,transcriber's ,note ,superscripts are preceded by a or enclosed in braces2 italics are enclosed in underscores2 boldface is enclosed in equals signs4 ,,the ,,century ,,science ,,series ,,edited ,,by ,,sir ,,henry ,e4 ,,roscoe1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,michael ,,faraday ,,his ,,life ,,and ,,work ,the ,century ,science ,series4 ,edited by ,,sir ,,henry ,,roscoe1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,f4,r4,s4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,pasteur4 ,by ,,percy ,,frankland1 ,ph4,d47,wrzburg71 ,b4,sc4 7,lond471 ,f4,r4,s41 and ,mrs4 ,,percy ,,frankland4 ,humphry ,davy1 ,poet and ,philosopher4 ,by ,t4 ,e4 ,,thorpe1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,charles ,darwin and the ,theory of ,natural ,selection4 ,by ,,edward ,b4 ,,poulton1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,john ,dalton and the ,rise of ,modern ,chemistry4 ,by ,sir ,,henry ,e4 ,,roscoe1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,major ,rennell1 ,f4,r4,s41 and the ,rise of ,english ,geography4 ,by ,sir ,,clements ,r4 ,,markham1 ,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,justus von ,liebig3 his ,life and ,work 7#ahjc-ahgc74 ,by ,w4 ,a4 ,,shenstone1 ,f4,i4,c41 ,lecturer on ,chemistry in ,clifton ,college4 ,the ,herschels and ,modern ,astronomy4 ,by ,,agnes ,m4 ,,clerke4 ,charles ,lyell and ,modern ,geology4 ,by ,professor ,t4 ,g4 ,,bonney1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,j4 ,clerk ,maxwell and ,modern ,physics4 ,by ,r4 ,t4 ,,glazebrook1 ,f4,r4,s4 99 99 99 99 99 ,michael ,faraday3 his ,life and ,work4 ,by ,prof4 ,,silvanus ,p4 ,,thompson1 ,f4,r4,s4 #es4 ,,cassell ,,company1 ,,limited1 ,london2 ,paris1 ,new ,york ,melbourne4 ,illustration3 ,ever ,yours ,truly ,m ,faraday ,,the ,,century ,,science ,,series ,,michael ,,faraday ,,his ,,life ,,and ,,work ,,by ,,silvanus ,p4 ,,thompson1 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,principal ,,of ,,and ,,professor ,,of ,,physics ,,in ,,the ,,city ,,and ,,guilds ,,of ,,london ,,technical ,,college1 ,,finsbury ,,cassell ,,and ,,company1 ,,limited ,,london1 ,,paris1 ,,new ,,york ,,melbourne #ahih ,,all ,,rights ,,reserved ,illustration ,,on ,a ,,portrait ,,of ,,faraday4 ,was ever man so simple and so sage1 ,so crowned and yet so careless of a prize6 ,great ,faraday1 who made the world so wise1 ,and loved the labour better than the wage4 ,and this you say is how he looked in age1 ,with that strong brow and these great humble eyes ,that seem to look with reverent surprise ,on all outside himself4 ,turn o'er the page1 ,recording ,angel1 it is white as snow4 ,ah ,god1 a fitting messenger was he ,to show ,thy mysteries to us below4 ,child as he came has he returned to ,thee4 ,would he could come but once again to show ,the wonder-deep of his simplicity4 ,,cosmo ,,monkhouse4 ,,preface ,shortly after the death of ,faraday in #ahfg1 three biographies of him--each admirable in its own line--were published4 ,the 8,life and ,letters of ,faraday10 by ,dr4 ,bence ,jones1 secretary of the ,royal ,institution1 which was issued in #ahfh in two volumes1 has long been out of print4 8,faraday as a ,discoverer10 written in #ahfh by ,professor ,tyndall1 which1 though slighter as a record1 brings out many points of character into striking relief1 is also now exhausted4 ,dr4 ,gladstone's 8,michael ,faraday10 published in #ahgb1 so rich in reminiscences1 and so appreciative of the moral and religious side of his character1 is also out of print4 ,other and briefer biographies exist2 the 8loge ,historique0 of ,m4 ,dumas2 the article 8,faraday0 in the 8,encyclopdia ,britannica0 by ,professor ,clerk ,maxwell2 and the chapter on ,faraday in ,dr4 ,w4 ,garnett's 8,heroes of ,science40 ,but there seems room for another account of the life and labours of the man whose influence upon the century in which he lived was so great4 ,for forty years he was a living and inspiring voice in the ,royal ,institution1 beyond all question the greatest scientific expositor of his time4 ,throughout almost the whole of that time his original researches in physics1 and chiefly in electricity1 were extending the boundaries of knowledge and laying the foundations not only for the great developments of electrical engineering of the last twenty years but for those still greater developments in the theories of electricity1 magnetism1 and light which are every year being extended and made fruitful4 ,were there no other reason than these developments in practice and theory1 they would amply justify the effort to review now1 after so many years1 the position of ,faraday amongst the eminent men of the century now drawing to its close4 ,those who were intimately acquainted with him are a fast dwindling band4 ,in the recollection of such as have survived him1 his image lives and moves1 surrounded with gracious memories1 a vivid personality instinct with rare and unselfish kindliness4 ,but the survivors are few1 and their ranks grow thinner with each succeeding year4 ,and so it comes about that the task of writing of his life and work has been entrusted to one who never ceases to regret that he never met ,faraday4 ,thanks to the permission of the managers of the ,royal ,institution1 a number of short extracts from ,faraday's notebooks1 hitherto unpublished1 are now printed for the first time4 ,much more remains which it is to be hoped1 for the benefit of science1 may be published ere long4 ,the author desires further to acknowledge the kindness of ,messrs4 ,longmans ,co4 in allowing the reproduction of the illustrations on pages #c and #beh1 which are taken from ,bence ,jones's 8,life and ,letters of ,faraday10 published in #ahfh4 ,mr4 ,elkin ,mathews has kindly permitted the insertion of the sonnet by ,mr4 ,cosmo ,monkhouse which follows the title-page4 ,the author is also indebted to ,dr4 ,j4 ,hall ,gladstone1 ,f4,r4,s41 for many valuable notes and suggestions1 and to ,miss ,m4 ,k4 ,reynolds for photographs used in preparing ,fig4 #ad4 ,most of all he is indebted to ,miss ,jane ,barnard for access to ,faraday's private papers1 and for permission to print certain extracts from them4 ,s4 ,p4 ,t4 ,,contents ,,page ,,chap4 ,i4--,,early ,,life1 ,,training1 ,,and ,,travel #a ,,chap4 ,,ii4--,,life ,,at ,,the ,,royal ,,institution #ce ,,chap4 ,,iii4--,,scientific ,,researches--,,first ,,period #ge ,,chap4 ,,iv4--,,scientific ,,researches--,,second ,,period #ajb ,,chap4 ,v4--,,scientific ,,researches--,,third ,,period #agb ,,chap4 ,,vi4--,,middle ,,and ,,later ,,life #bbb ,,chap4 ,,vii4--,,views ,,on ,,the ,,pursuit ,,of ,,science ,,and ,,on ,,education #bfa ,,chap4 ,,viii4--,,religious ,,views #bhf ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,portrait ,frontispiece ,,figs4 ,,page #a4 ,riebau's ,shop #c #b4 ,electromagnetic ,rotations 7facsimile sketch7 #hh #c4 ,apparatus for ,rotation 7facsimile sketch7 #hh #d4 ,faraday's ,ring 7facsimile sketch7 #ajh #e4 ,induction ,experiment 7facsimile sketch7 #aaa #f4 ,the 8,new ,electrical ,machine0 7facsimile sketch7 #aba #g4 ,the ,teetotum ,apparatus #abc #h4 ,the ,revolving ,copper ,cylinder 7facsimile sketch7 #abd #i4 ,earth ,inductor #abe #aj4 ,a ,spark from a ,magnet 7facsimile sketch7 #abi #aa4 ,how to ,cut the ,magnetic ,lines #acc #ab4 ,illustration of the ,new ,terms 7facsimile sketch7 #ade #ac4 ,bundle of ,wires 7facsimile sketch7 #aea #ad4 ,apparatus for ,investigating ,dielectric ,capacity #aei #ae4 ,block of ,heavy-glass 7facsimile sketch7 #agf #af4 ,action of ,magnet on ,light 7facsimile sketch7 #agg #ag4 ,arrangements of ,magnets 7facsimile sketch7 #agh #ah4 ,the ,ring ,electromagnet 7facsimile sketch7 #agi #ai4 ,the ,equatorial ,position #ahh #bj4 ,illustration of ,lateral ,vibrations #aie #ba4 ,a ,lecture ,model #bci #bb4 ,cottage at ,hampton ,court #beh ,,michael ,,faraday4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,early ,,life1 ,,training1 ,,and ,,travel4 ,on the #bbnd of ,september1 #agia1 was born1 at ,newington ,butts1 then an outlying ,surrey village1 but since long surrounded and swallowed up within the area of ,greater ,london1 the boy ,michael ,faraday4 ,he was the third child of his parents1 ,james and ,margaret ,faraday1 who had but recently migrated to ,london from the little ,yorkshire village of ,clapham4 ,clapham lies under the shadow of ,ingleborough1 on the western border of the county1 midway between ,settle and ,kirkby ,lonsdale4 ,the father1 ,james ,faraday1 was a working blacksmith2 the mother1 daughter of a farmer of ,mallerstang1 the romantic valley which runs past ,pendragon ,castle to ,kirkby ,stephen4 ,james ,faraday was one of the ten children of a ,robert ,faraday1 who in #agef had married ,elizabeth ,dean1 the owner of a small homestead known as ,clapham ,wood ,hall1 since pulled down4 ,all ,robert ,faraday's sons appear to have been brought up to trades1 one being a shoemaker1 another a grocer1 another a farmer1 another a flax-worker1 and another a shopkeeper4 ,descendants of some of these still live in the district4 ,after ,michael's birth1 his parents moved to the north side of the ,thames1 living for a short time in ,gilbert ,street1 but removing in #agif to rooms over a coach-house in ,jacob's ,well ,mews1 ,charles ,street1 ,manchester ,square1 where they lived till #ahji4 ,in that year1 young ,michael being now nearly eighteen years old1 they moved to #ah1 ,weymouth ,street1 ,portland ,place4 ,here in the succeeding year ,james ,faraday1 who had long been an invalid1 died2 his widow1 who for some years remained on at ,weymouth ,street1 maintaining herself by taking in lodgers until her sons could support themselves and her1 survived till #ahch4 ,though a capable woman and a good mother1 she was quite uneducated4 ,in her declining years she was wholly supported by her son1 of whom she was very proud1 and to whom she was devoted4 ,michael received very little schooling4 ,one of his nephews tells the following tale of his boyhood4 ,he was at a dame's school2 and1 either from some defect in his speech or because he was too young to articulate his r's properly1 he pronounced his elder brother's name 8,wobert40 ,the harsh schoolmistress1 bent on curing the defect by personal chastisement1 sent the aforesaid 8,wobert0 out with a halfpenny to get a cane1 that young ,michael might be duly flogged4 ,but this refinement of cruelty reacted on itself2 for ,robert1 boiling with indignation1 pitched the halfpenny over a wall1 and went home to tell his mother1 who promptly came down to the scene of action and removed both boys from the school4 ,from the age of five to thirteen ,michael lived at ,jacob's ,well ,mews1 spending his out-of-school hours at home or in the streets playing at marbles and other games with the children of the neighbourhood4 ,illustration3 ,,riebau',s ,,shop4 ,sidenote3 ,,bookbinder',s ,,errand-,,boy4 ,in #ahjd he went on trial for twelve months as errand-boy to a bookseller and stationer at ,no4 #b1 ,blandford ,street--,mr4 ,george ,riebau4 ,this house1 which is still kept as a stationer's shop 7by ,mr4 ,william ,pike71 is now marked with an enamelled tablet recording its connection with the life of ,faraday4#a ,when he first went to ,mr4 ,riebau1 it was his duty to carry round the newspapers in the morning4 ,he has been graphically described as a bright-eyed errand-boy who 8slid along the ,london pavements1 with a load of brown curls upon his head and a packet of newspapers under his arm40 ,some of the journals were lent out1 and had to be called for again4 ,he was very particular on ,sunday mornings to take them round early1 that he might complete his work in time to go with his parents to their place of worship4 ,they belonged--as his grandfather before him--to the sect known as ,sandemanians1 a small body which separated from the ,presbyterian ,church of ,scotland towards the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,their views1 which were very primitive1 were held with intense earnestness and sincerity of purpose4 ,their founder had taught that ,christianity never was or could be the formal or established religion of any nation without subverting its essential principles2 that religion was the affair of the individual soul2 and that 8the ,bible0 alone1 with nothing added to it or taken away from it by man1 was the sole and sufficient guide for the soul4 ,they rejected all priests or paid ministers1 but recognised an institution of unpaid eldership4 ,their worship was exceedingly simple4 ,though their numbers were few1 they were exceedingly devout1 simple1 and exclusive in their faith4 ,doubtless the rigorous moral influences pervading the family and friends of ,james ,faraday had a great part in moulding the character of young ,michael4 ,to his dying day he remained a member of this obscure sect4 ,as he was no merely nominal adherent1 but an exceedingly devoted member1 and at two different periods of his life an elder and a preacher1 no review of his life-work would be complete without a fuller reference to the religious side of his character4 ,sidenote3 ,,apprenticed ,,as ,,bookbinder4 ,after the year of trial1 ,michael ,faraday was formally apprenticed to learn the arts of bookbinder1 stationer1 8and bookseller10 to ,mr4 ,riebau4 ,the indenture#b is dated ,october #g1 #ahje4 ,it is stated that1 8in consideration of his faithful service1 no premium is given40 ,during his seven years of apprenticeship there came unexpected opportunities for self-improvement4 ,faraday's lifelong friend and co-religionist1 ,cornelius ,varley1 says3--8,when my attention was first drawn to ,faraday1 ,i was told that he had been apprenticed to a bookbinder4 ,i said he was the best bookworm for eating his way to the inside2 for hundreds had worked at books only as so much printed paper4 ,faraday saw a mine of knowledge1 and resolved to explore it40 ,to one of his friends he said that a book by ,watts1 8,on the ,mind10 first made him think1 and that the article on 8,electricity0 in a cyclopdia which came into his hands to be bound first turned his attention to science4 ,he himself wrote3--8,whilst an apprentice ,i loved to read the scientific books which were under my hand2 and1 amongst them1 delighted in ,marcet's #8,conversations in ,chemistry' and the electrical treatises in the #8,encyclopdia ,britannica4' ,i made such simple experiments in chemistry as could be defrayed in their expense by a few pence per week1 and also constructed an electrical machine1 first with a glass phial1 and afterwards with a real cylinder1 as well as other electrical apparatus of a corresponding kind40 ,this early machine#c is now preserved at the ,royal ,institution1 to which it was presented by ,sir ,james ,south4 ,amongst the books which he had to bind were ,lyons' 8,experiments on ,electricity0 and ,boyle's 8,notes about the ,producibleness of ,chymicall ,principles10 which books1 together with ,miss ,burney's 8,evelina10 all bound with his own hands1 are still preserved in the ,royal ,institution4 ,sidenote3 ,,new ,,acquaintances4 ,walking near ,fleet ,street1 he saw displayed a bill announcing that evening lectures on natural philosophy were delivered by ,mr4 ,tatum at #ec1 ,dorset ,street1 ,salisbury ,square1 ,e4,c41 price of admission one shilling4 ,with his master's permission1 and money furnished by his elder brother ,robert1 who was a blacksmith and 7later7 a gasfitter1 ,michael began to taste scientific teaching4 ,between ,february1 #ahaj1 and ,september1 #ahaa1 he attended some twelve or thirteen lectures4 ,he made full and beautiful notes of all he heard3 his notebooks1 bound by himself1 being still preserved4 ,at these lectures he fell in with several thoroughly congenial comrades1 one of them1 by name ,benjamin ,abbott1 being a well-educated young ,quaker1 who was confidential clerk in a mercantile house in the ,city4 ,of the others--amongst whom were ,magrath1 ,newton1 ,nicol1 ,huxtable1 and ,richard ,phillips 7afterwards ,f4,r4,s4 and ,president of the ,chemical ,society7--several remained lifelong friends4 ,happily for posterity1 the letters--long and chatty--which the lad wrote in the fulness of his heart to ,abbott have been preserved2 they are published in ,bence ,jones's 8,life and ,letters40 ,they are remarkable not only for their vivacity and freshness but for their elevated tone and excellent composition--true specimens of the lost art of letter-writing4 ,the most wonderful thing about them is that they should have been written by a bookbinder's apprentice of no education beyond the common school of the district4 ,in his very first letter he complains that ideas and notions which spring up in his mind 8are irrevocably lost for want of noting at the time40 ,this seems the first premonition of that loss of memory which so afflicted him in after life4 ,in his later years he always carried in his waistcoat pocket a card on which to jot down notes and memoranda4 ,he would stop to set down his notes in the street1 in the theatre1 or in the laboratory4 ,riebau1 his master in the bookbinding business1 seems1 from the way he encouraged the studies of his young apprentice1 to have been no ordinary man4 ,his name would suggest a foreign extraction2 and to his shop resorted more than one political refugee4 ,there lodged at one time at ,riebau's an artist named ,masquerier1#d who had painted ,napoleon's portrait and had fled from ,france during the troublous times4 ,for the apprentice boy1 who used to dust his room and black his boots1 ,masquerier took a strong liking4 ,he lent him books on perspective and taught him how to draw4 ,another frequenter of ,riebau's shop was a ,mr4 ,dance1 whose interest in the industry and intelligence of the apprentice led him to an act which changed the whole destiny of his life4 ,faraday himself1 in the very few autobiographical notes which he penned1 wrote thus3-- ,during my apprenticeship ,i had the good fortune1 through the kindness of ,mr4 ,dance1 who was a customer of my master's shop and also a member of the ,royal ,institution1 to hear four of the last lectures of ,sir ,h4 ,davy in that locality4#e ,the dates of these lectures were ,february #bi1 ,march #ad1 ,april #h and #aj1 #ahab4 ,of these ,i made notes1 and then wrote out the lectures in a fuller form1 interspersing them with such drawings as ,i could make4 ,the desire to be engaged in scientific occupation1 even though of the lowest kind1 induced me1 whilst an apprentice1 to write1 in my ignorance of the world and simplicity of my mind1 to ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 then ,president of the ,royal ,society4 ,naturally enough1 8,no answer0 was the reply left with the porter4 ,sidenote3 ,,letters ,,to ,,abbott4 ,he submitted his notes to the criticism of his friend ,abbott1 with whom he discussed chemical and electrical problems1 and the experiments which they had individually tried4 ,out of this correspondence1 one letter only can be given2 it was written ,september #bh1 #ahab1 ten days before the expiry of his apprenticeship3-- ,dear ,a----1 444 ,i will hurry on to philosophy1 where ,i am a little more sure of my ground4 ,your card was to me a very interesting and pleasing object4 ,i was highly gratified in observing so plainly delineated the course of the electric fluid or fluids 7,i do not know which74 ,it appears to me that by making use of a card thus prepared1 you have hit upon a happy illustrating medium between a conductor and a non-conductor2 had the interposed medium been a conductor1 the electricity would have passed in connection through it--it would not have been divided2 had the medium been a non-conductor1 it would have passed in connection1 and undivided1 as a spark over it1 but by this varying and disjoined conductor it has been divided most effectually4 ,should you pursue this point at any time still further1 it will be necessary to ascertain by what particular power or effort the spark is divided1 whether by its affinity to the conductor or by its own repulsion2 or if1 as ,i have no doubt is the case1 by the joint action of these two forces1 it would be well to observe and ascertain the proportion of each in the effect4 ,there are problems1 the solution of which will be difficult to obtain1 but the science of electricity will not be complete without them2 and a philosopher will aim at perfection1 though he may not hit it--difficulties will not retard him1 but only cause a proportionate exertion of his mental faculties4 ,i had a very pleasing view of the planet ,saturn last week through a refractor with a power of ninety4 ,i saw his ring very distinctly2 'tis a singular appendage to a planet1 to a revolving globe1 and ,i should think caused some peculiar phenomena to the planet within it4 ,i allude to their mutual action with respect to meteorology and perhaps electricity4444 ,the master1 a ,french emigr named ,de la ,roche1 of ,king ,street1 ,portman ,square1 to whom he engaged himself as a journeyman bookbinder1 was of a very passionate disposition1 and made ,faraday very uncomfortable4 ,he longed to get out of trade1 and under the encouragement of ,mr4 ,dance he wrote to ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 sending1 8as a proof of my earnestness10 the notes he had taken of ,davy's last four lectures4 ,faraday's letter1 which has been preserved but never published1 is an astounding example of the high-flown cringing style in vogue at that date4 ,davy's reply was favourable1 and led to a temporary engagement of some days as amanuensis at the time when he was wounded in the eye by an explosion of the chloride of nitrogen4 ,faraday himself1 nearly twenty years afterwards1 wrote#f a full account of the circumstances4 ,m4 ,faraday to ,dr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,paris4 ,royal ,institution1 ,december #bc1 #ahbi4 ,,my ,,dear ,,sir1--,you asked me to give you an account of my first introduction to ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 which ,i am very happy to do1 as ,i think the circumstances will bear testimony to his goodness of heart4 ,when ,i was a bookseller's apprentice1 ,i was very fond of experiment and very adverse to trade4 ,it happened that a gentleman1 a member of the ,royal ,institution1 took me to hear some of ,sir ,h4 ,davy's last lectures in ,albemarle ,street4 ,i took notes1 and afterwards wrote them out more fairly in a quarto volume4 ,my desire to escape from trade1 which ,i thought vicious and selfish1 and to enter into the service of ,science1 which ,i imagined made its pursuers amiable and liberal1 induced me at last to take the bold and simple step of writing to ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 expressing my wishes1 and a hope that1 if an opportunity came in his way1 he would favour my views2 at the same time1 ,i sent the notes ,i had taken of his lectures4 ,the answer1 which makes all the point of my communication1 ,i send you in the original1 requesting you to take great care of it1 and to let me have it back1 for you may imagine how much ,i value it4 ,you will observe that this took place at the end of the year #ahab1 and early in #ahac he requested to see me1 and told me of the situation of assistant in the laboratory of the ,royal ,institution1 then just vacant4 ,at the same time that he thus gratified my desires as to scientific employment1 he still advised me not to give up the prospects ,i had before me1 telling me that ,science was a harsh mistress2 and in a pecuniary point of view but poorly rewarding those who devoted themselves to her service4 ,he smiled at my notion of the superior moral feelings of philosophic men1 and said he would leave me to the experience of a few years to set me right on that matter4 ,finally1 through his good efforts ,i went to the ,royal ,institution early in ,march of #ahac1 as assistant in the laboratory2 and in ,october of the same year went with him abroad as his assistant in experiments and in writing4 ,i returned with him in ,april1 #ahae1 resumed my station in the ,royal ,institution1 and have1 as you know1 ever since remained there4 ,i am1 dear ,sir1 very truly yours1 ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,sidenote3 ,,wins ,,favour ,,with ,,davy4 ,the following is ,davy's note3-- ,mr4 ,p4 ,faraday1 #ahh1 ,weymouth ,st41 ,portland ,place4 ,december #bd1 #ahab4 ,,sir1--,i am far from displeased with the proof you have given me of your confidence1 and which displays great zeal1 power of memory1 and attention4 ,i am obliged to go out of ,town1 and shall not be settled in town till the end of ,jany ,i will then see you at any time you wish4 ,it would gratify me to be of any service to you2 ,i wish it may be in my power4 ,i am ,sir your obt4 humble servt4 ,h4 ,,davy4 ,accordingly1 ,faraday called on ,davy1 who received him in the anteroom to the lecture theatre1 by the window nearest to the corridor4 ,he advised him then to stick to bookbinding1 promising to send him books from the ,institution to bind1 as well as other books4 ,he must have been agreeably impressed1 otherwise he would not1 when disabled1 have sent for ,faraday to write for him4 ,early in #ahac the humble household1 in which ,faraday lived with his widowed mother in ,weymouth ,street1 was one night startled by the apparition of ,sir ,humphry ,davy's grand coach1 from which a footman alighted and knocked loudly at the door4 ,for young ,faraday1 who was at that moment undressing upstairs1 he left a note from ,sir ,humphry ,davy requesting him to call next morning4 ,at that interview ,davy asked him whether he was still desirous of changing his occupation1 and offered him the post of assistant in the laboratory in place of one who had been dismissed4 ,the salary was to be twenty-five shillings a week1 with two rooms at the top of the house4 ,the minute appointing him is dated ,march #a1 #ahac3-- ,sidenote3 ,,enters ,,royal ,,institution4 ,sir ,humphry ,davy has the honour to inform the managers that he has found a person who is desirous to occupy the situation in the ,institution lately filled by ,william ,payne4 ,his name is ,michael ,faraday4 ,he is a youth of twenty-two years of age4 ,as far as ,sir ,h4 ,davy has been able to observe or ascertain1 he appears well fitted for the situation4 ,his habits seem good1 his disposition active and cheerful1 and his manner intelligent4 ,he is willing to engage himself on the same terms as those given to ,mr4 ,payne at the time of quitting the ,institution4 ,resolved--,that ,michael ,faraday be engaged to fill the situation lately occupied by ,mr4 ,payne on the same terms4#g ,there have come down several additions to the story4 ,one1 probably apocryphal1 says that ,faraday's first introduction to ,davy was occasioned by ,davy's calling at ,riebau's to select some bookbinding1 and seeing on the shelves the bound volume of manuscript notes of his own lectures4 ,the other was narrated by ,gassiot to ,tyndall1 as follows3-- ,clapham ,common1 ,surrey1 ,november #bh1 #ahfg4 ,,my ,,dear ,,tyndall1--,sir ,h4 ,davy was accustomed to call on the late ,mr4 ,pepys in the ,poultry1 on his way to the ,london ,institution1 of which ,pepys was one of the original managers2 the latter told me that on one occasion ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 showing him a letter1 said1 8,pepys1 what am ,i to do8--here is a letter from a young man named ,faraday2 he has been attending my lectures1 and wants me to give him employment at the ,royal ,institution--what can ,i do80 8,do80 replied ,pepys1 8put him to wash bottles2 if he is good for anything he will do it directly2 if he refuses1 he is good for nothing40 8,no1 no10 replied ,davy1 8we must try him with something better than that40 ,the result was1 that ,davy engaged him to assist in the ,laboratory at weekly wages4 ,davy held the joint office of ,professor of ,chemistry and ,director of the ,laboratory2 he ultimately gave up the former to the late ,professor ,brande1 but he insisted that ,faraday should be appointed ,director of the ,laboratory1 and1 as ,faraday told me1 this enabled him on subsequent occasions to hold a definite position in the ,institution1 in which he was always supported by ,davy4 ,i believe he held that office to the last4 ,believe me1 my dear ,tyndall1 yours truly1 ,j4 ,p4 ,,gassiot4 ,in #ahjh ,mr4 ,tatum had founded a ,city ,philosophical ,society4#h ,it consisted of thirty or forty young men in humble or moderate rank1 who met on ,wednesdays for mutual instruction2 lectures being given once a fortnight by the members in turn4 ,tatum introduced ,faraday to this ,society in #ahac4 ,edward ,magrath was secretary4 ,amongst ,faraday's notes of his life is the following3-- ,during this spring ,magrath and ,i established the mutual-improvement plan1 and met at my rooms up in the attics of the ,royal ,institution1 or at ,wood ,street at his warehouse4 ,it consisted perhaps of half-a-dozen persons1 chiefly from the ,city ,philosophical ,society1 who met of an evening to read together1 and to criticise1 correct1 and improve each other's pronunciation and construction of language4 ,the discipline was very sturdy1 the remarks very plain and open1 and the results most valuable4 ,this continued for several years4 ,sidenote3 ,,at ,,work ,,in ,,chemistry4 ,he writes1 after a week of work at the ,royal ,institution1 to ,abbott3-- ,royal ,institution1 ,march #h1 #ahac4 ,it is now about nine o'clock1 and the thought strikes me that the tongues are going both at ,tatum's and at the lecture in ,bedford ,street2 but ,i fancy myself much better employed than ,i should have been at the lecture at either of those places4 ,indeed1 ,i have heard one lecture already to-day1 and had a finger in it 7,i can't say a hand1 for ,i did very little74 ,it was by ,mr4 ,powell1 on mechanics1 or rather on rotatory motion1 and was a pretty good lecture1 but not very fully attended4 ,as ,i know you will feel a pleasure in hearing in what ,i have been or shall be occupied1 ,i will inform you that ,i have been employed to-day1 in part1 in extracting the sugar from a portion of beetroot1 and also in making a compound of sulphur and carbon--a combination which has lately occupied in a considerable degree the attention of chemists4 ,with respect to next ,wednesday1 ,i shall be occupied until late in the afternoon by ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 and must therefore decline seeing you at that time2 this ,i am the more ready to do as ,i shall enjoy your company next ,sunday1 and hope to possess it often in a short time4 ,the next letter to ,abbott1 dated ,april #i1 recounts an explosion in which both he and ,sir ,humphry ,davy received considerable injury4 ,in ,june he wrote to ,abbott four very remarkable letters concerning lectures and lecturers4 ,he had already heard ,tatum and ,davy1 and had now assisted ,brande and ,powell in their lectures1 and had keenly observed their habits1 peculiarities1 and defects1 as well as the effects they produced on the audience4 ,he writes without the slightest suspicion of suggestion that he himself has any likelihood of becoming a lecturer1 and says that he does not pretend to any of the requisites for such an office4 8,if ,i am unfit for it10 he says1 8'tis evident that ,i have yet to learn2 and how learn better than by the observation of others8 ,if we never judge at all1 we shall never judge right40 8,i1 too1 have inducements in the ,city ,philosophical ,society to draw me forward in the acquisition of a small portion of knowledge on this point40 8,i shall point out but few beauties or few faults that ,i have not witnessed in the presence of a numerous assembly40 ,he begins by considering the proper shape of a lecture-room2 its proper ventilation1 and need of suitable entrances and exits4 ,then he goes on to consider suitability of subjects and dignity of subject4 ,in the second of the letters he contrasts the perceptive powers of the eye and ear1 and the proper arrangements for a lecturer's table2 then considers diagrams and illustrations4 ,the third letter deals with the delivery and style of the lecture1 the manner and attitudes of the lecturer1 his methods of keeping alive the attention of the audience1 and duration of the discourse4 ,in the fourth of these letters 7see p4 #bbh71 he dwells on the mistakes and defects of lecturers1 their unnecessary apologies1 the choice of apt experiments1 and avoidance of trivialities4 ,sidenote3 ,,proposals ,,for ,,foreign ,,travel4 ,in ,september1 #ahac1 after but six months of work in the laboratory1 a proposition came to him from ,sir ,humphry ,davy which resulted in a complete change of scene4 ,it was an episode of foreign travel1 lasting1 as it proved1 eighteen months4 ,in the autobiographical notes he wrote3-- ,in the autumn ,sir ,h4 ,davy proposed going abroad1 and offered me the opportunity of going with him as his amanuensis1 and the promise of resuming my situation in the ,institution upon my return to ,england4 ,whereupon ,i accepted the offer1 left the ,institution on ,october #ac1 and1 after being with ,sir ,h4 ,davy in ,france1 ,italy1 ,switzerland1 the ,tyrol1 ,geneva1 c41 in that and the following year1 returned to ,england and ,london ,april #bc1 #ahae4 ,before he left ,england1 on ,september #ah1 #ahac1 at the request of his mother1 he wrote to an uncle and aunt the following account of himself3-- ,i was formerly a bookseller and binder1 but am now turned philosopher1 which happened thus3--,whilst an apprentice1 ,i1 for amusement1 learnt a little of chemistry and other parts of philosophy1 and felt an eager desire to proceed in that way further4 ,after being a journeyman for six months1 under a disagreeable master1 ,i gave up my business1 and1 by the interest of ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 filled the situation of chemical assistant to the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain1 in which office ,i now remain1 and where ,i am constantly engaged in observing the works of ,nature and tracing the manner in which she directs the arrangement and order of the world4 ,i have lately had proposals made to me by ,sir ,humphry ,davy to accompany him1 in his travels through ,europe and into ,asia1 as philosophical assistant4 ,if ,i go at all ,i expect it will be in ,october next1 about the end1 and my absence from home will perhaps be as long as three years4 ,but as yet all is uncertain4 ,i have to repeat that1 even though ,i may go1 my path will not pass near any of my relations1 or permit me to see those whom ,i so much long to see4 ,to ,faraday1 who was now twenty-two years old1 foreign travel meant much more than to most young men of equal age4 ,with his humble bringing up and slender resources1 he had never had the chance of seeing the outside world2 he had never1 to his own recollection1 even seen the sea4 ,when on ,wednesday1 ,october #ac1 he started out on the journey to ,plymouth1 in order to cross to the port of ,morlaix1 he began his journal of foreign travel thus3-- ,this morning formed a new epoch in my life4 ,i have never before1 within my recollection1 left ,london at a greater distance than twelve miles4 ,sidenote3 ,a ,,new ,,element4 ,this journal he kept with minute care1 with the sole purpose of recalling events to his mind4 ,it gives full details as to ,davy's scientific friends and work1 intermingled with graphic descriptions of scenery2 and is remarkable also for its personal reticence4 ,as with many another1 so with ,faraday1 foreign travel took in his life the place of residence at a ,university4 ,in ,france1 in ,italy1 he received enlarged ideas2 and what he saw of learned men and academies of science exercised no small formative effect upon one then at the most impressionable age4 ,he comments gaily on the odd incidents of travel2 the luminescence of the sea at night2 the amazing fuss at the ,custom ,house2 the postilion with his jack-boots1 whip1 and pouch2 the glow-worm 7the first glow-worm he had ever seen72 and the slim pigs of ,normandy4 ,at ,paris he visits the ,louvre1 where his chief comment on its treasures is1 that by their acquisition ,france has made herself 8a nation of thieves40 ,he goes to the ,prefecture of ,police for his passport1 in which he is described as having 8a round chin1 a brown beard1 a large mouth1 a great nose10 etc4 ,he visits the churches1 where the theatrical air pervading the place 8makes it impossible to attach a serious or important feeling to what is going on40 ,he comments on the wood fires1 the charcoal used in cooking1 the washerwomen on the river bank1 the internal decorations of houses1 the printing of the books4 ,then he goes about with ,davy amongst the ,french chemists4 ,ampre1 ,clment1 and ,dsormes come to ,davy to show him the new and strange substance 8,x10 lately discovered by ,m4 ,courtois4 ,they heat it1 and behold it rise in vapour of a beautiful violet colour4 ,ampre himself1 on ,november #bcrd1 gives ,davy a specimen4 ,they carefully note down its characters4 ,davy and his assistant make many new experiments on it4 ,at first its origin is kept a profound secret by the ,frenchman4 ,then it transpires that it is made from ashes of seaweed4 ,they work on it at ,chevreul's laboratory4 ,faraday borrows a voltaic pile from ,chevreul4 ,with that intuition which was characteristic of him1 ,davy jumps almost at once to a conclusion as to the nature of the new body1 which for nearly two years had been in the hands of the ,frenchmen awaiting elucidation4 ,when he leaves ,paris1 they do not wholly bless his rapidity of thought4 ,but ,faraday has seen--with placid indifference--a glimpse of the great ,napoleon 8sitting in one corner of his carriage1 covered and almost hidden by an enormous robe of ermine1 and his face overshadowed by a tremendous plume of feathers1 that descended from a velvet hat02 he has also met ,humboldt1 and he has heard ,m4 ,gay ,lussac lecture to about two hundred pupils4 ,dumas has recorded in his 8loge ,historique0 a reflection of the impressions left by the travellers4 ,after speaking of the criticism to which ,davy was exposed during his visit1 he says3-- ,his laboratory assistant1 long before he had won his great celebrity by his works1 had by his modesty1 his amiability1 and his intelligence1 gained most devoted friends at ,paris1 at ,geneva1 at ,montpellier4 ,amongst these may be named in the front rank ,m4 de la ,rive1 the distinguished chemist1 father of the illustrious physicist whom we count amongst our foreign associates4 ,the kindnesses with which he covered my youth contributed not a little to unite us--,faraday and myself4 ,with pleasure we used to recall that we made one another's acquaintance under the auspices of that affectionate and helpful philosopher whose example so truly witnessed that science does not dry up the heart's blood4 ,at ,montpellier1 beside the hospitable hearth of ,brard1 the associate of ,chaptal1 doyen of our corresponding members1 ,faraday has left memories equally charged with an undying sympathy which his master could never have inspired4 ,we admired ,davy1 we loved ,faraday4 ,it is ,december #bi when the travellers leave ,paris and cross the forest of ,fontainebleau4 ,faraday thinks he never saw a more beautiful scene than the forest dressed in an airy garment of crystalline hoar frost4 ,they pass through ,lyons1 ,montpellier1 ,aix1 ,nice1 searching on the way for iodine in the sea-plants of the ,mediterranean4 ,at the end of ,january1 #ahad1 they cross the ,col de ,tende over the snow at an elevation of #f1jjj feet into ,italy1 and find themselves in the midst of the ,carnival at ,turin4 ,they reach ,genoa1 and go to the house of a chemist to make experiments on the raia torpedo1 the electric skate1 trying to ascertain whether water could be decomposed by the electrical discharges of these singular fishes4 ,from ,genoa they go by sea to ,lerici in an open boat1 with much discomfort and fear of ship-wreck2 and thence by land to ,florence4 ,sidenote3 ,,with ,,davy ,,in ,,italy4 ,at ,florence he goes with ,davy to the ,accademia del ,cimento4 ,he sees the library1 the gardens1 the museum4 ,here is ,galileo's own telescope--a simple tube of paper and wood1 with lenses at each end--with which he discovered ,jupiter's satellites4 ,here is the great burning glass of the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany4 ,and here is a numerous collection of magnets1 including one enormous loadstone supporting a weight of #aej pounds4 ,they make 8the grand experiment of burning the diamond0 in oxygen by the sun's heat concentrated through the ,grand ,duke's burning glass4 ,they find the diamond to be pure carbon4 ,then early in ,april they depart for ,rome4 ,from ,rome ,faraday wrote to his mother a long chatty letter summarising his travels1 and sending messages of kindly remembrance to his old master ,riebau and others4 ,he tells how1 in spite of political troubles1 ,sir ,humphry ,davy's high name has procured them free admission everywhere1 and how they have just heard that ,paris has been taken by the ,allied troops4 ,at ,rome they witness unconvinced some attempts of ,morichini to impart magnetism to steel needles by the solar rays4 ,they pass the ,colosseum by moonlight1 making an early morning start across the ,campagna1 on the road to ,naples1 with an armed guard for fear of brigands4 ,twice1 in the middle of ,may1 they ascend ,vesuvius1 the second time during a partial eruption rendered all the more vivid by the lateness of the hour--half-past seven--at which the edge of the crater was reached4 ,in ,june they visit ,terni1 and note the nearly circular rainbow visible in the spray of the cataract2 and so across the ,apennines to ,milan4 ,at ,milan occurs the following entry3-- ,friday #agth ,june1 #ahad1 ,milan4 ,saw ,m4 ,volta1 who came to ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 an hale elderly man1 bearing the red ribbon1 and very free in conversation4 ,he does not record how the ceremonious old ,count1 who had specially attired himself in his ,court uniform to welcome the illustrious chemist1 was horrified at the informal manners and uncourtly dress of the tourist philosopher4 ,so1 travelling by ,como and ,domo d',ossola1 they come to ,geneva1 and here remain a long time2 and ,faraday writes again to his mother and to ,abbott4 ,he can even find time to discuss with the latter the relative merits of the ,french and ,italian languages1 and the trend of civilisation in ,paris and in ,rome4 ,twice he sends messages to ,riebau4 ,one of his letters to ,abbott1 in ,september1 contains passages of more than transient interest3-- ,some doubts have been expressed to me lately with respect to the continuance of the ,royal ,institution2 ,mr4 ,newman can probably give a guess at the issue of them4 ,i have three boxes of books1 c41 there1 and ,i should be sorry if they were lost by the turning up of unforeseen circumstances2 but ,i hope all will end well 7you will not read this out aloud74 ,remember me to all friends1 if you please4 ,and 8now for you and ,i to ourselves40444 ,in passing through life1 my dear friend1 everyone must expect to receive lessons1 both in the school of prosperity and in that of adversity2 and1 taken in a general sense1 these schools do not only include riches and poverty1 but everything that may cause the happiness and pleasure of man1 and every feeling that may give him pain4 ,i have been in at the door of both these schools2 nor am ,i so far on the right hand at present that ,i do not get hurt by the thorns on my left4 ,with respect to myself1 ,i have always perceived 7when1 after a time1 ,i saw things more clearly7 that those things which at first appeared as misfortunes or evils ultimately were actually benefits1 and productive of much good in the future progress of things4 ,sometimes ,i compared them to storms and tempests1 which cause a temporary disarrangement to produce permanent good2 sometimes they appeared to me like roads--stony1 uneven1 hilly1 and uncomfortable1 it is true--but the only roads to a good beyond them2 and sometimes ,i said they were clouds which intervened between me and the sun of prosperity1 but which ,i found were refreshing1 reserving to me that tone and vigour of mind which prosperity alone would enervate and ultimately destroy4444 ,sidenote3 ,,hints ,,of ,,discomfort4 ,you talk of travelling1 and ,i own the word is seducing1 but travelling does not secure you from uneasy circumstances4 ,i by no means intend to deter you from it2 for though ,i should like to find you at home when ,i come home1 and though ,i know how much the loss would be felt by our friends1 yet ,i am aware that the fund of knowledge and of entertainment opened would be almost infinite4 ,but ,i shall set down a few of my own thoughts and feelings1 c41 in the same circumstances4 ,in the first place1 then1 my dear ,b41 ,i fancy that when ,i set my foot in ,england ,i shall never take it out again2 for ,i find the prospect so different from what it at first appeared to be1 that ,i am certain1 if ,i could have foreseen the things that have passed1 ,i should never have left ,london4 ,in the second place1 enticing as travelling is--and ,i appreciate fully its advantages and pleasures--,i have several times been more than half decided to return hastily home2 but second thoughts have still induced me to try what the future may produce1 and now ,i am only retained by the wish of improvement4 ,i have learned just enough to perceive my ignorance1 and1 ashamed of my defects in everything1 ,i wish to seize the opportunity of remedying them4 ,the little knowledge ,i have gained in languages makes me wish to know more of them1 and the little ,i have seen of men and manners is just enough to make me desirous of seeing more2 added to which1 the glorious opportunity ,i enjoy of improving in the knowledge of chemistry and the sciences continually determines me to finish this voyage with ,sir ,humphry ,davy4 ,but if ,i wish to enjoy those advantages1 ,i have to sacrifice much2 and though those sacrifices are such as an humble man would not feel1 yet ,i cannot quietly make them4 ,travelling1 too1 ,i find1 is almost inconsistent with religion 7,i mean modern travelling71 and ,i am yet so old-fashioned as to remember strongly 7,i hope perfectly7 my youthful education2 and upon the whole1 malgr the advantages of travelling1 it is not impossible but that you may see me at your door when you expect a letter4 ,you will perceive1 dear ,b41 that ,i do not wish you hastily to leave your present situation1 because ,i think that a hasty change will only make things worse4 ,you will naturally compare your situation with others you see around you1 and by this comparison your own will appear more sad1 whilst the others seem brighter than in truth they are2 for1 like the two poles of a battery1 the ideas of each will become exalted by approaching them4 ,but ,i leave you1 dear friend1 to act in this case as your judgment may direct1 hoping always for the best4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sir ,humphry works often on iodine1 and has lately been making experiments on the prismatic spectrum at ,m4 ,pictet's4 ,they are not yet perfected1 but from the use of very delicate air thermometers1 it appears that the rays producing most heat are certainly out of the spectrum and beyond the red rays4 ,our time has been employed lately in fishing and shooting2 and many a quail has been killed in the plains of ,geneva1 and many a trout and grayling have been pulled out of the ,rhone4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i need not say1 dear ,ben1 how perfectly ,i am yours1 ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,sidenote3 ,,aristocratic ,,hauteur4 ,this letter reveals1 what the diary of travel so scrupulously hides1 the existence of circumstances which were hardly tolerable in ,faraday's position4 ,to make the reference intelligible it should be remembered that ,davy1 who had come up to ,london in #ahja as a raw youth1 of immense ability but very uncouth exterior1 had developed into a fashionable person1 had become the idol of the hour1 had married a very wealthy widow1 had been knighted1 and had given himself up very largely to the pursuits of fashionable society and to the company of the aristocratic beau monde4 ,lady ,davy accompanied ,sir ,humphry in this ,continental tour2 and though ,faraday had been taken with them as secretary and scientific assistant1 it would seem that he had not always been treated with the respect due to one in that position4 ,the above letter evidently disquieted ,abbott1 for he wrote back to ,faraday to inquire more closely into his personal affairs1 telling him he was sure he was not happy1 and asking him to share his difficulties4 ,faraday1 who was now back in ,rome1 replied in ,january in a long letter of twelve pages1#i which he says he had intended to fill with an account of the waterfalls he had seen1 but which gives instead a detailed account of his vexations4 ,he had1 he said1 written his former letter when in a ruffled state of mind4 ,he now gives the explanation4 ,before1 however1 this letter could reach ,abbott1 the latter had written yet more urgently to know what was the matter4 ,to this ,faraday replied on ,february #bcrd4 ,as this shorter letter summarises the previous one it may be given here4 ,both are printed in ,bence ,jones's 8,life and ,letters03-- ,rome1 ,february #bc1 #ahae4 ,,dear ,b----1--,in a letter of above twelve pages ,i gave answers to your question respecting my situation4 ,it was a subject not worth talking about1 but ,i consider your inquiries as so many proofs of your kindness and the interest you take in my welfare1 and ,i thought the most agreeable thanks ,i could make you would be to answer them4 ,the same letter also contained a short account of a paper written by ,sir ,humphry ,davy on ancient colours1 and some other miscellaneous matters4 ,sidenote3 ,,secret ,,of ,,mortification4 ,i am quite ashamed of dwelling so often on my own affairs1 but as ,i know you wish it1 ,i shall briefly inform you of my situation4 ,i do not mean to employ much of this sheet of paper on the subject1 but refer you to the before-mentioned long letter for clear information4 ,it happened a few days before we left ,england1 that ,sir ,h4's valet declined going with him1 and in the short space of time allowed by circumstances another could not be got4 ,sir ,h4 told me he was very sorry1 but that1 if ,i would do such things as were absolutely necessary for him until he got to ,paris1 he should there get another4 ,i murmured1 but agreed4 ,at ,paris he could not get one4 ,no ,englishmen were there1 and no ,frenchman fit for the place could talk ,english to me4 ,at ,lyons he could not get one2 at ,montpellier he could not get one2 nor at ,genoa1 nor at ,florence1 nor at ,rome1 nor in all ,italy2 and ,i believe at last he did not wish to get one3 and we are just the same now as we were when he left ,england4 ,this of course throws things into my duty which it was not my agreement1 and is not my wish1 to perform1 but which are1 if ,i remain with ,sir ,h41 unavoidable4 ,these1 it is true1 are very few2 for having been accustomed in early years to do for himself1 he continues to do so at present1 and he leaves very little for a valet to perform2 and as he knows that it is not pleasing to me1 and that ,i do not consider myself as obliged to do them1 he is always as careful as possible to keep those things from me which he knows would be disagreeable4 ,but ,lady ,davy is of another humour4 ,she likes to show her authority1 and at first ,i found her extremely earnest in mortifying me4 ,this occasioned quarrels between us1 at each of which ,i gained ground1 and she lost it2 for the frequency made me care nothing about them1 and weakened her authority1 and after each she behaved in a milder manner4 ,sir ,h4 has also taken care to get servants of the country1 ycleped lacquais de place1 to do everything she can want1 and now ,i am somewhat comfortable2 indeed1 at this moment ,i am perfectly at liberty1 for ,sir ,h4 has gone to ,naples to search for a house or lodging to which we may follow him1 and ,i have nothing to do but see ,rome1 write my journal1 and learn ,italian4 ,but ,i will leave such an unprofitable subject1 and tell you what ,i know of our intended route4 ,for the last few weeks it has been very undecided1 and at this moment there is no knowing which way we shall turn4 ,sir ,h4 intended to see ,greece and ,turkey this summer1 and arrangements were half made for the voyage2 but he has just learned that a quarantine must be performed on the road there1 and to do this he has an utter aversion1 and that alone will perhaps break up the journey4 99 99 99 99 99 ,since the long letter ,i wrote you1 ,sir ,h4 has written two short papers for the ,royal ,society--the first on a new solid compound of iodine and oxygen1 and the second a new gaseous compound of chlorine and oxygen1 which contains four times as much oxygen as euchlorine4 ,the discovery of these bodies contradicts many parts of ,gay-,lussac's paper on iodine1 which has been very much vaunted in these parts4 ,the ,french chemists were not aware of the importance of the subject until it was shown to them1 and now they are in haste to reap all the honours attached to it2 but their haste opposes their aim4 ,they reason theoretically1 without demonstrating experimentally1 and errors are the result4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i am1 my dear ,friend1 yours ever and faithfully1 ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,the equivocal position thus forced upon ,faraday by the hauteur of ,lady ,davy nearly caused a contretemps during the stay at ,geneva1 which lasted from the end of ,june1 #ahad1 to about the middle of ,september4 ,bence ,jones's account1 derived from ,faraday himself1 is as follows3--,professor ,g4 de la ,rive1 undazzled by the brilliancy of ,davy's reputation1 was able to see the true worth of his assistant4 ,davy was fond of shooting1 and ,faraday1 who accompanied them1 used to load ,davy's gun for him1 while ,de la ,rive loaded his own4 ,entering into conversation with ,faraday1 ,de la ,rive was astonished to find that the intelligent and charming young man whom he had taken hitherto for a domestic was really prparateur de laboratoire in the ,royal ,institution4 ,this led him to place ,faraday1 in one respect1 on an equality with ,davy4 ,whilst they were staying in his house1 he wished them to dine together at his table4 ,davy1 it is said1 declined1 because ,faraday acted in some things as his servant4 ,de la ,rive expressed his feelings strongly1 and ordered dinner in a separate room for ,faraday4 ,a rumour spread years after that ,de la ,rive gave a dinner in ,faraday's honour3 this is not so1 however4 ,sidenote3 ,,visit ,,to ,,geneva4 ,of that ,geneva visit ,faraday says1 in #aheh1 to ,m4 ,a4 de la ,rive3-- ,i have some such thoughts 7of gratitude7 even as regards your own father1 who was1 ,i may say1 the first who personally at ,geneva1 and afterwards by correspondence1 encouraged and by that sustained me4 ,this correspondence1 which began with the father and was continued with the son1 lasted altogether nearly fifty years4 ,from ,geneva the travellers went northward1 by ,lausanne1 ,vevay1 ,bern1 ,zrich1 and ,schaffhausen1 across ,baden and ,wrtemburg to ,munich4 ,after visiting this and other ,german towns1 they crossed ,tyrol southwards to ,vicenza1 halting in the neighbourhood of the ,pietra ,mala to collect the inflammable gas which there rises from the soil4 ,they spent a day in ,padua1 and three days in ,venice2 and on by ,bologna to ,florence1 where ,davy completed his analysis of the gas collected at ,pietra ,mala4 ,early in ,november they were again in ,rome4 ,he writes once and again to his mother1 while his anxiety about the ,royal ,institution makes him send inquiries to ,abbott as to what is going to happen there1 and to charge him1 8if any change should occur in ,albemarle ,street10 not to forget his books which are lying there4 8,i prize them now more than ever40 ,to his former master1 ,riebau1 he wrote from ,rome as follows3-- ,rome1 ,jan4 #eth1 #ahae4 ,,honoured ,,sir1 ,it is with very peculiar but very pleasing and indeed flattering sentiments that ,i commence a letter intended for you1 for ,i esteem it as a high honour that you should not only allow but even wish me to write to you4 ,during the whole of the short eight years that ,i was with you1 ,sir1 and during the year or two that passed afterwards before ,i left ,england1 ,i continually enjoyed your goodness and the effects of it2 and it is gratifying to me in the highest degree to find that even absence has not impaired it1 and that you are willing to give me the highest proof of 7allow me to say7 friendship that distance will admit4 ,i have received both the letters that you have wrote to me1 ,sir1 and consider them as far from being the least proofs of your goodwill and remembrance of me4 ,allow me to thank you humbly but sincerely for these and all other kindness1 and ,i hope that at some future day an opportunity will occur when ,i can express more strongly my gratitude4 ,i beg leave to return a thousand thanks to my kind ,mistress1 to ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,paine and ,george for their remembrances1 and venture to give mine with respect in return4 ,i am very glad to hear that all are well4 ,i am very much afraid you say too much of me to ,mr4 ,dance1 ,mr4 ,cosway1 ,mrs4 ,udney1 etc41 for ,i feel unworthy of what you have said of me formerly1 and what you may say now4 ,since ,i have left ,england1 the experience ,i have gained in more diversified and extended life1 and the knowledge ,i have gained of what is to be learned and what others know1 have sufficiently shown me my own ignorance1 the degree in which ,i am surpassed by all the world1 and my want of powers2 but ,i hope that at least ,i shall return home with an addition to my self-knowledge4 ,when speaking of those who are so much my superiors1 as ,mr4 ,dance1 ,mr4 ,cosway1 and ,mrs4 ,udney1 etc41 ,i feel a continual fear that ,i should appear to want respect1 but the manner in which you mention their names in your letter emboldens me to beg that you will give my humblest respects to those honored persons1 if1 and only if 7,i am afraid of intruding7 they should again speak of me to you4 ,mr4 ,dance's kindness claims my gratitude1 and ,i trust that my thanks1 the only mark that ,i can give1 will be accepted4 ,sidenote3 ,,books ,,and ,,booksellers4 ,since ,i have been abroad1 my old profession of books has oftentimes occurred to my mind and been productive of much pleasure4 ,it was my wish at first to purchase some useful book at every large town we came to1 but ,i found my stock increase so fast that ,i was obliged to alter my plan and purchase only at ,capital ,cities4 ,the first books that ,i wanted were grammars and dictionaries1 but ,i found few places like ,london where ,i could get whatever ,i wanted4 ,in ,france 7at the time we were there7 ,english books were very scarce1 and also ,english and ,french books2 and a ,french grammar for an ,englishman was a thing difficult to find4 ,nevertheless the shops appeared well stocked with books in their own language1 and the encouragement ,napoleon gave to ,arts and ,sciences extended its influence even to the printing and binding of books4 ,i saw some beautiful specimens in both these branches at the ,bibliothque ,impriale at ,paris1 but ,i still think they did not exceed or even equal those ,i had seen in ,london before4 ,we have as yet seen very little of ,germany1 having passed rapidly through ,switzerland and stopping but a few days at ,munich1 but that little gave me a very favorable idea of the ,booksellers' shops4 ,i got an excellent ,english and ,german dictionary immediately ,i asked for it1 and other books ,i asked for ,i found were to be had1 but ,e4 and ,g4 ,grammars were scarce1 owing to the little communication between the two ,empires1 and the former power of the ,french in ,germany4 ,italy ,i have found the country furnished with the fewest means--if books are the means of disseminating knowledge1 and even ,venice which is renowned for ,printing appeared to me bare and little worthy of its character4 ,it is natural to suppose that the great and most estimable use of printing is to produce those books which are in most general use and which are required by the world at large2 it is those books which form this branch of trade1 and consequently every shop in it gives an account of the more valuable state of the art 7i4e47 the use made of it4 ,in ,italy there are many books1 and the shelves of the shops there appear full1 but the books are old1 or what is new have come from ,france2 they seem latterly to have resigned printing and to have become satisfied with the libraries their forefathers left them4 ,i found at ,florence an ,e4 and ,i4 ,grammar 7,veneroni's71 which does a little credit to ,leghorn2 but ,i have searched unsuccessfully at ,rome1 ,naples1 ,milan1 ,bologna1 ,venice1 ,florence1 and in every part of ,italy for and ,e4 and ,i4 ,dictionary1 and the only one ,i could get was ,rollasetti in #hvo4 ,e4 ,f4 and ,i4 ,a circumstance still more singular is the want of bibles2 even at ,rome1 the seat of the ,roman ,catholic faith1 a bible of moderate size is not to be found1 either ,protestant or ,catholic4 ,those which exist are large folios or #dtos and in several volumes1 interspersed with the various readings and commentaries of the fathers1 and they are in the possession of the ,priests and religious professors4 ,in all shops at ,rome where ,i ask for a small pocket bible the man seemed afraid to answer me1 and some ,priest in the shop looked at me in a very inquisitive way4 ,i must now1 ,kind ,sir1 put an end to this letter1 which ,i fear you will think already too long4 ,i beg you will have the goodness to send to my ,mother and say ,i am well1 and give my duty to her and my love to my brother and sisters4 ,i have wrote four or five times lately from ,rome to various friends4 ,remember me1 if you please1 to ,mr4 ,kitchen1 and others who may enquire after me4 ,i thank you for your concluding wishes and am1 ,sir1 ,your most dutifully1 ,,faraday4 ,to his sisters he wrote also4 ,to the elder1 on the ,church festivals1 the ,carnival1 and the ruins of the ,colosseum4 ,to the younger1 on the best way of learning ,french4 ,his diary is full of the ,carnival1 the foolishness of which afforded him much amusement4 ,he witnessed the horse-races in the ,corso1 went four times to masked balls1 where his boyish love of uproarious fun broke out beyond restraint1 for to the last one he went disguised in a night-gown and night-cap4 ,between gaieties in the evenings and chemical experiments with ,davy in the day1 his time must have been pretty fully occupied4 ,they had had the intention of going on to ,greece and ,turkey1 but owing to dread of quarantine these projects were abandoned1 and at the end of ,february1 #ahae1 they moved southwards to ,naples4 ,here is a characteristic entry3-- ,tuesday1 ,march #gth4--,i heard for news that ,bonaparte was again at liberty4 ,being no politician1 ,i did not trouble myself much about it1 though ,i suppose it will have a strong influence on the affairs of ,europe4 ,he went with ,sir ,humphry to explore ,monte ,somma1 and ventured to make another ascent of the cone of ,vesuvius1 with the gratification of finding the crater in much greater activity than during the visits of the preceding year4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,tour4 ,then1 for reasons not altogether clear1 the tour was suddenly cut short4 ,naples was left on ,march #bast1 ,rome on #bdth1 ,mantua was passed on #cjth4 ,tyrol was recrossed1 ,germany traversed by ,stuttgardt1 ,heidelberg1 and ,cologne4 ,brussels was reached on #afth ,april1 whence ,london was regained vi ,ostend and ,deal4 ,a letter written from ,brussels to his mother positively overflows with the joy of expected return4 ,he does not want his mother to be inquiring at ,albemarle ,street as to when he is expected3-- ,you may be sure that my first moments will be in your company4 ,if you have opportunities1 tell some of my dearest friends1 but do not tell everybody--that is1 do not trouble yourself to do it4 ,i am of no consequence except to a few1 and there are but a few that are of consequence to me1 and there are some whom ,i should like to be the first to tell myself--,mr4 ,riebau for one4 ,however1 let ,a4 know1 if you can444 ,adieu till ,i see you1 dearest ,mother2 and believe me ever your affectionate and dutiful son1 ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,p4,s4 ',tis the shortest and 7to me7 the sweetest letter ,i ever wrote you4 ,a fortnight after his return to ,london1 ,faraday was re-engaged1 at a salary of thirty shillings a week1 at the ,royal ,institution as assistant in the laboratory and mineralogical collection4 ,he returned to the scene of his former labours2 but with what widened ideas6 ,he had had eighteen months of daily intercourse with the most brilliant chemist of the age4 ,he had seen and conversed with ,ampre1 ,arago1 ,gay-,lussac1 ,chevreul1 ,dumas1 ,volta1 ,de la ,rive1 ,biot1 ,pictet1 ,de ,saussure1 and ,de ,stael4 ,he had formed a lasting friendship with more than one of these4 ,he had dined with ,count ,rumford1 the founder of the ,royal ,institution4 ,he had gained a certain mastery over foreign tongues1 and had seen the ways of foreign society4 ,though it was many years before he again quitted ,england for a foreign tour1 he cherished the most lively recollection of many of the incidents that had befallen him4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,life ,,at ,,the ,,royal ,,institution4 ,amongst the scientific societies of ,great ,britain1 the ,royal ,institution of ,london occupies a conspicuous place4 ,it has had many imitators in its time1 yet it remains unique4 ,a 8learned society0 it may claim to be1 in the sense that it publishes scientific transactions1 and endeavours to concentrate within itself and promote the highest science1 within a certain range of subjects4 ,in some respects it resembles a college2 for it appoints professors1 and provides them with space1 appliances1 and materials for research1 and a theatre wherein to lecture4 ,for its members it provides a comfortable1 well-stocked library1 and a reading-room where daily and periodic journals may be consulted4 ,but it has achieved a reputation far in excess of any it would have held1 had that reputation depended solely on its publications1 or on the numerical strength of its membership4 ,founded in the year #agii by that erratic genius ,count ,rumford1 as a sort of