,transcriber's ,notes ,text printed in italics has been transcribed between underscores1 bold face text between equal signs4 ,small capitals have been replaced with ,,all ,,capitals4 ,this text contains characters that may not display properly with all devices and settings4 ,superscript strings are indicated by string4 ,sidenotes are presented between square brackets immediately before the paragraph in which they were given in the source document4 ,more ,transciber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ,crown #hvo1 price #fs4 #f;d4 ,,teaching ,,and ,,organisation4 ,with ,special ,reference to ,secondary ,schools4 ,a ,,manual ,,of ,,practice4 ,edited by ,p4 ,a4 ,,barnett1 ,m4,a4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,the ,criterion in ,education4 ,by ,p4 ,a4 ,,barnett1 ,m4,a41 late ,principal of the ,isleworth ,training ,college4 ,,ii4 ,organisation and ,curricula in ,boys' ,schools4 ,by ,a4 ,t4 ,,pollard1 ,m4,a41 ,head ,master of the ,city of ,london ,school4 ,,iii4 ,kindergarten4 ,by ,,elinor ,,welldon1 ,head ,mistress of the ,kindergarten ,department1 ,the ,ladies' ,college1 ,cheltenham4 ,,iv4 ,reading4 ,by ,,arthur ,,burrell1 ,m4,a41 ,assistant ,master in ,bradford ,grammar ,school4 ,v4 ,drawing and ,writing4 ,by ,i4 ,h4 ,,morris1 ,head ,master of the ,gleadless ,road ,board ,school1 ,sheffield4 ,,vi4 ,arithmetic and ,mathematics4 ,by ,r4 ,,wormell1 ,d4,sc41 ,head ,master of the ,city ,foundation ,schools1 ,london4 ,,vii4 ,english ,grammar and ,composition4 ,by ,e4 ,a4 ,,abbott1 ,d4,d41 late ,head ,master of the ,city of ,london ,school4 ,,viii4 ,english ,literature4 ,by the ,,editor4 ,,ix4 ,modern ,history4 ,by ,r4 ,,somervell1 ,m4,a41 ,assistant ,master in ,harrow ,school4 ,x4 ,ancient ,history4 ,by ,h4 ,l4 ,,withers1 ,m4,a41 ,principal of the ,isleworth ,training ,college4 ,,xi4 ,geography4 ,by ,e4 ,c4 ,k4 ,,gonner1 ,m4,a41 ,professor of ,political ,economy in ,university ,college1 ,liverpool4 ,,xii4 ,classics4 ,by ,e4 ,,lyttelton1 ,m4,a41 ,head ,master of ,haileybury ,college4 ,,xiii4 ,science4 ,by ,l4 ,c4 ,,miall1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,professor of ,biology in the ,yorkshire ,college1 ,leeds4 ,,xiv4 ,modern ,languages4 ,by ,f4 ,,storr1 ,b4,a41 ,chief ,master of ,modern ,subjects in ,merchant ,taylors' ,school4 ,,xv4 ,vocal ,music4 ,by ,w4 ,g4 ,,mcnaught1 ,mus4,doc4 and ,h4,m4 ,assistant ,inspector of ,music in ,training ,colleges4 ,,xvi4 ,discipline4 ,by ,a4 ,,sidgwick1 ,m4,a41 ,fellow and ,tutor of ,corpus ,christi ,college1 ,oxford4 ,,xvii4 ,ineffectiveness in ,teaching4 ,by ,g4 ,e4 ,,buckle1 ,master of ,method in the ,isleworth ,training ,college for ,schoolmasters4 ,,xviii4 ,specialisation4 ,by ,m4 ,g4 ,,glazebrook1 ,m4,a41 ,head ,master of ,clifton ,college4 ,,xix4 ,school ,libraries4 ,by ,a4 ,t4 ,,martin1 ,m4,a41 ,assistant ,master in ,clifton ,college4 ,,xx4 ,school ,hygiene4 ,by ,c4 ,,dukes1 ,m4,d41 ,lond4 ,medical ,officer in ,rugby ,school4 ,,xxi4 ,apparatus and ,furniture4 ,by ,w4 ,k4 ,,hill1 ,b4,a41 late ,head ,master of ,kentish ,town ,high ,school4 ,,xxii4 ,organisation and ,curricula in ,girls' ,schools4 ,by ,m4 ,e4 ,,sandford1 ,head ,mistress of the ,queen's ,school1 ,chester4 ,,longmans1 ,,green1 ,,and ,,co4 #ci ,,paternoster ,,row1 ,,london2 ,,new ,,york1 ,,and ,,bombay4 ,,work ,,and ,,play ,,in ,,girls' ,,schools ,,work ,,and ,,play ,,in ,,girls' ,,schools ,,by ,,three ,,head ,,mistresses ,,dorothea ,,beale ,,lucy ,h4 ,m4 ,,soulsby ,,jane ,,frances ,,dove ,illustration ,,longmans1 ,,green1 ,,and ,,co4 #ci ,,paternoster ,,row1 ,,london ,,new ,,york ,,and ,,bombay #ahih ,,preface4 ,the book is divided into three ,sections1 and each of the writers is responsible only for her own part1 and yet ,i hope it will not be merely a composite book2 all the contributors are members of the teaching staff of the ,cheltenham ,ladies' ,college1 or have at some time formed part of it1 and now1 as then1 there is ,i believe a unity of purpose1 which will give harmony to the work4 ,the book is intended to be a practical one1 helpful chiefly to teachers in our large ,secondary ,schools2 the limits imposed compel us 7#a7 to deal more with methods than the underlying principles2 7#b7 to isolate more or less the influences of the school from those of the manifold environment1 which are at the same time forming the body1 mind and character of the child1 and which seem to make the school-life of relatively small moment2 7#c7 we have to treat only of a few years of life2 for1 like the bird of the fable1 the soul of the child comes to us often from some unknown region1 stays for a while in our banqueting hall1 and then passes again into the darkness4 ,yet ,i suppose the experience of most of us bears witness to the great importance of the school-life as one of the factors in the 8development of a soul04 8,the atmosphere1 the discipline1 the life0 of the school is so potent1 that the word education has been often limited to the school period1 and the pupils of an ,aristotle1 an ,ascham1 an ,arnold1 speak of their teachers as having given them a new life4 ,our work is not insignificant1 and our earnest study must be by instruction and discipline1 by what ,plato calls music and gymnastic1 to promote the harmonious development of the character2 to bring our children into sympathetic relations with the noble and the good of all ages2 to lead them into the possession of that good land1 8flowing with milk and honey10 the spiritual inheritance of humanity4 ,i would fain hope1 that one day all teachers will endeavour to spend at least some time1 before entering on professional work1 in studying the art1 the science1 the philosophy of education4 ,in this little book we have had to restrict ourselves almost to the first1 but we have referred to works which deal with the higher aspects of the subject4 ,i would earnestly press on all my readers1 that their own education must never be regarded as finished2 if we cease to learn1 we lose the power of sympathy with our pupils1 and a teacher without intellectual and moral sympathy has no dynamic1 no inspiring force4 ,especially should all teachers be students of psychology1 of that marvellous instrument1 from which it is ours to draw forth heavenly harmonies4 ,to many a teacher might the words of ,hamlet be addressed by her pupils3-- ,how unworthy a thing you make of me6 ,you would play upon me2 you would seem to know my stops2 you would pluck out the heart of my mystery2 you would sound me from my lowest note to the top of my compass2 and there is much music1 excellent voice in this little organ2 yet cannot you make it speak4 ,do you think ,i am easier to be played on than a pipe8 ,though you can fret me1 yet cannot you play upon me4 ,,dorothea ,,beale4 ,,contents4 ,,section ,i4 ,,intellectual ,,education4 ,,edited ,,by ,,dorothea ,,beale1 ,,principal ,,of ,,the ,,cheltenham ,,ladies' ,,college2 ,,formerly ,,mathematical ,,and ,,classical ,,tutor1 ,,queen',s ,,college1 ,,london4 ,,page ,,introduction ,dorothea ,beale #a ,a ,,few ,,practical ,,precepts ,dorothea ,beale #cg ,,part ,i4 ,,humanities4 ,,english ,,language ,,generally--,,reading1 ,,writing1 ,,grammar1 ,,composition ,dorothea ,beale #dd ,,classical ,,studies ,william ,h4 ,d4 ,rouse1 ,m4,a4 #fg ,,modern ,,languages ,dorothea ,beale #id ,,spelling ,,reform ,dorothea ,beale #ajf ,,history ,,as ,,an ,,educational ,,subject ,dorothea ,beale #aad ,,teaching ,,modern ,,history ,,to ,,senior ,,classes ,alice ,andrews #abd ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,ancient ,,history ,mary ,hanbidge1 ,m4,a4 #aei ,,time-,,maps ,dorothea ,beale #afh ,,economics ,,for ,,girls ,margaret ,bridges #ahf ,,english ,,literature ,amy ,lumby #aib ,,philosophy ,,and ,,religion ,dorothea ,beale #bjb ,,part ,,ii4 ,,mathematics4 ,,arithmetic ,dorothea ,beale #baf ,,mathematics ,dorothea ,beale #bci ,,part ,,iii4 ,,science4 ,,introduction--,,psychological ,,order ,,of ,,study ,,with ,,special ,,reference ,,to ,,scientific ,,teaching ,dorothea ,beale #bea ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,the ,,biological ,,sciences ,charlotte ,l4 ,laurie #bfj ,,geography ,margery ,reid1 ,b4,sc4 7,lond47 #bge ,,physics ,agatha ,leonard1 ,b4,sc4 7,lond47 #bia ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,chemistry ,clare de ,brereton ,evans1 ,d4,sc4 7,lond47 #cjg ,,part ,,iv4 ,,sthetics4 ,,introduction--,,art ,dorothea ,beale #cbj ,,pianoforte ,,teaching ,domenico ,barnett #cbf ,,the ,,violin ,lewis ,hann #cch ,,class-,,singing ,florence ,mosley #cdj ,,singing4 ,,tonic ,,sol-,,fa ,rhoda ,rooney #cdd ,,elocution ,rose ,seaton #cdf ,,drawing1 ,,painting1 ,,etc4 ,pauline ,m4 ,randerson #cdh ,,brush ,,drawing ,mary ,farbrother #ced ,,painting ,arthur ,richardson #cef ,,fresco ,eadie ,reid #ceh ,,china ,,painting ,minna ,crawley #cfj ,,art ,,needlework ,minna ,crawley #cfa ,,wood-,,carving1 ,,etc4 ,m4 ,s4 ,lyndon ,smith #cfb ,,modelling ,evangeline ,stirling #cfc ,,sloyd ,evangeline ,stirling #cff ,,conclusion--,,relation ,,of ,,school ,,to ,,home ,dorothea ,beale #cfg ,,section ,,ii41 p4 #cgd4 ,,the ,,moral ,,side ,,of ,,education4 ,,by ,,lucy ,h4 ,m4 ,,soulsby1 ,,of ,,manor ,,house ,,school1 ,,brondesbury1 ,n4,w42 ,,late ,,head ,,mistress ,,of ,,the ,,oxford ,,high ,,school4 ,,section ,,iii41 p4 #cif4 ,,cultivation ,,of ,,the ,,body4 ,,by ,,jane ,,frances ,,dove1 ,,of ,,wycombe ,,abbey ,,school2 ,,late ,,head ,,mistress ,,of ,,st4 ,,leonard',s ,,school1 ,,st4 ,,andrews1 ,n4,b4 ,,index #dbe ,,section ,i4 ,,introduction4 ,by ,,dorothea ,,beale4 ,subject4 ,i have been asked to undertake one section of a book on the education of girls1 and to confine myself1 as far as possible1 to the intellectual aspects of education1 leaving to others the task of dealing with the physical and moral aspects4 ,i shall try to keep within the assigned limits--abstain from any systematic treatment of the laws of hygiene1 and write no formal treatise on school ethics--but all the intellectual work must of course be conditioned by the necessities of the physical life1 and the final cause of all education must be the development of a right character4 ,education of girls in secondary schools4 ,i am to treat the subject too with special reference to the large secondary schools which have come into existence during the last fifty years1 and in doing so1 ,i must dwell briefly upon the changes which have taken place in the ideals and theories regarding the education of girls1 which have found expression in these schools1 and in the ,women's ,colleges4 ,i shall speak of what has yet to be accomplished1 for we are still in a period of transition1 and ,i shall consider by what means we may best realise our ideals4 ,aim of education ,now in education there is always a twofold object4 ,bacon tells us the furthest end of knowledge is 8the glory of the ,creator and the relief of man's estate0--in other words1 the perfection of the individual1 and the good of the community4 ,in some periods1 indeed in pre-,christian times generally1 the latter was emphasised1#a men were to live for the commonwealth2 the individual was regarded as an instrument for accomplishing certain work--he was not thought of as an end in himself4 ,thus even the most enlightened among ancient writers have spoken of slaves1 as if they were mere chattels4 ,our moral sense is shocked by much that we read in ,plato and ,aristotle1 and still more by what the laws of ,rome permitted4 ,christianity on the other hand taught that the primary relationship of each was to the ,all-,father1 the primary duty of each to realise ,god's ideal for ,his children1 to become perfect1 and by glorifying human nature to glorify ,god4 ,this was the first commandment1 but the second was implied in the first--self-love was not selfish1 the love of ,god descending from heaven became the enthusiasm of humanity4 #a ,even ,milton writes3 8,i call a complete and generous education that which fits a man to perform justly1 skilfully and magnanimously all the offices to the public and private1 of peace and war04 as regards the individual1 8,education10 writes ,mr4 ,ruskin 7,queen's ,gardens71 8is the leading human souls to what is best and making what is best out of them2 and these two objects are always attainable together1 and by the same means2 the training which makes men happiest in themselves1 also makes them most serviceable to others40 8,the only safe course10 writes ,miss ,shirreff 7,intellectual ,education71 8is to hold up individual perfectness as the aim of education40 as regards the commonwealth4 ,and so the task of the educator is in the first instance to develop to the highest perfection all the powers of the child1 that he may realise the ideal of the ,all-,father4 ,but the perfection of man 8the thinker10 the anthropos1 8the upward looker10 can be attained only when as a son he enters into1 and co-operates with the ,divine purpose in thought and act3 therefore to know ,god and ,his laws for ,his children's education and development1 is the beginning and the end4 ,these laws man reads 7#a7 in the world of ,nature with which science has to do2 7#b7 in human history and institutions2 7#c7 in the hidden life of the soul--of which philosophy and religion and ethics treat4 ,he has to seek first to know truth1 to bring his will into conformity with the ,divine thought1 and then to utter what is true and right in word and deed2 only thus will the kingdom of righteousness be set up1 and the perfection of the whole--the well-being of the commonwealth--of 8man writ large0 be secured4 ,the most civilised nations are devoting their best energies to the work of education1 realising that upon this depends their very existence--that it is not by starving the individual life1 and merging it in the general1 but by developing each to perfection1 that the common good will be secured4 ,they trust less to the power of laws and institutions1 more to the power of a right education--less to external restraint1 more to the wisdom that comes of a wisely directed experience4 ,reforms since #ahdh4 ,these principles have guided the new movement for women's education1 and those who have followed the changes in public opinion1 since people have thought more of each individual as an end in himself1 are full of confidence and hope4 ,the reformers said3 8,let us give to girls an invigorating dietary1 physical1 intellectual1 moral2 seclusion from evil is impossible1 but we can strengthen the patient to resist it04 ',tis life1 not death for which we pant1 ,more life and fuller1 that we want6 ,such were1 ,i believe1 the feelings and the thoughts of those who initiated just fifty years ago the great movement1 which found its first visible expression in the foundation of ,queen's ,college by ,maurice and ,kingsley and ,trench and others like-minded and less known4 ,this was soon followed by the opening of ,bedford ,college1 #ahdi1 and the ,cheltenham ,ladies' ,college1 #ahec4 ,miss ,buss and her brothers1 in association with ,mr4 ,laing1 established the first great ,high ,school1 and ,mrs4 ,grey and ,miss ,shirreff carried on the movement in that direction2 from the ,union founded by them grew up the ,g4,p4,d4,s4 ,co41 while ,miss ,davies with far-seeing wisdom won over ,cambridge professors 7amongst whom ,i may specially mention ,professor ,henry ,sidgwick and ,james ,stuart7 to offer the highest culture to women4 ,the leaders had to ask and answer many questions4 ,what direction1 what shape should the new movement for higher education take8 ,should there be two sorts of education for girls and boys8 ,the ,schools' ,inquiry ,commission had shown that a specially feminine education had not produced very successful results1 and the leaders said3 ,let us give to girls the solid teaching in languages and mathematics and science1 which are found to strengthen the powers of boys1 and prepare them to do good work of many kinds4 ,if it was objected that women were to rule in the home1 and men in the larger world1 they argued1 that for girls as for boys1 the right course was to give a liberal education4 ,the boy does not learn in the school the things which will be required in his future business or profession1 but he brings to these the cultivated mind1 the power of work1 the disciplined will4 ,results physical and moral4 ,and the world is more and more recognising that the leaders were right1 and schools have arisen in all our great towns4 ,fifty years ago there were dismal prophecies--an outcry that study would ruin health4 ,now it is a common remark that there is a general improvement in physique4 ,women too are more conscious of their responsibilities in the life of the family1 as well as in that of the country1 especially in social and church life4 ,they feel1 that though they may have but the 8smallest scruple0 of excellence1 they must render for it 8thanks and use04 ,besides1 another good has been more and more realised2 as ,mrs4 ,jameson1 in her beautiful lecture1#b set forth1 girls taught on the same lines1 and women who can enter into the subjects of study and thought which occupy the minds of their fathers1 husbands1 sons1 have more understanding1 more sympathy1 more power to make the home what it should be2 the only healthy intellectual companionship is communion between active minds1 and the highest purposes of marriage are unfulfilled1 if either husband or wife lives in a region of thought which the other cannot enter4 ,besides1 those many women who remain unmarried can1 if well educated1 find in some form of service the satisfaction of their higher nature4 ,surely women trained in good schools and colleges have as wives and mothers shared the labours and entered more fully as companions into the lives of husbands and children4 ,the names of many will occur to my readers1 but one cares not to name the living4 ,we see every year at the ,conference of ,women ,workers1 that the seed sown in faith has brought forth fruit2 that the whole aspect of the woman's realm has changed since the days of ,evelina and ,miss ,austen4 #b 8,communion of ,labour40 ,but none of us may rest in that which has been attained4 ,we ask for the 8wages of going on and not to die04 ,there is earnest endeavour on the part of all engaged in the work of education1 which has found expression in such societies as the ,parents' ,educational ,union1 the ,child ,study ,society1 and the ,teachers' ,guild4 ,teachers are not content with the school year1 but holiday courses are the order of the day1 and many are seeking training1 and others ask for a year or a term to improve1 and books on education are pouring from the press1 and some of us1 who have gained experience which may be helpful to others1 feel bound1 though much hindered by the calls of active life1 to share those experiences1 and say what we can about the ideals1 the principles1 the methods1 which1 we trust1 have already1 in spite of the gloomy portents of years gone by1 improved the physical1 the intellectual and moral vigour of those who have shared the larger life1 entered into the higher intellectual interests1 and undergone the strengthening discipline of our large schools4 ,curriculum ,with these preliminary remarks1 ,i enter upon the subject of the curriculum2 ,i have drawn up a table which ,i shall proceed to discuss4 ,i have classed the subjects of education under five heads1 and divided the pupils in a general way also into five classes4 ,but before ,i deal with the practical1 let me speak of the ideal4 ,there is nothing so practical as ideas--these are the moving power of all our acts4 ,if what ,i have said is true1 the subject cannot be treated in reference to girls only2 not because ,i would assimilate the teaching of girls to that of boys1 but because the teaching of both should aim at developing to the highest excellence the intellectual powers common to both4 ,the teaching of modern science tells us that both pass through the same lower stages1 that they may rise into the higher1 and all history tells us that men and women ,rise or sink ,together1 dwarfed or godlike1 bond or free4 ,so we ask generally what is the ,education of ,man8 ,frbel has rightly emphasised the last word4 ,it is the development of that which distinguishes man from all the lower forms of life 8summed up0 in him1 that can alone be properly called the ,education of ,man3 other creatures can live1 as he does1 the nutritive or vegetable life1 which goes on of itself--other animals live the conscious life1 they see and know1 but to man alone it is possible to objectify all things by transcending them1 and even that lower self1 which is part of his dual nature2 he is able to know himself both as 8,i0 and 8me02 he brings to sensation the formative power of his own thought1 makes1 as ,kant has said1 the universe which he did not create4 ,and so man does not merely perceive1 but apperceive1 takes into his own being ideas1 thoughts2 combines1 associates these1--and indeed it is difficult to speak of these ideas otherwise than ,herbart does1 as entities1 by which the mind grows1 fashioning them to its own uses1 as the body does1 the food on which it lives4 ,because he can objectify thus1 language is possible4 ,man gives to thoughts1 these 8airy nothings1 a local habitation and a name02 he is able to plan1 to project and therefore to form judgments4 ,but if he is related to that world to which the senses reach1 he is also in relation1 through an inward feeling which we call sympathy1 with other 8subjects10 able to recognise in others that which he knows in himself as mind2 if he finds himself so related to the world of sense1 that he responds to its touch1 much more nearly is he in relation with other personalities2 these he knows1 before he recognises objective nature2 through other minds his own is educated1 and so the humanities take the first place2 he enters into relations through the communis sensus with a world of thinking beings4 ,these persons communicate thoughts1 specially through 7a7 language immediate1 and through written language4 ,by written speech the limitations of space and time are abolished1 and we are able to speak not only of men1 but of man1 for not only is his physical life continuous1 but his mental and moral life through the ages is one4 ,so from language we pass to 7b7 history and literature and historic act1 the record of what men have done and suffered and thought and recorded1 not in books only but in all material things2 for man the dead live2 and as the actors pass from the stage1 history1 no less than philosophy and science1 tends upwards to those higher regions of thought1 where we ponder on the 7c7 mysteries of man's self-conscious life1 on his relation to other minds1 and to the ,one whose offspring we are1 and in ,whom all things live and move and have their being4 ,the subjects of study then may also be classified under five headings3-- ,i4 ,the ,humanities3 which have to do with man1 known objectively through word and deed1 in language and literature1 in history and art2 subjectively1 as in ethics1 religion1 philosophy4 ,,ii4 ,mathematics3 embracing three divisions relating to space1 number1 energy in the abstract--these have to do with necessary truth4 ,,iii4 ,science3 which rests not on a basis of thought only1 but on facts given through sense objectively4 ,,iv4 sthetics3 which may be classed under the three heads1 as music1 painting and the other arts--considered subjectively4 ,v4 ,the exercises suitable for the physical development4 ,it is with the first section that every teacher has to do2 though he may be a specialist for science or mathematics or music1 he has always to do with man in his manifold relations1 he has ever to do with the humanities4 ,it must be the constant study of the teacher to find the best means of developing the powers of thought1 of calling forth right motives of action1 developing right habits1 and so forming noble characters1 which is the final cause of all his labours4 ,ever throughout life he will by study and experience deepen and extend his knowledge1 but it is earnestly to be desired that he should have some leisure for definite preparation by the study of education as an art1 a science1 a philosophy1 before entering on his responsible work4 ,in this1 as in everything else1 only those who have gained the knowledge are really judges of its value4 ,the man who knows no foreign tongue1 supposes he understands ,english1 but we know in how poor and faulty a way4 ,a study of the mysteries of our own being1 of the fundamental basis of philosophy and psychology1 personal knowledge of and sympathy with the great thinkers and philosophers and martyrs of education1 must move us to more purposeful and thoughtful and devoted lives1 and give us a joy that we cannot feel when we are working blindly and mechanically1 without the faith which works by love4 ,,hours ,,of ,,study ,,including ,,preparation ,,per ,,week4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,subjects4 ,a4 ,under #h ,b4 #h to #ab ,hrs4 ,b years4 years4 and ,c4 ,about #bd hours4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #a4 ,language4 ,english reading ,elementary ideas#ab and ,french v4 of grammar1 voce4 ,french v4 voce1 and read- ing and trans- lation into ,eng- lish1 learning poetry1 dia- logues1 etc4 #b4 ,man ,his- ,mythological ,time maps and ob- tory4 tales and epochs in ,i4 jec- ,litera-stories from world's history4 ,hu- tive-ture4 history4 ,learn- ,english history mani- ly4 ,art4 ing poetry4 treated bio- ties4 graphically4 ,stories from ancient history4 ,learning poetry4 #c4 ,man ,ethics4,bible stories1 ,bible lessons sub- ,reli- simple hymns andselected4 ,learn- jec- gion4 prayers4 ing simple pas- tive-,philo- sages from ,new ly4 sophy4 ,testament1 hymns and collects4 #d4 ,arithmetic ,arithmetic1 ,arithmetic in #c to and ,algebra4 chiefly with some cases #e concrete generalised to objects4 algebra for older children1 for younger still much con- crete4 ,,ii4 ,math- #e4 ,geometry4 ,simple ideas of ,elementary prac- emat- form4 tical geometry4 ics4 ,many problems4 ,in some cases a beginning of logical demon- strations4 #f4 ,kinematics4 ,mixed ,mathe- mats41 e4g41 ,me- chanics4 #g4 ,natural ,object lessons4 ,botany1 zoology1#b to #d ,science4 astronomy1 laws of health--in succession4 ,,iii4 #h4 ,physio- ,making map of ,erdkunde1 phys- ,sci- graphy4 school and near iography1 ence4 places2 modelingnatural phenome- in clay or sand4na4 #i4 ,molecular ,science4 #aj4 ,music4 ,sol-fa singing4 ,instrumental music1 singing1 elocution4 ,,iv4 #aa4 ,drawing1 etc4,drawing with ,drawing and #g to #i s- pencil and painting4 thet- brush4 ics4 #ab4 ,plastic ,arts1,modelling in ,various kinds of etc4 clay4 ,basket handwork4 making1 card- board sloyd1 etc41 etc4 #ac4 ,gymnastics1 ,systematic etc4 drill4 ,v4 ,ath- let- #ad4 ,games4 ,kindergarten ,games4 ics4 games and drill4 #ae4 ,country ,field clubs4 ,excursions4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,subjects4 ,c4 #ab to #af ,d4 #af to #ah ,e4 ,over #ah years4 years4 years4 ,about #cj ,about #cf hours4 hours4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #a4 ,language4 ,grammar2 in- ,french1 ,ger- ,an additional creasing at- man or ,latin4language1 tention to ,in some cases,greek or philology2 one other ,italian4 ,french1 with language4 ,german1 or ,latin4 #b4 ,man ,his- ,english his- ,english con- ,ancient clas- ob- tory4 tory in stitutional sics in the ,i4 jec- ,litera-periods and history4 ,spe-original or ,hu- tive-ture4 correspondingcial period translations4 mani- ly4 ,art4 literary of ,english4 ,foreign clas- ties4 periods with ,also of an- sics and view special cient or mod-of ,european books4 ,out- ern4 ,diffi- literature4 lines of cult books in general his- ,english4 tory1 ancient and modern1 with time maps4 #c4 ,man ,ethics4,a gospel4 ,in-,st4 ,john or ,fundamental sub- ,reli- struction in epistles4 ideas of phi- jec- gion4 the prayer- ,doctrinal losophy4 tive-,philo- book1 etc4 teaching4 ,christian dog- ly4 sophy4 matics and ethics4 #d4 ,arithmetic ,arithmetic ,advanced pure and ,algebra4 and algebra and mixed to quadrat- mathematics4 ics4 ,,ii4 ,math- #e4 ,geometry4 ,euclid ,i4 and emat- ,,ii41 or ics4 equivalent4 #f4 ,kinematics4 ,elementary ,mixed ,mathe-mixed mats41 mathematics4 e4g41 ,me- chanics4 #g4 ,natural ,botany1 ,physiology ,science4 zoology1 and one or astronomy1 more branches laws of of physical health--in science4 succession4 ,,iii4 #h4 ,physio- ,erdkunde1 ,sci- graphy4 physiography ence4 or natural phenomena4 #i4 ,molecular ,chemistry1 ,science4 heat1 light1 electricity-- in succes- sion4 #aj4 ,music4 ,instrumental music1 sing- ing1 elocu- tion4 ,,iv4 #aa4 ,drawing1 etc4,drawing and s- painting4 ,some one thet- branch4 ics4 #ab4 ,plastic ,arts1,various kinds etc4 of handwork4 #ac4 ,gymnastics1 ,systematic etc4 drill4 ,v4 ,ath- let- #ad4 ,games4 ,games4 ics4 #ae4 ,country ,field clubs4 ,excursions4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,i have mentioned at the close of the introduction some books not too large or difficult which will be helpful to those who desire to begin the serious study of the subjects included under the general heading of pedagogy4 ,in the table 7p4 #aj7 ,i have arranged courses of study and grouped pupils according to age1 but only for those called ,b and ,c have ,i attempted to give the time each week1 which might be allowed on an average for serious study4 ,i think the ,bs generally and the ,cs almost always should follow a fixed course1 though some variation should be permitted to the ,cs4 ,the ,ds and ,es should take special directions1 dropping some subjects and giving much time to others4 ,under the head of ,b1 ,i have given what is perhaps the nearest approach to the normal type in my own school4 ,those who do not learn music1 can of course take an extra language1 or otherwise cultivate a special subject2 those who are but slightly pervious to mathematical ideas are allowed to drop ,euclid1 after having done enough to profit by the wholesome discipline of writing out propositions say up to ,euclid ,i4 #bf4 ,these may perhaps add another musical instrument or some manual work4 ,the principle ,i would insist on is that our curriculum should1 to use a sensible figure1 be pyramidal1 having a broad base and narrowing2 the total cubic content might be the same each year1 but in proportion as the subjects taken were fewer1 there would be greater depth4 ,thus the ,cs would specialise to a slight extent1 the ,ds should do so still more1 and the ,es have found out their vocation1 so that for these last no time-table can be given4 ,silence4 ,in drawing up a time-table ,i have given only the general lines1 and assigned an average time for each section2 the case of every individual must be separately considered1 and there should always remain some hours of leisure--in the highest classes ,i have arranged for school work about eight hours out of the twenty-four4 ,if we give four hours to meals and outdoor exercise1 and eight to sleep1 we have a margin of four hours--a considerable amount of time1 if multiplied by six2 part of this may be given to general reading1 part to social and family life1 but for the growing and developing mind there must be time for solitude1 for entering into the secret chamber1 and listening for the voice heard only in the stillness4 ,we read much in praise of 8,eyes0 and much in dis-praise of 8,no-eyes10 but there are times when great thinkers are blind to outward things1 and deaf to earthly voices2 it is at such times there rise before the mind's eye ideals which fashion the whole life4 ,i am sure that in these days the young lose much for want of more quiet on ,sundays4 ,there may have been over strictness in the past--there is now a surprising ignorance of the ,bible and the grounds of faith4 ,the silence rules of a good school tend to produce a spirit of repose1 and a library where no speaking is allowed is a help4 ,rules which hinder idle talk in the bedrooms are a great boon to those who find the value of quiet at the beginning and end of the day1 and ,i earnestly hope that the excitement of the playground may never supersede the country rambles which have been fruitful of spiritual health to many of us4 ,in considering how ,i shall best make this small volume of use to teachers in high schools1 ,i propose to adopt the following plan4 ,first to treat of a few general matters which belong to organisation and the methods of management--e4g41 distribution and economy of time1 corrections1 marks1 etc4 ,then to deal with the subjects of the curriculum in order1 in a series of papers by myself and my colleagues4 ,in ,part ,i4 ,i have written first of language generally1 embracing reading1 speaking1 grammar1 composition1 foreign tongues4 ,it will be clear to all that ,i could not possibly1 in the few pages assigned to each subject1 treat the matter exhaustively1 but ,i hope ,i may strike out some lines of thought which will be helpful1 and the lists of books may assist teachers in their studies4 ,in most subjects ,i have been able to get a few papers from members of my staff1 past and present4 ,under the head of ,language ,i have one from ,mr4 ,rouse1 a most able teacher1 who had many years' experience with our elder pupils1 specially those reading for classical honours in the ,university of ,london4 ,in ,history and ,literature ,i have papers by ,miss ,a4 ,andrews1 ,miss ,hanbidge and ,miss ,lumby1 the very successful teachers who take these subjects in the ,london and ,higher ,cambridge class2 there is also a paper on ,economics by ,miss ,bridges4 ,in ,part ,,iii4 ,i have papers by four specially able and experienced teachers--,miss de ,brereton ,evans1 ,d4,sc4 ,lond41 ,miss ,reid1 ,b4,sc4 ,lond41 ,miss ,leonard1 ,b4,sc4 ,lond41 and ,miss ,laurie4 ,in ,part ,,iv4 ,i have a number of short papers by members of our teaching staff4 ,section ,,ii4 has been assigned by the publishers to another hand1 and for that ,i am not responsible4 ,upon the basis of this classification1 ,i have drawn up a table showing how the methods of teaching these subjects will vary with the age of the pupil1 and what is1 ,i consider1 the best order of subjects4 ,i have also added some chapters on various subjects--as ,spelling ,reform and the ,relation of ,school to ,home4 ,time available4 ,before proceeding further it will be best to consider what is the amount of time at our disposal for school teaching4 ,the division of the year into three terms of about twelve weeks1 consisting of five or six days each1 is so generally adopted that we may take that for granted4 ,the years of school life are at the utmost about ten--in the case of most girls far less4 ,for day schools in large towns1 attended by pupils from considerable distances1 two attendances are impossible1 and the morning has to last from about #i or #icj to #a or #acj4 ,of the four hours about three and a half are available for lessons1 the remaining half-hour being taken up with the general assembly for prayers and a brief interval for recreation2 but these twenty-one or twenty-four hours are not spent1 as parents are apt to imagine1 in poring over books1 but are varied by lessons in gymnastics1 drawing1 singing4 ,some pupils in large towns remain to dine at the school1 and have afternoon teaching in accomplishments4 ,in small towns they return4 ,thirty hours a week should1 ,i think1 be the limit of time given to study for girls of school age4 ,students fully grown may study six hours a day4 ,eight should1 ,i think1 not be exceeded by any4 ,length of lesson4 ,in arranging the time-table1 several things have to be considered4 7#a7 ,a1 the youngest children1 would have no lessons of more than half an hour1 and not more than two hours of definite instruction1 the remainder being occupied with games1 drill1 singing and various hand occupations4 ,those under eight would have a larger proportion of these last1 and perhaps attend for a shorter time4 ,the elder children can have a reading lesson before the general assembly1 and the little ones might leave half an hour before the morning closes4 ,if they wait for elder sisters1 amusements may be devised4 7#b7 ,in the case of all1 an endeavour should be made to place those studies which make the heaviest demands on the attention as far as possible in the early morning hours4 7#c7 ,the lessons for ,sections ,b and ,c would average about fifty minutes1 some being thirty minutes1 others an hour1 the drawing lesson being perhaps longer1 whilst religious instruction following upon prayers would occupy half an hour1 as would drill and singing4 7#d7 ,care should be taken to vary the subjects1 so that if possible two lecture lessons should not follow one another1 nor two on language1 nor two mathematical lessons4 ,order of study4 ,dietary4 ,we have next to consider the order of study1 what subjects are best adapted to the state of development of the child1 or in what different ways the same subject may be treated to make it suitable at different ages4 ,in this matter fatal mistakes are still made4#c ,happily the teachings of educational reformers have brought before us the evils of the neglect of psychological principles4 ,we are shocked when we hear of mothers ignorant of physiology1 feeding infants on bread and tea1 and giving soothing syrups2 we recognise the danger of too many sweets1 and of cigars for growing boys--these have their parallels in the mental dietary4 ,but it is not so much giving wrong things as the deprivation of right things at the right time that is fatal4 ,it is wonderful how much unwholesome food can be disposed of by a vigorous child--there is a fit of sickness and it is gone2 but we see in the adult bodily framework1 the stunted skeleton1 the decaying teeth1 etc41 the effect of starvation during years of growth4 ,to deprive the child of the mental food and exercise necessary for his development at each period of his growth is a fatal error1 the consequences of which are irreparable4 ,this has been forcibly put by ,dr4 ,harris1 ,chief ,commissioner of ,education1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,speaking of the prolongation for man of the period of infancy required for his development1 that he may be adapted to the spiritual environment of the social community into which he is born1 he writes3 8,is it not evident that if the child is at any epoch inured into any habit or fixed form of activity belonging to a lower stage of development1 the tendency will be to arrest growth at that point1 and make it difficult or next to impossible to continue the growth of the child into higher and more civilised forms of soul-activity8 ,a severe drill in mechanical habits of memorising1 any overcultivation of sense-perception in tender years1 may arrest the development of the soul1 form a mechanical method of thinking1 and prevent the further growth into spiritual insight--especially on the second plane of thought1 that which follows sense-perception1 namely1 the stage of classifying or even the search for causal relations1 there is most danger of this arrested development4 ,the absorption of the gaze upon the adjustments within the machine1 prevents us from seeing it as a whole4 ,the attention to details of colouring or drawing may prevent one from seeing the significance of the great works of art4444 ,to keep the intellect out of the abyss of habit1 and to make the ethical behaviour more and more a matter of unquestioning habit1 seems to be the desideratum40 #c 8,the logical order of a good course of instruction10 writes ,compayr 7,psychology ,applied to ,education71 8must correspond to the chronological order of development of the mental powers40 8,if10 writes ,herbert ,spencer1 8the higher faculties are taxed by presenting an order of knowledge more complex and abstract than can be readily assimilated1 the abnormal result so produced will be accompanied by equivalent evil40 ,tradition furnishes those who have made no formal study of the subject of mental growth with some empirical rules for a healthy dietary1--as ,mr4 ,barnett has shown1#d or our children would fare badly2 but the evils of misplacing subjects in the order of study1 of neglecting to teach the right subjects at the right time1 and of partial starvation1 are too apparent4 ,let me conclude with an illustrative anecdote--an object lesson4 ,at school ,i always kept caterpillars2 they were regularly fed1 and seldom failed to come out in perfect condition4 ,once some 8woolly bears0 escaped2 they were found after a few days1 and again provided with ample food2 but it was too late1 they came out with only rudimentary wings4 #d ,teaching and ,organisation1 p4 #e4 ,but not only have we to provide the right subjects at the right time1 we have to consider how the manner of teaching the same subject may be adapted to the age of the pupil4 ,in an excellent ,report on the ,schools of ,st4 ,louis some years ago1 ,dr4 ,harris expounded the spiral system4 ,in studying say botany in the lowest class1 the children would learn to observe the forms of plant life1 and become familiar with the main facts of classificatory botany1 the observing power being chiefly called into action4 ,then the subject would be dropped1 and taken up years after from the physiological point of view1 when the learners would be able to understand the chemical changes1 the process of development1 etc41 as they could not in earlier years4 ,similarly all ,herbartians know how the teaching of history proceeds from the mythological story1 through biography to history1 and some of us have seen the bad results of giving little children formularies which have no meaning for them1 instead of seeking to develop in them through the discipline of home1 and ,bible teaching regarding the lives of the good1 feelings of filial trust and reverence and obedience4 ,for examples of this ,i may refer to ,miss ,bremner's book on the ,education of ,girls4 ,in the accompanying time-table ,i have endeavoured to make a double classification in reference to the subjects taught1 and the age of the learners4 ,in discussing it ,i shall continue to use the word faculty1 in spite of ,herbartian protests1 meaning thereby the power of doing certain special acts1 which vary in character4 ,we have the power of directing our attention to the objects of sense1 or of withdrawing it from these1 and becoming conscious only of the working of our own mind2 we have1 i4e41 the faculty of observation and of reflection2 by the use of the word faculty--etymologically1 the power of doing--we need not dismember the ,subject1 but think of the ,one person as acting in different ways4 ,part ,i41 the humanities1 should throughout the whole course be represented in all its branches2 to it belong specially the cultur-studien4 ,i think of some miserable starved specimens of girls ,i have known1 fed upon an almost unmixed diet of either classics or mathematics2 their physique had suffered1 and they had no mental elasticity1 their one idea being to win scholarships3 they did this1 but never flourished at the university1 for want of all-round culture4 ,others ,i have known1 who thought they could be high-class musicians by practising their fingers1 without cultivating their minds2 the results were lamentable2 whereas those who gave half the time to music and half to cultur-studien1 did more in the limited time4 ,is not the overwork of which many complain later1 due to the too undivided work at one subject during the undergraduate period at the university8 ,mathematics relieves the strain of classics2 specialising may be comparatively harmless to the full-grown man1 but the child-specialist will grow up deformed4 ,class teachers and specialists4 ,shall teaching be by class teachers or by specialists8 ,once every teacher was expected to take all the subjects with her class1 now the tendency is towards specialisation4 ,in junior classes the class mistress has many advantages over the specialist1 for she knows what the children can do1 the character and difficulties of each1 and can adapt her teaching to her pupils4 ,in any case she must exercise control over specialists1 each of whom is inclined to think her subject the most important4 ,she can get hold of children1 and exercise a stronger influence than an occasional teacher1 and the more subjects she teaches1 the more intimate will be the relation to her pupils4 ,on the other hand1 it is not good for children to be shut up to one personality1 though it is not well for them to be under too many1 and there ought always to be one predominant2 for this reason special arrangements are made in some boys' schools for a tutor to follow the boy's career all the way up the school4 ,a class teacher too can correlate the different subjects1 and make one help the other2 being always at hand1 she can give such help as is needed at odd times1 to bring up laggards1 and generally bring the intellectual to act upon the moral4 ,on the other hand1 a specialist can attain to greater excellence1 throw more life into the subject1 keep up with new discoveries and methods2 the best plan is perhaps for the class teacher1 at least in junior classes1 to hear and help to bring home to her pupils the teaching of specialists2 this is desirable with some foreign teachers1 who fail to understand the exact difficulties of ,english children4 ,it can1 however1 only be done when the staff is large4 ,the case is different with upper classes1 which should be taught almost entirely by specialists1 though there should be always some one person responsible for each class4 ,head mistress4 ,there seems to be a great difference between the kind of influence and control exercised by a ,head ,master1 and a ,head ,mistress4 ,the government of a boys' school approaches more nearly to a republic1 of a girls' school to a constitutional monarchy2 whilst classes and teachers change for the child each year1 the head mistress is permanent1 and follows each through all the classes1 knowing her in all her phases4 ,she reads marks1 gives encouragement and admonition1 and is in immediate relation with the other controlling influences1 parents and teachers4 ,then--owing possibly to the fact that many women have not degrees--the head mistress permits herself to criticise and advise her teachers in a way that no young master fresh from the ,honour ,schools would permit4 8,i hear you go and listen to your teachers10 said the head of an ,oxford ,college to me--his face1 on my admitting it1 expressed more than his words4 ,again1 the head mistress considers herself responsible for good order in every class1 whereas in boys' schools the entire responsibility seems to rest on the individual master2 this must always be the case to a certain extent2 head mistresses try to avoid indiscipline by insisting on the training of teachers1 and resorting to various devices1 e4g41 a junior teacher is made assistant to a senior1 and entrusted with a class of her own1 only when she has shown herself able2 or--until she has well grasped the reins--she is set to teach in a large room in which there may be the head mistress and some other teacher capable of overawing the restless2 or if she is a specialist the class teacher may be in the room4 ,if the class is insubordinate owing to the bad teaching they get1 there is of course no alternative but to change the teacher1 or to improve her4 ,economy of time4 ,here let me touch on some of the chief perplexities of modern teachers4 ,professor ,miall 7,thirty ,years of ,teaching7 writes3 8,no one can write on education without insisting on new subjects2 and yet the old claims are not relaxed4 ,we must have science in several branches1 modern languages 7more efficient than heretofore71 drawing and gymnastics1 but classics and mathematics and divinity must be kept up and improved4 ,increased hours are not to be thought of1 fewer lessons1 shorter lessons1 and not so much home-work1 are the cry4 ,more potatoes to carry1 and a smaller basket to carry them in4444 ,i believe the problem is not an insoluble one after all40 ,the remedy1 or perhaps ,i ought to say rather the mitigation of the teacher's difficulties1 is to be found in four directions4 7#a7 ,in increasing the number of school years4 ,the well-trained kindergarten child comes with an interest in lessons1 a power of attention1 a considerable amount of knowledge1 and a clear understanding of much that formerly children knew nothing about1 so that we gain time at the beginning4 7#b7 ,then if girls come earlier to school and stay later1 if we have a girl from eight to eighteen1 we can give many things in succession1 which we once had to attempt simultaneously1 when girls came 8to finish0 in a year1 or at most two years4 7#c7 ,if the hours are shorter1 we can get more work done than was the case when children were wearied out with long hours2 when ,i began my teaching life at ,cheltenham1 children came back sleepy for two hours of afternoon lessons1 and returned to do home work1 when they should have been in bed4 7#d7 ,better methods economise time1 but this matter is so important that ,i shall insist on it at some length4 ,economy of time in school4 7a7 ,first let me beg a teacher to think how easy it is to waste half an hour in one minute4 ,you have thirty girls before you and you say3 8,now1 girls1 ,i am going to give you a lesson1 and you must be very attentive10 and so on for one minute4 ,let every teacher use as few words as possible4 ,let there be no preambles1 no repetitions3 8,now1 my dear child1 ,i wonder whether1 if ,i asked1 you would be able to tell me at once10 etc4 ,let the question be direct4 8,as ,i have said just now10 then do not say it again4 ,wordiness must be avoided4 ,we all know how wearisome it is to hear the same thing repeated in the same or different words4 ,if we see this in a book1 we skim2 if it is done in lesson or lecture1 we let our thoughts wander4 ,children do the same4 ,i once heard a mistress of method recommend teachers to repeat themselves6 7b7 ,learn what not to say1 e4g41 a name that you do not want remembered4 ,i knew some boys who were set to learn the names of the 8,do nothing0 kings2 the memory must not be loaded with useless luggage4 7c7 ,in giving a dictation1 some teachers will habitually repeat twice2 the consequence is that many do not listen the first time1 and a third repetition is often asked for4 ,let it be understood that the sentence will be given distinctly1 and not repeated4 7d7 ,in ,english dictations do not ask that every word should be written1 but emphasise those required--8,each separate parcel was received04 8,i did not perceive his meaning40 8,he did not succeed in persuading her to secede40 7e7 ,if a lesson has been set1 we must ascertain that every one has learnt it1 but there should be no questioning round and round a class4 ,if a question and answer take one and a half minutes in a class of thirty1 the whole time is gone1 and the teacher has no distinct impression of which pupils have answered well2 but if two questions in succession are asked of each and are promptly answered1 the whole lesson may be considered to be known4 ,suppose there is a ,french dialogue to be heard1 or an exercise has been learned1 the teacher should not read the ,english2 the sentences should all be numbered1 the teacher call the number1 and the child read the ,french from the ,english4 ,the sentences in some books are not numbered1 and some dialogue books are so printed1 that the ,french cannot be covered2 these are time-wasting books4 ,a prompt reply must always be given2 since we speak at the rate of over a hundred words in a minute1 three children could say two short sentences each in half a minute4 ,thus a class of twenty could be heard in ten minutes1 or if the class teacher is assisting1 and takes half the class1 five minutes only would be necessary1 and time saved for oral composition1 or reading exercises at sight1 or training in pronunciation1 etc4 ,some teachers1 if unanswered1 repeat a question4 ,a girl who is not sure will often give an indistinct reply2 one who does this robs her companions2 the time of the class cannot be wasted thus1 she must come in the afternoon and say it by herself2 it will generally be found that her vocal powers are improved by this exercise4 7f7 ,in many subjects a so-called written viva voce may be properly substituted--say six questions written on the blackboard with numbers1 the answers promptly written in class1 the papers of different girls exchanged1 the faults underlined and the name of the corrector signed4 ,the answers can be quickly marked by the class teacher at home4 ,this has been dwelt on in ,miss ,andrews' paper4 ,if ,french verbs have to be heard1 table should be suspended1 and the teacher point to a tense and a number4 ,here is a portion of one3-- ,sing4 ,plur4 ,indic4 ,pres4 #a1 #b1 #c4 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,imperf4 ,pass dfini1 etc4 ,of course this rapid questioning is suitable only when we wish to ascertain whether a lesson has been learned1 not to such viva voces as are dialectic1 intended to elucidate a subject and make pupils think4 ,note-taking should never be allowed in junior classes2 a syllabus may in some cases be profitably supplied1 or the lesson may be an amplification of a text-book which the pupils have read1 or questions may be set calculated to bring out the main points of the lesson4 ,it should be an invariable rule that whatever is written is looked over and corrected2 if this is not done1 we shall certainly get bad writing1 slovenly work and general inaccuracy4 ,should this not be possible without over-working the staff1 the written work of the pupils must be diminished1 or the number of teachers increased4 ,corrections4 ,the work of correcting is not mere drudgery1 and it is essential1 not for the sake of the pupil only1 but of the teacher4 ,without written exercises she may imagine she is teaching1 whilst her pupils are not learning4 ,a lesson she felt to be good1 she will find perhaps has been ill-adapted to the class1 and therefore relatively bad4 ,she will find she has not emphasised the important matters1 she has given a confused picture in which one fails to see the wood for the trees4 ,there are no teachers like one's own pupils if one will learn of them3 they convict us of disorder1 inaccuracy1 vagueness1 etc4 ,it is important however that the teacher should be spared as much as possible unnecessary labour and waste of time4 ,it is one of the most urgent duties of the head mistress to see that the teachers have not so much to do in the way of correcting1 as to stupefy them1 and deprive them of the time required for preparing lessons4 ,the work of correcting should be reduced as far as practicable for the teacher1 and made as profitable as possible for the pupil4 ,suppose the teachers to be free after one o'clock1 an hour may be given in the afternoon to correcting1 and one in the evening4 ,language teachers1 whose preparation is light1 might do more1 those who give lectures less2 the work of correction must be fairly distributed1 and a junior teacher trained to correct1 by taking books first1 and having these revised and given out in class1 in her presence by a senior teacher4 ,giving up books4 ,very strict rules must be made regarding the giving up of books at the right time by the pupils1 and their being returned punctually in class by the teacher with explanations and comments4 ,the books should always be in uniform1 and some rules1 e4g41 respecting ,french being red1 ,german1 blue1 etc41 are very useful4 ,outside should be a label with the name of the pupil1 the class and the boarding-house4 ,this is important in the case of derelicts4 ,all corrections should be made in red ink1 and the exercise signed with the initials of the corrector4 ,giving out books4 ,suppose we have a foreign language exercise to be given out4 ,the teacher should come into class with memoranda of faults which have commonly occurred1 and mention these to the class generally4 ,faults of mere carelessness should have a special indication in the book of the offender1 and need not be spoken of further to the class4 ,each pupil should1 before writing the next exercise1 divide the page1 write on one side correctly the sentence in which the fault occurred1 underlining the words that were wrong1 but on no account writing the mistakes again1 and on the other explain why it was wrong4 ,when an arithmetic paper has been set the teacher may read out the answer1 and each girl write ,w or ,r4 ,the papers may be then collected1 and it will only remain for the teacher to see whether the method was good4 ,if not1 she can write ,l ,w for 8long way10 give explanations at the next lesson1 and have the sum done again4 ,slates should not be used1 nor loose papers1 for such exercises4 ,if the paper is an essay1 or answers to questions1 the teacher should make notes of the subjects in which the class generally has gone wrong1 and explain these4 ,she may select specimens of broken figures1 bad grammar1 etc41 but it is very profitable to read out good specimens2 it is a great help to us to see others succeed1 when we have tried and failed1 and there is nothing that many need more than a word of encouragement to make them feel able to try4 ,one who has done well may be requested to enter good paragraphs in a book 7what ,i think ,dr4 ,kennedy called a 8,golden ,book07 for the benefit of the class1 and the worst writers desired to copy it2 this would have done them no good1 had they not tried and failed1 but afterwards it helps us much to see how well another can express what we could not4 ,the teacher may herself write in the book of the most painstaking pupil1 things which she has failed to make clear1 and ask her to copy that into the aforesaid book2 it will do her good and help others4 ,certain conventional marks may be agreed on1 e4g41 ,l would stand for wordiness1 ,c ,p for commonplace1 ,s for satisfactory1 ,g for good1 ,fig4 for broken metaphors1 etc4 ,apparatus4 ,diagrams and apparatus may be reckoned amongst time-saving things1 but like ready-made toys these may be less profitable to children than very simple things1 which they put together themselves1 and the more they make for themselves1 the more they appreciate and profit by the labours of others4 ,fergusson1 lying on his back with a brown paper roll for a telescope1 and watching the movement of the stars1 learned more than many who are provided with an elaborate orery1 and the ,edgworths learned more about the reason of a rainbow from their glass of water1 than many from the lens4 ,as ,miss ,leonard has said in her paper1 many things are not necessary in teaching elementary science1 and it is a great pleasure to children to make anything for themselves4 ,here the kindergarten training will tell4 ,for higher work well-equipped laboratories are good1 but these are an expensive luxury1 especially as new things are being constantly invented4 ,physiological models are almost indispensable for class teaching1 and excellent botanical ones are obtainable4 ,a museum in which lessons can be given1 and specimens referred to1 is very desirable for natural science1 but children should have their own private ones4 ,maps of physical geography should be constantly before the eye1 but wall maps of political and historical geography cannot be so well seen2 the teacher should be able to draw on the board or on paper1 maps bringing out the special features of the lesson4 ,it is understood that no class on history or geography is given without large maps both of space and time4#e #e ,and here let me protest against the mischievous practice of having a round roller at the bottom1 but a flat piece of wood at the top of maps4 ,they are sure to be rolled on the latter and the map cut to pieces4 ,working models of pumps1 archimedean screws1 mechanical powers1 and steam engines are within the reach of most1 and some simple forms of orery4 ,there is an inexpensive one with the world inside a glass globe1 on which are engraved a few circles1 and this removes the difficulty which most children feel on seeing a pair of globes4 ,marks1 reports1 prizes1 place-taking4 ,in former times when lessons were made less interesting1 many ways were employed to keep up attention4 ,place-taking1 by which each child took down all above her who failed to answer a particular question4 ,this was most distracting2 and so much depended on accident1 that it was impossible by means of it to arrive at any trustworthy conclusions4 ,except for small children it has wholly gone out4 ,the giving of counters has found more favour on the ,continent1 but this lends itself to barter1 and anything which fosters the habit of considering what we can get by knowledge1 is destructive of that calmness1 that 8wise passiveness0 which is as necessary for mental1 as for physical assimilation2 it is equivalent to playing games1 or running about during dinner-time4 ,some record there should be of each exercise1 some 8stock-taking0 at intervals1 and these intervals should for little ones be short1 for time passes more slowly with them4 ,if the head mistress each week looks over the mark-book in the presence of the class and the teacher1 she is kept in touch with all1 comes to know if there are girls who are wasting their time1 and is able to give encouragement or reproof1 and strengthen the hands of teachers4 ,if there are a great number of lessons returned1 she may find that a specialist is making unreasonable demands2 she sees if corrections have been omitted by the teacher--in fact1 notices things which1 if left to the end of the term1 might have resulted in considerable mischief4 ,it is undesirable1 however1 to take up much of the teacher's time in adding up marks1 and placing pupils in order of merit2 it may be left to individual class teachers to do as they think best2 there is no need in this for uniformity of practice1 and it is always well to give every teacher as much liberty in following her own methods1 as is consistent with the general management4 ,in language exercises the number of faults can be written at the end1 and classified as mere careless ones1 and those for which there is at least some excuse--the former being counted double4 ,in these and other exercises a maximum say of ten marks may be given2 in many the teacher can give only a general estimate1 but when returning books1 she can show why she puts a higher estimate on one than on another4 ,in junior classes the marks may be added1 read with comments1 and perhaps sent home each week4 ,a sort of weather chart is used by us in the youngest classes--showing for each week whether they have risen or fallen in the number of marks4 ,illustration ,prizes1 in part determined by work done at home1 are dangerous1 the temptation to get undue help is great2 a conscientious child will reject such assistance as would be really good for her1 lest she should gain an unfair advantage4 ,prizes given on the result of examinations1 provided they are given not to the best1 but to all who have attained a certain standard1 are less objectionable2 we cannot make it too clear that good may be better than best1 and that the only praise we should desire is to hear3 8,she hath done what she could04 ,public prize-givings seem to me very undesirable4 ,a terminal report parents may reasonably look for1 and words of blame or encouragement may be made very helpful to the child4 ,punishments in the shape of doubled lessons1 lines1 etc41 are objectionable2 if a duty has been neglected1 or badly done1 it has to be done at an inconvenient time--say in the afternoon4 ,a fine may be required for untidiness and damage--in order to compensate others for trouble and expense1 but to inflict a fine for breaking rules is altogether wrong4 ,at a school ,i knew1 where this was done1 girls would deliberately break rules1 e4g41 talk at prohibited times1 and say they were going to have 8three pennyworth04 ,into a matter of right and wrong1 money cannot enter2 so also conduct prizes should1 ,i think1 never be given2 the proper reward for doing right is a good conscience1 and the trust1 friendship1 respect of others4 ,use of examinations4 ,having lived through the pre-examination period1 and seen the great evils which resulted from there being no test1 ,i cannot join in the popular condemnation4 ,there is no unmixed good1 and many mistakes1 which we learn to avoid later1 are made when a system is new4 ,i shall regard examinations only from the point of view of their value educationally4 7#a7 ,they are useful as a test of what we really know2 preparation for them enables us to find out what are our permanent possessions2 7#b7 competitive examination compels us to set these in order1 and estimate their relative importance4 7#c7 ,examinations tend to produce presence of mind1 mental self-control1 7#d7 to suppress wordiness and abolish a florid style1 and 7#e7 to make us feel the supreme importance of clearness and accuracy4 ,examining is a difficult art1 and examiners have to learn their mtier4 ,all are not perfect2 the process of reading papers is exhausting1 and after reading ninety-nine1 an examiner may fail to appreciate the exquisite thought and philosophic insight of the hundredth4 ,it is possible he may form an erroneous opinion regarding some unusual performance--there have been reviewers who failed to appreciate the early volumes of ,wordsworth1 ,tennyson and ,browning2 there are examiners1 however1 really sympathetic1 laborious1 and anxious to see what has been done 7which is limited7 rather than find out what has not been done 7which is unlimited71 and these may give much help both by their criticisms and their encouragement4 ,it is good for all of us to have our work tested by a competent critic4 ,an internal examination1 if well conducted1 is most valuable1 as it can better follow the work1 but on the other hand1 many teachers feel that an internal examination places them too much at the mercy of caprice1 or personal feeling1 and hence prefer a central one1 such as the ,university ,locals4 ,regular attendance4 ,schools must insist on punctuality in returning1 and no unnecessary absences should be allowed4 ,children who are absent cannot follow the teaching in the next lesson1 and laggards demoralise the class and distract the teacher1 who feels she is not understood4 ,rapport with the class4 ,in conclusion let me say the teacher must have the power of holding the class4 ,she must be sensitive to the least inattention1 quick to discern whether it is her fault or that of the pupil1 and take her measures accordingly1 acting always upon the wholesome maxim 7which should never be heard outside the common room71 certainly never whispered to parents1 that it is always the teacher's fault1 if pupils do not learn4 ,when she fails to establish the rapport between herself and her class1 she must try to discover the cause of her failure4 ,young children1 like wild animals1 are tamed by the eye1 and a class is controlled by a teacher who sees everything that goes on4 ,if a teacher when using the board turns away and writes in silence1 a restless child is almost sure to play some amusing trick1 and it may take a considerable time to recover attention4 ,if experiments are performed1 the teacher1 like the conjurer1 should never cease talking or questioning4 ,if she cannot manage to do both1 she must have an assistant4 ,dress1 manner1 etc4 ,she must avoid awkward tricks4 ,i knew two very distinguished teachers whose lectures were admirable1 but one had a habit of pulling a tuft of hair1 and another would stuff his handkerchief carefully into his folded hand1 and then draw it out again--to the great distraction of the class4 ,we have all heard of the parliamentary orator and his button4 ,a study of the ,pedagogical ,seminary for ,august1 #ahig1 would be profitable to teachers careless about externals4 ,the article is called 8,a ,study in ,morals04 ,the question was put in writing and answered by twenty-three boys and one hundred and sixty girls3 8,reflect which teachers1 from kindergarten to college1 you have liked best1 and been influenced most by1 and try to state wherein the influence was felt4 ,account if you can for the exceptional influence of that particular teacher4 ,was it connected with dress1 manner1 voice1 looks1 bearing1 learning1 religious activity1 etc48 ,four out of five mentioned the manner of the teacher as exerting an influence4 ,one in three speaks of the voice1 one in four speaks of dress40 ,these externals1 as we are apt to call them1 are the outcome of the personality1 or they would not exert influence4 ,we must therefore so order our inner being that manner1 voice1 dress1 should express self-respect and unselfishness1 right feeling1 love of order1 good taste4 ,if ,i were writing a treatise on psychology1 ,i might insist on the teacher's gaining an insight into the contents of the child's mind--what ,herbart calls apperception-masses1 but in this short introduction ,i can only touch on the subject4 ,i subjoin a short list of books not too difficult for teachers4 ,i conclude with a few common rules derived from psychological observation and a few practical hints for the schoolroom4 ,a ,,few ,,practical ,,precepts4 ,this is not a treatise on psychology but a practical hand-book for young teachers4 ,before entering on the special subjects1 it may be well to say something of the application of the principles which are familiar to all who are trained1 and dwell upon a few of the most important4 7#a7 ,there is the fundamental precept1 awaken interest4 ,have you seen the ,medusa spreading its tentacles idly on the waves8 ,have you watched the change as it fastens on its prey8 ,so does the mind grasp that which is suitable for its nourishment4 ,as the intelligence of the child awakens1 it no longer perceives in the lazy1 dreamy way in which the infant is conscious of a light2 it apperceives1 takes into itself the object1 the word1 the thought1 and grows thereby4 7#b7 ,avoid distractions4 ,the senses and the mind must be fixed on the subject of instruction4 ,when a bird is to be taught to speak1 he is placed in a dark room1 shielded from the distractions of sight1 until the words are acquired1 then the use of other senses than hearing is permitted2 so little children require more quietness and isolation than older ones4 ,distractions are not all of sense4 ,the mind is distracted by fear4 ,how dreadful are the old pictures of the dame1 teaching rod in hand1 or the master with his cane2 some may remember the music teacher ready to rap the knuckles1 and know how all sense of harmony was destroyed4 ,and it is so also with the seeking of rewards4 ,i hope place-taking and prizes and scholarships will one day follow the rod and the cane1 and children be led from their earliest years to feel1 what is really natural to them1 that knowledge is in itself a pleasure and a good4 7#c7 ,proceed from the known to the unknown4 ,observe the laws of association2 for this a teacher must be in intellectual sympathy with her pupils--know and feel by an inner sense1 when mind is responding to mind4 ,i have heard some so-called teachers1 who spoke like a book1 who were lecturers2 they saw their own thoughts1 but not those of their pupils1 and were therefore unable to lead them on4 ,e4g41 if a sum was wrong1 they would say1 8,do it thus10 instead of inquiring into the cause of the mistake4 ,in questioning they would not try to see into the child's mind4 ,it is more difficult to enter into intellectual sympathy with very little ones1 hence we need specially able teachers for them4 ,it is also better for class teachers not to change too often1 as it takes time to get into sympathy with a new class4 ,of course specialists have to do this2 it is one reason why cteris paribus they are less successful than class teachers4 7#d7 ,proceed in classifying by noticing first the likenesses1 then the differences--in other words1 proceed from the genus to the species4 ,there are some excellent chapters on this in ,rosmini's ,method of ,education1 translated by ,mrs4 ,grey1 p4 #ae4 7#e7 ,make lessons pleasant4 ,this does not imply that the act of learning should be always easy or amusing4 ,children like to feel they are making progress1 and a teacher wearies them who is always trying to be amusing1 but does not really get them on4 ,porridge has a very plain taste1 but for everyday fare even children prefer it to tarts for breakfast4 ,a ,london confectioner was asked1 if he did not find the many boys he employed make depredations4 8,no10 he said1 8when first they come ,i tell them they may eat what they like2 in a few days they make themselves sick and eat no more40 ,there was a book called the ,decoy1 a story mixed with conversations on grammar2 children always managed to get the story without the grammar4 ,they like sums and history for regular meals1 fairy tales for dessert4 7#f7 ,teaching must be adapted to the mental state of the pupil1 and be just a little above his unassisted intelligence4 ,it is a worse fault to teach below than above the powers of the child4 ,i shall never forget my indignation at having a book given me1 which was below my powers1 nor the stimulus of trying to do what was hard4 ,one who was afterwards a distinguished teacher1 told me how the ,maurice lectures helped him1 by making him feel there were regions of thought on which he had not yet entered4 ,knowledge quite within reach does not promote progress4 ,a friend who had a night school was told by its members1 8,we want to be taught something as we can't understand04 ,they meant something they could not learn without help2 they wanted to overcome difficulties4 7#g7 ,form right habits4 ,we should as far as possible prevent the making of mistakes even once4 ,a child when reading the ,bible miscalled the word patriarch1 reading it partridge2 when an old man1 he never saw the word without recalling his error4 ,hence we should not give children misspelt words1 or bad grammar to correct1 or let them write exercises before the ear has been cultivated to know what is right4 ,i knew a music master who would anticipate mistakes1 and stop the pupil1 saying3 8,you shall not play that wrong note04 ,on the other hand each repetition of a right action makes it easier1 and the prime work of the educator is to form right habits2 these should become instinctive1 and so set free thought for ever higher and more perfect performance4 7#h7 ,awaken and sustain the spirit of inquiry4 ,we need1 however1 to be very careful not to ask questions1 which the child cannot possibly answer4 ,this encourages mere guessing1 and the habit of deciding upon insufficient data4 ,we should question the pupils1 and build on their knowledge1 but as they get older the viva voce questioning may be overdone--and for the highest classes it would be simply a distraction4 ,for these it is well to give questions to be thought out1 and answered in writing4 ,pascal's father shut him up alone to find out the translation of a classical author2 there are so many helps now1 that people rely upon them when they might gain vigour by grappling with difficulties4 ,no intellectual habit is more essential than the habit of patient1 sustained inquiry1 that described by ,newton when he said3 8,i keep the subject of my inquiry continually before me1 till the first dawning opens gradually by little and little to the perfect day04 7#i7 ,foster intellectual ambition4 ,help the child to feel the joy of surmounting difficulties1 of climbing the heights4 ,this invigorates the intellectual life4 ,some can remember how1 e4g41 they grappled with the dull work of early mathematical study1 that they might one day learn to solve the problems of astronomy1 or went through the labour of learning irregular verbs1 that they might read the poetry and philosophy of ,greece4 7#aj7 ,put before pupils the highest ideals which they can appropriate4 ,these are not the same at each stage of development4 ,the little child desires first to have something1 and this is not wrong4 ,later it feels more the need of love1 of approbation1 and this is a legitimate and right motive2 it is generally his best guide1 until he can exercise himself1 irrespective of the outward voice1 to have a 8conscience void of offence04 ,we have to teach him to discriminate voices which are in harmony with1 from those in discord from1 that inward voice1 and to make this ultimately his supreme law4 7#aa7 ,the ultimate ideal or final cause should be implied in all that we teach1 viz41 the attainment of the perfect development of the individual1 through bringing each into harmony with the environment1 the universal1 and thereby on the other hand helping to perfect the whole4 ,for this1 wisdom and self-denial and sympathy with the noblest and the best are to be sought1 and above all with the ,one1 the ,infinite ,wisdom revealed in ,nature1 in the world of thinking beings and in the self-conscious mind4 ,all should feel in their inmost soul what ,milton has expressed3-- ,how charming is ,divine philosophy1 ,not harsh and crabbed as dull fools suppose1 ,but musical as is ,apollo's lute1 ,and a perpetual feast of nectared sweets1 ,where no dull surfeit reigns4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,name of ,work4 ,author4 ,pages4,price4 ,pub- ,remarks4 lisher4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,psychological ,w4 ,harris #djj #fs4 ,appleton ,an excellent ,foundations book by the ,com- missioner of ,education1 ,u4,s4,a41 showing the correlation of the ,philoso- phy of ,education with ,psychology and ,ethics4 ,philosophy of ,rosenkranz #bhj #fs4 ,appleton ,well translated4 ,education ,notes by ,dr4 ,harris add much to its value4 ,handbook of ,sully #djj #fs4 ,longmans ,psychology #f;d4 ,education of ,man,frbel #ccj #fs4 ,appleton ,well translated by ,hailmann4 ,educational ,laws,hughes #cjj #fs4 ,arnold ,should be read by all teachers4 ,a very clear ex- position of the ideas of ,frbel and other re- formers4 ,pedagogy of ,ufer #abj #bs4 ,isbister ,not too diffi- ,herbart #f;d4 cult for begin- ners4 ,herbart and ,de ,garmo #bgj #es4 ,heine- ,a clear account ,herbartians mann of ,herbart's thoughts and application of his principles by others4 ,essentials of ,de ,garmo #acj #bs4 ,heath ,method #f;d4 ,herbart's ,,abc of,eckhoff #cjj #fs4 ,appleton ,not an easy ,sense-,perception book4 ,gives much insight into ,herbart's theo- ries and prac- tice1 especially in mathematics4 ,application of ,mulliner #cfj #ds4 ,sonnen- ,introduction ,psychology to #f;d4 schein gives a full ex- ,education position of ,herbart's psy- chology4 ,apperception ,lange #abj ,isbister ,very clear4 ,suitable for beginners4 ,on ,herbartian lines4 ,herbartian ,adams #bjj #bs4 ,isbister ,excellent for ,psychology #f;d4 beginners4 ,full of apt illustra- tions4 ,primer of ,ladd #es4 ,longmans ,psychology #f;d4 ,leading ,rosmini #cfj #es4 ,heath ,a thoughtful1 ,principle of religious1 sym- ,method pathetic writer4 ,translated by ,mrs4 ,grey4 ,vocation of the ,fichte #acj #bs4 ,chapman ,will kindle ,scholar #f;d4 enthusiasm and lift the thoughts to the higher aspects of learning4 ,metaphysica ,nova,laurie #cjj #fs4 ,williams ,clear and full et ,vetusta ,norgateof interest4 ,outlines of ,rein #bjj #fs4 ,sonnen- ,pedagogics schein ,educational ,oscar #aib #cs4 ,theories ,browning #f;d4 ,elementary ,baldwin #cjj ,appleton ,very systematic4 ,psychology ,not a book for the general reader1 but for the serious stu- dent4 ,many good diagrams4 ,psychology ,kirchner #cej ,sonnen- ,a very thorough schein book1 suitable for those who have some knowl- edge of philoso- phy4 ,psychology ,ap- ,compayr #bbj #cs4 ,isbister ,useful and well plied to #f;d4 arranged4 ,education ,education as a ,bain #dej #es4 ,kegan ,contains much of ,science ,paul value to teachers4 ,with a ,education ,herbert #agj #bs4 ,williamsgood deal the ,spencer #f;d4 ,nor- editor is not in gate sympathy4 ,l',education des ,grard #cjj ,hachette ,a very interest- ,femmes ing book4 ,rousseau's ,emile,worthing- #afj #cs4 ,heath ,extracts ton #f;d4 ,les ,pres et les,legouv #cej #cs4 ,hetzel ,short chapters ,fils giving in the narrative form the way a father deals with his son4 ,delightful reading4 ,hist4 ,critique ,compayr #ejj ,hachette ,several volumes4 des doctrines de ,very judicious l',education and interesting4 ,educational ,quick #ccj ,longmans ,very good4 ,reformer ,l',education ,pro-,necker de #gs4 ,three vols4 ,a gressive ,saussure mine of original observation4 ,rosmini depends much on it4 ,home ,education ,mason #cs4 ,kegan ,a very helpful #f;d4 ,paul book for parents and teachers4 ,lectures on ,fitch #dcj #es4 ,camb4 ,should be in the ,teaching ,univ4 hands of all ,press teachers4 ,teaching and ,barnett #dbj #fs4 ,longmans ,a very valuable ,organisation #f;d4 book4 ,contains #bc papers on different sub- jects4 ,aims and ,spenser #bhj ,camb4 ,very good4 ,con- ,practice of ,univ4 tains #ab papers ,teaching ,press by various writers4 ,an ex- cellent one on modern languages by the editor4 ,thirty ,years of ,miall #bej #cs4 ,macmillan,a series of ,teaching #f;d4 brightly-written practical es- says1 which all teachers may read with plea- sure and profit4 ,school and ,home ,rooper #dhj #as4 ,brown ,original and ,life suggestive4 ,educative ,holman #ecj #fs4 ,isbister ,not too diffi- ,psychological cult for begin- ,foundations ners4 ,teaching and ,trumbull #djj ,hodder ,teachers ,religious ,bell #ahj #bs4 ,macmillan,a very good ,teaching #f;d4 book4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,the ,bureau of ,education1 ,u4,s4,a41 issues valuable reports each year1 which are presented to the ,teachers' ,guild and a few favoured places4 ,they always contain a great deal of interesting matter4 ,the ,pedagogical ,seminary1 edited by ,dr4 ,stanley ,hall1 should be studied by all who desire to keep in touch with the new scientific methods4 ,no4 for ,aug41 #ahig1 is specially good4 ,,part ,i4 ,,humanities4 ,,english ,,language ,,generally--,,reading1 ,,writing1 ,,grammar1 ,,composition4 ,by ,,dorothea ,,beale4 ,i propose to treat in order of the different subjects of our school curriculum4 ,the first of these is language generally4 ,reading4 ,as a branch of formal instruction1 we begin with reading4 ,a more aggravating subject of dispute can hardly be found than that which relates to the teaching of reading4 ,the pure ,frbellian will have none of it before the child is seven years old1 and occasionally children do come to school unable to read1 but with the senses awakened to all sorts of other relations except that of articulate sounds to written forms4 ,in spite of the reproaches of those who build the sepulchres of the prophets1 we teach reading when a child seems ready for it1 and maintain that the principles of ,frbel are best carried out when we improve on his methods1 and adapt ourselves to new circumstances2 we urge that the children from intellectual homes are different from the class of children with whom he had most to do4 ,when begun4 ,i would not press reading upon infants1 nor require the close and continuous attention that reading implies1 but as soon as the appetite for any special kind of knowledge is shown1 we may conclude1 on ,frbellian principles1 that the child is fit for it4 ,our order is3 7#a7 drawing1 7#b7 writing1 7#c7 reading4 ,first lessons4 ,the kindergarten child has learned to draw lines1 straight and curved1 developing into simple objects and curious patterns--rude picture-writing1 it may be called4 ,we lead on to writing in some such way as this4 ,alphabet4 8,how did men at first send silent messages to one another when they were far off8 ,if you wanted a doll1 you might draw a picture of one and send it to mother on your birthday4 ,a man might make a picture of a fish1 and send it to a fisherman with a piece of money1 and the fisherman would understand2 or one might want to sell a sheep1 and send a picture to his neighbour2 this would be easier than sending the sheep4 ,in fact1 the first letter of the alphabet is a rude picture of the head of an ox1 ,illustration4 ,people were not particular1 as we see on old monuments1 which way the letter stood1 and so we have it sometimes topsy-turvy1 sometimes sideways1 ,illustration2 this is like a ,greek alpha1 ,illustration1 ,illustration4 ,beth in ,hebrew was a dwelling1 two tents ,illustration1 ,gimel ,illustration1 the camel's head and long neck4 ,delta ,illustration1 a door4 ,kappa 1 a bird with its wings out4 ,rho 1 a man's head4 ,but with pictures only it is hard to make sentences2 e4g41 if you wanted to say1 8,i have found some water10 you might draw ,illustration1 but you would have to find some way of showing whether you meant #8,i have' or #8,i want'2 and if somebody sent you the picture of a man walking1 you might not know whether you were expected to come or to go4 ,it is hard to represent verbs by pictures1 though it is so easy in speaking40 ,some pictures of ,egyptian hieroglyphics and explanations will here be found to interest children much---part of their drawing lesson might be to copy a hieroglyph alphabet4 ,then we might enlarge on the need for words to tell people what to do4 ,baby says 8mamma10 8doll10 8puss10 but it wants also to say 8come10 8give10 8go10 and this cannot be pictured1 so people seem to have tried to represent sounds by drawing a picture of the mouth making the different sounds4 ,i suppose the first sound most babies make is a sort of mumbling1 and if they open their mouths we get a sound like ma2 now in all languages ma stands for mother1 with some slight alterations4 ,what is ,m like8 ,is it not much like a mouth shut up8 and suppose you add a round shape to represent an open mouth you would get something like picture-writing ma4 ,you might put the two side by side1 a picture of a woman and ma--the ,egyptians often had the two signs4 ,the next easy sound is pa1 and this stands in all languages that ,i know1 for father4 ,how could this be written8 ,if you say ap you will notice a movement of the lips1 which open with a sort of bursting sound4 ,we may represent that movement by a stroke and put a round after it to stand for the open mouth ,p4 ,there is another sound very like ,p1 but not quite so sharply said4 ,we hear it in ab4 ,we can make the stroke as before1 and put the loop lower down1 to show that ba is a quieter sound than pa--so shorthand writers make a long stroke for the b and a short one for p 7b p7 and put no loop4 ,thus we get three lip letters1 but we can shut up the mouth in the middle--half shut it and we get n1 which is half m4 ,the breath will have to come of course through the nose4 ,we can move the tongue suddenly from the teeth and get d as in ad1 and write a stroke as before1 but put a loop representing the open mouth behind it2 the sound nearest to it which we hear in at would have the loop at the top1 ,illustration1 as we had in pa1 but in our alphabet the loop has disappeared and we have only t4 ,in shorthand we write a long horizontal stroke for d and a short one for t4 ,thus we have three dentals4 ,we may also shut up the throat and let the breath go through the nose1 as in sing1 or we may make the sudden movement quite in the throat4 ,we could take the bird shape but think of the two strokes as if pointing down the throat in 1 and for the softer sound only one pointer 1 this was the ,greek ,g4 ,we make it rounder at the bottom now4 ,for the first of the throat sounds we have no single letter1 but we write an n to show it is a nose letter1 and a g to show the shutting up is to be done in the throat4 ,so now you see we have got nine letters--three made with the lips1 three with the tongue near the middle of the mouth1 three in the throat4 ,three are made by sending