,,the ,,wisdom ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,job ,,and ,,solomon ,,or ,,the ,,wisdom ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,t4 ,k4 ,,cheyne1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d4 ,,oriel ,,professor ,,of ,,interpretation ,,at ,,oxford ,,canon ,,of ,,rochester ,,new ,,york ,,thomas ,,whittaker #b #c ,,bible ,,house #ahhg ,,the ,,very ,,reverend ,,george ,,granville ,,bradley1 ,d4,d4 ,,dean ,,of ,,westminster ,,in ,,high ,,appreciation ,,of ,,his ,,long-,,proved ,,interest ,,in ,,exegesis ,,and ,,of ,,his ,,happily ,,conceived ,,lectures ,,on ,,ecclesiastes ,,preface4 ,the present work is a fragmentary realisation of a plan which has been maturing in my mind for many years4 ,exegesis and criticism are equally necessary for the full enjoyment of the treasures of the ,old ,testament1 and just as no commentary is complete which does not explain the actual position of critical controversies1 so no introduction to the criticism of a book is trustworthy which does not repose1 and show the reader that it reposes1 on the basis of a thorough exegesis4 ,in this volume ,i do not pretend to have approached the ideal of such students' manuals as ,i have described2 ,i have not been sufficiently sure of my public to treat the subject on the scale which ,i should have liked1 and such personal drawbacks as repeated changes of residence1 frequent absence from large libraries1 and within the last two years a serious eye-trouble1 have hindered me in the prosecution of my work4 ,other tasks now claim my restored strength1 and ,i can no longer withhold my volume from those lovers of the sacred literature who in some degree share the point of view from which ,i have written4 ,the ,books of ,job and ,ecclesiastes are treated somewhat more in detail than those of ,proverbs and ,ecclesiasticus4 ,the latter have a special interest of their own1 but to bring this into full view1 more excursions into pure philology would have been necessary than ,i judged it expedient to allow myself4 ,i had intended to make up for this omission so far as ,proverbs is concerned at the end of the volume1 but have been interrupted in doing so4 ,perhaps1 however1 even in the ,appendix such detailed treatment of special points might have repelled some readers1 and ,i hope that the ,appendix is on the whole not unreadable4 ,the enlarged notes on ,proverbs in the forthcoming new edition of ,messrs4 ,eyre and ,spottiswoode's ,variorum ,bible may enable the student to do for himself what ,i have not done4 ,as for ,ecclesiasticus1 the light which ,prof4 ,bickell's and ,dr4 ,edersheim's researches are sure to throw on the text may enable me some day to recast the section on this book2 at present1 ,i only offer this as an illustrative sequel to the section on ,proverbs4 ,it should be added that the canonicity of ,ecclesiasticus is handled in conjunction with that of ,ecclesiastes at the close of the part on the latter book4 ,the interest of ,job and ,ecclesiastes is of a far deeper and more varied kind4 ,even from a critical point of view1 the study of these books is most refreshing after the incessant and exciting battles of ,pentateuch-criticism4 ,but as monuments of the spiritual struggles of a past which is not wholly dead1 they have been to me1 as doubtless to many others1 sources of pure delight4 ,if ,i appreciate ,job more highly than ,ecclesiastes1 it is not from any want of living sympathy with the philosophic doubter1 but because the enjoyment even of ,scriptures is dependent on moods and impulses4 ,de ,sanctis has pointed out 7,storia della letteratura italiana1 i4 #hj7 how the story of ,job became the favourite theme of the early ,italian moralists1 and everyone knows how the great ,latin doctors 7,gregory the ,great1 ,bede1 ,aquinas1 ,albertus ,magnus7 delighted to comment on this wonderful book4 ,in our own day1 from perfectly intelligible causes1 ,ecclesiastes has too much drawn off the attention of the educated world1 but there are signs that the character-drama of ,job will soon reassert its old fascinating power4 ,in conclusion1 will earnest students1 whether academical or not1 grant me two requests8 ,the first is1 that they will meet me with confidence1 and gather any grains of truth they can1 even where they cannot yield full assent4 ,the problems of ,hebrew literature are complex2 herein partly lies their fascination2 herein also is a call for mutual tolerance on the part of all who approach them4 ,there is nothing to regret in this complexity2 in searching for the solution of these problems1 we gain an ever fresh insight into facts and ideas which will never lose their significance4 ,my second request is1 that the ,appendix1 which1 short as it is1 contains something for different classes of readers1 may not be neglected as only an ,appendix4 ,i would add that the #8much-desired aid' in the critical use of the ,septuagint referred to on p4 #aad has already to a large extent been given by ,gustav ,bickell's essay 7see p4 #bif71 which ,i have now been able to examine4 ,his early treatise 7#ahfb7 is at length happily supplemented and corrected4 ,we shall know still more when ,p4 ,ciasca has completed the publication of the fragments of the ,sahidic version4 ,it is clear however that each omission in the pre-,hexaplar ,septuagint text 7represented by this version7 must be judged upon its own merits1 nor can ,i estimate the value of the text of the ,septuagint quite as highly as some critics4 ,it is hoped that the present work may be followed by a volume on the ,psalms1 the ,lamentations1 and the ,song of ,songs4 ,,contents4 ,,introduction #a ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,job4 ,i4 ,,job',s ,,calamity2 ,,the ,,opening ,,of ,,the ,,dialogues 7,chaps4 i4-xiv47 #aa ,,ii4 ,,the ,,second ,,cycle ,,of ,,speeches 7,chaps4 xv4-xxi47 #cj ,,iii4 ,,the ,,third ,,cycle ,,of ,,speeches 7,chaps4 xxii4-xxxi47 #cg ,,iv4 ,,the ,,speeches ,,of ,,elihu 7,chaps4 xxxii4-xxxvii47 #db ,v4 ,,the ,,speeches ,,of ,,jehovah 7,chaps4 xxxviii4-xlii4 #f7 #dh ,,vi4 ,,the ,,epilogue ,,and ,,its ,,meaning #eh ,,vii4 ,,the ,,traditional ,,basis ,,and ,,the ,,purpose ,,of ,,job #fj ,,viii4 ,,date ,,and ,,place ,,of ,,composition #ga ,,ix4 ,,argument ,,from ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,mythology #gf ,x4 ,,argument ,,from ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,angels #gi ,,xi4 ,,argument ,,from ,,parallel ,,passages #hc ,,xii4 ,,on ,,the ,,disputed ,,passages ,,in ,,the ,,dialogue ,,portion1 ,,especially ,,the ,,speeches ,,of ,,elihu #ij ,,xiii4 ,,is ,,job ,a ,,hebr,o-,,arabic ,,poem8 #if ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,book ,,from ,a ,,religious ,,point ,,of ,,view #ajb ,,xv4 ,,the ,,book ,,from ,a ,,general ,,and ,,western ,,point ,,of ,,view #ajf ,note on ,job and the ,modern ,poets #aab ,note on the ,text of ,job #aab ,aids to the ,student #aae ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,proverbs4 ,i4 ,,hebrew ,,wisdom1 ,,its ,,nature1 ,,scope1 ,,and ,,importance #aag ,,ii4 ,,the ,,form ,,and ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,proverbs #abe ,,iii4 ,,the ,,first ,,collection ,,and ,,its ,,appendices #acj ,,iv4 ,,the ,,second ,,collection ,,and ,,its ,,appendices #adb ,v4 ,,the ,,praise ,,of ,,wisdom #aef ,,vi4 ,,supplementary ,,on ,,questions ,,of ,,date ,,and ,,origin #afe ,,vii4 ,,the ,,text ,,of ,,proverbs #agc ,note on ,prov4 xxx4 #ca #age ,,viii4 ,,the ,,religious ,,value ,,of ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,proverbs #agf ,aids to the ,student #agh ,,the ,,wisdom ,,of ,,jesus ,,the ,,son ,,of ,,sirach4 ,i4 ,,the ,,wise ,,man ,,turned ,,scribe4 ,,sirach',s ,,moral ,,teaching #agi ,,ii4 ,,sirach',s ,,teaching 7continued74 ,,his ,,place ,,in ,,the ,,movement ,,of ,,thought #ahh ,aids to the ,student 7see also ,appendix7 #aih ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,koheleth2 ,,or1 ,,ecclesiastes4 ,i4 ,,the ,,wise ,,man ,,turned ,,author ,,and ,,philosopher #aii ,,ii4 #8,,truth ,,and ,,fiction' ,,in ,,an ,,autobiography #bjg ,,iii4 ,,more ,,moralising1 ,,interrupted ,,by ,,proverbial ,,maxims #bac ,,iv4 ,,facts ,,of ,,contemporary ,,life #bah ,v4 ,,the ,,wise ,,man',s ,,parting ,,counsels #bbb ,,vi4 ,,koheleth',s #8,,portrait ,,of ,,old ,,age2' ,,the ,,epilogue1 ,,its ,,nature ,,and ,,origin #bbi ,,vii4 ,,ecclesiastes ,,and ,,its ,,critics 7,,from ,a ,,philological ,,point ,,of ,,view7 #bcf ,,viii4 ,,ecclesiastes ,,and ,,its ,,critics 7,,from ,a ,,literary ,,and ,,psychological ,,point ,,of ,,view7 #bdb ,,ix4 ,,ecclesiastes ,,from ,a ,,moral ,,and ,,religious ,,point ,,of ,,view #bdh ,x4 ,,date ,,and ,,place ,,of ,,composition #bee ,,xi4 ,,does ,,koheleth ,,contain ,,greek ,,words ,,or ,,ideas8 #bfj ,,xii4 ,,textual ,,problems ,,of ,,koheleth #bgc ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,canonicity ,,of ,,ecclesiastes ,,and ,,ecclesiasticus #bgi ,aids to the ,student #bhe ,,appendix 7see ,special ,table of ,contents7 #bhg ,,index #cjc ,,introduction4 ,,how ,,is ,,old ,,testament ,,criticism ,,related ,,to ,,christianity8 ,the point of view represented in this volume is still so little recognised and represented in ,england and ,america that the author ventures to prefix a short paper delivered as an address at the ,church ,congress held at ,reading in ,october #ahhc4 ,it is proverbially more difficult to write a thin book than a thick one1 and the labour involved in preparing this twenty minutes' paper1 with its large outlook and sedulously under-stated claims1 was such as he would not willingly undertake again for a like purpose4 ,the subject was not an ephemeral one and the attitude of the ,churches towards it has not materially altered within the last three years4 ,the present volume is pervaded by the spirit which breathes1 as the author trusts1 in every line of this paper4 ,it relates1 indeed1 only to a small section of the ,old ,testament1 but no part of that #8library' 7as medival writers so well named it7 can be studied in complete severance from the rest4 ,and if a high aim is held forward in one of the opening sentences to the ,church of which the writer is a son1 those who are connected with the other historic communions will easily understand the bitter-sweet feeling of hope against hope with which those lines were penned4 99 99 99 99 99 #8,my own conviction1' said the late ,dr4 ,pusey1 #8has long been that the hope of the ,church of ,england is in mutual tolerance4'#a ,that truly great man was not thinking of the new school of ,old ,testament critics1 and yet if the ,anglican ,church is ever to renovate her theology and to become in any real sense undeniably the ,church of the future1 she cannot afford to be careless or intolerant of attempts to modernise our methods of criticism and exegesis4 ,it would no doubt be simpler to content ourselves with that criticism and exegesis1 and consequently with that theology1 which have been fairly adequate to the wants of the past2 but are we sure that ,jesus ,christ would not now lead us a few steps further on towards #8all the truth1' and that one of ,his preparatory disciplines may not be a method of ,biblical criticism which is less tender to the traditions of the scribes1 and more in harmony with the renovating process which is going on in all other regions of thought8 ,why1 indeed1 should there not be a providence even in the phases of ,old ,testament criticism1 so that where some can see merely the shiftings of arbitrary opinion more enlightened eyes may discern a veritable progress1 leading at once to fresh views of history1 and to necessary reforms in our theology1 making this theology simpler and stronger1 deeper and more truly ,catholic1 by making it more ,biblical8 ,some one1 however1 may ask1 ,does not modern criticism actually claim to have refuted the fundamental facts of ,bible history8 ,but which are these fundamental facts8 ,bishop ,thirlwall1 twenty years ago1 told his clergy #8that a great part of the events related in the ,old ,testament has no more apparent connection with our religion than those of ,greek and ,roman history4' ,put these events for a moment on one side1 and how much more conspicuous does that great elementary fact become which stands up as a rock in ,israel's history--namely1 that a holy ,god1 for the good of the world1 chose out this people1 isolating it more and more completely for educational purposes from its heathen neighbours1 and interposing at various times to teach1 to chastise1 and to deliver it6 ,it is not necessary to prove that all such recorded interpositions are in the strictest sense historical2 it is enough if the tradition or the record of some that are so did survive the great literary as well as political catastrophe of the ,babylonian captivity4 ,and ,i have yet to learn that the ,exodus1 the destruction of ,sennacherib's army1 the restoration of the ,jews to their own land1 and the unique phenomenon of spiritual prophecy1 are called in question even by the most advanced school of ,biblical criticism4 ,one fact1 indeed1 there is1 regarded by some of us as fundamental1 which these advanced critics do maintain to be disproved1 and that is the giving of the ,levitical ,law by ,moses1 or if not by ,moses1 by persons in the pre-,exile period who had prophetic sanction for giving it4 ,supposing the theory of ,kuenen and ,wellhausen to be correct1 it will no doubt appear to some minds 7#a7 that the inspiration of the ,levitical ,law is at any rate weakened in quality thereby1 7#b7 that a glaring inconsistency is introduced into the ,divine teaching of ,israel1 which becomes anti-sacrificial at one time1 and sacrificial at another1 and 7#c7 that room is given for the supposition that the ,levitical system itself was an injurious though politic condescension to popular tastes1 and consequently 7as ,lagarde ventures to hold7 that ,st4 ,paul1 by his doctrine of the ,atonement1 ruined1 so far as he could1 the simple ,gospel of ,jesus ,christ4 ,but ,i only mention these possible inferences in order to point out how unfair they are4 7#a7 ,the inspiration 7to retain an often misused but indispensable term7 of the ,levitical ,law is only weakened in any bad sense if it be maintained that the law1 whenever the main part of it was promulgated1 failed to receive the sanction of ,god's prophetic interpreters1 and that it was not1 in the time of ,ezra1 the only effectual instrument for preserving the deposit of spiritual religion4 7#b7 ,with regard to the inconsistency 7assuming the new hypothesis7 between the two periods of the ,divine teaching of ,israel1 the feeling of a devout1 though advanced critic would be that he was not a fit judge of the providential plan4 ,inconsistent conclusions on one great subject 7that of forgiveness of sins7 might in fact be drawn from the language of our ,lord ,himself at different periods of ,his ministry1 though the parallel may not be altogether complete1 since our ,lord never used directly anti-sacrificial language4 ,and it might be urged on the side of ,kuenen1 that neither would the early prophets have used such language--at any rate in the literary version of their discourses if they had foreseen the canonical character which this would assume1 and the immense importance of a sacrificial system in the post-,exile period4 7#c7 ,the theory that the law involves an injurious condescension is by no means compulsory upon advocates of the new hypothesis4 ,concessions to popular taste have1 indeed1 as we know but too well1 often almost extinguished the native spirit of a religion2 but the fact that some at least of the most spiritual psalms are acknowledged to be post-,exile ought to make us all1 critics and non-critics alike1 slow to draw too sharp a distinction between the legal and the evangelical4 ,that the law was misused by some1 and in course of time became spiritually almost obsolete1 would not justify us in depreciating it1 even if we thought that the lesser and not the greater ,moses1 the scribe and not the prophet1 was mainly responsible for its promulgation4 ,finally1 the rash statement of ,lagarde has been virtually answered by the reference of another radical critic 7,keim7 to the well-attested words of ,christ at the institution of the ,eucharist 7,matt4 xxvi4 #bh74 ,i have spoken thus much on the assumption that the hypothesis of ,kuenen and ,wellhausen may be true4 ,that it will ever become universally prevalent is improbable--the truth may turn out to lie between the two extremes--but that it will go on for some time gaining ground among the younger generation of scholars is1 ,i think1 almost certain4 ,no one who has once studied this or any other ,old ,testament controversy from the inside and with a full view of the evidence can doubt that the traditional accounts of many of the disputed books rest on a very weak basis1 and those who crave for definite solutions1 and cannot bear to live in twilight1 will naturally hail such clear-cut hypotheses as those of ,kuenen and ,wellhausen1 and credit them with an undue finality4 ,let us be patient with these too sanguine critics1 and not think them bad ,churchmen1 as long as they abstain from drawing those dangerous and unnecessary inferences of which ,i have spoken4 ,it is the want of an equally intelligent interest which makes the ,old ,testament a dead letter to so many highly orthodox theologians4 ,if the advanced critics succeed in awakening such an interest more generally1 it will be no slight compensation for that #8unsettlement of views' which is so often the temporary consequence of reading their books4 ,one large part1 however1 of ,kuenen and ,wellhausen's critical system is not peculiar to them1 but accepted by the great majority of professed ,old ,testament critics4 ,it is this part which has perhaps a still stronger claim to be considered in its relation to ,christian truth1 because there is every appearance that it will1 in course of time1 become traditional among those who have given up the still current traditions of the synagogue4 ,i refer 7#a7 to the analysis of the ,pentateuch and the ,book of ,joshua into several documents1 7#b7 to the view that many of the laws contained in the ,pentateuch arose gradually1 according to the needs of the people1 and that ,ezra1 or at least contemporaries of ,ezra1 took a leading part in the revision and completion of the law book1 and 7#c7 to the dating of the original documents or compilations at various periods1 mostly long subsequent to the time of ,moses4 ,time forbids me to enter into the grounds for the confident assertion that if either exegesis or the ,church's representation of religious truth is to make any decided progress1 the results of the literary analysis of the ,pentateuch must be accepted as facts1 and that theologians must in future recognise at least three different sections1 and as many different conceptions of ,israel's religious development1 within the ,pentateuch1 just as they have long recognised at least three different types of teaching in the ,old ,testament as a whole4 ,on the question as to the date of these sections1 and as to the ,mosaic origin of any considerable part of them1 the opinions of special scholars within the ,church will1 for a long time yet1 be more or less divided4 ,there is1 ,i know1 a belief growing up among us1 that ,assyrian and ,egyptian discoveries are altogether favourable to the ordinary ,english view of the dates of the historical books1 including the ,pentateuch4 ,may ,i be pardoned for expressing the slowly formed conviction that apologists in ,england 7and be it observed that ,i do not quarrel with the conception of apologetic theology7 frequently indulge in general statements as to the bearings of recent discoveries1 which are only half true8 ,the opponents of whom they are thinking are long since dead2 it is wasting time to fight with the delusions of a past age4 ,no one now thinks the ,bible an invention of priestcraft2 that which historical critics doubt is the admissibility of any unqualified assertion of the strict historicalness of all the details of all its component parts4 ,this doubt is not removed by recent archological discoveries1 the critical bearings of which are sometimes what neither of the critical schools desired or expected4 ,i refer especially to the bearings of ,assyrian discoveries on the date of what are commonly called the ,jehovistic narratives in the first nine chapters of ,genesis4 ,i will not pursue this subject further1 and merely add that we must not too hastily assume that the supplement hypothesis is altogether antiquated4 ,the results of the anticipated revolution in our way of looking at the ,pentateuch strike me as fourfold4 7#a7 ,historically4 ,the low religious position of most of the pre-,exile ,israelites will be seen to be not the result of a deliberate rebellion against the law of ,jehovah1 the ,levitical laws being at any rate virtually non-existent4 ,by this ,i mean1 that even if any large part of those laws go back to the age of ,moses they were never thoroughly put in force1 and soon passed out of sight4 ,otherwise how can we account for this1 among other facts1 that ,deuteronomy1 or the main part of it1 is known in the reign of ,josiah as #8the law of ,moses'8 ,we shall also1 perhaps1 get a deeper insight into the ,divine purpose in raising up that colossal personage who1 though #8slow of speech1' was so mighty in deed3 ,i mean ,moses--and shall realise those words of a writer specially sanctioned by my own university3 #8,should we have an accurate idea of the purpose of ,god in raising up ,moses1 if we said1 ,he did it that ,he might communicate a revelation8 ,would not this be completely to misunderstand the principal end of the mission of ,moses1 which was the establishment of the theocracy1 and in so far as ,god revealed through him the revelation was but as means to this higher end8'#b 7#b7 ,we shall1 perhaps1 discriminate more between the parts of the ,old ,testament1 some of which will be chiefly valuable to us as bringing into view the gradualness of ,israel's education1 and as giving that fulness to our conceptions of ,biblical truths which can only be got by knowing the history of their outward forms2 others will have only that interest which attaches even to the minutest and obscurest details of the history of much-honoured friends or relatives2 others1 lastly1 will rise1 in virtue of their intrinsic majesty1 to a position scarcely inferior to that of the finest parts of the ,new ,testament itself4 7#c7 ,as a result of what has thus been gained1 our idea of inspiration will become broader1 deeper1 and more true to facts4 7#d7 ,we shall have to consider our future attitude towards that ,kenotic#c view of the person of ,christ which has been accepted in some form by such great exegetical theologians as ,hofmann1 ,oehler1 and ,delitzsch4 ,although the ,logos1 by the very nature of the conception1 must be omniscient1 the incarnate ,logos1 we are told1 pointed ,his disciples to a future time1 in which they should do greater works than ,he ,himself1 and should open the doors to fresh departments of truth4 ,the critical problems of the ,old ,testament did not then require to be settled by ,him1 because they had not yet come into existence4 ,had they emerged into view in our ,lord's time1 they would have given as great a shock to devout ,jews as they have done to devout ,christians2 and our ,master would1 no doubt1 have given them a solution fully adequate to the wants of believers4 ,in that case1 a reference to some direction of the law as of ,mosaic origin would1 in the mouth of ,christ1 have been decisive2 and the ,church would1 no doubt1 have been guided to make some distinct definition of her doctrine on the subject4 ,thus in the very midst of the driest critical researches we can feel that1 if we have duly fostered the sense of ,divine things1 we are on the road to further disclosures of religious as well as historical truth4 ,the day of negative criticism is past1 and the day of a cheap ridicule of all critical analysis of ancient texts is1 we may hope1 nearly past also4 ,in faith and love the critics whose lot ,i would fain share are at one with many of those who suspect and perhaps ridicule them3 in the aspirations of hope their aim is higher4 ,gladly would ,i now pass on to a survey of the religious bearings of the critical study of the poetical and prophetical books1 which1 through differences of race1 age1 and above all spiritual atmosphere1 we find1 upon the whole1 so much more attractive and congenial than the ,levitical legislation4 ,let me1 at least1 throw out a few hints4 ,great as is the division of opinion on points of detail1 so much appears to be generally accepted that the number of prophets whose works have partly come down to us is larger than used to be supposed4 ,the analysis of the texts may not be as nearly perfect as that of the ,pentateuch1 but there is no doubt among those of the younger critics whose voices count 7and with the pupils of ,delitzsch the case is the same as with those of ,ewald7 that several of the prophetical books are made up of the works of different writers1 and ,i even notice a tendency among highly orthodox critics to go beyond ,ewald himself and analyse the ,book of ,daniel into portions of different dates4 ,the result is important1 and not for literary history alone4 ,it gives us a much firmer hold on the great principle that a prophet's horizon is that of his own time2 that he prophesied1 as has been well said1 into the future1 but not directly to the future4 ,this will1 ,i believe1 in no wise affect essential ,christian truth1 but will obviously modify our exegesis of certain ,scripture proofs of ,christian doctrine1 and is perhaps not without a bearing on the two grave theological subjects referred to already4 ,bear with me if1 once again in conclusion1 ,i appeal to the ,church at large on behalf of those who would fain modernise our criticism and exegesis with a view to a not less distinctively ,christian but more progressive ,church theology4 ,the age of cumenical councils may have passed2 but if criticism1 exegesis1 and philosophy are only cultivated in a fearless and reverent spirit1 and if the ,church at large troubles itself a little more to understand the workers and their work1 an approximation to agreement on great religious questions may hereafter be attained4 ,what the informal decisions of the general ,christian consciousness will be1 it would be impertinent to conjecture4 ,it is ,st4 ,john's #8all truth' after which we aspire--#8all the truth' concerning ,god1 the individual soul1 and human society1 into which the labours of generations1 encouraged by the guiding star1 shall by degrees introduce us4 ,but one thing is too clear to be mistaken--viz4 that exegesis must decide first of all what essential ,christian truth is before a devout philosophy can interpret1 expand1 and apply it1 and ,old ,testament exegesis1 at any rate1 cannot be long separated from its natural ally1 the higher criticism4 ,a provisional separation may no doubt be necessary1 but the ultimate aim of successive generations of students must be a faithful exegesis1 enlightened by a seven-times tested criticism4 ,footnote #a3 #8,toleranz sollte eigentlich nur eine vorbergehende ,gesinnung sein2 sie muss zur ,anerkennung fhren4'--,goethe4 ,footnote #b3 ,see essay on #8,miracles' in ,christian ,remembrancer 7list of works recommended to theological honour-students in ,oxford74 ,footnote #c3 ,the self-humiliation of ,christ is described 7need ,i remark87 by ,st4 ,paul as a 7,phil4 ii4 #g74 ,how far this extended is a theological problem which in the sixteenth century1 and again in our own1 has exercised devout thinkers4 ,for the modern form of the ,kenotic view or doctrine the ,english reader will naturally go to ,dorner's ,history of the ,doctrine of the ,person of ,christ1 vol4 iii41 in ,clark's ,library4 ,dorner's opposition to this view is a weighty but not1 of course1 a decisive fact4 ,we must be loyal to the facts of ,christ's humanity reported in the ,gospels4 ,the question as to the extent of the is an open one4 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,job4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,job',s ,,calamity2 ,,the ,,opening ,,of ,,the ,,dialogues4 7,,chaps4 ,i4-,,xiv47 ,the ,book of ,job is not the earliest monument of ,hebrew #8wisdom1' but for various reasons will be treated first in order4 ,the perusal of some of the pages introductory to ,proverbs will enable the student to fill out what is here given4 ,the ,hebrew #8wisdom' is a product as peculiar as the dialectic of ,plato1 and not less worthy of admiration2 and the author of ,job is its greatest master4 ,to him are due those great thoughts on a perennial problem1 which may be supplemented but can never be superseded1 and which1 as ,m4 ,renan truly says1 cause so profound an emotion in their first nave expression4 ,his wisdom is that of intuition rather than of strict reasoning1 but it is as truly based upon the facts of experience as any of our ,western philosophies4 ,he did not indeed reach his high position unaided by predecessors4 ,the author of the noble #8,praise of ,wisdom' in ,prov4 i4-ix4 taught him much and kindled his ambition4 ,nor was he in all probability without the stimulus of fellow-thinkers and fellow-poets4 ,the student ought from the outset to be aware of the existence of discussions as to the unity of the book--discussions which have led to one assured and to several probable results--though he ought not to adopt any critical results before he has thoroughly studied the poem itself4 ,the student should also know that the supposed authors of the 7as ,i must believe7 inserted passages belong to the same circle as the writer of the main part of the book1 and are therefore not to be accused of having made #8interpolations4' ,i need not here distinguish between passages added by the author himself as afterthoughts 7or perhaps paralipomena inserted by disciples from his literary remains7 and compositions of later poets added to give the poem greater didactic completeness4 ,a passage which does not fall into the plan of the poem is to all intents and purposes the work of another poet4 ,the philosophic ,goethe of the second part of ,faust is not the passion-tossed ,goethe of the first4 ,all the writers who may be concerned in the production of our book are1 however1 well worthy of reverent study2 they were not only inspired by the ,spirit of ,israel's holy religion1 but in their various styles true poets4 ,in some degree we may apply to ,job the lines of ,schiller on the ,iliad with its different fathers but one only mother--,nature4 ,in fact1 ,nature1 in aspects chiefly familiar1 but not therefore less interesting1 was an open book to these poets1 and #8,look in thine heart and write' was their secret as well as ,spenser's for vigorous and effective expression4 ,i now proceed to give in plain prose the pith and substance of this great poem1 which more than any other ,old ,testament book needs to be brought near to the mind of a ,western student4 ,i would entitle it ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,trial ,,of ,,the ,,righteous ,,man1 ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,justification ,,of ,,god4 ,in its present form the ,book of ,job consists of five parts-- #a4 ,the ,prologue1 written in prose 7ch4 i4-ii471 the body of the work in the ,hebrew being written in at any rate an approach to metre2#d #b4 ,the ,colloquies between ,job and his three friends 7ch4 iii4-xxxi472 #c4 ,the ,discourses of ,elihu 7ch4 xxxii4-xxxvii472 #d4 ,jehovah's ,reply to ,job 7ch4 xxxviii4-xlii4 #f72 #e4 ,the ,epilogue1 in prose 7ch4 xlii4 #g-ag74 ,there are some differences in the arrangement which will presently be followed1 but these will justify themselves in the course of our study4 ,let us first of all examine the ,prologue1 which will bear to be viewed by itself as a striking specimen of ,hebrew narrative4 ,the idyllic manners of a patriarchal age are delineated with sympathy--no difficult task to one who knew the early ,hebrew traditions--and still more admirable are the very testing scenes from the supernatural world4 ,it may perhaps seem strange that this should be only a prose poem1 but the truth is that narrative poetry was entirely alien to the ,hebrew genius1 which refused to tolerate the bonds of protracted and continuous versification4 ,like that other great hero of parallelistic verse ,balaam1 ,job is a non-,israelite2 and in this the unknown author shows a fine tact1 for he is thus absolved from the embarrassing necessity of referring to the ,law1 and so complicating the moral problem under consideration4 ,job1 however1 though an ,arabian sheich#e 7as one may loosely call him71 was a worshipper of ,jehovah1 who declares before the assembled #8sons of the ,elohim' that #8there is none like ,job in the earth1' c4 7i4 #h74 ,job's virtue is rewarded by an outward prosperity like that of the patriarchs in ,genesis3 he was a great ,eastern ,emeer1 and had not only a large family but great possessions4 ,his scrupulous piety1 which takes precautions even against heart-sins1 is exemplified to us by the atoning sacrifice which he offers as head of his family at some annual feast 7i4 #d1 #e74 ,then in ver4 #f the scene is abruptly changed from earth to heaven4 ,the spirit of the narrative is not devoid of a delightful humour4 ,in the midst of the #8sons of the ,elohim'--supernatural1 ,titanic beings1 who had once been at strife with ,jehovah 7if we may illustrate by xxi4 #bb1 xxv4 #b71 but who now at stated times paid ,him their enforced homage--stood one who had not quite lost his original pleasure in working evil1 and who was now employed by his ,master as a kind of moral and religious censor of the human race4 ,this malicious spirit--#8the ,satan' or adversary1 as he is called--had just returned from a tour of inspection in the world1 and ,jehovah1 who is represented under the disguise of an earthly monarch1 boldly and imprudently draws his attention to the meritorious ,job4 ,the ,satan refuses to give human nature credit for pure goodness1 and sarcastically remarks1 #8,does ,job serve ,god for nothing8' 7i4 #i47 ,jehovah therefore allows ,his minister to put ,job's piety to as severe a test as possible short of taking his life4 ,one after another ,job's flocks1 his servants1 and his children are destroyed4 ,his wife1 however1 by a touch of quiet humour1 is spared2 she seems to be recognised by the ,satan as an unconscious ally 7ii4 #i74 ,the piety of ,job stands the trial2 he is deeply moved1 but maintains his self-control1 and the scene closes with a devout ascription of blessing to ,jehovah alike for giving and for recalling ,his gifts4 ,before passing on the reader should notice that1 according to the poet1 the ultimate reason why these sufferings of ,job were permitted by the ,most ,high was that ,job might set an example of a piety independent of favouring outward circumstances4 ,the poet reveals this to us in the ,prologue1 that we may not ourselves be staggered in our faith1 nor cast down by sympathy with such an unique sufferer2 for after the eulogy passed upon ,job in the celestial court we cannot doubt that he will stand the test1 even if disturbed for a time4 ,a second time the same high court is held4 ,the first experiment of the ,adversary has failed1 and this magnified earthly monarch1 the ,jehovah of the story1 begins to suspect that he has allowed a good man to be plagued with no sufficient motive4 ,admiringly he exclaims1 pointing to ,job1 #8,and still he holds fast his integrity1 so that thou didst incite me against him to annihilate him without cause' 7ii4 #c74 ,another sarcastic word from the ,adversary 7#8,touch his bone and his flesh1 and then see4444'71 and once more he receives permission to try ,job4 ,the affliction this time is elephantiasis1 the most loathsome and dangerous form of leprosy4 ,but ,job's piety stands fast4 ,he sits down on the heap of burnt dung and ashes at the entrance of the village1 such as those where lepers are still wont to congregate1 and meets the despairing counsel of his wife 7comp4 ,tobit's wife1 ,tob4 ii4 #ad7 to renounce a ,god from whom nothing more is to be hoped but death with a calm and pious rebuke4 ,so baseless was the malicious suggestion of the ,satan6 ,meantime many months pass away 7vii4 #c71 and no friend appears to condole with him4 ,travelling is slow in the ,east1 and ,job's three friends#f were ,emeers like himself 7the ,sept4 makes them kings71 and their residences would be at some distance from each other4 ,at last they come1 but they cannot recognise ,job's features1 distorted by disease 7as ,isa4 lii4 #ad74 ,overpowered with surprise and grief1 they sit down with him for seven days and seven nights 7comp4 ,ezek4 iii4 #ae74 ,up to this point no fault can be found with his friends4 ,i never yet did hear ,that the bruised heart was pierced through the ear4 7,othello1 act i1 scene #c47 ,it was their deep1 unspoken sympathy which encouraged him to vent his sorrow in a flood of unpurified emotion 7chap4 iii47 ,the very next thing recorded of ,job is that he #8opened his mouth and cursed his day' 7i4e4 his birthday2 see ver4 #c74 ,this may at least be the poet's meaning1 though it is also possible that the prologue and the body of the poem are not homogeneous4 ,not to mention other reasons at present1 the tone of ,job's speech in chap4 iii4 7the chapter read by ,swift on his birthday7 is entirely different from the stedfast resignation of his reply to his wife1 which1 as ,prof4 ,davidson has said1 #8reveals still greater deeps in ,job's reverent piety' than the benediction at the end of chap4 i41 the latter being called forth not by the infliction of positive evil1 but merely by the withdrawal of unguaranteed favours4 ,how strangely vivid were the sensations of the race to which the author of ,job belonged6 ,how great to him must have been the pleasures of existence1 and how great the pains6 ,nothing to him was merely subjectively true3 his feelings were infallible1 and that which seemed to be was4 ,time1 for instance1 had an objective reality3 the days of the year had a kind of life of their own 7comp4 ,ps4 xix4 #b7 and paid annually recurring visits to mankind4 ,hence ,job1 like ,jeremiah 7,jer4 xx4 #ad-ah71 in the violence of his passion#g can wish to retaliate on the instrument of his misery by #8cursing his day4' ,perish the day wherein ,i was born1 and the night which said1 ,a man has been conceived4 7iii4 #c2 comp4 #f72 i4e4 let my birthday become a blank in the calendar4 ,or1 if this be too much and the anniversary1 so sad to me1 must come round1 then let magicians cast their spell#h upon it and make it an unlucky day 7such as the ,babylonians had in abundance74 ,let them curse it that curse days1 that are skilful to rouse the leviathan 7iii4 #h72 i4e4 the cloud dragon 7vii4 #ab1 xxvi4 #ac1 ,isaiah li4 #i1 ,jer4 li4 #cd71 the enemy of the sun 7an allusion to a widely spread solar myth74 ,so fare it with the day which might1 by hindering ,job's birth1 have #8hid sorrow from his eyes6' ,even if he must be born1 why could he not have died at once and escaped his ill fortune in the quiet phantom world 7iii4 #ac-ai78 ,alas6 this melancholy dream does but aggravate ,job's mental agony4 ,he broods on the horror of his situation1 and even makes a shy allusion to ,god as the author of his woe-- ,wherefore gives he light to the miserable1 and life to the bitter in soul8 7iii4 #bj47 ,and now ,job's friends are shaken out of their composure4 ,they have been meditating on ,job's calamity1 which is so difficult to reconcile with their previous high opinion of him2 for they are the representatives of orthodoxy1 of the orthodoxy which received the high sanction of the ,deuteronomic ,tra1 and which connected obedience and prosperity1 disobedience and adversity4 ,still it is not a stiff1 extreme orthodoxy which the three friends maintain3 calamity1 as ,eliphaz represents their opinion 7v4 #ag2 comp4 #bg71 is not always a punishment1 but sometimes a discipline4 ,the question therefore has forced itself upon them1 ,has the calamity which has befallen our friend a judicial or a disciplinary1 educational purpose8 ,at first they may have leaned to the latter alternative2 but ,job's violent outburst1 so unbecoming in a devout man1 too clearly pointed in the other direction1 and already they are beginning to lose their first hopeful view of his case4 ,one after another they debate the question with ,job 7,eliphaz as the depositary of a revelation1 ,bildad as the advocate of tradition1 ,zophar as the man of common sense7--the question of the cause and meaning of his sufferings1 which means further1 since ,job is not merely an individual but a type1#i the question of the vast mass of evil in the world4 ,this main part of the work falls into three cycles of dialogue 7ch4 iv4-xiv41 ch4 xv4-xxi41 ch4 xxii4-xxxi47 ,in each there are three pairs of speeches1 belonging respectively to ,eliphaz and ,job1 ,bildad and ,job1 ,zophar and ,job4 ,eliphaz opens the debate as being the oldest 7xv4 #aj7 and the most experienced of ,job's friends4 ,there is much to admire in his speech2 if he could only have adopted the tone of a sympathising friend and not of a lecturer-- ,behold1 this have we searched out2 so it is2 hear thou it1 and know it for thyself 7v4 #bg7-- he might have been useful to the sufferer4 ,at the very beginning he strikes a wrong key-note1 expressing surprise at his friend's utter loss of self-control 7vattibbhl1 ver4 #d71 and couching it in such a form that one would really suppose ,job to have broken down at the first taste of trouble4 ,the view of the speaker seems to be that1 since ,job is really a pious man 7for ,eliphaz does not as yet presume to doubt this71 he ought to feel sure that his trouble would not proceed beyond a certain point4 #8,bethink thee now1' says ,eliphaz1 #8who ever perished1 being innocent8' 7iv4 #g47 ,some amount of trouble even a good man may fairly expect2 though far from #8ploughing iniquity1' he is too weak not to fall into sins of error1 and all sin involves suffering2 or1 as ,eliphaz puts it concisely-- ,man is born to trouble1 as the sparks fly upward 7v4 #g74 ,assuming without any reason that ,job would question this1 ,eliphaz enforces the moral imperfection of human nature by an appeal to revelation--not1 of course1 to ,moses and the prophets1 but to a vision like those of the patriarchs in ,genesis4 ,of the circumstances of the revelation a most graphic account is given4 ,and to myself came an oracle stealthily1 and mine ear received the whisper thereof1 in the play of thought from nightly visions1 when deep sleep falls upon men1 a shudder came upon me and a trembling1 and made all my bones to shudder1 when 7see67 a wind sweeps before me1 the hairs of my body bristle up3 it stands1 but ,i cannot discern it1 ,i gaze1 but there is no form1 before mine eyes 7is7 444 and ,i hear a murmuring voice4#aj #8,can human kind be righteous before ,god8 can man be pure before his ,maker8 ,behold1 he trusts not his own servants1 and imputes error to his angels#aa'4 7iv4 #ab-ah74 ,there is no such weird passage in the rest of the ,old ,testament4 ,it did not escape the attention of ,milton1 whose description of death alludes to it4 ,if shape it could be called that shape had none1 ,distinguishable in member1 joint1 or limb2 ,or substance might be called that shadow seemed4 7,par4 ,lost1 ii4 #bff47 ,a single phrase 7#8a murmuring voice1' ver4 #af7 is borrowed from the theophany of ,elijah 7#a ,kings xix4 #ab71 but the strokes which paint the scene1 and which ,milton and ,blake between them have more than reproduced1 are all his own4 ,the supernatural terror1 the wind betokening a spiritual visitor1 the straining eyes which can discern no form1 the whispering voice always associated with oracles#ab--;each of these awful experiences we seem to share4 ,eliphaz himself recalls his impressions so vividly that he involuntarily uses the present tense in describing them4 ,but why should ,eliphaz imagine that because ,job had not had a revelation of this kind he is therefore ignorant of the truth8 ,he actually confounds the complaints wrung from ,job by his unparalleled mental and bodily sufferings with the #8impatience' of the #8foolish man' and the #8passion' of the #8silly' one1 and warns him against the fate which within his own experience befell one such rebellious murmurer against ,god--an irrelevant remark1 unless he has already begun to suspect ,job of impiety4 ,then1 as if he feels that he has gone too far1 he addresses ,job in a more hopeful spirit1 and tells him what he would do in his place1 viz4 turn trustfully to ,god1 whose operations are so unsearchable1 but so benevolent4 ,let ,job regard his present affliction as a chastening and he may look forward to even more abundant blessings than he has yet enjoyed4 ,in these concluding verses ,eliphaz certainly does his best to be sympathetic1 but the result shows how utterly he has failed4 ,he has neither convinced ,job's reason nor calmed the violence of his emotion4 ,it is now ,job's turn to reply4 ,he is not1 indeed1 in a mood to answer ,eliphaz point by point4 ,passing over the ungenerous reference to the fate of the rebellious1 which he can hardly believe to be seriously meant1 ,job first of all justifies the despair which has so astonished ,eliphaz4#ac ,since the latter is so cool and so critical1 let him weigh ,job's calamity as well as his words1 and see if the extravagance of the latter is not excusable4 ,are these arrow wounds the fruit of chastisement8 ,does the ,divine love disguise itself as terror8 ,the good man is never allowed to perish1 you say2 but how much longer can a body of flesh hold out8 ,why should ,i not even desire death8 ,god may be my enemy1 but ,i have given ,him no cause4 ,and now1 if ,he would be my friend1 the only favour ,i crave is that ,he would shorten my agony4 ,then should 7this7 still be my comfort 7,i would leap amidst unsparing pain71 that ,i have not denied the words of the ,holy ,one 7vi4 #aj74 ,job's demeanour is thus fully accounted for2 it is that of his friends which is unnatural and disappointing4 ,my brethren have been treacherous as a winter stream1 as the bed of winter streams which pass away3 7once7 they were turbid with ice1 and the snow1 as it fell1 hid itself in them2 but now that they feel the glow they vanish1 when it is hot they disappear from their place4 ,caravans bend their course2 they go up into the desert and perish4 ,the caravans of ,tema looked2 the companies of ,sheba hoped for them2#ad they were abashed because they had been confident2 when they came thither they were ashamed 7vi4 #ae-bj74 ,and was it a hard thing that ,job asked of his friends8 ,no2 merely sympathy4 ,and not only have they withheld this2 ,eliphaz has even insinuated that ,job was an open sinner4 ,surely neither honesty nor wisdom is shown in such captious criticism of ,job's expressions4 ,how forcible is honest language1 and how cogent is the censure of a wise man6 ,think ye to censure words1 and the passionate speech of one who is desperate8 7vi4 #be1 #bf47 ,with an assertion of his innocence1 and a renewed challenge to disprove it1 this1 the easiest part of ,job's first reply1 concludes4 ,and now1 having secured his right to complain1 ,job freely avails himself of his melancholy privilege4 ,a #8desperate' man cares not to choose his words1 though the reverence which never ceased to exist deep down in ,job's nature prompts him to excuse his delirious words by a reference to his bitter anguish 7vii4 #aa74 ,another excuse which he might have given lies on the very surface of the poem1 which is coloured throughout by the poet's deep sympathy with human misery in general4 ,job in fact is not merely an individual1 but a representative of mankind2 and when he asks himself at the beginning of chap4 vii4-- ,has not frail man a warfare hard service upon earth1 and are not his days like the days of a hireling8-- it is not merely one of the countless thoughts which are like foam bubbles1 but the expression of a serious interest1 which raises ,job far1 very far above the patriarchal prince of the legend in the ,prologue4 ,it is the very exaggeration of this interest which alone explains why the thought of his fellow-sufferers not only brings no comfort#ae to ,job1 but fails even to calm his excitement4 ,am ,i the sea 7he says7 or the sea monster1 that thou settest a watch over me8 7vii4 #ab47 ,it is an allusion to a myth1 based on the continual #8war in heaven' between light and darkness1 which we have in these lines4 ,job asks if he is the leviathan 7iii4 #h7 of that upper ocean above which dwells the invisible ,god 7ix4 #h1 ,ps4 civ4 #c74 ,he describes ,jehovah as being jealous 7comp4 ,gen4 iii4 #d1 #e1 #bb7 and thinking it of importance to subdue ,job's wild nature1 lest he should thwart the ,divine purposes4 ,but here1 again1 ,job rises above himself2 the sorrows of all innocent sufferers are as present to him as his own2 nay1 more1 he bears them as a part of his own2 he represents mankind with ,god4 ,in a bitter parody of ,ps4 viii4 #e he exclaims-- ,what is frail man that ,thou treatest him as a great one and settest ,thy mind upon him2 that ,thou scrutinisest him every morning1 and art every moment testing him8 7vii4 #ag1 #ah47 ,it is only now and then that ,job expresses this feeling of sympathetic union with the human race4 ,generally his secret thought 7or that of his poet7 translates itself into a self-consciousness which seems morbidly extravagant on any other view of the poem4 ,the descriptions of his physical pains1 however1 are true to the facts of the disease called elephantiasis1 from which he may be supposed to have suffered4 ,his cry for death is justified by his condition--#8death rather than 7these7 my pains'#af 7vii4 #ae74 ,he has no respite from his agony2 #8nights of misery1' he says1 #8have been allotted to me' 7vii4 #c71 probably because his pains were more severe in the night 7xxx4 #ag74 ,how can it be worth while1 he asks1 thus to persecute him8 ,even if ,eliphaz be right1 and ,job has been a sinner1 yet how can this affect the ,most ,high8 7,even7 if ,i have sinned1 what do ,i unto thee1 ,o thou watcher of men8 7vii4 #bj47 ,what bitter irony again6 ,he admits a vigilance in ,god1 but only the vigilance of #8espionage' 7xiii4 #bg1 xiv4 #af71 not that of friendly guardianship2 ,god only aims at procuring a long catalogue of punishable sins4 ,why not forgive those sins and relieve ,himself from a troublesome task8 ,soon it will be too late3 a pathetic touch revealing a latent belief in ,god's mercy which no calamity could destroy4 ,thus to the blurred vision of the agonised sufferer the moral ,god whom he used to worship has been transformed into an unreasoning1 unpitying ,force4 ,bildad is shocked at this4 #8,can ,god pervert judgment'8 7viii4 #c47 ,in his short speech he reaffirms the doctrine of proportionate retribution1 and exhorts ,job to #8seek earnestly unto ,god' 7viii4 #e71 thus clearly implying that ,job is being punished for his sins4#ag ,instead of basing his doctrine on revelation1 ,bildad supports the side of it relative to the wicked by an appeal to the common consent of mankind previously to the present generation 7viii4 #h1 #i74 ,this common consent1 this traditional wisdom1 is embodied in proverbial #8dark sayings1' as1 for instance-- ,can the papyrus grow up without marsh8 can the ,nile reed shoot up without water8 ,while yet in its verdure1 uncut1 it withers before any grass4 ,so fares it with all that forget ,god1 and the hope of the impious shall perish 7viii4 #aa-ac74 ,it is interesting to see at how early a date the argument in favour of ,theism was rested to some extent on tradition4 #8,we are of yesterday1 and know nothing1' says ,bildad1 #8because our days on earth are a shadow' 7viii4 #i71 whereas the wisdom of the past is centuries old1 and has a stability to which ,job's novelties 7or1 for this is the poet's meaning1 those of the new sceptical school of the ,exile7 cannot pretend4 ,but ,job at least is better than his theories1 so ,eliphaz and ,bildad are still charitable enough to believe1 and the closing words of the speech of ,bildad clear up any possible doubt with regard to his opinion of erring but still whole-hearted#ah 7#8perfect'7 ,job4 ,those that hate thee shalt be clothed with shame1 and the tent of the wicked shall be no more 7viii4 #bb74 ,but ,job has much to say in reply4 ,he ironically admits the truth of the saying1 #8,how can man be righteous with ,god8' but the sense in which he applies the words is very different from that given to them by his friends4 ,of course ,god is righteous 7#8righteousness' in ,semitic languages sometimes means #8victory'71 because ,he is so mighty that no one1 however innocent1 could plead successfully before ,him4 ,this thought suggests a noble description of the stupendous displays of ,god's might in nature 7ix4 #e-aj74 ,the verse with which it closes is adopted from ,eliphaz1 in whose first speech to ,job it forms the text of a quiet picture of ,god's everyday miracles of benevolence to man 7v4 #i74 ,where ,eliphaz sees power1 wisdom1 and love1 ,job can see only a force which is terrible in proportion to its wisdom4 ,the predominant quality in this idol of ,job's imagination is not love1 but anger--capricious1 inexorable anger1 which long ago #8the helpers of ,rahab' 7another name for the storm dragon1 which fought against the sun7 experienced to their cost 7ix4 #ac2 comp4 xxvi4 #ab74 ,job himself is in collision with this force2 and how should he venture to defend himself8 ,the tortures he endured would force from him an avowal of untruths 7ix4 #bj74 ,if only ,god were a man1 or if there were an umpire whose authority would be recognised on both sides1 how gladly would ,job submit his case to adjudication6 ,but1 alas6 ,god stands over against him with ,his rod 7ix4 #cb-cd74 ,bildad had said1 #8,god will not cast away a perfect man' 7viii4 #bj74 ,but ,job's experience is1 #8,he destroys the perfect and the wicked' 7ix4 #bb74 ,thus ,job has many fellow-sufferers1 and one good effect of his trial is that it has opened his eyes to the religious bearings of facts which he had long known but not before now seriously pondered4 ,at last a milder spirit comes upon the sufferer4 ,he has been in the habit of communion with ,god1 and cannot bear to be condemned without knowing the cause 7x4 #b74 ,how1 he enquires1 can ,god have the heart to torture that which has cost ,him so much thought 7comp4 ,isa4 lxv4 #h1 #i78 ,a man is not a common potter's vessel1 but framed with elaborate skill4 ,thy hands fashioned and prepared me2 afterwards dost thou turn#ai and destroy me8 ,remember now that as clay thou didst prepare me1 and dost thou turn me into dust again8 ,life and favour dost thou grant me1 and thine oversight guarded my spirit 7x4 #h1 #i1 #ab74 ,god appeared to be kind then2 but1 since ,god sees the end from the beginning1 it is too clear that ,he must have done all this simply in order to mature a perfect human sacrifice to ,his own cruel self-will4 ,job's milder spirit has evidently fled4 ,he repeats his wish that he had never lived 7x4 #ah1 #ai71 and only craves a few brighter moments before he departs to the land of darkness 7x4 #bj-bb74 ,it was not likely that ,zophar would be more capable of rightly advising ,job than his elders4 ,having had no experience to soften him1 he pours out a flood of crude dogmatic commonplaces1 and in the complaints wrung from a troubled spirit can see nothing but #8a multitude of words' 7xi4 #b74 ,yet he only just misses making an important contribution to the settlement of the problem4 ,he has caught a glimpse of a supernatural wisdom1 to which the secrets of all hearts are open3-- ,but oh that ,god ,eloah would speak1 and open his lips against thee4 and show thee the secrets of wisdom1 for wondrous are they in perfection6#bj ,canst thou find the depths of ,god ,eloah8 canst thou reach to the end of ,shaddai8 ,heights of heaven6 what canst thou do8 deeper than ,shel6 what canst thou know8 7xi4 #e-h47 ,if ,zophar had worked out this idea impartially1 he might have given to the discussion a fresh and more profitable turn4 ,he is so taken up with the traditional orthodoxy1 however1 that he has no room for a deeper view of the problem4 ,his inference is that1 in virtue of ,his perfect knowledge1 ,god can detect sin where man sees none1 though that cruellest touch of all with which the ,massoretic text#ba burdens the reputation of ,zophar is not supported by the more accurate text of the ,septuagint1 and we should read xi4 #f thus3 and thou shouldest know that ,god ,eloah gives unto thee thy deserts#bb for thine iniquity4 ,but indeed a special revelation ought not to be necessary for ,job4 ,his trouble1 proceeding as it does from one no less wise than irresistible 7xi4 #aj1 #aa71 ought to dispel his dream of innocence2 as ,zophar generalises1 when ,god's judgments are abroad-- 7,even7 an empty head wins understanding1 and a wild ass's colt is new-born as a man 7xi4 #ab74 ,we may pass over the brilliant description of prosperity consequent on a true repentance with which the chapter concludes4 ,it fell quite unheeded on the ears of ,job1 who was more stung by the irritating speech of ,zophar than by those of ,eliphaz and ,bildad4 ,the taunt conveyed indirectly by ,zophar in xi4 #ab is exposed in all its futility in the reply of ,job4 ,zophar himself1 however1 he disdains to argue with2 there is the same intolerable assumption of superiority in the speeches of all the three1 and this he assails with potent sarcasm4 ,no doubt ye are mankind1 and with you shall wisdom die4 ,i too have understanding like you1 and who knows not the like of this8 7xii4 #b1 #c47 ,in what respect1 pray1 is he inferior to his friends8 ,has ,eliphaz enjoyed a specially unique revelation8 ,job has had a still better opportunity of learning spiritual truth in communion of the heart with ,god 7xii4 #d74 ,is ,bildad an unwearied collector of the wisdom of antiquity8 ,job too admits the value of tradition1 though he will not receive it unproved 7xii4 #aa1 #ab74 ,in declamation1 too1 ,job can vie with the arrogant ,zophar2 ,job's description of the omnipotence of ,god forms the counterpart of ,zophar's description of ,his omniscience4 ,but of what account are generalities in face of such a problem as ,job's8 ,the question of questions is not1 ,has ,god all power and all wisdom1 but1 ,does ,he use them for moral ends8 ,the three friends refuse to look facts in the face2 the righteous ,god 7we must understand the words1 if there be one7 will surely chastise them for insincerity and partisanship 7xiii4 #aj74 ,and now ,job refuses to waste any more words on his opponents4 ,but as for me1 to ,shaddai would ,i speak1 ,i crave to reason with ,god2 ,but ye--are plasterers of lies1 patchers of that which is worthless4 ,your commonplaces are proverbs of ashes2 your bulwarks are bulwarks of clay 7xiii4 #c1 #d1 #ab74 ,he forms a new project1 but shudders as he does so1 for he feels sure of provoking ,god thereby to deadly anger4 ,be it so2 a man who has borne till he can bear no longer can even welcome death4 ,behold1 let him slay me2 ,i can wait be patient no longer2#bc still ,i will defend my ways to his face 7xiii4 #ae74 ,it is the sublimest of all affirmations of the rights of conscience4 ,job is confident of the success of his plea3 #8,this also 7guarantees7 victory to me1 that an impious man cannot come before him' 7xiii4 #af7 with such a good conscience4 ,thus virtue has an intrinsic value for ,job1 superior to that of prosperity or even life3 moral victory would more than compensate for physical failure4 ,he indulges the thought that ,god may personally take part in the argument 7xiii4 #bj-bb71 and in anticipation of this he sums up the chief points of his intended speech 7xiii4 #bc-xiv4 #bb71 such as1 #8,how many#bd are my sins1' and #8,why chase dry stubble8' 7xiii4 #bc1 #be74 ,sad complaints of the melancholy lot of mankind follow1 reminding us again that ,job1 like ,dante in his pilgrimage1 is not only an individual but a representative4 ,man that is born of woman1 short-lived and full of unrest1 comes up as a flower and fades1 flies as a shadow and continues not4 ,and upon such an one keepest thou thine eye open1 and me dost thou bring into judgment with thee6 7xiv4 #a-c47 ,hard enough is the natural fate of man2 why make it harder by exceptional severity8 ,an early reader misunderstood this1 and thought to strengthen ,job's appeal by a reference 7in ver4 #d7 to one of the commonplaces of ,eliphaz 7iv4 #ag-ba74 ,but ver4 #e shows that the idea which fills the mind of ,job is the shortness of human life4#be ,a tree1 when cut down according to the rules still current in ,syria1#bf displays a marvellous vitality2 but man is only like the falling leaves of a tree 7xiii4 #be71 or 7the figure preferred here7 like the canals of ,egypt when the dykes and reservoirs are not properly kept up 7xiv4 #aa2 comp4 ,isaiah xix4 #e1 #f74 ,if it were ,god's will to #8hide' ,job in dark ,shel for a time1 and then to recall him to the light1 how gladly would he #8wait' there1 like a soldier on guard 7comp4 vii4 #a71 till his #8relief' came 7xiv4 #ad76--;a fascinating thought1 on which1 baseless though he considers it1 ,job cannot forbear to dwell4 ,and the beauty of the passage is that the happiness of restoration to conscious life consists for ,job in the renewal of loving communion between himself and his ,god 7xiv4 #ae74 ,alas6 the dim light of ,shel darkens the glorious vision and sends ,job back into despair4 ,footnote #d3 ,jerome already saw this4 ,he represents the ,book of ,job as composed mainly in hexameters with a dactylic and spondaic movement 7,prf4 in ,job74 ,does he mean double trimeters8 ,footnote #e3 ,where is the #8,uz' spoken of in ,job i4 #a8 ,the #8land of ,uzza' seems to have been not far from the ,orontes 7,shalmaneser's ,obelisk2 see ,friedr4 ,delitzsch's ,paradies1 p4 #bei74 ,tradition places the home of ,job in the fertile volcanic region called the ,haurn 7see the very full excursus in ,delitzsch's ,job74 ,but the #8land of ,uz' might be farther south1 nearer to ,edom1 in connection with which it is mentioned1 ,lam4 iv4 #ba1 ,gen4 xxxvi4 #bh 7comp4 ver4 #ba74 ,this is supported by the curious note appended to the ,book of ,job in the ,septuagint4 ,it is true that ,uz is called a son of ,aram 7,gen4 x4 #bc71 but #8,uz' may have had several branches1 or the use of ,aramaic may have extended far beyond the limits of ,aram proper4 ,footnote #f3 ,of the three friends ,eliphaz comes from the ,edomitish district of ,teman1 so famous for its wisdom2 ,bildad from the land of ,shuah 7#8,suhu' lay1 according to the inscriptions1 between the mouths of the ,belich and the ,khabur1 confluents of the ,euphrates72 ,zophar from ,naamah1 some unknown district east of the ,jordan4 ,how well these notes of place agree with the ,aramaic colouring of the book6 ,footnote #g3 ,bishop ,lowth 7,prlect4 xxxiii47 admires the dramatic tact with which the poet makes ,job err at first merely by the exaggeration of his complaints1 thus inviting censure1 which in turn leads to bold misstatements on ,job's part4 ,footnote #h3 ,for a late ,egyptian incantation of this class see ,ancessi1 ,job et le ,rdempteur1 pp4 #bdj-a2 for the dragon myth itself see ,cheyne's note in the ,prophecies of ,isaiah 7on ,isa4 xxvii4 #a7 and in the ,pulpit ,comm4 on ,jeremiah 7on ,jer4 li4 #cd74 ,footnote #i3 ,see ,chap4 ,,vii4 7end of ,section #b74 ,footnote #aj3 ,the translation follows ,bickell's text4 ,the correction in line #b of ver4 #af is from the ,septuagint2 the transposition in line #d is suggested by #a ,kings xix4 #ab4 ,footnote #aa3 ,so xv4 #ae4 ,m4 ,lenormant compares ,gen4 vi4 #a-d 7an incomplete fragment74 ,see above on the #8sons of the ,elohim' of the prologue1 and comp4 ,chap4 ,x4 ,footnote #ab3 ,compare the ,hebrew ne'm in a common prophetic formula4 ,footnote #ac3 ,the following lines develope what ,job may be supposed to have had in his mind4 ,footnote #ad3 ,thomson has finely but inaccurately paraphrased this1 changing the localities3-- #8,in ,cairo's crowded streets ,the impatient merchant1 wondering1 waits in vain1 ,and ,mecca saddens at the long delay4' 7,summer1 #ihj-b2 of the caravan which perished in the storm47 ,footnote #ae3 ,contrast the touchingly natural expressions of an ,arabian poet1 translated by ,rckert 7,hamsa1 ii4 #cae73-- #8,gieng es nicht wie mir vil andern1 ,wrd' ich's nicht ertragen2 ,doch wo ich nur will1 gibt ,antwort ,klage meinen ,klagen4' ,the same sentiment is expressed more than once again2 comp4 ,buddha's apologue of the mustard seed4 ,footnote #af3 ,so ,merx and ,bickell4 ,text1 #8my bones4' ,footnote #ag3 ,bildad more than implies that the fate which overtook ,job's children was the punishment of iniquity 7viii4 #d74 ,wonderful harshness6 ,footnote #ah3 ,see viii4 #bj4 ,bildad agrees with the statement in the prologue 7i4 #a74 ,footnote #ai3 ,following ,sept41 with ,merx and ,bickell4 ,footnote #bj3 ,comp4 ,isa4 xxviii4 #bi 7,heb47 ,by a slight error of the ear the copyist whom our ,hebrew ,bibles follow put a ,yd for an ,alef4 ,hence the ,massoretic critics pronounce kiflayim #8twofold1' instead of kif'lim #8like wonders3' following this text1 ,davidson renders1 #8that it is double in 7true7 understanding4' ,footnote #ba3 ,literally #8444 that ,god brings into forgetfulness for thee some of thy guilt4' ,footnote #bb3 ,following ,sept41 with ,bickell4 ,comp4 the ,hebrew of ,job xxxiii4 #bg4 ,footnote #bc3 ,this rendering is based on the reading of the ,hebrew margin4 ,the ,hebrew text has1 #8,behold1 should he slay me1 for him would ,i wait1' implying an expectation of a ,divine interposition in ,job's favour after his death4 ,but this idea is against the connection2 besides which the restrictive particle #8only' 7nearly still7 agrees better with the other reading and rendering4 #8,wait' means #8wait for a change for the better1' as in vi4 #aa1 which occurs in a similar context4 ,footnote #bd3 ,he admits that he is not without sins 7comp4 ver4 #bf74 ,footnote #be3 ,comp4 the well-known lamentation of ,moschus 7iii4 #ajf-aaa74 ,footnote #bf3 ,see the notices from ,wetzstein in ,delitzsch4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,second ,,cycle ,,of ,,speeches4 7,,chaps4 ,,xv4-,,xxi47 ,the three narrow-minded but well-meaning friends have exhausted their arsenal of arguments4 ,each with his own favourite receipt has tried to cure ,job of his miserable illusion1 and failed4 ,now begins a new cycle of speeches1 in which our sympathy is still more with ,job than before4 ,his replies to the three friends ought to have shown them the incompleteness of their argument and the necessity of discovering some way of reconciling the elements of truth on both sides4 ,they can teach him nothing1 but the facts of spiritual experience which he has expounded ought to have taught them much4 ,but all that they have learned is the impossibility of bringing ,job to self-humiliation by dwelling upon the ,divine attributes4 ,no doubt their excuse lies in the irreverence of their friend's manner and expressions4 ,it is a part of the tragedy of ,job that the advice which was meant for practical sympathy only resulted in separating ,job for a time both from ,god and from his friends4 ,the narrow views of the latter drove ,job to irreverence1 and his irreverence deprived him of the lingering respect of his friends and seemed to himself at times to cut off the slender chance of a reconciliation with ,god4 ,from this point onwards the friends cease to offer their supposed #8,divine consolations' 7xv4 #aa7--such as the gracious purpose of ,god's ways and the corrective object of affliction 7v4 #h-bg7--;and content themselves with frightening ,job by lurid pictures of the wicked man's fate1 leading up1 in the third cycle of speeches1 to a direct accusation of ,job as a wicked man himself4 ,and yet1 strange to say1 as the tone of the friends becomes harsher and more cutting1 ,job meets their vituperation with growing calmness and dignity4 ,disappointed in his friends1 he clings with convulsive energy to that never quite surrendered postulate of his consciousness a ,god who owns the moral claims of a creature on the ,creator4 ,remarkable indeed is the first distinct expression of this faith of the heart1 of which an antiquated orthodoxy sought to deprive him4 ,he has just listened to the personalities1 the cruel assumptions1 and the shallow commonplaces of ,eliphaz 7who treats ,job as an arrogant pretender and a self-convicted blaspheming sinner71 and with a few words of utter contempt he turns his back on his #8tormenting#bg comforters' 7xvi4 #b74 7,soon1 however1 he will appeal to them for sympathy2 so strong is human nature6 ,see xix4 #ba47 ,left to his own melancholy thoughts1 he repeats the sad details of his misery and of ,god's hostility 7and again we feel that the poet thinks of suffering humanity in general#bh71 and reasserts his innocence in language afterwards used of the suffering ,servant of ,jehovah 7xvi4 #ag2 comp4 ,isaiah liii4 #i74 ,then in the highest excitement he demands vengeance for his blood4 ,but who is the avenger of blood but ,god 7xix4 #be2 comp4 ,ps4 ix4 #ab7--the very ,foe who is bringing him to death8 ,and hence the strange but welcome thought that behind the ,god of pitiless force and undiscriminating severity there must be a ,god who recognises and returns the love of ,his servants1 or1 in the fine words of the ,korn1 #8that there is no refuge from ,god but unto ,him4'#bi #8,even now1' as he lies on the rubbish-heap-- ,even now1 behold1 my ,witness is in heaven1 and he that vouches for me is on high4 ,my friends 7have become7 my scorners2 mine eye sheds tears unto ,god-- that he would right a man against ,god1 and a son of man against his friend 7xvi4 #bj1 #ba74 ,it is a turning-point in the mental struggles of ,job4 ,he cannot indeed account for his sufferings1 but he ceases to regard ,god as an unfeeling tyrant4 ,he has a germ of faith in ,god's goodwill towards him--only a germ1 but we are sure1 even without the close of the story1 that it will grow up and bear the fruit of peace4 ,and now1 perhaps1 we may qualify the reproach addressed above to ,job's friends4 ,it is true that they have driven ,job to irreverent speeches respecting ,god1 but they have also made it possible for him to reach the intuition 7which the prophetic ,eliphaz has missed7 of an affinity between the ,divine nature and the human4 ,in an earlier speech 7ix4 #cb-ce7 he has already expressed a longing for an arbiter between himself and ,god4 ,that longing is now beginning to be gratified by the certitude that1 though the ,god in the world may be against him1 the ,god in heaven is on his side4 ,not that even ,god can undo the past2 ,job requests no interference with the processes of nature4 7,did the writer think that ,job lived outside the sphere of the age of miracles87 ,all that he asks is a pledge from ,god1 his ,witness1 to see his innocence recognised by ,god1 his ,persecutor 7xvii4 #c74 ,so far we are listening to ,job the individual4 ,but immediately after we find the speaker exhibiting himself as the type of a class--the class or representative category of innocent sufferers4 ,job1 then1 has a dual aspect1 like his ,god4 ,and he hath set me for a byword of peoples1 and ,i am one in whose face men spit4 ,at this the upright are appalled1 and the innocent stirs himself up against the impious2 but the righteous holds on his way1 and he who has clean hands waxes stronger and stronger 7xvii4 #f1 #g1 #i74 ,here it is difficult not to see that the circumstances of the poet's age are reflected in his words4 ,the whole ,jewish nation became #8a byword of peoples' during the exile1#cj and the mutual sympathy of its members was continually taxed4 ,it was a paradox which never lost its strangeness that a #8,servant of ,jehovah' should be trampled upon by unbelievers1 and the persecutor was rewarded by the silent indignation of all good ,jews4 ,that this is the right view is shown by the depression into which ,job falls in vv4 #aa-af1 in spite of the elevating passage quoted above4 ,bildad's speech1 with its barbed allusions to ,job's sad history1 had a twofold effect4 ,first of all it raised the anguish of ,job to its highest point1 and1 secondly1 it threw the sufferer back on that great intuition1 already reached by him1 of a ,divine ,witness to his integrity in the heavens4 ,it is a misfortune which can scarcely be appraised too highly that the text of the famous declaration in xix4 #be-bg is so uncertain4 #8,the embarrassment of the ,english translators1' remarks ,prof4 ,green1 of ,princeton1#ca #8is shown by the unusual number of italic words1 and these of no small importance to the meaning1 which are heaped together in these verses4' ,it is scarcely greater1 however1 than that of the ancient versions1 and we can hardly doubt that the text used by the ,septuagint translator was already at least as corrupt as that which has descended to us from the ,massoretic critics4#cb ,this would the more easily be the case since1 as ,prof4 ,green says again1 #8,job is speaking under strong excitement and in the language of lofty poetry2 he uses no superfluous words2 he simply indicates his meaning in the most concise manner4' ,without now entering on a philological discussion1 we have1 ,i think1 to choose between these alternatives1 one of which involves emending the text1 the other does not4 ,does ,job simply repeat what he has said in xvi4 #ah1 #ai 7viz4 that ,god will avenge his blood and make reparation1 as it were1 for his death by testifying to his innocence71 without referring to any consequent pleasure of his own1 or does he combine with this the delightful thought expressed in xiv4 #ac-ae of a conscious renewal of communion with ,god after death8#cc ,the context1 it seems to me1 is best satisfied by the former alternative4 ,job's mind is at present occupied with the cruelty1 not of ,god 7as when he said1 #8,o that thou wouldst appoint me a term and then remember me1' xiv4 #ac71 but of his friends4 ,his starting-point is1 #8,how long will ye 7my friends7 pain my soul8' c4 7xix4 #b47 ,we may admit that the best solution of ,job's problem would be #8the beatific vision' in some early and not clearly defined form of that deep idea2 but if ,job can say that he not merely dreams but knows this 7#8,i know that 444 ,i shall see ,god1' xix4 #be1 #bf71 the remainder of the colloquies ought surely to pursue a very different course2 as a matter of fact1 neither ,job nor his friends1 nor yet ,jehovah ,himself1 refers to this supposed newly-won truth1 and the only part of #8,job's deepest saying' which the next speaker fastens upon 7xx4 #c7 is the threatening conclusion 7xix4 #bi74 ,ewald himself has drawn attention to this1 without remarking its adverse bearing on his own interpretation4#cd ,here1 side by side1 are ,dr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,davidson's and ,dr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,green's translations of the received text of vv4 #be-bg1 and ,dr4 ,bickell's version of his own emended text4 ,but ,i know that my redeemer liveth1 and in after time he shall stand upon the dust#ce and after this my skin is destroyed and without my flesh ,i shall see ,god3 whom ,i shall see for myself1 and mine eyes shall behold1 and not another-- my reins consume within me6 ,and ,i know my redeemer liveth1 and last on earth shall he arise2 and after my skin1 which has been destroyed thus1 and out of my flesh i4e4 when my vital spirit shall be separated from my flesh shall ,i see ,god4444 ,ich weiss1 es lebt mein ,retter1 ,wird noch auf meinem ,staub stehn2 ,zuletzt wird ,gott mein ,zeuge1 ,lsst meine ,unschuld schauen1 ,die ich allein jetzt schaun kann1 ,mein ,auge und kein andres4 ,most critics are now agreed that the immediately preceding words 7vv4 #bc1 #bd7 are not an introduction1 as if vv4 #be-bg composed the rock inscription4 ,job first of all wishes what he knows to be impossible1 and then announces a far better thing of which he is sure4 ,his wish runs thus3 ,would then that they were written down-- my words--in a book1 and engraved with a pen of iron1 and with lead cut out for a witness in the rock4#cf ,but whatever view we take of the prospect which gladdened the mind of ,job1 his remaining speeches contain no further reference to it4 ,henceforth his thoughts appear to dwell less on his own condition1 and more on the general question of ,god's moral government1 and even when the former is spoken of it is without the old bitterness4 ,in his next speech1 stirred up by the gross violence of ,zophar1 ,job for the first time meets the assertions of the three friends in this cycle of argument1 viz4 that the wicked1 at any rate1 always get their deserts1 and1 according to ,zophar1 suddenly and overwhelmingly4 ,he meets them by a direct negative1 though in doing so he is as much perturbed as when he proclaimed his own innocence to ,god's face4 ,he is familiar now with the thought that the righteous are not always recompensed1 but it fills him with horror to think that the ,governor of the world even leaves the wicked in undeserved prosperity1 as if1 in the language of ,eliphaz1 ,he could not #8judge through the thick clouds' 7xxii4 #af74 ,why do the wicked live on1 become old1 yea1 are mighty in power8 ,their houses are safe1 without fear1 neither is ,eloah's rod upon them4 ,they wear away their days in happiness1 and go down to ,shel in a moment 7xxi4 #g1 #i1 #ac74 ,footnote #bg3 ,miss ,e4 ,smith's rendering1 #8irksome1' ,renan's #8insupportable1' are not definite enough4 ,job means that his would-be comforters do but aggravate his unease4 ,footnote #bh3 ,notice the expressions in xvi4 #aj1 and comp4 ,ps4 xxii4 #g1 #ab1 #ac4 7,ps4 xxii41 like the ,book of ,job1 has some features which belong to an individual and some to a collection of sufferers47 ,job would never have spoken of his friends in the terms used in xvi4 #aj1 #aa4 ,footnote #bi3 ,sur4 ix4 #aai4 ,footnote #cj3 ,comp4 ,ps4 xxii4 #f1 ,isa4 xlix4 #g1 ,joel ii4 #ag 7where we should render #8make a byword upon them'74 ,footnote #ca3 ,the ,argument of the ,book of ,job 7#ahha71 p4 #bjj4 ,footnote #cb3 ,dr4 ,hermann ,schultz is an unexceptionable witness1 because his tastes lead him more to ,biblical and dogmatic theology than to minute textual studies4 ,he is convinced1 he says1 after each fresh examination1 of #8the baffling intricacy and obscurity and the probable corruption of the text' 7,alttestamentliche ,theologie1 ed4 #b #ahgh1 pp4 #ffa-b74 ,footnote #cc3 ,i agree with ,dr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,green that the third view1 which #8conceives ,job to be here looking forward1 not to a future state1 but to the restoration of ,god's favour and his own deliverance out of all his troubles in the present life1' is to be rejected4 ,i do not follow him in all his reasons1 but these two are decisive4 #a4 ,everywhere else ,job #8regards himself as on the verge of the grave4444 ,every earthly hope is annulled2 every temporal prospect has vanished4 ,he invariably repels the idea1 whenever his friends present it to him1 of any improvement of his condition in this world as plainly impossible4' #b4 #8,if he here utters his expectation that ,god will interfere to reward his piety in the present life1 he completely abandons his own position and adopts that of the friends4' 7,the ,argument of ,job1 pp4 #bjd-e74 ,footnote #cd3 ,job's vindication1 thinks ,ewald1 would be incomplete if at least the spirit of the dead man did not witness it4 ,footnote #ce3 ,the dust beneath which ,job lies3 comp4 #8ye that dwell in dust' 7,isa4 xxvi4 #ai74 ,footnote #cf3 ,on the text see ,bickell1 ,merx1 ,hitzig2 on the use of metal for public notices see ,chabas1 quoted by ,cook in ,speaker's ,comm41 ad loc4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,third ,,cycle ,,of ,,speeches4 7,,chaps4 ,,xxii4-,,xxxi47 ,it is not wonderful that the gulf between ,job and his friends should only be widened by such a direct contradiction of the orthodox tenet4 ,the friends1 indeed1 cannot but feel the force of ,job's appeal to experience1 as they show by the violence of their invective4 ,but they are neither candid nor1 above all1 courageous enough to confess the truth2 they speak1 as the philosopher ,kant observes1 as if they knew their powerful ,client was listening in the background4 ,and so a third cycle of speeches begins 7chaps4 xxii4-xxxi471 in which the friends grasp the only weapon left them and charge ,job directly with being a great sinner4 ,true to his character1 however1 ,eliphaz even here seeks to soften the effect of his accusations by a string of most enticing promises1 partly worldly and partly other-worldly in their character1 and which in a different context ,job would have heartily appreciated 7xxii4 #ba-cj74 ,but ,job cares not to reply to those charges of ,eliphaz2 his mind is still too much absorbed in the painful mystery of his own lot and that of all other righteous sufferers4 ,he longs for ,god to set up his tribunal1 so that ,job and his fellows might plead their cause 7xxiii4 #c-g1 xxiv4 #a74 ,what most of all disturbs him is that he cannot see ,god--that is cannot detect the operation of that moral ,god in whom his heart cannot help believing4 #8,i may go forward1 but he is not there2 and backward1 but ,i cannot perceive him' 7xxiii4 #h74 ,with the ardour of a pessimist he depicts this failure of justice in the darkest colours 7chap4 xxiv471 and is as powerless as ever to reconcile his deep sense of what ,god ought to be and must be and the sad realities of life4 ,upon this ,bildad tries to frighten ,job into submission by a picture of ,god's irresistible power1 as exhibited not only in heaven and earth1 but even beneath the ocean depths in the realm of the shades 7xxv41 xxvi4 #e-ad74 ,not a very comforting speech1 but fine in its way 7if ,bildad may really be credited with all of it71 and the speaker frankly allows its inadequacy4 ,lo6 these are the outskirts of his ways1 and how faintly spoken is that which we hear6 but the thunder of his power who can understand8 7xxvi4 #ad47 ,in a speech1 the first which is described as a mashal1#cg ,job demolishes his unoriginal and rhetorical opponent1 and with dignity reasserts his innocence 7xxvi4 #a-d1 xxvii4 #a-g74 ,he may have said more2 if so1 it has been lost4 ,but1 in fact1 all that was argumentative in ,bildad's speech was borrowed from ,eliphaz1 