,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,9 ?is pla9-text r5d]+1 4'4 means !re=e alpha1 beta1 4441 ,alpha1 ,beta1 444 = ,greek symbols ,,d$uctive ,,logic ,,by ,,/4 ,,george ,,/ock1 ,m4,a4 ,,pembroke ,,college1 ,,ox=d ,,preface4 ,"o critic1 :o 0 k9d en\gh to look at ?is book 9 manuscript1 recomm5d$ me to ab&on ! design ( ,publi%+ x1 on ! gr\nd t my logic 0 too l all o!r logics2 ano!r sugge/$ to me to cut out a consid]able am\nt ( new matt]4 ,! latt] advice ,i h foll[$2 ! =m] has enc\rag$ me to hope t ,i %all n be consid]$ guilty ( wanton innovation4 ,! few novelties :i* ,i h v5tur$ to reta9 w1 ,i tru/1 be reg>d$ z legitimate ext5sions ( receiv$ l9es ( tea*+4 ,my object has be5 to produce a "w :i* %\ld be z ?or\ghly repres5tative ( ! pres5t /ate ( ! logic ( ! ,ox=d ,s*ools z any ( ! text-books ( ! pa/4 ,! qualities :i* ,i h aim$ at be=e all o!rs h be5 cle>ness & consi/5cy4 ,= ! task :i* ,i h tak5 ^u myself ,i may claim "o qualification--t ( exp]i5ce2 s9ce m ?an sev5te5 ye>s h n[ elaps$ s9ce ,i took my fir/ pupil 9 logic = ! ,hon\r ,s*ool ( ,mod]ations1 & dur+ t "t ,i h be5 pretty cont9u\sly engag$ 9 /udy+ & tea*+ ! subject4 ,9 ackn[l$g+ my obligations to previ\s writ]s ,i mu/ beg9 ) ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 ^: writ+s fir/ gave me an int]e/ 9 ! subject4 ,! works ( ,mill & ,hamilton h ( c\rse be5 freely drawn ^u4 ,i h n foll[$ ei!r ( ^? two great writ]s exclusively1 b h endeav\r$ to assimilate :at seem$ be/ 9 bo?4 ,to ,pr(essor ,f[l] ,i am "u a special debt4 ,i _h n ! privilege ( p]sonal tea*+ f him 9 logic1--z ,i _h 9 "s o!r subjects2 b 8 book fell into my h&s at an e>ly p]iod 9 my m5tal tra9+1 & 0 s ?or\ghly /udi$ z to h become a p]man5t "p ( ! furniture ( my m9d4 ,mu* ! same may be said ( my relation to ! late ,pr(essor ,jevons's ,elem5t>y ,lessons 9 ,logic4 ,two o!r books1 :i* ,i feel b\nd to m5tion ) special emphasis1 are ,hansel's edition ( ,aldri* & ,mc,cosh's ,laws ( ,discursive ,?\ght4 ,if !re be add$ to ! =ego+ ,watts's ,logic1 ,?omson's ,outl9es ( ! ,laws ( ,?\ght1 ,ba9's ,d$uctive ,logic1 ,jevons's ,/udies 9 ,d$uctive ,logic & ,pr9ciples ( ,sci5ce1 ,bradley's ,pr9ciples ( ,logic1 ,abbott's ,elem5ts ( ,logic1 ,walk]'s edition ( ,murray1 ,ray's ,text-book ( ,d$uctive ,logic1 & ,wea!rley's ,rudim5ts ( ,logic1 ,i ?9k ! li/ w be exhau/$ ( mod]n works f :i* ,i am consci\s ( hav+ borr[$4 ,b1 n to =get ! sun1 :ile ?ank+ ! manufactur]s ( lamps & c&les1 ,i %\ld add t ,i h /udi$ ! works ( ,ari/otle accord+ to ! measure ( my "t & ability4 ,?is "w has _h ! great advantage ( hav+ be5 revis$1 :ile /ill 9 manuscript1 by ,mr4 ,alfr$ ,rob9son1 ,fell[ ( ,new ,college1 to :om ,i _c suffici5tly express my obligation4 ,i h avail$ myself to ! full ( ! s]ies ( criticisms :i* he 0 k9d en\gh to s5d me4 ,z "s additions h be5 made s9ce !n1 he _c be held 9 anyway responsible = ! faults :i* less k9dly critics may detect4 ,= ! examples at ! end ,i am ma9ly indebt$ to o!rs1 & to a l>ge ext5t to my +5i\s fri5d1 ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,j4 ,prie/ ( ,m]ton ,college4 ,my ?anks are due also to my fri5d & =m] pupil1 ,mr4 ,gilb]t ,gr9dle1 ,s*ol> ( ,corpus1 :o has be5 at ! pa9s to compose an index1 & to revise ! pro(s z !y pass$ ?r\gh ! press4 ,& la/1 b n lea/1 ,i mu/ set on record my gratitude to ,comm&] ,r4 ,a4 ,/ock1 ,r4,n41 "o ( ,h] ,maje/y's ,knights ( ,w9dsor1 )\t ^: bro!rly aid ?is "w might nev] h be5 writt51 & w\ld c]ta9ly n h assum$ exactly its pres5t %ape4 ,,ox=d1 ,octob] #bb1 #ahhh4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,preface4 ,,introduction1 #a-ef4 ,,"p ,i4 ,( ,t]ms1 #eg-aga4 ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,( ! ,t]m z di/+ui%$ f o!r words1 #eg-gf4 ,,ii4 ,( ! ,division ( ,?+s1 #gg-he4 ,,iii4 ,( ! ,divisions ( ,t]ms1 #hf-afe4 ,,iv4 ,( ! ,law ( ,inv]se ,v>iation ( ,ext5sion & ,int5sion1 #aff-aga4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,( ,propositions1 #agb-ahe4 ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,( ! ,proposition z di/+ui%$ f o!r ,s5t5ces1 #agb-ahe4 ,,ii4 ,( ! ,copula1 #ahf-bja4 ,,iii4 ,( ! ,divisions ( ,propositions1 #bjb-bgc4 ,,iv4 ,( ! ,di/ribution ( ,t]ms1 #bgd-bid4 ,v4 ,( ! ,quantification ( ! ,pr$icate1 #bie-cab4 ,,vi4 ,( ! ,heads ( ,pr$icables1 #cac-cdf4 ,,vii4 ,( ,def9ition1 #cdg-chd4 ,,viii4 ,( ,division1 #che-dbe4 ,,"p ,,iii4 ,( ,inf]5ces1 #dbf-hhd4 ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,( ,inf]5ces 9 g5]al1 #dbf-dda4 ,,ii4 ,( ,d$uctive ,inf]5ces1 #ddb-ddh4 ,,iii4 ,( ,opposition1 #ddi-dgh4 ,,iv4 ,( ,conv]sion1 #dgi-die4 ,v4 ,( ,p]mutation1 #dif-ejb4 ,,vi4 ,( ,comp\nd ,=ms ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce1 #ejc-ecb4 ,,vii4 ,( ,o!r ,=ms ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce1 #ecc-eci4 ,,viii4 ,( ,m$iate ,inf]5ces or ,syllogisms1 #edj-eeg4 ,,ix4 ,( ,mood & ,figure1 #eeh-efh4 ,x4 ,( ! ,canon ( ,reason+1 #efi-eha4 ,,xi4 ,( ! ,g5]al ,rules ( ,syllogism1 #ehb-eih4 ,,xii4 ,( ! ,det]m9ation ( ! ,legitimate ,moods ( ,syllogism1 #eii-fje4 ,,xiii4 ,( ! ,special ,rules ( ! ,f\r ,figures1 #fjf-fbj4 ,,xiv4 ,( ! ,det]m9ation ( ! ,moods t are valid 9 ! ,f\r ,figures1 #fba-fcb4 ,,xv4 ,( ! ,special ,canons ( ! ,f\r ,figures1 #fcc-fdg4 ,,xvi4 ,( ! ,special ,uses ( ! ,f\r ,figures1 #fdh-fee4 ,,xvii4 ,( ! ,syllogism ) ,?ree ,figures1 #fef-fff4 ,,xviii4 ,( ,r$uction1 #ffg-gjj4 ,,xix4 ,( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce z appli$ to ,complex ,propositions1 #gja-gcj4 ,,xx4 ,( ,complex ,syllogisms1 #gca-gdc4 ,,xxi4 ,( ! ,r$uction ( ! ,p>tly ,conjunctive ,syllogism1 #gdd-geb4 ,,xxii4 ,( ! ,p>tly ,conjunctive ,syllogism reg>d$ z all ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce1 #gec-gei4 ,,xxiii4 ,( ! ,disjunctive ,syllogism1 #gfj-gfe4 ,,xxiv4 ,( ! ,r$uction ( ! ,disjunctive ,syllogism1 #gff-gfi4 ,,xxv4 ,( ! ,disjunctive ,syllogism reg>d$ z an ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce1 #ggj-ggg4 ,,xxvi4 ,( ! ,mix$ ,=m ( ,complex ,syllogism1 #ggh-gie4 ,,xxvii4 ,( ! ,r$uction ( ! ,dilemma1 #gif-gig4 ,,xxviii4 ,( ! ,dilemma reg>d$ z an ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce1 #gih1gii4 ,,xxix4 ,( ,tra9s ( ,reason+1 #hjj-hbf4 ,,xxx4 ,( ,fallacies1 #hbg-hhd4 ,,ex]cises4 ,,index4 ,,introduction4 #a4 ,,logic is divid$ into two bran*es1 namely-- 7#a7 ,inductive1 7#b7 ,d$uctive4 #b4 ,! problem ( inductive logic is to det]m9e ! actual tru? or falsity ( propositions3 ! problem ( d$uctive logic is to det]m9e _! relative tru? or falsity1 t is to say1 giv5 su* & su* propositions z true1 :at o!rs w foll[ f !m4 #c4 ,h5ce 9 ! natural ord] ( treatm5t inductive logic prec$es d$uctive1 s9ce x is induction :i* supplies u ) ! g5]al tru?s1 f :i* we reason d[n 9 our d$uctive inf]5ces4 #d4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 ) logic z a :ole t we are "h conc]n$1 b only ) d$uctive logic1 :i* may be def9$ z ,! ,sci5ce ( ! ,=mal ,laws ( ,?\ght4 #e4 ,9 ord] fully to und]/& ?is def9ition we mu/ "k exactly :at is meant by '?\ght1' by a 'law ( ?\ght1' by ! t]m '=mal1' & by 'sci5ce4' #f4 ,?\ght1 z "h us$1 is conf9$ to ! faculty ( comp>ison4 ,all ?\ght involves comp>ison1 t is to say1 a recognition ( lik5ess or unlik5ess4 #g4 ,! laws ( ?\ght are ! conditions ( correct ?9k+4 ,! t]m 'law1' h[ev]1 is s ambigu\s t x w be well to det]m9e m precisely 9 :at s5se x is "h us$4 #h4 ,we talk ( ! 'laws ( ! l&' & ( ! 'laws ( nature1' & x is evid5t t we mean v diff]5t ?+s by ^! expressions4 ,by a law 9 ! political s5se is meant a comm& impos$ by a sup]ior ^u an inf]ior & sanction$ by a p5alty = disob$i5ce4 ,b by ! 'laws ( nature' are meant m]ely c]ta9 uni=mities among natural ph5om5a2 = in/ance1 ! 'law ( gravitation' means t e p>ticle ( matt] does inv>iably attract e o!r p>ticle ( matt] 9 ! univ]se4 #i4 ,! ^w 'law' is transf]r$ by a metaphor f "o ( ^! s5ses to ! o!r4 ,! effect ( su* a comm& z t describ$ above is to produce a c]ta9 am\nt ( uni=mity 9 ! conduct ( m51 & s1 :]e we obs]ve uni=mity 9 nature1 we assume t x is ! result ( su* a comm&1 :]eas ! only ?+ really kn[n to u is ! fact ( uni=mity itself4 #aj4 ,n[ 9 :i* ( ^! two s5ses are we us+ ! t]m 'laws ( ?\ght'8 ,! laws ( ! l&1 x is pla91 are (t5 violat$1 :]eas ! laws ( nature nev] c be s ,footnote3 ,!re is a s5se 9 :i* p frequ5tly speak ( ! laws ( nature be+ violat$1 z :5 "o says t intemp]ance or celibacy is a violation ( ! laws ( nature1 b "h by 'nature' is meant an ideal p]fection 9 ! conditions ( exi/5ce44 ,c ! laws ( ?\ght be violat$ 9 l mann] ) ! laws ( ! l&8 ,or are !y inviolable l ! laws ( nature8 #aa4 ,9 appe>ance !y c be1 & manife/ly (t5 are violat$-= h[ else c\ld error be possible8 ,b 9 reality !y c n4 ,no man ev] accepts a contradiction :5 x pres5ts itself to ! m9d z su*3 b :5 reason+ is at all complicat$ :at does really involve a contradiction is n se5 to d s2 & ?is sort ( error is fur!r assi/$ by ! inf9ite p]plexities ( language4 #ab4 ,! laws ( ?\ght !n 9 _! ultimate expression are c]ta9 uni=mities :i* inv>iably hold among m5tal ph5om5a1 & s f> !y resemble ! laws ( nature3 b 9 _! complex applications !y may be violat$ ow+ to error1 z ! laws ( ! l& may be violat$ by crime4 #ac4 ,we h n[ to det]m9e ! mean+ ( ! expression '=mal laws ( ?\ght4' #ad4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 =m & matt] is "o :i* p]vades all nature4 ,we are famili> ) x 9 ! case ( concrete ?+s4 ,a cup1 = in/ance1 ) precisely ! same =m1 may be compos$ ( v diff]5t matt]-gold1 silv]1 pewt]1 horn or :at n8 #ae4 ,simil>ly 9 e act ( ?\ght we may di/+ui% two ?+s-- 7#a7 ! object ?\ght ab\t1 7#b7 ! way 9 :i* ! m9d ?9ks ( x4 ,! fir/ is call$ ! ,matt]2 ! second ! ,=m ( ,?\ght4 #af4 ,n[ ,=mal1 :i* is ano!r "n = ,d$uctive ,logic1 is conc]n$ only ) ! way 9 :i* ! m9d ?9ks1 & has no?+ to d ) ! p>ticul> objects ?\ght ab\t4 #ag4 ,s9ce ! =m may be ! same1 :il/ ! matt] is diff]5t1 we may say t =mal logic is conc]n$ ) ! ess5tial & necess>y elem5ts ( ?\ght z oppos$ to su* z are accid5tal & cont+5t4 ,by 'cont+5t' is meant :at holds true 9 "s cases1 b n 9 o!rs4 ,= in/ance1 9 ! p>ticul> case ( equilat]al triangles x is true to say1 n only t 'all equilat]al triangles are equiangul>1' b also t 'all equiangul> triangles are equilat]al4' ,b ! evid5ce = ^! two propositions is indep5d5t4 ,! "o is n a =mal consequ5ce ( ! o!r4 ,if x 71 we %\ld be able to apply ! same inf]5ce to all matt]1 & ass]t g5]ally t if all ,a is ,b1 all ,b is ,a1 :i* x is notori\s t we _c d4 #ah4 ,x rema9s n[ = ! full elucidation ( our def9ition to det]m9e :at is meant by 'sci5ce4' #ai4 ,! "q has (t5 be5 discuss$ :e!r logic is a sci5ce or an art4 ,! answ] to x mu/ dep5d ^u ! mean+ we assign to ^! t]ms4 #bj4 ,broadly speak+1 !re is ! same diff]5ce betwe5 ,sci5ce & ,art z !re is betwe5 kn[+ & do+4 ,sci5ce is sy/ematiz$ k2 ,art is sy/ematiz$ action4 ,sci5ce is acquir$ by /udy2 ,art is acquir$ by practice4 #ba4 ,n[ logic is manife/ly a bran* ( k1 & does n necess>ily conf] any practical skill4 ,x is only ! "r use ( its rules 9 ?9k+ :i* c make m5 ?9k bett]4 ,x is !re=e1 9 ! broad s5se ( ! t]ms1 :olly a sci5ce & n at all an art4 #bb4 ,b ?is ^w 'art1' l mo/ o!rs1 is ambigu\s1 & is (t5 us$1 n = skill display$ 9 practice1 b = ! k necess>y !reto4 ,?is mean+ is bett] convey$ by ! t]m 'practical sci5ce4' #bc4 ,sci5ce is ei!r speculative or practical4 ,9 ! fir/ case we /udy m]ely t we may "k2 9 ! latt] t we may d4 ,anatomy is a speculative sci5ce2 ,surg]y is a practical sci5ce4 ,9 ! fir/ case we /udy ! human frame 9 ord] t we may und]/& its /ructure2 9 ! second t we may assi/ its ne$s4 ,:e!r logic is a speculative or a practical sci5ce dep5ds entirely ^u ! way 9 :i* x is treat$4 ,if we /udy ! laws ( ?\ght m]ely t we may "k :at !y are1 we are mak+ x a speculative sci5ce2 if we /udy ! same laws ) a view to d$uc+ rules = ! guidance ( ?\ght1 we are mak+ x a practical sci5ce4 #bd4 ,h5ce logic may be decl>$ to be bo? ! sci5ce & ! art ( ?9k+4 ,x is ! art ( ?9k+ 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* gramm> is ! art ( speak+4 ,gramm> is n 9 itself ! "r use ( words1 b a k ( x enables m5 to use words correctly4 ,9 ! same way a k ( logic enables m5 to ?9k correctly1 or at lea/ to avoid incorrect ?\ghts4 ,z an art logic may be call$ ! navigation ( ! sea ( ?\ght4 #be4 ,! laws ( ?\ght are all r$ucible to ! ?ree foll[+ axioms1 :i* are kn[n z ,! ,?ree ,fundam5tal ,laws ( ,?\ght4 7#a7 ,! ,law ( ,id5tity-- ,:atev] is1 is2 or1 9 a m precise =m1 ,e ,a is ,a4 7#b7 ,! ,law ( ,contradiction-- ,no?+ c bo? be & n be2 ,no?+ c be ,a & n ,a4 7#c7 ,! ,law ( ,exclud$ ,middle-- ,ev]y?+ mu/ ei!r be or n be2 ,ev]y?+ is ei!r ,a or n ,a4 #bf4 ,ea* ( ^! pr9ciples is indep5d5t & self-evid5t4 #bg4 ,if x 7 possible = ! law ( id5tity to be violat$1 no violation ( ! law ( contradiction w\ld necess>ily ensue3 = a ?+ might !n be some?+ else1 )\t be+ itself at ! same "t1 :i* latt] is :at ! law ( contradiction militates aga9/4 ,nei!r w\ld ! law ( exclud$ middle be infr+$4 ,=1 on ! supposition1 a ?+ w\ld be some?+ else1 :]eas all t ! law ( exclud$ middle dem&s is t x %\ld ei!r be itself or n4 ,a w\ld 9 ?is case adopt ! alt]native ( be+ n ,a4 #bh4 ,aga91 ! violation ( ! law ( contradiction does n involve any violation ( ! law ( id5tity3 = a ?+ might 9 t case be /ill itself1 s t ! law ( id5tity w\ld be obs]v$1 ev5 ?\gh1 ow+ to ! law ( contradiction n hold+1 x 7 n itself at ! same "t4 ,nei!r w\ld ! law ( exclud$ middle be infr+$4 ,= a ?+ w\ld1 on ! supposition1 be bo? itself & n itself1 :i* is ! v rev]se ( be+ nei!r4 #bi4 ,la/ly1 ! law ( exclud$ middle might be violat$ )\t a violation ( ! law ( contradiction3 = we %\ld !n h a ?+ :i* 0 nei!r ,a nor n ,a1 b n a ?+ :i* 0 bo? at ! same "t4 ,nei!r w\ld ! law ( id5tity be infr+$4 ,= we %\ld 9 ?is case h a ?+ :i* nei!r 0 nor 0 n1 s t ! conditions ( ! law ( id5tity c\ld n exi/ to be brok54 ,t law po/ulates t :atev] is1 is3 "h we h a ?+ :i* nev] 0 to beg9 )4 #cj4 ,^! pr9ciples are ( s simple a "* t ! discussion ( !m is apt to be reg>d$ z pu]ile4 ,especially is ?is ! case ) reg>d to ! law ( id5tity4 ,?is pr9ciple 9 fact is "o ( ^? ?+s :i* are m hon\r$ 9 ! brea* ?an 9 ! obs]vance4 ,suppose = a mom5t t ?is law did n hold--!n :at w\ld become ( all our reason+8 ,:]e w\ld be ! use ( e/abli%+ conclusions ab\t ?+s1 if !y 7 liable to evade u by a ,protean *ange ( id5tity8 #ca4 ,! rema9+ two laws supplem5t ea* o!r 9 ! foll[+ way4 ,! law ( contradiction enables u to affirm ( two exhau/ive & mutually exclusive alt]natives1 t x is impossible = bo? to be true2 ! law ( exclud$ middle entitles u to add1 t x is equally impossible = bo? to be false4 ,or1 to put ! same ?+ 9 a diff]5t =m1 ! law ( contradiction lays d[n t "o ( two su* alt]natives mu/ be false2 ! law ( exclud$ middle adds t "o mu/ be true4 #cb4 ,!re are ?ree processes ( ?\ght 7#a7 ,conception4 7#b7 ,judgem5t4 7#c7 ,inf]5ce or ,reason+4 #cc4 ,conception1 :i* is o!rwise kn[n z ,simple ,appreh5sion1 is ! act ( =m+ 9 ! m9d ! idea ( any?+1 e4g4 :5 we =m 9 ! m9d ! idea ( a cup1 we are p]=m+ ! process ( conception4 #cd4 ,judgem5t1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* x is "h us$ ,footnote3 ,sometimes ! t]m 'judgem5t' is ext5d$ to ! comp>ison ( nameless s5se-impressions1 :i* und]lies ! =mation ( concepts4 ,b ?is am\nts to id5tify+ judgem5t ) ?\ght 9 g5]al4 may be resolv$ into putt+ two ideas toge!r 9 ! m9d1 & pron\nc+ z to _! agreem5t or disagreem5t1 e4g4 we h 9 our m9ds ! idea ( a cup & ! idea ( a ?+ made ( porcela91 & we comb9e !m 9 ! judgem5t--',?is cup is made ( porcela94' #ce4 ,inf]5ce1 or ,reason+1 is ! passage ( ! m9d f "o or m judgem5ts to ano!r1 e4g4 f ! two judgem5ts ',:atev] is made ( porcela9 is brittle1' & ',?is cup is made ( porcela91' we elicit a ?ird judgem5t1 ',?is cup is brittle4' #cf4 ,correspond+ to ^! ?ree processes !re are ?ree products ( ?\ght1 viz4 7#a7 ,! ,concept4 7#b7 ,! ,judgem5t4 7#c7 ,! ,inf]5ce4 #cg4 ,s9ce our language has a t5d5cy to confuse ! di/9ction betwe5 processes & products1 ,footnote3 ,e4g4 ,we h to speak q indiscrim9ately ( ,s5sation1 ,imag9ation1 ,reflexion1 ,sight1 ,?\ght1 ,division1 ,def9ition1 & s on1 :e!r we mean 9 any case a process or a product4 x is ! m necess>y to keep !m di/9ct 9 ?\ght4 ,/rictly we ought to speak ( conceiv+1 judg+ & inf]r+ on ! "o h&1 &1 on ! o!r1 ( ! concept1 ! judgem5t & ! inf]5ce4 ,! direct object ( logic is ! /udy ( ! products r ?an ( ! processes ( ?\ght4 ,b1 at ! same "t1 9 /udy+ ! products we are /udy+ ! processes 9 ! only way 9 :i* x is possible to d s4 ,= ! human m9d _c be bo? actor & spectator at once2 we mu/ wait until a ?\ght is =m$ 9 our m9ds be=e we c exam9e x4 ,?\ght mu/ be already dead 9 ord] to be dissect$3 !re is no vivisection ( consci\sness4 ,?us we c nev] "k m ( ! processes ( ?\ght ?an :at is reveal$ to u 9 _! products4 #ch4 ,:5 ! ?ree products ( ?\ght are express$ 9 language1 !y are call$ respectively 7#a7 ,! ,t]m4 7#b7 ,! ,proposition4 7#c7 ,! ,inf]5ce4 #ci4 ,su* is ! ambiguity ( language t we h already us$ ! t]m 'inf]5ce' 9 ?ree diff]5t s5ses--fir/1 = ! act or process ( inf]r+2 secondly1 = ! result ( t act z x exi/s 9 ! m9d2 &1 ?irdly1 = ! same ?+ z express$ 9 language4 ,lat] on we %all h to notice a fur!r ambiguity 9 its use4 #dj4 ,x has be5 decl>$ t ?\ght 9 g5]al is ! faculty ( comp>ison1 & we h n[ se5 t !re are ?ree products ( ?\ght4 ,x foll[s t ea* ( ^! products ( ?\ght mu/ be ! result ( a comp>ison ( "s k9d or o!r4 ,! concept is ! result ( comp>+ attributes4 ,! judgem5t is ! result ( comp>+ concepts4 ,! inf]5ce is ! result ( comp>+ judgem5ts4 #da4 ,9 :at foll[s we %all1 = conv5i5ce1 adopt ! phraseology :i* reg>ds ! products ( ?\ght z clo!d 9 language 9 pref]5ce to t :i* reg>ds ! same products z !y exi/ 9 ! m9d ( ! individual4 ,= al?\gh ! object ( logic is to exam9e ?\ght pure & simple1 x is obvi\sly impossible to discuss x except z clo!d 9 language4 ,accord+ly ! ?ree /atem5ts above made may be express$ z foll[s-- ,! t]m is ! result ( comp>+ attributes4 ,! proposition is ! result ( comp>+ t]ms4 ,! inf]5ce is ! result ( comp>+ propositions4 #db4 ,!re is an advantage att5d+ ! *ange ( language 9 ! fact t ! ^w 'concept' is n an adequate expression = ! fir/ ( ! ?ree products ( ?\ght1 :]eas ! ^w 't]m' is4 ,by a concept is meant a g5]al notion1 or ! idea ( a class1 :i* corresponds only to a common t]m4 ,n[ n only are common t]ms ! results ( comp>ison1 b s+ul> t]ms1 or ! names ( individuals1 are s too4 #dc4 ,! e>lie/ result ( ?\ght is ! recognition ( an individual object z su*1 t is to say z di/+ui%$ & m>k$ (f f ! mass ( its surr\nd+s4 ,no d\bt ! fir/ impression produc$ ,^u ! nasc5t intellig5ce ( an infant is t ( a confus$ :ole4 ,x requires mu* ex]cise ( ?\ght to di/+ui% ?is :ole into its p>ts4 ,! complet5ess ( ! recognition ( an individual object is ann\nc$ by atta*+ a "n to x4 ,h5ce ev5 an individual "n1 or s+ul> t]m1 implies ?\ght or comp>ison4 ,be=e ! *ild c atta* a mean+ to ! ^w '"m1' :i* to x is a s+ul> t]m1 x mu/ h di/+ui%$ betwe5 ! set ( impressions produc$ 9 x by "o object f ^? :i* are produc$ 9 x by o!rs4 ,?us1 :5 ,v]gil says ,incipe1 p>ve pu]1 risu cognosc]e matrem1 he is exhort+ ! beatific infant to ! ex]cise ( ! faculty ( comp>ison4 #dd4 ,t a common t]m implies comp>ison does n ne$ to be insi/$ ^u4 ,x is because ?+s resemble ea* o!r 9 c]ta9 ( _! attributes t we call !m by a common "n1 & ?is resemblance c\ld n be asc]ta9$ except by comp>ison1 at "s "t & by "s "o4 ,?us a common t]m1 or concept1 is ! compress$ result ( an indef9ite numb] ( comp>isons1 :i* lie wrapp$ up 9 x l s _m fossils1 witness+ to prior ages ( ?\ght4 #de4 ,9 ! next product ( ?\ght1 namely1 ! proposition1 we h ! result ( a s+le act ( comp>ison betwe5 two t]ms2 & ?is is :y ! proposition is call$ ! unit ( ?\ght1 z be+ ! simple/ & mo/ direct result ( comp>ison4 #df4 ,9 ! ?ird product ( ?\ght1 namely1 ! inf]5ce1 we h a comp>ison ( propositions ei!r directly or by means ( a ?ird4 ,?is w be expla9$ lat] on4 ,= ! pres5t we return to ! fir/ product ( ?\ght4 #dg4 ,! nature ( s+ul> t]ms has n giv5 rise to mu* dispute2 b ! nature ( common t]ms has be5 ! great battle-gr\nd ( logicians4 ,:at corresponds to a s+ul> t]m is easy to det]m9e1 = ! ?+ ( :i* x is a "n is !re to po9t to3 b ! mean+ ( a common t]m1 l 'man' or 'horse1' is n s obvi\s z p are apt to ?9k on fir/ he>+ ( ! "q4 #dh4 ,a common t]m or class-"n 0 kn[n to m$ival logicians "u ! title ( a ,univ]sal2 & x 0 on ! "q ',:at is a ,univ]sal #g' t !y split into ! ?ree s*ools ( ,reali/s1 ,nom9ali/s1 & ,conceptuali/s4 ,"h are ! answ]s ( ! ?ree s*ools to ?is "q 9 _! mo/ exagg]at$ =m-- #di4 ,univ]sals1 said ! ,reali/s1 are sub/ances hav+ an indep5d5t exi/5ce 9 nature4 #ej4 ,univ]sals1 said ! ,nom9ali/s1 are a m]e matt] ( words1 ! memb]s ( :at we call a class hav+ no?+ 9 common b ! "n4 #ea4 ,univ]sals1 said ! ,conceptuali/s1 exi/ 9 ! m9d alone1 ,!y are ! conceptions "u :i* ! m9d reg>ds ext]nal objects4 #eb4 ,! orig9 ( pure ,realism is due to ,plato & 8 doctr9e ( 'ideas'2 = ,idealism1 9 ?is s5se1 is n oppos$ to ,realism1 b id5tical ) x4 ,plato seems to h imag9$ t1 z !re 0 a really exi/+ ?+ correspond+ to a s+ul> t]m1 su* z ,socrates1 s !re mu/ be a really exi/+ ?+ correspond+ to ! common t]m 'man4' ,b :5 once ! exi/5ce ( ^! g5]al objects is admitt$1 !y swamp all o!r exi/5ces4 ,= individual m5 are fleet+ & transitory--subject to gr[?1 decay & dea?--:]eas ! idea ( man is imp]i%able & et]nal4 ,x is only by p>tak+ 9 ! nature ( ^! ideas t individual objects exi/ at all4 #ec4 ,pure ,nom9alism 0 ! sw+ ( ! p5dulum ( ?\ght to ! v opposite extreme2 :ile ,conceptualism 0 an attempt to hit ! happy mean betwe5 ! two4 #ed4 ,r\ghly x may be said t ! ,reali/s s\ght = ! answ] to ! "q ',:at is a ,univ]sal8' 9 ! matt] ( ?\ght1 ! ,conceptuali/s 9 ! =m1 & ! ,nom9ali/s 9 ! expression4 #ee4 ,a full answ] to ! "q ',:at is a ,univ]sal8' w br+ 9 some?+ ( ! ?ree views above giv51 :ile avoid+ ! exagg]ation ( ea*4 ,a ,univ]sal is a numb] ( ?+s t are call$ by ! same "n2 b !y w\ld n be call$ by ! same "n unless !y fell "u ! same conception 9 ! m9d2 nor w\ld !y fall "u ! same conception 9 ! m9d unless !re actually exi/$ simil> attributes 9 ! sev]al memb]s ( a class1 caus+ u to reg>d !m "u ! same conception & to give !m ! same "n4 ,univ]sals !re=e d exi/ 9 nature1 & n m]ely 9 ! m9d ( man3 b _! exi/5ce is dep5d5t ^u individual objects1 in/ead ( individual objects dep5d+ = _! exi/5ce ^u !m4 ,ari/otle saw ?is v cle>ly1 & m>k$ ! di/9ction betwe5 ! objects correspond+ to ! s+ul> & to ! common t]m by call+ ! =m] ,prim>y & ! latt] ,second>y ,exi/5ces4 ,ros9ante & ,excalibur are prim>y1 b 'horse' & 'sword' second>y exi/5ces4 #ef4 ,we h se5 t ! ?ree products ( ?\ght are ea* "o /age 9 advance ( ! o!r1 ! inf]5ce be+ built ^u ! proposition1 z ! proposition is built ^u ! t]m4 ,logic !re=e naturally divides itself into ?ree p>ts4 ,! ,fir/ ,"p ( ,logic deals ) ! ,t]m2 ,! ,second ,"p deals ) ! ,proposition2 ,! ,?ird ,"p deals ) ! ,inf]5ce4 ,,"p ,i4--,,( ,,t]ms4 ,,*apt] #a4 ,( ! ,t]m z di/+ui%$ f o!r words4 #eg4 ,! ^w 't]m' means a b\nd>y4 #eh4 ,! subject & pr$icate are ! two t]ms1 or b\nd>ies1 ( a proposition4 ,9 a proposition we />t f a subject & end 9 a pr$icate 7 #ahb-d71 !re be+ no?+ int]m$iate betwe5 ! two except ! act ( pron\nc+ z to _! agreem5t or disagreem5t1 :i* is regi/]$ ext]nally "u ! sign ( ! copula4 ,?us ! subject is ! 't]m9us a quo1' & ! pr$icate is ! 't]m9us ad quem4' #ei4 ,h5ce x appe>s t ! t]m by its v "n indicates t x is arriv$ at by an analysis ( ! proposition4 ,x is ! judgem5t or proposition t is ! true unit ( ?\ght & spee*4 ,! proposition z a :ole is prior 9 conception to ! t]ms :i* are its p>ts3 b ! p>ts mu/ come be=e ! :ole 9 ! syn!tic ord] ( treatm5t4 #fj4 ,a t]m is ! same ?+ z a "n or n\n4 #fa4 ,a "n is a ^w1 or collection ( words1 :i* s]ves z a m>k to recall or transmit ! idea ( a ?+1 ei!r 9 itself or ?r\gh "s ( its attributes4 #fb4 ,n\ns1 or names1 are ei!r ,sub/antive or ,adjective4 ,a ,n\n ,sub/antive is ! "n ( a ?+ 9 itself1 t is to say1 )\t ref]5ce to any special attribute4 #fc4 ,a ,n\n ,adjective is a "n :i* we are entitl$ to add to a ?+1 :5 we "k x to possess a giv5 attribute4 #fd4 ,! ,v]b1 z su*1 is n recognis$ by logic1 b is resolv$ into pr$icate & copula1 t is to say1 into a n\n :i* is affirm$ or d5i$ ( ano!r1 plus ! sign ( t affirmation or d5ial4 ',! kettle boils' is logically equival5t to ',! kettle is boil+1' ?\gh x is by no means necess>y to express ! proposition 9 ! latt] %ape4 ,"h we see t 'boils' is equival5t to ! n\n 'boil+' toge!r ) ! copula 'is1' :i* decl>es its agreem5t ) ! n\n 'kettle4' ',boil+' "h is a n\n adjective1 :i* we are entitl$ to add to 'kettle1' 9 virtue ( c]ta9 k :i* we h ab\t ! latt]4 ,be+ a v]bal n\n1 x is call$ 9 gramm> a p>ticiple1 r ?an a m]e adjective4 ,! ^w 'attributive' 9 logic embraces bo? ! adjective & p>ticiple ( gramm>4 #fe4 ,9 gramm> e n\n is a sep>ate ^w3 b to logic1 :i* is conc]n$ ) ! ?\ght r ?an ) ! expression1 x is indiff]5t :e!r a n\n1 or t]m1 consi/s ( "o ^w or _m4 ,! latt] are kn[n z '_m-word$ names4' ,9 ! foll[+ passage1 tak5 at r&om f ,butl]'s ,analogy--',^! sev]al obs]vations1 conc]n+ ! active pr9ciple ( virtue & ob$i5ce to ,god's comm&s1 are applicable to passive submission or resignation to 8 w'--we f9d ! subject consi/+ ( f\rte5 words1 & ! pr$icate ( n9e4 ,x is ! exception r ?an ! rule to f9d a pr$icate :i* consi/s ( a s+le ^w4 ,_m-word$ names 9 ,engli% (t5 consi/ ( clauses introduc$ by ! conjunction 't1' z ',t lett]s %\ld be writt5 9 /rict con=mity ) nature is true'3 (t5 also ( a grammatical subject ) "o or m dep5d5t clauses atta*$ to x1 z ',he :o fights & runs away1 ,w live to fight ano!r day4' #ff4 ,e t]m !n is n a ^w1 s9ce a t]m may consi/ ( a collection ( words4 ,nei!r is e ^w a t]m4 ',ov]1' = in/ance1 & 'swiftly1' &1 g5]ally1 :at are call$ p>ticles 9 gramm>1 d n by !mselves con/itute t]ms1 ?\gh !y may be employ$ along ) o!r words to make up a t]m4 #fg4 ,! notions ) :i* ?\ght deals involve _m subtle relations & require _m nice modifications4 ,language has in/rum5ts1 m or less p]fect1 :]eby su* relations & modifications may be express$4 ,b ^! subsidi>y aids to expression d n =m a notion :i* c ei!r h some?+ ass]t$ ( x or be ass]t$ itself ( some?+ else4 #fh4 ,h5ce words are divid$ into ?ree classes-- 7#a7 ,categorematic2 7#b7 ,syncategorematic2 7#c7 ,acategorematic4 #fi4 ,a ,categorematic ^w is "o :i* c be us$ by itself z a t]m4 #gj4 ,a ,syncategorematic ^w is "o :i* c help to =m a t]m4 #ga4 ,an ,acategorematic ^w is "o :i* c nei!r =m1 nor help to =m1 a t]m ,footnote3 ,comp>atively few ( ! p>ts ( spee* are categorematic4 ,n\ns1 :e!r sub/antive or adjective1 includ+ ( c\rse pron\ns & p>ticiples1 are s1 b only 9 _! nom9ative cases1 except :5 an oblique case is s us$ z to be equival5t to an attributive4 ,v]bs also are categorematic1 b only 9 ?ree ( _! moods1 ! ,indicative1 ! ,inf9itive1 & ! ,pot5tial4 ,! ,imp]ative & ,optative moods cle>ly d n convey ass]tions at all1 :ile ! ,subjunctive c only figure z a subord9ate memb] ( "s ass]tion4 ,we may notice1 too1 t ! relative pron\n1 unlike ! re/1 is necess>ily syncategorematic1 = ! same reason z ! subjunctive mood4 ,( ! rema9+ p>ts ( spee* ! article1 adv]b1 preposition1 & conjunction c nev] be any?+ b syncategorematic1 :ile ! int]jection is acategorematic1 l ! vocative case ( n\ns & ! imp]ative & optative moods ( v]bs1 :i* d n ent] at all into ! =m ( s5t5ce kn[n z ! proposition44 #gb4 ,categorematic lit]ally means 'pr$icable4' ',horse1' 'swift1' 'gallop+' are categorematic4 ,?us we c say1 ',! horse is swift1' or ',! horse is gallop+4' ,ea* ( ^! words =ms a t]m by itself1 b 'ov]' & 'swiftly' c only help to =m a t]m1 z 9 ! proposition1 ',! horse is gallop+ swiftly ov] ! pla94' #gc4 ,a t]m !n may be said to be a categorematic ^w or collection ( words1 t is to say1 "o :i* c be us$ by itself z a pr$icate4 #gd4 ,to entitle a ^w or collection ( words to be call$ a t]m1 x is n necess>y t x %\ld be capable ( /&+ by itself z a subject4 ,_m t]ms :i* c be us$ z pr$icates are incapable ( be+ us$ z subjects3 b e t]m :i* c be us$ z a subject 7) ! d\btful exception ( prop] names7 c be us$ also z a pr$icate4 ,! attributives 'swift' & 'gallop+' are t]ms1 q z mu* z ! subject 'horse1' b !y _c !mselves be us$ z subjects4 #ge4 ,:5 an attributive appe>s to be us$ z a subject1 x is ow+ to a grammatical ellipse4 ,?us 9 ,lat9 we say ',boni sapi5tes sunt1' & 9 ,engli% ',! good are wise1' because x is suffici5tly decl>$ by ! inflexional =m 9 ! "o case1 & by ! usage ( ! language 9 ! o!r1 t m5 are signifi$4 ,x is an accid5t ( language h[ f> adjectives c be us$ z subjects4 ,!y cease to be logical attributives ! mom5t !y are s us$4 #gf4 ,!re is a s5se 9 :i* e ^w may become categorematic1 namely1 :5 x is us$ simply z a ^w1 to ! neglect ( its prop] mean+4 ,?us we c say--',swiftly is an adv]b4' ',swiftly' 9 ?is s5se is really no m ?an ! prop] "n = a p>ticul> ^w4 ,?is s5se is te*nically kn[n z ! 'suppositio mat]ialis' ( a ^w4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,( ! ,division ( ,?+s4 #gg4 ,be=e ent]+ on ! divisions ( t]ms x is necess>y to adv]t = a mom5t to a division ( ! ?+s :]e( !y are names4 #gh4 ,by a '?+' is meant simply an object ( ?\ght--:atev] "o c ?9k ab\t4 #gi4 ,?+s are ei!r ,sub/ances or ,attributes4 ,attributes may be sub-divid$ into ,qualities & ,relations4 ,?+ ,sub/ance ,attribute ,quality ,relation #hj4 ,a ,sub/ance is a ?+ :i* c be conceiv$ to exi/ by itself4 ,all bodies are mat]ial sub/ances4 ,! s\l1 z a ?9k+ subject1 is an immat]ial sub/ance4 #ha4 ,an ,attribute is a ?+ :i* dep5ds = its exi/5ce ^u a sub/ance1 e4g4 gre5ness1 h>dness1 weight1 :i* _c be conceiv$ to exi/ ap>t f gre51 h>d1 & heavy sub/ances4 #hb4 ,a ,quality is an attribute :i* does n require m ?an "o sub/ance = its exi/5ce4 ,! attributes j m5tion$ are qualities4 ,!re might be gre5ness1 h>dness1 & weight1 if !re 7 only "o gre51 h>d & heavy sub/ance 9 ! univ]se4 #hc4 ,a ,relation is an attribute :i* requires two or m sub/ances = its exi/5ce1 e4g4 ne>ness1 fa!rhood1 introduction4 #hd4 ,:5 we say t a sub/ance c be conceiv$ to exi/ by itself1 :at is meant is t x c be conceiv$ to exi/ indep5d5tly ( o!r sub/ances4 ,we d n mean t sub/ances c be conceiv$ to exi/ indep5d5tly ( attributes1 nor yet out ( relation to a m9d p]ceiv+ !m4 ,sub/ances1 s f> z we c "k !m1 are only collections ( attributes4 ,:5 !re=e we say t sub/ances c be conceiv$ to exi/ by !mselves1 :]eas attributes are dep5d5t = _! exi/5ce ^u sub/ances1 ! real mean+ ( ! ass]tion r$uces itself to ?is1 t x is only c]ta9 collections ( attributes :i* c be conceiv$ to exi/ indep5d5tly2 :]eas s+le attributes dep5d = _! exi/5ce ^u o!rs4 ,! col\r1 smoo?ness or solidity ( a table _c be conceiv$ ap>t f ! ext5sion1 :]eas ! :ole clu/] ( attributes :i* con/itutes ! table c be conceiv$ to exi/ altoge!r indep5d5tly ( o!r 'su* clu/]s4 ,we c imag9e a table to exi/1 if ! :ole mat]ial univ]se 7 annihilat$1 & b "o m9d left to p]ceive x4 ,ap>t f m9d1 h[ev]1 we _c imag9e x3 s9ce :at we call ! attributes ( a mat]ial sub/ance are no m ?an ! v>i\s modes 9 :i* we f9d our m9ds affect$4 #he4 ,! above division ( ?+s belongs r to ! doma9 ( metaphysics ?an ( logic3 b x is ! indisp5sable basis ( ! division ( t]ms1 to :i* we n[ proce$4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,( ! ,division ( ,t]ms4 #hf4 ,! foll[+ s*eme pres5ts to ! eye ! *ief divisions ( t]ms4 ,t]m ,division ( t]ms accord+ to _! place 9 ?\ght4 ,subject-,t]m ,attributive accord+ to ! k9d ( ?+ signifi$4 ,ab/ract ,concrete accord+ to ,quantity 9 ,ext5sion4 ,s+ul> ,common accord+ to ,quality4 ,positive ,privative ,negative accord+ to numb] ( mean+s4 ,univocal ,equivocal accord+ to numb] ( ?+s involv$ 9 ! "n4 ,absolute ,relative accord+ to numb] ( quantities4 ,connotative ,non-connotative ,subject-t]m & ,attributive4 #hg4 ,by a ,subject-t]m is meant any t]m :i* is capable ( /&+ by itself z a subject1 e4g4 'ribbon1' 'horse4' #hh4 ,attributives c only be us$ z pr$icates1 n z subjects1 e4g4 '*]ry-col\r$1' 'gallop+4' ,^! c only be us$ 9 conjunction ) o!r words 7syncategorematically7 to make up a subject4 ,?us we c say ',a *]ry-col\r$ ribbon is becom+1' or ',a gallop+ horse is dang]\s4' #hi4 ,attributives are contrivances ( language :]eby we indicate t a subject has a c]ta9 attribute4 ,?us1 :5 we say ',?is pap] is :ite1' we indicate t ! subject 'pap]' possesses ! attribute :it5ess4 ,logic1 h[ev]1 also recognises z attributives t]ms :i* signify ! non-possession ( attributes4 ',n-:ite' is an attributive equally ) ':ite4' #ij4 ,an ,attributive !n may be def9$ z a t]m :i* signifies ! possession1 or non-possession1 ( an attribute by a subject4 #ia4 ,x mu/ be c>efully notic$ t attributives are n names ( attributes1 b names ( ! ?+s :i* possess ! attributes1 9 virtue ( our k t !y possess !m4 ,?us ':ite' is ! "n ( all ! ?+s :i* possess ! attribute :it5ess1 & 'virtu\s' is a "n2 n ( ! ab/ract quality1 virtue1 itself1 b ( ! m5 & actions :i* possess x4 ,x is cle> t a t]m c only prop]ly be said to be a "n ( ^? ?+s :]e( x c be pr$icat$4 ,n[1 we _c intelligibly pr$icate an attributive ( ! ab/ract quality1 or qualities1 ! possession ( :i* x implies4 ,we _c1 = in/ance1 pr$icate ! t]m 'le>n$' ( ! ab/ract quality ( le>n+3 b we may pr$icate x ( ! individuals1 ,v>ro & ,v]gil4 ,attributives1 !n1 are to be reg>d$ z names1 n ( ! attributes :i* !y imply1 b ( ! ?+s 9 :i* ^? attributes are f\nd4 #ib4 ,attributives1 h[ev]1 are names ( ?+s 9 a less direct way ?an t 9 :i* subject-t]ms may be ! names ( ! same ?+s4 ,attributives are names ( ?+s only 9 pr$ication1 :]eas subject-t]ms are names ( ?+s 9 or out ( pr$ication4 ,! t]ms 'horse' & ',bucephalus' are names ( c]ta9 ?+s1 9 ?is case animals1 :e!r we make any /atem5t ab\t !m or n3 b ! t]ms 'swift' & 'fi]y' only become names ( ! same ?+s 9 virtue ( be+ pr$icable ( !m4 ,:5 we say ',horses are swift' or ',bucephalus 0 fi]y1' ! t]ms 'swift' & 'fi]y' become names respectively ( ! same ?+s z 'horse' & ',bucephalus4' ,?is function ( attributives z names 9 a second>y s5se is exactly express$ by ! grammatical t]m 'n\n adjective4' ,an attributive is n directly ! "n ( any?+4 ,x is a "n add$ on 9 virtue ( ! possession by a giv5 ?+ ( a c]ta9 attribute1 or1 9 "s cases1 ! non-possession4 #ic4 ,al?\gh attributives _c be us$ z subjects1 !re is no?+ to prev5t a subject-t]m f be+ us$ z a pr$icate1 & s assum+ = ! "t be+ ! functions ( an attributive4 ,:5 we say ',socrates 0 a man1' we convey to ! m9d ! idea ( ! same attributes :i* are impli$ by ! attributive 'human4' ,b ^? t]ms only are call$ attributives :i* c nev] be us$ except z pr$icates4 #id4 ,?is division into ,subject-t]ms & ,attributives may be reg>d$ z a division ( t]ms accord+ to _! place 9 ?\ght4 ,attributives1 z we h se51 are ess5tially pr$icates1 & c only be ?\ght ( 9 relation to ! subject1 :]eas ! subject is ?\ght ( = its own sake4 ,ab/ract & ,concrete ,t]ms4 #ie4 ,an ,ab/ract ,t]m is ! "n ( an attribute1 e4g4 :it5ess ,footnote3 ,s9ce ?+s _c be spok5 ( except by _! names1 !re is a con/antly recurr+ s\rce ( confusion betwe5 ! ?+ itself & ! "n ( x4 ,take = in/ance ':it5ess4' ,! attribute :it5ess is a ?+1 ! ^w ':it5ess' is a t]m41 multiplication1 act1 purpose1 explosion4 #if4 ,a ,concrete ,t]m is ! "n ( a sub/ance1 e4g4 a man1 ?is *air1 ! s\l1 ,god4 #ig4 ,ab/ract t]ms are s call$ z be+ arriv$ at by a process ( ,ab/raction4 ,:at is meant by ,ab/raction w be cle> f a s+le in/ance4 ,! m9d1 9 contemplat+ a numb] ( sub/ances1 may draw (f1 or ab/ract1 its att5tion f all _! o!r *>act]i/ics1 & fix x only on "s po9t1 or po9ts1 :i* !y h 9 common4 ,?us1 9 contemplat+ a numb] ( ?ree-corn]$ objects1 we may draw away our att5tion f all _! o!r qualities1 & fix x exclusively ^u _! ?ree-corn]$ness1 ?us con/itut+ ! ab/ract notion ( 'triangle4' ,ab/raction may be p]=m$ equally well 9 ! case ( a s+le object3 b ! m9d w\ld n orig9ally h kn[n on :at po9ts to fix its att5tion except by a comp>ison ( individuals4 #ih4 ,ab/raction too may be p]=m$ ^u attributes z well z sub/ances4 ,?us1 hav+ by ab/raction already arriv$ at ! notion ( triangle1 squ>e1 & s on1 we may fix our att5tion ^u :at ^! h 9 common1 & s rise to ! high] ab/raction ( 'figure4' ,z ?\ght becomes m complex1 we may h ab/raction on ab/raction & attributes ( attributes4 ,b1 h[ev] _m /eps may int]v5e1 attributes may always be trac$ back to sub/ances at la/4 ,= attributes ( attributes c mean at bottom no?+ b ! co-exi/5ce ( attributes 91 or 9 connection )1 ! same sub/ances4 #ii4 ,we h said t ab/ract t]ms are s call$1 z be+ arriv$ at by ab/raction3 b x mu/ n be inf]r$ f ?is /atem5t t all t]ms :i* are arriv$ at by ab/raction are ab/ract4 ,if ?is 7 s1 all names w\ld be ab/ract except prop] names ( individual sub/ances4 ,all common t]ms1 includ+ attributives1 are arriv$ at by ab/raction1 b !y are n !re=e ab/ract t]ms4 ,^? t]ms only are call$ ab/ract1 :i* _c be appli$ to sub/ances at all4 ,! t]ms 'man' & 'human' are names ( ! same sub/ance ( :i* ,socrates is a "n4 ,humanity is a "n only ( c]ta9 attributes ( t sub/ance1 namely ^? :i* are %>$ by o!rs4 ,all names ( concrete ?