,,the ,,dance ,,of ,,life ,,the ,,dance ,,of ,,life ,,by ,,havelock ,,ellis ,,author ,,of 8,,impressions ,,and ,,comments10 8,,affirmations10 8,,essays ,,in ,,war-,,time10 ,,etc4 ,,boston ,,and ,,new ,,york ,,houghton ,,mifflin ,,company ,the ,riverside ,press ,cambridge ,,copyright1 #aibc1 ,,by ,,havelock ,,ellis ,,all ,,rights ,,reserved ,,second ,,impression1 ,,june1 #aibc ,,third ,,impression1 ,,august1 #aibc ,,fourth ,,impression1 ,,september1 #aibc ,,fifth ,,impression1 ,,october1 #aibc ,,sixth ,,impression1 ,,november1 #aibc ,,seventh ,,impression1 ,,december1 #aibc ,,eighth ,,impression1 ,,february1 #aibd ,,ninth ,,impression1 ,,july1 #aibd ,,tenth ,,impression1 ,,september1 #aibd ,,eleventh ,,impression1 ,,october1 #aibd ,,twelfth ,,impression1 ,,december1 #aibd ,the ,riverside ,press ,,cambridge ,,massachusetts ,,printed ,,in ,,the ,u4,s4,a4 ,,preface ,,this book was planned many years ago4 ,as to the idea running through it1 ,i cannot say when that arose4 ,my feeling is1 it was born with me4 ,on reflection1 indeed1 it seems possible the seeds fell imperceptibly in youth--from ,f4 ,a4 ,lange1 maybe1 and other sources--to germinate unseen in a congenial soil4 ,however that may be1 the idea underlies much that ,i have written4 ,even the present book began to be written1 and to be published in a preliminary form1 more than fifteen years ago4 ,perhaps ,i may be allowed to seek consolation for my slowness1 however vainly1 in the saying of ,rodin that 8slowness is beauty10 and certainly it is the slowest dances that have been to me most beautiful to see1 while1 in the dance of life1 the achievement of a civilisation in beauty seems to be inversely to the rapidity of its pace4 ,moreover1 the book remains incomplete1 not merely in the sense that ,i would desire still to be changing and adding to each chapter1 but even incomplete by the absence of many chapters for which ,i had gathered material1 and twenty years ago should have been surprised to find missing4 ,for there are many arts1 not among those we conventionally call 8fine10 which seem to me fundamental for living4 ,but now ,i put forth the book as it stands1 deliberately1 without remorse1 well content so to do4 ,once that would not have been possible4 ,a book must be completed as it had been originally planned1 finished1 rounded1 polished4 ,as a man grows older his ideals change4 ,thoroughness is often an admirable ideal4 ,but it is an ideal to be adopted with discrimination1 having due reference to the nature of the work in hand4 ,an artist1 it seems to me now1 has not always to finish his work in every detail2 by not doing so he may succeed in making the spectator his co-worker1 and put into his hands the tool to carry on the work which1 as it lies before him1 beneath its veil of yet partly unworked material1 still stretches into infinity4 ,where there is most labour there is not always most life1 and by doing less1 provided only he has known how to do well1 the artist may achieve more4 ,he will not1 ,i hope1 achieve complete consistency4 ,in fact a part of the method of such a book as this1 written over a long period of years1 is to reveal a continual slight inconsistency4 ,that is not an evil1 but rather the avoidance of an evil4 ,we cannot remain consistent with the world save by growing inconsistent with our own past selves4 ,the man who consistently--as he fondly supposes 8logically0--clings to an unchanging opinion is suspended from a hook which has ceased to exist4 8,i thought it was she1 and she thought it was me1 and when we come near it weren't neither one of us0--that metaphysical statement holds1 with a touch of exaggeration1 a truth we must always bear in mind concerning the relation of subject and object4 ,they can neither of them possess consistency2 they have both changed before they come up with one another4 ,not that such inconsistency is a random flux or a shallow opportunism4 ,we change1 and the world changes1 in accordance with the underlying organisation1 and inconsistency1 so conditioned by truth to the whole1 becomes the higher consistency of life4 ,i am therefore able to recognise and accept the fact that1 again and again in this book1 ,i have come up against what1 superficially regarded1 seemed to be the same fact1 and each time have brought back a slightly different report1 for it had changed and ,i had changed4 ,the world is various1 of infinite iridescent aspect1 and until ,i attain to a correspondingly infinite variety of statement ,i remain far from anything that could in any sense be described as 8truth40 ,we only see a great opal that never looks the same this time as when we looked last time4 8,he never painted to-day quite the same as he had painted yesterday10 ,elie ,faure says of ,renoir1 and it seems to me natural and right that it should have been so4 ,i have never seen the same world twice4 ,that1 indeed1 is but to repeat the ,heraclitean saying--an imperfect saying1 for it is only the half of the larger1 more modern synthesis ,i have already quoted--that no man bathes twice in the same stream4 ,yet--and this opposing fact is fully as significant--we really have to accept a continuous stream as constituted in our minds2 it flows in the same direction2 it coheres in what is more or less the same shape4 ,much the same may be said of the ever-changing bather whom the stream receives4 ,so that1 after all1 there is not only variety1 but also unity4 ,the diversity of the ,many is balanced by the stability of the ,one4 ,that is why life must always be a dance1 for that is what a dance is3 perpetual slightly varied movements which are yet always held true to the shape of the whole4 ,we verge on philosophy4 ,the whole of this book is on the threshold of philosophy4 ,i hasten to add that it remains there4 ,no dogmas are here set forth to claim any general validity4 ,not that even the technical philosopher always cares to make that claim4 ,mr4 ,f4 ,h4 ,bradley1 one of the most influential of modern ,english philosophers1 who wrote at the outset of his career1 8,on all questions1 if you push me far enough1 at present ,i end in doubts and perplexities10 still says1 forty years later1 that if asked to define his principles rigidly1 8,i become puzzled40 ,for even a cheese-mite1 one imagines1 could only with difficulty attain an adequate metaphysical conception of a cheese1 and how much more difficult the task is for ,man1 whose everyday intelligence seems to move on a plane so much like that of a cheese-mite and yet has so vastly more complex a web of phenomena to synthetise4 ,it is clear how hesitant and tentative must be the attitude of one who1 having found his life-work elsewhere than in the field of technical philosophy1 may incidentally feel the need1 even if only playfully1 to speculate concerning his function and place in the universe4 ,such speculation is merely the instinctive impulse of the ordinary person to seek the wider implications bound up with his own little activities4 ,it is philosophy only in the simple sense in which the ,greeks understood philosophy1 merely a philosophy of life1 of one's own life1 in the wide world4 ,the technical philosopher does something quite different when he passes over the threshold and shuts himself up in his study-- 8,veux-tu dcouvrir le monde1 ,ferme tes yeux1 ,rosemonde0-- and emerges with great tomes that are hard to buy1 hard to read1 and1 let us be sure1 hard to write4 ,but of ,socrates1 as of the ,english philosopher ,falstaff1 we are not told that he wrote anything4 ,so that if it may seem to some that this book reveals the expansive influence of that great classico-mathematical ,renaissance in which it is our high privilege to live1 and that they find here 8relativity0 applied to life1 ,i am not so sure4 ,it sometimes seems to me that1 in the first place1 we1 the common herd1 mould the great movements of our age1 and only in the second place do they mould us4 ,i think it was so even in the great earlier classico-mathematical ,renaissance4 ,we associate it with ,descartes4 ,but ,descartes could have effected nothing if an innumerable crowd in many fields had not created the atmosphere by which he was enabled to breathe the breath of life4 ,we may here profitably bear in mind all that ,spengler has shown concerning the unity of spirit underlying the most diverse elements in an age's productivity4 ,roger ,bacon had in him the genius to create such a ,renaissance three centuries earlier2 there was no atmosphere for him to live in and he was stifled4 ,but ,malherbe1 who worshipped ,number and ,measure as devoutly as ,descartes1 was born half a century before him4 ,that silent1 colossal1 ferocious ,norman--vividly brought before us by ,tallement des ,raux1 to whom1 rather than to ,saint-,simon1 we owe the real picture of seventeenth-century ,france--was possessed by the genius of destruction1 for he had the natural instinct of the ,viking1 and he swept all the lovely ,romantic spirit of old ,france so completely away that it has scarcely ever revived since until the days of ,verlaine4 ,but he had the ,norman classico-mathematical architectonic spirit--he might have said1 like ,descartes1 as truly as it ever can be said in literature1 ,omnia apud me mathematica fiunt--and he introduced into the world a new rule of ,order4 ,given a ,malherbe1 a ,descartes could hardly fail to follow1 a ,french ,academy must come into existence almost at the same time as the 8,discours de la ,mthode10 and ,le ,ntre must already be drawing the geometrical designs of the gardens of ,versailles4 ,descartes1 it should be remembered1 could not have worked without support2 he was a man of timid and yielding character1 though he had once been a soldier1 not of the heroic temper of ,roger ,bacon4 ,if ,descartes could have been put back into ,roger ,bacon's place1 he would have thought many of ,bacon's thoughts4 ,but we should never have known it4 ,he nervously burnt one of his works when he heard of ,galileo's condemnation1 and it was fortunate that the ,church was slow to recognise how terrible a ,bolshevist had entered the spiritual world with this man1 and never realised that his books must be placed on the ,index until he was already dead4 ,so it is to-day4 ,we1 too1 witness a classico-mathematical ,renaissance4 ,it is bringing us a new vision of the universe1 but also a new vision of human life4 ,that is why it is necessary to insist upon life as a dance4 ,this is not a mere metaphor4 ,the dance is the rule of number and of rhythm and of measure and of order1 of the controlling influence of form1 of the subordination of the parts to the whole4 ,that is what a dance is4 ,and these same properties also make up the classic spirit1 not only in life1 but1 still more clearly and definitely1 in the universe itself4 ,we are strictly correct when we regard not only life but the universe as a dance4 ,for the universe is made up of a certain number of elements1 less than a hundred1 and the 8periodic law0 of these elements is metrical4 ,they are ranged1 that is to say1 not haphazard1 not in groups1 but by number1 and those of like quality appear at fixed and regular intervals4 ,thus our world is1 even fundamentally1 a dance1 a single metrical stanza in a poem which will be for ever hidden from us1 except in so far as the philosophers1 who are to-day even here applying the methods of mathematics1 may believe that they have imparted to it the character of objective knowledge4 ,i call this movement of to-day1 as that of the seventeenth century1 classico-mathematical4 ,and ,i regard the dance 7without prejudice to a distinction made later in this volume7 as essentially its symbol4 ,this is not to belittle the ,romantic elements of the world1 which are equally of its essence4 ,but the vast exuberant energies and immeasurable possibilities of the first day may perhaps be best estimated when we have reached their final outcome on the sixth day of creation4 ,however that may be1 the analogy of the two historical periods in question remains1 and ,i believe that we may consider it holds good to the extent that the strictly mathematical elements of the later period are not the earliest to appear1 but that we are in the presence of a process that has been in subtle movement in many fields for half a century4 ,if it is significant that ,descartes appeared a few years after ,malherbe1 it is equally significant that ,einstein was immediately preceded by the ,russian ballet4 ,we gaze in admiration at the artist who sits at the organ1 but we have been blowing the bellows2 and the great performer's music would have been inaudible had it not been for us4 ,this is the spirit in which ,i have written4 ,we are all engaged--not merely one or two prominent persons here and there--in creating the spiritual world4 ,i have never written but with the thought that the reader1 even though he may not know it1 is already on my side4 ,only so could ,i write with that sincerity and simplicity without which it would not seem to me worth while to write at all4 ,that may be seen in the saying which ,i set on the forefront of my earliest book1 8,the ,new ,spirit03 he who carries farthest his most intimate feelings is simply the first in file of a great number of other men1 and one becomes typical by being to the utmost degree one's self4 ,that saying ,i chose with much deliberation and complete conviction because it went to the root of my book4 ,on the surface it obviously referred to the great figures ,i was there concerned with1 representing what ,i regarded--by no means in the poor sense of mere modernity--as the ,new ,spirit in life4 ,they had all gone to the depths of their own souls and thence brought to the surface and expressed--audaciously or beautifully1 pungently or poignantly--intimate impulses and emotions which1 shocking as they may have seemed at the time1 are now seen to be those of an innumerable company of their fellow men and women4 ,but it was also a book of personal affirmations4 ,beneath the obvious meaning of that motto on the title-page lay the more private meaning that ,i was myself setting forth secret impulses which might some day be found to express the emotions also of others4 ,in the thirty-five years that have since passed1 the saying has often recurred to my mind1 and if ,i have sought in vain to make it mine ,i find no adequate justification for the work of my life4 ,and now1 as ,i said at the outset1 ,i am even prepared to think that that is the function of all books that are real books4 ,there are other classes of so-called books3 there is the class of history books and the class of forensic books1 that is to say1 the books of facts and the books of argument4 ,no one would wish to belittle either kind4 ,but when we think of a book proper1 in the sense that a ,bible means a book1 we mean more than this4 ,we mean1 that is to say1 a revelation of something that had remained latent1 unconscious1 perhaps even more or less intentionally repressed1 within the writer's own soul1 which is1 ultimately1 the soul of mankind4 ,these books are apt to repel2 nothing1 indeed1 is so likely to shock us at first as the manifest revelation of ourselves4 ,therefore1 such books may have to knock again and again at the closed door of our hearts4 8,who is there80 we carelessly cry1 and we cannot open the door2 we bid the importunate stranger1 whatever he may be1 to go away2 until1 as in the apologue of the ,persian mystic1 at last we seem to hear the voice outside saying3 8,it is thyself40 ,h4 ,e4 ,,contents ,i4 ,,introduction #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,dancing #cf ,,iii4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,thinking #fh ,,iv4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,writing #ada ,v4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,religion #aia ,,vi4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,morals #bdd ,,vii4 ,,conclusion #bhe ,,index #cei ,,chapter ,i ,,introduction ,i ,,it has always been difficult for ,man to realise that his life is all an art4 ,it has been more difficult to conceive it so than to act it so4 ,for that is always how he has more or less acted it4 ,at the beginning1 indeed1 the primitive philosopher whose business it was to account for the origin of things usually came to the conclusion that the whole universe was a work of art1 created by some ,supreme ,artist1 in the way of artists1 out of material that was practically nothing1 even out of his own excretions1 a method which1 as children sometimes instinctively feel1 is a kind of creative art4 ,the most familiar to us of these primitive philosophical statements--and really a statement that is as typical as any--is that of the ,hebrews in the first chapter of their ,book of ,genesis4 ,we read there how the whole cosmos was fashioned out of nothing1 in a measurable period of time by the art of one ,jehovah1 who proceeded methodically by first forming it in the rough1 and gradually working in the details1 the finest and most delicate last1 just as a sculptor might fashion a statue4 ,we may find many statements of the like kind even as far away as the ,pacific4#a ,and--also even at the same distance--the artist and the craftsman1 who resembled the divine creator of the world by making the most beautiful and useful things for ,mankind1 himself also partook of the same divine nature4 ,thus1 in ,samoa1 as also in ,tonga1 the carpenter1 who built canoes1 occupied a high and almost sacred position1 approaching that of the priest4 ,even among ourselves1 with our ,roman traditions1 the name ,pontiff1 or ,bridge-,builder1 remains that of an imposing and hieratic personage4 ,but that is only the primitive view of the world4 ,when ,man developed1 when he became more scientific and more moralistic1 however much his practice remained essentially that of the artist1 his conception became much less so4 ,he was learning to discover the mystery of measurement2 he was approaching the beginnings of geometry and mathematics2 he was at the same time becoming warlike4 ,so he saw things in straight lines1 more rigidly2 he formulated laws and commandments4 ,it was1 ,einstein assures us1 the right way4 ,but it was1 at all events in the first place1 most unfavourable to the view of life as an art4 ,it remains so even to-day4 ,yet there are always some who1 deliberately or by instinct1 have perceived the immense significance in life of the conception of art4 ,that is especially so as regards the finest thinkers of the two countries which1 so far as we may divine1--however difficult it may here be to speak positively and by demonstration1--have had the finest civilisations1 ,china and ,greece4 ,the wisest and most recognisably greatest practical philosophers of both these lands have believed that the whole of life1 even government1 is an art of definitely like kind with the other arts1 such as that of music or the dance4 ,we may1 for instance1 recall to memory one of the most typical of ,greeks4 ,of ,protagoras1 calumniated by ,plato1--though1 it is interesting to observe that ,plato's own transcendental doctrine of ,ideas has been regarded as an effort to escape from the solvent influence of ,protagoras' logic1--it is possible for the modern historian of philosophy to say that 8the greatness of this man can scarcely be measured40 ,it was with measurement that his most famous saying was concerned3 8,man is the measure of all things1 of those which exist and of those which have no existence40 ,it was by his insistence on ,man as the active creator of life and knowledge1 the artist of the world1 moulding it to his own measure1 that ,protagoras is interesting to us to-day4 ,he recognised that there are no absolute criteria by which to judge actions4 ,he was the father of relativism and of phenomenalism1 probably the initiator of the modern doctrine that the definitions of geometry are only approximately true abstractions from empirical experiences4 ,we need not1 and probably should not1 suppose that in undermining dogmatism he was setting up an individual subjectivism4 ,it was the function of ,man in the world1 rather than of the individual1 that he had in mind when he enunciated his great principle1 and it was with the reduction of human activity and conduct to art that he was mainly concerned4 ,his projects for the art of living began with speech1 and he was a pioneer in the arts of language1 the initiator of modern grammar4 ,he wrote treatises on many special arts1 as well as the general treatise 8,on the ,art0 among the pseudo-,hippocratic writings1--if we may with ,gomperz attribute it to him1--which embodies the spirit of modern positive science4#b ,hippias1 the philosopher of ,elis1 a contemporary of ,protagoras1 and like him commonly classed among the 8,sophists10 cultivated the largest ideal of life as an art which embraced all arts1 common to all mankind as a fellowship of brothers1 and at one with natural law which transcends the convention of human laws4 ,plato made fun of him1 and that was not hard to do1 for a philosopher who conceived the art of living as so large could not possibly at every point adequately play at it4 ,but at this distance it is his ideal that mainly concerns us1 and he really was highly accomplished1 even a pioneer1 in many of the multifarious activities he undertook4 ,he was a remarkable mathematician2 he was an astronomer and geometer2 he was a copious poet in the most diverse modes1 and1 moreover1 wrote on phonetics1 rhythm1 music1 and mnemonics2 he discussed the theories of sculpture and painting2 he was both mythologist and ethnologist1 as well as a student of chronology2 he had mastered many of the artistic crafts4 ,on one occasion1 it is said1 he appeared at the ,olympic gathering in garments which1 from the sandals on his feet to the girdle round his waist and the rings on his fingers1 had been made by his own hands4 ,such a being of kaleidoscopic versatility1 ,gomperz remarks1 we call contemptuously a ,jack-of-all-trades4 ,we believe in subordinating a man to his work4 ,but other ages have judged differently4 ,the fellow citizens of ,hippias thought him worthy to be their ambassador to the ,peloponnesus4 ,in another age of immense human activity1 the ,renaissance1 the vast-ranging energies of ,leo ,alberti were honoured1 and in yet a later like age1 ,diderot--,pantophile as ,voltaire called him--displayed a like fiery energy of wide-ranging interests1 although it was no longer possible to attain the same level of wide-ranging accomplishment4 ,of course the work of ,hippias was of unequal value1 but some of it was of firm quality and he shrank from no labour4 ,he seems to have possessed a gracious modesty1 quite unlike the conceited pomposity ,plato was pleased to attribute to him4 ,he attached more importance than was common among the ,greeks to devotion to truth1 and he was cosmopolitan in spirit4 ,he was famous for his distinction between ,convention and ,nature1 and ,plato put into his mouth the words3 8,all of you who are here present ,i reckon to be kinsmen and friends and fellow citizens1 and by nature1 not by law2 for by nature like is akin to like1 whereas law is the tyrant of mankind1 and often compels us to do many things that are against nature40 ,hippias was in the line of those whose supreme ideal is totality of existence4 ,ulysses1 as ,benn remarks1 was in ,greek myth the representative of the ideal1 and its supreme representative in real life has in modern times been ,goethe4#c ,,ii ,,but1 in actual fact1 is life essentially an art8 ,let us look at the matter more closely1 and see what life is like1 as people have lived it4 ,this is the more necessary to do since1 to-day at all events1 there are simple-minded people--well-meaning honest people whom we should not ignore--who pooh-pooh such an idea4 ,they point to the eccentric individuals in our ,western civilisation who make a little idol they call 8,art10 and fall down and worship it1 sing incomprehensible chants in its honour1 and spend most of their time in pouring contempt on the people who refuse to recognise that this worship of 8,art0 is the one thing needed for what they may or may not call the 8moral uplift0 of the age they live in4 ,we must avoid the error of the good simple-minded folk in whose eyes these 8,arty0 people loom so large4 ,they are not large1 they are merely the morbid symptoms of a social disease2 they are the fantastic reaction of a society which as a whole has ceased to move along the true course of any real and living art4 ,for that has nothing to do with the eccentricities of a small religious sect worshipping in a ,little ,bethel2 it is the large movement of the common life of a community1 indeed simply the outward and visible form of that life4 ,thus the whole conception of art has been so narrowed and so debased among us that1 on the one hand1 the use of the word in its large and natural sense seems either unintelligible or eccentric1 while1 on the other hand1 even if accepted1 it still remains so unfamiliar that its immense significance for our whole vision of life in the world is scarcely at first seen4 ,this is not altogether due to our natural obtusity1 or to the absence of a due elimination of subnormal stocks among us1 however much we may be pleased to attribute to that dysgenic factor4 ,it seems largely inevitable4 ,that is to say that1 so far as we in our modern civilisation are concerned1 it is the outcome of the social process of two thousand years1 the result of the breakup of the classic tradition of thought into various parts which under post-classic influences have been pursued separately4#d ,religion or the desire for the salvation of our souls1 8,art0 or the desire for beautification1 ,science or the search for the reasons of things--these conations of the mind1 which are really three aspects of the same profound impulse1 have been allowed to furrow each its own narrow separate channel1 in alienation from the others1 and so they have all been impeded in their greater function of fertilising life4 ,it is interesting to observe1 ,i may note in passing1 how totally new an aspect a phenomenon may take on when transformed from some other channel into that of art4 ,we may take1 for instance1 that remarkable phenomenon called ,napoleon1 as impressive an individualistic manifestation as we could well find in human history during recent centuries1 and consider two contemporary1 almost simultaneous1 estimates of it4 ,a distinguished ,english writer1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells1 in a notable and even famous book1 his 8,outline of ,history10 sets down a judgment of ,napoleon throughout a whole chapter4 ,now ,mr4 ,wells moves in the ethico-religious channel4 ,he wakes up every morning1 it is said1 with a rule for the guidance of life2 some of his critics say that it is every morning a new rule1 and others that the rule is neither ethical nor religious2 but we are here concerned only with the channel and not with the direction of the stream4 ,in the 8,outline0 ,mr4 ,wells pronounces his ethico-religious anathema of ,napoleon1 8this dark little archaic personage1 hard1 compact1 capable1 unscrupulous1 imitative1 and neatly vulgar40 ,the 8archaic0--the old-fashioned1 outworn--element attributed to ,napoleon1 is accentuated again later1 for ,mr4 ,wells has an extremely low opinion 7hardly justifiable1 one may remark in passing7 of primitive man4 ,napoleon was 8a reminder of ancient evils1 a thing like the bacterium of some pestilence02 8the figure he makes in history is one of almost incredible self-conceit1 of vanity1 greed1 and cunning1 of callous contempt and disregard of all who trusted him40 ,there is no figure1 ,mr4 ,wells asserts1 so completely antithetical to the figure of ,jesus of ,nazareth4 ,he was 8a scoundrel1 bright and complete40 ,there is no occasion to question this condemnation when we place ourselves in the channel along which ,mr4 ,wells moves2 it is probably inevitable2 we may even accept it heartily4 ,yet1 however right along that line1 that is not the only line in which we may move4 ,moreover--and this is the point which concerns us--it is possible to enter a sphere in which no such merely negative1 condemnatory1 and dissatisfying a conclusion need be reached4 ,for obviously it is dissatisfying4 ,it is not finally acceptable that so supreme a protagonist of humanity1 acclaimed by millions1 of whom many gladly died for him1 and still occupying so large and glorious a place in the human imagination1 should be dismissed in the end as merely an unmitigated scoundrel4 ,for so to condemn him is to condemn ,man who made him what he was4 ,he must have answered some lyric cry in the human heart4 ,that other sphere in which ,napoleon wears a different aspect is the sphere of art in the larger and fundamental sense4 lie ,faure1 a ,french critic1 an excellent historian of art in the ordinary sense1 is able also to grasp art in the larger sense because he is not only a man of letters but of science1 a man with medical training and experience1 who has lived in the open world1 not1 as the critic of literature and art so often appears to be1 a man living in a damp cellar4 ,just after ,wells issued his 8,outline10 lie ,faure1 who probably knew nothing about it since he reads no ,english1 published a book on ,napoleon which some may consider the most remarkable book on that subject they have ever come across4 ,for to ,faure ,napoleon is a great lyric artist4 ,it is hard not to believe that ,faure had ,wells's chapter on ,napoleon open before him1 he speaks so much to the point4 ,he entitled the first chapter of his 8,napolon0 8,jesus and ,he10 and at once pierces to what ,wells1 too1 had perceived to be the core of the matter in hand3 8,from the point of view of morality he is not to be defended and is even incomprehensible4 ,in fact he violates law1 he kills1 he sows vengeance and death4 ,but also he dictates law1 he tracks and crushes crime1 he establishes order everywhere4 ,he is an assassin4 ,he is also a judge4 ,in the ranks he would deserve the rope4 ,at the summit he is pure1 distributing recompense and punishment with a firm hand4 ,he is a monster with two faces1 like all of us perhaps1 in any case like ,god1 for those who have praised ,napoleon and those who have blamed him have alike not understood that the ,devil is the other face of ,god40 ,from the moral point of view1 ,faure says 7just as ,wells had said71 ,napoleon is ,antichrist4 ,but from this standpoint of art1 all grows clear4 ,he is a poet of action1 as ,jesus was1 and like him he stands apart4 ,these two1 and these two alone among the world's supremely great men of whom we have any definite knowledge1 8acted out their dream instead of dreaming their action40 ,it is possible that ,napoleon himself was able to estimate the moral value of that acted dream4 ,as he once stood before the grave of ,rousseau1 he observed3 8,it would have been better for the repose of ,france if that man and ,i had never existed40 ,yet we cannot be sure4 8,is not repose the death of the world80 asks ,faure4 8,had not ,rousseau and ,napoleon precisely the mission of troubling that repose8 ,in another of the profound and almost impersonal sayings that sometimes fell from his lips1 ,napoleon observed with a still deeper intuition of his own function in the world3 8,i love power4 ,but it is as an artist that ,i love it4 ,i love it as a musician loves his violin1 to draw out of it sounds and chords and harmonies4 ,i love it as an artist40 ,as an artist6 ,these words were the inspiration of this finely illuminating study of ,napoleon1 which1 while free from all desire to defend or admire1 yet seems to explain ,napoleon1 in the larger sense to justify his right to a place in the human story1 so imparting a final satisfaction which ,wells1 we feel1 could he have escaped from the bonds of the narrow conception of life that bound him1 had in him the spirit and the intelligence also to bestow upon us4 ,but it is time to turn from this aside4 ,it is always possible to dispute about individuals1 even when so happy an illustration chances to come before us4 ,we are not here concerned with exceptional persons1 but with the interpretation of general and normal human civilisations4 ,,iii ,i ,,take1 almost at random1 the example of a primitive people4 ,there are many others that would do as well or better4 ,but this happens to come to hand1 and it has the advantage not only of being a primitive people1 but one living on an island1 so possessing until lately its own little-impaired indigenous culture1 as far as possible remote in space from our own2 the record also has been made1 as carefully and as impartially as one can well expect1 by a missionary's wife who speaks from a knowledge covering over twenty years4#e ,it is almost needless to add that she is as little concerned with any theory of the art of life as the people she is describing4 ,the ,loyalty ,islands lie to the east of ,new ,caledonia1 and have belonged to ,france for more than half a century4 ,they are thus situated in much the same latitude as ,egypt is in the ,northern hemisphere1 but with a climate tempered by the ocean4 ,it is with the ,island of ,lifu that we are mainly concerned4 ,there are no streams or mountains in this island1 though a ridge of high rocks with large and beautiful caves contains stalactites and stalagmites and deep pools of fresh water2 these pools1 before the coming of the ,christians1 were the abode of the spirits of the departed1 and therefore greatly reverenced4 ,a dying man would say to his friends3 8,i will meet you all again in the caves where the stalactites are40 ,the ,loyalty ,islanders1 who are of average ,european stature1 are a handsome race1 except for their thick lips and dilated nostrils1 which1 however1 are much less pronounced than among ,african negroes4 ,they have soft large brown eyes1 wavy black hair1 white teeth1 and rich brown skin of varying depth4 ,each tribe has its own well-defined territory and its own chief4 ,although possessing high moral qualities1 they are a laughter-loving people1 and neither their climate nor their mode of life demands prolonged hard labour1 but they can work as well as the average ,briton1 if need be1 for several consecutive days1 and1 when the need is over1 lounge or ramble1 sleep or talk4 ,the basis of their culture--and that is doubtless the significant fact for us--is artistic4 ,every one learned music1 dancing1 and song4 ,therefore it is natural for them to regard rhythm and grace in all the actions of life1 and almost a matter of instinct to cultivate beauty in all social relationships4 ,men and boys spent much time in tattooing and polishing their brown skins1 in dyeing and dressing their long wavy hair 7golden locks1 as much admired as they always have been in ,europe1 being obtained by the use of lime71 and in anointing their bodies4 ,these occupations were1 of course1 confined to the men1 for man is naturally the ornamental sex and woman the useful sex4 ,the women gave no attention to their hair1 except to keep it short4 ,it was the men also who used oils and perfumes1 not the women1 who1 however1 wore bracelets above the elbow and beautiful long strings of jade beads4 ,no clothing is worn until the age of twenty-five or thirty1 and then all dress alike1 except that chiefs fasten the girdle differently and wear more elaborate ornaments4 ,these people have sweet and musical voices and they cultivate them4 ,they are good at learning languages and they are great orators4 ,the ,lifuan language is soft and liquid1 one word running into another pleasantly to the ear1 and it is so expressive that one may sometimes understand the meaning by the sound4 ,in one of these islands1 ,uvea1 so great is the eloquence of the people that they employ oratory to catch fish1 whom indeed they regard in their legends as half human1 and it is believed that a shoal of fish1 when thus politely plied with compliments from a canoe1 will eventually1 and quite spontaneously1 beach themselves spellbound4 ,for a primitive people the art of life is necessarily of large part concerned with eating4 ,it is recognised that no one can go hungry when his neighbour has food1 so no one was called upon to make any great demonstration of gratitude on receiving a gift4 ,help rendered to another was help to one's self1 if it contributed to the common weal1 and what ,i do for you to-day you will do for me to-morrow4 ,there was implicit trust1 and goods were left about without fear of theft1 which was rare and punishable by death4 ,it was not theft1 however1 if1 when the owner was looking1 one took an article one wanted4 ,to tell a lie1 also1 with intent to deceive1 was a serious offence1 though to tell a lie when one was afraid to speak the truth was excusable4 ,the ,lifuans are fond of food1 but much etiquette is practised in eating4 ,the food must be conveyed to the mouth gracefully1 daintily1 leisurely4 ,every one helped himself to the food immediately in front of him1 without hurry1 without reaching out for dainty morsels 7which were often offered to women71 for every one looked after his neighbour1 and every one naturally felt that he was his brother's keeper4 ,so it was usual to invite passers-by cordially to share in the repast4 8,in the matter of food and eating10 ,mrs4 ,hadfield adds1 8they might put many of our countrymen to shame40 ,not only must one never eat quickly1 or notice dainties that are not near one1 but it would be indelicate to eat in the presence of people who are not themselves eating4 ,one must always share1 however small one's portion1 and one must do so pleasantly2 one must accept also what is offered1 but slowly1 reluctantly2 having accepted it1 you may1 if you like1 openly pass it on to some one else4 ,in old days the ,lifuans were1 occasionally1 cannibals1 not1 it would seem1 either from necessity or any ritual reason1 but because1 like some peoples elsewhere1 they liked it1 having1 indeed1 at times1 a kind of craving for animal food4 ,if a man had twenty or thirty wives and a large family1 it would be quite correct if1 now and then1 he cooked one of his own children1 although presumably he might prefer that some one else's child was chosen4 ,the child would be cooked whole1 wrapped in banana or coconut leaves4 ,the social inconveniences of this practice have now been recognised4 ,but they still feel the utmost respect and reverence for the dead and fail to find anything offensive or repulsive in a corpse4 8,why should there be1 seeing it was once our food80 ,nor have they any fear of death4 ,to vermin they seem to have little objection1 but otherwise they have a strong love of cleanliness4 ,the idea of using manure in agricultural operations seems to them disgusting1 and they never do use it4 8,the sea was the public playground40 ,mothers take their little ones for sea-baths long before they can walk1 and small children learn to swim as they learn to walk1 without teaching4 ,with their reverence for death is associated a reverence for old age4 8,old age is a term of respect1 and every one is pleased to be taken for older than he is since old age is honoured40 ,still1 regard for others was general--not confined to the aged4 ,in the church nowadays the lepers are seated on a separate bench1 and when the bench is occupied by a leper healthy women will sometimes insist on sitting with him2 they could not bear to see the old man sitting alone as though he had no friends4 ,there was much demonstration on meeting friends after absence4 ,a ,lifuan always said 8,olea0 78,thank you07 for any good news1 though not affecting him personally1 as though it were a gift1 for he was glad to be able to rejoice with another4 ,being divided into small tribes1 each with its own autocratic chief1 war was sometimes inevitable4 ,it was attended by much etiquette1 which was always strictly observed4 ,the ,lifuans were not acquainted with the civilised custom of making rules for warfare and breaking them when war actually broke out4 ,several days' notice must be given before hostilities were commenced4 ,women and children1 in contrast to the practice of civilised warfare1 were never molested4 ,as soon as half a dozen fighters were put out of action on one side1 the chief of that side would give the command to cease fighting and the war was over4 ,an indemnity was then paid by the conquerors to the vanquished1 and not1 as among civilised peoples1 by the vanquished to the conquerors4 ,it was felt to be the conquered rather than the conqueror who needed consolation1 and it also seemed desirable to show that no feeling of animosity was left behind4 ,this was not only a delicate mark of consideration to the vanquished1 but also very good policy1 as1 by neglecting it1 some ,europeans may have had cause to learn4 ,this whole ,lifuan art of living has1 however1 been undermined by the arrival of ,christianity with its usual accompaniments4 ,the ,lifuans are substituting ,european vices for their own virtues4 ,their simplicity and confidence are passing away1 though1 even yet1 ,mrs4 ,hadfield says1 they are conspicuous for their honesty1 truthfulness1 good-humour1 kindness1 and politeness1 remaining a manly and intelligent people4 ,,iv ,,the ,lifuans furnish an illustration which seems decisive4 ,but they are savages1 and on that account their example may be invalidated4 ,it is well to take another illustration from a people whose high and long-continued civilisation is now undisputed4 ,the civilisation of ,china is ancient3 that has long been a familiar fact4 ,but for more than a thousand years it was merely a legend to ,western ,europeans2 none had ever reached ,china1 or1 if they had1 they had never returned to tell the tale2 there were too many fierce and jealous barbarians between the ,east and the ,west4 ,it was not until the end of the thirteenth century1 in the pages of ,marco ,polo1 the ,venetian ,columbus of the ,east1--for it was an ,italian who discovered the ,old ,world as well as the ,new1--that ,china at last took definite shape alike as a concrete fact and a marvellous dream4 ,later1 ,italian and ,portuguese travellers described it1 and it is interesting to note what they had to say4 ,thus ,perera in the sixteenth century1 in a narrative which ,willes translated for ,hakluyt's 8,voyages10 presents a detailed picture of ,chinese life with an admiration all the more impressive since we cannot help feeling how alien that civilisation was to the ,catholic traveller and how many troubles he had himself to encounter4 ,he is astonished1 not only by the splendour of the lives of the ,chinese on the material side1 alike in large things and in small1 but by their fine manners in all the ordinary course of life1 the courtesy in which they seemed to him to exceed all other nations1 and in the fair dealing which far surpassed that of all other ,gentiles and ,moors1 while in the exercise of justice he found them superior even to many ,christians1 for they do justice to unknown strangers1 which in ,christendom is rare2 moreover1 there were hospitals in every city and no beggars were ever to be seen4 ,it was a vision of splendour and delicacy and humanity1 which he might have seen1 here and there1 in the courts of princes in ,europe1 but nowhere in the ,west on so vast a scale as in ,china4 ,the picture which ,marco ,polo1 the first ,european to reach ,china 7at all events in what we may call modern times71 presented in the thirteenth century was yet more impressive1 and that need not surprise us1 for when he saw ,china it was still in its great ,augustan age of the ,sung ,dynasty4 ,he represents the city of ,hang-,chau as the most beautiful and sumptuous in the world1 and we must remember that he himself belonged to ,venice1 soon to be known as the most beautiful and sumptuous city of ,europe1 and had acquired no small knowledge of the world4 ,as he describes its life1 so exquisite and refined in its civilisation1 so humane1 so peaceful1 so joyous1 so well ordered1 so happily shared by the whole population1 we realise that here had been reached the highest point of urban civilisation to which ,man has ever attained4 ,marco ,polo can think of no word to apply to it--and that again and again--but ,paradise4 ,the ,china of to-day seems less strange and astonishing to the ,westerner4 ,it may even seem akin to him--partly through its decline1 partly through his own progress in civilisation--by virtue of its direct and practical character4 ,that is the conclusion of a sensitive and thoughtful traveller in ,india and ,japan and ,china1 ,g4 ,lowes ,dickinson4 ,he is impressed by the friendliness1 the profound humanity1 the gaiety1 of the ,chinese1 by the unequalled self-respect1 independence1 and courtesy of the common people4 8,the fundamental attitude of the ,chinese towards life is1 and has always been1 that of the most modern ,west1 nearer to us now than to our medival ancestors1 infinitely nearer to us than ,india40#f ,so far it may seem scarcely as artists that these travellers regard the ,chinese4 ,they insist on their cheerful1 practical1 social1 good-mannered1 tolerant1 peaceable1 humane way of regarding life1 on the remarkably educable spirit in which they are willing1 and easily able1 to change even ancient and deep-rooted habits when it seems convenient and beneficial to do so2 they are willing to take the world lightly1 and seem devoid of those obstinate conservative instincts by which we are guided in ,europe4 ,the 8,resident in ,peking0 says they are the least romantic of peoples4 ,he says it with a nuance of dispraise1 but ,lowes ,dickinson says precisely the same thing about ,chinese poetry1 and with no such nuance3 8,it is of all poetry ,i know the most human and the least symbolic or romantic4 ,it contemplates life just as it presents itself1 without any veil of ideas1 any rhetoric or sentiment2 it simply clears away the obstruction which habit has built up between us and the beauty of things and leaves that1 showing in its own nature40 ,every one who has learnt to enjoy ,chinese poetry will appreciate the delicate precision of this comment4 ,the quality of their poetry seems to fall into line with the simple1 direct1 childlike quality which all observers note in the ,chinese themselves4 ,the unsympathetic 8,resident in ,peking0 describes the well-known etiquette of politeness in ,china3 8,a ,chinaman will inquire of what noble country you are4 ,you return the question1 and he will say his lowly province is so-and-so4 ,he will invite you to do him the honour of directing your jewelled feet to his degraded house4 ,you reply that you1 a discredited worm1 will crawl into his magnificent palace40 ,life becomes all play4 ,ceremony--the ,chinese are unequalled for ceremony1 and a ,government ,department1 the ,board of ,rites and ,ceremonies1 exists to administer it--is nothing but more or less crystallised play4 ,not only is ceremony here 8almost an instinct10 but1 it has been said1 8,a ,chinese thinks in theatrical terms40 ,we are coming near to the sphere of art4 ,the quality of play in the ,chinese character and ,chinese civilisation has impressed alike them who have seen ,china from afar and by actual contact4 ,it used to be said that the ,chinese had invented gunpowder long before ,europeans and done nothing with it but make fireworks4 ,that seemed to the whole ,western world a terrible blindness to the valuable uses of gunpowder1 and it is only of late years that a ,european commentator has ventured to remark that 8the proper use of gunpowder is obviously to make fireworks1 which may be very beautiful things1 not to kill men40 ,certainly the ,chinese1 at all events1 appreciate to the full this proper use of gunpowder4 8,one of the most obvious characteristics of the ,chinese is their love of fireworks10 we are told4 ,the gravest people and the most intellectual occupy themselves with fireworks1 and if the works of ,bergson1 in which pyrotechnical allusions are so frequent1 are ever translated into ,chinese1 one can well believe that ,china will produce enthusiastic ,bergsonians4 ,all toys are popular2 everybody1 it is said1 buys toys of one sort or another3 paper windmills1 rattles1 ,chinese lanterns1 and of course kites1 which have an almost sacred significance4 ,they delight1 also1 in more complicated games of skill1 including an elaborate form of chess1 far more difficult than ours4#g ,it is unnecessary to add that to philosophy1 a higher and more refined form of play1 the ,chinese are peculiarly addicted1 and philosophic discussion is naturally woven in with an 8art of exquisite enjoyment0--carried probably to greater perfection than anywhere else in the world4 ,bertrand ,russell1 who makes this remark1 in the suggestive comments on his own visit to ,china1 observes how this simple1 child-like1 yet profound attitude towards life results in a liberation of the impulses to play and enjoyment which 8makes ,chinese life unbelievably restful and delightful after the solemn cruelties of the ,west40 ,we are reminded of ,gourmont's remark that 8pleasure is a human creation1 a delicate art1 to which1 as for music or painting1 only a few are apt40 ,the social polity which brings together the people who thus view life is at once singular and appropriate4 ,i well remember how in youth a new volume of the ,sacred ,books of the ,east ,series1 a part of the ,confucian ,l-k1 came into my hands and how delighted ,i was to learn that in ,china life was regulated by music and ceremony4 ,that was the beginning of an interest in ,china that has not ceased to grow1 though now1 when it has become a sort of fashion to exalt the spiritual qualities of the ,chinese above those of other peoples1 one may well feel disinclined to admit any interest in ,china4 ,but the conception itself1 since it seems to have had its beginning at least a thousand years before ,christ1 may properly be considered independently of our ,western fashions4 ,it is ,propriety--the whole ceremony of life--in which all harmonious intercourse subsists2 it is 8the channel by which we apprehend the ways of ,heaven10 in no supernatural sense1 for it is on the earth and not in the skies that the ,confucian ,heaven lies concealed4 ,but if human feelings1 the instincts--for in this matter the ancient ,chinese were at one with our modern psychologists1--are the field that has to be cultivated1 and it is ceremony that ploughs it1 and the seeds of right action that are to be planted on it1 and discipline that is to weed it1 and love that is to gather in the fruits1 it is in music1 and the joy and peace that accompany music1 that it all ends4 ,indeed1 it is also in music that it all begins4 ,for the sphere in which ceremonies act is ,man's external life2 his internal life is the sphere of music4 ,it is music that moulds the manners and customs that are comprised under ceremony1 for ,confucius held that there can be music without sound where 8virtue is deep and silent02 and we are reminded of the 8,crescendo of ,silences0 on the ,chinese pavilion in ,villiers de l',isle ,adam's story1 8,le ,secret de l'ancienne ,musique40 ,it is music that regulates the heart and mind and with that development brings joy1 and joy brings repose4 ,and so 8,man became ,heaven40 8,let ceremonies and music have their course until the earth is filled with them60 ,it is sometimes said that among ,chinese moralists and philosophers ,lao-tze1 the deepest of them all1 alone stands aside from the chorus in praise of music and ceremony4 ,when once ,confucius came to consult ,lao-tze concerning the rules of propriety1 and reverence for the teaching of the sages of antiquity1 we are told1 ,lao-tze replied3 8,the men of whom you speak1 sir1 have1 if you please1 together with their bones1 mouldered40 ,confucius went away1 puzzled if not dissatisfied ,he was willing to work not only from within outwards1 but from without inwards1 because he allowed so large a place for social solidity1 for traditionalism1 for paternalism1 though he recognised that ceremony is subordinate in the scheme of life1 as colour is in a painting1 the picture being the real thing4 ,lao-tze was an individualist and a mystic4 ,he was little concerned with moralities in the ordinary sense4 ,he recognised no action but from within outwards4 ,but though ,confucius could scarcely have altogether grasped his conception1 he was quite able to grasp that of ,confucius1 and his indifference to tradition1 to rule and propriety was simply an insistence on essential reality1 on 8music40 8,ceremonies10 he said1 8are the outward expression of inward feeling40 ,he was no more opposed to the fundamental ,chinese conception than ,george ,fox was opposed to ,christianity in refusing to observe the mere forms and ceremonies of the ,church4 ,a sound ,confucianism is the outward manifestation of ,taoism 7as ,lao-tze himself taught it71 just as a sound socialism is the outward manifestation of a genuine individualism4 ,it has been well said that ,chinese socialistic solidarity rests on an individualistic basis1 it is not a bureaucratic ,state socialism2 it works from within outward4 7,one of the first ,european visitors to ,china remarked that there a street was like a home47 ,this is well shown by so great and typical a ,chinese philosopher as ,meh-ti1#h who lived shortly after ,confucius1 in the fifth century ,b4,c4 ,he taught universal love1 with universal equality1 and for him to love meant to act4 ,he admitted an element of self-interest as a motive for such an attitude4 ,he desired to universalise mutual self-help4 ,following ,confucius1 but yet several centuries before ,jesus1 he declared that a man should love his neighbour1 his fellow man1 as himself4 8,when he sees his fellow hungry1 he feeds him2 when he sees him cold1 he clothes him2 ill1 he nurses him2 dead1 he buries him40 ,this1 he said1 was by no means opposed to filial piety2 for if one cares for the parents of others1 they in turn will care for his4 ,but1 it was brought against him1 the power of egoism8 ,the ,master agreed4 ,yet1 he said1 ,man accepts more difficult things4 ,he can renounce joy1 life itself1 for even absurd and ridiculous ends4 ,a single generation1 he added1 such is the power of imitation1 might suffice to change a people's customs4 ,but ,meh-ti remained placid4 ,he remarked that the great ones of the earth were against human solidarity and equality2 he left it at that4 ,he took no refuge in mysticism4 ,practical social action was the sole end he had in view1 and we have to remember that his ideals are largely embodied in ,chinese institutions4#i ,we may understand now how it is that in ,china1 and in ,china alone among the great surviving civilisations1 we find that art animates the whole of life1 even its morality4 8,this universal presence of art10 remarks an acute yet discriminating observer1 mile ,hovelaque1 whom ,i have already quoted1#aj 8manifested in the smallest utensil1 the humblest stalls1 the notices on the shops1 the handwriting1 the rhythm of movement1 always regular and measured1 as though to the tune of unheard music1 announces a civilisation which is complete in itself1 elaborated in the smallest detail1 penetrated by one spirit1 which no interruption ever breaks1 a harmony which becomes at length a hallucinatory and overwhelming obsession40 ,or1 as another writer has summed up the ,chinese attitude3 8,for them the art of life is one1 as this world and the other are one4 ,their aim is to make the ,kingdom of ,heaven here and now40 ,it is obvious that a natural temperament in which the art-impulse is so all-embracing1 and the sthetic sensibility so acute1 might well have been of a perilous instability4 ,we could scarcely have been surprised if1 like that surpassing episode in ,egyptian history of which ,akhenaten was the leader and ,tell-el-,amarna the tomb1 it had only endured for a moment4 ,yet ,chinese civilisation1 which has throughout shown the dominating power of this sensitive temperament1 has lasted longer than any other4 ,the reason is that the very excesses of their temperament forced the ,chinese to fortify themselves against its perils4 ,the ,great ,wall1 built more than two thousand years ago1 and still to-day almost the most impressive work of man on the earth1 is typical of this attitude of the ,chinese4 ,they have exercised a stupendous energy in fortifying themselves against the natural enemies of their own temperament4 ,when one looks at it from this point of view1 it is easy to see that1 alike in its large outlines and its small details1 ,chinese life is always the art of balancing an sthetic temperament and guarding against its excesses4 ,we see this in the whole of the ancient and still prevailing system of ,confucian morality with its insistence on formal ceremony1 even when1 departing from the thought of its most influential founder1--for ceremonialism in ,china would have existed even if ,confucius had not lived1--it tended to become merely an external formalism4 ,we see it in the massive solidarity of ,chinese life1 the systematic social organisation by which individual responsibility1 even though leaving individuality itself intact1 is merged in the responsibility of the family and the still larger group4 ,we see it in the whole drift of ,chinese philosophy1 which is throughout sedative and contemplative4 ,we see it in the element of stoicism on the one hand and cruelty on the other which in so genuinely good-natured a people would otherwise seem puzzling4 ,the ,chinese love of flowers and gardens and landscape scenery is in the same direction1 and indeed one may say much the same of ,chinese painting and ,chinese poetry4#aa ,that is why it is only to-day that we in the ,west have reached the point of nervous susceptibility which enables us in some degree to comprehend the sthetic supremacy which the ,chinese reached more than a thousand years ago4 ,thus1 during its extremely long history--for the other great civilisations with which it was once contemporary have passed away or been disintegrated and transformed--,chinese civilisation has borne witness to the great fact that all human life is art4 ,it may be because they have realised this so thoroughly that the ,chinese have been able to preserve their civilisation so long1 through all the violent shocks to which it has been subjected4 ,there can be no doubt1 however1 that1 during the greater part of the last thousand years1 there has been1 however slow and gradual1 a decline in the vitality of ,chinese civilisation1 largely due1 it may well be1 to the crushing pressure of an excessive population4 ,for1 however remarkable the admiration which ,china arouses even to-day1 its finest flowering periods in the special arts lie far in the past1 while in the art of living itself the ,chinese have long grown languid4 ,the different reports of ancient and modern travellers regarding one definite social manifestation1 the prevalence of beggary1 cannot fail to tell us something regarding the significant form of their social life4 ,modern travellers complain of the plague constituted by the prevalence of beggars in ,china2 they are even a fixed and permanent institution on a trades-union basis4 ,but in the sixteenth century ,galeotto ,perera noticed with surprise in ,china the absence of beggars1 as ,marco ,polo had before him1 and ,friar ,gaspar de ,cruz remarked that the ,chinese so abhorred idleness that they gave no alms to the poor and mocked at the ,portuguese for doing so3 8,why give alms to a knave8 ,let him go and earn it40 ,their own priests1 he adds1 they sometimes whipped as being knaves4 7,it should be noted at the same time that it was considered reasonable only to give half the day to work1 the other half to joy and recreation47 ,but they built great asylums for the helpless poor1 and found employment for blind women1 gorgeously dressed and painted with ceruse and vermilion1 as prostitutes1 who were more esteemed in early ,china than they have been since4 ,that is a curious instance of the unflinching practicality still shown by the ,chinese in endless ways4 ,the undoubted lassitude in the later phases of this long-lived ,chinese culture has led to features in the art of life1 such as beggary and dirt among the poor1 not manifested in the younger offshoot of ,chinese and ,korean culture in ,japan1 though it is only fair to point out that impartial ,english observers1 like ,parker1 consider this prevalence of vermin and dirt as simply due to the prevalence of poverty1 and not greater than we find among the poor in ,england and elsewhere in the ,west4 ,marco ,polo speaks of three hundred public baths in one city alone in his time4 ,we note also that in the more specialised arts the transcendence of ,china belongs to the past1 and even sometimes a remote past4 ,it is so in the art of philosophy1 and the arts of poetry and painting4 ,it is so also in the art of pottery1 in which ,chinese supremacy over the rest of the world has been longest recognised--has not the word 8china0 for centuries been our name for the finest pottery8--and is most beyond measure4 ,our knowledge of the pottery of various cultures excels that of any other human products because of all it is the most perdurable4 ,we can better estimate their relative sthetic worth now than in the days when a general reverence for ,greek antiquity led to a popular belief in the beauty of ,greek pottery1 though scarcely a single type of its many forms can fairly be so considered or even be compared to the products of the ,minoan predecessors of ,greek culture1 however interesting they may still remain for us as the awkward and inappropriate foundation for exquisite little pictures4 ,the greatest age of this universal human art was in ,china and was over many centuries ago4 ,but with what devotion1 with what absolute concentration of the spirit1 the ,chinese potters of the great period struggled with the problem of art is finely illustrated by the well-known story which an old ,chinese historian tells of the sacrifice of the divine ,t'ung1 the spirit who protects potters4 ,it happened that a complicated problem had baffled the potters4 ,t'ung laid down his life to serve them and to achieve the solution of the problem4 ,he plunged into the fire and the bowl came out perfect4 8,the vessel's perfect glaze is the god's fat and blood2 the body material is the god's body of flesh2 the blue of the decoration1 with the brilliant lustre of gems1 is the essence of the god's pure spirit40 ,that story embodies the ,chinese symbol of the art of living1 just as we embody our symbol of that art in the ,crucifixion of ,jesus4 ,the form is diverse2 the essence is the same4 ,v ,,it will be seen that when we analyse the experiences of life and look at it simply1 in the old-fashioned way1 liberated from the artificial complexities of a temporary and now1 it may be1 departing civilisation1 what we find is easy to sum up4 ,we find1 that is to say1 that ,man has forced himself to move along this line1 and that line1 and the other line4 ,but it is the same water of life that runs in all these channels4 ,until we have ascended to a height where this is clear1 to see all our little dogmatisms will but lead us astray4 ,we may illuminatingly change the analogy and turn to the field of chemistry4 ,all these various elements of life are but1 as it were1 allotropic forms of the same element4 ,the most fundamental among these forms is that of art1 for life in all its forms1 even morality in the narrowest sense1 is1 as ,duprat has argued1 a matter of technique1 and technique at once brings us to the elements of art4 ,if we would understand what we are dealing with1 we may1 therefore1 best study these forms under that of art4 ,there is1 however1 a deeper chemical analogy than this to be seen4 ,it may well be1 indeed1 that it is more than an analogy4 ,in chemistry we are dealing1 not merely with the elements of life1 but with the elements of the world1 even of what we call our universe4 ,it is not unreasonable to think that the same law holds good for both4 ,we see that the forms of life may all be found1 and then better understood1 in one form4 ,some day1 perhaps1 we shall also see that that fact is only a corollary of the larger fact--or1 if any one prefers so to regard it1 the smaller fact--that the chemical elements of our world can be regarded as all only transmutations of one element4 ,from of old1 men instinctively divined that this might be so1 though they were merely concerned to change the elements into gold1 the element which they most highly valued4 ,in our own times this transmutation is beginning to become1 on a minute scale1 a demonstrable fact1 though it would seem easier to transmute elements into lead than into gold4 ,matter1 we are thus coming to see1 may not be a confused variety of separate substances1 but simply a different quantitative arrangement of a single fundamental stuff1 which might possibly be identical with hydrogen or some other already known element4 ,similarly we may now believe that the men of old who thought that all human life was made of one stuff were not altogether wrong1 and we may1 with greater assurance than they were able to claim1 analyse the modes of human action into different quantitative or other arrangements of which the most fundamental may well be identical with art4 ,this may perhaps become clearer if we consider more in detail one of the separate arts1 selecting the most widely symbolic of all1 the art that is most clearly made of the stuff of life1 and so able to translate most truly and clearly into beautiful form the various modalities of life4 ,footnote #a3 ,see1 for instance1 ,turner's ,samoa1 chap4 #a4 ,usually1 however1 in the ,pacific1 creation was accomplished1 in a more genuinely evolutionary manner1 by a long series of progressive generations4 ,footnote #b3 ,gomperz1 ,greek ,thinkers1 vol4 ,i1 book ,,iii1 chap4 ,,vi4 ,footnote #c3 ,i have here mainly followed ,gomperz 7,greek ,thinkers1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #dcj-cd72 there is not now1 however1 much controversy over the position of ,hippias1 which there is now1 indeed1 rather a tendency to exaggerate1 considering how small is the basis of knowledge we possess4 ,thus ,duprel 7,la ,lgende ,socratique1 p4 #dcb71 regarding him as the most misunderstood of the great ,sophists1 declares that ,hippias is 8the thinker who conceived the universality of science1 just as ,prodicus caught glimpses of the synthesis of the social sciences4 ,hippias is the philosopher of science1 the ,great ,logician1 just as ,prodicus is the ,great ,moralist40 ,he compares him to ,pico della ,mirandola as a ,humanist and to ,leibnitz in power of wide synthesis4 ,footnote #d3 ,strictly speaking1 in the technical sense of that much-abused word1 this is 8decadence40 7,i refer to the sense in which ,i defined 8decadence0 many years ago in ,affirmations1 pp4 #age-hg47 ,so that while the minor arts have sometimes been classic and sometimes decadent1 the major art of living during the last two thousand years1 although one can think of great men who have maintained the larger classic ideal1 has mainly been decadent4 ,footnote #e3 ,emma ,hadfield1 ,among the ,natives of the ,loyalty ,group4 #aibj4 ,it would no doubt have been more satisfactory to select a people like the ,fijians rather than the ,lifuans1 for they represented a more robust and accomplished form of a rather similar culture1 but their culture has receded into the past1--and the same may be said of the ,marquesans of whom ,melville left1 in ,typee1 a famous and delightful picture which other records confirm1--while that of the ,lifuans is still recent4 ,footnote #f3 ,g4 ,lowes ,dickinson1 ,an ,essay on the ,civilisations of ,india1 ,china1 and ,japan 7#aiad71 p4 #dg4 ,no doubt there are shades to be added to this picture4 ,they may be found in a book1 published two years earlier1 ,china as it ,really ,is1 by 8a ,resident in ,peking0 who claims to have been born in ,china4 ,chinese culture has receded1 in part swamped by over-population1 and concerning a land where to-day1 it has lately been said1 8magnificence1 crudity1 delicacy1 fetidity1 and fragrance are blended10 it is easy for ,westerners to show violent difference of opinion4 ,footnote #g3 ,see1 for instance1 the chapter on games in ,professor ,e4 ,h4 ,parker's ,china3 ,past and ,present4 ,reference may be made to the same author's important and impartial larger work1 ,china3 ,its ,history1 with a discriminating chapter on ,chinese personal characteristics4 ,perhaps1 the most penetrating study of ,chinese psychology is1 however1 ,arthur ,h4 ,smith's ,chinese ,characteristics4 ,footnote #h3 ,his ideas have been studied by ,madame ,alexandra ,david1 ,le ,philosophe ,meh-ti et l',ide de ,solidarit4 ,london1 #aijg4 ,footnote #i3 ,eugne ,simon1 ,la ,cit ,chinoise4 ,footnote #aj3 ,e4 ,hovelaque1 ,la ,chine 7,paris1 #aibj71 p4 #dg4 ,footnote #aa3 ,this point has not escaped the more acute students of ,chinese civilisation4 ,thus ,dr4 ,john ,steele1 in his edition of the ,i-,li1 remarks that 8ceremonial was far from being a series of observances1 empty and unprofitable1 such as it degenerated into in later time4 ,it was meant to inculcate that habit of self-control and ordered action which was the expression of a mind fully instructed in the inner meaning of things1 and sensitive to every impression40 ,still more clearly1 ,reginald ,farrer wrote1 in ,on the ,eaves of the ,world1 that 8the philosophic calm that the ,chinese deliberately cultivate is their necessary armour to protect the excessive susceptibility to emotion4 ,the ,chinese would be for ever the victims of their nerves had they not for four thousand years pursued reason and self-control with self-protective enthusiasm40 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,dancing ,i ,,dancing and building are the two primary and essential arts4 ,the art of dancing stands at the source of all the arts that express themselves first in the human person4 ,the art of building1 or architecture1 is the beginning of all the arts that lie outside the person2 and in the end they unite4 ,music1 acting1 poetry proceed in the one mighty stream2 sculpture1 painting1 all the arts of design1 in the other4 ,there is no primary art outside these two arts1 for their origin is far earlier than man himself2 and dancing came first4#ab ,that is one reason why dancing1 however it may at times be scorned by passing fashions1 has a profound and eternal attraction even for those one might suppose farthest from its influence4 ,the joyous beat of the feet of children1 the cosmic play of philosophers' thoughts rise and fall according to the same laws of rhythm4 ,if we are indifferent to the art of dancing1 we have failed to understand1 not merely the supreme manifestation of physical life1 but also the supreme symbol of spiritual life4 ,the significance of dancing1 in the wide sense1 thus lies in the fact that it is simply an intimate concrete appeal of a general rhythm1 that general rhythm which marks1 not life only1 but the universe1 if one may still be allowed so to name the sum of the cosmic influences that reach us4 ,we need not1 indeed1 go so far as the planets or the stars and outline their ethereal dances4 ,we have but to stand on the seashore and watch the waves that beat at our feet1 to observe that at nearly regular intervals this seemingly monotonous rhythm is accentuated for several beats1 so that the waves are really dancing the measure of a tune4 ,it need surprise us not at all that rhythm1 ever tending to be moulded into a tune1 should mark all the physical and spiritual manifestations of life4 ,dancing is the primitive expression alike of religion and of love--of religion from the earliest human times we know of and of love from a period long anterior to the coming of man4 ,the art of dancing1 moreover1 is intimately entwined with all human tradition of war1 of labour1 of pleasure1 of education1 while some of the wisest philosophers and the most ancient civilisations have regarded the dance as the pattern in accordance with which the moral life of men must be woven4 ,to realise1 therefore1 what dancing means for mankind--the poignancy and the many-sidedness of its appeal--we must survey the whole sweep of human life1 both at its highest and at its deepest moments4 ,,ii 8,,what do you dance80 ,when a man belonging to one branch of the great ,bantu division of mankind met a member of another1 said ,livingstone1 that was the question he asked4 ,what a man danced1 that was his tribe1 his social customs1 his religion2 for1 as an anthropologist has put it1 8a savage does not preach his religion1 he dances it40 ,there are peoples in the world who have no secular dances1 only religious dances2 and some investigators believe with ,gerland that every dance was of religious origin4 ,that view may seem too extreme1 even if we admit that some even of our modern dances1 like the waltz1 may have been originally religious4 ,even still 7as ,skene has shown among the ,arabs and ,swahili of ,africa7 so various are dances and their functions among some peoples that they cover the larger part of life4 ,yet we have to remember that for primitive man there is no such thing as religion apart from life1 for religion covers everything4 ,dancing is a magical operation for the attainment of real and important ends of every kind4 ,it was clearly of immense benefit to the individual and to society1 by imparting strength and adding organised harmony4 ,it seemed reasonable to suppose that it attained other beneficial ends1 that were incalculable1 for calling down blessings or warding off misfortunes4 ,we may conclude1 with ,wundt1 that the dance was1 in the beginning1 the expression of the whole man1 for the whole man was religious4#ac ,thus1 among primitive peoples1 religion being so large a part of life1 the dance inevitably becomes of supreme religious importance4 ,to dance was at once both to worship and to pray4 ,just as we still find in our ,prayer ,books that there are divine services for all the great fundamental acts of life1--for birth1 for marriage1 for death1--as well as for the cosmic procession of the world as marked by ecclesiastical festivals1 and for the great catastrophes of nature1 such as droughts1 so also it has ever been among primitive peoples4 ,for all the solemn occasions of life1 for bridals and for funerals1 for seed-time and for harvest1 for war and for peace1 for all these things there were fitting dances4 ,to-day we find religious people who in church pray for rain or for the restoration of their friends to health4 ,their forefathers also desired these things1 but1 instead of praying for them1 they danced for them the fitting dance which tradition had handed down1 and which the chief or the medicine-man solemnly conducted4 ,the gods themselves danced1 as the stars dance in the sky--so at least the ,mexicans1 and we may be sure many other peoples1 have held2 and to dance is therefore to imitate the gods1 to work with them1 perhaps to persuade them to work in the direction of our own desires4 8,work for us60 is the song-refrain1 expressed or implied1 of every religious dance4 ,in the worship of solar deities in various countries1 it was customary to dance round the altar1 as the stars dance round the sun4 ,even in ,europe the popular belief that the sun dances on ,easter ,sunday has perhaps scarcely yet died out4 ,to dance is to take part in the cosmic control of the world4 ,every sacred ,dionysian dance is an imitation of the divine dance4 ,all religions1 and not merely those of primitive character1 have been at the outset1 and sometimes throughout1 in some measure saltatory4 ,that was recognised even in the ancient world by acute observers1 like ,lucian1 who remarks in his essay on dancing that 8you cannot find a single ancient mystery in which there is no dancing2 in fact most people say of the devotees of the ,mysteries that #8they dance them out4'0 ,this is so all over the world4 ,it is not more pronounced in early ,christianity1 and among the ancient ,hebrews who danced before the ark1 than among the ,australian aborigines whose great corroborees are religious dances conducted by the medicine-men with their sacred staves in their hands4 ,every ,american ,indian tribe seems to have had its own religious dances1 varied and elaborate1 often with a richness of meaning which the patient study of modern investigators has but slowly revealed4 ,the ,shamans in the remote steppes of ,northern ,siberia have their ecstatic religious dances1 and in modern ,europe the ,turkish dervishes--perhaps of related stock--still dance in their cloisters similar ecstatic dances1 combined with song and prayer1 as a regular part of devotional service4 ,these religious dances1 it may be observed1 are sometimes ecstatic1 sometimes pantomimic4 ,it is natural that this should be so4 ,by each road it is possible to penetrate towards the divine mystery of the world4 ,the auto-intoxication of rapturous movement brings the devotees1 for a while at least1 into that self-forgetful union with the not-self which the mystic ever seeks4 ,the ecstatic ,hindu dance in honour of the pre-,aryan hill god1 afterwards ,siva1 became in time a great symbol1 8the clearest image of the activity of ,god10 it has been called1 8which any art or religion can boast of40#ad ,pantomimic dances1 on the other hand1 with their effort to heighten natural expression and to imitate natural process1 bring the dancers into the divine sphere of creation and enable them to assist vicariously in the energy of the gods4 ,the dance thus becomes the presentation of a divine drama1 the vital renactment of a sacred history1 in which the worshipper is enabled to play a real part4#ae ,in this way ritual arises4 ,it is in this sphere--highly primitive as it is--of pantomimic dancing crystallised in ritual1 rather than in the sphere of ecstatic dancing1 that we may to-day in civilisation witness the survivals of the dance in religion4 ,the divine services of the ,american ,indian1 said ,lewis ,morgan1 took the form of 8set dances1 each with its own name1 songs1 steps1 and costume40 ,at this point the early ,christian1 worshipping the ,divine ,body1 was able to join in spiritual communion with the ancient ,egyptian or the later ,japanese#af or the modern ,american ,indian4 ,they are all alike privileged to enter1 each in his own way1 a sacred mystery1 and to participate in the sacrifice of a heavenly ,mass4 ,what by some is considered to be the earliest known ,christian ritual--the 8,hymn of ,jesus0 assigned to the second century--is nothing but a sacred dance4 ,eusebius in the third century stated that ,philo's description of the worship of the ,therapeuts agreed at all points with ,christian custom1 and that meant the prominence of dancing1 to which indeed ,eusebius often refers in connection with ,christian worship4 ,it has been supposed by some that the ,christian ,church was originally a theatre1 the choir being the raised stage1 even the word 8choir10 it is argued1 meaning an enclosed space for dancing4 ,it is certain that at the ,eucharist the faithful gesticulated with their hands1 danced with their feet1 flung their bodies about4 ,chrysostom1 who referred to this behaviour round the ,holy ,table at ,antioch1 only objected to drunken excesses in connection with it2 the custom itself he evidently regarded as traditional and right4 ,while the central function of ,christian worship is a sacred drama1 a divine pantomime1 the associations of ,christianity and dancing are by no means confined to the ritual of the ,mass and its later more attenuated transformations4 ,the very idea of dancing had a sacred and mystic meaning to the early ,christians1 who had meditated profoundly on the text1 8,we have piped unto you and ye have not danced40 ,origen prayed that above all things there may be made operative in us the mystery 8of the stars dancing in ,heaven for the salvation of the ,universe40 ,so that the monks of the ,cistercian ,order1 who in a later age worked for the world more especially by praying for it 78orare est laborare071 were engaged in the same task on earth as the stars in ,heaven2 dancing and praying are the same thing4 ,st4 ,basil1 who was so enamoured of natural things1 described the angels dancing in ,heaven1 and later the author of the 8,dieta ,salutis0 7said to have been ,st4 ,bonaventura71 which is supposed to have influenced ,dante in assigning so large a place to dancing in the 8,paradiso10 described dancing as the occupation of the inmates of ,heaven1 and ,christ as the leader of the dance4 ,even in more modern times an ancient ,cornish carol sang of the life of ,jesus as a dance1 and represented him as declaring that he died in order that man 8may come unto the general dance40#ag ,this attitude could not fail to be reflected in practice4 ,genuine dancing1 not merely formalised and unrecognisable dancing1 such as the traditionalised ,mass1 must have been frequently introduced into ,christian worship in early times4 ,until a few centuries ago it remained not uncommon1 and it even still persists in remote corners of the ,christian world4 ,in ,english cathedrals dancing went on until the fourteenth century4 ,at ,paris1 ,limoges1 and elsewhere in ,france1 the priests danced in the choir at ,easter up to the seventeenth century1 in ,roussillon up to the eighteenth century4 ,roussillon is a ,catalan province with ,spanish traditions1 and it is in ,spain1 where dancing is a deeper and more passionate impulse than elsewhere in ,europe1 that religious dancing took firmest root and flourished longest4 ,in the cathedrals of ,seville1 ,toledo1 ,valencia1 and ,jeres there was formerly dancing1 though it now only survives at a few special festivals in the first4#ah ,at ,alaro in ,mallorca1 also at the present day1 a dancing company called ,els ,cosiers1 on the festival of ,st4 ,roch1 the patron saint of the place1 