and though ,job had the power 7see chaps4 ix41 xii471 he had not the will to compete with his friends in rhetoric4 ,the only speaker who is left is ,zophar1 and1 as it is unlikely that the poet left one of his triads of speeches imperfect1 we may conjecture that xxvii4 #h-aj1 #aj-bc belongs to the third speech of ,zophar4#ch ,certainly they are most inappropriate in the mouth of ,job1 being in direct contradiction to all that he has yet said4 ,if so it seems very probable that besides the introductory formula a few opening verses have dropped out of the text4 ,the verses which now stand at the head of the speech transport us to the disputes of those rival schools of which ,job and his friends were only the representatives4 ,hence the use of the plural in ver4 #ab1 of which an earlier instance occurs in the second speech of ,bildad 7xviii4 #b74 ,what ,zophar says is in effect this3 ,job's condition is desperate1 for he is an #8impious' or #8godless' man4 ,it is too late for any one to attempt to pray when overtaken by a fatal calamity4 ,for how can he feel that #8deep delight' in ,god which enables a man to pray1 with the confidence of being heard1 #8in every season' of life1 whether prosperous or the reverse8 ,the rest of the speech is substantially a repetition of ,zophar's former description of the retribution of the wicked4 ,it was not to be expected that ,job should reply to this1 and accordingly we find that in continuing his mashal 7xxix4 #a7 he utterly ignores his opponents4 ,but unhappily he is almost as far as ever from a solution of his difficulty4 ,his friends1 we may suppose1 have left him1 and he is at liberty to revive those melancholy memories which are all that remain to him of his prosperity4 ,in chap4 xxix4 7a fine specimen of flowing1 descriptive ,hebrew poetry7 ,job recalls the honour in which he used to be held1 and the beneficent acts which he was enabled to perform4 ,modesty were out of place1 for he is already in the state of #8one turned adrift among the dead' 7,ps4 lxxxviii4 #e74 ,the details remind us of many ,arabic elegies in the ,hamsa 7e4g4 ,no4 #cea in ,rckert's adaptation1 vol4 i41 or #ig in ,freytag74 ,in chaps4 xxx41 xxxi4 he laments1 with the same pathetic self-contemplation1 his ruined credit and the terrible progress of his disease4 ,then1 by a somewhat abrupt transition1#ci he enters upon an elaborate profession of his innocence1 which has been compared to the solemn repudiation of the forty-two deadly sins by the departed souls of the good in the ,egyptian #8,book of the ,dead4' ,the resemblance1 however1 must not be pressed too far4 ,job's morality1 even if predominantly #8legal1' has a true #8evangelical' tinge4 ,not merely the act of adultery1 but the glance of lust2 not merely unjust gain1 but the confidence reposed in it by the heart2 not merely outward conformity to idol-worship1 but the inclination of the heart to false gods1 are in his catalogue of sins4 ,his last words are a reiteration of his deeply cherished desire for an investigation of his case by ,shaddai4 ,with what proud self-possession he imagines himself approaching the ,divine ,judge6 ,in his hands are the accusations of his friends and his own reply4 ,holding them forth1 he exclaims-- ,here is my signature--let ,shaddai answer me-- and the indictment which mine adversary has written4 ,surely upon my shoulder will ,i carry it1 and bind it as chaplets about me4 ,the number of my steps will ,i declare unto him2 as a prince will ,i come near unto him 7xxxi4 #ce-cg74dj ,we must here turn back to a passage which forms one of the most admired portions of the ,book of ,job as it stands--the mashal on ,divine ,wisdom in chap4 xxviii4 ,the first eleven verses are at first sight most inappropriate in this connection4 ,the poet seems to take a delight in working into them all that he knows of the adventurous operations of the miners of his day--probably those carried on for gold in ,upper ,egypt1 and for copper and turquoises in the ,sinaitic peninsula 7both skilfully introduced by ,ebers into his stories of ancient ,egypt74 ,how vividly the superiority of reason to instinct is brought out to vary the technical description of the miners' work in vv4 #g1 #h4 ,a path the eagle knows not1 nor has the eye of the vulture scanned it2 the sons of pride have not trodden it1 nor hath the lion passed over it4 ,no earthly treasures lie too deep for human industry2 but--here we see the use of the great literary feat 7,prov4 i4-ix47 which has gone before--#8where can wisdom be found1 and where is the place of understanding8' ,and then follows that fine passage in which language is strained to the uttermost 7with another of those pictorial inventories in which poets delight1 vv4 #ae-ai7 to convey at once the preciousness and the unattainableness of the higher wisdom4 ,the moral of the whole1 however1 is not revealed till the last verse4 ,and unto man he said1 #8,behold1 the fear of the ,lord is wisdom1 and to turn aside from evil is understanding' 7xxviii4 #bh74 ,thus there is no allusion whatever to ,job's problem1 and it is only the present position of the mashal in the ,book of ,job which suggests a possible relation for it to that problem4 ,and now1 looking at the passage by itself1 is it conceivable that it was originally written to stand where it now does8 ,is it natural that the solemn contents of chap4 xxvii4 7even if we allow the first seven verses only to be ,job's7 should leave ,job in a mood for an elaborate poetical study of mining operations1 or that after agonising so long over the painful riddles of ,divine ,providence he should suddenly acquiesce in the narrow limits of human knowledge1 soon1 however1 to relapse into his old inquisitiveness8 ,is it not1 on the other hand1 very conceivable 7notice the opening word #8,for'7 that it was transferred to its present position from some other work8 ,in a didactic poem on ,wisdom 7i4e4 the plan of the universe71 similar to ,prov4 i4-ix41 it would be as much in place as the hymn on ,wisdom in ,prov4 viii4 ,to this great work indeed it presents more than one analogy1 both in its subject and its recommendation of religious morality 7or moral religion7 as the branch of wisdom suitable to man4 ,the only difference is that the writer of ,job xxviii4 expressly says that this is the only wisdom within human ken1 whereas the writer of ,prov4 viii4 does not touch on this point4 ,but1 whether an extract from a larger work or written as a supplement to the poem of ,job1 the passage in its present position is evidently intended to have a reference to ,job's problem4 ,the author1 or the extractor1 regarded the foregoing debates much as ,milton regarded those of the fallen angels1 who #8found no end1 in wandering mazes lost2' in short1 he could only solve the problem by pronouncing it insoluble4#da ,verses #aa and #ab of chap4 xxvii4 have very much the appearance of an artificial bridge inserted by the new author or the extractor4 ,footnote #cg3 ,on this characteristic word for parallelistic poetry1 see on ,proverbs4 ,footnote #ch3 ,note that xxvii4 #ac is repeated from an earlier speech of ,zophar 7xx4 #bi74 ,there it concludes a sketch of the #8impious' man's fate2 here it begins a similar description4 ,verses #aa and #ab of the same chapter would stand more properly 7,bickell and virtually ,hirzel7 immediately before chap4 xxviii4 ,mr4 ,b4 ,wright is very near doing the same2 following ,eichhorn1 he takes vv4 #ac-bc as a specimen quoted by ,job of the friends' #8inconsequential' style of argument 7a less natural hypothesis than that adopted here74 ,footnote #ci3 ,it seems clear that chap4 xxii4 was not written as the sequel of chap4 xxx4 ,since1 however1 it bears such a strong impress of originality1 one can only suppose that the author placed it here by an afterthought1 and omitted to construct a connecting link with the preceding chapter4 ,footnote #dj3 ,these verses have been misplaced in the ,massoretic text 7as ,isa4 xxxviii4 #ba1 #bb74 ,they clearly ought to stand at the end of the chapter4 ,so ,kennicott1 ,eichhorn1 ,merx1 ,delitzsch4 ,footnote #da3 ,but for this tendency of the poem one might follow ,delitzsch 7art4 #8,hiob' in ,herzog-,plitt1 vi4 #acc7 and regard chap4 xxviii4 as inserted by the author of ,job from his #8portfolio4' ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,speeches ,,of ,,elihu4 7,,chaps4 ,,xxxii4-,,xxxvii47 ,at a 7perhaps7 considerably later period than the original work 7including chap4 xxviii47--symbolised by the youthfulness of ,elihu as compared with the four older friends--the problem of the sufferings of the innocent still beset the minds of the wise men1 the attempt of the three friends to #8justify the ways of ,god' to the intellect having proved1 as the wise men thought1 a too manifest failure 7xxxii4 #b1 #c74 ,one of their number therefore invented a fourth friend1 ,elihu 7or is this the name of the author himself8#db71 who is described as having been a listener during the preceding debates1 and who reduces ,job to silence4 ,it is noteworthy that the sudden introduction of ,elihu required the insertion of a fresh narrative passage 7xxxii4 #a-f7 as a supplement to the original prologue4 ,i assume1 as the reader will observe1 the one assured result of the criticism of ,job4 ,to those who follow me in this1 the speeches of ,elihu will1 ,i think1 gain greatly in interest4 ,they mark out a time when1 partly through the teaching of history1 partly through a deeper inward experience1 and partly through the reading of the poem of ,job1 the old difficulties of faith were no longer so acutely felt4 ,two courses were open to the ,epigoni of that age--either to force ,job to say what1 as it seemed1 he ought to have said 7this1 however1 was not so easy as in the case of ,ecclesiastes71 or to insert fresh speeches in the style of the original1 separating the corn from the chaff in the pleadings of the three friends1 and adding whatever a more advanced religious thought suggested to the writer4 ,in forms of expression1 however1 it must be admitted that ,elihu does not shine4 7,true1 he does not profess to comfort ,job47 ,for offensiveness the two following verses are not easily matched3 ,where is there a man like ,job1 who drinks#dc scoffing like water8 7xxxiv4 #g47 ,would that ,job might be tried to the uttermost because of his answers in the manner of wicked men 7xxxiv4 #cf74 ,a #8vulgar braggart' he may not be from an ,oriental point of view1 nor is he #8the prototype of the ,bachelor in ,faust2' but that he is too positive and dogmatic1 and much overrates his own powers1 is certain4 ,he represents the dogmatism of a purified orthodoxy1 which thinks too much of its minute advances 7#8one perfect in knowledge is with thee1' xxxvi4 #d74 ,elihu distributes his matter 7of which he says that he is #8full1' xxxii4 #ah-bj7 over four speeches4 ,his themes in the first three are3 #a1 the ground and object of suffering 7chaps4 xxxii41 xxxiii472 #b1 the righteousness of ,god 7chap4 xxxiv472 and #c1 the use of religion 7chap4 xxxv471 all of which are treated in relation to the questionable or erroneous utterances of ,job4 ,then1 in his last and longest effort1 ,elihu unrolls before ,job a picture of the government of ,god1 in its beneficence and righteousness as well as its omnipotence1 in the hope of moving ,job to self-humiliation 7chaps4 xxxvi41 xxxvii47 ,let us remember again that ,elihu represents the debates of the #8wise men' of the post-regal period1 who were conscious of being in some sense #8inspired' like their prophetic predecessors 7xxxii4 #h1 xxxvi4 #d2 ,ecclus4 xxiv4 #cb-cd1 l4 #bh1 #bi71 so that we cannot believe that the bizarre impression made by ,elihu on some ,western critics was intended by the original author4 ,that his portrait suggests certain grave infirmities1 may be granted2 but these are the failings of the circle to which the author belongs3 the self-commendation of ,elihu in his exordium is hardly excessive from an ,oriental point of view1 or would at any rate be justifiable in a more original thinker4 ,indeed1 he only commends himself in order to excuse the unusual step of criticising the proceedings of men so much older than himself4 ,after what he thinks sufficient excuse has been offered1 ,elihu takes up ,job's fundamental error1 self-righteousness1 but prepares the way by examining ,job's assertion 7xix4 #g1 xxx4 #bj7 that ,god took no heed of his complaints4 ,wherefore hast thou contended with ,him because #8,he answers none of my words'8#dd 7xxxiii4 #ac47 ,to this ,elihu replies that it is a man's own fault if he cannot hear the ,divine voice4 ,for ,god is constantly speaking to man1 if man would only regard it 7#8revelation1' then1 is not confined to a class or a succession74 ,two means of communication are specially mentioned--nightly dreams and visions1 and severe sickness4 ,the object of both is to divert men from courses of action which can only lead to destruction4 ,at this point a remarkable intimation is given4 ,in order to produce conversion1 and so to #8redeem a man from going down to the pit1' a special angelic agency is necessary--that of a #8mediator' or #8interpreter' 7,targ4 p'raqlt2 comp4 1 ,john xiv4 #af1 #bf71 whose office it is to #8show unto man his rightness' 7i4e4 how to conform his life to the right standard1 xxxiii4 #bc74 ,we must pause here1 however1 to consider the bearings of this4 ,it seems to show us1 first1 that inspired minds 7see above7 were already beginning to refine and elevate the popular notions of the spiritual world4 ,that there were two classes of spirits1 the one favourable1 the other adverse to man1 had long been the belief of the ,israelites and their neighbours4#de ,the author of the speeches of ,elihu now introduces one of them among the symbols of a higher stage of religion4 ,in antithesis to the #8destroyers'#df 7ver4 #bb7 he implies that ,god has thousands of angels 7the #8mediator' is #8one among a thousand'71 whose business it is to save sinners from destruction by leading them to repentance4 ,such is the 1 the friendliness to man1 of the angelic world1 without which indeed1 according to ,elihu1 the purpose of sickness would be unobserved and a fatal issue inevitable4 ,to students of ,christianity1 however1 it has a deeper interest1 if the concluding words1 #8,i have found a ransom1' be a part of the ,old ,testament foundation of the doctrine of redemption through ,christ4 ,this1 however1 is questionable1 and even its possibility is not recognised by the latest orthodox commentator4#dg ,in his second speech ,elihu returns to the main question of ,job's attitude towards ,god4 ,he begins by imputing to ,job language which he had never used1 and which from its extreme irreverence ,job would certainly have disowned 7xxxiv4 #e1 #i71 and maintains that ,god never acts unjustly1 but rewards every man according to his deeds4 ,there is nothing in his treatment of this theme which requires comment except its vagueness and generality1 to which1 were the speech an integral part of the poem1 ,job would certainly have taken exception4 ,the subject of the third speech is handled with more originality4 ,job had really complained that afflicted persons such as himself appealed to ,god in vain 7xxiv4 #ab1 xxx4 #bj74 ,elihu replies to this 7xxxv4 #i-ac7 that such persons merely cried from physical pain1 and did not really pray4 ,the fourth and last speech1 in which he dismisses controversy and expresses his own sublime ideas of the ,creator1 has the most poetical interest4 ,at the very outset the solemnity of his language prepares the reader to expect something great1 and the expectation is not altogether disappointed4 #8,god1' he says1 #8is mighty1 but despiseth not any' 7xxxvi4 #e72 ,he has given proof of this by the trials with which ,he visits ,his servants when they have fallen into sin4 ,might and mercy are the principal attributes of ,god4 ,the verses in which ,elihu applies this doctrine to ,job's case are ambiguous and perhaps corrupt1 but it appears as if ,elihu regarded ,job as in danger of missing the disciplinary object of his sufferings4 ,it is in the second part of his speech 7xxxvi4 #bf-xxxvii4 #bd7 that ,elihu displays his greatest rhetorical power1 and though by no means equal to the speeches of ,jehovah1 which it appears to imitate1 the vividness of its descriptions has obtained the admiration of no less competent a judge than ,alexander von ,humboldt4 ,the moral is intended to be that1 instead of criticising ,god1 ,job should humble himself in devout awe at the combined splendour and mystery of the creation4 ,it is tempting to regard the sketch of the storm in xxxvi4 #bi-xxxvii4 #e and the appeals which ,elihu makes to ,job as preparatory to the appearance of ,jehovah in xxxviii4 #a4 #8,while ,elihu is speaking1' says ,mr4 ,turner1 #8the clouds gather1 a storm darkens the heavens and sweeps across the landscape1 and the thunder utters its voice 444 out of the whirlwind that passes by ,jehovah speaks4'#dh ,so too ,dr4 ,cox thinks that ,job's invisible ,opponent #8opens ,his mouth and answers him out of the tempest which ,elihu has so graphically described4'#di ,in fact in xxxviii4 #a we may equally well render #8the tempest' 7i4e4 that lately mentioned7 and #8a tempest4' ,the objection is 7#a7 that the storm does not come into the close of ,elihu's speech1 as it ought to do1 and 7#b7 that in ,his very first words ,jehovah distinctly implies that the last speaker was one who #8darkened counsel by words without knowledge' 7xxxviii4 #c74 ,such are the contributions of ,elihu1 which gain considerably when considered as a little treatise in themselves4 ,it is1 indeed1 a strange freak of fancy to regard ,elihu as representing the poet himself4#ej ,neither sthetically nor theologically do they reach the same high mark as the remainder of the book4 #8,the style of ,elihu1' as ,m4 ,renan remarks1 #8is cold1 heavy1 pretentious4 ,the author loses himself in long descriptions without vivacity4444 ,his language is obscure and presents peculiar difficulties4 ,in the other parts of the poem the obscurity comes from our ignorance and our scanty means of comprehending these ancient documents2 here the obscurity comes from the style itself1 from its bizarrerie and affectation4'#ea ,theologically it is difficult to discover any important point 7but see ,chap4 ,,xii41 below1 on ,elihu7 in which1 in spite of his sharp censure of the friends1 he distinctly passes beyond them4 ,his arguments have been so largely anticipated by the three friends that1 on the whole1 we may perhaps best regard chaps4 xxxii4-xxxix4 as a first theological criticism on the contents of the original work4 ,from this point of view it is interesting that the idea of affliction as correction1 which had already occurred to ,eliphaz1 acquired in the course of years a much deeper hold on thinking minds 7see xxxiii4 #ai-cj1 xxxvi4 #h-aj74 ,there is one feature of the earlier speeches which is not imitated by ,elihu1 and that is the long and terrifying descriptions in each of the three original colloquies of the fate of the impious man1 and one of the most considerate of ,elihu's ,western critics#eb thinks it possible that ,elihu1 who says in one place-- ,and the impious in heart cherish wrath1 and supplicate not when he hath bound them 7xxxvi4 #ac7-- considered no calamity whatever as penal in the first instance4 ,footnote #db3 ,so ,m4 ,derenbourg1 who points out that none of the other speakers have a genealogy1 and identifies ,buz with ,boaz1 and ,ram with an ancestor of ,david 7,ruth iv4 #ai74 ,the author of chaps4 xxxii4-xxxvii4 might thus be a descendant of ,elihu the brother of ,david 7#a ,chr4 xxvii4 #ah74 ,footnote #dc3 ,on #8drinks' see ,thomson1 ,the ,land and the ,book1 p4 #cai4 ,footnote #dd3 ,the text 7which has #8,his words'7 is generally rendered #8because ,he gives not account of any of ,his matters1' i4e4 of the details of ,his government4 ,this is very strained2 the ,sept4 has #8my words1' the ,vulgate #8thy words1' either of which readings gives a natural sense4 ,footnote #de3 ,see #b ,sam4 xxiv4 #af1 and comp4 #a ,chr4 xxi4 #ae1 ,ps4 xxviii4 #di1 ,prov4 xvi4 #ad1 ,ezek4 ix4 #a1 x4 #g2 also ,jost1 ,gesch4 des ,judenthums1 i4 #cjd4 ,for ,assyria see ,records of the ,past1 i4 #aca-e3 iv4 #ec-fj 7the sinner was thought to be given up in displeasure by his ,god into the hands of the evil spirits74 ,for ,arabia see ,korn1 lxxix4 #a1 #b-- #8,by those 7angels7 who tear out 7souls7 with violence1 ,and by those who joyously release them3' for the early ,christian1 ,justin ,m4 ,dial4 e4 ,tryph4 #aje1 1 3 and for the medieval1 ,dante1 ,inferno1 xxvii4 #aab-abc3 ,purgatorio1 v4 #ajc-ajh4 ,comp4 below1 ,chap4 ,x4 ,footnote #df3 ,blake seems to have felt ,elihu's strong faith in the angels4 ,the border of his #abth illustration is filled with a stream of delicate angel forms4 ,footnote #dg3 ,davidson4 ,ewald explains the #8ransom' partly of the intercession of the angel1 partly of the prayer of repentance4 ,footnote #dh3 ,turner1 ,studies ,biblical and ,oriental1 p4 #adf4 ,footnote #di3 ,cox1 ,commentary on the ,book of ,job1 p4 #dhi4 ,footnote #ej3 ,so ,lightfoot 7see ,lowth1 ,prlect4 xxxii474 ,footnote #ea3 ,le livre de ,job1 p4 liv4 ,footnote #eb3 ,davidson1 ,the ,book of ,job1 p4 xlv4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,speeches ,,of ,,jehovah4 7,,chaps4 ,,xxxviii4-,,xlii4 #f47 #8,the words of ,job are ended' 7xxxi4 #dj;b71 remarks the ancient editor1 and amongst the last of these words is an aspiration after a meeting with ,god4 ,that ,job expected such a favour in this life is in the highest degree improbable1 whatever view be taken of xix4 #be-bg4 ,it is true1 he sometimes did almost regard a theophany as possible1 though he feared it might be granted under conditions which would make it the reverse of a boon 7ix4 #c1 #ae1 #cc-ce2 xiii4 #ba1 #bb74 ,he wished for a fair investigation of his character1 and he craved that ,god would not appear in too awful a form4 ,it seems at first sight as if ,jehovah1 casting hard questions at ,job out of the tempest1 and ignoring both the friends' indictment and ,job's defence 7xxxi4 #ce-cg71 were realising ,job's worst fears and acting as his enemy4 ,the friends had already sought to humble ,job by pointing him to the power and wisdom and goodness of ,god1 and ,job had proved conclusively that he was no stranger to these high thoughts4 ,is the poet consistent with himself1 first1 in introducing ,jehovah at all1 and1 secondly1 in making ,him overpower ,job by a series of sharp1 ironical questions8 ,several answers may be given if we wish to defend the unity of the poem4 ,job himself 7it may be said7 has not continued at the same high level of faith as in xix4 #be-bg 7assuming ,prof4 ,davidson's view of the passage72 he needs the appearance of ,jehovah more than he did then4 ,as to the course attributed in xxxviii4 #a to ,jehovah1 this too 7the poet may have felt in adding these speeches7 was really the best for ,job4 ,jehovah might no doubt have declared ,job to be in the right as against his friends4 ,he might next have soothed the sufferer's mind by revealing the reason why his trials were permitted 7we know this from the ,prologue74 ,but this would not have been for ,job's spiritual welfare3 there was one lesson he needed to learn or to relearn1 one grace of character he needed to gain or to regain--namely1 devout and trustful humility towards ,god4 ,in the heat of debate and under the pressure of pain ,job's old religious habit of mind had certainly been weakened--not destroyed1 but weakened--and a strong remedy was necessary if he was not to carry his distracted feelings to the grave4 ,and so1 as a first joyful surprise1 came the theophany3 to #8see' ,god before death must have been a joyful surprise2 and if the questioning cast him down1 yet it was only to raise him up in the strength of self-distrust4 ,the object of these orations of ,jehovah is not to communicate intellectual light1 but to give a stronger tone to ,job's whole nature4 ,he had long known ,god to be strong and wise and good1 but more as a lesson learned than as personal experience 7xlii4 #e74 ,and the means first adopted to convey this life-giving #8sight' is not without a touch of that humour which we noticed in the ,prologue4 ,job1 who was so full of questions1 now has the tables turned upon him4 ,he is put through a catechism which admits of but one very humbling answer1 each question being attached to a wonderfully vivid description of some animal or phenomenon4 ,for descriptive power the first speech of ,jehovah1 at any rate1 is without a parallel4 ,the author1 as ,prof4 ,davidson remarks1 #8knew the great law that sublimity is necessarily also simplicity4' ,it is true he does but give us isolated features of the natural world3 no single scene is represented in its totality4 ,but this is in accordance with the ,hebrew genius1 to which nature appears1 not in her own simple beauty1 but bathed in an atmosphere of emotion4 ,the emotion which here animates the poet is mainly a religious one2 it is the love of ,god1 and of ,god's works for the sake of their ,maker4 ,he wishes to cure the murmuring spirits of his own day by giving them wider views of external nature and its mysteries1 so wondrously varied and so full of ,divine wisdom and goodness4 ,he has this great advantage in doing so1 that they1 like himself 7and ,job71 are theists2 they are not of those who say in their heart1 #8,there is no ,god1' but of the #8,zion' who complains1 #8,jehovah has forsaken me1 and my ,lord has forgotten me' 7,isaiah xlix4 #ad74 ,and the remedy which he applies is the same as that of the ,babylonian-,jewish prophet1 a wider study of the ways of ,god4 ,job had said1 #8,i would tell ,him the number of my steps2' ,jehovah replies by showing him1 in a series of questions1 not irritating but persuasive1 the footprints of ,his own larger self-manifestation4 ,the ,divine ,speaker is introduced by the poet thus3 ,and ,jehovah answered ,job out of a tempest1 and said4 ,a storm was the usual accompaniment of a ,divine appearance3 there was no intention of crushing ,job with terror4 ,in ,blake's thirteenth drawing ,job 7and his wife67 are represented kneeling and listening1 with countenances expressive of thankfulness2 in his fourteenth1 ,job and his four friends kneel rapt and ecstatic1 while the #8sons of ,god1' sweet1 vital1 heavenly forms1 are shouting for joy4 ,in fact1 the speeches of ,jehovah contain1 not accusations 7except in xxxviii4 #b71 but remonstrances1 and1 though the form of these is chilling to ,job's self-love1 yet the glorious visions which they evoke are healing to every sorrow of the mind4 ,the text of the speeches is unfortunately not in perfect order4 ,for instance1 there are four verses which have1 no one can tell how1 been deposited in the description of behemoth 7xli4 #i-ab1 ,a4 ,v47 but which most probably at one time or another opened the first speech of ,jehovah4 ,perhaps the author himself removed them1 feeling them to be too depressing for ,job to hear2 or perhaps it was purely by accident that they were transferred1 and ,merx and ,bickell have done well to replace them in their corrected editions of ,job between xxxi4 #cg and xxxviii4 #a4 ,as corrected by the former they run thus3-- ,behold1 his hope is belied3 will he fight against mine appearing8 ,he is not so bold as to stir me up2 who indeed could stand before me8 ,who ever attacks me in safety8 all beneath the whole heaven is mine4 ,i will not take his babbling in silence1 his mighty speech and its comely arrangement4 ,we must regard this as a soliloquy1 after which1 directly addressing ,job1 ,jehovah upbraids the #8mighty speaker' with having shut himself out by his #8blind clamour' from a view of the ,divine plan of his life4 ,who is this that darkens counsel by words without knowledge8 7xxxviii4 #b47 ,to gain that #8knowledge' which will #8make darkness light before him1' ,job must enrich his conception of ,god4 ,those striking pictures already referred to have no lower aim than to display the great ,all-wise ,god1 and the irony of the catechising is only designed to bring home the more forcibly to ,job human littleness and ignorance4 ,modern readers1 however1 cannot help turning aside to admire the genius of the poet and his sympathetic interest in nature4 ,his scientific ideas may be crude2 but he observes as a poet1 and not as a naturalist4 ,earth1 sea1 and sky successively enchain him1 and we can hardly doubt that the natural philosophy of the ,chaldans was superficially at least known to him4#ec ,in his childlike curiosity and willingness to tell us everything he reminds us of the poet of the ,commedia4 ,has the rain a father8#ed or who has begotten the dew-drops8 from whose womb came forth the ice1 and the hoar frost of heaven--who engendered it1 7that7 the waters close together like a stone1 and the face of the deep hides itself8 ,dost thou bind the knots of the ,pleiades1#ee or loose the fetters of ,orion8#ef ,dost thou bring forth the moon's watches at their season1 and the ,bear and her offspring--dost thou guide them8 ,knowest thou the laws of heaven8 dost thou determine its influence upon the earth8 7xxxviii4 #bh-cc47 #8,the laws of heaven6' ,can we refuse to observe the first beginnings of a conception of the cosmos1 remembering other passages of the ,wisdom ,literature in which the great world plan is distinctly referred to8 ,without denying a pre-,exile1 native ,hebrew tendency 7comp4 ,job xxxviii4 #cc with ,jer4 xxxi4 #ce1 #cf7 may we not suppose that the physical theology of ,babylonia had a large part in determining the form of this conception8 ,notice the reference to the influence of the sky upon the earth1 and especially the ,hebraised ,babylonian phrase ,mazzaroth 7i4e4 mazarati1#eg plural of mazarta1 a watch71 the watches or stations of the moon which marked the progress of the month4 ,but it is not so much the intellectual curiosity manifest in these verses which we would dwell upon now as the poetic vigour of the gallery of zoology1 and1 we must add1 the faith which pervades it1 reminding us of a ,bedouin prayer quoted by ,major ,palmer1 #8,o ,thou who providest for the blind hyna1 provide for me6' ,ten 7or nine7 specimens of animal life are given--the lion and 7perhaps7 the raven1#eh the wild goat and the hind1 the wild ass1 the wild ox1#ei the ostrich1 the war horse1 the hawk and the eagle4 ,it is to this portion that the student must turn who would fain know the highest attainments of the ,hebrew genius in pure poetry1 such as ,milton would have recognised as poetry4 ,the delighted wonder with which the writer enters into the habits of the animals1 and the light and graceful movement of the verse1 make the ten descriptions referred to an ever-attractive theme1 ,i will not say for the translator1 but for the interpreter4 ,they are ideal1 as the ,greek sculptures are ideal1 and need the pen of that poet-student1 faint hints of whose coming have been given us in ,herder and ,rckert4 ,the finest of them1 of course1 is that of one of the animals most nearly related in ,arabia to man 7in ,arabia1 but not in ,juda71 the horse4 ,dost thou give might to the horse8 ,dost thou clothe his neck with waving mane8 ,dost thou make him bound as a locust8 ,the peal of his snort is terrible6 ,he paws in the valley and rejoices in his strength2 he goes forth to meet the weapons2 he laughs at fear1 and is not dismayed1 and recoils not from the sword3 the quiver clangs upon him1 the flashing lance and the javelin3 bounding furiously he swallows the ground1 and cannot stand still at the blast of the trumpet2 at every blast he says1 #8,aha6' and smells the battle from afar1 the captain's thunder and the cry of battle 7xxxix4 #ai-be74 ,the terrible element in animal instincts seems indeed to fascinate the mind of our poet2 he closes his gallery with a sketch of the cruel instincts of the glorious eagle4 ,we are reminded1 perhaps1 of the lines of a poet painter inspired by ,job-- ,tiger1 tiger1 burning bright ,in the forests of the night1 ,what immortal hand or eye ,could frame thy fearful symmetry8#fj ,and now we might almost think that the object of the theophany has been attained4 ,never more will ,job presume to litigate with ,shaddai1 or measure the doings of ,god by his puny intellect4 ,he has learned the lesson expressed in ,dante's line-- ,state contenti1 umana gente1 al quia1#fa but also that higher lesson1 so boldly expressed by the same poet1 that in all ,god's works1 without exception1 three attributes are seen united-- ,fecemi la divina potestate1 ,la somma sapienza1 e 'l primo amore4#fb ,he is silenced1 indeed1 but only as with the poet of ,paradise-- ,all' alta fantasia qui manc possa4#fc ,the silence with which both these #8vessels of election' meet the ,divine revelation is the silence of satisfaction1 even though this be mingled with awe4 ,job has learned to forget himself in the wondrous creation of which he forms a part1 just as ,dante when he saw ,la forma universal di questo nodo4#fd ,job cannot1 indeed1 as yet express his feelings2 awe preponderates over satisfaction in the words assigned to him in xl4 #d1 #e4 ,in fact1 he has fallen below his better knowledge1 and must be humbled for this4 ,he has known that he is but a part of humanity--a representative of the larger whole1 and might1 but for his frailty1 have comforted himself in that thought4 ,god's power and wisdom and goodness are so wondrously blended in the great human organism that he might have rested amidst his personal woes in the certainty of at least an indirect connection with the gentler manifestations of the #8,watcher of mankind' 7vii4 #bj74 ,this thought has proved ineffectual1 and so the ,divine ,instructor tries another order of considerations4 ,and1 true enough1 nature effects what #8the still1 sad music of humanity' has failed to teach4 ,job1 however1 needs more than teaching2 he needs humiliation for his misjudgment of ,god's dealings with him personally4 ,hence in ,his second short but weighty speech #8out of the tempest' ,jehovah begins with the question 7xl4 #h7-- ,wilt thou make void my justice8 wilt thou condemn me1 that thou mayest be righteous8 ,this gives the point of view from which ,jehovah ironically invites ,job1 if he thinks 7see chap4 xxiv47 that he can govern the world--the human as well as the extra-human world--better than the ,creator1 to make the bold attempt4 ,he bids him array himself with the ,divine majesty and carry out that retribution in which ,jehovah1 according to him1 has so completely failed 7xl4 #aa-ac74 ,if ,job will prove his competence for the office which he claims1 then ,jehovah ,himself will recognise his independence and extol his inherent strength4 ,did the poet mean to finish the second speech of ,jehovah here8 ,it is probable2 the subject of the interrogatory hardly admitted of being developed further in poetry4 ,a later writer 7or1 as ,merx thinks1 the poet of ,job himself7 seems to have found the speech too short1 and therefore appended the two fancy sketches of animals which follow4 ,but in the original draft of the poem xl4 #ad must have been followed immediately by ,job's retractation1 closing with those striking words 7see above1 p4 #di7 which so well supplement the less articulate confession of xl4 #d1 #e-- ,i had heard of thee by the hearing of the ear1 but now mine eye sees thee3#fe therefore ,i retract and repent in dust and ashes 7xlii4 #e1 #f74 ,how complete a reversal of the #8princely' anticipations of ,job in xxxi4 #cg6 ,to us1 indeed1 it may seem somewhat ungracious to ,job to give this as the last scene of his pathetic drama4 ,but the poet leaves it open to us to animate ,job's repentance with love as well as awe and compunction4 ,with fine feeling ,blake in his seventeenth illustration almost fills the margin with passages from the ,johannine writings4 ,the long description of the two ,egyptian monsters 7xl4 #ae1 xli4 #bf7 is1 as we have hinted above1 out of place in the second speech of ,jehovah4 ,it has indeed been suggested that the writer may have intended it as a development of xl4 #ad-- ,then will ,i in return confess unto thee that thy right hand can help thee-- which implies that ,job has no power to help himself in the government of the world4 ,according to this view1 the opening words of the behemoth section will mean1 #8,consider1 pray1 that thou hast fellow-creatures which are far stronger than thou2 and how canst thou undertake the management of the universe8' ,it must1 however1 be admitted that the emphasis thus laid on the omnipotence of ,god1 apart from ,his righteousness1 introduces an obscurity into the argument which almost compels us to assume that the sketches of behemoth and leviathan are later insertions4 ,at any rate1 even if we regard them as the work of the principal writer of ,job1 we must at least ascribe them to one of those after-thoughts by which poets not unfrequently spoil their best productions4 ,the style of the description1 too1 is less chastened than that of chaps4 xxxviii4 xxxix4 7so that ,bickell can hardly be right in placing xl4 #ae1 c41 immediately after xxxix4 #cj71 and if it relates to the hippopotamus and the crocodile is less true to nature than the other #8animal pieces4' ,the truth is that neither behemoth nor leviathan corresponds strictly to any known animal4 ,the tail of a hippopotamus would surely not have been compared to a cedar by a truthful though poetic observer like the author of chaps4 xxxviii4 xxxix4 ,moreover that animal was habitually hunted by the ,egyptians with lance and harpoon1 and was therefore no fit symbol of indomitable pride4 ,the crocodile too was attacked and killed by the ,egyptians1 though in xli4 #bf-bi leviathan is said to laugh at his assailants4 ,seneca in his description of ,egypt describes the crocodile as #8fugax animal audaci1 audacissimum timido' 7,qust4 ,nat41 iv4 #b74 ,comp4 ,ezek4 xxix4 #d1 xxxii4 #c2 ,herod4 ii4 #gj4 ,to me1 indeed1 as well as to ,m4 ,chabas1 the behemoth and the leviathan seem to claim a kinship with the dragons and other imaginary monsters of the ,swiss topographies of the sixteenth century4 ,a still more striking because a nearer parallel is adduced by ,m4 ,chabas from the ,egyptian monuments1 where1 side by side with the most accurate pictures from nature1 we often find delineations of animals which cannot have existed out of wonderland4#ff ,it is remarkable that the elephant should not have been selected as a type of strange and wondrous animal life2 apparently it was not yet known to the ,hebrew writers1 though of course it might be urged that the poet was accidentally prevented from writing more4 ,merx has pointed out that the description of behemoth is evidently incomplete4 ,he also thinks that the poet has not yet brought the form of these passages to final perfection3 a struggle with the difficulties of expression is observable4 ,he therefore relegates xl4 #ae-xli4 #bf to an appendix with the suggestive title 7comp4 ,goethe's ,faust7 ,paralipomena to ,job4 ,he thinks that a reader or admirer of the original poem sought to preserve these unfinished sketches by placing them where they now stand4 ,this is probably the most conservative theory 7i4e4 the nearest to the traditional view7 critically admissible4 ,footnote #ec3 ,see ,sayce on #8,babylonian ,astronomy' 7,translations of ,soc4 of ,bibl4 ,archology1 #ahgd72 ,lenormant1 ,la magic chez les ,chaldens1 and his ,syllabaires cuniformes 7#ahgf71 p4 #dh4 ,footnote #ed3 ,this is not mere #8patriarchal simplicity' 7,renan1 p4 lvi471 but a contradiction of the mythic view that a nature god like ,baal is the #8father' or producer of the rain and the crops 7see ,cheyne1 ,isaiah1 ed4 #c1 i4 #bh1 #bid1 ii4 #bie74 ,elihu no doubt goes further in his explanations2 see xxxvi4 #bg1 #bh4 ,footnote #ee3 ,heb4 kima2 comp4 ,ass4 kimtu1 #8a family4' ,the word occurs again in ix4 #i1 ,am4 v4 #h 7but are not this verse and the closely related one in iv4 #ac additions by a later editor of ,amos in the ,exile period87 ,footnote #ef3 ,heb4 k'sl1 the name of the foolhardy giant who strove with ,jehovah4 ,the ,chaldeo-,assyrian astrology gave the name kisiluv to the ninth month1 connecting it with the zodiacal sign ,sagittarius4 ,but there are valid reasons for attaching the ,hebrew popular myth to ,orion4 ,footnote #eg3 #8,he did not watch the stars of heaven1 nor the mazarati4' ,so ,fox ,talbot quotes from a cuneiform tablet 7,transactions of ,soc4 of ,bibl4 ,archology1 #ahgb1 p4 #cda74 ,the above explanation1 however1 which is that of ,delitzsch on ,job1 differs from that of ,fox ,talbot4 ,footnote #eh3 ,mr4 ,bateson ,wright's pointing1 l'ereb for la'rbh1 is plausible4 ,the raven is an insignificant companion to the lion1 and the birds of prey are mentioned at the end of ,job's picture gallery4 ,render #8who provides in the evening his food1' c42 but in this case should not lbh in ver4 #ci be rendered #8lion' rather than #8lioness' 7note #8his young ones'78 ,the root idea is probably voracity4 ,that lbh in iv4 #aa is the feminine is no objection4 ,comp4 ,ps4 lvii4 #e1 and perhaps ,hos4 xiii4 #h4 ,possibly1 however1 the #8raven' was inserted here to make up the number ten1 by a reminiscence of ,ps4 cxlvii4 #i4 ,footnote #ei3 ,the #8unicorn' of ,a4 ,v4 comes from the ,sept4 and ,vulg42 but in ,deut4 xxxiii4 #ag the re'm is said to have #8horns4' ,schlottmann and ,delitzsch identify it with the oryx or antelope1 but the oryx was tamable 7,wilkinson1 ,egyptians1 i4 #bbg71 whereas our poet asks1 #8,will the re'm be willing to serve thee8' ,see ,cheyne on ,isa4 xxxiv4 #g4 ,footnote #fj3 ,blake1 ,songs of ,experience4 ,footnote #fa3 ,purg41 iii4 #cg4 ,footnote #fb3 ,inf41 iii4 #e1 #f4 ,footnote #fc3 ,parad41 xxxiii4 #adb4 ,footnote #fd3 ,parad41 xxxiii4 #ia4 ,footnote #fe3 ,all his thinkings seemed like hearsay4 ,this1 then1 was the real ,god4 ,so an anonymous writer well expresses it 7,mark ,rutherford's ,deliverance1 p4 #aif74 ,footnote #ff3 ,etudes sur l'antiquit historique1 prem4 d41 pp4 #cia-cic4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,epilogue ,,and ,,its ,,meaning4 ,we now come to the dnoment of the story 7xlii4 #g-ag71 against which1 from the point of view of internal criticism1 much were possible to be said4 ,we shall not1 however1 here dwell upon the inconsistencies between the epilogue on the one hand and the prologue and the speeches on the other4 ,the main point for us to emphasise is the disappointingness of the events of the epilogue regarded as the final outcome of ,job's spiritual discipline4 ,surely the high thoughts which have now and then visited ,job's mind1 and which1 combined with the personal self-revelation of the ,creator1 must have brought back the sufferer to a state of childlike resignation1 stand in inappropriate companionship with a tame and commonplace renewal of mere earthly prosperity4 ,would it not have been fitter for the hero on whom so much moral training had been lavished to pass with humble but courageous demeanour through the dark valley1 at the issue of which he would #8see ,god'8 ,it is hardly a sufficient answer that a concession was necessary to the prejudices of the unspiritual multitude2 for what was the object of the poem1 if not to subvert the dominion of a one-sided retribution theory8 ,the solution probably is that ,job in the epilogue is a type of suffering1 believing1 and glorified ,israel4 ,not only the individual believer1 not only all the elect spirits of suffering humanity1 but the beloved nation of the poet4--,israel1 the #8,servant of ,jehovah'--must receive a special message of comfort from the great poem4 ,in ,isa4 lxi4 #g we read that glorified ,israel is to #8have double 7compensation7 instead of its shame2' comp4 ,zech4 ix4 #ab1 ,jer4 xvi4 #ad-ah4 ,the people of ,israel1 according to the limited view of the prophets1 was bound indissolubly to the ,holy ,land4 ,the only promise1 therefore1 which would be consolatory for suffering ,israel1 the only possible sign of ,god's restored favour1 was a material one including fresh #8children' and many flocks and herds 7,isa4 liv4 #a1 lx4 #g74 ,observe in this connection the phrase1 xlii4 #aj1 #8,jehovah turned the fortunes of ,job' 7others1 as ,a4 ,v41 #8turned the captivity of ,job'7--the phrase so well known in passages relating to ,israel 7e4g4 ,ps4 xiv4 #g1 ,joel iii4 #a74 ,the explanation is perhaps adequate4 ,some1 however1 will be haunted by a doubt whether the author of the prologue would not have thrown more energy and enthusiasm into the closing narrative4 ,an early reader1 probably of ,pharisaic leanings1 felt the poverty of the epilogue1#fg and sought to remedy it by the following addition in the ,septuagint3 #8,and ,job died1 old and full of days2 and it is written that he will rise again with those whom the ,lord raiseth4'#fh ,the remainder of the ,septuagint appendix testifies only to the love of the later ,jews for amplifying ,biblical notices 7see ,chap4 ,,vii47 ,our own poet painter has also amplified the details of the epilogue1 but in how different a way6 7,gilchrist's ,life of ,blake1 i4 #ccb-c74 ,footnote #fg3 ,other readers1 however1 found no difficulty in the close of the story2 to such ,st4 ,james addresses himself in the words1 #8,ye have heard of the endurance of ,job1 and have seen the end of the ,lord' 7,james v4 #aa71 i4e4 the blessed end vouchsafed by the ,lord to ,job4 ,it was also1 no doubt1 such a reader who composed the beautiful romance of ,tobit1 to show that1 however tried1 the righteous man is at last delivered by his ,god4 ,footnote #fh3 ,those rabbis who in later times held this view appear to have assumed that ,job was of the ,israelitish race 7,frankl in ,grtz's ,monatsschrift1 #ahgb1 p4 #caa74 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,traditional ,,basis ,,and ,,the ,,purpose ,,of ,,job4 ,i4 ,did ,job really live8 ,this is widely different1 remarks ,umbreit1#fi from the question whether ,job actually said and did all that is related of him in our book4 ,it is scarcely necessary1 he adds1 in the present day to disprove the latter1 but we have no reason to doubt the former 7the theory as to the historical existence of a sort of ,arabian king ,priam1 named ,job74 ,in truth1 we have no positive evidence either for affirming or denying it1 unless the #8holy places1' each reputed to be ,job's grave1 may be mentioned in this connection4 ,the allusion in ,ezek4 xiv4 #ad to #8,noah1 ,daniel1 and ,job1' proves no more than that a tradition of some sort existed respecting the righteous ,job during the ,babylonian ,exile3 we cannot tell how much ,ezekiel knew besides ,job's righteousness4 ,in later times1 ,jewish students do appear to have believed that #8,job existed2' but the force of the argument is weakened by the uncritical character of the times1 and the extreme form in which this belief was held by them4 ,how early doubts arose1 we know not4 ,the authors of ,tobit and ,susanna may very likely have been only half-believers1 since they evidently imitate the story of ,job in their romantic compositions4 ,at any rate1 the often-quoted saying of ,rabbi ,resh ,lakish1 1 #8,job existed not1 and was not created1 but he is 7only7 a parable1'#gj shows that even before the ,talmud great freedom of speech prevailed among the ,rabbis on such points4 ,in ,hai ,gaon's time 7d4 #ajcg71 the saying quoted must have given offence to some1 for this ,rabbi not only appeals for the historical character of ,job to the passage in ,ezekiel1 but wishes 7on traditional authority7 to alter the reading of ,resh ,lakish's words1 so as to read 1 #8,job existed not1 and was not created1 except to be a parable4'#ga 7,see note #g1 ,appendix47 ,the prevailing opinion among the ,jews doubtless continued to be that the ,book of ,job was strictly historical1 and ,christian scholars 7with the exception of ,theodore--see ,chap4 ,,xv47 found no reason to question this till ,luther arose1 with his genial1 though unscientific1 insistence on the right of questioning tradition4 ,in his ,tischreden ,luther says1 #8,ich halte das ,buch ,hiob fr eine wahre ,historia2 dass aber alles so sollte geschehen und gehandelt sein1 glaube ich nicht1 sondern ich halte1 dass ein feiner1 frommer1 gelehrter ,mann habe es in solche ,ordnung bracht4'#gb ,poetically treated history--that is ,luther's idea1 as it was that of ,grotius after him1 and in our own country of that morning-star of ,biblical criticism1 ,bishop ,lowth4#gc ,it is acquiesced in by ,schlottmann1 ,delitzsch1 and ,davidson1 and with justice1 provided it be clearly understood that no positive opinion can reasonably be held as to the historical origin of the tradition 7,sage1 ,ewald7 used by the author4 ,i have said nothing of ,spinoza and ,albert ,schultens4 ,the former#gd pronounces most unfavourably on the religious and poetical value of the book which he regards as a heathenish fiction1 reminding us somewhat 7see elsewhere7 of the hasty and ill-advised ,theodore of ,mopsuestia4 ,the latter#ge actually defends the historical character both of the narratives and of the colloquies of ,job in the strictest sense4 ,hengstenberg1 alone perhaps among orthodox theologians1 takes a precisely opposite view4 ,like ,reuss and ,merx1 he regards the poem as entirely a work of imagination4 ,we may be thankful for his protest against applying a prosaic standard to the poetical books of the ,hebrew ,canon4 ,those who do so1 he remarks1#gf #8fail to observe that the book stands1 not among historical1 but among poetical books1 and that it would betray a very low grade of culture1 were one to depreciate imaginative as compared with historical writing1 and declare it to be unsuitable for sacred ,scripture4' ,i entirely agree with the eminent scholar1 whose unprogressive theology could not entirely extinguish his literary and philological sense4 ,but ,i see no sufficient reason for adopting what in itself1 ,i admit1 would add a fresh laurel to the poet's crown4 ,merx indeed assures us#gg that the meaning of the name #8,job' is so redolent of allegory that it must be the poet's own invention1 especially as the name occurs nowhere else in the ,old ,testament4 ,he adds that the story of ,job is so closely connected with the didactic part of the book that it would be lost labour to separate the legendary from the new material4 ,all was wanted2 therefore all is fictitious4 ,this is not1 however1 the usual course of procedure with poets whether of the ,east or of the ,west1 whose parsimony in the invention of plots is well known4 ,as for the name ,job 7,iyyb7 it may no doubt be explained 7from the ,arabic7 #8he who turns to ,god1'#gh and in other ways1 but there is no evidence that the author thought of any meaning for it4 ,when he does coin names 7see ,epilogue71 there is no room for doubting their significance4 ,ewald may1 certainly1 have gone too far in trying to recover the traditional element3 how difficult it would be to do so with ,paradise ,lost1 if we had not ,genesis to help us6 ,but the probability of the existence of a legend akin to the narrative in the ,prologue1 is shown by the parallels to it which survive1 e4g4 the touching ,indian story of ,harischandra1#gi given by ,dr4 ,muir in vol4 #a4 of his ,sanskrit ,texts4 ,the resemblance may be slight and superficial1 but the sudden ruin of a good man's fortunes is common to both stories4 ,had we more knowledge of ,arabic antiquity1 we should doubtless find a more valuable parallels4#hj ,the story of ,job had a special attraction for ,mohammed1 who enriched it 7following the precedent of the ,jewish ,haggada7 with a fresh detail 7,korn1 xxxviii4 #dj74 ,to him1 as well as to ,st4 ,james1 ,job was an example of #8endurance4' ,the dialogue between ,allah and ,eblis in ,korn1 xv4 #cb-db1 may perhaps have been suggested by the ,prologue of our poem4 #8,did then1 ,job really live8' ,that for which we most care comes not from #8,tradition1 ,time's suspected register1'#ha but from an unnamed poet1 who embellished tradition partly from imagination1 partly 7see next section7 from the rich and varied stores of his own experience4 #b4 ,the ,autobiographical ,element in its ,bearing on the ,purpose of the ,poem4 ,a ,german critic 7,dillmann71 in speaking of ,job1 has well reminded us that #8the idea of a work of art must reveal itself in the development of the piece3 it is not to be condensed into a dry formula4' ,least of all1 surely1 is such formulation possible when the work of art is an idealised portraiture of the author himself1 and such1 ,i think1 to a considerable extent is the ,book of ,job4 ,those words of a psalmist1 ,come and hear1 all ye that fear ,god1 and ,i will declare what he hath done for my soul 7,ps4 lxvi4 #af1 ,r4 ,v47 might be taken as the motto of ,job4 ,in short1 the author is thoroughly #8subjective1' like all the great ,hebrew and especially the ,arabian poets4 #8,in the rhythmic swell of ,job's passionate complaints1 there is an echo of the heart-beats of a great poet and a great sufferer4 ,the cry 8,perish the day in which ,i was born0 7iii4 #c7 is a true expression of the first effects of some unrecorded sorrow4 ,in the life-like description beginning 8,oh that ,i were as in months of old0 7xxix4 #b71 the writer is thinking probably of his own happier days1 before misfortune overtook him4 ,like ,job 7xxix4 #g1 #ba-be7 he had sat in the 8broad place0 by the gate and solved the doubts of perplexed clients4 ,like ,job1 he had maintained his position triumphantly against other wise men4 ,he had a fellow-feeling with ,job in the distressful passage through doubt to faith4 ,like ,job 7xxi4 #af7 he had resisted the suggestion of practical atheism1 and with the confession of his error 7xlii4 #b-f7 had recovered spiritual peace4' ,the man who speaks to us under the mask of ,job is not indeed a perfect character2 but he does not pretend to be so4 ,how pathetic are his appeals to his friends to remember the weight of his calamity--#8therefore have my words been wild' 7vi4 #c7--;and not to #8be captious about words when the speeches of the desperate are but for the wind' 7vi4 #bf74 ,he was no ,stoic1 and had not practised himself in deadening his sensibility to pain4 ,strong in his sense of justice1 he lacked those higher intuitions which could alone soothe his irritation4 ,but he was throughout loyal to the ,god whom his conscience revered1 and1 even in the midst of his wild words1 he let ,god mould him4 ,first of all1 he renounced the hope of being understood by men2 he ceased to complain of his rather ignorant than unfeeling friends4 ,he exemplified that ,arabic proverb which says1 #8,perfect patience allows no complaint to be heard against 7human creatures74' ,then he came by degrees to trust ,god4 ,there is a kernel of truth in that passage of the ,jerusalem ,talmud 7,berakhoth1 cix4 #e7 where1 among the seven types of ,pharisees1 the sixth is described as #8he who is pious from fear1 like ,job1' and the seventh1 as #8he who is pious from love1 like ,abraham4' ,job's religion was at first not entirely but still too much marked by fear2 it ended by becoming a religion of trust1 justifying the title borne by ,job among the ,syrians1 as if in contradiction to the ,talmud1 of #8the lover of the ,lord4'#hb ,so far as the author of ,job has any direct purpose beyond that of giving a helpful picture of his own troubles1 it is no doubt principally a polemical one4 ,he has suffered so deeply from the inveterate error 7once indeed a relative truth7 so tenaciously maintained by the wisest men that he would fain crush the source of so much heart-breaking misery4 ,but that for which we love the book is its 1 its brotherly love to all mankind4 ,no doubt the author thinks first of ,israel1 then 7as ,i suppose7 suffering exile2 but the care with which the poem is divested of ,israelitish peculiarities1 seems to show that he looks beyond his own people1 just as in his view of ,god he has broken the bonds of a narrow #8particularism4' #8,i can see no other explanation of those apparently hyperbolical complaints1 that strange invasion of self-consciousness1 and that no less strange #8enthusiasm of humanity'#hc 444 than the view expressed or implied by ,chateaubriand1 that ,job is a #8type of righteous men in affliction--not merely in the land of ,uz1 nor among the ,jews in ,babylonia1 nor yet1 on ,warburton's theory of the poem1 in the ,juda of the time of ,nehemiah1 but wherever on the wide earth tears are shed and hearts are broken4' ,this is the truth in the too often exaggerated allegorical view#hd of the poem of ,job4 ,according to his wont1 the author lets us read his meaning by occasional bold inconsistencies4 ,no individual can use such phraseology as we find in xvii4 #a1 xviii4 #b1 #c1 xix4 #aa1 and perhaps ,i may add xvi4 #aj1 xxvii4 #aa1 #ab4 ,and yet the fact that ,job often speaks as the #8type of suffering humanity' no more destroys his claim to be an individual #8than the typical character of ,dante in his pilgrimage and of ,faust in ,goethe's great poem annuls the historical element in those two great poetical figures4'#he #c4 ,the ,purpose of ,job as illustrated by ,criticism4 ,more precise definitions of the purpose of ,job depend on the acceptance of a critical analysis of the book4 ,some suggestions on this subject have been already given to facilitate the due comprehension of the poem4 ,i must now offer the reader a connected sketch of the possible or probable stages of its growth4 ,this1 if it bears being tested1 will perhaps reveal the special purpose of the several parts1 and above all of that most precious portion--the ,colloquies of ,job and his friends4 7,compare below1 ,chap4 ,,xii47 ,i4 ,the narrative which forms the ,prologue is based upon a traditional story which represented ,job as hurled from the height of happiness into an abyss of misery1 but preserving a devout serenity in the midst of trouble4 ,it is impossible to feel sure that this ,prologue is by the same author as the following ,colloquies4 ,it stands in no very close connection with them2 #8the ,satan' in particular 7an omission which struck ,william ,blake#hf71 is not heard of again in the book2 and there is abundant evidence of the liking of the pre-,exile writers for a tasteful narrative style4 ,it is not a wild conjecture that the first two chapters originally formed the principal part of a prose book of ,job1 comparable to the #8books' once current of ,elijah1 and perhaps one may add of ,balaam and of ,daniel--a book free from any speculations of the #8wise men' and in no sense a mshl or gnomic poem1 but supplying in its own way a high and adequate solution of the great problem of the suffering of the righteous4 ,the writer of this ,prologue1 whether he also wrote the ,colloquies or not1 firmly believed that the calamities which sometimes fell on the innocent were both for the glory of ,god and of human nature4 ,it was possible1 he said1 to continue in one's integrity1 though no earthly advantage accrued from it4 ,if the ,prologue once formed part of a distinct prose #8book' of ,job1 one can hardly suppose that the same author wrote the ,epilogue2 for while the ,colloquies do contain hints of ,job's typical character 7as to some extent a representative of humanity71 the ,prologue does not1 and it is only the typical or allegorical interpretation which makes the ,epilogue tolerable4 ,in fact1 the ,epilogue must1 as it seems to me1 have been written1 if not by the author of the ,colloquies1 yet by some one who had this work before him4 ,the prose #8book' of ,job1 if it existed1 and if it originated in ,judah1 cannot have been written before the ,chaldan period4 ,this period and no other explains the moral purpose of the #8book1' precisely as the age of the despotic ,louis ,,xiv4 is the only one which suits the debate on the disinterested love of ,god with which the name of ,fnelon is inseparably connected4 ,the ,chaldan period1 however1 we must remember1 did not begin with the ,captivity1 but with the appearance of the ,babylonian power on the horizon of ,palestine4 ,we must not therefore too hastily assume that the ,book of ,job is a monument of the ,babylonian ,captivity1 true as ,i myself believe this hypothesis to be4 ,we are1 however1 of course not confined to this hypothesis of a prose #8book' of ,job4 ,the author of the ,colloquies may have been equally fitted to be a writer of narrative1 and may have felt that the solution mentioned above1 although the highest1 was not the only one admissible4 ,we may therefore conceive of him as following up the solution offered in the ,prologue by a ventilation of the great moral problem before himself and his fellow #8wise men4' ,he throws the subject open as it were to general discussion1 and invests all the worthiest speculations of his time in the same flowing poetical dress1 that no fragment of truth contained in them may be lost4 ,he himself is far from absolutely rejecting any of them2 he only seems to deny that the ideas of the three representative sages can be applied at once1 as they apply them1 to the case of one like ,job4 ,bttcher1 however1 regards ,job as the work of one principal and several subordinate writers4 ,it was occasioned1 he thinks1 by a conversation on the sufferings of innocent men1 at that time so frequent 7i4e4 in the reign of ,manasseh74 ,see his ,achrenlese1 p4 #fh4 ,,ii4 ,the completion or publication of the colloquies revealed 7or seemed to reveal7 sundry imperfections in the original mode of treating the subject4 ,some other #8wise men1' therefore 7or possibly1 except in the case of ,,iii41 the author himself71 inserted passages in the poem with the view of qualifying or supplementing its statements4 ,these were merely laid in1 without being welded with the rest of the book4 ,the first in order of these additions is chap4 xxviii41 which cannot be brought into a logical connection with the chapters among which it is placed1 in spite of the causal particle #8for' prefixed to it 7#8,for there is a vein'74 ,it is possible1 indeed1 that it has been extracted from some other work4 ,the hypothesis of insertion 7or1 if used without implying illicit tampering with the text1 #8interpolation'7 is confirmed by the occurrence of #8,adonai' in ver4 #bh1 which is contrary to the custom of the author of ,job1 and by its highly rhetorical character4 ,if the passage was written with a view to the ,book of ,job1 we must suppose the author to have been dissatisfied with the original argument1 and to have sought a solution for the problem in the inscrutableness of the divine wisdom4 ,zophar1 it is true1 had originally alluded to this attribute1 but with a more confined object4 ,according to him1 ,god1 being all-wise1 can detect sins invisible to mortal eyes 7xi4 #f73--;it is needless to draw out the wide difference between this slender inference and the large theory which appears to be suggested in chap4 xxviii4 ,,iii4 ,one of the less progressive #8wise men' was scandalised at the irreverent statements of ,job and dissatisfied with the three friends' mode of dealing with them 7xxxii4 #b1 #c74 ,hence the speeches of ,elihu1 the most generally recognised of all the inserted portions 7chaps4 xxxii4-xxxvii47 ,the author partly imitates the speeches of ,jehovah4 ,,iv4 ,in another inserted passage 7ch4 xxxviii4-xl4 #ad1 xlii4 #a-f71 the ,almighty is represented as chastising the presumption of ,job1 and showing forth the supreme wisdom by contrast with ,job's unwisdom4 ,it is clear that the copy in which it was inserted was without the speeches of ,elihu1 for the opening words of ,jehovah 7xxxviii4 #b7 clearly have reference to the last discourse of ,job1 which they must have been intended to follow4 ,the effect of this fine passage is much impaired by the interposition of the speeches of ,elihu4 ,v4 ,the description of the behmoth and the leviathan 7xl4 #ae-bd1 xli47 seems also to be a later insertion1 and somewhat more recent than the speeches of ,jehovah4 ,it is a #8purple patch1' and the appendix last mentioned gains by its removal4 ,,vi4 ,an editor appended the epilogue4 ,he must have had the prologue before him1 but took no pains to bring his own work into harmony with it1 except in the one point which he could not help adopting1 namely the vast riches of his hero4 ,he agreed with ,job's friends on the grand question of retribution1 though he would not sanction their line of argument4 ,job's doubts1 according to him1 contained more faith than their uncharitable dogmatism4 ,can we feel grateful to this writer8 ,he has at any rate relieved the strain upon the imagination of the reader1 and possibly1 if we assume him to be distinct from the author of the ,prologue1 carried out an unfulfilled intention of that author 7note the words in i4 #ab1 #8only upon himself put not forth thy hand'74 ,but he did so in a prosaic spirit1 and made a sad concession to a low view of providential dealings4 ,he has also1 ,i think1 caused much misunderstanding of the object of the book4 ,thus we find ,dr4 ,ginsburg saying1#hg ,the ,book of ,job 444 only confirms the old opinion that the righteous are visibly rewarded here1 inasmuch as it represents their calamities as transitory1 and ,job himself as restored to double his original wealth and happiness in this life4 ,against which ,i enter a respectful protest4 ,the view here adopted of the gradual growth of the book seems important for its right comprehension4 ,in its present form1 it seems like a very confused theodicy1 designed to justify ,god against the charge of bringing misfortune upon innocent persons4 ,but when the disturbing elements are removed1 we see that the book is simply an expression of the conflicting thoughts of an earnest1 warm-hearted man on the great question of suffering4 ,he protests1 it is true1 against the rigour and uncharitableness of the traditional orthodox belief1 but is far more aspiring to solve the problem theoretically4 ,this is one chief point in which he differs from his interpolators 7if the word may be used71 who mostly appear to have had some favourite theory 7or partial view of truth7 to advocate4 ,footnote #fi3 ,book of ,job 7#ahcf71 ,e4 ,t4 i4 #g4 ,footnote #gj3 ,baba ,bathra #ae1 #a4 ,comp4 ,frankl in ,grtz's ,monatsschrift1 #ahgb1 pp4 #cji-caj4 ,footnote #ga3 ,ewald and ,dukes1 ,beitrage zur ,gesch4 der ltesten ,auslegung1 ii4 #aff4 ,footnote #gb3 ,werke 7,walch71 xxii4 #bjic4 ,footnote #gc3 ,de sacr poesi 7#agec71 ,prlect4 xxxii4 ,footnote #gd3 ,tractatus theologico-politicus1 c4 x4 ,footnote #ge3 ,liber ,jobi 7#agcg71 vol4 i41 in fine ,praf4 ,footnote #gf3 ,das ,buch ,hiob 7#ahgj-ge71 i4 #ce4 ,footnote #gg3 ,das ,buch ,hiob1 ,vorbemerkungen1 p4 xxxv4 ,footnote #gh3 ,in ,korn1 xxxviii4 #af1 #bi1 #dd1 ,david1 ,solomon1 and ,job are all called1 one after another1 awwb1 i4e4 not #8penitent1' but #8ever turning to ,god4' ,hitzig remarks that ,iyyb 7,arabic ,ayyb7 will thus be equivalent to the mythic prophet ,saleh 7 #8pious'7 in the ,korn 7,das ,buch ,hiob1 ,einl41 ,s4 x471 on whom see ,palmer1 ,desert of the ,exodus1 p4 #ej1 where he is identified with ,moses4 ,this is bold1 and1 in any case1 must not such a name be comparatively modern8 ,footnote #gi3 ,this was perhaps first pointed out by ,schlottmann1 in chap4 #a4 of the ,introduction to his ,commentary4 ,footnote #hj3 ,nothing can be built upon the occurrence of the name ,ayyb in pre-,islamic times1 for ,jews and ,arabs were in frequent intercourse before ,mohammed4 ,footnote #ha3 ,davenant4 ,footnote #hb3 ,hottinger1 referred to by ,delitzsch1 ,iob1 p4 #g4 ,in the ,peshitto1 ,heb4 xii4 #c-aa has for a sub-title1 #8,in commemoration of ,job the righteous4' ,the choice of the section shows in what sense ,job's #8righteousness' is affirmed--not the ,talmudic4 ,footnote #hc3 ,see especially ,job vi4 #b1 #c1 vii4 #a-c1 xiv4 #a-c4 ,footnote #hd3 ,this view goes back to the last century 7,warburton1 ,michaelis1 c47 ,it has been remodelled by ,seinecke and ,hoekstra1 who regard ,job1 not as the people of ,israel in general1 but the idealised ,israel or #8,servant of ,jehovah4' ,see especially ,hoekstra's essay1 ,theologisch ,tijdschrift1 #ahga1 p4 #a c41 and ,kuenen's reply1 ,th4 ,ti41 #ahgc1 p4 #dib c4 ,footnote #he3 ,quoted from ,essay ix4 in vol4 ii4 of ,the ,prophecies of ,isaiah4 ,footnote #hf3 ,blake's #afth design is devoted to the defeat of ,satan4 ,beneath the enthroned ,jehovah and his angels1 #8the ,evil ,one falls with tremendous plummet-force4 ,hell naked before his face1 and ,destruction without a covering4' ,another point in which ,blake corrects his author is the introduction of ,job's wife into the illustrations of the ,colloquies4 ,footnote #hg3 ,art4 #8,ecclesiastes1' ,ency4 ,brit41 #ith ed4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,date ,,and ,,place ,,of ,,composition4 ,we have seen 7,chap4 ,,vii47 that the unity of authorship of the ,book of ,job is not beyond dispute1 but we shall not at present assume the results of analysis4 ,let us endeavour to treat of the date and place of composition on the hypothesis that the book is a whole as it stands 7on the ,elihu-portion however1 comp4 ,chap4 ,,xii47 ,it is at any rate probable that the greater part of it at least proceeds from the same period4 ,can that period be the patriarchal8 ,the author has sometimes received credit for his faithful picture of this early age4 ,this is at any rate plausible4 ,for instance1 he avoids the use of the sacred name ,jehovah1 revealed to ,moses according to ,ex4 vi4 #c4 ,then1 too1 the great age ascribed to ,job in the ,epilogue 7xlii4 #af7 agrees with the notices of the patriarchs4 ,the uncoined piece of silver 7,heb4 kesita7 which each kinsman of ,job gave him after his recovery 7xlii4 ,,ii71 is only mentioned again in ,gen4 xxxiii4 #ai 7,josh4 xxiv4 #cb74 ,the musical instruments referred to in xxi4 #ab1 xxx4 #ca1 are also mentioned in ,gen4 iv4 #ba1 xxxi4 #bg4 ,there is no protest against idolatry either in the ,book of ,job#hh or in ,genesis4 ,job himself offers sacrifices to the one true ,god1 like the patriarchs1 and the kind of sacrifice offered is the burnt-offering 7i4 #e1 xlii4 #h71 there is no mention of guilt-or sin-offerings4 ,the settled life of ,job1 too1 as described in the ,prologue is not inconsistent with the story of ,jacob's life in the vale of ,shechem1#hi though in reality the author probably described it from his observation of settled life in ,arabia4 ,but none of these allusions required any special gift of historical imagination4 ,the tone of the few descriptive passages in the ,colloquies1 and of the reflections throughout1 is that of an age long subsequent to the patriarchal4 ,the very idea of wise men meeting together to discuss deep problems 7as in the later ,arabic maqmt1 compared by ,bertholdt and others7 is an anachronism in a #8patriarchal' narrative1 and 7like the religious position of the speeches in general7 irresistibly suggests the post-,solomonic period4 ,the ,job of the ,colloquies is a travelled citizen of the world at an advanced period of history2 indeed1 he now and then seems expressly to admit this 7xxiv4 #ab1 xxix4 #g74 ,it is therefore needless to discuss the theory which assigns the book to the ,mosaic or pre-,mosaic age1--a theory which is a relic of the cold1 literal1 unsympathetic method of the critics of the last two centuries4 ,a few scholars of eminence1 feeling this1 placed the poem in the ,solomonic period1 a view which is in itself plausible1 if we consider the pronounced secular turn of the great king1 and his recorded taste for eastern parabolistic #8wisdom1' but which falls with the cognate theory of the authorship of ,proverbs4 ,a more advanced stage of society than that of the period referred to1 and a greater maturity of the national intellect1 are presupposed on every page of the poem4 ,the tone of the book--,i refer especially to the ,colloquies--suggests a time when the nationalism of the older periods had1 in general1 ceased to satisfy reflecting minds4 ,the doubters1 whom ,job and his friends represent1 have been so staggered in their belief in ,israel's loving ,god1 that they decline to use ,his revealed name3--#ij once or twice only does it slip in 7xii4 #i2 cf4 xxviii4 #bh71 as if to show that the poet himself has fought his way to a reconciling faith4 ,as is clear from the cognate psalms xxxvii41 xlix41 lxxiii41 the patriarchal theory of prosperity and adversity had been found wanting4 ,doubts had arisen1 most painful in their intensity1 from observing the disproportion between character and fortune--doubts which might indeed insinuate themselves at any time1 but acquire an abnormal force in a declining community 7ix4 #bd1 xii4 #d-f1 #bc1 and especially chap4 xxi47 ,some had even ventured on positive doctrinal heresy4 ,in opposition to these1 ,eliphaz professes his adhesion to the tradition of the fathers1 in whose time religion was untainted by alien influence 7xv4 #ag-ai74 ,it is merely an incidental remark of ,eliphaz1 but it points to a date subsequent to the appearance of ,assyria on the horizon of ,palestine4 ,for it was the growing influence of that power1 which1 for good and for evil1 modified the character of ,israelitish religion both in its higher and in its lower forms4 ,precise historical allusions are almost entirely wanting4 ,we may1 however1 infer with certainty that the book was written subsequently to the #8deportation' of ,israel1 or of ,judah1 or at the very least of some neighbouring people 7xii4 #ag-ai2 comp4 xv4 #aiia74 ,for the uprooting of whole peoples from their original homes was peculiar to the ,assyrian policy4#ib ,but which of these forced expatriations is intended8--,we are not compelled to think of the ,babylonian ,exile by the reference to the ,chaldans in the ,prologue4 ,the ,chaldans might have been known to a well-informed ,hebrew writer ever since the ninth century ,b4,c41 at which time they became predominant in the southern provinces on the lower ,euphrates3 we find ,isaiah1 speaking of the #8land of ,chalda' 7,isa4 xxiii4 #ac7 in the eighth century4 ,still ,i own that the description of the ,chaldans as robbers does appear to me most easily explained by supposing a covert allusion to the invasions of ,nebuchadnezzar4#ic ,the ,assyrians are indeed once called #8treacherous dealers' by ,isaiah 7xxxiii4 #a71 but the ,babylonians impressed the ,hebrew writers by their rapacity far more than the ,assyrians4 ,the #8unrighteous' of the ,psalms are1 when foreigners are spoken of1 not the ,assyrians1 but either the ,babylonians or still later oppressors 7e4g4 ,ps4 cxxv4 #c72 and the description of the ,babylonians in the first chapter of ,habakkuk strongly reminds us of those complaints of ,job1 #8,the earth is given over into the hand of the unrighteous' 7ix4 #bd71 and #8,the robbers' tents are in peace1 and they that provoke ,god are secure1 they who carry 7their7 god in their hand' 7xii4 #f2 comp4 ,hab4 i4 #aa1 #af74 ,the view here propounded might be supported by an argument from linguistic data 7see ,chap4 ,,xiii47 which would lead us into details out of place here4 ,it is that of ,umbreit1 ,knobel1 ,grtz1 and 7though he does not exclude the possibility of a later date7 the sober and thorough ,gesenius4 ,long after the present writer's results were first committed to paper1 he had the rare satisfaction of finding them advocated1 so far as the date is concerned1 in a commentary by a scholar of our own who has the best right to speak 7,a4 ,b4 ,davidson1 ,introduction to ,the ,book of ,job1 #ahhd74 ,on the other hand1 ,stickel1 ,ewald1 ,magnus1 ,bleek1 ,renan 7#ahfj71 ,kuenen 7#ahfe71 ,hitzig1 ,reuss1 ,dillmann1 ,merx1 prefer to place our poem in the period between ,isaiah and ,jeremiah1 and this seems to me the earliest date from which the composition and significance of the book can be at all rightly understood4 ,reasons enough for this statement of opinion will suggest themselves to those who have followed me hitherto2 let me now only add that the pure monotheism of the ,book makes an earlier date1 on historical principles1 hardly conceivable4#id ,a later date than the ,exile-period is not1 ,i admit1 inconceivable 7see ,vatke1 ,die biblische ,theologie1 i4 #efc c471 and is now supported by ,kuenen4#ie ,if there were an allusion to the doctrine of the ,resurrection1 in xix4 #bf1 or if the portraiture of ,job were 7as ,kuenen thinks it is7 partly modelled on the ,second ,isaiah's description of the ,servant of ,jehovah1 ,i should in fact be driven to accept this view4 ,i have stated above that ,i cannot find the ,resurrection in ,job1 and in ,isaiah1 ii4 #bfg that the priority of ,job seems to me to be made out4 ,i need not combat ,clericus and ,warburton1 who ascribe the authorship of ,job to ,ezra4 ,for ,jeremiah 7,bateson ,wright7 or the author of ,lamentations 7i4e4 ,baruch1 according to ,bunsen7 something might perhaps be said1 but--,ezra6 ,as to the place of composition4 ,hitzig and ,hirzel think of ,egypt on account of the numerous allusions to ,egypt in the book2 and so ,ewald with regard to xl4 #ae-xli4 #cd4 #8,die ganze ,umgebung ist egyptisch1' says ,hitzig with some exaggeration4#if ,more might be said in favour of the theory which places the author in a region where ,arabic and ,aramaic might both be heard4 ,stickel1 holding the pre-,exile origin of the book1 supposed it to have come from the far south-east of ,palestine4 ,nowhere better than in the hill-country of the ,south could the poet study simple domestic relations1 and also make excursions into ,n4 ,arabia4 ,he thus accounts#ig for the points of contact between the ,book of ,job and the prophecy of ,amos of ,tekoa 7see below1 ,chap4 ,,xi471 which include even some phonetic peculiarities 7the softening of the gutturals and the interchange of sibilants74 ,to me1 the whole question seems well-nigh an idle one4 ,the author 7or1 if you will1 the authors7 had travelled much in various lands1 and the book is the result4 ,the place where is of far less importance than the time when it was composed4 ,footnote #hh3 ,the absence of such a protest is characteristic of the ,wisdom-literature in general4 ,the reference to star-worship in ,job xxxi4 #bf suggests a date subsequent to the origination of the title #8,jehovah 7,god7 of ,hosts4' ,see appendix to ,isa4 i4 in my commentary4 ,footnote #hi3 ,mr4 ,tomkins compares ,job's mode of life with that of ,abram before his departure from ,kharran 7,studies on the ,times of ,abraham1 #ahgh1 p4 #fa74 ,footnote #ij3 ,i cannot go quite so far as ,lagarde1 who argues from the use of #8,eloah' 7instead of #8,elohim' and #8,jehovah'7 that the doubters have cast off belief in all the supposed various manifestations of divinity in the world1 and merely retain a comfortless belief in 4 #8,numen quoddam esse non negant1 sed' c4 ,psalterium ,hieronymi1 pp4 #aee-f 7#8,corollarium'74 ,footnote #ia3 ,job xv4 #ai certainly implies the siege and capture of ,jerusalem by some foreign foe4 ,comp4 ,joel iii4 7,heb4 iv47 #ag4 ,footnote #ib3 ,dr4 ,barth quotes ,am4 i4 #f1 ii4 #a-c1 ix4 #aa1 #ae in proof that #8deportation' also took place in the #8pre-,assyrian' time4 ,but1 in fact1 ,amos is not #8pre-,assyrian4' ,footnote #ic3 ,it is no sufficient objection that the ravages of the ,chaldans in ,job are on a small scale1 nor yet that side by side with them are mentioned the ,sabeans1 surely not those of ,s4 ,arabia 7,noldeke71 but those of ,n4 ,arabia 7,delitzsch71 detachments of whom might have encamped on the borders of ,edom4 ,comp4 ,wetzstein in ,delitzsch's ,iob1 ed4 #b1 p4 #eif c4 ,footnote #id3 ,i write this with deference to the contrary opinion of ,delitzsch1 who is1 however1 too prejudiced against late dates1 and biassed by his belief in the authenticity of the ,song of ,hezekiah4 ,if the ,book of ,job be pre-,hezekian1 it is of course natural to throw it back to the age of ,solomon4 ,footnote #ie3 ,theologisch ,tijdschrift1 #ahgc1 p4 #ech4 ,footnote #if3 ,das ,buch ,hiob 7#ahgd71 p4 xlix4 ,footnote #ig3 ,das ,buch ,hiob 7#ahdb71 p4 #bgf4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,argument ,,from ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,mythology4 ,one of the peculiarities of our poet 7which ,i have elsewhere compared with a similar characteristic in ,dante7 is his willingness to appropriate mythic forms of expression from heathendom4 ,this willingness was certainly not due to a feeble grasp of his own religion2 it was rather due partly to the poet's craving for imaginative ornament1 partly to his sympathy with his less developed readers1 and a sense that some of these forms were admirably adapted to give reality to the conception of the #8living ,god4' ,several of these points of contact with heathendom have been indicated in my analysis of the poem4 ,i need not again refer to these1 but the semi-mythological allusions to supernatural beings who had once been in conflict with ,jehovah 7xxi4 #bb1 xxv4 #b71 and the cognate references to the dangerous cloud-dragon 7see below7 ought not to be overlooked4 ,both in ,egypt and in ,assyria and ,babylonia1 we find these very myths in a fully developed form4 ,the #8leviathan' of iii4 #h1 the dragon probably of vii4 #ab 7tannn7 and certainly of xxvi4 #ac 7nkhsh71 and the #8rahab' of ix4 #ac1 xxvi4 #ab1 remind us of the evil serpent ,apap1 whose struggle with the sun-god ,ra is described in chap4 xxxix4 of the ,book of the ,dead and elsewhere4 #8,a battle took place1' says ,m4 ,maspero1 #8between the gods of light and fertility and the 8sons of rebellion10 the enemies of light and life4 ,the former were victorious1 but the monsters were not destroyed4 ,they constantly menace the order of nature1 and1 in order to resist their destructive action1 ,god must1 so to speak1 create the world anew every day4'#ih ,an equally close parallel is furnished by the fourth tablet of the ,babylonian creation-story1 which describes the struggle between the god ,marduk 7,merodach7 and the dragon ,tiamat or ,tiamtu 7a fem4 corresponding to the ,heb4 masc4 form t'hom #8the deep'71 for which see ,delitzsch's ,assyrische ,lesestcke1 #crd edition1 ,smith and ,sayce's ,chaldan ,genesis1 p4 #ajg c41 and ,budge in ,proceedings of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 ,nov4 #f1 #ahhc4 ,nor must ,i forget the #8fool-hardy' giant 7,k'sl ,orion7 in ix4 #i1 xxxviii4 #ca1 nor the dim allusion to the sky-reaching mountain of the north1 rich in gold 7comp4 ,isa4 xiv4 #ac1 and ,sayce1 ,academy1 ,jan4 #bh1 #ahhb1 p4 #fd71 and the myth-derived synonyms for ,shel--,death1 ,abaddon1 and #8the shadow of death' 7or1 deep gloom71 xxvi4 #f1 xxviii4 #bb1 xxxviii4 #ag1 also the #8king of terrors' 7xviii4 #ad71 who like ,pluto or ,yama rules in the ,hebrew ,underworld4 ,observe