1 are described as follows in the most ancient document which we have relating to him1 viz4 ,homer's ,hymn to ,pan4 ,mercury tended rough flocks at ,cyllene in the service of a mortal man1 being enamored of a beautiful nymph4 ,in the course of time she bore him a son1 having the feet of a goat1 two horns upon his forehead1 a long shaggy beard1 and a bewitching smile4 ,this was ,pan1 who became the god of the shepherds1 and the companion of the mountain nymphs1 penetrating through the densest thickets1 and inhabiting the most wild1 rough1 and lofty summits of the sylvan ,arcadia4 ,there it is his business to destroy the wild beasts2 and when1 having returned from hunting1 he drives his sheep into a cave1 he plays upon his reeds a tune sweet as the song of any bird in spring4 ,the nymphs1 delighting in melody1 listen to him when they go to the dark fountain1 and the god sometimes appears among them1 wearing on his back the hide of a lynx1 which he has lately killed1 and he joins with them in the choral song and dance upon a meadow variegated with the crocus and the hyacinth4 ,he is beloved by ,bacchus1 and is the delight of his father ,mercury1 and he celebrates their worship beyond that of all the other gods4 ,callimachus 7,hymn4 in ,dianam1 #hh47 represents ,pan at his fold in ,arcadia1 feeding his dogs with the flesh of a lynx1 which he has caught on ,mnalus4 ,it is to be observed1 that the care of dogs to guard the flock was an indispensable part of the pastoral office4 ,philostratus1 in his ,second ,book of ,pictures#bhc1 supposes the nymphs to have been reproving ,pan for his want of grace in dancing1 telling him that he leapt too high and like a goat1 and offering to teach him a more gentle method4 ,he pays no attention to them1 but tries to catch hold of them4 ,upon this they surprise him sleeping at noon after the toils of the chase2 and he is represented in the picture with his arms tied behind him1 and enraged and struggling against them1 while they are cutting off his beard and trying to transform his legs and to humanize him4 #bhc ,philostrati ,senioris ,imag4 l4 ii4 c4 #aa4 ,in the ,bucolics and ,georgics of ,virgil we find frequent invocations to ,pan as the god of shepherds1 the guardian of flocks1 and the inventor of the syrinx1 or ,pandean pipes4 ,ipse1 nemus linquens patrium1 saltusque ,lyci1 ,pan1 ovium custos1 tua si tibi ,mnala cur1 ,adsis1 ,o ,tegee1 favens4 ,georg4 i4 #af-ah4 ,god of the fleece1 whom grateful shepherds love1 ,oh1 leave ,lycus and thy father's grove2 ,and if thy ,mnalus yet claim thy care1 ,hear1 ,tegean ,pan1 th' invoking prayer4 ,georg4 i4 #af-ah4 ,delightful ,mnalus1 #8mid echoing groves1 ,and vocal pines1 still hears the shepherds' loves2 ,the rural warblings hear of skilful ,pan1 ,who first to tune neglected reeds began4 ,bucol4 viii4 #bb-bd4--,warton's ,translation4 ,o that you lov'd the fields and shady grots1 ,to dwell with me in bowers and lowly cots1 ,to drive the kids to fold1 the stags to pierce2 ,then shouldst thou emulate ,pan's skilful verse1 ,warbling with me in woods3 'twas mighty ,pan ,to join with wax the various reeds began4 ,pan1 the great god of all our subject plains1 ,protects and loves the cattle and the swains3 ,nor thou disdain thy tender rosy lip ,deep to indent with such a master's pipe4 ,bucol4 ii4 #bh-cd4--,warton's ,translation4 ,besides the four places in ,arcadia1 which are referred to in the above-cited passages of ,virgil1 ,pausanias informs us of several others1 in which he saw temples and altars erected to ,pan4 ,he says#bhd1 that ,mount ,mnalus was especially sacred to this deity1 so that those who dwelt in its vicinity asserted1 that they sometimes heard him playing on the syrinx4 ,a continual fire burnt there near his temple4 #bhd ,l4 viii4 c4 #cf4 #e4 and c4 #cg4 #h4 ,herodotus gives a very curious account of the introduction of the worship of ,pan into ,attica#bhe4 ,he says1 that before the battle of ,marathon the ,athenian generals sent ,philippides as a herald to ,sparta4 8,on his return ,philippides asserted1 that ,pan had appeared to him near ,mount ,parthenius above ,tegea1 had addressed him by name and with a loud voice1 and commanded him to ask the ,athenians why they did not pay any regard to him1 a god1 who was kind to them1 who had been often useful to them and would be so in future4 ,the ,athenians1 believing the statement of ,philippides1 when they found themselves prosperous1 erected a temple to ,pan below the ,acropolis1 and continued to propitiate him by annual sacrifices and by carrying the torch40 ,from various authorities we know1 that this temple was in the cave on the northern side of the ,acropolis below the ,propyla#bhf4 #bhe ,lib4 vi4 c4 #aje4 #bhf ,eurip4 ,jon4 #dib-ejd4 #icg4 ,paus4 i4 #bh4 #d4 ,stuart's ,ant4 of ,athens4 ,hobhouse's ,travels1 p4 #ccf4 ,dodwell's ,tour1 vol4 i4 p4 #cjd4 ,in ,sir ,r4 ,worsley's collection of ,antiques at ,appledurcombe in the ,isle of ,wight is a bas-relief1 in which ,pan is reclining as if after the chase near the mouth of this cave4 ,he holds the syrinx in the left hand1 a drinking-horn in the right4 ,a train of worshippers are conducting a ram to the altar within the cave4 ,see ,museum ,worsleianum1 ,lon4 #agid4 plate #i4 ,in the vestibule of the ,university ,library at ,cambridge is a mutilated statue of ,pan clothed in a goat-skin and holding the syrinx in his left hand4 ,this statue was discovered near the same cave1 and from its style1 7the ginetic17 may be supposed to have been carved soon after the battle of ,marathon4 ,see ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke s ,greek ,marbles1 p4 #i4 ,no4 xi4 ,wilkins's ,magna ,grcia1 p4 #ga1 and ,dodwell's ,tour1 vol4 i4 p4 #cjd4 ,in later times a cave near ,marathon was dedicated to ,pan1 the stalactitio incrustations within it being compared to goats1 and to their stalls and drinking-troughs#bhg4 #bhg ,paus4 l4 i4 #cb4 #f4 ,dodwell's ,tour1 vol4 ii4 p4 #afb4 ,mapat1 p4 #ccj of ,mem4 on ,eur4 and ,as4 ,turkey1 edited by ,walpole4 ,chandler and ,dodwell in their ,travels describe another cave larger than that at ,marathon and containing more varied stalagmitic concretions4 ,it is near the summit of ,mount ,rapsna between ,athens and ,sunium4 is inscribed on the rock near the entrance1 proving that it was considered sacred to ,pan4 ,it is no doubt the ,panon mentioned by ,strabo#bhh4 #bhh ,l4 ix4 cap4 #a4 #ba4 ,it was consecrated to the ,nymphs as well as to ,pan1 this association of the ,nymphs with that deity being universally practised4 ,dodwell's ,tour1 vol4 i4 p4 #eej-eee4 8,the countryman and shepherd1 as well as the sportsman1 has often repaired1 it is likely1 to this cave1 to render the deities propitious by sacrificing a she-goat or lamb1 by gifts of cakes or fruit1 and by libations of milk1 oil1 and honey2 simply believing1 that this attention was pleasing to them1 that they were present though unseen1 and partook without diminishing the offering2 their appetites as well as passions1 caprices1 and employments resembling the human4 ,at noon-day the pipe was silent on the mountains1 lest it might happen to awake ,pan1 then reposing after the exercise of hunting1 tired and peevish40 ,chandler's ,travels in ,greece1 c4 #cb4 p4 #aee4 ,the ,corycian cave on ,mount ,parnassus was dedicated by the surrounding inhabitants to ,pan and to the ,nymphs#bhi4 ,theocritus also 7,idyll4 viii4 v4 #ajc47 speaks of ,homole1 a mountainous tract in the south of ,thessaly1 as belonging to ,pan4 ,altars were dedicated to ,pan on the race-course at ,olympia in ,elis#bij1 as we may presume1 out of respect to the ,arcadians1 who resorted to the ,olympic games4 ,pindar states#bia1 that he had near his door a statue of ,pan4 ,here1 as his able commentators ,heyne and ,bckh observe1 his daughters with other ,theban virgins sung hymns in honor of the god4 ,time has spared the traces of hymns performed on such occasions1 of which the following ,scholion is the most entire specimen4 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1 #bib4 ,o ,pan1 ,arcadia's sovereign lord1 ,dancing and singing with the nymphs2 ,smile1 ,pan1 responsive to my joys1 ,o shout1 delighted with my songs4 #bhi ,paus4 l4 x4 #cb4 #e4 ,strabo1 l4 ix4 cap4 #c4 #a4 p4 #dhh4 ed4 ,siebenkees ,raikes's ,journal in ,memoirs edited by ,walpole1 p4 #caa-cae4 #bij ,paus4 l4 v4 c4 #ae4 #d4 #bia ,pyth4 iii4 #acg-aci4 #bib ,athenus1 l4 xv4 #ej4 #aedg4 ed4 ,dindorf4 ,pindari ,op4 a ,bckh4 ii4 #b4 p4 #eib4 ,brunck1 ,analecta1 vol4 i4 p4 #aef2 and vol4 iii4 ,lect4 et ,emend4 p4 #bg4 ,on a vase of ,greek marble in the ,royal ,museum at ,naples 7,this vase was first described in ,italian #bge ,bayardi1 ,catalogo degli antichi monumenti dissottarretti da ,ercolano4 ,napoli1 #aged1 p4 #bij4 ,no4 #iad471 we see ,pan dancing with the nymphs exactly as he is represented in the preceding song4 ,the sculpture is in that very ancient style1 which is called ,etruscan4 ,pan is here exhibited with goats' feet and horns 7,hom4 ,hymn4 in ,pana1 #a4 #b474 ,he wears the skin of an animal1 and employs his right hand in drawing it up towards his left shoulder4 ,in his left hand he holds the crook or pastoral staff1 which is one of his usual emblems4 ,pan and the three females1 with whom he is dancing1 form a distinct group by themselves4 ,they are moving round a large stone1 and the artist probably imagined them to be moving first in one direction1 and then in the opposite1 as if performing the ,strophe and ,antistrophe around an altar4 ,we learn from ,mr4 ,dodwell1 that the modern ,greeks in their circular dances hold each other with a handkerchief1 and not by the hand#bic4 #bic ,dodwell's ,tour1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ba1 #bb4 ,that the ,romans considered ,pn and ,faun to be the same1 using the two names indiscriminately1 the one as the ,greek1 the other as the ,latin form1 is evident from such passages as the following3 ,pan from ,arcadia's hills descends ,to visit oft my ,sabine seat1 ,and here my tender goats defends ,from rainy winds and summer's heat4 ,for when the vales1 wide-spreading round1 ,the sloping hills1 and polish'd rocks1 ,with his harmonious pipe resound1 ,in fearless safety graze my flocks4 ,hor4 ,od4 l4 i4 c4 #ag4 v4 #a-ab4 ,the names ,pan and ,faun1 scarcely differ except in this1 that the one begins with ,p1 the lenis1 and the other with ,f1 which is its aspirate3 in the second place1 both were conceived to have not only the same form and appearance1 but the same habits1 dispositions1 and employments3 thirdly1 the goat was sacrificed to ,pan in ,greece#bid and to ,faunus in ,italy#bie1 because the ,arcadian and ,roman deity was conceived to be the guardian of goats as well as sheep1 but this animal was not sacrificed to the ,egyptian ,mendes1 because ,in safety through the woody brake ,the latent shrubs and thyme explore1 ,nor longer dread the speckled snake1 ,and tremble at the wolf no more4 ,francis's ,translation1 abridged4 in ,egypt the goat itself was supposed to be ,mendes1 an incarnation of the god2 and lastly1 it is recorded as an historical fact1 that the worship of ,faunus was brought to ,rome from ,arcadia1 whereas the supposition of the introduction of the same worship into ,arcadia from ,egypt1 though found in the pages of an historian1 is not given by him as a matter of history1 but only as a matter of opinion4 ,the account of the origin of the worship of ,faunus at ,rome1 is as follows3 ,evander1 the ,arcadian1 introduced a colony of his countrymen into ,italy1 and established there the rights of ,mercury and of the ,lycean ,pan on the hill1 which was afterwards called the ,palatine ,mount and became part of the city of ,rome4 ,a cave at the base of the hill was dedicated to ,pan1 as we have seen was the case some centuries afterwards at ,athens#bif4 #bid ,longi ,pastor4 l4 ii4 c4 #ag4 ,in an epigram by ,leonidas of ,tarentum 7,no4 xxx4 ,brunckii ,analecta1 tom4 i4 p4 #bbh47 ,bito1 an aged ,arcadian1 dedicates offerings to ,pan1 to ,bacchus1 and to the ,nymphs4 ,to ,pan he devotes a kid4 #bie ,ovid4 ,fasti1 ii4 ,see also ,hor4 ,od4 l4 i4 #d4 v4 ii4 #bif ,dionys4 ,halicarn4 ,hist4 ,rom4 l4 i4 p4 #bj1 #ba1 ed4 ,r4 ,steph4 ,paris #aedf4 ,strabon l4 v4 cap4 iii4 #c4 ,aur4 ,victor1 ,origo ,gentis ,roman4 ,livii l4 i4 c4 #e4 ,pausanias1 viii4 #dc4 #b4 ,virg4 n4 viii4 #ea-ed4 #cdb-cdd4 ,heyne's ,excursus ad loc4 ,ovidii ,fasti1 ii4 #bfh-deb4 v4 #hh1 c4 ,in the preceding observations we have endeavored to give a correct representation of the real sentiments and practices of the ,arcadians in regard to the proper divinity of their country2 and from this account we are naturally led to inquire what influence this peculiar belief and worship had upon their manners and their social life4 ,whilst the elegant simplicity and innocence of the ,arcadian shepherds1 their graceful chorusses1 their dance and song1 their love for their fleecy charge1 which they delighted and soothed with the melody of the pipe1 have been the theme and ornament of poetry and romance from the earliest times1 the question is highly important and interesting1 whether these ideal visions are realised by historical testimony8 whether the shepherds of the ancient ,arcadia were so entirely and so favorably distinguished from men of the same class and employment in almost all other times and countries8 ,one modern writer denies this fact4 ,he says1 8,the refined and almost spiritualized state of innocence1 which we call the pastoral life of ,arcadia1 was entirely unknown to the ancients30 and he quotes in support of this assertion several expressions1 used by ,philostratus and other writers1 and denoting contempt for the ,arcadians as a rude1 ignorant1 stupid race of people#big4 ,polybius1 who was an ,arcadian1 confidently asserts1 that they had throughout ,greece a high and honorable reputation1 not only on account of their hospitality to strangers and their benevolence towards all men1 but especially on account of their piety towards the divine being6 ,it is true they make no figure in ,grecian history1 because they were too wise to take part in the irrational contests1 which continually embroiled the surrounding states4 ,their division into small independent communities1 each presenting a purely democratic constitution1 rendered it impossible for them to acquire celebrity in legislation2 and yet we are informed of some of the citizens of ,arcadia1 who were reputed excellent lawgivers for the sphere in which they acted#bih4 ,it appears to be no inconsiderable evidence of their progress in the art of government upon republican principles1 that in the choice of magistrates at ,mantinea they proceeded upon the plan of a double election#bii4 ,we have the most decisive proofs of their public spirit in the splendid cities1 which they erected1 and which were adorned with theatres1 temples1 and numerous other edifices4 ,we are informed by ,pausanias#cjj1 that of all the temples in ,peloponnesus the most beautiful and admirable were those of ,minerva at ,tegea and of ,apollo at ,phigalia2 and these were both cities of ,arcadia4 ,now it should be observed1 that the taste and splendor of their public edifices are the more decisive proofs of their national enthusiasm1 when it is considered1 that among them property was exceedingly subdivided2 that they had no overpowering aristocracy1 no princes or great landed gentry1 who might seek for renown or court popularity by bestowing their wealth upon public institutions2 but that the noble temples1 the sculptures1 and other works of art1 which ornamented their cities and were subservient to purposes of common interest1 could have been produced only by the united deliberations and contributions of the mass of the inhabitants4 ,they seem therefore to prove the universal prevalence both of a liberal patriotic feeling1 and of a cultivated taste for the beautiful and the sublime4 #big ,j4 ,h4 ,voss1 ,virgil's ,lndliche ,gedichte1 tom4 ii4 p4 #cec4 #bih ,wachsmuth1 ,hellen4 ,alterthumskunde1 i4 #a4 p4 #ahj2 i4 #b4 p4 #cje4 #bii ,aristot4 ,polit4 l4 vi4 #b4 #b4 #cjj ,l4 viii4 c4 #da4 #e4 p4 #dbi1 ed4 ,siebel4 ,virgil bears his testimony to their superior skill in vocal and instrumental music4 ,arcadian swains1 ,ye best artificers of soothing strains4 ,bucol4 x4 #cb4--,warton's ,translation4 ,this must of course be understood as referring only to music and poetry of the pastoral kind4 ,to the composition of the higher species of poetry1 by which the ,greeks of other countries laid a foundation for the instruction and delight of all succeeding ages1 the ,arcadians never aspired4 ,at the same time there can be no doubt that they bestowed great care upon the exhibition of dramatic compositions1 though they did not attempt to write them3 of this fact we have sufficient proof in the remains of the theatres found upon the sites of their principal cities1 and especially of the theatre of ,megalopolis1 which was the greatest in all ,greece#cja4 #cja ,pausanias1 l4 viii4 #cb4 #a4 ,leake's ,travels in the ,morea1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cb4 #ci1 #dj4 ,but with respect to their cultivation of music and its influence on their national character1 we have upon record the full and explicit testimony of one of their most distinguished citizens1 the historian ,polybius1 whose remarks will appear especially deserving of the reader's attention1 when it is considered1 that he must himself have gone through the whole course of discipline and instruction which he describes4 ,having had occasion to mention the turbulent character as well as the cruel and perfidious conduct of the ,cyntheans1 who occupied a city and district in the north of ,arcadia1 he proposes to inquire why it was that1 although they were indeed ,arcadians1 they had acted in a manner so entirely at variance with the usual habits and manners of the ,greeks1 and he then proceeds with earnestness and solemnity to explain upon the following principles the cause of this extraordinary contrast4 ,it was1 as he states1 that the ,cyntheans were the only inhabitants of ,arcadia who had neglected to exercise themselves in music2 and he then gives the following account of the established practice of the rest of the ,arcadians in devoting themselves to the study of real music1 by which he means the united arts of music1 poetry1 and dancing1 of all those elegant and graceful performances1 over which the ,muses were supposed to preside4 ,he informs us that the ,arcadians1 whose general habits were very severe1 were required by law to go on improving themselves in music1 so understood1 until their thirtieth year4 8,in childhood10 says he1 8they are taught to sing in tune hymns and pans in honor of the domestic heroes and divinities4 ,they afterwards learn the music of ,philoxenus and ,timotheus4 ,they dance to the pipe in the theatres at the annual festival of ,bacchus2 and they do this with great emulation1 the boys performing mock-fights adapted to their age1 and the young men the so-called manly fights4 ,in like manner throughout the whole of life their pleasure at feasts and entertainments consists1 not in listening to singers hired for the purpose1 but in singing themselves in their turns when called upon4 ,for1 although a man may decline any other performance on the ground of inability and may thereby bring no imputation on himself1 no one can refuse to sing1 because all have been obliged to learn it1 and to refuse to take a part1 when able1 is deemed disgraceful4 ,the young men also unite together to perform in order all the military steps and motions to the sound of the pipe1 and at the public expense they exhibit them every year before their fellow-citizens4 ,besides these ballets1 marches1 and mock-fights1 the men and women unite in great public assemblies and in numerous sacrifices1 to which are to be added the circular or choral dances by the boys and virgins40 ,polybius adds1 that these musical exercises had been ordained as the means of communicating softness and refinement to the otherwise rough and laborious life of the ,arcadians1 and he warns them by the example of the half-savages of ,cynth never to abandon such wholesome institutions#cjb4 ,with how great benefit to our own social character might we adopt this counsel6 ,how greatly might we contribute both to the innocent enjoyment and to the more improved and elevated tastes of our rustics and artisans1 if well-regulated plans were devised1 by which graceful recreations1 providing at the same time exercise for the body1 amusement for the imagination1 and employment for the finer and more amiable feelings1 were made to relieve the degrading and benumbing monotony of their protracted labors1 whether in the factory or in the field6 #cjb ,polyb4 l4 iv4 c4 #bj1 #ba4 ,it will be readily perceived1 that the education here described1 and the tastes and habits which it produced1 were immediately associated with the popular religion1 and especially with the notions and rites entertained towards the peculiar god of the shepherds4 ,other deities indeed1 such as ,apollo1 ,diana1 and ,minerva1 who were also worshipped in ,arcadia1 may have contributed to the same effect2 and especially this may have been the case with ,mercury1 perhaps the only one of the higher ,greek divinities1 who was conceived to have a benevolent character1 who was the father of ,pan1 and was himself reported to have been born in a cave of the same mountain in ,arcadia1 on which he was worshipped4 ,he was a lover of instrumental music1 having invented the lyre1 and he was frequently represented on coins and gems1 riding upon a ram1 or with his emblems so connected with the figures of sheep1 and more rarely of goats and of dogs1 as to prove that in his character as the god of gain the shepherds looked up to him together with his offspring to bless the flocks and to increase their produce#cjc4 ,hence ,homer1 in order to convey the idea that ,phorbas was remarkably successful in the breeding of sheep1 says that he was beloved by ,mercury above all the other ,trojans#cjd4 ,the inhabitants of one territory even in ,arcadia1 viz4 the city of ,phineos1 honored ,mercury more than all the other gods1 and expressed this sentiment by procuring a statue of him made by a celebrated sculptor in gina1 in which he was represented carrying a ram under his arm1 and which they placed in the great temple of ,jupiter at ,olympia#cje4 ,at ,corinth there was a brazen statue of ,mercury in a sitting posture with a ram standing beside him4 ,according to ,pausanias 7ii4 #c1 #d47 the reason of this representation was1 that of all the gods ,mercury was thought most to take care of flocks and to promote their increase4 ,but1 as the ,corinthians had little or nothing to do with the tending of sheep and were devoted to commerce1 we may ask what interest had they in this attribute of ,mercury8 ,it is very evident that it could only be an interest arising from the part which ,corinth took in the wool-trade4 ,that the ,arcadians did not themselves consume their wool is manifest4 ,how could they have built cities1 which were so large1 numerous1 and handsome in proportion to the extent of their country1 and have lived even in that degree of elegance and luxury1 to which they attained1 unless they had been able to dispose of the chief produce of their soil in a profitable manner8 ,it is probable therefore1 that the representation of ,mercury or of his emblems in conjunction with the figure of the sheep on the coins of ,corinth and ,patr may be regarded as an intimation1 that the ,arcadians disposed of their wool in those cities for exportation to foreign countries4 #cjc ,buonaroti 7,osservazioni sopra alcuni ,medaglioni ,antichi1 p4 #da47 has exhibited brass coins1 in one of which ,mercury is riding on a sheep2 in a second the sheep is seen with ,mercury's bag of money on its back2 and in a third the caduceus is over the sheep1 and two spikes of corn1 emblems of agricultural prosperity1 spring out of the ground before it4 ,among the gems of the ,baron de ,stosch1 now belonging to the ,royal ,cabinet at ,berlin1 ,no4 #cha4 ,class ,,ii4 represents ,mercury sitting upon a rock with a dog by his side3 ,winckelmann observes1 that 8the dog is the symbol of ,mercury as the protector of shepherds40 ,nos4 #cib1 #cic1 #cif-djb1 in the same collection1 represent him with sheep1 and one of them 7#cii47 exhibits him standing erect in a chariot drawn by four rams1 and holding the bag or purse in his right hand and the caduceus in his left4 ,some of the coins of ,sicily appear to refer in like manner to the character of ,mercury as the promoter of the trade in wool4 ,the ,honorable ,keppel ,craven 7,excursions in the ,abruzzi1 ,london1 #ahch1 vol4 i4 ch4 #d4 p4 #aji47 mentions a temple at ,arpinum1 a city of ,latium1 which was dedicated1 as appears from an inscription found on its site1 to ,,mercurius ,,lanarius4 ,this title evidently represented ,mercury as presiding over the growth of wool and the trade in it4 ,perhaps the very ancient idea of ,mercury making the fleece of ,phryxus golden by his touch may have originated in the same view4 ,see ,apollonius ,rhodius1 ,argonautica1 l4 #aa4 #aadd1 and ,scholion ad locum4 #cjd ,il4 xiv4 #dij4 ,see also ,hom4 ,hymn to ,mercury1 #efi4 ,hesiod1 ,theog4 #ddd4 #cje ,paus4 l4 v4 #bg4 #e4 and l4 viii4 #ad4 #g4 ,but1 notwithstanding the important share1 which ,mercury had in the religious sentiments and observances of the ,arcadians1 the proper god of the shepherds of ,arcadia was ,pan1 and we have already had abundant evidence to suggest the conviction1 that their songs and dances were performed principally in honor of him1 and were supposed to be taught1 guided1 and animated by him4 ,arcadia has for many centuries exhibited a most melancholy contrast to that condition of hardy and yet peaceful independence1 of rustic simplicity united with tasteful elegance1 of social kindness and domestic enjoyment undisturbed by the projects of ambition1 which has supplied many of the most beautiful pictures to the writers of poetry and romance4 ,the great natural features of the country are unalterable4 ,the pine-forests of ,lycus1 its deep glens continually refreshed with sparkling streams and cataracts1 its savage precipices where scarce even a goat can climb1 remain in their original beauty and grandeur4 ,this region also affords pasture to flocks of sheep more numerous than those which feed in any other part of ,greece#cjf4 ,but whatever depends on the moral nature of man is changed4 ,the valleys1 once richly cultivated and tenanted by an overflowing population1 are scarcely kept in tillage4 ,the noble cities are traced only by their scattered ruins4 ,the few descendants of the ancient ,arcades have crouched beneath a degrading tyranny4 ,the thick forests and awful caverns but a few years ago served to shelter fierce banditti2 and the traveller startled at the sound of their fire-arms instead of being charmed with the sweet melody of the syrinx#cjg4 ,but a new dynasty has been established under the sanction of the most powerful and enlightened nations of ,europe4 ,it remains to be seen whether this or any other part of ,greece will again become wise1 virtuous1 and renowned4 ,the philanthropist1 who amidst the gloom and desolation of the moral world depends with confidence upon an all-wise and all-disposing ,providence1 may console himself with the hope1 that that great ,being who bestowed such inestimable blessings upon ,arcadian shepherds in their ignorance1 will not abandon those of their descendants1 who with superior means of knowledge1 aim at corresponding attainments in the excellencies of political1 social1 and private life4 #cjf ,german #bhc ,bartholdy1 ,bruchstcke zur ,kenntniss des heut4 ,griechenlands1 p4 #bch4 #cjg ,dodwell's ,tour1 vol4 ii4 p4 #chh-cic4 ,leake's ,travels in the ,morea1 vol4 i4 p4 #dhf-dij4 ,the latter author gives the following account of a visit which he paid to the family of a shepherd1 consisting of twelve or fifteen individuals1 who lived together in a tent on ,mount ,lycus3--8,milk and misithra 7a preparation made by boiling milk and whey together7 is their usual food4 #8,we have milk in plenty1' they tell me1 #8but no bread4' ,such is the life of a modern ,arcadian shepherd1 who has almost reverted to the balanephagous state of his primitive ancestors 7,orac4 ,pyth4 ap4 ,pausan4 ,arcad4 c4 #db474 ,the children1 however1 all look healthy and are handsome1 having large black eyes and regular features with very dark complexion40 ,according to the representation in the ,odyssey 7xiv4 #ajj47 ,ulysses had twelve flocks of sheep1 and as many of goats on the continent opposite to ,ithaca4 ,at a much later period ,neoptolemus1 a king of ,molossis1 in possession of flocks and herds1 which were superintended by a distinct officer appointed for the purpose#cjh4 ,in ,macedonia also the king1 though living in a state of so little refinement that his queen baked the bread for the whole household1 was possessed at an early period of flocks of sheep and goats together with horses and herds of oxen1 which were entrusted to the care of separate officers4 ,we are informed that three ,argive brothers1 having taken refuge in the upper part of ,macedonia bordering upon ,illyria1 became hired servants to the king1 one of them having the custody of the horses1 another of the oxen1 and a third of the sheep and goats#cji4 ,here then we find in ,europe a state of society analogous to that which1 as we have seen1 existed in ,palestine under ,david4 ,indeed we may observe1 that all the countries bordering on ,macedonia were contrasted with ,attica and ,arcadia in this respect1 that1 while the ,athenians and ,arcadians were in general small landed proprietors1 each shepherd tending his flock upon his own ground1 ,phrygia#caj1 ,thrace1 ,macedonia1 ,epirus1 and even ,botia belonged probably to an aristocracy1 the richest and most powerful individuals of which became shepherd kings1 their landed possessions giving them a superiority over the rest of their countrymen1 and leading to the employment of numerous persons as their servants engaged in tending their cattle and in other rural occupations4 #cjh ,plutarchi ,pyrrhus1 p4 #gje4 ed4 ,steph4 #cji ,herod4 viii4 #acg4 #caj ,theopompus1 as quoted by ,servius on ,virgil1 ,buc4 vi4 #ac1 makes mention of the shepherds1 who kept the flocks of ,midas1 king of ,phrygia4 ,respecting the attention paid to sheep-breeding in ,epirus we have the testimony of ,varro in his treatise ,de ,re ,rustica4 ,he informs us 7ii4 #b47 that it was usual there to have one man to take care of #ajj coarse-wooled sheep 7oves hirt71 and two men for the same number of 8oves pellit10 or sheep which wore skins4 ,the attention bestowed upon dogs is an indirect evidence of the care which was devoted to flocks4 ,it is worthy of remark1 that the dogs used to guard the flocks in the modern ,albania1 appear to be the genuine descendants of the ancient 8canes ,molossici10 being distinguished by their size as well as by their strength and ferocity#caa4 ,further notices respecting them may be found in ,virgil's ,georgics1 l4 iii4 #djd-dac1 and in the ,notes of his editors and translators1 ,heyne1 ,martyn1 and ,j4 ,h4 ,voss4 ,see also lian de ,nat4 ,an4 iii4 #b4 and ,plautus1 ,capt4 l4 i4 #ah4 #caa ,holland's ,travels1 p4 #ddc4 ,hughes's ,travels1 vol4 i4 p4 #dhc1 #dhd1 #dif4 ,there is another important circumstance1 in which probably the habits of the modern shepherds of ,albania are similar to those of the ancient occupants of the same region1 viz4 the annual practice of resorting to the high grounds in summer and returning to the plains in winter1 which prevails both here and in most mountainous countries devoted to sheep-breeding4 ,the following extract from ,dr4 ,holland's ,travels in the ,ionian ,isles1 ,albania1 c4 7p4 #ia-ic471 gives a lively representation of this proceeding3 8,when advanced eight or nine miles on our journey 7from ,cinque ,pozzi to ,joannina2 ,october #cast1 #ahac17 and crossing another ridge of high and broken land1 we were highly interested in a spectacle1 which by a fortunate incident occurred to our notice4 ,we met on the road a community of migrating shepherds1 a wandering people of the mountains of ,albania1 who in the summer feed their flocks in these hilly regions1 and in the winter spread them over the plains in the vicinity of the ,gulph of ,arta and along other parts of the coast4 ,the many large flocks of sheep we had met the day before belonged to these people1 and were preceding them to the plains4 ,the cavalcade we now passed through was nearly two miles in length with few interruptions4 ,the number of horses with the emigrants might exceed a thousand2 they were chiefly employed in carrying the moveable habitations and the various goods of the community1 which were packed with remarkable neatness and uniformity#cab4 ,the infants and smaller children were variously attached to the luggage1 while the men1 women1 and elder children travelled for the most part on foot2 a healthy and masculine race of people1 but strongly marked by the wild and uncouth exterior connected with their manner of life4 ,the greater part of the men were clad in coarse white woollen garments2 the females in the same material1 but more curiously colored1 and generally with some ornamented lacing about the breast40 ,he then adds1 8,these migratory tribes of shepherds generally come down from the mountains about the latter end of ,october1 and return thither from the plains in ,april1 after disposing of a certain proportion of their sheep and horses4 ,in travelling1 they pass the night on the plains or open lands4 ,arrived at the place of their destination1 they construct their little huts or tents of the materials they carry with them1 assisted by the stones1 straw1 or earth1 which they find on the spot40 #cab ,no one has described this pastoral migration more minutely or more beautifully1 than ,mr4 ,charles ,fellows1 in his ,discoveries in ,lycia4 ,according to ,dr4 ,sibthorp 7in ,walpole's ,memoirs1 p4 #ada471 8a wandering tribe of ,nomads0 on the other side of ,greece drive their flocks from the mountains of ,thessaly into the plains of ,attica and ,botia to pass the winter4 8,they give some pecuniary consideration to the ,pasha of ,negropont and ,vaivode of ,athens4 ,these people are much famed for their woollen manufactures1 particularly the coats or cloaks worn by the ,greek sailors40 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,sheep-,,breeding ,,and ,,pastoral ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,ancients--,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,scriptures1 c4 ,sheep-breeding in ,sicily--,bucolic poetry--,sheep-breeding in ,south ,italy--,annual migration of the flocks--,the ram employed to aid the shepherd in conducting his flock--,the ram an emblem of authority--,bells--,ancient inscription at ,sepino--,use of music by ancient shepherds--,superior quality of ,tarentine sheep--,testimony of ,columella--,distinction of the coarse and soft kinds--,names given to sheep--,supposed effect of the water of rivers on wool--,sheep-breeding in ,south ,italy1 ,tarentum1 and ,apulia--,brown and red wool--,sheep-breeding in ,north ,italy--,wool of ,parma1 ,modena1 ,mantua1 and ,padua--,origin of sheep-breeding in ,italy--,faunus the same with ,pan--,ancient sculptures exhibiting ,faunus--,bales of wool and the shepherd's dress--,costume1 appearance1 and manner of life of the ancient ,italian shepherds4 ,still shall o'er all prevail the shepherd's stores1 ,for numerous uses known2 none yield such warmth1 ,such beauteous hues receive1 so long endure2 ,so pliant to the loom1 so various1 none4--,dyer4 ,we now pass over to ,sicily4 ,the pastoral life of the ,sicilians was marked by peculiar characters as well as that of the ,arcadians4 ,the bucolic poems of ,theocritus represent many of its circumstances in the most lively colors2 and1 while their dramatic spirit and vivacity are unrivalled1 they seem to be most exact copies of nature1 the dialogues which they contain being in the style1 the language1 and the precise dialect of the ,sicilian shepherds1 and indeed only differing from their real conversation by being composed in hexameters4 ,it is to be observed1 that the mountains and pastures of ,sicily were browsed by goats and oxen as well as by sheep4 ,these animals were1 however1 under distinct keepers1 called respectively ,shepherds1 ,goatherds1 and ,herdsmen4 ,but the tastes1 manner of life1 and the superstitions of these three classes of rustics appear to have been undistinguishable4 ,they were probably not always independent proprietors of the soil1 but in many cases the servants of a landed aristocracy who lived in ,syracuse and other splendid cities4 ,they appear1 however1 to have enjoyed far greater comforts and advantages than the corresponding class of hired laborers in the countries to the north of the ,peloponnesus and of ,attica4 ,in composing pastoral verses and in playing on the pipe and the syrinx they probably equalled the ,arcadians4 ,whilst they were watching their flocks and herds1 it was a frequent amusement with them for two persons to contend for a stipulated prize1 such as a goat1 a carved wooden bowl1 or a syrinx1 which was to be awarded by an appointed judge to him who most excelled either in instrumental music1 or in singing alternate and extemporaneous verses#cac4 #cac ,according to the learned ,german traveller1 ,baron ,riedesel1 the custom was not extinct in his time2 for in his ,travels through ,sicily1 page #adh of ,forster's ,english translation1 he says1 8,the shepherds still sing with emulation to gain the crook or the purse1 which is the prize of the best performer40 ,nevertheless1 the modern can be only a very faint imitation of the ancient practice2 for thus the same author speaks in other passages3 8,here ,i had an opportunity of pitying the wretched situation of modern ,sicily in comparison with what it was in former ages4 ,many towns and different nations are destroyed2 immense riches are dissipated2 the whole island can at present scarce show #a1bjj1jjj inhabitants1 the number which ,syracuse alone formerly had4 ,many beautiful spots1 which used to produce corn and fruits1 are now deserted for want of laborers2 many spacious ports are without any ships for want of trade2 and many people want bread1 whilst the nobility and the monks are in possession of all the lands40 p4 #aab1 #aac4 8,to conclude1 the climate1 the soil1 and the fruits of the country are as perfect as ever4 ,but the precious ,greek liberty1 population1 power1 magnificence1 and good taste1 are now not to be met with as in former times1 and the present inhabitants can only say1 ,fuimus ,troes40 p4 #aea4 ,that this elegant recreation was of ,sicilian origin we have clear and abundant evidence4 ,bion 7,idyll vii4 #a47 calls pastoral poetry 8a ,sicilian strain20 which certainly implies1 that of all places where the ,greek language was used ,sicily was the most noted for it1 and that in fact it properly belonged to ,sicily4 ,so ,moschus 7,idyll iii47 speaks of 8the ,sicilian muses20 and throughout this ,idyll1 which is the lament of ,moschus on the death of ,bion1 he repeatedly speaks of the pastoral poetry1 such as ,bion cultivated1 as proper to ,sicily4 ,in ,virgil's ,bucolics we find frequent allusions to the same acknowledged fact4 ,thus he says1 8,i will set my verses to the tune of a ,sicilian shepherd40 ,buc4 x4 #ea4 ,the historian ,diodorus1 himself a ,sicilian1 who lived about the commencement of the ,christian ra1 supposes bucolic poetry and music to be the peculiar invention and exercise of his own country1 and says1 that it continued in use at his time and was held in the same estimation as formerly#cad4 ,in less than #bjj years from this period the art lost much of its original simplicity4 ,maximus ,tyrius 7,diss4 xxi47 says1 that 8the ,dorians of ,sicily became1 to use the mildest term1 more weak in understanding10 7more dissolute7 8when instead of the simple ,alpine music1 which they used to employ in the presence of their flocks and herds1 they began to love the tunes of the ,sybarites1 and a style of dancing adapted to them1 such as was required by the ,ionic pipe40 #cad ,l4 iv4 c4 #hd1 p4 #bhc4 ,but1 although the rustic ,dorians of ,sicily had the full credit of this invention and were never surpassed in the practice of it by any other people1 yet the imitation of it was attempted in various instances by the pastoral inhabitants of other countries4 ,more especially1 it appears to have been adopted in the neighboring district of ,magna ,grcia2 for it is near ,sybaris that ,theocritus has placed the scene of his ,fifth ,idyll1 in which1 a shepherd having staked a lamb and a goatherd a kid1 they contend in alternate verses1 whilst a wood-cutter1 whom they have called from his labor1 listens as judge1 and awards the prize to the goatherd1 who hereupon joyfully sacrifices his newly acquired lamb to the ,nymphs4 ,in the ,seventh ,idyll 7v4 #ab1 #bg1 #dj47 ,theocritus mentions the goatherd1 ,lycidas of ,crete1 who was his contemporary1 and also his predecessors and supposed instructors1 ,asclepiades of ,samos1 and ,philetas of ,cos1 as distinguished for skill in pastoral music4 ,the bucolic poems of ,theocritus prove1 that the ,arcadian belief in the attributes of ,pan had extended itself into ,sicily and the ,south of ,italy1 so that the rustics of those countries not only invoked him by name1 but even sometimes offered sacrifices to him4 ,thus1 in ,idyll v4 #eh1 the ,lucanian goatherd already referred to says1 that he will set aside for ,pan eight dishes of milk and six of honey4 ,but besides importing the belief in ,pan from ,arcadia the ,sicilians recognized two demigods of native origin1 who contributed1 if not to excite feelings allied to religion1 at least to amuse their imagination and to contribute greatly to the variety and liveliness of their poetry4 ,these were the shepherd ,polyphemus1 who was horridly deformed1 and the herdsman ,daphnis1 who was endowed with the most surpassing beauty4 ,polyphemus was the son of ,neptune4 ,notwithstanding his forbidden aspect he is represented as susceptible of some tender emotions1 and it is his misfortune to be deeply enamored of the beautiful ,nereid or ,mermaid ,galatea1 whom he sees sporting in the green waves1 while he surveys the coast from the summit of a mountain and plays upon the syrinx for the amusement of himself and his flock#cae4 #cae ,theocritus1 ,idyll vi4 and xi4 ,lucian1 ,dial4 ,doridis et ,galate4 ,ovid1 ,met4 ,l4 xiii4 #gci-hgj4 ,the ,sicilian ,daphnis1 like the ,arcadian ,pan1 was the son of ,mercury and of a mountain nymph1 and excelled in playing on the syrinx2 but his form was entirely human and the most beautiful that could be imagined4 ,the guardian of fair kine1 himself more fair4 ,virg4 ,buc4 v4 #dd4 ,he tended his cattle upon the picturesque ,heran mountains to the north of tna1 and did not mix in the society of men4 ,at the time when the beard was beginning to grow on his upper lip1 the nymph ,echenais became enamored of him1 and enjoined him upon pain of losing his eye-sight not to approach any other female4 ,he consented1 and for some time persisted in obeying her2 but at length a ,sicilian princess1 having intoxicated him with wine1 accomplished her purpose4 ,he shared the fate of ,thamyras1 the ,thracian1 and was thus punished for his folly#caf4 ,he then pined away1 and died of hopeless love for the nymph1 whom he had offended#cag4 ,according to ,virgil 7,buc4 v4 #ef-ga47 he was raised to the stars1 and sacrifices were offered to him by the shepherds4 #caf ,timus1 author of the ,hist4 of ,sicily1 as quoted by ,parthenius1 c4 #bi4 lian1 ,var4 ,hist4 ,l4 x4 c4 #ah4 ,diod4 ,sic4 ,l4 iv4 c4 #hd4 p4 #bhc4 #cag ,theocritus1 ,idyll i4 #ff-ada4 and vii4 #gb-gg4 ,daphnis was the frequent subject of pastoral poetry1 being regarded as an ideal representation of the perfection of the shepherd's culture and manner of life4 ,of this we have a proof in the epigram of ,callimachus on the death of ,astacides1 and which concludes thus3 8,we 7shepherds7 will no longer sing of ,daphnis1 but of ,astacides40 ,the poet's design was to extol ,astacides1 by comparing him with ,daphnis4 ,according to lian 7l4 c47 the first bucolic poems related to the blindness of ,daphnis and its cause2 and the first poet1 who composed verses upon this subject1 was ,stesichorus of ,himera in ,sicily4 ,in ,theocritus the allusions to the beautiful story of ,daphnis are very frequent#cah1 and his sad fate is described at length by contending shepherds or goatherds in the ,first and ,seventh ,idylls4 ,we shall quote only his dying words1 where he calls on ,pan to leave the great ,mnalus and the long ridges of ,lycus1 and to come to ,sicily in order to receive from his own hand the syrinx1 on which he had been accustomed to play4 ' 1 ' 1 ' 4 ,come1 mighty king1 come1 ,pan1 and take my pipe1 ,well join'd with wax and fitted to my lip2 ,for now 'tis useless grown1 ,love stops my breath1 ,i cannot pipe1 but must be mute in death4 ,creech's ,translation4 #cah ,idyll v4 #bj4 ,see also v4 #hj4 ,in ,idyll vi4 ,daphnis is one of the performers1 and gives a description of ,galatea4 ,pliny informs us1 that in his time the wool of ,apulia was in the highest repute2 that throughout the ,south of ,italy the best sheep were bred in the vicinity of ,tarentum and ,canusium2 and that the wool of ,tarentum was admired for its tinge of black1 and that of ,canusium for its fine brown or yellow color#cai4 #cai ,see ,appendix ,a4 ,the directions for the management of sheep1 given by ,varro1 ,columella1 ,virgil1 and other writers on rural affairs1 all tend to show the pains taken by the ,romans to improve the breed of sheep1 and especially to produce wool of the finest quality4 ,the first of these authors 7,de ,re ,rustica1 ,l4 ii4 ,prf47 mentions his own flocks of sheep in ,apulia4 ,it appears from his account that every man was obliged to report the number of his sheep to the publican and to have them inscribed in a register1 the earliest allusion1 to a code of laws1 which may probably have been in some respects similar to that now called 8,la ,mesta0 in ,spain4 ,varro further speaks expressly of the summer and winter migrations of the flocks2 and to show the great distances to which they were conducted on these occasions1 he states that the sheep of ,apulia were taken every year to pass the summer in the mountains of ,samnium1 and sometimes even in those of ,reate#cbj4 #cbj ,de ,re ,rustica1 ,l4 ii4 c4 #a4 p4 #afa4 ed4 ,bip4 ,see also1 c4 #b4 p4 #afg4 ,of the nature and circumstances of these annual migrations we are enabled to form some judgment1 not only from the animated description already quoted from ,dr4 ,holland in relation to ,albania1 but still more distinctly from the following accounts by the ,honorable ,keppel ,craven1 one of which relates to the first group of mountains mentioned by ,varro1 the other to the second4 ,in the year #ahah ,mr4 ,craven visited a large farm a few miles to the south of ,foggia1 and consequently not far from the site of the ancient ,arpi in ,apulia4 ,he mentions the following particulars4 8,above #bjj persons were employed1 and resided on the spot4 ,the stock of sheep consisted of #hjjj1 divided into several flocks2 to which those of cows1 goats1 and buffaloes1 together with a set of brood mares and a suitable quantity of poultry1 bore an equivalent proportion4 ,all the cattle are guarded by large milk-white dogs of the ,abruzzo breed4 ,these animals are very handsome and resemble the ,newfoundland species1 but have sharper noses2 they are very intelligent and equally fierce4 ,the flocks are tended by natives of ,abruzzo1 who also undertake the care of milking them1 as well as making the cheese1 c42 they are assisted by their wives and children1 who accompany them in their yearly migrations to and from the mountains4 ,these shepherds are clothed in the skins of the animals which they watch1 and are reckoned a quiet1 attentive1 frugal1 and trust-worthy race40 ,tour through the southern ,provinces of the ,kingdom of ,naples1 by the ,honorable ,keppel ,craven1 p4 #hj4 ,the scene of the following extract is the valley of the ,aternus1 descending from the region of the highest ,apennines1 the 8montes ,reatini0 of ,varro1 not very remote from the ruins of his farm and villa1 7,these ruins are described at page #de of the volume from which this passage is extracted471 and proceeding towards the sites of the modern ,aquila and of the ancient ,amiternum4 8,one of the broad tratturos1 or cattle-paths1 runs in the same line with the high-road to ,aquila2 and ,i was so fortunate as to see it occupied by a very extended line of flocks1 which slowly passed by the carriage for the space of a mile or more4 ,the word #8fortunate' adapted to such a spectacle1 may excite a smile in my readers2 but ,i own that ,i never beheld one of these numerous animal congregations plodding across the flats of ,capitanata1 or the valleys of ,abruzzo1 as far as the eye could reach1 without experiencing a sensation of a novel and exciting kind1 nearly allied to that of enjoyment1 but which ,i shall not attempt to account for4 8,one shepherd heads each division of cattle1 of which he has the peculiar care and direction4 ,armed with his crook1 he walks some paces in advance of his flock1 followed by an old ram termed il manso2 which word1 meaning tame or instructed1 has undoubtedly a more apposite signification than that of our bell-wether1 though he is1 as well as ours1 furnished with a large deep-toned bell4 8,the sheep march in files of about twelve in each2 and every battalion1 if ,i may so call it1 is attended by six or eight dogs1 according to its number2 these accompanying the herd1 walking at the head1 middle1 and rear of each flank4 ,the beauty and docility of these animals1 which are usually white1 has often been described1 and their demeanor is gentle as long as the objects of their solicitude are unmolested1 but at night they are so savage1 that it would be dangerous to approach the fold they guard4 8,the goats1 which bear a very small proportion to the sheep1 and are in general black1 wind up the array1 and evince their superior intelligence by lying down whenever a temporary halt takes place4 ,the cows and mares travel in separate bodies4 ,a certain number of these flocks1 commonly those belonging to the same proprietor1 are under the immediate management and inspection of an agent1 entitled fattore1 who accompanies them on horseback1 armed with a musket1 and better clad than the shepherds1 who1 both in summer and winter1 wear the large sheep-skin jacket1 and are in other respects provided with substantial though homely attire1 including good strong shoes4 8,these ,fattores are all natives of ,abruzzo1 an ,apulian never having been known to undertake the profession3 the former1 through particular habits and the repeated experience of years1 are looked upon as so peculiarly fitted for the care required by cattle1 and indeed animals of all kinds1 that all the helpers in the stables of the capital are natives of these provinces1 or of the adjoining county of ,molise4 ,in addition to these qualifications1 they are esteemed an abstemious and honest race4 8,when following the calling of shepherds1 and occupied1 as ,i saw them1 in the duties of their charge in travelling1 their countenances are almost invariably marked by the same expression1 which combines mildness and sagacity with immovable gravity1 and1 it is painful to add1 a look of deep-seated sadness2 the whole caravan1 animal as well as human1 exhibiting1 at least while engaged in one of those tedious peregrinations1 a general appearance of suffering and depression1 distinguishable in every individual that composes it4 ,the shepherd that opens the march1 the independent manso jingling his brazen bell1 the flocks that follow1 the dogs that watch over their security1 and even the ,fattore who directs the procession1 all appear to be plodding through a wearisome existence of monotony and toil4 ,the extreme slowness of their progress1 the downcast expression of every head and eye1 and1 above all1 the indications of exhaustion and fatigue which are but too perceptible after a journey of more than a month's duration1 may well account for this impression4 8,the animals suffer greatly from heat until they reach their summer dwelling1 and full as much from lameness1 which1 when it has reached a certain pitch1 becomes the signal for destruction4 ,i saw a mule bearing no other load than the skins of those that had perished in this manner4 8,several other beasts of burden follow the rear of the herds1 laden with the various articles necessary for them and their guardians during their protracted march3 these consist in the nets and poles requisite to pen the folds at night1 the coarse cloth tents for the use of the shepherds1 and a limited stock of utensils for milking1 and boiling the produce of the flock4 ,among these are to be noticed some portable jointed seats of very ingenious though simple construction1 composed of the stems of the giant fennel1 a substance remarkable for its light and compact texture4 8,the cattle which ,i thus met near ,aquila were within two days' journey of their resting-place1 which is generally in some of the valleys placed on the lower flanks of the mountain ridges1 but sufficiently elevated above the larger plains to afford fresh and abundant herbage and a cooler temperature4 8,the duration of their abode in these regions is regulated by the rapid or slow progression of the summer season2 in the course of which they shift their quarters1 as the heat increases1 till they reach the highest spots1 which are the last divested of the deep snows1 in which they have been buried during three quarters of the year4 ,here large tracts of the finest pasture1 rills of the coldest and purest water1 and shady woods of considerable extension1 are occupied by them during the remainder of the fine weather1 and afford the ne plus ultra of enjoyment allotted to an existence of such restricted variety40 ,excursions in the ,abruzzi by the ,honorable ,keppel ,craven4 ,london1 #ahch1 vol4 i4 p4 #bei-bfd4 ,the account1 given in the second paragraph of this extract1 of the shepherd marching at the head of his battalion of sheep illustrates in a striking manner the remark made respecting the comparison of kings to shepherds1 and to their leading rams in ,homer and in the ,scriptures4 ,the ,greek word 1 originally an adjective1 corresponds exactly to the ,italian manso4 ,it appears to have been applicable to all trained tame animals4 ,hence it was used specially to denote the large and powerful ram1 which was instructed to assist the shepherd in disposing the sheep in proper order and in leading them to and from their daily pasture as well as during their long migrations4 ,in the third book of the ,iliad 7l4 #aif-aih71 where ,priam is described surveying the ,greek troops from the ,scan gate1 after the account of ,agamemnon1 who was considered as their shepherd1 we find ,ulysses1 who was inferior to him both in rank and in stature1 represented as his manso1 that is1 as the ram1 which immediately follows the shepherd and aids him in conducting the flock4 ,the same image is repeated in the thirteenth book 7l4 #dib1 #dic71 where ,pope's translation1 though very paraphrastic1 is an admirable representation of the real circumstances4 ,in order follow all th' embodied train1 ,like ,ida's flocks proceeding o'er the plain3 ,before his fleecy care1 erect and bold1 ,stalks the proud ram1 the father of the fold2 ,with joy the swain surveys them1 as he leads ,to the cool fountains1 through the well-known meads4 ,propertius presents us with a similar picture in the following lines3 ,corniger ,idi vacuam pastoris in aulam ,dux aries saturas ipse reduxit oves4 ,lib4 iii4 ,el4 #ac4 ,the fold receives the sheep on ,ida fed1 ,by the great ram1 their horned chieftain1 led4 ,aristotle calls these rams 8the leaders of the sheep10 and he states1 that the shepherds provided for each flock such a leader1 which1 when called by name by the shepherd1 placed himself at the head of the flock1 and was trained to execute this office from an early age#cba4 ,the employment of the manso was probably the ground1 on which many of the ,orientals adopted the ram as the emblem of military authority#cbb4 ,according to this supposition it would rather denote secondary than supreme command2 and if so1 the representation of the king of ,persia by the symbol of a ram in the #hth chapter of ,daniel is the more expressive1 because it indicated that he was the agent of the supreme ,deity4 ,probably also the same sentiment was intended to be conveyed by the enthusiastic ,sapor1 or ,shahpoor ,,ii41 ,king of ,persia in the fourth century1 when he rode to battle in front of his army wearing instead of a diadem a ram's head wrought in gold and studded with precious stones#cbc4 #cba ,hist4 ,animal4 viii4 #ai4 #cbb ,e4 ,f4 ,k4 ,rosenmuller1 ,bibl4 ,alterthumskunde1 iv4 #b4 p4 #hc4 #cbc ,ammianus ,marcell4 xix4 #a4 ,any one1 who has seen the collection of ancient bronze bells in the ,museum at ,naples1 and compared them with those now worn in ,italy about the necks of sheep and other cattle1 will be struck with their similarity4 ,we know also from various ancient laws and other evidence#cbd that the shepherds fastened bells upon their sheep as they do at the present day4 #cbd ,see note of ,sweertius on the treatise of ,hieron4 ,magius de ,tintinnabulis1 cap4 viii4 ,there is a striking correspondence between the words of ,varro1 8crates1 retia1 cteraque utensilia10 and ,craven's account of the provision of nets1 c4 for making folds1 and of the other necessary utensils4 ,at ,sepino1 the ancient ,spinum1 situated in the highest part of the mountains of ,samnium near the source of the ,tamarus1 ,mr4 ,craven saw over the ,eastern gate the remains of a very remarkable inscription referring to the same practice#cbe4 ,this inscription has been accurately published by ,muratori#cbf4 ,it clearly distinguishes between the 8fattores0 7conductores gregum oviaricorum7 and the shepherds who were under them 7pastores quos conductores habent74 ,these were molested by the magistrates of ,spinum and the neighboring town of ,bovianum1 and by the 8stationarii0 or soldiers1 who1 instead of being ready to protect them in case of need1 charged them with being fugitives and with cattle-stealing1 and under this pretence drove back even those sheep which belonged to the emperor 7oves quoque dominicas7 and thus greatly injured his revenue4 ,these grievances were consequently represented to an officer at ,rome who kept the emperor's accounts 7,cosmus1 ,augusti ,libertus a ,rationibus72 and he writes in the terms of the inscription to ,basseus ,rufus and ,macrinus ,vindex1 officers of rank in the army1 in order that the evil might be remedied4 ,this inscription must have been erected about the commencement of the ,christian ra4 ,as ,mr4 ,craven remarks1 8,it not only corroborates what was already known1 that the periodical migration of the herds from ,apulia is of most ancient origin1 but it proves1 that they observed the same line of route which they follow to the present day2 the road1 that runs from the east to the western gate of this inclosure1 falling into the line of the tratturos1 or sheep-paths1 exclusively allotted to the use of the flocks in their annual journeys40 #cbe ,see ,excursions in the ,abruzzi1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ace1 #acf4 #cbf ,novus ,thesaurus ,vet4 ,inscriptionum1 p4 ,,dcvi4 ,whilst we discover these numerous points of resemblance between the ancient and the modern practice1 it is probable that in other respects there was a greater diversity4 ,if the author whose observations have been cited had witnessed a similar procession in very ancient times1 he would have seen less reason to deplore its toilsome and melancholy aspect4 ,music was then probably of no little service in animating both the shepherds and their flocks4 ,the sonorous bagpipe may have contributed to this effect#cbg4 ,at least ,mr4 ,craven's account of a modern pastoral march is strikingly contrasted with the following description by ,apollonius ,rhodius1 in which he compares the ship ,argo and the music of ,orpheus1 followed by multitudes of fishes1 to a shepherd playing on the syrinx and followed by his sheep4 ' ' ' ' 1 ' ' 4 ,argon1 ,l4 i4 #ege-egi4 ,as sheep in flocks thick-pasturing on the plain ,attend the footsteps of the shepherd-swain1 ,his well-known call they hear1 and fully fed1 ,pace slowly on1 their leader at their head2 ,who pipes melodious1 as he moves along1 ,on sprightly reeds his modulated song3 ,thus charm'd with tuneful sounds the scaly train ,pursued the flying vessel o'er the main4 ,fawkes's ,translation4 #cbg ,according to ,montfaucon 7,ant4 ,explique1 ,suppl4 ,tom4 iii4 p4 #ahh47 the bagpipe was seen under the arm of a shepherd in the collection of ,cardinal ,albani at ,rome4 ,the testimony afforded by ,varro relative to the management of the ,south ,italian sheep1 having been given and illustrated1 it is to be deplored that ,italy1 once so renowned for its sheep1 can now boast little of this production of her bounteous clime4 ,the ,romans1 whose dress was woollen1 cultivated in an especial degree the fineness of the fleece2 and it was not until the days of the ,empire that the silk and cotton of the ,east began to supersede the ancient raiment of the ,roman people4 ,the finest wools of ancient ,italy were produced in ,apulia and ,calabria1 being the eastern parts of the present kingdom of ,naples#cbh4 #cbh ,it appears from the following passage of ,varro1 that the ,apulian was sold at a higher price than some other kinds of wool which were equally beautiful1 because it wore better4 ,by lana ,gallicana in this passage we must understand the wool of ,gallia ,cisalpina1 of which we shall next treat4 ,sic enim lana ,gallicana et ,appula videtur imperito similis propter speciem1 cum peritus ,appulam emat pluris1 quod in usu firmior sit4 ,de ,lin4 ,lat41 lib4 ix4 #bh4 p4 #dhd4 ed4 ,spengel4 ,we now proceed to the other writers on ,rural ,affairs1 viz41 ,columella and ,palladius4 ,the first attests the high estimation in which the sheep of ,calabria and ,apulia were held by the ,romans1 especially before his own time1 and he says that among them the ,tarentine sheep were the best of all4 ,in speaking of the practice so prevalent in this district of covering them with skins1 he shows1 that these 8oves pellit0 were also called 8soft0 7molles71 and 8covered0 7tect74 ,indeed he makes the great distinction of sheep to be into the 8genus molle10 i4 e4 the soft kind1 and the 8genus hirsutum10 or 8hirtum10 i4 e4 the coarse kind4 ,we further learn that the soft sheep were called by the ,romans ,greek sheep1 because they were bred in ,grcia ,magna1 and ,tarentine1 because the best of all were bred at ,tarentum4 ,according to ,palladius they were also sometimes called ,asiatic 7,asian74 ,it is to be observed that by ,asia1 ,palladius and his contemporaries would understand the celebrated sheep-country of which ,miletus was the centre#cbi2 and considering the frequent1 long-established1 and very friendly intercourse between ,miletus and ,tarentum#ccj1 we may infer that the ,milesians imported into ,tarentum their fine breed of sheep1 and at the same time introduced the art of dyeing and preparing the wool4 ,the same sheep1 which were called ,greek by the ,romans1 were called ,italian by the ,egyptians and others1 to whom the word ,greek would not have been distinctive4 ,columella 7vii4 #d47 insists particularly on the great pains and care1 which it was necessary to bestow upon this description of sheep1 the 8covered0 or 8soft10 in regard to food1 warmth1 and cleanliness1 and he says that they were principally brought up in the house#cca4 #cbi ,cellarii ,ant4 ,orbis ,notitia1 iii4 #a4 #g1 #h1 #i4 #ccj ,herod4 vi4 #ba4 and ,wesseling ad locum4 #cca ,according to ,bochart 7,hieroz4 cap4 #de4 p4 #dhf1 ed4 ,leusden71 the ,talmud and another rabbinical book1 lambs soon after their birth were invested with garments fastened upon them with thongs or buckles4 ,in the sheep-breeding countries of ,europe the practice seems to have been very general4 ,besides ,south ,italy1 ,attica1 ,megaris1 and ,epirus1 in regard to which countries positive evidence has been produced1 we find that soft sheep1 or 8oves pellit0 were kept by an inhabitant of ,cyneth in ,arcadia 7,polybius1 ,l4 ix4 c4 #ag471 by the ,roman settlers in the ,north of ,gaul and in ,spain4 ,as there was in general a great affinity between the manners and ideas of ,sicily and ,south ,italy1 we might infer that the pastoral habits of these two districts were in many respects similar4 ,theocritus accordingly lays the scene of some of his ,idylls on the coast opposite to ,sicily4 ,the fifth ,idyll describes a contest between a shepherd and a goatherd1 who are supposed to have been employed as hired servants in the vicinity of ,sybaris4 ,the shepherd1 observing some of his sheep to be feeding on an oak1 which could not be very good for them1 utters the following exclamation1 showing that it was customary to give proper names to sheep1 and thus confirming the fact1 that in ancient times they were regarded as the objects of affection1 and not of profitable speculation merely3 1 ' 1 4 ,ho6 ,sharphorn1 ,browning1 leave those hurtful weeds1 ,and come and graze this way1 where ,colly feeds4 ,creech's ,translation4 ,the passage has often been cited in illustration of the following verses from the ,gospel of ,st4 ,john4 ,our ,savior1 describing himself as a shepherd1 here alludes to various indications of care and attachment1 which distinguish the owner of a flock from the hireling1 who1 being engaged to tend the sheep only for a season1 could not be so well known by them1 nor so much interested in their security and welfare4 8,he calleth his own sheep by name1 and leadeth them out4 ,and when he putteth forth 7from the fold7 his own sheep1 he goeth before them1 and the sheep follow him2 for they know his voice4 ,and a stranger will they not follow1 but will flee from him3 for they know not the voice of strangers40--,john1 x4 #c-e4 ,in reference to this passage of ,scripture the following remarks of a late traveller are instructive3 8,i asked my man if it was usual in ,greece to give names to sheep4 ,he informed me that it was1 and that the sheep obeyed the shepherd when he called them by their names4 ,this morning 7,march #e1 #ahbh71 ,i had an opportunity of verifying the truth of this remark4 ,passing by a flock of sheep1 ,i asked the shepherd the same question which ,i put to my servant1 and he gave me the same answer4 ,i then bade him to call one of his sheep4 ,he did so1 and it instantly left its pasturage and its companions1 and ran up to the hand of the shepherd1 with signs of pleasure and with a prompt obedience which ,i had never before observed in any other animal4 ,it is also true of the sheep in this country1 that a stranger will they not follow1 but will flee from him2 for they know not the voice of the strangers4 ,the shepherd told me that many of his sheep are still ,,wild2 that they had not yet learned their names2 but that by teaching they would all learn them4 ,the others1 which knew their names1 he called ,,tame40--,researches in ,greece and the ,levant1 by the ,rev4 ,john ,hartley1 p4 #cba4 ,the city of ,sybaris stood between two rivers1 the ,sybaris and the ,crathis4 ,the ancients asserted that the sheep which drank of the ,crathis1 were white1 and those which drank of the ,sybaris1 black4 ,they attributed similar virtues to other streams in various parts of the world#ccb4 #ccb lian1 ,nat4 ,anim4 xii4 #cf4 ,plinii ,hist4 ,nat4 xxxi4 #i4 ,kruse's ,hellas1 i4 p4 #cfi4 7,see ,appendix ,a47 ,according to ,strabo 7,l4 vi4 cap4 #c4 #i4 p4 #cjc4 ed4 ,siebenkees7 the hilly promontory of ,garganus was particularly celebrated for its sheep4 ,he says1 that their wool was softer than the ,tarentine1 but less shining4 ,the ,roman poets allude in various instances to the excellence of the ,apulian wool1 and especially to that of ,tarentum4 ,horace in the following stanza expresses his predilection for this celebrated city1 and mentions its 8soft0 or 8covered0 sheep4 ,he had been asserting his wish to end his days at ,tibur1 the modern ,tivoli4 ,but1 should the partial ,fates refuse ,that purer air to let me breathe1 ,galesus1 thy sweet stream ,i'll choose1 ,where flocks of richest fleeces bathe3 ,phalanthus there his rural sceptre sway'd1 ,uncertain offspring of a ,spartan maid4 ,od4 l4 ii4 #f4--;,francis's ,translation4 ,martial alludes to the celebrity of the ,tarentine wool in no less than five of his epigrams4 ,spartan ,galesus did your toga lave1 ,or from a flock select fair ,parma gave4 ,l4 ii4 ep4 #dc4 l4 #c1 #d4 ,the poet intended here to describe a toga of the most expensive and fashionable kind4 ,you give1 ,o ,chloe1 to ,lupercus1 ,your tender favorite1 lacernas ,of ,spanish1 ,tyrian1 scarlet fleeces1 ,and togas wash'd in warm ,galesus4 ,l4 iv4 ep4 #bh4 l4 #a-c4 ,thou wast more sweet1 ,o lovely child6 ,than song of aged dying swans3 ,thy voice1 thy mien were soft and mild ,as ,phalantine ,galesus' lambs4 ,l4 v4 ep4 #cg4 l4 #a1 #b4 ,the last lines were written by ,martial on the death of ,erotion in her sixth year4 ,he describes her interesting qualities by comparing her to a lamb of the soft ,tarentine breed1 always clothed and usually kept in the house and hence remarkably tender and delicate4 ,the following epigram 7,l4 viii4 ep4 #bh47 was written on the receipt of a handsome toga from the wealthy and munificent ,parthenius1 chamberlain to the emperor ,domitian4 ,in expressing his admiration of it1 the poet enumerates the places from which the ,romans of his time obtained the best and most fashionable garments of this description4 ,he next proceeds to extol its whiteness2 and in conclusion observes how ridiculous he would appear wearing his old lacerna over this new and snowy garment1 and he thus conveys a hint to ,parthenius how acceptable and suitable would be the present of a lacerna in addition to the toga4 ,de ,partheniana toga4 ,dic1 toga1 facundi gratum mihi munus amici1 ,esse velis cujus fama1 decusque gregis8 ,appula ,ledi tibi floruit herba ,phalanthi1 ,qu saturat ,calabris culta ,galesus aquis8 ,an ,tartessiacus stabuli nutritor ,iberi ,btis in ,hesperia te quoque lavit aqua8 ,an tua multifidum numeravit lana ,timavum1 ,quem prius astrifero ,cyllarus ore bibit8 ,te nec ,amyclo decuit livere veneno2 ,nec ,miletus erat vellere digna tuo4 ,lilia tu vincis1 nec adhuc dilapsa ligustra1 ,et ,tiburtino monte quod albet ebur4 ,spartanus tibi cedet olor1 ,phaphique columb3 ,cedet ,erythris eruta gemma vadis4 ,sed licet hc primis nivibus sint mula dona1 ,non sunt ,parthenio candidiora suo4 ,non ego prtulerim ,babylonica picta superb ,texta1 ,semiramia qu variantur acu4 ,non ,athamanto potius me mirer in auro1 olium dones si mihi1 ,phryxe1 decus4 ,o quantos risus pariter spectata movebit ,trita ,palatina nostra lacerna toga6 ,say1 grateful gift of mine ingenious friend1 ,what happy flock shall to thy fleece pretend8 ,for thee did herb of famed ,phalantus blow1 ,where clear ,galesus bids his waters flow8 ,did thy wool count the streamlets1 more than seven1 ,of him1 who slaked the warrior horse of heaven8 ,or did ,tartessian ,guadalquiver lave ,thy matchless woof in his ,hesperian wave8 ,thou didst not need to taste ,amycl's bane1 ,and wouldst have tried ,milesian art in vain4 ,with thee the lily and the privet pale ,compared1 and ,tibur's whitest ivory fail4 ,the ,spartan swan1 the ,paphian doves deplore ,their hue1 and pearls on ,erythrean shore4 ,but1 though the boon leave new-fall'n snows behind1 ,it is not purer than the donor's mind4 ,i would prefer no ,babylonian vest1 ,superbly broider'd at a queen's behest2 ,nor better pleased should ,i my limbs behold1 ,phryxus1 in webs of thine olian gold4 ,but ,o6 what laughter will the contrast crown1 ,my worn lacerna on th' imperial gown6 ,it may be observed1 that in this ingenious epigram1 as well as in two of the preceding1 which relate to togas1 ,martial supposes the ,tarentine wool to be white3 for the ,roman toga was of that color except in mourning1 and one object of the last-cited epigram is to praise the whiteness of the particular toga1 which it describes4 ,the ,tarentines therefore must have produced both dark-colored and white fleeces4 ,the fifth passage of ,martial 7xii4 #fd471 which mentions the sheep of the ,galesus1 more directly refers to those of ,spain1 and will therefore be quoted under that head4 ,besides the epigrams1 now cited1 in which ,martial commends the wool of ,tarentum in particular1 we find others1 in which he celebrates that of ,apulia in general4 ,in ,book xiv4 ,ep4 #aee4 he gives an account of the principal countries1 which yielded white wools1 and informs us that those of the first quality were from ,apulia4 ,white ,wools4 ,the first ,apulia's2 next is ,parma's boast2 ,and the third fleece ,altinum has engrost4 ,elphinston's ,translation4 ,also in the following lines ,martial alludes to the large and numerous flocks of ,apulia1 and to the whiteness of their wool4 ,of white thou hast to clothe a tribe sufficient stock1 ,the produce fair of more than one ,apulian flock4 ,l4 ii4 ,ep4 #df4 l4 #e1 #f4 ,on the other hand the wool from the vicinity of ,canusium was no less esteemed for its dark colors1 whether inclining to brown or to red4 ,these saved the expense of dyeing4 ,the testimony of ,pliny to their value has been already produced4 ,in the two following ,epigrams 7l4 xiv4 #abg and #abi47 ,martial alludes to the peculiar recommendations and uses1 first of the brown1 and secondly of the reddish variety4 ,this ,canusine lacerna1 it is true1 ,looks muddy3 but it will not change its hue#ccc4 ,rome in the brown delights1 gay ,gaul in red3 ,this pleases boys1 and whose is blood to shed4 #ccc ,it appears from this epigram that1 when shaken1 it had the color of the brown wool of ,canusium1 a kind of drab4 ,the lacerna was a mantle1 which the ,romans wore out of doors over their white toga1 with which it was well contrasted1 whether it was purple1 scarlet1 or brown2 but the last color1 though less showy at first1 must have had the advantage of durability4 ,see ,appendix ,a4 ,on referring to the passages produced from ,pliny1 ,columella1 and ,martial1 it will be seen that the ,romans ascribed a very high value to the white wool of ,gallia ,cisalpina1 i4 e4 of ,north ,italy1 or the region about the ,po4 ,parma was considered second only to ,apulia for the whiteness of its wool4 ,besides the two epigrams of ,martial already cited1 he refers to ,parma as a great place for sheep-breeding in the following passage1 addressed to the wealthy ,callistratus3 ,and ,gallic ,parma shears thy num'rous flocks4 ,l4 v4 ep4 #ac4 ,columella speaks moreover 7l4 c47 of the superiority of the wool of ,mutina1 now ,modena2 and ,martial 7l4 v4 ep4 #aje47 mentions the circumstance of a fuller1 or clothier1 in that city having exhibited a show to the public1 which is a presumptive evidence that he had a great business in manufacturing the produce of the surrounding country4 ,strabo in his account of the productions of ,cisalpine ,gaul divides the wool into three kinds2 ,first1 the soft kind1 of which the finest varieties were grown about ,mutina and the river ,scutana1 which is the modern ,scultenna1 a tributary of the ,po1 rising in the ,apennines2 ,secondly1 the coarse kind1 grown in ,liguria and the country of the ,insubres1 which was very much used for the common wearing apparel of the ,italians2 and ,thirdly1 the middle kind1 grown about ,patavium 7now ,padua7 and employed for making valuable carpets and various descriptions of blankets#ccd4 ,by comparing the statements of this author with those of ,columella and ,martial it will appear1 that the whole region watered by the parallel rivers ,parma1 ,gabellus1 and ,scultenna1 and known by the name of ,macri ,campi1 or the ,barren ,plains1 was esteemed for the production of the fine white wool4 #ccd ,strabo1 ,l4 v4 c4 #a4 #ab4 p4 #aai4 ed4 ,siebenkees4 ,that the tending of both sheep and goats was a principal occupation of the people of ,mantua we learn from ,virgil1 a native of that city1 who places the scene of most of his pastorals in its vicinity4 ,his ,first and ,ninth ,eclogues more particularly relate to the calamities1 which the ,mantuans were compelled to sustain1 when ,augustus seized on their lands to reward his veteran soldiers after the battle of ,philippi4 ,these eclogues mention flocks both of sheep and goats1 and show that those who had the care of them cultivated music and poetry after the manner of the ,sicilians4 ,the commencement of the ,seventh ,eclogue is especially instructive1 because it gives us reason to believe1 that while many of the ,arcadians left their country in consequence of that excess of population1 to which mountainous regions are subject1 in order to become foreign mercenaries1 others1 on the contrary1 entered into foreign service as shepherds and goatherds1 and in this condition not only made themselves useful by their experience1 skill1 and fidelity1 but also introduced at the same time their native music together with that refinement of manners and feelings which it promoted4 ,the poet thus describes two such individuals1 who had been employed in tending flocks upon the banks of the ,mincius 7l4 #ab1 #ac71 and who were either born in ,arcadia1 or were at least of ,arcadian origin4 ,two blooming swains had join'd their flocks in one1 ,thyrsis his sheep1 and tuneful ,corydon ,his goats1 which bore their treasur'd milk along2 ,arcadians both1 both skill'd in ambean song4 ,at a considerable distance to the ,north-,east of ,mantua lay ,altinum1 which is mentioned by ,columella#cce1 ,tertullian1 and ,martial1 as one of the principal places for the produce of white wool4 ,martial says1 that it ranked in this respect next to ,parma#ccf1 and we must understand him as referring to the same region in ,book viii4 ,epig4 #bh1 where he asks1 8,did thy wool count the many streams of the ,timavus1 which ,cyllarus previously drank with his starry mouth80 ,the ,timavus was indeed a considerable way still further towards the ,north-,east1 and must have been very insignificant in connection with the sheep-breeding of the ,altinates4 ,the poet introduces it here only on account of its picturesque and mythological interest1 just as we have seen that the ,galesus1 a small1 though clear and very beautiful stream1 is repeatedly named in order to designate the pastoral region about ,tarentum4 ,it may also be observed1 that in this epigram1 where ,martial alludes to three of the principal places for the growth of white wool1 he indicates each of them by its river1 the three rivers being the ,galesus1 the ,btis1 and the ,timavus2 and he probably did so on account of the supposed effect of the waters of these rivers in improving the wool4 #cce ,l4 vii4 cap4 #b4 #ccf ,l4 xiv4 ,ep4 #aee4 ,we can make no question1 after what we have seen of the universal practice of both ancient and modern times1 that the sheep1 which in the winter were pastured in the plains and lower grounds about ,altinum1 were taken to pass the summer in the vallies of the ,carinthian ,alps about the sources of the ,brenta1 the ,piave1 and the ,tagliamento4 ,we may also trace the wool1 after it was manufactured1 in its progress towards ,rome1 where was the chief demand for garments of this description4 ,for ,strabo says1 that ,patavium 7,padua71 which was situated at no great distance from ,altinum on the way to ,rome1 was a great and flourishing mart for all kinds of merchandize intended to be sent thither1 and especially for every kind of cloth#ccg4 ,it appears1 therefore1 that the wool-growers and clothiers of the country to the ,north-,east of ,padua1 the modern ,trevisano1 employed that city as an entrept where they disposed of their goods to the ,roman dealers4 ,at the same time we learn1 that this place served as a market for carpets and blankets made of a stronger and more substantial material1 which1 according to the same authority#cch1 was produced in its more immediate vicinity4 #ccg ,l4 v4 cap4 #a4 #f1 #g4 ,strabo alludes to the pastoral occupations of the territory about ,altinum and the ,timavus4 #cch ,strabo4 ,in the ,north-,western portion of ,cisalpine ,gaul the wool was generally coarse1 and according to ,strabo 7l4 c47 the garments made of it were used by the ,italians for the ordinary clothing of their domestic establishments4 ,nevertheless1 black wool of superior value was grown at ,polentia1 now ,polenza1 on the ,stura1 which is a tributary of the ,po#cci4 ,the following two ,epigrams of ,martial 7l4 xiv4 #aeg and #aeh47 allude to the use of the dark wool of ,polentia for mourning and for the dress of inferior domestic servants4 ,polentine ,wools4 #a4 ,not wools alone1 that wear the face of woe2 ,her goblets once did proud ,polentia show4 #b4 ,our sable hue to croplings may belong1 ,that tend the table1 not of primal throng4 ,elphinston's ,translation4 #cci ,pliny1 ,l4 viii4 ,columella1 vii4 #b4 ,to these testimonies may be added ,silius ,italicus de ,bello ,punico1 l4 viii4 #eig4 ,the country people about ,modena and in other parts of the ,northern ,apennines still wear undyed woollen cloth of a gray color4 ,muratori quotes from the statutes of the city of ,modena1 ,a4 ,d4 #acbg1 a law to prevent the makers of such cloth from mixing with their gray wool the hair of oxen1 asses1 or other animals#cdj4 #cdj ,dissertazioni sopra le ,antichit ,italiane1 ,diss4 #cj4 tomo ii4 #dh1 #di1 #dto edition4 ,this author in his #bast ,dissertation endeavors to assign reasons for the decline of the modern ,italians in the growth and manufacture of wool4 ,before quitting ,italy we may properly inquire1 whence and how came the practice of sheep-breeding into ,great ,britain4 ,it has already been observed that the very improved state of the art at ,tarentum may be in part ascribed to the intercourse of its inhabitants with the ,milesians4 ,the reader will have noticed the fact that the worship of ,pan was introduced into ,italy from ,arcadia by ,evander1 from which circumstance it may be reasonably inferred1 that improvements in the management of sheep were also introduced at the same time4 ,according to ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus1 ,evander with his companions was said by the ,romans to have migrated to ,latium about sixty years before the ,trojan war#cda4 ,the same historian alleges that this colony taught in ,italy the use of letters1 of instrumental music and other arts1 established laws1 and brought some degree of refinement instead of the former savage mode of life4 ,the story of the birth of ,romulus and ,remus supposes sheep-breeding to have been practiced at the period of that event1 and in a state of society similar to that which we have found prevailing further eastward2 for it is stated1 that ,faustulus1 who discovered them1 kept the king's flocks4 ,he was 8magister regii pecoris#cdb40 #cda ,hist4 ,rom4 l4 i4 p4 #bj1 #ba4 ed4 ,r4 ,stephani1 ,par4 #aedf4 folio4 ,as it has been a frequent error with nations to push back their annals into a higher antiquity than was consistent with fact1 this may have been the case in the present instance4 ,for it is to be observed1 that according to ,herodotus the worship of ,pan did not arise in ,arcadia until after the time when according to this latter statement it was introduced from ,arcadia into ,latium4 #cdb ,livii l4 i4 c4 #d4 ,according to ,pausanias 7l4 viii4 c4 #c4 #b47 the first ,greek colony1 which went into ,italy1 was from ,arcadia1 being conducted thither by notrus1 an ,arcadian prince#cdc4 ,this was several centuries before the expedition under ,evander1 and the part of ,italy thus colonized was the southern extremity1 afterwards occupied by the ,bruttii#cdd4 ,if with ,niebuhr we regard this tradition only in the light of a genealogical table1 designed to indicate the affinities of tribes and nations1 still the simple fact of the colonization of ,south ,italy by ,arcadians certainly authorizes the conjecture1 that ,arcadia was one of the stepping-stones1 by which the art of sheep-breeding was transported from ,asia into ,europe4 #cdc ,as further evidence for this tradition see ,pherecydis ,fragmenta1 a ,sturtz1 p4 #aij4 ,virg4 n4 i4 #ecb1 and iii4 #afe4 ,compare ,heyne1 ,excursus vi4 ad n4 l4 iii4 #cdd ,heyne1 ,excursus xxi4 ad n4 l4 i4 ,niebuhr1 ,rm4 ,geschichte1 i4 p4 #eg4 ,the reader will have perceived from the observations already made on the worship of ,faunus in ,italy1 that the ,roman ,faunus was the same with the ,arcadian ,pan4 ,it seems no sufficient objection to this hypothesis1 that a few ,roman authors have supposed ,faunus to be either the son of ,mars#cde1 or of ,picus and the grandson of ,saturn1 thus connecting him with their native mythology1 or that his oracle was held by them in high repute#cdf4 ,it is here sufficient to remark1 that we find him extensively recognized in ,italy as a pastoral divinity4 ,stretch'd on the springing grass1 the shepherd swain ,his reedy pipe with rural music fills2 ,the god1 who guards his flock1 approves the strain1 ,the god1 who loves ,arcadia's gloomy hills4 ,horat4 ,carm4 iv4 #ab4 #i-ab4--;,francis's ,translation4 ,the above stanza occurs in a description of the beauties of spring1 and the poet no doubt alludes to the pastoral habits of his ,sabine neighbors4 #cde ,appian apud ,photium4 #cdf ,virgil1 n4 vii4 #dh1 #ha-aje1 and ,heyne1 ,excursus v4 ad loc4 ,from ancient monuments as well as from the language of the poets we find1 that the worship of other divinities was associated with that of ,faunus in reference to the success of all agricultural pursuits including that of sheep-breeding4 ,boissard1 in the ,fourth ,part of his ,antiquitates ,roman1 has published somewhat rude engravings of the bas-reliefs upon two altars1 one of them 7,no4 #acj7 dedicated to ,hope1 the other 7,no4 #acd7 to ,silvanus4 ,the altar to ,hope was erected1 as the inscription expresses1 in a garden at ,rome by ,m4 ,aur4 ,pacorus1 keeper of the temple of ,venus4 ,he says1 that he had been admonished to this deed of piety by a dream2 and1 if the representation in the bas-relief was the image thus presented to his mind1 his dream was certainly a very pleasant one4 ,hope1 wearing on her head a wreath of flowers1 places her right hand upon a pillar and holds in her left poppy-heads and ears of corn4 ,beside her is a bee-hive on the ground1 and on it there is also fixed a bunch of poppy-heads and ears of corn4 ,above these emblems of the fruitfulness of the field and of the garden is the figure of a bale of wool4 ,the altar to ,silvanus exhibits that divinity crowned with the cones and foliage of the pine4 ,a pine grows moreover beside his terminal statue1 bearing the large cones1 which were used for food at entertainments and carried in bacchanalian processions4 ,faunus1 or ,pan1 sits at the foot of the pine1 the syrinx and the double pipe being placed at his feet4 ,in his right hand he holds an olive branch1 while a young winged genius advances towards him as if to receive it1 and another genius of the same kind appears to be caressing him and whispering into his ear4 ,on the other side of the terminal statue of ,silvanus we see the caduceus of ,mercury and the bale of wool1 manifest indications of success in the wool trade4 ,in this sculpture the bale is surrounded with cords1 which are twisted round one another where they cross4 ,in the former instance the compression of the wool appears to be effected by the use of thongs instead of cords#cdg4 ,there is also introduced the figure of a shepherd of the same country4 ,this statue was found in the vicinity of ,rome and is now preserved in the ,vatican#cdh4 ,the extremities are in part restorations4 ,a cameo in the ,florentine ,museum#cdi represents the shepherd ,faustulus sitting upon a rock1 and contemplating the she-wolf1 which is suckling ,romulus and ,remus4 ,it is of the ,augustan age1 and no doubt exhibits the costume and general appearance of a ,roman shepherd of that period4 ,he wears a tunica cucullata1 i4 e4 a tunic of coarse woollen cloth with a cowl1 which was designed to be drawn occasionally over the head and to protect it from the injuries of the weather4 ,this garment has also sleeves1 which ,columella mentions 7tunica manicata7 as an additional comfort4 ,on his feet the shepherd wears high shoes1 or boots1 which1 as we may suppose1 were made of leather4 #cdg ,the bas-relief on the first altar is copied from ,boissard by ,montfaucon1 ,ant4 ,explique1 tome i4 p4 #ccb4 and that on the second1 tome ii4 p4 #bge4 ,the latter is also represented by the ,rev4 ,henry ,moses1 ,collection of ,antique ,vases1 c4 ,plate #eb4 #cdh ,museo ,pio-,clementino1 tomo iii4 tav4 #cd and p4 #dd4 #cdi ,museum ,florentinum4 ,gemm ,antiqu a ,gorio illustrat1 tav4 ii4 ,no4 #aj4 ,the appearance of the shepherds1 who are represented in these ancient works of art1 is1 doubtless1 adapted to produce the impression1 that their condition1 even if it were that of slaves1 was nevertheless one of comfort and respectability4 ,neither their garb1 nor their attitude1 suggests the idea of anything base or miserable4 ,on the contrary1 the countenance of each indicates trust-worthiness1 steadiness1 and care4 ,that many of the agricultural laborers of ancient ,italy had this character may be inferred also from written testimonies4 ,in reference to this subject1 and with a view to illustrate at the same time the habits and employments of the ancient farmer among the ,sabine or ,apulian mountains1 we will here quote some parts of ,horace's ,second ,epode1 in which he describes the pleasures of a country life4 ,like the first mortals blest is he1 ,from debts1 and usury1 and bus'ness free1 ,with his own team who ploughs the soil1 ,which grateful once confess'd his father's toil4 ,the sounds of war nor break his sleep1 ,nor the rough storm1 that harrows up the deep2 ,he shuns the courtier's haughty doors1 ,and the loud science of the bar abjures4 ,either to poplars tall he joins ,the marriageable offspring of his vines2 ,or lops the useless boughs away1 ,inserting happier as the old decay3 ,or in a lonely vale surveys ,his lowing herds1 safe-wand'ring as they graze2 ,or stores in jars his liquid gold ,prest from the hive1 or shears his tender fold4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and1 if a chaste and prudent wife ,perform her part in the sweet cares of life1 ,of sun-burnt charms1 but honest fame1 ,such as the ,sabine or ,apulian dame2 ,if1 when fatigued he homeward turns1 ,the sacred fire1 built up with faggots1 burns2 ,or if in hurdles she inclose ,the joyful flock1 whence ample produce flows2 ,though unbought dainties she prepare1 ,and this year's wines attend the homely fare2 ,no fish would ,i from foreign shore ,desire1 nor relish ,lucrine oysters more4 ,olives1 fresh gather'd from the tree2 ,mallows1 the frame from heaviness to free#cej2 ,a kid snatch'd from the wolf1 a lamb ,to ,terminus with due devotion slain2 ,such is the meal1 his labor o'er2 ,no bird from distant climes ,i'd relish more4 ,meanwhile how pleasant to behold ,his sheep well fed1 and hasting to their fold2 ,to see his wearied oxen bow ,their languid necks1 and drag th' inverted plough2 ,and then his num'rous slaves to view ,round his domestic gods their mirth pursue4 #cej ,see chap4 xii4 p4 #aia4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,sheep ,,breeding ,,and ,,pastoral ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,ancients--,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,scriptures1 c4 ,sheep-breeding in ,germany and ,gaul--,in ,britain--,improved by the ,belgians and ,saxons--,sheep-breeding in ,spain--,natural dyes of ,spanish wool--,golden hue and other natural dyes of the wool of ,btica--,native colors of ,btic wool--,saga and chequered plaids--,sheep always bred principally for the weaver1 not for the butcher--,sheep supplied milk for food1 wool for clothing--,the moth4 ,according to ,tacitus#cea1 the ancient ,germans had abundance of cattle1 although we have no reason to suppose that they had acquired any of that skill in sheep-breeding1 by which their successors in ,silesia and ,saxony are now distinguished4 ,on the contrary1 we are informed by the same author that the only woollen garment1 which they commonly wore1 was the ,sagum1 a term implying the coarseness of the material#ceb4 #cea ,terra pecorum fecunda1 sed plerumque improcera4--,germania1 v4 #b4 #ceb ,nudi1 aut sagulo leves4--,germania1 vi4 #c4 ,tegumen omnibus sagum4 xvii4 #a4 ,we find almost as little in any ancient author in favor of the wool of ,gallia ,transalpina1 the modern ,france4 ,pliny mentions a coarse kind1 more like hair than wool1 which was produced in the neighborhood of ,pezenas in ,provence#cec4 ,martial's account of the ,endromis ,sequanica1 coarse1 but useful to keep off the cold and wet1 bears upon the same point2 ,the frousy foster of a female hand2 ,of name ,laconian1 from a barb'rous land2 ,though rude1 yet welcome to ,december's snow1 ,to thee we bid the homely stranger go3 99 99 99 99 99 ,that into glowing limbs no cold may glide1 ,that baleful ,iris never drench thy pride3 ,this fence shall bid thee scorn the winds and showers2 ,the ,tyrian lawn pretends no equal powers4 ,elphinston's ,translation4 #cec ,see ,appendix ,a4 ,in the following epigram of ,martial 7vi4 #aa471 addressed to his friend ,marcus1 we observe a similar opposition between the fine and fashionable cloth of ,tyre1 and the thick coarse 8sagum0 produced in ,gaul4 ,proud ,tyrian thine1 gross ,gaulish mine array3 ,in purple thee can e'er ,i love in gray8 ,juvenal gives exactly the same account of the woollen manufactures of ,gaul4 ,in the following passage the needy dependant of a rich man is speaking of the lacernas from that country1 which were sometimes presented to him by his patron4 ,some coarse brown cloaks perhaps ,i chance to get1 ,of ,gallic fabric1 as a fence from wet4 ,satir4 ix4 v4 #cj4--,owen's ,translation4 ,to the same effect are several passages in the ,epistles of ,sidonius ,apollinaris1 who was ,bishop of ,clermont in ,auvergne in the fifth century4 ,he mentions1 for example1 that the attendants on ,prince ,sigismer at his marriage wore green ,saga with red borders1 and he describes a friend of his own as wearing the ,endromis#ced4 ,also in an account of his own villa he speaks of the pipe with seven holes1 as the instrument of the shepherds and herdsmen1 who used to entertain themselves during the night with musical contests1 while their cattle were grazing with bells upon their necks4 #ced ,viridantia saga limbis marginata puniceis4 ,l4 iv4 ,ep4 #bj4 ,tu endromidatus exterius4 ,l4 iv4 ,ep4 #b4 ,all these passages are confirmed and illustrated by the testimony of ,strabo4 ,according to him ,gaul produced cattle of all kinds#cee4 ,the ,belg1 who occupied the most northern part1 opposite to ,britain1 excelled the rest of the ,gauls in their manufactures4 ,nevertheless their wool was coarse1 and was spun and woven by them into the thick ,saga1 which were both worn by the natives of the country and exported in great quantities to ,rome and other parts of ,italy4 ,the ,roman settlers1 indeed1 in the most northern parts had flocks of covered sheep1 and their wool was consequently very fine#cef4 #cee ,l4 iv4 cap4 i4 #b4 p4 #f4 ed4 ,siebenkees4 #cef ,l4 iv4 cap4 iv4 #c4 pp4 #ef-ei4 ed4 ,siebenkees4 ,here also may be produced the evidence of ,eumenius1 who in his ,oration1 which will be quoted more fully hereafter1 intimates the abundance of the sheep on the western banks of the ,rhine by saying1 that the flocks of the ,romans were washed in every part of the stream#ceg4 #ceg ,arat illam terribilem aliquando ripam inermis agricola1 et toto nostri greges flumine bicorni mersantur4 p4 #aeb4 ,csar informs us1 that the ancient inhabitants of ,britain had abundance of cattle 7pecoris magnus numerus72 under the word 7pecus7 8cattle10 sheep must no doubt be understood to be included4 ,it also appears1 that in his time the ,celts1 or proper ,britons1 lived to the ,north of the ,thames1 the ,belgians having expelled them and taken possession of the part to the ,south1 called ,cantium or ,kent4 ,these last were by far the most civilized inhabitants of the island1 not much differing in their customs from the ,gauls4 ,with respect to the others1 ,csar says1 that for the most part they did not sow any kind of grain1 but lived upon milk and flesh1 and clothed themselves with skins#ceh4 #ceh ,ex his omnibus long sunt humanissimi1 qui ,cantium incolunt2 qu regio est maritima omnis2 neque multum a ,gallic differunt consuetudine4 ,interiores plerique frumenta non serunt2 sed lacte et carne vivunt1 pellibusqe sunt vestiti4 ,de ,bello ,gallico1 ,i4 v4 cap4 #aj4 ,it appears therefore1 that before our ra1 sheep1 and probably goats1 were bred extensively in ,england1 their milk and flesh being used for food1 and their skins with the wool or hair upon them for clothing2 and that the people of ,kent1 who were of ,belgic origin1 and more refined than the original ,britons1 had attained to the arts of spinning and weaving1 although their productions were only of the coarsest description4 ,eumenius1 the ,rhetorician1 who was a native of ,augustodunum1 now called ,autun1 delivered his ,panegyric in praise of the ,emperors ,constantius and ,constantine in the city of ,treves about ,a4 ,d4 #caj4 ,in the following passage he congratulates ,britain on its various productions1 and also on the circumstance1 that ,constantine had been recently declared ,emperor at ,york on the death of his father3 ,o fortunate ,britain1 now the happiest country upon earth2 for thou hast been the first to see ,constantine made ,emperor4 ,it was fit that on thee ,nature should bestow every blessing of climate and of soil4 ,suffering neither from the excessive severity of winter1 nor the heat of summer1 thy harvests are so fruitful as to supply all the gifts both of ,ceres and of ,bacchus2 thy woods contain no savage beasts1 thy land no noxious serpents1 but an innumerable multitude of tame cattle1 distended with milk1 and loaded with fleeces#cei4 #cei ,panegyrici ,veteres1 ed4 ,cellarii1 ,hal ,magd4 #agjc4 pp4 #adg1 #adh4 ,the improvements in sheep-breeding which were first introduced into ,england by the ,belgians1 appear to have been advanced still further by the ,saxons4 ,the only country1 which now remains to be surveyed in relation to the production of sheep's wool1 is ,spain2 and1 as this kingdom retains its pre-eminence at the present day1#cfj so we find none1 in which sheep-breeding was carried to a greater extent in ancient times4 #cfj ,for accounts of the state of sheep-breeding in modern ,spain1 including the annual migration of the flocks1 which is conducted there as in ,italy1 the reader is referred to 8,travels through ,portugal and ,spain in #aggb1 #aggc1 by ,r4 ,twiss10 pp4 #gb-hb2 and to ,de la ,borde's ,view of ,spain1 vol4 iv4 pp4 #de-fa1 ,english ,translation4 ,london1 #ahji4 ,of all the countries in ,europe1 says ,mr4 ,low1 ,spain has been the longest distinguished for the excellence of its wool4 ,this fine country1 more varied in its surface and natural productions than any other region of the like extent in ,europe1 produces a great variety of breeds of sheep1 from the larger animals of the richer plains1 to the smaller races of the higher mountains and arid country4 ,besides the difference produced in the sheep of ,spain by varieties of climate and natural productions2 the diversity of character in the animals may be supposed to have been increased by the different races introduced into it3--first1 from ,asia1 by the early ,phnician colonies2 secondly1 from ,africa by the ,carthaginians1 during their brief possession2 thirdly1 from ,italy by the ,romans1 during their dominion of six hundred years2 and fourthly1 again from ,africa1 by the ,moors1 who maintained a footing in the country for nearly eight centuries4 ,the large sheep of the plains have long wool1 often colored brown or black4 ,the sheep of the mountains1 downs1 and arid plains have short wool1 of different degrees of fineness1 and different colors4 ,the most important of these latter breeds is the merino1 now the most esteemed and widely diffused of all the fine-wooled breeds of ,europe4 ,pliny not only refers in general terms to the various natural colors of the ,spanish wool1 but mentions more particularly the red wool produced in the district adjoining the river ,btis1 or ,guadalquiver#cfa4 #cfa ,see ,appendix ,a4 ,among the natural colors of the ,btic wool1 ,columella1 a native of ,cadiz1 7vii4 #b47 mentions1 as has been already stated1 gray and brown4 ,the latter is what we call drab1 and the ,spaniards fusco4 ,it is now commonly worn by the shepherds and peasants of ,spain1 the wool being made into clothes without dyeing4 ,nonius ,marcellus 7cap4 #af4 n4 #ac71 explaining the word pullus1 which was called a native color1 because it was the natural color of the fleece1 also shows1 that this was a common quality of the ,spanish wool4 ,another testimony is that of ,tertullian4 ,the sheep of ,tarentum were imported into this part of ,spain1 and there also their fleeces were protected by clothing4 ,columella 7,l4 vii4 #b47 gives a very interesting account of the experiments made by his uncle1 a great agriculturalist of ,btica1 in crossing his ,tarentine breed with some wild rams of an extraordinary color1 which had been brought from ,africa to ,cadiz4 7,see latter part of next chapter47 ,we have a further evidence of the pains taken to improve the ,spanish breed in the circumstance1 that ,italian shepherds passed into ,spain1 just as we have formerly seen1 that they migrated into ,italy from ,arcadia4 ,in the following lines of ,calpurnius 7,ecl4 iv4 #cg-di471 ,corydon1 a young shepherd1 tells his friend and patron1 ,melibus1 that he should have been transported into ,btica1 had not the times improved1 and his master's favor enabled him to remain in ,italy4 ,through thee ,i rest secure beneath the shade1 ,such plenty hath thy generous bounty made1 ,but for thy favor1 ,melibus1 sent ,where ,btis' waves the western plains indent1 ,plains at the earth's extremest verge1 expos'd ,to the fierce ,moors1 which ,geryon once inclos'd4 ,there had ,i now been doom'd to tend for hire ,iberian flocks1 or else of want expire3 ,in vain ,i might have tun'd my seven-fold reed3 ,mid thickets vast no soul my strains would heed3 ,not even ,pan on that far-distant shore ,would lend his vacant ear1 or be my solace more4 ,juvenal in his ,twelfth ,satire 7l4 #cg-db47 describes a merchant overtaken by a dreadful storm1 and to save the ship throwing his most valuable goods into the sea4 ,it will be observed1 that the poet attributes the excellence and fine natural color of the woollen cloth of ,btica to three causes1 the rich herbage1 the occult properties of the water1 and those of the air4 8,over with mine10 he cries2 8be nothing spar'd20 ,to part with all his richest goods prepar'd2 ,his vests of ,tyrian purple1 fit to please ,the softest of the silken sons of ease1 ,and other robes1 which took a native stain ,from air and water on the ,btic plain4 ,owen's ,translation4 ,strabo 7iii4 #add4 p4 #che4 ed4 ,sieb47 gives the following account of the wool of ,turdetania4 1 1 1 4 8,much cloth used formerly to come from this country4 ,now also fleeces come from it more than from the ,coraxi2 and they are exceedingly beautiful1 so that rams for breeding are sold for a talent each4 ,also the fine webs are very famous1 which are made by the ,saltiat40--,yates's ,translation4 ,the reader will please to remark1 that this is the passage of ,strabo1 formerly referred to as containing evidence respecting the ,coraxi4 ,martial1 a ,spaniard by birth1 frequently alludes to the sheep of ,btica and especially to the various natural colors of their wool1 which were so much admired1 that it was manufactured without dyeing4 ,two of his epigrams 7iv4 #bh4 and viii4 #bh47 have been already quoted1 as they refer also to the sheep of ,tarentum3 to these the seven following may be added4 ,in the ,tartessian lands a house appears1 ,where ,cordova o'er placid ,btis rears ,her wealthy domes2 and where the fleeces show ,metallic tints1 like living gold that glow4 ix4 #fb4 ,corduba1 more joyous far ,than ,venafrum's unctuous boast2 ,nor inferior to the jar1 ,that renowns glad ,istria's coast3 ,who surmount'st the fleecy breed1 ,that the bright ,galesus laves2 ,nor bidd'st lying purple bleed ,o'er the hue1 that nature craves4 xii4 #fc4--;,elphinston's ,translation4 ,btis1 with wreaths of unctuous olive crown'd1 ,for ,bacchus' and for ,pallas' gifts renown'd2 ,whose waters clear a golden hue impart ,to fleeces1 that require no further art2 ,such wealth the ,ruler of the waves conveys ,in ships1 that mark with foam thy liquid ways4 xii4 #ii4 ,lacernas from ,btica4 ,my wool disdains a lye1 or caldron hue4 ,poor ,tyre may take it3 me my sheep imbue4 xiv4 #acc4--;,elphinston's ,translation4 ,charming ,ero's golden lock ,beat the fleece of ,btic flock4 v4 #cg4 ,see #ba4--;,ib4 ,btic fleeces1 many a pound4 xii4 #fe4 l4 #e4 ,let him commend the sober native hues2 ,of ,btic drab1 or gray1 lacernas choose1 ,who thinks no man in scarlet should appear1 ,and only women pink or purple wear4 i4 #ig4 ,the numerous passages1 which have now been produced relative to the native colors of the ,spanish wool1 explain the following line of ,virgil1 in which he describes the clothing of a warrior2 ,with broider'd chlamys bright1 and ,spanish rust4 n4 ix4 #ehb4 ,the poet probably intended to describe an outer garment1 a chlamys1 made of undyed ,spanish wool of a clear brown or yellowish color1 resembling that of rust2 and afterwards enriched with embroidery4 ,ramirez de ,prado1 the ,spanish commentator on ,martial 7#dto4 ,paris1 #afjg471 says1 that two native colors were common in ,spain in his time1 the one a golden yellow1 the other more brown or ferruginous4 ,in the ,north of ,spain the ,celtiberi wore saga made of a coarse wool like goats'-hair 7,diod4 ,sic4 v4 #cc4 tom4 i4 p4 #cef4 ,wesseling471 and woven double according to ,appian#cfb4 #cfb ,appiani ,hist4 ,rom4 l4 vi4 de ,rebus ,hispan41 vol4 i4 p4 #aea4 ed4 ,schweighuser4 ,at ,salacia in ,lusitania1 according to ,pliny1 a chequered pattern was employed in the manufacture of the coarse wool4 ,this was in all probability the same as the shepherd's plaid of the ,scotch1 the weaver taking advantage of the natural difference of the white and black wool to produce this variety of appearance4 7,see ,appendix ,a47 ,estremadura1 a part of the ancient ,btica1 is still famous for its wool4 ,there the ,spanish flocks hybernate1 and under the direction of a peculiar code of laws1 called ,la ,mesta1 are conducted every spring to pasture in the mountains of ,leon and ,asturias4 ,other flocks are led in the same season from great distances to the heights of the ,sierra ,morena1 lying to the east of the ancient ,btica1 where the vegetation is remarkably favorable to the improvement of their wool4 ,as bearing directly upon the present inquiry it may be observed1 that sheep have always been bred principally for the weaver1 not for the butcher1 and that this has been more especially the case in ancient times and in eastern countries4 ,if we may judge from the following epigram of ,martial1 the ,romans regarded with feelings little short of aversion the act of killing a sheep for food except on solemn or extraordinary occasions4 ,the ,ram's head4 ,hast pierc'd the neck of the ,phryxean lord1 ,who oft had shelter'd thine8 ,o deed abhorr'd6 xii4 #baa4--;,elphinston's ,translation4 ,the customs of the shepherd tribes in the ,east are in this respect remarkably like those of the ancients4 8,the ,arabs rarely diminish their flocks by using them for food1 but live chiefly upon bread1 dates1 milk1 butter1 or what they receive in exchange for their wool4 ,they however sell their sheep to the people in the towns4 ,a lamb or kid roasted whole is a favorite dish at ,aleppo1 but seldom eaten except by the rich#cfc40 ,when the ,arabs have a sheep-shearing1 they perhaps kill a lamb1 and treat their relations and friends with it together with new cheese and milk1 but nothing more4 ,among the ,mohammedans sheep are sacrificed on certain days as a festive and at the same time a religious ceremony2 these ceremonies are of great antiquity and derived from ,arab heathenism4 ,on the pilgrimage to ,mecca every one is required to sacrifice a sheep at a certain place near ,mecca#cfd4 #cfc ,harmer s ,observations1 vol4 i4 p4 #cic4 ed4 ,clarke4 #cfd ,harmer1 p4 #ci4 ,pallas 7,spicilegia ,zoologica1 ,fasc4 xi4 p4 #gi47 speaks of the beautiful lamb-skins from ,bucharia1 as being admired for their curled gray wool4 ,by the ,law of ,moses the sheep was a clean animal1 and might consequently be eaten or sacrificed4 ,a lamb or kid1 roasted whole1 was the principal and characteristic dish at the feast of the passover4 ,the rich man kills a lamb to entertain his guest in the beautiful parable of ,nathan4 7#b ,sam4 xii4 #d47 ,sheep were killed on the festive occasion of shearing the very numerous flocks of ,nabal4 7#a ,sam4 xxv4 #b4 #aa4 #ah47 ,an ox and six choice sheep were sacrificed daily for the numerous guests of ,nehemiah1 while he was building the wall of ,jerusalem4 7,neh4 v4 #ag1 #ah47 ,immense numbers of sheep and oxen were sacrificed at the dedication of ,solomon's temple4 7#a ,kings1 viii4 #e4 #fc47 ,the prophet ,ezekiel 7xxxiv4 #c47 describes the bad shepherd as selfishly eating the flesh and clothing himself with the wool of the sheep1 without tending them with due care and labor4 ,in the ,suovetaurilia among the ,romans a hog1 a sheep1 and a bull1 their principal domestic animals1 were sacrificed4 ,a sheep was killed every day for the guards1 who watched the tomb of ,cyrus4 7,arrian1 vol4 i4 p4 #dch1 ,blancardi47 ,in the ,odyssey 74 #ahj-ahb47 a sacrifice is made and a feast prepared of sheep1 goats1 hogs1 and a cow4 ,also in ,od4 v4 #c4 #bej4 sheep are sacrificed and furnish part of a feast4 ,in order to ratify a treaty between the ,greeks and ,trojans1 the former sacrificed a lamb of the male sex to ,jupiter2 the latter one of the male sex and white to the ,sun1 and another of the female sex and black to the ,earth4 7,il4 4 #ajc1 #ajd47 ,sheep are sacrificed to ,apollo at ,delphi in ,euripides1 ,ion1 l4 #bcj4 #chj4 ,the rare instances of the use of sheep for food or sacrifice by the ,egyptians have been already noticed4 ,but1 although sheep1 both old and young1 male and female1 were sacrificed to the objects of religious worship and on other festive occasions were eaten1 especially by the rich and great1 yet their chief use was to supply clothing1 and the nourishment they yielded consisted in their milk and the cheese made from it1 rather than in their flesh4 ,this fact is illustrated by the words of ,solomon1 formerly quoted1 and in which he speaks of lambs for clothing and goat's milk for food4 ,in like manner ,st4 ,paul says 7#a ,cor4 ix4 #g471 8,who planteth a vineyard1 and eateth not of the fruit thereof8 or who feedeth a flock1 and eateth not of the milk of the flock80 ,varro thinks1 that sheep were employed for the use of man before any other animal on account of their usefulness and placidity1 and he represents their use to consist in supplying cheese and milk for food1 fleeces and skins for clothing#cfe4 ,in like manner ,columella in his account of the use of sheep 7vii4 #b47 says1 they afforded the chief materials for clothing4 ,in treating of their use for food1 he mentions only their milk and cheese4 ,pliny refers to the employment of sheep both for sacrifices and for clothing4 ,he also remarks1 that as the ox is principally useful in obtaining food1 to wit1 by ploughing and other agricultural processes1 the sheep1 on the other hand1 supplies materials for clothing#cff4 #cfe ,de ,re ,rustica1 l4 ii4 cap4 i4 #cff ,see ,appendix ,a4 ,the fact1 that wool was among the ancients by far the most common material for making clothes1 accounts for the various expressions in scripture respecting the destructiveness of the moth4 8,your garments are moth-eaten40 ,james v4 #b4 8,he1 as a rotten thing1 consumeth1 as a garment that is moth-eaten40--,job xiii4 #bh4 8,they all shall wax old as a garment1 the moth shall eat them up40--,is4 l4 #i4 8,the moth shall eat them up like a garment1 and the worms shall eat them like wool40 ,is4 li4 #h4 8,from garments cometh a moth40 ,eccles4 xlii4 #ac4 8,treasures1 where moth and rust corrupt40 ,matt4 vi4 #ai4 ,but it is to be observed1 that the sacred writers mention not the moth1 but the minute worm1 which changes into a moth1 and which alone gnaws the garments4 ,in the passages which have been quoted1 the word 8moth0 must be understood to signify the larva#cfg of the clothes-moth 7,phalna ,vestianella1 ,linn471 or of some insect of the same kind4 #cfg ,when an insect first issues from the egg1 it is called by naturalists larva4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,goats-,,hair4 ,,ancient ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,goat--,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,scriptures1 ,,etc4 ,sheep-breeding and ,goats in ,china--,probable origin of sheep and goats--,sheep and goats coeval with man1 and always propagated together--,habits of ,grecian goat-herds--,he-goat employed to lead the flock--,cameo representing a goat-herd--,goats chiefly valued for their milk--,use of goats'-hair for coarse clothing--,shearing of goats in ,phrygia1 ,cilicia1 c4--,vestes caprina1 cloth of goats'-hair--,use of goats'-hair for military and naval purposes--,curtains to cover tents--,etymology of ,sack and ,shag--,symbolical uses of sack-cloth--,the ,arabs weave goats'-hair--,modern uses of goats'-hair and goats'-wool--,introduction of the ,angora or ,cashmere goat into ,france--,success of the project4 ,the inquiry into the origin and propagation of the ,goat1 no less than that of the sheep1 may justly be considered a subject for interesting investigation4 ,goats were no less highly prized by the ancient inhabitants of ,greece and ,italy than by the modern4 ,we have seen1 that the great value of sheep always consisted in its fleece4 ,the goat1 on the contrary1 was more valued for the excellence and abundance of its milk1 and for its suitableness to higher and more rugged and unproductive land#cfh4 #cfh ,virgil1 ,georg4 iii4 #cje-cba4 ,we observe a clear allusion to this distinction between the principal uses of sheep and of goats in the twenty-seventh chapter of the book of ,proverbs#cfi4 ,the management and use of goats has from time immemorial formed a striking feature in the condition of man1 and especially of those nations which belong to the ,caucasian1 or1 as ,dr4 ,prichard more properly denominates it1 the ,iranian or ,indo-,atlantic variety of our race#cgj4 ,their habits of sheep-breeding seem no less characteristic than the form of their countenances1 a no less essential part of their manner of life than any other custom1 by which they are distinguished3 and1 as all the circumstances1 which throw any light upon the question1 conspire to render it probable1 that the above-mentioned variety of the human race first inhabited part of the high land of central ,asia1 so it is remarkable1 that our domestic sheep and goats may with the greatest probability be referred to the same stock with certain wild animals1 which now overspread those regions4 ,the sheep1 as has been already observed in chapter ,i41 is regarded as specifically the same with the ,argali2 and in the opinion of ,pallas1 which has been very generally adopted by zoologists1 the goat is the same with the gagrus1 a gregarious quadruped1 which occupies the loftiest parts of the mountains extending from the ,caucasus to the ,south of the ,caspian ,sea1 and thence to the ,north of ,india#cga4 ,indeed the history of these animals is so interwoven with the history of man1 that those naturalists have not reasoned quite correctly1 who have thought it necessary to refer the first origin of either of them to any wild stock at all4 ,they assume1 that these quadrupeds first existed in an undomesticated state1 that is1 entirely apart from man and independent of him2 that1 as he advanced in civilization1 as his wants multiplied1 and he became more ingenious and active in inventing methods of supplying them1 the thought struck him1 that he might obtain from these wild beasts the materials of his food and clothing2 and that he therefore caught and confined some of them and in the course of time rendered them by cultivation more and more suitable to his purposes4 #cfi 8,be thou diligent to know the state of thy flocks1 and look well to thy herds4 ,the lambs are for thy clothing1 and the goats are the price of thy field2 and thou shalt have goats' milk enough for thy food1 for the food of thy household1 and for the maintenance of thy maidens40 ,prov4 xxvii4 #bc1 #bf1 #bg4 ,bochart has quoted a great variety of ancient testimonies to the value of goats'-milk in his ,hierozoicon1 l4 ii4 cap4 #ea4 pp4 #fbi1 #fcj4 ed4 ,leusden4 #cgj ,see ,prichard's ,researches into the ,physical ,history of ,mankind1 third edition1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bdg4 #beg-bfb4 #cjc1 #cjd4 ,these nations are characterized by the oval form of the skull4 ,their distribution over the face of the earth may be seen in the ,map1 ,plate ,,vii4 ,the only remarkable exception to this limitation of ancient sheep-breeding1 is the case of the ,chinese4 ,it would appear from the following evidence1 that they had both sheep and goats in ancient times4 ,the ,chinese character for a sacrifice is a compound of two characters1 one placed above the other2 the upper one1 ,yang1 is the character for a lamb1 the lower is the character for fire2 so that a lamb on the fire denotes a sacrifice4 ,see ,morison's ,chinese ,dictionary1 vol4 iii4 part i4 ,according to the mythology of the ,chinese1 which as well as their written characters is of high antiquity1 one of the four rivers1 which rise in ,mount ,kaen-lun and run towards the four quarters of the globe1 is called the ,yang-,choui1 i4 e4 the ,lamb-,river4 ,thomas ,stephens ,davies1 ,esq4 in ,dr4 ,robert ,thomson's ,british ,annual for #ahcg1 p4 #bga1 #bgg4 ,yang-,ching1 i4 e4 ,sheep-city1 was an ancient name of ,canton4 ,morison1 p4 #ee4 ,there is a character for the ,goat1 which means the ,yang of the mountains1 ,yang being a general term like the ,hebrew 1 including both sheep and goats4 ,ib4 p4 #fa1 #fb4 ,in the following passage of ,rufus ,festus ,avienus1 who flourished about ,a4 ,d4 #djj1 we have a distinct testimony1 that the ancient ,seres1 the probable ancestors of the ,chinese1 employed themselves in the care of sheep at the same time that they were devoted to the production of silk4 ,gregibus permixti oviumque boumque1 ,vellera per silvas ,seres nemoralia carpunt4 ,descriptio ,orbis ,terr1 l4 #ice1 #icf4 #cga ,pallas1 ,spicilegia ,zoologica1 ,fasciculus xi4 pp4 #dc1 #dd4 ,see also ,bell's ,history of ,british ,quadrupeds1 ,london1 #ahcg1 p4 #dcc4 ,we have no reason to assume1 that man and the two lesser kinds of horned cattle were originally independent of one another4 ,so far as geology supplies any evidence1 it is in favor of the supposition1 that these quadrupeds and man belong to the same epoch4 ,no properly fossil bones either of the sheep or goat have yet been found1 and we have no reason to believe1 that these animals were produced until the creation of man4 ,but1 as we must suppose1 that man was created perfect and full-grown1 and with those means of subsistence around him1 which his nature and constitution require1 there is no reason why the sheep and the goat may not have been created in such a state as to be adapted immediately both for clothing and for food1 or why it should be considered more probable that they were at first entirely wild4 ,they may have been produced originally in the same abode1 which was occupied by that variety of the human race1 to whose habits and mode of life the use of them has always been so essential2 and1 if we assume1 that this abode was somewhere in the elevated land of central ,asia1 in the region1 for example1 of ,armenia1 we adopt an hypothesis1 which explains in the most simple and satisfactory manner the apparent fact of the propagation not only of men1 but of these quadrupeds with them1 from that centre over immense regions of the globe4 ,with regard to historical evidence1 it is certainly very defective4 ,no express testimony assures us of the facts included in the above-named hypothesis4 ,one thing1 however1 is certain1 and it appears very deserving of attention1 viz4 that the sheep and the goat have always been propagated together4 ,we find great nations1 which had no acquaintance with either of these quadrupeds1 but depended for their subsistence upon either oxen or horses4 ,we find others1 on the contrary1 to whose mode of life the larger quadrupeds were of much less importance than the smaller2 but we find none1 which were accustomed to breed sheep without goats1 or goats without sheep4 ,the reader will find numerous illustrations of this fact on reviewing the evidence contained in the preceding chapters4 ,general terms were employed in the ancient world to include both sheep and goats#cgb4 ,where more specific terms are used1 we still find 8rams and goats10 8ewes and she-goats0 mentioned together4 ,sheep and goats were offered together in sacrifice1 and the instances are too numerous to mention1 in which the same flock1 or the wealth of a single individual1 included both these animals4 #cgb ,it should be observed1 that the ,hebrew word translated sheep in ,ex4 ix4 #c4 included ,goats4 ,in consequence of this prevailing association of sheep and goats1 they are often represented together in ancient bas-reliefs and other works of art4 ,of this we have a beautiful example in the ,rev4 ,robert ,walpole's collection of 8,travels in various countries of the ,east40 ,at the end of the volume is a plate taken from a votive tablet of ,pentelic marble dedicated to ,pan1 and representing five goats1 two sheep1 and a lamb4 ,as the goats are in one group1 and the sheep and lamb in another1 the artist probably designed to represent a flock of each4 ,for1 though sometimes mixed in the same flock1 the two kinds of animals were generally kept apart2 and to this circumstance our ,savior alludes in his image of the shepherd dividing the sheep from the goats#cgc4 #cgc 8,when the ,son of man shall come in his glory1 and all the holy angels with him1 then shall he sit upon the throne of his glory3 and before him shall be gathered all nations3 and he shall separate them one from another1 as a shepherd divides his sheep from the goats3 and he shall set the sheep on his right hand1 but the goats on the left40--,matt4 xxv4 #ca-cc4 ,a sheep and a goat are seen reposing together in a ,roman bas-relief in the ,monumenta ,matthiana1 vol4 iii4 tab4 #cg4 fig4 #a4 ,rosselini gives two paintings from ,egyptian tombs1 which exhibit both sheep and goats#cgd2 and he mentions an inscription on the tomb of ,ranni1 according to which that person had #abj goats1 #cjj rams1 #aejj hogs1 and #abb oxen4 #cgd ,monumenti dell' ,egitto1 parte ii4 ,mon4 ,civili1 tomo i4 cap4 iii4 #b4 tavola xxviii4 xxix4 ,in the account given in chapter ,,ii4 of the ,sicilian ,daphnis1 an epigram by ,callimachus on ,astacides1 who was a goatherd in ,crete1 was partially quoted1 probably remarkable for his beauty and his immature death4 ,the translation of the passage will now be given4 1 1 1 ' 4 ,a nymph has snatch'd ,astacides away2 ,beneath ,dictan oaks our goatherd lies3 ,shepherds6 no more your songs to ,daphnis pay2 ,for now with him the sacred ,cretan vies4 ,yates's ,translation4 ,theocritus 7,idyll4 vii4 #ab-bj47 describes a goatherd of ,cydon in ,crete1 named ,lycidas2 and from the account which he gives of his attire1 we may judge of that commonly used in ancient ,greece by the same description of persons4 ,he wore on his shoulders the dun-colored hide of a shaggy goat1 and an old shawl was fastened about his breast with a broad girdle4 ,in his right hand he held a crook of wild olive4 ,the same author 7,idyll4 iii4 #e47 mentions a fine strong he-goat1 which was brought from ,lybia to ,sicily4 ,the design of its transportation was1 no doubt1 to improve the breed4 ,probably ,chromis1 the ,lybian 7,idyll4 i4 #bd471 who resided in ,sicily1 had migrated there to undertake the management of goats and to improve their quality4 ,maximus ,tyrius 7,diss4 xxvii47 seems to suppose1 that a flock of goats could not even exist without the music of the syrinx4 8,if you take away10 says he1 8the goatherd and his syrinx1 you dissolve the flock of goats2 in like manner1 if you take away reason from the society of men1 thus depriving them of their leader and guide1 you destroy the flock1 which by nature is tame1 but may be injured by a bad superintendence40 ,the he-goat was employed to lead the flock as the ram was among sheep4 ,the following passages of scripture allude to this custom4 8,remove out of the midst of ,babylon1 and go forth out of the land of the ,chaldeans1 and be as the he-goats before the flocks40 ,jer4 l4 #h4 8,mine anger was kindled against the shepherds1 and ,i punished the goats40 ,zech4 x4 #c4 ,in ,proverbs xxx4 #ca41 according to the ,septuagint version1 we read of 8the goat which leads the flock40 ,julius ,pollux 7,lib4 i4 cap4 #ab4 sect4 #ai47 says1 that 8,the he-goat leads the goats#cge40 #cge ,see also lian1 ,hist4 ,anim4 vi4 #db4 and ,pausanias1 ix4 #ac4 #d4 ,on a cameo in the ,florentine ,museum there is a representation of an ancient goatherd#cgf4 ,the goatherd holds the syrinx in his left hand1 and a young kid in his right4 ,a goat stands beside him1 and his dog appears partially concealed within a kennel formed in the rock1 upon which the goatherd is seated4 ,the herdsman is represented sitting under an aged ilex4 ,at least this supposition accords with the language of ,tibullus already quoted4 #cgf ,mus4 ,florentinum4 ,gemm antiqu a ,gorio illustrat4 tab4 xc4 ,no4 #g4 ,a modern authoress1 who spent some of the summer months in the year #ahai among the mountains east of ,rome1 notices goats in the following terms as part of the stock of the farmers in that country4 8,we frequently walked to one of these little farms1 to meet the goats coming in at night from the mountain4 ,as the flock crowded down the broken road leading to the fold1 followed by their grotesque-looking shepherd and his rough dogs1 the pet-kids crowding round their master and answering to his call1 we could not help thinking of the antique manners described by the poets1 and represented in the pictures of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii4 8,the goats are the most useful domestic animals4 ,here no other cheese or milk is tasted4 ,besides1 the ricotta1 a kind of curd1 and junkets1 are made of goats'-milk1 and1 with bread serve many of the country people for food#cgg40 #cgg ,three ,months passed in the ,mountains east of ,rome1 by ,maria ,graham 7,lady ,calcott71 p4 #cf4 #ee1 #ef4 ,the same writer says1 that 8black sheep are rather encouraged here for the wool10 and that 8the clothing of the friars is of this undyed wool40 p4 #ee4 ,from ,athenus#cgh we learn the superior excellence of the goats of ,scyros and ,naxos4 #cgh ,quoted in ,chapter ,i4 p4 #bcf4 lian bears testimony to the same fact1 observing1 that the cows of ,epirus were said to yield the greatest quantity of milk1 and the goats of ,scyros4 ,hist4 ,anim4 l4 iii4 cap4 #cc4 ,from ,tournefort1 ,sonnini1 and other modern travellers we learn1 that both ,scyros and ,naxos are very rocky and mountainous1 and that they still produce goats4 ,see also ,dapper1 ,description des ,isles de l',archipel1 p4 #bef4 #cej4 ,virgil 7l4 c471 after mentioning the use of goats for food1 goes on to show their contributions to the weaver4 ,cloth'd in their shaven beards and hoary hair1 ,fence of the ocean spray and nightly air1 ,the miserable seaman breasts the main1 ,and camps uninjur'd press the marshy plain4 ,sotheby's ,translation4 ,the last line of this passage of ,virgil is quoted by ,columella 7,l4 vii4 #f47 in speaking of the utility of the he-goat2 ,for he himself is shorn 8for the use of camps and to make coverings for wretched sailors40 ,virgil1 moreover1 has here followed ,varro1 who writes thus2 ,as the sheep yields to man wool for clothing1 so the goat furnishes hair for the use of sailors1 and to make ropes for military engines1 and vessels for artificers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the goats are shorn in a great part of ,phrygia1 because there they have long shaggy hair4 ,cilicia 7i4 e4 hair-cloths71 and other things of the same kind1 are commonly imported from that country4 ,the name ,cilicia is said to be derived from the circumstance1 that in ,cilicia goats were first shorn for this purpose4 ,de ,re ,rustica1 ,l4 ii4 c4 ii4 p4 #bja4 ed4 ,bip4 ,the language of ,varro in this passage indicates1 that the female goat was shorn as well as the male2 and that the excellence of goats'-hair1 which was used only for coarse articles1 consisted in its length4 ,columella mentions the long bristly hair of the ,cilician goats#cgi4 #cgi ,setosum1 quale est in ,cilicia4 ,de ,re ,rustica1 l4 i4 ,prf4 p4 #bj4 ed4 ,bip4 ,aristotle says1 8,in ,lycia goats are shorn1 as sheep are in other countries40 ,hist4 ,anim4 viii4 #bh4 ,this testimony of ,aristotle agrees with that of his nephew and pupil1 ,callisthenes1 who says 7ap4 lian4 de ,nat4 ,anim4 xvi4 #cj471 8that in ,lycia goats are shorn just as sheep are everywhere else2 for that they have a very thick coat of excellent hair1 hanging from them in locks or curls2 and that this hair is twisted so as to make ropes1 which are used in navigation instead of cables40 ,pliny1 in his account of goats#chj1 says1 8,in ,cilicia and about the ,syrtes they are covered with hair1 which admits of being shorn40 ,from this it may be inferred1 in conformity with the testimonies already cited from ,varro and ,virgil1 that the longest and best goats'-hair was obtained in ,cilicia1 and on the coast of ,africa opposite to ,sicily and ,malta1 the modern ,tripoli4 ,it is remarkable1 that ,virgil1 in order to designate the latter district1 refers to the romantic river ,cinyps1 which flowed through it1 observing the same practice1 which we have seen to be so common with the poets in regard to the countries noted for the produce of the most excellent wool4 ,in the interior and more hilly portion of this district of ,africa both sheep and goats are still reared#cha4 #chj ,l4 viii4 c4 #gf4 ,see ,appendix ,a4 #cha ,proceedings of the ,expedition to explore the ,northern ,coast of ,africa from ,tripoli ,eastward1 by ,beechey1 ch4 iv4 p4 #gc4 ,in the same chapter1 p4 #eb4 #fb-fh1 is an account of the ,wad'el ,khahan1 the ancient ,cinyps4 ,the geographer ,avienus asserts that goats'-hair was obtained for the purpose of being woven in the country of the ,cynet in ,spain#chb4 ,isidore of ,seville1 in his enumeration of the different kinds of cloth 7,orig4 xix4 #bb471 uses the following expressions3 8,fibrini 7vestis est7 tramam de fibri lan habens3 caprina40 ,thus the text now stands1 evidently defective4 ,the writer no doubt alluded to a kind of cloth called caprina1 because goats'-hair was used in the manufacture of it4 ,beckmann 7,history of ,inventions1 ,eng4 ,trans41 vol4 iv4 p4 #bbd47 proposes to read1 8tramam de fibri lan habens1 stamen de caprin10 i4 e4 8having the woof of beaver-wool1 the warp of goats'-wool40 ,but the ancients were unacquainted with the fine wool of certain goats1 and it is highly improbable1 that they used goats'-hair in the case referred to1 since the 8,vestes ,fibrin0 were of great value1 as will soon be shown1 and not made in any part of coarse materials4 #chb ,rufi ,festi ,avieni ,ora ,maritima1 l4 #bah-bba4 ,the cloth of goats'-hair would be suitable for sailors1 both on account of their hardy mode of life1 and because it was better adapted than any other kind to bear exposure to water4 ,its use as clothing to express mourning and mortification will be noticed presently4 ,the employment of goats'-hair for military and naval purposes was far more extensive1 and is proved by the following passage from the ,geoponica 7xviii4 #i47 in addition to the former testimonies4 1 77 4 1 1 1 1 1 4 ,the goat yields no small profit from its milk1 cheese1 and 7flesh74 ,it also yields a profit from its hair1 which is necessary for making ropes1 sacks1 and similar articles1 and for nautical purposes1 since it is not easily cut1 and does not rot from natural causes1 unless it be much neglected4--,yates's ,translation4 ,cicero 7in ,verrem1 ,act i47 mentions ,cilicia together with hides and sacks1 and ,asconius ,pedianus in his ,commentary on the passage 7p4 #ie4 ed4 ,crenii47 gives the following explanation3 8,cilicia texta de pilis in castrorum usum atque nautarum40 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,georg4 iii4 #cac4 says1 that these ,cilicia1 or cloths of goats'-hair1 were used to cover the towers in sieges1 because they could not be set on fire4 ,the reader is referred to the ,poliorcetica of ,lipsius1 ,l4 iii4 ,dial4 #c4 p4 #aeh4 for evidence respecting the use of hair ropes for military engines1 and to ,l4 v4 ,dial4 ix4 for passages from ,thucydides1 ,arrian1 ,ammianus1 ,suidas1 ,vegetius1 ,curtius1 and others1 proving1 that the besieged in cities hung ,cilicia over their towers and walls to obviate the force of the various weapons hurled against them1 and especially of the arrows1 which carried fire4 ,from ,exodus we learn#chc1 that the ,israelites in the wilderness among their contributions to the ,tabernacle gave goats'-hair1 and that it was spun by women4 ,the spun goats'-hair was probably used in part to make cords for the tent2 but part of it at least was woven into the large pieces1 called in the ,septuagint 8curtains of goats'-hair40 ,such curtains1 or ,saga1 of spun goats'-hair seem to have been commonly used for the covering of tents#chd4 #chc 8,and thou shalt make curtains of goats'-hair to be a covering upon the tabernacle3 eleven curtains shalt thou make4 ,the length of one curtain shall be thirty cubits1 and the breadth of one curtain four cubits3 and the eleven curtains shall be all of one measure4 ,and thou shalt couple five curtains by themselves1 and six curtains by themselves1 and shalt double the sixth curtain in the forefront of the tabernacle4 ,and thou shalt make fifty loops on the edge of the one curtain that is outmost in the coupling1 and fifty loops in the edge of the curtain which coupleth the second4 ,and thou shalt make fifty taches of brass1 and put the taches into the loops1 and couple the tent together1 that it may be one4 ,and the remnant that remaineth of the curtains of the tent1 the half curtain that remaineth1 shall hang over the backside of the tabernacle4 ,and a cubit on the one side1 and a cubit on the other side of that which remaineth in the length of the curtains of the tent1 it shall hang over the sides of the tabernacle on this side and on that side1 to cover it40--,ex4 xxvi4 #g-ac4 #chd 8,and he made curtains of goats-hair for the tent over the tabernacle3 eleven curtains he made them4 ,the length of one curtain was thirty cubits1 and four cubits was the breadth of one curtain3 the eleven curtains were of one size40--,ex4 xxxvi4 #ad1 #ae4 ,cloths of the same kind were used for rubbing horses#che4 ,the term for goats'-hair cloth in ,hebrew1 ,chaldee1 and ,syraic1 is or 1 i4 e4 ,,shac1 or ,,sac1 translated in the ,septuagint1 and ,,saccus in the ,vulgate version of the ,scriptures4 ,the ,latin ,,sagum1 appears to have had the same origin4 ,in ,english we have ,sack and ,shag1 scarcely differing from the oriental and ancient terms either in sound or sense4 #che ,vegetii ,ars ,veter4 l4 i4 c4 #db4 ,cilice1 the modern ,french term for a hair-shirt1 is immediately derived from ,cilicium1 the origin of which has been explained#chf4 #chf ,menage1 ,dict4 ,etym4 v4 ,cilice4 ,this kind of cloth1 which was black or dark brown1 the goats of ,syria and ,palestine being chiefly of that color even to the present day1 is alluded to in the sixth chapter of ,revelations#chg1 and in ,is4 l4 #c4 8,i clothe the heavens with blackness and make sack-cloth their covering40 ,it was worn to express mourning and mortification4 ,in ,jonah we have a very remarkable case1 for on this occasion blankets of goats'-hair were put on the bodies both of men and beasts1 and one was worn even by the king of ,nineveh himself#chh4 ,when ,herod ,agrippa was seized at ,csarea with the mortal distemper mentioned in ,acts xii4 7,see chap4 vi4 p4 #ic471 the common people sat down on hair-cloth according to the custom of their country1 beseeching ,god on his behalf4--,josephus1 ,ant4 ,jud4 l4 xix4 cap4 #h4 p4 #hgb4 ,hudson4 ,so according to ,josephus 7,ant4 ,jud4 l4 vii4 cap4 #g4 p4 #bii471 ,david fell down upon sack-cloth of the same description and lay on the ground praying for the restoration of his son4 #chg 8,and ,i beheld when he had opened the sixth seal1 and lo1 there was a great earthquake2 and the sun became as black as sack-cloth of hair1 and the moon became as blood40--,rev4 vi4 #ab4 #chh 8,so the people of ,nineveh believed ,god1 and proclaimed a fast1 and put on sack-cloth1 from the greatest of them even to the least of them4 ,the word came unto the king of ,nineveh1 and he arose from his throne1 and he laid his robe from him1 and covered him with sack-cloth1 and sat in ashes40--,jonah iii4 #e1 #f4 ,in v4 #e4 we should translate 8put on hair-cloths20 for the word is plural in the ,hebrew4 ,hence the use of the hair-shirt by devotees in more recent times4 ,st4 ,basil1 ,bishop of ,csarea in the fourth century1 in answer to the question1 ,whether a monk ought to have besides his night-shirt 7post nocturnam tunicam7 a ,cilicium or any other1 says1 8,cilicii quidem usus habet proprium tempus4 ,non enim propter usus corporis1 sed propter afflictionem carnis inventum est hujuscemodi indumentum1 et propter humilitatem animae#chi40 ,he then adds1 that as the word of ,god forbids us to have two shirts1 we ought not to have a second except for the purpose here mentioned4 ,from this it is clear1 that the ,cilicium was not commonly worn by the monks1 but only at particular times for the sake of humiliation4 #chi ,from the ancient version of ,rufinus1 p4 #age4 ed4 #aeac4 ,dr4 ,sibthorp 7in ,memoirs1 edited by ,walpole17 informs us1 that in the present day the shepherds of ,attica 8shear the goats at the same time with the sheep1 about ,april or ,may10 and that the hair is made into sacks1 bags1 and carpets1 of which a considerable quantity is exported4 ,in modern as in ancient times1 the inhabitants of ,greece subsist in a great measure upon goats'-milk and the cheese made from it#cij4 #cij ,dodwell's ,tour1 vol4 i4 p4 #add4 ,the wives of the ,arabian shepherds still weave goats'-hair for their tents4 ,this hair-cloth is nearly black1 and resembles that of which our modern coal-sacks are made#cia4 ,the ,arabs also hang bags of the same cloth1 containing barley1 about the heads of their horses to supply them with food#cib4 #cia ,harmer's ,observations1 ch4 ii4 ,obs4 #cf4 ,dr4 ,shaw's ,travels1 ,part iii4 ch4 #c4 #f4 ,e4 ,f4 ,k4 ,rosenmuller1 ,biblische ,alterthumskunde1 iv4 #b4 p4 #hi4 ,the use of goats'-hair for making cloth among the ,moors is mentioned by ,rauwolff1 ,travels1 part ii4 ch4 #a1 p4 #abc of ,ray's ,translation4 ,the herdsmen on the wide plains about ,smyrna live in tents of 8black goats'-hair40--,c4 ,fellows's ,discoveries in ,lycia1 p4 #h4 #cib ,d',arvieux and ,thevenot1 ap4 ,harmer1 ch4 v4 ,obs4 #i4 ,the goat1 as is the case with some other quadrupeds1 if confined to a country1 which is hot in summer and very cold in winter1 is always protected in the latter season by an additional covering of fine wool beneath its long hair4 ,a specimen of the ,syrian goat in the ,hunterian ,museum at ,glasgow shows both the hair and the wool4 ,in ,kerman and ,cashmere this very fine wool is obtained by combing the goats in the spring1 when it becomes loose2 and1 having been spun into yarn1 it is used to make the beautiful shawls brought from those countries4 ,we will now conclude this chapter with the following interesting communication from ,mr4 ,e4 ,riley1 being the substance of a paper lately read before the ,society of ,arts1 ,london4 ,mr4 ,riley 8in #ahbe and #ahbh transported to that territory two flocks of the finest sheep procurable throughout ,germany1 my father had also long contemplated introducing there the celebrated ,cashmere goat1 anticipating that the fulfilment of his views would1 in proving advantageous to himself1 become also of ultimate benefit to the colony2 in which expectation1 he has been encouraged from the results that have attended the importation of the ,saxon breed of sheep into their favored climates1 the wools of ,new ,south ,wales1 and in proportion to their improvement1 those also of ,van ,dieman's ,land being now eagerly purchased by the most intelligent manufacturers in preference to those of equal prices imported from any part of ,europe4 8,with this object in view1 he subsequently1 during an agricultural tour on the ,continent1 directed my attention to the ,cashmere flocks of ,mons4 ,ternaux1 and in ,october #ahbh1 ,i met this distinguished man at his seat at ,st4 ,onen 7,mons4 ,ternaux is a great shawl manufacturer and a ,peer of ,france17 where he preserved the elite of his herds2 the animals were a mixture of various sizes and colors1 from a perfect white to brown1 with scarcely any stamped features as if belonging to one race exclusively2 they were covered with long coarse hair1 under which so small a quantity of soft short down was concealed1 that the average produce of the whole collection did not exceed three ounces each2 therefore1 under these unfavorable circumstances1 my father deferred for a time his intention of sending any of them to ,australia4 8,i was then advised by the ,viscomte ,perrault de ,jotemps1 to see the stock of ,m4 ,polonceau at ,versailles1 he having1 by a happily selected cross1 succeeded in increasing the quantity and value of the qualities of the ,cashmere goat beyond the most sanguine anticipations1 and in consequence of his enlightened taste for agricultural pursuits1 was also honored with the directorship of the model farm at ,grignon4 ,he became among the first to purchase a chosen selection of the original importation of the ,cashmere goat from ,m4 ,ternaux1 and some time after seeing1 at one of the estates of the ,duchesse de ,beri1 an ,angora buck with an extraordinary silkiness of hair1 having more the character of long coarse but very soft down1 he solicited permission to try the effects of a union with this fine animal and his own pure ,cashmeres4 ,the improvement even in the first drop was so rapid that it induced him to persevere1 and when ,i first saw his small herd they were in the third generation from the males produced solely by the first cross2 the unwillingness however of ,m4 ,polonceau to part with any number of them at this period 7the only alienation he has made from the favorite products of his solicitude being two males and two females to the ,king of ,wirtemberg1 for the sum of #cdjj francs17 caused my father again to postpone his intentions until my return from the ,australasian ,colonies1 judging that ,m4 ,polonceau would then probably be enabled to dispose of a sufficient number1 and that the constancy and properties of the race would by that time be more decidedly determined4 8,on my arrival in ,england at the close of #ahca1 he again recurred to his favorite project of introducing these animals into our colonies1 for which purpose ,i went to ,france with the intention of purchasing a small flock of ,m4 ,polonceau1 should ,i find all his expectations of the ,cashmere ,angora breed verified1 which having perfectly ascertained1 ,i at length succeeded in persuading ,m4 ,polonceau to cede to me ten females in kid1 and three males1 and ,i fortunately was able to convey the whole in health to ,london1 with the intention of proceeding as speedily as possible with them to ,port ,jackson1 looking sanguinely forward not only to their rapid increase but also to crossing the common goats of the country with this valuable breed1 in full expectation that they may1 exclusive of their own pure down1 become thus the means of forming a desirable addition to the already much prized importations from ,new ,south ,wales and ,van ,dieman's ,land4 ,i am led to the conclusion that the latter result may be accomplished1 as ,m4 ,polonceau1 who has tried the experiment with the native goat of ,france1 has obtained animals of the second cross very little inferior to the breed that has rendered his name so distinguished4 ,he has also crossed the common goat with the pure ,cashmere1 but only obtained so tardy an amelioration1 that it required eight or ten generations to produce a down simply equal to their inferior quantity and quality when compared to the produce of the ,cashmere ,angora40 ,mr4 ,polonceau has unremittingly persevered in the improvement so immediately effected1 and has proved during the several years which have elapsed since the first experiment in the year #ahbb1 that an entire satisfactory result in the union of the most essential qualities of down1 abundance1 length1 fineness1 lustre1 and softness1 was accomplished by the first cross1 without any return having ensued to the individual characters of either of the primitive races1 and in consequence1 he has since constantly propagated the produce of that cross among themselves1 careful only of preserving animals entirely white and of employing for propagation those bucks which had the down in the greatest quantity and of the finest quality with the smallest proportion of hair4 ,in #ahbf2 the 8,societie ,royale et ,centrale d',agriculture de ,paris0 acquainted with the interesting result of ,m4 ,polonceau's flock1 being at that time in the third generation1 and considering that the down of this new race was more valuable than that of the ,east1 and that it was the most beautiful of filaceous materials known1 as it combines the softness of ,cashmere with the lustre of silk1 awarded him their large gold medal at their session1 #dth ,april1 #ahbf1 and nominated him a member of their society in the following year4 ,in #ahbg1 at the exhibition of the produce of ,national ,industry1 the jury appointed to judge the merits of the objects exposed1 also awarded him their medal4 ,at present the animals are in the twelfth generation1 their health and vigor1 the constancy of their qualities1 and abundance of their down without any degeneration1 prove that this new race may be regarded as one entirely fixed and established1 requiring solely the care that is generally observed with valuable breeds2 that is to say1 a judicious choice of those employed for their reproduction1 and in such a climate as ,new ,south ,wales it may be reasonably expected that the brilliant qualities of their down may yet be improved as has been so eminently the case with the wool of the merino and ,saxon sheep imported there4 ,m4 ,polonceau has goats that have yielded as many as thirty ounces of the down1 in one season1 and he states that the whole of his herd produce from twelve to twenty ounces2 thus showing the astonishing advantages this new breed has over the uncrossed ,cashmere1 which never yield more than four ounces and seldom exceed two ounces each4 ,this gentleman also states1 that1 the ,cashmere ,angora goats1 are more robust and more easily nourished than the common goat1 and that they are less capricious and more easily managed in a flock2 and from the experience he has already had1 he finds them much more docile than even sheep4 ,they prefer the leaves of trees1 as do all other goats1 but they thrive either on hay or straw1 or green fodder1 or in meadows2 they also feed with equal facility on heaths1 and on the most abrupt declivities1 where the sheep would perish2 they do not fear the cold1 and are allowed to remain all the winter in open sheds4 ,for the first year or two of ,m4 ,p4's experiments he thought it prudent to give them aromatic herbs1 from time to time1 but during the last six years he has not found it necessary4 ,he knows not of any particular disease to which they are subject1 his flock never having had any4 ,m4 ,p4 arranges they should kid in ,march1 but occasionally he takes two falls from those of sufficient strength during the year4 ,the down commences to grow in ,september1 and developes itself progressively until the end of ,march1 when it ceases to grow and detaches itself1 unless artificially removed4 ,to collect the down1 he waits the period when it begins to detach itself1 and then the locks of down which separate from the skin with little force are taken off by hand2 the down is removed from the animals every three or four days2 in general it first begins to fall from the neck and shoulders1 and in the following four or five days from the rest of the body2 the collection is completed in the space of eight or ten days4 ,sometimes the entire down can be taken from the animal at one shearing1 and almost in an unbroken fleece1 when it begins to loosen4 ,the shearing has the advantage of preserving more perfectly the parallelisms of the individual filaments1 which much increase the facility of combing and preparing the down for manufacturing purposes4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,beavers-,,wool4 ,isidorus ,hispalensis--,claudian--,beckmann--,bea vers'-wool--,dispersion of ,beavers through ,europe--,fossil bones of ,beavers4 ,the passage quoted from ,isidore of ,seville1 in the last chapter1 shows that the ancients made a cloth1 the woof of which was of ,beavers'-wool 7de fibri lan71 and which was therefore called ,vestis ,fibrina4 ,by lana he must have meant the very fine wool1 which1 agreeably to the observation in the last paragraph1 grows under the long hair of the beaver4 ,isidore in the same ,book1 observes1 8,fibrinum lana est animalium1 qu fibros vocant3 ipsos et castores existimant40 ,the following ,epigram of ,claudian seems intended1 as ,beckmann 7iv4 p4 #bbc47 supposes1 to describe 8a worn-out beaver dress1 which had nothing more left of that valuable fur but the name40 ,,on ,a ,,beaver ,,mantle4 ,the shadow of its ancient name remains3 ,but1 if no nap of beaver it retains1 ,a ,beaver ,mantle it can scarce be nam'd4 ,the price1 however1 proves its claim3 it cost ,six pounds4 ,hence1 though all lustre it has lost1 ,yet1 bought so dear1 as beaver let it still be fam'd4 ,sidonius ,apollinaris calls those who used this costly apparel castorinati4 ,lib4 v4 ,epist4 #g4 p4 #cac4 ,paris1 #aeii1 #dto4 ,gerbert1 or ,gilbert1 surnamed the ,philosopher1 and afterwards ,pope ,silvester ,,ii41 commenting on the qualities of a good ,bishop according to #a ,timothy iii4 #a41 says in reference to the word 8ornatum30 8,quod si juxta sensum liter tantm respiciamus1 non aliud1 sacerdotes1 quam amictum quremus clariorem2 verbi grati1 castorinas quremus et sericas vestes3 et ille se inter episcopas credet esse altiorem1 qui vestem induerit clariorem4 ,sed ,s4 ,apostolus taliter se intelligi non vult1 quia non carne1 c40--,de ,informatione ,episcoporum1 seu ,de ,dignitate ,sacerdotali1 in ed4 ,benedict4 ,opp4 ,s4 ,ambrosii1 tom4 ii4 p4 #ceh4 8,an upper garment of this cloth was worn by the ,emperor ,nicephorus ,,ii4 at his coronation in the year #icf40--;,beckmann1 l4 c4 #ca4 8,this method of manufacturing beavers'-hair10 observes ,beckmann1 8seems not to have been known in the time of ,pliny2 for1 though he speaks much of the castor1 and mentions pellis fibrina three times1 he says nothing in regard to manufacturing the hair1 or to beaver-fur40 ,it seems probable1 that the ,greeks and ,romans did not use cloth of beavers'-wool until the #dth century4 ,in an earlier age the furs and drugs supplied by beavers were obtained from the countries to the ,north of the ,euxine ,sea4 ,but in the period now under consideration the intercourse of the ,romans with the ,west of ,europe would open a much more extended sphere for procuring the ,vestes ,fibrin1 since we have traces of the existence of beavers in almost all parts of ,europe4 ,their appearance in ,wales1 ,scotland1 ,germany1 and the ,north of ,europe generally1 is attested by ,giraldus ,cambrensis#cic4 #cic ,topographia ,hiberni1 c4 #ba1 and ,itinerarium ,cambri1 l4 ii4 c4 #c4 ,dr4 ,patrick ,neill1 in a valuable paper on this subject1#cid has given an account of the bones of recent beavers found in ,perthshire and ,berwickshire4 ,they have also been found in ,cambridgeshire#cie4 ,we learn from the life of ,wulstan#cif1 that beaver-furs1 as well as those of sables1 foxes1 and other quadrupeds1 were used by the ,anglo-,saxons in very early times for lining their garments4 ,other modern authors speak of their occurrence in ,austria1 ,hungary1 and the ,north of ,italy#cig4 ,they are still found in ,sweden#cih4 ,strabo informs us1 that in his time they frequented the rivers of ,spain#cii4 #cid ,edinburgh ,philosophical ,journal1 vol4 i4 p4 #agg-ahg4 #cie ,transactions of the ,cambridge ,philosophical ,society1 vol4 i4 part i4 p4 #age4 #cif ,see ,extracts in ,henry's ,history of ,britain1 vol4 iv4 #cig ,muratori1 ,antichit ,italiane1 tomo ii4 p4 #aaj4 ,napoli1 #aghc4 ,the authors1 cited by ,muratori1 are ,gervase of ,tilbury1 and ,mathioli4 #cih ,travels in ,sweden1 by ,dr4 ,thomas ,thomson1 p4 #daa4 #cii ,lib4 iii4 #afc4 vol4 i4 p4 #gcg1 ed4 ,siebenkees4 ,buffon says 7,hist4 ,nat4 tome #bf4 p4 #ih471 8,there are beavers in ,languedoc in the islands of the ,rhone1 and great numbers of them in the ,north of ,europe40 8,but as human population extends10 he observes1 8beavers1 like other animals1 are dispersed1 become solitary1 fugitive1 or conceal themselves in the ground3 they cease to unite in bands1 to engage in building or other undertakings40 8,we have been unable to ascertain10 says ,cuvier#djj1 8after the most scrupulous comparisons1 if the ,castors or ,beavers1 which burrow along the ,rhone1 the ,danube1 and the ,weser1 are different in species from those of ,north ,america1 or if they are prevented from building by the vicinity of man40 ,the same distinguished author in his work on ,fossil ,bones says1 8,the greater part of our ,european rivers having formerly supported beavers1 and some of them doing so still1 viz4 the ,gardon and the ,rhone in ,france1 the ,danube in ,bavaria and ,austria1 and several small rivers in ,westphalia and ,saxony1 we cannot be surprised to find their hones preserved in our mosses1 or turbaries40 ,he then mentions instances of the heads and teeth of beavers1 in the valley of the ,somme in ,picardy1 in the valley of ,tonnis-stein near ,andermach1 and at ,urdingen on the ,rhine in ,rhenish ,prussia#dja4 #djj ,rgne ,animal1 vol4 iii4 p4 #fe4 of ,griffith's ,translation4 #dja ,cuvier1 ,ossemens ,fossiles1 tome v4 partie ,ire1 p4 #ee42 partie #bnde1 p4 #eah4 ,see also ,annales du ,museum d',hist4 ,naturelle1 tome xiv4 p4 #dg4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,camels-,,wool ,,and ,,camels-,,hair4 ,camels'-wool and ,camels'-hair--,ctesias' account--,testimony of modern travellers--,arab tent of ,camels'-hair--,fine cloths still made of ,camels'-wool--,the use of hair of various animals in the manufacture of beautiful stuffs by the ancient ,mexicans--,hair used by the ,candian women in the manufacture of broidered stuffs--,broidered stuffs of the negresses of ,senegal--,their great beauty4 ,we are informed by ,ctesias1 in a fragment of the #ajth ,book of his ,persic ,history1 that there were camels in a part of ,persia1 whose hair1 soft as ,milesian fleeces1 was used to make garments for the priests and the other potentates#djb4 #djb ,apollonii ,mirabilia xx4 lian1 ,hist4 ,an4 xvii4 #cd4 ,ctesi ,fragmenta1 a ,bhr1 p4 #bbd4 ,john the ,baptist wore a garment of camels'-hair2 but this must be supposed to have been coarse4 7,matt4 iii4 #d41 ,mark i4 #f47djc4 ,this passage of scripture is illustrated by ,harmer in the following observation#djd3 8,this hair1 ,sir ,j4 ,chardin tells us 7in his ,,ms4 note on #a ,sam4 xxv4 #d47 is not shorn from the camels like wool from sheep1 but they pull off this woolly hair1 which the camels are disposed to cast off2 as many other creatures1 it is well known1 change their coats yearly4 ,this hair is made into cloth now4 ,chardin assures us the modern dervishes wear such garments40 #djc 8,and the same ,john had his raiment of camels'-hair1 and a leathern girdle about his loins2 and his meat was locusts and wild honey40--,matt4 iii4 #d1 also in ,mark3 8,and ,john was clothed with camels'-hair1 and with a girdle of a skin about his loins2 and he did eat locusts and wild honey40--,mark i4 #f4 #djd ,ch4 xi4 ,obs4 #hc4 vol4 iv4 p4 #daf4 ed4 ,clarke4 ,campbell1 the poet1 mentions a tent of camels'-hair cloth1 which he saw at an ,arab encampment between ,oran and ,mascara in the kingdom of ,algiers4 ,it was #be feet in diameter and very lofty4 7,letters from the ,south1 #ahcg1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bab47 ,he also mentions 7vol4 i4 p4 #afa47 that the ,kabyles or ,berbers1 who live in the vicinity of ,algiers1 and are descended from the original occupants of the country1 dwell in 8tents of camels'-hair40 ,we are informed that the ,chinese make carpets of the same material#dje4 ,coverlets of goats' or camels'-hair are used by the soldiers in ,turkey to sleep under#djf4 8,the ,circassians1 when marching1 or on a journey1 always add to their other garments a cloak made from camel or goats'-hair1 with a hood1 which completely envelopes the whole person4 ,it is impenetrable by rain2 and it forms their bed at night1 and protects them from the scorching sun by day#djg40 #dje ,china1 its ,costume1 ,arts1 ,manufactures1 c41 by ,bertin3 translated from the ,french4 ,london1 #ahab1 vol4 iv4 #djf ,travels in ,circassia1 by ,edmund ,spencer1 vol4 i4 p4 #bjb4 #djg ,ibid4 vol4 ii4 p4 #bai4 ,fortunatus1 in his life of ,st4 ,martin 7l4 iv471 describes a garment of such cloth2 but it may be doubted whether he took his description from actual knowledge of the use of it1 or only from the account in ,matthew of the dress of ,john the ,baptist already quoted4 ,camels'-hair of annual growth would vary in fineness according to circumstances1 and might be used either for the coarse raiment of prophets and dervises1 or for the costly shawls1 to which ,ctesias alludes4 ,fine wool1 adapted to the latter purpose1 might also grow1 as in the goat and beaver1 beneath the long hair of the camel4 ,it has been doubted whether cloth so fine and beautiful as ,ctesias asserts1 could possibly be obtained from camels4 ,the following accounts by modern travellers illustrate and justify the statement of the suspected ancient4 ,marco ,polo1 who travelled in the #acth century1 in his account of the city of ,kalaka1 which was in the province of ,tangut and subject to the ,great ,kahn1 says#djh1 8,in this city they manufacture beautiful camelots1 the finest known in the world1 of the hair of camels and likewise of fine wool40 ,according to ,pallas1 7,travels1 vol4 ii4 #h417 8,from the hair of the camel the ,tartar women in the plains of the ,crimea manufacture a narrow cloth1 which is used in its natural color1 and is extremely warm1 soft1 and light40 ,according to ,prosper ,alpinus1 7,hist4 ,nat4 gypti1 l4 iv4 c4 #g4 p4 #bbe47 the ,egyptians manufactured from the hair of their camels not only coarse cloth for their tents1 but other kinds so fine as to be worn not only by princes but even by the senators of ,venice4 #djh ,book i4 ch4 #eb4 p4 #bce4 of ,marsden's ,translation4 ,elphinstone1 in his account of ,cabul 7p4 #bie471 mentions1 that 8,oormuck1 a fine cloth made of camels'-wool10 is among the articles imported into ,cabul from the ,bokhara country4 ,this country lies ,north of the ,oxus1 and ,east of the ,southern extremity of the ,caspian ,sea1 and is probably the country1 to which ,ctesias more especially referred4 ,a still more recent authority is that of ,moorcroft1 who informs us1 that 8,cloth is now made from the wool of the wild camels of ,khoten in ,chinese ,tartary10 and that 8at ,astrakhan a fine cloth is manufactured from the wool of the camel foal of the first year#dji40 #dji ,journal of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 vol4 i4 p4 #bda1 #bdb4 ,it is customary in many parts of the ,east1 as it was in ,mexico in the time of ,cortes 7,see ,part ,third1 ,chapter ,i47 to use the hair of various animals in embroidering garments4 ,the ,candian women even embroider with their own hair1 as well as that of animals1 with which they make splendid representations of flowers1 foliage1 c43 they also insert the skins of eels and serpents4 ,according to ,m4 de ,busson1 the negresses of ,senegal1 embroider the skins of various beasts1 representing figures1 flowers1 and animals1 in every variety of color4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,v4 ,drawn from the life4 ,,indian ,,loom with the process of ,winding off the ,,thread4 ,,part ,,third4 ,,ancient ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,cotton ,,manufacture4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,great ,,antiquity ,,of ,,the ,,cotton ,,manufacture ,,in ,,india--,,unrivalled ,,skill ,,of ,,the ,,indian ,,weaver4 ,superiority of ,cotton for clothing1 compared with linen1 both in hot and cold climates--,cotton characteristic of ,india--,account of ,cotton by ,herodotus1 ,ctesias1 ,theophrastus1 ,aristobulus1 ,nearchus1 ,pomponius ,mela--,use of ,cotton in ,india--,cotton known before silk and called ,carpasus1 ,carpasum1 ,carbasum1 c4--,cotton awnings used by the ,romans--,carbasus applied to linen--,last request of ,tibullus--,muslin fillet of the vestal virgin--,linen sails1 c4 called ,carbasa--,valerius ,flaccus introduces muslin among the elegancies in the dress of a ,phrygian from the river ,rhyndacus--,prudentius's satire on pride--,apuleius's testimony--,testimony of ,sidonius ,apollinaris1 and ,avienus--,pliny and ,julius ,pollux--,their testimony considered--,testimony of ,tertullian and ,philostratus--,of ,martianus ,capella--,cotton paper mentioned by ,theophylus ,presbyter--,use of ,cotton by the ,arabians--,cotton not common anciently in ,europe--,marco ,polo and ,sir ,john ,mandeville's testimony of the ,cotton of ,india--,forbes's description of the herbaceous ,cotton of ,guzerat--,testimony of ,malte ,brun--,beautiful ,cotton textures of the ancient ,mexicans--,testimony of the ,abb ,clavigero--,fishing nets made from ,cotton by the inhabitants of the ,west ,india ,islands1 and on the continent of ,south ,america--,columbus's testimony--,cotton used for bedding by the ,brazilians4 ,among all the materials which the skill of man converts into comfortable and elegant clothing1 that which appears likely to be the most extensively useful1 though it was the last to be generally diffused1 is the beautiful produce of the cotton-plant4 ,the properties of cotton strongly recommend it for clothing1 especially in comparison with linen1 both in hot and cold countries4 ,linen has1 indeed1 in some respects the advantage2 it forms a smooth1 firm1 and beautiful cloth1 and is very agreeable wear in temperate climates2 but it is less comfortable than cotton1 and less conducive to health1 either in heat or in cold4 ,cotton1 being a bad conductor of heat1 as compared with linen1 preserves the body at a more equable temperature4 ,the functions of the skin1 through the medium of perspiration1 are the great means of maintaining the body at an equable temperature amidst the vicissitudes of the atmosphere4 ,but linen1 like all good conductors of heat1 freely condenses the vapor of perspiration1 and accumulates moisture upon the skin3 the wetted linen becomes cold1 chills the body1 and checks perspiration1 thus not only producing discomfort1 but endangering health4 ,calico1 on the other hand1 like all bad conductors of heat1 condenses little of the perspiration1 but allows it to pass off in the form of vapor4 ,moreover1 when the perspiration is so copious as to accumulate moisture1 calico will absorb a greater quantity of that moisture than linen4 ,it has therefore a double advantage1--it accumulates less moisture1 and absorbs more4 ,from the above considerations1 it is evident that in cold climates1 or in the nocturnal cold of tropical climates1 cotton clothing is much better calculated to preserve the warmth of the body than linen4 ,in hot climates1 also1 it is more conducive to health and comfort1 by admitting of freer perspiration#daj4 #daj ,bains's 8,history of the ,cotton ,manufacture10 p4 #ab4 ,wool1 as we have seen1 was principally used for weaving in ,palestine and ,syria1 in ,asia ,minor1 ,greece1 ,italy and ,spain2 hemp in the ,northern countries of ,europe2 flax in ,egypt 7,the history of the two last1 hemp and flax1 is given in ,part ,,iv4 to which the reader is referred472 silk in the central regions of ,asia#daa4 ,in like manner cotton has always been characteristic of ,india4 ,we find this circumstance distinctly noticed by ,herodotus#dab4 ,among the valuable products1 for which ,india was remarkable1 he states1 that 8the wild trees in that country bear fleeces as their fruit1 surpassing those of sheep in beauty and excellence2 and the ,indians use cloth made from these trees40 ,in the same book 7c4 #dg47 ,herodotus says1 that the thorax or cuirass sent by ,amasis1 king of ,egypt1 to ,sparta1 was 8adorned with gold and with fleeces from trees40 ,these substances were perhaps used in the weft to form the figures 771 which were woven into the thorax2 but it appears equally probable that the gold only was thus employed1 the cotton being used as an inside lining or stuffing3 and in this case it is possible1 that the down of the ,bombax ,ceiba1 a tree allied to the ,cotton-plant 7,gossypium71 may have been used1 since1 though not fitted for spinning or weaving1 it has long been used in ,india for the stuffing of pillows and similar purposes1 and would be included under the phrase employed by ,herodotus1 8wool0 or 8fleeces from trees40 ,the thorax may have been made in ,egypt2 but the materials1 used to enrich it1 were probably imported3 for we have no proof1 that either gold or cotton of any kind was found in that country as a native product in the time of ,amasis4 #daa ,see ,map ,plate ,,vii4 at the end of ,part ,,iv4 #dab ,l4 iii4 c4 #ajf4 ,ctesias1 the contemporary of ,herodotus1 seems also to have known the fact of the use of a kind of wool1 the produce of trees1 for spinning and weaving among the ,indians4 ,it is evident that ,ctesias referred exclusively to cotton cloths1 as may be inferred from the testimony of ,varro1 as we find it in ,servius 7,comm4 in ,virgilii n4 i4 #fdi474 8,ctesias ait in ,indi esse arbores1 qu lanam ferant40 ,the expedition of ,alexander the ,great into ,india contributed to make the ,greeks better acquainted than before with cotton4 ,hence it is distinctly mentioned by ,theophrastus1 the disciple of ,aristotle4 ,he says1 8,the trees1 from which the ,indians make cloths1 have a leaf like that of the ,black ,mulberry2 but the whole plant resembles the dog-rose4 ,they set them in the plains arranged in rows1 so as to look like vines at a distance#dac40 ,in a succeeding part of the same book 7c4 #g4 p4 #adc1 #add4 ed4 ,schneider7 he notices the growth of cotton1 not only in ,india1 but in ,arabia1 and in the island called ,tylos1 which he places in the ,arabian ,gulf1 although it was probably in the ,persian ,gulf1 near the ,arabian coast#dad4 ,according to his account in the latter passage1 8,the wool-bearing trees1 which grew abundantly in this island1 had a leaf like that of the vine1 but smaller2 they bore no fruit1 but the capsule containing the wool1 was1 when closed1 about the size of a quince1 when ripe1 it expanded so as to emit the wool1 which was woven into cloths1 either cheap1 or of great value40 #dac ,hist4 ,pl4 iv4 c4 #d4 p4 #acb4 ed4 ,schneider4 #dad ,see the ,map1--,plate vii4 at the end of ,part iv4 ,bochart1 ,geogr4 ,sacra1 p4 #gff4 ,cadomi1 #afea4 ,heeren1 ,ideen1 i4 #b4 p4 #bad-bai4 ,sprengel in his ,german translation 7p4 #aej4 vol4 ii47 supposes the ,broussonetia ,papyrifera to be meant in the former passage4 ,but he gives no good reason for this supposition1 and he admits1 that the ,broussonetia ,papyrifera grows in ,china1 not in ,india4 ,the expression of ,theophrastus1 1 which he employs in the latter passage 7c4 #i4 p4 #add4 ed4 ,schneider71 clearly proves1 that he is speaking of the same plant in both passages1 and ,sprengel himself 7p4 #afd47 supposes the ,gossypium ,arboreum of ,linnus1 the ,cotton ,tree1 to be meant in the latter1 though not in the former4 ,the description of ,theophrastus is remarkably exact1 if we consider it as applying1 not to the ,cotton ,tree 7,gossypium ,arboreum71 but to the ,cotton ,plant 7,g4 ,herbaceum71 from which the chief supply of cotton for spinning and weaving into cloth has always been obtained4 ,aristobulus1 one of ,alexander's generals1 made mention of the cotton-plant under the name of the ,wool-bearing ,tree1 and stated that its capsule contained seeds1 which were taken out1 and that what remained was combed like wool#dae4 #dae ,strabo1 ,l4 xv4 c4 #a4 vol4 vi4 p4 #dc4 ed4 ,siebenkees4 ,the testimony of ,nearchus1 who was the admiral of ,alexander1 is also preserved to the following effect2 8that there were in ,india trees bearing1 as it were1 flocks or bunches of wool2 that the natives made linen garments of it1 wearing a shirt1 which reached to the middle of the leg1 a sheet folded about the shoulders1 and a turban rolled round the head2 and that the linen made by them from this substance was fine and whiter than any other40 ,it is to be observed1 that ,nearchus1 or rather the two later authors who quote him1 viz4 ,arrian and ,strabo1 use the terms for linen in a general sense1 as including all fine light cloths made of vegetable substances#daf4 #daf ,arriani ,rer4 ,indic4 p4 #ebb4 #eci4 ed4 ,blancardi4 ,strabo1 ,l4 xv4 c4 #a4 vol4 vi4 p4 #dj4 ed4 ,sieb4 ,we read in the account of ,india by ,pomponius ,mela 7,l4 iii4 c4 #g471 that the woods produced wool1 used by the natives for clothing4 ,he distinctly mentions the use of flax likewise4 ,it has been conjectured1 that he may have taken his account from ,nearchus1 or some other ,greek writer1 and that he may have intended to speak only of the use of cotton4 ,but in reply to this it is to be observed1 that ,pomponius ,mela here mentions flax in opposition to cotton1 and that his assertion1 so understood1 was probably true1 since we have other evidence to show that flax grows in ,india as well as cotton4 7,see ,part ,,iv47 ,nevertheless it seems necessary to understand other authors of the same period as meaning cotton by the term 1 or linum4 ,thus ,dyonisius ,periegetes 7l4 #aaaf71 speaking of the employments of the ,indians1 says1 1 which probably meant 8some weave muslins04 ,in the same manner we must interpret the assertion of ,quintus ,curtius1 8,terra lini ferax1 unde plerisque sunt vestes0 i4 e41 ,the land produces flax1 from which the greater part obtain garments4 ,soon after this ,curtius says in terms more strictly proper1 ,corpora usque pedes carbaso velant1 soleis pedes1 capita linteis vinciunt4 ,they cover their bodies from head to foot with carbasus2 they bind shoes about their feet1 linen cloths about their heads4 ,again1 speaking of the dress of the ,king1 he says1 ,distincta sunt auro et purpur carbasa1 qu indutus est4 ,l4 viii4 #i4 ,the carbasa which he wore1 were spotted with purple and gold4 ,in like manner1 ,lucan1 describing the ,indian nations1 says1 ,who drink sweet juices from the tender cane1 ,with dyes of crocus stain their hair1 and fix ,with color'd gems the flowing carbasus4 ,l4 iii4 v4 #bci4 ,strabo says1 7,l4 xv4 c4 #a4 vol4 vi4 p4 #aec4 ed4 ,sieb47 ,that the ,indians use white raiment1 and fine white cloths and carpasa4 ,also the ,periplus of the ,erythrean ,sea states1 that the region about the ,gulf of ,barygaza in ,india was productive 8of ,carpasus and of the fine ,indian cloths made of it#dag40 ,these were what we now call ,india muslins4 ,these muslins we are informed by ,dr4 ,vincent1 were imported into ,egypt1 and accordingly ,pacatus#dah represents ,antony's army as wearing cotton in that country4 #dag ,arriani ,opp4 v4 ii4 p4 #afe4 ed4 ,blancard4 #dah ,paneg4 ,theodosii1 c4 #cc4 ,the term ,carbasus1 is evidently used by the five last-cited authors to signify cotton2 for they employ it in describing the common dress of the ,indians4 ,as the ,greeks and ,romans became acquainted with cotton much earlier than with silk1 we find that ,carpas1 the proper ,oriental name for cotton1 was also in use among them at a comparatively early period2 and we shall now endeavor to trace the progress of this term from ,india1 ,westward4 ,with little variation it is found in the same sense in the ,sanscrit1 ,arabic1 and ,persic languages#dai4 #dai ,celsii ,hierobot4 vol4 ii4 p4 #aei4 ,sir ,w4 ,jones1 in ,as4 ,researches1 vol4 iv4 p4 #bbf4 ,london ,edition4 ,schlegel1 ,indische ,bibliotek1 ii4 p4 #cic4 ,e4 ,f4 ,k4 ,rosenmller1 ,biblische ,alterthumskunde1 #d4 #a4 p4 #agc4 ,this word occurs once in the ,hebrew ,scriptures1 viz4 ,esther1 i4 #f41 and there evidently as a foreign term4 ,the hangings1 used to decorate the court of the royal palace at ,susa on occasion of the great feast given by ,ahasuerus1 are thus described in the common version of the ,scriptures3-- 8,where were white1 green1 and blue hangings1 fastened with cords of fine linen and purple to silver rings and pillars of marble3 the beds were of gold and silver upon a pavement of red and blue and white and black marble40 ,the word1 corresponding to 8green0 in the original is ,carpas 774 ,it has been translated 8green0 by the authors of the common version on the authority of the ,chaldee ,paraphrase4 ,the earliest instance of the use of the oriental name in any classical author is the line from ,statius ,ccilius1 who died #afi ,b4 ,c4 as quoted by ,nonius ,marcellus 7l4 xvi47 from the ,pausimachus of ,statius3 ,carbasina1 molochina1 ampelina#dbj4 ,as these words are all three ,greek1 and the play1 in which the verse occurred1 was also called by a ,greek name1 we cannot doubt1 that ,statius translated it according to his usual custom from one of the writers of the ,new ,comedy4 ,we may therefore infer with some confidence from this expression1 that the ,greeks made use of muslins or calicoes1 or at least of cotton cloths of some kind1 which were brought from ,india as early as #bjj years ,b4 ,c4 #dbj ,see ,c4 ,c4 ,statii ,fragmenta1 a ,leonhardo ,spengel1 ,monachii #ahbi1 p4 #ce4 ,statius chiefly copied from ,menander 7,gellius ii4 c4 #af472 but we cannot find1 that ,menander wrote any play called ,pausimachus4 ,after some time the oriental custom of using cotton as a protection from the sun's rays was adopted also by the ,romans4 ,cotton was not only a cheaper and commoner article than silk1 but it was particularly adapted for this purpose on account of its lightness1 as well as its beauty and fineness2 and1 besides the instance already cited from the book of ,esther1 we may observe also1 that where the ,latin authors mention the use of 8,carbasa10 it is sometimes for purposes of this kind4 8,tabernacula carbaseis intenta velis10 i4 e4 8,tents with coverings of cotton10 were among the expensive novelties which contributed to the luxury of ,verres1 when ,prtor in ,sicily#dba4 ,the same species of ornament was first displayed at ,rome in the magnificent dileship of ,p4 ,lentulus ,spinther1 at the ,apollinarian games and in the year #fc ,b4 ,c4 8,at a later period awnings of linen were used to keep out the sun1 but originally in the theatres only1 which contrivance was first adopted by ,q4 ,catulus1 when he dedicated the capitol4 ,after this ,lentulus ,spinther is said to have first introduced cotton awnings in the theatre at the ,apollinarian games4 ,by and by ,csar the ,dictator covered with awnings the whole ,roman forum1 and the sacred way1 from his own house even to the ascent of the ,capitoline hill1 which is said to have appeared more wonderful than the gladiatorial exhibition itself4 ,afterwards1 without exhibiting games1 ,marcellus the son of ,octavia1 sister of ,augustus1 when he was dile and his uncle consul the eleventh time#dbb1 on the day before the ,kalends of ,august1 protected the forum from the rays of the sun1 that the persons engaged in lawsuits might stand with less injury to their health4 ,what a change from the manners which prevailed under ,cato the ,censor1 who thought that the forum should even be strewed with caltrops6 ,of late sky-blue awnings1 spotted with stars1 have been extended by means of strong ropes1 even in the amphitheatre of the ,emperor ,nero4 ,red awnings are used to cover the atria of houses1 and they defend the moss from the sun4 ,as for the rest1 white linen has always remained in favor4 ,this plant was honored in the ,trojan war4 ,for why should it not perform its part in battles as well as in shipwrecks8 ,homer testifies1 that a few of his warriors fought in linen cuirasses4 ,the tackle of his ships was also of flax1 according to some of his more learned interpreters1 who argue that by the term sparta he meant sata1 or things that are sown40--,pliny1 ,lib4 xix4 chap4 vi4 #dba ,this was about the year #gj ,b4 ,c4 ,cic4 in ,verrem1 ,act4 ii4 l4 v4 c4 #ab4 #dbb ,the following are the dates of the display of awnings on the several occasions referred to3-- ,linen awnings first used in the theatre at the dedication of the temple of ,jupiter by ,catulus #fi ,b4 ,c4 ,cotton awnings first used in the theatre by ,lentulus ,spinther1 ,july #fth1 #fc ,b4 ,c4 ,linen used to cover the forum and ,via ,sacra at the gladiatorial show by ,julius ,caesar #df ,b4 ,c4 ,linen awnings extended over the forum by ,marcellus1 ,july #cast #bc ,b4 ,c4 ,lucretius apparently refers to the introduction by ,lentulus ,spinther of the cotton awnings above mentioned 7vi4 #ajh471 when he is theorising on the cause of thunder1 and compares the clouds spread over the sky to the awnings of calico1 which veiled the theatres and sheltered the spectators from the sun3 ,carbasus ut quondam magnis intenta theatris ,dat crepitum1 malos inter jactata trabeisque4 ,as flaps the cotton1 spread above our heads ,in the vast theatres from mast to beam4 ,we now find frequent mention of cotton by the poets of the ,augustan age and by many subsequent writers4 ,as in the case of silk1 these authors introduce cotton1 not only historically1 but for the purpose of embellishment2 and1 considering ,carbasus as a poetical term1 they often by a catachresis employ it where they mean to speak of linen4 ,also as was before observed in regard to silk 7,part ,i4 chapter ,,ii471 it may likewise be noticed here1 that the wars against ,mithridates and the ,parthians may have contributed to make the ,romans familiar with the use of cotton1 although their chief supply of it was more probably through ,egypt1 than through ,persia and ,babylonia4 ,catullus 7#fd471 speaking of the black sail which geus furnished for the ships of his son ,theseus1 calls it 8,carbasus ,ibera10 8an ,iberian sail40 ,as1 on the one hand1 he here uses the proper term for cotton1 without intending to describe the sail as cotton1 so on the other hand he calls the sail ,iberian merely because ,iberia was a country adjoining ,colchis1 and from ,colchis 7as will be shown in ,part ,,iv47 the ,greeks and ,romans obtained a great supply of flax and sail-cloth4 ,tibullus1 or ,lygdamus1 entreats 7iii4 #b4 #ag471 in the contemplation of his death and funeral1 that after his bones have been washed1 first with wine1 and then with milk1 they may be dried 8carbaseis veils10 with linen napkins4 ,although he uses the proper term for cotton1 he probably did not intend to denote any preference for cotton rather than linen4 ,his bones1 after being wiped1 were to be deposited in a marble urn4 ,propertius seems to have aimed at a display of knowledge on these subjects 7see ,part ,first1 chapter ,,ii472 and in the following passage 7iv4 #c47 he probably used ,carbasa in its proper sense1 as he is referring to ,eastern habits3 ,raptave odorata carbasa lina duci4 ,muslins taken among the spoils from a scented general4 ,in the last ,elegy of the same ,book he refers to the story of the young ,vestal virgin1 who1 when the flame was extinguished upon the altar committed to her care1 and when the scourge appeared to await her for her neglect1 threw upon the ashes a fillet of muslin from her head1 and saved her life by its ignition1 which was supposed to be effected by the favor of the goddess3 ,vel cui1 commissos cum ,vesta reposceret ignes1 ,exhibuit vivos carbasus alba focos4 ,the fire had died1 and ,vesta urged her claim1 ,when the white cotton show'd a living flame4 ,the story is related by ,valerius ,maximus 7i4 #g474 ,although we are not informed of the date of the event1 it appears from his language that the fillet was of fine muslin3 8,cum carbasum1 quam optimum habebat1 foculo imposuisset1 subito ignis emicuit40 ,this description is well suited to the nature of cotton1 than which nothing was more easily ignited4 ,the passage in ,virgil's ,georgics1 which mentions cotton1 has been already quoted 7,see ,part ,i4 chapter ,,ii4 p4 #bd474 ,by the thiopians1 whose groves were 8white with soft wool10 he probably intended those of ,arabia2 and we may suppose him to have referred to accounts1 not so much of the ,gossypium ,herbaceum1 to which the word 8groves0 7nemora7 would not apply1 as to groves of ,gossypium ,arboreum and ,bombyx ,ceiba4 ,in the following passages of neid he mentions cotton under its proper name1 though probably not intending to distinguish accurately between cotton and linen1 and only using the term for the sake of ornament3-- ,jamque dies1 alterque dies processit1 et aur ,vela vocunt1 tumidoque inflatur carbasus austro4 iii4 #cef4 ,two days were past1 and now the southern gales ,call us aboard1 and stretch the swelling sails4 ,pitt's ,translation4 ,vocat jam carbasus auras2 ,puppibus et lti naut imposuere coronas4 iv4 #dag4 ,the flapping sail invites the gales2 the poops ,by the glad seamen are already crown'd4 ,eum 7fluvium ,tiberim7 tenuis glauco velabat amictu ,carbasus1 et crines umbrosa tegebat arundo4 viii4 #cc4 ,thin muslin veils him with its sea-green folds2 ,his head a copious shade of reeds sustains4 ,tum croceam chlamydem1 sinusque crepantes ,carbaseos fulvo in nodum collegerat auro4 xi4 #gge4 ,his saffron chlamys1 and each rustling fold ,of muslin was confined with glittering gold4 ,this last passage is part of the description of the attire of ,chloreus1 the ,phrygian1 whose muslin chlamys may have rustled in consequence of being interwoven with gold4 ,,ovid4 ,totaque malo ,carbasa deducit1 venientesque excipit auras4--,met4 xi4 #dgg4 ,the active seamen now unfurl the sails1 ,and spread them wide to catch the coming gales4 ,carbasa mota sonant1 jubet uti navita ventis4 xiii4 #dbj4 ,the flapping sails resound2 the captain bids advance4 ,cum dabit aura viam1 prbebis carbasa ventis4--,epist4 vii4 #aga4 ,when the gale favors1 give the wind your sails4 ,sed non1 quo dederas a litore carbasa1 vento ,utendum1 medio cum potiare freto4--,art4 ,am4 ii4 #ceg4 ,the wind to which you give your sails on shore1 ,in the mid ocean will assist no more4 ,dumque parant torto subducere carbasa lino4--,fast4 iii4 #ehg4 ,they now with twisted ropes let down the sails4 ,in all these passages ,ovid uses carbasa in the improper sense3 it was an easy transition from the idea of a cotton awning1 with which the ,romans had become familiar1 to apply the term to the sail of a ship4 ,to these examples we may add the following3 ,et sequitur curvus fugienta carbasa delphin4 ,seneca1 d4 ii4 prope fin4 ,the dolphin curved pursues the flying sails4 ,strictaque pendentes deducunt carbasa naut4--,lucan1 ii4 #fig4 ,the mariners confine the sails with cords1 ,and1 clinging to the mast1 they take them down4 ,recto deprendit carbasa malo4 ix4 #cbd4 ,the mast stands upright2 he takes down the sails4 ,jamque adeo egressi steterant in littore primo1 ,et promota1 ratis pendentibus arbore nautis1 ,aptabant sensim pulsanti carbasa vento4 ,silius ,italicus4 ,pun4 iii4 #abh4 ,they leave the port and reach the shore3 aloft ,they hang upon the mast1 and by degrees ,they fit the sails to catch the beating wind4 ,festinant trepidi substringere carbasa naut4 ,martial1 l4 xii4 ep4 #bi4 ,the trembling seamen haste to reef their sails4 ,prim1 carbasa ventilantis1 aur4--,statius1 ,sylv4 iv4 #c4 #ajf4 ,of the first gale1 which breathes upon the sails4 ,statius also mentions 8,carbasei sinus10 the folds of cotton in the chlamys of a ,bacchanal 7,theb4 vii4 #feh474 stivos penetrent oneraria carbasa fluctus4--,rutilius1 i4 #bba4 ,postquam tua carbasa vexit--,oceanus4--,val4 ,flaccus1 i4 ,necdum ali viderunt carbasa terr4--,ibid4 ,valerius ,flaccus also introduces muslin among the elegances in the dress of a ,phrygian from the river ,rhyndacus4 ,tenuai non illum candentis carbasa lini1 ,non auro depicta chlamys1 non flava galeri ,csaries1 pictoque juvant subtemine bracc4 vi4 #bbh4 ,no aid to him his chlamys white as snow1 ,muslin with gold enrich'd1 his yellow curls ,of artificial hair1 and figured