technical school1#aj it would speedily have come to an end had not others stepped in to develop it in new ways4 ,from the certain ruin which seemed impending in #ahja1 it was saved by the appearance upon the scene of the brilliant youth ,humphry ,davy1 whose lectures made it for ten years the resort of fashion4 ,in #ahad it was again in such low water that ,faraday1 travelling on the ,continent at that time as amanuensis to ,sir ,humphry1 was every month expecting to hear of its collapse4 ,until about #ahcc1 when the two ,fullerian ,professorships were founded1 it was continually in financial difficulties4 ,the persistent and extraordinary efforts made by ,faraday from #ahbf to #ahci1 and the reputation of the place which accrued by his discoveries1 were beyond all question its salvation from ruin4 ,when it was founded it was located in two private houses in ,albemarle ,street1 then regarded as quite out of town1 if not almost suburban2 the premises being altered and an entrance hall with staircase added4 ,a little later the lecture-theatre1 much as it still exists1 was constructed4 ,the exterior at first remained unchanged4 ,the stucco pilasters of ,grecian style1 which give it its air of distinction1 were not erected until #ahch4 ,the fine rooms of the ,davy-,faraday laboratory at the south end were only added in #ahif by the liberality of ,mr4 ,ludwig ,mond4 ,besides the laboratories for research in physical chemistry1 which have thus been associated with the older part of the ,institution1 additional rooms for the library have been provided in this munificent gift to science4 ,the older laboratories of the ,institution1 though they retain some features from ,rumford's time1 have been considerably remodelled4 ,the old rooms where ,davy1 ,young1 ,brande1 ,faraday1 ,frankland1 and ,tyndall conducted their researches are still in existence2 but the chief laboratory was reconstructed in #ahgb in ,tyndall's time2 and it has been quite recently enlarged and reconstructed to accommodate the heavy machinery required in ,professor ,dewar's researches on liquid air and the properties of bodies at low temperatures4 ,the spirit of the place may be summed up very briefly4 ,it has existed for a century as the home of the highest kind of scientific research1 and of the best and most specialised kind of scientific lectures4 ,it was here that ,davy first showed the electric arc lamp2 that he astonished the world by decomposing potash and producing potassium2 that he invented the safety lamp4 ,it was here that ,faraday worked and laboured for nearly fifty years4 ,here that ,tyndall's investigations on radiant heat and diamagnetism were carried on4 ,here that ,brande1 ,frankland1 ,odling1 ,gladstone1 and ,dewar have handed on the torch of chemistry from the time of ,davy4 ,professorships1 of which the educational duties are restricted to a few lectures in the year1 giving leisure and scope for research as the main duty1 are not to be found anywhere else in the ,british ,islands2 those at colleges and universities being invariably hampered with educational and administrative duties4 ,sidenote3 ,,royal ,,institution ,,laboratories4 ,as for the lectures at the ,royal ,institution1 they may be divided under three heads3 the afternoon courses2 the juvenile lectures at ,christmas2 the ,friday night discourses4 ,the afternoon lectures are thrice a week at three o'clock1 and consist usually of short courses1 from three lectures to as many as twelve1 by eminent scientific and literary men4 ,invariably one of these courses during the season1 either before or after ,easter1 is given by one of the regular ,professors2 the remaining lecturers are paid professional fees in proportion to the duration of their course4 ,the ,christmas lectures1 always six in number1 are given1 sometimes by one of the ,professors1 sometimes by outside lecturers of scientific reputation4 ,but the ,friday night discourses1 given at nine o'clock1 during the season from ,january till ,june1 are unique4 ,no fee is paid to the lecturer1 save a contribution toward expenses if applied for1 and it is considered to be a distinct honour to be invited to give such a discourse4 ,there is no scientific man of any original claim to distinction2 no chemist1 engineer1 or electrician2 no physiologist1 geologist1 or mineralogist1 during the last fifty years1 who has not been invited thus to give an account of his investigations4 ,occasionally a wider range is taken1 and the eminent writer of books1 dramatist1 metaphysician1 or musician has taken his place at the lecture-table4 ,the ,friday night gathering is always a brilliant one4 ,from the salons of society1 from the world of politics and diplomacy1 as well as from the ranks of the learned professions and of the fine arts1 men and women assemble to listen to the exposition of the latest discoveries or the newest advances in philosophy by the men who have made them4 ,every discourse must1 so far as the subject admits1 be illustrated in the best possible way by experiments1 by diagrams1 by the exhibition of specimens4 ,not infrequently1 the person invited to give a ,friday evening discourse at the ,royal ,institution will begin his preparations five or six months beforehand4 ,at least one instance is known--the occasion being a discourse by the late ,mr4 ,warren ,de la ,rue--where the preparations were begun more than a year beforehand1 and cost several hundreds of pounds4 ,and this was to illustrate a research already made and completed1 of which the bare scientific results had already been communicated in a memoir to the ,royal ,society4 ,a mere enumeration of the eminent men who have thus given their time and labours to the ,royal ,institution would fill many pages4 ,it is little cause for wonder then that the lecture-theatre at ,albemarle ,street is crowded week after week in the pursuit of science under conditions like these2 or that every lecturer is spurred on by the spirit of the place to do his subject the utmost justice by the manner in which he handles it4 ,there are no lectures so famous1 in the best sense of the word so popular1 certainly none sustained at so high a level1 as the lectures of the ,royal ,institution4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,famous ,,lectures4 ,but it was not always thus4 ,davy's brilliant but ill-balanced genius had drawn fashionable crowds to the morning lectures which he gave4 ,brande proved to be a much more humdrum lecturer2 and though with young ,faraday at his elbow he found his work of lecturing a task 8on velvet10 he was not exactly an inspiring person4 ,during ,davy's protracted tour abroad things had not altogether prospered1 and his return was none too soon4 ,faraday threw himself whole-heartedly into the work of the ,institution1 not only helping as lecture assistant1 but giving a hand also in the preparation of the ,quarterly ,journal of ,science1 which had been established as a kind of journal of proceedings4 ,but now ,faraday was to take a quiet step forward4 ,he appears at the ,city ,philosophical ,society in the character of lecturer4 ,he gave seven lectures there1 in #ahaf1 on chemistry1 the fourth of them being 8,on ,radiant ,matter40 ,extracts are given from most of these lectures in ,bence ,jones's 8,life and ,letters of ,faraday02 they show all that love of accuracy1 that philosophic suspense of judgment in matters of hypothesis1 which in after years were so characteristic of the man4 ,he also kept a commonplace book filled with notes of scientific matters1 with literary excerpts1 anagrams1 epitaphs1 algebraic puzzles1 varieties of spelling of his own name1 and personal experiences1 including a poetical diatribe against falling in love1 together with the following more prosaic aphorism3-- ,what is ,love8--,a nuisance to everybody but the parties concerned4 ,a private affair which every one but those concerned wishes to make public4 ,it also includes a piece in verse1 by a member of the ,city ,philosophical ,society--a ,mr4 ,dryden--called 8,quarterly ,night10 which is interesting as embalming a portrait of the youthful ,faraday as he appeared to his comrades3-- ,neat was the youth in dress1 in person plain2 ,his eye read thus1 ,philosopher in grain2 ,of understanding clear1 reflection deep2 ,expert to apprehend1 and strong to keep4 ,his watchful mind no subject can elude1 ,nor specious arts of sophists ere delude2 ,his powers1 unshackled1 range from pole to pole2 ,his mind from error free1 from guilt his soul4 ,warmth in his heart1 good humour in his face1 ,a friend to mirth1 but foe to vile grimace2 ,a temper candid1 manners unassuming1 ,always correct1 yet always unpresuming4 ,such was the youth1 the chief of all the band2 ,his name well known1 ,sir ,humphry's right hand4 ,at this date there were no evening duties at the ,royal ,institution1 but ,faraday found his evenings well occupied1 as he explains to ,abbott when rallied about his having deserted his old friend4 ,monday and ,thursday evenings he spent in self-improvement according to a regular plan4 ,wednesdays he gave to 8the ,society0 7i4e4 the ,city ,philosophical74 ,saturdays he spent with his mother at ,weymouth ,street2 leaving only ,tuesdays and ,fridays for his own business and friends4 ,sidenote3 ,,city ,,philosophical ,,society4 ,and so the busy months pass1 and he gives more lectures in the privacy of the ,city ,society1 one of them1 8,on some ,observations on the ,means of obtaining ,knowledge10 attaining the dignity of print at the hands of ,effingham ,wilson1 the enterprising ,city publisher1 who a few years later printed ,browning's 8,paracelsus0 and ,alfred ,tennyson's first volume1 8,poems3 ,chiefly ,lyrical40 ,by the time he has given nine lectures he has gained confidence4 ,the discourses had all been written out beforehand1 though never literally 8read40 ,for the tenth lecture--on ,carbon--he wrote notes only4 ,this is in ,july1 #ahag1 and in these notes he touches on a matter in which he had been very busily aiding ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 the invention of the safety lamp4 ,many of the early forms of experimental apparatus constructed1 and some of the early lamps1 are still preserved in the museum of the ,royal ,institution4 ,dr4 ,clanny had1 in #ahac1 proposed an entirely closed lamp1 supplied with air from the mine1 through water1 by bellows4 ,after many experiments on explosive mixtures of gas and air1 and on the properties of flame1 ,davy adopted an iron-wire gauze protector for his lamp1 which was introduced into coal mining early in #ahaf4 ,in ,davy's preface to his work describing it1 he says3 8,i am myself indebted to ,mr4 ,michael ,faraday for much able assistance in the prosecution of my experiments40 ,sidenote3 ,a ,,rift ,,within ,,the ,,lute4 ,and well might ,davy be grateful4 ,with all his immense ability1 he was a man almost destitute of the faculties of order and method4 ,he had little self-control1 and the fashionable dissipations which he permitted himself lessened that little4 ,faraday not only kept his experiments going1 but made himself responsible for their records4 ,he preserved every note and manuscript of ,davy's with religious care4 ,he copied out ,davy's scrawled researches in a neat clear delicate handwriting1 begging only for his pains to be allowed to keep the originals1 which he bound in two quarto volumes4 ,faraday has been known to remark to an intimate friend that amongst his advantages he had had before him a model to teach him what he should avoid4 ,but he was ever loyal to ,davy1 earnest in his praise1 and frank in his acknowledgment of his debt to his master in science4 ,still there arose the little rift within the lute4 ,the safety lamp1 great as was the practical advantage it brought to the miner1 is not safe in all circumstances4 ,davy did not like to admit this1 and would never acknowledge it4 ,examined before a ,parliamentary ,committee as to whether under a certain condition the safety lamp would become unsafe1 ,faraday admitted that this was the case4 ,not even his devotion to his master would induce him to hide the truth4 ,he was true to himself in making the acknowledgment1 though it angered his master4 ,one ,friday evening at the ,royal ,institution--probably about #ahbf--there was exhibited an improved ,davy lamp with a eulogistic inscription2 ,faraday added in pencil the words3 8,the opinion of the inventor40 ,at this time he began to give private lessons in chemistry to a pupil to whom he had been recommended by ,davy4 ,his lectures at the ,city ,society in ,dorset ,street were continued in #ahah1 and at the conclusion of those on chemistry he delivered one on 8,mental ,inertia10 which has been recorded at some length by ,bence ,jones4 ,in #ahah he attended a course of lessons on oratory by the elocutionist ,mr4 ,b4 ,h4 ,smart1 paying out of his slender resources half a guinea a lesson1 so anxious was he to improve himself1 even in his manner of lecturing4 ,his notes on these lessons fill #acc manuscript pages4 ,his other notes now begin to partake less of the character of quotations and excerpts1 and more of the nature of queries or problems for solution4 ,here are some examples3-- 8,do the pith balls diverge by the disturbance of electricity in consequence of mutual induction or not80 8,distil oxalate of ammonia4 ,query1 results80 8,query1 the nature of the body ,phillips burns in his spirit lamp80 ,the ,phillips here mentioned was the chemist ,richard ,phillips 7afterwards ,president of the ,chemical ,society71 one of his ,city friends1 whose name so frequently occurs in the correspondence of ,faraday's middle life4 ,phillips busied himself to promote the material interests of his friend who--to use his own language--was 8constantly engaged in observing the works of ,nature1 and tracing the manner in which she directs the arrangement and order of the world10 on the splendid salary of #ajj per annum4 ,the following note in a letter to ,abbott1 dated ,february #bg1 #ahah1 reveals new professional labours3-- ,i have been more than enough employed4 ,we have been obliged even to put aside lectures at the ,institution2 and now ,i am so tired with a long attendance at ,guildhall yesterday and to-day1 being subpnaed1 with ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 ,mr4 ,brande1 ,phillips1 ,aikin1 and others1 to give chemical information on a trial 7which1 however1 did not come off71 that ,i scarcely know what ,i say4 ,shortly afterwards ,davy again went abroad1 but ,faraday remained in ,england4 ,from ,rome ,davy wrote a note1 the concluding sentence of which shows how ,faraday was advancing in his esteem3-- ,rome3 ,october1 #ahah4 ,mr4 ,hatchett's letter contained praises of you which were very gratifying to me2 for1 believe me1 there is no one more interested in your success and welfare than your sincere well-wisher and friend1 ,h4 ,,davy4 ,in the next year ,davy wrote again1 suggesting to ,faraday that he might possibly be asked to come to ,naples as a skilled chemist to assist in the unrolling of the ,herculaneum manuscripts4 ,in ,may he wrote again1 from ,florence3-- ,it gives me great pleasure to hear that you are comfortable at the ,royal ,institution1 and ,i trust that you will not only do something good and honourable for yourself1 but likewise for science4 ,i am1 dear ,mr4 ,faraday1 always your sincere friend and well-wisher1 ,h4 ,,davy4 ,the wish that ,davy expressed that ,faraday might 8do something0 for himself and likewise for science was destined soon to come to fulfilment4 ,but in the case of one who had worked so closely and had been so intimately associated as an assistant1 it must necessarily be no easy matter always to draw a distinction between the work of the master and that of the assistant4 ,ideas suggested by one might easily have occurred to the other1 when their thoughts had so long been directed to the same ends4 ,and so it proved4 ,sidenote3 ,,begins ,,original ,,researches4 ,reference to ,chapter ,,iii4 will show that already1 beginning in #ahaf with a simple analysis of caustic lime for ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 ,faraday had become an active worker in the domain of original research4 ,the fascination of the quest of the unknown was already upon him4 ,while working with and for ,davy on the properties of flame and its non-transmission through iron gauze1 in the investigation of the safety lamp1 other problems of a kindred nature had arisen4 ,one of these1 relating to the flow of gases through capillary tubes1 ,faraday had attacked by himself in #ahag4 ,the subject formed one of the six original papers which he published that year4 ,in the next two years he contributed in all no fewer than thirty-seven papers or notes to the ,quarterly ,journal of ,science4 ,in #ahai began a long research on steel which lasted over the year #ahbj4 ,he had already given evidence of that dislike of half-truths1 that aversion for 8doubtful knowledge0 which marked him so strongly4 ,he had exposed1 with quiet but unsparing success1 the emptiness of the claim made by an ,austrian chemist to have discovered a new metal1 8,sirium10 by the simple device of analysing out from the mass all the constituents of known sorts1 leaving behind--nothing4 ,sidenote3 ,,he ,,falls ,,in ,,love4 ,and now1 ,faraday being twenty-nine years of age1 a new and all-important episode in his life occurred4 ,amongst the members of the little congregation which met on ,sundays at ,paul's ,alley1 ,red ,cross ,street1 was a ,mr4 ,barnard1 a working silversmith of ,paternoster ,row1 an elder in the ,sandemanian body4 ,he had two sons1 ,edward ,barnard1 a friend of ,faraday's1 and ,george1 who became a well-known water-colour artist2 and three daughters2 one who was already at this time married2 ,sarah1 now twenty-one years of age2 and ,jane1 who was still younger4 ,edward had seen in ,faraday's note-book those boyish tirades against falling in love1 and had told his sister ,sarah of them4 ,nevertheless1 in spite of all such misogynistic fancies1 ,faraday woke up one day to find that the large-eyed1 clear-browed girl had grown to a place in his heart that he had thought barred against the assaults of love4 ,she asked him on one occasion to show her the rhymes against love in his note-book4 ,in reply he sent her the hitherto unpublished poem3-- ,r4 ,i4 ,oct4 #aath1 #ahai4 ,you ask'd me last night for the lines which ,i penn'd1 ,when1 exulting in ignorance1 tempted by pride1 ,i dared torpid hearts and cold breasts to commend1 ,and affection's kind pow'r and soft joys to deride4 ,if you urge it ,i cannot refuse your request3 ,though to grant it will punish severely my crime3 ,but my fault ,i repent1 and my errors detest2 ,and ,i hoped to have shown my conversion in time4 ,remember1 our laws in their mercy decide ,that no culprit be forced to give proof of his deed3 ,they protect him though fall'n1 his failings they hide1 ,and enable the wretch from his crimes to receed 7sic74 ,the principle's noble6 ,i need not urge long ,its adoption2 then turn from a judge to a friend4 ,do not ask for the proof that ,i once acted wrong1 ,but direct me and guide me the way to amend4 ,m4 ,f4 ,what other previous passages between them are hinted at in the letter which he sent her1 is unknown2 but on ,july #e1 #ahbj1 he wrote3-- ,royal ,institution4 ,you know me as well or better than ,i do myself4 ,you know my former prejudices1 and my present thoughts--you know my weaknesses1 my vanity1 my whole mind2 you have converted me from one erroneous way1 let me hope you will attempt to correct what others are wrong4 99 99 99 99 99 ,again and again ,i attempt to say what ,i feel1 but ,i cannot4 ,let me1 however1 claim not to be the selfish being that wishes to bend your affections for his own sake only4 ,in whatever way ,i can best minister to your happiness either by assiduity or by absence1 it shall be done4 ,do not injure me by withdrawing your friendship1 or punish me for aiming to be more than a friend by making me less2 and if you cannot grant me more1 leave me what ,i possess1 but hear me4 ,sarah ,barnard showed the letter to her father4 ,she was young1 and feared to accept her lover4 ,all her father would say by way of counsel was that love made philosophers say many foolish things4 ,the intensity of ,faraday's passion proved for the time a bar to his advance4 ,fearing lest she should be unable to return it with equal force1 ,miss ,barnard shrank from replying4 ,to postpone an immediate decision1 she went away with her sister1 ,mrs4 ,reid1 to ,ramsgate4 ,faraday followed to press his suit1 and after several happy days in her company1 varied with country walks and a run over to ,dover1 he was able to say3 8,not a moment's alloy of this evening's happiness occurred4 ,everything was delightful to the last moment of my stay with my companion1 because she was so40 ,of the many letters that ,faraday wrote to his future wife a number have been preserved4 ,they are manly1 simple1 full of quiet affection1 but absolutely free from gush or forced sentiment of any kind4 ,extracts from several of them are printed by ,bence ,jones4 ,one of these1 written early in #ahba1 runs as follows3-- ,i tied up the enclosed key with my books last night1 and make haste to return it lest its absence should occasion confusion4 ,if it has1 it will perhaps remind you of the disorder ,i must be in here also for the want of a key--,i mean the one to my heart4 ,however1 ,i know where my key is1 and hope soon to have it here1 and then the ,institution will be all right again4 ,let no one oppose my gaining possession of it when unavoidable obstacles are removed4 ,ever1 my dear girl1 one who is perfectly yours1 ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,faraday obtained leave of the managers to bring his wife to live in his rooms at the ,institution2 and in ,may1 #ahba1 his position was changed from that of lecture assistant to that of superintendent of the house and laboratory4 ,in these changes ,sir ,humphry ,davy gave him willing assistance4 ,but his salary remained #ajj a year4 ,obstacles being now removed1 ,faraday and ,miss ,barnard were married on ,june #ab4 ,few persons were asked to the wedding1 for ,faraday wished it to be 8just like any other day40 8,there will10 he wrote1 8be no bustle1 no noise1 no hurry 444 it is in the heart that we expect and look for pleasure40 ,sidenote3 ,a ,,happy ,,marriage4 ,his marriage1 though childless1 was extremely happy4 ,mrs4 ,faraday proved to be exactly the true helpmeet for his need2 and he loved her to the end of his life with a chivalrous devotion which has become almost a proverb4 ,little indications of his attachment crop up in unexpected places in his subsequent career2 but as with his religious views so with his domestic affairs1 he never obtruded them upon others1 nor yet shrank from mentioning them when there was cause4 ,tyndall1 in after years1 made the intensity of ,faraday's attachment to his wife the subject of a striking simile3 8,never1 ,i believe1 existed a manlier1 purer1 steadier love4 ,like a burning diamond1 it continued to shed1 for six and forty years1 its white and smokeless glow40 ,in his diploma-book1 now in possession of the ,royal ,society1 in which he carefully preserved all the certificates1 awards1 and honours bestowed upon him by academies and universities1 there may be found on a slip inserted in the volume this entry3-- #beth ,january1 #ahdg4 ,amongst these records and events1 ,i here insert the date of one which1 as a source of honour and happiness1 far exceeds the rest4 ,we were married on ,june #ab1 #ahba4 ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,and two years later1 in the autobiographical notes he wrote3-- ,on ,june #ab1 #ahba1 he married--an event which more than any other contributed to his earthly happiness and healthful state of mind4 ,the union has continued for twenty-eight years1 and has nowise changed1 except in the depth and strength of its character4 ,when near the close of his life1 he presented to the ,royal ,institution the bookcase with the volumes of notes of ,davy's lectures and of books bound by himself1 the inscription recorded that they were the gift of 8,michael and ,sarah ,faraday40 ,every ,saturday evening he used to take his wife to her father's house at ,paternoster ,row1 so that on ,sunday they should be nearer to the chapel at ,paul's ,alley4 ,and in after years1 when he was away on scientific work1 visiting lighthouses1 or attending meetings of the ,british ,association1 he always tried to return for the ,sunday4 ,a letter from ,liebig in #ahdd 7see p4 #bbe7 gives one of the very few glimpses of contemporary date of the impression made by ,mrs4 ,faraday upon others4 ,one month after his marriage ,faraday made his profession of faith before the ,sandemanian church1 to which his wife already belonged1 and was admitted a member4 ,to his religious views1 and his relations to the body he thus formally joined1 reference will be found later4 ,sidenote3 ,,first ,,electrical ,,discovery4 ,faraday now settled down to a routine life of scientific work4 ,his professional reputation was rising1 and his services as analyst were being sought after4 ,but in the midst of this he was pursuing investigations on his own account4 ,in the late summer of this year he made the discovery of the electro-magnetic rotations described in ,chapter ,,iii4--his first important piece of original research--and had in consequence a serious misunderstanding with ,dr4 ,wollaston4 ,on ,september #crd1 working with ,george ,barnard in the laboratory1 he saw the electric wire for the first time revolve around the pole of the magnet4 ,rubbing his hands as he danced around the table with beaming face1 he exclaimed3 8,there they go6 there they go6 we have succeeded at last40 ,then he gleefully proposed that they should wind up the day by going to one of the theatres4 ,which should it be8 8,oh1 to ,astley's1 to see the horses40 ,and to ,astley's they went4 ,on ,christmas ,day he called his young wife to see something new3 an electric conducting-wire revolving under the influence of the magnetism of the earth alone4 ,he also read two chemical papers at the ,royal ,society1 announcing new discoveries2 one of them in conjunction with his friend ,phillips4 ,in ,july1 #ahbb1 he took his wife and her mother to ,ramsgate1 whilst he went off with ,phillips to ,swansea to try a new process in ,vivian's copper works4 ,during this enforced parting1 ,faraday wrote his wife three letters from which the following are extracts3--- ,sidenote3 8,a ,,mere ,,love-,,letter40 7,july #ba1 #ahbb74 ,i perceive that if ,i give way to my thoughts1 ,i shall write you a mere love-letter1 just as usual1 with not a particle of news in it3 to prevent which ,i will constrain myself to a narrative of what has happened since ,i left you up to the present time1 and then indulge my affection4 ,yesterday was a day of events--little1 but pleasant4 ,i went in the morning to the ,institution1 and in the course of the day analysed the water1 and sent an account of it to ,mr4 ,hatchett4 ,mr4 ,fisher ,i did not see4 ,mr4 ,lawrence called in1 and behaved with his usual generosity4 ,he had called in the early part of the week1 and1 finding that ,i should be at the ,institution on ,saturday only1 came up1 as ,i have already said1 and insisted on my accepting two ten-pound bank-notes for the information he professed to have obtained from me at various times4 ,is not this handsome8 ,the money1 as you know1 could not have been at any time more acceptable2 and ,i cannot see any reason1 my dear love1 why you and ,i should not regard it as another proof1 among many1 that our trust should without a moment's reserve be freely reposed on ,him who provideth all things for ,his people4 ,have we not many times been reproached1 by such mercies as these1 for our caring after food and raiment and the things of this world8 ,on coming home in the evening1 i4e41 coming to ,paternoster ,row home1 ,i learned that ,mr4 ,phillips had seen ,c41 and had told her we should not leave ,london until ,monday evening4 ,so ,i shall have to-morrow to get things ready in1 and ,i shall have enough to do4 ,i fancy we are going to a large mansion and into high company1 so ,i must take more clothes4 ,having the #bj1 ,i am become bold4444 ,and now1 how do my dear wife and mother do8 ,are you comfortable8 are you happy8 are the lodgings convenient1 and ,mrs4 ,o4 obliging8 ,has the place done you good8 ,is the weather fine8 ,tell me all things as soon as you can4 ,i think if you write directly you get this it will be best1 but let it be a long letter4 ,i do not know when ,i wished so much for a long letter as ,i do from you now4 ,you will get this on ,tuesday1 and any letter from you to me cannot reach ,swansea before ,thursday or ,friday--a sad long time to wait4 ,direct to me1 ,post ,office1 ,swansea2 or perhaps better1 to me at -- ,vivian ,esq41 ,marino1 near ,swansea1 ,south ,wales4444 ,and now1 my dear girl1 ,i must set business aside4 ,i am tired of the dull detail of things1 and want to talk of love to you2 and surely there can be no circumstances under which ,i can have more right4 ,the theme was a cheerful and delightful one before we were married1 but it is doubly so now4 ,i now can speak1 not of my own heart only1 but of both our hearts4 ,i now speak1 not with any doubt of the state of your thoughts1 but with the fullest conviction that they answer to my own4 ,all that ,i can now say warm and animated to you1 ,i know that you would say to me again4 ,the excess of pleasure which ,i feel in knowing you mine is doubled by the consciousness that you feel equal joy in knowing me yours4 ,sidenote3 ,,from ,,husband ,,to ,,wife4 ,marino3 ,sunday1 ,july #bh1 #ahbb4 ,,my ,,dearly ,,beloved ,,wife1--,i have just read your letter again1 preparatory to my writing to you1 that my thoughts might be still more elevated and quickened than before4 ,i could almost rejoice at my absence from you1 if it were only that it has produced such an earnest and warm mark of affection from you as that letter4 ,tears of joy and delight fell from my eyes on its perusal4 ,i think it was last ,sunday evening1 about this time1 that ,i wrote to you from ,london2 and ,i again resort to this affectionate conversation with you1 to tell you what has happened since the letter which ,i got franked from this place to you on ,thursday ,i believe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have been working very hard here at the copper works1 and with some success4 ,our days have gone on just as before4 ,a walk before breakfast2 then breakfast2 then to the works till four or five o'clock1 and then home to dress1 and dinner4 ,after dinner1 tea and conversation4 ,i have felt doubly at a loss to-day1 being absent from both the meeting and you4 ,when away from ,london before1 ,i have had you with me1 and we could read and talk and walk2 to-day ,i have had no one to fill your place1 so ,i will tell you how ,i have done4 ,there are so many here1 and their dinner so late and long1 that ,i made up my mind to avoid it1 though1 if possible1 without appearing singular4 ,so1 having remained in my room till breakfast time1 we all breakfasted together1 and soon after ,mr4 ,phillips and myself took a walk out to the ,mumbles ,point1 at the extremity of this side of the bay4 ,there we sat down to admire the beautiful scenery around us1 and1 after we had viewed it long enough1 returned slowly home4 ,we stopped at a little village in our way1 called ,oystermouth1 and dined at a small1 neat1 homely house about one o'clock4 ,we then came back to ,marino1 and after a little while again went out--,mr4 ,phillips to a relation in the town1 and myself for a walk on the sands and the edge of the bay4 ,i took tea in a little cottage1 and1 returning home about seven o'clock1 found them engaged at dinner1 so came up to my own room1 and shall not see them again to-night4 ,i went down for a light just now1 and heard them playing some sacred music in the drawing-room2 they have all been to church to-day1 and are what are called regular people4 ,the trial at ,hereford is put off for the present1 but yet we shall not be able to be in town before the end of this week4 ,though ,i long to see you1 ,i do not know when it will be2 but this ,i know1 that ,i am getting daily more anxious about you4 ,mr4 ,phillips wrote home to ,mrs4 ,phillips from here even before ,i did--i4e4 last ,wednesday4 ,this morning he received a letter from ,mrs4 ,phillips 7who is very well7 desiring him to ask me for a copy of one of my letters to you1 that he may learn to write love-letters of sufficient length4 ,he laughs at the scolding1 and says that it does not hurt at a distance4444 ,it seems to me so long since ,i left you that there must have been time for a great many things to have happened4 ,i expect to see you with such joy when ,i come home that ,i shall hardly know what to do with myself4 ,i hope you will be well and blooming1 and animated and happy1 when you see me4 ,i do not know how we shall contrive to get away from here4 ,we certainly shall not have concluded before ,thursday evening1 but ,i think we shall endeavour earnestly to leave this place on ,friday night1 in which case we shall get home late on ,saturday night4 ,if we cannot do that1 as ,i should not like to be travelling all day on ,sunday1 we shall probably not leave until ,sunday night2 but ,i think the first plan will be adopted1 and that you will not have time to answer this letter4 ,i expect1 nevertheless1 an answer to my last letter--i4e4 ,i expect that my dear wife will think of me again4 ,expect here means nothing more than ,i trust and have a full confidence that it will be so4 ,my kind girl is so affectionate that she would not think a dozen letters too much for me if there were time to send them1 which ,i am glad there is not4 ,give my love to our mothers as earnestly as you would your own1 and also to ,charlotte or ,john1 or any such one that you may have with you4 ,i have not written to ,paternoster ,row yet1 but ,i am going to write now1 so that ,i may be permitted to finish this letter here4 ,i do not feel quite sure1 indeed1 that the permission to leave off is not as necessary from my own heart as from yours4 ,with the utmost affection--with perhaps too much--,i am1 my dear wife1 my ,sarah1 your devoted husband1 ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,faraday's next scientific success was the liquefaction of chlorine 7see ,chapter ,,iii41 p4 #ic74 ,this discovery1 which created much interest in the scientific world1 was the occasion of a serious trouble with ,sir ,humphry ,davy2 for doubtless ,davy was annoyed that he had left such a simple experiment to a mere assistant4 ,writing on the matter years after1 ,faraday said3-- ,when my paper was written1 it was1 according to a custom consequent upon our relative positions1 submitted to ,sir ,h4 ,davy 7as were all my papers for the 8,philosophical ,transactions0 up to a much later period71 and he altered it as he thought fit4 ,this practice was one of great kindness to me1 for various grammatical mistakes and awkward expressions were from time to time thus removed1 which might else have remained4 ,in point of fact1 ,davy on this occasion added a note 7which was duly printed7 saying precisely how far he had any share in suggesting the experiment1 but in no wise traversing any of ,faraday's claims4 ,although he thus acted generously to the latter1 there can be no question that he began to be seriously jealous of ,faraday's rising fame4 ,the matter was the more serious because some who did not have a nice appreciation of the circumstances chose to rake up a charge which had been raised two years before against ,faraday by some of ,dr4 ,wollaston's friends--in particular by ,dr4 ,warburton--about the discovery of the electro-magnetic rotations1 a charge which ,faraday's straightforward action and ,wollaston's frank satisfaction ought to have dissipated for ever4 ,and all this was doubly aggravating because ,faraday was now expecting to be proposed as a candidate for the ,fellowship of the ,royal ,society1 of which ,sir ,humphry was ,president4 ,sidenote3 ,,proposed ,,for ,,the ,,fellowship4 ,at that time1 as now1 the proposal paper or 8certificate0 of a candidate for election must be presented1 signed by a number of influential ,fellows4 ,faraday's friend ,phillips took in hand the pleasant task of drawing up this certificate and of collecting the necessary signatures4 ,the rule then was that the certificate so presented must be read out at ten successive meetings of the ,society2 after which a ballot took place4 ,faraday's certificate bears twenty-nine names4 ,the very first is that of ,wollaston1 and it is followed by those of ,children1 ,babington1 ,sir ,john ,herschel1 ,babbage1 ,phillips1 ,roget1 and ,sir ,james ,south4 ,on the #eth of ,may1 #ahbc1 ,faraday wrote to ,phillips3-- ,a thousand thanks to you for your kindness--,i am delighted with the names--,mr4 ,brande had told me of it before ,i got your note and thought it impossible to be better4 ,i suppose you will not be in ,grosvenor ,street this ,evening1 so ,i will put this in the post4 ,our ,best remembrances to ,mrs4 ,phillips4 ,yours ,ever1 ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,the certificate was read for the first time on ,may #ast4 ,the absence of the names of ,davy and ,brande is accounted for by the one being ,president and the other ,secretary4 ,bence ,jones gives the following account of what followed3-- ,that ,sir ,h4 ,davy actively opposed ,faraday's election is no less certain than it is sad4 ,many years ago1 ,faraday gave a friend the following facts1 which were written down immediately3--8,sir ,h4 ,davy told me ,i must take down my certificate4 ,i replied that ,i had not put it up2 that ,i could not take it down1 as it was put up by my proposers4 ,he then said ,i must get my proposers to take it down4 ,i answered that ,i knew they would not do so4 ,then he said1 ,i as ,president will take it down4 ,i replied that ,i was sure ,sir ,h4 ,davy would do what he thought was for the good of the ,royal ,society40 ,faraday also said that one of his proposers told him that ,sir ,h4 ,davy had walked for an hour round the courtyard of ,somerset ,house1 arguing that ,faraday ought not to be elected4 ,this was probably about ,may #cj4 ,faraday also made the following notes on the circumstance of the charge made by ,wollaston's friends3-- #ahbc4 ,in relation to ,davy's opposition to my election at the ,royal ,society4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy angry1 ,may #cj4 ,phillips' report through ,mr4 ,children1 ,june #e4 ,mr4 ,warburton called first time1 ,june #e 7evening74 ,i called on ,dr4 ,wollaston1 and he not in town1 ,june #i4 ,i called on ,dr4 ,wollaston1 and saw him1 ,june #ad4 ,i called at ,sir ,h4 ,davy's1 and he called on me1 ,june #ag4 ,on ,july #h ,dr4 ,warburton wrote that he was satisfied with ,faraday's explanation1 and added that he would tell his friends that 8my objections to you as a ,fellow are and ought to be withdrawn1 and that ,i now wish to forward your election40 ,bence ,jones adds3-- ,on ,june #bi1 ,sir ,h4 ,davy ends a note1 8,i am1 dear ,faraday1 very sincerely your well wisher and friend40 ,so that outwardly the storm rapidly passed away2 and when the ballot was taken1 after the certificate had been read at ten meetings1 there was only one black ball4 ,sidenote3 ,,fellowship ,,and ,,magnanimity4 ,the election took place ,january #h1 #ahbd4 ,of this unfortunate misunderstanding1#aa ,davy's biographer1 ,dr4 ,thorpe1 writes3-- ,the jealousy thus manifested by ,davy is one of the most pitiful facts in his history4 ,it was a sign of that moral weakness which was at the bottom of much of his unpopularity1 and which revealed itself in various ways as his physical strength decayed4444 ,faraday allowed himself in after days no shade of resentment against ,davy2 though he confessed rather sadly that after his election as ,f4,r4,s4 his relations with his former master were never the same as before4 ,if anyone recurred to the old scandal1 he would fire with indignation4 ,dumas in his 8loge ,historique0 has given the following anecdote3-- ,faraday never forgot what he owed to ,davy4 ,visiting him at the family lunch1 twenty years after the death of the latter1 he noticed evidently that ,i responded with some coolness to the praises which the recollection of ,davy's great discoveries had evoked from him4 ,he made no comment4 ,but1 after the meal1 he simply took me down to the library of the ,royal ,institution1 and stopping before the portrait of ,davy he said3 8,he was a great man1 wasn't he80 ,then1 turning round1 he added1 8,it was here#ab that he spoke to me for the first time40 ,i bowed4 ,we went down to the laboratory4 ,faraday took out a note-book1 opened it and pointed out with his finger the words written by ,davy1 at the very moment when by means of the battery he had just decomposed potash1 and had seen the first globule of potassium ever isolated by the hand of man4 ,davy had traced with a feverish hand a circle which separates them from the rest of the page3 the words1 8,capital ,experiment10 which he wrote below1 cannot be read without emotion by any true chemist4 ,i confessed myself conquered1 and this time1 without hesitating longer1 ,i joined in the admiration of my good friend4 ,dr4 ,thorpe in his life of ,davy adds3-- 444 ,to the end of his days he ,faraday regarded ,davy as his true master1 preserving to the last1 in spite of his knowledge of the moral frailties of ,davy's nature1 the respect and even reverence which is to be seen in his early lecture notes and in his letters to his friend ,abbott4 ,in #ahbc the ,athenum ,club was started by ,j4 ,wilson ,croker1 ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 ,sir ,t4 ,lawrence1 ,sir ,f4 ,chantrey1 and others1 as a resort for literary and scientific men4 ,faraday was made ,club ,secretary2 but he found the duties totally uncongenial1 and in #ahbd resigned the post to his friend ,magrath4 ,faraday was advanced in #ahbe to the position of ,director of the ,laboratory of the ,royal ,institution1 ,brande remaining ,professor of ,chemistry4 ,one of the first acts of the new ,director was to hold evening meetings of the members in the laboratory1 when experiments were shown and some demonstration was given4 ,there were three or four of these informal gatherings that year4 ,in the next year these ,friday evening meetings were held more systematically4 ,there were seventeen during the season1 at six of which ,faraday gave discourses 7see p4 #ajj74 ,in #ahbg there were nineteen1 of which he delivered three4 ,by this time the gatherings were held in the theatre as at present1 save that ladies were only admitted at that date1 and for many years1 to the upper gallery4 ,he also originated the ,christmas lectures to juveniles1 while continuing to give regular courses of morning lectures1 as his predecessors ,young and ,davy had done4 ,his activity for the ,royal ,institution was incessant4 ,sidenote3 ,,fees ,,for ,,professional ,,work4 ,down to the year #ahcj ,faraday continued to undertake1 at professional fees1 chemical analyses and expert work in the law-courts1 and thereby added considerably to the very slender emolument of his position2 but1 finding this work to make increasing demands on his time1 which he could ill spare from the absorbing pursuit of original researches1 he decided to abandon a practice which would have made him rich1 and withdrew from expert practice4 ,the following letter to ,phillips was written only a few weeks before this determination3-- ,m4 ,faraday to ,richard ,phillips4 ,royal ,institution1 ,june #ba1 #ahca4 ,,my ,,dear ,,phillips1--,i have been trying hard to get time enough to write to you by post to-night1 but without success2 the bell has rung1 and ,i am too late4 ,however1 ,i am resolved to be ready to-morrow4 ,we have been very anxious and rather embarrassed in our minds about your anxiety to know how things were proceeding1 and uncertain whether reference to them would be pleasant1 and that has been the cause why ,i have not written to you1 for ,i did not know what character your connexion with ,badams had4 ,i was a little the more embarrassed because of my acquaintance with ,mr4 ,rickard and his family1 and1 of course with his brother-in-law1 ,dr4 ,urchell1 of whom ,i have made numerous enquiries to know what ,mr4 ,rickard intended doing at ,birmingham4 ,he 7expressed a7 hope it would be nothing unpleasant to you1 but was not sure4 ,our only bit of comfort in the matter was on hearing from ,daniell about you a little2 he was here to-day1 and glad to hear of you through me4 ,but now that ,i may write1 let me say that ,mrs4 ,faraday has been very anxious with myself1 and begs me earnestly to remember her to ,mrs4 ,phillips4 ,we have often wished we could have had you here for an hour or two1 to break off what we supposed might be the train of thoughts at home4 ,with regard to the five guineas1 do not think of it for a moment4 ,whilst ,i supposed a mercantile concern wanted my opinion for its own interested uses1 ,i saw no reason why it should not pay me2 but it is altogether another matter when it becomes your affair4 ,i do not think you would have wished me to pay you five guineas for anything you might have done personally for me4 8,dog don't eat dog10 as ,sir ,e4 ,home said to me in a similar case4 ,the affair is settled4 ,i have no doubt ,i shall be amused and1 as you speak of new facts1 instructed by your letter to ,dr4 ,reid1 as ,i am by all your letters4 ,daniell says he thinks you are breaking a fly upon the wheel4 ,you know ,i consider you as the ,prince of ,chemical critics4 ,pearsall has been working1 as you know1 on red manganese solutions4 ,he has not proved1 but he makes out a strong case for the opinion1 that they owe their colour and other properties to manganesic acid4 ,this paper will be in the next number of the ,journal4 ,with regard to the gramme1 wine-pint1 etc41 etc41 in the manipulation ,i had great trouble about them1 for ,i could find no agreement1 and at last resolved to take certain conclusions from ,capt4 ,kater's paper and the ,act of ,parliament1 and calculate the rest4 ,i think ,i took the data at page #fg1 paragraph #aai1 as the data1 but am not sure1 and cannot go over them again4 ,my memory gets worse and worse daily4 ,i will not1 therefore1 say ,i have not received your ,pharmacopia--that of #ahbd is what ,i have at hand and use4 ,i am not aware of any other4 ,i have sent a paper to the ,r4 ,s41 but not chemical4 ,it is on sound1 etc41 etc4 ,if they print it1 of course you will have a copy in due time4 ,i am1 my dear ,phillips1 ,most faithfully and sincerely yours1 ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,is it right to ask what has become of ,badams8 ,i suppose he is1 of course1 a defaulter at the ,r4 ,s4 ,sidenote3 ,,sacrifices ,,for ,,science4 ,this sacrifice for science was not small4 ,he had made #a1jjj in #ahcj out of these professional occupations1 and in #ahca would have made more but for his own decision4 ,in #ahcb some ,excise work that he had retained brought him in #aee #is42 but in no subsequent year did it bring in so much4 ,he might easily have made #e1jjj a year had he chosen to cultivate the professional connection thus formed2 and as he continued1 with little intermission1 in activity till #ahfj1 he might have died a wealthy man4 ,but he chose otherwise2 and his first reward came in the autumn of #ahca1 in the great discovery of magneto-electric currents--the principle upon which all our modern dynamos and transformers are based1 the foundation of all the electric lighting and electric transmission of power4 ,from this work he went on to a research on the identity of all the kinds of electricity1 until then supposed to be of separate sorts1 and from this to electro-chemical work of the very highest value4 ,of all these investigations some account will be found in the chapters which follow4 ,but the immense body of patient scientific work thus done for the love of science was not accomplished without sacrifices of a more than pecuniary kind4 ,he withdrew more and more from society1 declined to dine in company1 ceased to give dinners1 withdrew from all social and philanthropic organisations2 even withdrew from taking any part in the management of any of the learned societies4 ,the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science was started in #ahca4 ,faraday took no part in that movement1 and did not attend the inaugural meeting at ,york4 ,the next year1 however1 he attended the second meeting of that body at ,oxford4 ,here he 8had the pleasure0--it is his own phrase--of making an experiment on the great magnet in the ,university museum1 drawing a spark by induction in a coil of wire4 ,this was a coil #bbj feet long1 wound on a hollow cylinder of pasteboard1 which had been used in the classical experiments of the preceding year4 ,he also showed that the induced currents could heat a thin wire connected to the terminals of this coil4 ,these experiments1 which were made in conjunction with ,mr4 7afterwards ,sir ,william ,snow7 ,harris1 ,professor ,daniell1 and ,mr4 ,duncan1 seem to have excited great attention at the time4 ,the theologians of ,oxford appear to have been mightily distressed both by the success of the spark experiment and by the welcome shown by the ,university to the representatives of science4 ,the following passage from ,pusey's life#ac reveals the rampant clericalism which then and for a score of years sought to put back the clock of civilisation4 ,during the ,long ,vacation of #ahcb ,pusey had plenty of work on hand4 ,the ,british ,association had held its first meeting in ,oxford during the month of ,june1 and on the #bast the honorary degree of ,d4,c4,l4 was bestowed on four of its distinguished members3 ,brewster1 ,faraday1 ,brown1 and ,dalton4 ,keble1 who was now ,professor of ,poetry1 was angry at the 8temper and tone of the ,oxford doctors02 they had 8truckled sadly to the spirit of the times0 in receiving 8the hodge-podge of philosophers0 as they did4 ,dr4 ,l4 ,carpenter had assured ,dr4 ,macbride that 8the ,university had prolonged her existence for a hundred years by the kind reception he and his fellows had received40 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,hodge-,,podge ,,of ,,philosophers4 ,it is not without significance1 perhaps1 that all the four men thus contemptuously labelled by ,keble as the 8hodge-podge of philosophers0 were ,dissenters4 ,brewster and ,brown 7the great botanist and discoverer of the 8,brownian0 motion of particles7 belonged to the ,presbyterian ,church of ,scotland1 ,dalton was a ,member of the ,society of ,friends1 and ,faraday a ,sandemanian4 ,newman appears to have been equally discomposed by the circumstance1 for he got his friend ,mr4 ,rose to write an article--a long and weary diatribe--against the ,british ,association1 which he inserted in the ,british ,critic for #ahci4 ,its slanders1 assumptions1 suppressions1 and suggestions are in a very unworthy temper4 ,faraday's devotion to the ,royal ,institution and its operations was marvellous4 ,he had already abandoned outside professional work4 ,from #ahch he refused to see any callers except three times a week4 ,his extreme desire was to give himself uninterruptedly to research4 ,his friend ,a4 de la ,rive says3-- ,every morning ,faraday went into his laboratory as the man of business goes to his office1 and then tried by experiment the truth of the ideas which he had conceived overnight1 as ready to give them up if experiment said no as to follow out the consequences with rigorous logic if experiment answered yes4 ,he had in #ahbg declined the appointment of ,professor of ,chemistry in the ,university 7afterwards called ,university ,college7 of ,london1 giving as his reason the interests of the ,royal ,institution4 ,he wrote3-- ,i think it a matter of duty and gratitude on my part to do what ,i can for the good of the ,royal ,institution in the present attempt to establish it firmly4 ,the ,institution has been a source of knowledge and pleasure to me for the last fourteen years2 and though it does not pay me in salary what ,i now strive to do for it1 yet ,i possess the kind feelings and goodwill of its authorities and members1 and all the privileges it can grant or ,i require2 and1 moreover1 ,i remember the protection it has afforded me during the past years of my scientific life4 ,these circumstances1 with the thorough conviction that it is a useful and valuable establishment1 and the strong hopes that exertions will be followed with success1 have decided me in giving at least two years more to it1 in the belief that after that time it will proceed well1 into whatever hands it may pass4 ,in #ahbi1 however1 he was asked to become lecturer on chemistry at the ,royal ,academy at ,woolwich4 ,as this involved only twenty lectures a year he agreed1 the salary being fixed at #bjj a year4 ,these lectures were continued until #ahdi4 ,sidenote3 ,,trinity ,,house ,,appointment4 ,in #ahcf the whole course of his scientific work was changed by his appointment as scientific adviser to ,trinity ,house1 the body which has official charge of the lighthouse service in ,great ,britain4 ,to the ,deputy-master he wrote3-- ,i consider your letter to me as a great compliment1 and should view the appointment at the ,trinity ,house1 which you propose1 in the same light2 but ,i may not accept even honours without due consideration4 ,in the first place1 my time is of great value to me2 and if the appointment you speak of involved anything like periodical routine attendances1 ,i do not think ,i could accept it4 ,but if it meant that in consultation1 in the examination of proposed plans and experiments1 in trials1 etc41 made as my convenience would allow1 and with an honest sense of a duty to be performed1 then ,i think it would consist with my present engagements4 ,you have left the title and the sum in pencil4 ,these ,i look at mainly as regards the character of the appointment2 you will believe me to be sincere in this when you remember my indifference to your proposition as a matter of interest1 though not as a matter of kindness4 ,in consequence of the goodwill and confidence of all around me1 ,i can at any moment convert my time into money1 but ,i do not require more of the latter than is sufficient for necessary purposes4 ,the sum1 therefore1 of #bjj is quite enough in itself1 but not if it is to be the indicator of the character of the appointment2 but ,i think you do not view it so1 and that you and ,i understand each other in that respect2 and your letter confirms me in that opinion4 ,the position which ,i presume you would wish me to hold is analogous to that of a standing counsel4 ,as to the title1 it might be what you pleased almost4 ,chemical adviser is too narrow1 for you would find me venturing into parts of the philosophy of light not chemical4 ,scientific adviser you may think too broad 7or in me too presumptuous72 and so it would be1 if by it was understood all science4 ,he held the post of scientific adviser for nearly thirty years4 ,the records of his work are to be found in nineteen large portfolios full of manuscripts1 all indexed with that minute and scrupulous attention to order and method which characterised all his work4 ,he also held nominally the post of scientific adviser to the ,admiralty1 at a salary of #bjj a year4 ,but this salary he never drew4 ,once the officials of the ,admiralty requested his opinion upon a printed advertising pamphlet of somebody's patent disinfecting powder and anti-miasma lamp4 ,faraday returned it1 with a quietly indignant protest that it was not such a document as he could be expected to give an opinion upon4 ,faraday's hope1 expressed in #ahbg1 that in two years the ,royal ,institution might be restored to a financially sound position1 was not realised4 ,he worked with the most scrupulous economy1 noting down every detail of expenditure even in farthings4 8,we were living on the parings of our own skin10 he once told the managers4 ,in #ahcb the financial question became acute4 ,at the end of that year a committee of investigation reported as follows3-- ,the ,committee are certainly of opinion that no reduction can be made in ,mr4 ,faraday's salary--#ajj per annum1 house1 coals1 and candles2 and beg to express their regret that the circumstances of the ,institution are not such as to justify their proposing such an increase of it as the variety of duties which ,mr4 ,faraday has to perform1 and the zeal and ability with which he performs them1 appear to merit4 ,sidenote3 ,a ,,hundred ,a ,,year1 ,,and ,,two ,,rooms4 ,a hundred a year1 the use of two rooms1 and coals6 ,such was the stipend of the man who had just before been made ,d4,c4,l4 of ,oxford1 and had received from the ,royal ,society the highest award it can bestow--the ,copley ,medal6 ,true1 he made #bjj by the ,woolwich lectures2 but he had a wife to maintain1 his aged mother was entirely dependent upon him1 and there were many calls upon his private exercise of charity4 ,about the year #ahce it was the intention of ,sir ,robert ,peel to confer upon him a pension from the ,civil ,list1 but he went out of office before this could be arranged1 and ,lord ,melbourne became ,prime ,minister4 ,sir ,james ,south had in ,march written to ,lord ,ashley1 afterwards the well-known ,earl of ,shaftesbury1 asking him to place a little historiette of ,faraday in ,sir ,robert ,peel's hands4 ,the said historiette#ad contained an account of ,faraday's early career and a description of the electrical machine which he had constructed as a lad4 8,now that his pecuniary circumstances10 it went on1 8were improved1 he sent his younger sister to boarding-school1 but to enable him to defray the expense1 to deprive himself of dinner every other day was absolutely indispensable40 ,peel expressed to ,ashley lively regret at not having received the historiette earlier when he was still in office4 ,to ,ashley1 later1 he wrote the following hitherto unpublished letter3-- ,drayton ,manor1 ,may #c1 #ahce4 ,,my ,,dear ,,ashley1--,you do me but justice in entertaining the belief that had ,i remained in office one of my earliest recommendations to his ,majesty would have been to grant a pension to ,mr4 ,faraday1 on the same principles precisely upon which one was granted to ,mr4 ,airy4 ,if there had been the means1 ,i would have made the offer before ,i left office4 ,i was quite aware of ,mr4 ,faraday's high eminence as a man of science1 and the valuable practical service he has rendered to the public in that capacity2 but ,i was to blame in not having ascertained whether his pecuniary circumstances made an addition to his income an object to him4 ,i am sure no man living has a better claim to such a consideration from the ,state than he has1 and ,i trust the principle ,i acted on with regard to the award of civil pensions will not only remove away impediments of delicacy and independent feeling from the acceptance of them1 but will add a higher value to the grant of a pension as an honourable distinction than any that it could derive from its pecuniary amount4 ,ever1 my dear ,ashley1 ,most faithfully yours1 ,,robert ,,peel4 ,sidenote3 ,,lord ,,melbourne',s ,,participle4 ,sir ,james ,south still endeavoured to bring about the grant thus deferred1 and wrote to the ,hon4 ,caroline ,fox1 asking her to put the historiette of ,faraday in the hands of ,lord ,holland1 for him to lay before ,melbourne4 ,faraday at first demurred to ,sir ,james ,south's action1 but on the advice of his father-in-law1 ,barnard1 withdrew his demurrer4 ,later in the year he was asked to wait on ,lord ,melbourne at the ,treasury4 ,he has left a diary of the events of the day1 ,october #bfth4 ,according to these notes it appears that ,faraday first had a long talk with ,melbourne's secretary1 ,mr4 ,young1 about his first demurring on religious grounds to accept the pension1 about his objection to savings' banks1 and the laying-up of wealth4 ,later in the day he had a short interview with the ,first ,lord of the ,treasury1 when ,lord ,melbourne1 utterly mistaking the nature of the man before him1 inveighed roundly upon the whole system of giving pensions to scientific and literary persons1 which he described as a piece of humbug4 ,he prefixed the word 8humbug0 with a participle which ,faraday's notes describe as 8theological40 ,faraday1 with an instant flash of indignation1 bowed and withdrew4 ,the same evening he left his card and the following note at the ,treasury3-- ,to the ,right ,hon4 ,lord ,viscount ,melbourne1 ,first ,lord of the ,treasury4 ,october #bf4 ,,my ,,lord1--,the conversation with which your ,lordship honoured me this afternoon1 including1 as it did1 your ,lordship's opinion of the general character of the pensions given of late to scientific persons1 induces me respectfully to decline the favour which ,i believe your ,lordship intends for me2 for ,i feel that ,i could not1 with satisfaction to myself1 accept at your ,lordship's hands that which1 though it has the form of approbation1 is of the character which your ,lordship so pithily applied to it4 ,faraday's diary says3-- ,did not like it much1 and1 on the whole1 regret that friends should have placed me in the situation in which ,i found myself4 ,lord ,melbourne said that 8he thought there had been a great deal of humbug in the whole affair4 ,he did not mean my affair1 of course1 but that of the pensions altogether40444 ,i begged him to understand that ,i had known nothing of the matter until far advanced1 and1 though grateful to those friends who had urged it forward1 wished him to feel at perfect liberty in the affair as far as ,i was concerned4444 ,in the evening ,i wrote and left a letter4 ,i left it myself at ten o'clock at night1 being anxious that ,lord ,melbourne should have it before anything further was done in the affair4 ,sidenote3 ,,michael',s ,,pension4 ,however1 the matter did not end here4 ,faraday's friends were indignant4 ,a caustic1 and probably exaggerated1 account--for which ,faraday disclaimed all responsibility--of the interview appeared in ,fraser's ,magazine1 and was copied into ,the ,times of ,november #bhth1 with the result that1 had it not been for the personal intervention of the ,king1 the pension might have been refused4 ,the storm1 however1 passed away1 and the pension of #cjj per annum was granted on ,december #bdth4 ,years afterwards1 writing to ,mr4 ,b4 ,bell1 ,faraday said1 8,lord ,melbourne behaved very handsomely in the matter40 ,in ,fraser's ,magazine for ,february1 #ahcf 7vol4 xiii41 p4 #bbd71 is a portrait of ,faraday by ,maclise1 accompanied by a very amusing biographical notice by ,dr4 ,maginn4 ,the picture represents ,faraday lecturing1 and surrounded by his apparatus4 ,the article begins thus3-- ,here you have him in his glory--not that his position was inglorious when he stood before ,melbourne1 then decorated with a blue velvet travelling cap1 and lounging with one leg over the chair of ,canning6--and distinctly gave that illustrious despiser of 8humbug0 to understand that he had mistaken his lad4 ,no6 but here you have him as he first flashed upon the intelligence of mankind the condensation of the gases1 or the identity of the five electricities4 ,after a lively summary of his career1 and the jocular suggestion that1 as the successor of ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 ,far-a-day must be near-a-knight the article continues3-- ,the future ,baronet is a very good little fellow 444 playing a fair fork over a leg of mutton1 and devoid of any reluctance to partake an old friend's third bottle4 ,we know of few things more agreeable than a cigar and a bowl of punch 7which he mixes admirably7 in the society of the unpretending ex-bookbinder4444 ,well1 although ,young got ,broderip to write a sort of defence of his master1 and 8,justice ,b----0--mirabile dictu6--got ,hook to print it in the ,john ,bull1 the current of public feeling could not be stopped3 ,,regina spoke out--,,william ,,rex1 as in duty bound1 followed--,melbourne apologised--and 8,michael's pension1 ,michael's pension0 is all right4 ,in one of his note-books of this period is found the following entry3-- #ae ,january1 #ahcd4 ,within the last week have observed twice that a slight obscurity of the sight of my left eye has happened4 ,it occurred on reading the letters of a book held about fourteen inches from the eye1 being obscured as by a fog over a space about half an inch in diameter4 ,this space was a little to the right and below the axes of the eye4 ,looking for the effect now and other times1 ,i cannot perceive it4 ,i note this down that ,i may hereafter trace the progress of the effect if it increases or becomes more common4 ,happily1 the trouble did not recur2 but the entry is characteristic of the habits of accuracy of the man4 ,loss of memory1 unfortunately1 early set in4 ,there is actually a hint of this in the first of his letters to ,abbott 7p4 #g71 and references to the trouble and to dizziness in the head recur perpetually in his correspondence4 ,whenever these brain-troubles threatened1 he was compelled to drop all work and seek rest and change of scene4 ,he often ran down to ,brighton1 which he thought1 however1 a poor place4 ,he constructed for himself a velocipede#ae on which to take exercise4 ,two or three times he went to ,switzerland for a longer holiday1 usually accompanied by his wife and her brother1 ,george ,barnard4 8,physically10 says ,tyndall1 8,faraday was below the middle size1 well set1 active1 and with extraordinary animation of countenance4 ,his head from forehead to back was so long that he had usually to bespeak his hats40 ,in youth his hair was brown1 curling naturally2 later in life it approached to white1 and he always parted it down the middle4 ,his voice was pleasant1 his laugh was hearty1 his manners when with young people1 or when excited by success in the laboratory1 were gay to boyishness4 ,indeed1 until the end of the active period of his life he never lost the capacity for boyish delight1 or for unbending in fun after the stress of severe labour4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,scientific ,,researches3 ,,first ,,period4 ,from first to last the original scientific researches of ,faraday extend over a period of forty-four years1 beginning with an analysis of caustic lime1 published in the ,quarterly ,journal of ,science in #ahaf1 and ending with his last unfinished researches of #ahfj to #ahfb1 on the possible