too the instances in which a primitive myth has died down into a metaphor1 e4g4 #8the eyelids of the ,dawn' 7iii4 #i1 xli4 #ah71 and especially that beautiful passage1 ,hast thou ever in thy life given charge to the ,morning1 and shown its place to the ,dawn1 that it may take hold of the skirts of the earth1 so that the wicked are shaken out of it1 and the earth changes as clay under a seal1 and 7all things7 stand forth as in a garment1 and light is withheld from the wicked1 and the arm lifted up is broken8 7xxxviii4 #ab-ae74 ,how very vivid6 ,the personified ,dawn seizes the coverlet under which the earth has slept at its four ends and shakes the evil-doers out of it like flies2 upon which form and colour return to the earth1 as clay 7a ,babylonian image7 receives a definite form from the seal1 and as the sad-coloured night-wrapper is exchanged for the bright1 embroidered holiday-robe4 ,could we only transfer the poet to an earlier stage of mythic consciousness1 we should find him expressing the same ideas--that morning-light creates all fair things anew1 and discomfits the evil-doer--very much in the style of the ,vedic hymns to ,ushas 7the ,dawn71 from which ,i quote the following in ,grassmann's translation 7,rig ,veda1 ,i4 #abc1 #d1 #e71-- ,die tageshelle kommt zu jedem ,hause und jedem ,tage gibt sie ihren ,namen2 zu spenden willig1 strablend naht sie immer und theilet aus der ,gter allerbestes4 ,als ,bhaga's ,schwester1 ,varuna's ,verwandte1 komm her zuerst1 o schne ,morgenrthe2 ,wer frevel bt1 der soll dahinter bleiben1 von uns besiegt sein mit der ,uschas ,wagen4 7,there is also an ,egyptian parallel in a hymn to the ,sun-god1 ,records of the ,past1 viii4 #aca1 #8,he fells the wicked in his season4'7 ,how far the poet of ,job believed in the myths which he has preserved1 e4g4 in the existence of potentates or potencies corresponding to the #8dragon' of which he speaks1 we cannot certainly tell4 ,mr4 ,budge has suggested that ,tiamat1 the sky-dragon of the ,babylonians1 conveyed a distinct symbolic meaning4 ,however this may have been1 the #8leviathan' of ,job was probably to the poet a #8survival' from a superstition of his childhood1 and little if anything more than the emblem of all evil and disorder4 ,and now for the bearing of the above on criticism4 ,it is a remarkable fact that there are mythological allusions1 very similar to some of those in ,job1 in the later portions of the ,book of ,isaiah 7,isa4 xxiv4 #ba1 xxvii4 #a1 ii4 #i74 ,this evidently suggests a date for the ,book of ,job not earlier than the ,exile4 ,it is not necessary to assume that the authors of these books borrowed either from ,egypt or from ,babylonia4 ,they drew from the unexhausted store of ,jewish popular beliefs4 ,they wrote for a larger public than the older poets and prophets could command1 and adapted themselves more completely to the average culture of their people4 ,footnote #ih3 ,maspero1 ,histoire ancienne de l',orient1 ed4 #a1 p4 #cj4 ,comp4 ,chabas' translation from the ,harris papyrus1 ,records of the ,past1 x4 #adb-adf4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,argument ,,from ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,angels4 ,the facts on which our argument is based are mainly the passages in ,job which refer to #8sons of ,elohim' 7or better1 as ,davidson1 #8of the ,elohim'71 to #8the ,satan1' and to the mal'akim4 ,the first of these three phrases means probably inferior members of the class of beings called ,elohim 7i4e4 #8superhuman powers'72 the second1 #8the adversary 7or opposer72' the third1 #8envoys or messengers' 774 ,we may at once draw an inference from the expression #8the ,satan1' the full importance of which will be seen later on4 #8,the ,satan' being an appellative1 the book in which it occurs was probably written before ,chronicles1 where we find #8,satan' without the article1 almost#ii as if a proper name2 and being applied to a minister and not an opponent of ,jehovah1 the ,book of ,job is probably earlier than the prophecies of ,zechariah and the ,books of ,chronicles2 see ,zech4 iii4 #a1 #b 7where observe that ,jehovah's only true representative gives a severe reproof to #8the ,satan'71 #a ,chron4 xxi4 #a 7where #8,satan1' uncommissioned1 #8entices' ,david to an act displeasing to ,jehovah#ajj74 ,the difference between the notices of the ,satan 7or ,satan7 may not seem great to an unpractised student1 but no one who has followed the development of any single doctrine will undervalue such traces of a growing refinement in the conceptions of good and evil4 ,whether or no the ideas of the ,chronicler and his age had been modified by hearing of the ,persian ,ahriman1 may be questioned2 but a similar supposition cannot be allowed in the case of the author of ,job4 ,the ,satan of the ,prologue is1 in theory at least1 simply ,jehovah's agent1 though he certainly betrays a malicious pleasure in his invidious function of trying or sifting the righteous4 ,it is not impossible that the author of the ,prologue was the first to use the term ,satan in this sense4 ,at any rate1 it is a pure ,hebrew term1 unlike the ,ashmedai or ,asmodus of the ,book of ,tobit4 ,ashmedai1 in later ,judaism1 is the head of the ,shedim--demons who were never angels of ,god1 just as ,sammael is the #8head of all ,satans1' i4e4 the prince of the fallen angels4 ,weber1 ,system der altsynagog4 ,palstin4 ,theologie1 pp4 #bdc-e4 ,next1 turning to the mal'akim1 observe that the word occurs very rarely in ,job1 viz4 once in the original ,colloquies 7iv4 #ah71 and once 7virtually7 in the first speech of ,elihu 7xxxiii4 #bc74 ,we find1 however1 a kindred phrase #8the q'doshim1' or #8holy ones1' i4e4 superhuman1 heavenly beings1 separate from the world of the senses#aja 7v4 #a1 xv4 #ae71 and comparing v4 #a with iv4 #ah we cannot doubt that the same class of beings is intended4 ,we nowhere meet with the ,mal'ak ,yahv1 so familiar to us in certain ,old ,testament narratives2 ,elihu's mal'ak ml 7xxxiii4 #bc7 is not synonymous with the older expression 7see account of ,elihu74 ,in fact1 the thousands of mal'akim known at the period of the writers of ,job have made the one great mal'ak unnecessary1 just as1 but for the influence of ,persian ideas1 the multitudinous #8hurtful angels' 7,ps4 lxxviii4 #di7 might sooner or later have entirely supplanted the single ,satan4 ,and yet even an ordinary mal'ak1 when he appears1 is more awful than the great mal'ak ,yahv2 the angel who appears to ,eliphaz 7,job iv4 #ae1 #af7 is as unrecognisable as the #8face' of ,jehovah himself4 ,this is an indication1 though but a slight one1 of a somewhat advanced age1 when the gulf between ,god and man was more acutely felt1 and religious thought was more specially directed to filling it up4 ,the title #8holy ones' 7v4 #a7 enables us to identify the #8angels' with the #8sons of the ,elohim4' ,separateness from human weakness1 though not mediatorial ability#ajb is equally1 predicated of both4 ,but neither the poet of ,job1 nor any of the psalmists1 identifies the phrases in express terms2#ajc a virtual identification 7see above1 and ,ps4 lxxxix4 #g1 #h7 is all that they venture upon4 ,there was a good reason for this--viz4 their recollection of the physical and mythological origin of the phrase1 #8the sons of the ,elohim4' #8,angels' and #8sons of the ,elohim' are indeed alike #8holy' and #8servants' of the supreme ,god1 but not always so1 according to ,hebrew tradition1 were the #8sons of the ,elohim4' ,in support of this1 we may refer1 not only to ,gen4 vi4 #d 7which the author of ,job need not have known71 but to the allusions in his poem 7see above7 to a war among the inhabitants of heaven4 ,this war1 ,i think1 stands in connection not merely with the physical phenomena of light and darkness1 but also with speculations of pious ,jehovists1 or worshippers of ,jehovah1 as to the basis and value of #8heathen' religions4 ,according to ,deut4 xxxii4 #h1ajd each of the nations of the world was allotted by the ,most ,high 7,elyn7#aje to some one of the #8sons of ,el' 7the simplest name for ,god72 of course we are to suppose that these #8sons of ,el' and their worshippers were meant to recognise the supremacy of the #8,god of ,gods'--,jehovah4 ,but 7so we may suppose the train of thought of the ,jehovists to have run7 the nations and their deities formed the vain dream of independence4 ,the result of the struggle between ,jehovah and the inferior ,elohim is referred to in ,job3 the ,elohim renounced their dream of independent sovereignty and were admitted into ,jehovah's service4 ,henceforth they were no longer shdm1 i4e4 #8lords' 7871 ,deut4 xxxii4 #ag1 but mal'akm #8messengers4' ,but the #8heathen' nations go on worshipping the ,elohim1 ignorant that their divinities have been dispossessed of their misused lordship4#ajf ,instead of ,him who alone henceforth is #8enthroned in the heavens' 7,ps4 ii4 #d71 they honour #8that which is not ,god' 7,deut4 xxxii4 #ba71 phantom-divinities whom they localise1 like ,jehovah1 in the sky4 ,thus1 except as to the region of the divine habitation1 they differ radically from ,jehovists like the author of ,job4 ,in that one point he agrees with them3 the stars and the #8sons of ,elohim' he still pictures to himself as closely conjoined 7xxxviii4 #f74 ,thus1 the old and the new are fermenting in his brain1 and on the ground of their angelology we can safely date the authors of ,job somewhere in the great literary period which opens with the #8,captivity4' ,footnote #ii3 ,it is not likely that ,satan was ever used entirely as a proper name2 but being frequently in men's mouths1 it naturally lost the article4 ,at last the name ,sammael was invented for the arch-,satan 7see above74 ,footnote #ajj3 ,in #b ,sam4 xxiv4 #a1 the temptation is ascribed to ,jehovah2 the ,chronicler is at any rate on the road to ,james i4 #ac4 ,contrast the stationariness of ,mohammed 7#8,god misleadeth whom ,he will1' ,korn1 xxxv4 #i74 ,footnote #aja3 ,so rightly ,baudissin1 ,studien1 ii4 #abe4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,eliphaz apparently assumes that the #8holy ones' might plead for ,job with ,eloah 7comp4 xxxiii4 #bc74 ,there is an analogy for this in ,arabian religion4 ,the ,koreish 7,qurais7 tribe were willing to join ,mohammed1 if he would only admit their three idol-gods to be mediators with the supreme ,god1 and for a time he consented4 ,see ,palmer's ,korn1 ,introd41 p4 xxvii4 ,this was equivalent to recognising these heathen deities as b'ur ,elohim and also 7,eliphaz would say7 as ,q'dskm or #8holy ones4' ,footnote #ajc3 ,the ,elohistic narrator in ,gen4 xxviii4 #ab1 #ag1 xxxii4 #b1 #c even appears to identify the terms #8angels of ,elohim' 7 ,god7 and #8,elohim' 7 divine powers74 ,beth 'elhm and makhani' 'elhm are more naturally rendered #8place1 host1 of divine powers' than #8place1 host of ,god4' ,footnote #ajd3 ,the #8,song of ,moses' is placed by ,ewald and ,kamphausen in the ,assyrian period of ,israel's history4 ,ver4 #h runs1 in a corrected version4 ,footnote #aje3 #8,when ,elyn gave the nations as inheritances1 when he parted out the sons of men1 he set the bounds of the peoples according to the number of the sons of ,el3' comp4 ver4 #i4 #8,for ,jehovah is the portion of his people1 ,jacob is the lot of his inheritance4' 7,with many recent critics1 ,i follow the reading of the ,septuagint4 ,a scribe1 offended by the no longer intelligible statement in ver4 #h1 inserted an before 1 and so formed the usual abbreviation of 47 ,this passage explains ,sirach xvii4 #ag4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,there is a singular reference to a still future deposition of the patron spirits of the nations in ,isa4 xxiv4 #ba 7post-,exile71 with which comp4 ,ps4 lviii41 lxxxii4 ,in lxxxii4 #f the title 'elhim is interchanged with b'n 'elyn #8sons of the ,most ,high4' ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,argument ,,from ,,parallel ,,passages4 ,the new phase into which the controversy as to the early ,christian work on the ,teaching of the ,apostles has passed excuses me from justifying the importance 7in spite of its difficulty7 of the study of parallel passages4 ,a great point has been gained in one's critical and exegetical training when one has learned so to compare parallel passages as to distinguish true from apparent resemblances1 and to estimate the degree of probability of imitation4 ,in ,essay viii4 of vol4 ii4 of ,the ,prophecies of ,isaiah1 ,i endeavoured to help the student to do this for himself within the field of the ,book of ,isaiah4 ,i shall not attempt this with the same thoroughness for the ,book of ,job4 ,it is a sign of the consummate skill of the writer that he is an artist even in his imitations4 ,as ,luther says1 #8,die ,rede dieses ,buches ist so reisig und prchtig als freilich keines ,buches in der ganzen ,schrift4' ,the author retains the parallelistic distich1 but is no longer content with a bare synonymous or antithetic bifurcation of his material1 and dwells on the decoration of an idea with a freedom which sometimes obscures his meaning2 hence too the germinal phrase or word suggested by an earlier book may easily escape notice4 ,i shall confine my attention to the most defensible points of contact1 referring for the rest1 without pledging myself to agreement1 to ,dr4 ,j4 ,barth's ,beitrge zur ,erklrung des ,buches ,job 7,leipzig1 s4a471 pp4 #a-ag4 ,the influence of ,job on the works which all admit to be of post-,exile origin need not detain us here4 ,there is but one undoubted reference to ,job in ,ecclesiastes 7v4 #ad2 comp4 ,job i4 #ba7--we should perhaps have expected more4 ,but ,sirach with a true instinct detected an affinity between his own ideas and ,job xxviii4 7comp4 this chapter with ,ecclus4 i4 #c1 #e1 c471 though he neglects the rest1 and does not include our poet among the #8famous men' and the #8fathers that begot us4' ,passing upwards1 we shall1 if historical criticism be our guide1 make our first pause at the undeniably later psalms and at the later portions of ,isaiah4 ,in the former compare 7as specimens74 ,ps4 ciii4 #af with ,job vii4 #ab -- cvii4 #dj -- -- xii4 #ba1 #bd -- -- #da -- -- xxi4 #aa -- -- #db -- -- xxii4 #ai1 v4 #af -- cxix4 #bh -- -- xvi4 #bj -- -- #ej -- -- vi4 #aj -- -- #fi -- -- xiii4 #d -- -- #ajc -- -- vi4 #be4 ,there is1 ,i think1 no question that these psalm-passages were inspired by the parallels in ,job4 ,in ,isa4 xl4-lxvi4 there are1 as ,i have pointed out 7,isaiah1 ed4 #c1 ii4 #bej71 at least twenty-one parallels to passages in our poem4 ,i do not1 however1 think that we can venture to describe either set of passages en bloc as imitations4 ,but there are at least two clear cases of imitation1 and here the original is not the prophet but the poet 7comp4 ,isa4 li4 #i;b1 #aj;a1 with ,job xxvi4 #ab1 #ac1 and ,isa4 liii4 #i with ,job xvi4 #ag74 ,with regard to the book 7,,ii4 ,isaiah7 as a whole1 or at least the greater part of it1 we may say that there is a parallelism of idea running through it and the ,book of job1 which may to a large extent account for parallelisms of expression4 ,this does not1 however1 apply everywhere1 least of all to the great prophetic dirge on the #8despised and rejected' one1 which presents stylistic phenomena so unlike that of its context that we seem bound to assign the substratum of ,isa4 lii4 #ac-liii4 to a time of persecution previous to the ,exile4#ajg ,how the poet of ,job became acquainted with this striking passage1 we know not4 ,did it form part of some prophetic anthology similar to the poetic ,golden ,treasury called #8,the ,book of the ,righteous'8 or shall we follow those bolder critics who suppose the author of ,job to have lived in the post-,exile times1 when he may easily have had access to both parts of our ,book of ,isaiah8 ,these are questions not to be evaded on account of their difficulty1 but not to be decided here4 ,our next halt may be made at the ,book of ,proverbs1 the three concluding sections of which composite work belong at the earliest to the last century of the ,jewish state4 ,among the clearest literary allusions in ,job are those to this book1 and some of these are especially important with regard to the disputed question of the relation between our poem and the introduction to the ,book of ,proverbs 7,prov4 i4-ix47 ,that the latter work is the earlier seems to me clear from a comparison of the general positions indicated by the following passages from ,prov4 i4-ix4 and the ,book of ,job4 ,compare-- ,prov4 i4 #g with ,job xxviii4 #bh -- iii4 #aa -- -- v4 #ag -- iii4 #ad1 #ae -- -- xxviii4 #ae-ai -- viii4 #aj1 #aa -- iii4 #ai1 #bj -- -- xxviii4 #bf1 #bg -- viii4 #bb1 #be -- -- xv4 #g1 #h -- viii4 #bi -- -- xxxviii4 #aj4 ,it will be seen by any one who will compare these passages that the case here is different from that of the parallelisms in ,job and the second part of ,isaiah4 ,the latter do not perhaps allow us to determine with confidence which of the two books is the earlier4 ,but1 as ,prof4 ,davidson has amply shown1#ajh the stage of intellectual development represented by ,job is more advanced than that in the #8,praise of ,wisdom4' ,the general subjects may be the same1 but in ,job they have entered upon a new phase4--,we now pass to the earliest of the proverbial anthologies 7,prov4 x4-xxii4 #af74 ,here of course the relation is reversed3 the proverbs are the originals to which the author of ,job alludes4 ,compare-- ,prov4 xiii4 #ai with ,job xviii4 #e1 #f1 xxi4 #ag -- xxiv4 #bj -- xv4 #aa -- -- xxvi4 #f -- xvi4 #ae -- -- xxix4 #bc1 #bd4 ,we may infer from this group of parallels that the author of ,job not only studied venerated #8,solomonic' models1 but even ventured directly to controvert their leading doctrine2 see especially ,job xxi4 #ag4 ,in our next comparison the relation seems reversed4 ,the author of ,prov4 xxx4 #a-d not improbably alludes sarcastically to the theophany in ,job xxxviii4-xlii4 #f4 ,note in passing the occurrence of ,eloah for #8,god' in ,prov4 xxx4 #e 7comp4 the speeches in ,job74 ,there are several parallels in the ,book of ,lamentations2 ,i restrict myself to those in the third elegy1 which differs in several points from the others1 especially in its poetic feebleness4 ,it is easier to believe that the author of the elegy was dependent on ,job than to take the reverse view4 ,a poem1 the hero of which was obviously the typical righteous man1 naturally suggested features in the description of the representative ,israelite4 ,compare1 then1 ,lam4 iii4 #g1 #i with ,job xix4 #h2 iii4 #h with ,job xxx4 #bj2 iii4 #aj with ,job4 x4 #af2 iii4 #ab1 #ac with ,job vii4 #bj1 xvi4 #ab1 #ac2 iii4 #ad1 #fc with ,job xxx4 #i4 ,parallels to ,job also occur in ,jeremiah4 ,it is often1 indeed1 not easy to say on which side is the originality4 ,but in one of the most important instances we may pronounce decidedly in favour of ,job 7comp4 ,jer4 xx4 #ad-ah with ,job iii4 #c-aj74 ,the despairing utterance referred to is an exaggeration in the mouth of ,job1 but suitable enough in ,jeremiah's4 ,in ,job1 l4c41 we seem to recognise the slightly artificial turn which the author loves to give to the ideas and phrases of his predecessors2 while the cutting irony of the words #8making him very glad' 7,jer4 xx4 #ae7 as clearly betokens the hand of the original writer4 ,compare also ,job vi4 #ae with ,jer4 xv4 #ah2 ix4 #ai with ,jer4 xlix4 #ai2 x4 #ah-bb with ,jer4 xx4 #ad-ah2 xii4 #d1 xix4 #g with ,jer4 xx4 #g1 #h2 xii4 #f1 xxi4 #g with ,jer4 xii4 #a2 xix4 #bd with ,jer4 xvii4 #a2 xxxviii4 #cc with ,jer4 xxxi4 #ce1 #cf4 ,there are two plausible points of contact in ,job with ,deuteronomy 7comp4 ,job xxiv4 #b1 ,deut4 xix4 #ad removing landmarks2 ,job xxxi4 #i1 #aa1 ,deut4 xxii4 #bb71 but only one worth mentioning with ,genesis 7xxii4 #af2 comp ,gen4 vi4 c471 and here observe that the word for ,a4,v4's #8flood' 7,job1 l4c47 is not mabbl but nhr4#aji ,hitzig and ,delitzsch find another in xxxi4 #cc4 ,but dm in ,job always means #8men3' in xv4 #g1 #h1 where the first man is referred to1 he is not named4 ,the reference in xxxi4 #cc is not to hiding sins from ,god1 but from man4 ,i think1 however1 that the ,prologue implies a general acquaintance with some current descriptions of the patriarchal period--the #8golden age' to men of a more advanced civilisation4 ,it is remarkable1 what interesting parallels are afforded by the prophets of the ,assyrian period4 ,isaiah1 as might be expected1 contains the largest number 7see ,the ,prophecies of ,isaiah1 ed4 #c1 ii4 #bdc72 but ,hosea follows close after4 ,compare especially-- ,isa4 xix4 #e1 certainly the ,job xiv4 #aa1 #8the waters fail original of ,job1 l4c41 where from the sea1' i4e4 any inland the special reference to the body of water sea-like ,nile is dropped ,isa4 xxviii4 #bi ,job xi4 #f 7,god's wisdom marvellous2 see ,merx1 and ,isaiah1 ii4 #aed7 ,hos4 x4 #ac1 combined with ,job iv4 #h 7#8ploughing ,prov4 xxii4 #h iniquity1' c47 ,hos4 vi4 #a 7or ,deut4 xxxii4 ,job v4 #ah 7#8he maketh sore and #ci7 bindeth up1' c47 ,hos4 v4 #ad1 xiii4 #g1 #h ,job x4 #af 7,god compared to a lion7 ,hos4 xiii4 #ab 7or ,deut4 xxxii4 ,job xiv4 #ag 7#8transgression #cd7 sealed up1' c47 ,am4 iv4 #ac1 v4 #h 7the ,job ix4 #h1 #i 7#8that treadeth comparison suggests that v4 #h1 upon the heights of the sea2 #i stood immediately after iv4 that maketh the ,bear1 ,orion1 #ac when ,job was written1 and and the ,pleiades'7 that #8the sea1' i4e4 the upper ocean1 stood for #8the earth'7 ,comp4 also ,am4 v4 #h1 ix4 #f with ,job xii4 #ae2 ,am4 ii4 #i with ,job xviii4 #af4 ,i say nothing here of the parallels in the ,song of ,hezekiah 7,isa4 xxxviii4 #aj-bj74 ,i have shown reason in ,isaiah1 i4 #bbh1 for believing that the ,song is a highly imitative work1 and largely based on ,job1 such a work in fact as can only be accounted for in the ,exile or post-,exile period4 ,there still remains the great body of psalms of disputed date4 ,the parallelisms in ,ps4 xxxvii4#aaj are too general to be mentioned here1 striking as they are2 but we may venture to compare ,ps4 viii4 #e with ,job vii4 #ag2 ,ps4 xxxix4 #ab;b with ,job iv4 #ai;b2 ib4 #ad;a with ,job vii4 #ai;a1 x4 #bj2 ib4 #ad;b with ,job x4 #ba1 #bb2 ,ps4 lxxii4 #ab with ,job xxix4 #ab2 ib4 #af with ,job v4 #be;b2 ,ps4 lxxxviii4 #af;b with ,job xx4 #be 7the rare word 'mm72 ib4 #ag with ,job vi4 #d 7bi'thm72 ib4 #ai 7lxix4 #i7 with ,job xix4 #ad2 and note throughout this psalm the same correspondence of extreme inward and outward suffering which we find in ,job4 ,then1 turning to the psalms of different tenor1 comp4 lxxii4 #ab with ,job xxix4 #ab2 ib4 #af with ,job v4 #be;b4 ,i have selected these instances precisely because they allow us to draw an inference as to priority4 ,ps4 lxxxviii4 is clearly imitative1 and no doubt there is more imitation of the great poem in other psalms4 ,psalms viii41 xxxix41 and 7probably7 lxxii4 were however known to and imitated by the authors of ,job4 ,the parallel in ,ps4 viii4 is specially important4 ,that this psalm is not earlier than the ,exile is disputed1 but extremely probable2 the bitter #8parody' in ,job vii4 #ag must in this case be of the same or a later period4 ,and now to sum up the results of our comparisons4 ,the ,colloquies in ,job are of later origin than ,deuteronomy1 ,jeremiah1 ,lamentations1 and most of ,proverbs1 but possibly nearly contemporaneous with much in the second part of ,isaiah1 except that ,isa4 liii4 not improbably lay before the author of ,job2 also that ,ps4 viii41 a work of the ,exile period1 was well known to him4 ,we are thus insensibly led on to date the ,book of ,job 7the speeches1 at any rate7 during the ,exile4 ,this will account for the large amount of imitation to which the book gave rise4 ,men felt respecting the author that he was the first and greatest exponent of the ideas and feelings1 not of a long-past age1 but of their own2 that he #8sat chief1 and dwelt as a king in the army1 as one that comforteth the mourners' 7,job xxix4 #be74 ,footnote #ajg3 ,see ,cheyne1 ,the ,prophecies of ,isaiah1 ed4 #c1 ii4 #cj2 art4 #8,isaiah1' ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 xi4 #chj4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,the ,book of ,job 7#ahhd71 pp4 lx4-lxii4 ,footnote #aji3 ,according to ,ewald1 the reference is to ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 the story of which1 we know1 was familiar as early as ,hosea's time 7,hos4 xi4 #h74 ,footnote #aaj3 ,see ,bateson ,wright's ,the ,book of ,job1 ,appendix4 ,the author concludes that the poet of ,job #8selects the main threads from the complete treatise of ,ps4 xxxvii4 and interweaves them into the highly poetical discourse of ,eliphaz4' ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,on ,,the ,,disputed ,,passages ,,in ,,the ,,dialogue-,,portion1 ,,especially ,,the ,,speeches ,,of ,,elihu4 ,a detailed exegetical study would alone enable the reader to do justice to the controversies here referred to4 ,but ,i may at least ask that1 even upon the ground of the slender analysis which ,i have given1 he should recognise the difficulties at the root of these controversies4 ,in comparison with his possession of a #8seeing eye1' it is of little moment to me whether he adopts my explanations or not4 ,poets1 like painters1 have different periods4 ,it is therefore conceivable that the author of ,job changed in course of time1 and criticised his own work1 these afterthoughts of his being embodied in the #8disputed passages4' ,it is indeed also conceivable that the phenomena which puzzle us are to be explained by the plurality of authorship4 ,in the remarks which follow ,i wish to supplement the sketch of the possible or probable growth of the ,book offered in section #c of ,chap4 ,,vii41 chiefly with regard to the speeches of ,elihu4 ,keil has spoken of #8the persistently repeated assaults upon the genuineness' of these discourses4 ,i must however protest against the use of the word #8genuineness' in this connection4 ,even if not by the author of the poem of ,job1 the speeches of ,elihu are as #8genuine' a monument of ,israel's religious #8wisdom' as the work of the earlier writer4 ,no critic worthy of the name thinks of #8assaulting' them1 though divines no less orthodox than ,gregory the ,great and the ,venerable ,bede have uncritically enough set the example4 ,the speeches of ,elihu only seem poor by comparison with the original work2 they are not without true and beautiful passages1 which1 with all their faults of expression1 would in any other book have commanded universal admiration4 ,the grounds on which chaps4 xxxii4-xxxvii4 are denied to the original writer may be summed up thus4 7#a7 ,elihu puts forward a theory of the sufferings of the righteous which does not essentially differ from that of the three friends 7see especially xxxiii4 #be-bh2 xxxiv4 #i1 #aa1 #ab1 #cf1 #cg2 xxxv4 #i-af2 xxxvi4 #e-g1 #ba-be2 xxxvii4 #bc1 #bd74 ,no doubt he improves the theory1 by laying more stress upon the chastening character of the righteous man's afflictions 7xxxiii4 #ad-cj2 xxxvi4 #h-ab1 #ae1 #af1 and comp4 ,eliphaz in v4 #ah1 #ai71 and to many disciples of the ,new ,covenant his form of the theory may recommend itself as true4 ,but1 even apart from the appendix or epilogue 7see xlii4 #g-i71 it is clear from the whole plan of the poem1 particularly if the discourses of ,jehovah be taken in1 that this was not1 in the writer's mind1 an adequate solution of the problem1 especially in the case of the ,god-fearing and innocent ,job4 7#b7 ,these speeches interrupt the connection between the #8words of ,job' and those of ,jehovah1 and seem to render the latter superfluous4 ,whether the #8words of ,job' 7to borrow the phrase of some editor of the book7 should end at xxxvii4 #cg or at ver4 #dj1 it is difficult not to believe that xxxviii4 #a1 #b1 #8,and ,jehovah answered ,job out of the storm1 and said1 ,who then is darkening counsel by words without knowledge8' was meant to follow immediately upon them4 ,the force of this seems to some to be weakened by taking ,elihu's description of the storm 7xxxvii4 #b-e7 as preparatory to the appearance of ,jehovah in chap4 xxxviii4 ,but1 evidently1 to make this an argument1 the storm ought to be at the end of the speech4 7#c7 ,there is no mention of ,elihu in the ,prologue1 nor is any divine judgment passed upon him in the ,epilogue4 ,it is not enough to reply with ,stickel that ,jehovah himself is not mentioned in the ,prologue as the umpire in the great controversy2 why should he be8--and that the absence of any condemnation of ,elihu on the part of ,jehovah1 and the harmony 787 between ,elihu's and ,jehovah's discourses1 sufficiently indicate the good opinion of the ,divine ,judge4 7#d7 ,elihu's style is prolix and laboured2 his phrases often very obscure1 even where the words separately are familiar4 ,as ,davidson remarks1 there are not only unknown words 7these we meet with elsewhere in the book71 but an unknown use of known words4 ,there is also a deeper colouring of ,aramaic 7see ,appendix71 which ,f4 ,c4 ,cook1 following ,stickel1 explains by the supposed ,araman origin of the speaker2 in this case1 it would be a refinement of art which adds a fresh laurel to the crown of the poet4 ,but the statement in xxxii4 #b is that ,elihu was #8the son of ,barakel the ,buzite1 of the kindred of ,ram4' ,that ,ram ,aram is unproved2 while ,buz1 as ,jer4 xxv4 #bc shows1 is the name of a genuine ,arabian people4 ,it would be better to explain the increased ,aramaism by the lapse of a long interval in the writer's life4 ,this explanation is1 to me1 equivalent to assigning these speeches to a different writer 7as ,i have remarked elsewhere1 comparing ,goethe's ,faust74 ,those who will may adopt it2 but my own respect for the poet of ,job will not allow me to believe that his taste had so much declined as to insert this inferior poem into his masterpiece4 7#e7 ,elihu's allusions to passages in the rest of the book 7comp4 xxxiii4 #ae with iv4 #ac2 xxxiv4 #c with xii4 #aa2 xxxv4 #e with xxii4 #ab2 xxxv4 #h with xxii4 #b2 xxxvii4 #h with xxxviii4 #dj7 and his minute reproductions of sayings of ,job 7see xxxiii4 #h1 #i2 xxxiv4 #e1 #f2 xxxv4 #b1 #c7 point to an author who had the book before him1 so far as then known1 as a whole4 7#f7 ,elihu's somewhat scrupulous piety1 or shall ,i call it his advance in reverential1 contrite devoutness8 compared with the three friends1 suggests that the poet of ,elihu was the child of a later and more sombre generation which found the original book in some respects disappointing4 ,putting all this together1 if the main part of the ,book of ,job belongs to the ,exile1 the ,elihu-portion may well belong to the post-,exile period4 ,to this view1 it is no objection that1 on the one hand1 ,elihu not merely 7to express oneself shortly7 criticises the position of the three friends1 but1 by ignoring it1 criticises the view of ,job's afflictions taken in the ,prologue1 and1 on the other1 has much in common with the rest of the book in orthographic1 grammatical1 and lexical respects4 ,the idea that ,god permits affliction simply to try the disinterestedness of a good man1 is one which might easily shock the feelings of one only too conscious that he was not good2 and the linguistic points which #8,elihu' and the rest of the book have in common are such as we should expect to find in works proceeding from the same class of writers4 ,if ,jeremiah wrote all the pieces which contain ,jeremian phraseology1 or ,isaiah all the prophecies which remind one at all of the great prophet1 or the same #8wise man' wrote ,proverbs and ,ecclesiastes1 then we may perhaps believe that the author of ,job also wrote the speeches of ,elihu and perhaps one or two of the didactic psalms4 ,professor ,briggs1 the author of that excellent work ,biblical ,study1 takes up a different position1 which1 though not new1 acquires some authority from his respected name4 ,he does not see any literary or theological merit in ,elihu's speeches1 and yet regards them as #8an important part of the original work4' ,the author designed to portray ,elihu as a young and inexperienced man1 and uses these ambitious failures #8as a literary foil 444 to prepare the way for the divine interposition1 to quiet and soothe by their tediousness the agitated spirits of ,job and his friends4'#aaa ,to me1 this view of the intention of the speeches lowers the character of the original writer4 ,so reverent and devout a speaker as ,elihu is ill rewarded by being treated as a literary and theological foil4 ,artistically1 the value of this part may be comparatively slight1 but theologically it enriches the ,old ,testament with a monument of a truly ,christian consciousness of sin4 ,had the original writer equalled him in this1 we should perhaps have missed a splendid anticipation of the life of ,christ1 who #8did no sin1 neither was guile found in his mouth4' ,but the ,elihu-section expresses in ,old ,testament language the great truth announced by ,st4 ,paul in #a ,cor4 xi4 #cb4aab ,on the other #8disputed passages' ,i have little to add4 7a7 ,to me1 the picture of the behmoth and the leviathan 7xl4 #ae-xli47 seems but little less probably a later insertion than the speeches of ,elihu2 this view of the case has the authority of ,ewald4 ,that cautious critic1 ,dr4 ,davidson1 remarks that this passage has a very different kind of movement from that of the tight and graceful sketches in chaps4 xxxviii41 xxxix41 and that the poetic inventory which it contains reminds us more of an ,arab poet's description of his camel or his horse 7,job1 p4 liv47 7b7 ,i cannot speak so positively as to the speeches of ,jehovah4 ,from a purely sthetic point of view1 ,i am often as unwilling as any one to believe that they were #8inserted4' ,at other times ,i ask myself1 ,can the inconsistencies of this portion as compared with the ,colloquies be explained as mere oversights8 ,the appearance of the ,almighty upon the scene is in itself strange4 ,job had no doubt expressed a wish for this1 but did not suppose that it could be realised1#aac at any rate in his own lifetime4 ,it is still stranger that the ,almighty should appear1 not in the gentle manner which ,job had desired 7ix4 #cd1 #ce71 not with the object of a judicial investigation of the case1 but in the whirlwind1 and with a foregone conclusion on ,job's deserts4 ,for in fact that splendid series of ironical questions which occupies chaps4 xxxviii41 xxxix41 and which ,job had by anticipation deprecated 7ix4 #c71 is nothing less than a long drawn-out condemnation of ,job4 ,the indictment and the defendant's reply1 to which ,job has referred with such proud self-confidence 7xxxi4 #ce1 #cf71 are wholly ignored2 and the result is that which ,job has unconsciously predicted in the words1-- ,to whom1 though innocent1 ,i would not reply1 but would make supplication unto my ,judge 7ix4 #ae74 7c7 ,great difficulties have been found in xxvii4 #h 7or #aa7-bc1 xxviii4 ,first of all1 ,is there an inner connection between these passages8 ,dr4 ,green seeks to establish one4 #8,while continuing1' he says1 #8to insist upon his own integrity1 notwithstanding the afflictions sent upon him1 he freely admits1 and this in language as emphatic as their own1 the reality of ,god's providential government1 and that punishment does overtake the ungodly4 ,nevertheless there is a mystery enveloping the divine administration1 which is quite impenetrable to the human understanding' 7,the ,book of ,job1 p4 #bcc74 ,this is very unnatural4#aad ,how can ,job suddenly adopt the language of the friends without conceding that he has himself hitherto been completely in error8 ,and what right have we to force such a subtle connection between chaps4 xxvii4 and xxviii8 ,looking at the latter by itself1 one cannot help suspecting that it once formed part of a didactic treatise similar to the ,introduction to the ,book of ,proverbs 7see end of ,chap4 ,,iii74 ,for a careful exegetical study of chaps4 xxvii41 xxviii41 see ,giesebrecht 7see #8,aids to the ,student1' after ,chap4 ,,xv471 with whom ,dr4 ,green seems to accord1 but who fails to convince me4 ,see also ,budde in his ,beitrge1 and ,grtz1 #8,die ,integritt der ,kap4 #bg und #bh im ,hiob1' ,monatsschrift1 #ahgb1 p4 #bda c4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,presbyterian ,review1 #ahhe1 p4 #cec4 ,footnote #aab3 ,delitzsch1 art4 #8,hiob1' ,herzog-,plitt's ,realencyklopdie1 vi4 #acb4 ,footnote #aac3 ,since this wish cannot be realised1 ,job pleads his cause against an invisible ,god with the same earnestness as if he stood before ,his face4 ,footnote #aad3 ,it is a pleasure to quote the forcible summing-up of ,mr4 ,froude4 #8,a difficulty1' he remarks1 #8now arises which1 at first sight1 appears insurmountable4 ,as the chapters are at present printed1 the entire of the #bgth is assigned to ,job1 and the paragraph from the #aath to the #bcrd verses is in direct contradiction to all which he has maintained before--is1 in fact1 a concession of having been wrong from the beginning4 ,ewald1 who1 as we said above1 himself refuses to allow the truth of ,job's last and highest position1 supposes that he is here receding from it1 and confessing what an over-precipitate passion had betrayed him into denying4 ,for many reasons1 principally because we are satisfied that ,job said then no more than the real fact1 we cannot think ,ewald right2 and the concessions are too large and too inconsistent to be reconciled even with his own general theory of the poem' 7,short ,studies1 vol4 i47 ,he then proceeds to mention with cautious approbation the theory of ,kennicott 7see note on ,text at end of ,chap4 ,,xv47 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,is ,,job ,a ,,hebr,o-,,arabic ,,poem8 ,that the ,book of ,job is not as deeply penetrated with the spirit of revelation1 nor even as distinctly ,israelitish a production1 as most of the ,old ,testament writings1 requires no argument4 ,may we venture to go further1 and infer from various phenomena that1 not merely the artistic form of the mshl1 but the thoughts and even the language of ,job came in a greater or less degree from a foreign source8 ,the question has been answered in the affirmative 7as in the case of the words of ,agur in ,prov4 xxx41 and those of ,lemuel in chap4 xxxi47 by some early as well as some more modern writers4 ,this view has been supposed to be implied in the ,greek postscript to the ,septuagint version#aae 7strongly redolent of ,jewish ,midrash71 which contains the statement1 1 but though ,origen appears so to have understood1#aaf it is more probable that merely refers to the postscript 7,zunz2 ,frankl74 ,ibn ,ezra1 however1 on independent grounds does express the opinion 7commenting on ,job ii4 #aa7 that the ,book of ,job is a translation2 he ascribes to the translator the words in xxxviii4 #a containing the sacred name ,jehovah4 ,the increased study of ,arabic in the #agth century led several theologians of eminence to the same conclusion4 ,spanheim1 for instance1 thought that ,job and his friends wrote down the history and the colloquies in ,arabic1 after the happy turn in the fortunes of the sufferer1 and that some inspired ,israelitish writer1 in the age of ,solomon1 gave this work a ,hebrew dress4 ,albert ,schultens1 in the preface to his ,liber ,jobi 7#agcg71 is at the pains to discuss this theory1 which he rejects on two main grounds1 7#a7 the disparagement to our magnificent ,book of ,job involved in calling it a translation1 and 7#b7 that in those primitive and1 according to him1 pre-,mosaic times1 the ,hebrew and ,arabic languages cannot have been so different 767 as ,spanheim from his point of view imagines4 ,elsewhere he expresses his own opinion shortly thus1#aag #8,linguam qu liber ,jobi conscriptus est1 genuinum illius temporis ,arabismum esse4' ,he actually imagines that ,job and his friends extemporised the ,colloquies we have before us1 referring to the amazing faculty of improvisation still possessed by the ,arabs--a view scarcely worthier than that of ,spanheim1 for1 as ,martineau remarks in another connection1 ,who ever improvised a great poem or a great sermon8 ,both these great scholars have fallen into the error of confounding the poet with his hero and the use of poetic and didactic fiction with deliberate fraud4 ,one cannot be severe upon this error1 for it has survived among ourselves in ,prof4 ,s4 ,lee's great work 7#ahcg71 where our ,book of ,job is actually traced back through ,jethro to ,job himself4 ,the only form however in which a critic of our day could discuss the question mentioned above would be this1 ,is it in some degree probable that the author of ,job was a ,hebrew who had passed some time with the ,arabic- and ,aramaic-speaking peoples bordering on the land of ,israel8 ,on grounds independent of ,eichhorn and ,dean ,plumptre1 the former of whom combines his theory with that of a pre-,mosaic1 and the latter with that of a ,solomonic date of ,job1 ,i think that we may venture to reply in the affirmative4 ,these grounds have reference 7#a7 to the ideas of ,job1 7#b7 to its vocabulary4 7#a7 ,i am well aware that the argument from the ideas of ,job cannot claim a strong degree of cogency4 ,it is possible to account for the conceptions of the author from the natural progress of the 7divinely-guided7 moral and religious history of ,israel1 and those who believe 7,i do not myself7 that ,psalms xvii41 xxxvii41 xlix41 lxxiii41 are ,palestinian works of earlier date than ,job will have a ready argument in favour of a purely native origin of the latter book4 ,still it seems to me that we can still better account for the author's point of view by supposing that he was in sympathy with an intellectual movement going on outside ,israel4 ,the doctrine of retribution in the present life1 which he finds inadequate1 is common to the friends and to the religion which has in all ages been that of the genuine ,arab--the so-called dn ,ibrhm 7or #8religion of ,abraham'74 ,the ,eloah and the ,shaddai of ,job are the irresponsible ,allah who has all power in heaven and on earth1 and before whom1 when mysteries occur in human life which the retribution-doctrine cannot solve1 the ,arab and every true ,moslem bows his head with settled1 sad resignation4 ,the morality alike of the dn ,ibrhm1 and of the religion of ,mohammed 7who professed to restore it in its purity71 is faulty precisely as the religion of the three friends 7and originally of ,job himself7 is faulty4 ,the same conflict which arose in the heart of ,job arose in the midst of the ,moslem world4 ,i refer to the dispute between the claimants of orthodoxy and the sect of the ,mo'tazilites 7#hth and #ith centuries72 the latter1 who were worsted in the strife1 viewed ,god as the absolutely ,good1 the former as a despotic and revengeful tyrant4#aah ,may not this conflict have been foreshadowed at an earlier time8 ,is not the difficulty which led to it a constantly recurring one1 so soon as reflection acquires a certain degree of maturity8 ,it may well have been felt among the ,jews1 especially in the decline of the state1 but it must also have been felt among their neighbours1 and freedom of speech has always1 in historical times1 been an ,arab characteristic4 ,putting aside the anachronism of placing ,job in the patriarchal age1 does not the poet himself appear to hint that it was so felt by the names and tribal origins of the speakers in the great religious discussion8 7#b7 ,as to the ,arabisms and ,aramaisms of the language of ,job 7see ,appendix74 ,jerome already says that his own translation follows none of the ancients1 but reproduces1 now the words1 now the sense1 and now both1 #8ex ipso hebraico arabicoque sermone et interdum syro4' ,in the #agth and #ahth centuries1 ,de ,dieu1 ,bochart1 and above all ,schultens made it a first principle in the study of ,job to illustrate it from ,aramaic and especially ,arabic4 ,schultens even describes the language as not so much ,hebrew1 as ,hebro-,arabic1 and says that it breathes the true and unmixed genius of ,arabia4 ,this is every way an exaggeration1 and yet1 after all reasonable deductions1 our poem will stand out from the ,old ,testament volume by its foreign linguistic affinities4 ,it is not enough to say that the ,arabisms and ,aramaisms have from the first formed part of the ,hebrew vocabulary1 and were previously employed only because the subjects of the other books did not call for their use4 ,unless a more thorough study of ,assyrian should prove that the ,arabism 7for of these ,i am chiefly thinking7 belonged to northern as well as to southern ,semitic1 it will surely be more natural to suppose that the author of ,job replenished his vocabulary from ,arabic sources4 ,there is not a little in the phraseology of ,job which is still as obscure as in the days of ,ibn ,ezra1 but which receives1 or may yet receive1 illustration from the stores of written and spoken ,arabic4#aai ,may we not1 in short1 conjecture that the poem of ,job is a grand attempt to renovate and enrich the ,hebrew language8#abj ,if so1 the experiment can hardly have been made before the great subversion of ,hebrew traditions at the ,babylonian captivity4 ,residence in a foreign land produces a marked effect on one's language4 ,recollect too that our author was a literary man4 ,internal evidence converges to show that ,job belonged to that great literary movement among the wise men1 philosophers1 or humanists1 to which we shall have to refer ,prov4 i-ix41 the ,wisdom of ,sirach1 and the ,book of ,ecclesiastes4 ,before leaving this subject1 let us notice the parallels to descriptions in the speeches of ,jehovah in the ,arabian poets1 who show the same attention to the striking phenomena of earth and sky as the author of these speeches4 ,the ,arabian tone and colouring of the descriptions of animals in ,job has been already remarked upon by ,alfred von ,kremer in vol4 ii4 of his ,culturgeschichte des ,orients4 ,is it possible to conceive that those sketches of the wild goat1 the wild ass1 and the horse1 were not written by one who was familiar with the sight8 ,or that the author had not observed the habits of the ostrich1 when he penned his lines on the ostrich's neglect of her eggs8 ,or that his interest in astronomy was not deepened by the spectacle of a night-sky in ,arabia8 ,or that personal experience of caravan life did not inspire the touching figure in vi4 #ae-bj8 ,and observation of the mines in the ,sinaitic peninsula#aba the fine description of xxviii4 #a-aj8 ,it is possible that some of these passages may be due to other travelled #8wise men2' but this only increases the probability that the ,hebrew movement was strengthened by contact with similar movements abroad4 ,the #8wise men' had certainly travelled far and wide among ,arabic-speaking populations1 though nowhere perhaps were they so much at home as in ,iduma and its neighbourhood4 ,as ,m4 ,derenbourg remarks1 #8,les riantes oasis1 au milieu des contres dsoles1 environnant la mer ,morte1 taient la demeure des sages et des rveurs4 ,bien des sicles aprs l'auteur de ,job1 les ,essniens et les ,thrapeutes se plongeaient l dans la vie contemplative1 ou bien ils se livraient une vie simple1 active et dgage de tout souci mondain4 ,encore un peu plus tard cette contre devint probablement le berceau de la kabbale ou du mysticisme juif4' ,footnote #aae3 ,there is a doubt whether the ,septuagint postscript or the statement of the ,egyptian ,jew 787 ,aristeas 7as given by ,eusebius from ,alexander ,polyhistor in ,prf4 ,evang4 l4 ix47 be the earlier4 ,the ordinary view is that ,aristeas had the ,septuagint ,job before him2 ,freudenthal1 however1 infers from the strange description of ,eliphaz1 ,bildad1 and ,zophar in ,sept4 ,job ii4 #aa 7taken verbally from ,aristeas7 that the reverse was the case1 and that the fragment of ,aristeas is only a condensed extract from the prologue and epilogue of the ,book of ,job 7,freudenthal1 ,hellenistische ,studien1 #aci1 #adj2 ,grtz1 ,monatsschrift1 #ahgg1 p4 #ia74 ,this inference in turn suggests ,grtz' hypothesis that the ,septuagint ,job is a work of the first century ,a4,d4 7see note at end of ,chap4 ,,xv47 ,footnote #aaf3 ,opera1 ,delarue1 ii4 #hea1 ap4 ,delitzsch1 ,iob1 p4 #fjc4 ,footnote #aag3 ,opera minora 7,lugd4 ,bat4 #agfi71 p4 #dig4 ,footnote #aah3 ,kremer1 ,herrschende ,ideen des ,islams1 p4 #bg c42 ,kuenen1 ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #dh c4 ,footnote #aai3 ,prof4 ,socin once observed to me how useful spoken ,arabic would be found for this purpose4 ,footnote #abj3 ,arabic literary history presents an example of literary experimenting which will at once occur to the mind--the #8,maqamas' or ,sessions of ,hariri4 ,footnote #aba3 ,on the mining passage see further p4 #dj4 ,stickel1 however1 though inclining to the above view1 thinks that it is still not quite impossible that ,palestinian mines are meant1 comparing ,edrisi's statements on the iron-mines of ,phnicia and the words of the ,deuteronomist in ,deut4 viii4 #i4 ,das ,buch ,hiob1 pp4 #bfe-f4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,book ,,from ,a ,,religious ,,point ,,of ,,view4 ,motto3 #8,jedem nmlich wollte ich dienen1 der hinlnglich ,sinn hat in die grosse ,frage tiefer einzugehen1 welche das ernste ,leben einmal gewiss an ,jeden heranbringt1 nach der ,gerechtigkeit der gttlichen ,waltung in den menschlichen ,geschicken4'--,,stickel 7,das ,buch ,hiob1 ,einl4 ,s4 vi47 ,there was a period1 not so long since1 when a ,biblical writing was valued according to its supposed services to orthodox theology4 ,from this point of view1 the ,book of ,job was regarded partly as a typical description of the sufferings of our ,saviour1#abb partly as a repository of text-proofs of ,christian doctrines1 which though few in number acquired special importance from the immense antiquity assigned to the poem4 ,we must not1 in our reaction from the exclusively theological estimate of the ,old ,testament1 shut our eyes to the significance of each of its parts in the history of the higher religion4 ,the ,book of ,job is theological1 though the theology of its writer1 being that of a poet1 is less logical than that of an apostle1 less definite even than that of a prophet1 in so far as the prophet obtained 7or seemed to obtain7 his convictions by a message or revelation from without4 ,being a poet1 moreover1 the writer of ,job can even less than a prophet have had clear conceptions of the historical ,messiah and ,his period4 ,moral and spiritual truths--these were his appointed province1 not the secret counsels of ,god1 nor those exceptional facts or truths which orthodoxy still perhaps regards as among the postulates of the faith of the ,hebrew prophets4 ,nor can the hero of the poem be considered a strict and proper type of the ,christ1 for this reason among others1 that ,job is to all intents and purposes a creation of the fancy1 whether of the unconsciously working fancy of the people1 or of the rich and potent imagination of a poet4 ,in what sense1 then1 may the ,book of ,job still claim a theological significance1 and be allowed to fill a not unimportant place in the ,vorgeschichte of ,christianity8 ,i4 ,the hero of the poem 7,i exclude from consideration the speeches of ,elihu#abc7 is1 not indeed a type1 but in some sense prophetic of the ,christ1 inasmuch as the very conception of a righteous man enduring vast calamities1 not so much for his own sake as for the world's1 is a bold hypothesis which could only in the ,christ be made good4 ,the poet does more than merely personify the invisible ,church of righteous and believing sufferers2 he idealises this ,church in doing so1 and this idealising is a venture of faith4 ,job is an altogether exceptional figure3 he is imperfect1 no doubt1 if viewed as a symbol of the ,christ1 but this does not diminish the reality and the grandeur of the presentiment which he embodies4 ,to a religious mind1 this remarkable creation will always appear stamped by the hand of ,providence4 ,job is not indeed a ,saviour1 but the imagination of such a figure prepares the way for a ,saviour4 ,in the words of ,dr4 ,mozley1 #8,if the ,jew was to accept a ,messiah who was to lead a life of sorrow and abasement1 and to be crucified between thieves1 it was necessary that it should be somewhere or other distinctly taught that virtue was not always rewarded here1 and that therefore no argument could be drawn from affliction and ignominy against the person who suffered it4'#abd ,,ii4 ,this then is the grandest of the elements in the ,book of ,job which helped to prepare the noblest minds among the ,jews for the reception of primitive ,christianity--viz4 the idea of a righteous man suffering simply because 7as was said of ,one parallel in many respects to ,job7 #8it pleased ,jehovah 7for a wise purpose7 to bruise him4' ,the second element is the idea of a supra-mundane justice1 which will one day manifest itself in favour of the righteous sufferer1 not only in this world 7xvi4 #ah1 #ai1 xix4 #be1 xlii471 so that all men may recognise their innocence1 but also beyond the grave1 the sufferers themselves being in some undefined manner brought back to life in the conscious enjoyment of ,god's favour 7xiv4 #ac-ae1 xix4 #bf1 #bg87 ,there may be only suggestions of these ideas1 but suggestions were enough when interpreted by sympathetic readers4 ,let me add that by #8sympathetic1' ,i mean in sympathy with the conception of ,god formed by the author of ,job4 ,nothing is more out of sympathy with this conception than the saying of the ,jewish scholar1 ,s4 ,d4 ,luzzatto1 #8,the ,god of ,job is not the ,god of ,israel1 the ,gracious ,one2 ,he is the ,almighty and the ,righteous1 but not the ,kind and ,faithful ,one4' ,no2 the ,god of ,job would be less than infinitely righteous if ,he were not also kind 7comp4 ,ps4 lxii4 #ab74 ,and of this enlarged conception of ,god1 faith in the continuance of the human spirit is a consequence4 ,justice to those with whom ,god is in covenant requires that ,he should not after a few years hurl them back into non-existence 7comp4 ,job x4 #h-ac74 ,but ,i can only skirt the fringe of the great religious problems opened by this wonderful book4 ,in conclusion1 and in the spirit of my motto1 let me invite the reader's attention 7even if he be no theologian7 to the spectacle of a powerful mind dashing itself against perennial problems too mighty for it to solve4 ,the author of our poem missed the only adequate and possible solution1 and hence he has been erroneously regarded by several moderns as the representative of a mental attitude akin to their own4 ,heine1 for instance1 can term this book #8the ,song of ,songs of scepticism4' ,no doubt those who are at sea on religious matters can find sayings in ,job which may seem as if spoken by themselves2 but in truth these only enhance the significance of the counteracting elements in the poem4 ,it is the logical incompleteness of ,job which at once exposes the book to misjudgment1 and gives it an eternal fascination4 ,as ,quinet has said1 #8,ce qui fait la grandeur de ce livre1 c'est qu'en dpassant la mesure de l',ancien ,testament il appelle1 il provoque ncessairement des cieux nouveaux4444 ,le christianisme vit au fond de ce blasphme4' ,we need a second part of ,job1 or at least a third speech of ,jehovah1 which could however only be given by some ,hebrew poet who had drunk at the fountains of the ,fourth ,gospel4 ,failing these1 the reader must supply what is necessary for himself1--a better compensation to ,job for his agony than the ,epilogue provides1 and a more touching and not less divine theophany 7comp4 ,job ix4 #cb1 #cc74 ,this ,christianity will enable him to do4 ,intellectually1 the problem of ,job's life may remain1 but to the ,christian heart the cloud is luminous4 ,the ,infinite remains unknown1 ,too vast for man to understand3 ,in ,him1 the #8,woman's ,seed1' alone ,we trace ,god's footprint in the sand4#abe ,footnote #abb3 #8,the ,church in all ages has regarded the one as a type of the other1' ,turner1 ,studies ,biblical and ,oriental1 p4 #aej4 ,but ,del4 has already dissuaded from insisting too much on the historic character of the story of ,job4 #8,the endurance of ,job' 7,james v4 #aa7 is equally instructive whether the story be real 7wirklich7 or only ideally true 7wahr72 and if by the phrase #8the end of the ,lord' ,st4 ,james refers to the ,passion of ,jesus 7to me1 however1 this appears doubtful71 he can be claimed with as much reason for the view of ,job here adopted as for the older theory advocated by ,turner4 ,footnote #abc3 ,on the ,elihu-section1 see ,chap4 ,,xii4 ,footnote #abd3 ,mozley1 ,essays1 ii4 #bbg2 comp4 ,turner1 ,studies1 p4 #adi4 ,footnote #abe3 ,aubrey ,de ,vere4 ,need ,i guard myself on the subject of ,gen4 iii4 #ae1 referred to in a recent memorable debate in the ,nineteenth ,century8 ,a strict ,messianic interpretation is1 since ,calvin's time1 impossible to the exegete1 but the application of the words to ,jesus ,christ is dear to the ,christian heart1 and perfectly consistent with a sincere exegesis4 ,m4 ,rville would1 ,i think1 concede this to ,mr4 ,gladstone4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,job ,,from ,a ,,general ,,and ,,western ,,point ,,of ,,view4 ,the ,book of ,job is even less translatable than the ,psalter4 ,and why8 ,because there is more nature in it4 #8,he would be a poet1' says ,thoreau1 #8who could impress the winds and streams into his service to speak for him4' ,they do speak for the poet of ,job2 the #8still sad music of humanity' is continually relieved by snatches from the grand symphonies of external nature4 ,and hence the words of ,job are #8so true and natural that they would appear to expand like the buds at the approach of spring4' ,it is only a feeble light which the ,authorised ,version sheds upon this poem2 and even the best prose translation must for several reasons be inadequate4 ,perhaps1 though ,english has no longer its early strength1 a true poet might yet achieve some worthy result4 ,rarely has the attempt been made4 ,george ,sandys was said by ,richard ,baxter to have #8restored ,job to his original glory1' but he lived before the great era of ,semitic studies4 ,the poetical translator of ,job must not disdain to consult critical interpreters1 and yet by his own unassisted skill could he bring this ,eastern masterpiece home to the ,western reader8 ,i doubt it4 ,even more than most imaginative poems the ,book of ,job needs the help of the painter4 ,it is not surprising therefore that a scholar of ,giotto should have detected the pictorial beauties of the story of ,job4 ,though only two of the six ,job-frescoes remain entire1 the ,campo ,santo of ,pisa will be impoverished when time and the sea-air effect the destruction of these4 ,i know not whether any modern painter besides ,william ,blake has illustrated ,job4 ,he1 a #8seer' born out of due time1 understood this wonderful book as no modern before him had done4 ,the student will get more help of a certain kind from the illustrations thus reproduced in the second volume of ,gilchrist's ,life of ,william ,blake1 compared with the sympathetic descriptions by ,blake's biographer 7vol4 i4 pp4 #ccj-ccc71 than from any of the commentaries old or new4 ,in every respect the poem of ,job stands in a class by itself4 ,more than any other book in the ,hebrew canon it needs bringing near to the modern reader1 untrained as he is in ,oriental and especially in ,semitic modes of thought and imagination4 ,such a reader's first question will probably relate to the poetic form of the book4 ,is it1 for instance1 a drama8 ,theodore of ,mopsuestia 7died #dbh7 answered in the affirmative1 though he was censured for this by the ,council of ,constantinople4 ,the author of ,job1 he says1 wronged the grand and illustrious story by imitating the manner of the pagan tragedians4 #8,inde et illas plasmationes fecit1 in quibus certamen ad ,deum fecit diabolus1 et voces sicut voluit circumposuit1 alias quidem justo1 alias vero amicis4'#abf ,bishop ,lowth devotes two lectures of his ,sacred ,poetry to the same question4 ,he replies in the negative1 after comparing ,job with the two dipi of ,sophocles 7dramas with kindred subjects71 on the ground that action is of the essence of a drama and the ,book of ,job contains not even the simplest action4 ,afterwards indeed he admits that ,job has at least one point in common with a regular drama1 viz4 the vivid presentation of several distinct characters in a tragic situation4 ,the view that it is an epic1 held in recent times by ,dr4 ,mason ,good and ,m4 ,godet1 found favour with one no less than ,john ,milton1 who speaks1 as he who knows1 of #8that epic form1 whereof the two poems of ,homer and those other two of ,virgil and ,tasso are a diffuse1 and the ,book of ,job a brief model4'#abg ,something is to be said for this opinion if ,paradise ,regained be a true epic4 ,dialogue with the addition of a certain amount of narrative is1 roughly speaking1 the literary form of the ,book of ,job as well as of the unequally great ,english poem1 and ,coleridge is probably right in representing ,milton as indebted to the former for his plan4 ,it is however open to us to doubt not only whether ,paradise ,regained is a true epic poem1 but whether any section of the ,book of ,job except the ,prologue partakes of the nature of an epic4 ,the ,prologue certainly does2 it is more than a mere introduction to the subsequent speeches2 it is an independent poetical narrative1#abh if not a narrative poem2 nor is there wanting a strong infusion of that supernatural element which tradition regards as essential to the epic4 ,true1 it is a torso1 but this does not interfere with its genuinely poetic character3 it is1 as ,milton says1 a #8brief model' or miniature of an epic poem4 ,the ,colloquies on the other hand are as undoubtedly a germinal character-drama1 as the ,song of ,songs is a germinal stage-drama4 ,the work belongs to the same class as ,goethe's ,iphigenie and ,tasso2 only there is much more passion in it than in these great but distinctively modern poems4 ,some one has said that #8there is no action and reaction between the speakers' in the ,colloquies4 ,this is an over-statement4 ,not only is each speaker consistent with his type of character1 but the passionate excitement of ,job1 and his able though fragmentary confutation of his opponents1 do produce an effect upon the latter1 do force them to take up a new position1 though not indeed to recall their original thesis4#abi ,but in order to bring the ,book of ,job nearer to the modern ,western mind1 we must not only study it from the point of view of form1 but also compare its scope and range with those of the loftiest modern ,western poems of similar import2 only then shall we discover the points in which it is distinctively ancient1 ,oriental1 ,semitic4--,the greatest ,english work of kindred moral and religious import is ,paradise ,lost4 ,like ,job1 it is a theodicy1 though of a more complex character1 and aims 444 7to7 assert eternal ,providence1 ,and justify the ways of ,god to man4 ,and the author of ,paradise ,lost1 though not to be equalled with the founders of ,biblical religion1 is still distinguished from all modern poets 7except ,dante and ,bunyan7 by his singularly intense faith in the operations of the ,divine ,spirit4 ,that prayer of his1 beginning #8,and chiefly ,thou1 ,o ,spirit1' and a well-known parallel passage in his ,reason of ,church ,government1 prove conclusively that he held no contracted views as to the limits of ,inspiration4 ,this1 in addition to his natural gifts1 explains the overpowering impression of reality produced by the visions of ,milton1 and perhaps in a still greater degree by those of our ,puritan prose-poet1 ,john ,bunyan4 ,a similar faith in the divine ,spirit1 but more original and less affected by logical theories1 was one great characteristic of the author of ,job4 ,he felt1 like all the religious #8wise men' 7of whom more presently71 that true wisdom was beyond mortal ken1 and could only be obtained by an influence from above4 ,in the strength of this confidence he ventured1 like ,milton1 on untrodden paths1 and presumed to chronicle1 in symbolic form1 transactions of the spiritual world4 ,whether or not he believed in the ,satan of the ,prologue1 as a ,sunday ,school child might1 we need not decide2 that he used popular beliefs in a wide1 symbolic sense1 has been pointed out elsewhere4 ,probably both ,milton and he1 if questioned on the subject1 would have replied in the spirit of those words of our ,lord1 #8,if ye will receive it1' and #8,all men cannot receive this saying4' ,it is not to be forgotten that the author of ,job distinctly places the ,satan in a somewhat humorous light1 and though ,milton is far from doing the same1 yet we know from ,comus that the conception of a symbol was as familiar to him as to ,lord ,bacon4 ,notice1 in conclusion1 that ,milton's ,satan1 though unlike the ,satan of his predecessor in some points1#acj resembles him in this striking particular1 that he is not yet 7in spite of ,milton's attempt to represent him as such7 the absolutely evil being4 ,faust has in some respects a better right to be compared with ,job than ,paradise ,lost4 ,not so much indeed in the ,prologue1 though ,goethe deserves credit for detecting the humorous element in the ,hebrew poet's ,satan1 an element which he has transferred1 though with much exaggeration1 to his own ,mephistopheles4 ,neither the ,satan nor ,mephistopheles 7a remote descendant of the ,hebrew#aca mastema1 from the root satamsatan7 is the ,origin of ,evil in a personal form1#acb but the ,hebrew poet would never have accepted the description in ,faust of the peculiar work of the #8denying spirit4' ,but in the body of the poem there is this marked similarity to the ,book of ,job--that the problem treated of is a purely moral and spiritual one2 the hero first loses and then recovers his peace of mind2 it is the counterpart in pantheistic humanism of what ,st4 ,paul terms working out one's own salvation4 ,still there are great and most instructive divergences between the two writers4 ,observe1 first1 the complete want of sympathy with positive religion--with the religion from which ,faust wanders--on the part of the modern poet4 ,next1 a striking difference in the characteristics of ,job and ,faust respectively4 ,faust succumbs to his boundless love of knowledge1 alternating with an unbridled sensual lust2 ,job is on the verge of spiritual ruin through his demand for such an absolute correspondence of circumstances to character as can only be realised in another world4 ,the greatness of ,faust lies in his intellect2 that of ,job 7who in chap4 xxviii4 directly discourages speculation7 in his virtue4 ,hence1 finally1 ,faust requires 7even from a pantheistic point of view7 to be pardoned1 while ,job stands so high in the divine favour that others are pardoned on his account4 ,a third great poem which deserves to be compared with ,job is the ,divina ,commedia4 ,dante has the same purpose of edification as the author of ,job and even of ,faust1 though he has not been able to fuse the didactic and narrative elements with such complete success as ,goethe4 ,nor is he so intensely autobiographical as either ,goethe or the author of ,job2 his own story is almost inextricably interlaced with the fictions which he frames as the representative of the human race4 ,he allows us to see that he has had doubts 7,parad4 iv4 #abi71 and that they have yielded to the convincing power of ,christianity 7,purgat4 iii4 #cd-ci71 but it was not a part of his plan to disclose1 like the author of ,job1 the vicissitudes of his mental history4 ,in two points1 however--the width of his religious sympathies 7which even permits him to borrow from the rich legendary material of heathendom#acc7 and the morning freshness of his descriptions of nature--he comes nearer to the author of ,job than either ,goethe or ,milton1 while in the absoluteness and fervour of his faith ,milton is in modern times his only rival4 ,the preceding comparison will1 it is hoped1 leave the reader with a sense of our great literary as well as religious debt to the author of ,job4 ,his gifts were varied1 but in one department his originality is nothing less than ,homeric2 his ,colloquies are the fountain-head from which the great river of philosophic poetry took its origin4 ,he is the first of those poet-theologians from whom we ,english have learned so much1 and who are all the more impressive as teachers because the truths which they teach are steeped in emotion1 and have for their background a comprehensive view of the complex and many-coloured universe4 ,footnote #abf3 ,migne1 ,synes4 et ,theod41 col4 #fih4 ,comp4 ,kihn1 ,theodor von ,mopsuestia1 p4 #fh c4 ,footnote #abg3 ,the ,reason of ,church ,government1 ,book ,,ii4 ,footnote #abh3 ,comp4 ,bateson ,wright1 ,the ,book of ,job1 pp4 #bi-ca4 ,footnote #abi3 ,bunsen observes1 not badly1 #8,hiob ist ein semitisches ,drama aus der ,zeit der ,gefangenschaft4 ,das ,dramatische windet sich aber erst aus dem ,epos heraus1 ohne eine selbststndige ,gestalt zu gewinnen4' ,gott in der ,geschichte1 i4 #bia4 ,footnote #acj3 ,compare ,satan after his overthrow with ,tasso's ,soldan 7,gerus4 ,lib41 c4 ix41 st4 #ih47 ,footnote #aca3 ,mr4 ,sutherland ,edwards 7,fortnightly ,review1 ,nov4 #ahhe1 p4 #fhg7 states that ,hebrew etymologies have proved failures4 ,but the steps of the change from mastema to ,mephistopheles are all proved1 beginning with the name ,mastiphat1 for the prince of the demons1 in the chronographers ,syncellus and ,georg4 ,cedrenus 7comp4 ,mastema in the ,book of ,jubilees74 ,comp4 ,diez1 ,roman4 ,wrterbuch1 i4 pp4 xxv41 xxvi4 ,footnote #acb3 ,turner and ,morshead1 ,faust 7#ahhb71 pp4 #cjg-h4 ,footnote #acc3 ,on the parallel phenomena in ,job1 see ,chap4 ,,ix4 ,,note ,,on ,,job ,,and ,,the ,,modern ,,poets4 ,job1 like ,spenser1 should be the poet of poets2 but though ,goethe has imitated him in royal fashion1 and here and there other poets such as ,dante may offer allusions1 yet ,milton is the only poet who seems to have absorbed ,job4 ,paradise ,regained is in both form and contents a free imitation of the ,book of ,job1 the story of which is described in i4 #cfh-cgj1 #dbd-f1 iii4 #fd-fg4 ,the following are the principal allusions in ,paradise ,lost3--i4 #fc1 comp4 ,job x4 #bb2 ii4 #bff1 comp4 ,job iv4 #af2 ii4 #fjc1 comp4 ,job xxiv4 #ai ,vulg42 iv4 #iii1 comp4 ,job xxviii4 #be2 vii4 #bec-d 7,hymn on the ,nativity1 st4 #ab71 comp4 ,job xxxviii4 #d-g2 vii4 #cgc-e1 comp4 ,job xxxviii4 #ca2 vii4 #ajb1 comp4 ,job xxxviii4 #e4 ,shelley1 too1 is said to have delighted in ,job2 ,i must leave others to trace this in his works4 ,i conclude with ,thomas ,carlyle4 ,the words--#8,was ,man with his ,experience present at the ,creation1 then1 to see how it all went on8 ,system of ,nature6 ,to the wisest man1 wide as is his vision1 ,nature remains of quite infinite depth1 of quite infinite expansion'#acd--;are at once a paraphrase of the questions of ,eliphaz1 #8,art thou the first man that was born8444 ,didst thou hearken in the council of ,eloah8' 7xv4 #g1 #h71 and a suggestive statement of the problem of ,job as a challenge to limited human #8experience' to prove its capacity for criticising ,god's ways4 ,footnote #acd3 ,sartor ,resartus 7#8,natural ,supernaturalism'74 ,,note ,,on ,,the ,,text ,,of ,,job4 ,that the received text of our ,hebrew ,bible has a long history behind it1 is generally recognised2 and few will deny that its worst corruptions arose in the pre-,massoretic and pre-,talmudic periods 7comp4 ,the ,prophecies of ,isaiah1 vol4 ii41 ,essay vii47 ,the popularity of the ,book of ,job may not have been equal to that of many other books1 but we have seen reason to suppose that within the circles of the #8wise men' it was eagerly studied and imitated4 ,in those early times such popularity was a source of danger to the text1 and hasty copyists left their mark on many a corrupt passage4 ,is there any remedy for this8 ,dr4 ,merx's book1 ,das ,gedicht von ,hiob 7#ahga71 has the merits and defects of pioneering works1 but his introduction should by all means be studied4 ,two points in it have to be examined1 7#a7 the relative position given by ,merx to the chief ancient versions1 and 7#b7 the use which he makes of his own strophic arrangement for detecting interpolations or gaps in the text4 ,more1 ,i think1 is to be gained from his discussion of the use of the versions than from his strophic arrangement2 and yet before quite so much importance is attached to the text of the ,septuagint1 ought we not to be surer than we are of the antiquity and of the critical value of the ,septuagint ,job8 ,that version may not be of as recent origin#ace as ,grtz would have it1 but can hardly be much earlier than the second century ,b4,c4 ,before this date the text of ,job had time to suffer much from the usual causes of corruption4 ,besides this1 there are special reasons for distrusting the literal accuracy of the translator4 ,he seems to have been in his own way an artist1 and to have sought to reproduce poetry in poetical language4 ,in this respect his vocabulary differs from that of all the other ,septuagint translators2 he thinks more of his ,greek readers than of his ,hebrew original4 ,had he been more mechanical in his method1 the critical value of his work would have been greater4 ,i agree therefore with ,h4 ,schultz that even where the ,septuagint and the ,peshitto are united against the ,massoretic reading1 the decisive arguments for the reading of the former will be1 not the external one of testimony1 but the internal one 7if so be it exists7 of suitableness4 ,mr4 ,bateson ,wright goes almost farther than ,dr4 ,merx in his opinion of the corruptness of the received text4 ,his work on ,job 7#ahhc71 however unripe1 shows remarkable independence1 and contains1 among many rash1 a few striking emendations4 ,that he does not restrict himself to corrections suggested by the versions1 is not in the least a defect2 the single drawback to his work is that he has not pondered long enough before writing4 ,purely conjectural emendation was doubtless often resorted to by the old translators themselves2 it was and still is perfectly justified1 though to succeed in its use requires a singular combination of caution and boldness which even older critics have not always attained4 ,special attention is devoted by ,mr4 ,wright to the poetical features of the speeches in ,job4 ,dr4 ,merx had already observed that most of the contain eight syllables1 to read which1 however1 it is often needful to dispense with ,metheg and with the ,chateph vowels1 and contract the dual terminations4 ,mr4 ,wright1 building upon ,dr4 ,merx's foundation1 offers a more elaborate scheme1 which cannot be discussed here4 ,it was a misfortune for him that he had not before him the ambitious metrical transliteration of ,job by ,g4 ,bickell1 in his ,carmina ,vet4 ,test4 metrice1 of which ,i would rather say nothing here than too little4 ,subsequent editors of the text of ,job will have one advantage1 which will affect their critical use of the ,septuagint4 ,it is well known that the ,alexandrine version was largely interpolated from that of ,theodotion4 ,the early ,septuagint text itself can however now be reconstructed1 through a manuscript of the ,sahidic or ,thebaic version from ,upper ,egypt4 7,comp4 ,lagarde1 ,mittheilungen1 pp4 #bjc-e2 ,agapios ,bsciai1 art4 in ,moniteur de ,rome1 ,oct4 #bf1 #ahhc47 ,dr4 ,merx was well aware of the necessity of expurgating the ,septuagint1 and would have hailed this much-desired aid in the work 7see p4 lxxi4 of his introduction74 ,so much must suffice in my present limits on the subject of metre and textual emendation4 ,i need not thus qualify the list which follows of gaps and misplacements of text in our ,book of ,job4 ,observe 7#a7 that ,bildad's third speech 7chap4 xxv47 is too short4 ,probably1 as ,mr4 ,elzas has suggested1#acf the continuation of it has been wrongly placed as xxvi4 #e-ad2 the affinity of this passage to chap4 xxv4 is obvious4 ,probably the close of ,bildad's speech is wanting4 ,if so 7#b71 something must have dropped out of ,job's reply1 since xxvi4 #d has no connection with xxvii4 #b4 7#c7 ,zophar's third speech appears to be wanting1 but may really be contained in chap4 xxvii4 7ver4 #h to end74 ,the student should not fail to observe that xxvii4 #ac is a repetition of xx4 #bi4 ,as the text stands1 ,job is made to recant his statements in chaps4 xxi41 xxiv41 and to assert that there is 7not merely ought to be7 a just and exact retribution4 ,the tone1 moreover1 of xxvii4 #i1 #aj is not in accordance with ,job's previous speeches4 ,if this view be correct1 an introductory formula 7#8,and ,zophar answered and said'7 must have fallen out at the beginning of ver4 #g1 and probably one or more introductory verses4#acg 7#d7 ,the verses which originally introduced chap4 xxviii4 must 7on account of the causal particle #8for' in ver4 #a7 either have dropped out1 or else have been neglected by the person who inserted the chapter in the ,book of ,job4 7#e7 ,the passage xxxi4 #ch-dj has at any rate been misplaced 7,delitzsch71 and probably1 as ,merx has pointed out1 should be inserted between ver4 #cb and ver4 #cc4 ,thus verses #ce-cg will furnish an appropriate and impressive close to the chapter4 7#f7 xxxvi4 #ca should probably go after ver4 #bh 7not ver4 #bi1 as ,dillmann misstates the conjecture72 verses #cj1 #cb have a natural connection 7,olshausen74 7#g7 ,the passage xli4 #i-ab destroys the connection1 and should probably be placed immediately before chap4 xxxviii4 #a1 as an introductory speech of ,jehovah4 ,in that case1 we must1 with ,merx1 supply the words1 #8,and ,jehovah said1' before ver4 #i4 ,footnote #ace3 #8,a child of the first ,christian century1' ,grtz's ,monatsschrift1 p4 #ia4 ,nldeke dates this version about #aej ,b4,c4 7,gott4 gel4 ,anzeigen1 #ahfe1 p4 #ege74 ,footnote #acf3 ,elzas1 ,the ,book of ,job 7#ahgb71 p4 #hc2 ,grtz inclines to a similar view4 ,footnote #acg3 ,a similar view has been propounded by ,kennicott1 and also more recently by ,grtz 7,monatsschrift1 #ahgb1 p4 #bdg74 ,but ,kennicott regarded chap4 xxviii4 as ,job's reply to ,zophar1 while ,grtz would include it in the speech of ,zophar4 ,,aids ,,to ,,the ,,student4 ,there are many books and articles of importance besides the commentaries4 ,among these are ,hupfeld1 ,commentatio in quosdam ,jobedos locos 7#ahee72 ,bickell1 ,de indole ac ratione versionis ,alexandrin in interpretando libro ,iobi 7#ahfb72 ,g4 ,baur1 #8,das ,buch ,hiob und ,dante's ,gttliche ,comdie1' ,theol4 ,studien und ,kritiken 7#ahef71 p4 #ehc c4 7with which may be grouped ,quinet's splendid chapter1 in his early work on religions1 entitled ,comparaison du scepticisme oriental et du scepticisme occidental'72 ,seinecke1 ,der ,grundgedanke des ,buches ,hiob 7#ahfc72 ,froude1 #8,the ,book of ,job1' ,short ,studies1 ,series #a 7#ahfg71 p4 #bff c42 ,reuss1 ,das ,buch ,hiob 7#ahfi72 ,plumptre1 #8,the ,authorship of the ,book of ,job1' ,biblical ,studies 7#ahgj71 p4 #agc c42 ,c4 ,taylor1 #8,a ,theory of ,job xix4 #be-bg1' ,journal of ,philology 7#ahga71 pp4 #abh-aeb2 ,godet1 #8,le livre de ,job1' ,etudes bibliques1 prem4 partie 7#ahgc71 p4 #ahe c42 ,turner1 #8,the ,history of ,job1 and its ,place in the ,scheme of ,redemption1' ,studies ,biblical and ,oriental 7#ahgf71 p4 #acc c42 ,grtz1 chapter on ,job in ,geschichte der ,juden1 ,bd4 iii42 ,studer1 #8,ueber die ,integritt des ,buches ,hiob1' ,jahrbcher fr protestant4 ,theologie 7#ahge71 p4 #fhh c41 comp4 #ahgg1 p4 #edj c42 ,budde1 ,beitrge zur ,kritik des ,buches ,hiob 7#ahgf71 reviewed by ,smend in ,studien u4 ,kritiken 7#ahgh71 pp4 #aec-agc2 ,giesebrecht1 ,der ,wendepunkt des ,buches ,hiob 7#ahgi72 ,derenbourg1 #8,rflexions dtaches sur le livre de ,job1' ,revue des tudes juives 7#ahhj71 pp4 #a-h2 ,claussen1 #8,das ,verhltniss der ,lehre des ,elihu zu derjenigen der drei ,freunde1' ,zeitschr4 f4 kirchl4 ,wissenschaft und ,leben 7#ahhd71 pp4 #cic c41 #ddi c41 #eje c42 ,w4 ,h4 ,green1 ,the ,argument of the ,book of ,job ,unfolded 7#ahha72 ,cheyne1 #8,job and the ,second ,part of ,isaiah1' ,isaiah1 ii4 #bei c41 with which compare the very full essay of ,kuenen1 ,job en de lijdende knecht van ,jahveh1' ,theologisch ,tijdschrift 7#ahgc71 p4 #dib c42 ,delitzsch1 art4 #8,hiob1' ,herzog-,plitt's ,realencyclopadie1 bd4 vi4 7#ahhj74 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,proverbs4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,hebrew ,,wisdom1 ,,its ,,nature1 ,,scope1 ,,and ,,importance4 ,we have studied the masterpiece of ,hebrew wisdom before examining the nature of the intellectual product which the ,israelites themselves graced with this title4 ,the ,book of ,job is in fact much more than a didactic treatise like ,ecclesiastes or a collection of pointed moral sayings like the ,books of ,proverbs and ,ecclesiasticus4 ,its authors were more than thinkers1 they were poets1 #8makers1' great imaginative artists4 ,but we must not be unjust to those who were primarily thinkers1 and only in the second degree poets4 ,the phase of ,hebrew thought called #8wisdom' 7khokma7 can be studied even better in ,proverbs and ,ecclesiastes than in the poetry of ,job4 ,let us then enquire at this point1 ,what is this ,hebrew wisdom8 ,first of all1 it is the link between the more exceptional revelations of ,old ,testament prophecy and the best moral and intellectual attainments of other nations than the ,jews4 #8,wisdom' claims inspiration 7as we have seen already71 but never identifies itself with the contents of oracular communications4#ach ,nor yet does it pretend to be confined to a chosen race4 ,job himself was a non-,israelite 7the ,rabbis were even uncertain as to his part in the world to come72 and the wisdom of the #8wise king' is declared to have been different in degree alone from that of the neighbouring peoples#aci 7#a ,kings iv4 #cj1 #ca2 comp4 ,jer4 xlix4 #g1 ,obad4 #h74 ,it is to be observed next1 that the range of enquiry of this #8wisdom' is equally wide1 according to the ,biblical use of the term4#adj #8,wisdom1' as ,sirach tells us1 #8rains forth skill' of every kind2 #8the first man knew her not perfectly3 no more shall the last trace her out' 7,ecclus4 i4 #ai1 xxiv4 #bh74 ,nothing is too high1 nothing too low for ,wisdom #8fitly' to #8order' 7,wisd4 viii4 ,i74 ,law and government 7,prov4 viii4 #ae1 #af71 and even the precepts of husbandry 7,isa4 xxviii4 #bc-bi7 are equally her productions with those moral observations which constitute in the main the three books of the ,hebrew ,khokma4 ,the fact that the subject of