+s !n are concrete1 :e!r !y d5ote !m individually or accord+ to classes1 & :e!r directly & 9 !mselves1 or indirectly1 z possess+ "s giv5 attribute4 #ajj4 ,by a 'concrete ?+' is meant an individual ,sub/ance conceiv$ ( ) all its attributes ab\t x4 ,! t]m is n conf9$ to mat]ial sub/ances4 ,a _s conceiv$ ( "u p]sonal attributes is z concrete z plum-pudd+4 #aja4 ,s9ce ?+s are divid$ exhau/ively into sub/ances & attributes1 x foll[s t any t]m :i* is n ! "n ( a ?+ capable ( be+ conceiv$ to exi/ by itself1 mu/ be an ab/ract t]m4 ,individual sub/ances c alone be conceiv$ to exi/ by !mselves3 all _! qualities1 actions1 passions1 & int]-relations1 all _! /ates1 & all ev5ts ) reg>d to !m1 presuppose ! exi/5ce ( ^! individual sub/ances4 ,all names !re=e ( su* ?+s z ^? j enum]at$ are ab/ract t]ms4 ,! t]m 'action1' = in/ance1 is an ab/ract t]m4 ,= h[ c\ld !re be action )\t an ag5t8 ,! t]m 'act' also is equally ab/ract = ! same reason4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 'action' & 'act' is n ! diff]5ce betwe5 ab/ract & concrete1 b ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! "n ( a process & ! "n ( ! correspond+ product4 ,unless acts c be conceiv$ to exi/ )\t ag5ts !y are z ab/ract z ! action f :i* !y result4 #ajb4 ,s9ce e t]m mu/ be ei!r ab/ract or concrete1 x may be ask$--,are attributives ab/ract or concrete8 ,! answ] ( c\rse dep5ds ^u :e!r !y are names ( sub/ances or names ( attributes4 ,b attributives1 x mu/ be rememb]$1 are nev] directly names ( any?+1 9 ! way t subject-t]ms are2 !y are only names ( ?+s 9 virtue ( be+ pr$icat$ ( !m4 ,:e!r an attributive is ab/ract or concrete1 dep5ds on ! nature ( ! subject ( :i* x is ass]t$ or d5i$4 ,:5 we say ',?is man is noble1' ! t]m 'noble' is concrete1 z be+ ! "n ( a sub/ance3 b :5 we say ',?is act is noble1' ! t]m 'noble' is ab/ract1 z be+ ! "n ( an attribute4 #ajc4 ,! division ( t]ms into ,ab/ract & ,concrete is bas$ ^u ! k9d ( ?+ signifi$4 ,x involves no ref]5ce to actual exi/5ce4 ,!re are imag9>y z well z real sub/ances4 ,logically a c5taur is z mu* a sub/ance z a horse4 ,t]ms4 #ajd4 ,a ,s+ul> ,t]m is a "n :i* c be appli$1 9 ! same s5se1 to "o ?+ only1 e4g4 ',john1' ',p>is1' '! capital ( ,france1' '?is p54' #aje4 ,a ,common ,t]m is a "n :i* c be appli$1 9 ! same s5se1 to a class ( ?+s1 e4g4 'man1' 'metropolis1' 'p54' ,9 ord] t a t]m may be appli$ 9 ! same s5se to a numb] ( ?+s1 x is evid5t t x mu/ indicate attributes :i* are common to all ( !m4 ,! t]m ',john' is applicable to a numb] ( ?+s1 b n 9 ! same s5se1 z x does n indicate attributes4 #ajf4 ,common t]ms are =m$1 z we h se5 already 7 #ii71 by ab/raction1 i4 e4 by )draw+ ! att5tion f ! attributes 9 :i* individuals diff]1 & conc5trat+ x ^u ^? :i* !y h 9 common4 #ajg4 ,a class ne$ n necess>ily consi/ ( m ?an two ?+s4 ,if ! sun & moon 7 ! only heav5ly bodies 9 ! univ]se1 ! ^w 'heav5ly body' w\ld /ill be a common t]m1 z indicat+ ! attributes :i* are possess$ alike by ea*4 #ajh4 ,?is be+ s1 x foll[s t ! division ( t]ms into s+ul> & common is z exhau/ive z ! prec$+ ones1 s9ce a s+ul> t]m is ! "n ( "o ?+ & a common t]m ( m ?an "o4 ,x is indiff]5t :e!r ! ?+ 9 "q be a sub/ance or an attribute2 nor does x matt] h[ complex x may be1 s long z x is reg>d$ by ! m9d z "o4 #aji4 ,s9ce e t]m mu/ ?us be ei!r s+ul> or common1 ! memb]s ( ! prec$+ divisions mu/ f9d _! place "u "o or bo? heads ( ?is "o4 ,subject-t]ms may pla9ly fall "u ei!r head ( s+ul> or common3 b attributives are ess5tially common t]ms4 ,su* names z 'gre51' 'g5tle1' 'incongru\s' are applicable1 /rictly 9 ! same s5se1 to all ! ?+s :i* possess ! attributes :i* !y imply4 #aaj4 ,are ab/ract t]ms !n1 x may be ask$1 s+ul> or common8 ,to ?is "q we reply--,t dep5ds ^u h[ !y are us$4 ,! t]m 'virtue1' = in/ance1 9 "o s5se1 namely1 z signify+ moral excell5ce 9 g5]al1 )\t di/9ction ( k9d1 is /rictly a s+ul> t]m1 z be+ ! "n ( "o attribute3 b z appli$ to diff]5t v>ieties ( moral excell5ce--ju/ice1 g5]osity1 g5tl5ess & s on--x is a common t]m1 z be+ a "n :i* is applicable1 9 ! same s5se1 to a class ( attributes4 ,simil>ly ! t]m 'col\r1' 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 signifies "o unv>y+ attribute possess$ by bodies1 namely1 ! p[] ( affect+ ! eye1 & 9 ?is s5se x is a s+ul> t]m3 b z appli$ to ! v>i\s ways 9 :i* ! eye may be affect$1 x is evid5tly a common t]m1 be+ equally applicable to r$1 blue1 gre51 & e o!r col\r4 ,z soon z we beg9 to ab/ract f attributes1 ! high] notion becomes a common t]m 9 ref]5ce to ! l[]4 ,by a 'high] notion' is meant "o :i* is =m$ by a fur!r process ( ab/raction4 ,! t]ms 'r$1' 'blue1' 'gre51' etc41 are arriv$ at by ab/raction f physical objects2 'col\r' is arriv$ at by ab/raction f !m1 & conta9s no?+1 b :at is common to all4 ,x !re=e applies 9 ! same s5se to ea*1 & is a common t]m 9 relation to !m4 #aaa4 ,a practical te/ z to :e!r an ab/ract t]m1 9 any giv5 case1 is be+ us$ z a s+ul> or common t]m1 is to try :e!r ! indef9ite article or ! sign ( ! plural c be atta*$ to x4 ,! t]m 'numb]1' z ! "n ( a s+le attribute ( ?+s1 admits ( nei!r ( ^! adjuncts3 b to talk ( 'a numb]' or '! numb]s1 two1 ?ree1 f\r1' etc41 at once m>ks x z a common t]m4 ,simil>ly ! t]m 'unity' d5otes a s+le attribute1 admitt+ ( no %ades ( di/9ction3 b :5 a writ] beg9s to speak ( '! unities' he is evid5tly us+ ! ^w = a class ( ?+s ( "s k9d or o!r1 namely1 c]ta9 dramatical proprieties ( composition4 ,prop] ,names & ,designations4 #aab4 ,s+ul> t]ms may be subdivid$ into ,prop] ,names & ,designations4 #aac4 ,a ,prop] ,"n is a p]man5t s+ul> t]m applicable to a ?+ 9 itself2 a ,designation is a s+ul> t]m devis$ = ! occasion1 or applicable to a ?+ only 9 s f> z x possesses "s attribute4 #aad4 ',hom]' is a prop] "n2 '?is man1' '! au?or ( ! ,iliad' are designations4 #aae4 ,! numb] ( ?+s1 x is cle>1 is inf9ite4 ,=1 grant+ t ! physical univ]se consi/s ( a def9ite numb] ( atoms--nei!r "o m nor "o less--/ill we are f> f hav+ exhau/$ ! possible numb] ( ?+s4 ,all ! manifold mat]ial objects1 :i* are made up by ! v>i\s comb9ations ( ^! atoms1 con/itute sep>ate objects ( ?\ght1 or ?+s1 & ! m9d has fur!r an indef9ite p[] ( conjo9+ & divid+ ^! objects1 s z to furni% itself ) mat]ials ( ?\ght1 & also ( fix+ its att5tion by ab/raction ^u attributes1 s z to reg>d !m z ?+s1 ap>t f ! sub/ances to :i* !y belong4 #aaf4 ,?is be+ s1 x is only a v small numb] ( ?+s1 :i* are con/antly obtrud+ !mselves ^u ! m9d1 t h s+ul> t]ms p]man5tly set ap>t to d5ote !m4 ,human be+s1 "s dome/ic animals1 & divisions ( "t & place1 h prop] names assign$ to !m 9 mo/ languages1 e4g4 ',john1' ',m>y1' ',grip1' ',janu>y1' ',ea/]1' ',belgium1' ',brussels1' '! ,?ames1' ',b5-,nevis4' ,besides ^!1 all ab/ract t]ms1 :5 us$ )\t ref]5ce to l[] notions1 are ( ! nature ( prop] names1 be+ p]man5tly set ap>t to d5ote c]ta9 special attributes1 e4g4 'b5evol5ce1' 'v]acity1' 'imag9ation1' 'indige/ibility1 'retr5*m5t4' #aag4 ,b ! ne$s ( language (t5 require a s+ul> t]m to d5ote "s ?+ :i* has n _h a prop] "n assign$ to x4 ,?is is effect$ by tak+ a common t]m1 & s limit+ x z to make x applicable1 "u ! giv5 circum/ances1 to "o ?+ only4 ,su* a limitation may be effect$ 9 ,engli% by prefix+ a demon/rative or ! def9ite article1 or by app5d+ a description1 e4g4 '?is p51' '! s(a1' '! la/ rose ( summ]4' ,:5 a prop] "n is unkn[n1 or = "s reason1 unavailable1 rec\rse may be _h to a designation1 e4g4 '! hon\rable memb] :o spoke la/ b "o4' ,collective ,t]ms4 #aah4 ,! division ( t]ms into s+ul> & common be+1 l ^? :i* h prec$$ x1 fundam5tal & exhau/ive1 !re is evid5tly no room 9 x = a ?ird class ( ,collective ,t]ms4 ,nor is !re any di/9ct class ( t]ms to :i* t "n c be giv54 ,! same t]m may be us$ collectively or di/ributively 9 diff]5t relations4 ,?us ! t]m 'libr>y1' :5 us$ ( ! books :i* compose a libr>y1 is collective2 :5 us$ ( v>i\s collections ( books1 z ! ,bodleian1 ,que5's libr>y1 & s on1 x is di/ributive1 :i*1 9 ?is case1 is ! same ?+ z be+ a common t]m4 #aai1 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ! collective & di/ributive use ( a t]m is ( importance1 because ! confusion ( ! two is a fav\rite s\rce ( fallacy4 ,:5 x is said ',! plays ( ,%akspe>e _c be read 9 a day1' ! proposition meets ) a v diff]5t measure ( acceptance accord+ z its subject is und]/ood collectively or di/ributively4 ,! ^w 'all' is p]fectly ambigu\s 9 ?is respect4 ,x may mean all toge!r or ea* sep>ately--two s5ses :i* are di/+ui%$ 9 ,lat9 by 'totus' or 'cunctus1' = ! collective1 & 'omnis' = ! di/ributive use4 #abj4 ,:at is usually meant h[ev] :5 p speak ( a collective t]m is a p>ticul> k9d ( s+ul> t]m4 #aba4 ,f ?is po9t ( view s+ul> t]ms may be subdivid$ into ,individual & ,collective1 by an ,individual ,t]m be+ meant ! "n ( "o object1 by a ,collective ,t]m ! "n ( sev]al consid]$ z "o4 ',?is key' is an individual t]m2 'my bun* ( keys' is a collective t]m4 #abb4 ,a collective t]m is q z mu* ! "n ( "o ?+ z an individual t]m is1 ?\gh ! ?+ 9 "q happ5s to be a gr\p4 ,a gr\p is "o ?+1 if we *oose to ?9k ( x z "o4 ,= ! m9d1 z we h already se51 has an unlimit$ p[] ( =m+ its own ?+s1 or objects ( ?\ght4 ,?us a p>ticul> peak 9 a m\nta9 *a9 is z mu* "o ?+ z ! *a9 itself1 ?\gh1 physically speak+1 x is insep>able f x1 j z ! *a9 itself is insep>able f ! e>?'s surface4 ,9 ! same way a necklace is z mu* "o ?+ z ! individual beads :i* compose x4 #abc4 ,we h j se5 t a collective t]m is ! "n ( a gr\p reg>d$ z "o ?+3 b e t]m :i* is ! "n ( su* a gr\p is n necess>ily a collective t]m4 ',london1' = in/ance1 is ! "n ( a gr\p ( objects consid]$ z "o ?+4 ,b ',london' is n a collective t]m1 :]eas 'flock1' 'regim5t1' & 's5ate' are4 ,:]e9 !n lies ! diff]5ce8 ,x lies 9 ?is--t flock1 regim5t & s5ate are gr\ps compos$ ( objects :i* are1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 simil>1 :]eas ,london is a gr\p made up ( ! mo/ dissimil> objects--/reets & squ>es & squalid slums1 f9e c>riages & dirty faces1 & s on4 ,9 ! case ( a true collective t]m all ! memb]s ( ! gr\p w come "u "s "o common "n4 ,?us all ! memb]s ( ! gr\p1 flock ( %eep1 come "u ! common "n '%eep1' all ! memb]s ( ! gr\p 'regim5t' "u ! common "n1 'soldi]1' & s on4 #abd4 ,! subdivision ( s+ul> t]ms into individual & collective ne$ n be conf9$ to ! names ( concrete ?+s4 ,an ab/ract t]m l 'sc>let1' :i* is ! "n ( "o def9ite attribute1 may be reckon$ 'individual1' :ile a t]m l 'human nature1' :i* is ! "n ( a :ole gr\p ( attributes1 w\ld m fitly be reg>d$ z collective4 #abf4 ,! ma9 division ( t]ms1 :i* we h be5 discuss+1 into s+ul> & collective1 is bas$ ^u _! ,quantity 9 ,ext5sion4 ,?is phrase w be expla9$ pres5tly4 #abf4 ,we come n[ to a ?reefold division ( t]ms into ,positive1 ,privative & ,negative4 ,x is bas$ ^u an impli$ two-fold division into positive & non-positive1 ! latt] memb] be+ subdivid$ into ,privative & ,negative4 ,t]m ,positive ,non-,positive ,privative ,negative ,if ?is division be ext5d$1 z x sometimes is1 to t]ms 9 g5]al1 a positive t]m mu/ be tak5 to mean only ! def9ite1 or comp>atively def9ite1 memb] ( an exhau/ive division 9 accordance ) ! law ( exclud$ middle 7 #be74 ,?us ',socrates' & 'man' are positive1 z oppos$ to 'n-,socrates' & 'n-man4' #abg4 ,! *ief value ( ! division1 h[ev]1 & especially ( ! di/9ction drawn betwe5 privative & negative t]ms1 is 9 relation to attributives4 ,f ?is po9t ( view we may def9e ! ?ree classes ( t]ms z foll[s3 ,a ,positive ,t]m signifies ! pres5ce ( an attribute1 e4g43 'wise1' 'full4' ,a ,negative ,t]m signifies m]ely ! abs5ce ( an attribute1 e4g4 'n-wise1' 'n-full4' ,a ,privative ,t]m signifies ! abs5ce ( an attribute 9 a subject capable ( possess+ x1 e4g4 'unwise1' 'empty'4 ,footnote3 ,a privative t]m is usually def9$ to mean "o :i* signifies ! abs5ce ( an attribute :]e x 0 once possess$1 or might h be5 expect$ to be pres5t1 e4g4 'bl9d4' ,! utility ( ! slight ext5sion ( mean+ "h assign$ to ! expression w1 x is hop$1 prove its ju/ification4 #abh4 ,?us a privative t]m /&s midway 9 mean+ betwe5 ! o!r two1 be+ p>tly positive & p>tly negative--negative 9 s f> z x indicates ! abs5ce ( a c]ta9 attribute1 positive 9 s f> z x implies t ! ?+ :i* is decl>$ to lack t attribute is ( su* a nature z to be capable ( possess+ x4 ,a purely negative t]m conveys to ! m9d no positive in=mation at all ab\t ! nature ( ! ?+ ( :i* x is pr$icat$1 b leaves u to seek = x among ! univ]se ( ?+s :i* fail to exhibit a giv5 attribute4 ,a privative t]m1 on ! o!r h&1 re/ricts u )9 a def9ite sph]e4 ,! t]m 'empty' re/ricts u )9 ! sph]e ( ?+s :i* are capable ( fulness1 t is1 if ! t]m be tak5 9 its lit]al s5se1 ?+s :i* possess ext5sion 9 ?ree dim5sions4 #abi4 ,a positive & a negative t]m1 :i* h ! same matt]1 mu/ exhau/ ! univ]se betwe5 !m1 e4g4 ':ite' & 'n-:ite1' s9ce1 accord+ to ! law ( exclud$ middle1 ev]y?+ mu/ be ei!r "o or ! o!r4 ,to say1 h[ev]1 t a ?+ is 'n-:ite' is m]ely to say t ! t]m ':ite' is inapplicable to x4 ',n-:ite' may be pr$icat$ ( ?+s :i* d n possess ext5sion z well z ( ^? :i* d4 ,su* a pair ( t]ms z ':ite' & 'n-:ite1' 9 _! relation to "o ano!r1 are call$ ,contradictories4 #acj4 ,contr>y t]ms mu/ be di/+ui%$ f contradictory4 ,contr>y t]ms are ^? :i* are mo/ oppos$ "u ! same head4 ,?us ':ite' & 'black' are contr>y t]ms1 be+ ! mo/ oppos$ "u ! same head ( col\r4 ',virtu\s' & 'vici\s' aga9 are contr>ies1 be+ ! mo/ oppos$ "u ! same head ( moral quality4 #aca4 ,a positive & a privative t]m 9 ! same matt] w always be contr>ies1 e4g4 'wise' & 'unwise1' 'safe' & 'unsafe'3 b contr>ies d n always assume ! %ape ( positive & privative t]ms1 b may bo? be positive 9 =m1 e4g4 'wise' & 'fooli%1' 'safe' & 'dang]\s4' #acb4 ,words :i* are positive 9 =m are (t5 privative 9 mean+1 & vice v]s4 ,?is is ! case1 = in/ance1 ) ! ^w 'safe1' :i* connotes no?+ m ?an ! abs5ce ( dang]4 ,we talk ( a ?+ involv+ 'positive dang]' & ( its be+ 'positively unsafe' to d s & s4 ',unhappy1' on ! o!r h&1 signifies ! pres5ce ( actual mis]y4 ,simil>ly 9 ,lat9 'inutilis' signifies n m]ely t !re is no b5efit to be d]iv$ f a ?+1 b t x is positively injuri\s4 ,all su* que/ions1 h[ev]1 are = ! gramm>ian or lexicograph]1 & n = ! logician4 ,= ! latt] x is suffici5t to "k t correspond+ to e t]m :i* signifies ! pres5ce ( "s attribute !re may be imag9$ ano!r :i* indicates ! abs5ce ( ! same attribute1 :]e x might be possess$1 & a ?ird :i* indicates its abs5ce1 :e!r x might be possess$ or n4 #acc4 ,negative t]ms prop] are =m$ by ! prefix 'n-' or 'non-1' & are m]e figm5ts ( logic4 ,we d n 9 practice require to speak ( ! :ole univ]se ( objects m9us ^? :i* possess a giv5 attribute or collection ( attributes4 ,we h (t5 occasion to speak ( ?+s :i* might be wise & are n1 b seldom1 if ev]1 ( all ?+s o!r ?an wise4 #acd4 ,e privative attributive has1 or may h1 a correspond+ ab/ract t]m1 & ! same is ! case ) negatives3 = ! abs5ce ( an attribute1 is itself an attribute4 ,correspond+ to 'empty1' !re is 'empt9ess'2 correspond+ to 'n-full' !re may be imag9$ ! t]m 'n-fulness4' #ace4 ,! contr>y ( a giv5 t]m always involves ! contradictory1 b x involves positive elem5ts z well4 ,?us 'black' is 'n-:ite1' b x is some?+ m besides4 ,t]ms :i*1 )\t be+ directly contr>y1 involve a lat5t contradiction1 are call$ ,repugnant1 e4g4 'r$' & 'blue4' ,all t]ms :atev] :i* signify attributes t exclude "o ano!r may be call$ ,incompatible4 #acf4 ,! prec$+ division is bas$ on :at is kn[n z ! ,quality ( t]ms1 a positive t]m be+ said to diff] 9 quality f a non-positive "o4 ,univocal & ,equivocal ,t]ms4 #acg4 ,a t]m is said to be ,univocal1 :5 x has "o & ! same mean+ :]ev] x occurs4 ,a t]m :i* has m ?an "o mean+ is call$ ,equivocal4 ',jam-pot1' 'hydrog5' are examples ( univocal t]ms2 'pipe' & 'suit' ( equivocal4 #ach4 ,?is division does n prop]ly come )9 ! scope ( logic1 s9ce x is a "q ( language1 n ( ?\ght4 ,f ! logician's po9t ( view an equivocal t]m is two or m diff]5t t]ms1 = ! def9ition 9 ea* s5se w\ld be diff]5t4 #aci4 ,sometimes a ?ird memb] is add$ to ! same division "u ! head ( ,analog\s ,t]ms4 ,! ^w 'sweet1' = in/ance1 is appli$ by analogy to ?+s s diff]5t 9 _! own nature z a lump ( sug>1 a "y lady1 a tune1 a poem1 & s on4 ,aga91 because ! head is ! highe/ "p ( man1 ! highe/ "p ( a /ream is call$ by analogy '! head4' ,x is pla9ly inappropriate to make a sep>ate class ( analog\s t]ms4 ,r1 t]ms become equivocal by be+ ext5d$ by analogy f "o ?+ to ano!r4 ,absolute & ,relative ,t]ms4 #adj4 ,an ,absolute t]m is a "n giv5 to a ?+ )\t ref]5ce to any?+ else4 #ada4 ,a ,relative t]m is a "n giv5 to a ?+ ) direct ref]5ce to "s o!r ?+4 #adb4 ',hodge' & 'man' are absolute t]ms4 ',husb&' 'fa!r1' '%eph]d' are relative t]ms4 ',husb&' conveys a direct ref]5ce to 'wife1' 'fa!r' to ',*ild1' '%eph]d' to '%eep4' ,giv5 "o t]m ( a relation1 ! o!r is call$ ! correlative1 e4g4 'subject' is ! correlative ( 'rul]1' & conv]sely 'rul]' ( 'subject4' ,! two t]ms are also spok5 ( z a pair ( correlatives4 #adc4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 relative & absolute applies to attributives z well z subject-t]ms4 ',great]1' 'ne>1 'l1' are in/ances ( attributives :i* ev]yone w\ld recognise z relative4 #add4 ,a relation1 x w be rememb]$1 is a k9d ( attribute1 diff]+ f a quality 9 t x necess>ily involves m sub/ances ?an "o4 ,e relation is at bottom a fact1 or s]ies ( facts1 9 :i* two or m sub/ances play a "p4 ,a relative t]m connotes ?is fact or facts f ! po9t ( view ( "o ( ! sub/ances1 its correlative f t ( ! o!r4 ,?us 'rul]' & 'subject' imply ! same set ( facts1 look$ at f opposite po9ts ( view4 ,! s]ies ( facts itself1 reg>d$ f ei!r side1 is d5ot$ by ! correspond+ ab/ract t]ms1 'rule '& 'subjection4' #ade4 ,x is a nice "q :e!r ! ab/ract names ( relations %\ld !mselves be consid]$ relative t]ms4 ,difficulties w p]haps be avoid$ by conf9+ ! expression 'relative t]m' to names ( concrete ?+s4 ',absolute1' x mu/ be rememb]$1 is a m]e negative ( 'relative1' & cov]s ev]y?+ to :i* ! def9ition ( ! latt] does n /rictly apply4 ,n[ x c h>dly be said t 'rule' is a "n giv5 to a c]ta9 ab/ract ?+ ) direct ref]5ce to "s o!r ?+1 namely1 subjection4 ,r 'rule' & 'subjection' are two names = id5tically ! same s]ies ( facts1 accord+ to ! side f :i* we look at !m4 ',rul]' & 'subject1' on ! o!r h&1 are names ( two di/9ct sub/ances1 b ea* involv+ a ref]5ce to ! o!r4 #adf4 ,?is division !n may be said to be bas$ on ! numb] ( ?+s involv$ 9 ! "n4 ,connotative & ,non-,connotative ,t]ms4 #adg4 ,be=e expla9+ ?is division1 x is necess>y to treat ( :at is call$ ! ,quantity ( ,t]ms4 ,quantity ( ,t]ms4 #adh4 ,a t]m is possess$ ( quantity 9 two ways-- 7#a7 ,9 ,ext5sion2 7#b7 ,9 ,int5sion4 #adi4 ,! ,ext5sion ( a t]m is ! numb] ( ?+s to :i* x applies4 #aej4 ,! ,int5sion ( a t]m is ! numb] ( attributes :i* x implies4 #aea4 ,x w simplify matt]s to be> 9 m9d t ! int5sion ( a t]m is ! same ?+ z its mean+4 ,to take an example1 ! t]m 'man' applies to c]ta9 ?+s1 namely1 all ! memb]s ( ! human race t h be51 are1 or ev] w be3 ?is is its quantity 9 ext5sion4 ,b ! t]m 'man' has also a c]ta9 mean+1 & implies c]ta9 attributes--rationality1 animality1 & a def9ite bodily %ape3 ! sum ( ^! attributes con/itutes its quantity 9 int5sion4 #aeb4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ! two k9ds ( quantity possess$ by a t]m is also convey$ by a v>iety ( expressions :i* are "h app5d$4 ,ext5sion bread? compass application d5otation4 ,int5sion dep? compreh5sion implication connotation4 ,( ^! v>i\s expressions1 'application' & 'implication' h ! advantage ( mo/ cle>ly convey+ _! own mean+4 ',ext5sion' & 'int5sion1' h[ev]1 are m usual2 & nei!r 'implication' nor 'connotation' is q exact z a synonym = 'int5sion4' 7 #afd47 #aec4 ,we n[ return to ! division ( t]ms into connotative & non-connotative4 #aed4 ,a t]m is said to connote attributes1 :5 x implies c]ta9 attributes at ! same "t t x applies to c]ta9 ?+s di/9ct !refrom4 ,footnote3 ,orig9ally 'connotative' 0 us$ 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* we h us$ 'attributive1' = a ^w :i* directly signifies ! pres5ce ( an attribute & indirectly applies to a subject4 ,9 ?is1 its orig9al s5se1 x 0 ! subject :i* 0 said to be connot$1 & n ! attribute4 #aee4 ,a t]m :i* possesses bo? ext5sion & int5sion1 di/9ct f "o ano!r1 is connotative4 #aef4 ,a t]m :i* possesses no int5sion 7if t be possible7 or 9 :i* ext5sion & int5sion co9cide is non-connotative4 #aeg4 ,! subject-t]m1 'man1' & its correspond+ attributive1 'human1' h bo? ext5sion & int5sion1 di/9ct f "o ano!r4 ,!y are !re=e connotative4 ,b ! ab/ract t]m1 'humanity1' d5otes ! v collection ( attributes1 :i* 0 be=e connot$ by ! concrete t]ms1 'man' & 'human4' ,9 ?is case1 !re=e1 ext5sion & int5sion co9cide1 & ! t]m is non-connotative4 #aeh4 ,! above rem>k mu/ be und]/ood to be limit$ to ab/ract t]ms 9 _! s+ul> s5se4 ,:5 employ$ z common t]ms1 ab/ract t]ms possess bo? ext5sion & int5sion di/9ct f "o ano!r4 ,?us ! t]m 'col\r' applies to r$1 blue1 & yell[1 & at ! same "t implies 7i4e4 connotes71 ! p[] ( affect+ ! eye4 #aei4 ,s9ce all t]ms are names ( ?+s1 :e!r sub/ances or attributes1 x is cle> t all t]ms mu/ possess ext5sion1 ?\gh ! ext5sion ( s+ul> t]ms is ! n>r[e/ possible1 z be+ conf9$ to "o ?+4 #afj4 ,are !re !n any t]ms :i* possess no int5sion8 ,to ask ?is1 is to ask--,are !re any t]ms :i* h absolutely no mean+8 ,x is (t5 said t prop] names are devoid ( mean+1 & ! rem>k is1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 true4 ,:5 we call a be+ by ! "n 'man1' we d s because t be+ possesses human attributes1 b :5 we call ! same be+ by ! "n1 ',john1' we d n mean to indicate ! pres5ce ( any ,johann9e attributes4 ,we simply wi% to di/+ui% t be+1 9 ?\ght & language1 f o!r be+s ( ! same k9d4 ,r\ghly speak+1 !re=e1 prop] names are devoid ( mean+ or int5sion4 ,b no "n c be entirely devoid ( mean+4 ,=1 ev5 sett+ aside ! fact1 :i* is n univ]sally true1 t prop] names indicate ! sex ( ! own]1 ! m]e act ( giv+ a "n to a ?+ implies at lea/ t ! ?+ exi/s1 :e!r 9 fact or ?\ght2 x implies :at we may call '?+hood'3 s t e t]m mu/ c>ry ) x "s small am\nt ( int5sion4 #afa4 ,f ano!r po9t ( view1 h[ev]1 prop] names possess m int5sion ?an any o!r t]ms4 ,= :5 we "k a p]son1 8 "n calls up to our m9ds all ! individual attributes ) :i* we are famili>1 & ^! mu/ be f> m num]\s ?an ! attributes :i* are convey$ by any common t]m :i* c be appli$ to him4 ,?us ! "n ',john' means m to a p]son :o kn[s him ?an 'attorney1' 'cons]vative1' 'scamp1' ( 've/ry-man1' or any o!r t]m :i* may happ5 to apply to him4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is ! acquir$ int5sion ( a t]m1 & mu/ be di/+ui%$ f ! orig9al int5sion4 ,! "n ',john' 0 nev] meant to indicate ! attributes :i* its own] has1 z a matt] ( fact1 develop$4 ,he w\ld be ,john all ! same1 if he 7 none ( ^!4 #afb4 ,hi!rto we h be5 speak+ only ( *ri/5+-names1 b x is evid5t t family names h a c]ta9 am\nt ( connotation f ! fir/4 ,= :5 we dub ,john ) ! additional appellation ( ,smi?1 we d n give ?is second "n z a m]e individual m>k1 b int5d !reby to indicate a relation%ip to o!r p]sons4 ,! am\nt ( connotation t c be convey$ by prop] names is v noticeable 9 ! ,lat9 language4 ,let u take = an example ! full "n ( a di/+ui%$ ,roman--,publius ,cornelius ,scipio milianus ,africanus m9or4 ,"h x is only ! prnom51 ,publius1 t c be said to be a m]e individual m>k1 & ev5 ?is di/9ctly indicates ! sex ( ! own]4 ,! nom5 prop]1 ,cornelius1 decl>es ! we>] ( x to belong to ! illu/ri\s g5s ,cornelia4 ,! cognom51 ,scipio1 fur!r specifies him z a memb] ( a di/+ui%$ family 9 t g5s4 ,! agnom5 adoptivum indicates 8 transf]5ce by adoption f "o g5s to ano!r4 ,! second agnom5 recalls ! fact ( 8 victory ov] ! ,c>?ag9ians1 :ile ! addition ( ! ^w 'm9or' di/+ui%es him f ! =m] we>] ( ! same title4 ,! "n1 in/ead ( be+ devoid ( mean+1 is a *apt] ( hi/ory 9 itself4 ,hom]ic epi!ts1 su* z ',! ,cl\d-compell]1' ',! ,e>?-%ak]' are in/ances ( int5sive prop] names4 ,_m ( our own family names are obvi\sly connotative 9 _! orig91 imply+ ei!r "s p]sonal peculi>ity1 e4g4 ,arm/rong1 ,cruik%ank1 ,c\rt5ey2 or ! employm5t1 trade or call+ ( ! orig9al be>] ( ! "n1 ,smi?1 ,c>p5t]1 ,bak]1 ,cl>k1 ,lea*1 ,ar*]1 & s on2 or else 8 abode1 doma9 or nationality1 z ,de ,ca51 ,de ,montmor5cy1 ,fr5*1 ,langley2 or simply ! fact ( desc5t f "s presumably m notewor?y p>5t1 z ,jackson1 ,?omson1 ,fitzg]ald1 ,o',connor1 ,macdonald1 ,apjohn1 ,price1 ,davids1 etc4 ,! "q1 h[ev]1 :e!r a t]m is connotative or n1 has to be decid$1 n by its orig91 b by its use4 ,we h se5 t !re are "s prop] names :i*1 9 a r\gh s5se1 may be said to possess no int5sion4 #afc4 ,! o!r k9d ( s+ul> t]ms1 namely1 designations 7 #aac7 are obvi\sly connotative4 ,we _c employ ev5 ! simple/ ( !m )\t convey+ m or less in=mation ab\t ! qualities ( ! ?+ :i* !y are us$ to d5ote4 ,:51 = in/ance1 we say '?is table1' '?is book1' we indicate ! proximity to ! speak] ( ! object 9 "q4 ,o!r designations h a high] degree ( int5sion1 z :5 we say '! pres5t prime m9i/] ( ,engl&1' '! hon\rable memb] :o br\ght =w>d ?is motion to-night4' ,su* t]ms h a good deal ( significance 9 !mselves1 ap>t f any k we may happ5 to possess ( ! individuals !y d5ote4 #afd4 ,we h se5 t1 speak+ q /rictly1 !re are no t]ms :i* are non-connotative3 b1 = practical purposes1 we may apply ! expression to prop] names1 on ! gr\nd t !y possess no int5sion1 & to s+ul> ab/ract t]ms on ! gr\nd t _! ext5sion & int5sion co9cide4 ,9 ! latt] case x is indiff]5t :e!r we call ! quantity ext5sion or int5sion4 ,only we _c call x 'connotation1' because t implies two quantities di/9ct f "o ano!r4 ,a t]m mu/ already d5ote a subject be=e x c be said to connote its attributes4 #afe4 ,! division ( t]ms into connotative & non-connotative is bas$ on _! possession ( "o quantity or two4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,( ! ,law ( ,inv]se ,v>iation ( ,ext5sion & ,int5sion4 #aff4 ,9 a s]ies ( t]ms :i* fall "u "o ano!r1 z ! ext5sion decreases1 ! int5sion increases1 & vice v]s4 ,take = in/ance ! foll[+ s]ies-- ,?+ ,sub/ance ,matt] ,organism ,animal ,v]tebrate ,mammal ,rum9ant ,%eep ,?is %eep4 ,"h ! t]m at ! top possesses ! wide/ possible ext5sion1 s9ce x applies to ev]y?+4 ,b at ! same "t x possesses ! lea/ possible am\nt ( int5sion1 imply+ no?+ m ?an m]e exi/5ce1 :e!r 9 fact or ?\ght4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! t]m at ! bottom possesses ! greate/ am\nt ( int5sion1 s9ce x implies all ! attributes (1 an individual sup]add$ to ^? ( ! class to :i* x belongs3 b its ext5sion is ! n>r[e/ possible1 be+ limit$ to "o ?+4 #afg4 ,at ea* /ep 9 ! desc5t f ! t]m at ! top1 :i* is call$ ! ',summum g5us1' to ! individual1 we decrease ! ext5sion by increas+ ! int5sion4 ,?us by add+ on to ! b>e notion ( a ?+ ! idea ( indep5d5t exi/5ce1 we desc5d to ! t]m 'sub/ance1' ,?is process is kn[n z ,det]m9ation1 or ,specialisation4 #afh4 ,aga91 by )draw+ our att5tion f ! individual *>act]i/ics ( a p>ticul> %eep1 & fix+ x ^u ^? :i* are common to x ) o!r animals ( ! same k9d1 we arrive at ! common t]m1 '%eep4' ,"h we h increas$ ! ext5sion by decreas+ ! int5sion4 ,?is process is kn[n z ,g5]alisation4 #afi4 ,g5]alisation implies ab/raction1 b we may h ab/raction )\t g5]alisation4 #agj4 ,! foll[+ example is useful1 z illu/rat+ to ! eye h[ a decrease ( ext5sion is accompani$ by an increase ( int5sion4 ,at ea* /ep ( ! desc5t "h we visibly tack on a fre% attribute4 ,footnote3 ,?is example is borr[$ f ,pr(essor ,jevons4 ,%ip ,/eam-%ip ,screw /eam-%ip ,iron screw /eam-%ip ,briti% iron screw /eam-%ip4 ,c\ld we see ! classes d5ot$ by ! names ! pyramid w\ld be exactly inv]t$4 #aga4 ,! law ( inv]se v>iation ( ext5sion & int5sion mu/ ( c\rse be conf9$ to ! int]-relations ( a s]ies ( t]ms ( :i* ea* c be pr$icat$ ( ! o!r until we arrive at ! bottom ( ! scale4 ,x is n meant to apply to ! ext5sion & int5sion ( ! same t]m4 ,! increase ( population does n add to ! mean+ ( 'baby4' ,,"p ,,ii4--,,( ,,propositions4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,( ! ,proposition z di/+ui%$ f ,o!r ,s5t5ces4 #agb4 ,z 9 consid]+ ! t]m1 we f\nd occasion to di/+ui% x f words g5]ally1 s n[1 9 consid]+ ! proposition1 x w be well to beg9 by di/+ui%+ x f o!r s5t5ces4 #agc4 ,e proposition is a s5t5ce1 b e s5t5ce is n a proposition4 #agd4 ,! field ( logic is f> f be+ cont]m9\s ) t ( language4 ,language is ! mirror ( man's :ole nature1 :]eas logic deals ) language only s f> z x gives clo?+ to ! products ( ?\ght 9 ! n>r[ s5se :i* we h assign$ to t t]m4 ,language has mat]ials ( e sort ly+ /rewn ab\t1 among :i* ! logician has to seek = 8 prop] implem5ts4 #age4 ,s5t5ces may be employ$ = a v>iety ( purposes-- 7#a7 ,to ask a "q2 7#b7 ,to give an ord]2 7#c7 ,to express a feel+2 7#d7 ,to make a /atem5t4 ,^! v>i\s uses give rise respectively to 7#a7 ,! ,int]rogative ,s5t5ce2 7#b7 ,! ,imp]ative ,s5t5ce2 7#c7 ,! ,exclamatory ,s5t5ce2 7#d7 ,! ,enunciative ,s5t5ce2 ,indicative ,pot5tial4 ,x is ) ! la/ ( ^! only t logic is conc]n$4 #agf4 ,! proposition1 !re=e1 corresponds to ! ,indicative & ,pot5tial1 or ,conditional1 s5t5ces ( gramm>4 ,= x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t logic recognises no diff]5ce betwe5 a /atem5t ( fact & a supposition4 ',x may ra9 to-morr[' is z mu* a proposition z ',x is ra9+ n[4' #agg4 ,leav+ ! grammatical aspect ( ! proposition1 we mu/ n[ consid] x f ! purely logical po9t ( view4 #agh4 ,a proposition is a judgem5t express$ 9 words2 & a judgem5t is a direct comp>ison betwe5 two concepts4 #agi4 ,! same ?+ may be express$ m briefly by say+ t a proposition is a direct comp>ison betwe5 two t]ms4 #ahj4 ,we say 'direct comp>ison1' because ! syllogism also may be describ$ z a comp>ison betwe5 two t]ms3 b 9 ! syllogism ! two t]ms are comp>$ indirectly1 or by means ( a ?ird t]m4 #aha4 ,a proposition may be analys$ into two t]ms & a ,copula1 :i* is no?+ m ?an ! sign ( agreem5t or disagreem5t betwe5 !m4 #ahb4 ,! two t]ms are call$ ! ,subject & ! ,pr$icate 7 #eh74 #ahc4 ,! ,subject is t ( :i* some?+ is /at$4 #ahd4 ,! ,pr$icate is t :i* is /at$ ( ! subject4 #ahe4 ,h5ce ! subject is ?\ght ( = its own sake1 & ! pr$icate = ! sake ( ! subject4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,( ! ,copula4 #ahf4 ,!re are two k9ds ( copula1 "o = affirmative & "o = negative /atem5ts4 #ahg4 ,mat]ially ! copula is express$ by "s "p ( ! v]b 'to be1' ) or )\t ! negative1 or else is wrapp$ up 9 "s inflexional =m ( a v]b4 #ahh4 ,! mat]ial =m ( ! copula is an accid5t ( language1 & a matt] ( indiff]5ce to logic4 ',! kettle boils' is z logical a =m ( expression z ',! kettle is boil+4' ,= x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! ^w 'is' "h is a m]e sign ( agreem5t betwe5 ! two t]ms1 & conveys no notion ( actual exi/5ce4 ,we may use x inde$ ) equal propriety to express non-exi/5ce1 z :5 we say ',an idol is no?+4' #ahi4 ,:5 ! v]b 'to be' expresses exi/5ce 9 fact x is kn[n 9 gramm> z '! sub/antive v]b4' ,9 ?is use x is pr$icate z well z copula1 z :5 we say ',god is1' :i* may be analys$1 if we please1 into ',god is exi/5t4' #aij4 ,we h laid d[n above t !re are two k9ds ( copula1 affirmative & negative3 b "s logicians h ma9ta9$ t ! copula is always affirmative4 #aia4 ,:at !n1 x may be ask$1 on ?is view1 is ! mean+ ( negative propositions6 ,to :i* ! answ] is1 t a negative proposition ass]ts an agreem5t betwe5 ! subject & a negative t]m4 ,:51 = in/ance1 we say ',! :ale is n a fi%1' ?is w\ld be int]pret$ to mean ',! :ale is a n-fi%4' #aib4 ,und\bt$ly any negative proposition may be exhibit$ 9 an affirmative =m1 s9ce1 by ! law ( exclud$ middle1 giv5 a pair ( contradictory t]ms1 :]ev] ! "o c be ass]t$1 ! o!r c be d5i$1 & vice v]s4 ,we %all f9d lat] on t ?is pr9ciple gives rise to "o ( ! =ms ( imm$iate inf]5ce4 ,! only "q !n c be1 :i* is ! m natural & legitimate =m ( expression4 ,x seems simpl] to suppose t we ass]t ! agreem5t ( ':ale' ) 'n-fi%' by implication only1 & t :at we directly d is to pr$icate a disagreem5t betwe5 ':ale' & ! positive attributes connot$ by 'fi%4' ,= s9ce 'n-fi%' mu/ apply to e conceivable object ( ?\ght except ^? :i* fall "u ! positive t]m 'fi%1' to say t a :ale is a 'n-fi%1' is to say t we h /ill to se>* = ':ale' ?r\gh\t ! :ole univ]se ( be+1 m9us a limit$ portion2 :i* is only a m clumsy way ( say+ t x is n to be f\nd 9 t portion4 #aic4 ,aga91 ! t]m 'n-fi%' mu/ be und]/ood ei!r 9 its int5sion or 9 its ext5sion4 ,if x be und]/ood 9 its int5sion1 :at x connotes is simply ! abs5ce ( ! positive qualities :i* con/itute a fi%1 a mean+ :i* is equally convey$ by ! negative =m ( proposition4 ,we ga9 no?+ 9 simplicity by ?us conf\nd+ ass]tion ) d5ial4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 x is to be tak5 9 ext5sion1 ?is involves ! awkw>dness ( suppos+ t ! pr$icative p[] ( a t]m resides 9 its ext5sive capacity4 #aid4 ,we !re=e recognise pr$ication z be+ ( two k9ds--affirmation & negation--correspond+ to :i* !re are two =ms ( copula4 #aie4 ,on ! o!r h&1 o!r logicians h ma9ta9$ t !re are _m k9ds ( copula1 s9ce ! copula mu/ v>y accord+ to ! v>i\s degrees ( probability ) :i* we c ass]t or d5y a pr$icate ( a subject4 ,?is view is te*nically kn[n z ! doctr9e ( ,! ,modality ( ! ,copula4 #aif4 ,x may plausibly be ma9ta9$ t ! division ( propositions into affirmative & negative is n an exhau/ive "o1 s9ce ! result ( an act ( judgem5t is n always to lead ! m9d to a cle> ass]tion or a cle> d5ial1 b to leave x 9 m or less d\bt z to :e!r ! pr$icate applies to ! subject or n4 ,in/ead ( say+ simply ,a is ,b1 or ,a is n ,b1 we may be l$ to "o ( ! foll[+ =ms ( proposition-- ,a is possibly ,b4 ,a is probably ,b4 ,a is c]ta9ly ,b4 ,! adv]bial expression :i* ?us appe>s to qualify ! copula is kn[n z '! mode4' #aig4 ,:5 we say ',! accus$ may be guilty' we h a proposition ( v diff]5t =ce f ',! accus$ is guilty1' & yet ! t]ms appe> to be ! same4 ,:]e9 !n does ! diff]5ce lie8 ',9 ! copula' w\ld seem to be ! obvi\s reply4 ,we seem !re=e driv5 to admit t !re are z _m diff]5t k9ds ( copula z !re are diff]5t degrees ( assurance ) :i* a /atem5t may be made4 #aih4 ,b !re is ano!r way 9 :i* modal propositions may be reg>d$4 ,in/ead ( ! mode be+ atta*$ to ! copula1 x may be consid]$ z itself con/itut+ ! pr$icate1 s t ! above propositions w\ld be analys$ ?us-- ,t ,a is ,b1 is possible4 ,t ,a is ,b1 is probable4 ,t ,a is ,b1 is c]ta94 #aii4 ,! subject "h is itself a proposition ( :i* we pr$icate v>i\s degrees ( probability4 ,9 ?is way ! division ( propositions into affirmative & negative is r5d]$ exhau/ive4 ,= :]ev] be=e we _h a d\btful ass]tion1 we h n[ an ass]tion ( d\btfulness4 #bjj4 ,if degrees ( probability c ?us be elim9at$ f ! copula1 mu* m s c expressions ( "t1 :i* may always be reg>d$ z =m+ "p ( ! pr$icate4 ',! sun w rise to-morr[' may be analys$ into ',! sun is go+ to rise to-morr[4' ,9 ei!r case ! t5se belongs equally to ! pr$icate4 ,x is (t5 an awkw>d task s to analyse propositions relative to pa/ or future "t z to br+ out ! copula "u ! =m 'is' or 'is n'3 b =tunately !re is no necessity = s do+1 s9ce1 z has be5 said be=e 7 #ahh71 ! mat]ial =m ( ! copula is a matt] ( indiff]5ce to logic4 ,inde$ 9 affirmative propositions ! m]e juxtaposition ( ! subject & pr$icate is (t5 suffici5t to indicate _! agreem5t1 e4g4 ',mo/ ha/e1 wor/ spe$1' *alepha ?a kala4 ,x is because all propositions are n affirmative t we require a copula at all4 ,moreov] ! awkw>dness ( expression j allud$ to is a m]e accid5t ( language4 ,9 ,lat9 we may say ) equal propriety ',sol orietur cras' or ',sol e/ oriturus cras'2 :ile pa/ "t may also be express$ 9 ! analytic =m 9 ! case ( depon5t v]bs1 z ',caes> e/ 9 ,galliam pr(ectus'--',caes> is gone into ,gaul4' #bja4 ,! copula !n may always be reg>d$ z pure1 t is1 z indicat+ m]e agreem5t or disagreem5t betwe5 ! two t]ms ( ! proposition4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,( ! ,divisions ( ,propositions4 #bjb4 ,! mo/ obvi\s & ! mo/ important division ( propositions is into true & false1 b ) ?is we are n conc]n$4 ,=mal logic c recognise no diff]5ce betwe5 true & false propositions4 ,! "o is repres5t$ by ! same symbols z ! o!r4 #bjc4 ,we may notice1 h[ev]1 9 pass+1 t tru? & falsehood are attributes ( propositions & ( propositions only4 ,= some?+ mu/ be pr$icat$1 i4e4 ass]t$ or d5i$1 be=e we c h ei!r tru? or falsehood4 ,nei!r concepts or t]ms1 on ! "o h&1 nor reason+s1 on ! o!r1 c prop]ly be said to be true or false4 ,9 ! m]e notion ( a ,c5taur or ( a black swan !re is nei!r tru? nor falsehood2 x is n until we make "s /atem5t ab\t ^! ?+s1 su* z t 'black swans are f\nd 9 ,au/ralia1' or ',i met a ,c5taur 9 ! ,high ,/reet ye/]day1' t ! "q ( tru? or falsehood comes 94 ,9 su* expressions z a 'true fri5d' or 'a false patriot' !re is a tacit ref]5ce to propositions4 ,we mean p]sons ( :om ! t]ms 'fri5d' & 'patriot' are truly or falsely pr$icat$4 ,nei!r c we ) any propriety talk ( true or false reason+4 ,reason+ is ei!r valid or invalid3 x is only ! premisses ( our reason+s1 :i* are propositions1 t c be true or false4 ,we may h a p]fectly valid process ( reason+ :i* />ts f a false assumption & l&s u 9 a false conclusion4 #bjd4 ,all tru? & falsehood !n are conta9$ 9 propositions2 & propositions are divid$ accord+ to ! ,quality ( ! ,matt] into true & false4 ,b ! consid]ation ( ! matt] is outside ! sph]e ( =mal or d$uctive ,logic4 ,x is ! problem ( inductive logic to e/abli%1 if possible1 a crit]ion ( evid5ce :]eby ! tru? or falsehood ( propositions may be judg$ 7 #b74 #bje4 ,ano!r usual division ( propositions is into ,pure & ,modal1 ! latt] be+ ^? 