existence of new relations between magnetism and gravity and between magnetism and light4 ,the mere list of their titles fills several pages in the catalogue of scientific papers published by the ,royal ,society4 ,for convenience of description1 these forty-four years may be divided into three periods3 the first lasting from #ahaf to #ahcj1 a period of miscellaneous and in some respects preliminary activity2 the second from #ahca to the end of #ahci1 the period of the classical experimental researches in electricity down to the time when they were temporarily suspended by the serious state of his health2 the third from #ahdd1 when he was able to resume work1 down to #ahfj1 a period which includes the completion of the experimental researches on electricity1 the discovery of the relations between light and magnetism1 and that of diamagnetism4 ,sidenote3 ,,researches ,,beginning4 ,faraday's first research was an analysis for ,sir ,humphry ,davy of a specimen of caustic lime which had been sent to him by the ,duchess of ,montrose from ,tuscany4 ,the ,quarterly ,journal of ,science1 in which it appeared1 was a precursor of the ,proceedings of the ,royal ,institution1 and was indeed edited by ,professor ,w4 ,f4 ,brande4 ,faraday frequently wrote for it during these years1 and took editorial charge of it on more than one occasion during ,brande's holidays4 ,the paper on caustic lime was reprinted by ,faraday in the volume of his 8,experimental ,researches on ,chemistry and ,physics10 prefaced by the following note3-- ,i reprint this paper at full length2 it was the beginning of my communications to the public1 and in its results very important to me4 ,sir ,humphry ,davy gave me the analysis to make as a first attempt in chemistry1 at a time when my fear was greater than my confidence1 and both far greater than my knowledge2 at a time also when ,i had no thought of ever writing an original paper on science4 ,the addition of his own comments1 and the publication of the paper1 encouraged me to go on making1 from time to time1 other slight communications1 some of which appear in this volume4 ,their transference from the ,quarterly into other journals increased my boldness1 and now that forty years have elapsed1 and ,i can look back on what successive communications have led to1 ,i still hope1 much as their character has changed1 that ,i have not either now or forty years ago been too bold4 ,for the next two or three years ,faraday was very closely occupied in the duties of assisting ,sir ,humphry ,davy in his researches1 and in helping to prepare the lectures for both ,davy and ,brande4 ,yet he found time still to work on his own account4 ,in #ahag he had six papers and notes in the ,quarterly ,journal of ,science1 including one on the escape of gases through capillary tubes1 and others on wire-gauze safety lamps and ,davy's experiments on flame4 ,in #ahah he had eleven papers in the ,journal2 the most important being on the production of sound in tubes by flames1 while another was on the combustion of the diamond4 ,in #ahai he had nineteen papers in the ,quarterly ,journal1 chiefly of a chemical nature4 ,these related to boracic acid1 the composition of steels1 the separation of manganese from iron1 and on the supposed new metal1 8,sirium0 or 8,vestium10 which he showed to be only a mixture of iron and sulphur with nickel1 cobalt1 and other metals4 ,sidenote3 ,,oersted',s ,,discovery4 ,the year #ahbj was marked in the annals of science by the discovery1 by ,oersted of ,copenhagen1 of the prime fact of electromagnetism1 the deflexion which is produced upon a magnetic needle by an electric current that passes either under or over the needle4 ,often had it been suspected that there must be some connection between the phenomena of electricity and those of magnetism4 ,the similarities between the attractions and repulsions caused by electrified bodies1 and those due to the magnet when acting on iron1 had constantly suggested the possibility that there was some real connection4 ,but1 as had been pointed out centuries before by ,st4 ,augustine1 while the rubbed amber will attract any substance if only small or light enough1 being indifferent to its material1 the magnet will only attract iron or compounds of iron1 and is totally inoperative#af on all other substances4 ,again1 while it had been noticed that in houses which had been struck by lightning knives1 needles1 and other steel objects near the path of the electric flash had become magnetised1 no one had been able1 by using the most powerful electric machines1 to repeat with certainty the magnetisation of needles4 ,in vain they had tried to magnetise knives and wires by sending sparks through them4 ,sometimes they showed a trace of magnetism1 sometimes none4 ,and in the cases where some slight magnetisation resulted1 the polarity could not be depended upon4 ,van ,swinden had written a whole treatise in two volumes on the analogies between electricity and magnetism1 but left the real relation between the two more obscure than ever4 ,after the invention1 in #ahjj1 of the voltaic pile1 which for the first time provided a means of generating a steady flow or current of electricity1 several experimenters1 including ,oersted himself1 had again essayed to discover the long-suspected connection1 but without success4 ,oersted was notoriously a poor experimenter1 though a man of great philosophical genius4 ,having in #ahbj a more powerful voltaic battery in operation than previously1 he repeated#ag the operation of bringing near to the compass needle the copper wire that conveyed the current2 and1 laying it parallel to the needle's direction1 and over or under it1 found that the needle tended to turn into a direction at right angles to the line of the current1 the sense of the deviation depending upon the direction of flow of the current1 and also on the position of the wire as to whether it were above or below the needle4 ,a current flowing from south to north over the needle caused the north-pointing end of the needle to be deflected westwards4 ,if the wire were vertical1 so that the current flowed downwards1 and a compass needle was brought near the wire on the south side1 therefore tending under the earth's directive influence to point northwards toward the wire1 it was observed that the effect of the current flowing in the wire was to cause the north-pointing end of the needle to turn westwards4 ,or1 reversing the flow of current1 the effect on the needle was reversed2 it now tended eastwards4 ,all these things ,oersted summed up in the phrase that 8the electric conflict acts in a revolving manner0 around the wire4#ah ,in modern phraseology the whole of the actions are explained if one can conceive that the effect of the electric flow in the wire is to tend to make the north pole of a magnet revolve in one sense around the wire1 whilst it also tends to make the south pole of the magnet revolve around the wire in the other sense4 ,the nett result in most cases is that the magnetic needle tends to set itself square across the line of the current4 ,oersted himself was not too clear in his explanations1 and seems1 in his later papers1 to have lost sight of the circular motion amidst repulsions and attractions4 ,this discovery1 which showed what was the geometrical relation between the magnet and the current1 also showed why the earlier attempts had failed4 ,it was requisite that the electricity should be in a state of steady flow2 neither at rest as in the experiments with electric charges1 nor yet in capricious or oscillatory rush as in those with spark-discharges4 ,faraday1 adverting a quarter of a century later to ,oersted's discovery1 said3 8,it burst open the gates of a domain in science1 dark till then1 and filled it with a flood of light40 ,the very day that ,oersted's memoir was published in ,england1 ,davy brought a copy down into the laboratory of the ,royal ,institution1 and he and ,faraday at once set to work to repeat the experiments and verify the facts4 ,it is a matter of history how1 on the publication of ,oersted's discovery1 ,ampre leaped forward to generalise on electromagnetic actions1 and discovered the mutual actions that may exist between two currents1 or rather between two conducting wires that carry currents4 ,they are found to experience mutual mechanical forces urging them into parallel proximity4 ,biot and ,laplace added to these investigations1 as also did ,arago4 ,davy discovered that the naked copper wire1 while carrying a current1 could attract iron filings to itself--not end-ways in adherent tufts1 as the pole of a magnet does1 but laterally1 each filing or chainlet of filings tending to set itself tangentially at right angles to the axis of the wire4 ,sidenote3 ,a ,,paradoxical ,,phenomenon4 ,this curious right-angled relation between electric flow and magnetic force came as a complete paradox or puzzle to the scientific world4 ,it had taken centuries to throw off the strange unmechanical ideas of force which had dominated the older astronomy4 ,the epicyclic motions of the planets postulated by the ,ptolemaic system were in no way to be accounted for upon mechanical principles4 ,kepler's laws of planetary motion were merely empirical1 embodying the results of observation1 until ,newton's discovery of the laws of circular motion and of the principle of universal gravitation placed the planetary theory on a rational basis4 ,newton's laws required that forces should act in straight lines1 and that to every action there should be an equal and opposite reaction4 ,if ,a attracted ,b1 then ,b attracted ,a with an equal force1 and the mutual force must be in the line drawn from ,a to ,b4 ,the discovery by ,oersted that the magnet pole was urged by the electric wire in a direction transverse to the line joining them1 appeared at first sight to contravene the ideas of force so thoroughly established by ,newton4 ,how could this transversality be explained8 ,some sought to explain the effect by considering the conducting wire to operate as if made up of a number of short magnets set transversely across the wire1 all their north poles being set towards the right1 and all their south poles towards the left4 ,ampre took the alternative view that the magnet might be regarded as equivalent to a number of electric currents circulating transversely around the core as an axis4 ,in neither case was the explanation complete4 ,sidenote3 ,,two ,,years ,,wasted4 ,faraday's scientific activities in the year #ahbj were very marked4 ,new researches on steel had been going on for some months4 ,it had been hoped that by alloying iron with some other metals1 such as silver1 platinum1 or nickel1 a non-rusting alloy might be found4 ,this idea took its rise from the erroneous notion that meteoric iron1 which is richly alloyed with nickel1 does not rust4 ,faraday found nickel steel to be more readily oxidised1 not less1 than ordinary steel4 ,the platinum steel was also a failure4 ,silver steel was of more interest1 though it was found impossible to incorporate in the alloy more than a small percentage of silver4 ,nevertheless1 silver steel was used for some time by a ,sheffield firm for manufacture of fenders4 ,the alloys of iron with platinum1 iridium1 and rhodium were also of no great use4 ,but the research demonstrated the surprising effects which minute quantities of other metals may have upon the quality of steel4 ,occasionally in later life ,faraday would present one of his friends with a razor made from his own special steel4 ,a paper on the use of alloys of steel in surgical instrument making was published in the ,quarterly ,journal in collaboration with ,mr4 ,stodart4 ,faraday also read his first paper before the ,royal ,society on two new compounds of chlorine and carbon1 and on a new compound of iodine1 carbon1 and hydrogen4 ,he also succeeded in making artificial plumbago from charcoal4 ,in writing to his friend ,professor ,g4 de la ,rive1 he gives a long and chatty abstract of his researches on the alloys of steel4 ,they appear to have originated in some analyses of wootz or ,indian steel1 a material which1 when etched with acid1 shows a beautifully damascened or reticulated surface4 ,this effect ,faraday never found with pure steel1 but imitated it successfully with a steel alloyed with 8the metal of alumine10 an element which down to that time had not been isolated4 ,he then describes the rhodium1 silver1 and nickel steels1 and mentions incidentally how he has been surprised to discover that he can volatilise silver1 and that he cannot reduce the metal titanium4 ,he is doubtful whether this metal 8ever has been reduced at all in the pure state40 ,it can now be readily reduced either in the electric arc or by the use of metallic aluminium4 ,he winds up the letter with the words3 8,pray pity us that1 after two years' experiments1 we have got no further2 but ,i am sure1 if you knew the labour of the experiments1 you would applaud us for our perseverance at least40 ,in #ahba1 the year of his marriage1 came the first of the important scientific discoveries which brought him international fame4 ,this was the discovery of the electromagnetic rotations4 ,it appears that ,oersted's brilliant flash of insight that the 8electric conflict acts in a revolving manner0 upon the pole of the neighbouring compass needle had been lost sight of in the discussions which followed1 and to which allusion has been made above4 ,all the world was thinking about attractions and repulsions4 ,two men1 however1 seem to have gone a little further in their ideas4 ,dr4 ,wollaston had suggested that there ought to be a tendency1 when a magnet pole was presented towards a straight conducting wire carrying a current1 for that conducting wire to revolve around its own axis4 ,this effect--though in recent years it has been observed by ,mr4 ,george ,gore--he unsuccessfully tried to observe by experiments4 ,he came in ,april1 #ahba1 to the laboratory of the ,royal ,institution to make an experiment1 but without result4 ,faraday1 at the request of his friend ,phillips1 who was editor of the ,annals of ,philosophy1 wrote for that magazine in ,july1 ,august1 and ,september a historical sketch of electromagnetism down to date4 ,this was one of the very few of ,faraday's writings that was anonymous4 ,it was simply signed 8,m40 ,this is in vol4 iii4 p4 #ajg4 ,on p4 #aag the editor says3 8,to the historical sketch of electromagnetism with which ,i have been favoured by my anonymous correspondent1 ,i shall add a sketch of the discoveries that have been made by ,mr4 ,faraday of the ,royal ,institution40 ,in the course of this work ,faraday repeated for his own satisfaction almost all the experiments that he described4 ,this led him to discover that a wire1 included in the circuit1 but mounted so as to hang with its lower end in a pool of quicksilver1 could rotate around the pole of a magnet2 and conversely that if the wire were fixed and the pole of the magnet free to move1 the latter would rotate around the former4 8,i did not realise10 he wrote1 8,dr4 ,wollaston's expectation of the rotation of the electromagnetic wire around its axis40 ,as was so often his custom1 he had no sooner finished the research for publication than he dashed off a brief summary of it in a letter to one of his friends4 ,on this occasion it was ,professor ,g4 de la ,rive1 of ,geneva1 who was the recipient of his confidences4 ,on ,september #ab he wrote3-- ,sidenote3 ,,letter ,,to ,,de ,,la ,,rive4 ,i am much flattered and encouraged to go on by your good opinion of what little things ,i have been able to do in science1 and especially as regards the chlorides of carbon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,you partly reproach us here with not sufficiently esteeming ,ampre's experiments on electromagnetism4 ,allow me to extenuate your opinion a little on this point4 ,with regard to the experiments1 ,i hope and trust that due weight is allowed to them2 but these you know are few1 and theory makes up the great part of what ,m4 ,ampre has published1 and theory in a great many points unsupported by experiments when they ought to have been adduced4 ,at the same time1 ,m4 ,ampre's experiments are excellent1 and his theory ingenious2 and1 for myself1 ,i had thought very little about it before your letter came1 simply because1 being naturally sceptical on philosophical theories1 ,i thought there was a great want of experimental evidence4 ,since then1 however1 ,i have engaged on the subject1 and have a paper in our 8,institution ,journal10 which will appear in a week or two1 and that will1 as it contains experiment1 be immediately applied by ,m4 ,ampre in support of his theory1 much more decidedly than it is by myself4 ,i intend to enclose a copy of it to you with the other1 and only want the means of sending it4 ,i find all the usual attractions and repulsions of the magnetic needle by the conjunctive wire are deceptions1 the motions being not attractions or repulsions1 nor the result of any attractive or repulsive forces1 but the result of a force in the wire1 which instead of bringing the pole of the needle nearer to1 or further from the wire1 endeavours to make it move round it in a never ending circle and motion whilst the battery remains in action4 ,i have succeeded not only in showing the existence of this motion theoretically1 but experimentally1 and have been able to make the wire revolve round a magnetic pole1 or a magnetic pole round the wire1 at pleasure4 ,the law of revolution1 and to which all the other motions of the needle and wire are reducible1 is simple and beautiful4 ,conceive a portion of connecting wire north and south1 the north end being attached to the positive pole of a battery1 the south to the negative4 ,a north magnetic pole would then pass round it continually in the apparent direction of the sun1 from east to west above1 from west to east below4 ,reverse the connections with the battery1 and the motion of the pole is reversed2 or if the south pole be made to revolve1 the motions will be in the opposite directions1 as with the north pole4 ,if the wire be made to revolve round the pole1 the motions are according to those mentioned4 ,in the apparatus ,i used there were but two plates1 and the directions of the motions were of course#ai the reverse of those with a battery of several pairs of plates1 and which are given above4 ,now ,i have been able1 experimentally1 to trace this motion into its various forms as exhibited by ,ampre's1 ,nelice's1 c41 and in all cases to show that the attractions and repulsions are only appearances due to this circulation of the pole1 to show that dissimilar poles repel as well as attract1 and that similar poles attract as well as repel1 and to make1 ,i think1 the analogy between the helix and common bar magnet far stronger than before4 ,but yet ,i am by no means decided that there are currents of electricity in the common magnet4 ,i have no doubt that electricity puts the circles of the helix into the same state as those circles are in1 that may be conceived in the bar magnet1 but ,i am not certain that this state is directly dependant on the electricity1 or that it cannot be produced by other agencies2 and therefore1 until the presence of electrical currents be proved in the magnet by other than magnetical effects1 ,i shall remain in doubt about ,ampre's theory4 99 99 99 99 99 ,wishing you all health and happiness1 and waiting for news from you1 ,i am1 my dear ,sir1 your very obliged and grateful ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,the reference at the beginning of this letter to the chlorides of carbon has to do with his discovery communicated to the ,royal ,society4 ,later in the year1 a joint paper on another compound of carbon and chlorine1 by himself and his friend ,richard ,phillips1 was sent in4 ,both were printed together in the ,philosophical ,transactions of #ahba4 ,sidenote3 ,,leaves ,,from ,,the ,,note-,,book4 ,the following is an extract from ,faraday's laboratory book relating to the discovery4 ,the account is incomplete1 a leaf having been torn out3-- #ahba1 ,sept4 #c4 ,the effort of the wire is always to pass off at a right angle from the pole1 indeed to go in a circle round it1 so when either pole was brought up to the wire perpendicular to it and to the radius of the circle it described1 there was neither attraction nor repulsion1 but the moment the pole varied in the slightest manner either in or out1 the wire moved one way or the other4 ,the poles of the magnet act on the bent wire in all positions and not in the direction only of any axis of the magnet1 so that the current can hardly be cylindrical or arranged round the axis of a cylinder8 ,from the motion above a north magnet pole in the centre of one of the circles should make the wire continually turn round4 ,arranged a magnet needle in a glass tube with mercury about it1 and by a cork1 water1 c41 supported a connecting wire so that the upper end should go into the silver cup and its mercury1 and the lower move in a channel of mercury round the pole of the needle4 ,the battery arranged with the wire as before4 ,in this way got the revolution of the wire round the pole of the magnet4 ,the direction was as follow1 looking from above down3-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7,,facsimile ,,of ,,original ,,sketch47 ,very satisfactory1 but make more sensible apparatus4 ,tuesday1 ,sept4 #d4 ,apparatus for revolution of wire and magnet4 ,a deep basin with bit of wax at bottom and then filled with mercury4 ,a magnet stuck upright in wax so that pole just above the surface of mercury4 ,then piece of wire floated by cork at lower end dipping into mercy and above into silver cup as before3-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7,,facsimile ,,of ,,original ,,sketch47 ,the research on the electromagnetic rotations1 which was published in the ,quarterly ,journal of ,science for ,october1 #ahba 7and reprinted in the second volume of the 8,experimental ,researches in ,electricity071 was the occasion of a very serious misunderstanding with ,dr4 ,wollaston and his friends1 which at one time threatened to cause ,faraday's exclusion from the ,royal ,society4 ,faraday's prompt and frank action in appealing to ,dr4 ,wollaston saved him in a very unpleasant crisis2 and the latter came three or four times to the laboratory to witness the experiments4 ,on ,christmas ,day of the same year1 ,faraday succeeded in making a wire through which an electric current is passing move under the influence of the earth's magnetism alone4 ,his brother-in-law1 ,george ,barnard1 who was in the laboratory at the time1 wrote3--8,all at once he exclaimed1 #8,do you see1 do you see1 do you see1 ,george8' as the wire began to revolve4 ,one end ,i recollect was in the cup of quicksilver1 the other attached above to the centre4 ,i shall never forget the enthusiasm expressed in his face and the sparkling in his eyes60 ,sidenote3 ,,scenes ,,in ,,the ,,laboratory4 ,in #ahbb little was added to ,faraday's scientific work4 ,he had a joint paper with ,stodart on steel before the ,royal ,society1 and in the ,quarterly ,journal two short chemical papers and four on electromagnetical motions and magnetism4 ,he had long kept a commonplace book in which he entered notes and queries as well as extracts from books and journals2 but this year he began a fresh manuscript volume1 into which he transferred many of the queries and suggestions of his own originating4 ,this volume he called 8,chemical ,notes1 ,hints1 ,suggestions1 and ,objects of ,pursuit40 ,it contains many of the germs of his own future discoveries1 as the following examples show3-- ,convert magnetism into electricity4 ,do pith balls diverge by disturbance of electricities in consequence of induction or not8 ,general effects of compression1 either in condensing gases1 or producing solutions1 or even giving combinations at low temperatures4 ,light through gold leaf on to zine or most oxidable metals1 these being poles--or on magnetic bars4 ,transparency of metals4 ,sun's light through gold leaf4 ,two gold leaves made poles--light passed through one to the other4 ,whenever any query found an answer1 he drew his pen through it and added the date4 ,in front of the book--probably at some later time--he wrote these words3-- ,i already owe much to these notes1 and think such a collection worth the making by every scientific man4 ,i am sure none would think the trouble lost after a year's experience4 ,a striking example had already occurred of similar suggestive notes in the optical queries of ,sir ,isaac ,newton4 ,in another manuscript notebook occur the following entries under date of ,september #aj1 #ahba3-- #b similar poles though they repell at most distances attract at very small distances and adhere4 ,query why4444 ,could not magnetise a plate of steel so as to resemble flat spiral4 ,either the magnetism would be very weak and irregular or there would be none at all4 ,these are interesting as showing how ,faraday was educating himself by continual experiment4 ,the explanation of each of these paradoxes has long passed into the commonplace of physics2 but they would still puzzle many who have learned their science bookishly at second-hand4 ,it will be noted that amongst the entries cited above there are two of absolutely capital importance1 one foreshadowing the great discovery of magneto-electric induction1 the other indicating how the existence of electro-optical relations was shaping itself as a possibility in ,faraday's mind4 ,an entry in his laboratory book of ,september #aj is of great interest3-- ,polarised a ray of lamp-light by reflection1 and endeavoured to ascertain whether any depolarising action is exerted on it by water placed between the poles of a voltaic battery in a glass cistern2 one ,wollaston's trough used2 the fluids decomposed were pure water1 weak solution of sulphate of soda1 and strong sulphuric acid3 none of them had any effect on the polarised light1 either when out of or in the voltaic circuit1 so that no particular arrangement of particles could be ascertained in this way4 ,sidenote3 ,,an ,,unsuccessful ,,experiment4 ,it may be added that no such optical effect of electrolytic conduction as that here looked for has yet been discovered4 ,the experiment1 unsuccessful at that day1 remains still an unsuccessful one4 ,a singular interest attaches to it1 however1 and it was repeated several times by ,faraday in subsequent years1 in hope of some results4 ,in #ahbc ,faraday read two papers to the ,royal ,society1 one on ,liquid ,chlorine1 the other on the ,condensation of several ,gases into ,liquids4 ,no sooner was the work completed than he dashed off a letter to ,de la ,rive to tell him what he had accomplished4 ,under date ,march #bd1 #ahbc1 he writes3-- ,i have been at work lately1 and obtained results which ,i hope you will approve of4 ,i have been interrupted twice in the course of experiments by explosions1 both in the course of eight days--one burnt my eyes1 the other cut them2 but fortunately escaped with slight injury only in both cases1 and am now nearly well4 ,during the winter ,i took the opportunity of examining the hydrate of chlorine1 and analysing it2 the results1 which are not very important1 will appear in the next number of the ,quarterly ,journal1 over which ,i have no influence4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 on seeing my paper1 suggested to me to work with it under pressure1 and see what would happen by heat1 c4 ,accordingly ,i enclosed it in a glass tube hermetically sealed1 heated it1 obtained a change in the substance1 and a separation into two different fluids2 and upon further examination ,i found that the chlorine and water had separated from each other1 and the chlorine gas1 not being able to escape1 had condensed into the liquid form4 ,to prove that it contained no water1 ,i dried some chlorine gas1 introduced it into a long tube1 condensed it1 and then cooled the tube1 and again obtained fluid chlorine4 ,hence what is called chlorine gas is the vapour of a fluid4444 99 99 99 99 99 ,i expect to be able to reduce many other gases to the liquid form1 and promise myself the pleasure of writing you about them4 ,i hope you will honour me with a letter soon4 ,i am1 dear ,sir1 very faithfully1 your obedient servant1 ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,sidenote3 ,,chlorine ,,liquefied4 ,the work of liquefying the gases had been taken up by ,faraday during his hours of liberty from other duties4 ,it was probably his characteristic dislike to 8doubtful knowledge0 which prompted him to re-examine a substance which had at one time been regarded as chlorine in a solid state1 but which ,davy in #ahaj had demonstrated to be a hydrate of that element4 ,the first work was1 as narrated above1 to make a new analysis of the supposed substance4 ,this analysis1 duly written out1 was submitted to ,sir ,humphry1 who1 without stating precisely what results he anticipated might follow1 suggested heating the hydrate under pressure in a hermetically sealed glass tube4 ,this ,faraday did4 ,when so heated1 the tube filled with a yellow atmosphere1 and on cooling was found to contain two liquids1 one limpid and colourless like water1 the other of an oily appearance4 ,concerning this research a curious story is told in the life of ,davy4 ,dr4 ,paris1 ,davy's friend and biographer1 happened to visit the laboratory while ,faraday was at work on these tubes4 ,seeing the oily liquid1 he ventured to rally the young assistant upon his carelessness in employing greasy tubes4 ,later in the day1 ,faraday1 on filing off the end of the tube1 was startled by finding the contents suddenly to explode2 the oily matter completely disappearing4 ,he speedily ascertained the cause4 ,the gas1 liberated from combination with water by heat1 had under the pressure of its own evolution liquefied itself1 only to re-expand with violence when the tube was opened4 ,early the next day ,dr4 ,paris received the following laconic note3-- ,,dear ,,sir1-- ,the oil you noticed yesterday turns out to be liquid chlorine4 ,yours faithfully1 ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,later he adopted a compressing syringe to condense the gas1 and again succeeded in liquefying it4 ,davy1 who added a characteristic note to ,faraday's published paper1 immediately applied the same method of liquefaction by its own pressure to hydrochloric acid gas2 and ,faraday reduced a number of other gases by the same means4 ,these researches were not without danger4 ,in the preliminary experiments an explosion of one of the tubes drove thirteen fragments of glass into ,faraday's eye4 ,at the end of the year he drew up a historical statement on the liquefaction of gases1 which was published in the ,quarterly ,journal for ,january1 #ahbd4 ,a further statement by him was published in the ,philosophical ,magazine for #ahcf2 and in #ahdd his further researches on the liquefaction of gases were published in the ,philosophical ,transactions4 ,in #ahbd ,faraday again brought to the ,royal ,society a chemical discovery of first importance4 ,the paper was on some new compounds of carbon and hydrogen1 and on certain other products obtained during decomposition of oil by heat4 ,from condensed oil-gas1 so obtained1 ,faraday succeeded in separating the liquid known as benzin or benzol1 or1 as he named it at the time1 bicarburet of hydrogen4 ,it has since its discovery formed the basis of several great chemical industries1 and is manufactured in vast quantities4 ,prior to the reading of this paper he had1 as we have already related1 been elected a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society1 an honour to which he had for some years aspired1 and which stood alone in his regard above the scientific honours of later years4 ,in this year he tried1 amongst his unsuccessful experiments1 two of singular interest4 ,one was an attempt to find whether two crystals 7such as nitre7 exercised upon one another any polar attractions like those of two lodestones4 ,he suspended them by fibres of cocoon silk1 and1 finding this material not delicate enough1 by spider-lines4 ,the other was an attempt to discover magneto-electricity4 ,for various reasons he concluded that the approximation of the pole of a powerful magnet to a conductor carrying a current would have the effect of diminishing the amount of that current4 ,he placed magnets within a copper wire helix1 and observed with a galvanometer whether the current sent through the circuit of the helix by a given battery was less when the magnet was absent4 ,the result was negative4 ,sidenote3 ,,research ,,on ,,optical ,,glass4 ,in this year also began the laborious researches on optical glass1 which though in themselves leading to no immediate success of commercial value1 nevertheless furnished ,faraday with the material essential at the time for the making of the most momentous of all his discoveries4 ,a committee had been appointed by the ,president and ,council of the ,royal ,society for the improvement of glass for optical purposes1 and ,faraday was amongst those chosen to act upon it4 ,in #ahbe the ,royal ,society ,committee delegated the investigation of optical glass to a sub-committee of three1 ,herschel 7afterwards ,sir ,john71 ,dollond 7the optician71 and ,faraday4 ,the chemical part1 including the experimental manufacture1 was entrusted to ,faraday4 ,dollond was to work the glass and test its qualities from the instrument maker's point of view1 whilst ,herschel was to examine its refraction1 dispersion1 and other physical properties4 ,this sub-committee worked for nearly five years1 though by the removal of ,herschel from ,england its number was reduced to two4 ,in #ahbg the work became more arduous4 ,faraday thus writes3-- ,the ,president and ,council of the ,royal ,society applied to the ,president and ,managers of the ,royal ,institution for leave to erect on their premises an experimental room with a furnace1 for the purpose of continuing the investigation on the manufacture of optical glass4 ,they were guided in this by the desire which the ,royal ,institution has always evinced to assist in the advancement of science2 and the readiness with which the application was granted showed that no mistaken notion had been formed in this respect4 ,as a member of both bodies1 ,i felt much anxiety that the investigation should be successful4 ,a room and furnaces were built at the ,royal ,institution in ,september1 #ahbg1 and an assistant was engaged1 ,sergeant ,anderson1 of the ,royal ,artillery4 ,he came on the #crd of ,december4 ,anderson1 who was thus made assistant to ,faraday1 remained in that capacity till his death in #ahff4 ,he was a most devoted servant4 ,in a footnote to the 8,experimental ,researches0 7vol4 iii4 p4 #c7 ,faraday in #ahde wrote of him3-- ,i cannot resist the occasion that is thus offered me of mentioning the name of ,mr4 ,anderson1 who came to me as an assistant in the glass experiments1 and has remained ever since in the laboratory of the ,royal ,institution4 ,he assisted me in all the researches into which ,i have entered since that time2 and to his care1 steadiness1 exactitude1 and faithfulness in the performance of all that has been committed to his charge1 ,i am much indebted4--,m4 ,f4 ,tyndall1 who had a great admiration for ,anderson1 declared that his merits as an assistant might be summed up in one phrase--blind obedience4 ,the story is told of him by ,benjamin ,abbott3-- ,sidenote3 ,,anderson',s ,,obedience4 ,sergeant ,anderson 444 was chosen simply because of the habits of strict obedience his military training had given him4 ,his duty was to keep the furnaces always at the same heat1 and the water in the ashpit always at the same level4 ,in the evening he was released1 but one night ,faraday forgot to tell ,anderson he could go home1 and early next morning he found his faithful servant still stoking the glowing furnace1 as he had been doing all night long4 ,the research on optical glass was viewed askance by several parties4 ,the expenditure of money which it involved was one of the 8charges0 hurled against the ,council of the ,royal ,society by ,sir ,james ,south in #ahcj4 ,nevertheless it was deemed sufficiently important to receive powerful support1 as the following letter shows3-- ,admiralty1 #bj ,dec41 #ahbg4 ,,sir1 ,i hereby request1 on behalf of the ,board of ,longitude1 that you will continue1 in the furnace built at the ,royal ,institution1 the experiments on glass1 directed by the joint ,committee of the ,royal ,society and the ,board of ,longitude and already sanctioned by the ,treasury and the ,board of ,excise4 ,i am1 ,sir1 ,your obedient servant1 ,,thomas ,,young1 ,m4,d41 ,sec4 ,bd4 ,long4 ,michael ,faraday1 ,esq41 ,royal ,institution4 ,in ,february1 #ahbe1 ,faraday's duties towards the ,royal ,institution were somewhat modified4 ,hitherto he had been nominally a mere assistant to ,davy and ,brande1 though he had occasionally undertaken lectures for the latter4 ,now1 on ,davy's recommendation1 he was1 as we have seen1 appointed by the managers ,director of the ,laboratory under the superintendence of the ,professor of ,chemistry4 ,he was relieved1 8because of his occupation in research10 from his duty as chemical assistant at the lectures4 ,the research on optical glass was not concluded till #ahbi1 when its results were communicated to the ,royal ,society in the ,bakerian lecture of that year--a memoir so long that it is said three sittings were occupied in its delivery4 ,it is printed in extenso in the ,philosophical ,transactions of #ahcj4 ,it opens as follows3-- ,when the philosopher desires to apply glass in the construction of perfect instruments1 and especially the achromatic telescope1 its manufacture is found liable to imperfections so important and so difficult to avoid1 that science is frequently stopped in her progress by them--a fact fully proved by the circumstance that ,mr4 ,dollond1 one of our first opticians1 has not been able to obtain a disc of flint glass #d inches in diameter1 fit for a telescope1 within the last five years2 or a similar disc1 of #e inches1 within the last ten years4 ,this led to the appointment by ,sir ,h4 ,davy of the ,royal ,society ,committee1 and the ,government removed the excise restrictions1 and undertook to bear all the expenses as long as the investigation offered a reasonable hope of success4 ,the experiments were begun at the ,falcon ,glass ,works1 three miles from the ,royal ,institution1 and continued there in #ahbe1 #ahbf1 and to ,sept41 #ahbg1 when a room was built at the ,institution4 ,at first the inquiry was pursued principally as related to flint and crown glass2 but in ,september1 #ahbh1 it was directed exclusively to the preparation and perfection of peculiar heavy and fusible glasses1 from which time continued progress has been made4 ,in #ahcj the experiments on glass-making were stopped4 ,in #ahca the ,committee for the ,improvement of ,glass for ,optical ,purposes reported to the ,royal ,society ,council that the telescope made with ,mr4 ,faraday's glass had been examined by ,captain ,kater and ,mr4 ,pond4 8,it bears as great a power as can reasonably be expected1 and is very achromatic4 ,the ,committee therefore recommend that ,mr4 ,faraday be requested to make a perfect piece of glass of the largest size that his present apparatus will admit1 and also to teach some person to manufacture the glass for general sale40 ,sidenote3 ,,glass-,,making ,,laid ,,aside4 ,in answer to this ,faraday sent the following letter to ,dr4 ,roget1 ,sec4 ,r4,s43-- ,m4 ,faraday to ,p4 ,m4 ,roget4 ,royal ,institution1 ,july #d1 #ahca4 ,,dear ,,sir1--,i send you herewith four large and two small manuscript volumes relating to optical glass1 and comprising the journal book and sub-committee book1 since the period that experimental investigations commenced at the ,royal ,institution4 ,with reference to the request which the ,council of the ,royal ,society have done me the honour of making--namely1 that ,i should continue the investigation--,i should1 under circumstances of perfect freedom1 assent to it at once2 but obliged as ,i have been to devote the whole of my spare time to the experiments already described1 and consequently to resign the pursuit of such philosophical inquiries as suggested themselves to my own mind1 ,i would wish1 under the present circumstances1 to lay the glass aside for a while1 that ,i may enjoy the pleasure of working out my own thoughts on other subjects4 ,if at a future time the investigation should be renewed1 ,i must beg it to be clearly understood ,i cannot promise full success should ,i resume it3 all that industry and my abilities can effect shall be done2 but to perfect a manufacture1 not being a manufacturer1 is what ,i am not bold enough to promise4 ,i am1 c41 ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,the optical glass was a failure1 so far as concerned the original hope that it would lead to great improvements in telescopes4 ,nevertheless it furnished scientific men with a new material1 the 8heavy glass0 consisting essentially of boro-silicate of lead1 for which sundry uses in spectroscopy and other optical instruments have since been found4 ,in #ahde ,faraday added this note3-- ,i consider our results as negative1 except as regards any good that may have resulted from my heavy glass in the hands of ,amici 7who applied it to microscopes7 and in my late experiments on light4 ,these were the famous experiments on magneto-optics and diamagnetism4 ,incidentally the research had led also to the permanent engagement of ,sergeant ,anderson as assistant to ,faraday4 ,sidenote3 ,,researches ,,and ,,lectures4 ,during these years1 from #ahbe to #ahbi1 which had been thus occupied in an apparently fruitless quest1 he had been far from idle4 ,he had gone on contributing chemical papers to the ,philosophical ,transactions and to the ,quarterly ,journal4 ,these dealt with sulpho-naphthalic acid1 with the limits of vaporisation1 with caoutchouc1 bisulphide of copper1 the fluidity of sulphur and phosphorus1 the diffusion of gases1 and the relation of water to hot polished surfaces4 ,he had also originated at the ,royal ,institution the ,friday evening discourses 7see p4 #cc71 the first of which he held in #ahbf4 ,for some years he himself delivered no inconsiderable portion of these discourses every session4 ,in #ahbf he gave six1 in #ahbg three1 in #ahbh five1 in #ahbi six1 and these in addition to his regular afternoon courses of six or eight lectures on some connected subject4 ,he had also1 in #ahbf1 begun the ,christmas lectures adapted to a juvenile audience1 and had in #ahbg given a course of twelve lectures at the ,london ,institution in ,finsbury ,circus4 ,in addition to these labours he had1 in #ahbg1 brought out the first edition of his book on 8,chemical ,manipulation40 ,in #ahbi he began his lectures at the ,royal ,military ,academy at ,woolwich1 which continued till #ahdi4 ,the year #ahcj may be regarded as the close of the first period of ,faraday's researches1 during which time1 though much of his labour had been of a preparatory and even desultory kind1 it had been a training for the higher work to come4 ,he had made three notable discoveries in chemistry1 the new substances benzol and butylene1 and the solubility of naphthalene in sulphuric acid forming the first of a new class of bodies1 the sulpho-acids4 ,he had also made an important discovery in physics1 that of the electromagnetic rotations4 ,he had already published sixty original papers1 besides many notes of lesser importance1 nine of these papers being memoirs in the ,philosophical ,transactions4 ,he had already begun to receive from learned societies1 academies1 and universities the recognition of his scientific attainments1 and he had established firmly both his own reputation as a lecturer1 and the reputation of the ,royal ,institution1 which was the scene of his lectures4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,scientific ,,researches3 ,,second ,,period4 ,with the year #ahca begins the period of the celebrated 8,experimental ,researches in ,electricity and ,magnetism40 ,during the years which had elapsed since his discovery of the electromagnetic rotations in #ahbc1 ,faraday1 though occupied1 as we have seen1 with other matters1 had not ceased to ponder the relation between the magnet and the electric current4 ,the great discoveries of ,oersted1 ,ampre1 and ,arago had culminated in ,england in two results3 in ,faraday's discovery that the wire which carries an electric current tends to revolve around the pole of a neighbouring magnet2 and in ,sturgeon's invention of the soft-iron electromagnet1 a core of iron surrounded by a coil of copper wire1 capable of acting as a magnet at will when the electric current is transmitted to the coil and so caused to circulate around the iron core4 ,sidenote3 ,,foreshadowings4 ,this production of magnetism from electricity1 at will1 and at a distance1 by the simple device of sending the electricity to circulate as a current around the central core of iron was then1 as now1 a cause of much speculation4 ,the iron core which is to be made temporarily into a magnet stands alone1 isolated4 ,though surrounded outwardly by the magnetising coil of copper wire1 it does not touch it2 nay1 must be screened from contact with it by appropriate insulation4 ,the electric current entering the copper coil at one end is confined from leaving the copper wire by any lateral path3 it must circulate around each and every convolution1 nor be permitted to flow back by the return-wire until it has performed the required amount of circulation4 ,that the mere external circulation of electric current around a totally disconnected interior core of iron should magnetise that core2 that the magnetisation should be maintained so long as the circulation of electricity is maintained2 and that the magnetising forces should cease so soon as the current is stopped1 are facts1 familiar enough to every beginner in the science1 but mysterious enough from the abstract point of view4 ,faraday was firmly persuaded that1 great as had been these discoveries of the production of magnetism and magnetic motions from electricity1 there remained other relations of no less importance to be discovered4 ,again and again his mind recurred to the subject4 ,if it were possible to use electricity to produce magnetism1 why should not the converse be true8 ,in #ahbb his notebook suggestion was1 as we have seen1 8,convert magnetism into electricity40 ,yes1 but how8 ,he possessed an intuitive bent of mind to inquire about the relations of facts to one another4 ,convinced by sheer converse with nature in the laboratory1 of the correlation of forces and of the conservation of energy long before either of those doctrines had received distinct enunciation as principles of natural philosophy1 he seems never to have viewed an action without thinking of the necessary and appropriate reaction2 never to have deemed any physical relation complete in which discovery had not been made of the converse relations for which instinctively he sought4 ,so in ,december1 #ahbd1 we find him experimenting on the passage of a bar magnet through a helix of copper wire 7see ,quarterly ,journal for ,july1 #ahbe71 but without result4 ,in ,november1 #ahbe1 he sought for evidence that might prove an electric current in a wire to exercise an influence upon a neighbouring wire connected to a galvanometer4 ,but again1 and yet again in ,december of the same year1 the entry stands 8,no result40 ,a third failure did not convince him that the search was hopeless3 it showed him that he had not yet found the right method of experimenting4 ,it is narrated of him how at this period he used to carry in his waistcoat pocket a small model of an electromagnetic circuit--a straight iron core about an inch long1 surrounded by a few spiral turns of copper wire--which model he at spare moments would take out and contemplate1 using it thus objectively to concentrate his thoughts upon the problem to be solved4 ,a copper coil1 an iron core4 ,given that electricity was flowing through the one1 it evoked magnetism in the other4 ,what was the converse8 ,at first sight it might seem simple enough4 ,put magnetism from some external source into the iron core1 and then try whether on connecting the copper coil to a galvanometer there was any indication of an electric current4 ,but this was exactly what was found not to result4 ,sidenote3 ,,other ,,men',s ,,failures4 ,and not ,faraday alone1 but others1 too1 were foiled in the hope of observing the expected converse4 ,not all who tried were as wise or as frank as ,faraday in confessing failure4 ,fresnel1 in the height of the fever of ,oersted's discovery1 had announced to the ,academy of ,sciences at ,paris1 on the #fth of ,november1 #ahbj1 that he had decomposed water by means of a magnet which was laid motionless within a spiral of wire4 ,emboldened by this announcement1 ,ampre remarked that he too had noticed something in the way of production of currents from a magnet4 ,but before the end of the year both these statements were withdrawn by their authors4 ,again1 in the year #ahbb1 ,ampre1 being at ,geneva1 showed to ,professor ,a4 de la ,rive in his laboratory a number of electromagnetic experiments from his classical researches2 and amongst them one#bj which has been almost forgotten1 but which1 had it been followed up1 would assuredly have led ,ampre to the discovery of the induction of currents4 ,in the experiment in question a thin copper ring1 made of a narrow strip folded into a circle1 was hung inside a circular coil of wire1 traversed by a current4 ,to this apparatus a powerful horse-shoe magnet was presented2 and ,de la ,rive states that1 when the magnet was brought up1 the suspended ring was observed sometimes to move between the two limbs of the magnet1 and sometimes to be repelled from between them according to the sense of the current in the surrounding coil4 ,he and ,ampre both attributed the effect to temporary magnetism conferred upon the copper ring4 ,ampre himself was at the time disposed to attribute it to the possible presence of a little iron as an impurity in the copper4 ,there are1 however1 some discrepancies in the three published versions of the story4 ,according to ,becquerel1 ,ampre had by #ahbe satisfied himself of the non-existence of induction currents4 ,sidenote3 ,a ,,puzzling ,,experiment4 ,quite independently1 the question of the possibility of creating currents by magnets was raised by another discovery1 that of the so-called 8magnetism of rotation40 ,in #ahbd ,arago had observed that a fine magnetic compass constructed for him by ,gambey1 having the needle suspended in a cell1 the base of which was a plate of pure copper1 was thereby damped in its oscillations1 and instead of making two or three hundred vibrations before it came to rest1 as would be the case in the open air1 executed only three or four of rapidly decreasing amplitude4#ba ,in vain did ,dumas at the request of ,arago analyse the copper1 in the supposition that iron might be present4 ,inquiry compelled the conclusion that some other explanation must be sought4 ,and1 reasoning from the apparent action of stationary copper in bringing a moving magnetic needle to rest1 he conjectured that a moving mass of copper might produce motion in a stationary magnetic needle4 ,accordingly he set into revolution1 beneath a compass needle1 a flat disc of copper1 and found that1 even when a sheet of card or glass was interposed to cut off all air-currents1 the needle tended to follow the moving copper disc1 turning as if dragged by some invisible influence4 ,to the suggestion that mere rotation conferred upon copper a sort of temporary magnetism ,arago listened with some impatience4 ,all theories proposed to account for the phenomenon he discredited1 even though emanating from the great mathematician ,poisson4 ,he held his judgment in absolute suspense4 ,babbage and ,herschel measured the amount of retarding force exerted on the needle by different materials1 and found the most effective to be silver and copper 7which are the two best conductors of electricity71 after them gold and zinc1 whilst lead1 mercury1 and bismuth were inferior in power4 ,the next year the same experimenters announced the successful inversion of ,arago's experiment2 for by spinning the magnet underneath a pivoted copper disc they caused the latter to rotate briskly4 ,they also made the notable observation that if slits are cut radially in the copper disc they diminish its tendency to be dragged by the spinning magnet4 ,sturgeon showed that the damping effect of a moving copper disc was diminished by the presence of a second magnet pole of contrary kind placed beside the first4 ,all these things were most suggestive of the real explanation4 ,it clearly had something to do with the electric conductivity of the metal disc1 and therefore with electric currents4 ,sturgeon five years later came very near to the explanation3 after repeating the experiments he concluded that the effect was an electric disturbance in the copper disc1 8a kind of reaction to that which takes place in electromagnetism40 ,faraday knew of all the discussions which had arisen respecting ,arago's rotations4 ,they may have been the cause of his unsuccessful attempts of #ahbd and #ahbe4 ,in ,april1 #ahbh1 for the fourth time he tried to discover the currents which he was convinced must be producible by the magnet1 and for the fourth time without result4 ,the cause of failure was that both magnet and coil were at rest4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,the summer of #ahca witnessed him for the fifth time making the attack on the problem thus persistently before him4 ,in his laboratory note-book he heads the research 8,experiments on the production of electricity from magnetism40 ,the following excellent summary of the laboratory notes is taken from ,bence ,jones's 8,life and ,letters03-- ,i have had an iron ring made 7soft iron71 iron round and ths of an inch thick1 and ring six inches in external diameter4 ,wound many coils of copper round1 one half of the coils being separated by twine and calico2 there were three lengths of wire1 each about twenty-four feet long1 and they could be connected as one length1 or used as separate lengths4 ,by trials with a trough each was insulated from the other4 ,will call this side of the ring ,a4 ,on the other side1 but separated by an interval1 was wound wire in two pieces1 together amounting to about sixty feet in length1 the direction being as with the former coils4 ,this side call ,b4#bb ,charged a battery of ten pairs of plates four inches square4 ,made the coil on ,b side one coil1 and connected its extremities by a copper wire passing to a distance1 and just over a magnetic needle 7three feet from wire ring71 then connected the ends of one of the pieces on ,a side with battery3 immediately a sensible effect on needle4 ,it oscillated and settled at last in original position4 ,on breaking connection of ,a side with battery1 again a disturbance of the needle4 ,sidenote3 ,,success ,,in ,,sight4 ,in the seventeenth paragraph1 written on the #cjth of ,august1 he says1 8,may not these transient effects be connected with causes of difference between power of metals at rest and in motion in ,arago's experiments80 ,after this he prepared fresh apparatus4 ,as was his manner1 he wrote off to one of his friends a letter telling what he was at work upon4 ,on this occasion the recipient of his confidences was his friend ,phillips3-- ,michael ,faraday to ,richard ,phillips4 ,royal ,institution4 ,sept4 #bc1 #ahca4 ,,my ,,dear ,,phillips1 ,i write now1 though it may be some time before ,i send my letter1 but that is of no great consequence4 ,i received your letter to ,dr4 ,reid and read it on the coach going to ,hastings1 where ,i have been passing a few weeks1 and ,i fancy my fellow passengers thought ,i had got something very droll in hand2 they sometimes started at my sudden bursts1 especially when ,i had the moment before been very grave and serious amongst the proportions4 ,as you say in the letter there are some new facts and they are always of value2 otherwise ,i should have thought you had taken more trouble than the matter deserved4 ,your quotation from ,boyle has nevertheless great force in it4 ,i shall send with this a little thing in your own way 8,on the ,alleged decline of science in ,england40 ,it is written by ,dr4 ,moll of ,utrecht1 whose name may be mentioned in conversation though it is not printed in the pamphlet4 ,i understand the view taken by ,moll is not at all agreeable to some4 8,i do not know what business ,moll had to interfere with our scientific disputes0 is however the strongest observation ,i have heard of in reply4 ,i do not think ,i thanked you for your last ,pharmacopia4 ,i do so now very heartily4 ,i shall detain this letter a few days that ,i may send a couple of my papers 7i4e4 a paper and appendix7 with it1 for though not chemical ,i think you will like to have them4 ,i am busy just now again on ,electro-,magnetism1 and think ,i have got hold of a good thing1 but can't say2 it may be a weed instead of a fish that after all my labour ,i may at last pull up4 ,i think ,i know why metals are magnetic when in motion though not 7generally7 when at rest4 ,we think about you all very much at times1 and talk over affairs of ,nelson ,square1 but ,i think we dwell more upon the illnesses and nursings and upon the sudden calls and chats rather than the regular parties4 ,pray remember us both to ,mrs4 ,phillips and the damsils--,i hope the word is not too familiar4 ,i am ,dear ,phillips1 ,most ,truly ,yours1 ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,r4 ,phillips1 ,esq41 c41 c41 c4 ,sidenote3 ,,ten ,,days ,,of ,,splendid ,,work4 ,september #bd was the third day of his experiments4 ,he began 7paragraph #ba7 by trying to find the effect of one helix of wire1 carrying the voltaic current of ten pairs of plates1 upon another wire connected with a galvanometer4 8,no induction sensible40 ,longer and different metallic helices 7paragraph #bb7 showed no effect2 so he gave up those experiments for that day1 and tried the effects of bar magnets instead of the ring magnet he had used on the first day4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,in paragraph #cc he says3-- ,an iron cylinder had a helix wound on it4 ,the ends of the wires of the helix were connected with the indicating helix at a distance by copper wire4 ,then the iron placed between the poles of bar magnets as in accompanying figure 7,fig4 #e74 ,every time the magnetic contact at ,n or ,s was made or broken1 there was magnetic motion at the indicating helix--the effect being1 as in former cases1 not permanent1 but a mere momentary push or pull4 ,but if the electric communication 7i4e4 by the copper wire7 was broken1 then the disjunction and contacts produced no effect whatever4 ,hence here distinct conversion of magnetism into electricity4 ,the fourth day of work was ,october #a4 ,paragraphs #cf1 #cg1 and #ch describe the discovery of induced voltaic currents3-- #cf4 ,a battery of ten troughs1 each of ten pairs of plates four inches square1 charged with good mixture of sulphuric and nitric acid1 and the following experiments made with it in the following order4 #cg4 ,one of the coils 7of a helix of copper wire #bjc feet long7 was connected with the flat helix1 and the other 7coil of same length round same block of wood7 with the poles of the battery 7it having been found that there was no metallic contact between the two72 the magnetic needle at the indicating flat helix was affected1 but so little as to be hardly sensible4 #ch4 ,in place of the indicating helix1 our galvanometer was used1 and then a sudden jerk was perceived when the battery communication was made and broken1 but it was so slight as to be scarcely visible4 ,it was one way when made1 the other when broken1 and the needle took up its natural position at intermediate times4 ,hence there is an inducing effect without the presence of iron1 but it is either very weak or else so sudden as not to have time to move the needle4 ,i rather suspect it is the latter4 ,the fifth day of experiment was ,october #ag4 ,paragraph #eg describes the discovery of the production of electricity by the approximation of a magnet to a wire3-- ,a cylindrical bar magnet three-quarters of an inch in diameter1 and eight inches and a half in length1 had one end just inserted into the end of the helix cylinder 7#bbj feet long72 then it was quickly thrust in the whole length1 and the galvanometer needle moved2 then pulled out1 and again the needle moved1 but in the opposite direction4 ,this effect was repeated every time the magnet was put in or out1 and therefore a wave of electricity was so produced from mere approximation of a magnet1 and not from its formation in situ4 ,the cause of all the earlier failures was1 then1 that both magnet and coil were at rest4 ,the magnet might lie in or near the coil for a century and cause no effect4 ,but while moving towards the coil1 or from it1 or by spinning near it1 electric currents were at once induced4 ,the ninth day of his experiments was ,october #bh1 and this day he 8made a copper disc turn round between the poles of the great horse-shoe magnet of the ,royal ,society4 ,the axis and edge of the disc were connected with a galvanometer4 ,the needle moved as the disc turned40 ,the next day that he made experiments1 ,november #d1 he found 8that a copper wire one-eighth of an inch drawn between the poles and conductors produced the effect40 ,in his paper1 when describing the experiment1 he speaks of the metal 8cutting0 the magnetic curves1 and in a note to his paper he says1 8,by magnetic curves ,i mean lines of magnetic forces which would be depicted by iron filings40 ,sidenote3 ,,success ,,and ,,its ,,secret4 ,we here come upon those 8lines of force0 which played so important a part in these and many of ,faraday's later investigations4 ,they were known before ,faraday's time--had1 in fact1 been known for two hundred years4 ,descartes had seen in them evidence for his hypothetical vortices4 ,musschenbroek had mapped them4 ,but it was reserved to ,faraday to point out their true significance4 ,to the very end of his life he continued to speculate and experiment upon them4 ,all this splendid work had occupied but a brief ten days4 ,then he rearranged the facts which he had thus harvested1 and wrote them out in corrected form as the first series of his 8,experimental ,researches in ,electricity40 ,the memoir was read to the ,royal ,society on ,november #bd1 #ahca1 though it did not appear in printed form until ,january1 #ahcb--;a delay which gave rise to serious misunderstandings4 ,the paper having been read1 he went away to ,brighton to take a holiday1 and in the exuberance of his heart penned the following letter#bc to ,phillips3-- ,m4 ,faraday to ,r4 ,phillips4 ,brighton3 ,november #bi1 #ahca4 ,,dear ,,phillips1--,for once in my life ,i am able to sit down and write to you without feeling that my time is so little that my letter must of necessity be a short one and accordingly ,i have taken an extra large sheet of paper intending to fill it with news and yet as to news ,i have none for ,i withdraw more and more from ,society1 and all ,i have to say is about myself4 ,but how are you getting on8 are you comfortable8 and how does ,mrs4 ,phillips do2 and the girls8 ,bad correspondant as ,i am1 ,i think you owe me a letter and as in the course of half an hour you will be doubly in my debt pray write us1 and let us know all about you4 ,mrs4 ,faraday wishes me not to forget to put her kind remembrances to you and ,mrs4 ,phillips in my letter4 ,to-morrow is ,st4 ,andrew's day1#bd but we shall be here until ,thursday4 ,i have made arrangements to be out of the ,council and care little for the rest although ,i should as a matter of curiosity have liked to see the ,duke in the chair on such an occasion4 ,we are here to refresh4 ,i have been working and writing a paper and that always knocks me up in health1 but now ,i feel well again and able to pursue my subject and now ,i will tell you what it is about4 ,the title will be1 ,i think1 ,,experimental ,,researches ,,in ,,electricity3 ,i4 ,on the induction of electric currents4 ,,ii4 ,on the evolution of ,electricity from magnetism4 ,,iii4 ,on a ,new electrical condition of matter4 ,,iv4 ,on ,arago's magnetic phenomena4 ,there is a bill of fare for you2 and what is more ,i hope it will not disappoint you4 ,now the pith of all this ,i must give you very briefly2 the demonstrations you shall have in the paper when printed-- ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,pith ,,of ,,the ,,discovery4 ,i4 ,when an electric current is passed through one of two parallel wires it causes at first a current in the same direction#be through the other1 but this induced current does not last a moment1 notwithstanding the inducing current 7from the ,voltaic battery7 is continued all seems unchanged except that the principal current continues its course1 but when the current is stopped then a return current occurs in the wire under induction of about the same intensity and momentary duration but in the opposite direction to that first found4 ,electricity in currents therefore exerts an inductive action like ordinary electricity but subject to peculiar laws3 the effects are a current in the same direction when the induction is established3 a reverse current when the induction ceases and a peculiar state in the interim4 ,common electricity probably does the same thing but as it is at present impossible to separate the beginning and the end of a spark or discharge from each other1 all the effects are simultaneous and neutralise each other-- ,,ii4 ,then ,i found that magnets would induce just like voltaic currents and by bringing helices and wires and jackets up to the poles of magnets1 electrical currents were produced in them these currents being able to deflect the galvanometer1 or to make1 by means of the helix1 magnetic needles1 or in one case even to give a spark4 ,hence the evolution of electricity from magnetism4 ,the currents were not permanent1 they ceased the moment the wires ceased to approach the magnet because the new and apparently quiescent state was assumed just as in the case of the induction of currents4 ,but when the magnet was removed1 and its induction therefore ceased1 the return currents appeared as before4 ,these two kinds of induction ,i have distinguished by