the breath through the nose1 three are made by a sudden opening and sending the breath through it with force1 and three by sending the breath more gently4 ,the names given to these different sorts of letters ,i may now give and the shorthand signs3--#f ,nasals4 ,hard4 ,soft4 ,lip letters m ,illustration p b ,tooth letters n ,illustration t d ,throat letters ng ,illustration k g #f ,i give the characters of the script1 which is much simpler for children than ,pitman's4 ,reading books published by ,a4 ,chrysogon ,beale 7,sonnenschein7 are perhaps the best for beginners4 ,there are coloured pictures of the mouth2 the deaf alphabet is given1 and the words which are not written phonetically are gradually introduced4 ,sonnenschein's books are also good1 and ,miss ,soames' ,introduction to ,phonetics4 ,thus the child could be taught to observe the movements for articulation1 be interested in early writings1 and prepared to look intelligently at ancient monuments4 ,in teaching1 the sounds of the letters will be given of course1 not their names1 and the alphabet will be from the first classified1 and a basis laid for philological study4 ,a shorthand alphabet will be learned side by side without trouble1 and besides this1 the pronunciation will be improved--all this without any over-pressure or giving any instructions unsuited for a small child4 ,in a later lesson the meaning of an aspirate should be explained1 and added to each of the mutes2 we then get four varieties under the heads of labial1 dental and guttural4 ,the sibilants1 which are in some respects aspirates1 may be classified1 and the feeble lip aspirate in when 7written in old ,english hwen7 should be noticed4 ,the relation of palatals l and r1 and the different kinds of palatals1 may be dwelt on4 ,i give a comprehensive table1 founded on one in ,professor ,key's volume on the alphabet4 ,the three horizontal planes give gutturals1 dentals and labials4 ,the front plane the sharp mutes1 the back the flat mutes2 the right plane the sharp aspirates1 the left the flat aspirates2 the sibilants are classed as dental aspirates and the nasals appended4 ,other classifications are noticed in the paper on ,spelling ,reform4 ,illustration ,the classification of vowels is more difficult1 and it may be pointed out how easily these pass into one another4 ,how difficult it is too for ,english people to sustain a pure vowel1 o1 without passing into u1 a into ai4 ,the vocal triangle as given in ,brachet's dictionary1 adapted from ,helmholtz and ,brcke1 is perhaps most easily understood4 ,illustration ,for those who do not use the alphabet of the matre phontique1 tables such as those of ,larousse should be always at hand to hang on the wall1 when ,french lessons are given4 ,these tables enable one to draw attention to sounds which ,english people do not discriminate1 or which offer special difficulty1 e4g41 1 1 1 ais1 ai1 ou1 u1 eu1 e2 to the feebly nasalised vowels as in ,french pain1 pronounced ,anglice1 pang2 to the formation of the sound constantly changed by ,english people into ou1 when a vowel follows1 e4g41 loui for lui2 to the proper pronunciation of moi1 mwa1 not mwau2 to the addition of a syllable1 as in deer for dir2 to the attractive power of labial consonants1 making impossible inpossible1 and so on4 ,systematic teaching saves much time4 ,for older pupils it is an instructive and amusing exercise to work out the combinations of two vowels to produce a multitude of mixed or diphthongal forms2 such an exercise will do much to teach delicate discrimination of sounds1 and it is important early to cultivate the ear and the vocal organs4 ,i append the diphthong table--to read it proceed from one vowel to another1 following the arrow head4 ,illustration ,interchange of letters4 ,the classification of letters is of the greatest importance as the basis of linguistic study1 and so the matter should early be made interesting and intelligible1 not only for the sake of pronunciation1 but as accounting for1 and simplifying a great many rules of grammar1 and enabling pupils to acquire quickly a large vocabulary1 when they begin foreign tongues1 by observing such laws as are expounded by ,grimm and ,vernier1 and thus helping them later to recognise that there is such a thing as a science of language1 something more than a wearisome list of empirical rules and unreasonable exceptions4 ,thus reading1 if taught as it should be1 conforms to the psychological principles 7#a7 that we should develop the powers of observation1 7#b7 let the child do or make something1 7#c7 show the uses of what is produced1 7#d7 plant some root principles which may grow up and bear fruit in later studies1 7#e7 associate the different studies with one another4 ,the reason why teaching is often so dull1 is that teachers do not take a large view of the field of instruction1 but work like day-labourers1 and adopt that fatal maxim1 you should 8throw it all off1 out of school hours04 8,i am a gentleman after four o'clock10 said a schoolmaster6 ,now ,i should like those who are going to teach the alphabet to read ,max ,mller's ,science of ,thought in their leisure hours4 ,it is too ponderous a volume to buy--#ffj pages--but it should be in the ,teachers' ,library4 ,there is a most interesting chapter on the origin of roots1 which he traces to imperatives4 ,i need hardly say that the two volumes of ,lectures on ,language should be familiar to all1 and that the teacher should work out roots for herself after the model of 8,mar04 ,she must not1 however1 bury the important things under a mass of erudition2 the larger her store the more should she be able to select by the discursive faculty 7,i ask pardon of ,herbart7 what is most illustrative of her subject for the special class3 it is very important to know what not to say4 ,melville ,bell's ,visible ,speech is very instructive reading1 and all should be familiar with ,le ,mestr43 ,fonetiq of ,paul ,passy4 ,i abstain from recommending some of the very learned books 8made in ,germany04 ,these are not suited to persons of limited leisure1 but are rather for the ,grammarian who said3-- ,let me know all6 ,prate not of most or least1 ,painful or easy1 ,even to the crumbs1 ,i'd fain eat up the feast1 ,ay1 nor feel queasy4 ,if reading is begun early1 taught in the way suggested1 and the sounds insisted on1 to the exclusion of the absurd spelling1 which pretends to produce cat from see ay tee1 children seem to get on slowly at first1 but the progress is rapid1 when they have once mastered the signs1 i4e41 as rapid as is possible with our cacography4 ,in an excursus ,i have insisted on the great importance of reformed spelling4 ,it is difficult to get people to agree1 but any system1 ,soames' or ,pitman's or ,bell's1 would be better than our present chaos4 ,if ,government would give liberty to those who teach a phonetic system1 things would improve1 and children would easily read ordinary characters afterwards4 ,all who write shorthand must spell phonetically4 ,voice production4 ,not only right articulation needs attention1 but what is called voice production4 ,the health of many a delicate girl may be greatly strengthened by habituating her to breathe as she ought1 and the whole class of what are called clergymen's throats are in great measure1 if not entirely due to the improper use of the organs of speech4 ,there will be little difficulty later1 if we1 from the beginning1 make children stand and breathe rightly1 speak and read with due attention to stops and emphasis1 and to those subtle changes of voice on which expression depends so much4 ,children should never be allowed to learn a poem without preparation1 or to memorise it by gabbling it over2 as well might we expect them to become musicians by rattling off pieces unstudied1 without regard to time and accent4 ,at first1 the poems to be learned should be repeated viva voce by the teacher to the little ones4 ,later1 a special study should be made of anything set to a class1 and it should be learned by the mind1 not the ear4 ,in ,france and ,germany a poem is not set until it has been discussed and explained1 points of importance insisted on1 special beauties1 etc4 ,a reading class should not be one in which each girl has to listen to the bad reading of another4 ,i know no manual so good for the teacher1 and for elder pupils1 as ,professor ,meiklejohn's ,expressive ,reading4 ,there are some good remarks in a brief paper by ,mr4 ,birrell in ,barnett's ,teaching and ,organisation1 and ,i may draw attention to page #aca of ,spenser's chapters on ,teaching1 for all these books should be in the ,teachers' ,library4 ,from the first1 children should learn poetry by heart--poetry suited to their understanding4 ,a child was heard to drone forth3-- ,save that from yonder ivy-mantled tower ,the lowing herd doth to the moon complain4 ,the reflections of the poet were utterly uninteresting to him2 he did not perceive the absurdity of cows ascending a tower4 ,i cannot sufficiently deprecate the setting of melodramatic pieces chosen not for their intrinsic beauty1 but to show the power of execution--to borrow a musical term4 ,the pieces learned need not be all poetry4 ,some of ,hans ,andersen's ,mhrchen are excellent4 ,scenes in which several can take part help to give animation4 ,learning by heart4 ,throughout their school life children should continue to store their memory1 during the years in which it is easy to learn1 with masterpieces in prose and poetry2 because learning by heart was formerly overdone it is much neglected now4 ,these early acquisitions are a treasure all one's life4 ,familiarity with really good writers is the first thing necessary for writing well2 it is good to let children write from memory passages learned instead of giving dictation4 ,recitation4 ,looking at the higher aspects1 ,i can hardly exaggerate the importance of getting children to speak with the understanding and right expression2 for this teachers must make them enter into the meaning of the writer1 realising the imagery1 the feelings1 the thoughts2 this calls out right emotion1 and thus elocution becomes of no small value as a part of moral training4 ,plato dwells much on the influence for good or evil upon the actor who realises the character he represents1 and as ,aristotle has said that through the drama one may purify the soul1 so we may help our pupils to feel all the grand music of our great poets1 and to enter with fuller sympathy into the teaching of the sacred scriptures of the world4 ,there is an excellent article in the volume of ,special ,reports issued by the ,education ,office by ,mr4 ,dale of ,merton ,college1 from which ,i give extracts4 8,before the reading of ,geibel's poem on ,frederick ,barbarossa 7the story of the sleeping kaiser who wakes to grasp the sceptre once more7 a scholar was bidden to relate the fairy tale of the sleeping princess4 8,the analysis of the piece into sections was given1 each with a brief title indicating its subject-matter1 and the exposition of their relation to one another1 showing it had a distinct purpose and value40 ,oral composition4 ,the practice of composition may begin systematically in quite early years4 ,mr4 ,dale has given an interesting account of the way in which children are taught orally1 and one who attended a ,ferien-,kursus at ,jena has explained the matter fully to me4 ,first1 the teacher always insisted upon answers to questions being complete sentences4 ,i quote once more from ,mr4 ,dale1 but the whole article should be read4 8,the first division of the subject in the ,german code is #8exercises in speaking'2 and the careful and admirable training in oral expression is worthy of special attention4 ,it is of frequent occurrence to hear a boy when called upon for an answer speak with but little hesitation for two or three minutes1 using grammatical and connected language1 and displaying a vocabulary which might have been supposed to be too wide for any but adults4 ,this result is the working1 primarily1 of a principle which has always lain deep in the ,german conception of teaching1 and which has been reinforced by the influence of ,herbart and his followers1 that in every lesson the child should take an active part4 ,it is given as a precept to every seminar student1 #8,let the teacher speak little1 the children much'4 8,the teaching of composition is one of the most valuable parts of the work done in the ,german schools4 ,it is begun at a very early age and practised steadily throughout the course4 8,the composition is conducted by word of mouth4 #8,who1' asks the teacher1 #8can give me a sentence to begin the first section8' ,one is suggested1 and criticised4 #8,can any one else give me a better8' ,the others then suggest1 if necessary with a little help1 their variants1 and finally one version is accepted4 ,in the case of the youngest children this is written on the blackboard4 ,the same process is pursued with each section till the piece is finished4 ,with the older boys the blackboard is not used1 save for the titles indicating the outline of each section4 ,the class then writes it out from memory4 8,the fundamental presupposition of this method is the inability of young pupils to compose and think out a series of ideas without much assistance1 even though the subject be a familiar one4 ,their thoughts need concentration and guidance1 and this help is given them by the working out of the matter in class4 ,yet individual liberty of expression is by no means sacrificed4 ,the sentences are the children's own1 and for the purpose of good composition the oral method is invaluable4 ,it proceeds on the sound principle that a child should be taught to test style by the ear and not by the eye alone4 ,it makes short work of a lumbering period4 8,on the other hand1 the activity and interest of every scholar are kept up by the desire to improve on his fellows1 and to have his own version accepted4 ,constant practice1 moreover1 is gained in the art of finding synonyms1 and it affords an admirable opportunity of instruction in grammar and orthography4 ,indeed1 the practising school at ,jena1 following a suggestion of ,professor ,ziller1 removes grammatical explanations altogether from the reading piece1 and transfers them to the child's own composition1 an expedient which avoids the fault of defacing the beauty and unity of a poem by picking it to pieces for the sake of illustration40 ,sometimes a picture is used to form a subject of conversation1 questioning and explanation4 ,thus is the valuable power of oral composition formed1 a good vocabulary obtained1 taste cultivated1 and that respect for the mother tongue which is so sadly wanting in many ,english people4 ,children gain a facility in writing which no dissection into different clauses1 enlargements of predicates1 etc41 can give4 ,rules are introduced with the reasons for such rules1 and only at last a grammar is placed in the pupil's hands--even as a ,euclid is given when it is all known4 ,i have heard a small kindergarten boy stand up and give in a clear and quiet way quite a long story which he had studied4 ,the habit of accurate expression will thus be formed and the thought become clear1 for it is language alone which gives form and body to thought--gives it 8a local habitation to a name04 ,in the higher schools1 ,mr4 ,dale writes1 the practice of oral composition is continued 7p4 #egc73-- 8,the practice of oral paraphrase which we saw existing in the elementary schools here reaches its climax4 ,the scholars are bidden to prepare a scene or passage of some author1 or to read up some period of literary history at home4 ,the next morning1 before the lesson begins1 one of them is called upon to give a summary of what he has read1 a sort of short essay by word of mouth--lasting three or four minutes1 and sometimes even longer4 ,the correctness both of style and matter1 with which this difficult task is performed1 needs to be heard in order to be fully appreciated at its true value4 ,it combines many of the advantages gained from a debating society with those of an essay4 ,it cultivates readiness of speech and thought1 while1 like an essay1 by enabling the teacher to gauge the points on which interest has centred1 it lends him a proper starting-place for his lecture40 ,this oral composition tells very advantageously upon the written work1 and could be introduced more generally into ,english schools2 but from quite early years children should be accustomed to write answers to questions upon their lessons1 or to tell something that they know4 ,later1 subjects may be given to be thought out or a rsum given of a lesson2 and lastly the pupils of the higher class required to read up a subject1 and write upon it1 or compose an essay4 ,grammar taught inductively4 ,as regards the formal teaching of ,english grammar1 ,i shall say but little4 ,i may instead refer my readers to the long and interesting paper by ,dr4 ,abbott in the volume edited by ,mr4 ,barnett1 and to his book1 ,how to ,tell the ,parts of ,speech4 ,the system he recommends will form a good foundation for the acquisition of foreign tongues4 ,pupils are led to make their own definitions1 and in part their own grammar4 ,a class thus taught ,french by our present ,mistress of ,method were astonished and delighted to find they knew already the chief rules of their ,french grammar1 when at length it was placed in their hands4 ,it is impossible and unnecessary to insist upon all grammatical forms being obtained inductively2 life is too short to carry it out in all its details1 and so the tabulation and learning of various paradigms becomes necessary2 but pupils should learn to form them4 ,i am sure there is much less use in the old-fashioned parsing exercises than is generally supposed2 parsing becomes mechanical2 nine-tenths of what they have to write children know1 and need not think about1 and when sentences are given to parse1 certain words only should be underlined for parsing4 ,i first questioned its usefulness when ,i found at school that one who was so dull1 that we used to regard her as somewhat of an idiot1 always came to the top when we took places for parsing4 ,what the ,french call analyse logique--classifying all words and phrases according to their function in the sentence--is valuable4 ,logical and grammatical analysis4 ,mr4 ,blakiston in his ,school ,management endorses this view1 and recommends the teaching of logical even before grammatical parsing4 ,mr4 ,fearon in ,school ,inspection writes3 8,what is wanted is to get as quickly as possible a notion of the structure of the sentence1 and the logical relation of its parts4 ,the teaching of ,english should be based on the analysis of sentences4 ,some may think the teaching of ,english grammar by means of logical analysis more difficult than the old method4 ,i am perfectly convinced from observation and experience1 both as a teacher and as an inspector1 that this is not the case4 ,they are not more difficult than the terms which it is necessary to use in teaching grammar on the old system4 ,the great point is to make children have an intelligent understanding of the real things which underlie them and which they represent40 ,professor ,woodward 7,monographs on ,education7 writes3 8,there is need of preparatory drill in forms and language study1 to bring a child to the intelligent study of construction1 but this done1 the analytical method of sentence-study commends itself4 ,intelligence is called into play1 for the pupil is no longer studying words as words1 but as the expression of thought2 memory is subordinate and reason to the front--nouns1 verbs1 etc41 are in some languages stamped with distinguishing marks1 and can be recognised by their forms1 but in ,english the power of any word and its influence in the sentence are rarely dependent on its form2 the part of speech cannot be determined at sight1 but by its connection and dependency40 ,the analysis of sentences is of course very important in the study of foreign languages4 ,hosts of rules about conjunctions1 governing moods1 etc41 can be discarded if once children can recognise a dependent sentence4 ,various models of analysis are given in all good grammars4 ,here is a form which has many recommendations as showing clearly the structure of a complex sentence3-- ,sentence4 ,dependent4 ,principal4 #a ,the man subject of #e #b who subj4 of #c #c wrote pred4 of #b adjective extension of #a #d that letter obj4 of #c #e said predicate of #a #f that conj4 #g he subj4 of #h substantive object of #e #h would return pred4 of #g #i but conj4 #aj he subj4 of #aa #aa did not pred4 of #aj ,another matter which should have great attention is the use of tenses4 ,there is nothing perhaps so difficult for foreigners to acquire as the power of discriminating tenses4 ,owing to the want of the present and future imperfect in ,french verbs1 many children get an idea that imperfect means past1 and few know until they learn ,greek that 8,i have written0 is a present tense4 ,such a table as this can be used to contrast languages3-- ,indefinite4 ,imperfect4 ,perfect4 ,present ,i write am writing have written ,past ,wrote was writing had written ,future ,shall write shall be writing shall have written ,the authors of the ,parallel ,grammar ,series have sought to reduce the time occupied in learning grammar4 ,in one book the general rules only need be given1 and the variations from these rules appear in other grammars4 ,thus the tiresome repetitions in each grammar of the letters of the alphabet--the definitions of the parts of speech of many rules regarding concords--could appear once for all4 ,let me in conclusion quote a portion of the resolutions concerning the teaching of ,english passed by the ,conference called by the ,committee of ,ten4#g #g ,report of the ,committee of ,ten on secondary studies1 #ahib1 ,washington4 8,the main direct object of the teaching of ,english in schools is 7#a7 to enable the pupil to understand the expressed thoughts of others and to give expression to thoughts of his own2 and 7#b7 to cultivate a taste for reading1 to give the pupil some acquaintance with good literature1 and to furnish him with the means of extending that acquaintance4 ,incidentally1 other ends may be subserved1 but such subsidiary interests should never be allowed to encroach on the two main purposes4 ,though it may be necessary to consider these separately1 in practice they should never be dissociated in the mind of the teacher1 and their mutual dependence should be kept constantly present to the mind of the pupils4 8,if the pupil is to secure control of the language as an instrument for the expression of his thoughts1 it is necessary 7#a7 that during the period of life when imitation is the chief motive principle in education1 he should be kept so far as possible away from the influence of bad models and under the influence of good models1 and 7#b7 that every thought which he expresses1 whether orally or on paper1 should be regarded as a proper subject for criticism as to language4 ,thus every lesson should become a part of the pupil's training in ,english4 ,there can be no more appropriate moment for a brief lesson in expression than the moment when the pupil has something which he is trying to express4 8,in addition to this incidental training1 appropriate special instruction in ,english should form a part of the curriculum from the beginning4 ,this special instruction may be considered under three heads3 ,a4 ,language and composition4 ,during the first two years at school1 children 7under eight7 may acquire some fluency of expression by reproducing orally in their own words stories told them by their teachers1 and by inventing stories about objects and pictures4 8,in the third school year children should begin to compose in writing2 they should copy and write from dictation and from memory short and easy passages of prose and verse4 8,the subjects assigned should gradually increase in difficulty4 7,the paraphrasing of poetry is not to be commended47 ,pains should be taken to improve the child's vocabulary by suggesting to him1 for the expression of his thoughts1 better words than those he may himself have chosen4 ,he should also be trained to perceive the larger divisions of thought which are conventionally indicated by paragraphs4 ,the teacher should bear in mind the necessity of correctness in the formation of sentences and paragraphs4 8,compositions and all other written exercises should receive careful and appropriate criticism1 and the staff of instructors should be large enough to protect every teacher from an excess of this peculiarly exacting and fatiguing work4 8,b4 ,formal or systematic grammar4 ,not earlier than twelve years of age the study of formal grammar1 with drill in fundamental analysis1 may be taken up4 ,it should not be pursued as a separate study longer than is necessary to familiarise the pupil with the main principles4 ,probably a single year will be sufficient4 ,subsequently1 although grammatical analysis may properly accompany reading and the study of composition1 it should not be regarded as a separate subject in the curriculum4 ,the teaching of formal grammar should aim principally to enable the pupil 7#a7 to recognise the parts of speech1 and 7#b7 to analyse sentences both as to structure and as to syntax4 ,routine parsing should be avoided4 8,with regard to the study of formal grammar the ,conference wishes to lay stress on three points3 7#a7 a student may be taught to speak and write good ,english without receiving any special instruction in formal grammar2 7#b7 the study of formal grammar is valuable as training in thought1 but has only an indirect bearing on the art of writing and speaking2 and 7#c7 the teaching of formal grammar should be as far as possible incidental1 and should be brought into close connection with the pupil's work in reading and composition4 ,these principles explain the considerable reduction recommended by the ,conference in the amount of time allowed to this study4 8,the best results in the teaching of ,english in high schools cannot be secured without the aid given by the study of some other language4 ,latin and ,german are especially suited to this end4 8,every teacher1 whatever his department1 should feel responsible for the use of good ,english by his pupils40 ,one would like to say much on the study of language generally1 and not only of its mere formal elements--of the 8fossil poetry0 to be found in figures of speech2 of the metaphors which express the same thought in different languages4 ,i give the names of some useful books1 but there are many other good grammars4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,name of ,work4 ,author4 ,pages4,price4 ,pub- ,remarks4 lishers4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,lectures on ,m4 ,mller #aajj ,longmans ,indispensable4 ,language ,lectures on ,m4 ,mller #ffj ,longmans ,full of ,science of interest4 ,thought ,philology ,peile #ajj #as4 ,macmillan,excellent4 ,may be used as a class-book for children4 ,etymological ,skeat #gs4 ,clarendon,very necessary ,dictionary #f;d4 ,press for language teachers4 ,etymological ,brachet ,clarendon,introduction ,dictionary ,press specially good4 ,required by all who teach ,french4 ,english ,past and,nesfield #dej #cs4 ,macmillan,very good for ,present #f;d4 upper classes4 ,english ,grammar ,hyde #aej #as4 ,crosby ,suggestive for ,clarke the teacher4 ,contains much that is inter- esting4 ,comparative ,sayce #djj ,trbner ,philology ,primer of ,sweet #abj #as4 ,clarendon ,phonetics #f;d4 ,press ,visible ,speech ,bell #hj #bs4 ,volta ,the large book ,press1 costs about four ,washing- dollars4 ton ,ecriture phon- tique ,passy #as4 ,firmin ,clear and easy4 ,les sons du #f;d4 ,didot franais ,phontique des ,victor #es4 ,heelbronn,somewhat diffi- deutschen #f;d4 cult4 ,introduction to ,soames #bhj #cs4 ,sonnen- ,a very useful ,phonetics #f;d4 schein introduction1 adapted to ,english1 ,french and ,german4 ,expressive ,meiklejohn #cfj ,holden ,very good4 ,con- ,reading tains a suitable selection4 ,plea for ,re- ,pitman ,pitman formed ,spelling ,spelling ,reform ,gladstone ,pitman ,how to ,teach ,stanley #dj #as4 ,heath ,reading ,hall ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,amongst ,english grammars ,i may mention those by ,morris and ,mason1 various books by ,dr4 ,abbott1 and the ,parallel ,grammar ,series4 ,there are good grammars1 too numerous to mention1 suitable for school use4 ,,classical ,,studies4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,d4 ,,rouse1 ,m4,a41 formerly ,fellow of ,christ's ,college in ,cambridge1 and a ,master at ,rugby ,school4 ,aim of a girl's education4 ,it were idle to expect that classics can be studied with the same thoroughness in girls' schools as in boys'4 ,girls' schools have grown up with other traditions2 music and drawing and modern languages have so long been the staple of a girl's education1 that it is perhaps too late now to make any radical change4 ,nor is it clear that even if possible1 it would be well to substitute classics for these subjects4 ,if the object of girls' education be1 as many think1 not so much to turn out finished scholars as to give an intelligent and sympathetic interest in life1 this can be better achieved by grafting classics upon the existing curriculum1 than by ousting other studies for the sake of these4 ,nevertheless1 there will be many whose aim it is to give themselves to teaching as a profession1 and some who are scholars born1 and willing to spend their life in research and study4 ,a good school must provide for these2 and we have to consider how to combine the interests of both classes4 ,the result will naturally be a compromise3 the average pupil getting less than the average boy gets1 while the few specialists will need to make up for lost time1 and to compress their work into a shorter period than is usually given to it4 ,the object of teaching will be the same in any case3 a mastery of the matter perfect as far as it goes2 and at the outset1 the methods will be much the same4 ,importance of ,latin in all schemes of higher education4 ,it is scarcely necessary to insist on the value of ,latin for every educated man or woman4 ,it is not only valuable as a thorough training of the mind1 in close reasoning and unremitting attention2 nor only as opening to the student a literature of great interest3 it is actually useful in a practical way4 ,it is the key to all the ,romance languages2 ,latin once mastered1 ,french and ,italian1 ,spanish and ,portuguese are brought within easy reach4 ,almost all that has then to be learnt is the grammar of these languages2 for the body of the words is already familiar4 ,certainly much study and practice will be needed before these languages can be spoken2 but is it nothing to be able to read8 ,men who are preparing for the ,civil ,service in ,india learn ,sanskrit2 not because the ,government is interested in the training of their minds1 but because this is the key to the spoken dialects of ,india4 ,as this dead language is practically useful in learning ,hindi or ,bengali1 so ,latin is practically useful in learning ,italian or ,french4 ,then again1 the grammatical drill is much more rigid and effective in teaching ,latin than in teaching ,french1 ,italian1 or even ,german4 ,the relation of action to object1 the subordination of thought to thought1 the dependence of an oblique statement1 all become clear to the mind in ,english or ,french when they have been made clear to the eye by ,latin4 ,nor must we forget that without ,latin no one can really understand ,english1 especially the ,english of such writers as ,milton and ,bacon4 ,and besides these advantages1 ,latin has a direct use in several professions1 which are now or may yet be open to women3 in medicine1 in the law1 in letters2 and even in business a knowledge of it1 as already pointed out1 will enable any one to become fit for foreign correspondence with far less difficulty than otherwise4 ,we will assume1 then1 that ,latin will be begun even in girls' schools early enough 7say at thirteen or fourteen7 to get through the grammar1 without undue pressure1 by the time the specialist will wish to begin ,greek4 ,there may be at that time a certain amount of work yet to get through which a boy of the same age would have done2 but this will have to be done more quickly1 that is all4 ,it must not be slurred or neglected1 certainly2 but the student will probably find that the work progresses at a rather quicker rate than might be expected1 because the mind is already better trained and stored than is usual at that stage of the study4 ,the right method of teaching a language4 7#a7 ,grammar4 ,to 8learn by reading0 not sufficient4 ,the right method of teaching a language may be put in a nutshell3 grammar1 reading1 writing and conversation should go side by side4 ,for convenience1 and because of the importance of the subjects1 grammar and exercises in composition will naturally have special times assigned to them2 but they should never be left out of sight4 ,no construing lesson ought to be done without some grammatical drill1 or without a few sentences of conversation1 which is in fact composition in brief4 ,the importance of grammar can hardly be overestimated2 and the first thing the learner must understand is that the skeleton of the language1 the inflections1 have to be known by heart4 ,a knowledge of cognate languages may help1 and comparative tables of forms may help both intelligence and memory1 but in the end it all comes to the same thing3 however the pupil may have learnt them1 he must be prepared to say off his declensions and conjugations from memory in the usual tabular form4 ,there are1 in this slipshod age1 those who affect to despise precise knowledge1 such as geographical names and facts1 historical dates1 and the paradigms of a grammar4 8,learn by reading0 is their motto in language2 a most false and pernicious principle1 as ,i can testify from sad experience4 ,it has been my lot to learn one or two languages sufficiently well to enable me to read in them1 and ,i grieve to relate that in these ,i shirked the drudgery of the grammar4 ,the result is that although a certain amount of grammar has soaked in1 ,i cannot yet read without a manual by my side4 ,the most such a method can do is to give the general sense of a sentence2 but it often fails to do even that1 inasmuch as the general sense of a sentence is made up of the precise sense of its parts4 ,exactness in understanding is not to be had without paying the price1 and the price is an exact knowledge of grammar4 ,the rottenness of this system is shown when it comes to writing2 and the productions of these empirics might well make ,quintilian stare and gasp4 ,thus1 however the grammar may be taught to begin with1 the class should always have handy some book containing just the facts of the language1 arranged in the usual fashion1 and not encumbered with exercises4 ,they will need this in the end1 and they may as well have it at the beginning4 ,the most useful books of the kind are ,kennedy's ,revised ,latin ,primer 7or ,postgate's ,new ,latin ,primer1 which is in some respects better1 notably in the marking of quantities7 and ,abbott and ,mansfield's ,greek ,grammar4 ,if no book of exercises is used1 it is hardly necessary to say that these books cannot be learnt straight through from cover to cover4 ,indeed1 the very first pages of both are unintelligible to beginners4 ,in that case the teacher must himself select what is to be learnt2 and the tables which follow 7pp4 #hg-h7 are meant to assist in this4 7#b7 ,reading to be begun as soon as possible4 ,as soon as the pupil is able to understand a simple sentence1 he should begin to use some reading book4 ,one of the most satisfactory ,latin readers ,i have had to do with is ,abbott's ,dux ,latinus2 some of the books err in not being simple enough in the structure of the sentences4 ,equally good and more easy to work with are the cheap ,single ,term ,readers of ,messrs4 ,rivington4 ,the sooner the pupil can be put on to a genuine classical author1 the better4 ,eutropius1 ,nepos or ,phdrus is better suited for beginners than ,csar2 ,csar will come next4 ,stories from ,ovid may follow1 and some of ,cicero's lucid and interesting narrative2 the best selection is that of ,walford 7,clarendon ,press74 ,virgil may be well begun in ,allcroft's ,story of neas 7,blackie74 ,once the pupil has attained this stage1 further selection should be easy2 only1 be it said1 too many notes spoil the scholar4 ,the student will be able sooner to tackle an author in ,greek than in ,latin1 because of the greater simplicity of the language4 ,in a very short time he ought to pass on to the excellent ,clarendon ,press ,easy ,selections from ,xenophon1 or some adaptation of stories from ,herodotus1 or parts of ,lucian4 ,he may then take one of the ,rugby ,scenes from ,greek ,plays 7,rivingtons71 and the easier parts of ,thucydides1 as edited in ,rivington's ,middle ,form ,greek ,readers4 ,construing4 7#c7 ,conversation4 ,how to be used4 ,its great advantages4 ,in the construing lesson1 the teacher will of course try to give each pupil a small portion to translate2 and with a class of twenty-five this can easily be done in three quarters of an hour1 leaving time for questions4 ,he will then go through the passage himself1 asking a question or two now and then to rivet their attention2 and then one and another should be called upon to decline or conjugate as many of the words 7regular as well as irregular7 as can be got into the time4 ,it is needless to insist that constant practice is necessary in grammar and parsing4 ,in this manner the accidence will be kept fresh in the mind1 and at last 7it is to be hoped7 firmly impressed upon it4 ,but one most important aid to learning is so often neglected1 that it will be necessary to speak about it rather fully4 ,this is conversation4 ,first let me say that nothing is meant resembling the method of ,gouin4 ,what may be the merits of that method in the case of ,french or ,german1 it is needless to ask here2 but ,i am confident that a syntax and accidence so elaborate as those of ,greek could not possibly be taught by that method in any reasonable time1 and ,i do not believe they could be so taught at all4 ,simple conversation can be begun as soon as the pupil begins to read4 ,we will suppose the reading book contains the sentence1 ,post triduum ,csar equitatum ad ,labienum misit4 ,the teacher will ask1 ,quid fecit ,csar8 and the pupil must be made to answer1 at first by prompting if necessary1 ,misit equitatum ,csar4 ,the next question may be1 ,ad quem misit equitatum8 the reply1 ,ad ,labienum misit equitatum ,csar4 ,other questions may be got out of this short sentence2 such as ,quis misit8 quid8 quando8 ,the class should be made to give always a complete sentence in reply4 ,at first they may have the book open before them2 but so soon as they are used to the sound of the words1 they should be made to shut the book and answer from memory4 ,five minutes at the end of a lesson is not much to give1 and it is surprising how this kind of thing quickens interest and memory4 ,the pupils find the advantage when they sit down to write their exercises1 for now the words and constructions come quickly into the mind4 ,moreover1 they will find that they have learnt unconsciously the difference in emphasis which position makes2 for it will be observed that in the simple answers given above1 the words which answer the question1 and are therefore the most important1 come first in the answer4 ,the teacher should ring the changes on his reading exercise in this way1 until after a term or two he will be able to begin talking to them on other subjects3 such as the weather1 the pictures on the walls1 the pupils' dress1 their inky fingers1 anything that occurs to him4 ,he must take every opportunity of dropping in the accusative and infinitive1 a phrase of purpose or consequence1 or the like2 and thus1 without much trouble1 these bugbears will be got rid of4 ,if a pupil can answer no more than ,nescio quid dicas1 it is something that he uses the subjunctive in a dependent question4 ,a difficulty met4 ,but it will be asked1 where are the teachers to be found who can do this8 ,the answer is1 that it is perfectly easy to learn1 and only needs practice4 ,the teacher will have his own book open before him1 and need not go beyond its words till he has gained confidence2 then by degrees he will do it more and more easily1 and in a while talking will come quite naturally to him4 ,in more discursive conversations1 it is true1 some preparation will be necessary1 but it is quite worth the while4 ,there are one or two little books that teachers will find useful1#h but they will best make their own collections4 ,a few hours' reading will give an ample store of colloquialisms from ,plato1 ,aristophanes and ,lucian1 from ,plautus1 ,terence1 and ,cicero's letters4 ,it is not a bad plan to compile lists of colloquial sentences1 say a hundred1 and make every pupil learn them by heart4 #h ,sprechen ,sie ,attisch8 ,ioannides3 ,koch1 ,leipzig1 #ahhi4 ,sprechen ,sie ,lateinisch8 ,id4 ,sargent1 ,greek ,prose ,composition4 ,blackie1 ,gr4 ,conversation4 ,a practical test4 ,it may be worth while saying that the writer has tested this method1 and found it practicable with young and old4 ,moreover it has been applied1 within his knowledge1 to the teaching of ,russian1 a language hardly less difficult than ,greek2 and it is found possible1 by combining conversation1 reading1 writing and learning by heart1 to teach even obtuse persons how to read an ordinary novel or newspaper1 to write a social or official letter1 and to converse on ordinary topics1 in three months1 although before they began this course they knew not even the ,russian alphabet4 7#d7 ,composition4 ,for ,latin composition the teacher can hardly do better than begin with ,abbott's ,via ,latina2 for ,greek1 ,ritchie's ,practical ,greek ,method is to be recommended1 though not so unreservedly4 ,what books are best to follow up with may be seen from the lists given below4 ,but after all1 it is not books that teach1 so much as the teacher2 and he had better fix on the subjects that are to be taught at each stage1 and select or make the exercises necessary to teach them4 ,practical hints for teaching it4 ,every exercise will of course be corrected1 and the pupil should never pass on without having written out a correct translation of the exercise himself4 ,if it is practicable1 the best thing is for him to be told his mistakes1 and then to rewrite the exercise1 doing it again and again until it is right4 ,but if time permits not this1 the teacher may do a good deal to encourage self-help by going round the class whilst they are writing1 and underlining all mistakes1 which the pupils are then to correct1 if they can4 ,as soon as possible1 pieces of continuous prose should be done as well as sentences2 and this can be begun quite early1 in fact after a couple of terms' work4 ,the same plan of underlining mistakes may be followed with these2 but it will be found advantageous1 as the work increases in difficulty1 to give more and more often fair copies of the teacher's1 or by some other competent person4 ,in all composition it is useful to dictate the fair copy1 and then to give a few minutes for the class to learn it4 ,the class should then be called up1 the copy taken away1 and the ,english should be translated viva voce4 ,of course any reasonable translation will be accepted2 it is not meant that only the very words of the copy given will do4 ,let the old pieces be done over now and again at sight2 and the results cannot fail to be good4 ,type-sentences to be learnt by heart4 ,most of the exercise books have explanations prefixed to each exercise1 with examples4 ,all such examples1 or at least one of each construction1 should be learnt by heart4 ,the same should be done with the syntax rules of any grammar which may be in use4 ,these should all be so well drilled into the pupils1 that when a rule is given1 or a heading1 or 7for beginners7 the ,english meaning1 the pupils should be able to reel off the example without hesitation4 ,a certain portion of syntax1 or of the exercise book1 or both1 should be set for each stage2 and the classes which are studying that part of the subject must learn these1 and keep up the old work4 ,the reading book will give plenty of opportunity to ask for these quotations1 and it should constantly be done4 ,the oftener the pupil repeats his example of the instrumental ablative1 or whatever it may be1 the better he will know it2 and he cannot know it too well4 ,the pupil should be tested and kept up to the mark by regular grammar papers1 at least twice a term4 ,unseen translation4 ,unseen translation should be commenced as early as possible1 and form part of the regular work4 ,beginners can try some unprepared piece out of their reading book1 which they must do on paper1 and without help1 except that they will use the vocabulary4 ,as soon as the pupils are far enough on to use a dictionary1 some special book of unseens should be taken1 such as ,jerram's ,anglice ,reddenda4 ,the use of helps can be gradually discontinued1 until the pupil is weaned from them altogether4 ,this can be done by forbidding dictionaries1 and giving the meanings of the more unfamiliar words1 fewer and fewer by degrees4 ,repetition4 ,as soon as the pupil has begun to read a verse author1 repetition should be begun1 and never afterwards discontinued4 ,verse is easier to learn1 so with verse we begin2 but pieces of prose for learning should be set later4 ,it is useful to make the repetition a part of the terminal examination1 and to have every word of it written out4 ,a ,greek play and a book of ,virgil should be chosen 7say the ,medea1 or the dipus ,tyrannus1 and the ,i,vth or ,v,ith neid71 together with the ,heroides of ,ovid1 and if time allows1 one of the speeches against ,catiline and a ,philippic of ,demosthenes4 ,these can be divided into portions1 a portion for each form or class1 and it should be understood that this has to be learnt during the term and kept up afterwards4 ,the examination will simply consist in writing out all the portion learnt during the term1 and all the old work1 if any4 ,as the work will always be the same1 the older pupils will soon get to know it perfectly4 ,the system here recommended has been used in one great school for perhaps a quarter of a century1 and the results have been excellent4 ,methods of work more advanced4 ,what is to be aimed at4 ,use of notes and other aids4 ,we will now suppose that the accidence and syntax are fairly well known1 and that the pupil is ready to read a book of ,virgil or a speech of ,cicero1 ,euripides or ,demosthenes1 without serious difficulty4 ,the methods followed will not change2 they will merely be applied more widely4 ,the grammar will need to be kept fresh by the same means as before1 and the study will be made more intelligent by use of the comparative and historical methods2#i construing will be done in the same order1 but some style will be expected2 composition will be worked by means of correction and fair copies1 but the pieces chosen will be harder1 and here1 too1 style will be more attended to2 conversation will by this time have become easy and interesting1 and will cover a wider range of ideas4 ,the aims of the teacher at this stage must be to teach self-reliance1 and to direct the student more and more to illustrative reading4 ,it is advisable at this stage to do part of the work without the aid of notes4 ,the class is reading1 we will suppose1 a book of ,horace's ,odes1 and one of ,cicero's speeches4 ,he should have a complete text of ,horace1 and the proper volume of ,cicero's works 7or the whole71 with no notes at all2 from this he should prepare the work for the first time of doing4 ,difficulties he must make out as best he can1 with the aid of grammar and dictionary1 some dictionary of antiquities 7,rich for beginners1 ,smith's large one for older students71 ,gow's ,companion and the pictorial ,atlas of ,antiquities4 ,for revision1 he should be given notes dictated by the teacher1 or some edition with printed notes in it4 ,the class work should be done with the utmost care and exactness1 and parts of the author committed to memory3 side by side with this should go more discursive reading1 especially for the older students4 ,they should be encouraged 7and at last expected7 to read more of the author by themselves1 and to bring difficulties to the teacher1 who ought now and again to test their progress4 ,thus the curriculum of the latter part of the school work will consist of a portion of all the chief authors to be read in school1 and as much more as possible of the same authors read out of school4 #i ,lindsay's ,short ,historical ,latin ,grammar4 ,for ,greek there is none such as yet1 but notes may be given from ,giles' ,manual1 or ,king and ,cookson 7see lists below74 ,illustrative works4 ,the pupil should also be directed to illustrative works which will serve to quicken his interest in any author4 ,the excellent series of ,ancient ,classics for ,english ,readers contains an account of each author1 with extracts translated2 and well do ,i remember my interest in the ,xenophon of this series1 when quite a boy4 ,passages might be read to the class from some book of travels2 ,on the ,track of the ,ten ,thousand1 if ,xenophon be the author2 ,travels or ,explorations in ,egypt1 if ,herodotus2 and so forth4 ,the reader of ,cicero could not fail to be interested in ,boissier's ,cicero and his ,friends2 the ,latin poets are well illustrated by ,sellar's ,roman ,poets of the ,republic and of the ,augustan ,age4 ,symonds' ,greek ,poets1 ,mahaffy's literary and historical books1 ,champagny's ,les ,csars1 ,girard's ,education ,athnienne are only a few out of many books which make the old days live again1 and add to the literary appreciation of a learner4 ,translations4 ,the elder pupils in their private reading must be taught the proper use of translations4 ,it is not to be expected that they will do without them entirely2 but they should have access to the best1 in a school library or elsewhere1 under some direction at first and afterwards at discretion4 ,if they are clearly shown that it is their interest to use them only where their own honest efforts have failed1 or as models in the case of books they have already done1 most of them will be sensible enough not to abuse their liberty4 ,the pupil will gain much1 too1 by reading some of the old translations of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,from ,north's ,plutarch1 ,hobbes' ,thucydides1 ,holland's ,livy1 and other such1 the learner will gain a new idea of what the ,english language can do1 much to the advantage of his style4 ,nor is there the same danger in giving pupils these books as in allowing them the free use of modern translations4 ,they reproduce the spirit rather than the letter1 and are of little use as 8cribs04 ,style4 ,lectures and demonstrations4 ,when the pupil has learnt how to write correct ,latin or ,greek1 it will be time to pay some attention to style4 ,the pieces chosen should at first be definitely historical1 oratorical1 philosophical1 or dialogue1 according to the author being at the time studied2 in the last stage1 these should be given one after the other1 unless any weak point needs strengthening4 ,it is useful now and again to give lectures and demonstrations in composition to a class4 ,each will be provided with a copy of the ,english1 and the teacher then will get to the heart of it1 state its thoughts in the sequence and subordination as simply as possible1 and finally translate it bit by bit1 using the blackboard to record each step4 ,questions may be asked or anticipated1 and the various renderings suggested should be weighed and discussed4 ,in this manner the beginner sees how a trained mind works1 and is helped to guide his own4 ,good examples of the method may be seen in ,sidgwick's ,lectures on ,greek ,prose ,composition1 ,postgate's ,sermo ,latinus1 and ,sargent's ,primers4 ,verse-writing4 ,its value4 ,so far nothing has been said of verse composition4 ,much obloquy has been poured on this of late years2 and it may be admitted that formerly too much time was given to it4 ,but in spite of all that objectors can say1 there is no manner of doubt that verse-writing is a practice of very great value4 ,no one really pretends that it can make poets 7the common sneer72 all that is claimed for it is1 that it is valuable as a mental gymnastic and in training the literary sense4 ,prose-writing can teach the power of words1 but only verse their subtler associations2 prose teaches the effect of position upon emphasis1 but verse makes clear that there is such a thing as literary form4 ,most people never realise the rhythm of a piece of prose2 its more striking faults may offend or its merits unconsciously please1 but why these please or offend it would be beyond their power to say4 ,but the dullest boy or girl who has learnt how to piece together an elegiac couplet1 understands that this particular kind of composition is regulated by definite bounds1 and cast in a form1 the variations of which are limited4 ,his ear becomes attuned more or less to rhythm1 and this first step may be used to lead him on to the comprehension of literary form in other kinds4 ,i do not say that he will never learn the lesson without writing verses1 but that this is the easiest way to teach it2 and ,i would apply the same principle to ,english or any other language4 ,some incidental advantages follow at the same time2 not the least that the pupil understands the metre of the poets he reads4 ,he will not learn this equally well by scanning4 ,to have full effect the act of scanning must be unconscious2 that is1 the reader must take in words1 meaning and rhythm at the same time without effort4 ,so far as my experience goes1 those who have not learnt how to write verses never read poetry in this way1 but the scanning 7if done7 is done by a conscious effort1 which draws off the mind from the poetry4 ,let the class1 then1 as soon as they begin to read a verse author1 do a term's work or two on elementary exercises in metre 7,i will not say verse-writing7 from ,penrose's ,latin ,elegiac ,verse ,composition4 ,the time will not be wasted1 as has been shown1 even if no more is done4 ,those who wish to go further in ,latin verse cannot do without a skilled teacher1 for no books exist which can help him much4 ,demonstrations on the blackboard can teach a great deal at this stage2 but nothing can be done by the pupil without learning a great deal of ,latin verse by heart4 ,greek verse is easier to compose than ,latin1 and may be begun quite late4 ,nearly all the elementary books on ,greek verse are useless without a teacher1 and need constant supervision and help2 perhaps ,i may be pardoned for mentioning a little book called ,damon1 since this is the only one wherein the learner is led on by steps graduated close one after the other4 ,pupils may go straight from this book to the rendering of pieces of ,english verse1 but both ,sidgwick's and ,sargent's books on ,greek verse will always be found useful4 ,pronunciation of ,latin and ,greek4 ,it is necessary now to say something about the pronunciation of ,latin and ,greek4 ,the reformed pronunciation is strongly to be recommended4 ,this is simply set forth in a pamphlet published by the ,cambridge ,university ,press1#aj and for ,latin is practically that given in the first pages of the ,latin ,primer4 ,the sole advantage of pronouncing ,latin and ,greek words as if they were ,english1 is that the learner need learn nothing new4 ,but this is far outweighed by the disadvantages2 and after all1 the pupil has begun to learn ,french or ,german1 and so is not struck dumb at being called upon to pronounce i as ee4 ,the main disadvantages are these3 7#a7 ,confusion of s1 c1 and t1 as ,ceres with ,seres1 cedit with sedit2 7#b7 ,confusion of quantity1 menss 7abl4 pl47 with menss 7gen4 sing471 mlum 78evil07 with mlum 78apple072 7#c7 ,difficulty of pronunciation in many words1 especially in ,greek1 as when the first syllable is made to rhyme with law2 7#d7 ,loss of much beauty in the sound of the languages4 #aj ,the ,reformed ,pronunciation of ,greek and ,latin3 ,arnold and ,conway4 #ahie4 ,,is4 ,the accent in ,greek4 ,to be taught as far as practicable4 ,in one point1 however1 ,i differ from the authors of this pamphlet--that is1 on the question of ,greek accentuation4 ,it is generally agreed that the ,greek accents must be learnt1 and rightly so1 for many interesting linguistic points turn on them2 but it is also the invariable practice not to try to pronounce them4 ,but there is really no reason why most of them should not be pronounced4 ,the ,greek accent1 as is well known1 was a musical intonation2 the acute#aa denoting a rise in the tone1 the circumflex a rise followed by a fall1 i4e41 a kind of drawl4 ,the circumflex can always be pronounced with ease2 so can the acute1 when final2 so can the great majority of internal accents4 ,it is just as easy to say as 4 ,the only cases of real difficulty are words like 1 1 where a long vowel follows an accented syllable4 ,these might be waived for beginners1 but these are few compared to the rest2 and even to pronounce the accent and quantity in these is not very difficult1 especially with the reformed pronunciation4 ,this plan has been tried1 and found to work fairly1 with young boys from twelve to sixteen4 #aa ,the grave on finals1 when written for acute1 is practically the same4 ,value of old ,english translations4 ,there is a means by which the classical teacher may be greatly helped1 and that is if the general course of studies in the school be so arranged1 that good ,english translations of the classics form a fair proportion of the ,english authors read4 ,many of these translations are themselves ,english classics1 such as ,chapman's and ,pope's ,homer1 ,north's ,plutarch1 ,dryden's ,virgil and ,juvenal4 ,others there are in plenty1 no less excellent than these1 if less known--,phaer's ,virgil1 ,holland's versions of ,livy1 ,suetonius1 ,plutarch's ,morals1 and many other works2 ,hobbes' ,thucydides1 ,barnard's ,terence1 ,echard's ,plautus--indeed there is hardly a classical author of repute who did not find a worthy translator in the ,elizabethan age4 ,a few of these are accessible in cheap reprints1#ab and if there were a demand for any of them a reprint would appear at once4 ,by reading these the children will become familiar with the subject-matter of classical authors before they have to translate them2 and they will also have made acquaintance with some fine works of literature1 many of which 7such as ,north7 are interesting from association with ,shakspere4 ,when ,roman or ,greek history comes in the regular historical cycle1 some of these books might well be read along with them4 #ab ,messrs4 ,dent ,co41 in the ,temple ,classics1 have brought out ,chapman1 and intend to include ,north and others4 ,models and illustrations4 ,the last thing to be mentioned is the use of models and illustrations4 ,there is almost no limit to the number of such things that can be had2 the real limit is the depth of the teacher's purse4 ,but the schools ought to provide these things for use2 it is too much to expect that teachers should spend their sparings and savings in educational plant4 ,any money spent in this way is amply repaid by the interest added to the work4 ,classical teachers ought to have at their disposal lantern slides illustrating classical life and history1 wall pictures and maps1 photographs and models4 ,slides may be hired from the ,hellenic ,society1 or bought through the ,teachers' ,guild2#ac for wall pictures there are two excellent series1 those of ,cybulski and ,launitz4 ,of photographs there are thousands4 ,the wise teacher will travel and collect them2 but for those who will not1 one or two addresses of photographers are given below1#ad with the names of some useful works4 ,the pictures can be kept in the school library1 and hung up for the term when they will be useful4 ,for the photographs1 frames with movable backs are most to be recommended1 as the pictures can then be changed at will4 ,the teacher should talk about them1 and question his class1 and 7as already suggested7 they may form a topic of ,latin or ,greek conversation4 ,it is astonishing how much children will learn from these things4 ,in addition1 it is highly desirable that each pupil should have his pictorial atlases as he has an atlas of geography4 #ac ,there is a large collection in the ,guild ,museum1 ,gower ,street1 ,london4 ,here also models may be seen4 #ad ,see p4 #ic4 ,recapitulation4 ,weak points to be strengthened4 ,the writer has now pointed out what1 in his opinion1 is the place which ,latin and ,greek should take in a girl's education1 and the methods best calculated to teach them4 ,if in these there is not much that is new1 they are at all events such as experience has proved to be sound4 ,one or two points may be indicated which are apt to be weak in girl students1 and must therefore be specially guarded against4 ,they are apt to be shaky in grammar1 and they seem to have less mental self-reliance than boys4 ,as regards those who learn late1 they must go over the same ground2 for no teacher and no book1 no not if angels wrote it1 can point out a royal road to learning4 ,these late-learners bring to the task a mind already more or less trained1 and so they will get on faster2 but let them beware of trying to get on too fast4 ,they must make up their minds that grammar has to be learnt1 and work at it with a will4 ,if they have already done half of the drudgery by learning ,latin1 as here recommended1 their task will be not easy indeed1 but not beyond their powers2 and even if both ,latin and ,greek are begun late1 they need not even then despair4 ,i have known several1 both men and women1 who have begun late and ended with success1 even with distinction2 although it must be admitted that these were persons of exceptional powers4 ,but it is of the utmost importance that the most capable teachers should have charge of the late-learners4 ,the greater the difficulty1 the greater need for a teacher who has his subjects at the ends of his fingers1 who can see a short-cut1 and is able to judge how much of the preliminary work can safely be shortened1 or even omitted for the time4 ,when skill in the teacher meets with will in the taught1 between them they may remove mountains4 ,,suggested ,,scheme ,,of ,,work ,,in ,,six ,,parts4 ,,latin4 ,grammar4 ,composition4 #a4 ,parts of speech and elements3 #a4 ,simplest sentences3 statement1 regular nouns and adjectives3 question and answer4 est1 sunt1 and how to form #crd sing4 and pl4 pres4 indic4 first conjugation1 given the infinitive present4 #b4 ,commonest pronouns3 present #b4 ,cases of agent and instrument1 indic4 of sum1 and how to form time and place3 quam with nom4 #crd sing4 and pl4 of all four and acc41 abl4 of comparison3 a conjugations1 given the infinitive few common prolate verbs3 simplest present4 relative sentences and cum temporal4 #c4 ,pronouns and cardinal numerals3 #c4 ,ablative absolute1 and a few active of the four conjugations3 more case usages3 accusative with sum3 meanings and case of a few infinitive3 use of se1 suus1 common prepositions4 ipse3 double questions3 factitives in active1 prolate verbs3 relative sentences1 with a hint of finals3 commands and prohibitions3 causal1 concessive and temporal sentences4 #d4 ,ordinal numerals3 passive of #d4 ,quisquam1 quisque1 the four conjugations3 a few quivis1 etc4 7meaning73 chief common irregular verbs4 case usages3 factitives3 common verbs with dative3 dependent questions3 accusative with infinitive1 tenses distinguished3 simple finals1 pos4 and negative3 simple consecutives3 verbs of hindering and fearing4 #e and #f4 ,deponents1 impersonals1 #e4 ,utor and other verbs with irregular verbs3 fill up gaps 7add various cases3 all case usages3 e4g41 the rest of the numerals74 gerund and gerundive3 some impersonal verbs3 final and consecutive sentences3 conditions begun4 #f4 ,quisquam1 etc41 use and idioms3 participles3 nunquam1 etc41 causal1 concessive1 temporal and other conjunctions3 conditions3 obliqua4 ,,greek4 ,grammar4 ,composition4 #a4 ,regular nouns and adjectives3 #a4 ,concords 7including that of article3 and 3 how to neuter plural73 article in direct form #crd sing4 and pl4 pres4 predication3 simplest sentences1 indic4 of verbs in - given the statement1 question and answer3 infinitive present4 simplest meanings of cases3 meanings of 1 1 1 1 7gen471 4 #b4 ,some irregular nouns3 cardinal #b4 ,article with demonstrative and numerals3 comparison of with adjectives of position3 adjectives3 commoner pronouns3 3 simplest meaning of the 1 with active of 4 ,general tenses3 accusative with rules for accent in its dependence infinitive3 some further particles on quantity4 of question and emphasis4 #c4 ,numerals3 1 3 a few #c4 ,genitive absolute3 agent and irregular nouns4 ,accent of nouns instrument and other case usage3 and verbs 7general rules74 infinitive with verbs of command or request3 commands1 prohibitions1 wishes 7opt473 and its sequence3 double questions and further formul4 #d4 ,contracted verbs3 parts of a #d4 with fut4 indic4 3 all few irregular verbs3 accent of final constructions3 verbs of nouns and verbs 7special rules7 fearing3 1 1 1 1 and contracted syllables4 1 4 #e4 ,verbs in -3 3 parts #e4 ,accusative and nominative with of commoner irregular verbs4 infinitives3 use of participles with certain verbs3 consecutive and temporal constructions3 simple indirect statement and question3 the conditions begun4 #f4 ,irregular nouns and verbs3 fill #f4 ,the cases1 tenses1 participles gaps4 ,revise with ,goodwin's and prepositions3 idioms1 such as ,grammar4 3 conditions3 all rules of obliqua4 ,,books4#ae #ae ,v is added to those which have vocabularies2 ,k means key4 ,the writer wishes it to be understood that this is not an exhaustive list4 ,these books he has either tested by use1 or has good grounds in the experience of others for the judgment given of them2 but there are many others of the same kind1 and there is often little to choose between them4 ,the publishers whose books are given below are3 ,camb4 ,univ4 ,press1 ,clarendon ,press1 ,blackie1 ,dent1 ,grevel1 ,isbister1 ,longmans1 ,macmillan1 ,murray1 ,rivingtons1 ,seeley1 ,trbner4 ,,latin3 ,,grammar ,,and ,,composition4 ,public ,school ,lat4 ,primer 7or ,postgate's ,new ,lat4 ,primer1 in some respects a more useful book7 should be kept at hand1 if only for reference and revision4 ,abbott1 ,via ,latina 7v71 #c_/f2 excellent4 ,morris1 ,elementa ,latina1 with ,tripertita as an exercise book1 followed by ,mansfield's ,lat4 ,exercise ,book2 a good series for very beginners1 but the exercises need supplementing4 ,allen1 ,rudimenta ,latina 7v7 #b_/f2 belongs to a complete series1 the other books being an ,elementary ,latin ,grammar1 #b_/f1 a ,first 7v71 #b_/f1 and a ,second ,latin ,exercise ,book 7v71 #c_/f4 ,the last named is an excellent book for teachers1 who may learn much from it1 but ,i have found it dull and difficult for the learner4 ,ritchie1 ,first ,steps in ,lat4 7v71 #a_/f2 also one of a series1 with ,ex4 in ,lat4 ,prose ,comp4 7v71 #b_/f1 and ,easy ,continuous ,lat4 ,prose1 #b_/f1af ,latin ,clause ,construction1 #a_/f1 a ,first ,lat4 ,verse ,book 7v71 #b_/-1 and a ,reader ,fabul ,faciles 7v71 #b_/f1 with ,imitative ,lat4 ,ex4 7v71 #a_/f1 based upon it4 ,these are good books1 and ,i prefer them to ,allen's after using both series3 the explanations are clearer1 and there are more sentences4 ,macmillan's ,latin ,course 7v71 two parts1 #c_/f and #d_/f2 good4 ,it has an advantage in the large number of exercises4 ,england1 ,exx4 in ,latin1 ,syntax and ,idiom 7v k71 #b_/f2 a companion to ,roby's ,school ,latin ,grammar4 ,rooper and ,herring1 ,primary ,lat4 ,exx4 7v71 #c_/f2 specially adapted to the ,revised ,lat4 ,primer4 ,north and ,hillard1 ,lat4 ,prose ,comp4 7v71 for the middle forms1 #c_/f2 carefully arranged and progressive from phrases and sentences to continuous prose4 ,champneys and ,randall1 ,easy ,english ,pieces for ,translation into ,latin ,prose1 #ast and #bnd series1 each #a_/f2 excellent1 and can be used with a sentence book as soon as the elements are mastered4 ,more advanced ,grammars3 ,w4 ,m4 ,lindsay1 ,short ,historical ,lat4 ,gr41 #d_/f2 excellent4 ,this is mainly philological4 ,h4 ,j4 ,roby1 ,school ,lat4 ,gr41 #e_/-2 good4 ,not philological4 #af ,see below1 ,champneys4 ,for ,idiom and ,construction in the higher stages3-- ,bradley1 ,arnold's ,lat4 ,prose ,comp4 7v71 #e_/-1 and ,aids to ,writing ,latin ,prose1 #e_/-1 with full explanations2 the former has sentences1 the latter continuous prose4 ,abbott1 ,lat4 ,prose through ,eng4 ,idiom1 #b_/f2 is a most useful little book for committing to memory4 ,this should be used with one or two forms or sets in addition to the stock books4 ,jerram1 ,latine ,reddenda1 #a_/f2 useful collection of miscellaneous sentences4 ,books of chosen ,english3 ,holden1 ,foliorum ,centuri1 #h_/-1 for ,gr4 and ,lat4 prose2 the standard collection4 ,wilkins' ,manual of ,lat4 ,prose ,comp41 #d_/f4 ,sargent and ,dallin1 ,materials and ,models for ,lat4 ,pr4 ,comp4 7k71 #f_/f2 with references for each piece to portions of ,latin authors on similar subjects2 a useful book4 ,potts1 ,passages for ,transl4 into ,lat4 ,prose 7k71 #b_/f4 ,nettleship1 ,passages for ,transl4 into ,lat4 ,prose1 with a valuable introduction4 ,postgate3 see below4 ,most useful for teachers1 advanced students1 or private students3-- ,j4 ,y4 ,sargent1 ,lat4 ,prose ,primer 7v71 #b_/f2 most of the pieces are carefully analysed1 and the steps by which the sense is mastered and then translated are shown in detail4 ,it is a companion to ,sargent's ,easy ,passages for ,transl4 into ,lat4 7k71 #b_/f4 ,potts1 ,hints towards ,lat4 ,pr41 #c_/-2 perhaps the most useful of all manuals on ,latin prose style4 ,postgate1 ,sermo ,latinus 7k71 #b_/f2 interesting and instructive4 ,ramsay1 ,lat4 ,pr4 ,versions1 with the ,english1 #e_/-2 excellent models4 ,meissner's ,lat4 ,phrase ,book1 #c_/f2 phrases and quotations classified and indexed2 a most useful book4 ,roby's ,lat4 ,gr41 two vols41 #i_/- and #aj_/f2 indispensable4 ,w4 ,m4 ,lindsay1 ,lat4 ,language1 #ba_/-2 indispensable to those who study ,latin from the comparative standpoint4 ,his ,short ,historical ,lat4 ,gr4 will1 however1 be sufficient for less advanced students4 ,,verse4 ,manuals by ,penrose 7elegiacs72 ,morice 7same1 more advanced71 and ,lupton 7lyrics73 ,holden1 ,foliorum ,silvula 7the best anthology74 ,,readers4 ,there are numbers of elementary readers1 and there is really little to choose between them4 ,the most useful set seems to the writer to be ,rivington's ,single ,term ,latin ,readers1 #h;d4 to #a_/d each4 ,with notes1 exercises and vocabularies4 ,these are sets of three books for each of six terms1 each book containing enough for a term's work1 and each set having the same standard4 ,others in common use are3 ,morice1 ,loculi1 #b_/-2 ,abbott1 ,dux ,latinus1 #b_/-1 adapted to ,via ,latina2 ,ritchie1 ,fabul ,faciles2 ,bennett's ,easy ,lat4 ,stories1 ,hardy's ,lat4 ,reader1 etc4 ,teachers and private students may learn much from ,abbott's ,latin ,gate4 ,,greek3 ,,grammar ,,and ,,composition4 ,abbott and ,mansfield1 ,primer of ,gr4 ,gr41 #b_/f1 or with ,syntax1 #c_/f2 is perhaps the most convenient as a collection of facts4 ,a ,primer of ,gr4 ,ex41 #c_/f1 has been compiled to go with it4 ,ritchie's elementary exercise books can be recommended4 ,ritchie and ,moore1 ,practical ,gr4 ,method for ,beginners 7v k71 #c_/f4 ,ritchie1 ,first ,steps in ,gr4 7v71 #b_/-2 exercises need to be supplemented4 ,jackson1 ,first ,steps to ,greek ,prose ,comp4 7v k71 and ,second ,steps 7v k71 #a_/f and #c_/f2 are useful exercise books4 ,macmillan's ,greek course3 ,easy ,ex4 in ,gr4 ,accidence 7v71 #b_/-2 ,easy ,ex4 in ,gr4 ,syntax 7v71 #b_/f2 ,second ,gr4 ,exercise ,book 7v71 #b_/f2 companions to ,rutherford's ,greek ,grammar4 ,they are almost exclusively exercises1 and very full4 ,jerram1 ,graece ,reddenda 7v71 #b_/f2 a collection of miscellaneous sentences4 ,sidgwick's ,first ,gr4 ,writer 7v k71 #c_/f2 easy continuous prose1 may be used along with any book of sentences4 ,following this comes his excellent ,gr4 ,prose ,comp4 7v k71 #e_/-1 and then the pupil will be able to dispense with crutches4 ,both have clear and useful introductions4 ,arnold's ,gr4 ,pr4 ,comp4 7v k71 #c_/f1 ed4 by ,abbott1 has useful exercises in idiom4 ,more advanced1 and to be used as soon as the accidence is mastered1 is ,goodwin's ,gr4 ,gr41 #f_/-1 new ed41 excellent2 or his ,school ,gr4 ,gr41 #c_/f4 ,to the advanced student ,goodwin's ,gr4 ,moods and ,tenses1 second ed41 #ad_/-1 is indispensable4 ,much may be learnt from the ,gr4 ,gram4 of ,goodwin1 #f_/-2 ,rutherford1 #c_/f2 and ,sonnenschein4 ,collections of chosen ,english3 ,holden1 ,foliorum ,centuri2 ,wilkins1 ,manual of ,gr4 ,prose ,comp41 #e_/-2 ,sargent and ,dallin1 ,materials and ,models for ,gr4 ,prose ,comp4 ,how to tackle a piece of ,english1 see ,sidgwick's ,lectures on ,gr4 ,prose ,comp41 and ,lectures on the ,teaching of ,composition1 #d_/f4 ,sargent's ,gr4 ,prose ,primer 7v k71 #c_/f1 is stimulating4 ,,verse4 ,damon3 ,a ,manual of ,gr4 ,iambic ,verse 7v k71 by ,williams and ,rouse1 #b_/f4 ,holden's ,foliorum ,silvula 7the best anthology74 ,help may be obtained from the ,greek verse books of ,sidgwick and ,morice 7v k71 7v71 ,sargent 7v71 and ,kynaston 7v71 #d_/f4 ,,readers4 ,rivington's ,single ,term ,readers 7v71 like his ,latin readers1 #i;d4 each2 recommended4 ,heatley1 ,grcula 7v k71 #a_/f1 for beginners4 ,sidgwick1 ,first ,gr4 ,reading ,book 7v71 #b_/f3 #ajj easy stories1 with some grammar4 ,rushbrooke1 ,first ,gr4 ,reader 7v71 #b_/f2 ,bell's ,second ,gr4 ,reader1 #c_/-2 ,murray's ,fourth 7specimens of dialects71 #d_/f1 and ,abbott's ,fifth 7,homer and the dramatists71 #d_/f4 ,macmillan's ,gr4 ,reader1 stories and legends1 #c_/-4 ,mayor1 ,first ,gr4 ,reader1 #d_/f4 ,the student had better pass on as soon as possible to some such book as the following3 ,xenophon1 ,easy ,selections1 ,philpotts and ,jerram4 ,herodotus1 ,battle of ,marathon in ,attic ,prose4 ,herodotus1 ,tales from1 ,atticised1 ,farnell1 #a_/f4 ,arrian3 ,selections1 ,walpole1 #a_/f4 ,lucian3 ,extracts1 ,bond and ,walpole1 #a_/f4 ,the next step will be to selections from the ,attic ,orators3 ,rivington's ,middle ,form ,greek ,readers1 #a_/f each2 ,plato's ,crito or ,apology2 ,sidgwick's ,scenes from ,greek ,plays4 ,,greek ,,and ,,latin3 ,,unseen ,,translation4 ,jerram1 ,anglice ,reddenda1 three series1 #b_/f1 #c_/-1 #c_/-4 ,reid1 ,transl4 at ,sight1 #b_/f each part4 ,spratt and ,pretor1 ,transl4 at ,sight 7k72 an extremely good selection of difficult passages4 ,models3 ,jebb1 ,jackson and ,currie's ,translations1 and ,fox and ,bromley1 ,models and ,exx4 in ,unseen ,translation4 ,,antiquities4 ,gow1 ,companion to ,school ,classics2 indispensable4 ,schreiber1 ,atlas of ,class4 ,antiq41 #ba_/-4 ,anderson1 ,atlas to ,homer1 #ba_/-4 ,rouse1 ,atlas of ,gr4 and ,rom4 ,portraits1 #a_/f each part4 ,macmillan's ,manuals of ,antiq41 #e_/- each4 ,murray1 ,handb4 of ,gr4 ,archology1 #ah_/-4 ,j4 ,harrison1 ,mythol4 and ,monuments of ,early ,athens4 ,middleton1 ,remains of ,ancient ,rome4 ,lanciani1 ,ruins of ,ancient ,rome and other works4 ,schneider1 ,das ,alte ,rom4 7,pictorial atlas with maps2 excellent47 ,,comparative ,,philology ,,and ,,textual ,,criticism4 ,p4 ,giles1 ,manual of ,phil42 the best handy manual4 ,henry1 ,comp4 ,gram4 of ,gr4 and ,lat4 ,king and ,cookson1 ,introd4 to the ,comp4 ,gram4 of ,gr4 and ,lat41 #e_/f4 ,lindsay1 ,short ,hist4 ,lat4 ,gram41 #e_/f4 ,more advanced3 ,brugmann1 ,compar4 ,gram4 of the ,indo-,germ4 ,languages 7translated74 ,the standard work4 ,king and ,cookson1 ,principles of ,sound and ,inflexion1 #ah_/-4 ,lindsay1 ,lat4 ,language1 #ba_/-4 ,prellwitz1 ,etymolog4 ,wrterb4 der griech4 ,sprache2 good4 ,wharton1 ,etyma ,grca and ,etyma ,latina4 ,thompson1 ,gr4 and ,lat4 ,palography1 #c_/f4 ,,illustrative ,,pictures ,,and ,,models4 ,cybulski1 ,tabul quibus antiquitates ,grc et ,latin illustrantur 7,khler1 ,leipzig74 ,wall pictures1 coloured1 #d_/- or #e_/- each4 ,an excellent series4 ,launitz1 ,wandtafeln zur ,veranschaulichung antiker ,lebens und antiker ,kunst4 ,through ,deighton ,bell1 ,cambridge4 ,casts3 ,brucciani1 ,covent ,garden 7catalogue74 ,models3 ,inquire at ,museum of ,teachers' ,guild1 ,gower ,st41 ,london4 ,slides3 the same4 ,field1 ,cat4 of ,lantern ,slides for ,fyffe's ,history of ,greece1 #f;d4 ,roman catalogue preparing4 ,catalogue of the slides in the ,loan ,collection of the ,hellenic ,society4 ,photographs1 etc43 ,catalogue of ,english ,photographic ,company1 ,s4 ,c4 ,atchley1 ,place de la ,constitution1 ,athens4 ,a very full and cheap collection4 ,mr4 ,atchley is well known to the writer1 and strangers need have no hesitation in writing and sending money direct4 ,photographs are sold by ,german ,school at ,athens4 ,the following ,greek photographers have good collections3 ,rhomades ,frres1 ,rue de ,nik1 #bd2 ,constantin ,athanasiou1 ,rue d',herms1 #f4 ,catalogues4 ,the ,levant3 ,bonfils ,co41 ,beyrout1 ,syria2 and local photographers at ,constantinople1 ,smyrna1 ,jerusalem and ,cairo4 ,purchases should be made through some one on the spot4 ,italy3 ,sommer e ,figlio1 ,largo ,vittoria1 ,napoli3 photographs and models4 ,collezione ,brogi1 and the ,stabilimento ,fotografico ,moscioni have large choice4 ,museums4 ,london3 ,stereoscopic ,company1 ,clarke ,sons1 ,mansell ,co4 ,berlin3 the ,museum publishes a few 7catalogue74 ,paris3 ,girardon1 #ae ,rue ,bonaparte4 ,munich3 ,bruckmann1 ,verlagsanstalt fr ,kunst 7see below74 ,publications4 ,denkmler der ,griech4 und ,rm4 ,skulptur3 ,brunn ,bruckmann1 ,munich4 ,magnificent plates4 ,griechische und ,rmische ,portrts3 ,arndt ,bruckmann1 ,munich4 ,einzelverkauf3 photographs of sculpture 7,bruckmann71 separately about #f;d4 each4 ,classical ,sculpture ,gallery3 ,grevel ,co4 #ab_/- a year4 ,cheap reproductions of all the chief works of sculpture1 ancient and modern4 ,bilder zur ,mythologie und ,geschichte der ,griechen und ,rmern4 ,hoppe-,graeser1 ,vienna4 ,,modern ,,languages4 ,by ,,dorothea ,,beale4 ,first a few words on the order in which languages should be taught4 ,i do not think that we should make a change for the better as regards girls' education1 were we to substitute ,latin for ,french1 placing that subject first in order of time4 ,it seems to me best to begin with ,french1 a language etymologically related to our own1 and having a simple grammatical structure4 ,order of language teaching4 ,secondly ,i prefer to take ,german1 the grammar of which approaches more nearly to the classical models1 whilst the inflections are easier to learn than the ,french2 its etymology too not only throws much light on our own1 but is more transparent1 which makes it a medium1 perhaps as valuable as ,greek1 far more valuable than ,latin1 for showing the refinements of language1 the poetry and philosophy fossilised in speech4 ,thus those only take up the classical languages who have some linguistic power4 ,girls who are unable to master the difficulties of the grammar will never encounter them1 and as the languages gradually increase in difficulty1 we can better fit the means of education to the power of the pupil4 ,the classics form1 it is true1 a key to modern tongues1 but on the other hand modern tongues lead up to ,latin and ,greek1 and ,i believe this order is equally logical and answers better with girls2 it is something to open to them the literature of ,france and ,germany1 something to teach them languages1 so that they shall find the study 7as they generally do7 one of interest4 ,at any rate there are four stages at which we can leave behind those unable to continue their march1 and who1 if we tried to bring them further1 would form only a crowd of stragglers4 ,those who have a good knowledge of one or two modern languages will have no great difficulty in taking up ,latin or ,greek say at fourteen or fifteen4 ,they will have a large etymological store1 which will make it easy to acquire the vocabulary1 and they will have to study only the differentia of the grammars of the different languages--may we not rather say dialects8--of the ,indo-,european stock4 ,nearly all syntax rules will be already known1 and a ,latin ,grammar in which the principles are brought out1 may take the place of one written for young boys in whom the grammatical faculty is rudimentary--in which dogmatic rules only abound2 dogma should as far as possible yield to principles1 which are intelligible and interesting to elder girls1 and this will help them over the necessarily considerable labour of learning the inflections4 ,perhaps few will attain the minute exhaustive scholarship of which some minds are capable1 but many will read with keen enjoyment2 some girls who have begun late have taken high places in university examinations4 ,much has been recently written on the subject of modern languages2 in the books edited by ,mr4 ,barnett and ,dr4 ,spenser1 just published1 to which ,i have frequently referred1 are excellent papers4 ,i shall therefore make my remarks on the subject very brief4 ,in the first is an excellent paper by ,mr4 ,storr1 and ,dr4 ,spenser has written a paper of about fifty pages1 giving a full account of the modern system of teaching4 ,it is time that some reform took place4 ,the ,oxford ,local ,examiners of #ahif reported the ,french as phenomenally bad4 ,in #ahig nearly half the seniors failed4 ,i have tabulated the answers to the few questions set by me to pupils entering over twelve1 and ,i find1 taking some two hundred1 that not one in ten knows the regular verbs1 and scarcely any write very simple sentences without egregious faults4 ,only oral teaching at first4 ,the first teaching in modern languages should certainly be oral4 ,in the kindergarten1 ,french and ,german songs and simple sentences may be taught in the lowest forms4 ,supposing that children begin about seven or eight1 it seems better they should not see written ,french at first4 ,if they have learned the alphabet1 as ,i have suggested in a former paper1 they will take some interest in the new sounds of ,french and might read from a phonetic transcription4 ,phonetic alphabet4 ,there are good papers in the 7,august and ,september1 #ahig7 ,journal of ,education on this subject by ,mr4 ,ware1 ,mr4 ,kirkman and ,mons4 ,passy1 which ,i commend to my readers4 ,i give a few extracts4 ,mr4 ,ware writes3 8,in ,germany1 every teacher has to render himself capable of teaching pronunciation1 and results prove that he succeeds4 ,in various ,german training colleges1 there are courses of lectures on phonetics applied to the study of foreign languages4 ,it was owing to the success attending the introduction of phonetics in the ,french teaching in certain ,german schools that ,i was finally induced to try them in the earliest stages of ,french teaching at ,bradford4 ,the results have exceeded my expectations40 ,this is confirmed by ,mr4 ,bearder of ,nottingham4 ,he writes3 8,though ,i have not used the method in such a thorough and systematic manner as he has done at ,bradford1 still the results are such as to convince me that ,i am entitled to support ,mr4 ,ware in his refutation of one argument1 letting alone others1 which the opponents of phonetic teaching continually bring forward1 that time is wasted in learning the two modes of spelling04 ,common errors4 ,if it is not possible to get the reading taught phonetically1 using the international alphabet1 the use of the tables of ,larousse will be a great help4 ,in any case pieces which are learned by heart1 dialogues1 etc41 should be repeated in the class after the ,french teacher1 before the children see the book4 ,few ,english people have ever learned to distinguish the sounds of the final syllable in the imperfect and pass dfini or the future and the conditional or the gradual opening of the sounds as we pass through e1 1 1 4 ,very few pronounce u properly when it precedes another vowel--lui is pronounced looee4 ,very few observe that a labial nasal before another labial is changed into a dental nasal1 thus not impossible but inpossible1 and nearly all say leer for lee r4 ,children are taught to read so unsystematically1 that if they are told these things they forget them1 and waste time in repeating easy sounds1 instead of working at the hard ones4 ,children should not be set to learn verbs1 etc41 without having first repeated them and practised the sounds with their teachers4 ,when they do begin to read1 the sound-table should be hanging up1 and should be referred to1 that they may correct their errors themselves4 ,these pronouncing lessons should go on in a room alone1 so that children may speak together in imitating the teacher2 then she should single out individuals for different sounds2 but the whole class should never sit round1 as is the custom in some schools1 and hear each of their companions read in succession a piece of ,french with true ,british accent4 ,if they listen1 their time is worse than wasted2 if they do not1 they get habits of inattention4 ,the attention must not be wearied1 and if two or three sounds are acquired each week1 the whole will very soon be mastered1 and time saved for the repetition of poetry1 for viva voce composition1 etc4 ,translation4 ,when children begin to read1 we should spare them as much stupefying dictionary work as possible1 but it is not well to let them learn the vocabularies of the book without comment1 and they should be led from their past knowledge to discover the meaning1 and as far as may be1 get at the root meaning of unknown words1 and see the underlying figure4 ,thorough work is much quicker in the end4 ,pascal's father left his son with a ,latin book1 and no dictionary1 to find out the translation4 ,this may be a counsel of perfection suited only to a ,pascal1 but there are not many words of which children could not discover the meaning4 ,much more translation from ,french into ,english should be got through than is usual2 children ought soon to be able to read at sight4 ,time need not be wasted by hearing all that has been prepared1 but each could be called on to translate one sentence1 and then translation go on at sight4 ,vocabulary4 ,the pupil should have a small note-book in which each new word is entered4 ,this book should be divided into three columns3 the first will contain the word in its general form2 the second the root of the word with its etymological meaning1 if known1 or any cognate by which it may be remembered2 the third column1 the primary and principal secondary meanings4 ,every noun should have the article before it2 these should be learned and repeated before the next translation lesson4 ,the teacher may also give groups of words1 derivatives of the root1 and by this means a copious vocabulary will be in a short time acquired--the words once grasped will not be forgotten4 ,the enthusiastic teacher will probably have to put a check on his zeal1 for if he is led off too far into etymologies1 he will get through no translation4 ,after a little the pupil should begin to prepare alone1 and to make his own word-book2 every translation should begin with the inspection of this book by the teacher and by the hearing of the words4 ,exercises4 ,since the acquisition of correct habits is the main thing in learning languages1 we should before all things prevent the acquisition of wrong ones1 by letting pupils speak1 and write exercises before their ear and eye have been trained4 ,they should not be allowed to speak a language carelessly1 to 8pick it up10 as the phrase is1 incorrectly4 ,a most pernicious practice is it to set girls to speak a foreign tongue together4 ,the evil habits acquired cannot possibly be undone in subsequent study4 ,i knew a master of languages who refused to give lessons to those obliged to speak thus4 ,he could not1 he said1 in a few hours a week1 correct the bad ,french learned during the remainder4 ,learning bad ,french1 however1 is one of the least evils connected with this practice4 ,anything deserving the name of conversation is banished where it is strictly enforced1 and so the mind is dwarfed and stunted1 and when girls leave school1 they are often found unable to talk except upon trivial subjects1 and unable to express themselves like rational beings in any language4 ,i quote from the rules of the matre phontique3-- ,re-translation4 8,le matre fera tudier les phrases les plus uselles1 des textes suivis1 dialogues1 descriptions et rcits1 aussi faciles1 aussi naturels et aussi intressants que possible4 ,il enseignera d'abord la grammaire inductivement1 comme gnralisation des faits observs3 une tude plus systmatique sera rserve pour la fin40 ,the translation book must be made the basis of teaching1 and the ear familiarised with the correct form by the learning of good ,french1 the rules as far as possible being found inductively4 ,thus the children will observe the changes in mon frre1 ma mre1 mes frres et mes surs1 and be able to make a table4 ,life is too short to find out all grammar1 and so we shall eventually have recourse to collections of grammatical forms1 but this need not be done until a good deal has been discovered by means of sentences formed for the purpose4 ,easy passages should be translated into ,english and back into ,french according to ,ascham's method4 ,this should precede the writing of exercises1 which may1 however1 be read at sight in class4 ,children should repeat verbs interrogatively and negatively with pronouns in their places1 so that the ear may be trained before the rule is discovered4 ,fassnacht's books are good4 ,mrs4 ,bell's books too are useful for children to learn instead of ordinary dialogues4 ,it is impossible for them to speak in a natural way1 when they are merely giving abstract sentences1 but they can hold short conversations with one another in an animated way1 and these can be taught viva voce in daily lessons4 ,composition4 ,monotony should be avoided1 and occasionally instead of setting an exercise1 it is well for the teacher to relate a short story1 and let the children repeat what they can1 or write what they can remember2 but in all these things we must avoid as much as possible wasting their time by making them listen to one another's mistakes4 ,exercises may be written and a grammar used later1 but if the teacher economises time1 there will remain enough in each lesson to prepare pupils for the writing of the next exercise and to warn them of mistakes they would otherwise be likely to make4 ,i need not repeat here what ,i have said under the head of corrections and time saving 7see p4 #bh1 introduction74 ,philology4 ,finally as regards grammatical rules4 ,there are doubtless many forms which must be learned1 and rules which we must treat as arbitrary1 because we can see no reason for them1 but the more reasons we can show1 the more interesting will language become1 and the easier to learn4 ,thus children are glad to discover that the terminations are not mysterious letters for which there is no reason1 but the remnants of pronouns put on at the end--that in the ,french future we get the same as the ,english1 8,i have to write10 only 8have0 comes after1 and in the conditional1 8,i had04 ,they need not then learn these tenses1 only notice the abbreviations4 ,the survival of the t in a-t-il and many other things will enliven the grammar lesson4 ,peile's delightful ,manual of ,philology and ,d',arcy ,thomson's ,day-dreams of a ,schoolmaster are suggestive1 but of course the more a teacher knows of philology1 the more interesting she can make her lessons1 and one versed in the subject should be found in every school4 ,rationale of rules4 ,the never-ending rules for the past participle may be at once disposed of by just showing children that the participle being an adjective must agree with the word it belongs to4 ,if ,i say1 8,i have written a letter10 of course 8written0 belongs to letter and therefore it must agree4 ,we need not make them think about whether it is subject or complement4 ,the only curious thing they have to notice1 is that it does not agree when the word it belongs to comes after 8have04 ,is it because the thought of the act of writing is more present to the mind when we say1 8,i have written a letter10 and we do not think of the letter as written1 whereas when the letter is objectified to our gaze1 being represented by a pronoun1 we think of it rather as a letter written8 ,the learning of a third language will present less difficulties4 ,if the language is ,german we can1 by a few simple etymological laws1 get command of a copious vocabulary in a short time4 ,the declensions offer some difficulty at the outset1 chiefly on account of the adjectives4 ,but the phonetic change is made in order to avoid the repetition of the harsh sound s1 m1 r1 and therefore when this occurs in a preceding pronominal adjective1 it is dropped or softened in the second adjective2 thus the ear guides1 and we have not to think about the forms2 one has only to notice that in the oblique cases it is weakened to n1 and in the plural it is always n4 ,the order of words offers difficulties too1 and we have a complicated construction4 ,we have to fix our attention on the functions of words1 as we did not in a simpler language1 for a whole row of words goes to make up an adjective1 and dependent sentences are constantly taking the place of simple words4 ,insight there must be to see what are dependent sentences1 and then the whole paraphernalia of rules about certain conjunctions which require the verb to be sent to the end vanish too and we move freely4 ,another difficulty is the different uses of prepositions4 ,in ,english we go 8through0 the street1 in ,german 8on04 ,we go 8through0 a town1 the ,germans 8over04 ,let the difference of the conception be realised1 and the prepositions will come right4 ,literature4 ,it is a great pleasure to those approaching maturity to study a language made for metaphysics4 ,we cannot read ,german without finding everywhere fossil poetry and philosophy1 and the rolling periods and the grand verse stir our soul like a trumpet1 and we know that we hear the voice of an heroic people1 who speak a language and think thoughts akin to our own4 ,latin does not attract perhaps in the same way2 the military precision of the ,latin classics has its charm4 ,i feel strongly that ,latin should1 however1 properly come after ,german1 specially for girls4 ,there is a pestilential atmosphere in the ,campania1 and one needs to have one's moral fibre braced by the poetry of the ,hebrews and of ,england and ,germany1 if one would remain unaffected by writings saturated with heathen thought4 ,those who are able to spare time and strength for ,greek1 and love poetry in all its forms1 will delight indeed in the 8,wine of ,hellas10 and with the enthusiasm which they will bring to a new study they will surmount in a short time obstacles which would have delayed them for months1 when they had less knowledge of co-ordinate forms1 less taste1 less insight1 less joy in wrestling with problems and searching into mysteries4 ,if there is not time nor talent nor inclination for all1 then ,i would say prefer ,greek to ,latin4 ,the chief thing for the teacher to do is so to teach that the pupil shall enjoy the work4 ,i do not mean that the pupil should be spared hard work and drudgery1 or be always expecting to find honey on ,hymettus2 but do we not all know that the labour of making our way over rotten glaciers and up stony moraines is forgotten when we stand on the crest1 and that all the way we go1 we think of the joy set before us1 when we shall attain to some lofty peak1 whence we can see the outstretched heavens and the sunlit earth8 ,for this we must throw ourselves in each language upon literature--the forms of grammar will be the ladder whereby we mount4 ,and then we shall return to our own native poets and thinkers1 with minds enriched by foreign travel1 and ,milton will be the interpreter of the poetry of the world--of ancient and modern times1 ,spenser of the medival romances1 ,chaucer of the world of nature1 ,wordsworth and ,coleridge of spiritual philosophy1 and we shall feel that we must be worthy of so great an inheritance1 and not trample under our feet the pearls1 the precious jewels of speech4 ,do ,i seem unpractical8 ,it is just these ideas that are practical1 which we must get our children to see and to feel1 and then the burden of earnest1 thoughtful labour will seem light1 and our ,english tongue will not be degraded by slovenly pronunciation or the use of vulgar and inappropriate words4 ,,spelling ,,reform4 ,by ,,dorothea ,,beale4 ,let me earnestly beg of teachers not to put aside the question of spelling reform as of little moment1 but to do their utmost to bring it about4 ,can it be to educators of little moment that learning to read1 instead of introducing children to an orderly system1 reveals chaos1 and interferes with the tendency upon which all science is founded to expect law and order4 ,as ,professor ,max ,mller writes ,every thing that children have to learn in reading and spelling is irrational2 one rule contradicts the other1 and each statement has to be accepted simply on authority1 and with a complete disregard of those rational instincts1 which lie dormant in the child1 and ought to be awakened by every kind of healthy exercise4 ,i find it difficult to express my strong sense of the immense importance of this reform on grounds educational1 economic1 patriotic4 ,not only does our cacography oppose an enormous obstacle to intellectual progress during the most important years of mental development1 and thus squander brain power on useless work1 it is also a waste of money which is expended by the upper classes in forcing on the children of the poorer a waste of time and--a sort of useless prison-labour4 ,dr ,gladstone calculates that the average board-school child spends more than #bjjj hours in acquiring the arts of reading and spelling1 and that the waste of money is over #ajjjjjj4 ,this was #bj years ago2 with increased grants1 the loss of money must be far more now4 ,he also calculates the waste of capital in printing unnecessary letters at nearly #bj per cent4 ,this is only one of the many arguments for reform1 which he puts most clearly and forcibly4 ,most of the richer children have an indefinite amount of leisure in childhood1 and they forget how long it took to learn to read1 but children in elementary schools groan under a pedantic tyranny1 which imposes wearisome and useless labours upon those who might otherwise in their short school time gain such facility in reading1 that it would be a pleasure ever after1 and the time which is now wasted on spelling1 would be available for much beside3 ,germans have time to acquire foreign tongues1 but ,englishmen and ,frenchmen have not time to acquire them in addition to their own spelling2 either language from its simple structure might become a world-wide tongue1 and there would be no need of ,volapuk4 ,i quote from ,professor ,max ,mller's article4 ,according to a ,liverpool ,schoolmaster of great experience it takes from #f to #g years to learn the arts of reading and spelling with a fair amount of intelligence4 ,i4 e4 about #b4jjj hours4 ,a ,glasgow schoolmaster writes1 ,i have taught poor children to read the ,sermon on the ,mount after a course of exercises extending over no more than #f hours1 and a father writes1 ,my boy who is a few months more than #d will read any phonetic book 444 and how long do you think it took me to impart to him this power8 ,why something less than #h hours1 and that was in snatches of five minutes at a time2 his next brother a boy of #f has had a phonetic education1 what is the consequence8 ,reading in the first stage was so delightful that he taught himself to read4 ,my eldest boy #aa years old1 at a first-rate school has carried off the prize for orthography4 ,mr4 ,ellis1 who did so much for education writes1 ,with the phonetic system the ,primer is mastered within #c months at most2 careful experiments have established #a7 that pupils may be taught to read books in phonetic print in from #aj to #dj hours1 and that when they have attained fluency in reading ordinary print1 the pronunciation is much improved1 the interest in study kept alive1 and a logical training of enduring value given 444 and they acquire the art of ordinary spelling more readily than those instructed on the old method4 ,let those who think ,i exaggerate1 look into ,miss ,soames's introduction to ,phonetics1 and they will marvel how a foreigner can ever learn to read and write ,english--she gives the #cd ways in which we write the indefinite #8a' sound in aloud--the #bf for representing #8or'2 the #ah for giving #8sh' the #bj representing #8n'1 #ah for #8k'1 and so on--,pagliardini enumerates the #dd ways in which #8oo' is written and #cf for the sound #8ee'2 those who have tried to teach foreigners know how hopeless it all seems4 ,pagliardini tells of a work published #ahfa on ,french spelling1 which gives #afc ingenious rules and occupies #bhe pages4 ,it is asserted that #b lessons a week for #c years will suffice4 ,how much better writes ,pagliardini would these precious hours be spent in studying noble thoughts in books1 the history of nations1 the mathematical sciences1 or the laws by which ,god governs the universe1 or if confined to words1 then how much more interesting and intellectual would be their decomposition into their elements1 showing their affinity with words in other languages4 ,what a fund of poetry might be found in the metaphors of which words are the abbreviated forms4 ,all this1 now unopened to his view for lack of time1 would be revealed4 ,this may be paralleled by the spelling book of the ,meiklejohn series4 #8,spelling with sidelights from history4' ,it contains #aej pages1 gives many rules1 and concludes with one thousand of the most difficult words selected from examination papers4 ,m4 ,pitman has done good service in printing and circulating for a very small sum various tracts1 and ,i hope my readers will get some1 specially the paper by ,prof4 ,max ,mller4 ,alas1 reforms are slow when the opinion of many unthinking persons has to be formed1 before they can be carried4 ,it needed a pope to reform the calendar4 ,the ,westminster ,review for ,sept4 #ahig has an article on spelling reform1 urging its great importance1 if ,english is to be a world-wide language4 ,the impossibility of getting a new alphabet adopted at least for a long time is urged as a reason for pressing minor reforms1 the chief being the omission of all useless letters4 ,thus we should leve out awl thos perplexing vowels in lev recev decev belev2 and thes changes mit posibly be carid with sum slit efort at wuns1 if sum popular orthor wood requir his book too be printed foneticaly4 ,some defend our spelling for philological reasons1 but it is unanimously condemned by philologists2 ,i name those best known in ,england--,professor ,max ,mller pronounces it a national misfortune1 and has written an article against it--,professor ,sayce and ,skeat1 ,ellis and ,sweet1 ,dr ,murray1 editor of the ,etymological ,dictionary1 condemn it1 and amongst linguists1 ,pagliardini1 and scientists1 ,dr ,gladstone4 ,but the chief reason1 that we should press forward this movement is1 that only thus does it seem possible to avert the catastrophe foreshadowed in an article on the ,queen's ,english in the ,review of ,reviews for ,june #ahig4 ,dialectic varieties are arising in the ,english-speaking ,colonies1 which1 if unchecked by phonetic symbols corresponding with speech1 will develop into different languages4 ,the longer we delay1 the greater will be the difficulty of agreeing on a common notation--at present the differences of opinion between us and our colonies1 and even between us and our ,american cousins are slight1 but those who have heard the ,english of the ,states spoken by the children of ,german immigrants1 will recognise the danger4 ,miss ,soames before her death published reading books in phonetic type1 and spent much time and money in promoting the teaching of ,english reading on this system1 and in introducing to the notice of ,english people the alphabet of the ,association ,phontique ,internationale1 #aa1 ,rue de ,fontenay1 ,bourg la ,reine 7,seine74 ,such an alphabet would be better than one suitable for ,english only1 but if ,pitman's is the only one generally available1 it is better to use that for elementary schools1 and remember the maxim #8le mieux est l'ennemi du bien'--,for teaching the right pronunciation of foreign languages1 le ,matre ,phontique is very valuable4 ,melville ,bell's ,visible ,speech is a physiological alphabet of marvellous ingenuity--but perhaps too elaborate for general use1 and the conclusions at which he arrives are not always endorsed by the chief authorities4 ,all students of phonetics will learn much from reading it4--,english visible speech1 in #ab lessons #ej cents1 ,volta bureau ,washington1 gives the essentials of the system--the large work costs #d dollars4 ,great efforts are being made in ,france to introduce an international phonetic alphabet4 ,if all could agree on one alphabet1 it would be possible for a foreigner to read at sight any foreign language4 ,it is true there would be certain niceties of pronunciation to be taught ,viva ,voce1 but the pronunciation would be very nearly correct at once4 ,i subjoin a few specimens of writing and the alphabet from #8l mtr fnetik' 7,le ,matre ,phontique74 ,the ,french alphabet is very simple4 ,the consonants are as in ,english except for the palatal n as in signe4 for ch as in champ--,ex4 shut4 for as in je--,ex4 pleasure4 ,the vowels are pte tte i ni o cte u tout a patte e d j yeux tort y tu seul w oui nasalises peu huile lengthens de ,the complete international alphabet which is subjoined requires more signs but this suffices in ,french4 ,french4-- kt yn fwa li kuram quand une fois on lit couramment l ekrityr fnetik i syfi d klkz r l'criture phontique il suffit de quelques heures pur aprdr a lir l ekrityr rdinr4 pour apprendre lire l'criture ordinaire4 ,in ,english we want for th in thick then1 for ch in hue1 for the guttural nasal1 for but1 a vowel not quite the same as seul1 for at-- ,english4--nau pint ai wnt tu get t iz hwe e sem deskripn kn bi givn4 7now the point ,i want to get at is whether the same description can be given47 ,german4--vn vir uns in unserm lnd rif dfyr hltn di lgmin hr bildu uslisli auf di mdrn kultur tsu gryndn4 7,wenn wir uns in unserm ,lande reif dafr halten die algemeine hhere ,bildung auschliesslich auf die moderne ,cultur zu grnden47 ,,complete ,,alphabet ---------------------------------------- --------- ,la- ,gut- ,v- ,palatales,palatales ryn- tu- lairesd'arrire d'avant galesrales ---------------------------------------- --------- ,plosives q ,g k g c ,c ---------------------------------- ,o ,nasales ,n ---------------------------------- ,s ,latrales ,o ---------------------------------- ,n ,roules ,q ,q ,r ,r ,n ---------------------------------- ,e ,s ,fricatives h ,h h 7 w7 x g 7 7 j ---------------------------------------- --------- ,v ,fermes u y i ,o ---------------- ,y ,mi-fermes o v e ,e ---------------- ,l ,mi-ouvertes ,l ---------------- ,e ,ouvertes a ,s ---------------------------------------- ---------- ---------------------------------------- - ,linguales ,labiales ---------------------------------------- - ,plosives t d p b ,c -------------------------- ,o ,nasales n n m m ,n -------------------------- ,s ,latrales ,o -------------------------- ,n ,roules r r ,n -------------------------- ,e f v ,f ,s ,fricatives 1 1 1 s z w ---------------------------------------- - ,v ,fermes 7u y7 ,o ,y ,mi-fermes 7o 7 ,e ,l ,mi-ouvertes 7 7 ,l ,e ,ouvertes ,s ---------------------------------------- - ,,history ,,as ,,an ,,educational ,,subject4 ,by ,,dorothea ,,beale4 ,definition4 ,the second subdivision of ,part ,i4 is of great educational value4 8,history10 writes ,dr4 ,harris1 8reveals the higher self of man as organised in institutions4 ,for the first time man comes to know his substantial self1 when he comes to study history4 ,his little self beholds his colossal self40 ,the ,man 8writ large0 of ,plato4 ,enlarges sympathies4 8,history10 writes ,dr4 ,martineau1 8enlarges the sympathies1 opening fresh continents of character to mental survey1 throwing human tones upon the ear in language unheard before2 it acts upon the judgments of conscience like foreign travel upon those of perception2 it imparts a breadth of view unattainable within a narrow circle4 ,the smaller the scale of the personal lot1 the more precious and needful are the friendships of history4 8,the ground plot of a man's own destiny may be closely shut in1 but if he can find his way through vanished cities1 hear the pleading of justice1 visit the battlefields where the infant life of nations has been baptised in blood2 if he can steal into the prisons1 where lonely martyrs have waited their deaths2 if he can walk in the garden or the porch1 where the lovers of wisdom discourse2 if the experiences of his own country consecrate the very soil--he consciously belongs to a grander life4 ,hence the advantage which human studies possess over every form of science1 the sympathy with man over the knowledge of nature4 ,they are an enlargement of moral experience1 and call into continual exercise the sense of right and wrong4 8,in watching the drama of history1 the soul may be purified by #8pity and fear'4 #8,here we find examples for judgment1 examples of patient suffering1 that touch the springs of pity2 of selfishness and cruelty that gnaw the heart with honest indignation1 of heroic faithfulness that flings across the soul a breeze of resolution1 of saintly love that diffuses the very atmosphere of heaven4'0#ag #ag ,hours of ,thought4 ,martineau4 ,supplements the teachings of science4 ,in history as in science we learn facts that we may trace laws1 and history corrects by a larger outlook the erroneous judgments deduced from a limited experience4 ,history too seems specially useful as a complement to the teaching of science4 ,in physics we find inexorable law4 ,admiration and fear may be excited1 but we look on the inevitable2 we pass no moral judgment4 ,history and biography show us the ,divine government adapting itself1 so to speak1 to the necessities of man1 an education of men and of man1 we study a mystery which attracts and baffles us2 we are able to predict our world's path in space and time1 unable in reference to those larger regions beyond our 8little systems0--regions1 however1 in which we must believe the same laws1 physical and moral1 to be working4 ,gives an outlook beyond time4 ,history corrects the judgment of the world2 in its pages we look only at dead men1 and we call him happy1 not who has been successful1 but him who has left the world better because he has lived1 and so history reverses the pernicious teaching which puts before the young success as the main object of life1 and shows us the difference between noble and pitiful ambitions4 ,the heroes of history are those who endured hardness and lived and died for others1 a ,heracles1 a ,theseus1 a ,st4 ,louis1 a ,gustavus1 a ,washington4 ,the villains are those who lived for self1 in ease and splendour1 and self-indulgence4 ,we find in these1 and still more in those in whom the lights and shades are less strongly marked1 encouragements and warnings for our own life1 and help in interpreting the lives of those around us4 ,how tawdry looks the field of the cloth of gold in the light of a later century6 ,how silly seem those courtiers who carried their 8manors on their backs06 8,he is worth so much0 has a different meaning for the dead and for the living2 the dead have not1 they are4 ,each noble life has left the world richer in spiritual energy1 in the power of self-sacrifice1 in great ideals1 in true riches2 there is a treasury of saints1 not of a transferable righteousness1 but of a transforming1 a transfiguring4 ,we can see that no noble life has been lived in vain4 8,in the sight of the unwise they seem to perish1 yet is their hope full of immortality20 the corn which falls into the ground and dies bears much fruit4 ,reveals progress through the ages4 ,lastly if we include in this study not only the history of men and of societies1 but of the intellectual and moral life of man as a whole1 not his descent but his ascent1 history forms a subject of surpassing interest and energising hope4 ,we find there enacted upon the largest theatre the daily recurring drama of the contest of light with darkness4 ,we learn how man's eyes have been gradually opened to the wonders of the visible universe1 and his soul lifted into the regions of the invisible1 his intellectual conceptions enlarged1 his higher being developed1 and his desires purified2 history which discourages1 as we look at a narrow tract1 strengthens our faith in a ,divine order of progress1 as we take in the larger regions of time2 the waves seem often to recede1 while the tide advances1 the stars seem to retrograde1 but it is because our little world oscillates in space2 and so our faith is strengthened1 and our hope increased1 and we learn not patriotism merely1 but we catch something of that enthusiasm of humanity1 which shone with unclouded brightness in the ,son of ,man4 ,cultivates the judgment4 ,another use of history1 rightly taught1 is to train in habits of justice and truthfulness1 though it is too often written to serve party ends4 ,it is not easy to be just4 ,the hearts of the young are naturally drawn out to those who suffer4 ,if the ,eikon ,basilike was not true1 we are inclined to say it must have been true1 as we look upon ,vandyke's picture1 see the calm face of the martyr1 or read the verses3-- ,he nothing common did nor mean ,upon that memorable scene1 ,but bowed his kingly head ,down as upon a bed4 ,stirs right enthusiasm for heroic men4 ,we must1 however1 not let our sympathy with suffering blind us to the fact that ,charles failed in his duty as a king--that had he been successful in what he attempted1 ,england must have suffered from the evils under which ,france subsequently groaned4 ,we must point out that it was his incurable deceit which brought him at last to the scaffold4 ,but neither1 on the other hand1 must we ignore the fact that ,cromwell trampled on the rights of men1 that his was a lawless ,government too4 ,we would not1 however1 have that sham impartiality which paints all men of one colour and height1 which is incapable of conceiving a hero1 and contemplates crime with calmness1 remarking there are always two sides to a quarrel4 ,need ,i say that throughout1 the teacher must stir noble enthusiasms1 a worthy emulation1 admiration for true manliness1 for virtue1 rouse sympathy for the oppressed1 zeal for right--show that the history of each nation is that nation's ,bible--the ,book which tells of the ,heavenly ,father's care for it1 as manifested in the incidents of its life8 ,if addressing higher classes1 the teacher will point out1 as opportunity offers1 that each had a work to do in the world1 ,hebrew1 ,greek1 ,roman1 as ,miss ,wedgwood has shown so well in the ,moral ,ideal4#ah #ah ,moral ,ideal1 by ,julia ,wedgwood4 ,trbner4 ,shows the disintegrating power of unrighteousness4 ,the young must learn1 too1 that the great principle is found everywhere1 that what we sow we must reap in the moral as well as the physical world--that the selfish neglect of the poor brought about the ,black ,death and gaol fevers1 that the selfishness1 rapacity and immoral greed fostered by ,england's unjust claims on ,france1 brought its own punishment2 this was seen when the ,hundred ,years' ,war ended in the internecine strife of the fifteenth century1 and led to the extermination of a selfish aristocracy4 ,so too the degradation of the higher classes1 say in the eighteenth century in ,france1 which led them to regard the lower classes as scarcely human1 brought about the fearful retaliation of the ,revolution4 ,or again the wealth of ,spain1 filling the nation with pride and haughtiness1 was actually her ruin2 by persistently destroying or expelling1 by war or persecution1 all the nobler spirits1 the nation was degraded in a few centuries4 ,of course these latter lessons will be more suited to a higher class1 but something of it may be taught early4 ,questions of right and wrong will ever be arising4 ,what ought to have been done under such circumstances8 ,is rebellion ever justifiable8 and when8 ,what forms of government are best8 is there an absolute best8 ,we shall see how short-sighted is crime when we come to the murder of ,csar1 of ,henry ,,iii41 ,henry ,,iv41 ,william the ,silent4 ,the teacher will not omit to look at the historical clock1 when asking whether acts were right or wrong4 ,we must do justice to devotion1 while pointing out errors and crimes2 we must be warned by seeing that wrong deeds are often done by those who mean well2 we must learn that though error and ignorance is evil1 and we must fight against both1 yet that good often comes of the honest working out even of mistaken opinions2 that through illusions we gain the vision of truth4 ,teaches by experience4 ,the many experiments of the past show us too that evils which exist in a community cannot be cured by merely changing a form of government1 or getting rid of this man or that man by violence2 to do this is only to sow dragon's teeth4 ,a nation is made up of individuals1 and only by individual virtue can salvation come2 so people now seek to bring about the well-being of nations by education rather than by revolution1 because freedom without sense to use it is an evil1 and a nation that is truly free will deserve and obtain free institutions4 ,as ,mazzini says3-- ,teaches the solidarity of man 8,we must convince men that they are all sons of one sole ,god1 and bound to fulfil and execute one sole law here on earth2 that each of them is bound to live not for himself1 but for others2 rights can only exist as a consequence of duties fulfilled1 and we must begin with fulfilling duties in order to achieve rights4 ,we can obtain our rights only by deserving them through our own spirit of love and sacrifice4 ,if we seek our rights in the name of duties1 we shall obtain them4 ,if we seek them in the name of egotism1 or any theory of happiness and well-being propounded by the teachers of materialism1 we shall never achieve other than a momentary triumph1 to be followed by utter confusion40 ,one may point out the gradual progress which1 with occasional recessions1 has1 we trust1 been made4 ,one may stir in the young patriotism1 and an enthusiasm of humanity1 and make them feel a desire to do what they can to amend the evils of their own time4 and the duty of each to the community4 ,lessons of political economy seem to me more important for girls than the legislative contests of constitutional history4 ,they cannot enter into these with the keen interest of boys1 who may themselves one day be lawgivers4 ,all should be taught that a selfish1 wasteful citizen is a disgrace1 a sort of moral caterpillar--learn that selfishness1 sensuality1 falsehood1 under whatever disguises1 are detestable1 whilst a self-devoted life is a heritage for ever4 ,we should especially recognise the faults of our own nation in past times1 and in the present too2 we should desire the elevation of the degraded classes1 and each should feel that his life and example has at least some power1 that each of us is responsible to men as well as to ,god1 that it is by noble enthusiasms1 by self-devotion1 by giving up one to another that human society is possible4 ,history1 like geography1 can be approached two ways3-- ,methods of approaching the subject4 #a4 ,we may take the map of the world1 indicate its leading features and its political divisions4 #b4 ,we may take a small tract1 realise by description the form and beauty1 the flora and fauna1 the temperature1 the snowy peaks1 the rushing rivers1 the silent stars1 think it all out1 until we feel at home in the land1 work up through details of topography to clear conceptions4 ,in teaching history1 ,i think we ought to take some kind of time-map1 mark out in it a few of the most prominent recorded facts1 tell something of the heroes1 after whose names tracts of time have been called1 trace out a few of the leading empires1 give landmarks4 ,with juniors4 ,then we may1 after showing the position of a certain period in the world-chart1 work it up in detail4 ,the way in which each period should be treated will depend much on the age of the class4 ,with young ones1 the teaching will be more narrative and biography2 the memory and imagination will be chiefly called into play4 ,some outline or short history should be read by the child1 the most prominent events1 etc41 should be entered in a special historical map4 ,the chronological1 as well as the geographical atlas1 should always be at hand4 ,the teacher should go quickly round the class1 asking each child a few questions1 just to ascertain whether the work has been properly prepared1 then she should fill up herself such parts as will come home to the class4 ,for young classes1 though some passages from good histories may be read1 the teacher must be prepared to give a great deal viva voce4 ,little children do not take in so well what is written for older people1 the words are not adapted to them1 nor the mode of expression4 ,besides1 the teacher's eye is occupied1 she does not see whether she is holding the attention of her class4 ,true1 her words may not be quite well chosen1 but she will be able to make the narrative more life-like to those whose minds she knows4 ,but she must on no account try to learn it up4 ,if she would relate well1 she must conjure up the scene before her own mind1 carefully paint in the details1 and then describe her own vision1 watching the children to see if they1 too1 take it in4 ,but all must not be told2 as far as may be1 children should be led to anticipate4 ,thus in a narrative of a campaign1 generally so dry and unprofitable1 the children should be led to consider what were the aims1 what would be the best way of carrying out operations1 what posts would be occupied1 which leader chosen1 how the money would be raised1 etc4 ,they will take great delight in finding out these things1 and not easily forget what they have discovered2 it will accustom them to read in an intelligent way1 so they will be able to predict to some extent what people are likely to do4 ,with senior classes4 ,the elder classes should read some large history1 if possible some original authority1 and thus learn to read for themselves1 to examine the statements set before them1 and to sift evidence4 ,the characters of ,richard ,,ii4 and ,richard ,,iii41 of ,mary ,queen of ,scots and ,elizabeth1 of the ,stuarts and ,cromwell1 of ,laud and ,bacon1 will form good exercises in the discussion of probabilities1 and teach caution and moderation in the judgments of daily life4 ,for elder classes1 too1 we may make great use1 not only of ,shakspere1 but of the best historical novels4 ,for the teaching of higher classes ,i may point to the following papers and add also a chapter on time-maps4 ,,teaching ,,modern ,,history ,,to ,,senior ,,classes4 ,by ,,alice ,,andrews4 ,girls1 ,knowledge is now no more a fountain seal'd2 ,drink deep1 until the habits of the slave1 ,the sins of emptiness1 gossip and spite ,and slander1 die4 ,the ,princess4 ,introductory4 ,in teaching history our aim should be not to miss the 8spirit0 of the period we are taking4 ,we have to inquire what forces are at work moulding the character of the nation1 and to estimate the results they produce4 ,we have to find the place our period holds in building up the national history4 ,each period has a heritage from the past1 each hands on its legacy for the future--of warning from failure or from a success which is more disastrous than failure--of encouragement from victories1 not necessarily of the battlefield1 and which perhaps were won at the cost of noble lives willingly1 even joyfully1 offered4 ,there have been periods of ignoble wars1 such as the ,hundred ,years' ,war1 when ,englishmen were brutalised by murder and rapine1 ruining a people too deeply sunk in misery to defend themselves4 ,and retribution overtook the nation as it overtakes the individual4 ,our own ,wars of the ,roses were the fruit of the unjust wars in ,france4 ,there have been periods of ignoble peace1 when 8peace with dishonour0 might have been ,england's motto1 when foreign troops were subsidised to protect the shores that ,englishmen were too craven-hearted to defend themselves1 when enthusiasm was ridiculed as 8mock patriotism10 and political reformers were nicknamed 8boy patriots04 ,corruption was reduced to a system1 and ,walpole believed that every man had his price4 ,the ,church was paralysed by spiritual deadness4 ,individual men stand out as warnings or examples4 ,richard ,,ii4 appears first as full of noble impulses1 a born leader of men1 but his crime determines his life4 ,to rid himself of the man who knows his crime1 he banishes ,norfolk for life2 the other1 who suspects it1 he banishes for a term of years1 and this is reduced at the intercession of old ,gaunt4 ,either the punishment was1 or was not1 just4 ,if just1 it ought not to have been reduced on petition2 if unjust1 it ought never to have been inflicted4 ,henceforward ,richard rapidly deteriorates3 he seizes ,gaunt's lands in spite of his promise to the absent ,bolingbroke1 in spite of the warning of his uncle ,york3-- ,take ,hereford's rights away and take from ,time ,his charters and his customary rights444 ,you pluck a thousand dangers on your head1 ,you lose a thousand well-disposed hearts1 ,and prick my tender conscience to those thoughts ,which honour and allegiance cannot think4 ,richard has himself set the example of disregard of others' rights1 and makes it possible for ,bolingbroke to return in the name of justice and raise the country against the king4 ,previous knowledge4 ,the teacher of history in the older classes ought to be able to assume a correct knowledge of the most important facts and dates at least in ,english history4 ,these are very easily learnt in childhood and most difficult to acquire by older girls4 ,those who have been trained on the historical chart are acquainted with the main characteristic of each century1 and the principal events in it1 and have no difficulty in grouping fresh knowledge round central well-known facts1 just as the geographical student can fill in with increasing completeness a map from memory4 ,comparatively few are trained in any knowledge of foreign history1 and ,i have known not a few grown-up girls find the greatest difficulty in mastering the leading names and events in ,french and other ,european history4 ,in this respect other nations are beyond us4 ,foreign girls1 both ,french and ,german1 are trained to connect the history of their own country with the general course of events1 and know the facts of ,european history as a whole4 ,the absence of this knowledge in ,english girls makes the study of foreign policy unnecessarily difficult to them4 ,continuity of history4 ,in outline history1 paint with a thick brush4 8,one can't see the wood for the trees in it0 might too often be the criticism of the pupil on a lesson4 ,the conscientious teacher tries to omit nothing1 the consequence in the pupil's mind is blind confusion4 ,the principle of selection rules here if anywhere4 ,we must aim at avoiding the defect which ,lord ,acton denounces as 8the want of an energetic understanding of the sequence and real significance of events1 which 444 is ruin to a student of history4 ,it is playing at study 7he continues7 to see nothing but the unmeaning and unsuggestive surface as we generally do40 ,we want instead to trace in broad outline the continuity of history--for instance1 look at the ,wars of the ,roses in this light4 ,how do they stand in relation to constitutional development8 ,while the nobles were at war1 the commons were gaining victories1 bloodless it is true1 but more lasting than any gained on battlefields4 ,it was a time of immense constitutional development4 ,and yet these victories were practically worthless for the moment4 ,what advantage was it to the victim of the 8overmighty subject0 that the ,statute ,book provided for his rights and liberties8 ,the 8,paston ,letters0 give a vivid picture of the impotence of the ordinary subject to get the law enforced4 ,what the country needed was strong government1 not political privileges4 8,constitutional development had outrun administrative order10 had outrun1 that is to say1 the general point of development reached by the nation at large1 and the ,tudors came in1 so to speak1 on the programme of strong government4 ,the ,tudor rule represented the two great principles of orderly administration and even-handed government4 ,it needed a dictatorship to accomplish the task4 ,the task was completed at the ,armada1 and the country took back the trust at the accession of the ,stuarts4 ,that the ,stuarts failed to recognise this1 was the cause of the long constitutional struggle that culminated in the ,civil ,war4 ,once more constitutional development proceeds1 but now the nation is keeping pace with it4 ,topical or sectional arrangement4 ,the subject of sectional as opposed to chronological teaching seems to belong here1 for upon it depends the very essence of clearness in teaching4 ,if pupils have before them the time-map1 or chronological chart1 already referred to1 the teacher can with greater freedom treat the subjects sectionally1 for before the eye of the pupil are grouped all the parallel events in each square representing some definite space of time4 ,to teach chronologically may seem more accurate perhaps1 but really too often produces hopeless confusion in the mind of the pupil--the thread is lost in taking up many different subjects1 e4g41 in ,elizabeth's reign1 ,i would take as separate sections her relations with ,scotland1 necessitating a review of ,scotch affairs generally1 and the series of plots for releasing ,queen ,mary2 ,elizabeth's policy with regard to 7a7 the ,anglican ,church2 7b7 ,roman ,catholics2 7c7 ,protestant ,nonconformists2 her ,irish policy2 her foreign policy illustrated by her 8courtships02 the domestic history of the reign and so on4 ,the different sections touch sometimes1 but it only adds to the interest to illustrate the new section from one already known4 ,so in the ,seven ,years' ,war1 ,i would not follow the course of events for each separate year on the ,continent and in ,america and in ,india1 but ,i would take the whole course of the war in ,europe1 explaining why it was not only justifiable but a stroke of genius in ,pitt1 to do what he had himself denounced in the 8,hanover-troop minister10 and by utilising foreign troops for ,england's war on the ,continent1 set her free to follow her true interests in the colonies1 and ,i would trace as separate sections the laying of the foundations of her world-empire in ,india and in ,canada4 ,syllabus of lessons4 ,this method of teaching presupposes that a scheme has been drawn out for the course4 ,if possible the scheme should be given to the class in the form of a syllabus of the lessons4 ,if printing is too expensive1 it is worth while to cyclostyle copies oneself4 ,the value the class attaches to them is sufficient reward for the trouble1 and they become a model to the girls on which to arrange their own study of history in post-school days4 ,examples of such a syllabus for ,english history and ,french history lessons will be found at the end of the paper4 ,illustrations3 7a7 ,historical atlas4 ,the historical map ought to be the inseparable accompaniment of the history lesson1 and in this respect there is nearly everything to be wished for4 ,good wall maps with bold colouring in which the outlines of different territories can be seen from a distance1 and in which the names are clearly printed in ,english1 have yet to be found4 ,to use a modern map in doing ,french outlines or other continental history is most misleading1 and yet too often this is all the teacher has at hand4 ,there is ,sprner of course1 but even if the school can afford these expensive maps1 they are not very satisfactory for the ordinary class2 the colouring is not distinct1 and the map is so overcrowded with names that it is difficult to find at a glance the places one wants4 ,they are rather for private and minute study than for class work4 ,the publisher's explanation is that there is not a sufficient demand to make it worth while to bring out historical maps1 an incidental illustration of how little attention is given in ,english schools to continental history1 while a class map of the ,roman ,empire can be found everywhere4 ,at present the teacher is forced to make her own maps4 ,if she is happy enough to have old pupils with a talent for map-drawing1 she can gradually make a collection of maps enlarged from those in good histories2 the maps in ,kitchin's ,history of ,france are invaluable for this purpose1 but ,kitchin provides nothing for the periods of the ,italian expeditions1 and these have to be adapted from ,sprner4 ,gardiner's ,student's ,atlas provides what is necessary for the pupil in the ,english history class2 there is a small cheap ,german atlas for general history 7,putzger1 #b marks71 but it is not very satisfactory for the ordinary ,english schoolgirl1 the difference in the names is puzzling4 ,what is wanted is a student's atlas for continental1 especially ,french history1 at a reasonable price4 ,but even given the atlas1 it remains for the teacher to find an unfailing receipt by which to ensure its use4 7b7 ,blackboard ,not the least part of the value of a syllabus in the hands of a pupil1 is the saving of time it makes in the lesson1 otherwise the blackboard must be used for unfamiliar names and words4 ,the merest glance through a pupil's rough notes of ,french history will be a sufficient proof of this4 7c7 ,first-hand acquaintance with authorities4 ,besides the text-book1 which every pupil should possess1 no teacher of older girls will be satisfied unless they read at least passages from the authorities on the period4 ,the difficulty is to provide a sufficient number of copies for a large class1 or any copies at all1 beyond those possessed by the teacher or the school3 this difficulty1 however1 may be met4 ,there are always girls who are glad to have good books suggested for ,christmas or birthday presents1 and who begin a really nice library of their own in this way4 ,but a class-library can be formed without much trouble4 ,the nucleus of a class-library being made by the necessary books for one year's work1 the girls can be asked to leave a similar legacy for their successors4 ,a list of books wanted1 with their prices1 can be prepared1 and it will be found that several will combine to give really expensive books1 and in this way the class can command the use of sets of ,stubbs1 ,froude1 ,gardiner1 ,ranke1 ,lecky1 etc41 besides smaller books like the ,great ,statesmen ,series4 ,since it is impossible for girls with their limited time to read the whole of the big histories1 the teacher will find it a valuable practice to dictate the numbers of the pages 7in one or more volumes7 bearing upon her lesson1 which the girls should read4 ,they are thus trained to use authorities1 and this is being recognised more and more as of the first importance4 ,there was a time when girls depended entirely upon their notes1 and the misspelling of names of historians showed that their knowledge of great writers was second-hand4 ,but when they get a first-hand acquaintance with historians like ,froude1 ,gardiner1 ,seeley1 ,ranke1 ,lecky1 they are insensibly being trained to be satisfied with nothing but the best4 7d7 ,contemporary writings3 chronicles4 ,the period should be studied by the teacher1 and to a certain extent by the pupil1 in contemporary writers4 ,chronicles are delightful reading4 ,who that has once learnt to know ,saint ,louis of ,france in the pages of his faithful seneschal1 can fail to breathe the very atmosphere of the time8 ,de ,joinville shows him what a later preacher called him1 8the most loyal spirit of his age04 ,again no weighty dissertations on the small account in which human life was held in the ,middle ,ages would be so convincing as the incidental contemptuous remarks of the courtier-chronicler ,froissart4 ,the exquisite courtesy to a ,de ,ribeaumont was quite compatible with the halters for the six citizens of ,calais4 ,and to take one more illustration quite late on in the centuries--what a gulf separates ante-,reform times from our own6 ,how expressive of the haughty landed aristocrat are these words of the ,duchess of ,buckingham after condescending to listen to the ,wesleyan preaching3 8,i thank your ladyship for the information concerning the ,methodist preachers4 ,their doctrines are most repulsive and strongly tinctured with impertinence and disrespect towards their superiors1 in perpetually endeavouring to level all ranks and to do away with all distinctions4 ,it is monstrous to be told that you have a heart as sinful as the common wretches that crawl the earth4 ,this is highly offensive1 and ,i cannot but wonder that your ladyship should relish any sentiments so much at variance with high birth and good breeding40 ,full lists of contemporary writers will be found in ,traill's volumes on ,social ,england1 which as 8a record of the progress of the people in ,religion1 ,laws1 ,learning1 ,arts1 ,industry1 ,commerce1 ,science1 ,literature and ,manners1 from the earliest times to the present day10 meets perhaps the greatest want of the ordinary teacher1 to whom no one general history of social progress was before accessible4 7e7 ,historical pictures4 ,as illustrations there are also historical portraits1 contemporary pictures of historic scenes1 and pictures of costumes4 ,most schools now subscribe to the 8,art for ,schools ,association10 and can make a very good portrait gallery of their own4 ,the splendid collection of historical costumes designed by ,mr4 ,lewis ,wingfield for the ,healtheries can still be seen1 ,i believe1 and a few of them have been reproduced by him in a book with descriptive letterpress4 ,exhibitions1 like the ,tudor and ,stuart1 are most valuable to the realisation of history1 and visits to historical buildings are within the possibilities of most1 and add great zest to many a holiday both for teachers and girls4 ,it is impossible to forget the circumstances of the ,dauphin's coronation at ,rheims1 after staying where ,joan of ,arc stayed and standing in the cathedral1 where she witnessed the fulfilment of her mission4 7f7 ,historical poems1 ,shakspere's plays1 historical novels4 ,passages from historical poems or from a ,shakspere play often add to the interest of a lesson2 as the challenge-scene from ,richard ,,ii41 the trial-scene from ,henry ,,viii41 ,milton's sonnet on the massacre in ,piedmont1 ,spenser's ,gloriana and the false ,duessa for ,elizabeth and ,mary ,queen of ,scots4 ,and in quite modern history ,mrs4 ,hamilton ,king's ,disciples1 ,swinburne's ,songs before ,sunrise1 ,mrs4 ,browning's ,peace of ,villafranca1 all give expression to the passionate longing for freedom of ,italy4 ,perhaps nothing makes history more real than a good historical novel4 ,bulwer-,lytton's ,last of the ,barons makes the figure of ,warwick as lifelike as that of any minister of our own day4 ,edward ,,iv41 ,clarence1 ,richard ,,iii4 have each their individuality1 and so has that shadowy prince who was killed at ,tewkesbury1 while ,isabella ,neville stands out for ever distinct from her gentle1 timid sister ,anne4 ,john ,inglesant gives the very spirit of the ,charles ,i4 period--cavaliers and ladies coquetting with the classics in the learned ,oxford halls1 the devotion1 even to the death1 of the ,jesuit-trained ,john ,inglesant1 and the midnight apparition of the murdered ,strafford to the king1 for whom he had laid down his life4 ,it is quite worth while to put up a list of historical novels bearing on their period1 for older as well as for younger classes4 ,home-work3 7a7 ,viva-voces4 ,how are we to test the work done by the pupils8 ,lord ,acton quotes from ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton3 8,i must regard the main duty of a professor to consist1 not simply in communicating information1 but in doing this in such a manner and with such an accompaniment of subsidiary means1 that the information he conveys may be the occasion of awakening his pupils to a vigorous and varied exertion of their faculties04 ,by means of viva-voce questions and paper work1 the class should be tested between each lecture4 ,the object of the teacher is to find out with as little expenditure of time as possible1 that the work set has been thoroughly done4 ,i know no better means of doing this than by what are called written viva-voces4 ,the teacher prepares two sets of questions called respectively ,a and ,b4 ,the alternate girls write the answers to the ,a and ,b questions in small exercise books which they keep for the purpose4 ,they rule two margins1 the left-hand for the number of the question1 the right-hand margin is used by the corrector4 ,ten minutes can test an hour's lesson4 ,the books are changed so that the ,bs correct the work of the ,as1 and have to attend to the answers of the questions they did not do4 ,the teacher repeats aloud the answer to each question4 ,each corrector signs her name and puts the mark obtained4 ,the teacher1 when she looks through the books afterwards1 can thus bring home any careless correction to the right person1 and anything like favouritism in correcting is prevented4 ,this viva-voce work ensures accurate knowledge of facts1 and ,i have known girls find it sufficiently useful1 to continue the same system among themselves after they have gone up to the university4 7b7 ,essay-writing4 ,the most valuable exercise for the pupil is the writing of essays4 ,these may begin on a subject already dealt with in class 7care being taken that the essay is not a reproduction of notes of the lesson71 but the pupil will soon be trained to read and think out for herself subjects which she has not previously heard discussed4 ,she will learn experimentally what ,lord ,acton calls1 8those shining precepts which are the registered property of every school1 that is to say1 learn as much by writing as by reading2 be not content with the best books1 seek sidelights from the others2 have no favourites2 keep men and things apart2 guard against the prestige of great names2 see that your judgments are your own and do not shrink from disagreement2 no trusting without testing2 be more severe to ideas than to actions2 do not overlook the strength of the bad cause or the weakness of the good04 ,the giving back of the essays ought to be a very valuable lesson4 ,happy passages should be read aloud1 weak passages criticised1 each paper estimated as a whole1 and the pupil ought to leave the class1 feeling that if the work were to be done again1 she at least understands the general drift of the subject and could treat it more adequately than before4 ,i venture to illustrate my meaning1 the subject set being a discussion of the policy of ,francis ,i4 in his relations with ,charles ,v4 ,the essay should show that ,francis ,i41 like his predecessors in the ,italian expeditions1 ,charles ,,viii4 and ,louis ,,xii41 failed to realise in what direction lay the true interests of ,france1 with regard to the new problem of balance of power4 ,by entering into personal rivalry with ,charles and striving for territorial conquest in ,italy1 ,francis lost the opportunity which should have belonged to ,france1 of controlling the ,european situation4 ,if he had only been content with securing gateways into ,italy and making alliances with the northern ,italians and ,german ,protestant princes against ,imperial encroachments1 he would have gained the casting vote in ,european affairs and have held the key to the problem1 which it was not permitted to ,france1 till the time of ,richelieu1 to solve4 ,post-school work4 ,a word or two as to the way in which the teacher can help her old pupils to read history4 ,there are a fortunate few who pass on to the universities4 ,an increasing number can attend ,university ,extension lectures and become members of a local ,students' ,association4 ,but it is those who are not within reach of any local organisation1 who are glad of a little help4 ,to these1 when they first leave school1 an old girls' ,reading ,society is generally welcome4 ,the regular reading it requires is a training in methodical arrangement of time1 and schemes of reading1 with plenty of choice1 are a help to those who have hitherto had all their intellectual work arranged for them4 ,teachers have sometimes found it possible to take up parties to the ,summer ,extension meetings4 ,parents are willing to let their daughters go with responsible guardians1 and the preparatory reading is a great interest1 besides the stimulus that the lectures themselves give to subsequent work at home4 ,conclusion4 ,the educational value of historical study does not belong to this paper1 but ,i end by quoting three passages1 which are full of encouragement to the teacher of history4 ,they are referred to by ,lord ,acton in his famous lecture at ,cambridge4 8,the study of modern history is1 next to theology itself and only next in so far as theology rests on a divine revelation1 the most thoroughly religious training that the mind can receive40 7,bishop ,stubbs47 8,history is full of indirect but very effective moral teaching4 ,it is not only1 as ,bolingbroke called it1 philosophy teaching by examples1 but it is morality teaching by examples4 ,it is essentially the study which best helps the student to conceive large thoughts4 ,it is impossible to overvalue the moral teaching of history40 7,sir ,j4 ,fitch47 8,the object 7in history teaching7 is to lead the student to 444 take interest in history not as a mere narrative1 but as a chain of causes and effects1 still unwinding itself before our eyes and full of momentous consequences to himself and his descendants1 an unremitting conflict between good and evil powers1 of which every act done by any one of us1 insignificant as we are1 forms one of the incidents1 a conflict in which even the smallest of us cannot escape from taking part1 in which whoever does not help the right side is helping the wrong40 7,mill4 ,inaugural ,address47 ,,specimen ,,syllabus ,,of ,,english ,,history4 ,foreign ,policy of ,elizabeth4 ,introductory4--,keynote of the period2 dynastic alliances4 ,power of ,house of ,hapsburg built up on political marriages1 even ,england threatened with absorption by the ,hapsburgs1 as a consequence of ,mary ,tudor's marriage to ,philip1 and though ,mary's death made 8a great rent in the ,hapsburg net1 in which ,england was enmeshed0 7,seeley71 yet ,philip long struggled to re-establish the ,hapsburg dominion in ,england1 and this1 according to the fashion of the time1 by marriage4 8,courtships of ,queen ,elizabeth0 begin ,january1 #aeei2 ,philip offers his hand to ,elizabeth3 8,the more ,i reflect on this business1 the more clearly ,i see that all will turn on the husband which this woman will choose0 7,de ,feria74 ,other suitors in ,hapsburg interest1 ,philibert of ,savoy1 ,archdukes ,ferdinand and ,charles--,elizabeth encourages ,hapsburg suitors--could thus keep ,english ,catholics in hand in spite of innovations1 and get better terms from ,france in ,treaty of ,cateau ,cambrsis1 ,april1 #aeei1 ,france believing her supported by ,spain4 ,but ,england's safety from ,hapsburgs largely due to her danger from ,valois4 ,the ,valois had secured ,scotland1 and claimed ,england through marriage of ,mary and ,francis4 ,for ,philip to overthrow ,elizabeth would mean to clear the way for ,mary of ,scots3 it was not till he could come as ,mary's heir1 that he openly made war on ,england4 ,period ,i4 ,the ,scotch ,period1 #aeeh-aefg4 7i47 #aeeh-aefd1 ,,in ,,which ,a ,,basis ,,is ,,laid ,,for ,,the ,,union ,,of ,,england ,,and ,,scotland4 ,england and ,scotland both under queens2 both had to choose between a power based upon the wishes of the nation1 and a power supported by foreign help4 ,elizabeth chose a national position3 8took a course visibly full of danger1 a course in which success was only possible by courage and heroic endurance1 but in which success1 if it came1 might be splendid1 and might raise the nation itself to greatness04 ,mary1 on the contrary1 brought her subjects under a foreign yoke4 ,since ,mary of ,guise's regency was a ,high ,catholic rule1 the ,reformation in ,scotland took the form of a national movement1 and the national party turned towards ,england for help4 8,the first achievement of ,elizabethan policy lay in this1 that she called out a great ,reformation party in ,england and ,scotland at once1 and thus laid the foundation of the union of ,england and ,scotland40 ,elizabeth's self-justification in helping subjects against their sovereign3 that she was maintaining national independence against a foreign power4 ,arran becomes ,elizabeth's suitor in ,protestant interest4 ,january1 #aefj--,treaty of ,berwick--importance4 ,elizabeth 8put herself at the head of the national religious movement in ,scotland02 8in consideration of the attempt to annex ,scotland to the ,french crown1 she promised to aid the ,scotch to drive out the foreign invaders04 ,success of ,elizabeth's policy2 ,french troops recalled4 ,july--,treaty of ,edinburgh ends the government of ,scotland by the ,french2 ,december--death of ,francis ,,ii4 severs the union of ,french and ,scotch crowns4 #aefa--,return of ,mary to ,scotland2 she refuses to ratify the ,treaty of ,edinburgh1 and sets to work to build up an ,anglo-,scotch party in the interest of the ,counter-,reformation4 7ii47 #aefe-aefg1 ,,in ,,which ,,the ,,danger ,,is ,,of ,,the ,,union ,,of ,,england ,,and ,,scotland ,,under ,,mary ,,against ,,elizabeth4 #aefe--,marriage of ,mary and ,darnley--importance3 ,mary puts herself definitely at the head of the ,catholic party in ,england4 #aefg--,murder of ,darnley2 marriage with ,bothwell2 ,lochleven2 battle of ,langside2 collapse of ,counter-,reformation in ,great ,britain2 prospect in ,james of a solution for ,england of both problems of succession and religion4 ,period ,,ii4 ,the ,french ,period1 #aefg-aehe4 ,danger lest ,france or ,spain1 or both1 make war on ,england to release ,mary and secure the ,catholic succession1 but hands of both tied at home1 and ,elizabeth's efforts directed to keeping them so4 ,to that end1 sends help to ,huguenots in ,wars of ,religion1 and to the revolted ,netherlands4 ,france alarmed by victory of ,lepanto 7#aega71 makes advances to ,england4 ,courtship of ,anjou1 #aegj-gb1 and of ,alenon1 #aegb-hd4 8,matters were indeed in a critical position for ,england2 the ,ridolfi plot was brewing1 the ,english ,catholic nobles in a ferment1 and the ,pope1 ,philip1 the ,league and the ,guises ready to turn their whole power to the destruction of ,elizabeth40 #aegb--,treaty of ,blois1 pledging ,charles ,,ix4 and ,elizabeth to give informal aid to the revolted ,netherlands4 ,the ,st4 ,bartholomew2 marriage negotiations interrupted4 #aegd--;,don ,john1 ,governor of the ,netherlands1 grasps the necessity of the overthrow of ,elizabeth as a preliminary to reducing the ,netherlands1 and aims at himself marrying the ,queen of ,scots and securing ,england4 8,the true remedy for the evil condition of the ,netherlands 444 is that ,england should be in the power of a person devoted and well affectioned to your ,majesty's service40 #aege--,the ,netherlands offer sovereignty of ,holland and ,zealand to ,elizabeth2 she declines4 #aegh--;,flemish appeal to ,alenon to lead them2 he accepts in reliance on ,england2 ,elizabeth's policy is that ,alenon shall be under ,english1 not ,french1 patronage1 and she poses before ,europe as his affianced bride4 #aegi and #aeha--;,he visits ,england for supplies4 #aehb--;,alenon invested with sovereignty of the ,netherlands2 ,elizabeth's connection emphasised by presence of ,leicester and ,sir ,p4 ,sidney4 #aehd--;,alenon expelled from ,netherlands2 his death4 8,elizabeth had begun her long marriage juggle in #aeei in hourly danger of being overwhelmed and crushed by her own ,catholic subjects in union with one or other of her great continental neighbours4 ,she ended it in #aehc1 triumphant all along the line1 with both her rivals crippled and distracted1 whilst she really held the balance of peace and war of ,europe in her hands40 ,period ,,iii4 ,the ,spanish ,period1 #aehe-afjc4 7i47 ,,to #aeif1 ,,when ,,england1 ,,france ,,and ,,the ,,netherlands ,,fight ,,spain ,,either ,,separately ,,or ,,in ,a ,,concert ,,which ,,is ,,secret4 ,counter-,reformation in ,france represented by the ,league1 the anti-dynastic party2 ,pact de ,joinville between ,philip and the ,league1 after murder of ,william of ,orange1 for extirpation of heresy in ,france and the ,netherlands2 importance of #aehe in ,english policy2 ,alenon gone1 ,elizabeth must act openly if ,netherlands are to be saved4 ,only military movement as yet helping ,scotch in #aefa4 ,with #aehe begins what is meant by the 8,elizabethan ,age04 ,pause to estimate ,elizabeth's policy4 ,froude finds no clue but inconsistency--really a consistent inconsistency4 ,seeley's estimate3 8,there are emergencies in which a persistent abstinence from action1 a kind of resolute irresolution1 is the only sound policy4444 ,everything at her accession was in a sort of suspense4 ,whether the nation was ,catholic or ,protestant1 by what title she herself reigned1 who would be her own successor1 and whom she should marry--all was undefined40 ,elizabeth really understood popular government2 she gave her people twenty-six years of peace1 in which they learnt to know themselves and what they wanted4 #aehe--,siege of ,antwerp2 ,netherlands in extremity2 offer sovereignty to ,elizabeth2 she refuses2 ,philip tries intimidation by wholesale arrest of ,british sailors2 war inevitable4 ,leicester's expedition2 his blunders2 fall of ,antwerp2 ,zutphen2 ,elizabeth also lets loose her 8,knight of the ,ocean02 ,drake's expeditions1 #aegg1 #aehe1 #aehg2 execution of ,mary ,queen of ,scots4 8,the execution of ,mary ,stuart in the greatest degree1 and the campaign of ,leicester in a secondary degree1 together with the adventurous voyages of ,drake1 brought on the open war between ,elizabeth and ,philip40 #aehh--;,armada2 causes of failure3 7a7 superiority of ,english ships and ,english sailors2 7b7 ,english guns heavier and better served2 7c7 unfavourable winds causing delay and then destruction2 7d7 unfitness of ,parma for command4 8,but all said and done1 the victory was one of men and tactics more than materials40 8,the ,armada was not defeated by a storm1 but at ,gravelines1 on ,monday1 #bith ,july2 and the enterprise was defeated when ,parma failed to bring up his flotilla40 ,results of ,armada3 7a7 gave ,england a new position in ,europe2 7b7 secured her from danger of future invasion1 and consequently 7c7 enabled ,elizabeth to turn her attention to the divisions that weakened the ,english ,church2 7d7 gave the nation leisure for the struggle between ,crown and ,parliament1 which only ended with ,william ,,iii4 #aehi--;,elizabeth's ,counter-,armada2 ,drake's advice1 8better cheap0 than awaiting renewed attack4 ,spain's power broken1 the religious question is fought out on a new battle-ground2 succession struggle in ,france2 ,league helped by ,spain against ,henry of ,navarre2 ,arques2 ,ivry4 #aeia--;,english forces under ,essex to help ,henry of ,navarre4 #aeie--;,henry publishes declaration of war against ,spain4 7ii47 #aeif-aeih4 ,,france1 ,,england ,,and ,,netherlands ,,united ,,in ,a ,,formal ,,coalition ,,of ,,one ,,catholic ,,and ,,two ,,protestant ,,powers ,,against ,,the ,,counter-,,reformation4 #aeif--;,elizabeth makes a formal alliance offensive and defensive with ,henry ,,iv4 and the ,states against ,spain1 and sends expedition under ,howard and ,essex against ,cadiz2 the 8,trafalgar of the ,elizabethan ,war0 7,laughton74 #aeig--;,essex and ,raleigh make the 8,island voyage0 against ,spain4 7iii47 #aeih-afjc4 ,,coalition ,,dissolved4 ,,philip ,,iii4 ,,against ,,elizabeth ,,and ,,netherlands4 #aeih--;,henry ,,iv4 deserts his allies and makes peace with ,spain in ,treaty of ,vervins4 ,philip ,,iii4 continues war against ,elizabeth in order to use ,ireland--in revolt--as basis of operations for the ,counter-,reformation against ,england4 ,danger from ,ireland increased by treason of ,essex4 #afjb--,spanish expedition lands in ,ireland2 joins ,tyrone against ,kinsale2 defeated by ,mountjoy4 #afjc--;,elizabeth increasingly hostile towards ,spain till her death4 ,results of ,elizabeth's ,policy4 #a4 ,she gave ,england twenty-six years of peace1 in spite of the distracted state of things abroad1 and by this means 7a7 the religious question1 7b7 the succession question1 were settled without civil war4 #b4 ,by creating a new mental atmosphere1 she gave ,england a new national temper1 which found expression in a national poetry4 ,shakspere's 8jubilant patriotism03-- 8,this ,england never did1 nor never shall ,lie at the proud foot of a conqueror4444 ,come the three corners of the world in arms1 ,and we shall shock them2 nought shall make us rue1 ,if ,england to herself do rest but true40 --,k4 ,john4 8,this royal throne of kings1 this sceptred isle 444 ,this precious stone set in the silver sea 444 ,this land of such dear souls1 this dear1 dear land40 --,k4 ,richard ,,ii4 ,and the passionate devotion to ,elizabeth as the embodiment of the national greatness3-- 8,she shall be loved and feared2 her own shall bless her3 ,in her days every man shall eat in safety ,under his own vine1 what he plants1 and sing ,the merry songs of peace to all his neighbours40 --,k4 ,henry ,,viii4 ,elizabeth the ,gloriana of ,spenser4 #c4 ,she saved ,england from absorption by ,spain or ,france1 and from fear of future invasion4 #d4 ,she created the monarchy of ,great ,britain by laying the basis of union between ,england and ,scotland4 #e4 ,she made ,england insular1 but counterbalanced the disadvantages of insularity by encouraging maritime expansion4 ,,syllabus ,,of ,,lesson ,,on ,,richelieu4 #afaj4 ,louis ,,xiii4,difficulties of ,regent ,mary de ,medici4 8,the day of ,kings is past1 that of ,grandees and ,princes has arrived40 ,her ,spanish policy4 ,concini4 #afad4,states-,general1 last of old ,rgime4 ,louis assumes government4 ,fall of ,concini4 ,rise of ,de ,luynes4 ,queen ,mother becomes centre of disaffection4 ,guise4 ,bouillon4 ,mayenne4 ,epernon4 ,huguenots4 #afbb4,peace of ,montpellier4 ,huguenots have only ,rochelle and ,montauban4 #afbd4;,entrance into power of ,richelieu4 ,,richelieu4,born a leader of men4 ,genius of conception1 force of will4 ,ideal1 absolutism4 ,obstacle1 feudal nobility2 destroys their political vitality by increasing power of monarchy4 #a4 ,substitutes ,intendants for great ,governors of ,provinces4 #b4 ,destroys feudal strongholds4 #c4 ,brings nobles under the law2 duelling1 ,montmorency2 peculation1 ,marshal de ,marillac2 conspiracy1 ,cinq ,mars4 #d4 ,states-,general never meet4 #e4 ,parlements restricted to judicial duties4 #f4 ,heavy taxation4 ,cultivates three powerful alliances3 #a4 ,men of letters2 #b4 ,favour of commons2 #c4 ,love of national glory4 ,foreign ,policy4 ,to substitute influence of ,france in ,europe for ,austro-,spanish power4 ,founder of an 8occidental0 policy4 ,two things necessary3 #a4 ,balance of power2 #b4 ,mutual religious toleration4 ,difficulties at home3 #a4 ,spanish sympathies of ,anne of ,austria2 #b4 ,huguenot struggles for independence4 ,periods of ,richelieu's ,rule4 ,i4,the ,valtelline ,period1 #afbd-bf4 ,richelieu enters ,european politics4 ,importance of ,valtelline as connecting link between ,austro- ,spanish dominions4 ,seized in defiance of ,treaty4 ,interference of ,richelieu4 ,huguenot revolt4 ,t4 ,montpellier pacifying them while he concludes ,valtelline question in ,t4 ,monzon4 ,,ii4,period of ,la ,rochelle1 #afbf-bh4 ,richelieu crushes all opposition at home to clear his way for decisive interference abroad4 8,la conspiration des ,dames40 ,vendome in ,brittany4 #afbg4 ,buckingham's expedition to ,rh4 #afbi4 ,fall of ,la ,rochelle and ,montauban4 ,,iii4,period of absolute supremacy at home1 #afbi-ce4 ,re-enters ,european politics1 but only as a secondary power1 in ,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,france acts again in ,italy4 ,succession in ,mantua and ,montferrat4 ,valtelline question reopened1 and again settled in favour of ,france4 ,day of ,dupes1 #aath ,nov41 #afcj4 ,t4 of ,cherasco1 #afca4 ,intrigues of ,gaston of ,orleans with enemy4 ,richelieu acts with ,gustavus ,adolphus1 the 8,protestant ,crusader04 ,interests of ,france move to ,lorraine border4 ,death of ,gustavus indirect advantage to ,france4 ,richelieu's terms with ,bernard of ,weimar4 #afce4 ,france declares war against ,spain4 ,,iv4,period of ,france's supremacy in ,europe1 #afce-dc4 #afcf4 ,recovery of ,corbie from ,spanish4 #afch4 ,b4 ,rheinfeld4 ,fall of ,brisach4 #afci4 ,death of ,bernard of ,weimar4 8,turning point of the contest10 from a useful ally was becoming a dangerous rival4 ,richelieu secures ,alsace4 ,conspiracy of ,cinq ,mars4 #afdb4;,death of ,richelieu4 ,rise of ,mazarin4 ,,list ,,of ,,books4 ,the following lists have been drawn up with the help of several teachers of history1 and are intended for the practical work of the school4 ,they aim at giving the chief authorities for each period1 besides other books dealing with special subjects4 ,where possible1 the publisher and price have been given4 ,those who want more exhaustive lists and desire original authorities can find them in the syllabuses of the ,university ,extension ,lectures4 ,the historical stories have been chosen from lists furnished by pupils4 ,,text-,,books4 ,gardiner4 ,student's ,history4 ,longmans4 #d_/- a volume4 ,vol4 i41 to #aeji2 vol4 ii41 #aeji-afhi2 vol4 iii41 #afhi-ahhe4 ,j4 ,f4 ,bright4 ,history of ,england4 ,longmans4 ,vol4 i41 8,medival ,monarchy10 #ddi-adhe 7#d_/f72 vol4 ii41 8,personal ,monarchy10 #adhe-afhh 7#e_/-72 vol4 iii41 8,constitutional ,monarchy10 #afhi-ahcg 7#g_/f74 ,ransome4 ,an ,advanced ,history of ,england4 ,rivingtons4 #g_/f4 ,acland and ,ransome4 ,analysis of ,english ,history4 ,longmans4 #f_/-4 ,d4 ,beale4 ,text-book of ,english and ,general ,history4 ,bell ,daldy4 #b_/f4 ,taswell-,langmead4 ,constitutional ,history4 ,stevens ,hayes4 #ae_/-4 ,d4 ,beale4 ,student's ,chronological ,maps 7,charts74 ,bell ,daldy4 #c_/f4 ,gardiner4 ,student's ,historical ,atlas4 ,longmans4 #e_/-4 ,f4 ,w4 ,putzger4 ,historischer ,schul-,atlas4 ,bielefeld and ,leipzig4 ,verlag von ,velhagen und ,klasing4 #b marks4 ,period #ajff-abgb-- ,stubbs4 ,constitutional ,history4 ,frowde4 ,clarendon ,press4 #ab_/- each volume4 ,vol4 i41 to #abae2 vol4 ii41 #abae-acii4 ,j4 ,r4 ,green4 ,history of the ,english ,people1 vol4 i4 ,macmillan4 #af_/-4 -- ,the ,making of ,england4 ,macmillan4 #af_/-4 -- ,the ,conquest of ,england4 ,macmillan4 #ah_/-4 ,freeman4 ,history of the ,norman ,conquest4 ,macmillan4 #cf_/-4 ,lingard4 ,history of ,england1 vols4 i4 and ii4 ,duffy4 ,set of #aj vols4 #a #aj_/-4 ,kate ,norgate4 ,england under the ,angevin ,kings4 #b vols4 ,macmillan4 #a #ab_/-4 ,mrs4 ,j4 ,r4 ,green4 ,henry ,,ii4 7,twelve ,english ,statesmen74 ,macmillan4 #b_/f4 ,o4 ,h4 ,richardson4 ,national ,movement under ,henry ,,iii4 ,macmillan4 #f_/f4 ,stubbs4 ,early ,plantagenets 7,epochs74 ,longmans4 #b_/f4 ,cox4 ,crusades 7,epochs74 ,longmans4 #b_/f4 ,traill4 ,social ,england1 vol4 i4 ,cassell4 #ae_/-4 ,thorold ,rogers4 ,history of ,agriculture and ,prices1 vols4 i4 and ii4 ,clarendon ,press4 #b #b_/-4 ,hunt4 ,english ,church in the ,middle ,ages4 ,longmans4 #b_/f4 ,stubbs4 ,introductions to 7a7 ,gesta ,henrici ,,ii43 ,benet of ,peterbro2 7b7 ,roger of ,hoveden 7for foreign policy7 7,rolls ,series74 ,st4 ,thomas of ,canterbury4 ,david ,nutt4 #a_/-4 ,w4 ,h4 ,hutton4 ,misrule of ,henry ,,iii4 ,david ,nutt4 #a_/-4 ,simon de ,montfort4 ,david ,nutt4 #a_/-4 ,in ,english ,history from ,contemporary ,writers ,series4 ,de ,joinville4 ,saint ,louis4 ,chronicle 7translated by ,james ,hutton74 ,sampson ,low4 #b_/f4 ,period #abgb-acii-- ,stubbs4 ,constitutional ,history1 vol4 ii4 ,clarendon ,press4 #ab_/-4 ,green4 ,history of the ,english ,people1 vol4 i4 ,macmillan4 #af_/-4 ,lingard4 ,history of ,england1 vols4 ii4 and iii4 ,duffy4 #aj vols4 #a #aj_/-4 ,author of 8,the ,greatest of the ,plantagenets40 ,life and ,reign of ,edward ,i4 ,seeley ,jackson4 #f_/-4 ,tout4 ,edward ,i4 7,twelve ,english ,statesmen74 ,macmillan4 #b_/f4 ,longman4 ,life and ,times of ,edward ,,iii4 ,longmans4 #b vols4 #bh_/-4 ,traill4 ,social ,england1 vol4 ii4 ,cassell4 #ae_/-4 ,burton4 ,history of ,scotland4 ,blackwood4 #h vols4 #c #c_/-4 ,oman4 ,art of ,war 7,hundred ,years' ,war74 ,fisher ,unwin4 #ag_/f4 ,wakeman4 ,history of the ,church of ,england4 ,rivingtons4 #f_/-4 ,stubbs4 ,early ,plantagenets 7,epochs74 ,longmans4 #b_/f4 ,poole4 ,wycliffe and ,early ,movements for ,reform4 ,longmans4 #b_/f4 ,freeman4 ,historical ,essays4 #ast series1 ,essay on ,edward ,i4 ,macmillan4 #aj_/f4 ,jusserand4 ,english ,wayfaring ,life in the ,middle ,ages4 ,fisher ,unwin4 #g_/f4 ,ashley4 ,economic ,history4 ,longmans4 ,part i41 #e_/-2 part ii41 #aj_/f4 ,shakspere4 ,play of ,richard ,,ii4 ,froissart4 ,chronicles4 ,chaucer4 ,canterbury ,tales4 ,langland4 ,piers ,plowman4 ,period #acii-adhe-- ,stubbs4 ,constitutional ,history1 vol4 iii4 ,clarendon ,press4 #ab_/-4 ,green4 ,history of the ,english ,people1 vols4 i4 and ii4 ,macmillan4 #af_/- each vol4 ,lingard4 ,history of ,england1 vols4 iii4 and iv4 ,duffy ,sons4 #aj vols4 #a #aj_/-4 ,ramsay4 ,lancaster and ,york4 ,clarendon ,press4 #a #af_/-4 ,wylie4 ,england under ,henry ,,iv4 ,longmans4 #d vols4 #aj_/f1 #ae_/-1 #ae_/-1 #a #a_/-4 ,church4 ,henry ,v4 7,men of ,action ,series74 ,macmillan4 #b_/f4 ,gairdner4 ,richard ,,iii4 ,longmans 7out of print74 #aj_/-4 ,oman4 ,warwick 7,men of ,action ,series74 ,macmillan4 #b_/f4 ,stubbs4 ,lectures on the ,study of ,medieval and ,modern ,history4 ,clarendon ,press4 #h_/f4 ,seebohm4 ,oxford ,reformers4 ,longmans4 #ad_/-4 ,traill4 ,social ,england1 vol4 ii4 ,cassell4 #ae_/-4 ,gairdner4 ,lancaster and ,york 7,epochs74 ,longmans4 #b_/f4 ,james ,gairdner4 ,paston ,letters4 ,constable4 #af_/-4 ,fortescue4 ,governance of ,england 7edited ,plummer74 ,clarendon ,press4 #ab_/f4 ,shakspere4 ,plays3 ,henry ,,iv41 ,henry ,v41 ,henry ,,vi4 ,tudor ,period1 #adhe-afjc-- ,york ,powell and ,tout4 ,text-book1 ,history of ,england 7,henry ,,viii4 to ,william ,,iii474 ,longmans4 #b_/f4 ,lingard4 ,history of ,england1 vols4 iv41 v41 vi4 ,duffy ,sons4 #aj vols4 #a #aj_/-4 ,green4 ,history of the ,english ,people1 vol4 ii4 ,macmillan4 #af_/-4 ,froude4 ,history of ,england from the ,fall of ,wolsey to the ,armada4 ,longmans4 #ab vols4 #c_/f each4 ,hallam4 ,history of ,england 7,constitutional74 ,murray4 #g_/f4 ,busch4 ,england under the ,tudors4 ,innes ,co4 #af_/-4 ,gairdner4 ,henry ,,vii4 7,english ,statesmen ,series74 ,macmillan4 #b_/f4 ,bacon4 ,henry ,,vii4 7edited ,lumby74 ,cambridge ,university ,press4 #b_/-4 ,brewer4 ,reign of ,henry ,,viii4 ,murray4 #b vols4 #ae_/- each4 ,beesley4 ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,macmillan4 #b_/f4 ,creighton4 ,elizabeth4 ,boussod4 #b #h_/-4 -- ,age of ,elizabeth 7,epochs74 ,longmans4 #b_/f4 -- ,wolsey 7,twelve ,english ,statesmen74 ,macmillan4 #b_/f4 ,ranke4 ,history of ,england1 vol4 444 endon ,press4 #f vols4 #c #c_/-4 ,traill4 ,social ,england1 vols4 ii4 and iii4 ,cassell4 #ae_/- each volume4 ,stubbs4 ,lectures on ,medieval and ,modern ,history4 ,clarendon ,press4 #h_/f4 ,macaulay4 ,essays 7,burleigh74 ,longmans4 #b_/f4 ,seeley4 ,growth of ,british ,policy4 ,cambridge ,university ,press4 #b vols4 #ab_/-4 ,seebohm4 ,oxford ,reformers4 ,longmans4 #ad_/-4 ,wakeman4 ,history of the ,church of ,england4 ,rivingtons4 #f_/-4 ,burnet4 ,history of the ,reformation4 ,clarendon ,press4 #g vols4 #a #aj_/-4 ,aubrey ,moore4 ,history of the ,reformation4 ,kegan ,paul4 #af_/-4 ,froude4 ,english ,seamen in the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,longmans4 #f_/-4 ,hume4 ,courtships of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,fisher ,unwin4 #ab_/-4 -- ,the ,year after the ,armada4 ,fisher ,unwin4 #ab_/-4 -- ,walter ,raleigh4 ,fisher ,unwin4 #e_/-4 -- ,philip ,,ii4 7,foreign ,statesmen74 ,macmillan4 #b_/f4 ,cunningham4 ,english ,industry and ,commerce4 ,pitt ,press4 ,vol4 i41 #ac_/d2 vol4 ii41 #ae_/-4 ,h4 ,hall4 ,society in the ,elizabethan ,age4 ,sonnenschein4 #aj_/f4 ,berville4 ,the ,story of the ,chevalier ,bayard 7,chronicle74 ,friswell4 #b_/f4 ,stuarts and ,commonwealth1 #afjc-affj-- ,cordery and ,philpotts4 ,king and ,commonwealth 7text-book74 ,seeley4 #e_/-4 ,gardiner4 ,history of ,england1 #afjc-afdb4 ,longmans4 #aj vols4 #f_/- each4 -- ,history of the ,great ,civil ,war1 #afdb-afdi4 ,longmans4 #d vols4 #f_/- each4 ,lingard4 ,history of ,england1 vols4 vii4 and viii4 ,duffy ,sons4 #aj vols4 #a #aj_/-4 ,green4 ,history of the ,english ,people1 vol4 iii4 ,macmillan4 #af_/-4 ,ranke4 ,history of ,england1 vols4 i41 ii41 iii4 ,clarendon ,press4 #f vols4 #c #c_/-4 ,hallam4 ,constitutional ,history4 ,murray4 #g_/f4 ,guizot4 ,history of the ,english ,revolution4 ,bohn4 #c_/f4 -- ,life of ,oliver ,cromwell4 ,bentley4 #f_/-4 ,frederic ,harrison4 ,cromwell 7,twelve ,english ,statesmen74 ,macmillan4 #b_/f4 ,traill4 ,social ,england1 vol4 iv4 ,cassell4 #ag_/-4 ,sanford4 ,studies and ,illustrations of the ,great ,rebellion4 ,john ,parker4 #af_/-4 ,forster4 ,sir ,john ,eliot4 ,longmans 7out of print74 -- ,grand ,remonstrance4 ,murray4 #ab_/-4 ,church4 ,bacon 7,english ,men of ,letters74 ,macmillan4 #a_/-4 ,carlyle4 ,cromwell's ,letters and ,speeches4 ,chapman ,hall4 #b_/f4 ,w4 ,h4 ,hutton4 ,william ,laud 7,leaders of ,religion ,series74 ,methuen4 #c_/f4 ,ottley4 ,lancelot ,andrewes 7,leaders of ,religion ,series74 ,methuen4 #c_/f4 ,lady ,verney4 ,memoirs of the ,verney ,family4 ,longmans4 #b vols41 #db_/-2 vol4 iii41 #ba_/-4 ,the ,later ,stuarts1 #affj-agad-- ,hale4 ,fall of the ,stuarts 7,epochs74 ,longmans4 #b_/f4 ,morris4 ,age of ,anne4 ,longmans4 #b_/f4 ,lingard4 ,history of ,england1 vols4 ix41 x4 7ends #afhi74 ,duffy4 #aj vols4 #a #aj_/-4 ,ranke4 ,history of ,england1 vols4 iii41 iv41 v4 7use for foreign policy74 ,clarendon ,press4 #c #c_/-4 ,macaulay4 ,history of ,england4 ,longmans4 #e_/-4 ,hallam4 ,constitutional ,history4 ,murray4 #g_/f4 ,lecky4 ,history of ,england in the #ahth ,century4 ,longmans4 #g vols4 #f_/- each4 ,green4 ,history of the ,english ,people1 vols4 iii4 and iv4 ,macmillan4 #af_/- a vol4 ,traill4 ,william ,,iii4 7,twelve ,english ,statesmen74 ,macmillan4 #b_/f4 ,stanhope4 ,reign of ,queen ,anne4 ,murray4 #af_/-4 ,wyon4 ,history of ,great ,britain during the ,reign of ,queen ,anne4 ,chapman ,hall 7out of print74 #b vols4 #a #ab_/-4 ,leslie ,stephen4 ,swift 7,men of ,letters ,series74 ,macmillan4 #a_/-4 ,swift4 ,conduct of the ,allies4 ,various4 ,hassall4 ,bolingbroke 7,statesmen ,series74 ,w4 ,h4 ,allen4 #b_/f4 ,macaulay4 ,essays 7,temple74 ,longmans4 #b_/f4 ,evelyn4 ,diary 7,chandos ,classics74 ,warne4 #a_/f4 ,traill4 ,social ,england1 vol4 iv4 ,cassell4 #ag_/-4 ,burnet4 ,history of ,his ,own ,times4 ,clarendon ,press4 #i_/f4 ,anson4 ,law and ,custom of the ,constitution4 ,clarendon ,press4 ,vol4 i41 #ab_/f2 vol4 ii41 #ad_/-4 ,hodder4 ,shaftesbury4 ,cassell4 #c_/f4 ,hanoverian ,period1 #agad-ahae-- ,skottowe4 ,our ,hanoverian ,kings4 ,sampson ,low4 #c_/f4 ,lecky4 ,history of ,england in the #ahth ,century4 ,longmans4 #g vols4 #f_/- each4 ,stanhope4 ,history of ,england 7to #aghc74 ,murray4 #i vols4 #e_/- each4 ,green4 ,history of the ,english ,people1 vol4 iv4 ,macmillan4 #af_/-4 ,erskine ,may4 ,constitutional ,history 7from ,george ,,iii474 ,longmans4 #c vols4 #ah_/-4 ,hallam4 ,constitutional ,history4 ,murray4 #g_/f4 ,ranke4 ,history of ,england1 vol4 v4 ,clarendon ,press4 #c #c_/-4 ,seeley4 ,expansion of ,england4 ,macmillan4 #d_/f4 ,traill4 ,social ,england1 vol4 v4 ,cassell4 #ag_/-4 ,morley4 ,walpole 7,twelve ,english ,statesmen74 ,macmillan4 #b_/f4 ,macaulay4 ,essays 7,clive1 ,hastings74 ,longmans4 #b_/f4 ,morley4 ,chatham 7,twelve ,english ,statesmen74 ,macmillan4 #b_/f4 ,not yet published4 ,rosebery4 ,pitt 7,twelve ,english ,statesmen74 ,macmillan4 #b_/f4 ,montagu ,burrows4 ,british ,foreign ,policy4 ,blackwood4 #f_/-4 ,mahan4 ,influence of ,sea ,power on ,history4 ,sampson ,low4 #ae_/-4 ,burke4 ,thoughts on the ,present ,discontents4 ,clarendon ,press4 #d_/f4 -- ,reflections on the ,french ,revolution4 ,clarendon ,press4 #e_/-4 ,also cheaper editions4 ,carlyle4 ,french ,revolution4 ,chapman ,hall4 #b vols4 #b_/f a vol4 ,also cheaper issues4 ,thos4 ,wright4 ,caricature ,history of the ,georges4 ,hotten4 #f_/f4 ,,list ,,of ,,historical ,,novels ,,and ,,tales ,,and ,,poems ,,illustrating ,,the ,,period #ajff to #ahae4 ,period #ajff-abgb-- ,kingsley4 ,hereward the ,wake 7,last ,struggle of the ,english74 ,macmillan4 #c_/f4 ,lytton4 ,harold4 ,routledge4 #b_/-4 ,m4 ,m4 ,blake4 ,siege of ,norwich ,castle 7,struggle of the ,english74 ,seeley4 #e_/-4 ,henty4 ,wulff the ,saxon 7written for boys74 ,blackie4 #f_/-4 -- ,winning his ,spurs 7written for boys7 7,crusades74 ,s4 ,low4 #b_/f4 ,macfarlane4 ,camp of ,refuge 7,hereward74 ,constable4 #c_/f4 ,sir ,w4 ,scott4 ,count ,robert of ,paris 7,first ,crusade74 ,black4 #a_/f4 -- ,the ,betrothed 7,henry ,,ii474 ,black4 #a_/f4 -- ,the ,talisman 7,richard and ,saladin74 ,black4 #a_/f4 -- ,ivanhoe 7,richard ,cur de ,lion74 ,black4 #a_/f4 ,c4 ,m4 ,yonge4 ,the ,constable's ,tower 7,king ,john74 ,national ,society4 #c_/-4 -- ,the ,prince and the ,page 7,edward ,i474 ,macmillan4 #c_/f4 -- ,the ,little ,duke 7,richard the ,fearless of ,normandy74 ,macmillan4 #b_/f4 ,these are children's books4 ,g4 ,p4 ,r4 ,james4 ,philip ,augustus 7,struggle with ,king ,john74 ,warne4 -_/#f4 ,tennyson4 ,harold3 a drama4 -- ,becket3 a drama4 ,period #abgb-acii-- ,jane ,porter4 ,the ,scottish ,chiefs 7#abif-acad74 ,routledge4 #b_/-4 ,grace ,aguilar4 ,the ,days of ,bruce4 ,nisbet4 #b_/-4 ,mary ,peard4 ,prentice ,hugh 7,edward ,i474 ,national ,society4 #c_/f4 ,m4 ,everett ,green4 ,the ,lord of ,dynevor 7,edward ,i4 ,wales74 ,nelson4 #b_/f4 ,sir ,w4 ,scott4 ,castle ,dangerous 7#acjf74 ,black4 #a_/f4 ,henty4 ,in ,freedom's ,cause 7,william ,wallace74 ,blackie4 #f_/-4 ,c4 ,m4 ,yonge4 ,the ,lances of ,lynwood 7,black ,prince in ,spain74 ,macmillan4 #b_/f4 ,henty4 ,st4 ,george for ,england 7,crecy1 ,poitiers74 ,blackie4 #e_/-4 ,conan ,doyle4 ,the ,white ,company 7,black ,prince in ,france74 ,smith ,elder4 #f_/-4 ,e4 ,mitchell4 ,the ,golden ,horseshoes 7,chivalry4 ,edward ,,iii474 ,masters4 #e_/-4 ,everett ,green4 ,in the ,days of ,chivalry 7,black ,prince74 ,nelson ,sons4 #e_/-4 ,henty4 ,a ,march on ,london 7,wat ,tyler74 ,blackie4 #e_/-4 -- ,the ,lion of ,st4 ,mark 7,venice74 ,blackie4 #f_/-4 ,lytton4 ,rienzi 7,last ,tribune1 #aced74 ,routledge4 #c_/f4 ,sir ,w4 ,scott4 ,lord of the ,isles 7,bruce74 ,period #acii-adhe-- ,james4 ,agincourt 7#adae74 ,warne4 -_/#f4 ,henty4 ,at ,agincourt4 ,blackie4 #f_/-4 ,mark ,twain4 ,joan of ,arc 7serious74 ,chatto ,windus4 #f_/-4 ,author of 8,schnberg ,cotta ,family04 ,joan the ,maid4 ,nelson4 #d_/-4 ,andrew ,lang4 ,the ,monk of ,fife 7,joan of ,arc74 ,longmans4 #c_/f4 ,mrs4 ,oliphant4 ,joan of ,arc4 ,putnam4 #e_/-4 ,sir ,w4 ,scott4 ,the ,fair ,maid of ,perth 7,murder of ,rothsay74 ,black4 #a_/f4 ,c4 ,m4 ,yonge4 ,the ,caged ,lion 7,james ,i4 of ,scotland74 ,macmillan4 #c_/f4 ,miss ,wilbraham4 ,for and ,against 7,wars of the ,roses7 7out of print74 ,c4 ,m4 ,yonge4 ,grisly ,grisell 7,wars of the ,roses74 ,macmillan4 #c_/f4 ,lady ,g4 ,fullerton4 ,a ,stormy ,life 7,margaret of ,anjou74 ,burns ,oates4 #f_/-4 ,c4 ,m4 ,yonge4 ,two ,penniless ,princesses4 ,macmillan4 #c_/f4 ,sir ,w4 ,scott4 ,anne of ,geierstein 7,margaret of ,anjou74 ,black4 #a_/f4 ,lytton4 ,last of the ,barons 7,warwick the ,king ,maker74 ,routledge4 #c_/f4 ,h4 ,ainsworth4 ,the ,star ,chamber 7,henry ,,vii474 ,various4 ,author of 8,the ,spanish ,brothers04 ,crushed yet ,conquering 7,john ,huss74 ,religious ,tract ,society4 #f_/-4 ,sir ,w4 ,scott4 ,quentin ,durward 7,louis ,,xi4 and the ,scottish ,guard74 ,black4 #a_/f4 ,g4 ,p4 ,r4 ,james4 ,mary of ,burgundy 7#adgg74 ,warne4 -_/#f4 ,period #adhe-afjc-- ,harrison ,ainsworth4 ,the ,star ,chamber4 ,routledge4 #b_/-4 ,everett ,green4 ,evil ,may ,day 7#aeag74 ,nelson4 #b_/f4 -- ,the ,church and the ,king 7,dissolution of the ,monasteries74 ,nelson4 #e_/-4 ,a4 ,manning4 ,the ,household of ,sir ,thomas ,more 7,diary of ,margaret ,roper74 ,hall4 #b_/f4 ,harrison ,ainsworth4 ,windsor ,castle 7,henry ,,viii474 ,routledge4 #b_/-4 ,c4 ,m4 ,yonge4 ,the ,armourer's ,prentices 7,divorce74 ,macmillan4 #c_/f4 ,mark ,twain4 ,the ,prince and the ,pauper 7,edward ,,vi474 ,chatto4 #c_/f4 ,stanley ,weyman4 ,francis ,cludde 7,mary ,tudor74 ,cassell4 #f_/-4 ,harrison ,ainsworth4 ,tower of ,london 7,lady ,j4 ,grey74 ,routledge4 #b_/-4 ,kingsley4 ,westward ,ho6 7,elizabeth's ,seadogs74 ,macmillan4 #b_/f4 ,sir ,w4 ,scott4 ,the ,monastery 7,murray's ,regency74 ,black4 #a_/f4 -- ,the ,abbot 7,loch ,leven74 ,black4 #a_/f4 -- ,kenilworth 7,amy ,robsart74 ,black4 #a_/f4 ,whyte ,melville4 ,the ,queen's ,maries 7,mary of ,scots74 ,longmans4 #a_/f4 ,eliza ,pollard4 ,a ,gentleman of ,england 7,sir ,p4 ,sidney74 ,addison4 #e_/-4 ,c4 ,m4 ,yonge4 ,unknown to ,history 7,mary of ,scots in ,captivity74 ,macmillan4 #c_/f4 ,everett ,green4 ,loyal ,hearts and ,true 7,queen ,elizabeth74 ,nelson4 #e_/-4 ,henty4 ,under ,drake's ,flag4 ,blackie4 #f_/-4 -- ,st4 ,bartholomew's ,eve4 ,blackie4 #f_/-4 ,robert ,leighton4 ,under the ,foeman's ,flag 7,armada74 ,melrose4 #c_/f4 ,mrs4 ,marshall4 ,penshurst ,castle 7,sir ,p4 ,sidney74 ,seeley4 #e_/-4 ,hon4 ,e4 ,lawless4 ,with ,essex in ,ireland4 ,smith1 ,elder4 #f_/-4 -- ,maelcho 7,irish ,rising of #aegi74 ,smith1 ,elder4 #f_/-4 ,kingsley4 ,plays and ,puritans 7,essays74 ,macmillan4 #c_/f4 ,reed4 ,sir ,ludar 7,ireland4 ,queen ,elizabeth74 ,sampson ,low4 #b_/f4 ,charles ,reade4 ,the ,cloister and the ,hearth 7for ,picture of ,middle ,ages4 ,erasmus74 ,chatto4 #c_/f4 ,mrs4 ,charles4 ,the ,schnberg ,cotta ,family 7,luther74 ,nelson4 #c_/f4 ,author of 8,mdlle4 ,mori04 ,in the ,olden ,time 7,peasant ,war in ,germany1 #aebe74 ,longmans4 #b_/f4 ,c4 ,m4 ,yonge4 ,the ,dove in the ,eagle's ,nest 7,maximilian74 ,macmillan4 #c_/f4 ,g4 ,eliot4 ,romola 7,savonarola74 ,blackwood4 #c_/f4 ,yeats4 ,the ,honour of ,savelli 7,csar ,borgia74 ,sampson ,low4 #b_/f4 ,grace ,aguilar4 ,vale of ,cedars 7,ferdinand and ,isabella74 ,groombridge4 #e_/-4 ,gordon ,stables4 ,westward with ,columbus4 ,blackie4 #e_/-4 ,author of 8,dark ,year of ,dundee04 ,the ,spanish ,brothers 7,persecutions74 ,nelson4 #d_/-4 ,henty4 ,by ,pike and ,dyke 7,netherlands74 ,blackie4 #f_/-4 -- ,by ,england's ,aid 7,netherlands74 ,blackie4 #f_/-4 ,liefde4 ,the ,beggars 7,netherlands74 ,hodder4 #c_/f4 ,everett ,green4 ,shut ,in 7,siege of ,antwerp1 #aehe74 ,nelson4 #e_/-4 ,stanley ,weyman4 ,the ,house of the ,wolf 7,st4 ,bartholomew74 ,longmans4 #c_/f4 ,c4 ,m4 ,yonge4 ,the ,chaplet of ,pearls 7,st4 ,bartholomew74 ,macmillan4 #c_/f4 ,stanley ,weyman4 ,a ,gentleman of ,france 7,henry ,,iii4 and the ,league74 ,longmans4 #f_/-4 ,james4 ,henry of ,guise 7the ,states of ,blois4 ,league ,times74 ,routledge4 #b_/-4 ,sir ,w4 ,scott4 ,marmion 7a tale of ,flodden ,field74 -- ,the ,lady of the ,lake 7,james ,v4 and ,douglas74 -- ,the ,lay of the ,last ,minstrel 7#aeeg74 ,tennyson4 ,columbus3 a poem4 -- ,queen ,mary3 a drama4 -- ,the ,revenge3 a ,ballad of the ,fleet4 ,period #afjc-affj-- ,sir ,walter ,scott4 ,the ,fortunes of ,nigel 7,court of ,james ,i474 ,black4 #a_/f4 -- ,a ,legend of ,montrose 7,montrose and ,argyle1 #afde74 ,black4 #a_/f4 -- ,woodstock 7,cavaliers and ,roundheads74 ,black4 #a_/f4 ,harrison ,ainsworth4 ,guy ,fawkes4 ,routledge4 #b_/-4 ,shorthouse4 ,john ,inglesant 7perfect ,picture of ,court of ,charles ,i474 ,macmillan4 #c_/f4 ,whyte ,melville4 ,holmby ,house 7,cavaliers and ,roundheads74 ,longmans4 #a_/f4 ,edna ,lyall4 ,to ,right the ,wrong 7,cavaliers and ,roundheads74 ,hurst ,blackett4 #f_/-4 ,a4 ,j4 ,church4 ,with the ,king at ,oxford 7,charles ,i474 ,seeley4 #e_/-4 ,j4 ,s4 ,fletcher4 ,when ,charles the ,first was ,king4 ,bentley4 #c vols4 #ca_/f4 ,author of 8,the ,schnberg ,cotta ,family04 ,the ,draytons and the ,davenants 7,civil ,wars74 ,nelson ,sons4 #c_/f4 ,wilkie ,collins4 ,hide and ,seek 7,civil ,wars74 ,chatto4 #c_/f4 ,george ,macdonald4 ,st4 ,george and ,st4 ,michael 7,civil ,wars4 ,siege of ,raglan ,castle74 ,kegan ,paul4 #c_/f4 ,rev4 ,a4 ,d4 ,crake4 ,fairleigh ,hall 7,civil ,wars74 ,mowbray4 #b_/f4 ,m4 and ,e4 ,lee4 ,rosamond ,fane 7,escape of ,duke of ,york74 ,griffith ,farran4 #c_/f4 ,anna ,glyn4 ,a ,pearl of the ,realm 7,civil ,wars4 ,nonsuch ,palace74 ,hutchinson4 #f_/-4 ,emma ,marshall4 ,a ,haunt of ,ancient ,peace 7,little ,gidding74 ,seeley4 #e_/-4 ,edited by ,canon ,carter4 ,nicholas ,ferrar 7not a story2 account of ,little ,gidding74 ,longmans4 #f_/-4 -- ,brave ,dame ,mary 7,siege of ,corfe ,castle74 ,s4,p4,c4,k4 #b_/-4 ,c4 ,m4 ,yonge4 ,under the ,storm 7,cavaliers and ,roundheads74 ,national ,society4 #c_/f4 ,miss ,holt4 ,ashcliffe ,hall 7,cavaliers and ,roundheads74 ,silver ,co4 #c_/f4 ,harrison ,ainsworth4 ,boscobel4 ,routledge4 #b_/-4 ,emma ,marshall4 ,the ,white ,king's ,daughter 7,charles ,i474 ,seeley4 #c_/f4 ,emma ,marshall4 ,under ,salisbury's ,spire 7,george ,herbert74 ,seeley4 #e_/-4 ,marryat4 ,the ,children of the ,new ,forest 7,cavalier story for children74 ,routledge4 #b_/-4 ,author of 8,the ,schnberg ,cotta ,family04 ,on ,both ,sides of the ,sea 7,commonwealth and ,restoration74 ,nelson4 #e_/-4 ,d4 ,g4 ,mc,chesney4 ,miriam ,cromwell's ,royalist4 ,blackwood ,son4 #f_/-4 ,miss ,manning4 ,mary ,powell 7,diary of ,milton's ,wife74 ,hall4 #b_/f4 ,field4 ,ethne 7,cromwell in ,ireland74 ,wells1 ,gardner4 #f_/-4 ,alfred de ,vigny4 ,cinq ,mars 7in ,french4 ,richelieu74 ,calmann ,levy4 #b vols4 #h francs4 ,g4 ,p4 ,r4 ,james4 ,richelieu4 ,warne4 -_/#f4 ,stanley ,weyman4 ,under the ,red ,robe 7,richelieu74 ,methuen4 #f_/-4 -- ,my ,lady ,rotha 7,thirty ,years' ,war74 ,innes4 #f_/-4 ,henty4 ,the ,lion of the ,north 7,gustavus ,adolphus74 ,blackie4 #f_/-4 ,sir ,w4 ,scott4 ,rokeby 7,marston ,moor74 ,browning4 ,strafford4 ,period #affj-agad-- ,sir ,walter ,scott4 ,old ,mortality 7,lauderdale and ,claverhouse74 ,black4 #a_/f4 -- ,peveril of the ,peak 7,popish ,plot74 ,black4 #a_/f4 -- ,the ,bride of ,lammermoor 7#agjj74 ,black4 #a_/f4 -- ,the ,black ,dwarf 7,jacobites74 ,black4 #a_/f4 ,austin ,clare4 ,the ,carved ,cartoon 7,plague and ,great ,fire74 ,s4,p4,c4,k4 #c_/-4 ,henty4 ,when ,london ,burned4 7,plague and ,great ,fire74 ,blackie4 #e_/-4 ,harrison ,ainsworth4 ,old ,st4 ,paul's4 7,plague and ,great ,fire74 ,routledge4 #b_/-4 ,miss ,manning4 ,cherry and ,violet 7,plague and ,great ,fire74 ,nimmo4 #f_/-4 ,anthony ,hope4 ,simon ,dale 7,treaties of ,dover74 ,methuen ,co4 #f_/-4 ,edna ,lyall4 ,in the ,golden ,days 7,algernon ,sidney74 ,hurst ,blackett4 #f_/-4 ,emma ,marshall4 ,winchester ,meads 7,bishop ,ken74 ,seeley4 #e_/-4 ,conan ,doyle4 ,micah ,clarke 7,monmouth's ,rebellion74 ,longmans4 #c_/f4 ,m4 and ,c4 ,lee4 ,the ,oak ,staircase 7,monmouth's ,rebellion74 ,griffith ,farran4 #c_/f4 ,blackmore4 ,lorna ,doone 7,monmouth's ,rebellion74 ,s4 ,low4 #b_/f4 ,walter ,besant4 ,for ,faith and ,freedom 7,monmouth's ,rebellion74 ,chatto4 #c_/f4 ,everett ,green4 ,in ,taunton ,town 7,monmouth's ,rebellion74 ,nelson4 #e_/-4 ,a4 ,e4 ,mason4 ,the ,courtship of ,maurice ,buckler 7#afhe74 ,macmillan4 #f_/-4 ,mary ,peard4 ,to ,horse and ,away 7,charles ,,ii474 ,national ,society4 #c_/f4 ,mary ,rowsell4 ,traitor or ,patriot 7,rye ,house ,plot74 ,blackie4 #c_/f4 ,stanley ,weyman4 ,shrewsbury 7a ,romance of the ,reign of ,william ,,iii474 ,longmans4 #f_/-4 ,henty4 ,orange and ,green 7,b4 ,boyne74 ,blackie4 #e_/-4 ,emma ,marshall4 ,kensington ,palace4 ,seeley4 #e_/-4 ,anon4 ,the ,last of the ,cavaliers 7#afhh74 ,bentley4 #f_/-4 ,henty4 ,the ,bravest of the ,brave 7,peterbro in ,spain74 ,blackie4 #e_/-4 ,m4 ,rowsell4 ,thorndyke ,manor 7,jacobite74 ,blackie4 #c_/f4 ,conan ,doyle4 ,the ,refugees 7,revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes74 ,longmans4 #c_/f4 ,thackeray4 ,esmond 7,jacobites4 ,anne's ,reign74 ,smith1 ,elder4 #a_/f4 ,period #agad-ahae-- ,sir ,w4 ,scott4 ,rob ,roy 7,rising of #agae74 ,black4 #a_/f4 -- ,the ,heart of ,midlothian 7,porteous ,riots74 ,black4 #a_/f4 -- ,waverley 7,rising of #agde74 ,black4 #a_/f4 -- ,guy ,mannering 7#agej74 ,black4 #a_/f4 -- ,red ,gauntlet 7,jacobites1 #aggj74 ,black4 #a_/f4 -- ,the ,antiquary 7#agih74 ,black4 #a_/f4 ,henty4 ,bonny ,prince ,charlie4 ,blackie4 #f_/-4 -- ,a ,jacobite ,exile 7in service of ,charles ,,xii4 of ,sweden74 ,blackie4 #e_/-4 -- ,with ,frederick the ,great 7,seven ,years' ,war74 ,blackie4 #f_/-4 -- ,hold ,fast for ,england 7,siege of ,gibraltar74 ,blackie4 #e_/-4 -- ,with ,clive in ,india4 ,blackie4 #f_/-4 -- ,with ,wolfe in ,canada4 ,blackie4 #f_/-4 -- ,in the ,reign of ,terror4 ,blackie4 #e_/-4 -- ,true to the ,old ,flag 7,war of ,american ,independence74 ,blackie4 #f_/-4 -- ,one of the ,twenty-eighth 7,waterloo74 ,blackie4 #e_/-4 -- ,with ,moore at ,corunna4 ,blackie4 #f_/-4 -- ,through ,russian ,snows4 ,blackie4 #e_/-4 ,walter ,besant4 ,dorothy ,forster 7,rising of #agae74 ,chatto4 #c_/f4 ,thackeray4 ,the ,four ,georges4 ,smith1 ,elder4 #a_/f4 ,andrew ,lang4 ,pickle the ,spy 7,young ,glengarry4 ,ellibank ,plot74 ,longmans4 #ah_/-4 ,author of 8,atelier du ,lys04 ,mistress ,beatrice ,cope 7,rising1 #agde74 ,hurst ,blackett4 #c_/f4 ,harrison ,ainsworth4 ,preston ,fight4 ,routledge4 #b_/-4 ,thackeray4 ,the ,virginians4 ,smith1 ,elder4 #e_/-4 ,author of 8,the ,schnberg ,cotta ,family04 ,diary of ,mrs4 ,kitty ,trevylyan 7,wesley74 ,nelson ,sons4 #c_/f4 -- ,against the ,stream 7,end of #ahth ,century74 ,s4,p4,c4,k4 #d_/-4 ,dickens4 ,barnaby ,rudge 7,gordon ,riots74 ,chapman ,hall4 #b_/f4 ,walter ,besant4 ,the ,chaplain of the ,fleet 7,fleet ,marriages74 ,chatto4 #c_/f4 ,sarah ,tytler4 ,the ,huguenot ,family 7,refugees in ,england74 ,chatto4 #b_/-4 ,fenimore ,cooper4 ,the ,last of the ,mohicans 7,english and ,americans74 ,routledge4 #b_/-4 ,g4 ,parker4 ,the ,trail of the ,sword 7,french in ,america74 ,methuen4 #f_/-4 ,emma ,marshall4 ,the ,four ,reigns 7,george ,,iii4 to ,victoria74 ,seeley4 #e_/-4 -- ,in ,colston's ,days 7,old ,bristol74 ,seeley4 #e_/-4 -- ,under the ,mendips 7,hannah ,more74 ,seeley4 #e_/-4 ,dickens4 ,a ,tale of ,two ,cities 7,french ,revolution74 ,chapman ,hall4 #b_/f4 ,stanley ,weyman4 ,the ,red ,cockade 7,french ,revolution74 ,longmans4 #f_/-4 ,author of 8,mdlle4 ,mori04 ,the ,atelier du ,lys 7,french ,revolution74 ,longmans4 #b_/f4 ,harriet ,martineau4 ,the ,peasant and the ,prince 7,french ,revolution74 ,routledge4 #a_/f4 ,m4 ,e4 ,coleridge4 ,the ,king with ,two ,faces 7,gustavus ,,iii4 of ,sweden4 ,french ,revolution74 ,edward ,arnold4 #f_/-4 ,author of 8,mdlle4 ,mori04 ,on the ,edge of the ,storm 7,french ,revolution74 ,warne4 #c_/f4 ,felix ,gras4 ,the ,reds of the ,midi 7,french ,revolution74 ,heinemann4 #c_/f4 ,sarah ,tytler4 ,citoyenne ,jacqueline 7,french ,revolution74 ,chatto4 #b_/-4 ,whyte ,melville4 ,sister ,louise 7,french ,revolution74 ,ward1 ,lock4 #b_/-4 ,c4 ,j4 ,a41 author of 8,good ,fight of ,faith04 ,in ,palace and ,faubourg 7,french ,revolution74 ,nelson4 #e_/-4 ,author of 8,atelier du ,lys04 ,a ,child of the ,revolution4 ,longmans4 #b_/f4 ,f4 ,m4 ,peard4 ,mother ,molly 7,threatened ,invasion of ,napoleon74 ,bell4 #e_/-4 ,conan ,doyle4 ,uncle ,bernac 7,napoleon74 ,smith1 ,elder4 #f_/-4 -- ,brigadier ,gerard 7,napoleon74 ,newnes4 #f_/-4 ,tolstoi4 ,war and ,peace 7,napoleon's ,russian ,campaign1 for teachers74 ,w4 ,scott4 #d vols4 #b_/f a vol4 ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,ancient ,,history4 ,by ,,mary ,,hanbidge1 ,m4,a4 7,lond474 ,general scope4 ,the importance of history as a school subject has been fully discussed in an earlier section4 ,but 8history10 as taught in schools1 too often connotes merely ,english1 or1 at best1 modern history4 ,hence the necessity of asserting separately the claim of ancient history1 though in the very fact that it is not a separate subject1 lies its importance4 ,the progressive development of the human race is a scientific axiom4 ,if we ignore the continuity of history1 we tend to base our teaching only on facts1 rather than on the laws which form the bond of sequence between them4 ,thus the sense of historical proportion is never awakened2 and the girl so trained may know in detail the history of ,england1 and the history of the ,israelites1 but has little idea of their relation to the rest of the modern or ancient world4 ,the child of to-day cannot attain to a true understanding of the history and culture of her own nation unless she has some ideas of the civilisation we inherit4 ,the ,renaissance is a fact which every text-book emphasises1 and every schoolgirl knows2 but what does she know of its spirit8 ,how little can she realise the enthusiasm that stirred those 8spacious times0 if she is an utter stranger to the 8glory that was ,greece1 and the greatness that was ,rome06 ,again1 in neglecting ancient history1 we lose sight of the homogeneity of the human race1 that oneness which ,thucydides felt would make his history not merely a passing record1 but a prophecy 4 ,and in truth the ancient city states grappled with many of the social and political problems of to-day4 ,they are set before us in miniature1 we see them in their entirety1 and their solution guides or warns us4 ,the influence of capital in politics1 the depopulation of country districts1 the dangers of a foreign corn supply1 the drifting of democracy to socialism1 and the treatment of subject races1 were questions of as vital importance for ,greece and ,rome as they are to-day4 ,so true is ,dr4 ,arnold's paradox that the ancient world is the most modern of all4 ,thus regarded1 ancient history forms a valuable mental training for upper forms1 a training which1 in the case of girls1 is especially useful1 since women too often do not realise the modern problems in which they are unconscious factors4 ,a further advantage is the accessibility of the original authorities1 even to a school class4 ,here at least they are not dependent on retrospective theories1 but can see how the history of the day impressed the men who made it--a result not so easily obtainable in other branches of history4 ,general suggestions4 ,to turn to the practical teaching of the subject4 ,from the beginning1 the child must be trained to realise that the history of the world is a whole4 ,throughout the school1 ancient and medival history should be taught side by side with that of ,england and ,palestine4 ,english history may with advantage be taught in less detail1 and time thus secured for the sister subject4 ,in ,french and ,german schools this system is definitely adopted2 we append a ,german scheme4 ,if possible1 the subject should be in the hands of the same teacher1 that the correlation of interest may be duly emphasised4 ,in classes where reading lessons are given1 poems1 plays1 etc41 which bear upon the history1 should be chosen1 and may suggest subjects for composition4 ,a geography lesson should precede the history course1 and the importance of geography throughout cannot be overestimated4 ,graduated scheme4 ,course ,a4 ,ages #i-aj4 ,with young children history proper is an impossibility1 but an interest in the life of the past may be awakened very early4 ,the mental development of the child epitomises that of the race1 and in the record of a nation mythology precedes history4 ,in the lowest classes of the ,cheltenham ,ladies' ,college a course of stories from ,greek mythology has met with marked success4 ,quite little children know ,jason1 with his one sandal1 as well as they do ,cinderella1 and ,athene is a familiar friend1 whose picture they recognise4 ,cavillers may say that we are only teaching fairy tales1 but the same children grown a little older see their ,athene the central point of all the glories of ,periclean ,athens1 and find themselves in a world they know4 ,such a course will begin with a talk about the ,greeks and their ,gods1 pass on to the heroes1 and end with the 8,tale of ,troy ,divine10 the wanderings of ,odysseus1 and the story of ,thebes2 of course these will be stories pure and simple1 not vehicles for any tiological theory1 and the success will depend entirely on the descriptive power of the teacher4 ,course ,b4 ,ages #aj-ab4 ,we are now on the threshold of history1 and since a child is naturally anthropomorphic1 the personal element must be made the most prominent4 ,this course will therefore consist of a series of biographies1 but biographies introductory to history4 ,the men therefore whom we choose must be men who make or mark a period1 and their lives must be closely connected4 ,for this ,greek history offers greater facilities than ,roman1 where the personal element is weaker4 ,the following series is suggested3-- #a4 ,lycurgus 7the dawn of history72 revive knowledge of ,atrid2 new ,peloponnesus1 cf4 ,heptarchy2 ,lycurgus and his laws2 rise of ,sparta4 #b4 ,solon1 lawgiver of ,athens4 #c4 ,pisistratus1 the tyranny2 rise of free ,athens4 #d4 ,crsus1 ,cyrus1 ,cambyses2 ,asiatic ,greece1 connection with ,bible history4 #e4 ,darius and his wrath against ,athens4 #f4 ,miltiades and ,marathon4 #g4 ,themistocles and ,salamis4 #h4 ,pausanias1 victor of ,plata2 his insolence and fall4 #i4 ,cimon1 expulsion of ,persians from gean4 #aj4 ,pericles and his ,athens2 ,sparta's jealousy2 the war4 #aa4 ,brasidas and ,demosthenes4 #ab4 ,nicias and the ,sicilian expedition4 #ac4 ,lysander and fall of ,athens4 #ad4 ,socrates and degradation of ,athens4 #ae4 ,agesilaus and the fall of ,sparta4 #af4 ,conon and the rebuilding of the walls4 #ag4 ,epaminondas1 the humbling of ,sparta4 #ah4 ,philip of ,macedon and his plans4 #ai4 ,demosthenes and how he failed to stop them4 #bj4 ,alexander4 ,in these two courses no text-books need be used or notes taken1 but the children should be required to tell the tale of the last lesson1 either viva voce or in writing4 ,the appended chart should be used throughout this course1 and will show the connection with ,jewish history4 ,course ,c4 ,history of ,rome to ,b4,c4 #ca4 ,we now come to history proper1 necessarily in outline4 ,this must not be mere chronology1 but a series of connected pictures of events4 ,such dates as are given must be the dates of a century4 ,we suggest that ,rome should form the subject of this course1 since in the story of the nations ,rome follows ,greece4 ,rome touches the world the children already know1 as mistress of ,britain1 and heir of ,alexander1 while ,pyrrhus and ,philip ,v4 of ,macedon are connecting links with the ,hellenistic age1 as a rule a terra incognita4 ,antiochus and the ,maccabees will connect it with ,jewish history4 ,for chart of connection with ,course ,a see end4 ,course ,d4 ,ages #ac-ad4 ,augustus to ,charlemagne4 ,the ,germans recognise the importance of this period4 ,in ,england1 forming as it does the link between ancient and modern history1 it is taught with neither1 and yet it is the key to the race question of modern ,europe4 ,we suggest a scheme whose two connecting links are3 the rise of ,christianity and the barbarian migrations4 #a4 ,augustus2 ,tiberius2 ,claudius4 #b4 ,nero2 the ,christians4 #c4 ,vespasian2 ,titus2 fall of ,jerusalem4 #d4 ,roman life2 ,pompeii4 #e4 ,britain and the expansion of the empire under ,trajan4 #f4 ,marcus ,aurelius2 ,christianity and ,paganism2 death of ,oracles4 #g4 ,diocletian2 last persecutions of ,christians2 barbarians2 inroads4 #h4 ,constantine1 first ,christian emperor2 ,constantinople4 #i4 ,julian2 reaction against ,christianity2 ,franks2 ,strasburg 7#ceg74 #aj4 ,alaric and ,visigoths 7#daj74 #aa4 ,attila and ,huns 7#dej74 #ab4 ,fall of empire4 #ac4 ,alexandria4 #ad4 ,theodoric and ,ostrogothic kingdoms4 #ae4 ,clovis and ,frankish kingdoms4 #af4 ,descendants of ,clovis2 ,brunhilda and ,fredegond2 extension of ,frankish kingdom4 #ag4 ,monastic age1 ,celtic and ,roman2 ,gregory the ,great2 rise of ,papacy2 ,gregory and ,brunhilda2 ,augustine4 #ah4 ,mahomet4 #ai4 ,caliphs2 spread of ,mahometanism in ,asia1 ,africa1 ,spain4 #bj4 ,saracens repulsed 7#gcb72 ,charles ,martel4 #ba4 ,fainant kings2 mayors of palace4 #bb4 ,charlemagne4 #bc4 ,holy ,roman empire4 ,history for higher classes4 ,in the higher classes of a school we may assume a fair knowledge of outline history4 ,periods bearing on the classical reading should be selected and read in detail4 ,typical periods as 8,the ,empire of ,athens and the ,age of ,pericles10 and 8,the ,age of ,augustus04 ,a standard history should be worked through1 and other books1 notably the original historians1 will be suggested4 ,a lending library is therefore essential4 ,an essay subject will be set in connection with each lecture to form a centre for reading4 ,illustrations4 ,throughout1 the importance of concrete illustrations cannot be too strongly insisted upon4 ,in many places the lectures can be supplemented by visits to local museums1 ,roman relics1 etc4 7e4g41 ,chedworth ,villa near ,cheltenham1 ,gloucester ,museum1 ,bath74 ,for elder classes a visit to the ,british ,museum would obviously be helpful1 but it is wonderfully easy to interest even quite young children4 ,a board schoolboy of eleven1 who was wandering aimlessly about the ,elgin room1 was delighted when ,i showed him the ,nemesis head and told him the story of the ,persian ,invincible ,armada1 which never set up its trophy4 ,invaluable help can also be obtained from the ,educational ,museum of the ,teachers' ,guild4 ,a full catalogue is published1 in which we specially notice 7#a7 illustrations of ,greek dress1 which might be copied by the mythology class 7,course ,a72 7#b7 maps and plans1 especially of ,athens and ,rome 7,holzel72 7#c7 coins1 museum reproductions2 7#d7 portraits2 7#e7 lantern slides4 ,mention may also be made of views of the ,english ,photographic ,co41 ,constitution ,square1 ,athens1 who send a priced catalogue2 the series of card reliefs1 #f;d4 each1 by ,lecherchier1 ,barbe et ,cie41 to be obtained from the ,art ,schools ,association1 #ba ,queen's ,square1 ,bayswater2 card illustrations from ,menge's ,antike ,kunst4 ,these illustrations would be of double value were they the permanent possession of the class-room2 the class could then become really familiar with each one4 ,it would be a great boon if a central loan collection could be formed by some such body as the ,teachers' ,guild1 from which illustrations of special periods could be borrowed term by term1 a plan which at present is only adopted for lantern slides4 ,this would give access to a greater selection of pictures and models than a single school can provide1 and might lead to the development of the historical side of the school museum1 and the consequent formation of a school archological society4 ,maps4 ,kiepert's wall-maps may be taken for granted4 ,the list in the ,teachers' ,guild catalogue is helpful1 but a teacher must make her own period maps4 7,white blind holland is an excellent material47 ,books4 #a4 ,text-books4 7a7 ,roman4 ,creighton's ,primer2 ,e4 ,s4 ,shuckburgh's ,history of ,rome for ,beginners and ,history of ,rome2 ,well's ,short ,history of ,rome to the death of ,augustus2 ,how and ,leigh's ,history of ,rome2 ,mommsen's ,history of ,rome 7abridged for schools72 ,pelham's ,outlines of ,roman ,history 7,epoch ,series72 ,bury's ,student's ,roman ,empire4 7b7 ,greek4 ,fyffe's ,primer2 ,oman's ,history of ,greece2 ,cox's ,general ,history of ,greece 7,epoch ,series72 ,butcher's ,demosthenes4 7c7 ,transition4 ,freeman's ,europe 7,primer72 ,freeman's ,general ,sketch of ,european ,history4 #b4 ,historical atlases4 ,student's ,kiepert4 #c4 ,suggestions for school library in connection with junior courses4 ,miss ,gardner's ,friends of the ,olden ,time and ,rome the ,centre of the ,world2 ,church's ,stories2 ,cox's ,tales of ,ancient ,greece2 ,kingsley's ,heroes and ,poems2 ,macaulay's ,lays2 ,hawthorne's ,tanglewood ,tales2 ,epics and ,romances of the ,middle ,ages 7,wagner and ,anson72 ,lang1 ,leaf and ,myers' ,iliad2 ,butcher and ,lang's ,odyssey2 ,worsley's ,odyssey2 ,morris' ,earthly ,paradise and ,life and ,death of ,jason2 ,browning's ,balaustion and ,aristophanes' ,apology2 ,miss ,a4 ,swanwick's schylus2 ,tennyson's none1 etc42 ,milton2 ,atlas of ,classical ,portraits--7a7 ,roman2 7b7 ,greek 7published by ,dent72 ,baumeister's ,bilder aus dem ,alterthum4 ,german ,scheme for ,history ,teaching3-- #ast year4 ,greek legends and ,german sagas4 #bnd year4 ,pictures of ancient ,german and ,prussian history1 ,cyrus to the ,emperor ,frederick4 #crd year4 ,german and ,prussian history1 from invasion of barbarians to the ,emperor ,frederick4 #dth year4 ,ancient history to invasions of barbarians 7every fortnight1 one hour's repetition of ,german and ,prussian history74 #eth year4 ,german history1 from invasion of barbarians to #afdh4 #fth year4 ,from #afdh to the present day1 with special stress on general history of civilisation4 ,,parallel ,,chart ,,for ,,the ,,younger ,,classes4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,year4 ,biblical ,history4 ,greece4 ,rome4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #adjj #acjj ,exodus4 ,troy8 #abjj ,samson4 #aajj #ajjj ,david4 #ijj ,homer8 #hjj ,lycurgus8 #gjj ,rome4 #fjj ,nebuchadnezzar4 ,solon4 ,belshazzar4 ,cyrus4 ,pisistratus4 #ejj ,temple rebuilt4 ,darius4 ,expulsion of ,kings4 ,esther4 ,xerxes4 ,miltiades4 ,themistocles4 ,pericles4 #djj ,socrates4 ,the ,gauls4 ,epaminondas4 #cjj ,alexander4 7,ptolemies47 7,pyrrhus47 #ast ,punic ,war4 #bjj 7,antiochus47 7,philip of ,macedon4 ,hannibal47 7,maccabees47 ,polybius4 #ajj ,corinth4 ,carthage4 7,cleopatra47 ,cicero4 ,pompey4 ,julius ,csar4 ,a4,d4 ,herod the ,great4 ,birth of ,christ ,augustus4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,at the beginning of ,course ,b1 ,column ,i4 7except the names in brackets7 will be marked on the chart4 ,column ,,ii4 as far as ,alexander to be filled in during ,course ,b4 ,column ,,iii4 and the brackets of ,columns ,i4 and ,,ii4 to be filled in during ,course ,c4 ,,time-,,maps4 ,by ,,dorothea ,,beale4 ,the practice of representing to the eye by means of diagrams the facts of science1 physical and social1 is becoming more common3 we have jagged lines indicating fluctuations in the winds or in the stocks4 ,in an ,american record which has been sent to me1 there are coloured squares representing the thousands of children who are regular in their attendance at school1 black squares standing for the defaulting thousands4 ,by such means we can see at a glance what the mind finds it difficult otherwise to realise2 it furnishes a framework into which we can fit anything we wish to locate4 ,historical ,charts4 ,it is hardly necessary to say that for any orderly study of history it is necessary to have some scheme into which we may fit the subjects of study4 ,as well might we expect by learning latitude and longitude to understand the position of places on the earth's surface1 as by learning dates to get a clear idea of the relative position of events in time4 ,we want some form of map which will represent the events to the eye4 ,many excellent charts have been drawn up giving us parallel histories1 but the great difficulty is their prodigious size4 ,time is one-dimensional1 and if we give a small linear space to a century1 and try to represent a few thousand years1 the mind fails to grasp the picture2 if the scale of the different periods varies1 the proportion is wrong4 ,for this reason rivers and trees of time1 etc41 have been more or less failures2 they are useful and interesting1 but the objection is1 that they are either too large and detailed to be carried in the memory1 or that the landmarks are too slight4 ,the ,mthode ,mnmonique ,polonaise1 which is much used in ,france1 was introduced to my notice1 and first used by me at ,queen's ,college3 it has the great advantage of compactness--it is in form like a geographical map4 ,it can be adapted to various purposes1 but ,i shall dwell now on its applications as a record of time1 and show the different ways in which it can be used by little children1 though it is equally well adapted for ,tom ,brown at ,oxford 7who seems to have used it7 and for the mature student of history4 ,it may be made for little ones into a system of object-lessons1 or hieroglyphics1 if you will1 which appeal to the child's imagination and help him to realise something of the proportion of things1 and whilst looking at the world1 as each of us must1 from our own 8pin-point10 yet see life in relation to the lives of others4 ,it is compact2 it shows at a glance the relations of events4 ,we can have a world-map and give only the great landmarks1 or we may by a map of large proportions work out to any degree of detail a short period4 ,the plan is to make a square of ten represent a century1 and each horizontal line a decade4 ,thus3-- ---------------------------------------- #j #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i ---------------------------------------- #aj #aa #ab #ac #ad #ae #af #ag #ah #ai ---------------------------------------- #bj #ba #bb #bc #bd #be #bf #bg #bh #bi ---------------------------------------- #cj #ca #cb #cc #cd #ce #cf #cg #ch #ci ---------------------------------------- #dj #da #db #dc #dd #de #df #dg #dh #di #ej #ea #eb #ec #ed #ee #ef #eg #eh #ei ---------------------------------------- #fj #fa #fb #fc #fd #fe #ff #fg #fh #fi ---------------------------------------- #gj #ga #gb #gc #gd #ge #gf #gg #gh #gi ---------------------------------------- #hj #ha #hb #hc #hd #he #hf #hg #hh #hi ---------------------------------------- #ij #ia #ib #ic #id #ie #if #ig #ih #ii ---------------------------------------- ,it will at once be seen that all the numbers in the first line of a century are units1 in the second tens1 in the third twenties1 and so on2 whilst1 if we look down the vertical line1 all the numbers in the first row end with nought1 in the second with one1 and so on4 ,the thick line is intended to help the eye2 we have forty and fifty on each side of the horizontal thick line1 four and five on each side of the vertical4 ,a few minutes' practice will generally enable the pupil to read off numbers rapidly from a blank square4 ,he will then have to learn the position of the marks in any century1 as he would learn the geography of a country1 or the shape of a constellation4 ,take1 for example1 the ,english history of the fourteenth century4 ,we mark ,edward ,,ii41 in #acjg2 ,edward ,,iii41 in #acbg2 ,richard ,,ii41 #acgg2 ,henry ,,iv41 #acii4 ,the dates need not be learned2 we have the picture of the century in our mind and can read off the square4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,some children take much pleasure in making and painting illustrated charts4 ,i have one on a large scale of the sixteenth century1 giving the accession of ,queen ,mary--#aeec1 and a picture of the ,tower1 to which ,northumberland and others were sent4 ,a block in #aeed tells of the executions consequent on ,wyatt's rebellion1 and a dove with an olive branch of ,philip's intercession for ,elizabeth--#aeee2 there is a picture of a martyr at the stake1 and a hand in the flames for ,cranmer--#aeeg2 a scroll stands for the first ,covenant in ,scotland1 and a sword for the war with ,france--#aeeh2 there is a heart with ,calais written on it4 ,here is a specimen of a chart with a key of the sixteenth century4#ai ,it will be seen from this how events in contemporary history can be introduced4 ,thus the first year1 #aejj1 reminds us of the discovery of ,america1 and of the great jubilee1 the precursor of the ,papal downfall2 the fleur de lys standing for the ,french kings and the cross for the ,german ,emperors1 tell of the accession of ,francis ,i4 and ,charles ,v4 ,portraits are given of ,english sovereigns4 ,we have later the massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew with daggers1 a ship for the ,armada1 etc41 etc4 #ai ,it may be well to add that ,i am not ignorant of the discussions respecting the proper beginning of a century4 ,is the year #ahjj the last year of the eighteenth or the first year of the nineteenth century8 ,our dates have been translated from the ,latin ordinals1 and we ought to say the eighteen-hundredth year1 instead of the year eighteen-hundred4 ,i have deliberately preferred to conform the chart to the vulgar tongue4 ,if ,i did not1 the numbers in the first line would contain nine units and one ten1 instead of all units2 the second line of tens would contain one twenty1 and so on4 ,if we are content to use the inaccurate language of daily life1 bearing in mind that it requires correction1 and making such corrections when we are engaged in important historical or astronomical calculations1 we may well be content to do the same with the chart4 ,i shall1 therefore1 consider the life of a century as that of a centenarian4 ,we say of a child that he is in his #ast1 #bnd1 #crd1 etc41 year1 when he is #j1 #a1 #b1 etc41 years old2 so1 also1 a person is in his #ajjth year when he is #ii years old2 and he has lived a century at the close of this year1 for the cardinal marks the number of completed years1 the ordinal the number of the year in progress4 ,so #agii is regarded as the closing year of the last century1 #ahjj1 #ahja1 as the first and second of this4 ,for a learned and elaborate discussion on the subject1 and a list of authorities for the view adopted1 see ,an ,examination of the ,century ,question1 ,george ,bell1 ,fleet ,street1 #ahej4 ,illustration ,,key ,,to ,,sixteenth ,,century ,,chart4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #aejj4 #aeja4 #aejb4 #aejc4 #aejd4 ,columbus ,julius ,,ii4 prisoner4 ,jubilee4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #aeaj4 #aeaa4 #aeab4 #aeac4 #aead4 ,flodden4 ,leo ,x4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #aebj4 #aeba4 #aebb4 #aebc4 #aebd4 ,soleyman4 ,diet of ,worms4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #aecj4 #aeca4 #aecb4 #aecc4 #aecd4 ,death of ,anne ,wolsey4 ,boleyn4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #aedj4 #aeda4 #aedb4 #aedc4 #aedd4 ,jesuits4 ,cath4 ,howard ,catharine4 ,anne beheaded4 ,parr4 of ,cleves4 ,cath4 ,howard4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #aeje4 #aejf4 #aejg4 #aejh4 #aeji4 ,henry ,,viii4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #aeae4 #aeaf4 #aeag4 #aeah4 #aeai4 ,francis ,i4 ,charles ,v4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #aebe4 #aebf4 #aebg4 #aebh4 #aebi ,prussia4 ,baber4 ,teutonic ,order secularised4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #aece4 #aecf4 #aecg4 #aech4 #aeci4 ,fisher and ,anne ,boleyn ,more beheaded4 executed4 ,jane ,seymour4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #aede4 #aedf4 #aedg4 #aedh4 #aedi4 ,council of ,edward ,,vi4 ,trent4 ,henry ,,ii4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,illustration ,,key ,,to ,,sixteenth ,,century ,,chart4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #aeej4 #aeea4 #aeeb4 #aeec4 #aeed4 ,mary ,spenser born4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #aefj4 #aefa4 #aefb4 #aefc4 #aefd4 ,charles ,,ix4 ,guise ,max4 ,,ii4 assass4 ,shakspere born4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #aegj4 #aega4 #aegb4 #aegc4 #aegd4 ,massacre of ,henry ,,ii4 ,st4 ,bar- tholomew4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #aehj4 #aeha4 #aehb4 #aehc4 #aehd4 ,orange assass4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #aeij4 #aeia4 #aeib4 #aeic4 #aeid4 ,faerie ,shakspere's ,hooker's ,queene1 ,poems4 ,eccles4 #c books4 ,polity4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #aeee4 #aeef4 #aeeg4 #aeeh4 #aeei4 ,persecu- ,cranmer4 ,elizabeth4 ,francis ,,ii4 tions4 ,ferdinand ,i4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #aefe4 #aeff4 #aefg4 #aefh4 #aefi4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #aege4 #aegf4 #aegg4 #aegh4 #aegi4 ,rudolph ,,ii4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #aehe4 #aehf4 #aehg4 #aehh4 #aehi4 ,mary ,armada4 ,henry ,,iv4 ,queen of ,scots beheaded4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #aeie4 #aeif4 #aeig4 #aeih4 #aeii4 ,bacon's ,edict of ,essays4 ,nantes4 ,shakspere's first ,play4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,in the charts ,i have published1#bj ,i have given only ,english kings2 when these are fixed in the memory1 events of general history can be gradually introduced1 and paper ruled on any scale required4 #bj ,students' ,chronological ,maps 7,bell ,sons1 #cs4 #f;d474 ,if the chart is studied as a whole1 either in reference to ,english or modern history1 it is convenient to divide it into four periods1 of five hundred years each1 corresponding to four lines in the chart1 and to characterise each century4 ,then on a larger scale1 for which we have sheets of paper ruled1 we put in gradually certain landmarks1 whilst giving lessons on modern history1 such matters being written in as the teacher directs4 ,the writer's text-book of ,english and general history1 in which are given the sovereigns of the principal ,european countries1 notable persons and events1 etc41 can be used for lessons in connection with the chart4#ba #ba ,for more complete lists of sovereigns and a selection of the more important dates1 ,beale's ,student ,text-book of ,english and ,modern ,history may be referred to1 and ,students' ,chronological ,maps 7,bell ,sons74 ,i subjoin a syllabus of a course of lessons on modern history3-- ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ast #bnd #crd #dth #eth ,christianity ,good ,military ,constantine ,fall of ,rome ,emperors ,despotism ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #fth #gth #hth #ith #ajth ,barbaric ,mahomet ,charlemagne ,alfred ,feudalism ,wars ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #aath #abth #acth #adth #aeth ,hildebrand ,crusades ,schoolmen ,rise of ,renaissance ,middle-class ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #afth #agth #ahth #aith #bjth ,reformation ,religious ,political ,revolution ,wars ,wars ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,i4--,in the first century we see ,rome at the height of prosperity1 victorious on all sides4 ,during the second1 she maintains her position fairly under the good emperors4 ,the third is a period of trouble and confusion1 the empire is struggling for existence4 ,in the fourth1 the firm government of ,constantine maintained1 for a short time after his accession1 comparative peace2 but the removal of the seat of government1 and the subsequent division of the empire1 facilitated the barbaric triumphs of ,radagaisus1 ,alaric1 ,attila and ,genseric in the fifth2 and before its close1 the ,western empire had fallen1 and ,theodoric the ,ostrogoth was king of ,italy4 ,this line embraces in ,britain the #djj years of the ,roman occupation1 and a small portion of the ,anglo-,saxon period4 ,,ii4--,in the second line we have the period of barbarian settlements--tribes are changing into nations4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon invasions1 the unceasing contests amongst the numerous petty kings1 have terminated1 by the middle of the tenth century1 in the union of the country under ,athelstane1 the first who can properly be called ,king of all ,england4 ,in ,france we have the union of the ,franks under ,clovis1 the constant civil wars1 interminable divisions1 and fainant kings of the ,merovingian period1 the union of the country under ,charlemagne1 the renewed civil strife1 subdivisions1 and fainant kings of the ,carlovingian line1 and the accession of the third1 or ,capetian ,dynasty4 ,in ,germany1 too1 order is being developed out of confusion1 and1 in the tenth century1 the different nations have agreed to choose one king2 barriers are opposed to further invasion from without1 free cities are rising1 feudalism is being rapidly developed1 the spirit of chivalry is felt1 and the idea of a united ,christendom1 subject to the emperor as temporal1 to the pope as spiritual head1 may be traced most distinctly in the schemes of the ,othos1 and the attempt of ,sylvester ,,ii4 to rouse the ,european nations for a crusade4 ,in ,italy1 so long a battlefield1 the great republics are rising1 and the pope from time to time asserting his independence4 ,in the ,east1 in ,africa1 in ,spain1 the ,mahometan kingdoms have been established4 ,during so turbulent a period1 we must expect to find many heroes1 and from these we may select ,mahomet1 ,charlemagne and ,alfred1 as the central figures of the seventh1 eighth and ninth centuries4 ,,iii4---,in the third line we have the formation of the states of modern ,europe4 ,the great nations of the ,west are no longer isolated units1 for they have joined together in crusades against the ,east1 they acknowledge one head in the popes4 ,the popes1 mighty in the person of ,gregory ,,vii4 in the eleventh century1 in ,innocent ,,iii4 in the thirteenth1 have sunk to the lowest depths of ignominy in the person of ,alexander ,,vi4 ,the ,albigenses are almost exterminated in the thirteenth1 but ,wickliffe has preached in the fourteenth4 ,huss and ,jerome of ,prague have been martyred at ,constance early in the fifteenth1 but ,luther has begun to study the ,scriptures4 ,the middle classes1 too1 have been growing in importance1 citizens have triumphed over warriors4 ,the power of a turbulent chivalry has been destroyed by civil wars1 the people have risen to power4 ,the invention of gunpowder has changed the aspect of war1 and the introduction of printing brought about a vast change in education2 great writers1 as ,chaucer and ,dante1 are beginning to produce their works in the vulgar tongue4 ,america has1 at the close of the period1 been just discovered4 ,,iv4--,in the last line we have a period marked first by struggles for religious1 afterwards for political liberty1 the long religious wars of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries4 ,the oppression of the aristocratic and papal powers during the preceding period led1 in some instances1 to the exaggeration of the monarchical authority1 and to this are opposed the revolutions of the seventeenth1 eighteenth and nineteenth centuries1 which have in some instances produced a reaction in favour of despotism4 ,the discovery of ,america has given an extraordinary impulse to naval enterprise1 to colonisation and commerce2 this1 together with the diffusion of knowledge by printing1 has greatly stimulated intellectual activity1 and the mathematical and philosophical studies of the sixteenth century have prepared the way for the practical triumphs of our own day4 ,only a few leading dates have been marked in the published charts1 which are coloured for different periods1 but these may be added to indefinitely--sometimes by writing in additional signs or words to mark contemporary sovereigns1 etc41 but it is better not to multiply these too much2 for many things no signs need be used1 as persons and things of minor importance will become associated in the memory with the more important4 ,or again1 suppose a special subject is taken up1 as ,english literature or the history of painting1 the name of a leading author or painter can be written across that portion of the century in which his chief works appeared1 and all who belong to his school of thought will be easily remembered in connection with him4 ,a chart of ,english literature has been published on this plan by ,baker1 ,clifton4 ,in the ,chart of ,ancient ,history1 the numbers are read upwards and backwards4 ,thus3-- ---------------------------------------- #ii #ih #ig #if #ie #id #ic #ib #ia #ij ---------------------------------------- #hi #hh #hg #hf #he #hd #hc #hb #ha #hj ---------------------------------------- #gi #gh #gg #gf #ge #gd #gc #gb #ga #gj ---------------------------------------- #fi #fh #fg #ff #fe #fd #fc #fb #fa #fj ---------------------------------------- #ei #eh #eg #ef #ee #ed #ec #eb #ea #ej #di #dh #dg #df #de #dd #dc #db #da #dj ---------------------------------------- #ci #ch #cg #cf #ce #cd #cc #cb #ca #cj ---------------------------------------- #bi #bh #bg #bf #be #bd #bc #bb #ba #bj ---------------------------------------- #ai #ah #ag #af #ae #ad #ac #ab #aa #aj ---------------------------------------- #i #h #g #f #e #d #c #b #a #j ---------------------------------------- ,we give1 in conclusion1 photographs of two charts prepared for the ,victorian ,exhibition 7#ahig7 with a key4 ,the first gives the chief events of the ,queen's reign1 the second the chief scientific discoveries4 ,illustration ,,key ,,to ,,chart ,no4 ,i4 ,,chart ,,of ,,the ,,queen',s ,,reign4 #ahcg4 ,the ,queen's ,accession4 #ahch4 ,first ,electric ,telegraph4 #ahdj4 ,queen's ,marriage--,penny ,postage4 #ahda4 ,birth of ,prince of ,wales4 #ahdb4 ,capture of ,shanghai4 #ahdf4 ,repeal of the ,corn ,laws4 #ahdh4 ,death of ,lord ,melbourne--,chartist ,revolt4 #ahej4 ,death of ,wordsworth and ,sir ,robert ,peel4 #ahea4 ,first ,great ,exhibition4 #aheb4 ,death of the ,duke of ,wellington4 #ahed4 ,crimean ,war4 #aheg4 ,indian ,mutiny4 #ahfj4 ,death of ,lord ,aberdeen4 #ahfa4 ,death of the ,prince ,consort4 #ahfc4 ,prince of ,wales' ,marriage4 #ahfd4 ,birth of the ,duke of ,clarence4 #ahfe4 ,birth of the ,duke of ,york--,death of ,lord ,palmerston4 #ahfi4 ,death of ,lord ,derby4 #ahga4 ,disestablishment of the ,irish ,church4 #ahgf4 ,queen ,proclaimed ,empress of ,india4 #ahgh4 ,death of ,lord ,john ,russell4 #ahgi4 ,zulu ,war4 #ahhj4 ,lord ,roberts' ,relief of ,candahar4 #ahha4 ,death of ,lord ,beaconsfield4 #ahhd4 ,soudan ,war4 #ahhe4 ,death of ,gordon--,bible ,revised4 #ahhg4 ,queen's ,jubilee4 #ahhi4 ,death of ,browning4 #ahib4 ,death of ,duke of ,clarence4 #ahic4 ,marriage of ,duke of ,york--,death of ,tennyson--,home ,rule ,bill ,rejected4 #ahid4 ,birth of ,prince ,edward4 #ahif4 ,jameson's ,raid4 #ahig4 ,queen's ,diamond ,jubilee4 ,illustration ,,key ,,to ,,chart ,no4 ,,ii4 ,,showing ,,progress ,,in ,,science ,,during ,,the ,,queen',s ,,reign4 #ahcg4 ,first ,telegraph4 #ahci4 ,photography--,daguerre4 #ahda4 ,sewing ,machine4 #ahdb4 ,nasmyth's ,steam ,hammer4 #ahdc4 ,ross' ,telescope4 #ahdh4 ,planet ,neptune ,discovered4 #ahdi4 ,joule's ,mechanical ,equivalent of ,heat--,ansthetics4 #ahea4 ,the ,great ,exhibition4 #aheb4 ,ophthalmoscope4 #ahed4 ,armstrong ,gun4 #ahef4 ,tyndall's ,investigation of ,glaciers4 #aheg4 ,atlantic ,cable from ,valentia to ,newfoundland4 #aheh4 ,the ,great ,eastern4 #ahei4 ,darwin1 ,origin of ,species--,brunel's ,death4 #ahfj4 ,stellar ,spectroscopy--,huggins4 #ahfa4 ,aeronautic ,experiments4 #ahfd4 ,clifton ,suspension ,bridge4 #ahfe4 ,lister1 ,antiseptic ,treatment4 #ahfg4 ,death of ,faraday4 #ahfh4 ,suez ,canal4 #ahgj4 ,torpedo4 #ahga4 ,huxley1 ,anatomy of ,vertebrates4 #ahgb4 ,daily ,weather ,chart first begun4 #ahgf4 ,challenger at ,portsmouth--,bell's ,telephone4 #ahgh4 ,electric ,light on the ,embankment4 #ahgi4 ,phonograph4 #ahhj4 ,pasteur's ,cure of ,hydrophobia4 #ahhb4 ,sir ,w4 ,siemen's ,steel ,process4 #ahhe4 ,maxim ,gun4 #ahhh4 ,stellar ,photography--,sir ,isaac ,roberts4 #ahhi4 ,bicycles1 ,the ,pneumatic ,tyre4 #ahij4 ,forth ,bridge4 #ahib4 ,tower ,bridge4 #ahid4 ,argon1 by ,lord ,rayleigh and ,professor ,ramsay4 #ahie4 ,rntgen ,rays4 #ahif4 ,lord ,kelvin's ,jubilee4 ,,economics ,,for ,,girls4 ,by ,,margaret ,,bridges4 ,changed attitude of public towards economics4 ,nothing strikes a student of economics more forcibly than the change which has come over public opinion with regard to this subject during the last few years4 ,until quite lately1 it has been regarded1 except by scholars1 with suspicion and dislike1 accused of setting forth material wealth as the supreme object of human desire1 and of ignoring all that is generous and disinterested in human nature4 ,to-day things are very different3 indeed it might be said we are all economists now4 ,some vestige1 however1 of the old prejudice still lingers in the minds of those who ask3 8,what is the good of teaching economics to ,girls80 ,training given in accuracy4 7#a7 ,the student of economics is trained to think exactly1 to reason closely1 and to express herself clearly4 ,no one surely would maintain that such training is less needed by girls than by boys4 ,on the contrary1 we are often assured that women are less accurate than men1 and are constitutionally illogical4 ,in any science1 vagueness of thought and looseness of expression are fatal to success1 but the student of economics has a peculiar difficulty to overcome1 for he finds no special vocabulary ready for his use4 ,the terms used are for the most part those familiar in everyday language1 employed however in a very definite and sometimes peculiar sense4 ,great care is needed in distinguishing between the ordinary and the economic meaning of such terms as utility1 wealth1 capital1 value1 and many others4 ,and the training in scientific precision of language thus given is no small gain in these days of slip-shod ,english4 ,reasoning powers developed4 7#b7 ,the study of economics tends to stimulate independent thought1 and to develop 8mental muscle04 ,we take it for granted that the questions set for home work require an application of the principles given1 and not a mere reproduction of notes4 ,the girls must think out the problems for themselves1 for1 as they truly remark sometimes3 8,we can't find the answers in our books04 ,political economy certainly does not lend itself to cribbing or cramming--and we are thankful that our text-books supply no ready-made solutions of problems4 ,history rendered more interesting4 7#c7 ,we find that the study of the industrial conditions of our country gives an additional interest to history4 ,to read it with economic eyes is to read it afresh1 whilst to study it without them is to leave out a very important factor4 ,interest shown by pupils in subject4 ,diagrams supplied by pupils4 ,illustrations drawn from daily life4 7#d7 ,i would urge the great importance of giving our girls1 especially those engaged in philanthropic work1 some knowledge of those economic principles upon which such work must be based to do real good4 ,we have learnt that this is not easy1 and that incalculable mischief may be done by thoughtless benevolence1 which is too often cruelty in disguise4 ,mr4 ,loch1 in speaking of charity organisation1 has said3 8,it is likely that we shall in the future draw our women secretaries from the ranks of those who have taken the trouble to study political economy04 ,of course1 there must be the training of the heart as well as the head4 ,our theories1 however perfect1 will avail us little without the sympathetic insight that love alone can give1 but perhaps women specially need to remember that sympathy itself must be guided by reason4 ,still it may be asked3 8,can political economy1 dealing as it does1 for the most part1 with dry abstractions1 be made interesting to girls80 ,my experience is1 that in no branch of their studies are the pupils more responsive or more ready to do their part of the work1 and indeed to give often more than is actually demanded4 ,they particularly enjoy the making of original diagrams 7very original sometimes671 and occasionally so elaborate as to cost the teacher some anxious study4 ,much amusement may be got out of such seemingly unpromising material as even the ,law of ,diminishing ,returns or ,ricardo's ,theory of ,rent1 when they are touched upon by an imaginative or artistic girl4 ,to past generations of pupils ,i owe many apt illustrations and ingenious diagrams1 which have been stored up for future use1 because they were much better than any ,i had thought of myself4 ,i think our lessons fail sometimes1 because we work so hard ourselves1 that we leave our pupils nothing to do6 ,now in economics we are dealing to a great extent with facts that are already familiar to them1 so that we can constantly appeal to their own experience and observation1 and the teacher will find that 8interrogative lessons on the ,socratic model0 are particularly suited to this subject4 ,the daily newspapers will furnish her with plenty of illustrations1 and economic laws can be shown to be working themselves out before our eyes4 ,what better comment on the ,laws of ,demand and ,supply could we wish for than that supplied by the recent 8boom0 and subsequent 8slump0 in the bicycle trade1 or the speculation in seats during the late ,jubilee6 ,the illustrations furnished by the girls themselves1 from their own experience1 are specially valuable4 ,the daughters of ,indian officers can testify to the diminished purchasing power of the 8vanishing rupee10 whilst ,irish girls are eloquent on the system of ,land ,tenure in their own country2 a banker's daughter will supply us with skilfully forged bank notes and bills of exchange1 and on one occasion an ,austrian pupil gave us some interesting information on the working of the ,metayer system abroad4 ,judicious use of text-books4 ,economics as an examination subject4 ,in teaching younger girls--say from fifteen to seventeen--a sparing use should be made of text-books for home reading3 paragraphs1 exemplifying or enlarging on the lesson given1 may be selected1 but indiscriminate reading1 for the average girl1 at that age1 is pretty sure to result--as she will candidly tell you--in her getting 8hopelessly muddled04 ,jevons' ,primer of ,political ,economy is an admirable introduction to the subject1 but avowedly does not cover the whole ground1 and ,i regret to say that ,professor ,gonner's very helpful text-book is now out of print4 ,to a great extent indeed the teacher will find it necessary to form her own text-book1 that is1 to collect her materials from many sources1 and adapt them to the use of her pupils4 ,one feels in this1 as in other subjects1 that one cannot hope to do much more1 in the limited time at our disposal1 than awaken interest1 and show what a wide field there is to be explored4 ,we are glad to know that the subject is often continued after school days are over4 ,many of our pupils are preparing for the ,senior ,oxford ,examination1 but economic lessons are given in non-examination classes as well4 ,some take up the subject again later for the ,cambridge ,higher ,local1 and have to make themselves acquainted with ,adam ,smith1 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 and a host of more modern writers1 hardly any of whom could have been placed in their hands with advantage at an earlier age1 although they will unconsciously have imbibed much of their teaching and will find that their year's training in elementary economics will have helped them a long way on their road4 ,ethical considerations4 ,enlarged sympathies4 ,in conclusion1 we would advocate the study of economics for girls1 because we believe that it helps them to live in a larger world1 and to take a more intelligent interest in the lives of those around them4 ,wealth an element in well-being4 ,the 8sordid science0 is lifted into a higher plane when we regard it as 8a part of the study of man0--and look on wealth as a means to an end1 not an end in itself--valuable only so far as it facilitates a 8growth towards that higher and purer condition of society1 for which alone we care to strive04 ,,appendix4 ,i give a few extracts from papers received from old pupils1 in answer to the request that they would say1 quite simply and unofficially1 what benefits they had derived from a course of economic study4 8,i think that learning economics has helped me to take a more intelligent interest in everyday matters40 8,i consider ,i have benefited more by that subject than by any other4 ,there are so many subjects you can take an interest in if you understand economics1 that if you do not1 would appeal to you in no way whatever40 8,it helps us to understand some of the most important subjects of the day1 and gives us a clearer idea of the difficulties of the poor--and shows us the best way of helping them40 8,the human sympathies cannot fail to be awakened1 and narrow-minded and selfish views cannot long be entertained4 ,economics often shows the best methods in the relief of our less fortunate brothers and sisters40 8,living as ,i do1 in ,ireland1 the study of this subject has widened my interests greatly4 ,now ,i can more fully understand the problem of landlord and tenant40 8,besides economics being useful1 it is also very interesting40 8,it tends to make one speak more exactly and to keep to the point40 ,many more answers to the same effect might be given1 but these are perhaps enough to show that the study of economics is neither uninteresting nor unpractical4 ,,english ,,literature4 ,by ,,amy ,,lumby4 ,the general aim and method of the teacher4 8,all spirits upon which poetry falls10 says ,shelley1 8open themselves to receive the wisdom which is mingled with its delight40 ,to remember these words will help the teacher of literature to bear in mind her double aim--to inspire delight and at the same time to impart wisdom4 ,it is impossible to lay down rules for accomplishing this aim1 but we may trace out a few principles by which to guide our course4 ,literature appeals to the imagination1 the faculty of the mind in which emotion and intellect join1 and a literature lesson should combine the two elements of feeling and thought4 ,poetry needs to be enjoyed if it is to be understood1 for it is the expression1 not of facts which can be demonstrated1 but of truth which can only be recognised by those who care for it4 ,so the first aim of the teacher must be to make her class enjoy what they read4 ,dulness is a bad fault in any teacher2 in the teacher of literature it is high treason4 ,no one ought to teach the subject unless she thoroughly enjoys it herself and can communicate her enjoyment4 ,but in trying to inspire delight in her pupils1 she must be on her guard against the mental indolence of children who ask only to be amused4 ,in this age of trivial literature and comic papers young people are apt to be impatient of serious reading1 to find the ,faerie ,queene dull and the ,pilgrim's ,progress slow1 but the teacher must persevere in presenting to them as attractively as may be the very best they are capable of relishing at all1 and after a while a better taste will destroy all desire for the worthless rubbish they once found pleasure in4 ,when once the teacher has roused real enjoyment in her class1 her part becomes merely that of the interpreter4 ,she must see to it that her pupils understand the words they read1 realise the images that are called up before them1 and follow as closely as they can the thoughts that are presented to them4 ,the subject does the rest4 ,for the power of intercourse with great and good thoughts is such that it enlarges and lifts the mind insensibly to better things4 ,if the spirit is but rendered sensitive to poetry1 wisdom enters hand in hand with delight4 ,we can give no rules for producing this effect4 ,the power to do it is the special gift required in the teacher of literature4 ,she must possess the faculty of kindling and stirring thought and feeling to respond to the thought and feeling presented to them4 ,without this she will never make her pupils feel anything of what poetry can teach4 ,in no subject does the mental attitude and the mental furniture of the teacher matter so much4 ,the earliest stage--the reading lesson4 ,assuming then a thorough enjoyment and appreciation of the subject1 we will consider a little more in detail the method in which it may be treated in one or two typical cases4 ,to begin with the simplest form of literature--the reading lesson--we will suppose that we have to read a poem1 say 8,the ,wreck of the ,hesperus10 with a class of young children4 ,we shall have in our own minds a clear conception of the qualities which make this one of the finest of modern ballads--the extreme simplicity of the theme1 the vigour and breadth of the treatment1 the pathos of the little human tragedy set against the great background of ,nature in storm and tumult4 ,but we shall not burden the children's minds with this information2 with a very few words of preface to prepare them for what they are to expect1 we shall first read the whole poem through to them4 ,the reading is a very important point1 for on this depends to a large extent the enjoyment they will have in the poem4 ,a harsh voice or a dull delivery is fatal to pleasure2 and monotonous reading fails to convey the point of the story1 and to suggest the atmosphere of the poem4 ,every teacher of literature should be a trained reader4 ,the poem must next be taken verse by verse2 the meaning of difficult or unusual expressions1 such as 8veering flaw10 8lashed to the helm10 8she stove and sank10 should be explained1 while those that are peculiarly apt should be noted with appreciation2 for instance1 8fairy flax10 8a whooping billow10 the vessel 8swept0 towards the reef1 and many others4 ,at the same time the class must be made to see the pictures suggested1 as they rise3 the wintry sea1 the skipper beside the helm1 the child lashed to the mast1 the frozen ship rushing headlong to her doom4 ,and lastly1 the whole drift and significance of the poem must be kept before their minds by making them realise the situation2 the happy child so suddenly overwhelmed1 helpless and at first bewildered1 then as calamities thicken1 turning for help to prayer2 hurried on with the doomed vessel through night and storm1 and sharing its fate among the exultant breakers4 ,and they should feel the calm of the close and the survival of the human interest beyond the short-lived triumph of the sea4 ,of course it will not be possible at first to make young children feel all the force of a poem like this1 but our aim must be to rouse their imaginations by bringing the picture it presents vividly before them1 so that they gradually become more and more sensitive to the stimulus of poetry4 ,the second stage--the detailed study of one of ,shakspere's plays1 or some other work in detail4 ,a course of reading lessons1 graduated in difficulty from the simple ballad to such poems as 8,the ,forsaken ,merman10 8,tithonus10 and the 8,ode to ,duty10 will lead up to the next stage1 the reading of a play of ,shakspere4 ,here we must cling very closely to our principle of the importance of enjoyment4 ,very few people who have read their first play at school are happy enough to have enjoyed it4 ,and why is this8 ,because a mistaken ideal has been before the teacher's mind1 and a mistaken method has been used to attain it4 ,careful study and exact understanding of the language of ,shakspere is almost a liberal education in itself2 but it is not always borne in mind that the understanding of the language is but a means to an end1 and that notes1 whether philological or historical1 are of value only when they really throw light on the meaning of the text4 ,it is worse than useless to burden the memories of children with derivations of words from languages with which they are absolutely unacquainted4 ,when the original or root-meaning of a word is really worth knowing1 and a knowledge of it tends to a more accurate use of the word1 then it should be learnt1 but to make children learn ,saxon or ,welsh or ,sanskrit words simply because an ,english word is akin to them is a waste of time and power1 and this explaining of the vaguely understood by the totally unknown is a subversion of all educational methods4 ,the teacher should exercise a wise discretion in the use of notes1 and not disgust her class with ,shakspere altogether1 as is too often done1 by forcing upon the children a mass of dry information which overloads their memories without bringing a ray of illumination with it4 ,some care will be needed with young children reading their first play to see that they can really follow the story of it4 ,the dramatic form is puzzling to them2 the absence of descriptive matter1 together with the constant change of scene1 is apt to bewilder them1 and it may be necessary to read the story to them in ,lamb's ,tales from ,shakspere1 or some such form1 before we launch into the play itself4 ,with older pupils this will not be required4 ,with them the kind of preparation we should give would be rather a very simple talk about those moral laws of which ,shakspere is the inspired teacher4 ,children of sixteen years of age1 or thereabouts1 are easily interested in problems of character1 and it is well to explain to them something of what we understand by character and how it may be built up or undermined1 rousing their consciousness to realise what their own moral experience has been1 so that they look into themselves for confirmation of the facts with which the plays deal4 ,having done this1 however1 we must avoid tacking any specific 8moral0 to a play4 ,shakspere teaches1 like life1 by indirection1 and we have to consider his plays as pictures of life1 not as tracts against particular vices4 ,in bringing before a class the characters of a play1 we should first form a clear conception of them ourselves4 ,shakspere's people are so complex that many different views can be taken of them1 and no thoughtful estimate is without its value4 ,but it is most important that no statement about a character should be unsupported by evidence from the text4 ,adherence to this rule will save the teacher from making fancy sketches of her own1 and will also make her shun those little text-books which give catalogues of qualities attached to each name1 bringing no image whatever before the mind1 and destroying all true realisation of the character4 ,we should not be satisfied until we have made the chief characters in the play we are reading so real to our children that they would recognise them if they met them in the street4 ,when we have clearly realised the characters we shall be able to see the drift and the force of the play1 and to show our children how the persons develop and change under the stress of circumstances and according to the absolute decrees of the moral law4 ,to convey this teaching1 all steeped in poetry of the richest kind1 should be the purpose of a ,shakspere lesson2 and the notes that are learnt should be subordinate to that end4 ,our work must not be less thorough than it usually is at present1 but it may well be less pedantic4 ,the reading of a play usually takes up a course of lessons1 so that it is impossible in this space to give notes on any particular one1 but the same principles which guided us in our treatment of a simple ballad will hold good here1 and in the study of such longer poems as may be chosen for the reading of our class4 ,here as there we must first secure clear understanding of the language1 then we must realise the images called up by it1 and lastly yield ourselves in intelligent self-surrender to the poet's thought1 not obtruding our own personality but letting him lead us where he will1 feeling ourselves1 and teaching our class to feel1 a deep reverence for what he has to say to us4 ,the reading of prose may be treated in much the same way1 bearing in mind the fact that the emotional element is less marked in prose1 the appeal being rather to reason than to feeling4 ,such prose as has become a part of literature is1 however1 largely imaginative1 and we have to teach the children not only to follow closely a train of reasoning and to criticise it1 if need be1 but also to appreciate the means by which the writer makes his thought vivid to us1 what figures he uses1 what light he flashes upon his subject4 ,some of ,macaulay's ,essays1 ,addison's ,essays1 ,rasselas1 and similar works may well be read at this stage for the sake of the training they give in the right use of language1 the first element of literary cultivation4 ,the most advanced stage--the study of the history of literature4 ,the teaching of a period of the history of literature is a matter on which only broad general principles can be laid down4 ,children of fourteen to sixteen can hardly be expected to realise clearly differences in style or treatment1 or to be able to write criticisms on the poets of the period4 ,with them1 it will be best to make them acquainted with the lives of the chief writers1 as far as may be necessary1 and then to let them read as much as they can of their works4 ,we can teach them to love choice expressions1 to recognise beauty of thought1 to appreciate true imagination4 ,they may not be able to say why they like these things1 but they need not like them the less for that4 ,with older pupils1 capable of taking in general ideas as to the drift of thought in any particular age1 the period to be studied should be set against its historic background1 the first lessons being devoted to discussion of the stage of cultivation reached at the time1 and the influences which had tended to produce it4 ,for instance1 a course on the ,elizabethan period would require introductory lessons on the ,renaissance as it affected ,england1 on the ,reformation in its bearing on education and freedom of thought1 on the discovery of ,america and the spirit of adventure connected with it1 and on the social and political conditions of the times4 ,with clear conceptions on these points to start from1 it will be easy to follow the art movement in poetry during the period1 the growth of the drama1 the development of prose writing in its various branches1 and the students will be in possession of information which will help them to understand why ,spenser1 ,shakspere1 ,bacon and our ,authorised ,version belong to that age and to no other4 ,then the chief authors should be read as far as possible at first hand1 and the very cheap editions which are published of all our classics make it easy for the class to come provided with their own books4 ,it will not be possible to read many of the longer works through with the class1 but selection can be made of the choicest passages1 and these can be linked together by a short analysis of the rest4 ,during this stage the sense of style should be carefully cultivated4 ,differences in style may be shown by comparing examples of the treatment of similar themes by different writers2 for instance1 in poetry1 8,lycidas10 ,gray's 8,elegy10 ,adonas1 and ,thyrsis1 might be studied with this aim1 while in prose1 selected essays of ,bacon1 ,cowley1 ,addison and ,lamb might be used in the same way4 ,taste must also be trained1 and it should be made as catholic as possible2 each author should be enjoyed for his own special excellence1 ,dryden for his vigour and common-sense1 no less than ,sir ,thomas ,browne for his 8moth-like flitting0 in intellectual twilight4 ,a suggestion for reading-courses adapted for girls of different ages is subjoined4 ,it is not1 and could not be1 in any sense complete1 but it may serve to help those who have not yet had much experience to estimate the character and scope of the reading that may be expected from children of various ages4 ,except in the case of the youngest children1 the choice of books has been made so as to include prose and poetry of different epochs1 and thus make the intellectual outlook wider than it could be if the reading were restricted to the works of one particular age4 ,a girl who had read through the books mentioned in this course1 or any drawn up on similar lines1 would have a fair all-round acquaintance with the best kind of literature by the time she was eighteen4 ,age4 #aj-ab4 #ast year4 ,macaulay's 8,lays02 8,marmion02 ,kingsley's 8,heroes02 ,keary's 8,heroes of ,asgard04 #bnd year4 8,evangeline0 and 8,hiawatha02 8,enoch ,arden02 8,ancient ,mariner02 ,lamb's 8,tales from ,shakspere02 8,ivanhoe04 #ab-ad4 #ast year4 8,midsummer ,night's ,dream02 8,lady of the ,lake02 8,deserted ,village02 8,gulliver's ,travels02 8,kenilworth04 #bnd year4 8,merchant of ,venice02 8,childe ,harold02 8,morte d',arthur02 8,vicar of ,wakefield02 ,essays from the 8,spectator04 #ad-af4 #ast year4 8,as ,you ,like ,it02 8,henry ,v402 ,gray's 8,elegy02 8,the ,princess02 8,esmond02 some of the 8,essays of ,elia04 #bnd year4 8,faerie ,queene10 book i42 8,julius ,csar02 ,milton's 8,minor ,poems02 ,macaulay's ,essays on 8,clive0 and on 8,mme4 d',arblay02 ,ruskin's 8,sesame and ,lilies04 #af-ah4 #ast year4 8,macbeth02 8,paradise ,lost10 books i4 and ii42 8,the ,holy ,grail02 8,areopagitica02 ,burke's 8,speeches on ,america04 #bnd year4 8,hamlet02 8,essay on ,man02 8,selections from ,wordsworth02 ,bacon's 8,essays02 8,rasselas02 ,carlyle1 8,the ,hero as ,poet and the ,hero as ,man of ,letters04 ,,philosophy ,,and ,,religion4 ,by ,,dorothea ,,beale4 ,the third division of ,part ,i4 has to do with man as subject1 a person1 self-conscious1 related to other persons and to ,one ,all-embracing ,personality in whom all live and move and have their being4 ,i am to treat the subject from an intellectual point of view--religion1 ethics1 philosophy4 ,sphere of school instruction4 ,no school1 and especially no day-school for girls1 is responsible for the whole of the religious education4 ,the school is the link between infancy and mature life1 between the home and the world1 the secular and the spiritual4 ,the school has to systematise instruction1 and bring it to bear on the daily tasks1 on the social life1 on the developing character2 to make the secular and religious life one organic whole4 ,we have to teach our pupils1 so that they may know the truth1 feel nobly1 and hence act rightly4 ,we have to cultivate the power of thought by instruction1 to purify the emotions by the teachings of history and poetry including the ,bible and the utterances of heroic and saintly lives1 to strengthen the character by the discipline of the mind1 heart1 will4 ,relation of dogmatics to ethics4 ,emotion and action must be the expression of an intelligent belief4 8,he that cometh to ,god must believe that ,he is1 and that ,he is a rewarder of them that seek ,him40 ,we ought to offer the noblest gifts we can--a 8reasonable service10 a devotion of heart1 which rests upon the truest conception we can form2 in the highest of all subjects there should be that clearness of apprehension1 that strong conviction1 which is necessary1 if any truth is to become a practical power4 ,we are so made that we must1 if we think at all1 theorise1 and our acts will depend on our theories2 no student of history can doubt this4 ,our sanitarians have found that we may teach the poor about the value of cleanliness and fresh air1 but not until they understand the breathing functions do they act upon it4 ,so in deeper things1 it is ideas that govern the world4 ,when the ,apostle would teach the most practical truths of family life and social virtue1 he began with the great doctrines of the indwelling ,divine life1 of our brotherhood in ,christ1 of our citizenship in a spiritual ,kingdom1 extending far beyond the regions of sense4 ,we must found ,christian teaching upon definite beliefs accepted and felt to be true by the highest reason4 ,we must not be satisfied with cultivating the affections only4 ,there must be something more than an 8enthusiasm of humanity10 something which can embrace and fulfil it1 else it will blaze up like a bonfire1 but soon die down1 smothered under the ashes of pessimism4 ,none of our faculties can be isolated from the others2 each acts and reacts on each1 the thought stimulating emotion1 emotions quickening thought1 and the life acting and reacting upon both4 ,ethics springs from dogmatics4 ,what do we mean by religion8 ,our age has been fertile in definitions4 ,may we not say it is the power by which we enter into conscious personal relation with the ,one1 the ,eternal1 the ,father of all8 ,religion as related to science and philosophy4 ,though it may be truly said that all knowledge of ,nature is knowledge of ,god1 we feel that there is a difference between the teaching of science and the teaching of religion--a distinction between the knowledge of a thing1 or an act1 which we may know objectively1 and the knowledge of a person whom we know subjectively4 ,we might know all the movements of a machine1 but we never speak of knowing a machine4 ,it is possible to know the works of ,god1 and not know ,him4 ,it is personal sympathetic knowledge which is the chief factor in the education of character--the humanities are educative in a different sense from mathematics and natural science4 ,it is this personal relation to ,god with which religious teaching has to do2 its true end is to draw us into sympathy with the ,all-,good4 ,two things ,i would here insist on which are sometimes overlooked4 #ast4 ,the child knows persons before things1 and in the earliest exercises of will-power1 it is the will of another that rules his will4 #bnd4 ,through obedience to the higher intelligence1 and trust in the love of another1 the child is enabled to acquire right habits4 ,frbel's religious teaching is very beautiful1 but he brings out less clearly than ,rosmini the priority of the personal2 if ,nature speaks to a child of the ,all-,father1 it is because he knows that all has to come to him through persons1 it is only much later that forces can be hypostatised1 and power1 justice1 spoken of apart from a person2 though this is1 as ,lotze has specially insisted1 as inconceivable as is quality without substance--attribute without subject4 ,piety in its double sense4 ,first in the old sense of the word the child 8worships0 his parents and those to whom he looks up1 he is miserable when he feels the displeasure of those with whom he is in sympathy1 and their approbation is the sunshine of his soul2 thus is he early led to think of the ,father1 to whom he and his parents owe all things1 to whom they speak in prayer and whose unseen presence they feel4 ,hymns then and prayers1 which express the feelings of a child to a father1 or the love to ,jesus1 and the desire to be like ,him1 are suitable2 such as give rather the consciousness of a penitent reprobate1 are sometimes heard at children's missions1 to the great sorrow of those who know how dangerous it is to play with the emotions and to excite terrors4 ,consciousness and self-consciousness4 ,we must consider first that the conscious life is only gradually developed2 perceptions must become apperceptions by the controlling power of attention2 very gradual is the dawn of consciousness1 marked as ,rosmini thinks by the first smile4 ,so too there is an epoch at which self-consciousness seems to awaken4 ,maurice and other philosophers have marked the dawn of it by the use of the personal pronoun4 ,the baby new to earth and sky1 ,what time his tender palm is prest ,against the circle of the breast1 ,has never thought that 8this is ,i03 ,but as he grows he gathers much1 ,and learns the use of 8,i0 and 8me10 ,and finds 8,i am not what ,i see1 ,and other than the things ,i touch04 ,so rounds he to a separate mind ,from whence clear memory may begin1 ,as thro' the frame that binds him in ,his isolation grows defined4 ,then1 as in teaching science or language we first awaken the powers of observation1 and lead the child to reflect1 so here1 in the case of the self-conscious subject1 we help the child to interpret the facts of the inner life as well as the outer4 ,whilst recognising the danger of forcing the subjective in children1 we ought in this1 as in other things1 to follow the guidance of nature1 and surely our own experience1 and that of most children1 will show how much they are occupied with their own feelings1 with the struggles of the higher to subdue the animal nature1 and how through contest they are developing the will-power1 which is the only safeguard of later life4 ,it is especially important early to correlate the subjective with the objective in early teaching4 ,surely much irreligion results in later life from the divorce of the two4 ,as we guide the observing powers in the outward life1 so as the power of reflection develops we should do with the inward life3 the child is conscious of the pang which comes to all of us1 when we act against conscience3 that pang which makes our blood run cold1 as we feel we have done wrong1 is as much a fact of experience1 as real1 as the sensation of heat1 when we touch hot iron4 ,would people grow up to deny the existence of the spiritual consciousness1 if they had been led to question their own experience8 ,a beautiful story is told by ,parker and quoted by ,armstrong4#bb #bb ,man's ,knowledge of ,god4 ,swift4 ,conscience4 8,when a little boy in my fourth year1 my father took me to the farm and sent me home alone4 ,i had to pass a pond4 ,a rhodora attracted my attention4 ,i saw a spotted tortoise sunning himself in the shallow water at the root of the flaming shrub4 ,i lifted the stick ,i had1 to strike2 though ,i had never killed any creature1 ,i had seen boys destroy birds1 squirrels and the like1 and felt a disposition to follow their wicked example4 ,all at once something checked my little arm1 and a voice within said clear and loud1 #8,it is wrong'4 ,i held my uplifted stick in wonder at the new emotion1 the consciousness of an involuntary but inward check upon my action1 till the tortoise and rhodora both vanished from my sight4 ,i hastened home to mother and asked what it was that told me it was wrong4 ,taking me in her arms1 she said3 #8,some men call it conscience1 but ,i prefer to call it the voice of ,god4 ,if you listen and obey it1 it will speak clearer and clearer1 but if you turn a deaf ear1 it will at last leave you in the dark without a guide3 your life depends on your obedience to its voice4' ,no event in my life has made so deep and lasting an impression40 ,a witness for the spiritual1 the universal4 ,the fact that we cannot get rid of the consciousness of wrong1 shows that there is a higher ,self condemning the self1 one other than ourselves2 we must not force answers on the child1 but we can bring into his consciousness the presence of the holy and righteous ,god4 ,we may help to make clear and permanent in his consciousness the facts1 which he will only later interpret--the conflict of the merely individual1 the selfish life1 with the larger1 the all-embracing life of unselfish love4 ,we may appeal too to the experience of each child1 who suffers punishment rather than disobey conscience4 ,such victories establish faith1 convince us that we are more than creatures of time1 that we are sons of ,god4 ,every true and self-denying act that a child is able to do is a ground of confidence2 8,i write unto you1 young men1 because ye have overcome the wicked one04 ,each time that the mere animal desires are subdued by the love of truth and righteousness1 we prove that we transcend the things of time and space4 ,these are the eternal things1 which eye sees not and thought cannot conceive1 and yet for the sake of these unseen and eternal things men live and die1 and count all earthly things as nought4 ,do not the hearts of all children 8burn within them0 as we expound to them the ,scriptures which tell of heroes who have done battle1 who laid down their lives for righteousness' sake1 of ,him who triumphed from the ,cross8 ,we can appeal too to the inward experience of those who are naughty2 they do not in their inmost heart wish to be so1 but they try and fail2 nothing is more touching than the penitence of children1 when they find that we have seen the good which is hidden1 and not only the evil that comes forth--that we know1 not only what is done1 but what is resisted4 ,we can1 as in the old myths1 show that their deliberate choice is not for selfish pleasure2 they would if offered the things most delightful to the mere animal1 refuse all1 if they could have it only on condition of becoming wicked and cruel and deceitful4 ,hauff's ,cold ,heart is a beautiful story on the subject4 ,thus should we base healthy religious experiences upon facts1 and foster habits of attention and obedience to the inward voice4 ,right ambitions too should be fostered1 the desire to enter into the ,divine purposes in thought and word and deed1 to be a fellow-worker with ,god4 ,this will take more definite form in the later idealising period of life2 still there will be developed sometimes at an early age earnest desires to become wise and good and to do some special work4 ,order of teaching4 ,for objective formal teaching the little ones would begin with the stories of the world's childhood4 ,the lessons first given in a simple form will be expanded in the higher classes4 ,the child who has learned to trust his father1 will learn from ,abraham's sacrifice that we can trust ,god2 the higher classes will see how by the frustration of his purpose ,abraham learned the true meaning of sacrifice2 the ,psalms and ,prophets will carry on the subjective teaching1 and the words of the old prophets will become a fact of experience2 8the word of the ,lord came unto me04 ,the inner meaning of the sacred myths which had once been told as a mere story will now be felt2 the story of the flood as interpreted by ,st4 ,peter1 and quoted in our baptismal service1 the deliverance from the bondage in ,egypt1 typifying redemption from the slavery of sin1 the ,new ,testament teaching of the synoptical gospels1 especially the parables1 will have supreme educative power4 ,written work4 ,it is essential that in this1 as in other subjects1 written exercises which require thought be set1 and corrected and criticised--this is often the only subject in which pupils are not required to formulate their thoughts--hence there exists a vast amount of current religious phraseology to which no definite meaning is assigned2 the words may be true in themselves1 but not true for the person using them4 ,an ,american writer tells of one who for years was a regular attendant at church1 and often encouraged him by her attentive and responsive expression2 when he came to know her later1 he found to his surprise that she was as ignorant of the fundamental truths as if she had