dance in the church in fanciful costumes with tambourines1 up to the steps of the high altar1 immediately after ,mass1 and then dance out of the church4 ,in another part of the ,christian world1 in the ,abyssinian ,church--an offshoot of the ,eastern ,church--dancing is also said still to form part of the worship4 ,dancing1 we may see throughout the world1 has been so essential1 so fundamental1 a part of all vital and undegenerate religion1 that1 whenever a new religion appears1 a religion of the spirit and not merely an anmic religion of the intellect1 we should still have to ask of it the question of the ,bantu3 8,what do you dance80 ,,iii ,dancing is not only intimately associated with religion1 it has an equally intimate association with love4 ,here1 indeed1 the relationship is even more primitive1 for it is far older than man4 ,dancing1 said ,lucian1 is as old as love4 ,among insects and among birds it may be said that dancing is often an essential part of love4 ,in courtship the male dances1 sometimes in rivalry with other males1 in order to charm the female2 then1 after a short or long interval1 the female is aroused to share his ardour and join in the dance2 the final climax of the dance is the union of the lovers4 ,among the mammals most nearly related to man1 indeed1 dancing is but little developed3 their energies are more variously diffused1 though a close observer of the apes1 ,dr4 ,louis ,robinson1 has pointed out that the 8spasmodic jerking of the chimpanzee's feeble legs10 pounding the partition of his cage1 is the crude motion out of which 8the heavenly alchemy of evolution has created the divine movements of ,pavlova02 but it must be remembered that the anthropoid apes are offshoots only from the stock that produced ,man1 his cousins and not his ancestors4 ,it is the more primitive love-dance of insects and birds that seems to reappear among human savages in various parts of the world1 notably in ,africa1 and in a conventionalised and symbolised form it is still danced in civilisation to-day4 ,indeed1 it is in this aspect that dancing has so often aroused reprobation1 from the days of early ,christianity until the present1 among those for whom the dance has merely been1 in the words of a seventeenth-century writer1 a series of 8immodest and dissolute movements by which the cupidity of the flesh is aroused40 ,but in nature and among primitive peoples it has its value precisely on this account4 ,it is a process of courtship and1 even more than that1 it is a novitiate for love1 and a novitiate which was found to be an admirable training for love4 ,among some peoples1 indeed1 as the ,omahas1 the same word meant both to dance and to love4 ,by his beauty1 his energy1 his skill1 the male must win the female1 so impressing the image of himself on her imagination that finally her desire is aroused to overcome her reticence4 ,that is the task of the male throughout nature1 and in innumerable species besides ,man it has been found that the school in which the task may best be learnt is the dancing-school4 ,those who have not the skill and the strength to learn are left behind1 and1 as they are probably the least capable members of the race1 it may be in this way that a kind of sexual selection has been embodied in unconscious eugenics1 and aided the higher development of the race4 ,the moths and the butterflies1 the ,african ostrich and the ,sumatran argus pheasant1 with their fellows innumerable1 have been the precursors of man in the strenuous school of erotic dancing1 fitting themselves for selection by the females of their choice as the most splendid progenitors of the future race4#ai ,from this point of view1 it is clear1 the dance performed a double function4 ,on the one hand1 the tendency to dance1 arising under the obscure stress of this impulse1 brought out the best possibilities the individual held the promise of2 on the other hand1 at the moment of courtship1 the display of the activities thus acquired developed on the sensory side all the latent possibilities of beauty which at last became conscious in man4 ,that this came about we cannot easily escape concluding4 ,how it came about1 how it happens that some of the least intelligent of creatures thus developed a beauty and a grace that are enchanting even to our human eyes1 is a miracle1 even if not affected by the mystery of sex1 which we cannot yet comprehend4 ,when we survey the human world1 the erotic dance of the animal world is seen not to have lost1 but rather to have gained1 influence4 ,it is no longer the males alone who are thus competing for the love of the females4 ,it comes about by a modification in the earlier method of selection that often not only the men dance for the women1 but the women for the men1 each striving in a storm of rivalry to arouse and attract the desire of the other4 ,in innumerable parts of the world the season of love is a time which the nubile of each sex devote to dancing in each other's presence1 sometimes one sex1 sometimes the other1 sometimes both1 in the frantic effort to display all the force and energy1 the skill and endurance1 the beauty and grace1 which at this moment are yearning within them to be poured into the stream of the race's life4 ,from this point of view we may better understand the immense ardour with which every part of the wonderful human body has been brought into the play of the dance4 ,the men and women of races spread all over the world have shown a marvellous skill and patience in imparting rhythm and measure to the most unlikely1 the most rebellious regions of the body1 all wrought by desire into potent and dazzling images4 ,to the vigorous races of ,northern ,europe in their cold damp climate1 dancing comes naturally to be dancing of the legs1 so naturally that the ,english poet1 as a matter of course1 assumes that the dance of ,salome was a 8twinkling of the feet40#bj ,but on the opposite side of the world1 in ,japan and notably in ,java and ,madagascar1 dancing may be exclusively dancing of the arms and hands1 in some of the ,south ,sea ,islands of the hands and fingers alone4 ,dancing may even be carried on in the seated posture1 as occurs at ,fiji in a dance connected with the preparation of the sacred drink1 ava4 ,in some districts of ,southern ,tunisia dancing1 again1 is dancing of the hair1 and all night long1 till they perhaps fall exhausted1 the marriageable girls will move their heads to the rhythm of a song1 maintaining their hair in perpetual balance and sway4 ,elsewhere1 notably in ,africa1 but also sometimes in ,polynesia1 as well as in the dances that had established themselves in ancient ,rome1 dancing is dancing of the body1 with vibratory or rotatory movements of breasts or flanks4 ,the complete dance along these lines is1 however1 that in which the play of all the chief muscle-groups of the body is harmoniously interwoven4 ,when both sexes take part in such an exercise1 developed into an idealised yet passionate pantomime of love1 we have the complete erotic dance4 ,in the beautiful ancient civilisation of the ,pacific1 it is probable that this ideal was sometimes reached1 and at ,tahiti1 in #aggb1 an old voyager crudely and summarily described the native dance as 8an endless variety of posturings and wagglings of the body1 hands1 feet1 eyes1 lips1 and tongue1 in which they keep splendid time to the measure40 ,in ,spain the dance of this kind has sometimes attained its noblest and most harmoniously beautiful expression4 ,from the narratives of travellers1 it would appear that it was especially in the eighteenth century that among all classes in ,spain dancing of this kind was popular4 ,the ,church tacitly encouraged it1 an ,aragonese ,canon told ,baretti in #aggj1 in spite of its occasional indecorum1 as a useful safety-valve for the emotions4 ,it was not less seductive to the foreign spectator than to the people themselves4 ,the grave traveller ,peyron1 towards the end of the century1 growing eloquent over the languorous and flexible movements of the dance1 the bewitching attitude1 the voluptuous curves of the arms1 declares that1 when one sees a beautiful ,spanish woman dance1 one is inclined to fling all philosophy to the winds4 ,and even that highly respectable ,anglican clergyman1 the ,reverend ,joseph ,townsend1 was constrained to state that he could 8almost persuade myself0 that if the fandango were suddenly played in church the gravest worshippers would start up to join in that 8lascivious pantomime40 ,there we have the rock against which the primitive dance of sexual selection suffers shipwreck as civilisation advances4 ,and that prejudice of civilisation becomes so ingrained that it is brought to bear even on the primitive dance4 ,the pygmies of ,africa are described by ,sir ,h4 ,h4 ,johnston as a very decorous and highly moral people1 but their dances1 he adds1 are not so4 ,yet these dances1 though to the eyes of ,johnston1 blinded by ,european civilisation1 8grossly indecent10 he honestly1 and inconsistently1 adds1 are 8danced reverently40 ,,iv ,from the vital function of dancing in love1 and its sacred function in religion1 to dancing as an art1 a profession1 an amusement1 may seem1 at the first glance1 a sudden leap4 ,in reality the transition is gradual1 and it began to be made at a very early period in diverse parts of the globe4 ,all the matters that enter into courtship tend to fall under the sway of art2 their sthetic pleasure is a secondary reflection of their primary vital joy4 ,dancing could not fail to be first in manifesting this tendency4 ,but even religious dancing swiftly exhibited the same transformation2 dancing1 like priesthood1 became a profession1 and dancers1 like priests1 formed a caste4 ,this1 for instance1 took place in old ,hawaii4 ,the hula dance was a religious dance2 it required a special education and an arduous training2 moreover1 it involved the observance of important taboos and the exercise of sacred rites2 by the very fact of its high specialisation it came to be carried out by paid performers1 a professional caste4 ,in ,india1 again1 the ,devadasis1 or sacred dancing girls1 are at once both religious and professional dancers4 ,they are married to gods1 they are taught dancing by the ,brahmins1 they figure in religious ceremonies1 and their dances represent the life of the god they are married to as well as the emotions of love they experience for him4 ,yet1 at the same time1 they also give professional performances in the houses of rich private persons who pay for them4 ,it thus comes about that to the foreigner the ,devadasis scarcely seem very unlike the ,ramedjenis1 the dancers of the street1 who are of very different origin1 and mimic in their performances the play of merely human passions4 ,the ,portuguese conquerors of ,india called both kinds of dancers indiscriminately ,balheideras 7or dancers7 which we have corrupted in ,bayaderes4#ba ,in our modern world professional dancing as an art has become altogether divorced from religion1 and even1 in any biological sense1 from love2 it is scarcely even possible1 so far as ,western civilisation is concerned1 to trace back the tradition to either source4 ,if we survey the development of dancing as an art in ,europe1 it seems to me that we have to recognise two streams of tradition which have sometimes merged1 but yet remain in their ideals and their tendencies essentially distinct4 ,i would call these traditions the ,classical1 which is much the more ancient and fundamental1 and may be said to be of ,egyptian origin1 and the ,romantic1 which is of ,italian origin1 chiefly known to us as the ballet4 ,the first is1 in its pure form1 solo dancing--though it may be danced in couples and many together--and is based on the rhythmic beauty and expressiveness of the simple human personality when its energy is concentrated in measured yet passionate movement4 ,the second is concerted dancing1 mimetic and picturesque1 wherein the individual is subordinated to the wider and variegated rhythm of the group4 ,it may be easy to devise another classification1 but this is simple and instructive enough for our purpose4 ,there can scarcely be a doubt that ,egypt has been for many thousands of years1 as indeed it still remains1 a great dancing centre1 the most influential dancing-school the world has ever seen1 radiating its influence to south and east and north4 ,we may perhaps even agree with the historian of the dance who terms it 8the mother-country of all civilised dancing40 ,we are not entirely dependent on the ancient wall-pictures of ,egypt for our knowledge of ,egyptian skill in the art4 ,sacred mysteries1 it is known1 were danced in the temples1 and queens and princesses took part in the orchestras that accompanied them4 ,it is significant that the musical instruments still peculiarly associated with the dance were originated or developed in ,egypt2 the guitar is an ,egyptian instrument and its name was a hieroglyph already used when the ,pyramids were being built2 the cymbal1 the tambourine1 triangles1 castanets1 in one form or another1 were all familiar to the ancient ,egyptians1 and with the ,egyptian art of dancing they must have spread all round the shores of the ,mediterranean1 the great focus of our civilisation1 at a very early date4#bb ,even beyond the ,mediterranean1 at ,cadiz1 dancing that was essentially ,egyptian in character was established1 and ,cadiz became the dancing-school of ,spain4 ,the ,nile and ,cadiz were thus the two great centres of ancient dancing1 and ,martial mentions them both together1 for each supplied its dancers to ,rome4 ,this dancing1 alike whether ,egyptian or ,gaditanian1 was the expression of the individual dancer's body and art2 the garments played but a small part in it1 they were frequently transparent1 and sometimes discarded altogether4 ,it was1 and it remains1 simple1 personal1 passionate dancing1 classic1 therefore1 in the same sense as1 on the side of literature1 the poetry of ,catullus is classic4#bc ,ancient ,greek dancing was essentially classic dancing1 as here understood4 ,on the ,greek vases1 as reproduced in ,emmanuel's attractive book on ,greek dancing and elsewhere1 we find the same play of the arms1 the same sideward turn1 the same extreme backward extension of the body1 which had long before been represented in ,egyptian monuments4 ,many supposedly modern movements in dancing were certainly already common both to ,egyptian and ,greek dancing1 as well as the clapping of hands to keep time which is still an accompaniment of ,spanish dancing4 ,it seems clear1 however1 that1 on this general classic and ,mediterranean basis1 ,greek dancing had a development so refined and so special--though in technical elaboration of steps1 it seems likely1 inferior to modern dancing--that it exercised no influence outside ,greece4 ,dancing became1 indeed1 the most characteristic and the most generally cultivated of ,greek arts4 ,pindar1 in a splendid ,oxyrhynchine fragment1 described ,hellas1 in what seemed to him supreme praise1 as 8the land of lovely dancing10 and ,athenus pointed out that he calls ,apollo the ,dancer4 ,it may well be that the ,greek drama arose out of dance and song1 and that the dance throughout was an essential and plastic element in it4 ,even if we reject the statement of ,aristotle that tragedy arose out of the ,dionysian dithyramb1 the alternative suppositions 7such as ,ridgeway's theory of dancing round the tombs of the dead7 equally involve the same elements4 ,it has often been pointed out that poetry in ,greece demanded a practical knowledge of all that could be included under 8dancing40 schylus is said to have developed the technique of dancing and ,sophocles danced in his own dramas4 ,in these developments1 no doubt1 ,greek dancing tended to overpass the fundamental limits of classic dancing and foreshadowed the ballet4#bd ,the real germ of the ballet1 however1 is to be found in ,rome1 where the pantomime with its concerted and picturesque method of expressive action was developed1 and ,italy is the home of ,romantic dancing4 ,the same impulse which produced the pantomime produced1 more than a thousand years later in the same ,italian region1 the modern ballet4 ,in both cases1 one is inclined to think1 we may trace the influence of the same ,etruscan and ,tuscan race which so long has had its seat there1 a race with a genius for expressive1 dramatic1 picturesque art4 ,we see it on the walls of ,etruscan tombs and again in pictures of ,botticelli and his fellow ,tuscans4 ,the modern ballet1 it is generally believed1 had its origin in the spectacular pageants at the marriage of ,galeazzo ,visconti1 ,duke of ,milan1 in #adhi4 ,the fashion for such performances spread to the other ,italian courts1 including ,florence1 and ,catherine de' ,medici1 when she became ,queen of ,france1 brought the ,italian ballet to ,paris4 ,here it speedily became fashionable4 ,kings and queens were its admirers and even took part in it2 great statesmen were its patrons4 ,before long1 and especially in the great age of ,louis ,,xiv1 it became an established institution1 still an adjunct of opera but with a vital life and growth of its own1 maintained by distinguished musicians1 artists1 and dancers4 ,romantic dancing1 to a much greater extent than what ,i have called ,classic dancing1 which depends so largely on simple personal qualities1 tends to be vitalised by transplantation and the absorption of new influences1 provided that the essential basis of technique and tradition is preserved in the new development4 ,lulli in the seventeenth century brought women into the ballet2 ,camargo discarded the complicated costumes and shortened the skirt1 so rendering possible not only her own lively and vigorous method1 but all the freedom and airy grace of later dancing4 ,it was ,noverre who by his ideas worked out at ,stuttgart1 and soon brought to ,paris by ,gaetan ,vestris1 made the ballet a new and complete art form2 this ,swiss-,french genius not only elaborated plot revealed by gesture and dance alone1 but1 just as another and greater ,swiss-,french genius about the same time brought sentiment and emotion into the novel1 he brought it into the ballet4 ,in the ,french ballet of the eighteenth century a very high degree of perfection seems thus to have been reached1 while in ,italy1 where the ballet had originated1 it decayed1 and ,milan1 which had been its source1 became the nursery of a tradition of devitalised technique carried to the finest point of delicate perfection4 ,the influence of the ,french school was maintained as a living force into the nineteenth century1--when it was renovated afresh by the new spirit of the age and ,taglioni became the most ethereal embodiment of the spirit of the ,romantic movement in a form that was genuinely classic1--overspreading the world by the genius of a few individual dancers4 ,when they had gone1 the ballet slowly and steadily declined4 ,as it declined as an art1 so also it declined in credit and in popularity2 it became scarcely respectable even to admire dancing4 ,thirty or forty years ago1 those of us who still appreciated dancing as an art--and how few they were6--had to seek for it painfully and sometimes in strange surroundings4 ,a recent historian of dancing1 in a book published so lately as #aijf1 declared that 8the ballet is now a thing of the past1 and1 with the modern change of ideas1 a thing that is never likely to be resuscitated40 ,that historian never mentioned ,russian ballet1 yet his book was scarcely published before the ,russian ballet arrived to scatter ridicule over his rash prophecy by raising the ballet to a pitch of perfection it can rarely have surpassed1 as an expressive1 emotional1 even passionate form of living art4 ,the ,russian ballet was an offshoot from the ,french ballet and illustrates once more the vivifying effect of transplantation on the art of ,romantic dancing4 ,the ,empress ,anna introduced it in #agce and appointed a ,french ballet-master and a ,neapolitan composer to carry it on2 it reached a high degree of technical perfection during the following hundred years1 on the traditional lines1 and the principal dancers were all imported from ,italy4 ,it was not until recent years that this firm discipline and these ancient traditions were vitalised into an art form of exquisite and vivid beauty by the influence of the soil in which they had slowly taken root4 ,this contact1 when at last it was effected1 mainly by the genius of ,fokine and the enterprise of ,diaghilev1 involved a kind of revolution1 for its outcome1 while genuine ballet1 has yet all the effect of delicious novelty4 ,the tradition by itself was in ,russia an exotic without real life1 and had nothing to give to the world2 on the other hand1 a ,russian ballet apart from that tradition1 if we can conceive such a thing1 would have been formless1 extravagant1 bizarre1 not subdued to any fine sthetic ends4 ,what we see here1 in the ,russian ballet as we know it to-day1 is a splendid and arduous technical tradition1 brought at last--by the combined skill of designers1 composers1 and dancers--into real fusion with an environment from which during more than a century it had been held apart2 ,russian genius for music1 ,russian feeling for rhythm1 ,russian skill in the use of bright colour1 and1 not least1 the ,russian orgiastic temperament1 the ,russian spirit of tender poetic melancholy1 and the general ,slav passion for folk-dancing1 shown in other branches of the race also1 ,polish1 ,bohemian1 ,bulgarian1 and ,servian4 ,at almost the same time what ,i have termed ,classic dancing was independently revived in ,america by ,isadora ,duncan1 bringing back what seemed to be the free naturalism of the ,greek dance1 and ,ruth ,st4 ,denis1 seeking to discover and revitalise the secrets of the old ,indian and ,egyptian traditions4 ,whenever now we find any restored art of theatrical dancing1 as in the ,swedish ballet1 it has been inspired more or less1 by an eclectic blending of these two revived forms1 the ,romantic from ,russia1 the ,classic from ,america4 ,the result has been that our age sees one of the most splendid movements in the whole history of the ballet4 ,v ,dancing as an art1 we may be sure1 cannot die out1 but will always be undergoing a rebirth4 ,not merely as an art1 but also as a social custom1 it perpetually emerges afresh from the soul of the people4 ,less than a century ago the polka thus arose1 extemporised by the ,bohemian servant girl ,anna ,slezakova out of her own head for the joy of her own heart1 and only rendered a permanent form1 apt for world-wide popularity1 by the accident that it was observed and noted down by an artist4 ,dancing has for ever been in existence as a spontaneous custom1 a social discipline4 ,thus it is1 finally1 that dancing meets us1 not only as love1 as religion1 as art1 but also as morals4 ,all human work1 under natural conditions1 is a kind of dance4 ,in a large and learned book1 supported by an immense amount of evidence1 ,karl ,bcher has argued that work differs from the dance1 not in kind1 but only in degree1 since they are both essentially rhythmic4 ,there is a good reason why work should be rhythmic1 for all great combined efforts1 the efforts by which alone great constructions such as those of megalithic days could be carried out1 must be harmonised4 ,it has even been argued that this necessity is the source of human speech1 and we have the so-called ,yo-heave-ho theory of languages4 ,in the memory of those who have ever lived on a sailing ship--that loveliest of human creations now disappearing from the world--there will always linger the echo of the chanties which sailors sang as they hoisted the topsail yard or wound the capstan or worked the pumps4 ,that is the type of primitive combined work1 and it is indeed difficult to see how such work can be effectively accomplished without such a device for regulating the rhythmic energy of the muscles4 ,the dance rhythm of work has thus acted socialisingly in a parallel line with the dance rhythms of the arts1 and indeed in part as their inspirer4 ,the ,greeks1 it has been too fancifully suggested1 by insight or by intuition understood this when they fabled that ,orpheus1 whom they regarded as the earliest poet1 was specially concerned with moving stones and trees4 ,bcher has pointed out that even poetic metre may be conceived as arising out of work2 metre is the rhythmic stamping of feet1 as in the technique of verse it is still metaphorically called2 iambics and trochees1 spondees and anapsts and dactyls1 may still be heard among blacksmiths smiting the anvil or navvies wielding their hammers in the streets4 ,in so far as they arose out of work1 music and singing and dancing are naturally a single art4 ,a poet must always write to a tune1 said ,swinburne4 ,herein the ancient ballad of ,europe is a significant type4 ,it is1 as the name indicates1 a dance as much as a song1 performed by a singer who sang the story and a chorus who danced and shouted the apparently meaningless refrain2 it is absolutely the chanty of the sailors and is equally apt for the purposes of concerted work4#be ,yet our most complicated musical forms are evolved from similar dances4 ,the symphony is but a development of a dance suite1 in the first place folk-dances1 such as ,bach and ,handel composed4 ,indeed a dance still lingers always at the heart of music and even the heart of the composer4 ,mozart1 who was himself an accomplished dancer1 used often to say1 so his wife stated1 that it was dancing1 not music1 that he really cared for4 ,wagner believed that ,beethoven's ,seventh ,symphony--to some of us the most fascinating of them and the most purely musical--was an apotheosis of the dance1 and1 even if that belief throws no light on the intention of ,beethoven1 it is at least a revelation of ,wagner's own feeling for the dance4 ,it is1 however1 the dance itself1 apart from the work and apart from the other arts1 which1 in the opinion of many to-day1 has had a decisive influence in socialising1 that is to say in moralising1 the human species4 ,work showed the necessity of harmonious rhythmic coperation1 but the dance developed that rhythmic coperation and imparted a beneficent impetus to all human activities4 ,it was ,grosse1 in his 8,beginnings of ,art10 who first clearly set forth the high social significance of the dance in the creation of human civilisation4 ,the participants in a dance1 as all observers of savages have noted1 exhibit a wonderful unison2 they are1 as it were1 fused into a single being stirred by a single impulse4 ,social unification is thus accomplished4 ,apart from war1 this is the chief factor making for social solidarity in primitive life2 it was indeed the best training for war4 ,it has been a twofold influence2 on the one hand1 it aided unity of action and method in evolution3 on the other1 it had the invaluable function--for man is naturally a timid animal--of imparting courage2 the universal drum1 as ,louis ,robinson remarks1 has been an immense influence in human affairs4 ,even among the ,romans1 with their highly developed military system1 dancing and war were definitely allied2 the ,salii constituted a college of sacred military dancers2 the dancing season was ,march1 the war-god's month and the beginning of the war season1 and all through that month there were dances in triple measure before the temples and round the altars1 with songs so ancient that not even the priests could understand them4 ,we may trace a similar influence of dancing in all the coperative arts of life4 ,all our most advanced civilisation1 ,grosse insisted1 is based on dancing4 ,it is the dance that socialised man4 ,thus1 in the large sense1 dancing has possessed peculiar value as a method of national education4 ,as civilisation grew self-conscious1 this was realised4 8,one may judge of a king10 according to ancient ,chinese maxim1 8by the state of dancing during his reign40 ,so also among the ,greeks2 it has been said that dancing and music lay at the foundation of the whole political and military as well as religious organisation of the ,dorian states4 ,in the narrow sense1 in individual education1 the great importance of dancing came to be realised1 even at an early stage of human development1 and still more in the ancient civilisations4 8,a good education10 ,plato declared in the 8,laws10 the final work of his old age1 8consists in knowing how to sing and dance well40 ,and in our own day one of the keenest and most enlightened of educationists has lamented the decay of dancing2 the revival of dancing1 ,stanley ,hall declares1 is imperatively needed to give poise to the nerves1 schooling to the emotions1 strength to the will1 and to harmonise the feelings and the intellect with the body which supports them4 ,it can scarcely be said that these functions of dancing are yet generally realised and embodied afresh in education4 ,for1 if it is true that dancing engendered morality1 it is also true that in the end1 by the irony of fate1 morality1 grown insolent1 sought to crush its own parent1 and for a time succeeded only too well4 ,four centuries ago dancing was attacked by that spirit1 in ,england called ,puritanism1 which was then spread over the greater part of ,europe1 just as active in ,bohemia as in ,england1 and which has1 indeed1 been described as a general onset of developing ,urbanism against the old ,ruralism4 ,it made no distinction between good and bad1 nor paused to consider what would come when dancing went4 ,so it was that1 as ,remy de ,gourmont remarks1 the drinking-shop conquered the dance1 and alcohol replaced the violin4 ,but when we look at the function of dancing in life from a higher and wider standpoint1 this episode in its history ceases to occupy so large a place4 ,the conquest over dancing has never proved in the end a matter for rejoicing1 even to morality1 while an art which has been so intimately mixed with all the finest and deepest springs of life has always asserted itself afresh4 ,for dancing is the loftiest1 the most moving1 the most beautiful of the arts1 because it is no mere translation or abstraction from life2 it is life itself4 ,it is the only art1 as ,rahel ,varnhagen said1 of which we ourselves are the stuff4 ,even if we are not ourselves dancers1 but merely the spectators of the dance1 we are still--according to that ,lippsian doctrine of ,einfhlung or 8empathy0 by ,groos termed 8the play of inner imitation0--which here1 at all events1 we may accept as true--feeling ourselves in the dancer who is manifesting and expressing the latent impulses of our own being4 ,it thus comes about that1 beyond its manifold practical significance1 dancing has always been felt to possess also a symbolic significance4 ,marcus ,aurelius was accustomed to regard the art of life as like the dancer's art1 though that ,imperial ,stoic could not resist adding that in some respects it was more like the wrestler's art4 8,i doubt not yet to make a figure in the great ,dance of ,life that shall amuse the spectators in the sky10 said1 long after1 ,blake1 in the same strenuous spirit4 ,in our own time1 ,nietzsche1 from first to last1 showed himself possessed by the conception of the art of life as a dance1 in which the dancer achieves the rhythmic freedom and harmony of his soul beneath the shadow of a hundred ,damoclean swords4 ,he said the same thing of his style1 for to him the style and the man were one3 8,my style10 he wrote to his intimate friend ,rohde1 8is a dance40 8,every day ,i count wasted10 he said again1 8in which there has been no dancing40 ,the dance lies at the beginning of art1 and we find it also at the end4 ,the first creators of civilisation were making the dance1 and the philosopher of a later age1 hovering over the dark abyss of insanity1 with bleeding feet and muscles strained to the breaking point1 still seems to himself to be weaving the maze of the dance4 ,footnote #ab3 ,it is even possible that1 in earlier than human times1 dancing and architecture may have been the result of the same impulse4 ,the nest of birds is the chief early form of building1 and ,edmund ,selous has suggested 7,zologist1 ,december1 #aija7 that the nest may first have arisen as an accidental result of the ecstatic sexual dance of birds4 ,footnote #ac3 8,not the epic song1 but the dance10 ,wundt says 7,vlkerpsychologie1 #c;d ed4 #aiaa1 ,bd4 #a1 ,teil #a1 p4 #bgg71 8accompanied by a monotonous and often meaningless song1 constitutes everywhere the most primitive1 and1 in spite of that primitiveness1 the most highly developed art4 ,whether as a ritual dance1 or as a pure emotional expression of the joy in rhythmic bodily movement1 it rules the life of primitive men to such a degree that all other forms of art are subordinate to it40 ,footnote #ad3 ,see an interesting essay in ,the ,dance of ,siva3 ,fourteen ,indian ,essays1 by ,ananda ,coomaraswamy4 ,new ,york1 #aiah4 ,footnote #ae3 ,this view was clearly put forward1 long ago1 by ,w4 ,w4 ,newell at the ,international ,congress of ,anthropology at ,chicago in #ahic4 ,it has become almost a commonplace since4 ,footnote #af3 ,see a charming paper by ,marcella ,azra ,hincks1 8,the ,art of ,dancing in ,japan10 ,fortnightly ,review1 ,july1 #aijf4 ,pantomimic dancing1 which has played a highly important part in ,japan1 was introduced into religion from ,china1 it is said1 in the earliest time1 and was not adapted to secular purposes until the sixteenth century4 ,footnote #ag3 ,i owe some of these facts to an interesting article by ,g4 ,r4 ,mead1 8,the ,sacred ,dance of ,jesus10 ,the ,quest1 ,october1 #aiaj4 ,footnote #ah3 ,the dance of the ,seises in ,seville ,cathedral is evidently of great antiquity1 though it was so much a matter of course that we do not hear of it until #afij1 when the ,archbishop of the day1 in opposition to the ,chapter1 wished to suppress it4 ,a decree of the ,king was finally obtained permitting it1 provided it was performed only by men1 so that evidently1 before that date1 girls as well as boys took part in it4 ,rev4 ,john ,morris1 8,dancing in ,churches10 ,the ,month1 ,december1 #ahib2 also a valuable article on the ,seises by ,j4 ,b4 ,trend1 in ,music and ,letters1 ,january1 #aiba4 ,footnote #ai3 ,see1 for references1 ,havelock ,ellis1 ,studies in the ,psychology of ,sex1 vol4 ,,iii2 ,analysis of the ,sexual ,impulse1 pp4 #bi1 etc42 and ,westermarck1 ,history of ,human ,marriage1 vol4 ,i1 chap4 ,,xiii1 p4 #dgj4 ,footnote #bj3 ,at an earlier period1 however1 the dance of ,salome was understood much more freely and often more accurately4 ,as ,enlart has pointed out1 on a capital in the twelfth-century cloister of ,moissac1 ,salome holds a kind of castanets in her raised hands as she dances2 on one of the western portals of ,rouen ,cathedral1 at the beginning of the sixteenth century1 she is dancing on her hands2 while at ,hemelverdeghem she is really executing the morisco1 the 8danse du ventre40 ,footnote #ba3 ,for an excellent account of dancing in ,india1 now being degraded by modern civilisation1 see ,otto ,rothfeld1 ,women of ,india1 chap4 ,,vii1 8,the ,dancing ,girl10 #aibb4 ,footnote #bb3 ,i may hazard the suggestion that the gypsies may possibly have acquired their rather unaccountable name of ,egyptians1 not so much because they had passed through ,egypt1 the reason which is generally suggested1--for they must have passed through many countries1--but because of their proficiency in dances of the recognised ,egyptian type4 ,footnote #bc3 ,it is interesting to observe that ,egypt still retains1 almost unchanged through fifty centuries1 its traditions1 technique1 and skill in dancing1 while1 as in ancient ,egyptian dancing1 the garment forms an almost or quite negligible element in the art4 ,loret remarks that a charming ,egyptian dancer of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty1 whose picture in her transparent gauze he reproduces1 is an exact portrait of a charming ,almeh of to-day whom he has seen dancing in ,thebes with the same figure1 the same dressing of the hair1 the same jewels4 ,i hear from a physician1 a gyncologist now practising in ,egypt1 that a dancing-girl can lie on her back1 and with a full glass of water standing on one side of her abdomen and an empty glass on the other1 can by the contraction of the muscles on the side supporting the full glass1 project the water from it1 so as to fill the empty glass4 ,this1 of course1 is not strictly dancing1 but it is part of the technique which underlies classic dancing and it witnesses to the thoroughness with which the technical side of ,egyptian dancing is still cultivated4 ,footnote #bd3 8,we must learn to regard the form of the ,greek drama as a dance form10 says ,g4 ,warre ,cornish in an interesting article on 8,greek ,drama and the ,dance0 7,fortnightly ,review1 ,february1 #aiac71 8a musical symphonic dance-vision1 through which the history of ,greece and the soul of man are portrayed40 ,footnote #be3 ,it should perhaps be remarked that in recent times it has been denied that the old ballads were built up on dance songs4 ,miss ,pound1 for instance1 in a book on the subject1 argues that they were of aristocratic and not communal origin1 which may well be1 though the absence of the dance element does not seem to follow4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,thinking ,i ,,herbert ,,spencer pointed out1 in his early essay on 8,the ,genesis of ,science10 that science arose out of art1 and that even yet the distinction is 8purely conventional10 for 8it is impossible to say when art ends and science begins40 ,spencer was here using 8art0 in the fundamental sense according to which all practice is of the nature of art4 ,yet it is of interest to find a thinker now commonly regarded as so prosaic asserting a view which to most prosaic people seems fanciful4 ,to the ordinary solid man1 to any would-be apostle of common sense1 science--and by 8science0 he usually means applied science--seems the exact opposite of the vagaries and virtuosities that the hard-headed homme moyen sensuel is accustomed to look upon as 8art40 ,yet the distinction is modern4 ,in classic times there was no such distinction4 ,the 8sciences0--reasonably1 as we may now see1 and not fancifully as was afterwards supposed--were 8the arts of the mind40 ,in the ,middle ,ages the same liberal studies--grammar1 logic1 geometry1 music1 and the rest--could be spoken of either as 8sciences0 or as 8arts10 and for ,roger ,bacon1 who in the thirteenth century was so genuine a man of science1 every branch of study or learning was a 8scientia40 ,i am inclined to think that it was the ,mathematical ,renaissance of the seventeenth century which introduced the undue emphasis on the distinction between 8science0 and 8art40 8,all the sciences are so bound together10 wrote ,descartes1 the banner-bearer of that ,renaissance1 in his 8,rgles pour la ,direction de l',esprit10 8that it is much easier to learn them all at once than to learn one alone by detaching it from the others40 ,he added that we could not say the same of the arts4 ,yet we might perhaps say of arts and sciences that we can only understand them all together1 and we may certainly say1 as ,descartes proceeded to say of the sciences alone1 that they all emanate from the same focus1 however diversely coloured by the media they pass through or the objects they encounter4 ,at that moment1 however1 it was no doubt practically useful1 however theoretically unsound1 to overemphasise the distinction between 8science10 with its new instrumental precision1 and 8art40#bf ,at the same time the tradition of the old usage was not completely put aside1 and a ,master of 8,arts0 remained a master of such sciences as the directors of education succeeded in recognising until the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,by that time the development of the sciences1 and especially of the physical sciences1 as 8the discovery of truth10 led to a renewed emphasis on them which resulted in the practical restriction of the term 8art0 to what are ordinarily called the fine arts4 ,more formally1 science became the study of what were supposed to be demonstrable and systematically classifiable truths regarding the facts of the world2 art was separated off as the play of human impulses in making things4 ,sir ,sidney ,colvin1 in the 8,encyclopdia ,britannica10 after discussing the matter 7which ,mill had already discussed at length in his 8,logic0 and decided that the difference is that ,science is in the ,indicative ,mood and ,art in the ,imperative ,mood71 concluded that science is 8ordered knowledge of natural phenomena and of the relations between them10 or that 8,science consists in knowing1 ,art consists in doing40 ,men of science1 like ,sir ,e4 ,ray ,lankester1 accepted this conclusion4 ,that was as far as it was possible to go in the nineteenth century4 ,but the years pass1 and the progress of science itself1 especially the sciences of the mind1 has upset this distinction4 ,the analysis of 8knowing0 showed that it was not such a merely passive and receptive method of recognising 8truth0 as scientists had innocently supposed4 ,this is probably admitted now by the ,realists among philosophers as well as by the ,idealists4 ,dr4 ,charles ,singer1 perhaps our most learned historian of science1 now defines science1 no longer as a body of organized knowledge1 but as 8the process which makes knowledge10 as 8knowledge in the making02 that is to say1 8the growing edge between the unknown and the known40#bg ,as soon as we thus regard it1 as a making process1 it becomes one with art4 ,even physical science is perpetually laying aside the 8facts0 which it thought it knew1 and learning to replace them by other 8facts0 which it comes to know as more satisfactory in presenting an intelligible view of the world4 ,the analysis of 8knowing0 shows that this is not only a legitimate but an inevitable process4 ,such a process is active and creative4 ,it clearly partakes at least as much of the nature of 8doing0 as of 8knowing40 ,it involves qualities which on another plane1 sometimes indeed on the same plane1 are essentially those involved in doing4 ,the craftsman who moulds conceptions with his mind cannot be put in a fundamentally different class from the craftsman who moulds conceptions with his hand1 any more than the poet can be put in a totally different class from the painter4 ,it is no longer possible to deny that science is of the nature of art4 ,so it is that in the fundamental sense1 and even1 it will have to be added1 in a sense that comprehends the extravagancies of wild variations from the norm1 we have to recognise that the true man of science is an artist4 ,like the lunatic1 the lover1 the poet 7as a great physician1 ,sir ,william ,osler1 has said71 the student is 8of imagination all compact40 ,it was by his 8wonderful imagination10 it has been well pointed out1 that ,newton was constantly discovering new tracks and new processes in the region of the unknown4 ,the extraordinary various life-work of ,helmholtz1 who initiated the valuation of beauty on a physiological basis1 scientifically precise as it was1 had1 as ,einstein has remarked1 an sthetic colouring4 8,there is no such thing as an unimaginative scientific man10 a distinguished professor of mechanics and mathematics declared some years ago1 and if we are careful to remember that not every man who believes that his life is devoted to science is really a 8scientific man10 that statement is literally true4#bh ,it is not only true of the scientific man in the special sense2 it is also true of the philosopher4 ,in every philosopher's work1 a philosophic writer has remarked1 8the construction of a complete system of conceptions is not carried out simply in the interests of knowledge4 ,its underlying motive is sthetic4 ,it is the work of a creative artist40#bi ,the intellectual lives of a ,plato or a ,dante1 ,professor ,graham ,wallas from a different standpoint has remarked1 8were largely guided and sustained by their delight in the sheer beauty of the rhythmic relation between law and instance1 species and individual1 or cause and effect40#cj ,that remark1 with its reference to the laws and rhythm in the universe1 calls to mind the great initiator1 so far as our knowledge extends back1 of scientific research in our ,european world4 ,pythagoras is a dim figure1 and there is no need here to insist unduly on his significance4 ,but there is not the slightest doubt about the nature of that significance in its bearing on the point before us4 ,dim and legendary as he now appears to us1 ,pythagoras was no doubt a real person1 born in the sixth century before ,christ1 at ,samos1 and by his association with that great shipping centre doubtless enabled to voyage afar and glean the wisdom of the ancient world4 ,in antiquity he was regarded1 ,cicero remarks1 as the inventor of philosophy1 and still to-day he is estimated to be one of the most original figures1 not only of ,greece1 but the world4 ,he is a figure full of interest from many points of view1 however veiled in mist1 but he only concerns us here because he represents the beginning of what we call 8science0--that is to say1 measurable knowledge at its growing point--and because he definitely represents it as arising out of what we all conventionally recognise as 8art10 and as1 indeed1 associated with the spirit of art1 even its most fantastic forms1 all the way4 ,pythagoras was a passionate lover of music1 and it was thus that he came to make the enormously fruitful discovery that pitch of sound depends upon the length of the vibrating chord4 ,therein it became clear that law and spatial quantity ruled even in fields which had seemed most independent of quantitative order4 ,the beginning of the great science of mechanics was firmly set up4 ,the discovery was no accident4 ,even his rather hostile contemporary ,heraclitus said of ,pythagoras that he had 8practised research and inquiry beyond all other men40 ,he was certainly a brilliant mathematician2 he was1 also1 not only an astronomer1 but the first1 so far as we know1 to recognise that the earth is a sphere1--so setting up the ladder which was to reach at last to the ,copernican conception1--while his followers took the further step of affirming that the earth was not the centre of our cosmic system1 but concentrically related4 ,so that ,pythagoras may not only be called the ,father of ,philosophy1 but1 with better right the ,father of ,science in the modern exact sense4 ,yet he remained fundamentally an artist even in the conventional sense4 ,his free play of imagination and emotion1 his delight in the ravishing charm of beauty and of harmony1 however it may sometimes have led him astray1--and introduced the reverence for ,number which so long entwined fancy too closely with science1--yet1 as ,gomperz puts it1 gave soaring wings to the power of his severe reason4#ca ,one other great dim figure of early ,european antiquity shares with ,pythagoras the philosophic dominance over our world1 and that is the ,platonic ,socrates1 or1 as we might perhaps say1 the ,socratic ,plato4 ,and here1 too1 we are in the presence of a philosopher1 if not a scientist1 who was a supreme artist4 ,here again1 also1 we encounter a legendary figure concealing a more or less real human person4 ,but there is a difference4 ,while all are agreed that1 in ,pythagoras we have a great and brilliant figure dimly seen1 there are many who consider that in ,socrates we have a small and dim figure grown great and brilliant in the ,platonic medium through which alone he has been really influential in our world1 for without ,plato the name of ,socrates would have scarcely been mentioned4 ,the problem of the ,pythagorean legend may be said to be settled4 ,but the problem of the ,socratic legend is still under discussion4 ,we cannot1 moreover1 quite put it aside as merely of academic interest1 for its solution1 if ever reached1 would touch that great vital problem of art in the actual world with which we are here throughout concerned4 ,if one examines any large standard history of ,greece1 like ,grote's to mention one of the oldest and best1 one is fairly sure to find a long chapter on the life of ,socrates4 ,such a chapter is inserted1 without apology1 without explanation1 without compunction1 as a matter of course1 in a so-called 8history10 and nearly every one1 even to-day1 still seems to take it as a matter of course4 ,few seem to possess the critical and analytical mind necessary for the examination of the documents on which the 8history0 rests4 ,if they approached this chapter in a questioning spirit1 they might perhaps discover that it was not until about half a century after the time of the real ,socrates that any 8historical0 evidence for the existence of our legendary ,socrates begins to appear4#cb ,few people seem to realise that even of ,plato himself we know nothing certain that could not be held in a single sentence4 ,the 8biographies0 of ,plato began to be written four hundred years after his death4 ,it should be easy to estimate their value4 ,there are three elements--one of them immeasurably more important than the other two--of which the composite portrait of our modern ,socrates is made up3 ,xenophon1 ,plato1 the dramatists4 ,to the contribution furnished by the first1 not much weight is usually attached4 ,yet it should really have been regarded as extremely illuminating4 ,it suggests that the subject of 8,socrates0 was a sort of school exercise1 useful practice in rhetoric or in dialectics4 ,the very fact that ,xenophon's ,socrates was so reminiscent of his creator ought to have been instructive4#cc ,it has1 however1 taken scholars some time to recognise this1 and ,karl ,jol1 who spent fifteen of the best years of his life over the ,xenophontic ,socrates1 to discover that the figure was just as much a fiction as the ,platonic ,socrates1 has lately confessed that he thinks those years rather wasted4 ,it might have been clear earlier that what ,plato had done was really just the same thing so far as method was concerned1 though a totally different thing in result because done by the most richly endowed of poet-philosophers1 the most consummate of artists4 ,for that is probably how we ought to regard ,plato1 and not1 like some1 as merely a great mystificator4 ,it is true that ,plato was the master of irony1 and that 8irony10 in its fundamental meaning1 is1 as ,gomperz points out1 8pleasure in mystifying40 ,but while ,plato's irony possesses a significance which we must always keep before us1 it is yet only one of the elements of his vast and versatile mind4 ,it is to the third of these sources that some modern investigators are now inclined to attach primary significance4 ,it was on the stage--in the branch of drama that kept more closely in touch with life than that which had fallen into the hands of the prose dialecticians and rhetoricians--that we seem to find the shadow of the real ,socrates4 ,but he was not the ,socrates of the dramatic dialogues of ,plato or even of ,xenophon2 he was a minor ,sophist1 an inferior ,diogenes1 yet a remarkable figure1 arresting and disturbing1 whose idiosyncrasies were quite perceptible to the crowd4 ,it was an original figure1 hardly the embodiment of a turning-point in philosophy1 but fruitful of great possibilities1 so that we could hardly be surprised if the master of philosophic drama took it over from real life and the stage for his own purposes4 ,to make clear to myself the possible way--,i am far from asserting it was the actual way--in which our legendary ,socrates arose1 ,i sometimes think of ,chidley4 ,chidley was an ,australian ,sophist and ,cynic1 in the good sense of both these words1 and without doubt1 it seems to me1 the most original and remarkable figure that has ever appeared in ,australia1 of which1 however1 he was not a native1 though he spent nearly his whole life there4 ,he was always poor1 and like most philosophers he was born with a morbid nervous disposition1 though he acquired a fine and robust frame4 ,he was liable not only to the shock of outward circumstances but of inward impulses2 these he had in the past often succumbed to1 and only slowly and painfully gained the complete mastery over as he gained possession of his own philosophy4 ,for all his falls1 which he felt acutely1 as ,augustine and ,bunyan as well as ,rousseau felt such lapses1 there was in him a real nobility1 an even ascetic firmness and purity of character4 ,i never met him1 but ,i knew him more intimately1 perhaps1 than those who came in contact with him4 ,for many years ,i was in touch with him1 and his last letter was written shortly before his death2 he always felt ,i ought to be persuaded of the truth he had to reveal and never quite understood my sympathetic attitude of scepticism4 ,he had devoured all the philosophic literature he could lay hold of1 but his philosophy--in the ,greek sense1 as a way of life1 and not in our modern sense as a system of notions--was his own3 a new vision of ,nature's simplicity and wholeness1 only new because it had struck on a new sensibility and sometimes in excessive and fantastic ways1 but he held his faith with unbending devotion1 and never ceased to believe that all would accept the vision when once they beheld it4 ,so he went about the streets in ,sydney1 clad 7as a concession to public feeling7 in bathing drawers1 finding anywhere he could the ,stoa which might serve for him1 to argue and discuss1 among all who were willing1 with eager faith1 keen mind1 and pungent speech4 ,a few were won1 but most were disturbed and shocked4 ,the police persistently harassed him2 they felt bound to interfere with what seemed such an outrage on the prim decency of the streets2 and as he quietly persisted in following his own course1 and it was hard to bring any serious charge against him1 they called in the aid of the doctors1 and henceforth he was in and out of the asylum instead of the prison4 ,no one need be blamed2 it was nobody's fault2 if a man transgresses the ordinary respectable notions of decency1 he must be a criminal1 and if he is not a criminal1 he must be a lunatic2 the social organisation takes no account of philosophers2 the philosophic ,hipparchia and her husband must not nowadays consummate their marriage in public1 and our modern philosophers meekly agree that philosophy is to have nothing to do with a life4 ,every one in the case seems to have behaved with due conventional propriety1 just as every one behaved around the deathbed of ,tolstoy's ,ivan ,ilitch4 ,it was ,chidley's deathbed they were preparing1 and he knew it1 but he unflinchingly grasped the cup they held out to him and drank it to the dregs4 ,he felt he could do no other4 ,there was no fabled hemlock in it1 but it was just as deadly as though it had been accompanied by all the dramatic symbolisation of a formal condemnation to death1 such as had really been recorded 7,plato well knew7 in old ,athenian annals4 ,there was no ,plato in ,sydney4 ,but if there had been1 it is hard to conceive any figure more fit for the ends of his transforming art4 ,through that inspiring medium the plebeian ,sophist and ,cynic1 while yet retaining something of the asperity of his original shape1 would have taken on a new glory1 his bizarreries would have been spiritualised and his morbidities become the signs of mystic possession1 his fate would have appeared as consecrated in form as it genuinely was in substance1 he would have been the mouthpiece1 not only of the truths he really uttered1 but of a divine eloquence on the verge of which he had in real life only trembled1 and1 like ,socrates in the hands of ,plato1 he would have passed1 as all the finest philosophy passes at last1 into music4#cd ,so in the end ,chidley would have entered modern history1 just as ,socrates entered ancient history1 the ,saint and ,martyr of ,philosophy4#ce ,if it should so be that1 as we learn to see him truly1 the figure of the real ,socrates must diminish in magnitude1 then--and that is the point which concerns us here--the glory of the artist who made him what he has become for us is immensely enhanced4 ,no longer the merely apt and brilliant disciple of a great master1 he becomes himself master and lord1 the radiant creator of the chief figure in ,european philosophy1 the most marvellous artist the world has ever known4 ,so that when we look back at the spiritual history of ,europe1 it may become possible to say that its two supreme figures1 the ,martyr of ,philosophy and the ,martyr of ,religion1 were both--however real the two human persons out of which they were formed--the work of man's imagination4 ,for there1 on the one hand1 we see the most accomplished of ,european thinkers1 and on the other a little band of barbarians1 awkwardly using just the same ,greek language1 working with an unconscious skill which even transcends all that conscious skill could have achieved1 yet both bearing immortal witness to the truth that the human soul only lives truly in art and can only be ruled through art4 ,so it is that in art lies the solution of the conflicts of philosophy4 ,there we see ,realism1 or the discovery of things1 one with ,idealism1 or the creation of things4 ,art is the embodied harmony of their conflict4 ,that could not be more exquisitely symbolised than by these two supreme figures in the spiritual life of ,europe1 the ,platonic ,socrates and the ,gospel ,jesus1 both alike presented to us1 it is so significant to observe1 as masters of irony4 ,there has never again been so great an artist in philosophy1 so supreme a dramatist1 as ,plato4 ,but in later times philosophers themselves have often been willing to admit that even if they were not1 like ,plato1 dramatists1 there was poetry and art in their vocation4 8,one does not see why the sense for ,philosophy should be more generally diffused than that for poetry10 remarked ,schelling1 evidently regarding them as on the same plane4 ,f4 ,a4 ,lange followed with his memorable 8,history of ,materialism10 in which the conception of philosophy as a poetic art was clearly set forth4 8,philosophy is pure art10 says in our own days a distinguished thinker who is in especially close touch with the religious philosophy of the ,east4 8,the thinker works with laws of thought and scientific facts in just the same sense as the musical composer with tones4 ,he must find accords1 he must think out sequences1 he must set the part in a necessary relation to the whole4 ,but for that he needs art40#cf ,bergson regards philosophy as an art1 and ,croce1 the more than rival of ,bergson in popular esteem1 and with interesting points of contact with the ,french philosopher1 though his standpoint is so different1 has repeatedly pointed out--as regards ,nietzsche1 for instance1 and even as regards a philosopher to whom he is so closely related as ,hegel--that we may read philosophy for its poetic rather than its historic truth4 ,croce's position in this matter is not1 indeed1 easy to state quite simply4 ,he includes sthetics in philosophy1 but he would not regard philosophy as an art4 ,for him art is the first and lowest stratum in the mind1 not in rank1 but in order1 and on it the other strata are laid and combine with it4 ,or1 as he elsewhere says1 8art is the root of our whole theoretic life4 ,without root there can be neither flower nor fruit40#cg ,but for ,croce art is not itself flower or fruit4 ,the 8,concept0 and other abstractions have to be brought in before ,croce is satisfied that he has attained reality4 ,it may1 perhaps1 indeed1 be permitted1 even to an admirer of the skill with which ,croce spreads out such wide expanses of thought1 to suggest that1 in spite of his anxiety to keep close to the concrete1 he is not therein always successful1 and that he tends to move in verbal circles1 as may perhaps happen to a philosopher who would reduce the philosophy of art to the philosophy of language4 ,but1 however that may be1 it is a noteworthy fact that the close relationship of art and philosophy is admitted by the two most conspicuous philosophers of to-day1 raised to popular eminence in spite of themselves1 the ,philosopher of ,other-worldliness and the ,philosopher of ,this-worldliness4 ,if we turn to ,england1 we find that1 in an age and a land wherein it was not so easy to make the assertion as it has now more generally become1 ,sir ,leslie ,stephen1 in harmony1 whether or not he knew it1 with ,f4 ,a4 ,lange1 wrote to ,lord ,morley 7as he later became7 in the last century3 8,i think that a philosophy is really made more of poetry than of logic2 and the real value of both poetry and philosophy is not the pretended reasoning1 but the exposition in one form or other of a certain view of life40 ,it is1 we see1 just what they have all been saying1 and if it is true of men of science and philosophers1 who are the typical representatives of human thinking1 it is even true of every man on earth who thinks1 ever since the day when conscious thinking began4 ,the world is an unrelated mass of impressions1 as it first strikes our infant senses1 falling at random on the sensory mechanism1 and all appearing as it were on the same plane4 ,for an infant the moon is no farther away than his mother's breast1 even though he possesses an inherited mental apparatus fitted to cordinate and distinguish the two4 ,it is only when we begin to think1 that we can arrange these unrelated impressions into intelligible groups1 and thinking is thus of the nature of art4#ch ,all such art1 moreover1 may yet be said to be an invention of fictions4 ,that great and fundamental truth1 which underlies so much modern philosophy1 has been expounded in the clearest and most detailed manner by ,hans ,vaihinger in his 8,philosophie des ,als ,ob40 ,,ii ,,hans ,,vaihinger is still little known in ,england2#ci and that is the more remarkable as he has always been strongly attached to ,english thought1 of which his famous book reveals an intimate knowledge4 ,in early life he had mixed much with ,english people1 for whom he has a deep regard1 and learnt to revere1 not only ,darwin1 but ,hume and ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 who exerted a decisive influence on his own philosophic development4 ,at the beginning of his career he projected a history of ,english philosophy1 but interest in that subject was then so small in ,germany that he had regretfully to abandon his scheme1 and was drawn instead1 through no active effort on his part1 to make the study of ,kant the by-product of his own more distinctive work1 yet it was a fitting study1 for in ,kant he saw the germs of the doctrine of the 8as if10 that is to say1 the practical significance of fiction in human life1 though that is not the idea traditionally associated with ,kant1 who1 indeed1 was not himself clear about it1 while his insight was further darkened by his reactionary tendencies2 yet ,vaihinger found that it really played a large part in ,kant's work and might even be regarded as his special and personal way of regarding things2 he was not so much a metaphysician1 ,vaihinger remarks1 as a metaphorician4 ,yet even in his ,kantian studies the ,english influence was felt1 for ,vaihinger's work has here been to take up the ,neo-,kantism of ,f4 ,a4 ,lange and to develop it in an empirical and positivistic direction4 ,there was evidently something in ,vaihinger's spirit that allied him to the ,english spirit4 ,we may see that in his portrait2 it is not the face of the philosophic dreamer1 the scholarly man of the study1 but the eager1 forceful head of the practical man of action1 the daring adventurer1 the man who seems made to struggle with the concrete things of the world1 the kind of man1 that is to say1 whom we consider peculiarly ,english4 ,that1 indeed1 is the kind of man he would have been2 that is the kind of life1 a social life full of activity and of sport1 that he desired to lead4 ,but it was impossible4 ,an extreme and lifelong short-sightedness proved a handicap of which he has never ceased to be conscious4 ,so it came about that his practical energy was1 as it were1 sublimated into a philosophy which yet retained the same forceful dynamic quality4 ,for the rest1 his origin1 training1 and vocation seem all to have been sufficiently ,german4 ,he came1 like many other eminent men1 out of a ,swabian parsonage1 and was himself intended for theology1 only branching off into philosophy after his university career was well advanced4 ,at the age of sixteen he was deeply influenced1 as so many others have been1 by ,herder's 8,ideen zur ,geschichte der ,menschheit02 that not only harmonised with his own tendency at the time towards a mixed theism and pantheism1 but it first planted within him the conception of evolution in human history1 proceeding from an animal origin1 which became a fundamental element of his mental constitution4 ,when a year later he came across ,darwin's doctrines he felt that he knew them beforehand4 ,these influences were balanced by that of ,plato1 through whose 8,ideas0 he caught his first glimpse of an 8,as-,if world40 ,a little later the strenuous training of one of his teachers in the logical analysis of ,latin syntax1 especially in the use of the conjunctions1 furnished the source from which subsequently he drew that now well-known phrase4 ,it was in these years that he reached the view1 which he has since definitely advocated1 that philosophy should not be made a separate study1 but should become a natural part and corollary of every study1 since philosophy cannot be fruitfully regarded as a discipline by itself4 ,without psychology1 especially1 he finds that philosophy is merely 8a methodic abstraction40 ,a weighty influence of these days was constituted by the poems and essays of ,schiller1 a ,swabian like himself1 and1 indeed1 associated with the history of his own family4 ,schiller was not only an inspiring influence1 but it was in ,schiller's saying1 8,error alone is life1 and knowledge is death10 that he found 7however unjustifiably7 the first expression of his own 8fictionalism10 while ,schiller's doctrine of the play impulse as the basis of artistic creation and enjoyment seemed the prophecy of his own later doctrine1 for in play he saw later the 8as if0 as the kernel of sthetic practice and contemplation4 ,at the age of eighteen ,vaihinger proceeded to the ,swabian ,university of ,tbingen and here was free to let his wide-ranging1 eager mind follow its own impulses4 ,he revealed a taste for the natural sciences and with this the old ,greek nature philosophers1 especially ,anaximander1 for the sake of their anticipations of modern evolutionary doctrines4 ,aristotle also occupied him1 later ,spinoza1 and1 above all1 ,kant1 though it was chiefly the metaphysical antinomies and the practical reason which fascinated him4 ,as ever1 it was what made for practice that seemed mostly to concern him4 ,schelling1 ,hegel1 and ,schleiermacher1 the official ,german idealists1 said nothing to him4 ,he turned from them to ,schopenhauer1 and thence he drew the pessimisms1 the irrationalism1 and the voluntarism which became permanent features of his system of thought4 ,the irrationalism1 as he himself points out1 was completely opposed to all early influences on him1 but it lay in his own personal circumstances4 ,the contrast between his temperamental impulse to energetic practical action in every direction1 and the reserve1 passivity1 and isolation which myopia enforced1 seemed to him absolutely irrational and sharpened his vision for all the irrationality of existence4 ,so that a philosophy which1 like ,schopenhauer's1 truthfully recognised and allowed for the irrational element in existence came like a revelation4 ,as to ,vaihinger's pessimism1 that1 as we might expect1 is hardly of what would be generally considered a pessimistic character4 ,it is merely a recognition of the fact that most people are over-sanguine and thereby come to grief1 whereas a little touch of pessimism would have preserved them from much misery4 ,long before the ,great ,war1 ,vaihinger felt that many ,germans were over-sanguine regarding the military power of their ,empire1 and of ,germany's place in the world1 and that such optimism might easily conduce to war and disaster4 ,in #aiaa he even planned to publish anonymously in ,switzerland a pamphlet entitled 8,finis ,germani10 with the motto 8,quos ,deus vult perdere1 prius dementat10 and was only prevented by a sudden development of the eye-trouble4 ,vaihinger points out that an unjustified optimism had for a long time past led in the politics of ,germany--and also1 he might have said1 of the countries later opposed to her--to lack of foresight1 over-haste1 and arrogance2 he might have added that a very slight touch of pessimism would also have enabled these countries1 on both sides1 to discover the not very remote truth that even the victors in such a contest would suffer scarcely less than the conquered4 ,in early life ,vaihinger had playfully defined ,man as a 8species of ape afflicted by megalomania02 he admits that1 whatever truth lies behind the definition1 the statement is somewhat exaggerated4 ,yet it is certainly strange to observe1 one may comment1 how many people seem to feel vain of their own ungratified optimism when the place where optimism most flourishes is the lunatic asylum4 ,they never seem to pause to reflect on the goal that lies ahead of them1 though there must be few who on looking back cannot perceive what terrible accidents they might have foreseen and avoided by the aid of a little pessimism4 ,when the gods1 to ruin a man1 first make him mad1 they do it1 almost invariably1 by making him an optimist4 ,one might hazard the assertion that the chief philosophic distinction between classic antiquity and modern civilisation is the prevalence in the latter of a facile optimism2 and the fact that of all ancient writers the most popular in modern times has been the complacently optimistic 7or really hedonistic7 ,horace is hardly due to his technical virtuosity4 ,he who would walk sanely amid the opposing perils in the path of life always needs a little optimism2 he also needs a little pessimism4 ,reference has been made to ,vaihinger's devouring appetite for knowledge4 ,this1 indeed1 was extraordinary1 and of almost universal range4 ,there seem to have been few fields with which he failed to come in touch1 either through books or by personal intercourse with experts4 ,he found his way into all the natural sciences1 he was drawn to ,greek archology and ,german philosophy2 he began the study of ,sanscrit with ,roth4 ,then1 realising that he had completely neglected mathematics1 he devoted himself with ardour to analytic geometry and infinitesimals1 a study which later he found philosophically fruitful4 ,finally1 in #ahgd1 he may be said to have rounded the circle of his self-development by reading the just published enlarged and much improved edition of ,f4 ,a4 ,lange's 8,history of ,materialism40 ,here he realised the presence of a spirit of the noblest order1 equipped with the widest culture and the finest lucidity of vision1 the keenest religious radicalism combined with large-hearted tolerance and lofty moral equilibrium1 all manifested in a completed master-work4 ,moreover1 the standpoint of ,f4 ,a4 ,lange was precisely that which ,vaihinger had been independently struggling towards1 for it brought into view that doctrine of the place of fiction in life which he had already seen ahead4 ,it is not surprising that he should generously and enthusiastically acclaim ,lange as master and leader1 though his subsequent work is his own1 and has carried ideas of which ,lange held only the seeds to new and fruitful development4#dj ,it was in #ahgf-gg that ,vaihinger wrote his book1 a marvellous achievement for so youthful a thinker1 for he was then only about twenty-five years of age4 ,a final revision it never underwent1 and there remain various peculiarities about the form into which it is cast4 ,the serious failure in eyesight seems to have been the main reason for delaying the publication of a work which the author felt to be too revolutionary to put forth in an imperfect form4 ,he preferred to leave it for posthumous publication4 ,but the world was not standing still1 and during the next thirty years many things happened4 ,vaihinger found the new sect of ,pragmatists coming into fashion with ideas resembling his own1 though in a cruder shape1 which seemed to render philosophy the 8meretrix theologorum40 ,many distinguished thinkers were working towards an attitude more or less like his own1 especially ,nietzsche1 whom 7like many others even to-day7 he had long regarded with prejudice and avoided1 but now discovered to be 8a great liberator0 with congenial veins of thought4 ,vaihinger realised that his conception was being independently put forward from various sides1 often in forms that to him seemed imperfect or vicious4 ,it was no longer advisable to hold back his book4 ,in #aiaa1 therefore1 8,die ,philosophie des ,als ,ob0 appeared4 ,the problem which ,vaihinger set out to solve was this3 ,how comes it about that with consciously false ideas we yet reach conclusions that are in harmony with ,nature and appeal to us as ,truth8 ,that we do so is obvious1 especially in the 8exact0 branches of science4 ,in mathematics it is notorious that we start from absurdities to reach a realm of law1 and our whole conception of the nature of the world is based on a foundation which we believe to have no existence4 ,for even the most sober scientific investigator in science1 the most thoroughgoing ,positivist1 cannot dispense with fiction2 he must at least make use of categories1 and they are already fictions1 analogical fictions1 or labels1 which give us the same pleasure as children receive when they are told the 8name0 of a thing4 ,fiction is1 indeed1 an indispensable supplement to logic1 or even a part of it2 whether we are working inductively or deductively1 both ways hang closely together with fiction2 and axioms1 though they seek to be primary verities1 are more akin to fiction4 ,if we had realised the nature of axioms1 the doctrine of ,einstein1 which sweeps away axioms so familiar to us that they seem obvious truths1 and substitutes others which seem absurd because they are unfamiliar1 might not have been so bewildering4 ,physics1 especially mathematical physics1 ,vaihinger explains in detail1 has been based1 and fruitfully based1 on fictions4 ,the infinite1 infinitely little or infinitely great1 while helpful in lightening our mental operations1 is a fiction4 ,the ,greeks disliked and avoided it1 and 8the gradual formation of this conception is one of the most charming and instructive themes in the history of science10 indeed1 one of the most noteworthy spectacles in the history of the human spirit2 we see the working of a logical impulse first feeling in the dark1 gradually constructing ideas fitted to yield precious service1 yet full of hopeless contradictions1 without any relation to the real world4 ,that absolute space is a fiction1 ,vaihinger points out1 is no new idea4 ,hobbes had declared it was only a phantasma2 ,leibnitz1 who agreed1 added that it was merely 8the idolum of a few modern ,englishmen10 and called time1 extension1 and movement 8choses idales40 ,berkeley1 in attacking the defective conceptions of the mathematicians1 failed to see that it was by means of1 and not in spite of1 these logically defective conceptions that they attained logically valuable results4 ,all the marks of fiction were set up on the mathematician's pure space2 it was impossible and unthinkable3 yet it proved useful and fruitful4 ,the tautological fiction of 8,force0--an empty reduplication of the fact of a succession of relationships--is one that we constantly fall back on with immense satisfaction and with the feeling of having achieved something2 it has been a highly convenient fiction which has aided representation and experience4 ,it is one of the most famous1 and also1 it must be added1 one of the most fatal of fantasies4 ,for when we talk of1 for instance1 a 8life-force0 and its lan1 or whatever other dainty term we like to apply to it1 we are not only summarily mingling together many separate phenomena1 but we are running the risk that our conception may be taken for something that really exists4 ,there is always temptation1 when two processes tend to follow each other1 to call the property of the first to be followed by the other its 8force10 and to measure that force by the magnitude of the result4 ,in reality we only have succession and coexistence1 and the 8force0 is something that we imagine4 ,we must not1 therefore1 treat our imagination with contempt as was formerly the fashion1 but rather the reverse4 ,the two great periods of ,english ,philosophy1 ,vaihinger remarks1 ended with ,ockham and with ,hume1 who each took up1 in effect1 the fictional point of view1 but both too much on the merely negative side1 without realising the positive and constructive value of fictions4 ,english law has above all realised it1 even1 he adds1 to the point of absurdity4 ,nothing is so precious as fiction1 provided only one chooses the right fiction4 8,matter0 is such a fiction4 ,there are still people who speak with lofty contempt of 8,materialism02 they mean well1 but they are unhappy in their terms of abuse4 ,when ,berkeley demonstrated the impossibility of 8matter10 he thought he could afford to throw away the conception as useless4 ,he was quite wrong2 it is logically contradictory ideas that are the most valuable4 ,matter is a fiction1 just as the fundamental ideas with which the sciences generally operate are mostly fictions1 and the scientific materialisation of the world has proved a necessary and useful fiction1 only harmful when we regard it as hypothesis and therefore possibly true4 ,the representative world is a system of fictions4 ,it is a symbol by the help of which we orient ourselves4 ,the business of science is to make the symbol ever more adequate1 but it remains a symbol1 a means of action1 for action is the last end of thinking4 ,the 8atom10 to which matter is ultimately reduced1 is regarded by ,vaihinger as equally a fiction1 though it was at first viewed as an hypothesis1 and it may be added that since he wrote it seems to have returned to the stage of hypothesis4#da ,but when with ,boscovich the 8atom0 was regarded as simply the bearer of energy1 it became 8literally a hypostatised nothing40 ,we have to realise at the same time that every 8thing0 is a 8summatory fiction10 for to say1 as is often said1 that a 8thing0 has properties and yet has a real existence apart from its properties is obviously only a convenient manner of speech1 a 8verbal fiction40 ,the 8force of attraction10 as ,newton himself pointed out1 belongs to the same class of summatory fictions4 ,vaihinger is throughout careful to distinguish fiction alike from hypothesis and dogma4 ,he regards the distinction as1 methodologically1 highly important1 though not always easy to make4 ,the 8dogma0 is put forward as an absolute and unquestionable truth2 the 8hypothesis0 is a possible or probable truth1 such as ,darwin's doctrine of descent2 the 8fiction0 is impossible1 but it enables us to reach what for us is relatively truth1 and1 above all1 while hypothesis simply contributes to knowledge1 fiction thus used becomes a guide to practical action and indispensable to what we feel to be progress4 ,thus the mighty and civilising structure of ,roman law was built up by the aid of what the ,romans themselves recognised as fictions1 while in the different and more flexible system of ,english laws a constant inspiration to action has been furnished by the supposed privileges gained by ,magna ,carta1 though we now recognise them as fictitious4 ,many of our ideas tend to go through the three stages of ,dogma1 ,hypothesis1 and ,fiction1 sometimes in that order and sometimes in the reverse order4 ,hypothesis especially presents a state of labile stability which is unpleasant to the mind1 so it tends to become either dogma or fiction4 ,the ideas of ,christianity1 beginning as dogmas1 have passed through all three stages in the minds of thinkers during recent centuries3 the myths of ,plato1 beginning as fiction1 not only passed through the three stages1 but then passed back again1 being now again regarded as fiction4 ,the scientifically valuable fiction is a child of modern times1 but we have already emerged from the period when the use of fiction was confined to the exact sciences4 ,thus we find fiction fruitfully flourishing in the biological and social sciences and even in the highest spheres of human spiritual activity4 ,the ,linnan and similar classificatory systems are fictions1 even though put forward as hypotheses1 having their value simply as pictures1 as forms of representation1 but leading to contradictions and liable to be replaced by other systems which present more helpful pictures4 ,there are still people who disdain ,adam ,smith's 8economic man10 as though proceeding from a purely selfish view of life1 although ,buckle1 forestalling ,vaihinger1 long ago explained that ,smith was deliberately making use of a 8valid artifice10 separating facts that he knew to be in nature inseparable--he based his moral theory on a totally different kind of man--because so he could reach results approximately true to the observed phenomena4 ,bentham also adopted a fiction for his own system1 though believing it to be an hypothesis1 and ,mill criticised it as being 8geometrical02 the criticism is correct1 comments ,vaihinger1 but the method was not thereby invalidated1 for in complicated fields no other method can be fruitfully used4 ,the same law holds when we approach our highest and most sacred conceptions4 ,it was recognised by enlightened philosophers and theologians before ,vaihinger