the terms ,volta-electric and ,magneto-electric induction4 ,their identity of action and results is1 ,i think1 a very powerful proof of the truth of ,m4 ,ampre's theory of magnetism4 ,sidenote3 ,a ,,jubilant ,,epistle4 ,,iii4 ,the new electrical condition which intervenes by induction between the beginning and end of the inducing current gives rise to some very curious results4 ,it explains why chemical action or other results of electricity have never been as yet obtained in trials with the magnet4 ,in fact1 the currents have no sensible duration4 ,i believe it will explain perfectly the transference of elements between the poles of the pile in decomposition but this part of the subject ,i have reserved until the present experiments are completed and it is so analogous1 in some of its effects to those of ,ritter's secondary piles1 ,de la ,rive and ,van ,beck's peculiar properties of the poles of a voltaic pile1 that ,i should not wonder if they all proved ultimately to depend on this state4 ,the condition of matter ,i have dignified by the term ,electrotonic1 ,,the ,,electrotonic ,,state4 ,what do you think of that8 ,am ,i not a bold man1 ignorant as ,i am1 to coin words but ,i have consulted the scholars1#bf and now for ,,iv4 ,the new state has enabled me to make out and explain all ,arago's phenomena of the rotating magnet or copper plate1 ,i believe1 perfectly2 but as great names are concerned ,arago1 ,babbage1 ,herschel1 c41 and as ,i have to differ from them1 ,i have spoken with that modesty which you so well know you and ,i and ,john ,frost#bg have in common1 and for which the world so justly commends us4 ,i am even half afraid to tell you what it is4 ,you will think ,i am hoaxing you1 or else in your compassion you may conclude ,i am deceiving myself4 ,however1 you need do neither1 but had better laugh1 as ,i did most heartily when ,i found that it was neither attraction nor repulsion1 but just one of my old rotations in a new form4 ,i cannot explain to you all the actions1 which are very curious2 but in consequence of the electrotonic state being assumed and lost as the parts of the plate whirl under the pole1 and in consequence of magneto-electric induction1 currents of electricity are formed in the direction of the radii2 continuing1 for simple reasons1 as long as the motion continues1 but ceasing when that ceases4 ,hence the wonder is explained that the metal has powers on the magnet when moving1 but not when at rest4 ,hence is also explained the effect which ,arago observed1 and which made him contradict ,babbage and ,herschel1 and say the power was repulsive2 but1 as a whole1 it is really tangential4 ,it is quite comfortable to me to find that experiment need not quail before mathematics1 but is quite competent to rival it in discovery2 and ,i am amused to find that what the high mathematicians have announced as the essential condition to the rotation--namely1 that time is required--has so little foundation1 that if the time could by possibility be anticipated instead of being required--i4e4 if the currents could be formed before the magnet came over the place instead of after--the effect would equally ensue4 ,adieu1 dear ,phillips4 ,excuse this egotistical letter from yours very faithfully1 ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,the second section shows that ,faraday had discovered the cause of all the previous failures to evoke electric currents in wires by means of a magnet3 it required relative motion4 ,what the magnet at rest fails to do1 the magnet in motion accomplishes4 ,this crucial point is admirably commemorated in the following impromptu given by ,mr4 ,herbert ,mayo to ,sir ,charles ,wheatstone3-- ,around the magnet ,faraday ,was sure that ,volta's lightnings play3 ,but how to draw them from the wire8 ,he took a lesson from the heart3 ',tis when we meet1 'tis when we part1 ,breaks forth the electric fire4 ,faraday's holiday was brief2 by ,december #e he was again at work on his researches4 ,he re-observed the directions of the induced currents about which1 as the slip in his letter to ,phillips shows1 his mind was in some doubt4 ,then on ,december #adth comes the entry3--8,tried the effects of terrestrial magnetism in evolving electricity4 ,obtained beautiful results40 8,the helix had the soft iron cylinder 7freed from magnetism by a full red heat and cooling slowly7 put into it1 and it was then connected with the galvanometer by wires eight foot long2 then inverted the bar and helix1 and immediately the needle moved2 inverted it again1 the needle moved back2 and1 by repeating the motion with the oscillations of the needle1 made the latter vibrate #ahj1 or more40 ,the same day he 8made ,arago's experiment with the earth magnet1 only no magnet used1 but the plate put horizontal and rotated4 ,the effect at the needle was slight but very distinct4444 ,hence ,arago's plate a new electrical machine40 ,sidenote3 ,,points ,,in ,,the ,,discovery4 ,when we compare these manuscript notes1 recording the experiments in the order in which they were made with the published account of them in the 8,experimental ,researches10 we find many of them transcribed almost verbatim4 ,but there is a difference in the order of their arrangement4 ,in point of time the experiments on the evolution of electricity from magnetism1 beginning with the ring 7p4 #ajh71 preceded those on the induction of a current by another current4 ,in the printed 8,researches0 the experiments on the induction of currents are put first1 with an introductory paragraph on the general phenomenon of induction4#bh ,faraday's habit of working up an experiment--whether successful or unsuccessful--by increasing the power to the maximum available is illustrated in the course of the experiments on the iron ring4 ,at first he used a battery of ten pairs of plates four inches square4 ,then1 having been eminently successful in producing deflexions of his galvanometer1 he increased the battery to one hundred pairs of plates1 with the result that when contact was completed or broken in the primary circuit the impulse on the galvanometer in the secondary circuit was so great as to make the needle spin round rapidly four or five times before its motion was reduced to a mere oscillation4 ,then he removed the galvanometer and fixed small pencils of charcoal to the ends of the secondary helix2 and to his great joy perceived a minute spark between the lightly touching charcoal points whenever the contact of the battery to the primary helix was completed4 ,this was the first transformer1 for the first time set--on a small scale--to produce a tiny electric light4 ,the spark he regarded as a precious indication that what he was producing really was an electric current4 ,using the great compound steel magnet of the ,royal ,society 7constructed by ,dr4 ,gowin ,knight7 at ,christie's house at ,woolwich he had1 as narrated above1 also obtained a spark from the induced current4 ,for some time he failed to obtain either physiological or chemical effects4 ,but upon repeating the experiments more at leisure at the ,royal ,institution1 with ,daniell's armed loadstone capable of lifting thirty pounds1 a frog was found to be convulsed very strongly each time magnetic contact between the magnet and the iron core of the experimental coil was made or broken4 ,the absence of evidence as to chemical action seemed still to disquiet him4 ,he wanted to be sure that his induced currents would do everything that ordinary voltaic currents would do4 ,failing the final proof from chemical action1 he rested the case on the other identical properties4 8,but an agent10 he says1 8which is conducted along metallic wires in the manner described2 which1 whilst so passing1 possesses the peculiar magnetic actions and force of a current of electricity2 which can agitate and convulse the limbs of a frog2 and which1 finally1 can produce a spark by its discharge through charcoal1 can only be electricity4 ,as all the effects can be produced by ferruginous electro-magnets1 there is no doubt that arrangements like the magnets of ,professors ,moll1 ,henry1 ,ten ,eyke1 and others1 in which as many as two thousand pounds have been lifted1 may be used for these experiments2 in which case not only a brighter spark may be obtained1 but wires also ignited1 and as the currents can pass liquids1 chemical action be produced4 ,these effects are still more likely to be obtained when the magneto-electric arrangements1 to be explained in the fourth section1 are excited by the powers of such apparatus40 ,the apparatus described in the fourth section comprised several forms of magneto-electric machines1 that is to say1 primitive kinds of dynamos4 ,having in his mind the phenomenon discovered by ,arago1 and the experiments of ,babbage and ,herschel on the so-called magnetism of rotation1 he followed up the idea that these effects might be due to induced currents eddying round in the copper disc4 ,no sooner had he obtained electricity from magnets than he attempted to make ,arago's experiment a new source of electricity1 and1 as he himself says1 8did not despair0 8of being able to construct a new electrical machine40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 7,,facsimile ,,of ,,original ,,sketch47 ,sidenote3 ,a ,,new ,,electrical ,,machine4 ,the 8new electrical machine0 was an exceedingly simple contrivance4 ,a disc of copper1 twelve inches in diameter 7,fig4 #f71 and about one-fifth of an inch in thickness1 fixed upon a brass axle1 was mounted in frames1 so as to allow of revolution1 its edge being at the same time introduced between the magnetic poles of a large compound permanent magnet1 the poles being about half an inch apart4#bi ,the magnet first used was the historical magnet of ,gowin ,knight4 ,the edge of the plate was well amalgamated1 for the purpose of obtaining a good but movable contact1 and a part round the axle was also prepared in a similar manner4 ,conducting strips of copper and lead1 to serve as electric collectors1 were prepared1 so as to be placed in contact with the edge of the copper disc2 one of these was held by hand to touch the edge of the disc between the magnet poles4 ,the wires from a galvanometer were connected1 the one to the collecting-strip1 the other to the brass axle2 then on revolving the disc a deflexion of the galvanometer was obtained1 which was reversed in direction when the direction of the rotation was reversed4 8,here1 therefore1 was demonstrated the production of a permanent current of electricity by ordinary magnets40 ,these effects were also obtained from the poles of electro-magnets1 and from copper helices without iron cores4 ,several other forms of magneto-electric machines were tried by ,faraday4 ,sidenote3 ,,new ,,forms ,,of ,,apparatus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,in one1#cj a flat ring of twelve inches' external diameter1 and one inch broad1 was cut from a thick copper plate1 and mounted to revolve between the poles of the magnet1 two conductors being applied to make rubbing contact at the inner and outer edge at the part which passed between the magnetic poles4 ,in another1#ca a disc of copper1 one-fifth of an inch thick and only #a inch in diameter 7,fig4 #g71 was amalgamated at the edge1 and mounted on a copper axle4 ,a square piece of sheet metal had a circular hole cut in it1 into which the disc fitted loosely2 a little mercury completed communication between the disc and its surrounding ring4 ,the latter was connected by wire to a galvanometer2 the other wire being connected from the instrument to the end of the axle4 ,upon rotating the disc in a horizontal plane1 currents were obtained1 though the earth was the only magnet employed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,faraday also proposed a multiple machine#cb having several discs1 metallically connected alternately at the edges and centres by means of mercury1 which were then to be revolved alternately in opposite directions1 ,in another apparatus1#cc a copper cylinder 7,fig4 #h71 closed at one extremity1 was put over a magnet1 one half of which it enclosed like a cap1 and to which it was attached without making metallic contact4 ,the arrangement was then floated upright in a narrow jar of mercury1 so that the lower edge of the copper cap touched the fluid4 ,on rotating the magnet and its attached cap1 a current was sent through wires from the mercury to the top of the copper cap4 ,in another apparatus1#cd still preserved at the ,royal ,institution1 a cylindrical bar magnet1 half immersed in mercury1 was made to rotate1 and generated a current1 its own metal serving as a conductor4 ,in another form1#ce the cylindrical magnet was rotated horizontally about its own axis1 and was found to generate currents which flowed from the middle to the ends1 or vice vers1 according to the rotation4 ,the description of these new electrical machines is concluded with the following pregnant words3-- ,sidenote3 ,,an ,,earth-,,inductor4 ,i have rather1 however1 been desirous of discovering new facts and relations dependent on magneto-electric induction1 than of exalting the force of those already obtained2 being assured that the latter would find their full development hereafter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,in yet another machine 7,fig4 #i71 constructed by ,faraday some time later1#cf a simple rectangle of copper wire w1 attached to a frame1 was rotated about a horizontal axis placed east and west1 and generated alternate currents1 which could be collected by a simple commutator c4 ,within a few months machines on the principle of magneto-induction had been devised by ,dal ,negro1 and by ,pixii4 ,in the latter's apparatus a steel horseshoe magnet1 with its poles upwards1 was caused to rotate about a vertical shaft1 inducing alternating currents in a pair of bobbins fixed above it1 and provided with a horseshoe core of soft iron4 ,later1 in #ahcb1 ,pixii produced1 at the suggestion of ,ampre1#cg a second machine1 provided with mercury cup connections to rectify the alternations of the current4 ,one of these machines was shown at the ,british ,association meeting at ,oxford in the same year 7p4 #fd74 ,the idea developed in the third part of this research was intensely original and suggestive4 ,faraday's own statement is as follows3-- ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,electrotonic ,,state4 ,whilst the wire is subject to either volta-electric or magneto-electric induction1 it appears to be in a peculiar state2 for it resists the formation of an electrical current in it1 whereas1 if left in its common condition1 such a current would be produced2 and when left uninfluenced it has the power of originating a current1 a power which the wire does not possess under common circumstances4 ,this electrical condition of matter has not hitherto been recognised1 but it probably exerts a very important influence in many1 if not most1 of the phenomena produced by currents of electricity4 ,for reasons which will immediately appear1 ,i have1 after advising with several learned friends1 ventured to designate it as the electrotonic state4 ,this peculiar condition shows no known electrical effects whilst it continues2 nor have ,i yet been able to discover any peculiar powers exerted or properties possessed by matter whilst retained in this state4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this state is altogether the effect of the induction exerted1 and ceases as soon as the inductive force is removed4444 ,the state appears to be instantly assumed1 requiring hardly a sensible portion of time for that purpose4444 ,in all those cases where the helices or wires are advanced towards or taken from the magnet1 the direct or inverted current of induced electricity continues for the time occupied in the advance or recession2 for the electro-tonic state is rising to a higher or falling to a lower degree during that time1 and the change is accompanied by its corresponding evolution of electricity2 but these form no objections to the opinion that the electro-tonic state is instantly assumed4 ,this peculiar state appears to be a state of tension1 and may be considered as equivalent to a current of electricity1 at least equal to that produced either when the condition is induced or destroyed4 ,faraday further supposed that the formation of this state in the neighbourhood of a coil would exert a reaction upon the original current1 giving rise to a retardation of it2 but he was unable at the time to ascertain experimentally whether this was so4 ,he even looked--though also unsuccessfully--for a self-induced return current from a conductor of copper through which a strong current was led and then suddenly interrupted1 the expected current of reaction being 8due to the discharge of its supposed electrotonic state40 ,if we would understand the rather obscure language in which this idea of an electrotonic state is couched1 we must try to put ourselves back to the epoch when it was written4 ,at that date the only ideas which had been formulated to explain magnetic and electric attractions and repulsions were founded upon the notion of action at a distance4 ,michell had propounded the view that the electric and magnetic forces vary1 like gravity1 according to a law of the inverse squares of the distances4 ,coulomb1 in a series of experiments requiring extraordinary patience as well as delicacy of manipulation1 had shown--by an application of ,michell's torsion balance--that in particular cases where the electric charges are concentrated on small spheres1 or where the magnetic poles are small1 so as to act as mere points1 this law--which is essentially a geometric law of point-action--is approximately fulfilled4 ,the mathematicians1 ,laplace and ,poisson at their head1 had seized on this demonstration and had elaborated their mathematical theories4 ,before them1 though the research lay for a century unpublished1 ,cavendish had shown that the only law of force as between one element of an electric charge and another compatible with a charge being in equilibrium was the law of inverse squares4 ,but in all these mathematical reasonings one thing had been quite left out of sight--namely1 the possible properties of the intervening medium4 ,faraday1 to whom the idea of mere action at a distance was abhorrent1 if not unthinkable1 conceived of all these forces of attraction and repulsion as effects taking place by something going on in the intervening medium1 as effects propagated from point to point continuously through space4 ,in his earlier work on the electromagnetic rotations he had grown to regard the space around the conducting wire as being affected by the so-called current2 and the space about the poles of a magnet he knew to be traversed by curved magnetic lines1 invisible indeed1 but real1 needing only the simplest of expedients--the sprinkling of iron filings--to reveal their existence and trend4 ,when therefore he found that these new effects of the induction of one electric current by another could likewise cross an intervening space1 whether empty or filled with material bodies1 he instinctively sought to ascribe this propagation of the effect to a property or state of the medium4 ,and finding that state to be different from any state previously known1 different from the state existing between two magnets at rest or between two stationary electric charges1 he followed the entirely philosophical course of exploring its properties and of denoting it by a name which he deemed appropriate4 ,as we shall see1 this idea of an electrotonic state recurred in his later researches with new and important connotations4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,he was soon at work again1 as we have seen4 ,he experimented1 in ,january1 #ahcb1 on the currents produced by the earth's rotation--on the #ajth at the round pond in ,kensington ,gardens1 and on the #abth and #acth at ,waterloo ,bridge4 ,sidenote3 ,a ,,spark ,,from ,a ,,magnet4 8,this evening10 he writes in his notebook under date ,february #h1 8at ,woolwich1 experimenting with magnet1#ch and for the first time got the magnetic spark myself4 ,connected ends of a helix into two general ends1 and then crossed the wires in such a way that a blow at a b would open them a little ,fig4 #aj4 ,then bringing a b against the poles of a magnet1 the ends were disjoined1 and bright sparks resulted40 ,from succeeding with a steel magnet it was but a short step to succeed when a natural loadstone was used4 ,the next day we find this entry3--8,at home succeeded beautifully with ,mr4 ,daniell's magnet4 ,amalgamation of wires very needful4 ,this is a natural loadstone1 and perhaps the first used for the spark40 ,he sent to the ,royal ,society an account of these and the earlier experiments2 his paper on terrestrial magneto-electric induction1 and on the force and direction of magneto-electric induction1 received the distinction of being read as the ,bakerian lecture of the year4 ,sidenote3 ,,tyndall',s ,,summary4 ,the following summary of this second paper is from the pen of ,professor ,tyndall3-- ,he placed a bar of iron in a coil of wire1 and lifting the bar into the direction of the dipping needle1 he excited by this action a current in the coil4 ,on reversing the bar1 a current in the opposite direction rushed through the wire4 ,the same effect was produced1 when1 on holding the helix in the line of dip1 a bar of iron was thrust into it4 ,here1 however1 the earth acted on the coil through the intermediation of the bar of iron4 ,he abandoned the bar1 and simply set a copper plate spinning in a horizontal plane2 he knew that the earth's lines of magnetic force then crossed the plate at an angle of about #gj4 ,when the plate spun round1 the lines of force were intersected and induced currents generated1 which produced their proper effect when carried from the plate to the galvanometer4 8,when the plate was in the magnetic meridian1 or in any other plane coinciding with the magnetic dip1 then its rotation produced no effect upon the galvanometer40 ,at the suggestion of a mind fruitful in suggestions of a profound and philosophic character--,i mean that of ,sir ,john ,herschel--,mr4 ,barlow1 of ,woolwich1 had experimented with a rotating iron shell4 ,mr4 ,christie had also performed an elaborate series of experiments on a rotating iron disc4 ,both of them had found that when in rotation the body exercised a peculiar action upon the magnetic needle1 deflecting it in a manner which was not observed during quiescence2 but neither of them was aware at the time of the agent which produced this extraordinary deflection4 ,they ascribed it to some change in the magnetism of the iron shell and disc4 ,but ,faraday at once saw that his induced currents must come into play here1 and he immediately obtained them from an iron disc4 ,with a hollow brass ball1 moreover1 he produced the effects obtained by ,mr4 ,barlow4 ,iron was in no way necessary2 the only condition of success was that the rotating body should be of a character to admit of the formation of currents in its substance2 it must1 in other words1 be a conductor of electricity4 ,the higher the conducting power1 the more copious were the currents4 ,he now passes from his little brass globe to the globe of the earth4 ,he plays like a magician with the earth's magnetism4 ,he sees the invisible lines along which its magnetic action is exerted1 and1 sweeping his wand across these lines1 he evokes this new power4 ,placing a simple loop of wire round a magnetic needle1 he bends its upper portion to the west2 the north pole of the needle immediately swerves to the east2 he bends his loop to the east1 and the north pole moves to the west4 ,suspending a common bar magnet in a vertical position1 he causes it to spin round its own axis4 ,its pole being connected with one end of a galvanometer wire1 and its equator with the other end1 electricity rushes round the galvanometer from the rotating magnet4 ,he remarks upon the 8singular independence0 of the magnetism and the body of the magnet which carries it4 ,the steel behaves as if it were isolated from its own magnetism4 ,and then his thoughts suddenly widen1 and he asks himself whether the rotating earth does not generate induced currents as it turns round its axis from west to east4 ,in his experiment with the twirling magnet the galvanometer wire remained at rest2 one portion of the circuit was in motion relatively to another portion4 ,but in the case of the twirling planet the galvanometer wire would necessarily be carried along with the earth2 there would be no relative motion4 ,what must be the consequence8 ,take the case of a telegraph wire with its two terminal plates dipped into the earth1 and suppose the wire to lie in the magnetic meridian4 ,the ground underneath the wire is influenced1 like the wire itself1 by the earth's rotation2 if a current from south to north be generated in the wire1 a similar current from south to north would be generated in the earth under the wire2 these currents would run against the same terminal plate1 and thus neutralise each other4 ,this inference appears inevitable1 but his profound vision perceived its possible invalidity4 ,he saw that it was at least possible that the difference of conducting power between the earth and the wire might give one an advantage over the other1 and that thus a residual or differential current might be obtained4 ,he combined wires of different materials1 and caused them to act in opposition to each other1 but found the combination ineffectual4 ,the more copious flow in the better conductor was exactly counterbalanced by the resistance of the worst4 ,still1 though experiment was thus emphatic1 he would clear his mind of all discomfort by operating on the earth itself4 ,he went to the round lake near ,kensington ,palace1 and stretched #dhj feet of copper wire1 north and south1 over the lake1 causing plates soldered to the wire at its ends to dip into the water4 ,the copper wire was severed at the middle1 and the severed ends connected with a galvanometer4 ,no effect whatever was observed4 ,but though quiescent water gave no effect1 moving water might4 ,he therefore worked at ,waterloo ,bridge for three days1 during the ebb and flow of the tide1 but without any satisfactory result4 ,still he urges1 8,theoretically it seems a necessary consequence1 that where water is flowing there electric currents should be formed4 ,if a line be imagined passing from ,dover to ,calais through the sea and returning through the land1 beneath the water1 to ,dover1 it traces out a circuit of conducting matter1 one part of which1 when the water moves up or down the ,channel1 is cutting the magnetic curves of the earth1 whilst the other is relatively at rest4444 ,there is every reason to believe that currents do run in the general direction of the circuit described1 either one way or the other1 according as the passage of the waters is up or down the ,channel40 ,this was written before the submarine cable was thought of1 and he once informed me that actual observation upon that cable had been found to be in accordance with his theoretic deduction4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,it may here be apposite to discuss a fundamental question raised in these researches4 ,in ,faraday's mind there arose the conviction of a connection between the induction of currents by magnets and the magnetic lines which invisibly fill all the space in the neighbourhood of the magnet4 ,that relation he discovered and announced in the following terms3-- ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,induction4 8,the relation which holds between the magnetic pole1 the moving wire or metal1 and the direction of the current evolved--i4e4 the law which governs the evolution of electricity by magneto-electric induction1 is very simple1 though rather difficult to express4 ,if in ,fig4 #aa1 ,p ,n represent a horizontal wire passing by a marked i4e4 #8north-seeking' magnetic pole1 so that the direction of its motion shall coincide with the curved line proceeding from below upwards2 or if its motion parallel to itself be in a line tangential to the curved line1 but in the general direction of the arrows2 or if it pass the pole in other directions1 but so as to cut the magnetic curves#ci in the same general direction1 or on the same side as they would be cut by the wire if moving along the dotted curved line2 then the current of electricity in the wire is from ,p to ,n4 ,if it be carried in the reverse direction1 the electric current will be from ,n to ,p4 ,or if the wire be in the vertical position1 figured ,p ,n1 and it be carried in similar directions1 coinciding with the dotted horizontal curve so far as to cut the magnetic curves on the same side with it1 the current will be from ,p to ,n40 ,sidenote3 ,,cutting ,,the ,,magnetic ,,lines4 ,when resuming the research in ,december1 ,faraday investigated the point whether it was essential or not that the moving wire should1 in 8cutting0 the magnetic curves1 pass into positions of greater or lesser magnetic force2 or whether1 always intersecting curves of equal magnetic intensity1 the mere motion sufficed for the production of the current4 ,he found the latter to be true4 ,this notion of cutting the invisible magnetic lines as the essential act necessary and sufficient for induction was entirely original with ,faraday4 ,for long it proved a stumbling-block to the abstract mathematicians1 since there was1 in most cases1 no direct or easy way in which to express the number of magnetic lines that were cut4 ,neither had any convention been adopted up to that time as to how to reckon numerically the number of magnetic lines in any given space near a magnet4 ,later1 in #ahea1 ,faraday himself gave greater precision to these ideas4 ,he found that the current was proportional to the velocity1 when the conductor was moving in a uniform magnetic field with a uniform motion4 ,also1 that the quantity of electricity thrown by induction into the circuit was directly proportional to the 8amount of curves intersected40 ,the following passage1 from ,clerk ,maxwell's article on ,faraday in the 8,encyclopdia ,britannica10 admirably sums up the matter3-- ,the magnitude and originality of ,faraday's achievement may be estimated by tracing the subsequent history of his discovery4 ,as might be expected1 it was at once made the subject of investigation by the whole scientific world1 but some of the most experienced physicists were unable to avoid mistakes in stating1 in what they conceived to be more scientific language than ,faraday's1 the phenomena before them4 ,up to the present time the mathematicians who have rejected ,faraday's method of stating his law as unworthy of the precision of their science1 have never succeeded in devising any essentially different formula which shall fully express the phenomena without introducing hypotheses about the mutual action of things which have no physical existence1 such as elements of currents which flow out of nothing1 then along a wire1 and finally sink into nothing again4 ,after nearly half a century of labour of this kind1 we may say that1 though the practical applications of ,faraday's discovery have increased and are increasing in number and value every year1 no exception to the statement of these laws as given by ,faraday has been discovered1 no new law has been added to them1 and ,faraday's original statement remains to this day the only one which asserts no more than can be verified by experiment1 and the only one by which the theory of the phenomena can be expressed in a manner which is exactly and numerically accurate1 and at the same time within the range of elementary methods of exposition4 ,in the year #ahca1 which witnessed this masterpiece of scientific research1 ,faraday was busy in many other ways4 ,he was still undertaking chemical analyses and expert work for fees1 as witness his letter to ,phillips on p4 #fb4 ,he was also1 until ,november1 on the ,council of the ,royal ,society4 ,to the 8,philosophical ,transactions0 he contributed a paper 8,on ,vibrating ,surfaces10 in which he solved a problem in acoustics which had previously gone without explanation4 ,it had long been known that in the experiments of obtaining the patterns called 8,chladni's figures10 by strewing powders upon vibrating plates1 while the heavier powders1 such as sand1 moved into the nodal lines1 lighter substances1 such as lycopodium dust1 collected in little circular heaps over the parts where the vibration was most energetic4 ,faraday's explanation was that these lighter powders were caught and whirled about in little vortices which formed themselves at spots where the motions were of greatest amplitude4 ,he also wrote a paper 8,on a ,peculiar ,class of ,optical ,deceptions10 dealing with the illusions that result from the eye being shown in successive glimpses1 as between the teeth of a revolving wheel1 different views of a moving body4 ,this research was1 in effect1 the starting point of a whole line of optical toys1 beginning with the phenakistiscope or stroboscope1 which developed through the zoetrope and praxino-scope into the kinematograph and animatograph of recent date4 ,sidenote3 ,,lectures ,,on ,,physical ,,subjects4 ,he gave four afternoon lectures at the ,royal ,institution and five ,friday evening discourses4 ,these were on optical deceptions1 on light and phosphorescence1 being an account of experiments recently made by ,mr4 ,pearsall1 chemical assistant in the ,institution2 on oxalamide1 then recently discovered by ,m4 ,dumas2 on ,trevelyan's experiments about the production of sound by heated bodies2 and on the arrangements assumed by particles upon vibrating surfaces4 ,in #ahcb he gave five ,friday evening discourses1 four of which related to his own researches4 ,in ,august he entered upon the third series of 8,experimental ,researches in ,electricity10 which was devoted to the identity of electricities derived from different sources1 and on the relation by measure of common i4e4 frictional and voltaic electricity4 ,he did not like any doubt to hang about as to whether the electricity obtained from magnets by induction was really the same as that obtainable from other sources4 ,possibly he had in his mind the difficulties which had arisen thirty years before over the discoveries of ,galvani and ,volta1 when it was so far doubted whether the electricity in currents from piles and batteries of cells was the same as the electricity evoked by friction1 that the distinctive and misleading name of 8galvanism0 was assigned to the former4 ,he commented on the circumstance that many philosophers--and he included ,davy by name in an explicit reference--were vainly drawing distinctions#dj between electricities from different sources1 or at least doubting whether their identity were proven4 ,his first point was to consider whether 8common electricity10 8animal electricity10 and 8magneto-electric currents0 could1 like 8voltaic electricity10 produce chemical decompositions4 ,he began by demonstrating that an ordinary electric discharge from a friction machine can affect a suitably disposed galvanometer4 ,one of his instruments of sufficient sensitiveness was surrounded by an enclosing cage of double metal foil and wire-work1 duly connected to 8earth10 so as to render it independent of all disturbances by external electric charges in its neighbourhood4 ,his 8earth0 for this purpose consisted of a stout metal wire connected through the pipes in the house to the metallic gas-pipes belonging to the public gas works of ,london1 and also with the metallic water-pipes of ,london--an effectual 8discharging train40 ,he used a friction electric machine with a glass plate #ej inches in diameter1 and a ,leyden-jar battery of fifteen jars1 each having about #hd square inches of coated glass4 ,this battery of jars was first charged from the machine and then discharged through a wet thread four feet long1 and through the galvanometer to earth vi the 8discharging train40 ,having by this means satisfied himself that these electric discharges could deflect a galvanometer1 whether through the wet thread1 a copper wire1 or through water1 or rarefied air1 or by connection through points in air1 he went on to the question of chemical decomposition4 ,dipping two silver wires into a drop of solution of sulphate of copper1 he found that one of them became copper-plated by the electricity that was evolved by #ajj or #bjj turns of the disc machine4 ,he bleached indigo1 turned starch purple with iodine liberated from iodide of potassium1 exactly as might have been done by a 8volta-electric current0 from a battery of cells4 ,he also decomposed water1 giving due recognition to the antecedent experiments of ,van ,troostwyk1 ,pearson1 and ,wollaston4 ,sidenote3 ,,identity ,,of ,,electricities4 ,in the paper which he drew up he compares these results with others made with electric discharges from an electric kite and with those of the torpedo and other electric fishes4 ,he recapitulates the properties of magneto-electricity and the proofs now accumulating that it can decompose water4 ,he drew up a schedule of the different effects which electricity can produce1 and of the different sources of electricity1 showing in tabular form how far each so-called kind of electricity had been found to produce each effect4 ,the conclusion was that there is no philosophical difference between the different cases2 since the phenomena produced by the different kinds of electricity differ not in their character but only in degree4 8,electricity1 whatever may be its source1 is identical in its nature40 ,on comparing the effects produced by different discharges1 he concludes that 8if the same absolute quantity#da of electricity pass through the galvanometer1 whatever may be its intensity1 the deflecting force upon the magnetic needle is the same40 ,he was then able to go on to a quantitative comparison between the 8quantity0 of electricity from different sources1 and came to the conclusion that both in magnetic deflection and in chemical force the current of electricity given by his standard battery for eight beats of his watch was equal to that of the friction machine evolved by thirty revolutions2 further1 that 8the chemical power1 like the magnetic force1 is in direct proportion to the absolute quantity of electricity which passes40 ,sidenote3 ,,electro-,,chemical ,,work4 ,this series of researches was published in ,january1 #ahcc4 ,in ,april of the same year he sent to the ,royal ,society another paper--the fourth series--on electric conduction4 ,it arose from the surprising observation that1 though water conducts1 ice acts as a complete non-conductor4 ,this led to an examination of the conducting power of fusible solids in general4 ,he found that as a rule--excepting on the one hand the metals1 which conduct whether solid or liquid1 and on the other hand fatty bodies1 which are always non-conductors--they assume conducting power when liquefied1 and lose it when congealed4 ,chloride of lead1 of silver1 of potassium1 and of sodium1 and many chlorates1 nitrates1 sulphates1 and many other salts and fusible substances were found to follow this rule4 ,all the substances so found to act were compound bodies1 and capable of decomposition by the current4 ,when conduction ceased1 decomposition ceased also4 ,an apparent exception was found in sulphide of silver1 which1 when heated1 acquired conducting powers even before it assumed the liquid state1 yet decomposed in the solid state4 ,this led him on to study electro-chemical decompositions more closely4 ,here he was following directly in the footsteps of his master ,davy1 whose discovery of the decomposition of potash and soda by the electric current had been one of the most prominent scientific advances resulting from the invention of the voltaic cell4 ,the fifth series of researches1 published in ,june1 #ahcc1 embodies the work4 ,he first combats the prevailing opinion that the presence of water is necessary for electro-chemical decomposition2 then analyses the views of various philosophers--,grotthuss1 ,davy1 ,de la ,rive1 and others--who had discussed the question whether the decompositions are due to attractions exercised by the two poles of the electric circuit4 ,this he contests in the most direct manner4 ,already he has reason to believe that for a given quantity of electricity passed through the liquid the amount of electro-chemical action is a constant quantity1 and depends in no way on the distance of the particles of the decomposable substance from the poles4 ,he regards the elements as progressing in two streams in opposite directions parallel to the current1 while the poles 8are merely the surfaces or doors by which the electricity enters into or passes out of the substance suffering decomposition40 ,amongst the laboratory notes of this time are many which were never published in the 8,experimental ,researches10 or of which only brief abstracts appeared4 ,some of these are of great interest4 ,here is one literally transcribed3-- #bf ,feb4 #ahcc4 ,chloride ,magnesium4--,when solid and wire fuzed in non-conductor--,when fuzed conducted very well and was decomposed ,a and ,p ,pole much action and gas--chlorine8 ,at ,n ,pole ,magnesium separated and no gas4 ,sometimes ,magnesium burnt flying off in globules burning brilliantly4 ,when wire at that pole put in water or white ,m ,a muriatic acid matter round it acted powerfully evolving hydrogen and forming ,magnesia2 and when wire and surrounding matter heated in spirit lamp ,magnesium burnt with intense light into ,magnesia4 ,,very ,,good ,,expt4 ,this recalls the 8capital experiment0 entry which ,sir ,humphry ,davy wrote after the account of his decomposition of caustic potash4 ,on the #gth of ,april we come to a marvellous page of speculations4 ,he has seen that liquids1 both solutions and fused salts1 can be decomposed by the current1 and that at least one solid is capable of electrolysis4 ,but he finds that alloys and metals are not decomposed4 ,he finds that electrolysis is easiest for those compounds that consist of the most diverse elements1 and is led on to speculate as to the possible constitution of those conductors that the current does not decompose4 ,this may involve a recasting of accepted ideas2 but from such a step he does not shrink1 as the following extracts show3-- ,metals may not be compounds of elements most frequently combined1 but rather of such as are so similar to each other as to pass out of the limit of voltaic decomposition4 #acth ,april 7same page74 ,if voltaic decomposition of the kind ,i believe then review all substances upon the new view to see if they may not be decomposable1 c4 c4 c4 ,sidenote3 ,,attraction ,,by ,,poles ,,doubted4 ,he has now found that the facts observed do not admit of being explained on the supposition that the motion of the ions is due to the attraction of the poles1 and accordingly there follows the entry3-- 7,ap4 #ac1 #ahcc47 ,a single element is never attracted by a pole1 i4e4 without attraction of other element at other pole4 ,hence doubt ,mr4 ,brande's ,expts on attraction of gases and vapours4 ,doubt attraction by poles altogether4 ,to this subject he returned in #ahcd2 an intervening memoir--the sixth--being taken up with the power of metals and solids to bring about the combination of gaseous bodies4 ,in the seventh series1 published in ,january1 #ahcd1 his first work is to explain the new terms which he has adopted1 on the advice of ,whewell1 to express the facts4 ,the so-called poles1 being in his view merely doors or ways by which the current passes1 he now terms electrodes1 distinguishing the entrance and exit respectively as anode and cathode1#db while the decomposable liquid is termed an electrolyte1 and the decomposing process electrolysis4 8,finally10 he says1 in a passage 7here italicised7 worthy to be engraved in gold for the essential truth it enunciates on a question of terminology1 8,i require a term to express those bodies which can pass to the electrodes1 or1 as they are usually called1 the poles4 ,substances are frequently spoken of as being electronegative1 or electropositive1 according as they go under the supposed influence of a direct attraction to the positive or negative pole4 ,but these terms are much too significant for the use to which ,i should have to put them2 for though the meanings are perhaps right1 they are only hypothetical1 and may be wrong2 and then1 through a very imperceptible but still very dangerous1 because continual1 influence1 they do great injury to science1 by contracting and limiting the habitual views of those engaged in pursuing it4 ,i propose to distinguish such bodies by calling those anions which go to the anode of the decomposing body2 and those passing to the cathode1 cations2 and when ,i shall have occasion to speak of these together1 ,i shall call them ions4#dc ,thus1 the chloride of lead is an electrolyte1 and when electrolyzed evolves the two ions1 chlorine and lead1 the former being an anion and the latter a cation40 ,in ,faraday's own bound volume of the 8,experimental ,researches0 he has illustrated these terms by the sketch here reproduced4 7,fig4 #ab47 ,faraday's letter to ,whewell when he consulted him as to the new words has not been preserved4 ,he discarded1 when the paper was printed1 the terms he had first used4 ,whewell's replies of ,april #beth and ,may #eth1 #ahcd1 have been preserved and are printed in ,todhunter's biography of ,whewell4 ,from the later of the two the following passage is extracted3-- ,sidenote3 ,,new ,,nomenclature4 ,whewell to ,faraday1 ,may #e1 #ahcd4 ,if you take anode and cathode1 ,i would propose for the two elements resulting from electrolysis the terms anion and cation1 which are neuter participles signifying that which goes up1 and that which goes down2 and for the two together you might use the term ions4444 ,the word is not a substantive in ,greek1 but it may easily be so taken1 and ,i am persuaded that the brevity and simplicity of the terms you will thus have will in a fortnight procure their universal acceptation4 ,the anion is that which goes to the anode1 the cation is that which goes to the cathode4 ,the th in the latter word arises from the aspirate in hodos 7way71 and therefore is not to be introduced in cases where the second term has not an aspirate1 as ion has not4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,on ,may #aeth ,faraday replied as follows3-- ,faraday to ,whewell4 ,i have taken your advice and the names1 and use anode1 cathode1 anions1 cations and ions2 the last ,i shall have but little occasion for4 ,i had some hot objections made to them here1 and found myself very much in the condition of the man with his ,son and ,ass1 who tried to please everybody2 but when ,i held up the shield of your authority it was wonderful to observe how the tone of objection melted away4 ,i am quite delighted with the facility of expression which the new terms give me1 and shall ever be your debtor for the kind assistance you have given me4 ,as though to prepare the way for a still further cutting of himself adrift from the slavery of using terms that might be found misleading1 he added the following note3-- ,it will be well understood that ,i am giving no opinion respecting the nature of the electric current now1 beyond what ,i have done on former occasions2 and that though ,i speak of the current as proceeding from the parts which are positive to those which are negative1 it is merely in accordance with the conventional1 though in some degree tacit1 agreement entered into by scientific men1 that they may have a constant1 certain1 and definite means of referring to the direction of the forces of that current4 ,the 8former occasions0 is a reference to an earlier suggestion that a current might mean anything progressive1 whether a flow in one direction or two fluids moving in opposite directions1 or merely vibrations1 or1 still more generally1 progressive forces4 ,he had expressly said that what we call the electric current 8may perhaps best be conceived of as an axis of power having contrary forces1 exactly equal in amount1 in contrary directions40 ,sidenote3 ,,electro-,,chemical ,,laws4 ,he then suggests as a measurer of current the standard form of electrolytic cell ever since known as the voltameter4 ,he preferred that kind in which water is decomposed1 the quantity of electricity which had flowed through it being measured by the quantity of the gas or gases evolved during the operation4 ,before adopting this he undertook careful experiments in which his fine manipulative skill1 no less than his chemical experience1 was called into service to verify the fact that the quantity of water decomposed was really proportionate to the quantity of electricity which has been passed through the instrument4 ,having this standard1 he investigated numerous other cases of decomposition by the current1 and so arrived at a substantial basis for the doctrine of definite electro-chemical action4 ,speaking of the substances into which electrolytes are divided by the current1 and which he had called ions1 he says3 8,they are combining bodies2 are directly associated with the fundamental parts of the doctrine of chemical affinity2 and have each a definite proportion1 in which they are always evolved during electrolytic action4444 ,i have proposed to call the numbers representing the proportions in which they are evolved electro-chemical equivalents4 ,thus hydrogen1 oxygen1 chlorine1 iodine1 lead1 tin are ions2 the three former are anions1 the two metals cations1 and #a1 #h1 #cf1 #abe1 #ajd1 #eh1 are their electro-chemical equivalents nearly40 ,this fundamental law being set upon an impregnable basis of facts1 he goes on to speculate upon the absolute quantity of electricity or electric power belonging to different bodies2 a notion which only within the last few years has found general acceptance4 ,in developing this theory he uses the following language3-- ,according to it i4e4 this theory1 the equivalent weights of bodies are simply those quantities of them which contain equal quantities of electricity1 or have naturally equal electric powers2 it being the ,,electricity which determines the equivalent number1 because it determines the combining force4 ,or1 if we adopt the atomic theory or phraseology1 then the atoms of bodies which are equivalents to each other in their ordinary chemical action1 have equal quantities of electricity naturally associated with them4 ,but ,i must confess ,i am jealous of the term atom4444 ,here we find the modern doctrine of electrons or unitary atomic charges1 clearly formulated in #ahcd4 ,in the course of this speculation he remarks that 8if the electrical power which holds the elements of a grain of water in combination1 or which makes a grain of oxygen or hydrogen in the right proportions unite into water when they are made to combine1 could be thrown into the condition of a current1 it would exactly equal the current required for the separation of that grain of water into its elements again40 ,and all this years before there was any doctrine of the conservation of energy to guide the mind of the philosopher6 ,the passage just cited contains the germs of the thermodynamic theory of electromotive forces worked out a dozen years later by ,sir ,william ,thomson 7now ,lord ,kelvin71 by which theory we can predict the electromotive forces of any given chemical combination from a knowledge of the heat evolved by a given mass of the product in the act of combining4 ,sidenote3 ,,another ,,unsuccessful ,,quest4 ,the eighth series of the researches1 which was read in ,june1 #ahcd1 deals chiefly with voltaic cells and batteries of cells4 ,he is now applying to the operations inside the primary cell the electrochemical principles learned by the study of electrolysis in secondary cells4 ,his thoughts have been incessantly playing around the problem of electrolytic conduction4 ,he was convinced that the forces which shear the anions from combination with the cations and transfer them in opposite directions must be inherent before the circuit is completed1 and therefore before any actual transfer or movement takes place4 8,it seems to me impossible10 he says1 8to resist the idea that it the 8transfer10 or 8what is called the voltaic current0 must be preceded by a state of tension in the fluid4 ,i have sought carefully for indications of a state of tension in the electrolytic conductor2 and conceiving that it might produce something like structure1 either before or during its discharge1 ,i endeavoured to make this evident by polarised light40 ,he used a solution of sulphate of soda1 but without the slightest trace of optical action in any direction of the ray4 ,he repeated the experiment1 using a solid electrolyte1 borate of lead1 in its non-conducting state1 but equally without result4 ,during the time of these electrochemical researches in #ahcc and #ahcd1 ,faraday's activities for the ,royal ,institution were undiminished4 ,in #ahcc he gave seven ,friday discourses1 three of them on the researches in hand1 one on ,wheatstone's investigation of the velocity of the electric spark1 and one on the practical prevention of dry rot in timber1 which was afterwards republished as a pamphlet1 and ran to two editions4 ,in #ahcd he gave four ,friday discourses2 two on his electrochemical researches1 one on ,ericsson's heat-engine1 and the other on caoutchouc4 ,the ninth series of electrical researches occupied the autumn of #ahcd4 ,in it he returns to the study of the magnetic and inductive actions of the current1 investigating the self-induced spark at the break of the circuit1 to which his attention had been directed by ,mr4 ,w4 ,jenkin4 ,several points in this research are little known even now to electricians1 the laboratory notes being much more detailed than the published paper4 ,he describes an exceedingly neat high-speed break for producing rapid interruptions1 using for that purpose stationary ripples on the surface of a pool of mercury4 ,in a wonderful day's work on #acth ,november1 filling thirty-four pages of the laboratory book1 illustrated with numerous unpublished sketches1 he tracks out the properties of self-induction4 ,he proves that the spark 7on breaking circuit7 from a wire coiled up in a helix is far brighter than that from an identical wire laid out straight4 ,he finds that a non-inductive and1 therefore1 sparkless coil can be made by winding the wire in two opposite helices4 8,thus the whole inductive effect of the length of wire was neutralised by the reciprocal and contrary action of the two halves which constituted the helices in contrary directions40 ,the next day he writes3 8,these effects show that every part of an electric circuit is acting by induction on the neighbouring parts of the same current1 even in the same wire and the same part of the wire40 ,sidenote3 ,,effects ,,of ,,self-,,induction4 ,on #bbnd ,november he is trying another set of experiments1 also never fully published4 ,they relate to the diminution of self-induction of a straight conductor by dividing it into several parallel strands at a small distance apart from one another4 ,the note in the laboratory book runs thus3-- ,copper wire #a_/bc of inch in diameter4 ,six lengths of five feet each1 soldered at ends to piece of copper plate so as form terminations1 and these amalgamated4 ,when this bundle was used to connect the electro-motor it gave but very feeble spark on breaking contact1 but the spark was sensibly better when the wires are held together so as to act laterally than when they were opened out from each other1 thus showing lateral action4 ,made a larger bundle of the same fine copper wire4 ,there were #bj lengths of #ah feet #b inches each and the thick terminal pieces of copper wire #f inches long and of inch thick4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,this bundle he compared with a length of #ai feet #f inches of a single copper wire inch in diameter1 having about equal sectional area4 ,the latter gave decidedly the largest sparks on breaking circuit4 ,faraday did not see fit at this time to accept the idea1 suggested indeed by himself in #ahca1 that these effects of self-induction were the analogue of momentum or inertia4 ,that explanation he set aside on finding that the same wire when coiled had greater self-inductive action than when straight4 ,had he at that time grasped this analogy1 he would have seen that the very property which gives rise to the spark at break of circuit also retards the rapid growth of a current2 and then the experiment described above would have shown him that ,sir ,w4 ,snow ,harris was right in preferring flat copper ribbon to a round wire of equivalent section as a material for lightning conductors4 ,he was1 however1 disappointed to find so small a difference between round wires and parallel strands4 ,the memoir as published contains an exceedingly interesting conclusion3-- ,notwithstanding that the effects appear only at the making and breaking of contact 7the current1 remaining unaffected1 seemingly1 in the interval17 ,i cannot resist the impression that there is some connected and correspondent effect produced by this lateral action of the elements of the electric stream during the time of its continuance4 ,an action of this kind1 in fact1 is evident in the magnetic relations of the parts of the current4 ,but admitting 7as we may do for the moment7 the magnetic forces to constitute the power which produces such striking and different results at the commencement and termination of a current1 still there appears to be a link in the chain of effects--a wheel in the physical mechanism of the action1 as yet unrecognised4 ,the tenth series of researches1 on the voltaic battery1 though completed in ,october1 #ahcd1 was not published till ,june1 #ahce4 ,sidenote3 ,,action ,,in ,a ,,medium4 ,the next research1 begun in the autumn of #ahce1 after a lull of about eight months1 lasted over two years4 ,it was not completed till ,december1 #ahcg4 ,this investigation took ,faraday away from magnetic and electrochemical matters to the old subject of statical electric charges1 a subject hitherto untouched in his researches4 ,but he had long brooded over the question as to the nature of an electric charge4 ,over and over again1 as he had watched the inductive effect of electric currents acting from wire to wire1 his mind turned to the old problem of the inductive influence--discovered eighty years before1 by ,john ,canton--exerted1 apparently at a distance1 by electric charges4 ,he had learned to distrust action at a distance1 and now the time was ripe for a searching inquiry as to whether electric influence1 or induction#dd as it was then called1 was also an action propagated by contiguous actions in the intervening medium4 ,faraday had done no special electric work during the first nine months of #ahce4 ,he had worked at a chemical investigation of fluorine through the spring1 and in ,july took a hurried tour in ,switzerland1 and returned to work at fluorine4 ,not till ,november #crd does he turn to the subject over which he had been brooding4 ,on that date1 intercalated between notes of his chemical studies1 filling a dozen pages of the laboratory book1 are a magnificent series of speculations as to the nature of charges1 and on the part played by the electric--or1 as we should now say1 the dielectric--medium4 ,they begin thus3-- 8,have been thinking much lately of the relation of common and voltaic electricity1 of induction by the former and decomposition by the latter1 and am quite convinced that there must be the closest connection4 ,will be first needful to make out the true character0--note the phrase--8of ordinary electrical phenomena40 ,the following notes are for experiment and observation4 8,does common electricity reside upon the surface of a conductor or upon the surface of the di-electric in contact with it80 ,he goes on to consider the state of a dielectric substance1 such as glass1 when situated between a positively charged and a negatively charged surface1 as in a charged ,leyden jar1 and argues from analogy thus3-- 8,hence the state of the plate of glass under induction is the same as the state of a magnet1 and if split or broken would present new ,positive and ,negative surfaces before not at all evident40 ,this speculation was later verified by ,matteucci4 8,probable that phenomena of induction prove more decidedly than anything else that the electricity is in the di-electric not in the conductor40 ,he still worked for a week or two on fluorine1 interposing some experiments on the temperature-limit of magnetisation1 but on ,december #dth decides not to go on with fluorine at present4 ,then1 beginning on ,december #eth1 there follow twenty-nine pages of the laboratory diary1 illustrated with sketches4 ,he had borrowed from a ,mr4 ,kipp a large deep copper pan thirty-five inches in diameter1 and he set to work electrifying it and exploring the distribution of the charges1 inside and out1 and the inductive effect on objects placed within4 ,everywhere he is mentally comparing the distribution of the effects with that of the flow of currents in an electrolyte4 ,before many days he writes3-- ,sidenote3 ,,pregnant ,,suggestions4 8,it appears to me at present that ordinary and electrolytic induction are identical in their first nature1 but that the latter is followed by an effect which cannot but from the nature and state of the substances take place with the former40 ,then comes this pregnant suggestion3-- 8,try induction through a solid crystalline body as to the consequent action on polarized light40 ,by the end of a week he had begun to suspect that his magnet analogy went farther than he was at first prepared to hold4 ,the action of a magnet was along curved lines of force4 ,so he asks3-- 8,can induction through air take place in curves or round a corner--can probably be found experimentally--if so not a radiating effect40 ,after ten days more he has made another step4 8,electricity appears to exist only in polarity as in air1 glass1 electrolytes1 etc4 ,now metals1 being conductors1 cannot take up that polar state of their own power1 or rather retain it1 and hence probably cannot retain developed electric forces4 99 99 99 99 99 8,metals1 however1 probably hold it for a moment1 as other things do for a longer time2 an end coming at last to all40 ,this1 it will be observed1 is nothing more or less than ,clerk ,maxwell's theory of conduction as being the breaking down of an electrostatic strain4 ,in ,january1 #ahcf1 followed the famous experiment of building a twelve-foot cube1 which when electrified exteriorly to the utmost extent1 showed inside no trace of electric forces4 ,the account in the unpublished ,,ms4 of the laboratory book is1 as is the case with so many of these middle-period researches1 much fuller than the published rsum of them in the 8,experimental ,researches40 ,all through #ahcf he was still at work4 ,even when on a holiday in the ,isle of ,wight1 in ,august1 he took his notebook with him1 and writes3-- 8,after much consideration 7here at ,ryde7 of the manner in which the electric forces are arranged in the various phenomena generally1 ,i have come to certain conclusions which ,i will endeavour to note down without committing myself to any opinion as to the cause of electricity1 i4e4 as to the nature of the power4 ,if electricity exist independently of matter1 then ,i think that the hypothesis of one fluid will not stand against that of two fluids4 ,there are1 ,i think1 evidently1 what ,i may call two elements of power of equal force and acting towards each other4 ,these may conventionally be represented by oxygen and hydrogen1 which represent them in the voltaic battery4 ,but these powers may be distinguished only by direction1 and may be no more separate than the north and south forces in the elements of a magnetic needle4 ,they may be the polar points of the forces originally placed in the particles of matter2 and the description of the current as an axis of power which ,i have formerly given suggests some similar general impression for the forces of quiescent electricity4 ,law of electric tension might do1 and though ,i shall use the terms positive and negative1 by them ,i merely mean the termini of such lines40 ,right on until ,november #cjth1 #ahcg1 this research was continued4 ,the summary of this and the succeeding researches of #ahch on the same subject1 drawn up by ,professor ,tyndall1#de is at once so masterly and so impartial that it cannot be bettered4 ,it is therefore here transcribed without alteration4 ,sidenote3 ,,action ,,at ,a ,,distance ,,unthinkable4 ,his first great paper on frictional electricity was sent to the ,royal ,society on ,november #cj1 #ahcg4 ,we here find him face to face with an idea which beset his mind throughout his whole subsequent life--the idea of action at a distance4 ,it perplexed and bewildered him4 ,in his attempts to get rid of this perplexity he was often unconsciously rebelling against the limitations of the intellect itself4 ,he loved to quote ,newton upon this point3 over and over again he introduces his memorable words1 8,that gravity should be innate1 inherent1 and essential to matter1 so that one body may act upon another at a distance through a vacuum and without the mediation of anything else1 by and through which this action and force may be conveyed from one to another1 is to me so great an absurdity1 that ,i believe no man who has in philosophical matters a competent faculty of thinking can ever fall into it4 ,gravity must be caused by an agent acting constantly according to certain laws2 but whether this agent be material or immaterial ,i have left to the consideration of my readers40#df ,faraday does not see the same difficulty in his contiguous particles4 ,and yet by transferring the conception from masses to particles we simply lessen size and distance1 but we do not alter the quality of the conception4 ,whatever difficulty the mind experiences in conceiving of action at sensible distances1 besets it also when it attempts to conceive of action at insensible distances4 ,still the investigation of the point whether electric and magnetic effects were wrought out through the intervention of contiguous particles or not1 had a physical interest altogether apart from the metaphysical difficulty4 ,faraday grapples with the subject experimentally4 ,by simple intuition he sees that action at a distance must be exerted in straight lines4 ,gravity1 he knows1 will not turn a corner1 but exerts its pull along a right