pantaloons4 7,see ,part #a1 chap4 iii4 p4 #ei47 ,also ,prudentius1 the ,christian poet 7,see ,part #a1 chap4 iii4 p4 #ei471 in an elaborate account of ,pride1 depicts her in a garment of the same kind3 ,carbasea ex humeris summo collecta coibat ,palla sinu1 teretem nectens a pectore nodum4--,psychom4 #ahf4 ,a muslin kerchief by a knot compress'd1 ,pass'd o'er her shoulders1 and adorn'd her breast4 ,tant tamque multiplici fertilitate abundat rerum omnium ,cyprus1 ut nullius externi indigens adminiculi1 indigenis viribus1 a fundamento ipso carin ad supremos usque carbasos dificet onerarium navem1 omnibusque armamentis instructam mari committat4--,amm4 ,marcellinus1 xiv4 #h4 ,apuleius mentions carbasina in conjunction with bombycina and other kinds of cloth#dbc4 ,he may consequently be presumed to use the word in its proper sense1 to wit1 as denoting calico or muslin4 ,in the same manner cotton is distinguished from silk by ,sidonius ,apollinaris#dbd4 ,also we may presume that cotton and not linen sails are to be understood in the following line of ,avienus3 ,si tamen in ,boream flectantur carbasa cymb4 ,descr4 ,orbis1 #gii4 #dbc ,metamorphoseon l4 viii4 p4 #egi1 #ehj4 ed4 ,oudendorpii4 7,quoted in ,part ,first1 ,chapter ii4 p4 #ce47 #dbd ,l4 ii4 ,epist4 #b4 7,quoted in ,part ,first1 ,chapter iii4 p4 #fa474 ,here the writer not only professes to give geographical information1 but he is describing the ,indian seas and islands2 and as in the present day1 so also in ancient times1 the sails used in the navigation of those seas were probably made of cotton4 ,strabo uses the word in describing the official dress of a certain class of priestesses among the ,cimbri#dbe4 ,although it is possible1 that muslin may have been conveyed to them to be used on solemn occasions1 it appears more probable that fine linen or cambric1 which was manufactured at no great distance among the ,atrebates1 ought here to be understood4 #dbe ,l4 vii4 cap4 #b4 #c4 p4 #ccf4 ed4 ,siebenkees4 ,pliny mentions cotton in four different passages of his ,natural ,history4 ,two of them are translated with some inaccuracies from the passages of ,theophrastus4 ,to his translation of one of these passages ,pliny annexes the remark1 derived perhaps from some other source1 that the inhabitants of ,tylos called their ,cotton ,trees gossympins1 and that an island which was called the smaller ,tylos1 distant ten miles1 was still more fertile in cotton than the larger island of the same name4 ,the third passage introduces cotton under its proper name1 ,carbasa4 ,it would imply that cotton was first grown or manufactured at ,tarraco in ,spain1 than which assertion nothing can be more inaccurate and groundless4 ,the fourth passage is also contrary to all previous evidence1 inasmuch as it represents cotton to be the native growth of ,egypt4 ,it calls the ,cotton ,plant gossypion1 and hence the name has been given to it by modern botanists4 ,supposing this last passage to be genuine1 still we know not on what authority ,pliny depended1 or from what source he derived his information1 nor can we tell to what extent he allowed himself to be inaccurate in transcribing or translating4 ,taken by itself1 therefore1 it appears to us that this passage is no better proof of the growth of cotton anciently in ,egypt than the third passage is of its first discovery in ,spain4 ,in ,upper ,egypt1 towards ,arabia1 there grows a shrub1 which some call gossypium1 and others xylon1 from which the stuffs are made which we call xylina4 ,it is small1 and bears a fruit resembling the filbert1 within which is a downy wool1 which is spun into thread4 ,there is nothing to be preferred to these stuffs for whiteness or softness3 beautiful garments are made from them for the priests of ,egypt4#dbf #dbf ,plin4 ,hist4 ,nat4 lib4 xix4 c4 #a4 7,delph4 ,ed4 c4 #b47 ,this passage seems however deserving of more consideration1 when taken in conjunction with the following from the ,onomastcon of ,julius ,pollux1 who wrote #ajj years later than ,pliny3-- ,there are also ,byssina2 and ,byssus1 a kind of flax4 ,but among the ,indians1 and now also among the ,egyptians1 a sort of wool is obtained from a tree4 ,the cloth made from this wool may be compared to linen1 except that it is thicker4 ,the tree produces a fruit most nearly resembling a walnut1 but three-cleft4 ,after the outer covering1 which is like a walnut1 has divided and become dry1 the substance resembling wool is extracted and is used in the manufacture of cloth for woof1 the warp being linen4 ,the description here given of the ,cotton ,tree or ,cotton ,plant1 whichever was meant1 is remarkably correct2 indeed more correct than any account obtained since the time of the expedition of ,alexander4 ,the circumstance of the pericarp being three-cleft is agreeable to the fact1 and is not noticed by any earlier writer4 ,the comparison of it to a walnut in regard to size and form is also accurate4 ,from this account1 and from those of ,theophrastus1 ,aristobulus1 and ,nearchus1 we gather the following particulars1 which are agreeable to the fact3 that the cotton-plants are set in the plains1 and in rows like vines2 that the plant is three or four feet high1 and is branched1 spreading1 and flexible1 like a dog-rose2 that the leaf is palmated like that of the vine2 that the capsule is three-valved1 about the size of a walnut1 and1 when it bursts1 emits the cotton1 resembling flocks of wool1 in which the seeds are imbedded4 ,on the other hand1 we have had no previous evidence respecting the use of cotton in the manufacture of cloth for the woof only1 and it is doubtful whether this piece of information is correct1 because we have no reason to suppose that cotton was used for weaving in any country in which flax was also spun and woven4 ,tertullian in the third ,chapter of his treatise ,de ,pallio1 enumerates nearly all the raw materials which were spun for weaving4 ,he mentions the class of vegetable substances 7cotton and flax7 in the following terms3 ,et arbusta vestiunt1 et lini herbida post virorem lavacro nivescunt4 ,both thickets supply clothing2 and crops of flax1 after being green1 are rendered by washing white as snow4 ,philostratus1 who wrote in the third century1 makes distinct mention of cotton in two passages#dbg4 #dbg ,vita ,appollonii1 l4 ii4 cap4 #bj4 ,ibid4 l4 iii4 cap4 #ae4 ,martianus ,capella 7l4 ii4 #d4 p4 #ii4 ed4 ,goetz47 makes distinct reference to a tunic and shawl white as milk1 and made either of cotton or fine linen4 ,theophilus ,presbyter1 who wrote probably about ,a4 ,d4 #hjj1 describes the use of cotton-paper for making gold-leaf4 ,he calls it ,greek parchment1 made of tree-wool1 ,pergamena1 or ,parcamena ,grca1 qu fit ex lan ligni#dbh4 #dbh ,de ,omni ,scienti ,pictur ,artis1 c4 #ba4 quoted in ,lessing's ,schriften1 vol4 iv4 p4 #fc4 ed4 #ahbe1 #abmo41 and in ,wehr's vom ,papier1 p4 #acb4 7,see ,appendix ,b47 ,from the travels of the two ,arabians who visited ,china in the ninth century1 we learn that at that time the ordinary dress of their countrymen was cotton3 for they remark1 that 8the ,chinese dressed1 not in cotton1 as the ,arabians did1 but in silk#dbi40 ,probably the use of imported cotton might by this time have become not uncommon in ,egypt1 ,syria1 and other oriental countries2 but we apprehend1 that it was never generally employed in ,europe either for clothing1 or for any other purpose1 until very lately4 #dbi ,see the ,travels as published by ,renaudot1 and translated from his ,french into ,english4 ,it is unnecessary to further discuss the question as to whether cotton was or was not cultivated in ,egypt in ancient times4 ,this vexed question having been lately set at rest1 by a discovery which reduces a great deal of the learning that has been expended upon it to the character of old lumber4 ,the difficulty of ascertaining whether the mummy-cloths 7of which the specimens are exceedingly numerous7 were made of linen or cotton1 has at length been overcome2 and though no chemical test could be found out to settle the question1 it has been decided by that important aid to scientific scrutiny1 the microscope4 7,see ,chapters ,i4 and ,,ii4 ,part ,,iv47 ,the following observations of ,dr4 ,robertson in his 8,historical ,disquisition concerning the knowledge which the ,ancients had of ,india#dcj10 appear very just and important4 ,if the use of the cotton manufactures of ,india had been common among the ,romans1 the various kinds of them would have been enumerated in the ,law ,de ,publicanis et ,vectigalibus1 in the same manner as the different kinds of spices and precious stones4 ,such a specification would have been equally necessary for the direction both of the merchant and of the tax-gatherer4 #dcj ,note xxv4 p4 #cgj4 ,second ed4 #agid4 ,in confirmation of these remarks it may be observed1 that the passages collected in this chapter represent cotton cloth as an expensive and curious production rather than as an article of common use among the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,among the ancients linen must have been far cheaper than cotton1 whereas the improvements in navigation1 the discovery of the passage to ,india by the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and still more the discovery of ,america1 have now made cotton the cheaper article among us1 and have thus brought it into general use4 ,india produces several varieties of cotton1 both of the herbaceous and the tree kinds4 ,marco ,polo mentions that 8cotton is produced in ,guzerat in large quantities from a tree that is about six yards in height1 and bears during twenty years2 but the cotton taken from trees of this age is not adapted for spinning1 but only quilting4 ,such1 on the contrary1 as is taken from trees of twelve years old1 is suitable for muslins and other manufactures of extraordinary fineness#dca40 ,sir ,john ,mandeville1 on the other hand1 who travelled in the fourteenth century1 fifty years later than ,polo1 mentions the annual herbaceous cotton as cultivated in ,india3 he says--8,in many places the seed of the cotton1 7cothon17 which we call tree-wool1 is sown every year1 and there springs up from its copses of low shrubs1 on which this wool grows#dcb40 ,forbes also1 in his ,oriental ,memoirs1 thus describes the herbaceous cotton of ,guzerat3--8,the cotton shrub1 which grows to the height of three or four feet1 and in verdure resembles the currant bush1 requires a longer time than rice 7which grows up and is reaped in three months7 to bring its delicate produce to perfection4 ,the shrubs are planted between the rows of rice1 but do not impede its growth1 or prevent its being reaped4 ,soon after the rice harvest is over1 the cotton bushes put forth a beautiful yellow flower1 with a crimson eye in each petal2 this is succeeded by a green pod1 filled with a white stringy pulp2 the pod turns brown and hard as it ripens1 and then separates into two or three divisions containing the cotton4 ,a luxuriant field1 exhibiting at the same time the expanding blossom1 the bursting capsule1 and the snowy flakes of ripe cotton1 is one of the most beautiful objects in the agriculture of ,hindostan#dcc40 #dca ,book iii4 chap4 #bi4 #dcb ,hakluyt's ,voyages1 vol4 ii4 p4 #afi4 #dcc ,forbes's ,oriental ,memoirs1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dje4 ,the following general statement concerning the cotton of ,india1 is from the geographical work of ,malte ,brun3--8,the cotton-tree grows on all the ,indian mountains1 but its produce is coarse in quality3 the herbaceous cotton prospers chiefly in ,bengal and on the ,coromandel coast1 and there the best cotton goods are manufactured4 ,next to these two provinces1 ,madur1 ,marawar1 ,pescaria1 and the coast of ,malabar1 produce the finest cotton#dcd40 ,he elsewhere says--8,cotton is cultivated in every part of ,india3 the finest grows in the light rocky soil of ,guzerat1 ,bengal1 ,dude1 and ,agra4 ,the cultivation of this plant is very lucrative1 an acre producing about nine quintals of cotton in the year#dce40 #dcd ,malte ,brun1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cj4 #dce ,ibid4 vol4 iii4 p4 #cjc4 ,on the discovery of this continent by ,columbus1 ,cotton formed the principal article of clothing among the ,mexicans4 ,we are informed by the ,abb ,clavigero that 8of cotton the ,mexicans made large webs1 and as delicate and fine as those of ,holland1 which were1 with much reason1 highly esteemed in ,europe4 ,they wove their cloths of different figures and colors1 representing different animals and flowers4 ,of feathers interwoven with cotton1 they made mantles and bed-curtains1 carpets1 gowns1 and other things1 not less soft than beautiful4 ,with cotton also they interwove the finest hair of the belly of rabbits and hares1 after having spun it into thread3 of this they made most beautiful cloths1 and in particular winter waistcoats for their lords#dcf40 ,among the presents sent by ,cortes1 the conqueror of ,mexico1 to ,charles ,v41 were 8cotton mantles1 some all white1 others mixed with white and black1 or red1 green1 yellow1 and blue2 waistcoats1 handkerchiefs1 counterpanes1 tapestries1 and carpets of cotton2 and the colors of the cotton were extremely fine#dcg40 ,that the ,mexicans should have understood the art of dyeing those beautiful colors referred to in the above extract1 is not to be wondered at when we consider that they had both indigo and cochineal among their native productions4 #dcf ,clavigero's ,history of ,mexico1 book vii4 sect4 #eg1 #ff4 #dcg ,clavigero's ,history of ,mexico1 book vii4 sect4 #eh4 ,columbus also found the cotton plant growing wild1 and in great abundance1 in ,hispaniola1 and other ,west ,india islands1 and on the continent of ,south ,america1 where the inhabitants wore cotton dresses1 and made their fishing nets of the same material#dch2 and when ,magellan went on his circumnavigation of the globe1 in #aeai1 the ,brazilians were accustomed to make their beds of this vegetable down#dci4 #dch ,sommario dell',indie ,occidentali del ,s4 ,don ,pietro ,martire1 in ,ramusio's ,collection1 tom4 ii4 pp4 #b1 #d1 #af1 #ej4 7,see ,appendix ,d47 #dci ,vincentino's ,viaggio atorno il ,mondo1 7with ,ferd4 ,magellan17 in ,ramusio1 tom4 i4 p4 #cec4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,spinning ,,and ,,weaving--,,marvellous ,,skill ,,displayed ,,in ,,these ,,arts4 ,unrivalled excellence of ,india muslins--,testimony of the two ,arabian travellers--,marco ,polo1 and ,odoardo ,barbosa's accounts of the beautiful ,cotton textures of ,bengal--,csar ,frederick1 ,tavernier1 and ,forbes's testimony--,extraordinary fineness and transparency of ,dacca muslins--,specimen brought by ,sir ,charles ,wilkins2 compared with ,english muslins--,sir ,joseph ,banks's experiments--,extraordinary fineness of ,cotton yarn spun by machinery in ,england--,fineness of ,india ,cotton yarn--,cotton textures of ,soonergong--,testimony of ,r4 ,fitch--,hamilton's account--,decline of the manufactures of ,dacca accounted for--,orme's testimony of the universal diffusion of the ,cotton manufacture in ,india--,processes of the manufacture--,rude implements--,roller gin--,bowing4 7,eli ,whitney inventor of the ,cotton gin--,tribute of respect paid to his memory--,immense value of ,mr4 ,whitney's invention to growers and manufacturers of ,cotton throughout the world47 ,spinning wheel--,spinning without a wheel--,loom--,mode of weaving--,forbes's description--,habits and remuneration of ,spinners1 ,weavers1 c4--,factories of the ,east ,india ,company--,marvellous skill of the ,indian workman accounted for--,mills's testimony--,principal ,cotton fabrics of ,india1 and where made--,indian commerce in ,cotton goods--,alarm created in the woollen and silk manufacturing districts of ,great ,britain--,extracts from publications of the day--,testimony of ,daniel ,de ,foe 7,author of ,robinson ,crusoe47--,indian fabrics prohibited in ,england1 and most other countries of ,europe--,petition from ,calcutta merchants--,present condition of the ,city of ,dacca--,mode of spinning fine yarns--,tables showing the comparative prices of ,dacca and ,british manufactured goods of the same quality4 ,the antiquity of the cotton manufacture in ,india having been noticed in the last chapter1 the present one will give some account of the remarkable excellence of the ,indian fabrics1--the processes and machines by which they are wrought1--the condition of the population engaged in this department of industry1--the extensive commerce formerly carried on in these productions to every quarter of the globe1 and the causes that have tended to destroy it4 ,the ,indians have in all ages maintained an unapproached and almost incredible perfection in their fabrics of cotton4 ,indeed some of their muslins might be thought the work of fairies or insects1 rather than of men2 but these are produced in small quantities1 and have seldom been exported4 ,in the same province from which the ancient ,greeks obtained the finest muslins then known1 namely1 the province of ,bengal1 these astonishing fabrics are manufactured to the present day#ddj4 #ddj ,bains's 8,history of the ,cotton ,manufacture10 p4 #ee4 ,we learn from two ,arabian travellers of the ninth century1 that 8in this country 7,india7 they make garments of such extraordinary perfection1 that nowhere else are the like to be seen4 ,these garments are for the most part round1 and wove to that degree of fineness that they may be drawn through a ring of moderate size#dda40 ,marco ,polo1 in the thirteenth century1 mentions the coast of ,coromandel1 and especially ,masulipatam1 as producing 8the finest and most beautiful cottons that are to be found in any part of the world#ddb20 and this is still the case as to the flowered and glazed cottons1 called chintzes1 though the muslins of the ,coromandel coast are inferior to those of ,bengal4 #dda ,anciennes ,relations des ,indes et de la ,chine1 de deux ,voyageurs ,mahometans1 qui y allerent dans le neuvime siecle1 p4 #ba4 #ddb ,travels of ,marco ,polo1 book iii4 c4 #ba1 #bh4 ,odoardo ,barbosa1 one of the ,portuguese adventurers who visited ,india immediately after the discovery of the passage by the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 celebrates 8the great quantities of cotton cloths admirably painted1 also some white and some striped1 held in the highest estimation10 which were made in ,bengal#ddc4 ,csar ,frederick1 a ,venetian merchant1 who travelled in ,india in #aefc1 and whose narrative is translated by ,hakluyt1 describes the extensive traffic carried on between ,st4 ,thom 7a port #aej miles from ,negapatam7 and ,pegu1 in 8bumbast 7cotton7 cloth of every sort1 painted1 which is a rare thing1 because this kind of cloths show as if they were gilded with divers colors1 and the more they are washed1 the livelier the colors will become2 and there is made such account of this kind of cloth1 that a small bale of it will cost #ajjj or #bjjj ducats#ddd40 #ddc ,ramusio's 8,raccolto delle ,navigationi et ,viaggi10 tom4 i4 p4 #cae4 #ddd ,hakluyt's ,voyages1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cff4 ,edition of #ahji4 ,tavernier1 who1 like ,marco ,polo1 ,barbosa1 and ,frederick1 was a merchant as well as a traveller1 and therefore accustomed to judge of the qualities of goods1 and who travelled in the middle of the seventeenth century1 says--8,the white calicuts10 7calicoes1 or rather muslins1 so called from the great commercial city of ,calicut1 whence the ,portuguese and ,dutch first brought them7 8are woven in several places in ,bengal and ,mogulistan1 and are carried to ,raioxsary and ,baroche#dde to be whitened1 because of the large meadows and plenty of lemons that grow thereabouts1 for they are never so white as they should be till they are dipped in lemon-water4 ,some calicuts are made so fine1 you can hardly feel them in your hand1 and the thread1 when spun1 is scarce discernible#ddf40 ,the same writer says1 8,there is made at ,seconge 7in the province of ,malwa7 a sort of calicut so fine that when a man puts it on1 his skin shall appear as plainly through it1 as if he was quite naked2 but the merchants are not permitted to transport it1 for the governor is obliged to send it all to the ,great ,mogul's seraglio and the principal lords of the court1 to make the sultanesses and noblemen's wives shifts and garments for the hot weather2 and the king and the lords take great pleasure to behold them in these shifts1 and see them dance with nothing else upon them#ddg40 ,speaking of the turbans of the ,mohammedan ,indians1 ,tavernier says1 8,the rich have them of so fine cloth1 that twenty-five or thirty ells of it put into a turban will not weigh four ounces#ddh40 #dde 8,at the town of ,baroche1 in ,guzerat1 ,forbes describes the manufacture as being now in nearly the same state as when ,arrian's ,periplus was written 7about ,a4 ,d4 #ajj474 ,he says--0,the cotton trade at ,baroche is very considerable1 and the manufactures of this valuable plant1 from the finest muslin to the coarsest sail-cloth1 employ thousands of men1 women1 and children1 in the metropolis and the adjacent villages4 ,the cotton clearers and spinners generally reside in the suburbs1 or poorahs1 of ,baroche1 which are very extensive4 ,the weavers' houses are mostly near the shade of tamarind and mango trees1 under which1 at sun-rise1 they fix their looms1 and weave a variety of cotton cloth1 with very fine baftas and muslins 7,see ,plate ,v474 ,surat is more famous for its colored chintzes and piece goods4 ,the ,baroche muslins are inferior to those of ,bengal and ,madras1 nor do the painted chintzes of ,guzerat equal those of the ,coromandel coast40--,forbes's ,oriental ,memoirs1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bbb4 #ddf ,tavernier's ,travels1 contained in ,dr4 ,harris's ,collection of ,voyages and ,travels1 vol4 i4 p4 #haa4 #ddg ,ibid4 vol4 i4 p4 #hbi4 #ddh ,tavernier's ,travels1 ,harris's ,collection1 vol4 i4 p4 #hcc4 ,an ,english writer1 at the end of the seventeenth century1 in a remonstrance against the admission of ,india muslins1 for which1 he says1 the high price of thirty shillings a yard was paid1 unintentionally compliments the delicacy of the fabric by stigmatizing it as 8only the shadow of a commodity#ddi40 #ddi ,the ,naked ,truth1 in an ,essay upon ,trade1 p4 #aa4 ,the late ,rev4 ,william ,ward1 a missionary at ,serampore1 informs us that 8at ,shantee-pooru and ,dhaka1 muslins are made which sell at a hundred rupees a piece4 ,the ingenuity of the ,hindoos in this branch of manufacture is wonderful4 ,persons with whom ,i have conversed on this subject say1 that at two places in ,bengal1 ,sonar-ga and ,vilkrum-pooru1 muslins are made by a few families so exceedingly fine1 that four months are required to weave one piece1 which sells at five hundred rupees4 ,when this muslin is laid on the grass1 and the dew has fallen upon it1 it is no longer discernible#dej40 #dej ,view of the ,history1 ,literature1 and ,mythology of the ,hindoos1 by ,william ,ward2 vol4 iii4 p4 #abg4 #c;d edition4 ,after such statements as the above1 from sober and creditable witnesses1 the ,oriental hyperbole which designates the ,dacca muslins as 8webs of woven wind10 seems only moderately poetical4 ,sir ,charles ,wilkins brought a specimen of ,dacca muslin from ,india in the year #aghf1 which was presented to him by the principal of the ,east ,india ,company's factory at ,dacca1 as the finest then made there4 ,like all ,indian muslins1 it has a yellowish hue1 caused by imperfect bleaching4 ,though the worse for many years' exposure in a glass case1 and the handling of visitors1 it is of exquisite delicacy1 softness1 and transparency2 yet the yarn of which it is woven1 and of which ,mr4 ,wilkins also brought a specimen1 is not so fine as some which has been spun by machinery in ,england4 ,the following minute1 made by ,sir ,joseph ,banks on a portion of this yarn1 thirty or forty years since1 appears at the ,india ,house in his own writing1 together with a specimen of the muslin3-- 8,the portion of skein which ,mr4 ,wilkins gave to me weighed #cd-c_/aj grains3 its length was #e yards #g inches1 and it consisted of #aif threads4 ,consequently1 its whole length was #ajah yards and #g inches4 ,this1 with a small allowance for fractions1 gives #bi yards to a grain1 #bjc1jjj to a pound avoirdupoise of #gjjj grains2 that is1 #aae miles1 #b furlongs1 and #fj yards40 ,cotton yarn has been spun in ,england1 making three hundred and fifty hanks to the lb4 weight1 each hank measuring #hdj yards1 and the whole forming a thread of #afg miles in length#dea4 ,this1 however1 must be regarded merely as showing how fine the cotton can possibly be spun by machinery1 since no such yarn is or could be used in the making of muslins1 or for any other purpose4 ,the extreme of fineness to which yarns for muslins are ever spun in ,great ,britain is #bej hanks to the lb41 which would form a thread measuring #aai miles2 but it is very rarely indeed that finer yarn is used than #bbj hanks to the lb41 which is less fine than the specimen of ,dacca muslin above mentioned4 ,the ,indian hand-spun yarn is softer than mule-yarn1 and the muslins made of the former are much more durable than those made of the latter4 ,in point of appearance1 however1 the book-muslin of ,glasgow is very superior to the ,indian muslin1 not only because it is better bleached1 but because it is more evenly woven1 and from yarn of uniform thickness1 whereas the threads in the ,indian fabric vary considerably4 #dea ,pliny1 in speaking of linen yarn1 gives us an account 7,l4 xix4 cap4 #b47 of the cuirass of the ,egyptian king ,amasis1 which is preserved in the temple of ,minerva in ,rhodes4 8,each thread10 says he1 8is shown to consist of #cfe fibres1 which fact ,mucianus1 being a third time ,consul1 lately asserted at ,rome40--,mucianus was ,consul the third time ,a4 ,d4 #ge4 ,it is probable that the specimens brought by ,wilkins1 though the finest then made at the city of ,dacca1 is not equal to the most delicate muslins made in that neighborhood in former times1 or even in the present4 ,the place called by the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,ward ,sonar-ga1 and1 by ,mr4 ,walter ,hamilton1 ,sooner-gong1 a decayed city near ,dacca1 has been said to be unrivalled in its muslins4 ,mr4 ,ward's testimony has been quoted above4 ,mr4 ,ralph ,fitch1 an ,english traveller1 in #aehc1 spoke of the same place when he said--8,sinnergan is a town six leagues from ,serrapore1 where there is the best and finest cloth made of cotton that is in all ,india#deb40 ,mr4 ,hamilton says--8,soonergong is now dwindled down to an inconsiderable village4 ,by ,abul ,fazel1 in #aehb1 it is celebrated for the manufacture of a beautiful cloth1 named cassas 7cossaes17 and the fabrics it still produces justify to the present generation its ancient renown#dec04 ,but it seems that there has been a great decline in the manufacture of the finest muslins1 which is both stated and accounted for by ,mr4 ,hamilton in the following passage on the district of ,dacca ,jelulpoor3-- #deb ,hakluyt's ,voyages1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cij2 edit4 #ahji4 #dec ,a ,geographical1 ,statistical1 and ,historical ,description of ,hindostan1 by ,walter ,hamilton1 ,esq4 vol4 i4 p4 #ahg--7ahbj47 8,plain muslins1 are distinguished by different names1 according to the fineness or closeness of the texture1 as well as flowered1 striped1 or chequered muslins1 are fabricated chiefly in this district1 where a species of cotton named the banga grows1 necessary1 although not of a very superior quality1 to form the stripes of the finest muslins1 for which the city of ,dacca has been so long celebrated4 ,the northern parts of ,benares furnish both plain and flowered muslins1 which are not ill adapted for common use1 though incapable of sustaining any competition with the beautiful and inimitable fabrics of ,dacca4 8,the export of the above staple articles has much decreased1 and the art of manufacturing some of the finest species of muslins is in danger of being lost1 the orders for them being so few that many of the families who possess by hereditary instruction the art of fabricating them have desisted1 on account of the difficulty they afterwards experience in disposing of them4 ,this decline may partly be accounted for from the utter stagnation of demand in the upper provinces since the downfall of the imperial government1 prior to which these delicate and beautiful fabrics were in such estimation1 not only at the court of ,delhi1 but among all classes of the high nobility in ,india1 as to render it difficult to supply the demand4 ,among more recent causes also may be adduced the ,french revolution1 the degree of perfection to which this peculiar manufacture has lately been brought in ,great ,britain1 the great diminution in the ,company's investment1 and the advance in the price of cotton40 ,with respect to the peculiar species of cotton of which the ,dacca muslins are made1 the following statement was given to a committee of the ,house of ,commons1 in #ahcj-ca1 by ,mr4 ,john ,crawfurd1 for many years in the service of the ,east ,india ,company1 and author of the 8,history of the ,indian ,archipelago30 8,there is a fine variety of cotton in the neighborhood of ,dacca1 from which ,i have reason to believe the fine muslins of ,dacca are produced1 and probably to the accidental discovery of it is to be attributed the rise of this singular manufacture2 it is cultivated by the natives alone1 not at all known in the ,english market1 nor1 as far as ,i am aware1 in that of ,calcutta4 ,its growth extends about forty miles along the banks of the ,megna1 and about three miles inland4 ,i consulted ,mr4 ,colebrook respecting the ,dacca cotton1 and had an opportunity of perusing the manuscripts of the late ,dr4 ,roxburgh1 which contain an account of it2 he calls it a variety of the common herbaceous annual cotton of ,india1 and states that it is longer in the staple1 and affords the material from which the ,dacca muslins have been always made40 ,the cotton manufacture in ,india is not carried on in a few large towns1 or in one or two districts2 it is universal4 ,the growth of cotton is nearly as general as the growth of food2 everywhere the women spend a portion of their time in spinning2 and almost every village contains its weavers1 and supplies its own inhabitants with the scanty clothing they require#ded4 ,being a domestic manufacture1 and carried on with the rudest and cheapest apparatus1 it requires neither capital1 mills1 or an assemblage of various trades4 ,the cotton is separated from the seeds by a small rude hand-mill1 or gin1 turned by women4 #ded ,orme1 in his ,historical ,fragments of the ,mogul ,empire1 says1 8,on the coast of ,coromandel and in the province of ,bengal1 when at some distance from the high road or a principal town1 it is difficult to find a village in which every man1 woman1 and child is not employed in making a piece of cloth4 ,at present1 much the greatest part of the whole provinces are employed in this single manufacture40 7p4 #dji47 8,the progress of the cotton manufacture includes no less than a description of the lives of half the inhabitants of ,indostan40 7p4 #dac47 ,the mill consists of two rollers of teak wood1 fluted longitudinally with five or six grooves1 and revolving nearly in contact4 ,the upper roller is turned by a handle1 the lower being carried along with it by means of a perpetual screw at the axis4 ,the cotton is put in at one side1 and drawn through by the revolving rollers2 but the seeds1 being too large to pass through the opening1 are torn off and fall down on the opposite side from the cotton#dee4 #dee ,to the efforts of ,eli ,whitney1 ,america is indebted for the value of her great staple4 ,while the invention of the cotton gin has been the chief source of the prosperity of the ,southern planter1 the ,northern manufacturer comes in for a large share of the benefits derived from this most important offspring of ,american ingenuity4 ,eli ,whitney1 who may with justice be considered one of the most ingenious and extraordinary men that ever lived1 was born in ,westborough1 ,worcester ,county1 ,massachusetts1 ,december #hth1 #agfe4 ,his parents belonged to that respectable class in society1 who1 by the labors of husbandry1 manage1 by uniform industry1 to provide well for a rising family1--a class from whom have risen most of those who1 in ,new ,england1 have attained to high eminence and usefulness4 ,although ,mr4 ,whitney's machines have benefited the people of this country1 and the world at large1 millions upon millions1 yet1 it is to be lamented that he did not reap that reward which his ingenuity and industry1 as well as virtuous course of conduct so richly merited1 but died much involved in debt1 while thousands who had conspired to defraud him of his just and lawful rights1 were enriched by the use of his machines4 8,if we should assert10 said ,judge ,william ,johnson1 8that the benefits of this invention 7the ,cotton gin7 exceed #ajj1jjj1jjj1 we can prove the assertion by correct calculation40 ,who is there that1 like him1 has given his country and the world a machine--the product of his own skill--which has furnished a large part of its population1 from childhood to age1 with a lucrative employment2 by which their debts have been paid off2 their capitals increased2 their lands trebled in value8 ,mr4 ,whitney died on the #hth of ,january #ahbe1 and is buried in the cemetery of ,new ,haven1 ,connecticut4 ,his tomb is after the model of ,scipio's at ,rome4 ,it is simple and beautiful1 and promises to endure for years4 ,it bears the following inscription4 ,,eli ,,whitney4 ,,the ,,inventor ,,of ,,the ,,cotton ,,gin4 ,,of ,,useful ,,science ,,and ,,arts1 ,,the ,,efficient ,,patron ,,and ,,improver4 ,,in ,,the ,,social ,,relations ,,of ,,life1 ,a ,,model ,,of ,,excellence4 ,,while ,,private ,,affection ,,weeps ,,at ,,his ,,tomb1 ,,his ,,country ,,honors ,,his ,,memory4 ,,born ,,december #h,,th1 #agfe4--;,,died ,,jan4 #h,,th1 #ahbe4 ,the convention of ,american ,geologists and ,naturalists who met at ,new ,haven in ,may last 7#ahde471 were invited1 together with their ladies1 by ,mrs4 ,whitney1 the widow of the inventor of the ,cotton gin1 to attend an evening party at her house1 which was accepted1 where they had an elegant supper and conversazione4 8,it is melancholy10 says ,mr4 ,bains in his ,history of the ,cotton ,manufacture1 p4 #aad1 8to contrast with the sanguine eagerness of inventors1 the slowness of mankind to acknowledge and reward their merits1--to observe how1 on many occasions1 genius1 instead of realizing fame and fortune1 has been pursued by disaster and opposition1--how trifling difficulties have frustrated the success of splendid discoveries1--and how those discoveries1 snatched from the grasp of their broken-hearted authors1 have brought princely fortunes to men whose only talent was in making money4 ,when inventors fail in their projects1 no one pities them2 when they succeed1 persecution1 envy1 and jealousy are their reward4 ,their means are generally exhausted before their discoveries become productive4 ,they plant a vineyard1 and either starve1 or are driven from their inheritance1 before they can gather the fruit40 ,would it not be greatly to the credit of the cotton manufacturing interest in this country and in ,europe1 to present ,mrs4 ,whitney with some token of their respect and veneration for the memory of the inventor of the ,cotton gin8 ,the next operation is that of bowing the cotton1 to clear it from dirt and knots4 ,a large bow1 made elastic by a complication of strings1 is used2 this being put in contact with a heap of cotton1 the workman strikes the string with a heavy wooden mallet1 and its vibrations open the knots of the cotton1 shake from it the dust and dirt1 and raise it to a downy fleece4 ,the hand-mill and bow have been used immemorially throughout all the countries of ,asia1 and have their appropriate names in the ,arabic and other languages3 they were formerly used in ,america1 whence the term1 still applied in commerce1 8bowed ,georgia cotton40 ,the hatters of ,great ,britain still raise their wool by the bow4 ,the cotton being thus prepared1 without any carding1 it is spun by the women2 the coarse yarn is spun on a one-thread wheel1 and very much resembling those used at the present day by the peasantry in the west of ,ireland4 ,the finer yarn is spun with a metallic spindle1 and sometimes without a distaff2 a bit of clay is attached as a weight to one end of the spindle1 which is turned round with the left hand1 whilst the cotton is supplied with the right2 the thread is wound upon a small piece of wood4 ,the spinster keeps her fingers dry by the use of a chalky powder4 7,see ,part ,first1 ,chapter ,i1 pp4 #ag and #ah47 ,the yarn1 having been reeled and warped in the simplest possible manner1 is given to the weaver whose loom is as rude a piece of apparatus as can be imagined4 ,it consists merely of two bamboo rollers1 one for the warp and the other for the web1 and a pair of headles4 ,the shuttle performs the double office of shuttle and lay1 and for this purpose is made like a large netting needle1 and of a length rather more than the breadth of the web#def4 ,this apparatus the weaver carries to a tree1 under which he digs a hole 7which may be called the treadle-hole7 large enough to contain his legs and the lower tackle4 ,he then stretches his warp by fastening his bamboo rollers at a proper distance from each other by means of wooden pins4 ,the headle-jacks he fastens to some convenient branch of the tree over his head 7,see ,plate ,v473 two loops underneath1 in which he inserts his great toes1 serve instead of treadles2 and his long shuttle1 which also performs the office of lay1 draws the weft through the warp1 and afterwards strikes it home to the fell4 8,there is not so much as an expedient for rolling up the warp3 it is stretched out to the full length of the web1 which makes the house of the weaver insufficient to contain him4 ,he is therefore obliged to work continually in the open air2 and every return of inclement weather interrupts him#deg40 #def ,the shuttle is not always of this length4 ,hoole1 in his 8,mission to ,india10 represents it as requiring to be thrown1 in which case it must be short2 and a drawing of a ,candyan weaver1 in the ,magazine of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge1 shows the shuttle of the same size as our modern shawl shuttle4 ,indeed we have abundant evidence that the ,indians employed shuttles of this latter description from time immemorial4 ,the ,chinese also use shuttles of the same description4 7,see ,chinese loom1 ,plate ,i47 #deg ,mill's ,history of ,british ,india1 book ii4 ch4 #h4 ,forbes describes the weavers in ,guzerat1 near ,baroche1 as fixing their looms at sun-rise under the shade of tamarind and mango trees4 ,in some parts of ,india1 however1 as on the banks of the ,ganges1 the weavers work under the cover of their sheds1 fixing the geer of their looms to a bamboo in the roof 7,see ,plate ,v474 ,they size their warps with a starch made from the root called kandri4 ,when chequered muslins are wrought1 three persons are employed at each loom4 ,some authentic particulars concerning the habits and remuneration of the ,hindoos engaged in the making of cotton cloth1 are contained in an unpublished account of the districts of ,puraniya 7,purneah17 ,patna1 and ,dinajpur1 by ,dr4 ,francis ,hamilton1 better known as ,dr4 ,f4 ,buchanan1 7he having taken the name of ,hamilton17 the author of the 8,journey from ,madras to ,mysore1 ,canara1 and ,malabar40 ,this account of the above-named provinces near the ,ganges is in several manuscript volumes in the library of the ,india ,house1 in ,london4 ,we learn from his elaborate survey that the spinning and weaving of cotton prevails throughout these provinces4 ,the fine yarns are spun with an iron spindle1 and without distaff1 generally by women of rank2 no caste is disgraced here by spinning1 as in the south of ,india2 the women do not employ all their time at this work1 but only so much as is allowed by their domestic occupations4 ,the coarse yarns are spun on a small wheel turned by the hand4 ,the hand-mill is used to free the cotton from its seeds1 and the bow to tease it4 ,the following capital is required for the weaver's business3 a loom1 #b rupees2 sticks for warping and a wheel for winding1 #b anas2 a shop1 #d rupees2 thread for two ready money pieces1 worth #f rupees each1 #e rupees2--total #aa rupees #aj anas2 to which must be added a month's subsistence4 ,the man and his wife warp1 wind1 and weave two pieces of this kind in a month1 and he has #g rupees 7#ad shillings stg47 profit1 deducting1 however1 the tear and wear of his apparatus1 which is a trifle4 ,a person hired to weave can in a month make three pieces of this kind1 and is allowed #b anas in the rupee of their value1 which is #b rupees 7#ds4 #f;d47 a month4 ,the finest goods cost #b rupees a piece for weaving4 ,dr4 ,hamilton1 in his observations on another district1 states the average profit of a loom engaged in weaving coarse goods to be #bh rupees 7#b4 #afs47 a year1 or something less than #ac;d4 a week4 ,at ,puraniya and ,dinajpur the journeymen cotton-weavers usually made from #b to #b rupees 7from #ds4 to #es47 a month4 ,at ,patna a man and his wife made from #c to #d rupees 7from #fs4 to #hs47 a month by beating and cleaning cotton2 and each loom employed in making chequered muslins1 has a profit of #ajh rupees a year 7#aj4 #afs471 that is1 #as4 #d;d4 a week for each of the three persons who work the loom4 ,the average earnings of a journeyman weaver1 therefore1 appear to be from #as4 to #as4 #d;d4 per week4 ,at ,bangalore1 and in some other parts of southern ,india1 this author states that weavers earn from #c;d4 to #h;d4 a day1 according as they are employed on coarse or fine goods#deh2 but this is so much above the usual remuneration for labor in ,india1 that1 if the statement is not erroneous1 it must be of extremely limited application4 ,on the same authority1 a woman spinning coarse yarn can earn #a;d4 per day#dei4 #deh ,buchanan's ,journey through ,mysore1 vol4 i4 pp4 #baf-bah4 #dei ,ibid4 vol4 iii4 p4 #cag4 ,a fact is mentioned by ,dr4 ,hamilton1 in his unpublished account of ,patna1 which affords a striking indication as to the national character of the ,hindoos--8,all ,indian weavers1 who work for the common market1 make the woof of one end of the cloth coarser than that of the other1 and attempt to sell to the unwary by the fine end1 although every one almost1 who deals with them1 is perfectly aware of the circumstance1 and although in the course of his life any weaver may not ever have an opportunity of gaining by this means1 yet he continues the practice1 with the hope of being able at some time or other to take advantage of the purchaser of his goods40 ,the ,east ,india ,company has a factory at ,dacca1 and also in other parts of ,india1--not1 as the ,american use of the word 8factory0 might seem to imply1 a mill1 for the manufacture is entirely domestic--but a commercial establishment in a manufacturing district1 where the spinners1 weavers1 and other workmen are chiefly employed in providing the goods which the ,company export to ,europe4 ,this establishment is under the management of a commercial resident1 who agrees for the kinds of goods that may be required1 and superintends the execution of the orders received from the presidencies4 ,such is the poverty of the workmen1 and even of the manufacturers who employ them1 that the resident has to advance beforehand the funds necessary in order to produce the goods4 ,the consequence of this system is1 that the manufacturers and their men are in a state of dependence almost amounting to servitude4 ,the resident obtains their labor at his own price1 and1 being supported by the civil and military power1 he establishes a monopoly of the worst kind1 and productive of the most prejudicial effects to industry4 ,the ,act of #ahcc1 which put an end to the commercial character of the ,company1 will of course abolish all the absurd and oppressive monopolies it exercised4 ,it cannot but seem astonishing1 that in a department of industry1 where the raw material has been so grossly neglected1 where the machinery is so rude1 and where there is so little division of labor1 the results should be fabrics of the most exquisite delicacy and beauty1 unrivalled by the products of any other nation1 even those best skilled in the mechanic arts4 ,this anomaly is explained by the remarkably fine sense of touch possessed by that effeminate people1 by their patience and gentleness1 and by the hereditary continuance of a particular species of manufacture in families through many generations1 which leads to the training of children from their very infancy in the processes of the art4 ,mr4 ,orme observes--8,the women spin the thread destined for the cloth1 and then deliver it to the men1 who have fingers to model it as exquisitely as these have prepared it4 ,the rigid1 clumsy fingers of a ,european would scarcely be able to make a piece of canvass with the instruments which are all that an ,indian employs in making a piece of cambric 7muslin74 ,it is further remarkable1 that every distinct kind of cloth is the production of a particular district1 in which the fabric has been transmitted perhaps for centuries from father to son1--a custom which must have conduced to the perfection of the manufacture#dfj40 ,the last mentioned fact may be considered as a kind of division of labor4 #dfj ,ormes's ,historical ,fragments of the ,mogul ,empire1 p4 #dac4 ,mr4 ,mill thus explains the unequalled manual skill of the ,indian weaver3--8,it is a sedentary occupation1 and thus in harmony with his predominant inclination4 ,it requires patience1 of which he has an inexhaustible fund4 ,it requires little bodily exertion1 of which he is always exceedingly sparing2 and the finer the production1 the more slender the force which he is called upon to apply4 ,but this is not all4 ,the weak and delicate frame of the ,hindu is accompanied with an acuteness of external sense1 particularly of touch1 which is altogether unrivalled2 and the flexibility of his fingers is equally remarkable4 ,the hand of the ,hindu1 therefore1 constitutes an organ adapted to the finest operations of the loom1 in a degree which is almost or altogether peculiar to himself#dfa40 #dfa ,mill's ,history of ,british ,india1 book ii4 c4 #h4 ,it is1 then1 to a physical organization in the natives1 admirably suited to the processes of spinning and weaving2 to the possession of the raw material in the greatest abundance2 to the possession also of the most brilliant dyes for staining and printing the cloth2 to a climate which renders the colors lively and durable2 and to the hereditary practice1 by particular castes1 classes1 and families1 both of the manual operations and chemical processes required in the manufacture2--it is to these causes1 with very little aid from science1 and in an almost barbarous state of the mechanical arts1 that ,india owes her long supremacy in the manufacture of cotton4 ,bengal is celebrated for the production of the finest muslins2 the ,coromandel coast1 for the best chintzes and calicoes2 and ,surat1 for strong and inferior goods of every kind4 ,the cottons of ,bengal go under the names of casses1 amns1 and garats2 and the handkerchiefs are called ,burgoses and ,steinkirkes4 ,table cloths of superior quality are made at ,patna4 ,the basins1 or basinets1 come from the ,northern ,circars4 ,condaver furnishes the beautiful handkerchiefs of ,masulipatam1 the fine colors of which are partly obtained from a plant called chage1 which grows on the banks of the ,krishna1 and on the coast of the ,bay of ,bengal4 ,the chintzes and ginghams are chiefly made at ,masulipatam1 ,madras1 ,st4 ,thom1 and ,paliamcotta4 ,the long cloths and fine pullicats are produced in the presidency of ,madras4 ,the coarse piece-goods1 under the name of baftas1 doutis1 and pullicats1 as well as common muslins and chintzes1 are extensively manufactured in the district of which ,surat is the port4 ,besides all these1 there is an endless variety of fabrics1 many of which are known in the markets of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa4 ,the commerce of the ,indians in these fabrics has been extensive1 from the ,christian era to the end of the last century4 ,for many hundred years1 ,persia1 ,arabia1 ,syria1 ,egypt1 ,abyssinia1 and all the eastern parts of ,africa1 were supplied with a considerable portion of their cottons and muslins1 and with all which they consumed of the finest qualities1 from the marts of ,india4 ,this commerce existed in the last age1 and is described by the ,abb ,raynal#dfb and ,legoux de ,flaix4 ,the blue calicoes of ,guzerat were long bought by the ,english and ,dutch for their trade with ,guinea4 ,the great marts of this commerce on the west coast of ,india were ,surat and ,calicut1 the former of which is near to ,baroche1 the manufacturing capital of ,guzerat1 in which province a considerable part of the exported cottons of ,india were made2 and on the east coast1 ,masulipatam1 ,madras1 and ,st4 ,thom1 whence the varied and extensive products of the ,coromandel coast are exported4 #dfb ,histoire ,philosophique et ,politique des ,etablissements du ,commerce des ,europens dans les deux ,indes1 tom4 ii4 liv4 iv4 ch4 #d4 ,owing to the beauty and cheapness of ,indian muslins1 chintzes1 and calicoes1 there was a period when the manufacturers of all the countries of ,europe were apprehensive of being ruined by their competition4 ,in the seventeenth century1 the ,dutch and ,english ,east ,india ,companies imported these goods in large quantities2 they became highly fashionable for ladies' and children's dresses1 as well as for drapery and furniture1 and the coarse calicoes were used to line garments4 ,to such an extent did this proceed1 that as early as #afgh a loud outcry was made in ,england against the admission of ,indian goods1 which1 it was maintained1 were ruining the woollen manufacture1--a branch of industry which for centuries was regarded with an almost superstitious veneration1 as a kind of palladium of the national prosperity1 and which was incomparably the most extensive branch of manufactures till the close of the eighteenth century4 ,a few extracts from pamphlets published in the seventeenth and at the beginning of the eighteenth century1 will not only afford amusement1 but will show the wonderful commercial revolution which has since been effected by machinery4 ,in the year #afgh1 a pamphlet was issued under the title--8,the ,ancient ,trades ,decayed and ,repaired again10 in which the author thus bewails the interference of cotton with woollen fabrics4 8,this trade 7the woollen7 is very much hindered by our own people1 who do wear many foreign commodities instead of our own2 as may be instanced in many particulars2 viz4 instead of green sey1 that was wont to be used for children's frocks1 is now used painted and ,indian-stained and striped calico2 and instead of a perpetuana or shalloon to line men's coats with1 is used sometimes a glazed calico1 which in the whole is not above #ab;d4 cheaper1 and abundantly worse4 ,and sometimes is used a ,bangale that is brought from ,india1 both for linings to coats1 and for petticoats too2 yet our ,english ware is better and cheaper than this1 only it is thinner for the summer4 ,to remedy this1 it would be necessary to lay a very high impost upon all such commodities as these are1 and that no calicoes or other sort of linen be suffered to be glazed40--pp4 #af1 #ag4 ,the writer1 with equal wisdom1 recommends the prohibition of stage coaches1 on account of their injuring the proprietors of the inns on the road1 by conveying the passengers too quickly1 and at too little expense to themselves4 ,a pamphlet entitled 8,the ,naked ,truth1 in an ,essay upon ,trade10 published in #afif1 informs us that-- 8,the commodities that we chiefly receive from the ,east ,indies are calicoes1 muslins1 ,indian wrought silks1 pepper1 saltpetre1 indigo1 c4 ,the advantage of the ,company is chiefly in their muslins and ,indian silks1 7a great value in these commodities being comprehended in a small bulk17 and these becoming the general wear in ,england40--p4 #d4 8,fashion is truly termed a witch2 the dearer and scarcer any commodity1 the more the mode2 #cjs4 a yard for muslins1 and only the shadow of a commodity when procured40--p4 #aa4 ,so sagacious and far-sighted an author as ,daniel de ,foe 7,author of ,robinson ,crusoe7 did not escape the general notion1 that it was not merely injurious to the woollen and silk manufactures1 a but also a national evil1 ,,to ,,have ,,clothing ,,cheap ,,from ,,abroad ,,rather ,,than ,,to ,,manufacture ,,it ,,dear ,,at ,,home4 ,in his ,weekly ,review1 which contains so many opinions on trade1 credit1 and currency far beyond the age1 he thus laments the large importations of ,indian goods4 8,the general fancy of the people runs upon ,east ,india goods to that degree1 that the chintz and painted calicoes1 which before were only made use of for carpets1 quilts1 c41 and to clothe children and ordinary people1 become now the dress of our ladies2 and such is the power of a mode as we saw our persons of quality dressed in stuffs which but a few years before their chambermaids would have thought too ordinary for them3 the chintz was advanced from lying upon their floors to their backs1 from the foot-cloth to the petticoat2 and even the queen herself at this time was pleased to appear in ,china silks and calico4 ,nor was this all1 but it crept into our houses1 closets1 and bed-chambers2 curtains1 cushions1 chairs1 and at last beds themselves1 were nothing but calicoes or ,indian stuffs2 and in short1 almost everything that used to be made of wool or silk1 relating either to the dress of the women or the furniture of our houses1 was supplied by the ,indian trade40 8,above half of the 7woollen7 manufacture was entirely lost1 half of the people scattered and ruined1 and all this by the intercourse of the ,east ,india trade40--,weekly ,review1 ,january #cast1 #agjh4 ,however exaggerated and absurd ,de ,foe's estimate of the injury caused to the woollen manufacture1 as manifested by the small value of the whole importations of ,indian fabrics1 at that time1 as well as 7much more decisively7 by the experience of recent times1 when the woollen manufacture has sustained the incomparably more formidable competition of the ,english cotton manufacture1 it is evident from his testimony1 and that of other writers1 that ,indian calicoes1 muslins1 and chintzes1 had become common in ,england at the close of the seventeenth century4 ,de ,foe's complaint was not of an evil existing in #agjh1 when he wrote1 but of one a few years earlier2 for he says in another place1 that the 8,,prohibition ,,of ,,indian ,,goods0 had 8,,averted ,,the ,,ruin ,,of ,,english ,,manufactures1 ,,and ,,revived ,,their ,,prosperity40 ,this prohibition took place by the ,act #aa and #ab ,william ,,iii4 cap4 #aj41 7#agjj17 which forbid the introduction of ,indian silks and printed calicoes for domestic use1 either as apparel or furniture1 under a penalty of #bjj on the wearer or seller1 and as this ,act did not prevent the continued use of the goods1 which were probably smuggled from the continent of ,europe1 other ,acts for the same purpose were passed at a later date4 ,a volume published in the year #agbh1 entitled 8,a ,plan of the ,english ,commerce10 shows that the evil of a consumption of ,indian manufactures still prevailed1 and that it was ascribed to a cause for which the writer saw no remedy1 namely1 the will of the ladies1 or1 in his own words1 their 8passion for their fashion40 ,the other countries of ,europe are represented as equally suffering from ,indian competition and female perverseness1 and as attempting in the same way to find a remedy in legislative prohibition4 ,holland was an honorable exception4 ,the author says-- 8,the calicoes are sent from the ,indies by land into ,turkey1 by land and inland seas into ,muscovy and ,tartary1 and about by long-sea into ,europe and ,america1 till in general they are become a grievance1 and almost all the ,european nations but the ,dutch restrain and prohibit them40--p4 #ahj4 8,two things10 says the writer1 8among us are too ungovernable1 viz4 our passions and our fashions4 8,should ,i ask the ladies whether they would dress by law1 or clothe by act of parliament1 they would ask me whether they were to be statute fools1 and to be made pageants and pictures of8--whether the sex was to be set up for our jest1 and the parliament had nothing to do but make ,indian queens of them8--that they claim liberty as well as the men1 and as they expect to do what they please1 and say what they please1 so they will wear what they please1 and dress how they please4 8,it is true that the liberty of the ladies1 their passion for their fashion1 has been frequently injurious to the manufactures of ,great ,britain1 and is so still in some cases2 but ,i do not see so easy a remedy for that1 as for some other things of the like nature4 ,the ladies have suffered some little restraint that way1 as in the wearing ,east ,india silks1 instead of ,english2 and calicoes and other things instead of worsted stuffs and the like2 and we do not see they are pleased with it40--p4 #bec4 ,it appears1 then1 that not more than a century ago1 the cotton fabrics of ,india were so beautiful and cheap1 that nearly all the governments of ,europe thought it necessary to prohibit them1 or to load them with heavy duties1 ,,in ,,order ,,to ,,protect ,,their ,,own ,,manufactures4 ,how surprising a revolution has since taken place6 ,the ,indians have not lost their former skill2 but a power has arisen1 which has robbed them of their ancient ascendancy4 ,the following document furnishes superabundant proof how a manufacture which has existed without a rival for thousands of years1 is withering under the competition of a power which is as it were but of yesterday3 it would be well if it did not also illustrate the very different measure of protection and justice which governments usually afford to their subjects at home1 and to those of their remote dependencies4 ,,petition ,,of ,,natives ,,of ,,bengal1 ,,relative ,,to ,,duties ,,on ,,cotton ,,and ,,silk4 8,calcutta1 #ast4 ,sept4 #ahca4 8,to the ,right ,honorable the ,lords of ,his ,majesty's ,privy ,council for ,trade1 c4 8,the humble ,petition of the undersigned ,manufacturers and ,dealers in ,cotton and ,silk ,piece-goods1 the fabrics of ,bengal2 8,sheweth--,that of late years your ,petitioners have found their business nearly superseded by the introduction of the fabrics of ,great ,britain into ,bengal1 the importation of which augments every year1 to the great prejudice of the native manufactures4 8,that the fabrics of ,great ,britain are consumed in ,bengal1 without any duties being levied thereon to protect the native fabrics4 8,that the fabrics of ,bengal are charged with the following duties when they are used in ,great ,britain-- 8,on manufactured cottons1 #aj per cent4 8,on manufactured silks1 #bd per cent4 8,your ,petitioners most humbly implore your ,lordships' consideration of these circumstances1 and they feel confident that no disposition exists in ,england to shut the door against the industry of any part of the inhabitants of this great empire4 8,they therefore pray to be admitted to the privilege of ,british subjects1 and humbly entreat your ,lordships to allow the cotton and silk fabrics of ,bengal to be used in ,great ,britain free of duty1 or at the same rate which may be charged on ,british fabrics consumed in ,bengal#dfc4 8,your ,lordships must be aware of the immense advantages the ,british manufacturers derive from their skill in constructing and using machinery1 which enables them to undersell the unscientific manufacturers of ,bengal in their own country3 and1 although your ,petitioners are not sanguine in expecting to derive any great advantage from having their prayer granted1 their minds would feel gratified by such a manifestation of your ,lordships' good will towards them2 and such an instance of justice to the natives of ,india would not fail to endear the ,british government to them4 8,they therefore confidently trust1 that your ,lordships' righteous consideration will be extended to them as ,british subjects1 without exception of sect1 country1 or color4 8,and your ,petitioners1 as in duty bound1 will ever pray40 ,signed by #aag natives of high respectability4 #dfc ,this reasonable request was not complied with1 the duty on ,india cotton being still #aj per cent4 ,the extra duty of #c;d4 per yard on printed cottons was taken off when the excise duty on ,english prints was repealed1 in #ahca4 ,english cottons imported into ,india only pay a duty of #b per cent4 ,dacca1 notwithstanding its present insignificance as compared with its former grandeur1 may nevertheless still be classed among second rate cities4 ,it has a population of #aej1jjj inhabitants1 which is nearly a third more than the city of ,baltimore contains4 ,some new brick dwellings have silently sprung up here and there1 it may also be observed1 within the last few years2 and this city can now boast an ,oil ,mill driven by steam1 and an ,iron ,suspension ,bridge4 ,three more steam engines are in the course of erection#dfd4 ,on the whole1 an increase may be looked for1 rather than the contrary1 in the wealth1 population1 and importance of the city of ,dacca4 #dfd ,asiatic ,researches1 vol4 xvii4 ,it would be curious to compare the gradual decrease of the population1 with the falling off of the manufacture of those beautiful cotton fabrics1 for which this city was once without a rival in the world#dfe4 ,the first falling off