that the difference between body and soul is not different from that between matter and force1--a provisional and useful distinction1--that light and darkness1 life and death1 are abstractions1 necessary1 indeed1 but in their application to reality always to be used with precaution4 ,on the threshold of the moral world we meet the idea of ,freedom1 8one of the weightiest conceptions man has ever formed10 once a dogma1 in course of time an hypothesis1 now in the eyes of many a fiction2 yet we cannot do without it1 even although we may be firmly convinced that our acts are determined by laws that cannot be broken4 ,many other great conceptions have tended to follow the same course4 ,god1 the ,soul1 ,immortality1 the ,moral ,world-,order4 ,the critical hearers understand what is meant when these great words are used1 and if the uncritical misunderstand1 that1 adds ,vaihinger1 may sometimes be also useful4 ,for these things are ,ideals1 and all ,ideals are1 logically speaking1 fictions4 ,as ,science leads to the ,imaginary1 so ,life leads to the ,impossible2 without them we cannot reach the heights we are born to scale4 8,taken literally1 however1 our most valuable conceptions are worthless40 ,when we review the vast field which ,vaihinger summarises1 we find that thinking and existing must ever be on two different planes4 ,the attempt of ,hegel and his followers to transform subjective processes into objective world-processes1 ,vaihinger maintains1 will not work out4 ,the ,thing-in-,itself1 the ,absolute1 remains a fiction1 though the ultimate and most necessary fiction1 for without it representation would be unintelligible4 ,we can only regard reality as a ,heraclitean flux of happening--though ,vaihinger fails to point out that this 8reality0 also can only be an image or symbol--and our thinking would itself be fluid if it were not that by fiction we obtain imaginary standpoints and boundaries by which to gain control of the flow of reality4 ,it is the special art and object of thinking to attain existence by quite other methods than that of existence itself4 ,but the wish by so doing to understand the world is both unrealisable and foolish1 for we are only trying to comprehend our own fictions4 ,we can never solve the so-called world-riddle because what seem riddles to us are merely the contradictions we have ourselves created4 ,yet1 though the way of thinking cannot be the way of being1 since they stand on such different foundations1 thinking always has a kind of parallelism with being1 and though we make our reckoning with a reality that we falsify1 yet the practical result tends to come out right4 ,just because thinking is different from reality1 its forms must also be different in order to correspond with reality4 ,our conceptions1 our conventional signs1 have a fictive function to perform2 thinking in its lower grades is comparable to paper money1 and in its higher forms it is a kind of poetry4 ,imagination is thus a constitutive part of all thinking4 ,we may make distinctions between practical scientific thinking and disinterested sthetic thinking4 ,yet all thinking is finally a comparison4 ,scientific fictions are parallel with sthetic fictions4 ,the poet is the type of all thinkers3 there is no sharp boundary between the region of poetry and the region of science4 ,both alike are not ends in themselves1 but means to higher ends4 ,vaihinger's doctrine of the 8as if0 is not immune from criticism on more than one side1 and it is fairly obvious that1 however sound the general principle1 particular 8fictions0 may alter their status1 and have even done so since the book was written4 ,moreover1 the doctrine is not always quite congruous with itself4 ,nor can it be said that ,vaihinger ever really answered the question with which he set out4 ,in philosophy1 however1 it is not the attainment of the goal that matters1 it is the things that are met with by the way4 ,and ,vaihinger's philosophy is not only of interest because it presents so clearly and vigorously a prevailing tendency in modern thought4 ,rightly understood1 it supplies a fortifying influence to those who may have seen their cherished spiritual edifice1 whatever it may be1 fall around them and are tempted to a mood of disillusionment4 ,we make our own world2 when we have made it awry1 we can remake it1 approximately truer1 though it cannot be absolutely true1 to the facts4 ,it will never be finally made2 we are always stretching forth to larger and better fictions which answer more truly to our growing knowledge and experience4 ,even when we walk1 it is only by a series of regulated errors1 ,vaihinger well points out1 a perpetual succession of falls to one side and the other side4 ,our whole progress through life is of the same nature2 all thinking is a regulated error4 ,for we cannot1 as ,vaihinger insists1 choose our errors at random or in accordance with what happens to please us2 such fictions are only too likely to turn into deadening dogmas3 the old vis dormitiva is the type of them1 mere husks that are of no vital use and help us not at all4 ,there are good fictions and bad fictions just as there are good poets and bad poets4 ,it is in the choice and regulation of our errors1 in our readiness to accept ever-closer approximations to the unattainable reality1 that we think rightly and live rightly4 ,we triumph in so far as we succeed in that regulation4 8,a lost battle10 ,foch1 quoting ,de ,maistre1 lays down in his 8,principes de ,guerre10 8is a battle one thinks one has lost02 the battle is won by the fiction that it is won4 ,it is so also in the battle of life1 in the whole art of living4 ,freud regards dreaming as fiction that helps us to sleep2 thinking we may regard as fiction that helps us to live4 ,man lives by imagination4 ,,iii ,,yet what we consider our highest activities arise out of what we are accustomed to regard as the lowest4 ,that is1 indeed1 merely a necessary result of evolution2 bipeds like ourselves spring out of many-limbed creatures whom we should now regard as little better than vermin1 and the adult human creature whose eyes1 as he sometimes imagines1 are fixed on the stars1 was a few years earlier merely a small animal crawling on all fours4 ,the impulse of the philosopher1 of the man of science1 of any ordinary person who sometimes thinks about seemingly abstract or disinterested questions--we must include the whole range of the play of thought in response to the stimulus of curiosity--may seem at the first glance to be a quite secondary and remote product of the great primary instincts4 ,yet it is not difficult to bring this secondary impulse into direct relation with the fundamental primary instincts1 even1 and perhaps indeed chiefly1 with the instinct of sex4 ,on the mental side--which is not1 of course1 its fundamental side--the sexual instinct is mainly1 perhaps solely1 a reaction to the stimulus of curiosity4 ,beneath that mental surface the really active force is a physiologically based instinct urgent towards action1 but the boy or girl who first becomes conscious of the mental stimulus is unaware of the instinct it springs from1 and may even disregard as unimportant its specific physiological manifestations4 ,the child is only conscious of new curiosities1 and these it persistently seeks to satisfy at any available or likely source of information1 aided by the strenuous efforts of its own restlessly active imagination4 ,it is in exactly the same position as the metaphysician1 or the biologist1 or any thinker who is faced by complex and yet unsolved problems4 ,and the child is at first baffled by just the same kind of obstacles1 due1 not like those of the thinker1 to the silence of recalcitrant ,nature1 but to the silence of parents and teachers1 or to their deliberate efforts to lead him astray4 ,where do babies come from8 ,that is perhaps for many children the earliest scientific problem that is in this way rendered so difficult of solution4 ,no satisfying solution comes from the sources of information to which the child is wont to appeal4 ,he is left to such slight imperfect observations as he can himself make2 on such clues his searching intellect works and with the aid of imagination weaves a theory1 more or less remote from the truth1 which may possibly explain the phenomena4 ,it is a genuine scientific process--the play of intellect and imagination around a few fragments of observed fact--and it is undoubtedly a valuable discipline for the childish mind1 though if it is too prolonged it may impede or distort natural development1 and if the resulting theory is radically false it may lead1 as the theories of scientific adults sometimes lead1 if not speedily corrected1 to various unfortunate results4 ,a little later1 when he has ceased to be a child and puberty is approaching1 another question is apt to arise in the boy's mind3 ,what is a woman like8 ,there is also1 less often and more carefully concealed1 the corresponding curiosity in the girl's mind4 ,earlier this question had seemed of no interest2 it had never even occurred to ask it2 there was little realisation--sometimes none at all--of any sexual difference4 ,now it sometimes becomes a question of singular urgency1 in the solution of which it is necessary for the boy to concentrate all the scientific apparatus at his command4 ,for there may be no ways of solving it directly1 least of all for a well-behaved1 self-respecting boy or a shy1 modest girl4 ,the youthful intellect is thus held in full tension1 and its developing energy directed into all sorts of new channels in order to form an imaginative picture of the unknown reality1 fascinating because incompletely known4 ,all the chief recognised mental processes of dogma1 hypothesis1 and fiction1 developed in the history of the race1 are to this end instinctively created afresh in the youthful individual mind1 endlessly formed and re-formed and tested in order to fill in the picture4 ,the young investigator becomes a diligent student of literature and laboriously examines the relevant passages he finds in the ,bible or other ancient primitive naked books4 ,he examines statues and pictures4 ,perhaps he finds some old elementary manual of anatomy1 but here the long list of structures with ,latin names proves far more baffling than helpful to the youthful investigator who can in no possible way fit them all into the smooth surface shown by the statues4 ,yet the creative and critical habit of thought1 the scientific mind generated by this search1 is destined to be of immense value1 and long outlives the time when the eagerly sought triangular spot1 having fulfilled its intellectual function1 has become a familiar region1 viewed with indifference1 or at most a homely tenderness4 ,that was but a brief and passing episode1 however permanently beneficial its results might prove4 ,with the achievement of puberty1 with the coming of adolescence1 a larger and higher passion fills the youth's soul4 ,he forgets the woman's body1 his idealism seems to raise him above the physical3 it is the woman's personality--most likely some particular woman's personality--that he desires to know and to grasp4 ,a twofold development tends to take place at this age--in those youths1 that is to say1 who possess the latent attitude for psychic development--and that in two diverse directions1 both equally away from definite physical desire1 which at this age is sometimes1 though not always1 at its least prominent place in consciousness4 ,on the one hand there is an attraction for an idealised person--perhaps a rather remote person1 for such most easily lend themselves to idealisation--of the opposite 7or occasionally the same7 sex1 it may sometimes for a time even be the heroine of a novel4 ,such an ideal attraction acts as an imaginative and emotional ferment4 ,the imagination is stimulated to construct for the first time1 from such material as it has come across1 or can derive from within1 the coherent picture of a desirable person4 ,the emotions are trained and disciplined to play around the figure thus constructed with a new impersonal and unselfish1 even self-sacrificing1 devotion4 ,but this process is not enough to use up all the energies of the developing mind1 and the less so as such impulses are unlikely by their very nature to receive any considerable degree of gratification1 for they are of a nature to which no adequate response is possible4 ,thus it happens in adolescence that this new stream of psychic energy1 emotional and intellectual1 generated from within1 concurrently with its primary personal function of moulding the object of love1 streams over into another larger and more impersonal channel4 ,it is1 indeed1 lifted on to a higher plane and transformed1 to exercise a fresh function by initiating new objects of ideal desire4 ,the radiant images of religion and of art as well as of science--however true it may be that they have also other adjuvant sources--thus begin to emerge from the depths beneath consciousness4 ,they tend to absorb and to embody the new energy1 while its primary personal object may sink into the background1 or at this age even fail to be conscious at all4 ,this process--the process in which all abstract thinking is born as well as all artistic creation--must to some slight extent take place in every person whose mental activity is not entirely confined to the immediate objects of sense4 ,but in persons of more complex psychic organisation it is a process of fundamental importance4 ,in those of the highest complex organisation1 indeed1 it becomes what we term genius4 ,in the most magnificent achievements of poetry and philosophy1 of art and of science1 it is no longer forbidden to see the ultimate root in this adolescent development4 ,to some a glimpse of this great truth has from time to time appeared4 ,ferrero1 who occupied himself with psychology before attaining eminence as a brilliant historian1 suggested thirty years ago that the art impulse and its allied manifestations are transformed sexual instinct2 the sexual impulse is 8the raw material1 so to speak1 from which art springs02 he connected that transformation with a less development of the sexual emotions in women2 but that was much too hasty an assumption1 for apart from the fact that such transformation could never be complete1 and probably less so in women than in men1 we have also to consider the nature of the two organisms through which the transformed emotions would operate1 probably unlike in the sexes1 for the work done by two machines obviously does not depend entirely upon feeding them with the same amount of fuel1 but also on the construction of the two engines4 ,mbius1 a brilliant and original1 if not erratic1 ,german psychologist1 who was also concerned with the question of difference in the amount of sexual energy1 regarded the art impulse as a kind of sexual secondary character4 ,that is to say1 no doubt1--if we develop the suggestion1--that just as the external features of the male and his external activities1 in the ascending zological series1 have been developed out of the impulse of repressed organic sexual desire striving to manifest itself ever more urgently in the struggle to overcome the coyness of the female1 so on the psychic side there has been a parallel impulse1 if of later development1 to carry on the same task in forms of art which have afterwards acquired an independent activity and a yet further growth dissociated from this primary biological function4 ,we think of the natural ornaments which adorn male animals from far down in the scale even up to man1 of the additions made thereto by tattooing and decoration and garments and jewels1 of the parades and dances and songs and musical serenades found among lower animals as well as ,man1 together with the love-lyrics of savages1 furnishing the beginnings of the most exquisite arts of civilisation4 ,it is to be noted1 however1 that these suggestions introduce an assumption of male superiority1 or male inferiority--according to our scheme of values--which unnecessarily prejudices and confuses the issue4 ,we have to consider the question of the origin of art apart from any supposed predominance of its manifestations in one sex or the other4 ,in my own conception--put forward a quarter of a century ago--of what ,i called auto-erotic activities1 it was on such a basis that ,i sought to place it1 since ,i regarded those auto-erotic phenomena as arising from the impeded spontaneous sexual energy of the organism and extending from simple physical processes to the highest psychic manifestations2 8it is impossible to say what finest elements in art1 in morals1 in civilisation generally1 may not really be rooted in an auto-erotic impulse10 though ,i was careful to add that the transmutation of sexual energy into other forms of force must not be regarded as itself completely accounting for all the finest human aptitudes of sympathy and art and religion4#db ,it is along this path1 it may perhaps be claimed1--as dimly glimpsed by ,nietzsche1 ,hinton1 and other earlier thinkers1--that the main explanation of the dynamic process by which the arts1 in the widest sense1 have come into being1 is now chiefly being explored4 ,one thinks of ,freud and especially of ,dr4 ,otto ,rank1 perhaps the most brilliant and clairvoyant of the younger investigators who still stand by the master's side4 ,in #aije ,rank wrote a little essay on the artist#dc in which this mechanism is set forth and the artist placed1 in what the psycho-analytic author considers his due place1 between the ordinary dreamer at one end and the neurotic subject at the other1 the lower forms of art1 such as myth-making1 standing near to dreams1 and the higher forms1 such as the drama1 philosophy1 and the founding of religions1 near to psycho-neurosis1 but all possessing a sublimated life-force which has its root in some modification of sexual energy4 ,it may often seem that1 in these attempts to explain the artist1 the man of science is passed over or left in the background1 and that is true4 ,but art and science1 as we now know1 have the same roots4 ,the supreme men of science are recognisably artists1 and the earliest forms of art1 which are very early indeed1--,sir ,arthur ,evans has suggested that men may have drawn before they talked1--were doubtless associated with magic1 which was primitive man's science1 or1 at all events1 his nearest approximation to science4 ,the connection of the scientific instinct with the sexual instinct is not1 indeed1 a merely recent insight4 ,many years ago it was clearly stated by a famous ,dutch author4 8,nature1 who must act wisely at the risk of annihilation10 wrote ,multatuli at the conclusion of his short story1 8,the ,adventures of ,little ,walter10 8has herein acted wisely by turning all her powers in one direction4 ,moralists and psychologists have long since recognised1 without inquiring into the causes1 that curiosity is one of the main elements of love4 ,yet they were only thinking of sexual love1 and by raising the two related termini in corresponding wise on to a higher plane ,i believe that the noble thirst for knowledge springs from the same soil in which noble love grows4 ,to press through1 to reveal1 to possess1 to direct1 and to ennoble1 that is the task and the longing1 alike of the lover and the natural discoverer4 ,so that every ,ross or ,franklin is a ,werther of the ,pole1 and whoever is in love is a ,mungo ,park of the spirit40 ,,iv ,,as soon as we begin to think about the world around us in what we vainly call a disinterested way--for disinterest is1 as ,leibnitz said1 a chimera1 and there remains a superior interest--we become youths and lovers and artists1 and there is at the same time a significant strain of sexual imagery in our thought4#dd ,among ourselves this is not always clear2 we have been dulled by the routine of civilisation and the artificial formalities of what is called education4 ,it is clear in the mythopic creation of comparative primitive thought1 but in civilisation it is in the work of men of genius--poets1 philosophers1 painters1 and1 as we have to recognise1 men of science--that this trait is most conspicuously manifested4 ,to realise this it is sufficient to contemplate the personality and activity of one of the earliest great modern men of science1 of ,leonardo da ,vinci4 ,until recent times it would have seemed rather strange so to describe ,leonardo da ,vinci4 ,he still seemed1 as he was in his own time1 primarily a painter1 an artist in the conventionally narrow sense1 and as such one of the greatest1 fit to paint1 as ,browning put it1 one of the four walls of the ,new ,jerusalem4 ,yet even his contemporaries who so acclaimed him were a little worried about ,leonardo in this capacity4 ,he accomplished so little1 he worked so slowly1 he left so much unfinished1 he seemed to them so volatile and unstable4 ,he was an enigma to which they never secured the key4 ,they failed to see1 though it is clearly to be read even in his face1 that no man ever possessed a more piercing concentration of vision1 a more fixed power of attention1 a more unshakable force of will4 ,all that ,leonardo achieved in painting and in sculpture and in architecture1 however novel or grandiose1 was1 as ,solmi1 the highly competent ,vincian scholar has remarked1 merely a concession to his age1 in reality a violence done to his own nature1 and from youth to old age he had directed his whole strength to one end3 the knowledge and the mastery of ,nature4 ,in our own time1 a sensitive1 alert1 widely informed critic of art1 ,bernhard ,berenson1 setting out with the conventional veneration for ,leonardo as a painter1 slowly1 as the years went by and his judgment grew more mature1 adopted a more critical attitude1 bringing down his achievements in art to moderate dimensions1 yet without taking any interest in ,leonardo as a stupendous artist in science4 ,we may well understand that vein of contempt for the crowd1 even as it almost seems the hatred for human society1 the spirit of ,timon1 which runs across ,leonardo's writings1 blended1 no doubt inevitably blended1 with his vein of human sweetness4 ,this stern devotee of knowledge declared1 like the author of 8,the ,imitation of ,christ10 that 8,love conquers all things40 ,there is here no discrepancy4 ,the man who poured a contemptuous flood of irony and denunciation over the most sacred social institutions and their most respectable representatives was the same man--the ,gospels tell us--who brooded with the wings of a maternal tenderness over the pathos of human things4 ,when1 indeed1 our imagination plays with the idea of a future ,overman1 it is ,leonardo who comes before us as his forerunner4 ,vasari1 who had never seen ,leonardo1 but has written so admirable an account of him1 can only describe him as 8supernatural0 and 8divine40 ,in more recent times ,nietzsche remarked of ,leonardo that 8there is something super-,european and silent in him1 the characteristic of one who has seen too wide a circle of things good and evil40 ,there ,nietzsche touches1 even though vaguely1 more nearly than ,vasari could1 the distinguishing mark of this endlessly baffling and enchanting figure4 ,every man of genius sees the world at a different angle from his fellows1 and there is his tragedy4 ,but it is usually a measurable angle4 ,we cannot measure the angle at which ,leonardo stands2 he strikes athwart the line of our conventional human thought in ways that are sometimes a revelation and sometimes an impenetrable mystery4 ,we are reminded of the saying of ,heraclitus3 8,men hold some things wrong and some right2 ,god holds all things fair40 ,the dispute as to whether he was above all an artist or a man of science is a foolish and even unmeaning dispute4 ,in the vast orbit in which ,leonardo moved the distinction had little or no existence4 ,that was inexplicable to his contemporaries whose opinions ,vasari echoes4 ,they could not understand that he was not of the crowd of makers of pretty things who filled the workshops of ,florence4 ,they saw a man of beautiful aspect and fine proportions1 with a long curled beard and wearing a rose-coloured tunic1 and they called him a craftsman1 an artist1 and thought him rather fantastic4 ,but the medium in which this artist worked was ,nature1 the medium in which the scientist works2 every problem in painting was to ,leonardo a problem in science1 every problem in physics he approached in the spirit of the artist4 8,human ingenuity10 he said1 8can never devise anything more simple and more beautiful1 or more to the purpose1 than ,nature does40 ,for him1 as later for ,spinoza1 reality and perfection were the same thing4 ,both aspects of life he treats as part of his task--the extension of the field of human knowledge1 the intension of the power of human skill2 for art1 or1 as he called it1 practice1 without science1 he said1 is a boat without a rudder4 ,certainly he occupied himself much with painting1 the common medium of self-expression in his day1 though he produced so few pictures2 he even wrote a treatise on painting2 he possessed1 indeed1 a wider perception of its possibilities than any artist who ever lived4 8,here is the creator of modern landscape60 exclaimed ,corot before ,leonardo's pictures1 and a remarkable description he has left of the precise effects of colour and light produced when a woman in white stands on green grass in bright sunshine shows that ,leonardo clearly apprehended the plein-airiste's problem4 ,doubtless it will prove possible to show that he foresaw still later methods4 ,he rejected these methods because it seemed to him that the artist could work most freely by moving midway between light and darkness1 and1 indeed1 he1 first of painters1 succeeded in combining them--just as he said also that ,pleasure and ,pain should be imaged as twins since they are ever together1 yet back to back because ever contrary--and devised the method of chiaroscuro1 by which light reveals the richness of shade and shade heightens the brightness of light4 ,no invention could be more characteristic of this man whose grasp of the world ever involved the union of opposites1 and the opposites both apprehended more intensely than falls to the lot of other men4 ,yet it is noteworthy that ,leonardo constantly speaks of the artist's function as searching into and imitating ,nature1 a view which the orthodox artist anathematises4 ,but ,leonardo was not the orthodox artist1 not even1 perhaps1 as he is traditionally regarded1 one of the world's supreme painters4 ,for one may sympathise with ,mr4 ,berenson's engaging attempt--unconvincing as it has seemed--to 8expose0 ,leonardo4 ,the drawings ,mr4 ,berenson1 like every one else1 admires whole-heartedly1 but1 save for the unfinished 8,adoration10 which he regards as a summit of art1 he finds the paintings mostly meaningless and repellent4 ,he cannot rank ,leonardo as an artist higher than ,botticelli1 and concludes that he was not so much a great painter as a great inventor in painting4 ,with that conclusion it is possible that ,leonardo himself would have agreed4 ,painting was to him1 he said1 a subtle invention whereby philosophical speculation can be applied to all the qualities of forms4 ,he seemed to himself to be1 here and always1 a man standing at the mouth of the gloomy cavern of ,nature with arched back1 one hand resting on his knee and the other shading his eyes1 as he peers intently into the darkness1 possessed by fear and desire1 fear of the threatening gloom of that cavern1 desire to discover what miracle it might hold4 ,we are far here from the traditional attitude of the painter2 we are nearer to the attitude of that great seeker into the mysteries of ,nature1 one of the very few born of women to whom we can ever even passingly compare ,leonardo1 who felt in old age that he had only been a child gathering shells and pebbles on the shore of the great ocean of truth4 ,it is almost as plausible to regard ,leonardo as primarily an engineer as primarily a painter4 ,he offered his services as a military engineer and architect to the ,duke of ,milan and set forth at length his manifold claims which include1 one may note1 the ability to construct what we should now1 without hesitation1 describe as 8tanks40 ,at a later period he actually was appointed architect and engineer-general to ,csar ,borgia1 and in this capacity was engaged on a variety of works4 ,he has1 indeed1 been described as the founder of professional engineering4 ,he was the seer of coming steam engines and of steam navigation and transportation4 ,he was1 again1 the inventor of innumerable varieties of ballistic machines and ordnance1 of steam guns and breech-loading arms with screw breech-lock4 ,his science always tended to become applied science4 ,experience shows the road to practice1 he said1 science is the guide to art4 ,thus he saw every problem in the world as in the wide sense a problem in engineering4 ,all nature was a dynamic process of forces beautifully effecting work1 and it is this as it were distinctive vision of the world as a whole which seems to give ,leonardo that marvellous flair for detecting vital mechanism in every field4 ,it is impossible even to indicate summarily the vast extent of the region in which he was creating a new world1 from the statement1 which he set down in large letters1 8,the sun does not move10 the earth being1 he said1 a star1 8much like the moon10 down to such ingenious original devices as the construction of a diving-bell1 a swimming-belt1 and a parachute of adequate dimensions1 while1 as is now well known1 ,leonardo not only meditated with concentrated attention on the problem of flight1 but realised scientifically the difficulties to be encountered1 and made ingenious attempts to overcome them in the designing of flying-machines4 ,it is enough--following expert scientific guidance--to enumerate a few points3 he studied botany in the biological spirit2 he was a founder of geology1 discovering the significance of fossils and realising the importance of river erosion2 by his studies in the theories of mechanics and their utilization in peace and war he made himself the prototype of the modern man of science4 ,he was in turn biologist in every field of vital mechanism1 and the inaugurator before ,vesalius 7who1 however1 knew nothing of his predecessor's work7 of the minute study of anatomy by direct investigation 7after he had found that ,galen could not be relied on7 and post-mortem dissections2 he nearly anticipated ,harvey's conception of the circulation of the blood by studying the nature of the heart as a pump4 ,he was hydraulician1 hydrographer1 geometrician1 algebraist1 mechanician1 optician4#de ,these are but a few of the fields in which ,leonardo's marvellous insight into the nature of the forces that make the world and his divining art of the methods of employing them to human use have of late years been revealed4 ,for centuries they were concealed in notebooks scattered through ,europe and with difficulty decipherable4 ,yet they are not embodied in vague utterances or casual intuitions1 but display a laborious concentration on the precise details of the difficulties to be overcome2 nor was patient industry in him1 as often happens1 the substitute for natural facility1 for he was a person of marvellous natural facility1 and1 like such persons1 most eloquent and persuasive in speech4 ,at the same time his more general and reflective conclusions are expressed in a style combining the maximum of clarity with the maximum of concision1--far1 indeed1 removed from the characteristic florid redundancy of ,italian prose1--which makes ,leonardo1 in addition to all else1 a supreme master of language4#df ,yet the man to whom we must credit these vast intellectual achievements was no abstracted philosopher shut up in a laboratory4 ,he was1 even to look upon1 one of the most attractive and vivid figures that ever walked the earth4 ,as has sometimes happened with divine and mysterious persons1 he was the natural child of his mother1 ,caterina1 of whom we are only told that she was 8of good blood10 belonging to ,vinci like ,ser ,piero the father1 and that a few years after ,leonardo's birth she became the reputable wife of a citizen of his native town4 ,ser ,piero da ,vinci was a notary1 of a race of notaries1 but the busiest notary in ,florence and evidently a man of robust vigour2 he married four times and his youngest child was fifty years the junior of ,leonardo4 ,we hear of the extraordinary physical strength of ,leonardo himself1 of his grace and charm1 of his accomplishments in youth1 especially in singing and playing on the flute1 though he had but an elementary school education4 ,except for what he learnt in the workshop of the many-sided but then still youthful ,verrocchio1 he was his own schoolmaster1 and was thus enabled to attain that absolute emancipation from authority and tradition which made him indifferent even to the ,greeks1 to whom he was most akin4 ,he was left-handed2 his peculiar method of writing long raised the suspicion that it was deliberately adopted for concealment1 but it is to-day recognised as simply the ordinary mirror-writing of a left-handed child without training4 ,this was not the only anomaly in ,leonardo's strange nature4 ,we now know that he was repeatedly charged as a youth on suspicion of homosexual offences2 the result remains obscure1 but there is some reason to think he knew the inside of a prison4 ,throughout life he loved to surround himself with beautiful youths1 though no tradition of license or vice clings to his name4 ,the precise nature of his sexual temperament remains obscure4 ,it mocks us1 but haunts us from out of his most famous pictures4 ,there is1 for instance1 the 8,john the ,baptist0 of the ,louvre1 which we may dismiss with the distinguished art critic of to-day as an impudent blasphemy or brood over long1 without being clearly able to determine into what obscure region of the ,freudian ,unconscious ,leonardo had here adventured4 ,freud himself has devoted one of his most fascinating essays to a psychoanalytic interpretation of ,leonardo's enigmatic personality4 ,he admits it is a speculation2 we may take it or leave it4 ,but ,freud has rightly apprehended that in ,leonardo sexual passion was largely sublimated into intellectual passion1 in accordance with his own saying1 8,nothing can be loved or hated unless first we have knowledge of it10 or1 as he elsewhere said1 8,true and great love springs out of great knowledge1 and where you know little you can love but little or not at all40 ,so it was that ,leonardo became a master of life4 ,vasari could report of him--almost in the words it was reported of another supreme but widely different figure1 the ,jesuit saint1 ,francis ,xavier--that 8with the splendour of his most beautiful countenance he made serene every broken spirit40 ,to possess by self-mastery the sources of love and hate is to transcend good and evil and so to possess the ,overman's power of binding up the hearts that are broken by good and evil4 ,every person of genius is in some degree at once man1 woman1 and child4 ,leonardo was all three in the extreme degree and yet without any apparent conflict4 ,the infantile strain is unquestioned1 and1 apart from the problem of his sexual temperament1 ,leonardo was a child even in his extraordinary delight in devising fantastic toys and contriving disconcerting tricks4 ,his more than feminine tenderness is equally clear1 alike in his pictures and in his life4 ,isabella d',este1 in asking him to paint the boy ,jesus in the ,temple1 justly referred to 8the gentleness and sweetness which mark your art40 ,his tenderness was shown not only towards human beings1 but to all living things1 animals and even plants1 and it would appear that he was a vegetarian4 ,yet at the same time he was emphatically masculine1 altogether free from weakness or softness4 ,he delighted in ugliness as well as in beauty2 he liked visiting the hospitals to study the sick in his thirst for knowledge2 he pondered over battles and fighting2 he showed no compunction in planning devilish engines of military destruction4 ,his mind was of a definitely realistic and positive cast2 though there seems no field of thought he failed to enter1 he never touched metaphysics1 and though his worship of ,nature has the emotional tone of religion1 even of ecstasy1 he was clearly disdainful of the established religions1 and perpetually shocked 8the timid friends of ,god40 ,by precept and by practice he proclaimed the lofty solitude of the individual soul1 and he felt only contempt for the herd4 ,we see how this temper became impressed on his face in his own drawing of himself in old age1 with that intent and ruthless gaze wrapped in intellectual contemplation of the outspread world4 ,leonardo comes before us1 indeed1 in the end1 as a figure for awe rather than for love4 ,yet1 as the noblest type of the ,overman we faintly try to conceive1 ,leonardo is the foe1 not of man1 but of the enemies of man4 ,the great secrets that with clear vision his stern grip tore from ,nature1 the new instruments of power that his energy wrought1 they were all for the use and delight of mankind4 ,so ,leonardo is the everlasting embodiment of that brooding human spirit whose task never dies4 ,still to-day it stands at the mouth of the gloomy cavern of ,nature1 even of ,human ,nature1 with bent back and shaded eyes1 seeking intently to penetrate the gloom beyond1 with the fear of that threatening darkness1 with the desire of what redeeming miracle it yet perchance may hold4 ,v ,,that ,leonardo da ,vinci was not only supremely great in science1 but the incarnation of the spirit of science1 the artist and lover of ,nature1 is a fact it is well to bear in mind4 ,many mistakes would be avoided if it were more clearly present to consciousness4 ,we should no longer find the artists in design absurdly chafing under what they considered the bondage of the artists in thought4 ,it would no longer be possible1 as it was some years ago1 and may be still1 for a narrow-minded pedagogue like ,brunetire1 however useful in his own field1 to be greeted as a prophet when he fatuously proclaimed what he termed 8the bankruptcy of science40 ,unfortunately so many of the people who masquerade under the name of 8men of science0 have no sort of title to that name4 ,they may be doing good and honest work by accumulating in little cells the facts which others1 more truly inspired by the spirit of science1 may one day work on2 they may be doing more or less necessary work by the application to practical life of the discoveries which genuine men of science have made4 ,but they themselves have just as much1 and no more1 claim to use the name of 8science0 as the men who make the pots and dishes piled up in a crockery shop have to use the name of 8art40#dg ,they have not yet even learnt that 8science0 is not the accumulation of knowledge in the sense of piling up isolated facts1 but the active organisation of knowledge1 the application to the world of the cutting edge of a marvellously delicate instrument1 and that this task is impossible without the widest range of vision and the most restless fertility of imagination4 ,of such more genuine men of science--to name one whom by virtue of several common interests ,i was sometimes privileged to come near--was ,francis ,galton4 ,he was not a professional man of science2 he was even willing that his love of science should be accounted simply a hobby4 ,from the standpoint of the ordinary professional scientific man he was probably an amateur4 ,he was not even1 as some have been1 a learned amateur4 ,i doubt whether he had really mastered the literature of any subject1 though ,i do not doubt that that mattered little4 ,when he heard of some famous worker in a field he was exploring1 he would look up that man's work2 so it was with ,weismann in the field of heredity4 ,and1 as ,i would note with a smile in reading his letters1 ,galton was not able to spell ,weismann's name correctly4#dh ,his attitude in science might be said to be pioneering much like that of the pioneers of museums in the later seventeenth and earlier eighteenth centuries1 men like ,tradescant and ,ashmole and ,evelyn and ,sloane3 an insatiable curiosity in things that were only just beginning1 or had not yet begun1 to arouse curiosity4 ,so it was that when ,i made some personal experiments with the ,mexican cactus1 mescal 7,anhalonium ,lewinii71 to explore its vision-producing qualities1 then quite unknown in ,england1 ,galton was eagerly interested and wanted to experiment on himself1 though ultimately dissuaded on account of his advanced age4 ,but1 on this basis1 ,galton's curiosity was not the mere inquisitiveness of the child1 it was cordinated with an almost uniquely organised brain as keen as it was well-balanced4 ,so that on the one hand his curiosity was transformed into methods that were endlessly ingenious and inventive1 and on the other it was guided and held in check by inflexible caution and good sense4 ,and he knew how to preserve that exquisite balance without any solemnity or tension or self-assertion1 but playfully and graciously1 with the most unfailing modesty4 ,it was this rare combination of qualities--one may see it all in his 8,inquiries into ,human ,faculty0--which made him the very type of the man of genius1 operating1 not by profession or by deliberate training1 but by natural function1 throwing light on the dark places of the world and creating science in out-of-the-way fields of human experience which before had been left to caprice or not even perceived at all4 ,throughout he was an artist and if1 as is reported1 he spent the last year of his life chiefly in writing a novel1 that was of a piece with the whole of his marvellous activity2 he had never been doing anything else4 ,only his romances were real4 ,galton's yet more famous cousin1 ,charles ,darwin1 presents in equal purity the lover and the artist in the sphere of ,nature and ,science4 ,no doubt there were once many obtuse persons to whom these names seemed scarcely to fit when applied to ,darwin4 ,there have been people to whom ,darwin scarcely seemed a man of genius1 merely a dry laborious pedestrian student of facts4 ,he himself even--as many people find it difficult to forget--once lamented his indifference to poetry and art4 ,but ,darwin was one of those elect persons in whose subconscious1 if not in their conscious1 nature is implanted the realisation that 8science is poetry10 and in a field altogether remote from the poetry and art of convention he was alike poet and artist4 ,only a man so endowed could from a suggestion received on reading ,malthus have conceived of natural selection as a chief moulding creative force of an infinite succession of living forms2 so also of his fantastic theory of pangenesis4 ,even in trifling matters of experiment1 such as setting a musician to play the bassoon in his greenhouse1 to ascertain whether music affected plants1 he had all the inventive imagination of poet or of artist4 ,he was poet and artist--though ,i doubt if this has been pointed out--in his whole attitude towards ,nature4 ,he worked hard1 but to him work was a kind of play1 and it may well be that with his fragile health he could not have carried on his work if it had not been play4 ,again and again in his 8,life and ,letters0 we find the description of his observations or experiments introduced by some such phrase as3 8,i was infinitely amused40 ,and he remarks of a biological problem that it was like a game of chess4 ,i doubt1 indeed1 whether any great man of science was more of an artist than ,darwin1 more consciously aware that he was playing with the world1 more deliciously thrilled by the fun of life4 ,that man may well have found 8poetry and art0 dull who himself had created the theory of sexual selection which made the whole becoming of life art and the secret of it poetry4#di ,it is not alone among biologists1 from whose standpoint it may be judged easier to reach1 since they are concerned with living ,nature1 that we find the attitude of the lover and the artist4 ,we find it just as well marked when the man of genius plays in what some might think the arid field of the physicist4 ,faraday worked in a laboratory1 a simple one1 indeed1 but the kind of place which might be supposed fatal to the true spirit of science1 and without his researches in magnetic electricity we might have missed1 with or without a pang1 those most practical machines of our modern life1 the dynamo and the telephone4 ,yet ,faraday had no practical ends in view2 it has been possible to say of him that he investigated ,nature as a poet investigates the emotions4 ,that would not have sufficed to make him the supreme man of science he was4 ,his biographer1 ,dr4 ,bence ,jones1 who knew him well1 concludes that ,faraday's first great characteristic was his trust in facts1 and his second his imagination4 ,there we are brought to the roots of his nature4 ,only1 it is important to remember1 these two characteristics were not separate and distinct4 ,in themselves they may be opposing traits2 it was because in ,faraday they were held together in vital tension that he became so potent an instrument of research into ,nature's secrets4 ,tyndall1 who was his friend and fellow worker1 seems to have perceived this4 8,the force of his imagination10 wrote ,tyndall1 8was enormous10--he 8rose from the smallest beginnings to the greatest ends10 from 8bubbles of oxygen and nitrogen to the atmospheric envelope of the earth itself10--but 8he bridled it like a mighty rider40 ,faraday himself said to the same effect3 8,let the imagination go1 guarding it by judgment and principles1 but holding it in and directing it by experiment40 ,elsewhere he has remarked that in youth he was1 and he might have added that he still remained1 8a very lively imaginative person and could believe in the #8,arabian ,nights' as easily as in the #8,encyclopdia'40 ,but he soon acquired almost an instinct for testing facts by experiment1 for distrusting such alleged facts as he had not so tested1 and for accepting all the conclusions that he had thus reached with a complete indifference to commonly accepted beliefs4 7,it is true he was a faithful and devout elder in the ,sandemanian ,church1 and that is not the least fascinating trait in this fascinating man47 ,tyndall has insisted on both of these aspects of ,faraday's mental activity4 ,he had 8wonderful vivacity10 he was 8a man of excitable and fiery nature10 and 8underneath his sweetness was the heat of a volcano40 ,he himself believed that there was a ,celtic strain in his heredity2 there was a tradition that the family came from ,ireland2 ,i cannot find that there are any ,faradays1 or people of any name resembling ,faraday1 now in ,ireland1 but ,tyndall1 being himself an ,irishman1 liked to believe that the tradition was sound4 ,it would only account for the emotionally vivacious side of this nature4 ,there was also the other side1 on which ,tyndall also insists3 the love of order1 the extreme tenacity1 the high self-discipline able to convert the fire within into a clear concentrated glow4 ,in the fusion of these two qualities 8he was a prophet10 says ,tyndall1 8and often wrought by an inspiration to be understood by sympathy alone40 ,his expansive emotional imagination became the servant of truth1 and sprang into life at its touch4 ,in carrying out physical experiments he would experience a childlike joy and his eyes sparkled4 8,even to his latest days he would almost dance for joy at being shown a new experiment40 ,silvanus ,thompson1 in his book on ,faraday1 insists 7as ,tyndall had7 on the association with this childlike joy in imaginative extravagance of the perpetual impulse to test and to prove1 8yet never hesitating to push to their logical conclusions the ideas suggested by experiment1 however widely they might seem to lead from the accepted modes of thought40 ,his method was the method of the 8,arabian ,nights10 transferred to the region of facts4 ,faraday was not a mathematician4 ,but if we turn to ,kepler1 who moved in the sphere of abstract calculation1 we find precisely the same combination of characteristics4 ,it was to ,kepler1 rather than to ,copernicus1 that we owe the establishment of the heliocentric theory of our universe1 and ,kepler1 more than any man1 was the precursor of ,newton4 ,it has been said that if ,kepler had never lived it is difficult to conceive who could have taken his place and achieved his special part in the scientific creation of our universe4 ,for that pioneering part was required a singular blend of seemingly opposed qualities4 ,only a wildly daring1 original1 and adventurous spirit could break away from the age-long traditions and rigid preconceptions which had ruled astronomy for thousands of years4 ,only an endlessly patient1 careful1 laborious1 precise investigator could set up the new revolutionary conceptions needed to replace these traditions and preconceptions4 ,kepler supplied this rare combination of faculties4 ,he possessed the most absurdly extravagant imagination2 he developed a greater regard for accuracy in calculation than the world had ever known4 ,he was willing to believe that the earth was a kind of animal1 and would not have been surprised to find that it possessed lungs or gills4 ,at the same time so set was he on securing the precise truth1 so patiently laborious1 that some of his most elaborate calculations were repeated1 and without the help of logarithms1 even seventy times4 ,the two essential qualities that make the supreme artist in science have never been so clearly made manifest as in ,kepler4 ,kepler may well bring us to ,einstein1 the greatest pioneer in the comprehension of the universe since his day1 and1 indeed1 one who is more than a pioneer1 since he already seems to have won a place beside ,newton4 ,it is a significant fact that ,einstein1 though he possesses an extremely cautious1 critical mind1 and is regarded as conspicuous for his common sense1 has a profound admiration for ,kepler1 whom he frequently quotes4 ,for ,einstein also is an imaginative artist4#ej ,einstein is obviously an artist1 even in appearance1 as has often been noted by those who have met him2 8he looks far more the musician than the man of science10 one writes1 while those who know him well say that he is 8essentially as much an artist as a discoverer40 ,as a matter of fact he is an artist in one of the most commonly recognised arts1 being an accomplished musician1 a good violinist1 it is said1 while improvisation on the piano1 he himself says1 is 8a necessity of his life40 ,his face1 we are told1 is illumined when he listens to music2 he loves ,bach and ,haydn and ,mozart1 ,beethoven and ,wagner much less1 while to ,chopin1 ,schumann1 and the so-called romantics in music1 as we might anticipate1 he is indifferent4 ,his love of music is inborn2 it developed when1 as a child1 he would think out little songs 8in praise of ,god10 and sing them by himself2 music1 ,nature1 and ,god began1 even at that early age1 to become a kind of unity to him4 8,music10 said ,leibnitz1 8is the pleasure the human soul experiences from counting without being aware that it is counting40 ,it is the most abstract1 the most nearly mathematical of the arts--we may recall how music and mathematics had their scientific origin together in the discovery of ,pythagoras--and it is not surprising that it should be ,einstein's favorite art4#ea ,it is even more natural that1 next to music1 he should be attracted to architecture--the art which ,goethe called 8frozen music0--for here we are actually plunged into mechanics1 here statics and dynamics are transformed into visible beauty4 ,to painting he is indifferent1 but he is drawn to literature1 although no great reader4 ,in literature1 indeed1 it would seem that it is not so much art that he seeks as emotion2 in this field it is no longer the austerely architectonic that draws him2 thus he is not attracted to ,ibsen2 he is greatly attracted to ,cervantes as well as ,keller and ,strindberg2 he has a profound admiration for ,shakespeare1 but is cooler towards ,goethe1 while it would seem that there is no writer to whom he is more fervently attached than the most highly emotional1 the most profoundly disintegrated in nervous organisation of all great writers1 ,dostoievsky1 especially his masterpiece1 8,the ,brothers ,karamazov40 8,dostoievsky gives me more than any scientist1 more than ,gauss40 ,all literary analysis or sthetic subtlety1 it seems to ,einstein1 fails to penetrate to the heart of a work like 8,the ,karamazovs10 it can only be grasped by the feelings4 ,his face lights up when he speaks of it and he can find no word but 8ethical satisfaction40 ,for ethics in the ordinary sense1 as a system1 means little to ,einstein2 he would not even include it in the sciences2 it is the ethical joy embodied in art which satisfies him4 ,moreover1 it is said1 the keynote of ,einstein's emotional existence is the cry of ,sophocles' ,antigone3 8,i am not here to hate with you1 but to love with you40 ,the best that life has to offer1 he feels1 is a face glowing with happiness4 ,he is an advanced democrat and pacifist rather than 7as is sometimes supposed7 a socialist2 he believes in the internationality of all intellectual work and sees no reason why this should destroy national characteristics4 ,einstein is not--and this is the essential point to make clear--merely an artist in his moments of leisure and play1 as a great statesman may play golf or a great soldier grow orchids4 ,he retains the same attitude in the whole of his work4 ,he traces science to its roots in emotion1 which is exactly where art also is rooted4 ,of ,max ,planck1 the physicist1 for whom he has great admiration1 ,einstein has said3 8,the emotional condition which fits him for his task is akin to that of a devotee or a lover40 ,we may say the same1 it would seem1 of ,einstein himself4 ,he is not even to be included1 as some might have supposed1 in that rigid sect which asserts that all real science is precise measurement2 he recognises that the biological sciences must be largely independent of mathematics4 ,if mathematics were the only path of science1 he once remarked1 ,nature would have been illegible for ,goethe1 who had a non-mathematical1 even anti-mathematical1 mind1 and yet possessed a power of intuition greater than that of many an exact investigator4#eb ,all great achievements in science1 he holds1 start from intuition4 ,this he constantly repeats1 although he adds that the intuition must not stand alone1 for invention also is required4 ,he is disposed to regard many scientific discoveries commonly regarded the work of pure thought as really works of art4 ,he would have this view embodied in all education1 making education a free and living process1 with no drilling of the memory and no examinations1 mainly a process of appeal to the senses in order to draw out delicate reactions4 ,with his end1 and even for the sake of acquiring ethical personality1 he would have every child learn a handicraft1 joinery1 bookbinding1 or other1 and1 like lie ,faure1#ec he has great faith in the educational value of the cinema4 ,we see that behind all ,einstein's activity lies the conception that the physicist's work is to attain a picture1 8a world-picture10 as he calls it4 8,i agree with ,schopenhauer10 ,einstein said at a celebration in honour of ,planck in #aiah1 8that one of the most powerful motives that attract people to science and art is the longing to escape from everyday life with its painful coarseness and desolating bareness1 and to break the fetters of their own ever-changing desires4 ,it impels those of keener sensibility out of their personal existences into the world of objective perception and understanding4 ,it is a motive force of like kind to that which drives the dweller in noisy confused cities to restful ,alpine heights whence he seems to have an outlook on eternity4 ,associated with this negative motive is the positive motive which impels men to seek a simplified synoptic view of the world conformable to their own nature1 overcoming the world by replacing it with this picture4 ,the painter1 the poet1 the philosopher1 the scientist1 all do this1 each in his own way40 ,spengler has elaborately argued that there is a perfect identity of physics1 mathematics1 religion1 and great art4#ed ,we might fairly be allowed to point to ,einstein as a lofty embodiment of that identity4 ,here1 where we reach the sphere of mathematics1 we are among processes which seem to some the most inhuman of all human activities and the most remote from poetry4 ,yet it is here that the artist has the fullest scope for his imagination4 8,mathematics10 says ,bertrand ,russell in his 8,mysticism and ,logic10 8may be defined as the subject in which we never know what we are talking about1 nor whether what we are saying is true40 ,we are in the imaginative sphere of art1 and the mathematician is engaged in a work of creation which resembles music in its orderliness1 and is yet reproducing on another plane the order of the universe1 and so becoming as it were a music of the spheres4 ,it is not surprising that the greatest mathematicians have again and again appealed to the arts in order to find some analogy to their own work4 ,they have indeed found it in the most various arts1 in poetry1 in painting1 in sculpture1 although it would certainly seem that it is in music1 the most abstract of the arts1 the art of number and of time1 that we find the closest analogy4 8,the mathematician's best work is art10 said ,mittag-,lefler1 8a high and perfect art1 as daring as the most secret dreams of imagination1 clear and limpid4 ,mathematical genius and artistic genius touch each other40 ,and ,sylvester wrote in his 8,theory of ,reciprocants03 8,does it not seem as if ,algebra had attained to the dignity of a fine art1 in which the workman has a free hand to develop his conceptions1 as in a musical theme or a subject for painting8 ,it has reached a point in which every properly developed algebraical composition1 like a skilful landscape1 is expected to suggest the notion of an infinite distance lying beyond the limits of the canvas40 8,mathematics1 rightly viewed10 says ,bertrand ,russell again1 8possesses not only truth1 but supreme beauty--a beauty cold and austere1 like that of sculpture4444 ,the true spirit of delight1 the exaltation1 the sense of being more than man1 which is the touchstone of the highest excellence1 is to be found in mathematics as surely as in poetry40 ,the mathematician has reached the highest rung on the ladder of human thought4 ,but it is the same ladder which we have all of us been always ascending1 alike from the infancy of the individual and the infancy of the race4 ,molire's ,jourdain had been speaking prose for more than forty years without knowing it4 ,mankind has been thinking poetry throughout its long career and remained equally ignorant4 ,footnote #bf3 ,it would not appear that the pioneers of the ,mathematical ,renaissance of the twentieth century are inclined to imitate ,descartes in this matter4 ,einstein would certainly not1 and many apostles of physical science to-day 7see1 e4g41 ,professor ,smithells1 ,from a ,modern ,university3 ,some ,aims and ,aspirations of ,science7 insist on the sthetic1 imaginative1 and other 8art0 qualities of science4 ,footnote #bg3 ,c4 ,singer4 8,what is ,science80 ,british ,medical ,journal1 #beth ,june1 #aiba4 ,singer refuses the name of 8science0 in the strict sense to fields of completely organised knowledge which have ceased growing1 like human anatomy 7though1 of course1 the anatomist still remains a man of science by working outwards into adjoining related fields71 preferring to term any such field of completed knowledge a discipline4 ,this seems convenient and ,i should like to regard it as sound4 ,it is not1 however1 compatible with the old doctrine of ,mill and ,colvin and ,ray ,lankester1 for it excludes from the field of science exactly what they regarded as most typically science1 and some one might possibly ask whether in other departments1 like ,hellenic sculpture or ,sung pottery1 a completed art ceases to be art4 ,footnote #bh3 ,it has often been pointed out that the imaginative application of science--artistic ideas like that of the steam locomotive1 the flying-machine heavier than air1 the telegraph1 the telephone1 and many others--were even at the moment of their being achieved1 elaborately shown to be 8impossible0 by men who had been too hastily hoisted up to positions of 8scientific0 eminence4 ,footnote #bi3 ,j4 ,b4 ,baillie1 ,studies in ,human ,nature 7#aiba71 p4 #bba4 ,this point has become familiar ever since ,f4 ,a4 ,lange published his almost epoch-marking work1 ,the ,history of ,materialism1 which has made so deep an impress on many modern thinkers from ,nietzsche to ,vaihinger2 it is indeed a book which can never be forgotten 7,i speak from experience7 by any one who read it in youth4 ,footnote #cj3 ,g4 ,wallas1 ,the ,great ,society1 p4 #ajg4 ,footnote #ca3 ,gomperz1 ,greek ,thinkers1 vol4 ,i1 chap4 ,,iii1 where will be found an attractive account of ,pythagoras' career and position4 ,footnote #cb3 ,always1 it may perhaps be noted in passing1 it seems to have been difficult for the sober and solemn ,northerner1 especially of ,england1 to enter into the ,greek spirit1 all the more since that spirit was only the spirit of a sprinkling of people amid a hostile mass about as unlike anything we conventionally call 8,greek0 as could well be imagined1 so that1 as lie ,faure1 the historian of art1 has lately remarked1 ,greek art is a biological 8monstrosity40 7,yet1 ,i would ask1 might we not say the same of ,france or of ,england87 ,that is why it is usually so irritating to read books written about the ,greeks by barbarians2 they slur over or ignore what they do not like and1 one suspects1 they instinctively misinterpret what they think they do like4 ,better even the most imperfect knowledge of a few original texts1 better even only a few days on the ,acropolis1 than the second-hand opinions of other people4 ,and if we must have a book about the ,greeks1 there is always ,athenus1 much nearer to them in time and in spirit1 with all his gossip1 than any ,northern barbarian1 and an everlasting delight4 ,footnote #cc3 ,along another line it should have been clear that the dialogues of the philosophers were drama and not history4 ,it would appear 7,croiset1 ,littrature ,grecque1 vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #ddh et seq47 that with ,epicharmus of ,cos1 who was settled in ,megara at the beginning of the fifth century1 philosophic comedy flourished brilliantly at ,syracuse1 and indeed fragments of his formal philosophic dialogue survive4 ,thus it is suggested that ,athenian comedy and sophistic prose dialogues may be regarded as two branches drawn from the ancient prototype of such ,syracusan comedy1 itself ultimately derived from ,ionian philosophy4 ,it is worth noting1 ,i might add1 that when we first hear of the ,platonic dialogues they were being grouped in trilogies and tetralogies like the ,greek dramas2 that indicates1 at all events1 what their earliest editors thought about them4 ,it is also interesting to note that the writer of1 at the present moment1 the latest handbook to ,plato1 ,professor ,a4 ,e4 ,taylor 7,plato1 #aibb1 pp4 #cb-cc71 regards the 8,socrates0 of ,plato as no historical figure1 not even a mask of ,plato himself1 but simply 8the hero of the ,platonic drama10 of which we have to approach in much the same way as the work of 8a great dramatist or novelist40 ,footnote #cd3 ,he had often been bidden in dreams to make music1 said the ,platonic ,socrates in ,phdo1 and he had imagined that that was meant to encourage him in the pursuit of philosophy1 8which is the noblest and best of music40 ,footnote #ce3 ,in discussing ,socrates ,i have made some use of ,professor ,duprel's remarkable book1 ,la ,lgende ,socratique 7#aibb74 ,duprel himself1 with a little touch of irony1 recommends a careful perusal of the beautiful and monumental works erected by ,zeller and ,grote and ,gomperz to the honour of ,socrates4 ,footnote #cf3 ,count ,hermann ,keyserling1 ,philosophie als ,kunst 7#aibj71 p4 #b4 ,he associates this with the need for a philosophy to possess a subjective personal character1 without which it can have no value1 indeed no content at all4 ,footnote #cg3 ,croce1 ,problemi d' ,estetica1 p4 #ae4 ,i have to admit1 for myself1 that1 while admiring the calm breadth of ,croce's wide outlook1 it is sometimes my misfortune1 in spite of myself1 when ,i go to his works1 to play the part of a ,balaam rebours4 ,i go forth to bless3 and1 somehow1 ,i curse4 ,footnote #ch3 ,james ,hinton1 a pioneer in so many fields1 clearly saw that thinking is really an art fifty years ago4 8,thinking is no mere mechanical process10 he wrote 7,chapters on the ,art of ,thinking1 pp4 #dc et seq471 8it is a great ,art1 the chief of all the ,arts4444 ,those only can be called thinkers who have a native gift1 a special endowment for the work1 and have been trained1 besides1 by assiduous culture4 ,and though we continually assume that every one is capable of thinking1 do we not all feel that there is somehow a fallacy in this assumption8 ,do we not feel that what people set up as their #8reasons' for disbelieving or believing are often nothing of the sort8444 ,the ,art faculty is ,imagination1 the power of seeing the unseen1 the power also of putting ourselves out of the centre1 of reducing ourselves to our true proportions1 of truly using our own impressions4 ,and is not this in reality the chief element in the work of the thinker8444 ,science is poetry40 ,footnote #ci3 ,so far1 indeed1 as ,i am aware1 ,i was responsible for the first ,english account of his work 7outside philosophical journals72 it appeared in the ,london ,nation and ,athenum a few years ago1 and is partly embodied in the present chapter4 ,footnote #dj3 ,i have based this sketch on an attractive and illuminating account of his own development written by ,professor ,vaihinger for ,dr4 ,raymund ,schmidt's highly valuable series1 ,die ,deutsche ,philosophie der ,gegenwart in ,selbstdarstellungen 7#aiba71 vol4 ,,ii4 ,footnote #da3 8,most workers on the problem of atomic constitution10 remarks ,sir ,ernest ,rutherford 7,nature1 #eth ,august1 #aibb71 8take as a working hypothesis that the atoms of matter are purely electrical structures1 and that ultimately it is hoped to explain all the properties of atoms as a result of certain combinations of the two fundamental units of positive and negative electricity1 the proton and electron40 ,footnote #db3 ,havelock ,ellis1 ,studies in the ,psychology of ,sex1 vol4 ,i4 ,footnote #dc3 ,otto ,rank1 ,der ,knstler3 ,anstze zu einer ,sexual ,psychologie4 ,footnote #dd3 ,the sexual strain in the symbolism of language is touched on in my ,studies in the ,psychology of ,sex1 vol4 ,v1 and similar traits in primitive legends have been emphasised--many would say over-emphasised--by ,freud and ,jung4 ,footnote #de3 ,einstein1 in conversation with ,moszkowski1 expressed doubt as to the reality of ,leonardo's previsions of modern science4 ,but it scarcely appeared that he had investigated the matter1 while the definite testimony of the experts in many fields who have done so cannot be put aside4 ,footnote #df3 ,for the ,italian reader of ,leonardo the fat little volume of ,frammenti1 edited by ,dr4 ,solmi and published by ,barbra1 is a precious and inexhaustible pocket companion4 ,for the ,english reader ,mr4 ,mac,curdy's larger but much less extensive volume of extracts from the ,note-,books1 or the still further abridged ,thoughts1 must suffice4 ,herbert ,horne's annotated version of ,vasari's ,life is excellent for ,leonardo's personality and career4 ,footnote #dg3 ,morley ,roberts1 who might be regarded as a pupil in the school of ,leonardo and trained like him in the field of art1 has in various places of his suggestive book1 ,warfare in the ,human ,body1 sprinkled irony over the examples he has come across of ignorant specialists claiming to be men of 8science40 ,footnote #dh3 ,needless to say1 ,i do not mention this to belittle ,galton4 ,a careful attention to words1 which in its extreme form becomes pedantry1 is by no means necessarily associated with a careful attention to things4 ,until recent times ,english writers1 even the greatest1 were always negligent in spelling2 it would be foolish to suppose they were therefore negligent in thinking4 ,footnote #di3 ,darwin even overestimated the sthetic element in his theory of sexual selection1 and 7,i have had occasion elsewhere to point out7 unnecessarily prejudiced that theory by sometimes unwarily assuming a conscious sthetic element4 ,footnote #ej3 ,it is probable that the reason why it is often difficult to trace the imaginative artist in great men of supposedly abstract science is the paucity of intimate information about them4 ,even their scientific friends have rarely had the patience1 or even perhaps the intelligence1 to observe them reverently and to record their observations4 ,we know almost nothing that is intimately personal about ,newton4 ,as regards ,einstein1 we are fortunate in possessing the book of ,moszkowski1 ,einstein 7translated into ,english under the title of ,einstein the ,searcher71 which contains many instructive conversations and observations by a highly intelligent and appreciative admirer1 who has set them down in a ,boswellian spirit that faintly recalls ,eckermann's book on ,goethe 7which1 indeed1 ,moszkowski had in mind71 though falling far short of that supreme achievement4 ,the statements in the text are mainly gleaned from ,moszkowski4 ,footnote #ea3 ,spengler holds 7,der ,untergang des ,abendlandes1 vol4 ,x1 p4 #cbi7 that the development of music throughout its various stages in our ,european culture really has been closely related with the stages of the development of mathematics4 ,footnote #eb3 ,i would here refer to a searching investigation1 8,goethe und die mathematische ,physik3 ,eine ,erkenntnistheoretische ,studie10 in ,ernst ,cassirer's ,idee und ,gestalt 7#aiba74 ,it is here shown that in some respects ,goethe pointed the way along which mathematical physics1 by following its own paths1 has since travelled1 and that even when most non-mathematical ,goethe's scientific attitude was justifiable4 ,footnote #ec3 ,see the remarkable essay1 8,de la ,cinplastique10 in lie ,faure's ,l',arbre d'den 7#aibb74 ,it is1 however1 a future and regenerated cinema for which lie ,faure looks1 8to become the art of the crowd1 the powerful centre of communion in which new symphonic forms will be born in the tumult of passions and utilized for fine and elevating sthetic ends40 ,footnote #ed3 ,o4 ,spengler1 ,der ,untergang des ,abendlandes1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #egf4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,writing ,i ,,from time to time we are solemnly warned that in the hands of modern writers language has fallen into a morbid state4 ,it has become degenerate1 if not1 indeed1 the victim of 8senile ataxy0 or 8general paralysis40 ,certainly it is well that our monitors should seek to arouse in us the wholesome spirit of self-criticism4 ,whether we write ill or well1 we can never be too seriously concerned with what it is that we are attempting to do4 ,we may always be grateful to those who stimulate us to a more wakeful activity in pursuing a task which can never be carried to perfection4 ,yet these monitors seldom fail at the same time to arouse a deep revolt in our minds4 ,we are not only impressed by the critic's own inability to write any better than those he criticises4 ,we are moved to question the validity of nearly all the rules he lays down for our guidance4 ,we are inclined to dispute altogether the soundness of the premises from which he starts4 ,of these three terms of our revolt1 covering comprehensively the whole ground1 the first may be put aside--since the ancient retort is always ineffective and it helps the patient not at all to bid the physician heal himself--and we may take the last first4 ,men are always apt to bow down before the superior might of their ancestors4 ,it has been so always and everywhere4 ,even the author of the once well-known book of ,genesis believed that 8there were giants in the earth in those days10 the mighty men which were of old1 the men of renown1 and still to-day among ourselves no plaint is more common than that concerning the physical degeneracy of modern men as compared with our ancestors of a few centuries ago4 ,now and then1 indeed1 there comes along a man of science1 like ,professor ,parsons1 who has measured the bones from the remains of the ancestors we still see piled up in the crypt at ,hythe1 and finds that--however fine the occasional exceptions--the average height of those men and women was decidedly less than that of their present-day descendants4 ,fortunately for the vitality of tradition1 we cherish a wholesome distrust of science4 ,and so it is with our average literary stature4 ,the academic critic regards himself as the special depository of the accepted tradition1 and far be it from him to condescend to any mere scientific inquiry into the actual facts4 ,he half awakens from slumber to murmur the expected denunciation of his own time1 and therewith returns to slumber4 ,he usually seems unaware that even three centuries ago1 in the finest period of ,english prose1 ,swift1 certainly himself a supreme master1 was already lamenting 8the corruption of our style40 ,if it is asserted that the average writer of to-day has not equalled the supreme writer of some earlier age1--there are but one or two in any age1--we can only ejaculate3 ,strange if he had6 ,yet that is all that the academic critic usually seems to mean4 ,if he would take the trouble to compare the average prose writer of to-day with the average writer of even so great an age as the ,elizabethan1 he might easily convince himself that the former1 whatever his imperfections1 need not fear the comparison4 ,whether or not ,progress in general may be described as 8the exchange of one nuisance for another nuisance10 it is certainly so with the progress of style1 and the imperfections of our average everyday writing are balanced by the quite other imperfections of our forefathers' writing4 ,what1 for instance1 need we envy in the literary methods of that great and miscellaneous band of writers whom ,hakluyt brought together in those admirable volumes which are truly great and really fascinating only for reasons that have nothing to do with style8 ,raleigh himself here shows no distinction in his narrative of that discreditable episode1--as he clearly and rightly felt it to be1--the loss of the ,revenge by the wilful ,grenville4 ,most of them are bald1 savourless1 monotonous1 stating the obvious facts in the obvious way1 but hopelessly failing to make clear1 when rarely they attempt it1 anything that is not obvious4 ,they have none of the little unconscious tricks of manner which worry the critic to-day4 ,but their whole manner is one commonplace trick from which they never escape4 ,they are only relieved by its simplicity and by the novelty which comes through age4 ,we have to remember that all mediocrity is impersonal and that when we encourage its manifestations on printed pages we merely make mediocrity more conspicuous4 ,nor can that be remedied by teaching the mediocre to cultivate tricks of fashion or of vanity4 ,there is more personality in ,claude ,bernard's 8,leons de ,physiologie ,exprimentales10 a great critic of life and letters has pointed out1 ,remy de ,gourmont1 than in ,musset's 8,confession d'un ,enfant du ,sicle40 ,for personality is not something that can be sought2 it is a radiance that is diffused spontaneously4 ,it may even be most manifest when most avoided1 and no writer--the remark has doubtless often been made before--can be more personal than ,flaubert who had made almost a gospel of ,impersonality4 ,but the absence of research for personality1 however meritorious1 will not suffice to bring personality out of mediocrity4 ,moreover1 the obvious fact seems often to be overlooked by the critic that a vastly larger proportion of the population now write1 and see their writing printed4 ,we live in what we call a democratic age in which all are compulsorily taught how to make pothooks and hangers on paper4 ,so that every nincompoop--in the attenuated sense of the term--as soon as he puts a pen in ink feels that he has become1 like ,m4 ,jourdain1 a writer of prose4 ,that feeling is justified only in a very limited sense1 and if we wish to compare the condition of things to-day with that in an age when people wrote at the bidding of some urgent stimulus from without or from within1 we have at the outset to delete certainly over ninety-five per cent of our modern so-called writers before we institute any comparison4 ,the writers thus struck out1 it may be added1 cannot fail to include many persons of much note in the world4 ,there are all sorts of people to-day who write from all sorts of motives other than a genuine aptitude for writing4 ,to suppose that there can be any comparison at this point of the present with the past and to dodder over the decay of our language would seem a senile proceeding if we do not happen to know that it occurs in all ages1 and that1 even at the time when our prose speech was as near to perfection as it is ever likely to be1 its critics were bemoaning its corruption1 lamenting1 for instance1 the indolent new practice of increasing sibilation by changing 8arriveth0 into 8arrives0 and pronouncing 8walked0 as 8walkd10 sometimes in their criticisms showing no more knowledge of the history and methods of growth of ,english than our academic critics show to-day4 ,for we know what to-day they tell us2 it is not hard to know1 their exhortations1 though few1 are repeated in so psittaceous a manner4 ,one thinks1 for instance1 of that solemn warning against the enormity of the split infinitive which has done so much to aggravate the ,pharisaism of the bad writers who scrupulously avoid it4 ,this superstition seems to have had its origin in a false analogy with ,latin in which the infinitive is never split for the good reason that it is impossible to split4 ,in the greater freedom of ,english it is possible and has been done for at least the last five hundred years by the greatest masters of ,english2 only the good writer never uses this form helplessly and involuntarily1 but with a definite object2 and that is the only rule to observe4 ,an absolute prohibition in this matter is the mark of those who are too ignorant1 or else too unintelligent1 to recognise a usage which is of the essence of ,english speech4#ee ,one may perhaps refer1 again1 to those who lay down that every sentence must end on a significant word1 never on a preposition1 and who reprobate what has been technically termed the post-habited prefix4 ,they are the same worthy and would-be old-fashioned people who think that a piece of music must always end monotonously on a banging chord4 ,only here they have not1 any more than in music1 even the virtue--if such it be--of old fashion1 for the final so-called preposition is in the genius of the ,english language and associated with the ,scandinavian--in the wider ancient sense ,danish--strain of ,english1 one of the finest strains it owns1 imparting much of the plastic force which renders it flexible1 the element which helped to save it from the straitlaced tendency of ,anglo-,saxon and the awkward formality of ,latin and ,french influence4 ,the foolish prejudice we are here concerned with seems to date from a period when the example of ,french1 in which the final preposition is impossible1 happened to be dominant4 ,its use in ,english is associated with the informal grace and simplicity1 the variety of tender cadence1 which our tongue admits4 ,in such matters as the 8split infinitive0 and the 8post-habited preposition10 there should never have been any doubt as to the complete validity and authority of the questioned usages4 ,but there are other points at which some even good critics may be tempted to accept the condemnation of the literary grammarians4 ,it is sufficient to mention one3 the nominative use of the pronoun 8me40 ,yet1 surely1 any one who considers social practice as well as psychological necessity should not fail to see that we must recognise a double use of 8me0 in ,english4 ,the ,french1 who in such matters seem to have possessed a finer social and psychological tact1 have realised that je cannot be the sole nominative of the first person and have supplemented it by moi 7mi from mihi74 ,the ,frenchman1 when asked who is there1 does not reply 8,je60 ,but the would-be ,english purist is supposed to be reduced to replying 8,i60 ,royal ,cleopatra asks the ,messenger3 8,is she as tall as me80 ,the would-be purist no doubt transmutes this as he reads into3 8,is she as tall as ,i80 ,we need not envy him4 ,such an example indicates how independent the free and wholesome life of language is of grammatical rules4 ,this is not to diminish the importance of the grammarian's task1 but simply to define it1 as the formulator1 and not the lawgiver1 of usage4 ,his rules are useful1 not merely in order to know how best to keep them1 but in order to know how best to break them4 ,without them freedom might become licence4 ,yet even licence1 we have to recognise1 is the necessary offscouring of speech in its supreme manifestations of vitality and force4 ,english speech was never more syntactically licentious than in the sixteenth century1 but it was never more alive1 never more fitly the material for a great artist