9 :i* ! copula is modifi$ by "s degree ( probability4 ,?is division is exclud$ by ! view :i* has j be5 tak5 ( ! copula1 z be+ always simply affirmative or simply negative4 #bjf4 ,we are left !n ) ! foll[+ divisions ( propositions-- ,proposition accord+ to ,=m ,simple ,complex ,conjunctive ,disjunctive ,univ]sal ,s+ul> ,g5]al accord+ to ,matt] ,v]bal ,real accord+ to ,quantity ,univ]sal ,s+ul> ,g5]al ,p>ticul> ,indef9ite 7/rictly7 ,p>ticul> accord+ to ,quality ,affirmative ,negative ,simple & ,complex ,propositions4 #bjg4 ,a ,simple ,proposition is "o 9 :i* a pr$icate is directly affirm$ or d5i$ ( a subject1 e4g4 ',ra9 is fall+4' #bjh4 ,a simple proposition is o!rwise kn[n z ,categorical4 #bji4 ,a ,complex ,proposition is "o 9 :i* a /atem5t is made subject to "s condition1 e4g4 ',if ! w9d drops1 ra9 w fall4' #baj4 ,h5ce ! complex proposition is also kn[n z ,conditional4 #baa4 ,e complex proposition consi/s ( two p>ts-- 7#a7 ,antec$5t2 7#b7 ,consequ5t4 #bab4 ,! ,antec$5t is ! condition on :i* ano!r /atem5t is made to dep5d4 ,x prec$es ! o!r 9 ! ord] ( ?\ght1 b may ei!r prec$e or foll[ x 9 ! ord] ( language4 ,?us we may say indiff]5tly--',if ! w9d drops1 we %all h ra9' or ',we %all h ra91 if ! w9d drops4' #bac4 ,! ,consequ5t is ! /atem5t :i* is made subject to "s condition4 #bad4 ,! complex proposition assumes two =ms1 7#a7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d4 ,?is is kn[n z ! ,conjunctive or ,hypo!tical proposition4 7#b7 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d4 ,?is is kn[n z ! ,disjunctive proposition4 #bae4 ,! disjunctive proposition may also appe> 9 ! =m ,a is ei!r ,b or ,c1 :i* is equival5t to say+ ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,a is ,c2 or aga9 9 ! =m ,ei!r ,a or ,b is ,c1 :i* is equival5t to say+ ,ei!r ,a is ,c or ,b is ,c4 #baf4 ,z ! d\ble nom5clature may cause "s confusion1 a s*eme is app5d$4 ,proposition ,simple ,complex 7,categorical7 7,conditional7 ,conjunctive ,disjunctive4 7,hypo!tical7 #bag4 ,! fir/ set ( names is pref]able4 ',categorical' prop]ly means 'pr$icable' & 'hypo!tical' is a m]e synonym = 'conditional4' #bah4 ,let u exam9e n[ :at is ! real nature ( ! /atem5t :i* is made 9 ! complex =m ( proposition4 ,:51 = in/ance1 we say ',if ! sky falls1 we %all cat* l>ks1' :at is x t we really mean to ass]t8 ,n t ! sky w fall1 & n t we %all cat* l>ks1 b a c]ta9 connection betwe5 ! two1 namely1 t ! tru? ( ! antec$5t involves ! tru? ( ! consequ5t4 ,?is is :y ?is =m ( proposition is call$ 'conjunctive1' because 9 x ! tru? ( ! consequ5t is conjo9$ to ! tru? ( ! antec$5t4 #bai4 ,aga91 :5 we say ',jones is ei!r a knave or a fool1' :at is really meant to be ass]t$ is--',if y d n f9d ,jones to be a knave1 y may be sure t he is a fool4' ,"h x is ! falsity ( ! antec$5t :i* involves ! tru? ( ! consequ5t2 & ! proposition is kn[n z 'disjunctive1' because ! tru? ( ! consequ5t is disjo9$ f ! tru? ( ! antec$5t4 #bbj4 ,complex propositions !n turn out to be propositions ab\t propositions1 t is1 ( :i* ! subject & pr$icate are !mselves propositions4 ,b ! nature ( a proposition nev] v>ies 9 ?\ght4 ,ultimately e proposition mu/ assume ! =m ',a is1 or is n1 ,b4' ',if ! sky falls1 we %all cat* l>ks' may be compress$ into ',sky-fall+ is l>k-cat*+4' #bba4 ,h5ce ?is division turns ^u ! =m ( expression1 & may be said to be f\nd$ on ! simplicity or complexity ( ! t]ms employ$ 9 a proposition4 #bbb4 ,9 ! complex proposition !re appe>s to be m ?an "o subject or pr$icate or bo?1 b 9 reality !re is only a s+le /atem5t2 & ?is /atem5t ref]s1 z we h ,se51 to a c]ta9 connection betwe5 two propositions4 #bbc4 ,if !re 7 logically1 & n m]ely grammatically1 m ?an "o subject or pr$icate1 !re w\ld be m ?an "o proposition4 ,?us :5 we say ',! ,jews & ,c>?ag9ians 7 ,semitic peoples & spoke a ,semitic language1' we h f\r propositions compress$ into a s+le s5t5ce = ! sake ( brevity4 #bbd4 ,on ! o!r h& :5 we say ',ei!r ! ,c>?ag9ians 7 ( ,semitic orig9 or argum5t f language is ( no value 9 e?nology1' we h two propositions only 9 appe>ance4 #bbe4 ,! complex proposition !n mu/ be di/+ui%$ f ^? contrivances ( language = abbreviat+ expression 9 :i* sev]al di/9ct /atem5ts are comb9$ into a s+le s5t5ce4 ,v]bal & ,real ,propositions4 #bbf4 ,a ,v]bal ,proposition is "o :i* /ates no?+ m ab\t ! subject ?an is conta9$ 9 its def9ition1 e4g4 ',man is an animal'2 ',m5 are rational be+s4' #bbg4 ,a ,real ,proposition /ates "s fact n conta9$ 9 ! def9ition ( ! subject1 e4g4 ',"s animals h f\r feet4' #bbh4 ,x w be se5 t ! di/9ction betwe5 v]bal & real propositions assumes a k ( ! precise mean+ ( t]ms1 t is to say1 a k ( def9itions4 #bbi4 ,to a p]son :o does n "k ! mean+ ( t]ms a v]bal proposition w convey z mu* in=mation z a real "o4 ,to say ',! sun is 9 mid-heav5 at noon1' ?\gh a m]ely v]bal proposition1 w convey in=mation to a p]son :o is be+ taught to atta* a mean+ to ! ^w 'noon4' ,we use s _m t]ms )\t kn[+ _! mean+1 t a m]ely v]bal proposition appe>s a revelation to _m m9ds4 ,?us !re are p :o are surpris$ to he> t ! lion is a cat1 ?\gh 9 its def9ition 'lion' is ref]r$ to ! class 'cat4' ,! reason ( ?is is t we "k mat]ial objects f> bett] 9 _! ext5sion ?an 9 _! int5sion1 t is to say1 we "k :at ?+s a "n applies to )\t kn[+ ! attributes :i* ^? ?+s possess 9 common4 #bcj4 ,!re is no?+ 9 ! m]e look ( a proposition to in=m u :e!r x is v]bal or real2 ! diff]5ce is :olly relative to1 & con/itut$ by1 ! def9ition ( ! subject4 ,:5 we h accept$ z ! def9ition ( a triangle t x is 'a figure conta9$ by ?ree sides1' ! /atem5t ( ! fur!r fact t x has ?ree angles becomes a real proposition4 ,aga9 ! proposition ',man is progressive' is a real proposition4 ,= ?\gh 8 progressiv5ess is a consequ5ce ( 8 rationality1 /ill !re is no actual ref]5ce to progressiv5ess conta9$ 9 ! usually accept$ def9ition1 ',man is a rational animal4' #bca4 ,if we 7 to admit1 "u ! t]m 'v]bal proposition1' all /atem5ts :i*1 ?\gh n actually conta9$ 9 ! def9ition ( ! subject1 are impli$ by x1 ! :ole body ( necess>y tru? w\ld h to be pron\nc$ m]ely v]bal1 & ! mo/ p5etrat+ conclusions ( ma!maticians set d[n z only ano!r way ( /at+ ! simple/ axioms f :i* !y />t$4 ,= ! propositions ( :i* necess>y tru? is compos$ are s l9k$ toge!r t1 giv5 "o1 ! re/ c always foll[4 ,b necess>y tru?1 :i* is arriv$ at 'a priori1' t is1 by ! m9d's own work+1 is q z real z cont+5t tru?1 :i* is arriv$ at 'a po/]iori1' or by ! tea*+s ( exp]i5ce1 9 o!r words1 ?r\gh our own s5ses or ^? ( o!rs4 #bcb4 ,! process by :i* real tru?1 :i* is o!r ?an d$uctive1 is arriv$ at 'a priori' is kn[n z ,intuition4 ,e4g4 ,! m9d sees t :at has ?ree sides _c b h ?ree angles4 #bcc4 ,only su* propositions !n mu/ be consid]$ v]bal z /ate facts expressly m5tion$ 9 ! def9ition4 #bcd4 ,/rictly speak+1 ! division ( propositions into v]bal & real is extrane\s to our subject3 s9ce x is n ! prov9ce ( logic to acqua9t u ) ! cont5t ( def9itions4 #bce1 ,! same di/9ction z betwe5 v]bal & real proposition1 is convey$ by ! expressions ',analytical' & ',syn!tical1' or ',explicative' & ',ampliative' judgem5ts4 #bcf4 ,a v]bal proposition is call$ analytical1 z break+ up ! subject into its compon5t notions4 #bcg4 ,a real proposition is call$ syn!tical1 z atta*+ "s new notion to ! subject4 #bch4 ,among ! s*ola/ic logicians v]bal propositions 7 kn[n z ',ess5tial1' because :at 0 /at$ 9 ! def9ition 0 consid]$ to be ( ! ess5ce ( ! subject1 :ile real propositions 7 kn[n z ',accid5tal4' ,univ]sal ,,& ,,p>ticul> ,propositions4 #bci4 ,a ,univ]sal proposition is "o 9 :i* x is evid5t f ! =m t ! pr$icate applies to ! subject 9 its :ole ext5t4 #bdj4 ,:5 ! pr$icate does n apply to ! subject 9 its :ole ext5t1 or :5 x is n cle> t x does s1 ! proposition is call$ ,p>ticul>4 #bda4 ,to say t a pr$icate applies to a subject 9 its :ole ext5t1 is to say t x is ass]t$ or d5i$ ( all ! ?+s ( :i* ! subject is a "n4 #bdb4 ',all m5 are mortal' is a univ]sal proposition4 #bdc4 ',"s m5 are black' is a p>ticul> proposition4 ,s also is ',m5 are fallible2' = "h x is n cle> f ! =m :e!r 'all' or only '"s' is meant4 #bdd4 ,! latt] k9d ( proposition is kn[n z ,indef9ite1 & mu/ be di/+ui%$ f ! p>ticul> proposition /rictly s call$1 9 :i* ! pr$icate applies to "p only ( ! subject4 #bde4 ,! division into univ]sal & p>ticul> is f\nd$ on ! ,quantity ( propositions4 #bdf4 ,! quantity ( a proposition is det]m9$ by ! quantity 9 ext5sion ( its subject4 #bdg4 ,v (t5 ! matt] ( an indef9ite proposition is su* z cle>ly to indicate to u its quantity4 ,:51 = in/ance1 we say ',metals are elem5ts1' we are und]/ood to be ref]r+ to all metals2 & ! same ?+ holds true ( sci5tific /atem5ts 9 g5]al4 ,=mal logic1 h[ev]1 _c take acc\nt ( ! matt] ( propositions2 & is !re=e oblig$ to set d[n all indef9ite propositions z p>ticul>1 s9ce x is n evid5t f ! =m t !y are univ]sal4 #bdh4 ,p>ticul> propositions1 !re=e1 are sub-divid$ into su* z are ,indef9ite & su* z are ,p>ticul>1 9 ! /rict s5se ( ! t]m4 #bdi4 ,we mu/ n[ exam9e ! sub-division ( univ]sal propositions into ,s+ul> & ,g5]al4 #bej4 ,a ,s+ul> proposition is "o :i* has a s+ul> t]m = its subject1 e4g4 ',virtue is beautiful4' #bea4 ,a ,g5]al proposition is "o :i* has = its subject a common t]m tak5 9 its :ole ext5t4 #beb4 ,n[ :5 we say ',john is a man' or ',?is table is oblong1' ! proposition is q z univ]sal1 9 ! s5se ( ! pr$icate apply+ to ! :ole ( ! subject1 z :5 we say ',all m5 are mortal4' ,= s9ce a s+ul> t]m applies only to "o ?+1 we _c avoid us+ x 9 its :ole ext5t1 if we use x at all4 #bec4 ,! mo/ usual signs ( g5]ality 9 a proposition are ! words 'all1' 'e1' 'ea*1' 9 affirmative1 & ! words 'no1' 'none1' 'n "o1' c4 9 negative propositions4 #bed4 ,! t]m9ology ( ! division ( propositions accord+ to quantity is unsatisfactory4 ,n only has ! indef9ite proposition to be set d[n z p>ticul>1 ev5 :5 ! s5se manife/ly decl>es x to be univ]sal2 b ! proposition :i* is express$ 9 a p>ticul> =m has also to be con/ru$ z indef9ite1 s t an unnatural mean+ is imp>t$ to ! ^w '"s1' z us$ 9 logic4 ,if 9 common conv]sation we 7 to say ',"s c[s *ew ! cud1' ! p]son :om we 7 address+ w\ld d\btless imag9e u to suppose t !re 7 "s c[s :i* did n possess ?is attribute4 ,b 9 logic ! ^w '"s' is n held to express m ?an '"s at lea/1 if n all4' ,h5ce we f9d n only t an indef9ite proposition may1 z a matt] ( fact1 be /rictly p>ticul>1 b t a proposition :i* appe>s to be /rictly p>ticul> may be indef9ite4 ,s a proposition express$ 9 precisely ! same =m ',"s ,a is ,b' may be ei!r /rictly p>ticul>1 if "s be tak5 to exclude all1 or indef9ite1 if ! ^w '"s' does n exclude ! possibility ( ! /atem5t be+ true ( all4 ,x is evid5t t ! t]m 'p>ticul>' has become di/ort$ f its orig9al mean+4 ,x w\ld naturally lead u to inf] t a /atem5t is limit$ to "p ( ! subject1 :]eas1 by its be+ oppos$ to univ]sal1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* t t]m has be5 def9$1 x c only mean t we h no?+ to %[ u :e!r "p or ! :ole is spok5 (4 #bee4 ,?is awkw>dness ( expression is due to ! indef9ite proposition hav+ be5 displac$ f its prop] position4 ,=m]ly propositions 7 divid$ "u ?ree heads-- 7#a7 ,univ]sal1 7#b7 ,p>ticul>1 7#c7 ,indef9ite4 ,b logicians anxi\s = simplification ask$1 :e!r a pr$icate 9 any giv5 case mu/ n ei!r apply to ! :ole ( ! subject or n8 ,& :e!r1 !re=e1 ! ?ird head ( indef9ite propositions 7 n z sup]flu\s z ! s-call$ 'common g5d]' ( n\ns 9 gramm>8 #bef4 ,x is q true t1 z a matt] ( fact1 any giv5 pr$icate mu/ ei!r apply to ! :ole ( ! subject or n1 s t 9 ! nature ( ?+s !re is no middle c\rse betwe5 univ]sal & p>ticul>4 ,b ! important po9t is t we may n "k :e!r ! pr$icate applies to ! :ole ( ! subject or n4 ,! prim>y division !n %\ld be into propositions ^: quantity is kn[n & propositions ^: quantity is unkn[n4 ,^? propositions ^: quantity is kn[n may be sub-divid$ into 'def9itely univ]sal' & 'def9itely p>ticul>1' :ile all ^? ^: quantity is unkn[n are class$ toge!r "u ! t]m 'indef9ite4' ,h5ce ! prop] division is z foll[s-- ,proposition ,def9ite ,indef9ite ,univ]sal ,p>ticul>4 #beg4 ,ano!r v obvi\s defeat ( t]m9ology is t ! ^w 'univ]sal' is naturally oppos$ to 's+ul>1' :]eas x is "h s us$ z to include x2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 !re is no obvi\s diff]5ce betwe5 univ]sal & g5]al1 ?\gh 9 ! division ! latt] is di/+ui%$ f ! =m] z species f g5us4 ,affirmative & ,negative ,propositions4 #beh4 ,?is division re/s ^u ! ,quality ( propositions4 #bei4 ,x is ! quality ( ! =m to be affirmative or negative3 ! quality ( ! matt]1 z we saw be=e 7 #bjd71 is to be true or false4 ,b s9ce =mal logic takes no acc\nt ( ! matt] ( ?\ght1 :5 we speak ( 'quality' we are und]/ood to mean ! quality ( ! =m4 #bfj4 ,by comb9+ ! division ( propositions accord+ to quantity ) ! division accord+ to quality1 we obta9 f\r k9ds ( proposition1 namely-- 7#a7 ,univ]sal ,affirmative 7,a74 7#b7 ,univ]sal ,negative 7,e74 7#c7 ,p>ticul> ,affirmative 7,i74 7#d7 ,p>ticul> ,negative 7,o74 #bfa4 ,?is is an exhau/ive classification ( propositions1 & any proposition1 no matt] :at its =m may be1 mu/ fall "u "o or o!r ( ^! f\r heads4 ,= e proposition mu/ be ei!r univ]sal or p>ticul>1 9 ! s5se t ! subject mu/ ei!r be kn[n to be us$ 9 its :ole ext5t or n2 & any proposition1 :e!r univ]sal or p>ticul>1 mu/ be ei!r affirmative or negative1 = by d5y+ modality to ! copula we h exclud$ ev]y?+ int]m$iate betwe5 d[nright ass]tion & d5ial4 ,?is classification !re=e may be reg>d$ z a ,procru/es' b$1 into :i* e proposition is b\nd to fit at its prop] p]il4 #bfb4 ,^! f\r k9ds ( propositions are repres5t$ respectively by ! symbols ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 ,o4 #bfc4 ,! v[els ,a & ,i1 :i* d5ote ! two affirmatives1 occur 9 ! ,lat9 words 'affirmo' & 'aio2' ,e & ,o1 :i* d5ote ! two negatives1 occur 9 ! ,lat9 ^w 'nego4' ,ext5sive & ,int5sive ,propositions4 #bfd4 ,x is important to notice ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,ext5sive & ,int5sive propositions2 b ?is is n a division ( propositions1 b a di/9ction z to our way ( reg>d+ !m4 ,propositions may be read ei!r 9 ext5sion or int5sion4 ,?us :5 we say ',all c[s are rum9ants1' we may mean t ! class1 c[1 is conta9$ 9 ! l>g] class1 rum9ant4 ,?is is read+ ! proposition 9 ext5sion4 ,or we may mean t ! attribute ( *ew+ ! cud is conta9$ 91 or accompanies1 ! attributes :i* make up our idea ( 'c[4' ,?is is read+ ! proposition 9 int5sion4 ,:at1 z a matt] ( fact1 we d mean1 is a mixture ( ! two1 namely1 t ! class1 c[1 has ! attribute ( *ew+ ! cud4 ,= 9 ! ord9>y & natural =m ( proposition ! subject is us$ 9 ext5sion1 & ! pr$icate 9 int5sion1 t is to say1 :5 we use a subject1 we are ?9k+ ( c]ta9 objects1 :]eas :5 we use a pr$icate1 we indicate ! possession ( c]ta9 attributes4 ,! pr$icate1 h[ev]1 ne$ n always be us$ 9 int5sion1 e4g4 9 ! proposition ',8 "n is ,john' ! pr$icate is n int5d$ to convey ! idea ( any attributes at all4 ,:at is meant to be ass]t$ is t ! "n ( ! p]son 9 "q is t p>ticul> "n1 ,john1 & n ,za*>ias or ,ab9adab or any o!r "n t might be giv5 him4 #bfe4 ,let x be notic$ t :5 a proposition is read 9 ext5sion1 ! pr$icate conta9s ! subject1 :]eas1 :5 x is read 9 int5sion1 ! subject conta9s ! pr$icate4 ,exclusive ,propositions4 #bff4 ,an ,exclusive ,proposition is s call$ because 9 x all b a giv5 subject is exclud$ f p>ticipation 9 a giv5 pr$icate1 e4g4 ',! good alone are happy1' ',none b ! brave des]ve ! fair1' ',no "o except y\rself w\ld h done ?is4' #bfg4 ,by ! above =ms ( expression ! pr$icate is decl>$ to apply to a giv5 subject & to t subject only4 ,h5ce an exclusive proposition is really equival5t to two propositions1 "o affirmative & "o negative4 ,! fir/ ( ! above propositions1 = in/ance1 means t "s ( ! good are happy1 & t no "o else is s4 ,x does n necess>ily mean t all ! good are happy1 b ass]ts t among ! good w be f\nd all ! happy4 ,x is !re=e equival5t to say+ t all ! happy are good1 only t x puts prom95tly =w>d 9 addition :at is o!rwise a lat5t consequ5ce ( t ass]tion1 namely1 t "s at lea/ ( ! good are happy4 #bfh4 ,logically express$ ! exclusive proposition :5 univ]sal assumes ! =m ( an ,e proposition1 ) a negative t]m = its subject ,no n-,a is ,b4 #bfi4 ,"u ! head ( exclusive comes ! /rictly p>ticul> proposition1 ',"s ,a is ,b1' :i* implies at ! same "t t ',"s ,a is n ,b4' ,"h '"s' is und]/ood to mean '"s only1' :i* is ! mean+ t x usually be>s 9 common language4 ,:51 = in/ance1 we say ',"s ( ! gates into ! p>k are clos$ at nightfall1' we are und]/ood to mean ',"s are left op54' ,exceptive ,propositions4 #bgj4 ,an ,exceptive ,proposition is s call$ z affirm+ ! pr$icate ( ! :ole ( ! subject1 ) ! exception ( a c]ta9 "p1 e4g4 ',all ! jury1 except two1 condemn$ ! prison]4' #bga4 ,?is =m ( proposition aga9 involves two di/9ct /atem5ts1 "o negative & "o affirmative1 be+ equival5t to ',two ( ! jury did n condemn ! prison]2 & all ! re/ did4' #bgb4 ,! exceptive proposition is m]ely an affirmative way ( /at+ ! exclusive-- ,no n-,a is ,b ,all n-,a is n-,b4 ,no "o b ! sage is sane ,all except ! sage are mad4 ,tautolog\s or ,id5tical ,propositions #bgc4 ,a ,tautolog\s or ,id5tical proposition affirms ! subject ( itself1 e4g4 ',a man's a man1' ',:at ,i h writt51 ,i h writt51' ',:atev] is1 is4' ,! second ( ^! in/ances am\nts =mally to say+ ',! ?+ t ,i h writt5 is ! ?+ t ,i h writt51' ?\gh ( c\rse ! implication is t ! writ+ w n be alt]$4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,( ! ,di/ribution ( ,t]ms4 #bgd4 ,! treatm5t ( ?is subject falls "u ! second "p ( logic1 s9ce di/ribution is n an attribute ( t]ms 9 !mselves1 b "o :i* !y acquire 9 pr$ication4 #bge4 ,a t]m is said to be di/ribut$ :5 x is kn[n to be us$ 9 its :ole ext5t1 t is1 ) ref]5ce to all ! ?+s ( :i* x is a "n4 ,:5 x is n s us$1 or is n kn[n to be s us$1 x is call$ undi/ribut$4 #bgf4 ,:5 we say ',all m5 are mortal1' ! subject is di/ribut$1 s9ce x is app>5t f ! =m ( ! expression t x is us$ 9 its :ole ext5t4 ,b :5 we say ',m5 are mis]able' or ',"s m5 are black1' ! subject is undi/ribut$4 #bgg4 ,!re is ! same ambiguity atta*+ to ! t]m 'undi/ribut$' :i* we f\nd to und]lie ! use ( ! t]m 'p>ticul>4' ',undi/ribut$' is appli$ bo? to a t]m ^: quantity is undef9$1 & to "o ^: quantity is def9itely limit$ to a "p ( its possible ext5t4 #bgh4 ,?is awkw>dness arises f n inquir+ fir/ :e!r ! quantity ( a t]m is det]m9$ or undet]m9$1 & aft]w>ds proce$+ to inquire1 :e!r x is det]m9$ z a :ole or "p ( its possible ext5t4 ,z x is1 to say t a t]m is di/ribut$1 involves two di/9ct /atem5ts-- 7#a7 ,t its quantity is kn[n2 7#b7 ,t its quantity is ! greate/ possible4 ,! t]m 'undi/ribut$' s]ves sometimes to contradict "o ( ^! /atem5ts & sometimes to contradict ! o!r4 #bgi4 ,) reg>d to ! quantity ( ! subject ( a proposition no difficulty c arise4 ,! use ( ! words 'all' or '"s1' or ( a v>iety ( equival5t expressions1 m>k ! subject z be+ di/ribut$ or undi/ribut$ respectively1 :ile1 if !re be no?+ to m>k ! quantity1 ! subject is = t reason reckon$ undi/ribut$4 #bhj4 ,) reg>d to ! pr$icate m difficulty may arise4 #bha4 ,x has be5 laid d[n already t1 9 ! ord9>y =m ( proposition1 ! subject is us$ 9 ext5sion & ! pr$icate 9 int5sion4 ,let u illu/rate ! mean+ ( ?is by an example4 ,if someone 7 to say ',c[s are rum9ants1' y w\ld h a "r to ask him :e!r he meant 'all c[s' or only '"s4' ,y w\ld n by s do+ be ask+ = fre% in=mation1 b m]ely = a m di/9ct explanation ( ! /atem5t already made4 ,! subject be+ us$ 9 ext5sion naturally assumes ! =m ( ! :ole or "p ( a class4 ,b1 if y 7 to ask ! same p]son ',d y mean t c[s are all ! rum9ants t !re are1 or only "s ( !m8' he w\ld h a "r to compla9 ( ! "q1 & might fairly reply1 ',i did n mean ei!r "o or ! o!r2 ,i 0 n ?9k+ ( rum9ants z a class4 ,i wi%$ m]ely to ass]t an attribute ( c[s2 9 fact1 ,i meant no m ?an t c[s *ew ! cud4' #bhb4 ,s9ce !re=e a pr$icate is n us$ 9 ext5sion at all1 x _c possibly be kn[n :e!r x is us$ 9 its :ole ext5t or n4 #bhc4 ,x w\ld appe> !n t e pr$icate is necess>ily undi/ribut$2 & ?is consequ5ce does foll[ 9 ! case ( affirmative propositions4 #bhd4 ,9 a negative proposition1 h[ev]1 ! pr$icate1 ?\gh /ill us$ 9 int5sion1 mu/ be reg>d$ z di/ribut$4 ,?is arises f ! nature ( a negative proposition4 ,= we mu/ rememb] t 9 any proposition1 al?\gh ! pr$icate be n meant 9 ext5sion1 x always admits ( be+ s read4 ,n[ we _c exclude "o class f ano!r )\t at ! same "t :olly exclud+ t o!r f ! =m]4 ,to take an example1 :5 we say ',no horses are rum9ants1' ! mean+ we really wi% to convey is t no memb] ( ! class1 horse1 has a p>ticul> attribute1 namely1 t ( *ew+ ! cud4 ,b ! proposition admits ( be+ read 9 ano!r =m1 namely1 ',t no memb] ( ! class1 horse1 is a memb] ( ! class1 rum9ant4' ,= by exclud+ a class f ! possession ( a giv5 attribute1 we inevitably exclude at ! same "t any class ( ?+s :i* possess t attribute f ! =m] class4 #bhe4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! use ( a pr$icate 9 an affirmative & 9 a negative proposition may be illu/rat$ to ! eye z foll[s4 ,to say ',all ,a is ,b' may mean ei!r t ,a is includ$ 9 ,b or t ,a & ,b are exactly co-ext5sive4 ,illu/ration #bhf4 ,z we _c be sure :i* ( ^! two relations ( ,a to ,b is meant1 ! pr$icate ,b has to be reckon$ undi/ribut$1 s9ce a t]m is held to be di/ribut$ only :5 we "k t x is us$ 9 its :ole ext5t4 #bhg4 ,to say ',no ,a is ,b1' h[ev]1 is to say t ,a falls :olly outside ( ,b1 :i* involves ! consequ5ce t ,b falls :olly outside ( ,a4 ,illu/ration #bhh4 ,let u n[ apply ! same mode ( illu/ration to ! p>ticul> =ms ( proposition4 #bhi4 ,if ,i be tak5 9 ! /rictly p>ticul> s5se1 !re are1 f ! po9t ( view ( ext5sion1 two ?+s :i* may be meant :5 we say ',"s ,a is ,b'-- 7#a7 ,t ,a & ,b are two classes :i* ov]lap "o ano!r1 t is to say1 h "s memb]s 9 common1 e4g4 ',"s cats are black4' ,illu/ration 7#b7 ,t ,b is :olly conta9$ 9 ,a1 :i* is an inv]t$ way ( say+ t all ,b is ,a1 e4g4 ',"s animals are m54' ,illu/ration #bij4 ,s9ce we _c be sure :i* ( ^! two is meant1 ! pr$icate is aga9 reckon$ undi/ribut$4 #bia4 ,if on ! o!r h& #a be tak5 9 an indef9ite s5se1 s z to admit ! possibility ( ! univ]sal be+ true1 !n ! two diagrams :i* h already be5 us$ = ,a mu/ be ext5d$ to #a1 9 addition to its own1 toge!r ) ! rem>ks :i* we made 9 connection ) !m 7 #bhe-f74 #bib4 ,aga91 :5 we say ',"s ,a is n ,b1' we mean t "s1 if n ! :ole ( ,a1 is exclud$ f ! possession ( ! attribute ,b4 ,9 ei!r case ! ?+s :i* possess ! attribute ,b are :olly exclud$ ei!r f a p>ticul> "p or f ! :ole ( ,a4 ,! pr$icate !re=e is di/ribut$4 ,illu/ration ,f ! above consid]ations we elicit ! foll[+-- #bic4 ,f\r ,rules = ! ,di/ribution ( ,t]ms4 7#a7 ,all univ]sal propositions di/ribute _! subject4 7#b7 ,no p>ticul> propositions di/ribute _! subject1 7#c7 ,all negative propositions di/ribute _! pr$icate4 7#d7 ,no affirmative propositions di/ribute _! pr$icate4 #bid4 ,! "q ( ! di/ribution or non-di/ribution ( ! subject turns ^u ! quantity ( ! proposition1 :e!r univ]sal or p>ticul>2 ! "q ( ! di/ribution or non-di/ribution ( ! pr$icate turns ^u ! quality ( ! proposition1 :e!r affirmative or negative4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,( ! ,quantification ( ! ,pr$icate4 #bie4 ,! rules t h be5 giv5 = ! di/ribution ( t]ms1 toge!r ) ! f\rfold division ( propositions into ,a1 ,e1 #a1 #j1 are bas$ on ! assumption t x is ! di/ribution or non-di/ribution ( ! subject only t ne$s to be tak5 into acc\nt 9 e/imat+ ! quantity ( a proposition4 #bif4 ,b "s logicians h ma9ta9$ t ! pr$icate1 ?\gh seldom quantifi$ 9 expression1 mu/ always be quantifi$ 9 ?\ght--9 o!r words1 t :5 we say1 = in/ance1 ',all ,a is ,b1' we mu/ mean ei!r t ',all ,a is all ,b' or only t ',all ,a is "s ,b4' #big4 ,if ?is 7 s1 x is pla9 t ! numb] ( possible propositions w\ld be exactly d\bl$1 & t1 in/ead ( f\r =ms1 we %\ld n[ h to recognise eight1 :i* may be express$ z foll[s-- #a4 ,all ,a is all ,b4 7upsilon74 #b4 ,all ,a is "s ,b4 7,lambda74 #c4 ,no ,a is any ,b4 7,epsilon74 #d4 ,no ,a is "s ,b4 7eta74 #e4 ,"s ,a is all ,b4 7,upsilon74 #f4 ,"s ,a is "s ,b4 7,iota74 #g4 ,"s ,a is n any ,b4 7,omega74 #h4 ,"s ,a is n "s ,b4 7omega74 #bih4 ,x is evid5t t x is ! second ( ! above propositions :i* repres5ts ! orig9al ,a1 9 accordance ) ! rule t ',no affirmative propositions di/ribute _! pr$icate' 7 #bic74 #bii4 ,! ?ird repres5ts ! orig9al ,e1 9 accordance ) ! rule t ',all negative propositions di/ribute _! pr$icate4' #cjj4 ,! six? repres5ts ! orig9al ,i1 9 accordance ) ! rule t ',no affirmative propositions di/ribute _! pr$icate4' #cja4 ,! sev5? repres5ts ! orig9al ,o1 9 accordance ) ! rule t ',all negative propositions di/ribute _! pr$icate4' #cjb4 ,f\r new symbols are requir$1 if ! quantity ( ! pr$icate z well z t ( ! subject be tak5 into acc\nt 9 ! classification ( propositions4 ,^! h be5 suppli$1 some:at fancifully1 z foll[s-- #cjc4 ,! fir/1 ',all ,a is all ,b1' :i* di/ributes bo? subject & pr$icate1 has be5 call$ upsilon1 to m>k its extreme univ]sality4 #cjd4 ,! f\r?1 ',no ,a is "s ,b1' is conta9$ 9 ,e1 & has !re=e be5 d5ot$ by ! symbol eta1 to %[ its connection ) ,e4 #cje4 ,! fif?1 ',"s ,a is all ,b1' is ! exact conv]se ( ! second1 ',all ,a is "s ,b1' & has !re=e be5 d5ot$ by ! symbol ,upsilon1 :i* resembles an inv]t$ ,a4 #cjf4 ,! eigh? is conta9$ 9 ,o1 z "p 9 :ole1 & has !re=e _h assign$ to x ! symbol omega1 #cjg4 ,! attempt to take ! pr$icate 9 ext5sion1 in/ead (1 z x %\ld naturally be tak51 9 int5sion1 leads to "s curi\s results4 ,let u take1 = in/ance1 ! u proposition4 ,ei!r ! sign ( quantity 'all' mu/ be und]/ood z =m+ "p ( ! pr$icate or n4 ,if x is n1 !n ! u proposition ',all ,a is all ,b' seems to conta9 )9 itself1 n "o proposition1 b two1 namely1 ',all ,a is ,b' & ',all ,b is ,a4' ,b if on ! o!r h& 'all' is und]/ood to =m "p ( ! pr$icate1 !n u is n really a g5]al b a s+ul> proposition4 ,:5 we say1 ',all m5 are rational animals1' we h a true g5]al proposition1 because ! pr$icate applies to ! subject di/ributively1 & n collectively4 ,:at we mean is t 'rational animal' may be affirm$ ( e individual 9 ! class1 man4 ,b :5 we say ',all m5 are all rational animals1' ! pr$icate no long] applies to ! subject di/ributively1 b only collectively4 ,= x is obvi\s t 'all rational animals' _c be affirm$ ( e individual 9 ! class1 man4 ,:at ! proposition means is t ! class1 man1 is co-ext5sive ) ! class1 rational animal4 ,! same mean+ may be express$ int5sively by say+ t ! "o class has ! attribute ( co-ext5sion ) ! o!r4 #cjh4 ,"u ! head o u come all propositions 9 :i* bo? subject & pr$icate are s+ul> t]ms1 e4g4 ',hom] 0 ! au?or ( ! ,iliad1' ',virtue is ! way to happ9ess4' #cji4 ,! proposition eta conveys v little in=mation to ! m9d4 ',no ,a is "s ,b' is compatible ) ! ,a proposition 9 ! same matt]4 ',no m5 are "s animals' may be true1 :ile at ! same "t x is true t ',all m5 are animals4' ,no m51 = in/ance1 are ! p>ticul> animals kn[n z kang>oos4 #caj4 ,! omega proposition conveys /ill less in=mation ?an ! eta4 ,= omega is compatible1 n only ) ,a1 b ) upsilon4 ,ev5 ?\gh ',all m5 are all rational animals1' x is /ill true t ',"s m5 are n "s rational animals'3 = no giv5 human be+ is ! same rational animal z any o!r4 #caa4 ,nay1 ev5 :5 ! upsilon is an id5tical proposition1 omega w /ill hold 9 ! same matt]4 ',all rational animals are all rational animals'3 b1 = all t1 ',"s rational animals are n "s o!rs4' ,?is la/ =m ( proposition !re=e is almo/ :olly devoid ( mean+4 #cab4 ,! *ief advantage claim$ = ! quantification ( ! pr$icate is t x r$uces e affirmative proposition to an exact equation betwe5 its subject & pr$icate4 ,z a consequ5ce e proposition w\ld admit ( simple conv]sion1 t is to say1 ( hav+ ! subject & pr$icate transpos$ )\t any fur!r *ange 9 ! proposition4 ,! =ms also ( ,r$uction 7a t]m :i* w be expla9$ lat] on7 w\ld be simplifi$2 & g5]ally ! introduction ( ! quantifi$ pr$icate into logic might be att5d$ ) c]ta9 me*anical advantages4 ,! object ( ! logician1 h[ev]1 is n to inv5t an +5i\s sy/em1 b to arrive at a true analysis ( ?\ght4 ,n[1 if x be admitt$ t 9 ! ord9>y =m ( proposition ! subject is us$ 9 ext5sion & ! pr$icate 9 int5sion1 ! gr\nd = ! doctr9e is at once cut away4 ,=1 if ! pr$icate be n us$ 9 its ext5sive capacity at all1 we pla9ly _c be call$ ^u to det]m9e :e!r x is us$ 9 its :ole ext5t or n4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,( ! ,heads ( ,pr$icables4 #cac4 ,a pr$icate is some?+ :i* is /at$ ( a subject4 #cad4 ,a pr$icable is some?+ :i* c be /at$ ( a subject4 #cae4 ,! ,heads ( ,pr$icables are a classification ( ! v>i\s ?+s :i* c be /at$ ( a subject1 view$ 9 _! relation to x4 #caf4 ,! treatm5t ( ?is topic1 !re=e1 z x involves ! relation ( a pr$icate to a subject1 manife/ly falls "u ! second "p ( logic1 :i* deals ) ! proposition4 ,x is sometimes treat$ "u ! fir/ "p ( logic1 z ?\gh ! heads ( pr$icables 7 a classification ( univ]sal notions1 i4e4 common t]ms1 9 relation to "o ano!r1 )\t ref]5ce to _! place 9 ! proposition4 #cag4 ,! heads ( pr$icables are commonly reckon$ z five1 namely1 7#a7 ,g5us4 7#b7 ,species4 7#c7 ,diff]5ce4 7#d7 ,prop]ty4 7#e7 ,accid5t4 #cah4 ,we w fir/ def9e ^! t]ms 9 ! s5se 9 :i* !y are n[ us$1 & aft]w>ds exam9e ! pr9ciple on :i* ! classification is f\nd$ & ! s5se 9 :i* !y 7 orig9ally int5d$4 7#a7 ,a ,g5us is a l>g] class conta9+ "u x small] classes4 ,animal is a g5us 9 relation to man & brute4 7#b7 ,a ,species is a small] class conta9$ "u a l>g] "o4 ,man is a species 9 relation to animal4 7#c7 ,diff]5ce is ! attribute1 or attributes1 :i* di/+ui% "o species f o!rs conta9$ "u ! same g5us4 ,rationality is ! attribute :i* di/+ui%es ! species1 man1 f ! species1 brute4 ,n4,b4 ,! g5us & ! diff]5ce toge!r make up ! ,def9ition ( a class-"n1 or common t]m4 7#d7 ,a ,prop]ty is an attribute :i* is n conta9$ 9 ! def9ition ( a t]m1 b :i* fl[s f x4 ,a ,g5]ic ,prop]ty is "o :i* fl[s f ! g5us4 ,a ,specific ,prop]ty is "o :i* fl[s f ! diff]5ce4 ,x is a g5]ic prop]ty ( man t he is mortal1 :i* is a consequ5ce ( 8 animality4 ,x is a specific prop]ty ( man t he is progressive1 :i* is a consequ5ce ( 8 rationality4 7#e7 ,an ,accid5t is an attribute1 :i* is nei!r conta9$ 9 ! def9ition1 nor fl[s f x4 #cai4 ,accid5ts are ei!r ,sep>able or ,insep>able4 ,a ,sep>able ,accid5t is "o :i* belongs only to "s memb]s ( a class4 ,an ,insep>able ,accid5t is "o :i* belongs to all ! memb]s ( a class4 ,blackness is a sep>able accid5t ( man1 an insep>able accid5t ( coals4 #cbj4 ,! attributes :i* belong to any?+ may be di/+ui%$ broadly "u ! two heads ( ess5tial & non-ess5tial1 or accid5tal4 ,by ! ess5tial attributes ( any?+ are meant ^? :i* are conta9$ 91 or :i* fl[ f1 ! def9ition4 ,n[ x may be que/ion$ :e!r !re c1 9 ! nature ( ?+s1 be su* a ?+ z an insep>able accid5t4 ,= if an attribute 7 f\nd to belong inv>iably to all ! memb]s ( a class1 we %\ld suspect t !re 0 "s causal connection betwe5 x & ! attributes :i* con/itute ! def9ition1 t is1 we %\ld suspect ! attribute 9 "q to be ess5tial & n accid5tal4 ,nev]!less ! t]m 'insep>able accid5t' may be reta9$ z a cloak = our ignorance1 :5ev] x is f\nd t an attribute does1 z a matt] ( fact1 belong to all ! memb]s ( a class1 )\t !re be+ any app>5t reason :y x %\ld d s4 ,x has be5 obs]v$ t animals :i* h horns *ew ! cud4 ,z no "o c adduce any reason :y animals t h horns %\ld *ew ! cud any m ?an animals :i* h n1 we may call ! fact ( *ew+ ! cud an insep>able accid5t ( horn$ animals4 #cba4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 sep>able & insep>able accid5ts is sometimes ext5d$ f classes to individuals4 ,an insep>able accid5t ( an individual is "o :i* belongs to him at all times4 ,a sep>able accid5t ( an individual is "o :i* belongs to him at "o "t & n at ano!r4 #cbb4 ,x is an insep>able accid5t ( an individual t he 0 born at a c]ta9 place & on a c]ta9 date4 ,x is a sep>able accid5t ( an individual t he resides at a c]ta9 place & is ( a c]ta9 age4 #cbc4 ,!re are "s rem>ks :i* x may be well to make ab\t ! above five t]ms be=e we pass on to inve/igate ! pr9ciple ^u :i* ! division is bas$4 #cbd4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x mu/ ( c\rse be borne 9 m9d t g5us & species are relative t]ms4 ,no class 9 itself c be ei!r a g5us or a species2 x only becomes s 9 ref]5ce to "s o!r class1 z /&+ to x 9 ! relation ( conta9+ or conta9$4 #cbe4 ,aga91 ! di/9ction betwe5 g5us & diff]5ce on ! "o h& & prop]ty on ! o!r is :olly relative to an assum$ def9ition4 ,:5 we say ',man is an animal1' ',man is rational1' ',man is progressive1' !re is no?+ 9 ! nature ( ^! /atem5ts !mselves to tell u t ! pr$icate is g5us1 diff]5ce1 or prop]ty respectively4 ,x is only by a tacit ref]5ce to ! accept$ def9ition ( man t ?is becomes evid5t to u1 ,simil>ly1 we _c "k be=eh& t ! fact ( a triangle hav+ ?ree sides is its diff]5ce1 & ! fact ( its hav+ ?ree angles a prop]ty4 ,x is only :5 we assume ! def9ition ( a triangle z a ?ree-sid$ figure t ! fact ( its hav+ ?ree angles s9ks into a prop]ty4 ,_h we *os5 to def9e x1 9 accordance ) its etymological mean+1 z a figure ) ?ree angles1 its ?ree-sid$ness w\ld !n h be5 a m]e prop]ty1 in/ead ( be+ ! diff]5ce2 = ^! two attributes are s connect$ toge!r t1 :i*ev] is po/ulat$1 ! o!r w necess>ily foll[4 #cbf4 ,la/ly1 x mu/ be notic$ t we h n really def9$ ! t]m 'accid5t1' n hav+ /at$ :at x is1 b only :at x is n4 ,x has 9 fact be5 res]v$ z a residual head to cov] any attribute :i* is nei!r a diff]5ce nor a prop]ty4 #cbg4 ,if ! five heads ( pr$icables above giv5 7 (f]$ to u z an exhau/ive classification ( ! possible relations 9 :i* ! pr$icate c /& to ! subject 9 a proposition1 ! fir/ ?+ t w\ld /rike u is t !y d n cov] ! case 9 :i* ! pr$icate is a s+ul> t]m4 ,9 su* a proposition z ',?is man is ,john1' we h nei!r a pr$ication ( g5us or species nor ( attribute3 b m]ely ! id5tification ( "o t]m ) ano!r1 z apply+ to ! same object4 ,su* criticism z ?is1 h[ev]1 w\ld be entirely errone\s1 s9ce no s+ul> t]m 0 reg>d$ z a pr$icate4 ,a pr$icable 0 ano!r "n = a univ]sal1 ! common t]m be+ call$ a pr$icable 9 "o relation & a univ]sal 9 ano!r-a pr$icable1 ext5sively1 9 s f> z x 0 applicable to sev]al diff]5t ?+s1 a univ]sal1 int5sively1 9 s f> z ! attributes indicat$ 7 impli$ 9 sev]al o!r notions1 z ! attributes indicat$ by 'animal' are impli$ 9 'horse1' '%eep1' 'goat1' c4 #cbh4 ,x w\ld be less irrelevant to po9t out h[ ! classification breaks d[n 9 relation to ! s+ul> t]m z subject4 ,:51 = in/ance1 we say ',socrates is an animal1' ',socrates is a man1' !re is no?+ 9 ! proposition to %[ u :e!r ! pr$icate is a g5us or a species3 = we h n "h ! relation ( class to class1 :i* gives u g5us or species accord+ to _! relative ext5sion1 b ! relation ( a class to an individual4 #cbi4 ,aga91 :5 we say 7#a7 ,"s animals are m51 7#b7 ,"s m5 are black1 :at is !re to tell u t ! pr$icate is to be reg>d$ 9 ! "o case z a species & 9 ! o!r z an accid5t ( ! subject8 ,no?+ pla9ly b ! assumption ( a def9ition already kn[n4 #ccj4 ,b if ?is assumption be grant$1 ! classification seems to admit ( a m or less complete def5se by logic4 ,=1 giv5 any subject1 we c pr$icate ( x ei!r a class or an attribute4 ,:5 ! pr$icate is a class1 ! t]m pr$icat$ is call$ a ,g5us1 if ! subject itself be a class1 or a ,species1 if x be an individual4 ,:51 on ! o!r h&1 ! pr$icate is an attribute1 ! attribute pr$icat$ may be ei!r ! v attribute :i* di/+ui%es ! subject f o!r memb]s ( ! same class1 9 :i* case x is call$ ! ,diff]5ce1 or x may be "s attribute connect$ ) ! def9ition1 i4e4 ,prop]ty1 or n connect$ ) x1 i4e4 ,accid5t4 #cca4 ,^! results may be exhibit$ 9 ! foll[+ s*eme-- ,pr$icate ,class ,attribute 7,subject a 7,subject a 7,! 