in the ,dacca trade1 took place so far back as #ahja1 previous to which the yearly advances made by the ,east ,india ,company1 and private traders1 for ,dacca muslins1 were estimated at upwards of twenty-five lacs of rupees#dff4 ,in #ahjg1 the ,company s investment had fallen to #eie1ijj1 and the private trade to about #efj1bjj4 ,in #ahac1 the private trade did not exceed #bje1iej1 and that of the ,company was scarcely more considerable4 ,and in #ahag1 the ,english commercial residency was altogether discontinued4 ,the ,french and ,dutch factories had been abandoned many years before4 ,the division of labor was carried to a great extent in the manufacture of fine muslins4 ,in spinning the very fine thread1 more especially1 a great degree of skill was attained4 ,it was spun with the fingers on a 8,takwa10 or fine steel spindle1 by young women1 who could only work during the early part of the morning1 while the dew was on the ground2 for such was the extreme tenuity of the fibre1 that it would not bear manipulation after the sun had risen4 ,one retti of cotton could thus be spun into a thread eighty cubits long2 which was sold by the spinners at one rupee1 eight annas1 per sicca weight4 ,the 8,raffugars10 or ,darners1 were also particularly skilful4 ,they could remove an entire thread from a piece of muslin1 and replace it by one of a finer texture4 ,the cotton used for the finest thread1 was grown in the immediate neighborhood of ,dacca1 more especially about ,sunergong4 ,its fibre is too short1 however1 to admit of its being worked up by any except that most wonderful of all machines--the human hand4 ,the art of making the very fine muslin fabrics is now lost--and a pity it is that it should be so4 #dfe ,if ,providence should continue to bless the work of our hands1 and our life and health be preserved1 we indulge the hope of being able1 at no very distant period1 to investigate this subject more fully4 #dff ,lac of rupees is one hundred thousand rupees1 which at #ee cents each amount to fifty-five thousand dollars1 or at #bs4 #f;d4 sterling1 to #ab1ejj4 ,in #ahbj1 a resident of ,dacca1 on a special order received from ,china1 procured the manufacture of two pieces of muslin1 each ten yards long by one wide1 and weighing ten and a half sicca rupees4--,the price of each piece was #ajj sicca rupees4 ,in #ahbb1 the same individual received a second commission for two similar pieces1 from the same quarter2 but the parties who had supplied him on the former occasion had died in the mean time1 and he was unable to execute the commission4 ,the annual investment1 called the 8,malbus ,khs10 for the royal wardrobe at ,delhi1 absorbed a great part of the finest fabrics in former times3 the extreme beauty of some of these muslins1 was sufficiently indicated by the names they bore3 such as1 8,abrowan10 running water2 8,siebnem10 evening dew1 c4 ,the cotton manufacture has not yet arrived at anything like this perfection with us1 and probably never will4#dfg #dfg ,the manufacture of fine muslin1 was attempted both in ,lancashire and at ,glasgow1 about the year #aghj1 with weft spun by the jenny4 ,the attempt failed1 owing to the coarseness of the yarn4 ,even with ,indian weft1 muslins could not be made to compete with those of the ,east4 ,but when the mule was brought into general use1 in #aghe1 both weft and warp were produced sufficiently fine for muslins2 and so quickly did the weaver avail himself of the improvement in the yarn1 that no less than #ejj1jjj pieces of muslin were manufactured in ,great ,britain in the year #aghg4 ,in a 8,report of the ,select ,committee of the ,court of ,directors of the ,east ,india ,company upon the subject of the ,cotton ,manufacture of this ,country10 made in the year #agic1 it is said1 that 8every shop offers ,british muslins for sale equal in appearance1 and of more elegant patterns than those of ,india1 for one-fourth1 or perhaps more than one-third1 less in price40 8,muslin began to be made nearly at the same time at ,bolton1 at ,glasgow1 and at ,paisley1 each place adopting the peculiar description of fabric which resembled most those goods it had been accustomed to manufacture2 and1 in consequence of this judicious distribution at first1 each place has continued to maintain a superiority in the production of its own article4 ,jaconets1 both coarse and fine1 but of a stout fabric1 checked and striped muslins1 and other articles of the heavier description of this branch1 are manufactured in ,bolton1 and its neighborhood4 ,book1 mull1 and leno muslins1 and jaconets of a lighter fabric than those made in ,lancashire1 are manufactured in ,glasgow4 ,sewed and tambored muslins are almost exclusively made there and in ,paisley40--,encyclopdia ,britannica4 ,coarse cotton piece goods still continue to be manufactured at ,dacca1 though from the extreme cheapness of ,english cloths1 it is not improbable that the native manufacture will be altogether superseded ere long4 ,in #ahbc-d1 cotton piece goods1 mostly coarse1 passed the ,dacca ,custom ,house1 to the value of #a1ddb1aja4 ,in #ahbi-cj1 the value of the same export was #ifi1ieb only4 ,there was a similar falling off in silk and embroidered goods during the same period4 ,in the export of the articles of cotton yarn again1 there has been an increase4 ,in #ahac1 the value was #d1dhj rupees only2 whereas in #ahba-bb1 it amounted to #ci1cai rupees4 ,from that period it has1 however1 decreased2 and in #ahbi-cj1 the value of the native cotton yarn exported from ,dacca1 amounted to #bi1dge rupees only4 ,annexed are two statements--one showing the comparative prices of muslins now manufactured at ,dacca1 and of the same description of cloth1 the produce of ,british looms4--,the other1 the comparative prices of ,dacca cloths1 manufactured from yarn spun in the country1 and from ,british cotton yarn4 ,these cannot fail to be interesting at the present moment1 and their general accuracy may be relied on4 ,,comparative ,,statement ,,of ,,the ,,prices ,,of ,,muslins ,,manufactured ,,at ,,dacca1 ,,and ,,the ,,produce ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,looms4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,assortments4 ,manufactured,produce of at the ,british ,dacca4 ,looms4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,jamdan1 with small spot1 #ast sort #be #h ,jamdan1 with small spot #bnd ditto #af #e ,jamdan1 ,mabposh1 #bg to #bh #f ,jamdan1 ,diagonal pattern1 #ab to #ac #d to #d ,jaconet ,muslin1 #dj1 #ast ditto #ch to #dj #bj to #bb corresponding #bnd ditto #bd to #be #i to #aj with ,jungle ,cossas1 ,nyansook1 #dj to #b1 #h to #i #e to #f ,cambric1 corresponding with ,camiz ,cossas1 #ac to #ad #f to #i ,jamdan blue or red sprigs1 #ae to #af #d to #e ,jamdan ,sars1 #ab to #ac #e to #e ,book ,muslin1 corresponding with ,mulmulls1 #aj to #aa #g to #h ,sahun1 #dh by #c1 #bh to #cj #ad to #ae ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,comparative ,,statement ,,of ,,the ,,prices ,,of ,,dacca ,,cloths1 ,,manufactured ,,with ,,cotton ,,yarn ,,spun ,,in ,,the ,,country1 ,,and ,,from ,,british ,,cotton ,,yarn4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,dacca ,,muslins4 ------------------------------ ,,assortments4 ,manufactured ,manufactured with ,country with ,europe ,cotton ,thread4 ,cotton ,yarn4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,mulmuls1 #dj by #b1 #ast sort #h to #i #c to #d #bnd ditto #aj to #ab #e to #f #crd ditto #ad to #ae #i to #aj ,sablams1 #dj by #b1 #ast ditto #d to #d #b #bnd ditto #e to #f #c #crd ditto #aa to #ab #f #dth ditto #ad to #ae #h #eth ditto #ag to #ah #aj to #aa ,sarbans1 #dj cubits1 #ast ditto #c #a #bnd ditto #c to #c #a ,allabals ,ad1 #ast ditto #e to #e #c #bnd ditto #g to #g #d #crd ditto #h to #i #e to #e #dth ditto #i to #aj #f to #f ,tarindans1 #dj cubits1 #ast ditto #d to #e #c #bnd ditto #f to #g #d #crd ditto #aa to #ab #g to #h #dth ditto #ac to #ad #aj to #aa ,sar1 per pair1 #ast ditto #e #c #bnd ditto #e to #e #c to #d #crd ditto #i to #aj #e to #f ,dhotis1 per pair1 #ast ditto #e #c #bnd ditto #f to #f #c #crd ditto #g to #g #e #dth ditto #h to #h #f #eth ditto #aj to #aa #h to #h #fth ditto #i to #aa #g to #g ,sheraganj ,cossas1 #ast ditto #d #b #dj cubits1 #bnd ditto #e #c #crd ditto #e to #f #d #dth ditto #g to #g #e #eth ditto #h to #h #f ,sheraganj ,hamam1 #ast ditto #e #c #dj by #c1 #bnd ditto #f to #f #d #crd ditto #g to #h #e #dth ditto #i to #i #f to #g #eth ditto #aa to #ab #h to #i #fth ditto #ad to #ae #aj to #aa ,jamdan ,dhotis1 #ast ditto #e to #f #d #aj cubits1 #bnd ditto #f to #g #d #crd ditto #g to #h #e ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,the manufacture of cotton1 as we have seen1 was general in ,india and had attained high excellence in the age of the first ,greek historian1 that is1 in the fifth century before ,christ1 at which time it had already existed for an unknown period2 yet eighteen centuries more elapsed before it was introduced into ,italy or ,constantinople1 or even secured a footing in the neighboring empire of ,china4 ,though so well suited to hot climates1 we have seen that cottons were known rather as a curiosity than as a common article of dress in ,egypt and ,persia1 five centuries after the ,greeks had heard of the 8wool-bearing trees0 of ,india3 in ,egypt1 as has been shown1 the manufacture never reached any considerable degree of excellence1 and the muslins worn by the higher classes have always been imported from ,india#dfh4 ,in ,spain the manufacture1 after flourishing to some degree1 became nearly extinct4 ,in ,italy1 ,germany1 and ,flanders1 it had also a lingering and ignoble existence4 #dfh ,in ,arabia and the neighboring countries1 cottons and muslins came gradually into use2 and the manufacture was spread1 by the commercial activity and enterprise of the early followers of ,mohammed1 throughout the extended territories subdued by their arms4 8,it is recorded of the fanatical ,omar1 the immediate successor of the ,arabian impostor1 that he preached in a tattered cotton gown1 torn in twelve places2 and of ,ali1 his contemporary1 who assumed the caliphate after him1 that on the day of his inauguration1 he went to the mosque dressed in a thin cotton gown1 tied round him with a girdle1 a coarse turban on his head1 his slippers in one hand1 and his bow in the other1 instead of a walking staff40--,crichton's ,history of ,arabia1 vol4 i4 pp4 #cig1 #djc4 ,,part ,,fourth4 ,,ancient ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,linen ,,manufacture4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,flax4 ,,cultivation ,,and ,,manufacture ,,of ,,flax ,,by ,,the ,,ancients--,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,scriptures1 ,,etc4 ,earliest mention of ,flax--,linen manufactures of the ,egyptians--,linen worn by the priests of ,isis--,flax grown extensively in ,egypt--,flax gathering--,envelopes of ,linen found on ,egyptian mummies--,examination of mummy-cloth--,proved to be ,linen--,flax still grown in ,egypt--,explanation of terms--,byssus--,reply to ,j4 ,r4 ,forster--,hebrew and ,egyptian terms--,flax in ,north ,africa1 ,colchis1 ,babylonia--,flax cultivated in ,palestine--,terms for flax and tow--,cultivation of ,flax in ,palestine and ,asia ,minor--,in ,elis1 ,etruria1 ,cisalpine ,gaul1 ,campania1 ,spain--,flax of ,germany1 of the ,atrebates1 and of the ,franks--,progressive use of linen among the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,the earliest mention of flax by any author occurs in the account of the plague of hail1 which devastated ,lower ,egypt1 ,ex4 ix4 #ca4 ,the ,hebrew term for flax in this and various other passages of the old ,testament is 2 the corresponding word in the ,chaldee1 ,syriac1 and ,arabic versions is 1 ,,lxx4 ,linum1 ,jerome4 ,in ,isaiah xix4 #i1 according to ,king ,james's ,translators and ,bishop ,lowth1 mention is made of those that 8work in fine flax10 and which was one of the chief employments of the ,egyptians4 ,according to ,herodotus 7ii4 #cg1 #ha47 the ,egyptians universally wore linen shirts1 which were fringed at the bottom4 ,the fringe consisted of the thrums1 or ends of the webs4 ,thrums used for this purpose may be seen in the cloths which are found in ,egyptian mummies4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi ,egyptian flax-gathering4 ,besides the linen shirt the priests wore an upper garment of linen1 more especially when they officiated in the temples4 ,this garment was probably of the exact form of a modern linen sheet4 ,the distinction between the shirt and the sheet worn over it1 as well as the reason why linen was used for all sacred purposes1 is clearly expressed in the two following passages from ,apuleius and ,jerome4 ,etiamn cuiquam mirum videri potest1 cui sit ulla memoria religionis1 hominem tot mysteriis ,dem conscium1 qudam sacrorum crepundia domi adversare1 atque ea lineo texto involvere1 quod purissimum est rebus divinis velamentum8 ,quippe lana1 segnissimi corporis excrementum1 pecori detracta1 jam inde ,orphei et ,pythagor scitis1 profanus vestitus est4 ,sed enim mundissima lini seges1 inter optimas fruges terr exorta1 non mod indutui et amictui sanctissimis gyptiorum sacerdotibus1 sed opertui quoque in rebus sacris usurpatur4 ,apuleii ,apolog4 p4 #fd4 ed4 ,prici4 ,can any one impressed with a sense of religion wonder1 that a man who has been made acquainted with so many mysteries of the gods1 should keep at home certain sacred emblems and wrap them in a linen cloth1 the purest covering for divine objects8 ,for wool1 the excretion of a sluggish body1 taken from sheep1 was deemed a profane attire even according to the early tenets of ,orpheus and ,pythagoras4 ,but flax1 that cleanest and best production of the field1 is used1 not only for the inner and outer clothing of the most holy priests of the ,egyptians1 but also for covering sacred objects4--,yates's ,translation4 ,indutus was the putting on of the inner1 amictus of the outer garment4 ,vestibus lineis utuntur gyptii sacerdotes non solum extrinsecus1 sed et intrinsecus4--,hieron4 in ,ezek4 #dd4 folio #beg4 ,the ,egyptian priests use linen garments1 not only without1 but also within4 ,plutarch says#dfi1 that the priests of ,isis wore linen on account of its purity1 and he remarks how absurd and inconsistent would have been their conduct1 if they had carefully plucked the hairs from their own bodies1 and yet clothed themselves in wool1 which is the hair of sheep4 ,he also mentions the opinion of some who thought that flax was used for clothing1 because the color of its blossom resembles the etherial blue which surrounds the world2 and he states1 that the priests of ,isis were also buried in their sacred vestments4 ,according to ,strabo1 ,panopolis was an ancient seat of the linen manufacture#dgj4 #dfi ,l4 xvii4 #da4 p4 #ehf4 ed4 ,siebenkees4 #dgj ,de ,iside et ,osiride1 prope init4 ,opp4 ed4 ,h4 ,stephani1 ,par4 #aegb1 tom4 i p4 #fbg1 #fbh4 ,celsius in his ,hierobotanicon 7vol4 ii4 p4 #bhg-bia471 and ,forster in his treatise ,de ,bysso ,antiquorum 7p4 #fe-fh47 have quoted other passages from ancient authors1 which concur to show the abundance and excellence of the flax grown anciently in ,lower ,egypt1 and more particularly in the vicinity of ,pelusium1 the general employment of it among the inhabitants for clothing1 and the exclusive use of linen cloth for the garments of the priesthood and for other sacred purposes1 and especially for the worship of ,isis and ,osiris4 ,from the same authorities we learn1 that the ,egyptian flax and the cloth woven from it were shipped in great quantities to all the ports of the ,mediterranean#dga4 #dga 8,solomon had horses brought out of ,egypt1 and linen yarn0 773 #a ,kings x4 #bh4 #b ,chron4 i4 #af4 ,in connection with these statements the reader is referred to what has already been advanced 7,see ,part ,second1 ,chap4 ,i47 on the use of wool for clothing by the ,egyptians2 and it may be also observed1 that when we find it stated by ancient authors1 that the priests wore linen only1 the term ought not to be so strictly understood as to exclude the use of cotton1 which would probably be considered equally pure and equally adapted for sacred purposes with linen1 and which was brought in ancient times from ,india to ,egypt2 and the term linum was undoubtedly often employed in so general a sense as to include cotton4 ,these testimonies of ancient authors are confirmed in a very remarkable manner by existing monuments4 ,the paintings in the ,grotto of ,el ,kab represent among other scenes a field of corn and a crop of flax1 the latter distinguished by its inferior height1 by its round capsules1 and by being pulled up by the roots instead of being reaped4 ,the mode of binding the flax in bundles is also exhibited1 and the separation of the 8bolls10 or capsules1 containing the lin-seed1 from the stalk1 by the use of a comb1 or 8ripple40 7,see ,description de l',egypte3 ,antiquits2 ,planches1 tome i4 pl4 #fh4 and the ,plates to ,hamilton's gyptiaca1 xxiii47 ,in ,plate ,,vi4 is inserted so much of the painting as relates to our present subject4 ,five persons are employed in plucking up the flax by the roots1 viz41 four men and one woman4 ,the woman wears a shift reaching to her ancles1 but transparent#dgb4 ,the four men wear shirts which reach to their knees1 and are not transparent4 ,another man binds the flax into sheaves3 a sixth carries it to a distance3 and a seventh separates the seed from the stem by means of a four-toothed ripple4 ,the back of the ripple rests on the ground2 its teeth being raised to the proper elevation by a prop1 as shown in the drawing4 ,the man sets his foot upon the back to keep the instrument firm1 and1 taking hold of a bunch of flax near the root1 draws it through the comb4 ,this method is now employed in ,europe4 ,at the left-hand corner of the ,plate lies a bundle of flax stript of its capsules1 and underneath the ripple is the heap of seed which has been separated from the stem4 #dgb ,this circumstance is adapted to illustrate the mention of 8transparent garments0 in ,isaiah iii4 #bc4 ,lowth's ,translation4 ,evidence equally decisive is presented in the innumerable mummies1 the fabrication of successive ages through a period of more than two thousand years1 which are found in the catacombs of ,egypt4 ,it is indeed disputed1 whether the cloth in which they are enveloped is linen or cotton4 ,it was believed to be linen by all writers previous to ,rouelle4 ,more especially1 this opinion was advanced by the learned traveller and antiquary1 ,professor ,john ,greaves1 in his ,pyramidographia1 published ,a4 ,d4 #afdf4 ,he speaks of the 8linen shroud0 of a mummy1 which he opened1 and he says1 8,the ribbands0 7or fillets7 8by what ,i observed1 were of linen1 which was the habit also of the ,egyptian priests40 ,he adds1 8of these ribbands ,i have seen some so strong and perfect as if they had been made but yesterday40 ,rouelle's dissertation on ,mummies is published in the ,mmoires de l',acadmie ,r4 des ,sciences for the year #agej4 ,he there asserts 7p4 #aej71 that the cloth of every mummy which he had an opportunity of examining1 even that of embalmed birds1 was cotton4 ,dr4 ,hadley1 however1 who wrote a few years after ,rouelle 7,phil4 ,transactions for #agfd1 vol4 #ed471 seems to adhere to the old opinion4 ,he calls the cloth of the mummy1 which he examined1 8linen40 ,he says1 it was in fillets of different breadths1 but the greater part #a inches broad4 8,they were torn longitudinally2 those few that had a selvage1 having it on one side only40 ,but the opinion of ,rouelle received a strong support from ,dr4 ,john ,reinhold ,forster1 to whom it appeared at first almost incredible1 although he afterwards supported it in the most decided manner4 ,he determined to take the first opportunity of settling the question by the inspection of mummies1 and examined those in the ,british ,museum1 accompanied by ,dr4 ,solander4 ,both of these learned and acute inquirers were convinced1 that the cloth was cotton1 deriving this opinion from the inspection of all those specimens1 which were sufficiently free from gum1 paint1 and resins1 to enable them to judge#dgc4 ,larcher informs us1 that he remarked the same thing in these mummies in #ageb1 when he was accompanied by ,dr4 ,maty#dgd4 ,it is to be observed1 however1 that neither ,larcher1 ,rouelle1 nor ,forster mentions the criterion which he employed to distinguish linen from cotton4 ,they probably formed their opinion only from its apparent softness1 its want of lustre1 or some other quality1 which might belong to linen no less than to cotton1 and which therefore could be no certain mark of distinction4 #dgc ,forster1 ,de ,bysso ,antiquorum1 ,london #aggf1 p4 #gj1 #ga4 #dgd ,herodote1 par ,larcher4 ,ed4 #bnde1 ,par4 #ahjb1 livre ii4 p4 #ceg4 ,the opinion of ,larcher1 ,rouelle1 and ,forster appears to have been generally adopted4 ,in particular we find it embraced by ,blumenbach1 who in the ,philosophical ,transactions for #agid speaks of the 8cotton bandages0 of two of the small mummies1 which he opened in ,london#dge4 ,in his ,beitrge 7i4 e4 ,contributions to ,natural ,history1 #bnd part1 p4 #gc1 ,gttingen1 #ahaa7 he says1 he is more firmly convinced than ever1 that the cloth is universally cotton4 ,he assigns also his reasons in the following terms4 8,i ground this my conviction far less on my own views than on the assurance of such persons as ,i have questioned on the subject1 and whose judgment in this matter ,i deem incomparably superior to my own or to that of any other scholar1 namely1 of ladies1 dealers in cotton and linen cloth1 weavers and the like40 ,he also refers to the cultivation of cotton in ,egypt1 which he assumes probably on the authority of ,forster2 and to the fable of ,isis enveloping in 8cotton0 cloth the collected limbs of her husband ,osiris1 who had been torn in pieces by ,typhon4 ,the latter arguments are founded on the supposition1 that the ancient term ,byssus meant cotton1 and not linen4 ,but the question as to its meaning must in part be decided1 as we shall see hereafter1 by previously settling the present question as to the materials of the mummy cloth4 ,the opinion of ladies1 tradesmen1 and manufacturers1 though it may be better than that of the most learned man1 if derived from mere touch and inspection1 is quite insufficient to decide the question4 ,if those whom ,blumenbach consulted thought that the cloth was always cotton1 many others of equal experience and discernment have given an opposite judgment2 and the fact is1 that linen cloth1 which has been long worn and often washed1 as is the case with a great proportion of the mummy cloth1 and which is either ragged or loose in its texture1 cannot be distinguished from cotton by the unassisted use of the external senses4 #dge ,on the authority of this paper the mummy-cloth is supposed to be cotton by ,heeren1 ,ideen1 i4 #a4 p4 #abh4 ,relying1 however1 on the same evidence of ocular inspection1 another distinguished author1 who travelled in ,egypt and published his remarks about the same time1 says1 8,as to the circumstance of cotton cloths having been exclusively used in the above process1 an inspection of the mummies is sufficient evidence of the fact#dgf40 #dgf gyptiaca1 by ,william ,hamilton1 ,esq4 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,london1 #ahji4 p4 #cbj4 ,m4 ,jomard1 one of the authors of the great ,french work on ,egypt1 published about #ahaa1 paid great attention to this subject4 ,he concluded1 that both linen and cotton were employed in the bandages of mummies1 grounding his opinion partly on their appearance and touch1 and partly on the testimony of ,herodotus1 whom he misinterpreted in the manner1 which will hereafter be mentioned#dgg4 #dgg ,description de l',egypte4 ,mmoires4--,sur les ,hypoges1 p4 #ce4 ,another of these authors1 ,m4 ,costaz1 who contributed the memoir on the grotto of ,el ,kab1 asserts that the mummy cloth is found on examination to be cotton#dgh4 #dgh ,ibid4 tom4 i4 p4 #fj4 ,an important paper on the same subject appeared in the ,philosophical ,transactions for #ahbe4 ,in this ,dr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,granville describes a mummy1 which he opened4 ,he dwells more particularly on the circumstances1 which have reference to anatomical and surgical considerations1 and expresses very strongly his admiration of the skill and neatness employed in folding the cloth1 so as to present an example of every kind of bandage used by modern surgeons1 and to exhibit it in the most perfect manner4 ,the passages which are connected with the present inquiry1 will be quoted at length4 ,dr4 ,granville observes 7p4 #bgb471 ,the principal rollers appear to be made of a very compact1 yet elastic linen1 some of them from four to five yards in length1 without any stitch or seam in any part of them4 ,there were also some large square pieces thrown around the head1 thorax1 and abdomen1 of a less elastic texture4 ,these pieces were found to alternate with the complete swathing of the whole body4 ,they occurred four distinct times2 while the bandaging1 with rollers and other fasci1 was repeated1 at least1 twenty times4 ,the numerous bandages1 by which the mummy was thus enveloped1 were themselves wholly covered by a roller #c inches wide and #aa yards long1 which after making a few turns around both feet1 ascended in graceful spirals to the head1 whence descending again as far as the breast1 it was fixed there4 ,the termination of this outer roller is remarkable for the loose threads hanging from it in the shape of a fringe and for certain traces of characters imprinted on it similar to those described and delineated by ,jomard in the ,description de l',egypte4 ,one or two of these characters have corroded the linen1 leaving the perforated traces of their form4 ,dr4 ,granville gives a fac-simile of these characters1 and in the same ,plate he represents the exact appearance of the external rolls of cloth on the mummy4 ,he then says 7p4 #bgd471 ,i have satisfied myself1 that both cotton and linen have been employed in the preparation of our mummy1 although ,herodotus mentions only cotton 7byssus7 as the material used for the purpose4 ,most mummies have been described as wholly enveloped in linen cloth1 and some persons are disposed to doubt the existence of cotton cloth in any1 not excepting in the one now under consideration4 ,but with respect to the last point1 a simple experiment has1 ,i think1 set the question at rest4 ,if the surface of old linen1 and of old cotton cloth be rubbed briskly and for some minutes with a rounded piece of glass or ivory1 after being washed and freed from all extraneous matter1 the former will be found to have acquired considerable lustre2 while the latter will present no other difference than that of having the threads flattened by the operation4 ,by means of this test ,i selected several pieces of cotton cloth from among the many bandages of our mummy1 which ,i submitted to the inspection of an experienced manufacturer1 who declared them to be of that material4 ,besides the appeal to the senses of 8an experienced manufacturer10 ,dr4 ,granville here proposes a new test1 that of rubbing in the manner described4 ,but1 although cotton cloth in all circumstances has less lustre than linen1 still this cannot be considered a satisfactory criterion4 ,the ingenious ,john ,howell of ,edinburgh#dgi paid some attention to this question1 having a few years since obtained and opened a valuable mummy4 ,he and the friends1 whom he consulted1 and who were weavers and other persons of practical experience1 most of them thought that the cloth was altogether linen3 some however thought that certain specimens of it were cotton4 #dgi ,author of an ,essay on the ,war ,galleys of the ,ancients1 ,edinburgh #ahbf1 #hvo4 ,this curious and important question was at length decisively settled by means of microscopic observations instituted by ,james ,thomson1 ,esq4 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 of ,clitheroe1 one of the most observant and experienced cotton-manufacturers in ,great ,britain4 ,he obtained about #djj specimens of mummy cloth1 and employed ,mr4 ,bauer of ,kew to examine them with his microscopes4 ,by the same method the structure and appearance of the ultimate fibres of modern cotton and flax were ascertained2 and were found to be so distinct that there was no difficulty in deciding upon the ancient specimens1 and it was also found that they were universally linen4 ,about twelve years after ,mr4 ,thomson had commenced his researches he published the results of them in the ,philosophical ,magazine#dhj1 and he has accompanied them with a ,plate exhibiting the obvious difference between the two classes of objects4 ,the ultimate fibre of cotton is a transparent tube without joints1 flattened so that its inward surfaces are in contact along its axis1 and also twisted spirally round its axis 7,see ,a4 ,plate ,,vi473 that of flax is a transparent tube jointed like a cane1 and not flattened nor spirally twisted 7,see ,b4 ,plate ,,vi474 ,to show the difference two specimens of the fibres of cotton1 and two of the fibres of mummy cloth are exhibited1 all of the specimens being one hundredth of an inch long1 and magnified #djj times in each dimension4 ,any person1 even with a microscope of moderate power1 may discern the difference between the two kinds of fibres1 though not so minutely and exactly as in the figures of ,mr4 ,bauer4 #dhj ,third ,series1 vol4 v4 ,no4 #bi1 ,november #ahcd4 ,the difference1 here pointed out1 will explain why linen has greater lustre than cotton3 it is no doubt because in linen the lucid surfaces are much larger4 ,the same circumstance may also explain the different effect of linen and cotton upon the health and feelings of those who wear them 7,see ,part ,third1 ,chap4 ,i474 ,every linen thread presents only the sides of cylinders3 that of cotton1 on the other hand1 is surrounded by an innumerable multitude of exceedingly minute edges4 ,mr4 ,pettigrew1 in his 8,history of ,egyptian ,mummies0 7,london #ahcd1 p4 #ie471 expresses the opinion that the bandages are principally of cotton1 though occasionally of linen4 ,he has since arrived at the conclusion that they are all of linen3 and his opinion appears to be established on the following evidence1 which he gives in a note to the above mentioned work 7p4 #ia474 ,dr4 ,ure has been so good as to make known to me that which ,i conceive to be the most satisfactory test of the absolute nature of flax and cotton1 and in the course of his microscopic researches on the structure of textile fibres he has succeeded in determining their distinctive characters4 ,from a most precise and accurate examination of these substances he has been able to draw the following statement3--,the filaments of flax have a glassy lustre when viewed by day-light in a good microscope1 and a cylindrical form1 which is very rarely flattened4 ,their diameter is about the two-thousandth part of an inch4 ,they break transversely with a smooth surface1 like a tube of glass cut with a file4 ,a line of light distinguishes their axis1 with a deep shading on one side only1 or on both sides1 according to the direction in which the incident rays fall on the filaments4 ,the filaments of cotton are almost never true cylinders1 but are more or less flattened and tortuous2 so that when viewed under the microscope they appear in one part like a riband from the one-thousandth to the twelve-hundredth part of an inch broad1 and in another like a sharp edge or narrow line4 ,they have a pearly translucency in the middle space1 with a dark narrow border at each side1 like a hem4 ,when broken across1 the fracture is fibrous or pointed4 ,mummy cloth1 tried by these criteria in the microscope1 appears to be composed both in its warp and woof-yarns of flax1 and not of cotton4 ,a great variety of the swathing fillets have been examined with an excellent achromatic microscope1 and they have all evinced the absence of cotton filaments4 ,mr4 ,wilkinson considers the observations of ,dr4 ,ure1 and ,mr4 ,bauer as decisive of the question#dha4 #dha ,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient ,egyptians1 ,london #ahcg1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aae4 ,with regard to the evidence from mummies it should be further remarked1 that1 as they are partly wrapped in old linen 7shirts1 napkins1 and other articles of clothing and domestic furniture being found with the long fillets and the entire webs71 they prove the general application of linen in ,egypt to all the purposes of ordinary life4 ,even to the present day flax continues to be a most important article of cultivation and trade in ,egypt#dhb4 ,the climate and soil are so favorable1 that it there grows to a height1 which it never reaches in ,europe4 ,it must no doubt1 become coarser in proportion to its size1 and this circumstance may account for the use of it in ancient times for all those purposes1 for which we employ hemp1 as for making nets1 ropes1 and sail-cloth4 ,the fine linen of the ancient ,egyptians must have been made from flax of lower growth and with thinner stems2 and the mummies testify1 that they made cloth of the finest as well as of the coarsest texture4 #dhb ,browne's ,travels in ,africa1 p4 #hc4 ,the following remark of ,hasselquist respecting the soft and loose texture of the linen made in ,egypt in his time agrees remarkably with the appearance of that found in mummies4 8,the ,egyptian linen is not so thick10 says he1 8as the ,european1 being softer and of a looser texture2 for which reason it lasts longer and does not wear out so soon as ours1 which frequently wears out the faster on account of its stiffness40 ,he also observes1 8,the common people in ,egypt are clothed in linen only1 dyed blue with indigo2 but those of better fortune have a black cloak over their linen shirt40 ,the coarse linen of the ,ancient ,egyptians was called 4 ,it was made of thick flax1 and was used for towels 71 ,julius ,pollux1 vii4 c4 #af471 and for sails 71 ,lycophron1 v4 #bf47dhc4 may be translated canvass1 or sail-cloth4 #dhc ,jablonski ,glossarium ,vocum gyptiarum1 in ,valpy's edition of ,steph4 ,thesaur4 tom4 i4 p4 ,,ccxcv4 ,fine linen1 on the other hand1 was called 4 ,this term1 as well as the preceding1 was in all probability an ,egyptian word1 adopted by the ,greeks to denote the commodity1 to which the ,egyptians themselves applied it4 ,it seems to correspond1 as ,salmasius#dhd1 ,celsius#dhe1 ,forster#dhf1 and ,jablonski#dhg have observed1 to the 8,fine linen of ,egypt10 in ,proverbs vii4 #af4 ,for 1 put into ,greek letters and with ,greek terminations1 becomes and 4 ,hesychius states1 no doubt correctly1 that was applied by the ,greeks to any fine and thin cloth1 though not of linen#dhh4 ,but this was in later times and by a general and secondary application of the term4 #dhd ,salmasius in ,achill4 ,tat4 l4 viii4 c4 #ac1 4 #dhe ,celsii ,hierobotanicon1 t4 ii4 p4 #ij4 #dhf ,forster1 ,de ,bysso1 p4 #gd4 #dhg ,ubi supra1 p4 ,,ccxvii4 #dhh ,the ancient ,scholia 7published by ,mai and ,butmann7 on ,od4 4 #ajg1 state that were made both of flax and of wool4 ,the silks of ,india are called 4 ,it appears also that in later times was not restricted to fine linen4 ,it is used for a sail by ,achilles ,tatius in describing a storm 7l4 iii471 and by the ,scholiast on ,homer1 ,il4 4 ,agreeably to the preceding remarks1 the mentioned in the two passages of the ,iliad may be supposed to have been procured from ,egypt4 ,helen1 when she goes to meet the senators of ,ilium at the ,scan ,gate1 wraps herself in a white sheet of fine linen 7,il4 4 #ada474 ,the women1 dancing on the shield of ,achilles 7,il4 4 #eie471 wear thin sheets4 ,these thin sheets must be supposed to have been worn as shawls1 or girt about the bodies of the dancers4 ,helen would wear hers so as to veil her whole person agreeably to the representation of the lady1 whom ,paulus ,silentiarius addresses in the following line1 written evidently with ,homer's ,helen before his mind3 ,you conceal your flowing locks with a snow-white sheet4--,brunck1 ,analecta1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ha4 ,perhaps even the sheets1 spread for ,phnix to lie upon in the tent of ,achilles1 and for ,ulysses on his return to ,ithica from the country of the ,phacians#dhi1 though not called by the ,egyptian name1 should be supposed to have been made in ,egypt4 ,in the time of ,homer 7#ijj ,b4 ,c47 the use of linen cloth was certainly rare among the ,greeks2 the manufacture of it was perhaps as yet unknown to them4 #dhi ,il4 4 #feg4 ,od4 4 #gc4 #aah4 ,the term 7,sindon71 was used to denote linen cloth still more extensively than 1 inasmuch as it occurs both in ,greek and ,latin authors#dij4 ,according to ,julius ,pollux this also was a word of ,egyptian origin1 and ,coptic scholars inform us that it is found in the modern ,shento1 which has the same signification#dia4 #dij ,e4 g4 ,martial4 #dia ,jablonski1 ubi supra1 p4 ,,cclxxiv4 ,serapion was called ,sindonites1 because he always wore linen 7,palladii ,hist4 ,lausiaca1 p4 #agb74 ,he was an ,egyptian1 and retained the custom of his native country4 ,although originally denoted linen1 we find it applied1 like 1 to cotton cloth likewise2 and although both of these terms probably denoted at first those linen cloths only1 and especially the finer kinds of them1 which were made in ,egypt1 yet as the manufacture of linen extends itself into other countries1 and the exports of ,india were added to those of ,egypt1 all varieties either of linen or cotton cloth1 wherever woven1 were designated by the ,egyptian names and 4 ,another term1 which is probably of ,egyptian origin1 and therefore requires explanation here1 is the term or ,byssus4 ,vossius 7,etymol4 ,l4 ,lat4 v4 ,byssus7 thinks it was1 as ,pollux and ,isidore assert1 a fine1 white1 soft flax1 and that the cloth made from it was like the modern cambric3 8,similis fuisse videtur lino isti1 quod vulgo ,cameracense appellamus40 ,celsius1 in his ,hierobotanicon 7vol4 ii4 p4 #agc471 gives the same explanation4 ,this was indeed the general opinion of learned men1 until ,j4 ,r4 ,forster advanced the position1 that ,byssus was cotton4 ,a careful examination of the question confirms the correctness of the old opinions1 and for the following reasons4 ,i4 ,the earliest author1 who uses the term1 is schylus4 ,he represents ,antigone wearing a shawl or sheet of fine flax#dib4 ,in the ,bacch of ,euripides 7l4 #ggf47 the same garment1 which was distinctive of the female sex1 is introduced under the same denomination4 ,we cannot suppose1 that dramatic writers would mention in plays addressed to a general audience clothing of any material with which they were not familiarly acquainted4 ,but the ,greeks in the time of schylus and ,euripides knew little or nothing of cotton4 ,they had1 however1 been long supplied with fine linen from ,egypt and ,phnice2 and the of ,antigone is the same article of female attire with the of ,helen1 described by ,homer4 ,indeed schylus himself in two other passages calls the same garment linen4 ,in the ,coephor 7l4 #be1 #bf47 the expressions1 ' and 1 describe the rents1 expressive of sorrow1 which were made in the linen veil or shawl 77 of an ,oriental woman4 ,in the ,supplices 7l4 #abj47 the leader of the chorus says1 she often tears her linen1 or her ,sidonian veil4 #dib ,septem contra ,thebas1 l4 #ajda4 ,see also ,pers1 l4 #abi4 ,,ii4 ,the next author in point of time1 and one of the first in point of importance1 is ,herodotus4 ,in his account of the mode of making mummies1 he says 7l4 ii4 c4 #hf47 the embalmed body was enveloped in cotton4 ,but the fillets or bandages of the mummies are proved by microscopic observations to be universally linen2 at least all the specimens have been found to be linen1 which have been submitted to this1 the only decisive test4 ,,iii4 ,herodotus also states 7vii4 #aha471 that a man1 wounded in an engagement1 had his torn limbs bound 4 ,now1 supposing that the persons concerned had their choice between linen and cotton1 there can be no doubt that they would choose linen as most suitable for such a purpose4 ,cotton1 when applied to wounds1 irritates them4 ,julius ,pollux mentions 7l4 iv4 c4 #bj4 #aha42 l4 vii4 c4 #af4 and #be4 #gb47 these bandages as used in surgery4 ,the same fillets1 which were used to swathe dead bodies1 were also adapted for surgical purposes4 ,hence a ,greek ,epigram 7,brunck1 ,an4 iii4 #afi47 represents a surgeon and an undertaker ,,as ,,leaguing ,,to ,,assist ,,each ,,other ,,in ,,business4 ,the undertaker supplies the surgeon with bandages stolen from the dead bodies1 and the surgeon in return sends his patients to the undertaker6 ,,iv4 ,diodorus ,siculus 7l4 i4 #he4 tom4 i4 p4 #if47 records a tradition1 that ,isis put the limbs of ,osiris into a wooden cow1 covered with ,byssina4 ,no reason can be imagined1 why cotton should have been used for such a purpose2 whereas the use of fine linen to cover the hallowed remains was in perfect accordance with all the ideas and practices of the ,egyptians4 ,v4 ,plutarch1 in his ,treatise de ,iside et ,osiride 7,opp4 ed4 ,stephani1 #aegb1 vol4 iv4 p4 #fec47 says1 that the priests enveloped the gilded bull1 which represented ,osiris1 in a black sheet of ,byssus4 ,now nothing can appear more probable1 than that the ,egyptians would employ for this purpose the same kind of cloth1 which they always applied to sacred uses2 and in addition to all the other evidence before referred to1 we find ,plutarch in this same treatise expressly mentioning the linen garments of the priesthood1 and stating1 that the priests were entombed in them after death1 a fact verified at the present day by the examination of the bodies of priests found in the catacombs4 ,,vi4 ,the magnificent ship1 constructed for ,ptolemy ,philopator1 which is described at length in ,athenus1 had a sail of the fine linen of ,egypt#dic4 ,it is not probable1 that in a vessel1 every part of which was made of the best and most suitable materials1 the sail would be of cotton4 ,moreover ,hermippus describes ,egypt as affording the chief supply of sails for all parts of the world#did3 and ,ezekiel represents the ,tyrians as obtaining cloth from ,egypt for the sails and pendants of their ships#die4 #dic ,deipnos4 l4 v4 p4 #bjf ,c4 ed4 ,casaubon4 #did ,apud4 ,athenum1 ,deipnos4 l4 i4 p4 #bg ,f4 #die ,ez4 xxvii4 #g4 4 ,,vii4 ,it is recorded in the ,rosetta ,inscription 7l4 #ag1 #ah471 that ,ptolemy ,epiphanes remitted two parts of the fine linen cloths1 which were manufactured in the temples for the king's palace2 and 7l4 #bi47 that he also remitted a tax on those1 which were not made for the king's palace4 ,thus in an original and contemporary monument we read1 that were at a particular time manufactured in ,egypt4 ,but we have no reason to believe1 that cotton was then manufactured in ,egypt at all1 whereas linen cloth was made in immense quantities4 ,,viii4 ,philo1 who lived at ,alexandria1 and could not be ignorant upon the subject1 plainly uses to mean flax4 ,he says1 the ,jewish ,high-,priest wore a linen garment1 made of the purest ,byssus1 which was a symbol of firmness1 incorruption1 and of the clearest splendor1 since fine linen is most difficult to tear1 is made of nothing mortal1 and becomes brighter and more resembling light1 the more it is cleansed by washing#dif4 #dif ,de ,somniis1 vol4 i4 p4 #fec4 ,mangey4 ,here we may notice the tenacity of the cloth found in ,egyptian mummies4 ,a great part of it is quite rotten2 and its tender and fragile state is to be accounted for1 not only from its great antiquity and exposure to moisture1 but from the circumstance1 that much of it was old and worn1 when first applied to the purpose of swathing dead bodies4 ,nevertheless pieces are found of great strength and durability4 ,hans ,jac4 ,amman1 who visited the catacombs of ,sakara in #afac1 found the bandages so strong1 that he was obliged to cut them with scissors#dig4 ,professor ,greaves#dih and ,lord ,sandwich found them as firm as if they were just taken from the loom4 ,abdollatiph1 who visited ,egypt ,a4 ,d4 #abjj1 mentions that the ,arabs employed the mummy cloth to make garments#dii4 ,much more recently the same practice has been attested as coming under his observation by ,seetzen#ejj4 ,caillaud discovered in the mummy1 which he opened1 several napkins in such a state of preservation1 that he took a fancy to use one4 ,he had it washed eight times without any perceptible injury4 8,with a sort of veneration10 says he1 8,i unfolded every day this venerable linen1 which had been woven more than #agjj years40 7,voyage ,meroe et au ,fleuve ,blanc47 #dig ,blumenbach's ,beitrge1 ,th4 #b4 p4 #gd4 #dih ,pyramidographia4 #dii ,p4 #bba of the ,german translation2 p4 #aih of ,silvestre de ,lacy's4 ,see ,app4 ,a4 #ejj ,see his letter to ,von ,hammer in the ,fundgruben des ,orients1 #a ,st4 p4 #gb4 as quoted by ,blumenbach1 l4 c4 ,,ix4 ,according to ,josephus the ,jewish priests wore drawers of spun flax1 and over the drawers a shirt4 ,he calls a garment made of a linen garment4 ,it had flowers woven into it1 which were of three different substances#eja4 ,he soon after mentions the same materials as used for making the curtains of the tabernacle4 ,in all these instances the figures or ornaments were of splendid colors upon a ground of white linen4 ,we have no reason to believe1 that either the ,egyptians or the ,israelites in the time of ,moses knew anything of cotton3 so that1 if ,josephus gives a true account1 must have denoted a kind of flax4 #eja ,ant4 ,jud4 iii4 #g4 #a1 #b4 p4 #aab4 ed4 ,hudson4 ,the shirt of the ,high ,priest of the ,jews was probably like that worn in the worship of ,isis1 which was of ,byssus1 but adorned with flowers1 8,byssina1 sed florid depicta40 ,apuleius1 ,met4 l4 xi4 ,x4 ,jerome on ,ezekiel xxvii4 says1 8,byssus grows principally in ,egypt0 7,byssus in gypto qum maxim nascitur74 ,of the celebrity of the ,egyptian flax we have the most abundant proofs2 but1 if by ,byssus ,jerome meant cotton1 he here committed a strange mistake2 for1 supposing cotton to have grown at all in ,egypt1 it certainly grew far more abundantly in other countries1 and of this fact he could scarcely be ignorant4 ,,xi4 ,martianus ,capella plainly distinguishes between that substance and ,byssus#ejb4 ,he seems to have considered cotton as an ,indian1 ,byssus as an ,egyptian product4 ,he certainly supposed1 that they were not the same thing4 #ejb ,etym4 ,l4 ,lat4 v4 ,byssus4 ,,xii4 ,isidorus ,hispalensis expressly states1 that ,byssus was a kind of flax1 very white and soft4 ,byssus genus est quoddam lini nimium candidi et mollissimi1 quod ,grci papatem vocant4--,orig4 l4 xix4 #bg4 ,byssina 7vestis7 candida1 confecta ex quodam genere lini grossioris ,sunt et qui genus quoddam lini byssum esse existiment4--,ibid4 c4 #bb4 ,forster conjectures 7p4 #d47 that for genus quoddam lini we should read genus quoddam lan1 and conceives tree-wool 7as ,pollux and some others call it71 i4 e4 cotton1 to be intended4 ,his conjecture seems probable4 ,the remark of ,isidore intimates1 that in his time it had already been a matter of dispute whether ,byssus was a kind of flax or something else4 ,,xiii4 ,paulinus1 ,bishop of ,nola1 testifies to the great strength of the threads of ,byssus4 ,cloth made of ,byssus indicates firm faith3 ,for threads of ,byssus1 it is said1 surpass ,e'en ropes of broom in firmness and in strength#ejc4 ,ad ,cytherium in ,max4 ,biblioth4 ,patrum1 vol4 vi4 p4 #bfd4 #ejc ,see ,part ,first1 ,chapters ,,xii4 and ,,xiii4 ,vossius also quotes the authority of ,jerome and ,eucherius to prove the great tenacity of ,byssus4 ,but1 if ,byssus were cotton1 it certainly would not have been celebrated on that account4 ,the arguments of ,dr4 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster on the other side of the question will now be considered4 ,see his ,liber ,singularis de ,bysso ,antiquorum1 ,lon4 #aggf1 p4 #aa4 #ej4 ,i4 ,his first argument is as follows4 ,julius ,pollux says 7l4 vii4 c4 #ag471 that was 8a kind of flax among the ,indians40 ,the ,jewish rabbis indeed all explain the ,hebrew 7,shesh71 which in the ,septuagint is always translated 1 as signifying flax4 ,but they use the term for flax in so loose and general a way1 that they may very properly be supposed to have included cotton under it4 ,in the same general sense we must suppose to be used by ,julius ,pollux2 and it is clear1 that he must have meant cotton1 because cotton grows abundantly in ,india1 whereas flax was never known to grow in ,india at all4 ,in proof of this last assertion ,forster refers to ,osbeck's ,journal1 vol i4 p4 #chc4 ,he also appeals to a passage of ,philostratus 7,vita ,apollonii1 l4 ii4 c4 #bj4 p4 #gj1 #ga471 which has been quoted in ,part ,third1 p4 #cbh41 where that author certainly applies the term in question to the cotton of ,india4 ,an answer to this argument1 so far as it depends on the testimony of ,julius ,pollux1 was furnished by ,olaus ,celsius in his ,hierobotanicon1 published in #agdg1 a work which ,forster had better have consulted1 when he was writing a treatise expressly intended to ascertain the meaning of one of the botanical terms employed in the ,scriptures4 ,the learned and accurate ,swede gives on good authority an emendation of the text of ,pollux1 which entirely destroys the argument founded upon it by ,forster and those who agree with him4 ,according to this reading ,pollux only asserts that is a kind of flax1 without adding that it grew among the ,indians#ejd4 ,in a separate ,appendix 7,e471 will be examined distinctly and fully the critical evidence for the correct state of the passages of ,pollux1 which it may be found necessary to cite4 ,pollux1 in asserting that ,byssus was a kind of flax1 coincides with all the other witnesses who have been produced4 #ejd ,celsii ,hierobot4 vol4 ii4 p4 #aga4 ,forster is also exceedingly incorrect in his mode of reasoning upon the passage of ,pollux1 supposing it to be accurate and genuine4 ,he argues1 that ,pollux must have meant cotton by 8a kind of flax among the ,indians10 because real flax does not grow in ,india at all2 8,in ,indi ver linum non erat1 nec quidem nostr tate linum reperitur in ,indi1 quod jam ,osbeckius in ,itinerario ostendit1 p4 #chc4 vol4 i4 edit4 ,anglic40 ,the 8,english edition0 of ,osbeck's ,voyage is a translation from the ,german by ,forster himself4 ,in the page referred to we find the following passage relative to flax1 and no other3--8,flax is so rare a commodity in the ,east1 that many have judged with great probability that the fine linen of the rich man1 ,luke xvi4 #ai1 was no more than our common linen40 ,this sentence implies that flax grew in the ,east1 though rarely4 ,whether it grew in ,india1 ,osbeck does not inform us4 ,dr4 ,wallich1 who travelled in ,india1 states that flax grows in ,india1 and that he remembered having seen there a whole field blue with its flowers4 ,it is cultivated principally for its seed1 from which oil is extracted1 the stalks being thrown aside as useless4 ,with respect to the passage from ,philostratus1 it is admitted1 that he uses to denote cotton4 ,besides its proper and original sense1 this word was occasionally used1 as 1 1 ,sindon1 ,carbasus1 and many others were1 in a looser and more general application4 ,but the use of the term in this manner by a single writer1 or even1 if they could be produced1 by several writers of so late an age as ,philostratus1 would be of little weight in opposition to the evidence1 which has been brought forward to prove1 that properly meant flax only4 ,,ii4 ,forster produces a passage from the ,eliaca of ,pausanias#eje from which he argues1 that was not flax1 because ,pausanias here distinguishes it from flax as well as from hemp4 #eje ,paus4 l4 vi4 cap4 #d4 ,but we know1 that all plants undergo great changes by cultivation and in consequence of the varieties of soil and climate4 ,what can be more striking than the innumerable tulips derived from the original yellow tulip of ,turkey1 or all the varieties of pinks and carnations from a single species8 ,to make all the descriptions of cloth from the coarsest canvass or sail-cloth to the most beautiful lawn or cambric1 there must have been1 as there now are1 great differences in the living plant4 ,the best explanation therefore of the language of ,pausanias seems to be1 that he used to denote the common kind of flax1 and to signify a finer variety#ejf4 ,in another passage1 where he speaks of the ,elean ,byssus1 his language shows1 that its peculiar excellence consisted both in its fineness and in its beautiful yellow color2 for after expressing the admiration1 to which this substance was entitled1 as growing nowhere else in ,greece1 he says1 that 8in fineness it was not inferior to that of the ,hebrews1 but was not equally yellow#ejg40 #ejf ,pausanias also distinguishes between and in his account of the clothing of a reputed statue of ,neptune1 l4 vi4 c4 #be4 #e4 ,when flax is raised to be manufactured into cambric and fine lawn1 twice as much seed is sown in the same space of ground4 ,the plants then grow closer together2 the stalks are more delicate and slender2 and the fibres of each plant are finer in proportion4 #ejg ,l4 v4 #e4 #b4 ,others commend ,byssus on account of its whiteness4 ,see ,philo4 ,apoc4 xix4 #ad4 ,themistius 7,orat4 p4 #eg4 ed4 ,paris1 #afhd4 p4 #fh4 ed4 ,dindorfii1 ,lips4 #ahcb47 saw at ,antioch 8ancient letters wrapt in white ,byssus40 ,these1 he says1 were brought from ,susa and ,ecbatana4 ,it may further be remarked in opposition to the idea1 that meant cotton in these passages1 that there is not the slightest ground for supposing1 that cotton was cultivated either in ,elis or in any other part of ,europe so early as the time of ,pausanias1 nor indeed until a comparatively recent age4 ,,iii4 ,forster 7p4 #fi-ga47 considers the testimony of ,herodotus1 that the embalmed bodies of the dead were wrapt in fillets of ,byssus1 as decisive in favor of his opinion1 because those fillets are found on examination to be all cotton4 ,it is presumed that the preceding testimony1 proves that so far as they have been examined1 in the only way which can settle the dispute1 they are found universally to be linen4 ,of ,forster's celebrated work it may be observed in general1 that he rather from the very beginning assumes his point1 than endeavors to prove it4 ,he continually speaks of it as demonstrated4 ,nevertheless the only arguments which can be found in his book1 are those already stated4 ,little as these arguments amount to in opposition to the evidence1 which has now been brought forward on the other side of the question1 we find that the most learned authors since ,forster's time1 and especially since the same opinion was embraced by ,blumenbach1 have generally been content to adopt it4 ,but1 although such eminent names as those of ,porson#ejh1 ,dr4 ,thomas ,young#eji1 ,mr4 ,hamilton#eaj1 ,dr4 ,t4 ,m4 ,harris#eaa1 ,mr4 ,wellbeloved#eab1 ,e4 ,h4 ,barker#eac1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,granville#ead1 ,jomard#eae1 ,wehrs#eaf1 ,j4 ,h4 ,voss#eag1 ,heeren#eah1 ,sprengel#eai1 ,billerbeck#ebj1 ,gesenius#eba1 ,e4 ,f4 ,k4 ,rosenmuller#ebb1 and ,roselini#ebc1 stand arrayed against the evidence now produced1 i4 e4 to prove that meant flax and not cotton1 as those authors have supposed4 ,yet their evidence may be considered as going all for nothing1 because they express not their own opinion formed by independent inquiry and investigation1 but merely the opinion which they have adopted from ,forster and ,blumenbach4 #ejh ,in his translation of the ,rosetta ,inscription1 ,clarke's ,greek ,marbles1 p4 #fc4 #eji ,account of ,discoveries in ,hieroglyphic ,literature1 p4 #aja4 #aad4 #eaj gyptiaca1 p4 #cba4 #eaa ,natural ,history of the ,bible1 #bnd edition1 p4 #ddg4 #eab ,translation of the ,bible1 ,gen4 xli4 #db4 #eac ,classical ,recreations4 #ead ,as quoted at p4 #cfd4 #eae ,description des ,hypoges1 p4 #ce4 #eaf ,vom ,papier1 p4 #bja4 #eag ,virgil's ,lndliche ,gedichte1 iii4 p4 #cac4 #eah ,ideen ber die ,politik1 c4 #eai ,historia ,rei ,herbari1 tom4 i4 c4 i4 p4 #ae4 #ebj ,flora ,classica1 p4 #agg4 #eba ,thesaurus ,philologico-,criticus1 v4 4 #ebb ,biblische ,alterthumskunde1 #d4 l4 p4 #age4 #ebc ,monumenti dell' ,egitto4 ,mon4 ,civili1 tomo4 i4 ,pisa1 #ahcd1 capo4 iv4 #f4 ,there is1 however1 no reason to doubt1 that ,forster is right in considering 1 or ,byssus1 as an ,egyptian word with a ,greek or ,latin termination4 ,in the ,septuagint version it is always used as equivalent to the ,hebrew 7,shesh or ,ses71 which according to the ,hebrew ,rabbis was a kind of flax1 that grew in ,egypt only and was of the finest quality#ebd4 ,another term1 used in the ,pentateuch for linen cloth is 7bad71 which seems to be nearly the same as 4 ,the ,egyptian term or 7buts7 is very seldom found in the ,hebrew ,scriptures1 and not until the intercourse became frequent between the ,jews and other oriental nations4 ,but it is continually employed by the ,arabic1 ,persic1 and ,chaldee ,translators1 as equivalent to the ,hebrew terms and 4 #ebd ,forster ,de ,bysso1 p4 #e4 ,the distinction between and the ,egyptian terms formerly explained is very obvious4 1 1 and denoted linen cloth2 the plant1 from which it was made4 ,hence we so commonly find the adjective form or ,byssinus1 i4 e4 made of ,byssus1 as in 1 1 1 1 c41 and this is agreeable to the remark of the ,patriarch ,photius in his #aibnd ,epistle1 1 8,byssus is a plant40 ,herodotus 7ii4 #aje471 pointing out resemblances between the ,egyptians and the ,colchians1 says1 they prepare their flax in the same manner1 and in a manner which is practiced by no other nation4 ,xenophon directs1 that nets should be made of flax from the ,phasis1 or from ,carthage#ebe4 ,pollux 7l4 v4 cap4 #d4 #bf47 says1 that the flax for the same purpose should be either from those countries1 or from ,egypt or ,sardes4 ,callimachus 7,frag4 #bfe47 mentions the flax of ,colchis under the name of 8the ,colchian halm40 ,strabo 7l4 xi4 #ag4 vol4 iv4 p4 #djb4 ,tschuz47 testifies to the celebrity of ,colchis for the growth and manufacture of flax1 and says1 that the linen of this country was exported to distant places4 #ebe ,de ,venat4 ii4 #d4 ,gratius ,faliscus1 in his directions on the same subject1 recommends the flax from the rich moist plains about the river ,cinyps1 not very far from ,carthage4 ,optima ,cinyphi1 ne quid contere1 paludes ,lina dabunt4--,cynegeticon1 #cd1 #ce4 ,it seems still to maintain its ancient pre-eminence3 ,larcher refers to ,chardin 7tom4 i4 p4 #aae471 as saying1 that the ,prince of ,mingrelia1 a part of the ancient ,colchis1 paid in his time an annual tribute of linen to the ,turks4 ,that flax was extensively cultivated in ,babylonia appears from the testimony of ,herodotus1 who says 7i4 #aie471 that the ,babylonians wore a linen shirt reaching to the feet2 over that a woollen shirt2 and over that a white shawl4 ,strabo 7l4 xvi4 cap4 #a4 p4 #gci4 ed4 ,casaub47 shows where these linen shirts were chiefly made2 for he informs us that ,borsippa1 a city of ,babylonia1 sacred to ,apollo and ,diana1 was a great place for the manufacture of linen4 ,the cultivation of flax in the region of the ,euphrates may also be inferred from the use of the linen thorax1 as attested by ,xenophon 7,cyropedia1 vi4 #d4 #b474 ,from ,joshua ii4 #f4 we have evidence1 that flax was cultivated in ,palestine near the ,jordan4 ,rahab concealed the two ,hebrew spies 7according to the common ,english version7 8with the stalks of flax1 which she had laid in order upon the roof40 ,according to the ,septuagint translation1 8the stalks of flax0 were not merely 8laid in order10 but 8stacked40 ,josephus says1 she was drying the bundles4 ,the ,chaldee ,paraphrast ,onkelos also uses the expression 1 bundles of flax4 ,agreeably to these explanations1 the history must be understood as implying1 that the stalks of flax1 tied into bundles1 as represented in the painting at ,el ,kab#ebf1 were stacked1 probably crossways1 upon the flat roof of ,ahab's house1 so as to allow the wind to blow through and dry them4 #ebf ,see ,plate ,,vi4 p4 #ceh4 ,other passages1 referring to the use of flax for weaving in ,palestine1 are ,levit4 xiii4 #dg1 #dh4 #eb4 #ei1 where linen garments are four times mentioned in opposition to woollen4 ,proverbs xxi4 #ac4 ,the virtuous woman1 so admirably described in this chapter1 8seeketh wool and flax1 and worketh willingly with her hands40 7,see ,part ,first1 ,chapter ,i4 p4 #ac474 ,this proves1 that flax was still an important article of cultivation in ,palestine4 ,in #a ,chron4 iv4 #ba4 there is an allusion to a great establishment for dressing the fine flax1 called ,butz1 or ,byssus4 ,it was conducted by certain families of the tribe of ,judah#ebg4 #ebg ,hebr4 1 i4 e4 8the families1 or perhaps the partnerships1 of the manufactory of ,byssus20 ,vulg4 8,cognationes domus operantium byssum40 ,jeremiah 7xiii4 #a47 mentions 1 8a linen girdle20 ,lumbare lineum1 ,vulgate2 ,,lxx4 ,jonathan2 7sudarium7 ,syriac4 ,hosea 7ii4 #e4 #i47 mentions wool and flax as the two chief articles of clothing for the ,jews in his time4 ,ezekiel 7xliv4 #ag1 #ah471 in his description of the temple which he saw in vision1 says1 the priests on entering the inner court would put on linen garments1 including a turban and drawers of linen#ebh4 ,the use of wool is here prohibited and linen prescribed for those who were to be engaged in sacred services1 on account of its superior cleanliness and purity4 ,they were not to 8gird themselves with anything that causeth sweat40 ,on returning to the outer court1 so as to be in contact with the people1 they were to put on the common dress1 which was at least in part woollen4 #ebh ,it is remarkable that the ,chaldee ,paraphrast ,jonathan here uses 7byssus7 for the ,hebrew 4 ,in the ,old ,testament we