to mould4 ,so it is that in the sixteenth century we find ,shakespeare4 ,in post-,dryden days 7though ,dryden was an excellent writer and engaged on an admirable task7 a supreme artist in ,english speech became impossible1 and if a ,shakespeare had appeared all his strength would have been wasted in a vain struggle with the grammarians4 ,french speech has run a similar and almost synchronous course with ,english4 ,there was a magnificently natural force and wealth in sixteenth-century ,french3 in ,rabelais it had been even extravagantly exuberant2 in ,montaigne it is still flexible and various--ondoyant et divers--and still full of natural delight and freedom4 ,but after ,malherbe and his fellows ,french speech acquired orderliness1 precision1 and formality2 they were excellent qualities1 no doubt1 but had to be paid for by some degree of thinness and primness1 even some stiffening of the joints4 ,rousseau came and poured fresh blood from ,switzerland into the language and a new ineffable grace that was all his own2 so that if we now hesitate to say1 with ,landor1 that he excels all the moderns for harmony1 it is only because they have learnt what he taught2 and the later ,romantics1 under the banner of ,hugo1 imparted colour and brilliance4 ,yet all the great artists who have wrestled with ,french speech for a century have never been able to restore the scent and the savour and the substance which ,villon and ,montaigne without visible effort could once find within its borders4 ,in this as in other matters what we call ,progress means the discovery of new desirable qualities1 and therewith the loss of other qualities that were at least equally desirable4 ,then there is yet another warning which1 especially in recent times1 is issued at frequent intervals1 and that is against the use of verbal counters1 of worn or even worn-out phrases1 of what we commonly fall back on modern ,french to call clichs4 ,we mean thereby the use of old stereotyped phrases--,goethe called them 8stamped0 or gestempelt--to save the trouble of making a new living phrase to suit our meaning4 ,the word clich is thus typographic1 though1 it so happens1 it is derived from an old ,french word of phonetic meaning1 cliqueter or cliquer 7related to the ,german klatschen71 which we already have in ,english as to 8click0 or to 8clack10 in a sense which well supplements its more modern technical sense for this literary end4 ,yet the warning against clichs is vain4 ,the good writer1 by the very fact that he is alive and craves speech that is vivid1 as clichs never are1 instinctively avoids their excessive use1 while the nervous and bad writer1 in his tremulous anxiety to avoid these tabooed clichs1 falls into the most deplorable habits1 like the late ,mr4 ,robert ,ross1 who at one time was so anxious to avoid clichs that he acquired the habit of using them in an inverted form and wrote a prose that made one feel like walking on sharp flints2 for1 though a macadamized road may not be so good to walk in as a flowered meadow1 it is better than a macadamized road with each stone turned upside down and the sharp edge uppermost4 ,as a matter of fact it is impossible to avoid the use of clichs and counters in speech1 and if it were possible the results would be in the highest degree tedious and painful4 ,the word 8clich0 itself1 we have seen1 is a clich1 a worn counter of a word1 with its original meaning all effaced1 and even its secondary meaning now only just visible4 ,that1 if those folk who condemn clichs only had the intelligence to perceive it1 is a significant fact4 ,you cannot avoid using clichs1 not even in the very act of condemning them4 ,they include1 if we only look keenly enough1 nearly the whole of language1 almost every separate word4 ,if one could avoid them one would be unintelligible4 ,even those common phrases which it is peculiarly meet to call counters are not to be absolutely condemned4 ,they have become so common to use because so fit to use1 as ,baudelaire understood when he spoke of 8the immense depth of thought in vulgar locutions40#ef ,there is only one rule to follow here1--and it is simply the rule in every part of art1--to know what one is doing1 not to go sheeplike with the flock1 ignorantly1 unthinkingly1 heedlessly1 but to mould speech to expression the most truly one knows how4 ,if1 indeed1 we are seeking clarity and the precise expression of thought1 there is nothing we may not do if only we know how to do it--but that 8if0 might well be in capitals4 ,one who has spent the best part of his life in trying to write things that had not been written before1 and that were very difficult to write1 may perhaps be allowed to confess the hardness of this task4 ,to write is thus an arduous intellectual task1 a process which calls for the highest tension of the muscles in the escalade of a heaven which the strongest and bravest and alertest can never hope to take by violence4 ,he has to be true1--whether it is in the external world he is working or in his own internal world1--and as truth can only be seen through his own temperament1 he is engaged in moulding the expression of a combination which has never been seen in the world before4 ,it is sometimes said that the great writer seldom quotes1 and that in the main is true1 for he finds it difficult to mix an alien music of thought and speech with his own4 ,montaigne1 it is also said1 is an exception1 but that is scarcely true4 ,what ,montaigne quoted he often translated and so moulded to the pattern of his own mind4 ,the same may be said of ,robert ,burton4 ,if it had not been so these writers 7almost certainly ,burton7 could scarcely have attained to the rank of great authors4 ,the significant fact to note1 however1 is not that the great writer rarely quotes1 but that he knows how to quote4 ,schopenhauer was here a master4 ,he possessed a marvellous flair for fine sayings in remote books1 and these he would now and again let fall like jewels on his page1 with so happy a skill that they seem to be created for the spot on which they fell4 ,it is the little writer rather than the great writer who seems never to quote1 and the reason is that he is really never doing anything else4#eg ,it is not in writing only1 in all art1 in all science1 the task before each is that defined by ,bacon3 man added to ,nature4 ,it is so also in painting1 as a great artist of modern time1 ,czanne1 recognised even in those same words3 8,he who wishes to make art10 he once said to ,vollard1 8must follow ,bacon1 who defined the artist as #8,homo additus ,natur4'0 ,so it is that the artist1 if he has succeeded in being true to his function1 is necessarily one who makes all things new4#eh ,that remarkable artist who wrote the ,book of the ,revelation has expressed this in his allegorical1 perhaps unconscious1 ,oriental way1 for he represents the artist as hearing the divine spirit from the throne within him uttering the command3 8,behold1 ,i make all things new4 ,write60 ,the command is similar whatever the art may be1 though it is here the privilege of the writer to find his own art set forth as the inspired ensample of all art4 ,thus it is that to write is a strenuous intellectual task not to be achieved without the exercise of the best trained and most deliberate rational faculties4 ,that is the outcome of the whole argument up to this point4 ,there is so much bad writing in the world because writing has been dominated by ignorance and habit and prudery1 and not least by the academic teachers and critics who have known nothing of what they claim to teach and were often themselves singular examples of how not to write4 ,there has1 on the other hand1 been a little good writing here and there in the world1 through the ages1 because a few possessed not only courage and passion and patience1 but knowledge and the concentrated intellectual attention1 and the resolution to seek truth1 and the conviction that1 as they imagined1 the genius they sought consisted in taking pains4 ,yet1 if that were all1 many people would become great writers who1 as we well know1 will never become writers2 if that were all1 writing could scarcely even be regarded as an art4 ,for art1 or one side of it1 transcends conscious knowledge2 a poet1 as ,landor remarked1 8is not aware of all that he knows1 and seems at last to know as little about it as a silkworm knows about the fineness of her thread40 ,yet the same great writer has also said of good poetry1 and with equal truth1 that 8the ignorant and inexpert lose half its pleasures40 ,we always move on two feet1 as lie ,faure remarks in his 8,l',arbre d'den10 the two poles of knowledge and of desire1 the one a matter of deliberate acquirement and the other of profound instinct1 and all our movements are a perpetual leap from one to the other1 seeking a centre of gravity we never attain4#ei ,so the achievement of style in writing1 as in all human intercourse1 is something more than an infinite capacity for taking pains4 ,it is also defined--and1 sometimes ,i think1 supremely well defined--as 8grace seasoned with salt40 ,beyond all that can be achieved by knowledge and effort1 there must be the spontaneous grace that springs up like a fountain from the depth of a beautifully harmonious nature1 and there must be also the quality which the ,spaniards call 8sal10 and so rightly admire in the speech of the women of the people of their own land1 the salt quality which gives savour and point and antiseptic virtue4#fj ,the best literary prose speech is simply the idealisation in the heaven of art of the finest common speech of earth1 simply1 yet never reached for more than a moment in a nation's long history4 ,in ,greece it was immortally and radiantly achieved by ,plato2 in ,england it was attained for a few years during the last years of the seventeenth and the first years of the eighteenth centuries1 lingering on1 indeed1 here and there to the end of that century until crushed between the pedantry of ,johnson and the poetic licence of the ,romantics4 ,but for the rest only the most happily endowed genius can even attain for a rare moment the perfection of the ,pauline ideal of 8grace seasoned with salt40 ,it is fortunate1 no doubt1 that an age of machinery is well content with machine-made writing4 ,it would be in bad taste--too physiological1 too sentimental1 altogether too antiquated--to refer to the symbolical significance of the highly relevant fact that the heart1 while undoubtedly a machine1 is at the same time a sensitively pulsating organ with fleshy strings stretched from ventricle to valves1 a harp on which the great artist may play until our hearts also throb in unison4 ,yet there are some to whom it still seems that1 beyond mechanical skill1 the cadences of the artist's speech are the cadences of his heart1 and the footfalls of his rhythm the footfalls of his spirit1 in a great adventure across the universe4 ,,ii ,,thus we do not always realise that learning to write is partly a matter of individual instinct4 ,this is so even of that writing which1 as children1 we learnt in copybooks with engraved maxims at the head of the page4 ,there are some1 indeed1 probably the majority1 who quickly achieve the ability to present a passable imitation of the irreproachable model presented to them4 ,there are some who cannot4 ,i speak as one who knows1 for ,i recall how my first schoolmaster1 a sarcastic little ,frenchman1 irritated by my unchastenable hand1 would sometimes demand if ,i wrote with the kitchen poker1 or again assert that ,i kept a tame spider to run over the page1 while a later teacher1 who was an individualist and more tolerant1 yet sometimes felt called upon to murmur1 in a tone of dubious optimism3 8,you will have a hand of your own1 my boy40 ,it is not lack of docility that is in question1 but an imperative demand of the nervous system which the efforts of the will may indeed bend but cannot crush4 ,yet the writers who cheerfully lay down the laws of style seldom realise this complexity and mystery enwrapping even so simple a matter as handwriting4 ,no one can say how much atavistic recurrence from remote ancestors1 how much family nervous habit1 how much wayward yet deep-rooted personal idiosyncrasy deflect the child's patient efforts to imitate the copperplate model which is set before him4 ,the son often writes like the father1 even though he may seldom or never see his father's handwriting2 brothers may write singularly alike1 though taught by different teachers and even in different continents4 ,it has been noted of the ancient and distinguished family of the ,tyrrells that their handwriting in the parish books of ,stowmarket remained the same throughout many generations4 ,i have noticed1 in a relation of my own1 peculiarities of handwriting identical with those of an ancestor two centuries ago whose writing he certainly never saw4 ,the resemblance is often not that of exact formation1 but of general air or underlying structure4#fa ,one is tempted to think that often1 in this as in other matters1 the possibilities are limited1 and that when the child is formed in his mother's womb ,nature cast the same old dice and the same old combinations inevitably tend to recur4 ,but that notion scarcely fits all the facts1 and our growing knowledge of the infinite subtlety of heredity1 of its presence even in the most seemingly elusive psychic characters1 indicates that the dice may be loaded and fall in accord with harmonies we fail to perceive4 ,the development of ,mendelian analysis may in time help us to understand them4 ,the part in style which belongs to atavism1 to heredity1 to unconscious instinct1 is probably very large4 ,it eludes us to an even greater extent than the corresponding part in handwriting because the man of letters may have none among his ancestors who sought expression in style1 so that only one ,milton speaks for a mute inglorious family1 and how far he speaks truly remains a matter of doubt4 ,we only divine the truth when we know the character and deeds of the family4 ,there could be no more instructive revelation of family history in style than is furnished by ,carlyle4 ,there had never been any writer in the ,carlyle family1 and if there had1 ,carlyle at the time when his manner of writing was formed1 would scarcely have sought to imitate them4 ,yet we could not conceive this stern1 laborious1 plebeian family of ,lowland ,scots--with its remote ,teutonic affinities1 its coarseness1 its narrowness1 its assertive inarticulative force--in any more fitting verbal translation than was given it by this its last son1 the pathetic little figure with the face of a lost child1 who wrote in a padded room and turned the rough muscular and reproductive activity of his fathers into more than half a century of eloquent chatter concerning ,work and ,silence1 so writing his name in letters of gold on the dome of the ,british ,museum4#fb ,when we consider the characteristics1 not of the family1 but of the race1 it is easier to find examples of the force of ancestry1 even remote ancestry1 overcoming environment and dominating style4 ,shakespeare and ,bacon were both ,elizabethans who both lived from youth upwards in ,london1 and even moved to some extent almost in the same circles4 ,yet all the influences of tradition and environment1 which sometimes seem to us so strong1 scarcely sufficed to spread even the faintest veneer of similarity over their style1 and we could seldom mistake a sentence of one for a sentence of the other4 ,we always know that ,shakespeare--with his gay extravagance and redundancy1 his essential idealism--came of a people that had been changed in character from the surrounding stock by a ,celtic infolding of the receding ,british to ,wales4#fc ,we never fail to realise that ,bacon--with his instinctive gravity and temperance1 the suppressed ardour of his aspiring intellectual passion1 his temperamental naturalism--was rooted deep in that ,east ,anglian soil which he had never so much as visited4 ,in ,shakespeare's veins there dances the blood of the men who made the 8,mabinogion02 we recognise ,bacon as a man of the same countryside which produced the forefathers of ,emerson4 ,or we may consider the mingled ,breton and ,gascon ancestry of ,renan1 in whose brain1 in the very contour and melody of his style1 the ancient bards of ,brittany have joined hands with the tribe of ,montaigne and ,brantme and the rest4 ,or1 to take one more example1 we can scarcely fail to recognise in the style of ,sir ,thomas ,browne--as later1 may be1 in that of ,hawthorne--the glamour of which the latent aptitude had been handed on by ancestors who dwelt on the borders of ,wales4 ,in these examples hereditary influence can be clearly distinguished from merely external and traditional influences4 ,not that we need imply a disparagement of tradition3 it is the foundation of civilised progress4 ,speech itself is a tradition1 a naturally developed convention1 and in that indeed it has its universal applicability and use4 ,it is the crude amorphous material of art1 of music and poetry4 ,but on its formal side1 whatever its supreme significance as the instrument and medium of expression1 speech is a natural convention1 an accumulated tradition4 ,even tradition1 however1 is often simply the corporeal embodiment1 as it were1 of heredity4 ,behind many a great writer's personality there stands tradition1 and behind tradition the race4 ,that is well illustrated in the style of ,addison4 ,this style--with a resilient fibre underneath its delicacy and yet a certain freedom as of conversational familiarity--has as its most easily marked structural signature a tendency to a usage it has already been necessary to mention3 the tendency to allow the preposition to lag to the end of the sentence rather than to come tautly before the pronoun with which in ,latin it is combined4 ,in a century in which the ,latin-,french elements of ,english were to become developed1 as in ,gibbon and ,johnson1 to the utmost1 the totally different physiognomy of ,addison's prose remained conspicuous1--though really far from novel1--and to the sciolists of a bygone age it seemed marked by carelessness1 if not licence1 at the best by personal idiosyncrasy4 ,yet1 as a matter of fact1 we know it was nothing of the kind4 ,addison1 as his name indicates1 was of the stock of the ,scandinavian ,english1 and the ,cumberland district he belonged to is largely ,scandinavian2 the adjoining peninsula of ,furness1 which swarms with similar patronymics1 is indeed one of the most purely ,scandinavian spots in ,england4 ,now in the ,scandinavian languages1 as we know1 and in the ,english dialects based upon them1 the preposition comes usually at the end of the sentence1 and ,scandinavian structural elements form an integral part of ,english1 even more than ,latin-,french1 for it has been the part of the latter rather to enrich the vocabulary than to mould the structure of our tongue4 ,so that1 instead of introducing a personal idiosyncrasy or perpetrating a questionable licence1 ,addison was continuing his own ancestral traditions and at the same time asserting an organic prerogative of ,english speech4 ,it may be added that ,addison reveals his ,scandinavian affinities not merely in the material structure1 but in the spiritual quality1 of his work4 ,this delicate sympathetic observation1 the vein of gentle melancholy1 the quiet restrained humour1 meet us again in modern ,norwegian authors like ,jonas ,lie4 ,when we put aside these ancestral and traditional influences1 there is still much in the writer's art which1 even if personal1 we can only term instinctive4 ,this may be said of that music which at their finest moments belongs to all the great writers of prose4 ,every writer has his own music1 though there are few in whom it becomes audible save at rare and precious intervals4 ,the prose of the writer who can deliberately make his own personal cadences monotonously audible all the time grows wearisome2 it affects us as a tedious mannerism4 ,this is a kind of machine-made prose which indeed it requires a clever artisan to produce2 but1 as ,landor said1 8he must be a bad writer to whom there are no inequalities40 ,the great writers1 though they are always themselves1 attain the perfect music of their style under the stress of a stimulus adequate to arouse it4 ,their music is the audible translation of emotion1 and only arises when the waves of emotion are stirred4 ,it is not properly speaking a voluntary effect4 ,we can but say that the winds of the spirit are breathed upon the surface of style1 and they lift it into rhythmic movement4 ,and for each writer these waves have their own special rate of vibration1 their peculiar shape and interval4 ,the rich deep slow tones of ,bacon have nothing in common with the haunting1 long-drawn melody1 faint and tremulous1 of ,newman2 the high metallic falsetto ring of ,de ,quincey's rhetoric is far away from the pensive low-toned music of ,pater4 ,imitation1 as psychologists have taught us to realise1 is a part of instinct4 ,when we begin to learn to write1 it rarely happens that we are not imitators1 and1 for the most part1 unconsciously4 ,the verse of every young poet1 however original he may afterwards grow1 usually has plainly written across it the rhythmic signature of some great master whose work chances to be abroad in the world2 once it was usually ,tennyson1 then ,swinburne1 now various later poets2 the same thing happens with prose1 but the rhythm of the signature is less easy to hear4 ,as a writer slowly finds his own centre of gravity1 the influence of the rhythm of other writers ceases to be perceptible except in so far as it coincides with his own natural movement and tempo4 ,that is a familiar fact4 ,we less easily realise1 perhaps1 that not only the tunes but the notes that they are formed of are1 in every great writer1 his own4 ,in other words1 he creates even his vocabulary4 ,that is so not only in the more obvious sense that out of the mass of words that make up a language every writer uses only a limited number and even among these has his words of predilection4#fd ,it is in the meanings he gives to words1 to names1 that a writer creates his vocabulary4 ,all language1 we know1 is imagery and metaphor2 even the simplest names of the elementary things are metaphors based on resemblances that suggested themselves to the primitive men who made language4 ,it is not otherwise with the aboriginal man of genius who uses language to express his new vision of the world4 ,he sees things charged with energy1 or brilliant with colour1 or breathing out perfume1 that the writers who came before him had overlooked1 and to designate these things he must use names which convey the qualities he has perceived4 ,guided by his own new personal sensations and perceptions1 he creates his metaphorical vocabulary4 ,if we examine the style of ,montaigne1 so fresh and personal and inventive1 we see that its originality lies largely in its vocabulary1 which is not1 like that of ,rabelais1 manufactured afresh1 but has its novelty in its metaphorical values1 such new values being tried and tempered at every step1 to the measure of the highly individual person behind them1 who thereby exerts his creative force4 ,in later days ,huysmans1 who indeed saw the world at a more eccentric angle than ,montaigne1 yet with unflinching veracity and absolute devotion1 set himself to the task of creating his own vocabulary1 and at first the unfamiliarity of its beauty estranges us4 ,to think of ,huysmans is to be led towards an aspect of style not to be passed over4 ,to say that the artist in words is expressing a new vision of the world and seeking the designations for things as he sees them1 is a large part of the truth1 and1 ,i would say1 perhaps the most important part of it4 ,for most of us1 ,i suppose 7as ,i know it has been for me71 our vision of ,nature has been largely1 though by no means entirely1 constituted by pictures we have seen1 by poems we have read1 that left an abiding memory4 ,that is to say that ,nature comes to us through an atmosphere which is the emanation of supreme artists who once thrilled us4 ,but we are here concerned with the process of the artist's work and not with his sthetic influence4 ,the artist finds that words have a rich content of their own1 they are alive and they flourish or decay4 ,they send out connecting threads in every direction1 they throb with meaning that ever changes and reverberates afar4 ,the writer is not always1 or often1 merely preparing a catalogue raisonn of things1 he is an artist and his pigments are words4 ,often he merely takes his suggestions from the things of the world and makes his own pictures without any real resemblance to the scene it is supposed to depict4 ,dujardin tells us that he once took ,huysmans to a ,wagner concert2 he scarcely listened to the music1 but he was fascinated by the programme the attendant handed to him2 he went home to write a brilliant page on 8,tannhuser40 ,mallarm1 on the other hand1 was soaked in music2 to him music was the voice of the world1 and it was the aim of poetry to express the world by itself becoming music2 he stood on a height like a pioneer and looked towards the ,promised ,land1 trying to catch intimations of a new sensibility and a future art1 but a great master of language1 like ,huysmans1 he never was4 ,huysmans has written superb pages about ,gustave ,moreau and ,flicien ,rops1 thinking1 no doubt1 that he was revealing supreme artists 7though we need not follow too closely the fashion of depreciating either of those artists71 but he was really only attracted to their programmes and therein experiencing a stimulus that chanced to be peculiarly fitted for drawing out his own special art4 ,baudelaire would have written less gorgeously1 but he would have produced a more final critical estimate4 ,yet even the greatest writers are affected by the intoxication of mere words in the artistry of language4 ,shakespeare is1 constantly1 and1 not content with 8making the green one red10 he must needs at the same time 8the multitudinous seas incarnadine40 ,it is conspicuous in ,keats 7as ,leigh ,hunt1 perhaps his first sensitively acute critic1 clearly explained71 and often1 as in 8,the ,eve of ,st4 ,agnes10 where he seemed to be concerned with beautiful things1 he was really concerned with beautiful words4 ,in that way he is sometimes rather misleading for the too youthful reader2 8porphyry0 seemed to me a marvellous substance when as a boy of twelve ,i read of it in ,keats1 and ,i imagine that ,keats himself would have been surprised1 had he lived long enough to walk to ,st4 ,thomas's ,hospital over the new ,london ,bridge1 when told that he was treading a granite that was porphyritic4 ,i recall how ,verlaine would sometimes repeat in varying tones some rather unfamiliar word1 rolling it round and round in his mouth1 sucking it like a sweetmeat1 licking the sound into the shape that pleased him2 some people may perhaps have found a little bizarre the single words 78,green10 for example7 which he sometimes made the title of a song1 but if they adopt the preliminary ,verlainian process they may understand how he had fitted such words to music and meaning4 ,the most obviously beautiful things in the world of ,nature are birds and flowers and the stones we call precious4 ,but the attitude of the poet in the presence of ,nature is precisely that of ,huysmans in the presence of art3 it is the programme that interests him4 ,of birds the knowledge of poets generally is of the most generalised and elementary kind2 they are the laughing-stock of the ornithologist2 they are only a stage removed from the standpoint of the painter who was introducing a tree into his landscape and when asked what tree1 replied1 8,oh1 just the ordinary tree40 ,even ,goethe mistook the finches by the roadside for larks4 ,the poet1 one may be sure1 even to-day seldom carries in his pocket the little 8,fhrer durch unsere ,vogelwelt0 of ,bernhard ,hoffmann1 and has probably never so much as heard of it4 ,of flowers his knowledge seems to be limited by the quality of the flower's name4 ,i have long cherished an exquisite and quite common ,english wild-flower1 but have never come across a poem about it1 for its unattractive name is the stitchwort1 and it is only lately that even in prose it has met 7from ,mr4 ,salt7 with due appreciation4 ,as regards precious stones the same may be said1 and in the galleries of the ,geological ,museum it has hardly seemed to me that1 among the few visitors1 there were poets 7unless ,i chanced to bring one myself7 to brood over all that beauty4 ,it is the word and its inner reverberation with which the poet is really concerned1 even sometimes perhaps deliberately4 ,when ,milton misused the word 8eglantine0 one realises the unconscious appeal to him of the name and one cannot feel quite sure that it was altogether unconscious4 ,coleridge has been solemnly reproved for speaking of the 8loud0 bassoon4 ,but it was to the timbre of the word1 not of the instrument1 that ,coleridge was responding1 and had he been informed that the bassoon is not loud1 ,i doubt not he would have replied3 8,well1 if it is not loud it ought to be40 ,on the plane on which ,coleridge moved 8the loud bassoon0 was absolutely right4 ,we see that the artist in speech moves among words rather than among things4 ,originally1 it is true1 words are closely related to things1 but in their far reverberation they have become enriched by many associations1 saturated with many colours2 they have acquired a life of their own1 moving on another plane than that of things1 and it is on that plane that the artist in words is1 as an artist1 concerned with them4 ,it thus comes about that the artist in words1 like the artist in pigments1 is perpetually passing between two planes--the plane of new vision and the plane of new creation4 ,he is sometimes remoulding the external world and sometimes the internal world2 sometimes1 by predilection1 lingering more on one plane than on the other plane4 ,the artist in words is not irresistibly drawn to the exact study of things or moved by the strong love of ,nature4 ,the poets who describe ,nature most minutely and most faithfully are not usually the great poets4 ,that is intelligible because the poet--even the poet in the wide sense who also uses prose--is primarily the instrument of human emotion and not of scientific observation4 ,yet that poet possesses immense resources of strength who in early life has stored within him the minute knowledge of some field of the actual external world4#fe ,one may doubt1 indeed1 whether there has been any supreme poet1 from ,homer on1 who has not had this inner reservoir of sensitive impressions to draw from4 ,the youthful ,shakespeare who wrote the poems1 with their minute descriptions1 was not a great poet1 as the youthful ,marlowe was1 but he was storing up the material which1 when he had developed into a great poet1 he could draw on at need with a careless and assured hand4 ,without such reservoirs1 the novelists also would never attain to that touch of the poet which1 beyond their story-telling power1 can stir our hearts4 8 la ,recherche du ,temps ,perdu0 is the name of a great modern book1 but every novelist during part of his time has been a ,ulysses on a perilous voyage of adventure for that far home4 ,one thinks of ,george ,eliot and her early intimacy with the life of country people1 of ,hardy who had acquired so acute a sensitivity to the sounds of ,nature1 of ,conrad who had caught the flashes of penetrating vision which came to the sailor on deck2 and in so far as they move away into scenes where they cannot draw from those ancient reservoirs1 the adventures of these artists1 however brilliant they may become1 lose their power of intimate appeal4 ,the most extravagant example of this to-day is the ,spanish novelist ,blasco ,ibaez1 who wrote of the ,valencian huerta that had saturated his youth in novels that were penetrating and poignant1 and then turned to writing for the cosmopolitan crowd novels about anything1 that were completely negligible4 ,we grow familiar in time with the style of the great writers1 and when we read them we translate them easily and unconsciously1 as we translate a foreign language we are familiar with2 we understand the vocabulary because we have learnt to know the special seal of the creative person who moulded the vocabulary4 ,but at the outset the great writer may be almost as unintelligible to us as though he were writing in a language we had never learnt4 ,in the now remote days when 8,leaves of ,grass0 was a new book in the world1 few who looked into it for the first time1 however honestly1 but were repelled and perhaps even violently repelled1 and it is hard to realise now that once those who fell on ,swinburne's 8,poems and ,ballads0 saw at first only picturesque hieroglyphics to which they had no key4 ,but even to-day how many there are who find ,proust unreadable and ,joyce unintelligible4 ,until we find the door and the clue the new writer remains obscure4 ,therein lies the truth of ,landor's saying that the poet must himself create the beings who are to enjoy his ,paradise4 ,for most of those who deliberately seek to learn to write1 words seem generally to be felt as of less importance than the art of arranging them4 ,it is thus that the learner in writing tends to become the devoted student of grammar and syntax whom we came across at the outset4 ,that is indeed a tendency which always increases4 ,civilisation develops with a conscious adhesion to formal order1 and the writer--writing by fashion or by ambition and not by divine right of creative instinct--follows the course of civilisation4 ,it is an unfortunate tendency1 for those whom it affects conquer by their number4 ,as we know1 writing that is real is not learnt that way4 ,just as the solar system was not made in accordance with the astronomer's laws1 so writing is not made by the laws of grammar4 ,astronomer and grammarian alike can only come in at the end1 to give a generalised description of what usually happens in the respective fields it pleases them to explore4 ,when a new comet1 cosmic or literary1 enters their sky1 it is their descriptions which have to be readjusted1 and not the comet4 ,there seems to be no more pronounced mark of the decadence of a people and its literature than a servile and rigid subserviency to rule4 ,it can only make for ossification1 for anchylosis1 for petrification1 all the milestones on the road of death4 ,in every age of democratic plebeianism1 where each man thinks he is as good a writer as the others1 and takes his laws from the others1 having no laws of his own nature1 it is down this steep path that men1 in a flock1 inevitably run4 ,we may find an illustration of the plebeian anchylosis of advancing civilisation in the minor matter of spelling4 ,we cannot1 it is true1 overlook the fact that writing is read and that its appearance cannot be quite disregarded4 ,yet1 ultimately1 it appeals to the ear1 and spelling can have little to do with style4 ,the laws of spelling1 properly speaking1 are few or none1 and in the great ages men have understood this and boldly acted accordingly4 ,they exercised a fine personal discretion in the matter and permitted without question a wide range of variation4 ,shakespeare1 as we know1 even spelt his own name in several different ways1 all equally correct4 ,when that great old ,elizabethan mariner1 ,sir ,martin ,frobisher1 entered on one of his rare and hazardous adventures with the pen1 he created spelling absolutely afresh1 in the spirit of simple heroism with which he was always ready to sail out into strange seas4 ,his epistolary adventures are1 certainly1 more interesting than admirable1 but we have no reason to suppose that the distinguished persons to whom these letters were addressed viewed them with any disdain4 ,more anmic ages cannot endure creative vitality even in spelling1 and so it comes about that in periods when everything beautiful and handmade gives place to manufactured articles made wholesale1 uniform1 and cheap1 the same principles are applied to words1 and spelling becomes a mechanic trade4 ,we must have our spelling uniform1 even if uniformly bad4#ff ,just as the man who1 having out of sheer ignorance eaten the wrong end of his asparagus1 was thenceforth compelled to declare that he preferred that end1 so it is with our race in the matter of spelling2 our ancestors1 by chance or by ignorance1 tended to adopt certain forms of spelling and we1 their children1 are forced to declare that we prefer those forms4 ,thus we have not only lost all individuality in spelling1 but we pride ourselves on our loss and magnify our anchylosis4 ,in ,england it has become almost impossible to flex our stiffened mental joints sufficiently to press out a single letter1 in ,america it is almost impossible to extend them enough to admit that letter4 ,it is convenient1 we say1 to be rigid and formal in these things1 and therewith we are content2 it matters little to us that we have thereby killed the life of our words and only gained the conveniency of death4 ,it would be likewise convenient1 no doubt1 if men and women could be turned into rigid geometrical diagrams1--as indeed our legislators sometimes seem to think that they already are1--but we should pay by yielding up all the infinite variations1 the beautiful sinuosities1 that had once made up life4 ,there can be no doubt that in the much greater matter of style we have paid heavily for the attainment of our slavish adherence to mechanical rules1 however convenient1 however inevitable4 ,the beautiful incorrection1 as we are now compelled to regard it1 that so often marked the great and even the small writers of the seventeenth century1 has been lost1 for all can now write what any find it easy to read1 what none have any consuming desire to read4 ,but when ,sir ,thomas ,browne wrote his 8,religio ,medici0 it was with an art made up of obedience to personal law and abandonment to free inspiration which still ravishes us4 ,it is extraordinary how far indifference or incorrection of style may be carried and yet remain completely adequate even to complex and subtle ends4 ,pepys wrote his 8,diary10 at the outset of a life full of strenuous work and not a little pleasure1 with a rare devotion indeed1 but with a concision and carelessness1 a single eye on the fact itself1 and an extraordinary absence of self-consciousness which rob it of all claim to possess what we conventionally term style4 ,yet in this vehicle he has perfectly conveyed not merely the most vividly realised and delightfully detailed picture of a past age ever achieved in any language1 but he has1 moreover1 painted a psychological portrait of himself which for its serenely impartial justice1 its subtle gradations1 its bold juxtapositions of colours1 has all the qualities of the finest ,velasquez4 ,there is no style here1 we say1 merely the diarist1 writing with careless poignant vitality for his own eye1 and yet no style that we could conceive would be better fitted1 or so well fitted1 for the miracle that has here been effected4 ,the personal freedom of ,browne led up to splendour1 and that of ,pepys to clarity4 ,but while splendour is not the whole of writing1 neither1 although one returns to it again and again1 is clarity4 ,here we come from another side on to a point we had already reached4 ,bergson1 in reply to the question3 8,comment doivent crire les ,philosophes80 lets fall some observations1 which1 as he himself remarks1 concern other writers beside philosophers4 ,a technical word1 he remarks1 even a word invented for the occasion or used in a special sense1 is always in its place provided the instructed reader--though the difficulty1 as he fails to point out1 is to be sure of possessing this instructed reader--accepts it so easily as not even to notice it1 and he proceeds to say that in philosophic prose1 and in all prose1 and indeed in all the arts1 8the perfect expression is that which has come so naturally1 or rather so necessarily1 by virtue of so imperious a predestination1 that we do not pause before it1 but go straight on to what it seeks to express1 as though it were blended with the idea2 it became invisible by force of being transparent40#fg ,that is well said4 ,bergson also is on the side of clarity4 ,yet ,i do not feel that that is all there is to say4 ,style is not a sheet of glass in which the only thing that matters is the absence of flaws4 ,bergson's own style is not so diaphanous that one never pauses to admire its quality1 nor1 as a hostile critic 7,edouard ,dujardin7 has shown1 is it always so clear as to be transparent4 ,the dancer in prose as well as in verse--philosopher or whatever he may be--must reveal all his limbs through the garment he wears2 yet the garment must have its own proper beauty1 and there is a failure of art1 a failure of revelation1 if it possesses no beauty4 ,style indeed is not really a mere invisible transparent medium1 it is not really a garment1 but1 as ,gourmont said1 the very thought itself4 ,it is the miraculous transubstantiation of a spiritual body1 given to us in the only form in which we may receive and absorb that body1 and unless its clarity is balanced by its beauty it is not adequate to sustain that most high function4 ,no doubt1 if we lean on one side more than the other1 it is clarity rather than beauty which we should choose1 for on the other side we may have1 indeed1 a ,sir ,thomas ,browne1 and there we are conscious not so much of a transubstantiation as of a garment1 with thick embroidery1 indeed1 and glistening jewels1 but we are not always sure that much is hidden beneath4 ,a step further and we reach ,d',annunzio1 a splendid mask with nothing beneath1 just as in the streets of ,rome one may sometimes meet a ,franciscan friar with a head superb as a ,roman ,emperor's and yet1 one divines1 it means nothing4 ,the ,italian writer1 it is significant to note1 chose so ostentatiously magnificent a name as ,gabriele ,d',annunzio to conceal a real name which was nothing4 ,the great angels of annunciation create the beauty of their own real names4 ,who now finds ,shakespeare ridiculous8 ,and how lovely a name is ,keats6 ,as a part of the harmony of art1 which is necessarily made out of conflict1 we have to view that perpetual seeming alternation between the two planes--the plane of vision and the plane of creation1 the form within and the garment that clothes it--which may sometimes distract the artist himself4 ,the prophet ,jeremiah once said 7and modern prophets have doubtless had occasion to recognise the truth of his remark7 that he seemed to the people round him only as 8one that hath a pleasant voice and can play well on an instrument40 ,but he failed to understand that it was only through this quality of voice and instrument that his lamentations had any vital force or even any being1 and that if the poem goes the message goes4 ,indeed1 that is true of all his fellow prophets of the ,old ,testament and the ,new who have fascinated mankind with the sound of those harps that they had once hung by the waters of ,babylon4 ,the whole ,bible1 we may be very sure1 would have long ago been forgotten by all but a few intelligent archologists1 if men had not heard in it1 again and again and again1 8one that hath a pleasant voice and can play well on an instrument40 ,socrates said that philosophy was simply music4 ,but the same might be said of religion4 ,the divine dance of satyrs and nymphs to the sound of pipes--it is the symbol of life which in one form or another has floated before human eyes from the days of the sculptors of ,greek bas-reliefs to the men of our own day who catch the glimpse of new harmonies in the pages of 8,l',esprit ,nouveau40 ,we cannot but follow the piper that knows how to play1 even to our own destruction4 ,there may be much that is objectionable about ,man4 ,but he has that engaging trait4 ,and the world will end when he has lost it4 ,one asks one's self how it was that the old way of writing1 as a personal art1 gave place to the new way of writing1 as a mere impersonal pseudo-science1 rigidly bound by formal and artificial rules4 ,the answer1 no doubt1 is to be found in the existence of a great new current of thought which began mightily to stir in men's minds towards the end of the seventeenth century4 ,it will be remembered that it was at that time1 both in ,england and ,france1 that the new devitalised1 though more flexible1 prose appeared1 with its precision and accuracy1 its conscious orderliness1 its deliberate method4 ,but only a few years before1 over ,france and ,england alike1 a great intellectual wave had swept1 imparting to the mathematical and geometrical sciences1 to astronomy1 physics1 and allied studies1 an impetus that they had never received before on so great a scale4 ,descartes in ,france and ,newton in ,england stand out as the typical representatives of the movement4 ,if that movement had to exert any influence on language--and we know how sensitively language reacts to thought--it could have been manifested in no other way than by the change which actually took place4 ,and there was every opportunity for that influence to be exerted4#fh ,this sudden expansion of the mathematical and geometrical sciences was so great and novel that interest in it was not confined to a small band of men of science3 it excited the man in the street1 the woman in the drawing-room2 it was indeed a woman1 a bright and gay woman of the world1 who translated ,newton's profound book into ,french4 ,thus it was that the new qualities of style were invented1 not merely to express new qualities of thought1 but because new scientific ideals were moving within the minds of men4 ,a similar reaction of thought on language took place at the beginning of the nineteenth century1 when an attempt was made to vitalise language once more1 and to break the rigid and formal moulds the previous century had constructed4 ,the attempt was immediately preceded by the awakening of a new group of sciences1 but this time the sciences of life1 the biological studies associated with ,cuvier and ,lamarck1 with ,john ,hunter and ,erasmus ,darwin4 ,with the twentieth century we see the temporary exhaustion of the biological spirit with its historical form in science and its romantic form in art1 and we have a neo-classic spirit which has involved a renaissance of the mathematical sciences and1 even before that1 was beginning to affect speech4 ,to admire the old writers1 because for them writing was an art to be exercised freely and not a vain attempt to follow after the ideals of the abstract sciences1 thus by no means implies a contempt for that decorum and orderliness without which all written speech must be ineffective and obscure4 ,the great writers in the great ages1 standing above classicism and above romanticism1 have always observed this decorum and orderliness4 ,in their hands such observance was not a servile and rigid adherence to external rules1 but a beautiful convention1 an instinctive fine breeding1 such as is naturally observed in human intercourse when it is not broken down by intimacy or by any great crisis of life or of death4 ,the freedom of art by no means involves the easiness of art4 ,it may rather1 indeed1 be said the difficulty increases with freedom1 for to make things in accordance with patterns is ever the easiest task4 ,the problem is equally arduous for those who1 so far as their craft is conscious1 seek an impersonal and for those who seek a personal ideal of style4 ,flaubert sought--in vain1 it is true--to be the most objective of artists and to mould speech with heroic energy in shapes of abstract perfection4 ,nietzsche1 one of the most personal artists in style1 sought likewise1 in his own words1 to work at a page of prose as a sculptor works at a statue4 ,though the result is not perhaps fundamentally different1 whichever ideal it is that1 consciously or instinctively1 is followed1 the personal road of style is doubtless theoretically--though not necessarily in practice--the sounder1 usually also that which moves most of us more profoundly4 ,the great prose writers of the ,second ,empire in ,france made an unparalleled effort to carve or paint impersonal prose1 but its final beauty and effectiveness seem scarcely equal to the splendid energy it embodies4 ,jules de ,goncourt1 his brother thought1 literally died from the mental exhaustion of his unceasing struggle to attain an objective style adequate to express the subtle texture of the world as he saw it4 ,but1 while the ,goncourts are great figures in literary history1 they have pioneered no new road1 nor are they of the writers whom men continuously love to read2 for it is as a document that the 8,journal0 remains of enduring value4 ,yet the great writers of any school bear witness1 each in his own way1 that1 deeper than these conventions and decorums of style1 there is a law which no writer can escape from1 a law which must needs be learnt1 but can never be taught4 ,that is the law of the logic of thought4 ,all the conventional rules of the construction of speech may be put aside if a writer is thereby enabled to follow more closely and lucidly the form and process of his thought4 ,it is the law of that logic that he must for ever follow and in attaining it alone find rest4 ,he may say of it as devoutly as ,dante3 8,in la sua voluntade nostra pace40 ,all progress in literary style lies in the heroic resolve to cast aside accretions and exuberances1 all the conventions of a past age that were once beautiful because alive and are now false because dead4 ,the simple and naked beauty of ,swift's style1 sometimes so keen and poignant1 rests absolutely on this truth to the logic of his thought4 ,the twin qualities of flexibility and intimacy are of the essence of all progress in the art of language1 and in their progressive achievement lies the attainment of great literature4 ,if we compare ,shakespeare with his predecessors and contemporaries1 we can scarcely say that in imaginative force he is vastly superior to ,marlowe1 or in intellectual grip to ,jonson1 but he immeasurably surpasses them in flexibility and in intimacy4 ,he was able with an incomparable art to weave a garment of speech so flexible in its strength1 so intimate in its transparence1 that it lent itself to every shade of emotion and the quickest turns of thought4 ,when we compare the heavy and formal letters of ,bacon1 even to his closest friends1 with the 8,familiar ,letters0 of the vivacious ,welshman ,howell1 we can scarcely believe the two men were contemporaries1 so incomparably more expressive1 so flexible and so intimate1 is the style of ,howell4 ,all the writers who influence those who come after them have done so by the same method4 ,they have thrown aside the awkward and outworn garments of speech1 they have woven a simpler and more familiar speech1 able to express subtleties or audacities that before seemed inexpressible4 ,that was once done in ,english verse by ,cowper and ,wordsworth1 in ,english prose by ,addison and ,lamb4 ,that has been done in ,french to-day by ,proust and in ,english by ,joyce4 ,when a great writer1 like ,carlyle or ,browning1 creates a speech of his own which is too clumsy to be flexible and too heavy to be intimate1 he may arouse the admiration of his fellows1 but he leaves no traces on the speech of the men who come after him4 ,it is not easy to believe that such will be ,joyce's fate4 ,his 8,ulysses0--carrying to a much further point qualities that began to appear in his earlier work--has been hailed as epoch-making in ,english literature1 though a distinguished critic holds that it is this rather by closing than by opening an epoch4 ,it would still be preparing a new road1 and as thus operative we may accept it without necessarily judging it to be at the same time a master-work1 provided we understand what it is that has been here attempted4 ,this huge ,odyssey is an ordinary day's history in the ordinary life of one ordinary man and the persons of his immediate environment4 ,it is here sought to reproduce as ,art the whole of the man's physical and psychic activity during that period1 omitting nothing1 not even the actions which the most naturalistic of novelists had hitherto thought too trivial or too indelicate to mention4 ,not only the thoughts and impulses that result in action1 but also the thoughts and emotions that drift aimlessly across the field of his consciousness1 are here2 and1 in the presentation of this combined inner and outer life1 ,joyce has sometimes placed both on the same plane1 achieving a new simplicity of style1 though we may at first sometimes find it hard to divine what is outer and what inner4 ,moreover1 he never hesitates1 when he pleases1 to change the tone of his style and even to adopt without notice1 in a deliberately ironical and chameleon-like fashion1 the manner of other writers4 ,in these ways ,joyce has here achieved that new intimacy of vision1 that new flexibility of expression1 which are of the essence of all great literature at its vitally moving point of advance4 ,he has succeeded in realising and making manifest in art what others had passed over or failed to see4 ,if in that difficult and dangerous task he has failed1 as some of us may believe1 to reach either complete clarity or complete beauty1 he has at all events made it possible for those who come after to reach a new height which1 without the help of the road he had constructed1 they might have missed1 or even failed to conceive1 and that is enough for any writer's fame4 ,when we turn to ,proust we are in the presence of a writer about whom1 no doubt1 there is no violent dispute4 ,there may be much about his work that is disturbing to many1 but he was not concerned1 like ,joyce1 to affront so many prejudices1 and in ,france it is not even necessary1 for the road has already been prepared by heroic pioneers of old during a thousand years4 ,but the writer who brings a new revelation is not necessarily called upon to invite the execration of the herd4 ,that is a risk he must be called upon to face1 it is not an inevitable fate4 ,when the mob yell3 8,crucify him6 ,crucify him60 the artist1 in whatever medium1 hears a voice from ,heaven3 8,this is my beloved son40 ,yet it is conceivable that the more perfectly a new revelation is achieved the less antagonism it arouses4 ,proust has undoubtedly been the master of a new intimacy of vision1 a new flexibility of expression1 even though the style through which the revelation has been made1 perhaps necessarily on account of the complexity involved1 has remained a little difficult and also1 it must be said1 a little negligent4 ,but it has achieved a considerable degree of clarity and a high degree of beauty4 ,so there is less difficulty in recognising a great masterpiece in 8 la ,recherche du ,temps ,perdu0 than if it were more conspicuously the work of a daring pioneer4 ,it is seen as the revelation of a new sthetic sensibility embodied in a new and fitting style4 ,marcel ,proust has experienced clearly what others have felt dimly or not at all4 ,the significance of his work is thus altogether apart from the power of its dramatic incidents or its qualities as a novel4 ,to the critic of defective intelligence1 craving for scenes of sensation1 it has sometimes seemed that 8 l',ombre des ,jeunes ,filles en ,fleur0 is the least important section of ,proust's work4 ,yet it is on that quiet and uneventful tract of his narrative that ,proust has most surely set the stamp of his genius1 a genius1 ,i should like to add1 which is peculiarly congenial to the ,english mind because it was in the ,english tradition1 rather than in the ,french tradition1 that ,proust was moving4#fi ,no doubt it is possible for a writer to go far by the exercise of a finely attentive docility4 ,by a dutiful study of what other people have said1 by a refined cleverness in catching their tricks1 and avoiding their subtleties1 their profundities1 their audacities1 by1 in short1 a patient perseverance in writing out copperplate maxims in elegant copybooks1 he can become at last1 like ,stevenson1 the idol of the crowd4 ,but the great writer can only learn out of himself4 ,he learns to write as a child learns to walk4 ,for the laws of the logic of thought are not other than those of physical movement4 ,there is stumbling1 awkwardness1 hesitation1 experiment--before at last the learner attains the perfect command of that divine rhythm and perilous poise in which he asserts his supreme human privilege4 ,but the process of his learning rests ultimately on his own structure and function and not on others' example4 8,style must be founded upon models02 it is the rule set up by the pedant who knows nothing of what style means4 ,for the style that is founded on a model is the negation of style4 ,the ardour and heroism of great achievement in style never grow less as the ages pass1 but rather tend to grow more4 ,that is so1 not merely because the hardest tasks are left for the last1 but because of the ever increasing impediments placed in the path of style by the piling up of mechanical rules and rigid conventions4 ,it is doubtful whether on the whole the forces of life really gain on the surrounding inertia of death4 ,the greatest writers must spend the blood and sweat of their souls1 amid the execration and disdain of their contemporaries1 in breaking the old moulds of style and pouring their fresh life into new moulds4 ,from ,dante to ,carducci1 from ,rabelais to ,proust1 from ,chaucer to ,whitman1 the giants of letters have been engaged in this life-giving task1 and behind them the forces of death swiftly gather again4 ,here there is always room for the hero4 ,no man1 indeed1 can write anything that matters who is not a hero at heart1 even though to the people who pass him in the street or know him in the house he may seem as gentle as any dove4 ,if all progress lies in an ever greater flexibility and intimacy of speech1 a finer adaptation to the heights and depths of the mobile human soul1 the task can never be finally completed4 ,every writer is called afresh to reveal new strata of life4 ,by digging in his own soul he becomes the discoverer of the soul of his family1 of his nation1 of the race1 of the heart of humanity4 ,for the great writer finds style as the mystic find ,god1 in his own soul4 ,it is the final utterance of a sigh1 which none could utter before him1 and which all can who follow4 ,in the end1 it will be seen we return at last to the point from which we start4 ,we have completed the cycle of an art's evolution1--and it might1 indeed1 be any other art as much as writing1--reaching in the final sweep of ever wider flights the fact from which we started1 but seeing it anew1 with a fresh universal significance4 ,writing is an arduous spiritual and intellectual task1 only to be achieved by patient and deliberate labour and much daring4 ,yet therewith we are only at the beginning4 ,writing is also the expression of individual personality1 which springs up spontaneously1 or is slowly drawn up from within1 out of a well of inner emotions which none may command4 ,but even with these two opposite factors we have not attained the complete synthesis4 ,for style in the full sense is more than the deliberate and designed creation1 more even than the unconscious and involuntary creation1 of the individual man who therein expresses himself4 ,the self that he thus expresses is a bundle of inherited tendencies that came the man himself can never entirely know whence4 ,it is by the instinctive stress of a highly sensitive1 or slightly abnormal constitution1 that he is impelled to instil these tendencies into the alien magic of words4 ,the stylum wherewith he strives to write himself on the yet blank pages of the world may have the obstinate vigour of the metal rod or the wild and quavering waywardness of an insect's wing1 but behind it lie forces that extend into infinity4 ,it moves us because it is itself moved by pulses which in varying measure we also have inherited1 and because its primary source is in the heart of a cosmos from which we ourselves spring4 ,footnote #ee3 ,it may be as well to point that it is the amateur literary grammarian and not the expert who is at fault in these matters4 ,the attitude of the expert 7as in ,c4 ,t4 ,onions1 ,advanced ,english ,syntax7 is entirely reasonable4 ,footnote #ef3 ,it is interesting to note that another aristocratic master of speech had also made just the same observation4 ,landor puts into the mouth of ,horne ,tooke the words3 8,no expression can become a vulgarism which has not a broad foundation4 ,the language of the vulgar hath its source in physics3 in known1 comprehended1 and operative things40 ,at the same time ,landor was as stern a judge as ,baudelaire of the random use of clichs4 ,footnote #eg3 ,speaking as a writer who has been much quoted1--it ought to be a satisfaction1 but ,i have had my doubts1--,i may say that ,i have observed that those who quote belong mostly to two classes1 one consisting of good1 or at all events indifferent1 writers1 and the other of bad writers4 ,those of the first class quote with fair precision and due acknowledgement1 those of the second with no precision1 and only the vaguest intimation1 or none at all1 that they are quoting4 ,this would seem to indicate that the good writer is more honest than the bad writer1 but that conclusion may be unjust to the bad writer4 ,the fact is that1 having little thought or knowledge of his own1 he is not fully conscious of what he is doing4 ,he is like a greedy child who1 seeing food in front of him1 snatches it at random1 without being able to recognise whether or not it is his own4 ,there is1 however1 a third class of those who cannot resist the temptation of deliberately putting forth the painfully achieved thought or knowledge of others as their own1 sometimes1 perhaps1 seeking to gloss over the lapse with3 8,as every one knows--0 ,footnote #eh3 ,croce1 who is no doubt the most instructive literary critic of our time1 has1 in his own way1 insisted on this essential fact4 ,as he would put it1 there are no objective standards of judgment2 we cannot approach a work of art with our laws and categories4 ,we have to comprehend the artist's own values1 and only then are we fit to pronounce any judgment on his work4 ,the task of the literary critic is thus immensely more difficult than it is vulgarly supposed to be4 ,the same holds good1 ,i would add1 of criticism in the fields of art1 not excluding the art of love and the arts of living in general4 ,footnote #ei3 8,this search is the art of all great thinkers1 of all great artists1 indeed of all those who1 even without attaining expression1 desire to live deeply4 ,if the dance brings us so near to ,god1 it is1 ,i believe1 because it symbolizes for us the movement of this gesture40 7lie ,faure1 ,l',arbre d'den1 p4 #cah47 ,footnote #fj3 ,this is that 8divine malice0 which ,nietzsche1 in ,ecce ,homo1 speaking of ,heine 78one day ,heine and ,i will be regarded as by far the greatest artists of the ,german language10 he says rather egotistically1 but perhaps truly7 considered essential to perfection4 8,i estimate the value of men and of races10 he added1 8by their need to identify their ,god with a satyr10 a hard saying1 no doubt1 to the modern man1 but it has its meaning4 ,footnote #fa3 ,since this was written ,i have found that ,laycock1 whose subtle observation pioneered so many later ideas1 long ago noted 78,some ,organic ,laws of ,memory10 ,journal of ,mental ,science1 ,july1 #ahge7 reversion to ancestral modes of handwriting4 ,footnote #fb3 ,this was written fifteen years ago1 and as ,carlyle has of late been unduly depreciated ,i would add that1 while strictly to the present point1 it is not put forward as an estimate of ,carlyle's genius4 ,that ,i seem to have attempted twenty-five years earlier in a private letter 7to my friend the late ,reverend ,angus ,mackay7 ,i may here perhaps be allowed to quote4 ,it was in #ahhc1 soon after the publication of ,carlyle's ,reminiscences3 8,this is not ,carlylese1 but it is finer4 ,the popular judgment is hopelessly wrong4 ,we can never understand ,carlyle till we get rid of the #8great prophet' notion4 ,carlyle is not 7as we were once taught7 a #8great moral teacher1' but1 in the high sense1 a great comedian4 ,his books are wonderful comedies4 ,he is the ,scotch ,aristophanes1 as ,rabelais is the ,french and ,heine the ,german ,aristophanes--of course1 with the intense northern imagination1 more clumsy1 more imperfect1 more profound than the ,greek4 ,but1 at a long distance1 there is a close resemblance to ,aristophanes with the same mixture of audacity in method and conservatism in spirit4 ,carlyle's account of ,lamb seems in the true sense ,aristophanic4 ,his humour is1 too1 as broad as he dares 7some curious resemblances there1 too74 ,in his lyrical outbursts1 again1 he follows ,aristophanes1 and again at a distance4 ,of course he cannot be compared as an artist4 ,he has not1 like ,rabelais1 created a world to play with1 but1 like ,aristophanes generally1 he sports with the things that are40 ,that youthful estimate was alien to popular opinion then because ,carlyle was idolised2 it is now1 no doubt1 equally alien for an opposite reason4 ,it is only on extremes that the indolent popular mind can rest4 ,footnote #fc3 ,j4 ,beddoe1 ,the ,races of ,britain1 p4 #bed4 ,footnote #fd3 ,i once studied1 as an example1 colour-words in various writers1 finding that every poet has his own colour formula4 ,variations in length of sentence and peculiarities of usage in metre have often been studied4 ,reference is made to some of these studies by ,a4 ,niceforo1 8,metodo ,statistico e ,documenti ,litterari10 ,revista d',italia1 ,august1 #aiag4 ,footnote #fe3 8,the ,muses are the daughters of ,memory10 ,paul ,morand tells us that ,proust would say2 8there is no art without recollection10 and certainly it is supremely true of ,proust's art4 ,it is that element of art which imparts at once both atmosphere and poignant intimacy1 external farness with internal nearness4 ,the lyrics of ,thomas ,hardy owe their intimacy of appeal to the dominance in them of recollection 7in ,late ,lyrics and ,earlier one might say it is never absent71 and that is why they can scarcely be fully appreciated save by those who are no longer very young4 ,footnote #ff3 ,the ,oxford ,university ,press publishes a little volume of ,rules for ,compositors and ,readers in which this uniform is set forth4 ,it is a useful and interesting manual1 but one wonders how many unnecessary and even undesirable usages--including that morbid desire to cling to the ize termination 7charming as an eccentricity but hideous as a rule7 when ise would suffice--are hereby fostered4 ,even when we leave out of consideration the great historical tradition of variety in this matter1 it is doubtful1 when we consider them comprehensively1 whether the advantages of encouraging every one to spell like his fellows overbalances the advantages of encouraging every one to spell unlike his fellows4 ,when ,i was a teacher in the ,australian bush ,i derived far less enjoyment from the more or less 8correctly0 spelt exercises of my pupils than from the occasional notes ,i received from their parents who1 never having been taught to spell1 were able to spell in the grand manner4 ,we are wilfully throwing away an endless source of delight4 ,footnote #fg3 ,le ,monde ,nouveau1 #aeth ,december1 #aibb4 ,footnote #fh3 ,ferris ,greenslet 7in his study of ,joseph ,glanvill1 p4 #ahc71 referring to the ,cartesian influence on ,english prose style1 quotes from ,sprat's ,history of the ,royal ,society that the ,society 8exacted from its members a close1 naked1 natural way of speaking1 positive expressions1 a native easiness1 bringing all things as near the mathematic plainness as they can40 ,the ,society passed a resolution to reject 8all amplifications1 digressions1 and swellings of style40 ,footnote #fi3 ,if it is asked why ,i take examples of a quality in art that is universal from literary personalities that to many are questionable1 even morbid or perverse1 rather than from some more normal and unquestioned figure1 ,thomas ,hardy1 for example1 ,i would reply that ,i have always regarded it as more helpful and instructive to take examples that are still questionable rather than to fall back on the unquestionable that all will accept tamely without thought4 ,forty years ago1 when ,hardy's genius was scarcely at all recognised1 it seemed worth while to me to set forth the quality of his genius4 ,to-day1 when that quality is unquestioned1 and ,hardy receives general love and reverence1 it would seem idle and unprofitable to do so4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,religion ,i ,,religion is a large word1 of good import and of evil import1 and with the general discussion of religion we are not in this place concerned4 ,its quintessential core--which is the art of finding our emotional relationship to the world conceived as a whole--is all that here matters1 and it is best termed 8,mysticism40 ,no doubt it needs some courage to use that word4 ,it is the common label of abuse applied to every pseudo-spiritual thing that is held up for contempt4 ,yet it would be foolish to allow ourselves to be deflected from the right use of a word by the accident of its abuse4 8,mysticism10 however often misused1 will here be used1 because it is the correct term for the relationship of the ,self to the ,not-,self1 of the individual to a ,whole1 when1 going beyond his own personal ends1 he discovers his adjustment to larger ends1 in harmony or devotion or love4 ,it has become a commonplace among the unthinking1 or those who think badly1 to assume an opposition of hostility between mysticism and science4#gj ,if 8science0 is1 as we have some reason to believe1 an art1 if 8mysticism0 also is an art1 the opposition can scarcely be radical since they must both spring from the same root in natural human activity4 ,,ii ,,if1 indeed1 by 8science0 we mean the organisation of an intellectual relationship to the world we live in adequate to give us some degree of power over that world1 and if by 8mysticism0 we mean the joyful organisation of an emotional relationship to the world conceived as a whole1#ga the opposition which we usually assume to exist between them is of comparatively modern origin4 ,among savage peoples such an opposition can scarcely be said to have any existence4 ,the very fact that science1 in the strict sense1 seems often to begin with the stars might itself have suggested that the basis of science is mystical contemplation4 ,not only is there usually no opposition between the 8scientific0 and the 8mystical0 attitude among peoples we may fairly call primitive1 but the two attitudes may be combined in the same person4 ,the 8medicine-man0 is not more an embryonic man of science than he is an embryonic mystic2 he is both equally4 ,he cultivates not only magic but holiness1 he achieves the conquest of his own soul1 he enters into harmony with the universe2 and in doing this1 and partly1 indeed1 through doing this1 his knowledge is increased1 his sensations and power of observation are rendered acute1 and he is enabled so to gain organised knowledge of natural processes that he can to some extent foresee or even control those processes4 ,he is the ancestor alike of the hermit following after sanctity and of the inventor crystallising discoveries into profitable patents4 ,such is the medicine-man wherever we may find him in his typical shape--which he cannot always adequately achieve--all over the world1 around ,torres ,straits just as much as around ,behring's ,straits4 ,yet we have failed to grasp the significance of this fact4 ,it is the business of the ,shaman1 as on the mystical side we may conveniently term the medicine-man1 to place himself under the conditions--and even in primitive life those conditions are varied and subtle--which bring his will into harmony with the essence of the world1 so that he grows one with that essence1 that its will becomes his will1 and1 reversely1 that1 in a sense1 his will becomes its4 ,herewith1 in this unity with the spirit of the world1 the possibility of magic and the power to control the operation of ,nature are introduced into human thought1 with its core of reality and its endless trail of absurdity1 persisting even into advanced civilisation4 ,but this harmony with the essence of the universe1 this control of ,nature through oneness with ,nature1 is not only at the heart of religion2 it is also at the heart of science4 ,it is only by the possession of an acquired or inborn temperament attuned to the temperament of ,nature that a ,faraday or an ,edison1 that any scientific discoverer or inventor1 can achieve his results4 ,and the primitive medicine-man1 who on the religious side has attained harmony of the self with the ,not-,self1 and by obeying learnt to command1 cannot fail on the scientific side also1 under the special conditions of his isolated life1 to acquire an insight into natural methods1 a practical power over human activities and over the treatment of disease1 such as on the imaginative and emotional side he already possesses4 ,if we are able to see this essential and double attitude of the ,shaman--medicine-man--if we are able to eliminate all the extraneous absurdities and the extravagancies which conceal the real nature of his function in the primitive world1 the problem of science and mysticism1 and their relationship to each other1 ceases to have difficulties for us4 ,it is as well to point out1 before passing on1 that the investigators of primitive thought are not altogether in agreement with one another on this question of the relation of science to magic1 and have complicated the question by drawing a distinction between magic 7understood as man's claim to control ,nature7 and religion 7understood as man's submission to ,nature74 ,the difficulties seem due to an attempt to introduce clear-cut definitions at a stage of thought where none such existed4 ,that medicine-men and priests cultivated science1 while wrapping it up in occult and magical forms1 seems indicated by the earliest historical traditions of the ,near ,east4 ,herbert ,spencer long ago brought together much of the evidence on this point4 ,mc,dougall to-day in his 8,social ,psychology0 7,chapter ,,xiii7 accepts magic as the origin of science1 and ,frazer in the early edition of his 8,golden ,bough0 regarded magic as 8the savage equivalent of our natural science40 ,marett#gb 8profoundly doubts0 this1 and declares that if we can use the word 8science0 at all in such a context1 magic is occult science and the very antithesis of natural science4 ,while all that ,marett states is admirably true on the basis of his own definitions1 he scarcely seems to realise the virtue of the word 8equivalent10 while at the same time1 it may be1 his definition of magic is too narrow4 ,silberer1 from the psycho-analytic standpoint1 accepting the development of exact science from one branch of magic1 points out that science is1 on the one hand1 the recognition of concealed natural laws and1 on the other1 the dynamisation of psychic power1#gc and thus falls into two great classes1 according as its operation is external or internal4 ,this seems a true and subtle distinction which ,marett has overlooked4 ,in the latest edition of his work1#gd ,frazer has not insisted on the relation or analogy of science to magic1 but has been content to point out that ,man has passed through the three stages of magic1 religion1 and science4 8,in magic ,man depends on his own strength to meet the difficulties and dangers that beset him on every side4 ,he believes in a certain established order of ,nature on which he can surely count1 and which he can manipulate for his own ends40 ,then he finds he has overestimated his own powers and he humbly takes the road of religion1 leaving the universe to the more or less capricious will of a higher power4 ,but he finds this view inadequate and he proceeds to revert in a measure to the older standpoint of magic by postulating explicitly what in magic had only been implicitly assumed1 8to wit1 an inflexible regularity in the order of natural events which1 if carefully observed1 enables us to foresee their course with certainty1 and to act accordingly40 ,so that science1 in ,frazer's view1 is not so much directly derived from magic as itself in its original shape one with magic1 and ,man has proceeded1 not in a straight line1 but in a spiral4 ,the profound significance of this early personage is1 however1 surely clear4 ,if science and mysticism are alike based on fundamental natural instincts1 appearing spontaneously all over the world2 if1 moreover1 they naturally tend to be embodied in the same individual1 in such a way that each impulse would seem to be dependent on the other for its full development2 then there can be no ground for accepting any disharmony between them4 ,the course of human evolution involves a division of labour1 a specialisation of science and of mysticism along special lines and in separate individuals4#ge ,but a fundamental antagonism of the two1 it becomes evident1 is not to be thought of2 it is unthinkable1 even absurd4 ,if at some period in the course of civilisation we seriously find that our science and our religion are antagonistic1 then there must be something wrong either with our science or with our religion4 ,perhaps not seldom there may be something wrong with both4 ,for if the natural impulses which normally work best together are separated and specialised in different persons1 we may expect to find a concomitant state of atrophy and hypertrophy1 both alike morbid4 ,the scientific person will become atrophied on the mystical side1 the mystical person will become atrophied on the scientific side4 ,each will become morbidly hypertrophied on his own side4 ,but the assumption that1 because there is a lack of harmony between opposing pathological states1 there must also be a similar lack of harmony in the normal state1 is unreasonable4 ,we must severely put out of count alike the hypertrophied scientific people with atrophied religious instincts1 and the hypertrophied religious people with atrophied scientific instincts4 ,neither group can help us here2 they only introduce confusion4 ,we have to examine the matter critically1 to go back to the beginning1 to take so wide a survey of the phenomena that their seemingly conflicting elements fall into harmony4 ,the fact1 in the first place1 that the person with an overdeveloped religious sense combined with an underdeveloped scientific sense necessarily conflicts with a person in whom the reverse state of affairs exists1 cannot be doubted1 nor is the reason of it obscure4 ,it is difficult to conceive a ,darwin and a ,st4 ,theresa entering with full and genuine sympathy into each other's point of view4 ,and that is so by no means because the two attitudes1 stripped of all but their essentials1 are irreconcilable4 ,if we strip ,st4 ,theresa of her atrophied pseudo-science1 which in her case was mostly theological 8science10 there was nothing in her attitude which would not have seemed to harmonise and to exalt that absolute adoration and service to natural truth which inspired ,darwin4 ,if we strip ,darwin of that atrophied sense of poetry and the arts which he deplored1 and that anmic secular conception of the universe as a whole which he seems to have accepted without deploring1 there was nothing in his attitude which would not have served to fertilise and enrich the spiritual exaltation of ,theresa and even to have removed far from her that temptation to acedia or slothfulness which all the mystics who are mystics only have recognised as their besetting sin1 minimised as it was1 in ,theresa1 by her practical activities4 ,yet1 being as they were persons of supreme genius developed on opposite sides of their common human nature1 an impassable gulf lies between them4 ,it lies equally between much more ordinary people who yet show the same common character of being undergrown on one side1 overgrown on the other4 ,this difficulty is not diminished when the person who is thus hypertrophied on one side and atrophied on the other suddenly wakes up to his one-sided state and hastily attempts to remedy it4 ,the very fact that such a one-sided development has come about indicates that there has probably been a congenital basis for it1 an innate disharmony which must require infinite patience and special personal experience to overcome4 ,but the heroic and ostentatious manner in which these ill-balanced people hastily attempt the athletic feat of restoring their spiritual balance has frequently aroused the interest1 and too often the amusement1 of the spectator4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 one of the most quintessentially scientific persons the world has seen1 a searcher who made the most stupendous effort to picture the universe intelligently on its purely intelligible side1 seems to have realised in old age1 when he was1 indeed1 approaching senility1 that the vast hypertrophy of his faculties on that side had not been compensated by any development on the religious side4 ,he forthwith set himself to the interpretation of the ,book of ,daniel and puzzled over the prophecies of the ,book of ,revelation1 with the same scientifically serious air as though he were analysing the spectrum4 ,in reality he had not reached the sphere of religion at all2 he had merely exchanged good science for bad science4 ,such senile efforts to penetrate1 ere yet life is quite over1 the mystery of religion recall1 and1 indeed1 have a real analogy to1 that final effort of the emotionally