7,n ! common s+ul> di/+ui%+ di/+ui%+ t]m7 t]m7 ,attribute7 attribute7 ,g5us ,species ,diff]5ce 7,connect$ 7,n connect$ ) ! ) ! def9ition7 def9ition7 ,prop]ty ,accid5t #ccb4 ,! di/9ction :i* und]lies ?is division betwe5 pr$icat+ a class & pr$icat+ an attribute 79 quid or 9 quale7 is a p]fectly intelligible "o1 correspond+ z x does to ! grammatical di/9ction betwe5 ! pr$icate be+ a n\n sub/antive or a n\n adjective4 ,nev]!less x is a some:at arbitr>y "o1 s9ce1 ev5 :5 ! pr$icate is a class-"n1 :at we are conc]n$ to convey to ! m9d1 is ! fact t ! subject possesses ! attributes :i* are connot$ by t class-"n4 ,we h n "h ! diff]5ce betwe5 ext5sive & int5sive pr$ication1 s9ce1 z we h already se5 7 #bfd71 t is n a diff]5ce betwe5 "o proposition & ano!r1 b a di/9ction 9 our mode ( int]pret+ any & e proposition4 ,:atev] proposition we l to take may be read ei!r 9 ext5sion or 9 int5sion1 accord+ z we fix our m9ds on ! fact ( inclusion 9 a class or ! fact ( ! possession ( attributes4 #ccc4 ,x w be se5 t ! t]m 'species1' z x appe>s 9 ! s*eme1 has a :olly diff]5t mean+ f ! curr5t acceptation 9 :i* x 0 def9$ above4 ,species1 9 its n[ accept$ mean+1 signifies ! relation ( a small] class to a l>g] "o3 z x 0 orig9ally int5d$ 9 ! heads ( pr$icables x signifies a class 9 ref]5ce to individuals4 #ccd4 ,ano!r po9t :i* requires to be notic$ ) reg>d to ?is five-fold li/ ( heads ( pr$icables1 if its object be to classify ! relations ( a pr$icate to a subject1 is t x takes no acc\nt ( ^? =ms ( pr$ication 9 :i* class & attribute are comb9$4 ,"u :i* ( ! five heads w\ld ! pr$icates 9 ! foll[+ propositions fall8 7#a7 ,man is a rational animal4 7#b7 ,man is a fea!rless bip$4 ,9 ! "o case we h a comb9ation ( g5us & diff]5ce2 9 ! o!r we h a g5us comb9$ ) an accid5t4 #cce4 ,! li/ ( heads ( pr$icables :i* we h be5 discuss+ is n d]iv$ f ,ari/otle1 b f ! ',introduction' ( ,porphyry1 a ,greek comm5tator :o liv$ m ?an six c5turies lat]4 ,ari/otle's ,heads ( ,pr$icables4 #ccf4 ,ari/otle himself1 by adopt+ a diff]5t basis ( division1 has all[$ room 9 8 classification = ! mix$ =ms ( pr$ication above allud$ to4 ,8 li/ conta9s only f\r heads1 namely1 ,g5us 7,greek3 gnos7 ,def9ition 7,greek3 risms7 ,proprium 7,greek3 dion7 ,accid5t 7,greek3 sumbebeks7 #ccg4 ,g5us "h is n di/+ui%$ f diff]5ce4 ,:e!r we say ',man is an animal' or ',man is rational1' we are equally und]/ood to be pr$icat+ a g5us4 #cch4 ,!re is no acc\nt tak5 ( species1 :i*1 :5 pr$icat$1 resolves itself ei!r into g5us or accid5t4 ,:5 pr$icat$ ( an individual1 x is reg>d$ z a g5us1 e4g4 ',socrates is a man'2 :5 pr$icat$ ( a class1 x is reg>d$ z an accid5t1 e4g4 ',"s animals are m54' #cci4 ,ari/otle's classification may easily be se5 to be exhau/ive4 ,= e pr$icate mu/ ei!r be coext5sive ) its subject or n1 i4e4 pr$icable ( ! same ?+s4 ,& if ! two t]ms co9cide 9 ext5sion1 ! pr$icate mu/ ei!r co9cide also 9 int5sion ) ! subject or n4 ,a pr$icate :i* co9cides bo? 9 ext5sion & int5sion ) its subject is exactly :at is meant by a def9ition4 ,"o :i* co9cides 9 ext5sion )\t co9cid+ 9 int5sion1 t is1 :i* applies to ! same ?+s )\t express+ ! :ole mean+1 ( ! subject1 is :at is kn[n z a ,proprium or ,peculi> ,prop]ty4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! two t]ms are n co-ext5sive1 ! pr$icate mu/ ei!r p>tially co9cide 9 int5sion ) ! subject or n4 ,footnote3 ,! case c\ld n arise ( a pr$icate :i* 0 entirely co9cid$ 9 int5sion ) a subject ) :i* x 0 n co-ext5sive4 ,=1 if ! ext5sion ( ! pr$icate 7 great] ?an t ( ! subject1 its int5sion w\ld be less1 & if less1 great]1 9 accordance ) ! law ( inv]se v>iation ( ! two quantities 7 #aff74 ,?is is equival5t to say+ t x mu/ ei!r /ate "p ( ! def9ition ( ! subject or n4 ,n[ ! def9ition is made up ( g5us & diff]5ce1 ei!r ( :i* may =m ! pr$icate3 b z ! two are indi/+ui%able 9 relation to a s+le subject1 !y are lump$ toge!r = ! pres5t purpose "u ! "o head1 g5us4 ,:5 ! pr$icate1 n be+ co-ext5sive1 is n ev5 p>tially co-int5sive ) its subject1 x is call$ an ,accid5t4 #cdj4 ,proprium1 x w be se51 diff]s f prop]ty4 ,a proprium is an attribute :i* is possess$ by all ! memb]s ( a class1 & by !m alone1 e4g4 ',m5 are ! only religi\s animals4' #cda4 ,"u ! head ( def9ition mu/ be includ$ all propositions 9 :i* ! pr$icate is a m]e synonym ( ! subject1 e4g4 ',naso is ,ovid1' ',a ,hebrew is a ,jew1' ',! skipp] is ! capta94' ,9 su* propositions ! pr$icate co9cides 9 ext5sion ) ! subject1 & may be consid]$ to co9cide 9 int5sion :]e ! int5sion ( bo? subject & pr$icate is at z]o1 z 9 ! case ( two prop] names4 #cdb4 ,designations & descriptions w fall "u ! head ( 'proprium' or peculi> prop]ty1 e4g4 ',"l ,salisbury is ! pres5t prime m9i/] ( ,engl&1' ',man is a mammal ) h&s & )\t hair4' ,= "h1 :ile ! t]ms are co9cid5t 9 ext5sion1 !y are f> f be+ s 9 int5sion4 #cdc4 ,! t]m 'g5us' mu/ be und]/ood to include n only g5us 9 ! accept$ s5se1 b diff]5ce & g5]ic prop]ty z well4 #cdd4 ,^! results may be exhibit$ 9 ! foll[+ s*eme-- ,pr$icate ,coext5sive ) n ! subject coext5sive ,co-int5sive n p>tially n at all ) ! subject co9t5sive co9t5sive ,greek3 sumbubeks ,greek3 risms ,greek3 dion ,greek3 gnos ,accid5t ,def9i- ,synonym ,designa- ,descrip- ,peculi> ,g5us ,diff]- ,g5]ic tion tion tion ,prop]ty ence ,prop]ty #cde4 ,?us ,ari/otle's f\r heads ( pr$icables may be split up1 if we please1 into n9e-- #a4 ,def9ition ,greek3 risms4 #b4 ,synonym _/ #c4 ,designation #d4 ,description ,greek3 dion4 #e4 ,peculi> ,prop]ty_/ #f4 ,g5us #g4 ,diff]5ce ,greek3 gnos4 #h4 ,g5]ic ,prop]ty_/ #i4 ,accid5t--,greek3 sumbebeks4 #cdf4 ,we n[ pass on to ! two subjects ( ,def9ition & ,division1 ! discussion ( :i* w complete our treatm5t ( ! second "p ( logic4 ,def9ition & division correspond respectively to ! two k9ds ( quantity possess$ by t]ms4 ,def9ition is unfold+ ! quantity ( a t]m 9 int5sion4 ,division is unfold+ ! quantity ( a t]m 9 ext5sion4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,( ,def9ition4 #cdg4 ,to def9e a t]m is to unfold its int5sion1 i4e4 to expla9 its mean+4 #cdh4 ,f ?is x foll[s t any t]m :i* possesses no int5sion _c be def9$4 #cdi4 ,h5ce prop] names d n admit ( def9ition1 except j 9 s f> z !y d possess "s slight degree ( int5sion3 ,?us we c def9e ! t]m ',john' only s f> z to say t ',john' is ! "n ( a male p]son4 ,?is is said ) reg>d to ! orig9al int5sion ( prop] names2 _! acquir$ int5sion w be consid]$ lat]4 #cej4 ,aga91 s9ce def9ition is unfold+ ! int5sion ( a t]m1 x foll[s t ^? t]ms w n admit ( be+ def9$ ^: int5sion is already s simple t x _c be unfold$ fur!r4 ,( ?is nature are names ( simple attributes1 su* z gre5ness1 sweetness1 pleasure1 exi/5ce4 ,we "k :at ^! ?+s are1 b we _c def9e !m4 ,to a man :o has nev] enjoy$ sight1 no language c convey an idea ( ! gre5ness ( ! grass or ! blu5ess ( ! sky2 & if a p]son 7 unaw>e ( ! mean+ ( ! t]m 'sweetness1' no =m ( words c\ld convey to him an idea ( x4 ,we might put a lump ( sug> into 8 m\?1 b t w\ld n be a logical def9ition4 #cea4 ,?us we see t1 = a ?+ to admit ( def9ition1 ! idea ( x mu/ be complex4 ,simple ideas baffle def9ition1 b at ! same "t d n require x4 ,9 def9+ we lay out ! simpl] ideas :i* are comb9$ 9 our notion ( some?+1 & s expla9 t complex notion4 ,we h def9$ 'triangle1' :5 we analyse x into 'figure' & 'conta9$ by ?ree l9es4' ,simil>ly we h def9$ 'sub/ance' :5 we analyse x into '?+' & ':i* c be conceiv$ to exi/ by itself4' #ceb4 ,b :5 we get to '?+' we h rea*$ a limit4 ,! ,summum ,g5us1 or highe/ class "u :i* all ?+s fall1 _c be def9$ any m ?an a simple attribute2 & = ! v good reason t x connotes no?+ b pure be+1 :i* is ! simple/ ( all attributes4 ,to say t a ?+ is an 'object ( ?\ght' is n really to def9e x1 b to expla9 its etymology1 & to reclaim a philosophical t]m f its abuse by popul> language1 9 :i* x is limit$ to ! concrete & ! lifeless4 ,aga91 to def9e x negatively & to say t a ?+ is 't :i* is n no?+' does n c>ry u any fur!r ?an we 7 be=e4 ,! law ( contradiction w>rants u 9 say+ z mu* z t4 #cec4 ,def9ition is conf9$ to subject-t]ms1 & does n prop]ly ext5d to attributives4 ,= def9ition is ( ?+s ?r\gh names1 & an attributive out ( pr$ication is n ! "n ( any?+4 ,! attributive is def9$1 s f> z x c be1 ?r\gh ! correspond+ ab/ract t]m4 #ced4 ,common t]ms1 o!r ?an attributives1 ought always to admit ( def9ition4 ,= ?+s are di/ribut$ by ! m9d into classes ow+ to _! possess+ c]ta9 attributes 9 common1 & ! def9ition ( ! class-"n c be effect$ by detail+ ^! attributes1 or at lea/ a suffici5t numb] ( !m4 #cee4 ,x is diff]5t ) s+ul> t]ms4 ,s+ul> t]ms1 :5 ab/ract1 admit ( def9ition1 9 s f> z !y are n names ( attributes s simple z to evade analysis4 ,:5 s+ul> t]ms are concrete1 we h to di/+ui% betwe5 ! two cases ( prop] names & designations4 ,designations are connotative s+ul> t]ms4 ,!y are =m$ by limit+ a common t]m to ! 'case 9 h&4' ,:atev] def9ition !re=e fits ! common t]m w fit also ! designation :i* is =m$ f x1 if we add ! attributes impli$ by ! limitations4 ,?us :atev] def9ition fits ! common t]m 'prime m9i/]' w fit also ! s+ul> t]m '! pres5t prime m9i/] ( ,engl&' by ! addition to x ( ! attributes ( place & "t :i* are indicat$ by ! expression4 ,su* t]ms z ?is h a def9ite am\nt ( int5sion1 :i* c !re=e be seiz$ ^u & exp\nd$ by a def9ition4 #cef4 ,b prop] names1 hav+ no orig9al int5sion ( _! own1 _c be def9$ at all2 :]eas1 if we look ^u !m f ! po9t ( view ( _! acquir$ int5sion1 !y defy def9ition by reason ( ! v complexity ( _! mean+4 ,we _c say exactly :at ',john' & ',m>y' mean1 because ^? names1 to u :o "k ! p>ticul> p]sons d5ot$ by !m1 sugge/ all ! mo/ trifl+ accid5ts ( ! individual z well z ! ess5tial attributes ( ! g5us4 #ceg4 ,def9ition s]ves ! practical purpose ( enabl+ u m5tally to di/+ui%1 or1 z ! "n implies1 'm>k (f' ! ?+ def9$ f all o!r ?+s :atsoev]4 ,?is may seem at fir/ an endless task1 b !re is a %ort cut by :i* ! goal may be rea*$4 ,=1 if we di/+ui% ! ?+ 9 h& f ! ?+s :i* x is mo/ l1 we %all1 'a =tiori1' h di/+ui%$ x f ?+s to :i* x be>s a less resemblance4 #ceh4 ,h5ce ! fir/ ?+ to d 9 seek+ = a def9ition is to fix ^u ! class into :i* ! ?+ to be def9$ mo/ naturally falls1 & !n to di/+ui% ! ?+ 9 "q f ! o!r memb]s ( t class4 ,if we 7 ask$ to def9e a triangle1 we w\ld n beg9 by di/+ui%+ x f a haws]1 b f a squ>e & o!r figures ) :i* x is m possible to conf\nd x4 ,! class into :i* a ?+ falls is call$ its ,g5us1 & ! attribute or attributes :i* di/+ui% x f o!r memb]s ( t class are call$ its ,diff]5ce4 #cei4 ,if def9ition ?us consi/s 9 ref]r+ a ?+ to a class1 we see a fur!r reason :y ! summum g5us ( all ?+s _c be def9$4 #cfj4 ,we h said t def9ition is useful 9 enabl+ u to di/+ui% ?+s f "o ano!r 9 our m9ds3 b ?is mu/ n be reg>d$ z ! direct object ( ! process4 ,= ?is object may be accompli%$ )\t giv+ a def9ition at all1 by means ( :at is call$ a ,description4 ,by a description is meant an enum]ation ( accid5ts ) or )\t ! m5tion ( "s class-"n4 ,x is z applicable to prop] names z to common t]ms4 ,:5 we say ',john ,smi? lives next door on ! "r-h& side & passes by to 8 (fice e morn+ at n9e o'clock1' we h1 9 all probability1 effectually di/+ui%$ ,john ,smi? f o!r p3 b liv+ next1 c41 _c be "p ( ! int5sion ( ,john ,smi?1 s9ce ,john ,smi? may *ange 8 resid5ce or ab&on 8 occupation )\t ceas+ to be call$ by 8 "n4 ,indirectly !n def9ition s]ves ! purpose ( di/+ui%+ ?+s 9 ! m9d1 b its direct object is to unfold ! int5sion ( t]ms1 & s imp>t precision to our ?\ghts by sett+ pla9ly be=e u ! mean+ ( ! words we are us+4 #cfa4 ,b :5 we say t def9ition is unfold+ ! int5sion ( t]ms1 x mu/ n be imag9$ t we are b\nd 9 def9+ to unfold completely ! int5sion ( t]ms4 ,?is w\ld be a t$i\s1 & (t5 an endless1 task4 ,a t]m may mean1 or convey to ! m9d1 a good _m m attributes ?an ^? :i* are /at$ 9 its def9ition4 ,!re is no limit inde$ to ! mean+ :i* a t]m may legitimately convey1 except ! common attributes ( ! ?+s d5ot$ by x4 ,:o %all say1 = in/ance1 t a triangle means a figure ) ?ree sides1 & does n mean a figure ) ?ree angles1 or ! surface ( ! p]p5dicul> bisection ( a cone8 ,or aga91 t man means a rational1 & does n mean a speak+1 a religi\s1 or an ae/hetic animal1 or a bip$ ) two eyes1 a nose1 & a m\?8 ,! only attributes ( :i* x c safely be ass]t$ t !y c =m no "p ( ! int5sion ( a t]m are ^? :i* are n common to all ! ?+s to :i* ! "n applies4 ,?us a p>ticul> complexion1 col\r1 height1 cre$1 nationality _c =m any "p ( ! int5sion ( ! t]m 'man4' ,b among ! attributes common to a class we _c di/+ui% betwe5 ess5tial & uness5tial1 except by ! aid ( def9ition itself4 ,=mal logic _c recognise any ord] ( priority betwe5 ! attributes common to all ! memb]s ( a class1 su* z to necessitate our recognis+ "s z g5]a & diff]5tiae & relegat+ o!rs to ! place ( prop]ties or insep>able accid5ts4 #cfb4 ,! art ( giv+ a good def9ition is to seize ^u ! sali5t *>act]i/ics ( ! ?+ def9$ & ^? :]efrom ! l>ge/ numb] ( o!r attributes c be d$uc$ z consequ5ces4 ,to d ?is well requires a special k ( ! ?+ 9 "q1 & is n ! prov9ce ( ! =mal logician4 #cfc4 ,we h se5 already1 9 treat+ ( ! ,heads ( ,pr$icables 7 #cbe71 t ! diff]5ce betwe5 g5us & diff]5ce on ! "o h& & prop]ty on ! o!r is :olly relative to "s assum$ def9ition4 ,n[ def9itions are always to a c]ta9 ext5t arbitr>y1 & w v>y ) ! po9t ( view f :i* we consid] ! ?+ requir$ to be def9$4 ,?us 'man' is usually contra/$ ) 'brute1' & f ?is po9t ( view x is held a suffici5t def9ition ( him to say t he is 'a rational animal1' ,b a !ologian might be m anxi\s to contra/ man ) suppos$ incorporeal intellig5ces1 & f ?is po9t ( view man w\ld be def9$ z an 'embodi$ _s4' #cfd4 ,9 ! two def9itions j giv5 x w be notic$ t we h really employ$ exactly ! same attributes1 only _! place z g5us & diff]5ce has be5 rev]s$4 ,x is man's rational1 or spiritual1 nature :i* di/+ui%es him f ! brutes3 b ?is is j :at he is suppos$ to h 9 common ) incorporeal intellig5ces1 f :om he is diff]5tiat$ by 8 animal nature4 ,illu/ration ,?is illu/ration is suffici5t to %[ u t1 :ile !re is no absolute def9ition ( any?+1 9 ! s5se ( a fix$ g5us & diff]5ce1 !re may at ! same "t be c]ta9 attributes :i* p]man5tly di/+ui% ! memb]s ( a giv5 class f ^? ( all o!r classes4 #cfe4 ,! above rem>ks w h made x cle> t ! int5sion ( a t]m is (t5 mu* too wide to be convey$ by any def9ition2 & t :at a def9ition g5]ally does is to select c]ta9 attributes f ! :ole int5sion1 :i* are reg>d$ z be+ m typical ( ! ?+ ?an ! rema9d]4 ,no def9ition c be expect$ to exhau/ ! :ole int5sion ( a t]m1 & !re w always be room = v>y+ def9itions ( ! same ?+1 accord+ to ! diff]5t po9ts ( view f :i* x is approa*$4 #cff4 ,names ( attributes l5d !mselves to def9ition f> m easily ?an names ( sub/ances4 ,! reason ( ?is is t names ( attributes are prim>ily int5sive 9 =ce1 :]eas sub/ances are kn[n to u 9 ext5sion be=e !y become kn[n to u 9 int5sion4 ,!re is no difficulty 9 def9+ a t]m l 'triangle' or 'mon>*y1' because ^! t]ms 7 expressly inv5t$ to cov] c]ta9 attributes2 b ! case is diff]5t ) su* t]ms z 'dog1' 'tree1' 'plant1' 'metal1' & o!r names ( concrete ?+s4 ,we none ( u h any difficulty 9 recognis+ a dog or tree1 :5 we see !m1 or 9 di/+ui%+ !m f o!r animals or plants respectively4 ,we are !re=e l$ to imag9e t we "k ! mean+ ( ^! t]ms4 ,x is n until we are call$ ^u = a def9ition t we discov] h[ sup]ficial our k really is ( ! common attributes possess$ by ! ?+s :i* ^! names d5ote4 #cfg4 ,x might be imag9$ t a common "n w\ld nev] be giv5 to ?+s except 9 virtue ( our k ( _! common attributes4 ,b z a matt] ( fact1 ! common "n 0 fir/ giv5 f a confus$ notion ( resemblance1 & we _h aft]w>ds to detect ! common attributes1 :5 sometimes ! "n _h be5 s ext5d$ f "o ?+ to ano!r l x1 t !re 7 h>dly any def9ite attributes possess$ 9 common by ! e>li] & lat] memb]s ( ! class4 #cfh4 ,?is is especially ! case :]e ! mean+ ( t]ms has be5 ext5d$ by analogy1 e4g4 head1 foot1 arm1 po/1 pole1 pipe1 c4 #cfi4 ,b 9 ! progress ( ?\ght we come to =m t]ms 9 :i* ! int5sive capacity is ev]y?+4 ,( ?is k9d notably are ma!matical conceptions4 ,t]ms ( ?is k9d1 z we said be=e1 l5d !mselves readily to def9ition4 #cgj4 ,we may lay d[n !n r\ghly t words are easy or difficult ( def9ition accord+ z _! int5sive or ext5sive capacity pr$om9ates4 #cga4 ,!re is a m>k$ di/9ction to be obs]v$ betwe5 ! classes made by ! m9d ( man & ! classes made by nature1 :i* are kn[n z 'real k9ds4' ,9 ! =m] !re is g5]ally little or no?+ 9 common except ! p>ticul> attribute :i* is select$ z ! gr\nd ( classification1 z 9 ! case ( r$ & :ite ?+s1 :i* are alike only 9 _! r$ness or :it5ess2 or else _! attributes are all necess>ily connect$1 z 9 ! case ( circle1 squ>e & triangle4 ,b ! memb]s ( nature's classes agree 9 innum]able attributes :i* h no discov]able connection ) "o ano!r1 & :i* mu/ !re=e1 provisionally at lea/1 be reg>d$ z /&+ 9 ! relation ( insep>able accid5ts to any p>ticul> attributes :i* we may select = ! purposes ( def9ition4 ,!re is no assignable reason :y a rational animal %\ld h hair on its head or a nose on its face1 & yet man1 z a matt] ( fact1 has bo?2 & g5]ally ! p>ticul> bodily configuration ( man c only be reg>d$ z an insep>able accid5t ( 8 nature z a rational animal4 #cgb4 ',real k9ds' belong to ! class ( words m5tion$ above 9 :i* ! ext5sion pr$om9ates ov] ! int5sion4 ,we "k well en\gh ! ?+s d5ot$ by !m1 :ile mo/ ( u h only a dim idea ( ! po9ts ( resemblance betwe5 ^! ?+s4 ,nature's classes moreov] %ade (f into "o ano!r by su* imp]ceptible degrees t x is (t5 impossible to fix ! b\nd>y l9e betwe5 "o class & ano!r4 ,a /ill great] s\rce ( p]plexity 9 deal+ ) real k9ds is t x is sometimes almo/ impossible to fix ^u any attribute :i* is common to e individual memb] ( ! class )\t exception4 ,all t we c d 9 su* cases is to lay d[n a type ( ! class 9 its p]fect =m1 & judge ( individual in/ances by ! degree ( _! approximation to x4 ,aga91 real k9ds be+ kn[n to u prim>ily 9 ext5sion1 ! int5sion :i* we atta* to ! names is hable to be affect$ by ! advance ( k4 ,9 deal+ !re=e ) su* t]ms we mu/ be cont5t ) provisional def9itions1 :i* adequately express our k ( ! ?+s d5ot$ by !m1 at ! "t1 ?\gh a fur!r /udy ( _! attributes may induce u subsequ5tly to alt] ! def9ition4 ,?us ! old def9ition ( animal z a s5ti5t organism has be5 r5d]$ inadequate by ! discov]y t s _m ( ! ph5om5a ( s5sation c be exhibit$ by plants1 #cgc4 ,b t]ms 9 :i* int5sion is ! pr$om9ant idea are m capable ( be+ def9$ once = all4 ,ari/otle's def9itions ( 'weal?' & 'mon>*y' are z applicable n[ z 9 8 own day1 & no subsequ5t discov]ies ( ! prop]ties ( figures w r5d] ,euclid's def9itions unavailable4 #cgd4 ,we may di/+ui% !re=e betwe5 two k9ds ( def9ition1 namely1 7#a7 ,f9al4 7#b7 ,provisional4 #cge4 ,a di/9ction is also obs]v$ betwe5 ,real & ,nom9al ,def9itions4 ,bo? ( ^! expla9 ! mean+ ( a t]m3 b a real def9ition fur!r assumes ! actual exi/5ce ( ! ?+ def9$4 ,?us ! explanation ( ! t]m ',c5taur' w\ld be a nom9al1 t ( 'horse' a real def9ition4 ,x is useless to ass]t1 z is (t5 done1 t a nom9al def9ition expla9s ! mean+ ( a t]m & a real def9ition ! nature ( a ?+2 =1 z we h se5 already1 ! mean+ ( a t]m is :atev] we "k ( ! nature ( a ?+4 #cgf4 ,x n[ rema9s to lay d[n c]ta9 rules = correct def9ition4 #cgg4 ,! fir/ rule t is commonly giv5 is t a def9ition %\ld /ate ! ess5tial attributes ( ! ?+ def9$4 ,b ?is am\nts m]ely to say+ t a def9ition %\ld be a def9ition2 s9ce x is only by ! aid ( def9ition t we c di/+ui% betwe5 ess5tial & non-ess5tial among ! common attributes exhibit$ by a class ( ?+s4 ,! rule h[ev] may be reta9$ z a mat]ial te/ ( ! s\ndness ( a def9ition1 9 ! s5se t he :o seeks to def9e any?+ %\ld fix ^u its mo/ important attributes4 ,to def9e man z a mammif]\s animal hav+ two h&s1 or z a fea!rless bip$1 we feel to be absurd & incongru\s1 s9ce !re is no ref]5ce to ! mo/ sali5t *>act]i/ic ( man1 namely1 8 rationality4 ,nev]!less we _c qu>rel ) ^! def9itions on =mal1 b only on mat]ial gr\nds4 ,aga91 if anyone *ose to def9e logic z ! art ( ?9k+1 all we c\ld say is t we diff] f him 9 op9ion1 z we ?9k logic is m prop]ly to be reg>d$ z ! sci5ce ( ! laws ( ?\ght4 ,b "h also x is on mat]ial gr\nds t we diss5t f ! def9ition4 #cgh4 ,conf9+ ourselves !re=e to ! sph]e ) :i* we are prop]ly conc]n$1 we lay d[n ! foll[+ ,rules = ,def9ition4 7#a7 ,a def9ition mu/ be co-ext5sive ) ! t]m def9$4 7#b7 ,a def9ition mu/ n /ate attributes :i* imply "o ano!r4 7#c7 ,a def9ition mu/ n conta9 ! "n def9$1 ei!r directly or by implication4 7#d7 ,a def9ition mu/ be cle>] ?an ! t]m def9$4 7#e7 ,a def9ition mu/ n be negative1 if x c be affirmative4 ,briefly1 a def9ition mu/ be adequate 7#a71 t]se 7#b71 cle> 7#d72 & mu/ n be tautolog\s 7#c71 or1 if x c be avoid$1 negative 7#e74 #cgi4 ,x is wor? :ile to notice a slight ambiguity 9 ! t]m 'def9ition' itself4 ,sometimes x is appli$ to ! :ole proposition :i* exp\nds ! mean+ ( ! t]m2 at o!r times x is conf9$ to ! pr$icate ( ?is proposition4 ,?us 9 /at+ ! fir/ f\r rules we h us$ ! t]m 9 ! latt] s5se1 & 9 /at+ ! fif? 9 ! =m]4 #chj4 ,we w n[ illu/rate ! =ce ( ! above rules by giv+ examples ( _! violation4 ,rule #a4 ,violations4 ,a triangle is a figure ) ?ree equal sides4 ,a squ>e is a f\r-sid$ figure hav+ all its sides equal4 ,9 ! fir/ in/ance ! def9ition is less ext5sive ?an ! t]m def9$1 s9ce x applies only to equilat]al triangles4 ,?is fault may be am5d$ by decreas+ ! int5sion1 :i* we d by elim9at+ ! ref]5ce to ! equality ( ! sides4 ,9 ! second in/ance ! def9ition is m ext5sive ?an ! t]m def9$4 ,we mu/ accord+ly increase ! int5sion by add+ a new attribute '& all its angles "r angles4' ,rule #b4 ,violation4 ,a triangle is a figure ) ?ree sides & ?ree angles4 ,"o ( ! *ief m]its ( a def9ition is to be t]se1 & ?is def9ition is r$undant1 s9ce :at has ?ree sides _c b h ?ree angles4 ,rule #c4 ,violations4 ,a citiz5 is a p]son bo? ( ^: p>5ts 7 citiz5s4 ,man is a human be+4 ,rule #d4 ,violations4 ,a net is a reticulat$ fabric1 decussat$ at regul> int]vals4 ,life is ! def9ite comb9ation ( het]og5e\s *anges1 bo? simultane\s & successive1 9 correspond5ce ) ext]nal co-exi/5ces & sequ5ces4 ,rule #e4 ,violations4 ,a m9]al is t :i* is nei!r animal nor vegetable4 ,virtue is ! abs5ce ( vice4 #cha4 ,! object ( def9ition be+ to expla9 :at a ?+ is1 ?is object is evid5tly defeat$1 if we conf9e ourselves to say+ :at x is n4 ,b sometimes ?is is impossible to be avoid$4 ,= !re are _m t]ms :i*1 ?\gh positive 9 =m1 are privative 9 =ce4 ,^! t]ms s]ve z a k9d ( residual heads "u :i* to ?r[ ev]y?+ )9 a giv5 sph]e1 :i* does n exhibit c]ta9 positive attributes4 ,( ?is unavoidably negative nature 0 ! def9ition :i* we give ( 'accid5t1' :i* am\nt$ m]ely to say+ t x 0 any attribute :i* 0 nei!r a diff]5ce nor a prop]ty4 #chb4 ,! violation ( ,rule #c1 :i* gu>ds aga9/ def9+ a ?+ by itself1 is te*nically kn[n z 'circulus 9 def9i5do1' or def9+ 9 a circle4 ,?is rule is (t5 app>5tly violat$1 )\t be+ really s4 ,?us ,euclid def9es an acute-angl$ triangle z "o :i* has ?ree acute angles4 ,?is seems a gl>+ violation ( ! rule1 b is p]fectly correct 9 its context2 = x has already be5 expla9$ :at is meant by ! t]ms 'triangle' & 'acute angle1' & all t is n[ requir$ is to di/+ui% ! acute-angl$ triangle f its cognate species4 ,he might h said t an acute-angl$ triangle is "o :i* has nei!r a "r angle nor an obtuse angle3 b rightly pref]r$ to ?r[ ! same /atem5t into a positive =m4 #chc4 ,! violation ( ,rule #d is kn[n z 'ignotum p] ignotius' or 'p] aeque ignotum4' ,?is rule also may seem+ly be violat$ :5 x is n really s4 ,= a def9ition may be correct en\gh f a special po9t ( view1 :i*1 ap>t f t p>ticul> context1 w\ld appe> ridicul\s4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( conic sections1 x is correct en\gh to def9e a triangle z t section ( a cone :i* is =m$ by a plane pass+ ?r\gh ! v]tex p]p5dicul>ly to ! base1 b ?is c\ld n be expect$ to make ?+s cle>] to a p]son :o 0 inquir+ = ! fir/ "t into ! mean+ ( ! ^w triangle4 ,b a real violation ( ! f\r? rule may arise1 n only f obscurity1 b f ! employm5t ( ambigu\s language or metaphor4 ,to say t 'temp]ance is a h>mony ( ! s\l' or t 'bread is ! /aff ( life1' ?r[s no real light ^u ! nature ( ! def9i5d4 #chd4 ,! mat]ial correctness ( a def9ition is1 z we h already se51 a matt] extrane\s to =mal logic4 ,an acqua9tance ) ! attributes :i* t]ms imply involves mat]ial k q z mu* z an acqua9tance ) ! ?+s !y apply to2 k ( ! int5sion & ( ! ext5sion ( t]ms is alike acquir$ by exp]i5ce4 ,no names are su* t _! mean+ is r5d]$ evid5t by ! v con/itution ( our m5tal faculties2 yet no?+ %ort ( ?is w\ld suffice to br+ ! mat]ial cont5t ( def9ition )9 ! prov9ce ( =mal logic4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,( ,division4 #che4 ,to divide a t]m is to unfold its ext5sion1 t is1 to set =? ! ?+s ( :i* x is a "n4 #chf4 ,b z 9 def9ition we ne$ n completely unfold ! int5sion ( a t]m1 s 9 division we mu/ n completely unfold its ext5sion4 #chg4 ,completely to unfold ! ext5sion ( a t]m w\ld involve /at+ all ! individual objects to :i* ! "n applies1 a ?+ :i* w\ld be impossible 9 ! case ( mo/ common t]ms4 ,:5 x is done1 x is call$ ,enum]ation4 ,to reckon up all ! mon?s ( ! ye> f ,janu>y to ,decemb] w\ld be an enum]ation1 & n a division1 ( ! t]m 'mon?4' #chh4 ,logical division always /ops %ort at classes4 ,x may be def9$ z ! /atem5t ( ! v>i\s classes ( ?+s t c be call$ by a common "n4 ,te*nically we may say t x consi/s 9 break+ up a g5us into its compon5t species4 #chi4 ,s9ce division ?us />ts ) a class & ends ) classes1 x is cle> t x is only common t]ms :i* admit ( division1 & also t ! memb]s ( ! division mu/ !mselves be common t]ms4 #cij4 ,an 'individual' is s call$ z n admitt+ ( logical division4 ,we may divide ! t]m 'c[' into classes1 z ,j]sey1 ,devon%ire1 c41 to :i* ! "n 'c[' w /ill be applicable1 b ! p>ts ( an individual c[ are no long] call$ by ! "n ( ! :ole1 b are kn[n z beef/eaks1 briskets1 c4 #cia4 ,9 divid+ a t]m ! fir/ requisite is to fix ^u "s po9t :]e9 c]ta9 memb]s ( ! class diff] f o!rs4 ,! po9t ?us select$ is call$ ! ,fundam5tum ,divisionis or ,basis ( ! ,division4 #cib4 ,! basis ( ! division w ( c\rse diff] accord+ to ! purpose 9 h&1 & ! same t]m w admit ( be+ divid$ on a numb] ( diff]5t pr9ciples4 ,?us we may divide ! t]m 'man1' on ! basis ( col\r1 into :ite1 black1 br[n1 r$1 & yell[2 or1 on ! basis ( locality1 into ,europeans1 ,asiatics1 ,africans1 ,am]icans1 ,au/ralians1 ,new ,zeal&]s1 & ,polynesians2 or aga91 on a v diff]5t pr9ciple1 into m5 ( n]v\s1 sangu9e1 bili\s1 lymphatic & mix$ temp]am5ts4 #cic4 ,! t]m requir$ to be divid$ is kn[n z ! ,totum ,divisum or ,divid$ ,:ole4 ,x might also be call$ ! ,divid5d4 #cid4 ,! classes into :i* ! divid5d is split up are call$ ! ,membra ,divid5tia1 or ,divid+ ,memb]s4 #cie4 ,only two rules ne$ be giv5 = division-- 7#a7 ,! division mu/ be conduct$ on a s+le basis4 7#b7 ,! divid+ memb]s mu/ be coext5sive ) ! divid$ :ole4 #cif4 ,m briefly1 we may put ! same ?+ ?us--,!re mu/ be no cross-division 7#a7 & ! division mu/ be exhau/ive 7#b74 #cig4 ,! rule1 :i* is commonly giv51 t ea* divid+ memb] mu/ be a common t]m1 is already provid$ = "u our def9ition ( ! process4 #cih4 ,! rule t ! divid5d mu/ be pr$icable ( ea* ( ! divid+ memb]s is conta9$ 9 our second rule2 s9ce1 if !re 7 any t]m ( :i* ! divid5d 7 n pr$icable1 x w\ld be impossible = ! divid+ memb]s to be exactly coext5sive ) x4 ,x w\ld n d1 = in/ance1 to introduce mules & donkeys into a division ( ! t]m horse4 #cii4 ,ano!r rule1 :i* is sometimes giv51 namely1 t ! con/itu5t species mu/ exclude "o ano!r1 is a consequ5ce ( our fir/2 =1 if ! division be conduct$ on a s+le pr9ciple1 ! con/itu5t species mu/ exclude "o ano!r4 ,! conv]se1 h[ev]1 does n hold true4 ,we may h a division consi/+ ( mutually exclusive memb]s1 :i* yet involves a mixture ( diff]5t bases1 e4g4 if we 7 to divide triangle into scal5e1 isosceles & equiangul>4 ,?is happ5s because two di/9ct attributes may be f\nd 9 inv>iable conjunction4 #djj4 ,!re is no bett] te/1 h[ev]1 ( ! s\ndness ( a division ?an to try :e!r ! species ov]lap1 t is to say1 :e!r !re are any individuals t w\ld fall into two or m ( ! classes4 ,:5 ?is is f\nd to be ! case1 we may be sure t we h mix$ two or m diff]5t fundam5ta divisionis4 ,if man1 = in/ance1 7 to be divid$ into ,european1 ,am]ican1 ,aryan1 & ,semitic1 ! species w\ld ov]lap2 = bo? ,europe & ,am]ica conta9 inhabitants ( ,aryan & ,semitic orig94 ,we h "h memb]s ( a division bas$ on locality mix$ up ) memb]s ( ano!r division1 :i* is bas$ on race z indicat$ by language4 #dja4 ,! classes :i* are arriv$ at by an act ( division may !mselves be divid$ into small] classes4 ,?is fur!r process is call$ ,subdivision4 #djb4 ,let x be notic$ t ,rule #a applies only to a s+le act ( division4 ,! mom5t t we beg9 to subdivide we n only may1 b mu/1 adopt a new basis ( division2 s9ce ! old "o has1 'ex hypo!si1' be5 exhau/$4 ,?us1 hav+ divid$ m5 accord+ to ! col\r ( _! sk9s1 if we wi% to subdivide any ( ! classes1 we mu/ look out = "s fre% attribute :]e9 "s m5 ( ! same complexion diff] f o!rs1 e4g4 we might divide black m5 into woolly-hair$ blacks1 su* z ! ,negroes1 & /raight-hair$ blacks1 l ! natives ( ,au/ralia4 #djc4 ,we w n[ take an in/ance ( division & subdivision1 ) a view to illu/rat+ "s ( ! te*nical t]ms :i* are us$ 9 connection ) ! process4 ,keep+ closely to our prop] subject1 we w select z an in/ance a division ( ! products ( ?\ght1 :i* x is ! prov9ce ( logic to inve/igate4 ,product ( ?\ght ,t]m ,proposition ,inf]5ce ,s+ul> ,common ,univ]sal ,p>ticul> ,imm$iate ,m$iate ,a ,e ,i ,o ,"h we h fir/ a ?reefold division ( ! products ( ?\ght bas$ on _! comp>ative complexity4 ,! fir/ two ( ^!1 namely1 ! t]m & ! proposition1 are !n subdivid$ on ! basis ( _! respective quantities4 ,9 ! case ( inf]5ce ! basis ( ! division is aga9 ! degree ( complexity4 ,! subdivision ( ! proposition is c>ri$ a /ep fur!r ?an t ( ! o!rs4 ,hav+ exhau/$ our old basis ( quantity1 we take a new attribute1 namely1 quality1 on :i* to f\nd ! next /ep ( subdivision4 #djd4 ,n[ 9 su* a s*eme ( division & subdivision z ! =ego+1 ! highe/ class tak5 is kn[n z ! ,summum ,g5us4 ,?us ! summum g5us is ! same ?+ z ! divid$ :ole1 view$ 9 a diff]5t relation4 ,! t]m :i* is call$ ! divid$ :ole ) ref]5ce to a s+le act ( division1 is call$ ! summum g5us :5ev] subdivision has tak5 place4 #dje4 ,! classes at :i* ! division /ops1 t is1 any :i* are n subdivid$1 are kn[n z ! ,infimae ,species4 #djf4 ,all classes int]m$iate betwe5 ! summum g5us & ! infimae species are call$ ,subalt]n ,g5]a or ,subalt]n ,species1 accord+ to ! way !y are look$ at1 be+ g5]a 9 relation to ! classes bel[ !m & species 9 relation to ! classes above !m4 #djg4 ,any classes :i* fall imm$iately "u ! same g5us are call$ ,cognate ,species1 e4g4 s+ul> & common t]ms are cognate species ( t]m4 #djh4 ,! classes "u :i* any l[] class successively falls are call$ ,cognate ,g5]a4 ,! relation ( cognate species to "o ano!r is l t ( *ildr5 ( ! same p>5ts1 :]eas cognate g5]a resemble a l9e ( ance/ry4 #dji4 ,! ,specific ,diff]5ce ( any?+ is ! attribute or attributes :i* di/+ui% x f its cognate species4 ,?us ! specific diff]5ce ( a univ]sal proposition is t ! pr$icate is kn[n to apply to ! :ole ( ! subject4 ,a specific diff]5ce is said to con/itute ! species4 #daj4 ,! specific diff]5ce ( a high] class becomes a ,g5]ic ,diff]5ce ) respect to ! class bel[ x4 ,a g5]ic diff]5ce !n may be said to be ! di/+ui%+ attribute ( ! :ole class to :i* a giv5 species belongs4 ,! g5]ic diff]5ce is common to species t are cognate to "o ano!r1 :]eas ! specific diff]5ce is peculi> to ea*4 ,x is ! g5]ic diff]5ce ( an ,a proposition t x is univ]sal1 ! specific diff]5ce t x is affirmative4 #daa4 ,! same di/9ction is obs]v$ betwe5 ! specific & g5]ic prop]ties ( a ?+4 ,a ,specific ,prop]ty is an attribute :i* fl[s f ! diff]5ce ( a ?+ itself2 a ,g5]ic ,prop]ty is an attribute :i* fl[s f ! diff]5ce ( ! g5us to :i* ! ?+ belongs4 ,x is a specific prop]ty ( an ,e proposition t its pr$icate is di/ribut$1 a g5]ic prop]ty t its contr>y _c be true along ) x 7 #dfe72 = ?is la/ *>act]i/ic fl[s f ! nature ( ! univ]sal proposition g5]ally4 #dab4 ,x n[ rema9s to say a few words z to ! place 9 logic ( ! process ( division4 ,s9ce ! attributes 9 :i* memb]s ( ! same class diff] f "o ano!r _c possibly be indicat$ by _! common "n1 !y mu/ be s\ght = by ! aid ( exp]i5ce2 or1 to put ! same ?+ 9 o!r words1 s9ce all ! infimae species are alike conta9$ "u ! summum g5us1 _! di/9ctive attributes c be no m ?an sep>able accid5ts :5 view$ 9 relation to ! summum g5us4 ,h5ce division1 be+ always f\nd$ on ! possession or non-possession ( accid5tal attributes1 seems to lie :olly outside ! sph]e ( =mal logic4 ,?is h[ev] is n q ! case1 =1 9 virtue ( ! ,law ( ,exclud$ ,middle1 !re is always op5 to u1 indep5d5tly ( exp]i5ce1 a hypo!tical division by di*otomy4 ,by di*otomy is meant a division into two classes by a pair ( contradictory t]ms1 e4g4 a division ( ! class1 man1 into :ite & n-:ite4 ,n[ we _c "k1 indep5d5tly ( exp]i5ce1 t any memb]s ( ! class1 man1 possess :it5ess2 b we may be q sure1 indep5d5tly ( all exp]i5ce1 t m5 are ei!r :ite or n4 ,h5ce division by di*otomy comes /rictly )9 ! prov9ce ( =mal logic4 ,only x mu/ be notic$ t bo? sides ( ! division mu/ be hypo!tical4 ,= exp]i5ce alone c tell u1 on ! "o h&1 t !re are any m5 t are :ite1 & on ! o!r1 t !re are any b :ite m54 #dac4 ,:at we call a division on a s+le basis is 9 reality ! compress$ result ( a s*eme ( division & subdivision by di*otomy1 9 :i* a fre% pr9ciple has be5 introduc$ at e /ep4 ,?us :5 we divide m51 on ! basis ( col\r1 into :ite1 black1 br[n1 r$ & yell[1 we may be held to h fir/ divid$ m5 into :ite & n-:ite1 & !n to h subdivid$ ! m5 t are n-:ite into black & n-black1 & s on4 ,f ! /rictly =mal po9t ( view ?is division c only be repres5t$ z foll[s-- ,m5 ,:ite 7if any7 ,n-:ite 7if any7 ,black 7if any7 ,n-black 7if any7 ,br[n 7if any7 ,n-br[n 7if any7 ,r$ 7if any7 ,n-r$ 7if any74 #dad4 ,=mal correctness requires t ! la/ t]m 9 su* a s]ies %\ld be negative4 ,we h "h to keep ! t]m 'n-r$' op51 to cov] any blue or gre5 m5 t might turn up4 ,x is only exp]i5ce t enables u to sub/itute ! positive t]m 'yell[' = 'n-r$1' s9ce we "k z a matt] ( fact t !re are no m5 b ^? ( ! five col\rs giv5 9 ! orig9al division4 #dae4 ,any correct logical division always admits ( be+ arriv$ at by ! long] process ( division & subdivision by di*otomy4 ,= in/ance1 ! t]m quadrilat]al1 or f\r-sid$ rectil9e> figure1 is correctly divid$ into squ>e1 oblong1 rhombus1 rhomboid & trapezium4 ,! /eps ( :i* ?is division consi/s are z foll[s-- ,quadrilat]al ,p>allelogram ,trapezium ,rectangle ,non-rectangle ,squ>e ,oblong ,rhombus ,rhomboid4 #daf4 ,9 reckon+ up ! infimae species 9 su* a s*eme1 we mu/ ( c\rse be c>eful n to include any class :i* has be5 already subdivid$2 b no h>m is done by mix+ an undivid$ class1 l trapezium1 ) ! subdivisions ( its cognate species4 #dag4 ,! two processes ( def9ition & division are intimately connect$ ) "o ano!r4 ,e def9ition sugge/s a division by di*otomy1 & e division supplies u at once ) a complete def9ition ( all its memb]s4 #dah4 ,def9ition itself1 s f> z conc]ns its cont5t1 is1 z we h already se51 extrane\s to =mal logic3 b :5 once we h elicit$ a g5us & diff]5ce out ( ! mat]ial elem5ts ( ?\ght1 we are enabl$1 )\t any fur!r appeal to exp]i5ce1 to base !reon a division by di*otomy4 ,?us :5 man has be5 def9$ z a rational animal1 we h at once sugge/$ to u a division ( animal into rational & irrational4 #dai4 ,aga91 ! addition ( ! attributes1 rational & irrational respectively1 to ! common g5us1 animal1 ipso facto supplies u ) def9itions ( ! species1 man & brute4 ,simil>ly1 :5 we subdivid$ rectangle into squ>e & oblong on ! basis ( ! equality or inequality ( ! adjac5t sides1 we 7 by s do+ suppli$ ) a def9ition bo? ( squ>e & oblong--',a squ>e is a rectangle hav+ all its sides equal1' & ',an oblong is a rectangle :i* has only its opposite sides equal4' #dbj4 ,! def9ition ( a squ>e j giv5 am\nts to ! same ?+ z ,euclid's def9ition1 b x complies ) a rule :i* has value z a matt] ( me?od1 namely1 t ! def9ition %\ld /ate ! ,proximate ,g5us ( ! ?+ def9$4 #dba4 ,s9ce def9ition & division are conc]n$ ) ! int5sion & ext5sion ( t]ms1 !y are commonly treat$ ( "u ! fir/ "p ( logic3 b z ! treatm5t ( ! subject implies a famili>ity ) ! ,heads ( ,pr$icables1 :i* 9 _! turn imply ! proposition1 x seems m desirable to deal ) !m "u ! second4 #dbb4 ,we h already _h occasion to di/+ui% division f ,enum]ation4 ,! latt] is ! /atem5t ( ! individual ?+s to :i* a "n applies4 ,9 enum]ation1 z 9 division1 ! wid] t]m is pr$icable ( ea* ( ! n>r[] ones4 #dbc4 ,p>tition is ! mapp+ out ( a physical :ole into its compon5t p>ts1 z :5 we say t a tree consi/s ( roots1 /em1 & bran*es4 ,9 a p>tition ! "n ( ! :ole is n pr$icable ( ea* ( ! p>ts4 #dbd4 ,di/9ction is ! sep>ation f "o ano!r ( ! v>i\s mean+s ( an equivocal t]m4 ,! t]m di/+ui%$ is pr$icable inde$ ( ea* ( ! memb]s1 b ( ea* 9 a diff]5t s5se4 ,an equivocal t]m is 9 fact n "o b sev]al t]ms1 z w\ld quickly appe>1 if we 7 to use def9itions 9 place ( names4 #dbe4 ,we h se5 t a logical :ole is a g5us view$ 9 relation to its und]ly+ species4 ,f ?is mu/ be di/+ui%$ a metaphysical :ole1 :i* is a sub/ance view$ 9 relation to its attributes1 or a class reg>d$ 9 ! same way4 ,logically1 man is a "p ( ! class1 animal2 metaphysically1 animal is conta9$ 9 man4 ,?us a logical :ole is a :ole 9 ext5sion1 :ile a metaphysical :ole is a :ole 9 int5sion4 ,f ! =m] po9t ( view species is conta9$ 9 g5us2 f ! latt] g5us is conta9$ 9 species4 ,,"p ,,iii4--,,( ,,inf]5ces4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,( ,inf]5ces 9 ,g5]al4 #dbf4 ,to inf] is to arrive at "s tru?1 n by direct exp]i5ce1 b z a consequ5ce ( "s tru? or tru?s already kn[n4 ,if we see a *>r$ circle on ! grass1 we inf] t somebody has be5 light+ a fire !re1 ?\gh we h n se5 anyone d x4 ,?is conclusion is arriv$ at 9 consequ5ce ( our previ\s exp]i5ce ( ! effects ( fire4 #dbg4 ,! t]m ,inf]5ce is us$ bo? = a process & = a product ( ?