been brought up in a heathen land4 ,sceptical phases4 ,the later period1 that of ripening experience1 of adolescence1 will give the maximum of reflective1 as the earliest childhood1 the maximum of the sensitive power4 ,as the mysteries of their own being are more and more unfolded1 the problems of philosophy and metaphysics have an attraction which should not be disregarded3 there is a desire to be alone2 the young feel that they must work out the problems for themselves1 and they resent the attempt to force on them other people's solutions4 ,they must question ere they can fully believe2 we must never give utterance to the profane idea1 that ,god is angry with those who make mistakes in seeking truth1 only show that truth like light is a good1 that we may not rest in an indolent agnosticism1 for we cannot grow vigorous and strong out of the sunlight2 we must encourage them1 in this as in all studies1 to be ever seeking a fuller knowledge of truth1 to live by the truth they have attained1 and then they will gain more and more1 even through the mistakes4 ,the function of the teacher now is as ,socrates described it1 to be ready to give help1 when needed1 to bring to the birth the great thoughts which oppress the soul4 ,need of leisure4 ,later the deep spiritual experiences of ,st4 ,john and the arguments wherewith ,st4 ,paul convinced himself1 will come home to the religious experience at least in some degree1 and the words in which he describes the vision of ,god as seen from the spiritual heights1 which he had reached in his later epistles4 ,but there must be for the ripening of the character time for quiet1 and the incessant activities of to-day1 the filling up of every hour1 the deprivation of quiet even on ,sunday1 are much to be regretted1 and all educators should see that those who need time for spiritual thought1 for working out the great questions which come to every thoughtful person1 should not be deprived of it1 because some would misuse it4 ,there are two excellent articles in the ,pedagogical ,review for ,july1 #ahia1 on the 8,psychology and ,pedagogy of ,adolescence10 by ,e4 ,lancaster1 and another1 a study in 8,moral ,education10 by ,j4 ,street1 both ,fellows of ,clark ,university2 the second article is especially emphatic on this subject4 ,systematic reading4 ,in the highest classes1 some systematic reading regarding the history and foundations of philosophy in general and ,christian philosophy in particular should not1 ,i think1 be omitted3 one cannot do better than begin with ,plato2 taking the ,apology1 the ,crito and parts of the ,phdo1 or the two volumes of selections by ,professor ,jowett1 or some less expensive edition4 ,the ,memorabilia of ,xenophon is obtainable for #c;d4 ,selections might be made from ,aristotle's ,ethics1 and some good history of philosophy be made accessible1 e4g41 ,schwegler's1 edited by ,dr4 ,hutchinson ,stirling1 which is not too long2 and some such inspiring book as ,fichte's ,vocation of the ,scholar may be recommended2 other books ,i might mention1 e4g41 ,henry ,jones on ,browning2 ,professor ,frazer's selection from ,berkeley2 ,mackenzie's ,social ,philosophy and the series of small hand-books edited by ,professor ,knight4 ,there might be meetings for discussion and reading under the presidency of one versed in such matters2 this would give definiteness to thought1 and would at least lead to the kind of wisdom which made the oracle pronounce ,socrates the wisest of men2 such meetings would be specially useful for the staff4 ,some effort should be made to establish the primary convictions which alone make life worth living1 enable one to possess one's soul in patience1 live in the faith that each is working out the will of the ,all-,wise and ,all-,good--if willingly1 then with the fullest joy and reward4 ,higher teaching4 ,the subject is not ignored at the ,university ,colleges of the ,states1 and there is much of deep interest in the article to which ,i have referred1 viz41 8,psychology of ,adolescence04 ,in an article by ,caswell ,ellis1 the special training of teachers of religion is insisted on1 and the establishment of professorships4 8,a department of pedagogy cannot be called complete that does not deal with this important part of its field4 ,religious training is as much a problem for the pedagogue1 as is physical or mental training4 ,surely we cannot entirely separate them4 ,we have already at our command in the ,universities1 many helps in the study of the ,bible1 of theology1 of philosophy1 of psychology1 etc42 why cannot there be found some man of broad culture1 wide sympathies1 reverent spirit1 to focalise these in a chair of religious pedagogy1 or whatever it may be called8 it would give the opportunity while in college to look at the larger phases of the problem of religious training4 ,no subject is more vital1 and our best men need not leave college ignorant of the problem or the possibility of its solution--and find in the decline of life that 7as editors1 preachers1 etc47 they have been spending their energies on reformation1 while the great work of formation was never considered40 ,foundations of faith4 ,the means of giving a thorough and systematic teaching regarding the strong foundations of faith1 is one that should be considered by all educators4 ,it is true that the emotions and affections are1 as in the case of all personal relations1 the appropriate means of intercommunion2 but the religious life1 if it is not to become weak and sentimental1 needs the bracing power of intellectual study1 and the ,scriptures1 especially the writings of ,st4 ,john and ,st4 ,paul1 afford such exercise4 ,i may perhaps summarise the lines on which the grounds of a rational faith seem to be established1 and which should surely be formulated1 as we formulate the principles on which we base our faith in matters of science4 ,they may be arranged under two heads--objective and subjective3-- #a4 ,sense compels us to recognise the existence of a universe1 to which we can set no bounds of space or time4 ,we find everywhere at work forces adapted to produce results immeasurably greater1 yet similar in character1 to those produced by our own exercise of thought and will2 we are unable to conceive of either except as ultimately proceeding from a personal mind and will4 ,since our mind interprets the phenomena of sense1 which is the language of ,nature2 since the intelligent mind is related to an intelligible universe1 the finite mind must be related to the infinite1 man must be the child of ,god4 ,the facts of history show us man in all ages renouncing all that the animal craves for1 for the sake of the ideal1 the transcendent4 #b4 ,man is self-conscious1 he can become an object to himself2 that he can do this proves him to have a dual nature4 ,the higher sits in judgment on the lower1 or animal nature 7identified with the individual71 seeks to bring it into obedience to the universal4 ,since we can identify conscience with the universal mind and will1 we infer that we are on the one side in communion with ,god1 as on the other with the universe4 ,man has the power of sympathy4 ,as we cannot conceive of light without postulating an all-comprehending ther1 through which all things are related1 so the fact that we are affected1 actually feel physically and mentally with others1 is inconceivable without postulating one all-embracing ,personality4 ,the faith that good must ultimately triumph is an axiom of the moral life2 we find it impossible to believe the reverse4 ,these are some of the broad bases on which rest the ,christian dogmas of the relation of man to ,god the ,all-,father1 which tell of a perfect ,son1 and of the power given to all to rise through grace into the spiritual life4 ,i have dwelt on the subject at some length1 because it seems to me that the intellectual relation to ,god has been too much ignored2 we should love with the mind as well as with the heart2 with the developing of the physical and psychical life1 the soul craves to root itself more firmly on the consciousness of the universal1 it desires to be at one with the ,all-,wise and the ,all-,good ,father of spirits to work out the purpose of its own existence4 ,it seeks to be in harmony with all who are living by the highest ideal2 hence the impulse to work in associations1 specially in the spiritual life1 for life must overflow into action6 ,it seeks evermore to be at one in its being1 and to bring the individual self into harmony with the all-embracing ,spirit in whom we are one4 ,i may recommend to teachers the recently published volume on ,religious ,teaching in ,schools1 by ,dr4 ,bell of ,marlborough4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,mathematics4 ,,arithmetic4 ,by ,,dorothea ,,beale4 ,multiplication is vexation1 ,division is as bad1 ,the ,rule of ,three doth puzzle me1 ,and ,practice drives me mad4 ,never will such lines express the feelings of properly taught children4 ,it may be convenient to work out the process of teaching arithmetic on strictly psychological principles4 ,concrete teaching first4 7#a7 ,from the concrete to the abstract4 ,let the children learn to count with the actual things4 ,once the teacher would have set the child down to a slate1 taught it to count1 and write down the figures1 and work sums in addition and subtraction1 and then to learn the multiplication table4 ,now the child has actual things--stones1 coloured beads1 sticks1 bricks--anything but marbles 7which one of ,h4,m4 ,inspectors recommends7 or things which run about freely4 ,a box of china buttons1 which cost only a few pence the gross1 is perhaps best4 7#b7 ,associate doing and knowing4 ,let the child add actual things3 ,mary has #c buttons1 ,anna gives her #b1 she now has #e4 7#c7 ,put thoughts into words4 ,get the child to say exactly what addition is--8giving to0--and let her find out from words she already knows or may know1 as donation1 donor1 etc41 the meaning4 ,the sign for addition may also be given4 ,similarly1 subtraction ought to be actually performed by drawing away1 and the word explained--its connection with drag1 traction1 tray1 dray1 etc4 ,thus the common fault of writing 8substraction0 may be avoided4 ,it should be thought of as undoing addition4 ,the signs - and may now be given4 ,analysis of numbers4 7#d7 ,we learn by analysis and synthesis1 i4e41 to see the parts in the whole1 and the whole as made up of parts4 ,it is very useful at this stage to get children to group numbers1 to think of #b1 e4g41 as #a #a1 of #c as #a #a #a and #a #b1 of #h as #a #g1 #b #f1 #c #e1 #d #d1 #b #b #b #b4 ,this is much insisted on in ,germany and ,america4 ,in kindergartens there are many pictures which are used for grouping numbers1 thus1 e4g41 a seven-branched candlestick4 ,illustration ,we may give #g1 as #c #a #c1 as #a #b #b #b1 as #a #f4 ,this makes numbers1 so to speak1 easily fall into their constituents1 which will be shown to be of use later4 ,i knew a child who habitually thought of the written figures as picturing the number4 ,children might arrange the #i digits in various ways1 thus1 giving also the written figures3-- #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #aa #ab #ac #ad #ae #af #bb #bc #bd #be etc4 ,at this stage the question would naturally arise why there are only #i figures1 and an historical digression could be conveniently made4 ,i give a sketch of such a lesson before coming to more difficult and abstract things4 ,historical methods4 ,dogs are very clever4 ,a collie will go with the shepherd and take care that none stray4 ,suppose one has disappeared over a cliff when he was not looking1 would he know one was gone1 would he count like the shepherd8 ,no1 he will track out a lost sheep1 by scent1 as we cannot1 but ,i never heard of a shepherd setting the dog to count4 ,if puss has #c kittens and you take #a1 she seems not to know4 ,some savage races can count only a few numbers1 but man carries a ready-reckoner in his fingers1 and most can easily count up to #e or #aj1 or1 if taking in the toes1 up to #bj2 all the higher races are marked out by their greater power of doing long and difficult sums4 ,now1 suppose some great owner of sheep1 as ,abraham or ,jesse1 sent out a shepherd with many sheep1 how would he know each day whether they were all right8 ,well1 the simplest way would be to have two stones for each--the master could have one bag and the man another1 and then they could calculate each night2 calculus is the ,latin for a stone4 ,the shepherd would need a long bag for his stones4 ,was that how ,david happened to have the one which he used as a sling to kill ,goliath8 ,suppose1 however1 the flock was very large1 a bag of stones would be heavy4 ,has a shepherd something else1 which1 instead of his exactly carrying1 seems to help to carry him8 ,the shepherd's staff4 ,could he not put notches on this for his sheep8 ,it would hold a good many2 but in days when people had to use stones for knives1 it was not so easy to cut a great many notches1 and besides it would get used up with a large flock4 ,could he not make a sign like a hand1 ,v1 for every #e sheep8 ,that was what the ,romans did1 and next they said1 why not have a sign for two hands1 ,x1 and let that stand for #aj8 ,so1 if they wanted to write sixteen sheep1 they would put ,,xvi instead of sixteen strokes4 ,you see in the ,bible the ,roman numbers4 ,the ,greeks used letters1 too1 as the ,romans did1 for numbers4 ,money4 ,when people began to trade they wanted something more than tally sticks and stones--something the value of which all knew4 ,amongst pastoral people the most ready things to calculate by were sheep or cattle4 ,a piece of land would be sold for so many sheep1 but it would be very inconvenient to have to drive your money about1 and so people seem very early to have had pieces of metal which were reckoned to be equal in value to sheep or cattle1 and to save weighing1 each piece had1 perhaps1 a sheep scratched on it2 and this was called in ,latin 7from pecus1 cattle7 pecunia1 i4e41 the piece of metal representing the value of cattle4 ,this would be carried about and exchanged4 ,lawyers now put in our wills 8goods and chattels02 by the first they mean houses and lands1 which cannot be moved2 by the latter1 things which1 like cattle1 can be moved4 ,then people could have larger and smaller pieces of money1 representing half or a quarter of a sheep1 or many sheep4 ,account-keeping4 ,you wonder1 perhaps1 that people did not have books to keep their accounts in1 as we do2 but in early days people's books were made of clay1 and were more like our slates1 and they scratched on them with a sharp instrument called a stylus1 which looks something like our stylograph1 but had no ink inside1 and they could not put these in their pockets4 ,modern arithmetic4 ,it was not till the beginning of the third century before ,christ1 that the ,greek ,archimedes proposed a plan not altogether unlike ours1 because he was a very clever scientific man1 and he wanted to do difficult sums1 which he could not with the old ,greek system4 ,and something of the kind was used in ,india4 ,but it was not introduced into ,europe until about #ajjj years after ,christ by the ,arabs1 who had made many conquests4 ,the first ,english book about it seems to have been written in the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 ,chaucer1 who died in #adjj1 talks of the 8figures newe10 i4e41 the figures we use now1 instead of those difficult ,roman characters which we find in the ,bible4 ,but ,i think that before that1 people had begun to use some such plan as ours4 ,have you ever heard of public-houses being called 8,the ,chequers10 and seen a painted board hung up covered with squares of different colours8 ,this was once a sign for a house of public entertainment1 where people could make reckonings1 and the place where they reckoned the money they paid was called a 8counter10 and the court belonging to the king where the people paid their taxes was called the ,court of ,exchequer4 ,suppose a man came into an inn1 he would find the counter marked with lines thus3-- ,score4 ,dozen4 ,one4 ------------------------------ ------------------------------ and he could have say #c glasses of beer2 the landlord would put a chalk mark for each1 but when he had had #ab1 one mark would be put instead in the next row1 or in the third row if he had had a score1 i4e41 #bj1 and these marks would correspond with pieces of money4 ,thus we have pence and shillings and pounds1 and we put dots between instead of lines to mark them off4 ,here we will take real pieces of money4 ,suppose #a #ad #f has to be added to ,s4 ,d4 #g #i4 ,i say #i and #f make #ae pence4 ,i change the #ab pence into one silver shilling1 add that to the #ad shillings and the #g1 and ,i get #bb shillings4 #bj shillings is one pound1 so ,i change that and leave the #b shillings4 ,thus ,i get altogether #b #b #c4 ,we can now write that in figures and add1 as before4 ,suppose ,i had to pay to ,a #a #ag #i1 and ,i had #b #ad #f4 ,we can first do the sum with real money4 ,i find ,i have not enough pence to give #i1 so ,i have to change one of the shillings1 then ,i shall have #ah pence1 out of which ,i give #i1 and write down #i left4 ,now1 ,i have only #ac shillings1 and ,i want to pay #ag1 so ,i change one pound1 then ,i have #cc shillings1 out of which ,i take #ag and have #af left4 ,when ,i have given the pound1 ,i have none left1 and there remains in my purse ,s4 ,d4 #af #i4 ,we can then also write it down thus--putting the money we have to take away below1 pounds under the pounds1 shillings under shillings1 etc4 ,s4 ,d4 #b #ad #f #a #ag #i ----------- #af #i ,decimals4 ,after a while people all agreed to have for general arithmetic what we call the decimal notation1 or reckoning by tens1 and so lines were drawn1 and figures in the first row were worth one1 in the second ten1 in the third ten tens1 i4e41 #ajj2 after that would come figures representing ten hundreds or a thousand1 and then ten thousands1 and then a hundred thousands2 and so we could go on to any length4 ,ten seemed such a natural number to use1 because we all have our ready-reckoner in our ten fingers4 hundreds tens units ------------------------------ ------------------------------ ,addition4 th4 hun4 tens units ----------------------- #e #i #c #b #i #i ----------------------- #h #b ----------------------- ,we can have bags containing #aj buttons1 #ajj buttons1 and then we can get change4 ,sonnenschein's box makes carrying very clear4 ,suppose ,i want to put down #e thousands1 #i tens and #c units or ones4 ,i should write it thus1 and if ,i wanted to add to this #b thousands1 #i hundreds and #i1 ,i should write that below4 ,then ,i should say #i units and #c units make #ab units4 ,but this is equal to #a ten and #b units1 so ,i should carry on #aj to the second row1 and write down #b in the unit row4 ,then ,i add the #a to the #i1 that makes #aj1 but #aj in the second row is the same as #a in the third1 so ,i carry that on2 #i and #a make #aj1 but #aj in the third row makes #a in the fourth1 so ,i carry again1 and get #e #b #a #h thousands1 and we should read it #h thousands and #b4 ,subtraction4 ,then after a while people said1 8,why need we have all the chequers8 suppose we put a nought when there is no number1 just to mark that there is a row1 and all will come right20 so they wrote thus3-- th4 h4 t4 u4 #e #j #i #c #b #i #j #i ------------ #b #a #h #d ,and a little later they left off writing anything at the top of the line1 because every one knew4 ,here is a subtraction sum4 ,we cannot take #i units from #c units1 so we get change from the next row1 that gives #ac units1 from which we take #i1 and have #d left4 ,we have nothing to take from our #h remaining tens1 so we write #h4 ,we have no hundreds1 so we cannot take away #i1 but we change one of our thousands into #aj hundreds1 and take away #i1 leaving #a2 lastly we take away #b from our #d thousands1 and get #b--;altogether #bahd4 ,decimal fractions4 ,now would come in naturally the extension of this system of notation to decimal fractions1 marking the unit by a full stop4 ,if numbers decrease as we go from left to right1 they might get smaller than one2 the next row to the right would be one-tenth of a penny or of an inch1 and the next one-hundredth1 and so on4 ,sums in addition and subtraction might be worked at this stage with decimal fractions4 ,then it should be pointed out that to push the number a row farther from the point which marks the unit row increases it tenfold1 and pushing to the right diminishes tenfold4 hun4 tens units tenths hundth4 thousandths #a #c #b 4 #g #i #b #e 4 #h #i #g ---------------------------------------- ---- ,it is good practice and interests young children to work in different scales of notation--one may suggest that ,goliath would prefer the #f or #ab scale4 ,it would be well now to give children some practice in counting backwards1 and in rapid viva voce addition1 which the exercises in analysis of numbers will have made easy4 ,e4g41 #ae #g1 the number naturally falls apart into #e #b1 and we get #bb2 #bi #g1 it falls into #f #a1 at the next step into #c #d4 ,multiplication4 ,we should next proceed to continued addition or multiplication4 ,many children come to school not knowing that multiplication is continued addition1 and still fewer have any idea that division is continued subtraction4 ,in entrance papers ,i have had sheets covered in reply to such questions as 8,how often can #ai be subtracted from #ehd80 #hia #hia #hia #hia ---- #cefd ,a few multiplications should be worked with real things4 ,thus1 we have to give to #e people #c buttons each4 ,we arrange them in parcels of #c and add #c to our pile five times4 ,now1 if we have #ae and want to know how many times we can take away threes1 we find we can do it five times over2 this is subtraction or undoing the addition4 ,it is the same as making little parcels of #c each1 and so continued subtraction is called division4 ,some continued addition sums should be given1 thus3 ,find #d times #hia4 ,it will be easily seen that such sums are done much more quickly if we know by heart how much #d nines come to1 and how much #d eights2 and so people learn their addition tables by heart1 and children make them out for themselves thus1 generally up to #ab times1 some learn up to #bj times4 ,here is part of #g times worked out3-- ------------------------------------- #g times #a #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #b #ad #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #c #ba #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #d #bh #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #e #ce #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #f #db #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #g #di #g #g #g #g #g #g #h #ef #g #g #g #g #g #i #fc #g #g #g #g #aj #gj #g #g #g #aa #gg #g #g #ab #hd ------------------------------------- ,the signs and may now be given4 ,all tables should be written out and learned1 and it is well to say both ways1 #f #g #db1 and #g #f #db4 ,there are certain numbers that are easily remembered1 others in which children habitually make mistakes3 it is a waste of time to hear the tables therefore all through after a time1 but these difficult ones1 #g #h1 #f #i1 #aa #aa1 etc41 should be insisted on2 then1 finally1 the whole heard through1 and any about which there is the slightest hesitation asked for daily4 ,if children can learn up to #bj times without much trouble1 it is an advantage4 ,we could next point out that this continued addition is called multiplication1 and all the numbers made up by continually adding threes would be called multiples of #c1 i4e41 many times #c4 ,so #ab would be a multiple of #b or #c or #d4 ,then examples should be worked1 but here let me say that at the early stages concrete examples should abound4 ,many good books there are containing miscellaneous examples of concrete quantities1 such as1 ,there are #cai fruit trees planted in each field for making jam1 and there are #ab fields2 how many fruit trees8 ,or1 #g labourers have to be paid on ,saturday #ag each2 how much will they get in #ab weeks8 ,when children know the effect of pushing numbers to the left1 multiplication by two figures will be easy1 but the child should be accustomed to write at the end of each row the real sum1 thus3 #gc #be3-- #gc #be ---- #adfj #bj times4 #cfe #e ---- #ahbe #be and to work the same sum in a variety of ways1 e4g41 multiply by #e #e2 by #ajj1 and divide by #d2 by #cj1 and take off #e2 by #aj1 halve and by #aj again and halve3-- #gc #e #cfe #e times4 #e ---- #ahbe #e #e times4 #d #gcjj #ajj times4 ----- #ahbe of #ajj1 or #be times4 #gc #cj ---- #baij #cj times4 #cfe #e ---- #ahbe #be #b #gcj #aj times4 ---- #cfe #e #cfej #ej ---- #ahbe #ej #be times4 ,it is well to accustom children to begin to multiply with the left-hand figure1 as we shall see later4 ,thus we get the most important part first4 #hgd ---- #d #cdif ---- ,division4 ,it should be insisted on that division is undoing multiplication--that if we divide #fc by #i1 we are finding a number #g which when multiplied by #i gives #fc4 ,in working division sums it is better to put the quotient over the dividend1 and the children should be ready to explain each step thus3 ,divide #cdif nuts amongst four schools equally4 ,none will get as many as #a thousand4 ,they will get1 out of #cd hundreds1 #h hundreds each2 of #bi tens1 #g tens each2 of #af units1 #d each4 ,long division should be fully explained thus3 ,divide #dciba amongst #bc people4 ,we see that no one will have as much as #a ten-thousand4 ,out of #dc thousands1 each can have #a thousand1 and there will be #bj thousands left1 that is1 #bjj hundreds2 adding #i we get #bji hundreds4 ,we give #i to each and #b hundreds or #bj tens are left4 #bb tens do not give one each2 they equal #bbj units4 ,of the #bba units we give #i to each4 ,some dispense with the written multiplication4 ,this seems to me to strain too much young children's attention1 and to lead to loss of time4 #aiji ------ #bc 7 #dciba #bc ----- #bji #bjg ----- #bba #bjg ----- #ad ,factors1 measures1 multiples4 ,here1 while continuing to work many miscellaneous examples1 it may be well to interpose some useful exercises on matters interesting and yet puzzling to children1 on factors and measures of numbers1 and primes and squares4 ,if they get quite familiar with factors1 they will not have such difficulty as they do when they come upon the whole set at once3 factors1 common factors1 measure1 common measure1 ,g4,c4,m41 multiple1 common multiple1 ,l4,c4,m4 ,let us bring out the box of buttons once more and arrange the numbers1 finding the factors4 #a1 #b1 #c have only the number itself1 and so these are called primes1 because they have no other factor than #a1 the first number4 4 44 444 4444 44444 444444 44 444 44 444 44 44 44 ,but #d is not only #d #a1 it is #b #b1 and we may notice that the dots form a square--it is a compound number4 #e is again a prime2 #f can be arranged in three ways--in a row of ones1 in three rows of #b or two rows of #c1 but these are the same if we look at them a different way round1 i4e41 #b #c is #c #b4 #g is a prime1 but for #h we can have #b #d and #d #b1 which are the same4 #i is again a square number2 it has no factors except #c4 ,here we might give the expressions #b for #b #b1 #c for #c #c and #c for #c #c #c4 4444444 44444444 44 4444 44 4444 44 44 444444444 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,we might go on to pick out all the primes by what is called the sieve of ,eratosthenes1 and to give all squares and cubes1 say up to #ajj4 ,sometimes we speak of measure of numbers2 #d can be measured into rows of twos1 #f into rows of twos or threes1 so #b is said to be a common measure of #d and #f4 ,after working some examples in factors and measures1 it will be well to leave the matter1 returning to the subject later4 ,i should pass over for girls the wearisome exercises in weights and measures1 bills of parcels1 etc41 very slightly4 ,these things belong to the shop rather than the school1 and waste the time that should be given to learning principles4 ,vulgar fractions4 ,we may proceed at once to fractions4 ,in nothing is the advice ,festina lente more valuable than now4 ,once give the children a clear idea of what a fraction is1 how the two numbers represent respectively the size of the pieces and the number taken1 and all will be easy4 ,they are already familiar with d4 and d41 so we can get from them that the lower figure stands for the number of pieces into which the penny is divided1 and that the figure above shows the number of pieces taken4 ,many fractions should be drawn by the children-- of a line1 a circle1 a square1 etc4 ,the fraction may be #e numberer written thus3 - --------1 #f namer #e gives the number of pieces taken2 is numberer or numerator2 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #f gives the number of pieces into which the whole is cut1 the size1 the name1 the denominator4 ,let there be plenty of such questions as these3 ,what is the effect of increasing the numerator or the denominator8 ,of doubling each8 ,of halving each8 ,notice that most things grow larger the larger the number1 but with a fraction the larger the denominator the smaller the pieces4 ,children should not have books giving explanations4 ,they must discover these by the dialectic process1 and then in their own words answer questions1 and sometimes explain every step in the sum they are working4 ,all we require in books are well-chosen examples4 ,those who have not taught1 have no idea how hard children find it to get really hold of the nature of a fraction4 ,homely illustrations should not be spared4 ,for instance1 there are two ways of getting much cake4 ,to take many pieces1 that is have a large numerator1--or to look out the biggest piece1 that is have a small denominator4 ,multiplication and division by integers4 ,we are now ready for multiplication and division by integers4 ,take 4 ,there are two ways of making the fraction twice as large1 that is by taking twice as many pieces1 that is 1 or twice as large pieces1 4 ,the shortest way must always be insisted on4 ,similarly1 may be divided by #b in two ways4 ,many examples should be worked out in detail thus3-- #g #c #d #e #h4 #g 2 #c 2 #d 2 #e 2 #h 4 ,nearly all children will write thus3 #g #c1 etc41 and leave the whole unreadable4 ,next should come the proposition #g is #h times as large as 4 7,some pupils might be ready to use letters by this time1 a is b times as large as ab4 ,the teacher must be on the watch for such47 ,it is very difficult for young children to see this1 and also that is the same as #g #h4 ,this should be illustrated by drawings in a variety of ways4 ,by fractions4 ,on that would follow multiplication of fractions by fractions1 which is explained as making a mistake and correcting4 ,thus if we have to multiply 1 we know how to multiply by #b1 so we do that first3 #b 4 ,but we have multiplied by a number three times too large2 to correct the mistake1 we must divide by #c2 #c 4 ,similarly1 we explain division4 ,not until some sums have been worked in detail should pupils be allowed to get hold of the rules4 ,they should work with factors only1 whenever possible4 ,reduction4 ,now we might return to the subject of multiples and measures4 ,we have 4 ,we want to have it in its simplest form4 ,we divide it into factors3 #af #b #h -- ------2 #bd #b #ab #b is a common measure of both2 the #b above makes the fraction twice as large1 the #b below twice as small1 so both may be taken out4 ,but we might have said #af #h #b -- -----2 #bd #h #c #h is the largest number that will measure both1 so it is called the greatest common measure4 ,i think it better not to give the ordinary rule for finding ,g4,c4,m4 until its proof can be given algebraically4 ,it is very seldom that children will fail in the attempt to analyse numbers1 and so find out all their common measures4 ,g4,c4,m4 and ,l4,c4,m4 ,the common rules should now be given for finding at sight when a number is commensurable by each digit1 though the reason of these rules will not perhaps appear yet4 ,these children know at a glance whether a number can be measured by #b1 #d1 #h1 #c or #i1 and remove the common factor4 ,suppose we have 1 we cannot see a common factor1 but we can proceed to break it up1 one being commensurable by #h and the other by #i4 ,then we get #h #ajja --------1 #i #ajja and the greatest common measure comes to light4 ,we see that the numerator of #aagf ---- #bbje is commensurable by #d and #c1 i4e41 by #ab1 the denominator by #i3-- #aagf #c #d #ih #c #d #b #di ---- ----------- ---------------2 #bbje #c #c #gce #c #c #e #adg so the ,g4,c4,m4 is #di #c1 or #adg4 ,i may here notice there is an ingenious table by ,mr4 ,ellis1 published by ,philip at #f;d41 showing graphically the common measures and multiples of numbers up to #cf1 which makes this matter clear4 ,i give a section of it3-- #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab ,ones ,twos ,threes ,fours ,fives ,sixes ,sevens ,eights ,nines ,tens ,elevens ,twelves ,we find at a glance the primes4 ,looking down the line we see the multiples thus1 #ab is a multiple of #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #f4 ,looking horizontally and moving down1 we come to all the measures of each number4 ,it is also useful for teaching fractions4 ,common denominators4 ,we should next proceed to bring fractions to a common denominator preparatory to addition and subtraction4 ,it is not always easy to find a number that will do for all the denominators4 ,we want a common multiple1 and of course the smallest we can have is the best4 ,for this we have only to break up the denominators into factors and make up a number which shall contain all these4 ,i would not let the pupils work at first by the mechanical methods sometimes given3 #g #c #aa --- -- ---4 #bcj #df #fba #bcj #b #e #bc ,we want therefore ,here #df #bc #b as the common #efa #c #c #c #bc denominator #b #e #bc #c #c #c1 which is #fbaj4 ,addition of fractions4 ,suppose we want to add - 4 ,i should write what we may call skeleton fractions below2 ,i mean simply the line2 next enter the denominator #bd4 ,this is #h times as large as #c1 i4e41 we have made the pieces in the first #h times as small1 so we take #h times as many4 ,only after working a fair number of sums should children write all in a single fraction thus3-- #af #ah - #ba #bb -----------------4 #bd ,if we have larger numbers1 the pupils must never be allowed to make a number of long-division sums1 but work thus3 #g #c #aa --- -- ---4 #bcj #df #fba ,they would factorise and put down #g #c #aa ---------- ------ --------------4 #b #e #bc #b #bc #c #c #c #bc ,to get the common denominator we see we must multiply the first by #c #c #c2 the second denominator by #e #c #c #c1 the third by #e #b3-- #g #c #c #c #c #e #i #aa #e ----------------------------------4 #b #e #bc #c #c #c ,i have not given a complete exposition1 but touched on what seems essential as regards the method and the order of teaching1 derived from my experience of children's difficulties1 some will think1 ,i fear1 at unnecessary length4 ,in regard to the later rules for decimals1 ,i need only make two remarks3 that the points should be always removed from the divisor1 e4g43-- #ce #jjjjce #eifbc -----4 #eifbc and the point put in as soon as we reach the decimal fraction4 ,in working circulators it is well for a time to express the equations thus3 #cbid ,no4 #aj1jjj ,no #cbidbid1 etc4 #aj ,no #cbid1 etc4 -------------------------- #iiij ,no #cbia #cbia ,no ---- #iiij ,proportion4 ,as regards proportion1 ,i need add little4 ,but there is one vexed question3 ,shall we let children work by the unitary method8 ,i think not1 at least not those who are likely to go on to mathematics4 ,we cannot get the thought of proportion too ingrained1 and the unitary method evades it4 ,in compound proportion ,i would make pupils work out the double process in detail1 and then with factors only1 e4g43-- ,if #e men dig a trench #ad ft4 long in #c days1 how long ought #ab men to take to dig one #bh ft4 long8 ,put in tabular form thus3-- ,men4 ,long4 ,days4 #e #ad #c #ab #bh 8 ,first confine attention to the length of trench4 ,ft4 ,ft4 ,days4 ,days4 #ad 3 #bh #c 3 #f ,now we have to consider the consequences of altering the men3-- ,men4 ,days4 #e #f #ab 8 ,men4 ,men4 ,days4 ,days4 #ab 3 #e #f 3 #b4 ,but we could have arranged it thus and worked it out fractionally at once3-- #ad #bh -- 3 -- #c 3 x #ab #e #c x #bh x #e #c #b #ad #e #e ---------- -------------- - #b4 #ad x #ab #ad #c #d #b #b ,if practice sums are done1 the meaning of each line should be marked at the end thus3-- #ihd price at #a4 ----- ,price of #ihd yds4 at #b #ae #f4 #aifh #b4 #dib #ajs4 #bdf #es4 #bd #ab #f;d4 ---------- #bgcj #ab at #b #ae #f ,approximations4 ,approximate methods should be practised1 and for this reason it is well to get the habit of multiplying by the larger number first4 ,suppose we want a sum accurate1 say to #c decimal places4 ,we remove the point from one of the factors1 pushing it1 of course1 an equal distance in the other4 ,we make the whole number reversed the multiplier1 and begin with the fourth decimal figure 7one beyond the one we need74 ,this will give the fourth place as the first number1 since we are multiplying by units4 ,in the next row we must take in the fifth decimal1 since we are multiplying by #aj1 and so on4 ,here is a sum worked out at length and an abbreviated one3-- ,find correct to #c places of decimals #cde #jjjeifib3 #cde #jjjeifib #cde #jeifib ------------------------------------ #jeifib #jeifib #cde #edc -------- ------- #agijgfjj #bihd #bchgfhj #bchgf #bihdfj #agijgf -------- ------- #bjeicgdj #bjeicf ,in division we approximate by cutting off a figure each time from the divisor as soon as we have come to the number which is one less than the number of digits still to be found4 ,get correct to five places4 #dedebc 7 #adecfgi 7 #caihb #acfcefi ------- #ijaajj #dedebc ------ #ddfegg #djijfh ------ #cgeji #cfcfj ----- #aadi #ijh ----- #bda ,summary4 ,i might summarise the order of teaching fractions thus3-- ,what a fraction is--mixed numbers1 improper fractions4 ,effect of increasing or diminishing numerator or denominator4 ,multiplication and division by integers4 ,proposition a is b times as large as a_/b4 ,multiplication and division by fractions4 ,meaning of of 4 ,measures1 common measures1 factors1 common factors4 ,reduction by inspection4 ,meaning of common multiple1 common measure1 ,l4,c4,m4 and ,g4,c4,m4 ,bringing to common denominator4 ,addition and subtraction4 ,exclusion of some subjects4 ,there are interesting papers by ,potts of ,cambridge1 #b;d41 published by the ,national ,society1 giving the history of arithmetic4 ,i have found it throws much interest into the subject to teach it historically4 ,it seems to me that various things at present included in arithmetic books should be deferred2 e4g41 present values1 annuities1 etc41 which no one would be likely to attempt who is unacquainted with algebra4 ,the ,mathematical ,conference called by the ,committee of ,ten1 ,u4,s4,a41 writes as follows1 and ,i quite agree with its view3 8,the conference recommends that the courses in arithmetic be abridged and enriched--abridged by omitting entirely those subjects which perplex and exhaust without affording any really valuable mental discipline1 and enriched by a greater number of exercises in simple calculation and in the solution of concrete problems4 ,among the subjects which should be curtailed or omitted are compound proportion1 cube root1 abstract mensuration and the greater part of commercial arithmetic4 ,percentage should be reduced1 and the needs of practical life--profit and loss1 bank discount1 compound interest1 with such complications as result from fractional periods of time--are useless and undesirable4 ,the metric system should be taught in application to actual measurements1 and the weights and measures handled4 8,among the branches of this subject which it is proposed to omit are some which have survived from an epoch when more advanced mathematics was scarcely known in our schools1 e4g41 cube root1 duodecimals2 so far as any useful principles are embodied in them1 they belong to algebra1 and can be taught by algebraic methods with such facility1 that there is no longer any sound reason for retaining them in the arithmetical course40 ,i do not insist on algebra for all2 it gives the same sort of mental discipline that arithmetic does1 and so1 educationally1 is not of special value4 ,geometry1 on the other hand1 gives a different kind of training--opens a different set of ideas4 ,many girls1 therefore1 do not learn algebra1 especially those who come late with no clear ideas about arithmetic4 ,those who have been taught arithmetic well from the beginning can be led on to use algebraic symbols and letters very early4 ,as soon as a pupil has gone through the course ,i have recommended1 she is ready to take up algebra in a systematic way--,i shall suppose she has already been familiarised with the use of letters as general symbols4 ,,mathematics4 ,by ,,dorothea ,,beale4 ,how and when can we best introduce mathematical teaching8 ,we have to do at present in girls' schools with many who have come to the age1 say of fifteen or sixteen1 with no mathematical teaching except a very slight knowledge of arithmetical processes4 ,for these it seems to me more important to give the mental training afforded by some initiation into geometrical ideas and methods1 than to teach algebra4 ,beginnings in the kindergarten4 ,for the children 7and they are happily a rapidly increasing number7 who have had good teaching in the kindergarten1 one may frame a course more approaching the ideal4 ,children can be quite early familiarised with geometrical forms and figures1 and learn some of their simpler properties in connection with the drawing and modelling lessons4 ,practical geometry4 ,the ,conference on ,mathematics1 called by the ,committee of ,ten1 ,u4,s4,a41 recommends that children from the age of ten should have some systematic instruction in concrete or experimental geometry4 8,the mere facts of plane and solid geometry should be taught1 not as an exercise in logical deduction and exact demonstration1 but in as concrete and objective a form as possible2 the simple properties of similar plane figures and solids should not be proved1 but illustrated and confirmed by cutting up and rearranging drawings and models4 ,the course should include the careful construction of plane figures by the eye and by the help of instruments1 the indirect measurements of heights and distances by the aid of figures drawn to scale1 and elementary mensuration plane and solid40 ,a small book by ,paul ,bert1 ,first ,elements of ,experimental ,geometry 7,cassell71 is very suggestive1 and would throw much interest into the subject4 ,spencer's ,constructive ,geometry may be referred to1 but it is not altogether satisfactory4 ,a useful and practical book is ,geometry for ,kindergarten ,students1 by ,pullar 7,sonnenschein74 ,geometry before algebra4 ,i consider that geometry should be preferred to algebra in order of time1 because1 as ,i have said1 arithmetic gives the same kind of mental training as algebra1 whereas from geometry the learner gains a unique mental discipline4 ,its educational value4 ,thus the learner is taught to frame a definition2 he has to put before the imagination the abstract generalised idea1 and then describe1 in words clear and precise1 what is in the mind4 ,each proposition begins with a general statement regarding what is to be proved1 or to be done1 and compels us to have a clear idea of what we are going to talk about before we begin4 ,the sub-enunciation makes us bring the general into the region of the particular1 and infer the general from it4 ,we must for the demonstration select certain relations relevant to the subject and omit all others1 and we must be ready to give a reason for every assertion4 ,thus geometrical teaching trains the judgment and forms a most useful and logical habit of mind4 ,one finds the tendency is greatly checked to use words without any clear idea of their meaning1 to plunge into a subject without having set in order in the mind1 what is the matter to be discussed1 or the problem to be solved1 and order is introduced into the general work in all other subjects of study4 ,leads up to the region of ideas4 ,but geometry has still higher uses in the process of mental development4 ,it is1 so to speak1 the link between the real and the ideal2 as ,professor ,cayley has said1 8imaginary objects are the only realities1 the 1 in regard to which the corresponding physical objects are as the shadows in the cave02#bc if1 on the one hand1 it opens the gates of science1 on the other it leads us to philosophy1 and so ,plato is said to have placed over the door of the ,academy1 8,let none enter here ignorant of geometry04 #bc ,presidential ,address1 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,to study geometry is to enter a new path1 and we do not see at first to what heights it leads1 upwards to the universe of ideas2 ideas are nothing for sense1 and yet they are the most necessary things for the everyday life we lead4 ,thus1 a point1 though it exists not1 yet as a thought-dynamic is--it moves and traces out lines which do not exist1 and yet give us direction1 and are of most practical use2 by them we calculate the height of real things1 we guide our ships1 we find paths in the heavens4 ,again1 moving lines give us planes1 and these1 which exist only in thought1 as they move1 form what we call solid figures1 i4e41 something which occupies space4 ,forming definitions4 ,of course1 no one who is grounded in the principles of real education1 would think of letting children begin by learning definitions2 they must be made to put their vague notions into words2 and it will be well for them to see how difficult this is1 e4g41 in the case of a straight line1 an angle1 though the notion is quite clear to the mind's eye4 ,it is surprising to those who have not taught the subject how long it takes girls1 who have not been trained to exactness1 to bring out1 e4g41 the definition of a circle4 ,they will say1 all lines drawn from the centre are equal2 or all lines drawn from the centre to the circumference are equal4 ,no child should be allowed for a long time to see a ,euclid4 ,each proposition must be treated as a rider1 and a copious supply of riders provided in addition2 the child helped to discover the solution or the proof1 then set to write it2 if wrong it must be gone over again and again2 it will take a long time to get through a very few propositions thus1 but later all is easy4 ,methods of teaching4 ,it appears from the report of the ,oxford ,local ,examinations1 ,august1 #ahig1 that the methods of the dark ages still prevail in too many schools2 we read3 8,in many cases candidates who wrote out correctly all propositions for the first six books sent up attempts at problems that can only be described as grotesque1 and showed their complete failure to understand the subject1 giving the unpleasing impression that all they knew was learned by heart04 ,euclid4 ,as a formal introduction to ,euclid for young pupils1 ,i know nothing better for the teacher to study and use than ,bradshaw's ,first ,step4 ,many others might be named4 ,the ,harpur ,euclid is good 7,longmans71 and ,books ,i4 and ,,ii41 by ,smith and ,bryant1 may be specially recommended4 ,still ,i regret that the text-book in ,england is ,euclid2 its inconsistencies are manifest2 we stand alone in keeping it4 ,yet a good workman will make the best of his tools1 and there are editions which remedy many of the defects4 ,one would1 however1 hope that some day ,societies for the ,improvement of ,geometrical ,teaching and ,reformed ,spelling will rejoice together4 ,it does seem an anachronism not to have an angle as large as #ahj2 to use the circle1 and think of a circumference1 yet refer to no other loci1 and work out in a cumbrous manner the propositions of ,books ,,iii4 and ,,iv4--to talk of lines touching and not make use of limits4 ,the more a teacher knows of the higher mathematics1 and looks forward for the pupil1 the better will he teach the rudiments4 ,the treatment of the subject by ,professor ,henrici 7,london ,science ,class-books1 ,longmans7 seems excellent1 but ,i do not know how far it would answer for young beginners4 ,i should be glad to have the experience of some who have tried it4 ,the professor derives the notion of a point from a solid1 particular figures from infinite planes1 and proceeds generally in an inverse direction from that of ,euclid2 the nomenclature is admirably compact1 and must result in a large economy of thinking power--the notion of a locus is introduced early1 and the methods employed lead up to the modern or projective geometry4 ,i once spent some time at ,zurich1 a town especially remarkable for its intellectual activity1 and chiefly for its mathematical school4 ,through the kindness of ,professor ,kinkel and other friends1 ,i easily obtained permission to be present at various lessons in the ,polytechnic and ,canton ,school4 ,i found the method there similar to that which we follow4 ,the pupils used as a text-book ,wolff's ,taschen-buch1 a duodecimo of less than #cjj pages1 which contains the principal results in pure mathematics and the applied sciences1 but no demonstrations4 ,i heard a lesson given in the ,canton ,school4 ,professor ,weileman first read the proposition2 it was the same as ,euclid1 ,,xi4 #b3 to draw a perpendicular to a plane from a given point without it4 ,about a dozen held out their hands to show they were ready to demonstrate4 ,the professor selected one1 who took his place at the board1 and1 subject to correction1 worked the problem4 ,the professor gave as little direct instruction as possible1 appealing rather to the class4 ,i was much struck with the eager interest that the class 7,i think it was ,class ,,ii4 ,b7 took in the work4 ,the next proposition 7in ,wolff7 afforded much amusement4 ,the demonstrator jumped to the conclusion that the lines required to complete the construction would meet1 and could not be made to see he had assumed what required proof4 ,other members of the class offered to take the matter up2 he was accordingly superseded by ,no4 #b1 who having surmounted this difficulty1 also broke down before he reached the end4 ,no4 #c therefore took his place at the board4 ,thus were the reasoning and inventive powers of the boys developed1 and a keen interest awakened2 there was no weariness1 no apathy4 ,i make a few remarks on what may seem to some trivial matters1 yet which are of importance to beginners4 ,in giving the proof at the board1 there is no need to use three letters1 and drag children by their help round every angle2 we can write a ,greek letter or a number1 as we constantly do in trigonometry1 or we could colour the angles2 say the red is equal to the blue1 and let the children write out the propositions in an abbreviated form first2 or we might adopt the convenient and concise plan of ,professor ,henrici3 let capitals stand for points1 small letters for lines1 and let angles be represented by the small letters with prefixed4 ,thus we have line ,,pq or a2 ,,pr or b2 and ,,qpr or ab2 anything to avoid tediousness is good2 children are so bored by verbosity4 ,illustration ,riders need not be always mere lines without any human or scientific interest4 ,suppose instead of saying--,from two points to draw lines to a given line1 which shall make equal angles with the given line1 we say--,let ,,cd be a mirror or a wall1 a ray or a ball strikes it at ,p1 draw the direction it will take after--or1 ,there is a big house ,a1 and a little house ,b1 near a river--the man in ,b has to fetch water for ,a daily1 where should he draw the water so as to go the shortest possible distance8 ,illustration ,the method of determining the distance of the moon can be made clear long before a child is able to conceive the trigonometrical ratios1 and if we are able to arouse an interest in astronomy1 we may excite ardour in some which will make hard thought and work delightful4 ,the distant prospect of the mountain top has a wonderful power of leading us on4 ,the writer can never forget the joyful enthusiasm with which she threw herself into the study of mathematics in consequence of hearing courses of lectures on astronomy from ,mr4 ,pullen of ,cambridge1 ,gresham ,professor of ,astronomy1 and the late ,vice-,chancellor of ,cambridge has described to her the power which the first realisation of the wonders of the boundless universe had over him when a boy of fourteen4 ,mr4 ,glazebrook has suggested that some insight may be given to those who have no high mathematical ability into what seems so marvellous to the uninitiated1 the development of curves from equations4 ,algebra4 ,the close relation between algebra and geometry becomes apparent in ,euclid1 ,book ,,ii41 but this might be shown somewhat earlier by methods such as those recommended by ,mr4 ,wormell in the first pages of ,plotting or ,graphic ,mathematics4 ,we can see by a figure that #a #b #c #b #a #c1 and lead the pupil on to the general proposition which is in constant use1 when treating of falling bodies4 --------- 99 --------- 99 99 --------- 99 99 99 --------- ,or we can show similarly that the sum of an arithmetical series equals a l ---------4 #b ---------------------------------------- ------------ #ad 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 #b ---------------------------------------- ------------ #aa 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 #e ---------------------------------------- ------------ #h 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 #h ---------------------------------------- ------------ #e 99 99 99 99 99 #aa ---------------------------------------- ------------ #b 99 99 #ad ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,as regards the formal introduction of generalised arithmetic or algebra1 one cannot lay down any limit of age1 owing to the very untrained state in which girls come to secondary schools1 but with children who have been taught thoroughly the principles of arithmetic up to fractions1 it is easy to introduce literal symbols and so prepare the way3 this should be done much earlier than is usual4 ,children well taught in arithmetic might perhaps begin the subject formally about thirteen1 and ,i think it well for the first term to drop arithmetic altogether1 so as to get as much time as possible for overcoming the initial difficulties1 and making use of the zeal which a new study gives2 but of course every good teacher of arithmetic will train his pupils to use letters for numbers very much earlier4 ,there is a good deal put into arithmetic books1 which would be much better dealt with by algebraical methods1 and should be postponed1 e4g41 involution and evolution1 and much time should be saved by omitting long sets of examples on weights and measures1 etc41 and giving sums to be worked out mechanically with large numbers4 ,as in arithmetic1 it is extremely important to give an insight into the composition of quantities1 so that de-composition may be easy1 subsequent mechanical work in multiplication1 division1 involution1 etc41 minimised1 and the pupil reach sooner the more attractive branches of the subject1 and feel the power it gives4 ,mixed mathematics4 ,if children have acquired early a fair knowledge of geometry and algebra1 they may1 say at sixteen1 be ready to pass on to those branches in which the alliance of the two is most intimate1 and which are so closely correlated with all the teaching in mechanics and physics4 ,it takes most girls some time to assimilate the ideas of the trigonometrical ratios1 and it is fatal to hurry them4#bd ,those who are able to proceed further1 and enter upon the study of co-ordinate geometry1 usually take great delight in it2 and it is well1 too1 to lead them gradually on by some such books as ,proctor's ,easy ,lessons in the ,differential ,calculus1 to form some idea of what a powerful instrument the ,calculus is1 before they actually make use of it or formally study it2 it takes time for a new method to infiltrate the mind of an ordinary student4 #bd ,i may add that there is an interesting chapter in ,herbart's ,a ,b ,c of ,sense-,perception1 in which he works out trigonometrical ratios on the basis of his philosophical system3 this chapter would interest those teaching mathematics4 ,historical method4 ,finally1 ,i would once more recommend that1 whenever it is possible1 pupils should be led along the path of discovery pursued by original investigators1 both in physics and applied mathematics2 ,i have found the interest of logarithms greatly increased by this method4#be #be ,professor ,salford 7,monographs on ,education and ,health7 insists on the importance of teaching logarithms as a part of scientific arithmetic4 8,often logarithms are first taught in connection with trigonometry1 and the average pupil does not learn the difference between a logarithmic and a natural sine2 there is no cure for this confusion but to teach logarithms where they belong and to apply them to purely arithmetical problems40 ,he advises the introduction of logarithms 8as soon as the pupil has reached in algebra the proposition am an am n1 and he should be shown that the practical method of dealing with powers and roots is the logarithmic4 ,teachers will then abstain from annoying young pupils with difficult and needless problems solved in the antiquated manner2 they will learn how to calculate a compound interest table1 an excellent exercise in itself1 as well as a labour-saving contrivance in arithmetic4 ,the reason why logarithms are so little appreciated1 is that teachers of arithmetic have not as a rule really learned their use2 they go on wasting time in arbitrary exercises in evolution1 interest1 etc41 done by tedious methods1 and do not appreciate how instinctively the best calculators employ logarithms40 ,professor ,lodge's popular book1 ,pioneers of ,science1 is very much appreciated by the young1 and ,i may quote propos evidence given by ,dr4 ,bryce of ,glasgow before the ,royal ,commission of #ahfd3-- 8,pure mathematics cultivates the power of deductive reasoning1 and as soon as boys are capable of forming abstract ideas1 and grasping general principles1 as soon as they have got correct notions of numbers1 and an accurate knowledge of the essential parts of arithmetic1 and have made some progress in geometry1 then natural philosophy may be advantageously taught4 ,i speak on this matter from experience4 ,my relative and colleague1 who had charge of the mathematical department in the ,belfast ,academy1 introduced natural philosophy as part of the work of all the mathematical classes4 ,after these classes had gone a certain length in geography and algebra1 he took up the elements of natural philosophy two days in the week1 as part of the work of every mathematical class4 ,he began with simple experiments1 and according as the progress of the boys in ,euclid and algebra admitted of it1 more mathematical views of natural philosophy were introduced4 ,the great advantage of the study of physical science is that1 when properly taught1 it interests boys in intellectual pursuits generally4 ,for instance1 ,newton's great discovery1 the identity of the power which retains the moon in her orbit with terrestrial gravity1 was being explained to a class of from twelve to eighteen boys4 ,the teacher did not tell them the result2 he enumerated the phenomena by which ,newton arrived at it1 taking care to present them in the order most likely to suggest it4 ,as fact after fact was marshalled before them1 they became eager and excited more and more1 for they saw that something new and great was coming2 and when at last the array of phenomena was complete1 and the magnificent conclusion burst upon their sight1 the whole class started from their seats with a scream of delight4 ,they were conscious that they had gone through the very same mental operation1 as that great man had gone through4 ,the consciousness of fellowship with so great a mind was an elevating thing1 and gave them a delight in intellectual pursuits4 ,an unusual proportion of those boys who passed through the ,belfast ,academy during the twenty years that ,i was able to have natural and physical science taught on those principles1 have1 as men1 been distinguished and successful2 and they owe it1 ,i am convinced1 in a large degree to the taste for intellectual pursuits thus formed40 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,science4 ,,psychological ,,order ,,of ,,study ,,with ,,special ,,reference ,,to ,,scientific ,,teaching4 ,by ,,dorothea ,,beale4 ,as ,rosencranz expresses it1 there may be distinguished three epochs3-- ,i4 ,the intuitive--,i use the word with the ,german meaning of sense-perception4 ,,ii4 ,the imaginative1 during which the developing mind is more accustomed to dwell on mental images1 is less passive to impressions1 more active in calling them up1 in fashioning them anew4 ,,iii4 ,the logical1 during which the impulse is to harmonise the world without and the world within1 to fit all things into a scheme of space and time1 of order and law4 ,regarding these1 we may ask what is the thought-material in which the developing mind may best work successively--or if we take the same material1 in what varying way shall we deal with it8 ,the near objects which the children can touch and taste and see objectively1 these are the first things which call forth the attention1 that self-activity by which the mind fastens on its prey1 and converts percepts into concepts2 as the jelly fish catches the floating prey in its tentacles1 and absorbs it into its substance1 so the child stores up experiences and memories which enrich all future percepts4 ,botany4 ,what subject of systematic study can be better suited to the child then1 than that which calls out its sense of wonder and beauty1 and which in harmony with its own restless nature is ever changing2 in which is found endless variety with underlying order8 ,surely the world of flowers is specially suited for teaching the little ones4 ,how the colours and forms delight them--has not the first sight of a flower remained with many of us through life1 8a joy for ever08 ,it is for us to teach how to observe1 so that the memories shall be not mere vague impressions1 but clear-cut1 accurate1 lasting3 all the senses must combine to give unity and completeness to the sense-concept1 so that the child may feel the beauty1 enter into loving sympathy with ,nature1 and perfect that 8inward eye1 which is the bliss of solitude04 ,children should be led to form collections1 by which the first observations may be repeated and fulfilled2 they should also learn to draw1 so that not merely the individual1 but the essential1 the typical may be brought into clearness2 we should1 too1 encourage in them the desire to co-operate with ,nature in making the earth beautiful1 and call out the affections towards the ,unseen ,giver of all good things4 ,these are a few of the reasons why botany in its simplest forms is fit nourishment for the child4 ,the hard names1 the intricate divisions into classes and orders1 the physiology of growing plants can be touched on only lightly2 but the power of observation can be greatly developed1 and the main facts of classificatory botany can be taught1 and teaching full of interest given as regards structure1 growth1 seed distribution and relations to the insect world4 ,mrs4 ,bell's ,science ,ladders form a good introduction4 ,when we have exhausted our material1 so far as the little child is capable of understanding1 it is better to turn to some fresh subject2 we may later1 when the mind is ripe for these things1 take the subject up again4 ,children whose eyes have been opened1 will be able to go into the country1 and note down the things they have seen4 ,diaries ,i have seen quite beautifully kept by poor children taught at the ,house of ,education at ,ambleside4 ,the children knew the different buds as they came out on the trees1 and watched the delicate and deepening tints1 saw the leaf-buds develop into leaves1 and the opening of the flowers4 ,zoology4 ,elementary botany should1 ,i think1 be followed by a year of zoology 7say at ten years old71 treated in a simple way2 the teacher should dwell not upon the internal structure1 but on what presents itself to the eye1 beginning with living creatures that the children are familiar with1 or can get to know--domestic animals1 8beasties0 from garden and pond1 caterpillars and birds1 tadpoles and dragon-flies--they should have their menageries1 and watch the creatures' habits4 ,especially suited to women is the work of observing insect life1 and there are worlds for us to discover1 if we1 as we walk round our garden1 have eyes to see4 ,the animal world too is specially calculated to develop the affections rightly4 ,the character of the human being is too complex1 too far above the understanding of the child1 and as long as he is dependent1 he should not be exercised in observing and chronicling the doings of those whom he cannot yet understand4 ,it is something to give him objects1 on which he can exercise his powers of criticism and observation4 ,so too the sense of responsibility may be fostered towards those who depend upon him1 and are in his power4 ,astronomy4 ,these two sciences bring the child into contact with things on the earth2 he might next lift up his eyes to the heavens4 ,it delights the child to learn the names of the constellations1 and trace their forms1 to notice the movements of the planets1 the changing aspect of the sky as the years go round4 ,the sense of the greatness of the universe gradually dawns on him1 and the awe and reverence for that power and wisdom which is revealed in the heavens1 prepares the way for those deeper teachings which belong to religion4 ,especially stimulating is astronomy to the developing reflective powers1 from the number and variety of problems it suggests2 and yet it is not altogether baffling1 for the child can be led on to draw conclusions respecting the movements and distances of the heavenly bodies2 very early he can be shown how to solve such questions by simple processes1 and thus the mathematical passion awakened2 surely most of us can remember the first time that our soul really ascended into the seventh heaven4 ,i have heard a mathematician describe what it was to him--how at fourteen he fled from the school into the fields to be alone4 ,physical geography4 ,and what next8 ,there is something near to the child1 which he can touch1 which lies at his feet1 a magic book with mysterious characters1 in which he reads of infinite time2 let him open the pages of the great rock-book1 and gather the relics of the past4 ,geology will help him to observe in a new way2 astronomy and geology 7,i use it in the sense of earth-history7 are more suited than the two first to the beginning of the reflective period1 because there is nothing to be done to alter the objects of the two last sciences--whereas we can do much1 and observe the effect of our doings on plants and animals4 ,physiography1 including geology and all that has to do with the phenomena of ,nature included under the head of physical geography1 would claim a two years' course and unify the subjects already touched on3 the pupil will learn many facts on physical science4 ,and now the girl1 say about fifteen1 with an increasing power of abstraction and reflection1 and a greater knowledge of mathematics1 will be ready to receive more formal and definite instruction regarding what we call matter and force--elementary physics2 the subjects of light and heat1 electricity or chemistry might be selected2 the girl is becoming the woman--the reflective powers are gaining the ascendant--she is longing to interpret more than to gain ever more knowledge1 she understands something of physics and chemistry2 let her return now to her first study and carry it still further1 see the mysteries of life revealed in the flower1 take physiological botany1 the chemical changes produced by the physical processes1 watch the plants as they grow1 and trace the relation of flower and insect1 plant and animal--recognise that all-embracing intelligence working in all1 which has harmonised not only the outward things1 but the intelligence of every living creature1 and made each able more or less to know the laws of their life and to obey them4 ,the developing and deepening religious instinct will find utterances from heaven in these earthly things1 hear the voice of ,god among the trees of the garden4 ,later still we can pass into the inner temple1 treat of physiology1 show how marvellous is the living tabernacle of the soul1 how fitted for our temporary abode4 ,it is objected by some that physiology should not be studied because it involves the whole circle of sciences1 whilst others regard it as the most necessary and fundamental branch of instruction4 ,experienced teachers know that much of great educative and practical value can be given on the lines of ,mrs4 ,bell's ,laws of ,health1 and brought home to comparatively uneducated people by the tracts of the ,ladies' ,health ,society1 and we all know how important it is for those who are growing into womanhood1 that the subject should be treated with the wisdom and judgment and reverence which it demands4 ,on the later stages of the teaching of natural science ,i do not propose to dwell4 ,those who take up science as a speciality will have to limit the field1 and others will be guided by circumstances1 but whatever special line they may follow later1 such a course of study must surely have nourished the powers of the mind1 developed the sympathies1 disciplined the character1 enlarged the horizon beyond the petty concerns which occupy the whole attention of the uneducated of all sorts and conditions4 ,the woman who has really thought about these things1 when she travels will see things with different eyes1 she will understand enough to profit by the companionship of able and thoughtful men1 and later perhaps to share it may be a man's work as ,miss ,herschel1 and ,mrs4 ,huggins1 and ,mrs4 ,proctor1 and ,mrs4 ,marshall1 and ,mrs4 ,sidgwick and many more--to be the friend of her brothers and the first teacher of her sons--and she will surely have learned the first lesson of wisdom1 the humility which knows that all we know is to know that our knowledge is as nothing in the presence of the ,infinite1 that if any man think that he knows1 he knows nothing as he ought to know it4 ,i have worked out the order in detail in respect to science2 it will be enough to touch very briefly on the parallel teachings in other subjects1 which must also be taught scientifically4 ,take1 e4g41 language4 ,the child is ever observing and imitating2 restless activity characterises the child4 ,the teacher has to perfect the observing powers by insisting on right pronunciation1 as ,i have shown in another chapter1 first in ,english1 then in another language2 knowledge is first empirical4 ,next will follow1 not grammatical definitions and rules to be learned1 but the discovery of classification1 just as in the case of botany1 through observation--the discovery of rules inductively2 then1 when the need is felt for a shortening of the process1 the collections made by grammarians may be produced1 as the book of dried specimens1 say of ferns1 which the child had not time and opportunity to collect for herself4 ,afterwards will come reading and reflection upon the relationship of words1 like the systems of scientific classification of flowers1 and later the age of poetry and philosophy4 ,it is the giving the grammatical abstractions to children who are at the stage of observation merely1 which creates the distaste for school learning2 it is the giving dead languages at a time when children are at the active1 intuitive age1 and have not the powers of thought necessary to disentangle the classical authors1 that makes so much of our teaching a failure4 ,so with history4 ,first the simple tales1 e4g41 ,jack and the ,giant--no complications of character there--good and bad1 black and white--stories of fairies and hobgoblins1 beings so unlike ourselves1 that we are not troubled too much with moral scruples2 they are like dream people4 ,then old-world heroes1 in whom the moral emerges--not the priggish boys and girls1 to cramp the character1 but boys and girls1 writ large4 ,then passing from the individual to the general1 the specimen to the species1 we have family life enlarged to the state under a kingly constitution1 as in ancient patriarchal times1 the first teachings of which are best gathered from the ,old ,testament4 ,as in the nature teachings we shall lead children to feel underlying all1 the sense as of an unseen presence1 a ,king of ,kings ruling the course of this world1 leading and guiding the mind of man to work with ,him as in the nature realm4 ,and lastly in the highest teachings1 which have to do1 not with the objective surroundings1 but with the man himself1 with his thoughts and aspirations1 with the expression of these in literature1 in art1 in ethics1 and politics1 and philosophy1 the student will find enough to develop the highest powers of thought1 as he wrestles with the problems of life1 when he has reached the later period of study4 ,and the same order is observed in religion4 ,the objective first--the ,divine acts seen in nature1 in the acts of the good1 in the punishment of evil2 at first the thought of ,god is more objective1 since it must be so in the early life of the child under parental government4 ,later more subjective1 through conscience4 ,sin is at first regarded chiefly as an act against a loving person1 later it is felt to be the degradation of our nature1 or that of others1 by taking in a poison as it were2 or as 1 the frustration of the true ends of our being1 the exclusion from the light and life and joy of the ,divine presence1 which is the soul's sunlight1 into outer darkness--the conceptions formed will be different1 the underlying truths one1 the thoughts will pass from the physical to the panpsychical1 and later to the highest conceivable by us--the anthropomorphic1 stripped of the transitory and the finite1 but embracing all those eternal things by which we know that we are more than creatures of time1 since we gladly throw from us all that would then be our highest good1 for the things which eye sees not and ear hears not1 but which can come to us by revelation only of the spiritual2 things which all men1 in all ages1 have felt to be the best1 whatever their actions may have been1 truth1 love1 righteousness1 justice1 the eternal things4 ,the worst man knows in his conscience more ,than the best man does1 whom we bow before4 ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,the ,,biological ,,sciences4 ,by ,,charlotte ,l4 ,,laurie4 ,introduction4 ,the biological sciences deal with the manifestations of life4 ,this distinguishes them at once from the physical and chemical sciences2 not1 indeed1 that it is possible to understand the life of any organism without some knowledge of physics and chemistry2 thus to explain intelligibly the circulation of the blood some acquaintance with mechanics is necessary1 but organisms have certain properties which belong to them from the very fact of their being endowed with life2 the inherent properties of protoplasm1 its contractility1 irritability1 etc41 are all vital properties due to the presence of life4 ,the first point then that a teacher of biology has to decide in order to teach this subject rightly is3 ,what is it possible to teach about life8 ,is this nineteenth century with its marvellous electrical discoveries any nearer the secret of life8 ,although it may fairly be claimed that the manifestations of life are better understood1 yet scientists will be the first to confess that what life itself is still remains a mystery2 therefore the teacher of biology must never be satisfied without arousing in the minds of his pupils a growing consciousness of the limitations of knowledge1 the basis of true reverence4 ,any teaching of science1 not only of biology1 which fails to do this is defective4 ,development of observation 7a7 in class and home work4 ,the teacher of biology then will desire first of all to develop a reverent attitude of mind1 so that the facts of life may be understood aright4 ,observation of vital phenomena is by no means an easy thing2 it needs much accuracy1 constant patience and minute attention to detail4 ,in school teaching the foundations of accurate observation ought to be laid4 ,botany affords much scope for this4 ,in planning lessons1 in choosing specimens for home work1 the teacher should aim at developing this faculty4 ,a lesson on a buttercup may very well be followed by home work on a marsh marigold4 ,the two plants belong to the same order and have great similarity in structure1 but certain important differences2 the tendency of unobservant pupils will be to conclude that the same description will apply to both1 and possibly nectaries will be described as present on the sepals of the marsh marigold instead of on the carpels1 etc4 ,as a rule1 home work should demand original observation on the part of the pupils2 it should not be a mere repetition of what has been done in class2 thus1 supposing the sweet-pea has been worked through in class1 clover may be set for home work1 provided of course that the class is sufficiently advanced4 ,then1 as regards the observation of vital phenomena1 it is possible to show that plants1 like animals1 take in oxygen4 ,the details of 8,garreau's experiment0 can be contrived even in schools where there is no physiological laboratory2 with a water plant such as ,anacharis1 the evolution of oxygen in the making of starch can be demonstrated2 and with such a simple thing as yeast growing in sugar and water1 it is easy to show that carbonic acid gas is given off by fungi2 more elaborate experiments are necessary to demonstrate the evolution of this gas by green plants4 ,the teacher should always point out any similarity of process in plants and animals2 transpiration of plants should be compared with the perspiration of animals1 so that after a few lessons on the physiology of plants1 it is possible to indicate the essential differences between plants and animals as far as they are known4 ,in zoology1 as in botany1 the teacher should aim at developing the power of observation1 but zoology is a much more difficult subject to teach well2 for it is not always possible to get animals for observation1 consequently lessons in zoology are often dry2 they are wanting in that living interest which comes not from book study1 but from watching the animal itself4 ,where1 however1 this has been done1 keen interest is aroused4 ,a teacher who has spent hours off the coasts of ,devonshire1 pulling sea-anemones out of the crevices of the rocks1 or watching them expand their tentacles and draw them in1 will give a very different lesson from one who has merely read about a sea-anemone4 ,a class1 having lessons in zoology1 should have access to an aquarium1 which can be kept in the class-room1 and in planning a course on this subject1 especially for young children1 it is most important to choose those types which can be observed4 ,in a first year's course for children of ten or eleven1 preference should be given to the habits of the animals1 and structure introduced only so far as is necessary to explain habit4 ,living specimens for lessons may be obtained from aquaria in ,jersey1 ,birmingham and elsewhere4 7b7 ,by means of field work4 ,it is not possible1 however1 to do all that ought to be done in developing observation within the limits of an hour a week in a schoolroom4 ,the teacher of botany or zoology should be willing to organise expeditions into the country for botanising or pond grubbing4 ,here we have a ,field ,club1 consisting of three or four sections3 botanical1 geological1 zoological1 archological4 ,the teacher of each subject is naturally the leader of the section1 and is thus able to arouse a keener interest than is possible in the class-room alone4 ,a yearly conversazione1 when collections are exhibited1 gives zest to the working of the sections1 brings all the members of the club together1 and affords an opportunity for obtaining a lecture from some original worker4 ,it is found that if #bjj belong to a school society of this kind1 each member subscribing one shilling a year1 a conversazione can be held1 and prizes for collections given out of the funds of the society2 each member bears in addition her share of the expense of an expedition2 but the less expensive and the nearer home these are1 the better4 7c7 ,through a museum4 ,an excellent means of arousing a real interest in science lessons1 and of developing the observation1 is to have a school museum4 ,that part of the museum devoted to natural history should combine two functions2 it should have perfect specimens of the chief types of animal life arranged morphologically2 for instance1 the covering organs1 such as scales of fishes1 feathers of birds1 hair of animals1 should be grouped together1 so that the homology of these organs can be seen at a glance2 secondly1 the museum should have surplus specimens specially intended for teaching purposes4 ,one specimen will not serve these two purposes2 for the only way of preserving any specimen in its perfection is to keep it under lock and key in a glass case1 which must be air- and dust-tight4 ,as soon as a specimen is taken out and passed about from teacher to teacher and from class to class1 it will inevitably get damaged1 as the curator of many a school museum can testify4 ,what share can the pupils take in the museum work8 ,they may furnish specimens1 but here the difficulty is to get them perfect enough2 children require to be trained to aim at a standard of perfection1 and in this particular the school museum may do valuable work2 at the same time if the curator demands too much1 the ardour of the children becomes damped2 so it is sometimes well to accept an imperfect specimen1 and put it in the museum until a more perfect one is forthcoming4 ,pupils can also do much useful work in making diagrams and drawings2 every specimen in the science portion of the museum should be drawn1 and parts explained by means of an accompanying diagram4 ,reference may here be made to the scheme at the end of this paper for a specimen museum case1 illustrating the flowering plant4 ,it has been drawn up on the lines of the ,natural ,history ,museum at ,south ,kensington1 where1 as is well known1 great attention is paid by ,sir ,william ,flower to the homology of organs4 ,this scheme has been carried out in our museum2 almost every specimen has been illustrated with a drawing done by pupils1 the scientific explanation being written by the teacher4 ,in the first instance1 as the case was being arranged1 specimens and diagrams were merely pinned1 not gummed1 so that as the work progressed it was possible to alter and improve upon the first arrangement4 7d7 ,use of microscopes4 ,in connection with the development of observation1 a word may be said about the use of the microscope in schools4 ,every school should have at least one microscope1 if even it has only one or two powers2 a great deal can be done with a #a-;inch and #b-;inch objectives4 ,at present many girls take the course required by the ,university of ,oxford for the ,senior ,local without having seen a single structure under the microscope4 ,this ought not to be1 especially now that microscopes are so inexpensive 7a microscope with #a-;inch and -inch objectives can be obtained for #c #fs474 ,there is considerable difficulty in managing microscope work with large classes2 not more than two pupils1 or at the most three1 can work at a microscope at the same time1 and where there are only one or two microscopes in a school1 the simplest plan is for the teacher of botany to have pupils out singly1 whilst the rest of the class are doing paper work at their desks4 ,lantern slides are an immense help in class work1 but they cannot altogether take the place of the microscope1 and it is very important that elder pupils likely to do anything at science should learn to manipulate the microscope4 ,order of lessons4 ,in no subject is it more necessary to plan lessons carefully than in science1 for not only does the development of the observing faculty depend on a right sequence1 but the scope of science is ever widening4 ,biology alone includes at the present time subdivisions which hardly existed thirty years ago4 ,teachers of botany now have to find time for vegetable morphology1 histology and physiology1 for the life-histories of plants as well as for the descriptions necessary to classification4 ,at the same time there are other considerations1 besides a right sequence1 which must be borne in mind in planning a course4 ,theoretically1 it would be best in botany to begin with a description of the plant as a whole2 root1 stem1 leaf1 flower1 branch1 and the relation of these parts to each other1 should be the subject of the first lessons4 ,but children of ten or eleven could hardly be expected to be interested in learning that a leaf is a lateral appendage of a stem1 and a branch an axillary outgrowth1 whereas they are fascinated by flowers1 and enjoy lessons about the visits of insects to flowers1 etc4 ,undoubtedly with young children it would be wiser to begin with the flower and gradually lead up to the plant as a whole4 ,the teacher1 too1 must be guided to some extent at any rate by his own individuality4 ,in a subject as wide as botany some minds are attracted by one part1 some by another2 one teacher can be so luminous in his account of structure and its adaptation to function that the children are in their turn interested1 especially if minute structure is seen through the microscope1 and the delight of drawing forms part of the lesson4 ,another teacher revels in classification1 and loves to point out the resemblances between plants of one order and those of another4 ,there must be1 and it is almost impossible to over-emphasise this1 a certain sequence1 a certain gradation1 a definite plan1 on which the lessons are arranged2 but this plan1 this sequence should be the teacher's own1 it should be the outcome of his own individuality2 he will best teach what most interests him1 hence he had better follow his own order than that of any text-book1 however excellent4 ,in higher classes1 where the work is arranged on examination lines1 the teacher has a definite syllabus for his guidance2 but even in this case there is play for his individuality1 and nothing can dispense with this4 ,he must be always reading the new books on his subject2 he must keep himself in touch with the new work that is being done through visiting museums1 botanical gardens1 working in laboratories1 etc41 so as to be keen about his subject1 otherwise his lessons will be dull and lifeless1 and the unforgivable sin in a teacher is dulness4 ,science cultivates the faculties of imagination and reasoning4 ,although teachers of biology will naturally attach much importance to the development of observation1 it is very necessary to remember that observation is only a means to an end1 not an end in itself4 ,if teachers aim only at cultivating the faculty of observation1 they are likely to produce pupils who will make good collectors 7a work not to be despised71 but nothing more4 ,the accurate observation of facts is absolutely necessary1 but it is by no means the only thing to be done in science teaching4 ,the power of generalisation1 from the facts collected1 should follow if science is to advance at all4 ,it may be thought that this cannot be done in school work1 but surely some attempt should be made in this direction1 for it is most necessary that pupils should be taught to understand1 to some extent at any rate1 when a generalisation is sound and when unsound4 ,this is specially the case in teaching physiology2 for instance1 pupils are most interested in hearing something of the cell theory of the body1 and can quite appreciate the bearing of the discovery1 that the walls of the capillary blood-vessels are composed of cells1 on this theory4 ,science is not a matter merely of memory and accurate observation1 it needs considerable reasoning power and much imagination1 for without the power of seeing resemblances in facts1 i4e41 true induction1 progress is impossible4 ,the theory of evolution1 which has revolutionised not only science1 but the whole thought of the present day1 could never have been formulated had ,darwin and ,wallace been mere observers1 however accurate1 and in this connection a science teacher may be allowed to bear witness to the importance of the ,humanities in the training of the mind4 ,as a scholar of ,shrewsbury ,grammar ,school1 ,darwin had little training in science1 but possibly without the mental discipline of the classics1 he would have been unable to accomplish what he did for science in later life2 for the higher walks of science require much imagination4 ,in science lessons pupils may be called on to devise experiments for themselves1 to invent diagrams1 to find out resemblances1 to note dissimilarities1 in order to develop the faculty of imagination4 ,speaking very generally1 in younger classes the aim of the teacher will be to cultivate the faculty of observation1 in the upper to develop not only observation1 but the imagination and power of reasoning4 ,,notes ,,of ,a ,,specimen ,,lesson ,,on ,,growth ,,of ,,seedlings ,,for ,,senior ,,oxford ,,class4 ,time--one hour4 ,in a previous lesson the structure of the seed of bean1 maize and sunflower has been given4 ,material required3-- ,a4 ,seedlings of bean1 maize and sunflower1 ten days old2 one of each kind for each pupil4 ,b4 ,seedlings of the above1 three weeks old4 ,c4 ,seedlings grown in different media2 water1 sawdust1 soil4 #a4 ,the ,seedlings of the ,broad ,bean should first be examined4 7a7 ,the radicle1 observed in the seed1 has given rise to the primary root1 on which possibly lateral roots have begun to develop4 ,this is an instance of a true tap root4 7b7 ,the plumule is beginning to form the stem4 7c7 ,the cotyledons are gradually getting smaller1 for the seedling is feeding on them4 ,these points should be emphasised by means of the blackboard1 the pupils themselves drawing the seedlings as exactly as possible1 always naming each part4 #b4 ,seedlings of ,sunflower4--,these the pupils should describe as far as possible by themselves4 ,they should notice from the green colour and absence of soil on the cotyledons that they are above ground1 and that there is a portion of the seedling between the cotyledons and the beginning of the root2 this the teacher tells them is called the hypocotyledonary portion of the stem1 and the pupils ought to be able from previous lessons to explain the word1 or even to make it up for themselves4 #c4 ,seedlings of ,maize4--,here the pupils will be able to describe by themselves the endosperm and the primary root1 provided that only one root has shown itself4 ,if the lateral roots have begun to develop1 the teacher must explain which are lateral and which primary1 and point out the difference between the primary root of this seedling and that of the bean and sunflower4 ,it should be noticed that there is only one cotyledon1 and here the point to emphasise is1 that the bean and sunflower live on the food contained in1 or made by1 the cotyledons2 the maize on the food present in the endosperm4 ,the seedlings three weeks old should then be compared with those already observed1 the differences in length of radicle and plumule being noted4 ,the observation of these seedlings will naturally suggest the subject of growth4 ,what is growth8 ,by judicious questioning the teacher will show that it is impossible to define it1 except by its manifestations in plants and animals2 it is associated with the taking in of food2 then by comparing the growth of a building or rock with that of a plant and animal1 it will be possible to give some idea of growth by accretion as distinct from growth by assimilation2 thus the mystery of growth will be gradually approached1 the teacher pointing out that growth is only possible where there is life4 ,this should be illustrated in every possible way1 e4g41 growth of the body1 of the mind1 of a school1 a nation1 etc4 ,lastly1 the effect of environment on growth will be illustrated by the seedlings grown in different media4 ,the home work in connection with this lesson should consist of3 7#a7 ,descriptions of seedlings2 instead of maize1 wheat may be given2 nasturtium instead of bean2 these the teacher must have ready for distribution2 a drawing of each should be insisted on1 with parts named2 7#b7 ,short notes on the conditions of growth and its essential nature4 ,the children should also be invited to grow seedlings for themselves2 these should be exhibited in subsequent lessons4 ,,list ,,of ,,books ,,on ,,botany4 7,a7 ,,text-,,books ,,for ,,class ,,use4 ,elementary ,botany4 ,by ,joseph ,oliver4 #b_/-4 ,blackie4 ,useful for ,s4 ,kensington and ,london ,matriculation4 ,elementary ,text-book of ,botany4 ,by ,edith ,aitkin4 #d_/f4 ,longmans4 ,this is specially suitable for ,senior ,oxford ,course4 ,student's ,introductory ,handbook of ,systematic ,botany 7,blackie's ,science ,text-books74 ,by ,joseph ,oliver4 #d_/f4 ,this is one of the best text-books for ,group ,e of ,cambridge ,women's ,examination4 ,practical ,elementary ,biology4 ,by ,bidgood4 #d_/f4 ,longmans4 ,this gives most of the types1 animal as well as vegetable1 required for the ,biology of ,group ,e of ,cambridge ,women's ,examination4 7,b7 ,,for ,,teachers4 ,naked-eye ,botany4 ,with ,illustrations and ,floral ,problems4 ,by ,f4 ,e4 ,kitchener4 #b_/f4 ,percival ,co4 ,very useful for teachers of younger classes2 it is most suggestive4 ,a ,manual of ,botany4 ,by ,reynolds ,green4 ,churchill4 ,vol4 i4 ,morphology and ,anatomy4 #g_/f4 ,vol4 ii4 ,classification and ,physiology4 #aj_/-4 ,very helpful for ,london ,examination work4 ,the ,natural ,history of ,plants4 ,from the ,german of ,kerner von ,marilaun4 ,translated by ,f4 ,w4 ,oliver4 #d vols4 #ab_/f each4 ,blackie4 ,this is a very readable book1 full of suggestion and beautiful drawings1 and not too technical4 ,handbook of the ,british ,flora4 ,by ,bentham4 ,vol4 i41 #aj_/f4 ,illustrations of the ,british ,flora1 vol4 ii41 #aj_/f4 ,reeve ,co4 ,this is indispensable for the identification of species4 ,a ,student's ,text-book of ,botany4 ,by ,vines4 #ba_/-4 ,sonnenschein4 ,practical ,botany4 ,by ,bower and ,vines4 #aj_/f4 ,macmillan4 ,both of these are very technical1 suitable only for advanced work4 ,,museum ,,specimen ,,case4 ,,botany4 ,,angiosperms ,,or ,,flowering ,,plants4 ,,root4 ,tap ,root4--,seedling of ,sunflower4 ,primary ,root4--,seedling of ,maize 7not a tap root74 ,histology of root4 ,drawing of transverse section of a dicotyledonous root1 showing axial arrangement of bundles4 ,development of bundles4 ,illustrated by drawings of transverse sections of young and old roots4 ,origin of lateral roots4 ,drawing through long section of root1 showing lateral roots arising from pericycle4 ,forms of roots4 ,drawings of carrot1 turnip1 orchid1 etc4 ,,stem4 7a7 ,underground stems4 ,rhizome--,solomon's ,seal4 ,bulb--,long3 ,section of ,ranunculus bulbosus4 ,corm--,long3 ,section of crocus4 ,tubers--,drawing of potato in different stages of growth4 ,runner--,drawing of strawberry4 7b7 ,histology of stem4 ,drawings of transverse and longitudinal sections of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous stems4 ,specimens of bast fibres of hemp1 ,mexican aloe1 lace tree4 7c7 ,axillary outgrowths of stem or modified branches4 ,tendrils--,sweet bryony4 ,thorns--,black thorn and gorse4 ,,leaves4 #a4 ,drawing of poppy plant in five different stages1 showing cotyledons1 foliage and floral leaves1 in illustration of ,goethe's generalisation1 8all lateral appendages of the stem are leaves04 #b4 ,cotyledons4 ,seedlings of mustard1 cress1 nasturtium1 etc4 ,drawings of bean to show fleshy cotyledons4 ,seedling of maize4 #c4 ,covering leaves4 7a7 ,bud scales from horse chestnut4 7b7 ,bracts forming an involucre as in the wild carrot1 black knapweed1 acorn4 #d4 ,foliage leaves4 ,a typical leaf with parts named4 ,drawing of transverse section4 ,arrangement of foliage leaves1 alternate and whorled 7including opposite74 ,the chief types of 8simple divided0 and 8compound0 leaves should be mounted4 ,chief modifications of foliage leaves3-- 7a7 ,tendrils for climbing--,vetch4 ,petiole developed into tendril--,lathyrus aphaca 7rare74 7b7 ,spines--,barberry4 7c7 ,for food1 e4g41 carnivorous plants1 sundew1 pitcher plant1 bladder-wort4 7d7 ,modifications due to the medium in which the plant lives--,water crowfoot4 ,,the ,,flower4 ,i4 ,inflorescences4--,a specimen and diagram of each4 ,racemose4 7#a7 ,capitulum1 e4g41 daisy2 7#b7 raceme1 e4g41 lily of the valley2 7#c7 spike1 e4g41 wheat4 ,cymose4 #a4 ,dichotomous1 e4g41 most of the ,caryophyllace4 #b4 ,helicoid cyme4 ,forget-me-not4 #c4 ,scorpioid cyme4 ,rock-rose4 #d4 ,verticillaster4 ,dead nettle4 ,,ii4 ,flower4--,drawings 7coloured alike throughout7 to show hypogynous1 perigynous and epigynous flower4 ,calyx--,spurred1 larkspur2 galeate1 monkshood4 ,corolla--,papilionaceous1 sweet-pea2 bilabiate1 dead nettle2 rotate1 convolvulus2 cruciform1 wall-flower4 ,andrcium--,diadelphous1 sweet-pea2 monadelphous1 mallow2 didynamous1 dead nettle2 tetradynamous1 wall-flower4 ,attachment of anthers--drawings4 ,ovaries--,diagram of monocarpellary and unilocular1 tricarpellary and unilocular1 polycarpellary and unilocular1 polycarpellary and multilocular2 free central4 ,ovules--,drawing of orthotropous1 anatropous and campylotropous--each part of the ovule coloured the same throughout4 ,,fertilisation4 ,the two forms of primrose to show heterostylism4 ,drawing of figwort to show protogyny4 ,drawing of epilobium angustifolium to show protandry4 ,nectaries--,drawings of petal of buttercup1 stamens of wall-flower1 stamens of violet1 carpel of marsh marigold1 style of coltsfoot2 nectaries coloured blue throughout4 ,,fruits4 ,a specimen and explanatory diagram of each4 ,dry ,indehiscent4 ,dry ,dehiscent4 ,succulent4 ,nut-- ,follicle-- ,berry-- ,hazel4 ,marsh marigold4 ,drawing of ,acorn4 gooseberry4 ,achene-- ,legume-- ,corn buttercup4 ,sweet-pea4 ,yellow goat's beard4 ,capsule-- ,drupe-- ,clematis4 ,thlaspi arvense4 ,drawing of peach4 ,schizocarps-- ,shepherd's purse4 ,geranium and ,violet4 umbellifer4 ,porous ,capsule-- ,poppy4 ,,spurious ,,fruits4 ,pome--,apple2 ,hip--,rose2 ,haw--,hawthorn1 etc41 etc4 ,modes of ,dehiscence of ,fruits4 ,diagram of ,septicidal--specimen of datura4 ,loculicidal-- horse chestnut4 ,septifragal-- crucifer4 ,,seed4 ,bean 7a7 with testa2 7b7 without testa4 ,maize 7a7 with pericarp2 7b7 without pericarp4 ,date cut through to show position of embryo4 ,coffee ,walnut to show cotyledons4 ,,dispersion ,,of ,,seeds4 #a4 ,wings4-- ,scale attached to seed of pinus4 ,wing attached to fruit of sycamore and ash4 ,seed of ,bignonia alba4 #b4 ,hairs4--,e4g41 silky hairs of seed of cotton and epilobium4 ,pappus of composit 7fruit74 ,awns of clematis 7fruit74 #c4 ,hooks4-- ,bristles of geum4 ,,geography4 ,by ,,margery ,,reid1 ,b4,sc4 7,lond474 ,aim in teaching4 ,it is a vexed question how far the study of geography should be looked upon as a training for the mind1 or whether its primary function be not to supply material on which the trained mind may work4 ,this difficulty may be to some extent solved by dividing the geography teaching into two distinct branches--physical and general geography4 ,if this be not done it will be found that the general geography lesson is overloaded with a mass of explanations of physical phenomena4 ,thus1 in a general lesson on the climate of ,india1 it detracts from the unity of the subject if the teacher is obliged to make a digression to explain the theory of barometric pressures1 but1 presupposing this scientific knowledge1 references to the special application of it are within the bounds of the lesson4 ,physical geography4 ,the first course in physical geography should consist of lessons requiring only observation of phenomena with which the children are well acquainted4 ,observation and experiment4 ,in a town like ,cheltenham1 situated within walking distance of the source of the ,thames1 the subject of the watershed dividing the small streams flowing into the ,severn from those flowing into the ,thames1 forms a much better subject for observation and reasoning than the form and movements of the earth4 ,simple experiments also may be performed1 but artificial conditions should as far as possible be avoided4 ,thus in a lesson on the principles of evaporation1 the children may be made to observe the gradual drying of a cloth1 but if heat artificially obtained be used to hasten the operation1 the object-lesson loses the greater part of its value4 ,style of written work4 ,at the beginning of this course the work should be almost entirely that of observation and simple reasoning1 but it is well to insist from the very first that exercises either spoken or written should be good in form as well as in matter4 ,the composition should be as terse as is compatible with clearness1 though this applies rather to the description of experiments than observations1 for in the case of an observation1 if we are to minimise the danger of overlooking the true cause1 all accidental circumstances must be carefully noted4 ,the difference between an observation and experiment should be carefully explained1 and the children should be shown that whereas in an observation we have to listen to whatever ,nature says1 an experiment is a question so framed that ,nature will answer 8,yes0 or 8,no10 and that we must only ask one question at a time4 ,thus we may ask the question3 8,is water-vapour lighter than air80 ,we boil water in a kettle and the visible cloud appears above the spout showing that the invisible vapour must have risen as it left the kettle4 ,the question asked was 8,does water-vapour rise through the air80 and the answer is 8,yes04 ,the children should then write a description of the experiment with as close attention to form as though it were a proposition of ,euclid4 ,experiment4 ,to prove that water-vapour is lighter than air4 ,apparatus4 ,a kettle containing water and a spirit lamp4 ,method4 ,place kettle on spirit lamp1 light lamp and boil the water4 ,result4 ,water-vapour issues from the spout in an invisible form and becomes visible as a cloud some little distance above the level of the spout4 ,deduction4 ,that water-vapour is lighter than air4 ,subject-matter of the earliest course in ,physical ,geography4 ,this course should include lessons on the following subjects3-- ,subject-matter of early course in physical geography4 #a4 ,clouds3 introducing the foregoing experiment to show why they occur high up in the atmosphere and how they are produced4 #b4 ,rain1 snow1 hail1 etc43 the different conditions under which clouds discharge their moisture4 #c4 ,winds1 with only such simple facts about their causes as can be shown by the movements of air or draughts in a room4 ,if tissue paper be cut into fine strips1 and held at different points in a room in which is a fire1 the draught towards the fire may be simply demonstrated and also the draught up the chimney4 #d4 ,the sea3 its saltness1 the rising and the falling of the tide and the fact that high tide is later by nearly an hour every day1 also that some tides rise higher and retire lower than others4 7,causes of tides should not be touched upon till later47 ,waves and their causes4 ,definitions4 ,as this course proceeds the children should be exercised in the making of good definitions4 ,it is a mistake to think that definitions must be given by the teacher4 ,it is well to ask one child what she means by the word to be defined4 ,write the definition on the board1 and then1 by means of a series of questions to the children1 criticise all those points which are superfluous in the definition given4 ,having eliminated all these1 let the teacher take the definition as it now stands1 and by giving examples of all the facts which come under it1 show that it is probably a great deal too wide1 and draw from the children gradually all the necessary limitations4 ,a definition so obtained will be easily remembered1 and1 as the children get practice in framing them1 they will appreciate the meaning and neatness of a clear definition4 ,in the later part of this course the physical features of countries may be introduced1 and the children should get clear conceptions and accurate definitions of terms commonly used in geography1 such as mountains1 valleys1 plains1 islands1 capes1 etc41 and they should both be shown models and allowed themselves to make them4 ,the simpler facts concerning the work of rivers and other forces modifying the surface of the land will also find a place among these lessons4 ,the physical geography which should follow this preliminary work must of course be modified to suit the age and intelligence of the pupils4 ,later course in physical geography4 ,physical and chemical experiments may now be introduced1 and the mathematical side of the subject will be more insisted upon as the children begin to learn algebra and geometry4 ,the illustrations also need no longer be drawn from the child's immediate surroundings1 but may be the result of reading1 or of description on the part of the teacher1 and whereas in the lesson general laws are arrived at from special cases1 in the home work the class should be encouraged to search for new cases illustrating the laws4 ,these later courses should be preceded by simple work on the physical and chemical properties of air and water4 ,the form and movements of the earth should be treated of1 and with the help of a tellurium most of the simple facts may be made clear1 and the phenomena of the seasons and the varying length of day and night may be demonstrated4 ,the nature of the proof of the earth's movement round the sun is appreciated by few1 and the children should be encouraged to make for themselves some of the observations on which it is based4 ,thus they might be expected to keep an account of the groups of stars seen due south every evening at a given hour4 ,the change of constellations will stimulate their curiosity1 and it will not be necessary to wait for the whole year before giving them some explanation4 ,or they might be asked to keep a register of the varying length of the shadow of a stick at noon for three months4 ,the fact could then easily be drawn from the children that the sun is at some times higher in the heavens than at others1 but they would almost certainly have to be helped to find out the reason4 ,the meaning and use of the various lines ordinarily drawn on a globe may now be given4 ,the atmosphere3 pressure and temperature4 ,after this work on the earth as a planet1 its gaseous envelope should next be studied1 i4e41 the atmosphere1 its composition1 pressure and temperature1 and the instruments used for measuring them4 ,in an earlier course the instrument and its use will be enough to deal with2 in a course to older pupils the construction and correction of the instruments may be considered4 ,the children might keep a chart of both temperature and pressure for a month1 and at the end of that time be taught to find the average temperature for the month1 and to understand the methods for showing variations of the barometer used in the leading daily papers4 ,the nature of isobars and isotherms should also be explained1 and the isobars for ,july and ,january should be filled into two maps and kept for use later4 ,a map with isotherms filled in should also be given1 and the children encouraged to find reasons for the curves in any given line4 ,winds4 ,they will now be prepared to understand the laws treating of movements of the atmosphere4 ,with younger classes only the more important winds should be taken1 such as cyclones and anti-cyclones1 land and sea breezes1 trade and anti-trade winds and monsoons1 whilst the older classes should be led to observe the local variations arising from peculiar circumstances4 ,when the principles are grasped1 an exercise might be given to indicate with arrows the direction of the wind on the maps on which they have already marked the isobars4 ,ocean depths4 ,the water envelope of the world will next demand attention1 i4e41 the depth of the ocean and its deposits4 ,this at first sight will appear to the children to be a subject about which they cannot possibly be expected to have any knowledge1 but by a short recapitulation of the work of rivers treated in the preliminary course1 the fact of the necessary existence of a continental shelf may be drawn from them1 as also the fact that the breadth of this shelf will depend on the slope of the continent in the immediate neighbourhood of the coast1 and on the amount of deposit made by rivers4 ,a wall map contoured to show depths in the ,atlantic should be shown to the class1 and the instruments should be described used in investigating depth and nature of the deposits on the ocean floor4 ,with an older class the nature of the evidence with regard to the belief in the permanence of ocean basins may be touched upon4 ,saltness of sea and causes regulating it4 ,various seas should be compared with regard to their salinity4 ,tides4 ,the tides4 ,their causes2 spring and neap tides2 reason for high tide being fifty-four minutes later each day4 ,the subject of the tidal wave as experienced in ,england requires careful treatment1 as many text-books leave the impression on the minds of children that the tidal wave in the ,north ,sea travels from east to west1 and that the shores of the ,baltic are experiencing low tide when the eastern coast of ,england is having a high tide4 ,currents4 ,currents4 ,causes of currents should be sought in the movements of the atmosphere4 ,the class should be asked to indicate on the map showing winds1 which they drew to illustrate a previous lesson1 the effects of the trade and anti-trade winds in the production of currents4 ,attention must then be drawn to the way in which the position of the land modifies the currents so produced1 and thus the class may gradually evolve a chart of the currents of the ,atlantic4 ,for an exercise they may be given a chart of the currents of the ,pacific and asked for the causes of the direction of the currents4 ,land4 ,the teacher must then proceed to the more complex subject of the physical features of the land4 ,mountains produced by folding2 their position with regard to the ocean4 ,volcanoes and their distribution4 ,hills produced by denudation4 ,plains and valleys4 ,rivers2 their work and the various causes determining their volume1 velocity and course4 ,springs4 ,islands4 ,climate4 ,temperature and rainfall4 ,distribution of plants and animals4 99 99 99 99 99 ,general geography4 ,the order of treatment of the general geography of various countries does not vary1 and consequently1 notes of a first term's course will sufficiently indicate the lines of later work4 ,opinions differ as to whether it is better to begin with the study of a continent or a smaller division of land4 ,lesson ,i4 ,before the actual course begins1 the children should have a preliminary lesson on the making of plans and the use of scales4 ,a plan of the schoolroom and of the immediate surroundings has now-a-days generally been made by children whilst still in the ,kindergarten1 but if so1 a little recapitulation will do no harm before a first lesson on the nature and meaning of a map4 ,the teacher's preparation should be done several weeks in advance1 so that no point essential to a later lesson may be omitted in its proper place4 ,position of places on earth's surface4 ,lesson ,,ii4 ,for the second lesson an outline map of the continent or country to be studied is given to the children with the lines of latitude and longitude4 ,if the work has not already been done in a physical course1 the meaning of latitude and longitude should be clearly explained4 ,after having shown that the distance between the equator and either of the poles is divided into #ij degrees1 a sphere may now be taken1 and by rough measurement the two parallels corresponding to those through the top and bottom of the given map may be drawn upon it4 ,after a short description of what we mean by longitude1 the longitude of the given country is then indicated on the sphere1 and the use of the two sets of lines to show exact position on the earth will be appreciated4 ,if it be not a first course1 the position of the given country may be compared with others equidistant from the equator1 or on the same meridian4 ,in this lesson may also be introduced a few words about the temperature of the given country so far as it is dependent on latitude4 ,lesson ,,iii4 ,height above sea level4 ,contouring4 ,for this lesson the teacher should have drawn and painted for the class a map of the continent being studied1 with contour lines marked in two different colours or with two different kinds of lines4 7,too great detail only tends to confuse the children47 ,the first contour line should be drawn joining all places #ejj feet above the sea level1 and the second joining all those places #aejj feet above sea level4 ,each child should then be provided with one of these maps1 and a wall map similarly contoured and also coloured should be hung on the wall4 ,the teacher then explains the nature of contour lines1 and shows that if that part of the map between the #ejj contour line and the sea be coloured green1 the coloured part will represent all that part of the land which is less than #ejj feet high1 that is1 generally speaking1 the plains4 ,that part between the #ejj and #aejj contour lines is then coloured light brown1 and all those areas enclosed within the #aejj contour line a darker brown4 ,when the maps are coloured1 and each child has her own1 they may then be taught how to read a map so coloured4 ,the teacher will draw from the class that if the contour lines come close together the ground slopes very rapidly1 but that the slope is more gradual when the contour lines are more widely separated--that the greatest height of the land lies near the greater ocean1 and that the more gradual slope is towards the smaller ocean1 and that this allows of the development of larger but slower rivers than those flowing down the steeper slope4 ,a raised model may then be shown to the class1 and this may be coloured in the same way as the maps1 but the children must clearly understand the disadvantages of a model1 and be shown that the vertical heights are always enormously exaggerated in proportion to the horizontal distances4 ,in recapitulating1 the children might be asked what they consider a common slope for the sides of mountains4 ,their notions will always be found to be extravagant1 many of them thinking they have seen and even climbed slopes of #fj degrees and upwards4 ,by placing a piece of india-rubber on the cover of a book1 and gradually opening the book and sloping the cover till the india-rubber rolls off1 the children may be shown how very small is the angle at which it is perfectly impossible for anything to rest on a slope1 and that therefore if we find stones on the side of a hill1 we know that the slope cannot be greater than #cj degrees4 ,examples may be drawn from any hill in the neighbourhood of the school4 ,lesson ,,iv4 ,a second lesson will be necessary on the contour of the given continent1 when the names of the mountain ranges and of the plains may be given1 short descriptions of them read1 and exercise given in filling them into a blank map from memory4 ,position of rivers4 ,lesson ,v4 ,the teacher fills into a wall map1 blank and uncontoured1 the principal rivers1 and asks the class to put them in their contoured maps4 ,many of the children will be found not to have appreciated the meaning of contour lines1 but will have drawn a river flowing from the part coloured green to that part coloured brown4 ,one such map will form a good object-lesson1 and the children can be brought to see the absurdity of what they have done in representing a river as flowing up a hill4 ,the properly contoured wall map may then be hung up1 and the actual position of the rivers followed4 ,the meaning of watershed will now be apparent1 and the fact should be noted that it does not necessarily or even generally correspond with the highest land4 ,the varying velocity of the river should be drawn from the children from the nature and position of the contour lines1 and from that1 which parts of its course are being sculptured and in which parts deposition is taking place4 ,lesson ,,vi4 ,if a physical course is given1 the work of rivers will already have been treated1 but certain rivers in the continent should be chosen for special description4 ,from the contour line the children will be able to say for how great a distance the rivers are probably navigable1 and the uses of the given rivers as a means of communication and the position of towns on their banks may be discussed4 ,coast line4 ,lesson ,,vii4 ,coast line4 ,sufficient knowledge will now have been gained to render possible the appreciation of some of the causes affecting coast line4 ,when rocks are hard and folded1 producing mountains1 then they will also give rise to rocky promontories4 ,clays and sands1 which inland allow themselves to be worn into plains and valleys1 will here produce bays4 ,rivers1 if still capable of erosion1 will produce valleys1 which a slight subsidence will convert into narrow gulfs4 ,finally the accessibility of various points on the coast may be considered1 and the position of the chief harbours and ports4 ,climate4 ,lesson ,,viii4 ,climate4 ,this lesson may be treated deductively1 as the class is already familiar with those phenomena upon which both temperature and rainfall are mainly dependent4 ,the rainfall might be given as an exercise1 allowing the use of contoured maps1 and the chart of the prevailing winds4 ,lesson ,,ix4 ,distribution of vegetation1 pastoral and agricultural districts4 ,lesson ,x4 ,distribution of minerals1 centres of population4 ,at the end of this course a physical map of some country not already studied by the children should be hung before them1 and they should all be asked to write an essay about the country from the facts that they find in the map4 ,if they can do this1 they will have learnt to read a map intelligently1 and one of the great ends of a course in geography will have been attained1 since they will not only have acquired many new facts1 but have also gained the power of searching for and assimilating facts for themselves4 ,when ,england is the country being studied1 this course must be supplemented by more detailed work on the causes that have determined the positions of cities and towns1 and how these causes have operated during the last #bjjj years4 ,the children should be shown that ,british camps were generally on escarpments overlooking the surrounding country4 ,the district round was cultivated1 and the inhabitants sought safety in the camp in time of danger4 ,after having been told that the position of some of these 8duns0 or hill forts is still indicated by such place-names as ,london1 ,dunstable and ,dundee1 the children might be encouraged to suggest other places themselves4 ,the number of camps was greatly increased by the ,romans1 many of the sites being marked by corruptions of the ,latin word castra1 as ,chester1 ,colchester and ,winchester1 and these camps were joined by well-made roads4 ,later immigrants formed their centres either in the neighbourhood of these roads1 as the ,saxons1 who often formed villages at a point where the road crossed a stream1 as ,hertford and ,stamford on the ,ermine ,street1 or on sheltered bays and navigable streams1 like the ,norse and ,danes1 whose towns and villages1 ending in 8ley10 8thorpe10 8wic10 are never found except where there is a spring or other natural water supply4 ,as the various races inhabiting ,england became amalgamated1 and the land was cleared1 there was a tendency for towns and villages to spring up over such districts as the ,weald1 the eastern counties1 the central plain and broad river valleys4 ,but there was no great concentration of population save in the south-east1 where the neighbourhood of the continent called into existence the ,cinque ,ports1 and where iron smelting was carried on by using the wood of the ,wealden forests4 ,as the ,cinque ,ports declined1 the growth of the navy and the increase of fisheries and trade with the continent increased the size of other ports1 and the growing importance of the woollen trade called into existence the large ,norfolk towns1 which flourished until vexatious guild regulations induced many workers to leave the towns1 and form industrial villages as ,manchester1 ,birmingham and ,sheffield4 ,settlements of foreigners1 as the ,french silk weavers at ,spitalfields1 also formed a nucleus for other industries4 ,at this point the children might be shown a geological map of ,england1 and also a map in which all those districts with a population of more than #ejj to the square mile are coloured red2 they would notice that almost all these red patches correspond with coal fields1 and be told that the period of beginning to work many of these coal fields1 corresponded with that at which ,america was being opened up2 that consequently such ports as ,liverpool and ,bristol on the west coast became identified with the importing of cotton and sugar1 and that towns engaged in these industries sprang up in the neighbourhood of these ports4 ,the use of steam power in various manufactures still further attracted the cotton and woollen industries to the towns of ,lancashire and ,yorkshire1 and the working of iron1 found in the neighbourhood of coal1 accounts for many other centres of population4 ,another map may now be shown with the various manufacturing towns marked1 and attention called to the physical features which have caused the location of the industry at that spot1 as the presence of water power1 the possibility of water carriage1 the neighbourhood of a port1 the presence of hard water used in beer-making1 as at ,burton4 ,when the internal growth of ,england has been considered1 a lesson should be given on her commercial supremacy1 and the factors which have determined it4 ,england's position in the centre of the great land hemisphere1 the climate1 the indented character of the coast1 and the mineral wealth1 should all be touched upon2 nor in doing this should points not geographical be omitted1 as the needs of a continually increasing population1 the founding of colonies by a part of this surplus population1 and1 above all1 the character of the people1 upon which alone the greatness of an empire can rest4 ,,physics4 ,by ,,agatha ,,leonard1 ,b4,sc4 7,lond474 ,position of 8physics0 in scheme of science teaching4 ,as a preliminary to any remarks on the teaching of physics1 it will be well to consider the place which the subject should hold in a general scheme of science teaching4 ,it is not the most suitable subject for junior classes2 for young children the sciences of botany and zoology which cultivate the observing faculty1 while making less demand upon the reasoning powers1 are preferable1 but for children of thirteen or fourteen a course of elementary physics affords valuable training and arouses great interest4 ,the subject must1 of course1 be treated on purely experimental and non-mathematical lines1 indeed the chief value of physics at this stage is to teach the children the true use and nature of experiment4 ,they will probably begin with the idea that the use of experiments in a lecture is somewhat the same as that of illustrations in a story-book1 to render it more entertaining1 though they might be dispensed with1 and it takes time to make clear to them that experiment is the very groundwork of all science1 the careful 8questioning of nature0 as to what effects follow upon certain causes4 ,these lessons on physics will lay an excellent foundation for a course on physical geography1 which may be taken for the next year's work4 ,with girls of fifteen or sixteen either a second course of physics1 involving a knowledge of elementary mathematics1 may be taken1 or chemistry may be begun2 while with older classes the choice of a subject will greatly depend on the nature of their previous work1 and on the facilities for laboratory work in chemistry or physics4 ,physiology should not be taken with girls below sixteen2 it is of less educational value than either of the subjects above-mentioned1 the possibility of personal observation being less1 and the whole as taught in schools too often a matter of memory rather than of observation or reasoning2 if taught to elder girls it is rather for the practical advantage of the information imparted than for scientific training4 ,some such scheme of science teaching throughout a school as the following might therefore be suggested3-- ,classes of average age #aj to #ab ,botany or ,zoology4 #ac #ad ,elementary ,physics4 #ad #ae ,physical ,geography4 #ae #af ,chemistry or ,physics 7,magnetism and ,electricity or ,heat and ,light74 ,chemistry or ,physics or ,botany2 ,senior ,classes ,physiology and ,hygiene 7in addition to one of the above74 ,the first course of physics 7see end of chapter7 may deal with some of the chief forces of nature 7gravity1 cohesion1 friction72 the three states of matter and their properties1 under which head would come lessons on atmospheric pressure2 elementary ideas of work and energy2 and the simple phenomena of sound and heat4 ,the subject of light is better omitted until sufficient knowledge of geometry has been acquired to allow of the laws of reflection and refraction1 and the effect of prisms and lenses being rather more adequately dealt with than is possible at this stage4 ,magnetism and electricity also are better postponed until a later course4 ,home-work4 ,no text-book should be given to the children1 as their home-work in science should never take the form of learning from a book4 ,some teachers1 to avoid this1 let the children take notes1 and attempt to reproduce the lesson1 others give1 either on the blackboard or by dictation1 a clear summary which the pupils take down verbatim1 but neither plan is satisfactory2 the first leads to confusion and inaccuracy1 as the children are not old enough to take good notes1 while under the second all the work is done by the teacher4 ,i have found it best to end each lesson by setting some questions1 framed so as to bring out the chief points of the lesson1 to be answered by the children in their own words4 ,the answers must be carefully looked over and criticised at the next lesson1 and a methodical account of experiments insisted on1 specifying in order the object of the experiment1 the apparatus employed1 the method adopted1 and the results obtained and conclusion drawn4 ,specially good passages may be read to the class1 both as an encouragement to the writer1 and as an example to the rest of what can be done by one of themselves2 and special censure should be given to careless work1 but great care must be taken to avoid confusing mere mistakes with 8bad work02 the children should be made to feel that more value is attached to even faulty explanations or descriptions1 which show that their minds have worked on the subject1 than to the most perfect reproduction of the teacher's exact words4 ,besides the advantage of securing that the pupils and not the teacher shall do the main part of the home-work1 the teacher may gain most valuable hints from the errors of the children2 they will be found often to arise from some misconception1 the removal of which will suggest a quite fresh method of explanation2 indeed a teacher will be unlikely to succeed in imparting clear scientific ideas to her pupils who is not on the watch for any indications of what ideas1 right or wrong1 they really have formed1 and able therefore to see their difficulties from their point of view4 ,definitions4 ,the only case in which knowledge may perhaps with advantage be cast into words not by the pupil alone but by the teacher1 is that of a definition1 the construction of a concise and accurate definition being in most cases beyond the child's unaided powers4 ,even here1 however1 the child should do as much as possible of the work herself1 only it should be done in class with the teacher's help instead of at home alone4 ,thus1 suppose the lesson to be on the three states of matter1 it is better not to give a definition of each as the starting-point1 and then go on to illustrate and explain the same1 but to start from the undefined idea which every child possesses of a solid1 a liquid1 and a gas1 and develop from it by degrees the precise definition4 ,suppose the class to suggest as definitions that substances in the solid state are 8hard10 in the liquid state 8wet10 and in the gaseous state 8invisible10 they will be much interested in having the imperfection of these definitions brought home to them by the help of the liquid metal mercury1 which does not 8wet0 glass or porcelain1 and of the visible gas chlorine1 and in being led to find out the true distinctions by observing the different behaviour of solids1 liquids1 and gases respectively when placed in vessels of differing shapes and sizes4 ,science teaching not 8authoritative04 ,it must indeed be a fundamental principle throughout these lessons to tell as little as possible2 not only should the children produce unaided reports of their work1 but the reports should be of what they have themselves observed1 not of what they have received on authority4 ,the worthlessness of authoritative science teaching is very generally felt in these days1 and some modern teachers are disposed to deny any value at all to science lectures for young children1 asserting that only by experimental work carried out by themselves1 with as little interference from the teacher as possible1 can any really scientific ideas be communicated to them4 ,the value of personal practical work ,i1 of course1 fully admit1 but ,i am sure that really 8scientific0 training may also be given in a 8lecture0 lesson1 by a teacher who knows her subject1 and is skilful in the art of questioning1 and in making her children tell her what they really do see in an experiment1 instead of telling them what they ought to be seeing4 ,that observation may thus be trained1 it is of importance to secure that all experiments shown to young classes should 8go04 ,with older classes the occasional failure of an experiment may be no great matter1 they are capable of understanding that the conditions of the experiment were not fulfilled and hence the failure1 but with beginners in science it is very undesirable to produce the impression that when ,nature is 8questioned0 she sometimes gives one answer and sometimes another4 ,experiments that cannot be shown to the children should as a general rule not be described1 though when any principle is thoroughly grasped and driven home by experiments performed before the class1 there is no harm in mentioning as additional illustrations such phenomena as the falling of the mercury in a barometer tube on being carried up a mountain1 or the impossibility of making good tea at high altitudes owing to the lowering of the boiling-point of water2 but should the want of apparatus prevent an experiment otherwise suitable for a lecture from being performed it is generally better with beginners to omit all mention of it4 ,apparatus for elementary course4 ,for carrying out such a course as that now being considered very simple and inexpensive apparatus is for the most part needed4 ,the only expensive piece really necessary is an air-pump2 for the rest1 an ordinary pair of scales1 a few glass beakers1 flasks and funnels1 some glass tubing and rods1 a little mercury1 some wire gauze1 some sheet india-rubber1 thermometers1 a ,bunsen burner1 and a retort stand or two1 are all that is needed1 though the addition of such pieces of apparatus as the ,magdeburg hemispheres will enable interesting experiments to be shown4 ,practical work4 ,as regards the children's own practical work it is not always possible to arrange in schools for laboratory work for beginners2 the time at disposal is often insufficient1 and the class too large for a single teacher to give the supervision needed by children so young2 but where the class can be taken in sections of not more than ten or twelve pupils for an extra lesson1 nothing so greatly rouses the children's interest and gives so real a grasp of principles as a course of simple experimental work carried out by themselves4 ,accuracy must be insisted upon from the very beginning2 each experiment must have a definite object1 and a description of the experiment with the results obtained must always be written out by the child4 ,it is a good plan to give as many experiments as possible in which the result aimed at is quantitative1 it is a great satisfaction to a child to obtain a result whose correctness can be gauged1 but it is not necessary that the work should be exclusively of this type4 ,the course may begin with the careful measurement of lengths1 employing different methods1 such as the direct application of the rule to the object1 the transference of distances by means of compasses1 and obtaining the lengths of curves by means of a string laid along them and afterwards measured2 and the children should be taught to make measurements on the metrical system as well as in feet and inches1 especially if they already possess any knowledge of decimals4 ,when they can measure as accurately as their scales will allow1 the vernier may be introduced1 its principle explained by the aid of a large-sized model1 and practice given in reading the verniers on barometer scales1 etc4 ,then may follow measurement of the area of rectangles1 and1 if the children's mathematical knowledge allow of it1 of triangles and other rectilineal figures1 then the determination of the volume of rectangular solids from their linear dimensions4 ,the determination of mass may next be taken up1 and the pupils taught how to use a balance properly1 the ,c4,g4,s4 unit being again employed as well as the pound2 then they may learn how to weigh in water1 and how to prove experimentally that the loss of weight of a body weighed in water is equal to the weight of the displaced water2 then the volume of a body may be determined by finding the mass and hence the volume of the water it displaces2 from this they pass readily to the determination of specific gravities4 ,experiments on air pressure may follow2 the children may learn to read the height of the barometer1 and to make for themselves barometric charts showing the variation of the height from day to day2 this affords a good opportunity of teaching them to use squared paper4 ,there are also many simple experiments in mechanics1 such as the experimental determination of the principle of the lever1 the finding of the position of the centre of gravity of a lamina1 the finding of the resultant of two parallel forces1 etc41 very suitable for such a class4 ,then may come easy experiments and measurements in heat1 the reading of various thermometer scales1 the filling of a thermometer and its rough graduation1 and experiments proving the fact of expansion and of the force exerted by expanding or contracting bodies2 measurements of the amount of expansion are too difficult for this stage4 ,much supervision is required2 special care should be taken that children are not left with unoccupied intervals during which they get listless and bored2 this requires careful previous planning out of sufficient experiments for the whole class4 ,it will stimulate interest if several children in succession are allowed to make the same measurement1 and then to compare their results4 ,even where no laboratory class is taken1 the teacher can still take opportunities of convincing the children that experiments can be performed by themselves as well as by their class-teacher2 they enjoy being called up to perform an experiment in class1 and will1 if they have any taste for the subject1 take an interest in repeating any possible ones at home2 they can convince themselves of air-pressure by private experiment with syringes1 siphons1 and inverted tumblers1 or can find centres of gravity1 or experiment with sounding strings of various lengths1 but of course such desultory experiments1 followed by no careful writing out of results1 do not give very valuable training in scientific accuracy4 ,diagrams4 ,i would insist also on the importance of requiring children from the first to illustrate their work by diagrams2 a little time is well spent in criticising these1 and in showing how they might be improved4 ,very neat and serviceable diagrams may be produced even by children with no natural taste for drawing1 but they need to be shown how to work1 and perhaps to have the lines of a diagram suggested to them at first by a rough blackboard sketch1 or it may not occur to them that a few simple lines will show all that is necessary better than a would-be realistic sketch of apparatus1 with impossible perspective and smudgy shading4 ,course of electricity and magnetism4 ,i pass on now to somewhat higher classes4 ,with pupils whose average age is about fifteen1 some one or two of the branches of physics may be taken more in detail4 ,suppose electricity and magnetism to be chosen1 the aim throughout the course should be so to impart elementary ideas that they may be a real help and not a hindrance to any future effort to take in modern views of electricity4 ,to this end attention should from the very first be directed to the electric or magnetic 8field0 about any charged or magnetised body and not exclusively concentrated upon that body itself1 and the pupils should be accustomed to attribute the motions in such fields not to the 8action at a distance0 of a charge1 a pole1 or a wire carrying a current1 but to the special condition of the medium immediately around the moving body4 ,the idea of a magnetic field is more readily grasped by beginners than the corresponding idea in electrostatics1 owing to the ease with which the field may be mapped to the eye by means of iron filings1 or by marking down successive positions of a tiny magnetic needle2 it seems to me1 therefore1 well to begin with the study of magnetism1 rather than1 as is common in text-books1 with that of statical electricity4 ,from magnetism the more natural transition is to current electricity1 and it will be found a good plan to take the subjects in this order1 passing from the magnetic fields which surround permanent steel magnets to those which are found to exist in the neighbourhood of a wire whose ends have been joined to plates of zinc and copper immersed in a vessel of dilute acid4 ,the existence of such fields will be proved by the magnetisation of iron round which the wire is coiled1 and by the motion of permanent magnets near which it is held1 and the direction of the lines of force will be inferred from the direction of such motion4 ,the existence of the magnetic field established1 the term 8current of electricity0 may be introduced2 the children will readily understand that it arose from the idea that it was something flowing through the wire which gave it such strange properties1 and that whether this is the case or not1 there is a practical convenience in retaining the old terms4 ,some of the practical applications of the magnetic effects of currents may now be explained1 e4g41 the electric telegraph and electric bells1 and the use of a galvanometer as a current indicator4 ,simple experiments on the induction of currents by motion of magnets1 or starting and stopping of currents may follow1 it being carefully pointed out that the one essential for such induction in a coil is some change in the magnetic field in which it lies4 ,the principle of dynamos readily follows4 ,the heating and decomposing effects of electric currents may next be considered with their practical applications to electric lighting1 and electro-plating respectively1 and the attention of the children should be directed to the energy appearing as heat or as chemical separation in the two cases4 ,if they have gone through the preliminary course they will know enough of the conservation of energy to look for the disappearance of energy in some other form1 and the chemical action in the battery may now be pointed out4 ,some explanation of 8polarisation0 and of the need for more complicated forms of battery than the simple voltaic cell may be given4 ,lessons on statical electricity will end the course2 they may be connected with the preceding lessons by first speaking of the discharge of a ,leyden jar1 and that between the knobs of an induction machine as instantaneous 8currents10 and going on to the state of affairs in the medium between the knobs or coatings when they are not sufficiently near for the discharge to take place2 this will be made clear by going back to earliest facts known about electricity and following the ordinary course of electrostatic experiments4 ,heat and light4 ,should 8heat and light0 be chosen instead of electricity for this year's course1 the mode of treating the subject must depend very much on the mathematical advancement of the pupils4 ,it is probable that their knowledge will not exceed the first two books of ,euclid1 and algebra to simple equations1 and it will therefore not carry them very far in the treatment of geometrical optics2 it will enable the laws of reflection to be intelligibly explained1 and the position of the image in a plane mirror to be determined 7the law of refraction may also be made clear1 as the children can easily be made to understand the meaning of the term 8sine071 but formul connected with mirrors and lenses should be left to a later stage1 the changes in size and position of the image formed by a curved mirror or a lens being determined experimentally and not by calculation4 ,a general explanation of the action of optical instruments1 telescope1 microscope1 spectacles1 etc41 can be given1 without exact calculations1 and illustrated either by carefully drawn diagrams1 or by models with lenses of cardboard and rays represented by strings4 ,the interest of lectures on dispersion and the spectrum is greatly increased if they can be illustrated by lantern experiments4 ,the subject of heat lends itself better to non-mathematical treatment1 and is specially good for practical work by the pupils themselves4 ,work of senior classes4 ,independent reading4 ,the work of senior classes1 i4e41 girls of seventeen or over1 depends so much upon circumstances1 such as their previous training1 their mathematical knowledge1 etc41 that it is difficult to say much to the point about it1 but a word may be added on a very common fault of such classes1 a tendency to rely too much on their teacher and their notes of lectures1 and to read and think too little for themselves4 ,the practical work1 which is an essential for such classes1 does much to encourage self-reliance1 but besides this they should from time to time be given some reading to do on points which have not been previously made clear in lectures2 difficulties met with in the reading should be brought up at the next lesson1 when the teacher will either solve them or put the pupil in the way of doing so for herself4 ,this kind of work takes time1 and is therefore apt to be crowded out from a full time-table1 but it is worth an effort to find a place for it4 ,,list ,,of ,,some ,,books ,,useful ,,for ,,teachers4 ,i4 ,,practical ,,physics4 ,for ,beginners-- ,inductive ,physical ,science4 ,f4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,heath ,co41 ,boston1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,practical ,lessons in ,physical ,measurement4 ,a4 ,earl4 ,macmillan4 #e_/-4 ,exercise ,book of ,elementary ,practical ,physics4 ,arranged according to ,head ,masters' ,association ,syllabus4 ,r4 ,a4 ,gregory4 ,macmillan4 ,for rather older ,classes-- ,elementary ,physics4 ,henderson4 ,longmans1 ,green ,co4 ,elementary ,practical ,physics4 ,w4 ,watson4 ,longmans1 ,green ,co4 ,intermediate ,course of ,practical ,physics4 ,schuster ,lees4 ,macmillan4 ,for ,senior ,classes-- ,practical ,physics4 ,stewart ,gee4 ,macmillan4 ,practical ,physics4 ,glazebrook ,shaw4 ,longmans1 ,green ,co4 #g_/f4 ,,ii4 ,,theoretical ,,physics4 ,primer of ,physics4 ,balfour ,stewart4 ,macmillan4 #a_/-4 7,may suggest a course for beginners47 ,heat4 ,h4 ,g4 ,madan4 ,longmans4 #i_/-4 7,a good course for junior classes47 ,elementary ,treatise on ,heat4 ,garnett4 ,deighton1 ,bell ,co4 #d_/f4 7,a good course for rather more advanced students47 ,light4 ,a course on ,experimental ,optics4 ,lewis ,wright4 ,macmillan4 7,suggests good experiments1 especially with lantern47 ,elementary ,lessons in ,electricity and ,magnetism4 ,s4 ,p4 ,thompson4 ,macmillan4 ,for ,senior ,classes-- ,theory of ,light4 ,preston4 ,macmillan4 #ae_/-4 ,theory of ,heat4 ,preston4 ,macmillan4 #ag_/-4 ,electricity and ,magnetism4 ,foster ,atkinson4 7,based on ,joubert47 ,longmans1 ,green ,co4 #g_/f4 ,theory of ,heat4 ,clerk ,maxwell4 ,longmans1 ,green ,co4 #d_/f4 ,,course ,,of ,,elementary ,,physics4 ,,definition ,,of ,,physics4 ,distinction between physical and chemical phenomena4--,iron heated1 ,iron rusted4 ,candle melted1 ,candle burnt1 etc41 etc4 ,motion4 ,force4 ,illustrations of familiar forces4--,muscular force4 ,force of stretched spring1 etc41 etc4 ,consideration of some particular forces4--,gravity4 ,friction4 ,cohesion4 ,gravity4--,distinction between body's weight and mass4 ,weight is the earth's pull upon it4 ,might be different while body unaltered4 ,centre of gravity4 ,experimental determination for lamin of various shapes4 ,stable1 unstable and neutral equilibrium dependent on position of centre of gravity4 ,everyday illustrations4 ,stick balanced on finger1 etc4 ,friction4--,everyday instances4 ,effect if it were removed4 ,cohesion4--,three states of matter4 ,solids4 ,liquids4 ,gases4 ,essential difference between them4 ,experiments showing retention of size and shape by solids1 of size by liquids1 of neither by gases4 ,pressure of ,liquids-- ,transmitted in all directions4 ,effect of boring hole in side of vessel containing a liquid4 ,pressure increases with depth4--,experiment4 ,lower into jar of water cylinder closed at bottom by glass disc1 the pressure of the water supports the disc4 ,pour water into cylinder till bottom falls1 the lower the cylinder is sunk1 the more water is required for this4 ,liquids find their level4--,experiment with communicating vessels of different sizes4 ,water level1 spirit level4 ,water from reservoirs rising to tops of houses4 ,exception in case of very narrow tubes4 ,capillarity4 ,floating power1 or buoyancy of liquids4--,experiments on weight of water displaced by bodies immersed and by floating bodies4 ,principle of ,archimedes4 ,specific gravity4--,definition4 ,experimental determination 7#a7 by catching and weighing displaced water2 7#b7 by loss of weight in water4 ,pressure of ,air-- ,experiments showing existence of atmospheric pressure e4g41 inverted jar of water1 experiments with air-pump1 suckers4 ,barometer4--,construct by filling long tube with mercury4 ,show by passing barometer tube through cork of receiver that mercury falls when air withdrawn from above mercury in cistern1 rises if air is let in4 ,action of syringes4 ,pumps4 ,construction and working of air-pump4 ,heat-- ,temperature or hotness4--,sensation not reliable guide4 ,expansion4--,experiments to show in solids1 liquids1 gases4 ,a few exceptions to law of expansion1 e4g41 water near freezing-point1 ice forms on top of water4 ,force of expansion4 ,thermometers4--,construction and graduation4 ,fusion4--,temperature remains constant during fusion4 ,latent heat4 ,evaporation and boiling4--,latent heat of vaporisation4 ,boiling point depends on pressure4--,experiment of boiling water under air-pump4 ,conduction4 ,convection4--,heating of water in kettle2 heating of houses by hot water4 ,sound-- ,sounding bodies always in vibration4--,bells1 tuning-forks1 metal plates 7vibrations shown by means of sand71 strings1 etc4 ,mode of propagation4 ,illustrations4 ,air or other medium necessary for transmission2 no sound through vacuum4 ,sounds differ in loudness1 pitch1 quality4 ,physical cause of loudness4--,violence of vibration4 ,physical cause of pitch4--,rapidity of vibration4 ,siren1 or perforated disc4 ,strings4--,note given depends on length1 thickness1 tension and material4 ,experiments with monochord4 ,illustrate by violin strings4 ,harmonics4--,subdivision of strings4 ,experiment with riders on string4 ,physical cause of 8quality04--,intermixture of other notes with fundamental4 ,resonance4--,experiments with tubes of air and tuning-forks4 ,organ pipes4 ,velocity of sound4--,how first determined4 ,calculate distance of thunderstorm4 ,reflection4--,echoes4 ,work and ,energy-- ,work done when force overcome or yielded to through any distance4 ,gravity does work when body falls4--,work done against gravity in lifting a body4 ,foot-pound1 unit of work4 ,a body which has power to do work has 8energy04--,may have in consequence of motion1 or of position1 or of being heated1 etc41 etc4 ,conservation of energy4--,transformation of energy4 ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,chemistry4 ,by ,,clare ,,de ,,brereton ,,evans1 ,d4,sc4 7,lond474 ,the committee appointed by the ,british ,association in #ahhi to inquire into the 8,present ,methods of ,teaching ,chemistry10 gave it as their opinion that 8the high educational value of instruction in physical science has never been exhibited to its full advantage in most of our educational institutions10 and it will be admitted by the majority of those who interest themselves in the teaching of chemistry in girls' schools that in spite of the growing tendency towards more rational methods of imparting the subject1 the progress made in this direction during the last eight years has not been great enough to warrant any change in the above dictum4 ,after all that has been said and written about the difference between instruction and education1 it should be unnecessary to reiterate that the object of our schools is not so much to develop the memories of the children as their capabilities1 their powers of reasoning and doing1 and although the attainment of this object is brought about chiefly no doubt by the method of teaching1 it is also dependent upon the subject taught4 ,elementary physical science as a basis for chemistry teaching4 ,natural science is specially valuable in calling into action at once the logical and practical faculties1 training simultaneously the mind1 the eye and the hand2 but it is necessary in order to avoid teaching the subject dogmatically to make the course progressive--to preface lessons in chemistry1 for example1 by a preliminary ground-work of physics sufficient to render the chemistry intelligible4 ,elementary physics is the logical sequence of arithmetic1 and may be taken up with the greatest advantage as soon as the four simple rules of arithmetic have been mastered2 moreover the practical application of these rules afforded by simple measurements of length1 area and volume is of immense use1 not only because each pupil verifies for herself in this way the rules she has learnt to apply on paper1 but also because arithmetic is thus shown to be of practical and not merely theoretical value4 ,if children were taught from the beginning to make practical use of their arithmetic one of the greatest difficulties with which the science teacher has to contend later on would be obviated1 that namely of explaining the application of mathematics to the solution of simple chemical and physical problems4 ,educational advantages of a progressive chemistry course4 ,chemistry again is the logical outcome of physics1 and should not be attempted1 because it cannot possibly be understood1 until the fundamental principles of physics have been mastered4 ,it cannot be too strongly insisted upon that chemistry should be preceded by elementary physics2 the sequence1 practical arithmetic1 elementary physics1 chemistry1 being the only one which affords a satisfactory progressive scientific course suitable for being carried on throughout a school starting where the object-lessons of the kindergarten end2 then by the time examination classes are reached there need be left none of those gaps in the understanding of the pupils1 gaps with regard to elementary principles1 which are so usual as to be looked for as a matter of course by the chemistry teacher1 and which she is obliged to span here and there by dogmatic assertions on which rests as a rule all the physico-chemical knowledge required of the examination student4 ,a well-arranged course of this kind1 moreover1 possesses the great advantage over others1 botany or geology for example1 that it may be made free from technical language1 a point of considerable importance1 not only because the tax upon the memories of the children is thus lightened1 but because they are at liberty to express their observations in their own words4 ,it has been truly said that 8strange words are non-conductors10 and it is unreasonable to suppose that clear ideas on any subject may be imparted in a language which is only partially intelligible4 ,need for early training in science4 ,it is necessary of course to begin early if a sound basis of physics is to be laid for the teaching of chemistry2 the elementary physics lessons should in fact be made to continue the work of the kindergarten without any break1 thus carrying out the aim of natural science teaching1 which should be to foster the powers of observation and research which almost all young children possess to a very high degree2 nor are these the only faculties which benefit1 since physical science is specially fitted also to develop independence of thought1 agility of mind and hand and soundness of judgment2 the simplest experiment may be varied in a hundred ways to produce the same result1 and it is this possibility of variation which gives the individual pupil so much opportunity for the exercise of originality1 which cultivates quickness of observation and encourages so largely the valuable quality of self-reliance4 8,practical0 teaching4 ,it is evident that a course of lectures unaccompanied by laboratory work gives no scope for the educational possibilities of technical subjects such as those with which we are dealing2 the teaching must be made 8practical04 ,it is not sufficient that the teacher should perform a number of illustrative experiments at her lectures1 for it is rare to find a child capable of grasping the meaning of such illustrations2 it is not even sufficient that the experiments shown by the lecturer should be repeated subsequently by the pupils themselves2 this is no doubt good as far as it goes1 for it breeds familiarity with apparatus and gives practice in manipulation1 but that is all2 as to educating the particular faculties which science is specially adapted to educate it is useless1 for the results of the experiments being already known the reasoning powers are not required2 on the contrary the performance of the experiment on the lecture-table has led to the belief that there is one stereotyped method of doing it1 and consequently the child's memory alone is exercised in trying to remember every detail of the apparatus used and the method of carrying it out4 ,for success in examinations it is now necessary to have a certain amount of practical knowledge of chemistry1 and examination classes are therefore given some practical training1 but this reform still remains to be extended universally to the junior classes1 which need even more than the senior ones that the teaching should be objective3 a child may learn and repeat correctly a dozen times that water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen1 and the thirteenth time she will assure you that its constituents are oxygen and nitrogen2 but let her make the gases for herself1 test them and get to know them as individuals1 and mistakes of this kind will become impossible4 ,a further reason for giving practical instruction to juniors is that examination students are generally pressed for time1 being on this account often obliged to do the necessary laboratory work out of school hours2 moreover they find it difficult as it is of a kind to which they are unaccustomed4 ,it would obviously be a great advantage to train the children from the beginning in the use of apparatus during the years when such work is a recreation and a real delight to them4 ,a central idea in science teaching4 ,there is one other point to be noticed4 ,the science course may be begun early and continued without intermission throughout the school career1 the teaching being of a sufficiently 8practical0 character1 but the result will not be a success unless there is a central idea running through it4 ,from the very beginning the experiments must be chosen in illustration and explanation of the fundamental physical laws which may thus be made perfectly familiar to the pupils4 ,it is necessary1 however1 that these experiments should be of the simplest character2 to quote the words of the ,british ,association report above referred to1 8the lessons ought to have reference to subjects which can be readily understood by children1 and illustrations should be selected from objects and operations that are familiar to them in everyday life04 ,broad principles recommended4 ,briefly then1 ,i would recommend that the following broad principles should be adopted with pre-examination classes3-- 7#a7 ,elementary physical training to be made continuous with kindergarten teaching4 7#a7 ,the course of elementary physical science which is then necessary foundation for a sound knowledge of chemistry should be made continuous with the object-lessons of the kindergarten1 and should form a progressive course extending over three or four years1 passing imperceptibly into elementary chemistry4 7#b7 ,the elementary course to be entirely 8practical04 7#b7 ,this course should be of an entirely practical character and should be carried out in a room very simply equipped for the purpose4 ,no text-books should be allowed and no notes dictated by the teacher1 but each pupil should subsequently to the lesson write out in her own words an account of her own experiments1 of which she is encouraged to take notes at the time of doing them4 ,advantage of occasional lectures4 ,although all formal lessons on the simple subjects of investigation serve only to prejudice the minds of the children1 lectures given at rare intervals on kindred subjects and profusely illustrated serve as a healthy stimulus to the youthful appetite for experiment and research4 7#c7 ,choice of experiments4 7#c7 ,the practical course should be so chosen that each experiment illustrates in the simplest possible manner some fundamental principle or 8law0 of nature4 ,it is precisely here that a teacher has the opportunity of educating the logical faculties of the pupils1 each of whom is required to solve independently the simple problem set before her at the lesson and is thus placed in a position to deduce for herself from her own experiment the principle involved4 ,the children are in fact placed1 as ,dr4 ,armstrong recommends1 8in the attitude of discoverers10 and it is astonishing how soon they learn to become independent in their methods of attacking new problems if their minds are not prejudiced by preconceived ideas of the results to be expected4 7#d7 ,size of classes4 7#d7 ,as regards the size of the classes and the time to be allowed for each1 the ,committee of the ,british ,association recommends that 8a teacher should not be required to give practical instruction to more than from fifteen to twenty pupils at one time1 although the classes at lectures and demonstrations might be somewhat larger04 ,for the course indicated below one hour a week may be made sufficient at first1 but later on an hour and a half should be allowed for each practical class4 7#e7 ,accommodation4 7#e7 ,as to accommodation1 it is quite possible1 at any rate at first1 to use an ordinary class-room1 but as environment no doubt does exercise a certain influence the use of a special room very simply equipped with long tables supplied with water and gas is strongly advised4#bf #bf ,full details of fittings and of the very simple and inexpensive apparatus required are given in the syllabus issued by the ,incorporated ,association of ,head ,masters1 which can be obtained at the 8,educational ,supply ,association10 #db ,holborn ,viaduct4 ,the above recommendations are meant to apply to all classes up to the time when the needs of public examinations demand a special course2 this must necessarily be given by means of set lectures1 as it could not otherwise be covered in the limited time which is generally allotted to the subject2 they are more or less in accordance with those drawn up by ,dr4 ,armstrong for the ,committee of the ,british ,association of which mention has been made1 and which were embodied in the ,syllabus of ,physics and ,chemistry issued by the ,incorporated ,association of ,head ,masters in #ahie2 since this date they have been successfully carried out in various boys' schools4 ,owing to the enterprise of ,miss ,l4 ,e4 ,walter a similar course was introduced at an even earlier date into the ,central ,foundation ,school for ,girls1 where it is now in operation4 ,appended is a very brief outline of the course there pursued1 together with a typical set of lessons in chemistry4 ,outline of a science course now in operation4 ,on leaving the kindergarten the science teaching is confined to what is really practical arithmetic and geometry1 elementary measurements being performed by the most ordinary methods4 ,the children are thus accustomed to the use of simple apparatus such as pipettes1 burettes1 etc41 also to the use of the balance1 the simple numerical calculations involved in weighing and measuring being performed in both the ,english and decimal systems1 which are thus made quite familiar4 ,the following example1 quoted from ,miss ,walter's paper1#bg gives a clear idea of the sort of introductory teaching needed4 ,this lesson1 although of the simplest character1 had for its object to show the necessity for1 and to choose a unit of length4 ,this is how it was done3 8,i gave each girl but one a piece of string1 all the pieces being the same length2 the one odd girl ,i kept by me1 and we had a ball of string4 ,i asked the children to tell me how long their pieces were so that ,i could cut a similar piece4 ,naturally they began by guessing--a yard1 half a yard2 but as ,i had no yardstick1 ,i feigned ignorance of what a yard was4 ,soon one put the string along her slate and expressed the length as a slate and three-quarters4 ,every one else followed suit4444 ,after each of the sensible measurements which they made 444 ,i did the same to my small comrade as they had done to themselves and cut off a piece of string4 ,then they all watched with great interest to see if my piece really did come like theirs4444 ,this lesson may not sound very exciting1 but during the whole time each of those children was alive1 each was thoroughly interested in what she was doing40 #bg 8,the ,teaching of ,science in ,girls' ,schools10 by ,l4 ,edna ,walter1 ,b4,sc41 reprinted from ,education1 ,secondary and ,technical4 ,the preliminary course consists in its earlier stages of exercises in the measurement of length1 area and volume with the use of the balance2 this is followed by experiments on density1 and subsequently some work on heat is done1 a simple thermometer and barometer being made and graduated by each girl1 who is encouraged to use them to record the weather by means of curves showing variations of temperature and pressure4 ,it may have been completed by girls of about fourteen1 who will then be quite prepared to begin chemistry1 having by that time gained a very good idea of how to apply their arithmetic as well as their knowledge of the fundamental physical principles to the solution of practical problems4 ,it is important to point out that the system here advocated inverts the usual order of teaching chemistry4 ,this subject is divided into 8pure0 and 8physical10 and it is usual at the present time to begin by teaching 8pure0 chemistry1 that is to say1 the preparations and properties of a number of the commoner elements and compounds1 this part being considered easier than 8physical0 chemistry1 which however ought logically to precede it1 since it treats of the fundamental laws upon which 8pure0 chemistry depends4 ,a knowledge of simple physical chemistry is now required for all chemistry examinations1 candidates for which are expected to have a working acquaintance with simple physical apparatus1 to be familiar with the barometer and thermometer1 the effects of heat on solids1 liquids and gases1 density and specific heat1 etc41 etc42 they are liable moreover to be asked to solve any simple problems on measurement4 ,now by giving precedence to 8physical0 chemistry1 all this is done and done thoroughly before examinations are thought of1 so that what is generally regarded by pupils at the present time as the most difficult portion of their subject is made by this means its ,a ,b ,c1 and the time spent upon actual examination work can be considerably curtailed4 8,pure0 chemistry is introduced by the study of the methods of testing all kinds of substances so as to be able to classify them roughly as mineral or vegetable1 organic or inorganic1 etc4 ,the chemistry course suggested by ,dr4 ,armstrong and adopted by the ,incorporated ,association of ,head ,masters is strongly to be recommended1 as it is drawn up particularly with a view to imparting 8not only information but chiefly a knowledge of method04 ,it opens with 8studies of the effect of heat on things in general2 of their behaviour when burnt10 and goes on to the investigation of such familiar things as air and nitrogen1 combustion and oxygen1 hydrogen and water4 ,formul and equations are rigidly excluded1 the aim being to give a broad introduction to the subject2 on the other hand quantitative experiments form a much larger part of the curriculum than is usually the case1 the previous training in physical methods having prepared the way for teaching chemistry in a more exact manner than is generally possible with beginners4 ,a girl who has gone through the scientific training outlined in the preceding pages will possess an elementary knowledge of many subjects2 she will find little difficulty in mastering the information required for the ,london ,matriculation or any other preliminary examination in physical science1 the greater portion of the ground both in physics and chemistry having already been covered during the preliminary course indicated4 ,it is certain that students who have undergone such a systematic education without hurry and without pressure1 and with opportunities for reasoning out each step for themselves1 will be in a condition to derive the maximum of benefit from subsequent instruction not only in chemistry but in all other branches of knowledge4 ,typical ,lessons in ,chemistry4 ,at the beginning of the lesson the problem to be solved is announced by the teacher1 who invites suggestions as to how it should be attacked4 ,a scheme of work is thus prepared which is carried into practice by the pupils2 every detail of manipulation is performed by the girls themselves1 who select their own apparatus1 bend their own tubing1 etc41 referring only occasionally to the teacher for help4 ,the scheme is elaborated as the investigation proceeds so as to form a piece of consecutive reasoning which may extend over a series of lessons4 ,problem4 ,to discover the constitution of chalk4 ,typical lesson4 ,being familiar with simple methods of testing unknown substances1 heat and the action of acid are at once suggested by the pupils as a means of investigation1 and a preliminary examination is made showing that heat does alter chalk in some way1 whereas the addition of acid causes the liberation of a gas4 ,the next step is to find out whether the chalk loses or gains anything by being heated2 also to determine the nature of the gas given off under the influence of acid4 ,suggestions are again received from the girls1 who are led to decide that the first part of the question may be answered by submitting a weighed quantity of chalk to a moderately high temperature1 weighing at intervals until the weight1 if it changes at all1 again becomes constant4 ,they proceed therefore to weigh their empty crucibles with the usual precautions and then to reweigh them after having put in some dry chalk4 ,the numbers obtained are carefully entered in the laboratory note-book with which each girl is provided4 ,the crucibles are then placed in a 8muffle0 furnace1 which the pupils are taught to manage for themselves1 and are only withdrawn at the end of the lesson and placed in desiccators to be reweighed at the beginning of the next lesson1 when they will be again submitted to the same treatment until the weight is constant4 ,while the crucibles are being heated preparations are made for finding out the action of acid on chalk2 the pupils are led to suggest a simple form of apparatus for measuring the volume and weight of the gas given off1 and hence for determining its density4 ,by the time this is done the hour and a half allowed for the lesson will probably have expired4 ,at the next lesson1 after a preliminary questioning as to what each pupil has done and is going to do1 the apparatus decided upon at the previous lesson is carefully prepared2 subsequently the actual experiments to determine the quantity of gas given off are performed and its density determined1 and finally it is shown that the gas given off from chalk under the action of heat is identical with that released by acid1 chalk being composed of this gas and the residue left after heating it in a muffle furnace until the weight is constant4 ,it will be seen that this work involves a considerable amount of weighing and calculation1 but this is rendered easy by the previous grounding in elementary physics1 and a series of experiments such as that described may be carried out intelligently by any properly trained class of girls4 ,,part ,,iv4 ,,sthetics4 ,,art4 ,by ,,dorothea ,,beale4 ,this part is one of great and perhaps increasing importance owing to the development of musical education and of art and technical schools4 ,music4 ,the power of music over the emotional life has ever been felt2 in many ways it is opposed to thought1 if we regard it from the standpoint of the listener1 who yields himself up to its influence2 on the other hand1 the performer1 and still more the composer1 can bring to bear on the subject high intellectual gifts1 and it may have a great educational value4 ,it is of the utmost importance1 that in this as in all sthetics1 a taste be cultivated for all that is true and pure and lovely2 not for low and false and sensuous music such as ,browning has described in the 8,toccata of ,galuppi10 but for the thoughtful1 the devotional1 as given in the two companion poems1 8,hughes of ,saxe ,gotha0 and 8,abt ,vogler02 and the learner should feel that she is studying to express right feelings1 as ,mme4 ,schumann and ,jenny ,lind insisted1 not to show off her execution and make a display4 ,it is greatly to be regretted that the general education is often stopped in order to specialise in music and art1 before the mental equilibrium is fully established2 if1 besides this1 there is an uprooting from one's home and country1 at the most impressionable and excitable period of life1 much danger is incurred4 ,music is not only a powerful means of expression and of promoting sympathy1 it also draws people together for healthy recreation2 especially valuable for this purpose are orchestral and choral classes4 ,the power of the artist in music is far better understood than it was fifty years ago4 ,i remember ,dr4 ,kinkel1 the ,german poet1 saying to me about the year #ahfj1 8the ,english will become a musical people1 they are learning04 ,we owe much to ,mr4 ,hullah for this1 and to the ,tonic-,sol-fa system4 ,i subjoin a paper by a most able teacher of the piano1 one on the violin1 two papers on singing and one on voice production and elocution4 ,art historical4 ,we are beginning now to study art in connection with the history and literature of different periods and countries4 ,in another section ,i have touched on art in connection with history4 ,we all know how great has been in all ages the power of art in expressing and forming religious ideas2 we cannot but see that ,fra ,angelico and ,dante interpret one another4 ,there is not space here to dwell on the subject2 the writings of ,ruskin and ,browning and the works of the ,pre-,raphaelite brotherhood have helped this generation to feel all that art may be in our life4 ,the educative power of great paintings has been practically recognised by those who have gathered together great pictures in ,east ,london--the ,art for ,schools ,association recognises its importance2 by visits to galleries1 by good reproductions1 and occasional lectures1 children should if possible have their eyes opened to see what are the higher teachings which painters and sculptors and architects have expressed in their works2 those who have heard ,miss ,harrison's lectures know how the statues1 vases1 friezes1 etc41 of old times help us to make these live again for us2 especially valuable is what those of our own time have given us1 for these utter what is most intrinsic in our life4 ,england is richer for such pictures as 8,the ,light of the ,world04 ,mr4 ,thring used to insist much on schools being as beautiful as possible1 and that painted windows and all the surroundings should help in the great work of education1 the fulfilling of the human nature with the sense of the spiritual underlying realities2 it should be the earnest endeavour of all educators to make1 as ,herbart has done1 sthetics in its widest sense1 a help in ethics1 and to consecrate and enrich the experiences and the teachings which come to us through sense4 ,drawing4 ,drawing as a mode of expression is a really necessary subject2 it is a form of writing2 and modelling is another form of effective expression4 ,in their higher aspects these arts are ennobling1 cultivating the taste and leading up to the ideal4 8,once10 writes ,dr4 ,harris1 8trained to recognise the beautiful and graceful1 the pupil has acquired