starved to grasp at love which has been called 8old maid's insanity02 and just as in this aberration the woman who has all her life put love into the subconscious background of her mind is overcome by an eruption of the suppressed emotions and driven to create baseless legends of which she is herself the heroine1 so the scientific man who has put religion into the subconscious and scarcely known that there is such a thing may become in the end the victim of an imaginary religion4 ,in our own time we may have witnessed attempts of the scientific mind to become religious1 which1 without amounting to mental aberration1 are yet highly instructive4 ,it would be a double-edged compliment1 in this connection1 to compare ,sir ,oliver ,lodge to ,sir ,isaac ,newton4 ,but after devoting himself for many years to purely physical research1 ,lodge also1 as he has confessed1 found that he had overlooked the religious side of life1 and therefore set himself with characteristic energy to the task--the stages of which are described in a long series of books--of developing this atrophied side of his nature4 ,unlike ,newton1 who was worried about the future1 ,lodge became worried about the past4 ,just as ,newton found what he was contented to regard as religious peace in speculating on the meaning of the ,books of ,daniel and ,revelation1 so ,lodge found a similar satisfaction in speculations concerning the origin of the soul and in hunting out tags from the poets to support his speculations4 ,so fascinating was this occupation that it seemed to him to constitute a great 8message0 to the world4 8,my message is that there is some great truth in the idea of prexistence1 not an obvious truth1 nor one easy to formulate--a truth difficult to express--not to be identified with the guesses of reincarnation and transmigration1 which may be fanciful4 ,we may not have been individuals before1 but we are chips or fragments of a great mass of mind1 of spirit1 and of life--drops1 as it were1 taken out of a germinal reservoir of life1 and incubated until incarnate in a material body40#gf ,the genuine mystic would smile if asked to accept as a divine message these phraseological gropings in the darkness1 with their culmination in the gospel of 8incubated drops40 ,they certainly represent an attempt to get at a real fact4 ,but the mystic is not troubled by speculations about the origin of the individual1 or theories of prexistence1 fantastic myths which belong to the earlier ,plato's stage of thought4 ,it is abundantly evident that when the hypertrophied man of science seeks to cultivate his atrophied religious instincts it is with the utmost difficulty that he escapes from science4 ,his conversion to religion merely means1 for the most part1 that he has exchanged sound science for pseudo-science4 ,similarly1 when the man with hypertrophied religious instincts seeks to cultivate his atrophied scientific instincts1 the results are scarcely satisfactory4 ,here1 indeed1 we are concerned with a phenomenon that is rarer than the reverse process4 ,the reason may not be far to seek4 ,the instinct of religion develops earlier in the history of a race than the instinct of science4 ,the man who has found the massive satisfaction of his religious cravings is seldom at any stage conscious of scientific cravings2 he is apt to feel that he already possesses the supreme knowledge4 ,the religious doubters who vaguely feel that their faith is at variance with science are merely the creatures of creeds1 the product of ,churches2 they are not the genuine mystics4 ,the genuine mystics who have exercised their scientific instincts have generally found scope for such exercise within an enlarged theological scheme which they regarded as part of their religion4 ,so it was that ,st4 ,augustine found scope for his full and vivid1 if capricious1 intellectual impulses2 so also ,aquinas1 in whom there was doubtless less of the mystic and more of the scientist1 found scope for the rational and orderly development of a keen intelligence which has made him an authority and even a pioneer for many who are absolutely indifferent to his theology4 ,again we see that to understand the real relations of science and mysticism1 we must return to ages when1 on neither side1 had any accumulated mass of dead traditions effected an artificial divorce between two great natural instincts4 ,it has already been pointed out that if we go outside civilisation the divorce is not found2 the savage mystic is also the savage man of science1 the priest and the doctor are one4#gg ,it is so also for the most part in barbarism1 among the ancient ,hebrews for instance1 and not only among their priests1 but even among their prophets4 ,it appears that the most usual ,hebrew word for what we term the 8prophet0 signified 8one who bursts forth10 presumably into the utterance of spiritual verities1 and the less usual words signify 8seer40 ,that is to say1 the prophet was primarily a man of religion1 secondarily a man of science4 ,and that predictive element in the prophet's function1 which to persons lacking in religious instinct seems the whole of his function1 has no relationship at all to religion2 it is a function of science4 ,it is an insight into cause and effect1 a conception of sequences based on extended observation and enabling the 8prophet0 to assert that certain lines of action will probably lead to the degeneration of a stock1 or to the decay of a nation4 ,it is a sort of applied history4 8,prophecy0 has no more to do with religion than have the forecasts of the ,meteorological ,bureau1 which also are a kind of applied science in earlier stages associated with religion4 ,if1 keeping within the sphere of civilisation1 we go back as far as we can1 the conclusion we reach is not greatly different4 ,the earliest of the great mystics in historical times is ,lao-tze4 ,he lived six hundred years earlier than ,jesus1 a hundred years earlier than ,sakya-,muni1 and he was more quintessentially a mystic than either4 ,he was1 moreover1 incomparably nearer than either to the point of view of science4 ,even his occupation in life was1 in relation to his age and land1 of a scientific character2 he was1 if we may trust uncertain tradition1 keeper of the archives4 ,in the substance of his work this harmony of religion and science is throughout traceable1 the very word 8,tao10 which to ,lao-tze is the symbol of all that to which religion may mystically unite us1 is susceptible of being translated 8,reason10 although that word remains inadequate to its full meaning4 ,there are no theological or metaphysical speculations here concerning ,god 7the very word only occurs once and may be a later interpolation71 the soul1 or immortality4 ,the delicate and profound art of ,lao-tze largely lies in the skill with which he expresses spiritual verities in the form of natural truths4 ,his affirmations not only go to the core of religion1 but they express the essential methods of science4 ,this man has the mystic's heart1 but he has also the physicist's touch and the biologist's eye4 ,he moves in a sphere in which religion and science are one4 ,if we pass to more modern times and the little ,european corner of the world1 around the ,mediterranean shores1 which is the cradle of our latter-day civilisation1 again and again we find traces of this fundamental unity of mysticism and science4 ,it may well be that we never again find it in quite so pure a form as in ,lao-tze1 quite so free from all admixture alike of bad religion and bad science4 ,the exuberant unbalanced activity of our race1 the restless acquisitiveness--already manifested in the sphere of ideas and traditions before it led to the production of millionaires--soon became an ever-growing impediment to such unity of spiritual impulses4 ,among the supple and yet ferocious ,greeks1 indeed1 versatility and recklessness seem at a first glance always to have stood in the way of approach to the essential terms of this problem4 ,it was only when the ,greeks began to absorb ,oriental influences1 we are inclined to say1 that they became genuine mystics1 and as they approached mysticism they left science behind4 ,yet there was a vein of mysticism in the ,greeks from the first1 not alone due to seeds from the ,east flung to germinate fruitfully in ,greek soil1 though perhaps to that ,ionian element of the ,near ,east which was an essential part of the ,greek spirit4 ,all that ,karl ,jol of ,basel has sought to work out concerning the evolution of the ,greek philosophic spirit has a bearing on this point4 ,we are wrong1 he believes1 to look on the early ,greek philosophers of ,nature as mainly physicists1 treating the religious and poetic mystic elements in them as mere archaisms1 concessions1 or contradictions4 ,hellas needed1 and possessed1 an early ,romantic spirit1 if we understand the ,romantic spirit1 not merely through its reactionary offshoots1 but as a deep mystico-lyrical expression2 it was comparable in early ,greece to the ,romantic spirit of the great creative men of the early ,renaissance or the early nineteenth century1 and the ,apollinian classic spirit was developed out of an ordered discipline and formulation of the ,dionysian spirit more mystically near to ,nature4#gh ,if we bear this in mind we are helped to understand much in the religious life of ,greece which seems not to harmonise with what we conventionally call 8classic40 ,in the dim figure of ,pythagoras we perhaps see not only a great leader of physical science1 but also a great initiator in spiritual mystery4 ,it is1 at any rate1 fairly clear that he established religious brotherhoods of carefully selected candidates1 women as well as men being eligible1 and living on so lofty and aristocratic a level that the populace of ,magna ,grecia1 who could not understand them1 decided out of resentment to burn them alive1 and the whole order was annihilated about ,b4,c4 #ejj4 ,but exactly how far these early ,pythagoreans1 whose community has been compared to the medival orders of chivalry1 were mystics1 we may imagine as we list1 in the light of the ,pythagorean echoes we find here and there in ,plato4 ,on the whole we scarcely go to the ,greeks for a clear exposition of what we now term 8mysticism40 ,we see more of it in ,lucretius than we can divine in his master ,epicurus4 ,and we see it still more clearly in the ,stoics4 ,we can1 indeed1 nowhere find a more pure and concise statement than in ,marcus ,aurelius of the mystical core of religion as the union in love and harmony and devotion of the self with the ,not-,self4 ,if ,lucretius may be accounted the first of moderns in the identification of mysticism and science1 he has been followed by many1 even though1 one sometimes thinks1 with an ever-increasing difficulty1 a drooping of the wings of mystical aspiration1 a limping of the feet of scientific progress4 ,leonardo and ,giordano ,bruno and ,spinoza and ,goethe1 each with a little imperfection on one side or the other1 if not on both sides1 have moved in a sphere in which the impulses of religion are felt to spring from the same centre as the impulses of science4 ,einstein1 whose attitude in many ways is so interesting1 closely associates the longing for pure knowledge with religious feeling1 and he has remarked that 8in every true searcher of ,nature there is a kind of religious reverence40 ,he is inclined to attach significance to the fact that so many great men of science--,newton1 ,descartes1 ,gauss1 ,helmholtz--have been in one way or another religious4 ,if we cannot altogether include such men as ,swedenborg and ,faraday in the same group1 it is because we cannot feel that in them the two impulses1 however highly developed1 really spring from the same centre or really make a true harmony4 ,we suspect that these men and their like kept their mysticism in a science-proof compartment of their minds1 and their science in a mysticism-proof compartment2 we tremble for the explosive result1 should the wall of partition ever be broken down4 ,the difficulty1 we see again1 has been that1 on each hand1 there has been a growth of non-essential traditions around the pure and vital impulse1 and the obvious disharmony of these two sets of accretions conceals the underlying harmony of the impulses themselves4 ,the possibility of reaching the natural harmony is thus not necessarily by virtue of any rare degree of intellectual attainment1 nor by any rare gift of inborn spiritual temperament1--though either of these may in some cases be operative1--but rather by the happy chance that the burden of tradition on each side has fallen and that the mystical impulse is free to play without a dead metaphysical theology1 the scientific impulse without a dead metaphysical formalism4 ,it is a happy chance that may befall the simple more easily than the wise and learned4 ,,iii ,,the foregoing considerations have perhaps cleared the way to a realisation that when we look broadly at the matter1 when we clear away all the accumulated superstitions1 the unreasoned prepossessions1 on either side1 and so reach firm ground1 not only is there no opposition between science and mysticism1 but in their essence1 and at the outset1 they are closely related4 ,the seeming divorce between them is due to a false and unbalanced development on either side1 if not on both sides4 ,yet all such considerations cannot suffice to make present to us this unity of apparent opposites4 ,there is1 indeed1 it has often seemed to me1 a certain futility in all discussion of the relative claims of science and religion4 ,this is a matter which1 in the last resort1 lies beyond the sphere of argument4 ,it depends not only on a man's entire psychic equipment1 brought with him at birth and never to be fundamentally changed1 but it is the outcome of his own intimate experience during life4 ,it cannot be profitably discussed because it is experiential4 ,it seems to me1 therefore1 that1 having gone so far1 and stated what ,i consider to be the relations of mysticism and science as revealed in human history1 ,i am bound to go further and to state my personal grounds for believing that the harmonious satisfaction alike of the religious impulse and the scientific impulse may be attained to-day by an ordinarily balanced person in whom both impulses crave for satisfaction4 ,there is1 indeed1 a serious difficulty4 ,to set forth a personal religious experience for the first time requires considerable resolution1 and not least to one who is inclined to suspect that the experiences usually so set forth can be of no profound or significant nature2 that if the underlying motives of a man's life can be brought to the surface and put into words their vital motive power is gone4 ,even the fact that more than forty years have passed since the experience took place scarcely suffices to make the confession of it easy4 ,but ,i recall to mind that the first original book ,i ever planned 7and in fact began to write7 was a book1 impersonal though suggested by personal experience1 on the foundations of religion4#gi ,i put it aside1 saying to myself ,i would complete it in old age1 because it seemed to me that the problem of religion will always be fresh1 while there were other problems more pressingly in need of speedy investigation4 ,now1 it may be1 ,i begin to feel the time has come to carry that early project a stage further4 ,like many of the generation to which ,i belonged1 ,i was brought up far from the ,sunday-school atmosphere of conventional religiosity4 ,i received little religious instruction outside the home1 but there ,i was made to feel1 from my earliest years1 that religion is a very vital and personal matter with which the world and the fashion of it had nothing to do4 ,to that teaching1 while still scarcely more than a child1 ,i responded in a wholehearted way4 ,necessarily the exercise of this early impulse followed the paths prescribed for it by my environment4 ,i accepted the creed set before me2 ,i privately studied the ,new ,testament for my own satisfaction2 ,i honestly endeavoured1 strictly in private1 to mould my actions and impulses on what seemed to be ,christian lines4 ,there was no obtrusive outward evidence of this2 outside the home1 moreover1 ,i moved in a world which might be indifferent but was not actively hostile to my inner aspirations1 and1 if the need for any external affirmation had become inevitable1 ,i should1 ,i am certain1 have invoked other than religious grounds for my protest4 ,religion1 as ,i instinctively felt then and as ,i consciously believe now1 is a private matter1 as love is4 ,this was my mental state at the age of twelve4 ,then came the period of emotional and intellectual expansion1 when the scientific and critical instincts began to germinate4 ,these were completely spontaneous and not stimulated by any influences of the environment4 ,to inquire1 to question1 to investigate the qualities of the things around us and to search out their causes1 is as native an impulse as the religious impulse would be found to be if only we would refrain from exciting it artificially4 ,in the first place1 this scientific impulse was not greatly concerned with the traditional body of beliefs which were then inextricably entwined in my mind with the exercise of the religious instinct4 ,in so far1 indeed1 as it touched them it took up their defence4 ,thus ,i read ,renan's 8,life of ,jesus10 and the facile sentiment of this book1 the attitude of artistic reconstruction1 aroused a criticism which led me to overlook any underlying sounder qualities4 ,yet all the time the inquiring and critical impulse was a slowly permeating and invading influence1 and its application to religion was from time to time stimulated by books1 although such application was in no slightest degree favoured by the social environment4 ,when1 too1 at the age of fifteen1 ,i came to read ,swinburne's 8,songs before ,sunrise10--although the book made no very personal appeal to me1--,i realised that it was possible to present in an attractively modern emotional light religious beliefs which were incompatible with ,christianity1 and even actively hostile to its creed4 ,the process of disintegration took place in slow stages that were not perceived until the process was complete4 ,then at last ,i realised that ,i no longer possessed any religious faith4 ,all the ,christian dogmas ,i had been brought up to accept unquestioned had slipped away1 and they had dragged with them what ,i had experienced of religion1 for ,i could not then so far analyse all that is roughly lumped together as 8religion0 as to disentangle the essential from the accidental4 ,such analysis1 to be effectively convincing1 demanded personal experiences ,i was not possessed of4 ,i was now seventeen years of age4 ,the loss of religious faith had produced no change in conduct1 save that religious observances1 which had never been ostentatiously performed1 were dropped1 so far as they might be without hurting the feelings of others4 ,the revolution was so gradual and so natural that even inwardly the shock was not great1 while various activities1 the growth of mental aptitudes1 sufficiently served to occupy the mind4 ,it was only during periods of depression that the absence of faith as a satisfaction of the religious impulse became at all acutely felt4 ,possibly it might have been felt less acutely if ,i could have realised that there was even a real benefit in the cutting down and clearing away of traditional and non-vital beliefs4 ,not only was it a wholesome and strenuous effort to obey at all costs the call of what was felt as 8truth10 and therefore having in it a spirit of religion even though directed against religion1 but it was evidently favourable to the training of intelligence4 ,the man who has never wrestled with his early faith1 the faith that he was brought up with and that yet is not truly his own1--for no faith is our own that we have not arduously won1--has missed not only a moral but an intellectual discipline4 ,the absence of that discipline may mark a man for life and render all his work in the world ineffective4 ,he has missed a training in criticism1 in analysis1 in open-mindedness1 in the resolutely impersonal treatment of personal problems1 which no other training can compensate4 ,he is1 for the most part1 condemned to live in a mental jungle where his arm will soon be too feeble to clear away the growths that enclose him and his eyes too weak to find the light4 ,while1 however1 ,i had adopted1 without knowing it1 the best course to steel the power of thinking and to render possible a patient1 humble1 self-forgetful attitude towards ,nature1 there were times when ,i became painfully1 almost despairingly1 conscious of the unsatisfied cravings of the religious impulse4 ,these moods were emphasised even by the books ,i read which argued that religion1 in the only sense in which ,i understood religion1 was unnecessary1 and that science1 whether or not formulated into a creed1 furnished all that we need to ask in this direction4 ,i well remember the painful feelings with which ,i read at this time ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss's 8,the ,old ,faith and the ,new40 ,it is a scientific creed set down in old age1 with much comfortable complacency1 by a man who found considerable satisfaction in the evening of life in the enjoyment of ,haydn's quartets and ,munich brown beer4 ,they are both excellent things1 as ,i am now willing to grant1 but they are a sorry source of inspiration when one is seventeen and consumed by a thirst for impossibly remote ideals4 ,moreover1 the philosophic horizon of this man was as limited and as prosaic as the sthetic atmosphere in which he lived4 ,i had to acknowledge to myself that the scientific principles of the universe as ,strauss laid them down presented1 so far as ,i knew1 the utmost scope in which the human spirit could move4 ,but what a poor scope6 ,i knew nothing of the way that ,nietzsche1 about that time1 had demolished ,strauss4 ,but ,i had the feeling that the universe was represented as a sort of factory filled by an inextricable web of wheels and looms and flying shuttles1 in a deafening din4 ,that1 it seemed1 was the world as the most competent scientific authorities declared it to be made4 ,it was a world ,i was prepared to accept1 and yet a world in which1 ,i felt1 ,i could only wander restlessly1 an ignorant and homeless child4 ,sometimes1 no doubt1 there were other visions of the universe a little less disheartening1 such as that presented by ,herbert ,spencer's 8,first ,principles40 ,but the dominant feeling always was that while the scientific outlook1 by which ,i mainly meant the outlook of ,darwin and ,huxley1 commended itself to me as presenting a sound view of the world1 on the emotional side ,i was a stranger to that world1 if1 indeed1 ,i would not1 with ,omar1 8shatter it to bits40 ,at the same time1 it must be noted1 there was no fault to find with the general trend of my life and activities4 ,i was fully occupied1 with daily duties as well as with the actively interested contemplation of an ever-enlarging intellectual horizon4 ,this was very notably the case at the age of nineteen1 three years after all vestiges of religious faith had disappeared from the psychic surface4 ,i was still interested in religious and philosophic questions1 and it so chanced that at this time ,i read the 8,life in ,nature0 of ,james ,hinton1 who had already attracted my attention as a genuine man of science with yet an original and personal grasp of religion4 ,i had read the book six months before and it had not greatly impressed me4 ,now1 ,i no longer know why1 ,i read it again1 and the effect was very different4 ,evidently by this time my mind had reached a stage of saturated solution which needed but the shock of the right contact to recrystallise in forms that were a revelation to me4 ,here evidently the right contact was applied4 ,hinton in this book showed himself a scientific biologist who carried the mechanistic explanation of life even further than was then usual4#hj ,but he was a man of highly passionate type of intellect1 and what might otherwise be formal and abstract was for him soaked in emotion4 ,thus1 while he saw the world as an orderly mechanism1 he was not content1 like ,strauss1 to stop there and see in it nothing else4 ,as he viewed it1 the mechanism was not the mechanism of a factory1 it was vital1 with all the glow and warmth and beauty of life2 it was1 therefore1 something which not only the intellect might accept1 but the heart might cling to4 ,the bearing of this conception on my state of mind is obvious4 ,it acted with the swiftness of an electric contact2 the dull aching tension was removed2 the two opposing psychic tendencies were fused in delicious harmony1 and my whole attitude towards the universe was changed4 ,it was no longer an attitude of hostility and dread1 but of confidence and love4 ,my self was one with the ,not-,self1 my will one with the universal will4 ,i seemed to walk in light2 my feet scarcely touched the ground2 ,i had entered a new world4 ,the effect of that swift revolution was permanent4 ,at first there was a moment or two of wavering1 and then the primary exaltation subsided into an attitude of calm serenity towards all those questions that had once seemed so torturing4 ,in regard to all these matters ,i had become permanently satisfied and at rest1 yet absolutely unfettered and free4 ,i was not troubled about the origin of the 8soul0 or about its destiny2 ,i was entirely prepared to accept any analysis of the 8soul0 which might commend itself as reasonable4 ,neither was ,i troubled about the existence of any superior being or beings1 and ,i was ready to see that all the words and forms by which men try to picture spiritual realities are mere metaphors and images of an inward experience4 ,there was not a single clause in my religious creed because ,i held no creed4 ,i had found that dogmas were--not1 as ,i had once imagined1 true1 not1 as ,i had afterwards supposed1 false1--but the mere empty shadows of intimate personal experience4 ,i had become indifferent to shadows1 for ,i held the substance4 ,i had sacrificed what ,i held dearest at the call of what seemed to be ,truth1 and now ,i was repaid a thousand-fold4 ,henceforth ,i could face life with confidence and joy1 for my heart was at one with the world and whatever might prove to be in harmony with the world could not be out of harmony with me4#ha ,thus1 it might seem to many1 nothing whatever had happened2 ,i had not gained one single definite belief that could be expressed in a scientific formula or hardened into a religious creed4 ,that1 indeed1 is the essence of such a process4 ,a 8conversion0 is not1 as is often assumed1 a turning towards a belief4 ,more strictly1 it is a turning round1 a revolution2 it has no primary reference to any external object4 ,as the greater mystics have often understood1 8the ,kingdom of ,heaven is within40 ,to put the matter a little more precisely1 the change is fundamentally a readjustment of psychic elements to each other1 enabling the whole machine to work harmoniously4 ,there is no necessary introduction of new ideas2 there is much more likely to be a casting out of dead ideas which have clogged the vital process4 ,the psychic organism--which in conventional religion is called the 8soul0--had not been in harmony with itself2 now it is revolving truly on its own axis1 and in doing so it simultaneously finds its true orbit in the cosmic system4 ,in becoming one with itself1 it becomes one with the universe4#hb ,the process1 it will be seen1 is thus really rather analogous to that which on the physical plane takes place in a person whose jaw or arm is dislocated1 whether by some inordinate effort or some sudden shock with the external world4 ,the miserable man with a dislocated jaw is out of harmony with himself and with the universe4 ,all his efforts cannot reduce the dislocation1 nor can his friends help him2 he may even come to think there is no cure4 ,but a surgeon comes along1 and with a slight pressure of his two thumbs1 applied at the right spot1 downwards and backwards1 the jaw springs into place1 the man is restored to harmony--and the universe is transformed4 ,if he is ignorant enough1 he will be ready to fall on his knees before his deliverer as a divine being4 ,we are concerned with what is called a 8spiritual0 process1--for it is an accepted and necessary convention to distinguish between the 8spiritual0 and the 8physical10--but this crude and imperfect analogy may help some minds to understand what is meant4 ,thus may be explained what may seem to some the curious fact that ,i never for a moment thought of accepting as a gospel the book which had brought me a stimulus of such inestimable value4 ,the person in whom 8conversion0 takes place is too often told that the process is connected in some magical manner with a supernatural influence of some kind1 a book1 a creed1 a church1 or what not4 ,i had read this book before and it had left me unmoved2 ,i knew that the book was merely the surgeon's touch1 that the change had its source in me and not in the book4 ,i never looked into the book again2 ,i cannot tell where or how my copy of it disappeared2 for all that ,i know1 having accomplished its mission1 it was drawn up again to ,heaven in a sheet4 ,as regards ,james ,hinton1 ,i was interested in him before the date of the episode here narrated2 ,i am interested in him still4#hc ,it may further be noted that this process of 8conversion0 cannot be regarded as the outcome of despair or as a protective regression towards childhood4 ,the unfortunate individual1 we sometimes imagine1 who is bereft of religious faith sinks deeper and deeper into despondency1 until finally he unconsciously seeks the relief of his woes by plunging into an abyss of emotions1 thereby committing intellectual suicide4 ,on the contrary1 the period in which this event occurred was not a period of dejection either mental or physical4 ,i was fully occupied2 ,i lived a healthy1 open-air life1 in a fine climate1 amid beautiful scenery2 ,i was revelling in new studies and the growing consciousness of new powers4 ,instead of being the ultimate stage in a process of descent1 or a return to childhood1 such psychic revolution may much more fittingly be regarded as the climax of an ascensional movement4 ,it is the final casting off of childish things1 the initiation into complete manhood4 ,there is nothing ascetic in such a process4 ,one is sometimes tempted to think that to approve mysticism is to preach asceticism4 ,certainly many mystics have been ascetic4 ,but that has been the accident of their philosophy1 and not the essence of their religion4 ,asceticism has1 indeed1 nothing to do with normal religion4 ,it is1 at the best1 the outcome of a set of philosophical dogmas concerning the relationship of the body to the soul and the existence of a transcendental spiritual world4 ,that is philosophy1 of a sort1 not religion4 ,plotinus1 who has been so immensely influential in our ,western world because he was the main channel by which ,greek spiritual tendencies reached us1 to become later embodied in ,christianity1 is usually regarded as a typical mystic1 though he was primarily a philosopher1 and he was inclined to be ascetic4 ,therein we may not consider him typically ,greek1 but the early philosophical doctrine of ,plato concerning the transcendental world of 8,ideas0 easily lent itself to developments favourable to an ascetic life4 ,plotinus1 indeed1 was not disposed to any extreme ascetic position4 ,the purification of the soul meant for him 8to detach it from the body1 and to elevate it to a spiritual world40 ,but he would not have sympathised with the harsh dualism of flesh and spirit which often flourished among ,christian ascetics4 ,he lived celibate1 but he was willing to regard sex desire as beautiful1 though a delusion4#hd ,when we put aside the philosophic doctrines with which it may be associated1 it is seen that asceticism is merely an adjuvant discipline to what we must regard as pathological forms of mysticism4 ,people who come in contact with the phenomenon of 8conversion0 are obsessed by the notion that it must have something to do with morality4 ,they seem to fancy that it is something that happens to a person leading a bad life whereby he suddenly leads a good life4 ,that is a delusion4 ,whatever virtue morality may possess1 it is outside the mystic's sphere4 ,no doubt a person who has been initiated into this mystery is likely to be moral because he is henceforth in harmony with himself1 and such a man is usually1 by a natural impulse1 in harmony also with others4 ,like ,leonardo1 who through the glow of his adoration of ,nature was as truly a mystic as ,st4 ,francis1 even by contact with him 8every broken heart is made serene40 ,but a religious man is not necessarily a moral man4 ,that is to say that we must by no means expect to find that the religious man1 even when he is in harmony with his fellows1 is necessarily in harmony with the moral laws of his age4 ,we fall into sad confusion if we take for granted that a mystic is what we conventionally term a 8moral0 man4 ,jesus1 as we know1 was almost as immoral from the standpoint of the society in which he moved as he would be in our society4 ,that1 no doubt1 is an extreme example1 yet the same holds good1 in a minor degree1 of many other mystics1 even in very recent times4 ,the satyrs and the fauns were minor divinities in antiquity1 and in later times we have been apt to misunderstand their holy functions and abuse their sacred names4 ,not only is there no necessary moral change in such a process1 still less is there any necessary intellectual change4 ,religion need not involve intellectual suicide4 ,on the intellectual side there may be no obvious change whatever4 ,no new creed or dogma had been adopted4#he ,it might rather be said that1 on the contrary1 some prepossessions1 hitherto unconscious1 had been realised and cast out4 ,the operations of reason1 so far from being fettered1 can be effected with greater freedom and on a larger scale4 ,under favourable conditions the religious process1 indeed1 throughout directly contributes to strengthen the scientific attitude4 ,the mere fact that one has been impelled by the sincerity of one's religious faith to question1 to analyse1 and finally to destroy one's religious creed1 is itself an incomparable training for the intelligence4 ,in this task reason is submitted to the hardest tests2 it has every temptation to allow itself to be lulled into sleepy repose or cajoled into specious reconciliations4 ,if it is true to itself here it is steeled for every other task in the world1 for no other task can ever demand so complete a self-sacrifice at the call of ,truth4 ,indeed1 the final restoration of the religious impulse on a higher plane may itself be said to renforce the scientific impulse1 for it removes that sense of psychic disharmony which is a subconscious fetter on the rational activity4 ,the new inward harmony1 proceeding from a psychic centre that is at one alike with itself and with the ,not-,self1 imparts confidence to every operation of the intellect4 ,all the metaphysical images of faith in the unseen--too familiar in the mystical experiences of men of all religions to need specification--are now on the side of science4 ,for he who is thus held in his path can pursue that path with serenity and trust1 however daring its course may sometimes seem4 ,it appears to me1 therefore1 on the basis of personal experience1 that the process thus outlined is a natural process4 ,the harmony of the religious impulse and of the scientific impulse is not merely a conclusion to be deduced from the history of the past4 ,it is a living fact to-day4 ,however obscured it may sometimes be1 the process lies in human nature and is still open to all to experience4 ,,iv ,,if the development of the religious instinct and the development of the scientific instinct are alike natural1 and if the possibility of the harmony of the two instincts is a verifiable fact of experience1 how is it1 one may ask1 that there has ever been any dispute on the matter8 ,why has not this natural experience been the experience of all8 ,various considerations may help to make clear to us how it has happened that a process which might reasonably be supposed to be intimate and sacred should have become so obscured and so deformed that it has been fiercely bandied about by opposing factions4 ,at the outset1 as we have seen1 among comparatively primitive peoples1 it really is a simple and natural process carried out harmoniously with no sense of conflict4 ,a man1 it would seem1 was not then overburdened by the still unwritten traditions of the race4 ,he was comparatively free to exercise his own impulses unfettered by the chains forged out of the dead impulses of those who had gone before him4 ,it is the same still among uncultivated persons of our own race in civilisation4 ,i well remember how once1 during a long ride through the ,australian bush with a settler1 a quiet1 uncommunicative man with whom ,i had long been acquainted1 he suddenly told me how at times he would ascend to the top of a hill and become lost to himself and to everything as he stood in contemplation of the scene around him4 ,those moments of ecstasy1 of self-forgetful union with the divine beauty of ,nature1 were entirely compatible with the rational outlook of a simple1 hard-working man who never went to church1 for there was no church of any kind to go to1 but at such moments had in his own humble way1 like ,moses1 met ,god in a mountain4 ,there can be no doubt that such an experience is not uncommon among simple folk unencumbered by tradition1 even when of civilised race4 ,the burden of traditions1 of conventions1 of castes has too often proved fatal alike to the manifestation of the religious impulse and the scientific impulse4 ,it is unnecessary to point out how easily this happens in the case of the religious impulse4 ,it is only too familiar a fact how1 when the impulse of religion first germinates in the young soul1 the ghouls of the ,churches rush out of their caverns1 seize on the unhappy victim of the divine effluence and proceed to assure him that his rapture is1 not a natural manifestation1 as free as the sunlight and as gracious as the unfolding of a rose1 but the manifest sign that he has been branded by a supernatural force and fettered for ever to a dead theological creed4 ,too often he is thus caught by the bait of his own rapture2 the hook is firmly fixed in his jaw and he is drawn whither his blind guides will2 his wings droop and fall away2 so far as the finer issues of life are concerned1 he is done for and damned4#hf ,but the process is not so very different on the scientific side1 though here it is more subtly concealed4 ,the youth in whom the natural impulse of science arises is sternly told that the spontaneous movement of his intelligence towards ,nature and truth is nothing1 for the one thing needful is that he shall be put to discipline1 and trained in the scientific traditions of the ages4 ,the desirability of such training for the effective questioning of ,nature is so clear that both teacher and pupil are apt to overlook the fact that it involves much that is not science at all3 all sorts of dead traditions1 unrealised fragments of ancient metaphysical systems1 prepossessions and limitations1 conscious or unconscious1 the obedience to arbitrary authorities4 ,it is never made clear to him that science also is an art4 ,so that the actual outcome may be that the finally accomplished man of science has as little of the scientific impulse as the fully fledged religious man need have of the religious impulse2 he becomes the victim of another kind of ecclesiastical sectarianism4 ,there is one special piece of ancient metaphysics which until recently scientific and religious sects have alike combined to support3 the fiction of 8matter10 which we passingly came upon when considering the art of thinking4 ,it is a fiction that has much to answer for in distorting the scientific spirit and in creating an artificial opposition between science and religion4 ,all sorts of antique metaphysical peculiarities1 inherited from the decadence of ,greek philosophy1 were attributed to 8matter0 and they were mostly of a bad character2 all the good qualities were attributed to 8spirit02 8matter0 played the ,devil's part to this more divine 8spirit40 ,thus it was that 8materialistic0 came to be a term signifying all that is most heavy1 opaque1 depressing1 soul-destroying1 and diabolical in the universe4 ,the party of traditionalised religion fostered this fiction and the party of traditionalised science frequently adopted it1 cheerily proposing to find infinite potentialities in this despised metaphysical substance4 ,so that 8matter0 which was on one side trodden underfoot was on the other side brandished overhead as a glorious banner4 ,yet 8matter10 as psychologically minded philosophers at last began to point out1 is merely a substance we have ourselves invented to account for our sensations4 ,we see1 we touch1 we hear1 we smell1 and by a brilliant synthetic effort of imagination we put together all those sensations and picture to ourselves 8matter0 as being the source of them4 ,science itself is now purging 8matter0 of its complicated metaphysical properties4 ,that 8matter10 the nature of which ,dr4 ,johnson1 as ,boswell tells us1 thought he had settled by 8striking his foot with mighty force against a large stone10 is coming to be regarded as merely an electrical emanation4 ,we now accept even that transmutation of the elements of which the alchemists dreamed4 ,it is true that we still think of 8matter0 as having weight4 ,but so cautious a physicist as ,sir ,joseph ,thomson long ago pointed out that weight is only an 8apparently0 invariable property of matter4 ,so that 8matter0 becomes almost as 8ethereal0 as 8spirit10 and1 indeed1 scarcely distinguishable from 8spirit40 ,the spontaneous affirmation of the mystic that he lives in the spiritual world here and now will then be1 in other words1 merely the same affirmation which the man of science has more laboriously reached4 ,the man1 therefore1 who is terrified by 8materialism0 has reached the final outpost of absurdity4 ,he is a simple-minded person who places his own hand before his eyes and cries out in horror3 ,the ,universe has disappeared6 ,we have not only to realise how our own prepossessions and the metaphysical figments of our own creation have obscured the simple realities of religion and science alike2 we have also to see that our timid dread lest religion should kill our science1 or science kill our religion1 is equally fatal here4 ,he who would gain his life must be willing to lose it1 and it is by being honest to one's self and to the facts by applying courageously the measuring rod of ,truth1 that in the end salvation is found4 ,here1 it is true1 there are those who smilingly assure us that by adopting such a method we shall merely put ourselves in the wrong and endure much unnecessary suffering4 ,there is no such thing as 8,truth10 they declare1 regarded as an objective impersonal reality2 we do not 8discover0 truth1 we invent it4 ,therefore your business is to invent a truth which shall harmoniously satisfy the needs of your nature and aid your efficiency in practical life4 ,that we are justified in being dishonest towards truth has even been argued from the doctrine of relativity by some who failed to realise that that doctrine is here hardly relative4 ,certainly the philosophers of recent times1 from ,nietzsche to ,croce1 have loved to analyse the idea of 8truth0 and to show that it by no means signifies what we used to suppose it signified4 ,but to show that truth is fluid1 or even the creation of the individual mind1 is by no means to show that we can at will play fast and loose with it to suit our own momentary convenience4 ,if we do we merely find ourselves1 at the end1 in a pool where we must tramp round and round in intellectual slush out of which there is no issue4 ,one may well doubt whether any ,pragmatist has ever really invented his truth that way4 ,practically1 just as the best result is attained by the man who acts as though free-will were a reality and who exerts it1 so in this matter1 also1 practically1 in the end the best result is attained by assuming that truth is an objective reality which we must patiently seek1 and in accordance with which we must discipline our own wayward impulses4 ,there is no transcendent objective truth1 each one of us is an artist creating his own truth from the phenomena presented to him1 but if in that creation he allows any alien emotional or practical considerations to influence him he is a bad artist and his work is wrought for destruction4 ,from the pragmatic point of view1 it may thus be said that if the use of the measuring-rod of truth as an objective standard produces the best practical results1 that use is pragmatically justified4 ,but if so1 we are exactly in the same position as we were before the pragmatist arrived2 we can get on as well without him1 if not better1 for we run the risk that he may confuse the issues for us4 ,it is really on the theoretic rather than the practical side that he is helpful4 ,it is not only the ,pragmatist whose well-meant efforts to find an easy reconciliation of belief and practice1 and indirectly the concord of religion and science1 come to grief because he has not realised that the walls of the spiritual world can only be scaled with much expenditure of treasure1 not without blood and sweat1 that we cannot glide luxuriously to ,heaven in his motor-car4 ,we are also met by the old-fashioned ,intuitionist4#hg ,it is no accident that the ,intuitionist so often walks hand in hand with the ,pragmatist2 they are engaged in the same tasks4 ,there is1 we have seen1 the impulse of science which must work through intelligence2 there is1 also1 the impulse of religion in the satisfaction of which intelligence can only take a very humble place at the antechamber of the sanctuary4 ,to admit1 therefore1 that reason cannot extend into the religious sphere is absolutely sound so long as we realise that reason has a coordinate right to lay down the rules in its own sphere of intelligence4 ,but in men of a certain mental type the two tendencies are alike so deeply implanted that they cannot escape them3 they are not only impelled to go beyond intelligence1 but they are also impelled to carry intelligence with them outside its sphere4 ,the sphere of intelligence is limited1 they say1 and rightly2 the soul has other impulses besides that of intelligence and life needs more than knowledge for its complete satisfaction4 ,but in the hands of these people the faculty of 8intuition10 which is to supplant that of intelligence1 itself results in a product which by them is called 8knowledge10 and so spuriously bears the hall-mark which belongs to the product of intelligence4 ,but the result is disastrous4 ,not only is an illegitimate confusion introduced1 but1 by attributing to the impulse of religion a character which it is neither entitled to nor in need of1 we merely discredit it in the eyes of intelligence4 ,the philosopher of intuition1 even in denying intelligence1 is apt to remain so predominantly intelligent that1 even in entering what is for him the sphere of religion1 he still moves in an atmosphere of rarefied intelligence4 ,he is farther from the ,kingdom of ,heaven than the simple man who is quite incapable of understanding the philosopher's theory1 but yet may be able to follow his own religious impulse without foisting into it an intellectual content4 ,for even the simple man may be one with the great mystics who all declare that the unspeakable quality they have acquired1 as ,eckhart puts it1 8hath no image40 ,it is not in the sphere of intellection1 it brings no knowledge2 it is the outcome of the natural instinct of the individual soul4 ,no doubt there really are people in whom the instincts of religion and of science alike are developed in so rudimentary a degree1 if developed at all1 that they never become conscious4 ,the religious instinct is not an essential instinct4 ,even the instinct of sex1 which is much more fundamental than either of these1 is not absolutely essential4 ,a very little bundle of instincts and impulses is indispensable to a man on his way down the path of life to a peaceful and humble grave4 ,a man's equipment of tendencies1 on the lowest plane1 needs to be more complex and diverse than an oyster's1 yet not so very much more4 ,the equipment of the higher animals1 moreover1 is needed less for the good of the individual than for the good of the race4 ,we cannot1 therefore1 be surprised if the persons in whom the superfluous instincts are rudimentary fail to understand them1 confusing them and overlaying them with each other and with much that is outside both4 ,the wonder would be if it were otherwise4 ,when all deduction has been made of the mental and emotional confusions which have obscured men's vision1 we cannot fail to conclude1 it seems to me1 that ,science and ,mysticism are nearer to each other than some would have us believe4 ,at the beginning of human cultures1 far from being opposed1 they may even be said to be identical4 ,from time to time1 in later ages1 brilliant examples have appeared of men who have possessed both instincts in a high degree and have even fused the two together1 while among the humble in spirit and the lowly in intellect it is probable that in all ages innumerable men have by instinct harmonised their religion with their intelligence4 ,but as the accumulated experiences of civilisation have been preserved and handed on from generation to generation1 this free and vital play of the instincts has been largely paralysed4 ,on each side fossilised traditions have accumulated so thickly1 the garments of dead metaphysics have been wrapped so closely around every manifestation alike of the religious instinct and the scientific instinct--for even what we call 8common sense0 is really a hardened mass of dead metaphysics--that not many persons can succeed in revealing one of these instincts in its naked beauty1 and very few can succeed in so revealing both instincts4 ,hence a perpetual antagonism4 ,it may be1 however1 we are beginning to realise that there are no metaphysical formulas to suit all men1 but that every man must be the artist of his own philosophy4 ,as we realise that1 it becomes easier than it was before to liberate ourselves from a dead metaphysics1 and so to give free play alike to the religious instinct and the scientific instinct4 ,a man must not swallow more beliefs than he can digest2 no man can absorb all the traditions of the past2 what he fills himself with will only be a poison to work to his own auto-intoxication4 ,along all these lines we see more clearly than before the real harmony between ,mysticism and ,science4 ,we see1 also1 that all arguments are meaningless until we gain personal experience4 ,one must win one's own place in the spiritual world painfully and alone4 ,there is no other way of salvation4 ,the ,promised ,land always lies on the other side of a wilderness4 ,v ,,it may seem that we have been harping overmuch on a single string of what is really a very rich instrument1 when the whole exalted art of religion is brought down to the argument of its relationship to science4 ,the core of religion is mysticism1 it is admitted4 ,and yet where are all the great mystics8 ,why nothing of the ,neo-,platonists in whom the whole movement of modern mysticism began1 of their glorious pupils in the ,moslem world1 of ,ramon ,lull and ,francis of ,assisi and ,franois ,xavier and ,john of the ,cross and ,george ,fox and the 8,de ,imitatione ,christi0 and 8,towards ,democracy08 ,there is no end to that list of glorious names1 and they are all passed by4 ,to write of the mystics1 whether ,pagan or ,christian or ,islamic1 is a most delightful task4 ,it has been done1 and often very well done4 ,the mystics are not only themselves an incarnation of beauty1 but they reflect beauty on all who with understanding approach them4 ,moreover1 in the phenomena of religious mysticism we have a key--if we only knew it--to many of the most precious human things which on the surface may seem to have nothing in them of religion4 ,for this is an art which instinctively reveals to us the secrets of other arts4 ,it presents to us in the most naked and essential way the inward experience which has inspired men to find modes of expression which are transmutations of the art of religion and yet have on the surface nothing to indicate that this is so4 ,it has often been seen in poetry and in music and in painting4 ,one might say that it is scarcely possible to understand completely the poetry of ,shelley or the music of ,csar ,franck or the pictures of ,van ,gogh unless there is somewhere within an intimation of the secret of mysticism4 ,this is so not because of any imperfection in the achieved work of such men in poetry and in music and in painting1--for work that fails to contain its own justification is always bad work1--but because we shall not be in possession of the clue to explain the existence of that work4 ,we may even go beyond the sphere of the recognised arts altogether1 and say that the whole love of ,nature and landscape1 which in modern times has been so greatly developed1 largely through ,rousseau1 the chief creator of our modern spiritual world1 is not intelligible if we are altogether ignorant of what religion means4 ,but we are not so much concerned here with the rich and variegated garments the impulse of religion puts on1 or with its possible transmutations1 as with the simple and naked shape of those impulses when bared of all garments4 ,it was peculiarly important to present the impulse of mysticism naked because1 of all the fundamental human impulses1 that is the one most often so richly wrapped round with gorgeous and fantastic garments that1 alike to the eye of the ordinary man and the acute philosopher1 there has seemed to be no living thing inside at all4 ,it was necessary to strip off all these garments1 to appeal to simple personal direct experience for the actual core of fact1 and to show that that core1 so far from being soluble by analysis into what science counts as nothing1 is itself1 like every other natural organic function1 a fact of science4 ,it is enough here1 where we are concerned only with the primary stuff of art1 the bare simple technique of the human dance1 to have brought into as clear a light as may be the altogether natural mechanism which lies behind all the most magnificent fantasies of the mystic impulse1 and would still subsist and operate even though they were all cast into the flames4 ,that is why it has seemed necessary to dwell all the time on the deep-lying harmony of the mystic's attitude with the scientific man's attitude4 ,it is a harmony which rests on the faith that they are eternally separate1 however close1 however intimately coperative4 ,when the mystic professes that1 as such1 he has knowledge of the same order as the man of science1 or when the scientist claims that1 as such1 he has emotion which is like that of the man of religion1 each of them deceives himself4 ,he has introduced a confusion where no confusion need be2 perhaps1 indeed1 he has even committed that sin against the ,holy ,ghost of his own spiritual integrity for which there is no forgiveness4 ,the function of intellectual thought--which is that of the art of science--may1 certainly1 be invaluable for religion2 it makes possible the purgation of all that pseudo-science1 all that philosophy1 good or bad1 which has poisoned and encrusted the simple spontaneous impulse of mysticism in the open air of ,nature and in the face of the sun4 ,the man of science may be a mystic1 but cannot be a true mystic unless he is so relentless a man of science that he can tolerate no alien science in his mysticism4 ,the mystic may be a man of science1 but he will not be a good man of science unless he understands that science must be kept for ever bright and pure from all admixture of mystical emotion2 the fountain of his emotion must never rust the keenness of his analytic scalpel4 ,it is useless to pretend that any such rustiness can ever convert the scalpel into a mystical implement1 though it can be an admirable aid in cutting towards the mystical core of things1 and perhaps if there were more relentless scientific men there would be more men of pure mystic vision4 ,science by itself1 good or bad1 can never be religion1 any more than religion by itself can ever be science1 or even philosophy4 ,it is by looking back into the past that we see the facts in an essential simplicity less easy to reach in more sophisticated ages4 ,we need not again go so far back as the medicine-men of ,africa and ,siberia4 ,mysticism in pagan antiquity1 however less intimate to us and less seductive than that of later times1 is perhaps better fitted to reveal to us its true nature4 ,the ,greeks believed in the spiritual value of 8conversion0 as devoutly as our ,christian sects and they went beyond most such sects in their elaborately systematic methods for obtaining it1 no doubt for the most part as superficially as has been common among ,christians4 ,it is supposed that almost the whole population of ,athens must have experienced the ,eleusinian initiation4 ,these methods1 as we know1 were embodied in the ,mysteries associated with ,dionysus and ,demeter and ,orpheus and the rest1 the most famous and typical being those of ,attic ,eleusis4#hh ,we too often see those ancient ,greek ,mysteries through a concealing mist1 partly because it was rightly felt that matters of spiritual experience were not things to talk about1 so that precise information is lacking1 partly because the early ,christians1 having their own very similar ,mysteries to uphold1 were careful to speak evil of ,pagan ,mysteries1 and partly because the ,pagan ,mysteries no doubt really tended to degenerate with the general decay of classic culture4 ,but in their large simple essential outlines they seem to be fairly clear4 ,for just as there was nothing 8orgiastic0 in our sense in the ,greek 8orgies10 which were simply ritual acts1 so there was nothing1 in our sense1 8mysterious0 in the ,mysteries4 ,we are not to suppose1 as is sometimes supposed1 that their essence was a secret doctrine1 or even that the exhibition of a secret rite was the sole object1 although it came in as part of the method4 ,a mystery meant a spiritual process of initiation1 which was1 indeed1 necessarily a secret to those who had not yet experienced it1 but had nothing in itself 8mysterious0 beyond what inheres to-day to the process in any ,christian 8revival10 which is the nearest analogue to the ,greek ,mystery4 ,it is only 8mysterious0 in the sense that it cannot be expressed1 any more than the sexual embrace can be expressed1 in words1 but can only be known by experience4 ,a preliminary process of purification1 the influence of suggestion1 a certain religious faith1 a solemn and dramatic ritual carried out under the most impressive circumstances1 having a real analogy to the ,catholic's ,mass1 which also is a function1 at once dramatic and sacred1 which culminates in a spiritual communion with the ,divine--all this may contribute to the end which was1 as it always must be in religion1 simply a change of inner attitude1 a sudden exalting realisation of a new relationship to eternal things4 ,the philosophers understood this2 ,aristotle was careful to point out1 in an extant fragment1 that what was gained in the ,mysteries was not instruction but impressions and emotions1 and ,plato had not hesitated to regard the illumination which came to the initiate in philosophy as of the nature of that acquired in the ,mysteries4 ,so it was natural that when ,christianity took the place of ,paganism the same process went on with only a change in external circumstances4 ,baptism in the early ,church--before it sank to the mere magical sort of rite it later became--was of the nature of initiation into a ,mystery1 preceded by careful preparation1 and the baptised initiate was sometimes crowned with a garland as the initiated were at ,eleusis4 ,when we go out of ,athens along the beautiful road that leads to the wretched village of ,eleusis and linger among the vast and complicated ruins of the chief shrine of mysticism in our ,western world1 rich in associations that seem to stretch back to the ,neolithic ,age and suggest a time when the mystery of the blossoming of the soul was one with the mystery of the upspringing of the corn1 it may be that our thoughts by no unnatural transition pass from the myth of ,demeter and ,kore to the remembrance of what we may have heard or know of the manifestations of the spirit among barbarian northerners of other faiths or of no faith in far ,britain and ,america and even of their meetings of so-called 8revival40 ,for it is always the same thing that ,man is doing1 however various and fantastic the disguises he adopts4 ,and sometimes the revelation of the new life1 springing up from within1 comes amid the crowd in the feverish atmosphere of artificial shrines1 maybe soon to shrivel up1 and sometimes the blossoming forth takes place1 perhaps more favourably1 in the open air and under the light of the sun and amid the flowers1 as it were to a happy faun among the hills4 ,but when all disguises have been stripped away1 it is always and everywhere the same simple process1 a spiritual function which is almost a physiological function1 an art which ,nature makes4 ,that is all4 ,footnote #gj3 ,it is scarcely necessary to remark that if we choose to give to 8mysticism0 a definition incompatible with 8science10 the opposition cannot be removed4 ,this is1 for example1 done by ,croce1 who yet recognises as highly important a process of 8conversion0 which is nothing else but mysticism as here understood4 7,see1 e4g41 ,piccoli1 ,benedetto ,croce1 p4 #ahd47 ,only he has left himself no name to apply to it4 ,footnote #ga3 8,the endeavour of the human mind to enjoy the blessedness of actual communion with the highest10 which is ,pringle ,pattison's widely accepted definition of mysticism1 ,i prefer not to use because it is ambiguous4 ,the 8endeavour10 while it indicates that we are concerned with an art1 also suggests its strained pathological forms1 while 8actual communion0 lends itself to ontological interpretations4 ,footnote #gb3 ,the ,threshold of ,religion 7#aiad71 p4 #dh4 ,footnote #gc3 ,zentralblatt fr ,psychoanalyse 7#aiaa71 p4 #bgb4 ,footnote #gd3 ,golden ,bough1 8,balder the ,beautiful10 vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cjd-je4 ,footnote #ge3 ,farnell even asserts 7in his ,greek ,hero ,cults7 that 8it is impossible to quote a single example of any one of the higher world-religions working in harmony with the development of physical science40 ,he finds a 8special and unique0 exception in the cult of ,asclepios at ,cos and ,epidauros and ,pergamon1 where1 after the fourth century ,b4,c41 were physicians1 practising a rational medical science1 who were also official priests of the ,asclepios temples4 ,footnote #gf3 ,sir ,oliver ,lodge1 ,reason and ,belief1 p4 #ai4 ,footnote #gg3 ,it is scarcely necessary to point out that a differentiation of function has to be made sooner or later1 and sometimes it is made soon4 ,this was so among the ,todas of ,india4 8,certain ,todas10 says ,dr4 ,rivers 7,the ,todas1 #aijf1 p4 #bdi71 8have the power of divination1 others are sorcerers1 and others again have the power of curing diseases by means of spells and rites1 while all three functions are quite separate from those of the priest or sharman4 ,the ,todas have advanced some way towards civilisation of function in this respect1 and have as separate members of the community their prophets1 their magicians1 and their medicine-men in addition to their priests40 ,footnote #gh3 ,jol1 ,ursprung der ,naturphilosophie aus dem ,geiste der ,romantik 7#aijc72 ,nietzsche und die ,romantik 7#aije74 ,but ,i am here quoting from ,professor ,jol's account of his own philosophical development in ,die ,deutsche ,philosophie der ,gegenwart1 vol4 ,i 7#aiba74 ,footnote #gi3 ,in connection with this scheme1 it may be interesting to note1 ,i prepared1 in #ahgi1 a questionnaire on 8conversion10 on the lines of the investigations which some years later began to be so fruitfully carried out by the psychologists of religion in ,america4 ,footnote #hj3 ,it must be remembered that for science the mechanistic assumption always remains2 it is1 as ,vaihinger would say1 a necessary fiction4 ,to abandon it is to abandon science4 ,driesch1 the most prominent vitalist of our time1 has realised this1 and in his account of his own mental development 7,die ,deutsche ,philosophie der ,gegenwart1 vol4 ,i1 #aiba7 he shows how1 beginning as a pupil of ,haeckel and working at zology for many years1 after adopting the theory of vitalism he abandoned all zological work and became a professor of philosophy4 ,when the religious spectator1 or the sthetic spectator 7as is well illustrated in the ,french review ,l',esprit ,nouveau71 sees the 8machinery0 as something else than machinery he is legitimately going outside the sphere of science1 but he is not thereby destroying the basic assumption of science4 ,footnote #ha3 ,long ago ,edith ,simcox 7in a passage of her ,natural ,law which chanced to strike my attention very soon after the episode above narrated7 well described 8conversion0 as a 8spiritual revolution10 not based on any single rational consideration1 but due to the 8cumulative evidence of cognate impressions0 resulting1 at a particular moment1 not in a change of belief1 but in a total rearrangement and recolouring of beliefs and impressions1 with the supreme result that the order of the universe is apprehended no longer as hostile1 but as friendly4 ,this is the fundamental fact of 8conversion10 which is the gate of mysticism4 ,footnote #hb3 ,how we are to analyse the conception of 8universe0--apart from its personal emotional tone1 which is what mainly concerns us--is1 of course1 a matter that must be left altogether open and free4 ,sir ,james ,frazer at the end of his ,golden ,bough 78,balder the ,beautiful10 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cjf7 finds that the 8universe0 is an 8ever-shifting phantasmagoria of thought10 or1 he adds1 suddenly shifting to a less idealistic and more realistic standpoint1 8shadows on the screen40 ,that is a literary artist's metaphysical way of describing the matter and could not occur to any one who was not familiar with the magic lantern which has now developed into the cinema1 beloved of philosophers for its symbolic significance4 ,mr4 ,bertrand ,russell1 a more abstract artist1 who would reject any such 8imaginative admixture0 as he would find in ,frazer's view1 once severely refused to recognise any such thing as a 8universe10 but has since less austerely admitted that there is1 after all1 a 8set of appearances10 which may fairly be labelled 8reality10 so long as we do not assume 8a mysterious ,thing-in-,itself behind the appearances40 7,nation1 #fth ,january1 #aibc47 ,but there are always some people who think that an 8appearance0 must be an appearance of ,something1 and that when a 8shadow0 is cast on the screen of our sensory apparatus it must be cast by ,something4 ,so every one defines the 8universe0 in his own way1 and no two people--not even the same person long--can define it in the same way4 ,we have to recognise that even the humblest of us is entitled to his own 8universe40 ,footnote #hc3 ,the simple and essential outlines of 8conversion0 have been obscured because chiefly studied in the ,churches among people whose prepossessions and superstitions have rendered it a highly complex process1 and mixed up with questions of right and wrong living which1 important as they are1 properly form no part of religion4 ,the man who waits to lead a decent life until he has 8saved his soul0 is not likely to possess a soul that is worth saving4 ,how much ignorance prevails in regard to 8conversion10 even among the leaders of religious opinion1 and what violent contrasts of opinion--in which sometimes both the opposing parties are mistaken--was well illustrated by a discussion on the subject at the ,church ,congress at ,sheffield in #aibb4 ,a distinguished ,churchman well defined 8conversion0 as a unification of character1 involving the whole man1--will1 intellect1 and emotion1--by which a 8new self0 was achieved2 but he also thought that this great revolutionary process consisted usually in giving up some 8definite bad habit10 very much doubted whether sudden conversion was a normal phenomenon at all1 and made no attempt to distinguish between that kind of 8conversion0 which is merely the result of suggestion and auto-suggestion1 after a kind of hysterical attack produced by feverish emotional appeals1 and that which is spontaneous and of lifelong effect4 ,another speaker went to the opposite extreme by asserting that 8conversion0 is an absolutely necessary process1 and an ,archbishop finally swept away 8conversion0 altogether by declaring that the whole of the religious life 7and the whole of the irreligious life87 is a process of conversion4 7,the ,times1 #abth ,october1 #aibb47 ,it may be a satisfaction to some to realise that this is a matter on which it is vain to go to the ,churches for light4 ,footnote #hd3 ,dean ,inge 7,philosophy of ,plotinus1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #afe7 has some remarks on ,plotinus in relation to asceticism4 ,footnote #he3 ,jules de ,gaultier 7,la ,philosophie officielle et la ,philosophie1 p4 #aej7 refers to those ,buddhist monks the symbol of whose faith was contained in one syllable3 ,om4 ,but those monks1 he adds1 belonged to 8the only philosophic race that ever existed0 and by the aid of their pure faith1 placed on a foundation which no argumentation can upset1 all the religious philosophies of the ,judeo-,helleno-,christian tradition are but as fairy-tales told to children4 ,footnote #hf3 ,we must always remember that 8,church0 and 8religion10 though often confused1 are far from being interchangeable terms4 8,religion0 is a natural impulse1 8,church0 is a social institution4 ,the confusion is unfortunate4 ,thus ,freud 7,group ,psychology1 p4 #ea7 speaks of the probability of religion disappearing and ,socialism taking its place4 ,he means not 8religion10 but a 8,church40 ,we cannot speak of a natural impulse disappearing1 an institution easily may4 ,footnote #hg3 ,it must be remembered that 8intuition0 is a word with all sorts of philosophical meanings1 in addition to its psychological meanings 7which were studied some years ago by ,dearborn in the ,psychological ,review74 ,for the ancient philosophic writers1 from the ,neo-,platonists on1 it was usually a sort of special organ for coming in contact with supernatural realities2 for ,bergson it is at once a method superior to the intellect for obtaining knowledge and a method of sthetic contemplation2 for ,croce it is solely sthetic1 and art is at once 8intuition0 and 8expression0 7by which he means the formation of internal images74 ,for ,croce1 when the mind 8intuits0 by 8expressing10 the result is art4 ,there is no 8religion0 for ,croce except philosophy4 ,footnote #hh3 ,the modern literature of the ,mysteries1 especially of ,eleusis1 is very extensive and elaborate in many languages4 ,i will only mention here a small and not very recent book1 ,cheetham's ,hulsean ,lectures on ,the ,mysteries ,pagan and ,christian 7#ahig7 as for ordinary readers sufficiently indicating the general significance of the ,mysteries4 ,there is1 yet briefer1 a more modern discussion of the matter in the ,chapter on 8,religion0 by ,dr4 ,w4 ,r4 ,inge in ,r4 ,w4 ,livingstone's useful collection of essays1 ,the ,legacy of ,greece 7#aiba74 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,morals ,i ,,no man has ever counted the books that have been written about morals4 ,no subject seems so fascinating to the human mind4 ,it may well be1 indeed1 that nothing imports us so much as to know how to live4 ,yet it can scarcely be that on any subject are the books that have been written more unprofitable1 one might even say unnecessary4 ,for when we look at the matter objectively it is1 after all1 fairly simple4 ,if we turn our attention to any collective community1 at any time and place1 in its moral aspect1 we may regard it as an army on the march along a road of life more or less encompassed by danger4 ,that1 indeed1 is scarcely a metaphor2 that is what life1 viewed in its moral aspect1 may really be considered4 ,when thus considered1 we see that it consists of an extremely small advance guard in front1 formed of persons with a limited freedom of moral action and able to act as patrols in various directions1 of a larger body in the rear1 in ancient military language called the blackguard and not without its uses1 and in the main of a great compact majority with which we must always be chiefly concerned since they really are the army2 they are the community4 ,what we call 8morals0 is simply blind obedience to words of command--whether or not issued by leaders the army believes it has itself chosen--of which the significance is hidden1 and beyond this the duty of keeping in step with the others1 or of trying to keep in step1 or of pretending to do so4#hi ,it is an automatic1 almost unconscious process and only becomes acutely conscious when the individual is hopelessly out of step2 then he may be relegated to the rear blackguard4 ,but that happens seldom4 ,so there is little need to be concerned about it4 ,even if it happened very often1 nothing overwhelming would have taken place2 it would merely be that what we called the blackguard had now become the main army1 though with a different discipline4 ,we are1 indeed1 simply concerned with a discipline or routine which in this field is properly described as custom1 and the word morals essentially means custom4 ,that is what morals must always be for the mass1 and1 indeed1 to some extent for all1 a discipline1 and1 as we have already seen1 a discipline cannot properly be regarded as a science or an art4 ,the innumerable books on morals1 since they have usually confused and befogged this simple and central fact1 cannot fail to be rather unprofitable4 ,that1 it would seem1 is what the writers thought--at all events about those the others had written--or else they would not have considered it necessary for themselves to add to the number4 ,it was not only an unprofitable task1 it was also--except in so far as an objectively scientific attitude has been assumed--aimless4 ,for1 although the morals of a community at one time and place is never the same as that of another or even the same community at another time and place1 it is a complex web of conditions that produces the difference1 and it must have been evident that to attempt to affect it was idle4#ij ,there is no occasion for any one who is told that he has written a 8moral0 book to be unduly elated1 or when he is told that his book is 8immoral0 to be unduly cast down4 ,the significance of these adjectives is strictly limited4 ,neither the one book nor the other can have more than the faintest effect on the march of the great compact majority of the social army4 ,yet1 while all this is so1 there is still some interest in the question of morals4 ,for1 after all1 there is the small body of individuals ahead1 alertly eager to find the road1 with a sensitive flair for all the possibilities the future may hold4 ,when the compact majority1 blind and automatic and unconscious1 follows after1 to tramp along the road these pioneers have discovered1 it may seem but a dull road4 ,but before they reached it that road was interesting1 even passionately interesting4 ,the reason is that1 for those who1 in any age1 are thus situated1 life is not merely a discipline4 ,it is1 or it may become1 really an art4 ,,ii ,,that living is or may be an art1 and the moralist the critic of that art1 is a very ancient belief4 ,it was especially widespread among the ,greeks4 ,to the ,greeks1 indeed1 this belief was so ingrained and instinctive that it became an implicitly assumed attitude rather than a definitely expressed faith4 ,it was natural to them to speak of a virtuous person as we should speak of a beautiful person4 ,the 8good0 was the 8beautiful02 the sphere of ethics for the ,greeks was not distinguished from the sphere of sthetics4 ,in ,sophocles1 above all poets1 we gather the idea of a natural agreement between duty and inclination which is at once both beauty and moral order4 ,but it is the beautiful that seems to be most fundamental in 1 which was the noble1 the honourable1 but fundamentally the beautiful4 8,beauty is the first of all things10 said ,isocrates1 the famous orator2 8nothing that is devoid of beauty is prized4444 ,the admiration for virtue comes to this1 that of all manifestation of life1 virtue is the most beautiful40 ,the supremely beautiful was1 for the finer sort of ,greeks1 instinctively if not always consciously1 the supremely divine1 and the ,argive ,hera1 it has been said1 8has more divinity in her countenance than any ,madonna of them all40 ,that is how it came to pass that we have no word in our speech to apply to the ,greek conception2 sthetics for us is apart from all the serious business of life1 and the attempt to introduce it there seems merely comic4 ,but the ,greeks spoke of life itself as a craft or a fine art4 ,protagoras1 who appears to-day as a pioneer of modern science1 was yet mainly concerned to regard living as an art1 or as the sum of many crafts1 and the ,platonic ,socrates1 his opponent1 still always assumed that the moralist's position is that of a critic of a craft4 ,so influential a moralist as ,aristotle remarks in a matter-of-fact way1 in his 8,poetics10 that if we wish to ascertain whether an act is1 or is not1 morally right we must consider not merely the intrinsic quality of the act1 but the person who does it1 the person to whom it is done1 the time1 the means1 the motive4 ,such an attitude towards life puts out of court any appeal to rigid moral laws2 it meant that an act must befit its particular relationships at a particular moment1 and that its moral value could1 therefore1 only be judged by the standard of the spectator's instinctive feeling for proportion and harmony4 ,that is the attitude we adopt towards a work of art4 ,it may well appear strange to those who cherish the modern idea of 8stheticism0 that the most complete statement of the ,greek attitude has come down to us in the writings of a philosopher1 an ,alexandrian ,greek who lived and taught in ,rome in the third century of our ,christian ,era1 when the ,greek world had vanished1 a religious mystic1 moreover1 whose life and teaching were penetrated by an austere ascetic severity which some would count medival rather than ,greek4#ia ,it is in ,plotinus1 a thinker whose inspiring influence still lives to-day1 that we probably find the ,greek attitude1 in its loftiest aspect1 best mirrored1 and it was probably through channels that came from ,plotinus--though their source was usually unrecognised--that the ,greek moral spirit has chiefly reached modern times4 ,many great thinkers and moralists of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries1 it has been claimed1 were ultimately indebted to ,plotinus1 who represented the only genuinely creative effort of the ,greek spirit in the third century4#ib ,plotinus seems to have had little interest in art1 as commonly understood1 and he was an impatient1 rapid1 and disorderly writer1 not even troubling to spell correctly4 ,all his art was in the spiritual sphere4 ,it is impossible to separate sthetics1 as he understood it1 from ethics and religion4 ,in the beautiful discourse on ,beauty1 which forms one of the chapters of his first 8,ennead10 it is mainly with spiritual beauty that he is concerned4 ,but he insists that it is beauty1 beauty of the same quality as that of the physical world1 which inheres in goodness1 8nor may those tell of the splendour of ,virtue who have never known the face of ,justice and of ,wisdom beautiful beyond the beauty of ,evening and of ,dawn40 ,it is a beauty1 he further states1--though here he seems to be passing out of the purely sthetic sphere1--that arouses emotions of love4 8,this is the spirit that ,beauty must ever induce1 wonderment and a delicious trouble1 longing and love1 and a trembling that is also delight4 ,for the unseen all this may be felt as for the seen1 and this souls feel for it1 every soul in some degree1 but those the more deeply who are the more truly apt to this higher love--just as all take delight in the beauty of the body1 but all are not strung as sharply1 and those only that feel the keener wound are known as ,lovers40 ,goodness and ,truth were on the same plane for ,plotinus as ,beauty4 ,it may even be said that ,beauty was the most fundamental of all1 to be identified ultimately as the ,absolute1 as ,reality itself4 ,so it was natural that in the sphere of morals he should speak indifferently either of 8extirpating evil and implanting goodness0 or of 8introducing order and beauty to replace goodness0--in either case 8we talk of real things40 8,virtue is a natural concordance among the phenomena of the soul1 vice a discord40 ,but ,plotinus definitely rejects the notion that beauty is only symmetry1 and so he avoids the narrow conception of some more modern sthetic moralists1 notably ,hutcheson4 ,how1 then1 he asks1 could the sun be beautiful1 or gold1 or light1 or night1 or the stars8 8,beauty