line2 hence his aim and effort to ascertain whether electric action ever takes place in curved lines4 ,this once proved1 it would follow that the action is carried on by means of a medium surrounding the electrified bodies4 ,his experiments in #ahcg reduced1 in his opinion1 this point to demonstration4 ,he then found that he could electrify by induction an insulated sphere placed completely in the shadow of a body which screened it from direct action4 ,he pictured the lines of electric force bending round the edges of the screen1 and reuniting on the other side of it2 and he proved that in many cases the augmentation of the distance between his insulated sphere and the inducing body1 instead of lessening1 increased the charge of the sphere4 ,this he ascribed to the coalescence of the lines of electric force at some distance behind the screen4 ,sidenote3 ,,specific ,,inductive ,,capacity4 ,faraday's theoretic views on this subject have not received general acceptance1 but they drove him to experiment1 and experiment with him was always prolific of results4 ,by suitable arrangements he places a metallic sphere in the middle of a large hollow sphere1 leaving a space of something more than half an inch between them4 ,the interior sphere was insulated1 the external one uninsulated4 ,to the former he communicated a definite charge of electricity4 ,it acted by induction upon the concave surface of the latter1 and he examined how this act of induction was affected by placing insulators of various kinds between the two spheres4 ,he tried gases1 liquids1 and solids1 but the solids alone gave him positive results4 ,he constructed two instruments of the foregoing description1 equal in size and similar in form4 ,the interior sphere of each communicated with the external air by a brass stem ending in a knob4 ,the apparatus was virtually a ,leyden jar1 the two coatings of which were the two spheres1 with a thick and variable insulator between them4 ,the amount of charge in each jar was determined by bringing a proof-plane into contact with its knob1 and measuring by a torsion balance the charge taken away4 ,he first charged one of his instruments1 and then dividing the charge with the other1 found that when air intervened in both cases1 the charge was equally divided4 ,but when shell-lac1 sulphur1 or spermaceti was interposed between the two spheres of one jar1 while air occupied this interval in the other1 then he found that the instrument occupied by the 8solid dielectric0 took more than half the original charge4 ,a portion of the charge was absorbed in the dielectric itself4 ,the electricity took time to penetrate the dielectric4 ,immediately after the discharge of the apparatus no trace of electricity was found upon its knob4 ,but after a time electricity was found there1 the charge having gradually returned from the dielectric in which it had been lodged4 ,different insulators possess this power of permitting the charge to enter them in different degrees4 ,faraday figured their particles as polarised1 and he concluded that the force of induction is propagated from particle to particle of the dielectric from the inner sphere to the outer one4 ,this power of propagation possessed by insulators he calls their 8,specific ,inductive ,capacity40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,faraday visualises with the utmost clearness the state of his contiguous particles2 one after another they become charged1 each succeeding particle depending for its charge upon its predecessor4 ,and now he seeks to break down the wall of partition between conductors and insulators4 8,can we not10 he says1 8by a gradual chain of association carry up discharge from its occurrence in air through spermaceti and water to solutions1 and then on to chlorides1 oxides1 and metals1 without any essential change in its character80 ,even copper1 he urges1 offers a resistance to the transmission of electricity4 ,the action of its particles differs from those of an insulator only in degree4 ,they are charged like the particles of the insulator1 but they discharge with greater ease and rapidity2 and this rapidity of molecular discharge is what we call conduction4 ,conduction1 then1 is always preceded by atomic induction2 and when through some quality of the body1 which ,faraday does not define1 the atomic discharge is rendered slow and difficult1 conduction passes into insulation4 ,though they are often obscure1 a fine vein of philosophic thought runs through these investigations4 ,the mind of the philosopher dwells amid those agencies which underlie the visible phenomena of induction and conduction2 and he tries by the strong light of his imagination to see the very molecules of his dielectrics4 ,it would1 however1 be easy to criticise these researches1 easy to show the looseness1 and sometimes the inaccuracy1 of the phraseology employed2 but this critical spirit will get little good out of ,faraday4 ,rather let those who ponder his works seek to realise the object he set before him1 not permitting his occasional vagueness to interfere with their appreciation of his speculations4 ,we may see the ripples1 and eddies1 and vortices of a flowing stream1 without being able to resolve all these motions into their constituent elements2 and so it sometimes strikes me that ,faraday clearly saw the play of fluids and ethers and atoms1 though his previous training did not enable him to resolve what he saw into its constituents1 or describe it in a manner satisfactory to a mind versed in mechanics4 ,and then again occur1 ,i confess1 dark sayings1 difficult to be understood1 which disturb my confidence in this conclusion4 ,it must1 however1 always be remembered that he works at the very boundaries of our knowledge1 and that his mind habitually dwells in the 8boundless contiguity of shade0 by which that knowledge is surrounded4 ,sidenote3 ,,cable ,,retardation ,,predicted4 ,in the researches now under review the ratio of speculation and reasoning to experiment is far higher than in any of ,faraday's previous works4 ,amid much that is entangled and dark we have flashes of wondrous insight and utterances which seem less the product of reasoning than of revelation4 ,i will confine myself here to one example of this divining power3--,by his most ingenious device of a rapidly rotating mirror1 ,wheatstone had proved that electricity required time to pass through a wire1 the current reaching the middle of the wire later than its two ends4 8,if10 says ,faraday1 8the two ends of the wire in ,professor ,wheatstone's experiments were immediately connected with two large insulated metallic surfaces exposed to the air1 so that the primary act of induction1 after making the contact for discharge1 might be in part removed from the internal portion of the wire at the first instance1 and disposed for the moment on its surface jointly with the air and surrounding conductors1 then ,i venture to anticipate that the middle spark would be more retarded than before4 ,and if those two plates were the inner and outer coatings of a large jar or ,leyden battery1 then the retardation of the spark would be much greater40 ,this was only a prediction1 for the experiment was not made4 ,sixteen years subsequently1 however1 the proper conditions came into play1 and ,faraday was able to show that the observations of ,werner ,siemens and ,latimer ,clark on subterraneous and submarine wires were illustrations1 on a grand scale1 of the principle which he had enunciated in #ahch4 ,the wires and the surrounding water act as a ,leyden jar1 and the retardation of the current predicted by ,faraday manifests itself in every message sent by such cables4 ,the meaning of ,faraday in these memoirs on induction and conduction is1 as ,i have said1 by no means always clear2 and the difficulty will be most felt by those who are best trained in ordinary theoretic conceptions4 ,he does not know the reader's needs1 and he therefore does not meet them4 ,for instance1 he speaks over and over again of the impossibility of charging a body with one electricity1 though the impossibility is by no means evident4 ,the key to the difficulty is this4 ,he looks upon every insulated conductor as the inner coating of a ,leyden jar4 ,an insulated sphere in the middle of a room is to his mind such a coating2 the walls are the outer coating1 while the air between both is the insulator1 across which the charge acts by induction4 ,without this reaction of the walls upon the sphere1 you could no more1 according to ,faraday1 charge it with electricity than you could charge a ,leyden jar1 if its outer coating were removed4 ,distance with him is immaterial4 ,his strength as a generaliser enables him to dissolve the idea of magnitude2 and if you abolish the walls of the room--even the earth itself--he would make the sun and planets the outer coating of his jar4 ,i dare not contend that ,faraday in these memoirs made all these theoretic positions good4 ,but a pure vein of philosophy runs through these writings2 while his experiments and reasonings on the forms and phenomena of electrical discharge are of imperishable importance4 ,in another part of the twelfth memoir1 not included in the above summary1 ,faraday deals with the disruptive discharge1 and with the nature of the spark under varying conditions4 ,this is continued on into the thirteenth memoir1 read ,february1 #ahch1 and is extended to the cases of 8brush0 and 8glow0 discharges4 ,he discovered the existence of the very remarkable phenomenon of the 8dark0 discharge near the cathode in rarefied air4 ,he sought to correlate all the various forms of discharge1 as showing the essential nature of an electric current4 8,if a ball be electrified positively10 he says1 8in the middle of a room1 and be then moved in any direction1 effects will be produced1 as if a current in the same direction 7to use the conventional mode of expression7 had existed40 ,this is the theory of convection currents later adopted by ,maxwell1 and verified by experiment by ,rowland in #ahgf4 ,sidenote3 ,,coinage ,,of ,,new ,,words4 ,in the course of this research on induction1 ,faraday had1 as we have seen1 been compelled to adopt new ideas1 and therefore to adopt new names to denote them4 ,the term dielectric for the medium in or across which the electric forces operate was one of these4 ,as in previous cases1 he consulted with his friends as to suitable terms4 ,in this instance the following letter from ,whewell explains itself4 ,the letter to which it is a reply has not been preserved1 but the reference to ,faraday's objection to the word current may be elucidated by a comparison with what ,faraday wrote in criticism of that word on pages #adf and #bab4 ,rev4 ,w4 ,whewell to ,m4 ,faraday4 ,,trin4 ,,coll41 ,,cambridge1 ,oct4 #ad1 #ahcg4 ,,my ,,dear ,,sir1--,i am always glad to hear of the progress of your researches1 and never the less so because they require the fabrication of a new word or two4 ,such a coinage has always taken place at the great epochs of discovery2 like the medals that are struck at the beginning of a new reign3--or rather like the change of currency produced by the accession of a new sovereign2 for their value and influence consists in their coming into common circulation4 ,i am not sure that ,i understand the views which you are at present bringing into shape sufficiently well to suggest any such terms as you think you want4 ,i think that if ,i could have a quarter of an hour's talk with you ,i should probably be able to construct terms that would record your new notions1 so far as ,i could be made to understand them better than ,i can by means of letters3 for it is difficult without question and discussion to catch the precise kind of relation which you want to express4 ,however1 by way of beginning such a discussion1 ,i would ask you whether you want abstract terms to denote the different and related conditions of the body which exercises and the body which suffers induction8 ,for though both are active and both passive it may still be convenient to suppose a certain ascendancy on one side4 ,if so would two such words as inductricity and inducteity answer your purpose8 ,they are not very monstrous in their form2 and are sufficiently distinct4 ,and if you want the corresponding adjectives you may call the one the inductric1 and the other the inducteous body4 ,this last word is rather a startling one2 but if such relations are to be expressed1 terminations are a good artifice1 as we see in chemistry3 and ,i have no doubt if you give the world facts and laws which are better expressed with than without such solecisms1 they will soon accommodate to the phrases1 as they have often done to worse ones4 ,but ,i am rather in the dark as to whether this is the kind of relation which you want to indicate4 ,if not1 the attempt may perhaps serve to shew you where my dulness lies4 ,i do not see my way any better as to the other terms1 for ,i do not catch your objection to current1 which appears to me to be capable of jogging on very well from cathode to anode1 or vice versa4 ,as for positive and negative1 ,i do not see why cathodic and anodic should not be used1 if they will do the service you want of them4 ,i expect to be in ,london at the end of the month1 and could probably see you for half an hour on the #ast of ,november1 say at #aj1 #aa1 or #ab4 ,but in the mean time ,i shall be glad to hear from you whether you can make anything of such conundrums as ,i have mentioned1 and am always yours very truly1 ,w4 ,,whewell4 ,m4 ,,faraday ,esqre4 ,royal ,institution4 ,sidenote3 ,,lateral ,,actions ,,of ,,current4 ,the concluding part of the thirteenth memoir1 in which these new terms are used1 is an exceedingly striking speculation on the lateral or transverse effects of the current4 ,in calling special attention to them1 he says3 8,i refer of course to the magnetic action and its relations2 but though this is the only recognised lateral action of the current1 there is great reason for believing that others exist and would by their discovery reward a close search for them40 ,he seems to have had an instinctive perception of something that eluded his grasp4 ,not until after ,maxwell had given mathematical form to ,faraday's own suggestions was this vision to be realised4 ,he is dimly aware that there appears to be a lateral tension or repulsion possessed by the lines of electric inductive action2 and onward runs his thought in free speculation3-- ,when current or discharge occurs between two bodies1 previously under inductrical relations to each other1 the lines of inductive force will weaken and fade away1 and1 as their lateral repulsive tension diminishes1 will contract and ultimately disappear in the line of discharge4 ,may not this be an effect identical with the attractions of similar currents8 i4e4 may not the passage of static electricity into current electricity1 and that of the lateral tension of the lines of the inductive force into the lateral attraction of lines of similar discharge1 have the same relation and dependences1 and run parallel to each other8 ,series fourteen of the memoirs is on the nature of the electric force and on the relation of the electric and magnetic forces1 and comprises an inconclusive inquiry as to a possible relation between specific inductive capacity and axes of crystallisation in crystalline dielectrics--a relation later assumed as true by ,maxwell even before it was demonstrated by ,von ,boltzmann4 ,in this memoir1 too1 occurs a description of a simple but effective induction balance4 ,then he asks what happens to insulating substances1 such as air or sulphur1 when they are put in a place where the magnetic forces are varying2 they ought1 he thinks1 to undergo some state or condition corresponding to the state that causes currents in metals and conductors1 and1 further1 that state ought to be one of tension4 8,i have10 he says1 8by rotating non-conducting bodies near magnetic poles1 and poles near them1 and also by causing powerful electric currents to be suddenly formed and to cease around and about insulators in various directions1 endeavoured to make some such state sensible1 but have not succeeded40 ,in short1 he was looking for direct evidence of the existence of what ,maxwell called 8displacement currents0--evidence which was later found independently by the author and by ,rntgen4 ,and1 again1 there rises in his mind a perception of that electrotonic state which had haunted his earlier researches as a something imposed upon the surrounding medium during the growth or dying of an electric current4 ,sidenote3 ,,incessant ,,activities4 ,in these years 7#ahce-ahch7 ,faraday was still indefatigable in his lecture duties4 ,in #ahce he gave four ,friday discourses1 and in ,may and ,june eight afternoon lectures at the ,royal ,institution on the metals2 also a course of fourteen lectures on electricity to the medical students at ,st4 ,george's ,hospital4 ,in #ahcf he published in the ,philosophical ,magazine a paper on the magnetism of the metals--notable as containing the still unverified speculation that all metals would become magnetic in the same way as iron if only cooled to a sufficiently low temperature--and three other papers1 including one on the 8passive0 state of iron4 ,he gave four ,friday discourses and six afternoon lectures on heat4 ,in #ahcg also four ,friday night discourses and six afternoon lectures were delivered4 ,in #ahch three ,friday discourses and eight afternoon lectures on electricity1 ending in ,june with a distinct enunciation of the doctrine of the transformations of 8force0 7i4e4 energy7 and its indestructibility1 afforded evidence of his industry in this respect4 ,at the same time he was giving scientific advice to the authorities of ,trinity ,house as to their lighthouses4 ,the laboratory notebook for ,march to ,august1 #ahch1 shows a long research1 occupying nearly #ajj folio pages1 on the relation of specific inductive capacity to crystalline structure4 ,this is followed by some experiments upon an electric eel1 at the ,royal ,adelaide ,gallery1 with some unpublished sketches of the distribution in the water of the currents it emits4 ,he proved1 with great satisfaction1 that the currents it gave were capable of producing magnetic effects1 sparks1 and chemical decomposition4 ,these observations were embodied in the fifteenth series of memoirs4 ,one entry in the laboratory book1 of date ,april #eth1 #ahch1 is of great interest1 as showing how his mind ever recurred to the possibility of finding a connection between optical and electric phenomena3 8,must try polarized light across a crystalline dielectric under charge4 ,good reasons perhaps now evident why a non-crystalline dielectric should have no effect40 ,faraday was now feeling greatly the strain of all these years of work1 and in #ahci did little research until the autumn4 ,then he returned to the question of the origin of the electromotive force of the voltaic cell1 and by the end of the year completed two long papers on this vexed question2 they formed the sixteenth and seventeenth series1 and conclude the memoirs of this second period4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,contact ,,theory ,,of ,,electricity4 ,in the eighth series1 completed in ,april1 #ahcd1 on the 8,electricity of the ,voltaic ,pile10 ,faraday had dealt with the question--at that time a topic of excited controversy--of the origin of the electromotive force in a cell1 ,volta1 who knew nothing of the chemical actions1 ascribed it to the contact of dissimilar metals1 whilst ,wollaston1 ,becquerel1 and ,de la ,rive considered it the result of chemical actions4 ,the controversy has long ceased to interest the scientific world2 for1 with the recognition of the principle of the conservation of energy1 it became evident that mere contact cannot provide a continuing supply of energy4 ,it would now be altogether dead but for the survival of a belief in the contact theory on the part of one of the most honoured veterans in science4 ,but in the years #ahcd to #ahdj it was of absorbing interest4 ,faraday's work quietly removed the props which supported the older theory1 and it crumbled away4 ,he found that the chemical and electrical effects in the cell were proportional one to the other1 and inseparable4 ,he discovered a way of making a cell without any metallic contacts4 ,he showed that without chemical action there was no current produced4 ,but his results were ignored for the time4 ,after six years ,faraday reopened the question4 ,again the admirable summary of ,professor ,tyndall is drawn upon for the following account3-- ,the memoir on the 8,electricity of the ,voltaic ,pile10 published in #ahcd1 appears to have produced but little impression upon the supporters of the contact theory4 ,these indeed were men of too great intellectual weight and insight lightly to take up1 or lightly to abandon1 a theory4 ,faraday therefore resumed the attack in two papers communicated to the ,royal ,society on ,february #f and ,march #ai1 #ahdj4 ,in these papers he hampered his antagonists by a crowd of adverse experiments4 ,he hung difficulty after difficulty about the neck of the contact theory1 until in its efforts to escape from his assaults it so changed its character as to become a thing totally different from the theory proposed by ,volta4 ,the more persistently it was defended1 however1 the more clearly did it show itself to be a congeries of devices1 bearing the stamp of dialectic skill rather than that of natural truth4 ,in conclusion1 ,faraday brought to bear upon it an argument which1 had its full weight and purport been understood at the time1 would have instantly decided the controversy4 8,the contact theory10 he urged1 8assumes that a force which is able to overcome powerful resistance1 as for instance that of the conductors1 good or bad1 through which the current passes1 and that again of the electrolytic action where bodies are decomposed by it1 can arise out of nothing2 that without any change in the acting matter1 or the consumption of any generating force1 a current shall be produced which shall go on for ever against a constant resistance1 or only be stopped1 as in the voltaic trough1 by the ruins which its exertion has heaped up in its own course4 ,this would indeed be a creation of power1 and is like no other force in nature4 ,we have many processes by which the form of the power may be so changed1 that an apparent conversion of one into the other takes place4 ,so we can change chemical force into the electric current1 or the current into chemical force4 ,the beautiful experiments of ,seebeck and ,peltier show the convertibility of heat and electricity2 and others by ,oersted and myself show the convertibility of electricity and magnetism4 ,but in no case1 not even in those of the gymnotus and torpedo1 is there a pure creation or a production of power without a corresponding exhaustion of something to supply it40 ,in #ahci ,faraday gave five ,friday discourses and a course of eight afternoon lectures on the non-metallic elements4 ,in #ahdj he gave three ,friday discourses and seven lectures on chemical affinity4 ,but in the summer came the serious breakdown alluded to on page #ge4 ,he did no experimental work after ,september #adth1 nor indeed for nearly two years4 ,even then it was only a temporary return to research to investigate the source of the electrification produced by steam in the remarkable experiments of ,mr4 7afterwards ,lord7 ,armstrong4 ,he proved it to be due to friction4 ,this done1 he continued to rest from research until the middle of #ahdd1 though he lectured a little for the ,royal ,institution4 ,in #ahda he gave the juvenile lectures4 ,in #ahdb he gave two ,friday discourses1 one of them being on the lateral discharge in lightning-rods4 ,he also gave the ,christmas lectures on electricity4 ,sidenote3 ,,end ,,of ,,second ,,active ,,period4 ,in #ahdc he gave three ,friday discourses1 one of which was on the electricity generated by a jet of steam2 and repeated the eight afternoon lectures he had given in #ahch4 ,in #ahdd he gave eight lectures on heat and two ,friday discourses4 ,he also resumed research on the condensation of gases1 and vainly tried to liquefy oxygen and hydrogen1 though he succeeded with ammonia and nitrous oxide4 ,during these years of rest he also did a little work for ,trinity ,house1 chiefly concerning lighthouses and their ventilation4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,scientific ,,researches3 ,,third ,,period4 ,throughout the fruitful ten years of ,faraday's middle period two magistral ideas had slowly grown up in his mind1 and as he let his thought play about the objects of his daily activities1 these ideas possessed and dominated him as no newly suggested idea could have done4 ,they were the correlation and inter-convertibility of the forces of nature1 and the optical relations of magnetism and electricity4 ,during the period of enforced rest1 from #ahci to #ahdd1 these ideas had been ever with him4 ,his was a mind which during times of quiet brooding did not cease to advance4 ,in silence his thoughts arranged themselves in readiness for the next period of activity1 and his work1 when it began again1 was all the more fruitful for the antecedent period of cogitation4 ,sidenote3 ,,optical ,,analysis4 ,on ,august #cjth1 #ahde1 ,faraday for the sixth time set to work in his laboratory to search for the connection between light and electricity for which he had so often looked1 and about which he had so boldly speculated4 ,he began by looking for some effect to be produced on polarised light by passing it through a liquid which was undergoing electrolysis4 ,what effect precisely he expected to observe is unknown4 ,doubtless he had an open mind to perceive effects of any kind had such occurred4 ,earlier in the century the phenomena of polarised light had been worked out in great detail1 through a host of beautiful phenomena1 by ,arago1 ,biot1 ,brewster1 and others2 and their discoveries had shown that this agent is capable of revealing in transparent substances details of structure which otherwise would be quite invisible4 ,placed between two ,nicol prisms or two slices of tourmaline1 to serve respectively as 8polariser0 and 8analyser10 thin sheets of transparent crystal--selenite or mica--were made to reveal the fact that they possessed an axis of maximum elasticity4 ,for when the analyser and polariser were set in the 8crossed0 position1 where the one would cut off all the luminous vibrations that the other would transmit1 no light would be visible to the observer1 unless in the intervening space there were interposed some substance endowed with one of two properties1 either that of resolving some part of the vibrations into an oblique direction or else that of rotating the plane of the vibrations to right or to left4 ,if either of these things is done1 light appears through the analyser4 ,it is thus that structure is observed in horn and in starch grains4 ,it is thus that the strains in a piece of compressed glass are made visible4 ,it is thus that crystalline structures generally can be studied4 ,it is thus that the discovery was made of the substances which possess the strange property of twisting or rotating the plane of polarisation of light--namely1 quartz crystal1 solutions of sugar and of certain alkaloids1 and certain other liquids1 such as turpentine4 ,such was the agent which ,faraday proposed to employ to detect whether electric forces impress any quality resembling that of structure upon transparent materials4 ,the notes begin with the words3-- 8,i have had a glass trough made #bd inches long1 #a inch wide and about #a deep1 in which to decompose electrolites and1 whilst under decomposition1 along which ,i could pass a ray of light in different conditions and afterwards examine it40 ,he put into this trough two platinum electrodes and a solution of sulphate of soda1 but could find no effects4 ,eight pages of the notebook are filled with details all leading to negative results4 ,for ten days he worked at these experiments with liquid electrolytes4 ,the substances used were distilled water1 solution of sugar1 dilute sulphuric acid1 solution of sulphate of soda 7using platinum electrodes71 and solution of sulphate of copper 7using copper electrodes74 ,the current was sent along the ray1 and perpendicular to it in two directions at right angles with each other4 ,the ray was made to rotate1 by altering the position of the polariser 7in this case a black-glass mirror at the proper angle71 so that the plane of polarisation might be varied4 ,the current was used as a continuous current1 as a rapidly intermitting current1 and as a rapidly alternating induction current2 but in no case was any trace of action perceived4 ,sidenote3 ,a ,,difficult ,,research4 ,then he turned to solid dielectrics to see if under electric strain they would yield any optical effect4 ,he had indeed so far back as #ahch tried the experiment of coating two opposite faces of a glass cube with metal foil plates that were then electrified by a powerful electric machine4 ,but the experiment had no result4 ,this experiment he now repeats with a score of elaborate variations1 trying both crystalline and non-crystalline dielectrics4 ,rock-crystal1 ,iceland spar1 flint glass1 heavy-glass1 turpentine1 and air1 had a beam of polarised light passed through them1 and at the same time 8lines of electrostatic tension0 were1 by means of the coatings1 ,leyden jars1 and the electric machine1 directed across these bodies1 both parallel to the polarised ray and across it1 both in and across the plane of polarisation2 but again without any visible effect4 ,then he tries on the same bodies1 and on water1 the 8tension0 of a rapidly alternating induced current1 but still with the same negative result4 ,professor ,tyndall stated that from conversation with ,faraday1 and with his faithful assistant ,anderson1 he inferred that the labour expended on this preliminary and apparently fruitless research was very great4 ,it occupies many pages of the laboratory notebook4 ,that thirty-two years later ,dr4 ,kerr succeeded in finding this optical effect of electrostatic strain for which ,faraday vainly sought1 is no reflection upon ,faraday's powers of observation4 ,had there been no ,faraday there had doubtless been no discovery by ,kerr4 ,so far the quest had been carried on either with electric currents flowing through the transparent substance or else with mere statical electric forces1 and a whole fortnight had been spent without result4 ,now another track is taken1 and it leads straight to success4 ,he substitutes magnetic for electric forces4 ,sidenote3 ,,magneto-,,optic ,,discovery4 8#acth ,sept4 #ahde4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 8,to-day worked with lines of magnetic force1 passing them across different bodies transparent in different directions1 and at the same time passing a polarized ray of light through them1 and afterwards examining the ray by a ,nichol's ,eye-piece or other means4 ,the magnets were ,electro-magnets one being our large cylinder ,electro-magnet and the other a temporary iron core put into the helix on a frame4 ,this was not nearly so strong as the former4 ,the current of #e cells of ,grove's battery was sent through both helices at once and the magnets were made and unmade by putting in or stopping off the electric current40 ,air1 flint-glass1 rock-crystal1 calcareous spar1 were examined1 but without effect4 ,and so he worked on through the morning1 trying first one specimen1 then another1 altering the directions of the poles of his magnets1 reversing their polarity1 changing the position of his optical apparatus1 increasing the battery-power of his magnetising current4 ,then he bethinks him of that 8heavy-glass0--the boro-silicate of lead--which had cost him nearly four years of precious labour during the first period of his scientific life4 ,the entry in the notebook is characteristic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 8,a piece of heavy glass1 which was #b inches by #ah inches and #je of an inch thick1 being a silico-borate of lead1 was experimented with4 ,it gave no effects when the same magnetic poles or the contrary poles were on opposite sides 7as respects the course of the polarised ray72--nor when the same poles were on the same side either with the constant or intermitting current2 ,,but when contrary magnetic poles were on the same side there was an effect produced on the polarised ray1 and thus magnetic force and light were proved to have relations to each other4 ,this fact will most likely prove exceedingly fertile1 and of great value in the investigation of conditions of natural force4 8,the effect was of this kind4 ,the glass1 a result of one of my old experiments on optical glass1 had been exceedingly well annealed so that it did not in any degree affect the polarized ray4 ,the two magnetic poles were in a horizontal plane1 and the piece of glass put up flat against them so that the polarized ray could pass through its edges and be examined by the eye at a ,nicholl's eye piece4 ,in its natural state the glass had no effect on the polarized ray but on making contact at the battery so as to render the cores ,n and ,s magnets instantly the glass acquired a certain degree of power of depolarizing the ray which it retained steadily as long as the cores were magnets but which it lost the instant the electric current was stopped4 ,hence it was a permanent condition and as was expected did not sensibly appear with an intermitting current4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 8,the effect was not influenced by any jogging motion or any moderate pressure of the hands on the glass4 8,the heavy glass had tinfoil coatings on its two sides but when these were taken off the effect remained exactly the same4 8,a mass of soft iron on the outside of the heavy glass greatly diminished the effect see ,fig4 #ag4444 8,all this shews that it is when the polarized ray passes parallel to the lines of magnetic induction or rather to the direction of the magnetic curves1 that the glass manifests its power of affecting the ray4 ,so that the heavy glass in its magnetized state corresponds to the cube of rock crystal3 the direction of the magnetic curves in the piece of glass corresponding to the direction of the optic axis in the crystal 7see ,exp4 ,researches #afhi-afih74444 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 8,employed our large ring electro-magnet which is very powerful and has of course the poles in the right position only they are very close not more than #je of an inch apart4 ,when the heavy glass was put up against it the effect was produced better than in any former case4444 ,sidenote3 ,,enough ,,for ,,to-,,day4 8,have got enough for to-day40 ,the description which he published in the 8,researches0 of the first successful experiment is as follows3-- 8,a piece of this glass about #b inches square and #je of an inch thick1 having flat and polished edges1 was placed as a diamagnetic#dg between the poles 7not as yet magnetized by the electric current71 so that the polarized ray should pass through its length2 the glass acted as air1 water1 or any other indifferent substance would do2 and if the eye-piece i4e4 analyzer were previously turned into such a position that the polarized ray was extinguished1 or rather the image produced by it rendered invisible1 then the introduction of this glass made no alteration in that respect4 ,in this state of circumstances the force of the electromagnet was developed1 by sending an electric current through its coils1 and immediately the image of the lamp-flame became visible1 and continued so as long as the arrangement continued magnetic4 ,on stopping the electric current1 and so causing the magnetic force to cease1 the light instantly disappeared2 these phnomena could be renewed at pleasure1 at any instant of time1 and upon any occasion1 showing a perfect dependence of cause and effect40 ,he paused for four days in order to procure more powerful electromagnets1 for the effect which he had observed was exceedingly slight3 8,a person looking for the phnomenon for the first time would not be able to see it with a weak magnet40 ,the entry in the notebook begins again3-- 8#ahth ,sept4 #ahde4 8,have now borrowed and received the ,woolwich magnet40 ,sidenote3 ,,an ,,excellent ,,day',s ,,work4 ,this was a more powerful electromagnet than that at the ,institution4 ,with this he sets to work with such energy that twelve pages of the laboratory book are filled in one day4 ,his thoughts had ripened during the five days1 and he advanced rapidly from point to point4 ,the first experiment with the ,woolwich magnet brings out another point1 of which at once he grasped the significance3-- 8,heavy ,glass 7original1 or #agddh7 when placed thus produced a very fine effect4 ,the brightness of the image produced rose gradually not instantly1 due to this that the iron cores do not take their full intensity of magnetic state at once but require time1 and so the magnetic curves rise in intensity4 ,in this way the effect is one by which an optical examination of the electromagnet can be made--and the time necessary clearly shewn40 ,he next ascertains definitely that the phenomenon is one of rotatory polarisation--that is to say1 the action of the magnet is to twist and rotate the plane of polarisation through a definite angle depending on the strength of the magnet and the direction of the exciting current4 ,he finds the direction of the rotation1 and verifies it by comparison with the ordinary optical rotation produced by turpentine and by a solution of sugar1 winding up with the words3-- 8,an excellent day's work40 ,for four days he went on accumulating proofs1 and now succeeding with the very substances with which he formerly failed4 ,on ,september #bfth he tried the conjoint effect of a magnetic and an electric field4 ,he also tried the effect of a current running along a transparent liquid electrolytically whilst the magnet was in operation4 ,the only results appeared to be those due to the magnet alone4 ,for six days in ,october the experiments were continued4 ,he noted1 as a desideratum1 a transparent oxide of iron4 8,with some degree of curiosity and hope0 he 8put gold leaf into the magnetic lines1 but could perceive no effect40 ,he was instinctively looking for the phenomenon which ,kundt later discovered as a property of thin transparent films of iron4 ,he entered amongst the speculative suggestions in his notebook the query3 8,does this magnetic force tend to make iron and oxide of iron transparent80 ,on ,october #crd he tried experiments on light reflected from the surface of metals placed in the magnetic field4 ,he indeed obtained an optical rotation by reflection at the surface of a polished steel button1 but the results were inconclusive owing to imperfection of the surface4 ,it was reserved for ,dr4 ,kerr to rediscover and follow up this effect4 ,on ,october #fth he looked for mechanical and magnetic effects on pieces of heavy-glass and on liquids in glass bulbs placed between the poles of his magnet1 but found none4 ,he also looked for possible effects of rapid motion given to the diamagnetic while jointly subject to the action of magnetism and the light1 but found none4 ,sidenote3 ,,unfulfilled ,,expectations4 ,on ,october #aath he thinks he has got hold of another new fact when experimenting on liquids in a long glass tube1 the record of it filling three pages4 ,but two days afterwards he finds it only a disturbing effect due to the communication of heat to the liquid from the surrounding magnetising coil4 ,he seems to regret the loss of the new fact1 but adds3 8,as to the other phenomenon of circular polarization1 that comes out constant1 clear1 and beautiful40 ,then1 with that idea of the correlation of forces always in his head1 there recurs to him the notion that if magnetism or electric currents can affect a beam of light1 there must be some sort of converse phenomenon1 and that in some way or other light must be able to electrify or to magnetise4 ,thirty-one years before1 when visiting ,rome with ,davy1 he had witnessed the experiments of ,morichini on the alleged magnetic effect of violet light1 and had remained unconvinced4 ,his own idea is very different4 ,and ,october #adth being a bright day with good sunlight1 he makes the attempt4 ,selecting a very sensitive galvanometer1 he connects it to a spiral of wire #a inch in diameter1 #db inches long1 of #ef convolutions1 and then directs a beam of sunlight along its axis4 ,he tries letting the beam pass alternately through the coil while the outside is covered1 and then along the exterior while the interior is shaded4 ,but still there is no effect4 ,then he inserts an unmagnetised steel bar within the coil1 and rotates it while it is exposed to the sun's rays4 ,still there is no effect1 and the sun goes down on another of the unfulfilled expectations4 ,but had he lived to learn of the effect of light in altering the electric resistance of selenium discovered by ,mayhew1 of the photoelectric currents discovered by ,becquerel1 of the discharging action of ultra-violet light discovered by ,hertz1 of the revivifying effect of light on recently demagnetised iron discovered by ,bidwell1 he would have rejoiced that such other correlations should have been found1 though different from that which he sought4 ,on ,november #crd he receives a new horseshoe magnet1 with which he hoped to find some optical effect on air and other gases1 but again without result4 ,that the magnetism of the earth does actually rotate the plane of polarisation of sky light was the discovery of ,henri ,becquerel so late as #ahgh4 ,faithful to his own maxim3 8,work1 finish1 publish10 ,faraday lost no time in writing out his research4 ,it was presented to the ,royal ,society on ,november #fth1 but the main result was verbally mentioned on ,november #crd at the monthly meeting of the ,royal ,institution1 and reported in the ,athenum of ,november #hth1 #ahde4 ,but even before the memoir was thus given to the world another discovery had been made4 ,for on ,november #dth with the new magnet he repeated an experiment which a month previously had been without result4 ,so preoccupied was he over the new event that he did not even go to the meeting of the ,royal ,society on ,november #bjth1 when his paper on the 8,action of ,magnets on ,light0 was read4 ,what that new discovery was is well told by ,faraday himself in the letter which he sent to ,professor ,a4 de la ,rive on ,december #dth3-- ,sidenote3 ,,fresh ,,magnetic ,,discovery4 ,faraday to ,professor ,aug4 de la ,rive4 ,brighton1 ,december #d1 #ahde4 ,,my ,,dear ,,friend1-- 99 99 99 ,i count upon you as one of those whose free hearts have pleasure in my success1 and ,i am very grateful to you for it4 ,i have had your last letter by me on my desk for several weeks1 intending to answer it2 but absolutely ,i have not been able1 for of late ,i have shut myself up in my laboratory and wrought1 to the exclusion of everything else4 ,i heard afterwards that even your brother had called on one of these days and been excluded4 ,well1 a part of this result is that which you have heard1 and my paper was read to the ,royal ,society1 ,i believe1 last ,thursday1 for ,i was not there2 and ,i also understand there have been notices in the ,athenum1 but ,i have not had time to see them1 and ,i do not know how they are done4 ,however1 ,i can refer you to the ,times of last ,saturday 7,november #bith7 for a very good abstract of the paper4 ,i do not know who put it in1 but it is well done1 though brief4 ,to that account1 therefore1 ,i will refer you4 ,for ,i am still so involved in discovery that ,i have hardly time for my meals1 and am here at ,brighton both to refresh and work my head at once1 and ,i feel that unless ,i had been here1 and been careful1 ,i could not have continued my labours4 ,the consequence has been that last ,monday ,i announced to our members at the ,royal ,institution another discovery1 of which ,i will give you the pith in a few words4 ,the paper will go to the ,royal ,society next week1 and probably be read as shortly after as they can there find it convenient4 ,many years ago ,i worked upon optical glass1 and made a vitreous compound of silica1 boracic acid1 and lead1 which ,i will now call heavy glass1 and which ,amici uses in some of his microscopes2 and it was this substance which enabled me first to act on light by magnetic and electric forces4 ,now1 if a square bar of this substance1 about half an inch thick and two inches long1 be very freely suspended between the poles of a powerful horse-shoe electro-magnet1 immediately that the magnetic force is developed1 the bar points2 but it does not point from pole to pole1 but equatorially or across the magnetic lines of force--i4e4 east and west in respect of the north and south poles4 ,if it be moved from this position it returns to it1 and this continues as long as the magnetic force is in action4 ,this effect is the result of a still simpler action of the magnet on the bar than what appears by the experiment1 and which may be obtained at a single magnetic pole4 ,for if a cubical or rounded piece of the glass be suspended by a fine thread six or eight feet long1 and allowed to hang very near a strong magneto-electric pole 7not as yet made active71 then on rendering the pole magnetic the glass will be repelled1 and continue repelled until the magnetism ceases4 ,this effect or power ,i have worked out through a great number of its forms and strange consequences1 and they will occupy two series of the 8,experimental ,researches40 ,it belongs to all matter 7not magnetic1 as iron7 without exception1 so that every substance belongs to the one or the other class--magnetic or diamagnetic bodies4 ,the law of action in its simple form is that such matter tends to go from strong to weak points of magnetic force1 and in doing this the substance will go in either direction along the magnetic curves1 or in either direction across them4 ,it is curious that amongst the metals are found bodies possessing this property in as high a degree as perhaps any other substance4 ,in fact1 ,i do not know at present whether heavy glass1 or bismuth1 or phosphorus is the most striking in this respect4 ,i have very little doubt that you have an electro-magnet strong enough to enable you to verify the chief facts of pointing equatorially and repulsion1 if you will use bismuth carefully examined as to its freedom from magnetism1 and making of it a bar an inch and a half long1 and one-third or one-fourth of an inch wide4 ,let me1 however1 ask the favour of your keeping this fact to yourself for two or three weeks1 and preserving the date of this letter as a record4 ,i ought 7in order to preserve the respect due to the ,royal ,society7 not to write a description to anyone until the paper has been received or even read there4 ,after three weeks or a month ,i think you may use it1 guarding1 as ,i am sure you will do1 my right4 ,and now1 my dear friend1 ,i must conclude1 and hasten to work again4 ,but first give my kindest respects to ,madame de la ,rive1 and many thanks to your brother for his call4 ,ever your obedient and affectionate friend1 ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,sidenote3 ,,magnetic ,,experiments4 ,the discovery of diamagnetism which ,faraday thus announced was in itself a notable achievement4 ,as ,tyndall points out1 the discovery itself was in all probability due to ,faraday's habit of not regarding as final any negative result of an experiment until he had brought to bear upon it the most powerful resources at his command4 ,he had tried the effects of ordinary magnets on brass and copper and other materials commonly considered as non-magnetic4 ,but when1 for the purpose of the preceding research on the relation of magnetism to light1 he had deliberately procured electromagnets of unusual power1 he again tried what their effect might be upon non-magnetic stuffs4 ,suspending a piece of his heavy glass near the poles in a stirrup of writing-paper slung upon the end of a long thread of cocoon silk1 he found it to experience a strong mechanical action when the magnet was stimulated by turning on the current4 ,his precision of description is characteristic3-- ,i shall have such frequent occasion to refer to two chief positions of position across the magnetic field1 that1 to avoid periphrasis1 ,i will here ask leave to use a term or two conditionally4 ,one of these directions is that from pole to pole1 or along the lines of magnetic force1 ,i will call it the axial direction2 the other is the direction perpendicular to this1 and across the line of magnetic force and for the time1 and as respects the space between the poles1 ,i will call it the equatorial direction4 ,note the occurrence in the above passage for the first time of the term 8the magnetic field40 ,faraday's description of the discovery continues as follows3-- ,the bar of silicated borate of lead or heavy glass already described as the substance in which magnetic forces were first made effectually to bear on a ray of light1 and which is #b inches long1 and about #je inch wide and thick1 was suspended centrally between the magnetic poles1 and left until the effect of torsion was over4 ,the magnet was then thrown into action by making contact at the voltaic battery4 ,immediately the bar moved1 turning round its point of suspension1 into a position across the magnetic curve or line of force1 and1 after a few vibrations1 took up its place of rest there4 ,on being displaced by hand from this position it returned to it1 and this occurred many times in succession4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,either end of the bar indifferently went to either side of the axial line4 ,the determining circumstance was simply inclination of the bar one way or the other to the axial line at the beginning of the experiment4 ,if a particular or marked end of the bar were on one side of the magnetic or axial line when the magnet was rendered active1 that end went further outwards until the bar had taken up the equatorial position4444 ,here1 then1 we have a magnetic bar which points east and west in relation to north and south poles--i4e4 points perpendicularly to the lines of magnetic force4444 ,sidenote3 ,,diamagnetic ,,laws4 ,to produce these effects of pointing across the magnetic curves1 the form of the heavy glass must be long4 ,a cube or a fragment approaching roundness in form will not point1 but a long piece will4 ,two or three rounded pieces or cubes1 placed side by side in a paper tray1 so as to form an oblong accumulation1 will also point4 ,portions1 however1 of any form are repelled2 so if two pieces be hung up at once in the axial line1 one near each pole1 they are repelled by their respective poles1 and approach1 seeming to attract each other4 ,or if two pieces be hung up in the equatorial line1 one on each side of the axis1 then they both recede from the axis1 seeming to repel each other4 ,from the little that has been said1 it is evident that the bar presents in its motion a complicated result of the force exerted by the magnetic power over the heavy glass1 and that when cubes or spheres are employed a much simpler indication of the effect may be obtained4 ,accordingly1 when a cube was thus used with the two poles1 the effect was repulsion or recession from either pole1 and also recession from the magnetic axis on either side4 ,so the indicating particle would move either along the magnetic curves or across them1 and it would do this either in one direction or the other1 the only constant point being that its tendency was to move from stronger to weaker places of magnetic force4 ,this appeared much more simply in the case of a single magnetic pole1 for then the tendency of the indicating cube or sphere was to move outwards in the direction of the magnetic lines of force4 ,the appearance was remarkably like a case of weak electric repulsion4 ,the cause of the pointing of the bar1 or any oblong arrangement of the heavy glass1 is now evident4 ,it is merely a result of the tendency of the particles to move outwards1 or into the positions of weakest magnetic action4 99 99 99 99 99 ,when the bar of heavy glass is immersed in water1 alcohol1 or ther1 contained in a vessel between the poles1 all the preceding effects occur--the bar points and the cube recedes exactly in the same manner as in air4 ,the effects equally occur in vessels of wood1 stone1 earth1 copper1 lead1 silver1 or any of those substances which belong to the diamagnetic class4 ,i have obtained the same equatorial direction and motions of the heavy glass bar as those just described1 but in a very feeble degree1 by the use of a good common steel horseshoe magnet4 ,then he goes on to enumerate the many bodies of all sorts3 crystals1 powders1 liquids1 acids1 oils2 organic bodies such as wax1 olive-oil1 wood1 beef 7fresh and dry71 blood1 apple1 and bread1 all of which were found to be diamagnetic4 ,on this he remarks3-- ,it is curious to see such a list as this of bodies presenting on a sudden this remarkable property1 and it is strange to find a piece of wood1 or beef1 or apple1 obedient to or repelled by a magnet4 ,if a man could be suspended with sufficient delicacy after the manner of ,dufay1 and placed in the magnetic field1 he would point equatorially1 for all the substances of which he is formed1 including the blood1 possess this property4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,magnetic ,,brake4 ,a few bodies were found to be feebly magnetic1 including paper1 sealing-wax1 china ink1 asbestos1 fluorspar1 peroxide of lead1 tourmaline1 plumbago1 and charcoal4 ,as to the metals1 he found iron1 cobalt1 and nickel to stand in a distinct class4 ,a feeble magnetic action in platinum1 palladium1 and titanium was suspected to be due to traces of iron in them4 ,bismuth proved to be the most strongly diamagnetic1 and was specially studied4 ,the repellent effect between bismuth and a magnet had indeed been casually observed twice in the prior history of science1 first by ,brugmans1 then by ,le ,baillif4 ,faraday1 with characteristic frankness1 refers to his having a 8vague impression0 that the repulsion of bismuth by a magnet had been observed before1 though unable at the time of writing to recollect any reference4 ,his own experiments ran over the whole range of substances1 however1 and demonstrated the universal existence in greater or less degree of this magnetic nature4 ,certain differences observed between the behaviour of bismuth and of heavy glass on the one hand1 and of copper on the other hand1 though all are diamagnetic1 led him to note and describe some of the pseudo-diamagnetic effects which occur in copper and silver1 in consequence of the induction in them of eddy-currents1 from which heavy-glass and bismuth are1 by their inferior electric conductivity1 comparatively free4 ,he described the beautiful and now classical experiment of arresting1 by turning on the exciting current1 the rotation of a copper cylinder spinning between the poles of an electromagnet4 ,faraday continued to prosecute this newest line of research1 and at the end of ,december1 #ahde1 presented another memoir 7the twenty-first series of the ,experimental ,researches7 to the ,royal ,society4 ,he had now examined the salts of iron1 and had found that every salt and compound containing iron in the basic part was magnetic1 both in the solid and in the liquid state4 ,even prussian-blue and green bottle-glass were magnetic4 ,the solutions of the salts of iron were of special importance1 since they furnish the means of making a magnet which is for the time liquid1 transparent1 and1 within certain limits1 adjustable in strength4 ,his next step was to examine how bodies behaved when immersed in some surrounding medium4 ,a weak solution of iron1 enclosed in a very thin glass tube1 though it pointed axially when hung in air1 pointed equatorially when immersed in a stronger solution4 ,a tube full of air pointed axially1 and was attracted as if magnetic when surrounded with water4 ,substances such as bismuth1 copper1 and phosphorus are1 however1 highly diamagnetic when suspended in vacuo4 ,such a view would make mere space magnetic4 ,hence ,faraday inclined at first to the opinion that diamagnetics had a specific action antithetically distinct from ordinary magnetic action4 ,several times he pointed out that all the phenomena resolve themselves simply into this1 that a portion of such matter as is termed diamagnetic tends to move from stronger to places or points of weaker force in the magnetic field4 ,he does1 indeed1 hazard the suggestion that the phenomena might be explained on the assumption that there was a sort of diamagnetic polarity--that magnetic induction caused in them a contrary state to that which it produced in ordinary magnetic matter4 ,but his own experiments failed to support this view1 and1 in opposition to ,weber and ,tyndall1 he maintained afterwards the non-polar nature of diamagnetic action4 ,in #ahdf ,faraday gave two ,friday night discourses on these magnetic researches1 one on the cohesive force of water1 and one on ,wheatstone's electromagnetic chronoscope4 ,at the conclusion of the last-named he said that he was induced to utter a speculation which had long been gaining strength in his mind1 that perhaps those vibrations by which radiant energies1 such as light1 heat1 actinic rays1 etc41 convey their force through space are not mere vibrations of an ther1 but of the lines of force which1 in his view1 connect different masses1 and so was inclined1 in his own phrase1 8to dismiss the ther40 ,in one of his other discourses he made the suggestion that we might 8perhaps hereafter obtain magnetism from light40 ,sidenote3 ,,thoughts ,,on ,,ray ,,vibrations4 ,the speculation above referred to is of such intrinsic importance1 in view of the developments of the last decade1 that it compels further notice4 ,faraday himself further expanded it in a letter to ,richard ,phillips1 which was printed in the ,philosophical ,magazine for ,may1 #ahdf1 under the title 8,thoughts on ,ray-vibrations40 ,in this avowedly speculative paper ,faraday touched the highest point in his scientific writings1 and threw out1 though in a tentative and fragmentary way1 brilliant hints of that which his imagination had perceived1 as in a vision2--the doctrine now known as the electromagnetic theory of light4 ,at the dates when the earlier biographies of ,faraday appeared1 neither that doctrine nor this paper had received the recognition due to its importance4 ,tyndall dismisses it as 8one of the most singular speculations that ever emanated from a scientific man40 ,bence ,jones just mentions it in half a line4 ,dr4 ,gladstone does not allude to it4 ,it therefore seems expedient to give here some extracts from the letter itself3-- ,,thoughts ,,on ,,ray-,,vibrations4 ,to ,richard ,phillips1 ,esq4 ,,dear ,,sir1--,at your request1 ,i will endeavour to convey to you a notion of that which ,i ventured to say at the close of the last ,friday evening meeting 4442 but1 from first to last1 understand that ,i merely threw out1 as matter for speculation1 the vague impressions of my mind1 for ,i gave nothing as the result of sufficient consideration1 or as the settled conviction1 or even probable conclusion at which ,i had arrived4 ,the point intended to be set forth for the consideration of the hearers was whether it was not possible that the vibrations--which in a certain theory are assumed to account for radiation and radiant phenomena--may not occur in the lines of force which connect particles1 and consequently masses1 of matter together--a notion which1 as far as it is admitted1 will dispense with the ther1 which1 in another view1 is supposed to be the medium in which these vibrations take place4 99 99 99 99 99 ,another consideration bearing conjointly on the hypothetical view1 both of matter and radiation1 arises from the comparison of the velocities with which the radiant action and certain powers of matter are transmitted4 ,the velocity of light through space is about #aij1jjj miles#di a second4 ,the velocity of electricity is1 by the experiments of ,wheatstone1 shown to be as great as this1 if not greater4 ,the light is supposed to be transmitted by vibrations through an ther which is1 so to speak1 destitute of gravitation1 but infinite in elasticity2 the electricity is transmitted through a small metallic wire1 and is often viewed as transmitted by vibrations also4 ,that the electric transference depends on the forces or powers of the matter of the wire can hardly be doubted when we consider the different conductibility of the various metallic and other bodies1 the means of affecting it by heat or cold1 the way in which conducting bodies by combination enter into the constitution of non-conducting substances1 and the contrary1 and the actual existence of one elementary body 7carbon7 both in the conducting and non-conducting state4 ,the power of electric conduction1 being a transmission of force equal in velocity to that of light1 appears to be tied up in and dependent upon the properties of the matter1 and is1 as it were1 existent in them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,,lateral ,,vibrations4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,in experimental philosophy we can1 by the phenomena presented1 recognise various kinds of lines of force4 ,thus there are the lines of gravitating force1 those of electrostatic induction1 those of magnetic action1 and others partaking of a dynamic character might be perhaps included4 ,the lines of electric and magnetic action are by many considered as exerted through space like the lines of gravitating force4 ,for my own part1 ,i incline to believe that when there are intervening particles of matter--being themselves only centres of force--they take part in carrying on the force through the line1 but that when there are none the line proceeds through space4 ,whatever the view adopted respecting them may be1 we can1 at all events1 affect these lines of force in a manner which may be conceived as partaking of the nature of a shake or lateral vibration4 ,for suppose two bodies1 ,a ,b1 distant from each other1 and under mutual action1#ej and therefore connected by lines of force1 and let us fix our attention upon one resultant of force having an invariable direction as regards space2 if one of the bodies move in the least degree right or left1 or if its power be shifted for a moment within the mass 7neither of these cases being difficult to realise if ,a or ,b be either electric or magnetic bodies71 then an effect equivalent to a lateral disturbance will take place in the resultant upon which we are fixing our attention1 for either it will increase in force whilst the neighbouring resultants are diminishing1 or it will fall in force while they are increasing4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the view which ,i am so bold as to put forth considers1 therefore1 radiation as a high species of vibration in the lines of force which are known to connect particles1 and also masses1 of matter together4 ,it endeavours to dismiss the ther1 but not the vibrations4 ,the kind of vibration which1 ,i believe1 can alone account for the wonderful1 varied1 and beautiful phenomena of polarisation is not the same as that which occurs on the surface of disturbed water or the waves of sound in gases or liquids1 for the vibrations in these cases are direct1 or to and from the centre of action1 whereas the former are lateral4 ,it seems to me that the resultant of two or more lines of force is in an apt condition for that action1 which may be considered as equivalent to a lateral vibration2 whereas a uniform medium like the ther does not appear apt1 or more apt than air or water4 ,the occurrence of a change at one end of a line of force easily suggests a consequent change at the other4 ,the propagation of light1 and therefore probably of all radiant action1 occupies time2 and that a vibration of the line of force should account for the phenomena of radiation1 it is necessary that such vibration should occupy time also4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,shadow ,,of ,a ,,speculation4 ,and now1 my dear ,phillips ,i must conclude4 ,i do not think ,i should have allowed these notions to have escaped from me had ,i not been led unawares1 and without previous consideration1 by the circumstances of the evening on which ,i had to appear suddenly#ea and occupy the place of another4 ,now that ,i have put them on paper1 ,i feel that ,i ought to have kept them much longer for study1 consideration1 and perhaps final rejection2 and it is only because they are sure to go abroad in one way or another1 in consequence of their utterance on that evening1 that ,i give them a shape1 if shape it may be called1 in this reply to your inquiry4 ,one thing is certain1 that any hypothetical view of radiation which is likely to be received or retained as satisfactory must not much longer comprehend alone certain phenomena of light1 but must include those of heat and of actinic influence also1 and even the conjoined phenomena of sensible heat and chemical power produced by them4 ,in this respect a view which is in some degree founded upon the ordinary forces of matter may perhaps find a little consideration amongst the other views that will probably arise4 ,i think it likely that ,i have made many mistakes in the preceding pages1 for even to myself my ideas on this point appear only as the shadow of a speculation1 or as one of those impressions on the mind which are allowable for a time as guides to thought and research4 ,he who labours in experimental inquiries knows how numerous these are1 and how often their apparent fitness and beauty vanish before the progress and development of real1 natural truth4 ,i am1 my dear ,phillips1 ,ever truly yours1 ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,royal ,institution1 ,april #ae1 #ahdf4 ,if it be thought that too high a value has here been set upon a document which its author himself only claimed to be 8the shadow of a speculation10 let that value be justified out of the mouth of the man who eighteen years later enriched the world with the mathematical theory of the propagation of electric waves1 the late ,professor ,clerk ,maxwell4 ,in #ahfd he published in the ,philosophical ,transactions a 8,dynamical ,theory of the ,electromagnetic ,field10 in which the following passages occur3-- ,we have