also find flax used for making cords1 ,judges xv4 xvi42 for the wicks of lamps1 ,is4 xiii4 #ag42 and for a measuring line1 ,ezek4 xl4 #cebi4 #ebi ,the use of the cord of flax 7linea7 for measuring1 c4 is the origin of the word line4 8,linea genere suo appellata1 quia ex lino fit40 ,isidori ,hisp4 ,etymol4 l4 xix4 c4 #ah4 ,de instrumentis dificiorum4 ,according to ,herodotus vii4 #be1 #cd1 #cf1 the ,phnicians furnished ,xerxes with ropes of flax for constructing his bridge1 while the ,egyptians supplied ropes of ,papyrus1 which were inferior to the others in strength4 ,whilst 1 derived probably from 1 to strip or peel1 is used for flax in every state1 we find another term1 1 used for tow4 ,this term therefore corresponds to ,stuppa in ,latin#ecj2 ,etoupe in ,french2 1 or in ,greek2 1 from 1 to comb1 in ,syriac2 ,werg in modern ,german4 #ecj ,the origin of ,stuppa1 the ,latin term1 was from its use in stopping chinks 7stopfer1 ,german74 ,it was either of hemp or flax4 8,stuppa cannabi est sive lini4 ,hc secundum antiquam orthographiam stuppa 7stipa87 dicitur1 quod ex e rim navium stipentur3 unde et stipatores dicuntur1 qui in vallibus eam componunt40 ,isid4 ,hisp4 ,orig4 xix4 #bg4 ,eccles4 xl4 #d4 represents poor persons as clothed in coarse linen1 7,lino crudo1 ,jerome71 meaning probably flax dressed and spun without having been steeped#eca4 #eca ,see ,bodusa ,stapel on ,theophrasti ,hist4 ,plant4 l4 viii4 p4 #idd4 ,in ,rev4 xv4 #f4 the seven angels come out of the temple clothed 8in pure and white linen40 ,this is to be explained by what has been already said of the use of linen for the temple service among the ,egyptians and the ,jews4 ,on three other occasions mentioned in the ,new ,testament1 viz4 the case of the young man1 who had 8a linen cloth cast about his naked body0 7,mark xiv4 #ea1 #eb472 the entombment of ,christ 7,matt4 xxvii4 #ei4 ,mark xv4 #df4 ,luke xxiii4 #ec4 xxiv4 #ab4 ,john xix4 #dj4 xx4 #e1 #f1 #g472 and the case of the 8sheet0 let down in vision from heaven 7,acts x4 #aa4 xi4 #e471 the sacred writers employ the equivalent ,egyptian terms1 1 and or 4 ,the 8,byssus of the ,hebrews10 mentioned by ,pausanias may have been so called1 because it was imported into ,greece by the ,hebrews1 not because it grew in ,palestine1 as many critics have concluded4 ,herodotus 7l4 c47 observes1 that the ,greeks called the ,colchian flax 4 ,the epithet must be understood as referring to ,sardes1 from the vicinity of which city flax was obtained according to the testimony of ,julius ,pollux 7l4 c474 ,in another passage ,herodotus remarks 7v4 #hg471 that the linen shift worn by the ,athenian women1 was originally ,carian4 ,the ,milesian ,sindones1 mentioned by ,jonathan1 the ,chaldee ,paraphrast1 on ,lam4 ii4 #bj1 were1 no doubt1 made of the flax of this country1 although ,forster 7,de ,bysso1 p4 #ib471 on account of the celebrity of the ,milesian wool1 supposes them to have been woollen4 ,it is probable1 that the ,milesian net caps1 worn by ladies1 were made of linen thread4 ,jerome1 describing the change from an austere to a luxurious mode of life1 mentions shirts from ,laodicea4 ,some commentators have supposed linen shirts to be meant4 ,according to ,julius ,pollux 7vii4 c4 #af47 the ,athenians and ,ionians wore a linen shirt reaching to the feet4 ,but the use of it among the ,athenians must have come in much later than among the ,ionians1 who would adopt the practice in consequence of the cultivation of flax in their own country as well as in their colonies on the ,euxine ,sea1 and also in consequence of the general elegance and refinement of their manners4 ,indeed it appears probable1 that the linen used by the ,athenians was imported4 ,the only part of ,greece1 where flax is recorded to have been grown1 was ,elis4 ,that it was produced in that country is affirmed by ,pliny 7l4 xix4 c4 #d471 and by ,pausanias in three passages already quoted4 ,when ,colonel ,leake was at ,gastni near the mouth of the ,peneus in ,elis1 he made the following observations4 ,for flax 7one of the chief things produced there7 the land is once ploughed in the spring1 and two or three times in the ensuing autumn1 with a pair of oxen1 when the seed is thrown in and covered with the plough4 ,the plant does not require and hardly admits of weeding1 as it grows very thick4 ,when ripe1 it is pulled up by the roots1 and laid in bundles in the sun4 ,it is then threshed to separate the seed4 ,the bundles are laid in the river for five days1 then dried in the sun1 and pressed in a wooden machine4 ,contrary to its ancient reputation1 the flax of ,gastuni is not very fine4 ,it is chiefly used in the neighboring islands by the peasants1 who weave it into cloths for their own use#ecb4 #ecb ,journal of a ,tour in the ,morea1 vol4 i4 p4 #ab4 ,in one of the ,pseudo-,platonic ,epistles 7,no4 xiii4 p4 #cfc47 mention occurs of linen shifts for ladies1 made in ,sicily1 which certainly implies nothing more than that linen was woven in ,sicily4 ,the material for making it may have been imported4 ,in like manner the linen of ,malta was exceedingly admired for its fineness and softness#ecc2 but the raw material was in all probability imported4 #ecc ,diod4 ,sic4 l4 v4 #ab4 tom4 i4 p4 #cci4 ed4 ,wesseling4 8,flax10 observes ,professor ,mller1 8was grown and manufactured in ,southern ,etruria from ancient times1 and thus the ,tarquinii were enabled to furnish sail-cloth for the fleet of ,scipio3 yarn for making nets was produced on the banks of the ,tiber1 and fine linen for clothing in ,falerii#ecd40 ,this account agrees remarkably with the views of ,micali1 and those historians who maintain the ,egyptian origin of the ,etrurians4 #ecd ,etrusker4 vol4 i4 p4 #bce1 #bcf4 ,pliny 7xix4 #a1 #b47 mentions various kinds of flax of superior excellence1 which were produced in the plains of the ,po and ,ticino2 in the country of the ,peligni 7in ,picenum72 and about ,cum in ,campania#ece4 ,no flax1 he says1 was whiter or more like wool than that of the ,peligni4 #ece ,probably ,cum is intended by ,gratius ,faliscus in the expression 8oli de valle ,sibyill40--,cyneg4 #ce4 ,in the next chapter ,pliny gives an account of the mode of preparing flax2 plucking it up by the roots1 tying it into bundles1 drying it in the sun1 steeping1 drying again1 beating it with a mallet on a stone1 and lastly hackling it1 or1 as he says1 8combing it with iron hooks40 ,this may be compared with the preceding extract from ,colonel ,leake's ,journal1 and with chapter #ig of ,bartholomus ,anglicus1 ,de ,proprietabus ,rerum1 which is perhaps partly copied from ,pliny and treats of the manufacture of flax1 steeping it in water1 c41 and of its use for clothes1 nets1 sails1 thread1 and curtains4 ,in ,spain there was a manufacture of linen at ,emporium1 which lay on the ,mediterranean not far from the ,pyrenees#ecf4 ,according to ,pliny 7l4 c47 remarkably beautiful flax was produced in ,hispania ,citerior near ,tarraco4 ,he ascribes its splendor to the virtues of the river-water flowing near ,tarraco1 in which the flax was steeped and prepared4 ,still further southward on the same coast we find ,setabis1 the modern ,xativa1 which is celebrated by various authors for the beauty of its linen1 and especially for linen sudaria1 or handkerchiefs3 ,setabis et telas ,arabum sprevisse superba ,et ,pelusiaco filum componere lino4 ,silius ,ital4 iii4 #cgc4 ,nam sudaria ,setaba ex ,hiberis ,miserunt mihi muneri ,fabullus ,et ,veranius4--,catullus1 xx4 #ad4 ,hispanque alio spectantur ,setabis usu4 ,gratius ,faliscus1 l4 #da4 #ecf ,strabo1 l4 iii4 cap4 #d4 vol4 i4 p4 #dbh4 ed4 ,siebenkees4 ,pliny also mentions a kind of flax1 called ,zoelicum1 from a place in ,gallicia4 ,strabo 7iv4 #b4 #b4 p4 #da4 ed4 ,sieb47 particularly mentions the linen manufacture of the ,cadurci3 and from them the ,romans obtained the best ticking for beds1 which was on this account called ,cadurcum4 ,flax1 as we are told by ,pliny 7xix4 #a471 was woven into sail-cloth in all parts of ,gaul2 and1 in some of the countries beyond the ,rhine1 the most beautiful apparel of the ladies was linen4 ,tacitus states that the women of ,germany wore linen sheets over their other clothing#ecg4 #ecg ,fmin spis lineis amictibus velantur4--,germania1 xvii4 #e4 ,the use of the same term for ,flax in so many ,european languages1 and especially in those of the ,north of ,europe1 is an evidence of the extensive use of this substance in very early times2 e4 g4 ,greek1 ,latin1 ,linum2 ,slavonian1 ,len2 ,lithuanian1 ,linnai2 ,lettish1 ,linni2 ,german1 ,lein2 ,french1 ,suio2 ,gothic1 and ,anglo-,saxon1 ,lin2 ,welsh1 ,llin4 ,jerome mentions the shirts of the ,atrebates as one of the luxuries of his day1 and his notice of them seems to show1 that they were conveyed as an article of merchandize even into ,asia4 ,whether the manufactures of the ,atrebates were equal to the modern ,cambric we cannot say2 but1 supposing the garments in question to have been linen1 it is remarkable that this manufacture should have flourished in ,artois for #ahjj years#ech4 #ech ,erasmus makes the following remarks on the words 8,atrebatum et ,laodice30 8,apparet ex his regionibus candidissima ac subtilissima linea mitti solere4 ,nunc hujus laudis principatus1 si tamen ea laus1 penes meos ,hollandos est4 ,quanquam et ,atrebates in ,belgis haud ita procul a nobis absunt40 ,see also ,mannert1 ,geogr4 #b4 l4 p4 #aif4 ,the following translation of a passage from ,eginhart's ,life of ,charlemagne 7c4 #bc47 shows1 that during several succeeding centuries the ,franks wore linen for their under garments4 ,vestitu patrio1 hoc est ,francisco utebatur3 ad corpus camiseam lineam1 et feminalibus lineis induebatur3 deinde tunicam1 qu limbo serico ambiebatur1 et tibialia444444444444,sago ,veneto amictus4 ,in festivitatibus veste auro text1 et calceamentis gemmatis1 et fibul1 aure sagum astringente1 diademate quoque ex auro et gemmis ornatus incedebat4 ,aliis autem diebus habitus ejus parum a communi et plebeio abhorrebat4 ,charles drest after the manner of his countrymen1 the ,franks4 ,next to the skin he wore a shirt and drawers of linen3 over these a tunic bordered with silk1 and breeches4 ,his outer garment was the sagum1 manufactured by the ,veneti4 ,on occasion of festivals he wore a garment interwoven with gold1 shoes adorned with gems1 a golden fibula to fasten his sagum1 and a diadem of gold and gems4 ,on other days his dress differed little from that of the common people#eci4 #eci ,the trowsers worn by the ,franks were sometimes linen1 sometimes made of skins4--,agathias ii4 #e4 ,the ,veneti here mentioned were1 no doubt1 the people who lived in the country near ,vannes in ,britany4 ,we have formerly seen 7,part ,second1 pp4 #bhb and #bhc4 ,chapter ,,iii471 that the ,sagum was the principal article of dress manufactured in the north of ,gaul4 ,according to ,paulus ,diaconus1 as quoted in the notes on this passage of ,eginhart#edj1 the ,lombards and the ,anglo-,saxons used principally linen garments4 #edj ,ed4 ,schmincke1 ,trajecti #agaa1 p4 #aaj4 ,linen1 which appears to have been originally characteristic of the ,egyptian and ,germanic nations1 came by degrees into more and more general use among the ,greeks and ,romans1 and was employed not only for articles of dress1 especially those worn by women1 and for sheets to lie upon1 but also for table-covers and for napkins to wipe the hands1 an application of them which was the more necessary on account of the want of knives1 forks1 and spoons4 ,also those who waited at table1 were girt with towels4 ,at the baths persons used towels to dry themselves4 ,a man wore a similar piece of cloth under the hands of the tonsor4 ,plutarch 7,on ,garrulity7 tells the following anecdote of ,archelaus4 ,when a loquacious hair-dresser was throwing the about him in order to shear him1 he asked as usual1 8,how shall ,i cut your majesty's hair80 8,in silence10 replied the king4 ,alciphron tells of the barber putting on him a linen cloth 77 in order to shave him 7l4 iii4 ,ep4 #ff472 and ,phaneas1 in an ,epigram1 calls the cloth used in shaving by the same name1 4 ,diogenes ,laertius also 7vi4 #ij47 tells a story respecting the philosopher ,crates1 which shows that at ,athens it was not deemed proper for a man to wear linen as an outer garment1 but that persons were enveloped in it under the hands of the hair-dresser4 8,the ,athenian police-officers 7 7 having charged him with wearing a linen sheet for his outer garment1 he said1 #8,i will show you ,theophrastus himself habited in that manner2' and when they doubted the fact1 he took them to see ,theophrastus at the hair-dresser's40 ,coarser linen was used in great quantity both for sails1 and for awnings to keep off the heat of the sun from the ,roman theatres1 the ,forum1 and other places of public resort#eda4 #eda ,see p4 #cba4 ,the ,emperor ,alexander ,severus1 as we learn from the following passage of his ,life written by lius ,lampridius1 was a great admirer of good linen1 and preferred that which was plain to such as had flowers or feathers interwoven as practised in ,egypt and the neighboring countries4 ,boni linteaminis appetitor fuit1 et quidem puri1 dicens1 #8,si lintei idcirco sunt1 ut nihil asperum habeant1 quid opus est purpur8' ,in line autem aurum mitti1 etiam dementiam judicabat1 quum asperitati adderetur rigor4 ,he took great delight in good linen1 and preferred it plain4 8,if10 said he1 8linen cloths are made of that material in order that they may not be at all rough1 why mix purple with them80 ,but to interweave gold in linen1 he considered madness1 because this made it rigid in addition to its roughness4 ,the following passage of the ,life of the ,emperor ,carinus by ,flavius ,vopiscus is remarkable as proving the value attached by the ,romans of that age to the linen imported from ,egypt and ,phnice1 especially to the transparent and flowered varieties4 ,jam quid lineas petitas gypto loquar8 ,quid ,tyro et ,sidone tenuitate perlucidas1 micantes purpur1 plumandi difficultate pernobiles8 ,why should ,i mention the linen cloths brought from ,egypt1 or those imported from ,tyre and ,sidon1 which are so thin as to be transparent1 which glow with purple1 or are prized on account of their labored embroidery8 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,hemp#edb4 ,,cultivation ,,and ,,uses ,,of ,,hemp ,,by ,,the ,,ancients--,,its ,,use ,,limited--,,thrace--,,colchis--,,caria- -,,etymology ,,of ,,hemp4 #edb ,according to a statement in the ,western 7,missouri7 ,journal1 about #g1jjj bales of hemp1 the crop of #ahdd1 was shipped from that place last spring4 ,it is thought that #bj1jjj bales will be raised in that neighborhood this year 7#ahde74 ,the use of ,hemp among the ancients was very limited4 ,it is never mentioned in the ,scriptures1 and not often by the heathen writers of antiquity4 ,it is remarkable1 that no notice is taken of it by ,theophrastus4 ,it was however used among the ,greeks and ,romans1 for making ropes and nets1 but not for sacks1 these being made of goats'-hair#edc4 #edc ,see ,chap4 ,,iv4 p4 #bii1 #cja4 ,the only reason for introducing hemp in this enumeration is1 that1 according to ,herodotus 7iv4 #gd47 garments were made of it by the ,thracians4 8,they were so like linen10 says he1 8that none but a very experienced person could tell whether they were of hemp or flax2 one1 who had never seen hemp1 would certainly suppose them to be linen40 ,the coarser kinds of linen would1 it is certain1 be scarcely1 if at all distinguishable from the finer kinds of hempen cloth4 ,hesychius 7v4 7 quotes the preceding remark of ,herodotus1 only saying that the ,thracian women made sheets of hemp 774 ,in substituting these expressions he puts upon the words of ,herodotus an explanation derived from his familiar knowledge of ,grecian customs4 ,to the present day hemp is produced abundantly in the vicinity of the countries which were occupied by the ancient ,thracians4 ,a traveller who has lately visited them1 informs us1 that 8the men who drive the horses1 which drag the boats upon the ,danube between ,pest and ,vienna1 now wear coarse tunics of hemp#edd4 #edd ,travels in ,circassia1 c41 by ,edmund ,spencer1 #ahcg1 vol4 i4 p4 #ac4 ,ammianus ,marcellinus 7xxxi4 #b4 p4 #dgd471 speaking of the ,huns1 who lived beyond the ,palus ,motis1 says1 ,they cover themselves with tunics made of linen1 or of the skins of wild mice sewed together4 ,these tunics1 though called 8lintea10 may have been the hempen garments1 which1 according to ,herodotus1 were scarce to be distinguished from linen4 ,the next writer1 who mentions hemp after ,herodotus1 is ,moschion1 rather more than #bjj years ,b4 ,c4 ,he states#ede1 that the magnificent ship ,syracusia1 built by the command of ,hiero ,,ii41 was provided with hemp from the ,rhone for making ropes4 ,the common materials for such purposes were the ,egyptian ,papyrus1 the bark of the ,lime-tree1 of the ,hemp-leaved ,mallow1 and of the ,spanish and ,portugal ,broom1 and probably also the ,stipa ,tenacissima of ,linnus4 #ede ,apud ,athenum1 l4 v4 p4 #bjf4 ,casaub4 ,hemp1 as well as flax1 was grown abundantly in ,colchis#edf4 ,it was brought to the ports of the gean ,sea by the ,ionian merchants1 who were intimately connected with the northern and eastern coasts of the ,euxine through the medium of the ,milesian colonies4 ,this fact may account for the cultivation of hemp in ,caria4 ,the best was obtained in the time of ,pliny 7l4 xix4 c4 #i47 from ,alabanda and ,mylasa in that country4 ,pliny also mentions a kind1 which grew in the country of the ,sabines1 and which was remarkable for its height4 #edf ,strabo1 l4 xi4 #ag4 vol4 iv4 p4 #djb1 ed4 ,siebenkees4 ,automedon1 who lived a little before ,pliny1 complains in an ,epigram of a bad dinner given him by one of his acquaintances1 and compares the tall stringy cabbages to hemp#edg4 ,as this author was a native of ,cyzicus1 he would probably have abundant opportunities of becoming familiar with the plant4 #edg 4 ,brunck's ,analecta1 ii4 #bji4 ,in the time of ,pausanias hemp was grown in ,elis4 ,see his ,eliaca1 c4 #bf4 #d4 ,dioscorides 7l4 iii4 c4 #ada47 gives an account of hemp1 in which he distinguishes between the cultivated and the wild4 ,by ,wild ,hemp he means the ,alth ,cannabina1 ,linn4#edh4 ,he observes respecting the ,cultivated ,hemp1 by which he meant proper hemp1 the ,cannabis ,sativa1 ,linn41 that it was 8of great use for twisting the strongest ropes40 #edh ,see ,chap4 ,,xii4 p4 #aid4 ,on the whole we may conclude1 that hemp was not the natural growth either of ,italy1 ,greece1 or ,asia ,minor1 but was confined1 as it still is in a great degree1 to countries lying further north and having a more rigid climate4 ,the intimate connexion of the ,romans with the ,greek colony of ,marseilles may have brought it among the ,sabines1 as the active trade between the ,euxine and ,miletus may have introduced it into ,caria4 ,with the material its name was also imported1 and this is substantially the same in all the languages of ,europe1 as well as in many ,asiatic tongues#edi4 #edi ,sanscrit1 ,,goni1 ,,sana1 or ,,shanapu2 ,persic1 ,,canna2 ,arabic1 ,,kanneh1 or ,,kinnub2 ,greek1 2 ,latin1 ,,cannabis2 ,italian1 ,,cannapa2 ,french1 ,,chanvre1 or ,,chanbre2 ,danish and ,flamand1 ,,kamp1 or ,,kennep2 ,lettish and ,lithuanian1 ,,kannapes2 ,slavonian1 ,,konopi2 ,erse1 ,,canaib2 ,scandinavian1 ,,hampr2 ,swedish1 ,,hampa2 ,german1 ,,hanf2 ,anglo-,saxon1 ,,haenep2 ,english1 ,,hemp4 ,our ,english word ,,canvass 7,french1 ,,canevas17 has the same origin1 meaning cloth made of hemp 7,,canav74 ,hemp is comparatively rare in ,india1 as well as flax2 and1 as flax is there only used for obtaining oil1 so hemp is never used for making cordage or for weaving1 but only for smoking on account of the narcotic qualities of its leaves4 7,wissett on ,hemp1 p4 #bj1 #be47 ,its name ,,sana1 ,,sunu1 or ,,gonu1 is given also to the ,crotalaria ,juncea1 which is principally applied by the ,indians to the same uses as hemp in ,europe4 ,see ,chap4 ,,xiii4 p4 #bjb4 ,if we compare flax with other spinning materials1 such as wool and cotton1 we shall find it to possess several characteristic properties4 ,while cotton and wool are presented by nature in the form of insulated fibres1 the former requiring merely to be separated from its seeds1 and the latter to be purified from dirt and grease before being delivered to the spinner1 flax must have its filaments separated from each other by tedious and painful treatment4 ,in reference to the spinning and the subsequent operations1 the following properties of flax are influential and important3-- #a4 ,the considerable length of the fibres1 which renders it difficult1 on the one hand1 to form a fine1 level1 regular thread1 on the other1 gives the yarn a considerably greater tenacity1 so that it cannot be broken by pulling out the threads from each other1 but by tearing them across4 #b4 ,the smooth and slim structure of the filaments1 which gives to linen its peculiar polished aspect1 and feel so different from cotton1 and especially from woollen stuffs1 unless when disguised by dressing4 ,the fibres of flax have no mutual entanglement1 whereby one can draw out another as with wool1 and they must therefore be made adhesive by moisture4 ,this wetting of the fibres renders them more pliant and easier to twist together #c4 ,the small degree of elasticity1 by which the simple fibres can be stretched only one twenty-fifth of their natural length before they break1 while sheep's wool will stretch from one fourth to one half before it gives way4 ,good flax should have a bright silver gray or yellowish color 7inclining neither to green nor black72 it should be long1 fine1 soft1 and glistening1 somewhat like silk1 and contain no broad tape-like portions1 from undissevered filaments4 ,tow differs from flax in having shorter fibres1 of very unequal length1 and more or less entangled4 ,hemp agrees in its properties essentially with flax1 and must be similarly treated in the spinning processes4 ,the manufacture of linen and hemp yarn1 and the tow of either1 may be effected by different processes2 by the distaff1 the hand-wheel1 and spinning machinery4 ,it will be unnecessary to occupy the pages of this volume with a description of the first two well known domestic employments4 ,spinning of flax by machinery has been much more recently brought to a practical state than the spinning of cotton and wool by machines1 of which the cause must be sought for in the nature of flax as above described4 ,the first attempts at the machine spinning of flax1 went upon the principle of cutting the filaments into short fragments before beginning the operation4 ,but in this way the most valuable property of linen yarn1 its cohesive force1 was greatly impaired2 or these attempts were restricted to the spinning of tow1 which on account of its short and somewhat tortuous fibres1 could be treated like cotton1 especially after it had been further torn by the carding engine4 ,the first tolerably good results with machinery seem to have been obtained by the brothers ,girard at ,paris1 about the year #ahaj4 ,but the ,french have never carried the apparatus to any great practical perfection4 ,the towns of ,leeds in ,yorkshire1 of ,dundee in ,scotland1 and ,belfast in ,ireland1 have the merit of bringing the spinning of flax by machines into a state of perfection little short of that for which the cotton trade has been so long celebrated4 ,for machine spinning1 the flax is sometimes heckled by hand1 and sometimes by machinery4 ,the series of operations is the following3-- #a4 ,the heckling4 #b4 ,the conversion of the flax into a band of parallel rectilinear filaments1 which1 forms the foundation of the future yarn4 #c4 ,the formation of a sliver from the riband1 by drawing it out into a narrower range of filaments4 #d4 ,the coarse spinning1 by twisting the sliver into a coarse and loose thread4 #e4 ,the fine spinning1 by the simultaneous extension and twisting of that coarse thread4 ,all heckle machines have this common property1 that the flax is not drawn through them1 as in working by hand1 but1 on the contrary1 the system of heckles is moved through the flax properly suspended or laid4 ,differences exist in the shape1 arrangement1 and movements of the heckles1 as also in regard to the means by which the adhering tow is removed from them4 ,the simplest and most common construction is to place the heckles upon the surface of a horizontal cylinder1 while the flax is held either by mechanical means or by the hand during its exposure to the heckle points4 ,many machines have been made upon this principle4 ,it is proper in this case to set the heckle teeth obliquely in the direction in which the cylinder turns1 whereby they penetrate the fibres in a more parallel line1 effect their separation more easily1 and cause less waste in torn filaments4 ,to conduct the flax upon the cylinders1 two horizontal fluted rollers of iron are employed1 which can be so modified in a moment by a lever as to present the flax more or less to the heckling mechanism4 ,the operator seizes a tress lock of flax with her hand and introduces it between the fluted rollers1 so that the tips on which the operation must begin1 reach the heckles first1 and by degrees the advancing flax gets heckled through two thirds or three fourths of its length1 after which the tress or strick is turned1 and its other end is subjected to the same process4 ,by its somewhat rapid revolution the heckle cylinder creates a current of air which not only carries away the boomy particles1 but also spreads out the flax like a sheaf of corn upon the spikes1 effecting the same object as is done by the dexterous swing of the hand4 ,the tow collects betwixt the teeth of the heckle1 and may1 when its quantity has become considerable1 be removed in the form of a flock of parallel layers4 ,flax has been for a long period spun wet in the mills2 a method no doubt copied from the practice of housewives moistening their yarn with their saliva at the domestic wheel4 ,within a few years the important improvement has been introduced of substituting hot for cold water1 in the troughs through which the fibres in the act of spinning pass4 ,by this means a much finer1 smoother1 and more uniform thread can be spun than in the old way4 ,the flax formerly spun to twelve pounds a bundle is1 with hot water1 spun to six4 ,the inconvenience of the spray thrown from the yarn on the fliers remains1 aggravated by increased heat and dampness of the room where this hot process goes on4 ,being a new expedient1 it receives daily changes and ameliorations4 ,when first employed1 the troughs of hot water were quite open2 they are now usually covered in1 so as almost entirely to obviate the objections to which they were previously liable4 ,with the covers has been also introduced a new method of piecening or joining on any end1 which may have been run down1 namely1 by splicing it to the adjoining roving1 whereby it is carried through the water without imposing a necessity on the spinner to put her hand into the water at all4 ,in some places she uses a wire1 for the purpose of drawing through the end of the roving to mend a broken yarn4 ,this may be considered the inherent evil of flax-spinning1--the spray thrown off by the wet yarn1 as it whirls about with the flier of the spindles4 ,a working dress1 indeed1 is generally worn by the spinners2 but1 unless it be made of stuff impermeable to water1 like ,mackintosh's cloth1 it will soon become uncomfortable1 and cause injury to health by keeping the body continually in a hot bath4 ,in some mills1 water-proof cloth and leather aprons have actually been introduced1 which are the only practicable remedy2 for the free space which must be left round the spindles for the spinner to see them play1 is incompatible with any kind of fixed guard or parapluie4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,asbestos4 ,uses of ,asbestos--,carpasian flax--,still found in ,cyprus--,used in funerals--,asbestine-cloth--,how manufactured--,asbestos used for fraud and superstition by the ,romish monks--,relic at ,monte ,casino--,further impostures of the monks--,remarks thereon4 ,varro mentions the name ,asbestos as a proof1 that the cloth so called was a ,greek invention#eej4 ,his argument is obviously correct4 ,the term 77 means inextinguishable1 and was most properly applied to the wicks of lamps1 which were made of this substance and were never consumed4 #eej ,de ,lingua ,lat4 ,l4 v4 p4 #acd4 ed4 ,spengel4 ,the fullest account of the properties and uses of ,asbestos is contained in the following passage from ,sotacus1 a ,greek author who wrote on ,stones#eea4 ,the passage occurs in the ,histori ,commentiti1 attributed to ,apollonius ,dyscolus 7cap4 #cf74 ,the ,carystian stone has woolly and colored appendages1 which are spun and woven into napkins4 ,this substance is also twisted into wicks1 which1 when burnt1 are bright1 but do not consume4 ,the napkins1 when dirty1 are not washed with water1 but a fire is made of sticks1 and then the napkin is put into it4 ,the dirt disappears1 and the napkin is rendered white and pure by the fire1 and is applicable to the same purposes as before4 ,the wicks remain burning with oil continually without being consumed4 ,this stone is produced in ,carystus1 from which it has its name1 and in great abundance in ,cyprus under rocks to the left of ,elmum1 as you go from ,gerandros to ,soli4--,yates's ,translation4 #eea ,sotacus is several times quoted by ,pliny 7,l4 xxxvi41 xxxvii47 as a foreign writer on ,stones4 8,at ,carystus10 says ,strabo1 8under ,mount ,ocha in ,euba is produced the stone1 which is combed and woven so as to make napkins 77 or handkerchiefs4 ,when these have become dirty1 instead of being washed1 they are thrown into a flame and thus purified#eeb40 #eeb ,lib4 x4 p4 #ai4 ed4 ,sieb4 ,plutarch speaks in similar terms of napkins1 nets1 and head-dresses1 made of the ,carystian stone1 but says1 that it was no longer found in his time1 only thin veins of it1 like hairs1 being discoverable in the rock#eec4 #eec ,de ,oraculorum ,defectu1 p4 #ggj4 ed4 ,h4 ,stephani1 ,par4 #aegb4 ,mr4 ,hawkins ascertained1 that the rock1 which was quarried in ,mount ,ocha1 now called ,st4 ,elias1 above ,carystus1 is the ,cipolino of the ,roman antiquaries#eed4 ,further north in the same island ,dr4 ,sibthorp observed 8rocks of ,serpentine in beds of saline marble1 forming the ,verdantique of the ancients#eee30 and he states1 that on the shore to the north of ,negropont 8the rocks are composed of serpentine stone with veins of asbestos and soapstone intermixed#eef40 ,tournefort speaks of ,amiantus as brought from ,carysto in his time1 but of inferior quality#eeg4 #eed ,travels in various ,countries of the ,east1 edited by ,walpole1 p4 #bhh4 #eee ,ibid4 p4 #cg4 #eef ,ibid4 p4 #ch4--,n4 ,b4 ,asbestos is always found in rocks of ,serpentine4 #eeg ,voyage1 ,english ,translation1 vol4 i4 p4 #abi4 ,pausanias 7i4 #bf4 #g47 says1 the wick of the golden lamp which was kept burning night and day in the temple of ,minerva ,polias at ,athens1 was 8of ,carpasian flax1 the only kind of flax which is indestructible by fire40 ,this 8,carpasian flax0 was asbestos from the vicinity of ,carpasus1 a town near the north-east corner of ,cyprus1 which retains its ancient name1 ,carpas4 ,dioscorides 7,l4 v4 c4 #ic47 gives a similar account of the qualities and uses of ,amiantus1 and says it was produced in ,cyprus#eeh4 #eeh ,see p4 #cib4 ,majolus says#eei1 that in the year #aeff he saw at ,venice ,podocattarus1 a knight of ,cyprus1 and a writer on the history of that island1 who exhibited at ,venice cloth made of the asbestos of his country1 which he threw into the fire1 and took it out uninjured and made quite clean4 #eei ,dier4 ,canicular4 ,part ,i4 ,collog4 xx4 p4 #dec4 ,referring to ,cyprus1 ,sonnini 7,voyage en ,grce1 i4 p4 #ff47 says1 ,l'amiante1 asbestos1 ou lin incombustible des anciens1 est encore aussi abondant qu'il le fut autrefois2 la carrire qui le fournit est dans la montagne d',akamantide1 prs du cap ,chromachiti4 ,le talc est commun1 surtout prs de ,larnaca1 o on l'emploie blanchir les maisons2 et le pltre a de nombreuses carrires4 ,the 8talc0 may be the same with the 8,lapis specularis10 which was found in ,cyprus1 according to ,pliny 7xxxvi4 #de474 ,the testimony of ,sonnini so far agrees with those of the ancients1 that all the places mentioned were on the northern side of the island1 so that the asbestos seems to have been found between ,sol towards the ,west and ,carpas towards the ,east4 ,pietro della ,valle1 when he was at ,larnaca1 was presented with a piece of the amiantus of the country1 but says that it was no longer spun and woven4 ,pliny1 if we can rely upon his testimony as given in the existing editions of his works1 states1 that ,asbestos was obtained in ,arcadia 7,h4 ,n4 xxxvii4 #ed47 and in ,india4 8,a kind of flax has been discovered which is incombustible by fire4 ,it is called live flax2 and we have seen napkins of it burning upon the hearth at entertainments1 and1 when thus deprived of their dirt1 more resplendent through the agency of fire than they could have been by the use of water4 ,the funeral shirts made of it for kings preserve the ashes of the body separate from those of the rest of the pile4 ,it is produced in deserts and in tracts scorched by the ,indian sun1 where there are no showers1 and among dire serpents1 and thus it is inured to live even when it is burnt4 ,it is rare1 and woven with difficulty on account of the shortness of its fibres4 ,that variety which is of a red color becomes resplendent in the fire4 ,when it has been found it equals the prices of excellent pearls4 ,it is called by the ,greeks ,asbestine ,flax1 on account of its nature4 ,anaxilaus relates1 that if a tree surrounded with cloth made of it be beaten1 the strokes are not heard4 ,on account of these properties this flax is the first in the world4 ,the next in value is that made of byssus1 which is produced about ,elis in ,achaia1 and used principally for fine female ornaments4 ,i find that a scruple of this flax1 as also of gold1 was formerly sold for four denarii#efj4 ,the nap of linen cloths1 obtained chiefly from the sails of ships1 is of great use in surgery1 and their ashes have the same effect as spodium4 ,there is a certain kind of poppy the use of which imparts the highest degree of whiteness to linen cloths40--,pliny1 ,lib4 xix4 ch4 #d4 #efj i4 e4 eighteen grains of this flax were worth #bs4 #aj;d4 stg41 being equal in value to its weight in gold4 ,besides the manufacture of napkins1 this description exactly agrees with the accounts of ,strabo1 ,sotacus1 ,dioscorides1 and ,plutarch4 ,pliny's account of the use of this material in funerals has been remarkably confirmed by the occasional discovery of pieces of asbestine cloth in the tombs of ,italy4 ,one was found in #afcc at ,puzzuolo1 and was preserved in the ,barberini gallery#efa4 ,another was found in #agjb a mile without the gate called ,porta ,major in ,rome4 ,we have an account of the discovery in a letter written from ,rome at the time2 and appended to ,montfaucon's ,travels through ,italy4 ,a marble sarcophagus having been discovered in a vineyard was found to contain the cloth1 which was about #e feet wide1 and #f long4 ,it contained a skull and the other burnt bones of a human body4 ,the sculptured marble indicates1 that the deceased was a man of rank4 ,he is supposed to have lived not earlier than the time of ,constantine4 ,this curious relic of antiquity has been preserved in the ,vatican ,library since the period of its discovery1 and ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,smith1 who saw it there1 gives the following description of its appearance3-- ,it is coarsely spun1 but as soft and pliant as silk4 ,our guide set fire to one corner of it1 and the very same part burnt repeatedly with great rapidity and brightness without being at all injured#efb4 #efa ,keysler's ,travels1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bib4 ,london #agfj4 #efb ,tour on the ,continent1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bja4 ,also in the ,museo ,barbonico at ,naples there is a considerable piece of asbestine cloth1 found at ,vasto in the ,abruzzi1 the ancient ,histonium4 ,hierocles1 the historian1 as quoted by ,stephanus ,byzantinus1 gives the following account of the ,asbestos of ,india3-- ,the ,brachmans use cloth made of a kind of flax1 which is obtained from rocks4 ,webs are produced from it1 which are neither subject to be consumed by fire nor cleansed by water1 but which1 after they have become full of dirt and stains1 are rendered clear and white by being thrown into the fire4 ,the following testimonies illustrate the fact1 recorded by both ,hierocles and ,pliny1 that ,asbestos was obtained from ,india4 ,marco ,polo#efc mentions1 that incombustible cloth was woven from a fibrous stone found at ,chenchen in the territory of the ,great ,khan4 ,it was pounded in a brass mortar2 then washed to separate the earthy particles2 spun and woven into cloth2 and cleansed1 when dirty1 by being thrown into the fire4 #efc ,marsden's ,translation1 p4 #agf4 ,bugnon1 in his ,rlation ,exacte concernant les ,caravanes 7,nancy1 #agjg1 p4 #cg-ci47 mentions1 that ,amiantus was found in ,cyprus and on the confines of ,arabia4 ,he says1 they spun it and made stockings1 socks1 and drawers1 which fitted closely2 that over these they wore their other garments2 and that they were thus protected from the heat in travelling with the caravans through ,asia4 ,basil1 ,bishop of ,csarea1 shows that he was acquainted with the properties of this substance1 by comparing the three children cast into the fiery furnace without being hurt 7,dan4 iii47 to ,asbestos1 8which1 when put into the fire seems to burn and to be turned to ashes1 but1 when taken out1 becomes purer and brighter than it was before#efd40 #efd ,homilia de ,jejunio1 p4 #aaa4 ,damasus 7in ,silvestro ,papa7 mentions1 that the ,emperor ,constantine directed asbestos to be used for the wicks of the lamps in his baptistery at ,rome4 ,for further particulars respecting the places where amiantus is procured1 and the mode of preparing it for the manufacture of cloth1 we refer to the treatises of mineralogists and to the ,essays of ,ciampini1 ,tilingius1 ,mahudel1 and ,bruckmann on this particular subject4 ,we are informed1 that it is softened and rendered supple by being steeped in oil1 and that fibres of flax are then mixed with it in order that it may be spun4 ,when the cloth is woven1 it is put into the fire1 by which the flax and oil are dissipated1 and the asbestos alone remains#efe4 #efe ,tournefort's ,travels1 vol4 i4 p4 #abi4 ,bruckmann1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,lapidis4 ,brunswic4 #agbg4 p4 #ca1 #cb4 ,this author says the asbestos was put into warm water1 and there rubbed and turned about4 ,an earth separates from it1 which makes the water as white as milk4 ,this is repeated five or six times4 ,the fibres1 thus purified1 are spread out to dry4 ,ignorance of the true nature of ,asbestos caused it to be employed in the dark ages for purposes of superstition and religious fraud4 ,of this we have a proof in the following account which we find in the ,chronicon ,casinense of ,leo ,ostiensis1 ,l4 ii4 c4 #cc4 ,his diebus ,monachi quidam ab ,jerusolymis venientes particulam lintei1 cum quo pedes discipulorum ,salvator extersit1 secum detulerunt1 et ob reverentiam sancti hujus loci devotissim hic obtulerunt1 sexto scilicet ,idus ,decembris2 sed1 cum a plurimis super hoc nulla fides adhiberetur1 illi fide fidentes protinus prdictam particulam in accensi turibuli igne desuper posuerunt1 qu mox quidem in ignis colorem conversa1 post paululm vero1 amotis carbonibus1 ad pristinam speciem mirabiliter est reversa4 ,cumque excogitarent qualiter1 vel quanam in parte pignora tanta locarent1 contigit1 dispositione divin1 ut eodem ipso die1 transmissus sit in hunc locum loculus ille mirificus1 ubi nunc recondita est ipsa lintei sancti particula1 argento et auro gemmisque ,anglico opere subtiliter ac pulcherrim decoratus4 ,ibi erg christallo superposito venerabiliter satis est collocata3 morisque est singulis annis1 ipso die ,cn ,dominic ad mandatum ,fratrum eam a ,mansionariis deferri et in medium poni1 duoque candelabra ante illam accendi et indesinenter per totum mandati spatium ab ,acolito incensari4 ,demum ver juxta finem mandati a singulis per ordinem fratribus flexis genibus devotissim adorari et reverentr exosculari4 ,there is no good reason to doubt the truth of this narrative so far as respects the veracity and credit of the historian4 ,leo ,ostiensis became an inmate of the ,abbey of ,monte ,casino a few years after the event is said to have happened1 and could scarcely be misinformed respecting the circumstances1 more especially as he held during the latter part of his abode there the office of ,librarian4 ,there is nothing improbable in the story4 ,asbestine cloth1 as we have learnt from ,marco ,polo1 was manufactured in ,asia during the middle ages1 and the reputed relic was obtained at ,jerusalem4 ,that the pilgrims1 who visited ,jerusalem1 should be imposed upon in this manner1 is in the highest degree probable1 since we are informed1 that the very same substance in its natural state was often sold to devotees ,,as ,,the ,,wood ,,of ,,the ,,true ,,cross1 and its incombustibility was exhibited as the proof of its genuineness4 ,this we learn in the following passage from ,tilingius1 who wrote 8,de lino vivo aut asbestino et incombustibili40 ,antonius ,musa ,brassavolus ,ferrariensis tradit1 impostores lapidem ,amiantum simplicibus mulierculis ostendere vendereque spenumero pro ligno crusis ,servatoris nostri4 ,id quod facile credunt1 cm igne non comburatur1 quodque ligni modo plurimis constet lineis intercur santibus4--,miscellanea ,curiosa ,natur ,curiosorum1 ,decuri ii4 ,ann4 ii4 p4 #aaa4 ,noremberg1 #afhd4 ,the monks on their arrival at ,monte ,casino would naturally display the same evidence1 by which they themselves had been convinced2 and the appearance of the cloth1 when put into the fire and taken out of it1 is described exactly as it would be in fact1 supposing it to have been made of amiantus4 ,montfaucon1 in his ,travels in ,italy 7p4 #cha4 ,english ed4 #hvo471 describes a splendid service book1 which was written ,a4 ,d4 #ajgb by ,leo at the expense of brother ,john of ,marsicana1 and presented by ,john to the ,monastery of ,monte ,casino1 where it was exhibited to ,montfaucon as one of the most valuable and curious monuments4 ,an illumination in this book represents a monk kneeling before ,st4 ,benedict1 the patron and founder of the institution1 and holding in his hands a cloth1 on which ,st4 ,benedict is placing his left foot4 ,montfaucon gives an engraving from this picture3 he supposes the cloth to be a monk's cowl1 and conjectures that it was thus used in admitting novices4 ,this explanation is evidently a most unsatisfactory one1 nothing being produced to render it even probable4 ,we believe the cloth to be that the history of which has just now been given1 and that the design of the artist was to represent a monk wiping the feet of ,st4 ,benedict with the same cloth with which ,jesus wiped the feet of his disciples4 ,this supposition will appear the more probable if we attend to the date of the ,,ms4 7,a4 ,d4 #ajgb7 and the persons1 by whom and at whose expense it was written4 8,brother ,john of ,marsicana0 appears to have been at this time advanced in years1 wealthy1 and highly respected1 since we are informed1 that in the year #ajee1 when ,peter was chosen ,abbot of the ,monastery1 some of the brotherhood wished to choose ,john1 although he1 foreseeing that the choice would be likely to fall on him1 had obstinately sworn on the altar1 that he would never undertake the office4 ,john was at this time provost of ,capua#eff4 ,seventeen years afterwards he went to the expense of providing the service-book seen by ,montfaucon4 ,he employed as his scribe one of the fraternity1 who was his junior and from the same city with himself4 ,for there can be scarcely a doubt1 but that ,leo1 who wrote the ,,ms41 was the same who was the author of the ,chronicon4 ,the author of the ,chronicon1 at the commencement of his history1 calls himself 8,frater ,leo1 cognomine ,marsicanus#efg04 ,he was made ,bishop of ,ostia ,a4 ,d4 #aaja1 so that we may suppose him to have been twenty or thirty years of age1 when the ,,ms4 was made4 ,of his aptitude for such an employment we cannot doubt1 when we consider his future labors as ,librarian and author of the ,chronicle4 ,but if these facts be evident1 it is equally manifest1 that these two accomplished ,benedictines could not have expressed their veneration towards their founder in any way better suited to their ideas and belief than by exhibiting in the manner described that relic1 ,,which ,,was ,,solemnly ,,displayed ,,once ,a ,,year ,,with ,,burning ,,candles ,,and ,,attending ,,acolythes ,,to ,,the ,,admiring ,,and ,,adoring ,,crowd ,,of ,,devotees4 #eff ,dominum ,johannem1 cognomine ,marsicanum1 qui tunc ,capu erat prpositus1 c4--,leonis ,ostientis ,chronicon ,casinense1 ,l4 ii4 c4 #ib4 #efg ,marsicana 7civitas7 was in ,marsica1 the territory of the ancient ,marsi4 ,on inquiry it is found that this relic exists no longer at ,monte ,casino1 although the original copy of the ,chronicon of ,leo ,ostiensis is still preserved in the ,library#efh4 ,it appears that the relic has long been lost1 since there is no mention either of it1 or of the casket which contained it in the 8,descrizione ,istorica del ,monastero di ,monte ,casino1 ,napoli1 #agge40 #efh ,excursions in the ,abruzzi1 by the ,hon4 ,keppel ,craven1 vol4 i4 p4 #ed4 ,a large glove of this substance is in the ,hunterian ,museum at ,glasgow4 ,an ,english traveller states that he has lately seen at ,parma a table-cloth1 made of ,amiantus from ,corsica1 for the use of the ex-,empress ,maria ,louisa1 who resided there after the fall of ,napoleon4 ,in modern times cloth of asbestos is scarcely made4 ,indeed it is not probable that this material will ever be obtained in much abundance1 or that it will cease to be a rarity except in the places of its production4 ,it is never seen in ,great ,britain1 or on the continent1 save in the cabinets of the curious4 ,the annexed ,map 7,plate ,,vii47 is designed to indicate the divisions of the ,ancient ,world as determined by the ,raw ,materials principally produced and employed in them for weaving4 ,the ,red division produced ,sheeps'-,wool and ,goats'-,hair3 also ,beavers'-,wool in the portion of this division1 which lies to the ,north of the ,mediterranean ,sea1 and of the rivers ,padus and ,ister3 and ,camels'-,wool and ,camels'-,hair in the portion lying ,south-,east of a line drawn through the coast of ,syria4 ,the nations to the ,north of this division clothed themselves in skins1 furs1 and felt4 ,the ,yellow at the ,eastern corner indicates the commencement of the vast ,region1 unknown to the ,ancients1 the inhabitants of which clothed themselves in ,silk4 ,the ,green indicates the countries1 all low and bordering on rivers1 in which the cloth manufactured was chiefly ,linen4 ,the ,brown is designed to show the cultivation of ,hemp in the low country to the ,north of the ,euxine ,sea1 and probably in other places1 ,north of the ,red division1 which were adapted for its growth4 ,lastly1 the ,blue1 which is the colour of the ,baharein ,isles and of ,india1 shows that the inhabitants of these countries have from time immemorial clothed themselves in ,cotton4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,vii ,,serica ,,map showing the ,divisions of the ,,ancient ,,world according to the ,raw ,materials principally produced in them for ,weaving4 ,,appendices4 ,,appendix ,a4 ,,on ,,pliny',s ,,natural ,,history4 ,sheep and wool--,price of wool in ,pliny's time--,varieties of wool and where produced--,coarse wool used for the manufacture of carpets--,woollen cloth of ,egypt--,embroidery--,felting--,manner of cleansing--,distaff of ,tanaquil--,varro--,tunic--,toga--,undul ate or waved cloth--,nature of this fabric--,figured cloths in use in the days of ,homer 7#ijj ,b4 ,c47--,cloth of gold--,figured cloths of ,babylon--,damask first woven at ,alexandria--,plaided textures first woven in ,gaul--#aej1jjj paid for a ,babylonish coverlet--,dyeing of wool in the fleece--,observations on sheep and goats--,dioscurias a city of the ,colchians--,manner of transacting business4 ,,lib4 ,,viii4 c4 #dgs4 #gb4 #ejs4 #gf4efi #efi ,the edition here followed is that of ,sillig1 ,lipsi1 #ahca-f1 #e vols41 #abmo4 8,we are also much indebted to sheep both in sacrifices to propitiate the gods1 and in the use of their fleeces4 ,as oxen produce by cultivation the food of men1 so we owe to sheep the protection of our bodies4444 ,there are two principal kinds of sheep1 the covered and the common4 ,the former is softer1 the latter more delicate in feeding1 inasmuch as the covered feeds on brambles4 ,its coverings are chiefly of ,arabic materials4 8,the most approved wool is the ,apulian1 and that which is called the wool of ,greek sheep in ,italy1 and the ,italic wool in other places4 ,the third kind in value is that obtained from ,milesian sheep4 ,the ,apulian wools have a short staple1 and are only celebrated for making pnulas4 ,they attain the highest degree of excellence about ,tarentum and ,canusium4 ,in ,asia wools of the same kind are obtained at ,laodicea4 ,no white wool is preferred to those which are produced about the ,po1 nor has a pound ever yet exceeded a hundred sesterces 7about #c1fj474 ,sheep are not shorn everywhere3 in certain places the practice of pulling off the wool continues4 ,there are various colors of wool1 so that we want terms to denote all4 ,spain produces some of those varieties which we call native2 ,pollentia1 near the ,alps1 furnishes the chief kinds of black wool2 ,asia and ,btica those ruddy varieties called ,erythrean2 ,canusium a sandy-colored#egj wool2 and ,tarentum one of a dark shade peculiar to that locality4 ,new-shorn greasy wools have all a medicinal virtue4 ,the wool of ,istria and ,liburnia being more like hair than wool1 is unsuitable for making the cloths which have a long nap4 ,this is also the case with the wool of ,salacia in ,lusitania2 but the cloth made from it is recommended by its plaided pattern4 ,a similar kind is produced about ,piscen 7i4 e4 ,pezenas71 in the province of ,narbonne1 and likewise in ,egypt1 the woollen cloth of which country1 having been worn by use1 is embroidered and lasts some time longer4 ,the coarse wool with a thick staple was used in very ancient times for carpets3 at least ,homer 7#ijj ,b4 ,c47 speaks of the use of it4 ,the ,gauls have one method of embroidering these carpets1 and the ,parthians another4 ,portions of wool also make cloth by being forced together by themselves#ega4 ,with the addition of vinegar these also resist iron1 nay even fires1 which are the last expedient for purging them2 for1 having been taken out of the caldrons of the polishers1 they are sold for the stuffing of beds1 an invention made1 ,i believe1 in ,gaul1 certainly in the present day distinguished by ,gallic names3 for in what age it commenced ,i could not easily say1 since the ancients used beds of straw1 such as are now employed in camps4 ,the cloths called gausapa began to be used within the memory of my father2 those called amphimalla within my own1 7,see ,part ,first1 p4 #cj17 as well as the shaggy coverings for the stomach1 called ventralia4 ,for the tunic with the laticlave is now first beginning to be woven after the manner of the gausapa4 ,the black wools are never dyed4 ,concerning the dyeing of the others we shall speak in their proper places1 in treating of sea-shells or the nature of herbs4 8,m4 ,varro says1 that the wool continued to his time upon the distaff and spindle of ,tanaquil1 also called ,caia ,ccilia1 in the temple of ,sangus2 and that there remained in the temple of ,fortune a royal undulate toga made by her1 which ,servius ,tullius had worn4 ,hence arose the practice of carrying a distaff with wool upon it1 and a spindle with its thread1 after virgins who were going to be married4 ,she first wove the straight tunic1 such as is worn by tiros together with the toga pura1 and by newly-married women4 ,the undulate or waved cloth was originally one of the most admired2 from it was derived the soriculate#egb4 ,fenestrella writes1 that scraped and ,phryxian togas came into favor about the end of the reign of the ,divine ,augustus4 ,the thick poppied togas are of remoter origin1 being noticed even so far back as by the poet ,lucilius in his ,torquatus4 ,the toga prtexta was invented among the ,etruscans4 ,i find evidence that kings wore the striped toga#egc1 that figured cloths were in use even in the days of ,homer2 and that these gave rise to the triumphal4 ,to produce this effect with the needle was the invention of the ,phrygians1 on which account cloths so embroidered have been called ,phrygionic4 ,in the same part of ,asia king ,attalus 7see ,part ,i4 p4 #hh47 discovered the art of inserting a woof of gold3 from which circumstance the ,attalic cloths received their name4 ,babylon first obtained celebrity by its method of diversifying the picture with different colors1 and gave its name to textures of this description4 ,but to weave with a great number of leashes1 so as to produce the cloths called polymita 7i4 e4 damask cloths71 was first taught in ,alexandria2 to divide by squares 7i4 e4 plaids7 in ,gaul4 ,metellus ,scipio brought it as an accusation against ,cato1 that even in his time ,babylonian coverlets for triclinia were sold for #hjj1jjj sesterces 7#cj1jjj71 although the emperor ,nero lately gave for them no less than #d1jjj1jjj sesterces 7about #aej1jjj74 ,the prtexta of ,servius ,tullius1 covering the statue of ,fortune which he dedicated1 remained until the death of ,sejanus1 and it is wonderful that they had neither decayed of themselves nor been injured by the worms of moths through the space of #efj years4 ,we have1 moreover1 seen the fleeces of living sheep dyed with purple1 with the coccus1 or the murex1 in pieces of bark a foot and a half long1 luxury appearing to force this upon them as if it were their nature4 8,in the sheep itself the excellence of the breed is sufficiently shown by the shortness of the legs and the clothing of the belly4 ,those which have naked bellies used to be called apic1 and were condemned4 ,the tails of the ,syrian sheep are a cubit broad1 and in that part they bear a great quantity of wool4 ,it is thought premature to castrate lambs before they are five months old4 ,in ,spain1 but especially in ,corsica1 there is a race of animals called musmons1 resembling sheep1 except that their covering is more like goats'-hair4 ,the ancients called the mixed breed of sheep and musmons ,umbri4 ,sheep have a very weak head1 on which account they are obliged to turn from the sun in feeding4 ,they are most foolish animals4 ,where they have been afraid to enter1 they follow one dragged along by the horn4 ,they live ten years at the longest1 but in thiopia thirteen years4 ,goats live there eleven years1 and in other countries eight at the most4444 ,in ,cilicia and about the ,syrtes1 goats have a shaggy coat1 which admits of being shorn40 #egj ,this term is adopted as the best translation of the ,latin fulvus1 which1 as well as the corresponding ,greek adjective 1 denoted a light yellowish-brown4 ,hence it was so commonly applied to the light hair1 which accompanies a light complexion and often indicates mental vivacity1 and which has consequently been always considered beautiful4 ,hence also it was used to denote the appearance of the ,tiber and other rivers1 when they were rendered turbid by the quantity of sand suspended in their waters4--,see ,fellows's ,discoveries in ,lycia4 #ega ,see ,appendix ,c4 #egb ,it is probable that soriculate cloth was a kind of velvet1 or plush1 so called from its resemblance to the coat of the field-mouse1 sorex1 dim4 soricula4 ,soriculata may have been changed into sororiculata by repeating or at the beginning of the word4 #egc ,the toga worn by the kings and other supreme magistrates among the ,romans was called trabea from the stripes1 which were compared to the joists or rafters of a building 7trabes74 ,,lib4 ,,vi4 c4 #e4 8,the remaining shores are occupied by savage nations1 as the ,melanchlni and ,coraxi1 ,dioscurias1 a city of the ,colchians1 near the river ,anthemus1 being now deserted1 although formerly so illustrious1 that ,timosthenes has recorded that three hundred nations used to resort to it1 speaking different languages2 and that business was afterwards transacted on our part through the medium of one hundred and thirty interpreters40 ,,appendix ,b4 ,,on ,,the ,,origin ,,and ,,manufacture ,,of ,,linen ,,and ,,cotton ,,paper4 ,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,linen ,,paper ,,proven ,,to ,,be ,,of ,,egyptian ,,origin1--,,cotton ,,paper ,,manufactured ,,by ,,the ,,bucharians ,,and ,,arabians1 ,a4 ,d4 #gjd4 ,wehrs gives the invention of ,linen paper to ,germany--,schnemann to ,italy--,opinion of various writers1 ancient and modern--,linen paper produced in ,egypt from mummy-cloth1 ,a4 ,d4 #abjj--,testimony of ,abdollatiph--,europe indebted to ,egypt for linen paper until the eleventh century--,cotton paper--,the knowledge of manufacturing1 how procured1 and by whom--,advantages of ,egyptian paper manufacturers--,clugny's testimony--,egyptian manuscript of linen paper bearing date ,a4 ,d4 #aajj--;,ancient water-marks on linen paper--,linen paper first introduced into ,europe by the ,saracens of ,spain--,the ,wasp a paper-maker--,manufacture of paper from shavings of wood1 and from the stalks or leaves of ,indian-corn4 ,no part of the ,res ,diplomatica has been more frequently discussed than the question respecting the origin of paper made from linen rags4 ,the inquiry is interesting on account of the unspeakable importance of this material in connection with the progress of knowledge and all the means of civilization1 and it also claims attention from the philologist as an aid in determining the age of manuscripts4 ,wehrs refers to a document written ,a4 ,d4 #acjh as the oldest known specimen of linen paper2 and1 as the invention must have been at least a little previous to the preparation of this document1 he fixes upon #acjj as its probable date#egd4 ,various writers on the subject1 as ,von ,murr1 ,breitkopf1 ,schnemann1 c41 concur in this opinion4 #egd ,vom ,papier1 p4 #cji1 #cdc4 ,gotthelf ,fischer1 in his ,essay on ,paper-marks#ege1 cites an extract from an account written in #acja on linen paper4 ,in this specimen the mark is a circle surmounted by a sprig1 at the end of which is a star4 ,the paper is thick1 firm1 and well grained2 and its water-lines and water-marks 7vergures et pontuseaux7 may readily be distinguished4 #ege ,this ,essay1 translated into ,french1 is published by ,jansen1 in his ,essai sur l'origine de la gravure en bois et en taille-douce1 ,paris #ahjh1 tome i4 p4 #ceg-che4 ,the date was carried considerably higher by ,schwandner1 ,principal ,keeper of the ,imperial ,library at ,vienna1 who found among the charters of the ,monastery of ,gss in ,upper ,stiria one in a state of decay1 only seven inches long and three wide4 ,so highly did he estimate the value of this curious relic as to publish in #aghh a full account of his discovery in a thin quarto volume1 which bears the following title1 8,chartam linteam antiquissimam1 omnia hactenus producta specimina tate su superantem1 ex cimels ,bibliothec ,august ,vindobonensis exponit ,jo4 ,ge4 ,schwandner10 c4 ,the document is a mandate of ,frederick ,,ii4 ,emperor of the ,romans1 entrusting to the ,archbishop of ,saltzburg and the ,duke of ,austria the determination of a dispute between the ,duke of ,carinthia and the ,monastery of ,gss respecting the property of the latter in ,carinthia4 ,schwandner proves the date of it to be #abdc4 ,he does not say whether it has any lines or water-mark1 but is quite satisfied from its flexibility and other qualities1 that it is linen4 ,although on the first discovery of this document some doubt was expressed as to its genuineness1 it appears to have risen in estimation with succeeding writers2 and we apprehend it is rather from inadvertence than from any deficiency in the evidence1 that it is not noticed at all by ,schnemann1 ,ebert1 ,delandine1 or by ,horne4 ,due attention is1 however1 bestowed upon it by ,august ,friedrich ,pfeiffer ,uber ,bcher-,handschriften1 ,erlangen #ahaj1 p4 #ci1 #dj4 ,with regard to the circumstances which led to the invention of the paper now in common use1 or the country in which it took place1 we find in the writers on the subject from ,polydore ,virgil to the present day nothing but conjectures or confessions of ignorance4 ,wehrs supposes1 and others follow him1 that in making paper linen rags were either by accident or through design at first mixed with cotton rags1 so as to produce a paper1 which was partly linen and partly cotton1 and that this led by degrees to the manufacture of paper from linen only#egf4 ,wehrs also endeavors to claim the honor of the invention for ,germany1 his own country2 but ,schnemann gives that distinction to ,italy1 because there1 in the district of ,ancona1 a considerable manufacture of cotton paper was carried on before the fourteenth century#egg4 ,all however admit1 that they have no satisfactory evidence on the subject4 #egf ,vom ,papier1 p4 #ahc4 #egg ,diplomatik1 vol4 i4 p4 #did4 ,a clear light is thrown upon these questions by a remark of the ,arabian physician1 ,abdollatiph1 who visited ,egypt ,a4 ,d4 #abjj4 ,he informs us#egh1 8that the cloth found in the catacombs1 and used to envelope the mummies1 was made into garments1 or sold to the scribes to