is something more than symmetry1 and symmetry owes its beauty to a remoter principle0--its affinity1 in the opinion of ,plotinus1 with the 8,ideal ,form10 immediately recognised and confirmed by the soul4 ,it may seem to some that ,plotinus reduces to absurdity the conception of morality as sthetics1 and it may well be that the ,greeks of the great period were wiser when they left the nature of morals less explicit4 ,yet ,plotinus had in him the root of the matter4 ,he had risen to the conception that the moral life of the soul is a dance2 8,consider the performers in a choral dance3 they sing together1 though each one has his own particular part1 and sometimes one voice is heard while the others are silent2 and each brings to the chorus something of his own2 it is not enough that all lift their voices together2 each must sing1 choicely1 his own part in the music set for him4 ,so it is with the ,soul40#ic ,the ,hellenic extension of the sthetic emotion1 as ,benn pointed out1 involved no weakening of the moral fibre4 ,that is so1 we see1 and even emphatically so1 when it becomes definitely explicit as in ,plotinus1 and revolutionarily hostile to all those ideals of the moral life which most people have been accustomed to consider modern4 ,as usually among the ,greeks1 it is only implicitly1 also1 that we detect this attitude among the ,romans1 the pupils of the ,greeks4 ,for the most part1 the ,romans1 whose impulses of art were very limited1 whose practical mind craved precision and definition1 proved rebellious to the idea that living is an art2 yet it may well be that they still retained that idea at the core of their morality4 ,it is interesting to note that ,st4 ,augustine1 who stood on the threshold between the old ,roman and new ,christian worlds was able to write3 8,the art of living well and rightly is the definition that the ancients give of #8virtue4'0 ,for the ,latins believed that ars was derived from the ,greek word for virtue1 4#id ,yet there really remained a difference between the ,greek and the ,roman views of morals4 ,the ,greek view1 it is universally admitted1 was sthetic1 in the most definite sense2 the ,roman was not1 and when ,cicero wishes to translate a ,greek reference to a 8beautiful0 action it becomes an 8honourable0 action4 ,the ,greek was concerned with what he himself felt about his actions2 the ,roman was concerned with what they would look like to other people1 and the credit1 or discredit1 that would be reflected back on himself4 ,the ,hebrews never even dreamed of such an art4 ,their attitude is sufficiently embodied in the story of ,moses and that visit to ,sinai which resulted in the production of the table of ,ten ,commandments which we may still see inscribed in old churches4 ,for even our modern feeling about morals is largely ,jewish1 in some measure ,roman1 and scarcely ,greek at all4 ,we still accept1 in theory at all events1 the ,mosaic conception of morality as a code of rigid and inflexible rules1 arbitrarily ordained1 and to be blindly obeyed4 ,the conception of morality as an art1 which ,christendom once disdained1 seems now again to be finding favour in men's eyes4 ,the path has been made smooth for it by great thinkers of various complexion1 who1 differing in many fundamental points1 all alike assert the relativity of truth and the inaptitude of rigid maxims to serve as guiding forces in life4 ,they also assert1 for a large part1 implicitly or explicitly1 the authority of art4 ,the nineteenth century was usually inspired by the maxims of ,kant1 and lifted its hat reverently when it heard ,kant declaiming his famous sayings concerning the supremacy of an inflexible moral law4 ,kant had1 indeed1 felt the stream of influence which flowed from ,shaftesbury1 and he sought to mix up sthetics with his system4 ,but he had nothing of the genuine artist's spirit4 ,the art of morals was to him a set of maxims1 cold1 rigid1 precise4 ,a sympathetic biographer has said of him that the maxims were the man4 ,they are sometimes fine maxims4 ,but as guides1 as motives to practical action in the world8 ,the maxims of the valetudinarian professor at ,knigsberg scarcely seem that to us to-day4 ,still less can we harmonise maxims with art4 ,nor do we any longer suppose that we are impertinent in referring to the philosopher's personality4 ,in the investigation of the solar spectrum personality may count for little2 in the investigation of moral laws it counts for much4 ,for personality is the very stuff of morals4 ,the moral maxims of an elderly professor in a provincial university town have their interest4 ,but so have those of a ,casanova4 ,and the moral maxims of a ,goethe may possibly have more interest than either4 ,there is the rigid categorical imperative of ,kant2 and there is also that other dictum1 less rigid but more reminiscent of ,greece1 which some well-inspired person has put into the mouth of ,walt ,whitman3 8,whatever tastes sweet to the most perfect person1 that is finally right40 ,,iii ,,fundamentally considered1 there are two roads by which we may travel towards the moral ends of life3 the road of ,tradition1 which is ultimately that of ,instinct1 pursued by the many1 and the road of what seems to be ,reason--sought out by the few4 ,and in the end these two roads are but the same road1 for reason also is an instinct4 ,it is true that the ingenuity of analytic investigators like ,henry ,sidgwick has succeeded in enumerating various 8methods of ethics40 ,but1 roughly speaking1 there can only be these two main roads of life1 and only one has proved supremely important4 ,it has been by following the path of tradition moulded by instinct that man reached the threshold of civilisation3 whatever may have been the benefits he derived from the guidance of reason he never consciously allowed reason to control his moral life4 ,tables of commandments have ever been 8given by ,god02 they represented1 that is to say1 obscure impulses of the organism striving to respond to practical needs4 ,no one dreamed of commending them by declaring that they were reasonable4 ,it is clear how ,instinct and ,tradition1 thus working together1 act vitally and beneficently in moulding the moral life of primitive peoples4 ,the 8divine command0 was always a command conditioned by the special circumstance under which the tribe lived4 ,that is so even when the moral law is to our civilised eyes 8unnatural40 ,the infanticide of ,polynesian islanders1 where the means of subsistence and the possibilities of expansion were limited1 was obviously a necessary measure1 beneficent and humane in its effects4 ,the killing of the aged among the migrant ,eskimos was equally a necessary and kindly measure1 recognised as such by the victims themselves1 when it was essential that every member of the community should be able to help himself4 ,primitive rules of moral action1 greatly as they differ among themselves1 are all more or less advantageous and helpful on the road of primitive life4 ,it is true that they allow very little1 if any1 scope for divergent individual moral action1 but that1 too1 was advantageous4 ,but that1 also1 is the rock on which an instinctive traditional morality must strike as civilisation is approached4 ,the tribe has no longer the same unity4 ,social differentiation has tended to make the family a unit1 and psychic differentiation to make even the separate individuals units4 ,the community of interests of the whole tribe has been broken up1 and therewith traditional morality has lost alike its value and its power4 ,the development of abstract intelligence1 which coincides with civilisation1 works in the same direction4 ,reason is1 indeed1 on one side an integrating force1 for it shows that the assumption of traditional morality--the identity of the individual's interests with the interests of the community--is soundly based4 ,but it is also a disintegrating force4 ,for if it reveals a general unity in the ends of living1 it devises infinitely various and perplexingly distracting excuses for living4 ,before the active invasion of reason living had been an art1 or at all events a discipline1 highly conventionalised and even ritualistic1 but the motive forces of living lay in life itself and had all the binding sanction of instincts2 the penalty of every failure in living1 it was felt1 would be swiftly and automatically experienced4 ,to apply reason here was to introduce a powerful solvent into morals4 ,objectively it made morality clearer but subjectively it destroyed the existing motives for morality2 it deprived man1 to use the fashionable phraseology of the present day1 of a vital illusion4 ,thus we have morality in the fundamental sense1 the actual practices of the main army of the population1 while in front a variegated procession of prancing philosophers gaily flaunt their moral theories before the world4 ,kant1 whose personal moral problems were concerned with eating sweetmeats1#ie and other philosophers of varyingly inferior calibre1 were regarded as the lawgivers of morality1 though they carried little enough weight with the world at large4 ,thus it comes about that abstract moral speculations1 culminating in rigid maxims1 are necessarily sterile and vain4 ,they move in the sphere of reason1 and that is the sphere of comprehension1 but not of vital action4 ,in this way there arises a moral dualism in civilised man4 ,objectively he has become like the gods and able to distinguish the ends of life2 he has eaten of the fruit of the tree and has knowledge of good and evil4 ,subjectively he is still not far removed from the savage1 oftenest stirred to action by a confused web of emotional motives1 among which the interwoven strands of civilised reason are as likely to produce discord or paralysis as to furnish efficient guides1 a state of mind first1 and perhaps best1 set forth in its extreme form by ,shakespeare in ,hamlet4 ,on the one hand he cannot return to the primitive state in which all the motives for living flowed harmoniously in the same channel2 he cannot divest himself of his illuminating reason2 he cannot recede from his hardly acquired personal individuality4 ,on the other hand he can never expect1 he can never even reasonably hope1 that reason will ever hold in leash the emotions4 ,it is clear that along neither path separately can the civilised man pursue his way in harmonious balance with himself4 ,we begin to realise that what we need is not a code of beautifully cut-and-dried maxims--whether emanating from sacred mountains or from philosophers' studies--but a happy combination of two different ways of living4 ,we need1 that is1 a traditional and instinctive way of living1 based on real motor instincts1 which will blend with reason and the manifold needs of personality1 instead of being destroyed by their solvent actions1 as rigid rules inevitably are4 ,our only valid rule is a creative impulse that is one with the illuminative power of intelligence4 ,,iv ,,at the beginning of the eighteenth century1 the seed-time of our modern ideas1 as it has so often seemed to be1 the ,english people1 having in art at length brought their language to a fine degree of clarity and precision1 and having just passed through a highly stimulating period of dominant ,puritanism in life1 became much interested in philosophy1 psychology1 and ethics4 ,their interest was1 indeed1 often superficial and amateurish1 though they were soon to produce some of the most notable figures in the whole history of thought4 ,the third ,earl of ,shaftesbury1 one of the earliest of the group1 himself illustrated this unsystematic method of thinking4 ,he was an amateur1 an aristocratic amateur1 careless of consistency1 and not by any means concerned to erect a philosophic system4 ,not that he was a worse thinker on that account4 ,the world's greatest thinkers have often been amateurs2 for high thinking is the outcome of fine and independent living1 and for that a professorial chair offers no special opportunities4 ,shaftesbury was1 moreover1 a man of fragile physical constitution1 as ,kant was2 but1 unlike ,kant1 he was not a childish hypochondriac in seclusion1 but a man in the world1 heroically seeking to live a complete and harmonious life4 ,by temperament he was a ,stoic1 and he wrote a characteristic book of 8,exercises10 as he proposed to call what his modern editor calls the 8,philosophical ,regimen10 in which he consciously seeks to discipline himself in fine thinking and right living1 plainly acknowledging that he is the disciple of ,epictetus and ,marcus ,aurelius4 ,but ,shaftesbury was also a man of genius1 and as such it was his good fortune to throw afresh into the stream of thought a fruitful conception1 in part absorbed1 indeed1 from ,greece1 and long implicit in men's minds1 but never before made clearly recognisable as a moral theory and an ethical temper1 susceptible of being labelled by the philosophic historian1 as it since has been under the name1 passable no doubt as any other1 of 8sthetic ,intuitionism40 ,greek morality1 it has been well said1 is not a conflict of light and darkness1 of good and evil1 the clear choice between the broad road that leads to destruction and the narrow path of salvation3 it is 8an artistic balance of light and shade40 ,gizycki1 remarking that ,shaftesbury has more affinity to the ,greeks than perhaps any other modern moralist1 says that 8the key lay not only in his head1 but in his heart1 for like can only be recognised by like40#if ,we have to remember at the same time that ,shaftesbury was really something of a classical scholar1 even from childhood4 ,born in #afga1 the grandson of the foremost ,english statesman of his time1 the first ,earl1 ,anthony ,cooper1 he had the advantage of the wise oversight of his grandfather1 who placed with him as a companion in childhood a lady who knew both ,greek and ,latin so well that she could converse fluently in both languages4 ,so it was that by the age of eleven he was familiar with the two classic tongues and literatures4 ,that doubtless was also a key to his intimate feeling for the classic spirit1 though it would not have sufficed without a native affinity4 ,he became the pupil of ,locke1 and at fifteen he went to ,italy1 to spend a considerable time there4 ,he knew ,france also1 and the ,french tongue1 so well that he was often taken for a native4 ,he lived for some time in ,holland1 and there formed a friendship with ,bayle1 which began before the latter was aware of his friend's rank and lasted till ,bayle's death4 ,in ,holland he may have been slightly influenced by ,grotius4#ig ,shaftesbury was not of robust constitution2 he suffered from asthma1 and his health was further affected by his zeal in public affairs as well as his enthusiasm in study1 for his morality was not that of a recluse1 but of a man who played an active part in life1 not only in social benevolence1 like his descendant the enlightened philanthropic ,earl of the nineteenth century1 but in the establishment of civil freedom and toleration4 ,locke wrote of his pupil 7who was not1 however1 in agreement with his tutor's philosophic standpoint1#ih though he always treated him with consideration7 that 8the sword was too sharp for the scabbard40 8,he seems10 wrote of ,shaftesbury his unfriendly contemporary ,mandeville1 8to require and expect goodness in his species as we do a sweet taste in grapes and ,china oranges1 of which1 if any of them are sour1 we boldly pronounce that they are not come to that perfection their nature is capable of40 ,in a certain sense this was correct4 ,shaftesbury1 it has been said1 was the father of that new ethics which recognises that ,nature is not a mere impulse of self-preservation1 as ,hobbes thought1 but also a racial impulse1 having regard to others2 there are social inclinations in the individual1 he realised1 that go beyond individual ends4 7,referring to the famous dictum of ,hobbes1 ,homo homini lupus1 he observes3 8,to say in disparagement of ,man #8that he is to ,man a wolf' appears somewhat absurd when one considers that wolves are to wolves very kind and loving creatures407 ,therewith 8goodness0 was seen1 virtually for the first time in the modern period1 to be as 8natural0 as the sweetness of ripe fruit4 ,there was another reason1 a fundamental physiological and psychological reason1 why 8goodness0 of actions and the 8sweetness0 of fruits are equally natural1 a reason that would1 no doubt1 have been found strange both by ,mandeville and ,shaftesbury4 ,morality1 ,shaftesbury describes as 8the taste of beauty and the relish of what is decent10 and the 8sense of beauty0 is ultimately the same as the 8moral sense40 8,my first endeavour10 wrote ,shaftesbury1 8must be to distinguish the true taste of fruits1 refine my palate1 and establish a just relish in the kind40 ,he thought1 evidently1 that he was merely using a metaphor4 ,but he was speaking essentially in the direct1 straightforward way of natural and primitive ,man4 ,at the foundation1 8sweetness0 and 8goodness0 are the same thing4 ,that can still be detected in the very structure of language1 not only of primitive languages1 but those of the most civilised peoples4 ,that morality is1 in the strict sense1 a matter of taste1 of sthetics1 of what the ,greeks called 1 is conclusively shown by the fact that in the most widely separated tongues--possibly wherever the matter has been carefully investigated--moral goodness is1 at the outset1 expressed in terms of taste4 ,what is good is what is sweet1 and sometimes1 also1 salt4#ii ,primitive peoples have highly developed the sensory side of their mental life1 and their vocabularies bear witness to the intimate connection of sensations of taste and touch with emotional tone4 ,there is1 indeed1 no occasion to go beyond our own ,european traditions to see that the expression of moral qualities is based on fundamental sensory qualities of taste4 ,in ,latin suavis is sweet1 but even in ,latin it became a moral quality1 and its ,english derivatives have been entirely deflected from physical to moral qualities1 while bitter is at once a physical quality and a poignantly moral quality4 ,in ,sanskrit and ,persian and ,arabic salt is not only a physical taste but the name for lustre and grace and beauty4#ajj ,it seems well in passing to point out that the deeper we penetrate the more fundamentally we find the sthetic conception of morals grounded in ,nature4 ,but not every one cares to penetrate any deeper and there is no need to insist4 ,shaftesbury held that human actions should have a beauty of symmetry and proportion and harmony1 which appeal to us1 not because they accord with any rule or maxim 7although they may conceivably be susceptible of measurement71 but because they satisfy our instinctive feelings1 evoking an approval which is strictly an sthetic judgment of moral action4 ,this instinctive judgment was not1 as ,shaftesbury understood it1 a guide to action4 ,he held1 rightly enough1 that the impulse to action is fundamental and primary1 that fine action is the outcome of finely tempered natures4 ,it is a feeling for the just time and measure of human passion1 and maxims are useless to him whose nature is ill-balanced4 8,virtue is no other than the love of order and beauty in society40 sthetic appreciation of the act1 and even an ecstatic pleasure in it1 are part of our sthetic delight in ,nature generally1 which includes ,man4 ,nature1 it is clear1 plays a large part in this conception of the moral life4 ,to lack balance on any plane of moral conduct is to be unnatural2 8,nature is not mocked10 said ,shaftesbury4 ,she is a miracle1 for miracles are not things that are performed1 but things that are perceived1 and to fail here is to fail in perception of the divinity of ,nature1 to do violence to her1 and to court moral destruction4 ,a return to ,nature is not a return to ignorance or savagery1 but to the first instinctive feeling for the beauty of well-proportioned affections4 8,the most natural beauty in the world is honesty and moral truth10 he asserts1 and he recurs again and again to 8the beauty of honesty40 8,dulce et decorum est was his sole reason10 he says of the classical pagan1 adding3 8,and this is still a good reason40 ,in learning how to act1 he thought1 we are 8learning to become artists40 ,it seems natural to him to refer to the magistrate as an artist2 8the magistrate1 if he be an artist10 he incidentally says4 ,we must not make morality depend on authority4 ,the true artist1 in any art1 will never act below his character4 8,let who will make it for you as you fancy10 the artist declares2 8,i know it to be wrong4 ,whatever ,i have made hitherto has been true work4 ,and neither for your sake or anybody's else shall ,i put my hand to any other40 8,this is virtue60 exclaims ,shaftesbury4 8,this disposition transferred to the whole of life perfects a character4 ,for there is a workmanship and a truth in actions40 ,shaftesbury1 it may be repeated1 was an amateur1 not only in philosophy1 but even in the arts4 ,he regarded literature as one of the schoolmasters for fine living1 yet he has not been generally regarded as a fine artist in writing1 though1 directly or indirectly1 he helped to inspire not only ,pope1 but ,thomson and ,cowper and ,wordsworth4 ,he was inevitably interested in painting1 but his tastes were merely those of the ordinary connoisseur of his time4 ,this gives a certain superficiality to his general sthetic vision1 though it was far from true1 as the theologians supposed1 that he was lacking in seriousness4 ,his chief immediate followers1 like ,hutcheson1 came out of ,calvinistic ,puritanism4 ,he was himself an austere ,stoic who adapted himself to the tone of the well-bred world he lived in4 ,but if an amateur1 he was an amateur of genius4 ,he threw a vast and fruitful conception--caught from the 8,poetics0 of ,aristotle1 8the ,great ,master of ,arts10 and developed with fine insight--into our modern world4 ,most of the great ,european thinkers of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were in some measure inspired1 influenced1 or anticipated by ,shaftesbury4 ,even ,kant1 though he was unsympathetic and niggardly of appreciation1 helped to develop the conception ,shaftesbury first formulated4 ,to-day we see it on every hand4 ,it is slowly and subtly moulding the whole of our modern morality4 8,the greatest ,greek of modern times0--so he appears to those who study his work to-day4 ,it is through ,shaftesbury1 and ,shaftesbury alone that ,greek morals1 in their finest essence1 have been a vivifying influence in our modern world4 ,georg von ,gizycki1 who has perhaps most clearly apprehended ,shaftesbury's place in morals1 indicates that place with precision and justice when he states that 8he furnished the elements of a moral philosophy which fits into the frame of a truly scientific conception of the world40#aja ,that was a service to the modern world so great and so daring that it could scarcely meet with approval from his fellow countrymen4 ,the more keenly philosophical ,scotch1 indeed1 recognised him1 first of all ,hume1 and he was accepted and embodied as a kind of founder by the so-called ,scottish ,school1 though so toned down and adulterated and adapted to popular tastes and needs1 that in the end he was thereby discredited4 ,but the ,english never even adulterated him2 they clung to the antiquated and eschatological ,paley1 bringing forth edition after edition of his works whereon to discipline their youthful minds4 ,that led naturally on to the ,english ,utilitarians in morality1 who would disdain to look at anything that could be called ,greek4 ,sir ,leslie ,stephen1 who was the vigorous and capable interpreter to the general public of ,utilitarianism1 could see nothing good whatever in ,shaftesbury2 he viewed him with contemptuous pity and could only murmur3 8,poor ,shaftesbury60 ,meanwhile ,shaftesbury's fame had from the first been pursuing a very different course in ,france and ,germany1 for it is the people outside a man's own country who anticipate the verdict of posterity4 ,leibnitz1 whose vast genius was on some sides akin 7,shaftesbury has1 indeed1 been termed 8the ,leibnitz of morals071 admired the ,english thinker1 and the universal ,voltaire recognised him4 ,montesquieu placed him on a four-square summit with ,plato and ,montaigne and ,malebranche4 ,the enthusiastic ,diderot1 seeing in ,shaftesbury the exponent of the naturalistic ethics of his own temperament1 translated a large part of his chief book in #agde4 ,herder1 who inspired so many of the chief thinkers of the nineteenth century and even of to-day1 was himself largely inspired by ,shaftesbury1 whom he once called 8the virtuoso of humanity10 regarding his writings as1 even in form1 well-nigh worthy of ,greek antiquity1 and long proposed to make a comparative study of the ethical conceptions of ,spinoza1 ,leibnitz1 and ,shaftesbury1 but unfortunately never carried out that happy idea4 ,rousseau1 not only by contact of ideas1 but the spontaneous effort of his own nature towards autonomous harmony1 was in touch with ,shaftesbury1 and so helped to bring his ideals into the general stream of modern life4 ,shaftesbury1 directly or indirectly1 inspired the early influential ,french ,socialists and ,communists4 ,on the other hand he has equally inspired the moralists of individualism4 ,even the ,spanish-,american ,rod1 one of the most delicately aristocratic of modern moralists in recent time1 puts forth conceptions1 which1 consciously or unconsciously1 are precisely those of ,shaftesbury4 ,rod believes that all moral evil is a dissonance in the sthetic of conduct and that the moral task in character is that of the sculptor in marble3 8,virtue is a kind of art1 a divine art40 ,even ,croce1 who began by making a deep division between art and life1 holds that there can be no great critic of art who is not also a great critic of life1 for sthetic criticism is really itself a criticism of life1 and his whole philosophy may be regarded as representing a stage of transition between the old traditional view of the world and that conception towards which in the modern world our gaze is turned4#ajb ,as ,shaftesbury had stated the matter1 however1 it was left on the whole vague and large4 ,he made no very clear distinction between the creative artistic impulse in life and critical sthetic appreciation4 ,in the sphere of morals we must often be content to wait until our activity is completed to appreciate its beauty or its ugliness4#ajc ,on the background of general sthetic judgment we have to concentrate on the forces of creative artistic activity1 whose work it is painfully to mould the clay of moral action1 and forge its iron1 long before the sthetic criterion can be applied to the final product4 ,the artist's work in life is full of struggle and toil2 it is only the spectator of morals who can assume the calm sthetic attitude4 ,shaftesbury1 indeed1 evidently recognised this1 but it was not enough to say1 as he said1 that we may prepare ourselves for moral action by study in literature4 ,one may be willing to regard living as an art1 and yet be of opinion that it is as unsatisfactory to learn the art of living in literature as to learn1 let us say1 the art of music in architecture4 ,yet we must not allow these considerations to lead us away from the great fact that ,shaftesbury clearly realised--what modern psychology emphasises--that desires can only be countered by desires1 that reason cannot affect appetite4 8,that which is of original and pure nature10 he declared1 8nothing besides contrary habit and custom 7a second nature7 is able to displace4 ,there is no speculative opinion1 persuasion1 or belief1 which is capable immediately or directly to exclude or destroy it40 ,where he went beyond some modern psychologists is in his ,hellenic perception that in this sphere of instinct we are amid the play of art to which sthetic criteria alone can be applied4 ,it was necessary to concentrate and apply these large general ideas4 ,to some extent this was done by ,shaftesbury's immediate successors and followers1 such as ,hutcheson and ,arbuckle1 who taught that man is1 ethically1 an artist whose work is his own life4 ,they concentrated attention on the really creative aspects of the artist in life1 sthetic appreciation of the finished product being regarded as secondary4 ,for all art is1 primarily1 not a contemplation1 but a doing1 a creative action1 and morality is so preminently4 ,shaftesbury1 with his followers ,arbuckle and ,hutcheson1 may be regarded as the founders of sthetics2 it was ,hutcheson1 though he happened to be the least genuinely sthetic in temperament of the three1 who wrote the first modern treatise on sthetics4 ,together1 also1 they may be said to have been the revivalists of ,hellenism1 that is to say1 of the ,hellenic spirit1 or rather of the classic spirit1 for it often came through ,roman channels4 ,shaftesbury was1 as ,eucken has well said1 the ,greek spirit among ,english thinkers4 ,he represented an inevitable reaction against ,puritanism1 a reaction which is still going on--indeed1 here and there only just beginning4 ,as ,puritanism had achieved so notable a victory in ,england1 it was natural that in ,england the first great champion of ,hellenism should appear4 ,it is to ,oliver ,cromwell and ,praise-,god ,barebones that we owe ,shaftesbury4 ,after ,shaftesbury it is ,arbuckle who first deserves attention1 though he wrote so little that he never attained the prominence he deserved4#ajd ,he was a ,dublin physician of ,scottish ancestry1 the friend of ,swift1 by whom he was highly esteemed1 and he was a cripple from boyhood4 ,he was a man of genuine artistic temperament1 though the art he was attracted to was not1 as with ,shaftesbury1 the sculptor's or the painter's1 but the poet's4 ,it was not so much intuition on which he insisted1 but imagination as formative of a character2 moral approval seemed to him thoroughly sthetic1 part of an imaginative act which framed the ideal of a beautiful personality1 externalising itself in action4 ,when ,robert ,bridges1 the poet of our own time1 suggests 7in his 8,necessity of ,poetry07 that 8morals is that part of ,poetry which deals with conduct10 he is speaking in the spirit of ,arbuckle4 ,an earlier and greater poet was still nearer to ,arbuckle4 8,a man to be greatly good10 said ,shelley in his 8,defence of ,poetry10 8must imagine intensely and comprehensively4444 ,the great instrument of moral good is the imagination40 ,if1 indeed1 with ,adam ,smith and ,schopenhauer1 we choose to base morals on sympathy we really are thereby making the poet's imagination the great moral instrument4 ,morals was for ,arbuckle a disinterested sthetic harmony1 and he had caught much of the genuine ,greek spirit4 ,hutcheson was in this respect less successful4 ,though he had occupied himself with sthetics he had little true sthetic feeling2 and though he accomplished much for the revival of ,greek studies his own sympathies were really with the ,roman ,stoics1 with ,cicero1 with ,marcus ,aurelius1 and in this way he was led towards ,christianity1 to which ,shaftesbury was really alien4 ,he democratised if not vulgarised1 and diluted if not debased1 ,shaftesbury's loftier conception4 ,in his too widely sympathetic and receptive mind the ,shaftesburian ideal was not only ,romanised1 not only ,christianised2 it was plunged into a miscellaneously eclectic mass that often became inconsistent and incoherent4 ,in the long run1 in spite of his great immediate success1 he injured in these ways the cause he advocated4 ,he overemphasised the passively sthetic side of morals2 he dwelt on the term 8moral sense10 by ,shaftesbury only occasionally used1 as it had long previously been by ,aristotle 7and then only in the sense of 8natural temper0 by analogy with the physical senses71 and this term was long a stumbling-block in the eyes of innocent philosophic critics1 too easily befooled by words1 who failed to see that1 as ,libby has pointed out1 the underlying idea simply is1 as held by ,shaftesbury1 that sthetic notions of proportion and symmetry depend upon the native structure of the mind and only so constitute a 8moral sense40#aje ,what ,hutcheson1 as distinct from ,shaftesbury1 meant by a 8moral sense0--really a conative instinct--is sufficiently indicated by the fact that he was inclined to consider the conjugal and parental affections as a 8sense0 because natural4 ,he desired to shut out reason1 and cognitive elements1 and that again brought him to the conception of morality as instinctive4 ,hutcheson's conception of 8sense0 was defective as being too liable to be regarded as passive rather than as conative1 though conation was implied4 ,the fact that the 8moral sense0 was really instinct1 and had nothing whatever to do with 8innate ideas10 as many have ignorantly supposed1 was clearly seen by ,hutcheson's opponents4 ,the chief objection brought forward by the ,reverend ,john ,balguy in #agbh1 in the first part of his 8,foundation of ,moral ,goodness10 was precisely that ,hutcheson based morality on instinct and so had allowed 8some degree of morality to animals40#ajf ,it was ,hutcheson's fine and impressive personality1 his high character1 his eloquence1 his influential position1 which enabled him to keep alive the conception of morals he preached1 and even to give it an effective force1 throughout the ,european world1 it might not otherwise easily have exerted4 ,philosophy was to ,hutcheson the art of living--as it was to the old ,greek philosophers--rather than a question of metaphysics1 and he was careless of consistency in thinking1 an open-minded eclectic who insisted that life itself is the great matter4 ,that1 no doubt1 was the reason why he had so immense an influence4 ,it was mainly through ,hutcheson that the more aristocratic spirit of ,shaftesbury was poured into the circulatory channels of the world's life4 ,hume and ,adam ,smith and ,reid were either the pupils of ,hutcheson or directly influenced by him4 ,he was a great personality rather than a great thinker1 and it was as such that he exerted so much force in philosophy4#ajg ,with ,schiller1 whose attitude was not1 however1 based directly on ,shaftesbury1 the sthetic conception of morals1 which in its definitely conscious form had up till then been especially ,english1 may be said to have entered the main stream of culture4 ,schiller regarded the identity of ,duty and ,inclination as the ideal goal of human development1 and looked on the ,genius of ,beauty as the chief guide of life4 ,wilhelm von ,humboldt1 one of the greatest spirits of that age1 was moved by the same ideas1 throughout his life1 much as in many respects he changed1 and even shortly before his death wrote in deprecation of the notion that conformity to duty is the final aim of morality4 ,goethe1 who was the intimate friend of both ,schiller and ,humboldt1 largely shared the same attitude1 and through him it has had a subtle and boundless influence4 ,kant1 who1 it has been said1 mistook ,duty for a ,prussian drill-sergeant1 still ruled the academic moral world4 ,but a new vivifying and moulding force had entered the larger moral world1 and to-day we may detect its presence on every side4 ,v ,it has often been brought against the conception of morality as an art that it lacks seriousness4 ,it seems to many people to involve an easy1 self-indulgent1 dilettante way of looking at life4 ,certainly it is not the way of the ,old ,testament4 ,except in imaginative literature--it was1 indeed1 an enormous and fateful exception--the ,hebrews were no 8sthetic intuitionists40 ,they hated art1 for the rest1 and in face of the problems of living they were not in the habit of considering the lilies how they grow4 ,it was not the beauty of holiness1 but the stern rod of a jealous ,jehovah1 which they craved for their encouragement along the path of ,duty4 ,and it is the ,hebrew mode of feeling which has been1 more or less violently and imperfectly1 grafted into our ,christianity4#ajh ,it is a complete mistake1 however1 to suppose that those for whom life is an art have entered on an easy path1 with nothing but enjoyment and self-indulgence before them4 ,the reverse is nearer to the truth4 ,it is probably the hedonist who had better choose rules if he only cares to make life pleasant4#aji ,for the artist life is always a discipline1 and no discipline can be without pain4 ,that is so even of dancing1 which of all the arts is most associated in the popular mind with pleasure4 ,to learn to dance is the most austere of disciplines1 and even for those who have attained to the summit of its art often remains a discipline not to be exercised without heroism4 ,the dancer seems a thing of joy1 but we are told that this famous dancer's slippers are filled with blood when the dance is over1 and that one falls down pulseless and deathlike on leaving the stage1 and the other must spend the day in darkness and silence4 8,it is no small advantage10 said ,nietzsche1 8to have a hundred ,damoclean swords suspended above one's head2 that is how one learns to dance1 that is how one attains #8freedom of movement4'0#aaj ,for as pain is entwined in an essential element in the perfect achievement of that which seems naturally the most pleasurable of the arts1 so it is with the whole art of living1 of which dancing is the supreme symbol4 ,there is no separating ,pain and ,pleasure without making the first meaningless for all vital ends and the second turn to ashes4 ,to exalt pleasure is to exalt pain2 and we cannot understand the meaning of pain unless we understand the place of pleasure in the art of life4 ,in ,england1 ,james ,hinton sought to make that clear1 equally against those who failed to see that pain is as necessary morally as it undoubtedly is biologically1 and against those who would puritanically refuse to accept the morality of pleasure4#aaa ,it is no doubt important to resist pain1 but it is also important that it should be there to resist4 ,even when we look at the matter no longer subjectively but objectively1 we must accept pain in any sound sthetic or metaphysical picture of the world4#aab ,we must not be surprised1 therefore1 that this way of looking at life as an art has spontaneously commended itself to men of the gravest and deepest character1 in all other respects widely unlike4 ,shaftesbury was temperamentally a ,stoic whose fragile constitution involved a perpetual endeavour to mould life to the form of his ideal4 ,and if we go back to ,marcus ,aurelius we find an austere and heroic man whose whole life1 as we trace it in his 8,meditations10 was a splendid struggle1 a man who--even1 it seems1 unconsciously--had adopted the sthetic criterion of moral goodness and the artistic conception of moral action4 ,dancing and wrestling express to his eyes the activity of the man who is striving to live1 and the goodness of moral actions instinctively appears to him as the beauty of natural objects2 it is to ,marcus ,aurelius that we owe that immortal utterance of sthetic intuitionism3 8,as though the emerald should say3 #8,whatever happens ,i must be emerald4'0 ,there could be no man more unlike the ,roman ,emperor1 or in any more remote field of action1 than the ,french saint and philanthropist ,vincent de ,paul4 ,at once a genuine ,christian mystic and a very wise and marvellously effective man of action1 ,vincent de ,paul adopts precisely the same simile of the moral attitude that had long before been put forth by ,plotinus and in the next century was again to be taken up by ,shaftesbury3 8,my daughters10 he wrote to the ,sisters of ,charity1 8we are each like a block of stone which is to be transferred into a statue4 ,what must the sculptor do to carry out his design8 ,first of all he must take the hammer and chip off all that he does not need4 ,for this purpose he strikes the stone so violently that if you were watching him you would say he intended to break it to pieces4 ,then1 when he has got rid of the rougher parts1 he takes a smaller hammer1 and afterwards a chisel1 to begin the face with all the features4 ,when that has taken form1 he uses other and finer tools to bring it to that perfection he has intended for his statue40 ,if we desire to find a spiritual artist as unlike as possible to ,vincent de ,paul we may take ,nietzsche4 ,alien as any man could ever be to a cheap or superficial vision of the moral life1 and far too intellectually keen to confuse moral problems with purely sthetic problems1 ,nietzsche1 when faced by the problem of living1 sets himself--almost as instinctively as ,marcus ,aurelius or ,vincent de ,paul--at the standpoint of art4 8,alles ,leben ist ,streit um ,geschmack und ,schmecken40 ,it is a crucial passage in 8,zarathustra03 8,all life is a dispute about taste and tasting6 ,taste3 that is weight and at the same time scales and weigher2 and woe to all living things that would live without dispute about weight and scales and weigher60 ,for this gospel of taste is no easy gospel4 ,a man must make himself a work of art1 ,nietzsche again and again declares1 moulded into beauty by suffering1 for such art is the highest morality1 the morality of the ,creator4 ,there is a certain indefiniteness about the conception of morality as an artistic impulse1 to be judged by an sthetic criterion1 which is profoundly repugnant to at least two classes of minds fully entitled to make their antipathy felt4 ,in the first place1 it makes no appeal to the abstract reasoner1 indifferent to the manifoldly concrete problems of living4 ,for the man whose brain is hypertrophied and his practical life shrivelled to an insignificant routine--the man of whom ,kant is the supreme type--it is always a temptation to rationalise morality4 ,such a pure intellectualist1 overlooking the fact that human beings are not mathematical figures1 may even desire to transform ethics into a species of geometry4 ,that we may see in ,spinoza1 a nobler and more inspiring figure1 no doubt1 but of the same temperament as ,kant4 ,the impulses and desires of ordinary men and women are manifold1 inconstant1 often conflicting1 and sometimes overwhelming4 8,morality is a fact of sensibility10 remarks ,jules de ,gaultier2 8it has no need to have recourse to reason for its affirmations40 ,but to men of the intellectualist type this consideration is almost negligible2 all the passions and affections of humanity seem to them meek as sheep which they may shepherd1 and pen within the flimsiest hurdles4 ,william ,blake1 who could cut down to that central core of the world where all things are fused together1 knew better when he said that the only golden rule of life is 8the great and golden rule of art40 ,james ,hinton was for ever expatiating on the close resemblance between the methods of art1 as shown especially in painting1 and the methods of moral action4 ,thoreau1 who also belonged to this tribe1 declared1 in the same spirit as ,blake1 that there is no golden rule in morals1 for rules are only current silver2 8it is golden not to have any rule at all40 ,there is another quite different type of person who shares this antipathy to the indefiniteness of sthetic morality3 the ambitious moral reformer4 ,the man of this class is usually by no means devoid of strong passions2 but for the most part he possesses no great intellectual calibre and so is unable to estimate the force and complexity of human impulses4 ,the moral reformer1 eager to introduce the millennium here and now by the aid of the newest mechanical devices1 is righteously indignant with anything so vague as an sthetic morality4 ,he must have definite rules and regulations1 clear-cut laws and by-laws1 with an arbitrary list of penalties attached1 to be duly inflicted in this world or the next4 ,the popular conception of ,moses1 descending from the sacred mount with a brand-new table of commandments1 which he declares have been delivered to him by ,god1 though he is ready to smash them to pieces on the slightest provocation1 furnishes a delightful image of the typical moral reformer of every age4 ,it is1 however1 only in savage and barbarous stages of society1 or among the uncultivated classes of civilisation1 that the men of this type can find their faithful followers4 ,yet there is more to be said4 ,that very indefiniteness of the criterion of moral action1 falsely supposed to be a disadvantage1 is really the prime condition for effective moral action4 ,the academic philosophers of ethics1 had they possessed virility enough to enter the field of real life1 would have realised--as we cannot expect the moral reformers blinded by the smoke of their own fanaticism to realise--that the slavery to rigid formulas which they preached was the death of all high moral responsibility4 ,life must always be a great adventure1 with risks on every hand2 a clear-sighted eye1 a many-sided sympathy1 a fine daring1 an endless patience1 are for ever necessary to all good living4 ,with such qualities alone may the artist in life reach success2 without them even the most devoted slave to formulas can only meet disaster4 ,no reasonable moral being may draw breath in the world without an open-eyed freedom of choice1 and if the moral world is to be governed by laws1 better to people it with automatic machines than with living men and women4 ,in our human world the precision of mechanism is for ever impossible4 ,the indefiniteness of morality is a part of its necessary imperfection4 ,there is not only room in morality for the high aspiration1 the courageous decision1 the tonic thrill of the muscles of the soul1 but we have to admit also sacrifice and pain4 ,the lesser good1 our own or that of others1 is merged in a larger good1 and that cannot be without some rending of the heart4 ,so all moral action1 however in the end it may be justified by its harmony and balance1 is in the making cruel and in a sense even immoral4 ,therein lies the final justification of the sthetic conception of morality4 ,it opens a wider perspective and reveals loftier standpoints2 it shows how the seeming loss is part of an ultimate gain1 so restoring that harmony and beauty which the unintelligent partisans of a hard and barren duty so often destroy for ever4 8,art10 as ,paulhan declares1 8is often more moral than morality itself40 ,or1 as ,jules de ,gaultier holds1 8,art is in a certain sense the only morality which life admits40 ,in so far as we can infuse it with the spirit and method of art1 we have transformed morality into something beyond morality2 it has become the complete embodiment of the ,dance of ,life4 ,footnote #hi3 ,what we call crime is1 at the beginning1 usually an effort to get1 or to pretend to get1 into step1 but1 being a violent or miscalculated effort1 it is liable to fail1 and the criminal falls to the rear of the social army4 8,i believe that most murders are really committed by ,mrs4 ,grundy10 a woman writes to me1 and1 with the due qualification1 the saying is worthy of meditation4 ,that is why justice is impotent to prevent or even to punish murder1 for ,mrs4 ,grundy is within all of us1 being a part of the social discipline1 and cannot be hanged4 ,footnote #ij3 ,herbert ,spencer1 writing to a correspondent1 once well expressed the harmlessness--if we choose so to regard it--of moral teaching3 8,after nearly two thousand years' preaching of the religion of amity1 the religion of enmity remains predominant1 and ,europe is peopled by two hundred million pagans1 masquerading as ,christians1 who revile those who wish them to act on the principles they profess40 ,footnote #ia3 ,but later asceticism was strictly the outcome of a ,greek tendency1 to be traced in ,plato1 developed through ,antisthenes1 through ,zeno1 through ,epictetus1 who all desired to liberate the soul from the bonds of matter4 ,the ,neo-,platonists carried this tendency further1 for in their time1 the prevailing anarchy and confusion rendered the world and society less than ever a fitting haven for the soul4 ,it was not ,christianity that made the world ascetic 7and there were elements of hedonism in the teaching of ,jesus71 but the world that made ,christianity ascetic1 and it was easy for a ,christian to become a ,neo-,platonist1 for they were both being moulded by the same forces4 ,footnote #ib3 ,maurice ,croiset devotes a few luminous critical pages to ,plotinus in the ,croisets' ,histoire de la ,littrature ,grecque1 vol4 ,v1 pp4 #hbj-ca4 ,as an extended account of ,plotinus1 from a more enthusiastically sympathetic standpoint1 there are ,dr4 ,inge's well-known ,gifford ,lectures1 ,the ,philosophy of ,plotinus 7#aiah72 ,i may also mention a careful scholastic study1 ,l',esthtique de ,plotin 7#aiac71 by ,cochez1 of ,louvain1 who regards ,plotinus as the climax of the objective sthetics of antiquity and the beginning of the road to modern subjective sthetics4 ,footnote #ic3 ,ennead1 bk4 ,,iii1 chap4 ,,vi4 ,i have mostly followed the translation of ,stephen ,mc,kenna4 ,footnote #id3 ,st4 ,augustine1 ,de ,civitate ,dei1 bk4 ,,iv1 chap4 ,,xxi4 ,footnote #ie3 ,kant was habitually cold and calm4 ,but he was very fond of dried fruits and used to have them specially imported for him by his friend ,motherby4 8,at one time he was eagerly expecting a vessel with ,french fruits which he had ordered1 and he had already invited some friends to a dinner at which they were to be served4 ,the vessel was1 however1 delayed a number of days by a storm4 ,when it arrived1 ,kant was informed that the provisions had become short on account of the delay1 and that the crew had eaten his fruit4 ,kant was so angry that he declared they ought rather to have starved than to have touched it4 ,surprised at this irritation1 ,motherby said1 #8,professor1 you cannot be in earnest4' ,kant answered1 #8,i am really in earnest1' and went away4 ,afterwards he was sorry40 7,quoted by ,stuckenberg1 ,the ,life of ,kant1 p4 #ach47 ,but still it was quite in accordance with ,kantian morality that the sailors should have starved4 ,footnote #if3 ,georg von ,gizycki1 ,die ,ethik ,david ,hume's1 p4 #aa4 ,footnote #ig3 ,f4 ,c4 ,sharp1 ,mind 7#aiab71 p4 #chh4 ,footnote #ih3 ,shaftesbury held that ,locke swept away too much and failed to allow for inborn instincts 7or 8senses10 as he sometimes called them7 developing naturally4 ,we now see that he was right4 ,footnote #ii3 ,there is no need to refer to the value of salt1 and therefore the appreciation of the flavour of salt1 to primitive people4 ,still to-day1 in ,spain1 sal 7salt7 is popularly used for a more or less intellectual and moral quality which is highly admired4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,dr4 ,c4 ,s4 ,myers has touched on this point in ,reports of the ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 vol4 ,,ii1 part ,,ii1 chap4 ,,iv2 also 8,the ,taste-,names of ,primitive ,peoples10 ,british ,journal of ,psychology1 ,june1 #aijd4 ,footnote #aja3 ,dr4 ,georg von ,gizycki1 ,die ,philosophie ,shaftesbury's 7#ahgf72 and the same author's ,die ,ethik ,david ,hume's 7#ahgh74 ,footnote #ajb3 ,it should be added that ,croce is himself moving in this direction1 and in1 for instance1 ,il ,carattere di ,totalit della ,espressione ,artistica 7#aiag71 he recognises the universality of art4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,stanley ,hall remarks in criticising ,kant's moral sthetics3 8,the beauty of virtue is only seen in contemplating it and the act of doing it has no beauty to the doer at the moment40 7,g4 ,stanley ,hall1 8,why ,kant is ,passing10 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,july1 #aiab47 ,footnote #ajd3 ,see article on ,arbuckle by ,w4 ,r4 ,scott in ,mind1 ,april1 #ahii4 ,footnote #aje3 ,see a helpful paper by ,m4 ,f4 ,libby1 8,influence of the ,idea of sthetic ,proportion on the ,ethics of ,shaftesbury10 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,may-,october1 #aija4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,we find fallacious criticism of the 8moral sense0 down to almost recent times1 in1 for instance1 ,mc,dougall's ,social ,psychology1 even though ,mc,dougall1 by his insistence on the instinctive basis of morality1 was himself carrying on the tradition of ,shaftesbury and ,hutcheson4 ,but ,mc,dougall also dragged in 8some prescribed code of conduct10 though he neglected to mention who is to 8prescribe0 it4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,see ,w4 ,r4 ,scott1 ,francis ,hutcheson3 ,his ,life1 ,teaching and ,position in the ,history of ,philosophy4 7#aijj47 ,footnote #ajh3 ,it is noteworthy1 however1 that the sthetic view of morals has had advocates1 not only among the more latitudinarian ,protestants1 but in ,catholicism4 ,a few years ago the ,reverend ,dr4 ,kolbe published a book on ,the ,art of ,life1 designed to show that just as the sculptor works with hammer and chisel to shape a block of marble into a form of beauty1 so ,man1 by the power of grace1 the illumination of faith1 and the instrument of prayer1 works to transform his soul4 ,but this simile of the sculptor1 which has appealed so strongly alike to ,christian and anti-,christian moralists1 proceeds1 whether or not they knew it1 from ,plotinus1 who1 in his famous chapter on ,beauty1 bids us note the sculptor4 8,he cuts away here1 he smooths there1 he makes this line lighter1 this other purer1 until a living face has grown upon his work4 ,so do you also cut away all that is excessive1 straighten all that is crooked1 bring light to all that is overcast1 make all one glow of beauty1 and never cease chiselling your statue until the godlike splendour shines on you from it1 and the perfect goodness stands1 surely1 in the stainless shrine40 ,footnote #aji3 8,they who pitched the goal of their aspiration so high knew that the paths leading up to it were rough and steep and long10 remarks ,a4 ,w4 ,benn 7,the ,greek ,philosophers1 #aiad1 p4 #eg72 8they said #8the beautiful is hard'--hard to judge1 hard to win1 hard to keep40 ,footnote #aaj3 ,der ,wille zur ,macht1 p4 #ceh4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,mrs4 ,havelock ,ellis1 ,james ,hinton1 #aiah4 ,footnote #aab3 ,this has been well seen by ,jules de ,gaultier3 8,the joys and the sorrows which fill life are1 the one and the other10 he says 7,la ,dpendance de la ,morale et l',indpendance des ,murs1 p4 #cdj71 8elements of spectacular interest1 and without the mixture of both that interest would be abolished4 ,to make of the representative worth of phenomena their justification in view of a spectacular end alone1 avoids the objection by which the moral thesis is faced1 the fact of pain4 ,pain becomes1 on the contrary1 the correlative of pleasure1 an indispensable means for its realization4 ,such a thesis is in agreement with the nature of things1 instead of being wounded by their existence40 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,conclusion ,i ,,life1 we have seen1 may be regarded as an art4 ,but we cannot help seeking to measure1 quantitatively if not qualitatively1 our mode of life4 ,we do so1 for the most part1 instinctively rather than scientifically4 ,it gratifies us to imagine that1 as a race1 we have reached a point on the road of progress beyond that vouchsafed to our benighted predecessors1 and that1 as individuals or as nations1 it is given to us1 fortunately1--or1 rather1 through our superior merits1--to enjoy a finer degree of civilisation than the individuals and the nations around us4 ,this feeling has been common to most or all branches of the human race4 ,in the classic world of antiquity they called outsiders1 indiscriminately1 8barbarians0--a denomination which took on an increasingly depreciative sense2 and even the lowest savages sometimes call their own tribe by a word which means 8men10 thereby implying that all other peoples are not worthy of the name4 ,but in recent centuries there has been an attempt to be more precise1 to give definite values to the feeling within us4 ,all sorts of dogmatic standards have been set up by which to measure the degree of a people's civilisation4 ,the development of demography and social statistics in civilised countries during the past century should1 it has seemed1 render such comparison easy4 ,yet the more carefully we look into the nature of these standards the more dubious they become4 ,on the one hand1 civilisation is so complex that no one test furnishes an adequate standard4 ,on the other hand1 the methods of statistics are so variable and uncertain1 so apt to be influenced by circumstance1 that it is never possible to be sure that one is operating with figures of equal weight4 ,recently this has been well and elaborately shown by ,professor ,niceforo1 the ,italian sociologist and statistician4#aac ,it is to be remembered that ,niceforo has himself been a daring pioneer in the measurement of life4 ,he has applied the statistical method not only to the natural and social sciences1 but even to art1 especially literature4 ,when1 therefore1 he discusses the whole question of the validity of the measurement of civilisation1 his conclusions deserve respect4 ,they are the more worthy of consideration since his originality in the statistical field is balanced by his learning1 and it is not easy to recall any scientific attempts in this field which he has failed to mention somewhere in his book1 if only in a footnote4 ,the difficulties begin at the outset1 and might well serve to bar even the entrance to discussion4 ,we want to measure the height to which we have been able to build our 8civilisation0 towards the skies2 we want to measure the progress we have made in our great dance of life towards the unknown future goal1 and we have no idea what either 8civilisation0 or 8progress0 means4#aad ,this difficulty is so crucial1 for it involves the very essence of the matter1 that it is better to place it aside and simply go ahead1 without deciding1 for the present1 precisely what the ultimate significance of the measurements we can make may prove to be4 ,quite sufficient other difficulties await us4 ,there is1 first of all1 the bewildering number of social phenomena we can now attempt to measure4 ,two centuries ago there were no comparable sets of figures whereby to measure one community against another community1 though at the end of the eighteenth century ,boisguillebert was already speaking of the possibility of constructing a 8barometer of prosperity40 ,even the most elementary measurable fact of all1 the numbering of peoples1 was carried out so casually and imperfectly and indirectly1 if at all1 that its growth and extent could hardly be compared with profit in any two nations4 ,as the life of a community increases in stability and orderliness and organisation1 registration incidentally grows elaborate1 and thereby the possibility of the by-product of statistics4 ,this aspect of social life began to become pronounced during the nineteenth century1 and it was in the middle of that century that ,quetelet appeared1 by no means as the first to use social statistics1 but the first great pioneer in the manipulation of such figures in a scientific manner1 with a large and philosophical outlook on their real significance4#aae ,since then the possible number of such means of numerical comparison has much increased4 ,the difficulty now is to know which are the most truly indicative of real superiority4 ,but before we consider that1 again even at the outset1 there is another difficulty4 ,our apparently comparable figures are often not really comparable4 ,each country or province or town puts forth its own sets of statistics and each set may be quite comparable within itself4 ,but when we begin critically to compare one set with another set1 all sorts of fallacies appear4 ,we have to allow1 not only for varying accuracy and completeness1 but for difference of method in collecting and registering the facts1 and for all sorts of qualifying circumstances which may exist at one place or time1 and not at other places or times with which we are seeking comparison4 ,the word 8civilisation0 is of recent formation4 ,it came from ,france1 but even in ,france in a ,dictionary of #agbg it cannot be found1 though the verb civiliser existed as far back as #afid1 meaning to polish manners1 to render sociable1 to become urbane1 one might say1 as a result of becoming urban1 of living as a citizen in cities4 ,we have to recognise1 of course1 that the idea of civilisation is relative2 that any community and any age has its own civilisation1 and its own ideals of civilisation4 ,but1 that assumed1 we may provisionally assert--and we shall be in general accordance with ,niceforo--that1 in its most comprehensive sense1 the art of civilisation includes the three groups of material facts1 intellectual facts1 and moral 7with political7 facts1 so covering all the essential facts in our life4 ,material facts1 which we are apt to consider the most easily measurable1 include quantity and distribution of population1 production of wealth1 the consumption of food and luxuries1 the standard of life4 ,intellectual facts include both the diffusion and degree of instruction and creative activity in genius4 ,moral facts include the prevalence of honesty1 justice1 pity1 and self-sacrifice1 the position of women and the care of children4 ,they are the most important of all for the quality of a civilisation4 ,voltaire pointed out that 8pity and justice are the foundations of society10 and1 long previously1 ,pericles in ,thucydides described the degradation of the ,peloponnesians among whom every one thinks only of his own advantage1 and every one believes that his own negligence of other things will pass unperceived4 ,plato in his 8,republic0 made justice the foundation of harmony in the outer life and the inner life1 while in modern times various philosophers1 like ,shadworth ,hodgson1 have emphasised that doctrine of ,plato's4 ,the whole art of government comes under this head and the whole treatment of human personality4 ,the comparative prevalence of criminality has long been the test most complacently adopted by those who seek to measure civilisation on its moral and most fundamental aspect4 ,crime is merely a name for the most obvious1 extreme1 and directly dangerous forms of what we call immorality--that is to say1 departure from the norm in manners and customs4 ,therefore the highest civilisation is that with the least crime4 ,but is it so8 ,the more carefully we look into the matter1 the more difficult it becomes to apply this test4 ,we find that even at the outset4 ,every civilised community has its own way of dealing with criminal statistics and the discrepancies thus introduced are so great that this fact alone makes comparisons almost impossible4 ,it is scarcely necessary to point out that varying skill and thoroughness in the detection of crime1 and varying severity in the attitude towards it1 necessarily count for much4 ,of not less significance is the legislative activity of the community2 the greater the number of laws1 the greater the number of offences against them4 ,if1 for instance1 ,prohibition is introduced into a country1 the amount of delinquency in that country is enormously increased1 but it would be rash to assert that the country has thereby been sensibly lowered in the scale of civilisation4 ,to avoid this difficulty1 it has been proposed to take into consideration only what are called 8natural crimes02 that is1 those everywhere regarded as punishable4 ,but1 even then1 there is a still more disconcerting consideration4 ,for1 after all1 the criminality of a country is a by-product of its energy in business and in the whole conduct of affairs4 ,it is a poisonous excretion1 but excretion is the measure of vital metabolism4 ,there are1 moreover1 the so-called evolutive social crimes1 which spring from motives not lower but higher than those ruling the society in which they arise4#aaf ,therefore1 we cannot be sure that we ought not to regard the most criminal country as that which in some aspects possesses the highest civilisation4 ,let us turn to the intellectual aspect of civilisation4 ,here we have at least two highly important and quite fairly measurable facts to consider3 the production of creative genius and the degree and diffusion of general instruction4 ,if we consider the matter abstractly1 it is highly probable that we shall declare that no civilisation can be worth while unless it is rich in creative genius and unless the population generally exhibits a sufficiently cultured level of education out of which such genius may arise freely and into which the seeds it produces may fruitfully fall4 ,yet1 what do we find8 ,alike1 whether we go back to the earliest civilisations we have definite information about or turn to the latest stages of civilisation we know to-day1 we fail to see any correspondence between these two essential conditions of civilisation4 ,among peoples in a low state of culture1 among savages generally1 such instruction and education as exists really is generally diffused2 every member of the community is initiated into the tribal traditions2 yet1 no observers of such peoples seem to note the emergence of individuals of strikingly productive genius4 ,that1 so far as we know1 began to appear1 and1 indeed1 in marvellous variety and excellence1 in ,greece1 and the civilisation of ,greece 7as later the more powerful but coarser civilisation of ,rome7 was built up on a broad basis of slavery1 which nowadays--except1 of course1 when disguised as industry--we no longer regard as compatible with high civilisation4 ,ancient ,greece1 indeed1 may suggest to us to ask whether the genius of a country be not directly opposed to the temper of the population of that country1 and its 8leaders0 really be its outcasts4 7,some believe that many1 if not all1 countries of to-day might serve to suggest the same question47 ,if we want to imagine the real spirit of ,greece1 we may have to think of a figure with a touch of ,ulysses1 indeed1 but with more of ,thersites4#aag ,the ,greeks who interest us to-day were exceptional people1 usually imprisoned1 exiled1 or slain by the more truly representative ,greeks of their time4 ,when ,plato and the others set forth so persistently an ideal of wise moderation they were really putting up--and in vain--a supplication for mercy to a people who1 as they had good ground for realising1 knew nothing of wisdom1 and scoffed at moderation1 and were mainly inspired by ferocity and intrigue4 ,to turn to a more recent example1 consider the splendid efflorescence of genius in ,russia during the central years of the last century1 still a vivifying influence on the literature and music of the world2 yet the population of ,russia had only just been delivered1 nominally at least1 from serfdom1 and still remained at the intellectual and economic level of serfs4 ,to-day1 education has become diffused in the ,western world4 ,yet no one would dream of asserting that genius is more prevalent4 ,consider the ,united ,states1 for instance1 during the past half-century4 ,it would surely be hard to find any country1 except ,germany1 where education is more highly esteemed or better understood1 and where instruction is more widely diffused4 ,yet1 so far as the production of high original genius is concerned1 an old ,italian city1 like ,florence1 with a few thousand inhabitants1 had far more to show than all the ,united ,states put together4 ,so that we are at a loss how to apply the intellectual test to the measurement of civilisation4 ,it would almost seem that the two essential elements of this test are mutually incompatible4 ,let us fall back on the simple solid fundamental test furnished by the material aspect of civilisation4 ,here we are among elementary facts and the first that began to be measured4 ,yet our difficulties1 instead of diminishing1 rather increase4 ,it is here1 too1 that we chiefly meet with what ,niceforo has called 8the paradoxical symptoms of superiority in progress10 though ,i should prefer to call them ambivalent2 that is to say1 that1 while from one point of view they indicate superiority1 from another1 even though some may call it a lower point of view1 they appear to indicate inferiority4 ,this is well illustrated by the test of growth of population1 or the height of the birth-rate1 better by the birth-rate considered in relation to the death-rate1 for they cannot be intelligibly considered apart4 ,the law of ,nature is reproduction1 and if an intellectual rabbit were able to study human civilisation he would undoubtedly regard rapidity of multiplication1 in which he has himself attained so high a degree of proficiency1 as evidence of progress in civilisation4 ,in fact1 as we know1 there are even human beings who take the same view1 whence we have what has been termed 8,rabbitism0 in men4 ,yet1 if anything is clear in this obscure field1 it is that the whole tendency of evolution is towards a diminishing birth-rate4#aah ,the most civilised countries everywhere1 and the most civilised people in them1 are those with the lowest birth-rate4 ,therefore1 we have here to measure the height of civilisation by a test which1 if carried to an extreme1 would mean the disappearance of civilisation4 ,another such ambivalent test is the consumption of luxuries of which alcohol and tobacco are the types4 ,there is held to be no surer test of civilisation than the increase per head of the consumption of alcohol and tobacco4 ,yet alcohol and tobacco are recognisably poisons1 so that their consumption has only to be carried far enough to destroy civilisation altogether4 ,again1 take the prevalence of suicide4 ,that1 without doubt1 is a test of height in civilisation2 it means that the population is winding up its nervous and intellectual system to the utmost point of tension and that sometimes it snaps4 ,we should be justified in regarding as very questionable a high civilisation which failed to show a high suicide-rate4 ,yet suicide is the sign of failure1 misery1 and despair4 ,how can we regard the prevalence of failure1 misery1 and despair as the mark of high civilisation8 ,thus1 whichever of the three groups of facts we attempt to measure1 it appears on examination almost hopelessly complex4 ,we have to try to make our methods correspondingly complex4 ,niceforo had invoked co-variation1 or simultaneous and sympathetic changes in various factors of civilisation2 he explains the index number1 and he appeals to mathematics for aid out of the difficulties4 ,he also attempts to combine1 with the help of diagrams1 a single picture out of these awkward and contradictory tests4 ,the example he gives is that of ,france during the fifty years preceding the war4 ,it is an interesting example because there is reason to consider ,france as1 in some respects1 the most highly civilised of countries4 ,what are the chief significant measurable marks of this superiority8 ,niceforo selects about a dozen1 and1 avoiding the difficult attempt to compare ,france with other countries1 he confines himself to the more easily practicable task of ascertaining whether1 or in what respects1 the general art of civilisation in ,france1 the movement of the collective life1 has been upward or downward4 ,when the different categories are translated1 according to recognised methods1 into index numbers1 taking the original figures from the official 8,rsum0 of ,french statistics1 it is found that each line of movement follows throughout the same direction1 though often in zigzag fashion1 and never turns back on itself4 ,in this way it appears that the consumption of coal has been more than doubled1 the consumption of luxuries 7sugar1 coffee1 alcohol7 nearly doubled1 the consumption of food per head 7as tested by cheese and potatoes7 also increasing4 ,suicide has increased fifty per cent2 wealth has increased slightly and irregularly2 the upward movement of population has been extremely slight and partly due to immigration2 the death-rate has fallen1 though not so much as the birth-rate2 the number of persons convicted of offence by the courts has fallen2 the proportion of illiterate persons has diminished2 divorces have greatly increased1 and also the number of syndicalist workers1 but these two movements are of comparative recent growth4 ,this example well shows what it is possible to do by the most easily available and generally accepted tests by which to measure the progress of a community in the art of civilisation4 ,every one of the tests applied to ,france reveals an upward tendency of civilisation1 though some of them1 such as the fall in the death-rate1 are not strongly pronounced and much smaller than may be found in many other countries4 ,yet1 at the same time1 while we have to admit that each of these lines of movement indicates an upward tendency of civilisation1 it by no means follows that we can view them all with complete satisfaction4 ,it may even be said that some of them have only to be carried further in order to indicate dissolution and decay4 ,the consumption of luxuries1 for instance1 as already noted1 is the consumption of poisons4 ,the increase of wealth means little unless we take into account its distribution4 ,the increase of syndicalism1 while it is a sign of increased independence1 intelligence1 and social aspiration among the workers1 is also a sign that the social system is becoming regarded as unsound4 ,so that1 while all these tests may be said to indicate a rising civilisation1 they yet do not invalidate the wise conclusion of ,niceforo that a civilisation is never an exclusive mass of benefits1 but a mass of values1 positive and negative1 and it may even be said that most often the conquest of a benefit in one domain of a civilisation brings into another domain of that civilisation inevitable evils4 ,long ago1 ,montesquieu had spoken of the evils of civilisation and left the question of the value of civilisation open1 while ,rousseau1 more passionately1 had decided against civilisation4 ,we see the whole question from another point1 yet not incongruously1 when we turn to ,professor ,william ,mc,dougall's ,lowell ,lectures1 8,is ,america ,safe for ,democracy80 since republished under the more general title 8,national ,welfare and ,national ,decay10 for the author recognises that the questions he deals with go to the root of all high civilisation4 ,as he truly observes1 civilisation grows constantly more complex and also less subject to the automatically balancing influence of national selection1 more dependent for its stability on our constantly regulative and foreseeing control4 ,yet1 while the intellectual task placed upon us is ever growing heavier1 our brains are not growing correspondingly heavier to bear it4 ,there is1 as ,remy de ,gourmont often pointed out1 no good reason to suppose that we are in any way innately superior to our savage ancestors1 who had at least as good physical constitutions and at least as large brains4 ,the result is that the small minority among us which alone can attempt to cope with our complexly developing civilisation comes to the top by means of what ,arsne ,dumont called social capillarity1 and ,mc,dougall the social ladder4 ,the small upper stratum is of high quality1 the large lower stratum of poor quality1 and with a tendency to feeble-mindedness4 ,it is to this large lower stratum that1 with our democratic tendencies1 we assign the political and other guidance of the community1 and it is this lower stratum which has the higher birth-rate1 since with all high civilisation the normal birth-rate is low4#aai ,mc,dougall is not concerned with the precise measurement of civilisation1 and may not be familiar with the attempts that have been made in that direction4 ,it is his object to point out the necessity in high civilisation for a deliberate and purposive art of eugenics1 if we would prevent the eventual shipwreck of civilisation4 ,but we see how his conclusions emphasise those difficulties in the measurement of civilisation which ,niceforo has so clearly set forth4 ,mc,dougall is repeating what many1 especially among eugenists1 have previously said4 ,while not disputing the element of truth in the facts and arguments brought forward from this side1 it may be pointed out that they are often overstated4 ,this has been well argued by ,carr-,saunders in his valuable and almost monumental work1 8,the ,population ,problem10 and his opinion is the more worthy of attention as he is himself a worker in the cause of eugenics4 ,he points out that the social ladder is1 after all1 hard to climb1 and that it only removes a few individuals from the lower social stratum1 while among those who thus climb1 even though they do not sink back1 regression to the mean is ever in operation so that they do not greatly enrich in the end the class they have climbed up to4 ,moreover1 as ,carr-,saunders pertinently asks1 are we so sure that the qualities that mark successful climbers--self-assertion1 acquisition1 emulation--are highly desirable8 8,it may even be10 he adds1 8that we might view a diminution in the average strength of some of the qualities which mark the successful at least with equanimity40 ,taken altogether1 it would seem that the differences between social classes may mainly be explained by environmental influences4 ,there is1 however1 ground to recognise a slight intellectual superiority in the upper social class1 apart from environment1 and so great is the significance for civilisation of quality that even when the difference seems slight it must not be regarded as negligible4#abj ,more than half a century ago1 indeed1 ,george ,sand pointed out that we must distinguish between the civilisation of quantity and the civilisation of quality4 ,as the great ,morgagni had said much earlier1 it is not enough to count1 we must evaluate2 8observations are not to be numbered1 they are to be weighed40 ,it is not the biggest things that are the most civilised things4 ,the largest structures of ,hindu or ,egyptian art are outweighed by the temples on the ,acropolis of ,athens1 and similarly1 as ,bryce1 who had studied the matter so thoroughly1 was wont to insist1 it is the smallest democracies which to-day stand highest in the scale4 ,we have seen that there is much in civilisation which we may profitably measure1 yet1 when we seek to scale the last heights of civilisation1 the ladder of our 8metrology0 comes to grief4 8,the methods of the mind are too weak10 as ,comte said1 8and the ,universe is too complex40 ,life1 even the life of the civilised community1 is an art1 and the too much is as fatal as the too little4 ,we may say of civilisation1 as ,renan said of truth1 that it lies in a nuance4 ,gumplowicz believed that civilisation is the beginning of disease2 ,arsne ,dumont thought that it inevitably held within itself a toxic principle1 a principle by which it is itself in time poisoned4 ,the more rapidly a civilisation progresses1 the sooner it dies for another to arise in its place4 ,that may not seem to every one a cheerful prospect4 ,yet1 if our civilisation has failed to enable us to look further than our own egoistic ends1 what has our civilisation been worth8 ,,ii ,,the attempt to apply measurement to civilisation is1 therefore1 a failure4 ,that is1 indeed1 only another way of saying that civilisation1 the whole manifold web of life1 is an art4 ,we may dissect out a vast number of separate threads and measure them4 ,it is quite worth while to do so4 ,but the results of such anatomical investigation admit of the most diverse interpretation1 and1 at the best1 can furnish no adequate criterion of the worth of a complex living civilisation4 ,yet1 although there is no precise measurement of the total value of any large form of life1 we can still make an estimate of its value4 ,we can approach it1 that is to say1 as a work of art4 ,we can even reach a certain approximation to agreement in the formation of such estimates4 ,when ,protagoras said that 8,man is the measure of all things10 he uttered a dictum which has been variously interpreted1 but from the standpoint we have now reached1 from which ,man is seen to be preminently an artist1 it is a monition to us that we cannot to the measurement of life apply our instruments of precision1 and cut life down to their graduated marks4 ,they have1 indeed1 their immensely valuable uses1 but it is strictly as instruments and not as ends of living or criteria of the worth of life4 ,it is in the failure to grasp this that the human tragedy has often consisted1 and for over two thousand years the dictum of ,protagoras has been held up for the pacification of that tragedy1 for the most part1 in vain4 ,protagoras was one of those 8,sophists0 who have been presented to our contempt in absurd traditional shapes ever since ,plato caricatured them--though it may well be that some1 as1 it has been suggested1 ,gorgias1 may have given colour to the caricature--and it is only to-day that it is possible to declare that we must place the names of ,protagoras1 of ,prodicus1 of ,hippias1 even of ,gorgias1 beside those of ,herodotus1 ,pindar1 and ,pericles4#aba ,it is in the sphere of morals that the conflict has often been most poignant4 ,i have already tried to indicate how revolutionary is the change which the thoughts of many have had to undergo4 ,this struggle of a living and flexible and growing morality against a morality that is rigid and inflexible and dead has at some periods of human history been almost dramatically presented4 ,it was so in the seventeenth century around the new moral discoveries of the ,jesuits2 and the ,jesuits were rewarded by becoming almost until to-day a by-word for all that is morally poisonous and crooked and false--for all that is 8,jesuitical40 ,there was once a great quarrel between the ,jesuits and the ,jansenists--a quarrel which is scarcely dead yet1 for all ,christendom took sides in it--and the ,jansenists had the supreme