\ght4 ,z a process inf]5ce may be def9$ z ! passage ( ! m9d f "o or m propositions to ano!r4 ,z a product ( ?\ght inf]5ce may be loosely decl>$ to be ! result ( comp>+ propositions4 #dbh4 ,e inf]5ce consi/s ( two p>ts-- 7#a7 ! tru? or tru?s already kn[n2 7#b7 ! tru? :i* we arrive at !refrom4 ,! =m] is call$ ! ,antec$5t1 ! latt] ! ,consequ5t4 ,b ?is use ( ! t]ms 'antec$5t' & 'consequ5t' mu/ be c>efully di/+ui%$ f ! use to :i* !y 7 put previ\sly1 to d5ote ! two p>ts ( a complex proposition4 #dbi4 ,/rictly speak+1 ! t]m inf]5ce1 z appli$ to a product ( ?\ght1 includes bo? ! antec$5t & consequ5t3 b x is (t5 us$ = ! consequ5t to ! exclusion ( ! antec$5t4 ,?us1 :5 we h /at$ our premisses1 we say q naturally1 ',& ! inf]5ce ,i draw is s & s4' #dcj4 ,inf]5ces are ei!r ,inductive or ,d$uctive4 ,9 induction we proce$ f ! less to ! m g5]al2 9 d$uction f ! m to ! less g5]al1 or1 at all ev5ts1 to a tru? ( n great] g5]ality ?an ! "o f :i* we />t$4 ,9 ! =m] we "w up to g5]al pr9ciples2 9 ! latt] we "w d[n f !m1 & elicit ! p>ticul>s :i* !y conta94 #dca4 ,h5ce induction is a real process f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n1 :]eas d$uction is no m ?an ! application ( previ\sly exi/+ k2 or1 to put ! same ?+ m te*nically1 9 an inductive inf]5ce ! consequ5t is n conta9$ 9 ! antec$5t1 9 a d$uctive inf]5ce x is4 #dcb4 ,:51 aft] obs]v+ t gold1 silv]1 lead1 & o!r metals1 are capable ( be+ r$uc$ to a liquid /ate by ! application ( heat1 ! m9d leaps to ! conclusion t ! same w hold true ( "s o!r metal1 z plat9um1 or ( all metals1 we h !n an inductive inf]5ce1 9 :i* ! conclusion1 or consequ5t1 is a new proposition1 :i* 0 n conta9$ 9 ^? t w5t be=e4 ,we are l$ to ?is conclusion1 n by reason1 b by an in/9ct :i* tea*es u to expect l results1 "u l circum/ances4 ,exp]i5ce c tell u only ( ! pa/3 b we all[ x to affect our notions ( ! future ?r\gh a bl9d belief t '! ?+ t ha? be51 x is t :i* %all be2 & t :i* is done is t :i* %all be done2 & !re is no new ?+ "u ! sun4' ,take away ?is conviction1 & ! bridge is cut :i* connects ! kn[n ) ! unkn[n1 ! pa/ ) ! future4 ,! commone/ acts ( daily life w\ld fail to be p]=m$1 7 x n = ?is assumption1 :i* is itself no product ( ! reason4 ,?us man's intellect1 l 8 faculties g5]ally1 re/s ^u a basis ( in/9ct4 ,he walks by fai?1 n by sight4 #dcc4 ,x is a mi/ake to talk ( inductive reason+1 z ?\gh x 7 a di/9ct species f d$uctive4 ,! fact is t inductive inf]5ces are ei!r :olly in/9ctive1 & s unsusceptible ( logical v9dication1 or else !y may be exhibit$ "u ! =m ( d$uctive inf]5ces4 ,we _c be ju/ifi$ 9 inf]r+ t plat9um w be melt$ by heat1 except :]e we h equal reason = ass]t+ ! same ?+ ( copp] or any o!r metal4 ,9 fact we are ju/ifi$ 9 draw+ an individual inf]5ce only :5 we c lay d[n ! univ]sal proposition1 ',e metal c be melt$ by heat4' ,b ! mom5t ?is univ]sal proposition is /at$1 ! tru? ( ! proposition 9 ! individual in/ance fl[s f x by way ( d$uctive inf]5ce4 ,take away ! univ]sal1 & we h no logical w>rant = argu+ f "o individual case to ano!r4 ,we d s1 z 0 said be=e1 only 9 virtue ( t vague in/9ct :i* leads u to anticipate l results f l appe>ances4 #dcd4 ,inductive inf]5ces are :olly extrane\s to ! sci5ce ( =mal logic1 :i* deals only ) =mal1 or necess>y1 inf]5ces1 t is to say ) d$uctive inf]5ces1 :e!r imm$iate or m$iate4 ,^! are call$ =mal1 because ! tru? ( ! consequ5t is app>5t f ! m]e =m ( ! antec$5t1 :atev] be ! nature ( ! matt]1 t is1 :atev] be ! t]ms employ$ 9 ! proposition or pair ( propositions :i* con/itutes ! antec$5t4 ,9 d$uctive inf]5ce we nev] d m ?an v>y ! =m ( ! tru? f :i* we />t$4 ,:5 f ! proposition ',brutus 0 ! f\nd] ( ! ,roman ,republic1' we elicit ! consequ5ce ',! f\nd] ( ! ,roman ,republic 0 ,brutus1' we c]ta9ly h no?+ m 9 ! consequ5t ?an 0 already conta9$ 9 ! antec$5t2 yet all d$uctive inf]5ces may be r$uc$ to id5tities z palpable z ?is1 ! only diff]5ce be+ t 9 m complicat$ cases ! consequ5t is conta9$ 9 ! antec$5t along ) a numb] ( o!r ?+s1 :]eas 9 ?is case ! consequ5t is absolutely all t ! antec$5t conta9s4 #dce4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is ( ! v ess5ce ( induction t !re %\ld be a process f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n4 ,widely diff]5t z ^! two op]ations ( ! m9d are1 !y are yet bo? includ$ "u ! def9ition :i* we h giv5 ( inf]5ce1 z ! passage ( ! m9d f "o or m propositions to ano!r4 ,x is necess>y to po9t ?is out1 because "s logicians ma9ta9 t all inf]5ce mu/ be f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n1 :]eas o!rs conf9e x to '! c>ry+ out into ! la/ proposition ( :at 0 virtually conta9$ 9 ! antec$5t judgem5ts4' #dcf4 ,ano!r po9t ( diff]5ce t has to be notic$ betwe5 induction & d$uction is t no inductive inf]5ce c ev] atta9 m ?an a high degree ( probability1 :]eas a d$uctive inf]5ce is c]ta91 b its c]ta9ty is purely hypo!tical4 #dcg4 ,)\t t\*+ n[ on ! metaphysical difficulty z to h[ we pass at all f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n1 let u grant t !re is no fact bett] atte/$ by exp]i5ce ?an ?is--',t :]e ! circum/ances are precisely alike1 l results foll[4' ,b !n we nev] c be absolutely sure t ! circum/ances 9 any two cases are precisely alike4 ,all ! exp]i5ce ( all pa/ ages 9 fav\r ( ! daily ris+ ( ! sun is n en\gh to r5d] u !oretically c]ta9 t ! sun w rise tomorr[ ,we %all act inde$ ) a p]fect reliance ^u ! assumption ( ! com+ day-break2 b1 = all t1 ! "t may arrive :5 ! conditions ( ! univ]se %all h *ang$1 & ! sun w rise no m4 #dch4 ,on ! o!r h& a d$uctive inf]5ce has all ! c]ta9ty t c be imp>t$ to x by ! laws ( ?\ght1 or1 9 o!r words1 by ! /ructure ( our m5tal faculties2 b ?is c]ta9ty is purely hypo!tical4 ,we may feel assur$ t if ! premisses are true1 ! conclusion is true also4 ,b = ! tru? ( our premisses we h to fall back ^u induction or ^u intuition4 ,x is n ! prov9ce ( d$uctive logic to discuss ! mat]ial tru? or falsity ( ! propositions ^u :i* our reason+s are bas$4 ,?is task is left to inductive logic1 ! aim ( :i* is to e/abli%1 if possible1 a te/ ( mat]ial tru? & falsity4 #dci4 ,?us :ile d$uction is conc]n$ only ) ! relative tru? or falsity ( propositions1 induction is conc]n$ ) _! actual tru? or falsity4 ,= ?is reason d$uctive logic has be5 t]m$ ! logic ( consi/5cy1 n ( tru?4 #ddj4 ,x is n q accurate to say t 9 d$uction we proce$ f ! m to ! less g5]al1 /ill less to say1 z is (t5 said1 t we proce$ f ! univ]sal to ! p>ticul>4 ,= x may happ5 t ! consequ5t is ( precisely ! same am\nt ( g5]ality z ! antec$5t4 ,?is is s1 n only 9 mo/ =ms ( imm$iate inf]5ce1 b also 9 a syllogism :i* consi/s ( s+ul> propositions only1 e4g4 ,! talle/ man 9 ,ox=d is "u eight feet4 ,s & s is ! talle/ man 9 ,ox=d4 4'4 ,s & s is "u eight feet4 ,?is =m ( inf]5ce has be5 nam$ ,traduction2 b !re is no ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 its laws & ^? ( d$uction4 #dda4 ,subjo9$ is a classification ( inf]5ces1 :i* w s]ve z a map ( ! c\ntry we are n[ ab\t to explore4 ,inf]5ce ,inductive ,d$uctive ,imm$iate ,m$iate ,simple ,comp\nd ,simple ,complex ,opposition ,conv]sion ,p]mutation ,conjunctive ,disjunctive ,dilemma ,conv]sion ,conv]sion by by ,negation position ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,( ,d$uctive ,inf]5ces4 #ddb4 ,d$uctive inf]5ces are ( two k9ds--,imm$iate & ,m$iate4 #ddc4 ,an imm$iate inf]5ce is s call$ because x is effect$ )\t ! int]v5tion ( a middle t]m1 :i* is requir$ 9 m$iate inf]5ce4 #ddd4 ,b ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two might be convey$ ) at lea/ equal aptness 9 ?is way-- ,an imm$iate inf]5ce is ! comp>ison ( two propositions directly4 ,a m$iate inf]5ce is ! comp>ison ( two propositions by means ( a ?ird4 #dde4 ,9 t s5se ( ! t]m inf]5ce 9 :i* x is conf9$ to ! consequ5t1 x may be said t-- ,an imm$iate inf]5ce is "o d]iv$ f a s+le proposition4 ,a m$iate inf]5ce is "o d]iv$ f two propositions conjo9tly4 #ddf4 ,!re are nev] m ?an two propositions 9 ! antec$5t ( a d$uctive inf]5ce4 ,:]ev] we h a conclusion foll[+ f m ?an two propositions1 !re w be f\nd to be m ?an "o inf]5ce4 #ddg4 ,!re are ?ree simple =ms ( imm$iate inf]5ce1 namely ,opposition1 ,conv]sion & ,p]mutation4 #ddh4 ,besides ^! !re are c]ta9 comp\nd =ms1 9 :i* p]mutation is comb9$ ) conv]sion4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,( ,opposition4 #ddi4 ,opposition is an imm$iate inf]5ce gr\nd$ on ! relation betwe5 propositions :i* h ! same t]ms1 b diff] 9 quantity or 9 quality or 9 bo?4 #dej4 ,9 ord] t !re %\ld be any =mal opposition betwe5 two propositions1 x is necess>y t _! t]ms %\ld be ! same4 ,!re c be no opposition betwe5 two su* propositions z ^!-- 7#a7 ,all angels h w+s4 7#b7 ,no c[s are c>nivor\s4 #dea4 ,if we are giv5 a pair ( t]ms1 say ,a = subject & ,b = pr$icate1 & all[$ to affix su* quantity & quality z we please1 we c ( c\rse make up ! f\r k9ds ( proposition recognis$ by logic1 namely1 ,a4 ,all ,a is ,b4 ,e4 ,no ,a is ,b4 ,i4 ,"s ,a is ,b4 ,o4 ,"s ,a is n ,b4 #deb4 ,n[ ! problem ( opposition is ?is3 ,giv5 ! tru? or falsity ( any "o ( ! f\r propositions ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 ,o1 :at c be asc]ta9$ ) reg>d to ! tru? or falsity ( ! re/1 ! matt] ( !m be+ suppos$ to be ! same8 #dec4 ,! relations to "o ano!r ( ^! f\r propositions are usually exhibit$ 9 ! foll[+ s*eme-- ,a 4 4 4 4 ,contr>y 4 4 4 4 ,e 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,subalt]n ,contradictory ,subalt]n 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,i 4 4 4 ,sub-contr>y 4 4 4 ,o #ded4 ,contr>y ,opposition is betwe5 two univ]sals :i* diff] 9 quality4 #dee4 ,sub-contr>y ,opposition is betwe5 two p>ticul>s :i* diff] 9 quality4 #def4 ,subalt]n ,opposition is betwe5 two propositions :i* diff] only 9 quantity4 #deg4 ,contradictory ,opposition is betwe5 two propositions :i* diff] bo? 9 quantity & 9 quality4 #deh4 ,subalt]n ,opposition is also kn[n z ,subalt]nation1 & ( ! two propositions involv$ ! univ]sal is call$ ! ,subalt]nant & ! p>ticul> ! ,subalt]nate4 ,bo? toge!r are call$ ,subalt]ns1 & simil>ly 9 ! o!r =ms ( opposition ! two propositions involv$ are kn[n respectively z ,contr>ies1 ,sub-contr>ies & ,contradictories4 #dei4 ,= ! sake ( conv5i5ce "s relations are class$ "u ! head ( opposition 9 :i* !re is1 /rictly speak+1 no opposition at all betwe5 ! two propositions involv$4 #dfj4 ,betwe5 sub-contr>ies !re is an app>5t1 b n a real opposition1 s9ce :at is affirm$ ( "o "p ( a t]m may (t5 ) tru? be d5i$ ( ano!r4 ,?us !re is no incompatibility betwe5 ! two /atem5ts4 7#a7 ,"s isl&s are inhabit$4 7#b7 ,"s isl&s are n inhabit$4 #dfa4 ,9 ! case ( subalt]n opposition ! tru? ( ! univ]sal n only may1 b mu/1 be compatible ) t ( ! p>ticul>4 #dfb4 ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce by ,relation w\ld be a m appropriate "n ?an ,opposition2 & ,relation might !n be subdivid$ into ,compatible & ,incompatible ,relation4 ,by 'compatible' is "h meant t !re is no conflict betwe5 ! tru? ( ! two propositions4 ,subalt]n & sub-contr>y opposition w\ld ?us fall "u ! head ( compatible relation2 contr>y & contradictory relation "u t ( incompatible relation4 ,relation ,compatible ,incompatible ,subalt]n ,sub-contr>y ,contr>y ,contradictory4 #dfc4 ,x %\ld be notic$ t ! inf]5ce 9 ! case ( opposition is f ! tru? or falsity ( "o ( ! oppos$ propositions to ! tru? or falsity ( ! o!r4 #dfd4 ,we w n[ lay d[n ! accept$ laws ( inf]5ce ) reg>d to ! v>i\s k9ds ( opposition4 #dfe4 ,contr>y propositions may bo? be false1 b _c bo? be true4 ,h5ce if "o be true1 ! o!r is false1 b n vice v]s4 #dff4 ,sub-contr>y propositions may bo? be true1 b _c bo? be false4 ,h5ce if "o be false1 ! o!r is true1 b n vice v]s4 #dfg4 ,9 ! case ( subalt]n propositions1 if ! univ]sal be true1 ! p>ticul> is true2 & if ! p>ticul> be false1 ! univ]sal is false2 b f ! tru? ( ! p>ticul> or ! falsity ( ! univ]sal no conclusion c be drawn4 #dfh4 ,contradictory propositions _c be ei!r true or false toge!r4 ,h5ce if "o be true1 ! o!r is false1 & vice v]s4 #dfi4 ,by apply+ ^! laws ( inf]5ce we obta9 ! foll[+ results-- ,if ,a be true1 ,e is false1 ,o false1 ,i true4 ,if ,a be false1 ,e is unkn[n1 ,o true1 ,i unkn[n4 ,if ,e be true1 ,o is true1 ,i false1 ,a false4 ,if ,e be false1 ,o is unkn[n1 ,i true1 ,a unkn[n4 ,if ,o be true1 ,i is unkn[n1 ,a false1 ,e unkn[n4 ,if ,o be false1 ,i is true1 ,a true1 ,e false4 ,if ,i be true1 ,a is unkn[n1 ,e false1 ,o unkn[n4 ,if ,i be false1 ,a is false1 ,e true1 ,o true4 #dgj4 ,x w be se5 f ! above t we d]ive m in=mation f d]iv+ a p>ticul> ?an f d5y+ a univ]sal4 ,%\ld ?is seem surpris+1 ! p>adox w imm$iately disappe>1 if we reflect t to d5y a univ]sal is m]ely to ass]t ! contradictory p>ticul>1 :]eas to d5y a p>ticul> is to ass]t ! contradictory univ]sal4 ,x is no wond] t we %\ld obta9 m in=mation f ass]t+ a univ]sal ?an f ass]t+ a p>ticul>4 #dga4 ,we h laid d[n above ! receiv$ doctr9e ) reg>d to opposition3 b x is necess>y to po9t out a flaw 9 x4 ,:5 we say t ( two sub-contr>y propositions1 if "o be false1 ! o!r is true1 we are n tak+ ! propositions ,i & ,o 9 _! n[ accept$ logical mean+ z indef9ite 7 #bed71 b r 9 _! popul> s5se z '/rict p>ticul>' propositions4 ,= if ,i & ,o 7 tak5 z indef9ite propositions1 mean+ '"s1 if n all1' ! tru? ( ,i w\ld n exclude ! possibility ( ! tru? ( ,a1 &1 simil>ly1 ! tru? ( ,o w\ld n exclude ! possibility ( ! tru? ( ,e4 ,n[ ,a & ,e may bo? be false4 ,!re=e ,i & ,o1 be+ possibly equival5t to !m1 may bo? be false also4 ,9 t case ! doctr9e ( contradiction breaks d[n z well4 ,= ,i & ,o may1 on ?is %[+1 be false1 )\t _! contradictories ,e & ,a be+ !reby r5d]$ true4 ,?is illu/rates ! awkw>dness1 :i* we h previ\sly _h occasion to allude to1 :i* ensures f divid+ propositions prim>ily into univ]sal & p>ticul>1 in/ead ( fir/ divid+ !m into def9ite & indef9ite1 & p>ticul> 7 #bef74 #dgb4 ,to be sudd5ly ?r[n back ^u ! /rictly p>ticul> view ( ,i & ,o 9 ! special case ( opposition1 aft] hav+ be5 accu/om$ to reg>d !m z indef9ite propositions1 is a manife/ inconv5i5ce4 ,b ! receiv$ doctr9e ( opposition does n ev5 adh]e consi/5tly to ?is view4 ,= if ,i & ,o be tak5 z /rictly p>ticul> propositions1 :i* exclude ! possibility ( ! univ]sal ( ! same quality be+ true along ) !m1 we ought n m]ely to say t ,i & ,o may bo? be true1 b t if "o be true ! o!r mu/ also be true4 ,= ,i be+ true1 ,a is false1 & !re=e ,o is true2 & we may argue simil>ly f ! tru? ( ,o to ! tru? ( ,i1 ?r\gh ! falsity ( ,e4 ,or--to put ! ,same ?+ 9 a less ab/ract =m--s9ce ! /rictly p>ticul> proposition means '"s1 b n all1' x foll[s t ! tru? ( "o sub-contr>y necess>ily c>ries ) x ! tru? ( ! o!r1 ,if we lay d[n t "s isl&s only are inhabit$1 x evid5tly foll[s1 or r is /at$ simultane\sly1 t !re are "s isl&s also :i* are n inhabit$4 ,= ! /rictly p>ticul> =m ( proposition ',"s ,a only is ,b' is ( ! nature ( an exclusive proposition1 & is really equival5t to two propositions1 "o affirmative & "o negative4 #dgc4 ,x is evid5t f ! above consid]ations t ! doctr9e ( opposition requires to be am5d$ 9 "o or o!r ( two ways4 ,ei!r we mu/ face ! consequ5ces :i* foll[ f reg>d+ ,i & ,o z indef9ite1 & lay d[n t sub-contr>ies may bo? be false1 accept+ ! awkw>d coroll>y ( ! collapse ( ! doctr9e ( contradiction2 or we mu/ be consi/5t ) ourselves 9 reg>d+ ,i & ,o1 = ! p>ticul> purposes ( opposition1 z be+ /rictly p>ticul>1 & lay d[n t x is always possible to argue f ! tru? ( "o sub-contr>y to ! tru? ( ! o!r4 ,! latt] is und\bt$ly ! bett] c\rse1 z ! admission ( ,i & ,o z indef9ite 9 ?is connection confuses ! !ory ( opposition altoge!r4 #dgd4 ,( ! sev]al =ms ( opposition contradictory opposition is logically ! /ronge/4 ,= ?is ?ree reasons may be giv5-- 7#a7 ,contradictory opposites diff] bo? 9 quantity & 9 quality1 :]eas o!rs diff] only 9 "o or ! o!r4 7#b7 ,contradictory opposites are incompatible bo? z to tru? & falsity1 :]eas 9 o!r cases x is only ! tru? or falsity ( ! two t is incompatible4 7#c7 ,contradictory opposition is ! safe/ =m to adopt 9 argum5t4 ,= ! contradictory opposite refutes ! adv]s>y's proposition z effectually z ! contr>y1 & is n s hable to a c\nt]-refutation4 #dge4 ,at fir/ sight inde$ contr>y opposition appe>s /rong]1 because x gives a m sweep+ d5ial to ! adv]s>y's ass]tion4 ,if1 = in/ance1 "s p]son ) :om we 7 argu+ 7 to lay d[n t ',all poets are bad logicians1' we might be tempt$ 9 ! heat ( controv]sy to ma9ta9 aga9/ him ! contr>y proposition ',no poets are bad logicians4' ,?is w\ld c]ta9ly be a m emphatic contradiction1 b1 logically consid]$1 x w\ld n be z s\nd a "o z ! less obtrusive contradictory1 ',"s poets are n bad logicians1' :i* x w\ld be v difficult to refute4 #dgf4 ,! phrase 'diametrically oppos$ to "o ano!r' seems to be "o ( ! _m expressions :i* h crept into common language f ! te*nical usage ( logic4 ,! propositions ,a & ,o & ,e & ,i respectively are diametrically oppos$ to "o ano!r 9 ! s5se t ! /raight l9es connect+ !m con/itute ! diagonals ( ! p>allelogram 9 ! s*eme ( opposition4 #dgg4 ,x mu/ be notic$ t 9 ! case ( a s+ul> proposition !re is only "o mode ( contradiction possible4 ,s9ce ! quantity ( su* a proposition is at ! m9imum1 ! contr>y & contradictory are necess>ily m]g$ into "o4 ,!re is no way ( d5y+ ! proposition ',?is h\se is haunt$1' save by ma9ta9+ ! proposition :i* diff]s f x only 9 quality1 namely1 ',?is h\se is n haunt$4' #dgh4 ,a k9d ( g5]ality might inde$ he imp>t$ ev5 to a s+ul> proposition by express+ x 9 ! =m ',a is always ,b4' ,?us we may say1 ',?is man is always idle'--a proposition :i* admits ( be+ contradict$ "u ! =m ',?is man is sometimes n idle4' ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,( ,conv]sion4 #dgi4 ,conv]sion is an imm$iate inf]5ce gr\nd$ ,on ! transposition ( ! subject & pr$icate ( a proposition4 #dhj4 ,9 ?is =m ( inf]5ce ! antec$5t is te*nically kn[n z ! ,conv]t5d1 i4e4 ! proposition to be conv]t$1 & ! consequ5t z ! ,conv]se1 i4e4 ! proposition :i* has be5 conv]t$4 #dha4 ,9 a loose s5se ( ! t]m we may be said to h conv]t$ a proposition :5 we h m]ely transpos$ ! subject & pr$icate1 :51 = in/ance1 we turn ! proposition ',all ,a is ,b' into ',all ,b is ,a' or ',"s ,a is n ,b' into ',"s ,b is n ,a4' ,b ^! propositions pla9ly d n foll[ f ! =m] ones1 & x is only ) conv]sion z a =m ( inf]5ce--) ,illative ,conv]sion z x is call$--t ,logic is conc]n$4 #dhb4 ,= conv]sion z a =m ( inf]5ce two rules h be5 laid d[n-- 7#a7 ,no t]m mu/ be di/ribut$ 9 ! conv]se :i* 0 n di/ribut$ 9 ! conv]t5d4 7#b7 ,! quality ( ! conv]se mu/ be ! same z t ( ! conv]t5d4 #dhc4 ,! fir/ ( ^! rules is f\nd$ on ! nature ( ?+s4 ,a violation ( x involves ! fallacy ( argu+ f "p ( a t]m to ! :ole4 #dhd4 ,! second rule is m]ely a conv5tional "o4 ,we may make a valid inf]5ce 9 defiance ( x3 b su* an inf]5ce w be se5 pres5tly to involve some?+ m ?an m]e conv]sion4 #dhe4 ,!re are two k9ds ( conv]sion-- 7#a7 ,simple4 7#b7 ,p] ,accid5s or by ,limitation4 #dhf4 ,we are said to h simply conv]t$ a proposition :5 ! quantity rema9s ! same z be=e4 #dhg4 ,we are said to h conv]t$ a proposition p] accid5s1 or by limitation1 :5 ! rules = ! di/ribution ( t]ms necessitate a r$uction 9 ! orig9al quantity ( ! proposition4 #dhh4 ,a c only be conv]t$ p] accid5s4 ,e & ,i c be conv]t$ simply4 ,o _c be conv]t$ at all4 #dhi4 ,! reason :y ,a c only be conv]t$ p] accid5s is t1 be+ affirmative1 its pr$icate is undi/ribut$ 7 #bic74 ,s9ce ',all ,a is ,b' does n mean m ?an ',all ,a is "s ,b1' its prop] conv]se is ',"s ,b is ,a4' ,=1 if we endeav\r$ to elicit ! inf]5ce1 ',all ,b is ,a1' we %\ld be di/ribut+ ! t]m ,b 9 ! conv]se1 :i* 0 n di/ribut$ 9 ! conv]t5d4 ,h5ce we %\ld be involv$ 9 ! fallacy ( argu+ f ! "p to ! :ole4 ,because ',all doctors are m5' x by no means foll[s t ',all m5 are doctors4' #dii4 ,e & ,i admit ( simple conv]sion1 because ! quantity ( ! subject & pr$icate is alike 9 ea*1 bo? subject & pr$icate be+ di/ribut$ 9 ,e & undi/ribut$ 9 ,i4 _/ ,no ,a is ,b4 ,e 4'4 ,no ,b is ,a4 _/ ,"s ,a is ,b4 ,i 4'4 ,"s ,b is ,a4 #dia4 ,! reason :y ,o _c be conv]t$ at all is t its subject is undi/ribut$ & t ! proposition is negative4 ,n[1 :5 ! proposition is conv]t$1 :at 0 ! subject becomes ! pr$icate1 &1 z ! proposition mu/ /ill be negative1 ! =m] subject w\ld n[ be di/ribut$1 s9ce e negative proposition di/ributes its pr$icate4 ,h5ce we %\ld necess>ily h a t]m di/ribut$ 9 ! conv]se :i* 0 n di/ribut$ 9 ! conv]t5d4 ,f ',"s m5 are n doctors1' x pla9ly does n foll[ t ',"s doctors are n m5'2 &1 g5]ally f ',"s ,a is n ,b' x _c be inf]r$ t ',"s ,b is n ,a1' s9ce ! proposition ',"s ,a is n ,b' admits ( ! int]pretation t ,b is :olly conta9$ 9 ,a4 ,illu/ration #dib4 ,x may (t5 happ5 z a matt] ( fact t 9 "s giv5 matt] a proposition ( ! =m ',all ,b is ,a' is true simultane\sly ) ',all ,a is ,b4' ,?us x is z true to say t ',all equiangul> triangles are equilat]al' z t ',all equilat]al triangles are equiangul>4' ,nev]!less we are n logically w>rant$ 9 inf]r+ ! "o f ! o!r4 ,ea* has to be e/abli%$ on its sep>ate evid5ce4 #dic4 ,on ! !ory ( ! quantifi$ pr$icate ! diff]5ce betwe5 simple conv]sion & conv]sion by limitation disappe>s4 ,= ! quantity ( a proposition is !n no long] det]m9$ solely by ref]5ce to ! quantity ( its subject4 ',all ,a is "s ,b' is ( no great] quantity ?an ',"s ,b is all ,a1' if bo? subject & pr$icate h an equal claim to be consid]$4 #did4 ,"s propositions occur 9 ord9>y language 9 :i* ! quantity ( ! pr$icate is det]m9$4 ,?is is especially ! case :5 ! subject is a s+ul> t]m4 ,su* propositions admit ( conv]sion by a m]e transposition ( _! subject & pr$icate1 ev5 ?\gh !y fall "u ! =m ( ! ,a proposition1 e4g4 ,virtue is ! condition ( happ9ess4 4'4 ,! condition ( happ9ess is virtue4 ,& aga91 ,virtue is a condition ( happ9ess4 4'4 ,a condition ( happ9ess is virtue4 ,9 ! "o case ! quantity ( ! pr$icate is det]m9$ by ! =m ( ! expression z di/ribut$1 9 ! o!r z undi/ribut$4 #die4 ,conv]sion (f]s a good illu/ration ( ! pr9ciple on :i* we h be=e insi/$1 namely1 t 9 ! ord9>y =m ( proposition ! subject is us$ 9 ext5sion & ! pr$icate 9 int5sion4 ,= :5 by conv]sion we *ange ! pr$icate into ! subject1 we are (t5 oblig$ to atta* a n\n sub/antive to ! pr$icate1 9 ord] t x may be tak5 9 ext5sion1 in/ead (1 z be=e1 9 int5sion1 e4g4 ,"s mo!rs are unk9d4 4'4 ,"s unk9d p]sons are mo!rs4 ,aga91 ,virtue is conducive to happ9ess4 4'4 ,"o ( ! ?+s :i* are conducive to happ9ess is virtue4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,( ,p]mutation4 #dif4 ,p]mutation ,footnote3 ,call$ by "s writ]s ,obv]sion4 is an imm$iate inf]5ce gr\nd$ on a *ange ( quality 9 a proposition & a *ange ( ! pr$icate into its contradictory-t]m4 #dig4 ,9 less te*nical language we may say t p]mutation is express+ negatively :at 0 express$ affirmatively & vice v]s4 #dih4 ,p]mutation is equally applicable to all ! f\r =ms ( proposition4 7,a7 ,all ,a is ,b4 4'4 ,no ,a is n-,b 7,e74 7,e7 ,no ,a is ,b4 4'4 ,all ,a is n-,b 7,a74 7,i7 ,"s ,a is ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,a is n n-,b 7,o74 7,o7 ,"s ,a is n ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,a is n-,b 7,i74 #dii1 ,or1 to take concrete examples-- 7,a7 ,all m5 are fallible4 4'4 ,no m5 are n-fallible 7,e74 7,e7 ,no m5 are p]fect4 4'4 ,all m5 are n-p]fect 7,a74 7,i7 ,"s poets are logical4 4'4 ,"s poets are n n-logical 7,o74 7,o7 ,"s isl&s are n inhabit$4 4'4 ,"s isl&s are n-inhabit$ 7,i74 #ejj4 ,! validity ( p]mutation re/s on ! pr9ciple ( exclud$ middle1 namely--,t "o or o!r ( a pair ( contradictory t]ms mu/ be applicable to a giv5 subject1 s t1 :5 "o may be pr$icat$ affirmatively1 ! o!r may be pr$icat$ negatively1 & vice v]s 7 #ca74 #eja4 ,m]ely to alt] ! quality ( a proposition w\ld ( c\rse affect its mean+2 b :5 ! pr$icate is at ! same "t *ang$ into its contradictory t]m1 ! orig9al mean+ ( ! proposition is reta9$1 :il/ ! =m alone is alt]$4 ,h5ce we may lay d[n ! foll[+ practical rule = p]mutation-- ,*ange ! quality ( ! proposition & *ange ! pr$icate into its contradictory t]m4 #ejb4 ,! law ( exclud$ middle holds only ) reg>d to contradictories4 ,x is n true ( a pair ( positive & privative t]ms1 t "o or o!r ( !m mu/ be applicable to any giv5 subject4 ,= ! subject may happ5 to fall :olly outside ! sph]e to :i* su* a pair ( t]ms is limit$4 ,b s9ce ! fact ( a t]m be+ appli$ is a suffici5t indication ( its applicability1 & s9ce )9 a giv5 sph]e positive & privative t]ms are z mutually de/ructive z contradictories1 we may 9 all cases sub/itute ! privative = ! negative t]m 9 imm$iate inf]5ce by p]mutation1 :i* w br+ ! inf]r$ proposition m into con=mity ) ! ord9>y usage ( language4 ,?us ! concrete in/ances giv5 above w appe> z foll[s-- 7,a7 ,all m5 are fallible4 4'4 ,no m5 are infallible 7,e74 7,e7 ,no m5 are p]fect4 4'4 ,all m5 are imp]fect 7,a74 7,i7 ,"s poets are logical4 4'4 ,"s poets are n illogical 7,o74 7,o7 ,"s isl&s are n inhabit$4 4'4 ,"s isl&s are un9habit$ 7,i74 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,( ,comp\nd ,=ms ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce4 #ejc4 ,hav+ n[ treat$ ( ! ?ree simple =ms ( imm$iate inf]5ce1 we g on to speak ( ! comp\nd =ms1 & fir/ ( ,conv]sion by ,negation4 #ejd4 ,:5 ,a & ,o h be5 p]mut$1 !y become respectively ,e & ,i1 &1 9 ?is =m1 admit ( simple conv]sion4 ,we h "h two /eps ( inf]5ce3 b ! process may be p]=m$ at a s+le /roke1 & is !n kn[n z ,conv]sion by ,negation4 ,?us f ',all ,a is ,b' we may inf] ',no n-,b is ,a1' & aga9 f ',"s ,a is n ,b' we may inf] ',"s n-,b is ,a4' ,! nature ( ^! inf]5ces w be se5 bett] 9 concrete examples4 #eje4 7,a7 ,all poets are imag9ative4 4'4 ,no unimag9ative p]sons are poets 7,e74 7,o7 ,"s p>sons are n cl]ical4 4'4 ,"s uncl]ical p]sons are p>sons 7,i74 #ejf4 ,! above inf]5ces1 :5 analys$1 w be f\nd to resolve !mselves into two /eps1 namely1 7#a7 ,p]mutation4 7#b7 ,simple ,conv]sion4 7,a7 ,all ,a is ,b4 4'4 ,no ,a is n-,b 7by p]mutation74 4'4 ,no n-,b is ,a 7by simple conv]sion74 7,o7 ,"s ,a is n ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,a is n-,b 7by p]mutation74 4'4 ,"s n-,b is ,a 7by simple conv]sion74 #ejg4 ,! t]m conv]sion by negation has be5 arbitr>ily limit$ to ! exact inf]5tial proc$ure ( p]mutation foll[$ by simple conv]sion4 ,h5ce x necess>ily applies only to ,a & #j propositions1 s9ce ^! :5 p]mut$ become ,e & #a1 :i* admit ( simple conv]sion2 :]eas ,e & #a !mselves are p]mut$ into ,a & #j1 :i* d n4 ,!re seems to be no good reason1 h[ev]1 :y ! t]m 'conv]sion by negation' %\ld be ?us re/rict$ 9 its mean+2 in/ead ( be+ ext5d$ to ! comb9ation ( p]mutation ) conv]sion1 no matt] 9 :at ord] ! two processes may be p]=m$4 ,if ?is is n done1 inf]5ces q z legitimate z ^? :i* pass "u ! title ( conv]sion by negation are left )\t a "n4 #ejh4 ,f ,e & #a inf]5ces may be elicit$ z foll[s-- 7,e7 ,no ,a is ,b4 4'4 ,all ,b is n-,a 7,a74 7,i7 ,"s ,a is ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,b is n n-,a 7,o74 7,e7 ,no good actions are unbecom+4 4'4 ,all unbecom+ actions are n-good 7,a74 7,i7 ,"s poetical p]sons are logicians4 4'4 ,"s logicians are n unpoetical 7,o74 ,or1 tak+ a privative t]m = our subject1 ,"s unpractical p]sons are /atesm54 4'4 ,"s /atesm5 are n practical4 #eji4 ,:5 ! inf]5ces j giv5 are analys$1 x w be f\nd t ! process ( simple conv]sion prec$es t ( p]mutation4 #eaj4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,e proposition a comp\nd inf]5ce c be drawn ev5 9 ! orig9al ord] ( ! processes1 ,no ,a is ,b4 4'4 ,"s n-,b is ,a4 ,no "o :o employs brib]y is hone/4 4'4 ,"s di%one/ m5 employ brib]y4 ,! inf]5ce "h1 x mu/ be rememb]$1 does n ref] to matt] ( fact1 b means t "o ( ! possible =ms ( di%one/y among m5 is t ( employ+ brib]y4 #eaa4 ,if we analyse ! prec$+1 we f9d t ! second /ep is conv]sion by limitation4 ,no ,a is ,b4 4'4 ,all ,a is n-,b 7by p]mutation74 4'4 ,"s n-,b is ,a 7by conv]sion p] accid5s74 #eab4 ,f ,a aga9 an inf]5ce c be drawn 9 ! rev]se ord] ( conv]sion p] accid5s foll[$ by p]mutation-- ,all ,a is ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,b is n n-,a4 ,all +5u\s p]sons are agreeable4 4'4 ,"s agreeable p]sons are n dis+5u\s4 #eac4 ,! int]m$iate l9k betwe5 ! above two propositions is ! conv]se p] accid5s ( ! fir/--',"s ,b is ,a4' ,?is inf]5ce1 h[ev]1 co9cides ) t f #a 7 #ejh71 z ! simil> inf]5ce f ,e 7 #eaj7 co9cides ) t f #j 7 #ejf74 #ead4 ,all ^! inf]5ces agree 9 ! ess5tial feature ( comb9+ p]mutation ) conv]sion1 & %\ld !re=e be class$ "u a common "n4 #eae4 ,adopt+ !n ?is slight ext5sion ( ! t]m1 we def9e conv]sion by negation z--,a =m ( conv]sion 9 :i* ! conv]se diff]s 9 quality f ! conv]t5d1 & has ! contradictory ( "o ( ! orig9al t]ms4 #eaf4 ,a /ill m complex =m ( imm$iate inf]5ce is kn[n z ,conv]sion by ,contraposition4 ,?is mode ( inf]5ce assumes ! foll[+ =m-- ,all ,a is ,b4 4'4 ,all n-,b is n-,a4 ,all human be+s are fallible4 4'4 ,all infallible be+s are n-human4 #eag4 ,?is w be f\nd to resolve itself on analysis into ?ree /eps ( inf]5ce 9 ! foll[+ ord]-- 7#a7 ,p]mutation4 7#b7 ,simple ,conv]sion4 7#c7 ,p]mutation4 #eah4 ,let u v]ify ?is /atem5t by p]=m+ ! ?ree /eps4 ,all ,a is ,b4 4'4 ,no ,a is n-,b 7by p]mutation74 4'4 ,no n-,b is ,a 7by simple conv]sion74 4'4 ,all n-,b is n-,a 7by p]mutation74 ,all ,engli%m5 are ,aryans4 4'4 ,no ,engli%m5 are non-,aryans4 4'4 ,no non-,aryans are ,engli%m54 4'4 ,all non-,aryans are non-,engli%m54 #eai4 ,conv]sion by contraposition may be complicat$ 9 appe>ance by ! occurr5ce ( a negative t]m 9 ! subject or pr$icate or bo?1 e4g4 ,all n-,a is ,b4 4'4 ,all n-,b is ,a4 ,aga91 ,all ,a is n-,b4 4'4 ,all ,b is n-,a4 ,la/ly1 ,all n-,a is n-,b4 4'4 ,all ,b is ,a4 #ebj4 ,! foll[+ practical rule w be f\nd ( use = ! "r p]=m+ ( ! process-- ,transpose ! subject & pr$icate1 & sub/itute = ea* its contradictory t]m4 #eba4 ,z concrete illu/rations ( ! above =ms ( inf]5ce we may take ! foll[+-- ,all ! m5 on ?is bo>d t are n :ite are r$4 4'4 ,all ! m5 ,on ?is bo>d t are n r$ are :ite4 ,aga91 ,all compulsory lab\r is ineffici5t4 4'4 ,all effici5t lab\r is free 7non-compulsory74 ,la/ly1 ,all inexp$i5t acts are unju/4 4'4 ,all j acts are exp$i5t4 #ebb4 ,conv]sion by contraposition may be said to re/ on ! foll[+ pr9ciple-- ,if "o class be :olly conta9$ 9 ano!r1 :atev] is ext]nal to ! conta9+ class is ext]nal also to ! class conta9$4 ,illu/ration #ebc4 ,! same pr9ciple may be express$ int5sively z foll[s3-- ,if an attribute belongs to ! :ole ( a subject1 :atev] fails to exhibit t attribute does n come "u ! subject4 #ebd4 ,?is /atem5t contemplates conv]sion by contraposition only 9 ref]5ce to ! ,a proposition1 to :i* ! process has hi!rto be5 conf9$4 ,logicians seem to h ov]look$ ! fact t conv]sion by contraposition is z applicable to ! ,o z to ! ,a proposition1 ?\gh1 :5 express$ 9 symbols1 x pres5ts a m clumsy appe>ance4 ,"s ,a is n ,b4 4'4 ,"s n-,b is n n-,a4 ,"s :olesome ?+s are n pleasant4 4'4 ,"s unpleasant ?+s are n un:olesome4 #ebe4 ,! above admits ( analysis 9 exactly ! same way z ! same process :5 appli$ to ! ,a proposition4 ,"s ,a is n ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,a is n-,b 7by p]mutation74 4'4 ,"s n-,b is ,a 7by simple conv]sion74 4'4 ,"s n-,b is n n-,a 7by p]mutation74 ,! result1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,a proposition1 is ! conv]se by negation ( ! orig9al proposition p]mut$4 #ebf4 ,contraposition may also be appli$ to ! ,e proposition by ! use ( conv]sion p] accid5s 9 ! place ( simple conv]sion4 ,b1 ow+ to ! limitation ( quantity ?us effect$1 ! result arriv$ at is ! same z 9 ! case ( ! ,o proposition4 ,?us f ',no :olesome ?+s are pleasant' we c\ld draw ! same inf]5ce z be=e4 ,"h is ! process 9 symbols1 :5 exp&$4 ,no ,a is ,b4 4'4 ,all ,a is n-,b 7by p]mutation74 4'4 ,"s n-,b is ,a 7by conv]sion p] accid5s74 4'4 ,"s n-,b is n n-,a 7by p]mutation74 #ebg4 ,9 its unanalys$ =m conv]sion by contraposition may be def9$ g5]ally z--,a =m ( conv]sion 9 :i* bo? subject & pr$icate are replac$ by _! contradictories4 #ebh4 ,conv]sion by contraposition diff]s 9 sev]al respects f conv]sion by negation4 7#a7 ,9 conv]sion by negation ! conv]se diff]s 9 quality f ! conv]t5d3 :]eas 9 conv]sion by contraposition ! quality ( ! two is ! same4 7#b7 ,9 conv]sion by negation we employ ! contradictory ei!r ( ! subject or pr$icate1 b 9 conv]sion by contraposition we employ ! contradictory ( bo?4 7#c7 ,conv]sion by negation involves only two /eps ( imm$iate inf]5ce3 conv]sion by contraposition ?ree4 #ebi4 ,conv]sion by contraposition _c be appli$ to ! ord9>y ,e proposition except by limitation 7 #ebf74 ,f ',no ,a is ,b' we _c inf] ',no n-,b is n-,a4' ,=1 if we c\ld1 ! contradictory ( ! latt]1 namely1 ',"s n-,b is n-,a' w\ld be false4 ,b x is manife/ t ?is is n necess>ily false4 ,= :5 "o t]m is exclud$ f ano!r1 !re mu/ be num]\s individuals :i* fall "u nei!r ( !m1 unless x %\ld s happ5 t "o ( ! t]ms is ! direct contradictory ( ! o!r1 :i* is cle>ly n convey$ by ! =m ( ! expression ',no ,a is ,b4 ',no ,a is n-,a' /&s alone among ,e propositions 9 admitt+ ( full conv]sion by contraposition1 & ! =m ( t is ! same aft] x z be=e4 #ecj4 ,nor c conv]sion by contraposition be appli$ at all to ,i4 ,illu/ration ,f ',"s ,a is ,b' we _c inf] t ',"s n-,b is n-,a4' ,= ?\gh ! proposition holds true z a matt] ( fact1 :5 ,a & ,b are 9 "p mutually exclusive1 yet ?is is n convey$ by ! =m ( ! expression4 ,x may s happ5 t ,b is :olly conta9$ "u ,a1 :ile ,a itself conta9s ev]y?+4 ,9 ?is case x w be true t ',no n-,b is n-,a1' :i* contradicts ! attempt$ inf]5ce4 ,?us f ! proposition ',"s ?+s are sub/ances' x _c be inf]r$ t ',"s n-sub/ances are n-?+s1' = 9 ?is case ! contradictory is true t ',no n-sub/ances are n-?+s'2 & unless an inf]5ce is valid 9 e case1 x is n =mally valid at all4 #eca4 ,x %\ld be notic$ t 9 ! case ( ! nu proposition imm$iate inf]5ces are possible by m]e contraposition )\t conv]sion4 ,all ,a is all ,b4 4'4 ,all n-,a is n-,b4 ,= example1 if all ! equilat]al triangles are all ! equiangul>1 we "k at once t all non-equilat]al triangles are also non-equiangul>4 #ecb4 ,! pr9ciple ^u :i* ?is la/ k9d ( inf]5ce re/s is t :5 two t]ms are co-ext5sive1 :atev] is exclud$ f ! "o is exclud$ also f ! o!r4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,( o!r ,=ms ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce4 #ecc4 ,hav+ treat$ ( ! ma9 =ms ( imm$iate inf]5ce1 :e!r simple or comp\nd1 we w n[ close ?is subject ) a brief allusion to "s o!r =ms :i* h be5 recognis$ by logicians4 #ecd4 ,e /atem5t ( a relation may furni% u ) ail imm$iate inf]5ce 9 :i* ! same fact is pres5t$ f ! opposite side4 ,?us f ',john hit ,james' we inf] ',james 0 hit by ,john'2 f ',dick is ! gr&son ( ,tom' we inf] ',tom is ! gr&fa!r ( ,dick'2 f ',bice/] is nor?-ea/ ( ,ox=d' we inf] ',ox=d is s\?-we/ ( ,bice/]'2 f ',s & s visit$ ! ,academy ! day aft] he arriv$ 9 ,london' we inf] ',s & s arriv$ 9 ,london ! day be=e he visit$ ! ,academy'2 f ',a is great] ?an ,b' we inf] ',b is less ?an ,a'2 & s on )\t limit4 ,su* inf]5ces z ^! are mat]ial1 n =mal4 ,no law c be laid d[n = !m except ! univ]sal po/ulate1 t ',:atev] is true 9 "o =m ( words is true 9 e o!r =m ( words :i* conveys ! same mean+4' #ece4 ,!re is a sort ( inf]5ce :i* goes "u ! title ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce by ,add$ ,det]m9ants1 9 :i* f "s proposition already made ano!r is inf]r$1 9 :i* ! same attribute is atta*$ bo? to ! subject & ! pr$icate1 e4g41 ,a horse is a quadrup$4 4'4 ,a :ite horse is a :ite quadrup$4 #ecf4 ,su* inf]5ces are v deceptive4 ,! attributes add$ mu/ be def9ite qualities1 l :it5ess1 & mu/ 9 no way involve a comp>ison4 ,f ',a horse is a quadrup$' x may seem at fir/ sight to foll[ t ',a swift horse is a swift quadrup$4' ,b we ne$ n g f> to discov] h[ little =mal validity !re is ab\t su* an inf]5ce4 ,f ',a horse is a quadrup$' x by no means foll[s t ',a sl[ horse is a sl[ quadrup$'2 = ev5 a sl[ horse is swift comp>$ ) mo/ quadrup$s4 ,all t really foll[s "h is t ',a sl[ horse is a quadrup$ :i* is sl[ = a horse4' ,simil>ly1 f ',a ,bu%man is a man' x does n foll[ t ',a tall ,bu%man is a tall man1' b only t ',a tall ,bu%man is a man :o is tall = a ,bu%man'2 & s on g5]ally4 #ecg4 ,v simil> to ! prec$+ is ! process kn[n z ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce by ,complex ,conception1 e4g4 ,a horse is a quadrup$4 4'4 ,! head ( a horse is ! head ( a quadrup$4 #ech4 ,?is inf]5ce1 l t by add$ det]m9ants1 f :i* x diff]s 9 "n r ?an 9 nature1 may be expla9$ on ! pr9ciple ( ,sub/itution4 ,/>t+ f ! id5tical proposition1 ',! head ( a quadrup$ is ! head ( a quadrup$1' & be+ giv5 t ',a horse is a quadrup$1' s t :atev] is true ( 'quadrup$' g5]ally we "k to be true ( 'horse1' we are entitl$ to sub/itute ! n>r[] = ! wid] t]m1 & 9 ?is mann] we arrive at ! proposition1 ,! head ( a horse is ! head ( a quadrup$4 #eci4 ,su* an inf]5ce is valid en\gh1 if ! same caution be obs]v$ z 9 ! case ( add$ det]m9ants1 t is1 if no diff]5ce be all[$ to int]v5e 9 ! relation ( ! fre% conception to ! g5]ic & ! specific t]ms4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,( ,m$iate ,inf]5ces or ,syllogisms4 #edj4 ,a ,m$iate ,inf]5ce1 or ,syllogism1 consi/s ( two propositions1 :i* are call$ ! ,premisses1 & a ?ird proposition kn[n z ! ,conclusion1 :i* fl[s f ! two conjo9tly4 #eda4 ,9 e syllogism two t]ms are comp>$ ) "o ano!r by means ( a ?ird1 :i* is call$ ! ,middle ,t]m4 ,9 ! premisses ea* ( ! two t]ms is comp>$ sep>ately ) ! middle t]m2 & 9 ! conclusion !y are comp>$ ) "o ano!r4 #edb4 ,h5ce e syllogism consi/s ( ?ree t]ms1 "o ( :i* occurs twice 9 ! premisses & does n appe> at all 9 ! conclusion4 ,?is t]m is call$ ! ,middle ,t]m4 ,! pr$icate ( ! conclusion is call$ ! ,major ,t]m & its subject ! ,m9or ,t]m4 #edc4 ,! major & m9or t]ms are call$ ! ,extremes1 z oppos$ to ! ,mean or ,middle ,t]m4 #edd4 ,! premiss 9 :i* ! major t]m is comp>$ ) ! middle is call$ ! ,major ,premiss4 #ede4 ,! o!r premiss1 9 :i* ! m9or t]m is comp>$ ) ! middle1 is call$ ! ,m9or ,premiss4 #edf4 ,! ord] 9 :i* ! premisses occur 9 a syllogism is indiff]5t1 b x is usual1 = conv5i5ce1 to place ! major premiss fir/4 #edg4 ,! foll[+ w s]ve z a typical in/ance ( a syllogism-- ,middle t]m ,major t]m ,major ,premiss4 ,all mammals are w>m-blood$ ,antec$5t or ,m9or t]m ,middle t]m ,premisses ,m9or ,premiss4 ,all :ales are mammals _/ ,m9or t]m ,major t]m ,consequ5t or 4'4 ,all :ales are w>m-blood$ ,conclusion4 #edh4 ,! reason :y ! names 'major1 'middle' & 'm9or' t]ms 7 orig9ally employ$ is t 9 an affirmative syllogism su* z ! above1 :i* 0 reg>d$ z ! p]fect type ( syllogism1 ^! names express ! relative quantity 9 ext5sion ( ! ?ree t]ms4 ,illu/ration #edi4 ,x mu/ be notic$ h[ev] t1 ?