make paper for shop-keepers40 ,having shown 7,see ,part ,,iv4 ,chapter ,i47 that this cloth was linen1 the passage of ,abdollatiph1 therefore1 may be considered as a decisive proof1 which1 however1 has never been produced as such1 of the manufacture of linen paper as early as the year #abjj4 #egh ,chapter iv4 p4 #ahh of ,silvestre de ,sacy's ,french translation1 p4 #bba of ,wahl's ,german translation4 ,this interesting passage was translated as follows by ,edward ,pococke1 the younger3--8,et qui ex ,arabibus1 incolisve ,rif1 aliisve1 has arcas indagant1 hc integumenta diripiunt1 quodque in iis rapiendum invenitur2 et conficiunt sibi vestes1 aut ea chartars vendunt ad conficiendam chartam emporeaticam40 ,silvestre de ,sacy 7,notice1 c471 animadverting on ,white's version which is entirely different1 expresses his approbation of ,pococke's1 from which ,wahl's does not materially differ4 ,this account coincides remarkably with what we know from various other sources4 ,professor ,tychsen1 in his learned and curious dissertation on the use of paper from ,papyrus 7published in the ,commentationes ,reg4 ,soc4 ,gottingensis ,recentiores1 vol4 iv4 ,a4 ,d4 #ahbj71 has brought abundant testimonies to prove that ,egypt supplied all ,europe with this kind of paper until towards the end of the eleventh century4 ,the use of it was then abandoned1 cotton paper being employed instead4 ,the ,arabs in consequence of their conquests in ,bucharia had learnt the art of making cotton paper about the year #gjd1 and through them or the ,saracens it was introduced into ,europe in the eleventh century#egi4 ,we may therefore consider it as in the highest degree probable1 that the mode of making cotton paper was known to the paper-makers of ,egypt4 ,at the same time endless quantities of linen cloth1 the best of all materials for the manufacture of paper1 were to be obtained from the catacombs4 #egi ,wehrs vom ,papier1 p4 #aca1 #add1 ,note4 ,breitkopf1 p4 #ha4 ,if we put together these circumstances1 we cannot but perceive how they conspire to illustrate and justify the statement of ,abdollatiph4 ,we perceive the interest which the great ,egyptian paper-manufacturers had in the improvement of their article1 and the unrivalled facilities which they possessed for this purpose2 and thus1 we apprehend1 the direct testimony of an eye-witness of the highest reputation for veracity and intelligence1 supported as it is by collateral probabilities1 clears up in a great measure the long-agitated question respecting the origin of paper such as we now commonly use for writing4 ,the evidence being carried thus far1 we may take in connection with it the following passage from ,petrus ,cluniacensis3-- ,latin #ddd,sed cojusmodi librum8 ,si talem quales quotidie in usu legendi habemus1 utique ex pellibus arietum1 hircorum1 vel vitulorum1 sive ex biblis1 vel juncis orientalium paludum1 aut ex rasuris veterum pannorum1 seu ex qualibet alia forte viliore materia compactos1 et pennis avium vel calamis palustrium locorum1 qualibet tinctura infectis descriptos4--,tractatus adv4 ,judos1 c4 v4 in ,max4 ,bibl4 vet4 ,patrum1 tom4 xxii4 p4 #ajad4 ,all the writers upon this subject1 except ,trombelli1 suppose the ,abbot of ,clugny to allude in the phrase 8ex rasuris veterum pannorum0 to the use of woollen and cotton cloth only1 and not of linen4 ,but1 as we are now authorized to carry up the invention of linen paper higher than before1 and as the mention of it by ,abdollatiph justifies the conclusion that it was manufactured in ,egypt some time before his visit to that country in #abjj1 we may reasonably conjecture that ,petrus ,cluniacensis alluded to the same fact4 ,the treatise above quoted is supposed to have been written ,a4 ,d4 #aabj4 ,the account of the materials used for making books appears to be full and accurate4 ,the expression 8scrapings of old cloths0 agrees exactly with the mode of making paper from linen rags1 but is not in accordance with any facts known to us respecting the use of woollen or cotton cloth4 ,the only objection against this view of the subject is1 that1 as ,peter of ,clugny had not when he wrote this passage travelled eastward of ,france1 we can scarcely suppose him to have been sufficiently acquainted with the manners and productions of ,egypt to introduce any allusion to their newly invented mode of making paper4 ,but we know that the ,abbey of ,clugny had more than #cjj churches1 colleges1 and monasteries dependent on it1 and that at least two of these were in ,palestine and one at ,constantinople4 ,the intercourse which must have subsisted in this way between the ,abbey of ,clugny and the ,levant1 may account for the ,abbot ,peter's acquaintance with the fact4 ,it is therefore probable that he alludes to the manufacture of paper in ,egypt from the cloth of mummies1 which on this supposition had been invented early in the twelfth century#ehj4 #ehj ,gibbon says 7vol4 v4 p4 #bie1 #dto edition71 8,the inestimable art of transforming linen into paper has been diffused from the manufacture of ,samarcand over the ,western world40 ,this assertion appears to be entirely destitute of foundation4 ,another fact1 which not only coincides with all the evidence now produced1 but carries the date of the invention still a little higher1 is the description of the manuscript ,no4 #ghg1 containing an ,arabic version of the ,aphorisms of ,hippocrates1 in ,casiri's ,bibliotheca ,arabico-,hispana ,escurialensis1 tom4 i4 p4 #bce4 ,this ,,ms4 was probably brought from ,egypt1 or the ,east4 ,it has a date corresponding to ,a4 ,d4 #aajj1 and is of linen paper according to ,casiri1 who calls it 8,chartaceus40 8,codices chartacei10 i4 e4 ,,mss4 on linen paper1 as old as the thirteenth century1 are mentioned not unfrequently in the ,catalogues of the ,escurial1 the ,nani1 and other libraries4 ,joseph ,brooks ,yates1 ,esq4 ,f4 ,s4 ,a41 of ,west ,dingle near ,liverpool1 is in possession of a fine ,,ms4 of some of the ,homilies of ,chrysostom1 written in all probability not later than the thirteenth century4 ,it is on linen paper1 with the water-lines perfectly distinct in both directions4 ,the water-mark is a tower1 the size and form of which are shown in ,plate ,,ix4 ,fig4 #ah4 ,from the appearance of this paper1 it is probable that the form or mould may perhaps have been made of thin rods of cane or some other vegetable4 ,these rods1 however1 may have been metallic4 ,they were placed so close1 that of the water-lines produced by them #ag may be counted in the space of an inch1 the water-lines at right angles to these being one inch and a quarter apart4 ,the preceding facts coincide with the opinion long ago expressed by ,prideaux1 who concluded that linen paper was an ,eastern invention1 because 8most of the old ,,mss4 in ,arabic and other oriental languages are written on this sort of paper10 and that it was first introduced into ,europe by the ,saracens of ,spain#eha4 #eha ,old and ,new ,testament connected1 ,part ,i4 chapter #g4 p4 #cic1 #crd edition1 folio4 ,a few observations1 by way of concluding this part of the subject1 may here be properly bestowed upon the material with which the ,,wasp-,,family construct their nests4 ,the wasp is a paper-maker1 and a most perfect and intelligent one4 ,while mankind were arriving1 by slow degrees1 at the art of fabricating this valuable substance1 the wasp was making it before their eyes1 by very much the same process as that by which human hands now manufacture it with the best aid of chemistry and machinery4 ,while some nations carved their records on wood1 and stone1 and brass1 and leaden tablets1--others1 more advanced1 wrote with a style on wax1--others employed the inner bark of trees1 and others the skins of animals rudely prepared1--the wasp was manufacturing a firm and durable paper4 ,even when the papyrus was rendered more fit1 by a process of art1 for the transmission of ideas in writing4 ,the paper of the papyrus was formed of the leaves of the plant1 dried1 pressed1 and polished2 the wasp alone knew how to reduce vegetable fibres to a pulp1 and then unite them by a size or glue1 spreading the substance out into a smooth and delicate leaf4 ,this is exactly the process of paper-making4 ,it would seem that the wasp knows1 as the modern paper-makers now know1 that the fibres of rags1 whether linen or cotton1 are not the only materials that can be used in the formation of paper2 she employs other vegetable matters1 converting them into a proper consistency by her assiduous exertions4 ,in some respects she is more skilful even than our paper-makers1 for she takes care to retain her fibres of sufficient length1 by which she renders her paper as strong as she requires4 ,many manufacturers of the present day cut their material into small bits1 and thus produce a rotten article4 ,one great distinction between good and bad paper is its toughness2 and this difference is invariably produced by the fibre of which it is composed being long1 and therefore tough2 or short1 and therefore friable4 ,the wasp has been laboring at her manufacture of paper1 from her first creation1 with precisely the same instruments and the same materials2 and her success has been unvarying4 ,her machinery is very simple1 and therefore it is never out of order4 ,she learns nothing1 and forgets nothing4 ,men1 from time to time1 lose their excellence in particular arts1 and they are slow in finding out real improvements4 ,such improvements are often the effect of accident4 ,paper is now manufactured very extensively by machinery1 in all its stages2 and thus1 instead of a single sheet being made by hand1 a stream of paper is poured out1 which would form a roll large enough to extend round the globe1 if such a length were desirable4 ,the first experimenters on paper machinery in ,england1 ,messrs4 ,fourdrinier1 it is said1 spent the enormous sum of #dj1jjjl4 in vain attempts to render the machine capable of determining the width of the roll2 and1 at last1 accomplished their object at the suggestion of a bystander1 by a strap revolving upon an axis1 at a cost of three shillings and sixpence6 ,such is the difference between the workings of human knowledge and experience1 and those of animal instinct4 ,we proceed slowly and in the dark--but our course is not bounded by a narrow line1 for it seems difficult to say what is the perfection of any art2 animals go clearly to a given point--but they can go no further4 ,we may1 however1 learn something from their perfect knowledge of what is within their range4 ,it is not improbable that if man had attended in an earlier state of society to the labors of wasps1 he would have sooner known how to make paper4 ,we are still behind in our arts and sciences1 because we have not always been observers4 ,if we had watched the operations of insects1 and the structure of insects in general1 with more care1 we might have been far advanced in the knowledge of many arts which are yet in their infancy1 for nature has given us abundance of patterns4 ,we have learnt to perfect some instruments of sound by examining the structure of the human ear2 and the mechanism of an eye has suggested some valuable improvements in achromatic glasses4 ,raumur has given a very interesting account of the wasps of ,cayenne 7,chartergus nidulans71 which hang their nests in trees#ehb4 ,like the bird of ,africa called the social grosbeak 7,loxia socia71 they fabricate a perfect house1 capable of containing many hundreds of their community1 and suspend it on high out of the reach of attack4 ,but the ,cayenne wasp is a more expert artist than the bird4 ,he is a pasteboard-maker2--and the card with which he forms the exterior covering of his abode is so smooth1 so strong1 so uniform in its texture1 and so white that the most skilful manufacturer of this substance might be proud of the work4 ,it takes ink admirably6 #ehb ,mmoires sur les ,insectes1 tom4 vi41 mem4 vii4 ,see also ,bonnet1 vol4 ix4 ,the nest of the pasteboard-making wasp is impervious to water4 ,it hangs upon the branch of a tree1 and those rain-drops which penetrate through the leaves never rest upon its hard and polished surface4 ,a small opening for the entrance of the insects terminates its funnel-shaped bottom4 ,it is impossible to unite more perfectly the qualities of lightness and strength4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,rennie1 speaking of wasps' nests1 gives us the following interesting account of one lately examined by him3--8,the length10 says he1 8is about nine inches1 six stout circular platforms stretch internally across1 like so many floors1 and fixed all round to the walls of the nest4 ,they are smooth above1 with hexagonal cells on the under surface4 ,these platforms are not quite flat1 but rather concave above1 like a watch-glass reversed2 the centre of each platform is perforated for the admission of the wasps1 at the extremity of a short funnel-like projection1 and through this access is gained from story to story4 ,on each platform1 therefore1 can the wasps walk leisurely about1 attending to the pup secured in the cells1 which1 with the mouths downward1 cover the ceiling above their heads--the height of the latter being just convenient for their work40 ,pendent wasps'-nests of enormous size are found in ,ceylon1 suspended often in the talipot-tree at the height of seventy feet4 ,the appearance of these nests thus elevated1 with the larger leaves of the tree1 used by the natives as umbrellas and tents1 waving over them1 is very singular4 ,though no species of ,european wasp is a storer of honey1 yet this rule does not apply to certain species of ,south ,america4 ,in the 8,annals and ,magazine of ,natural ,history0 for ,june1 #ahda1 will be found a detailed account1 with a figure of the pendent nest of a species termed by ,mr4 ,a4 ,white ,myraptera scutellaris4 ,the external case consists of stout cardboard covered with conical knobs of various sizes4 ,the entrances are artfully protected by pent-roofs from the weather and heavy rains2 and are tortuous1 so as to render the ingress of a moth or other large insect difficult4 ,internally are fourteen combs1 exclusive of a globular mass1 the nucleus of several circular combs1 which are succeeded by others of an arched form--that is1 constituting segments of circles4 ,good writing1 printing and wrapping paper1 may be procured from the shavings of common wood4 ,the wood must be reduced to shavings by the ordinary jack-plain shaving size4 ,the shavings are then placed in a cistern or boiler sufficiently large1 and covered with water1 which should be raised to the boiling-point4 ,to every one hundred pounds of the wood so reduced1 from twelve to eighteen pounds of alkali1 either vegetable or mineral1 is to be added1 in proportion to its quality for strength4 ,if salts are used they should be reduced before coming in contact with the wood4 ,the salts may1 however1 be put in with the water and wood before reduction1 but the first method is the most preferable4 ,should lime be used1 there must be a sufficient1 in all cases1 to equal twelve pounds of pure black salts4 ,one hundred pounds of wood will1 if well attended to1 make from five to seven reams of paper#ehc4 #ehc ,mr4 ,edmund ,shaw1 of ,fenchurch ,street1 ,london1 obtained a patent in ,england bearing date ,september #ad1 #ahcg1 for a method of manufacturing paper from the leaves which cover the ears of ,indian-corn4 ,according to this patent the envelopes or leaves which cover the corn are in the first instance put into a vessel containing water4 ,the water may be pure or slightly alkaline2 the water is then boiled in the vessel into which the aforesaid envelopes or fellicular leaves are thrown1 after being macerated4 ,when they have imbibed water and become thickened and swollen1 so that the matter interposed between the fibres is reduced to a state of pulp or jelly1 a slight beating by fulling1 mallet1 or other mechanical means will effect a separation of the fibre from the adherent glutinous matter1 and washing or rinsing with water during the beating1 will cleanse it entirely from the glutinous matter4 ,the fibre is then bleached1 by immersing1 or immersing and beating or stirring it about in a solution of chloride of lime1 or with beating engines1 as at present practised for the bleaching of rags in paper mills1 and the fibre is in like manner reduced to pulp1 and paper manufactured therefrom1 or the quality of the paper may be varied by the admixture of a portion of rags or other filamentous substance4 ,it may be well to remark1 that some attempts to produce paper from the above mentioned material1 have been made1 but were abandoned from the incapability of producing good white paper4 ,the patentee claims the mode1 or process1 above described of making white paper by the application of bleached pulp1 produced from the stalks or leaves of ,indian-corn4 ,,appendix ,c4 ,,on ,,felt4 ,,manufacture ,,and ,,use ,,of ,,felting ,,by ,,the ,,ancients4 ,felting more ancient than weaving--,felt used in the ,east--,use of it by the ,tartars--,felt made of goats'-hair by the ,circassians--,use of felt in ,italy and ,greece--,cap worn by the ,cynics1 ,fishermen1 ,mariners1 ,artificers1 c4--,cleanthes compares the moon to a skull-cap--,desultores--,vulcan--,ulysse s--,phrygian bonnet--,cap worn by the ,asiatics--,phrygian felt of ,camels'-hair--,its great stiffness--,scarlet and purple felt used by ,babylonish decorators--,mode of manufacturing ,felt--,northern nations of ,europe--,cap of liberty--,petasus--,statue of ,endymion--,petasus in works of ancient art--,hats of ,thessaly and ,macedonia--,laconian or ,arcadian hats--,the ,greeks manufacture ,felt #ijj ,b4 ,c4--,mercury with the pileus and petasus--,miscellaneous uses of ,felt4 ,there seems no reason to question the correctness of ,professor ,beckmann's observation#ehd1 that the making of felt was invented before weaving#ehe4 ,the middle and northern regions of ,asia are occupied by ,tartars and other populous nations1 whose manners and customs appear to have continued unchanged from the most remote antiquity#ehf1 and to whose simple and uniform mode of existence this article seems to be as necessary as food4 ,felt is the principal substance both of their clothing and of their habitations4 ,carpini1 who in the year #abdf went as ambassador to the great ,khan of the ,moguls1 ,mongals1 or ,tartars1 says1 8,their houses are round1 and artificially made like tents1 of rods and twigs interwoven1 having a round hole in the middle of the roof for the admission of light and the passage of smoke1 the whole being covered with felt1 of which likewise the doors are made#ehg40 ,very recently the same account of these 8portable tents of felt0 has been given by ,julius von ,klaproth#ehh4 ,kupffer says of the ,caratchai1 8,leurs larges manteaux de feutre leur servent en mme tems de matelas et de couverture#ehi40 ,the large mantle of felt1 here mentioned1 is used for the same purpose in the neighboring country of ,circassia#eij4 ,one of these mantles now in the possession of ,mr4 ,urquhart was made of black goats'-hair1 and had on the outside a long shaggy villus4 ,the ,circassians sleep under this mantle by night1 and wear it1 when required1 over their other dress by day4 ,a similar article is thus described by ,colonel ,leake#eia3 the postillions in ,phrygia 8wear a cloak of white camels'-hair1 half an inch thick1 and so stiff that the cloak stands without support1 when set upright on the ground4 ,there are neither sleeves nor hood2 but only holes to pass the hands through1 and projections like wings upon the shoulders for the purpose of turning off the rain4 ,it is the manufacture of the country40 ,the ,chinese traveller1 ,chy ,fa ,hian1 who visited ,india at the end of the fourth century1 says1 that the people of ,chen ,chen1 a kingdom in a mountainous district situated about the ,lake of ,lob1 wore dresses like those of the ,chinese1 except that they made use of felt and stuffs 7du feutre et des toffes#eib74 #ehd ,anleitung zur ,technologie1 p4 #aag1 ,note4 #ehe ,see ,gilroy's ,treatise on the ,art of ,weaving1 p4 #ad4 #ehf ,malcolm's ,hist4 of ,persia1 ch4 vi4 vol4 i4 pp4 #abc1 #abd4 #ehg ,kerr's ,collection of ,voyages and ,travels1 vol4 i4 p4 #abh4 ,see also p4 #afg1 where the same facts are related by ,william de ,rubruquis4 ,the account which ,herodotus gives 7iv4 #bc7 of the habitations of the ,argippi evidently alludes to customs similar to those of the modern ,tartars4 ,he says1 8,they live under trees1 covering the tree in winter with strong and thick undyed felt 7 71 and removing the felt in summer40 ,among the ceremonies observed by the ,scythians in burying the dead1 ,herodotus also mentions the erection of three stakes of wood1 which were surrounded with a close covering of woollen felt 7iv4 #gc74 ,also1 in the next section but one 7iv4 #ge47 there is an evident allusion to the practice of living under tents made of felt 7 74 #ehh ,reise in dem ,kaucasus und nach ,georgien1 ch4 vi4 p4 #afa4 #ehi ,voyage dans les ,environs du ,mont ,elbrouz4 ,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahbi1 #dto1 p4 #bj4 #eij ,travels in ,circassia1 by ,edmund ,spencer4 #eia ,journal of a ,tour in ,asia ,minor1 p4 #ch4 #eib ,ch4 ii4 p4 #g1 of ,rmusat's ,translation1 ,par4 #ahcf1 #dto4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,viii4 ,in conformity with the prevailing use of this manufacture in the colder regions of ,asia1 scarlet or purple felt 7such as that lately re-invented at ,leeds1 in ,england71 was used by the ,babylonish decorators for the drapery of the funeral pile1 when ,alexander celebrated the splendid obsequies of ,hephstion3 for so we must understand the expression 7,diod4 ,sic4 xvii4 #aae4 p4 #bea1 ,wess474 ,xenophon 7,cycrop4 v4 #e4 #g47 mentions the use of felt manufactured in ,media1 as a covering for chairs and couches4 ,the ,medes also used bags and sacks of felt 7,athenus1 #a4 xii4 p4 #edj c4 ,casaub474 ,the process1 by which wool is converted into felt1 was called by the ,greeks 7,plato de ,leg4 #a4 viii4 p4 #aae4 ed4 ,bekker71 literally a compression1 from 1 to compress#eic4 ,the ancient ,greek scholion on the passage of ,plato here referred to thus explains the term3 1 i4 e4 8cloth made by the thickening of wool40 ,with this definition of felt agrees the following description of a in a ,greek epigram1 which records the dedication of it to ,mercury3-- ' 1 1 4 ,brunck1 ,anal4 ii4 #da4 #eic ,xenophanes thought that the moon was a compressed cloud 7 1 ,stobi ,eclog4 i4 #bg4 p4 #eej1 ed4 ,heeren72 and that the air was emitted from the earth by its compression 71 i4 #bc4 p4 #dhd74 ,the art of felting was called 1 7,plato1 ,polit4 ii4 #b4 p4 #bif1 ed4 ,bekker74 ,according to the ancient ,greek and ,latin glossaries1 and to ,julius ,pollux 7vii4 #cj71 a felt-maker1 or hatter1 was or 1 in ,latin coactiliarius4 ,from 7dim4 1 second dim4 71 the proper term for felt in general1 derived from the root of 1 came the verb 1 signifying to felt1 or to make felt1 and from this latter verb was formed the ancient participle 1 felted1 which again gave origin to 4 ,it may be observed1 that our ,english word felt is evidently a participle or a derivative1 and that its verb or root ,,fel appears to be the same with the root of 4 ,the ,latin cogo1 which was used1 like the ,greek 1 to denote the act of compressing1 or forcing the separate hairs together1 gave origin to the participle coactus1 and its derivative coactilis4 ,pliny 7,h4 ,n4 viii4 #dh4 s4 #gc471 after speaking of woven stuffs1 mentions in the following terms the use of wool for making felt3 8,lan et per se coact 7al4 coactam7 vestem ficiunt10 i4 e4 8,parcels of wool1 driven together by themselves1 make cloth40 ,this is a very exact1 though brief description of the process of felting4 ,the following monumental inscription 7,gruter1 p4 #fdh1 n4 #d47 contains the title ,lanarius coactiliarius1 meaning a manufacturer of woollen felt3-- ,m4 ,,ballorius ,m4 ,l4 ,,lariseus1 ,,lanarius ,,coactiliarius1 ,,conjuga ,,carissim ,b4 ,m4 ,,fec4 ,helvius ,successus1 the son of a freed man1 and the father of the ,roman emperor ,pertinax1 was a hatter in ,liguria 7tabernam coactiliariam in ,liguria exercuerat1 ,jul4 ,cap4 ,pertinax1 c4 #c474 ,pertinax himself1 being fond of money1 having the perseverance expressed by his agnomen1 and having doubtless1 in the course of his expeditions into the ,east1 made valuable observations respecting the manufacture which he had known from his boyhood1 continued and extended the same business1 carrying it on and conveying his goods to a distance by the agency of slaves4 ,the ,romans originally received the use of felt together with its name#eid from the ,greeks 7,plutarch1 ,numa1 p4 #aag1 ed4 ,steph474 ,the ,greeks were acquainted with it as early as the age of ,homer1 who lived about #ijj ,b4 ,c4 7,il4 x4 #bfe71 and ,hesiod 7,op4 et ,dies1 #edb1 #edf74 #eid ,pileus or ,pileum 7,non4 ,marc4 iii41 pilea virorum sunt1 ,servius in ,virg4 n4 ix4 #faf471 dim4 ,pileolus or ,pileolum 7,colum4 de ,arbor4 #be74 ,the principal use of felt among the ,greeks and ,romans was to make coverings of the head for the male sex1 and the most common cover made of this manufacture was a simple skull-cap1 i4 e4 a cap exactly fitted to the shape of the head1 as is shown in ,plate ,,viii4 fig4 #a4 taken from a sepulchral bas-relief which was found by ,mr4 ,dodwell in ,botia#eie4 ,the original is as large as life4 ,the person represented appears to have been a ,cynic philosopher4 ,he leans upon the staff 7baculus1 1 72 he is clothed in the blanket 7pallium1 1 7 with one end1 which is covered1 over his left breast1 and another hanging behind over his left shoulder2 he wears the beard 7barba1 72 his head is protected by the simple skull-cap 7pileus1 74 ,all these were distinct characteristics of the philosopher1 and more especially of the ,cynic#eif4 ,the dog also probably marked his sect4 ,leonidas of ,tarentum1 in his enumeration of the goods belonging to the ,cynic ,posochares#eig1 including a dog-collar 771 mentions1 1 i4 e4 8,the cap of felt1 which covered his unholy head40 ,this passage may be regarded as a proof1 that among the ,greeks1 though not among the ,romans1 the cap of felt was worn by very poor men4 ,it also proves that this cap1 which was the fess of the modern ,greeks1 was worn by philosophers1 and therefore throws light on a passage of ,antiphanes 7ap4 ,athen4 xii4 #fc4 p4 #ede a7 describing a philosopher of a different character1 who was very elegantly dressed1 having a small cap of fine felt 7 71 also a small white blanket1 a beautiful tunic1 and a neat stick4 ,when ,cleanthes advanced the doctrine1 that the moon had the shape of a skull-cap 7 1 ,stobi ,ecl4 ,phys4 #a4 #bg4 p4 #eed1 ed4 ,heeren71 he probably intended to account for its phases from its supposed hemispherical form4 ,a cap of a similar form and appearance1 though perhaps larger and not so closely fitted to the crown of the head1 was worn by fishermen#eih4 ,in an epigram of ,philippus#eii1 describing the apparatus of a fisherman1 the author mentions 1 8the cap encompassing his head and protecting it from wet40 ,figure #b4 in ,plate ,,viii4 represents a small statue of a fisherman belonging to the ,townley ,collection in the ,british ,museum4 ,his cap is slightly pointed and in a degree1 which was probably favorable to the discharge of water from its surface4 ,hesiod recommends1 that agricultural laborers should wear the same defence from cold and showers 7,op4 et ,dies1 #ede-edg74 ,the use of this cap by seamen was no doubt the ground1 on which the painter ,nicomachus represented ,ulysses wearing one4 8,hic primus10 says ,pliny 7,h4 ,n4 xxxv4 #cf4 s4 #bb471 8,ulyssi addidit pileum#fjj40 ,for the same reason the cap is an attribute of the ,dioscuri2 and hence two caps with stars above them are often shown on the coins of maritime cities and of others where ,castor and ,pollux were worshipped4 ,figure #c4 of ,plate ,,viii4 is taken from a brass coin of ,dioscurias in ,colchis1 preserved in the ,british ,museum4 ,on the reverse is the name 4 ,figure #d4 represents both sides of a silver coin in the same collection1 with the legend 4 ,it belongs to ,bruttium in ,south ,italy4 ,on the one side ,castor and ,pollux are mounted on horseback4 ,they wear the chlamys and carry palm branches in their hands4 ,their caps have a narrow brim4 ,the reverse shows their heads only1 and their caps1 without brims1 are surrounded by wreaths of myrtle4 ,the cornucopia is added as an emblem of prosperity4 ,figure #e4 is from a brass coin of ,amasia 77 in ,pontus4 ,it shows the cornucopia between the two skull-caps4 ,charon also was represented with the mariner's or fishermen's cap1 as1 for example1 in the bas-relief in the ,museo ,pio-,clementino1 tom4 iv4 tav4 #ce1 and the painted vase in ,stackelberg's ,grber der ,hellenen1 t4 #dg1 #dh1 which is copied in ,becker s ,charicles1 vol4 ii4 taf4 i4 fig4 #a1 and in ,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities1 p4 #djd4 #eie ,tour through ,greece1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bdb1 #bdc4 #eif ,see the articles ,baculus1 ,barba1 ,pallium1 p4 #gjc1 in ,smith's ,dict4 of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities4 #eig ,brunck1 ,anal4 i4 p4 #bbc4 ,nos4 x4 xi4 #eih ,theocrit4 xxi4 #ac4 #eii ,brunck1 ,anal4 ii4 p4 #bab4 ,no4 v4 #fjj ,compare ,eustathius in ,hom4 ,il4 x4 #bfe1 as quoted below4 ,a pileus of the same general form was worn by artificers2 and on this account it was attributed to ,vulcan and to ,ddalus1 who1 as well as ,ulysses and ,charon1 are commonly found wearing it in works of ancient art4 ,arnobius says1 that ,vulcan was represented 8cum pileo et malleo0--8fabrili expeditione succinctus20 and that on the other hand ,mercury was represented with the petasus1 or 8petasunculus10 on his head4#fja ,this observation is confirmed by numerous figures of these two divinities1 if we suppose the term petasus1 which will be more fully illustrated hereafter1 to have meant a hat with a brim1 and pileus to have denoted properly a fessor cap without a brim4 #fja ,adv4 ,gentes1 lib4 vi4 p4 #fgd1 ed4 ,erasmi4 ,when ,lucian ludicrously represents ,jupiter wearing a skull-cap1 which we may suppose to have been like that of the philosopher in ,plate ,,viii4 figure #a4 he must have intended to describe the 8,father of gods and men0 as a weak old man2 1 1 c4 ,dial4 ,deor41 vol4 ii4 p4 #cad4 ed4 ,hemster4 ,fig4 #f4 ,plate ,,viii4 is taken from a small bronze statue of ,vulcan in the ,royal ,collection at ,berlin4 ,he wears the exomis1 and holds his hammer in the right hand and his tongs in the left4 ,for other specimens of the head-dress of ,vulcan the reader is referred to the ,museo ,pio-,clementino1 t4 iv4 tav4 xi41 and to ,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities1 p4 #ehi4 ,plate ,,viii4 is intended still further to illustrate some of the most common varieties in the form of the ancient skull-cap4 ,figure #g4 is a head of ,vulcan from a medal of the ,aurelian family#fjb4 ,figure #h4 is the head of ,ddalus from a bas-relief1 formerly belonging to the ,villa ,borghese1 and representing the story of the wooden cow1 which he made for ,pasiphae#fjc4 ,fig4 #aj4 is from a cameo in the ,florentine collection4 ,fig4 #i4 is the head of a small bronze statue1 wearing boots and the exomis1 which belonged to ,mr4 ,r4 ,p4 ,knight1 and is now in the ,british ,museum4 ,it is engraved in the 8,specimens of ,ancient ,sculpture published by the ,society of ,dilettanti10 vol4 i4 pl4 #dg4 ,the editors express a doubt whether this statue was meant for ,vulcan or ,ulysses1 merely because the god and the hero were commonly represented wearing the same kind of cap4 ,not only does the expression of countenance decide the question2 but also the small bronze of ,mr4 ,knight's collection agrees in attitude and costume with many small statues of ,vulcan1 who is represented in all of them wearing the exomis1 holding the hammer and tongs1 and having the felt cap on his head#fjd4 ,fig4 #aa4 is another representation of ,ulysses from an ancient lamp#fje4 ,it exhibits him tied to the mast1 while he listens to the song of the ,sirens4 ,the cap in this figure is much more elongated than in the others4 #fjb ,montfaucon1 ,ant4 ,expl4 t4 i4 pl4 #df4 ,no4 #d4 #fjc ,winckelmann1 ,mon4 ,ined4 ii4 #ic4 ,the skull-cap1 here represented as worn by ,ddalus1 is remarkably like that which is still worn by shepherd boys in ,asia ,minor4 ,fig4 #ab1 in ,plate ,,viii4 is copied from an original drawing of such a ,grecian youth1 procured by ,mr4 ,george ,scharf who accompanied ,mr4 ,fellows on his second tour into that country4 ,according to ,herodotus the ,scythians had felted coverings for their tents1 a custom still found among their successors1 the ,tartars4 ,felting appears to have preceded weaving4 ,it is certainly a much ruder and simpler process3 and1 when we consider both the long prevalence of the art among the pastoral inhabitants of the ancient ,scythia1 and the extensive use of its products among them so as to be employed even for their habitations1 perhaps we shall be right in considering felting as the appropriate invention of this people4 #fjd ,montfaucon1 ,ant4 ,expl4 vol4 i4 pl4 #df4 figs4 #a4 #b4 #c2 ,mus4 ,florent4 ,gemm ,ant4 a ,gorio illustrat1 tom4 ii4 tab4 #dj4 fig4 #c4 #fje ,bartoli1 ,lucerne ,antiche1 ,p4 ,,iii4 tab4 #aa4 ,there is a beautiful figure of ,ulysses in ,pictur ,antiqu ,virgiliani cod4 ,bibl4 ,vat4 a ,bartoli1 tab4 #ajc1 taken from a gem4 ,in ,winckelmann1 ,mon4 ,ined4 ii4 ,no4 #aed1 he is represented giving wine to the ,cyclops3 this figure is copied in ,smith's ,dict4 p4 #gfb4 ,the felt cap was worn not only by desultores1 but by others of the ,romans upon a journey1 in sickness1 or in cases of unusual exposure4 ,hence ,martial says in ,epig4 xiv4 #acb1 entitled 8,pileus10 ,si possem1 totas cuperem misisse lacernas3 ,nunc tantum capiti munera mitto tuo4 i4 e4 ,o that a whole lacerna ,i could send6 ,let this 7,i can no more7 your head defend4 ,the wig 7galerus7 answered the same purpose for the wealthy classes 7arrepto pileo vel galero1 ,sueton4 ,nero1 #bf71 and the cucullus and cudo for both rich and poor4 ,on returning home from a party1 a person sometimes carried his cap and slippers under his arm 7,hor4 ,epist4 l4 xiii4 #ae74 ,the hats worn by the ,salii#fjf are said by ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus to have been 8tall hats of a conical form#fjg40 ,plutarch distinctly represents them as made of felt4 ,he says 7l4 c471 that the flamines were so called quasi pilamines1 because they wore felt hats1 and because in the early periods of ,roman history it was more common to invent names derived from the ,greek4 ,on coins1 however1 this official cap of the ,salii and ,flamines is commonly oval like that attributed to the ,dioscuri4 ,we observe indeed continual variations in the form of the pileus from hemispherical to oval1 and from oval to conical4 ,a conical cap is seen on the head of the reaper in the wood-cut to the article ,,flax in ,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities1 which wood-cut is taken from a coin of one of the ,lagid1 kings of ,egypt4 ,caps1 regularly conical and still more elongated1 are worn by the buffoons or comic dancers1 who are introduced in an ancient mosaic preserved in the ,villa ,corsini at ,rome#fjh4 ,telephus1 king of ,mysia1 is represented as wearing a 8,mysian cap#fji40 ,this 8,mysian cap0 must have been the same which is known by the moderns under the name of the ,phrygian bonnet1 and with which we are familiar from the constant repetition of it in statues and paintings of ,priam1 ,paris1 ,ganymede#faj1 ,atys1 ,perseus1 and ,mithras1 and in short in all the representations not only of ,trojans and ,phrygians1 but of ,amazons and of all the inhabitants of ,asia ,minor1 and even of nations dwelling still further to the ,east4 ,also1 when we examine the works of ancient art which contain representations of this ,mysian cap1 we perceive that it was a cone bent into the form in which it is exhibited1 and so bent1 perhaps by use1 but more probably by design4 ,this circumstance is well illustrated in a bust of ,parian marble1 supposed to be intended for ,paris1 which is preserved in the ,glyptotek at ,munich4 ,a drawing of it is given in ,plate ,,viii4 fig4 #ac4 ,the flaps of the bonnet are turned up and fastened over the top of the head4 ,the stiffness of the material is clearly indicated by the sharp angular appearance of that portion of it which is turned forwards4 ,mr4 ,dodwell1 in his ,tour in ,greece 7vol4 i4 p4 #acd71 makes the following observations on the modern costume1 which seems to resemble the ancient1 except that the ancient and were probably of undyed wool3--8,the ,greeks of the maritime parts1 and particularly of the islands1 wear a red or blue cap of a conical form1 like the pilidion4 ,when it is new it stands upright1 but it soon bends1 and then serves as a pocket for the handkerchief1 and sometimes for the purse4 ,others wear the red skull-cap1 or fess40 ,the ,lycians1 as we are informed by ,herodotus 7viii4 #ib71 wore caps of felt1 which were surrounded with feathers4 ,some of the ,lycian coins and bas-reliefs1 however1 show the 8,phrygian bonnet10 as it is called1 in the usual form#faa4 #fjf ,smith's ,dict4 of ,gr4 and ,r4 ,antiquities1 art4 ,apex4 #fjg ,ant4 ,rom4 ,l4 ii4 #fjh ,bartoli1 ,luc4 ,ant4 ,p4 ,i4 tab4 #ce4 #fji ,aristoph4 ,acham4 #dbi4 #faj ,stuart1 in his ,antiquities of ,athens1 vol4 iii4 ch4 #i4 plates #h1 #i1 has engraved two beautiful statues of ,telephus and ,ganymede from a ruined colonnade at ,thessalonica4 ,in these the cap is very little pointed4 #faa ,fellows's ,discoveries in ,lycia1 ,plate #ce4 ,nos4 #c1 #g4 ,the 8,phrygian bonnet0 is seen in the bas-reliefs brought from ,xanthus by this intelligent traveller1 and now deposited in the ,british ,museum4 ,the cap worn by the ,persians is called by ,greek authors or #fab1 and seems to have had the form now under consideration4 ,herodotus1 when he describes the costume of the ,persian soldiers in the army of ,xerxes1 says1 that they wore light and flexible caps of felt1 which were called tiaras4 ,he adds1 that the ,medes and ,bactrians wore the same kind of cap with the ,persians1 but that the ,cissii wore a mitra instead 7vii4 #fa1 #fb1 #fd74 ,on the other hand he says1 that the ,sac wore cyrbasi1 which were sharp-pointed1 straight1 and compact4 ,the ,armenians were also called 8weavers of felt0 7,brunck1 ,anal4 ii4 p4 #adf4 ,no4 #bb74 ,the form of their caps is clearly shown in the coins of the ,emperor ,verus1 one of which1 preserved in the ,british ,museum1 is engraved in ,plate ,,viii4 fig4 #ad4 ,the legend1 surrounding his head1 ,l4 ,,vervs4 ,,avg4 ,,armeniacvs1 refers to the war in ,armenia4 ,the reverse shows a female figure representing ,armenia1 mourning and seated on the ground1 and surrounded by the emblems of ,roman warfare and victory4 ,the caps represented on this and other coins agree remarkably with the forms still used in the same parts of ,asia4 ,strabo 7,l4 xi4 p4 #efc1 ed4 ,sieb47 says1 that these caps were necessary in ,media on account of the cold4 ,he calls the ,persian cap 8felt in the shape of a tower0 7,l4 xv4 p4 #bca74 ,the king of ,persia was distinguished by wearing a stiff cyrbasia1 which stood erect1 whereas his subjects wore their tiaras folded and bent forwards4#fac ,hence in the ,aves of ,aristophanes the cock is ludicrously compared to the ,great ,king1 his erect comb being called his 8cyrbasia40 ,the ,athenians no doubt considered this form of the tiara as an expression of pride and assumption4 ,it is recorded as one of the marks of arrogance in ,apollodorus1 the ,athenian painter1 that he wore an 8erect cap#fad40 #fab ,herod1 v4 #di4 ,according to ,mris1 v4 1 this was the ,attic term1 meaning the same thing in the common ,greek4 ,plutarch applies the latter term to the cap worn by the younger ,cyrus3 4 --,artaxerxes1 p4 #aheh4 ed4 ,steph4 ,the 8,phrygian bonnet0 is called ,phrygia tiara in the following lines of an epitaph 7ap4 ,gruter4 p4 #aabc73 ,indueris teretes manicas ,phrygiamque tiaram8 ,non unus ,cybeles pectore vivet ,atys4 #fac ,xenoph4 ,anab4 ii4 #e4 #bc2 ,cyrop4 viii4 #c1 #ac4 ,clitarchus1 ap4 ,schol4 in ,aristoph4 ,aves1 #dhg4 #fad 4 ,hesychius1 s4 v4 4 ,the coin represented in ,plate ,,viii4 fig4 #ae4 7taken from ,patin1 ,imp4 ,rom4 ,numismata1 ,par4 #afig1 p4 #bac7 is of the reign of the ,emperor ,commodus1 and belonged according to the legend either to ,trapezus in ,cappadocia or to ,trapezopolis in ,caria4 ,it represents the god ,lunus or ,mensis1 who was the moon considered as of the male sex agreeably to the ideas of many northern and ,asiatic nations 7,patin1 p4 #agc74 ,this male moon or month was1 as it seems1 always represented with the cyrbasia#fae4 ,in another coin published by ,patin 7l4 c47 a cock stands at the feet of this divinity1 proving that this was the sacred bird of ,lunus1 and probably because the rayed form of the cock's comb was regarded as a natural type of the cyrbasia1 which distinguished the kings of ,persia and was attributed also to this ,oriental divinity4 ,a lamp found on the ,celian ,mount at ,rome#faf represents in the centre ,lunus with #ab rays1 probably designed to denote the #ab months of the year1 and on the handle two cocks pecking at their food4 ,a head of the same divinity1 published by ,hirt 7l4 c47 from an antique gem at ,naples1 has #g stars upon the cap1 perhaps referring to the #g planets4 #fae ,hirt's ,bilderbuch1 p4 #hh4 tab4 xi4 figs4 #h1 #i4 #faf ,bartoli1 ,luc4 ,ant41 ,p4 ,,ii4 tav4 #aa4 ,instead of the conical cap of the ,asiatics many of the ,northern nations of ,europe appear to have worn a felt cap1 the form of which was that of a truncated cone4 ,of this a good example is shown in the group of ,sarmatians1 represented in the wood-cut in ,smith s ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities 7p4 #afj71 which is taken from the ,column of ,trajan4 ,the same thing appears in various coins belonging to the reign of this ,emperor1 two of which1 preserved in the ,british ,museum1 are engraved in ,plate ,,viii4 fig4 #af4 represents ,dacia sitting as a captive with her hands tied behind her back1 wearing trowsers 7bracc7 and a conical or oval cap with the edge turned up4 ,figure #ag4 represents ,dacia mourning4 ,in each we see a ,dacian target together with ,roman armor4 ,each has the same legend1 ,,dac4 ,,cap4 ,,cos4 ,v4 ,p4 ,p4 ,s4 ,p4 ,q4 ,r4 ,,optimo4 ,,princ4 ,on the reverse is the head of the ,emperor with the inscription ,,imp4 ,,trajano4 ,,aug4 ,,ger4 ,,dac4 ,p4 ,m4 ,,tr4 ,p4 ,according to the representation of ,lucian 7de ,gymnas471 the ,scythians were in the constant habit of wearing caps or hats3 for in the conversation between ,anacharsis and ,solon described by that author1 ,anacharsis requests to go into the shade1 saying that he could scarce endure the sun1 and that he had brought his cap 77 from home1 but did not like being seen alone in a strange habit4 ,in later times we read of the 8pileati ,gothi0 and 8pileati sacerdotes ,gothorum#fag40 #fag ,jornandes1 c41 ap4 ,div4 ,gentium ,hist4 ,ant41 ,hamb4 #afaa1 pp4 #hf1 #ic4 ,in considering the use of the skull-cap1 or of the conical cap of felt1 it remains to notice the use of it among the ,romans as the emblem of liberty#fah4 ,when a slave obtained his freedom he had his head shaven1 and wore instead of his hair the pileus1 or cap of undyed felt1 7,diod4 ,sic4 ,exc4 ,leg4 #bb4 p4 #fbe1 ed4 ,wess474 ,plutarch1 in allusion to the same custom1 calls the cap 1 which is the diminutive of 4 ,it is evident1 that the ,latin pileus or pileum is derived from the ,greek and its diminutive1 and this circumstance in conjunction with other evidence tends to show1 that the ,latins adopted this use of felt from the ,greeks4 ,sosia says in ,plautus 7,amphit4 i4 l1 #cjf71 as a description of the mode of receiving his liberty1 8,ut ego hodie1 raso capite calvus1 capiam pileum40 ,servius 7in ,virg4 n4 viii4 #efd7 says1 the act of manumitting slaves in this form was done in the temple of ,feronia1 who was the goddess of freedmen4 ,in her temple at ,terracina was a stone seat1 on which was engraved the following verse3 8,benemeriti servi sedeant1 surgent liberi40 #fah ,hc mea libertas2 hoc nobis pilea donant4--,persius1 v4 #hb4 ,in allusion to this practice it appears that the ,romans1 though they did not commonly wear hats1 put them on at the ,saturnalia4#fai ,at the death of ,nero1 the common people to express their joy went about the city in felt caps4#fbj ,in allusion to this custom the figure of ,liberty on the coins of ,antoninus ,pius holds the cap in her right hand4 ,figures #a and #b in ,plate ,,ix4 are examples selected from the collection in the ,british ,museum1 and1 as we learn from the legend1 were struck when he was made consul the fourth time1 i4 e4 ,a4 ,d4 #ade4 #fai ,pileata ,roma4 ,martial1 xi4 #g2 xiv4 #a4 #fbj ,plebs pileata4 ,sueton4 ,nero1 #eg4 ,in contradistinction to the various forms of the felt cap now described and represented1 all of which were more or less elevated1 and many of which were pointed upwards1 we have now to consider those1 which1 though made of felt1 and therefore classed by the ancients under the general terms pileus1 1 c41#fba corresponded more nearly to our modern hat4 ,the ,greek word 1 dim4 1 derived from 1 extendo1 dilato1 and adopted by the ,latins in the form petasus1 dim4 petasunculus1 well expressed the distinctive form of these hats4 ,they were more or less broad and expanded4 ,what was taken from their height was added to their width4 ,those already mentioned had no brim2 the petasus of every variety had a brim1 which was either exactly or nearly circular1 and which varied greatly in its width4 ,in some cases it seems to be a mere circular disc without any crown at all4 ,of this we have an example in a beautiful statue1 which has1 no doubt1 been meant for ,endymion1 in the ,townley collection of the ,british ,museum4 ,see ,plate ,,ix4 ,fig4 #c4 ,his right hand encircles his head1 and his scarf is spread over a rock as described by ,lucian#fbb4 ,he sleeps upon it1 holding the fibula in his left hand4 ,his feet are adorned with boots 7cothumi7 and his simple petasus is tied under his chin4 ,in this form the petasus illustrates the remark of ,theophrastus1 who1 in describing the ,egyptian ,bean1 says1 that the leaf was of the size of the ,thessalian petasus#fbc4 ,for the purpose of comparing these two objects1 a representation of the leaves of the plant referred to1 is introduced into the same ,figure 7#c72 taken from the 8,botanical ,magazine10 ,plates #ijc1 #ciaf1 and ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,smith's 8,exotic ,botany10 ,tab4 #ca1 #cb4 ,the petasus here shown on the head of ,endymion1 the original statue being as large as life1 certainly resembles very closely both in size and in form the leaf of the ,egyptian ,bean1 which is the ,cyamus ,nelumbo1 or ,nelumbium ,speciosum of modern botanists4 #fba ,plutarch 7,solon1 #agi7 says that ,solon1 pretending to be mad and acting the part of a herald from ,salamis1 4 ,here seems to mean the 4 #fbb ,in the ,dialogues of the ,gods 7xi471 the ,moon says in answer to ,venus1 that ,endymion is particularly beautiful 8when he sleeps1 having thrown his scarf under him upon the rock1 holding in his left hand the darts just falling from it1 whilst his right hand bent upwards lies gracefully round his face1 and1 dissolved in sleep1 he exhales his ambrosial breath40 ,the recumbent statue1 here represented1 is of white marble1 and is placed in room ,,xi4 of the ,townley ,gallery4 ,it was found in #aggd at ,roma ,vecchia 7,dallaway's ,anecdotes of the ,arts1 p4 #cjc74 ,it has been called ,mercury or ,adonis4 ,but there are no examples or authorities in support of either of these suppositions4 ,it is not sufficient to say that every beautiful youth may have been meant either for ,mercury1 who was never represented asleep1 or for ,adonis4 ,we know that the fable of ,endymion and the ,moon was a favorite subject with the ancient artists4 ,in the ,antichita d',ercolano1 tom4 iii4 tav4 #c1 we find a picture1 which was discovered at ,portica1 and which represents this subject4 ,it is still more frequent in ancient bas-reliefs4 ,see ,mus4 ,pio-,clem4 tom4 iv4 v4 #h1 pp4 #ch1 #da2 ,sandrart1 ,sculp4 ,vet4 ,adm4 p4 #eb2 ,gronovii ,thesaur4 tom4 i4 folio ,o2 ,proceedings of the ,philological ,society1 vol4 i4 pp4 #h1 #i4 #fbc 4 ,hist4 ,plant4 iv4 #aj4 p4 #adg1 ed4 ,schneider4 ,the flowers of umbelliferous plants are aptly called by ,phanias#fbd 1 i4 e4 like a petasus4 ,the petasus1 as worn by the two shepherds1 who discover ,romulus and ,remus1 in a bas-relief of the ,vatican#fbe1 is certainly not unlike the umbel of a plant4 ,see ,plate ,,ix4 ,fig4 #d4 ,callimachus ascribes the same head-dress to shepherds in the following lines3 1 4--,frag4 cxxv4 ,the wide covering projecting from your head1 the pastoral hat1 became you4 #fbd ,apud ,athen4 ix4 #ab4 p4 #cga ,d4 ed4 ,casaub4 #fbe ,museo ,pio-,clementino1 tom4 v4 tav4 #bd4 ,this bas-relief formerly belonged to the ,mattei collection4 ,see ,monumenta ,matthinana1 tom4 iii4 tab4 #cg4 ,this pastoral hat1 if we may judge from the representation of the two shepherds in the bas-relief just referred to 7,fig4 #d471 was in its shape very like the 8bonny blue bonnet0 of the ,scotch4 ,figure #e in ,plate ,,ix4 is taken from a painted ,greek vase1 and represents the story of the delivery of dipus to be exposed4 ,his name is written beside him4 ,the shepherd 1 who holds the naked child in his arms1 wears a flat and very broad petasus hanging behind his neck4 ,it is of an irregular shape1 as if from long usage#fbf4 ,the shepherd ,zethus wears a petasus hanging behind his back in a bas-relief belonging to the ,borghese collection1 published by ,winckelmann 7,mon4 ,inediti1 ii4 #he74 ,see ,plate ,,ix4 ,fig4 #f4 #fbf ,see ,italian #dfi,monumenti ,inediti pubblicati dall' ,instituto di ,correspondenza ,archeologica1 vol4 ii4 tav4 #ad4 ,the ,athenian ephebi wore the broad-brimmed hat1 together with the scarf or chlamys#fbg4 ,meleager1 in an epigram on a beautiful boy1 named ,antiochus1 says1 that he would be undistinguishable from ,cupid1 if ,cupid wore a scarf and petasus instead of his bow and arrows and his wings#fbh4 #fbg ,pollux1 ,onom4 x4 #afd2 ,philemon1 p4 #cfg4 ed4 ,meineke2 ,brunck1 ,anal4 vol4 ii4 p4 #da2 ,jacobs in ,athol4 ,grc4 i4 l4 p4 #bd4 #fbh ,brunck1 ,anal4 vol4 i4 p4 #e4 ,when a young ,greek conquered in the games1 his friends sometimes bestowed a hat 7petasus7 upon him as a present#fbi4 #fbi ,eratosthen4 a ,bernhardy1 p4 #bdi4 #bej4 ,in consequence of the use of the petasus as a part of the ordinary costume of the ,athenian youth1 we find it in a great variety of works of ancient art illustrative of the religion and mythology of ,greece4 ,for example3-- #a4 ,in the inner frieze of the ,parthenon1 the remains of which are now in the ,british ,museum1 it is worn by many of the riders on horseback4 ,figure #g1 in ,plate ,,ix4 shows one of these horsemen 7from the slab ,no4 #ed47 with his petasus tied under his chin4 #b4 ,it is worn by ,theseus1 as represented on a vase in the ,vatican collection4 ,see ,winckelmann1 ,mon4 ,inediti1 vol4 ii4 #ih1 and ,fig4 #h1 ,plate ,,ix4 #c4 ,also by dipus1 as represented on one of ,sir ,william ,hamilton's vases 7vol4 ii4 ,plate #bd471 standing before the sphinx4 #d4 ,the coins of tolia exhibit ,meleager wearing the petasus4 ,five of these have been selected from the collection in the ,british ,museum1 which are engraved according to the size of the originals in ,plate ,,ix4 ,figures #i1 #aj1 and #aa1 are of silver4 ,in each of them the petasus has the form of a circular disc with a boss at the top like that on a ,scotch bonnet3 on the reverse is the ,calydonian boar1 with a spear head beneath it1 and the word 4 ,figure #ab1 which is of gold#fcj1 and ,figure #ac1 which is of silver1 have the head of ,hercules on the reverse4 ,the hero1 supposed to be ,meleager1 wears a petasus1 a scarf1 and boots1 as we have seen to be the case with ,endymion 7,fig4 #c71 this being the attire of hunters4 ,in these two coins he also holds a spear in his right hand1 and is seated upon a shield 7see ,fig4 #ac47 and other pieces of armor4 is written by the side4 ,the gold coin 7see ,fig4 #ab47 represents him with a ,victory in his left hand1 and with a small figure of ,diana ,lucifera in front4 #fcj ,this is engraved by ,taylor ,combe1 ,vet4 ,populorum ,nunmi4 tab4 v4 ,no4 #bc4 ,the broad-brimmed hat1 or petasus1 was more especially worn by the ,greeks when they were travelling#fca4 ,its appearance is well shown in ,fig4 #ad1 taken from a fictile vase belonging to the late ,mr4 ,hope#fcb4 ,it represents a ,greek soldier on a journey1 wearing his large blanket1 and holding two spears in his right hand4 ,this figure also shows one of the methods of fastening on the hat1 viz4 by passing the string round the occiput4 ,the comedies of ,plautus1 being translated from the ,greek1 contain allusions to the same practice4 ,in the ,pseudolus 7ii4 #d4 #ee1 and iv4 #g4 #ij17 the petasus and the scarf are supposed to be worn by a person to indicate that he was coming from a journey4 ,in the prologue to the ,amphitryo1 ,mercury says1 ,ego has habebo hic usque in petaso pinnulas1 ,tum meo patri autem torulus inerit aureus ,sub petaso3 id signum ,amphitruoni non erit4 #fca ,brunck1 ,anal4 ii4 #agj1 ,no4 #e4 #fcb ,hope1 ,costume of the ,ancients1 vol4 i4 pl4 #ga4 ,mercury and his father ,jupiter are here supposed to be attired like ,sosia and ,amphitryo his master1 both of whom had been travelling and were returning home4 ,at the same time there is an allusion to the winged hat of ,mercury1 of which more hereafter4 ,again1 in act i4 scene i4 l4 #bhg1 the petasus is attributed to ,sosia1 because he is supposed to be coming from a journey2 and to ,mercury1 both because it was commonly attributed to him1 and because on this occasion he was personating ,sosia4 ,the ,romans were less addicted to the use of the petasus than the ,greeks3 they often wore it when they were from home2 but that they did not consider it at all necessary to wear hats in the open air is manifest from the remark of ,suetonius about the ,emperor ,augustus1 that he could not even bear the winter's sun1 and hence 8domi quoque non nisi petatasus sub divo spatiabatur40 7,august4 #hb47 ,caligula permitted the senators to wear them at the theatres as a protection from the sun 7,dio4 ,cass4 lix4 #g4 p4 #iji1 ed4 ,reimari74 ,what was meant by wearing hats 8according to the ,thessalian fashion0 is by no means clear4 ,perhaps the ,thessalians may have worn hats resembling those of their neighbors1 the ,macedonians1 and of the shape of these we may form some conception from the coins of the ,macedonian kings4 ,one of these coins from the collection in the ,british ,museum is copied in ,plate ,,ix4 ,fig4 #ae4 ,it is a coin of the reign of ,alexander ,i4 and exhibits a ,macedonian warrior standing by the side of his horse1 holding two spears in his left hand1 and wearing a hat with a broad brim turned upwards4 ,this ,macedonian petasus is called the ,causia 77#fcc1 and was adopted by the ,romans#fcd1 and more especially by the ,emperor ,caracalla1 who1 as ,herodian states1 aimed to imitate ,alexander the ,great in his costume4 ,it appears probable1 nevertheless1 that the turning up of the brim was not peculiar to the ,macedonians1 and it may have depended altogether on accident or fancy2 for we find instances of it on painted fictile vases1 where there is no reason to suppose that any reference was intended either to ,macedonia or ,thessaly4 ,fig4 #af4 ,plate ,,ix4 for example1 is taken from the head of ,bellerophon1 on one of ,sir ,william ,hamilton's vases#fce2 and the left-hand figure from a fictile vase at ,vienna1 engraved by ,ginzrot#fcf4 ,this hat is remarkable for the boss at the top1 which we observe also on the tolian coins1 and in various other examples4 #fcc ,val4 ,max4 v4 #a4 ,extem4 #d4 ,pausan41 ap4 ,eustath4 in ,il4 ii4 #aba4 ,it is to be observed1 that the causia and petasus are opposed to one another by a writer in ,athenus 7,l4 xii4 #ecg1 e71 as if the causia was not a petasus6 #fcd ,plautus1 ,mil4 iv4 #d4 #db4 ,pers4 i4 #c4 #ge4 ,antip4 ,thess4 in ,brunck ,anal4 ii4 #aaa4 #fce ,vol4 i4 pl4 #a4 #fcf ,uber die ,wgen und ,fuhrwerke der ,alten1 vol4 i4 p4 #cdb4 ,in connection with the above quoted expression of ,dio ,cassius it may be observed further1 that besides the causia two varieties of the petasus seem to be alluded to by several ancient authors1 viz4 the ,thessalian1 and the ,arcadian or ,laconian4 ,how they were distinguished1 cannot be ascertained1 but the passages which mention them will now be produced1 that the reader may judge for himself4 ,the ,thessalian variety is mentioned by ,dio ,cassius1 by ,theophrastus1 as above quoted 7p4 #dbg71 and by ,callimachus in the following fragment1 which is preserved in the ,scholia on ,sophocles1 d4 ,col4 #caf4 ,and about his head lay a felt1 newly come from ,thessaly1 as a protection from wet4--,frag4 #abd4 ed4 ,ernesti4 ,the frenzied ,cynic philosopher ,menedemus1 among other peculiarities1 wore an ,arcadian hat1 ,,having ,,the ,,twelve ,,signs ,,of ,,the ,,zodiac ,,woven ,,into ,,it#fcg6 ,ammianus 7,brunck1 ,anal4 ii4 #chd47 represents an orator dedicating 8an ,arcadian hat0 to ,mercury1 who was the patron of his art1 and also a native of ,arcadia4 #fcg ,diog4 ,lart4 vi4 #ajb4 ,see ,gilroy's ,treatise on the ,art of ,weaving1 ,american edition1 p4 #ddf4 ,herodes ,atticus wore 8the ,arcadian hat0 at ,athens1 as a protection from the sun2 and the language of ,philostratus1 in recording the fact1 shows that the ,athenians of his time commonly wore it1 more especially in travelling#fch4 ,arrian1 who wrote about the middle of the second century1 says1 that 8,laconian or ,arcadian hats10 were worn in the army by the peltast instead of helmets#fci4 ,this circumstance shows a remarkable change of customs2 for in the early ,greek history we find the ,persian soldiers held up as the objects of ridicule and contempt1 because they wore hats and trowsers#fdj4 ,on the whole1 it is very evident that 8the ,arcadian or ,laconian hat0 was one and the same variety1 and that this variety of head-dress was simply the petasus1 or hat with a brim1 so called to distinguish it from the proper 1 which was the skull-cap1 or hat without a brim4 ,this supposition suits the representations of the only imaginary beings who are exhibited in works of ancient art wearing the petasus1 viz4 the ,dioscuri and ,mercury4 #fch ,vit4 ,sophist4 ii4 #e4 #c4 #fci ,tactica1 p4 #ab4 ed4 ,blancardi4 #fdj ,herod4 v4 #di4 ,it has been already observed that the ,dioscuri are commonly represented with the skull-cap1 because they were worshipped1 as the reader will have perceived1 as the guardians of the mariner#fda2 but on ancient vases we find them sometimes painted with the petasus2 and if this was the same with the 1 it would coincide with their origin as natives of ,sparta4 ,in ,plate ,,ix4 ,fig4 #af1 an example is shown1 on one of ,sir ,william ,hamilton's vases1 in which their attire resembles that of the ,athenian ephebi4 ,they wear boots and a tunic1 over which one of them also wears the scarf or chlamys4 ,they are conducted by the goddess ,night4 #fda ,see p4 #dai4 ,in like manner ,mercury1 as a native of ,arcadia1 might be expected to wear 8the ,arcadian hat40 ,in the representations of this deity on works of ancient art1 the hat1 which is often decorated with wings to indicate his office of messenger1 as his talaria also did#fdb1 has a great variety of forms1 and sometimes the brim is so narrow1 that it does not differ from the cap of the artificer already described1 or the in its ordinary form4 ,these hats1 with a brim of but small dimensions1 agree most exactly in appearance with the cheapest hats of undyed felt1 now made in the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain#fdc4 ,on the heads of the rustics and artificers in our streets and lanes we often see forms the exact counterpart of those which we most admire in the works of ancient art4 ,the petasus is also still commonly worn by agricultural laborers in ,greece and ,asia ,minor4 #fdb ,servius 7on ,virg4 n4 viii4 #ach7 says1 that ,mercury was supposed to have wings on his petasus and on his feet1 in order to denote the swiftness of speech1 he being the god of eloquence4 #fdc ,these hats are sold in the shops for sixpence1 ninepence1 or a shilling each4 ,a bas-relief in the ,vatican collection#fdd1 represents the birth of ,hercules1 and contains two figures of ,mercury4 ,in one he carries the infant ,hercules1 in the other the caduceus4 ,in both he wears a large scarf1 and a skull-cap1 like that of ,ddalus#fde1 without a brim4 ,this example therefore proves that1 although the petasus1 as distinguished from the pileus1 was certainly the appropriate attribute of ,mercury#fdf1 yet the artists of antiquity sometimes took the liberty of placing on his head the skull-cap instead of the hat1 just as we have seen that they sometimes made the reverse substitution in the case of the ,dioscuri4 #fdd ,museo ,pio-,clementino1 tom4 iv4 tav4 #cg4 #fde ,see ,plate ,,viii4 ,fig4 #h4 #fdf ,see ,brunck1 ,anal4 ii4 #da1 and ,arnobius1 ,adv4 ,gentes1 lib4 vi4 ,see also ,ephippus1 ap4 ,athen4 xii4 #ec4 p4 #ecg ,f4 ,casaub4 ,it is remarkable that the person who acted the part of a ,silenus in the ,dionysiac procession instituted by ,ptolemy ,philadelphus at ,alexandria1 wore a hat and a golden caduceus 7,athen4 v4 #bg4 p4 #aih ,a474 ,in this case the imagination appears to have been indulged in decorating a mere festive character with the peculiar attributes of ,mercury4 ,it is added1 that various kinds of chariots were driven by 8boys wearing the tunics of charioteers and petasi0 7,athen4 v4 