a quality of mind useful in every occupation and every station40 ,painting4 ,there is an admirable paper by ,mr4 ,cooke1 8,the ,a ,b ,c of ,drawing10 in the volume of ,reports just issued from the ,education ,office4 ,all who have heard ,mr4 ,cooke lecture1 must recognise that he has a real genius for teaching4 ,in schools we have to do chiefly with cultivating the power of seeing things as they are1 and expressing what we see4 ,the copying with the pencil of the ,greek sculptures has been of much educational value1 but enough importance has not been attached to modelling4 ,i add an excellent paper on the subject4 ,other technical arts4 ,technical schools are so much the fashion of the day1 that ,i may perhaps add something more on the subject of manual training4 ,all students of ,pestalozzi and ,frbel knew the great educational value of manual work1 but the general public1 though they knew that mind acted on muscle1 did not realise the fact that muscle reacted on mind2 when this was recognised1 many educational thinkers saw the importance of giving to hand arts a more prominent place in school work4 ,a great reaction set in against mere book learning1 and as ,i venture to think an exaggerated and indiscriminating value was by some attached to manual work4 ,the enthusiasm of ,herr ,salomon brought to the front the use of ,sloyd4 ,political circumstances and the need of competing with foreign countries have contributed to give a great impulse to education in art1 and to develop and improve the training which had never been altogether neglected in girls' schools4 ,i subjoin papers on various hand arts1 including one on ,sloyd4 ,at a meeting held at ,washington in #ahhi1 the matter was brought before the department of ,superintendence1 and a volume was issued from the ,bureau of ,education which contains a very full account of the proceedings2 it includes an admirable paper of about twenty pages by ,dr4 ,harris1 ,chief ,commissioner of ,education1 from which ,i make some extracts4 ,the matter is considered in reference to 8,educational ,value04 ,he begins by defining what is the main purpose of school teaching1 criticising the definitions which point to false or ill-comprehended or crude ideals1 which turn our thoughts to the means rather than the ends of education1 and which lead the educator away from the essential idea of education by fixing attention on the 8puny individual0 rather than on the 8higher self0 embodied in institutions2 the ideal man1 whom we can see only as a member of the great human family4 ,education he defines as 8the great preparation of the individual to help his fellow-men1 and to receive in turn and appropriate their help04 ,whilst conceding that manual training is educative1 he shows why it is much inferior to the usual subjects of school instruction4 8,man elevates himself above the brute creation by his ability to withdraw his attention from the external world of the senses and give attention to energies1 forces1 producing causes1 principles4 ,he can look from the particular to the general2 without losing the particular he grasps together the whole realm of the particular in the general--in mastering the cause of anything he grasps together and comprehends an indefinite series of effects4 8,a false psychology tells us that we derive all our knowledge from sense-perception1 but we do not by the senses learn the idea of causal process4 ,by this idea all the data of sense are transformed radically4 ,they are given us in sense-perception as independent realities4 ,in thinking them by the aid of causality1 we make all these matters of sense-perception into phenomena--or effects and manifestations of underlying causes which are not visible or tangible40 ,dr4 ,harris shows how school studies are calculated to give general principles1 right ideals1 and to exercise the powers in elaborating the data of sense4 8,that the ordinary branches of instruction in school relate to this function of elaboration of data into plans of action far more than they relate to the mere reception of sense-impressions or to the exercise of the motor nerves1 is obvious4 ,it is not desirable that children shall be taught that rough hand labour is in itself as honourable as the elaborative toil of thought1 which gives rational direction to the hand4 ,the general who plans the battle1 and directs the movement of his troops so that they secure victory1 is of course the executive man in a far higher sense than the private soldier who mechanically obeys what he is ordered to do4 ,the general may use his motor nerves only in issuing the words of command1 while the private soldier may exert to the utmost every muscle in his body--yet the real executive is the general40 ,and he concludes that only in so far as manual training is calculated to develop the higher faculties1 ought it to be regarded as a valuable branch of school education4 ,the pupils' minds must not however be fixed on the acquisition of manual dexterity1 so that they think more of the 8execution0 than the musical thought--more of mere copying than of interpreting nature or the artist's ideal4 ,,pianoforte ,,teaching4 ,by ,,domenico ,,barnett1 of the ,leipzig ,conservatorium4 ,like every branch of school education1 the teaching of the pianoforte requires consideration from two simultaneous points of view4 ,two all-important questions have to be answered with clearness and decision4 ,what is1 or what ought to be1 the definite aim of the teacher8 ,and what is the most efficacious process for achieving this aim8 ,as to the aim and purpose1 we may happily dismiss1 once and for all1 the old and imbecile notion of the piano as a conventional 8accomplishment02 in more accurate language an instrument of unintelligent and repulsive mechanical drudgery1 calculated to eradicate from the pupil whatever modicum of music ,nature might have bestowed on her4 ,the cultivation of the piano for the sake of vain display is not yet obsolete4 ,but though this unacknowledged object must inevitably continue to actuate many pupils and many parents1 the teacher1 so far from indulging it1 should set his face sternly against it4 ,it is true that it is his business to develop his pupils' performing powers to the utmost of their varying capacities4 ,but this practical and visible result is but subordinate and auxiliary to one which is infinitely higher4 ,not every pupil1 however musically gifted1 has it in her to become a fine executant1 any more than fine execution implies1 of itself1 much beyond mere manual dexterity4 ,but what the properly qualified teacher can do for all is to educate--that is to say to draw out--all that ,nature has put into them3 to show them what music means3 to quicken and develop their musical feeling1 be it much or little1 by rendering it intelligent3 to give their taste a foundation of right principle3 to cultivate the ear and the brain as well as the hand3 to put them in the right road for pursuing and perhaps specialising their studies after their school course is over3 in short1 to make them musicians1 so far as musicians can be made4 ,the study of the pianoforte1 then1 is an indispensable means to a very large and serious end4 ,there is no occasion to dwell upon the peculiar suitability of the piano as the basis of musical study4 ,as to that1 there are not1 and cannot be1 two opinions1 even if universal experience had not settled the matter4 ,nor is it needful to dwell upon the qualifications to be required in a teacher4 ,every one knows the requisite qualifications of all teachers of all subjects4 ,but it so happens that the teacher of the pianoforte1 in any school where much is--as it ought to be--expected1 has to contend with a peculiarly formidable list of preliminary difficulties1 and to dispose of these before he can proceed to build upon a properly prepared ground4 ,with these two topics1 the preparatory and constructive portions of his duty to his pupils1 to himself1 and to his art1 ,i will proceed to deal in as few words as the nature of so large a subject allows4 ,and first1 as to the commonest of all his obstacles1 which is-- ,previous ,home ,teaching 7so-called74--,music1 even more than with most other branches of education1 should begin with careful1 intelligent and systematic instruction at home4 ,yet how seldom does the teacher find this to be the case6 ,a truly appalling ignorance of the merest rudiments is constantly found in girls of all ages on first coming to school1 after six or seven years of 8lessons from a master0 or 8from a lady04 ,in exceedingly few instances has any attempt been made to awaken a love of music1 much less to lay a foundation for its serious study4 ,parents1 one must presume1 have not yet outgrown the delusion that anybody is good enough to start a child's musical education2 whereas it is precisely during the period preceding school life that instruction generally produces the most lasting results for good or for evil2 and it is usually for evil4 ,it may be that a certain--or uncertain--amount of mechanical fluency has been acquired1 but to the total exclusion of all else2 and this leads to a further grave difficulty for both teacher and pupil-- ,insufficient ,time4--,there would be amply adequate time for musical progress at school if the ordinary pupil had not so much to unlearn4 ,as things are1 the inevitable strain upon a girl imposed by other studies renders the comparatively short time allotted to music a period of weariness of mind4 ,the pupil1 naturally enough1 rebels against the severity of a proper course of study2 and it is long before the most patient teacher can get his impatient pupil well in hand4 ,he is thus sorely tempted to make a-- ,compromise with ,conscience4--,this is not stating the matter a whit too strongly4 ,handicapped by wrong preliminary training and its consequences1 the teacher1 in order to render some result visible to parents and school authorities1 often sacrifices substantial education to superficial display4 ,how absolutely wrong this is1 requires--it is to be hoped--no argument4 ,but1 inexcusable as it is on every principle of educational ethics1 it is bound to be of constant occurrence wherever the school authorities fail to understand a music master's duty1 and to support him in doing it fearlessly and honestly1 without respect to the ignorant impatience of parents or pupils who have not laid to heart the maxim of sat cito si sat bene4 ,in proceeding to the positive work of teaching1 as distinguished from the preliminary task of un-teaching1 it will be the simplest course to dismiss these only too formidable obstacles as non-existent or overcome1 and to consider at what a teacher should aim who enjoys all the advantages that he can reasonably expect4 ,under the most disadvantageous conditions he can at any rate aim as high as circumstances allow4 ,let us suppose1 then1 that he has the inestimable advantage of a pupil who is a complete beginner1 with everything to learn and nothing to unlearn4 ,at the very outset-- ,a ,feeling for ,well-marked ,rhythm should receive cultivation4 ,this is perhaps most easily acquired where a kindergarten has been available1 by marching round to strongly-marked tunes or even to the beat of a drum4 ,this feeling--more or less instinctive with most1 and seldom beyond acquisition by any--should1 as soon as possible1 be reduced to form and order by-- ,a ,knowledge of ,time ,system and the ,key-board3 that is to say1 a thorough acquaintance with the notes on the key-board1 so that they may be readily recognised by their shape1 together with their equivalent rests and other signs belonging to the time system4 ,all this should become instinctively familiar2 and is followed in natural sequence by-- ,a ,knowledge of the ,scale ,system4--,the beginner should be able to locate the several scales on the instrument and to understand their formation4 ,but time ought not to be wasted by insisting too much upon scale practice1 until the pupil's hands are sufficiently strong4 ,it will be quite sufficient1 at this period of a course1 to gain a thorough knowledge of the notes and fingering of the various scales and chords1 great care being taken at the same time to cultivate a good position of hand and a proper use of the fingers themselves1 by way of foundation for a good and sound technique4 ,in the case of older and more advanced pupils who have been neglected in this direction1 it should be constantly impressed upon their minds that this process is but a means to an end2 that adequate interpretation of music is impossible without this mechanical exercise of the fingers1 which must be trained to follow and express the most delicate nuance of their owner's intention4 ,on the other hand1 such pupils--especially those gifted with a natural dexterity--should be warned that manual skill has nothing1 as such1 to do with music3 that brilliant execution and the triumph over difficulties are neither more useful nor more admirable than dancing among eggs unless they are subordinate to the real sense and meaning of a composition4 ,having fairly mastered the notes1 time and scale systems1 the pupil is now in a position to be introduced to-- ,a ,methodical ,selection of ,exercises and ,pieces ,presenting ,varied ,rhythmical ,difficulty1 beginning with the simplest1 and gradually advancing to those of increased complexity4 ,as the pupil advances1 easy duets1 dances1 marches1 etc41 sometimes if possible accompanied by another instrument1 may be given with advantage1 insistence being laid upon a proper habit of counting time4 ,this should not be done in a drawling1 undecided manner1 but with a clear1 sharp and decided utterance4 ,it ought not to be--but is--necessary to add that the production of a fine broad tone and proper touch should receive attention from the outset2 and meanwhile1 even from the earliest moment of her studies-- ,no ,bad ,music should be given to a ,pupil for any ,purpose1 or under any ,circumstances4--,no doubt where a very bad state of taste exists1 it is a matter of necessity to start from a comparatively low level of merit2 because in respect of music1 at any rate1 a pupil should never be given what she cannot possibly understand4 ,dr4 ,arnold1 it is true1 used to say that if you only taught a boy what he could understand1 you would teach him very little4 ,but large margins must be allowed to large maxims1 and had ,dr4 ,arnold taught music1 where the first and foremost thing is taste1 instead of language1 where the first and foremost thing is memory1 he would have modified if not reversed his dictum4 ,yet though the pupil's taste and intelligence may be at a low point1 and require very simple fare1 there is happily no lack of good music adapted to every degree of intelligence1 and even of appetite2 and under its influence it is surprising how soon any taste for the positively bad will imperceptibly pass away4 ,of course1 the teacher will have to observe much thoughtful care in his selection of music in each individual case of this kind1 always remembering two things--to give his pupil the best that she can comprehend1 but never to surpass her comprehension4 ,to read ,shakspere in a kindergarten would not be worse waste of poetry and brains4 ,but it is not enough merely to avoid bad music--that can always be done4 ,there is good music which may be as unsuitable to certain temperaments as it is suitable to others3 and the teacher should be something of a psychologist in order to exercise his judgment prudently4 ,chopin's would be bad music if given in large doses to a girl of sentimental and romantic temperament1 though she would probably excel in it4 ,she needs something of a more robust and less emotional character4 ,bach's music1 on the other hand1 is always right for all and cannot be too much employed4 ,for studies1 ,mr4 ,franklin ,taylor's judiciously selected ,progressive ,exercises may be safely and strongly recommended1 as enabling the teacher to find1 without trouble1 instances1 from the best composers1 of every kind of difficulty4 ,the ,musical ,ear simultaneously demands attention4 ,some pupils have a natural gift for discerning1 without reference to the instrument1 the exact pitch of a musical sound4 ,this is by no means a necessary indication of great musical ability2 but it is unquestionably a very great advantage4 ,fortunately1 it can to a considerable extent be cultivated in many cases where it does not exist naturally3 and for this purpose there is nothing so efficacious as-- ,the ,elementary ,singing ,class1 which should be a portion of the curriculum of every school1 and should be compulsory for every student of music4 ,properly conducted1 this class cannot be valued too highly4 ,in it1 rudimentary theory is taught in a systematic and practical manner4 ,very few girls are able to think musically4 ,to the best informed among them a major third consists of so many semitones1 and can be found in so many scales2 but when seen upon paper1 the notes convey no idea of their proper sound4 ,here then1 the pupil will be taught to recognise and sing all intervals and chords1 and even to write them down from dictation4 ,as practical instruction in time and rhythm forms an important portion of the lesson1 the evil effects of the defective sustaining power of the pianoforte can be in a measure remedied4 ,franz ,wllner's system is excellent4 ,thus the mechanical portion of the pianoforte teacher's work may be very beneficially supplemented and extended1 by being placed in fresh lights under different conditions4 ,the use and meaning of any study are never so manifest as when it is seen to be applicable in several directions4 ,here concludes what may be regarded as the first period of instruction4 ,given sufficient time for practice1 fair average ability and no physical defects to contend against1 good results may reasonably be looked for4 ,as the pieces selected for study assume a more important character1 the pupil should be made to perceive how they are constructed2 how one portion grows out of another2 and by what artistic process a composition has obtained its symmetry and balance4 ,the ,study of ,harmony should now be begun4 ,in addition to the study of part-writing and perhaps counterpoint1 standard compositions should be carefully analysed4 ,this gives a power of comprehension and appreciation quite apart from any capacity for interpretation1 and probably better worth acquiring4 ,many persons combine considerable musical talent with a physical inability to achieve excellence as performers4 ,such of these who have persevered to this point will have learned to find an intellectual and sympathetic delight in the works of the great masters1 and an artistic pleasure in the performance of their more gifted interpreters4 ,more successful executants may now proceed 7when it is considered desirable7 to the more serious study of scales and finger exercises1 the teacher watching carefully for any signs of physical weakness4 ,willing but weak hands are too often injured by overwork1 and the adoption of some means for strengthening them1 suitable to each individual case1 should be made an essential part of their training4 ,indeed the teacher would do well to make a careful study of the peculiarities of hands1 very great difference of treatment being required in different cases4 ,some hands are so unfit for pianoforte playing as to make it a question whether it is worth while1 for any reason1 to continue the attempt4 ,to return to scales and finger exercises--it will not be going too far to say that they cannot be practised too assiduously at this point4 ,as a stimulus it may be found advisable to allow the pupil to avail herself of the numerous musical examinations so much in vogue at the present time4 ,the plan adopted by ,mr4 ,oscar ,beringer in his ,technical ,studies is admirable1 and strongly recommended4 ,musical memory should be assiduously cultivated4 ,no piece of music can be said to be learned until it has been committed to memory4 ,any tendency of the process to impoverish the power of sight-reading can be adequately guarded against by the daily reading of new music4 ,a ,regularly ,organised ,system of ,sight-reading ,classes4--,no school should be without such classes1 and they should be for that matter supplemented by a few minutes each day to be occupied in playing through a new piece from beginning to end1 without stop or interruption1 however wild the blunders may be4 ,these will soon become fewer and fewer4 ,during the hours of solid practice1 however1 blunders are quite another matter1 and those unable to help themselves in this respect require-- ,the ,attentive ,superintendence of ,practice4--,the time allowed for practice should be arranged to suit the requirements of the pupil1 and need never be excessive or interfere with the general course of study4 ,with care and thought1 much good work may be done in a short time4 ,a large proportion of pupils of all ages are unable to perceive their own faults1 and the time for practice may thus become a means of forming and confirming fresh bad habits as fast as the old ones have been eradicated4 ,moreover1 since the time allotted in schools to practice must needs be short1 every moment of it should be utilised2 and very clear explanations should therefore be given to those who superintend it of what is required as well as to the pupils themselves--explanations which should be punctiliously followed4 ,there are also many cases in which the instruction of the promising or fairly well-trained young pupil may be almost entirely undertaken by a competent assistant teacher1 but subject to the careful supervision of the master1 who should be responsible for her proper progress4 ,before closing these remarks1 which have not been easy to render systematic or consecutive1 it would be inexcusable in these days to omit all mention of-- ,examinations4--,this is too large a subject to be dwelt upon in relation to music alone4 ,but it must needs be said that here again the temperament of pupils must be considered4 ,in some cases good work is helped by examinations of one kind or another2 in others it is hindered4 ,on this subject we all have our own views4 ,however1 if they can be met easily and in the regular course of study1 without forcing or cramming1 or interrupting solid work1 let them be undergone by all means4 ,otherwise their use becomes abuse1 and frequently tends to entirely false ideas of the proficiency of those who pass them4 ,an apparently low point may be substantially preferable to an apparently high one4 ,but no matter what point is reached1 let it be thoroughly reached1 even though the time occupied in attaining thoroughness be apparently deducted from what is required for further progress4 ,the deduction is but seeming--not in reality4 ,school work is neither the end1 nor the whole1 nor the largest1 nor the most important portion of education4 ,far better for a girl is it to leave school able to play fairly well at sight1 and to execute a moderately difficult or even easy piece faultlessly1 than with the prestige of a brilliant performer which will crumble to pieces for want of a foundation as soon as she is left to her own resources4 ,another grand mistake1 in the same connection1 is made by parents who send children abroad for the continuation or completion of their musical education before1 by having been properly and systematically grounded1 they are able to reap the slightest benefit from foreign training4 ,but1 almost before all things1 ,i would insist upon a good general education for all who show marked musical ability1 and are thus justified in making music their special and paramount subject of study4 ,music is so absorbing a pursuit that it tends to narrowness by its own nature2 and all that inclines to extend the outlook and enlarge the mind during the impressionable period of life1 is even more important to the musician than to those who are engaged in pursuits of a less exclusive order4 ,the really cultivated musician is a prize product of education2 but the mere musician1 who may be the mere executant1 and nothing else1 is the last sort of being that one would wish any school to evolve4 ,to conclude1 there is perhaps no royal road to the successful study of anything2 there is certainly none to the pianoforte4 ,i have not attempted so vain a task as to try to make one4 ,what ,i have undertaken is to point out the crags that must be faced with a stout heart1 and the best and safest path--which is not necessarily the shortest--to the vast stores of intellectual pleasure and profit awaiting the aspirant long before the whole journey's end4 ,,the ,,violin4 ,by ,,lewis ,,hann4 ,the teaching of the violin in our schools has of late years attained a high grade of efficiency4 ,the progress of musical education generally has been remarkable1 but most especially so in the study of the violin1 and perhaps no branch of the art demands so much of the teacher4 ,it is not enough for him to be a good and brilliant performer2 the real gifts which constitute the successful teacher are great patience1 self-control1 tact1 discretion and a good knowledge of character4 ,it is not judicious to lay down hard and fast laws1 and pursue a certain beaten track in teaching1 for no two pupils are constituted alike1 and it is often desirable1 according to the disposition of the pupil1 to take a somewhat circuitous route to attain the desired goal4 ,with really talented pupils1 of course1 no trouble whatever is experienced--it is the bringing into life hidden or dormant abilities in the less gifted which proves the art1 science and experience of the teacher4 ,the establishment of a string orchestral or an ensemble class1 even in a humble way1 is of great advantage to violin students4 ,not only are the practices a source of pleasure and delight to the pupils1 but they help greatly to improve them in the practice of sight-reading2 and in the study of ensemble music they learn to give more serious attention to the marks of expression and to observe the nuances4 ,also by taking part themselves in the performance of important compositions they learn to appreciate these properly when they hear them rendered by great performers4 ,it is well for the pupils to attend high-class concerts as frequently as possible2 the earnest1 observant student will derive great benefit and learn much that is invaluable from hearing good works performed by sound artists4 ,,class-,,singing4 ,by ,,florence ,,mosley1 ,pupil of ,shakespeare4 ,class-singing4 ,class-singing is good for all2 it educates not the voice only1 but ear1 eye and memory4 ,classes of young children should not be composed of less than fifteen or twenty2 if the voice of a pupil is too audible to herself and her neighbour1 she becomes self-conscious and shy2 in a fairly large class the pupil merely swells a general body of sound4 ,in a class of thirty the teacher should be able easily to detect a defaulter2 she should not however correct by name1 as this tends to produce nervousness2 she should indicate the direction from which the faulty sound proceeds4 ,a few voices should not be allowed to predominate over the others1 and care should be taken to prevent any over-exertion of voice4 ,position is very important2 the pupils should stand upright1 with heels together and hands loosely clasped in front4 ,good order must be maintained1 and thorough attention exacted4 ,the classes for young children should not exceed half an hour in length1 but for elder pupils forty-five minutes to an hour is desirable4 ,notation4 ,in each lesson a few test questions on notation should be given1 and in order to avoid the answers proceeding only from a few of the more musical or quicker pupils1 all answers should be written4 ,ear tests4 ,ear tests are best taught by taking the middle ,c as a starting-point1 the pupils being required to give the name of every note struck within the octave1 and also of the interval so formed2 when they are thoroughly familiar with all the sounds contained in that octave1 the process should be repeated with another note as the tonic4 ,having written the ear tests1 they should proceed to sing them1 the conductor striking a note upon the piano and requiring the class to pitch any interval he mentions either above or below that note1 without assistance from the instrument4 ,by this means the pupils become familiar with the relation of one note to another1 and so find no difficulty in reading4 ,dictation4 ,musical dictation is another important means of training the ear2 the melody of a simple well-known tune--if possible within the compass of an octave--should be played over2 the key and starting-note being given to the class1 they should be required to write down the notes of the melody from memory4 ,at first it will be found necessary to play the tune over several times1 until the class becomes used to the exercise4 ,to more advanced classes more elaborate melodies can be given1 and the harmonies filled in4 ,rhythm4 ,this is best taught by making each member of the class beat time1 while the conductor plays tunes of various measures on the instrument used for accompanying the class4 ,this enables the pupils to realise the strong and weak beats4 ,another way is to dictate the notes of a melody to the class1 making the pupils fill in the bar lines and time signature4 ,reading at sight4 ,the pupils should first read unaccompanied single notes from the blackboard1 followed by easy exercises in unison1 and then exercises in two or three parts2 the more advanced classes should read some oratorio music and standard works4 ,voice production4 ,purity rather than volume of sound should be insisted upon2 the former can be satisfactorily obtained only by a series of diaphragm breathing exercises1 which will result in the throat being left free and open4 ,the first vocal exercises should consist of simple vowel sounds1 sung on every note from the middle ,c to the fourth space in the treble clef4 ,these should be followed by tuned consonants1 8koo0 being most useful for bringing the tone forward4 ,sustained notes should then be practised1 also major1 minor and chromatic scales4 ,singing in parts4 ,on receiving the part-song the pupils should be called upon to give the key1 time and form of the composition4 ,the simplest method of teaching young children to hold their several parts is to give them simple canons and rounds4 ,in a two-part song the whole class should first learn the seconds and then the firsts2 when thoroughly conversant with both parts1 the class should be divided1 the pupils being called upon to sing either firsts or seconds at any time4 ,when the notes have been learnt the words should be committed to memory and the part-song sung without copies of the music2 we thus train the memory1 enable the pupils to stand in good position and to give full attention to the conductor's beat4 ,elder classes may be taught to sing in three or four parts1 but much care is needed in the selection of part-songs1 as it is difficult to get compositions with a small enough compass to avoid straining either in the upper or lower registers of young and untrained voices4 ,i need hardly add how much choral singing helps to promote a feeling of sympathy1 a right kind of emulation1 and a fuller appreciation of beautiful compositions than can be gained by solo singing or passive listening4 ,,singing4 ,,tonic ,,sol-,,fa4 ,by ,,rhoda ,,rooney1 ,certif4 ,frbel ,society1 ,cl4 #a4 ,the ,tonic ,sol-fa system is one which gives every advantage for producing good and accurate sight-singing1 and this without the aid of a piano or any other instrument4 ,the pupils can test the notes as they proceed by referring to the ,doh from which they start1 and which is regarded as the governing note of the scale or piece4 ,the ,doh is not necessarily middle ,c on the piano1 but is the tonic of any major scale1 all the notes of which have a certain association with each other and with the governing ,doh4 ,this relationship of sounds can be felt by the pupils as they listen attentively to the first easy patterns sung by the teacher for their imitation1 thereby discovering what is understood by the 8mental effect of sound04 ,sufficient practice of sounds with 8the modulator0 gives familiarity with the notes of the scale1 change of key1 or pitch in any relation1 and it will be found that it becomes almost impossible for the class to sing out of tune4 ,the ,tonic ,sol-fa hand-signs practised with the modulator are a very considerable help1 whether the class is composed of little children or adults4 ,time is indicated by lines and dots4 ,a perpendicular line is placed before a strong beat or pulse1 and a colon before a weak pulse4 ,a single dot divides the beat in half1 and a comma is used to show the division of a quarter beat4 ,a horizontal line shows a tied note1 or its equivalent1 and a rest is represented by a blank4 ,three-pulse measure--,doh is ,e4 ,music ,the great advantage of the ,tonic ,sol-fa system over any other is the definite and graduated ear-training which the pupils must derive from it1 rendering the singing true and accurate1 however poor the voices may be4 ,it is also of great use in developing the voice and training the ear of those who are older1 and have for some reason neglected all musical and vocal culture4 ,books recommended--,curwen's ,tonic ,sol-fa ,courses and ,the ,school ,music ,teacher1 by ,evans and ,mc,naught4 ,publishers1 ,curwen ,sons4 ,,elocution4 ,by ,,rose ,,seaton4 ,the speaking voice is often left to what we are pleased to call 8,nature02 but a natural voice and a fine speaker are like the language of the race1 the product of cultivation4 ,weak and toneless voices are frequently the result of faulty production4 ,we may divide the vocal apparatus into three parts3 7#a7 ,lungs2 7#b7 ,larynx2 7#c7 ,mouth4 ,consider the functions of each separately1 and afterwards their relations to one another4 ,great care is needed to develop the lungs1 that they may store the requisite quantity of air and supply the waste of it constantly and silently2 breath control is of primary importance4 ,in reading aloud1 teaching1 lecturing1 the air in the lungs should be felt as an active force4 ,all speech is uttered on the outgoing current of breath4 ,the vocal chords in the 8voice box0 or larynx close when sound is made1 and toneless or woolly voices show that the chords are slack and the breath is passing through without being used for sound1 as when the bow of a violin passes over loosened strings4 ,note that the larynx should never be tightened by the band or collar of the dress4 ,the three principal resonators for sound are3 the bones of the chest1 the head bones1 and the roof of the mouth4 ,right position is very important4 ,both in standing and sitting the muscles should support the body so that the lungs may expand easily4 ,to inhale and hold a deep breath is a silent and useful practice4 ,it strengthens the walls of the thorax1 develops the lungs1 steadies the action of the heart1 and consequently the voice4 ,the habit of bending the body over a desk or book1 of sitting with the spine curved outward and the chest collapsed1 of standing with the weight upon one foot1 especially upon the heel1 should be avoided4 ,it is not enough to speak1 but to speak well4 ,all articulations are made in the mouth1 and the sound must reach the point where the letter is formed2 the place of the letter in the mouth must be understood1 and the quality of it4 ,the alphabet is best divided into four groups3 7#a7 ,vowels2 7#b7 ,explosive consonants2 7#c7 ,vibrative consonants2 7#d7 ,toneless letters4 ,every word in ,english is complete in itself1 and no letter must be omitted or joined to another4 ,the omission or slurring of the small words constantly mars the sense2 stress is not required1 but distinct utterance4 ,a small voice1 if the articulation is distinct1 will travel far1 while a loud1 ungoverned organ creates confusion of sound and cannot be understood2 nor should the speaker maintain a fixed pitch1 but allow the voice to pass through many gradations of sound1 and endeavour to express the language naturally and musically4 ,,drawing1 ,,painting1 ,,etc4 ,by ,,pauline ,m4 ,,randerson1 ,national ,silver and ,bronze ,medallist 7,painting72 ,art ,master's ,certificates1 ,i41 ,,ii4 and ,,iii41 ,science and ,art ,department2 ,teacher-,artist's ,certificate1 ,royal ,drawing ,society2 ,drawing ,teacher to the ,princesses ,marie and ,victoria of ,edinburgh1 #ahhd2 ,art ,mistress1 ,cheltenham ,ladies' ,college4 ,natural drawing of children4 ,brushwork4 ,simple designs4 ,line drawing4 ,mr4 ,ruskin says1 8,accuracy and rapidity of perception 444 are especially what masters and schools can teach04 ,also1 that 8,all qualities of execution are influenced by1 and in a great degree dependent on1 a far higher power than mere execution--knowledge of the truth04 ,with ,frbel's teaching1 and these thoughts in mind1 we observe the first attempts of children at drawing4 ,they draw from memory1 and their drawings exhibit their knowledge of the things drawn4 ,in the first lessons we do not interfere with their own natural method1 but we help them to further investigation by encouraging them to look again at the object1 asking them questions about it1 and drawing with them4 ,we give exercises for the hand1 wrist and arm1 by running the pencil round cardboard shapes of simple geometric or ornamental forms2 also by repeating straight and curved lines on squared paper4 ,we foster their love of colour and train their inventive powers1 by using the brush4 ,if we take a brush and fill it with colour1 we can 7without any effort of drawing7 produce two simple units or elements4 ,if the point only touches the paper1 we have a dot2 if the side1 we have a form determined by the size and shape of the brush4 ,we use these elements on a network of squares 7of sufficient size71 and find them capable of producing the simplest possible designs4 ,by adding short lines1 both straight and curved1 drawn with the point of the brush1 we increase our power and variety4 ,with the same elements we can approximately imitate some very easy natural forms1 but as 8it does not train the child to great accuracy10 we are very careful to choose such flowers1 leaves1 insects1 etc41 as these simple means can most nearly represent4 ,we continue our practice in drawing lines on squares for two reasons1 viz41 it is an easy method 7greatly used by designers7 of drawing patterns1 in which every variety of straight and curved lines may be used and placed in all conceivable positions1 hence great facility of line drawing may be acquired1 the influence of which will be felt in the writing exercises1 and new combinations may be made by the children themselves2 also1 many simple drawings of objects may be done1 with the advantage of being true in their proportions1 before any actual training has been given in that particular4 ,we do not allow the use of india-rubber in this practice4 ,brushwork proper4 ,our next use of the brush is for real drawing2 the matter for our designs being no longer mere accidental forms1 but such as require actual drawing like those on ,greek vases4 ,the flexibility of the brush1 and natural movement of the wrist1 render it easy to produce these forms which are varied in shape and thickness by pressure4 ,the network of squares may be abandoned in favour of filling spaces 7such as the cardboard shapes previously mentioned7 with ornamental arrangements4 ,proportions obtained with the ruler4 ,we come at length to study proportions by the aid of the ruler4 ,straight lines of various lengths are ruled2 these are divided into simple proportions4 ,exercises are given in judging the relative lengths of lines drawn on the blackboard1 etc4 ,squares and oblongs are constructed4 ,simple flat objects with straight edges are used as models2 they are measured and drawn with the aid of the ruler4 ,the drawings are always of correct proportions though the size may be varied1 the measurements being reduced to 1 1 1 etc4 ,the relation of this work to arithmetic is apparent4 ,proportional measurements with the pencil4 ,we give much time to teaching the use of the pencil for measuring proportions thus3 one eye is closed1 the pencil is held up between the eye and the object1 at arm's length away2 the thumb indicates on the pencil the apparent length of the part to be measured1 which 7by moving the hand still kept at the same distance7 can be compared with the whole until its true relationship is ascertained4 ,memory drawing4 ,object drawing4 ,construction4 ,we give exercises in drawing from memory all along the course1 the subjects being chiefly animal forms so interesting to children4 ,we now pass on to drawing from flat objects having some curved as well as straight edges4 ,let us suppose we have chosen a ,japanese hand-screen1 which we hang on the blackboard parallel to the class4 ,the size of the drawings is first determined4 ,the proportions are thought out and indicated4 ,the model is handed round the class1 attention being called to its construction4 ,when replaced in its original position1 the curved edges are compared with straight lines to ascertain their true nature4 ,a drawing is then made on the blackboard1 the class following step by step4 ,when complete the drawings may be tinted with flat washes of colour4 ,the pattern may be drawn with the brush or a new one invented4 ,foreshortening4 ,appearances4 ,mr4 ,taylor reminds us that 8it required all the ages to the fifteenth century of our era to master the laws of foreshortening04 ,to introduce these 8laws0 we use straight-edged flat objects1 such as a map or picture on the wall4 ,we sit1 not now facing the model as before1 but so that one edge may be described as being nearer to us1 another farther from us1 and two receding4 ,we have to deal with appearances rather than realities4 ,the edges we know to be horizontal1 no longer appear so2 we compare them with the pencil held horizontally until we realise the angle they make with it4 ,the width has apparently grown much less and must be compared with the front edge4 ,the farther edge1 which we know to be the same length as the nearer one1 now looks shorter4 ,thus we think out the apparent changes and make our drawing accordingly4 ,in the same way we draw the top of a table1 and when able to do so correctly we place flat objects with curved edges on the wall or table1 or diagrams with curved lines on them1 and by comparing the curves with straight lines we realise their apparent forms4 ,class and individual teaching4 ,in consequence of the children having each a different view of the model1 it is more satisfactory to take a very small class1 giving each one as much personal attention as possible until they get accustomed to the work4 ,it is well to have some work of a more popular nature to alternate with these lessons in foreshortening4 ,for instance1 the brush may be used for painting easy leaves1 flowers1 etc41 direct from nature1 or for flat tinting of ornamental forms drawn from copies or the cast4 ,plane geometry4 ,exercises in drawing from written descriptions1 involving knowledge of simple geometric terms and figures1 should also be given4 ,model drawing4 ,perspective4 ,individual tastes4 ,we proceed to model drawing proper1 working in the same way as in the lessons on foreshortened planes2 obtaining as accurately as possible the angles at which lines appear to recede2 measuring the widths of receding planes and comparing distant lines with near ones4 ,we have to deal with perspective1 8the science of appearances10 and we do this in the most practical way4 ,we realise that it is only too possible to teach this subject in a wrong manner1 by putting rules in the place of accurate observation4 ,we therefore evolve our perspective sketch from the model and find it a great help to intelligent drawing4 ,we frequently draw our models from memory4 ,alternating with these lessons we frequently take a course of elementary shading4 ,we encourage the child in its own natural preferences and mode of expression1 having an excellent opportunity for doing so in the work done at home during the week1 and especially during the vacation4 ,suggestive drawing4 ,growth4 ,we seek to modify the rather stiff and rigid kind of drawing hitherto necessarily done1 knowing that higher art demands a suggestive treatment4 ,we use such natural forms as fruit1 flowers1 foliage1 of which we draw such lines as seem best to interpret them4 ,we study very carefully their growth or development4 ,we use also casts of animals1 human features1 etc4 ,shading4 ,we endeavour to make our shading course a good foundation for painting4 ,we give exercises in flat tinting and graduating to obtain power over the material 7chalk1 charcoal1 pencil or otherwise7 and to ascertain its possibilities4 ,we draw from objects having flat planes such as a cube1 placed so as to receive a strong contrast of light and shade2 from cylindrical or other rounded objects1 in which we study specially the shaded side with its reflected light1 and the position of the high light4 ,we work from groups of objects of various colours1 trying to obtain their relative tones1 textures1 etc4 ,sacrifice4 ,mystery4 ,we try to arouse interest in the light itself1 showing 7by working with the class7 how we must sacrifice minor details to emphasise its play on the group2 also in the mystery of shade1 wherein reflected lights must often be subdued and details lost4 ,pupils have to draw also from memory4 ,the figure or painting may follow4 ,no originality is claimed for the methods and course advocated4 ,they are founded on the desire to be educationally useful1 interesting to the pupil1 and a good ground on which to build artistic work in painting and designing for wood carving1 china painting1 needlework1 etc4 ,,brush ,,drawing4 ,by ,,mary ,,farbrother1 ,cert4 ,frbel ,society4 ,all children take pleasure in drawing4 ,who has not seen a baby make unintelligible strokes on a piece of paper1 at the same time exclaiming1 8,see1 a chicken60 8a train60 8a gee-gee60 ,but the pleasure caused by such productions is not to be compared with the delight with which a child of three or four years old will handle a brush1 dip it in the paint1 and then produce a coloured impression on the paper4 ,the happy laughter of the baby as he sees his flower or leaf appear will not soon be forgotten by those who have put this magic wand into tiny hands4 ,and the interest derived from brush drawing does not pass away4 ,each year the child will be able to obtain truer representations of the objects he attempts to reproduce1 and every fresh effort will give pleasure anew to the child and the teacher4 ,brush drawing may be regarded from an educational standpoint4 ,many useful papers have been printed showing its educational value1 and the help it gives in developing the artistic sense1 powers of observation1 etc4 ,with very little children it seems best to keep to the simplest exercise for some time1 and to let them represent any leaves1 flowers or insects1 which can be made with the flat impression of the brush2 they will soon learn to hold the brush perpendicularly1 and thus obtain thin lines for stems and branches1 and the finer parts of other objects4 ,later on they will be able to represent the forms of various animals1 as well as an infinite variety of flowers and leaves4 ,it is most essential that the class should have the real object to observe and copy1 and whenever possible a specimen should be given to each child1 for1 as ,ruskin says1 8,the sight is more important than the drawing02 and an earnest seeking after truth and accuracy must leave its impression on the character4 ,,painting4 ,by ,,arthur ,,richardson1 ,pupil of ,bougereau1 ,paris4 ,let beginners have real objects to draw from1 or any plaster casts of ornaments which can be made sufficiently interesting4 ,an ,h4,b4 pencil is the best to use at first1 which may be changed for a ,b4 or ,b4,b4 as more shading is required1 until the pupil is ready for the more vigorous qualities of charcoal4 ,use the charcoal in stick on a rather rough paper1 with bread for correction and picking out lights2 in fact1 use the bread as if it were a white paint4 ,it is better to substitute charcoal for chalk and stump as it is quicker in execution4 ,for complete representation1 oil colour gives the fullest range of light and shade possible4 ,pupils should not spend time in elaborating and finishing1 from which little knowledge is gained2 it is better spent in mastering new difficulties than in making tidy an old drawing4 ,let it be clearly grasped before beginning what sort of a drawing is going to be made1 and how the result is to be reached4 ,one can generally explain better by working on the pupil's own drawing1 but one must encourage unaided effort4 ,each new study should present fresh difficulties3 one must insist on precision1 especially in the drawing and placing of shadows and bright lights4 ,learners should try to get every touch right at first1 and never knowingly paint or shade an incorrect tone4 ,perspective should be taught from real objects2 a few simple rules are sufficient3 rules must be used to assist the eye in getting directions right1 not to take the place of looking to see how lines actually do go4 ,though geometric models give all necessary problems in drawing 7till we come to study from the human figure71 yet they are less interesting than other things4 ,let the first study for complete shading or painting be something that has an evident brightest light and a fairly dark bit of shadow4 ,a big jug partly glazed is a capital subject4 ,if the darkest and lightest spots are got right first1 the intermediate tones will come easily4 ,so long as colour is made harmonious1 treat it as of secondary importance to correct tone4 ,choose colours partly for tonic possibilities1 say red1 blue and yellow1 two of each1 one dark and one light1 rather bright than otherwise4 ,groups of objects1 or still life1 are perhaps the most interesting subjects till the pupil is ready to draw from life4 ,drapery1 a curtain or long cloak1 thrown over the back of a chair makes a good study4 ,a knowledge of the proportions of the skeleton is most useful when drawing from life2 more especially if only a draped model can be given4 ,a certain amount of drawing from the antique is necessary before beginning from the human figure1 which is the best and highest study both for drawing1 tone and colour4 ,,fresco4 ,by ,,eadie ,,reid1 ,pupil of ,sir ,w4 ,b4 ,richmond1 ,r4,a41 ,k4,c4,b4 ,the value of drawing for decorative purposes has been neglected in the past4 ,an effort is being made to remedy this by the teaching of the principles of ornament and the laws of decorative art-form4 ,the study of ,greek ,ceramic art shows the important part that the brush plays in the formation of conventional form4 ,it is therefore essential before dealing with the theories of design or composition that a thorough mastery over the brush be acquired4 ,the shapes which the pressure of the brush gives us1 will enable us with ease to trace the evolution of pattern from the primitive zig-zag or dot and line to the subtly graceful scrolls and meanders of later times4 ,before proceeding to more advanced problems in design we must confine our attention to the filling of spaces1 such as squares1 oblongs and circles1 with these simple brush marks suggesting buds1 leaves1 flowers1 etc4 ,for this purpose we can find no better models than the ,greek vase and the skilful brush renderings of ,japanese art4 ,when the student has succeeded in arriving at something like an original composition1 we must be careful to insist upon the value of sound1 well understood growth running through the whole scheme1 while simplicity of line and originality of thought should be encouraged4 ,the application of the principles of design ought to be demonstrated by cartoons showing the ornament designs of different races and ages4 ,it would be advisable to work these before the student1 showing every line of their construction1 stage by stage1 until we have a clear workmanlike drawing upon a fairly large scale4 ,when the pupils can express themselves with freedom1 an actual piece of work should be taken in hand1 such as panels for a cabinet or piano1 the designing of surface decoration1 wall-papers1 hangings2 the use of the stencil and frieze painting4 ,ladies can very well produce such friezes on the walls of their houses2 some in ,cheltenham have been most satisfactorily conceived and executed in tempera1 while others are designing panels and frieze decorations with a view to their execution in situ4 ,,china ,,painting4 ,by ,,minna ,,crawley1 ,silver ,medallist4 ,any one possessing some knowledge of drawing or painting may acquire the technique of china painting without either much difficulty or expenditure of time4 ,china painting possesses many features of interest which make it both a useful and attractive study for young people4 ,it is one of the very oldest forms of art--a fact interesting of itself4 ,the revivals in majolica1 faience1 and many other kinds of ware of late years1 show how widespread the appreciation of the factile art has become2 and with the desire for good form and substance has come that of the most suitable decoration of it4 ,much may be gained in the knowledge of design by the adaptation of decoration to different styles1 so as to suit the form to be ornamented4 ,this develops also originality and manual dexterity1 and tests patience2 no work in this branch can be completed without the process of 8firing10 which assuredly 8tries every man's work02 for while it brings to perfection the colours1 and gives the necessary strength and gloss1 it also fixes and brings into strong relief every error--and warns against future mistakes4 ,vases1 flower-pots1 tiles for fire-places1 dessert services1 tea-sets and many useful household articles can be ornamented2 and thus taste cultivated and the home beautified4 ,,art ,,needlework4 ,by ,,minna ,,crawley4 ,the artistic faculty latent in so many women who perhaps have never studied drawing or painting1 has in this accomplishment been developed quickly and more easily than in the higher class of art4 ,art needlework cultivates the taste for design1 colouring and general effect2 and is also interesting as an ancient revival4 ,the old historical tapestries1 both ,english and foreign1 have been freshly studied of late1 as well as the ecclesiastical work of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries2 some of this beautiful work has been equalled if not excelled in some of our modern schools of needlework4 ,there can be no doubt that needlework1 from 8high art0 embroidery down to the plain sewing and making of garments1 is excellent for girls1 and it is to be hoped that the use of the needle will never be given up in our schools or homes4 ,both art and plain needlework are now being successfully carried on1 even with the very limited time that can be devoted to them1 by the pupils of the ,cheltenham ,ladies' ,college4 ,,wood-,,carving1 ,,etc4 ,by ,m4 ,s4 ,,lyndon ,,smith1 ,honours ,certificate1 ,class ,i41 ,school of ,wood-carving1 ,south ,kensington4 ,wood-carving and kindred handicrafts1 which can be used for forming and beautifying the common objects in daily use1 have much educational value2 they help to develop the sthetic faculties1 and give habits of neatness and accuracy and dexterity1 and although children at school cannot be turned into finished artists1 an incentive may be given at school2 and we may discover in seemingly dull children faculties which1 without manual instruction1 would remain dormant4 ,incidental teaching may be given to elder children in the history of ornamental design1 its uses1 purposes and meaning2 also its inseparable connection with architecture explained1 so that they may be the better able to understand the beauties of our own cathedrals1 and compare these intelligently with the work of other countries and times4 ,for those who can never attain to great proficiency1 an intelligent interest may be awakened in the work of those to whom we owe the renaissance of handicraft1 which is so characteristic a factor of our own century4 ,,modelling4 ,by ,,evangeline ,,stirling1 ,national ,gold ,medallist for ,modelling1 ,ns ,certificate for ,sloyd4 ,no better definition of modelling can be given than this3 8,as carving is the art of cutting down1 so modelling is the art of building up04 ,modelling develops the power of observation1 for to imitate we must observe closely1 and only by close observation can we learn to appreciate the beautiful which is enshrined in those grand specimens of ancient ,greek sculpture which have come down to us1 and to which the untrained eye is blind4 ,the sense of touch is quickened to a remarkable degree1 for the subtle modelling of a surface necessitates not only its close observation by the eye1 but its perception by the hand4 ,also the hand becomes cunning in dealing with the material1 and the power of construction is brought out4 ,it is a sure foundation for drawing and technical education1 and instances are not wanting of its utility in the higher branches of learning4 ,any plastic material may be the medium1 but clay is mostly used4 ,tools4 ,the first and chief tools are the hands and fingers1 but one or two others1 the shapes of which will be suggested by the necessities of the work1 may be added later on4 ,a modelling board or slate1 a straight-edged piece of wood and a sponge are required4 ,teaching 7class and individual74 ,beginning in the kindergarten1 modelling should continue without a break through the ordinary term of school life4 ,in the elementary stage class teaching is of the greatest value1 but no such class should contain more than eighteen pupils4 ,the advanced stage will require most individual teaching4 ,elementary4 ,studies should be chosen from a carefully graduated course1 the elementary stage beginning 7after the kindergarten7 with natural objects such as simple fruits1 some of which the pupils may have already made1 but which must now be modelled on a larger scale and with more intelligence and accuracy4 ,they should then pass on to more difficult fruits1 vegetables1 leaves 7taken singly and then on the branch71 then objects such as a worn slipper1 etc41 etc4 ,lesson to class4 ,each child should be provided with a duplicate of the object1 sufficient plastic material1 a suitably shaped board and a sponge4 ,equipped in like manner let the teacher build up a model in view of the class1 giving the reason for each step as she proceeds4 ,the first ten or fifteen minutes of a lesson following the completion of a work1 should be devoted to the modelling of a small memory sketch of the last object executed4 ,advanced stage4 ,in the advanced stage the objects of study should be chiefly casts and natural foliage1 flowers1 simple drapery1 casts of simple ornament of bold design1 but not too geometric3 animals' heads1 or the enlarged human features as ,michael ,angelo's 8,david10 masks of antique heads1 hands1 feet and whole heads4 ,note4 ,casts must always be of the best and those most approved for art training4 ,natural objects must be such as lend themselves to artistic representation4 ,as a rule1 the models should be executed in the round1 and only at the end of the course should bas-relief modelling 7where foreshortening must be resorted to7 be allowed1 for this is the most difficult of all plastic work4 ,should there be any marked artistic talent it will have shown itself before the end of the course1 when the pupil may be allowed to specialise4 ,,sloyd4 ,by ,,evangeline ,,stirling4 ,sloyd1 as taught at ,ns in ,sweden1 its headquarters1 is the most perfect educational system of handwork in wood which has yet been produced4 ,it is suitable for girls as well as boys of the ages of ten and eleven and upwards4 ,each child is required to make a series of useful articles called models1 in which round work and the square work of the carpenter are duly alternated2 and each model introduces1 with the nicest regard to the graduation of difficulties1 some new tool or fresh exercise with a tool4 ,it is used as a means of developing physical power and of forming character and habit1 rather than of attaining utilitarian ends4 ,the tools are mostly those ordinarily used by a carpenter1 with three or four extra ones1 viz41 the knife1 the axe1 the draw-knife and the spoon-iron4 ,specially shaped carpenters' benches1 adapted to the size of work done1 are also used4 ,,conclusion4 ,,relation ,,of ,,school ,,to ,,home4 ,by ,,dorothea ,,beale4 ,so far we have spoken of the life of the child in the school4 ,i now enter on another branch of the subject no less important1 which in a book intended for teachers ,i shall treat from a teacher's point of view4 ,i have spoken of the great change which has taken place during the last fifty years4 ,in the days of ,locke1 of ,rousseau1 of ,sandford and ,merton1 and of the ,edgeworths1 it was only possible to educate a boy by a private tutor at home4 ,now the sons of the nobility are no longer educated in their own homes1 nor sent1 as in earlier days1 to other families4 ,a similar change has taken place in the education of girls2 every year more of those who would formerly have received their education entirely from governesses and masters at home1 or at most gone to a very small boarding school1 are studying as day-pupils at large schools and colleges1 or living in boarding-houses4 ,the question arises then1 since the time is in the case of day-girls divided between the school and the home1 how shall the relations between the two be adjusted8 ,in the case of the day-girl1 about eleven-twelfths of her time are spent at home2 in the case of the boarder1 nearly a third of the year4 ,everything must depend upon the harmonious working of the home and the school1 if the education is to be profitable1 and the problem requires the most careful attention4 ,teachers full of zeal and devotion are eagerly seeking to deepen their knowledge1 to widen their experience1 and when they have come to the conclusion that a well-proportioned curriculum is necessary for mental development1 that early specialisation is harmful1 that daily distractions are wasting the nervous energy of the growing girl1 they are aggravated by hearing1 8,mother thinks geometry is no good for a girl02 8,please1 ,i am to drop my ,english lessons1 and give nearly all my time to music02 or1 8,i could not do my lessons because ,i was at a bazaar02 or1 8,friends invited me02 or1 8,mother does not approve of my working in the holidays04 ,and then they are tempted to do what specialists in all ages have tried to do--to set up a beneficent despotism1 to say1 8,i am ,sir ,oracle1 and when ,i ope my lips1 let no dog bark60 ,i once heard the ,head of a ,college address a body of teachers1 advising them what to say to an opposing mother3 8,my dear madam1 ,i know what is best for your child04 ,there are doctors who assume a dictatorial attitude1 but what should we say1 if a mother let the child go on taking his medicine without expostulation1 when it seemed to be injuring the child2 or1 on the other hand1 refused to give the child medicine which was beneficial1 because the child did not like it8 ,as the doctor needs to listen to the experience of the mother1 and the mother to carry out the advice of the doctor1 so do parents need to trust the children's teacher in matters of which an educational expert can form the best judgment1 and teachers1 like doctors1 need to profit by the experience of the parent1 and should be willing to give reasons for their advice1 knowing that the more their patient understands1 the more intelligently will he carry out the directions given4 ,but how shall this be8 ,well1 as a quickened sense of the supreme importance of education has been awakened in teachers1 so has it in parents4 ,but mothers cannot in these days lead quiet lives1 and devote themselves to the home as they once could4 ,the multiform external activity1 which we have noticed among women workers1 has its good side even as regards family life1 for the family that lives for itself alone can no more lead a healthy life than the individual1 but it has its dangers too4 ,we all know how great are the claims of society1 of culture1 of philanthropy1 right in themselves1 yet sometimes displacing a higher claim4 ,all of us1 specially mothers and teachers1 want to know how to conciliate the rival duties1 lest the words should be said to us1 8,thine own vineyard hast thou not kept04 ,it is of the very greatest importance for the child's character1 that there should be complete co-operation between home and school4 ,consider the difference between home and school discipline2 ,i may say that the home government is personal--there is not strict system and unvarying law4 ,a girl comes down late to breakfast2 or she is in the drawing-room when she should be in the study4 ,she chooses friends and books that the mother disapproves1 and there is irritation3 the mother expostulates1 the child is provoked4 ,in the school on the other hand there is inexorable law1 the consequence of neglect must be borne1 there is no scolding1 no entreaty4 ,it will be an advantage to the home to have a little more rule1 and to the school to have children brought up with some of the freedom which must be theirs one day4 ,the child who sees the mother yield up her own power to law1 bearing inconvenience1 denying herself pleasure1 and what is harder still1 denying it to her child1 will learn to respect duty1 and impose laws on herself4 ,besides this1 there are ways by which fuller co-operation may be brought about4 ,all professions find the advantage of meeting together to discuss their special problems4 ,there is the ,teachers' ,guild on the one hand1 and a ,parents' ,educational ,union on the other4 ,i have tried in vain to bring these together here4 ,the guild is too professional for the parent2 it does seem1 however1 as if the newly-established ,child ,study ,society might unite both4 ,a fair number have joined the child study evenings and given valuable help4 ,in the ,pedagogical ,seminary for ,july1 #ahig1 which is a mine of valuable suggestions for parents and teachers1 there is an interesting account of the way in which the school and the home have worked together in solving educational problems4 ,the movement initiated by the able president of ,clarke ,university1 ,u4,s4,a41 for founding a science of education upon systematised observation is a most important one2 it will help to build up a true philosophy upon facts1 and so save us from the aimless talk of mere theorisers who want to square circles1 or to discover the philosopher's stone4 ,a good library1 accessible to parents and teachers1 which should contain books and periodicals not written exclusively for the profession1 would be a great help4 ,a niche in the general school library might perhaps be reserved for parents4 ,i have found much advantage from throwing open such lectures as ,i give in our large hall to parents and ,heads of ,houses4 ,many come to a scripture lesson given to ,division ,i4 collectively1 and to literature lessons2 some have joined our ,plato or ,browning readings1 and occasionally have been present at lectures given in the training department4 ,it is quite usual for mothers to accompany their daughters to the 8,cours0 in ,paris4 ,of course parents could not attend schools ad libitum1 but it need not be quite a terra incognita4 ,the head mistress in many schools sets apart certain hours for seeing parents2 could it not be arranged that each class teacher should have some free time for seeing parents of her pupils1 especially at the beginning of a new year8 ,there is much to be said against evening visiting1 and ordinary social meetings would be useless for the purpose of discussing difficulties4 ,it is a great matter to substitute candid discussion for fault-finding to third parties2 we shall not always agree1 but we shall learn to respect one another's opinions1 to understand one another's difficulties1 and to work more effectually with one another in the difficult1 sacred task committed to us4 ,so far from finding parents generally anxious to interfere1 ,i have difficulty in persuading them that ,i earnestly desire they should tell me of anything that needs attention4 ,the essential thing is that there should be co-operation and a sort of concordat between the school and the home4 ,certain rules agreed on3-- #a4 ,there must be a room for study and certain hours fixed for home work1 which must not be altered without grave reason4 #b4 ,late parties1 bazaars1 theatricals1 etc41 etc41 must generally be allowed only in the vacation4 #c4 ,no absence from school1 no coming back late1 no excuses for unprepared lessons should ever be permitted1 except for some very sufficient reason--never because pleasure was preferred to duty4 #d4 ,if parents and teachers differ1 that difference should be discussed by neither in the presence of the child4 #e4 ,parents should take interest in the school work2 ask to see the written work2 get to know the teachers and friends of their children2 attend lectures1 if possible1 and supplement school lessons by home reading2 perhaps join some common society1 e4g41 ,teachers' ,guild1 ,parents' ,educational ,union1 or ,child ,study ,society4 #f4 ,teachers should invite and welcome any communications from parents1 should try to know something of the home life4 #g4 ,submission should be required in things lawful from the beginning1 and the reins loosened as children grow up3 the reverse method is fatal4 #h4 ,parents should not allow the children to read indiscriminately4 ,distaste for intellectual work is created by exciting novels2 irreparable injury is done to the moral nature by letting children enter into sympathy in imagination with the base and impure4 #i4 ,the only safeguard is to provide in the home good literature1 and to read with the children4 ,especially should holidays be utilised as a means of learning how to spend time rightly in after-life1 and some regular and independent study undertaken during long holidays4 #aj4 ,health should never be sacrificed to fashion4 ,high heels1 tight-lacing1 etc41 etc41 should be absolutely impossible4 ,woollen clothing1 a carefully studied dietary1 regular hours1 sufficient sleep1 well-ventilated bedrooms1 daily baths1 proper artificial light1 suitable seats and tables1 all these things which are studied in boarding-schools should be considered also in the home4 ,care should be taken in avoiding infection4 #aa4 ,in planning the studies and life-work of children1 parents and teachers should be guided1 not by the consideration of what they want the children to be1 but of what they are2 the special gifts of ,god are to be specially cultivated1 and both should ask1 8,lord1 what wouldst ,thou have me to do80 ,pascal's father forbade mathematics4 ,some parents insist on music unwisely4 #ab4 ,especially should parents use ,sunday rightly2 the religious instruction of their children maybe given at school1 but the home reading has much to do with this1 and the example4 #ac4 ,children should have a regular allowance of money from quite early years1 and be trained to spend it rightly1 and to keep accounts4 #ad4 ,should it be impossible for the home supervision and training to be carried out in harmony with the day school1 either a private governess should be engaged1 or the children sent from home as boarders4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,the ,,moral ,,side ,,of ,,education4 ,by ,,lucy ,h4 ,m4 ,,soulsby1 of the ,manor ,house ,school1 ,brondesbury ,park4 ,n4,w41 late ,head ,mistress of ,oxford ,high ,school4 ,lord1 with what care hast thou begirt us round6 ,parents first season us3 then schoolmasters ,deliver us to laws2 they send us bound ,to rules of reason4 ,george ,herbert4 ,many girls leave college with a vague idea that they had better take up teaching1 because it is the only way of earning a livelihood for which they are in the least prepared4 ,unfortunately their preparation1 too often1 consists merely in having been taught themselves4 ,having eaten dinners is some preparation for the career of a cook1 but not much2 and these young teachers may perhaps find an educational cookery-book useful6 ,the comparison does not hold good altogether1 for almost every woman has the instinct of motherhood in her1 which makes her more or less a born teacher1 while it is only a few who are born cooks4 ,still1 every young woman finds help in talking to an older one1 who has had the same work1 made probably the same mistakes1 and has found a practical way out of them4 ,we all value practical experience2 what else is training but practical experience systematised8 ,but it is not every young teacher who has an experienced friend at hand1 or who can afford to be regularly trained4 ,it is hoped that this book may be1 in printed form1 such talk as she would welcome had she an experienced friend at hand4 ,the self-education of the teacher should include 7a7 ,mental leisure4 ,the high pressure at which most people live is not favourable to much individual thought4 ,a girl at college may well feel that her three years there are the great opportunity of her life for taking in the ideas of living leaders of thought1 and for making friends with her equals4 ,she is hardly to be blamed if every moment of her day is occupied with hard work1 anxiety about her schools1 and with the social amusements which are part of the education of college life4 ,still1 this full and happy life involves a danger that should be guarded against1 a danger lest the girl should be so much occupied in living her own life1 that she has no leisure to stop and think out what should be the principles and the aim to guide her in moulding--as every teacher does--the lives of others4 7b7 ,knowledge of the world4 ,the moral thoughtfulness1 which ,dr4 ,arnold demanded of his ,,vi4 ,form1 is the main requisite for a true teacher3 no dexterity in imparting knowledge will make her an educator if this is lacking4 ,the study of character and practical casuistry1 though not on the list of 8final schools0 at any university1 is yet the most indispensable of all 8schools0 for a teacher4 ,it may well be that her opportunities of gaining knowledge of the world are restricted by her circumstances4 ,college is her furthest flight1 and this is a world of its own with the disadvantage of being disproportionately peopled by too many of one generation4 ,under ordinary conditions of family life1 the rising generation is kept in touch with maturer ideas by a fair proportion of uncles and aunts1 as well as by fathers and mothers2 but1 at college1 the niece's world is narrowed 7though this is not usually the light in which it strikes them7 by the exclusion of aunts6 ,college undoubtedly gives much knowledge of character to a thoughtful student1 but its experiences need to be brought into true proportion by comparison with the larger world beyond4 ,there are many novels1 essays and biographies which afford a good substitute for knowledge of the world to the girl who has a quiet home1 besides the many books bearing directly on the study and formation of character1 which every teacher and mother and elder sister should read4 ,such are3 ,sir ,henry ,taylor's autobiography and letters1 ,the ,memorials of ,miss ,charlotte ,williams ,wynne2 all ,sir ,arthur ,helps' works and ,mr4 ,hutton's essays4 ,miss ,mozley has written two volumes of essays which are full of delicate insight into character3 one1 ,social ,essays1 reprinted from ,the ,saturday ,review1 can only be obtained second-hand1 but her ,essays from ,blackwood are still in print4 ,sir ,henry ,taylor's ,notes on ,life1 and ,lord ,chesterfield's ,letters 7selections7 will also be found very useful4 ,among the more directly educational books1 attention should be directed to ,l',education ,progressive1 by ,madame ,neckar de ,saussure2 ,la ,famille1 by the ,comte de ,gasparin2 ,l',education des ,filles1 by ,fnlon2 ,l',education des ,mres de ,familles1 by ,aime ,martin2 ,principles of ,education1 ,notebook of an ,elderly ,lady1 ,youth and ,age 7all three by ,miss ,elizabeth ,sewell72 ,miss ,yonge's ,womankind1 ,miss ,mason's ,home ,education1 ,miss ,shirreff's ,intellectual ,education1 ,mrs4 ,william ,grey's ,thoughts for ,girls on ,leaving ,school1 and ,mr4 ,sidgwick's ,form ,discipline4 ,nothing can replace in a teacher the study of individual peculiarities of character3 the motives1 the special hindrances1 the growth of each child in her class must be studied and individually met1 if she is to rise to the true level of her work4 7c7 ,insight into character4 ,this is assuming that the teacher feels the full responsibility of being put in a position where1 by the way in which she teaches ,french1 or mathematics1 she can help or hinder the spiritual growth of each of her pupils4 ,but even supposing that this overruling underlying motive of every true educator be put aside for the moment1 and we consider only the smaller question of more or less success in imparting knowledge--still1 this very success 7other things being equal7 will lie with that teacher who has the insight into the peculiar disposition of each child1 who can bring to bear on each nature the motives which appeal to it and who can foresee and obviate the difficulties1 which vary in each child1 according to its mental1 moral and physical equipment4 ,in all ways scholastic success is furthered by seeking first something higher still4 ,a great educator used to say3 8,if you teach one boy arithmetic only and another boy arithmetic and religion1 other things being equal1 the second boy will beat the first in arithmetic1 because his nature is more widely developed04 ,moral responsibility of the teacher4 ,but it may be thought that this is asking more of teachers than can be fairly expected4 ,a girl who has taken life from the outside1 with a comfortable1 one might almost say1 8wholesome0 disregard of motives and such-like complications1 who looks forward to giving her lesson in a special subject1 and to then being free to be as untouched by the 8malady of thought10 as absorbed in games and the amusements of life1 as was rightfully her state at fifteen1 may well feel that she is not prepared to enter on teaching as a career combining the responsibility of doctor and clergyman4 ,if so1 let her consider carefully before she adopts the teaching profession4 ,a teacher is as much morally bound as any mother to consider the principles of the inner life1 to think out a clear conception of her moral and intellectual aims for her children1 and as such bound to feel constant moral responsibility for what she does1 and is1 and for how she improves herself4 ,it is true we see both mothers and teachers take up their responsible positions in life without this moral thoughtfulness1 and we sometimes see the children turning out well in spite of it4 ,but the fact that ,nature has wonderful curative and educative powers1 does not lessen the personal responsibility of those who should have used art to improve nature4 ,children have been known to recover from illness in spite of a doctor's mistakes or neglect1 but we do not therefore condone the doctor's carelessness4 ,if a girl is not prepared to take up the teaching profession from its deepest1 i4e41 its only true side2 if she wishes to remain thoughtless1 then let her choose some other form of livelihood--millinery1 clerkship1 gardening--where outward diligence will fairly meet all demands1 so far as mere honesty to her employer is concerned4 ,but let the teacher who shrinks from moral responsibility remember that1 in this side of her work alone1 is to be found permanent interest4 ,all mechanical work must pall sooner or later1 and teaching is little better than mechanical1 if it is of the external kind4 ,elementary teaching is often called mechanical1 because its subjects and their extent are very limited1 but ,latin grammar in the high school is1 after a time1 capable of becoming quite as dull as ,english ,grammar in the elementary school4 ,or1 rather1 both are equally capable of being interesting if1 and only if1 the teacher cares supremely for what is more important than any grammar1 the development of each child who learns from her4 ,the teacher needs 7a7 ,knowledge of the circumstances and character of each pupil4 ,for1 no matter how large the class1 the true teacher must study and respect the individuality of each member of it4 ,though her class may pass a most successful examination1 yet1 in examining herself1 she must mark down 7against herself71 as a failure1 the name of each child who has remained to her merely one of the crowd4 ,the eyesight1 the hearing1 the spine1 the headaches1 the home surrounding of each child1 should be known to its teacher1 and should modify the demands made upon that child4 ,curvature of the mind is far more common than curvature of the spine1 and the teacher must have keen intellectual sympathy with each child's individual mental tangles4 ,she must clear the ground of harmful stumbling-blocks1 and yet leave enough to exercise the mental muscles4 ,surely if the difficulty of a task can fire enthusiasm1 the teacher should burn with zeal4 7b7 ,a right judgment and presence of mind4 ,the moral temperament of each child is an even more complex study than the mental peculiarities2 praise1 for instance1 is a tonic for one and poison for another4 ,the teacher must have presence of mind to criticise on the spur of the moment1 with due regard to the child's moral digestion1 to the abstract question of justice in the class as a whole1 and to maintaining a high1 and yet not depressing1 standard of work4 ,one child requires to be repressed and one to be encouraged to do itself justice4 ,one child has thoughtful difficulties which need sympathetic unravelling2 another suffers from mere inattention1 and requires decisive pulling together4 ,it stands to reason that1 to appreciate all these shades of character and to satisfy the needs of each1 in such a manner as not to waste the time of the class 7and not to sin against the code of rough and ready justice1 to which the childish mind1 quite rightly1 owns allegiance71 is a very delicate task1 and involves much of that moral thoughtfulness which is the foundation of a good teacher4 7c7 ,self-mastery4 ,one reason for the supreme importance of this quality is that it not only means insight into others1 but also involves self-mastery without which no educative control of others is possible4 ,forcible control is quite possible to a severe or hot-tempered nature3 children are easily cowed1 but they do not learn to control themselves if they are subject to this martial law4 ,if a mistress finds that her children are good with her and tiresome with other people1 she may rely on it that her own discipline is defective4 ,probably she has allowed personal affection for herself to be an admissible motive for good conduct1 whereas insubordination would be almost better for the child6 ,this last would be repented of1 in time1 as a fault1 whereas many a girl goes through life mistaking impulse for principle1 because at school1 obedience 8to please ,miss ,so-and-so0 was accepted1 as equivalent to obedience to duty4 ,it may be that the teacher has mastered the children's tempers by dint of having a worse one herself2 if so1 the children will recoup themselves1 for the enforced restraint of her presence1 by licence in her absence2 whereas the control exercised by a serene1 equable nature develops the element of self-control in the child1 and also a sense of self-respect which tends towards good behaviour when with other teachers4 ,the teacher must avoid 7a7 ,overstrain4 ,this is one great reason why teachers should make it a matter of principle1 as well as of worldly prudence1 to avoid overstrain4 ,you sometimes hear a young teacher boasting of the tax which she lays on her constitution2 she tells it1 half as a grievance that she should have so much to do1 half in triumph that she is so peculiarly constituted--just as poor people exult in ailments that mark them out from the common herd6 ,but these excesses of work 7whether caused by bravado1 or by bad management1 or by an ill-informed conscience7 are not a luxury of which she herself can defray the expense2 the cost is really borne by her home people1 by her fellow-teachers1 and1 worst of all1 by her class1 who all suffer from her overwrought nerves--in plain ,english1 from her temper4 ,i say1 worst of all her class1 because she may be a means of wholesome discipline to the other sufferers1 but she does distinct moral harm to the children4 ,and do not let her imagine that heroic efforts to control outward signs of temper will qualify her to be a teacher3 children are acutely sensitive to atmosphere1 and suffer even more under one who is elaborately controlling her temper1 than under one who frankly loses it and then is serene again4 ,if a teacher is to be worth her salt1 she must have no temper6 ,she must be of a serene1 sunny temperament which enjoys the children's presence1 and her anger1 when needed1 must be of the impersonal kind which ,fuller describes as one of 8the sinews of the soul04 7b7 ,injudicious reproofs4 ,of course scolding has to be done1 but there should be no connection of ideas in the child's mind between a merited scolding and the teacher's temper4 ,mr4 ,arthur ,sidgwick's essay on ,form ,discipline gives the whole principle of the matter1 but there are three suggestions ,i would like to add for the use of women teachers4 ,one ,i take from ,mrs4 ,beecher ,stowe's book on ,little ,foxes4 ,she there describes two households in each of which a young servant is being trained4 ,in one1 the mistress looks at the dinner table and remarks that the salt is not what it should be3 in the other1 the mistress1 on coming to inspect the table1 exclaims1 8,why1 ,sally1 how bright your silver is1 and you have remembered everything to-day2 the only thing that is not perfect is the salt1 and ,i am sure you will always look specially at that in future04 ,there was no comparison between those mistresses as to success in servant-training1 and probably the teacher who blends praise and blame will cultivate a hopeful energy of self-improvement in her children1 unknown in the class taught by one who coldly points out faults and passes over merits4 ,my second suggestion is1 as the ,spanish proverb says to authors3 8,leave something in your inkstand02 underscold rather than overscold4 ,a woman usually has a power of statement that makes her take an artistic pleasure in putting her case completely and convincingly4 ,but children have a fine sense of justice 7until it is blunted by contact with the world71 and the culprit who undergoes one of these comprehensive scoldings is apt to feel that full measure for the crime has been meted out and so she thinks no more of it4 ,understate your case and that same sense of justice will make her say to herself all that you leave unsaid1 and this self-condemnation will probably be the most effectual part of the scolding4 ,at all events1 very little harm comes from scolding too little1 and irreparable harm often comes from scolding too much4 ,when the nail of reproof is once in1 every additional blow of the hammer tends to loosen it4 ,my third suggestion is1 avoid scolding as much as possible when you have reasonable cause for supposing your own nerves likely to be on edge4 ,there are times1 e4g41 the end of the summer term1 when you are not likely to see things in true