practical ethics ultimately appropriated the technical name of #8wisdom' ought not to blind us to the larger connotation of the same word1 which throws so much light on the deeply religious view of life prevalent among the ,israelites4 ,for religious this view of wisdom is1 though it may seem to be so thoroughly secular4 ,the versatility of the mind of man is but an image of the versatility of its archetype4 #8,the spirit of man is a lamp of ,jehovah1' says one of the #8wise men' 7,prov4 xx4 #bg71 by an anticipation of ,john i4 #i4 #8,surely it is the spirit in man1' says another 7,job xxxii4 #h71 #8and the breath of ,shaddai which gives them understanding4' ,isaiah1 too1 says that the #8spirit of wisdom' is one of the three chief manifestations of the #8,spirit of ,jehovah' 7,isa4 xi4 #b71 and the introductory treatise1 which gives the editor's view of the original ,book of ,proverbs1 expressly declares that the #8wise men' are but the messengers of divine ,wisdom 7ix4 #c74 ,the sages1 whose collected wisdom we are about to study1 are very different from those antique sages who like ,balaam could be hired to curse a hostile people4 ,a new kind of wisdom grew up both in ,israel and in the neighbouring countries1 as unlike its spurious counterpart as the spiritual lyric poetry both of ,israel and of ,babylonia is unlike the incantations which in ,babylonia coexisted with it4 ,israel1 never slow to adopt1 received the higher wisdom1 and assimilated it4 ,the earthly elements can still be traced in it2 the #8wise men' are not prophets but philosophers2 indeed1 the ,seven ,wise ,men of ,greece arose at precisely the same stage of culture as the ,hebrew sages4 ,it is true1 the latter never 7in pre-,talmudic times7 attempted logic and metaphysics2 they contentedly remained within the sphere of practical ethics4 ,if a modern equivalent must be found1 it would be best to call them the humanists1 to indicate their freedom from national prejudice 7the word #8,israel' does not occur once1 the word dm #8man' thirty-three times in the ,book of ,proverbs71 and their tendency to base a sound morality on its adaptation to human nature4 ,we might also venture to call them realists in contradistinction to the idealists of the prophethood2 they held out no prospect of a ,messianic age1 and #8meddled not with them that were given to change4'#ada ,the sages whose #8wisdom' is handed down to us were not however opposed to the spiritual prophets4 ,it is only #8the fool' 7or1 to employ a synonym from the proverbs1 the #8scorner' or #8mocker'7 who #8saith in his heart1 ,there is no ,god4' ,a mocking poet of a late period may demand the ,creator's name 7,prov4 xxx4 #d71 but the writer who 7if ,i may anticipate7 has perpetuated this strange poem indicates his own very different mental attitude2 and though religious proverbs are less abundant than secular in the early anthologies1 such as we do find are pure and elevated in tone4 ,for instance1 7#a7 ,who can say1 ,i have made my heart clean1 ,i am pure from my sin8 7xx4 #i47 7#b7 ,the eyes of ,jehovah are in every place1 observing the evil and the good 7xv4 #c74 7#c7 ,shel and ,abaddon#adb are before ,jehovah1 how much more then the hearts of the sons of men6 7xv4 #aa47 7#d7 ,the hearing ear and the seeing eye1 ,jehovah has made them both 7xx4 #ab74 7#e7 ,a man's steps are from ,jehovah1 and man--how can he understand his way8 7xx4 #bd47 ,one point in which the wise men agreed with ,amos and ,isaiah was the inferiority of a ceremonial system#adc to prayer and faithful obedience 7xv4 #h1 xxi4 #c1 #bg1 xvi4 #f71 and the importance which one of the proverb-writers attached to prophecy is strikingly expressed 7if only the text be sound7 in the saying1 ,when there is no prophecy 7lit41 vision7 people become disorderly1 but he that observes precept1 happy is he 7xxix4 #ah74 ,the prophets seem to have returned the friendly feeling of the sages4 ,in tone and phraseology they are sometimes evidently influenced by their fellow-teachers 7see e4g4 ,isa4 xxviii4 #bc-bi1 xxix4 #bd1 xxxiii4 #aa71 and if they do not often refer to the wise men1#add yet they do not denounce them1 as they denounce the priests and the lower prophets4 ,it may perhaps be inferred from this that there was in the early times no opposition-party of sceptical wise men1 such as ,ewald supposes1#ade and such as not improbably did exist in later times 7see below on xxx4 #a-d72 and ,i notice that ,ewald himself does not attempt to strengthen his view by appealing to the phrase #8men of scorn' in ,isa4 xxviii4 #ad1 which some1 following ,rashi and ,aben ,ezra1 explain of wise men who misused their talent by making mischievous proverbs4#adf ,the inference mentioned just now commends itself to me as sound2 but ,i admit that the saying on prophecy in ,prov4 xxix4 #ah 7already quoted7 is isolated1 and that the tone of the religious proverbs falls far short of enthusiasm4 ,this is probably all that ,m4 ,renan means in a too ,french sentence of his work on ,ecclesiastes4 ,religion1 according to the wise men1 was a necessary element in a worthy character1 was even 7,i should say7 the principal element1 but the religion of these practical moralists has nothing of that delighted abandon which we find in the more distinctly religious ,scriptures4 #8,happy the man who dreadeth continually1' says one characteristic proverb 7xxviii4 #ad2 contrast the #8not caring' of the #8fool' in xiv4 #af74 ,later on1 a more devout moralist writes that #8the fear of ,jehovah is the beginning of wisdom' 7i4 #g71 and though #8fear' need not exclude #8love' yet there is nothing here to suggest their combination4 ,the proverb of the ,egyptian prince ,ptahhotep1#adg #8,to obey is to love ,god2 not to obey is to hate ,god1' has no parallel1 at any rate in the early anthologies2 much less does the great saying in ,ps4 lxxiii4 #be strike a note congenial to any of the ,hebrew sages4 ,and yet it remains true that the wise men happily supplemented the more spiritual teaching of psalmists and prophets4 ,there is still another important point on which both prophets and #8wise men' were agreed4 ,whatever their inward religion may have been1 they 7like the ,egyptian moralists7 were outwardly utilitarians2 i4e41 they invite men to practise righteousness1 not because righteousness is the secret of blessedness1 but because of its outward rewards both for the man himself and for his posterity 7,prov4 xi4 #ba1 xx4 #g2 comp4 ,jer4 xxxii4 #ah74 ,the form in which the doctrine of proportionate retribution is expressed in xi4 #d would have been completely acceptable to the prophets1 whose conception of the #8day of ,jehovah' 7i4e41 not the last great dies ira but any providential crisis in the world's history7 is adopted in it1-- ,wealth is of no profit in the day of wrath1 but righteousness delivers from death4 ,proverbs expressing this idea in various forms abound in the first anthology4 ,not a hint is given that retribution loiters on the road2 at most a warning not to envy the 7temporary7 prosperity of the wicked 7xxiii4 #ag1 xxiv4 #a1 #ai2 with regard to xxiii4 #ah see above74 ,this was the #8certitude of the golden age1' to use ,mr4 ,matthew ,arnold's expression2 it is just what we might expect in a simple and stationary condition of society4 ,the strange thing is that it should have lasted on when oppression within or hostile attacks from without had brought manifold causes of sorrow upon both good and bad4#adh ,that the teachers of the people should have held up the doctrine of earthly retribution-- ,behold1 the righteous hath a reward upon earth2 much more the ungodly and the sinner 7xi4 #ca7-- as long as it could reasonably be defended1 was natural4 ,but that shortly before the ,maccabean rising a #8wise man'#adi should still be found to write-- ,the gift of the ,lord remains with the godly1 and his favour brings prosperity for ever 7,ecclus4 xi4 #ag71 seems to contradict the usual correspondence between the received moral theory and the outward circumstances of society4 ,all that we can say is that such inconsistencies are found to exist2 old forms of doctrine do not1 as a rule1 #8melt like frosty rime4' ,there must have been circles of ,jewish moralists averse to speculation1 who would continue to repeat the older view of the providential government even at a time when the social state had completely exposed its shallowness4 ,dean ,plumptre1 indeed1 following ,ewald1 credits the #8wise men' of pre-,exile times with deeper views4 ,according to him1 certain proverbs1 e4g4 x4 #be1 xi4 #d1 xiv4 #cb1 xxiii4 #ah 7,ewald adds xii4 #bh7 imply the hope of immortality4 ,none of these passages however can be held conclusive4 x4 #be1 xi4 #d simply say that the righteous shall be unhurt in a day of judgment2 in xiv4 #cb the antithesis is between the ruin which follows upon wickedness and the safe refuge of integrity 7read b'thumm with the ,sept472 in xxiii4 #ah1 #8there is a future1' the reference is perfectly vague--it is natural to explain by comparing ,job xlii4 #ab1 xii4 #bh1 no doubt1 on ,ewald's view of the passage1 seems conclusive1 ,in the way of righteousness is life1 and the way of its path is immortality4 ,but this great word #8immortality' is unparalleled before the ,book of ,wisdom1 and cannot fairly be extracted from the ,hebrew4#aej ,the ,septuagint has a different view of the pronunciation of the text1 and renders 4 ,the easiest plan is to correct n'thbhh into nith'bh1 with ,levy1 and render1 but an abominable way 7comp4 xv4 #i7 leads unto death4 ,i do not deny that the idea of eternal life may have been conceived at the time of these proverbs4 ,this may plausibly be inferred from the occurrence of the phrase #8a tree of life' in iii4 #ah1 xi4 #cj1 xiii4 #ab1 xv4 #d1 and #8a fountain of life' in x4 #aa1 xiii4 #ad1 xiv4 #bg1 xvi4 #bb1--phrases certainly borrowed from some traditional story of ,paradise analogous to that in ,gen4 ii4#aea ,it is a singular fact however that in all these passages 7even1 ,i think1 in iii4 #ah7 these expressions are simply figurative synonyms for #8refreshment1' which suggests that the proverb-writers shrank from using them in their literal sense of the individual righteous man4 ,the importance of the #8wise men' as a class is too seldom recognised4 ,to the hasty reader they are overshadowed by the prophets1 between whom and the rude masses they seem to have occupied a middle position4 ,their popular style and genial manners attracted probably a large number of disciples2 at any rate1 in the time of ,jeremiah the #8counsel' of the #8wise men' was valued as highly as the #8direction' 7tra7 of the priests and the #8word' of the prophets 7,jer4 xviii4 #ah74 ,by constantly working on suitable individuals1 they produced a moral sympathy with the prophets1 without which those heroic men would have laboured in vain4 ,thus that friendly relation must have sprung up between the prophets and the #8wise men1' of which ,i have spoken already1 and which reminds us of the sanction said to have been given to the ,seven ,sages of ,greece by the oracle of ,delphi4#aeb ,it is a misfortune that our sources for the history of ,israelitish #8philosophy' are so scanty4 ,were there #8wise men' in ,n4 ,israel8 and if so1 have any of their proverbs come down to us1 besides the mashal or fable of ,jotham8 ,did they confine their activity to the capital city or cities1 or did they also1 like the #8scribes1' settle or itinerate in the provinces8 7,matt4 ix4 #c1 ,targ4 of ,judg4 v4 #i47 ,did their public instructions assume anything like the form of the proverbs of our anthologies8 ,did they teach without fee or reward8#aec ,at any rate1 a post-,exile proverb-writer tells us with retrospective glance where the #8wise men' awaited their disciples--not in the quietude of the chamber1 but either within the massive city-gates1 or in the adjacent squares or #8broad places' on which the streets converged 7i4 #bj1 #ba2 comp4 ,job xxix4 #g74 ,no doubt they had a large stock of sayings in their memory1 such as had been tested by the experience of past generations4 ,sometimes they would modify old proverbs1 sometimes they would frame new ones1 so that when their disciples gathered round them1 they would #8bring out of their treasure things new and old4' ,from time to time they would commit their #8wisdom' to writing in a more perfect form1 and such records must have formed the basis of the proverbial collections in the ,old ,testament4 ,footnote #ach3 ,the heading #8the oracle' c4 in xxx4 ,i is exceptional2 so also is the oracle of ,eliphaz 7,job iv4 #ab-ba74 ,footnote #aci3 ,the author of ,baruch 7iii4 #bb1 #bc71 however1 expressly denies that the ordinary ,semitic #8wisdom' was akin to that of ,israel4 ,this represents the ,judaism of the ,maccabean period4 ,footnote #adj3 ,observe that #8wisdom' is called khokmth 7plural form7 in ,prov4 i4 #bj1 ix4 #aa1 all the forms of wisdom being viewed as one in their origin4 ,so too ,wisdom adorns her house with seven pillars 7,prov4 ix4 #a74 ,footnote #ada3 xxiv4 #ba ,a4,v4 ,footnote #adb3 ,i4e4 ,perdition2 a synonym for ,shel4 ,footnote #adc3 ,the author of the ,introduction however writes1 #8,honour ,jehovah with thy substance1' i4e4 by dedicating a part of it to the sanctuary 7iii4 #i71 which the ,septuagint translator carefully limits to substance lawfully gained 7,deut4 xxiii4 #ai74 ,footnote #add3 ,as perhaps they do in ,am4 v4 #aj1 ,isa4 xxix4 #ba 7#8him that rebuketh in the gate'74 ,observe again in this connection that the endowments of the ,messiah include the spirit of wisdom as well as that of might 7,isa4 xi4 #b71 and that the wisdom of ,jehovah is emphasised in ,isa4 xxxi4 #b1 comp4 xxviii4 #bi4 ,footnote #ade3 ,die dichter des alten bundes1 ii4 #ab4 ,ewald refers to xiii4 #a1 xiv4 #f1 and other passages in which #8scorners' are referred to4 ,but it is not clear that #8a powerful school' of wise men is here intended2 the title may be given to those who opposed or despised the counsels of the wise men1 and broke through the restraints of law and religion2 comp4 ,prov4 xv4 #ab1 xxi4 #bd4' 7,the ,prophecies of ,isaiah1 ed4 #c1 i4 #afe74 ,among such persons were the politicians of ,isaiah's day1 so far as they opposed the warnings of the prophet2 they were popularly considered #8wise men' 7xxix4 #ad2 comp4 ,jer4 viii4 #i71 but not in the technical sense with which our present enquiries are concerned4 ,footnote #adf3 ,luzzatto renders1 #8o voi uomini insipienti1 poeti di questo popolo1' taking mshlm in the same sense as in ,num4 xxi4 #bg 7similarly ,barth1 in his tract on ,isaiah1 p4 #bc1 following ,rashi and ,aben ,ezra71 a view which receives some support from the parable offered by ,isaiah in xxviii4 #bc-bi as if in opposition to the false parables of unsound teachers4 ,but in ,isa4 xxix4 #bj #8scorner' is clearly used1 not as a class-name for certain wise men1 but in a moral sense4 ,footnote #adg3 ,brugsch1 ,religion und ,mythologie der alten ,aegypter1 p4 #ia4 ,footnote #adh3 ,yet in ,prov4 iii4 #aa1 #ab there is distinct evidence of deepened experience and progress of moral thought4 ,footnote #adi3 ,on the orthodoxy of ,ecclesiasticus1 see later on4 ,footnote #aej3 ,the ,vulg4 has1 iter autem devium ducit ad mortem 7but this pregnant sense of iter devium1 is too bold74 ,footnote #aea3 ,analogous only1 because apparently it had both a tree and a fountain of life1 like a ,new ,zealand myth mentioned by ,schirren4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,curtius1 ,history of ,greece1 ii4 #eb4 ,footnote #aec3 ,ewald infers from xvii4 #af that even in early times it was customary to fee the #8wise men' for their advice 7comp4 ,saul and ,samuel74 ,at a later time ,sirach says1 #8,buy 7instruction7 for yourselves without money' 7,ecclus4 li4 #be1 but comp4 #bh74 ,the ,rabbis were not allowed to receive fees from their pupils4 ,r4 ,zadok said1 #8,make not 7the ,tora7 a crown to glory in1 nor an axe to live by' 7,pirke ,aboth1 iv4 #i74 ,so the ,moslem teachers at the great ,cairo #8university' 7el ,azhar74 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,form ,,and ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,proverbs4 ,in one of the opening verses of the ,book of ,proverbs 7i4 #f7 three technical names for varieties of proverbs are put together3--7#a7 mshl1 a short1 pointed saying with reference to some striking feature in the life of an individual1 or in human life generally1 often clothed in figurative language 7whence1 according to many1 the name mshl1 as if #8similitude2' comp4 71 7#b7 m'la1 perhaps a #8bent'1 #8oblique' or 7as ,sept47 #8dark' saying1 7#c7 khda1 a #8knotty' or intricate saying1 especially a riddle4 ,each of these words has a variety of applications2 for instance 7#a7 is used in ,num4 xxiii41 xxiv41 for a parallelistic poem1 7#a7 and 7#b7 sometimes mean a #8taunting speech' 7see below1 and comp4 ,hab4 ii4 #f1 ,isa4 xiv4 #d1 ,mic4 ii4 #d71 and 7#c7 can be used1 not merely of true riddles with a moral meaning1 such as we find here and there in ,prov4 xxx41 but also of didactic statements upon subjects as difficult as riddles 7see ,ps4 xlix4 #e1 ,a4,v4 #d1 lxxviii4 #b74 ,we have no collection of popular proverbs1 such as exists in ,arabic2 the proverbs in the canonical collection show great technical elaboration1 though some may be based on the naive #8wisdom' of the people4 ,a very few specimens of the popular proverb have indeed been preserved in the canonical literature4#aed #8,is ,saul also among the prophets8' 7#a ,sam4 x4 #ab1 xix4 #bd7 preserves the memory of a humorous fact in the story of that king4 #8,wickedness proceeds from the wicked' 7#a ,sam4 xxiv4 #ac7 is1 unlike the former1 a generalisation1 and means that a man's character is shown by his actions 7comp4 ,isa4 xxxii4 #f74 #8,as is the mother1 so is the daughter' 7,ezek4 xvi4 #dd7 is also an induction from common experience4 #8,the fathers have eaten sour grapes1 and the children's teeth are set on edge' 7,jer4 xxii4 #bi1 ,ezek4 xviii4 #b71 words applied no doubt1 as ,lowth says1 profanely1 but not originally meant so1 is a figurative way of saying that the sins of the fathers are visited upon the children4 ,we have one specimen of the riddle 7strictly so called7--that well-known one of ,samson's1 ,from the eater came forth food1 and from the strong one came forth sweetness 7,judges xiv4 #ad74 ,the parable1 too1 was doubtless called mashal1 and of this we have three ,old ,testament examples1 which will at once occur to the reader 7#b ,sam1 xii4 #a-f1 xiv4 #d-i1 #a ,kings xx4 #ci1 #dj72 but it is more important to draw the reader's attention to the rare specimens of the fable4 ,some may think it bold to refer in this connection to a portion of a narrative which seems at first sight to be historical 7,num4 xxi4 #bb-ce74 ,the strange episode of the speaking ass is1 however1 most difficult to understand1 except as a sportive quasi-historical version of a popular mashal or fable 7compare the four ,babylonian animal-fables discovered among the fragments of ,king ,assurbanipal's library74#aee ,the passage being evidently distinct from the rest of the story of ,balaam1 in passing this judgment upon it1 we are not committed as a matter of course to a denial of all historical character to the rest of the narrative4 ,the fables of ,jotham 7,judg4 ix4 #h-ae7 and ,joash 7#b ,kings xiv4 #i71 in which the trees are introduced speaking1 have also their parallels in ,babylonian literature4 ,one of them indeed has a claim to be called a mashal on a second account2 the tree-fable of ,joash is a taunt of the keenest edge1 and one of the secondary meanings of mashal is #8taunting speech' 7see ,isa4 xiv4 #d1 ,a4,v474 ,it is true the #8taunting speeches' expressly called mashals--not only those in the prophetic writings 7see above71 but the verses ascribed to #8those that speak in mashals' in ,num4 xxi4 #bg-cj--;are poetical in form1 but this is because the ,hebrew writers never conceived the idea of a narrative poem2 even the prologue of the ,book of ,job is in prose4 ,these are the principal specimens of the mashal apart from those in the three ,books of ,old ,testament ,wisdom4 ,they are but the #8two or three berries' left after the beating of the tree 7,isa4 xvii4 #f71 and excite a longing for more which cannot be gratified4 ,we may be sure that in ,israel's prime the telling of proverbs was almost as popular as the recital of stories1 and became a test of ability4 ,for-- ,the legs of a lame man hang loose1 so is a proverb in the mouth of fools 7xxvi4 #g72 and though ,sirach says of the labouring class1 #8,they shall not be found where parables are spoken' 7,ecclus4 xxxviii4 #cc71 it is reasonable to account for this by the aristocratic pride of the students of ,scripture in the later ,jewish community4 ,at any rate1 as ,i have said already1 some at least of the early literary proverbs are very possibly based on popular sayings2 these would naturally embody a plain1 bourgeois experience such as marks not a few of the proverbs in our book4 ,dr4 ,oort conjectures#aef that some of our proverbs were originally current among the people as riddles1 such for instance as1 #8,what is sweet as honey8--,pleasant discourse1 for it is sweet to the soul and a medicine to the bones' 7xvi4 #bd72 #8,what is worse than meeting a bear8--,meeting a fool in a fit of folly' 7xvii4 #ab72 #8,what is sweet at first1 and then like sand in the mouth8--,stolen food' 7xx4 #ag74 ,certainly the introduction to the #8proverbs of ,solomon' may seem to imply 7i4 #f7 that the collection which follows contains specimens of the riddle1 but probably all the writer means is that the #8words of the wise' are often #8knotty' because epigrammatic4 ,we may indeed reasonably hold that1 like their prototype ,solomon1#aeg the #8wise men' were accustomed to sharpen their intellects upon enigmas 7such as lie at the root of the so-called #8numerical proverbs' in xxx4 #ae1 #ah1 #ba1 #bd1 #bi2 comp4 vi4 #af72 but a still more important discipline than the battle of wits was the habit of keen observation4 ,we cannot reduce all the proverbs involving comparison to the form of riddles1 any more than we can do this with the following ,buddhist sayings1 equal to the more refined specimens of the ,hebrew proverb38--#aeh ,as rain breaks through an ill-thatched house1 so passion will break through an unreflecting mind4 ,like a beautiful flower1 full of colour1 but without scent1 are the fine but fruitless words of him who does not act accordingly4 ,a tamed elephant they lead to battle2 the king mounts a tamed elephant2 the tamed is the best among men1 he who silently endures abuse4 ,well-makers lead the water2 fletchers bend the arrow2 carpenters bend a log of wood2 wise people fashion themselves4 ,another plausible hypothesis similar to that of ,dr4 ,oort is that some of our proverbs are based on popular fables1 as is the case according to ,dr4 ,back with many of the proverbs in the ,talmud and ,midrash4#aei ,the ,jewish scholar referred to applies this key to ,prov4 vi4 #f-aa 7comp4 the ,aramaic fable of the ant and the grasshopper--see ,delitzsch's note71 to the numerical proverbs in chap4 xxx4 7#8skeletons of fables' he calls them71 and to ,eccles4 ix4 #d and x4 #aa4 ,both proverbs and fables indeed are common in later ,jewish literature4 ,fables1 especially animal fables1 were not perhaps appropriate vehicles of moral instruction according to the ,o4,t4 writers4 ,but the later ,jewish teachers do not seem to have felt this objection4 ,rabbi ,meir 7#bnd cent4 ,a4,d47 was the writer of animal fables par excellence2 ,rabbi ,hillel 7,b4,c4 #cj71 however1 so noted for his versatility1 was also a copious fabulist4#afj ,this popular origin of some at least of the proverbs sufficiently accounts for their comparatively trite and commonplace character4 ,they were not trite and commonplace to those who first used them1 and successive generations loved them because of their antiquity 7,job viii4 #h-aj74 ,even to us they are not so commonplace as the far less popular and piquant ,egyptian proverbs1#afa though ,i confess that they will hardly compare with the relics of ,indian gnomology1#afb still less with the singularly rich and pointed proverbs of the ,chinese4#afc ,the practice of writing antithetic sentences on paper or silk to suspend in houses 7contrast ,deut4 vi4 #i7 gave an edge to the shrewd earthly wisdom of the countrymen of ,confucius4 ,the ,jewish intellect developed but slowly into the acuteness of the later periods which produced fables1 proverbs1 and riddles which can safely challenge comparison4#afd ,footnote #aed3 ,in the ,midrash-literature1 proverbs are often quoted with an express statement that they are from the lips of the people4 ,footnote #aee3 ,see ,smith and ,sayce's ,chaldan ,genesis1 pp4 #adj-aed4 ,for the ,egyptian animal-fables1 which may be the originals of those of sop1 see ,mahaffy1 ,prolegomena to ,anc4 ,hist41 p4 #cij2 for the ,indian1 see the apologues of the ,panchatantra by ,benfey or ,lancereau1 and the ,buddhist ,birth-,stories--#8the oldest1 most complete1 and most important collection of folk-lore extant'--translated by ,rhys ,davids1 vol4 i4 ,footnote #aef3 ,the ,bible for ,young ,people1 ,e4 ,t41 iii4 #aje-f4 ,footnote #aeg3 #a ,kings x4 #a2 comp4 ,menander's account in ,josephus1 ,antiq4 viii4 #e1 #c4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,from ,max ,mller's translation of the ,dhammapada1 or #8,path of ,virtue' 7#ahgj74 ,footnote #aei3 ,dr4 ,back gives a list of these in ,grtz's ,monatsschrift1 #ahed1 pp4 #bfe-g4 ,footnote #afj3 ,in the ,talmudic treatise ,soferim xvi4 #i1 a list of ,hillel's acquirements is given1 including the conversations of the mountains1 the trees1 the animals1 the demons1 c4 ,on the ,jewish fable literature1 the wealth of which seems unparalleled1 see ,back1 ,die ,fabel in ,talmud und ,midrash1 in ,gratz's ,monatsschrift1 #ahge-ahhd4 ,curiously enough the two oldest ,jewish fables are similar in character to those of the ,old ,test4 ,footnote #afa3 ,comp4 ,renouf1 ,hibbert ,lectures1 pp4 #ge1 #gf1 #ajj-ajc2 ,mahaffy1 ,prolegomena to ,ancient ,history1 pp4 #bgc-bia2 ,brugsch1 ,religion und ,mythologie der alten ,aegypter1 p4 #ia2 ,records of the ,past1 viii4 #aeg-afj4 ,footnote #afb3 ,comp4 ,weber1 ,indische ,literaturgeschichte1 p4 #bbg4 ,footnote #afc3 ,see ,scarborough1 ,collection of ,chinese ,proverbs 7#ahge74 ,the ,chinese proverbs have no known authors4 ,footnote #afd3 ,on the riddles referred to1 see ,wnsche1 ,die ,rthselweisheit bei den ,hebrern 7#ahhc74 ,comp4 them with the later ,arabic proverbs 7see ,hariri1 and comp4 ,freytag1 ,proverbia arabica74 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,first ,,collection ,,and ,,its ,,appendices4 ,upon entering what ,dante in the ,de ,monarchi so well calls #8the forest' of the canonical proverbs1 we are soon struck by differences of age and growth4 ,the central portion of the book1 and in some respects the most interesting1 is comprised in x4 #a-xxii4 #af4 ,to this1 which is indeed the original ,book of ,proverbs1 the first nine chapters were intended to serve as the introduction4 ,it is the oldest ,hebrew proverbial anthology extant4 ,probably from its compiler it received the name #8,proverbs of ,solomon1' and from this title has sprung the tradition accepted by so many subsequent ages and indeed by the editor of the whole book 7,prov4 i4 #a7 of ,solomon's authorship of the ,proverbs4 ,the title however cannot be historically correct4 ,those maxims in this anthology which refer to the true ,god under the name ,jehovah 7,yahv7 are too monotheistic and inculcate too pure a morality to be the work of the ,solomon of the ,book of ,kings4 ,that great despot's #8wisdom1' so far as we can judge both from his character and from the traditional notices1 cannot have had a distinctively religious character4 ,listen to these proverbs1-- ,better a little with the fear of ,jehovah than great treasure and turmoil therewith 7xv4 #af74 ,the horse is prepared against the day of battle1 but victory is ,jehovah's 7xxi4 #ca74 ,the mouth of strange women is a deep pit2 he with whom ,jehovah is wroth falleth therein 7xxii4 #ad74 ,a wise son 7loveth7 his father's correction1 but a scorner heareth not rebuke 7xiii4 #a71-- and for a commentary read #a ,kings iv4 #bf1 xi4 #a1 #d1 #ad-dj1 xii4 #ad1 #ae4 ,nor is the moral tone of the #8,solomonic' proverbs in its plain bourgeois simplicity any more suitable to the name they bear than the religious4 ,unless ,solomon was like ,haroun al-,rashid1 and made himself privately acquainted with the ways and thoughts of the citizens1 it is difficult to see how he can have written so completely as one of them would have done4 ,the truth is that both ,david and ,solomon were idealised by later generations4 ,the heroes of a grander if not better age1 they towered far above the petty figures of their successors4 ,favoured by the contemporary depression of ,egypt and ,assyria1 they had been enabled to rear and to retain a powerful empire1 comparable to those which afflicted and oppressed the divided people of the later ,israelites4 ,solomon in particular is represented in tradition as not only the most fortunate but the wisest of kings1 not in the sense in which it is said that religion is the best part of wisdom 7,prov4 i4 #g71 but in that in which the #8children of the east' were accustomed to use the word4 ,this is clear from the language of the ,hebrew narrator3-- #8,and ,god gave ,solomon wisdom and understanding exceeding much1 and largeness of heart even as the sand on the sea-shore4 ,and ,solomon's wisdom excelled the wisdom of all the children of the east country1 and all the wisdom of ,egypt4 ,for he was wiser than all men2 than ,ethan the ,ezrahite read1 perhaps1 #8the native1' i4e4 the ,israelite1 and ,heman1 and ,calcol1 and ,darda1 the sons of ,mahol probably a foreigner3 and his fame was in all the nations round about4 ,and he spoke three thousand proverbs or1 similitudes1 and his songs were a thousand and five4 ,and he spoke of trees1 from the cedar in ,lebanon unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall3 he spoke also of beasts1 and of birds1 and of creeping things1 and of fishes4 ,and there came of all peoples to hear the wisdom of ,solomon1 from all kings of the earth1 who had heard of his wisdom4' 7#a ,kings iv4 #bi-cd47 ,i see no reason for not accepting the substance of this tradition4 ,the principal point in it is the ascription to ,solomon of a power of apophthegmatic composition which the author1 as a devout theist1 could not but trace to a divine gift1 just as the author of ,ex4 xxxvi4 ascribes the skill of the artisans of the tabernacle to the direct operation of ,jehovah4 ,but we are also informed that the talents of ,solomon were neither peculiar to him1 nor exercised on different subjects from those of foreign sages4 ,the precise meaning of the ,hebrew m'shlm in #a ,kings iv4 #cb is suggested by ver4 #cc4 ,the word seems to mean moralising similitudes#afe derived partly from the animal1 partly from the vegetable kingdom 7for ,lord ,bacon's view1#aff hinted in the ,new ,atlantis1 is more plausible than sound74 ,was ,i not right in saying that the traditional notices of ,solomon's wisdom do not agree with the title of our anthology8 ,i wish that it were otherwise4 ,how gladly one would see a few of ,solomon's genuine utterances 7whether proverbs1 or similitudes1 or fables7 incorporated into one or another of the ,hebrew ,scriptures6 ,i think however that it is unfair both to the compiler and to the editor who repeats his statement 7i4 #a7 to take the ascription of these proverbs to ,solomon literally4 ,accuracy in the details of literary history was not a qualification which would seem important to an ,israelite4 ,the name of ,solomon was attached 7for dogmatism here seems permissible7 to these choice specimens of ,hebrew proverbiology simply from a very characteristic hero-worship4 ,solomon had in fact become the symbol of plain ethical #8wisdom' just as ,david had become the representative of religious lyric poetry4 ,we may see this from the alternative title of the ,book of ,proverbs in both ,jewish and ,christian writings--#8,book of ,wisdom2'#afg still more from the fiction of ,solomon's authorship of ,ecclesiastes1 and from the ,targumic paraphrase of ,jer4 ix4 #bc1 #8,let not ,solomon the son of ,david1 the wise man1 glory in his wisdom4' ,of course1 the real names of the authors of the proverbs had been as irrecoverably lost as those of our early ballad-writers4 ,but though we must deny the ,solomonic authorship a far-off influence of the ,solomonic age may perhaps be admitted2 at least1 there are grounds for the opinion that some of the proverbs are as old as the ninth century4 7#a7 ,the second collection of so-called ,solomonic proverbs was compiled according to a credible tradition 7xxv4 #a7 in the reign of ,hezekiah2 this of itself throws the earlier collection a considerable way back into the eighth century4 7#b7 ,upon examining the first anthology we find that some of the proverbs already have a history4 ,for instance1 7a7 the solemn generalisation in xiv4 #ab occurs in exactly the same form in xvi4 #be1 7b7 eight other proverbs are repeated with slight changes in expression 7x4 #a xv4 #bj1 x4 #b xi4 #d1 xiii4 #ad xiv4 #bg1 xiv4 #bj xix4 #d1 xvi4 #b xxi4 #b1 xix1 #e xix4 #i1 xx4 #aj xx4 #bc1 xxi4 #i xxi4 #ai71 but except in the case of xi4 #d1 xiv4 #bg no change in thought1 7c7 ten are repeated1 at least so far as one line goes1 either exactly or with but slight differences 7x4 #ae xviii4 #aa1 x4 #fafh x4 #aa1 x4 #h x4 #aj1afi xv4 #cc xviii4 #ab1 xi4 #ac xx4 #ai1 xi1 #ba xvi4 #e1 xii4 #ad xiii4 #b1 xiv4 #ca xvii4 #e1 xvi4 #ah xviii4 #ab1 xix4 #ab xx4 #b74 ,it is probable that some time would elapse before a proverb attained such notoriety as to be circulated in varying forms4 7#c7 ,the originality of the diction 7a7 and the careful observance of technical rules of composition 7b7 favour an early date4 7a7 ,for instance1 #8steersmanship'#agj 7xi4 #ad1 xii4 #e1 xx4 #ah71 as a term for practical wisdom or counsels1 evidently springs from a fresh enthusiasm for commerce2 a long list of striking expressions might be added from any chapter of the collection4 7b7 ,nor is technical precision at all less conspicuous in this early anthology4 ,each proverb is a distich1 i4e4 consists of two lines1 as a rule three-toned1 and in most cases antithetically parallel4 ,it is true1 xix4 #g in its present form is a tristich1 i4e4 consists of three members1 but this proverb undoubtedly arose out of two1 the second of which is mutilated in the ,hebrew text1 but is found in a complete though not entirely correct form in the ,septuagint4 ,the incomprehensible third line of xix4 #g given in versions based upon the ,hebrew now becomes the distich1 ,he that does much evil perfects mischief2 he that provokes#aga with words shall not escape4 ,according to ,ewald1 the collection is divided into five parts by the recurrence at intervals of a proverb exhorting the young to receive instruction2 see x4 #a1 xiii4 #a1 xv4 #bj1 xvii4 #be1 xix4 #bj4 ,if this division is intentional it may be compared with the equally mechanical triple division found by some in ,isa4 xl4 lxvi4 ,of arrangement by subject there is but little trace2 here and there two or more verses come in succession dealing with the same theme4 ,observe too the recurrence of #8,jehovah1' xv4 #cc1 xvi4 #a-i1 #aa1 and of the word #8king' in xvi4 #aj1 #ab-ae1 which shows that one principle of arrangement was simply the recurrence of certain catchwords4 ,bickell thinks that another principle was the occurrence of the same initial letter 7see xi4 #i-ab1 xx4 #g-i1 xx4 #bd-bf1 xxii4 #b-d74 ,altogether1 it is abundantly clear that we have before us works of art1 and not the simple maxims handed down in ,israel from father to son4 ,there may sometimes be a traditional basis1 but no more4 ,the anthology contrasts1 therefore1 as ,ewald remarks1 with the collections of ,arabic proverbs due to ,abu-,obaida1 ,maidani#agb and others4 ,but whether we may go on to assert with the same great critic that we have here the wise men's applications of the truths of religion to the infinite cases and contingencies of the secular life1 seems doubtful4 ,it is not clear to me that these wise men were preoccupied by religion4 ,there are indeed not a few fine religious proverbs1 but it cannot be shown that those who wrote the secular proverbs also wrote the religious4 ,it is possible and even probable that some of the religious proverbs are the work of the author of the introductory chapters2 without dogmatising1 ,i may refer to xiv4 #cd 7comp4 viii4 #ae1 #af71 xv4 #cc1 xvi4 #a-g1 and perhaps to xix4 #bg1 which is quite in the parental tone of chaps4 i4-ix4 ,the tone of the secular proverbs is not1 from a ,christian point of view 7of which more later on71 an elevated one4 ,the ethical principle is prudential4 ,virtue or #8wisdom' is rewarded1 and vice or #8folly' punished in this life4 ,it is indeed nowhere expressly said that every trouble is a punishment2 but there is nothing like xxiv4 #af in this anthology to prevent the reader from inferring it4 ,at any rate1 the writers are clearly not in the van of religious thought3 no #8obstinate questionings' have yet disturbed their tranquillity4 ,we need not pause here to demonstrate what no one probably will dispute1 that the origin of this first anthology is impersonal4 ,the fact that it is so may well give us the more confidence in the accuracy of the social picture which it contains4 ,this is certainly a pleasing one1 and points to a comparatively early period in the history of ,judah4 ,commerce and its attendant luxury have not made such progress as at the time when the introduction was written2 poverty is only too well known1 but there seems to be a middle class with a sound moral sense1 to which the writers of proverbs can appeal4 ,it is true1 says one of these1 that in daily life #8rich and poor meet together1' but for all that #8,jehovah is the maker of them all' 7xxii4 #b71 and #8he that oppresses the poor reproaches his maker' 7xiv4 #ca74 ,and if it is true on the one hand that #8the poor is hated even of his neighbour' 7xiv4 #bj71 and that #8the destruction of the wretched is their poverty' 7x4 #ae71 it is equally so on the other that #8he that trusts in his riches shall fall' 7xi4 #bh71 and that ,better is the poor man who walks in his blamelessness1 than he who is perverse in his ways and is rich#agc 7xix4 #a74 ,the strength of the land still consists in the number of small proprietors tilling their own ground4 ,two proverbs express an interest in these1 e4g4 ,the poor man's newly ploughed field gives food in abundance1 but there is that is cut off by injustice 7xiii4 #bc74 ,better is a mean man that tills for himself#agd than he that glorifies himself and has no bread 7xii4 #i74 ,all the farmers however were not so diligent as those indicated in these passages4 ,one of the numerous proverbs against laziness 7then as now a prevalent vice in this part of the ,east#age7 brings before us a land-owner who is too lazy to give the order for ploughing at the right time1 and so when he looks for the harvest1 there is none4 ,when autumn comes the sluggard ploughs not2 so if he asks at harvest-time1 there is nothing 7xx4 #d74 ,the right use of the gift of speech is another very favourite subject in this anthology4 ,the charm of suitable words is best described in a ,hezekian proverb 7xxv4 #aa71 but it is well said in xv4 #d that #8a gentle tongue is a tree of life1' and elsewhere that ,there is that babbles like the thrusts of a sword1 but the tongue of the wise is gentleness 7xii4 #ah74 ,the wonderful power of language could hardly at that age have been better expressed than by the saying1 ,the words of a man's mouth are deep waters1 a gushing torrent1 a wellspring of wisdom 7xviii4 #d74 ,the standard of family morals is high2 a good wife is described as ,god's best gift 7xii4 #d1 xviii4 #bb1 xix4 #ad71 and the restraints of home are commended to the young 7xix4 #ah1 xxii4 #f1 #ae71 as in the ,egyptian proverbs4 ,monogamy is throughout presupposed1 and a want of respect for either parent is condemned 7xiii4 #a1 xv4 #e1 xix4 #bf74 ,the king too is repeatedly held up to reverence 7xiv4 #ce1 xvi4 #aj1 #ab-ae1 xix4 #ab1 xx4 #b1 #h1 #bf1 #bh1 xxii4 #aa72 it is not so in the ,hezekian collection4 ,the king however is not identified with the ,deity1 as in ,egypt2 we are told that the will of the monarch is pliable in the hand of ,jehovah 7xxi4 #a71 and the true glory of a nation is1 not in the prowess of its king1 but in righteousness 7xiv4 #cd74 ,and even if we must confess that the spirit of the more secular proverbs is utilitarian1 the utilitarianism is sometimes a very refined one1 as for instance where the refreshing character of a quiet1 contented mind is contrasted with the dull reaction which follows on an outburst of passion 7xiv4 #cj74 ,in conclusion1 ,i will quote a few proverbs interesting chiefly as characteristic of their age1 and then a few more of the gems of the collection4 7a7 ,the poor is hated even by his neighbour1 but the rich has many friends 7xiv4 #bj74 ,whoso withholds corn1 him the people curse1 but blessing is on the head of him who sells it 7xi4 #bf74 ,the beginning of strife is as when one lets out water1 so leave off quarrelling before the teeth be shown 7xvii4 #ad74 ,the gift of a man makes a free space for him1 and brings him before the great 7xviii4 #af74 #8,bad1 bad1' says the purchaser1 but when he goes away1 he boasts 7xx4 #ad74 7b7 ,the righteous regards the life of his cattle1#agf but the heart of the wicked is cruel 7xii4 #aj74 ,the heart knows its own bitterness1 and a stranger cannot intermeddle with its joy 7xiv4 #aj74 ,he that covers transgression helps forward love1 but he that repeats a matter separates best friends 7xvii4 #i74 ,there are friends 7good enough7 acting their part1#agg and there is a loving friend who sticks closer than a brother 7xviii4 #bd2 comp1 xvii4 #ag74 ,who can say1 ,i have made my heart clean1 ,i am pure from my sin8 7xx4 #i47 ,say not1 ,i will recompense evil2 wait for ,jehovah1 and he will deliver thee 7xx4 #bb74 ,the first appendix to the original ,book 7appended possibly before the composition of the ,introduction7 is a small collection of proverbial sayings called #8words of the wise' 7xxii4 #ag-xxiv4 #bb74 ,virtually the same phrase occurs again in xxiv4 #bc at the head of a still shorter work1 compiled or composed evidently about the same time by another #8wise man' 7perhaps the whole work has not come down to us74 ,in the introductory verses the compiler's object in writing down these proverbs is said to have been that his disciple might learn virtue and religion1 and might become qualified to teach others4 ,there is one very difficult passage in it1 but this has been corrected in a masterly way by ,bickell3--#agh ,that thy confidence may be in ,jehovah1 to make known unto thee thy ways4 ,now1 yea before now1 have ,i written unto thee1 long before1 with counsels and knowledge1 ,that thou mayest know the rightness of true words1 that thou mayest answer in true words to those that ask thee 7xxii4 #ai-ba74 ,the construction of ver4 #bj;b and ver4 #ba in the ,hebrew thus becomes more idiomatic 7comp4 71 though not free from ambiguity4 ,the words may mean either that the compiler took long over his work1 or that this was not the first occasion of his writing4 ,on the latter explanation the passage may imply that the compiler of this anthology also wrote chaps4 i4-ix4 7comp4 i4 #f;b74 ,his hortatory style and predilection for grouping verses may seem to plead for this view4 ,there are however no important points of contact in phraseology between the work before us and ,prov4 i4-ix41#agi and certainly the appendix falls far below the standard of the ,introduction4 ,at any rate1 it is undoubted that these #8words of the wise' appeared long after the #8,solomonic' proverbs4 ,the peculiarities of style referred to show this1 and also the imitation of some of the #8,solomonic' proverbs in the #8words of the wise2' 7comp4 xi4 #ad with xxiv4 #e1 #f2 xiii4 #i with xxiv4 #ai1 #bj2 xxii4 #ad;a with xxiii4 #bg74 ,there is no occasion to suppose that all these proverbs come from one period2 but the hand of a compiler is more conspicuous here than in the first anthology4 ,he has not indeed removed repetitions 7see xxii4 #bh;a1 xxiii4 #aj;a2 xxiii4 #ag;a1 xxiv4 #a;a2 xxiii4 #ah1 xxiv4 #ad71 but the personal element preponderates so much that he might fairly have prefixed his own name as the author4 ,artistically1 he may perhaps be found wanting4 ,he has left one tristich 7i4e4 a proverb of three lines71 viz4 xxii4 #bi2 two pentastichs 7i4e4 proverbs of five lines71 viz4 xxiii4 #d1 #e4 xxiv4 #ac1 #ad2 and one heptastich 7i4e4 a proverb of seven lines71 viz4 xxiii4 #f-h4 ,unsymmetrical as these may be1 it seems hazardous1 unless there be any specially doubtful passage1 to restore symmetry 7i4e4 to convert tristichs into tetrastichs1 and so on7 by inserting words conjecturally4 ,there are a few distichs 7xxii4 #bh1 xxiii4 #i1 xxiv4 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj71 thus affording a slight point of contact with the first anthology2 more tetrastichs 7xxii4 #bb1 #bc2 #bd1 #be2 #bf1 #bg2 xxiii4 #aj1 #aa2 #ae1 #af2 #ag1 #ah2 xxiv4 #a1 #b2 #c1 #d2 #e1 #f2 #ae1 #af2 #ag1 #ah2 #ai1 #bj2 #ba1 #bb71 and hexastichs 7xxiii4 #a-c2 #ab-ad2 #ai-ba2 #bf-bh2 xxiv4 #aa1 #ab74 ,one octastich occurs 7xxiii4 #bb-be71 and one long poem1 in the main a group of distichs1 referred to again below 7xxiii4 #bi-ce74 ,beautiful in form1 the proverbs of this collection certainly are not2 one cannot apply to the author the saying in xxiv4 #bf1 #8,he kisses the lips who answers in suitable words4' ,the contents however are not without points of interest4 ,in xxiii4 #a-c we have a picture of a man of the middle class admitted to the table of a governor4 ,being unused to #8dainties1' he is tempted to excess2 as a restraint1 the #8wise man' bids him consider the capriciousness of princely favour 7comp4 ,ecclus4 ix4 #ac74 ,the abuse of luxuries such as wine and meat was in fact a sore evil in the eyes of this writer 7see the caution in xxiii4 #bj1 #ba in the ,septuagint version1 which reminds one of vii4 #ad74 ,he has even left us a poem on the evils of drunkenness 7xxiii4 #bi-ce7 which contains several striking details from its satirical opening1 #8,who hath oi1 who hath aboi8' 7interjections expressing pain71 to the picturesque comparison of the drunkard to a man #8that lieth upon the top of a mast1'#ahj which shows incidentally that sea-life was by this time a familiar experience4 ,another interesting passage1 though marred by its obscurity1 is that in xxiv4 #aa1 #ab4 ,the innocent victims of a miscarriage of justice are about to be dragged away to execution2 the pupil of the wise is exhorted to #8deliver' them1 by intervening with resistless energy1 like the ,st4 ,ives of a favourite ,breton legend1 and testifying to the innocence of the sufferers 7see xxxi4 #h74 ,he may of course refuse1 thinking to pretend afterwards that he had not heard of the case2 but ,god knows all1 and will requite falsehood1 not perhaps at once1 but at a future time1 when #8the lamp of the wicked shall be put out' 7xxiv4 #bj74 ,the wise men1 as we have seen1 clung firmly to the doctrine of retribution in some one of its various forms4 ,we are not therefore surprised that a book of proverbs should conclude with a dissuasion from consorting with lawless persons1 and an earnest advice to #8fear ,jehovah and the king' 7xxiv4 #ba74 ,much need not be said of the second appendix 7xxiv4 #bc-cd74 #8,these also are by wise men1' writes the collector1 implying that he is to be distinguished from the editor of the preceding collection4 ,the proverbs are all#aha either in two1 four1 or six lines1 except ver4 #bg1 where however it is possible that some words have dropped out4#ahb ,at the end comes a parable or apologue professedly drawn from the writer's experience 7reminding us in this of vii4 #f-bc1 but still more of ,job v4 #c-e74 ,the scene is laid in a vineyard which has run to waste and become a wilderness from the carelessness of its owner 7comp4 xx4 #d74 ,the mashal 7xxiv4 #cj-cb7 has been lengthened by the addition of two verses from vi4 #i1 #aj1 originally no doubt a marginal note4 ,it was needless2 the story 7if story it can be called7 is more vivid in its brevity1 and forms a fitting close to this section of proverbial wisdom4 ,footnote #afe3 ,dr4 ,grtz is of opinion that ,solomon was a fabulist like ,jotham2 in the text ,i have followed ,josephus 7,ant4 vii4 #b1 #e74 ,legend related how the wise king1 like the early men in ,african folk-lore 7,max ,mller1 ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #aaf71 talked with 7not merely of7 beasts1 birds1 and fishes1 but delighted most in the birds4 ,footnote #aff3 ,this was also the opinion of ,ewald 7,history1 iii4 #bha74 ,it might now be urged in its favour that ,assurbanipal's library contained bilingual lists of animals1 vegetables1 and minerals4 ,but remember that the ,assyrians were incomparably more civilised than the ,israelites1 and had both a lexicographical and a scientific interest in making these lists1 and above all that ,solomon is not stated to have written1 but only to have spoken4 ,footnote #afg3 ,see the ,tosefoth to the ,talmudic treatise ,baba bathra1 #ad;b1 where the name is given both to ,proverbs and to ,ecclesiastes4 ,it is however more commonly found in ,christian than in ,jewish literature1 often under the fuller form 7see especially ,eusebius1 ,h4 ,e41 iv4 #bb74 ,footnote #afh3 ,the second line however seems to have intruded from ver4 #aa1 and thus to have supplanted the original4 ,footnote #afi3 ,here again the second line is evidently an intruder 7from ver4 #h74 ,we should doubtless read with ,sept41 #8but he that reproves produces welfare4' ,footnote #agj3 ,this word 7takhblth7 also occurs in xxiv4 #f1 i4 #e1 ,job xxxvii4 #ab4 ,footnote #aga3 ,for m'raddf read m'gaddf4 ,footnote #agb3 ,landberg denies that ,maidani's proverbs were ever really popular1 but ,a4 ,mller judges that this view is extravagant 7,zeitschrift fr ,vlkerpsychologie1 xii4 #dda74 ,footnote #agc3 ,the text has #8than he who is perverse in his lips and is a fool4' ,with ,grtz1 ,i follow the ,peshitto and 7partly7 the ,vulgate4 ,footnote #agd3 ,pointing bhd1 with ,hitzig1 ,ewald1 and ,bickell2 comp4 ver1 #aa4 ,dijserinck ingeniously emends bhr #8heaps up' 7i4e4 saves74 ,footnote #age3 ,comp4 ,thomson1 ,the ,land and the ,book1 pp4 #ccf-h4 ,footnote #agf3 ,the word is behma 7,seneca's #8muta animalia'74 ,schopenhauer1 thinking perhaps of the ,levitical sacrifices1 accuses the ,old ,testament of cruelty to animals4 ,but see1 besides this passage1 ,gen4 i4 #bg-bi1 ,num4 xxii4 #bh1 ,jon4 iv4 #aa4 ,footnote #agg3 ,with ,hitzig and others1 taking 'sh as a softened form ysh 7comp4 #b ,sam4 xiv4 #ai1 ,mic4 vi4 #aj72 the yd is kept as in ,aramaic4 ,so ,targ41 ,pesh4 ,footnote #agh3 ,at the end of ver4 #ai ,bickell nearly follows ,sept4 ,cod4 ,vat41 7,a4,c4,s4 74 ,but as this takes the place of hayym1 it would seem that ,bickell ought to begin ver4 #bj with af ethml4 ,this however would not suit his metrical theory4 ,footnote #agi3 ,the phraseological resemblance of xxiii4 #ai;b to iv4 #ad;b is incomplete4 ,as for khokmth in xxiv4 #g1 it means simply #8wisdom' 7as in xiv4 #a1 where khakmth is wrong72 the parallelism with i4 #bj1 ix4 #a is not of critical importance4 ,any real points of contact 7such as xxiii4 #bc;a2 comp4 iv4 #e1 #g7 can be accounted for by imitation1 and one could easily bring together points of difference4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,the word for #8mast' is a 4 4 ,the ,septuagint and ,peshitto have #8as a steersman 7or seaman7 in great breakers4' ,footnote #aha3 xxiv4 #bc;b is no exception2 it is merely the first line of a hexastich4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,for #8and afterwards' the ,hebrew has #8afterwards and thou shalt build4' #8,and' may mean #8then1' marking out the perfect as consecutive1 but it may also have been intended to join two parts of a sentence4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,second ,,collection ,,and ,,its ,,appendices4 ,the next proverbial anthology 7xxv4-xxix47 like its chief predecessor is described in the heading as #8,proverbs of ,solomon4'#ahc ,the social state however presupposed in many of them is so different from that of the ,solomonic age that we may at once reject the theory of the wise king's authorship4 ,another name with which in xxv4 #a the work is connected is that of ,hezekiah1 who has been suggestively called #8the ,pisistratus of ,judah4' ,the comparison halts1 no doubt2 for ,pisistratus and his #8companions' meant to collect the whole of the ,homeric poems1 whereas completeness can hardly have been the object of those #8friends 7or counsellors7 of ,hezekiah' who #8collected'#ahd the #8,proverbs of ,solomon' in xxv4 #b-xxix4 #bg2 at least1 we know that there was much proverbial wisdom in circulation which had as good or as bad a claim to be called #8,solomonic' as the sayings which they have admitted into their anthology4 ,it may indeed well be doubted whether the compilers had any thought of collecting the relics 7now already more than #bjj years old7 of the wise king4 ,the style of these proverbs makes such a hypothesis even more improbable than in the case of x4 #a-xxii4 #af4 ,the words with which the heading begins are of course not decisive1 especially as the whole verse appears to be due1 not to the royal officials who are spoken of1 but to the author of the heading in xxiv4 #bc;a 7both headings begin with #8these also'74 ,that ,hezekiah was the instigator of the compilation1 need not however be disputed4 ,even if not himself an author1#ahe he may well have shared his friend ,isaiah's interest in literature2 and besides1 it was at that time one of the glories of a great king to be the founder of a library4#ahf ,the word used in describing the activity of his commissioners means literally #8transferred' 7from one place to another71 and will equally well apply to the noting down of oral traditions and to the making extracts from existing collections4 ,among the latter1 the #8,proverbs of ,solomon' in x4 #a-xxii4 #af are of course to be included1 though it is not quite certain whether the compilers of the later anthology had the book before them4 ,it is true that nine proverbs are the same in the two books either absolutely 7xxv4 #bd xxi4 #i1 xxvi4 #bb xviii4 #h1 xxvii4 #ab xxii4 #c1 xxvii4 #ac xx4 #af7 or virtually 7xxvi4 #ac xxii4 #ac1 xxvi4 #ae xix4 #bd1 xxviii4 #f xix4 #a1 xxviii4 #ai xii4 #aa1 xxix4 #ac xxii4 #b71 besides two which agree in one line 7xxvii4 #ba xvii4 #c1 xxix4 #bb xv4 #ah2 comp4 also xxvii4 #ae1 xix4 #ac74 ,but there still remains the question1 ,why the collectors took so little and left so much of manifest antiquity1 and to this question we cannot expect to find an answer4 ,all that we can say is that their compilation has striking characteristics of its own4 ,in technicalities they admit a greater variety than those of the first anthology4 ,they allow not only distichs but tristichs 7xxv4 #h1 #ac1 #bj1 xxvii4 #aj1 #bb1 xxviii4 #aj71 tetrastichs 7xxv4 #d1 #e1 xxv4 #i1 #aj1 xxv4 #ba1 #bb1 xxvi4 #ah1 #ai1 xxvi4 #bd1 #be1 xxvii4 #ae1 #af71 and in one case a pentastich#ahg 7xxv4 #f1 #g71 agreeing in this respect with the two appendices of the first anthology4 ,there is also a long mashal1 analogous to some we have had already1 which can only with some laxity be called a proverb1 and which extends over ten distichs 7xxvii4 #bc-bg74 ,with regard to parallelism1 the antithetic kind1 which predominates in the first #8,solomonic' anthology1 is rare in this collection1 except in chaps4 xxviii41 xxix42 sometimes indeed there is no parallelism at all 7see xxv4 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #ba1 #bb1 xxvi4 #ah1 #ai1 xxvii4 #a1 xxix4 #ab74 ,as a compensation1 similitudes abound in the three first chapters of the collection4 ,sometimes the comparison is expressed1 e4g4 ,as the cold of snow in the heat#ahh of harvest is a faithful messenger to those that send him3 he refreshes the soul of his master 7xxv4 #ac72 at other times it is implied by the juxtaposition of the two objects1 e4g4 ,apples of gold in chased work of silver1 a word smoothly spoken#ahi 7xxv4 #aa74 ,let us pause on this favourite proverb of ,goethe's4 ,the ,hebrew #8wise men' would not have agreed to a later sage's depreciation of speech4#aij #8,a word in due season1 how good is it' 7xv4 #bc72 but when not only seasonable but set off by charms of style1 how much better is it6 ,the #8apples of gold' in xxv4 #aa are probably oranges2 the #8chased work of silver' means either baskets of silver filagree1 or1 as ,i should like to think with ,mr4 ,neil1 the brilliant white blossoms among which the golden fruit is seen peeping out4 ,if the #8gold' is figurative1 why not also the #8silver'8 ,we are reminded of ,andrew ,marvell's lines in the #8,emigrants' ,song1' ,he hangs in shades the orange bright1 ,like golden lamps in a green night1 though ,marvell forgot what ,addison 7,spectator1 ,no4 #dee7 well knew1 that flowers as well as fruit and leaves continue on the orange-tree for the best part of the year4 ,but to return to our anthology4 ,it would almost seem as if two editors with different tastes had been concerned in it1 the one responsible for chaps4 xxv4-xxvii41 and the other for chaps4 xxviii1 xxix4 ,according to ,ewald1 the proverbs in the latter section are mostly somewhat older than those in the former4 ,this is perhaps an impression rather than a judgment2 and few will deny that some at least of the parabolic proverbs in the first section may be as old as those of the same class in x4 #a-xxii4 #af4 ,it is difficult to suppose that many of the proverbs in either part of the book go back to a remote date4 ,the cheerfulness of ,israel's #8golden prime' is gone2 society seems to have changed1 not altogether for the better1 even since the first great anthology was made4 ,the king is still looked up to with awe2 the book begins with a group of four sentences on the true glory of a monarch1 followed by two on the right behaviour for a subject 7xxv4 #b-g74 ,the king is described 7surely with a touch of idealism7 as inquisitive in the best sense2 his #8heart1' or understanding1 is unsearchable4 ,but this happy view of monarchy passes away4 ,there are several proverbs complaining of the wickedness of kings1 which are almost without a parallel in the earlier collection4 ,ungodly rulers have made the people #8sigh' 7xxix4 #b72 they have been like #8roaring lions and ravenous bears' to the #8poor folk' 7xxviii4 #ae1 #af71 and have completely destroyed the freedom of social intercourse 7xxviii4 #ab1 #bh74 ,sometimes1 as in the northern kingdom after the death of ,jeroboam ,,ii41#aia the crown has become the object of competition to a crowd of pretenders 7xxviii4 #b74 ,the misery of the people has been heightened by the greed of petty tyrants1 according to the forcible saying1-- ,a man who is rich#aib and oppresses the poor 7is7 a rain which sweeps away and gives no bread 7xxviii4 #c74 ,what kind of oppression is meant we may learn from ,micah 7ii4 #c71-- ,and they covet lands and take them by violence2 houses1 and take them away2 and they oppress the owner and his house1 a man and his inheritance4 ,it is in short the same unscrupulous accumulation of landed property to which ,isaiah devotes one of his solemn #8woes' in his earliest prophecy1 and which is one of the causes of the threatened captivity 7,isa4 v4 #h-aj #ac74 ,exile has indeed become a familiar idea to those who admitted xxvii4 #h into the anthology1 if1 as most think1 in the pathetic words of xxvii4 #h we may hear an echo of the march of ,assyrian armies1 #8to wander' being an euphemism for going into banishment4 ,as a bird that wanders from her nest1 so is a man that wanders#aic from his home 7xxvii4 #h74 ,as a rule1 however1 the proverbs relate to ordinary bourgeois life4 ,religious proverbs occur but rarely4#aid #8,folly' too is not so often mentioned as in the first collection1 and the censure which it has to bear is mostly indirect and more or less satirical2 see e4g4 the proverb-- ,though thou shouldest beat a fool in a mortar in the midst of bruised corn with a pestle1 his folly would not depart from him 7xxvii4 #bb71 and especially the paradoxical exhibition of the two sides of a truth-- ,answer not the stupid man according to his folly1 lest thou thyself also become like unto him3 ,answer the stupid man according to his folly1 lest he regard himself as wise 7xxvi4 #d1 #e71 where the first distich dissuades from retaliating on a fool by a word or an action on his own low moral plane1 while the second recommends giving his folly the exposure or the sharp answer which it so richly deserves4#aie ,the wide meaning of #8folly' in this pair of proverbs may be illustrated by xvii4 #ab1 where it evidently means a paroxysm of passion4 ,next to this noisy passionate #8folly1' if we may judge from the arrangement of chap4 xxvi41 comes the vice of idleness 7xxvi4 #ac-af74 ,how dangerous this was felt to be we have seen already1 and the exhortation to agricultural industry in xxvii4 #bc-bg forms a counterpart to the meditation on the #8field of the slothful' in xxiv4 #cj-cb4 ,if the motives urged for this and other duties are not lofty1 the standard is at least an easily attainable one4 ,sometimes1 indeed1 the eye sharpened by a regard to prudence discerns moral points of some refinement4#aif ,this proverb1 for instance1 strikes one as delicate1 in spite of the prudential motive attached to it in the next verse1-- ,conduct thy quarrel with thy neighbour1 but expose not the secret of another 7xxv4 #i72 and the well-known precept on showing kindness to one's enemies1 though partly supported by the prospect of a reward 7comp4 xxiv4 #ag1 #ah71 is so nobly expressed that an apostle can adopt it without change 7,rom4 xii4 #bj71-- ,if one that hates thee hunger1 give him bread to eat1 and if he thirst1 give him water to drink1 for thou heapest coals of fire thereby upon his head1 and ,jehovah shall recompense thee 7xxv4 #ba1 #bb74 ,let us pause a moment on this proverb1 which contrasts so strongly with the advice on the treatment of enemies given by ,sirach4 #8,coals of fire on the head' is probably here a metaphorical expression for what ,st4 ,augustine calls #8urentes conscienti gemitus' 7,de doctr4 ,christ41 l4 iii41 c4 #af74 ,the appositeness of the phrase will be heightened if we suppose the enemy spoken of to be one who has never heard of the wise man's rule--a man of rude1 uncultured nature1 and perhaps of alien race4 ,to such a one1 the being fed by the very man whom he #8hated' would give first of all a shock of surprise1 and then a pang of intolerable remorse for his own unworthiness4#aig ,i wish one could be sure that this pang was referred to as purifying as well as painful to the sufferer4 ,a parallel passage would be a great boon4 ,of course we can apply the passage in the same sense as ,st4 ,paul when he followed his quotation with the words1 #8,be not overcome of evil1 but overcome evil with good4' ,but we should wrong our #8wise men' by treating them as pure utilitarians2 they are often sympathetic observers of character and circumstance4 ,for instance1-- ,vinegar falling upon a wound1#aih and he who sings songs to a heavy heart 7xxv4 #bj74 ,silver dross spread over an earthen vessel-- fervent lips#aii and a bad heart 7xxvi4 #bc74 ,let another man praise thee1 and not thine own mouth3 a stranger1 and not thine own lips 7xxvii4 #b74 ,faithful are the wounds of one who loves1 but the kisses of a hater are profuse#bjj 7xxvii4 #f74 ,thine own friend1 and thy father's friend1 forsake not2 and go not to thy brother's house in the day of thy calamity3 better is a near neighbour than a far off brother#bja 7xxvii4 #aj74 ,he who blesses his friend with a loud voice1 rising early in the morning1 it is reckoned to him for a curse#bjb 7xxvii4 #ad74 ,iron is sharpened by iron1 and a man sharpens the face 7or edge7 of his friend 7xxvii4 #ag74 ,the three appendices to the ,hezekian collection 7xxx41 xxxi4 #a-i1 xxxi4 #aj-ca7 are1 to take the most conservative position possible1 obviously not earlier than the closing century of the ,jewish state4 ,the art of proverb-writing has declined ever since the compilation of the previous anthology4 ,the marks of simplicity and naturalness are wanting2 the enigmatical and artificial seem to be sought for4 ,each part of these two chapters has moreover something of its own pointing in the direction of a late origin4 ,the two first appendices are very possibly even later than the return of the ,jews from ,babylon4 ,the first appendix begins--#8,the words of ,agur the son of ,jakeh1 the prophecy' 7or1 divine utterance7#bjc 7comp4 xxxi1 #a74 ,the heading is enigmatical2 in what sense are the #8words' #8a prophecy1' and who are the persons spoken of8 ,the latter question we have no means of answering4 ,the names are not found elsewhere1 and have been thought to be pseudonyms 7,agur might mean #8collector' and ,jakeh #8obedient1' i4e4 #8religious'74#bjd ,as to the title #8the prophecy1' it must be admitted that it is not by any means an appropriate one4 ,it is too bold to accuse the proverb-writer of claiming prophetic inspiration4 7,and why should the article be prefixed87 ,the only alternative to this is to read1 with ,prof4 ,grtz1 7for hammass #8the prophecy'7 hammshl #8the proverb-writer4' ,after the heading comes a group of four verses complete in itself4 ,the oracle of the man #8,i have wearied#bje myself about ,god' 7871 ,i have wearied myself about ,god and have not prevailed4#bjf ,for ,i am too stupid for a man1 and am without human reason2 ,i have not learned wisdom1 nor have ,i knowledge of the ,all-holy4#bjg ,who has gone up to heaven and come down8 who has gathered the wind in his fists8 who has bound up the waters in a garment8 who has established all the ends of the earth8 what is his name1 and what is his son's name1 if thou knowest8 ,it is not easy to interpret this little passage4 ,evidently the speaker is a #8wise man1' who1 according to some critics1 inculcates a reverent humility by reporting the fruitlessness of his own theological speculations4 ,after long brooding over the problems of the divine nature 7so they explain71 the ,hebrew sage was compelled to desist with the feeling of his utter incapacity4 ,like ,israel the patriarch he strove with ,god1 but unlike ,israel he did not prevail4 ,he knows indeed what ,god has done and is continually doing2 ,he is the ,omnipresent ,one1 the ,lord of wind and flood1 the ,author of the boundaries of the earth4 ,but what is this great ,being's name1 and 7to know ,him intimately7 what is ,his son's name8 ,on this view of its meaning1 the passage reminds one of the words of ,goethe's ,faust1 #8,who can name ,him1 or who confess1 ,i believe ,him8 ,who can feel1 and can be bold to say1 ,i believe ,him not8' ,or perhaps we may still better compare ,max ,letteris' masterly ,hebrew translation or adaptation1 in which the medieval doctor has been transformed into ,ben ,abuyah 7or ,acher 71 the famous apostate from ,judaism in the second century of our era4 ,the passage with which we are concerned as illustrative of the passage before us is on page #afd1 and begins 4 ,notice the delicate tact in the choice of the second verb1 #8,who can give ,him an honourable surname8' 7comp4 ,isa1 xliv4 #e1 xiv4 #d47 ,later on1 after other names suggested by the ,german original1 the modern ,hebrew poet continues1 1 and in a note refers to a parallel passage in a ,hebrew poem by ,ibn ,gabirol4 ,i must make bold to doubt the correctness of this explanation4 7#a7 ,because it does not sufficiently account for the language of ver4 #b4 7#b7 ,because upon this view of the questions of ver4 #d1 an ,israelite's answer would simply be1 ,jehovah 7comp4 ,job xxxviii4 #e1 ,isa4 xl4 #ab74 7#c7 ,because it is so difficult to see why the poet should have asked further1 ,what is ,his son's name8 ,is not the passage rather a philosophic fragment from a school of #8wise men1' not so much unbelieving as critical8 ,the speaker declares1 soberly enough1 that he has tried in vain by thinking to find out ,god4 ,then comes in a piece of irony4 ,no doubt it is his own stupidity2 grand theologians1 such as the writer of ,isa4 xl4 #ab c41 ,job xxxviii41 ,prov4 viii4 #bb c41 may well look down upon the dullard1 who has not passed through their school6 #8,but who is it that is ever and anon coming down#bjh to earth1 and that performed all these creative works of which you delight to speak8 ,i have never seen him2 tell me his name and his son's name since you are so learned4' ,the latter phrase may be an allusion1 either 7anticipating ,philo1 who calls ,wisdom ,god's ,son7 to the #8,i was brought forth' in viii4 #bd1 or more probably#bji the primeval man 7who might be called a #8son of ,god' in the sense of ,luke iii4 #ch7 spoken of in ,job xv4 #g1 who was the embodiment of all wisdom and sat in the council of ,elohim4#baj ,the satirical turn of this secularistic #8wise man' is even perhaps traceable in the heading of his poem4 ,he calls his work an #8oracle1' taking up a favourite word of the disciples of the prophets1 and flinging it back to them with a laugh4 ,obviously too the name of the writer1 if genuine1 is best explained as an assumed name4 ,but the emphatic haggebher is very difficult4 ,i cannot believe1 with ,ewald1 that haggebher is said ironically1 as if #8the mighty one in his own conceit2' comp4 ,isa4 xxii4 #ag 7871 ,ps4 lii4 #c4 ,the analogy of ,num4 xxiv4 #c1 #ae1 #b ,sam4 xxiii4 #a1 suggests that there is a corruption in the text1 and that haggebher1 #8the man1' was originally followed by words descriptive of the person referred to4 ,grtz boldly corrects 7haggebher7 l-khayil #8the man without strength4 ,are we surprised at this8 ,but a strikingly parallel confession of honest scepticism is found in the ,rig ,veda 7x4 #abi71 though ,i would not of course identify the opinions of the ,sanskrit and the ,hebrew poet1 ,who knows1 who here can declare1 whence has sprung--whence1 this creation8444 ,from what this creation arose2 and whether any one made it1 or not1--he who in the highest heaven is its ruler1 he verily knows1 or even he does not know4#baa ,the poet who #8takes up his parable' after ,laithi-el calmly and uncontroversially indicates his own very different religious position4 ,he earnestly prays that he may not #8become a liar and ask1 ,who is ,jehovah8' 7xxx4 #i72 for him the divine revelations 7the outward form of which is already sacred7 are amply sufficient4 #8,every utterance of ,god ,eloah1 the sing4 form1 as in ,job is free from alloy' 7xxx4 #e2 see the commentators on ,ps4 xviii4 #ca72 the divine #8name' declared in ,ex4 xxxiv4 #f1 should satisfy the wisest of men4 ,thus1 like the editors of ,ecclesiastes1 this later writer neutralises the doubtful expressions of the poem which he has saved from perishing4 ,can we avoid the impression that both these poets lived in an age of advanced religious reflection and of ,scripture-study8 ,the one is more of a philosopher1 the other of a ,biblical theologian2 both would be at home only in the ,exile or in the post-,exile period1 when doubt and even scepticism lifted their heads side by side with ,biblical study4 ,our second more believing poet seems to be thinking of ,ps4 xviii4 #cj2 but the portion of that verse which he adopts assumes another colour through the warning which follows1 derived from ,deut4 iv4 #a1 xiii4 #a4 ,it is no longer the #8promise of ,god' which is #8tried' or #8pure1' but the revelation of which the ,jewish ,church is gradually finding itself the possessor4 ,the poet's prayer for himself 7vv4 #g-i7 is followed by eight groups of proverbs1 each of which describes some quality or character which is either commended or warned against1 and 7with the exception of the first7 contains a similitude4 ,in most of these the number four is conspicuous generally as the climax after #8three' 7vv4 #ae1 #ah1 #ba1 #bi74 ,the fact that similar #8numerical proverbs' were popular in the early ,rabbinical period1#bab gives a certain support to the view that this collection is of late origin4 ,the groups referred to are-- ,the four marks of an evil generation vv4 #aa-ad ,the four insatiable things -- #ae1 #af ,the fate of the disobedient son -- #ag ,the four incomprehensible things -- #ah-bj -- -- intolerable things -- #ba-bc -- -- wise animals -- #bd-bh -- -- comely in going 7see p4 #age7 -- #bi-ca ,a warning against strife -- #cb1 #cc4 ,one of these 7vv4 #ae1 #af7 has probably suffered a slight mutilation1 which has been thus remedied by ,bickell1-- ,the leech has two three #bac daughters1 they say continually1 #8,give1 give3' there are three things which are never satisfied1 four which never say1 #8,abundance4' ,shel is never satisfied with dead1 and the closing of the womb is never satisfied with men1 the earth is never satisfied with water1 and fire never says1 #8,abundance4'#bad #8,daughters of the leech' is a quasi-mythical expression1 which no one could misunderstand 7comp4 #8upon a hill the son of oil1' ,isa4 v4 #a74 ,we find a similar group of four insatiables in the ,sanskrit ,hitopadesa4#bae ,fire is never satisfied with fuel2 nor the ocean with rivers2 nor death with all creatures2 nor bright-eyed women with men4 ,the verses are of course older than the trumpery story of the cowherd's wife which they serve to illustrate4 ,the coincidence with the ,hebrew1 being obviously accidental1 is worth remembering in other connections4 ,the two parallels1 present in the ,hebrew but not in this ,sanskrit quaternion1 are given in a quatrain of a ,vedic hymn to ,varuna-- ,the path of ships across the sea1 ,the soaring eagle's flight he knows4#baf ,the second appendix 7xxxi4 #a-i7 consists of a single group of sayings1 described as #8the words of ,lemuel1 a king1 the prophecy better the proverb1 reading mshl with which his mother instructed him4' ,possibly1 as ,ewald suggests1 ,lemuel 7or rather1 ,lemoel1 as the word is pointed in ver4 #d7 is an imaginary name1 descriptive of the character of an ideal monarch 7#8,god's own2' comp4 ,lael1 ,num4 iii4 #bd74 ,it is not necessary to suppose that the poet himself lived under a native king2 he may1 like the author of ,koheleth1 have thrown himself back in imagination to ,israel's golden prime4 ,his own period was late1 judging from the unclassical ,hebrew 7notice the ,aramaisms in vv4 #b1 #c1 and the strange expressions in vv4 #e1 #h74 ,the form of the heading suggests that these #8words of ,lemuel' formed part of the same collection as the #8words of ,agur2' and there is at least nothing in the contents to forbid this view4 ,the warnings of this queen-mother#bag 7whose relation to ,lemuel reminds us of that of ,bathsheba to ,solomon7 are very homely and practical2 one is against sensuality1 another against drunkenness2 upon which follows an admonition to defend the cause of the poor4 ,even if there were no native king at the time1 the advice would be appropriate for all members of the upper class of society4 ,the third appendix 7xxxi4 #aj-ca7 contains the praise of the virtuous woman4 ,in style it is quite unlike the two preceding sections2 it must come therefore from another source4 ,it is an alphabetic poem2 each distich begins with a letter of the ,hebrew alphabet4 ,this1 combined with the position of the work at the close of the various collections of proverbs1 of itself suggests a date not far removed on the one side or the other from the ,exile period1 when ,hebrew literature became undoubtedly more artificial and technical4 ,from xxxi4 #bc 7#8the elders of the land'7 we may perhaps infer that it was written in ,palestine4 ,it is very interesting to see the ideal of womanhood formed by a late ,hebrew poet4 ,activity appears to him the one great feminine virtue--not however the activity which is entirely devoted to trifling details1 for the ideal woman #8is like the ships of the merchant2 from far she brings her food' 7ver4 #ad74 ,nor is she a stranger to sympathetic impulses2 #8she holds out her hand 7with something in it7 to the afflicted1 and stretches forth her hands to the needy to bring them in1' ver4 #bj4 ,nor must we forget #8one of the most beautiful features in the portrait' 7,delitzsch73 #8she opens her mouth with wisdom1 and a law of kindness is on her tongue' 7ver4 #bf74 ,but for this verse1 indeed1 it would read almost like satire that #8far above pearls is her value' 7ver4 #aj71 since no higher estimate than this has been offered for ,god's choicest blessing1 #8,wisdom4'#bah ,the poet does not say that he has found such a woman 7comp4 ,eccles4 vii4 #bh74 ,the picture is perhaps too brightly coloured to be drawn from reality1 unless with ,hitzig we bring down the composition of the poem as late as the ,greek period4 ,most probably1 it is idealistic4 ,footnote #ahc3 #8,these also' suggests that what follows is a last gleaning of ,solomonic proverbs4 ,and in fact xxv4 #bd1 xxvi4 #ac1 #ae1 #bb1 xxvii4 #ab1 #ac1 #ba;a1 seem to be taken from the #8,solomonic' collection4 ,hitzig however rejects this view4 ,why did not the collectors combine all the ,solomonic proverbs they could find in one work8 ,so he supposes this new collection to have been made #8aus dem ,volksmunde1' and remarks that a commission would be specially appropriate for this task4 ,to me this seems an anachronism4 ,the proverbs of the ,hezekian collection are moreover as artistic as those of the first #8,solomonic4' ,footnote #ahd3 ,so virtually the ,septuagint 771 followed by the ,peshitto and the ,targum3 ,aquila1 4 ,the ,greek1 curiously enough1 inserts an epithet for the proverbs1 viz4 1 i4e4 either impossible to distinguish1 miscellaneous 7so ,sophocles1 ,lexicon71 or better1 difficult to interpret4 ,symmachus has for bh1 ,gen4 i4 #b4 ,the ,peshitto and ,targum render the ,greek of our passage by #8deep proverbs1' i4e4 enigmatical ones 7so too ,aquila and ,theodotion in the ,syro-hexapla74 ,footnote #ahe3 ,cheyne1 ,the ,prophecies of ,isaiah1 i4 #bbh-i 7on ,isa4 xxxviii4 #i74 ,footnote #ahf3 ,sayce's ed4 of ,smith's ,chaldean ,genesis1 pp4 #ae1 #bf1 #bg4 ,footnote #ahg3 ,sept41 ,symm41 ,pesh41 ,vulg41 however1 attach the lost line of ver4 #g to ver4 #h 7#8,qu viderunt oculi tui1 ne proferas in jurgio cito'71 which makes ver4 #g a distich and ver4 #h a tetrastich4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,reading b'khm for b'ym with ,sept4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,literally1 #8a word spoken 7or1 perhaps1 driven1 or sent home7 on its wheels1' i4e4 smoothly and elegantly 7#8ore rotundo'74 ,so ,schultens1 who sees a reference to the tropes and figures of elegant ,oriental style4 ,comp4 ,neil1 ,palestine ,explored1 p4 #aig4 ,the interpretation is an attractive one1 though uncertain4 ,ewald has a slightly different view 7see ,history1 ii4 p4 #ad1 n4 #f74 ,footnote #aij3 ,carlyle however borrows an ,arabic proverb 7,freytag1 ,prov4 ,ar41 iii4 #ib74 ,footnote #aia3 ,it is of course possible that xxviii4 #b may be of northern origin1 but why should not a wise man in ,judah have watched with sympathy the course of events in ,israel8 ,footnote #aib3 ,reading1 with ,grtz1 'shr for rsh #8poor1' which makes no sense4 ,footnote #aic3 ,sept4 well 4 ,footnote #aid3 ,notice however the remarkable saying1 already quoted1 in xxix4 ,footnote #aie3 ,the proverbs xxvi4 #a1 #c-ab1 form a string of satirical attacks on the #8fool' or stupid man4 ,footnote #aif3 ,one of these points however is noticed in the earliest part of the ,law4 ,the love of one's enemy is taught in ,ex4 xxiii4 #d1 #e4 ,footnote #aig3 ,see however ,mr4 ,yonge in ,the ,expositor1 ,aug4 #ahhe1 pp4 #aeh-i4 ,footnote #aih3 ,the received text has #8vinegar upon nitre2' but this would be rather an emblem for anger4 ,the correction is ,bickell's1 and is partly founded on ,sept4 7 74 ,the opening words of the verse in rec4 text arise from the repetition in a corrupt form of the four last words of the preceding verse 7,lagarde and ,bickell74 ,footnote #aii3 ,the ,septuagint has #8smooth lips4' ,footnote #bjj3 ,to have added #8but perfidious1' would have made the line too long4 ,footnote #bja3 ,this seems a combination of two distinct proverbs4 ,the one says that a friend can give more sympathy than a relative2 the other1 that a neighbour1 being on the spot1 can give more help than a relative at a distance4 ,footnote #bjb3 ,a humorous picture6 ,such ostentatious and inopportune salutations are execrable flattery4 ,footnote #bjc3 ,on the conjectural reading1 #8the man of ,massa' 7#8,massa1' instead of #8the prophecy'71 see ,chap4 ,,vi4 ,footnote #bjd3 ,this was the view of ,st4 ,jerome1 derived of course from his ,jewish teacher4 ,footnote #bje3 ,pointing lth4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,reading with ,bickell v'l kl4 ,another correction of the text is1 v'kel #8and have pined away4' ,footnote #bjg3 ,q'dshm1 a word formed on the analogy of elhm2 comp4 ix4 #aj1 ,hos4 xii4 #a4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,it may be objected that #8hath gone up and come down' does not suit this explanation1 and that1 to refer to ,god1 it should run #8hath come down and gone up4' ,but we have #8angels of ,elohim ascending and descending' in ,gen4 xxviii4 #ab2 usage1 in ,hebrew as in ,english1 forbids the phrase #8to go down and up4' ,footnote #bji3 #8,more probably2' because the name of the speaker in viii4 #bd has been told4 ,footnote #baj3 ,comp4 ,ewald1 ,die ,lehre der ,bibel von ,gott1 iii4 #b1 pp4 #ha1 #hb4 ,footnote #baa3 ,muir1 ,original ,sanskrit ,texts1 v4 #cef2 comp4 ,max ,mller1 ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #caf4 ,footnote #bab3 ,see above1 p4 #abh1 and comp4 ,wnsche1 ,midrasch ,kohelet1 p4 xiii4 ,footnote #bac3 ,sept41 followed by ,pesh41 reads #8three' for #8two4' ,accepting this reading1 the second half of the verse becomes an explanation of the first4 ,footnote #bad3 ,bickell's reconstruction of the text makes the proverbs symmetrical with the rest4 ,in lines #e1 #f he makes an ingenious parallelism with mthm #8dead' and m'thm #8men' 7i4e4 children74 ,footnote #bae3 ,f4 ,johnson's translation 7#ahdh71 chap4 ii41 fable #g2 comp4 ,fritze's metrical version 7,leipz4 #ahhd74 ,footnote #baf3 ,muir1 ,metrical ,translations 7#ahgi71 p4 #afj4 ,footnote #bag3 ,on the early importance of the queen-mother1 see ,cheyne's ,isaiah1 i4 #dg1 note #a 7on ,isa4 vii4 #ac74 ,footnote #bah3 ,this hardly recommends the view of ,costelli1 that this poem is properly the conclusion of the introductory treatise 7i4-ix47 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,praise ,,of ,,wisdom4 #8,thou hast kept the good wine until now1' for #8good wine' well describes the glorious little treatise at the head of our ,book of ,proverbs 7i4 #g-;ix4 #ah74 ,i do not think it is right to infer from the heading in i4 #a that its unknown author assumed the mask of ,solomon4 ,in itself such a hypothesis would not be incredible4 ,we have the analogy of the ,egyptian scribe who represents ,amenemhat ,i4 #8rising up like a god' and addressing to his son some instructions on the royal art of governing4#bai ,but it is more natural to explain the heading as a repetition of the formula in x4 #a1 for the #8,praise of ,wisdom' 7to coin another title7 is in fact the introduction to the following anthology1#bbj together with which and its appendices it forms the #8older book of ,proverbs4' ,if we ask why an introduction was prefixed1 the answer must be that the writer wished to recommend his own inspiring view of practical ethics as a branch of divine wisdom2 in other words1 to counteract the sometimes commonplace morality of the earlier proverbs by enveloping the reader in a purer and more ethereal atmosphere4 ,the key-note of the anthology is nothing but ,experience2 that of the introductory treatise is ,divine ,teaching4 ,it is a sign of moral progress that the editor of an anthology of ,experience should have thought his work only half-done till he had prefixed the #8,praise of ,wisdom4' ,as a wise teacher of our own time#bba has observed1 #8,it would not be untrue to say that in all essential points ,experience is the teacher only of fools1 of those who have gone astray through turning a deaf ear to the voice of a prior and more legitimate teacher4' ,the nature of the wisdom so earnestly commended by this self-forgetting writer1 we will consider presently2 and our study will probably convince us that such a writer can only have arisen at an advanced period of ,israel's history4 ,the class or circle to which he belonged1 and its characteristics1 can easily be determined2 but the precise period only with some degree of hesitation4 ,without anticipating the discussion which will be given at another point1 ,i think it may safely be laid down that each of those kindred poems--the #8,praise of ,wisdom' and #8,job'--must have arisen at one of three periods1 marked respectively by the composition of ,deuteronomy1 by the ,captivity1 and by the ,restoration4 ,the progress of the higher ,israelitish wisdom was so gradual that it does not perhaps1 to the exegete as distinguished from the historian1 greatly matter which of these periods we select4 ,for my own part1 however1 ,i incline to connect at any rate the former of these works with the age of ,deuteronomy4 ,apart from the details to be mentioned elsewhere1 it is clear 7,i speak now of ,prov4 i4-ix47 that the tone of the exhortations1 and the view of religion as #8having the promise of the life that now is1' correspond to similar characteristics of the ,book of ,deuteronomy4 ,and if we turn from the contents to the form of this choice little book1 the same hypothesis seems equally suitable4 ,the prophets had long since seen the necessity of increasing their influence by committing the main points of their discourses to writing2 some rhetorical passages indeed were evidently composed to be read and not to be heard4 ,it was natural that the moralists should follow this example1 not only 7as in the anthologies7 by remodelling their wise sayings for publication1 but also by venturing on long and animated quasi-oratorical recommendations of great moral truths4 ,such a recommendation1 addressed especially to the young and impressionable 7i4 #d71 lies before us in chaps4 i4-ix4 ,in grave but harmonious accents the opening verses 7which refer chiefly to i4 #g-;ix4 #ah1 but not without a secondary reference to the anthology which follows7 describe its object and character4 ,then follows a motto1 the first line of which occurs again near the close of the book in ix4 #aj 7,job xxviii4 #bh1 ,ps4 cxi4 #aj71 and which stamps the author as belonging to a new and more religious class of #8wise men' 7see p4 #aba71-- ,the fear of ,jehovah is the beginning of wisdom1 i4e4 the foundation of true wisdom 7its #8root1' ,ecclus4 i4 #bj7 is reverence4 ,the disciple is to begin by taking this upon trust1 but when further advanced he will see that it is the shortest way to his goal1 true wisdom having an objective existence in the unseen world4 ,at present he is simply to follow the #8direction' of those wiser than himself3--our moralist is as zealous for a tra as the author of ,deuteronomy4 ,but though serious and authoritative1 he is never stern2 indeed1 to enforce his appeal he breaks through a ,hebrew writer's usual veil of reticence and describes his own home-life 7iv4 #c1 #d74 ,he can enter into the feelings of the young1 for he too has #8borne the yoke in his youth' 7,lam4 iii4 #bg71 and learned to prefer it to #8unchartered freedom4' ,the whole of chap4 iv4 is devoted to a summary of the wise doctrine which he received from his father2 indeed1 throughout the book he shows a wonderful appreciation of the parental and the filial relations1 and1 according to ,ewald's arrangement 7see below71 begins each section with an exhortation to listen to parental instruction4 ,he himself feels like a father to his young disciples 7iv4 #a74 ,the errors to which his hearers are specially tempted are highway robbery 7i4 #aa-ah1 iv4 #af1 #ag7 and unchastity 7ii4 #af1 v4 #c-bj1 vi4 #bd-ce1 vii4 #e-bg1 ix4 #ac-ah74 ,from the time that the simplicity of the ancient life began to give way to the inroads of luxury1 we meet in the ,biblical writings with complaints of acts of violence leading to murder 7see1 for instance1 in the prophecies1 ,isa4 i4 #ae1 v4 #g1 xxxiii4 #ae1 ,mic4 iii4 #aj1 ,jer4 ii4 #cd1 xxii4 #ag1 ,isa4 lix4 #c1 #g1 and in a collection of proverbs contemporary with our book1 ,prov4 xxiv4 #ae1 #af74 #8,at no time1' as ,dean ,plumptre well remarks1 #8has ,palestine ever risen to the security of a well-ordered police-system2' even down to the fall of ,jerusalem1 bands of robbers defied the authority of the central government4 ,the remarkable thing is that young men in the higher circles of society 7for such our moralist appears to address7 should be thought capable of joining the banditti1 at a time when #8bandit' could not be synonymous with #8patriot4' ,our moralist contents himself with dissuading his disciple from doing so1 on the ground of the retribution which will follow 7i4 #ah1 #ai74 ,the exhortation to industry1 with its slow but sure profits1 comes later1 and in a less appropriate place 7vi4 #f-h74 ,but the other besetting sin of youth is still more earnestly denounced as the most glaring specimen of #8folly4' ,once indeed the #8strange1 or alien1 woman1' i4e4 the adulteress1 is introduced dramatically as #8,madam ,folly' 7ix4 #ac74 ,the picture is remarkable1 and forms a designed contrast to that at the beginning of the chapter4 ,she sits at the door of her house1 counterfeiting her great rival ,wisdom 7comp4 ver4 #ad with ver4 #c1 and ver4 #af with ver4 #d71 like ,dante's ,siren2 but the disciple of the #8wise man' knows 444 that phantoms are there1 and that her guests are in the depths of ,shel 7ix4 #ah2 comp4 ii4 #ah1 xxi4 #af74 #8,wherewithal shall a young man cleanse his way8' is the problem for our moralist to solve4 ,he does so by insisting on an education conducted in reliance on divine ,wisdom4 ,the reward of diligent attention to the earlier lessons 7for each chapter is a lesson1 and its repetitions have a pedagogic justification7 is the famous portrait of ,wisdom in viii4 #bb-ca4 ,she 7for ,wisdom1 khokma1 is a feminine word7 has indeed been mentioned before 7i4 #bj1 iii4 #ac-bj1 iv4 #e-i71 but from viii4 #a to ix4 #f the poet is absorbed in his grand personification4 ,wisdom is now presented to us1 in the familiar dialect of poetry1 as the firstborn ,child of the ,creator4 ,there is but one ,wisdom2 though her forms are many1 in her origin she is one4 ,the ,wisdom who presided over the #8birth' of nature is the same who by her messengers 7the #8wise men'7 calls mankind to turn aside from evil 7ix4 #c74 ,there can therefore be no real disharmony between nature and morality2 the picture leaves no room for an ,ahriman1 in this and other respects resembling the ,cosmogony in ,gen4 i4 and portions of the striking descriptions in ,job xxvi41 xxviii41 xxxviii4 ,there is also no time when we can say that #8,wisdom was not4' ,faith declares that even in that primitive ,chaos of which our reason has a horror divine ,wisdom reigned supreme4 ,the heavenly ocean1 the ancient hills1 the combination of countless delicate atoms to form the ground1 the fixing of the vault of heaven on the world-encircling ocean1 the separation of sea and dry land#bbb--;all these were later works of ,god than the ,architect through whom ,he made them4 ,and how did the ,architect work8 ,by a #8divine improvisation' which allowed no sense of effort or fatigue1 and which still continues with unabated freshness4 ,but though her sportive path#bbc can still be traced in the processes of nature1 her highest delight is in the regeneration of the moral life of humanity4 ,the passage runs thus-- ,jehovah produced#bbd me as the beginning of his way1 as the first of his works1 long since4 ,from of old ,i received my place1 from the beginning1 from the first times of the earth4 ,when there were no floods1 ,i was brought forth1 when there were no fountains rich in water4 ,before the mountains were settled1 before the hills was ,i brought forth2 ,while as yet he had not made the earth with 7its7 fields1 and the atoms of dust which form the ground4 ,when he established the heaven1 ,i was there1 when he marked a circle upon the face of the flood1#bbe ,when he made firm the sky above1 when he strengthened the fountains of the flood1 ,when he appointed to the sea his bound1 that the waters should not transgress his command1 when he fixed the foundations of the earth1 ,then was ,i beside him as architect1 and was daily full of delight1 sporting#bbf before him at all times1 ,i who 7still7 have sport with his fruitful earth1 and have my delight with the sons of men4 ,the bold originality of this passage requires no proof4 ,it cuts away at a blow the old mythical conception of the world as the work of ,god's hands1 and of an arbitrary omnipotence4 #8,god1' as ,hooker says1 #8is a law both to himself and to all things beside2' #8his wisdom hath stinted the effects of his power4' #8,nor is the freedom of the will of ,god any whit abated1 let1 or hindered1 by means of this2 because the imposition of this law upon himself is his own free and voluntary act' 7#8,jehovah produced me'74 ,the idea1 then1 of the world as a ,cosmos was not adopted by the ,jews from the ,greeks2 it arose of itself as soon as religious men pondered over the phenomena of nature4 ,the author of ,job took up the idea1 and reexpressed it worthily in xxviii4 #ab-bh1 the chief difference between him and his predecessor being that he denies the attainableness for man of wisdom in the larger sense1 while the author of the #8,praise of ,wisdom' does not raise the question whether the higher department of wisdom is open to human enquiry4 ,at the subsequent history of the conception of ,wisdom we can barely glance4#bbg ,the cosmogonist in ,gen4 i41 a sublime thinker1 but addressing untutored minds1 preferred to convey truth in forms borrowed from mythology4 ,the moralists however saw the poetical and religious importance of the personification of ,wisdom1 and repeatedly introduced it into their didactic works 7see ,ecclus4 i41 xxiv41 ,wisd4 vi4-ix41#bbh and comp4 ,bar4 iii4 #bi-cg74 ,sirach even takes a step in advance of his original1 and at least for a moment identifies ,wisdom with the ,law of ,moses4#bbi ,it became indeed a tradition of ,jewish exegesis 7see ,pirke ,aboth1 vi4 #aj7 to interpret the absolute ,khokma of the ,tora1 either in opposition to ,hellenistic views of the higher wisdom1 or from a practical instinct such as ,wordsworth followed when in praise of ,duty he employed figures which had occurred long before in the #8,praise of ,wisdom1' or 7a closer parallel7 ,richard ,hooker1 when he described the ,scripture as one embodiment of that divine ,law which he so splendidly eulogises at the close of his first book4 ,that ,jewish legalism degenerated into a mechanical formalism1 should not blind us to the practical instinct in which it originated4 ,the title #8,the ,praise of ,wisdom' has now1 ,i hope1 been justified4 ,the passage quoted above forms the high-water mark of this elevated poetry1 and points the way to the grand things in the poem of ,job4 ,regularity of structure is not a merit of our treatise1 but the repetitions are not feeble1 and are perhaps deliberately made4 ,the author is a didactic poet1 and only after he can presume that his lessons have been assimilated will he venture on his highest flights4 ,does ,ewald bear this in mind when he divides the book into three sections1 ,i4 a general exhortation to wisdom1 in which the whole of the truth is touched upon1 but no part is completely unfolded 7i4 #h-;iii4 #ce72 ,,ii4 an exhaustive treatment of a few details 7iv4 #a-vi4 #ai72 ,,iii4 a gradual rise to the highest and most universal truth1 closing in almost lyric enthusiasm 7vi4 #bj-;ix4 #ah78 ,or ,hitzig1 when1 to suit an artificial arrangement1 he omits as later additions iii4 #bb-bf1 vi4 #a-ai1 viii4 #d-ab1 #ad-af1 ix4 #g-aj8 ,these are the two extremes of critical theory2 their failure may be taken as a proof that the only possible division is one like that of ,delitzsch into fifteen poems1 rather loosely connected together1 but presenting the same peculiarities of style and diction4 ,mashals we can only term them in a wide sense of the word2 not condensation but expansion is the characteristic of this book2 the discourse flows on till the subject has been exhausted1 and then1 after a brief pause1 it gushes forth anew4 ,one of the chapters 7ii47 actually forms a single carefully elaborated sentence4 ,now and then the matter is more broken up2 we meet with some small groups of detached sentences 7e4g4 iii4 #bg-ce1 vi4 #a-aa1 #ab-ai71 which introduce some variety into the style1 and suggest that the author revised his work with the view of making it an ethical manual1 as well as an introduction to the anthology4 ,in one of these groups we find the interesting similitude of the ant1 which the ,septuagint has supplemented by one of purely ,greek origin 7see ,hitzig and ,lagarde7 on the bee4 ,the author has the pen of a ready writer1 and his work shows that he has studied the literature of his time4 ,he was familiar#bcj with the phraseology of the #8,solomonic' proverbs1 though he struck out a style of his own1 in harmony with the altered conditions of the teaching office4 ,he addresses those who have time to listen1 and taste to appreciate his flowing rhetoric4 ,he implies throughout that his audience belongs to the wealthier class1 and his favourite images are drawn from the life of the merchant4#bca ,clearly too he has a strong hold upon the doctrine that prosperity and adversity are indicative of moral character4 ,thus1 speaking of ethical ,wisdom1 he says1 ,length of days is in her 7,wisdom's7 right hand1 in her left riches and honour 7iii4 #af74bcb ,and yet there is evidence1 even in ,prov4 i4-ix41 of a nascent scepticism on this point1 originating probably in some recent event1 such as the captivity of the ,ten ,tribes4 ,in words which remind us of ,psalms xxxvii4 and lxxiii4 the writer exclaims-- ,envy thou not the man of violence1 and have thou pleasure in none of his ways4444 ,the curse of ,jehovah is in the house of the ungodly1 but the habitation of the righteous he blesses 7iii4 #ca1 #cc72 and to furnish his disciples with an answer to the sceptic-- ,truly1 whom ,jehovah loves1 he corrects1 and as a father the son in whom he delights 7iii4 #ab2 comp4 ,job v4 #ag74 ,with this sweet saying ,i take leave for the present of this beautiful work4 ,how true it is that the doubts of a believer are the stepping-stones to higher attainments of faith6 ,footnote #bai3 7,maspero7 ,records of the ,past1 ii4 #i-af4 ,footnote #bbj3 ,its close relation to the first of the two great anthologies is shown by the linguistic points of contact between the two works 7see ,chap4 ,,vi47 ,footnote #bba3 ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,thorn4 ,footnote #bbb3 ,the poet1 we can see1 has not arranged the creative works as carefully as the cosmogonist in ,genesis4 ,footnote #bbc3 ,pleaseth him1 the ,eternal ,child1 ,to play his sweet will1 glad and wild4--,emerson1 ,wood ,notes4 ,footnote #bbd3 #8,produced' seems the best rendering 7,sept41 71 in the sense of #8creating1' not 7as ,del47 of #8revealing1' for which there is no authority4 ,the secondary meaning #8possessed' 7,aquila c4 1 ,vulg4 possedit2 comp4 ,eccles4 xxiv4 #f7 is less agreeable to the context 7see ,hitzig's note74 ,there is the same diversity of rendering in ,gen4 xiv4 #ai-bb4 ,on the patristic expositions of this passage1 see ,dean ,goode1 ,the ,divine ,rule of ,faith and ,practice1 ed4 #a1 i4 #bii4 ,the ante-,nicene ,fathers mostly apply it to the divine generation of the ,son1 the post-,nicene to the generation of the human nature of ,christ4 ,basil and ,epiphanius are exceptions4 ,the former applies the passage to #8that wisdom which the apostle mentions' 7in #a ,cor4 i4 #ba73 the latter expresses a strong opinion that #8it does not at all speak concerning the ,son of ,god4' ,footnote #bbe3 ,comp4 ,milton's noble conception of the ,creator's golden compasses 7,par4 ,lost1 vii4 #bbe1 #f74 ,footnote #bbf3 ,comp4 ,delitzsch1 ,system der christlichen ,apologetik1 #af1 where the history of this conception in ,jewish literature is traced in connection with that of the ,logos-idea2 also ,ewald1 ,die ,lehre der ,bibel von ,gott1 iii4 #gd-gg4 ,footnote #bbg3 ,in ,wisd4 vii4 #bb c4 the language appears to some to rise above poetical personification1 and to imply a conscious hypostatising of ,wisdom4 ,dante1 a good judge on this point1 certainly thought otherwise 7,convito1 iii4 #ae72 he evidently holds that the ,sophia of the ,book of ,wisdom is precisely analogous to his own very strong personification of divine ,philosophy4 ,still such language may have partly prepared the way for the well-known ,gnostic myth of ,achamoth or ,sophia 7comp4 ,baur1 ,three ,first ,centuries1 ,e4 ,t41 i4 #bjg74 ,it was well1 as ,plumptre remarks1 that ,philo adopted ,logos rather than ,sophia as the name of the creative energy4 ,a system in which ,sophia had been the dominant word might have led to an earlier development of ,mariolatry 7,introduction to ,proverbs in the ,speaker's ,commentary74 ,footnote #bbh3 ,ecclus4 xxiv4 #bc4 7,comp4 a sublime passage of ,e4 ,irving1 identifying the contents of the #8sacred volume' with #8the primeval divinity of revealed ,wisdom1' ,miscellanies1 p4 #chj c47 ,according to late ,jewish theology1 the ,law is one of the seven things produced before the creation of the world4 ,the alphabet-fables in ,talmud and ,midrash1 in which letters of the alphabet converse with ,god1 presuppose the same view 7comp4 the ,mohammedan view of the ,koran74 ,footnote #bbi3 ,so ,milton 7a ,hebraist71 ,paradise ,lost1 vii4 #aj 7#8didst play'71 and again in ,tetrachordon 7#8,god himself conceals not his own recreations1' c47 ,footnote #bcj3 ,the proof of this cannot be given here4 ,footnote #bca3 ,see ii4 #d1 iii4 #ac-ae1 iv4 #g1 vii4 #af1 #ag1 #ai1 #bj 7especially71 viii4 #aj1 #ah-ba4 ,footnote #bcb3 ,comp4 i4 #cb1 #cc1 ii4 #ba1 #bb1 iii4 #a-aj1 ix4 #aa1 #ab1 #ah4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,supplementary ,,on ,,questions ,,of ,,date ,,and ,,origin4 ,there are two extreme views on the date of the ,book of ,proverbs1 between which are the theories of the mass of moderate critics4 ,the one is that represented by ,keil in his ,introduction and ,bishop ,ellicott's ,commentary1 that the whole book except chaps4 xxx41 xxxi41 and perhaps the heading i4 #a-f1 is in substance of ,solomonic origin2#bcc the other is that of ,vatke and ,reuss 7the precursors of ,kuenen and ,wellhausen7 that our proverbs as a collection come from the post-,exile period4 ,much need not be said on the first of these extreme views4 ,it has been pointed out already that the ethical and religious character even of the earliest proverbial collection stands far removed from that of the historical ,solomon4 ,it is indeed a pure hypothesis that any ,solomonic element survives in the ,book of ,proverbs4 ,i doubt not that many bright and witty sayings of ,solomon came into circulation1 and some of them might conceivably have been gathered up and included in the anthologies4 ,but have we any adequate means of deciding which these are8 ,it would appear from #a ,kings iv4 #cc that the wisdom of the historical ,solomon expressed itself in spoken fables or moralisations about animals and trees4 ,a few1 a very few1 of the proverbs in our book may perhaps satisfy the test thus obtained1 and be plausibly represented as a ,solomonic element4 ,but why ,solomon should be singled out as the author1 it would tax one's ingenuity to say1 and the judgment of ,hitzig 7in such matters a conservative critic7 must be maintained that the survival of ,solomonic proverbs is no more than a possibility4#bcd ,the other extreme view requires some little explanation4 ,vatke does not deny that ,solomon composed proverbs1 but only that his proverbs can have resembled those in the canonical book4 ,putting aside some sayings of earlier date ,vatke holds that the stamp of the post-,exile period 7and more particularly of the fifth century7 is as marked in the ,book of ,proverbs as it is1 according to him1 in that of ,job2 in short1 that both works imply1 equally with the still later ,ecclesiastes1 a long and earnest struggle between the principles represented respectively by the higher prophets and by the priests4 ,the result of this struggle has become to the authors of these books an objective truth which it is henceforth their business to realise as true subjectively4#bce ,the existence of a free-minded school of thought in the post-,exile period is very plausibly defended both by ,vatke and by ,kuenen1#bcf and if our only choice lay between the extreme alternatives mentioned above1 we should be shut up to the acceptance of the latter4 ,i shall not however discuss here the post-,exile origin of the ,book of ,proverbs as a whole1 but only that part of the hypothesis which relates to the very interesting section designated by ,ewald the #8,praise of ,wisdom4' ,if this portion is not of ,exile or post-,exile origin1 ,i do not see how it can be maintained that any other part of the book is so1 except indeed the sayings of ,agur and ,lemuel 7xxx4 #a-xxii4 #i74 ,the following are some of the leading arguments for the late origin of ,prov4 i4-ix4 ,i4 ,these chapters are said to contain a few parallels to passages in works belonging probably to the ,exile or post-,exile period 7,,ii4 ,isaiah1#bcg ,job74 ,i lay no stress on the occurrence of ,prov4 i4 #af 7with the addition of #8innocent'7 in ,isa4 lix4 #g;a1 because this verse is not in the rhythm of the rest of ,prov4 i4-ix41 and is not found in the ,septuagint4 ,there may however be a parallelism between ,prov4 ii4 #ae and ,isa4 lix4 #h2 the prophet is1 at any rate1 influenced by some proverbial work similar to ,prov4 i4-ix4 ,there may also be one between ,prov1 i4 #bd1 #bf1 #bg and ,isa4 lxv4 #ab1 lxvi4 #d4 ,more striking are the affinities already pointed out between ,prov4 i4-ix4 and the ,book of ,job1 which may be taken to prove that these works proceeded from the same circle of #8wise men1' but not necessarily that they are of the same period 7see above1 p4 #he74 ,,ii4 ,as to the religious ideas of these chapters1 7a7 ,the ,theism expressed is both pure and broad4 ,polytheism is not even worthy to be the subject of controversy2 the tone is throughout positive4 ,jehovah's vast creative activity fills the writer's mind1 and begins to stimulate speculative curiosity2 from this point of view comp4 ,prov4 viii4 #bb-ca with ,job xv4 #g1 #h1bch xxxviii4 #d-aa1 and ,gen4 i4 7,the affinities with the cosmogony are only general1#bci but perhaps gain in importance when taken together with the possible allusion to ,gen4 ii4 in ,prov4 iii4 #ah1 #8,she is a tree of life' c47 7b7 ,it is no objection to the ,exile or post-,exile date that the doctrine of invariable retribution is presupposed in this treatise4 ,we find this doctrine both in the speeches of ,elihu 7,job4 xxxii4-xxxvii41 a separate work in its origin7 and in the ,wisdom of ,sirach4 ,there is some weight in these arguments4 ,but it can1 ,i think1 be shown that the age of ,jeremiah contained the germs of various mental products which only matured in the later periods1 and ,reuss seems to me singularly wilful in assuming that the personification of ,wisdom of itself proves the late date of ,prov4 i4-ix4 ,,iii4 ,the luxurious living implied in ,prov i4-ix4 would suit the ,exile and post-,exile period4 ,as soon as the ,jews had the chance of participating in the world's good things1 they eagerly availed themselves of it4 ,the prominence of the retribution doctrine in these nine chapters might possibly be accounted for by the prosperity of many of the dispersed ,jews4 ,to me however the expression #8peace-offerings' 7vii4 #ad7 points away from ,babylon1 just as the expression #8yarn of ,egypt' in vii4 #af points away from ,egypt4 ,,iv4 ,the phraseology of these chapters 7as well as of the rest of the book7 is said by ,hartmann#bdj to be late4 ,his instances of late and ,aramaising words and forms require testing2 an argument of this sort 7except in more extreme cases7 is not conclusive as to date4 ,reuss appears to base his linguistic argument rather on the clearness of the style1 which #8betrays this section to be the latest part of the book4'#bda ,nldeke however more soberly infers1 from the #8flowingness and facility of the language1' that the author lived subsequently to ,isaiah4#bdb ,on the whole1 ,i am compelled to reject the hypothesis of either the ,exile or the post-,exile origin of ,prov4 i4-ix4 ,the ,exile-date seems to be excluded by ,prov4 vii4 #ad1 which implies the sacrificial system2 the post-,exile by the want of any sufficient reason for descending so late in the course of history4 ,the fifth century in particular1 to which ,vatke refers the whole ,book of ,proverbs1 seems to me out of the question for this section of the book4 ,before the time of ,sirach1 ,i cannot find a period in the post-,exile history in which the life of ,jerusalem can have much resembled the picture given of it in ,prov4 i4-ix4 ,but ,sirach's evident imitation of the #8,praise of ,wisdom' 7we shall come back to this in studying ,ecclesiasticus7 seems of itself to suggest that ,prov4 i4-ix4 is the monument of an earlier age1 and this is confirmed by ,sirach's different attitude towards ceremonial religion4 ,there remains the hypothesis that the treatise1 ,prov4 i4-ix41 was written towards the close of the kingdom of ,judah4 ,there seems to me no sufficient argument against this view1 which agrees with the result above attained on the relation of ,prov4 i4-ix4 to the ,book of ,job 7p4 #he74 ,the collapse of the state was sudden1 and for some time after the composition or at least promulgation of the ,deuteronomic ,tra the ,jews appeared to be in the enjoyment of national prosperity4 ,now the author of ,prov4 i4-ix4 depicts a state of outward prosperity and is evidently familiar with the exhortations of ,deuteronomy4 ,who1 as ,delitzsch remarks1 can fail to hear in ,prov4 i4 #g-;ix4 an echo of the ,shem 7#8hear'71 ,deut4 vi4 #d-i 7comp4 xi4 #ah-ba78 ,this is quite consistent with the opinion that ,prov4 i4-ix4 is later than the proverbs in the two principal collections of our book1 an opinion which commends itself to most#bdc especially on account of the higher moral standard of ,prov4 i4-ix41 and its advance in the treatment of literary form4 ,i have said #8the composition or at least promulgation' of ,deuteronomy4 ,if ,deuteronomy was written 7which is at least possible7 as early as the reign of ,hezekiah1#bdd we may perhaps follow ,ewald1 who places the #8,praise of ,wisdom' in the period of relative prosperity which1 he thinks1 closed the reign of ,manasseh4#bde ,it is noteworthy that ,mic4 vi41 which ,ewald plausibly assigns to the period of ,manasseh's persecution1 also presents some points of contact with ,deuteronomy4#bdf ,and yet it seems to me safer to date the book in the reign of ,josiah1 when1 as we know from history and prophecy1 the discourses of ,deuteronomy first became generally known4 99 99 99 99 99 ,next1 as to the body of the work4 ,that the collection in x4 #a-xxii4 #af is the earliest part of the book is admitted by most critics4 ,the fact that chaps4 i4-ix4 present linguistic points of contact with it1 does not prove the two parts to be of the same date1 for the opening chapters also display peculiarities quite unlike those of the #8,solomonic' anthology4#bdg ,i have already set forth my own view on this and on other critical points1 and will now only register the results of ,ewald and of ,delitzsch4 ,both are agreed that the older ,book of ,proverbs extends from i4 #a to xxiv4 #bb1 i4 #a-f 7or #g7 being the descriptive heading of the work1 and i4 #g 7or #h7-;ix4 #ah a hortatory treatise1 by the author1 more or less introductory to the sayings which follow4 ,the date of the collection of the latter ,ewald places at the beginning of the eighth century2 that of the heading and introduction in the middle of the seventh4 ,towards the end of the seventh century the three appendices 7xxii4 #ag-xxiv4 #bb1 xxiv4 #bc-ce1 xxv4 #a-xxix4 #bg7 were added2 the contents of the two former were derived from two popular proverbial collections1 while the latter was a great and officially sanctioned anthology dating from the end of the eighth century4 ,the remaining parts of the book 7xxx4 #a-xxxi4 #i1 and xxxi4 #aj-ca7 ,ewald assigns to the seventh century4 ,delitzsch 7whose view is perhaps the most conservative one still tenable7 dates the publication of the first ,book of ,proverbs as early as the reign of ,jehoshaphat 7referring to #b ,chr4 xvii4 #g-i74 ,to its editor he ascribes not only the authorship of i4 #a-;ix4 #ah but the conclusion of the #8older book' by the words of the wise1 xxii4 #ag-xxiv4 #bb1 while a later editor is responsible both for the supplementary sayings of the wise1 xxiv4 #bb-cd1 and for the great ,hezekian collection1 of which he thus ensured the preservation4 ,the same person probably appended the obscure sayings of ,agur 7xxx47 and of ,lemuel 7xxxi4 #a-i71 possibly too the closing alphabetic poem 7xxxi4 #aj-ca71 which is assigned by ,delitzsch to the pre-,hezekian period4 ,both ,ewald and ,delitzsch are substantially agreed as to the existence of a genuine ,solomonic element in both the great anthologies 7especially in the first71 but upon very conjectural grounds4 ,one point only remains to be considered1 however briefly4 ,the ,book of ,job has already furnished an example of the poetical fiction of the non-,israelitish authorship of a ,hebrew poem4 ,it is possible enough that this and the similar instance of the ,balaam-oracles were not alone in ,hebrew literature4 ,nor are they so1 if a view of the first words of the headings in ,prov4 xxx4 #a1 xxxi4 #a1 which has found many friends1 be correct1 and we may render in the one case1 #8,the words of ,agur the son of ,jakeh1 of 7the country of7 ,massa1' reading either mimmass 7or1 as ,delitzsch proposes1 mimmsh or hammass'#bdh72 and in the other1 #8,the words of ,lemuel the king of ,massa4' ,mhlau in his monograph on #8,agur' and #8,lemuel' thinks that both the contents and the language of the sayings of ,agur #8almost necessarily point to a region bordering on the ,syro-,arabian wastes1' but his theory of an ,israelitish colony in a certain ,massa in the ,hauran 7comp4 #a ,chr4 v4 #aj71 like a somewhat similar theory of ,hitzig's 7he places #8,massa' in ,n4 ,arabia1 comparing #a ,chr4 iv4 #db1 #dc1 where the ,simeonites are said to have settled in ,mount ,seir1 and ,isa4 xxi4 #aa1 #abbdi71 is too conjectural to be readily accepted4 ,there is however much force in a part of the arguments of ,mhlau1 especially in his first and second 7referring to xxxi4 #a71 #8,the word melek in apposition to ,lemuel cannot go without the article1'#bej and ',mass 8utterance0 is never used elsewhere except of 7prophetic7 oracles4' ,if any one therefore likes to adopt the above renderings1 taking ,massa as the name of a country 7comp4 ,gen4 xxv4 #ad1 #a ,chr4 i4 #cj71 ,i have no strong objection4 ,ziegler's view cited by ,mhlau1#bea that ,lemuel was an ,emeer of an ,arabian tribe in the east of ,jordan1 and that an ,israelitish wise man translated the ,emeer's sayings into ,hebrew1 is perhaps not as untenable as ,mhlau thinks1 provided that #8translation' be taken to include recasting in accordance with the spirit of the ,old ,testament religion4 ,for my own part1 however1 ,i prefer the simpler explanation given already in considering chaps4 xxx41 xxii4 #a-i4 ,i account for the ,aramaisms1 ,arabisms1 and other peculiarities of these sections by their post-,exile origin1 with which the character of the contents of the most striking portion1 xxx4 #a-f1 appears to me to harmonise 7notice e4g4 the strong faith in the words of revelation in xxx4 #e74 ,but ,i am not writing a commentary1 and can only draw the reader's attention to some of the most important exegetical phenomena4 ,let me refer in conclusion to a critical note on p4 #age1 which has a bearing on the question raised by some whether ,job and this part of ,proverbs may fitly be called ,hebro-,arabic works4 ,it is strange that ,hitzig should have renounced the support for his theory 7see p4 #aga7 to be obtained from ,prov4 xxx4 #ca4 ,footnote #bcc3 ,keil qualifies this however by admitting that ,solomon may have incorporated many sayings of other wise men4 ,footnote #bcd3 ,die ,sprche ,salomo's1 v4 xvii4 ,footnote #bce3 ,die biblische ,theologie1 i4 #efc4 ,footnote #bcf3 ,the ,religion of ,israel1 ii4 #bdb4 ,footnote #bcg3 ,the passages in ,,ii4 ,isaiah referred to in this paragraph belong to sections most probably of post-,exile origin4 7,see art4 #8,isaiah' in ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 new ed47 ,footnote #bch3 ,we should perhaps read here v'thigga' for v'thigra'1 following ,sept4's 2 so ,merx and ,bickell4 ,footnote #bci3 ,were the affinities with ,gen4 i4 more definite1 critics of ,wellhausen's school would naturally derive from them an argument for the post-,exile origin of ,prov4 i4-ix4 ,i do not myself attach much weight to these slight parallelisms4 ,footnote #bdj3 ,die enge ,verbindung des ,a4 ,t4 mit dem ,neuen1 pp4 #adh-i4 ,footnote #bda3 ,geschichte der heiligen ,schriften ,alten ,testaments1 p4 #did4 ,footnote #bdb3 ,die alttestamentliche ,literatur 7#ahfh71 p4 #aei4 ,footnote #bdc3 ,hitzig1 however1 almost alone among recent critics1 regards the opening chapters as the oldest part of the book4 ,footnote #bdd3 ,this seems to me the earliest probable date1 but does not exclude the possibility that early traditional material has been worked into the book4 ,footnote #bde3 ,history of ,israel1 iv4 #bai4 ,it should be mentioned however that ,ewald places ,job 7except the ,elihu-portion71 ,prov4 i4-ix41 and1 last in order1 ,deuteronomy all in the reign of ,manasseh4 ,he fails to recognise the influence of ,deuteronomy on the #8,praise of ,wisdom4' ,footnote #bdf3 ,see ,micah in the ,cambridge ,school and ,college ,bible4 ,footnote #bdg3 ,delitzsch1 ,proverbs1 i4 #cc2 ,kuenen1 ,onderzock1 iii4 #ge4 ,footnote #bdh3 ,in the version known as the ,grcus ,venetus 7#adth or #aeth cent47 xxx4 #a;a runs thus1 7,jakeh the ,massaite74 ,delitzsch's view1 given above1 is taken from his art4 on #8,proverbs' in ,herzog-,plitt's ,encyclopdia2 he refers to ,friedrich ,delitzsch's ,paradies1 p4 #cjc2 comp4 #bdc4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,on ,isa4 xxi4 #aa1 #ab1 see ,the ,prophecies of ,isaiah1 i4 #abi1 ii4 #aeb4 ,hitzig's theory1 originally stated in ,zeller's ,theol4 ,jahrbcher1 #ahdd1 pp4 #bfi-cje1 will be found in the well-known short commentary 7,kurzgefasstes exeg4 ,handbuch1 #ahdg7 by ,bertheau1 who substantially accepts it4 ,footnote #bej3 ,this is a little too strong4 ,we should certainly have expected melek ,lemuel 7or ,lemoel7 rather than ,lemuel melek1 on the analogy of melek ,yrb1 ,hos4 v4 #ac1 x4 #f4 ,as it stands in the text1 melek 7after ,lemuel1 and without the article7 can only be a definition of class4 ,the ,lemuel spoken of was quite unknown to the reader1 and therefore the editor appends the descriptive title #8king4' ,comp4 ,ex4 xxxii4 #aa1 where ,joshua1 son of ,nun1 being introduced for the first time1 is described as na'ar #8a squire4' ,footnote #bea3 ,referring to ,neue ,uebersetzung der ,denksprche ,salomo's1 #agia1 p4 #bi4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,text ,,of ,,proverbs4 ,the sense of proverbs is naturally most difficult to catch when there has been no attempt to group them by subjects4 ,hence the textual difficulties of so large a part of the earliest anthology4 ,grtz has made some valuable among many too arbitrary corrections2 but a systematic use of the ancient versions is still a desideratum4 ,lagarde1 ,oort1 ,bickell1 and others have led the way2 but much yet remains to be done4 ,my space only allows me to give some preliminary hints1 which may at least stimulate further inquiry1 on the relation of the ,hebrew text to the versions1 especially the ,septuagint version 7if ,i should not rather speak of #8versions'74 ,how comes it1 we may ask first of all1 that the ,septuagint contains so many passages not found in the ,hebrew8 ,one answer is that in a foreign land1 with a new language and a new circle of ideas1 explanation was as necessary to the ,hellenistic ,jews as translation4 ,hence the tendency of the ,septuagint translators to introduce glosses4 ,but the form of the ,book of ,proverbs specially favoured interpolations4 ,sometimes only a few words were inserted to make the text more distinct 7e4g4 i4 #bb1 xii4 #be1 xxiv4 #bc72 at other times explanatory or suggested remarks were added1 at first perhaps in the margin4 ,of course1 it is perfectly conceivable that the received ,hebrew text itself may contain similar additions2 the analogy of other books1 in which such interpolations occur1 even favours this idea4 ,one such insertion is patent2 there can be no doubt that i4 #af was added in the ,hebrew1 to the detriment of the connection1 from ,isa4 lix4 #g4 ,as this passage is wanting in the best ,,mss4 of the ,septuagint1 we might be tempted to use this version as a means of detecting other interpolations in the ,hebrew4 ,this however would lead us into researches of too much complexity4 ,some of the ,septuagint additions are also found in the ,vulgate1 some again also in the ,peshitto2 and where a ,septuagint addition is not found in the ,vulgate we may1 at least in some cases1 assume that the ,septuagint text did not in ,st4 ,jerome's time contain the additional matter4 ,among the most interesting passages from a text-critical point of view peculiar to the ,septuagint are those found at iii4 #ae1 iv4 #bg1 vi4 #h1 #aa1 vii4 #b1 ix4 #ab1beb1 #ah1 xi4 #af1 xii4 #ac1 xv4 #ah1 xvi4 #e1 xix4 #g1 xxvi4 #aa1 xxvii4 #bj1 #ba1 xxviii4 #aj4 ,most of these can be rendered back into ,hebrew1 though this is difficult with vi4 #aa;b as it stands1 and impossible with vi4 #h 7#8the bee'74 ,in any case the ,hebrew origin of a proverb does not prove that it was inserted by the original collector or collectors4 ,with regard to the ,targum and its deviations from the ,hebrew text1 it is to be observed that this version has the same relation to the ,peshitto as the ,vulgate to the old ,latin version on which it is based4 ,the ,peshitto translates from a ,hebrew text substantially the same as our own2 though the translator has consulted the ,septuagint 7according to ,hitzig7 in the portion of the book beginning at vii4 #bc4 ,there are also some remarkable transpositions in the ,septuagint ,proverbs1 reminding us of those in the ,septuagint ,jeremiah4 ,the three appendices to the ,hezekian collection are given in a very different order from that of the ,hebrew4 ,the first fourteen verses of chap4 xxx4 are inserted between ver4 #bb and ver4 #bc of chap4 xxiv41 and all the remainder1 together with xxxi4 #a-i1 is placed before chap4 xxv4 ,the treatment of the headings in the ,septuagint is also remarkable1 and seems arbitrary2 e4g4 it looks as if the translator had expunged all those peculiarities in the superscriptions which suggested a variety of authorship4 ,the proper names in chaps4 xxx41 xxxi4 have been explained away1 and the heading in x4 #a1 which limits the ,solomonic authorship too much for the translator1 has been actually omitted4 ,on the ,septuagint additions to ,proverbs1 comp4 ,deane in ,expositor1 #ahhd1 pp4 #big-cja2 on the larger subject of the ,greek and the ,hebrew text1 see introduction to ,hitzig's commentary1 ,lagarde's ,anmerkungen c41 and a series of papers1 thorough but less masterly than ,hitzig's or ,lagarde's work1 by ,heidenheim 7title in #8,aids to the ,student1' below74 ,,note ,,on ,,proverbs ,,xxx4 #ca4 ,some assume here a corruption of the text1 but the margin of the ,revised ,version gives an appropriate sense4 ,it implies indeed the admission of a downright ,arabism1 but there are parallels for this in vv4 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 and alqm for the ,arabic al-qaum is 7see ,gesenius7 like elgbhsh 7,ezek4 xiii4 #aa1 #ac1 xxxviii4 #bb7 and almdd 7,gen4 x4 #bf74 #8,the king when his army is with him' may very fitly be adduced as a specimen of the #8comely in going4' ,m4 ,halvy indeed has suggested that qm in alqm may be the ,qvam or ,qjam often mentioned in the ,sinaitic inscriptions 7,bulletin ,no4 #bh of the ,socit de ,linguistique2 see ,academy1 ,march #bg1 #ahhf74 ,but the former view is still the more plausible one4 ,why should a king with whom is #8,god ,qavam' be described as specially #8comely in going'8 ,wetzstein too has stated that alqaum is still pronounced al-qm by the ,bedawins4 ,comp4 ,blau1 ,zeitschr4 d4 deutschen morg4 ,ges41 xxv4 #eci4 ,footnote #beb3 ,the addition here is very poetical1 and may1 as ,ewald says1 have been extracted from an ancient anthology4 ,but it disturbs the connection4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,religious ,,value ,,of ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,proverbs4 ,it is only in modern times that the ,book of ,proverbs has been disparaged2 the early ,christian ,fathers considered it to be of much ethico-religious value4 ,hence the sounding title1 first used by ,clement of ,rome 7,cor41 c4 #eg71 4 ,from our point of view1 indeed1 the value of the book is different in its several parts1 but no part is without its use4 ,can any ,christian help seeing the poetic foregleams of ,christ in the great monologue of ,wisdom in chap4 viii48 ,dorner may be right in maintaining that the idea of the ,incarnation cannot have been evolved from ,hebraism or ,judaism1 and yet the description of ,wisdom1 #8sporting with ,jehovah's world' and #8having her delights with the sons of men' 7viii4 #ca71 cannot but remind us of the sympathetic1 divine-human ,teacher1 who #8took the form of a servant4' ,how deeply this great section has affected the theology of the past1 ,i need not here relate4 ,will it ever lose its value as a symbolic picture of the combined transcendence and immanence of the ,divine ,being8 ,turning to the other parts of the book1 do they not furnish abundant justification of that type of ,christianity which accepts but does not dwell on forms1 so bent is it upon moral applications of the religious principle8 ,do they not show that the #8fear of the ,lord' is quite compatible with a deep interest in average human life and human nature8 ,the ,book of ,proverbs1 taken as a whole1 seems to supply the necessary counterweight to the psalms and the prophecies4 ,the psalmists love ,god more than aught else2 but must every one say1 #8,possessing this1 ,i have pleasure in nothing upon earth' 7,ps4 lxxiii4 #bf78 ,would it be good to be always in this mood8 ,is there not something more satisfactory in the ,pauline saying1 #8,all things are yours1 and ye are ,christ's'8 ,and as for the prophets--do they not 7we may conjecture and perhaps partly prove this7 depreciate too much the morality and religion of their neighbours8 ,the ,book of ,proverbs gives us only average morality and religion2 yet1 if we judge it fairly1 how pleasing on the whole is the picture6 ,taking it as equally authoritative with the psalms and prophecies1 shall we not rise to a more comprehensive religion than a mere pupil of psalmists or prophets knew--to one that charges us1 not to love ,god less1 but our neighbour more8 ,it would no doubt be easy to criticise the ,book from a ,new ,testament point of view4 ,but the ,new ,testament itself has absorbed much that is best in it1 and quotations from it occur not unfrequently1 especially in the ,epistles4 ,nor can any teacher of the people afford to neglect its stores of happily expressed practical wisdom4 ,we must not even despise its #8utilitarianism4' ,the awful declarations of #8,wisdom' in ,prov4 i4 #bd-cb are simply the voice of the personified laws of ,god#bec warning men that the consequences of their acts1 even if they may be overruled for good1 yet cannot by any cunning be escaped4 ,does the ,new ,testament quite supersede this form of teaching8 ,and does not the ,hebrew sage once at least give a suggestion of that very overruling love of ,god which is among the characteristic ideas of ,christian lore 7see ,prov4 iii4 #aa78 ,footnote #bec3 ,so we may venture to paraphrase #8,wisdom' in this connection4 ,,aids ,,to ,,the ,,student4 ,the #8aids' here mentioned are such as might otherwise escape notice4 ,w4 ,nowack1 ,die ,sprche ,salomo's u4s4w4 7a recast of ,bertheau's commentary in the ,kurzgefasstes ,exeg4 ,handbuch71 #ahhc2 ,h4 ,deutsch1 ,die ,sprche ,salomo's nach der ,auffassung im ,talmud und ,midrasch dargestellt und kritisch untersucht 7erster ,theil1 #ahhe72 ,bickell1 #8,exegetisch-kritische ,nachlese3 ,proverbien und ,job1' in ,zeitschr4 fur kathol4 ,theologie1 #ahhf1 pp4 #bje-bjh2 ,aben ,ezra's commentary on ,proverbs1 edited by ,chaim ,m4 ,horowitz1 #ahhd2 ,loewenstein1 ,die ,proverbien ,salomo's1 mit ,benutzung lterer und neuerer ,manuskripte1 #ahcg 7text and commentary in ,hebrew1 with ,german metrical version2 contains valuable contributions to a more critical ,massoretic text from the papers of ,w4 ,heidenheim72 ,m4 ,heidenheim1 #8,zur ,textkritik der ,proverbien1' in his ,vierteljahresschrift for #ahfe and #ahff2 ,lagarde1 ,anmerkungen sur griechischen ,uebersetzung der ,proverbien1 #ahfc2 ,grtz1 #8,exegetische ,studien zu den ,salomonischen ,sprchen1' in his ,monatsschrift1 #ahhd2 ,dijserinck1 #8,kritische ,scholien1' in ,theologisch ,tijdschrift1 #ahhc1 p4 #egg c42 ,oort1 #8,spreuken ,i4-,,ix41' in same periodical1 #ahhe1 p4 #cgi c42 ,bttcher1 ,aehrenlese1 part iii41 #ahfe 7contains #ci pages on ,proverbs72 ,mhlau1 ,de proverbiorum ,agur et ,lemuel origine1 #ahfi2 ,bruch1 ,weisheitslehre der ,hebrer1 #ahea2 ,hooykaas1 ,gesch4 van de beoefening der ,weisheid onder de ,hebreen1 #ahfb2 ,dukes1 ,rabbinische ,blumenlese1 #ahdd 7includes ,talmudic proverbs2 comp4 the older works of ,drusius1 #aeij-a1 and ,brll's supplement in his ,jahrbcher1 #ahhe72 ,delitzsch1 art4 #8,sprche ,salomo's1' in ,herzog-,plitt's ,real-,encyklopdie1 ed4 #b1 vol4 xiv42 and the works of ,oehler and ,schultz on ,old ,testament ,theology 7the former in ,clark's ,library74 ,,the ,,wisdom ,,of ,,jesus ,,the ,,son ,,of ,,sirach4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,wise ,,man ,,turned ,,scribe4 ,,sirach',s ,,moral ,,teaching4 ,the inclusion of ,sirach within our range of study1 as an appendix and counterpart to the canonical ,book of ,proverbs1 requires no long justification4 ,the so-called #8,wisdom of ,solomon' is in form and colouring almost as much ,greek as ,hebrew1 and has no place in a survey of the wisdom of ,palestine4 ,but the #8,wisdom' more modestly ascribed to the son of ,sirach is a truly ,israelitish production1 though as yet none but the masters of our subject have recognised its intrinsic importance4 ,whence comes this prevalent neglect of a work still known as #8,ecclesiasticus' or a #8church-book'8 ,doubtless it has fallen in estimation from being combined with books more difficult to appraise fairly and consequently regarded with suspicion4 ,the objection which some ,jewish doctors entertained to recommending parts of the ,hagiographa has been felt by many moderns with regard to the ,apocrypha4 ,the objection is too strong and general not to have some foundation1 but it implies an unhistorical habit of mind4 ,granted that the ,apocryphal writings of the ,old ,testament belong in the main to a period of outer and inner decadence 7though the noble ,maccabean days may qualify this72 yet periods of decadence are often also periods of transition to some new and better thing1 which cannot be understood or appreciated without them4 ,ewald has suggested the title of #8intermediate writings' 7,zwischenschriften#bed7 as a substitute for ,apocrypha1 to indicate that transitional character which gives these books so high a value for the student of both ,testaments4 ,the book now before us--the largest and most comprehensive in the ,wisdom-literature--is one of these #8intermediate writings1' but in what sense beyond the most superficial one remains to be seen4 ,it is mentioned here first of all because of the proof which it gives of the great literary force of the canonical ,book of ,proverbs4 ,but no product of literature could maintain itself as ,sirach has done if it were a mere imitation2 ,sirach1 not less than the ,wisdom-books of the ,old ,testament proper1 is at least a partial reflection of the life of the times4 ,its date indeed has been disputed4 ,suffice it to say here that the author was1 beyond reasonable doubt1#bee a contemporary of #8,simon the high priest1 the son of ,onias4' ,now there were five high priests who bore the name of ,simon or ,simeon1 two of whom1 ,simon ,i4 7,b4,c4 #caj-bij7 and ,simon ,,ii4 7,b4,c4 #bai-aii71 have by different critics been thought of4 ,the weight of argument is in favour of the second of the name1 who was certainly the more important of the two1 and who is referred to in the ,talmud under the name of ,simeon the ,righteous4#bef ,this is in accordance with the ,greek translator's statement in his preface that he was the grandson of the author1 and we may conjecturally fix the composition of the book at about #ahj ,b4,c4 ,the translator himself came into ,egypt1 as he tells us1 in the #chth year of king ,euergetes#beg 7comp4 ,luke xxii4 #be74 ,now ,euergetes ,,ii4 ,physkon1 who must be here intended1 began to reign jointly with his brother ,philometor ,b4,c4 #agj2 his brother died ,b4,c4 #ade1 and he reigned alone for twenty-five years longer 7till ,b4,c4 #aaf74 ,hence the translator's arrival in ,egypt and possibly the translation itself fall within the year #acb4 ,the object of his work1 we gather from the preface1 was to correct the inequalities of moral and religious culture 77 among the ,jews of ,egypt1 by setting before them a standard and a lesson-book of true religious wisdom4 ,let us pause a little over these dates4 ,it has been well observed by ,mommsen that the foundation of ,alexandria was as great an event in the history of the people of ,israel as the conquest of ,jerusalem4 ,it must indeed have seemed to many ,israelites more fraught with danger than with hope4 ,never before had ,paganism presented itself to their nation in so attractive a guise4 ,would their religion exhibit sufficient power of resistance on a foreign soil8 ,the fears1 however1 were groundless2 at any rate1 for a considerable time4 ,the forms of ,egyptian-,jewish literature might be foreign1 but its themes were wholly national4 ,even in that highly original synthesis of ,jewish1 ,platonic1 and ,stoic elements--the ,book of ,wisdom--the ,jewish spirit is manifestly predominant4 ,in ,palestine there was also a ,hellenic movement1 though less vigorous and all-absorbing than in ,egypt4 ,without a spontaneous manifestation of ,jewish sympathy1 ,antiochus ,epiphanes would never have made his abortive attempt to ,hellenise ,juda4 ,girt round by a ,greek population1 the ,palestinian ,jews1 in spite of ,ezra's admirable organisation1 could not entirely resist the assaults of ,hellenism4 ,it is probable that not merely ,greek language1 but ,greek philosophy1 exerted a charm on some of the clearest ,jewish intellects4 ,but we are within the bounds of acknowledged fact in asserting that the ardour of ,judan piety1 at least in the highest class1 greatly cooled in the age subsequent to ,ezra's1 and in ascribing this to ,greek influences4 ,the high priest ,simeon ,,ii41#beh surnamed the ,righteous 7i4e4 the strict observer of the ,law71 of whom so glowing an account is given by ,sirach 7chap4 i471 is the chief exception to this degeneracy2 yet he was powerless to stem the revolutionary current even within his own family4 ,his cousin ,joseph was the notorious farmer of the taxes of ,palestine1 who by his public and private immorality#bei sapped the very foundations of ,jewish life1 while two of ,simeon's sons1 ,jason and ,menelaus1 became the traitorous high priests who promoted the paganising movement under ,antiochus4 ,it is well known that many critics refer the ,book of ,ecclesiastes to the period immediately preceding this great movement4 ,the deep and almost philosophical character of the unknown author's meditations seems to be in harmony with this date4 ,on the other hand1 there is the well-ascertained fact that the ,book of ,sirach shows no trace of really philosophical thought2 it is little more than a new version of the ordinary proverbial morality4 ,it is to this book1 the #8,doppelgnger des kanonischen ,spruchbuchs1' as ,schrer calls it1 the work1 as a ,greek writer puts it1 of an attendant 77 of ,solomon1 that these pages are devoted4 ,nothing is more remarkable 7and it ought to make us very deliberate in determining dates upon internal evidence7 than the appearance of such a book at such a time4 ,the name of the author in full is ,joshua 7,jesus7 ben ,sira 7,sirach71#bfj but he may be called ,sirach for shortness1 this being the form of his family-name in the ,greek translation4 ,he tells us himself that he was of ,jerusalem2 that from his youth up his desire was for wisdom2 that he laboured earnestly in searching for her2 and that the ,lord gave him a tongue for his reward 7l4 #bg2 li47 ,sirach1 in fact1 is one of those #8wise men' to whom was entrusted so large a part of the religious education of the ,jewish people4 ,the remarkable fact that #8wise men' exist so long after the time of their prototype ,solomon1 proves that their activity was an integral part of the ,jewish national life4 ,the better class of #8wise men' gave an independent support to the nobler class of prophets4 ,with their peremptory style1 the prophets would never have succeeded in implanting a really vigorous religion1 had not the #8wise men1' with their more conciliatory and individualising manner of teaching1 supplemented their endeavours4 ,the ,babylonian ,exile introduced a change into the habits of the #8wise men1' who1 though some of them used the pen before the overthrow of the state1 became thenceforward predominantly1 if not entirely1 writers on practical moral philosophy4 ,such was ,sirach4 ,he is not indeed a strictly original writer1 nor does he lay claim to this4 ,this is how he describes the nature of his work 7xxxiii4 #af7-- ,i too1 as the last1 bestowed zeal1 and as one who gleans after the vintage2 ,by the blessing of the ,lord ,i was the foremost1 and as a grape-gatherer did ,i fill the winepress4 ,sirach1 then1 was first of all a collector of proverbs1 and he found that most of the current wise sayings had been already gathered4 ,it is not likely that up to xxxvi4 #bb he merely combined two older books of proverbs 7as ,ewald supposed#bfa71 though it is more than probable that older proverbs do really lie imbedded in his work4 ,but whether old proverbs or new1 ,sirach has this special characteristic1 that he loves to arrange his material by subjects4 ,this was already noticed by the early scribes1#bfb and is well brought out by ,holtzmann in ,bunsen's ,bibelwerk1 and ,i will merely refer to chap4 xxii4 #a-f1 #8,on good and bad children2' #g-ah1 #8,the character of the fool2' #ai-bf1 #8,on friendship2' #bg-xxiii4 #f1 #8,prayer and warning against sins of the tongue and lusts of the flesh2' #g-ae1 #8,the discipline of the mouth2' #af-bg1 #8,on adultery2' xxix4 #a-bj1 #8,on suretyship2' #ba-bh1 #8,an independent mode of life4'#bfc ,the plan of grouping his material is not indeed thoroughly carried out1 but even the attempt marks a progress in the literary art4 ,this is one of the points in which ,sirach differs from his canonical predecessors4 ,in other respects his indebtedness is manifest4 ,night and day he must have studied his revered models to have attained such insight into the secrets of style4 ,but1 so far from affecting originality1 he delights in allusions to the older proverbialists4 ,many parallelisms occur in the sayings on ,wisdom 7comp4 ,sir4 i4 #d1 ,prov4 viii4 #bb2 ,sir4 i4 #ad1 ,prov1 i4 #d1 ix4 #aj2 ,sir4 iv4 #ab1 #ac1 ,prov4 iv4 #g1 #h2 ,sir4 xxiv4 #a1 #b1 ,prov4 viii4 #a1 #b2 ,sir4 xxiv4 #c1 ,prov4 ii4 #f2 ,sir4 xxiv4 #e1 ,prov4 viii4 #bg74 ,this we might expect2 for ,wisdom in a large sense is more persistently the object of ,sirach than it was at any rate of the earlier writers in ,proverbs4 ,but1 besides this1 points of contact abound in very ordinary sayings4 ,thus compare1 among many others which might be given1 7a7 ,better a mean man that tills for himself than he that glorifies himself and has no bread 7,prov4 xii4 #i1 ,sept4 c47 ,better he that labours and abounds in all things than he that glorifies himself and has no bread 7,sir4 x4 #bg1 ,fritzsche74 7b7 ,a merry heart makes a cheerful face1 but with sorrow of heart is a crushed spirit 7,prov4 xv4 #ac74 ,the heart of a man alters his face1 as well for good cheer as for bad2 ,a merry face betokens a heart in good case 7,sir4 xiii4 #be1 #bf;a74 7c7 ,a passionate man stirs up strife1 and one that is slow to anger allays contention 7,prov4 xv4 #ah74 ,abstain from strife1 and thou shalt diminish thy sins1 for a passionate man will kindle strife 7,sir4 xxviii4 #h74 7d7 ,an intelligent servant rules over the son that causes shame 7,prov4 xviii4 #b74 ,unto the wise servant shall free men do service 7,sir4 x4 #be74 7e7 ,death and life are in the power of the tongue 7,prov4 xviii4 #ba74 ,good and evil1 life and death2 and the tongue rules over them continually 7,sir4 xxxvii4 #ah74 7f7 ,golden apples in silver salvers2 a word smoothly spoken 7,prov4 xxv4 #aa74 ,golden pillars upon a silver pediment2 fair feet upon firm soles 7,sir4 xxvi4 #ah1 ,fritzsche74 7g7 ,he who digs a pit shall fall therein1 and he who rolls a stone1 upon himself it shall return 7,prov4 xxvi4 #bg74 ,he who casts a stone on high1 casts it on his own head2 ,he who digs a pit shall fall therein 7,sir4 xxvii4 #be;a1 #bf;a74 7h7 ,the crucible for silver1 and the furnace for gold1 and a man is tried by his praise 7,prov4 xxvii4 #ba74 ,the furnace proves the potter's vessels1 the trial of a man is in his discourse 7,sir4 xxviii4 #e74 ,it will be seen from these examples that1 though ,sirach adapted and imitated1 he did so with much originality4 ,his style has colour1 variety1 and vivacity1 and though ,hengstenberg accuses the author of too uniform a mode of treatment1 yet a fairer judgment will recognise the skill with which the style is proportioned to the subject2 now dithyrambic in his soaring flight1 now modestly skimming the ground1 the author of the 7for so ,sirach1 no less than ,proverbs1 was called#bfd7 is never feeble and rarely trivial4 #8,its general tone1' says ,stanley1 #8is worthy of that first contact between the two great civilisations of the ancient world4' #8,nothing is too high1 nor too mean1' says ,schrer1 #8to be drawn within the circle of ,sirach's reflections and admonitions4' ,i have elsewhere spoken of his comprehensiveness4 ,this quality he partly owes to his being so steeped in the ,scriptures4 ,one result of this is that he is more historical than his predecessors1 and connects his wisdom with those narratives of early times1 which were either but little known to or valued by the proverb-writers of antiquity4 ,the earlier psalmists and prophets indeed show the same neglect of the traditions of the past3 they lived before the editing and gradual completion of any roll of #8,scriptures4' ,sirach on the other hand 7see his preface7 had #8the ,law and the ,prophets1 and the rest of the books1' the latter collection being a kind of appendix1 still open to additions4 ,he was a true #8scribe1' and gloried in the name 7xxxviii4 #bd71 not in the ,new ,testament sense1 but in one not unworthy of a religious philosopher2 he gave his mind to the wisdom both of the ,scriptures and of #8all renowned men1' and travelled through strange countries1 trying the good and evil among men4 ,if parts at least of the ,book of ,job probably contain an autobiographical element1 it is still more certain that the chapter 7xxxix47 which closes the book before us expresses the ideal of the author's life4 ,and if he does sometimes take delight in his own attainments1 yet why is this to be censured as mere #8bse ,selbstgeflligkeit8#bfe ,a deep consciousness of moral imperfection is not equally to be expected in the ,old ,testament and in the ,new1 nor should the philosophic writings in the former be appealed to for striking anticipations of fundamental ,gospel ideas4 ,sirach does no doubt in some sense claim inspiration 7xxiv4 #cb-cd1 l4 #bh1 #bi71 and place his own work in a line with the prophecies 7xxiv4 #cc71 but why should this be set down to arrogant inflation8 ,lowth1 with more charity1 quotes similar language of ,elihu 7,job xxxii4 #h1 xxxvi4 #d7 in proof of the speaker's modesty 7,prlect4 xxxiv47 ,it was probably a characteristic of the later #8wise men' so to account for their wisdom 7see above1 p4 #dc71 and surely in that wide sense recognised by the ,anglican ,prayerbook he was #8inspired1' he was a #8son of the prophets4' ,i am only sorry that he forgot the lesson of ,ex4 xxxi4 #b when he wrote so disparagingly of trades 7xxxviii4 #be c471 and agree with ,dr4 ,edersheim#bff that the ,jewish teachers of the time of ,christ and afterwards were more advanced on this point than the son of ,sirach4 ,it is true enough that there are sayings in this book which offend the ,christian sentiment1 and which serve to show how great was the spiritual distress which the ,gospel alone could relieve4 ,for instance1 7a7 ,he who honours his father shall make atonement for sins 7iii4 #c74 ,water will quench a flaming fire1 and alms make atonement for sin 7iii4 #cj74 ,brethren and help are against time of trouble2 but alms deliver more than both 7xl4 #bd74 ,here is one of those #8false beacon lights' of which ,prof4 ,bissell speaks 7,apocrypha1 p4 #bhb74 ,but in arrest of judgment remember that long discipline in the duties spoken of has produced some of the finest qualities in the ,jewish character4 7b7 ,happy the man who has not offended in his speech1 and is not pricked with grief for sins 7xiv4 #a74 7c7 ,gain credit with thy neighbour in his poverty1 that thou mayest rejoice in his prosperity2 abide stedfast unto him in the time of his affliction1 that thou mayest be heir with him in his heritage 7xxii4 #bc74 7d7 ,nine things ,i in my heart pronounce happy1 444 and he that lives to see the fall of enemies 7xxiv4 #g2 comp4 also xii4 #aj-ab1 xxx4 #f74 7e7 ,who will praise the ,most ,high in ,hades1 instead of those who live and give praise8 7xvii4 #bg47 ,for man cannot do everything1 because the son of man is not immortal 7xvii4 #cj74 ,with the latter saying1 contrast ,wisd4 of ,sol4 ii4 #bc1 #8,for ,god created man for immortality4' 7f7 7,give me7 any plague but the plague of the heart1 and any wickedness but the wickedness of a woman c4 7xxv4 #ac-bf74 ,this opening verse might perhaps be otherwise rendered1 ,any wound but a wound in the heart1 and any evil but evil in a wife4 ,the misfortune of having a bad wife is often touched upon in the ,talmud4 ,ewald's sentence is however just1 that ,sirach's #8estimate of women1 and sharp summary counsel concerning divorce 7see ver4 #bf71 place him far below the height of the ,hebrew ,bible4'#bfg ,i admit the imperfection of these moral statements2 but can they not several of them be paralleled from the ,psalms1 ,proverbs1 and ,ecclesiastes8 ,and can we not find as many more anticipations of the moral teaching of the ,synoptic ,gospels and ,st4 ,james 7e4g4 iv4 #aj1 vii4 #aa1 #ad1 xi4 #ah1 #ai1 xv4 #ad1 xvii4 #ae1 xxiii4 #d1 #aa1 #ah78 ,do not let us undervalue any foregleams of the coming dawn4 ,footnote #bed3 ,revelation1 p4 #cfe2 ,die ,lehre der ,bibel von ,gott1 i4 #cgh4 ,footnote #bee3 ,note the phrase in i4 #a1 #8who in his life repaired the house1' implying #8now indeed he is dead4' ,grtz in fact is the only scholar who doubts the author's contemporaneousness with ,simon 7,monatsschrift1 #ahgb1 p4 #aad74 ,footnote #bef3 ,see1 besides the well-known passage in ,pirke ,aboth 7i4 #b71 the legendary extracts from 7,bab47 ,yoma1 #ci;b1 translated by ,wnsche1 ,der bab4 ,talmud1 i4 #a1 pp4 #cfh-i2 and comp4 ,derenbourg1 ,hist4 de la ,palestine1 i4 #dd c4 ,footnote #beg3 ,so we must paraphrase 4 ,see ,stanley's note in ,jewish ,church1 iii4 #bce1 and ,abbot's note in the ,american edition of ,smith's ,bible ,dict4 7,i am indebted to ,bissell for the latter reference74 ,comp4 ,wright1 ,the ,book of ,koheleth1 p4 #cd n4 ,footnote #beh3 ,the ,mishna 7,pirke ,aboth1 i4 #b7 ascribes this saying to ,simeon the ,righteous3 #8,on three things the world stands--revelation 7tra71 worship1 and the bestowal of kindnesses4' ,footnote #bei3 ,see ,jos41 ,ant41 xii4 #d4 ,footnote #bfj3 ,on the identity of the ,ben ,sira of the ,talmud and our ,sirach1 see ,horowitz in ,frankel's ,monatsschrift1 #ahfe1 p4 #aha c4 ,the ch in the form ,sirach may be due to an old error in the ,greek text4 ,footnote #bfa3 ,hist4 of ,israel1 v4 #bfc-d4 ,ewald includes xxxix4 #ab-ce in the portion belonging to the second 7supposed7 collection4 ,footnote #bfb3 ,see the headings at certain points of the ,greek version4 ,footnote #bfc3 ,with vv4 #ba1 #bc comp4 ,st4 ,paul1 ,phil4 iv4 #aa1 #ab4 ,footnote #bfd3 ,see ,st4 ,jerome1 ,prf4 ad ,libros ,salomonis1 and comp4 ,lightfoot's ,clement of ,rome1 p4 #afd c4 ,footnote #bfe3 ,keerl1 ,die ,apokryphenfrage 7#ahee71 p4 #bad4 ,footnote #bff3 ,sketches of ,jewish ,social ,life1 p4 #ahi4 ,footnote #bfg3 ,ewald1 ,revelation1 p4 #cfd n4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,sirach',s ,,teaching 7continued74 ,,his ,,place ,,in ,,the ,,movement ,,of ,,thought4 ,passing now from ,sirach's moral statements to those which are concerned with doctrine1 an honest critic must admit that the author is here even less progressive4 ,the ,messianic hope1 in the strict sense of the word1 has faded away4#bfh ,in xlv4 #be 7comp4 xlviii4 #ae7 the #8covenant with ,david' is described as being #8that the inheritance of the king should be only from father to son2' similarly in xlvii4 #bb the #8root of ,david' denotes ,rehoboam and his descendants4 ,but this want of a definite ,messianic hope is characteristic of the age2 it is no special defect of ,sirach4 ,but what shall we say of another charge brought against our author1 viz4 that he has unbiblical conceptions of the ,divine nature8 ,one of these 7xi4 #af2 see ,a4,v47 may be dismissed at once1 the passage having insufficient critical authority4 ,another-- ,we may speak much and not attain2 indeed to sum up1 ,he is all 7xliii4 #bg7-- has been misapprehended4 ,the ,bereshith ,rabba says 7c4 #fh71 #8,why is the ,holy ,one also called ,mkm 7place78 ,because ,he is the place of the world2 ,his world is not ,his place4' ,this is all that ,sirach means1 and ,philo1 too1 who uses similar words1 accused by ,keerl of heresy1 and adds1 4 ,the doctrines of the ,satan and the ,resurrection1 which ,sirach probably regarded somewhat as we regard the #8developments' of the ,papal ,church1 he appears studiously to ignore#bfi--more especially the latter--and he thereby puts himself into direct opposition to the newer popular orthodoxy4 ,for though not the invention 7as ,m4 ,renan regards it7 of the ,maccabean period1 there can be no doubt that the doctrine of the ,resurrection became then for the first time an article of the popular creed4 ,instead of the #8awakening to everlasting life' 7,dan4 xii4 #b71 it is the peaceful but hopeless life of the spirits in ,shel to which he resignedly looks forward4 ,weep for the dead1 for he hath lost the light1 and weep for the fool1 for he wanteth understanding3 make little weeping for the dead1 for he is at rest1 but the life of the fool is worse than death4#bgj ,this1 however orthodox 7as former generations had counted orthodoxy71 was rank ,sadduceanism1 and hence 7for how otherwise to interpret the glosses of the ,greek and ,syriac versions of xlviii4 #aa;b#bga it is difficult to see7 very early readers of ,sirach1 especially perhaps well-meaning but unscrupulous ,christian readers1 effected an entrance for their cherished beliefs by violence4 ,another point on which ,sirach is equally--shall we say orthodox1 or reactionary8--is the connection between piety and temporal prosperity4 ,he really seems to be no more troubled by doubts on this ancient doctrine than the author of the beautiful1 but in this respect navely simple1 introduction to the ,book of ,proverbs4 ,this perhaps was strange under ,sirach's circumstances4 ,how striking and even painful is the contrast between ,josephus' vivid and truthful comparison of ,juda at this period to #8a ship in a storm1 tossed by the waves on both sides1'#bgb and that proverb of ,sirach1 worthy1 considering the times1 of the #8miserable comforters' of ,job-- ,the gift of the ,lord remains with the godly1 and his favour brings prosperity for ever4#bgc ,in short1 ,sirach represents the reconciliation between the practical ethics of the inspired #8wise men' of old and the all-embracing demands of the ,law4 ,himself only in a comparatively low sense inspired--for we should not hastily reject his claim to a #8tongue' from above--he did nothing1 on the ethical side1 but repeat the old truths in their old forms1 though one gladly admits that he shows a genuine and unassumed interest in the varieties of human character4 ,but on the religious side he is really in a certain sense original1 in so far as he combines the traditional #8wisdom' with a heartfelt regard for the established forms of religion1 such as the older #8wise men' scarcely possessed4 ,on the latter point he would sympathise with the author of ,ps4 cxix4 ,unlike the older proverb-writers1 he recommends the punctual observance of rites and ceremonies4 ,these however are to be penetrated by a moral spirit2 hence he says1 ,do not seek to corrupt the ,lord with gifts1 for he receives them not2 and trust not to unrighteous sacrifices4 ,he who serves acceptably shall be received1 and his prayer shall reach unto the clouds 7xxxv4 #ab1 #af74 ,by ,greek philosophy ,sirach1 as far as we can see1 was wholly uninfluenced4 ,and yet ,sirach cannot have been entirely unacquainted with ,greek culture1 in the more general sense of the word4 ,one striking proof of this is his attitude towards medical science1#bgd which is exactly the opposite of the ,chronicler's 7#b ,chr4 xvi4 #ab74 ,it seems as if the older generation were offended by human interference with the course of nature1 appealing perhaps to ,ex4 xv4 #bf2 a curious ,talmudic tradition ascribes a similar view to ,hezekiah and his wise men4 ,sirach1 however1 appealing to the passage preceding that referred to above 7see ,ex4 xv4 #bc-be71 seeks to reconcile the opposing parties 7xxxviii4 #a-ae74 ,no doubt he had learned this at ,alexandria3 he tells us himself that he had travelled and learned many things 7xxxiv4 #i-aa71 and from xxxix4 #d we may even infer that he had appeared at court1 where probably his life was endangered by calumnious accusations 7li4 #f74 ,there1 perhaps1 he acquired his taste for the ,greek style of banquet1 with its airy talk and accompaniment of music1 a taste which seems to have inspired a piquant piece of advice to the kill-joys of his time1 who insisted on talking business out of season 7xxxii4 #c-e7-- ,speak1 ,o elder1 with accurate knowledge1 for it beseemeth thee1 but be not a hindrance to music4#bge ,when playing is going on1 do not pour out talk2 and show not thyself inopportunely wise4 ,a seal-ring of carbuncle set in gold1 such is a concert at a banquet of wine4 ,in a similar mood he writes 7xiv4 #ad7-- ,defraud not thyself of a joyous day1 and let not a share of a lawful pleasure escape thee4 ,but his tone is commonly more serious4 ,though no ascetic1 he cautions his readers against the unrestrained manners which had invaded ,juda1 especially against consorting with the singing and dancing girls 7 1 ix4 #d1 includes both2 ,vulg4 cum saltatrice71 and draws a picture of the daughters of ,israel 7xlii4 #i1 #aj7 which forms a melancholy contrast with the ,old ,testament ideal4 ,his prayer to be guarded from the infection of lust 7xxiii4 #d1 #e7 finds its commentary in the story already mentioned of ,joseph the tax-farmer4 ,he notes with observant eye the strife of classes4 ,what bitter sighs must have prompted a saying like this 7xiii4 #b1 #c7-- ,a burden that is too heavy for thee take not up1 and have no fellowship with one that is stronger and richer than thyself3 ,for what fellowship hath the kettle with the earthen pot8 this will smite1 and that will be broken4 ,the rich man doth wrong1 and he snorteth with anger1 the poor man is wronged1 and he entreateth withal4 ,and again 7xiii4 #ah7-- ,what peace hath the hyna with the dog8 and what peace hath the rich man with the poor8 ,he is painfully conscious of the deserved humiliation of his country1 and the only reason which he can urge why ,god should interpose is the assured prophetic word 7xxxvi4 #ae1 #af #bj1 #ba74 ,elsewhere he ascribes all the evil of his time to the neglect of the ,law 7xli4 #h71 which1 by a strong hyperbole1 he almost identifies with personified ,divine ,wisdom 7xxiv4 #bc2 see above on ,prov4 viii47 ,not however without a noble introduction leading up to and justifying this identification4 ,in the true mshl-style he describes how ,wisdom wandered through the world seeking a resting-place1-- ,then the ,creator of all gave me a commandment1 and he that made me caused my tent to rest1 and said1 ,let thy dwelling be in ,jacob1 and thine inheritance in ,israel 7xxiv4 #h74 ,and after a series of wondrous images1 all glorifying the ,wisdom enthroned in ,jerusalem1 he declares-- ,all this is made good in the book of the covenant of the ,most ,high ,god1 the ,law which ,moses commanded us as a heritage unto the congregations of ,jacob 7xxiv4 #bc74 ,this remarkable chapter deserves to be studied by itself2 it is most carefully composed in #gb 4 ,lowth and ,wessely#bgf have with unequal success retranslated it into ,hebrew4 ,i have already spoken 7on ,proverbs7 of its interest for the student of doctrine2 it has indeed been thought to show clear traces of ,alexandrinism1 but this is improbable and unproved4 ,it remains to notice the author's interest in nature and history4 ,the hymn of praise for the works of creation 7xlii4 #ae-xliii4 #cb7 is only poor if compared with parts of the ,book of ,job4 ,but perhaps more interesting is the panegyric of #8famous men' 7xliv4-l471 from ,enoch the patriarch to ,simeon the ,righteous1 whose imposing appearance and beneficent rule are described with the enthusiasm of a contemporary4#bgg ,it is worth the student's while to examine the contents of this roll of honour4 ,a few corrections of the text may be noticed as a preliminary4 ,at xlviii4 #aa;b1 the ,greek has #8for we shall surely live 7again74' ,but the ,latin has1 #8nam nos vit vivimus tantum1 post mortem autem non erit tale nomen nostrum4' ,there is good reason in this instance1 as we shall see presently1 to prefer the reading of the ,latin to that of the ,greek4 ,at l4 #a1 after #8son of ,onias1' it is well to remove the abruptness of the transition by inserting from the ,syriac1 #8was the greatest of his brethren and the crown of his people4' ,at l4 #bf 7#bg71 for #8,samaria' we should probably read #8,seir' 7else how will there be three nations871 and for #8foolish1' #8,amoritish' 7with the ,ethiopic version and ,ewald1 comp4 ,ezek4 xvi4 #c74 ,turning to the names of the heroes commemorated1 it is startling to find no mention made of ,ezra1 the second founder of ,jewish religion4 ,aaron1 on the other hand1 is celebrated in no fewer than seventeen verses4 ,this cannot be a mere accident1 for the veneration of the later ,jews for ,ezra was hardly less than that which they entertained for ,moses4 ,notice1 however1 that ,moses himself is only praised in five verses4 ,it seems as if ,aaron better than ,moses symbolised those ritual observances in which ,sirach perhaps took a special delight4 ,the name of ,ezra1 too1 may have had its symbolic meaning to the author4 ,he may have had deficient sympathy with those elaborators of minute legal precepts1 who took ,ezra as their pattern4 ,not that he disbelieved in the continuity of inspiration--for in some sense he claims it for himself 7e4g4 xxiv4 #cc71 but that he did not fully recognise the workings of the spirit in the #8fence about the ,law4' ,other names which he passes over in silence are ,daniel and ,mordecai4 ,does this mean that he was unacquainted with the ,books of ,daniel and ,esther8 ,whatever be the date of these books1 so much as this is at least a probable inference4 ,the panegyric seems to have originally closed with the ancient liturgical formula in verses #bb-bd4 ,but the writer could not resist the temptation of giving a side-blow to the hated ,samaritans 7those #8half-,jews1' as ,josephus the historian calls them71 called forth perhaps by the dispute respecting the rival temples held at ,alexandria before ,ptolemy ,philometor4#bgh ,the last chapter of all 7chap4 li47 contains the aged author's final leave-taking4 ,it is a prayer of touching sincerity and much biographical interest4 ,the immediateness of the religious sentiment is certainly greater in this late #8gatherer' than in many of the earlier proverb-writers4 ,enough has been said of the contents of the book to give a general idea of its moral and religious position4 ,let us now consider its outward form4 ,the work1 as we have seen1 was originally written in ,hebrew4 ,this indeed was to have been expected4 ,for although the influence of the ,seleucid had greatly strengthened the hold of ,aramaic on the ,jewish population of ,palestine1 ,hebrew was still1 and for a long time afterwards remained1 the language of scholars and littrateurs4 ,the author of the #8,wisdom of ,sirach' was both4 ,he was thoroughly penetrated with the spirit and style of the ,scriptures1 especially of those of the ,khokma1 and he would have thought it as much a descent to lavish his great powers on ,aramaic as ,dante did at first to write in ,italian4 ,is this ,hebrew original still extant8 ,alas6 no2 ,hebrew literature1 so scantily represented for this period1 has to mourn this great loss4 ,a page of fragments1 gathered from the ,talmud and the ,midrshm1#bgi is all that we can1 with some occasional hesitation1 plausibly regard as genuine4 ,there is indeed a small work1 called the ,alphabet of ,ben ,sira1 consisting of two series of proverbs1 one in ,aramaic1 and one in ,hebrew4 ,but no significance can be attached to this4 ,the genuineness of many of the ,hebrew proverbs is guaranteed by their occurrence in the ,talmud1 but the form in which the alphabetist quotes them is often evidently less authentic than that in the ,talmud4 ,the original work must have been lost since the time of ,jerome1 if we may trust his assurance#bhj that he had found it in ,hebrew1 and that it bore the name #8,parables' 7m'shlm74 ,of the ancient versions1 the ,syriac and the ,old ,latin are 7after the ,greek7 the most important2 the former is from the ,hebrew1 the latter from a very early form of the ,greek text4 ,neither of them is always in accordance with the ,greek as we have it1 but such differences are often of use in restoring the original text4 ,all the versions appear to contain alterations of the text1 dictated by a too anxious orthodoxy1 and in these the one may be a check upon the other4 ,bickell indeed goes further than this1 and states that an accurate text of ,sirach can only be had by combining the data of the ,greek and the ,syriac4 ,lowth1 in his #bdth ,lecture1 strongly urges the retranslation of ,sirach into ,hebrew4 ,such an undertaking would be premature1 if ,bickell's judgment be correct that the book consists of seven-syllabled verses or 1 grouped in distichs1#bha except in the alphabetic poem on wisdom 7li4 #ac-bj74 ,the latter1 consisting of #bb 1 he has translated into ,german from his own corrected text1 dividing it into four-lined strophes1 as also the preceding1 #8alphabetising' poem1 consisting of #bb distichs 7li4 #a-ab71 in the ,zeitschrift fr katholische ,theologie1 #ahhb1 pp4 #cbf-ccb4 ,we must reserve our opinion on ,bickell's theory till the appearance of a complete edition from his pen4 ,meantime three passages 7xxiv4 #bg1 xxv4 #ae1 xlvi4 #ah7 may be referred to as giving striking proof of the ,hebrew original of the work4 ,in xxiv4 #bg the translator seems to have found in his ,hebrew copy 1 i4e4 properly #8as the ,nile' 7the weak letter being elided in pronunciation as in 1 ,am4 viii4 #h71 but as he supposed #8as the light4' ,in xxv4 #ae1 he found 1 which in the context can only mean #8poison1' but which he