good fortune to entrap on their side a great man of genius whose onslaught on the ,jesuits1 8,les ,provinciales10 is even still supposed by many people to have settled the question4 ,they are allowed so to suppose because no one now reads 8,les ,provinciales40 ,but ,remy de ,gourmont1 who was not only a student of unread books but a powerfully live thinker1 read 8,les ,provinciales10 and found1 as he set forth in 8,le ,chemin de ,velours10 that it was the ,jesuits who were more nearly in the right1 more truly on the road of advance1 than ,pascal4 ,as ,gourmont showed by citation1 there were ,jesuit doctrines put forth by ,pascal with rhetorical irony as though the mere statement sufficed to condemn them1 which need only to be liberated from their irony1 and we might nowadays add to them4 ,thus spake ,zarathustra4 ,pascal was a geometrician who 7though he1 indeed1 once wrote in his 8,penses03 8,there is no general rule07 desired to deal with the variable1 obscure1 and unstable complexities of human action as though they were problems in mathematics4 ,but the ,jesuits1 while it is true that they still accepted the existence of absolute rules1 realised that rules must be made adjustable to the varying needs of life4 ,they thus became the pioneers of many conceptions which are accepted in modern practice4#abb ,their doctrine of invincible ignorance was a discovery of that kind1 forecasting some of the opinions now held regarding responsibility4 ,but in that age1 as ,gourmont pointed out1 8to proclaim that there might be a sin or an offence without guilty parties was an act of intellectual audacity1 as well as scientific probity40 ,nowadays the ,jesuits 7together1 it is interesting to note1 with their baroque architecture7 are coming into credit1 and casuistry again seems reputable4 ,to establish that there can be no single inflexible moral code for all individuals has been1 and indeed remains1 a difficult and delicate task1 yet the more profoundly one considers it1 the more clearly it becomes visible that what once seemed a dead and rigid code of morality must more and more become a living act of casuistry4 ,the ,jesuits1 because they had a glimmer of this truth1 represented1 as ,gourmont concluded1 the honest and most acceptable part of ,christianity1 responding to the necessities of life1 and were rendering a service to civilisation which we should never forget4 ,there are some who may not very cordially go to the ,jesuits as an example of the effort to liberate men from the burden of a subservience to rigid little rules1 towards the unification of life as an active process1 however influential they may be admitted to be among the pioneers of that movement4 ,yet we may turn in what direction we will1 we shall perpetually find the same movement under other disguises4 ,there is1 for instance1 ,mr4 ,bertrand ,russell1 who is1 for many1 the most interesting and stimulating thinker to be found in ,england to-day4 ,he might scarcely desire to be associated with the ,jesuits4 ,yet he also seeks to unify life and even in an essentially religious spirit4 ,his way of putting this1 in his 8,principles of ,social ,reconstruction10 is to state that man's impulses may be divided into those that are creative and those that are possessive1 that is to say1 concerned with acquisition4 ,the impulses of the second class are a source of inner and outer disharmony and they involve conflict2 8it is preoccupation with possessions more than anything else that prevents men from living freely and nobly02 it is the creative impulse in which real life consists1 and 8the typical creative impulse is that of the artist40 ,now this conception 7which was that ,plato assigned to the 8guardians0 in his communistic ,state7 may be a little too narrowly religious for those whose position in life renders a certain 8preoccupation with possessions0 inevitable2 it is useless to expect us all to become1 at present1 fakirs and ,franciscans1 8counting nothing one's own1 save only one's harp40 ,but in regarding the creative impulses as the essential part of life1 and as typically manifested in the form of art1 ,bertrand ,russell is clearly in the great line of movement with which we have been throughout concerned4 ,we must only at the same time--as we shall see later--remember that the distinction between the 8creative0 and the 8possessive0 impulses1 although convenient1 is superficial4 ,in creation we have not really put aside the possessive instinct1 we may even have intensified it4 ,for it has been reasonably argued that it is precisely the deep urgency of the impulse to possess which stirs the creative artist4 ,he creates because that is the best way1 or the only way1 of gratifying his passionate desire to possess4 ,two men desire to possess a woman1 and one seizes her1 the other writes a 8,vita ,nuova0 about her2 they have both gratified the instinct of possession1 and the second1 it may be1 most satisfyingly and most lastingly4 ,so that--apart from the impossibility1 and even the undesirability1 of dispensing with the possessive instinct--it may be well to recognise that the real question is one of values in possession4 ,we must needs lay up treasure2 but the fine artist in living1 so far as may be1 lays up his treasure in ,heaven4 ,in recent time some alert thinkers have been moved to attempt to measure the art of civilisation by less impossibly exact methods than of old1 by the standard of art1 and even of fine art4 ,in a remarkable book on 8,the ,revelations of ,civilisation0--published about three years before the outbreak of that ,great ,war which some have supposed to date a revolutionary point in civilisation--,dr4 ,w4 ,m4 ,flinders ,petrie1 who has expert knowledge of the ,egyptian civilisation which was second to none in its importance for mankind1 has set forth a statement of the cycles to which all civilisations are subject4 ,civilisation1 he points out1 is essentially an intermittent phenomenon4 ,we have to compare the various periods of civilisation and observe what they have in common in order to find the general type4 8,it should be examined like any other action of ,nature2 its recurrences should be studied1 and all the principles which underlie its variations should be defined40 ,sculpture1 he believes1 may be taken as a criterion1 not because it is the most important1 but because it is the most convenient and easily available1 test4 ,we may say with the old ,etruscans that every race has its ,great ,year--it sprouts1 flourishes1 decays1 and dies4 ,the simile1 ,petrie adds1 is the more precise because there are always irregular fluctuations of the seasonal weather4 ,there have been eight periods of civilisation1 he reckons1 in calculable human history4 ,we are now near the end of the eighth1 which reached its climax about the year #ahjj2 since then there have been merely archaistic revivals1 the value of which may be variously interpreted4 ,he scarcely thinks we can expect another period of civilisation to arise for several centuries at least4 ,the average length of a period of civilisation is #accj years4 ,ours ,petrie dates from about ,a4,d4 #dej4 ,it has always needed a fresh race to produce a new period of civilisation4 ,in ,europe1 between ,a4,d4 #cjj and #fjj1 some fifteen new races broke in from north and east for slow mixture4 8,if10 he concluded1 8the source of every civilisation has lain in race mixture1 it may be that eugenics will1 in some future civilisation1 carefully segregate fine races1 and prohibit continual mixture1 until they have a distinct type1 which will start a new civilisation when transplanted4 ,the future progress of ,man may depend as much on isolation to establish a type as on fusion of types when established40 ,at the time when ,flinders ,petrie was publishing his suggestive book1 ,dr4 ,oswald ,spengler1 apparently in complete ignorance of it1 was engaged in a far more elaborate work1 not actually published till after the ,war1 in which an analogous conception of the growth and decay of civilisations was put forward in a more philosophic way1 perhaps more debatable on account of the complex detail in which the conception was worked out4#abc ,petrie had considered the matter in a summary empiric manner with close reference to the actual forces viewed broadly4 ,spengler's manner is narrower1 more subjective1 and more metaphysical4 ,he distinguishes--though he also recognises eight periods--between 8culture0 and 8civilisation40 ,it is the first that is really vital and profitable2 a 8civilisation0 is the decaying later stage of a 8culture10 its inevitable fate4 ,herein it reaches its climax4 8,civilisations are the most externalised and artistic conditions of which the higher embodiment of ,man is capable4 ,they are a spiritual senility1 an end which with inner necessity is reached again and again40#abd ,the transition from 8culture0 to 8civilisation0 in ancient times took place1 ,spengler holds1 in the fourth century1 and in the modern ,west in the nineteenth4 ,but1 like ,petrie1 though more implicitly1 he recognises the prominent place of the art activities in the whole process1 and he explicitly emphasises the interesting way in which those activities which are generally regarded as of the nature of art are interwoven with others not so generally regarded4 ,,iii ,,however we look at it1 we see that ,man1 whether he works individually or collectively1 may conveniently be regarded1 in the comprehensive sense1 as an artist1 a bad artist1 maybe1 for the most part1 but still an artist4 ,his civilisation--if that is the term we choose to apply to the total sum of his group activities--is always an art1 or a complex of arts4 ,it is an art that is to be measured1 or left immeasurable4 ,that question1 we have seen1 we may best leave open4 ,another question that might be put is easy to deal with more summarily3 ,what is ,art8 ,we may deal with it summarily because it is an ultimate question and there can be no final answer to ultimate questions4 ,as soon as we begin to ask such questions1 as soon as we begin to look at any phenomenon as an end in itself1 we are on the perilous slope of metaphysics1 where no agreement can1 or should be1 possible4 ,the question of measurement was plausible1 and needed careful consideration4 ,what is ,art8 is a question which1 if we are wise1 we shall deal with as ,pilate dealt with that like question3 ,what is ,truth8 ,how futile the question is1 we may realise when we examine the book which ,tolstoy in old age wrote to answer it4 ,here is a man who was himself1 in his own field1 one of the world's supreme artists4 ,he could not fail to say one or two true things1 as when he points out that 8all human existence is full of art1 from cradle songs and dances to the offices of religion and public ceremonial--it is all equally art4 ,art1 in the large sense1 impregnates our whole life40 ,but on the main point all that ,tolstoy can do is to bring together a large miscellaneous collection of definitions--without seeing that as individual opinions they all have their rightness--and then to add one of his own1 not much worse1 nor much better1 than any of the others4 ,thereto he appends some of his own opinions on artists1 whence it appears that ,hugo1 ,dickens1 ,george ,eliot1 ,dostoievsky1 ,maupassant1 ,millet1 ,bastien-,lepage1 and ,jules ,breton--and not always they--are the artists whom he considers great2 it is not a list to treat with contempt1 but he goes on to pour contempt on those who venerate ,sophocles and ,aristophanes and ,dante and ,shakespeare and ,milton and ,michelangelo and ,bach and ,beethoven and ,manet4 8,my own artistic works10 he adds1 8,i rank among bad art1 excepting a few short stories40 ,it seems a reduction of the whole question1 ,what is ,art8 to absurdity1 if one may be permitted to say so at a time when ,tolstoy would appear to be the pioneer of some of our most approved modern critics4 ,thus we see the reason why all the people who come forward to define art--each with his own little measuring-rod quite different from everybody else's--inevitably make themselves ridiculous4 ,it is true they are all of them right4 ,that is just why they are ridiculous3 each has mistaken the one drop of water he has measured for the whole ocean4 ,art cannot be defined because it is infinite4 ,it is no accident that poetry1 which has so often seemed the typical art1 means a making4 ,the artist is a maker4 ,art is merely a name we are pleased to give to what can only be the whole stream of action which--in order to impart to it selection and an unconscious or even conscious aim--is poured through the nervous circuit of a human animal or some other animal having a more or less similar nervous organisation4 ,for a cat is an artist as well as a man1 and some would say more than a man1 while a bee is not only an obvious artist1 but perhaps even the typical natural and unconscious artist4 ,there is no defining art2 there is only the attempt to distinguish between good art and bad art4 ,thus it is that ,i find no escape from the ,aristotelian position of ,shakespeare that 8,nature is made better by no mean ,but ,nature makes that mean4444 ,this is an art ,which does mend ,nature1 change it rather1 but ,the art itself is ,nature40 ,and that this conception is ,aristotelian1 even the essential ,greek conception1 is no testimony to ,shakespeare's scholarship4 ,it is merely the proof that here we are in the presence of one of these great ultimate facts of the world which cannot but be sensitively perceived by the finest spirits1 however far apart in time and space4 ,aristotle1 altogether in the same spirit as ,shakespeare1 insisted that the works of man's making1 a ,state1 for example1 are natural1 though ,art partly completes what ,nature is herself sometimes unable to bring to perfection1 and even then that man is only exercising methods which1 after all1 are those of ,nature4 ,nature needs ,man's art in order to achieve many natural things1 and ,man1 in fulfilling that need1 is only following the guidance of ,nature in seeming to make things which are all the time growing by themselves4#abe ,art is thus scarcely more than the natural midwife of ,nature4 ,there is1 however1 one distinguishing mark of ,art which at this stage1 as we conclude our survey1 must be clearly indicated4 ,it has been subsumed1 as the acute reader will not have failed to note1 throughout4 ,but it has1 for the most part1 been deliberately left implicit4 ,it has constantly been assumed1 that is to say1 that ,art is the sum of all the active energies of ,mankind4 ,we must in this matter of necessity follow ,aristotle1 who in his 8,politics0 spoke1 as a matter of course1 of all those who practice 8medicine1 gymnastics1 and the arts in general0 as 8artists40 ,art is the moulding force of every culture that ,man during his long course has at any time or place produced4 ,it is the reality of what we imperfectly term 8morality40 ,it is all human creation4 ,yet creation1 in the active visible constructive sense1 is not the whole of ,man4 ,it is not even the whole of what ,man has been accustomed to call ,god4 ,when1 by what is now termed a process of ,narcissism1 ,man created ,god in his own image1 as we may instructively observe in the first chapter of the ,hebrew ,book of ,genesis1 he assigned to him six parts of active creational work1 one part of passive contemplation of that work4 ,that one seventh part--and an immensely important part--has not come under our consideration4 ,in other words1 we have been looking at ,man the artist1 not at ,man the sthetician4 ,there was more than one reason why these two aspects of human faculty were held clearly apart throughout our discussion4 ,not only is it even less possible to agree about sthetics1 where the variety of individual judgment is rightly larger1 than about art 7ancient and familiar is the saying1 ,de gustibus--71 but to confuse art and sthetics leads us into lamentable confusion4 ,we may note this in the pioneers of the modern revival of what ,sidgwick called 8sthetic ,intuitionism0 in the eighteenth century1 and especially in ,hutcheson1 though ,hutcheson's work is independent of consistency1 which he can scarcely even be said to have sought4 ,they never sufficiently emphasised the distinction between art and sthetics1 between1 that is to say1 what we may possibly1 if we like1 call the dynamic and the static aspects of human action4 ,herein is the whole difference between work1 for art is essentially work1 and the spectacular contemplation of work1 which sthetics essentially is4 ,the two things are ultimately one1 but alike in the special arts and in that art of life commonly spoken of as morals1 where we are not usually concerned with ultimates1 the two must be clearly held apart4 ,from the point of view of art we are concerned with the internal impulse to guide the activities in the lines of good work4 ,it is only when we look at the work of art from the outside1 whether in the more specialised arts or in the art of life1 that we are concerned with sthetic contemplation1 that activity of vision which creates beauty1 however we may please to define beauty1 and even though we see it so widely as to be able to say with ,remy de ,gourmont3 8,wherever life is1 there is beauty10#abf provided1 one may add1 that there is the sthetic contemplation in which it must be mirrored4 ,it is in relation with art1 not with sthetics1 it may be noted in passing1 that we are concerned with morals4 ,that was once a question of seemingly such immense import that men were willing to spiritually slay each other over it4 ,but it is not a question at all from the standpoint which has here from the outset been taken4 ,morals1 for us to-day1 is a species of which art is the genus4 ,it is an art1 and like all arts it necessarily has its own laws4 ,we are concerned with the art of morals3 we cannot speak of art and morals4 ,to take 8art0 and 8morals0 and 8religion10 and stir them up1 however vigorously1 into an indigestible plum-pudding1 as ,ruskin used to do1 is no longer possible4#abg ,this is a question which--like so many other furiously debated questions--only came into existence because the disputants on both sides were ignorant of the matter they were disputing about4 ,it is no longer to be taken seriously1 though it has its interest because the dispute has so often recurred1 not only in recent days1 but equally among the ,greeks of ,plato's days4 ,the ,greeks had a kind of sthetic morality4 ,it was instinctive with them1 and that is why it is so significant for us4 ,but they seldom seem to have succeeded in thinking sthetic problems clearly out4 ,the attitude of their philosophers towards many of the special arts1 even the arts in which they were themselves supreme1 to us seem unreasonable4 ,while they magnified the art1 they often belittled the artist1 and felt an aristocratic horror for anything that assimilated a man to a craftsman2 for craftsman meant for them vulgarian4 ,plato himself was all for goody-goody literature and in our days would be an enthusiastic patron of ,sunday-school stories4 ,he would forbid any novelist to represent a good man as ever miserable or a wicked man as ever happy4 ,the whole tendency of the discussion in the third book of the 8,republic0 is towards the conclusion that literature must be occupied exclusively with the representation of the virtuous man1 provided1 of course1 that he was not a slave or a craftsman1 for to such no virtue worthy of imitation should ever be attributed4 ,towards the end of his long life1 ,plato remained of the same opinion2 in the second book of 8,the ,laws0 it is with the maxims of virtue that he will have the poet solely concerned4 ,the reason for this ultra-puritanical attitude1 which was by no means in practice that of the ,greeks themselves1 seems not hard to divine4 ,the very fact that their morality was temperamentally sthetic instinctively impelled them1 when they were thinking philosophically1 to moralise art generally2 they had not yet reached the standpoint which would enable them to see that art might be consonant with morality without being artificially pressed into a narrow moral mould4 ,aristotle was conspicuously among those1 if not the first1 who took a broader and saner view4 ,in opposition to the common ,greek view that the object of art is to teach morals1 ,aristotle clearly expressed the totally different view that poetry in the wide sense--the special art which he and the ,greeks generally were alone much concerned to discuss--is an emotional delight1 having pleasure as its direct end1 and only indirectly a moral end by virtue of its cathartic effects4 ,therein he reached an sthetic standpoint1 yet it was so novel that he could not securely retain it and was constantly falling back towards the old moral conception of art4#abh ,we may call it a step in advance4 ,yet it was not a complete statement of the matter4 ,indeed1 it established the unreal conflict between two opposing conceptions1 each unsound because incomplete1 which loose thinkers have carried on ever since4 ,to assert that poetry exists for morals is merely to assert that one art exists for the sake of another art1 which at the best is rather a futile statement1 while1 so far as it is really accepted1 it cannot fail to crush the art thus subordinated4 ,if we have the insight to see that an art has its own part of life1 we shall also see that it has its own intrinsic morality1 which cannot be the morality of morals or of any other art than itself4 ,we may here profitably bear in mind that antinomy between morals and morality on which ,jules de ,gaultier has often insisted4 ,the ,puritan's strait-jacket shows the vigour of his external morals2 it also bears witness to the lack of internal morality which necessitates that control4 ,again1 on the other hand1 it is argued that art gives pleasure4 ,very true4 ,even the art of morals gives pleasure4 ,but to assert that therein lies its sole end and aim is an altogether feeble and inadequate conclusion1 unless we go further and proceed to inquire what 8pleasure0 means4 ,if we fail to take that further step1 it remains a conclusion which may be said to merge into the conclusion that art is aimless2 that1 rather1 its aim is to be aimless1 and so to lift us out of the struggle and turmoil of life4 ,that was the elaborately developed argument of ,schopenhauer3 art--whether in music1 in philosophy1 in painting1 in poetry--is useless2 8to be useless is the mark of genius1 its patent of nobility4 ,all other works of men are there for the preservation or alleviation of our existence2 but this alone not2 it alone is there for its own sake2 and is in this sense to be regarded as the flower1 or the pure essence1 of existence4 ,that is why in its enjoyment our heart rises1 for we are thereby lifted above the heavy earthen atmosphere of necessity40#abi ,life is a struggle of the will2 but in art the will has become objective1 fit for pure contemplation1 and genius consists in an eminent aptitude for contemplation4 ,the ordinary man1 said ,schopenhauer1 plods through the dark world with his lantern turned on the things he wants2 the man of genius sees the world by the light of the sun4 ,in modern times ,bergson adopted that view of ,schopenhauer's1 with a terminology of his own1 and all he said under this head may be regarded as a charming fantasia on the ,schopenhauerian theme3 8,genius is the most complete objectivity40 ,most of us1 it seems to ,bergson1 never see reality at all2 we only see the labels we have fixed on things to mark for us their usefulness4#acj ,a veil is interposed between us and the reality of things4 ,the artist1 the man of genius1 raises this veil and reveals ,nature to us4 ,he is naturally endowed with a detachment from life1 and so possesses as it were a virginal freshness in seeing1 hearing1 or thinking4 ,that is 8intuition10 an instinct that has become disinterested4 8,art has no other object but to remove the practically useful symbols1 the conventional and socially accepted generalities1 so as to bring us face to face with reality itself40#aca ,art would thus be fulfilling its function the more completely the further it removed us from ordinary life1 or1 more strictly1 from any personal interest in life4 ,that was also ,remy de ,gourmont's opinion1 though ,i do not know how far he directly derived it from ,schopenhauer4 8,if we give to art a moral aim10 he wrote1 8it ceases to exist1 for it ceases to be useless4 ,art is incompatible with a moral or religious aim4 ,it is unintelligible to the crowd because the crowd is not disinterested and knows only the principle of utility40 ,but the difficulty of making definite affirmation in this field1 the perpetual need to allow for nuances which often on the surface involve contradictions1 is seen when we find that so great an artist as ,einstein--for so we may here fairly call him--and one so little of a formal sthetician1 agrees with ,schopenhauer4 8,i agree with ,schopenhauer10 he said to ,moszkowski1 8that one of the most powerful motives that attract people to science and art is the longing to escape from everyday life1 with its painful coarseness and unconsoling barrenness1 and to break the fetters of their own ever-changing desires4 ,man seeks to form a simplified synoptical view of the world conformable to his own nature1 to overcome the world by replacing it with his picture4 ,the painter1 the poet1 the philosopher1 the scientist1 each does this in his own way4 ,he transfers the centre of his emotional life to this picture1 to find a surer haven of peace than the sphere of his turbulent personal experience offers40 ,that is a sound statement of the facts1 yet it is absurd to call such an achievement 8useless40 ,perhaps1 however1 what philosophers have really meant when they have said that art 7it is the so-called fine arts only that they have in mind7 is useless1 is that an art must not be consciously pursued for any primary useful end outside itself4 ,that is true4 ,it is even true of morals1 that is to say the art of living4 ,to live in the conscious primary pursuit of a 8useful0 end--such as one of the fine arts--outside living itself is to live badly2 to declare1 like ,andr ,gide1 that 8outside the doctrine of #8,art for ,art' ,i know not where to find any reason for living10 may well be the legitimate expression of a personal feeling1 but1 unless understood in the sense here taken1 it is not a philosophical statement which can be brought under the species of eternity1 being1 indeed1 one of those confusions of substances which are1 metaphysically1 damnable4 ,so1 again1 in the art of science3 the most useful applications of science have sprung from discoveries that were completely useless for purposes outside pure science1 so far as the aim of the discoverer went1 or even so far as he ever knew4 ,if he had been bent on 8useful0 ends1 he would probably have made no discovery at all4 ,but the bare statement that 8art is useless0 is so vague as to be really meaningless1 if not inaccurate and misleading4 ,therefore1 ,nietzsche was perhaps making a profound statement when he declared that art is the great stimulus to life2 it produces joy as an aid to life2 it possesses a usefulness1 that is to say1 which transcends its direct aim4 ,the artist is one who sees life as beauty1 and art is thus fulfilling its function the more completely1 the more deeply it enables us to penetrate into life4 ,it seems1 however1 that ,nietzsche insufficiently guarded his statement4 ,art for art's sake1 said ,nietzsche1 is 8a dangerous principle10 like truth for truth's sake and goodness for goodness' sake4 ,art1 knowledge1 and morality are simply means1 he declared1 and valuable for their 8life-promoting tendency40 7,there is here a pioneering suggestion of the ,american doctrine of ,pragmatism1 according to which how a thing 8works0 is the test of its validity1 but ,nietzsche can by no means be counted a ,pragmatist47 ,to look thus at the matter was certainly1 with ,schopenhauer and with ,gourmont1 to put aside the superficial moral function of art1 and to recognise in it a larger sociological function4 ,it was on the sociological function of art that ,guyau1 who was so penetrating and sympathetic a thinker1 insisted in his book1 posthumously published in #ahhi1 8,l',art au ,point de ,vue ,sociologique40 ,he argued that art1 while remaining independent1 is at the foundation one with morals and with religion4 ,he believed in a profound unity of all these terms3 life1 morality1 society1 religion1 art4 8,art1 in a word1 is life40 ,so that1 as he pointed out1 there is no conflict between the theory of art for art1 properly interpreted1 and the theory that assigns to art a moral and social function4 ,it is clear that ,guyau was on the right road1 although his statement was confusingly awkward in form4 ,he deformed his statement1 moreover1 through his perpetual tendency to insist on the spontaneously socialising organisation of human groups--a tendency which has endeared him to all who adopt an anarchist conception of society--and1 forgetting that he had placed morals only at the depth of art and not on the surface1 he commits himself to the supremely false dictum3 8,art is1 above everything1 a phenomenon of sociability10 and the like statements1 far too closely resembling the doctrinary pronouncements of ,tolstoy4 ,for sociability is an indirect end of art3 it cannot be its direct aim4 ,we are here not far from the ambiguous doctrine that art is 8expression10 for 8expression0 may be too easily confused with 8communication40#acb ,all these eminent philosophers--though they meant something which so far as it went was true--have failed to produce a satisfying statement because they have none of them understood how to ask the question which they were trying to answer4 ,they failed to understand that morals is just as much an art as any other vital psychic function of man2 they failed to see that1 though art must be free from the dominance of morals1 it by no means followed that it has no morality of its own1 if morality involves the organised integrity which all vital phenomena must possess2 they failed to realise that1 since the arts are simply the sum of the active functions which spring out of the single human organism1 we are not called upon to worry over any imaginary conflicts between functions which are necessarily harmonious because they are all one at the root4 ,we cannot too often repeat the pregnant maxim of ,bacon that the right question is the half of knowledge4 ,here we might almost say that it is the whole of knowledge4 ,it seems1 therefore1 unnecessary to pursue the subject further4 ,he who cannot himself pursue it further had best leave it alone4 ,but when we enter the sthetic sphere we are no longer artists4 ,that1 indeed1 is inevitable if we regard the arts as the sum of all the active functions of the organism4 ,rickert1 with his methodical vision of the world1--for he insists that we must have some sort of system1--has presented what he regards as a reasonable scheme in a tabular form at the end of the first volume of his 8,system40#acc ,he divides ,reality into two great divisions3 the monistic and asocial ,contemplative and the pluralistic and social ,active4 ,to the first belong the spheres of ,logic1 sthetics1 and ,mysticism1 with their values1 truth1 beauty1 impersonal holiness2 to the second1 ,ethics1 ,erotics1 the ,philosophy of ,religion1 with their values1 morality1 happiness1 personal holiness4 ,this view of the matter is the more significant as ,rickert stands aside from the tradition represented by ,nietzsche and returns to the ,kantian current1 enriched1 indeed1 and perhaps not quite consistently1 by ,goethe4 ,it seems probable that all ,rickert's active attitudes towards reality may fairly be called ,art1 and all the contemplative attitudes1 sthetics4 ,there is in fact nothing novel in the distinction which underlies this classification1 and it has been recognised ever since the days of ,baumgarten1 the commonly accepted founder of modern sthetics1 not to go further back4#acd ,art is the active practical exercise of a single discipline3 sthetics is the philosophic appreciation of any or all the arts4 ,art is concerned with the more or less unconscious creation of beauty3 sthetics is concerned with its discovery and contemplation4 sthetics is the metaphysical side of all productive living4 ,,iv ,,this complete unlikeness on the surface between art and sthetics--for ultimately and fundamentally they are at one--has to be emphasised1 for the failure to distinguish them has led to confusion and verbosity4 ,the practice of morals1 we must ever remember1 is not a matter of sthetics2 it is a matter of art4 ,it has not1 nor has any other art1 an immediate and obvious relationship to the creation of beauty4#ace ,what the artist in life1 as in any other art1 is directly concerned to express is not primarily beauty2 it is much more likely to seem to him to be truth 7it is interesting to note that ,einstein1 so much an artist in thought1 insists that he is simply concerned with truth71 and what he produces may seem at first to all the world1 and even possibly to himself1 to be ugly4 ,it is so in the sphere of morals4 ,for morals is still concerned with the possessive instinct1 not with the creation of beauty1 with the needs and the satisfaction of the needs1 with the industrial and economic activities1 with the military activities to which they fatally tend4 ,but the sthetic attitude1 as ,gaultier expresses it1 is the radiant smile on the human face which in its primitive phases was anatomically built up to subserve crude vital needs2 as he elsewhere more abstractly expresses it1 8,beauty is an attitude of sensibility40 ,it is the task of sthetics1 often a slow and painful task1 to see art--including the art of ,nature1 some would insist--as beauty4 ,that1 it has to be added1 is no mean task4 ,it is1 on the contrary1 essential4 ,it is essential to sweep away in art all that is ultimately found to be fundamentally ugly1 whether by being1 at the one end1 distastefully pretty1 or1 at the other1 hopelessly crude4 ,for ugliness produces nausea of the stomach and sets the teeth on edge4 ,it does so literally1 not metaphorically4 ,ugliness1 since it interferes with digestion1 since it disturbs the nervous system1 impairs the forces of life4 ,for when we are talking sthetics 7as the word itself indicates7 we are ultimately talking physiologically4 ,even our metaphysics--if it is to have any meaning for us--must have a physical side4 ,unless we hold that fact in mind1 we shall talk astray and are likely to say little that is to the point4 ,art has to be seen as beauty and it is the function of sthetics so to see it4 ,how slowly and painfully the function works every one must know by observing the sthetic judgments of other people1 if not by recalling his own experiences4 ,i know in my own experience how hardly and subconsciously this process works4 ,in the matter of pictures1 for instance1 ,i have found throughout life1 from ,rubens in adolescence to ,czanne in recent years1 that a revelation of the beauty of a painter's work which1 on the surface1 is alien or repulsive to one's sensibility1 came only after years of contemplation1 and then most often by a sudden revelation1 in a flash1 by a direct intuition of the beauty of some particular picture which henceforth became the clue to all the painter's work4 ,it is a process comparable to that which is in religion termed 8conversion10 and1 indeed1 of like nature4#acf ,so also it is in literature4 ,and in life8 ,we are accustomed to suppose that a moral action is much easier to judge than a picture of ,czanne4 ,we do not dream of bringing the same patient and attentive1 as it were sthetic1 spirit to life as we bring to painting4 ,perhaps we are right1 considering what poor bungling artists most of us are in living4 ,for 8art is easy1 life is difficult10 as ,liszt used to say4 ,the reason1 of course1 is that the art of living differs from the external arts in that we cannot exclude the introduction of alien elements into its texture4 ,our art of living1 when we achieve it1 is of so high and fine a quality precisely because it so largely lies in harmoniously weaving into the texture elements that we have not ourselves chosen1 or that1 having chosen1 we cannot throw aside4 ,yet it is the attitude of the spectators that helps to perpetuate that bungling4 ,it is ,plotinus whom we may fairly regard as the founder of sthetics in the philosophic sense1 and it was as formulated by ,plotinus1 though this we sometimes fail to recognise1 that the ,greek attitude in these matters1 however sometimes modified1 has come down to us4#acg ,we may be forgiven for not always recognising it1 because it is rather strange that it should be so4 ,it is strange1 that is to say1 that the sthetic attitude1 which we regard as so emphatically ,greek1 should have been left for formulation until the ,greek world had passed away1 that it should not have been ,plato1 but an ,alexandrian1 living in ,rome seven centuries after him1 who set forth what seems to us a distinctively ,platonic view of life4#ach ,the ,greeks1 indeed1 seem to have recognised1 apart from the lower merely 8ethical0 virtues of habit and custom1 the higher 8intellectual0 virtues which were deliberately planned1 and so of the nature of art4 ,but ,plotinus definitely recognised the sthetic contemplation of ,beauty1 together with the ,one and the ,good1 as three aspects of the ,absolute4#aci ,he thus at once placed sthetics on the highest possible pedestal1 beside religion and morals2 he placed it above art1 or as comprehending art1 for he insisted that ,contemplation is an active quality1 so that all human creative energy may be regarded as the by-play of contemplation4 ,that was to carry rather far the function of sthetic contemplation4 ,but it served to stamp for ever1 on the minds of all sensitive to that stamp who came after1 the definite realisation of the sublimest1 the most nearly divine1 of human aptitudes4 ,every great spirit has furnished the measure of his greatness by the more or less completeness in which at the ultimate outpost of his vision over the world he has attained to that active contemplation of life as a spectacle which ,shakespeare finally embodied in the figure of ,prospero4 ,it may be interesting to note in passing that1 psychologically considered1 all sthetic enjoyment among the ordinary population1 neither artists in the narrow sense nor philosophers1 still necessarily partakes to some degree of genuine sthetic contemplation1 and that such contemplation seems to fall roughly into two classes1 to one or other of which every one who experiences sthetic enjoyment belongs4 ,these have1 ,i believe1 been defined by ,mller-,freienfels as that of the 8,zuschauer10 who feels that he is looking on1 and that of the 8,mitspieler10 who feels that he is joining in2 on the one side1 we may say1 he who knows he is looking on1 the spectator1 and on the other he who imaginatively joins in1 the participator4 ,the people of the first group are those1 it may be1 in whom the sensory nervous apparatus is highly developed and they are able to adopt the most typical and complete sthetic attitude2 the people of the other group would seem to be most developed on the motor nervous side and they are those who themselves desire to be artists4 ,groos1 who has developed the sthetic side of 8miterleben10 is of this temperament1 and he had at first supposed that every one was like him in this respect4#adj ,plotinus1 who held that contemplation embraced activity1 must surely have been of this temperament4 ,coleridge was emphatically of the other temperament1 spectator haud particeps1 as he himself said4 ,but1 at all events in northern countries1 that is probably not the more common temperament4 ,the sthetic attitude of the crowds who go to watch football matches is probably much more that of the imaginative participator than of the pure spectator4 ,there is no occasion here to trace the history of sthetic contemplation4 ,yet it may be worth while to note that it was clearly present to the mind of the fine thinker and great moralist who brought the old ,greek idea back into the modern world4 ,in the 8,philosophical ,regimen0 7as it has been named7 brought to light a few years ago1 in which ,shaftesbury set down his self-communings1 we find him writing in one place3 8,in the morning am ,i to see anew8 ,am ,i to be present yet longer and content8 ,i am not weary1 nor ever can be1 of such a spectacle1 such a theatre1 such a presence1 nor at acting whatever part such a master assigns me4 ,be it ever so long1 ,i stay and am willing to see on whilst my sight continues sound2 whilst ,i can be a spectator1 such as ,i ought to be2 whilst ,i can see reverently1 justly1 with understanding and applause4 ,and when ,i see no more1 ,i retire1 not disdainfully1 but in reverence to the spectacle and master1 giving thanks4444 ,away1 man6 rise1 wipe thy mouth1 throw up thy napkin and have done4 ,a bellyful 7they say7 is as good as a feast40 ,that may seem but a simple and homely way of stating the matter1 though a few years later1 in #agbg1 a yet greater spirit than ,shaftesbury1 ,swift1 combining the conception of life as sthetic contemplation with that of life as art1 wrote in a letter1 8,life is a tragedy1 wherein we sit as spectators awhile1 and then act our own part in it40 ,if we desire a more systematically philosophical statement we may turn to the distinguished thinker of to-day who in many volumes has most powerfully presented the same essential conception1 with all its implications1 of life as a spectacle4 8,tirez le rideau2 la farce est joue40 ,that ,shakespearian utterance1 which used to be attributed to ,rabelais on his death-bed1 and ,swift's comment on life1 and ,shaftesbury's intimate meditation1 would seem to be--on the philosophic and apart from the moral side of life--entirely in the spirit that ,jules de ,gaultier has so elaborately developed4 ,the world is a spectacle1 and all the men and women the actors on its stage4 ,enjoy the spectacle while you will1 whether comedy or tragedy1 enter into the spirit of its manifold richness and beauty1 yet take it not too seriously1 even when you leave it and the curtains are drawn that conceal it for ever from your eyes1 grown weary at last4 ,such a conception1 indeed1 was already to be seen in a deliberately philosophical form in ,schopenhauer 7who1 no doubt1 influenced ,gaultier7 and1 later1 ,nietzsche1 especially the early ,nietzsche1 although he never entirely abandoned it2 his break with ,wagner1 however1 whom he had regarded as the typical artist1 led him to become suddenly rather critical of art and artists1 as we see in 8,human-all-too-,human10 which immediately followed 8,wagner in ,bayreuth10 and he became inclined to look on the artist1 in the narrow sense1 as only 8a splendid relic of the past10 not1 indeed1 altogether losing his earlier conception1 but disposed to believe that 8the scientific man is the finest development of the artistic man40 ,in his essay on ,wagner he had presented art as the essentially metaphysical activity of ,man1 here following ,schopenhauer4 8,every genius10 well said ,schopenhauer1 8is a great child2 he gazes out at the world as something strange1 a spectacle1 and therefore with purely objective interest40 ,that is to say that the highest attitude attainable by man towards life is that of sthetic contemplation4 ,but it took on a different character in ,nietzsche4 ,in #ahgh ,nietzsche wrote of his early essay on ,wagner3 8,at that time ,i believed that the world was created from the sthetic standpoint1 as a play1 and that as a moral phenomenon it was a deception3 on that account ,i came to the conclusion that the world was only to be justified as an sthetic phenomenon40#ada ,at the end of his active career ,nietzsche was once more reproducing this proposition in many ways4 ,jules de ,gaultier has much interested himself in ,nietzsche1 but he had already reached1 no doubt through ,schopenhauer1 a rather similar conception before he came in contact with ,nietzsche's work1 and in the present day he is certainly the thinker who has most systematically and philosophically elaborated the conception4#adb ,gaultier is most generally known by that perhaps not quite happily chosen term of 8,bovarism10 embodied in the title of his earliest book and abstracted from ,flaubert's heroine1 which stands for one of his most characteristic conceptions1 and1 indeed1 in a large sense1 for the central idea of his philosophy4 ,in its primary psychological sense ,bovarism is the tendency--the unconscious tendency of ,emma ,bovary and1 more or less1 all of us--to conceive of ourselves as other than we are4 ,our picture of the world1 for good or for evil1 is an idealised picture1 a fiction1 a waking dream1 an als ob1 as ,vaihinger would say4 ,but when we idealise the world we begin by first idealising ourselves4 ,we imagine ourselves other than we are1 and in so imagining1 as ,gaultier clearly realises1 we tend to mould ourselves1 so that reality becomes a prolongation of fiction4 ,as ,meister ,eckhart long since finely said3 8,a man is what he loves40 ,a similar thought was in ,plato's mind4 ,in modern times a variation of this same idea has been worked out1 not as by ,gaultier from the philosophic side1 but from the medical and more especially the psycho-analytic side1 by ,dr4 ,alfred ,adler of ,vienna4#adc ,adler has suggestively shown how often a man's or a woman's character is constituted by a process of fiction1--that is by making an ideal of what it is1 or what it ought to be1--and then so far as possible moulding it into the shape of that fiction1 a process which is often interwoven with morbid elements1 especially with an original basis of organic defect1 the reaction being an effort1 sometimes successful1 to overcome that defect1 and even to transform it into a conspicuous quality1 as when ,demosthenes1 who was a stutterer1 made himself a great orator4 ,even thinkers may not wholly escape this tendency1 and ,i think it would be easily possible to show that1 for instance1 ,nietzsche was moved by what ,adler calls the 8masculine protest02 one remembers how shrinkingly delicate ,nietzsche was towards women and how emphatically he declared they should never be approached without a whip4 ,adler owed nothing to ,gaultier1 of whom he seems to be ignorant2 he found his first inspiration in ,vaihinger's doctrine of the 8as if02 ,gaultier1 however1 owes nothing to ,vaihinger1 and1 indeed1 began to publish earlier1 though not before ,vaihinger's book was written4 ,gaultier's philosophic descent is mainly from ,spinoza1 ,berkeley1 ,hume1 ,schopenhauer1 and ,nietzsche4 ,there is another deeper and wider sense1 a more abstract esoteric sense1 in which ,jules de ,gaultier understands ,bovarism4 ,it is not only the human being and human groups who are psychologically ,bovaristic1 the ,universe itself1 the ,eternal ,being 7to adopt an accepted fiction71 metaphysically partakes of ,bovarism4 ,the ,universe1 it seems to ,gaultier1 necessarily conceives itself as other than it is4 ,single1 it conceives itself multiple1 as subject and object4 ,thus is furnished the fundamental convention which we must grant to the ,dramatist who presents the cosmic tragi-comedy4#add ,it may seem to some that the vision of the world which ,man pursues on his course across the ,universe becomes ever more impalpable and visionary4 ,and so perhaps it may be4 ,but even if that were an undesirable result1 it would still be useless to fight against ,god4 ,we are1 after all1 merely moulding the conceptions which a little later will become commonplaced and truisms4 ,for really--while we must hold physics and metaphysics apart1 for they cannot be blended--a metaphysics which is out of harmony with physics is negligible2 it is nothing in the world4 ,and it is our physical world that is becoming more impalpable and visionary4 ,it is 8matter10 the very structure of the 8atom10 that is melting into a dream1 and if it may seem that on the spiritual side life tends to be moulding itself to the conception of ,calderon as a dream1 it is because the physical atom is pursuing that course4 ,unless we hold in mind the analysis of the world towards which the physicist is bringing us1 we shall not understand the synthesis of the world towards which the philosopher is bringing us4 ,gaultier's philosophy may not be based upon physics1 but it seems to be in harmony with physics4 ,this is the metaphysical scaffolding--we may if we like choose to dispense with it--by aid of which ,jules de ,gaultier erects his spectacular conception of the world4 ,he is by no means concerned to deny the necessity of morality4 ,on the contrary1 morality is the necessary restraint on the necessary biological instinct of possession1 on the desire1 that is1 by the acquisition of certain objects1 to satisfy passions which are most often only the exaggeration of natural needs1 but which--through the power of imagination such exaggeration inaugurates in the world--lead to the development of civilisation4 ,limited and definite so long as confined to their biological ends1 needs are indefinitely elastic1 exhibiting1 indeed1 an almost hysterical character which becomes insatiable4 ,they mark a hypertrophy of the possessive instinct which experience shows to be a menace to social life4 ,thus the ,great ,war of recent times may be regarded as the final tragic result of the excessive development through half a century of an economic fever1 the activity of needs beyond their due biological ends producing suddenly the inevitable result4#ade ,so that the possessive instinct1 while it is the cause of the formation of an economic civilised society1 when pushed too far becomes the cause of the ruin of that society4 ,man1 who begins by acquiring just enough force to compel ,nature to supply his bare needs1 himself becomes1 according to the tragic ,greek saying1 the greatest force of ,nature4 ,yet the fact that a civilisation may persist for centuries shows that men in societies have found methods of combating the exaggerated development of the possessive instinct1 of retaining it within bounds which have enabled societies to enjoy a fairly long life4 ,these methods become embodied in religions and moralities and laws4 ,they react in concert to restrain the greediness engendered by the possessive instinct4 ,they make virtues of ,temperance and ,sobriety and ,abnegation4 ,they invent ,great ,images which arouse human hopes and human fears4 ,they prescribe imperatives1 with sanctions1 in part imposed by the ,great ,images and in part by the actual executive force of social law4 ,so societies are enabled to immunise themselves against the ravaging auto-intoxication of an excessive instinct of possession1 and the services rendered by religions and moralities cannot be too highly estimated4 ,they are the spontaneous physiological processes which counteract disease before medical science comes into play4 ,but are they of any use in those periods of advanced civilisation which they have themselves contributed to form8 ,when ,man has replaced flint knives and clubs and slings by the elaborate weapons we know1 can he be content with methods of social preservation which date from the time of flint knives and clubs and slings8 ,the efficacy of those restraints depends on a sensibility which could only exist when men scarcely distinguished imaginations from perceptions4 ,thence arose the credulity on which religions and moralities flourished4 ,but now the ,images have grown pale in human sensibility1 just as they have in words1 which are but effaced images4 ,we need a deeper reality to take the place of these early beliefs which the growth of intelligence necessarily shows to be illusory4 ,we must seek in the human ego an instinct in which is manifested a truly autonomous play of the power of imagination1 an instinct which by virtue of its own proper development may restrain the excesses of the possessive instinct and dissipate the perils which threaten civilisation4 ,the sthetic instinct alone answers to that double demand4 ,at this point we may pause to refer to the interesting analogy between this argument of ,jules de ,gaultier and another recently proposed solution of the problems of civilisation presented by ,bertrand ,russell1 to which there has already been occasion to refer4 ,the two views were clearly suggested by the same events1 though apparently in complete independence1 and it is interesting to observe the considerable degree of harmony which unites two such distinguished thinkers in different lands1 and with unlike philosophic standpoints as regards ultimate realities4#adf ,man's impulses1 as we know1 ,bertrand ,russell holds to be of two kinds3 those that are possessive and those that are creative2 the typical possessive impulse being that of property and the typical creative impulse that of the artist4 ,it is in following the creative impulse1 he believes1 that man's path of salvation lies1 for the possessive impulses necessarily lead to conflict while the creative impulses are essentially harmonious4 ,bertrand ,russell seeks the unification of life4 ,but consistency of action should1 he holds1 spring from consistency of impulse rather than from the control of impulse by will4 ,like ,gaultier1 he believes in what has been called1 perhaps not happily1 8the law of irony02 that is to say1 that the mark we hit is never the mark we aimed at1 so that1 in all supreme success in life1 as ,goethe said of ,wilhelm ,meister1 we are like ,saul1 the son of ,kish1 who went forth to seek his father's asses and found a kingdom4 8,those who best promote life10 ,russell prefers to put it1 8do not have life for their purpose4 ,they aim rather at what seems like a gradual incarnation1 a bringing into our human existence of something eternal40 ,and1 again like ,gaultier1 he invokes ,spinoza and what in his phraseology he called 8the intellectual love of ,god40 8,take no thought1 saying1 ,what shall we eat8 or1 ,what shall we drink8 or1 ,wherewithal shall we be clothed8 ,whosoever has known a strong creative impulse has known the value of this precept in its exact and literal sense2 it is preoccupation with possession1 more than anything else1 that prevents men from living freely and nobly40#adg ,this view of the matter seems substantially the same1 it may be in an unduly simplified form1 as the conception which ,jules de ,gaultier has worked out more subtly and complexly1 seeking to weave in a large number of the essential factors1 realising that the harmony of life must yet be based on an underlying conflict4#adh ,the main difference would seem to be that ,bertrand ,russell's creative impulse seems to be fairly identical with the productive impulse of art in the large sense in which ,i have throughout understood it1 while ,jules de ,gaultier is essentially concerned with the philosophic or religious side of the art impulse2 that is to say1 the attitude of sthetic contemplation which in appearance forms the absolute antithesis to the possessive instinct4 ,it is probable1 however1 that there is no real discrepancy here1 for as we may regard sthetic contemplation as the passive aspect of art1 so art may be regarded as the active aspect of sthetic contemplation1 and ,bertrand ,russell1 we may certainly believe1 would include the one under art as ,jules de ,gaultier would include the other under sthetics4 ,the sthetic instinct1 as ,jules de ,gaultier understands it1 answers the double demand of our needs to-day1 not1 like religions and moralities1 by evoking images as menaces or as promises1 only effective if they can be realised in the world of sensation1 and so merely constituting another attempt to gratify the possessive instinct1 by enslaving the power of imagination to that alien master4 ,through the sthetic instinct ,man is enabled to procure joy1 not from the things themselves and the sensations due to the possession of things1 but from the very images of things4 ,beyond the sense of utility bound up with the possession of objects1 he acquires the privilege1 bound up with the sole contemplation of them1 of enjoying the beauty of things4 ,by the sthetic instinct the power of imagination realises its own proper tendency and attains its own proper end4 ,such a process cannot fail to have its reaction on the social environment4 ,it must counteract the exaggeration of the possessive instinct4 ,to that impulse1 when it transgresses the legitimate bounds of biological needs and threatens to grow like a destructive cancer1 the sthetic instinct proposes another end1 a more human end1 that of sthetic joy4 ,therewith the exuberance of insatiable and ruinous cupidity is caught in the forms of art1 the beauty of the universe is manifested to all eyes1 and the happiness which had been sought in the paradoxical enterprise of glutting that insatiable desire finds its perpetual satisfaction in the absolute and complete realisation of beauty4 ,as ,jules de ,gaultier understands it1 we see that the sthetic instinct is linked on to the possessive instinct4 ,bertrand ,russell would sometimes seem to leave the possessive instinct in the void without making any provision for its satisfaction4 ,in ,gaultier's view1 we may probably say it is taken in charge by the sthetic instinct as soon as it has fulfilled its legitimate biological ends1 and its excessive developments1 what might otherwise be destructive1 are sublimated4 ,the sthetic instinct1 ,gaultier insists1 like the other instincts1 even the possessive instinct1 has imperative claims2 it is an appetite of the ego1 developed at the same hearth of intimate activity1 drawing its strength from the same superabundance from which they draw strength4 ,therefore1 in the measure in which it absorbs force they must lose force1 and civilisation gains4 ,the development of the sthetic sense is1 indeed1 indispensable if civilisation--which we may1 perhaps1 from the present point of view1 regard with ,gaultier as the embroidery worked by imagination on the stuff of our elementary needs--is to pass safely through its critical period and attain any degree of persistence4 ,the appearance of the sthetic sense is then an event of the first order in the rank of natural miracles1 strictly comparable to the evolution in the organic sphere of the optic nerves1 which made it possible to know things clearly apart from the sensations of actual contact4 ,there is no mere simile here1 ,gaultier believes3 the faculty of drawing joy from the images of things1 apart from the possession of them1 is based on physiological conditions which growing knowledge of the nervous system may some day make clearer4#adi ,it is this specific quality1 the power of enjoying things without being reduced to the need of possessing them1 which differentiates the sthetic instinct from other instincts and confers on it the character of morality4 ,based1 like the other instincts on egoism1 it1 yet1 unlike the other instincts1 leads to no destructive struggles4 ,its powers of giving satisfaction are not dissipated by the number of those who secure that satisfaction4 sthetic contemplation engenders neither hatred nor envy4 ,unlike the things that appeal to the possessive instinct1 it brings men together and increases sympathy4 ,unlike those moralities which are compelled to institute prohibitions1 the sthetic sense1 even in the egoistic pursuit of its own ends1 becomes blended with morality1 and so serves in the task of maintaining society4 ,thus it is that1 by aiming at a different end1 the sthetic sense yet attains the end aimed at by morality4 ,that is the aspect of the matter which ,gaultier would emphasise4 ,there is implied in it the judgment that when the sthetic sense deviates from its proper ends to burden itself with moral intentions--when1 that is1 it ceases to be itself--it ceases to realise morality4 8,art for art's sake60 the artists of old cried4 ,we laugh at that cry now4 ,gaultier1 indeed1 considers that the idea of pure art has in every age been a red rag in the eyes of the human bull4 ,yet1 if we had possessed the necessary intelligence1 we might have seen that it held a great moral truth4 8,the poet1 retired in his ,tower of ,ivory1 isolated1 according to his desire1 from the world of man1 resembles1 whether he so wishes or not1 another solitary figure1 the watcher enclosed for months at a time in a lighthouse at the head of a cliff4 ,far from the towns peopled by human crowds1 far from the earth1 of which he scarcely distinguishes the outlines through the mist1 this man in his wild solitude1 forced to live only with himself1 almost forgets the common language of men1 but he knows admirably well how to formulate through the darkness another language infinitely useful to men and visible afar to seamen in distress40#aej ,the artist for art's sake--and the same is constantly found true of the scientist for science's sake#aea--;in turning aside from the common utilitarian aims of men is really engaged in a task none other can perform1 of immense utility to men4 ,the ,cistercians of old hid their cloisters in forests and wildernesses afar from society1 mixing not with men nor performing for them so-called useful tasks2 yet they spent their days and nights in chant and prayer1 working for the salvation of the world1 and they stand as the symbol of all higher types of artists1 not the less so because they1 too1 illustrate that faith transcending sight1 without which no art is possible4 ,the artist1 as ,gaultier would probably put it1 has to effect a necessary ,bovarism4 ,if he seeks to mix himself up with the passions of the crowd1 if his work shows the desire to prove anything1 he thereby neglects the creation of beauty4 ,necessarily so1 for he excites a state of combativity1 he sets up moral1 political1 and social values1 all having relation to biological needs and the possessive instinct1 the most violent of ferments4 ,he is entering on the struggle over ,truth--though his opinion is here worth no more than any other man's--which1 on account of the presumption of its universality1 is brandished about in the most ferociously opposed camps4 ,the mother who seeks to soothe her crying child preaches him no sermon4 ,she holds up some bright object and it fixes his attention4 ,so it is the artist acts3 he makes us see4 ,he brings the world before us1 not on the plane of covetousness and fears and commandments1 but on the plane of representation2 the world becomes a spectacle4 ,instead of imitating those philosophers who with analyses and syntheses worry over the goal of life1 and the justification of the world1 and the meaning of the strange and painful phenomenon called ,existence1 the artist takes up some fragment of that existence1 transfigures it1 shows it3 ,there6 ,and therewith the spectator is filled with enthusiastic joy1 and the transcendent ,adventure of ,existence is justified4 ,every great artist1 a ,dante or a ,shakespeare1 a ,dostoievsky or a ,proust1 thus furnishes the metaphysical justification of existence by the beauty of the vision he presents of the cruelty and the horror of existence4 ,all the pain and the madness1 even the ugliness and the commonplace of the world1 he converts into shining jewels4 ,by revealing the spectacular character of reality he restores the serenity of its innocence4#aeb ,we see the face of the world as of a lovely woman smiling through her tears4 ,how are we to expect this morality--if so we may still term it--to prevail8 ,jules de ,gaultier1 as we have seen1 realising that the old moralities have melted away1 seems to think that the morality of art1 by virtue of its life1 will take the place of that which is dead4 ,but he is not specially concerned to discuss in detail the mechanism of this replacement1 though he looks to the social action of artists in initiation and stimulation4 ,that was the view of ,guyau1 and it fitted in with his sociological conception of art as being one with life2 great poets1 great artists1 ,guyau believed1 will become the leaders of the crowd1 the priests of a social religion without dogmas4#aec ,but ,gaultier's conception goes beyond this4 ,he cannot feel that the direct action of poets and artists is sufficient4 ,they only reveal the more conspicuous aspects of the sthetic sense4 ,gaultier considers that the sthetic sense1 in humbler forms1 is mixed up with the most primitive manifestations of human life1 wherein it plays a part of unsuspected importance4#aed ,the more thorough investigation of these primitive forms1 he believes1 will make it possible for the lawmaker to aid the mechanism of this transformation of morality4 ,having therewith brought us to the threshold of the sthetic revolution1 ,jules de ,gaultier departs4 ,it remains necessary to point out that it is only the threshold4 ,however intimately the elements of the sthetic sense may be blended with primitive human existence1 we know too well that1 as the conditions of human existence are modified1 art seems to contract and degenerate1 so we can hardly expect the sthetic sense to develop in the reverse direction4 ,at present1 in the existing state of civilisation1 with the decay of the controlling power of the old morality1 the sthetic sense often seems to be also decreasing1 rather than increasing1 in the masses of the population4#aee ,one need not be troubled to find examples4 ,they occur on every hand and whenever we take up a newspaper4 ,one notes1 for instance1 in ,england1 that the most widespread spectacularly attractive things outside cities may be said to be the private parks and the churches4 7,cities lie outside the present argument1 for their inhabitants are carefully watched whenever they approach anything that appeals to the possessive instinct47 ,formerly the parks and churches were freely open all day long for those who desired to enjoy the spectacle of their beauty and not to possess it4 ,the owners of parks and the guardians of churches have found it increasingly necessary to close them because of the alarmingly destructive or predatory impulses of a section of the public4 ,so the many have to suffer for the sins of what may only be the few4 ,it is common to speak of this as a recent tendency of our so-called civilisation4 ,but the excesses of the possessive instinct cannot have been entirely latent even in remote times1 though they seem to have been less in evidence4 ,the ,platonic ,timus attributed to the spectacle of the sun and the moon and the stars the existence of philosophy4 ,he failed to note that the sun and the moon and the stars would have disappeared long ago--as even their infinitely more numerous analogues on the earth beneath are likely to disappear--had they happened to be within the reach of predatory human hands4 ,but the warps and strains of civilised life1 with its excessive industrialism and militarism1 seem to disturb the wholesome balance of even the humblest elements of the possessive and sthetic instincts4 ,this means1 in the first and most important place1 that the liberty of the whole community in its finest manifestations is abridged by a handful of imbeciles4 ,there are infinite freedoms which it would be a joy for them to take1 and a help to their work1 and a benefit to the world1 but they cannot be allowed to take them because there are some who can only take them and perish1 damning others with themselves4 ,besides this supreme injury to life1 there are perpetual minor injuries that the same incapable section of people are responsible for in every direction1 while the actual cost of them in money1 to the community they exert so pernicious an influence on1 is so great and so increasing that it constitutes a social and individual burden which from time to time leads to outbursts of anxious expostulation never steady enough to be embodied in any well-sustained and coherent policy4 ,it is not1 indeed1 to be desired that the eugenic action of society should be directly aimed at any narrowly sthetic or moral end4 ,that has never been the ideal of any of those whose conceptions of social life deserve to be taken seriously1 least of all ,galton1 who is commonly regarded as the founder of the modern scientific art of eugenics4 8,society would be very dull10 he remarked1 8if every man resembled ,marcus ,aurelius or ,adam ,bede40 ,he even asserted that 8we must leave morality as far as possible out of the discussion10 since moral goodness and badness are shifting phases of a civilisation2 what is held morally good in one age is held bad in another4 ,that would hold true of any sthetic revolution4 ,but we cannot afford to do without the sane and wholesome persons who are so well balanced that they can adjust themselves to the conditions of every civilisation as it arises and carry it on to its finest issues4 ,we should not1 indeed1 seek to breed them directly1 and we need not1 since under natural conditions ,nature will see to their breeding4 ,but it is all the more incumbent upon us to eliminate those ill-balanced and poisonous stocks produced by the unnatural conditions which society in the past had established4#aef ,that we have to do alike in the interests of the offspring of these diseased stocks and in the interests of society4 ,no power in ,heaven or ,earth can ever confer upon us the right to create the unfit in order to hang them like millstones around the necks of the fit4 ,the genius of ,galton enabled him to see this clearly afresh and to indicate the reasonable path of human progress4 ,it was a truth that had long been forgotten by the strenuous humanitarians who ruled the nineteenth century1 so anxious to perpetuate and multiply all the worst spawn of their humanity4 ,yet it was an ancient truth1 carried into practice1 however unconsciously and instinctively1 by ,man throughout his upward course1 probably even from ,palolithic times1 and when it ceased ,man's upward course also ceased4 ,as ,carr-,saunders has shown1 in a learned and comprehensive work which is of primary importance for the understanding of the history of ,man1 almost every people on the face of the earth has adopted one or more practices--notably infanticide1 abortion1 or severe restriction of sexual intercourse--adapted to maintain due selection of the best stocks and to limit the excess of fertility4 ,they largely ceased to work because ,man had acquired the humanity which was repelled by such methods and lost the intelligence to see that they must be replaced by better methods4 ,for the process of human evolution is nothing more than a process of sifting1 and where that sifting ceases evolution ceases1 becomes1 indeed1 devolution4#aeg ,when we survey the history of ,man we are constantly reminded of the profound truth which often lay beneath the parables of ,jesus1 and they might well form the motto for any treatise on eugenics4 ,jesus was constantly seeking to suggest the necessity of that process of sifting in which all human evolution consists2 he was ever quick to point out how few could be1 as it was then phrased1 8saved10 how extremely narrow is the path to the ,kingdom of ,heaven1 or1 as many might now call it1 the ,kingdom of ,man4 ,he proclaimed symbolically a doctrine of heredity which is only to-day beginning to be directly formulated3 8,every tree that bringeth not forth good fruit is hewn down and cast into the fire40 ,there was no compunction at all in his promulgation of this radical yet necessary doctrine for the destruction of unfit stocks4 ,even the best stocks ,jesus was in favour of destroying ruthlessly as soon as they had ceased to be the best3 8,ye are the salt of the earth3 but if the salt have lost his savour1 444 it is thenceforth good for nothing1 but to be cast out1 and to be trodden under foot of men40 ,jesus has been reproached by ,nietzsche for founding a religion for slaves and plebeians1 and so in the result it may have become4 ,but we see that1 in the words of the ,teacher as they have been handed down1 the religion of ,jesus was the most aristocratic of religions4 ,its doctrine embodied not even the permission to live for those human stocks which fall short of its aristocratic ideal4 ,it need not surprise us to find that ,jesus had already said two thousand years ago what ,galton1 in a more modern and--some would add--more humane way1 was saying yesterday4 ,if there had not been a core of vital truth beneath the surface of the first ,christian's teaching1 it could hardly have survived so long4 ,we are told that it is now dead1 but should it ever be revived we may well believe that this is the aspect by which it will be commended4 ,it is a significant fact that at the two spiritual sources of our world1 ,jesus and ,plato1 we find the assertion of the principle of eugenics1 in one implicitly1 in the other explicitly4 ,jules de ,gaultier was not concerned to put forward an aristocratic conception of his sthetic doctrine1 and1 as we have seen1 he remained on the threshold of eugenics4 ,he was content to suggest1 though with no positive assurance1 a more democratic conception4 ,he had1 indeed1 one may divine1 a predilection for that middle class which has furnished so vast a number of the supreme figures in art and thought2 by producing a class of people dispensed from tasks of utility1 he had pointed out1 8a society creates for itself an organ fitted for the higher life and bears witness that it has passed beyond the merely biological stage to reach the human stage40 ,but the middle class is not indispensable1 and if it is doomed ,gaultier saw ways of replacing it4#aeh ,especially we may seek to ensure that1 in every social group1 the individual task of utilitarian work shall be so limited that the worker is enabled to gain a leisure sufficiently ample to devote1 if he has the aptitude1 to works of intellect or art4 ,he would agree with ,otto ,braun1 the inspired youth who was slain in the ,great ,war1 that if we desire the enablement of the people 8the eight-hours day becomes nothing less than the most imperative demand of culture40 ,it is in this direction1 it may well be1 that social evolution is moving1 however its complete realisation may1 by temporary causes1 from time to time be impeded4 ,the insistent demand for increased wages and diminished hours of work has not been inspired by the desire to raise the level of culture in the social environment1 or to inaugurate any sthetic revolution1 yet1 by 8the law of irony0 which so often controls the realisation of things1 that is the result which may be achieved4 ,the new leisure conferred on the worker may be transformed into spiritual activity1 and the liberated utilitarian energy into sthetic energy4 ,the road would thus be opened for a new human adventure1 of anxious interest1 which the future alone can reveal4 ,we cannot be sure that this transformation will take place4 ,we cannot be sure1 indeed1 that it is possible for it to take place unless the general quality of the population in whom so fine a process must be effected is raised by a more rigid eugenic process than there is yet any real determination among us to exert4 ,men still bow down before the fetish of mere quantity in population1 and that worship may be their undoing4 ,giant social organisms1 like the giant animal species of early times1 may be destined to disappear suddenly when they have attained their extreme expansion4 ,even if that should be so1 even if there should be a solution of continuity in the course of civilisation1 even then1 as again ,jules de ,gaultier also held1 we need not despair1 for life is a fountain of everlasting exhilaration4 ,no creature on the earth has so tortured himself as ,man1 and none has raised a more exultant ,alleluia4 ,it would still be possible to erect places of refuge1 cloisters wherein life would yet be full of joy for men and women determined by their vocation to care only for beauty and knowledge1 and so to hand on to a future race the living torch of civilisation4 ,when we read ,palladius1 when we read ,rabelais1 we realise how vast a field lies open for human activity between the ,thebaid on one side and ,thelema on the other4 ,out of such ashes a new world might well arise4 ,sunset is the promise of dawn4 ,,the ,,end ,footnote #aac3 ,alfred ,niceforo1 ,les ,indices ,numriques de la ,civilisation et du ,progrs4 ,paris1 #aiba4 ,footnote #aad3 ,professor ,bury1 in his admirable history of the idea of progress 7,j4 ,b4 ,bury1 ,the ,idea of ,progress1 #aibj71 never defines the meaning of 8progress40 ,as regards the meaning of 8civilisation0 see essay on 8,civilisation10 ,havelock ,ellis1 ,the ,philosophy of ,conflict 7#aiai71 pp4 #ad-bb4 ,footnote #aae3 ,quetelet1 ,physique ,sociale4 7#ahfi47 ,footnote #aaf3 ,see e4g41 ,maurice ,parmelee's ,criminology1 the sanest and most comprehensive manual on the subject we have in ,english4 ,footnote #aag3 lie ,faure1 with his usual incisive insight1 has set out the real characters of the 8,greek ,spirit0 78,reflexions sur le ,gnie ,grec10 ,monde ,nouveau1 ,december1 #aibb74 ,footnote #aah3 ,this tendency1 on which ,herbert ,spencer long ago insisted1 is in its larger aspects quite clear4 ,e4 ,c4 ,pell 7,the ,law of ,births and ,deaths1 #aiba7 has argued that it holds good of civilised man to-day1 and that our decreasing birth rate with civilisation is quite independent of any effort on ,man's part to attain that evolutionary end4 ,footnote #aai3 ,professor ,mc,dougall refers to the high birth-rate of the lower stratum as more 8normal40 ,if that were so1 civilisation would certainly be doomed4 ,all high evolution normally involves a low birth-rate4 ,strange how difficult it is even for those most concerned with these questions to see the facts simply and clearly6 ,footnote #abj3 ,a4 ,m4 ,carr-,saunders1 ,the ,population ,problem3 ,a ,study in ,human ,evolution 7#aibb71 pp4 #deg1 #dgb4 ,footnote #aba3 ,duprel1 ,la ,lgende ,socratique 7#aibb71 p4 #dbh4 ,duprel considers 7p4 #dca7 that the ,protagorean spirit was marked by the idea of explaining the things of thought1 and life in general1 by the meeting1 opposition1 and harmony of individual activities1 leading up to the sociological notion of convention1 and behind it1 of relativity4 ,nietzsche was a pioneer in restoring the ,sophists to their rightful place in ,greek thought4 ,the ,greek culture of the ,sophists grew out of all the ,greek instincts1 he says 7,the ,will to ,power1 section #dbh73 8,and it has ultimately shown itself to be right4 ,our modern attitude of mind is1 to a great extent1 ,heraclitean1 ,democritean1 and ,protagorean4 ,to say that it is ,protagorean is even sufficient1 because ,protagoras was himself a synthesis of ,heraclitus and ,democritus40 ,the ,sophists1 by realizing that many supposed objective ideas were really subjective1 have often been viewed with suspicion as content with a mere egotistically individualistic conception of life4 ,the same has happened to ,nietzsche4 ,it was probably an error as regards the greatest ,sophists1 and is certainly an error1 though even still commonly committed1 as regards ,nietzsche2 see the convincing discussion of ,nietzsche's moral aim in ,salter1 ,nietzsche the ,thinker1 chap4 ,,xxiv4 ,footnote #abb3 ,i may here1 perhaps1 remark that in the ,general ,preface to my ,studies in the ,psychology of ,sex ,i suggested that we now have to lay the foundation of a new casuistry1 no longer theological and ,christian1 but naturalistic and scientific4 ,footnote #abc3 ,oswald ,spengler1 ,der ,untergang des ,abendlandes1 vol4 ,i 7#aiah72 vol4 ,,ii 7#aibb74 ,footnote #abd3 ,in an interesting pamphlet1 ,pessimismus8 ,spengler has since pointed out that he does not regard his argument as pessimistic4 ,the end of a civilisation is its fulfilment1 and there is still much to be achieved 7though not1 he thinks1 along the line of art7 before our own civilisation is fulfilled4 ,with ,spengler's conception of that fulfilment we may1 however1 fail to sympathise4 ,footnote #abe3 ,see1 for instance1 ,w4 ,l4 ,newman1 ,the ,politics of ,aristotle1 vol4 #a1 p4 #bja1 and ,s4 ,h4 ,butcher1 ,aristotle's ,theory of ,poetry and ,fine ,art1 p4 #aai4 ,footnote #abf3 ,beauty is a dangerous conception to deal with1 and the remembrance of this great saying may1 perhaps1 help to save us from the degrading notion that beauty merely inheres in objects1 or has anything to do with the prim and smooth conventions which make prettiness4 ,even in the fine art of painting it is more reasonable to regard prettiness as the negation of beauty4 ,it is possible to find beauty in ,degas and ,czanne1 but not in ,bouguereau or ,cabanel4 ,the path of beauty is not soft and smooth1 but full of harshness and asperity4 ,it is a rose that grows only on a bush covered with thorns4 ,as of goodness and of truth1 men talk too lightly of ,beauty4 ,only to the bravest and skilfullest is it given to break through the briers of her palace and kiss at last her enchanted lips4 ,footnote #abg3 ,ruskin was what ,spinoza has been called1 a ,god-intoxicated man2 he had a gift of divine rhapsody1 which reached at times to inspiration4 ,but it is not enough to be ,god-intoxicated1 for into him whose mind is disorderly and ignorant and ill-disciplined the ,gods pour their wine in vain4 ,spinoza's mind was not of that kind1 ,ruskin's too often was1 so that ,ruskin can never be1 like ,spinoza1 a permanent force in the world of thought4 ,his interest is outside that field1 mainly perhaps psychological in the precise notation of a particular kind of sthetic sensibility4 ,the admiration of ,ruskin cherished by ,proust1 himself a supreme master in this field1 is significant4 ,footnote #abh3 ,butcher1 ,aristotle's ,theory of ,poetry and ,fine ,art1 chap4 ,v1 8,art and ,morals40 ,aristotle could have accepted the almost ,freudian view of ,croce that art is the deliverer1 the process