therefore reason to believe1 from the phenomena of light and heat1 that there is an thereal medium filling space and permeating bodies capable of being set in motion1 and of transmitting that motion to gross matter1 so as to heat it and affect it in various ways4444 ,hence the parts of this medium must be so connected that the motion of one part depends in some way on the motion of the rest2 and at the same time these connections must be capable of a certain kind of elastic yielding1 since the communication of motion is not instantaneous1 but occupies time4 ,the medium is therefore capable of receiving and storing up two kinds of energy--namely1 the 8actual0 energy depending on the motion of its parts1 and 8potential0 energy1 consisting of the work which the medium will do in recovering from displacement in virtue of its elasticity4 ,the propagation of undulations consists in the continual transformation of one of these forms of energy into the other alternately1 and at any instant the amount of energy in the whole medium is equally divided1 so that half is energy of motion and half is elastic resilience4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in order to bring these results within the power of symbolic calculation1 ,i then express them in the form of the general equations of the electromagnetic field4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the general equations are next applied to the case of a magnetic disturbance propagated through a non-conducting field1 and it is shown that the only disturbances which can be so propagated are those which are transverse to the direction of propagation1 and that the velocity of propagation is the velocity v1 found from experiments such as those of ,weber1 which expresses the number of electrostatic units of electricity which are contained in one electromagnetic unit4 ,this velocity is so nearly that of light1 that it seems we have strong reason to conclude that light itself 7including radiant heat and other radiations1 if any7 is an electromagnetic disturbance in the form of waves propagated through the electromagnetic field according to electromagnetic laws4444 ,conducting media are shown to absorb such radiations rapidly1 and therefore to be generally opaque4 ,sidenote3 ,,electromagnetic ,,theory ,,of ,,light4 ,the conception of the propagation of transverse magnetic disturbances to the exclusion of normal ones is distinctly set forth by ,professor ,faraday in his 8,thoughts on ,ray ,vibrations40 ,the electromagnetic theory of light1 as proposed by him1 is the same in substance as that which ,i have begun to develop in this paper1#eb except that in #ahdf there were no data to calculate the velocity of propagation4 ,during the rest of this year 7#ahdf7 and the next ,faraday did very little research1 though he continued his ,royal ,institution lectures and his reports for ,trinity ,house4 ,amongst the latter in #ahdg was one on a proposal to light buoys by incandescent electric lamps containing a platinum wire spiral4 ,he was compelled1 indeed1 to rest by a recurrence of brain troubles1 giddiness1 and loss of memory4 ,honours however1 continued to be heaped upon him both abroad and at home1 as the following extract from ,bence ,jones shows3-- ,in #ahdf1 for his two great discoveries1 the ,rumford and the ,royal ,medals were both awarded to him4 ,this double honour will probably long be unique in the annals of the ,royal ,society4 ,in former years he had already received the ,copley and ,royal ,medals for his experimental discoveries4 ,as his medals increased it became remarkable that he--who kept his diploma-book1 his portraits and letters of scientific men1 and everything he had in the most perfect order--seemed to take least care of his most valuable rewards4 ,they were locked up in a box1 and might have passed for old iron4 ,probably he thought1 as others did afterwards1 that their value1 if seen1 might lead to their loss4 ,sidenote3 ,,crystalline ,,forces4 ,between the twenty-first and twenty-second series of 8,experimental ,researches0 nearly three years elapsed4 ,in the autumn of #ahdh the matter which claimed investigation was the peculiar behaviour of bismuth in the magnetic field4 ,certain anomalies were observed which were finally traced to the crystalline nature of the metal1 for it appeared that when in that state the crystals themselves--to adopt modern phraseology--showed a greater magnetic permeability in a direction perpendicular to their planes of cleavage than in any direction parallel to those planes4 ,hence when a crystalline fragment was hung in a uniform magnetic field 7where the diamagnetic tendency to move from a strong to a weak region of the field was eliminated71 it tended to point in a determinate direction4 ,faraday expressed it that the structure of the crystal showed a certain 8axiality10 and he regarded these effects as presenting evidence of a 8magnecrystallic0 force1 the law of action being that the line or axis of magnecrystallic force tended to place itself parallel to the lines of the magnetic field in which the crystal was placed4 ,arsenic1 antimony1 and other crystalline metals were similarly examined4 ,the subject was an intricate one1 and there are frequent obscurities in the phraseology tentatively adopted for explaining the phenomena4 ,in one place ,faraday rather pathetically laments his imperfect mathematical knowledge4 ,this seems like an echo of his inability to follow the analytical reasoning of ,poisson1 who1 starting from a hypothesis about the supposed 8magnetic fluids0 being movable within the particles of a body1 supposing that these particles were non-spherical and were symmetrically arranged1 had predicted 7in #ahbg7 that a portion of such a substance would1 when brought into the neighbourhood of a magnet1 act differently1 according to the different positions in which it might be turned about its centre4 ,but this very inability to follow ,poisson's refined analysis gave a new direction to ,faraday's thoughts1 and caused him to conceive the idea of magnetic permeabilities differing in different directions1 an idea which1 as ,sir ,william ,thomson 7the present ,lord ,kelvin7 showed in #ahea1ec is equally susceptible of mathematical treatment by appropriate symbols4 ,lord ,kelvin has also spoken 7op4 cit41 p4 #dhd7 of the matter as follows3 8,the singular combination of mathematical acuteness with experimental research and profound physical speculation which ,faraday1 though not a #8mathematician1' presented is remarkably illustrated by his use of the expression #8conducting power of a magnetic medium for lines of force4'0 ,tyndall has given a succinct summary of these researches--in which also he took a part--from which the following extract must suffice3-- ,and here follows one of those expressions which characterise the conceptions of ,faraday in regard to force generally3 8,it appears to me impossible to conceive of the results in any other way than by a mutual reaction of the magnetic force1 and the force of the particles of the crystal upon each other40 ,he proves that the action of the force1 though thus molecular1 is an action at a distance4 ,he shows that a bismuth crystal can cause a freely-suspended magnetic needle to set parallel to its magnecrystallic axis4 ,few living men are aware of the difficulty of obtaining results like this1 or of the delicacy necessary to their attainment4 8,but though it thus takes up the character of a force acting at a distance1 still it is due to that power of the particles which makes them cohere in regular order and gives the mass its crystalline aggregation1 and so often spoken of as acting at insensible distances40 ,thus he broods over this new force1 and looks at it from all points of inspection4 ,experiment follows experiment1 as thought follows thought4 ,he will not relinquish the subject as long as a hope exists of throwing more light upon it4 ,he knows full well the anomalous nature of the conclusion to which his experiments lead him4 ,but experiment to him is final1 and he will not shrink from the conclusion4 8,this force10 he says1 8appears to me to be very strange and striking in its character4 ,it is not polar1 for there is no attraction or repulsion40 ,and then1 as if startled by his own utterance1 he asks3 8,what is the nature of the mechanical force which turns the crystal round and makes it affect a magnet80444 8,i do not remember10 he continues1 8heretofore such a case of force as the present one--where a body is brought into position only without attraction or repulsion40 ,plcker1 the celebrated geometer already mentioned1 who pursued experimental physics for many years of his life with singular devotion and success1 visited ,faraday in those days1 and repeated before him his beautiful experiments on magneto-optic action4 ,faraday repeated and verified ,plcker's observations1 and concluded1 what he at first seemed to doubt1 that ,plcker's results and magnecrystallic action had the same origin4 ,sidenote3 ,,magnetism ,,and ,,crystallisation4 ,at the end of his papers1 when he takes a last look along the line of research1 and then turns his eyes to the future1 utterances quite as much emotional as scientific escape from ,faraday4 8,i cannot10 he says at the end of his first paper on magnecrystallic action1 8conclude this series of researches without remarking how rapidly the knowledge of molecular forces grows upon us1 and how strikingly every investigation tends to develop more and more their importance and their extreme attraction as an object of study4 ,a few years ago magnetism was to us an occult power1 affecting only a few bodies4 ,now it is found to influence all bodies1 and to possess the most intimate relations with electricity1 heat1 chemical action1 light1 crystallisation1 and through it with the forces concerned in cohesion4 ,and we may1 in the present state of things1 well feel urged to continue in our labours1 encouraged by the hope of bringing it into a bond of union with gravity itself40 ,in #ahdh ,faraday gave five ,friday night discourses1 three of them on the 8,diamagnetic ,condition of ,flame and ,gases40 ,in #ahdi he gave two1 one of them on ,plcker's researches4 ,in #ahej he gave two1 one of them being on the electricity of the air1 the other on certain conditions of freezing water4 ,he had meanwhile continued to work at magnetism4 ,the twenty-third series dealt with the supposed diamagnetic polarity4 ,it incidentally discussed the distortion produced in a magnetic field by a mass of copper in motion across it4 ,the twenty-fourth series was on the possible relation of gravity to electricity4 ,the paper concludes with the words3 8,here end my trials for the present4 ,the results are negative4 ,they do not shake my strong feeling of the existence of a relation between gravity and electricity1 though they give no proof that such a relation exists40 ,the next series 7the twenty-fifth7 was on the 8,non-expansion of ,gases by ,magnetic ,force0 and on the 8,magnetic ,characters of ,oxygen which he had found to be highly magnetic1 ,nitrogen1 and ,space40 ,he had found that magnetically substances must be classed either along with iron and the materials that point axially1 or else with bismuth and those that point equatorially1 in the magnetic field4 ,the best vacuum he could procure he regarded as the zero of these tests2 but before adopting it as such1 he verified by experiment that even in a vacuum a magnetic body still tends from weaker to stronger places in the magnetic field2 while diamagnetic bodies tend from stronger to weaker4 ,he then says we must consider the magnetic character and relation of space free from any material substance4 8,mere space cannot act as matter acts1 even though the utmost latitude be allowed to the hypothesis of an ether40 ,he then proceeds as follows3-- ,sidenote3 ,,more ,,new ,,words4 ,now that the true zero is obtained1 and the great variety of material substances satisfactorily divided into two general classes1 it appears to me that we want another name for the magnetic class1 that we may avoid confusion4 ,the word magnetic ought to be general1 and include all the phenomena and effects produced by that power4 ,but then a word for the subdivision opposed to the diamagnetic class is necessary4 ,as the language of this branch of science may soon require general and careful changes1 ,i1 assisted by a kind friend1 have thought that a word--not selected with particular care--might be provisionally useful2 and as the magnetism of iron1 nickel1 and cobalt when in the magnetic field is like that of the earth as a whole1 so that when rendered active they place themselves parallel to its axes or lines of magnetic force1 ,i have supposed that they and their similars 7including oxygen now7 might be called paramagnetic bodies1 giving the following division3-- paramagnetic ,magnetic diamagnetic4 ,the 8kind friend0 alluded to was ,whewell1 as the following letter shows3-- ,rev4 ,w4 ,whewell to ,m4 ,faraday4 ,july1 #ahej4 ,i am always glad to hear of your wanting new words1 because the want shows that you are pursuing new thoughts--and your new thoughts are worth something--but ,i always feel also how difficult it is for one who has not pursued the train of thought to suggest the right word4 ,there are so many relations involved in a new discovery1 and the word ought not glaringly to violate any of them4 ,the purists would certainly object to the opposition1 or co-ordination1 of ferromagnetic and diamagnetic1 not only on account of the want of symmetry in the relation of ferro and dia1 but also because the one is ,latin and the other ,greek4444 ,hence it would appear that the two classes of magnetic bodies are those which place their length parallel1 or according1 to the terrestrial magnetic lines1 and those which place their length transverse to such lines4 ,keeping the preposition dia for the latter1 the preposition para1 or ana1 might be used for the former4 ,perhaps para would be best1 as the word parallel1 in which it is involved1 would be a technical memory for it4444 ,i rejoice to hear that you have new views of discovery opening to you4 ,i always rejoice to hail the light of such when they dawn upon you4 ,the twenty-sixth series of researches opened with a consideration of magnetic 8conducting power10 or permeability as we should now term it1 and then branched off into a lengthy discussion of atmospheric magnetism4 ,the subject was continued through the twenty-seventh series1 which was completed in ,november1 #ahej4 ,the gist of this is summed up in one of his letters to ,schnbein3-- ,royal ,institution1 ,november #ai1 #ahej4 ,,my ,,dear ,,sch,,nbein1--,i wish ,i could talk with you1 instead of being obliged to use pen and paper4 ,i have fifty matters to speak about1 but either they are too trifling for writing1 or too important1 for what can one discuss or say in a letter8444 ,by the bye1 ,i have been working with the oxygen of the air also4 ,you remember that three years ago ,i distinguished it as a magnetic gas in my paper on the diamagnetism of flame and gases founded on ,bancalari's experiment4 ,now ,i find in it the cause of all the annual and diurnal1 and many of the irregular1 variations in the terrestrial magnetism4 ,the observations made at ,hobarton1 ,toronto1 ,greenwich1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,washington1 ,st4 ,helena1 the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and ,singapore1 all appear to me to accord with and support my hypothesis4 ,i will not pretend to give you an account of it here1 for it would require some detail1 and ,i really am weary of the subject4 ,i have sent in three long papers to the ,royal ,society1 and you shall have copies of them in due time4444 ,ever1 my dear ,schnbein1 most truly yours1 ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,sidenote3 ,,papers ,,to ,,be ,,let ,,loose4 ,while writing out these researches for the ,royal ,society1 he had been staying in ,upper ,norwood4 ,he wrote thus of himself to ,miss ,moore at the end of ,august3-- ,we have taken a little house here on the hill-top1 where ,i have a small room to myself1 and have1 ever since we came here1 been deeply immersed in magnetic cogitations4 ,i write1 and write1 and write1 until three papers for the ,royal ,society are nearly completed1 and ,i hope that two of them will be good if they justify my hopes1 for ,i have to criticise them again and again before ,i let them loose4 ,you shall hear of them at some of the ,friday evenings4 ,at present ,i must not say more4 ,after writing1 ,i walk out in the evening1 hand-in-hand with my dear wife1 to enjoy the sunset2 for to me1 who love scenery1 of all that ,i have seen or can see there is none surpasses that of ,heaven4 ,a glorious sunset brings with it a thousand thoughts that delight me4 ,to ,de la ,rive he wrote later as follows3-- ,m4 ,faraday to ,a4 de la ,rive4 ,royal ,institution1 ,february #d1 #ahea4 ,,my ,,dear ,,de ,,la ,,rive1--,my wife and ,i were exceedingly sorry to hear of your sad loss4 ,it brought vividly to our remembrance the time when we were at your house1 and you1 and others with you1 made us so welcome4 ,what can we say to these changes but that they show by comparison the vanity of all things under the sun8 ,i am very glad that you have spirits to return to work again1 for that is a healthy and proper employment of the mind under such circumstances4 ,with respect to my views and experiments1 ,i do not think that anything shorter than the papers 7and they will run to a hundred pages in the 8,transactions07 will give you possession of the subject1 because a great deal depends upon the comparison of observations in different parts of the world with the facts obtained by experiment1 and with the deductions drawn from them2 but ,i will try to give you an idea of the root of the matter4 ,you are aware that ,i use the phrase line of magnetic force1 to represent the presence of magnetic force1 and the direction 7of polarity7 in which it is exerted2 and by the idea which it conveys one obtains very well1 and ,i believe without error1 a notion of the distribution of the forces about a bar magnet1 or between near flat poles presenting a field of equal force1 or in any other case4 ,now1 if circumstances be arranged so as to present a field of equal force1 which is easily done1 as ,i have shown by the electro-magnet1 then if a sphere of iron or nickel be placed in the field1 it immediately disturbs the direction of the lines of force1 for they are concentrated within the sphere4 ,they are1 however1 not merely concentrated1 but contorted1 for the sum of forces in any one section across the field is always equal to the sum of forces in any other section1 and therefore their condensation in the iron or nickel cannot occur without this contortion4 ,moreover1 the contortion is easily shown by using a small needle 7one-tenth of an inch long7 to examine the field1 for1 as before the introduction of the sphere of iron or nickel1 it would always take up a position parallel to itself4 ,afterwards it varies in position in different places near the sphere4 ,this being understood1 let us then suppose the sphere to be raised in temperature4 ,at a certain temperature it begins to lose its power of affecting the lines of magnetic force1 and ends by retaining scarcely any4 ,so that as regards the little needle mentioned above1 it now stands everywhere parallel to itself within the field of force4 ,this change occurs with iron at a very high temperature1 and is passed through within the compass1 apparently1 of a small number of degrees4 ,with nickel it occurs at much lower temperatures1 being affected by the heat of boiling oil4 ,now take another step4 ,oxygen1 as ,i showed above1 three years ago in the ,philosophical ,magazine for #ahdg1 vol4 xxxi41 pp4 #daj1 #dae1 #daf1 is magnetic in relation to nitrogen and other gases4 ,e4 ,becquerel1 without knowing of my results1 has confirmed and extended them in his paper of last year1 and given certain excellent measures4 ,in my paper of #ahdg ,i showed also that oxygen 7like iron and nickel7 lost its magnetic power and its ability of being attracted by the magnet when heated 7p4 #dag74 ,and ,i further showed that the temperatures at which this took place were within the range of common temperature1 for the oxygen of the air--i4e4 the air altogether--is increased in magnetic power when cooled to #j ,f4 7p4 #djf74 ,now ,i must refer you to the papers themselves for the 7to me7 strange results of the incompressibility 7magnetically speaking7 of oxygen and the inexpansibility of nitrogen and other gases2 for the description of a differential balance by which ,i can compare gas with gas1 or the same gas at different degrees of rarefaction2 for the determination of the true zero1 or point between magnetic and diamagnetic bodies2 and for certain views of magnetic conduction and polarity4 ,you will there find described certain very delicate experiments upon diamagnetic and very weak magnetic bodies concerning their action on each other in a magnetic field of equal force4 ,the magnetic bodies repel each other1 and the diamagnetic bodies repel each other2 but a magnetic and a diamagnetic body attract each other4 ,and these results1 combined with the qualities of oxygen as just described1 convince me that it is able to deflect the lines of magnetic force passing through it just as iron or nickel is1 but to an infinitely smaller amount1 and that its power of deflecting the lines varies with its temperature and degree of rarefaction4 ,sidenote3 ,,atmospheric ,,magnetism4 ,then comes in the consideration of the atmosphere1 and the manner in which it rises and falls in temperature by the presence and absence of the sun4 ,the place of the great warm region nearly in his neighbourhood2 of the two colder regions which grow up and diminish in the northern and southern hemispheres as the sun travels between the tropics2 the effect of the extra warmth of the northern hemisphere over the southern2 the effect of accumulation from the action of preceding months2 the effect of dip and mean declination at each particular station2 the effects that follow from the non-coincidence of magnetic and astronomical conditions of polarity1 meridians1 and so forth2 the results of the distribution of land and water for any given place--for all these and many other things ,i must refer you to the papers4 ,i could not do them justice in any account that a letter could contain1 and should run the risk of leading you into error regarding them4 ,but ,i may say that1 deducing from the experiments and the theory what are the deviations of the magnetic needle at any given station1 which may be expected as the mean result of the heating and cooling of the atmosphere for a given season and hour1 ,i find such a general accordance with the results of observations1 especially in the direction and generally in the amount for different seasons of the declination variation1 as to give me the strongest hopes that ,i have assigned the true physical cause of those variations1 and shown the modus operandi of their production4 ,and now1 my dear de la ,rive1 ,i must leave you and run to other matters4 ,as soon as ,i can send you a copy of the papers ,i will do so1 and can only say ,i hope that they will meet with your approbation4 ,with the kindest remembrances to your son1 ,believe me to be1 my dear friend1 ever truly yours1 ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,this hope of explaining the variations of terrestrial magnetism by the magnetic properties of the oxygen of the air was destined to be illusory4 ,at that time the cosmical nature of magnetic storms was unknown and unsuspected4 ,to this matter we may well apply ,faraday's own words addressed to ,tyndall respecting the alleged diamagnetic polarity1 and the conflict of views between himself on the one hand and ,weber and ,tyndall on the other3--8,it is not wonderful that views differ at first4 ,time will gradually sift and shape them4 ,and ,i believe that we have little idea at present of the importance they may have ten or twenty years hence40 ,sidenote3 ,,lines ,,of ,,magnetic ,,force4 ,in #ahea1 from ,july to ,december1 ,faraday was actively at work in the laboratory4 ,the results constitute the material for the twenty-eighth and twenty-ninth 7the last7 series of the 8,experimental ,researches40 ,in these he returned to the subject with which the first series had opened in #ahca3 the induction of electric currents by the relative motion of magnets and conducting wires4 ,these two memoirs1 together with his ,royal ,institution lecture of ,january1 #aheb1 8,on the ,lines of ,magnetic ,force10 and the paper 8,on the ,physical ,character of the ,lines of ,magnetic ,force0 7which he sent to the ,philosophical ,magazine1 as containing 8so much of a speculative and hypothetical nature071 should be read1 and re-read1 and read again1 by every student of physics4 ,they are reprinted at the end of the third volume of the 8,experimental ,researches40 ,in the opening of the twenty-eighth memoir he says3-- ,from my earliest experiments on the relation of electricity and magnetism1 ,i have had to think and speak of lines of magnetic force as representations of the magnetic power--not merely in the points of quality and direction1 but also in quantity4444 ,the direction of these lines about and amongst magnets and electric currents is easily represented and understood in a general manner by the ordinary use of iron filings4 ,a point equally important to the definition of these lines is1 that they represent a determinate and unchanging amount of force4 ,though1 therefore1 their forms1 as they exist between two or more centres or sources of power1 may vary very greatly1 and also the space through which they may be traced1 yet the sum of power contained in any one section of a given portion of the lines is exactly equal to the sum of power in any other section#ed of the same lines1 however altered in form or however convergent or divergent they may be at the second place4444 ,now1 it appears to me that these lines may be employed with great advantage to represent the nature1 condition1 and comparative amount of the magnetic forces1 and that in many cases they have1 to the physical reasoner1 at least1 a superiority over that method which represents the forces as concentrated in centres of action1 such as the poles of magnets or needles2 or some other methods1 as1 for instance1 that which considers north or south magnetisms as fluids diffused over the end1 or amongst the particles1 of a bar4 ,no doubt any of these methods which does not assume too much will1 with a faithful application1 give true results4 ,and so they all ought to give the same results1 as far as they can respectively be applied4 ,but some may1 by their very nature1 be applicable to a far greater extent1 and give far more varied results1 than others4 ,for1 just as either geometry or analysis may be employed to solve correctly a particular problem1 though one has far more power and capability1 generally speaking1 than the other2 or1 just as either the idea of the reflexion of images or that of the reverberation of sounds may be used to represent certain physical forces and conditions1 so may the idea of the attractions and repulsions of centres1 or that of the disposition of magnetic fluids1 or that of lines of force1 be applied in the consideration of magnetic phenomena4 ,it is the occasional and more frequent use of the latter which ,i at present wish to advocate4444 ,when the natural truth1 and the conventional representation of it1 most closely agree1 then are we most advanced in our knowledge4 ,the emission and ther theories present such cases in relation to light4 ,the idea of a fluid or of two fluids is the same for electricity2 and there the further idea of a current has been raised1 which1 indeed1 has such hold on the mind as occasionally to embarrass the science as respects the true character of the physical agencies1 and may be doing so even now to a degree which we at present little suspect4 ,the same is the case with the idea of a magnetic fluid or fluids1 or with the assumption of magnetic centres of action of which the resultants are at the poles4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,functions ,,of ,,the ,,ther4 ,how the magnetic force is transferred through bodies or through space we know not--whether the result is merely action at a distance1 as in the case of gravity1 or by some intermediate agency1 as in the cases of light1 heat1 the electric current1 and1 as ,i believe1 static electric action4 ,the idea of magnetic fluids1 as applied by some1 or of magnetic centres of action1 does not include that of the latter kind of transmission1 but the idea of lines of force does4 ,nevertheless1 because a particular method of representing the forces does not include such a mode of transmission1 the latter is not disproved1 and that method of representation which harmonises with it may be the most true to nature4 ,the general conclusion of philosophers seems to be that such cases are by far the most numerous4 ,and for my own part1 considering the relation of a vacuum to the magnetic force1 and the general character of magnetic phenomena external to the magnet1 ,i am more inclined to the notion that in the transmission of the force there is such an action1 external to the magnet1 than that the effects are merely attraction and repulsion at a distance4 ,such an action may be a function of the ther1 for it is not at all unlikely that if there be an ther1 it should have other uses than simply the conveyance of radiations4#ee ,he then proceeds to recount the experimental evidence of revolving magnets and loops of wire4 ,following out the old lines of so moving the parts of the system that the magnetic lines were 8cut0 by the copper conductors1 and connecting the latter with a slow-period galvanometer1 to test the resultant induction1 he found that 8the amount of magnetic force0 or flux1 as we should nowadays call it 8is determinate for the same lines of force1 whatever the distance of the point or plane at which their power is exerted is from the magnet40 ,the convergence or divergence of the lines of force caused1 per se1 no difference in their amount4 ,obliquity of intersection caused no difference1 provided the same lines of force were cut4 ,if a wire was moving in a field of equal intensity1 and with a uniform motion1 then the current produced was proportional to the velocity of motion4 ,the 8quantity of electricity thrown into a current0 was1 ceteris paribus1 8directly as the amount of curves intersected40 ,within the magnet1 running through its substance1 existed lines of force of the same nature as those without1 exactly equal in amount to those without1 and were1 indeed1 continuous with them4 ,the conclusion must logically be that every line of force is a closed circuit4 ,having thus established the exact quantitative laws of magneto-electric induction1 he then advanced to make use of the induced current as a means of investigating the presence1 direction1 and amount of magnetic forces--in other words1 to explore and measure magnetic fields4 ,he constructed revolving rectangles and rings furnished with a simple commutator1 to measure inductively the magnetic forces of the earth4 ,then he employed the induced current to test the constancy of magnets when placed near to other magnets in ways that might affect their power4 ,next he considers the fields of magnetic force of two or more associated magnets1 and notes how their magnetic lines may coalesce when they are so placed as to constitute parts of a common magnetic circuit4 ,the twenty-ninth series is brought to a close by a discussion of the experimental way of delineating lines of magnetic force by means of iron filings4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,electrotonic ,,state4 ,the paper on the 8,physical ,character of the ,lines of ,magnetic ,force0 recapitulated the points established in the twenty-ninth series of 8,researches10 and emphasis is laid upon the logical necessity that time must be required for their propagation4 ,the physical effects in a magnetic field1 as equivalent to a tendency for the magnetic lines to shorten themselves1 and to repel one another laterally1 are considered1 and are contrasted with the effects of parallel electric currents4 ,commenting on the mutual relation between the directions of an electric current and of its surrounding magnetic lines1 he raises the question whether or not they consist in a state of tension of the ther4 8,again and again10 he says1 8the idea of an electrotonic state has been forced on my mind4 ,such a state would coincide and become identified with that which would then constitute the physical lines of magnetic force40 ,then he traces out the analogy between a magnet1 with its 8sphondyloid0 7or spindle-form field7 of magnetic lines1 and a voltaic battery immersed in water1 with its re-entrant lines of flow of circulating current4 ,incidentally1 while discussing the principle of the magnetic circuit1 he points out that when a magnet is furnished at its poles with masses of soft iron1 it can both receive and retain a higher magnetic charge than it does without them1 8for these masses carry on the physical lines of force1 and deliver them to a body of surrounding space1 which is either widened1 and therefore increased1 in the direction across the lines of force1 or shortened in that direction parallel to them1 or both2 and both are circumstances which facilitate the conduction from pole to pole40 ,sidenote3 ,,novelty ,,of ,,faraday',s ,,views4 ,thus closed1 with the exception of two fragmentary papers1 one on 8,physical ,lines of ,force10 and the other on 8,some ,points in ,magnetic ,philosophy10 in the years #ahec and #ahed respectively1 the main life-work of ,faraday1 his 8,experimental ,researches40 ,their effect in revolutionising electric science1 if slow1 was yet sure4 ,though the principle of the dynamo was discovered and published in #ahca1 nearly forty years elapsed before electric-lighting machinery became a commercial product4 ,though the dependence of inductive actions1 both electromagnetic and electrostatic1 upon the properties of the intervening medium was demonstrated and elaborated in these 8,researches10 electricians for many years continued to propound theories which ignored this fundamental fact4 ,french and ,german writers continued to publish treatises based on the ancient doctrines of action at a distance1 and of imaginary electric and magnetic fluids4 ,von ,boltzmann1 a typical ,german of the first rank in science1 says that until there came straight from ,england the counter-doctrines amidst which ,faraday had lived1 8we 7in ,germany and ,france7 had all more or less imbibed with our mothers' milk the ideas of magnetic and electric fluids acting direct at a distance40 ,and again1 8,the theory of ,maxwell0--that is1 ,faraday's theory thrown by ,maxwell into mathematical shape--8is so diametrically opposed to the ideas which have become customary to us1 that we must first cast behind us all our previous views of the nature and operation of electric forces before we can enter into its portals40 ,the divergence of view between ,faraday and the ,continental electricians is nowhere more clearly stated than by ,faraday's great interpreter1 ,maxwell1 in the apologia which he prefixed in #ahgc to his 8,treatise on ,electricity and ,magnetism10 wherein1 speaking of the differences between this work and those recently published in ,germany1 he wrote3-- ,one reason of this is that before ,i began the study of electricity ,i resolved to read no mathematics on the subject till ,i had first read through ,faraday's 8,experimental ,researches on ,electricity40 ,i was aware that there was supposed to be a difference between ,faraday's way of conceiving phenomena and that of the mathematicians4 ,so that neither he nor they were satisfied with each other's language4 ,i had also the conviction that this discrepancy did not arise from either party being wrong4 ,i was first convinced of this by ,sir ,william ,thomson ,lord ,kelvin1 to whose advice and assistance1 as well as to his published papers1 ,i owe most of what ,i have learned on this subject4 ,as ,i proceeded with the study of ,faraday1 ,i perceived that his method of conceiving the phenomena was also a mathematical one1 though not exhibited in the conventional form of mathematical symbols4 ,i also found that these methods were capable of being expressed in the ordinary mathematical forms1 and thus compared with those of the professed mathematicians4 ,for instance1 ,faraday1 in his mind's eye1 saw lines of force traversing all space where the mathematicians saw centres of force attracting at a distance4 ,faraday saw a medium where they saw nothing but distance4 ,faraday sought the seat of the phenomena in real actions going on in the medium2 they were satisfied that they had found it in a power of action at a distance impressed on electric fluids4 ,when ,i had translated what ,i considered to be ,faraday's ideas into a mathematical form1 ,i found that in general the results of the two methods coincided1 so that the same phenomena were accounted for and the same laws of action deduced by both methods1 but that ,faraday's methods resembled those in which we begin with the whole and arrive at the parts by analysis1 while the ordinary mathematical methods were founded on the principle of beginning with the parts and building up the whole by synthesis4 ,i found1 also1 that several of the most fertile methods of research discovered by the mathematicians could be expressed much better in terms of ideas derived from ,faraday than in their original form4 ,the whole theory1 for instance1 of potential1 considered as a quantity which satisfies a certain partial differential equation1 belongs essentially to the method which ,i have called of ,faraday4444 ,if by anything ,i have here written ,i may assist any student in understanding ,faraday's modes of thought and expression1 ,i shall regard it as the accomplishment of one of my principal aims3 to communicate to others the same delight which ,i have found myself in reading ,faraday's 8,researches40 ,clerk ,maxwell may also be credited with the remark that ,faraday's work had had the result of banishing the term 8the electric fluid0 into the limbo of newspaper science4 ,sidenote3 ,,electric ,,light ,,in ,,lighthouses4 ,faraday's work for ,trinity ,house continued during these last years of research work4 ,he reported on such subjects as adulteration of white lead1 impure oils1 ,chance's lenses1 lighthouse ventilation1 and fog signals4 ,two systems of electric arc lighting for lighthouses--one by ,watson1 using batteries1 the other by ,holmes1 using a magneto-electric machine--were examined in #ahec and #ahed1 but his report on them was adverse4 ,he 8could not put up in a lighthouse what has not been established beforehand1 and is only experimental40 ,in #ahef he made five reports1 in #aheg six1 and in #aheh twelve reports to ,trinity ,house1 one of these being on the electric light at the ,south ,foreland4 ,in #ahei he reported on further trials in which ,duboscq's lamps were used4 ,in #ahfj he gave a final report on the practicability and utility of magneto-electric lighting1 and expressed the hope it would be applied1 as there was now no difficulty4 ,in #ahfa he inspected the machinery as established at the ,dungeness lighthouse4 ,in #ahfb he gave no fewer than seventeen reports1 visiting ,dungeness1 ,grisnez1 and the ,south ,foreland4 ,in #ahfc he again visited ,dungeness4 ,in #ahfd he made twelve reports1 and examined the drawings and estimates for establishing the electric light at ,portland4 ,his last report was in #ahfe1 upon the ,st4 ,bees' light1 and he then retired from this service4 ,his ,friday night discourses were still continued during these years4 ,in #ahee he gave one on 8,ruhmkorff's ,induction-coil40 ,in #ahef he gave one on a process for silvering glass1 and on finely divided gold4 ,this latter subject1 the optical properties of precipitated gold1 formed the topic of the ,bakerian lecture of that year--his last contribution to the ,royal ,society4 ,he gave another discourse on the same subject in #aheg1 and also one on the conservation of force4 ,in #ahef1 when investigating the crystallisation of water1 he discovered the phenomenon of regelation of ice4 ,in virtue of this property two pieces of ice will freeze solidly together under pressure1 even when the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere is above the freezing point4 ,this discovery led on the one hand to the explanation of glacier motions2 on the other to important results in thermodynamic theory4 ,in #ahei he gave two discourses1 one on ozone1 the other on phosphorescence and fluorescence4 ,he also gave two in #ahfj1 on lighthouse illumination by electric light1 and on the electric silk-loom4 ,in #ahfa he discoursed on platinum and on ,de la ,rue's eclipse photographs4 ,the last of his ,friday night discourses was given on ,june #bjth1 #ahfb4 ,it was on ,siemens's gas furnaces4 ,he had been down at ,swansea watching the furnaces in operation1 and now proposed to describe their principle4 ,it was rather a sad occasion1 for it was but too evident that his powers were fast waning4 ,early in the evening he had the misfortune to burn the notes he had prepared1 and became confused4 ,he concluded with a touching personal explanation how with advancing years his memory had failed1 and that in justice to others he felt it his duty to retire4 ,at intervals he still attempted to work at research4 ,in #ahfj he sent a paper to the ,royal ,society on the relations of electricity to gravity1 but1 on the advice of ,professor 7afterwards ,sir ,george7 ,stokes1 it was withdrawn4 ,he had also in contemplation some experiments upon the time required in the propagation of magnetism1 and began the construction of a complicated instrument1 which was never finished4 ,sidenote3 ,,hypothesis ,,and ,,experiment4 ,his very last experiment1 as recorded in his laboratory notebook1 is of extraordinary interest1 as showing how his mind was still at work inquiring into the borderland of possible phenomena4 ,it was on ,march #abth1 #ahfb4 ,he was inquiring into the effect of a magnetic field upon a beam of light1 which he was observing with a spectroscope to ascertain whether there was any change produced in the refrangibility of the light4 ,the entry concludes3 8,not the slightest effect on the polarised or unpolarised ray was observed40 ,the experiment is of the highest interest in magneto-optics4 ,the effect for which ,faraday looked in vain in #ahfb was discovered in #ahig by ,zeeman4 ,that ,faraday should have conceived the existence of this obscure relation between magnetism and light is a striking illustration of the acuteness of mental vision which he brought to bear4 ,living and working amongst the appliances of his laboratory1 letting his thoughts play freely around the phenomena1 incessantly framing hypotheses to account for the facts1 and as incessantly testing his hypotheses by the touchstone of experiment1 never hesitating to push to their logical conclusion the ideas suggested by experiment1 however widely they might seem to lead from the accepted modes of thought1 he worked on with a scientific prevision little short of miraculous4 ,his experiments1 even those which at the time seemed unsuccessful1 in that they yielded no positive result1 have proved to be a mine of amazing richness4 ,the volumes of his 8,experimental ,researches0 are a veritable treasure-house of science4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,middle ,,and ,,later ,,life4 ,although to avoid discontinuity the account of ,faraday's researches has in the previous chapter been followed to their close in #ahfb1 we must now return to his middle period of life1 when his activities at the ,royal ,institution were at their zenith4 ,sidenote3 ,,breakdown ,,of ,,health4 ,mention has been made of the serious breakdown of ,faraday's health at the close of #ahci4 ,dr4 ,latham1 whom he consulted as to his attacks of giddiness1 wrote to ,brande3-- ,grosvenor ,street1 ,december #a1 #ahci4 ,,dear ,,brande1--,i have been seeing our friend ,faraday these two or three days1 and been looking after his health4 ,i trust he has no ailment more than rest of body and mind will get rid of4 ,but rest is absolutely necessary for him4 ,indeed1 ,i think it would be hardly prudent for him to lecture again for the present4 ,he looks up to his work2 but1 in truth1 he is not fit1 and if he is pressed he will suddenly break down4 ,when we meet1 ,i will talk the matter over with you4 ,yours most sincerely1 ,p4 ,m4 ,,latham4 ,the advice was taken4 ,he gave up nearly all research work1 but tried to go on with ,friday night discourses and afternoon lectures in #ahdj4 ,then came a more serious breakdown1 and he rested for nearly four years1 with the exception of the ,christmas lectures in #ahda and a few ,friday discourses in #ahdb and #ahdc4 ,this illness caused him great distress of mind1 mainly due to an idea that the physicians did not understand his condition4 ,when in this state he sometimes set down pencil notes on scraps of paper to relieve his feelings4 ,one such is the following3-- ,whereas1 according to the declaration of that true man of the world ,talleyrand1 the use of language is to conceal the thoughts2 this is to declare in the present instance1 when ,i say ,i am not able to bear much talking1 it means really1 and without any mistake1 or equivocation1 or oblique meaning1 or implication1 or subterfuge1 or omission1 that ,i am not able2 being at present rather weak in the head1 and able to work no more4 ,during these times of enforced idleness he used to amuse himself with games of skill1 with paperwork1 and with visits to the theatre and to the ,zoological ,gardens4 ,mrs4 ,faraday left the following note3-- ,michael was one of the earliest members of the ,zoological ,society1 and the ,gardens were a great resource to him when overwrought and distressed in the head4 ,the animals were a continual source of interest1 and we1 or rather ,i1 used to talk of the time when we should be able to afford a house within my walking distance of the entrance2 for ,i much feared he could not continue to live in the ,institution with the continual calls upon his time and thought2 but he always shrank from the notion of living away from the ,r4 ,i4 ,his niece1 ,miss ,reid1 told how fond he was of seeing acrobats1 tumblers1 dwarfs and giants2 even a ,punch and ,judy show was an unfailing source of delight4 ,when travelling in ,switzerland1 as he did on several occasions1 accompanied by ,mrs4 ,faraday and her brother1 ,george ,barnard1 the artist1 he kept a journal1 which reveals his simple pleasures and enthusiasms4 ,he is delighted with waterfalls and avalanches1 watches the cowherd collecting his cows and the shepherd calling the sheep1 which followed him1 leaving the goats to straggle4 ,on one such visit 7in #ahda71 in order that he might not be absent on ,sunday from his wife1 he walked the whole distance from ,leukerbad to ,thun1 over the ,gemmi--a distance of #de miles--in one day4 ,at ,interlaken1 observing that clout-nail-making was practised as a local industry1 he wrote3 8,i love a smith's shop and everything relating to smithery4 ,my father was a smith40 ,sidenote3 ,,impressions ,,of ,,liebig4 ,in #ahdd he was well enough to attend the ,british ,association meeting at ,york4 ,liebig1 who had also been there1 wrote to him three months later with some reminiscences4 ,what had struck him most was the tendency in ,england to ignore the more purely scientific works and to value only those with a 8practical0 bearing4 8,in ,germany it is quite the contrary4 ,here1 in the eyes of scientific men1 no value1 or at least but a trifling one1 is placed on the practical results4 ,the enrichment of science is alone considered worthy of attention40 ,liebig further expressed himself dissatisfied with the meeting at ,york4 ,he had been interested to make the acquaintance of so many celebrated men1 but it was1 strictly1 8a feast given to the geologists1 the other sciences serving only to decorate the table40 ,then came a more personal note3-- ,often do my thoughts wander back to the period which ,i spent in ,england1 among the many pleasant hours of which the remembrance of those passed with you and your amiable wife is to me always the dearest and most agreeable4 ,with the purest pleasure ,i bring to mind my walk with her1 in the botanical garden at ,york1 when ,i was afforded a glance of the richness of her mind2 what a rare treasure you possess in her6 ,the breakfast in the little house with ,snow ,harris1 and ,graham1 and our being together at ,bishopthorpe1 are still fresh in my memory4 ,if ,liebig was disposed to underrate the useful applications of science1 ,faraday certainly was not4 ,though his own research work was carried on with the single aim of scientific progress2 though he himself never swerved aside into any branch research that might have yielded money2 yet he was ever ready to examine1 and even to lecture upon1 the inventions of others4 ,he accepted for the subjects of his ,friday night discourses all sorts of topics--artificial stone1 machinery for pen-making1 lithography1 ,ruhmkorff's induction coil1 a process for silvering mirrors1 and lighthouse illumination by electric light4 ,his very last lecture was on ,siemens's gas-furnaces4 ,he could be just as enthusiastic over the invention of another as over some discovery of his own4 ,with respect to his lecture on the ,ruhmkorff coil1 ,tyndall describes him in a passage which is interesting1 as containing an epithet since adopted for another great man for whom ,tyndall had less respect than for ,faraday3-- ,i well remember the ecstasy and surprise of the grand old man1 evoked by effects which we should now deem utterly insignificant4 ,bence ,jones says3-- ,when he brought the discoveries of others before his hearers1 one object1 and one alone1 seemed to determine all he said and did1 and that was1 8without commendation and without censure10 to do the utmost that could be done for the discoverer4 ,in so perfect a character it would be marvellous if there were not some flaw4 ,his persistent ignoring of ,sturgeon1 and his attribution of the invention of the electromagnet to ,moll and ,henry1 whose work was frankly based on ,sturgeon's1 is simply inexplicable4 ,he failed to appreciate the greatness of ,dalton1 and thought him an overrated man4 ,sidenote3 ,,personal ,,characteristics4 ,amid all his overflowing kindliness of heart1 ,faraday preserved other less obvious traits of character4 ,any act of injustice or meanness called forth an almost volcanic burst of indignation4 ,hot flashes of temper1 fierce moments of wrath were by no means unknown4 ,but he exercised a most admirable self-control1 and a habitual discipline of soul that kept his temper under4 ,grim and forbidding1 and even exacting he could show himself to an idle or unfaithful servant4 ,there were those who feared as well as those who loved and admired him4 ,dr4 ,gladstone says of him that he was no 8model of all the virtues10 dreadfully uninteresting1 and discouraging to those who feel calm perfection out of their reach4 8,his inner life was a battle1 with its wounds as well as its victory40 8,it is true also10 he adds1 8that with his great caution and his repugnance to moral evil1 he was more disposed to turn away in disgust from an erring companion than to endeavour to reclaim him40 ,for thirty years ,faraday was the foremost of lecturers on science in ,london4 ,from the first occasion when1 in #ahbc1 as ,sir ,roderick ,murchison narrates1 he was called upon unexpectedly to act as substitute for ,professor ,brande at one of his morning lectures at the ,royal ,institution 7then held in the subterranean laboratory71 down to the time of his latest appearance as a lecturer in #ahfb1 he was without a rival as the exponent of natural science4 ,as no man could achieve and retain such a position without possessing both natural gifts and appropriate training1 it is fitting to inquire what were those gifts and what the training which were so happily united in him4 ,i was 7he said7 a very lively1 imaginative person1 and could believe in the ,arabian ,nights as easily as in the ,encyclopdia2 but facts were important to me1 and saved me4 ,i could trust a fact1 and always cross-examined an assertion4 ,from the very first ,faraday had an appreciation of the way in which public lectures should be given4 ,in his notes of ,davy's fourth lecture of ,april1 #ahab1 he wrote3-- ,during the whole of these observations his delivery was easy1 his diction elegant1 his tone good1 and his sentiments sublime4 ,his own first lecture was given in the kitchen of ,abbott's house1 with home-made apparatus placed on the kitchen table4 ,to ,abbott1 after only a few weeks of experience at the ,royal ,institution1 he wrote the letters upon lectures and lecturers1 to which allusion was made on p4 #ae4 ,these show a most remarkably sound perception of the material and mental furniture requisite for success4 ,from the third and fourth of them are culled the following excerpts3-- ,sidenote3 ,,qualifications ,,of ,a ,,lecturer4 ,the most prominent requisite to a lecturer1 though perhaps not really the most important1 is a good delivery2 for though to all true philosophers science and nature will have charms innumerable in every dress1 yet ,i am sorry to say that the generality of mankind cannot accompany us one short hour unless the path is strewed with flowers4 ,in order1 therefore1 to gain the attention of an audience 7and what can be more disagreeable to a lecturer than the want of it871 it is necessary to pay some attention to the manner of expression4 ,the utterance should not be rapid and hurried1 and consequently unintelligible1 but slow and deliberate1 conveying ideas with ease from the lecturer1 and infusing them with clearness and readiness into the minds of the audience4 ,a lecturer should endeavour by all means to obtain a facility of utterance1 and the power of clothing his thoughts and ideas in language smooth and harmonious1 and at the same time simple and easy4 ,with respect to the action of the lecturer1 it is requisite that he should have some1 though it does not here bear the importance that it does in other branches of oratory2 for though ,i know of no species of delivery 7divinity excepted7 that requires less motion1 yet ,i would by no means have a lecturer glued to the table or screwed on the floor4 ,he must by all means appear as a body distinct and separate from the things around him1 and must have some motion apart from that which they possess4 ,a lecturer should appear easy and collected1 undaunted and unconcerned1 his thoughts about him1 and his mind clear and free for the contemplation and description of his subject4 ,his action should not be hasty and violent1 but slow1 easy1 and natural1 consisting principally in changes of the posture of the body1 in order to avoid the air of stiffness or sameness that would otherwise be unavoidable4 ,his whole behaviour should evince respect for his audience1 and he should in no case forget that he is in their presence4 ,no accident that does not interfere with their convenience should disturb his serenity1 or cause variation in his behaviour2 he should never1 if possible1 turn his back on them1 but should give them full reason to believe that all his powers have been exerted for their pleasure and instruction4 ,some lecturers choose to express their thoughts extemporaneously immediately as they occur to the mind1 whilst others previously arrange them and draw them forth on paper4 ,but although ,i allow a lecturer to write out his matter1 ,i do not approve of his reading it--at least1 not as he would a quotation or extract4 ,a lecturer should exert his utmost effort to gain completely the mind and attention of his audience1 and irresistibly to make them join in his ideas to the end of the subject4 ,he should endeavour to raise their interest at the commencement of the lecture1 and by a series of imperceptible gradations1 unnoticed by the company1 keep it alive as long as the subject demands it4 ,a flame should be lighted at the commencement1 and kept alive with unremitting splendour to the end4 ,for this reason ,i very much disapprove of breaks in a lecture1 and where they can by any means be avoided they should on no account find place4444 ,for the same reason--namely1 that the audience should not grow tired--,i disapprove of long lectures2 one hour is long enough for anyone4 ,nor should they be allowed to exceed that time4 ,a lecturer falls deeply beneath the dignity of his character when he descends so low as to angle for claps and asks for commendation4 ,yet have ,i seen a lecturer even at this point4 ,i have heard him causelessly condemn his own powers4 ,i have heard him dwell for a length of time on the extreme care and niceness that the experiment he will make requires4 ,i have heard him hope for indulgence when no indulgence was wanted1 and ,i have even heard him declare that the experiment now made cannot fail1 from its beauty1 its correctness1 and its application1 to gain the approbation of all4444 ,i would wish apologies to be made as seldom as possible1 and generally only when the inconvenience extends to the company4 ,i have several times seen the attention of by far the greater part of the audience called to an error by the apology that followed it4 ',tis well1 too1 when the lecturer has the ready wit and the presence of mind to turn any casual circumstance to an illustration of his subject4 ,any particular circumstance that has become table-talk for the town1 any local advantages or disadvantages1 any trivial circumstance that may arise in company1 give great force to illustrations aptly drawn from them1 and please the audience highly1 as they conceive they perfectly understand them4 ,apt experiments 7to which ,i have before referred7 ought to be explained by satisfactory theory1 or otherwise we merely patch an old coat with new cloth1 and the whole hole becomes worse4 ,if a satisfactory theory can be given1 it ought to be given4 ,if we doubt a received opinion1 let us not leave the doubt unnoticed and affirm our own ideas1 but state it clearly1 and lay down also our objections4 ,if the scientific world is divided in opinion1 state both sides of the question1 and let each one judge for himself by noticing the most striking and forcible circumstances on each side4 ,then1 and then only1 shall we do justice to the subject1 please the audience1 and satisfy our honour1 the honour of a philosopher4 ,sidenote3 ,,use ,,of ,,criticism4 ,one who already had set before himself such high ideals could not fail at least to attempt to fulfil them4 ,accordingly1 when in #ahaf he began to lecture to the ,city ,philosophical ,society1 he began to attend an evening class on elocution conducted by ,mr4 ,b4 ,h4 ,smart1 though the pinch of poverty made it difficult to him to afford the needful fees4 ,again1 in #ahbc1 previous to taking part in ,brande's laboratory lectures1 he took private lessons in elocution from ,smart1 at the rate of half-a-guinea a lesson4 ,after #ahbg1 when he was beginning his regular courses of lectures in the theatre1 he often used to get ,mr4 ,smart to attend in order to criticise his delivery4 ,amongst the rules found in his manuscript notes were the following3-- ,never to repeat a phrase4 ,never to go back to amend4 ,if at a loss for a word1 not to ch-ch-ch or eh-eh-eh1 but to stop and wait for it4 ,it soon comes1 and the bad habits are broken and fluency soon acquired4 ,never doubt a correction given to me by another4 ,his niece1 ,miss ,reid1 who lived from #ahcj to #ahdj at the ,institution with the ,faradays1 gave the following amongst her recollections3-- ,mr4 ,magrath used to come regularly to the morning lectures1 for the sole purpose of noting down for him any faults of delivery or defective pronunciation that could be detected4 ,the list was always received with thanks2 although his corrections were not uniformly adopted1 he was encouraged to continue his remarks with perfect freedom4 ,in early days he always lectured with a card before him with ,slow written upon it in distinct characters4 ,sometimes he would overlook it and become too rapid2 in this case1 ,anderson had orders to place the card before him4 ,sometimes he had the word ,time on a card brought forward when the hour was nearly expired4 ,sidenote3 ,,as ,,lecturer4 ,in spite of his recourse to aids in acquiring elocutionary excellence1 his own style remained simple and unspoiled4 8,his manner10 says ,bence ,jones1 8was so natural1 that the thought of any art in his lecturing never occurred to anyone4 ,for his ,friday discourses1 and for his other set lectures in the theatre1 he always made ample preparation beforehand4 ,his matter was always over-abundant4 ,and1 if his experiments were always successful1 this was not solely attributable to his exceeding skill of hand4 ,for1 unrivalled as he was as a manipulator1 in the cases in which he attempted to show complicated or difficult experiments1 that which was to be shown was always well rehearsed beforehand in the laboratory4 ,he was exceedingly particular about small and simple illustrations4 ,he never merely told his hearers about an experiment1 but showed it to them1 however simple and well known it might be4 ,to a young lecturer he once remarked3 #8,if ,i said to my audience1 8,this stone will fall to the ground if ,i open my hand10 ,i should open my hand and let it fall4 ,take nothing for granted as known2 inform the eye at the same time as you address the ear4' ,he always endeavoured at the outset to put himself en rapport with his audience by introducing his subject on its most familiar side1 and then leading on to that which was less familiar4 ,before the audience became aware of any transition1 they were already assimilating new facts which were thus brought within their range4 ,nor did he stay his discourse upon the enunciation of facts merely4 ,almost invariably1 as his allotted hour drew towards its close1 he gave rein to his imagination4 ,those who had begun with him on the lower plane of simple facts and their correlations were bidden to consider the wider bearings of scientific principles and their relations to philosophy1 to life1 or to ethics4 ,while he never forced a peroration1 nor dragged in a quotation from the poets1 his own scientific inspiration1 as he outlined some wide-sweeping speculation or suggestion for future discoveries1 amply supplied the fitting finale4 ,if the rush of his ideas might sometimes be compared to tearing through a jungle1 it at least never degenerated into sermonising2 and never1 save when he was physically ill1 failed to arouse an enthusiastic glow of response in his hearers4 #8,no attentive listener1' says ,mrs4 ,crosse1 #8ever came away from one of ,faraday's lectures without having the limits of his spiritual vision enlarged1 or without feeling that his imagination had been stimulated to something beyond the mere expression of physical facts4'0 ,he was not one who let himself dwell in illusions4 ,when he did well he was perfectly conscious of the fact1 and enjoyed a modest satisfaction4 ,if he had failed of his best1 he was conscious too of that4 ,his deliberate act in giving up all other lectures at the time when his brain-troubles were gaining upon him1 while retaining the ,christmas lectures to juveniles1 was thoroughly characteristic4 ,of one of his earlier courses of lectures he himself made--about #ahcb--the following note3-- ,the eight lectures on the operations of the laboratory at the ,royal ,institution1 ,april1 #ahbh1 were not to my mind4 ,there does not appear to be that opportunity of fixing the attention of the audience by a single clear1 consistent1 and connected chain of reasoning which occurs when a principle 7sic7 or one particular application is made4444 ,i do not think the operations of the laboratory can be rendered useful and popular in lectures4444 ,the matter of these same lectures was1 however1 the basis of his book on ,chemical ,manipulation published in #ahbg4 ,it went through three editions1 and was reprinted in ,america4 ,but in #ahch he declined to let a new edition be issued1 as he considered the work out of date4 ,besides the note quoted above from the ,faraday ,,ms4 occurs the following3-- ,the six juvenile lectures given ,christmas1 #ahbg1 were just what they ought to have been1 both in matter and manner2 but it would not answer to give an extended course in the same spirit4 ,nineteen times did ,faraday give the ,christmas lectures4 ,those on the ,chemistry of a ,candle were given more than once2 and were the last he gave1 in #ahfj4 ,they have been published1 as were those on the ,forces of ,nature4 ,the lectures on ,metals he was urged to publish1 but declined in the following terms3-- ,royal ,institution1 ,january #c1 #ahei4 ,,dear ,,sir1--,many thanks to both you and ,mr4 ,bentley4 ,mr4 ,murray made me an unlimited offer like that of ,mr4 ,bentley's many years ago1 but for the reasons ,i am about to give you ,i had to refuse his kindness4 ,he proposed to take them by shorthand1 and so save me trouble1 but ,i knew that would be a thorough failure2 even if ,i cared to give time to the revision of the ,,ms41 still the lectures without the experiments and the vivacity of speaking would fall far behind those in the lecture-room as to effect4 ,and then ,i do not desire to give time to them1 for money is no temptation to me4 ,in fact1 ,i have always loved science more than money2 and because my occupation is almost entirely personal ,i cannot afford to get rich4 ,again thanking you and ,mr4 ,bentley1 ,i remain1 ,very truly yours1 ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,sidenote3 ,,an ,,inspired ,,child4 ,of his lectures ,lady ,pollock wrote3-- ,he would play with his subject now and then1 but very delicately2 his sport was only just enough to enliven the attention4 ,he never suffered an experiment to allure him away from his theme4 ,every touch of his hand was a true illustration of his argument4444 ,but his meaning was sometimes beyond the conception of those whom he addressed4 ,when1 however1 he lectured to children he was careful to be perfectly distinct1 and never allowed his ideas to outrun their intelligence4 ,he took great delight in talking to them1 and easily won their confidence4 ,the vivacity