inappropriately rendered #8head4' ,in xlvi4 #ah1 the ,hebrew had 1 i4e4 #8enemies1' but1 according to the translator1 #8,tyrians4' ,compare also in this connection the allusions to the meanings of ,hebrew words in vi4 #bb 7#8wisdom'7 and xliii4 #h 7#8the month'74 ,there are still questions to be decided which can only be adverted to briefly here4 ,did the translator make use of the ,septuagint1 and more particularly of the portion containing the prophets8 ,he certainly refers to a translation of the ,scriptures in his preface1 but ,frankel thinks that a ,targum may be meant1 and even doubts the genuineness of the passage2 he explains the points of contact with the ,septuagint which are sometimes so interesting#bhb in the ,greek version of ,sirach by ,ueberarbeitung1 i4e4 the #8working over' of the version by later hands4#bhc ,this seems to me a forced view4 ,it is more probable that a ,greek version is meant1 or perhaps we may say ,greek versions2 no special honour is given to any one translation4 ,next1 as to the position accorded to the ,wisdom of ,sirach4 ,it is often cited in the ,talmud with formul which belong elsewhere to the ,scriptures1 and was therefore certainly regarded by many as worthy to be canonical 7see ,appendix74 ,in strict theory1 this was wrong4 ,according to the ,tosephta ,yadayim1 c4 #b1 the book of ,ben ,sira1 though much esteemed1 stood on the border between the canonical and extraneous or non-canonical books4 ,such books might be read cursorily1 but were not to be studied too much4#bhd ,sirach neither claimed the authorship of a hero of antiquity1 nor was it1 according to the rising ,pharisaic school1 orthodox2 thus perhaps we may best account for the fact that a work1 regarded in itself in no way inferior to the ,book of ,proverbs1 was left outside the sacred canon4 ,no certain allusions to our book are traceable in the ,new ,testament2 the nearest approach to a quotation is ,james i4 #ai2 comp4 ,ecclus4 v4 #ac4 ,clement of ,alexandria is the first ,christian writer who quotes directly from ,sirach4 ,from its large use in the services of the ,church the book received the name ,ecclesiasticus1 to distinguish it perhaps from the canonical book which was also often called #8,wisdom4' ,in later times1 it half attracted1 but--owing to the corrupt state of the text--half repelled1 the great ,hellenist ,camerarius1 the friend of ,melancthon1 who published a separate edition of ,sirach 7the first7 at ,basle in #aeea4 ,it appears from his preface that it was highly valued by the reformers from an educational point of view4 ,bullinger proposes it as a less dangerous text book of moral philosophy than the works of ,plato and ,aristotle1 and ,luther admits it to be a good household book1 admired however too much by the world1 which #8sleepily passes by the great majestic word of ,christ concerning the victory over death1 sin1 and hell4' ,no impartial critic will place the ,wisdom of ,jesus the son of ,sirach on the same literary eminence with the so-called ,wisdom of ,solomon4 ,it is only from its greater fidelity to the ,old ,testament standard1 or at least to a portion of this standard1 that it can claim a qualified superiority4 ,a few noble passages of continuous rhetoric it no doubt contains1 especially the noble ,hymn of ,praise on the works of creation 7xxxix4 #af-xliii4 #cc72 and a few small but exquisite gems especially the sayings on friendship 7counterbalanced1 ,i admit by those on the treatment of one's enemies1 xii4 #aj-ab1 xxv4 #g1 xxx4 #f71 e4g4-- ,forsake not an old friend1 for the new is not comparable to him4 ,a new friend is as new wine1 when it is old1 thou wilt drink it with pleasure 7ix4 #aj71 with which we may bracket the noble passage on the treatment of a friend's trespass 7xix4 #ac-ag74 ,one of the fine religious passages has been quoted already 7xliii4 #bg2 comp4 ,job xxvi4 #ad72 we may couple this#bhe with it-- ,as a drop from the sea1 and a grain of sand1 so are a few years in the day of eternity 7xviii4 #i74 ,still the chief value of the book is1 historically1 to fill out the picture of a little known period1 and doctrinally1 to show the inadequacy of the old forms of religious belief1 and the moral distress from which the ,christ was a deliverer4 ,footnote #bfh3 ,ewald 7,history1 v4 #bfc1 n4 #c7 refers to iv4 #ae1 x4 #ac-ag1 xi4 #e sq41 xxxii4 #ag-ai1 xxxiii4 #a-ab1 xxxvi4 #aa-ag1 xxxvii4 #be1 xxxix4 #bc1 xlviii4 #aj sq41 but only for a vague ,messianism 7in the last passage the ,greek seems to be interpolated74 ,i would add xxxv4 #ag-ai1 xxxvi4 #a-aj4 ,footnote #bfi3 ,true1 the ,greek version of ,sirach has1 at xxi4 #bg1 the words1 #8,when the ungodly curseth the ,satan1 he curseth his own soul2' but #8the ,satan' may here be synonymous with the depraved will1 the yer r 7this seems to have ,talmudic authority2 see ,weber1 ,system der altsynag4 pal4 ,theol41 pp4 #bbh-i74 ,in ,baba bathra1 #ae;a1 ,satan is not distinguished from the yer r4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,chap4 xxii4 #aa4 ,comp4 xiv4 #aa-ai 7correcting by the help of the ,syriac71 xvii4 #bg1 #bh1 #cj4 ,contrast the glowing language of the #8,wisdom of ,solomon1' iii4 #a-d4 ,footnote #bga3 ,the ,syriac has1 #8,nevertheless he dieth not1 but liveth indeed4' ,the ,greek version ,i have quoted farther on4 ,also the ,latin1 which probably corresponds most to the original4 ,see ,geiger1 ,zeitschr4 d4 d4 morg4 ,ges41 xii4 #ecf4 ,the false reading 1 adopted by ,a4,v41 for 1 in xlviii4 #aa;a1 is due to the same theological motive4 ,footnote #bgb3 ,antiquities1 xii4 #c1 #c4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,ch4 xi4 #ag2 comp4 ii4 #g c42 xvi4 #f c42 xl4 #ac1 #ad4 ,there are1 however1 passages in which ,sirach betrays some little feeling of the practical difficulties of the older form of the doctrine of retribution3 see xxxv4 #ah xxxii4 #ah4 ,footnote #bgd3 ,see ,dukes1 ,rabbinische ,blumenlese1 pp4 #bi1 #cj2 ,grtz1 ,schir ha-schirim1 p4 #hf4 ,grotius even supposed the author to be a physician4 ,footnote #bge3 4 ,so xlix4 #a4 2 comp4 ,ex4 xxxii4 #ah ,sept4 ,that ,greek music was known in ,palestine very shortly afterwards may be inferred from the ,greek names of musical instruments in the ,book of ,daniel4 ,footnote #bgf3 ,wessely was one of the most eminent fellow-workers of the great ,moses ,mendelssohn4 ,see ,wogue1 ,histoire de la ,bible et de l'exgse biblique 7#ahha71 pp4 #ccd-ccg4 ,footnote #bgg3 ,the ,mussaph prayer in the liturgy of the ,day of ,atonement 7,german ritual7 contains a striking imitation of ,sirach's eloquent description of the high priest 7see ,delitzsch1 ,gesch4 der jd4 ,poesie1 p4 #ba71 every verse of which closes with the refrain mar'eh khn #8the appearance of the priest2' ,meshullam bar-,kleonymos is known to be the author4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,jos41 ,ant41 xiii4 #c1 #d4 ,footnote #bgi3 ,see ,zunz1 ,gottesdienstliche ,vortrge1 p4 #ajb2 ,delitzsch1 ,zur ,gesch4 der jdischen ,poesie1 p4 #bjd 7comp4 p4 #bj1 note #e72 ,dukes1 ,rabbinische ,blumenlese1 p4 #fg c4 ,it should be noticed that among these ,talmudic m'shlm there are some1 and even long ones1 which do not occur in the ,greek ,sirach4 ,footnote #bhj3 ,prf4 in libr4 ,sal4 #8,fertur et ,jesu filii ,sirach liber et alius liber 4444 ,quorum priorem ,hebraicum reperi1 non ,ecclesiasticum1 ut apud ,latinos1 sed parabolas prnotatum1 cui juncti erant ,ecclesiastes et ,canticum canticorum4' ,nowhere since has ,sirach been found in this position1 nor with this title4 ,footnote #bha3 ,but is not a strophic division sometimes visible1 e4g4 ii4 #g-ag8 ,see ,seligmann1 ,das ,buch der ,weisheit des ,j4 ,s41 c41 p4 #cd4 ,footnote #bhb3 ,see especially xlvi4 #ai1 with which comp4 the ,septuagint of #a ,sam4 xii4 #c4 ,footnote #bhc3 ,vorstudien zu der ,septuaginta 7#ahda71 p4 #ba1 note w4 ,footnote #bhd3 ,wright1 ,koheleth1 p4 #dh n42 ,strack1 art4 #8,kanon des ,a4 ,t4' in ,herzog-,plitt1 ,realencyclopdie1 vii4 #dcj1 #dca2 ,gratz1 ,kohelet1 p4 #dh4 ,footnote #bhe3 ,bishop ,butler1 who is fond of ,sirach1 quotes this saying in his #dth sermon4 ,,aids ,,to ,,the ,,student4 ,besides the commentaries of ,bretschneider 7#ahjf71 ,fritzsche 7#ahei71 and ,bissell 7in the ,american edition of ,lange71 see ,gfrrer1 ,philo1 ii4 7#ahca71 pp4 #ah-eb2 ,dhne1 ,geschichtliche ,darstellung der jdischalexandrin4 ,religionsphilosophie1 ii4 7#ahcd71 pp4 #abf-aej2 ,zunz1 ,die gottesdienstl4 ,vortrge der ,juden 7#ahcb71 pp4 #ajj-aje2 ,ewald1 ,jahrbcher der bibl4 ,wissenschaft1 iii4 7#ahea71 pp4 #abe-adj2 ,history of ,israel1 v4 #bfb c42 ,jost1 ,gesch4 des ,judenthums1 i4 7#aheg71 p4 #caj c42 ,herzfeld1 ,gesch4 des ,volkes ,jisrael1 iii4 7#ahfc71 see ,index2 ,horowitz1 ,das ,buch ,jesus ,sirach 7#ahfe72 ,dyserinck1 ,de ,spreuken van ,jesus den zoon van ,sirach vertaald 7#ahgj72 ,grtz1 ,monatsschrift for #ahgb1 pp4 #di c41 #ig c42 ,seligmann1 ,das ,buch der ,weisheit des ,jesus ,sirach 7#ahhc72 ,fritzsche1 art4 in ,schenkel's ,bibellexikon1 iii4 #beb c42 ,stanley1 ,jewish ,church1 vol4 iii4 7see ,index72 ,westcott1 art4 #8,ecclesiasticus' in ,smith's ,bible ,dictionary2 ,deane1 #8,the ,book of ,ecclesiasticus3 its ,contents and ,character1' ,the ,expositor1 ,nov4 #ahhc2 ,wright1 ,the ,book of ,koheleth1 #ahhc1 chap4 ii4 7decides1 perhaps1 too hastily that ,sirach in many passages imitates ,koheleth74 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,koheleth2 ,,or1 ,,ecclesiastes4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,wise ,,man ,,turned ,,author ,,and ,,philosopher4 444 ,il mondo invecchia1 ,e invecchiando intristisce4--,,tasso1 ,aminta4 ,in passing from the book of ,ecclesiasticus to that of ,ecclesiastes1 we are conscious of breathing an entirely different intellectual atmosphere4 #8,seek not out the things that are too hard for thee1' said ,sirach1 #8for thou hast no need of the secret things' 7iii4 #ba1 #bb71 but the book now before us is the record of a thinker1 disappointed it is true1 but too much in earnest to give up thinking4 ,of meditative minds there was no lack in this period of ,israel's history4 ,the writers of the #aaith and several other ,psalms1 as well as ,jesus the son of ,sirach1 had pondered over the ideal life1 but our author 7the only remaining representative of a school of writers#bhf7 was meditative in a different sense from any of these4 ,he could not have said with the latter1 #8,i prayed for wisdom before the temple' 7,ecclus4 li4 #ad71 nor with the former1 #8,thy commandment is exceeding broad' 7,ps4 cxix4 #if74 ,the idea of the religious primacy of ,israel awakened in his mind no responsive enthusiasm4 ,we cannot exactly say that he conceals the place of his residence1#bhg but he has certainly no overpowering interest in the scene of his life's troublesome drama4 ,in this feature he resembles to a considerable extent the humanists of an earlier date 7see p4 #aai71 but in others1 and those the most characteristic1 he differs as widely from them as the old man from the child4 ,they believed that virtue was crowned by prosperity2 even the writer of ,job1 as some think1 had not wholly cast off the consecrated dogma2 but the austere and lonely thinker who has left us ,ecclesiastes finds himself utterly unable to harmonise such a theory with facts 7viii4 #ad74 ,to him1 living during one of the dreariest parts of the post-,exile period1 it seemed as if the past aspirations of ,israel had turned out a gigantic mistake4 ,that home-sickness which impelled1 if not the ,second ,isaiah himself1 yet many who were stirred by his eloquence1 to exchange a life of ease and luxury for one of struggle and privation--in what had it issued8 ,in #8vanity and pursuit of wind' 7comp4 ,isa4 xxvi4 #ah74 ,to quote a great ,persian poet1 who in some of his moods resembles ,koheleth 7see end of ,chap4 ,,ix471 ,the ,revelations of ,devout and ,learn'd1 ,who rose before us and as ,prophets burn'd1 ,are all but ,stories1 which1 arose from ,sleep1 ,they told their fellows1 and to ,sleep return'd4 ,such thoughts as these made the history of ,israel an aid to scepticism rather than to faith2 added to which it is probable that society in ,koheleth's#bhh time seemed to him too corrupt to admit of an idealistic theory of life4 ,for an individual to seek to put in practice such a theory would expose him to hopeless failure and misery4 ,therefore1 #8be not righteous overmuch1#bhi neither pretend to be exceedingly wise2 why wilt thou ruin 7lit4 desolate7 thyself8' 7vii4 #af74 ,some1 no doubt1 as the ,soferim or ,scripturists1 had tried it1 but they had only succeeded in making their lives #8desolate1' without any compensating advantage4 ,nor can we say that ,ecclesiastes had given up theistic religion4 ,he does not indeed believe in immortality and a future judgment1 and is thus partly an exception to the rule of ,lucretius1 444 nam si certam finem esse viderent ,aerumnarum homines1 aliqua ratione valerent ,religionibus atque mineis obsistere vatum4 7,de rerum natur1 i4 #ajh-aaj47 ,he mentions ,god twenty-seven times1 but under the name ,elohim1 which belonged to ,him as the ,creator1 not under that of ,yahveh1 which an ,israelite was privileged to use2 and his one-sided supernaturalism obscured the sense of personal communion with ,god4 ,he accepts only the first part of the great proclamation concerning the dwelling place of ,god in ,isa4 lxvii4 #ae 7see ,eccles4 v4 #b74 ,it is no doubt ,god who #8worketh all' 7xi4 #e71 but there are nearer and almost more formidable potentates1 an oppressive hierarchy of officials ranging from the taxgatherer to the king1 #8a high one watching above the high1 and high ones over both' 7v4 #h74 ,true1 our author seems to admit--at least if the text be sound 7iii4 #ag2 comp4 viii4 #ab1 #ac7--that #8,god will judge the righteous and the wicked' 7i4e4 in this life1 for he does not believe in another71 but the comfort of this thought is dashed with bitterness by an unspoken but distinctly implied complaint1 which may perhaps be well expressed in the language of ,job 7xxiv4 #a71 #8,why are judgments laid up 7so long7 by the ,almighty1#bij and 7why7 do they that know him not see his days8' or in other words1 ,why is divine retribution so tardy8 ,it is1 in fact1 this extreme tardiness of ,god's judicial interpositions which our author considers one of the chief causes of the prevalence of wickedness2-- #8,because sentence against the work of wickedness is not speedily executed1 therefore the heart of the sons of men is fully set in them to do evil' 7viii4 #aa74 ,on the whole1 we may say that the older humanists were sincere optimists1 while ,koheleth1 though theoretically perhaps an optimist 7iii4 #aa71 constantly relapses into a more congenial #8malism4' ,i use this word designedly4 ,koheleth can only be called a pessimist loosely4 ,bad as things are1 he does not believe that the world is getting worse and worse and hasting to its ruin4 ,he believes in revolutions1 some for evil1 some for good1 some for #8rending' or #8breaking down1' others for #8sewing' or #8building up4' ,he believes1 in other words1 that ,god brings about recurrent changes in human circumstances4 ,but 7like another wise man1 ,prov4 xxv4 #ba7 he does not trust revolutions of human origin 7#8evil matters' he calls them1 viii4 #c72 he is no carbonaro 7x4 #bj74 ,and so for the present he is a #8malist1' and having no imaginative faculty he cannot sympathise with the #8,utopian' prospects for the future contained in the prophetic visions4 ,yet1 in spite of appearances1 ,koheleth builds upon a true ,israelitish foundation4 ,it is already something that he cannot bear to plunge into open infidelity1 that he is still 7as we have seen7 a theist1 though his theism gives him but little light and no comforting warmth4 ,now and then he alludes to the religious system of his people 7see v4 #a-e1 #ag1 viii4 #aj74 ,a stronger proof of his ,israelitish sympathies is his choice of ,solomon as the representative of humanity2 ,i say1 of humanity1 because the author evidently declines to place himself upon the pedestal of ,israelitish privilege4 7,perhaps1 too1 as ,herzfeld thinks1#bia he would console his people by showing them that they have companions in misfortune everywhere #8under the sun2' and we have already seen ,job snatch a brief alleviation of pain from the thought of suffering humanity47 ,koheleth is not only a ,jew1 but a man of culture4 ,he cannot perhaps entirely defend himself from the subtle influence of the ,greek view of life1 and is even willing to associate from time to time with the ministers of alien sovereigns4 ,true1 he has noted with bitter irony the absurd and capricious changes in the government of ,palestine 7x4 #e-g71 but he has no spark of the spirit of the ,maccabees1 unless indeed in viii4 #b-e1 x4 #d1 #bj1 beneath the garb of servile prudence we may 7with ,dr4 ,plumptre7 detect the irony of indignation4 ,to the simple-minded reader at any rate he appears to counsel passive obedience1 and a cautious crouching attitude towards those in power4 ,i suspect myself that either the advice is but provisional1 or else ,koheleth still feels the power of the prophetic ,utopia3 ce peuple rve toujours quelque chose d'international4#bib ,nay2 shall we not carry our generosity even farther8 ,that #8last word1' which he would have spoken had he lived longer1 may possibly not have been that which the ,soferim have forced upon him4 ,not a future judgment1 but a return of prosperity to a wiser though sadder ,israel1 may have been his silent hope1 and in this prosperity we may be sure that a wider and more philosophic culture would form a principal ingredient4 ,this is by no means an absurd fancy4 ,koheleth firmly believed in recurrent historical cycles1 and if there was #8a time to break down1' there was also #8a time to build up' 7iii4 #c74 ,sirach knows no future life and no ,messiah2 but he believes in the eternity of ,israel2 why1 on the ground of his fragmentary remains1 deny the same consolation to ,koheleth8 ,much as ,i should prefer to imagine a far more satisfactory close for his troubled life 7see ,chap4 ,,ix471 ,i think we ought to admit the possibility of this hypothesis4 ,as an author1 the characteristics of ,koheleth are in the main ,hebraic1 though not without vague affinities to the ,greek philosophic spirit4 ,his work is without a model1 but the dramatic element in it reminds us somewhat of the ,book of ,job4 ,just as the writer of that great poem delineates his own spiritual struggles--not of course without poetic amplification--under the assumed name of ,job1 so our author1 with a similar poetical license1 ascribes his difficulties to the imaginary personage ,koheleth 7or ,ecclesiastes74 ,there are also passages in which1 like ,job1 he adopts the tone1 style and rhythm#bic of gnomic poetry1 though far from reaching the literary perfection of ,job or of the proverbial collections4 ,the attempt of ,kster and ,vaihinger to make him out an artist in the management of strophes is a sport of fancy4 ,unity and consistency in literary form were beyond the reach1 if not of his powers1 yet certainly of his opportunities2 even his phraseology1 as a rule1 is in the highest degree rough and unpolished4 ,this is the more striking by contrast with the elegant workmanship of ,sirach4 ,but the unknown author has very strong excuses4 ,thus1 first1 the negative tone of his mind must have destroyed the cheerful composure necessary to the artist4 #8,the burden of the mystery' pressed too heavily for him to think much of form and beauty4 ,his harp1 if he ever had one1 he had long since hung up upon the willows4 ,next1 it is highly probable that he was interrupted in the midst of his literary preparations4 ,nldeke has remarked#bid that his object was not to produce #8ein literarisches ,schaustck4' ,that is perfectly true2 his primary object was #8to scatter the doubts of his own mind4' ,but he did not despise the literary craft2 he was well aware that even #8the literature of power' may increase its influence by some attention to form4 ,it seems to me that the #8labour of the file' has brought the first two chapters to a considerable degree of perfection2 but the rest of the book1 upon the whole1 is so rough and so disjointed1 that ,i can only suppose it to be based on certain loose notes or adversaria1 written solely with the object of dispersing his doubts and mitigating his pains by giving them expression4 ,the thread of thought seems to break every few verses1 and attempts to restore it fail to carry conviction to the unbiassed mind4 ,the feelings and opinions embodied in the book are often mutually inconsistent2 in ,ibn ,ezra's time1 and long before that1 the ,jewish students of the book were puzzled by this phenomenon1 so strange in a canonical ,scripture4 ,not a few scattered remarks have absolutely no connection with the subject4 ,the style1 too1 is rarely easy and natural1 and sometimes 7especially in viii4 #af1 #ag7 we meet with a sentence which would certainly not have passed an author's final revision4 ,the most obvious hypothesis surely is that from chap4 iii4 onwards we have before us the imperfectly worked-up meditations of an otherwise unknown writer1 found after his death in proximity to a highly finished fragment which apparently professed to be the work of king ,solomon4 ,the meditations and the fragment were circulated in combination 7for which there was much excuse1 especially as some parts of the notes seemed to be in the narrative and even autobiographic style71 and were received with much favour by the students of #8wisdom1' more1 ,i should think1 owing to the intrinsic interest of the book than to the literary fiction of ,solomonic authorship4 ,if this hypothesis be correct1 we need not be surprised either at the author's inconsistencies in opinion1 or at the general roughness of his style4 ,the book may not even be all one man's work4 ,luther has already brought ,ecclesiastes into connection with the ,talmud4#bie ,now the proverbial sayings which interrupt our thinker's self-questionings on #8vanity of vanities' are like the ,haggadic passages which gush forth like fountains in the weary waste of hair-splitting ,talmudic dialectics4 ,no one has ever maintained the unity of the ,talmud1 and no one should be thought unreasonable for doubting the absolute freedom of ,ecclesiastes from interpolations4#bif ,the third and last excuse which ,i have to offer is that the meditations of ,koheleth partake of the nature of an experiment4 ,he may indeed 7as ,i have remarked7 be a member of a school of writers1 but his strikingly original manner compels us to regard him as a master rather than a disciple4 ,no such purely reflective work had1 so far as we know1 as yet been produced in ,hebrew literature4 ,similar moral difficulties to those which preoccupied our author had no doubt occurred to some of the prophets and poets1 but they had not been sounded to their depths4 ,even in the ,book of ,job the reflective spirit has very imperfect scope4 ,the speeches soon pass into a lyric strain1 and ,jehovah ,himself closes the discussion by imposing silence4 ,but the author of ,ecclesiastes was a thinker1 not a lyrist1 and was compelled to form his own vehicle of thought4 ,he #8sought1' indeed1 #8to find out pleasant words' 7xii4 #aj71 but had to strain the powers of an unpliant language to the uttermost1 to coin 7presumably7 new words1 and apply old ones in fresh senses1 till he might well have complained 7to apply ,lucretius7 #8propter egestatem linguae et rerum novitatem4'#big ,he deserves great praise for his measure of success2 ,luzzatto in his early work failed to do him justice4 ,he is not ambitious2 as a rule1 he abstains from fine writing4 ,once indeed he attempts it1 but1 as ,i venture to think1 with but ill success--,i refer to the closing description of old age 7xii4 #d-i71 which has a touch of the extravagant euphuism of late ,arabic literature4#bih ,from a poetical point of view1 the prelude 7i4 #d-h7 is alone worthy to be mentioned1 though not included either by ,renan or by ,bickell among the passages poetical in form 7for a list of which see below#bii74 ,let us mark this fine passage1 that we may return to it again in another connection4 ,footnote #bhf3 ,the #8many books' spoken of in xii4 #ab were probably less orthodox than ,ecclesiastes1 but in so far as ,ecclesiastes1 especially in its uncorrected state1 is sceptical1 it may be grouped with them4 ,footnote #bhg3 ,in common with most interpreters1 ,i regard ,ecclesiastes as a ,judan work4 ,footnote #bhh3 ,following the precedent of the ,epilogue 7xii4 #i71 ,i designate the author by the name which he has invented for his hero4 ,footnote #bhi3 ,there is a touch of humour in the expression1 which can perhaps best be reproduced in our northern ,doric1 #8,be not unco' guid4' ,footnote #bij3 ,i follow ,sept4 and ,dr4 ,merx4 ,the received reading is very harsh4 ,footnote #bia3 ,geschichte des ,volkes ,jisrael1 iii4 #cj4 ,footnote #bib3 ,renan1 ,l',antchrist1 p4 #bbh4 ,footnote #bic3 ,on the rhythm1 comp4 ,bickell1 ,der ,prediger 7#ahhd71 pp4 #bg1 #df-ec4 ,footnote #bid3 ,die alttestamentliche ,literatur1 p4 #agc4 ,footnote #bie3 #8,dazu so ist's wie ein ,talmud aus vielen ,bchern zusammengezogen4' ,luther's ,tischreden1 quoted in ,ginsburg1 p4 #aac4 ,footnote #bif3 ,see ,supplementary ,chapter4 ,footnote #big3 ,de rerum natur1 i4 #adj 7appositely quoted by ,mr4 ,tyler74 ,footnote #bih3 ,see the passage quoted from ,chenery's translation of ,hariri by ,dr4 ,taylor 7,dirge of ,coheleth1 p4 #ee72 comp4 ,rckert's rhyming translation 7,hariri1 i4 #ajd-e74 ,footnote #bii3 ,renan's list is i4 #ae1 #ah2 ii4 #b1 #ad2 iii4 #b-h1 iv4 #e1 #ad2 v4 #b2 vii4 #a-f2 #g1 #h2 #i;b2 #ac;b2 #bd2 viii4 #a1 #d2 ix4 #af1 #ag2 x4 #b1 #ab1 #ah2 xi4 #d1 #g2 xii4 #c-e2 #aj2 #aa1 #ab4 ,bickell's1 i4 #g1 #h2 #ae2 #ah2 ii4 #b2 v4 #i2 vi4 #g2 iv4 #e2 ii4 #ad2 viii4 #h2 ix4 #af-x4 #a2 vii4 #a-f1 vi4 #i1 vii4 #g-i2 vii4 #aa1 #ab2 vii4 #bj2 v4 #b2 x4 #af-bj2 xi4 #f2 xi4 #d2 viii4 #a-d1 x4 #b1 #c2 x4 #f1 #g2 x4 #aj-ae2 ix4 #g2 xi4 #i1 #aj1 xii4 #a;a2 xii4 #a;b-#e2 #f4 7,the order of these passages arises out of ,bickell's critical theory2 on which see ,chap4 ,,xii47 ,,chapter ,,ii4 #8,,truth ,,and ,,fiction' ,,in ,,an ,,autobiography4 ,let us now take a general survey of this strange book1 regarding it as a record of the conflicting moods and experiences of a thoughtful man of the world4 ,the author is too modest to appear in his own person 7at least in i4 #a-;ii4 #ab71 but1 like ,cicero in his dialogues1 selects a mouthpiece from the heroic past4 ,his choice could not be doubtful4 ,who so fit as the wisest of his age1 the founder and patron of gnomic poetry1 king ,solomon 7#a ,kings iv4 #cj-cb78 ,after the preluding verses1 from which a quotation has been given above1 ,ecclesiastes continues thus3-- ,i ,koheleth have been#cjj king over ,israel in ,jerusalem2 and ,i gave my mind to making search and exploration1 by wisdom1 concerning all that is done under heaven2 that is a sore trouble which ,god hath given to the sons of men to trouble themselves therewith6 ,i saw all the works which are done under the sun2 and behold1 all is vanity and pursuit of wind4 ,that which is crooked cannot be straightened1 and a deficiency cannot be reckoned 7i4 #ab-ae74 ,the name or title #8,koheleth' is obscure4 ,according to the ,epilogue #8,koheleth was a wise man' 7xii4 #i7--;a statement which confirms the explanation of the name as meaning #8one who calls an assembly4'#cja ,the #8wise men' of ,israel gathered their disciples together1 and such an able teacher as ,koheleth would fain gather all who have ears to hear around his seat4 ,but ,koheleth is also ,solomon 7though only for a short time--the author did not1 ,i suppose1 live long enough thoroughly to fuse the conceptions of king and philosopher#cjb74 ,the wise king is to be imagined standing on the brink of the grave1 and casting the clear-sighted glance of a dying man on past life1 somewhat as ,moses in parts of ,deuteronomy or ,david in #b ,sam4 xxii41 xxiii4 #a-g4 ,a subtle and poetic view of ,solomon's career is thus opened before us4 ,he is not here represented in his political relation1 but as a specimen of the highest type of human being1 with a boundless appetite for pleasure and every means of gratifying it4 ,but even such a man's deliberate verdict on all forms of pleasure is that they are utterly unsubstantial1 mere vanity 7lit4 a vapour--,aquila1 2 comp4 ,james iv4 #ad74 ,neither pure speculation 7i4 #ac-ah71 nor riotous mirth 7ii4 #a1 #b71 nor even the refined voluptuousness consistent with the free play of the intellect#cjc 7ii4 #c71 could satisfy his longing1 or enable him1 with ,goethe's ,faust1 to say to the flying moment1 #8,ah6 linger yet1 thou art so fair4' ,it is true that wisdom is after all better than folly2 ,solomon from his #8specular mount' could #8see' this to be a truth 7ii4 #ac72 but in the end he found it as resultless as #8the walking in darkness' of the fool4 #8,and ,i myself perceived that one fate befalleth them all4 ,and ,i said in my heart1 ,as the fate of the fool will be the fate which shall befall me1 even me2 and why have ,i then been exceeding wise8 and ,i said in my heart that this also is vanity' 7ii4 #ad;b1 #ae71 i4e4 that this undiscriminating fate is a fresh proof of the delusiveness of all things4 ,and in this strain ,koheleth runs on to nearly the end of the chapter1 with an added touch of bitterness at the thought of the doubtful character of his successor 7ii4 #ah1 #ai74 ,then occurs one of those abrupt transitions which so often puzzle the student of ,ecclesiastes4 ,in ii4 #a-aa ,koheleth has rejected the life of sensuous pleasure1 even when wisely regulated1 as #8vanity4' ,he now returns to the subject1 and declares this to be1 not of course the ideally highest good1 but the highest good open to man1 if it were only in his power to secure it4 ,but he has seen that both sensuous enjoyment and the wisdom which regulates it come from ,god1 who grants these blessings to the man who is good in his sight1 while profitless trouble is the portion of the sinner4 ,he repeats therefore that even wisdom and knowledge and joy1 the highest attainable goods1 are1 by reason of their uncertainty1 #8vanity and pursuit of wind' 7ii4 #bf74 ,at the end of this long speech of ,koheleth1 we naturally ask how far it can be regarded as autobiographical4 ,only1 ,i think1 in a qualified sense4 ,its psychological depth points to similar experiences on the part of the author1 but to experiences which have been deepened in their imaginative reproduction4 ,it is truth mingled with fiction--,wahrheit und ,dichtung--which we meet with in the first two chapters4 ,a more strictly biographical narrative appears to begin in chap4 iii41 from which point the allusions to ,solomon cease1 and are replaced by scattered references to contemporary history4 ,the confidences of the author are introduced by a passage 7iii4 #a-h7 in the gnomic style1 containing a catalogue of the various actions1 emotions1 and states of feeling which make up human life4 ,each of these1 we are told1 has its own allotted season in the fixed order of nature1 but as this is beyond the ken and influence of man1 the question arises1 #8,what profit hath he that worketh in that wherewith he wearieth himself8' 7iii4 #i47 ,thus1 the #8wearisome trouble' of the #8sons of men' has no permanent result4 ,all that you can do is to accustom yourself to acquiesce in destiny3 you will then see that every act and every state in your ever-shifting life is truly beautiful or seemly 7iii4 #aa71 even if not profitable to the individual 7iii4 #i74 ,more than this1 man has been endowed with the faculty of understanding this kaleidoscopic world1 with the drawback that he cannot possibly embrace it all in one view3--#cjd ,also he hath put the world into their heart 7i4e4 mind71 except that man cannot find out from beginning to end the work which ,god hath made 7iii4 #aa74 ,in fact1 to quote ,lord ,bacon's words in the ,advancement of ,learning1 #8,god has framed the mind like a glass1 capable of the image of the universe1 and desirous to receive it1 as the eye to receive the light4' ,but here a dark mood interrupts the course of our author's meditations2 or perhaps it is the record of a later period which is but awkwardly attached to the previous passages4 #8,to rejoice and to fare well'--sensual 7or1 let us say1 sensuous7 pleasure1 in short--is now represented as the only good for man1 and even that is not to be too absolutely reckoned upon1 for #8it is the gift of ,god' 7iii4 #ab1 #ac1 #bb2 comp4 ii4 #bd74 ,certainly our author at any rate did not succeed in drowning care in the wine-cup3 he is no vulgar sensualist4 ,his merriment is spoiled by the thought of the misery of others1 and he can find nothing #8under the sun' 7a passionate generalisation from life in ,palestine7 but violence and oppression4 ,in utter despair he pronounces the dead happier than the living 7iv4 #a1 #b74 ,in fact1 he says1 neither in life nor in death has man any superiority over the other animals1 which are under no providential order1 and have no principle of continuance4 ,such is the cynical theory which tempts ,koheleth2 and yet he seems to have hesitated before accepting it1 unless we may venture with ,bickell to strike out iii4 #ag1 as the work of a later editor who believed in retributions hereafter 7like xi4 #i;b xii4 #g1 #ac1 #ad74 ,i confess that consistency seems to me to require this step2 the verse is in fact well fitted to be an antidote to the following verse1 which seems to have suggested the opening phrase4 ,this is how the text runs at present3-- ,i said in my heart1 ,the righteous and the wicked shall ,god judge2 for there is a time for every purpose and for every work there 7emphatically for #8in the other world2' or read1 hath he appointed74 ,i said in my heart1 7,it happens7 on account of the sons of men1 that ,god may test them1 and that they may see that they are but beasts4 ,for the sons of men are a chance 7comp4 ,herod4 i4 #cb71 and beasts are a chance2 yea1 all have one chance3 as the one dies1 so dies the other2 yea1 they all have one spirit2 and advantage of the one over the other there is none1 for all is vanity4 ,all go unto one place2 all are of the dust1 and all turn to dust again4 ,who knows whether the spirit of man goes upward1 and whether the spirit of the beast goes downward to the earth8#cje 7iii4 #ag-ba47 ,our author's abiding conviction is that #8the spirit does but mean the breath' 7,in ,memoriam1 lvi471 so that man and the lower animals have #8one spirit' and alike end in dust4 #8,pulvis et umbra sumus4' ,it is true1 some of his contemporaries hold the new doctrine of ,immortality1 but ,koheleth1 in his cool scepticism1 hesitates to accept it4 ,which indeed of its enthusiastic advocates can claim to #8know' that which he asserts2 or can prove to ,koheleth's satisfaction that ,god 7as a psalmist in ,ps4 xlix4 #ae puts it7 will #8receive' the spirit of man1 in spite of the fact that the vital principle of beasts loses itself in the dust of death8 ,it is no doubt an awkward construction which ,koheleth adopts3 he seems to express an uncertainty as to the fate of the lower animals4 ,to convey the meaning which ,i have given1 the construction ought to have been disjunctive1 as in this line from a noble modern poem1 ,friend1 who knows if death indeed have life1 or life have death for goal8#cjf ,but there is1 or rather there ought to be1 no doubt as to ,koheleth's meaning4 ,dean ,plumptre frankly admits that #8it is not till nearly the close of the book1 with all its many wanderings of thought1 that the seeker rests in that measure of the hope of immortality which we find' but this is open to considerable doubt #8in xii4 #g4' ,footnote #cjj3 ,see the fantastic legend to account for the past tense in ,midrash ,koheleth 7transl4 ,wnsche71 or ,ginsburg 7p4 #bfh2 comp4 p4 #ch74 ,footnote #cja3 ,dean ,plumptre thinks ,koheleth 7like 71 which is rendered by him #8the ,debater1' means rather a member of an assembly1 than a teacher or preacher1 and compares ,ecclus4 xxxviii4 #cc1 where the son of ,sirach says of labourers and artisans that they #8shall not sit high in the congregation1' i4e4 in the ecclesia or academy of sages4 ,but judging from the parallel line the #8congregation' is rather that of the people in general 7comp4 ,ecclus4 xv4 #e74 ,the ,dean's view that the book embodies the inward debates of a ,jewish philosopher may be to a great extent true1 but for all that ,koheleth is throughout represented as speaking alone and with authority4 ,on the philological explanation of the word1 see ,appendix4 ,footnote #cjb3 ,this seems a reasonable view4 ,bickell boldly maintains that i4 #a1 #ab1 #af1 ii4 #g1 #h1 #i #ab are interpolations 7made presumably to facilitate the recognition of the book as canonical74 ,observe however that the 7fictitious7 author is nowhere declared to be ,solomon1 but only ben-,david 7i4 #a74 ,he claims attention merely as a private person1 as an interpreter of the complaints of humanity4 ,though he does once expressly refer to his royal state 7i4 #ab71 it is only to suggest to his readers what ample opportunities he has enjoyed of learning the vanity of earthly grandeur4 ,so1 very plausibly1 ,bloch 7,ursprung des ,kohelet1 p4 #ag74 ,footnote #cjc3 ,the passage indeed is obscure and possibly corrupt 7so ,bickell71 but the above words probably do justice to the mood described4 ,footnote #cjd3 ,among the many other interpretations of this difficult passage1 two may be mentioned here4 7#a7 #8,he has also set worldliness in their heart1 without which man cannot understand the work that ,god does1 from beginning to end4' ,so ,kalisch 7,path and ,goal1 frequently74 ,this is an improvement upon the translation of ,gesenius and others1 who render1 not #8without which' c41 but #8so that man may not' c4 ,the objection to the latter rendering is that it gives #8worldliness' a ,new ,testament sense 7comp4 #a ,john ii4 #ae74 ,kalisch1 however1 in full accord with the spirit of ,judaism1 makes ,koheleth frankly accept #8worldliness' as a good1 understanding by #8worldliness' a sense of worldly duties and enjoyments4 ,had this however been ,koheleth's meaning1 would he not have coined another of his favourite abstract terms 7comp4 the ,peshitto's 'olmoyuth in ,eph4 ii4 #b78 7#b7 #8,also he has put eternity into their heart1 but so that man cannot' c4 ,so ,ginsburg and ,delitzsch 7desiderium ternitatis1 taking #8eternity' in a metaphysical sense #8that which is beyond time'72 so also ,nowack 7taking it in the popular sense of years following upon years without apparent limit74 ,ginsburg's view is against the context1 in which the continuance of the human spirit is doubted2 but ,nowack's explanation is not unacceptable4 ,man has been enabled to form the idea of ,time 7for the popular view of #8eternity' comes practically to this71 and has divided this long space into longer and shorter periods2 what happens in one period or season1 he can compare with what happens in another1 thus finding all well-adapted and #8beautiful4' ,but he cannot grasp the whole of ,time in one view4 ,but ,i still prefer the explanation given in the text1 as being simpler1 in spite of the fact that 'lm nowhere else occurs in the sense of #8world' 7or the present order of things71 so common in later ,hebrew4 ,footnote #cje3 ,this is the rendering of the four principal versions and of all the best critics1 including ,mercier1 ,ewald1 ,ginsburg1 ,grtz and ,delitzsch2 it agrees with the general tendency of ,koheleth1 and in particular with vii4 #e1 where the grave is called man's #8eternal home' 7see below74 ,it is no doubt opposed by the vowel-points1 which are followed in ,king ,james's ,bible4 ,but it is more than probable 7considering other parallel phenomena7 that the authors of the points were directed by a theological and therefore uncritical motive1 that1 namely1 of effacing as far as possible a trace of ,koheleth's opposition to the doctrine1 by that time recognised as orthodox1 of the immortality of the soul4 ,footnote #cjf3 ,swinburne1 ,on the ,verge4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,more ,,moralising1 ,,interrupted ,,by ,,proverbial ,,maxims4 ,let us now resume the thread of ,koheleth's moralising4 ,violence and oppression were two of the chief evils which struck an attentive observer of ,palestinian life4 ,but there were two others equally worthy of a place in the sad picture--the evils of rivalry and isolation4 ,first1 with regard to rivalry 7iv4 #d-f74 ,what is #8skilful work1' or art1 but an #8envious surpassing of the one by the other'8 ,this also is #8pursuit of wind2' it gives no permanent satisfaction4 ,true1 indolence is self-destruction3 but on the other hand a little true rest is better than the labour of windy effort1 urged on by rivalry yielding no rest 7,delitzsch74 ,such at least is the most probable connection1 supposing that vv4 #e and #f are not rather interpolated or misplaced4 ,if however it be objected 7here ,koheleth passes to a second great evil--that of isolation7 that a man may labour for his child or his brother1 yet who1 pray1 is benefited by the money-getting toils of one who has no near relative1 and stands alone in the world8 ,a pitiable sight is such unprofitable toil6 ,the fourth chapter closes with maxims on the blessings of companionship 7iv4 #i-ab71 followed by a vivid description of the sudden fall of an old and foolish king 7iv4 #ac-af71 who had not cared to appropriate one of the chief of these blessings1 viz4 good advice4 ,there is much that is enigmatical in the last four verses4 ,we should expect the writer to be alluding to some fact in contemporary history1 but no plausible parallel has yet been indicated4#cjg ,ver4 #af is certainly either corrupt or mutilated4 ,bickell thinks that it must originally have run somewhat as follows3-- ,there was no end of all the people1 even of all those who applauded him and cast reproaches on the old king4 ,for because he had despised the counsel of the prudent1 to rule foolishly and to oppress the people1 therefore they hated him1 even as those had hated him who were before them2 they also that came afterwards did not rejoice in him4 ,at this point the ideal autobiography of ,koheleth is interrupted4 ,from v4 #a 7 iv4 #ag in the ,hebrew7 to vii4 #ad we are presented with a mixture of proverbial sayings 7such perhaps as ,koheleth was continually framing and depositing in his note-books7 and records of the wise man's personal experience4 ,notice especially the reappearance of the old ,israelitish instinctive sympathy with husbandmen 7or1 shall ,i say1 with yeomen7 in ver4 #i4 ,both proverbs and personal records are the offspring of different moods1 and therefore not always consistent4 ,thus at one time our author repeats his preference of sensuous enjoyment to any other mode of passing one's life4 ,for 7then7 he will not think much on the 7few7 days of his life1 because ,god responds to the joy of his heart 7v4 #bj74 ,but the writer is too pessimistic to rest long in this thought4 ,it is a #8common evil among men' to have riches without the full enjoyment of them3 #8better an untimely birth1' he cries1 than to be in such a case 7vi4 #c74 ,note here in passing the fondness of our author for using a comparison in expressing an emphatic judgment 7comp4 iv4 #i-af1 vii4 #a-h74 ,better1 he continues1 is a momentary experience of real happiness than to let the desire wander after unattainable ends4 #8,there are many things that increase vanity2' with the reserve of good taste1 he understates his meaning1 for what human object1 according to ,koheleth1 is not futile8 ,that gift which to the ,christian is so wondrously fair--the gift of life--to him becomes #8the numbered days of his life of vanity2' and #8who knows what is good for man in life1 which he spends as a shadow8 ,for who can tell a man what shall be after him under the sun8' 7vi4 #ab47 ,koheleth1 we see1 has no faith in his nation1 nor in humanity4 ,i do not feel sure that we may say with ,dean ,bradley that #8out of this very gloom and sadness come forth in the next chapter thoughts that have gone1 some of them1 the round of the world4' ,no doubt there is more than a mere tinge of the same midnight gloom in some of these proverbial sayings4 ,but surely there is a complete break in the thread of thought of vi4 #ab1 and a fresh collection of looser notes has found a place at the head of chap4 vii4 ,at any rate1 these sayings supply a convincing proof that ,koheleth was not a mere hedonist or ,epicurean4 ,he recalls in vii4 #b his former commendation of feasting1 and declares1 ,it is better to go into the house of mourning than to go into the house of feasting1 inasmuch as that is the end of all men1 and the living can lay it to his heart 7vii4 #b74 ,i said that ,koheleth was too pessimistic to remain long under the influence of hedonism4 ,i might have said that he was too thoughtful2 a rational man could not1 without the anticipations of faith1 close his mind to the suggestions of pessimism in the circumstances of ,koheleth's age4 ,better thoughtful misery than thoughtless mirth1 is the keynote of the triad of maxims 7vii4 #b-f7 on the compensations of misery which follows the dreary sentence praising death1 in vii4 #a4cjh ,resignation is the secret of inward peace2 #8with a sad face the heart may be cheerful4' ,not only in view of the great problem of existence1 but in your everyday concerns1 restrain your natural impulses whether to towering passion or to brooding vexation at the wrongness or the slowness of the course of human affairs 7vii4 #h1 #i74 ,above all1 do not give way to an ignorant idealism4 ,it is unwise to ask #8,how is it that the former days were better than these8' 7vii4 #aj47 ,the former time1 so bright and happy1 and the present1 with its predominant gloom1 were alike ordained by ,god 7vii4 #ac should follow vii4 #aj72 and as a last consolation for cool and rational thinkers1 be sure that there is nought to fear after death2 there are no torments of ,gehenna4 ,this in fact is the reason why ,god ordains evil2 there being no second life1 man must learn whatever he can from calamity in this life4 ,on a good day be of good cheer1 and on an evil day consider 7this73 ,god hath also made this 7viz4 good7 equally with that 7evil71 on the ground that man is to experience nothing at all hereafter#cji 7vii4 #ad2 comp4 ix4 #aj74 ,thus1 not only #8be not righteous over much' 7vii4 #af71 but #8do not believe over much' is the teaching of our rationalist-thinker4 ,there is neither good nor evil after death4 ,but is there no present judgment8 ,yes2 but this is not a thought of life and hope4 ,it is a true #8religion' to him2 it binds him in his words as well as his actions4 ,but although ,hooker so admired the saying in v4 #b 7#8,god is in heaven1 and thou upon earth1 therefore let thy words be few'7 as to quote it in one of his finest passages1#caj yet the context of v4 #b sufficiently shows how different was the quality of the reverence of the two writers4 ,be careful to pay thy vows1 says ,koheleth1 lest when thou invokest ,god's name1 ,his angel should appear1 and call thee to account4 ,suffer not thy mouth to bring punishment upon thy body2 and say not before the angel1 ,it was an oversight2#caa wherefore should ,god be angry at thy voice1 and destroy the work of thy hands8' 7v4 #f47 ,to ,koheleth the mention of the divine name is a possible source of danger2 to ,hooker ,god is ,one #8whom to know is life1 and joy to make mention of his name4' ,koheleth has only fear for ,god's holy name--a fear which is not indeed ineffectual but very pale and cheerless2 ,hooker1 a #8perpetual fear and love1' and the love gives a new quality and a new efficacy to the fear4 ,footnote #cjg3 ,hitzig in his commentary refers to the history of the high priest ,onias and his nephew ,joseph4 ,afterwards he recalled this opinion2 but we may be thankful to him for directing attention to this curious and instructive historical episode4 ,footnote #cjh3 ,the mechanical juxtaposition of the two halves of ver4 #a is obvious4 ,the proverb gains considerably1 if read with ,bickell's very plausible supplements1 #8,better is a good name than precious ointment1 but wisdom is still better than fame2 better is not-being than being and the day of death than the day of one's birth4' ,the #8wisdom' meant will be that of resignation and renunciation4 ,footnote #cji3 #8,hereafter' is1 literally1 #8after him' 7for the meaning of which see iii4 #bb1 vi4 #ab72 #8experience1' literally #8find' 7comp4 ,prov4 vi4 #cc74 ,for other views1 see ,wright1 who objects to the above explanation that it #8is opposed to the teaching of ,koheleth respecting a future judgment4' ,but the question is1 ,did ,koheleth believe in a future judgment8 ,footnote #caj3 ,eccles4 ,polity1 i1 #b1 #c4 ,footnote #caa3 ,there is a touch of humour here2 comp4 the wretch in the fable who called ,death to his aid1 but refused him when he came4 ,klostermann has done well in reviving this interpretation1 which1 in ,germany at least1 had been generally abandoned4 7,delitzsch thinks the #8angel' is the priest whom the man who has vowed approaches with a request to be released from his vow4 ,this is supported by ,mal4 ii4 #g1 where the priest is called #8the messenger of ,jehovah ,saboth2' but see the notes of ,ginsburg and ,kingsbury4 ,renan renders1 l'envoy des prtres47 ,the angel is the destroying angel1 whose action is discerned by faith in the judicial calamities which1 sometimes at least1 overtake the wrong-doer4 7,so the ,targum1 but postponing the appearance of the angel to the future judgment47 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,facts ,,of ,,contemporary ,,life4 ,at vii4 #ae a new section begins1 consisting almost entirely of the author's personal experiences1 very loosely connected2 it continues as far as ix4 #ab4 ,a curious passage at the outset appears to describe virtue as residing in the mean between two extremes 7vii4 #ae-ah74 ,the appearance however is deceptive3 it is as much out of place to quote ,aristotle's famous definition of virtue 7 71 as ,buddha's counsel to him who would attain perfection to #8exercise himself in the medium course of discipline4' ,koheleth merely offers practical advice how to steer one's ship between the rocks4 ,do not1 he says1 make your life a burden by excessive legalism4 ,but on the other hand1 do not earn the reputation of caring nothing for the precepts of the law4 ,that were folly1 and would bring you to an early death4#cab ,koheleth expresses this sharply and enigmatically2 do not be too #8righteous1' and do not be too #8wicked4' #8,righteous' and #8wicked' are both to be taken in the common acceptation of those terms in the religious world3 the words are used ironically4 ,our author's only theory of virtue is that no theory is possible4 ,the #8wisdom' which both gives #8defence' and #8preserves life' 7vii4 #ab7 is the practical wisdom of resignation and moderation4 ,of essential wisdom 7or philosophy as we should call it#cac7 he says1 alluding to ,job xxviii4 #ab-bc1 that it is #8far off1 and exceeding deep2 who can find it out8' 7vii4 #bd47 ,the old theory1 which claimed to give the secret of history1 and which even afterwards satisfied some wise men 7e4g4 ,sirach7--the theory that the good are rewarded and the bad punished in this world--is not borne out by ,koheleth's experience1-- ,there is 7many7 a righteous man who perishes in spite of his righteousness1 and there is 7many7 an ungodly man who lives long in spite of his wickedness 7vii4 #ae2 contrast the interpolated passage viii4 #ab1 #ac74 ,but though ,koheleth1 like ,job1 despairs of essential wisdom1 he #8turns' with hope to the wide field of wisdom--or1 as he calls it1 #8wisdom and reasoning1' i4e4 moral inquiries pursued on the inductive method4 ,and what is the result of his inquiry8 ,he gives it with much deliberateness1 stating that he 7viz4 #8the ,koheleth1' see on xii4 #h7 has put one fact to another in order to form a conclusion 7ver4 #bg7 and it is that women-tempters are more pernicious than ,death 7man's great enemy personified1 as so often74 ,or1 putting it in other words1 which ,i am forced to paraphrase to bring out their meaning--words to which the well-known poem of ,simonides is chivalry itself--#8,a few rare specimens of uncorrupted human nature ,i have found1 so rare that one may reckon them as one among a thousand2 but not one of these truly human creatures was a woman4'#cad ,the latter statement is the stronger1 and shows that our author agrees with ,ecclus4 xxv4 #ai1 that #8all wickedness is but little to the wickedness of a woman4' ,and so much in earnest is he1 that he even tries a third mode of expressing his conclusion4 ,carefully limiting himself he says1 #8,lo6 this only have ,i found2 that ,god made mankind upright1 but they have sought out many contrivances' 7ver4 #bi72 that is1 men and women are both born good1 but are too soon sophisticated by civilisation 7and the leaders in this downward process1 we may infer from the context1 are the women74 ,koheleth scarcely means to imply that civilisation is bad in itself2 if he does1 the few good men he has met must apparently have been hermits6 ,but though not essentially immoral1 the inventive or contriving faculty 7so wonderful to ,sophocles7 seems to ,koheleth the chief source of moral danger4 ,but are these the only results of ,koheleth's wide induction from the facts of contemporary life8 ,yes2 a time such as this #8when man rules over man to his hurt' 7viii4 #i7 suggests1 not only prudential maxims1 but this sad conclusion1 already 7vii4 #ae7 mentioned by anticipation1 that the fate proper to the wicked falls upon the righteous1 and that proper to the righteous on the wicked 7viii4 #ad71 or to express this in the concrete1 ,and in accordance with this ,i have seen ungodly men honoured1 and that too in the holy place 7i4e4 the temple2 comp4 ,isa4 xviii4 #g72 but those who had acted rightly had to depart and were forgotten in the city4 ,this too is vanity#cae 7viii4 #aj74 ,no wonder that wickedness is rampant6 ,it requires singular courage to do right when ,nemesis delays her visit2 or1 as ,koheleth puts it1 in language which sorely displeased a later editor1 ,because sentence against a wicked work is not executed speedily1 therefore men have abundant courage to do evil4 ,for ,i know that it even happens that a sinner does evil for a long time1 and yet lives long1 whilst he who fears before ,god is short-lived as a shadow 7viii4 #ab1 #ac74 ,koheleth does not1 of course1 include himself among the reckless evil-doers4 ,he acquiesces in the painful inconsistencies of the world1 and seems to comfort himself with the relatively best good--#8to eat and drink and be merry' 7viii4 #ae74 ,charity may perhaps suggest that this is not said without bitter irony4 ,then follows a clumsy but affecting passage 7viii4 #af1 #ag7 on the uselessness of brooding 7as the author had so long done7 over the mysteries of human life1 which introduces the concluding part of the section 7ix4 #a-ab74 ,these twelve verses are full of a restrained passion4 ,such being the unfree condition of man that he cannot even govern his sympathies and antipathies1 and so regardless of moral distinctions the course of destiny1 and there being no hereafter1#caf what remains but to take such pleasure as life--especially wedded life--can offer1 and to carry out one's plans with energy8 ,yet1 alas6 it is only too true that neither success nor freedom of action can be reckoned upon1 for #8the race is not to the swift1' and men are #8snared' like the fishes and the birds4 ,the section which begins at ix4 #ac is of still more varied contents4 ,it begins with a striking little story about the #8poor wise man1' a ,themistocles in common life1 #8who by his wisdom delivered the city1 and no one remembered that poor man' 7ix4 #ad1 #ae74 ,surely here 7as in iv4 #ac1 #ad1 viii4 #aj7 we catch the echo of contemporary history4 ,it is not a generalisation 7comp4 ,prov4 xxi4 #bb71 but a fact which the author gives us1 and it may plausibly be conjectured that he was the #8poor wise man' himself4 ,the rest of the section 7down to x4 #ae7 contains proverbs on wisdom and folly1 and some bitterly ironical remarks on the exaltation of servants and burden-bearers#cag above the rich and the princely4 ,footnote #cab3 ,as ,plumptre well remarks1 the vices thought of and the end to which they lead are those of sensual license 7comp4 ,prov4 vii4 #be-bg74 ,footnote #cac3 ,in ,koheleth's phrase1 #8that which is2' comp4 ,wisd4 vii4 #ag-ba1 where #8the infallible knowledge of the things that are' is equivalent to a perfect natural science4 ,here a similar phrase means rather philosophy4 ,footnote #cad3 ,so ,klostermann4 ,the ordinary interpretation is1 #8,one man among a thousand 7men7 ,i have found1 but a woman among all these ,i have not found2' i4e4 ,i have tested a thousand men and a thousand women2 ,i have found one true man1 but not one true woman4 ,the objection is that 'dm elsewhere 7e4g4 ver4 #bi7 means human beings without distinction of sex4 ,footnote #cae3 ,following ,bickell4 ,in viii4 #aj it is the linguistic form1 and in viii4 #ab1 #ac the contents of the ,massoretic text which excite suspicion4 ,the former verse is thus rendered by ,delitzsch1 #8,and then ,i have seen the wicked buried1 and they entered into 7their #8perpetual house1' the grave73 but they that had done right had to depart 7into exile7 from the holy place 7,jerusalem2 cf4 ,,ii4 ,isa4 xlviii4 #b71 and were forgotten out of the city3 this too is vanity4' ,footnote #caf3 ,the view expressed in ix4 #aj is1 ,i hope1 very far from being the private belief of the many preachers who are accustomed to quote it4 ,see the chapter on ,ecclesiastes from a religious point of view4 ,footnote #cag3 ,correcting the text in x4 #f with ,a4 ,krochmal4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,wise ,,man',s ,,parting ,,counsels4 ,a new section begins at x4 #af--no ingenuity avails to establish a connection with the preceding verses4 ,we are approaching our goal1 and breathe a freer air4 ,from the very first the ideas and images presented to us are in a healthier and more objective tone4 ,the condemnation expressed in ver4 #af does credit to the public spirit of the writer1 and1 ,i need hardly say1 is not really inconsistent 7as ,hitzig supposed7 with the advice in ver4 #bj4 ,in the words-- ,even among thine acquaintance#cah curse not the king1 and in thy bedchambers curse not the rich2 for the birds of the heaven may carry the voice comp4 the cranes of ,ibycus and that which hath wings may report the word-- ,dean ,plumptre perhaps rightly sees #8the irony of indignation' which #8veils itself in the garb of a servile prudence4' ,there is no necessity to reduce ,koheleth to the moral level of ,epicurus1 who is said to have deliberately preferred despotism and approved courting the monarch4 ,it is a still freer spirit which breathes in the remainder of the book4 ,let courtiers waste their time in luxury 7x4 #ah71 but throw thou thyself unhesitatingly into the swift stream of life4 ,be not ever forecasting1 for there are some contingencies which can no more be guarded against than the falling of rain or of a tree 7xi4 #c1 #d74 ,act boldly1 then1 like the corn-merchants1 who speculate on such a grand scale1-- ,send forth thy bread upon the wide waters lit4 upon the face of the waters1 for thou mayst find it i4e4 obtain a good return for it after many days 7xi4 #a74 ,but since fortune is capricious1 do not risk thine all on a single venture4 #8,ships are but boards1 sailors but men' c41 as ,shylock says4 ,divide thy merchandise1 and so1 if one vessel is wrecked or plundered1 much may still be saved2 or--another possible interpretation--store thy property in various hiding-places1 so that1 in case of some political revolution1 thine all may not be taken from thee1-- ,make seven portions1 and also eight2 for thou knowest not what evil shall be upon the earth 7or1 the land7 7xi4 #b74 ,this is not1 of course1 the usual explanation of these two verses1 which are enigmas fairly admitting of more than one solution4 ,most commentators understand them as recommending beneficence1 which ver4 #b requires to be of extensive range1 and which ver4 #a compares to cakes of bread thrown upon the water1 and gathered up no one knows by whom4 ,so perhaps 7besides ,rashi1 ,aben ,ezra1 ,ginsburg c47 ,goethe in the ,weststliche ,divan-- ,was willst du untersuchen ,wohin die ,milde fliesst6 ,ins ,wasser wirf dein ,kuchen-- ,wer weiss wer sie geniesst6#cai ,i do not think that this suits the context1 which suggests activity and caution as the two good qualities recommended by ,koheleth4 ,but it is very possible that the proverb was a popular one which the author took up1 giving it a fresh application4 ,such is the author's parting advice to the elder part of his readers1--not very elevated1 but not without a breath of courageous faith 7xi4 #e74 ,not that he has given up his advocacy of pleasure4 ,side by side with work1 a man should cherish1 even to the very last1 all those sources of joy which ,god ,himself has provided1 remembering the long dark days which await him in ,shel4 ,then1 at ver4 #i1 he addresses the young1 and in measured distichs intreats them to enjoy life while they may4 ,rejoice1 ,o young man1 in thy youth1 and let thy heart gladden thee in the flower of thine age2 and walk in the ways of thy heart and according to the sight of thine eyes2 ,and banish discontent from thy heart1 and put away evil from thy flesh3-- for youth and the prime of life are vanity4 ,between lines #d and #e we find the received text burdened with a prosaic insertion1 which is probably not due to an after-thought on the part of the writer1 but to the anxiety of later students to rescue the orthodoxy of the book4 ,the insertion consists of the words1 ,rabbinic in expression as well as in thought1 #8,but know that for all this ,god will bring thee into the judgment4'#cbj ,it was the wisdom of true charity to insert them2 but it is our wisdom as literary students to #8banish discontent' with the discord which they introduce by restoring the passage to its original form4 ,at this point ,koheleth turns away from the young to those 7presumably7 of his own age4 ,again there are traces at least of a series of distichs which must once have stood here1 but either the author or one of his editors1 or both1 have so far worked over them that the series is no longer perfect4 ,the first suspected instance of this #8overworking' occurs at the very outset4 #8,remember thy ,creator in the flower of thine age1' are the opening words of ,koheleth's second address4 ,they are usually explained as taking up the idea of the last judgment expressed at the close of xi4 #i4 #8,since ,god1' to quote ,dr4 ,ginsburg's paraphrase1 #8will one day hold us accountable for all the works done in the body1 we are to set the ,lord always before our eyes4' ,the importance of this passage1 when thus interpreted1 is manifest4 ,it suggests that ,koheleth had struggled through his many difficulties to an assured doctrinal and practical position1 and that it is not mere rejoicing1 but #8rejoicing in the ,lord1' that ,koheleth recommends in xii4 #a--;an edifying view of the old man's final result which every one must desire to be true if only it be consistent with the rest of the book4 ,i fear that this is not the case4 ,elsewhere in the book sensuous pleasure in moderation is praised without any reference to ,god1 and in the immediate neighbourhood of this verse the motive given for rejoicing is not the thought of ,god1 but that of the many days of darkness 7i4e4 of ,shel7 which are coming4 ,besides1 the exhortation #8,remember thy ,creator' does not perfectly suit the close of the verse1 or indeed of the section4 ,what is the natural inference from the fact that at an advanced age life becomes physically a burden8 ,surely this--that man should enjoy life while his powers are fresh4 ,cannot an old man #8remember' his ,creator8 7,to #8remember' is to think upon2 it is not a synonym for conversion47 ,the text therefore is almost certainly incorrect4 ,has an editor1 then1 tampered with the text of the opening words of the exhortation8 ,may we1 for instance1 follow ,grtz and read1 for br'ka #8thy ,creator1' br'ka #8thy fountain' 7lit4 thy cistern71 taking this as a metaphorical expression for #8thy wife' or #8thy wedlock' 7as in ,prov4 v4 #ae-ah78 ,the objection certain to be raised is that the text when thus corrected brings the book to a lame and impotent conclusion4 ,it may be true1 as ,bishop ,temple has said1 that chastity and monotheism are the chief legacies which the ,jewish ,church has bequeathed to mankind4#cba ,there is nothing in an exhortation to prize a pure married life unworthy of a high-minded ,jewish teacher4 ,but in this connection it is certainly to a ,western reader strange1 and one is sorely tempted to suppose a displacement of the words1 and1 following ,bickell1 to make the distich-- ,and remember thy fountain in the flower of thine age-- the conclusion of the stanzas beginning at xi4 #i4 ,this1 it is true1 involves 7#a7 the excision of the words #8for youth and the prime of life are vanity1' and 7#b7 an alteration of the construction of xii4 #a1 #b 7reading #8and evil days shall come' c474 ,this violent change is no doubt justified by ,bickell on metrical grounds1 but as ,i cannot unreservedly adopt his metrical theory1 ,i have not sufficient excuse for accepting his rearrangement of the text4 ,i wish some better remedy than that of ,grtz could be devised4 ,i would gladly close these ,meditations with admiration as well as sympathy4 ,but at the risk of being called unimaginative1 ,i must venture to criticise the entire conclusion of the original ,book of ,koheleth 7xii4 #a-g74 ,most ,english critics admire the poem on the evils of old age which follows on the earnest #8,remember1' and naturally think that it requires some specially sublime saying to introduce it4 ,i do not join them in their admiration1 and consequently find it easier to adopt what seems to some the #8low view' of ,dr4 ,grtz4 ,observe that we have already met with an eulogy of wedded bliss side by side with a gloomy picture of death in an earlier section 7ix4 #i1 #aj74 ,this is the poem 7if we may call it so7 with which the second exhortation of ,koheleth is interwoven-- ,ere the evil days come1 and the years approach of which thou shalt say1 ,i have no pleasure in them3 ,ere the sun be darkened1 and the light1 and the moon1 and the stars1 and the clouds keep returning after heavy rains the winter rains1 i4e4 old age3 ,in the day when the keepers of the house the hands and arms tremble1 and the strong men the feet and legs bow themselves1 and the grinding-maids the teeth cease because they are few1 and the 7ladies7 who look out at the lattice the eyes are darkened3 ,and the doors the lips are shut towards the street1 while the sound of the grinding is low1 ,and the voice riseth into a sparrow's #8childish treble' and all the daughters of song words are faint4 ,they are afraid too of a steep place1 and terror besets every way2 and the almond-tree is in bloom white hair#cbb1 and the locust drags itself along1 and the caper-berry fails to excite the appetite1 ,for the man is on the way to his eternal home1 and the mourners go about in the street4 ,ere the silver string the tongue be tied1 and the golden bowl the head break1 and the pitcher the heart be shivered at the fountain1 and the windlass the breathing apparatus break into the pit4 ,with a little determination the traces of development in the ,biblical literature can be more or less effaced4 ,the pious but unphilological editors of ,koheleth were not deficient in this quality4 ,after altering the introduction of the poem on old age they proceeded to furnish it with a finale4 ,not only the opening words of ver4 i41 but the comfortless expression #8his eternal house'#cbc in ver4 #e gave them serious offence4 ,one remedy would have been to transpose 7with the ,syriac translator7 two of the letters of the ,hebrew1 and thus change #8home of his eternity' into #8home of his travail' 7i4e4 the place where #8the weary are at rest'74 ,they preferred1 however1 to add two lines-- and the dust return to the earth as it was1 and the spirit return unto ,god who gave it4 ,this no doubt is a direct contradiction of iii4 #ba4 ,but the ancients probably got over this1 as most moderns still do1 by supposing that the earlier passage did but express a sceptical suggestion which skimmed the surface of ,koheleth's mind4 ,the excision of these words would of course not be justified in a translation intended for popular use2 but for the purposes of historical study seems almost inevitable4 ,it hangs together with the view adopted as to the origin of xi4 #i;b1 and implies the assumption that the ,targum rightly paraphrases1 #8and thy spirit 7lit4 thy breath1 nishm'thk7 will return to stand in judgment before the ,lord who gave it thee4' ,it ought to be mentioned1 however1 that some critics 7accepting the clause as genuine7 see in that return to ,god nothing more than the absorption of the human spirit into the divine 7whether in a nave popular or in a developed philosophical sense74#cbd ,this will seem plausible at first to many readers4 ,as a ,lutheran writer says1 #8,si spes1 quam nos fovemus ltissimam1 ,ecclesiast adfulsisset1 non obiter ipse tetigisset et verbis ambiguis notasset rem maximi momenti' 7,winzer1 ap4 ,hengstenberg74 ,but if the ,hebrew rakh means1 as ,i think it does1 the personal1 conscious1 spiritual side of man in iii4 #ba1cbe ,i fail to see why it should not bear that meaning here4 ,footnote #cah3 ,altering the points with ,klostermann4 ,footnote #cai3 ,but ,goethe may have thought of the ,turkish proverb1 #8,do good1 throw the loaf into the water2 if the fish knows it not1 the ,creator does1' or the story from the life of the ,caliph ,mutewekyil ,mutawakkil8 quoted1 with this proverb1 from ,h4 ,f4 v4 ,diez by ,dukes1 ,rabbinische ,blumenlese1 pp4 #gc-gd4 ,comp4 also the stories in the ,midrash ,koheleth on our passage4 ,footnote #cbj3 ,what judgment8 ,present or future 7i4e4 after death78 ,the latter gives a more forcible meaning 7comp4 iii4 #ag1 xii4 #ad74 ,footnote #cba3 ,essays and ,reviews 7#ahfi71 pp4 #ae-ag4 ,footnote #cbb3 ,does the eastern sun blanch the #8crimson broidery' of the almond-blossom8 ,from the language of travellers like ,thomson and ,bodenstedt it would seem so4 ,footnote #cbc3 ,the ,hebrew 'lm here expresses perpetuity 7comp4 ,jer4 li4 #ci1 ,ps4 cxliii4 #ea1 ,ezek4 xxvi4 #bj71 not 7as some moderns1 after ,aben ,ezra7 long continuance4 ,it is true1 that in the ,targum of ,isa4 xlii4 #aa an exit from the #8eternal house' is spoken of2 but no one doubts that the belief in the ,resurrection was general in the fourth century ,a4,d4 ,footnote #cbd3 ,mr4 ,tyler interprets it in a ,stoic sense of absorption in the ,world-,soul4 ,footnote #cbe3 ,nowack denies this meaning of rakh altogether1 but this seems a ,gewaltstreich4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,koheleth',s #8,,portrait ,,of ,,old ,,age2' ,,the ,,epilogue1 ,,its ,,nature ,,and ,,origin4 ,we have now arrived at the conclusion of the meditations of our much-tried thinker4 ,it is strongly poetic in colouring2 but when we compare it with the grandly simple overture of the book 7i4 #d-h71 can we help confessing to a certain degree of disappointment8 ,it is the allegory which spoils it for modern readers1 and so completely spoils it1 that attempts have been sometimes made to expel the allegorical element altogether4 ,that the first two verses are free from allegory1 is admitted1 and it is barely possible that the sixth verse may be so too--may be1 that is1 figurative rather than allegorical4 ,poets have delighted in these figures2 how fitly does one of them adorn the lament in ,woolner's ,my ,beautiful ,lady1-- ,broken the golden bowl ,which held her hallowed soul6 ,the most doubtful part1 then1 is the description in vv4 #c-e4 ,i am not writing a commentary1 and will venture to express an opinion in favour of the allegorists 7it is not fair to call them satirically the anatomists74#cbf ,it is true that there is much variety of opinion among them2 this only shows that the allegory is sometimes far-fetched1 not that it is a vain imagination4 ,can there be anything more obscure than the canzoni in ,dante's ,convito1 which we have the poet's own authority for regarding as allegorical8 ,and if we compare the rival theories with that which they attempt to displace1 can it be said that ,taylor's dirge-theory1#cbg or ,umbreit's storm-theory1#cbh or that adopted by ,wright from ,wetzstein#cbi is more suitable to the poem than the allegorical theory8 ,certainly the latter is a very old1 if not the oldest theory1 and on a point of this sort the ancients have some claim to be deferred to4 ,they seem to have felt instinctively that the intellectual atmosphere of ,koheleth 7as well as of the ,chronicler7 was that of the later ,judaism4 ,the following story is related in a ,talmudic treatise4#ccj #8,the ,emperor asked ,r4 ,joshua ben ,hananyah1 8,how is it that you do not go to the house of ,abidan 7a place of learned discussions780 ,he said to him1 8,the mountain is snow 7my head is white72 the hoar frosts surround me 7my whiskers and my beard are also hoary72 its dogs do not bark 7,i have lost my wonted power of voice72 its millers do not grind 7,i have no teeth72 the scholars ask me whether ,i am looking for something ,i have not lost 7referring probably to the old man feeling here and there740' ,once more 7see i4 #b7 the mournful motto1 #8,vanity of vanities6 saith the ,koheleth2 all is vanity' 7xii4 #h71 and the book in its original form closes4#cca ,did the author himself attach this motto8 ,surely not1 if the preceding words on the return of the spirit to its ,god 7see above1 on iii4 #ba7 are genuine1 for then #8,vanity of vanities' would be a patent misrepresentation4 ,all is not #8vanity1' if there is in human nature a point connecting a man with that world1 most distant and yet most near1 where in the highest sense ,god is4 ,if ,koheleth wrote xii4 #g;b1 he cannot have written xii4 #h1 any more than the author of the ,imitation could have written ,vanitas vanitatum both on his first page and on his last4 ,yet who but ,koheleth can be responsible for it8 ,for the later editors of whom ,i have spoken1 would be far from approving such a reversal of the great charter of man's dignity in the eighth ,psalm4 ,to me1 the motto simply says that all ,koheleth's wanderings had but brought him back to the point from which he started4 #8,grandissima vanit1' as ,castelli1 in his dignified ,italian1 puts it1 #8tutto vanit4' ,all that ,i can assign to the editors in this verse are the parenthetic words #8saith the ,koheleth4' ,everywhere else we find #8,koheleth2' here alone1 and perhaps vii4 #ag 7corrected text71 #8the ,koheleth4'#ccb ,let us now consider the ,epilogue itself4 ,and moreover 7it should be said7 that ,koheleth was a wise man2 further1 he taught the people wisdom1 and weighed and made search1 7yea7 composed many proverbs4 ,koheleth sought to find out pleasant words1 and he wrote down#ccc plainly words of truth4 ,the words of the wise are like goads1 and like nails well driven in2 the members of the assemblies#ccd have in the case of ,ecclesiastes given them forth from another shepherd4#cce ,and as for all beyond them1 my son1 be warned2 of making many books there is no end1 and much study is a weariness of the flesh4--,that which the word #8all is vanity' comes to3#ccf it is understood 7thus71 ,fear ,god1 and keep ,his commandments4 ,for this 7concerns7 every man4 ,for every work shall ,god bring into the judgment 7which shall be7 upon all that is concealed and all that is manifest1 whether it be good or whether it be evil4 ,this translation has not been reached without some emendations of the text4 ,it seems to me that everything in this ,epilogue ought to be clear4 ,there is but one verse which contains figurative expressions2 the rest is simple prose4 ,it is only fair1 however1 to give one of the current renderings of those verses in which an emendation has been attempted above4 ,koheleth sought to find out pleasant words and that which was written down frankly1 words of truth4 ,words of wise men are like goads1 and like nails driven in are those which form collections or1 the well-compacted sayings1 ,ewald2 or1 the well-stored ones1 ,kamphausen--they have been given by one shepherd4444 ,final result1 all having been heard3--,fear ,god and keep ,his commandments1 for this 7concerns7 every man4#ccg ,the first scholar to declare against the genuineness of the ,epilogue was ,dderlein 7,scholia in libros ,v4 ,t4 poeticos1 #aggi71 who was followed by ,bertholdt 7,einleitung1 p4 #bbej c471 ,umbreit1 ,knobel1 and ,de ,jong4#cch ,it was however a ,jewish scholar1 ,nachman ,krochmal1#cci who first developed an elaborate theory to account for the ,epilogue4 ,according to him1 it was added at the final settlement of the ,canon at the ,synod of ,jamnia1 ,a4,d4 #ij1 and was intended as a conclusion not merely for ,ecclesiastes1 but for the entire body of ,hagiographa4 ,he thinks 7but without any historical ground7 that ,ecclesiastes was added at that time to close the ,canon4 ,the correctness of this view depends partly on its author's interpretation of vv4 #aa1 #ab1 partly on his definition of the object of the ,synod of ,jamnia 7see ,appendix47 ,the two former verses are condensed thus1 ,the words of the wise are like ox-goads1 and the members of the ,sanhedrin are like firm nails1 not to be moved4 ,as for more than these1 beware1 my son2 of making many books there is no end4 ,the #8wise' spoken of1 thinks ,krochmal1 are the authors of the several books of the ,hagiographa1 and the warning in ver4 #ab is directed against the reception of any other books into the ,canon4 ,whether the ,song of ,solomon and ,ecclesiastes were to be admitted1 was1 according to him1 a subject of debate at the ,synod referred to4 ,but there is no necessity whatever for this interpretation of vv4 #aa1 #ab4 ,the phrase1 #8the words of the wise1' is not a fit description of all the books of the ,hagiographa 7of ,psalms1 ,daniel1 and ,chronicles for instance71 and the warning in ver4 #ab more probably has relation to the proverbial literature in general1 such as ,proverbs1 ,ecclesiastes1 and the ,wisdom of ,sirach1 or at least to the ,book of ,proverbs1 to which ,kleinert conjectures that ,ecclesiastes once formed an appendix4 ,there is nothing in the ,epilogue to suggest a reference to the ,canon4 ,the #8many books' spoken of are probably such as did not proceed from thoroughly orthodox sources4 ,we have absolutely no information as to ,jewish literature outside the ,canon4 ,that there was a heterodox literature1 has been inferred by ,ewald from ,jer4 viii4 #h1 ,prov4 xxx4 #a-d2 it is also clear from several passages in the ,book of ,enoch4 ,tyler and ,plumptre may possibly be right in seeing here an allusion to the incipient influence of ,greek literature upon the ,jews4 ,this is at any rate more justifiable than to assume an arrangement of the ,hagiographa with ,ecclesiastes for the closing book for which there is no ancient testimony4 ,krochmal's ingenious theory has1 however1 been adopted by ,jost1 ,grtz and ,renan1#cdj though ,renan is willing to admit that vv4 #i1 #aj may be from the pen of the author himself4 #8,cet pilogue complte bien la fiction qui fait la base du livre4 ,quel motif d'ailleurs et amen faire postrieurement une telle addition8'#cda ,i do not myself hold with ,krochmal1 but vv4 #i-ab seem to me to hang together1 and ,i do not think that the author himself would be at the pains to destroy his own fiction1 whereas a later editor would naturally append the corrective statement that the real ,koheleth was not a king1 but a wise man4 7,observe too that #8,koheleth' in ver4 #h has the article1 but in vv4 #i1 #aj is without it1 suggesting a change of writer47 ,i agree however with ,renan that vv4 #ac1 #ad1 which differ in tone and in form from the preceding verses1 appear to be a later addition than the rest of the ,epilogue4 ,renan1 it is true1 distrusts this appearance2 he fears a too complicated hypothesis4 ,but we must at least hold that vv4 #ac1 #ad were added 7whether by the ,epilogist or by another7 by an after-thought4 ,the ,epilogue should therefore be divided into two parts1 vv4 #i-ab1 and vv4 #ac1 #ad4 ,in the first part1 the real is distinguished from the fictitious author2 his qualifications are described2 the editors of his posthumous work are indicated2 and a warning is given to the disciple of the ,epilogist 7to apply the words of ,m4 ,aurelius7 #8to cast away the thirst for books4'#cdb ,in the second part1 a contradiction is given to what seemed an unworthy interpretation of a characteristic expression of ,koheleth's1 and the higher view of its meaning is justified--justified1 that is1 to those who approach the work from the practical point of view of those who have as yet no better moral #8,enchiridion4'#cdc ,at what period was the ,epilogue added8 ,the consideration of its style may help us at least to a negative result4 ,the ,hebrew approaches that of the ,mishna1 but is yet sufficiently distinct from it to be the subject of expository paraphrase in the ,talmuds4#cdd ,it is therefore improbable that it was added long after the period of the author himself4 ,books like ,sirach and ,koheleth soon became popular1 and attracted the attention of the religious authorities4 ,interpolation or insertion seemed the only way to counteract the spiritual danger to unsuspicious readers4 ,footnote #cbf3 ,the title only belongs to pre-critical writers like ,dr4 ,john ,smith1 who1 in his ,portrait of ,old ,age 7#afff71 sought to show that ,solomon was thoroughly acquainted with recent anatomical discoveries4 ,in revising my sheets1 ,i observe that even such a fairminded student as ,dean ,bradley speaks of #8the long-drawn anatomical explanations of men who would replace with a dissector's report a painter's touch1 a poet's melody4' ,but the ,dean only refers to ver4 #f2 ,i understand his language1 though ,i think him biassed by poetic associations4 ,footnote #cbg3 ,namely1 that vv4 #c-e are cited from an authorised book of dirges 7comp4 #b ,chr4 xxxv4 #be74 ,there seems1 however1 no assignable reason for separating these verses from the context4 ,and how can the supposed mourners have sung the latter part of ver4 #e8 ,footnote #cbh3 ,this supposes the approach of death to be described under the imagery of a gathering storm4 ,footnote #cbi3 ,namely1 that the evil days of the close of life are described by figures drawn from the #8seven days of death1' as the modern ,syrians designate the closing days of their winter4 ,in a native ,arabic rhyme1 ,february says to ,march1 #8,o ,march1 ,o my cousin1 the old women mock at me3 three 7days7 of thine and four of mine--and we will bring the old woman to singing 7another tune74' ,wright1 ,ecclesiastes1 p4 #bga2 ,delitzsch1 ,hoheslied und ,kohelet1 p4 #ddg4 ,footnote #ccj3 ,shabbath1 #aea;b1 #aeb;b 7,wright1 ,ecclesiastes1 p4 #bfb74 ,the anecdote is given in connection with an allegoric interpretation of our poem4 ,footnote #cca3 ,dean ,plumptre and ,dr4 ,wright1 however1 make this the opening verse of the ,epilogue4 ,but between ver4 #h and that which follows there is no inner connection4 ,footnote #ccb3 ,the object of the article is perhaps to suggest that ,koheleth is not really a proper name4 ,in vii4 #bg we should correct m'rh qheleth to mar haqqheleth4 ,probably these words are an interpolation from the margin4 ,they are nowhere else used in support of ,koheleth's opinions4 ,the author of the interpolation may have wished to indicate his disagreement with ,koheleth's low opinion of women4 ,footnote #ccc3 ,so ,aquila1 ,pesh41 ,vulg41 ,grtz1 ,renan1 ,klostermann 7v'kthab74 ,footnote #ccd3 ,i4e4 the assemblies of #8wise men' or perhaps of ,soferim4 ,surely ba'al must refer to persons4 ,the meaning #8assemblies' is justified by ,talmudic passages quoted by ,grtz1 ,delitzsch1 and ,wright4 ,footnote #cce3 ,so ,klostermann4 #8,shepherd' must1 ,i think1 mean teacher 7comp4 ,jer4 ii4 #h1 iii4 #ae c472 the expression is suggested by the #8goads4' #8,one shepherd' 7the text-reading7 might mean ,solomon2 and we might go on to suppose the ,solomonic origin of ,proverbs as well as ,ecclesiastes to be asserted in this verse4 ,but the author of the ,epilogue apparently considers ,koheleth to be merely fictitiously ,solomon1 but really a wise man like any other4 ,if so1 he cannot have grouped it with ,proverbs as a strictly ,solomonic work4 ,footnote #ccf3 ,so ,klostermann1 regarding this verse down to #8commandments' as an additional note on this difficult saying of ,koheleth's1 which was liable to give offence to orthodox readers4 ,the word #87is7 vanity' is supposed to have dropped out of the text4 ,the object of the note is to show under what limitations it can be admitted that #8all is vanity4' ,then the writer continues1 #8,for this 7concerns7 every man2 for every work' c41 to show that the limiting precept is not less universally applicable than ,koheleth's melancholy formula4 ,footnote #ccg3 ,thus ,delitzsch1 who takes the #8words of the wise' and the #8collections' in ver4 #aa to refer at least in part1 the former to the detached sayings1 and the latter to the continuous passages1 which together make up ,ecclesiastes4 ,the #8one shepherd' is held to be ,god1 so that the clause involves a claim of divine inspiration4 ,footnote #cch3 ,de ,jong's discussion of the ,epilogue deserves special attention 7,de ,prediker1 p4 #adb c472 comp4 however ,kuenen's reply1 ,onderzoek1 iii4 #aif c4 ,footnote #cci3 ,krochmal died in #ahdj1 but his view on the ,epilogue first saw the light in #ahea in vol4 xi4 of the ,hebrew journal ,mor nebk hazzemn 7see ,grtz1 ,kohelet1 p4 #dg74 ,his life is to be found in ,zunz1 ,gesammelte ,schriften1 ii4 #aej c4 ,footnote #cdj3 ,see ,jost 7,gesch4 des ,judenthums1 i4 #db1 n4 #b74 ,derenbourg too seems to tend in this direction 7,revue des tudes juives1 i4 #agi1 note74 ,reuss1 ,bickell1 and ,kleinert too agree in denying that #8,koheleth' composed the ,epilogue4 ,so also apparently ,geiger 7,jd4 ,zeitschr41 iv4 #aj1 ,anm47 ,footnote #cda3 ,l',ecclsiaste1 p4 #gc4 ,footnote #cdb3 ,meditations1 ii4 #c4 ,footnote #cdc3 ,i designedly refer to the great work of ,epictetus1 as its adaptation by ,christian hands to the use of ,christian believers to some extent furnishes a parallel for the editorial adaptation of ,ecclesiastes4 ,footnote #cdd3 ,delitzsch1 ,hoheslied u4 ,koheleth1 p4 #bae4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,ecclesiastes ,,and ,,its ,,critics 7,,from ,a ,,philological ,,point ,,of ,,view74 ,by comparison with ,ecclesiastes1 the books which we have hitherto been studying may be called easy2 at any rate1 they have not given rise to equally strange diversities of critical opinion4 ,a chapter with the above heading seems therefore at this point specially necessary4 ,dr4 ,ginsburg's masterly sketch of the principal theories of the critics down to #ahfj dispenses me1 it is true1 from attempting an exhaustive survey4#cde ,it is not the duty of every teacher of ,old ,testament criticism to traverse the history of his subject afresh1 any more than it is that of the commentator as such to begin with a catena of the opinions of previous writers4 ,suffice it to call attention to two of the ,jewish and two of the ,christian expositors mentioned by ,dr4 ,ginsburg1 viz4 ,mendelssohn and ,luzzatto1 and ,ewald and ,vaihinger4 ,,mendelssohn seems important not so much by his results as by his historical position4 ,his life marks an era in ,biblical study1 most of all of course among the ,jews1 but to some extent among ,christians also4 ,his ,hebrew commentary on ,koheleth deserves specially to be remembered1 because with it in #aggj he broke ground anew in grammatical exegesis4 ,to him1 as also to ,,vaihinger1 the object of ,koheleth is to propound the great consolatory truth of the immortality of the soul1 while ,,ewald1 more in accordance with facts1 describes it as being rather to combine all that is true1 however sad1 and profitable1 and agreeable to the will of ,god in a practical handbook adapted to those troublesome times4 ,ewald and ,vaihinger both divide the book into four sections1--7#a7 i4 #b-;ii4 #bf1 7#b7 iii4 #a-vi4 #i1 7#c7 vi4 #aj-viii4 #ae1 7#d7 viii4 #af-xii4 #h1 with the ,epilogue xii4 #i-ad4 ,the latter1 whose view is more developed than ,ewald's1 and whom ,i refer to as closing and summing up a period1 maintains that each section consists of three parts which are again subdivided--for ,koheleth1 though you would not think it1 is a literary artist--into strophes and half-strophes1 and that the theme of each section is thrown out1 seemingly by chance1 but really with consummate art1 in the preceding one4 ,thus the four sections interlace1 and the unity of the book is established4 ,the ,epilogue1 too1 according to ,vaihinger1 can thus be proved to be the work of the author of ,koheleth2 for it does but ratify and develope what has already been indicated in xi4 #i1 and without it the connection of ideas would be incomplete4#cdf ,i think that our experience of some interpreters of the ,book of ,job may predispose us to be sceptical of such ingenious subtleties1 and ,i notice that more recent critics show a tendency to insist less on the logical distribution of the contents and to regard the book1 not indeed as a mere collection of rules of conduct1 but at any rate as a record of a practical and not a scholastic philosopher4 ,this tendency is not indeed of recent origin1 though it has increased in favour of late years4 ,prior the poet had already said that ,ecclesiastes #8is not a regular and perfect treatise1 but that in it great treasures are 8heaped up together in a confused magnificence20'#cdg ,bishop ,lowth1 that #8the connection of the arguments is involved in much obscurity2'#cdh while ,herder1 in his letters to a theological student1 had penned this wise though too enthusiastic sentence1 which cuts at the root of all attempts at logical analysis1 ,kein ,buch ist mir aus dem ,alterthum bekannt1 welches die ,summe des menschlichen ,lebens1 seine ,abwechselungen und ,nichtigkeiten in ,geschften1 ,entwrfen1 ,speculationen und ,vergngen1 zugleich mit dem was einzig in ihm wahr1 daurend1 fortgehend1 wechselnd1 lohnend ist1 reicher1 eindringlicher1 krzer beschriebe1 als dieses4#cdi ,but ,i must retrace my steps4 ,one of my four critics has yet to be briefly characterised--,s4 ,d4 ,,luzzatto of ,padua1 best known as the author of a ,hebrew commentary on ,isaiah1 but also a master in later ,hebrew and ,aramaic scholarship4 ,as a youth of twenty-four he wrote a deeply felt and somewhat eccentrically ingenious treatise on ,koheleth1 which he kept by him till #ahfj1 when it appeared in one of the annual volumes of essays and reviews called ,ozar ,nechmad4 ,in it he maintains1 with profound indignation at the unworthy post-,exile writer1 that the ,book of ,ecclesiastes denies the immortality of the soul1 and recommends a life of sensuous pleasure4 ,the writer's name1 however1 was1 he thinks1 ,koheleth1 and his fraud in assuming the name of ,solomon was detected by the wise men of his time1 who struck out the assumed name and substituted ,koheleth 7leaving however the words #8son of ,david1 king in ,jerusalem1' as a record of the imposture74 ,later students1 however1 were unsuspicious enough to accept the work as ,solomon's1 and being unable to exclude a ,solomonic writing from the ,canon1 they inserted three qualifying half-verses of an orthodox character1 viz4 #8and know that for all this ,god will bring thee into judgment' 7xi4 #f;b72 #8and remember thy ,creator in the days of thy youth' 7xii4 #a;a72 #8and the spirit shall return to ,god who gave it' 7xii4 #h;b74 ,this latter view1 which has the doubtful support of a ,talmudic passage1#cej appears to me1 though from the nature of the case uncertain1 and susceptible1 as ,i think1 of modification1 yet in itself probable as restoring harmony to the book1 and in accordance with the treatment of other ,biblical texts by the ,soferim 7or students and editors of ,scripture74 ,geiger may have fallen into infinite extravagances1 but he has at any rate shown that the early ,soferim modified many passages in the interests of orthodoxy and edification4#cea ,if so1 they did but carry on the process already begun by the authors of the sacred books themselves2 it may be enough to remind my readers of the gradual supplementing of the original ,book of ,job by later writers4 ,to the three passages of ,koheleth mentioned above1 must be added1 as ,geiger saw1#ceb the two postscripts which form the ,epilogue4 ,from the close of the last century a series of writers have felt the difficulties of this section so strongly that they have assigned it to one or more later writers1 and in truth1 although these difficulties may be partly removed1 enough remains to justify the obelising of the passage4 ,there is no evidence that ,luzzatto ever retracted the critical view mentioned above4 ,to the character of the author1 it is true1 he became more charitable in his later years4 ,i do not think the worse of him for his original antipathy4 ,an earnest believer himself and of fiery temperament1 he could not understand the cool and cautious reflective spirit of the much-tried philosopher2#cec and as a lover of the rich1 and1 as the result of development1 comparatively flexible ,hebrew tongue1 he took a dislike to a writer so wanting in facility and grace as ,koheleth4#ced ,it was an error1 but a noble one1 and it shows that ,luzzatto found in the study of criticism a school of moral culture as well as of literary insight4 ,the adoption of ,luzzatto's view1#cee combined with ,dderlein's as to the epilogue1 removes the temptation to interpret ,koheleth as the apology of any particular philosophical or theological doctrine4 ,the author now appears1 not indeed thoroughly consistent1 but at least in his true light as a thinker tossed about on the sea of speculation1 and without any fixed theoretic conclusions4 ,without agreeing to more than the relative lateness of the epilogue1 ,,de ,,jong1#cef a ,dutch scholar1 recognises the true position of ,koheleth1 and in the psychological interest of the book sees a full compensation for the want of logical arrangement4 ,de ,jong indeed was not acquainted with the theory of ,nachman ,krochmal1 which if sound throws such great light on the reason of the addition of the epilogue 7see end of ,chap4 ,,vi47 ,this has been accepted by ,grtz and ,renan1 but1 as ,i have ventured to think1 upon insufficient grounds4 ,the brevity of my reference to these two eminent exegetes must be excused by my inability to follow either of them in his main conclusions4 ,the glossary of peculiar words and the excursus on the ,greek translation given by the former 7#ahga7 possess a permanent value1 and there is much of historical interest in his introduction4 ,but ,i agree with ,kuenen that the student who selects ,grtz as his guide will have much to unlearn afterwards4#ceg ,in order to show that ,ecclesiastes is a politico-religious satire levelled against king ,herod1 with the special object of correcting certain evil tendencies among the ,jews of that age1 ,grtz is compelled to have recourse to much perverse exegesis which ,i have no inclination to criticise4#ceh ,renan's present view differs widely from that given in his great unfinished history of the ,semitic languages4 ,but ,i shall have occasion to refer to his determination of the date of our book later4 ,among recent ,english students1 no one will refuse the palm of acuteness and originality to ,,tyler 7#ahgd74 ,his strength lies not in translation and exegesis1 but in the consistency with which he has applied his single key1 viz4 the comparison of the book with ,stoic and ,epicurean teaching4 ,he is fully aware that the book has no logical divisions4 ,antithesis and contradiction is the fundamental characteristic of the book4 ,not that the author contradicts himself 7comp4 the quotation from ,ibn ,ezra in ,ginsburg's ,coheleth1 p4 #eg71 but that a faithful index of the contradictions of the two great philosophical schools gives a greater point to his concluding warning against philosophy4 ,it is the #8sacrificio dell' intelletto' which the author counsels4 ,but ,mr4 ,tyler's theory or at least his point of view demands a separate consideration4 ,it may however be fairly said here that by general consent ,mr4 ,tyler has done something to make the influence of ,greek philosophical ideas upon ,ecclesiastes a more plausible opinion4 ,to a subsequent chapter ,i must also beg to refer the reader for a notice of ,gustav ,,bickell',s hypothesis 7#ahhd7 relative to the fortunes 7or misfortunes7 of the text of ,koheleth4 ,this critic is not one of those who grant that the book had from the first no logical division1 and his hypothesis is one of the boldest and most plausible in the history of criticism4 ,its boldness is in itself no defect1 but ,i confess ,i desiderate that caution which is the second indispensable requisite in a great critic4 ,the due admixture of these two qualities nature has not yet granted4 ,meantime the greatest successes are perhaps attained by those who are least self-confident1 least ambitious of personal distinction4 ,upon the whole1 from the point of view of the student proper1 are there more thankworthy contributions to criticism not less than to exegesis than the books of ,,plumptre 7#ahha71 ,,nowack 7#ahhc71 and above all the accomplished altmeister ,franz ,,delitzsch 7#ahge78 ,whatever has been said before profitably and well1 may be known by him who will consult these three accomplished though not faultless expositors4 ,i would not be supposed to detract from other writers1#cei but ,i believe that the young student will not repent limiting himself1 not indeed to one1 but to three commentaries4 ,footnote #cde3 ,for the ,jewish traditions and theories1 see further ,schiffer1 ,das ,buch ,kohelet nach der ,auffassung der ,weisen des ,talmud und ,midrasch und der jdischen ,erklrer des ,mittelalters1 ,theil #a1 ,leipzig1 #ahhe2 and to complete ,dr4 ,ginsburg's survey of the literature1 see ,zckler's list in ,lange's ,commentary and the additions to this in the ,american edition2 also the preface to ,wright's treatise on ,ecclesiastes4 ,footnote #cdf3 ,see ,vaihinger's article in ,herzog's ,realencyclopdie1 xii4 #ib-ajf4 ,i have not seen his book on ,ecclesiastes 7#aheh74 ,footnote #cdg3 ,ginsburg1 ,coheleth1 p4 #afh4 ,footnote #cdh3 ,ibid41 p4 #agh4 ,footnote #cdi3 ,werke 7,suphan71 x4 #acd4 ,footnote #cej3 ,shabbath1 #ig;a 7see ,ginsburg1 p4 #ih74 ,footnote #cea3 ,see his ,urschrift und ,uebersetzungen der ,bibel 7#aheg74 ,footnote #ceb3 ,jdische ,zeitschrift1 iv4 #i c4 ,footnote #cec3 ,david ,castelli1 a cool and cautious scholar but not original1 is naturally better fitted to appreciate ,koheleth 7see ,il libro del ,kohelet1 ,pisa1 #ahff74 ,footnote #ced3 #8,die harte1 ungefgige1 tiefgesunkene ,sprache des ,buches entzog ihm in ,luzzatto's ,auge den verklrenden ,lichtglanz2 er blickte mit einer gewissen ,missachtung auf den ,schriftsteller1 der sowenig ,meister der edlen ihn erfllenden ,sprache war' 7,geiger74 ,footnote #cee3 ,not only ,geiger1 but the learned and fairminded ,kalisch1 has made this view his own 7,bible ,studies1 i4 #fe72 among ,christian scholars it has been adopted by ,nldeke and ,bickell 7the latter includes iii4 #ag among the inserted passages1 and ,i incline to follow him74 ,footnote #cef3 ,de ,prediker vertaald en verklaart door ,p4 de ,jong 7,leiden1 #ahfa74 ,footnote #ceg3 ,theologisch ,tijdschrift1 #ahhc1 p4 #aad4 ,footnote #ceh3 ,see however ,kuenen's condensed criticism in ,theol4 ,tijdschrift1 p4 #abg c4 ,footnote #cei3 ,hitzig1 for instance1 has been passed over in spite of ,nldeke's judgment that no modern scholar has done so much for the detailed explanation of the text4 ,this may be true1 or at least be but a small exaggeration4 ,no critic has so good a right to the name as ,hitzig1 who1 though weak in his treatment of ideas1 has the keenest perception of what is possible and impossible in interpretation4 ,but for the larger critical questions ,hitzig has not done much2 the editor of the second edition of his commentary 7,nowack7 has therefore been obliged to rewrite the greater part of the introduction4 ,the historical background of the book cannot be that supposed by ,hitzig1 nor has he hit the mark in his description of ,koheleth as #8eine planmssig fortschreitende ,untersuchung4' ,wright fails1 ,i venture to think1 from different causes4 ,he is slightly too timid1 and deficient in literary art2 and yet his scholarly work does honour to the ,protestant clergy of ,ireland4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,ecclesiastes ,,and ,,its ,,critics 7,,from ,a ,,literary ,,and ,,psychological ,,point ,,of ,,view74 ,it is not every critic of ,ecclesiastes who helps the reader to enjoy the book which is criticised4 ,too much criticism and too little taste have before now spoiled many excellent books on the ,old ,testament4 ,ecclesiastes needs a certain preparation of the mind and character1 a certain #8elective affinity1' in order to be appreciated as it deserves4 ,to enjoy it1 we must find our own difficulties and our own moods anticipated in it4 ,we must be able to sympathise with its author either in his world-weariness and scepticism or in his victorious struggle 7if so be it was victorious7 through darkness into light4 ,we must at any rate have a taste for the development of character1 and an ear for the fragments of truth which a much-tried pilgrim gathered up in his twilight wanderings4 ,never so much as in our own time have this taste and this ear been so largely possessed1 as a recent commentary has shown in delightful detail1 and ,i can only add to the names furnished by the writer that of one who perhaps least of all should be omitted1 ,miss ,christina ,rossetti4#cfj ,but to prove the point in my own way1 let me again select four leading critics1 as representatives not so much of philology as of that subtle and variable thing--the modern spirit1 viz4 ,,renan1 ,,gr,,tz1 ,,stanley1 and ,,plumptre4 ,the first truly is a modern of the moderns1 though it is not every modern who will subscribe to his description of ,ecclesiastes as #8livre charmant1 le seul livre aimable qui ait t compos par un ,juif'#cfa ,one might excuse it perhaps if in some degree dictated by a bitter grief at the misfortunes of his country2 pessimism might be natural in #ahgb4 ,but alas6 ten years later the same view is repeated and deliberately justified1 nor can the author of ,koheleth be congratulated4 ,he is now described#cfb as #8le charmant crivain qui nous a laiss cette dlicieuse fantaisie philosophique1 aimant la vie1 tout en en voyant la vanit1' or1 as a ,french reviewer condenses the delicate phrases of his author1 #8homme du monde et de la bonne socit1 qui n'est1 proprement parler1 ni blas ni fatigu1 mais qui sait en toutes choses garder la mesure1 sans enthousiasme1 sans indignation1 et sans exaltation d'aucune espce4' ,a speaking portrait of a ,parisian philosophe1 but does it fit the author of ,ecclesiastes8 ,no2 ,koheleth has had too hard a battle with his own tongue to be a #8charming writer1' and even if not exactly blas 7see however ii4 #a-aa71 he is #8fatigued' enough with the oppressive burdens of ,jewish life in the second century ,b4,c4 ,that he has no enthusiasm1 and none of those visions which are the #8creators and feeders of the soul1'#cfc is cause for pity1 not for admiration2 but that he has had no visitings of sva indignatio1 is an unjust inference from his acquired calmness of demeanour4 ,he is an amiable egost1 says ,m4 ,renan2 but would ,koheleth have troubled himself to write as he does1 if egosm were the ripened fruit of his life's experience8 ,why does this critic give such generous sympathy to the ,ecclesiastes of the ,slav race1#cfd and such doubtful praise to his great original8 ,it is true1 ,koheleth seems to despair of the future1 but only perhaps of the immediate future 7iii4 #ba71 and ,turgenieff does this too4 #8,will the right men come8' asks one of the personages of ,turgenieff's ,helen1 and his friend1 as the only reply1 directs a questioning look into the distance4 ,that is the ,russian philosopher's last word2 ,koheleth has not told us his4 ,his literary executors1 no doubt1 have forced a last word upon him2 but we have an equal right to imagine one for ourselves4 ,m4 ,renan #8likes to dream of a ,paul become sceptical and disenchanted2'#cfe his ,koheleth is an only less unworthy dream4 ,m4 ,renan praises ,koheleth for the moderation of his philosophising2 he repeatedly admits that there was an element of truth in the ,utopianism of the prophets2 why not #8dream' that ,koheleth felt1 though he either ventured not or had no time left to express it1 some degree of belief in the destiny of his country8 ,m4 ,renan1 in fact1 seems to me at once to admire ,koheleth too much1 and to justify his admiration on questionable grounds4 ,it might have been hoped that the unlikeness of this book to the other books of the ,canon would have been the occasion of a worthy and a satisfying estimate from this accomplished master4 ,a critic of narrower experience represents ,koheleth partly as a cynical ,hebrew ,pasquin1 who satirises the hated foreigner1 ,herod the ,great1 and the minions of his court1 partly as an earnest opponent of a dangerous and growing school of ascetics4 ,i refer to this theory here1 not to criticise it1 but to call attention to its worthier conception of ,koheleth's character4 ,the tendency of ,ecclesiastes ,dr4 ,grtz considers to be opposed to the moral and religious principles of ,judaism and ,christianity1 but to the man as distinguished from his book he does full justice4 ,it is a mistake when this writer's theory is represented by ,dean ,plumptre as making ,koheleth teach #8a license like that of a ,st4 ,simonian rehabilitation of the flesh4'#cff ,koheleth's choice of language is not indeed in good taste1 but it was only a crude way of emphasising his opposition to a dangerous spirit of asceticism4 ,such at least is ,dr4 ,grtz's view4 #8,koheleth is not the slave of an egostic eudemonism1 but merely seeks to counteract pietistic self-mortification4'#cfg ,dr4 ,grtz thinks1 too1 and rightly1 that he can detect an old-fashioned ,judaism in the supposed sceptical philosopher3 ,koheleth controverts the new tenet of immortality1 but not that of the resurrection4 ,i am anticipating again1 but do so in order to contrast the sympathetic treatment of the ,breslau professor with the unsympathetic or at least unsuitable portraiture of ,koheleth given by the ,parisian critic4 ,of all writers known to me1 however1 none is so sympathetic to ,koheleth as ,dr4 ,plumptre1 in whose pleasing article in ,smith's ,dictionary we have the germ of the most interesting commentary in the language4 ,a still wider popularity was given to the ,herder-,plumptre theory by ,dr4 ,stanley1 who eloquently describes ,ecclesiastes as #8an interchange of voices1 higher and lower1 within a single human soul4' #8,it is like1' he continues1 #8the perpetual strophe and antistrophe of ,pascal's ,penses4 ,but it is more complicated1 more entangled1 than any of these1 in proportion as the circumstances from which it grows are more perplexing1 as the character which it represents is vaster1 and grander1 and more distracted4'#cfh ,in his later work1 ,dr4 ,plumptre aptly compares the #8,two ,voices' of our own poet 7strictly1 he remarks1 there are three voices in ,ecclesiastes71 in which1 as in ,koheleth1 though more decidedly1 the voice of faith at last prevails over that of pessimism4#cfi ,i fear1 however1 that ,dr4 ,plumptre's generous impulse carries him farther than sober criticism can justify4 ,the aim of writing an #8ideal biography' closing with the #8victory of faith' seems to me to have robbed his pen of that point which1 though sometimes dangerous1 is yet indispensable to the critic4 ,the theory of the #8alternate voices1' of which ,dr4 ,plumptre is1 not the first1#cgj but the most eloquent advocate1 seems to me to be an offspring of the modern spirit4 ,it is so very like their own case--the dual nature#cga which a series of refined critics has attributed to ,koheleth1 that they involuntarily invest ,koheleth with the peculiar qualities of modern seekers after truth4 ,to them1 in a different sense from ,m4 ,renan's1 ,ecclesiastes is #8un livre aimable1' just as ,marcus ,aurelius and ,omar ,khayym are the favourite companions of those who prefer more consistent thinking4 ,certainly the author of ,ecclesiastes might well be satisfied with the interest so widely felt in his very touching confidences4 ,it is the contents1 of course1 which attract so many of our contemporaries--not the form3 only a student of ,hebrew can appreciate the toilsome pleasure of solving philosophical enigmas4 ,and yet ,m4 ,renan has made it possible even for an exigeant ,parisian to enjoy1 not indeed the process1 but the results1 of philological inquiry1 in so far as they reveal the literary characteristics of this unique work2 he has1 indeed1 in his function of artistic translator1 done ,koheleth even more than justice4 ,in particular1 his translations of the rhythmic passages of ,koheleth which relieve the surrounding prose are real tours de force4 ,these passages ,m4 ,renan1 following ,m4 ,derenbourg1#cgb regards as quotations from lost poetical works1 reminding us that such poetical quotations are common in ,arabic literature4 ,to represent in his translation the character of the ,hebrew rhythm1 which is #8dancing1 light1 and pretentiously elegant1' ,m4 ,renan adopts the metres of ,old ,french poetry4 #8,il s'agissait de calquer en franais des sentences conues dans le ton dgag1 goguenard et pru-d'homme la fois de ,pibrac1 de ,marculfe ou de ,chatonnet1 de produire un saveur analogue celle de nos quatrains de moralits ou de nos vieux proverbes en bouts-rims4' ,of the poem on old age he says that it is #8une sorte de joujou funbre qu'on dirait cisel par ,banville ou par ,thophile ,gautier et que je trouve suprieur mme aux quatrains de ,khayym4'#cgc ,i should have thought the comparison very unjust to the ,persian poet4 ,to me1 ,i confess1 the prelude or overture 7i4 #d-h71 though not in rhythmic ,hebrew1 is the gem of the book4 ,questionable though its tendency may seem1 if we look at the context1 its poetry is of elemental force1 and appeals to the modern reader in some of his moods more than almost anything else in the ,old ,testament outside the ,book of ,job4 ,i cannot help alluding to ,carlyle's fine application of its imagery in ,sartor ,resartus1 #8,generations are as the ,days of toilsome ,mankind3 ,death and ,birth are the vesper and the matin bells1 that summon mankind to sleep1 and to rise refreshed for new advancement4' ,how differently ,koheleth1-- ,one generation goeth1 another cometh2 but the earth abideth for ever3 ,and the sun ariseth1 and the sun goeth down1 and panteth unto his place where he ariseth3 ,it goeth to the south1 and whirleth about unto the north1 the wind whirleth about continually2 and upon his circuits the wind returneth4 ,all streams run into the sea1 and the sea is not full2 unto the place whither the streams go1 thither they go again4 ,all things are full of weariness2 no man can utter it2 the eye is not satisfied with seeing1 nor the ear filled with hearing4 ,compare with this the words1 so ,greek in tone1 of xi4 #g1 as well as the constantly recurring formula #8under the sun' 7e4g4 i4 #c1 iv4 #c74 ,we can see that even ,koheleth was affected by nature1 but without any lightening of his load of trial4 ,the wide-open eye of day seemed to mock him by its unfeeling serenity4 ,he lacked that susceptibility for the whispered lessons of nature which the poet of ,job so pre-eminently possessed2 he lacked too the great modern conception of progress1 embodied in that fine passage from ,carlyle4 ,he was prosaic and unimaginative1 and it is partly because there is so little poetry in ,ecclesiastes that there is so little ,christianity4 ,but ,i am already passing to another order of considerations1 without which indeed we cannot estimate this singular autobiography aright4 ,we have next to consider ,koheleth from a directly religious and moral point of view4 ,footnote #cfj3 ,see especially her early sonnet #8,vanity of ,vanities1' and her striking poem #8,a ,testimony4' ,footnote #cfa3 ,l',antchrist1 p4 #aja4 ,footnote #cfb3 ,l',ecclsiaste1 pp4 #bd1 #ij4 ,footnote #cfc3 ,mordecai in ,daniel ,deronda4 ,footnote #cfd3 ,see his funeral loge1 reprinted in ,academy1 ,oct4 #ac1 #ahhc1 p4 #bdh4 ,footnote #cfe3 ,l',antchrist1 p4 #bjj4 ,footnote #cff3 ,ecclesiastes1 p4 #h4 ,footnote #cfg3 ,grtz1 ,kohelet1 p4 #cc4 ,footnote #cfh3 ,jewish ,church1 ii4 #bef4 ,footnote #cfi3 ,ecclesiastes1 pp4 #ec1 #bei4 ,footnote #cgj3 ,see the passage from ,herder quoted in ,appendix 7end74 ,footnote #cga3 ,comp4 ,jacobi's confession 7imitated by ,coleridge87 that he was with the head a heathen1 and with the heart a ,christian4 ,footnote #cgb3 ,revue des tudes juives1 i4 #afe-ahe4 ,i do not myself see why ,koheleth1 who sought #8pleasant words1' should not have written poetry as well as prose4 ,footnote #cgc3 ,l',ecclsiaste1 pp4 #hc1 #hd4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,ecclesiastes ,,from ,a ,,moral ,,and ,,religious ,,point ,,of ,,view4 ,we have seen how large a ,christian element penetrates and glorifies the bold questionings of the ,book of ,job4 ,whatever be our view on obscure problems of criticism1 the character-drama which the book in its present form presents is one which it almost requires a ,christian to appreciate adequately4 ,it is different with the ,book of ,ecclesiastes4 #8,he who will allow that book to speak for itself1 and does not read other meanings into almost every verse1 must feel at every step that he is breathing a different atmosphere from that of the teaching of the ,gospels4'#cgd ,still more is this the case if we claim the right of free criticism1 and deny that the hints of a growing tendency to believe are due to the morbidly sceptical author of the book 7if it may be called a book74 ,certainly the religious use of ,koheleth is more directly affected by modern criticism and exegesis than that of any other ,old ,testament writing4 ,the early theologians could dispense with criticism1 because they so frequently allegorised or unconsciously gave a gentle twist to the literal meaning4 ,but we1 if for a religious purpose we use the book uncritically1 must be well aware that we often misrepresent both the author of ,koheleth himself and ,christian faith4 ,let me only mention three texts in the use of which this misrepresentation very commonly takes place4 ,the fixity of the spiritual state in which a man is at death may or may not be an essential ,christian doctrine1 but we have no right to quote either ,koheleth's despairing description of the inert life of the shades 7ix4 #aj71 or the proverbial saying on the unalterableness of the laws of nature 7xi4 #c71 in support of this2 nor is it well to adopt a phrase 7descriptive of ,shel7 from xii4 #e1 which favours the false idea expressed in the too common #8,here lieth' of the churchyard4 ,anticipations of really fundamental ,christian doctrines are1 ,i admit1 rarely sought for in ,ecclesiastes4 ,it is well that this should be so4 ,how completely the evangelical elements in ,jewish religion had been obscured later on in this period1 we have seen from the ,wisdom of ,sirach4 ,it seemed in fact as if the only alternatives then for a thoughtful ,jew were a more or less strict legal orthodoxy and a resigned acquiescence in things as they were1 brightened only by gleams1 eagerly hailed1 of intellectual or sensuous pleasure4 ,sirach chose the former of these1 ,koheleth the latter4 ,koheleth's was not in itself the better choice4 ,but the worse alternative needed perhaps to be stated as forcibly as possible1 that men might see the rock and avoid shipwreck4 ,ecclesiastes1 like the first part of ,goethe's ,faust1 may1 with the fullest justice1 be called an apology for ,christianity1 not as containing anticipations of ,christian truth--the error of ,hengstenberg2#cge but inasmuch as it shows that neither wisdom1 nor any other human good or human pleasure1 brings permanent satisfaction to man's natural longings4 ,it is at any rate a contribution towards the negative criticism with which such an apology must begin1 just as the ,book of ,job is a contribution1 or a series of contributions1 towards a more perfect and evangelical theodicy4 ,there is at least one point1 then1 which the moral and religious critic of ,ecclesiastes can adopt out of all the strangely distorted views of patristic writers1 so ably summed up by ,dr4 ,ginsburg in his ,introduction1 viz4 that the gloomy sentence1 ,vanitas vanitatum1 is perfectly accurate when applied to the life of ,koheleth1 but only to a life like his4 ,thomas ,kempis could prelude with two verses from ,koheleth 7i4 #b1 #h71 but he could only prelude4 ,a life of true service--one whose centre is outside self or family or even nation--is not vanity nor vexation of spirit3 ,koheleth might have added this as the burden of a second part of his book4 ,but did he not actually append it as his epilogue8 ,did he not #8faintly trust' the hope of immortality 7xii4 #g78 ,did he not work his way back to a living faith1 like #8,asaph' in ,ps4 lxxiii48 ,there is no question that the book was admitted into the ,canon on the assumption that he did4 ,as a great ,jewish preacher says1 the book in its present form opens with ,nothingness1 but closes with the fear of ,god4#cgf ,it is parallel in this respect to many ,jewish lives1 like that of ,heine1 which may be described as the prodigal son's quest of his long-lost father4 ,accepting this view1 we may join with another ,jewish writer in his admiration of the influences of ,jewish theism1 which were then at least so strong that a consistent ,jewish sceptic was an impossibility4 #8,it is this1' he remarks1 #8that gives the peculiar charm to this little book4'#cgg ,it is impossible to give a conclusive refutation of this view1 which ,i should like to believe true1 but which seems to me to labour under exegetical difficulties4 ,to me1 ,koheleth is not a theist in any vital sense in his philosophic meditations1 and his so-called #8last word' seems forced upon him by later scribes1 just as ,sirach's orthodoxy was at any rate heightened in colour by subsequent editors4 ,to me1 ,derenbourg's view is a dream1 though an edifying one4 ,it may be that the author did return to the simple faith of his childhood4 ,he certainly never lost his theism1 though pale and cheerless it was indeed1 and utterly unable to stand against the assaults of doubt and despondency4 ,it may be that history1 neglected history1 taught him at last to believe in the divine guidance of the fortunes of ,israel4 ,i would fain imagine this retracing of the weary pilgrim's steps2 but other and less pleasing dreams to a ,christian are equally possible and ,i do not venture to accept the return of the prodigal as a well-authenticated fact4 ,we must remember too that the troubled wanderer had not really so many steps to retrace4 ,much that both ,christians and ,jews now regard as essential to faith was not1 in the time of ,koheleth1 commonly so regarded4 ,i am well aware of the great intuitions of some of the psalmists at certain sublime moments1 and admit that they seem to us to lead naturally on to our own orthodoxy4 ,but these intuitions could not and did not possess the force of dogmas4 ,the great doctrines of the ,resurrection and of ,immortality had long to wait for a moderate degree of acceptance 7they were not held1 for instance1 by ,sirach71 and longer still before they coalesced in a new and greater doctrine of the future life4 ,koheleth's dissatisfaction with the doctrine of present retribution 7the central point both of his heterodoxy and of ,job's7 might have helped him to accept the former of these4 ,his acquaintance with non-,jewish philosophical literature1 if we may venture to assume this as a fact1 might have led him1 as it led the author of the ,wisdom of ,solomon1 to embrace the hope of immortality4 ,but though there probably is an allusion to this hope as well-founded in xii4 #g;b1 we have seen reason to doubt whether the words came from ,koheleth himself2 at any rate1 they are isolated1 and many do not admit the allusion4 ,either of these doctrines would have saved ,koheleth from despondency had he accepted it4 ,from our present point of view1 we must blame him for not accepting one refuge or the other1 or even that simpler belief in the imperishableness of the ,jewish race which ,sirach had1 and which has preserved so many ,israelitish hearts in trials as severe as ,koheleth's4 ,there must have been a strange weakness in his moral fibre2 how else can we account either for his want of ,jewish feeling or1 ,i would now add1 using the word in its looser sense1 for his pessimism8 ,as ,huber has well observed1#cgh none of the ancient peoples was naturally less inclined to pessimism than the ,jews1 so that a work like ,ecclesiastes is a portent in the ,old ,testament1 and alien to the spirit of true ,judaism4 ,i cannot wonder that both ,jews and ,christians have now and again been repelled by this strange book#cgi and denied its title to canonicity1 partly for its pessimism1 partly for its supposed ,epicureanism1 or that the author of the ,book of ,wisdom before them should have given ,koheleth the most scathing of condemnations by putting almost its very language into the mouth of the ungodly4#chj ,the true student may no doubt be equally severe upon ,koheleth for his despair of wisdom and depreciation of its delights 7i4 #ag1 #ah1 ii4 #ae1 #af71 which are hardly redeemed by the utilitarian sayings in vii4 #aa1 #ab4 ,i cannot justify ,koheleth1 but ,i can plead for a mitigation of these censures1 and altogether defend the admission of the ,book 7not1 of course1 as ,solomonic7 into the sacred ,canon4 ,whether ,jewish or not1 the pessimistic theory of life has a sound kernel4 #8,our sadness1' as ,thoreau says1 #8is not sad1 but our cheap joys4 ,let us be sad about all we see and are1 for so we demand and pray for better4 ,it is the constant prayer of the good and whole ,christian religion4'#cha ,this too is the burden of ,e4 von ,hartmann's criticism of a crudely optimistic ,christianity2 and need we reject the truth for the extravagances of the teacher8 ,next1 as to the preference of sensuous enjoyment to philosophic pursuits in ,koheleth4 ,i would not seek to weaken passages like ii4 #bd1 viii4 #ae1 by putting them down to the irony of a sva indignatio4 ,but as for the depreciation of intellectual pleasure1 may it not be excused by the author's want of a sure prospect of the #8age to come' such as we find in those lines of ,davenant1#chb ,before by death you nearer knowledge gain 7,for to increase your knowledge you must die71 ,tell me if all that knowledge be not vain1 ,on which we proudly in this life rely4 ,and as to the commendations of sensuous pleasure1 have they not a relative justification8#chc ,the legalism of the #8righteous overmuch' threatened already perhaps to make life an intolerable burden4 ,and though ,koheleth erred in the form of his teaching1 yet he did well to teach the #8duty of delight' 7,ruskin7 and to oppose an orthodoxy which sought1 not merely to transform1 but to kill nature4 ,it is to his credit that he touches on the relations of the sexes with such studious reserve4#chd ,as a rule1 the enjoyments which he recommends are those of the table1 which in ,sirach's time 7,ecclus4 xxxii4 #c-e7 and perhaps also in ,koheleth's included music and singing1--in short1 festive but refined society4 ,his praise of festive mirth is at any rate more excusable morally than ,omar ,khayym's impassioned commendations of the wine-cup4#che ,as ,jeremy ,taylor says1 #8,it was the best thing that was then commonly known that they should seize upon the present with a temperate use of permitted pleasures4'#chf ,lastly1 the admission of the book into the ,canon is 7perhaps we may say7 not less providential than that of the ,song of ,songs4 ,the latter shows us human nature in simple and healthy relations of life2 the former1 a human nature in a morbid state and in depressed and artificial circumstances4 ,how to return at least to inward simplicity and health1 the latter part 7not the ,epilogue7 of the ,book of ,job beautifully shows us4 ,our great idealist poet ,shelley1 who so admired ,job1 disliked ,ecclesiastes for the same reason as the ancient heretics already mentioned4 ,one greater than he1 our #8sage and serious' ,milton1 justifies the sacred ,scripture for the variety of its contents on the same ground that he advocates #8unlicensed printing4' ,both are #8for the trial of virtue and the exercise of truth4' ,we need not1 then1 he says1 be surprised if the ,bible #8brings in holiest men passionately murmuring against ,providence through all the arguments of ,epicurus4'#chg ,the ,bible1 according to ,milton1 is perfect not in spite but because of its variety2 it is like the rugged #8mountains of ,god1' not like the symmetrical works of human art4 ,but ,milton has also reminded us that a fool may misuse even sacred ,scripture4 ,footnote #cgd3 ,dean ,bradley1 ,lectures on ,ecclesiastes 7#ahhe71 p4 #g4 ,footnote #cge3 ,see ,der ,prediger ,salomo 7#ahei74 ,hengstenberg misses1 it is true1 any direct reference to the ,christian hope1 but finds the idea of chastisement as a proof of divine love in iii4 #ah1 vii4 #b-d1 an emphatic affirmation of eternal life in iii4 #ba1 and the resignation of a faith like ,job's in iii4 #aa1 vii4 #bd1 viii4 #ag1 xi4 #e4 ,koheleth's questionings are therefore according to him #8eine heilige ,philosophie4' ,footnote #cgf3 ,preface to vol4 iii4 of ,s4 ,holdheim's ,predigten4 ,footnote #cgg3 ,j4 ,derenbourg1 ,revue des tudes juives1 ,no4 #b1 ,oct4 #ahhj4 ,footnote #cgh3 ,der ,pessimismus1 #ahgf1 p4 #h4 ,schopenhauer too calls the ,jews the most optimistic race in history4 ,footnote #cgi3 ,see ,appendix4 ,footnote #chj3 ,wisd4 ii4 #f2 comp4 ,plumptre1 ,ecclesiastes1 p4 #ga c41 ,wright1 ,koheleth1 pp4 #fi1 #gj4 ,footnote #cha3 ,letters to ,various ,persons1 p4 #be4 ,footnote #chb3 ,see the extracts in ,trench's ,household ,book of ,english ,poetry1 p4 #dje4 ,footnote #chc3 ,i do not of course assent to the form in which ,grtz puts this1 to serve his hypothesis as to the age of ,koheleth4 ,see ,appendix4 ,footnote #chd3 ,once ,koheleth appears as a sharp critic of the female sex 7vii4 #bf-bi74 ,footnote #che3 ,lagarde describes ,omar as #8ein schlemmer1 der die angst des irdischen daseins und die de langeweile seiner noch in den anfngen stehenden wissenschaft hinwegzuschwelgen suchte' 7,symmicta1 #ahgg1 p4 #i74 ,too hard a judgment perhaps on this changeful and impressionable nature4 ,see ,bodenstedt's version as well as ,fitzgerald's4 ,footnote #chf3 ,the ,rule and ,exercises of ,holy ,dying1 chap4 i41 sect4 #c4 ,parts of this chapter remind us strongly of ,koheleth1 and are strange indeed in a book of ,christian devotion4 ,footnote #chg3 ,prose ,works1 ed4 ,bohn1 ii4 #fi4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,date ,,and ,,place ,,of ,,composition4 ,jewish tradition1 while admitting a ,hezekian or post-,hezekian redaction of the book1 assigns the original authorship of ,ecclesiastes to ,solomon4 ,the ,song of ,songs it regards as the monument of this king's early manhood1 the ,book of ,proverbs of his middle age1 and the semi-philosophical meditations before us as the work of his old age4 ,the tradition was connected by the ,aggada with the favourite legend#chh of the discrowned ,solomon1 but is based upon the book itself1 the passages due to the literary fiction of ,solomon's authorship 7which ,bickell indeed attributes to an interpolator7 having been misunderstood4 ,would that the author of the ,lectures on the ,jewish ,church had given the weight of his name to the true explanation of these passages6 ,the reticence of the lines devoted in the second volume of the ,lectures to ,ecclesiastes has led some critics to imagine that according to ,dean ,stanley1 this book1 like much of ,proverbs1 might possibly be the work of the #8wisest' of ,israel's kings4 ,little had the author profited by ,ewald if he really allowed such an absolute legend the smallest standing-ground among reasonable hypotheses6 ,whichever way we look1 whether to the social picture1 or to the language1 or to the ideas of the book1 its recent origin forces itself upon us4 ,the social picture and the ideas need not detain us here4 ,either ,solomon was transported in prophetic ecstasy to far distant times 7the ,targum on ,koheleth frequently describes him as a prophet71 or the writer is a child of the dawning modern age of ,judaism4 ,the former alternative is plainly impossible4 ,political servitude1 and a generally depressed state of society 7exceptional cases of prosperity notwithstanding71 mark the book as the work of a dark post-,exile period4 ,the absence of any national feeling equally distinguishes it from the monuments of the earlier humanistic movement 7even from ,job74 ,the germs of philosophic thought1 which cannot be explained away1 supply1 if this be possible1 a still more convincing argument4 ,we shall return to these later on3 at present1 let us confine ourselves to the linguistic evidence1 which has been set forth with such accuracy and completeness by ,delitzsch#chi and after him by ,dr4 ,wright of ,dublin4 ,the ,hebrew language has no history if ,ecclesiastes belongs to the classical period2 indeed1 the ,hebrew name of the book may seem of itself to stamp it as of post-,exile origin 7see note on ,koheleth in ,appendix74 ,the student would do well1 however1 to examine all the peculiar words or forms in ,delitzsch's glossary1 and to classify them for himself1 under two principal heads1 7#a7 those which occur elsewhere but in distinctively late-,hebrew books1 7#b7 those only found in ,koheleth1 with four subdivisions1 viz41 7a7 words which can be explained from ,biblical ,hebrew usage1 7b7 those which belong to the vocabulary of the ,mishna1 7c7 those of ,aramaic origin and affinities1 7d7 those borrowed from non-,semitic languages4 ,the student should also notice the striking grammatical peculiarities of ,koheleth1 especially the fact that the ordinary historic tense 7the imperfect with ,waw consecutive7 is hardly ever used4 ,the scholar's instinct but three times reveals itself in the adoption of this old literary idiom 7i4 #ag1 iv4 #a1 #g71 but elsewhere the usage of the ,mishna is already law4 ,almost equally important is the fact that the ,hebrew mood-distinctions are so little used in ,koheleth 7on which point see ,delitzsch's introduction72 indeed1 we may say upon the whole that that which gives a characteristic flavour to the old ,hebrew style is #8ready to vanish away4' ,the ,mishnic peculiarities of the book are especially interesting1 as confirming our view of its origin4 ,the author is very different in his opinions from the doctors of the ,mishna1 but he resembles them in his questioning and reflective spirit1 and helped to form the linguistic instrument which they required4 ,less important1 but not to be ignored1 are the ,aramaic elements4 ,even ,dr4 ,adam ,clarke1 untrained scholar as he was1 pronounced that the attempts which had as yet been made to overthrow the evidence1 were #8often trifling and generally ineffectual4'#cij ,the ,aramaisms of ,koheleth are irreconcileable with a pre-,exile date2 they can only be paralleled and explained from the ,aramaic portions of the books of ,ezra and ,daniel4 ,that they are comparatively few1 only proves that the force of the ,aramaising movement has abated1 and that the ,hebrew language1 at any rate in the hands of some of its chief cultivators1 is passing into a new phase 7the ,mishnic74 ,the judgment of ,ewald1 as already expressed in #ahcg1 appears to me on the whole satisfactory3 #8,one might easily imagine ,koheleth to be the very latest book in the ,old ,testament4 ,a premature conclusion1 since ,aramaic influence extended very gradually and secretly1 so that one writer might easily be more ,aramaic in the colouring of his style than another4 ,but though not even if not the latest1 it cannot have been written till long after ,aramaic had begun powerfully to influence ,hebrew1 and therefore not before the last century of the ,persian rule4'#cia ,for the sake of my argument1 it is hardly necessary to refer to the words of non-,semitic origin1 which are 7as most critics rightly hold7 but two in number2 #a 7ii4 #e1 plur47 undoubtedly a ,hebraised ,persian word1 on which ,i lay no stress here1 because it occurs1 not only in ,neh4 ii4 #h1 but also in ,cant4 iv4 #ac1 where many critics deny that it militates against a pre-,exile date1 and #b 7viii4 #aa71 which occurs in the ,aramaic parts of ,ezra and ,daniel1 and also in ,esth4 i4 #bj1 and while used in the ,targums and in ,syriac1 did not become naturalised in ,talmudic4 ,this word1 too1 is commonly regarded as ,hebraised ,persian1 but1 following ,zirkel1 the eminent ,jewish scholar ,heinrich ,grtz declares it to be the ,hebraised form of a ,greek word4 ,is this possible or probable8 ,are there any genuine ,grcisms of language1 and consequently also of thought1 in the ,book of ,koheleth8 ,an important question1 to which we will return4 ,the date suggested by ,ewald1 and accepted by ,knobel1 ,herzfeld1 ,vaihinger1 ,delitzsch1 and ,ginsburg1 suits the political circumstances implied in ,koheleth4 ,the ,jews had long since lost the feelings of trust and gratitude with which in #8better days' 7vii4 #aj7 they regarded the court of ,persia2 the desecration of the temple by ,bagoses or ,bagoes 7,jos4 ,ant4 xi4 #g7 is but one of the calamities which betel ,juda in the last century of the ,persian rule4 ,it is a conjecture of ,delitzsch that iv4 #c contains a reminiscence of ,artaxerxes ,,ii4 ,mnemon 7died about #cfj71 who was ninety-four years old1 and according to ,justin 7x4 #a71 had #aae sons1 and of his murdered successor ,artaxerxes ,,iii4 ,ochus4 ,probably1 if we knew more of this period1 we should be able to produce other plausible illustrations4 ,certainly the state of society suits the date proposed4 ,as ,delitzsch remarks1 #8,the unrighteous judgment1 iii4 #af2 the despotic depression1 iv4 #a1 viii4 #i1 v4 #h2 the riotous court-life1 x4 #af-ai2 the raising of mean men to the highest dignities1 x4 #e-g2 the inexorable severity of the law of military service1 viii4 #h2 the prudence required by the organised system of espionage1--all these things were characteristic of this period4' ,probably an advocate of a different theory would interpret these passages otherwise2 but as yet no conclusive argument has been offered for supposing allusions to circumstances of the ,greek period4 ,let me frankly admit1 in conclusion1 that the evidence of the ,hebrew favours a later date than that proposed by ,ewald--favours1 but does not actually require it4 ,it seems1 however1 that if the book be of the ,greek period1 we have a right to expect some definite traces of ,greek influence4 ,this will supply the subject of the next chapter4 ,at any rate1 the author addresses himself to ,palestinian readers4 ,he lives1 not 7,i should suppose7 in the country1 as ,ewald thought1 but near the temple1 or at least has opportunities of frequenting it 7v4 #a1cib viii4 #aj74 ,some recent scholars place him in ,alexandria2 but the reference to the corn trade in xi4 #a does not prove this to be correct2 indeed1 the very same section contains a reference to rain 7so xii4 #b74 ,sharpe#cic is alone in preferring ,antioch1 the capital of the ,greek kingdom of ,syria4 ,kleinert's remark that #8king in ,jerusalem' 7i4 #ab7 implies a foreign abode is met by the remark that ,jerusalem was in the writer's time no longer a royal city4 ,the author may have travelled1 and like ,sirach have had personal acquaintance with the dangers of court-life 7either at ,susa or at ,alexandria74 ,the references to the king do not perhaps compel this supposition2 #8are not my princes altogether kings8' 7,isa4 x4 #h7 could be said of ,persian satraps4 ,footnote #chh3 ,see the ,midrasch ,kohelet 7ed4 ,wnsche1 #ahhj71 or ,ginsburg1 p4 #ch4 ,footnote #chi3 ,comp4 the glossary at the end of ,grtz's commentary4 ,footnote #cij3 ,quoted by ,ginsburg1 ,coheleth1 p4 #aig4 ,footnote #cia3 ,die poetischen ,bcher des ,alten ,bundes1 ,theil iv4 ,footnote #cib3 ,the #8house of ,god' must1 ,i think1 mean the temple of ,jerusalem4 ,that of ,onias ,,iv4 was not built till #afj ,b4,c4 ,the synagogues would not be called #8houses of ,god' 7on ,ps4 lxxiv4 #h1 see ,hitzig74 ,footnote #cic3 ,history of ,hebrew ,nation and its ,literature 7ed4 #b71 p4 #cdd4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,does ,,koheleth ,,contain ,,greek ,,words ,,or ,,ideas8 ,we now begin the consideration of the question1 ,are there any well-ascertained ,grcisms in the language and in the thought of this obviously exceptional book8 ,that there are many ,greek loan-words in ,targumic and ,talmudic1 is undeniable1 though ,levy in his lexicon has no doubt exaggerated their number4 ,g4 ,zirkel1 a ,roman ,catholic scholar1 was the first who answered in the affirmative1 confining himself to the linguistic side of the argument4 ,his principal work1#cid ,untersuchungen ber den ,prediger 7,wrzburg1 #agib71 is not in the ,bodleian ,library1 but ,eichhorn's review in his ,allgemeine ,bibliothek1 vol4 iv4 7#agib71 contains a summary of ,zirkel's evidence from which ,i select the following4 7a7 1 in sense of #8becoming' 7iii4 #aa1 v4 #ag74 ,this is one of the ,grcisms which commend themselves the most to ,grtz and ,kleinert4 ,the former points especially to v4 #ag1 where he takes together as representing 7comp4 ,plumptre on v4 #ah74 ,the construction1 however1 is mistaken 7see ,delitzsch74 ,the second indicates that is a synonym of #8excellent4' ,the notion of the beautiful can be developed in various ways4 ,the sense #8becoming1' characteristic of later ,hebrew1 is more distinctly required in iii4 #aa4 7b7 #8,in the clause 7ii4 #ae7 the words must signify 3 quid mihi prodest majorem adhuc sapienti operam dare8' ,but the demonstrative particle means1 not 1 but #8in these circumstances' 7,jer4 xxii4 #ae74 ,its position and connection with are for emphasis4 ,the fact of experience mentioned makes any special care for wisdom unreasonable4 7c7 #8 7iii4 #ab7 is a literal translation of 4' ,this is accepted by ,kleinert and also by ,tyler4 ,the very next verse seems to explain this phrase by 7comp4 v4 #ag72 certainly the ethical meaning is against the analogy of ii4 #bd1 iii4 #bb1 and similar passages4 ,but should we not1 with ,grtz and ,nowack1 correct in iii4 #ab8 7d7 #8 7v4 #ai7 must mean1 ,god gives him joy of heart4 8respondere0 seems to have borrowed the meaning 8remunerari0 from 1 which has both senses4 ,the ancient writer of the book thought thus in ,greek1 77 4' ,zirkel forgets ,ps4 lxv4 #f4 ,see however ,delitzsch4 7e7 7vi4 #i7 ,m4 ,aurelius iii4 #ae4 ,but the phrase is idiomatic ,hebrew for #8roving of the desire4' 7f7 7vii4 #ah74 #8,the ,hebrew writer found no other equivalent for 4' ,but unless he borrowed the idea 7that of cultivating the mean in moral practice71 why should he have tried to express the technical term8 7g7 7xii4 #ac74 #8,a pure ,grcism1 4' ,but how otherwise could the idea of the universal obligation to fear ,god have been expressed8 ,comp4 the opening words of iii4 #ai4 ,to these may be added 7h7 7vii4 #ad7 7see however xii4 #a72 7i7 the #8technical term' 7i4 #ac1 ii4 #c1 vii4 #be7 but good ,hebrew for #8to explore'2 7k7 7viii4 #aa7 2 7l7 7ii4 #ae7 7see above74 ,no one in our day would dream of accepting these #8,grcisms' in a mass4 ,zirkel tried to prove too much1 as ,grtz himself truly observes4 ,any peculiar word or construction he set down as un-,hebraic and hurried to explain it by some ,greek parallel1 ignoring the capacity of development inherent in the ,hebrew language4 ,his attempt failed in his own generation4 ,three recent scholars however 7,grtz1 ,kleinert1 and ,tyler71 have been more or less captivated by his idea1 and have proposed some new and some old #8,grcisms' for the acceptance of scholars4 ,to me it seems that1 their three or four very disputable words and phrases are not enough4 ,if the author of ,koheleth really thought half in ,greek1 the ,greek colouring of the language would surely not have been confined to such a few expressions4 ,if 7vii4 #bd7 were really derived from 1 as ,kleinert supposes1 should we not meet with it oftener8 ,but the phrase most naturally means1 not #8the essence of things1' but #8that which hath come into existence2' phenomena are not easily understood in their ultimate causes1 is the simple meaning of the sentence4 ,i have said nothing as yet of the supposed ,grcism in the epilogue--the last place where we should have expected one 7considering ver4 #ab74 ,but ,mr4 ,tyler's proposal to explain 7xii1 #ac7 by or 7a formula introducing a general conclusion71 falls to the ground1 when the true explanation of the passage has been stated 7see p4 #bcb74 ,there are therefore no ,grcisms in the language of the book4 ,of course ideas may have been derived from a ,greek source notwithstanding4 ,the book1 as we have seen already1 is conspicuous by its want of a native ,jewish background1 nor does it show any affinity to ,babylonian or ,persian theology4 ,it obviously stands at the close of the great ,jewish humanistic movement1 and gives an entirely new colour to the traditional humanism by its sceptical tone and its commendations of sensuous pleasure4 ,it is not surprising that ,st4 ,jerome should remark on ix4 #g-i1 that the author appears to be reproducing the low ideas of some ,greek philosophers1 though1 as this ,father supposes1 only to refute them4 #8,et hc inquit1 aliquis loquatur ,epicurus1 et ,aristippus et ,cyrenaici et cter pecudes ,philosophorum4 ,ego autem1 mecum diligenter retractans1 invenio'#cie c4 ,few besides ,prof4 ,salmon would accept the view that ,eccles4 ix4 #g-i and similar passages are the utterances of an infidel objector 7see ,bishop ,ellicott's ,commentary72 but it is perfectly possible to hold that there are distinctively ,epicurean doctrines in the ,koheleth4 ,the later history of ,jewish thought may well seem to render this opinion probable4 ,how dangerously fascinating ,epicureanism must have been when the word #8,epicuros' became a synonym in ,rabbinic ,hebrew for infidel or even atheist4#cif ,it is indeed no mere fancy that just as ,pharisaism had affinities with ,stoicism1 so ,sadducism had with ,epicureanism4 ,as ,harnack well says1 #8,no intellectual movement could withdraw itself from the influences which proceeded from the victory of the ,greeks over the ,eastern world4'#cig ,mr4 ,tyler1#cih however1 and his ally ,dean ,plumptre1 have scarcely made the best of their case1 the ,epicurean affinities which they discover in ,koheleth being by no means striking4 ,much use is made of the ,de ,rerum ,natur of ,lucretius--a somewhat late authority6 ,but if points of contact with ,lucretius are to be hunted for1 ought we not also to mention the discrepancies between the #8wise man' and the poet8 ,if ,lucr4 i4 #aac-aaf may be used to illustrate ,eccles4 iii4 #ba1 must we not equally emphasise the difference between the festive mirth recommended by ,koheleth 7ix4 #g1 #h c47 and the simple pleasures so beautifully sung by ,lucretius 7ii4 #bj-cc71 and which remind us rather of the charming naturalness of the ,hebrew ,song of ,songs8#cii ,the number of vague analogies between ,koheleth and ,epicureanism might perhaps have been even increased1 but ,i can find no passage in the former which distinctly expresses any scholastic doctrine of ,epicureanism4 ,for instance the doctrine of ,atomism assumed for illustration by ,dean ,plumptre1#djj cannot be found there by even the keenest exegesis2 the plurality of worlds is not even distantly alluded to1 and the denial of the spirit1 if implied in iii1 #ba 7see p4 #bab71 is only implied in the primitive ,hebrew sense1 familiar to us from ,job and the ,psalter4 ,the recommendation of 7to use the ,epicurean term71 coupled with sensuous pleasure 7v4 #ah-bj71 requires no philosophic basis1 and is simply the expression of a pococurante mood1 only too natural in one debarred from a career of fruitful activity4 ,lastly1 there is nothing in the phraseology either of the ,hebrew or of the ,septuagint to suggest an acquaintance with ,epicureanism4 ,a stronger case can be made for the influence of ,stoicism4 ,the undoubted ,oriental affinities of this system and its moral and theological spirit would1 as ,mr4 ,tyler observes1 naturally commend it to a ,jewish writer4 ,we know that1 at a somewhat later day1 ,stoicism exercised a strong fascination on some of the noblest ,jewish minds4 ,philo1#dja the ,book of ,wisdom1 and the so-called ,fourth ,book of ,maccabees1 have undeniable allusions to it2 and more or less probable vestiges of ,stoicism have been found in the oldest ,jewish ,sibyl#djb 7about ,b4,c4 #adj7 and in the ,targum of ,onkelos4#djc ,but how does the case stand with ,koheleth8 ,first of all1 are there any traces of ,stoic terminology8 ,that terminology varied no doubt within certain limits1 and could not be accurately reproduced in ,hebrew4 ,still even under the contorted forms of expression to which a ,hebrew-writing ,stoic or semi-,stoic might be driven we could hardly fail to recognise the familiar ,stoic expressions1 1 1 1 1 1 4 ,the ,septuagint version ought to help us here4 ,but among the twenty words almost or entirely peculiar to the ,greek of ,ecclesiastes1 the only two technical philosophic terms are and 4 ,next1 can we detect references to distinctive ,stoic doctrines8 ,mr4 ,tyler lays great stress in his reply on the ,catalogue of ,times and ,seasons 7iii4 #a-h71 which he regards as an expansion of the ,stoic ,but the idea that there is an appointed order of things1 and that every action has its place in it1 is much more a corollary of the doctrine of ,destiny than of the doctrine of ,duty4 ,the essence of the latter doctrine is that men were meant to conform and ought to conform to the ,universal ,order1 acquiescing in that which is inevitable1 shaping in the best way that which is possible to be moulded4 ,upon this the practical ethics of ,stoicism depend4 ,but this is the very point which is absent in ,ecclesiastes4 ,the ,catalogue of ,times and ,seasons ends not with the ,stoic exhortation 1 #8,fulfil thy appointed part1' but with the despondent reflection of the ,fatalist1 #8,what profit hath he that worketh in that wherein he toileth8' 7iii4 #i47 ,a second argument is that the idea #8,there is no new thing under the sun' 7i4 #i7 is a phase of the ,stoic doctrine of cyclical revolutions4 ,but all that which gave form and colour to the ,stoic doctrine is entirely absent--especially1 as ,mr4 ,tyler himself admits1 the idea of 4 ,the idea1 as it is found in ,ecclesiastes1 has nothing ,stoic or even philosophical about it4 ,it is simply an old man's observation that human actions1 like natural phenomena1 tend to repeat themselves in successive generations4#djd ,that there are analogies between ,stoicism and the ideas of ,koheleth need not be denied2 ,dr4 ,kalisch has collected some of them in his very interesting philosophico-religious dialogue4#dje ,prominent among these is the peculiar use of the terms #8madness' and #8folly4' #8,from the followers of ,zeno1' remarks ,dean ,plumptre1#djf #8he learned also to look upon virtue and vice in their intellectual aspects4 ,the common weaknesses and follies of mankind were to him1 as to them1 only so many different forms and degrees of absolute insanity 7i4 #ag1 ii4 #ab1 vii4 #be1 ix4 #c74' ,but this division of mankind into wise men and fools is common to the ,stoa with the ancient ,hebrew sages who #8sat in the gate4' ,when the great populariser of ,stoicism says1 #8,sapientia perfectum bonum est mentis human1'#djg he almost translates more than one of the proverbs which we have studied already4 ,another point of contact with ,stoicism is undoubtedly the ,determinism of the book1 which1 as ,prof4 ,kleinert observes1 leaves no room for freedom of the will1 and fuses the conceptions of and 7see especially chap4 iii474 ,but such ,determinism need not have been learned in the school of ,zeno4 ,it is genuinely ,semitic 7did not ,zeno come from the ,semitic ,citium87 ,what is the religion of ,islam but a grandiose system of ,determinism8 ,indeed1 where is virtual ,determinism more forcibly expressed than in the ,old ,testament itself 7e4g41 ,isa4 lxiii4 #ag78 ,those who adopt the view which ,i am controverting are apt to appeal to somewhat late philosophic authorities4 ,i cannot here discuss the parallelisms which have been found in the ,meditations or ,self-communings 7 7 of the great ,stoic emperor4 ,some1 for instance1 consider the which #8renew the world continually' 7,m4 ,a4 vi4 #ae7 and the 7,m4 ,a4 xi4 #a7 to be alluded to in ,eccles4 i4 #e-i4 ,more genuine are some at least of the other parallelisms1 e4g4 ,eccles4 i4 #i1 ,m4 ,a4 vi4 #cg1 vii4 #a1 x4 #bg1 xii4 #bf2 ,eccles4 ii4 #be1 ,m4 ,a4 ii4 #c 7ad init472 ,eccles4 iii4 #aa1 ,m4 ,a4 iv4 #bc 7ad init472 ,eccles4 vi4 #i1 ,m4 ,a4 iv4 #bf2 ,eccles1 xi4 #e1 ,m4 ,a4 x4 #bf4 ,i admit that there is a certain vague affinity between the two thinkers2 both are earnest1 both despair of reforming society1 both have left but a fragmentary record of their meditations4 ,but the #8humanest of the ,roman race'#djh stands out1 upon the whole1 far above the less cultured and more severely tried ,israelite4 ,alike in intellectual powers and in moral elevation the soul of the ,roman is of a truly imperial order4 ,he is not1 like ,koheleth1 a #8malist' 7see pp4 #bja-bjb72 he boldly denies evil1 and his strong faith in ,providence cannot be disturbed by apparent irregularities in the order of things4 ,it is true that this does but make the sadness of his golden and almost ,christian book the more depressing4 ,but the book is #8golden4'#dji ,koheleth and ,m4 ,aurelius alike call forth our pity and admiration1 but in what different proportions6 ,if1 then1 there are points of agreement between ,koheleth and ,m4 ,aurelius1 there must also of necessity be points of disagreement4 ,every page of their writings would1 ,i think1 supply them4 ,suffice it to put side by side the saying of ,koheleth1 #8,god is in heaven1 and thou upon earth' 7v4 #b71 and ,m4 ,aurelius' invocation of the world as the #8city of ,god' 7iv4 #bc74 ,the comparison suggests one of the greatest discrepancies between ,koheleth and the ,stoics--the doctrine of ,god4 ,such faith as the former still retains is faith in a transcendent and not an immanent ,deity4 ,the germs of a doctrine of ,immanence which the older ,wisdom-literature contains 7,kleinert quotes ,ps4 civ4 #cj1 ,job xxvi4 #ac71 have found no lodgment in the mind of our author1 who is more affected by the legal and extreme supernaturalistic#daj point of view than he is perhaps aware4 ,mr4 ,tyler's introduction to his ,ecclesiastes is a work of great acuteness and originality1 and seeks to provide against all reasonable objections2 ,i cannot do justice to it here4 ,one part of his theory1 however1 is too remarkable to be passed over 7see above1 pp4 #bdj1 #bda74 ,he supposes that ,stoic and ,epicurean doctrines were deliberately set over against each other by the wise man who wrote our book1 in order by the clash of opposites to deter the reader from dangerous and unsatisfying investigations4 ,the goal of the author's philosophising thus becomes the negation of all philosophy1 and this #8sacrificio dell' intelletto' he insinuatingly commends by the subtlest use of artifice4 ,such a theory may have occurred to one or another early writer 7see ,ginsburg71 but seems out of harmony with the character of the author as revealed in his book4 ,he is not such a weak-kneed wrestler for truth4 ,you may fancy him sometimes a ,stoic1 sometimes an ,epicurean2 but he always speaks like a man in earnest1 however his opinions may change through the fluctuations of his moods4 ,mr4 ,tyler's theory confounds ,koheleth's point of view with that of a far inferior thinker1 the author of ,ecclesiasticus 7see above1 p4 #aii74 ,i cannot1 therefore1 be persuaded to explain this enigmatical book by a supposed contact with ,greek philosophy such as we do really find in the ,book of ,wisdom4 ,i have no prejudice against the supposition in itself4 ,it would help me to understand the ,hellenising movement at a later day if ,stoic and 7still more7 ,epicurean ideas had already filtered into the minds of the ,jewish aristocracy4 ,the denunciations in the ,book of ,enoch 7xciv4 #e1 xcviii4 #ae1 civ4 #aj7 not impossibly refer to a heretical philosophical literature 7see p4 #bcc72 the only question is1 ,to a native or to a half foreign literature8 ,i see no sufficient reason at present for adopting the latter alternative4 ,koheleth is really a native ,hebrew philosopher1 the first ,jew who1 however awkwardly and ineffectually1 #8gave his mind to seek and explore by wisdom concerning all things that are done under heaven' 7i4 #ac74 ,very touching in this light are the memoranda which he has left us4 ,they are incomplete enough2 ,koheleth is but the forerunner of more systematic philosophisers4 ,his ideas are nothing less than scholastic2 how could we expect anything different1 his first object being in all probability to soothe the pain of an inward struggle by giving it literary expression8 ,if1 however1 ,i was compelled to suggest a secondary reference to any foreign system1 ,i could most easily suppose one to the pessimistic teaching of ,hegesias ,peisithanatos1 who1 after ,ptolemy ,soter and ,philadelphus had made ,alexandria the seat of the world's commerce and the centre of ,greek literature and culture1 was seized with the thought of the vanity of all things1 of the preponderance of evil1 and of the impossibility of happiness4#daa ,koheleth's teaching would be a safeguard to any ,jew who might be tempted by this too popular philosopher4 ,he admits 1 but insists that1 granting all drawbacks1 #8the light is sweet' 7xi4 #g71 the living are better off than the dead 7ix4 #d-f71 and sensuous pleasure1 used in moderation1 is at least a relative good 7ii4 #bd72 also that it is futile to inquire #8why the former days 7of the earlier ,ptolemies87 were better than these' 7vii4 #aj71 and1 if a later view of his meaning may be trusted1 he sought to displace the many dangerous books which were current by words which were at once pleasantly written and objectively true 7xii4 #aj1 #ab74 ,koheleth is a native ,hebrew philosopher4 ,the philosophy of an eastern sage is not to be tied up in the rigid formul of the ,west4 ,easterns may indeed take kindly to ,western doctrines2 but where they think independently1 they eschew system4 ,koheleth's seeming ,stoicism is1 as we have seen1 of primitive ,hebrew affinities2 his seeming ,epicureanism1 if it be not sufficiently explained as a mental reaction against the gloom of the times1 may perhaps be connected more or less closely1 not with the schools of ,greek philosophers1 but with the banquet-halls of ,egypt4 ,the ,hebrew writer's invitations to enjoy life remind us of the call to #8drink and be happy1' which accompanied the grim symbolic #8coffin1' or mummy1 at ,egyptian feasts 7probably they were funeral-feasts71 according to ,herodotus 7ii4 #gh71 and of the festal dirges translated by ,goodwin and ,stern4#dab ,a stanza in one of the latter may be given here4 ,it is from the song supposed to be sung by the harper at an anniversary funeral feast in honour of ,neferhotep1 a royal scribe1 and still to be seen cut in the stone at ,abd-el-,gurna1 in the ,theban necropolis4 ,as ,ebers has remarked1#dac the song #8shows how a certain fresh delight in life mingled with the feelings about death that were prevalent among the ancient ,egyptians1 who celebrated their festivals more boisterously than most other peoples4' ,by a poetic fiction1 the dead man is supposed to be present1 and to listen to the song4 ,make a good day1 ,o holy father6 ,let odours and oils stand before thy nostril4 ,wreaths of lotus are on the arms and the bosom of thy sister1 ,dwelling in thy heart1 sitting beside thee4 ,let song and music be before thy face1 ,and leave behind thee all evil cares6 ,mind thee of joy1 till cometh the day of pilgrimage1 ,when we draw near the land which loveth silence4 ,we have seen that the ,wisdom of ,sirach betrays a taste for ,egyptian festivity 7p4 #aia74 ,may we not suppose that ,koheleth too had travelled to ,alexandria8 ,this view commends itself to ,kleinert1 and ,i have no objection to it with due limitations4 ,koheleth may have envied and sought to copy the light-hearted gaiety of the valley of the ,nile4 ,but we ought not to conceal the fact that the lines quoted above are followed by others which have no parallel in ,koheleth4 ,good for thee then will have been 7an honest life71 ,therefore be just and hate transgressions1 ,for he who loveth justice 7will be blest74 7,they in the shades7 are sitting on the bank of the river1 ,thy soul is among them1 drinking its sacred water4 444 7woe to the bad one67 ,he shall sit miserable in the heat of infernal fires4 ,there is a wide difference between a people who believed in a happy ,amenti where ,osiris himself dwelt and the ,jew who doubted much but believed firmly in ,shel4 ,i admit then the probability that the latter had travelled1 and was not unaffected by the brightness of ,egyptian society1 but ,i see no reason to suppose that he knew and was influenced by the expressions of ,egyptian songs4 ,the resemblances adduced are to me as fortuitous as those between the love-poems of the ,nile valley and the ,hebrew ,song of ,songs1 or 7we may add7 as that striking one between ,eccles4 i4 #d and some of the opening lines of the #8,song of the ,harper1'-- ,men pass away since the time of ,ra the sun of day ,and the youths come in their stead4 ,like as ,ra reappears every morning1 ,and ,tum the sun of night sets in the horizon1 ,men are begetting1 ,and women are conceiving4#dad ,i make no excuse for the length of this inquiry4 ,if we could trace ,greek influences1 linguistic or philosophical1 in the strange book before us1 its date would be decided4 ,taking into account the circumstances of the writer1 we might assign it to the reign of ,ptolemy ,,iv4 ,philopator1 when the ,egyptian rule began to be calamitous for ,juda4 ,kleinert would place it rather in one of the early1 fortunate reigns 7,herzog-,plitt1 xii4 #agc72 but he forms perhaps too favourable a view of the social picture in ,koheleth4 ,hitzig1 who gives a very restricted range to ,greek philosophical influence upon our book1 and accepts none of ,zirkel's ,grcisms1 fixes the date in the first year of ,ptolemy ,v4 ,epiphanes4 ,geiger1 ,nldeke1 ,kuenen1 ,tyler1 and ,plumptre1 on various grounds1 think this the most probable period1#dae and the view is endorsed by ,zeller1 the historian of ,greek philosophy4 ,a ,maccaban and still more a ,herodian date seem to me absolutely excluded1 though ,zirkel and ,renan have advocated the one1 and ,heinrich ,grtz 7see p4 #bdj7 the other4 ,the book is certainly pre-,maccaban1 not merely because of a ,talmudic anecdote1#daf but because of its want of religious fervour 7comp4 ,esther7 and its cosmopolitanism4 ,the germs of the ,jewish parties may be there1 but only the germs4 ,to me ,hitzig's is the latest possible date2 but if we must admit a vague and indirect ,greek influence1 should we not place the book a little earlier as suggested above8 ,but ,i do not see that we must admit even a vague ,greek influence4 ,the inquiring spirit was present in the class of #8wise men' even before the ,exile1 and the circumstances of the later ,jews were1 from the ,exile onwards1 well fitted to exercise and develope it4 ,hellenic teaching was in no way necessary to an ardent but unsystematic thinker like ,koheleth4 ,the date proposed by ,ewald and ,delitzsch is on this and other grounds probable1 and on linguistic grounds not impossible4 ,there are two recent treatises on the philosophical affinities of ,koheleth which may be mentioned here1 though only the first is known to me4 ,paul ,kleinert1 who has long made a special study of ,koheleth 7see his ,prediger ,salomo1 #ahfd71 contributed to the ,theolog4 ,studien und ,kritiken1 #ahhc1 p4 #gfa1 c41 a striking paper called #8,sind im ,buche ,koheleth ausserhebrische ,einflsse anzuerkennen1' and ,august ,palm in #ahhe published a programme entitled #8,qohelet und die nacharistotelische ,philosophie' 7,mannheim74 ,footnote #cid3 ,he also published ,der ,prediger ,salomon2 ein ,lesebuch fr den jungen ,weltbrger2 bersetzt und erklrt 7#agib74 ,the very title bears the mark of the century4 ,footnote #cie3 ,opera1 ii4 7#afii71 #gfe 7,comm4 in ,ecclesiasten74 ,comp4 the use made of ,koheleth's phraseology by the author of ,wisdom 7ii4 #f-aj74 ,footnote #cif3 ,see ,sanhedrin1 x4 #a3-- 4--,comp4 ,aboth1 ii4 #ad 7#aj ,taylor71 and ,genesis ,rabbah1 #ai 7#8the serpent was ,epicuros'74 ,footnote #cig3 ,lehrbuch der ,dogmengeschichte1 p4 #df4 ,footnote #cih3 ,see his ,ecclesiastes1 a ,contribution to its ,interpretation1 c4 7#ahgd74 ,the main results of this work were accepted by ,prof4 ,siegfried1 who reviewed it in the ,zeitschrift f4 wissenschaftl4 ,theologie1 #ahge1 pp4 #bhd-bia4 ,footnote #cii3 ,this discrepancy ,i had noted down before observing that ,dean ,plumptre had quoted the very same passage of ,lucretius as a parallel to ,eccles4 ii4 #bd4 ,for my own view of ,koheleth's recommendations1 see p4 #bec4 ,lucretius seems to me1 in this strain1 to soar higher than ,koheleth2 ,omar ,khayym to fall below him4 ,footnote #djj3 ,ecclesiastes1 p4 #dg4 ,footnote #dja3 ,philo alludes1 e4g41 to the ,stoic doctrine of revolutions 7which some have found in ,koheleth7 and remarks that the ,stoics think of ,god as of a boy who builds up sandhills1 and then throws them down again4 ,footnote #djb3 ,hilgenfeld1 ,jdische ,apokalyptik1 p4 #ea1 c4 ,footnote #djc3 ,see ,deut4 viii4 #ah1 and especially ,gen4 ii4 #g 7,neubrger in ,grtz's ,monatsschrift1 #ahgc1 p4 #eff74 ,footnote #djd3 ,for this criticism upon ,mr4 ,tyler's view of iii4 #a-h1 ,i am indebted to ,dr4 ,hatch4 ,footnote #dje3 ,path and ,goal1 p4 #aaf4 ,but see p4 #ib4 ,footnote #djf3 ,ecclesiastes1 p4 #de4 ,footnote #djg3 ,seneca1 ,ep4 #hi1 quoted by ,bruch1 ,weisheitslehre der ,hebrer1 p4 #bec1 with reference to the teaching of ,proverbs4 ,footnote #djh3 ,r4 ,h4 ,stoddard1 ,the ,morals of ,m4 ,aurelius4 ,footnote #dji3 ,comp4 ,niebuhr1 ,lectures on the ,history of ,rome1 iii4 #bdg4 ,footnote #daj3 ,the phrase is objectionably modern1 but in this connection could not be avoided4 ,footnote #daa3 ,zeller1 ,philosophie der ,griechen1 ii4 #a1 p4 #bgh4 ,footnote #dab3 ,records of the ,past1 iv4 #aae-aah2 vi4 #abg-acj4 ,footnote #dac3 #8,cairo1 the ,old in the ,new1' ,contemp4 ,rev41 xliii4 #heb4 ,footnote #dad3 ,records of the ,past1 vi4 #abg4 ,footnote #dae3 ,geiger1 ,urschrift1 pp4 #fj1 #fa2 ,nldeke1 ,die alttestamentliche ,literatur41 p4 #age2 ,kuenen1 ,hist4-krit4 ,onderzoek41 iii4 #ahh4 ,theologisch4 ,tijdschrift1 #ahhc1 p4 #adc4 ,footnote #daf3 ,see reference1 p4 #bhj4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,textual ,,problems ,,of ,,koheleth4 ,i4 ,according to ,delitzsch1 the ,song of ,solomon is the most difficult book in the ,old ,testament4 ,if so1 ,ecclesiastes comes next in order4 ,none of the attempts to discover a logical plan having been successful1 ,gustav ,bickell's new hypothesis 7#ahhd7 deserves a respectful hearing1 since it endeavours to solve the enigma in a most original way1 connecting it with the problem of the text4 ,this critic starts from the observation that continuous passages of some extent are suddenly closed by an abrupt transition1 and that such passages are pretty equal in length4 ,his explanation of this is a purely mechanical one4 ,the troubles of the commentators have arisen principally from an accident which happened to a standard ,,ms41 called by ,bickell1 #8die ,unfallshandschrift' 7the ,accident-manuscript74 ,this ,,ms4 seems to have consisted of #ba or #bb leaves1 with an average of #eah to #ece letters to a leaf4 ,to speak more precisely1 it was composed of fasciculi of four double leaves each2 the book began on the sixth leaf of the first fasciculus1 and ended on the second1 or more probably on the third leaf of the fourth4 ,through a loosening of the two middle fasciculi1 a dislocation took place1 and an almost entirely new order arose1 though with one exception the leaves which had been placed in pairs remained together4 ,but the story of the fortunes of ,ecclesiastes has not yet been told4 ,three hands1 besides the original writer1 have worked on this ill-fated book4 ,one of these is considered to have been a downright #8enemy' who tampered with the text before the dislocation had taken place4 ,from him proceed #8the protests against ,koheleth's principles on the obedience due to the king in viii4 #a1 #e;a as well as the offensive expressions in xi4 #e1 xii4 #d1 #e1 by which he sought to make the book ridiculous and contemptible4' ,subsequently to him1 and after the leaves had been thrown into confusion1 another writer made #8well-meaning additions1' and so brought the book into nearly its present form2 among these additions was the ,epilogue4 ,his aim was #8to brighten ,koheleth's gloomy view of the world1 partly by emphasising the doctrine of a present retribution1 but still more by pointing to a future judgment in which inequalities should be rectified4' ,the third hand is that of the so-called pseudo-,solomonic interpolator4 ,he must have gone to work after the ,epilogist1 for the latter simply knows ,koheleth as a wise man skilled in proverbial composition4 ,bickell also claims to make transpositions on a small scale1 and offers many emendations sometimes based on the ,septuagint4 #8,habent sua fata libelli4' ,i have said that ,bickell's explanation of the want of order in ,ecclesiastes is a purely mechanical one4 ,it is not on that account to be rejected4 ,a ,german reviewer#dag has mentioned a case within his own experience in which the double leaves of one of the fasciculi of an ,oriental ,,ms4 had been disarranged in the binding1 a circumstance which had led to various additions and alterations4 ,it may indeed be urged as an objection that the ,septuagint text differs in no very material respect from the ,massoretic4 ,but a work like ,ecclesiastes had at first in all probability but a very slight circulation1 so that an accident to a single ,,ms4 would naturally involve unusually serious consequences4 ,still from the possibility to the actuality of the #8accident' is a long step4 ,apart from other difficulties in the theory1 the number and arbitrariness of the transpositions1 additions1 and alterations are reason enough to make one hesitate to accept it2 and when we pass from the very plausible arrangement of the contents 7,bickell1 pp4 #ec1 #ed7 to the translation of the text1 it is often only possible to make them tally by a violent and imaginative exegesis4 ,among the transpositions 7to which ,i have no theoretic objection#dah7 are the following3 v4 #i-af placed after ii4 #aa1 viii4 #i-ad 8 0 iii4 #h1 vi4 #h-ab 8 0 x4 #a1 iv4 #i-af 8 0 vii4 #bj1 x4 #af-xi4 #f 8 0 v4 #h1 xi4 #f 8 0 xi4 #c4 ,bickell's theory that the passages which assert or suggest ,solomonic authorship in i4 #a1 #ab1 #af1 ii4 #g1 #h1 #i1 #ab1 are due to an interpolator1#dai is plausible2 it throws a new light on the statement of the ,epilogue 7xii4 #i7 that #8,koheleth was a wise man1' and a motive for the interpolation can be readily imagined--the desire to obtain ecclesiastical sanction for the book4 ,it is1 however1 incapable of proof4 ,,ii4 ,there are in fact few books on ,ecclesiastes so stimulating as ,bickell's1 though it needs to be read with discrimination#dbj 7comp4 p4 #bda74 ,putting aside the author's peculiar theory1 it must be owned that he has enabled us to realise the inherent difficulties of the text as it stands1 and contributed some very happy corrections4 ,all critics will admit the need of such emendations4 ,the text of ,koheleth is even more faulty than that of ,job1 ,psalms1 or ,proverbs4 ,we cannot wonder at this4 ,meditations often so fragmentary on such a difficult subject were foredoomed to suffer greatly at the hands of copyists4 ,a minute study of the various readings and of the corrections which have been proposed would lead us too far1 interesting as it would be 7compare ,renan's remarks1 ,l',ecclsiaste1 p4 #ec74 ,cappellus 7,louis ,cappel7 has done most for the text among the earlier critics 7see his ,critica ,sacra1 ,par4 #afej72 ,grtz has also made useful suggestions based upon the versions4 ,renan1 and 7as we have seen7 ,bickell1 have corrected the text on a larger scale2 occasional emendations of great value are due to ,hitzig1 ,delitzsch1 ,klostermann1 and ,krochmal4 ,the notes in the expected new edition of ,eyre and ,spottiswoode's ,variorum ,bible will indicate the most important various readings and corrections2 to these ,i would refer the reader4 ,the corrections of ,bickell are those least known to most students4 ,in considering them1 we must distinguish between those which arise out of his peculiar critical theory and those which are simply the outcome of his singular and brilliant insight4 ,of the latter1 ,i will here only mention two4 ,one occurs in iii4 #aa1 where for 7or the ,oriental or ,babylonian reading71 he gives 7see below1 p4 #bii7 1 remarking that survived in the text translated in the ,septuagint4 ,the fact is1 however1 that though ,cod4 ,vat4 does read 1 ,cod4 ,alex41 ,cod4 ,sin41 and the ,complutensian ed4 all read 1 and as the verse begins 7v4 l4 7 it is probable enough that was written the second time in ,cod4 ,vat4 by mistake4 ,at any rate1 copyists both of the ,greek and of the ,hebrew were sometimes inclined to insert or omit #8all' at haphazard2 thus1 in iv4 #b1 ,cod4 ,vat4 inserts #8all1' which is omitted in ,cod4 ,alex4 and ,cod4 ,sin4 ,another1 adopted above at p4 #bbj1 is in viii4 #aj4 ,read 7or 7 4 is a fragment of the correct reading which stood side by side with the alternative reading 4 ,on the question of interpolations1 enough has been said already4 ,probably ,cornill's book on ,ezekiel will dispose many critics to look more favourably on attempts to purify ,biblical texts from glosses and other interpolations4 ,grtz's conclusion certainly cannot be maintained1 #8,smmtliche ,sentenzen gehren streng zu ihrer nachbarlichen ,gedankengruppe1 fhren den ,gedanken weiter oder spitzen ihn zu4' ,i have still to speak of the ,septuagint version4 ,its importance for textual criticism is great2 indeed1 we may say with ,klostermann that the ,massoretic text and this translation are virtually two copies of one and the same archetype4 ,it is distinguished from the ,septuagint versions of the ,books of ,job1 ,proverbs1 and even ,psalms by its fidelity4 ,those versions approximate more or less closely to the elegant manner of ,symmachus1 but the ,greek style of the ,septuagint ,koheleth is most peculiar1 admitting such words as 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7in special sense1 ii4 #ag7 7not less than eleven times71 and such abnormal phrases as 7i4 #c and often71 and especially 1 as an equivalent of when distinctive of the accusative 7ii4 #ag1 iii4 #aj1 iv4 #c1 vii4 #ae1 and nine other passages2 elsewhere or the like74 ,the last-named peculiarity reminds us strongly of ,aquila#dba 7comp4 ,god created 1 ,aquila's rendering of ,gen4 i4 #a72 but it must be also mentioned that in more than half the passages in which of the accusative occurs in the original1 this characteristic rendering of ,aquila is not found4 ,this fact militates against the theory of ,grtz1#dbb that the ,septuagint version of ,ecclesiastes is really the second improved edition of ,aquila1 and against that of ,salzberger1#dbc who argues that the fragments given as from ,aquila in ,origen's ,hexapla are not really ,aquila's at all1 the one and only true edition of ,aquila's ,ecclesiastes being that now extant in the ,septuagint 7comp4 the case of ,theodotion's ,daniel74 ,it seems clear that the ,septuagint version1 as it stands1 is a composite one1 but it is possible1 as ,montfaucon long ago pointed out1#dbd that an early version once existed1 independent of ,aquila4 ,the question of the origin of this version is of some critical importance1 for if the work of ,aquila1 the ,septuagint ,ecclesiastes cannot be earlier than #acj ,a4,d4 ,supposing this to be the first ,greek version of the book1 we obtain an argument in favour of the ,herodian date of ,ecclesiastes advocated by ,grtz4 ,upon the whole1 however1 there seems no sufficient reason for doubting that there was a ,septuagint version of the book distinct from ,aquila's1 as indeed ,origen's ,hexapla and ,st4 ,jerome in the preface to his commentary attest1 and that this version in its original form goes back1 like the versions of ,job and ,proverbs1 to one of the last centuries before ,christ4 ,on the ,peshitto version of ,koheleth and ,ruth there is a monograph by ,g4 ,janichs1 ,animadversiones critic c4 7,breslau1 #ahga71 with which compare ,nldeke's review1 ,lit4 ,centralblatt1 #ahga1 ,no4 #di4 ,for the text of the ,grcus ,venetus1 see ,gebhardt's edition 7,leipz4 #ahgd74 ,ginsburg's well-known work 7#ahfa7 contains sections on the versions4 ,footnote #dag3 ,in the ,theologisches ,literaturblatt1 ,sept4 #ai1 #ahhd4 ,footnote #dah3 ,van der ,palm first conjectured that passages had been misplaced1 and ,grtz has adopted the idea 7,kohlet1 pp4 #dj-dc74 ,footnote #dai3 ,comp4 ,rashbam's interpolation theory 7,ginsburg1 ,coheleth1 p4 #db74 ,footnote #dbj3 ,see ,budde's review of ,bickell's work in the ,theologische ,literaturzeitung1 ,feb4 #g1 #ahhe4 ,footnote #dba3 ,on ,aquila and his theory of interpretation1 comp4 ,renan1 ,l',ecclsiaste1 p4 #ed2 and on his artificial vocabulary1 ,field's remarks1 ,hexapla1 ,prolegomena1 p4 xxii4 ,footnote #dbb3 ,kohlet1 ,anhang4 ,before ,grtz1 ,frankel was already inclined to think that the ,septuagint version might be really ,aquila's 7,vorstudien1 p4 #bch1 note w74 ,so more positively ,freudenthal4 ,renan inclines to agree with ,grtz4 ,footnote #dbc3 ,grtz's ,monatsschrift1 #ahgc1 pp4 #afh-agd4 ,footnote #dbd3 ,hexapla 7#agac71 i41 ,prliminaria1 p4 #db4 ,montfaucon indicates vii4 #bc;a as manifestly made up of a genuine version1 and one interpolated from ,aquila4 ,comp4 ,clericus' note on ,eccles iv4 #a4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,canonicity ,,of ,,ecclesiastes ,,and ,,ecclesiasticus4 ,i4 ,it is not surprising that these strange ,meditations should have had great difficulty in penetrating into the ,canon4 ,there is sufficient evidence 7see the works of ,plumptre and ,wright7#dbe that the so-called ,wisdom of ,solomon is in part a deliberate contradiction of sentiments expressed in our book4 ,the most striking instance of this antagonism is in ,wisd4 ii4 #f-aj 7cf4 ,eccles4 ix4 #g-i71 where the words of ,koheleth are actually put into the mouth of the ungodly libertines of ,alexandria4 ,the date of ,wisdom is disputed1 but cannot be earlier than the reign of ,ptolemy ,,vii4 ,physcon 7,b4,c4 #ade-aag74 ,the attitude of the writer towards ,koheleth may perhaps be compared with that of the ,palestinian teachers who relegated the book among the apocrypha on this among other grounds1 that it contained heretical statements1 e4g4 #8,rejoice1 ,o young man1 in thy youth' c4 7xi4 #i74 ,nothing is more certain than that the ,book of ,koheleth was an ,antilegomenon in ,palestine in the first century before ,christ4 ,and yet it certainly had its friends and supporters both then and later4 ,simeon ben ,shetach and his brother-in-law1 ,king ,alexander ,jannus 7,b4,c4 #aje-gi71 were as familiar with ,koheleth as the young men of ,alexandria1 and ,simeon1 according to the ,talmudic story#dbf 7,bereshith ,rabba1 c4 #ia71 quoted ,eccles4 vii4 #ab;a with a prefix 7 #8as it is written'7 proper to a ,biblical quotation4 ,from another ,talmudic narrative 7,baba bathra1 #d;a7 it would seem that ,koheleth was cited in the time of ,herod the ,great as of equal authority with the ,pentateuch1 and from a third 7,shabbath1 #cj;b7 that ,st4 ,paul's teacher1 ,gamaliel1 permitted quotations from our book equally with those from canonical ,scriptures4 ,like the ,song of ,songs1 however1 it called forth a lively opposition from severe judges4 ,the schools of ,hillel and ,shammai were divided on the merits of these books4 ,at first the ,shammaites1 who were adverse to them1 carried a majority of the votes of the ,jewish doctors4 ,but when1 after the destruction of ,jerusalem1 ,jewish learning reorganised itself at ,jamnia 7#d- leagues south of ,jaffa71 the opposite view 7viz4 that the ,song and ,koheleth #8defile the hands'--i4e4 are holy ,scriptures7 was again brought forward in a synod held about ,a4,d4 #ij1 and finally sanctioned in a second synod held ,a4,d4 #aah4 ,the arguments urged on both sides were such as belong to an uncritical age4 ,no attempt was made to penetrate into the spirit and object of ,koheleth1 but test passages were singled out4 ,the heretically sounding words in xi4 #i;a were at first held by some to be decisive against the claim of canonicity1 but--we are told--when the #8wise men' took the close of the verse into consideration 7#8but know that for all this ,god will bring thee into the judgment'71 they exclaimed 1 #8,solomon has spoken appropriately4'#dbg ,this first synod or sanhedrin of ,jamnia has played an important part in recent arguments4 ,according to ,krochmal1 ,grtz1 and ,renan1 one object of the ,jewish doctors was to decide whether the ,song and ,koheleth ought to be admitted into the ,canon4 ,it seems1 however1 to have been satisfactorily shown#dbh that their uncertainty was not as to whether these books ought to be admitted1 but whether they had been rightly admitted4 ,it is true that there was1 even as late as ,a4,d4 #ij1 a chance for any struggling book 7e4g4 ,sirach7 to find its way into the ,canon4 ,but in the case of the ,song and ,koheleth a preliminary canonisation had taken place2 it only remained to set at rest all lingering doubts in the minds of those who disputed the earlier decision4 ,another matter was also considered1 according to ,krochmal1 at the synod of ,a4,d4 #ij1 viz4 how to indicate that with the admission of ,ecclesiastes the ,canon of the ,hagiographa was closed4 ,i have already referred to this scholar's view of the ,epilogue 7p4 #bcb c471 and need only add that1 if we may trust the statement of the ,talmud1 the canonicity of ,koheleth was finally carried in deference to an argument which presupposes that xii4 #ac1 #ad was already an integral part of ,koheleth4 ,the ,talmudic passage is well known2 it runs thus-- #8,the wise men' i4e4 the school of ,shammai #8sought to 8hide0 the ,book of ,koheleth because of its contradictory sayings4 ,and why did they not 8hide0 it8 ,because the beginning and the close of it consist of words of ,tra' i4e4 are in harmony with revealed truth#dbi4 ,by the #8beginning' the ,jewish doctors meant ,koheleth's assertion that #8all a man's toil which he toileth under the sun' 7i4e4 all earthly1 unspiritual toil7 is unprofitable 7i4 #c71 and by the #8close' the emphatic injunction and dogmatic declaration of the epilogist in xii4 #ac1 #ad4 ,the ,talmudic statement agrees1 as is well known1 with the note of ,st4 ,jerome on these verses4 #8,aiunt ,hebri quum inter ctera scripta ,salomonis qu antiquata sunt1 nec in memori duraverunt1 et hic liber obliterandus videretur1 eo qud vanas ,dei assereret creaturas1 et totum putaret esse pro nihilo1 et cibum1 et potum1 et delitias transeuntes prferret omnibus2 ex hoc uno capitulo meruisse auctoritatem1 ut in divinorum voluminum numero poneretur1 qud totam disputationem suam1 et omnem catalogum hc quasi coarctaverit1 et dixerit finem sermonum auditu esse promtissimum1 nec aliquid in se habere difficile3 ut scilicet ,deum timeamus1 et ejus prcepta faciamus' 7,opera1 ii4 #ghg74 ,the canonicity of ,ecclesiastes was rarely disputed in the ancient ,church4 ,the fifth cumenical council at ,constantinople pronounced decisively in its favour4 ,on the ,christian heretics in the fourth century who rejected it1 see ,ginsburg1 ,coheleth1 p4 #ajc4 ,let me refer again1 in conclusion1 to the story in which that remarkable man--#8the restorer of the ,law'--,simeon ben ,shetach plays a chief part4 ,it not only shows that ,koheleth was a religious authority at the end of the second or beginning of the first century ,b4,c41 but implies that at this period the book was already comparatively old1 and1 one may fairly say1 pre-,maccaban4 ,i presume too that the addition of the ,epilogue 7see pp4 #bcd-e7 with the all-important #acth and #adth verses had been made before ,simeon's time4 ,,ii4 ,it was remarked above that as late as ,a4,d4 #ij there was a chance for any struggling book to gain admission into the ,canon4 ,now for at least #ahj years the ,wisdom of ,ben ,sira had been struggling for recognition as canonical4 ,in spite of the fact that it did not claim the authorship of any ancient sage1 and that1 like ,koheleth1 it contained some questionable passages1 it was certainly in high favour both in ,alexandria and in ,palestine4 ,as ,delitzsch points out1 #8the oldest ,palestinian authorities 7,simeon ben ,shetach1 the brother of ,queen ,salome1 about ,b4,c4 #ij1 seems to be the earliest7 quote it as canonical1 and the censures of ,babylonian teachers only refer to the ,aramaic ,targum1 not to the original work4 ,the latter was driven out of the field by the ,aramaic version1 which1 though very much interpolated1 was more accessible to the people4'#dcj ,simeon ben ,shetach was counted among the ,jewish #8fathers1' and a saying of his is given in ,pirke ,aboth1 i4 #aj4 ,it is remarkable that the very same passage of ,bereshith ,rabba 7c4 #ia7 which contains this wise man's quotations from ,koheleth 7see above7 also contains one from ,sirach introduced with the formula 1 #8in the book of ,ben ,sira it is written4' ,the quotation is1 #8,exalt her1 and she shall set thee between princes'--apparently a genuine saying of ,ben ,sira 7,sirach71 though not found in our ,ecclesiasticus4 ,the first word 7#8,exalt her'7 comes1 it is true1 from ,prov4 iv4 #h1 but1 as ,dr4 ,wright remarks1#dca ,ben ,sira #8was fond of tacking on new endings to old proverbs4' ,at a much later period1 a quotation from ,ben ,sira 7,sir4 vii4 #aj87 is made by ,rab 7about #afe-bdg ,a4,d47 introduced with the formula 1 #8because it is said1' ,erubin1 c4 #fe;a4 ,strack indeed supposes that ,rab meant to quote from canonical ,scripture1 but by a slip quoted from ,ben ,sira instead2 but this is too bold a conjecture4 ,lastly1 ,rabba 7about #bgj-ccj ,a4,d47 quotes a saying of our book 7,sir4 xiii4 #ae2 xxvii4 #i7 as #8repeated a third time in the ,kethubhim 7the ,hagiographa7'-- 1 ,baba ,kamma1 c4 #ib;b4 ,it is quite true that1 according to the ,talmudic passage referred to on p4 #aif1 the ,book of ,ben ,sira stands on the border-line between the canonical and the non-canonical literature3 the words are1 #8,the ,books of ,ben ,sira1 and all books which were written thenceforward1 do not defile the hands4' ,but taking this in connection with the vehement declaration of ,rabbi ,akiba that the man who reads ,ben ,sira and other #8extraneous' books has no portion in the world to come1#dcb we may safely assume that the ,book of ,ben ,sira had a position of exceptional authority with not a few ,jewish readers4 ,it is equally certain1 as the above quotations show1 that even down to the beginning of the fourth century ,a4,d4 sayings of ,sirach were invested with the authority of ,scripture4 ,whatever1 then1 may have been the theory 7and no one pretends that the ,synods of ,jamnia placed ,sirach on a level with ,koheleth71 the practice of some ,jewish teachers was to treat ,sirach as virtually canonical1 which reminds us of the similar practice of some ,christian ,fathers4 ,st4 ,augustine says 7but he retracted it afterwards7 of the two books of ,wisdom1 #8qui quoniam in auctoritatem recipi meruerunt1 inter propheticos numerandi sunt' 7,de doctr4 ,christian1 ii4 #h71 and both ,origen and ,cyprian quote ,sirach as sacred scripture4 ,probably1 as ,fritzsche remarks1 ,sirach first became known to ,christian teachers at ,alexandria at the end of the second century4 ,footnote #dbe3 ,plumptre1 ,ecclesiastes1 pp4 #ga-gd2 ,wright1 ,koheleth1 pp4 #fg-gj4 ,it is plainly impossible in the light of the history of dogma to place ,wisdom before ,ecclesiastes4 ,yet ,hitzig has done this4 ,nachtigal took a sounder view in #agii when he published a book on ,wisdom regarded als ,gegenstck des ,koheleth4 ,it forms vol4 ii4 of a singular work called ,die ,versammlung der ,weisen1 of which ,koheleth forms vol4 i4 ,footnote #dbf3 ,see ,schiffer1 ,das ,buch ,kohelet nach der ,auffassung der ,weisen1 part i41 pp4 #ajj-ajb4 ,footnote #dbg3 ,midrasch ,koheleth1 #a1 #c2 comp4 ,pesikta of ,r4 ,kahana1 #h 7,schiffer1 pp4 #f1 #g74 ,footnote #dbh3 ,by ,delitzsch2 see ,wright's ,koheleth1 p4 #dga1 and comp4 ,strack1 art4 #8,kanon des ,a4 ,t4' in ,herzog-,plitt1 vol4 vii4 ,footnote #dbi3 ,i quote the characteristic closing words1 7,shabbath1 c4 #cj;b74 ,footnote #dcj3 ,gesch4 der jdischen ,poesie1 p4 #bj4 ,footnote #dca3 ,koheleth1 p4 #df4 ,footnote #dcb3 ,see the passage from ,sanhedrin 7,jer4 ,talm471 x4 #bh;a1 quoted at length in ,wright's ,koheleth1 pp4 #dfg-dfh4 ,,aids ,,to ,,the ,,student ,the literature upon ,koheleth is unusually large4 ,some of the most important books and articles have been referred to already1 and the student will naturally have at hand ,dr4 ,wright's list in ,the ,book of ,koheleth 7#ahhc71 ,introd41 pp4 xiv4-xvii4 ,it may suffice to add among the less known books1 ,j4 ,g4 ,herder1 ,briefe das ,studium der ,theologie betreffend1 erster ,theil 7xi471 ,werke1 ed4 ,suphan1 ,bd4 x42 ,theodore ,preston1 ,ecclesiastes1 ,hebrew ,text and a ,latin ,version1 with original notes1 and a translation of the ,comm4 of ,mendelssohn 7#ahde72 ,e4 ,bhl1 ,dissertationes de aramaismis libri ,koheleth 7,erlangen1 #ahfj72 ,bernh4 ,schfer1 ,neue ,untersuchungen ber das ,buch ,koheleth 7,freiburg in ,breisgau1 #ahgj72 ,j4 ,s4 ,bloch1 ,ursprung and ,entstehungszeit des ,buches ,kohelet 7,bamberg1 #ahgb72 ,studien zur ,gesch4 der ,sammlung der althebr4 ,literatur 7,breslau1 #ahgf72 ,c4 ,taylor1 ,the ,dirge of ,coheleth in ,eccl4 xii41 discussed and literally translated 7#ahgd72 ,j4 ,j4 ,s4 ,perowne1 articles on ,ecclesiastes in ,expositor1 begun #ahgi2 ,m4 ,m4 ,kalisch1 ,path and ,goal 7contains translation of our book and much illustrative matter71 #ahhj2 ,a4 ,kuenen1 ,religion of ,israel 7#ahge71 iii4 #aec c41 also ,onderzoek 7#ahgc71 vol4 iii41 and article in ,theologisch ,tijdschrift1 #ahhc1 p4 #aac1 c42 ,s4 ,schiffer1 ,das ,buch ,kohelet nach der ,auffassung der ,weisen des ,talmud und ,midrasch und der jd4 ,erklrer des ,mittelalters1 ,theil i4 7,leipz4 #ahhe72 ,engelhardt1 #8,ueber den ,epilog des ,koheleth' in ,studien und ,kritiken1 #ahge2 ,klostermann1 article on ,wright's ,koheleth1 in same periodical1 #ahhe4 ,see also ,pusey's ,daniel the ,prophet1 ed4 #b1 pp4 #cbg-h1 and the introduction to ,prof4 ,salmon's commentary in ,ellicott4 ,prof ,a4 ,palm's bibliographical monograph1 ,die ,qohelet-,literatur1 ein ,beitrag zur ,geschichte der ,exegese des ,alten ,testaments1 #ahhf1 appeared too late to be of use4 ,,appendix ,,in ,,which ,,various ,,points ,,in ,,the ,,book ,,are ,,illustrated ,,or ,,more ,,fully ,,treated4 #a4 ,pfleiderer on ,st4 ,paul 7p4 #c74 #b4 ,the word ,kenotic2 ,phil4 ii4 #g 7p4 #g74 #c4 ,kleinert on ,job vi4 #be 7p4 #ba74 #d4 ,on ,job xix4 #be-bg 7pp4 #cc-ce74 #e4 ,job's repudiation of sins 7p4 #ci74 #f4 ,on ,job xxxviii4 #ca1 #cb 7p4 #eb74 #g4 ,source of story of ,job 7pp4 #fj-fc74 #h4 ,corrected text of ,deut4 xxxii4 #h1 #i 7p4 #ha74 #i4 ,the style of ,elihu 7p4 #ib74 #aj4 ,the ,aramaisms and ,arabisms of ,job 7p4 #ii74 #aa4 ,herder on ,job 7pp4 #ajf-aaa74 #ab4 ,septuagint of ,job 7pp4 #aac1 #aad74 #ac4 ,harn ar-,rashid and ,solomon 7p4 #aca74 #ad4 ,on ,prov4 xxvii4 #f 7p4 #adh74 #ae4 ,eternity of ,korn 7p4 #aib74 #af4 ,text of ,proverbs 7p4 #agc74 #ag4 ,religious value of ,proverbs 7p4 #agf1 #agg74 #ah4 ,aids to the ,student 7p4 #agh74 #ai4 ,date of ,jesus son of ,sirach 7p4 #ahj74 #bj4 ,on ,sirach xxi4 #bg 7p4 #ahi74 #ba4 ,sirach's ,hymn of ,praise 7p4 #aic74 #bb4 ,ancient versions of ,sirach 7p4 #aie74 #bc4 ,aids to the ,student 7p4 #aih74 #bd4 ,on the ,title ,koheleth 7p4 #bjg74 #be4 ,on ,eccles4 iii4 #aa 7p4 #baj74 #bf4 ,on ,eccles4 vii4 #bh 7p4 #bai74 #bg4 ,on ,eccles4 xi4 #i-xii4 #g 7pp4 #bbc-bbg74 #bh4 ,on ,eccles4 xii1 #i c4 7p4 #bcb74 #bi4 ,grtz on ,koheleth's opposition to asceticism 7p4 #bdd74 #cj4 ,herder on the alternate voices in ,koheleth 7p4 #bde74 #a4 ,page #c4--,pfleiderer1 in the spirit of ,lagarde1 accounts for the ,pauline view of the atonement by the #8stereotyped legal ,jewish' doctrine of the atoning merit of the death of holy men 7,hibbert ,lectures1 pp4 #fj-fb74 ,but was not this idea familiar and in some sense presumably real to ,jesus8 ,and why speak of a #8stereotyped' formula8 ,examples of a self-devotion designed to #8merit' good for the community1 or even for an individual1 abound in ,judaism4 #b4 ,page #g1 note #b4--,the word ,kenotic is conveniently descriptive of a theory1 and does not bind one who uses it to any particular expositon of the difficult ,greek of ,phil4 ii4 #g4 ,i need not decide1 therefore1 whether we should render with ,delitzsch1 or with ,salkinson4 ,to the names of eminent exegetes mentioned on page #g1 add that of ,godet4 #c4 ,page #ba 7on ,job vi4 #be74--,kleinert 7,theol4 ,studien u4 ,kritiken1 #ahhf1 pp4 #bhe-hf7 improves the parallelism by translating #8,wie so gar nicht verletzend sind ,worte der ,rechtschaffenheit1 aber wie so gar nichts rgt die ,rechtsrge von euch4' ,he thinks that here1 as occasionally elsewhere1 and m often in ,arabic1 has the sense of #8not' 7see ,ewald1 ,lehrbuch1 #cbe;b72 comp4 ix4 #b1 xvi4 #f1 xxxi4 #a1 and the characteristic #8how seldom1' xxi4 #ai4 ,without entering into his doubtful justification of #8verletzend1' it is possible to render #8,how far from grievous are straightforward speeches1 but how little is proved by the reproof from you6' #d4 ,pages #cc-ce 7,job xix4 #be-bg74--;,first1 as to the sense of ,goel 7,a4,v4 and ,r4,v4 #8redeemer'74 ,the sense seems determined by xvi1 #ah 7see above1 p4 #ca74 ,it is vengeance for his blood that ,job demands1 and hence in xix4 #bi he warns his false friends to beware of the sword of divine justice4 ,the #8friends' have identified themselves with that unjust ,deity against whom ,job appeals to the #8witness in heaven' 7xvi4 #bj7--the moral ,god of whom he has a dim but growing intuition4 ,the whole plan of the book1 as ,kleinert remarks1 calls for a definite legal meaning4 ,but as no direct reference to ,job's blood occurs in xix4 #be-bg1 #8my vindicator' will be a sufficiently exact rendering 7as in ,isa4 xliv4 #f74 ,i cannot however follow ,kleinert in his recognition of the hope of immortality in this passage4 ,next as to the text4 ,bickell's recension of it1 when pointed in the ordinary manner1 is as follows3-- #be #bf #bg ,bickell does not attempt to make easy ,hebrew2 the passage ought not in such a connection to be too easy4 ,he renders ver4 #bf;a1 #8,et postea1 his prsentibus absolutis1 veniet testis meus' 7,god1 his witness1 as xvi4 #ai71 comparing for the sense of ,isa4 xxix4 #a4 ,certainly we seem to require in ver4 #bf some further development of the idea suggested by the appearance of the ,goel on the dust of ,job's burial-place1 and such a development is not supplied by the received text4 ,we must not look at any corrupt passage by itself1 but take it with the context4 ,those who defend the text of ver4 #bf as it stands have on their side the parallelism of and 7comp4 ver4 #bj72 but this parallelism is counterbalanced by the want of correspondence between and 4 ,dr4 ,c4 ,taylor suggests an aposiopesis1 and gives the sense intended by the writer thus1 #8,when they have penetrated my skin1 and of my flesh have had their fill' 7comp4 ver4 #bb;b74 ,is it not more likely that came into the text through a reminiscence of ver4 #bb;b8 #8,i shall see these things from ,shaddai' will be1 on ,bickell's view1 equivalent to #8,i shall see these things attested by ,shaddai4' ,as yet1 the sufferer exclaims1 ,i can recognise this1 viz4 my innocence1 for myself alone2 mine eyes have seen it1 but not another's 7,prov4 xxvii #b74 ,the connexion is in every way improved4 ,job first of all desired an inscribed testimony to his innocence1 but now he aspires to something better4 ,bickell's is the most natural reconstruction of the passage as yet proposed2 so far as ver4 #bf;b is concerned1 it is supported in the main by the ,septuagint4 ,more violent corrections are offered by ,dr4 ,a4 ,neubauer1 ,athenum1 ,june #bg1 #ahhe--;,as a rendering of the text as it stands1 ,i think ,r4,v4 is justified in giving #8from my flesh' 7with marg41 #8,or1 without'72 #8mine eyes shall see' 7 #8will have seen'7 certainly suggests that ,job will be clothed with some body when he sees ,god 7,dillmann's reply is not adequate74 #8,without my flesh' 7so ,amer4 ,revisers7 is in itself justifiable 7see especially xi4 #ae72 in the use of the privative became more and more frequent in the later periods 7comp4 the ,talmudic #8blind'74 #e4 ,page #ci4 ,job's catalogue of the sins which he repudiates4 ,the parallel suggested between ,job and an ,egyptian formulary may be illustrated by a passage in the life of the great ,stoic ,emperor4 ,a learned ,bishop1 popular in his day1 reminds us of #8that golden ,table of ,ptolomy 7sic7 ,arsacides1 which the ,emperour ,marcus ,aurelius found at ,thebes1 which for the worthiness thereof that worthy ,emperour caused every night to be laid at his bed's head1 and at his death gave it as a singular treasure to his sonne ,commodus4 ,the ,table was written in ,greek characters1 and contained in it these protestations3 8,i never exalted the proud rich man1 neither hated the poor just man3 ,i never denied justice to the poor for his poverty neither pardoned the wealthy for his riches4444 ,i alwaies favoured the poor that was able to do little1 and ,god1 who was able to do much1 alwaies favoured me40' 7,the ,practice of ,quietnesse1 by ,george ,webbe1 ,d4,d41 #afii87 #f4 ,page #eb 7,on ,job xxxviii4 #ca1 #cb1 ix4 #i74--7a7 ,i admit that the identification of and the ,pleiades is uncertain4 ,still it is plausible1 especially when we compare ,ar4 kumat #8heap4' ,and even if it should be shown that kimtu was not the ,babylonian name for the ,pleiades1 this would not be decisive against the identification proposed4 ,the ,babylonians did not give the name kisiluv to ,orion1 yet ,stern's argument 7,jdische ,zeitschrift1 #ahfe1 ,heft #d3 comp4 ,nldeke1 ,schenkel's ,bibel-,lexikon1 iv4 #cfi1 #cgj7 in favour of equating k'sl and ,orion remains valid4 7#b7 ,as to #8sweet influences' is fortunate enough to exist by sufferance in the margin of ,r4,v4 ,it is sometimes defended by comparing #a ,sam4 xv4 #cb4 ,but the only possible renderings there are #8in bonds' or #8trembling' 7see ,variorum ,bible ad loc474 ,dr4 ,driver has shown that #8sweet influences' is a legacy from ,sebastian ,mnster 7#aece74 7#c7 is probably not to be identified with 7#b ,kings xxiii4 #e71 in spite of the authority of the ,sept4 and the ,targum 7see ,dillmann's note74 ,in this ,i agree with ,g4 ,hoffmann1 whose adventurous interpretations of the astronomical names in ,amos and ,job do not however as yet seem to me acceptable4 ,according to him1 kma ,sirius1 k'sl ,orion1 ,mazzaroth the ,hyades and ,aldebaran1 #8,ayish' the ,pleiades 7,stade's ,zeitschrift1 #ahhc1 ,heft #a74 ,mazzaroth ,ass4 mazarati2 ,mazzaloth 7i4e4 the zodiacal signs7 seems to be the plural of mazzla ,ass4 manzaltu station4 #g4 ,pages #fj-fc4--,that the story of ,job is an embellished folk-tale is probable1 though still unproved4 ,the delightful humour which in the ,prologue 7see pp4 #ad1 #aaj71 as in the myths of ,plato1 stands side by side with the most impressive solemnity of itself points to this view4 ,no one has expressed this better than ,wellhausen1 in a review of ,dillmann's ,hiob1 ,jahrbcher fr deutsche ,theologie1 xvi4 #eeb c43 #8,den launigen und doch mrrischen ,ton1 den der nonchalante ,satan ,gott gegenber anschlgt1 so ganz auf ,du und ,du1 wrde schwerlich der ,dichter des ,hiob gewagt haben2 schwerlich auch wrde es ihm gelungen sein1 mit so merkwrdig einfachen ,mitteln so wunderbar plastische ,figuren zu entwerfen4' ,he also points out the inconsistencies of the story1 precisely such as we might expect in a folk-tale1 and concludes 7a little hastily7 that the ,prologue is altogether a folk-story and had no didactic object4 ,eichhorn1 too1 in a review of ,michaelis on ,job 7,allgemeine ,bibliothek1 i4 #dcj c471 well points out that the illusion of the poem is much impaired by not admitting an element in the plot derived from tradition4 ,of course this view of ,job as based on a folk-tale is quite reconcileable with the view that the hero is a personification4 ,the latter is much older than the last century2 it explains the ,jewish saying 7p4 #fj7 that #8,job was a parable1' and the fascination which the book possessed for the age preceding the final dispersion of the ,jews4#dcc ,footnote #dcc3 ,see ,rosenthal1 ,vier apokryphische ,bcher ans der ,zeit und ,schule ,akiba's 7#ahhe71 pp4 #f-ab4 #h4 ,page #ha 7further correction of text of ,deut4 xxxii4 #h1 #i74--,the passage becomes more rhythmical if with ,bickell we reproduce the ,septuagint ,hebrew text at the close of ver4 #h as and continue 7ver4 #i71 or ,the correction of the last couplet is important as a supplement of the explanation of ver4 #h given in the text4 ,to other nations ,god gave protective angels1 but ,he reserved ,israel for ,himself4 7,see ,bickell1 ,zeitschrift f4 kathol4 ,theologie1 #ahhe1 pp4 #gah-ai1 and comp4 his ,carmina ,v4 ,t4 metric1 #ahhb1 p4 #aib1 where he adheres in both verses to the received text47 #i4 ,page #ib4--,no student of the ,hebrew of ,job will overlook the admirable #8studies' on the style of ,elihu by ,j4 ,g4 ,stickel 7,das ,buch ,hiob1 #ahdb1 pp4 #bdh-bfb7 and ,carl ,budde 7,beitrge sur ,kritik des ,buches ,hiob1 #ahgf1 pp4 #fe-afj74 ,the former succeeded in obtaining the admission of such an eminent critical analyst as ,kuenen1 that style by itself would be scarcely sufficient to prove the later origin of the ,elihu speeches4 ,it also1 no doubt1 assisted ,delitzsch to recognise in ,elihu the same #8,hebroarabic' impress as in the rest of the book4 ,in spite of this effective #8study1' ,dillmann's brief treatment of the same subject in #ahfi made it clear that the subject had not yet by any means been threshed out1 and perhaps no more powerful argument against chaps4 xxxii4-xxxvii4 has been produced than that contained in a single closely-printed page 7#bhi7 of his commentary4 ,there was therefore a good chance for a ,privatdocent to win himself a name by a renewed attempt to state the linguistic facts more thoroughly and impartially than before4 ,this indeed fairly expresses ,budde's object1 which is not at all to offer a direct proof that the disputed chapters belong to the original poem1 but merely to show that the opposite view cannot be demonstrated on stylistic grounds4 ,his method is to collect1 first of all1 points of resemblance and then points of difference between #8,elihu' and the rest of the book4 ,last among the latter appear the ,aramaisms and ,arabisms4 ,budde rejects the view1 adopted from ,stickel 7see p4 #ib7 by ,canon ,f4 ,c4 ,cook1 that the deeper colouring of ,aramaic is only the poet's way of indicating the ,araman origin of ,elihu4 ,he denies that there is any such greater amount of ,aramaism as can form a real distinction between #8,elihu' and the undisputed chapters4 ,i will not inquire whether the subjectivity of a writer may impress itself on his statistics1 and willingly grant that the ,aramaic colouring in #8,elihu' may perhaps affect the reader more owing to the faults of style to which ,budde himself alludes on p4 #aeg1 and which1 to me1 indicate an age or at least a writer of less taste and talent than the original author4 ,the ,aramaisms may be thrown into stronger relief by these infirmities1 and so the colouring may seem deeper than it is4 ,i am not however sure that there is an illusion in the matter4 ,among the counter-instances of ,aramaism given by ,budde from the speeches of ,eliphaz1 there are at least two which have no right to figure there1 viz4 1 xv4 #bi1 and for 1 xxii4 #cj1 both which forms are probably corrupt readings4 ,until ,dillmann has published his second edition ,i venture to retain the statement on p4 #ib4 ,there is a stronger ,aramaising element in ,elihu1 which1 with other marks of a peculiar and inferior#dcd style1 warrants us in assigning the section to a later writer4 ,this is1 of course1 not precluded by the numerous ,hebraistic points of contact with the main part of the book1 which ,carl ,budde has so abundantly collected 7,beitrge1 pp4 #ib-abc74 ,no one can doubt that the original poem very early became an absorbing study in the circles of #8wise men4' ,as to the words and phrases 7of pure ,hebrew origin7 in which ,elihu differs from the body of the work1 ,i may remark that it is sometimes difficult to realise their full significance from ,budde's catalogue4 ,kleinert has thrown much light on some of them in a recent essay4 ,he has1 for instance1#dce shown the bearings of the fact that the disputed chapters persistently avoid the juristic sense of 7,kal71 except in a quotation from speeches of ,job 7xxxiv4 #e71 ,elihu himself only using the word of correctness in statement 7xxxiii4 #ab71 or of moral righteousness 7xxxv4 #g71 and that has the sense of #8acting wickedly' only in a passage of ,elihu 7xxxiv4 #ab74 ,the use of 1 1 and in xxxii1 #a1 xxxiii4 #bf1 xxxv4 #h1 xxxvi4 #c1 is also dwelt upon in this connexion4 ,it is true that ,budde does not conceal these points2 he tabulates them correctly1 but does not indicate the point of view from which they can be understood4 ,kleinert supplies this omission4 ,the body of the poem1 he remarks1 is juristic in spirit2 the speeches of ,elihu ethical and hortatory4 ,this brings with it a different mode of regarding the problem of ,job's sufferings4 #8,die ,reden ,elihu's haben zu dem gerichtlichen ,aufriss der ,buchanlage nur das allerusserlichste ,verhltniss4 ,sie verlassen die scharfgezogenen ,grundlinien der rechtlichen ,auseinandersetzung1 um in eine ethisch-parnetische1 rein chokmatisch-didaktische ,errterung der ,frage berzulenken4' ,kleinert also notes one peculiar word of ,elihu's which ,i have not met with in ,budde1 but which1 from ,kleinert's point of view1 is important--1 #8a ransom' 7xxxiii4 #bd1 xxxvi4 #ah74 ,why did not the juristic theologians of the ,colloquies use it8 ,evidently the speeches of ,elihu are later compositions4 ,footnote #dcd3 #8,ist's denkbar1 dass ein solcher ,dichter demjenigen ,redner1 dem et die ,hauptrolle zugedacht1 die ,charakteristik jenes inferioren ,redetypus zugewiesen haben knnte8' ,kleinert4 ,footnote #dce3 ,das spezifisch-hebrische im ,buch ,hiob1 ,theol4 ,studien und ,kritiken1 #ahhf1 pp4 #bii-cjj4 #aj4 ,page #ii4--,the critic1 no less than the prophet1 is still with too many a favourite subject of ironical remark2 #8they say of him1 ,doth he not speak in riddles'8#dcf ,the origin of ,job1 upon the linguistic as well as the theological side1 may be a riddle1 but the interest of the book is such that we cannot give up the riddle4 ,we may not all agree upon the solution2 the riddle may be one that admits of different answers4 ,all that this proves is the injudiciousness of dogmatism1 which specially needs emphasising with respect to the bearings of the linguistic data4 ,to say1 with ,nldeke1#dcg #8,we have no ground for regarding the language of ,job as anything but a very pure ,hebrew' seems to me as extreme as to assert with ,g4 ,h4 ,bernstein 7the well-known ,syriac scholar7 that the amount of ,aramaic colouring would of itself bring the book into the post-,exile period4 ,bernstein carried to a dangerous extreme a tendency already combated by ,michaelis and ,eichhorn2#dch but his research is thorough-going and systematic4 ,those who1 like the present writer1 have no access to it1 may be referred to ,l4 ,bertholdt's ,historisch-kritische ,einleitung#dci 7,erlangen1 #ahab-ahai71 where it is carefully examined1 and its arguments1 as it would seem1 reduced to something like their just proportions4 ,bertholdt does not scruple to admit that distinctively ,aramaising constructions are wanting in ,job1 and that words with ,aramaic affinities may have existed in ,hebrew before the ,exile4 ,still he decides that though part of the argument fails to pieces1 yet for most there is a real foundation4 ,this too1 is substantially the judgment of ,carl ,budde4 #8,despite all deductions from ,bernstein's list it remains true that just the ,book of ,job is specially rich in words which principally belong to the ,aramaic dialects4'#ddj ,dillmann1 too1 who takes pains to emphasise the comparative scarcity of ,aramaisms in the strictest sense of the word1 yet finds in the body of the work 7excluding the ,elihu portion7 ,aramaising and ,arabising words enough to suggest that the author lived hard by ,aramaic- and ,arabic-speaking peoples4#dda ,by taking this view1 ,dillmann 7whose philological caution and accuracy give weight to his opinion7 separates himself from those who1 like ,eichhorn and more recently the ,jewish scholar ,kaempf1#ddb confidently maintain that the peculiar words in ,job are genuine ,hebrew #8,sprachgut4' ,to make this probable1 we ought to be able to show that they have more affinities with northern than with southern ,semitic 7see p4 #ii71 a task as yet unaccomplished4 ,dillmann1 too1 would certainly dissent from ,canon ,cook's opinion that the ,aramaisms of ,job are only #8such as characterise the antique and highly poetic style4' ,according to him1 they are equally unfavourable to a very early and to a very late date4 ,various lists of ,aramaising words have been given since ,bernstein's4 ,i give here that of ,dr4 ,lee in his ,book of the ,patriarch ,job 7p4 #ej71 which has the merit of having been constructed from his own reading of ,job4 ,it refers to the whole book3-- 7iii4 #d72 7iv4 #ab72 7v4 #b72 7ib4 #h71 occur in the ,aramaic1 not the ,hebrew sense2 7viii4 #b72 7ib4 #g72 7xi4 #bj72 7xii4 #b72 7ib4 #aa72 7ib4 #bc72 7xiii4 #ag72 7xv4 #ag72 for 7ib472 7ib4 #ca72 7xvi4 #ae72 7ib4 #af72 7xviii4 #b72 444 7xxi4 #aj72 7xxiv4 #bb72 7xxxi4 #cc72 7xxxii4 #aj1 #ah72 7xxxiii4 #bd72 7ib4 #cc72 7xxxvi4 #b72 7ib4 #ba72 7xxxviii4 #c72 7xli4 #ab74 ,i will not criticise this list1 which no doubt contains some questionable items4 ,we might1 however1 insert other words in exchange1 e4g4 7ix4 #bf72 7xvi4 #ai72 7xxx4 #f72 and 7v4 #bb1 xxx4 #c72 and perhaps 7xiii4 #bh71 which ,geiger plausibly compares with ,syr4 rakbo #8wineskin' 7so the tradition represented by the ,septuagint1 the ,peshitto1 and ,barhebrus74 ,some supposed ,arabisms may also in all probability be transferred to the list of ,aramaisms2 but the ,arabisms which remain will abundantly justify what has been stated in the section on ,job4 ,i have not attempted to decide precisely where the poet heard both ,arabic and ,aramaic4 ,dillmann accepts the view mentioned on p4 #ge4 ,but ,gilead1 too1 was at all times inhabited by ,arab tribes1 both nomad and settled1#ddc and the region itself was called ,arabia4#ddd ,footnote #dcf3 ,ezek4 xx4 #di4 ,footnote #dcg3 ,die alttestamentliche ,literatur1 p4 #aib4 ,footnote #dch3 ,see ,eichhorn's notice of ,michaelis in vol4 i4 of his ,allgemeine ,bibliothek der biblischen ,literatur4 ,footnote #dci3 ,pp4 #bjgf1 #bjgg4 ,bernstein's title is1 ,ueber das ,alter1 den ,inhalt1 den ,zweck und die gegenwrtige ,gestalt des ,buches ,hiob 7in ,keil and ,tzschirner's ,analekten1 #ahac1 pp4 #a-acg74 ,footnote #ddj3 ,beitrge sur ,kritik des ,buches ,hiob 7#ahgf71 p4 #adj4 ,footnote #dda3 ,hiob 7#ahfi71 ,einleitung1 pp4 xxvii4 xxix4 ,footnote #ddb3 ,die ,grabschrift ,escamunazar's 7#ahgd71 p4 #h4 ,footnote #ddc3 ,blau1 ,zeitschr4 der deutsch4 morgenl4 ,ges41 xxv4 #edj4 ,footnote #ddd3 ,wetzstein in ,delitzsch's ,iob1 p4 #ebh4 #aa4 ,pages #ajf-aaa4--;,herder 7to whom ,i gladly refer the student7 is perhaps the best representative of the modern literary point of view4 ,whatever he says on the ,hebrew ,scriptures is worth reading1 even when his remarks need correction4 ,no one felt the poetry of ,job more deeply than ,herder2 to the religious ideas of the poem his eyes were not equally open4 ,indeed1 it must have been hard to discern and appreciate these adequately in the eighteenth century2 the newly-discovered sacred books of the ,east1 with their deep though obscure metaphysical conceptions1 for a time almost overshadowed the far more sobre ,hebrew ,scriptures4 ,like ,carlyle 7who is to some extent his echo7 ,herder underrates the specifically ,hebrew element in the book1 which is of course not very visible on a hasty perusal4 ,one point1 however1 that he sees very dearly1 though he does not use the expression1 is that ,job is a character-drama4 ,he denies that the speeches are monotonous4 #8,so eintnig fr uns alle ,reden klingen1 so sind sie mit ,licht und ,schatten angelegt und der ,faden1 oder vielmehr die ,verwirrung der ,materie1 nimmt zu von ,rede zu ,rede1 bis ,hiob sich selbst fasset und seine ,behauptungen lindert4 ,wer diesen ,faden nicht verfolgt und insonderheit nicht bemerkt1 wie ,hiob seinem ,gegner immer den eigenen ,pfeil aus der ,hand windet2 entweder das besser sagt1 was jener sagte1 oder die ,grnde jenes eben fr sich braucht--der hat das ,lebendige1 ,wachsende1 kurz die ,seele des ,buchs verfehlet' 7,hiob als ,composition betrachtet1 ,werke1 ,suphan1 ii4 #cah74 ,he has also clearly perceived the poet's keen sympathy with mythology1 and this1 combined with the 7supposed7 few imitations of ,job in the ,old ,testament1 confirmed him in the erroneous view that the original writer of ,job was an ,edomitish ,emeer4 ,on the limited influence of ,job he has some vigorous sentences1 the edge of which1 however1 is turned by more recent criticism4 ,it is of the prophets he is chiefly thinking1 when he finds so few traces of acquaintance with ,job in the ,scriptures1 and of the pre-,exile prophets4 #8,wie drngen und drcken sich die ,propheten6 wie borgen sie von einander ,bilder in einem ziemlich engen ,kreise und fhren sie nur1 jeder nach seiner ,art1 aus6 ,diese alte ehrwrdige ,pyramide steht im ,ganzen unnachgeahmt da und ist vielleicht unnachahmbar4' ,this passage occurs in the fifth conversation in his ,geist der ,ebrischenn ,poesie 7,werke1 ed4 ,suphan1 xi4 #caj74 ,the student of ,job will not neglect this and also the two preceding very attractive chapters4 ,the description of ,elihu is not the least interesting passage4 ,herder does his best to account for the presence of this unexpected fifth speaker1 but really shows how unaccountable it is except on the theory of later addition4 ,prof4 ,briggs's theory 7p4 #ic7 that the poor speeches of ,elihu are intended #8as a literary foil' was suggested by ,herder4 #8,bemerken ,sie aber1 dass er nur als ,schatte dasteht1 dies ,gottes-,orakel zu erheben' 7,werke1 xi4 #bhd74 #ab4 ,pages #aac1 #aad4--,the latest study on the original ,septuagint text of the ,book of ,job is by ,bickell in the ,zeitschrift fr katholische ,theologie1 #ahhf1 pp4 #eeg-efd4 ,as to the date of the ,alexandrine version1 ,hody's remark1 ,de ,bibliorum ,textibus1 p4 #aif1 deserves attention1 viz4 that ,philo already quotes from it1-- 1 1 1 7,sept4 of ,job xiv4 #d 72 ,de ,mutatione ,nominum1 #f 7i4 #ehe74 #ac4 ,page #aca4--,the character of ,harn ar-,rashid1 in fact1 became almost as distorted by legend as that of ,solomon4 ,neither of them were models of civil justice 7,weil1 ,geschichte der ,chalifen1 ii4 #abg74 #ad4 ,page #adh 7,prov4 xxvii4 #f74--;,consult1 however1 the ,septuagint1 which seems to have read at the beginning of the second line 7#8,more faithful 444 than' c474 ,see ,cornill on ,ezek4 xxxv4 #ac4 #ae4 ,page #afb1 note #a4--,the ,mo'tazilites 7#8the ,protestants of ,islam'7 denied the eternity of the ,korn because it implied the existence of two eternal beings 7,weil1 ,gesch4 der ,chalifen1 ii4 #bfb74 #af4 ,page #agc4--,text of ,proverbs4 ,among the minor additions in ,sept41 note the in ,prov4 v4 #af 7so ,vatican and1 originally1 ,sinaitic ,,ms471 if we may follow ,lagarde and ,field4 ,the ,alexandrine ,,ms41 however1 and the ,complutensian edition1 omit 1 which is also wanting in ,aquila4 ,comp4 ,field's ,hexapla ad loc4 #ag4 ,pages #agf1 #agg 7,religious ,value of ,proverbs74--,to appreciate the religious spirit of this fine book1 we require some imaginative sympathy with past ages4 ,the #8staid1 quiet1 8douce10 orderly burgher of the ,book of ,proverbs1 who is regular in his attendance at the ,temple1 diligent in his business1 prosperous in his affairs1 of repute among the elders1 with daughters doing virtuously1 and a wife that has his house decked with coverings of tapestry1 while her own clothing is silk and purple' 7,mr4 ,binney's words in ,is it possible to make the best of both worlds871 is not the noblest type of man1 and therefore not the model ,christian even of our own day4 #ah4 ,page #agh 7,aids to the ,student74--,add1 ,les sentences et proverbes du ,talmud et du ,midrasch4 ,par ,mose ,schuhl4 ,par4 #ahgh4 #ai4 ,page #ahj4--,on the date of ,jesus son of ,sirach1 comp4 ,hody1 ,de ,bibliorum ,textibus ,originalibus 7,oxon41 #agje71 pp4 #aib-aid4 #bj4 ,page #ahi1 note #a 7,sirach xxi4 #bg74--;,fritzsche weakens the proverb by taking #8,satan' as equivalent to #8accuser' 7,ps4 cix4 #f1 ,zech4 iii4 #a74 ,the wise man says that it is no use for the ungodly man to disclaim responsibility for his sin4 #8,the ,satan' either means the depraved will 7comp4 ,dukes1 ,rabbin4 ,blumenlese1 p4 #ajh7 or the great evil spirit4 ,in the latter case the wise man says that for all practical purposes the tempter called ,satan may be identified with the inborn tempter of the heart4 ,comp4 ,ps4 xxxvi4 #b1 #8,the ungodly man hath an oracle of transgression within his heart4' #ba4 ,page #aic 7,the ,hymn of ,praise74--,frankel suspected xliv4 #af to be an interpolation1 on the ground that the view of ,enoch as an example of is ,philonian 7,palstinische ,exegese1 p4 #dd74 ,against this see ,fritzsche1 who explains the passage as a characteristically uncritical inference from ,gen4 v4 #bb4 ,enoch was a pattern of because he walked with ,god after begetting ,methuselah4 #bb4 ,page #aie 7,ancient ,versions of ,sirach74--,the ,peshitto version deviates1 one may venture to assume1 in many points from the original ,sirach4 ,geiger has pointed out some remarkable instances of this 7,zeitschr4 der deutschen morgenl4 ,ges4 xii4 #ecf c471 and if the ,greek version is to be regarded as absolutely authoritative1 the number of deviations must be extremely great4 ,fritzsche goes so far as to say that in the latter part of the ,syriac ,sirach 7from about chap4 xxx47 the original is only hazily traceable 7#8durchschimmert'74 ,he describes this version as really no version1 but #8eine ziemlich leichtfertig hingeschriebene ,paraphrase' 7#8a rather careless paraphrase'74 ,this1 as fairer judges of the ,syriac are agreed1 is not an accurate statement of the case4 ,it can be readily disproved by referring to some of the passages in which the ,greek translator has manifestly misrendered the original 7e4g4 xxiv4 #bg2 see above1 p4 #aif74 ,dr4 ,edersheim1 who is working upon both versions1 agrees with ,bickell that the ,syriac often enables us to restore the ,hebrew1 where the ,greek text is wrong4 ,this is not placing the ,syriac in a superior position to the ,greek1 but giving it the subsidiary importance which it deserves4 ,doubtless1 the ,hebrew text which the ,syriac translator employed was in many places corrupt4 ,the best edition of the ,peshitto1 ,i may add1 is in ,lagarde's ,libri ,vet4 ,test4 ,apocryphi ,syriaci 7#ahfa74 ,it is from ,walton's ,polyglot1 but #8codicum nitriensium ope et coniecturis meis hic illic emendatiorem' one sixth-century ,,ms4 of ,ecclesiasticus is used4 ,the ,old ,latin has many peculiarities2 its inaccuracies are no proof of arbitrariness2 the translator means to be faithful to his ,greek original4 ,many verses are transposed2 others misplaced4 ,for instances of the former1 ,fritzsche refers to iii4 #bg1 iv4 #ca1 #cb1 vi4 #i1 #aj1 ix4 #ad1 #af1 xii4 #e1 #g2 for the latter1 to xvi4 #bd1 #be1 xix4 #e1 #f1 xlix4 #ag4 ,sometimes a double text is translated1 e4g4 xix4 #c1 xx4 #bd4 ,it is to be used with great caution1 but its age makes it valuable for determining the ,greek text4 ,for the text of ,ecclesiasticus in the ,codex ,amiatinus1 see ,lagarde's ,mittheilungen4 #bc4 ,page #aih 7,aids to the ,student74--,to the works mentioned add ,bruch1 ,weisheitslehre 7#ahea71 p4 #bhc c41 and especially ,jehuda ben ,seeb's little known work ,the ,wisdom of ,joshua ben ,sira rendered into ,hebrew and ,german1 and paraphrased in ,syriac with the ,biur1 ,breslau1 #agih 7translated title71 and ,geiger1 #8,warum gehrt das ,buch ,sirach zu den ,apocryphen8' in ,zeitschr4 d deutschen morgenl4 ,gesellschaft1 xii4 #ecf c4 #bd4 ,page #bjg1 note #b4--,the name is undoubtedly an enigma1 and ,m4 ,renan thinks that ordinary philological methods are inadequate to its solution4 ,even ,aquila leaves it untranslated 774 ,without stopping here to criticise ,m4 ,renan's theory that ,,qhlth were the initials of words 7comp4 ,rambam1 ,rashi7 in some way descriptive of ,solomon1#dde let me frankly admit that none of the older explanations is absolutely certain1 because neither ,qhl nor ,qohleth occurs elsewhere in the ,old ,testament literature4 ,two views however are specially prevalent1 and ,i will first mention that which seems to me 7with ,gesenius1 ,delitzsch1 ,nowack c47 to deserve the preference4 ,in one respect indeed it harmonises with the rival explanation1 viz4 in supposing ,qal to have adopted the signification of ,hifil 7the ,hifil of ,q ,h ,l is found in the ,old ,testament71 so that ,qhl will mean #8one who calls together an assembly4' ,the adoption thus supposed is found especially in proper names 7e4g4 74 ,but how to explain the feminine form ,qohleth8 ,by a tendency of later ,hebrew to use fem4 participles with a masc4 sense4#ddf ,in ,talmudic ,hebrew1 e4g41 we find 1 #8buyers1' 1 #8stone-masons1' 1 #8foreigners' 7passive participles in this stage of the language tend to adopt an active sense74 ,but even earlier we find the same tendency among proper names4 ,take for instance ,sophereth 7hassofereth in ,ezra ii4 #ee2 sofereth in ,neh4 vii4 #eg71 ,pokereth 7,ezra ii4 #eg74 ,why should not the name ,qoheleth have been given to the great ,teacher of the book before us1 just as the name ,sophereth was given apparently to a scribe8 ,delitzsch#ddg reminds us that in ,arabic the fem4 termination serves sometimes to intensify the meaning1 or1 as ,ewald puts it1 #8ut abstracto is innuatur in quo tota hc virtus vel alia proprietas consummatissima sit1 ut ejus exemplum haberi queat4'#ddh ,thus ,qoheleth might mean #8the ideal teacher1' and this no doubt would be a title which would well describe the later view of ,solomon4 ,it is simpler1 however1 to take the fem4 termination as expressing action or office2 thus in ,arabic khalifa means #a1 succession or the dignity of the successor1 #b1 the successor or representative himself1 the #8caliph1' and in ,hebrew and ,assyrian pekhh1 pakhatu #8viceroy4' ,comp4 1 #8die ,obrigkeit4' ,the alternative is1 with ,ewald1 ,hitzig1 ,ginsburg1 ,kuenen1 ,kleinert1 to explain ,qoheleth as in apposition to 1 ,wisdom being represented in ,prov4 i4 #bj1 #ba1 viii4 #a-d1 as addressing men in the places of concourse 7,klostermann eccentrically explains or 74 ,solomon1 according to this view1 is regarded by the author as the impersonation of ,wisdom 7as ,protagoras was called 74 ,it is most unlikely1 however1 that ,solomon should have been thus regarded1 considering the strange discipline which the author describes ,qoheleth as having passed through1 and how different is the language of ,wisdom when1 as in ,prov4 i4-ix41 she is represented as addressing an assembly6 ,a reference to vii4 #bg1 where ,qoheleth seems to be spoken of in the fem41 is invalid1 as we should undoubtedly correct haqqohleth in accordance with xii4 #hddi 7comp4 hassofereth1 ,ezra ii4 #ee74 ,the ,sept4 rendering 1 whence the #8concionator' of ,vulg41 is therefore to be preferred to the singular ,greek rend4 of ,grcus ,venetus4 ,footnote #dde3 ,on this1 see ,wright1 ,ecclesiastes c4 p4 #abg4 ,footnote #ddf3 ,strack1 ,lehrbuch der neuhebr4 ,sprache1 p4 #ed4 ,footnote #ddg3 ,hoheslied und ,koheleth1 pp4 #bab-c4 ,footnote #ddh3 ,grammatica arabica1 #bhd 7i4 #afg74 ,comp4 ,wright1 ,arabic ,grammar1 i4 #aeg 7 #bcc74 ,footnote #ddi3 ,the mistake was caused by the rarity of with the article4 #be4 ,page #baj4--;,eccles4 iii4 #aa4 ,might we render1 #8,also he hath put 7the knowledge of7 that which is secret into their mind1 except that1' c41 i4e4 #8though ,god has enabled man to find out many secrets1 yet human science is of very limited extent'8 ,this implies ,bickell's pointing 4 #bf4 ,page #bai4--;,eccles4 vii4 #bh4 ,the misogyny of the writer was doubtless produced by some sad personal experience4 ,its evil effect upon himself was mitigated by his discovery of another ,jonathan with a love passing the love of women4' ,this reminds us of the author of the celebrated medival #8,romance of the ,rose4'#dej #8,what is ,love8' asks the lover1 and ,reason answers1 #8,it is a mere sickness of the thought1 a sport of the fancy4 ,if thou scape at last from ,love's snares1 ,i hold it but a grace4 ,many a one has lost body and soul in his service' 7comp4 ,eccles1 vii4 #bf74 ,and then he continues1 #8,there is a kind of love which lawful is and good1 as noble as it is rare1--the friendship of men4' ,to quote ,chaucer's translation1 ,and certeyn he is wel bigone ,among a thousand that findeth oon4 ,for ther may be no richesse ,ageyns frendshippe of worthynesse4 ,the allusion to ,eccles4 vii4 #bi is obvious4 ,thus the same varieties of character recur in all ages4 ,this point of view is very different from that of the ,agadic writers who borrow from ,eccles4 vii4 #bf a weapon against #8heresy' 7mnth71 a term which includes the ,jewish ,christian faith4 ,all are agreed that the #8bitter woman' is heresy1 and one of them declares that the closing words of the verse refer to #8the men of ,capernaum' 7see ,matt4 ix4 #h74 ,delitzsch1 ,ein ,tag in ,kapernaum1 #ahhf1 p4 #dh2 comp4 ,wnsche1 ,midraseh ,koheleth1 p4 #aaj4 ,footnote #dej3 ,comp4 ,british ,quarterly ,review1 ,oct4 #ahga4 #bg4 ,pages #bbc-bbg4--;,eccles4 xi4 #i-xii4 #g4 ,the key to the whole passage is xi4 #h4 #8,for1 if a man lives many years1 let him rejoice in them all1 and let him remember the days of darkness1 that they shall be many4' ,i cannot accept the ingenious conjecture of ,dr4 ,c4 ,taylor1 which might 7see ,chap4 ,x47 have been supported by a reference to ,egypt1 that xii4 #c-e are cited from an authorised book of dirges4 ,not only these verses but xii4 #a;b-#f form a poem on the evils of old age1 the whole effect of which is lost without some prefix1 such as #8,rejoice in thy youth4' ,dderlein supplies this prefix in xii4 #f2 but this is not enough4 ,if we hesitate1 with ,luzzatto1 ,geiger1 and ,nldeke to cancel xii4 #a;a as a later addition for purposes of edification1 we must1 with ,gritz and ,bickell1 read either or 4 ,these two readings seem to have existed side by side1 and to an ingenious moralist this fact apparently suggested a new and edifying reading 4 ,hence ,akabia ben ,mahalallel1#dea one of the earliest of the ,jewish #8fathers1' and probably a contemporary of ,gamaliel ,i41 advises considering these three points as a safeguard against sin1 #8,whence thou comest1 whither thou goest1 and before whom thou wilt have to give an account4' #8,whence thou comest1' implying #8thy fountain2' #8whither thou goest1' 1 #8thy pit1 or grave2' #8before whom thou wilt stand1' 1 #8thy creator4' ,footnote #dea3 ,aboth1 iii1 #a 7ed4 ,strack72 comp1 ,schiffer1 ,das ,buch ,kohelet nach der ,auffassung der ,weisen1 part i41 p4 #di4 #bh4 ,page #bcb4--;,dderlein 7in a popular work on ,ecclesiastes1 p4 #aai7 describes xii4 #i c4 as the epilogue1 #8perhaps1 of a larger collection of writings and of the earlier ,hebrew canon4' ,herder1 too1 thinks that the close of the book suggests a collection of sayings of several wise men 7,werke1 ed4 ,suphan1 x1 #acd74 #bi4 ,page #bdd4--;,according to ,grtz1 ,koheleth is not to be taken in earnest when he writes as if in a sombre and pessimistic mood4 ,such passages ,grtz tries to explain away4 ,koheleth1 he thinks1 is the enemy of those who cultivate such a mood1 and who1 like the school of ,shammai1 combine with it an extravagant and unnatural asceticism 7comp4 vii4 #af1 #ag74 ,the present1 ,koheleth knows1 is far from ideal1 but he would fain reconcile young men to inevitable evils by pointing them to the relative goods still open to them4 ,this attitude of the author enables ,grtz to account for ,koheleth's denial of the doctrine of ,immortality4 ,this doctrine1 he remarks1 was not of native ,jewish origin1 but imported from ,alexandria1 and was the source of the ascetic gloom opposed by ,koheleth4 ,koheleth's denial of the ,immortality of the ,soul does not1 according to ,grtz1 involve the denial of the ,resurrection of the ,body1 the ,resurrection being regarded in early ,judaism as a new creative act4#deb ,it is not clear to me1 however1 that ,koheleth accepts the ,resurrection doctrine1 even if he does not expressly controvert it4 ,footnote #deb3 ,kohelet1 p4 #bi4 ,certainly this is not the view of ,talmudic ,judaism1 at least not in the sense described by ,dr4 ,grtz4 ,see ,weber1 ,altsynagogale ,theologie1 p4 #cbc4 #cj4 ,page #bde1 note #c4--;,herder says with insight1 though with some exaggeration1 that most of ,koheleth consists of isolated observations on the course of the world and the experience of the writer4 ,no artistic connection need be sought for4 ,but if we must seek for one 7so that ,herder is not convinced of the soundness of the theory71 it is strange that no one has observed the twofold voice in the book1 #8da ein ,grbler ,wahrheit sucht1 und in dem ,ton seines ,ichs meistens damit1 8dass alles eitel sey10 endet2 eine andre ,stimme aber1 im ,ton des ,du1 ihn oft unterbricht1 ihm das ,verwegne seiner ,untersuchungen vorhlt und meistens damit endet1 8was zuletzt das ,resultat des ganzen ,lebens bleibe80 ,es ist nicht vllig ,frag' und ,antwort1 ,zweifel und ,auflsung1 aber doch aus ,einem und demselben ,munde etwas1 das beyden gleicht1 und sich durch ,abbrche und ,fortsetzungen unterscheidet4' ,brief das ,studium der ,theologie betreftend1 erster ,theil 7,werke1 ,suphan1 x4 #ace-acf74 ,,index4 ,aaron1 celebrated by ,sirach1 #aic ,achamoth1 ,gnostic myth of1 #afa n4 ,adam1 occurrence of the word in #8,proverbs1' #aai ,addison1 #ade ,age1 ascribed to ,job1 #ga2 description of1 #bbi sq4 ,agur1 #aed1 #agj sq4 ,ahriman1 #hj ,akabia ben ,mahalallel1 #cjj ,akiba1 ,rabbi1 #bhc ,alexandria1 importance of1 to ,jews1 #aha ,allegorical view of #8,job1' #fe2 of ,koheleth's portrait of old age1 #bbi sq4 ,alphabet of ,ben ,sira1 #aie sq4 ,amenemhat ,i41 #aef ,amos1 parallels to #8,job' in1 #hg ,amos iv4 #ac1 v4 #h1 perhaps interpolations1 #eb1 n4 ,angels1 doctrine of1 #dd sq4 ,see also ,spirits ,apap1 the serpent1 #gf ,apocrypha1 value of the1 #agi ,aquila1 versions of1 #bgg ,arabian theory of angels1 #dd n4 ,arabic ,literature1 euphuism in1 #bjf ,arabic ,poets1 subjectivity1 #fd2 parallels to #8,job' in1 #ajj ,arabic ,proverbs compared with ,hebrew1 #acd2 one quoted1 #fd ,arabisms1 in #8,job1' #ii1 #bia sq42 in ,proverbs1 #agb ,aramaisms1 in #8,job1' #ae n41 #ib1 #ig1 #ii1 #bia sq41 #bid2 in #8,proverbs1' #aed1 #afh1 #agb2 in ,koheleth1 #beg ,aristeas1 the fragment of1 #if ,aristotle1 definition of ,virtue1 #bh ,arnold1 ,matthew1 #abb ,artaxerxes ,,ii4 and ,,iii41 #beh ,ashmedai1 #hj ,assyrian1 ,discoveries1 #e sq42 ,policy of uprooting nations1 #gc2 ,theory of ,angels1 #dd n4 ,atomism1 doctrine of1 #bfc ,atonement1 doctrine of the1 #c1 #bhg1 #de ,augustine1 ,saint1 quoted1 #adg1 #bhd ,aurelius1 ,marcus1 mentioned1 #bhi2 quoted1 #bcd2 compared with ,koheleth1 #bde1 #bff sq4 ,babylonian1 animal fables1 #abf2 physical theology1 #eb ,bacon1 ,lord1 the ,new ,atlantis1 #acb2 ,adv4 of ,learning1 #baj ,bagoses1 #beh ,bede1 the ,ven41 on #8,job1' #ij ,bedouin prayer1 #eb ,behemoth1 #ef ,ben ,abuyah1 #aej ,bereshith ,rabba1 quoted1 #ahh ,bernstein1 on #8,job1' #bic ,bertholdt1 on #8,job1' #bic ,bible1 ,milton's view of the1 #bec ,biblical criticism1 #a sq4 ,bickell1 as a critic1 #bda2 on ,job 7xix4 #be-bg71 #ce1 #bhh2 on ,prov4 7xxii4 #ai-ba71 #ach2 on ,sirach1 #aie2 on ,koheleth 7iv4 #ac-af71 #bac1 7iii4 #aa7 #bgf1 7viii4 #aj7 #bbj1 #bgf2 list of poetical passages in ,koheleth1 #bjf2 on the text of ,koheleth1 #bgc2 and passim ,bildad1 his home1 #ae2 the advocate of tradition1 #ag1 #bc ,binney1 ,mr41 #bif ,birthday1 ,job's curse of his1 #af ,blake1 ,william1 quoted1 #ed2 his illustrations to #8,job1' #ai1 #de n41 #ej1 #ef1 #ei1 #fe1 #ajf sq4 ,book of the ,dead1 parallels with #8,job1' #ci1 #gf ,bttcher1 on #8,job1' #fh ,bradley1 ,dean1 #bae1 #bbi n41 #bdh ,breton legend of ,st4 ,ives1 #adj ,briggs1 ,prof41 on ,elihu's speeches1 #ic1 #bif ,budde1 on ,aramaisms in #8,job1' #bia sqq4 ,buddha1 #bah ,buddhist sayings1 #abh ,budge1 ,mr41 on ,tiamat1 #gh ,bullinger1 on ,sirach1 #aig ,bunsen1 quoted1 #ajh n4 ,bunyan1 #aji ,camerarius1 edition of ,sirach1 #aig ,canon1 the1 final settlement1 #bcc1 #bha ,carlyle1 quoted1 #aab1 #add n41 #bdf ,ceremonial system1 value of1 #aai sq42 approved by ,sirach1 #aij ,chabas1 ,m41 quoted1 #eg ,chaldans1 #gc2 their philosophy known to ,job1 #ea ,chateaubriand1 quoted1 #fe ,chinese proverbs1 #abi ,christ1 never used directly anti-sacrificial language1 #c sq42 ,kenotic view of ,his person1 #g2 whether ,job a type of1 #ajb sq42 foregleams of1 in ,prov4 viii41 #agf ,christian doctrine in ,koheleth1 #bdh sq4 ,church of ,england1 attitude to ,biblical criticism1 #a sq4 ,cicero1 dialogues1 #bjg ,clement1 of ,rome1 #agf ,coleridge1 quoted1 #ajh ,constantinople1 ,councils at1 #ajg1 #bhb ,cosmos1 conception of the world as1 #eb1 #afa ,cox1 ,dr41 quoted1 #df ,daniel1 plural authorship of the ,book of1 #h ,dante1 allusions to1 #bh1 #ea1 #ff1 #gf1 #aei1 #aid1 #bcj2 quotations from1 #de1 #ed1 #acj2 comparison of the ,divina ,commedia to #8,job1' #aaa ,davenant1 quoted1 #beb ,david1 idealisation of1 #aca sqq4 ,davidson1 on ,job 7xix4 #be-bg71 #cd ,dawn1 personified1 #gg ,de ,jong1 on ,koheleth1 #bdj ,delitzsch1 on the ,praise of ,wisdom1 #afc2 on the date of ,proverbs1 #agj2 on the period of ,koheleth1 #beh2 his ,hebrew ,new ,testament1 #bhh2 and passim ,derenbourg1 quoted1 #ajj ,de ,sanctis1 quoted1 viii4 ,determinism1 in ,koheleth1 #bfe sqq4 ,deuteronomy1 in the reign of ,josiah1 #f2 points of contact with ,job1 #hf2 influence on the ,praise of ,wisdom1 #afh sq42 7xxxii4 #h7 explained1 #ha n41 #bia ,de ,vere1 ,aubrey1 quoted1 #aje ,dillmann1 on style of ,job1 #bid ,dn ,ibrahim1 morality of the1 #ih ,dragon ,myth1 #af1 #bd1 #gf ,dramatic character of #8,job1' #ajg ,drunkenness1 #adj1 #aef ,ebers1 ,prof41 #dj1 #bfi ,ecclesiastes1 the ,book of-- 7a7 ,canonicity1 #bgi sqq42 title1 #bjg n41 #bih2 date and place of composition1 #bee sqq41 #bga1 #bgh2 break in its composition1 #bjd2 language1 #bef2 style1 #bjc1 #bjg1 #bdf2 how far autobiographical1 #bji2 comparison with ,job1 #bjc2 with ,sirach1 #bgi2 its standpoint1 #bjj sqq42 its pessimism1 #bae1 #bea sq41 #cja2 its relation to ,epicureanism1 #bae1 #bbb1 #beb1 #bfb sq42 to ,stoicism1 #bfd 7b7 ,passages explained or emended3 7iii4 #aa1 #ab71 #baj1 #bfj1 #bgf1 #bii2 7iii4 #ag-ba71 #baa2 7iv4 #ac-af71 #bac2 7v4 #ag71 #bfj2 7v4 #ai71 #bfa2 7vi4 #i71 #bfa2 7vii4 #a71 #bae2 7vii4 #ah71 #bfa2 7vii4 #bg71 #bai2 7viii4 #aj71 #bbj1 #bgf2 7viii4 #ab71 #bbj2 7x4 #bj71 #bbb2 7xi4 #i-xii4 #g71 #cjj2 7xii4 #a-g71 #bbf2 7xii4 #h-ad71 #bbi sqq41 #bfa1 #cja ,transpositions1 #bgc sq42 ,interpolations1 #bge1 and #baa1 #bac1 #bbd sq41 #bbf1 #bbi sq4 ,ecclesiasticus1 see ,sirach ,edwards1 ,sutherland1 on ,mephistopheles1 #aaj ,egypt1 theory that #8,job' was composed in1 #ge ,egyptian1 animal fables1 #abf n42 discoveries1 #e2 incantations1 #af2 proverbs1 #abi2 influence on ,koheleth1 #bfi sq4 ,egyptian-,jewish literature1 #aha ,elephantiasis1 ,job's disease1 #bb ,elephants1 #eg ,elihu1 genealogy1 #db n42 speeches of1 #fh1 #ij sqq42 their date1 #db1 #ib2 their style1 #dg1 #ib1 #bia ,eliphaz1 his home1 #ae2 the #8depositary of a revelation1' #ag ,elohim1 the sons of the1 #ad1 #gi1 #ha1 #hb1 #aea ,emerson1 quoted1 #afj ,enoch1 #big2 ,book of1 #bfh ,epictetus1 #bcd n4 ,epicureanism1 in ,koheleth1 #bdj sq41 #beb1 #bfb sq4 ,epicurus1 #bbb ,ethics1 practical1 relation to ,hebrew ,wisdom1 #aah sq42 of the ,proverbs1 #ace sq4 ,euergetes ,,ii4 ,physkon1 #ahj ,ewald1 his division of the ,book of ,proverbs1 #acd2 of the ,praise of ,wisdom1 #afb2 on the date of ,proverbs1 #aij2 on ,koheleth1 #bcf sqq42 and passim ,ezekiel 7xiv4 #ad71 #fj ,ezra1 why not mentioned in ,sirach1 #aic sq4 ,family life1 in ,proverbs1 #acf ,farmers1 ,israelitish goodwill to1 #acf1 #bad ,faust1 the ,hebrew1 #aej ,fees1 whether paid to the #8,wise ,men1' #abd n4 ,fnelon1 #fg ,friends1 ,job's1 ,emeers1 #ae2 representatives of orthodoxy1 #ag2 their narrowness1 #cj ,froude1 ,j4 ,a41 quoted on ,job xxvii41 #ie n4 ,gamaliel1 #bhj ,geiger1 on ,koheleth1 #bch sq4 ,genesis1 no protest against ,idolatry in1 #ga2 opening chapters of1 #f2 7xiv4 #ai-bb71 #afj ,gilchrist1 ,life of ,blake1 #ajg ,ginsburg1 ,dr41 on #8proportionate retribution' in ,job1 #fi2 on ,koheleth1 #bcf2 on ,eccles4 7iii4 #ab71 #baj n42 and passim ,gnostic myth of ,achamoth1 #afa ,god1 name of1 in ,koheleth1 #bja1 #bag ,godet1 #bhh ,grtz1 on ,koheleth1 #bdd1 #cja ,grave1 ,job's1 #fj ,greek influence on ,koheleth1 #bjb1 #bda1 #bfj sqq4 ,green1 ,prof41 of ,princeton1 on ,job1 7xix4 #be-bg71 #cc1 #cd n42 7xxvii4-xxviii471 #id ,gregory the ,great1 on #8,job1' #ij ,hai ,gaon1 ,rabbi1 on #8,job1' #fa ,harischandra compared to ,job1 #fc ,harnack1 quoted1 #bfc ,harn ar-,rashid1 #aca1 #bif ,hegesias ,peisithanatos1 #bfh ,heine1 on #8,job1' #ajd ,hellenic movement in ,palestine1 #aha ,hengstenberg1 on #8,job1' #fa2 on ,koheleth1 #bdi n4 ,herder1 on #8,job1' #bie2 on ,koheleth1 #cja ,hezekiah1 the ,song of1 #hh2 his supposed authorship of ,proverbs xxv4-xxix41 #adb sq42 his views on medical science1 #aia ,hillel1 ,rabbi1 a copious fabulist1 #abh2 the ,school of1 on ,koheleth1 #bhj ,hitopadesa1 quoted1 #aec ,hitzig1 as a critic1 #bda n42 on the arrangement of the ,praise of ,wisdom1 #afc2 and passim ,hooker1 #afa1 #afb1 #baf sq4 ,hosea1 parallels to #8,job' in1 #hg ,humboldt1 ,a4 von1 #df ,humour1 touches of1 in #8,job1' #ac1 #ad1 #di1 #aji1 #bij2 in ,proverbs1 #adh n42 in ,koheleth1 #bjj1 #baf ,husbandmen1 ,israelite goodwill to1 #acf1 #bad ,ibn ,ezra1 opinion that #8,job' was a translation1 #if ,ibycus1 the cranes of1 #bbb ,idealism1 of the ,prophets1 #aai ,immortality1 the hope of1 in ,proverbs1 #abb sq42 attitude of ,koheleth to1 #baf1 #bea1 #cja ,inconsistencies in the ,canonical ,scriptures1 #bjd ,indian1 animal fables1 #abf n42 proverbs1 #abi ,inspiration1 view of1 broadened by literary criticism1 #g ,irving1 ,edward1 #afb ,isaiah1 mythological allusions in1 #gh2 parallels to #8,job' in1 #hd1 #hg2 xxviii41 #ad1 #abj n4 ,israel1 ,job a type of1 #eh2 the word not in ,proverbs1 #aai2 ,koheleth indifferent to its religious primacy1 #aii ,israelites1 low religious position before the ,exile1 #f2 their sympathy with husbandmen1 #acf1 #bad ,italian moralists1 their use of #8,job1' viii4 ,ives1 ,saint1 ,breton legend of1 #adj ,jamnia1 ,synod of1 #bcc1 #bhj ,jehovah1 the name1 #ga1 #gb n42 consistency of the speeches of1 in #8,job1' #dh1 #id ,jeremiah1 parallels to #8,job' in1 #hf ,jerome1 ,saint1 on metrical character of #8,job1' #ab n42 on ,epicureanism in ,koheleth1 #bfb1 #bha ,jewish nation1 like ,job1 a byword1 #cb ,job1 the ,book of-- 7a7 ,proposed title for1 #ab2 divisions of1 #ab sq42 perhaps a translation1 #if sq42 probable stages of the growth of1 #ff sqq42 date of1 #fg sqq41 #hh1 #aeg2 place of composition1 #ge2 effect of removing the interpolations in1 #gj2 ,aramaic colouring of1 #ae n41 #ib2 whether historical1 #fj sq41 #ahc1 #bij2 whether autobiographical1 #fc2 whether a drama1 #ajg2 polemical aim of1 #fe2 religious teaching of1 #ajb sqq42 feeling for nature in1 #ea2 humour in1 #ac sq41 #di1 #aji1 #bij2 influence of1 on other writers1 viii4 #hc sq4 7b7 ,author1 the greatest master of ,hebrew ,wisdom1 #aa2 circumstances of his age reflected in xvii4 #f-i1 #cb2 a traveller1 #ge1 #ig2 looks beyond ,israel1 #fe2 place of writing1 #ge 7c7 ,hero1 his name1 #fb2 title given him by the ,syrians1 #fe2 his nationality1 #ac1 #ei1 #aag1 #agj2 whether historical1 #fj sqq41 #ajc2 great age ascribed to him1 #ga2 his grave1 #fj2 dual aspect of1 #cb2 a type1 #ag1 #ba1 #bb1 #bh1 #ca1 #cb1 #eh1 #fe 7d7 ,text4 7i47 ,passages explained or emended3 7vi4 #be71 #bhh2 7xi4 #f71 #bf2 7xiii4 #ae71 #bh2 7xv4 #g71 #afg2 7xvi4 #b71 #ca2 7xix4 #be-bg71 #cc sqq41 #bhh sq42 7xxxiii4 #ac71 #dd2 7xxxviii4 #da71 #eb n42 7xxxix4 #aj71 #ec n4 7ii471 ,passages misplaced1 list of1 #aad2 also #ch1 #ci n41 #dj n41 #da1 #ej1 #fh1 #id1 #aae 7iii47 ,passages interpolated1 #ee sq41 #fh sq41 #id1 c4 ,joel ii4 #ag explained1 #cb ,joseph1 the tax farmer1 #ahb1 #aia1 #bac ,josephus1 quoted1 #aij ,joshua ben ,hananyah1 ,rabbi1 #bcj ,kalisch1 ,dr41 on ,eccles4 iii4 #ab1 #baj n42 his ,path and ,goal1 #bfe ,kant1 on ,job's friends1 #cg ,kenotic view of ,christ's person1 #g1 #bhg ,khda1 a riddle1 #abe ,kings1 ,first ,book of1 7iv4 #cb7 #acb1 7xix4 #ab7 #ai ,kleinert1 on ,job 7vi4 #be71 #bhh2 on the style of ,elihu1 #bic ,klostermann1 translation of ,eccles4 vii41 #ba1 #bai ,koheleth1 the name1 #bjg1 #bca2 his personality partly fused with ,solomon1 #bjh2 his originality1 #bje1 #bfh sq4 ,see also ,ecclesiastes ,koheleth1 the ,book of1 see ,ecclesiastes ,koran1 quoted1 c41 #ca1 #fb n41 #fc1 #gi n4 ,krochmal1 ,n41 on ,epilogue to ,koheleth1 #bcb sq4 ,k'sil1 ,orion1 #gg ,kuenen1 on the ,levitical ,law1 #c ,lagarde1 on the use of #8,eloah1' #gb n4 ,lamentations1 parallels to #8,job' in1 #hf ,landed property1 accumulation of1 #adf ,law1 the ,levitical1 authorship of1 #c sqq42 not enforced in pre-,exile period1 #f2 identification of1 with personified wisdom1 #afb1 #aib2 ,koheleth's attitude to1 #bah ,lee1 ,prof4 ,s41 on #8,job1' #ig1 #bid ,lemuel1 #aed1 #agj sq4 ,letteris1 ,max1 #aej ,leviathan1 #ef ,love for one's enemies1 #adg ,lowth1 ,bp41 #af1 #fa1 #ajg1 #ahf1 #bcg ,lucretius1 quoted1 #bja1 #bje2 compared with ,koheleth1 #bfc ,luther1 on ,job1 #fa2 on ,sirach1 #aig2 on ,koheleth1 #bje ,luzzatto1 on the #8,god of ,job1' #ajd2 on ,koheleth1 #bch sq4 ,mal'ak ,yahv1 #hj ,mal'akim1 #gi1 #hj1 #hb ,marduk1 the god1 #gg ,mariolatry1 #afb n4 ,marvell1 ,andrew1 quoted1 #add ,mshl1 #abe sq41 #acb1 #afc ,maspero1 quoted1 #gf ,massa1 in the ,hauran1 ,israelite colony at1 #aga ,medical ,science1 attitudes of ,sirach and ,hezekiah to1 #aij sq4 ,meir1 ,rabbi1 the writer of animal fables1 #abh ,mendelssohn1 on ,koheleth1 #bcf ,mephistopheles1 #aaj n4 ,merodach1 the god1 #gg ,merx1 view of ,job1 #fb1 #aac ,messianic hope1 #aai1 #ahh ,midrash1 proverbs in1 #abh ,milton1 allusions to1 #ec1 #fb1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aab1 #afb1 #bec2 quotations from1 #ai1 #da1 #ajg1 #afj1 #afb ,mishnic peculiarities in ,koheleth1 #bef ,m'la1 a dark saying1 #abe ,mohammed1 delight of1 in ,job1 #fc2 religion of1 #ih ,mommsen1 quoted1 #aha ,monarchy1 view of1 in ,proverbs1 #ade2 in ,koheleth1 #bbb ,monogamy1 in ,proverbs1 #acf ,monotheism1 of ,job1 #gd2 in ,proverbs1 #acj ,morality1 of the ,proverbs1 #ace sq41 #agg ,moses1 authorship of the ,law1 #c2 nature of his work1 #f ,mo'tazilites1 #ih1 #afb n41 #bif ,mozley1 quoted1 #ajc ,mussaph prayer1 #aic ,mythology1 in #8,job1' #gf ,narrative poetry1 alien to ,hebrew genius1 #ac ,nature1 feeling for1 in #8,job1' #ea2 in ,sirach1 #aic ,nebuchadnezzar1 #gc ,neferhotep1 stanzas in honour of1 #bfi ,neubauer1 ,dr4 ,a41 #bhi ,new ,testament1 attitude to ,proverbs1 #agg ,nowack1 on ,eccles4 7iii4 #ab71 #baj n4 ,numerical ,proverbs1 #aec ,old ,testament1 general remarks on the criticism of1 #a sqq42 need to distinguish between the parts of1 #g2 critical problems of1 not prominent in ,christ's time1 #g ,omar ,khayyam1 #bjj1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bec1 #bfc ,onias1 the ,high ,priest1 #bac ,onkelus1 ,targum of1 #bfd ,oort1 ,dr41 on proverbs1 #abg ,orion1 #gg ,palmer1 ,major1 #eb ,parables1 in the ,old ,testament1 #abf ,paradise1 tradition of1 #abc ,patriarchal ,age1 whether delineated in ,job1 #ac1 #ga sqq4 ,paul1 ,saint1 doctrine of the ,atonement1 #c1 #bhg ,pentateuch1 the literary analysis of it1 #e sq4 ,peshitto translation of ,proverbs1 #agd ,philo1 #aea1 #afa n41 #bfd ,pisa1 ,job frescoes at1 #ajf ,pleiades1 #eb1 #bij ,plumptre1 ,dean1 #abb1 #aeh1 #bjg n41 #bab1 #bde1 #bfc1 #bfe2 and passim ,prior1 the poet1 on ,koheleth1 #bcg ,prophetical books1 plural authorship in1 #h ,prophets1 their antisacrificial language1 #d2 their horizon that of their own times1 #h2 their relations to the #8,wise ,men1' #aai sqq41 #ahb sq4 ,proverbs1 different names for1 #abe2 no collection of popular1 #abe2 some originally current as riddles1 #abg ,proverbs1 the ,book of-- 7a7 ,the division of1 #acd2 repetitions in1 #acc1 #adc2 no subject arrangement1 #acd2 the tone of the different parts of1 #ace1 #adf1 #afg1 #agg2 their dates1 #acj1 #acc1 #ade1 #adi1 #aeb1 #afe sqq42 their authorship1 #acj sqq41 #adb1 #ace1 #afe sq42 their form and style1 #acc1 #aci1 #adc4 #adi1 #aed1 #afh2 interpolations in1 #agc sqq42 transpositions in1 #agd 7b7 ,passages explained or emended3 7v4 #af71 #bif2 7viii4 #bb71 #afj2 7xiv4 #cb71 #abb2 7xviii4 #bd71 #acg2 7xix4 #a71 #ace n42 7xix4 #g71 #acd2 7xxii4 #ai-ba71 #ach2 7xxiii4 #ah71 #abc2 7xxvii4 #f71 #adh1 #bif2 7xxx4 #a-e71 #adi sq41 #agj2 7xxx4 #ae-af71 #aec2 7xxx4 #ca71 #age2 7xxii4 #a71 #agj ,psalms1 relations of1 to #8,job1' #hd1 #hh2 ,psalm viii4 #e parodied in #8,job' 7vii4 #ag1 #ah71 #bb ,ptahhotep1 ,proverbs of1 #aba ,ptolemy ,arsacides1 ,golden ,table1 #bhi ,puscy1 ,dr4 quoted1 #a ,q'dshm1 #hj1 #adi n4 ,quinet quoted1 #aje ,ra1 the sun god1 #gf ,rahab1 the helpers of1 #bd1 #gf ,raven 7in ,job xxxviii4 #da71 #eb n4 ,realism of the #8,wise ,men1' #aai ,renan1 on the style of ,elihu1 #dg2 on ,koheleth1 #bjf1 #bcd1 #bdb sq41 #bdf1 #bih2 and passim ,resh ,lakish1 ,rabbi1 quoted1 #fj ,resurrection1 hope of1 #cd1 #ge1 #ahh sq41 #bea1 #cja ,retribution1 proportionate1 #bc1 #ce1 #eh1 #gc1 #ih1 #aba1 #adj1 #afg1 #ahi1 #aij n41 #bjj1 #bai1 #bea ,riddles1 proverbs originally current as1 #abg ,rig ,veda1 quoted1 #gh1 #aeb ,romans1 vii4 #bj adopted from ,proverbs 7xxiv4 #ag1 #ah71 #adg ,romaunt of the ,rose1 quoted1 #cjj ,rossetti1 ,miss ,c41 #bdb ,sacrificial system1 importance of1 in post-,exile period1 #d2 relations of ,job to1 #ga4 ,see also ,law ,salmon1 ,prof41 on ,eccles4 7ix4 #g-i71 #bfb ,samaritans1 #aid ,sammael1 #hj ,sandys'1 ,george1 translation of #8,job1' #ajf ,satan1 the1 #ad1 #gi1 #hj1 #aji1 #ahh sq41 #big ,schiller1 #ab ,schultens1 ,albert1 quoted1 #fa1 #ig1 #ii ,sea ,life1 familiar1 #adj2 cf4 #acc ,seneca1 quoted1 #eg1 #bfe ,septuagint version1 of #8,job1' #aac1 #aad1 #bif2 of ,proverbs1 #agc2 of ,koheleth1 #bgg ,seven ,wise ,men1 of ,greece1 #aai1 #abd ,shammaites1 on ,koheleth1 #bhj sq4 ,shedim1 #hj ,shelley1 delight in ,job1 #aab1 #bec2 dislike of ,koheleth1 #bec ,sibyl1 the oldest ,jewish1 #bfd ,simeon ben ,shetach1 #bhb sq4 ,simon ,,ii41 #ahj1 #aha sq4 ,sirach1 parentage1 #ahj2 early life1 #ahb2 a true #8scribe1' #ahe2 unacquainted with ,greek philosophy1 #aij2 interested in nature and history1 #aic ,sirach1 the ,book of-- 7a7 ,canonicity1 #bgi sq41 #bhb sq42 the name ,ecclesiasticus1 #aig2 written in ,hebrew1 #aid1 #aif2 ancient versions of1 #big2 its date1 #ahj sqq42 subject arrangement1 #ahc2 style1 #ahe2 whether autobiographical1 #ahf2 parallelisms in1 to ,proverbs1 #ahd2 no philosophical thought in1 #ahb2 imperfect moral teaching in1 #ahg2 conception of the divine nature1 #ahh 7b7 ,passages emended or explained2 7xi4 #af71 #ahh2 7xxi4 #bg71 #ahi n42 7xxiv4 #bg71 #aif2 7xxv4 #ae71 #aif2 7xlvi4 #ah71 #aif2 7xlviii4 #aa71 #ahi1 #aic2 7l4 #a71 #aic2 7l4 #bf71 #aic ,soferim1 #bch4 ,see also #8,wise ,men' ,solar ,myths1 #af1 #bb1 #bd1 #gf1 #gg ,solomon1 secular turn of1 #gb2 reputed authorship of ,proverbs1 #acj sqq41 #afe1 #agj2 ,koheleth's representative of humanity1 #bjb1 #bjg2 reputed authorship of ,koheleth1 #bee1 #bge ,sophia1 ,gnostic myth of1 #afa n4 ,sophocles1 #ajg1 #bbj ,spanheim1 quoted1 #ig ,spenser1 the poet1 #ab ,spinoza1 on ,job1 #fa ,spirits1 classes of1 #dd sq4 ,stanley1 ,dean1 on ,koheleth1 #bde1 #bee ,star worship1 #ga1 #hb ,steersmanship1 the term1 #acc ,stickel1 quoted1 #ajb ,stoicism1 in ,koheleth1 #bdj sq41 #bfd ,swift1 #ae ,swinburne1 quoted1 #bab ,syrian title for ,job1 #fe ,talmud1 on ,job1 #fd2 proverbs in the1 #abh2 ,sirach cited in1 #aif2 comparison of ,koheleth with1 #bje2 on ,koheleth1 #bha ,tasso1 #aji n4 ,taylor1 ,c41 on ,job 7xix4 #bf71 #bhi ,taylor1 ,jeremy1 #bec ,temple1 ,bishop1 #bbe ,tennyson1 quoted1 #bab ,theism1 argument for1 early based on tradition1 #bc2 of the ,praise of ,wisdom1 #afg ,theodore of ,mopsuestia1 #ajg ,thirlwall1 ,bishop1 quoted1 #b ,thomas ,kempis1 #bca1 #bdi ,thomson1 the poet1 quoted1 #ba ,thoreau1 quoted1 #ajf1 #beb ,tiamat1 #gg ,trades1 disparaged in ,sirach1 #ahf ,turgenieff1 #bdc ,turner1 ,studies ,biblical and ,oriental1 quoted1 #df ,tyler1 on ,koheleth1 #bdj1 #bfc sq4 ,unicorn1 in ,job 7xxxix4 #aj71 #ec n4 ,utilitarianism of the ,wise ,men1 #aba1 #acg ,uz1 locality of1 #ac n4 ,vaihinger1 on ,koheleth1 #bcf sq4 ,varuna1 ,vedic hymn to1 #aed ,vatke1 on date of ,proverbs1 #a ,vedic hymns1 #gg1 #aed4 ,see also ,rig ,veda ,virtue1 ,koheleth's #8theory of1' #bah ,webbe1 ,george1 quoted1 #aac ,wellhausen1 on ,levitical ,law1 #c sqq42 on ,job1 #bij ,wisdom1 the ,hebrew1 nature of1 #aag sq42 personification of1 #afb1 #aib ,wise ,men1 the1 #aah1 #abc1 #adh1 #ahb sqq4 ,women1 in ,proverbs1 #ace1 #aed2 in ,sirach1 #ahg2 in ,koheleth1 #bai1 #bii ,woolner1 quoted1 #bbi ,wordsworth1 #afb ,wright1 ,bateson1 on ,job1 #aac ,zeno1 #bfe sq4 ,zirkel1 on ,grcisms in ,job1 #bfj sq4 ,zophar1 home of1 #ae2 the #8man of common sense1' #ag ,zwischenschriften1 #ahj ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only when a predominant form was found in this book4 ,text that was in italics is enclosed by underscores 7italics74 ,text that was in bold face is enclosed by equals signs 7bold74 ,footnotes have been moved to follow the chapters in which they are referenced4