proportion3 at such seasons distrust your own power of judging1 and look the other way as often as possible1 for blunders are liable to be more severely dealt with in ,july1 than crimes in the fresher air of ,september6 ,let us now pass on from the question of the state of mind desirable in a teacher1 to consider the aim and possibilities of her work with the child4 ,the teacher's aim should be health--physical1 mental and moral4 ,during the whole of school life1 a girl's physical frame is so entirely in the making that considerations of health should outweigh everything else4 ,she is building the house in which she is to live all the rest of her life1 and it is far more important what sort of house she builds than how much she employs herself with the various occupations that she can pursue at leisure1 throughout her tenure of this 8house04 ,any study can be followed up in later life1 if health demand its cessation during these growing years1 but no after-study can repair early impoverishment or damage of the physical frame4 ,of course it stands to reason that the object of this house-building is that the householder may be unhampered in after years and able to lead a large and noble life4 ,we should have small value for the physical frame if it were tenanted by an imbecile mind1 or a nature without moral sense4 ,therefore1 when we say that the body is the main consideration in youth1 we do so because soundness of body is the surest means of securing moral and mental soundness4 ,fortunately1 body1 mind and spirit are so intertwined that what is good for one is usually good for all4 ,we can hygienically insist on good hard mental work1 because it is essential to bodily health that there should be routine and effort and concentration of mind4 ,we can insist on self-denial and self-control1 for these are as essential to bodily health as to spiritual4 ,the teacher who believes herself to be an educator1 not merely an instructor1 finds all the apparently conflicting elements of a peculiar case1 wonderfully harmonised by giving predominance to the moral aim4 ,if your first object in life is to increase a child's chance of becoming an even-tempered ,christian woman1 you will not let considerations of examination successes tempt you to allow overstrain2 while1 at the same time1 you will be inexorable in demanding1 as moral training1 the steady effort and the willing work1 which will probably bring the successes4 ,the power of the teacher in moulding character4 ,do not let the day school teacher feel as if undue burden were being laid on her1 when we speak of the whole future of the child as thus depending on the teacher's breadth of aim4 ,it is difficult to place any limit to the possibilities of the teacher's influence1 even at a day school1 where she only has the child for four hours out of the twenty-four4 ,it is true that the mother and the home1 during the first six or seven years of the child's life1 have determined the main elements of its nature2 but in dealing with these elements1 at a later stage1 there are endless possibilities of combination1 of encouraging some and repressing others4 ,though we teachers do not1 as a rule1 get children at the early stage when most can be done with them1 yet in schoolroom days we find their brains still plastic enough for us to work cheerfully and hopefully1 in the teeth of the many hereditary evils which would crush our efforts1 were it not that we believe education to be able to cope on fairly equal terms with heredity4 ,every time we induce children to make an effort for the right1 or to think accurately1 we make a groove in their brain which serves as a railway line along which thoughts of the same kind will pass more easily next time4 ,every time we excite a wrong feeling--irritation1 obstinacy1 irreverence1 or allow a deviation from some acknowledged standard of duty--we lay cross lines of rail in the wrong direction1 which will hinder their progress in the right path1 now and in the future4#bh #bh ,see ,miss ,mason's ,home ,education4 ,bracing influence of school 7a7 resulting from uniformity of treatment4 ,the art of concealing art is nowhere more necessary than in this incessant watchfulness required of the teacher1 as it is very bad for the child to feel that its little world turns on its own moral and physical well-being4 ,the chief good of school lies in the uniformity of the routine1 in the absence of special exemptions2 it rests and braces the child to feel under inexorable ,laws of ,nature which know no favourites4 ,at the same time1 while we in our larger world feel under fixed laws1 we yet believe in a special providence which arranges for our welfare1 even though we are unconscious of its action2 the teacher should play the part of unseen providence to the child4 ,it is perfectly possible in a high school to consider each individual girl1 and to arrange matters more or less for her interests1 though this possibility rests on the fact that exceptional cases are not proper subjects for high school education4 ,even an ordinary child has her peculiarities1 which should be allowed for1 but1 in the main1 it is the regularity and uniformity of the school routine which make the most valuable part of her education4 7b7 ,wholesome competition4 7c7 ,concentration of faculties4 ,the child learns at school to be unself conscious1 to appreciate others2 to bear being surpassed without depression1 and to stand success without undue exultation2 and she learns these valuable lessons mainly through standing on the same platform with her companions1 and having to fight on equal terms4 ,when parents beg that some of the subjects taken by the rest of the class may be excused to their child1 they do not realise that1 by interfering with the equal terms of contest1 they destroy half the value of school life4 ,the value of a high school lies not merely in its instruction 7though this is probably given by a trained specialist in each subject71 but even more1 in 8the give and take0 on equal terms which teaches a child to know her own powers and her own weaknesses4 ,a child subject to undue self-appreciation1 or self-depreciation1 would probably gain much from going into the miniature world of a high school1 as would also the dreamy child2 in the latter case particularly the value of the school lessons lies in their difficulty1 and children suffer if they are excused or helped with a lesson because they have failed to understand the teaching in class4 ,instant concentration of the faculties on the matter in hand is one of the most valuable lessons learnt in school1 and to repeat information1 or explanations1 to the absent-minded child1 is to encourage a fatal weakness4 ,of course the blank in the child's mind 7which makes a pitying mother beg that the lesson may be excused7 may be caused by irrelevancy or indistinctness of voice1 or of mind1 on the teacher's part4 ,but if three-quarters of the class have followed the lesson1 it may be safely taken for granted that effort and practice will bring success to the remaining quarter2 a success which will mean not merely the knowledge of the ,euclid or geography in question1 but victory over a habit of mind that1 if unchecked1 will neutralise any talent the child may possess4 ,dangers of school worldliness4 ,marks do not necessitate rivalry4 ,the child's efforts after concentration of mind need careful co-operation on the part of the teacher 7who1 from her own carelessness1 is apt to indulge the child's carelessness71 whereas the equally valuable qualities of diligence and perseverance are almost evolved of themselves by the competition of any school which has a good working spirit4 ,the teacher needs to be even more alert in counteracting the mistaken forms which school diligence is apt to take1 than in rousing the spirit itself4 ,emulation1 eagerness for marks1 putting school opinion before those of home--all these are very real dangers4 ,the better the school1 the more acute the danger1 and the more need is there that the authorities should act as a drag on the coach4 ,emulation is a natural quality in the child and a very useful one to the teacher2 but there is great danger in its degenerating into personal rivalry4 ,something may be done to soften this spirit of competition by setting before the children a fence which all may leap1 not a throne which only one can occupy4 ,the fence can be as high as you will1 but if the opportunity of clearing it be open to all1 the class will exult in the number of successes1 without any feeling in the many of personal loss involved in the gain of the few4 8,marks0 can be so arranged as to obviate the temptation to personal rivalry which is often supposed to be inseparable from them4 ,when the weekly marks are added up1 letters are in some schools assigned1 according to the percentage of marks gained1 arranged in decades4 ,the exact number of marks is not brought before the child1 but only the question to which decade she belongs4 ,a red ,a denotes #ij per cent41 a black ,a #hj per cent42 ,b means #gj per cent41 and so on through the alphabet4 ,every member of the class who deserves it can attain the 8red ,a04 ,the same system can be pursued in prizes2 all who reach a certain standard of marks in term work or in examinations1 or in both combined1 can gain one4 ,thus esprit de corps to some extent takes the place of personal triumph--the whole class is proud of its number of 8red ,a0 members and prize-winners1 instead of suffering from the temptation to feel a little bitter1 which must exist when there is only one place of honour to be had4 ,advantages of religious lessons in school4 ,the value of moral and religious lessons in school is especially great because of the almost universal disposition on the part of girls to consider home exhortation as nagging4 ,what is said in a school lesson goes home to the conscience with no friction1 because the teacher cannot have known of that last peccadillo at home1 and the mother is not at hand to look the fatal phrase1 8,i told you so60 7a7 ,they re-enforce home teaching4 ,mothers need not feel that the school lesson displaces theirs--rather it enforces what they say1 since the child probably listens with increased interest to what they say when it is unconsciously echoed by an outside authority4 7b7 ,avoid the danger of personalities4 ,it is very difficult at home not to omit certain sore points in these moral lessons1 for fear of seeming to aim at special children4 ,in a series of lessons at school1 this difficulty is obviated and the victim can feel that the arrow has hit home1 without the indignity of being watched by home eyes to see if it has taken effect4 7c7 ,give large views of duty4 ,it is easier1 also1 in speaking to a number to take larger views of life and its duties1 than might seem suitable in any individual family4 ,social duties1 good citizenship1 high ideals of future usefulness can be held up to elder girls at school as a part of religion2 while such faults as partisanship1 political or otherwise1 narrow-mindedness1 family selfishness can be discouraged without any danger of personality4 ,these moral lessons should serve a distinct purpose in the school by imbuing the girls with high ideals2 the fact of belonging to a large public body such as a high school should assist them in assimilating wider ideas of life4 ,but it must not be forgotten that moral lessons in no way supersede the necessity for definite religious instruction2 abstract ideals will have little power against future temptations unless they are supported by sound ,biblical knowledge and religious belief4 7d7 ,put school discipline on the true basis4 ,from one point of view1 it may be said that parents should feel responsible for this instruction1 but surely the teacher would not be content to give up such a hold on the child as is furnished by the religious lessons4 ,it must be almost impossible to maintain real control over the tone of the school1 if the deepest part of the child's nature is left outside the school's jurisdiction4 7e7 ,give religion its right position in the curriculum4 ,besides1 though the responsibility and the pleasure of this branch of education do belong primarily to the parent1 yet1 when the claims of school eat up so much of the day1 it is very hard for the mother to get enough time to deal fully with the subject4 ,also1 the better the school and the more fully it employs the mental faculties of the child1 and wins its allegiance1 the more important it is that such a great authority in the child's world should proclaim itself supremely interested in this branch of learning4 ,children often have to learn music at school1 merely because they only attend to their practising when it is done for a school authority4 ,much as we may wish home to be supreme in all cases1 we must recognise that children often go through a phase in which they yield more unquestioning submission to school rules than to home wishes1 and give keener energy to school lessons than to the extra ones devised by the mother1 and secretly resented by the child as an unjust addition to its burden4 ,besides1 it is possible there may be homes1 we will hope they are rare1 where religious teaching is not sufficiently attended to2 certainly our better-class children are often more ignorant of their ,bibles than those who have been to a good ,sunday school4 ,let us assume1 therefore1 that the school must have a definite and fairly complete course of religious instruction1 including ,biblical and moral lessons2 church schools would of course add doctrinal and prayer-book lessons4 7f7 ,leaven the school life4 ,but the ,bible lesson is not only a subject in the curriculum1 it should be a leaven in the school4 ,this can only be the case if the children feel that1 in spite of all imperfections and shortcomings1 the ,bible lesson really is the truest outcome of the teacher's own nature1 that it is to her the most interesting lesson of the week1 bearing on the whole of life1 instead of being an isolated subject in one pigeon-hole of her mind4 ,let us take it as a principle that these lessons should have the first and freshest hour of the morning given to them1 that they may be felt as a continuation of school prayers1 as a further consecration of the day1 not as a mere lesson to be sandwiched in with ,french and algebra1 as if all were of equal importance4#bi ,let the children realise that religion comes first in arranging a time-table1 and that no pressure of examination work can be taken as a valid excuse for curtailing these lessons4 ,children sometimes think that because no marks are given for divinity it will pay to get an excuse for this1 and to devote the time to lessons which tell in their weekly class-list4 ,this is only a crude force of a temptation common to every stage of life1 and it would be one of the most valuable of all school lessons could such a child be taught that religion1 if real1 must come first in ,monday's lessons as well as in ,sunday's services4 #bi ,if the exigencies of the time-table forbid the first hour1 then let it be the last4 ,subjects for ,bible lessons4 ,it is easy enough to find matter for the ,bible lessons2#cj the life of our ,lord1 a three years' course of ,old ,testament history1 as arranged in ,mr4 ,glazebrook's three volumes2 the life of ,st4 ,paul1 considered as the setting of his ,epistles1 and including a general survey of each of those ,epistles2 a special study of any one of the ,prophets1 giving the gist of his message1 viewed first in the light of his own times and local surroundings1 and then considered in its relation to our own times2 the women of the ,bible2 the ,jewish feasts and ritual2 any one of these courses will provide interesting matter for a year's lessons4 #cj ,full and detailed suggestions on this subject will be found in ,mr4 ,bell's invaluable little book on ,religious ,education in ,secondary ,schools4 ,a very useful book has recently been written called ,ad ,lucem1#ca which gives ,old ,testament history1 the ,gospels1 the ,acts of the ,apostles and ,church history up to the present day4 ,its object is to show the history of the world as bearing on the ,incarnation1 and it is enabled to cover so much ground by selecting and emphasising such facts as bring out this point of view4 ,it would be interesting to children of about fifteen1 and useful to any teacher1 by helping her to focus her own teaching4 #ca ,by the ,rev4 ,a4 ,b4 ,simeon2 published by ,wells ,gardner4 ,requisites of a ,bible lesson4 ,probably all teachers will say the difficulty lies rather in how to treat this vast stock of material4 ,there should be no difficulty in making the children feel that the ,bible is the most interesting book in the world1 quite apart from its religious importance4 ,so many books on ,eastern manners and places are within the reach of teachers that they should not be content till their own conceptions of the ,bible scenes and characters are as vivid as ,tinworth's terra cottas4 7a7 ,vividness4 ,children have much in common with the old ,scotch woman who was so shocked at what seemed to her irreverence in ,dean ,stanley when he tried to persuade her that ,jerusalem was a real place which he had visited2 it is a new light to them to be made to realise that ,bible heroes and places are as real as those in ,english history4 ,doing this arrests their attention1 and they go on to perceive that the temptations and virtues of those days were also like our own1 that even the minor ,prophets1 whom they have avoided as utterly alien to their world1 speak straight to ourselves in their warnings about wealth and labour and luxury4 7b7 ,practicality4 7c7 ,devoutness4 ,until we make ,bible lessons practical for ourselves and for our children1 we must not be content3 in old days the ,bible was used only as a storehouse of isolated texts for personal application2 we realise now that due reverence for the ,word of ,god requires that we should study it1 and teach it1 as exactly and reasonably and vividly as we do any other history and literature1 but we must not forget that if we stop here1 the old-fashioned unintellectual method of study infinitely surpassed in wisdom our modern cleverness4 ,unless our lessons make the ,bible more profitable for doctrine and reproof1 for amendment of life and instruction of manners1 they are failures1 no matter how much critical and geographical learning has been brought to bear on them4 ,perhaps each lesson need not have a special ethical or spiritual bearing 7though it is a pity if it has not71 and we should beware against overdoing our moral instruction4 ,a child's mind is like a narrow-necked bottle1 and we often pour in too much at once4 7d7 ,simplicity4 ,especially is this the case with illustrations2 the teacher has had their use so inculcated that a ,bible lesson is too often a string of anecdotes and pictures in which the central idea is hopelessly lost2 one truth1 one picture1 and one illustration are as much as any young child can grasp in one lesson1 and children of a larger growth would often gain more if teachers were more economical in their explanations4 7e7 ,careful treatment of difficulties4 ,keeping the spiritual aim in view would assist in dealing with some of the critical difficulties which beset a thoughtful teacher4 ,it is most important not to give mature food to an immature mind1 or to bring before the child1 who has not realised any difficulties1 the critic's suspension of judgment1 which is such a comfort to the teacher4 ,but though we should avoid giving an impression that facts and authorship are moot points1 still we can avoid putting up stones of stumbling which will afterwards have to be cleared away4 ,children need the old stories told in all simplicity1 the stories of the childhood of the race1 but if we keep before them 8the one far-off ,divine event10 towards which all those stories pointed1 if we teach them ,jewish history in the light of the ,divine education of the human race1 instead of treating the ,flood and ,jael and ,joshua's wars1 etc41 as finished episodes which stand on their own merits1 so to speak1 surely then there will be little or nothing in the best modern lines of thought to upset their faith1 and much to enrich it4 ,summary4 ,to sum up shortly1 the following are the main points ,i would seek to impress on a young teacher1 in considering the moral side of education4 ,first and foremost the heavy responsibility attached to the teacher's office--an office which combines the functions of clergyman1 doctor and instructor4 ,next1 the personal qualifications required of the teacher1 holiness1 serenity1 insight into character1 knowledge of the world2 then the aims of the teacher's work1 the building up a sound mind in a sound body1 by the help of the good habits arising from right conditions of school life1 most of all by the help of the ,bible lesson1 which must be the inspiration of the whole school course4 ,i should like to end by quoting some words of ,william ,law1 the great mystic of the last century1 which put before us the true ends of education4 ,in his ,treatise on ,christian ,perfection he says3 8,show me a learning that makes man truly sensible of his duty3 that fills the mind with true light3 that makes us more reasonable in all our actions3 that inspires us with fortitude1 humility and devotion04 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,cultivation ,,of ,,the ,,body4 ,by ,,jane ,,frances ,,dove1 ,certificated ,student of ,girton ,college1 ,cambridge1 #ahgd2 ,head ,mistress of ,wycombe ,abbey ,school1 ,bucks2 previously ,head ,mistress of ,st4 ,leonard's ,school1 ,st4 ,andrews1 ,n4,b4 ,so every spirit1 as it is most pure1 ,and hath in it the more of heavenly light1 ,so it the fairer bodie doth procure ,to habit in1 and it more fairely dight ,with chearefull grace and amiable sight2 ,for of the soule the bodie forme doth take2 ,for soule is forme1 and doth the bodie make4 ,spenser4 ,the mistress as educator4 ,as the object of school life1 or rather of life at school1 is not merely teaching but education1 and as education1 whatever the true derivation of the word may be1 means the gradual drawing out and development of all the faculties of which the human being is capable1 we shall speak in this chapter not of the 8teacher10 but of the 8mistress0 as the person who in school life takes the place of authority analogous to that of the parent in the home1 and upon whom falls the responsibility for the time being of seeing that a due balance is being maintained in the development of every faculty4 ,the importance of this harmonious development of the powers is manifest4 ,we do not desire girls to be brainless athletes any more than we wish that they should be delicate or stunted blue-stockings1 and either of these exaggerated types is made doubly deplorable if1 as sometimes happens1 there is a deficiency of moral power4 ,health conditions4 ,the most important conditions for health are first of all a wholesome environment2 secondly1 wholesome occupation for the mind2 and thirdly1 proper exercise for the body4 ,the environment will be discussed later4 ,meaning of recreation4 ,some forms of recreation more valuable than others4 ,games essential to a healthy school life4 ,the occupation of the mind will also come chiefly under the head of mental training1 but here it may be desirable to notice that the mind must receive much of its training through the exercise of faculties other than the intellectual4 ,this truth is of course the foundation of the whole idea of recreation1 recreation consisting much more in change of thought and a difference in the objects on which the attention is fixed1 than in the particular form of exercise through which this object is attained4 ,it is for this reason that games of all kinds are so much more valuable than mere walking under ordinary circumstances1 because walking is so purely mechanical1 especially when exercised for limited periods among well-known surroundings1 that the mind continues to occupy itself with the thoughts1 and possibly with the intellectual problems1 upon which it was before fixed4 ,better than walking1 as both an exercise and a recreation1 ,i should count riding1 rowing or bicycling4 ,in riding and bicycling there is the great interest of managing the horse and propelling the bicycle1 the exhilaration and quickened circulation produced by passing rapidly through the air1 together with the refreshment gained through the eye by the contemplation of new and varied scenes1 especially if they be beautiful4 ,every form of occupation or exercise that will keep girls in the open air is for that reason alone valuable1 because there is no bodily want so imperious as the necessity of breathing fresh1 unvitiated air2 but as a true recreation the first position must undoubtedly be given to games1 because in them there is always a special interest upon which the mind must be concentrated1 and which therefore entirely prevents the possibility of the thoughts dwelling upon the subject of the last lesson1 and sends the girl back braced and invigorated to overcome the intellectual difficulties that may be required of her4 ,i think ,i do not speak too strongly when ,i say that games1 i4e41 active games in the open air1 are essential to a healthy existence1 and that most of the qualities1 if not all1 that conduce to the supremacy of our country in so many quarters of the globe1 are fostered1 if not solely developed1 by means of games4 ,games give exercise4 ,games waste the minimum amount of material and can be played on limited areas4 ,i have said that games are essential to a healthy existence2 of course ,i mean that they are so under the circumstances of school life4 ,without this proviso the assertion would be an exaggerated one4 ,for ,i think if it were possible1 with a due regard for the necessities of their training1 to make girls cultivate a farm1 or even do all the work of a large garden1 or build a house1 or make a road1 the interest of performing a real work of utility1 together with the exercise of the muscles and other faculties1 would give the necessary recreation and muscular exercise2 but the initial difficulty can hardly be overcome1 viz41 that in building a house1 or cultivating a farm1 the exigencies of the work must be considered rather than the training of the workers4 ,hence it is that games have been invented as a means of exercise in the open air1 which will occupy varying numbers of players1 which can be dropped and resumed according to the exigencies of the weather1 varied according to the capacities of the players1 which possess endless interests1 develop numberless faculties1 and yet which can be pursued upon limited spaces of ground1 the possibilities of which for the purpose are never exhausted1 and without the using up of valuable material4 ,in fact for people who are to be intellectual workers1 games are the modern adaptation of the old command 8to till the ground10 which1 like other laws of a fundamental nature1 cannot at any time of the world's history be neglected4 ,efforts have from time to time been made to carry out the injunction literally1 as in the attempts of ,mr4 ,ruskin to inspire ,oxford undergraduates to try the experiment of road-making1 or in the foundation of schools1 which are meeting with a considerable measure of success1 in which the boys perform1 besides a certain proportion of indoor work1 a good deal of agricultural1 including woodmen's1 labour4 ,but for most schools1 with their limited possibilities as regards acres of land1 trees and materials1 games are the only possible means of satisfying the need4 ,these ought to be as joyous and spontaneous as possible1 and therefore should be of every possible kind to suit different tastes4 ,the joyousness and spontaneity are so especially necessary for girls on account of their extreme conscientiousness and devotion to duty4 ,boys1 for all ,i know to the contrary1 may perform their duties equally well1 but they are rarely inclined to worry over them as girls do1 and they have such overflowing animal spirits that they always contrive to find relaxation1 by means of fun and activity of all kinds at odd times1 which either does not come naturally to girls1 or which1 if indulged in by them as well as by boys1 would make life an unbearable pandemonium for their elders4 ,games for small numbers4 ,let us then have games of all kinds2 every game1 with1 ,i should say1 the single exception of football1 is suitable4 ,let us have lawn tennis1 fives1 bowls1 croquet1 quoits1 golf1 swimming1 skating1 archery1 tobogganing1 basket-ball1 rounders and hailes1 as many of these as can be provided for1 and some at one season of the year1 others at another4 ,all these are useful1 because only a small number of individuals1 one or two1 or at the most four1 is necessary to make most of them enjoyable1 and therefore they can fill up gaps of time when large numbers are not available for organised games4 ,let these games also be encouraged by means of tournaments and competitions held occasionally1 and let prizes or challenge cups be offered for success in these competitions1 and where there is a golf course arranged1 let there be an autumn and a spring medal4 ,their higher functions4 ,games1 however1 have a much higher function to perform in school life than any ,i have yet mentioned4 ,here is a splendid field for the development of powers of organisation1 of good temper under trying circumstances1 courage and determination to play up and do your best even in a losing game1 rapidity of thought and action1 judgment and self-reliance1 and1 above all things1 unselfishness1 and a knowledge of corporate action1 learning to sink individual preferences in the effort of loyally working with others for the common good4 ,necessity for the cultivation of corporate virtues4 ,in the life generally4 ,by means of organised games4 ,women have plenty of devotion and unselfishness of an individual kind--that is to say1 they can lose themselves entirely in the interests of their particular friends or of their husbands and children1 but this personal devotion is quite compatible with what ,i may call family selfishness1 and they may be1 and often are1 quite incapable of realising any interest whatever that is not bounded by the four walls of their home4 ,the effect of this narrowness is to make their lives extremely mean and petty1 and they have in consequence a deteriorating effect upon every member of their families and upon all society in which they mingle4 ,it is true that the family is the unit which lies at the base of all national existence1 and which forms the foundation stone for all teaching1 moral and spiritual1 but it is essential to remember that it is only a unit1 and that an aggregation of such families or units forms a community1 a nation1 and that the members of a family are likewise citizens of kingdoms1 political and spiritual4 ,the woman who indulges in family selfishness is a bad citizen4 ,to be a good citizen1 it is essential that she should have wide interests1 a sense of discipline and organisation1 esprit de corps1 a power of corporate action4 ,now the schoolmistress is the person who has the best opportunity of teaching these principles to women1 and ,i would have her fully recognise her privilege and her responsibility4 ,men acquire corporate virtues1 not only at school and at college1 but almost in every walk of life2 whereas comparatively few women ever find themselves members of an organised profession1 and the proportion1 even of those who have the advantage of college life1 is still exceedingly small4 ,it remains therefore for the school to teach them almost all that they will ever have the opportunity of acquiring of the power of working with others1 and sinking their own individuality for the common good4 ,the opportunity must be made the most of4 ,now girls are quite as susceptible as boys to the influences of school life4 ,therefore let us see that the influences are such as develop the best characteristics4 ,make them trustworthy by trusting them1 open and straightforward by taking it for granted that they have nothing to hide4 ,give them beautiful surroundings2 let the house be well managed and comfortable but not luxurious2 satisfy every reasonable want liberally2 do not keep their minds concentrated upon themselves by having a multiplicity of minute and irritating rules1 but explain to them broad principles of conduct1 and expect them to apply these themselves to the minuti of their own lives1 pointing out patiently again and again where the girls' application of principles clashes with the interests of the majority4 ,thus the principles of corporate life are being imbibed every hour and minute of the day1 though nowhere more completely than in the playground1 and in the playground the large organised games1 such as cricket1 hockey and lacrosse1 are the most useful for this purpose4 ,area of playground4 ,of course it is exceedingly difficult to obtain space enough upon which to play these games1 but if a school is to be a residentiary school at all in the full sense of the word1 it must have several acres of ground immediately surrounding it4 ,i forbear to specify the minimum number of acres1 because though it may be desirable for the whole school to be able to play at one time every day1 it is not essential1 as it is possible by an expenditure of trouble on the part of the headmistress to economise both playground and schoolroom accommodation by arranging for each to be available in succession for the use of different portions of the school4 ,a very useful guide1 however1 is to be found in the fact that1 taking twelve well-known boys' schools1 the average area of the sites is twelve acres for every hundred boys4 ,organisation of playground4 ,there ought to be one ground levelled and turfed1 about a hundred yards by fifty1 for every thirty or forty girls4 ,it is rarely that more than two and twenty1 as in cricket1 or twenty-four1 as in lacrosse1 are required for a game2 but out of the whole number there will always be a few who are 8not playing games to-day10 and the balance occupy themselves usefully with some of the other smaller games previously enumerated4 ,the captain of the house or form1 or whatever the subdivision may be that has the use of the 8ground10 must arrange that every individual of the forty is put down to play in the organised game three or four1 or as many times as is possible1 in the week4 ,the half-holiday will naturally be the day upon which foreign matches are played1 or home matches with other divisions1 or scratch matches arranged by the captain of the games4 ,the captain of games and the captains of divisions are of course girls1 selected in the one case by the whole school1 and in the others by the girls of the division over which she presides4 ,of course if the number of grounds available is not as great as the number of suitable divisions1 divisions must have grounds allotted to them in turn1 and this reduces seriously the opportunities for practice4 ,a good deal1 however1 may often be done with great advantage on a smaller piece of ground in practising for the game at the time in vogue1 especially in cricket1 where very useful coaching is given at the nets4 ,often special varieties of a game are developed by the local peculiarities of the only available spot for playing it4 ,every ,etonian knows the correct shape for a fives-court1 and how the peculiarity has been perpetuated from the balustrade of the stone stair in the quadrangle which leads to the chapel4 ,the old ,scottish game of hailes has likewise localised itself in the playground of the ,academy1 ,edinburgh4 ,it is desirable that there should be a mistress1 whose special interest may be claimed by the girls in any particular game1 and whose advice may be sought by the captain of games in the matter of answering challenges and providing the necessary apparatus4 ,the captain should also be supported by another girl as secretary and treasurer1 to collect subscriptions and keep the books4 ,cycle of games4 ,the experience of many years has evolved the plan of choosing regularly one game for each term1 and always keeping to it4 ,thus lacrosse might be taken in the ,september term1 hockey in ,january1 and cricket in ,may1 and if all schools adopt the same plan1 outside matches are then possible1 and there are few things which tend so strongly to keep up the esprit de corps of a school as meeting other schools on the playing-field4 ,lacrosse4 ,there will be no difference of opinion as to the suitability of cricket for the summer term1 but many schools play hockey in ,september1 and carry it on for two terms4 ,we have found1 however1 that there is not really enough interest in the game itself to keep up enthusiasm for such a long period1 but inasmuch as it keeps nearly all the players in constant movement and requires the minimum amount of arrangement beforehand1 and can therefore be begun at once on a cold day without loss of time1 it is the best game for the ,january term1 during which the most inclement weather of the year is usually experienced4 ,football being quite out of the question1 on account of its roughness1 we have fallen back upon lacrosse1 a game which requires the same qualities of combination1 obedience1 courage1 individual unselfishness for the sake of a side--a player who attempts to keep the ball instead of passing it being absolutely useless--and is full of interest on account of the various kinds of skill required1 fleetness of foot1 quickness of eye1 strength of wrist1 and a great deal of judgment and knack4 ,the game of lacrosse well played is a beautiful sight1 the actions of the players being so full of grace and agility4 ,the skill required1 moreover1 is so great that the attempt to acquire it is a splendid training in courage and perseverance4 ,hockey4 ,hockey is so well known that it is hardly necessary to say much about it1 excepting that it is a very great mistake to regard it as essentially a rough game4 ,all that is necessary to prevent roughness is to have a strict rule against raising the stick above the waist1 an offence of this kind giving a free hit to the opposite side4 ,of course1 hard knocks are sometimes received1 but is there no value in the lesson of cheerful endurance that may thus be learned1 and is it possible to enjoy anything good in life or even to live at all1 without running some risk of bodily harm8 ,hockey has besides its special advantages which ,i have already mentioned4 ,cricket4 ,as regards cricket1 ,i am well aware that most real cricketers would laugh at the idea of girls attempting the game4 ,i shall always remember the remark made by the head master of a public school1 after watching the girls at play for some time with the keenest interest3 8,yes1 they will never make cricketers1 but they are having splendid exercise in the open air04 ,this1 however1 was some years ago1 and the girls have worked hard and improved since then1 and ,i venture to think that if the same kindly critic could again see their play he would think somewhat better of it4 ,indeed1 ,i am often surprised at the real pleasure and approbation expressed at what even to me seems our feeble attempts4 ,granted1 however1 that the game in the hands of girls can never be quite the same game that it is for boys1 it is still a perfectly safe game when played between elevens of tolerably equal strength4 ,it is1 in my opinion1 quite unsafe when played by men against women1 or even by big boys against little ones1 but admirable from every point of view so long as boys play boys and girls play girls of corresponding size and strength4 ,the amount of interest and variety in the game is unsurpassed by any other1 and it is so well known that an intelligent interest in its details can be taken by almost any one4 ,no roughness is produced2 all is gentleness and courtesy1 combined with strength and determination4 ,the traditions of the game are such that girls attempting to play it must throw themselves completely into it1 and cannot allow themselves to give way to idleness and ineffectiveness4 ,this is well illustrated by the remark of the captain of a team of ladies who recently played an eleven from a well-known school1 and were beaten by them4 ,she congratulated the head mistress1 and said3 8,your girls play like gentlemen1 and behave like ladies04 ,deficiency of early muscular training4 ,it is unfortunate that1 broadly speaking1 girls cannot throw and that the bowling in a girls' eleven is apt to be lamentably weak4 ,i have not been able to decide in my own mind whether this weakness is due to physiological disabilities or to the want of early training1 but ,i am inclined to think the latter4 ,it seems to be generally acknowledged in the nursery that it is of no use to attempt to keep the boys in strict control1 that they must be allowed to have their fling1 and create an uproar1 and climb1 and throw stones1 but the whole force of the nurse's authority is usually exerted to prevent the girls under her charge from falling under the opprobrium1 in nursery etiquette1 of being 8unladylike04 ,i am the more inclined to this opinion1 as ,i observe that where parents have the good sense to allow their girls the same facilities for activity1 natural and necessary for the young animal1 as their boys1 the girls do learn to throw equally well1 and attain the same easy gracefulness of movement which is natural to the untrammelled boy4 ,such parents1 ,i grieve to say1 are still very rare1 with the result that not more than three or four per cent4 of girls of fourteen have any idea of throwing a ball1 and much less of bowling4 ,this can scarcely be wondered at1 seeing that 8,sir ,b4 ,w4 ,richardson lately stated that in his student days it was taught in all sobriety by anatomical authorities that the joint of a woman's shoulder was more shallow than a man's1 so that she was almost sure to dislocate it if she threw a ball with force6 ,thus1 comically1 does preconceived theory upset the scientific vision40 ,however1 great strides have already been made by girls in acquiring skill in games1 and much greater strides will be made in the future1 to the enormous gain1 not only physically but mentally and morally1 both of women in particular and of the nation as a whole4 ,great value of ,swedish gymnastics4 ,severe games not safe without gymnastic training4 ,dangers of over-exertion4 ,we now come to the consideration of exercises1 which though really recreative in their tendencies1 are much less so than games1 and first among these come gymnastics4 ,now no nation has more carefully thought out the subject of physical education than the ,swedes1 and at the ,central ,institute in ,stockholm1 under the superintendence of ,professor ,trngren1 professors of gymnastics1 both preventive and curative1 are trained1 who have a thorough scientific knowledge of their work1 and can produce results in the way of physical training second to no others in existence4 ,it has been my happiness for many years to watch the results of the work produced by one of the professor's pupils1 and ,i cannot speak too highly of the work she has accomplished4 ,the essence of her method is a systematic training of all the muscles4 ,she possesses a thorough knowledge of the structure of the human frame1 both muscular and nervous4 ,by a carefully thought out series of free exercises1 supplemented by work upon the admirably devised ,swedish apparatus1 the muscular system of her pupils is thoroughly and harmoniously developed2 and here let me say that1 strongly as ,i believe in out-door games1 ,i do not consider it safe to allow girls to indulge in them absolutely without restriction1 nor at all1 at least in the severer games1 unless they are receiving systematic muscular training in the gymnasium and make a practice of changing all their garments as soon as play is over4 ,for this reason1 the time during which it is possible for girls to play hard is carefully cut down to a maximum of an hour and a half4 ,also1 no exemptions whatever are given from gymnastic lessons4 ,by this means hard games are made safe1 whereas otherwise there would be constant danger of overstrain1 and mischief might ensue which would perhaps not be apparent at the time1 but might seriously endanger a girl's health in after years4 ,there is nothing in my opinion more dangerous for young people than physical and nervous exhaustion4 ,the harm is done in a gay1 thoughtless moment1 which may not be overcome for years4 ,this care is especially necessary in the case of girls1 both on account of physical organisation and because their muscular system has1 as a rule1 been so imperfectly developed in childhood4 ,there is still another and very important reason4 ,it has already been stated that girls are so very good and conscientious4 ,one form which this characteristic takes is that they will quietly attempt1 and by pure nerve-force will perform1 if the occasion seems to require it of them1 feats for which their muscular development is entirely unfitted4 ,this brings me to the reason why ,swedish gymnastics are so greatly superior to the ordinary form of gymnastics1 which used to be prevalent in boys' public schools and army gymnasiums4 ,in this kind of gymnastics1 the attention of the instructor is far too much occupied in making his pupils perform feats1 many of which are of an acrobatic nature1 rather than directed to the harmonious development of the whole body2 hence1 in some cases1 the shoulders become abnormally broad and square1 and other unsymmetrical effects are caused4 ,in fact1 the amusement of the pupils is considered rather more than their physical welfare4 ,physical defects discovered at gymnastics4 ,curative gymnastics4 ,defects often the result of ignorance1 fashion or overwork4 ,then1 since every girl must appear twice a week in the gymnasium as long as she remains in the school1 dressed in an easy-fitting costume1 consisting of knickerbockers and tunic1 the gymnastic mistress has every opportunity of noticing the physical development1 and ,i have found that she very quickly detects even the slightest curvatures or other physical defects1 and1 with the parents' consent1 can give curative treatment1 which is very speedily efficacious in curing weak or crooked backs1 stoops1 displaced shoulder blades1 sprains and other ailments4 ,the mistress also gives the girls a good deal of useful advice1 according to their several needs4 ,she notices how they sit or what postures they take for different avocations1 and tells them if they are wrong1 and why they are wrong4 ,she does not undertake any medical responsibility1 but having had1 so far as the bodily frame goes1 a thorough medical training1 her work among a number of girls is simply invaluable1 and no physical features that ought to be noticed escape her practised eye4 ,it is well known to schoolmistresses1 if not to parents1 what a serious difficulty these physical defects cause in a girl's moral training4 ,nothing is worse for a girl than to be forced by circumstances to think much about her own health4 ,therefore1 it is our part to save them as much as we can from having to direct their thoughts upon themselves more than is required by ordinary common-sense4 ,think how hard it is for a girl who has a weak back1 and is ordered to lie down for certain hours in the day4 ,she cannot lie and do nothing1 and therefore attempts reading as being apparently the only possible occupation4 ,the difficulty of fixing the book in the right position and getting a proper light upon it is such that very frequently the eyes are overstrained and a new difficulty is produced4 ,now most weak backs can be strengthened by strengthening the proper muscles4 ,muscle is strengthened by use1 and the ,swedish gymnast knows what exercises1 or what rubbings1 will produce the desired results1 and proceeds to strengthen slowly and judiciously4 ,the girl at the same time is allowed plenty of fresh air and suitable games1 and soon recovers her normal condition1 all the while pursuing the same kind of life as the others1 though probably with some relaxation in the way of lessons4 ,such weak backs ought not to occur as often as they do1 if proper attention were paid from the first to the physical conditions of life4 ,i do not mean anything abstruse or difficult1 but just the ordinary commonplaces2 that high-heeled shoes throw the body out of its natural balance and overstrain some muscles2 that hard1 stiff clothing pressing upon muscles weakens them by causing atrophy1 a frequent cause of weak backs2 that a growing child must have abundance of sleep1 food1 fresh air and exercise1 and while living in cultivated surroundings and being encouraged in intellectual pursuits1 should not be expected to spend more than three or four hours each day according to age1 in doing definite brain work4 ,at the age of fourteen a healthy girl may be expected to begin to work as much as five hours a day4 ,so much for gymnastics1 the necessity for which it is to be hoped has been sufficiently demonstrated4 ,dancing4 ,dancing is also a capital form of exercise1 provided it is not pursued1 as is sometimes the case1 to the point of physical exhaustion4 ,the art of fencing is also well worth acquiring4 ,also bicycle evolutions to music1 and even roller skating4 ,hours that may reasonably be spent in intellectual work4 ,having stated that three hours is enough for intellectual work for most girls up to the age of eleven or twelve1 four hours up to fourteen1 five up to sixteen1 and that six is the utmost a girl of any age ought to attempt2 having also said that an hour and a half in the day is enough for the organised games1 it remains to fill up the rest of the day1 which1 excluding sleep and meals1 and the necessary time spent in dressing1 usually amounts to from two to three hours4 ,the time-table of every girl in the school may be different2 ,i append1 as examples1 the actual time-tables of twenty girls for a week1 the total of forty-four hours being made up of five days of eight hours and one day of four hours4 ,,sample ,,time-,,tables4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,form4,name4 ,age4 ,remarks4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,vi4 a #afe ,anomalous2 as not more than two languages should b #ahdaf;be studied at one time4 ,have not been long c #agjhc;enough in the school to work into the system4 d #agehc e #ahccc;,does -hr4 curative gymnastics per day4 ,l4 ,v4 f #agaff g #afe ,too many languages4 h #afge ,v4 i #agjhc j #adbe k #ade ,have more extra subjects than is wise4 l #aege ,l4 ,v4 m #af n #acehc;,has no engagement after #g in the evening and goes early to bed4 o #ae p #afaff ,,iv4 q #adiaf r #adge s #ad t #achcc;,goes early to bed4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,hours per week1 including preparation4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,t r ,a i ,l r g i i ,g o t ,e t e ,a n ,s ,h e n ,g ,f h o l o c a r g ,g ,l e r m m g m i r a l r a r e e e e e e m t i e t m n t t b t n o u s e i a c i r r r c n r h k n n h c y a y e y e ,name4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- a 444#gi #c #c #ac #c 444 444 444 444 b 444#gi 444#c #ac #c 444 444 444#c c 444#gi 444#f #ac #c 444 444 444 444 d 444#gi #gc 444 444 444 444 444#c 444 e 444#g 444 444#f #ac #c #c 444 444#c f 444 444 444#gf #ac #c 444 444#c #c g 444#gi 444#f #ac #c 444 444 444 444 h 444 444#i #gf #ac #c 444 444 444 444 i 444 444 444#f #f #c #c #c 444#c 444#a j 444 444#f 444#f #c #c #c 444 444 444#a k 444 444#f 444#f #c #c #c 444#c 444#a l 444 444 444#f #f #c #c #c 444 444 444#a m 444 444#e 444#ebbb 444#b 444#a n 444 444#e 444#ebbb 444#b 444#a o 444 444#e 444#ebbb 444#b 444#a p 444 444 444#e #ebbb 444 444#ba q #a 444#e 444#ecb 444 444#b 444#b r #a 444#e 444#ecb 444 444#b 444#b s #a 444#e 444#ecb 444 444#b 444#b t #a 444#e 444#ecb 444 444#b 444#b ---------------------------------------- ------------- ---------------- -------- ,t o t a l 1 ,s c h r ,h e i i a p s d t t w u o o r r r e y k ,name4 4 4 4 --------------- a #c 444#cc b #c 444#cc c #c 444#cc d #c 444#cc e #c 444#cj f #c 444#cj g #c 444#cc h #c 444#cc i #c #dcc j #c #dcj k #c #dcc l #c #dcj m #bcbh n #bcbh o #bcbh p #bcbh q #bbbh r #bbbh s #bbbh t #bbbh --------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,extra ,subjects4 -------------------- ,t o t ,g a e l n 1 ,p e a r o ,g ,g r a ,n c r y t l e ,g c a m e ,w a u n ,s ,d ,d n ,s ,r d o r p d ,v i r a a i e l r d a ,p i n a n s n a e k e t ,t i o g w c t g d w s n i o a l i i i i i i o h i o t n i n n n c n n r o n n a o n g g g s g g k p g s l ,name4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- a 444 444 444 444 444#a #c #acaaadd b #e 444 444 444 444#a 444#a #b #a #aadd c #e 444 444#b 444#a 444 444#a 444#aadd d 444#e 444 444 444#a 444#b 444#b #aadd e #ec 444 444 444#c444 444 444#addd f #e 444#c 444 444#a 444#a #b 444#addd g 444 444 444 444 444#a #c #bbaaadd h #e 444 444 444#aa 444#a 444#a #aadd i #e 444 444 444 444#b 444 444 444#c #aadd j 444#e 444#b 444#b 444 444 #c #addd k #e 444 444#baa 444 444 444 444#aadd l #ec 444#baa 444444 444 444 444#addd m #e 444 444 444 444#b 444#ad #bafdd n 444 444 444#b 444#b 444#abcacda o #e 444 444#bab 444#ab 444#afdd p #ec 444 444#ab 444#aa 444#afdd q #e 444 444#bab 444#aaa #afdd r 444 444 444#bab 444#cd #b #afdd s #e 444 444#b 444#b 444#c #aa #afdd t #e 444 444 444#ab 444#a 444#b #acda ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,the true end of school life4 ,occupations not purely intellectual4 ,handicrafts4 ,and here it is important to note that a great deal of the training requisite to make a girl really useful1 i4e41 to make her industrious1 prompt1 intelligent1 thoughtful1 thorough and accurate1 can quite as easily be given by means of work which is not intellectual1 thereby saving the poor brain1 which we have often strained to the uttermost in the past1 from the weariness and fatigue consequent upon overwork1 and girls may be sent out from school not anmic and weak-backed1 hating the sight of a book1 but healthy and vigorous1 keenly alive to every opportunity that offers for self-improvement1 earnest and self-restrained1 with trained powers ready to devote themselves to the duties which offer4 ,for the purposes of training then1 ,i would suggest a variety of handicrafts1#cb such as bookbinding1 needlework1 the practising of various musical instruments1 part singing1 drawing and gardening4 ,in some cases time also is given for general reading in the library--this may include ,english and other modern languages--and is often valuable in keeping up a modern language that has been acquired early1 besides cultivating breadth of view and literary taste4 ,the whole school ought also to be organised as a ,fire ,brigade and regularly drilled4 ,it will be noticed at once that cooking1 dressmaking1 domestic economy1 sick nursing1 physiology and hygiene are omitted4 ,these subjects are admirable at school age for girls who intend to make them their work in life1 but for our own girls1 though some of them suggest suitable holiday recreations1 ,i believe that they are best acquired by devoting six months or a year specially to the purpose when school life is over4 ,they do not seem to me to admit of a sufficient amount of training1 in proportion to the amount of time they consume4 ,the knowledge1 so essential for the welfare of the individual1 of phenomena1 such as the properties of air and water and the laws of heat1 is acquired and the practical applications are pointed out by every intelligent teacher during the study of physics and chemistry2 and care of the health receives constant practical attention1 so that it is unnecessary to emphasise it during school life by special lessons4 ,needlework is essential for every woman1 and facility with the needle is more easily acquired early1 say from ten to fourteen1 when the fingers are really large enough to use such a delicate instrument as a needle2 but1 as with everything else1 having acquired the elements thoroughly1 it must be a matter of individual taste whether the worker proceeds to acquire the higher branches of the art4 ,the same may be said of piano1 violin and drawing4 ,bookbinding1 woodcarving and joinery give great scope for the development of neatness1 accuracy and artistic talent4 ,an immense deal of interest may also be excited by gardening1 and much information of a practical and botanical kind1 likely to be useful in later life1 may be obtained4 ,every girl who wishes it1 should have a small plot of garden to cultivate for herself4 #cb ,it is to the admirable curriculum arranged by ,miss ,gray1 the headmistress of ,st4 ,katharine's ,school1 ,st4 ,andrews1 that ,i am indebted for my views on the subject of handicrafts and short hours for intellectual work4 ,swimming4 ,here it may be as well to mention that where facilities for bathing exist1 provided great care is exercised in only allowing girls in perfect health to indulge in it1 and then for not too long at a time1 no finer exercise exists than swimming4 ,the necessary position of the swimmer1 with arms extended and head well thrown back1 is an admirable corrective to any tendency to stoop that may be acquired by bookwork4 ,importance of noting the weight and rate of growth4 ,before concluding this chapter on the cultivation of the body1 it may be useful to append tables of the heights and weights of girls at different ages4 ,these are compiled from careful measurements taken regularly three times every year at ,st4 ,leonard's ,school1 ,st4 ,andrews1 during a period of nearly six years1 an ,avery's weighing and measuring apparatus being used4 ,the girls were always weighed in their gymnastic costume of the thickness worn in winter1 and measured in their shoes4 ,a certain small percentage were usually found to have lost weight1 the proportion being larger in the summer time4 ,we found1 however1 that such losses were unimportant1 unless persisted in4 ,if1 for example1 a growing girl did not increase in weight during a year1 and was lighter than the average for her age and height1 then it would be high time to send for the doctor and have her thoroughly overhauled4 ,on the other hand1 if a girl was found to be persistently idle and inattentive1 though apparently in good health1 on consulting the weight book it would usually be found that she was underweight for her age1 and a cure was easily effected by cutting off some of her work1 giving her extra nourishment and more time for exercise in the open air4 ,it is indeed truly awful to reflect on the number of bad habits1 that is1 moral faults1 that may be induced and fostered in those under our charge by neglect of suitable health conditions4 ,the tables are sound1 so far as they go1 but they do not go nearly far enough1 the basis upon which they are founded being too narrow1 and it is much to be wished that the ,anthropometric ,society could see its way to organising a series of observations over a much wider area4 ,i4--,table showing the average height and weight of ,british girls from the ages of nine to twenty1 stating in each case the number of observations made4 ,also showing the average increase per annum deduced from the same observations taken three times in each year4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,number of ,ages4 ,height4 ,weight4 observations ,increase4 made4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,in ,height4,in ,weight4 ,from ft4 in4 st4 lb4 oz4 in4 lb4 oz4 #i to #aj #d #cch #d #d #aj #bb #aj #aa #d #egfc #d #ab #ad #cf #bchc #h #d #aa #ab #d #hdjc #e #f #f #di #bfd #g #h #ab #ac #d #aaeji #f #e #a #ha #cajf #ab #aa #ac #ad #e #afci #g #b #b #bah #bac #aa #a #ad #ae #e #cabh #g #ab #c #dij #adhi #aj #a #ae #af #e #cigb #h #f #j #gcg #hdd #g #ac #af #ag #e #ddea #h #aa #f #hgj #dgi #e #f #ag #ah #e #dfff #i #a #g #fbg #bae #d #a #ah #ai #e #dhjd #i #d #aj #bdb #ach #c #c #ai #bj #e #ebfg #i #e #f #ea #dfc #ab ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,ii4--,table showing average ,,iii4--,table showing average height for age1 disregarding weight for height1 disregarding weight4 age4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,age ,number of ,number of in ,height4 observations,height4 ,weight4 observations years4 made4 made4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ft4 in4 ft4 in4st4 lb4 oz4 #i #d #ace #e #c #aj #c #c #h #a #i #d #cgci #ab #c #aa #c #e #j #c #aj #d #dche #ab #d #j #c #aj #d #a #aj #d #eefe #ba #d #a #d #b #aj #c #aa #d #fdha #bj #d #b #d #c #d #aa #aa #d #hcbb #bf #d #c #d #d #e #aj #ab #d #ajehb #ce #d #d #d #e #ab #ab #ab #d #aafif #dd #d #e #d #h #ad #ab #ac #e #adeh #fi #d #f #e #a #ab #ae #ac #e #agbh #abb #d #g #e #e #c #bg #ad #e #bgjh #aib #d #h #e #i #ab #bh #ad #e #cbcb #bef #d #i #f #j #h #db #ae #e #cgb #cdi #d #aj #f #h #a #ef #ae #e #djdh #chi #d #aa #g #c #ae #aah #af #e #dbfc #dcd #e #j #g #e #ac #bba #af #e #ddhh #dde #e #a #g #aj #j #bfc #ag #e #dfjf #cgf #e #b #h #a #j #cji #ag #e #dfdd #bif #e #c #h #e #ad #efd #ah #e #dfga #ahb #e #d #h #aj #aa #fbe #ah #e #dgig #ig #e #e #h #ac #d #dff #ai #e #dhca #dj #e #f #i #d #ab #bgd #ai #e #dhed #ab #e #g #i #g #i #bag #bj #e #dhi #h #e #h #i #aa #aj #abe #e #i #aj #b #e #ed #e #aj #aj #aj #h #ab ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,environment4 ,we now pass to the inanimate surroundings4 ,the first essential is that the soil upon which the school is built should be a dry and wholesome one4 ,gravel of course is the best1 but there are many other varieties of soil and subsoil which admit of perfect drainage4 ,healthy situation4 ,cheerful surroundings4 ,the altitude is also a question to be taken into account4 ,the greatest altitude compatible with accessibility is as a rule the best1 because then the air will be fresh and abundant1 and probably bracing4 ,the aspect is also of importance4 ,this should be as sunny as possible1 and the girls' sleeping and living rooms should be flooded with sunshine for great portions of the day1 whatever happens to the rest of the establishment2 as comparatively short hours are spent in schoolrooms1 the importance of sunshine in them is less great1 though they must be bright and attractive1 for cheerful surroundings and associations help to produce the cheerful minds which most easily conquer intellectual difficulties4 ,there must be no gloominess1 with its depressing effects upon youthful spirits1 anywhere4 ,the nature of the surroundings has much to do in fact with the ideas1 pleasurable or otherwise1 which will be associated with the recurrence of any given lesson1 and will often colour our recollections through life4 ,climate4 ,it is desirable also to ascertain the rainfall4 ,there are certain portions of our island where the rainfall is very much heavier than in others1 and often places only a few miles apart may differ by being either inside or outside a rainy band4 ,where outdoor exercise is as important as it always must be for young people1 it is absurd to start a new school in a place where the games will be constantly interrupted by rain1 or where1 when it has rained1 the ground is of a nature which does not quickly dry up4 ,of course what one really wants to know is the average number of rainy days and the seasons of the year when they chiefly occur1 rather than the number of inches per annum of the rainfall1 but these are details which are not generally easy to ascertain4 ,ventilation and warming4 ,having secured a suitable spot1 with abundant space1 a large portion of it level for the purpose of play1 see that the building is commodious1 well-built1 well-lighted1 and thoroughly dry1 and have all the windows hung top and bottom so that there may be plenty of fresh air1 and have good fireplaces4 ,fireplaces are decidedly the most healthy method of warming for all living rooms1 but hot-water pipes are unobjectionable1 and far more convenient and economical for schoolrooms4 ,arrangement of buildings and lighting4 ,every school of course has its own method of arrangement1 but it is preferable where possible to have a central building for teaching purposes1 containing schoolrooms1 art-room1 laboratory1 workshops and gymnasium1 surrounded by houses of residence1 each holding about twenty-five girls4 ,the houses should be warmed with fireplaces1 the school by means of any warming apparatus at the time in vogue4 ,in both school and houses it is most desirable to have electric light because it does not vitiate the air4 ,the accommodation in the building will naturally be arranged in accordance with the ideas of school organisation which it is intended to carry out1 different plans being suitable for different kinds of schools4 ,water supply and drainage4 ,an abundant and thoroughly wholesome water supply is absolutely essential1 and the drainage must be well planned and perfectly laid1 so as to stand the various customary tests1 and must be properly trapped and ventilated4 ,air and space4 ,as regards area and cubic space and other minute details of a hygienic kind1 ,i cannot do better than refer mistresses to ,dr4 ,clement ,dukes' admirable ,health at ,school1 published by ,cassell ,co41 which is a complete compendium of the subject1 merely premising that for a book published in #ahhf and republished in #ahie1 a less sweeping condemnation of all girls' schools might have been made4 ,i do not myself feel that there is danger of unwholesome crowding in secondary residentiary schools1 provided that there are separate living and school accommodation1 such as ,i have already indicated1 and also provided that every girl has her own cubicle fully furnished4 ,the smallest area upon which it is possible to arrange the usual cubicle furniture with any degree of comfort1 is sufficient to provide enough cubic space of air in a room twelve feet high4 ,food must be abundant4 ,there must be variety4 ,sugar and fruit necessary4 ,disastrous effects of insufficient or unwholesome food4 ,a chapter on the ,cultivation of the ,body seems hardly complete without some mention of that without which the body cannot grow or even continue to exist1 namely1 food4 ,as will have been seen from the tables given above1 growth during the early years spent at a secondary residentiary school is exceedingly rapid1 and food is necessary to support it2 also every form of activity of any of the faculties of the being causes waste of substance and necessitates recuperation1 which will be obtained chiefly by means of food and sleep4 ,food1 therefore1 must be abundant2 it must be of good quality1 well cooked1 attractively served1 and helped in a tempting manner4 ,plenty of time should be given for partaking of the meal1 but the girls should not be kept sitting so long as to be bored1 and conversation should be freely indulged in4 ,i do not myself think that solid meat should be given except at the midday meal1 but both at breakfast and at supper there should always be a savoury dish1 consisting of fish1 eggs1 macaroni1 rice or vegetables1 with occasional admixtures of meat1 ham1 tongue1 etc41 to ensure variety2 porridge should also be provided for breakfast4 ,the great essential is variety4 ,besides these three meals there should be a light luncheon consisting of hot soup and bread1 or cocoa1 or milk1 according to taste2 and in the afternoon1 after games and changing1 the refreshment of tea and bread and butter1 now and again varied with cake or a bun1 before going into afternoon school4 ,sugar in abundance and milk should always be upon the dinner table1 to be partaken of according to taste with the pudding1 and jam or marmalade and golden syrup should be provided for breakfast and supper4 ,in this way the quantity of saccharine matter1 so essential for a growing child1 is supplied4 ,greediness is not induced because the natural appetites are freely and wholesomely supplied1 and the habit of self-indulgence is kept in abeyance for the same reason1 because the ordinary diet is so satisfying that there is no craving for sweets and other tuck-shop delicacies4 ,but even so1 it is desirable to give sweetmeats occasionally after meals1 rather than allow girls even to fancy that they want to go and buy them for themselves4 ,fresh fruit also is very good and wholesome and should be available when required for health2 it will often be needed if the water is at all hard1 and should occasionally be given in liberal quantities1 say instead of pudding4 ,vegetables too must never be forgotten4 ,some people will be inclined to say that girls are not fed as well as this in their homes6 ,that may sometimes be possible1 and indeed ,i have known of cases where1 from a terribly mistaken view of economy1 or from a desire to teach self-restraint1 growing girls have been stinted in food1 with most lamentable results in after life4 ,i am not1 however1 afraid that school will ever enter into competition with the home1 no matter how good the puddings are2 and it is natural that such things should be more considered at school where it is realised that even such minor matters as the bread and butter enter into the general scheme of education1 and may influence for good or evil the future lives of the pupils4 ,in some homes1 on the other hand1 girls receive food much too rich or too stimulating1 made dishes and late dinners not being conducive to healthy digestion4 ,danger of over-stimulating the emotions4 ,before closing this chapter a word must be said about the emotions2 healthy bodily development is hindered or prevented if they are too early encouraged1 as it is also by want of food1 rest1 fresh air1 exercise and interest1 or by the excess of either physical or intellectual activity4 ,the emotional nature is over-stimulated by excessive time spent upon music1 especially if the music is of a certain kind4 ,much care is needed1 more particularly if there is decided musical taste1 to begin with composers who appeal least to the emotional nature1 and not to specialise in music at all until a thorough intellectual groundwork has been laid in the general education4 ,latin1 mathematics and vigorous games hold a far more important part in the general scheme of a comprehensive education than is always apparent4 ,,index4 ,absences from school1 effect on class teaching1 #cd4 ,acton1 ,lord1 on study of history1 #abf4 ,aim of education1 #b1 #fg4 ,aim of school life1 #dad4 ,air and space in schools1 #dba4 ,algebra-- ,age for beginning1 #bdg4 ,educational value1 #bcg4 ,geometry and algebra1 relation between1 #bdf4 ,alphabet1 #df4 ,books for teachers1 #eb4 ,alphabets1 phonetic1 #aaa4 ,ambition1 intellectual1 fostering1 #dj4 ,analysis of sentences1 #fj4 ,ancient history1 #afj4 ,books recommended1 #aff4 ,educational value1 #aei4 ,higher classes1 history for1 #afd4 ,illustrations1 models1 etc41 suggestions1 #afd4 ,junior classes1 scheme of work1 #afa4 ,parallel chart1 #afg4 ,apparatus needed in teaching1 #bi4 ,arithmetic-- ,addition1 #bbb4 ,approximations1 #bce4 ,decimal notation1 #bbb4 ,division1 #bbg4 ,exclusion of various branches1 suggested1 #bcg1 #bdg4 ,factors1 measures1 multiples1 #bbg4 ,first teaching1 #baf4 ,fractions1 #bbi1 #bcb1 #bcf4 ,decimals1 #bbc1 #bcc4 ,g4,c4,m4 and ,l4,c4,m41 #bca4 ,historical method of teaching1 #bcg4 ,sketch of lesson1 #bah4 ,logarithms as part of scientific arithmetic1 #bdh note4 ,money1 addition and subtraction of1 #bba4 ,multiplication1 #bbd4 ,practice1 #bce4 ,proportion1 #bcd4 ,subtraction1 #bbc4 ,art in education-- ,beautiful surroundings in school1 etc41 #cbb4 ,drawing and painting see that title4 ,historical art1 #cba4 ,see also various titles1 ,music1 ,drawing and painting1 etc4 ,art needlework1 #cfa4 ,articulation1 #cdg4 ,astronomy-- ,mathematics as stepping-stone to1 #bde4 ,psychological order of study1 #bed4 ,attendance at school1 regular1 necessity for1 #cd4 ,bacon on knowledge1 #b4 ,bearder1 ,mr41 on phonetic alphabet1 #ig4 ,beautifying schools1 importance of1 #cbb4 ,bedford college1 opening1 #d4 ,bible lessons see ,religion and philosophy4 ,biological sciences1 #bfj4 ,field work1 #bfc4 ,microscopes1 using1 #bfe4 ,museum1 school1 arrangement of1 #bfc1 #bgb4 ,notes of lesson on seedlings1 #bfi4 ,observation1 developing1 #bfa4 ,psychological order of study1 #beb1 #bee4 ,sequence of lessons should be outcome of teacher's own individuality1 #bff4 ,text-books recommended for botany1 #bec1 #bga4 ,botany see ,biological sciences4 ,brush drawing1 #cdh1 #cdi1 #ced4 ,bryce1 ,dr41 on science teaching1 #bdi4 ,buss1 ,miss1 first high school established by1 #d4 ,century question1 #agf note4 ,character-- ,formation of1 books on1 #cgf4 ,insight into1 essential for teachers1 #cgf4 ,moulding1 power of teacher in1 #che4 ,charts1 illustrated see ,time maps4 ,cheltenham ,ladies' ,college1 opening1 #d4 ,chemistry-- ,method of teaching1 need for improvement in1 #cjg4 ,position in scheme of science teaching1 #cjh4 8,practical0 training1 importance of1 #caj4 ,pre-examination classes--broad principles recommended1 #cab4 ,preliminary course of elementary physics1 #cjh1 #cab4 8,pure0 and 8physical0 chemistry1 order of teaching1 #cae1 #caf4 ,technical language not required1 #cji4 ,typical lessons1 #cag4 ,child study society1 #cgj4 ,china painting1 #cfj4 ,civilised nations1 energy devoted to education by1 #c4 ,class-singing-- ,dictation1 #cda4 ,ear tests1 #cda4 ,educational value1 #cdj1 #cdc4 ,length of lesson1 #cdj4 ,notation1 questions on1 #cdj4 ,part-singing1 #cdb4 ,rhythm1 #cda4 ,sight-reading1 #cdb4 ,size of class1 etc41 #cdj4 ,tonic sol-fa system1 #cdd4 ,value of1 as supplement to pianoforte teaching1 #ccb4 ,voice production1 #cdb4 ,class teachers and specialists1 comparison between1 #ba4 ,classical studies see ,latin and ,greek4 ,classification in any subject1 method1 #ch4 ,committee of ,ten1 report-- ,arithmetic1 exclusion of certain branches suggested1 #bcg4 ,english1 teaching1 #fb4 ,geometry1 instruction in1 #bci4 ,compayr on education1 #ag note4 ,competition-- ,bracing influence of1 #chf4 ,personal rivalry1 avoiding1 #chh4 ,composition-- ,committee of ,ten1 report1 #fc4 ,dale1 ,mr41 on1 #ee4 ,conduct prizes1 objections to1 #cc4 ,consonants1 classification of1 #dg1 #dh4 ,corporate virtues1 cultivating1 #dja4 ,corrections1 giving in exercise books1 etc41 #bg4 ,cricket1 #djd1 #djf4 ,curriculum for pupils of different ages1 #aj1 #ab1 #bj4 ,dale1 ,mr41 on oral composition1 #ee4 ,dancing1 #dab4 ,davies1 ,miss1 ,university privileges won for women by1 #d4 ,dialects in ,english colonies1 danger of developing into different languages1 #aaj4 ,difficulties of teachers1 remedy1 #bc4 ,diphthong table1 #ea4 ,discipline of home and school1 #cfi4 ,distractions1 avoiding1 in teaching1 #cg4 ,drainage of school buildings1 #dbj4 ,drawing and painting-- ,brush work1 #cdh1 #cdi1 #ced4 ,educational value1 #cbb4 ,foreshortening1 #cea4 ,individual teaching1 advantage of1 #cea4 ,individuality1 encouraging1 #ceb4 ,line drawing on squares1 #cdi4 ,memory drawing1 #cej4 ,model drawing1 #ceb4 ,mural decoration1 #ceh4 ,natural drawing of children1 #cdh4 ,object drawing1 #cej4 ,painting1 #cef4 ,china painting1 #cfj4 ,perspective1 #ceb1 #ceg4 ,plane geometry1 #ceb4 ,proportional measurements1 #cej4 ,ruskin1 quotation from1 #cdh4 ,shading1 #cec4 ,suggestive drawing1 #ceb4 ,dress1 manner1 etc41 of teachers1 effect of1 #ce4 ,duration of school-life1 #ae4 ,economics-- ,educational value1 #ahf1 #aij1 #aia4 ,interest of pupils in1 #ahh4 ,method of teaching1 #ahh4 ,text-books1 use of1 #ahi4 ,education-- ,aim of1 #b1 #fg4 ,books on1 #ch1 #dc1 #cgf4 ,definition1 #g1 #cbd4 ,mistakes to be avoided1 #ag4 ,moral1 aspect see ,moral side of education4 ,reform in women's education since #ahdh1 #c4 ,electricity and magnetism1 #bii4 ,elocution1 #cdf4 ,emotions1 danger of over-stimulating1 #dbc4 ,english language1 training in1 #ed4 ,books recommended1 #ff4 ,committee of ,ten1 report1 #fb4 ,see also ,grammar4 ,english literature-- ,aim and method of teaching1 #aib4 ,periods of literature1 studying1 #aih4 ,poetry1 reading1 #aid4 ,prose1 reading1 #aih4 ,reading courses1 suggested1 #bjj4 ,shakspere1 study of1 #aie4 ,style1 sense of1 cultivating1 #aii4 ,environment of a school1 #dah4 ,euclid see ,geometry4 ,examinations-- ,internal and local1 comparison between1 #cd4 ,value of1 #cc4 ,examiners1 #cd4 ,exercise-- ,dancing1 fencing1 etc41 #dab4 ,games see that title4 ,gymnastics see that title4 ,some forms more valuable than others1 #cig4 ,swimming1 #dae4 ,exercise books1 corrections1 giving in books1 etc41 #bg4 ,faculty1 definition of1 #bj4 ,family selfishness1 women prone to1 #dja4 ,fearon1 ,mr41 on analysis of sentences1 #fj4 ,fines1 objections to1 #cc4 ,fire brigade1 school should be organised as1 #dad4 ,fitch1 ,sir ,j41 on study of history1 #acg4 ,food1 suitable1 for growing girls1 #dba4 ,foreign languages-- ,latin and ,greek see that title4 ,modern languages see that title4 ,pronunciation1 teaching1 value of 8,le ,matre ,phontique10 #aaa4 ,french-- ,books recommended1 #aja4 ,pronunciation1 #di1 #ig4 ,rules1 #ajb4 ,translation1 #ih1 #ajj4 ,see also ,modern languages4 ,games-- ,corporate virtues developed by organised games1 #djb4 ,cricket1 #djd1 #djf4 ,cycle of games1 #djd4 ,higher functions of1 #djj4 ,hockey1 #dje4 ,lacrosse1 #dje4 ,over-exertion1 dangers of1 #dji4 ,playground1 #djc4 ,severe games not safe without gymnastic training1 #dji4 ,small numbers1 games for1 #djj4 ,value of1 as means of exercise1 #cih4 ,gardening1 educational value1 #dae4 ,geography-- ,aim in teaching1 #bge4 ,course of lessons1 notes1 #bhb4 ,england1 supplementary work with reference to1 #bhg4 ,physical geography see that title4 ,geology1 psychological position in science teaching1 #bee4 ,geometry-- ,algebra and geometry1 relation between1 #bdf4 ,definitions1 forming1 #bdb4 ,educational value1 #bdj4 ,euclid1 objections to1 #bdc4 ,kindergarten1 beginning in1 #bci4 ,methods of teaching1 #bdb1 #bdd1 #bdh4 ,practical geometry for young children1 #bci4 ,text-books recommended1 #bdj1 #bdb4 ,german-- ,difficulties of the language1 removing1 #ajb4 ,literature1 attractiveness of1 #ajc4 ,see also ,modern languages4 8,girls' ,public ,day ,schools' ,company10 founding1 #d4 ,gladstone1 ,dr41 spelling reform1 statistics1 #ajg4 ,grammar1 ,english1 #ei4 ,books recommended1 #ei1 #ff4 ,committee of ,ten1 report1 #fd4 ,see also ,english language4 ,greek and ,latin see ,latin and ,greek4 ,gymnastics1 ,swedish-- ,physical defects1 correcting1 #daj4 ,superiority of1 to ordinary gymnastics1 #daj4 ,value of1 #djh4 ,habits1 right1 forming1 #ci4 ,hamilton1 ,sir ,w41 on teaching1 #acd4 ,hand arts see ,manual training4 ,harris1 ,dr4-- ,art in education1 #cbb4 ,history1 definition of1 #aad4 ,manual work1 views on educational value of1 #cbc4 ,mistakes to be avoided in education1 #ag4 ,head mistresses and head masters1 control exercised by1 #bb4 ,health-- ,book recommended1 #dba4 ,care of1 during school years1 #chc4 ,necessary conditions1 #cig4 ,heat and light1 #cjb4 ,height and weight of girls at different ages1 #daf1 #dah4 ,hieroglyphics1 interesting children in1 #de4 ,high schools1 first school established by ,miss ,buss1 etc41 #d4 ,higher education of women1 reforms since #ahdh1 #c4 ,history-- ,ancient history see that title4 ,approaching subject1 methods1 #aba4 ,definition1 #aad4 ,educational value1 #aad1 #acg4 ,german scheme of teaching1 #aff4 ,junior class1 history for1 #aba4 ,moral lessons from1 #aae4 ,political economy more important for girls than constitutional history1 #abj4 ,psychological order of study1 #beh4 ,senior classes1 history for1 #abb1 #abd4 ,class library1 forming1 #acj4 ,contemporary writings1 studying1 #aca4 ,continuity of history1 tracing1 #abf4 ,essay-writing1 value of1 #ace4 ,first-hand acquaintance with authorities desirable1 #acj1 #aca4 ,historical novels1 etc41 recommended1 #acc1 #aej4 ,maps1 lack of1 suggestions1 #abi4 ,pictures1 etc41 educative power of1 #acb1 #cba4 ,post-school work1 #acf4 ,previous knowledge to be assumed1 #abf4 ,sectional teaching1 advantages1 #abg4 ,selection1 principle of1 #abf4 8,spirit0 of the period1 catching1 #abd4 ,syllabus of lessons1 #abh1 #acj1 #ach4 ,testing work1 #acd4 ,text-books recommended1 #acb1 #ade4 ,time maps see that title4 ,historical novels1 value for elder classes1 #abb1 #acc4 ,hockey1 #dje4 ,home and school1 relation between1 #cfg4 ,rules for home government in connection with school work1 #cga4 ,humanities-- ,inclusion in course of study1 importance of1 #bj4 ,teachers' studying1 necessity for1 #i4 ,hygiene1 school1 book recommended1 #dba4 ,ideal1 ultimate1 or perfect development of individual1 keeping in view1 #da4 ,ideals1 highest1 encouraging1 #da4 ,individual life1 developing1 #da4 ,inquiry1 spirit of1 awakening and sustaining1 #dj4 ,intellectual ambition1 fostering1 #dj4 ,intellectual sympathy with pupil1 necessity for1 #ch4 ,intellectual work1 number of hours to be devoted to1 #dab4 ,interest1 awakening1 in pupils1 #cg4 ,judgment cultivated by study of history1 #aag4 ,knowledge of the world essential for teachers1 #cge4 ,known to the unknown1 proceeding from1 in teaching1 #ch4 ,lacrosse1 #dje4 ,laing1 ,mr41 establishment of first high school1 #d4 ,languages-- ,enjoyment of work essential for pupil1 #ajd4 ,latin and ,greek see that title4 ,methods of teaching compared1 #fi4 ,modern languages see that title4 ,order of teaching1 #id1 #beg4 ,latin and ,greek-- ,advanced work1 methods1 #gg4 ,books recommended1 #ga1 #ge1 #gg1 #gh1 #ha1 #hb1 #hi4 ,composition1 hints on teaching1 #ge1 #hj4 ,construing1 lessons in1 #gb4 ,conversation1 #gb4 ,educational value of ,latin1 #fh4 ,examples prefixed to exercises to be learnt by heart1 #gf4 ,greek accentuation1 #hc4 ,greek preferred to ,latin1 #ajd4 ,late learners1 chance of success1 #hf4 ,methods of teaching compared1 #fi4 ,models and illustrations of classical life and history1 suggestions1 #he4 ,position in girls' education1 #fg1 #id1 #ajc4 ,pronunciation1 #hb4 ,reading to be begun as soon as possible1 #ga4 ,illustrative works to accompany reading1 #gi4 ,repetition1 #gg4 ,scheme of work1 #hg4 ,style1 attention to1 #hj4 ,translations-- ,old ,english versions1 value of1 #hd4 ,unseen translation1 beginning1 #gf4 ,using1 #gi4 ,verse writing1 #ha4 ,weak points in girls' work1 #hf4 ,law1 ,william1 on true learning1 #cie4 8,le ,matre ,phontique10 alphabet and specimens of writing from1 #aaa4 ,learning by heart1 value of1 #ed4 ,lectures1 school1 parents attending1 #cga4 ,leisure-- ,mental leisure required by teachers1 #cge4 ,ripening of character1 need of leisure for1 #baj4 ,time table arranged by ,miss ,beale1 #ac4 ,length of lessons1 #af4 ,letters1 classifying1 importance of1 #ej4 ,light and heat1 #cjb4 ,lighting in schools1 #dbj4 ,literature-- ,english literature see that title4 ,german literature1 attractiveness of1 #ajc4 ,logarithms as part of scientific arithmetic1 #bdh note4 ,magnetism and electricity1 #bii4 ,manual training-- ,educational value1 #cbc1 #dad4 ,handicrafts1 suggested1 #dad1 #dae4 ,modelling1 #cfc4 ,needlework1 #cfa1 #dae4 ,sloyd1 #cff4 ,wood-carving1 etc41 #cfb4 ,maps-- ,constant use of maps1 importance of1 #cj4 ,historical maps1 lack of1 #abi4 ,marks-- ,chart showing fluctuation in1 #cb4 ,inspection by head mistress1 advantage of1 #ca4 ,personal rivalry1 method avoiding1 #chh4 ,martineau1 ,dr41 on history1 #aad4 ,mathematics-- ,algebra see that title4 ,books recommended1 #bdh1 #bdi4 ,geometry see that title4 ,historical method of teaching1 advantage of1 #bdh4 ,mixed mathematics1 #bdh4 ,mazzini on 8,solidarity of ,man10 #abj4 ,meiklejohn1 spelling book1 exhaustive nature of1 #aji4 ,mental state of pupil1 teaching must be adapted to1 #ci4 ,method of teaching subject should be adapted to age of pupil1 #ai4 8,mthode mnmonique polonaise0 applied as a record of time1 #afi4 ,miall1 ,professor1 on difficulties in education1 #bc4 ,microscopes1 use of1 in schools1 #bfe4 ,mill1 ,mr41 on study of history1 #acg4 ,milton1 quotations from1 on-- ,divine philosophy1 #da4 ,education1 #b note4 ,mistakes in education1 #ag4 ,modelling-- ,educational value1 #cfc4 ,individual and class teaching1 #cfd4 ,studies1 #cfd4 ,tools required1 #cfc4 ,modern languages-- ,books recommended1 #aaa4 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#dbj4 ,water supply in schools1 #dbj4 ,weight and height of girls at different ages1 #daf1 #dah4 ,wood-carving1 etc41 #dae4 ,educational value1 #cfb4 ,woodward1 ,professor1 on analysis of sentences1 #fj4 ,writing1 preliminary teaching1 #de4 ,zoology see ,biological sciences4 ,illustration ,transcriber's ,notes ,depending on the hard- and software used to read this text and their settings1 not all elements may display as intended4 ,the sections on phonetics and mathematics in particular contain characters that may not display properly4 ,some wide tables have been split2 blank lines resulting from this split have not been deleted1 so that the parts may be re-combined more easily4 ,where feasible1 a graphic representation of illustrations has been provided2 these are intended to give an impression only4 ,inconsistent and unusual spelling1 hyphenation1 capitalisation1 etc4 7including those of proper and geographical names7 have been retained1 except as listed below4 ,page #df1 #dg1 symbols3 for some symbols there is no real glyph1 the ones given here are intended to give an approximation of the shapes only4 ,page #ajh1 careful experiments have established #a73 there are no subsequent numbers4 ,page #aab1 phonetics3 as printed in the source document1 even though there appear to be some mistakes1 inconsistencies and omissions in the phonetics4 ,there are several errors in the ,german text 7,wenn wir uns 44471 these have not been corrected4 ,page #abi1 #acj1 ,sprner3 ,karl ,spruner von ,merz4 ,page #adg1 ,ranke4 ,history of ,england1 vol4 444 endon ,press3 part of the text is missing from the source document2 the publisher is the ,clarendon ,press1 probably the reference is to volume ii4 ,page #bba ff41 #bce3 the ditto marks_/low double quote marks in amounts are present as such in the source document2 they appear to be used as separators between the pounds1 shillings and pence4 ,the inconsistent use of ,s4 and ,d4 above the shillings and pence has been copied from the source document4 ,page #bcj1 ,nearly all children will write thus3 #g #c1 etc413 as printed in the source document1 the first fraction should be 4 ,page #bcc1 #efa #c #c #c #bc3 the multiplication results in #fba1 which is the number required cf4 the sum on the previous page4 ,calculation before 8,i have not given 44403 #b should be inserted after #aa #e4 ,page #bcd1 circulator example3 8 ,no 0 moved to more clearly reflect the division4 ,page #bce1 ,suppose we want a sum 4443 the calculation and accompanying explanation are given as printed2 the decimal point in the last term 7#jeifib7 was not visible in the source document4 ,page #bfj1 footnote #be3 am an am n should be am an am n4 ,changes3 ,footnotes1 tables1 equations and illustrations have been moved outside text paragraphs4 ,sidenotes 7in square brackets7 have been moved to immediately before the paragraph to which they belong4 ,several ditto marks 77 and abbreviations 7,do47 have been replaced with the dittoed text4 ,some minor obvious typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently4 ,various pages3 ,frobl has been changed to ,frbel4 ,page #aa3 ,erdknude has been changed to ,erdkunde 7#b74 ,page #dc3 ,greard has been changed to ,grard4 ,page #ha3 8in despite of0 has been changed to 8in spite of04 ,page #ajg3 8which he puts most dearly and forcible0 has been changed to 8which he puts most clearly and forcibly0 ,page #ajh1 second inserted after 8instructed on the old method40 ,page #bja3 8,essays of ,ella0 has been changed to 8,essays of ,elia04