of his manner and of his countenance1 and his pleasant laugh1 the frankness of his whole bearing1 attracted them to him4 ,they felt as if he belonged to them2 and indeed he sometimes1 in his joyous enthusiasm1 appeared like an inspired child4 444 ,his quick sympathies put him so closely in relation with the child that he saw with the boy's new wonder1 and looked1 and most likely felt for the moment1 as if he had never seen the thing before4 ,quick feelings1 quick movement1 quick thought1 vividness of expression and of perception1 belonged to him4 ,he came across you like a flash of light1 and he seemed to leave some of his light with you4 ,his presence was always stimulating4--,st4 ,paul's ,magazine1 ,june1 #ahgj4 ,a writer in the ,british ,quarterly ,review says3-- ,he had the art of making philosophy charming1 and this was due in no little measure to the fact that to grey-headed wisdom he united wonderful juvenility of spirit4444 ,hilariously boyish upon occasion he could be1 and those who knew him best knew he was never more at home1 that he never seemed so pleased1 as when making an old boy of himself1 as he was wont to say1 lecturing before a juvenile audience at ,christmas4 ,caroline ,fox 7in 8,memories of ,old ,friends071 under date ,june #acth1 #ahea1 wrote in her journal3-- ,we went to ,faraday's lecture on 8,ozone40 ,he tried the various methods of making ozone which ,schnbein had already performed in our kitchen1 and he did them brilliantly4 ,he was entirely at his ease1 both with his audience and his chemical apparatus4 ,in the diary of ,h4 ,crabb ,robinson is an appreciation of ,faraday of some interest3-- ,may #hth1 #ahdj4444 ,attended ,carlyle's second lecture4 ,it gave great satisfaction1 for it had uncommon thoughts and was delivered with unusual animation4444 ,in the evening heard a lecture by ,faraday4 ,what a contrast to ,carlyle6 ,a perfect experimentalist with an intellect so clear4 ,within his sphere un uomo compito4 ,many references to ,faraday's lectures occur in the life of ,sir ,richard ,owen 7published #ahid71 chiefly extracted from ,mrs4 ,owen's diary4 ,two or three extracts must suffice3-- #ahci1 ,jan4 #hth4 ,at eight o'clock with ,r4 to the ,royal ,institution to hear ,faraday lecture on electricity1 galvanism1 and the electric eel4 ,faraday is the beau idal of a popular lecturer4 #ahde1 ,jan4 #ca4 ,to ,faraday's lecture at the ,royal ,institution4 ,the largest crowd ,i have ever seen there4 ,many gentlemen were obliged to come into the ladies' gallery1 as they could not get seats elsewhere4 ,after an exceedingly interesting lecture1 ,faraday said he had a few remarks to make on some new reform laws for the ,institution4 ,these remarks were admirably made1 and no one could feel offended1 although it was a direct attack on those gentlemen who helped to render the ladies very uncomfortable1 sometimes by filling seats1 and often front seats1 in the part intended only for ladies4 ,wearing a hat in the library was one of the delinquencies1 likewise sitting in the seats reserved for the directors1 who were obliged by their office and duties to be last in4 ,mr4 ,faraday also remarked that the formation of two currents caused by certain gentlemen rushing upstairs the instant the lecture was over to fetch their lady friends was not conducive to the comfort of those coming downstairs4 ,everything taken very well4 ,sidenote3 ,,royal ,,institution ,,lectures4 #ahdi1 ,may #bhth4 ,with ,r4 to ,royal ,institution4 ,we got there just before three1 and there was a crowded audience as usual to hear ,faraday's lecture4 ,the poor man entered and attempted to speak1 but he was suffering from inflammation or excessive irritation of the larynx1 and after some painful efforts to speak1 a general cry arose of 8,postpone10 and someone1 apparently in authority1 made a short speech from the gallery4 ,mr4 ,faraday still wished to try and force his voice1 saying he was well aware of the difficulty of getting back the carriages1 etc41 before the time for the lecture had elapsed1 to say nothing of the disappointment to some2 but every moment the cry increased4 8,no1 no2 you are too valuable to be allowed to injure yourself4 ,postpone1 postpone40 ,poor ,faraday was quite overcome4 ,the interrupted lecture was resumed after a fortnight's interval2 and he made up the full number of lectures by giving two extra discourses1 at one of which the ,prince ,consort was present4 ,at another lecture in #ahef ,faraday explained the magnet and strength of attraction4 ,he made us all laugh heartily2 and when he threw a coalscuttle full of coals1 a poker1 and a pair of tongs at the great magnet1 and they stuck there1 the theatre echoed with shouts of laughter4 ,his friend ,de la ,rive testified in striking terms to ,faraday's power as a speaker4 ,nothing can give a notion of the charm which he imparted to these improvised lectures1 in which he knew how to combine animated1 and often eloquent1 language with a judgment and art in his experiments which added to the clearness and elegance of his exposition4 ,he exerted an actual fascination upon his auditors2 and when1 after having initiated them into the mysteries of science1 he terminated his lecture1 as he was in the habit of doing1 by rising into regions far above matter1 space1 and time1 the emotion which he experienced did not fail to communicate itself to those who listened to him1 and their enthusiasm had no longer any bounds4 ,faraday remained all his life a keen observer of other lecturers4 ,visiting ,france in #ahde1 he went to hear ,arago give an astronomical lecture4 8,he delivered it in an admirable manner to a crowded audience10 was his comment4 ,to the ,secretary of the ,institution1 who in #ahdf consulted him regarding evening lectures1 he said3 ,i see no objection to evening lectures if you can find a fit man to give them4 ,as to popular lectures 7which at the same time are to be respectable and sound71 none are more difficult to find4 ,lectures which really teach will never be popular2 lectures which are popular will never really teach4 ,they know little of the matter who think science is more easily to be taught or learned than ,a ,b ,c2 and yet who ever learned his ,a ,b ,c without pain and trouble8 ,still1 lectures can 7generally7 inform the mind1 and show forth to the attentive man what he really has to learn1 and in their way are very useful1 especially to the public4 ,i think they might be useful to us now1 even if they only gave an answer to those who1 judging by their own earnest desire to learn1 think much of them4 ,as to agricultural chemistry1 it is no doubt an excellent and a popular subject1 but ,i rather suspect that those who know least of it think that most is known about it4 ,sidenote3 ,,use ,,of ,,models ,,and ,,cards4 ,his fondness for illustrating obscure points in his lectures by models has been more than once alluded to4 ,he would improvise these out of wood1 paper1 wire1 or even out of turnips or potatoes1 with much dexterity of hand4 ,in one of his unpublished manuscripts1 dating about #ahbf1 dealing with the then recently discovered phenomena of electromagnetism1 occurs the following note3-- ,it is best for illustration to have a model of the constant position which the needle takes across the wire3 le voila 7,fig4 #ba74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,many such simple models were used in his lectures4 ,he leaned upon them to aid his defective memory2 but they helped his audience quite as much as they aided him4 ,reference was made on p4 #g to his use of cards1 on which to jot down notes of thoughts that occurred to him4 ,one such runs as follows3-- ,remember to do one thing at once4 ,also to finish a thing4 ,also to do a little if ,i could not do much4 ,pique about mathematics in chemists1 and resolution to support the character of experiment--as better for the mass4 ,hence origin of the title ,exp4 researches4 ,influence of authority4 ,davy and difficulty of steering between self-sufficiency and dependance 7sic7 on others4 ,aim at high things1 but not presumptuously4 ,endeavour to succeed--expect not to succeed4 ,criticise one's own view in every way by experiment--if possible1 leave no objection to be put by others4 ,faraday's enthusiasm about experimental researches was at times unrestrained1 and always contagious4 ,dumas describes how ,faraday repeated for him the experimental demonstration of the action of magnetism on light4 ,having come to the final experiment1 ,faraday rubbed his hands excitedly1 while his eyes lit up with fire1 and his animated countenance told the passionate feelings which he brought to the discovery of scientific truth4 ,on another occasion ,plcker1 of ,bonn1 then on a visit to ,london1 showed ,faraday in his own laboratory the action of a magnet upon the luminous electric discharge in vacuum tubes4 8,faraday danced round them2 and as he saw the moving arches of light1 he cried3 #8,oh1 to live always in it6'0 ,once a friend met him at ,eastbourne in the midst of a tremendous storm1 rubbing his hands together gleefully because he had been fortunate enough to see the lightning strike the church tower4 ,to the ,baroness ,burdett-,coutts he once wrote inviting her to see some experiments upon spectrum analysis in his private room4 ,the experiments1 he wrote1 will not be beautiful except to the intelligent4 ,yet another reminiscence is to be found in the ,memorials of ,joseph ,henry4 ,it relates1 probably1 to the date of #ahcg1 when ,henry visited ,europe4 ,henry loved to dwell on the hours that he and ,bache had spent in ,faraday's society4 ,i shall never forget ,henry's account of his visit to ,king's ,college1 ,london1 where ,faraday1 ,wheatstone1 ,daniell1 and he had met to try and evolve the electric spark from the thermopile4 ,each in turn attempted it and failed4 ,then came ,henry's turn4 ,he succeeded1 calling in the aid of his discovery of the effect of a long interpolar wire wrapped around a piece of soft iron4 ,faraday became as wild as a boy1 and1 jumping up1 shouted3 8,hurrah for the ,yankee experiment60 ,the following memorandum was found on a slip of paper in ,faraday's 8research drawer03-- ,,the ,,four ,,degrees4 ,the discoverer of a fact4 ,the reconciling of it to known principles4 ,discovery of a fact not reconcilable4 ,he who refers all to still more general principles4 ,m4,f4 ,sidenote3 ,,freedom ,,of ,,speculation4 ,faraday's mind was of a very individual turn2 he could not walk along the beaten tracks1 but must pursue truth wherever it led him4 ,his dogged tenacity for exact fact was accompanied by a perfect fearlessness of speculation4 ,he would throw overboard without hesitation the most deeply-rooted notions if experimental evidence pointed to newer ideas4 ,he had learned to doubt the idea of poles2 so he outgrew the idea of atoms1 which he considered an arbitrary conception4 ,many who heard his bold speculations and his free coinage of new terms deemed him vague and loose in thought4 ,nothing could be more untrue4 ,he let his mind play freely about the facts2 he framed thousands of hypotheses1 only to let them go by if they were not supported by facts4 8,he is the wisest philosopher10 he said in a lecture on the nature of matter1 8who holds his theory with some doubt--who is able to proportion his judgment and confidence to the value of the evidence set before him1 taking a fact for a fact and a supposition for a supposition1 as much as possible keeping his mind free from all source of prejudice2 or1 where he cannot do this 7as in the case of a theory71 remembering that such a source is there40 ,in one of his later experimental researches he wrote3-- ,as an experimentalist1 ,i feel bound to let experiment guide me into any train of thought which it may justify2 being satisfied that experiment1 like analysis1 must lead to strict truth if rightly interpreted2 and believing also that it is in its nature far more suggestive of new trains of thought and new conditions of natural power4 ,sidenote3 ,,why ,,no ,,successor4 ,perhaps it was this very freedom of thought which debarred him from enlisting other men as collaborators in his researches4 ,his one assistant for thirty years1 ,sergeant ,anderson1 was indeed invaluable to him for his quality of implicit obedience4 ,other helpers in the laboratory he had none4 ,apparently he found his researches to be of too individual a character to permit him to deputise any part of his work4 ,he was never satisfied when told about another's experiment2 he must perform it for himself4 ,often a discovery arose from some chance or trivial incident of an otherwise unsuccessful experiment4 ,the power of 8lateral vision10 which ,tyndall has so strongly emphasised1 was a prime factor in his successes4 ,that power could not be delegated to any mere assistant4 ,many times did outsiders approach him1 thinking to bring new facts to his notice2 never1 save on the solitary occasion when a ,mr4 ,william ,jenkin drew his attention to the 8extra-current0 spark seen on the breaking of an electric circuit1 did such novelties turn out to be really new4 ,alleged discoveries thus brought to him merely plagued him4 ,he thought that anyone who had the wit to observe any really new phenomenon would be the person best qualified to work it out4 ,his method was to work on alone1 dwelling amidst his experiments until the mind1 familiarising itself with the facts1 was ready to suggest their correlations4 ,it was sometimes urged against him as a complaint that he never took up any younger man to train him as his successor1 even as ,davy had taken up himself and trained him in scientific work4 ,one of the miscellaneous notes1 found after his death1 throws some light on this3-- ,it puzzles me greatly to know what makes the successful philosopher4 ,is it industry and perseverance with a moderate proportion of good sense and intelligence8 ,is not a modest assurance or earnestness a requisite8 ,do not many fail because they look rather to the renown to be acquired than to the pure acquisition of knowledge1 and the delight which the contented mind has in acquiring it for its own sake8 ,i am sure ,i have seen many who would have been good and successful pursuers of science1 and have gained themselves a high name1 but that it was the name and the reward they were always looking forward to--the reward of the world's praise4 ,in such there is always a shade of envy or regret over their minds1 and ,i cannot imagine a man making discoveries in science under these feelings4 ,as to ,genius and its power1 there may be cases2 ,i suppose there are4 ,i have looked long and often for a genius for our ,laboratory1 but have never found one4 ,but ,i have seen many who would1 ,i think1 if they had submitted themselves to a sound self-applied discipline of mind1 have become successful experimental ,philosophers4 ,to ,dr4 ,becker he wrote3 ,i was never able to make a fact my own without seeing it2 and the descriptions of the best works altogether failed to convey to my mind such a knowledge of things as to allow myself to form a judgment upon them4 ,it was so with new things4 ,if ,grove1 or ,wheatstone1 or ,gassiot1 or any other told me a new fact1 and wanted my opinion either of its value1 or the cause1 or the evidence it could give on any subject1 ,i never could say anything until ,i had seen the fact4 ,for the same reason ,i never could work1 as some ,professors do most extensively1 by students or pupils4 ,all the work had to be my own4 ,sidenote3 ,,income ,,and ,,expenditure4 ,of ,faraday's social life and surroundings during his meridional and later period much might be written4 ,after his great researches of #ahca to #ahcf scientific honours flowed in freely upon him1 especially from foreign academies and universities2 and the fame he won at home would have brought him1 had he been so minded1 an ample professional fortune and all the artificial amenities of ,society which follow the successful money-maker4 ,from all such mundane 8success0 he cut himself off when in #ahca he decided to abandon professional fee-earning1 and to devote himself to the advancement of science4 ,probably the tenets of the religious body to which he belonged were a leading factor in compelling this decision4 ,not having laid upon him the necessity of providing for a family1 and accustomed to live in an unostentatious style1 he could contemplate the future without anxiety4 ,with his pension1 his ,woolwich lectures1 and his ,trinity ,house appointment1 ,faraday was in no sense poor1 though his ,royal ,institution professorship never brought him so much as #cjj a year until after he was over sixty years of age2 but on the other hand1 his private charities were very numerous4 ,how much of his income was spent in that way can never be known2 for the very privacy of his deeds of kindness prevented any record from being kept4 ,certain it is that his gifts to the aged poor and sick must have amounted to several hundreds of pounds a year2 for while his income for many years must have averaged at least #a1jjj or #a1ajj1 and his domestic expenditure could not have much exceeded half that sum1 he does not seem to have attempted to save anything4 ,nor did he grudge time or strength to do kindly charitable acts in visiting the sick4 ,from about the year #ahcd he resolutely declined invitations to dinners and such social gaieties2 not1 as some averred1 from any religious asceticism1 but that he might the more unrestrainedly devote himself to his researches4 8,if10 says ,mrs4 ,crosse1 8,babbage1 ,wheatstone1 ,grove1 ,owen1 ,tyndall1 and a host of other distinguished scientists1 were to be met very generally in the society of the day1 there was one man who was very conspicuous by his absence--this was ,faraday6 ,his biographers say that in earlier years he occasionally accepted ,lady ,davy's invitations to dinner2 but ,i never heard of his going anywhere1 except in obedience to the commands of royalty40 ,he did indeed occasionally dine quietly with ,sir ,robert ,peel or ,earl ,russell2 and of the few public dinners he attended1 he enjoyed most the annual banquet of the ,royal ,academy of ,arts4 ,faraday does not1 however1 appear to have had any very direct relations with the world of art4 ,once he was consulted by ,lord ,john ,russell as to the removal of ,raphael's cartoons from ,hampton ,court to the ,national ,gallery4 ,his advice was adverse1 on account of the penetrating power of dust4 ,though a sufficiently good draughtsman to prepare his own drawings1 he had little or no knowledge of the technicalities of painting4 ,yet his sensitive and enthusiastic temperament had much in common with that of the artist1 and he enjoyed music1 especially good music1 greatly4 ,in early life he played the flute and knew many songs by heart4 ,he took bass parts in concerted singing1 and is said to have sung correctly in time and tune4 ,in his circle of acquaintanceship were numbered several painters of eminence--,turner1 ,landseer1 and ,stanfield4 ,his brother-in-law1 ,mr4 ,george ,barnard1 the late well-known water-colour artist1 has written the following note3-- ,my first and many following sketching trips were made with ,faraday and his wife4 ,storms excited his admiration at all times1 and he was never tired of looking into the heavens4 ,he said to me once1 8,i wonder you artists don't study the light and colour in the sky more1 and try more for effect40 ,i think this quality in ,turner's drawings made him admire them so much4 ,he made ,turner's acquaintance at ,hullmandel's1 and afterwards often had applications from him for chemical information about pigments4 ,faraday always impressed upon ,turner and other artists the great necessity there was to experiment for themselves1 putting washes and tints of all their pigments in the bright sunlight1 covering up one half1 and noticing the effect of light and gases on the other4444 ,faraday did not fish at all during these country trips1 but just rambled about geologising or botanising4 ,sidenote3 ,,science1 ,,literature1 ,,and ,,art4 ,earlier in his career1 ,faraday and his brother-in-law used to enjoy conversaziones of artists1 actors1 and musicians at ,hullmandel's4 ,sometimes they went up the river in ,hullmandel's eight-oar boat1 camping gipsy-wise on the banks for dinner1 and enjoying the singing of ,signor ,garcia and his wife and of his daughter1 afterwards ,madame ,malibran4 ,from these things1 too1 he withdrew very largely when he ceased to dine out1 though he still liked to hear the opera and to visit the theatre4 ,curiously enough1 he seems to have had very little in common with literary men4 ,in the last half of the previous century there had been many intimate relations between the leaders of literature and those of science4 ,the circle which included ,watt1 ,boulton1 and ,wedgwood included also ,priestley and ,erasmus ,darwin4 ,in our own time the names of ,darwin1 ,huxley1 ,hooker1 and ,tyndall are to be found in conjunction with those of ,tennyson1 ,browning1 and ,jowett4 ,but the biographies of literary men and artists of the period from #ahcj to #ahej bear few references to ,faraday4 ,he moved in his own world1 and that a world very much apart from literature or art4 ,in his method of working he was indeed an artist1 often feeling his way rather than calculating it1 and arriving at his conclusions by what seemed insight rather than by any direct process of reasoning4 ,the discovery of truth comes about in many ways2 and if ,faraday's method in science was artistic rather than scientific1 it was amply justified by the brilliant harvest of discoveries which it enabled him to reap4 ,as is well known1 ,faraday never took out any patents for his discoveries2 indeed1 whenever in his investigations he seemed to come near to the point where they began to possess a marketable value from their application to the industries1 he left them1 to pursue his pioneering inquiries in other branches4 ,he sought1 indeed1 for principles rather than for processes1 for facts new to science rather than for merchantable inventions4 ,when he had made the discovery of magneto-electric induction--the basis of all modern electric engineering--he carried the research to the point of constructing several experimental machines1 and then abruptly turned away with these memorable words3-- ,i have rather1 however1 been desirous of discovering new facts and new relations dependent on magneto-electric induction than of exalting the force of those already obtained2 being assured that the latter would find their full development hereafter4 ,sidenote3 ,,practical ,,utilities4 ,several times was ,faraday known1 when asked about the possible utility of some new scientific discovery1 to quote ,franklin's rejoinder3 8,what is the use of a baby80 ,it is narrated of him that on one occasion1 at a ,trinity ,house dinner1 he and the ,duke of ,wellington had a little friendly chat1 in the course of which the ,duke advised ,faraday to give his speculations 8a practical turn as far as possible0--8a suggestion10 said ,faraday1 who always spoke of the veteran with pleasure1 8full of weight1 coming from such a man40 ,faraday was1 however1 the last to despise the importance of industrial applications of science4 ,in his unpublished manuscripts at the ,royal ,institution there are some curious references to trials which he made of a meat-canning process1 invented about #ahdh by a ,mr4 ,goldner1 of ,finsbury4 ,he also had fancies for other domestic applications1 including wine-making4 ,he used himself to bind his own note-books4 ,to a ,mr4 ,woolnough1 who had written a book on the marbling of paper1 he wrote a letter saying how much interest he felt in the subject1 8because of its associations with my early occupation of bookbinding2 and also because of the very beautiful principles of natural philosophy which it involves40 ,he even1 on one occasion1 produced a home-made pair of boots4 ,his devotion to the practical applications of science is attested by his untiring work for improving the lighthouses of our coast4 ,it is believed that his death was accelerated by a severe cold caught when on a visit of lighthouse inspection during stormy weather4 ,faraday was never ashamed of the circumstance of his having risen from a humble origin4 ,in his letters he not unfrequently alludes to things that remind him of his bookbinding experiences1 or of boyish episodes in his father's smithy4 ,yet he had none of the vulgar pride of ascent which too often dogs the path of the self-made man4 ,severe self-discipline and genuine humility prevented either undue proclamation or awkward reticence respecting his early life4 ,his elder brother ,robert was a gasfitter4 ,faraday was not ashamed to help him to secure work in his trade1 nor to give him the benefit of his scientific aid in perfecting appliances for ventilating by gas-burners4 ,the following characteristic story was told by ,frank ,barnard3-- ,robert was throughout life a warm friend and admirer of his younger brother1 and not a whit envious at seeing himself passed in the social scale by him4 ,one day he was sitting in the ,royal ,institution just previous to a lecture by the young and rising philosopher1 when he heard a couple of gentlemen behind him descanting on the natural gifts and rapid rise of the lecturer4 ,the brother--perhaps not fully apprehending the purport of their talk--listened with growing indignation while one of them dilated on the lowness of ,faraday's origin4 8,why10 said the speaker1 8,i believe he was a mere shoeblack at one time40 ,robert could endure this no longer2 but turning sharply round he demanded3 8,pray1 sir1 did he ever black your shoes80 8,oh6 dear no1 certainly not10 replied the gentleman1 much abashed at the sudden inquisition into the facts of the case4 ,sidenote3 ,,spirit ,,mediums ,,exposed4 ,in #ahec ,faraday came before the public in a novel manner--as the exposer of the then rampant charlatanry of table-turning and spirit-rapping4 ,the ,athenum for ,july #bnd contains a long letter from him on table-turning4 ,he experimentally investigated the alleged phenomena as produced by three skilful mediums in sances at the house of a friend4 ,his mechanical skill was more than a match1 however1 for that of the supposed spirits4 ,when the observers assembled around the table placed their hands in the orthodox way upon the table-top1 the table turned1 apparently without any effort on the part of any one of the party4 ,this was eminently satisfactory for the spirits4 ,but when ,faraday interposed between each hand and the table-top a simple roller-mechanism which1 if any individual in the circle applied muscular forces tending to turn it1 instantly indicated the fact1 the table remained immovable4 ,faraday wrote merely describing the facts1 and saying that the test apparatus was now on public view at #abb1 ,regent ,street4 ,he ends thus3-- ,i must bring this long description to a close4 ,i am a little ashamed of it1 for ,i think1 in the present age1 and in this part of the world1 it ought not to have been required4 ,nevertheless1 ,i hope it may be useful4 ,there are many whom ,i do not expect to convince2 but ,i may be allowed to say that ,i cannot undertake to answer such objections as may be made4 ,i state my own convictions as an experimental philosopher1 and find it no more necessary to enter into controversy on this point than on any other in science1 as the nature of matter1 or inertia1 or the magnetisation of light1 on which ,i may differ from others4 ,the world will decide sooner or later in all such cases1 and ,i have no doubt very soon and correctly in the present instance4 ,this exposure excited great interest at the time1 and there was an active correspondence in ,the ,times4 ,the spiritualists1 instead of appreciating the services to truth rendered by the man of science1 railed bitterly at him4 ,even the refined and noble spirit of ,mrs4 ,browning was so dominated by the superstition of the moment that1 as shown by her recently published letters1 she denounced ,faraday in singularly acrimonious terms1 and taunted him for shallow materialism6 ,what ,faraday thought of the hubbub evoked by his action is best learned from a letter which he addressed three weeks later to his friend ,schnbein3-- ,i have not been at work except in turning the tables upon the table-turners1 nor should ,i have done that1 but that so many inquiries poured in upon me1 that ,i thought it better to stop the inpouring flood by letting all know at once what my views and thoughts were4 ,what a weak1 credulous1 incredulous1 unbelieving1 superstitious1 bold1 frightened1 what a ridiculous world ours is1 as far as concerns the mind of man4 ,how full of inconsistencies1 contradictions1 and absurdities it is4 ,i declare that1 taking the average of many minds that have recently come before me 7and apart from that spirit which ,god has placed in each71 and accepting for a moment that average as a standard1 ,i should far prefer the obedience1 affections1 and instinct of a dog before it4 ,do not whisper this1 however1 to others4 ,there is ,one above who worketh in all things1 and who governs even in the midst of that misrule to which the tendencies and powers of men are so easily perverted4 ,he declined an invitation in #ahee to see manifestations by the medium ,home1 saying that he had 8lost too much time about such matters already40 ,nine years later the ,brothers ,davenport invited him to witness their cabinet 8manifestations40 ,again he declined1 and added3 8,i will leave the spirits to find out for themselves how they can move my attention4 ,i am tired of them40 ,in this year he wrote to ,the ,times respecting the disgraceful and insanitary condition of the river ,thames4 ,in ,punch of the following week appeared a cartoon representing ,faraday presenting his card to old ,father ,thames1 who rises holding his nose to avoid the stench4 ,sidenote3 ,,failure ,,of ,,memory4 ,with increasing age the infirmity of loss of memory made itself increasingly felt4 ,he alludes frequently to this in his letters4 ,to one friend who upbraided him gently for not having replied to a letter he says3 8,do you remember that ,i forget80 ,to another he says he is forgetting how to spell such words as 8withhold0 and 8successful40 ,to ,matteucci1 in #ahdi1 he bemoans how1 after working for six weeks at certain experiments1 he found1 on looking back to his notes1 he had ascertained all the same results eight or nine months before1 and had entirely forgotten them6 ,in the same year he wrote to ,dr4 ,percy3-- ,i cannot be on the ,committee2 ,i avoid everything of that kind1 that ,i may keep my stupid head a little clear4 ,as to being on a ,committee and not working1 that is worse still4 ,in #ahei1 in a letter to his niece1 ,mrs4 ,deacon1 filled mainly with religious thoughts1 he says3 8,my worldly faculties are slipping away day by day4 ,happy is it for all of us that the true good lies not in them40 ,from the journals of ,walter ,white comes the following anecdote under date ,december #bbnd1 #aheh3-- ,mr4 ,faraday called to enquire on the part of ,sir ,walter ,trevelyan whether a ,,ms4 of meteorological observations made in ,greenland would be acceptable4 ,the question answered1 ,i expressed my pleasure at seeing him looking so well1 and asked him if he were writing a paper for the ,royal4 ,he shook his head4 8,no3 ,i am too old40 8,too old8 ,why1 age brings wisdom40 8,yes1 but one may overshoot the wisdom40 8,you cannot mean that you have outlived your wisdom80 8,something like it1 for my memory is gone4 ,if ,i make an experiment1 ,i forget before twelve hours are over whether the result was positive or negative2 and how can ,i write a paper while that is the case8 ,no1 ,i must content myself with giving my lectures to children40 ,from another source we learn of a hitherto unrecorded incident which happened to ,mr4 ,joseph ,newton1 for some time an assistant in the ,royal ,mint4 ,while arranging some precious material on the ,royal ,institution theatre lecture-table1 previous to a lecture on the ,mint and minting operations by ,professor ,brande1 ,mr4 ,newton noticed an elderly1 spare1 and very plainly-dressed individual watching his movements4 ,imagining that this person was a superior messenger of the ,institution1 ,mr4 ,newton volunteered some information as to the coinage of gold4 8,i suppose10 said the ,mint employee1 8you have been some years at the ,royal ,institution80 8,well1 yes1 ,i have1 a good many10 responded the dilapidated one4 8,i hope they treat you pretty liberally--,i mean1 that they give you a respectable #8screw1' for that is the main point40 8,ah6 ,i agree with you there4 ,i think that the labourer is worthy of his hire1 and ,i shouldn't mind being paid a little better40 ,mr4 ,newton's surprise1 on returning to the ,royal ,institution in the evening1 to find that the man whom he had so recently patronised was none other than the illustrious but modest ,michael ,faraday can better be imagined than described4 ,a pretty instance1 given on the authority of ,lady ,pollock1 may be recorded of the feeling aroused by ,faraday's presence when he returned to his accustomed seat in the lecture-room of the ,royal ,institution1 after a protracted absence occasioned by illness3-- ,as soon as his presence was recognised1 the whole audience rose simultaneously and burst into a spontaneous utterance of welcome1 loud and long4 ,faraday stood in acknowledgment of this enthusiastic greeting1 with his fine head slightly bent2 and then a certain resemblance to the pictures and busts of ,lord ,nelson1 which was always observable in his countenance1 was very apparent4 ,his hair had grown white and long1 his face had lengthened1 and the agility of his movement was gone4 ,the eyes no longer flashed with the fire of the soul1 but they still radiated kindly thought2 and ineffaceable lines of intellectual force and energy were stamped upon his face4 ,sidenote3 ,,honours ,,offered ,,and ,,declined4 ,in #aheg he was offered the ,presidency of the ,royal ,society4 ,a painting preserved in the rooms of the ,royal ,society records the scene when ,lord ,wrottesley1 ,grove1 and ,gassiot waited upon him as a deputation from the ,council1 to press on him his acceptance of the highest place which science has to offer4 ,he hesitated and finally declined1 even as he had declined the suggestion of knighthood years before4 8,tyndall10 he said in private to his successor1 8,i must remain plain ,michael ,faraday to the last2 and let me now tell you1 that if ,i accepted the honour which the ,royal ,society desires to confer upon me1 ,i could not answer for the integrity of my intellect for a single year40 ,he also declined the ,presidency of the ,royal ,institution1 which he had served for fifty years4 ,his one desire was for rest4 8,the reverent affection of his friends was10 said ,tyndall1 8to him infinitely more precious than all the honours of official life40 ,allusion has been made to ,faraday's tender and chivalrous regard for his wife4 ,extracts from two letters1 written in #ahdi and #ahfc respectively1 must here suffice to complete the story3-- ,birmingham1 ,dr4 ,percy's3 ,thursday evening1 ,september #ac1 #ahdi4 ,,my ,,dearest ,,wife1--,i have just left ,dr4 ,percy's hospitable table to write to you1 my beloved1 telling you how ,i have been getting on4 ,i am very well1 excepting a little faceache2 and very kindly treated here4 ,they all long most earnestly for your presence1 for both ,mrs4 and ,dr4 ,percy are anxious you should come2 and this ,i know1 that the things we have seen would delight you1 but then ,i doubt your powers of running about as we do2 and though ,i know that if time were given you could enjoy them1 yet to press the matter into a day or two would be a failure4 ,besides this1 after all1 there is no pleasure like the tranquil pleasures of home1 and here--even here--the moment ,i leave the table1 ,i wish ,i were with you ,,in ,,quiet4 ,oh6 what happiness is ours6 ,my runs into the world in this way only serve to make me esteem that happiness the more4 ,i mean to be at home on ,saturday night1 but it may be late first1 so do not be surprised at that2 for if ,i can1 ,i should like to go on an excursion to the ,dudley caverns1 and that would take the day4444 ,write to me1 dearest4 ,i shall get your letter on ,saturday morning1 or perhaps before4 ,love to father1 ,margery1 and ,jenny1 and a thousand loves to yourself1 dearest1 ,from your affectionate husband1 ,m4 ,,faraday4 99 99 99 99 99 #e1 ,claremont ,gardens1 ,glasgow3 ,monday1 ,august #ad1 #ahfc4 ,,dearest1--,here is the fortnight complete since ,i left you and the thoughts of my return to our home crowd in strongly upon my mind4 ,not that we are in any way uncared for1 or left by our dear friends1 save as ,i may desire for our own retirement4 ,everybody has overflowed with kindness1 but you know their manner1 and their desire1 by your own experience with me4 ,i long to see you1 dearest1 and to talk over things together1 and call to mind all the kindness ,i have received4 ,my head is full1 and my heart also1 but my recollection rapidly fails1 even as regards the friends that are in the room with me4 ,you will have to resume your old function of being a pillow to my mind1 and a rest1 a happy-making wife4 ,my love to my dear ,mary4 ,i expect to find you together1 but do not assume to know how things may be4 ,jeannie's love with mine1 and also ,charlotte's1 and a great many others which ,i cannot call to mind4 ,dearest1 ,i long to see and be with you1 whether together or separate4 ,your husband1 very affectionate1 ,m4 ,,faraday ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,wife ,,and ,,the ,,queen4 ,in #aheh the ,queen1 at the suggestion of ,prince ,albert1 who much esteemed and valued ,faraday's genius1 placed at his disposal for life a comfortable house on the green near ,hampton ,court4 ,faraday's only hesitation in accepting the offer was a doubt whether he could afford the needful repairs4 ,on a hint of this reaching the ,queen1 she at once directed that it should be put into thorough repair inside and out4 ,he still kept his rooms at the ,royal ,institution1 and continued to live there occasionally4 ,with the increasing infirmities of age1 his anxieties for his wife seemed to be the only trouble that marred the serenity of his thought4 ,lady ,pollock's narrative gives the following particulars3-- ,sometimes he was depressed by the idea of his wife left without kin--of the partner of his hopes and cares deprived of him4 ,she had been the first love of his ardent soul2 she was the last2 she had been the brightest dream of his youth1 and she was the dearest comfort of his age2 he never ceased for an instant to feel himself happy with her2 and he never for one hour ceased to care for her happiness4 ,it was no wonder1 then1 that he felt anxiety about her4 ,but he would rally from such a trouble with his great religious trust1 and looking at her with moist eyes1 he would say1 8,i must not be afraid2 you will be cared for1 my wife2 you will be cared for40 ,there are some who remember how tenderly he used to lead her to her seat at the ,royal ,institution when she was suffering from lameness2 how carefully he used to support her2 how watchfully he used to attend all her steps4 ,it did the heart good to see his devotion1 and to think what the man was and what he had been4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,,faraday',s ,,home ,,at ,,hampton ,,court4 ,sidenote3 ,,close ,,of ,,scientific ,,career4 ,gradually his powers waned4 ,he gave his last juvenile lectures at ,christmas1 #ahfj2 and in ,october1 #ahfa1 being now seventy years of age1 he resigned his ,professorship1 while retaining the superintendence of the laboratory4 8,nothing10 he wrote to the managers1 8would make me happier in the things of this life than to make some scientific discovery or development1 and by that to justify the ,board in their desire to retain me in my position here40 ,his last research in the laboratory was made on ,march #ab1 #ahfb4 ,on ,june #bjth he gave his last ,friday night discourse--on ,siemens's gas furnaces4 ,he had1 as his notes show1 already made up his mind to announce his retirement1 and the lecture was a sad and touching occasion1 for the failure of his powers was painfully evident4 ,he continued for two years longer1 and with surprising activity1 to work for ,trinity ,house on the subject of lighthouse illumination by the electric light4 ,in #ahfe he resigned these duties to ,dr4 ,tyndall4 ,in #ahfd he resigned his eldership in the ,sandemanian church4 ,in ,march1 #ahfe1 he resigned the position of superintendent of the house and laboratories of the ,royal ,institution4 ,he continued to attend the ,friday evening meetings2 but his tottering condition of frame and mind was apparent to all4 ,all through the winter of #ahfe and #ahff he became very feeble4 ,yet he took an interest in ,mr4 ,wilde's description of his new magneto-electric machine4 ,almost the last pleasure he showed on any scientific matter was when viewing the long spark of a ,holtz's influence machine4 ,he still enjoyed looking at sunsets and storms4 ,all through the summer and autumn of #ahff and the spring of #ahfg his physical powers waned4 ,he was faithfully and lovingly tended by his wife and his devoted niece1 ,jane ,barnard4 ,he was scarcely able to move1 but his mind 8overflowed0 with the consciousness of the affectionate regard of those around him4 ,he gradually sank into torpor1 saying nothing and taking little notice of anything4 ,sitting in his chair in his study1 he died peacefully and painlessly on the #bfth of ,august1 #ahfg4 ,on the #cjth of ,august he was quietly buried in ,highgate ,cemetery1 his remains being committed to the earth1 in accordance with the custom of the religious body to which he belonged1 in perfect silence4 ,none but personal friends were present1 the funeral being by his own verbal and written wishes strictly simple and private4 ,a simple unadorned tombstone marks the last resting-place of ,michael ,faraday4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,views ,,on ,,the ,,pursuit ,,of ,,science ,,and ,,on ,,education4 ,between ,faraday and the scientific men of his time there subsisted many various relations4 ,the influence which he exerted as a lecturer and as an experimental investigator was unique2 but1 apart from such influences1 those relations were mainly confined to individual friendships4 ,with the organisation of science he had relatively very little to do4 ,we have seen how highly he prized the honour of admission to the ,fellowship of the ,royal ,society2 and it remains to be told of the gratification with which he accepted the scientific honours which he received from almost every academy and university in ,europe4 ,yet he took little part in the work of scientific societies as such4 ,four years after his election as ,f4,r4,s4 he served on the ,council1 and he remained on till #ahca4 ,he served again in #ahcc and #ahce4 ,he was not1 however1 satisfied with the management of the ,royal ,society1 nor with the way in which its ,fellowship was at that time bestowed on men who had no real claims on science1 but were nominated through influence4 ,echoes of this discontent are to be found in various pamphlets of the day by ,moll1 ,babbage1 ,south1 and others4 ,faraday1 who edited ,moll's pamphlet on the 8,decline of ,science10 is believed to have had an even larger share in its production4 ,in #ahcj the really scientific men amongst the ,fellows desired to place ,sir ,john ,herschel as ,president2 the less scientific preferred the ,duke of ,sussex4 ,faraday took the unusual step of speaking on the question1 advocating the principle that eminence in science should be the sole qualification for the ,presidency4 ,at the same meeting ,herschel moved1 and ,faraday seconded1 a plan for reforming the ,council by nominating a list of fifty ,fellows from whose number the ,council should be chosen4 ,they carried their plan1 and ,faraday's name was amongst those so selected to serve4 ,but the presidential election went in favour of the ,duke of ,sussex by #aai to #aaj votes4 ,after #ahce ,faraday never served again on the ,council4 ,in #ahdc he wrote to ,matteucci3-- ,i think you are aware that ,i have not attended at the ,royal ,society1 either meetings or council1 for some years4 ,ill health is one reason1 and another that ,i do not like the present constitution of it1 and want to restrict it to scientific men4 ,as these my opinions are not acceptable1 ,i have withdrawn from any management in it 7still sending scientific communications if ,i discover anything ,i think worthy74 ,this1 of course1 deprives me of power there4 ,sidenote3 ,,reform ,,in ,,the ,,royal ,,society4 ,two months earlier he wrote to ,grove1 who at that time was carrying out the long-needed reforms1 sympathising1 but declining to co-operate3-- ,royal ,institution1 ,december #ba1 #ahdb4 ,,my ,,dear ,,grove1--444 ,as to the ,royal ,society1 you know my feeling towards it is for what it has been1 and ,i hope may be4 ,its present state is not wholesome4 ,you are aware that ,i am not on the council1 and have not been for years1 and have been to no meeting there for years2 but ,i do hope for better times4 ,i do not wonder at your feeling--all ,i meant to express was a wish that its circumstances and character should improve1 and that it should again become a desirable reunion of all really scientific men4 ,it has done much1 is now doing much1 in some parts of science1 as its magnetic observations show1 and ,i hope will some day become altogether healthy4 ,ever1 my dear ,grove1 yours sincerely1 ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,though he continued down to #ahfj to send researches for publication to the ,royal ,society1 he seldom attended its meetings4#ef ,he was not even present in ,november1 #ahde1 on the occasion of the reading of his paper on the action of the magnet on light4 ,in #aheg he declined the ,presidency1 though urged by the unanimous wish of the ,council1 as narrated on p4 #bbe4 ,though in the meridian of his active life1 he took no part in the founding of the ,british ,association in #ahca1 but was at the ,oxford meeting in #ahcb1 being one of the four scientific men 7p4 #fe7 selected to receive the honorary degree of ,d4,c4,l4 on that occasion4 ,he also communicated a paper on ,electro-chemical ,decomposition to the ,b4,a4 meeting at ,cambridge in #ahcc4 ,he acted as president of the ,chemical ,section of the ,association in #ahcg at ,liverpool1 and in #ahdf at ,southampton2 and he was chosen as vice-president of the ,association itself in the years #ahdd1 at ,york 7p4 #bbd72 #ahdi1 at ,birmingham 7p4 #bef72 and #ahec1 at ,hull4 ,he delivered evening discourses in #ahdg1 at ,oxford1 on ,magnetic and ,diamagnetic ,phenomena2 and in #ahdi1 at ,birmingham1 on ,mr4 ,gassiot's ,battery4 ,he also contributed to the proceedings at the meetings at ,ipswich in #ahea and at ,liverpool in #ahed4 ,his comparative aloofness from scientific organisations arose probably from the exceedingly individual nature of his own researches--to which allusion was made on p4 #bdb--rather than from any lack of sympathy4 ,he had no jealousy of co-operation in science4 ,to ,tyndall1 then at ,marburg1 he wrote in #ahej rejoicing at the circumstance that the work on the magnetic properties of crystals was being taken up by others4 8,it is wonderful10 he says1 8how much good results from different persons working at the same matter4 ,each one gives views and ideas new to the rest4 ,when science is a republic1 then it gains2 and though ,i am no republican in other matters1 ,i am in that40 ,other causes there were1 doubtless1 tending to his isolation1 amongst them an old jealousy1 now long dead1 against the ,royal ,institution on the part of some of the ,fellows of the ,royal ,society4 ,above all1 probably1 was his detestation of controversy4 ,sidenote3 ,,priority ,,in ,,scientific ,,discovery4 ,sidenote3 ,,priority ,,in ,,publication4 ,priority in scientific discovery was a matter which deeply concerned one whose life was devoted to scientific pioneering4 ,to any question as to scientific priority between himself and other workers he was keenly sensitive4 ,this was1 indeed1 natural in one who had voluntarily relinquished fortune1 and retired from lucrative professional work1 in the sole and single aim of advancing natural knowledge4 ,his single-minded and sensitive nature made him particularly scrupulous in all such matters1 and his early experiences must have added to the almost excessive keenness of his perceptions4 ,having had in #ahbc1 when still merely assistant to ,davy1 to bear the double burden of a serious misunderstanding with ,dr4 ,wollaston as to the originality of his discovery of the electro-magnetic rotations1 and of a serious estrangement from his master arising out of the liquid chlorine discovery--an estrangement which threatened to cause his election to the ,royal ,society to be indefinitely postponed--he was in later life especially precise in dating and publishing his own researches4 ,in #ahca there arose1 concerning his great discovery of magneto-electric induction1 a curious misunderstanding4 ,his discovery was1 as we have seen1 made in ,september and ,october4 ,he collected his results and arranged them in the splendid memoir--the first in the series of 8,experimental ,researches in ,electricity0--which was read at the ,royal ,society on ,november #bdth4 ,the rsum of his work1 which he wrote five days later to ,phillips1 is given on pages #aad-aag4 ,a fortnight later he wrote a shorter and hasty letter in the same way to his friend1 ,m4 ,hachette of ,paris--a letter which ,faraday subsequently well termed 8unfortunate10 in view of the consequences that followed4 ,m4 ,hachette1 a week later1 communicated ,faraday's letter to the ,acadmie des ,sciences on ,december #bfth4 ,it was published in ,le ,temps of ,december #bhth4 ,at that date the complete memoir read to the ,royal ,society was not yet printed or circulated4 ,the consequence was that two ,italian physicists1 ,,mm4 ,nobili and ,antinori1 seeing the brief letter1 and 8considering that the subject was given to the philosophical world for general pursuit10 immediately began researches on magneto-electric induction in ignorance of ,faraday's full work4 ,their results they embodied in a paper1 in which they claimed to have 8verified1 extended1 and1 perhaps1 rectified the results of the ,english philosopher10 accusing him of errors both in experiment and theory1 and even of a breach of good faith as to what he had said about ,arago's rotations4 ,this paper they dated ,january #cast1 #ahcb2 but it was published in the belated number of the ,antologia for ,november1 #ahca1 where its appearance at an apparently earlier date than ,faraday's original paper in the ,philosophical ,transactions made many ,continental readers suppose that the researches of ,nobili and ,antinori preceded those of ,faraday4 ,in ,june1 #ahcb1 ,faraday published in the ,philosophical ,magazine a translation of ,nobili's memoir1 with his own annotations2 and later in the year he wrote to ,gay ,lussac a long letter on the errors of ,nobili and ,antinori4 ,he showed how1 in spite of his efforts to clear up the misunderstanding1 in spite of his having sent several months previously to ,,mm4 ,nobili and ,antinori copies of his original papers1 no correction or retractation had been made by them2 and he concluded by a dignified protest that none might say he had been too hasty to write that which might have been avoided4 ,it may be taken that the rule now recognised as to priority of scientific publication--namely1 that it dates from the day when the discoverer communicates it formally to any of the recognised learned societies--was virtually established by ,faraday's example4 ,it will be remembered that writing to ,de la ,rive in #ahde1 to tell him of his diamagnetic discoveries1 he begged him to keep the matter secret1 adding3 8,i ought 7in order to preserve the respect due to the ,royal ,society7 not to write a description to any one until the paper has been received or even read there40 ,to younger men he inculcated the necessity of proper and prompt publication of their researches if they would reap the benefit of their work4 ,to ,sir ,william ,crookes1 then a rising young chemist1 he said3 8,work1 ,finish1 ,publish40 ,writing in #ahec to ,professor ,matteucci1 who had been annoyed with him for allowing ,du ,bois ,reymond1 with whom ,matteucci had had some controversy about priority1 to dedicate his book to him1 ,faraday says3 8,who has not to put up in his day with insinuations and misrepresentations in the accounts of his proceedings given by others1 bearing for the time the present injustice1 which is often unintentional1 and often originates in hasty temper1 and committing his fame and character to the judgment of the men of his own and future time80444 8,i see that that moves you which would move me most--namely1 the imputation of a want of good faith--and ,i cordially sympathise with any one who is so charged unjustly4 ,such cases have seemed to me almost the only ones for which it is worth while entering into controversy40444 8,these polemics of the scientific world are very unfortunate things2 they form the great stain to which the beautiful edifice of scientific truth is subject4 ,are they inevitable80 ,controversy whether in religion or science was to him alike detestable4 ,he took no part in politics4 ,a letter to ,tyndall 7see 8,faraday as a ,discoverer10 p4 #ci71 written after the latter had told him of a rather heated discussion at the ,british ,association meeting in #ahee1 speaks of his own efforts at forbearance4 ,he says3-- ,these great meetings1 of which ,i think very well altogether1 advance science chiefly by bringing scientific men together and making them to know and be friends with each other2 and ,i am sorry when that is not the effect in every part of their course4444 ,the real truth never fails ultimately to appear4444 ,it is better to be blind to the results of partisanship1 and quick to see good will4 ,one has more happiness in oneself in endeavouring to follow the things that make for peace4 ,you can hardly imagine how often ,i have been heated in private when opposed1 as ,i have thought unjustly and superciliously1 and yet ,i have striven1 and succeeded ,i hope1 in keeping down replies of the like kind4 ,and ,i know ,i have never lost by it4 ,sidenote3 ,,hatred ,,of ,,controversy4 ,during the years when he was examining the apparatus of rival inventors for lighthouse illumination1 he could calmly hear them described as ,mr4 ,so-and-,so's electric lights1 all the while knowing that it was his own discovery of magneto-electric induction which had made the mechanical production of electric light possible4 ,yet he fired up if anyone dared to revive the priority dispute between ,davy and ,stephenson as to the invention of the safety lamp4 8,disgraceful subject10 was his own comment4 ,in his dispute with ,snow ,harris as to the design of lightning rods1 in which1 as it is now known1 ,snow ,harris was right2 in his dispute with ,airy over the curved lines of force2 in his minor difficulties over ,hare's pile and ,becquerel's magnetic observations1 none could either assert his own position with more simple dignity1 nor admit with greater frankness the rights of his rival4 ,to ,hare he wrote3-- ,you must excuse me1 however1 for several reasons from answering it ,hare's letter at any length2 the first is my distaste for controversy1 which is so great that ,i would on no account our correspondence should acquire that character4 ,i have often seen it do great harm1 and yet remember few cases in natural knowledge where it has helped much either to pull down error or advance truth4 ,criticism1 on the other hand1 is of much value4 ,when we reflect how large a part of his experimental researches was devoted to establishing the relations between the various forces of nature1 we cannot but think that ,faraday must have regarded with somewhat mixed feelings the publication in #ahdf of ,sir ,william ,grove's volume on the ,correlation of ,forces4 ,he had1 in ,june1 #ahcd1 given a course of lectures on the mutual relation of chemical and electrical phenomena1 and had dealt therein with the conversion of chemical and electrical power into heat1 and had speculated on the inclusion of gravitation in these mutual relations4 ,in #ahec ,faraday marked the old lecture notes of these lectures with his initials1 and endorsed them with the words 8,correlation of ,physical ,forces40 ,probably none rejoiced more than he that ,grove had undertaken the work of popularising the notion which for a score of years had been familiar to himself4 ,yet he was keen to resent an unjust reflection1 as is shown by his letter to ,richard ,phillips1 republished in ,vol4 ,,ii4 of the 8,experimental ,researches10 p4 #bbi1 respecting ,dr4 ,john ,davy's ,life of ,sir ,humphry4 ,faraday has himself left on record 7p4 #aj7 that when he wrote to ,davy asking to be taken into his employment1 his motive was his desire 8to escape from trade1 which ,i thought vicious and selfish1 and to enter into the service of ,science1 which1 ,i imagined1 made its pursuers amiable and liberal40 ,davy had smiled at this boyish notion1 and had told him that the experience of a few years would correct his ideas4 ,years afterwards he spoke of this matter to ,mrs4 ,andrew ,crosse in an interview which she has recorded3-- ,after viewing the ample appliances for experimental research1 and feeling much impressed by the scientific atmosphere of the place1 ,i turned and said1 8,mr4 ,faraday1 you must be very happy in your position and with your pursuits1 which elevate you entirely out of the meaner aspects and lower aims of common life40 ,he shook his head1 and with that wonderful mobility of countenance which was characteristic1 his expression of joyousness changed to one of profound sadness1 and he replied3 8,when ,i quitted business and took to science as a career1 ,i thought ,i had left behind me all the petty meannesses and small jealousies which hinder man in his moral progress2 but ,i found myself raised into another sphere1 only to find poor human nature just the same everywhere--subject to the same weaknesses and the same self-seeking1 however exalted the intellect40 ,these were his words as well as ,i can recollect2 and1 looking at that good and great man1 ,i thought ,i had never seen a countenance which so impressed me with the characteristic of perfect unworldliness4 ,sidenote3 ,,honours ,,and ,,titles4 ,probably few men have ever been recipients of so many scientific honours as ,faraday4 ,beginning in the year #ahbc with his election as a corresponding member of the ,acadmie des ,sciences of ,paris1 and as an honorary member of the ,cambridge ,philosophical ,society1 the list of his diplomas and distinctions--some ninety-seven in number--ended in #ahfd with his election as ,associate of the ,royal ,academy of ,sciences of ,naples4 ,it included honours from almost every academy and university of ,europe4 ,these honours ,faraday valued very highly2 and whilst he consigned his various gold medals to a mere wooden box1 his diplomas were kept with the utmost care in a special diploma book1 in which they were mounted and indexed4 ,to ,mr4 ,spring ,rice1 who in #ahch asked him for a list of his titles1 he replied1 enclosing the list1 and adding this remark3 8,one title1 namely that of ,f4,r4,s41 was sought and paid for2 all the rest are spontaneous offerings of kindness and goodwill from the bodies named40 ,years afterwards he was asked by ,lord ,wrottesley to advise the ,government as to how the position of science or of the cultivators of science in ,england might be improved4 ,the letter is so characteristic that it cannot be spared3-- ,royal ,institution3 ,march #aj1 #ahed4 ,,my ,,lord1--,i feel unfit to give a deliberate opinion on the course it might be advisable for the ,government to pursue if it were anxious to improve the position of science and its cultivators in our country4 ,my course of life1 and the circumstances which make it a happy one for me1 are not those of persons who conform to the usages and habits of society4 ,through the kindness of all1 from my ,sovereign downwards1 ,i have that which supplies all my need2 and in respect of honours1 ,i have1 as a scientific man1 received from foreign countries and sovereigns those which1 belonging to very limited and select classes1 surpass in my opinion anything that it is in the power of my own to bestow4 ,i cannot say that ,i have not valued such distinctions2 on the contrary1 ,i esteem them very highly1 but ,i do not think ,i have ever worked for or sought after them4 ,even were such to be now created here1 the time is past when these would possess any attraction for me4444 ,without thinking of the effect it might have upon distinguished men of science1 or upon the minds of those who1 stimulated to exertion1 might become distinguished1 ,i do think that a government should1 for its own sake1 honour the men who do honour and service to the country4 ,i refer now to honours only1 not to beneficial rewards4 ,of such honours1 ,i think1 there are none4 ,knighthoods and baronetcies are sometimes conferred with such intentions1 but ,i think them utterly unfit for that purpose4 ,instead of conferring distinction1 they confound the man who is one of twenty1 or perhaps fifty1 with hundreds of others4 ,they depress rather than exalt him1 for they tend to lower the especial distinction of mind to the commonplace of society4 ,an intelligent country ought to recognise the scientific men amongst its people as a class4 ,if honours are conferred upon eminence in any class1 as that of the law or the army1 they should be in this also4 ,the aristocracy of the class should have other distinctions than those of lowly and high-born1 rich and poor1 yet they should be such as to be worthy of those whom the sovereign and the country should delight to honour2 and1 being rendered very desirable1 and even enviable1 in the eyes of the aristocracy by birth1 should be unattainable except to that of science4 ,thus much1 ,i think1 the ,government and the country ought to do1 for their own sake and the good of science1 more than for the sake of the men who might be thought worthy of such distinction4 ,the latter have attained to their fit place1 whether the community at large recognise it or not4444 ,i have the honour to be1 my lord1 your very faithful servant1 ,m4 ,,faraday4 ,sidenote3 ,,how ,,science ,,can ,,be ,,honoured4 ,to ,professor ,andrews he wrote in #ahdc in a similar strain3-- ,i have always felt that there is something degrading in offering rewards for intellectual exertion1 and that societies or academies1 or even kings and emperors1 should mingle in the matter does not remove the degradation1 for the feeling which is hurt is a point above their condition1 and belongs to the respect which a man owes to himself4444 ,still1 ,i think rewards and honours good if properly distributed2 but they should be given for what a man has done1 and not offered for what he is to do4 ,when a friend wrote to him on hearing a rumour that he had himself been knighted1 his reply1 published years after in the ,london ,review1 was3 8,i am happy that ,i am not a ,sir1 and do not intend 7if it depends upon me7 to become one4 ,by the ,prussian knighthood#eg ,i do feel honoured2 in the other ,i should not40 ,on one occasion he commented rather sarcastically upon the ,british ,government and its stinginess as compared with those of all other civilised countries in its aids to scientific progress4 ,this complaint is equally justified to-day4 ,to many it may be news that ,england pays to its ,astronomer ,royal--who must obviously be a person of very high scientific qualifications--a salary less than those paid to the five assistant under-secretaries in the ,colonial and ,foreign ,offices2 less than that paid to the sergeants-at-arms in the ,houses of ,parliament2 less than that paid to the person appointed ,director of ,clothing in the ,war ,office4 ,enlightened ,england6 ,faraday did not deem the pursuit of science to be necessarily incompatible with what he termed 8professional business0--that is1 expert work4 ,until the day when he abandoned all professional engagements1 so as to devote himself to researches1 he had been receiving a considerable and growing income from this source4 ,but he objected to the indignities to which this work exposed him from lawyers1 who would not understand that he took no partisan view4 ,he could not endure the browbeating of cross-examining counsel4 ,the late ,lord ,cardwell was witness to a gentle but crushing reproof which he once administered to a barrister who attempted to bully him4 ,a writer in the ,british ,quarterly ,review attributes to a specific case his determination to cease expert work4 ,he gave evidence once in a judicial case1 when the scientific testimony1 starting from given premises1 was so diverse that the presiding judge1 in summing up launched something like a reproach at the scientific witnesses4 8,science has not shone this day10 was his lordship's remark4 ,from that time forth no one ever saw ,faraday as a scientific witness before a law tribunal4 ,sidenote3 ,,university ,,degrees ,,in ,,science4 ,amongst the honours received by ,faraday there was one of which1 in #ahch1 he said that he felt it equal to any other he had received--namely1 that of ,member of the ,senate of the ,university of ,london1 to which position he was nominated in #ahcf by the ,crown4 ,for twenty-seven years he remained a senator1 and when1 in #ahei1 the project for creating degrees in science was on foot1 he was one of the committee who drew up a report and scheme of examination for the ,senate4 ,to the ,rev4 ,john ,barlow he wrote on this matter3-- ,the ,senate of the ,university accepted and approved of the report of the ,committee for ,scientific ,degrees1 so that that will go forward 7if the ,government approve71 and will come into work next year4 ,it seems to give much satisfaction to all who have seen it1 though the subject is beset with difficulties2 for when the depth and breadth of science came to be considered1 and an estimate was made of how much a man ought to know to obtain a right to a degree in it1 the amount in words seemed to be so enormous as to make me hesitate in demanding it from the student2 and though in the ,d4,s4 one could divide the matter and claim eminence in one branch of science1 rather than good general knowledge in all1 still in