\gh ! middle t]m _c be ( l>g] ext5t ?an ! major nor ( small] ext5t ?an ! m9or1 if ! latt] be di/ribut$1 !re is no?+ to prev5t all ?ree1 or any two ( !m1 f be+ coext5sive4 #eej4 ,fur!r1 :5 ! m9or t]m is undi/ribut$1 we ei!r h a case ( ! int]section ( two classes1 f :i* x _c be told :i* ( !m is ! l>g]1 or ! m9or t]m is actually l>g] ?an ! middle1 :5 x /&s to x 9 ! relation ( g5us to species1 z 9 ! foll[+ syllogism-- ,all ,negroes h woolly hair4 ,"s ,africans are ,negroes4 4'4 ,"s ,africans h woolly hair4 ,illu/ration #eea4 ,h5ce ! names are n appli$ ) /rict accuracy ev5 9 ! case ( ! affirmative syllogism2 & :5 ! syllogism is negative1 !y are n applicable at all3 s9ce 9 negative propositions we h no means ( comp>+ ! relative ext5sion ( ! t]ms employ$4 ,_h we said 9 ! major premiss ( our typical syllogism1 ',no mammals are cold-blood$1' & drawn ! conclusion ',no :ales are cold-blood$1' we c\ld n h comp>$ ! relative ext5t ( ! t]ms 'mammal' & 'cold-blood$1' s9ce "o has be5 simply exclud$ f ! o!r4 ,illu/ration #eeb4 ,s f> we h r describ$ ?an def9$ ! syllogism4 ,all ! products ( ?\ght1 x w be rememb]$1 are ! results ( comp>ison4 ,! syllogism1 :i* is "o ( !m1 may be s reg>d$ 9 two ways-- 7#a7 ,z ! comp>ison ( two propositions by means ( a ?ird4 7#b7 ,z ! comp>ison ( two t]ms by means ( a ?ird or middle t]m4 #eec4 ,! two propositions :i* are comp>$ ) "o ano!r are ! major premiss & ! conclusion1 :i* are br\ght into connection by means ( ! m9or premiss4 ,?us 9 ! syllogism above giv5 we comp>e ! conclusion ',all :ales are w>m-blood$' ) ! major premiss ',all mammals are w>m-blood$1' & f9d t ! =m] is conta9$ "u ! latt]1 z soon z we become acqua9t$ ) ! int]m$iate proposition ',all :ales are mammals4' #eed4 ,! two t]ms :i* are comp>$ ) "o ano!r are ( c\rse ! major & m9or4 #eee4 ,! syllogism is m]ely a =m into :i* our d$uctive inf]5ces may be ?r[n = ! sake ( exhibit+ _! conclusiv5ess4 ,x is n ! =m :i* !y naturally assume 9 spee* or writ+4 ,practically ! conclusion is g5]ally /at$ fir/ & ! premisses introduc$ by "s causative p>ticle z 'because1' 's9ce1' '=1' c4 ,we />t ) our conclusion1 & !n give ! reason = x by supply+ ! premisses4 #eef4 ,! conclusion1 z ?us /at$ fir/1 0 call$ by logicians ! ,problema or ,quae/io1 be+ reg>d$ z a problem or "q1 to :i* a solution or answ] 0 to be f\nd by supply+ ! premisses4 #eeg4 ,9 common disc\rse & writ+ ! syllogism is usually /at$ defectively1 "o ( ! premisses or1 9 "s cases1 ! conclusion itself be+ omitt$4 ,?us in/ead ( argu+ at full l5g? ,all m5 are fallible1 ,! ,pope is a man1 4'4 ,! ,pope is fallible1 we cont5t ourselves ) say+ ',! ,pope is fallible1 = he is a man1' or ',! ,pope is fallible1 because all m5 are s'2 or p]haps we %\ld m]ely say ',all m5 are fallible1 & ! ,pope is a man1' leav+ x to ! sagacity ( our he>]s to supply ! desir$ conclusion4 ,a syllogism1 z ?us elliptically /at$1 is commonly1 ?\gh incorrectly1 call$ an ,en?ymeme4 ,:5 ! major premiss is omitt$1 x is call$ an ,en?ymeme ( ! ,fir/ ,ord]2 :5 ! m9or is omitt$1 an ,en?ymeme ( ! ,second ,ord]2 & :5 ! conclusion is omitt$ an ,en?ymeme ( ! ,?ird ,ord]4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,( ,mood & ,figure4 #eeh4 ,syllogisms may diff] 9 two ways-- 7#a7 9 ,mood2 7#b7 9 ,figure4 #eei4 ,mood dep5ds ^u ! k9d ( propositions employ$4 ,?us a syllogism consi/+ ( ?ree univ]sal affirmatives1 ,,aaa1 w\ld be said to diff] 9 mood f "o consi/+ ( su* propositions z ,,eio or any o!r comb9ation t might be made4 ,! syllogism previ\sly giv5 to prove ! fallibility ( ! ,pope belongs to ! mood ,,aaa4 ,_h we drawn only a p>ticul> conclusion1 ',"s ,popes are fallible1' x w\ld h fall5 into ! mood ,,aai4 #efj4 ,figure dep5ds ^u ! arrangem5t ( ! t]ms 9 ! propositions4 ,?us a diff]5ce ( figure is int]nal to a diff]5ce ( mood1 t is to say1 ! same mood c be 9 any figure4 #efa4 ,we w n[ %[ h[ _m possible v>ieties !re are ( mood & figure1 irrespective ( _! logical validity4 #efb4 ,& fir/ z to mood4 ,s9ce e syllogism consi/s ( ?ree propositions1 & ea* ( ^! propositions may be ei!r ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 or ,o1 x is cle> t !re w be z _m possible moods z !re c be comb9ations ( f\r ?+s1 tak5 ?ree toge!r1 ) no re/rictions z to repetition4 ,x w be se5 t !re are j sixty-f\r ( su* comb9ations4 ,= ,a may be foll[$ ei!r by itself or by ,e1 ,i1 or ,o4 ,let u suppose x to be foll[$ by itself4 ,!n ?is pair ( premisses1 ,,aa1 may h = its conclusion ei!r ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 or ,o1 ?us giv+ f\r comb9ations :i* comm5ce ) ,,aa4 ,9 l mann] !re w be f\r comm5c+ ) ,,ae1 f\r ) ,,ai1 & f\r ) ,,ao1 giv+ a total ( sixte5 comb9ations :i* comm5ce ) ,a4 ,simil>ly !re w be sixte5 comm5c+ ) ,e1 sixte5 ) ,i1 sixte5 ) ,o--9 all sixty-f\r4 ,x is v few1 h[ev]1 ( ^! possible comb9ations t w be f\nd legitimate1 :5 te/$ by ! rules ( syllogism4 #efc4 ,next z to figure4 ,!re are f\r possible v>ieties ( figure 9 a syllogism1 z may be se5 by consid]+ ! positions t c be occupi$ by ! middle t]m 9 ! premisses4 ,= z !re are only two t]ms 9 ea* premiss1 ! position occupi$ by ! middle t]m necess>ily det]m9es t ( ! o!rs4 ,x is cle> t ! middle t]m mu/ ei!r occupy ! same position 9 bo? premisses or n1 t is1 x mu/ ei!r be subject 9 bo? or pr$icate 9 bo?1 or else subject 9 "o & pr$icate 9 ! o!r4 ,n[1 if we are n acqua9t$ ) ! conclusion ( our syllogism1 we d n "k :i* is ! major & :i* ! m9or t]m1 & h !re=e no means ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 "o premiss & ano!r2 consequ5tly we mu/ ,/op "h1 & say t !re are only ?ree diff]5t arrangem5ts possible4 ,b1 if ! ,conclusion also be assum$ z kn[n1 !n we are able to di/+ui% "o premiss z ! major & ! o!r z ! m9or2 & s we c g fur!r1 & lay d[n t1 if ! middle t]m does n hold ! same position 9 bo? premisses1 x mu/ ei!r be subject 9 ! major & pr$icate 9 ! m9or1 or else pr$icate 9 ! major & subject 9 ! m9or4 #efd4 ,h5ce !re result ,! ,f\r ,figures4 ,:5 ! middle t]m is subject 9 ! major & pr$icate 9 ! m9or1 we are said to h ! ,fir/ ,figure4 ,:5 ! middle t]m is pr$icate 9 bo? premisses1 we are said to h ! ,second ,figure4 ,:5 ! middle t]m is subject 9 bo? premisses1 we are said to h ! ,?ird ,figure4 ,:5 ! middle t]m is pr$icate 9 ! major premiss & subject 9 ! m9or1 we are said to h ! ,f\r? ,figure4 #efe4 ,let ,a be ! major t]m2 ,b ! middle4 ,c ! m9or4 ,figure ,i4 ,figure ,,ii4 ,figure ,,iii4 ,figure ,,iv4 ,b--,a ,a--,b ,b--,a ,a--,b ,c--,b ,c--,b ,b--,c ,b--,c ,c--,a ,c--,a ,c--,a ,c--,a ,all ^! figures are legitimate1 ?\gh ! f\r? is comp>atively valueless4 #eff4 ,x w be well to expla9 by an in/ance ! mean+ ( ! ass]tion previ\sly made1 t a diff]5ce ( figure is int]nal to a diff]5ce ( mood4 ,we w take ! mood ,,eio1 & by v>y+ ! position ( ! t]ms1 con/ruct a syllogism 9 x 9 ea* ( ! f\r figures4 ,i4 ,e ,no wick$ man is happy4 ,i ,"s prosp]\s m5 are wick$4 ,o 4'4 ,"s prosp]\s m5 are n happy4 ,,ii4 ,e ,no happy man is wick$4 ,i ,"s prosp]\s m5 are wick$4 ,o 4'4 ,"s prosp]\s m5 are n happy4 ,,iii4 ,e ,no wick$ man is happy4 ,i ,"s wick$ m5 are prosp]\s4 ,o 4'4 ,"s prosp]\s m5 are n happy4 ,,iv4 ,e ,no happy man is wick$4 ,i ,"s wick$ m5 are prosp]\s4 ,o 4'4 ,"s prosp]\s m5 are n happy4 #efg4 ,9 ! mood we h select$1 ow+ to ! peculi> nature ( ! premisses1 bo? ( :i* admit ( simple conv]sion1 x happ5s t ! result+ syllogisms are all valid4 ,b 9 ! great majority ( moods no syllogism w\ld be valid at all1 & 9 _m moods a syllogism w\ld be valid 9 "o figure & invalid 9 ano!r4 ,z yet h[ev] we are only conc]n$ ) ! conceivable comb9ations1 ap>t f ! "q ( _! legitimacy4 #efh4 ,n[ s9ce !re are f\r diff]5t figures & sixty-f\r diff]5t moods1 we obta9 9 all #bef possible ways ( arrang+ ?ree t]ms 9 ?ree propositions1 t is1 #bef possible =ms ( syllogism4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,( ! ,canon ( ,reason+4 #efi4 ,! fir/ figure 0 reg>d$ by logicians z ! only p]fect type ( syllogism1 because ! validity ( moods 9 ?is figure may be te/$ directly by _! comply+1 or fail+ to comply1 ) a c]ta9 axiom1 ! tru? ( :i* is self-evid5t4 ,?is axiom is kn[n z ! ,dictum de ,omni et ,nullo4 ,x may be express$ z foll[s-- ,:atev] may be affirm$ or d5i$ ( a :ole class may be affirm$ or d5i$ ( ev]y?+ conta9$ 9 t class4 #egj4 ,?is mode ( /at+ ! axiom contemplates pr$ication z be+ made 9 ext5sion1 :]eas x is m naturally to be reg>d$ z be+ made 9 int5sion4 #ega4 ,! same pr9ciple may be express$ int5sively z foll[s-- ,:atev] has c]ta9 attributes has also ! attributes :i* inv>iably accompany !m 4,footnote3 ,nota notae e/ nota rei ipsius4 ',:atev] has any m>k has t :i* x is a m>k (4' ,mill1 vol4 i1 p4 #bja1 #egb4 ,by ,ari/otle himself ! pr9ciple 0 express$ 9 a neutral =m ?us-- ',:atev] is /at$ ( ! pr$icate w be /at$ also ( ! subject ,footnote3 ,greek3 osa kat to kategor\mn\ lgetai pnta ka kat to hypokeimn\ rhaetsetai4 ,cat4 #c1 ,i4' ,?is way ( putt+ x1 h[ev]1 is too loose4 #egc4 ,! pr9ciple precisely /at$ is z foll[s-- ,:atev] may be affirm$ or d5i$ univ]sally ( ! pr$icate ( an affirmative proposition1 may be affirm$ or d5i$ also ( ! subject4 #egd4 ,?us1 giv5 an affirmative proposition ',:ales are mammals1' if we c affirm any?+ univ]sally ( ! pr$icate 'mammals1' z1 = in/ance1 t ',all mammals are w>m-blood$1' we %all be able to affirm ! same ( ! subject ':ales'2 &1 if we c d5y any?+ univ]sally ( ! pr$icate1 z t ',no mammals are ovip>\s1' we %all be able to d5y ! same ( ! subject4 #ege4 ,9 :atev] way ! suppos$ canon ( reason+ may be /at$1 x has ! defect ( apply+ only to a s+le figure1 namely1 ! fir/4 ,! *>act]i/ic ( ! reason+ 9 t figure is t "s g5]al rule is ma9ta9$ to hold good 9 a p>ticul> case4 ,! major premiss lays d[n "s g5]al pr9ciple1 :e!r affirmative or negative2 ! m9or premiss ass]ts t a p>ticul> case falls "u ?is pr9ciple2 & ! conclusion applies ! g5]al pr9ciple to ! p>ticul> case4 ,b ?\gh all syllogi/ic reason+ may be tortur$ into con=mity ) ?is type1 "s ( x f9ds expression m naturally 9 o!r ways4 #egf4 ,mod]n logicians !re=e pref] to ab&on ! ,dictum de ,omni et ,nullo 9 any %ape1 & to sub/itute = x ! foll[+ ?ree axioms1 :i* apply to all figures alike4 ,?ree ,axioms ( ,m$iale ,inf]5ce4 7#a7 ,if two t]ms agree ) ! same ?ird t]m1 !y agree ) "o ano!r4 7#b7 ,if "o t]m agrees1 & ano!r disagrees1 ) ! same ?ird t]m1 !y disagree ) "o ano!r4 7#c7 ,if two t]ms disagree ) ! same ?ird t]m1 !y may or may n agree ) "o ano!r4 #egg4 ,! fir/ ( ^! axioms is ! pr9ciple ( all affirmative1 ! second ( all negative1 syllogisms2 ! ?ird po9ts out ! conditions "u :i* no conclusion c be drawn4 ,if !re is any agreem5t at all betwe5 ! two t]ms & ! ?ird1 z 9 ! cases contemplat$ 9 ! fir/ & second axioms1 !n we h a conclusion ( "s k9d3 if x is o!rwise1 we h none4 #egh4 ,x mu/ be und]/ood ) reg>d to ^! axioms t1 :5 we speak ( t]ms agree+ or disagree+ ) ! same ?ird t]m1 we mean t !y agree or disagree ) ! same "p ( x4 #egi4 ,h5ce 9 apply+ ^! axioms x is necess>y to be> 9 m9d ! rules = ! di/9ction ( t]ms4 ,?us f ,all ,b is ,a1 ,no ,c is ,b1 ! only inf]5ce :i* c be drawn is t ,"s ,a is n ,c 7:i* alt]s ! figure f ! fir/ to ! f\r?74 ,= x 0 only "p ( ,a :i* 0 kn[n to agree ) ,b4 ,on ! !ory ( ! quantifi$ pr$icate we c\ld draw ! inf]5ce ,no ,c is "s ,a4 #ehj4 ,x is ( c\rse possible = t]ms to agree ) diff]5t p>ts ( ! same ?ird t]m1 & yet to h no connection ) "o ano!r4 ,?us ,all birds fly4 ,all bats fly4 ,b we d n inf] !refrom t bats are birds or vice v]s4 #eha4 ,on ! o!r h&1 _h we said1-- ,all birds lay eggs1 ,no bats lay eggs1 we might confid5tly h drawn ! conclusion ,no bats are birds ,= ! t]m 'bats1' be+ exclud$ f ! :ole ( ! t]m 'lay eggs1' is !reby necess>ily exclud$ f t "p ( x :i* co9cides ) 'birds4' ,illu/ration ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,( ! ,g5]ad ,rules ( ,syllogism4 #ehb4 ,we n[ proce$ to lay d[n c]ta9 g5]al rules to :i* all valid syllogisms mu/ con=m4 ,^! are divid$ into prim>y & d]ivative4 ,i4 ,prim>y4 7#a7 ,a syllogism mu/ consi/ ( ?ree propositions only4 7#b7 ,a syllogism mu/ consi/ ( ?ree t]ms only4 7#c7 ,! middle t]m mu/ be di/ribut$ at lea/ once 9 ! premisses4 7#d7 ,no t]m mu/ be di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion :i* 0 n di/ribut$ 9 ! premisses4 7#e7 ,two negative premisses prove no?+4 7#f7 ,if "o premiss be negative1 ! conclusion mu/ be negative4 7#g7 ,if ! conclusion be negative1 "o ( ! premisses mu/ be negative3 b if ! conclusion be affirmative1 bo? premisses mu/ be affirmative4 ,,ii4 ,d]ivative4 7#h7 ,two p>ticul> premisses prove no?+4 7#i7 ,if "o premiss be p>ticul>1 ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 #ehc4 ,! fir/ two ( ^! rules are involv$ 9 ! def9ition ( ! syllogism ) :i* we />t$4 ,we said x might be reg>d$ ei!r z ! comp>ison ( two propositions by means ( a ?ird or z ! comp>ison ( two t]ms by means ( a ?ird4 ,to violate ei!r ( ^! rules !re=e w\ld be inconsi/5t ) ! fundam5tal conception ( ! syllogism4 ,! fir/ ( our two def9itions inde$ 7 #eeb7 applies directly only to ! syllogisms 9 ! fir/ figure2 b s9ce all syllogisms may be express$1 z we %all pres5tly see1 9 ! fir/ figure1 x applies indirectly to all4 ,:5 any process ( m$iate inf]5ce appe>s to h m ?an two premisses1 x w always be f\nd t !re is m ?an "o syllogism4 ,if !re are less ?an ?ree propositions1 z 9 ! fallacy ( 'begg+ ! "q1' 9 :i* ! conclusion simply reit]ates "o ( ! premisses1 !re is no syllogism at all4 ,) reg>d to ! second rule1 x is pla9 t any attempt$ syllogism :i* has m ?an ?ree t]ms _c con=m to ! conditions ( any ( ! axioms ( m$iate inf]5ce4 #ehd4 ,! next two rules gu>d aga9/ ! two fallacies :i* are fatal to mo/ syllogisms ^: con/itution is uns\nd4 #ehe4 ,! violation ( ,rule #c is kn[n z ! ,fallacy ( ,undi/ribut$ ,middle4 ,! reason = ?is rule is n f> to seek4 ,= if ! middle t]m is n us$ 9 ei!r premiss 9 its :ole ext5t1 we may be ref]r+ to "o "p ( x 9 "o premiss & to q ano!r "p ( x 9 ano!r1 s t !re w be really no middle t]m at all4 ,f su* premisses z ^!-- ,all pigs are omnivor\s1 ,all m5 are omnivor\s1 x is pla9 t no?+ foll[s4 ,or aga91 take ^! premisses-- ,"s m5 are fallible1 ,all ,popes are m54 ,"h x is possible t ',all ,popes' may agree ) precisely t "p ( ! t]m 'man1' ( :i* x is n kn[n :e!r x agrees ) 'fallible' or n4 #ehf4 ,! violation ( ,rule #d is kn[n z ! ,fallacy ( ,illicit ,process4 ,if ! major t]m is di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion1 n hav+ be5 di/ribut$ 9 ! premiss1 we h :at is call$ ,illicit ,process ( ! ,major2 if ! same is ! case ) ! m9or t]m1 we h ,illicit ,process ( ! ,m9or4 #ehg4 ,! reason = ?is rule is t if a t]m be us$ 9 its :ole ext5t 9 ! conclusion1 :i* 0 n s us$ 9 ! premiss 9 :i* x occurr$1 we w\ld be argu+ f ! "p to ! :ole4 ,x is ! same sort ( fallacy :i* we f\nd to und]lie ! simple conv]sion ( an ,a proposition4 #ehh4 ,take = in/ance ! foll[+-- ,all le>n$ m5 g mad4 ,john is n a le>n$ man4 4'4 ,john w n g mad4 ,9 ! conclusion ',john' is exclud$ f ! :ole class ( p]sons :o g mad1 :]eas 9 ! premisses1 grant+ t all le>n$ m5 g mad1 x has n be5 said t !y are all ! m5 :o d s4 ,we h "h an illicit process ( ! major t]m4 #ehi4 ,or aga9 take ! foll[+-- ,all ,radicals are covet\s4 ,all ,radicals are poor4 4'4 ,all poor m5 are covet\s4 ,! conclusion "h is c]ta9ly n w>rant$ by our premisses4 ,= 9 !m we spoke only ( "s poor m51 s9ce ! pr$icate ( an affirmative proposition is undi/ribut$4 #eij4 ,rule #e is simply ano!r way ( /at+ ! ?ird axiom ( m$iate inf]5ce4 ,to "k t two t]ms disagree ) ! same ?ird t]m gives u no gr\nd = any inf]5ce z to :e!r !y agree or disagree ) "o ano!r1 e4g4 ,rum9ants are n ovip>\s4 ,%eep are n ovip>\s4 ,= ought t c be inf]r$ f ! premisses1 %eep may or may n be rum9ants4 #eia4 ,?is rule may sometimes be violat$ 9 appe>ance1 ?\gh n 9 reality4 ,= in/ance1 ! foll[+ is p]fectly legitimate reason+4 ,no rem$y = corruption is effectual t does n r5d] x useless4 ,no?+ b ! ballot r5d]s corruption useless4 4'4 ,no?+ b ! ballot is an effectual rem$y = corruption4 ,b on look+ into ?is we f9d t !re are f\r t]ms-- ,no n-,a is ,b4 ,no n-,c is ,a4 4'4 ,no n-,c is ,b4 ,! violation ( ,rule #e is "h r5d]$ possible by ! additional violation ( ,rule #b4 ,9 ord] to h ! middle t]m ! same 9 bo? premisses we are oblig$ to make ! m9or affirmative1 ?us ,no n-,a is ,b4 ,all n-,c is n-,a4 4'4 ,no n-,c is ,b4 ,no rem$y t fails to r5d] corruption useless is effectual4 ,all b ! ballot fails to r5d] corruption useless4 4'4 ,no?+ b ! ballot is effectual4 #eib4 ,rule #f decl>es t1 if "o premiss be negative1 ! conclusion mu/ be negative4 ,n[ 9 compliance ) ,rule #e1 if "o premiss be negative1 ! o!r mu/ be affirmative4 ,we h !re=e ! case contemplat$ 9 ! second axiom1 namely1 ( "o t]m agree+ & ! o!r disagree+ ) ! same ?ird t]m2 & we "k t ?is c only give gr\nd = a judgem5t ( disagreem5t betwe5 ! two t]ms !mselves--9 o!r words1 to a negative conclusion4 #eic4 ,rule #g decl>es t1 if ! conclusion be negative1 "o ( ! premisses mu/ be negative2 b1 if ! conclusion be affirmative1 bo? premisses mu/ be affirmative4 ,x is pla9 f ! axioms t a judgem5t ( disagreem5t c only be elicit$ f a judgem5t ( agreem5t comb9$ ) a judgem5t ( disagreem5t1 & t a judgem5t ( agreem5t c result only f two prior judgem5ts ( agreem5t4 #eid4 ,! sev5 rules already treat$ ( are evid5t by _! own light1 be+ ( ! nature ( def9itions & axioms3 b ! two rema9+ rules1 :i* deal ) p>ticul> premisses1 admit ( be+ prov$ f _! pr$ecessors4 #eie4 ,pro( ( ,rule #h4--,t two p>ticul> premisses prove no?+4 ,we "k by ,rule #e t bo? premisses _c be negative4 ,h5ce !y mu/ be ei!r bo? affirmative1 ,,ii1 or "o affirmative & "o negative1 ,,io or ,,oi4 ,n[ ,,ii premisses d n di/ribute any t]m at all1 & !re=e ! middle t]m _c be di/ribut$1 :i* w\ld violate ,rule #c4 ,aga9 9 ,,io or ,,oi premisses !re is only "o t]m di/ribut$1 namely1 ! pr$icate ( ! ,o proposition4 ,b ,rule #c requires t ?is "o t]m %\ld be ! middle t]m4 ,!re=e ! major t]m mu/ be undi/ribut$ 9 ! major premiss4 ,b s9ce "o ( ! premisses is negative1 ! conclusion mu/ be negative1 by ,rule #f4 ,& e negative proposition di/ributes its pr$icate4 ,!re=e ! major t]m mu/ be di/ribut$ :]e x occurs z pr$icate ( ! conclusion4 ,b x 0 n di/ribut$ 9 ! major premiss4 ,!re=e 9 draw+ any conclusion we violate ,rule #d by an illicit process ( ! major t]m4 #eif4 ,pro( ( ,rule #i4--,t1 if "o premiss be p>ticul>1 ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 ,two negative premisses be+ exclud$ by ,rule #e1 & two p>ticul> by ,rule #h1 ! only pairs ( premisses we c h are-- ,,ai1 ,,ao1 ,,ei4 ,( c\rse ! p>ticul> premiss may prec$e ! univ]sal1 b ! ord] ( ! premisses w n affect ! reason+4 ,,ai premisses betwe5 !m di/ribute "o t]m only4 ,?is mu/ be ! middle t]m by ,rule #c4 ,!re=e ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>1 z its subject _c be di/ribut$1 ,,ao & ,,ei premisses ea* di/ribute two t]ms1 "o ( :i* mu/ be ! middle t]m by ,rule #c3 s t !re is only "o t]m left :i* may be di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion4 ,b ! conclusion mu/ be negative by ,rule #d4 ,!re=e its pr$icate mu/ be di/ribut$4 ,h5ce its subject _c be s4 ,!re=e ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 #eig4 ,rules #f & #i are (t5 lump$ toge!r 9 a s+le expression--',! conclusion mu/ foll[ ! weak] "p1' negative be+ consid]$ weak] ?an affirmative1 & p>ticul> ?an univ]sal4 #eih4 ,! mo/ important rules ( syllogism are summ$ up 9 ! foll[+ mnemonic l9es1 :i* appe> to h be5 p]fect$1 ?\gh n inv5t$1 by a m$ival logician kn[n z ,petrus ,hispanus1 :o 0 aft]w>ds rais$ to ! ,papal ,*air "u ! title ( ,pope ,john ,,xxi1 & :o di$ 9 #abgg-- ,di/ribuas m$ium1 nec qu>tus t]m9us adsit2 ,utraque nec praemissa negans1 nec p>ticul>is2 ,sectetur p>tem conclusio det]iorem1 ,et non di/ribuat1 nisi cum praemissa1 negetve4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,( ! ,det]m9ation ( ! ,legitimate ,moods ( ,syllogism4 #eii4 ,x w be rememb]$ t !re 7 f\nd to be #fd possible moods1 ea* ( :i* might occur 9 any ( ! f\r figures1 giv+ u altoge!r #bef possible v>ieties ( syllogism4 ,! task n[ be=e u is to det]m9e h[ _m ( ^! comb9ations ( mood & figure are legitimate4 #fjj4 ,by ! application ( ! prec$+ rules we are enabl$ to r$uce ! #fd possible moods to #aa valid ones4 ,?is may be done by a long] or a %ort] me?od4 ,! long] me?od1 :i* is p]haps easi] ( compreh5sion1 is to write d[n ! #fd possible moods1 & !n /rike out su* z violate any ( ! rules ( syllogism4 ,,aaa -,,aea- -,,aia- -,,aoa- -,,aae- ,,aee -,,aie- -,,aoe- ,,aai -,,aei- ,,aii -,,aoi- -,,aao- ,,aeo -,,aio- ,,aoo -,,eaa- -,,eea- -,,eia- -,,eoa- ,,eae -,,eee- -,,eie- -,,eoe- -,,eai- -,,eei- -,,eii- -,,eoi- ,,eao -,,eeo- ,,eio -,,eoo- ,illu/ration #fja4 ,! bat*es :i* are cross$ are ^? 9 :i* ! premisses c yield no conclusion at all1 ow+ to _! violat+ ,rule #f or #i2 9 ! re/ ! premises are legitimate1 b a wrong conclusion is drawn f ea* ( !m z are transl9eat$4 #fjb4 ,,ieo /&s alone1 z violat+ ,rule #d4 ,?is may require a little explanation4 ,s9ce ! conclusion is negative1 ! major t]m1 :i* is its pr$icate1 mu/ be di/ribut$4 ,b ! major premiss1 be+ #a1 does n di/ribute ei!r subject or pr$icate4 ,h5ce ,,ieo mu/ always involve an illicit process ( ! major4 #fjc4 ,! ,,ii moods :i* h be5 left valid1 aft] be+ te/$ by ! syllogi/ic rules1 are z foll[s-- ,,aaa4 ,,aai4 ,,aee4 ,,aeo4 ,,aii4 ,,aoo4 ,,eae4 ,,eao4 ,,eio4 ,,iai4 ,,oao4 #fjd4 ,we w n[ arrive at ! same result by a %ort] & m sci5tific me?od4 ,?is me?od consi/s 9 fir/ det]m9+ :at pairs ( premisses are valid 9 accordance ) ,rules #f & g1 & !n exam9+ :at conclusions may be legitimately inf]r$ f !m 9 accordance ) ! o!r rules ( syllogism4 #fje4 ,! major premiss may be ei!r ,a1 ,e1 ,i or ,o4 ,if x is ,a1 ! m9or also may be ei!r ,a1 ,e1 ,i or ,o4 ,if x is ,e1 ! m9or c only be ,a or ,i4 ,if x is ,i1 ! m9or c only be ,a or ,e4 ,if x is ,o1 ! m9or c only be ,a4 ,h5ce !re result #i valid pairs ( premisses4 ,,aa4 ,,ae4 ,,ai4 ,,ao4 ,,ea4 ,,ei4 ,,ia4 ,,ie4 ,,oa4 ,?ree ( ^! pairs1 namely ,,aa1 ,,ae1 ,,ea1 yield two conclusions apiece1 "o univ]sal & "o p>ticul>1 :i* d n violate any ( ! rules ( syllogism2 "o ( !m1 ,,ie1 yields no conclusion at all2 ! rema9+ five h _! conclusion limit$ to a s+le proposition1 on ! pr9ciple t ! conclusion mu/ foll[ ! weak] "p4 ,h5ce we arrive at ! same result z be=e1 ( ,,ii legitimate moods-- ,,aaa4 ,,aai4 ,,aee4 ,,aeo4 ,,eae4 ,,eao4 ,,aii4 ,,aoo4 ,,eio4 ,,iai4 ,,oao4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,( ! ,special ,rules ( ! ,f\r ,figures4 #fjf4 ,our next task mu/ be to det]m9e h[ f> ! #aa moods :i* we arriv$ at 9 ! la/ *apt] are valid 9 ! f\r figures4 ,b be=e ?is c be done1 we mu/ lay d[n ! ,special ,rules ( ! ,f\r ,figures4 ,,figure #a4 ,rule #a1 ,! m9or premiss mu/ be affirmative4 ,rule #b4 ,! major premiss mu/ be univ]sal4 ,,figure ,,ii4 ,rule #a4 ,"o or o!r premiss mu/ be negative4 ,rule #b4 ,! conclusion mu/ be negative4 ,rule #c4 ,! major premiss mu/ be univ]sal4 ,,figure ,,iii4 ,rule #a4 ,! m9or premiss mu/ be affirmative4 ,rule #b4 ,! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 ,,figure ,,iv4 ,rule #a4 ,:5 ! major premiss is affirmative1 ! m9or mu/ be univ]sal4 ,rule #b4 ,:5 ! m9or premiss is p>ticul>1 ! major mu/ be negative4 ,rule #c1 ,:5 ! m9or premiss is affirmative1 ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 ,rule #d4 ,:5 ! conclusion is negative1 ! major premiss mu/ be univ]sal4 ,rule #e4 ,! conclusion _c be a univ]sal affirmative4 ,rule #f4 ,nei!r ( ! premisses c be a p>ticul> negative4 #fjg4 ,! special rules ( ! fir/ figure are m]ely a reass]tion 9 ano!r =m ( ! ,dictum de ,omni et ,nullo4 ,= if ! major premiss 7 p>ticul>1 we %\ld n h any?+ affirm$ or d5i$ ( a :ole class2 & if ! m9or premiss 7 negative1 we %\ld n h any?+ decl>$ to be conta9$ 9 t class4 ,nev]!less ^! rules1 l ! re/1 admit ( be+ prov$ f ! position ( ! t]ms 9 ! figure1 comb9$ ) ! rules = ! di/ribution ( t]ms 7 #bic74 ,pro( ( ! ,special ,rules ( ! ,f\r ,figures4 ,,figure #a4 #fjh4 ,pro( ( ,rule #a4--,! m9or premiss mu/ be affirmative4 ,b--,a ,c--,b ,c--,a ,if possible1 let ! m9or premiss be negative4 ,!n ! major mu/ be affirmative 7by ,rule #e71 ,footnote3 ,?is ref]s to ! ,g5]al ,rules ( ,syllogism4 & ! conclusion mu/ be negative 7by ,rule #f74 ,b ! major be+ affirmative1 its pr$icate is undi/ribut$2 & ! conclusion be+ negative1 its pr$icate is di/ribut$4 ,n[ ! major t]m is 9 ?is figure pr$icate bo? 9 ! major premiss & 9 ! conclusion4 ,h5ce !re results illicit process ( ! major t]m4 ,!re=e ! m9or premiss mu/ be affirmative4 #fji4 ,pro( ( ,rule #b4--,! major premiss mu/ be univ]sal4 ,s9ce ! m9or premiss is affirmative1 ! middle t]m1 :i* is its pr$icate1 is undi/ribut$ !re4 ,!re=e x mu/ be di/ribut$ 9 ! major premiss1 :]e x is subject4 ,!re=e ! major premiss mu/ be univ]sal4 ,,figure ,,ii4 #faj4 ,pro( ( ,rule #a1--,"o or o!r premiss mu/ be negative4 ,a--,b ,c--,b ,c--,a ,! middle t]m be+ pr$icate 9 bo? premisses1 "o or o!r mu/ be negative2 else !re w\ld be undi/ribut$ middle4 #faa4 ,pro( ( ,rule #b4--,! conclusion mu/ be negative4 ,s9ce "o ( ! premisses is negative1 x foll[s t ! conclusion also mu/ be s 7by ,rule #f74 #fab4 ,pro( ( ,rule #c4--,! major premiss mu/ be univ]sal4 ,! conclusion be+ negative1 ! major t]m w !re be di/ribut$4 ,b ! major t]m is subject 9 ! major premiss4 ,!re=e ! major premiss mu/ be univ]sal 7by ,rule #d74 ,,figure ,,iii4 #fac4 ,pro( ( ,rule #a4--,! m9or premiss mu/ be affirmative4 ,b--,a ,b--,c ,c--,a ,! pro( ( ?is rule is ! same z 9 ! fir/ figure1 ! two figures be+ alike s f> z ! major t]m is conc]n$4 #fad4 ,pro( ( ,rule #b4--,! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 ,! m9or premiss be+ affirmative1 ! m9or t]m1 :i* is its pr$icate1 w be undi/ribut$ !re4 ,h5ce x mu/ be undi/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion 7by ,rule #d74 ,!re=e ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 ,,figure ,,iv4 #fae4 ,pro( ( ,rule ,i4--,:5 ! major premiss is affirmative1 ! m9or mu/ be univ]sal4 ,if ! m9or 7 p>ticul>1 !re w\ld be undi/ribut$ middle4 ,footnote3 ,%ort] pro(s are employ$ 9 ?is figure1 z ! /ud5t is by ?is "t famili> ) ! me?od ( proc$ure4 #faf4 ,pro( ( ,rule #b4--,:5 ! m9or premiss is p>ticul>1 ! major mu/ be negative4 ,a--,b ,b--,c ,c--,a ,?is rule is ! conv]se ( ! prec$+1 & dep5ds ^u ! same pr9ciple4 #fag4 ,pro( ( ,rule #c4--,:5 ! m9or premiss is affirmative1 ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 ,if ! conclusion 7 univ]sal1 !re w\ld be illicit process ( ! m9or4 #fah4 ,pro( ( ,rule #d4--,:5 ! conclusion is negative1 ! major premiss mu/ be univ]sal4 ,if ! major premiss 7 p>ticul>1 !re w\ld be illicit process ( ! major4 #fai4 ,pro( ( ,rule #e4--,! conclusion ,,_c be ,a ,,univ]sal affirmative4 ,! conclusion be+ affirmative1 ! premisses mu/ be s too 7by ,rule #g74 ,!re=e ! m9or t]m is undi/ribut$ 9 ! m9or premiss1 :]e x is pr$icate4 ,h5ce x _c be di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion 7by ,rule #d74 ,!re=e ! affirmative conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 #fbj4 ,pro( ( ,rule #f4--,nei!r ( ! premisses c lie a1 ,,p>ticul> ,,negative4 ,if ! major premiss 7 a p>ticul> negative1 ! conclusion w\ld be negative4 ,!re=e ! major t]m w\ld be di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion4 ,b ! major premiss be+ p>ticul>1 ! major t]m c\ld n be di/ribut$ !re4 ,!re=e we %\ld h an illicit process ( ! major t]m4 ,if ! m9or premiss 7 a p>ticul> negative1 !n1 s9ce ! major mu/ be affirmative 7by ,rule #e71 we %\ld h undi/ribut$ middle4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,( ! ,det]m9ation ( ! ,moods t are valid 9 ! ,f\r ,figures4 #fba4 ,by apply+ ! special rules j giv5 we %all be able to det]m9e h[ _m ( ! elev5 legitimate moods are valid 9 ! f\r figures4 #fbb4 ,^! elev5 legitimate moods 7 f\nd to be ,,aaa4 ,,aai4 ,,aee4 ,,aeo4 ,,aii4 ,,aoo4 ,,eae4 ,,eao4 ,,eio4 ,,iai4 ,,oao4 ,,figure #a4 #fbc4 ,! rule t ! major premiss mu/ be univ]sal excludes ! la/ two moods1 ,,iai1 ,,oao4 ,! rule t ! m9or premiss mu/ be affirmative excludes ?ree m1 namely1 ,,aee1 ,,aeo1 ,,aoo4 ,?us we are left ) six moods :i* are valid 9 ! fir/ figure1 namely1 ,,aaa4 ,,eae4 ,,aii4 ,,eio4 ,,aai4 ,,eao4 ,,figure ,,ii4 #fbd4 ,! rule t "o premiss mu/ be negative excludes f\r moods1 namely1 ,,aaa1 ,,aai1 ,,aii1 ,,iai4 ,! rule t ! major mu/ be univ]sal excludes ,,oao4 ,?us we are left ) six moods :i* are valid 9 ! second figure1 namely1 ,,eae4 ,,aee4 ,,eio4 ,,aoo4 ,,eao4 ,,aeo4 ,,figure ,,iii4 #fbe4 ,! rule t ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul> conf9es u to eight moods1 two ( :i*1 namely ,,aee & ,,aoo1 are exclud$ by ! rule t ! m9or premiss mu/ be affirmative4 ,?us we are left ) six moods :i* are valid 9 ! ?ird figure1 namely1 ,,aai4 ,,iai4 ,,aii4 ,,eao4 ,,oao4 ,,eio4 ,,figure ,,iv4 #fbf4 ,! fir/ ( ! elev5 moods1 ,,aaa1 is exclud$ by ! rule t ! conclusion _c be a univ]sal affirmative4 ,two m moods1 namely ,,aoo & ,,oao1 are exclud$ by ! rule t nei!r ( ! premisses c be a p>ticul> negative4 ,,aii violates ! rule t :5 ! major premiss is affirmative1 ! m9or mu/ be univ]sal4 ,,eae violates ! rule t1 :5 ! m9or premiss is affirmative1 ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 ,?us we are left ) six moods :i* are valid 9 ! f\r? figure1 namely1 ,,aai4 ,,aee4 ,,iai4 ,,eao4 ,,eio4 ,,aeo4 #fbg4 ,?us ! #bef possible =ms ( syllogism h be5 r$uc$ to two doz5 legitimate comb9ations ( mood & figure1 six moods be+ valid 9 ea* ( ! f\r figures4 ,,figure ,i4 ,,aaa4 ,,eae4 ,,aii4 ,,eio4 7,,aai4 ,,eao47 ,,figure ,,ii4 ,,eae4 ,,aee4 ,,eio4 ,,ago4 7,,eao4 ,,aeo47 ,,figure ,,iii4 ,,aai4 ,,iai4 ,,aii4 ,,eao4 ,,oao4 ,,eio4 ,,figure ,,iv4 ,,aai4 ,,aee4 ,,iai4 ,,eao4 ,,eio4 7,,aeo47 #fbh4 ,! five moods enclos$ 9 brackets1 ?\gh valid1 are useless4 ,= ! conclusion drawn is less ?an is w>rant$ by ! premisses4 ,^! are call$ ,subalt]n ,moods1 because _! conclusions might be inf]r$ by subalt]nation f ! univ]sal conclusions :i* c ju/ly be drawn f ! same premisses4 ,?us ,,aai is subalt]n to ,,aaa1 ,,eao to ,,eae1 & s on ) ! re/4 #fbi4 ,! rema9+ #ai comb9ations ( mood & figure1 :i* are loosely call$ 'moods1' ?\gh 9 /rictness !y %\ld be call$ 'figur$ moods1' are g5]ally spok5 ( "u ! names suppli$ by ! foll[+ mnemonics-- ,b>b>a1 ,cel>5t1 ,d>ii1 ,f]ioque prioris2 ,ces>e1 ,came/res1 ,fe/9o1 ,b>oko secund2 ,t]tia ,d>apti1 ,disamis1 ,datisi1 ,felapton1 ,bok>do1 ,f]ison habet2 ,qu>ta insup] addit ,bramantip1 ,cam5es1 ,dim>is1 ,fesapo1 ,fresison3 ,qu9que ,subalt]ni1 totidem ,g5]alibus orti1 ,nom5 hab5t nullum1 nee1 si b5e colligis1 usum4 #fcj4 ,! v[els 9 ^! l9es indicate ! lett]s ( ! mood4 ,all ! special rules ( ! f\r figures c be ga!r$ f an inspection ( !m4 ,! foll[+ po9ts %\ld be specially not$4 ,! fir/ figure proves any k9d ( conclusion1 & is ! only "o :i* c prove ,a4 ,! second figure proves only negatives4 ,! ?ird figure proves only p>ticul>s4 ,! f\r? figure proves any conclusion except ,a4 #fca4 ,! fir/ figure is call$ ! ,p]fect1 & ! re/ ! ,imp]fect figures4 ,! claim ( ! fir/ to be reg>d$ z ! p]fect figure may be re/$ on ^! gr\nds-- #a4 ,x alone con=ms directly to ! ,dictum de ,omni et ,nullo4 #b4 ,x suffices to prove e k9d ( conclusion1 & is ! only figure 9 :i* a univ]sal affirmative proposition c be e/abli%$4 #c4 ,x is only 9 a mood ( ?is figure t ! major1 middle & m9or t]ms are to be f\nd /&+ 9 _! relative ord] ( ext5sion4 #fcb4 ,! reason :y a univ]sal affirmative1 :i* is ( c\rse inf9itely ! mo/ important =m ( proposition1 c only be prov$ 9 ! fir/ figure may be se5 z foll[s4 ,pro( t ,a c only be e/abli%$ 9 figure ,i4 ,an ,a conclusion necessitates bo? premisses be+ ,a propositions 7by ,rule #g74 ,b ! m9or t]m is di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion1 z be+ ! subject ( an ,a proposition1 & mu/ !re=e be di/ribut$ 9 ! m9or premiss1 9 ord] to :i* x mu/ be ! subject4 ,!re=e ! middle t]m mu/ be ! pr$icate & is consequ5tly undi/ribut$4 ,9 ord] !re=e t ! middle t]m may be di/ribut$1 x mu/ be subject 9 ! major premiss1 s9ce t also is an ,a proposition4 ,b :5 ! middle t]m is subject 9 ! major & pr$icate 9 ! m9or premiss1 we h :at is call$ ! fir/ figure4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,( ! ,special ,canons ( ! ,f\r ,figures4 #fcc4 ,s f> we h giv5 only a negative te/ ( legitimacy1 hav+ %[n :at moods are n invalidat$ by runn+ c\nt] to any ( ! special rules ( ! f\r figures4 ,we w n[ lay d[n special canons = ! f\r figures1 con=mity to :i* w s]ve z a positive te/ ( ! validity ( a giv5 mood 9 a giv5 figure4 ,! special canon ( ! fir/ figure--w ( c\rse be practically equival5t to ! ,dictum de ,omni et ,nullo4 ,all ( !m w be express$ 9 t]ms ( ext5sion1 = ! sake ( p]spicuity4 ,special ,canons ( ! ,f\r ,figures4 ,,figure #a4 #fcd4 ,,canon4 ,if "o t]m :olly includes or excludes ano!r1 :i* :olly or p>tly includes a ?ird1 ! fir/ t]m :olly or p>tly includes or excludes ! ?ird4 ,"h f\r cases arise-- ,illu/ration 7#a7 ,total inclusion 7,b>b>a74 ,all ,b is ,a4 ,all ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,all ,c is ,a4 ,illu/ration 7#b7 ,p>tial inclusion 7,d>ii74 ,all ,b is ,a4 ,"s ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,c is ,a4 ,illu/ration 7#c7 ,total exclusion 7,cel>5t74 ,no ,b is ,a4 ,all ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,no ,c is ,a4 ,illu/ration 7#d7 ,p>tial exclusion 7,f]io74 ,no ,b is ,a4 ,"s ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a4 ,,figure ,,ii4 #fce4 ,,canon4 ,if "o t]m is exclud$ f ano!r1 :i* :olly or p>tly includes a ?ird1 or is includ$ 9 ano!r f :i* a ?ird is :olly or p>tly exclud$1 ! fir/ is exclud$ f ! :ole or "p ( ! ?ird4 ,"h we h f\r cases1 all ( exclusion-- 7#a7 ,total exclusion on ! gr\nd ( inclusion 9 an exclud$ t]m 7,ces>e74 ,illu/ration ,no ,a is ,b4 ,all ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,no ,c is ,a4 7#b7 ,p>tial exclusion on ! gr\nd ( a simil> p>tial inclusion 7,fe/9o74 ,illu/ration ,no ,a is ,b4 ,"s ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a4 7#c7 ,total exclusion on ! gr\nd ( exclusion f an includ+ t]m 7,came/res74 ,illu/ration ,all ,a is ,b4 ,no ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,no ,c is ,a4 7#d7 ,p>tial exclusion on ! gr\nd ( a simil> p>tial exclusion 7,b>oko74 ,illu/ration ,all ,a is ,b4 ,"s ,c is n ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a4 ,,figure ,,iii4 #fcf4 ,,canon4 ,if two t]ms include ano!r t]m 9 common1 or if ! fir/ includes ! :ole & ! second a "p ( ! same t]m1 or vice v]s1 ! fir/ ( ^! two t]ms p>tly includes ! second2 & if ! fir/ is exclud$ f ! :ole ( a t]m :i* is :olly or 9 "p includ$ 9 ! second1 or is exclud$ f "p ( a t]m :i* is :olly includ$ 9 ! second1 ! fir/ is exclud$ f "p ( ! second4 ,"h x is evid5t f ! /atem5t t six cases arise-- 7#a7 ,total inclusion ( ! same t]m 9 two o!rs 7,d>apti74 ,illu/ration ,all ,b is ,a4 ,all ,b is ,c4 4'4 "s ,c is ,a4 7#b7 ,total inclusion 9 ! fir/ & p>tial inclusion 9 ! second 7,datisi74 ,illu/ration ,all ,b is ,a4 ,"s ,b is ,c4 4'4 "s ,c is ,a4 7#c7 ,p>tial inclusion 9 ! fir/ & total inclusion 9 ! second 7,disamis74 ,illu/ration ,"s ,b is ,a4 ,all ,b is ,c4 4'4 "s ,c is ,a4 7#d7 ,total exclusion ( ! fir/ f a t]m :i* is :olly includ$ 9 ! second 7,felapton74 ,illu/ration ,no ,b is ,a4 ,all ,b is ,c4 4'4 "s ,c is n ,a4 7#e7 ,total exclusion ( ! fir/ f a t]m :i* is p>tly includ$ 9 ! second 7,f]ison74 ,illu/ration ,no ,b is ,a4 ,"s ,b is ,c4 4'4 "s ,c is n ,a4 7#f7 ,exclusion ( ! fir/ f "p ( a t]m :i* is :olly includ$ 9 ! second 7,bok>do74 ,illu/ration ,"s ,b is n ,a4 ,all ,b is ,c4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a4 ,,figure ,,iv4 #fcg4 ,,canon4 ,if "o t]m is :olly or p>tly includ$ 9 ano!r :i* is :olly includ$ 9 or exclud$ f a ?ird1 ! ?ird t]m :olly or p>tly includes ! fir/1 or1 9 ! case ( total inclusion1 is :olly exclud$ f x2 & if a t]m is exclud$ f ano!r :i* is :olly or p>tly includ$ 9 a ?ird1 ! ?ird is p>tly exclud$ f ! fir/4 ,"h we h five cases-- 7#a7 ,( ! inclusion ( a :ole t]m 7,bramsntip74 ,illu/ration ,all ,a is ,b4 ,all ,b is ,c4 4'4 ,"s ,c is 7all7 ,a4 7#b7 ,( ! inclusion ( "p ( a t]m 7,,dim>is74 ,illu/ration ,"s ,a is ,b4 ,all ,b is ,c4 4'4 ,"s ,c is 7"s7 ,a1 7#c7 ,( ! exclusion ( a :ole t]m 7,cam5es74 ,illu/ration ,all ,a is ,b4 ,no ,b is ,c4 4'4 ,no ,c is ,a4 7#d7 ,p>tial exclusion on ! gr\nd ( includ+ ! :ole ( an exclud$ t]m 7,fesapo74 ,illu/ration ,no ,a is ,b4 ,all ,b is ,c4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a4 7#e7 ,p>tial exclusion on ! gr\nd ( includ+ "p ( an exclud$ t]m 7,fresison74 ,illu/ration ,no ,a is ,b4 ,"s ,b is ,c4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a4 #fch4 ,x is evid5t f ! diagrams t 9 ! subalt]n moods ! conclusion is n drawn directly f ! premisses1 b is an imm$iate inf]5ce f ! natural conclusion4 ,take = in/ance ,,aai 9 ! fir/ figure4 ,! natural conclusion f ^! premisses is t ! m9or t]m ,c is :olly conta9$ 9 ! major t]m ,a4 ,b in/ead ( draw+ ?is conclusion we g on to inf] t some?