p4 #bjj ,f474 ,this would be in character1 being agreeable to the custom of the ,grecian youth4 ,the following is from a sepulchral urn found near ,padua 7,gruter4 p4 #big73 ,abite hinc1 pessimi fures1 99 99 99 vestro cum ,mercurio petasato caduceatoque4 ,another bas-relief in the ,vatican#fdg1 represents the story of the birth of ,bacchus from ,jupiter's thigh4 ,thus the subject of it is very similar to that1 which relates to the birth of ,hercules1 the infant being in each instance consigned to the care of ,mercury4 ,but the covering of ,mercury's head in these two cases is remarkably different1 though from no other reason than the fancy of the artist4 ,in the bas-relief now under consideration1 ,mercury holds the skin of a lynx or panther to receive the child4 ,he wears the scarf or chlamys and cothumi4 ,this was a very favorite subject with the ancients4 ,it occurs on a superb marble vase with the inscription #fdh1 and on one of ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton's fictile vases#fdi4 #fdg ,museo ,pio-,clementino1 tom4 iv4 tav4 #ai4 #fdh ,spon41 ,misc4 ,erud4 ,ant4 xi4 art4 #a4 #fdi ,vol4 i4 ,no4 #h4 ,figure #d4 in ,plate ,x4 is from ,hope's ,costume of the ,ancients1 vol4 ii4 pl4 #age4 ,the money-bag is in ,mercury's right hand4 ,in a painting found at ,pompeii#fej1 ,mercury is represented with wings 7pinnul7 on his petasus1 though not very ancient1 is also recognized in the ,amphitryo of ,plautus4 #fej ,gell's ,pompeiana1 ,london #ahai1 pl4 #gf4 ,figure #e4 in ,plate ,x4 is from the ,marquis of ,lansdowne's marble bust1 published by the ,dilettanti ,society#fea4 ,in this beautiful bust the brim of the hat is unfortunately damaged4 #fea ,specimens of ,ancient ,sculpture1 ,london #ahji1 pl4 #ea4 ,figures #f and #g1 ,plate ,x41 are from coins engraved in ,carelli's ,nummi ,veteris ,itali 7plates #eh and #fe74 ,figure #g is a coin of ,suessa in ,campania4 ,to these illustrations might have been added others from ancient gems1 good examples of which may be found in the second volume of ,mariette's ,trait des ,pierres ,graves1 folio1 ,paris1 #agej4 ,besides the application of felt as a covering of the head for the male sex in the manner now explained1 it was also used as a lining for helmets4 ,when in the description of the helmet worn by ,ulysses we read ' #feb1 we may suppose to be used in its most ordinary sense1 consequently that the interior of the helmet was a common skull-cap4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ix4 #feb ,homer1 ,il4 x4 #bfe4 ,eustathius1 in his commentary on this passage1 says1 that the most ancient ,greeks always wore felt in their helmets1 but that those of more recent times1 regarding this use of felt as peculiar to ,ulysses1 persuaded the painters to exhibit him in a skull-cap1 and that this was first done1 according to the tradition1 by the painter ,apollidorus4 ,the account of ,pliny1 who1 together with ,servius 7in n4 ii4 #dd71 represents ,nicomachus1 and not ,apollidorus1 as having first adopted this idea4 ,being generally thicker than common cloth1 felt presented a more effectual obstacle to missile weapons4 ,hence1 when the soldiers under ,julius ,csar were much annoyed by ,pompey's archers1 they made shirts or other coverings of felt1 and put them on for their defence#fec4 ,thucydides refers to the use of similar means to protect the body from arrows#fed2 and even in besieging and defending cities felt was used1 together with hides and sackcloth1 to cover the wooden towers and military engines#fee4 #fec ,jul4 ,csar1 ,bell4 ,civ4 iii4 #dd4 #fed ,thucyd4 iv4 #cd4 ,schol4 ad loc4 #fee neas ,tacticus1 #cc4 ,felt was also sometimes used to cover the bodies of quadrupeds4 ,according to ,aristotle#fef1 the ,greeks clothed their molles oves either with skins or with pieces of felt2 and the wool became gray in consequence4 ,the ,persians used the same material for the trappings of their horses 7,plutarch1 ,artax4 ,,ii4 p4 #aheh4 ed4 ,stephani74 #fef ,de ,gen4 ,animalium1 v4 #e4 p4 #aeg4 ed4 ,bekker4 ,the loose rude coverings for the feet called ,udones were sometimes made of felt1 being worn within the shoes or brogues of the rustic laborers#feg4 #feg ,hesiod1 ,op4 ed ,dies1 #edb2 ,grvius1 ad loc42 ,cratini1 ,fragmenta1 p4 #bi4 ed4 ,runkel4 ,in concluding this investigation it may be proper to observe1 that1 although originally meant felt1 and more especially a skull-cap made of that manufacture1 it was sometimes used1 at least by the later ,greek authors1 by an extension of its meaning1 to denote a cap of any other material4 ,thus ,athenus 7lib4 vi4 p4 #bgd4 ,casaub47 speaking of the ,romans1 says1 that they wore about their heads 1 i4 e4 8thick caps made of sheep skins40 ,,appendix ,d4 ,,on ,,netting4 ,,manufacture ,,and ,,use ,,of ,,nets ,,by ,,the ,,ancients--,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,scriptures1 ,,etc4 ,nets were made of ,flax1 ,hemp1 and ,broom--,general terms for nets--,nets used for catching birds--,mode of snaring--,hunting-nets--,method of hunting--,hunting-nets supported by forked stakes--,manner of fixing them--,purse-net or tunnel-net--,homer's testimony--,nets used by the ,persians in lion-hunting--,hunting with nets practised by the ancient ,egyptians--,method of hunting--,depth of nets for this purpose--,description of the purse-net--,road-net--,hallier--,dyed feathers used to scare the prey--,casting-net--,manner of throwing by the ,arabs--,cyrus king of ,persia--,his fable of the piper and the fishes--,fishing-nets--,casting-net used by the ,apostles--,landing-net 7,scap-net7--,the ,sean--,its length and depth--,modern use of the ,sean--,method of fishing with the ,sean practised by the ,arabians and ancient ,egyptians--,corks and leads--,figurative application of the ,sean--,curious method of capturing an enemy practised by the ,persians--,nets used in ,india to catch tortoises--,bag-nets and small purse-nets--,novel scent-bag of ,verres the ,sicilian prtor4 ,the raw materials1 of which the ancients made nets1 were flax1 hemp#feh1 and broom#fei4 ,flax was most commonly used2 so that ,jerome1 when he is prescribing employment for monks1 says1 8,texantur et lina capiendis piscibus#ffj40 ,the operation of netting1 as well as that of platting1 was expressed by the verb #ffa4 ,the meshes were called in ,latin macul#ffb1 in ,greek 1 dim4 #ffc4 #feh ,rete cannabina4 ,varro1 ,de ,re ,rust4 iii4 #e4 p4 #baf1 ed4 ,bipont4 #fei ,pliny1 ,h4 ,n4 xix4 #a4 s4 #b2 xxiv4 #i4 s4 #dj4 #ffj ,hieron4 ,epist4 l4 ii4 p4 #agc1 ed4 ,par4 #afac1 #abmo4 ,hunting-nets are called 8lina nodosa0 by ,ovid1 ,met4 iii4 #aec1 and vii4 #hjg4 ,compare ,virg4 ,georg1 i4 #adb2 ,homer1 ,il4 v4 #dhg2 ,brunck1 ,anal4 ii4 #id1 #did1 #die2 ,artimedorus1 ii4 #ad4 ,see also ,pliny1 ,h4 ,n4 xix4 #a4 s4 #b4 #ffa 1 ,aristoph4 ,lysist4 #gij4 1 ,bokkeri ,anecdota1 vol4 i4 p4 #ced4 #ffb ,varro1 ,de ,re ,rust4 iii4 #aa2 ,ovid1 ,epist4 v4 #ai2 ,nemesiani ,cyneg4 #cjb4 #ffc ,heliodor4 l4 v4 p4 #bca1 ed4 ,commelini4 ,the use of all the ,latin and ,greek terms for nets will now be explained1 and in connection with this explanation of terms1 will be produced all the facts which can be ascertained upon the subject4 ,i4 ,,retis and ,,rete2 dim4 ,,reticulum4 #ffd4 #ffd ,from 1 to throw4 ,see ,eurip4 ,bacc4 #fjj1 and the ,lexicons of ,schneider and ,passow4 ,retis or ,rete in ,latin1 and in ,greek1 were used to denote nets in general4 ,thus in an epigram of ,leonidas ,tarentinus#ffe1 three brothers1 one of whom was a hunter1 another a fowler1 and the third a fisherman1 dedicate their nets to ,pan4 ,several imitations of this epigram remain by ,alexander tolus#fff1 ,antipater ,sidonius#ffg1 ,archias#ffh1 and others#ffi4 ,in one of these epigrams 7 7 we find adopted as a general term for nets instead of 1 no doubt for the reason above stated4 ,in another epigram#fgj a hare is said to have been caught in a net 774 ,aristophanes mentions nets by the same denomination among the contrivances employed by the fowler#fga4 ,fishing-nets are called in the following passages of the ,new ,testament3 ,matt4 iv4 #bj1 #ba2 ,mark i4 #ah1 #ai2 ,luke v4 #b1 #d-f2 ,john xxi4 #f1 #h1 #aa3 also by ,theocritus1 ap4 ,athen4 vii4 #bj4 p4 #bhd1 ,cas42 and by ,plato1 ,sophista1 #bbj1 b4 p4 #acd1 ed4 ,bekker4 #ffe ,brunck1 ,anal4 i4 #bbe4 #fff ,brunck1 ,anal4 i4 #dah4 ,alexandri toli ,fragmenta1 a ,capelmann1 p4 #ej4 #ffg ,ibid4 ii4 #i1 ,nos4 #ae1 #af4 #ffh ,ibid4 ii4 #id1 ,no4 #i4 #ffi ,ibid4 ii4 #did1 #die4 ,jacobs1 ,anthol4 vol4 i4 p4 #ahh1 #ahi4 #fgj ,brunck1 ,anal4 iii4 #bci1 ,no #dag4 #fga ,aves1 #ebf-ebh4 ,netting was applied in various ways in the construction of hen-coops and aviaries2 and such net-work is called rete#fgb4 ,it was used to make pens for sheep by night4 ,at the amphitheatres it was sometimes placed over the podium4 ,at a gladiatorial show given by ,nero1 the net1 thus used as a fence against the wild beasts1 was knotted with amber#fgc4 ,the way in which the net was used by the ,retiarii is well known4 ,the head-dress called 1 was a small net of fine flax1 silk1 or gold thread1 and was also called reticulum#fgd4 ,but by far the most important application of net-work was to the kindred arts of hunting and fishing3 and besides the general terms used alike in reference to both these employments1 there are special terms to be explained under each head4 #fgb ,varro1 ,de ,re ,rust4 iii4 #e4 #fgc ,plin4 ,h4 ,n4 xxxvii4 #c4 s4 #aa4 #fgd ,nonius ,marcellus1 p4 #edb1 ed4 ,merceri4 ,see also the article ,,calantica1 in ,smith's ,dict4 of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities4 ,the use of nets for catching birds was very limited1 on which account we find no appropriate name for fowlers' nets#fge4 ,nevertheless thrushes were caught in them#fgf1 and doves or pigeons1 with their limbs tied up1 or fastened to the ground1 or with their eyes covered or put out1 were confined in a net in order that their cries might allure others into the snare#fgg4 ,an account of the nets used by the ,egyptians to catch birds is given by ,sir ,gardner ,wilkinson#fgh1 being derived from the paintings found in the catacombs4 ,the net commonly employed for the purpose was the clap-net4 ,bird-traps were also made by stretching a net over two semicircular frames1 which1 being joined and laid open1 approached to the form of a circle4 ,the trap was baited1 and when a bird flew to it and seized the bait1 it was instantly caught by the sudden rising of the two sides or flaps4 #fge ,see ,aristophanes1 l4 c4 #fgf ,hor4 ,epod4 ii4 #cc1 #cd4 #fgg ,aristoph4 ,aves1 #ajhc4 #fgh ,man4 and ,customs1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ce-ch1 #de4 ,,ii4 ,,cassis2 ,,plaga4 1 4 ,in hunting it was usual to extend nets in a curved line of considerable length#fgi1 so as in part to surround a space1 into which the beasts of chase1 such as the boar1 the wild goat1 the deer1 the hare1 the lion1 and the bear might be driven through the opening left on one side4 ,tibullus 7iv4 #c4 #ab7 speaks of inclosing woody hills for this purpose3-- 444 densos indagine colles ,claudentem4 #fgi 4 lian1 ,h4 ,a4 xii4 #df4 ,uno portante multitudinem1 qua saltus cingerentur4 ,plin4 ,h4 ,n4 xix4 l4 s4 #b4 ,oppian 7,cyneg4 iv4 #abj-abc7 says1 that in an ,asiatic lion-hunt the nets 77 were placed in the form of the new moon4 ,the following lines of ,virgil show1 that the animals were driven into the toils from a distance by the barking of dogs and the shouts of men3 ,thy hound the wild-ass in the sylvan chase1 ,or hare1 or hart1 with faithful speed will trace2 ,assail the muddy cave with eager cries1 ,where the rough boar in secret ambush lies2 ,press the tall stag with clamors echoing shrill ,to secret toils1 along the arial hill4 ,georg4 iii4 #daa-dac4--,warton's ,translation4 ,in another splendid passage the boar is described as coming into the midst of the nets after he has been driven to them from a mountain or a marsh at a great distance3 ,and as a savage boar on mountains bred1 ,with forest mast and fattening marshes fed2 ,when once he sees himself in toils inclosed1 ,by huntsmen and their eager hounds opposed2 ,he whets his tusks1 and turns and dares the war3 ,the invaders dart their javelins from afar3 ,all keep aloof and safely shout around1 ,but none presumes to give a nearer wound4 ,he frets and froths1 erects his bristled hide1 ,and shakes a grove of lances from his side4 n4 x4 #gjg-gae4--;,dryden's ,translation4 ,even in a case where the same poet introduces an equivalent expression to that of ,tibullus1 already quoted1 viz4 8saltus indagine cingunt0 7n4 iv4 #aba71 he represents the hunting-party as going over a large extent of country to collect the animals out of it3 ,postquam altos ventum in montes atque invia lustra1 ,ecce fer saxi deject vertice capr ,decurrere jugis2 alia de parte patentes ,transmittunt cursu campos1 atque agmina cervi ,pulverulenta fuga glomerant1 montesque relinquunt4 ,at puer ,ascanius mediis in vallibus acri ,gaudet equo1 jamque hos cursu1 jam prterit illos1 ,spumantemque dari pecora inter inertia votis ,optat aprum1 aut fulvum descendere monte leonem4 n4 iv4 #aea-aei4 ,so ,ovid 7,epist4 iv4 #da1 #db73 ,in nemus ire libet1 pressisque in retia cervis1 ,hortari celeres per juga summa canes2 and 7,epist4 v4 #ai1 #bj73 ,retia spe comes maculis distincta tetendi1 ,spe citos egi per juga longa canes4 ,the younger ,pliny describes himself on one occasion sitting beside the nets1 while the hunters were pursuing the boars and driving them into the snare 7,epist4 i4 #f74 ,in ,euripides 7,bacc4 #hba-hcb7 we find the following beautiful description of a fawn1 which has been driven into the space inclosed by the nets1 but has leaped over them and escaped3-- - 1 ' ' 1 c4 ,here a ,bacchanal1 tossing her head into the air with gambols and dancing1 is said to be 8like a fawn sporting in the green delights of a meadow1 when she has escaped the fearful chase by leaping over the well-platted nets so as to be out of the inclosure1 whilst the shouting hunter has been urging his dogs to run still more swiftly3 by great efforts and with the rapidity of the winds she bounds over a plain beside a river1 pleased with solitudes remote from man1 and hides herself in the thickets of an umbrageous forest40 ,if hollows or valleys were inclosed#fhj1 the nets were no doubt extended only in those openings1 through which it was possible for the animals to escape4 ,also a river was of itself a sufficient boundary3 ,inclusum flumine cervum4--,virg4 n4 xii4 #gdi4 #fhj ,nec1 velit insidiis altassi claudere valles1 ,dum placeas1 humeri retia ferre negent4--,tibullus1 i4 #d4 #di1 #ej4 ,it was the duty of the attendants 7,j4 ,pollux1 v4 #d4 #bg-ca7 in most cases to carry the nets on their shoulders1 agreeably to the representation in the ,plate ,x4 ,pliny1 l4 c4 ,cassibus impositos venor4--,propert4 iv4 #b4 #cb4 444 alius raras ,cervice gravi portare plagas4--,sen4 ,hippol4 i4 l4 #dd4 ,the proper ,latin term for the hunting-net1 but more especially for the purse-net1 which will be hereafter described1 was ,,cassis4 8,cassis1 genus venatorii retis40 ,isidori ,hispalensis ,orig4 xix4 #e4 8,arctos rodere casses0 is applied by ,persius 7v4 #agj7 to a quadruped with incisor teeth caught in such a net and striving to escape4 ,see also ,propertius as just quoted1 and the ,agamemnon of ,seneca and ,virgil's ,georgics as quoted below4 ,cassis seems to be derived from the root of capere and catch4 ,but ,,plaga was also applied to hunting-nets1 so that ,horace describes the hunting of the boar in the following terms3 ,aut trudit acres hinc et hinc multa cane ,apros in obstantes plagas4--,epod4 ii4 #ca1 #cb4 ,lucretius 7lib4 v4 #abea1 #abeb7 aptly compares the setting up of the plag to the planting of a hedge around the forest3 ,nam fovea atque igni prius est venarier ortum1 ,quam spire plagis saltum1 canibusque ciere4 ,in the same manner plag is used in the ,hippolytus of ,seneca1 as above quoted1 and in ,pliny#fha4 #fha ,h4 ,n4 xix4 #a4 s4 #b4 ,to dispose the nets in the manner which has been described1 was called 8retia ponere0 7,virg4 ,georg4 i4 #cjg7 or 8retia tendere0 7,ovid1 ,art4 ,amat4 i4 #de74 ,in ,homer a hunting-net is called 1 literally1 8the flax that catches everything#fhb40 ,but the proper ,greek term for the hunting-net1 corresponding to the ,latin cassis1 was 1 which is accordingly employed in the passages of ,oppian and ,euripides cited above4 ,also the epigram of ,antipater ,sidonius1 to which a reference has already been made1 specifies the hunting-net by the same appellation3 4 ,the word is used in the same sense by ,cratinus#fhc2 also by ,arrian1 where he remarks that the ,celts dispensed with the use of nets in hunting1 because they trusted to the swiftness of their greyhounds#fhd4 ,in ,euripides#fhe it is used metaphorically3 the children cry out1 when their mother is pursuing them1 ' 1 i4 e4 8,now how near we are being caught with the sword40 #fhb ,il4 v4 #dhg4 #fhc ,cratini ,fragmenta1 a ,runkel1 p4 #bh4 #fhd 1 1 i4 e4 8,and here greyhounds answered the same purpose as ,xenophon's hunting-nets40 ,de ,venat4 ii4 #ba4 ,see ,dansey's translation1 pp4 #gb1 #aba4 #fhe ,medea1 #abfh4 ,also in the ,agamemnon of schylus 7l4 #ajhe73 ' 2 ' 1 4 ,in this passage reference is made to the large shawl in which ,clytemnestra wrapt the body of ,agamemnon1 as in a net1 in order to destroy him4 ,on account of the use made of it1 the same fatal garment is afterwards 7l4 #acec7 compared to a casting-net1 which in its form bore a considerable resemblance to the cassis4 ,in l4 #acdf1 #fhf denotes this net as set up for hunting4 ,the same form occurs again in the ,eumenides 7l4 #aab72 and in the ,pers 7#ajb-ajd7 escape from danger is in nearly the same terms expressed by the notion of overleaping the net4 ,in ,euripides#fhg this contrivance is called 2 and in the ,agamemnon of ,seneca#fhh the same allusion is introduced3 ,at ille1 ut altis hispidus silvis aper2 ,cum1 casse vinctus1 tentat egressus tamen1 ,arctatque motu vincla1 et incassum furit1 ,cupit1 fluentes undique et ccos sinus ,disjicere1 et hostem qurit implicitus suum4 #fhf ,or1 1 ed4 ,schtz4 l4 #acgf4 #fhg ,orestes1 #adje1 s4 #adba4 #fhh ,l4 #hhf-hij4 ,part of the apparatus of a huntsman consisted in the stakes which he drove into the ground to support his nets1 and which ,antipater ,sidonius thus describes3 2 i4 e4 8,the sharp stakes hardened in the fire#fhi40 ,the term which ,xenophon uses of the stakes is1 according to some manuscripts of his work1 4 ,he says1 they should be fixed so as to lean backwards1 and thus more effectually to resist the impulse of the animals rushing against them#fij4 ,the ,latin term answering to was ,,vari4 ,we find it thus used by ,lucan3 ,aut1 cum dispositis adtollat retia varis ,venator1 tenet ora levis clamosa ,molossi4 ,pharsalia1 iv4 #dci1 #ddj4 i4 e4 8,the hunter holds the noisy mouth of the light ,molossian dog1 when he lifts up the nets to the stakes arranged in order40 #fhi ,brunck1 ,anal4 ii4 #aj4 ,we find in ,oppian1 ,cyneg4 iv4 #fg1 #ga1 #aba1 #chj2 ,pollux1 ,onom4 v4 #ca4 #fij ,de ,venat4 vi4 #g4 ,gratius ,faliscus1 adopting a ,greek term1 calls them ancones1 on account of the 8elbow0 or fork at the top3 ,hic magis in cervos valuit metus3 ast ubi lent ,interdum ,libyco fucantur sandyce pinn1 ,lineaque extructis lucent anconibus arma1 ,rarum1 si qua metus eludat bellua falsos4--,cyneg4 #he-hh4 ,it was the business of one of the attendants to watch the nets3 ,ego retia servo4--,virg4 ,buc4 iii4 #ge4 ,sometimes there was a watchman at each extremity and one in the middle1 as in the ,persian lion-hunt#fia4 ,the prevalence of this method of hunting in ,persia might be inferred from the circumstance1 that one of the chief employments of the inhabitants consisted in making these nets 71 ,strabo1 xv4 #c4 #ah74 ,to watch the nets was called 7lian1 ,h4 ,a4 i4 #b71 and the man who discharged this office 7,xen41 ,de ,ven4 ii4 #c2 vi4 #a474 #fia ,oppian1 ,cyneg4 iv4 #abd1 c4 ,the paintings discovered in the catacombs of ,egypt show1 that the ancient inhabitants of that country used nets for hunting in the same manner which has now been shown to have been the practice of the ,persians1 ,greeks and ,romans#fib4 #fib ,wilkinson's ,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient ,egyptians1 vol4 iii4 p4 #c-e4 ,hunting-nets had much larger meshes than fishing or fowlers'-nets1 because in general a fish or a fowl could escape through a much smaller opening than a quadruped4 ,in hunting1 the important circumstance was to make the nets so strong that the beasts could not break through them4 ,the large size of the meshes is denoted by the phrases 8retia rara#fic0 and 8raras plagas#fid20 and it is exhibited in a bas-relief in the collection of ancient marbles at ,ince-,blundell in ,lancashire4 ,see ,plate ,x4 fig4 #a4 ,this sculpture presents the following circumstances1 which are worthy of notice as illustrative of the passages above collected from ancient authors4 ,three servants with staves carry a large net on their shoulders4 ,the foremost of them holds by a leash a dog1 which is eager to engage in the chase#fie4 ,then follows another scene in the hunt4 ,a net with very large meshes and five feet high is set up1 being supported by three stakes4 ,two boars and two deer are caught4 ,a watchman1 holding a staff1 stands at each end of the net4 ,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,x4 is taken from a bas-relief in the same collection1 representing a party returning from the chase1 with the quadrupeds which they have caught4 ,two men carry the net1 holding in their hands the stakes with forks at the top4 ,these bas-reliefs have been taken from sarcophagi erected in commemoration of hunters1 and they are engraved in the ,ancient statues1 c4 at ,ince-,blundell1 vol4 ii4 pl4 #hi and #abf4 ,an excellent representation of these forked staves is given in a sepulchral bas-relief in ,bartoli1 ,admiranda1 tab4 #gj1 which ,mr4 ,dansey has copied at p4 #cjg of his translation of ,arrian on ,coursing1 and which represents a party of hunters returning from the chase4 ,another example of the varus1 or forked staff1 is seen in a sepulchral stone lately found at ,york 7,england71 and engraved in ,mr4 ,wellbeloved's ,eburacum1 pl4 #ad4 fig4 #b4 ,the man1 who holds the varus in his right hand1 and who appears to be a huntsman and a native of the north of ,england1 though partly clothed after the ,roman fashion1 wears an inner and outer tunic1 and over them a fringed sagum4 ,in the ,sepolcri de' ,nasoni1 published by ,bartoli1 there is a representation of a lion-hunt1 and of another in which deer are caught by means of nets set up so as to inclose a large space4 ,in ,montfaucon's ,supplement1 tome iii41 is an engraving from a bas-relief1 in which a net is represented3 but none of these are so instructive as the two bas-reliefs at ,ince-,blundell4 #fic ,virg4 n4 iv4 #aca2 ,hor4 ,epod4 ii4 #cc4 #fid ,seneca1 ,hippol4 l4 c4 #fie ,see ,lucan1 as quoted in the last page4 ,gratius ,faliscus recommends that a net should be forty paces long1 and full ten knots high3 ,et bis vicenos spatium prtendere passus ,rete velim1 plenisque decem consurgere nodis4--,cyneg4 #ca1 #cb4 ,the necessity of making the nets so high that the animals could not leap over them1 is alluded to in the expression 1 i4 e4 8a height too great for the animals to leap out#fif40 #fif schyli ,agamemnon1 #acdg4 ,xenophon1 in his treatise on ,hunting1 gives various directions respecting the making and setting of nets2 and ,schneider has added to that treatise a dissertation concerning the 4 ,it is evident that this kind of net was made with a bag 71 vi4 #g71 being the same which is now called the purse-net1 or the tunnel-net1 and that the aim of the hunter was to drive the animal into the bag2 that the watchman 77 waited to see it caught there2 that branches of trees were placed in the bag to keep it expanded1 to render it invisible1 and thus to decoy quadrupeds into it2 that a rope ran round the mouth of the bag 71 vi4 #i71 and was drawn tight by the impulse of the animal rushing in so as to prevent its escape#fig4 ,to this rope was attached another1 called 1 which was used as follows4 ,in fig4 #a4 of ,plate ,x4 we observe1 that the upper border of the net consists of a very strong rope4 ,xenophon calls this 7vi4 #i74 ,in the purse-net it was furnished with rings4 ,the 1 or watchman1 lay in ambush1 holding one end of the 1 which ran through the rings1 and was fastened at the other end to the 1 so that by pulling it he drew the mouth of the bag still more firm and close4 ,he then went to the bag and despatched the quadruped which it inclosed1 or carried it off alive1 informing his companions of the capture by shouting#fih4 #fig ,this effect of the is well expressed by ,seneca1 8,arctatque motu vincla30 also the circumstance of the branches used to distend the bag and to make it invisible2 8,fluentes undique et ccos sinus40 ,homer 7,il4 v4 #dhg7 seems to allude to the same contrivance1 and to apply the term to the rope which encircled the entrance of the bag1 with the others attached to it4 ,we find in ,brunck's ,analecta 7ii4 #aj4 ,no4 xx47 the phrase applied to hunting-nets4 ,it was probably meant to designate the 1 which might be called 1 i4 e4 angular1 because they were made like bags ending in a point4 ,the term 1 which occurs in ,aristophanes 7,aves1 #aie71 and denoted some contrivance for catching birds1 is said by the ,scholiast on the passage to have meant a kind of hunting-net4 ,but this explanation is evidently good for nothing4 #fih ,oppian1 ,cyneg4 iv4 #dji4 ,pliny mentions these epidromi1 or running ropes3 ,h4 ,n4 xix4 #a4 s4 #b4 ,in this treatise ,xenophon distinguishes the nets used in hunting by three different appellations2 1 1 and 4 ,oppian also distinguishes the used in hunting from the #fii4 ,the or cassis1 i4 e4 8the purse- or tunnel-net10 was by much the most complicated in its formation4 ,the 1 or 8road-net10 was comparatively small3 it was placed across any road1 or path1 to prevent the animals from pursuing that path3 it must have been used to stop the narrow openings between bushes4 ,the was a large net1 simply intended to inclose the ground3 it therefore resembled in some measure the sean used in fishing4 ,the term1 thus specially applied1 may be translated a hay1 or a hallier#gjj4 ,these three kinds of nets appear to be mentioned together by ,nemesianus under the names of retia 7i4 e4 71 casses 7i4 e4 71 and plag 7i4 e4 473 ,necnon et casses idem venatibus aptos1 ,atque plagas1 longoque meantia retia tractu ,addiscunt raris semper contexere nodis1 ,et servare modum maculis1 linoque tenaci4 ,cyneg4 #bii-cjb4 #fii ,ibid4 iv4 #cha4 #gjj ,see ,arrian on ,coursing3 the ,cynegeticus of the younger ,xenophon1 translated from the ,greek1 c4 c4 by a graduate of ,medicine 7,william ,c4 ,dansey1 ,m4 ,b474 ,london1 #ahca1 pp4 #fh1 #ahh4 ,xenophon1 in his treatise on ,hunting1 further informs us1 that the cord used for making the 1 or purse-net1 consisted of three strands1 and that three lines twisted together commonly made a strand 7ii4 #d72 but that1 when the net was intended to catch the wild boar1 nine lines went to a strand instead of three 7x4 #b74 ,it remains to be noticed1 that1 when the long range of nets1 set up in the manner which has been now represented1 was designed to catch the stag 7cervus71 it was flanked by cords1 to which1 as well as to the nets themselves1 feathers dyed scarlet1 and of other bright colors intermixed with their native white1 and sometimes probably birds' wings1 were tied so as to flare and flutter in the wind#gja4 ,this appendage to the nets was called the metus or formido 7,virg4 n4 xii4 #gej71 because it frightened these timid quadrupeds so as to urge them onwards into the toils4 ,hence ,virgil1 speaking of the method of taking stags in ,scythia1 says1 ,nor toils their flight impede1 nor hounds o'ertake1 ,nor plumes of purple dye their fears awake4 ,georg4 iii4 #cga1 #cgb4--,sotheby's ,translation4 #gja ,dum trepidant al4--,virg4 n4 iv4 #aba4 ,the following passages likewise allude to the use of this contrivance in the stag-hunt3 ,nec formidatis cervos includite pennis4--,ovid4 ,met4 xv4 #dge4 ,vagos dumeta per avia cervos ,circumdat maculis et multa indagine pinn4 ,auson4 ,epist4 iv4 #bg4 ,nemesianus1 in the following passage1 asserts that the cord 7linea7 carrying feathers of this description had the effect of terrifying not the stag only1 but the bear1 the boar1 the fox and the wolf3 ,linea quinetiam1 magnos circumdare saltus ,qu possit1 volucresque metu concludere prdas1 ,digerat innexas non una ex alite pinnas4 ,namque ursos1 magnosque sues1 cervosque fugaces ,et vulpes1 acresque lupos1 ceu fulgura cli ,terrificant1 linique vetant transcendere septum4 ,has igitur vario semper fucare veneno ,cura tibi1 neveisque alios miscere colores1 ,alternosque metus subtemine tendere longo4 ,cyneg4 #cjc-caa4 ,the same fact is asserted in a striking passage1 which has been above quoted from ,gratius ,faliscus4 ,to the same effect are the following passages3 ,nec est mirum1 cum maximos ferarum greges linea pennis distincta conterreat1 et ad insidias agat1 ab ipso effectu dicta formido4--,seneca1 de ,ira1 ii4 #aa4 ,feras lineis et pinna conclusas contine3 easdem a tergo eques telis incessat3 tentabunt fugam per ipsa qu fugerant1 proculcabuntque formidinem4--,seneca1 de ,clementia1 i4 #ab4 ,picta rubenti lineo pinna ,vano claudat terrore feras4 ,seneca ,frag4 ,hippol4 i4 #a4 ,,iii4 ,,funda1 ,,jaculum1 ,,rete ,,jaculum1 ,,retiaculum4 1 4 ,fishing-nets#gjb were of six different kinds1 which are enumerated by ,oppian as follows3 1 1 '1 ' 1 1 4--,hal4 iii4 #hj-hb4 #gjb 4 ,diod4 ,sic4 xvii4 #dc4 p4 #aic1 ,wessel4 ,of these by far the most common were the 1 or casting-net1 and the 1 i4 e4 the drag or sean4 ,consequently these two are the only kinds mentioned by ,virgil and ,ovid in the following passages3 ,atque alius latum funda jam verberat amnem1 ,alta petens2 pelagoque alius trahit humida lina4 ,virg4 ,georg4 i4 #ada1 #adb4 ,hi jaculo pisces1 illi capiuntur ab hamis2 ,hos cava contento retia fune trahunt4 ,ovid1 ,art4 ,amat4 i4 #gfc1 #dfd4 ,by ,virgil the casting-net is called funda1 which is the common term for a sling4 ,in illustration of this it is to be observed1 that the casting-net is thrown over the fisherman's shoulder1 and then whirled in the air much like a sling4 ,by this action he causes it to fly open at the bottom so as to form a circle1 which is loaded at intervals with stones or pieces of lead1 and this circle 8strikes the broad river#gjc30 for the casting-net is used either in pools of moderate depth1 or in rivers which have1 like pools1 a broad smooth surface2 whereas the sean is employed for fishing in the deep 7pelago7#gjd4 #gjc ,the ,arabs now employ the casting-net on the shores of the ,arabian ,gulf4 8,its form is round1 and loaded at the lower part with small pieces of lead2 and1 when the fisherman approaches a shoal of fish1 his art consists in throwing the net so that it may expand itself in a circular form before it reaches the surface of the water40--,wellsted's ,travels in ,arabia1 vol4 ii4 p4 #adh4 #gjd ,for a technical account of nets1 including the casting-net as now made1 the reader is referred to the ,hon4 and ,rev4 ,charles ,bathurst's ,notes on ,nets2 or the ,quincunx practically considered1 ,london1 #ahcg1 #abmo4 ,duhamel wrote on the same subject in ,french4 ,isidore of ,seville1 in his account of the different kinds of nets 7,orig4 xix4 #e71 thus speaks3 8,funda genus est piscatorii retis1 dicta ab eo1 quod in fundum mittatur4 ,eadem etiam a jactando jaculum dicitur4 ,plautus3 ,probus quidem antea jaculator eras#gje40 #gje ,jaculator corresponds to the ,greek 4 ,ausonius1 in the following lines1 which refer to the methods of fishing in the vicinity of the ,garonne1 appears to distinguish between the jaculum and the funda4 ,piscandi traheris studio8 nam tota supellex ,dumnotoni tales solita est ostendere gazas3 ,nodosas vestes animantum ,nerinorum1 ,et jacula1 et fundas1 et nomina villica lini1 ,colaque1 et indutos terrenis vermibus hamos4 ,epist4 iv4 #ea-ee4 ,besides the passage of ,plautus1 here quoted by ,isidore1 there are two others1 in which the casting-net is mentioned under the name of rete jaculum1 viz4 ,asinar4 l4 i4 #hg1 and ,truc4 l4 i4 #ad4 ,pareus1 as we find from his ,lexicon ,plautinum1 clearly understood the meaning of the term1 and the distinction between the casting-net and the sean4 ,of the ,rete jaculum he says1 8,sic dicitur ad differentiam verriculi1 quod non jacitur1 sed trahitur et verritur40 ,he adds1 that ,herodotus calls it 1 and the ,germans ,wurffgarn4 ,the word occurs twice in ,herodotus1 and both places throw light upon its meaning4 ,in ,book i4 c4 #ada4 he says3 8,the ,lydians had no sooner been brought into subjection by the ,persians than the ,ionians and olians sent ambassadors to ,cyrus at ,sardis1 entreating him to receive them under his dominion on the same conditions on which they had been under ,crsus4 ,to this proposal he replied in the following fable4 ,a piper1 having seen some fishes in the sea1 played for a while on his pipe1 thinking that this would make them come to him on the land4 ,perceiving the fallacy of this expectation1 he took a casting-net1 and1 having thrown it around a great number of the fishes1 he drew them out of the water4 ,he then said to the fishes1 as they were jumping about1 ,as you did not choose to dance out of the water1 when ,i played to you on my pipe1 you may put a stop to your dancing now40 ,the other passage 7ii4 #ie7 has been illustrated in a very successful manner by ,william ,spence1 ,esq41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 in a paper in the ,transactions of the ,entomological ,society for the year #ahcd4 ,in connection with the curious fact1 that the common house-fly will not in general pass through the meshes of a net1 ,mr4 ,spence produces this passage1 in which ,herodotus states1 that the fishermen who lived about the marshes of ,egypt1 being each in possession of a casting-net1 and using it in the day-time to catch fishes1 employed these nets in the night to keep off the gnats1 by which that country is infested4 ,the casting-net was fixed so as to encircle the bed1 on which the fisherman slept2 and1 as this kind of net is always pear-shaped1 or of a conical form1 it is evident that nothing could be better adapted to the purpose1 as it would be suspended like a tent over the body of its owner4 ,in this passage ,herodotus twice uses the term 1 and once he calls the same thing 1 because1 as we have seen1 this was a common term applicable to nets of every description#gjf4 #gjf ,none of the commentators appear to have understood these passages4 ,in particular we find that ,schweighuser in his ,lexicon ,herodoteum explains thus3 8,verriculum1 ,rete quod circumjicitur40 ,rete1 however1 corresponds to 1 which meant a net of any kind2 and ,verriculum is the ,latin for 1 which1 as will be shown hereafter1 was a sean1 or drag-net4 ,the antiquity of the casting-net among the ,greeks appears from a passage in the ,shield of ,hercules1 attributed to ,hesiod 7l4 #bac-bae74 ,the poet says1 that the shield represented the sea with fishes seen in the water1 8and on the rocks sat a fisherman watching1 and he held in his hands a casting-net 77 for fishes1 and seemed to be throwing it from him40 ,we apprehend that1 the position of sitting was not so suitable to the use of the casting-net as standing1 because it requires the free use of the arms1 which a man cannot well have when he sits4 ,in other respects this description exactly agrees with the use of the casting-net3 for it is thrown by a single person1 who remains on land at the edge of the water1 observes the fishes in it1 and throws the net from him into the water so as suddenly to inclose them4 ,in two of the tragedies of schylus we find the term applied figuratively by ,clytemnestra to the shawl1 in which she enveloped her husband in order to murder him4 1 1 1 4--,agamem4 #acec1 #aced4 '1 4--,choph4 #dhe4 ,lycophron 7l4 #aaja7 calls this garment by the same name1 when he refers to the same event in the fabulous history of ,greece4 ,we have seen1 that in other passages the shawl so used is with equal aptitude called a purse-net 774 ,one of the comedies of ,menander was entitled 1 8the ,fisherman40 ,the expression1 1 is quoted from it by ,julius ,pollus 7x4 #acb7gjg4 #gjg ,menandri et ,phil4 ,reliqu1 a ,meineke1 p4 #af4 ,athenus 7lib4 x4 #gb4 p4 #dej c4 ,casaub47 quotes from ,antiphanes the following line1 which describes a man 8throwing a casting-net on many fishes03 4 ,in an epigram of ,leonidas ,tarentinus we find the casting-net called instead of #gjh4 #gjh ,brunck1 ,anal4 i4 #bbc1 ,no4 xii4 ,jacobs1 ,anthol4 i4 #b4 p4 #gd4 ,the is mentioned together with two other kinds of nets by ,artemidorus1 and which will be quoted presently4 ,the following curious passage of ,meletius de ,natura ,hominis1 in which that author1 probably following ,galen1 describes the expansion of the optic nerves1 mentions the casting-net as 8an instrument used by fishermen03 1 1 1 1 4 4--,salmasius1 in ,tertull4 de ,pallio1 p4 #bac4 ,the 1 or tunica retina1 was so called on account of its resemblance in form to the casting-net4 ,as we learn from ,herodotus that the casting-net was universally employed by the fishermen of ,egypt1 we shall not be surprised to find it mentioned in the ,alexandrine1 or1 as it is commonly called1 the ,septuagint version of the ,psalms and ,prophets3-- 1 i4 e4 8,sinners shall fall in his casting-net40--,psalm cxli4 #aj4 ,cadent in retiaculo ejus peccatores4--,vulgate ,version4 8,let the wicked fall in their own nets40 --,common ,english ,version4 ,the word in the original ,hebrew is 1 which ,gesenius translates 8,rete10 a net4 ,this word must have been more general in its meaning than the ,greek 1 and included the purse-net1 or 4 ,the ,chaldee and ,syriac versions use in this passage a word1 which denotes snares in general4 ,see ,isaiah li4 #bj1 where the same word is used in the ,hebrew1 but applied to the catching of a quadruped1 and where consequently the purse-net must have been intended4 1 4 i4 e4 8,and they who throw seans1 and they who fish with the casting-net1 shall mourn40--,isa4 xix4 #h4 ,et expandentes rete super faciem aquarum emarcescent4--,vulgate ,version4 8,and they that spread nets upon the waters shall languish40--,common ,english ,version4 ,it is to be observed1 that this prophecy relates to ,egypt4 ,the ,hebrew verb 1 here translated 8expandentes10 8they that spread10 is exactly applicable to the remarkable expansion of the casting-net just as it reaches the surface of the water4 ,in the ,alexandrine version we may also observe the clear distinction between the two principal kinds of nets1 the sean and the casting-net1 and that the man who fishes with the latter is called 1 as in ,latin he was designated by the single term jaculator4 1 4 1 1 4 1 4 i4 e4 8,he 7the ,chaldean7 hath drawn him in a casting-net and gathered him in his seans3 therefore his heart shall rejoice and be glad4 ,therefore he shall sacrifice to his sean and burn incense to his casting-net1 because by them he hath fattened his portion and his chosen dainties4 ,therefore he shall throw his casting-net1 and not spare utterly to slay nations40--,habakkuk1 i4 #ae-ag4 8,they catch them in their net and gather them in their drag2 therefore they rejoice and are glad4 ,therefore they sacrifice unto their net and burn incense unto their drag3 because by them their portion is fat and their meat plenteous4 ,shall they therefore empty their net1 and not spare continually to slay the nations80--,common ,english ,version4 ,the ,latin ,vulgate in this passage uses without discrimination the terms rete and sagena1 which latter is the ,greek word in a ,latin form4 occurs twice in the ,new ,testament4 ,matthew iv4 #ah3 8,jesus1 walking by the sea of ,galilee1 saw two brethren1 ,simon and ,andrew1 casting a net into the sea2 for they were fishers03 in the original1 2 in the ,vulgate version1 8mittentes rete40 ,it appears no sufficient objection to the sense which has been assigned to 1 that here two persons are mentioned as using it at the same time4 ,being partners and engaged in the same employment1 one perhaps collecting the fishes which the other caught1 they might be described together as 8throwing the casting-net10 although only one at a time held it in his hands4 ,in other respects this explanation is particularly suitable to the circumstances4 ,jesus was walking on the shore and accosted the two brothers4 ,this suits the supposition that they were on the shore likewise1 and not fishing out of a boat1 as they did with the sean at other times4 ,in verse #bj the ,evangelist uses the term 7nets71 saying 8they left their nets10 and meaning both their casting-net and those of other kinds4 ,in verse #ba he mentions that ,james and ,john were in their boat1 mending their nets 774 ,the same things are to be observed in ,mark i4 #af1 which is the parallel passage4 ,,iv4 1 or 4 ,pursuing the order adopted by ,oppian in his list of fishing nets above quoted1 we come to the 4 ,what kind of net this was we have been unable to discover4 ,it must1 however1 have been one of the most useful and important kinds1 because ,plutarch mentions as the common implements of the fisherman#gji1 and ,artemidorus speaks of this together with the casting-net and the sean in similar terms#gaj4 #gji 1 vol4 v4 p4 #hch1 ed4 ,steph4 #gaj ,l4 ii4 c4 #ad4 ,it may be observed1 that is used for a fisherman#gaa1 apparently equivalent to #gab4 ,we also find the expression 1 meaning1 8,by the fisherman's art#gac04 #gaa ,jacobs1 ,anthol4 vol4 i4 p4 #ahf1 ,nos4 #d and #e4 #gab ,theocrit4 i4 #ci2 iii4 #bf4 #gac ,brunck1 ,anal4 ii4 #i1 ,no4 #ad4 ,v4 4 ,the third fishing-net in ,oppian's enumeration is 4 ,we find it once mentioned metaphorically1 viz4 by schylus1 who calls an inextricable calamity1 #gad4 ,in ,schneider's edition of ,oppian we find this note1 8,rete ostreis capiendis esse annotavit ,hesychius40 ,passow also in his ,lexicon explains it as 8a small round net for catching oysters40 ,the reference to ,hesychius is incorrect4 ,if it was a net for catching oysters1 which appears very doubtful1 it may have been the net used by the ,indians in the pearl-fishery#gae4 #gad ,agam4 #ceb4 #gae 4 ,arrian1 ,indica1 vol4 i p4 #ebe1 ed4 ,blancardi4 ,,vi4 4 ,the 1 which is the fourth in ,oppian's enumeration1 was the landing-net1 used merely to take fishes out of the water when they rose to the surface1 or in similar circumstances to which it was adapted4 ,it was made with a hoop 77 fastened to a pole1 and was perhaps also provided with the means of closing the round aperture at the top#gaf4 ,of the we find nowhere any further mention4 #gaf ,see ,oppian1 ,hal4 iv4 #bea4 ,,vii4 ,,tragum1 ,,tragula1 ,,verriculum4 4 ,these were the ,greek and ,latin names for the sean4 ,before producing the passages in which they occur1 we will present to the reader an account of this kind of net as now used by the fishermen on the coast of ,cornwall 7,england7 for catching pilchards1 and as described by ,dr4 ,paris in his elegant and pleasant ,guide to ,mount's ,bay and ,land's ,end#gag4 8,at the proper season men are stationed on the cliffs to observe by the color of the water where the shoals of pilchards are to be found4 ,the sean is carried out in a boat1 and thrown into the sea by two men with such dexterity1 that in less than four minutes the fish are inclosed4 ,it is then either moored1 or1 where the shore is sandy and shelving1 it is drawn into more shallow water4 ,after this the fish are bailed into boats and carried to shore4 ,a sean is frequently three hundred fathoms long1 and seventeen deep4 ,the bottom of the net is kept to the ground by leaden weights1 whilst the corks keep the top of it floating on the surface4 ,a sean has been known to inclose at one time as many as twelve hundred hogsheads1 amounting to about three millions of fish40 #gag ,penzance1 #ahaf1 p4 #ia ,let this passage be compared with the following1 which gives an account of the use of the same kind of net among the ,arabs4 ,it will then appear how extensively it is employed1 since we find it used in exactly the same way both by our own countrymen and by tribes which we consider as ranking very low in the scale of civilization2 and on making this comparison1 the inference will seem not unreasonable1 that the ancient ,greeks and ,romans1 who in several of their colonies in the ,euxine ,sea1 on the coasts of ,ionia1 and of ,spain1 and in other places1 carried on the catching and curing of fish with the greatest possible activity and to a wonderful extent1 used nets of as great a compass as those which are here described4 8,the fishery is here 7i4 e4 at ,burka1 on the eastern coast of ,arabia7 conducted on a grand scale1 by means of nets many hundred fathoms in length1 which are carried out by boats4 ,the upper part is supported by small blocks of wood1 formed from the light and buoyant branches of the date-palm1 while the lower part is loaded with lead4 ,to either extremity of this a rope is attached1 by which1 when the whole of the net is laid out1 about thirty or forty men drag it towards the shore4 ,the quantity thus secured is enormous2 and what they do not require for their own consumption is salted and carried into the interior4 ,when1 as is very generally the case1 the nets are the common property of the whole village1 they divide the produce into equal shares#gah40 #gah ,lieutenant ,wellsted's ,travels in ,arabia1 vol4 i4 7,ornam71 pp4 #ahf1 #ahg4 ,that this method of fishing was practised by the ,egyptians from a remote antiquity appears from the remaining monuments4 ,the paintings on the tombs show persons engaged in drawing the sean1 which has floats along its upper margin and leads along the lower border#gai4 ,an ancient ,egyptian net1 obtained by ,m4 ,passalacqua1 is preserved in the ,museum at ,berlin4 ,some of its leads and floats remain1 as well as a gourd1 which assisted the floats#gbj4 #gai ,see ,wilkinson's ,manners and ,customs of ,ancient ,egypt1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bj1 #ba2 see also vol4 iii4 p4 #cg4 ,one of these paintings1 copied from ,wilkinson1 is introduced in ,plate ,x4 fig4 #c4 of this work4 ,the fishermen are seen on the shore drawing the net to land full of fishes4 ,there are eight floats along the top1 and four leads at the bottom on each side4 ,the water is drawn as is usual in ,egyptian paintings4 #gbj ,un filet de pche petites mailles1 et fait avec du fil de lin4 ,cet objet1 qui est garni de ses plombs1 conserve encore les morceaux de bois qui garnissaient sa partie suprieure1 ainsi qu'une courge qui l'aidait surnager4--,thbes1 ,passalacqua1 ,catalogue des ,antiquitis dcouvertes en ,egypte1 ,no4 #dde4 p4 #bb4 ,besides the verses of ,oppian1 which are above quoted1 we find another passage of the same poem 7,hal4 iii4 #hb1 #hc71 which mentions the following appendages to the 1 viz4 the 1 the 1 and the 4 ,as the 1 or feet of a sail were the ropes fastened to its lower corners1 we may conclude that the were the ropes attached to the corners of the sean1 and used in a similar manner to fasten it to the shore and to draw it in to the land1 as is described by ,ovid in the line already quoted1-- ,hos cava contento retia fune trahunt4 ,the 1 as the name implies1 were spherical1 and must therefore have been either the floats of wood or cork at the top1 or the weights1 consisting either of round stones or pieces of lead1 at the bottom4 ,the must have been a kind of bag formed in the sean to receive the fishes1 and thus corresponding to the purse or conical bag in the 4 ,the term is illustrated by the application of the equivalent epithet or 8angular10 to hunting-nets in a passage from ,brunck's ,analecta1 which was formerly explained1 and by the epithet 8cava0 in the line just quoted from ,ovid#gba4 #gba ,observe also the use of the word in the passage of ,lucian's ,timon1 quoted below4 ,in the following passage ,ovid mentions the use both of the corks and of the leads#gbb4 ,this passage also shows that several nets were fastened together in order to form a long sean3 ,aspicis1 ut summa cortex levis innatat unda1 ,cum grave nexa simul retia mergat onus8 ,trist4 iii4 #d4 #a1 #ab4 #gbb 1 ,j4 ,pollux1 x4 #cj4 #acb4 ,this use of cork and lead in fishing is also mentioned by lian1 ,hist4 ,anim4 xii4 #dc2 and that of cork by ,pausanias1 viii4 #ab4 #a2 and by ,pliny1 ,h4 ,n4 xvi4 #h4 s4 #ac1 where1 in reciting the various uses of cork1 he says it was employed 8piscantium tragulis40 ,sidonius ,apollinaris1 describing his own villa1 says3-- ,hinc jam spectabis1 ut promoveat alnum piscator in pelagus1 ut stataria retia suberinis corticibus extendat4--,epist4 ii4 #b4 8,hence you will see how the fisherman moves forward his boat into the deep water1 that he may extend his stationary nets by means of corks40 ,alciphron1 in his account of a fishing excursion near the ,promontory of ,phalerum1 says1 8,the draught of fishes was so great as almost to submerge the corks#gbc40 ,the earnest desire of a posterity1 founded on the wish for posthumous remembrance1 which was a very strong and prevailing sentiment among the ancients1 is illustrated by the language of ,electra in the ,chophor of schylus1 where she entreats her father upon this consideration to attend to her prayer1 and likens his memory to a net1 which his children1 like corks1 would save from disappearing3--8,do not extinguish the race of the ,pelopid4 ,for thus you will live after you are dead4 ,for a man's children are the preservers of his fame when dead1 and1 like corks in dragging the net1 they save the flaxen string from the abyss40 ,the use of the corks is mentioned in several of the epigrams of the ,greek ,anthology1 already referred to1 and in the following passage of ,plutarch3-- 4--,de ,genio ,socratis1 p4 #ajej1 ed4 ,steph4 #gbc 4--,epist4 i4 #a4 ,passages have been already produced from ,plutarch1 ,artemidorus1 and the ,alexandrine version of ,isaiah and ,habakkuk1 in which the sean is mentioned by its ,greek name 1 in contradistinction to other kinds of nets4 ,also the passage above cited from ,virgil's ,georgics 78pelagoque alius trahit humida lina071 indicates the use of the sean in deep water1 and the practice of dragging it out of the water by means of ropes1 which gave origin both to its ,english name1 the ,drag-net1 and to its ,latin appellations1 tragula1 used by ,pliny 7l4 c471 and tragum1 which is found in the ancient ,glossaries and in ,isidore of ,seville#gbd4 #gbd ,tragum genus retis1 ab eo quod trahatur nuncupatum3 ipsum est et verriculum4 ,verrere enim trahere est4--,orig4 xix4 #e4 ,the ,latin name verriculum occurs in a passage of ,valerius ,maximus1 which is also remarkable for a reference to the ,ionian fisheries1 and for the use of the word jactus1 literally1 a throw1 corresponding to that which the ,cornish men denominate1 a hawl of fish4 ,a piscatoribus in ,milesia regione verriculum trahentibus quidam jactum emerat4--,memor4 lib4 iv4 cap4 #a4 ,we introduce here an expression of ,philo1 in which we may remark that corresponds exactly to jactus in ,latin1 and that the drawing of the net into a circle is clearly indicated3 4 --,vita ,mosis1 tom4 ii4 p4 #ie4 ed4 ,mangey4 ,we find mention of the sean more especially for the capture of the tunny and of the pelamys1 which were the two principal kinds of fish caught in the ,mediterranean4 ,lucian speaks of the tunny-sean#gbe1 which was probably the largest net of the kind1 and he relates the circumstance of a tunny escaping from its bag or bosom#gbf4 ,the sean is thrice mentioned in the ,epistles of ,alciphron 7l4 c4 and lib4 i4 epp4 #ag1 #ah471 and in the two latter passages1 as used for catching tunnies and pelamides4 ,we read also of a dolphin 77 approaching the sean#gbg2 but this might be by accident4 ,it was not1 we apprehend1 employed to catch dolphins4 #gbe 4--,epist4 ,saturn4 tom4 iii4 p4 #djf4 ed4 ,reitz4 #gbf 4--,timon1 #bb4 tom4 i4 p4 #acf4 #gbg 4--lian1 ,h4 ,a4 xi4 c4 #ab4 ,in this chapter the same net is twice called by the common name1 4 ,in the following passage of the ,odyssey 7xxii4 #chd-chg7 we have a description of the use of a sean in a small bay1 having a sandy shore at its extremity1 and consequently most suitable for the employment of this kind of net3 ' 1 ' ' 4 ,the poet here compares ,penelope's suitors1 who lie slain upon the ground1 to fishes1 8which the fishermen by means of a net full of holes have drawn out of the hoary sea to a hollow bay1 and all of which1 deprived of the waves of the sea1 are poured upon the sands40 ,although the general term is here used1 it is evident that the net intended was the sean1 or dragnet4 ,in one of the passages of ,alciphron already referred to1 mention is made of the use of the sean in a similar situation4 ,some persons1 who are fishing in a bay for tunnies and pelamides1 inclose nearly the whole bay with their sean1 expecting to catch a very large quantity#gbh4 ,this circumstance proves1 that the sean was used with the ancient ,greeks1 as it is with us1 to encompass a great extent of water4 #gbh 4 --,epist4 i4 #ag4 ,a few miscellaneous passages1 which refer to the use of the sean1 may be conveniently introduced here3 ,diogenes1 seeing a great number of fishes in the deep1 says there is need of a sean to catch them2 4--,lucian1 ,piscata1 #ea4 tom4 i4 p4 #fah1 ed4 ,reitz4 ,the sean is called1 from its material1 1 in an epigram of ,archias4--,brunck1 ,anal4 ii4 #id4 ,no4 #aj4 ,plutarch1 describing the spider's web1 says1 that its weaving is like the labor of women at the loom1 its hunting like that of fishermen with the sean4--,de ,solertia ,animalium1 tom4 x4 p4 #bi1 ed4 ,reiske4 ,he here uses the term for a fisher with the sean4 ,this verbal noun is regularly formed from 1 which means to inclose or catch with the sean3 e4 g4 4--,herodian1 iv4 #i1 #ab4 ,lucian uses the same verb in reference to the story of ,vulcan inclosing ,mars and ,venus in a net2 4--,dialogi ,deor4 tom4 i4 p4 #bdc4 ,somnium1 tom4 ii4 p4 #gjg1 ed4 ,reitz4 ,leonidas of ,tarentum1 in an epigram enumerating the ornaments of a lady's toilet 7,brunck1 ,anal4 i4 p4 #bba71 mentions 4 ,jacobs 7,annot4 in ,anthol4 i4 #b4 p4 #fc7 supposes this to mean the lady's comb2 but1 judging from the known meaning of and its derivatives1 we may conclude that it was the 1 or net1 which inclosed and encircled the hair1 like a sean4 ,the following verse of ,manilius 7lib4 v4 ver4 #fgh47 is remarkable as a rare instance of the adoption of the ,greek word sagena by a ,latin poet3-- ,excipitur vasta circumvallata sagena4 ,we have seen that the sean supplied figures of speech no less than the purse-net 771 and the casting-net 774 ,it is applied thus in the case of persons who are ensnared by the wicked#gbi1 who are captivated by the charms of love#gcj or of eloquence#gca1 or who are held in bondage by superstition#gcb4 ,but by far the most distinct1 expressive and important of its metaphorical applications1 was to the mode of besieging a city by encircling it with one uninterrupted line of soldiers1 or sweeping away the entire population of a certain district by marching in similar order across it4 ,of this the first example occurs in ,herodotus iii4 #ade3-- 1 4 8,the ,persians1 having dragged ,samos1 delivered it1 being now destitute of men1 to ,solyson40 #gbi 4--,lucian1 ,timon1 #be4 tom4 i4 p4 #ach1 ed4 ,reitz4 #gcj ,brunck1 ,anal4 iii4 #aeg4 ,no4 #cb4 ,here the sean is called by the general term 1 but the particular kind of net is indicated by the participle 4 #gca 1 1 i4 e4 8,a disciple of those who bound the world in the sweet seans of ,god40--,greg4 ,nazianz4 ad ,nemesium1 tom4 ii4 p4 #ada1 ed4 ,paris1 #afcj4 7,see ,chap4 ,,iii1 p4 #ec47 #gcb ,plutarch1 evidently referring to the siege of ,jerusalem by ,titus1 says1 8,the ,jews on the ,sabbath sitting down on coarse blankets 7 1 literally1 in 1 or blankets1 which had not been fulled1 or cleansed by the 71 even when the enemy were setting the ladders to scale the walls1 did not rise up1 but remained1 as if inclosed in one sean1 namely1 superstition1 7 1 1 740--,opp4 tom4 vi4 ,de ,superstit4 p4 #fdg1 ed4 ,reiske4 ,as we speak of dragging a pit1 so the ,greeks would have spoken1 in this metaphorical sense1 of dragging an island4 ,in the sixth book 7ch4 xxxi47 ,herodotus particularly describes this method of capturing the enemy4 ,according to this account the ,persians landed on the northern side of the island4 ,they then took hold of one another's hands so as to form a long line1 and thus linked together they walked across the island to the south side1 so as to hunt out all the inhabitants4 ,the historian here particularly mentions1 that ,chios1 ,lesbos1 and ,tenedos were reduced to captivity in this manner4 ,it is recorded by ,plato#gcc1 that ,datis1 in order to alarm the ,athenians1 against whom he was advancing at the head of the ,persian army1 spread a report that his soldiers1 joining hand to hand1 had taken all the ,eretrians captive as in a sean4 ,the reader is referred to the ,notes of ,wesseling and ,valckenaer on ,herod4 iii4 #adi for some passages1 in which subsequent ,greek authors have quoted ,herodotus and ,plato4 ,we find 1 8to be dragged10 used in the same manner by ,heliodorus#gcd4 #gcc ,de ,legibus1 lib4 iii4 prope finem4 #gcd ,lib4 vii4 p4 #cjd4 ed4 ,commelini4 ,in addition to the passages of ,isaiah and ,habakkuk which mention the drag in opposition to the casting-net2 we find three references to the use of it in the prophecies of ,ezekiel1 viz4 in ,ezek4 xxvi4 #e4 #ad2 xlvii4 #aj4 ,the prophet1 foretelling the destruction of ,tyre1 says it would become a place to dry seans upon1 2 8siccatio sagenarum10 ,vulgate ,version2 8a place for the spreading of nets10 ,common ,english ,version4 ,the ,hebrew term for a drag or sean is here 4 ,the only passage of the ,new ,testament which makes express mention of the sean1 is ,matt4 xiii4 #dg1 #dh3 8,the kingdom of heaven is like unto a net 77 that was cast into the sea1 and gathered of every kind2 which1 when it was full1 they drew to shore1 and sat down1 and gathered the good into vessels1 but cast the bad away40 ,the casting-net1 which can only inclose part of a very small shoal1 would not have been adapted to the object of this parable4 ,but we perceive the allusion intended by it to the great quantity and variety of fishes of every kind which are brought to the shore of the bay 77 by the use of the drag4 ,the ,vulgate here retains the ,greek word1 translating sagena as in the above-cited passages of ,habakkuk and ,ezekiel4 ,in ,john xxi4 #f4 #h4 #aa1 the use of the sean is evidently intended to be described1 although it is called four times by the common term 1 which denoted either a sean1 or a net of any other kind4 ,it is in this passage translated rete in the ,latin ,vulgate4 ,the ,greek having been adopted under the form sagena in the ,latin ,vulgate1 this was changed into rezne by the ,anglo-,saxons#gce1 and their descendants1 have still further abridged it into sean4 ,in the south of ,england this word is also pronounced and spelt seine1 as it is in ,french4 ,we find in ,bede's ,ecclesiastical ,history#gcf a curious passage on the introduction of this kind of net into ,england4 ,he says1 8the people had as yet only learnt to catch eels with nets4 ,wilfrid caused them to collect together all their eel-nets1 and to use them as a sean for catching fishes of all kinds40 #gce ,see ,caedmon1 p4 #ge4 ed4 ,junii4 #gcf ,page #bid1 ed4 ,wilkins4 ,,viii4 ,,reticulus or ,,reticulum4 4 ,in the ancient ,glossaries we find translated ,reticulus and ,reticulum3 it meant1 therefore1 a small net4 ,it was not a name for nets in general1 nor did it denote any kind of hunting-net or fishing-net1 although the net indicated by this term might be used occasionally for catching animals as well as for other purposes4 ,it was used1 for example1 in an island on the coast of ,india to catch tortoises1 being set at the mouths of the caverns1 which were the resort of those creatures#gcg4 ,but the same term is applied to the nets which were used to carry pebbles and stones intended to be thrown from military engines#gch2 and a similar contrivance was in common use for carrying loaves of bread#gci4 ,hence it is manifest that the was often much like the nets in which the ,jewish boys in our streets carry lemons1 being inclosed at the mouth by a running string or noose4 ,we may therefore translate 1 8a bag-net10 as it was made in the form of a bag4 8,to blow into a bag-net10 1 became a proverb1 meaning to labor in vain4 ,but this bag was often of much smaller dimensions1 and of much finer materials1 than in the instances already mentioned4 ,from a passage of neas ,tacticus 7p4 #ed4 ed4 ,orell47 we may infer that it was sometimes not larger than a purse for the pocket4 ,hence ,aristotle#gdj properly applies the term to the small spherical or oval bag in which spiders deposit their eggs4 ,among the luxurious habits of the ,sicilian prtor ,verres1 it is recorded1 that he had a small and very fine linen net1 filled with rose-leaves1 8which ever and anon he gave his nose#gda40 ,this net was1 no doubt1 called in ,greek4 #gcg 1 4 #gch ,athenus1 lib4 v4 #dc4 p4 #bjh1 ed4 ,casaub4 #gci 1 4--,hesych4 ,reticulum panis4--,hor4 ,sat4 i4 l4 #dg4 #gdj ,anim4 ,hist4 v4 #bg4 ,compare ,apollodorus1 ,frag4 xi4 p4 #ded1 ed4 ,heyne4 #gda ,reticulum ad nares sibi admovebat1 tenuissimo lino1 minutis maculis1 plenum ros4--,cic4 in ,verr4 ii4 #e4 #aa4 --,arrian1 ,per4 ,maris ,eryth4 p4 #aea4 ed4 ,blancardi4 ,,the ,,end4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,x4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,a number of typographical errors have been corrected silently4 ,cover is in public domain4 ,footnote #gca may not be pointing to the exactly correct location as the original was not marked4