the ,b4,s41 which is a progressive degree1 a more extended though a more superficial acquaintance seemed to be required4 ,in fact1 the matter is so new1 and there is so little that can serve as a previous experience in the founding and arranging these degrees1 that one must leave the whole endeavour to shape itself as the practice and experience accumulates4 ,when1 in #ahfc1 his feebleness impelled him to resign this position1 he wrote to ,dr4 ,carpenter3-- ,the position of a senator is one that should not be held by an inactive man to the exclusion of an active one4 ,it has rejoiced my heart to see the progress of the ,university1 and of education under its influence and power2 and that delight ,i hope to have so long as life shall be spared to me4 ,he had little sympathy with either text-book science or with mere examinations4 8,i have far more confidence10 he wrote1 8in the one man who works mentally and bodily at a matter than in the six who merely talk about it4 ,nothing is so good as an experiment which1 whilst it sets error right1 gives an absolute advancement in knowledge40 ,in another place he wrote3--8,let the imagination go1 guarding it by judgment and principles1 but holding it in and directing it by experiment40 ,for book-learned chemistry and mere chemical theory1 apart from experimental facts1 he had an undisguised contempt4 ,writing to ,general ,portlock on the subject of chemical education1 he stated that he had been one of the ,senate of the ,university of ,london appointed to consider especially the best method of examination4 ,they had decided on examination by papers1 accompanied by viv voce4 8,we think10 he added1 8that no numerical value can be attached to the questions1 because everything depends on how they are answered40 ,then1 referring to the teaching at ,woolwich1 he says1 8,my instructions always have been to look to the note-books for the result40 8,lectures alone cannot be expected to give more than a general idea of this most extensive branch of science1 and it would be too much to expect that young men who at the utmost hear only fifty lectures on chemistry should be able to answer with much effect1 in writing1 to questions set down on paper1 when we know by experience that daily work for eight hours in practical laboratories for three months does not go very far to confer such ability40 ,sidenote3 ,,science ,,and ,,the ,,universities4 ,he had1 at an earlier date1 declined to be appointed as examiner in the ,university4 ,he had previously declined the professorship of chemistry in ,university ,college2 and he had also declined the chemical chair in the ,university of ,edinburgh4 ,this was not1 however1 from any want of sympathy with university work1 or failure to appreciate the ideal of a university as a seat of learning4 ,writing to ,tyndall1 in #ahea1 about another university--that at ,toronto--he said3 8,i trust it is a place where a man of science and a true philosopher is required1 and where1 in return1 such a man would be nourished and cherished in proportion to his desire to advance natural knowledge40 ,at the same time he had an exceeding repugnance to the custom of expecting candidates for professorial chairs to produce 8testimonials0 of their qualifications4 ,when his intimate friend ,richard ,phillips was a candidate for the very chair which ,faraday refused at ,university ,college1 ,faraday declined on principle to give a testimonial4 8,i should indeed have thought10 he added1 8his character had been known to be such that it would rather have been degraded than established by certificates40 ,similarly1 in #ahea1 he told ,tyndall1 then an applicant for the ,chair of ,physics at ,toronto1 that he had in every case refused for many years past to give any on the application of candidates4 8,nevertheless10 he added1 8,i wish to say that when ,i am asked about a candidate by those who have the choice or appointment1 ,i never refuse to answer40 ,sidenote3 ,,science ,,in ,,education4 ,on general education1 ,faraday's ideas were much in advance of his time4 ,from the epoch when as a young man he lectured to the ,city ,philosophical ,society on the means of obtaining knowledge and on mental inertia1 down to the close of his career1 he consistently advocated the cultivation of the experimental method and the use of science as a means of training the faculties4 ,a concise account of his views is to be found in the lecture he gave in #ahed before the ,prince ,consort on 8,mental ,education10 a lecture which prescribes the self-educating discipline of scientific study and experiment as a means of correcting deficiency of judgment4 ,it included a powerful plea for suspense of judgment and for the cultivation of the faculty of proportionate judgment4 ,in #ahfb he was examined at some length by the ,royal ,commissioners upon ,public ,schools4 ,with them he pleaded strongly for the introduction of science into the school curricula2 and when asked at what age it might be serviceable to introduce science-teaching1 replied3 8,i think one can hardly tell that until after experience for some few years4 ,all ,i can say is this that at my juvenile lectures at ,christmas time ,i have never found a child too young to understand intelligently what ,i told him2 they came to me afterwards with questions which proved their capability40 ,one passage from the close of a lecture given in #aheh deserves to be recorded for its fine appreciation of 8the kind of education which science offers to man03-- ,it teaches us to be neglectful of nothing1 not to despise the small beginnings--they precede of necessity all great things4444 ,it teaches a continual comparison of the small and great1 and that under differences almost approaching the infinite1 for the small as often contains the great in principle as the great does the small2 and thus the mind becomes comprehensive4 ,it teaches to deduce principles carefully1 to hold them firmly1 or to suspend the judgment1 to discover and obey law1 and by it to be bold in applying to the greatest what we know of the smallest4 ,it teaches us1 first by tutors and books1 to learn that which is already known to others1 and then by the light and methods which belong to science to learn for ourselves and for others2 so making a fruitful return to man in the future for that which we have obtained from the men of the past4 ,bacon in his instruction tells us that the scientific student ought not to be as the ant1 who gathers merely1 nor as the spider who spins from her own bowels1 but rather as the bee who both gathers and produces4 ,all this is true of the teaching afforded by any part of physical science4 ,electricity is often called wonderful1 beautiful2 but it is so only in common with the other forces of nature4 ,the beauty of electricity or of any other force is not that the power is mysterious1 and unexpected1 touching every sense at unawares in turn1 but that it is under law1 and that the taught intellect can even now govern it largely4 ,the human mind is placed above1 and not beneath it1 and it is in such a point of view that the mental education afforded by science is rendered super-eminent in dignity1 in practical application and utility2 for by enabling the mind to apply the natural power through law1 it conveys the gifts of ,god to man4 ,sidenote3 ,,on ,,mathematics4 ,a peculiar interest attaches to ,faraday's attitude towards the study of mathematics4 ,he who had never had any schooling beyond the common school of his parish had not advanced beyond the simplest algebra in his mastery over symbolic reasoning4 ,several times in his 8,experimental ,researches0 he deplores what he termed 8my imperfect mathematical knowledge40 ,of ,poisson's theory of magnetism he said3 8,i am quite unfit to form a judgment40 ,dr4 ,scoffern repeats a pleasantry of ,faraday's having on a certain occasion boasted that he had once in the course of his life performed a mathematical operation--when he turned the handle of ,babbage's calculating machine4 ,certain it is that he went through the whole of his magnificent researches without once using even a sine or a cosine1 or anything more recondite than the simple rule-of-three4 ,he expressed the same kind of regret at his unfamiliarity with the ,german language--8the language of science and knowledge10 as he termed it in writing to ,du ,bois ,reymond--which prevented him from reading the works of ,professor 8,ohms40 ,nevertheless he valued the mathematical powers of others1 and counselled ,tyndall to work out his experimental results1 8so that the mathematicians may be able to take it up40 ,yet he never relaxed his preference for proceeding along the lines of experimental investigation4 ,his curious phrase 7p4 #bci7 as to his pique respecting mathematics is very significant1 as is also his note of jubilation in his letter to ,phillips 7p4 #aag7 at finding that pure experiment can successfully rival mathematics in unravelling the mysteries which had eluded the efforts of ,poisson and ,arago4 ,he himself attributed to his defective memory his want of hold upon symbolic reasoning4 ,to ,tyndall he wrote in #ahea1 when thanking him for a copy of one of his scientific memoirs3-- ,such papers as yours make me feel more than ever the loss of memory ,i have sustained1 for there is no reading them1 or at least retaining the argument1 under such deficiency4 ,mathematical formul more than anything require quickness and surety in receiving and retaining the true value of the symbols used2 and when one has to look back at every moment to the beginning of a paper1 to see what ,h or ,a or ,b mean1 there is no making way4 ,still1 though ,i cannot hold the whole train of reasoning in my mind at once1 ,i am able fully to appreciate the value of the results you arrive at1 and it appears to me that they are exceedingly well established and of very great consequence4 ,these elementary laws of action are of so much consequence in the development of the nature of a power which1 like magnetism1 is as yet new to us4 ,again to ,clerk ,maxwell1 in #aheg1 he wrote3-- ,there is one thing ,i would be glad to ask you4 ,when a mathematician engaged in investigating physical actions and results has arrived at his own conclusions1 may they not be expressed in common language as fully1 clearly1 and definitely as in mathematical formul8 ,if so1 would it not be a great boon to such as we to express them so--translating them out of their hieroglyphics that we also might work upon them by experiment8 ,i think it must be so1 because ,i have always found that you could convey to me a perfectly clear idea of your conclusions1 which1 though they may give me no full understanding of the steps of your process1 gave me the results neither above nor below the truth1 and so clear in character that ,i can think and work from them4 ,if this be possible1 would it not be a good thing if mathematicians1 writing on these subjects1 were to give us their results in this popular useful working state as well as in that which is their own and proper to them8 ,the achievement of ,faraday in finding for the expression of electromagnetic laws means which1 though not symbolic1 were simple1 accurate1 and in advance of the mathematics of his time1 has been alluded to on page #bag4 ,liebig1 in his discourse on 8,induction and ,deduction10 refers to ,faraday thus3-- ,i have heard mathematical physicists deplore that ,faraday's records of his labours were difficult to read and understand1 that they often resembled rather abstracts from a diary4 ,but the fault was theirs1 not ,faraday's4 ,to physicists who have approached physics by the road of chemistry1 ,faraday's memoirs sound like an admirably beautiful music4 ,sidenote3 ,,maxwell ,,and ,,von ,,helmholtz4 ,von ,helmholtz1 in his ,faraday lecture of #ahha1 has also touched on this aspect4 ,now that the mathematical interpretation of ,faraday's conceptions regarding the nature of electric and magnetic forces has been given by ,clerk ,maxwell1 we see how great a degree of exactness and precision was really hidden behind the words which to ,faraday's contemporaries appeared either vague or obscure2 and it is in the highest degree astonishing to see what a large number of general theorems1 the methodical deduction of which requires the highest powers of mathematical analysis1 he found by a kind of intuition1 with the security of instinct1 without the help of a single mathematical formula4 ,two other passages from ,von ,helmholtz are worthy of being added3-- ,and now1 with a quite wonderful sagacity and intellectual precision1 ,faraday performed in his brain the work of a great mathematician without using a single mathematical formula4 ,he saw with his mind's eye that magnetised and dielectric bodies ought to have a tendency to contract in the direction of the lines of force1 and to dilate in all directions perpendicular to the former1 and that by these systems of tensions and pressures in the space which surrounds electrified bodies1 magnets1 or wires conducting electric currents1 all the phenomena of electrostatic1 magnetic1 electromagnetic attraction1 repulsion1 and induction could be explained1 without recurring at all to forces acting directly at a distance4 ,this was the part of his path where so few could follow him2 perhaps a ,clerk ,maxwell1 a second man of the same power and independence of intellect1 was needed to reconstruct in the normal methods of science the great building the plan of which ,faraday had conceived in his mind1 and attempted to make visible to his contemporaries4 ,nobody can deny that this new theory of electricity and magnetism1 originated by ,faraday and developed by ,maxwell1 is in itself well consistent1 in perfect and exact harmony with all the known facts of experience1 and does not contradict any one of the general axioms of dynamics1 which have been hitherto considered as the fundamental truths of all natural science1 because they have been found valid1 without any exception1 in all known processes of nature4 ,and1 after dealing with the phenomena discussed by ,faraday1 ,von ,helmholtz adds these pregnant words3-- ,nevertheless1 the fundamental conceptions by which ,faraday was led to these much-admired discoveries have not received an equal amount of consideration4 ,they were very divergent from the trodden path of scientific theory1 and appeared rather startling to his contemporaries4 ,his principal aim was to express in his new conceptions only facts1 with the least possible use of hypothetical substances and forces4 ,this was really an advance in general scientific method1 destined to purify science from the last remnants of metaphysics4 ,faraday was not the first1 and not the only man1 who had worked in this direction1 but perhaps nobody else at his time did it so radically4 ,clerk ,maxwell said of him3 ,the way in which ,faraday made use of his lines of force in co-ordinating the phenomena of electric induction shows him to have been a mathematician of high order1 and one from whom the mathematicians of the future may derive valuable and fertile methods4 ,it is fitting to include in this review of ,faraday's place in relation to the mathematical side of physics some words of ,lord ,kelvin1 taken from his preface to the ,english edition of ,hertz's 8,electric ,waves03-- ,faraday1 with his curved lines of electric force1 and his dielectric efficiency of air and of liquid and solid insulators1 resuscitated the idea of a medium through which1 and not only through which but by which1 forces of attraction or repulsion1 seemingly acting at a distance1 are transmitted4 ,the long struggle of the first half of the eighteenth century was not merely on the question of a medium to serve for gravific mechanism1 but on the correctness of the ,newtonian law of gravitation as a matter of fact1 however explained4 ,the corresponding controversy in the nineteenth century was very short1 and it soon became obvious that ,faraday's idea of the transmission of electric force by a medium not only did not violate ,coulomb's law of relation between force and distance1 but that1 if real1 it must give a thorough explanation of that law4 ,nevertheless1 after ,faraday's discovery of the different specific inductive capacities of different insulators1 twenty years passed before it was generally accepted in ,continental ,europe4 ,but before his death1 in #ahfg1 he had succeeded in inspiring the rising generation of the scientific world with something approaching to faith that electric force is transmitted by a medium called ether1 of which1 as had been believed by the whole scientific world for forty years1 light and radiant heat are transverse vibrations4 ,faraday himself did not rest with this theory of electricity alone4 ,the very last time ,i saw him at work at the ,royal ,institution was in an underground cellar1 which he had chosen for freedom from disturbance1 and he was arranging experiments to test the time of propagation of magnetic force from an electromagnet through a distance of many yards of air to a fine steel needle1 polished to reflect light2 but no result came from those experiments4 ,about the same time1 or soon after1 certainly not long before the end of his working time1 he was engaged 7,i believe at the ,shot ,tower1 near ,waterloo ,bridge1 on the ,surrey side7 in efforts to discover relations between gravity and magnetism1 which also led to no result4 ,sidenote3 ,,kelvin',s ,,appreciation4 ,lord ,kelvin1 who was himself the first to perceive that ,faraday's ideas were not inconsistent with mathematical expression1 and to direct ,clerk ,maxwell and others to this view1 had1 in #ahed1 delighted the old man by bringing mathematical support to the conception of lines of force4 ,in #aheg he sent to ,faraday a copy of one of his papers1 and received in acknowledgment a letter of warm encouragement1 which1 however1 does not appear to have been preserved4 ,lord ,kelvin's reply is its own best commentary3-- ,such expressions from you would be more than a sufficient reward for anything ,i could ever contemplate doing in science4 ,i feel strongly how little ,i have done to deserve them1 but they will encourage me with a stronger motive than ,i have ever had before to go on endeavouring to see in the direction you have pointed1 which ,i long ago learned to believe is the direction in which we must look for a deeper insight into nature4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,religious ,,views4 ,the name of ,glasites or ,sandemanians is given to a small sect of ,christians which separated from the ,scottish ,presbyterian ,church about #agcj under the leadership of the ,rev4 ,john ,glas4 ,most of the congregations which sprang up in ,england were formed in consequence of the dissemination of the writings and by the preaching of ,robert ,sandeman1 son-in-law and successor of ,glas4 ,hence the double name4 ,the ,sandemanian ,church in ,london was constituted about #agfj4 ,it still has a chapel in ,barnsbury1 though the sect as a whole--never numerous--has dwindled to a small remnant4#eh ,the religious census of #ahea showed but six congregations in ,england and six in ,scotland4 ,as it never was a proselytising body1 it is probable that it has diminished since that date4 ,john ,glas was deposed in #agbh by the ,presbyterian ,courts from his position as minister in the ,scottish ,church1 because he taught that the ,church should be governed only by the doctrines of ,christ and ,his apostles1 and not be subject to any ,league or ,covenant4 ,he held that the formal establishment by any nation of a professed religion was the subversion of primitive ,christianity2 that ,christ did not come to establish any worldly authority1 but to give a hope of eternal life to ,his people whom ,he should choose of ,his own sovereign will2 that 8the ,bible10 and it alone1 with nothing added to it nor taken away from it by man1 was the sole and sufficient guide for each individual1 at all times and in all circumstances2 that faith in the divinity and work of ,christ is the gift of ,god1 and that the evidence of this faith is obedience to the commandment of ,christ4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,sandemanian ,,creed4 ,the tenets of ,glas are somewhat obscure and couched in mystical language4 ,they prescribe a spiritual union which binds its members into one body as a ,church without its being represented by any corresponding outward ecclesiastical polity4 ,he died in #aggc4 ,sandeman1 who spent most of his life in preaching these doctrines1 died about the same time in ,new ,england4 ,he caused to be inscribed on his tomb that 8he boldly contended for the ancient faith that the bare death of ,jesus ,christ1 without a deed or thought on the part of man1 is sufficient to present the chief of sinners spotless before ,god40 ,sidenote3 ,a ,,primitive ,,church4 ,the ,sandemanians try--so far as modern conditions permit--to live up to the practice of the ,christian ,church as it was in the time of the ,apostles4 ,at their chapel they 8broke bread0 every ,lord's day in the forenoon1 making this a common meal between the morning and afternoon services1 and taking their places by casting lots4 ,and weekly1 at their simple celebration of the ,lord's ,supper at the close of the afternoon service1 before partaking1 they collect money for the support of the poor and for expenses4 ,in some places they dined together at one another's houses instead of at the chapel4 8,they esteem the lot as a sacred thing4 ,the washing of the feet is also retained3 not1 it would seem1 on any special occasion1 but the ablution is performed #8whenever it can be an act of kindness to a brother to do so4' ,another peculiarity of this religious body is their objection to second marriages40#ei ,members are received into the ,church on the confession of sin and profession of faith made publicly at one of the afternoon services4 ,in admitting a new member they give the kiss of charity4 ,they deem it wrong to save up money2 8the ,lord will provide0 being an essential item of faith4 ,traces of this curious fatalism may be found in one of ,faraday's letters to his wife 7p4 #eb74 ,he seems always to have spent his surplus income on charity4 ,the ,sandemanians have neither ordained ministers nor paid preachers4 ,in each congregation1 however1 there are chosen elders 7presbyters or bishops71 of whom there must always be a plurality1 and of whom two at least must be present at every act of discipline4 ,the elders take it in turns to preside at the worship1 and are elected by the unanimous choice of the congregation4 ,the sole qualification for this office1 which is unpaid1 is that earnestness of purpose and sincerity of life which would have been required in ,apostolic times for the office of bishop or presbyter4 ,no difference of opinion is tolerated1 but is met by excommunication1 which amongst families so connected by marriage produces much unhappiness1 since they hold to the ,apostle's injunction1 8,with such an one1 no1 not to eat40 ,the foregoing summary is needed to enable the reader to comprehend the relationship of ,faraday to this body4 ,his father and grandfather had belonged to this sect4 ,in #agfc there was a congregation at ,kirkby ,stephen 7the home of ,faraday's mother7 numbering about thirty persons2 and there appears to have been a chapel--now used as a barn--in ,clapham4 ,a strong religious feeling had been dominant in the ,faraday family through the preceding generation4 ,james ,faraday1 on his removal to ,london1 there joined the ,sandemanian congregation1 which at that time met in a small chapel in ,st4 ,paul's ,alley1 ,barbican1 since pulled down4 ,it had1 when founded in #agfb1 held its first meetings in the hall of the ,glovers' ,company1 and later in ,bull and ,mouth ,street1 till #aggh4 ,james ,faraday's wife1 mother of ,michael ,faraday1 never formally joined the ,sandemanian ,church1 though a regular attendant of the congregation4 ,michael ,faraday was from a boy brought up in the practice of attending this simple worship1 and in the atmosphere of this primitive religious faith4 ,doubtless such surroundings exercised a moulding influence on his mind and character4 ,the attitude of abstinence from attempts to proselytise1 on the part of the church1 finds its reflex in ,faraday's habitual reticence1 towards all save only the most intimate of friends1 on matters of religious faith4 8,never once10 says ,professor ,tyndall1 8during an intimacy of fifteen years1 did he mention religion to me1 save when ,i drew him on to the subject4 ,he then spoke to me without hesitation or reluctance2 not with any apparent desire to #8improve the occasion1' but to give me such information as ,i sought4 ,he believed the human heart to be swayed by a power to which science or logic opened no approach2 and right or wrong1 this faith1 held in perfect tolerance of the faiths of others1 strengthened and beautified his life40 ,sidenote3 ,,his ,,profession ,,of ,,faith4 ,of his spiritual history down to the time of his marriage very little is known1 for he made no earlier profession of faith4 ,it is not to be supposed that he who was so scrupulous of truth1 so single-minded in every relation of life1 would accept the religious belief of his fathers without satisfying his conscience as to the rightness of its claims4 ,yet none of his letters or writings of that period show any trace#fj of that stress of soul through which at one time or another every sincere and earnest seeker after truth must pass before he finds anchorage4 ,certain it is that he clung with warm attachment to the little self-contained sect amongst whom he had been brought up4 ,its influence1 though contracting his activities by precluding all ,christian communion or effort outside their circle1 and cutting him off from so much that other ,christian bodies hold good1 fenced him effectually from dreams of worldliness1 and furnished him with that very detachment which was most essential to his scientific pursuits4 ,one month after his marriage he made his confession of sin and profession of faith before the ,sandemanian ,church4 ,it was an act of humility the more striking in that it was done without any consultation with his wife1 to whom he was so closely attached1 and who was already a member of the congregation4 ,when she asked him why he had not told her what he was about to do1 he replied3 8,that is between me and my ,god40 ,in #ahdd he wrote to ,lady ,lovelace as follows3-- 8,you speak of religion1 and here you will be sadly disappointed in me4 ,you will perhaps remember that ,i guessed1 and not very far aside1 your tendency in this respect4 ,your confidence in me claims in return mine to you1 which indeed ,i have no hesitation in giving on fitting occasions1 but these ,i think are very few1 for in my mind religious conversation is generally in vain4 ,there is no philosophy in my religion4 ,i am of a very small and despised sect of ,christians1 known1 if known at all1 as ,sandemanians1 and our hope is founded on the faith that is in ,christ4 ,but though the natural works of ,god can never by any possibility come in contradiction with the higher things that belong to our future existence1 and must with everything concerning ,him ever glorify ,him1 still ,i do not think it at all necessary to tie the study of the natural sciences and religion together1 and1 in my intercourse with my fellow creatures1 that which is religious and that which is philosophical have ever been two distinct things40 ,his own views were stated by himself at the commencement of a lecture on ,mental ,education in #ahed3-- ,high as man is placed above the creatures around him1 there is a higher and far more exalted position within his view2 and the ways are infinite in which he occupies his thoughts about the fears1 or hopes1 or expectations of a future life4 ,i believe that the truth of that future cannot be brought to his knowledge by any exertion of his mental powers1 however exalted they may be2 that it is made known to him by other teaching than his own1 and is received through simple belief of the testimony given4 ,let no one suppose for a moment that the self-education ,i am about to commend1 in respect of the things of this life1 extends to any considerations of the hope set before us1 as if man by reasoning could find out ,god4 ,it would be improper here to enter upon this subject further than to claim an absolute distinction between religious and ordinary belief4 ,i shall be reproached with the weakness of refusing to apply those mental operations which ,i think good in respect of high things to the very highest4 ,i am content to bear the reproach4 ,one of his friends wrote3 8,when he entered the meeting-house he left his science behind1 and he would listen to the prayer and exhortation of the most illiterate brother of his sect with an attention which showed how he loved the word of truth1 from whomsoever it came40 ,sidenote3 ,,as ,,elder ,,and ,,preacher4 8,the most remarkable event10 says ,dr4 ,bence ,jones1 8of his life in #ahdj was his election as an elder of the ,sandemanian ,church4 ,during that period when in ,london he preached on alternate ,sundays40 ,this was not an entirely new duty1 for he had been occasionally called upon by the elders1 from the date of his admission in #ahba1 to exhort the brethren at the week-day evening meetings1 or to read the ,scriptures in the congregation4 ,bence ,jones says that1 though no one could lecture like ,faraday1 many might preach with more effect4 ,the eager and vivacious manner of the lecture-room was exchanged for a devout earnestness that was in complete contrast4 ,his addresses have been described as a patchwork of texts cited rapidly from the ,old and ,new ,testaments2 and they were always extempore1 though he prepared careful notes on a piece of card beforehand4 ,of these1 samples are given in ,bence ,jones's 8,life and ,letters40 ,his first discourse as an elder was on ,matt4 xi4 #bh-cj1 dilating on ,christ's character and example4 8,learn of ,me40 ,the ground of humility of ,christians must be the infinite distance between them and their ,pattern4 ,he quoted #a ,john ii4 #f2 #a ,peter ii4 #ba2 ,phil4 iii4 #ag2 #a ,cor4 xi4 #a2 and #a ,cor4 xiv4 #a4 ,an exceedingly vivid view of ,faraday as elder of the ,church was given in #ahhffa by the late ,mr4 ,c4 ,c4 ,walker1 himself at one time a member of the ,sandemanian congregation in ,london2 a congregation1 moreover1 which included several persons of distinction--,cornelius ,varley1 the engraver1 and ,george ,barnard1 the water-colour painter4 ,at ,faraday's chapel there was a presiding elder1 supported by the rest of the elders on two rows of seats elevated across the end of the chapel1 one row above the other4 ,the ground floor was filled with the old-fashioned high pews1 and there was a gallery above on both sides1 also with pews4 ,faraday sat in a pew on the ground floor1 about the middle4 ,there was a large table on the floor of the chapel in front of the elders' seats4 ,the presiding elder usually preached4 ,such was the place ,faraday worshipped in1 situated at the end of a narrow dirty court1 surrounded by squalid houses of the poorest of the poor1 and so little known that although ,i knew every street1 lane and alley of the whole district1 and this alley itself1 at the bottom of which the chapel was1 ,i never knew of the existence of the meeting-house till ,i learned about thirty-five years ago that there was a chapel there to which the world-renowned ,faraday not only went1 but where he preached4 ,this led me to make a search1 and to my great delight1 ,i found it1 though with some difficulty4 ,although the neighbourhood was uncleanly1 not so was the interior of the chapel1 nor the dining room1 with its tables and forms1 all of which were spotless4 ,faraday's father was a blacksmith1 and worshipped here4 ,he brought up his family religiously1 and ,faraday from his earliest days attended the chapel4 ,here he met ,miss ,barnard1 his future wife4 ,mr4 ,barnard was a respectable 8working silversmith10 as manufacturing silversmiths were then called1 to distinguish them from the shopkeepers who then1 as now1 called themselves 8silversmiths10 though frequently making none of the goods they sell4 ,his manufactory was for a time at ,amen ,court1 ,paternoster ,row2 afterwards it was removed to a large building erected by the firm at ,angel ,street1 near the ,general ,post ,office1 and the business has since been carried on by the sons and grandsons4 ,sidenote3 ,,religious ,,service4 ,mr4 ,barnard and his family worshipped at the ,sandemanian ,chapel4 ,to this chapel ,faraday walked every ,sunday morning from his earliest days2 he never kept a carriage1 and on religious principles would not hire a cab or omnibus on the ,lord's day4#fb ,the service commenced at eleven in the morning and lasted till about one1 after which the members--8brothers and sisters10 as they called each other--had their midday meal 8in common0 in the room attached to the chapel1 which has already been referred to4 ,the afternoon worship usually ended about five o'clock1 after partaking of the ,lord's ,supper4 ,the services were very much like those of the ,congregationalists1 and consisted of extempore prayers1 hymns1 reading the ,scripture1 and a sermon1 usually by the presiding elder4 ,faraday had been an elder for a great many years1 and for a considerable time was the presiding elder1 and consequently preached2 but during this time relinquished his office4 ,there was one peculiarity in the service2 the ,scriptures were not read by the presiding elder1 but he called on one of the members to read2 and when ,faraday was there--which he always was when in ,london--the presiding elder named 8,brother ,michael ,faraday10 who then left his pew1 passing along the aisle1 out of the chapel1 up the stairs at the back1 and reappeared behind the presiding elder's seat1 who had already opened the large ,bible in front of him1 and pointed out the chapter to be read4 ,it was one of the richest treats that it has been my good fortune to enjoy to hear ,faraday read the ,bible4 ,the reader was quite unaware what he was to read until it was selected and when one chapter of the ,old ,testament was finished another would be given1 probably from the ,new ,testament4 ,usually three chapters were read1 and sometimes four1 in succession2 but if it had been half a dozen there would have been no weariness1 for the perfection of the reading1 with its clearness of pronunciation1 its judicious emphasis1 the rich musical voice1 and the perfect charm of the reader1 with his natural reverence1 made it a delight to listen4 ,i have heard most of those who are considered our best readers in church and chapel1 but have never heard a reader that ,i considered equal to ,faraday4 ,at this distance of time his tones are always in my ears4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i was told by members of the chapel that he was most assiduous in visiting the poorer brethren and sisters at their own homes1 comforting them in their sorrows and afflictions1 and assisting them from his own purse4 ,indeed1 they said1 he was continually pressed to be the guest of the high and noble 7which we may well believe71 but he would1 if possible1 decline1 preferring to visit some poor sister in trouble1 assist her1 take a cup of tea with her1 read the ,bible and pray4 ,though so full of religion1 he was never obtrusive with it2 it was too sacred a thing4 ,tyndall has preserved another vivid reminiscence of ,faraday's inner life1 which he wrote down after one of the earliest dinners which he had in the ,royal ,institution4 8,at two o'clock he came down for me4 ,he1 his niece1 and myself formed the party4 #8,i never give dinners1' he said2 #8,i don't know how to give dinners2 and ,i never dine out4 ,but ,i should not like my friends to attribute this to a wrong cause4 ,i act thus for the sake of securing time for work1 and not through religious motives as some imagine4' ,he said grace4 ,i am almost ashamed to call his prayer a #8saying' of grace4 ,in the language of ,scripture1 it might be described as the petition of a son into whose heart ,god had sent the ,spirit of ,his ,son1 and who with absolute trust asked a blessing from his ,father4 ,we dined on roast beef1 ,yorkshire pudding1 and potatoes1 drank sherry1 talked of research and its requirements1 and of his habit of keeping himself free from the distractions of society4 ,he was bright and joyful--boylike1 in fact1 though he is now sixty-two4 ,his work excites admiration1 but contact with him warms and elevates the heart4 ,here1 surely1 is a strong man4 ,i love strength1 but let me not forget the example of its union with modesty1 tenderness1 and sweetness1 in the character of ,faraday40 ,there is a story told by the ,abb ,moigno that one day at ,faraday's request he introduced him to ,cardinal ,wiseman4 ,in the frank interview which followed1 the ,cardinal did not hesitate to ask ,faraday whether1 in his deepest conviction1 he believed all the ,church of ,christ1 holy1 catholic1 and apostolic1 was shut up in the little sect in which he was officially an elder4 8,oh1 no60 was ,faraday's reply2 8but ,i do believe from the bottom of my soul that ,christ is with us40 ,sidenote3 ,,eldership ,,interrupted4 ,the course of ,faraday's eldership was1 however1 interrupted4 ,it was expected of an elder that he should attend every ,sunday4 ,one ,sunday he was absent4 ,when it was discovered that his absence was due to his having been 8commanded0 to dine with the ,queen at ,windsor1 and that so far from expressing penitence1 he was prepared to defend his action1 his office became vacant4 ,he was even cut off from ordinary membership4 ,nevertheless1 he continued for years to attend the meetings just as before4 ,he would even return from the provincial meetings of the ,british ,association to ,london for the ,sunday1 so as not to be absent4 ,in #ahfj he was received back as an elder1 which office he held again for about three years and a half1 and finally resigned it in #ahfd4 ,it is doubtful whether ,faraday ever attempted to form any connected ideas as to the nature or method of operation of the ,divine government of the physical world1 in which he had such a whole-souled belief4 ,newton has left us such an attempt4 ,kant in his own way has put forward another4 ,so did ,herschel2 and so in our time have the authors of 8,the ,unseen ,universe40 ,to ,faraday all such 8natural theology0 would have seemed vain and aimless4 ,it was no part of the lecturer on natural philosophy to speculate as to final causes behind the physical laws with which he dealt4 ,nor1 on the other hand1 was it the slightest use to the ,christian to inquire in what way ,god ruled the universe3 it was enough that ,he did rule it4 ,sidenote3 ,,religion ,,and ,,science4 ,faraday's mental organisation1 which made it possible for him to erect an absolute barrier between his science and his religion1 was an unusual one4 ,the human mind is seldom built in such rigid compartments that a man whose whole life is spent in analysing1 testing1 and weighing truths in one department of knowledge1 can cut himself off from applying the same testing and inquiring processes in another department4 ,the founder of the sect had taught them that the ,bible alone1 with nothing added to it or taken away from it by man1 was the only and sufficient guide for the soul4 ,apparently ,faraday never admitted the possibility of human flaw in the printing1 editing1 translation1 collation1 or construction of the ,bible4 ,he apparently never even desired to know how it compared with the oldest manuscripts1 or what was the evidence for the authenticity of the various versions4 ,having once accepted the views of his sect as to the absolute inspiration of the ,english ,bible as a whole1 he permitted no subsequent question to be raised as to its literal authority4 ,tyndall once described this attitude of mind in his own trenchant way by saying that when ,faraday opened the door of his oratory he closed that of his laboratory4 ,the saying may seem hard1 but it is essentially true4 ,to few indeed is such a limitation of character possible3 possibly it may be unique4 ,we may reverence the frank single-minded simplicity of soul which dwelt in ,faraday1 and may yet hold that1 whatever limitation was right for him1 others would do wrong if they refused to bring the powers of the mind--,god-given as they believe--to bear upon the discovery of truth in the region of ,biblical research4 ,yet may none of them dream of surpassing in transparent honesty of soul1 in genuine ,christian humility1 in the virtues of kindness1 earnestness1 and sympathetic devotion1 the great and good man who denied himself that freedom4 ,,footnotes #a ,faraday's usual place of work at bookbinding was a little room on the left of the entrance4 7,see the story of his visit there with ,tyndall in after years1 as narrated in ,tyndall's 8,faraday10 p4 #h47 #b ,still preserved in ,faraday's ,diploma-book1 now in the possession of the ,royal ,society4 #c ,an account of this machine will be found in the ,argonaut1 vol4 ii41 p4 #cc4 #d 8,when he ,faraday was young1 poor1 and altogether unknown1 ,masquerier was kind to him2 and now that he is a great man he does not forget his old friend40--,diary of ,h4 ,crabb ,robinson1 vol4 iii41 p4 #cge4 #e ,he always sat in the gallery over the clock4 #f ,see ,dr4 ,paris's 8,life of ,davy10 vol4 ii41 p4 #b2 or ,bence ,jones's 8,life and ,letters of ,faraday10 vol4 i41 p4 #dg4 #g ,his duties as laid down by the managers were these3--8,to attend and assist the lecturers and professors in preparing for1 and during lectures4 ,where any instruments or apparatus may be required1 to attend to their careful removal from the model-room and laboratory to the lecture-room1 and to clean and replace them after being used1 reporting to the managers such accidents as shall require repair1 a constant diary being kept by him for that purpose4 ,that in one day in each week he be employed in keeping clean the models in the repository1 and that all the instruments in the glass cases be cleaned and dusted at least once within a month40 #h ,the ,city ,philosophical ,society was given up at the time when ,mechanics' ,institutes were started in ,london1 ,tatum selling his apparatus to that established in ,fleet ,street1 the forerunner of the ,birkbeck ,institution4 ,many of the ,city ,society's members joined the ,society of ,arts4 #i ,two passages may be quoted4 8,finally1 ,sir ,h4 has no valet except myself 444 and 'tis the name more than the thing which hurts40 8,when ,i return home1 ,i fancy ,i shall return to my old profession of bookseller1 for books still continue to please me more than anything else40 #aj ,the meeting at which it was actually originated was held under the presidency of ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 ,p4,r4,s41 nominally as a meeting for the ,assistance of the ,poor6 #aa ,a writer in the ,quarterly ,journal of ,science for #ahfh1 p4 #ej1 says3 8,we have reason to know that ,davy was slightly annoyed that the certificate proposing ,faraday for election should have originated with ,richard ,phillips1 and that he should not have been consulted before that gentleman was allowed to take the matter in hand40 ,this is absurd1 because the ,president was by long-standing etiquette debarred from signing the certificates of any but foreign members1 as the certificate book of the ,royal ,society attests4 #ab ,see p4 #ab4 #ac ,liddon's 8,life of ,e4 ,b4 ,pusey0 7#ahic71 p4 #bai4 #ad ,for this information and many particulars of this transaction ,i am indebted to ,dr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,gladstone1 ,f4,r4,s4 #ae 8,it was probably in a four-wheeled velocipede that ,faraday was accustomed1 some thirty years ago1 to work his way up and down the steep roads near ,hampstead and ,highgate4 ,this machine appears to have been of his own construction1 and was worked by levers and a crank axle in the same manner as the rest of the four-wheeled class40--,the ,velocipede3 its past1 its present1 and its future4 ,by ,j4 ,f4 ,b4 ,firth4 ,london1 #ahfi4 #af ,except on nickel and cobalt1 which are also para-magnetic metals4 #ag ,for a graphic account by ,hansteen of the circumstances of ,oersted's discovery1 see ,bence ,jones's 8,life and ,letters of ,faraday10 vol4 ii4 p4 #cij4 #ah 8,to the effect which takes place in this conductor or uniting wire and in the surrounding space1 we shall give the name of the conflict of electricity40444 8,from the preceding facts we may likewise collect that this conflict performs circles2 for without this condition1 it seems impossible that the one part of the uniting wire1 when placed below the magnetic pole1 should drive it towards the east1 and when placed above it towards the west2 for it is the nature of a circle that the motions in opposite parts should have an opposite direction40--,h4 ,c4 ,,oersted1 ,ann4 of ,phil41 ,oct41 #ahbj1 pp4 #bgc-bgf4 #ai ,this is an error due to haste in writing4 #bj ,see a paper by the author in the ,philosophical ,magazine for ,june1 #ahie1 entitled 8,note on a ,neglected ,experiment of ,ampre40 #ba ,compare ,dumas1 8loge ,historique de ,michel ,faraday10 p4 xxxiii41 who gives the above statement4 ,arago's own account to the ,acadmie differs slightly4 #bb ,this ring ,faraday is represented as holding in his hand in the beautiful marble statue by ,foley which stands in the ,entrance ,hall of the ,royal ,institution4 ,the ring itself is still preserved at the ,royal ,institution amongst the ,faraday relics4 ,the accompanying cut 7,fig4 #d7 is facsimiled from ,faraday's own sketch in his laboratory note-book4 #bc ,now in the possession of the author1 to whom it was given by his kinswoman ,lady ,wilson1 youngest daughter of ,richard ,phillips4 #bd ,the day of the ,annual ,meeting and election of ,council of the ,royal ,society4 #be ,this is a slip in the description2 the momentary current induced in the secondary wire on making the current in the primary is inverse3 it is succeeded by a momentary direct current when the primary current is stopped4 #bf ,this doubtless refers to ,whewell1 of ,cambridge1 whom he was in the habit of consulting on questions of nomenclature4 #bg ,a man of fashion who had1 without any claim to distinction1 wormed himself into scientific society1 posed as a savant1 and had delivered a high-flown oration on botany at the ,royal ,institution4 #bh ,the use of this term1 as distinguished from production1 to distinguish between the primary generation of a current in a voltaic cell1 a thermopile1 or a friction-machine1 by chemical or molecular action1 and its indirect production without contact or communication of any material sort1 as by motion of a wire near a magnet or by secondary influence from a neighbouring primary current while that current is varying in strength or proximity1 is exceedingly significant4 ,faraday's own meaning in adopting it is best grasped by referring to p4 #a of the 8,experimental ,researches03-- 8,on the ,induction of ,electric ,currents40444 ,the general term induction which1 as it has been received into scientific language1 may also1 with propriety1 be used to express the power which electrical currents may possess of inducing any particular state upon matter in their immediate neighbourhood4444 ,i propose to call this action of the current from the voltaic battery volta-electric induction 444 but as a distinction in language is still necessary1 ,i propose to call the agency thus exerted by ordinary magnets magneto-electric or magne-electric induction4 #bi 8,experimental ,researches10 i4 #be1 art4 #he4 ,this copper disc is still preserved at the ,royal ,institution4 ,it was shown in action by the author of this work1 at a lecture at the ,royal ,institution delivered ,april #aath1 #ahia4 ,fig4 #f is reproduced in facsimile from ,faraday's laboratory note-book4 #cj 8,experimental ,researches10 i4 art4 #ace4 #ca ,ib41 art4 #aee4 #cb ,ib41 art4 #aeh4 #cc ,ib41 art4 #bai4 #cd 8,experimental ,researches10 i4 art4 #bbj4 #ce ,ib41 art4 #bbb4 #cf ,ib41 iii4 art4 #caib4 #cg 8,ann4 ,chim4 ,phys410 li4 #gf1 #ahcb4 #ch ,the great magnet of the ,royal ,society1 which was at this time lent to ,mr4 ,christie4 #ci ,original footnote by ,faraday4 ,by magnetic curves1 ,i mean the lines of magnetic force1 however modified by the juxtaposition of poles1 which would be depicted by iron filings2 or those to which a very small magnetic needle would form a tangent4 #dj ,the entire uselessness as well as the misleading effects of such unscientific nomenclature might well be taken to heart by those electrophysiologists and electrotherapeutists who still indulge in the jargon of 8franklinisation10 8faradisation10 and 8galvanisation40 #da ,in modern language this would be called the time-integral of the discharge4 ,the statement is strictly true if the galvanometer 7as was the case with ,faraday's7 is one of relatively long period of oscillation4 #db ,from upwards and a way2 and downwards and a way4 ,the words cathode and cation are now more usually spelled kathode and kation4 ,faraday sometimes spelled the word cathion 7,exp4 ,res4 ,art4 #acea71 as did also ,whewell 7,hist4 of ,ind4 ,sciences1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aff74 #dc ,literally1 the travellers1 the things which are going4 #dd ,the term induction appears to have been originally used1 in contradistinction to contact or conduction1 to connote those effects which apparently are in the class of actions at a distance4 ,thus we may have induction of a charge by a charge1 or of a magnet-pole by a magnet-pole4 ,to these ,faraday had added the induction of a current by a current1 and the induction of a current by a moving magnet4 ,amid such varying adaptations of the word induction1 there is much gain in allotting to the electrostatic induction of charges by charges the distinguishing name of influence1 as suggested by ,priestley4 #de 8,faraday as a ,discoverer10 p4 #fg4 #df ,newton's third letter to ,bentley4 #dg ,faraday's definition is3--8,by a diamagnetic1 ,i mean a body through which lines of magnetic force are passing1 and which does not by their action assume the usual magnetic state of iron or loadstone40 ,it was thus a term strictly analogous to the term dielectric used for bodies through which lines of electric force might pass4 #dh i4e4 ,specimen ,no4 #agd4 ,its composition was equal parts by weight of boracic acid1 oxide of lead1 and silica4 #di ,subsequent investigation has reduced this figure to about #ahf1djj miles per second1 or about #cj1jjj1jjj1jjj centimetres per second4 #ej ,the accompanying diagram 7,fig4 #bj7 was not given by ,faraday4 ,it was pencilled by the author more than twenty years ago in the margin of his copy of ,faraday's 8,experimental ,researches10 vol4 iii41 p4 #dej1 opposite this passage4 #ea ,the discourse was to have been delivered by ,wheatstone himself1 who1 however1 at the last moment1 overcome by the shyness from which he suffered to an almost morbid degree1 quitted the ,institution1 and left the delivery of the discourse to ,faraday4 #eb ,the italics here are mine4 ,s4 ,p4 ,t4 #ec ,it is right to add that what1 according to the theory explained in the text1 must be the correct explanation of the peculiar phenomena of magnetic induction depending on magnecrystallic properties was clearly stated in the form of a conjecture by ,faraday in his twenty-second series in the following terms3 8,or we might suppose that the crystal is a little more apt for magnetic induction1 or a little less apt for diamagnetic induction1 in the direction of the magnecrystallic axis than in other directions0 7,sir ,william ,thomson1 ,philosophical ,magazine1 #ahea1 or 8,papers on ,electrostatics and ,magnetism10 p4 #dgf74 #ed ,this is exactly ,stokes's theorem of 8tubes0 of force4 ,s4 ,p4 ,t4 #ee ,the italics are mine4 ,s4 ,p4 ,t4 #ef ,once again did ,faraday intervene in ,royal ,society affairs at the crucial time when ,lord ,rosse was elected ,president in #ahdh4 ,the following excerpts from the journals of ,walter ,white show the cause3-- 8,november #beth4--,there have been many secret conferences this week--much trimming and time-serving4 ,alas for human nature60 8,november #cjth4--,the eventful day1 the ballot begun4 ,mr4 ,faraday made some remarks about the list40 #eg ,he was a ,chevalier of the ,prussian ,order of ,merit1 also ,commander in the ,legion of ,honour1 and ,knight ,commander of the ,order of ,st4 ,maurice and ,st4 ,lazarus4 #eh ,faraday's nephew1 ,frank ,barnard1 stated in #ahga that the ,london congregation included amongst its members not more than twenty men1 mostly quite poor1 only seven or eight of them being masters of their own businesses1 and that ,faraday was for some time the wealthiest man of the fraternity4 #ei ,c4 ,m4 ,davies3 8,unorthodox ,london10 page #bhd4 #fj ,a letter from his nephew1 ,frank ,barnard1 to ,dr4 ,gladstone says3 8,i believe that in his younger days he had his period of hesitation1 of questioning in that great argument4 ,i have heard that1 so alive was he to the necessity of investigating anything that seemed important1 he visited ,joanna ,southcote1 perhaps to learn what that woman's pretensions were3 ,i think he was a mere lad at that time4 ,but this period once passed1 he questioned no more1 for the more he saw that ,nature was mighty1 the more he felt that ,god was mightier2 and to any cavillings upon the doubts of ,colenso or the reality of the ,mosaic cosmogony1 ,i believe he would simply have replied in the apostle's words3 #8,is anything too hard for ,god8'444 8,i once heard him say from the pulpit1 #8,i hope none of my hearers will in these matters listen to the thing called philosophy4'0 #fa ,manchester ,guardian1 ,november #bg4 #fb ,this is not altogether accurate4 ,certainly in his later life ,faraday used to hire a cab to take him and ,mrs4 ,faraday to the chapel4 ,s4 ,p4 ,t4 ,,index ,abbott1 ,benjamin1 #g1 #h1 #ig1 #bbg2 letters to1 #g1 #i1 #ae1 #bb1 #be1 #bf1 #da1 #dd1 #bbh ,acoustical researches1 #acf ,action at a distance unthinkable1 #abh1 #aec1 #aeg1 #baf ,admiralty1 ,scientific adviser to the1 #fh ther1 the1 ,speculations upon1 #aic1 #bac ,airy1 ,sir ,george1 ,dispute with1 #bfi ,aloofness from scientific organisations1 #bfd ,ampre1 ,andre ,marie3 ,meeting with1 #ai2 his researches1 #hj1 #hb1 #he1 #aje1 #abf ,analyst1 ,faraday's professional work as1 #ea1 #fa1 #fc1 #bgd ,anderson1 ,sergeant3 engaged as assistant1 #if2 his implicit obedience1 #ig1 #bdb ,andrews1 ,professor ,t41 ,letter to1 #bgc ,apparatus1 ,simplicity of1 #bci ,arago1 ,f43 ,meeting with1 #cd1 #bch2 his notations1 #ajf1 #aaf1 #aah2 his philosophical reserve1 #ajg ,armstrong1 ,lord1 on electrification of steam1 #agj ,artists amongst acquaintances1 #bdf ,astley's ,theatre1 #ea ,athenum ,club1 #ei ,atmospheric magnetism1 #bjf1 #bji1 #baj ,atoms or centres of force1 #bda ,autobiographical notes1 #h1 #ag1 #ej1 #eh1 #gj1 #ga1 #gc1 #gf1 #bbc1 #bdc ,b4 ,babbage1 ,charles1 #ajg1 #aaf1 #bfb ,barnard1 ,edward1 #df ----1 ,frank1 #bej1 #bhf ----1 ,george1 #df1 #ea1 #gd1 #hi1 #bbd1 #bdf1 #bid ----1 ,miss ,jane1 #df1 #bei ----1 ---- ,sarah 7,mrs4 ,faraday71 #df1 #bid ,becker1 ,dr41 ,letter to1 #bdd ,bence ,jones's 8,life and ,letters of ,faraday10 #g1 #bf1 #dj1 #dc1 #dh1 #eg1 #eh1 #gh1 #ajh1 #aii1 #bbf1 #bca1 #bic ,benzol1 ,discovery of1 #id1 #aja ,bidwell1 ,s41 magnetic action of light1 #ahd ,biographies of ,faraday 7see ,,preface7 ,boltzmann3 on crystalline dielectrics1 #aff2 on the doctrines of ,faraday and ,maxwell1 #baf ,bookbinding1 #e1 #f1 #ag1 #bdi ,bookselling1 #e1 #ag1 #bf1 #ca ,books by ,faraday3 8,on the ,means of ,obtaining ,knowledge10 #da2 8,chemical ,manipulations10 #aja1 #bcc2 8,on ,alleged ,decline of ,science in ,england0 7editor71 #aaj2 8,experimental ,researches in ,electricity and ,magnetism10 #ajb2 8,experimental ,researches in ,chemistry and ,physics10 #gf2 8,on the ,prevention of ,dry ,rot in ,timber10 #adi2 8,chemistry of a ,candle10 #bcd2 8,the ,forces of ,nature10 #bcd ,boots1 a home-made pair of1 #bdi ,brande1 ,w4 ,f41 ,prof41 #ci1 #eg ,breakdown in health1 #agj1 #aii1 #bbb1 #bei ,british ,association1 #fd1 #bbd1 #bfd1 #bfh1 #big ,browning1 ,mrs4 ,e4 ,b41 denounces ,faraday1 #bea ,burdett-,coutts1 ,baroness1 ,letter to1 #bdj ,c4 ,cards1 ,use of1 to assist memory1 #g1 #bci ,charge1 electric1 ,query as to seat of1 #aed ----1 ,the nature of an electric1 #aeb ,charitable gifts1 #bde1 #bif ,chemical researches1 #de1 #hb1 #hg2 analysis of caustic lime1 #gf2 new chlorine compounds1 #hg2 liquefaction of chlorine1 #ic2 discovery of benzol1 #id2 sulpho-naphthalic acid1 #ajj ,chemistry1 ,how to examine in1 #bgg ,children and ,faraday1 #bcc1 #bce ,chlorine1 ,liquefaction of1 #ee1 #ia ,christmas lectures1 #cc1 #cg1 #fa1 #aja1 #bcc1 #bcd1 #bce1 #beh ,city ,philosophical ,society1 #ad1 #af1 #dj1 #da1 #bcj ,clerk ,maxwell1 ,j43 article on ,faraday1 #ace2 theory of conduction1 #aee2 electromagnetic theory of light1 #aii2 on ,faraday's conception of electric action1 #bag2 letter to1 on mathematics1 #bha ,closing days of ,faraday's life1 #bei ,coinage of new words1 #aaf1 #adc1 #add1 #afc1 #ahh1 #bje ,commonplace books1 #dj1 #hi ,conduction1 ,theory of1 #aee ,conservation of energy1 #afg1 #bai ,contact theory of cells1 #afh ,continent1 ,visits to1 #af1 #ag1 #gd1 #bbd ,controversy1 ,detestation of1 #bfh ,convolutions of the forces of nature1 #afg1 #agb1 #bfi1 #bgj ,copper disc experiment1 #aac ,criticism1 ,uses of1 #ad1 #bca1 #bdj1 #bfi ,crosse1 ,mrs4 ,a41 ,reminiscences of1 #bcc1 #bde1 #bgj ,crystallisation in relation to electric properties1 #aff1 #afg ,crystals in the magnetic field1 #bjj1 #bjb ,current1 ,conception of a1 #adf1 #afc ,cutting the magnetic lines1 #acd1 #bac ,crookes1 ,sir ,w41 ,advice to1 #bfg ,d4 ,dalton1 ,john1 #fe1 #bbf ,dance1 ,mr41 gives ,faraday tickets1 #h2 message to1 #cj ,daniell1 ,prof4 ,j4 ,f41 #fd ,davy1 ,sir ,humphry3 lectures of1 #h1 #cf1 #bbg2 note to ,faraday1 #aa2 engages ,faraday1 #ab2 travels abroad1 #ag2 his aristocratic leanings1 #be2 researches on electric arc1 #cg2 invention of safety lamp1 #cg1 #db1 #bfi2 writes to ,faraday1 #dd1 #de2 misunderstanding with1 #ef2 his jealousy of ,faraday1 #ef1 #ei2 his electromagnetic discovery1 #hj2 and the liquefaction of chlorine1 #ic ,davy-,faraday laboratory1 ,the1 #cf ,de la ,rive1 ,auguste1 #bi1 #ff1 #aje1 #bcg2 letters to1 #bi1 #ahe ---- ---- ----1 ,gustave1 #bj1 #bh1 #aaf1 #ada2 letters to1 #hc1 #he1 #ia1 #bjg1 #bfg ,de la ,rue1 ,warren3 his lecture1 #ci2 his eclipse photographs1 #bai ,diamagnetic1 ,a1 #agi ---- polarity1 #aib1 #baj ,diamagnetism1 ,discovery of1 #ahf ,dielectric medium1 #aec1 #aei1 #afc ,diploma-book1 #bga ,discharge1 electric1 ,forms of1 #acg1 #afb ---- ----1 ,dark1 #afb ,discoveries1 ,value of1 #fc1 #bbd1 #bdh ,displacement currents1 #aff ,doctrine of conservation of energy1 #afg1 #bai ---- of correlation of forces1 #agb1 #bfi1 #bgj ---- of electrons1 #adh ,domestic affairs1 #di1 #fi1 #bdd1 #beg ,doubtful knowledge1 ,aversion for1 #df1 #ib ,dry rot in timber1 #adi ,dumas3 ,reminiscences by1 #bj1 #ei1 #bdj2 and ,arago's copper1 #ajf2 discovery of oxalamide1 #acg ,e4 ,eddy-currents1 ,effects due to1 #ajg1 #aia1 #bjd ,education1 ,views on1 #bgh ,eel1 ,the electric1 #afg ,electric light for lighthouses1 #bah1 #bfi ,electrical machine1 ,faraday's own1 #f ---- ----1 ,the 8new10 #aba ,electrochemical laws1 #ada1 #adg ,electrodes1 #adc ,electrolysis1 #adc ,electrolytes1 #adc ,electromagnetic rotations discovered1 #ea1 #hc1 #hg ,electromagnetism1 ,foundations of1 #gg ,electrons1 ,doctrine of1 #adh ,electrotonic state1 #aaf1 #abf1 #aff1 #bae ,elocution1 ,lessons in1 #dc1 #bcj ,enthusiasm1 #ae1 #hi1 #bbe1 #bdj ,ether1 ,the 7see ,,ther7 ,evolution of electricity from magnetism1 #ajh1 #aad ,examinations in chemistry1 #bgg ,experiment1 ,love of1 #aag1 #bcj1 #bgf ---- the touchstone of hypothesis1 #bba ---- versus mathematics1 #aag1 #bci1 #bhj ,experimental researches in electricity and magnetism3 the first series1 #aac2 the last series1 #baf2 ,clerk ,maxwell on1 #bah ,expert work1 #ea1 #fa1 #fc1 #bgd ,explosions in the laboratory1 #id ,f4 ,faraday1 ,james1 #a1 #b1 #bbd ,faraday1 ,michael3 born1 #a2 schooling of1 #b2 goes as errand boy1 #c2 apprenticed as bookbinder and stationer1 #e2 journeyman bookbinder1 #i2 attends ,tatum's lectures1 #f2 attends ,sir ,h4 ,davy's lectures1 #h2 acts as ,davy's amanuensis1 #aj2 engaged at ,royal ,institution1 #ab2 his foreign tour with ,davy1 #af2 visits ,paris1 #ah2 visits ,florence1 #ba2 visits ,geneva1 #bb1 #bh2 returns to ,royal ,institution1 #cd2 lectures at ,city ,philosophical ,society1 #dj1 #dc2 loyalty to ,davy1 #db1 #ei1 #bfi2 begins original work1 #df2 falls in love1 #df2 his poem to ,miss ,barnard1 #df2 his wedding1 #di2 made superintendent of laboratory1 #di1 #ih2 discovers electromagnetic rotations1 #ea2 elected ,f4,r4,s41 #ei2 made ,d4,c4,l4 of ,oxford1 #fe2 awarded ,copley ,medal1 #fi2 declines professorship in ,london ,university1 #ff2 receives a pension in ,civil ,list1 #gb2 appointed adviser to ,trinity ,house1 #fg2 appointed elder in ,sandemanian church1 #bic2 discovers magneto-electric induction1 #aab1 #aae2 discovers magneto-optic rotation1 #agf2 discovers diamagnetism1 #ahf2 readmitted to ,sandemanian church1 #big2 exposes spiritualistic phenomena1 #bej2 declines ,presidency of ,royal ,society1 #bee2 declines presidency of ,royal ,institution1 #bee2 resigns professorship at ,royal ,institution1 #bei2 resigns advisership to ,trinity ,house1 #bei2 resigns eldership in ,sandemanian church1 #bei2 decease and funeral1 #bfj ----1 ,robert1 #a1 #b1 #f1 #bdi1 #bej ----1 ,sarah 7,mrs4 ,faraday71 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #bbc1 #bbe1 #bee1 #beg1 #bia2 letters to1 #dg1 #dh1 #eb1 #ec1 #bef ,faraday's father1 #a1 #b1 #bbd1 #bhi ---- mother1 #a1 #b1 #ab1 #ag1 #bb1 #cc1 #da1 #fi1 #bhi ,fatalism1 #eb1 #bhh ,fees for professional work1 #ea1 #fa1 #bdd1 #bgd ,field1 ,the magnetic2 first use of this term1 #ahh ,fishes1 electrical1 ,researches on1 #bj1 #aci1 #afg ,fluids1 ,alleged electric and magnetic1 #bab1 #baf1 #bah ,foreign travel1 #af1 #ag1 #gd1 #bbd ,fox1 ,caroline1 ,reminiscences of1 #bce ,fraser's ,magazine and ,faraday's pension1 #gb ,fresnel's announcement1 #aje ,friday evenings at the ,royal ,institution1 #cc1 #fj1 #ajj1 #aja1 #adi1 #aff1 #agj1 #aib1 #bjc1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bbe1 #bcb1 #bcf1 #bei ,fuller1 ,john1 founds the ,fullerian professorships1 #cf ,funeral1 #bfj ,g4 ,gases1 ,liquefaction of1 #ee1 #ia1 #aga ----1 ,magnetic properties of1 #bjd1 #bjh ,gassiot1 ,j4 ,p41 ,reminiscences by1 #ac ,german language1 ,views on the1 #bhj ,gladstone1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,hall1 #fi1 #bij ,glass1 ,researches on1 #ie ,glassites 7see ,,sandemanians7 ,gold1 ,optical properties of1 #bai ,gravity in relation to electricity1 #bjd1 #bbj1 #bhe ----1 ,speculations as to1 #aie1 #bjc ,grove1 ,sir ,wm41 #bfc1 #bfi ,gymnotus1 #afg ,h4 ,hachette1 ,letter to1 #bff ,hampton ,court1 ,house at1 #beg1 #beh ,hare1 ,r41 ,letter to1 #bfi ,harris1 ,sir ,w4 ,snow1 #fd1 #bfi ,heat1 ,effect of1 on magnetism1 #bjh ,heavy-glass1 #ajj1 #agf ,helmholtz1 ,prof4 ,h4 von1 #bhb1 #bhc ,henry1 ,professor ,joseph1 ,reminiscence by1 #bda ,herschel1 ,sir ,john1 #eg1 #ie1 #ajg1 #aaf1 #aca1 #bfb1 #big ,home life1 #di1 #fi1 #bbc1 #bdd1 #beg ,honours awarded to ,faraday1 #fi1 #aii1 #bdd1 #bee1 #bga ----1 scientific1 ,views on1 #bga ,hypotheses1 ,free use of1 #bba1 #bda ,i4 ,ice a non-conductor1 #adj ----1 ,regelation of1 #bai ,identity of electricity from different sources1 #acg ,imagination1 ,use of the1 #afj1 #bbg1 #bgf ,incandescent electric lamps1 #aii ,income1 #fh1 #bde ,indignation against wrong1 #bbg ,induced currents1 #aad ,induction 7electromagnetic71 ,discovery of1 #aad ---- 7electrostatic71 or influence1 #aec ----1 ,meaning of the term1 #aai ,inductive capacity1 #aei ,influence 7see ,,induction7 ,inner conflicts1 #bbf1 #bij ,iodine1 ,davy's experiments on1 #ai1 #bd1 #bg ,ions1 ,origin of term1 #add1 #ade ,j4 ,jenkin1 ,wm41 observes spark at break1 #aej1 #bdc ,jones 7see ,,bence ,,jones7 ,journals of foreign travel1 #ah1 #bbd ,juvenile lectures at ,royal ,institution1 #cc1 #cg1 #fa1 #aja1 #bcc1 #bcd1 #bce1 #beh ,k4 ,keble1 ,rev4 ,j41 and the hodge-podge of philosophers1 #fe ,kelvin1 ,lord3 theory of electromotive forces1 #adh2 on theory of magnetic permeability in olotropic media1 #bja2 on ,faraday's views of electricity1 #bhd2 letter from1 #bhe ,kerr1 ,dr4 ,john3 electro-optic discovery1 #agc2 magneto-optic discovery1 #ahb ,kindliness1 #bbf ,knighthood no honour1 #bgc ,kundt1 ,aug41 magneto-optic discovery1 #ahb ,l4 ,laboratories at ,albemarle ,street1 #cf1 #ea1 #ff1 #hj1 #hd1 #if ,lateral effects of current1 #aea1 #afe1 #agj ,lectures at ,royal ,institution3 ,davy's1 #h1 #cf2 ,faraday's first1 #bbg2 ,juvenile1 #cc1 #cg1 #fa1 #aja1 #bcc1 #bcd1 #bce1 #beh2 afternoon1 #cg1 #aff ----1 ,friday night discourses1 #cc1 #fj1 #ajj1 #aja1 #adi1 #aff1 #agj1 #aib1 #bjc1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bbe1 #bcb1 #bcf1 #bei ,lectures at the ,london ,institution1 #aja ---- at the ,british ,association1 #bfd ---- at ,st4 ,george's ,hospital1 #aff ---- at ,woolwich1 #ff1 #aja ,lecturing1 ,views about1 #af1 #bbf1 #bcb1 #bch ,letters from ,faraday to3 ,abbott1 ,b41 #g1 #i1 #ae1 #bb1 #be1 #bf1 #da1 #dd1 #bbh2 ,andrews1 ,t41 #bgc2 ,barnard1 ,miss ,sarah1 #dg1 #dh2 ,becker1 ,dr41 #bdd2 ,burdett-,coutts1 ,baroness1 #bdj2 ,davy1 ,sir ,h41 #aj2 ,de la ,rive1 ,a41 #bi1 #ahe2 ,de la ,rive1 ,g41 #hc1 #he1 #ia1 #bjg1 #bfg2 ,deacon1 ,mrs41 #bec2 ,faraday1 ,mrs41 #eb1 #ec1 #bef2 ,grove1 ,sir ,wm41 #bfc2 ,hare1 ,r41 #bfi2 ,lovelace1 ,lady1 #bia2 ,matteucci1 ,prof4 ,c41 #bec1 #bfb1 #bfg2 ,melbourne1 ,lord1 #ga2 ,moore1 ,miss1 #bjg2 ,murray1 ,mr4 ,john1 #bcd2 ,paris1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,a41 #aj1 #ic2 ,percy1 ,dr4 ,j41 #bec2 ,phillips1 ,r41 #fa1 #aji1 #aad1 #aid1 #bgj1 #bgg2 ,riebau1 ,g41 #cj2 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between paragraphs and outside quotations4 ,in versions of this e,book that support hyperlinks1 the page references in the ,list of ,illustrations lead to the corresponding illustrations4 ,running page headers in the original book are shown here as sidenotes1 placed between paragraphs and near the topics to which they refer4 ,footnotes1 originally at the bottoms of pages1 have been renumbered into a single sequence1 collected1 and moved to just above the ,index4 ,the index was reformatted slightly and was not checked systematically for proper alphabetization or correct page references4