through which we overcome the stress of inner experiences by objectifying them 7sthetics as ,science of ,expression1 p4 #ce74 ,but ,plato could not accept ,croce1 still less ,freud4 ,footnote #abi3 ,schopenhauer1 ,die ,welt als ,wille und ,vorstellung 7#ahei71 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ddb4 ,for a careful and detailed study of ,schopenhauer's conception of art1 see ,a4 ,fauconnet1 ,l',esthtique de ,schopenhauer 7#aiac74 ,footnote #acj3 ,i find that ,i have here negligently ascribed to ,bergson a metaphor which belongs to ,croce1 who at this point says the same thing as ,bergson1 though he gives it a different name4 ,in sthetics as ,science of ,expression 7,english translation1 p4 #ff7 we read3 8,the world of which as a rule we have intuition ,bergson could not have used that word here is a small thing4444 #8,here is a man1 here is a horse1 this is heavy1 this is hard1 this pleases me1' etc4 ,it is a medley of light and colour1 which could not pictorially attain to any more sincere expression than a haphazard splash of colour1 from among which would with difficulty stand out a few special distinctive traits4 ,this and nothing else is what we possess in our ordinary life2 this is the basis of our ordinary action4 ,it is the index of a book4 ,the labels tied to things take the place of things themselves40 ,footnote #aca3 ,h4 ,bergson1 ,le ,rire4 ,for a clear1 concise1 and sympathetic exposition of ,bergson's standpoint1 though without special reference to art1 see ,karin ,stephen1 ,the ,misuse of ,mind4 ,footnote #acb3 ,this may seem to cast a critical reflection on ,croce4 ,let me1 therefore1 hasten to add that it is merely the personal impression that ,croce1 for all his virtuous aspirations after the concrete1 tends to fall into verbal abstraction4 ,he so often reminds one of that old lady who used to find 7for she died during the ,great ,war7 such spiritual consolation in 8that blessed word ,mesopotamia40 ,this refers1 however1 to the earlier more than to the later ,croce4 ,footnote #acc3 ,h4 ,rickert1 ,system der ,philosophie1 vol4 ,i 7#aiba74 ,footnote #acd3 ,before ,baumgarten this distinction seems to have been recognised1 though too vaguely and inconsistently1 by ,hutcheson1 who is so often regarded as the real founder of modern sthetics4 ,w4 ,r4 ,scott 7,francis ,hutcheson1 p4 #baf7 points out these two principles in ,hutcheson's work1 8the ,internal ,senses1 as derived from ,reflection1 representing the attitude of the #8,spectator' or observer in a picture gallery while1 on the other hand1 as deduced from find a parallel in the artist's own consciousness of success in his work1 thus the former might be called static and the latter dynamic consciousness1 or1 in the special case of ,morality1 the first applies primarily to approval of the acts of others1 the second to each individual's approval of his own conduct40 ,footnote #ace3 ,this would probably be recognised even by those moralists who1 like ,hutcheson1 in their anxiety to make clear an important relationship1 have spoken ambiguously4 8,probably ,hutcheson's real thought10 remarks ,f4 ,c4 ,sharp 7,mind1 #aiba1 p4 #db71 8is that the moral emotion1 while possessing many important affinities with the sthetic1 is in the last resort different in content40 ,footnote #acf3 ,schopenhauer long ago pointed out that a picture should be looked at as a royal personage is approached1 in silence1 until the moment it pleases to speak to you1 for1 if you speak first 7and how many critics one knows who 8speak first0671 you expose yourself to hear nothing but the sound of your own voice4 ,in other words1 it is a spontaneous and 8mystical0 experience4 ,footnote #acg3 ,it is through ,plotinus1 also1 that we realise how sthetics is on the same plane1 if not one1 with mysticism4 ,for by his insistence on ,contemplation1 which is sthetics1 we learn to understand what is meant when it is said1 as it often is1 that mysticism is ,contemplation4 7,on this point1 and on the early evolutions of ,christian ,mysticism1 see ,dom ,cuthbert ,butler1 ,western ,mysticism 7#aibb747 ,footnote #ach3 ,really1 however1 ,plotinus was here a ,neo-,aristotelian rather than a ,neo-,platonist1 for ,aristotle 7,ethics1 book ,x1 chap4 #f7 had put the claim of the ,contemplative life higher even than ,plato and almost forestalled ,plotinus4 ,but as ,aristotle was himself here a ,platonist that does not much matter4 ,footnote #aci3 ,see ,inge1 ,philosophy of ,plotinus1 p4 #agi4 ,in a fine passage 7quoted by ,bridges in his ,spirit of ,man7 ,plotinus represents contemplation as the great function of ,nature herself1 content1 in a sort of self-consciousness1 to do nothing more than perfect that fair and bright vision4 ,this 8metaphysical ,narcissism10 as ,palante might call it1 accords with the conception of various later thinkers1 like ,schopenhauer1 and like ,gaultier1 who however1 seldom refers to ,plotinus4 ,footnote #adj3 ,r4 ,schmidt1 ,deutsche ,philosophie der ,gegenwart in ,selbstdarstellungen 7#aiba71 vol4 ,,ii4 ,footnote #ada3 ,e4 ,frster-,nietzsche1 ,das ,leben ,nietzsches1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ii4 ,footnote #adb3 ,w4 ,m4 ,salter in his ,nietzsche the ,thinker--probably the best and most exact study of ,nietzsche's thought we possess--summarises ,nietzsche's 8sthetic metaphysics10 as he terms it 7pp4 #df-dh71 in words which apply almost exactly to ,gaultier4 ,footnote #adc3 ,see especially his book ber den ,nervsen ,charakter 7#aiab74 ,it has been translated into ,english4 ,footnote #add3 ,jules de ,gaultier1 ,le ,bovarysme1 and various other of his works4 ,georges ,palante has lucidly and concisely expounded the idea of ,bovarism in a small volume1 ,la ,philosophie du ,bovarysme 7,mercure de ,france74 ,footnote #ade3 ,gaultier has luminously discussed the relations of ,war1 ,civilisation1 and ,art in the ,monde ,nouveau1 ,august1 #aibj1 and ,february1 #aiba4 ,footnote #adf3 ,these are problems concerning which innocent people might imagine that the wise refrained from speculating1 but1 as a matter of fact1 the various groups of philosophic devotees may be divided into those termed 8,idealists0 and those termed 8,realists10 each assured of the superiority of his own way of viewing thought4 ,roughly speaking1 for the idealist thought means the creation of the world1 for the realist its discovery4 ,but here 7as in many differences between ,tweedledum and ,tweedledee for which men have slain one another these thousands of years7 there seem to be superiorities on both sides4 ,each looks at thought in a different aspect4 ,but the idealist could hardly create the world with nothing there to make it from1 nor the realist discover it save through creating it afresh4 ,we cannot1 so to put it1 express in a single formula of three dimensions what only exists as a unity in four dimensions4 ,footnote #adg3 ,bertrand ,russell1 ,principles of ,social ,reconstruction 7#aiaf71 p4 #bce4 ,footnote #adh3 ,i may here be allowed to refer to another discussion of this point1 ,havelock ,ellis1 ,the ,philosophy of ,conflict1 and ,other ,essays1 pp4 #eg-fh4 ,footnote #adi3 ,i may remark that ,plato had long before attributed the same observation to the ,pythagorean ,timus in the sublime and amusing dialogue that goes under that name3 8,sight in my opinion is the source of the greatest benefit to us1 for had we never seen the stars1 and the sun1 and the heavens1 none of the words which we have spoken about the universe would ever have been uttered4 ,but now the sight of day and night1 and the months and the revolution of the years1 have created ,number1 and have given us a conception of ,time1 and the powers of inquiring about the ,nature of the ,universe1 and from this source we have derived philosophy1 than which no greater good ever was or will be given by the gods to mortal man40 ,footnote #aej3 ,jules de ,gaultier1 8,la ,guerre et les ,destines de l',art10 ,monde ,nouveau1 ,august1 #aibj4 ,footnote #aea3 ,thus ,einstein1 like every true man of science1 holds that cultural developments are not to be measured in terms of utilitarian technical advances1 much as he has himself been concerned with such advances1 but that1 like the devotee of 8,art for ,art's sake10 the man of science must proclaim the maxim1 8,science for ,science's sake40 ,footnote #aeb3 ,in the foregoing paragraphs ,i have1 in my own way1 reproduced the thought1 occasionally the words1 of ,jules de ,gaultier1 more especially in 8,la ,moralit ,esthtique0 7,mercure de ,france1 #aeth ,december1 #aiba71 probably the finest short statement of this distinguished thinker's reflections on the matter in question4 ,footnote #aec3 ,guyau1 ,l',art au ,point de ,vue ,sociologique1 p4 #afc4 ,footnote #aed3 ,this diffused sthetic sense is correlated with a diffused artistic instinct1 based on craftsmanship1 which the ,greeks were afraid to recognise because they looked down with contempt on the handicrafts as vulgar4 ,william ,morris was a pioneer in asserting this association4 ,as a distinguished ,english writer1 ,mr4 ,charles ,marriott1 the novelist and critic1 clearly puts the modern doctrine3 8,the first step is to absorb1 or re-absorb1 the #8,artist' into the craftsman4444 ,once agree that the same sthetic considerations which apply to painting a picture apply1 though in a different degree1 to painting a door1 and you have emancipated labour without any prejudice to the highest meaning of art4444 ,a good surface of paint on a door is as truly an emotional or sthetic consideration as #8significant form1' indeed it is #8significant form4'0 7,nation and ,athenum1 #ast ,july1 #aibb47 ,professor ,santayana has spoken in the same sense3 8,in a thoroughly humanised society everything--clothes1 speech1 manners1 government--is a work of art40 7,the ,dial1 ,june1 #aibb1 p4 #efc47 ,it is1 indeed1 the general tendency to-day and is traceable in ,croce's later writings4 ,footnote #aee3 ,thus it has often been pointed out that the ,papuans are artists in design of the first rank1 with a finer taste in some matters than the most highly civilised races of ,europe4 ,professor ,r4 ,semon1 who has some remarks to this effect 7,correspondenzblatt of the ,german ,anthropological ,society1 ,march1 #aijb71 adds that their unfailing artistic sense is spread throughout the whole population and shown in every object of daily use4 ,footnote #aef3 ,the presence of a small minority of abnormal or perverse persons--there will be such1 we may be sure1 in every possible society--affords no excuse for restricting the liberty of the many to the standard of the few4 ,the general prevalence of an sthetic morality in classic times failed to prevent occasional outbursts of morbid sexual impulse in the presence of objects of art1 even in temples4 ,we find records of ,pygmalionism and allied perversities in ,lucian1 ,athenus1 ,pliny1 ,valerius ,maximus4 ,yet supposing that the ,greeks had listened to the proposals of some strayed ,puritan visitor1 from ,britain or ,new ,england1 to abolish nude statues1 or suppose that ,plato1 who wished to do away with imaginative literature as liable to demoralise1 had possessed the influence he desired1 how infinite the loss to all mankind6 ,in modern ,europe we not only propose such legal abolition2 we actually1 however in vain1 carry it out4 ,we seek to reduce all human existence to absurdity4 ,it is1 at the best1 unnecessary1 for we may be sure that1 in spite of our efforts1 a certain amount of absurdity will always remain4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,a4 ,m4 ,carr-,saunders1 ,the ,population ,problem3 ,a ,study in ,human ,evolution 7,oxford ,press1 #aibb74 ,footnote #aeh3 ,j4 de ,gaultier1 8,art et ,civilisation10 ,monde ,nouveau1 ,february1 #aiba4 ,,index ,abortion1 once practised1 #ced4 ,absolute1 the1 a fiction1 #aja4 ,abyssian ,church1 dancing in worship of1 #de4 ,acting1 music1 and poetry1 proceed in one stream1 #cf4 ,adam1 ,villiers de l',isle1 his story ,le ,secret de l'ancienne ,musique1 #be4 ,addison1 ,joseph1 his style1 #afa-fc1 #ahd4 ,adler1 ,dr4 ,alfred1 of ,vienna1 #ccf1 #ccg4 ,adolescence1 idealisation in1 #ajg1 #ajh4 schylus1 developed technique of dancing1 #ef4 sthetic contemplation1 #cad1 #cae1 #cbe1 #cbf2 recognised by the ,greeks1 #ccj1 #cca2 two kinds of1 that of spectator and that of participator1 #cca1 #ccb2 the ,shaftesbury attitude toward1 #ccb1 #ccc2 the ,swift attitude toward1 #ccc2 involves life as a spectacle1 #ccc1 #ccd2 and the systems of ,gaultier and ,russell1 #cdc2 engenders neither hatred nor envy1 #cdf4 sthetic instinct1 to replace moralities1 religions1 and laws1 #cdj1 #cda1 #cdc-de2 differentiated from other instincts1 #cdf2 has the character of morality1 #cdf4 sthetic intuitionism1 #bfj1 #bgf1 #bgi1 #cad4 sthetic sense1 development of1 indispensable for civilisation1 #cde2 realises morality when unburdened with moral intentions1 #cdf2 mixed with primitive manifestations of life1 #cej2 correlated with diffused artistic instinct1 #cej n42 seems to be decreasing1 #cej-eb4 sthetics1 and ethics1 among the ,greeks1 #bdg2 with us1 #cdh2 in the ,greek sense1 #bfc2 the founders of1 #bga1 #cbi2 and art1 the unlikeness of1 #cbe-bh2 on same plane with mysticism1 #ccj n4 ,africa1 love-dance in1 #df1 #di1 #ej4 ,akhenaten1 #bh4 ,alaro1 in ,mallorca1 dancing in church at1 #dd1 #de4 ,alberti1 ,leo1 vast-ranging ideas of1 #e4 ,alcohol1 consumption of1 as test of civilisation1 #bie1 #bif4 ,anatomy1 studied by ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #abj4 ,anaximander1 #hi4 ,ancestry1 the force of1 in handwriting1 #aeg1 #aeh2 in style1 #aeh-fa1 #aij4 ,anna1 ,empress1 #ei4 ,antisthenes1 #bdi n4 8,appearance10 #bai n4 ,aquinas1 ,saint ,thomas1 #bjb4 ,arabs1 dancing among1 #ch4 ,arbuckle1 one of the founders of sthetics1 #bga2 insisted on imagination as formative of character1 #bgb4 ,architecture4 ,see ,building4 ,aristophanes1 #caa4 ,aristotle1 #hi2 on tragedy1 #ef2 on the ,mysteries1 #bdb2 on the moral quality of an act1 #bdh2 his use of the term 8moral sense10 #bgc2 on ,art and ,nature in the making of the ,state1 #cac2 his use of the term 8artists10 #cac2 his view of poetry1 #cah2 and the contemplative life1 #ccj n4 ,art1 life as1 more difficult to realise than to act1 #a1 #b2 universe conceived as work of1 by the primitive philosopher1 #a2 life as1 views of finest thinkers of ,china and ,greece on1 #b-f1 #bdg-eb2 whole conception of1 has been narrowed and debased1 #f1 #g2 in its proper sense1 #g1 #h2 as the desire for beautification1 #h2 of living1 has been decadent during the last two thousand years1 #h n42 ,napoleon in the sphere of1 #aj2 of living1 the ,lifuan1 #ac-ah2 of living1 the ,chinese1 #bg2 ,chinese civilisation shows that human life is1 #cj2 of living1 ,t'ung's story the embodiment of the ,chinese symbol of1 #cc2 life identical with1 #cc-ce2 of dancing1 #cf1 #ea-fg1 see ,dancing2 of life1 a dance1 #ff1 #fg2 science and1 no distinction between1 in classic times1 #fh2 science and1 distinction between1 in modern times1 #fh-gj2 science is of the nature of1 #ga2 represented by ,pythagoras as source of science1 #gd2 ,greek1 #gf n42 of thinking1 #fh-adj1 see ,thinking2 the solution of the conflicts of philosophy in1 #hb1 #hc2 philosophy and1 close relationship of1 #hc-he2 impulse of1 transformed sexual instinct1 #ajh-ab2 and mathematics1 #ach-dj2 of writing1 #ada-aij1 see ,writing2 ,man added to ,nature1 is the task in1 #aec2 the freedom and the easiness of1 do not necessarily go together1 #ahb2 of religion1 #aia-bdc1 see ,religion2 of morals1 #bdd-hd1 see ,morals2 the critic of1 a critic of life1 #bfi2 civilisation is an1 #cja1 #caj2 consideration of the question of the definition of1 #caj-ab2 ,nature and1 #cab1 #cac2 the sum of the active energies of mankind1 #cac2 and sthetics1 the unlikeness of1 #cad1 #cae1 #cbe-bh2 a genus1 of which morals is a species1 #caf2 each1 has its own morality1 #cah2 to assert that it gives pleasure a feeble conclusion1 #cai2 on the uselessness of1 according to ,schopenhauer and others1 #cai-ba2 meaninglessness of the statement that it is useless1 #cbb2 sociological function of1 #cbc1 #cbd2 philosophers have failed to see that it has a morality of its own1 #cbd1 #cbe2 for art's sake1 #cdf1 #cdg4 ,artist1 partakes of divine nature of creator of the world1 #b2 ,napoleon as an1 #aj-ab2 the true scientist as1 #gb1 #gc1 #aab2 the philosopher as1 #gb1 #gc1 #he2 explanation of1 #ajh-ab2 ,bacon's definition of1 ,man added to ,nature1 #aec2 makes all things new1 #aec2 in words1 passes between the plane of new vision and the plane of new creation1 #agj1 #agh2 life always a discipline for1 #bgg2 lays up his treasure in ,heaven1 #cjg2 ,man as1 #caj2 is a maker1 #cab2 ,aristotle's use of the term1 #cac2 reveals ,nature1 #cbj2 has to effect a necessary ,bovarism1 #cdh1 #cdi4 ,artistic creation1 the process of its birth1 #ajh1 #aji4 ,arts1 sometimes classic and sometimes decadent1 #h n42 and sciences1 #fh-gj2 ,master of1 #fi4 8,arty0 people1 #f1 #g4 8,as if10 germs of doctrine of1 in ,kant1 #hg2 world of1 and ,plato's 8,ideas10 #hh2 source of the phrase1 #hh1 #hi2 seen in play1 #hi2 the doctrine of1 not immune from criticism1 #ajb2 fortifying influence of the doctrine1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,see ,fiction1 ,vaihinger4 ,asceticism1 has nothing to do with normal religion1 #bbb1 #bbc2 among the ,greeks1 traced1 #bdi n42 and ,christianity1 #bdi n4 ,asclepios1 the cult of1 #aig n4 ,atavism1 in handwriting1 #aeg1 #aeh2 in style1 #aeh-fa1 #aij4 ,athenus1 #ee1 #cec n42 his book about the ,greeks1 #gf n4 ,atom1 a fiction or an hypothesis1 #ig1 #cch2 the structure of1 #ig n4 ,attraction1 force of1 a fiction1 #ih4 ,aurelius1 ,marcus1 regarded art of life as like the dancer's art1 #ff2 his statement of the mystical core of religion1 #bjg2 adopted sthetic criterion of moral action1 #bgi4 ,australians1 religious dances among1 #dj4 ,auto-erotic activities1 #aaj1 #aaa4 ,axioms1 akin to fiction1 #id1 #ie4 ,babies1 #aje4 ,bach1 ,sebastian1 #fb1 #caa4 ,bacon1 ,francis1 his definition of the artist1 ,man added to ,nature1 #aec2 his style compared with that of ,shakespeare1 #afj2 the music of his style1 #afc2 heavy and formal letters of1 #ahd2 his axiom1 the right question is half the knowledge1 #cbe4 ,bacon1 ,roger1 on the sciences1 #fh4 ,balguy1 ,rev4 ,john1 #bgd4 ,ballad1 a dance as well as song1 #fb4 ,ballet1 the1 chief form of ,romantic dancing1 #ec2 the germ of1 to be found in ancient ,rome1 #ef2 origin of the modern1 #ef2 the ,italian and the ,french1 #ef-eh2 decline of1 #eh2 the ,russian1 #eh-fj2 the ,swedish1 #fj4 ,bantu1 the question of the1 #ch1 #de4 ,baptism1 #bdb4 8,barbarians10 the classic use of the term1 #bhe4 ,barebones1 ,praise-,god1 #bgb4 ,baretti1 ,g4 ,m41 #ej4 ,bastien-,lepage1 ,jules1 #caa4 ,baudelaire1 ,charles1 on vulgar locutions1 #aea4 ,baumgarten1 ,a4 ,g41 the commonly accepted founder of sthetics1 #cbf4 ,bayaderes1 #eb4 ,bayle1 ,g4 ,l41 #bfa4 8,beautiful10 the1 among ,greeks and ,romans1 #bdg1 #beb4 ,beauty1 developed by dancing1 #dg2 as an element of literary style1 #agf-gh2 and the good1 among the ,greeks1 #bdg2 ,plotinus's doctrine of1 #bej1 #bea2 of virtue1 #bgj n42 sthetic contemplation creates1 #cae1 #cbg1 #cbh2 and prettiness1 #cae n42 revelation of1 sometimes comes as by a process of 8conversion10 #cbh1 #cbi4 ,bee1 the1 an artist1 #cab4 ,beethoven1 #caa2 his ,seventh ,symphony1 #fb1 #fc4 ,beggary in ,china1 #ca4 ,benn1 ,a4 ,w41 his ,the ,greek ,philosophers1 #f1 #beb1 #bgg n4 ,bentham1 ,jeremy1 adopted a fiction for his system1 #ii4 ,berenson1 ,bernhard1 critic of art1 #aad2 his attitude toward ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #aad1 #aag4 ,bergson1 ,henri ,louis1 pyrotechnical allusions frequent in1 #bc2 regards philosophy as an art1 #hc1 #hd2 on clarity in style1 #agf1 #agg2 his idea of intuition1 #bcb n42 on reality1 #cbj4 ,berkeley1 ,george1 #ie4 ,bernard1 ,claude1 personality in his ,leons de ,physiologie ,exprimentales1 #add4 ,bible1 the1 the source of its long life1 #agi4 ,see ,old ,testament1 ,revelation4 ,birds1 dancing of1 #cf n41 #de2 the attitude of the poet toward1 #afh4 ,birth-rate1 as test of civilisation1 #bid1 #bif1 #bii n4 8,bitter10 a moral quality1 #bfd4 ,blackguard1 the1 #bdd1 #bde4 ,blake1 ,william1 on the ,dance of ,life1 #ff2 on the golden rule of life1 #bha4 ,blasco ,ibaez1 #aga4 ,blood1 ,harvey's conception of circulation of1 nearly anticipated by ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #abj4 ,boisguillebert1 ,pierre ,le ,pesant1 sieur de1 his 8barometer of prosperity10 #bhg4 ,botany1 studied by ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #aai4 ,botticelli1 ,sandro1 #ef4 ,bouguereau1 ,g4 ,a41 #cae n4 ,bovarism1 explanation of1 #cce2 applied to the ,universe1 #ccg2 a necessary1 effected by the artist1 #cdh1 #cdi4 ,brantme1 ,pierre de ,b41 his style1 #afa4 ,braun1 ,otto1 #ceg4 ,breton1 ,jules1 #caa4 ,bridges1 ,robert1 #bgb4 ,browne1 ,sir ,thomas1 his style1 #afa1 #age1 #agf1 #agh4 ,browning1 ,robert1 #aac2 too clumsy to influence others1 #ahd4 ,brunetire1 ,ferdinand1 a narrow-minded pedagogue1 #abe4 ,bruno1 ,giordano1 #bjg4 ,bruno1 ,leonardo1 #bjg4 ,bryce1 ,james1 on democracies1 #cjj4 ,bcher1 ,karl1 on work and dance1 #fa1 #fb4 ,buckle1 ,h4 ,t41 #ii4 ,buddhist monks1 #bbd n4 ,building1 and dancing1 the two primary arts1 #cf2 birds' nests1 the chief early form of1 #cf n4 ,bunyan1 ,john1 #gi4 ,burton1 ,robert1 as regards his quotations1 #aeb4 ,bury1 ,j4 ,b41 #bhg n4 ,cabanel1 #cae n4 ,cadiz1 the dancing-school of ,spain1 #ed4 ,camargo1 innovations of1 in the ballet1 #eg4 ,carlyle1 ,thomas1 revelation of family history in his style1 #aeh1 #aei2 compared to ,aristophanes1 #aei n42 too clumsy to ninfluence others1 #ahd4 ,carpenter1 the1 sacred position of1 in some countries1 #b4 ,carr-,saunders1 ,a4 ,m41 on the social ladder and the successful climbers1 #bii1 #cjj2 on selecting the best stock of humanity1 #ced4 ,cassirer1 ,ernest1 on ,goethe1 #acg n4 ,castanets1 #ed4 ,casuistry1 #cjd n41 #cje4 ,categories1 are fictions1 #id4 ,cathedrals1 dancing in1 #dd1 #de4 ,ceremony1 ,chinese1 #bb1 #bi2 and music1 ,chinese life regulated by1 #bd-bf4 ,czanne1 artist1 #aec1 #cae n4 ,chanties1 of sailors1 #fa1 #fb4 ,cheetham1 ,samuel1 on the ,pagan ,mysteries1 #bda n4 ,chemistry1 analogy of1 to life1 #cc-ce4 ,chess1 the ,chinese game of1 #bc4 ,chiaroscuro1 method of1 devised by ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #aag4 ,chidley1 ,australian philosopher1 #gi-hb4 ,china1 finest thinkers of1 perceived significance in life of conception of art1 #c2 art animates the whole of life in1 #bg1 #bh2 beggary in1 #ca4 ,chinese1 the1 the accounts of1 #ah-ba2 their poetry1 #ba1 #bb1 #bi1 #cb2 their etiquette of politeness1 #bb2 the quality of play in their character1 #bb-bd2 their life regulated by music and ceremony1 #bd-bf1 #bi2 their civilisation shows that life is art1 #bg1 #bh1 #cj2 the sthetic supremacy of1 #bh-cj2 endurance of their civilisation1 #bh1 #cj2 their philosophic calm1 #bi n42 decline in civilisation of1 in last thousand years1 #cj2 their pottery1 #cb1 #cc2 embodiment of their symbol of the art of living1 #cc4 ,chinese life1 the art of balancing sthetic temperament and guarding against its excesses1 #bi4 ,choir1 the word1 #db4 ,christian ,church1 supposed to have been originally a theatre1 #db4 ,christian ritual1 the earliest known1 a sacred dance1 #db4 ,christian worship1 dancing in1 #db-de2 central function of1 a sacred drama1 #dc4 ,christianity1 ,lifuan art of living undermined by arrival of1 #ah2 dancing in1 #dj-de2 the ideas of1 as dogmas1 hypotheses1 and fictions1 #ii2 and the ,pagan ,mysteries1 #bdb2 and asceticism1 #bdi n42 the ,hebrew mode of feeling grafted into1 #bgf4 ,chrysostom1 on dancing at the ,eucharist1 #dc4 ,church1 and religion1 not the same1 #bbh n4 ,church ,congress1 at ,sheffield in #aibb1 ideas of conversion expressed at1 #bbj n4 ,churches1 #cea4 ,cicero1 #gc1 #beb4 ,cinema1 educational value of1 #ach4 ,cistercian monks1 #dc4 ,cistercians1 the1 #cdg4 ,civilisation1 develops with conscious adhesion to formal order1 #agb2 standards for measurement of1 #bhe2 ,niceforo's measurement of1 #bhf2 on meaning of1 #bhg2 the word1 #bhh2 the art of1 includes three kinds of facts1 #bhi2 criminality as a measure of1 #bij1 #bia2 creative genius and general instruction in connection with1 #bia-ic2 birth-rate as test of1 #bid2 consumption of luxuries as test of1 #bid1 #bie2 suicide rate as test of1 #bie2 tests of1 applied to ,france by ,niceforo1 #bie-ig2 not an exclusive mass of benefits1 but a mass of values1 #big2 becoming more complex1 #bih2 small minority at the top of1 #bih2 guidance of1 assigned to lower stratum1 #bih1 #bii2 art of eugenics necessary to save1 #bii1 #cjj2 of quantity and of quality1 #cjj2 not to be precisely measured1 #cja2 the more rapidly it progresses1 the sooner it dies1 #cja2 an art1 #cja1 #caj2 an estimate of its value possible1 #cjb2 meaning of ,protagoras's dictum with relation to1 #cjb2 measured by standard of fine art 7sculpture71 #cjg1 #cjh2 eight periods of1 #cjg1 #cjh2 a fresh race needed to produce new period of1 #cjh2 and culture1 #cji2 sthetic sense indispensable for1 #cde2 possible break-up of1 #ceh4 ,clarity1 as an element of style1 #agf-gh4 ,clichs1 #adi-ea4 ,cloisters1 for artists1 #ceh4 ,cochez1 of ,louvain1 on ,plotinus1 #bdi n4 ,coleridge1 ,s4 ,t41 his 8loud bassoon10 #afi2 of the spectator type of the contemplative temperament1 #ccb4 ,colour-words1 #afd n4 ,colvin1 ,sir ,sidney1 on science and art1 #gj4 ,commandments1 tables of1 #bec1 #bee4 ,communists1 ,french1 inspired by ,shaftesbury1 #bfi4 ,community1 the1 #bdd4 ,comte1 ,j4 ,a41 #cja4 ,confucian morality1 the1 #bi4 ,confucianism1 outward manifestation of ,taoism1 #bf4 ,confucius1 consults ,lao-tze1 #be1 #bf4 ,conrad1 ,joseph1 his knowledge of the sea1 #aga4 ,contemplation4 ,see sthetic contemplation4 ,convention1 and ,nature1 ,hippias makes distinction between1 #e4 ,conventions4 ,see ,traditions4 ,conversion1 a questionnaire on1 #baj n42 the process of1 #bah2 the fundamental fact of1 #bah1 #bah n42 essential outlines of1 have been obscured1 #bbj n42 ,churchmen's ideas of1 #bbj n42 not the outcome of despair or a retrogression1 #bba1 #bbb2 nothing ascetic about it1 #bbb2 among the ,greeks1 #bdj2 revelation of beauty sometimes comes by a process of1 #cbh1 #cbi4 ,cooper1 ,anthony1 #bfa4 ,cornish1 ,g4 ,warre1 his article on 8,greek ,drama and the ,dance10 #ef4 ,cosmos4 ,see ,universe4 ,courtship1 dancing a process of1 #df4 ,cowper1 ,william1 #ahd2 influence of ,shaftesbury on1 #bff4 ,craftsman1 the1 partakes of divine nature of creator of the world1 #b4 ,creation1 not the whole of ,man1 #cad4 ,creative impulses4 ,see ,impulses4 ,crime1 an effort to get into step1 #bde n42 defined1 #bij2 natural1 #bij2 evolutive social1 #bia4 ,criminality1 as a measure of civilisation1 #bij1 #bia4 ,critics1 of language1 #ada-ea2 difficulty of their task1 #aec n4 ,croce1 ,benedetto1 his idea of art1 #hd2 tends to move in verbal circles1 #hd2 on judging a work of art1 #aec n42 on mysticism and science1 #aia n42 tends to fall into verbal abstraction1 #cbd n42 his idea of intuition1 #bcb n41 #cbj n42 on the critic of art as a critic of life1 #bfi2 on art the deliverer1 #cah n42 union of sthetic sense with artistic instinct1 #cej n4 ,croiset1 ,maurice1 on ,plotinus1 #bdi n4 ,cromwell1 ,oliver1 #bgb4 ,cruz1 ,friar ,gaspar de1 on the ,chinese1 #ca4 ,culture1 and civilisation1 #cji4 ,curiosity1 the sexual instinct a reaction1 to the stimulus of1 #ajd1 #aab4 ,custom1 #bde4 ,cuvier1 ,georges1 #aha4 ,cymbal1 the1 #ec4 ,dance1 love1 among insects1 birds1 and mammals1 #de1 #df2 among savages1 #df2 has gained influence in the human world1 #dh2 various forms of1 #dh1 #di2 the complete1 #di1 #ej2 the seductiveness of1 #ej2 prejudice against1 #ej1 #ea2 choral1 ,plotinus compares the moral life of the soul to1 #bea1 #beb4 ,dance of ,life1 the1 #ff1 #fg4 ,dancing1 and building1 the two primary acts1 #cf2 possibly accounts for origin of birds' nests1 #cf n42 supreme manifestation of physical life and supreme symbol of spiritual life1 #cf2 the significance of1 #cg2 the primitive expression of religion and of love1 #cg1 #ch1 #de2 entwined with human tradition of war1 labour1 pleasure1 and education1 #cg2 the expression of the whole man1 #ch1 #ci2 rules the life of primitive men1 #ci n42 religious importance of1 among primitive men1 #ci1 #dj2 connected with all religions1 #dj2 ecstatic and pantomimic1 #da1 #db2 survivals of1 in religion1 #db2 in ,christian worship1 #db-de2 in cathedrals1 #dd1 #de2 among birds and insects1 #de2 among mammals1 #de1 #df2 a process of courtship and novitiate for love1 #df1 #dg2 double function of1 #dg2 different forms of1 #dh-ea2 becomes an art1 #ea2 professional1 #eb2 ,classic and ,romantic1 #eb-fj2 the ballet1 #ec1 #ef-fj2 solo1 #ec2 ,egyptian and ,gaditanian1 #ec1 #ed2 ,greek1 #ee1 #ef1 #fj2 as morals1 #fj1 #fa1 #fc2 all human work a kind of1 #fa1 #fb2 and music1 #fa-fc2 social significance of1 #fj1 #fa1 #fc1 #fd2 and war1 allied1 #fc1 #fd2 importance of1 in education1 #fd1 #fe2 ,puritan attack on1 #fe2 is life itself1 #fe2 always felt to possess symbolic significance1 #ff2 the learning of1 a severe discipline1 #bgg4 ,dancing-school1 the function of1 process of courtship1 #dg4 ,d',annunzio1 ,gabriele1 #agh4 ,danse du ventre1 the1 #di n4 ,dante1 #caa1 #cdi2 dancing in his 8,paradiso10 #dc2 intellectual life of1 largely guided by delight in beauty of rhythmic relation between law and instance1 #gc4 ,darwin1 ,charles1 #hh2 poet and artist1 #abh1 #abi2 and ,st4 ,theresa1 #aih4 ,darwin1 ,erasmus1 #aha4 ,david1 ,alexandra1 his book1 ,le ,philosophe ,meh-ti et l',ide de ,solidarit1 #bf n4 ,decadence1 of art of living1 #h n42 rigid subservience to rule a mark of1 #agc4 ,degas1 #cae n4 ,democracies1 the smallest1 are highest1 #cjj4 ,demography1 #bhe4 ,demosthenes1 #ccf4 ,de ,quincey1 ,thomas1 the music of his style1 #afd4 ,descartes1 ,ren1 on arts and sciences1 #fi2 represents in ,france new impetus to sciences1 #ahj2 religious1 though man of science1 #bjh4 ,design1 the arts of1 #cf4 ,devadasis1 the1 sacred dancing girls1 #ea1 #eb4 ,diaghilev1 #ei4 ,dickens1 ,charles1 #caa4 ,dickinson1 ,g4 ,lowes1 his account of the ,chinese1 #bj1 #ba2 his account of ,chinese poetry1 #ba1 #bb4 ,diderot1 ,denis1 wide-ranging interests of1 #e2 translated ,shaftesbury1 #bfh4 8,dieta ,salutis10 the1 #dc4 ,discipline1 definition of a1 #ga n4 8,divine command10 the1 #bee4 8,divine malice10 of ,nietzsche1 #aee n4 ,diving-bell1 constructed by ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #aai4 ,divorces1 as test of civilisation1 #bif4 ,doctor1 and priest1 originally one1 #aig n41 #bjc4 ,dogma1 hypothesis1 and fiction1 #ih1 #ii4 ,dogmas1 shadows of personal experience1 #bag4 ,dostoievsky1 ,f4 ,m41 #caa1 #cdi2 his masterpiece1 8,the ,brothers ,karamazov10 #ace1 #acf4 ,drama1 ,greek1 origin of1 #ee1 #ef2 the real ,socrates possibly to be seen in1 #gh4 ,driesch1 ,hans1 on his own mental development1 #baf n4 ,drum1 the influence of the1 #fc4 ,dryden1 ,john1 #adh4 ,dujardin1 ,edouard1 his story of ,huysmans1 #aff2 on ,bergson's style1 #agg4 ,dumont1 ,arsne1 on civilisation1 #bih1 #cja4 ,duncan1 ,isadora1 #fj4 ,duprat1 ,g4 ,l41 on morality1 #cd4 ,duprel1 ,professor1 on ,hippias1 #f n42 his ,la ,lgende ,socratique1 #hb n42 on the ,protagorean spirit1 #cjb n4 ,duty1 #bge1 #bgf4 ,easter1 dancing of priests at1 #dd4 ,eckhart1 ,meister1 #bcd1 #ccf4 ,education1 importance of dancing in1 #fd1 #fe2 ,einstein's views on1 #acg2 and genius1 as tests of civilisation1 #bia-ic4 ,egypt1 ancient1 dancing in1 #db2 ,classical dancing originated in1 #eb2 the most influential dancing-school of all time1 #ec2 musical instruments associated with dancing1 originated or developed in1 #ec2 modern1 dancing in1 #ed n42 importance of its civilisation1 #cjg4 ,eight-hours day1 the1 #ceg4 ,einstein1 ,albert1 #b1 #fi n41 #gb2 substitutes new axioms for old1 #ie2 casts doubts on ,leonardo da ,vinci's previsions of modern science1 #abj n42 seems to have won a place beside ,newton1 #acc2 an imaginative artist1 #acd2 his fondness for music1 #acd1 #ace2 his other artistic likings and dislikings1 #ace1 #acf2 an artist also in his work1 #acf2 his views on science1 #acg2 his views on education1 #acg1 #ach2 on the motives that attract people to science and art1 #ach1 #cba2 feels harmony of religion and science1 #bjg2 concerned with truth1 #cbg2 and 8science for science's sake10 #cdg n4 ,eleusinian ,mysteries1 the1 #bdj-dc4 ,eliot1 ,george1 her knowledge of the life of country people1 #aga2 ,tolstoy's opinion of1 #caa4 ,ellis1 ,havelock1 childhood of1 #baj1 #baa2 his period of emotional and intellectual expansion1 #baa2 loses faith1 #bab2 influence of ,hinton's 8,life in ,nature0 on1 #bae-ah4 ,els ,cosiers1 dancing company1 #de4 ,emerson1 ,r4 ,w41 his style and that of ,bacon1 #afa4 ,emmanuel1 his book on ,greek dancing1 #ee4 ,empathy1 #ff4 ,engineering1 professional1 ,leonardo da ,vinci called the founder of1 #aah1 #aai4 ,english laws1 #ih4 ,english prose style1 ,cartesian influence on1 #ahj n4 ,english speech1 licentiousness of1 in the sixteenth century1 #adh2 the best literary prose1 #aee1 #aef4 ,enjoyment1 without possession1 #cdc-df4 ,epictetus1 #bdi n4 ,epicurus1 #bjg4 ,erosian1 river1 importance of1 realised by ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #abj4 ,eskimos1 #bee4 ,este1 ,isabella d'1 #abc4 ,ethics1 and sthetics1 among the ,greeks1 #bdg4 ,etruscans1 the1 #ef1 #cjh4 ,eucharist1 dancing at the1 #dc4 ,eucken1 ,rudolf1 on ,shaftesbury1 #bga4 ,eugenics1 art of1 necessary for preservation of civilisation1 #bii2 ,galton the founder of the modern scientific art of1 #cec2 assertion of principle of1 by ,jesus1 #cee1 #cef2 question of raising quality of population by process of1 #ceh4 ,eusebius1 on the worship of the ,therapeuts1 #db4 ,evans1 ,sir ,arthur1 #aab4 ,evolution1 theory of1 #hh1 #ajd2 a process of sifting1 #cee2 and devolution1 #cee2 social1 #ceg1 #ceh4 ,existence1 totality of1 ,hippias's supreme ideal1 #f4 ,existing1 and thinking1 on two different planes1 #aja4 8,expression10 #cbd4 ,facts1 in the art of civilisation1 material1 intellectual1 and moral 7with political71 #bhi4 ,fandango1 the1 #ej4 ,faraday1 ,michael1 characteristics of1 trust in facts and imagination1 #acj-cb2 his science and his mysticism1 #bjh4 ,farnell1 ,l4 ,r41 on religion and science1 #aig n4 ,farrer1 ,reginald1 on the philosophic calm of the ,chinese1 #bi n4 ,faure1 ,elie1 his conception of ,napoleon1 #aj2 on ,greek art1 #gf n42 has faith in educational value of cinema1 #acg2 on knowledge and desire1 #aed2 on the ,greek spirit1 #bib n4 ,ferrero1 ,guglielmo1 on the art impulse and the sexual instinct1 #aji4 ,fiction1 germs of doctrine of1 in ,kant1 #hg2 first expression of doctrine of1 found in ,schiller1 #hi2 doctrine of1 in ,f4 ,a4 ,lange's ,history of ,materialism1 #ic2 ,vaihinger's doctrine of1 #id-ajc2 hypothesis1 and dogma1 #ih1 #ii2 of ,bovarism1 #cce1 #ccf2 character constituted by process of1 #ccf4 ,fictions1 the variety of1 #id-ajj2 the value of1 #if1 #ig2 summatory1 #ih2 scientific and sthetic1 #ajb2 may always be changed1 #ajc2 good and bad1 #ajc4 ,fiji1 dancing at1 #di4 ,fijians1 the1 #ac n4 ,fine arts1 the1 #gj2 civilisation measured by standard of1 #cjg2 not to be pursued for useful end outside themselves1 #cbb4 ,fireworks1 #bb1 #bc4 ,flaubert1 ,gustave1 is personal1 #add2 sought to be most objective of artists1 #ahb4 ,flowers1 the attitude of the poet toward1 #afh1 #afi4 ,flying-machines1 #gb n42 designed by ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #aai4 ,foch1 ,ferdinand1 quoted1 #ajc4 ,fokine1 #ei4 ,folk-dances1 #fb4 ,force1 a fiction1 #if4 ,fossils1 significance of1 discovered by ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #abj4 ,fox1 ,george1 #bcg4 ,france1 tests of civilization applied to1 by ,niceforo1 #bie-ig4 ,francis of ,assisi1 #bcg4 ,franck1 ,csar1 mysticism in music of1 #bcg4 ,frazer1 ,j4 ,g41 on magic and science1 #aie1 #aif4 ,freedom1 a fiction1 #ajj4 ,french ballet1 the1 #eg1 #eh4 ,french speech1 its course1 #adh1 #adi4 ,freud1 ,sigmund1 #aaa1 #cah n42 regards dreaming as fiction1 #ajc2 on the probability of the disappearance of religion1 #bbh n4 ,frobisher1 ,sir ,martin1 his spelling1 #agc1 #agd4 ,galen1 #abj4 ,galton1 ,francis1 a man of science and an artist1 #abf-bh2 founder of the modern scientific art of eugenics1 #cec2 and ,jesus's assertion of the principle of eugenics1 #cef4 ,games1 the liking of the ,chinese for1 #bc4 ,gaultier1 ,jules de1 #ccj n42 on ,buddhist monks1 #bbd n42 on pain and pleasure in life1 #bgh n42 on morality and reason1 #bha2 on morality and art1 #bhd2 on the antinomy between morals and morality1 #cai2 on beauty1 #cbg2 on life as a spectacle1 #ccc2 the ,bovarism of1 #cce-cg2 his philosophic descent1 #ccg2 applies ,bovarism to the ,universe1 #ccg2 his philosophy seems to be in harmony with physics1 #cch2 the place of morality1 religion1 and law in his system1 #cch-dj2 place of the sthetic instinct in his system1 #cda1 #cdc-de2 system of1 compared with ,russell's1 #cdb1 #cdc2 importance of development of sthetic sense to1 #cde2 and the idea of pure art1 #cdf1 #cdg2 considers sthetic sense mixed in manifestations of life1 #cdi1 #cej2 had predilection for middle class1 #cef1 #ceg2 sees no cause for despair in break-up of civilisation1 #ceh4 ,gauss1 ,c4 ,f41 religious1 though man of science1 #bjh4 ,genesis1 ,book of1 the fashioning of the cosmos in1 #a1 #cad4 ,genius1 the birth of1 #aji2 and education1 as tests1 of civilisation1 #bia-ic2 of country1 and temper of the population1 #bib1 #bic4 ,geology1 founded by ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #abj4 ,geometry1 ,protagoras's studies in1 #c2 a science or art1 #fh4 ,gibbon1 ,edward1 #afb4 ,gide1 ,andr1 #cbb4 ,gizycki1 ,georg von1 on ,shaftesbury1 #bfj1 #bfg4 ,god1 a fiction1 #ajj1 #ccg4 ,goethe1 ,j4 ,w41 #cdb2 representative of ideal of totality of existence1 #f2 called architecture 8frozen music10 #ace2 his power of intuition1 #acg2 his studies in mathematical physics1 #acg n42 use of word 8stamped0 of certain phrases1 #adi2 mistook birds1 #afh2 felt harmony of religion and science1 #bjg2 and ,schiller and ,humboldt1 #bge4 ,gomperz1 ,theodor1 his ,greek ,thinkers1 #d1 #e1 #f n42 #ge1 #gh4 ,goncourt1 ,jules de1 his style1 #ahb1 #ahc4 ,goncourts1 the1 #ahc4 ,good1 the1 and beauty1 among the ,greeks1 #bdg4 ,goodness1 and sweetness1 in ,shaftesbury's philosophy1 #bfb2 and sweetness1 originally the same1 #bfc2 moral1 originally expressed in terms of taste1 #bfc4 ,gorgias1 #cjb4 ,gourmont1 ,remy de1 #fe2 his remark about pleasure1 #bd2 on personality1 #add2 on style1 #agg2 on civilisation1 #bih2 on the ,jesuits1 #cjd1 #cje2 on beauty1 #cae2 on art and morality1 #cba2 on sociological function of art1 #cbc4 ,government1 as art1 #c4 ,grace1 an element of style in writing1 #aee1 #aef4 ,grammar1 ,protagoras the initiator of modern1 #d2 a science or art1 #fh2 writing not made by the laws of1 #agb1 #agc4 ,grammarian1 the1 the formulator1 not the lawgiver1 of usage1 #adh4 ,great ,wall of ,china1 the1 #bh4 ,great ,war1 the1 #cci4 ,greece1 ancient1 genius built upon basis of slavery in1 #bib2 the spirit of1 #bib4 ,greek art1 #gf n4 ,greek dancing1 #ee1 #ef1 #fj4 ,greek drama1 #ee1 #ef1 #gh4 ,greek morality1 an artistic balance of light and shade1 #bfj4 ,greek speech1 the best literary prose1 #aee4 ,greek spirit1 the1 #gf n4 ,greeks1 attitude of thinkers of1 on life as art1 #c1 #bdg-ec2 the pottery of1 #cb2 importance of dancing and music in organisation of some states of1 #fd2 books on1 written by barbarians1 #gf n42 mysticism of1 #bje-jg1 #bdj-dc2 spheres of ethics and sthetics not distinguished among1 #bdg2 had a kind of sthetic morality1 #caf-ah2 recognised destruction of ethical and intellectual virtues1 #ccj2 a small minority of abnormal persons among1 #cec n4 ,greenslet1 ,ferris1 on the ,cartesian influence on ,english prose style1 #ahj n4 ,groos1 ,karl1 his 8the play of inner imitation10 #ff2 has developed sthetic side of miterleben1 #ccb4 ,grosse1 on the social significance of dancing1 #fc1 #fd4 ,grote1 ,george1 his chapter on ,socrates1 #gf4 ,grotius1 ,hugo1 #bfa4 ,guitar1 the1 an ,egyptian instrument1 #ec4 ,gumplowicz1 ,ludwig1 on civilisation1 #cja4 ,gunpowder1 use made of1 by ,chinese1 #bb1 #bc4 ,guyau1 insisted on sociological function of art1 #cbc1 #cbd2 believes that poets and artists will be priests of social religion without dogmas1 #cdi1 #cej4 ,gypsies1 possible origin of the name 8,egyptians0 as applied to them1 #ed n4 ,hadfield1 ,emma1 her account of the life of the natives of the ,loyalty ,islands1 #ac-ah4 ,hakluyt1 ,richard1 #adc2 his picture of ,chinese life1 #ai4 ,hall1 ,stanley1 on importance of dancing1 #fd1 #fe2 on the beauty of virtue1 #bgj n4 ,handel1 ,g4 ,f41 #fb4 ,handwriting1 partly a matter of individual instinct1 #aef1 #aeg2 the complexity and mystery enwrapping1 #aeg2 resemblances in1 among members of the same family1 #aeg1 #aeh2 atavism in1 #aeg1 #aeh4 ,hang-,chau1 #bj4 ,hardy1 ,thomas1 his lyrics1 #agj n42 his sensitivity to the sounds of ,nature1 #aga2 his genius unquestioned1 #ahg n4 ,hawaii1 dancing in1 #ea4 ,hawthorne1 ,nathaniel1 his style1 #afa4 ,hebrews1 their conception of the fashioning of the universe1 #a2 ancient1 their priests and their prophets1 #bjc2 never conceived of the art of morals1 #bec2 were no sthetic intuitionists1 #bgf4 ,hegel1 ,g4 ,w4 ,f41 #ij2 poetic quality of his philosophy1 #hd2 his attempt to transform subjective processes into objective world-processes1 #aja4 ,heine1 ,heinrich1 #aee n4 ,hellenism1 the revivalists of1 #bga4 ,helmholtz1 ,h4 ,l4 ,f41 science and art in1 #gb4 ,hemelverdeghem1 ,salome on ,cathedral at1 #di n4 ,heraclitus1 #gd4 ,herder1 ,j4 ,g4 von1 his ,ideen zur ,geschichte der ,menschheit1 #hh2 inspired by ,shaftesbury1 #bfh4 ,heredity1 in handwriting1 #aeg1 #aeh2 in style1 #aeh-fa1 #aij2 tradition the corporeal embodiment of1 #afa4 ,hincks1 ,marcella ,azra1 on the art of dancing in ,japan1 #db n4 ,hindu dance1 #da4 ,hinton1 ,james1 on thinking as an art1 #hf n42 on the arts1 #aaa2 the universe according to1 #bae1 #baf2 ,ellis's copy of his book1 #bbj2 on pleasure and pain in the art of life1 #bgh2 on methods of arts and moral action1 #bha1 #bhb4 ,hippias1 #cjb2 significance of his ideas1 in conception of life as an art1 #d-f2 his ideal1 #d1 #f2 the ,great ,logician1 #f n4 ,hobbes1 ,thomas1 on space1 #ie2 his dictum ,homo homini lupus1 #bfb4 ,hodgson1 ,shadworth1 #bhi4 ,hoffman1 ,bernhard1 his ,guide to the ,bird-,world1 #afh4 ,horace1 the popularity of1 in modern times1 #ib4 ,hovelaque1 mile1 on the ,chinese1 #bg1 #bh4 ,howell1 ,james1 his 8,familiar ,letters10 #ahd4 ,hugo1 ,victor1 #adi1 #caa4 ,hula dance1 the1 #ea4 ,humboldt1 ,wilhelm von1 #bge4 ,hume1 ,david1 took up fictional point of view1 #if2 recognised ,shaftesbury1 #bfg2 influenced by ,hutcheson1 #bge4 ,hunt1 ,leigh1 sensitively acute critic of ,keats1 #afg4 ,hunter1 ,john1 #aha4 ,hutcheson1 ,francis1 sthetic moralist1 #bea2 came out of ,calvinistic ,puritanism1 #bff2 one of the founders of sthetics1 #bga1 #cbf n42 wrote the first modern treatise on sthetics1 #bga2 represented reaction against ,puritanism1 #bga2 ,shaftesbury's ideas as developed by1 #bgc2 his use of the term 8moral sense10 #bgc1 #bgd2 his impressive personality1 #bgd2 philosophy was art of living to1 #bgd1 #bge2 inconsistent1 #cad2 on distinction between art and sthetics1 #cbf n42 his idea of the sthetic and the moral emotion1 #cbg n4 ,huysmans1 ,j4 ,k41 his vocabulary1 #afe2 at ,wagner concert1 #aff2 fascinated by concert programmes1 #aff1 #afg4 8,hymn of ,jesus10 the1 #db4 ,hypothesis1 dogma1 and fiction1 #ih1 #ii4 ,i and me1 #adg4 ,idealisation1 in adolescence1 #ajg1 #ajh4 ,idealism1 #hc4 ,idealists1 #gj1 #cda n4 ,ideals1 are fictions1 #ajj4 ,imagination1 a constitutive part of thinking1 #ajb2 man lives by1 #ajb2 guarded by judgment and principles1 #acj-cb2 part performed by1 in morals1 #bgb2 and the sthetic instinct1 #cdd4 ,imbeciles1 #ceb-ee4 ,imitation1 in the productions of young writers1 #afd4 ,immoral1 significance of the word1 #bdf4 ,immortality1 a fiction1 #ajj4 ,impulses1 creative and possessive1 #cjf1 #cjg1 #cda-dc4 ,inclination1 #bge4 ,india1 dancing in1 #ea1 #eb2 the ,todas of1 #bjc n4 ,indians1 ,american1 religious dances among1 #dj1 #db4 ,infanticide1 #bee1 #ced4 ,infinite1 the1 a fiction1 #ie4 ,infinitive1 the split1 #ade-dg4 ,inge1 ,dean1 on ,plotinus1 #bbc n41 #bdi n42 on ,pagan ,mysteries1 #bda n4 ,innate ideas1 #bgd4 ,insects1 dancing among1 #de4 ,instinct1 the part it plays in style1 #afc2 imitation a part of1 #afd2 and tradition1 mould morals1 #bed-ei2 the possessive1 #cch-dj1 #cdd1 #cde1 #cea1 see ,possessive instinct2 the sthetic1 #cda1 #cdc-df1 #cej1 see sthetic instinct4 ,instincts1 #bcd1 #bce4 ,intelligence1 the sphere of1 #bcc1 #bcd4 ,intuition1 the starting point of science1 #acg2 meaning of1 #bcb n42 of the man of genius1 #cbj4 ,intuitionism1 sthetic1 #bfj1 #bgf1 #bgi1 #cad4 ,intuitionists1 the1 #bcb-cd4 ,invention1 necessary in science1 #acg4 ,invincible ignorance1 doctrine of1 #cjd4 ,irony1 ,socratic1 #gh1 #hc4 ,irrationalism1 of ,vaihinger1 #ij4 ,isocrates1 on beauty and virtue1 #bdg4 ,italy1 ,romantic dancing originated in1 #ec1 #ef2 the ballet in1 #ef-eh4 ,jansenists1 the1 #cjc4 ,japan1 dancing in1 #db1 #di4 ,java1 dancing in1 #di4 ,jehovah1 in the ,book of ,genesis1 #a4 ,jeremiah1 the prophet1 his voice and instrument1 #agh1 #agi4 ,jeres1 cathedral of1 dancing in1 #dd4 ,jesuits1 the1 #cjc-je4 ,jesus1 and ,napoleon1 #aj1 #aa2 and the ,platonic ,socrates1 #hb1 #hc2 asserts principle of eugenics1 #cec1 #cef2 and ,plato1 #cef4 ,jol1 ,karl1 on the ,xenophontic ,socrates1 #gh2 on the evolution of the ,greek philosophic spirit1 #bjf4 ,john of the ,cross1 #bcg4 ,johnson1 ,samuel1 the pedantry of1 #aef2 ,latin-,french element in1 #afb2 his idea of 8matter10 #bcj4 ,johnston1 ,sir ,h4 ,h41 on the dancing of the ,pygmies1 #ea4 ,jones1 ,dr4 ,bence1 biographer of ,faraday1 #acj4 ,jonson1 ,ben1 #ahd4 ,joyce1 ,james1 #agb1 #ahd2 his ,ulysses1 #ahe1 #ahf4 ,kant1 ,immanuel1 #hi2 germs of the doctrine of the 8as if0 in1 #hg2 his idea of the art of morals1 #bec1 #bed2 influenced by ,shaftesbury1 #bec1 #bed1 #bff2 anecdote about1 #beg n41 #bgf2 rationalises morality1 #bha4 ,keats1 ,john1 concerned with beautiful words in 8,the ,eve of ,st4 ,agnes10 #afg4 ,kepler1 ,johann1 his imagination and his accuracy in calculation1 #acb1 #acc4 ,keyserling1 ,count ,hermann1 his ,philosophie als ,kunst1 #hc n4 8,knowing10 analysis of1 #gj1 #ga4 ,kolbe1 ,rev4 ,dr41 illustrates sthetic view of morals1 #bgf n4 ,lamb1 ,charles1 #ahd4 ,landor1 ,w4 ,s41 #adi2 on vulgarisms in language1 #aea n42 on the poet and poetry1 #aed1 #agb2 on style1 #afc4 ,lange1 ,f4 ,a41 his ,the ,history of ,materialism1 #gc n41 #hc2 sets forth conception of philosophy as poetic art1 #hc2 the ,neo-,kantism of1 #hg2 his influence on ,vaihinger1 #ib1 #ic4 ,language1 critics of present-day1 #ada-ea2 of our forefathers and of to-day1 #adc2 things we are told to avoid in1 #ade-ea2 is imagery and metaphor1 #afe2 reaction of thought on1 #agi-ha2 progress in1 due to flexibility and intimacy1 #ahc4 ,languages1 the ,yo-heave-ho theory of1 #fa4 ,lankester1 ,sir ,e4 ,ray1 #gj4 ,lao-tze1 and ,confucius1 #be1 #bf2 the earliest of the great mystics1 #bjd2 harmony of religion and science in his work1 #bjd1 #bje4 ,law1 a restraint placed upon the possessive instinct1 #cci1 #cdj2 to be replaced by sthetic instinct1 #cdj1 #cda4 ,laycock1 on handwriting1 #aeh n4 ,leibnitz1 ,baron ,s4 ,w4 von1 #f n42 on space1 #ie2 on music1 #ace2 admired ,shaftesbury1 #bfh4 8,l',esprit ,nouveau10 #agi4 ,libby1 ,m4 ,f41 on ,shaftesbury1 #bgc4 ,lie1 ,jonas1 #afc4 ,life1 more difficult to realise it as an art than to act it so1 #a1 #b2 as art1 view of highest thinkers of ,china and ,greece on1 #b-f1 #bdg-eb2 ideal of totality of1 #f2 art of1 has been decadent during last two thousand years1 #h n42 of the ,loyalty ,islanders1 #ac-ah2 the ,lifuan art of1 #ac-ah2 the ,chinese art of1 #bg1 #bh2 ,chinese civilization proves that it is art1 #cj2 embodiment of the ,chinese symbol of the art of1 #cc2 identical with art1 #cc-ce2 the art of1 a dance1 #ff1 #fg2 mechanistic explanation of1 #baf2 viewed in its moral aspect1 #bdd2 the moralist the critic of the art of1 #bdg2 as art1 attitude of ,romans toward1 #beb2 as art1 attitude of ,hebrews toward1 #bec2 the art of1 both pain and pleasure in1 #bgg1 #bgh2 as art1 a conception approved by men of high character1 #bgh1 #bgi2 not to be precisely measured by statistics1 #cjb2 as a spectacle1 #ccc1 #ccd4 ,lifu4 ,see ,loyalty ,islands4 ,lifuans1 the1 the art of living of1 #ac-ah4 ,limoges1 #dd4 ,linnan system1 the1 a fiction1 #ii4 ,liszt1 ,franz1 #cbi4 ,livingstone1 ,david1 #ch4 ,locke1 ,john1 and ,shaftesbury1 #bfa1 #bfb4 ,locomotive1 the1 #gb n4 ,lodge1 ,sir ,oliver1 his attempt to study religion1 #bja4 ,logic1 a science or art1 #fh2 and fiction1 #id2 of thought1 inescapable1 #ahc4 ,loret1 on dancing1 #ed n4 ,love1 dancing the primitive expression of1 #cg1 #de2 curiosity one of the main elements of1 #aab4 ,love-dance1 #de-ea4 ,see ,dance1 ,dancing4 ,loyalty ,islands1 the1 customs of the natives of1 #ac-ah4 ,lucian1 #cec n42 on dancing1 #dj1 #de4 ,lucretius1 #bjg4 ,lull1 ,ramon1 #bcg4 ,lulli1 ,j4 ,b41 brought women into the ballet1 #eg4 ,luxuries1 consumption of1 as test of civilisation1 #bid-ig4 ,machinery of life1 #baf4 ,madagascar1 dancing in1 #di4 ,magic1 relation of1 to science and religion1 #aic-if4 ,magna ,carta1 #ih4 ,malherbe1 ,franois de1 #adh4 ,mallarm1 ,stphane1 music the voice of the world to1 #aff4 ,mallorca1 dancing in church in1 #dd1 #de4 ,mammals1 dancing among1 #de1 #df4 ,man1 has found it more difficult to conceive life as an art than to act it so1 #a2 his conception less that of an artist1 as time went on1 #b2 in ,protagoras's philosophy1 #c1 #d1 #cjb2 ceremony and music1 his external and internal life1 #be2 added to ,nature1 #aec2 has passed through stages of magic1 religion1 and science1 #aif2 an artist of his own life1 #bga2 is an artist1 #caj2 as artist and as sthetician1 #cad2 becomes the greatest force in ,nature1 #cci2 practices adopted by1 to maintain selection of best stock1 #ced4 ,mandeville1 ,sir ,john1 on ,shaftesbury1 #bfb4 ,manet1 #caa4 ,marco ,polo1 his picture of ,chinese life1 #ai1 #bj2 noticed absence of beggars in ,china1 #ca2 on public baths in ,china1 #cb4 ,marett1 on magic and science1 #aie4 ,marlowe1 ,christopher1 #agj1 #ahd4 ,marquesans1 the1 #ac n4 ,marriott1 ,charles1 on the union of sthetic sense with artistic instinct1 #cej n4 ,martial1 #ed4 ,mass1 dancing in ritual of1 #dc-de2 analogy of ,pagan ,mysteries to1 #bdb4 ,master of ,arts1 #fi4 ,materialism1 #ig1 #bcj4 ,materialistic1 the term1 #bbi4 ,mathematical ,renaissance1 the1 #fi4 ,mathematics1 false ideas in1 #id1 #ie2 and art1 #ach-dj4 ,matter1 a fiction1 #ig1 #bbi1 #cch2 and spirit1 #bbi1 #bcj4 ,maupassant1 ,guy de1 #caa4 ,mc,dougall1 ,william1 accepts magic as origin of science1 #aie2 his criticism of the 8moral sense10 #bgd n42 his study of civilisation1 #bih2 on birth-rate1 #bih n4 ,me and ,i1 #adg4 ,mead1 ,g4 ,r41 his article ,the ,sacred ,dance of ,jesus1 #dd4 ,measurement1 ,protagoras's saying concerning1 #c1 #cjb4 ,mechanics1 beginning of science of1 #gd2 theories of1 studied by ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #abj4 ,medici1 ,catherine de'1 brought ,italian ballet to ,paris1 #eg4 ,medicine1 and religion1 #aig n41 #bjc4 ,medicine-man1 the1 #aib-ie4 ,meh-ti1 ,chinese philosopher1 #bf1 #bg4 ,men1 of to-day and of former days1 their comparative height1 #adb4 8,men of science10 #abe1 #abf4 ,see ,scientist4 ,meteorological ,bureau1 the1 #bjc4 ,metre1 poetic1 arising out of work1 #fb4 ,michelangelo1 #caa4 ,milan1 the ballet in1 #eh4 ,mill1 ,j4 ,s41 on science and art1 #gj2 criticism of ,bentham1 #ii4 ,millet1 ,j4 ,f41 #caa4 ,milton1 ,john1 his misuse of the word 8eglantine10 #afi2 ,tolstoy's opinion of1 #caa4 ,mirandola1 ,pico della1 #f n4 ,mittag-,lefler1 ,gustav1 on mathematics1 #aci4 ,mbius1 ,paul ,julius1 ,german psychologist1 #aji4 ,moissac1 ,salome capital in1 #di n4 ,montaigne1 ,m4 ,e4 de1 his style flexible and various1 #adh2 his quotations moulded to the pattern of his own mind1 #aeb2 his style and that of ,renan1 #afa2 the originality of his style found in vocabulary1 #afe4 ,montesquieu1 ,baron de1 his admiration for ,shaftesbury1 #bfh2 on the evils of civilisation1 #big4 ,moral1 significance of the term1 #bdf4 ,moral maxims1 #bed1 #beh4 ,moral reformer1 the1 #bhb4 8,moral sense10 the term as used by ,hutcheson and ,shaftesbury1 #bgc1 #bgd2 in ,mc,dougall's ,social ,psychology1 #bgd n4 ,moral teaching1 #bdf n4 ,moral ,world-,order1 the1 a fiction1 #ajj4 ,morand1 ,paul1 #agj n4 ,moreau1 ,gustave1 #afg4 ,morgagni1 ,g4 ,b41 #cjj4 ,morris1 ,william1 #cej n4 ,moses1 #bec1 #bhb4 ,moszkowski1 ,alexander1 his book on ,einstein1 #acd n4 ,moralist1 the critic of the art of life1 #bdg4 ,morality1 ,greek1 an artistic balance of light and shade1 #bfj2 a matter of taste1 #bfc2 the sthetic quality of1 evidenced by language1 #bfc1 #bfd2 ,shaftesbury's views on1 #bfd-ff2 the influence of ,shaftesbury on our modern1 #bff1 #bfg2 imagination in1 #bgb2 instinctive1 according to ,hutcheson1 #bgd2 conception of1 as an art1 does not lack seriousness1 #bgf2 the sthetic view of1 advocated by ,catholics1 #bgf n42 the sthetic view of1 repugnant to two classes of minds1 #bhj-hb2 indefiniteness of criterion of1 an advantage1 #bhb1 #bhc2 justification of sthetic conception of1 #bhc1 #bhd2 flexible and inflexible1 illustrated by ,jesuits and ,pascal1 #cjc-je2 art the reality of1 #cad2 sthetic1 of the ,greeks1 #caf-ah2 the antinomy between morals and1 #cai2 a restraint placed upon the possessive instinct1 #cch-dj2 to be replaced by sthetic instinct1 #cdj1 #cda2 sthetic instinct has the character of1 #cdf4 ,morals1 dancing as1 #fa1 #fc1 #ff2 books on1 #bdd2 defined1 #bde2 means custom1 #bde2 ,plotinus's conception of1 #bej-eb2 as art1 views of the ,greeks and the ,romans on1 differ1 #beb2 ,hebrews never conceived of the art of1 #bec2 as art1 modern conception of1 #bec2 the modern feeling about1 is ,jewish and ,roman1 #bec2 ,kant's idea of the art of1 #bec1 #bed2 formed by instinct1 tradition and reason1 #bed-ei2 ,greek1 have come to modern world through ,shaftesbury1 #bfg2 the sthetic attitude possible for spectator of1 #bgj2 art and sthetics to be kept apart in1 #cad1 #cae1 #cbe-bh2 a species of the genus art1 #caf2 the antinomy between morality and1 #cai2 philosophers have failed to see that it is an art1 #cbd4 ,morisco1 the1 #di n4 ,mozart1 ,wolfgang1 his interest in dancing1 #fb4 ,mller-,freienfels1 ,richard1 two kinds of sthetic contemplation defined by1 #cca4 ,multatuli1 quoted on the source of curiosity1 #aab4 ,music1 and ceremony1 #bd-bf2 and acting1 and poetry1 #cf2 and singing1 and dancing1 their relation1 #fb2 a science or art1 #fh2 discovery of ,pythagoras in1 #gd2 philosophy the noblest and best1 #ha n42 the most abstract1 the most nearly mathematical of the arts1 #ace2 of style1 #afc1 #afd2 of philosophy and religion1 #agi4 ,musical forms1 evolved from similar dances1 #fb4 ,musical instruments1 #ec1 #ed4 ,musset1 ,alfred de1 his ,confession d'un ,enfant du ,sicle1 #add4 ,mysteries1 the ,eleusinian1 #bdj-dc4 ,mystic1 the genuine1 #bjb2 ,lao-tze1 the earliest great1 #bjd4 ,mystics1 the great1 #bcf1 #bcg4 ,mysticism1 the right use and the abuse of the word1 #aia2 and science1 supposed difference between1 #aia-bjc2 what is meant by1 #aib2 and science1 the harmony of1 as revealed in human history1 #bjc-jh2 of the ,greeks1 #bje-jg1 #bdj-dc2 and science1 the harmony of1 as supported by personal experience of ,havelock ,ellis1 #bji-ah2 and science1 how they came to be considered out of harmony1 #bbf-ce2 and science1 harmony of1 summary of considerations confirming1 #bce1 #bcf2 the key to much that is precious in art and ,nature in1 #bcg1 #bch2 is not science1 #bch-dj2 sthetics on same plane as1 #ccj n4 ,see ,religion4 ,napoleon1 described as unmitigated scoundrel by ,h4 ,g4 ,wells1 #h-aj2 described as lyric artist by lie ,faure1 #aj4 ,nature1 and convention1 ,hippias made distinction between1 #e2 comes through an atmosphere which is the emanation of supreme artists1 #aff2 the attitude of the poet in the face of1 #afh1 #afi2 the object of ,leonardo da ,vinci's searchings1 #aad1 #aag1 #abe2 ,man added to1 #aec2 communion with1 #bbg2 in ,shaftesbury's system1 #bfe2 and art1 #cab1 #cac4 ,neo-,platonists1 the1 #bcg2 asceticism in1 #bdi n4 ,nests1 birds'1 and dancing1 #cf n4 ,newell1 ,w4 ,w41 #da n4 ,newman1 ,cardinal ,j4 ,h41 the music of his style1 #afd4 ,newton1 ,sir ,isaac1 his wonderful imagination1 #gb2 his force of attraction a summatory fiction1 #ih2 represents in ,england new impetus to sciences1 #ahj2 his attempt to study religion1 #aii-bja2 religious1 though a man of science1 #bjh4 ,niceforo1 ,alfred1 his measurement of civilisation1 #bhf1 #bic1 #big2 tests of civilisation applied to ,france by1 #bie-ig4 ,nietzsche1 ,friedrich1 #aaa2 conceived the art of life as a dance1 #ff1 #fg2 poetic quality of his philosophy1 #hd2 ,vaihinger's opinion of1 #id2 on ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #aae2 the 8divine malice0 of1 #aee n42 laboured at his prose1 #ahb2 demolished ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss's ideas1 #bae2 on learning to dance1 #bgg2 his gospel of taste1 #bhj2 on the ,sophists1 #cjb n42 on art as the great stimulus of life1 #cbb1 #cbc2 on the world as a spectacle1 #ccd1 #cce2 moved by the 8masculine protest10 #ccf2 ,jesus reproached by1 #cee4 ,novelists1 their reservoirs of knowledge1 #aga4 ,noverre1 and the ballet1 #eg4 ,ockham1 ,william of1 #if4 ,old ,testament1 the1 and the conception of morality as an art1 #bgf4 ,see ,bible1 ,genesis4 ,omahas1 the1 #df4 ,onions1 ,c4 ,t41 #adf n4 ,optimism1 and pessimism1 #ij-ib4 ,origen1 on the dancing of the stars1 #dc4 ,orpheus1 fable of1 #fa4 ,osler1 ,sir ,william1 #gb4 ,pacific1 the1 creation as conceived in1 #b2 dancing in1 #di4 ,see ,lifuans4 ,pain1 and pleasure1 united1 #bgh4 ,painting1 ,chinese1 #bi1 #cb2 and sculpture1 and the arts of design1 #cf2 of ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #aac1 #aad1 #aag1 #aah4 ,palante1 ,georges1 #ccg n4 ,paley1 ,william1 #bfg4 ,palladius1 #ceh4 ,pantomime1 and pantomimic dancing1 #da1 #db1 #di1 #ef4 ,papuans1 the1 are artistic1 #cea n4 ,parachute1 constructed by ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #aai4 ,paris1 dancing in choir in1 #dd2 the ballet at1 #eg4 ,parker1 ,professor ,e4 ,h41 his book ,china3 ,past and ,present1 #bc n42 his view of ,chinese vermin and dirt1 #ca1 #cb4 ,parks1 #cea4 ,parmelee1 ,maurice1 his ,criminology1 #bia n4 ,parsons1 ,professor1 #adb4 ,pascal1 ,blaise1 and the ,jesuits1 #cjc1 #cjd4 ,pater1 ,w4 ,h41 the music of his style1 #afd4 ,pattison1 ,pringle1 his definition of mysticism1 #aib n4 ,paul1 ,vincent de1 his moral attitude1 #bgi1 #bhj4 ,paulhan1 on morality1 #bhd4 ,pell1 ,e4 ,c41 on decreasing birth-rate1 #bid n4 ,pepys1 ,samuel1 the accomplishment of his 8,diary10 #agf4 ,perera1 ,galeotto1 his picture of ,chinese life1 #ai2 noticed absence of beggars in ,china1 #ca4 ,pericles1 #bhi4 ,personality1 #add4 ,pessimism1 and optimism1 #ij-ib4 ,petrie1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,m4 ,flinders1 his attempt to measure civilisation by standard of sculpture1 #cjg1 #cjh4 ,peyron1 traveller1 #ej4 ,phenomenalism1 ,protagoras the father of1 #c4 ,philosopher1 the primitive1 usually concluded that the universe was a work of art1 #a2 a creative artist1 #gb1 #gc1 #he2 curiosity the stimulus of1 #ajd1 #aje4 ,philosophy1 of the ,chinese1 #cb2 solution of the conflicts of1 in art1 #hb1 #hc2 and art1 close relationship of1 #hc-he2 and poetry1 #hc1 #he2 is music1 #agi4 ,physics1 and fiction1 #ie4 ,pictures1 revelation of beauty in1 #cbh1 #cbi2 should be looked at in silence1 #cbi n4 ,pindar1 calls ,hellas 8the land of lovely dancing10 #ee4 ,planck1 ,max1 physicist1 #acf4 ,plato1 ,protagoras calumniated by1 #c2 made fun of ,hippias1 #d2 his description of a good education1 #fd2 a creative artist1 #gc2 his picture of ,socrates1 #ge1 #gh2 the biographies of1 #gf1 #gg2 his irony1 #gh1 #hc2 a marvellous artist1 #hb2 a supreme artist in philosophy1 #hc2 a supreme dramatist1 #hc2 his 8,ideas0 and the 8,as-,if world10 #hh2 the myths1 as fictions1 hypotheses1 and dogmas1 #ii2 represents the acme of literary prose speech1 #aee2 and ,plotinus1 #bbb2 on the ,mysteries1 #bdb2 asceticism1 traced in1 #bdi n42 on justice1 #bhi2 his ideal of wise moderation addressed to an immoderate people1 #bib2 ,sophists caricatured by1 #cjb2 his 8guardians10 #cjf2 the ultrapuritanical attitude of1 #cag1 #cah n42 and ,bovarism1 #ccf2 on the value of sight1 #cde n42 wished to do away with imaginative literature1 #cec n42 and ,jesus1 #cef4 ,pleasure1 a human creation1 #bd2 and pain1 united1 #bgh4 ,pliny1 #cec n4 ,plotinus1 #bbb2 ,greek moral spirit reflected in1 #bdi2 his doctrine of ,beauty1 #bej1 #bea2 his idea that the moral life of the soul is a dance1 #bea1 #beb2 his simile of the sculptor1 #bgf n42 founder of sthetics in the philosophic sense1 #cbi2 recognised three aspects of the ,absolute1 #ccj2 insisted on contemplation1 #ccj n41 #cca2 of the participating contemplative temperament1 #ccb4 ,poet1 the type of all thinkers1 #ajb2 ,landor on1 #aed2 his attitude in the presence of ,nature1 #afh1 #afi2 the great1 does not describe ,nature minutely1 but uses his knowledge of1 #agj1 #aga4 ,poetry1 ,chinese1 #ba1 #bb1 #bi1 #cb2 and music1 and acting1 #cf2 and dancing1 #ef2 and philosophy1 #hc1 #he2 and science1 no sharp boundary between1 #ajb1 #abh1 #abi2 ,landor on1 #aed2 a making1 #cab2 ,aristotle's view of1 #cah2 does not exist for morals1 #cah4 ,polka1 origin of the1 #fj4 ,polynesia1 dancing in1 #di4 ,polynesian islanders1 #bee4 ,pontiff1 the ,bridge-,builder1 #b4 ,pope1 ,alexander1 influence of ,shaftesbury on1 #bff4 ,porphyry1 #afg4 ,possessive impulses1 #cjf1 #cjg1 #cda-dc4 ,possessive instinct1 restraints placed upon1 #cch-dj2 in ,gaultier and ,russell1 #cdd2 excesses of1 #cea4 ,pottery1 of the ,chinese1 #cb1 #cc2 of the ,greeks and the ,minoan predecessors of the ,greeks1 #cb4 ,pound1 ,miss1 on the origin of the ballad1 #fb n4 ,pragmatism1 #cbc4 ,pragmatists1 the1 #ic1 #bca1 #bcb4 ,precious stones1 attitude of the poet toward1 #afi4 ,preposition1 the post-habited1 #adf1 #adg1 #afb4 ,prettiness1 and beauty1 #cae n4 ,priest1 cultivated science in form of magic1 #aie2 and doctor1 originally one1 #aig n41 #bjc4 ,prodicus1 #cjb2 the ,great ,moralist1 #f n4 ,progress1 #adc1 #adi2 on meaning of1 #bhg4 ,prophecy1 #bjd4 ,prophet1 meaning of the word1 #bjc1 #bjd4 ,propriety1 #bd-bf4 ,protagoras1 significance of his ideas1 in conception of life as an art1 #c1 #d2 his interest for us to-day1 #c2 his dictum 8,man is the measure of all things10 #c1 #cjb2 concerned to regard living as an art1 #bdh4 ,proust1 ,marcel1 #agb1 #ahd2 his art1 #agj n41 #ahf1 #ahg2 his ,a la ,recherche du ,temps ,perdu1 #aga1 #ahg2 admiration of1 for ,ruskin1 #caf n4 ,puberty1 questions arising at time of1 #aje-jg4 ,puritanism1 reaction against1 represented by ,hutcheson1 #bga4 ,pygmalionism1 #cec n4 ,pygmies1 the dancing of the1 #ea4 ,pythagoras1 represents the beginning of science1 #gc1 #gd2 fundamentally an artist1 #gd1 #ge2 founded religious brotherhoods1 #bjf1 #bjg4 ,quatelet1 on social questions1 #bhh4 ,quoting1 by writers1 #aeb4 ,rabbitism1 #bid4 ,rabelais1 ,franois1 #adh1 #afe1 #ceh4 ,race mixture1 #cjh4 ,raleigh1 ,sir ,walter1 his literary style1 #adc4 ,ramedjenis1 the1 street dancers1 #eb4 ,rank1 ,dr4 ,otto1 his essay on the artist1 #aaa4 ,realism1 #hc4 ,realists1 #gj1 #cda n4 ,reality1 a flux of happening1 #aja4 ,reason1 helps to mould morals1 #bee-ei4 ,reid1 ,thomas1 influenced by ,hutcheson1 #bge4 ,relativism1 ,protagoras the father of1 #c4 ,religion1 as the desire for the salvation of the soul1 #h2 origin of dance in1 #ch2 connection of dance with1 among primitive men1 #ci2 in music1 #agi2 and science1 supposed difference between1 #aia-bjc2 its quintessential core1 #aia2 control of ,nature through oneness with ,nature1 at the heart of1 #aid2 relation of1 to science and magic1 #aid-if2 the man of1 studying science1 #bjb2 and science1 the harmony of1 as revealed in human history1 #bjc-jh2 and science1 the harmony of1 as supported by personal experience of ,havelock ,ellis1 #bji-ah2 asceticism has nothing to do with normal1 #bbb2 and science1 how they came to be considered out of harmony1 #bbf-ce2 the burden of the traditions of1 #bbg2 and church1 not the same1 #bbh n42 the instinct of1 #bcd2 and science1 harmony of1 summary of considerations confirming1 #bce1 #bcf2 is not science1 #bch-dj2 an act1 #bdc2 a restraint placed upon the possessive instinct1 #cci1 #cdj2 to be replaced by sthetic instinct1 #cdj1 #cda4 ,see ,mysticism4 ,religions1 in every case originally saltatory1 #dj4 ,religious dances1 ecstatic and pantomimic1 #da2 survivals of1 #db2 in ,christianity1 #db-de4 ,renan1 ,j4 ,e41 his style1 #afa2 his ,life of ,jesus1 #bab2 on truth1 #cja4 8,resident in ,peking1 ,a10 author of ,china as it ,really ,is1 #ba1 #bb4 ,revelation1 ,book of1 #aec4 ,revival1 the1 #bda1 #bdc4 ,rhythm1 marks all the physical and spiritual manifestations of life1 #cg2 in work1 #fa4 ,rickert1 ,h41 his twofold division of ,reality1 #cbe1 #cbf4 ,ridgeway1 ,william1 his theory of origin of tragedy1 #ef4 ,roberts1 ,morley1 ironical over certain 8men of science10 #abf n4 ,robinson1 ,dr4 ,louis1 on apes and dancing1 #df2 on the influence of the drum1 #fc4 ,rod1 his conceptions those of ,shaftesbury1 #bfi4 ,roman law1 #ih4 ,romans1 the ancient1 dancing and war allied among1 #fc1 #fd2 did not believe that living is an art1 #beb4 ,romantic spirit1 the1 #bjf4 ,romantics1 the1 #adi1 #aef4 ,rome1 ancient1 dancing in1 #di2 genius built upon basis of slavery in1 #bib4 ,rops1 ,flicien1 #afg4 ,ross1 ,robert1 #aej4 ,rouen ,cathedral1 ,salome on portal of1 #di n4 ,rousseau1 ,j4 ,j41 ,napoleon before grave of1 #aa2 felt his lapses1 #gi2 grace of1 #adi2 love of ,nature developed through1 #bch2 and ,shaftesbury1 #bfh1 #bfi2 decided against civilisation1 #bih4 ,roussillon1 #dd4 ,rule1 rigid subserviency to1 mark of decadence1 #agc2 much lost by rigid adherence to1 in style1 #age4 ,rules for ,compositors and ,readers1 on spelling1 ,oxford ,university ,press1 #agd n4 ,ruskin1 ,john1 #caf2 a ,god-intoxicated man1 #caf n4 ,russell1 ,bertrand1 on the ,chinese1 #bc2 on mathematics1 #aci1 #adj2 on the creative and the possessive impulses1 #cje-jg1 #cda1 #cdb2 system of1 compared with ,gaultier's1 #cdb1 #cdc4 ,russia1 the genius of1 compared with the temper of the population1 #bic4 ,russian ballet1 the1 #eh-fj4 ,rutherford1 ,sir ,ernest1 on the atomic constitution1 #ig n4 ,st4 ,augustine1 #gi1 #bjb2 on the art of living well1 #beb4 ,st4 ,basil1 on the dancing of the angels1 #dc4 ,st4 ,bonaventura1 said to have been author of 8,diet a ,salutis10 #dc4 ,st4 ,denis1 ,ruth1 #fj4 ,st4 ,theresa1 and ,darwin1 #aih1 #aii4 ,salome1 the dance of1 #di4 ,salt1 intellectual and moral suggestion of the word1 #bfc1 #bfc n41 #bfd4 ,salt1 ,mr41 #afi4 ,salter1 ,w4 ,m41 his ,nietzsche the ,thinker1 #cce n4 ,samoa1 sacred position of carpenter in1 #b4 ,sand1 ,george1 on civilisation1 #cjj4 ,santayana1 ,professor ,george1 on union of sthetic sense with artistic instinct1 #cej n4 ,schelling1 ,f4 ,w4 ,j4 von1 #ij2 on philosophy and poetry1 #hc4 ,schiller1 ,friedrich von1 influence on ,vaihinger1 #hi2 and the sthetic conception of morals1 #bge4 ,schleiermacher1 ,friedrich1 #ij4 ,schmidt1 ,dr4 ,raymund1 #ic n4 ,schopenhauer1 ,arthur1 #ccj n42 his influence on ,vaihinger1 #ij2 as regards his quotations1 #aeb2 morals based on sympathy1 according to1 #bgb2 on the uselessness of art1 #cai2 on the man of genius1 #cbj2 on sociological function of art1 #cbc2 on the proper way of looking at pictures1 #cbi n42 on the world as a spectacle1 #ccd4 ,science1 spirit of modern1 in ,protagoras1 #d2 as the search for the reason of things1 #h2 and poetry1 no sharp boundary between1 #ajb1 #abh1 #abi2 impulse to1 and the sexual instinct1 #aab2 intuition and invention needed by1 #acg2 and mysticism1 supposed difference between1 #aia-bjc2 what is meant by1 #aib2 and art1 no distinction between1 in classic times1 #fh2 and art1 distinction between1 in modern times1 #fh-gj2 definitions of1 #gj1 #ga2 is of the nature of art1 #ga2 the imaginative application of1 #gb2 ,pythagoras represents the beginning of1 #gd2 control of ,nature through oneness with ,nature1 at the heart of1 #aid2 relation of1 to magic and religion1 #aid-if2 and pseudo-science1 #aii-bjb2 and mysticism1 the harmony of1 as revealed in human history1 #bjc-jh2 and mysticism1 the harmony of1 as supported by personal experience of ,havelock ,ellis1 #bji-ah2 and mysticism1 how they came to be considered out of harmony1 #bbf-ce2 traditions of1 #bbh2 the instinct of1 #bcd2 and mysticism1 harmony of1 summary of considerations confirming1 #bce1 #bcf2 is not religion1 #bch-dj2 not pursued for useful ends1 #cbb2 for science's sake1 #cdg4 ,sciences1 and arts1 #fh-gj2 biological and social1 fiction in1 #ii2 mathematical impetus given to1 toward end of seventeenth century1 #ahj2 biological1 awakening of1 #aha2 mathematical1 renaissance of1 #aha4 ,scientist1 the true1 an artist1 #gb1 #gc1 #aab1 #abf2 curiosity the stimulus of1 #ajd1 #aje2 the false1 #abe1 #abf2 who turns to religion1 #aii-bja4 ,scott1 ,w4 ,r41 on art and sthetics1 #cbf n4 ,scottish ,school1 the1 #bfg4 ,sculpture1 painting1 and the arts of design1 #cf2 civilisation measured by standard of1 #cjh4 ,seises1 the1 the dance of1 #dd n4 ,selous1 ,edmund1 #cf n4 ,semon1 ,professor1 ,r41 #cea n4 8,sense10 ,hutcheson's conception of1 #bgd4 ,seville1 cathedral of1 dancing in1 #dd4 ,sex1 instinct of1 a reaction to the stimulus of curiosity1 #ajd2 early questions concerning1 #aje-jg2 source of art impulse1 #ajh-ab2 and the scientific interest1 #aab2 not absolutely essential1 #bcd4 ,sexual imagery1 strain of1 in thought1 #aac4 8,shadow10 #bai n4 ,shaftesbury1 ,earl of1 influence on ,kant1 #bed2 illustrated unsystematic method of thinking1 #bei2 his book1 #bfj2 his theory of sthetic ,intuitionism1 #bfj2 his affinity to the ,greeks1 #bfj2 his early life1 #bfa2 his idea of goodness1 #bfb2 his principles expounded1 #bfd-ff2 his influence on later writers and thinkers1 #bff2 his influence on our modern morality1 #bff1 #bfg2 the greatest ,greek of modern times1 #bfg1 #bga2 his service to the modern world1 #bfg2 measure of his recognition in ,scotland and ,england1 #bfg2 recognition of1 abroad1 #bfh1 #bfi2 made no clear distinction between creative artistic impulse and critical sthetic appreciation1 #bgj2 realised that reason cannot affect appetite1 #bgj2 one of the founders of sthetics1 #bga2 his use of the term 8moral sense10 #bgc1 #bgd2 temperamentally a ,stoic1 #bgi2 of the sthetic contemplative temperament1 #ccb1 #ccc4 ,shakespeare1 ,william1 #adh2 his style compared with that of ,bacon1 #afj2 affected by the intoxication of words1 #afg2 stored up material to be used freely later1 #agj1 #aga2 the spelling of his name by himself1 #agc2 surpasses contemporaries in flexibility and intimacy1 #ahd2 ,tolstoy's opinion of1 #caa2 on ,nature and art1 #cab1 #cac2 his figure of ,prospero1 #cca4 ,shamans1 the1 religious dances among1 #dj1 #da2 their wills brought into harmony with the essence of the world1 #aic2 double attitude of1 #aid4 ,sharp1 ,f4 ,c41 on ,hutcheson1 #cbg n4 ,shelley1 ,p4 ,b41 mysticism in poetry of1 #bcg2 on imagination and morality1 #bch4 ,sidgwick1 ,henry1 #bee1 #cad4 ,singer1 ,dr4 ,charles1 his definition of science1 #gj1 #ga4 ,singing1 relation to music and dancing1 #fb4 ,silberer1 ,herbert1 on magic and science1 #aie4 ,simcox1 ,edith1 her description of conversion1 #bah n4 ,skene1 on dances among ,african tribes1 #ch4 ,slezakova1 ,anna1 the polka extemporised by1 #fj4 ,smith1 ,adam1 his 8economic man10 #ii2 morals based on sympathy1 according to1 #bgb2 influenced by ,hutcheson1 #bge4 ,smith1 ,arthur ,h41 his book ,chinese ,characteristics1 #bc n4 ,social capillarity1 #bih4 ,social ladder1 #bih1 #bii4 ,social statistics1 #bhf-hh4 ,socialists1 ,french1 inspired by ,shaftesbury1 #bfi4 ,socrates1 the ,platonic1 #ge1 #gh2 ,grote's chapter on1 #gf2 the real and the legendary1 #gf1 #gi1 #hb2 three elements in our composite portrait of1 #gg-gi2 the ,platonic1 and the ,gospel ,jesus1 #hb1 #hc2 on philosophy and music1 #agi2 his view of the moralist1 #bdh4 ,solidarity1 socialistic1 among the ,chinese1 #bf1 #bg4 ,solmi1 ,vincian scholar1 #aad4 ,sophists1 the1 #d1 #cjb1 #cjb n4 ,sophocles1 danced in his own dramas1 #ef2 beauty and moral order in1 #bdg2 ,tolstoy's opinion of1 #caa4 ,soul1 a fiction1 #ajj2 in harmony with itself1 #bai2 the moral life of1 as a dance1 #bea1 #beb4 ,south ,sea ,islands1 dancing in1 #di4 ,space1 absolute1 a fiction1 #ie4 ,spain1 dancing in1 #dd1 #ej1 #ed4 ,speech1 the best literary prose1 #aee2 in ,greece1 #aee2 in ,england1 #aee1 #aef2 the artist's1 #aef2 a tradition1 #afa4 ,spelling1 and thinking1 #abg n42 has little to do with style1 #agc2 now uniform and uniformly bad1 #agd1 #age4 ,spencer1 ,herbert1 on science and art1 #fh2 on use of science in form of magic1 #aie2 the universe according to1 #bae2 on the harmlessness of moral teaching1 #bdf n42 on diminishing birth-rate1 #bid n4 ,spengler1 ,dr4 ,oswald1 on the development of music1 #ace n42 argues on the identity of physics1 mathematics1 religion1 and great art1 #ach2 his theory of culture and civilisation1 #cji1 #caj4 ,spinoza1 ,baruch1 #hi2 has moved in sphere where impulses of religion and science spring from same source1 #bjg2 transforms ethics into geometry1 #bha2 has been called a ,god-intoxicated man1 #caf n42 his 8intellectual love of ,god10 #cdb4 ,spirit1 and matter1 #bbi1 #bcj4 ,statistics1 uncertainty of1 #bhf2 for measurement of civilisation1 #bhf-hh2 applied to ,france to test civilisation1 #bie-ig4 ,steele1 ,dr4 ,john1 on the ,chinese ceremonial1 #bi n4 ,stephen1 ,sir ,leslie1 on poetry and philosophy1 #he2 could see no good in ,shaftesbury1 #bfh4 ,stevenson1 ,r4 ,l41 #ahh4 ,stocks1 eradication of unfit1 by ,man1 #ced2 recommended by ,jesus1 #cee1 #cef4 ,stoics1 the1 #bjg4 ,strauss1 ,d4 ,f41 his ,the ,old ,faith and the ,new1 #bad4 ,style1 literary1 of to-day and of our fore-fathers' time1 #adc2 the achievement of1 #aee2 grace seasoned with salt1 #aee2 atavism in1 in members of the same family1 #aeh1 #aij2 atavism in1 in the race1 #afj1 #aij2 much that is instinctive in1 #afc2 the music of1 #afc1 #afd2 vocabulary in1 #afd1 #afe2 the effect of mere words on1 #afe-fg2 familiarity with author's1 necessary to understanding1 #aga1 #agb2 spelling has little to do with1 #agc2 much lost by slavish adherence to rules in1 #age2 must have clarity and beauty1 #agf-gh2 ,english prose1 ,cartesian influence on1 #ahj n42 personal and impersonal1 #ahb1 #ahc2 progress in1 lies in casting aside accretions and exuberances1 #ahc2 founded on a model1 the negation of style1 #ahh2 the task of breaking the old moulds of1 #ahh1 #ahi2 summary of elements of1 #aij4 ,see ,writing4 ,suicide1 rate of1 as test of civilisation1 #bie1 #bif4 ,swahili1 dancing among1 #ch4 ,swedenborg1 ,emanuel1 his science and his mysticism1 #bjh4 ,swedish ballet1 the1 #fj4 ,sweet 7suavis71 referring to moral qualities1 #bfd4 ,sweetness1 and goodness1 in ,shaftesbury's philosophy1 #bfb2 originally the same1 #bfc4 ,swift1 ,jonathan1 laments 8the corruption of our style10 #adb2 beauty of his style1 rests on truth to logic of his thought1 #ahc2 utterance of1 combining two conceptions of life1 #ccc4 ,swimming-belt1 constructed by ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #aai4 ,swinburne1 ,c4 ,a41 on writing poetry to a tune1 #fb2 his ,poems and ,ballads1 #agb2 his ,songs before ,sunrise1 #bab4 ,sylvester1 ,j4 ,j41 on mathematics1 #aci4 ,symphony1 the development of a dance suite1 #fb4 ,syndicalism1 as test of civilisation1 #bif1 #big4 ,taglioni1 ,maria1 #eh4 ,tahiti1 dancing at1 #ej4 ,tambourine1 the1 #ec4 ,tao1 the word1 #bjd4 ,taste1 the gospel of1 #bhj4 ,telegraph1 the1 #gb n4 ,telephone1 the1 #gb n4 ,tell-el-,amarna1 #bh4 ,theology1 #bbg4 ,therapeuts1 the worship of1 #db4 ,thing-in-,itself1 the1 a fiction1 #aja4 ,things1 are fictions1 #ih4 ,thinking1 of the nature of art1 #he1 #hf2 and existing1 on two different planes1 #aja2 the special art and object of1 #aja2 is a comparison1 #ajb2 is a regulated error1 #ajc2 abstract1 the process of its birth1 #ajh1 #aji4 ,thompson1 ,silvanus1 on ,faraday1 #acb4 ,thomson1 ,james1 influence of ,shaftesbury on1 #bff4 ,thomson1 ,sir ,joseph1 on matter and weight1 #bcj4 ,thoreau1 ,h4 ,d41 on morals1 #bhb4 ,thought1 logic of1 inescapable1 #ahc4 ,tobacco1 consumption of1 as test of civilisation1 #bie4 ,todas1 the1 of ,india1 #bjc n4 ,toledo1 cathedral of1 dancing in1 #dd4 ,tolstoy1 ,count ,leo1 his opinions on art1 #caa4 ,tonga1 sacred position of carpenter in1 #b4 ,tooke1 ,horne1 #aea n4 ,townsend1 ,rev4 ,joseph1 on the fandango1 #ej4 ,tradition1 the corporeal embodiment of heredity1 #afa2 and instinct1 mould morals1 #bed-ei4 ,traditions1 religious1 #bbg2 scientific1 #bbh4 ,triangles1 #ec4 ,truth1 the measuring-rod of1 #bcj-cb4 ,tunisia1 ,southern1 dancing in1 #di4 ,t'ung1 the story of1 #cc4 ,turkish dervishes1 dances of1 #da4 ,tuscans1 the1 #ef4 ,see ,etruscans4 ,tyndall1 ,john1 on ,faraday1 #acj-cb4 ,tyrrells1 the1 the handwriting of1 #aeg4 ,ugliness1 #cbh4 ,ulysses1 representative of ideal of totality of existence1 #f4 ,united ,states1 the genius of1 compared with the temper of the population1 #bic4 ,universe1 conceived as work of art by primitive philosopher1 #a2 according to ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss1 #bad2 according to ,spencer1 #bae2 according to ,hinton1 #baf2 according to ,sir ,james ,frazer1 #bai n42 according to ,bertrand ,russell1 #bai n42 conception of1 a personal matter1 #bai n42 the so-called materialistic1 #bbi1 #bcj2 ,bovarism of1 #ccg4 ,utilitarians1 the1 #bfg1 #bfh4 ,uvea1 #ae4 ,see ,loyalty ,islands4 ,vaihinger1 ,hans1 his ,philosophie des ,als ,ob1 #hf2 ,english influence upon1 #hf1 #hg2 allied to ,english spirit1 #hg1 #hh2 his origin1 #hh2 his training1 and vocation1 #hh-ic2 influence of ,schiller on1 #hi2 philosophers who influenced1 #hi1 #ij2 his pessimisms1 irrationalism1 and voluntarism1 #ij2 his view of military power of ,germany1 #ij1 #ia2 his devouring appetite for knowledge1 #ib2 reads ,f4 ,a4 ,lange's ,history of ,materialism1 #ib1 #ic2 writes his book at about twenty-five years of age1 #ic2 his book published1 #id2 the problem he set out to prove1 #id2 his doctrine of fiction1 #id-ajb2 his doctrine not immune from criticism1 #ajb2 the fortifying influence of his philosophy1 #ajb1 #ajc2 influenced ,adler1 #ccg4 ,valencia1 cathedral of1 dancing in1 #dd4 ,valerius1 ,maximus1 #cec n4 ,van ,gogh1 mysticism in pictures of1 #bcg4 ,varnhagen1 ,rahel1 #ff4 ,verbal counters1 #adi1 #aej4 ,verlaine1 ,paul1 the significance of words to1 #afh4 ,vesalius1 #abj4 ,vasari1 ,giorgio1 his account of ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #aae1 #abc4 ,vestris1 ,gaetan1 and the ballet1 #eg4 ,vinci1 ,leonardo da1 man of science1 #aac1 #abe2 as a painter1 #aac1 #aad1 #aag1 #aah2 his one aim1 the knowledge and mastery of ,nature1 #aad1 #aag1 #abe2 an ,overman1 #aae2 science and art joined in1 #aae-ag2 as the founder of professional engineering1 #aah1 #aai2 the extent of his studies and inventions1 #aai1 #abj2 a supreme master of language1 #aba2 his appearance1 #aba2 his parentage1 #aba2 his youthful accomplishments1 #abb2 his sexual temperament1 #abb1 #abc2 the man1 woman1 and child in1 #abc1 #abd2 a figure for awe rather than love1 #abd4 ,vinci1 ,ser ,piero da1 father of ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #aba4 ,virtue1 and beauty1 among the ,greeks1 #bdg2 the art of living well1 #beb2 in ,shaftesbury's system1 #bfe1 #bff2 beauty of1 #bgj n4 ,virtues1 ethical and intellectual1 #ccj4 ,visconti1 ,galeazzo1 spectacular pageants at marriage of1 #eg4 ,vocabulary1 each writer creates his own1 #afd1 #afe4 ,voltaire1 ,f4 ,m4 ,a4 de1 recognised ,shaftesbury1 #bfh2 on the foundations of society1 #bhi4 ,wagner1 ,richard1 on ,beethoven's ,seventh ,symphony1 #fb1 #fc4 ,wallas1 ,professor ,graham1 on ,plato and ,dante1 #gc4 ,war1 and dancing1 allied1 #fc1 #fd4 ,wealth1 as test of civilisation1 #bif1 #big4 ,weight1 its nature1 #bcj4 ,weismann1 and the study of heredity1 #abg4 ,wells1 ,h4 ,g41 his description of ,napoleon1 #h-aj1 #ab4 ,whitman1 ,walt1 his ,leaves of ,grass1 #agb2 words attributed to him on what is right1 #bed4 ,woman1 the question1 what she is like1 #ajf4 ,words1 have a rich content of their own1 #aff2 the intoxication of1 #afg-fi2 their arrangement chiefly studied by young writer1 #agb4 ,wordsworth1 ,william1 #ahd2 influence of ,shaftesbury on1 #bff4 ,work1 a kind of dance1 #fa1 #fb4 ,world1 becoming impalpable and visionary1 #ccg1 #cch4 ,see ,universe4 ,writers1 the great1 have observed decorum instinctively1 #aha1 #ahb2 the great1 learn out of themselves1 #ahh1 #ahi2 the great1 are heroes at heart1 #ahi4 ,writing1 personality in1 #add1 #aij2 a common accomplishment to-day1 #add1 #ade2 an arduous intellectual task1 #aea1 #aec1 #aij2 good and bad1 #aed2 the achievement of style in1 #aee2 machine-made1 #aef2 not made by the laws of grammar1 #agb1 #agc2 how the old method gave place to the new1 #agi-ha2 summary of elements of1 #aij4 ,see ,handwriting1 ,style4 ,wundt1 ,wilhelm1 on the dance1 #ch1 #ci n4 ,xavier1 ,francis1 #abc1 #bcg4 ,xenophon1 his portrait of ,socrates1 #gg4 ,zeno1 #bdi n4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,text that was in italics is enclosed by underscores 7italics74 ,text that was in bold face is enclosed by equals signs 7bold74 ,footnotes have been moved to follow the chapters in which they are referenced4