+ :i* is conta9$ 9 ,c1 namely "s ,c1 is conta9$ 9 ,a4 ,illu/ration ,all ,b is ,a4 ,all ,c is ,b4 4'4 all ,c is ,a4 4'4 "s ,c is ,a4 ,simil>ly 9 ,,eao 9 figure #a1 in/ead ( argu+ t ! :ole ( ,c is exclud$ f ,a1 we draw a conclusion :i* really involves a fur!r inf]5ce1 namely t "p ( ,c is exclud$ f ,a4 ,illu/ration ,no ,b is ,a4 ,all ,c is ,b4 4'4 no ,c is ,a4 4'4 "s ,c is n ,a4 #fci4 ,! reason :y ! canons h be5 express$ 9 s cumbr\s a =m is to r5d] ! validity ( all ! moods 9 ea* figure at once app>5t f ! /atem5t4 ,= purposes ( g5]al conv5i5ce !y admit ( a mu* m comp5di\s mode ( expression4 #fdj4 ,! canon ( ! fir/ figure is kn[n z ! ,dictum de ,omni et ,nullo-- ,:at is true 7di/ributively7 ( a :ole t]m is true ( all t x includes4 #fda4 ,! canon ( ! second figure is kn[n z ! ,dictum de ,div]se-- ,if "o t]m is conta9$ 91 & ano!r exclud$ f a ?ird t]m1 !y are mutually exclud$4 #fdb4 ,! canon ( ! ?ird figure is kn[n z ! ,dictum de ,exemplo et de ,excepto-- ,two t]ms :i* conta9 a common "p p>tly agree1 or1 if "o conta9s a "p :i* ! o!r does n1 !y p>tly diff]4 #fdc4 ,! canon ( ! f\r? figure has _h no "n assign$ to x1 & does n seem to admit ( any simple expression4 ,ano!r mode ( =mulat+ x is z foll[s3-- ,:atev] is affirm$ ( a :ole t]m may h p>tially affirm$ ( x :atev] is includ$ 9 t t]m 7,bramantip1 ,dim>is71 & p>tially d5i$ ( x :atev] is exclud$ 7,fesapo72 :atev] is affirm$ ( "p ( a t]m may h p>tially d5i$ ( x :atev] is :olly exclud$ f t t]m 7,fresison72 & :atev] is d5i$ ( a :ole t]m may h :olly d5i$ ( x :atev] is :olly includ$ 9 t t]m 7,cam5es74 #fdd4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( int5sion ! canons ( ! fir/ ?ree figures may be express$ z foll[s4 #fde4 ,canon ( ! fir/ figure4 ,dictum de ,omni et ,nullo-- ,an attribute ( an attribute ( any?+ is an attribute ( ! ?+ itself4 #fdf4 ,canon ( ! second figure4 ,dictum de ,div]so-- ,if a subject has an attribute :i* a class has n1 or vice v]sa1 ! subject does n belong to ! class4 #fdg4 ,canon ( ! ?ird figure4 #a4 ,dictum de ,exemplo-- ,if a c]ta9 attribute c be affirm$ ( any portion ( ! memb]s ( a class1 x is n incompatible ) ! di/9ctive attributes ( t class4 #b4 ,dictum de ,excepto-- ,if a c]ta9 attribute c be d5i$ ( any portion ( ! memb]s ( a class1 x is n insep>able f ! di/9ctive attributes ( t class4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,( ! ,special ,uses ( ! ,f\r ,figures4 #fdh4 ,! fir/ figure is useful = prov+ ! prop]ties ( a ?+4 #fdi4 ,! second figure is useful = prov+ di/9ctions betwe5 ?+s4 #fej4 ,! ?ird figure is useful = prov+ in/ances or exceptions4 #fea4 ,! f\r? figure is useful = prov+ ! species ( a g5us4 ,,figure #a4 #feb4 ,b is or is n ,a4 ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,c is or is n ,a4 ,we prove t ,c has or has n ! prop]ty ,a by pr$icat+ ( x ,b1 :i* we "k to possess or n to possess t prop]ty4 ,lum9\s objects are mat]ial4 ,comets are lum9\s4 4'4 ,comets are mat]ial4 ,no mo?s are butt]flies4 ,! ,dea?'s head is a mo?4 4'4 ,! ,dea?'s head is n a butt]fly4 ,,figure ,,ii4 #fec4 ,a is ,b4 ,a is n ,b4 ,c is n ,b4 ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,c is n ,a4 4'4 ,c is n ,a4 ,we e/abli% ! di/9ction betwe5 ,c & ,a by %[+ t ,a has an attribute :i* ,c is devoid (1 or is devoid ( an attribute :i* ,c has4 ,all fi%es are cold-blood$4 ,a :ale is n cold-blood$4 4'4 ,a :ale is n a fi%4 ,no fi%es give milk4 ,a :ale gives milk4 4'4 ,a :ale is n a fi%4 ,,figure ,,iii4 #fed4 ,b is ,a4 ,b is n ,a4 ,b is ,c4 ,b is ,c4 4'4 ,"s ,c is ,a4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a4 ,we produce in/ances ( ,c be+ ,a by %[+ t ,c & ,a meet1 at all ev5ts p>tially1 9 ,b4 ,?us if we wi% to produce an in/ance ( ! compatibility ( great le>n+ ) orig9al p[]s ( ?\ght1 we might say ,sir ,william ,hamilton 0 an orig9al ?9k]4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton 0 a man ( great le>n+4 4'4 ,"s m5 ( great le>n+ are orig9al ?9k]s4 ,or we might urge an exception to ! suppos$ rule ab\t ,scot*m5 be+ defici5t 9 hum\r "u ! same figure1 ?us-- ,sir ,walt] ,scott 0 n defici5t 9 hum\r4 ,sir ,walt] ,scott 0 a ,scot*man4 4'4 ,"s ,scot*m5 are n defici5t 9 hum\r4 ,,figure ,,iv4 #fee4 ,all ,a is ,b1 ,no ,a is ,b4 ,all ,b is ,c4 ,all ,b is ,c4 4'4 ,"s ,c is ,a 4'4,"s ,c is n ,a4 ,we %[ "h t ,a is or is n a species ( ,c by %[+ t ,a falls1 or does n fall1 "u ! class ,b1 :i* itself falls "u ,c4 ,?us-- ,all :ales are mammals4 ,all mammals are w>m-blood$4 4'4 ,"s w>m-blood$ animals are :ales4 ,no :ales are fi%es4 ,all fi%es are cold-blood$4 4'4 ,"s cold-blood$ animals are n :ales4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,( ! ,syllogism ) ?ree figures4 #fef4 ,x w be rememb]$ t 9 beg9n+ to treat ( figure 7 #efe7 we po9t$ out t !re 7 ei!r f\r or ?ree ligures possible accord+ z ! conclusion 0 assum$ to be kn[n or n4 ,=1 if ! conclusion be n kn[n1 we _c di/+ui% betwe5 ! major & ! m9or t]m1 nor1 consequ5tly1 betwe5 "o premiss & ano!r4 ,on ?is view ! fir/ & ! f\r? figures are ! same1 be+ t arrangem5t ( ! syllogism 9 :i* ! middle t]m occupies a diff]5t position 9 "o premiss f :at x does 9 ! o!r4 ,we w n[ proce$ to con/itute ! legitimate moods & figures ( ! syllogism irrespective ( ! conclusion4 #feg4 ,:5 ! conclusion is set out ( sight1 ! numb] ( possible moods is ! same z ! numb] ( comb9ations t c be made ( ! f\r ?+s1 ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 ,o1 tak5 two toge!r1 )\t re/riction z to repetition4 ,^! are ! foll[+ #af3-- ,,aa ,,ea ,,ia ,,oa ,,ae -,,ee- ,,ie -,,oe- ,,ai ,,ei -,,ii- -,,oi- ,,ao -,,eo- -,,io- -,,oo- ( :i* sev5 may be neglect$ z violat+ ! g5]al rules ( ! syllogism1 ?us leav+ u ) n9e valid moods-- ,,aa4 ,,ae4 ,,ai4 ,,ao4 ,,ea4 ,,ei4 ,,ia4 ,,ie4 ,,oa4 #feh4 ,we w n[ put ^! n9e moods successively into ! ?ree figures4 ,by s do+ x w become app>5t h[ f> !y are valid 9 ea*4 #fei4 ,let x be premis$ t :5 ! extreme 9 ! premiss t /&s fir/ is pr$icate 9 ! conclusion1 we are said to h a ,direct ,mood2 :5 ! extreme 9 ! premiss t /&s second is pr$icate 9 ! conclusion1 we are said to h an ,indirect ,mood4 #ffj4 ,,figure #a4 ,mood ,,aa4 ,all ,b is ,a4 ,all ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,all ,c is ,a1 or ,"s ,a is ,c1 7,b>b>a ,bramantip74 ,mood ,,ae4 ,all ,b is ,a4 ,no ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,illicit ,process1 or ,"s ,a is n ,c1 7,fesapo74 ,mood ,,ai4 ,all ,b is ,a4 ,"s ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,c is ,a1 or ,"s ,a is ,c4 7,d>ii ,disamis74 ,mood ,,ao4 ,all ,b is ,a4 ,"s ,c is n ,b4 4'4 ,illicit ,process1 7,f]io74 ,mood ,,ea4 ,no ,b is ,a4 ,all ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,no ,c is ,a1 or ,no ,a is ,c1 7,cel>5t ,cam5es74 ,mood ,,ei4 ,no ,b is ,a4 ,"s ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a1 or ,illicit ,process4 ,mood ,,ia4 ,"s ,b is ,a4 ,all ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,undi/ribut$ ,middle4 ,mood ,,ie4 ,"s ,b is ,c4 ,"s ,b is n ,a4 ,no ,a is ,b4 ,all ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,illicit ,process1 or ,"s ,c is n ,a1 7,fresison74 ,mood ,,oa4 ,"s ,b is n ,a4 ,all ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,undi/ribut$ ,middle4 #ffa4 ,?us we are left ) six valid moods1 :i* yield f\r direct conclusions & five indirect ones1 correspond+ to ! f\r moods ( ! orig9al fir/ figure & ! five moods ( ! orig9al f\r?1 :i* appe> n[ z indirect moods ( ! fir/ figure4 #ffb4 ,b :y1 x maybe ask$1 %\ld n ! moods ( ! fir/ figure equally well be reg>d$ z indirect moods ( ! f\r?8 ,= ?is reason-t all ! moods ( ! f\r? figure c be elicit$ out ( premisses 9 :i* ! t]ms /& 9 ! ord] ( ! fir/1 :]eas ! conv]se is n ! case4 ,if1 :ile reta9+ ! quantity & quality ( ! above premisses1 i4 e4 ! mood1 we 7 9 ea* case to transpose ! t]ms1 we %\ld f9d t we 7 left ) five valid moods in/ead ( six1 s9ce ,,ai 9 ! rev]se ord] ( ! t]ms involves undi/ribut$ middle2 &1 ?\gh we %\ld h ,cel>5t indirect to ,cam5es1 & ,d>ii to ,dim>is1 we %\ld nev] arrive at ! conclusion ( ,b>b>a or h any?+ exactly equival5t to ,f]io4 ,9 place ( ,b>b>a1 ,bramantip w\ld yield z an indirect mood only ! subalt]n ,,aai 9 ! fir/ figure4 ,bo? ,fesapo & ,fresison w\ld result 9 an illicit process1 if we attempt$ to extract ! conclusion ( ,f]io f !m z an indirect mood4 ,! ne>e/ approa* we c\ld make to ,f]io w\ld be ! mood ,,eao 9 ! fir/ figure1 :i* may be elicit$ indirectly f ! premisses ( ,,cam5es1 be+ subalt]n to ,,cel>5t4 ,= ^! reasons ! moods ( ! f\r? figure are rightly to be reg>d$ z indirect moods ( ! fir/1 & n vice v]s4 #ffc4 ,,figure ,,ii4 ,mood ,,aa4 ,all ,a is ,b4 ,all ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,undi/ribut$ ,middle4 ,mood ,,ae4 ,all ,a is ,b4 ,no ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,no ,c is ,a1 or ,no ,a is ,c1 7,came/res ,ces>e74 ,mood ,,ai4 ,all ,a is ,b4 ,"s ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,undi/ribut$ ,middle4 ,mood ,,ao4 ,all ,a is ,b4 ,"s ,c is n ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a1 7,b>oko71 or ,illicit ,process4 ,mood ,,ea4 ,no ,a is ,b4 ,all ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,no ,c is ,a1 or ,no ,a is ,c1 7,ces>e ,c>ne/res74 ,mood ,,ei ,no ,a is ,b4 ,"s ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a1 7,fe/9o71 or ,illicit ,process4 ,mood ,,ia4 ,"s ,a is ,b4 ,all ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,undi/ribut$ ,middle4 ,mood ,,ie4 ,"s ,a is ,b4 ,no ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,illicit ,process1 or ,"s ,a is n ,c1 7,fe/9o74 ,mood ,,oa4 ,"s ,a is n ,b4 ,all ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,illicit ,process1 or ,"s ,a is n ,c1 7,b>oko74 #ffd4 ,"h aga9 we h six valid moods1 :i* yield f\r direct conclusions correspond+ to ,ces>e1 ,,c>ne/res1 ,,fe/9o & ,,b>oko4 ,! same f\r are repeat$ 9 ! indirect moods4 #ffe4 ,,figure ,,iii4 ,mood ,,aa4 ,all ,b is ,a4 ,all ,b is ,c4 4'4 ,"s ,c is ,a1 or ,"s ,a is ,c1 7,d>apti74 ,mood ,,ae4 ,all ,b is ,a4 ,no ,b is ,c4 4'4 ,illicit ,process1 or ,"s ,a is n ,c1 7,felapton74 ,mood ,,ai4 ,all ,b is ,a1 ,"s ,b is ,c4 4'4 ,"s ,c is ,a1 or ,"s ,a is ,c1 7,datisi ,disamis74 ,mood ,,ao4 ,all ,b is ,a4 ,"s ,b is n ,c4 4'4 ,illicit ,process1 ,or ,"s ,a is n ,c1 7,bok>do74 ,mood ,,ea4 ,no ,b is ,a4 ,all ,b is ,c4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a1 7,felapton71 or ,illicit ,process4 ,mood ,,ei4 ,no ,b is ,a4 ,"s ,b is ,c4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a1 7,f]ison71 or ,illicit ,process4 ,mood ,,ia4 ,"s ,b is ,a4 ,all ,b is ,c4 4'4 ,"s ,c is ,a1 ,or ,"s ,a is ,c1 7,disamis ,datisi74 ,mood ,,ie4 ,"s ,b is ,a4 ,no ,b is ,c4 4'4 ,illicit ,process1 or ,"s ,a is n ,c1 7,f]ison74 ,mood ,,qa4 ,"s ,b is n ,a4 ,all ,b is ,c4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a1 7,bok>do71 or ,illicit ,process4 #fff4 ,9 ?is figure e mood is valid1 ei!r directly or indirectly4 ,we h six direct moods1 answ]+ to ,d>apti1 ,disamis1 ,datisi1 ,felapton1 ,bok>do & ,f]ison1 :i* are simply repeat$ by ! indirect moods1 except 9 ! case ( ,d>apti1 :i* yields a conclusion n provid$ = 9 ! mnemonic l9es4 ,d>apti1 ?\gh go+ "u "o "n1 has z mu* "r to be consid]$ two moods z ,disamis & ,datisi4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,( ,r$uction4 #ffg4 ,we rev]t n[ to ! /&po9t ( ! old logicians1 :o reg>d$ ! ,dictum de ,omni et ,nullo z ! pr9ciple ( all syllogi/ic reason+4 ,f ?is po9t ( view ! ess5ce ( m$iate inf]5ce consi/s 9 %[+ t a special case1 or class ( cases1 comes "u a g5]al rule4 ,b a great deal ( our ord9>y reason+ does n con=m to ?is type4 ,x 0 !re=e judg$ necess>y to %[ t x might by a little manipulation be br\ght into con=mity ) x4 ,?is process is call$ ,r$uction4 #ffh4 ,r$uction is ( two k9ds-- 7#a7 ,direct or ,o/5sive4 7#b7 ,indirect or ,ad ,impossibile4 #ffi4 ,! problem ( direct1 or o/5sive1 r$uction is ?is-- ,giv5 any mood 9 "o ( ! imp]fect figures 7,,ii1 ,,iii & ,,iv7 h[ to alt] ! =m ( ! premisses s z to arrive at ! same conclusion 9 ! p]fect figure1 or at "o f :i* x c be imm$iately inf]r$4 ,! alt]ation ( ! premisses is effect$ by means ( imm$iate inf]5ce &1 :]e necess>y1 ( transposition4 #fgj4 ,! problem ( indirect r$uction1 or r$uctio 7p] d$uctionem7 ad impossibile1 is ?is--,giv5 any mood 9 "o ( ! imp]fect figures1 to %[ by means ( a syllogism 9 ! p]fect figure t its conclusion _c be false4 #fga4 ,! object ( r$uction is to ext5d ! sanction ( ! ,dictum de ,omni et ,nullo to ! imp]fect figures1 :i* d n obvi\sly con=m to x4 #fgb4 ,! mood requir$ to be r$uc$ is call$ ! ,r$uc5d2 t to :i* x con=ms1 :5 r$uc$1 is call$ ! ,r$uct4 ,direct or ,o/5sive ,r$uction4 #fgc4 ,9 ! ord9>y =m ( direct r$uction1 ! only k9d ( imm$iate inf]5ce employ$ is conv]sion1 ei!r simple or by limitation2 b ! aid ( p]mutation & ( conv]sion by negation & by contraposition may also be resort$ to4 #fgd4 ,!re are two moods1 ,b>oko & ,bok>do1 :i* _c be r$uc$ o/5sively except by ! employm5t ( "s ( ! means la/ m5tion$4 ,accord+ly1 be=e ! introduction ( p]mutation into ! s*eme ( logic1 x 0 necess>y to h rec\rse to "s o!r exp$i5t1 9 ord] to demon/rate ! validity ( ^! two moods4 ,indirect r$uction 0 !re=e devis$ ) a special view to ! requirem5ts ( ,b>oko & ,bok>do3 b ! me?od1 z w be se51 is equally applicable to all ! moods ( ! imp]fect figures4 #fge4 ,! mnemonic l9es1 ',b>b>a1 ,cel>5t1 etc41 provide complete directions = ! o/5sive r$uction ( all ! moods ( ! second1 ?ird1 & f\r? figures to ! fir/1 ) ! exception ( ,b>oko & ,bok>do4 ,! application ( !m is a m]e me*anical trick1 :i* w be/ be le>n$ by see+ ! process p]=m$4 #fgf4 ,let x be und]/ood t ! initial consonant ( ea* "n ( a figur$ mood indicates t ! r$uct w be t mood :i* beg9s ) ! same lett]4 ,?us ! ,b ( ,bramantip indicates t ,bramantip1 :5 r$uc$1 w become ,b>b>a4 #fgg4 ,:]e m appe>s 9 ! "n ( a r$uc5d1 me %all h to take z major t premiss :i* be=e 0 m9or1 & vice v]sa-9 o!r words1 to transpose ! premisses1 m /&s = mutatio or meta!sis4 #fgh4 s1 :5 x foll[s "o ( ! premisses ( a r$uc5d1 indicates t ! premiss 9 "q mu/ be simply conv]t$2 :5 x foll[s ! conclusion1 z 9 ,disamis1 x indicates t ! conclusion arriv$ at 9 ! fir/ figure is n id5tical 9 =m ) ! orig9al conclusion1 b capable ( be+ inf]r$ f x by simple conv]sion4 ,h5ce s 9 ! middle ( a "n indicates some?+ to be done to ! orig9al premiss1 :ile s at ! end indicates some?+ to be done to ! new conclusion4 #fgi4 ,p indicates conv]sion p] accid5s1 & :at has j be5 said ( s applies1 mutatis mut&is1 to p4 #fhj4 k may be tak5 = ! pres5t to indicate t ,b>oko & ,bok>do _c be r$uc$ o/5sively4 #fha4 ,,figure ,,ii4 ,ces>e4 _/ ,cel>5t4 ,no ,a is ,b4 _/ ,no ,b is ,a4 ,all ,c is ,b4 _/ ,all ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,no ,c is ,a4 _/ 4'4 ,no ,c is ,a4 ,came/res4 _/ ,cel>5t4 ,all ,a is ,b4 _/ ,no ,b is ,c4 ,no ,c is ,b4 _/ ,all ,a is ,b4 4'4 ,no ,c is ,a4 _/ 4'4 ,no ,a is ,c4 4'4 ,no ,c is ,a4 ,fe/9o4 ,f]io4 ,no ,a is ,b4 _/ ,no ,b is ,a4 ,"s ,c is ,b4 ,"s ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a4_/ 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a4 ,b>oko #fhb4 ,,figure ,,iii4 ,d>apti4 _/ ,d>ii4 ,all ,b is ,a4 _/ ,all ,b is ,a4 ,all ,b is ,c4 _/ ,"s ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,c is ,a4 _/ ,"s ,c is ,a4 ,disamis4 _/ ,d>ii4 ,"s ,b is ,a4 _/ ,all ,b is ,c4 ,all ,b is ,c4 _/ ,"s ,a is ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,c is ,a4 _/ 4'4 ,"s ,a is ,c4 4'4 ,"s ,c is ,a4 ,datisi4 _/ ,d>ii4 ,all ,b is ,a4 _/ ,all ,b is ,a4 ,"s ,b is ,c4 _/ ,"s ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,c is ,a4 _/ 4'4 ,"s ,c is ,a4 ,felapton4 _/ ,f]io4 ,no ,b is ,a4 _/ ,no ,b is ,a4 ,all ,b is ,c4 _/ ,"s ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n-,a4 _/ 4'4 ,"s ,c is n-,a4 ,bok>do4 ,f]ison4 _/ ,f]io4 ,no ,b is ,a4 _/ ,no ,b is ,a4 ,"s ,b is ,c4 _/ ,"s ,c is ,b 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a4 _/ 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a4 #fhc4 ,,figure ,,iv4 ,bramantip4 _/ ,b>b>a4 ,all ,a is ,b4 _/ ,all ,b is ,c4 ,all ,b is ,c4 _/ ,all ,a is ,b4 44 ,"s ,c is ,a4 _/ 44 ,all ,a is ,c4 4'4 ,"s ,c is ,a4 ,cam5es ,cel>5t ,all ,a is ,b _/ ,no ,b is ,c4 ,no ,b is ,c4 ,all ,a is ,b4 44 ,no ,c is ,a4_/ 4'4 ,no ,a is ,c4 4'4 ,no ,c is ,a4 ,dim>is4 ,d>ii4 ,"s ,a is ,b4 _/ ,all ,b is ,c4 ,all ,b is ,c4 ,"s ,a is ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,c is ,a4_/ 4'4 ,"s ,a is ,c4 4'4 ,"s ,c is ,a4 ,fesapo4 ,f]io4 ,no ,a is ,b4 _/ ,no ,b is ,a4 ,all ,b is ,c4 ,"s ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a4_/ 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a4 ,fresison4 ,f]io4 ,no ,a is ,b4 _/ ,no ,b is ,a4 ,"s ,b is ,c4 ,"s ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a4_/ 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a4 #fhd4 ,! reason :y ,b>oko & ,bok>do _c be r$uc$ o/5sively by ! aid ( m]e conv]sion becomes pla9 on an inspection ( !m4 ,9 bo? x is necess>y1 if we are to obta9 ! fir/ figure1 t ! position ( ! middle t]m %\ld be *ang$ 9 "o premiss4 ,b ! premisses ( bo? consi/ ( ,a & #j propositions1 ( :i* ,a admits only ( conv]sion by limitation1 ! effect ( :i* w\ld be to produce two p>ticul> premisses1 :ile #j does n admit ( conv]sion at all1 ,x is cle> !n t ! #j proposition mu/ cease to be #j be=e we c get any fur!r4 ,"h p]mutation comes to our aid2 :ile conv]sion by negation enables u to conv]t ! ,a proposition1 )\t loss ( quantity1 & to elicit ! precise conclusion we require out ( ! r$uct ( ,bolt>do4 7,b>oko7 ,fanoao4 ,f]io4 ,all ,a is ,b4 _/ ,no n-,b is ,a4 ,"s ,c is n-,b4 ,"s ,c is n-,b4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n-,a4_/ 4'4 ,"s ,c is n-,a4 7,bok>do7 ,donamon4 ,d>ii4 ,"s ,b is n-,a4 _/ ,all ,b is ,c4 ,all ,b is ,c4 ,"s n-,a is ,b 4'4 ,"s ,c is n-,a4_/ 4'4 ,"s n-,a is ,c4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n-,a4 #fhe4 ,9 ! new symbols1 ,fanoao & ,donamon1 pi has be5 adopt$ z a symbol = p]mutation2 n signifies conv]sion by negation4 ,9 ,donamon ! fir/ n /&s = a process :i* resolves itself into p]mutation foll[$ by simple conv]sion1 ! second = "o :i* resolves itself into simple conv]sion foll[$ by p]mutation1 accord+ to ! ext5d$ mean+ :i* we h giv5 to ! t]m 'conv]sion by negation4' ,if x be ?\ght desirable to di/+ui% ^! two processes1 ! ugly symbol ,dpisamospi may be adopt$ 9 place ( ,donamon4 #fhf4 ,! =ego+ me?od1 :i* may be call$ ,r$uction by ,negation1 is no less applicable to ! o!r moods ( ! second figure ?an to ,b>oko4 ,! symbols :i* result f provid+ = its application w\ld make ! second ( ! mnemonic l9es run ?us-- ,b5>epi1 ,canepie1 ,d5ilopi1 ,fanopio secundae4 #fhg4 ,! only o!r comb9ation ( mood & figure 9 :i* x w be f\nd available is ,cam5es1 ^: "n x *anges to ,can5e4 #fhh4 7,ces>e7 ,b5>ea4 ,b>b>a4 ,no ,a is ,b4 _/ ,all ,b is n-,a4 ,all ,c is ,b4 ,all ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,no ,c is ,a4 _/ 4'4 ,all ,c is n-,a4 4'4 ,no ,c is ,a4 7,came/res7 ,canepie4 ,cel>5t4 ,all ,a is ,b4 _/ ,no n-,b is ,a4 ,no ,c is ,b4 ,all ,c is n-,b4 4'4 ,no ,c is ,a4 _/ 4'4 ,no ,c is ,a4 7,fe/9o7 ,d5ilopi4 ,d>ii4 ,no ,a is ,b4 _/ ,all ,b is n-,a4 ,"s ,c is ,b4 ,"s ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a4_/ 4'4 ,"s ,c is n-,a4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a4 7,cam5es7 ,can5e4 ,cel>5t4 ,all ,a is ,b4 _/ ,no n-,b is ,a4 ,no ,b is ,c4 ,all ,c is n-,b4 4'4 ,no ,c is ,a4 _/ 4'4 ,no ,c is ,a4 #fhi4 ,! foll[+ w s]ve z a concrete in/ance ( ,canepie r$uc$ to ! fir/ figure4 ,all ?+s ( :i* we h a p]fect idea are p]ceptions4 ,a sub/ance is n a p]ception4 4'4 ,a sub/ance is n a ?+ ( :i* we h a p]fect idea4 ,:5 br\ght into ,cel>5t ?is becomes-- ,no n-p]ception is a ?+ ( :i* we h a p]fect idea4 ,a sub/ance is a n-p]ception4 4'4 ,no sub/ance is a ?+ ( :i* we h a p]fect idea4 #fij4 ,we may also br+ x1 if we please1 into ,b>b>a1 by p]mut+ ! major premiss once m1 s z to obta9 ! contrapositive ( ! orig9al-- ,all n-p]ceptions are ?+s ( :i* we h an imp]fect idea4 ,all sub/ances are n-p]ceptions4 4'4 ,all sub/ances are ?+s ( :i* we h an imp]fect idea4 ,indirect ,r$uction4 #fia4 ,we w apply ?is me?od to ,b>oko4 ,all ,a is ,b4 ,all fi%es are ovip>\s4 ,"s ,c is n ,b4 ,"s m>9e animals are n ovip>\s4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a4 4'4 ,"s m>9e animals are n fi%es4 #fib4 ,! reason+ 9 su* a syllogism is evid5tly conclusive3 b x does n con=m1 z x /&s1 to ! fir/ figure1 nor 7p]mutation ap>t7 c its premisses be twi/$ into con=mity ) x4 ,b ?\gh we _c prove ! conclusion true 9 ! fir/ figure1 we c employ t figure to prove t x _c be false1 by %[+ t ! supposition ( its falsity w\ld involve a contradiction ( "o ( ! orig9al premisses1 :i* are true ex hypo!si4 #fic4 ,if possible1 let ! conclusion ',"s ,c is n ,a' be false4 ,!n its contradictory ',all ,c is ,a' mu/ be true4 ,comb9+ ?is z m9or ) ! orig9al major1 we obta9 premisses 9 ! fir/ figure1 ,all ,a is ,b1 ,all fi%es are ovip>\s1 ,all ,c is ,a1 ,all m>9e animals are fi%es1 :i* lead to ! conclusion ,all ,c is ,b1 ,all m>9e animals are ovip>\s4 ,b ?is conclusion conflicts ) ! orig9al m9or1 ',"s ,c is n ,b1' be+ its contradictory4 ,b ! orig9al m9or is ex hypo!si true4 ,!re=e ! new conclusion is false4 ,!re=e x mu/ ei!r be wrongly drawn or else "o or bo? ( its premisses mu/ be false4 ,b x is n wrongly drawn2 s9ce x is drawn 9 ! fir/ figure1 to :i* ! ,dictum de ,omni et ,nullo applies4 ,!re=e ! fault mu/ lie 9 ! premisses4 ,b ! major premiss1 be+ ! same ) t ( ! orig9al syllogism1 is ex hypo!si true4 ,!re=e ! m9or premiss1 ',all ,c is ,a1' is false4 ,b ?is be+ false1 its contradictory mu/ be true4 ,n[ its contradictory is ! orig9al conclusion1 ',"s ,c is n ,a1' :i* is !re=e prov$ to be true1 s9ce x _c be false4 #fid4 ,x is conv5i5t to repres5t ! two syllogisms 9 juxtaposition ?us-- ,b>oko4 ,b>b>a4 ,all ,a is ,b4 ,all ,a is ,b4 ,"s ,c is n ,b4 _/ ,all ,c is ,a4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a4 _/ ,all ,c is ,b4 #fie4 ,! l9es indicate ! propositions :i* conflict ) "o ano!r4 ,! initial consonant ( ! names ,b>oko & ,eok>do indicates t ! indirect r$uct w be ,b>b>a4 ,! k indicates t ! ,o proposition1 :i* x foll[s1 is to be dropp$ out 9 ! new syllogism1 & its place suppli$ by ! contradictory ( ! old conclusion4 #fif4 ,9 ,bok>do ! two syllogisms w /& ?us-- ,bok>do4 ,b>b>a4 ,"s ,b is n ,a4 _/ ,all ,c is ,a4 ,all ,b is ,c4 ,x ,all ,b is ,c4 4'4 ,"s ,c is n ,a4_/ 4'4 ,all ,b is ,a4 #fig4 ,! me?od ( indirect r$uction1 ?\gh inv5t$ ) a special view to ,b>oko & ,bok>do1 is applicable to all ! moods ( ! imp]fect figures4 ,! foll[+ modification ( ! mnemonic l9es conta9s directions = p]=m+ ! process 9 e case3--,b>b>a1 ,cel>5t1 ,d>ii1 ,f]ioque prioris2 ,felake1 ,d>eke1 ,celiko1 ,b>oko secundae2 ,t]tia ,cakaci1 ,cik>i1 ,fak9i1 ,bekaco1 ,bok>do1 ,dekilon habet2 qu>ta insup] addit ,cakapi1 ,daseke1 ,cikasi1 ,cepako1 ,ceskon4 #fih4 ,! c :i* appe>s 9 two moods ( ! ?ird figure1 ,cakaci & ,bekaco1 signifies t ! new conclusion is ! contr>y1 in/ead (1 z usual1 ! contradictory ( ! disc>d$ premiss4 #fii4 ,! lett]s s & p1 :i* appe> only 9 ! f\r? figure1 signify t ! new conclusion does n conflict directly ) ! disc>d$ premiss1 b ) its conv]se1 ei!r simple or p] accid5s1 z ! case may be4 #gjj4 l1 n & r are mean+less1 z 9 ! orig9al l9es4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce z appli$ to ,complex ,propositions4 #gja4 ,s f> we h treat$ ( inf]5ce1 or reason+1 :e!r m$iate or imm$iate1 solely z appli$ to simple propositions4 ,b x w be rememb]$ t we divid$ propositions into simple & complex4 ,i t becomes incumb5t ^u u !re=e to consid] ! laws ( inf]5ce z appli$ to complex propositions4 ,inasmu* h[ev] z e complex proposition is r$ucible to a simple "o1 x is evid5t t ! same laws ( inf]5ce mu/ apply to bo?4 #gjb4 ,we mu/ fir/ make good ?is initial /atem5t z to ! ess5tial id5tity und]ly+ ! diff]5ce ( =m betwe5 simple & complex propositions4 #gjc4 ,complex propositions are ei!r ,conjunctive or ,disjunctive 7 #bad74 #gjd4 ,conjunctive propositions may assume any ( ! f\r =ms1 ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 ,o1 z foll[s-- 7,a7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is always ,d4 7,e7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is nev] ,d4 7,i7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is sometimes ,d4 7,o7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is sometimes n ,d4 #gje4 ,^! admit ( be+ read 9 ! =m ( simple propositions1 ?us-- 7,a7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is always ,d ,all cases ( ,a be+ ,b are cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 7,e ,,ab is a ,,cd47 7,e7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is nev] ,d ,no cases ( ,a be+ ,b are cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 7,no ,,ab is a ,,cd47 7,i7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is sometimes ,d ,"s cases ( ,a be+ ,b are cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 7,"s ,,ab's are ,,cd's47 7,o7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is sometimes n ,d ,"s cases ( ,a be+ ,b are n cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 7,"s ,,ab's are n ,,cd's47 #gjf4 ,or1 to take concrete examples1 7,a7 ,if k+s are ambiti\s1 _! subjects always suff]4 ,all cases ( ambiti\s k+s are cases ( subjects suff]+4 7,e7 ,if ! w9d is 9 ! s\?1 ! riv] nev] freezes4 ,no cases ( w9d 9 ! s\? are cases ( ! riv] freez+4 7,i7 ,if a man plays recklessly1 ! luck sometimes goes aga9/ him4 ,"s cases ( reckless play+ are cases ( go+ aga9/ "o4 7,o7 ,if a novel has m]it1 ! public sometimes d n buy x4 ,"s cases ( novels ) m]it are n cases ( ! public buy+4 #gjg4 ,we h se5 already t ! disjunctive diff]s f ! conjunctive proposition 9 ?is1 t 9 ! conjunctive ! tru? ( ! antec$5t involves ! tru? ( ! consequ5t1 :]eas 9 ! disjunctive ! falsity ( ! antec$5t involves ! tru? ( ! consequ5t4 ,! disjunctive proposition !re=e ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d may be r$uc$ to a conjunctive ,if ,a is n ,b1 ,c is ,d1 & s to a simple proposition ) a negative t]m = subject4 ,all cases ( ,a n be+ ,b are cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 7,e n-,,ab is a ,,cd47 #gjh4 ,x is true t ! disjunctive proposition1 m ?an any o!r =m1 except ,u1 seems to convey two /atem5ts 9 "o brea?4 ,yet x ought n1 any m ?an ! ,e proposition1 to be reg>d$ z convey+ bo? ) equal directness4 ,! proposition ',no ,a is ,b' is n consid]$ to ass]t directly1 b only implicitly1 t ',no ,b is ,a4' ,9 ! same way ! =m ',ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d' ought to be int]pret$ z mean+ directly no m ?an ?is1 ',if ,a is n ,b1 ,c is ,d4' ,x ass]ts inde$ by implication also t ',if ,c is n ,d1 ,a is ,b4' ,b ?is is an imm$iate inf]5ce1 be+1 z we %all pres5tly see1 ! contrapositive ( ! orig9al4 ,:5 we say ',s & s is ei!r a knave or a fool1' :at we are directly ass]t+ is t1 if he be n f\nd to be a knave1 he w be f\nd to be a fool4 ,by implication we make ! fur!r /atem5t t1 if he be n cle>$ ( folly1 he w /& condemn$ ( knav]y4 ,?is inf]5ce is s imm$iate t x seems indi/+ui%able f ! =m] proposition3 b s9ce ! two memb]s ( a complex proposition play ! "p ( subject & pr$icate1 to say t ! two /atem5ts are id5tical w\ld am\nt to ass]t+ t ! same proposition c h two subjects & two pr$icates4 ,f ?is po9t ( view x becomes cle> t !re is no diff]5ce b "o ( expression betwe5 ! disjunctive & ! conjunctive proposition4 ,! disjunctive is m]ely a peculi> way ( /at+ a conjunctive proposition ) a negative antec$5t4 #gji4 ,conv]sion ( ,complex ,propositions4 ,a _/ ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is always ,d4 4'4 ,if ,c is ,d1 ,a is sometimes ,b4 ,e _/ ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is nev] ,d4 4'4 ,if ,c is ,d1 ,a is nev] ,b4 ,i _/ ,if ,a is ,s1 ,c is sometimes ,d4 4'4 ,if ,c is ,d1 ,a is sometimes ,b4 #gaj4 ,exactly ! same rules ( conv]sion apply to conjunctive z to simple propositions4 #gaa4 ,a c only be conv]t$ p] accid5s1 z above4 ,! orig9al proposition ',if ,a is ,b1 ,c is always ,d' is equival5t to ! simple proposition ',all cases ( ,a be+ ,b are cases ( ,c be+ ,d4' ,?is1 :5 conv]t$1 becomes ',"s cases ( ,c be+ ,d are cases ( ,a be+ ,b1' :i*1 :5 ?r[n back into ! conjunctive =m1 becomes ',if ,c is ,d1 ,a is sometimes ,b4' #gab4 ,?is expression mu/ n be misund]/ood z ?\gh x conta9$ any ref]5ce to actual exi/5ce4 ,! mean+ might be bett] convey$ by ! =m ',if ,c is ,d1 ,a may be ,b4' ,b x is p]haps z well to reta9 ! o!r1 z x s]ves to emphasize ! fact t =mal logic is conc]n$ only ) ! connection ( ideas4 #gac4 ,a concrete in/ance w r5d] ! po9t "u discussion cle>]4 ,! example we took be=e ( an ,a proposition 9 ! conjunctive =m-- ',if k+s are ambiti\s1 _! subjects always suff]' may be conv]t$ into ',if subjects suff]1 x may be t _! k+s are ambiti\s1' i4e4 among ! possible causes ( suff]+ on ! "p ( subjects is to be f\nd ! ambition ( _! rul]s1 ev5 if e actual case %\ld be ref]r$ to "s o!r cause4 ,x is 9 ?is s5se only t ! inf]5ce is a necess>y "o4 ,b !n ?is is ! only s5se :i* =mal logic is compet5t to recognise4 ,to judge ( con=mity to fact is no "p ( its prov9ce4 ,f ',e ,,ab is a ,,cd' x foll[s t ' ,"s ,,cd's are ,,ab's' ) exactly ! same necessity z t ) :i* ',"s ,b is ,a' foll[s f ',all ,a is ,b4' ,9 ! latt] case also nei!r proposition may at all con=m to fact4 ,f ',all c5taurs are animals' x foll[s necess>ily t ',"s animals are c5taurs'3 b z a matt] ( fact ?is is n true at all4 #gad4 ,! ,e & ! ,i proposition may be conv]t$ simply1 z above4 #gae4 ,o _c be conv]t$ at all4 ,f ! proposition ',if a man runs a race1 he sometimes does n w9 x1' x c]ta9ly does n foll[ t ',if a man w9s a race1 he sometimes does n run x4' #gaf4 ,!re is a common b errone\s notion t all conditional propositions are to be reg>d$ z affirmative4 ,?us x has be5 ass]t$ t1 ev5 :5 we say t ',if ! night becomes cl\dy1 !re w be no dew1' ! proposition is n to be reg>d$ z negative1 on ! gr\nd t :at we affirm is a relation betwe5 ! cl\d9ess ( night & ! abs5ce ( dew4 ,?is is a possible1 b :olly unnecess>y1 mode ( reg>d+ ! proposition4 ,x is precisely on a p> ) ,hobbes's !ory ( ! copula 9 a simple proposition be+ always affirmative4 ,x is true t x may always be s repres5t$ at ! co/ ( employ+ a negative t]m2 & ! same is ! case "h4 #gag4 ,!re is no way ( conv]t+ a disjunctive proposition except by r$uc+ x to ! conjunctive =m4 #gah4 ,p]mutation ( ,complex ,propositions4 7,a7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is always ,d4 4'4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is nev] n-,d4 7,e7 7,e7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is nev] ,d4 4'4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is always n-,d4 7,a7 7,i7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is sometimes ,d4 4'4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is sometimes n n-,d4 7,o7 7,o7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is sometimes n ,d4 4'4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is sometimes n-,d4 7,i7 #gai4 7,a7 ,if a "m loves h] *ildr51 %e is always k9d to !m4 4'4 ,if a "m loves h] *ildr51 %e is nev] unk9d to !m4 7,e7 7,e7 ,if a man tells lies1 8 fri5ds nev] tru/ him4 4'4 ,if a man tells lies1 8 fri5ds always di/ru/ him4 7,a7 7,i7 ,if /rang]s are confid5t1 savage dogs are sometimes fri5dly4 4'4 ,if /rang]s are confid5t1 savage dogs are sometimes n unfri5dly4 7,o7 7,o7 ,if a measure is good1 its au?or is sometimes n popul>4 4'4 ,if a measure is good1 its au?or is sometimes unpopul>4 7,i7 #gbj4 ,! disjunctive proposition may be p]mut$ z x /&s )\t be+ r$uc$ to ! conjunctive =m4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d4 4'4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is n n-,d4 ,ei!r a s9n] mu/ rep5t or he w be damn$4 4'4 ,ei!r a s9n] mu/ rep5t or he w n be sav$4 #gba4 ,conv]sion by ,negation ( ,complex ,propositions4 7,a7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is always ,d4 4'4 ,if ,c is n-,d1 ,a is nev] ,b4 7,e7 7,e7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is nev] ,d4 4'4 ,if ,c is ,d1 ,a is always n-,b4 7,a7 7,i7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is sometimes ,d4 4'4 ,if ,c is ,d1 ,a is sometimes n n-,b4 7,o7 7,o7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is sometimes n ,d4 4'4 ,if ,c is n-,d1 ,a is sometimes ,b4 7,i7 7,e p] acc47 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is nev] ,d4 4'4 ,if ,c is n-,d1 ,a is sometimes ,b4 7,i7 7,a p] ace47 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is always ,d4 4'4 ,if ,c is ,d1 ,a is sometimes n n-,d4 7,o7 #gbb4 7,a7 ,if a man is a smok]1 he always dr9ks4 4'4 ,if a man is a total ab/a9]1 he nev] smokes4 7,e7 7,e7 ,if a man m]ely does 8 duty1 no "o ev] ?anks him4 4'4 ,if p ?ank a man1 he has always done m ?an 8 duty4 7,a7 7,i7 ,if a /atesman is patriotic1 he sometimes adh]es to a p>ty4 4'4 ,if a /atesman adh]es to a p>ty1 he is sometimes n unpatriotic4 7,o7 7,o7 ,if a book has m]it1 x sometimes does n sell4 4'4 ,if a book fails to sell1 x sometimes has m]it4 7,i7 7,e p] acc47 ,if ! w9d is high1 ra9 nev] falls4 4'4 ,if ra9 falls1 ! w9d is sometimes high4 7,i7 7,a p] acc47 ,if a ?+ is common1 x is always *eap4 4'4 ,if a ?+ is *eap1 x is sometimes n uncommon4 7,o7 #gbc4 ,:5 appli$ to disjunctive propositions1 ! di/9ctive features ( conv]sion by negation are /ill disc]nible4 ,9 ea* ( ! foll[+ =ms ( inf]5ce ! conv]se diff]s 9 quality f ! conv]t5d & has ! contradictory ( "o ( ! orig9al t]ms 7 #eae74 #gbd4 7,a7 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is always ,d4 4'4 ,ei!r ,c is ,d or ,a is nev] n-,b4 7,e7 7,e7 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is nev] ,d4 4'4 ,ei!r ,c is n-,d or ,a is always ,b4 7,a7 7,i7 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is sometimes ,d4 4'4 ,ei!r ,c is n-,d or ,a is sometimes n ,b4 7,o7 7,o7 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is sometimes n ,d4 4'4 ,ei!r ,c is ,d or ,a is sometimes n-,b4 7,i7 #gbe4 7,a7 ,ei!r miracles are possible or e anci5t hi/orian is untru/wor?y4 4'4 ,ei!r anci5t hi/orians are untru/wor?y or miracles are n impossible4 7,e7 7,e7 ,ei!r ! tide mu/ turn or ! vessel c n make ! port4 4'4 ,ei!r ! vessel _c make ! port or ! tide mu/ turn4 7,a7 7#a7 ,ei!r he aims too high or ! c>tridges are sometimes bad4 4'4 ,ei!r ! c>tridges are n bad or he sometimes does n aim too high4 7#j7 7,o7 ,ei!r c>e mu/ be tak5 or telegrams w sometimes n be correct4 4'4 ,ei!r telegrams are correct or c>elessness is sometimes %[n4 7#a7 #gbf4 ,9 ! above examples ! conv]se ( ,e looks z if x _h und]gone no *ange b ! m]e transposition ( ! alt]native4 ,?is appe>ance arises f m5tally read+ ! ,e z an ,a proposition3 b1 if x 7 s tak51 ! result w\ld be its contrapositive1 & n its conv]se by negation4 #gbg4 ,! conv]se ( ,i is a little difficult to grasp4 ,x becomes easi] if we r$uce x to ! equival5t conjunctive-- ',if ! c>tridges are bad1 he sometimes does n aim too high4' ,"h1 z else:]e1 'sometimes' mu/ n be tak5 to mean m ?an 'x may be t4' #gbh4 ,conv]sion by ,contraposition ( ,complex ,propositions4 ,z appli$ to conjunctive propositions conv]sion by contraposition assumes ! foll[+ =ms-- 7,a7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is always ,d4 4'4 ,if ,c is n-,d1 ,a is always n-,b4 7,o7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is sometimes n ,d4 4'4 ,if ,c is n-,d1 ,a is sometimes n n-,b4 7,a7 ,if a man is hone/1 he is always tru?ful4 4'4 ,if a man is untru?ful1 he is always di%one/4 7,o7 ,if a man is ha/y1 he is sometimes n malevol5t4 4'4 ,if a man is b5evol5t1 he is sometimes n unha/y4 #gbi4 ,z appli$ to disjunctive propositions conv]sion by contraposition consi/s simply 9 transpos+ ! two alt]natives4 7,a7 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d4 4'4 ,ei!r ,c is ,d or ,a is ,b4 ,=1 :5 r$uc$ to ! conjunctive %ape1 ! reason+ w\ld run ?us-- ,if ,a is n ,b1 ,c is ,d4 4'4 ,if ,c is n ,d1 ,a is ,b4 :i* is ! same 9 =m z ,all n-,a is ,b4 4'4 ,all n-,b is ,a4 ,simil>ly 9 ! case ( ! ,o proposition 7,o7 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is sometimes n ,d4 4'4 ,ei!r ,c is ,d or ,a is sometimes n ,b4 #gcj4 ,on comp>+ ^! results ) ! conv]se by negation ( ea* ( ! same propositions1 ,a & #j1 ! read] w see t !y diff] f !m1 z 0 to be expect$1 only 9 be+ p]mut$4 ,! validity ( ! inf]5ce may be te/$1 bo? "h & 9 ! case ( conv]sion by negation1 by r$uc+ ! disjunctive proposition to ! conjunctive1 & s to ! simple =m1 !n p]=m+ ! process z 9 simple propositions1 & f9ally ?r[+ ! conv]se1 :5 s obta9$1 back into ! disjunctive =m4 ,we w %[ 9 ?is mann] t ! above is really ! contrapositive ( ! #j proposition4 7,o7 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is sometimes n ,d4 ,if ,a is n ,b1 ,c is sometimes n ,d4 ,"s cases ( ,a n be+ ,b are n cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 7,"s ,a is n ,b47 ,"s cases ( ,c n be+ ,d are n cases ( ,a be+ ,b4 7,"s n-,b is n n-,a47 ,if ,c is n ,d1 ,a is sometimes n ,b4 ,ei!r ,c is ,d or ,a is sometimes n ,b4 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,( ,complex ,syllogisms4 #gca4 ,a ,complex ,syllogism is "o :i* is compos$1 9 :ole or "p1 ( complex propositions4 #gcb4 ,?\gh !re are only two k9ds ( complex proposition1 !re are ?ree v>ieties ( complex syllogism4 ,= we may h 7#a7 a syllogism 9 :i* ! only k9d ( complex proposition employ$ is ! conjunctive2 7#b7 a syllogism 9 :i* ! only k9d ( complex proposition employ$ is ! disjunctive2 7#c7 a syllogism :i* has "o premiss conjunctive & ! o!r disjunctive4 ,! *ief in/ance ( ! ?ird k9d is t kn[n z ! ,dilemma4 ,syllogism ,simple ,complex 7,categorical7 7,conditional7 ,conjunctive ,disjunctive ,dilemma 7,hypo!tical7 ,! ,conjunctive ,syllogism4 #gcc4 ,! ,conjunctive ,syllogism has "o or bo? premisses conjunctive propositions3 b if only "o is conjunctive1 ! o!r mu/ be a simple "o4 #gcd4 ,:]e bo? premisses are conjunctive1 ! conclusion w be ( ! same "*2 :]e only "o is conjunctive1 ! conclusion w be a simple proposition4 #gce4 ,( ^! two k9ds ( conjunctive syllogisms we w fir/ take t :i* consi/s ?r\gh\t ( conjunctive propositions4 ,! ,:olly ,conjunctive ,syllogism4 #gcf4 ,:olly conjunctive syllogisms d n diff] ess5tially f simple ones1 to :i* !y are imm$iately r$ucible4 ,!y admit ( be+ con/ruct$ 9 e mood & figure1 & ! moods ( ! imp]fect figures may be br\ght into ! fir/ by foll[+ ! ord9>y rules ( r$uction4 ,= in/ance-- ,ces>e4 ,cel>5t4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is nev] ,d4 _/ ,if ,c is ,d1 ,a is nev] ,b4 ,if ,e is ,f1 ,c is always ,d4 ,if ,e is ,f1 ,c is always ,d4 4'4 ,if ,e is ,f1 ,a is nev] ,b4 _/ 4'4 ,if ,e is ,f1 ,a is nev] ,b4 ,if x is day1 ! />s nev] %9e4 _/,if ! />s %9e1 x is nev] day4 ,if x is night1 ! />s always _/ ,if x is night1 ! />s always %9e4 _/ %9e4 4'4 ,if x is night1 x is nev] day _/ 4'4 ,if x is night1 x is nev] day4 ,disamis4 ,d>ii4 ,if ,c is ,d1 ,a is sometimes ,b4 _/ ,if ,c is ,d1 ,e is always ,f4 ,if ,c is ,d1 ,e is always ,f4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is sometimes ,d4 ,if ,e is ,f1 ,a is sometimes ,b4 _/ 4'4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,e is sometimes ,f4 4'4 ,if ,e is ,f1 ,a is sometimes ,b4 ,if %e goes1 ,i sometimes g4 _/ ,if %e goes1 he always goes1 ,if %e goes1 he always goes4 ,if ,i g1 %e sometimes goes4 4'4 ,if he goes1 ,i sometimes g4 _/ 4'4 ,if ,i g1 he sometimes goes4 4'4 ,if he goes1 ,i sometimes g4 ,! ,p>tly ,conjunctive ,syllogism4 #gcg4 ,x is ?is k9d :i* is usually meant :5 ! ,conjunctive or ,hypo!tical ,syllogism is spok5 (4 #gch4 ,( ! two premisses1 "o conjunctive & "o simple1 ! conjunctive is consid]$ to be ! major1 & ! simple premiss ! m9or4 ,= ! conjunctive premiss lays d[n a c]ta9 relation to hold betwe5 two propositions z a matt] ( !ory1 :i* is appli$ 9 ! m9or to a matt] ( fact4 #gci4 ,tak+ a conjunctive proposition z a major premiss1 !re are f\r simple m9ors possible4 ,= we may ei!r ass]t or d5y ! antec$5t or ! consequ5t ( ! conjunctive4 ,con/ructive ,mood4 ,de/ructive ,mood4 7#a7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d4 7#b7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d4 ,a is ,b4 ,c is n ,d4 4'4 ,c is ,d4 4'4 ,a is n ,b4 7#c7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d4 7#d7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d4 ,a is n ,b4 ,c is ,d4 ,no conclusion4 ,no conclusion4 #gdj4 ,:5 we take z a m9or ',a is n ,b ' 7#c71 x is cle> t we c get no conclusion4 ,= to say t ,c is ,d :5ev] ,a is ,b gives u no "r to d5y t ,c c be ,d 9 ! abs5ce ( t condition4 ,:at we h pr$icat$ has be5 m]ely inclusion ( ! case ,,ab 9 ! case ,,cd4 ,illu/ration #gda4 ,aga91 :5 we take z a m9or1 ',c is ,d' 7#d71 we c get no univ]sal conclusion4 ,= ?\gh ,a be+ ,b is decl>$ to involve z a consequ5ce ,c be+ ,d1 yet x is possible = ,c to be ,d "u o!r circum/ances1 or f o!r causes4 ,grant+ ! tru? ( ! proposition ',if ! sky falls1 we %all cat* l>ks1' x by no means foll[s t !re are no o!r conditions "u :i* ?is result c be atta9$4 #gdb4 ,f a consid]ation ( ! above f\r cases we elicit ! foll[+ ,canon ( ! ,conjunctive ,syllogism4 ,to affirm ! antec$5t is to affirm ! consequ5t1 & to d5y ! consequ5t is to d5y ! antec$5t3 b f d5y+ ! antec$5t or affirm+ ! consequ5t no conclusion foll[s4 #gdc4 ,!re is a case1 h[ev]1 9 :i* we c legitimately d5y ! antec$5t & affirm ! consequ5t ( a conjunctive proposition1 namely1 :5 ! relation pr$icat$ betwe5 ! antec$5t & ! consequ5t is n t ( inclusion b ( co9cid5ce--:]e 9 fact ! conjunctive proposition con=ms to ! type u4 ,= example-- ,d5ial ( ! ,antec$5t4 ,if y rep5t1 !n only are y =giv54 ,y d n rep5t4 4'4 ,y are n =giv54 ,affirmation ( ! ,consequ5t4 ,if y rep5t1 !n only are y =giv54 ,y are =giv54 4'4 ,y rep5t4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,( ! ,r$uction ( ! ,p>tly ,conjunctive ,syllogism4 #gdd4 ,su* syllogisms z ^? j treat$ (1 if syllogisms !y are to be call$1 h a major & a middle t]m visible to ! eye1 b appe> to be de/itute ( a m9or4 ,! miss+ m9or t]m is h[ev] suppos$ to be lat5t 9 ! transition f ! conjunctive to ! simple =m ( proposition4 ,:5 we say ',a is ,b1' we are tak5 to mean1 ',z a matt] ( fact1 ,a is ,b' or ',! actual /ate ( ! case is t ,a is ,b4' ,! ins]tion !re=e ( "s su* expression z ',! case 9 h&1' or ',?is case1' is1 on ?is view1 all t is want$ to complete ! =m ( ! syllogism4 ,:5 r$uc$ 9 ?is mann] to ! simple type ( argum5t1 x w be f\nd t ! con/ructive conjunctive con=ms to ! fir/ figure & ! de/ructive conjunctive to ! second4 ,con/ructive ,mood4 ,b>b>a4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d4 _/ ,all cases ( ,a be+ ,b are cases ( _/ ,c be+ ,d4 ,a is ,b4 _/ ,?is is a case ( ,a be+ ,b4 4'4 ,c is ,d4 _/ 4'4 ,?is is a case ( ,c be+ ,d4 ,de/ructive ,mood4 ,came/res4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d4 _/ ,all cases ( ,a be+ ,b are cases ( _/ ,c be+ ,d4 ,c is n ,d4 _/ ,?is is n a case ( ,c be+ ,d4 4'4 ,a is n ,b4 _/ 4'4 ,?is is n a case ( ,a be+ ,b4 #gde4 ,x is app>5t f ! position ( ! middle t]m t ! con/ructive conjunctive mu/ fall into ! fir/ figure & ! de/ructive conjunctive into ! second4 ,!re is no reason1 h[ev]1 :y !y %\ld be conf9$ to ! two moods1 ,b>b>a & ,c>ne/res4 ,if ! inf]5ce is univ]sal1 :e!r z g5]al or s+ul>1 ! mood is ,b>b>a or ,c>ne/res2 if x is p>ticul>1 ! mood is ,d>ii or ,b>oko4 ,b>b>a4 ,came/res4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is always ,d4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is always ,d4 ,a is always ,b4 ,c is nev] ,d4 4'4 ,c is always ,d4 4'4 ,a is nev] ,b4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is always ,d4 _/ ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is always ,d4 _/ ,a is 9 ?is case ,b4 _/ ,c is n 9 ?is case ,d4 _/ 4'4 ,c is 9 ?is case ,d4 _/ 4'4 ,a is n 9 ?is case ,b4 _/ ,d>ii4 ,b>oko4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is always ,d4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is nev] ,d4 ,a is sometimes ,b4 ,c is sometimes n ,d4 4'4 ,c is sometimes ,d4 4'4 ,a is sometimes n ,b4 #gdf4 ,! rema9+ moods ( ! fir/ & second figure are obta9$ by tak+ a negative proposition z ! consequ5t 9 ! major premiss4 ,cel>5t4 ,f]io4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is nev] ,d4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is nev] ,d4 ,a is always ,b4 ,a is sometimes ,b4 4'4 ,c is nev] ,d4 4'4 ,c is sometimes n ,d4 ,ces>e4 ,fe/9o4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is nev] ,d4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is nev] ,d4 ,c is always ,d4 ,c is sometimes ,d4 4'4 ,a is nev] ,b4 4'4 ,a is sometimes n ,b4 #gdg4 ,z ! p>tly conjunctive syllogism is ?us r$ucible to ! simple =m1 x foll[s t violations ( its laws mu/ correspond ) violations ( ! laws ( simple syllogism4 ,by our ?r[+ ! illicit moods into ! simple =m x w become app>5t :at fallacies are involv$ 9 !m4 ,d5ial ( ,antec$$4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d4 _/ ,all cases ( ,a be+ ,b are cases ( ,c _/ be+ ,d4 ,a is n ,b4 _/ ,?is is n a case ( ,a be+ ,b4 4'4 ,c is n ,d4 _/ 4'4 ,?is is n a case ( ,c be+ ,d4 ,"h we see t ! d5ial ( ! antec$5t am\nts to illicit process ( ! major t]m4 #gdha ,affirmation ( ,consequ5t4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d4 _/ ,all ,cases ( ,a be+ ,b are cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 ,c is ,d4 _/ ,?is is a case ( ,c be+ ,d4 ,"h we see t ! affirmation ( ! consequ5t am\nts to undi/ribut$ middle4 #gdi4 ,if we conf9e ourselves to ! special rules ( ! f\r figures1 we see t d5ial ( ! antec$5t involves a negative m9or 9 ! fir/ figure1 & affirmation ( ! consequ5t two affirmative premisses 9 ! second4 ,or1 if ! consequ5t 9 ! major premiss 7 itself negative1 ! affirmation ( x w\ld am\nt to ! fallacy ( two negative premisses4 ,?us-- ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is n ,d4 _/ ,no cases ( ,a be+ ,b are cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 ,c is n ,d4 _/ ,?is is n a case ( ,c be+ ,d4 #gej4 ,! positive side ( ! canon ( ! conjunctive syllogism--',to affirm ! antec$5t is to affirm ! consequ5t1' corresponds ) ! ,dictum de ,omni4 ,= :]eas some?+ 7viz4 ,c be+ ,d7 is affirm$ 9 ! major ( all conceivable cases ( ,a be+ ,b1 ! same is affirm$ 9 ! conclusion ( some?+ :i* is includ$ !re91 namely1 '?is case1' or '"s cases1' or ev5 'all actual cases4' #gea4 ,! negative side--'to d5y ! consequ5t is to d5y ! antec$5t'--corresponds ) ! ,dictum de ,div]se 7 #fdc74 ,= :]eas 9 ! major all conceivable cases ( ,a be+ ,b are includ$ 9 ,c be+ ,d1 9 ! m9or '?is case1' or '"s cases1' or ev5 'all actual cases' ( ,c be+ ,d1 are exclud$ f ! same notion4 #geb4 ,! special *>act]i/ic ( ! p>tly conjunctive syllogism lies 9 ! transition f hypo!sis to fact4 ,we might lay d[n z ! appropriate axiom ( ?is =m ( argum5t1 t ',:at is true 9 ! ab/ract is true--9 ! concrete1' or ',:at is true 9 !ory is also true 9 fact1' a proposition :i* is apt to be neglect$ or d5i$4 ,b ?is does n vitally di/+ui% x f ! ord9>y syllogism4 ,= ?\gh 9 ! latt] we ?9k r ( ! transition f a g5]al tru? to a p>ticul> application ( x1 yet at bottom a g5]al tru? is no?+ b a hypo!sis re/+ ^u a sl5d] basis ( obs]v$ fact4 ,! proposition ',a is ,b' may be express$ 9 ! =m ',if ,a is1 ,b is4' ,to say t ',all m5 are mortal' may be int]pret$ to mean t ',if we f9d 9 any subject ! attributes ( humanity1 ! attributes ( mortality are sure to accompany !m4' ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,( ! ,p>tly ,conjunctive ,syllogism reg>d$ z an ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce4 #gec4 ,x is ! ass]tion ( fact 9 ! m9or premiss1 :]e we h ! application ( an ab/ract pr9ciple to a concrete in/ance1 :i* alone entitles ! p>tly conjunctive syllogism to be reg>d$ z a syllogism at all4 ,ap>t f ?is ! =ms ( semi-conjunctive reason+ run at once into ! m\lds ( imm$iate inf]5ce4 #ged4 ,! con/ructive mood w !n be read 9 ?is way-- ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d1 4'4 ,a be+ ,b1 ,c is ,d4 r$uc+ itself to an in/ance ( imm$iate inf]5ce by subalt]n opposition-- ,e case ( ,a be+ ,b1 is a case ( ,c be+ ,d4 4'4 ,"s p>ticul> case ( ,a be+ ,b is a case ( ,c be+ ,d4 #gee4 ,aga91 ! de/ructive conjunctive w read z foll[s-- ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d1 4'4 ,c n be+ ,d1 ,a is n ,b4 :i* is equival5t to ,all cases ( ,a be+ ,b are cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 4'4 ,:atev] is n a case ( ,c be+ ,d is n a case ( ,a be+ ,b4 4'4 ,"s p>ticul> case ( ,c n be+ ,d is n a case ( ,a be+ ,b4 ,b :at is ?is b an imm$iate inf]5ce by contraposition1 com+ "u ! =mula ,all ,a is ,b1 4'4 ,all n-,b is n-,a1 & foll[$ by ,subalt]nation8 #gef4 ,! fallacy ( affirm+ ! consequ5t becomes by ?is mode ( treatm5t an in/ance ( ! vice ( imm$iate inf]5ce kn[n z ! simple conv]sion ( an ,a proposition4 ',if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d' is n conv]tible ) ',if ,c is ,d1 ,a is ,b' any m ?an ',all ,a is ,b' is conv]tible ) ',all ,b is ,a4' #geg4 ,we may h[ev] argue 9 ?is way ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d1 ,c is ,d1 4'4 ,a may be ,b1 :i* is equival5t to say+1 ,:5 ,a is ,b1 ,c is always ,d1 4'4 ,:5 ,c is ,d1 ,a is sometimes ,b1 & falls "u ! legitimate =m ( conv]sion ( ,a p] accid5s-- ,all cases ( ,a be+ ,b are cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 4'4 ,"s cases ( ,c be+ ,d are cases ( ,a be+ ,b4 #geh4 ,! fallacy ( d5y+ ! antec$5t assumes ! foll[+ =m-- ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d1 4'4 ,if ,a is n ,b1 ,c is n ,d1 equival5t to-- ,all cases ( ,a be+ ,b are cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 4'4 ,:atev] is n a case ( ,a be+ ,b is n a case ( ,c be+ ,d4 ,?is is ! same z to argue-- ,all ,a is ,b1 4'4 ,all n-,a is n-,b1 an errone\s =m ( imm$iate inf]5ce = :i* !re is no special "n1 b :i* involves ! vice ( simple conv]sion ( ,a1 s9ce ',all n-,a is n-,b' is ! contrapositive1 n ( ',all ,a is ,b1' b ( its simple conv]se ',all ,b is ,a4' #gei4 ,! above-m5tion$ =m ( imm$iate inf]5ce1 h[ev] 7namely1 ! employm5t ( contraposition )\t conv]sion71 is valid 9 ! case ( ! ,u proposition2 & s also is simple conv]sion4 ,accord+ly we are able1 z we h se51 9 deal+ ) a proposition ( t =m1 bo? to d5y ! antec$5t & to ass]t ! consequ5t ) impunity-- ,if ,a is ,b1 !n only ,c is ,d1 4'4 ,a n be+ ,b1 ,c is n ,d2 & aga91 ,c be+ ,d1 ,a mu/ be ,b4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,( ! ,disjunctive ,syllogism4 #gfj4 ,r\ghly speak+1 a ,disjunctive ,syllogism results f ! comb9ation ( a disjunctive ) a simple premiss4 ,z 9 ! prec$+ =m1 ! complex proposition is reg>d$ z ! major premiss1 s9ce x lays d[n a hypo!sis1 :i* is appli$ to fact 9 ! m9or4 #gfa4 ,! ,disjunctive ,syllogism may be exactly def9$ z foll[s-- ,a complex syllogism1 :i* has = its major premiss a disjunctive proposition1 ei!r ! antec$5t or consequ5t ( :i* is 9 ! m9or premiss simply affirm$ or d5i$4 #gfb4 ,?us !re are f\r types ( disjunctive syllogism possible4 ,con/ructive ,moods4 7#a7 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d4 7#b7 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d4 ,a is n ,b4 ,c is n ,d4 4'4 ,c is ,d4 4'4 ,a is ,b4 ,ei!r dea? is annihilation or we are immortal4 ,dea? is n annihilation4 4'4 ,we are immortal4 ,ei!r ! wat] is %all[ or ! boys w be dr[n$4 ,! boys are n dr[n$4 4'4 ,! wat] is %all[4 ,de/ructive ,moods4 7#c7 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d4 7#d7 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d4 ,a is ,b4 ,c is ,d4 4'4 ,c is n ,d4 4'4 ,a is n ,b4 #gfc4 ,( ^! f\r1 h[ev]1 x is only ! con/ructive moods t are =mally conclusive4 ,! validity ( ! two de/ructive moods is cont+5t ^u ! k9d ( alt]natives select$4 ,if ^! are su* z necess>ily to exclude "o ano!r1 ! conclusion w hold1 b n o!rwise4 ,!y are ( c\rse mutually exclusive :5ev] !y embody ! result ( a correct logical division1 z ',triangles are ei!r equilat]al1 isosceles or scal5e4' ,"h1 if we affirm "o ( ! memb]s1 we are ju/ifi$ 9 d5y+ ! re/4 ,:5 ! major ?us conta9s ! divid+ memb]s ( a g5us1 x may m fitly be symboliz$ "u ! =mula1 ',a is ei!r ,b or ,c4' ,b z ?is admits ( be+ read 9 ! %ape1 ',ei!r ,a is ,b or ,a is ,c1' we reta9 ! wid] expression :i* includes x4 ,any k1 h[ev]1 :i* we may h ( ! fact t ! alt]natives select$ 9 ! major are incompatible mu/ come to u f mat]ial s\rces2 unless inde$ we h conf9$ ourselves to a pair ( contradictory t]ms 7,a is ei!r ,b or n-,b74 ,!re c be no?+ 9 ! =m ( ! expression to indicate ! incompatibility ( ! alt]natives1 s9ce ! same =m is employ$ :5 ! alt]natives are palpably compatible4 ,:51 = in/ance1 we say1 ',a successful /ud5t mu/ be ei!r tal5t$ or indu/ri\s1' we d n at all mean to ass]t ! positive incompatibility ( tal5t & indu/ry 9 a successful /ud5t1 b only ! incompatibility ( _! negatives--9 o!r words1 t1 if bo? are abs5t1 no /ud5t c be successful4 ,simil>ly1 :5 x is said1 ',ei!r y\r play is bad or y\r luck is abom9able1' !re is no?+ 9 ! =m ( ! expression to preclude our conceiv+ t bo? may be ! case4 #gfd4 ,!re is no limit to ! numb] ( memb]s 9 ! disjunctive major4 ,b if !re are only two alt]natives1 ! conclusion w be a simple proposition2 if !re are m ?an two1 ! conclusion w itself be a disjunctive4 ,?us-- ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d or ,e is ,f or ,g is ,h4 ,e is n ,f4 4'4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d or ,g is ,h4 #gfe4 ,! ,canon ( ! ,disjunctive ,syllogism may be laid d[n z foll[s-- ,to d5y "o memb] is to affirm ! re/1 ei!r simply or disjunctively2 b f affirm+ any memb] no?+ foll[s4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,( ! ,r$uction ( ! ,disjunctive ,syllogism4 #gff4 ,we h se5 t 9 ! disjunctive syllogism ! two con/ructive moods alone are =mally valid4 ,! fir/ ( ^!1 namely1 ! d5ial ( ! antec$5t1 w 9 all cases give a simple syllogism 9 ! fir/ figure2 ! second ( !m1 namely1 ! d5ial ( ! consequ5t1 w 9 all cases give a simple syllogism 9 ! second figure4 ,d5ial ( ,antec$5t ,b>b>a4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d4 ,a is n ,b4 4'4,c is ,d is equal to ,if ,a is n ,b1 ,c is ,d4 ,a is n ,b4 4'4 ,c is ,d4 is equal to ,all cases ( ,a n be+ ,b are cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 ,?is is a case ( ,a n be+ ,b4 4'4 ,?is is a case ( ,c be+ ,d4 ,d5ial ( ,consequ5t ,came/res4 ,ei!r ,a is ,e or ,c is ,d4 ,c is n ,d4 4'4 ,a is ,b4 is equal to ,if ,a is n ,b1 ,c is ,d4 ,c is n ,d4 4'4 ,a is ,b4 is equal to ,all cases ( ,a n be+ ,b are cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 ,?is is n a case ( ,c be+ ,d4 4'4 ,?is is n a case ( ,a be+ ,b4 #gfg4 ,! o!r moods ( ! fir/ & second figures c be obta9$ by v>y+ ! quality ( ! antec$5t & consequ5t 9 ! major premiss & r$uc+ ! quantity ( ! m9or4 #gfh4 ,! invalid de/ructive moods correspond ) ! two invalid types ( ! p>tly conjunctive syllogism1 & h ! same fallacies ( simple syllogism und]ly+ !m4 ,affirmation ( ! antec$5t ( a disjunctive is equival5t to ! semi-conjunctive fallacy ( d5y+ ! antec$5t1 & !re=e involves ! ord9>y syllogi/ic fallacy ( illicit process ( ! major4 ,affirmation ( ! consequ5t ( a disjunctive is equival5t to ! same fallacy 9 ! semi-conjunctive =m1 & !re=e involves ! ord9>y syllogi/ic fallacy ( undi/ribut$ middle4 ,affirmation ( ,antec$5t ,illicit ,major4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d4 ,a is ,b4 4'4 ,c is n ,d4 is equal to ,if ,a is n ,b1 ,c is ,d4 ,a is ,b4 4'4 ,c is n ,d4 is equal to ,all cases ( ,a n be+ ,b are cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 ,?is is n a case ( ,a n be+ ,b4 4'4 ,?is is n a case ( ,c n be+ ,d4 ,affirmation ( ,consequ5t ,undi/ribut$ ,middle4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d4 ,c is ,d4 is equal to ,if ,a is n ,b1 ,c is ,d4 ,c is ,d4 is equal to ,all cases ( ,a n be+ ,b are cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 ,?is is a case ( ,c be+ ,d4 #gfi4 ,s f> z reg>ds ! consequ5t1 ! two species ( complex reason+ hi!rto discuss$ are id5tical bo? 9 appe>ance & reality4 ,! app>5t diff]5ce ( proc$ure 9 ! case ( ! antec$5t1 namely1 t x is affirm$ 9 ! p>tly conjunctive1 b d5i$ 9 ! disjunctive syllogism1 is due m]ely to ! fact t 9 ! disjunctive proposition ! tru? ( ! consequ5t is involv$ 9 ! falsity ( ! antec$5t1 s t ! antec$5t be+ necess>ily negative1 to d5y x 9 appe>ance is 9 reality to ass]t x4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,! ,disjunctive ,syllogism reg>d$ z an ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce4 #ggj4 ,if no /ress be laid on ! transition f disjunctive hypo!sis to fact1 ! disjunctive syllogism w run ) ! same facility z its pr$ecessor into ! m\lds ( imm$iate inf]5ce4 #gga4 ,d5ial ( ,antec$5t4 ,subalt]nation4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d1 ,e case ( ,a n be+ ,b is a case ( ,c be+ ,d4 4'4 ,a n be+ ,b1 ,c is ,d4 4'4 ,"s case ( ,a n be+ ,b is a case ( ,c be+ ,d4 #ggb4 ,d5ial ( ,consequ5t4 ,conv]sion by ,contraposition ,subalt]nation4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d4 ,all cases ( ,a n be+ ,b are cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 4'4 ,c n be+ ,d1 ,a is ,b 4'4 ,all cases ( ,c n be+ ,d are cases ( ,a be+ ,b4 4'4 ,"s case ( ,c n be+ ,d is a case ( ,a be+ ,b4 #ggc4 ,simil>ly ! two invalid types ( disjunctive syllogism w be f\nd to co9cide ) fallacies ( imm$iate inf]5ce4 #ggd4 ,affirmation ( ,antec$5t4 ,contraposition )\t ,conv]sion4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d4 ,all cases ( ,a n be+ ,b are cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 4'4 ,a be+ ,b1 ,c is n ,d 4'4 ,all cases ( ,a be+ ,b are cases ( ,c n be+ ,d4 #gge4 ,! affirmation ( ! antec$5t ?us comes "u ! =mula-- ,all n-,a is ,b1 4'4 ,all ,a is n-,b1 a =m ( inf]5ce :i* _c hold except :]e ,a & ,b are kn[n to be incompatible4 ,:o1 = in/ance1 w\ld ass5t to ?is8-- ,all non-boat+ m5 play cricket4 4'4 ,all boat+ m5 are non-cricket]s4 #ggf4 ,affirmation ( ,consequ5t4 ,simple ,conv]sion ( ,a4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d4 ,all cases ( ,a n be+ ,b are cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 4'4,c be+ ,d1 ,a is n ,b4 4'4 ,all cases ( ,c be+ ,d are cases ( ,a n be+ ,b4 #ggg4 ,we may h[ev] argue 9 ?is way-- ,conv]sion ( ,a p] accid5s4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d4 ,all cases ( ,a n be+ ,b are cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 4'4 ,c be+ ,d1 ,a is sometimes ,b4 4'4 ,"s cases ( ,c be+ ,d are cases ( ,a n be+ ,b4 ,! m5 :o pass ?is exam9ation mu/ h ei!r tal5t or indu/ry4 4'4 ,grant+ t !y are indu/ri\s1 !y may be )\t tal5t4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,( ! ,mix$ ,=m ( ,complex ,syllogism4 #ggh4 ,"u ?is head are includ$ all syllogisms 9 :i* a conjunctive is comb9$ ) a disjunctive premiss4 ,! be/ kn[n =m is ,! ,dilemma4 #ggi4 ,! ,dilemma may be def9$ z-- ,a complex syllogism1 hav+ = its major premiss a conjunctive proposition ) m ?an "o antec$5t1 or m ?an "o consequ5t1 or bo?1 :i* 7antec$5t or consequ5t7 ! m9or premiss disjunctively affirms or d5ies4 #ghj4 ,x w facilitate ! compreh5sion ( ! dilemma1 if ! foll[+ ?ree po9ts are borne 9 m9d-- 7#a7 t ! dilemma con=ms to ! canon ( ! p>tly conjunctive syllogism1 & !re=e a valid conclusion c be obta9$ only by affirm+ ! antec$5t or d5y+ ! consequ5t2 7#b7 t ! m9or premiss mu/ be disjunctive2 7#c7 t if only ! antec$5t be m ?an "o1 ! conclusion w be a simple proposition2 b if bo? antec$5t & consequ5t be m ?an "o1 ! conclusion w itself be disjunctive4 #gha4 ,! dilemma1 x w be se51 diff]s f ! p>tly conjunctive syllogism *iefly 9 ! fact ( hav+ a disjunctive affirmation ( ! antec$5t or d5ial ( ! consequ5t 9 ! m9or1 in/ead ( a simple "o4 ,x is ?is :i* con/itutes ! ess5ce ( ! dilemma1 & :i* det]m9es its possible v>ieties4 ,= if only ! antec$5t or only ! consequ5t be m ?an "o1 we mu/1 9 ord] to obta9 a disjunctive m9or1 affirm ! antec$5t or d5y ! consequ5t respectively2 :]eas1 if !re be m ?an "o ( bo?1 x is op5 to u to take ei!r c\rse4 ,?is gives u f\r types ( dilemma4 #ghb4 7#a74 ,simple ,con/ructive4 ,if ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d1 ,e is ,f4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d4 4'4 ,e is ,f4 7#b74 ,simple ,de/ructive4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d & ,e is ,f4 ,ei!r ,c is n ,d or ,e is n ,f4 4'4 ,a is n ,b4 7#c74 ,complex ,con/ructive4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d2 & if ,e is ,f1 ,g is ,h4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,e is ,f4 4'4 ,ei!r ,c is ,d or ,g is ,h4 7#d74 ,complex ,de/ructive4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d2 & if ,e is ,f1 ,g is ,h4 ,ei!r ,c is n ,d or ,g is n ,h4 4'4 ,ei!r ,a is n ,b or ,e is n ,f4 #ghc4 7#a74 ,simple ,con/ructive4 ,if %e s9ks or if %e swims1 !re w be an end ( h]4 ,%e mu/ ei!r s9k or swim4 4'4 ,!re w be an end ( h]4 7#b74 ,simple ,de/ructive4 ,if ,i g to ,t[n1 ,i mu/ pay = my ticket & pay my hotel bill4 ,ei!r ,i _c pay = my ticket or ,i _c pay my hotel bill4 4'4 ,i _c g to ,t[n4 7#c74 ,complex ,con/ructive4 ,if ,i /ay 9 ?is room1 ,i %all be burnt to dea?1 & if ,i jump out ( ! w9d[1 ,i %all break my neck4 ,i mu/ ei!r /ay 9 ! room or jump out ( ! w9d[4 4'4 ,i mu/ ei!r be burnt to dea? or break my neck4 7#d74 ,complex ,de/ructive4 ,if he 7 clev]1 he w\ld see 8 mi/ake2 & if he 7 c&id1 he w\ld ackn[l$ge x4 ,ei!r he does n see 8 mi/ake or he w n ackn[l$ge x4 4'4 ,ei!r he is n clev] or he is n c&id4 #ghd4 ,x mu/ be notic$ t ! simple de/ructive dilemma w\ld n admit ( a disjunctive consequ5t4 ,if we said1 ,if ,a is ,b1 ei!r ,c is ,d or ,e is ,f1 ,ei!r ,c is n ,d or ,e is n ,f1 we %\ld n be d5y+ ! consequ5t4 ,= ',e is n ,f' w\ld make x true t ,c is ,d1 & ',c is n ,d' w\ld make x true t ,e is ,f2 s t 9 ei!r case we %\ld h "o ( ! alt]natives true1 :i* is j :at ! disjunctive =m ',ei!r ,c is ,d or ,e is ,f' insi/s ^u4 #ghe4 ,9 ! case ( ! complex con/ructive dilemma ! sev]al memb]s1 in/ead ( be+ di/ributively assign$ to "o ano!r1 may be connect$ toge!r z a :ole--?us-- ,if ei!r ,a is ,b or ,e is ,f1 ei!r ,c is ,d or ,g is ,h4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,e is ,f4 4'4 ,ei!r ,c is ,d or ,g is ,h4 ,9 ?is %ape ! lik5ess ( ! dilemma to ! p>tly conjunctive syllogism is m imm$iately recognisable4 ,! major premiss 9 ?is %ape is vagu] ?an 9 ! =m]4 ,= ea* antec$5t has n[ a disjunctive *oice ( consequ5ts1 in/ead ( be+ limit$ to "o4 ,?is vagu5ess1 h[ev]1 does n affect ! conclusion4 ,=1 s long z ! conclusion is e/abli%$1 x does n matt] f :i* memb]s ( ! major its own memb]s fl[4 #ghf4 ,x mu/ be c>efully notic$ t we _c treat ! complex de/ructive dilemma 9 ! same way4 ,if ei!r ,a is ,b or ,e is ,f1 ei!r ,c is ,d or ,g is ,h4 ,ei!r ,c is n ,d or ,g is n ,h4 ,s9ce ! consequ5ts are no long] connect$ individually ) ! antec$5ts1 a disjunctive d5ial ( !m leaves x /ill possible = ! antec$5t z a :ole to be true4 ,= ',c is n ,d' makes x true t ,g is ,h1 & ',g is n ,h' makes x true t ,c is ,d4 ,9 ei!r case !n "o is true1 :i* is all t 0 dem&$ by ! consequ5t ( ! major4 ,h5ce ! consequ5t has n really be5 d5i$4 #ghg4 ,= ! sake ( simplicity we h limit$ ! examples to ! case ( two antec$5ts or consequ5ts4 ,b we may h z _m ( ei!r z we please1 s z to h a ,trilemma1 a ,tetralemma1 & s on4 ,,trilemma4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d2 & if ,e is ,f1 ,g is ,h2 & if ,k is ,l1 ,m is ,n4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,e is ,f or ,k is ,l4 4'4 ,ei!r ,c is ,d or ,g is ,h or ,k is ,l4 #ghh4 ,hav+ se5 :at ! true dilemma is1 we %all n[ exam9e "s =ms ( reason+ :i* resemble dilemmas )\t be+ s4 #ghi4 ,?is1 = in/ance1 is n a dilemma-- ,if ,a is ,b or if ,e is ,f1 ,c is ,d4 ,b ,a is ,b & ,e is ,f4 4'4 ,c is ,d4 ,if he obs]ves ! sabba? or if he refuses to eat pork1 he is a ,jew4 ,b he bo? obs]ves ! sabba? & refuses to eat pork4 4'4 ,he is a ,jew4 ,:at we h "h is a comb9ation ( two p>tly conjunctive syllogisms ) ! same conclusion1 :i* w\ld h be5 e/abli%$ by ei!r ( !m s+ly4 ,! pro( is r$undant4 #gij4 ,nei!r is ! foll[+ a dilemma-- ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d & ,e is ,f4 ,nei!r ,c is ,d nor ,e is ,f4 4'4 ,a is n ,b4 ,if ?is triangle is equilat]al1 its sides & its angles w be equal4 ,b nei!r its sides nor its angles are equal4 4'4 ,x is n equilat]al4 ,?is is ano!r comb9ation ( two conjunctive syllogisms1 bo? po9t+ to ! same conclusion4 ,! pro( is aga9 r$undant4 ,9 ?is case we h ! consequ5t d5i$ 9 bo?1 :]eas 9 ! =m] we _h ! antec$5t affirm$4 ,x is only = conv5i5ce t su* argum5ts z ^! are ?r[n into ! =m ( a s+le syllogism4 ,_! real di/9ctness may be se5 f ! fact t we "h d5y ea* proposition sep>ately1 ?us mak+ two indep5d5t /atem5ts--,c is n ,d & ,e is n ,f4 ,b 9 ! true in/ance ( ! simple de/ructive dilemma1 :at we d5y is n ! tru? ( ! two propositions conta9$ 9 ! consequ5t1 b _! compatibility2 9 o!r words we make a disjunctive d5ial4 #gia4 ,nor yet is ! foll[+ a dilemma-- ,if ,a is ,b1 ei!r ,c is ,d or ,e is ,f4 ,nei!r ,c is ,d nor ,e is ,f4 4'4 ,a is n ,b4 ,if ! b>omet] falls !re w be ei!r w9d or ra94 ,!re is nei!r w9d nor ra94 4'4 ,! b>omet] has n fall54 ,:at we h "h is simply a conjunctive major ) ! consequ5t d5i$ 9 ! m9or4 ,9 ! consequ5t ( ! major x is ass]t$ t ! two propositions1 ',c is ,d' & ',e is ,f' _c bo? be false2 & 9 ! m9or ?is is d5i$ by ! ass]tion t !y are bo? false4 #gib4 ,a dilemma is said to be rebutt$ or retort$1 :5 ano!r dilemma is made out prov+ an opposite conclusion4 ,if ! dilemma be a s\nd "o1 & its premisses true1 ?is is ( c\rse impossible1 & any appe>ance ( contradiction t may pres5t itself on fir/ sight mu/ vani% on inspection4 ,! mo/ usual mode ( rebutt+ a dilemma is by transpos+ & d5y+ ! consequ5ts 9 ! major-- ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d2 & if ,e is ,f1 ,g is ,h4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,e is ,f4 4'4 ,ei!r ,c is ,d or ,g is ,h4 ,! same rebutt$-- ,if ,a is ,b1 ,g is n ,h2 & if ,e is ,f1 ,c is n ,d4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,e is ,f4 4'4 ,ei!r ,g is n ,h or ,c is n ,d4 ,ei!r ,c is n ,d or ,g is n ,h4 #gic4 ,"u ?is =m comes ! dilemma address$ by ! ,a!nian "m to h] son--',d n ent] public life3 =1 if y say :at is j1 m5 w hate y2 &1 if y say :at is unju/1 ! gods w hate y' to :i* ! foll[+ retort 0 made--',i ought to ent] public life3 =1 if #a say :at is j1 ! gods w love me2 &1 if #a say :at is unju/1 m5 w love me4' ,b ! two conclusions "h are q compatible4 ,a man mu/1 on ! giv5 premisses1 be bo? hat$ & lov$1 :atev] c\rse he takes4 ,s f> inde$ are two propositions ( ! =m ,ei!r ,c is ,d or ,g is ,h1 & ,ei!r ,c is n ,d or ,g is n ,h1 f be+ incompatible1 t !y express precisely ! same ?+ :5 contradictory alt]natives h be5 select$1 e4g4-- ,ei!r a triangle is equilat]al or non-equilat]al4 ,ei!r a triangle is non-equilat]al or equilat]al4 #gid4 ,equally illusory is ! fam\s in/ance ( rebutt+ a dilemma conta9$ 9 ! /ory ( ,protagoras & ,eua?lus 7,aul4 ,gell4 ,noct4 ,alt4 v4 #aj71 ,eua?lus 0 a pupil ( ,protagoras 9 rhetoric4 ,he paid half ! fee dem&$ by 8 preceptor be=e receiv+ lessons1 & agre$ to pay ! rema9d] :5 he won 8 fir/ case4 ,b z he nev] proce$$ to practise at ! b>1 x became evid5t t he meant to bilk 8 tutor4 ,accord+ly ,protagoras himself in/itut$ a law-suit aga9/ him1 & 9 ! prelim9>y proce$+s be=e ! jurors prop\nd$ to him ! foll[+ dilemma--',mo/ fooli% "y man1 :atev] be ! issue ( ?is suit1 y mu/ pay me :at ,i claim3 =1 if ! v]dict be giv5 9 y\r fav\r1 y are b\nd by our b>ga92 & if x be giv5 aga9/ y1 y are b\nd by ! decision ( ! jurors4' ,! pupil1 h[ev]1 0 equal to ! occasion1 & rebutt$ ! dilemma z foll[s4 ',mo/ sapi5t ma/]1 :atev] be ! issue ( ?is suit1 ,i %all n pay y :at y claim3 =1 if ! v]dict be giv5 9 my fav\r1 ,i am absolv$ by ! decision ( ! jurors2 &1 if x be giv5 aga9/ me1 ,i am absolv$ by our b>ga94' ,! jurors are said to h be5 s puzzl$ by ! conflict+ plausibility ( ! argum5ts t !y adj\rn$ ! case till ! ,greek ,kal5ds4 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t a grave inju/ice 0 ?us done to ,protagoras4 ,8 dilemma 0 really inv9cible4 ,9 ! c\nt]-dilemma ( ,eua?lus we are meant to inf] t ,protagoras w\ld actually lose 8 fee1 in/ead ( m]ely gett+ x 9 "o way r ?an ano!r4 ,9 ei!r case he w\ld bo? get & lose 8 fee1 9 ! s5se ( gett+ x on "o plea1 & n gett+ x on ano!r3 b 9 nei!r case w\ld he actually lose x4 #gie4 ,if a dilemma is correct 9 =m1 ! conclusion ( c\rse rigor\sly foll[s3 b a mat]ial fallacy (t5 und]lies ?is =m ( argum5t 9 ! tacit assumption t ! alt]natives (f]$ 9 ! m9or con/itute an exhau/ive division4 ,?us ! dilemma ',if pa9 is sev]e1 x w be brief2 & if x la/ long x w be slight1' c41 leaves out ( sight ! un=tunate fact t pa9 may bo? be sev]e & ( long cont9uance4 ,aga9 ! foll[+ dilemma-- ,if /ud5ts are idle1 exam9ations are unavail+2 &1 if !y are indu/ri\s1 exam9ations are sup]flu\s1 ,/ud5ts are ei!r idle or indu/ri\s1 4'4 ,exam9ations are ei!r unavail+ or sup]flu\s1 is valid en\gh1 s f> z ! =m is conc]n$4 ,b ! p]son :o us$ x w\ld d\btless mean to imply t /ud5ts c\ld be exhau/ively divid$ into ! idle & ! indu/ri\s4 ,no d$uctive conclusion c g fur!r ?an its premisses2 s t all t ! above conclusion c 9 /rictness be tak5 to mean is t exam9ations are unavail+1 :5 /ud5ts are idle1 & sup]flu\s1 :5 !y are indu/ri\s--:i* is simply a reass]tion z a matt] ( fact ( :at 0 previ\sly giv5 z a pure hypo!sis4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,( ! ,r$uction ( ! ,dilemma4 #gif4 ,z ! dilemma is only a peculi> v>iety ( ! p>tly conjunctive syllogism1 we %\ld naturally expect to f9d x r$ucible 9 ! same way to ! =m ( a simple syllogism4 ,& su* is 9 fact ! case4 ,! con/ructive dilemma con=ms to ! fir/ figure & ! de/ructive to ! second4 #a7 ,simple ,con/ructive ,dilemma4 ,b>b>a4 ,if ,a is ,b or if ,e is ,f1 ,c is ,d4 ,all cases ( ei!r ,a be+ ,b or ,e be+ ,f are cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,e is ,f4 ,all actual cases are cases ( ei!r ,a be+ ,b ,,op ,e be+ ,f4 4'4 ,c is ,d4 4'4 ,all actual cases are cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 7#b7 ,simple ,de/ructive4 ,cam/res4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d & ,e is ,f4 ,all cases ( ,a be+ ,b are cases ( ,c be+ ,d & ,e be+ ,f4 ,ei!r ,c is n ,d or ,e is n ,f4 ,no actual cases are cases ( ,c be+ ,d & ,e be+ ,f4 4'4 ,a is n ,b4 4'4 ,no actual cases are cases ( ,a be+ ,b4 7#c7 ,complex ,con/ructive4 ,b>b>a4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d2 & if ,e is ,f1 ,all cases ( ei!r ,a be+ ,b or ,g is ,h4 be+ ,f are cases ( ei!r ,c be+ ,d or ,g be+ ,h4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,e is ,f4 ,all actual cases are cases ( ei!r ,a be+ ,b or ,e be+ ,f4 4'4 ,ei!r ,c is ,d or ,g is ,h4 4'4 ,all actual cases are cases ( ei!r ,c be+ ,d or ,g be+ ,h4 7#d7 ,complex ,de/ructive4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d2 & if ,e is ,f1 ,all cases ( ,a be+ ,b & ,e be+ ,f ,g is ,h4 are cases ( ,c be+ ,d & ,g be+ ,h4 ,ei!r ,c is n ,d ,or ,g is ,no actual cases are cases ( ,c be+ n ,h ,d & ,g be+ ,h4 ,ei!r ,a is n ,b or ,e is ,no actual cases are cases ( ,a be+ n ,f4 ,b & ,e be+ ,f4 #gig4 ,!re is no?+ to prev5t our hav+ ,d>ii1 in/ead ( ,b>b>a1 9 ! con/ructive =m1 & ,b>oko1 in/ead ( ,came/res1 9 ! de/ructive4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! p>tly conjunctive syllogism ! rema9+ moods ( ! fir/ & second figure are obta9$ by tak+ a negative proposition z ! consequ5t ( ! major premiss1 e4g4-- ,simple ,con/ructive4 ,cel>5t or ,f]io4 ,if ,a is ,b or if ,e is ,f1 ,c is n ,d ,no cases ( ei!r ,a be+ ,b or ,e be+ ,f are cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,e is ,f4 ,all 7or "s7 actual cases are cases ( ei!r ,a be+ ,b or ,e be+ ,f 4'4 ,c is n ,d4 4'4 ,all 7or "s7 actual cases are n cases ( ,c be+ ,d4 ,,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,( ! ,dilemma reg>d$ z an ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce4 #gih4 ,l ! p>tly conjunctive syllogism1 ! dilemma c be express$ "u ! =ms ( imm$iate inf]5ce4 ,z be=e1 ! conclusion 9 ! con/ructive type resolves itself into ! subalt]nate ( ! major itself1 & 9 ! de/ructive type into ! subalt]nate ( its contrapositive4 ,! simple con/ructive dilemma1 = in/ance1 may be read z foll[s-- ,if ei!r ,a is ,b or ,e is ,f1 ,c is ,d1 4'4 ,ei!r ,a be+ ,b or ,e be+ ,f1 ,c is ,d1 :i* is equival5t to ,e case ( ei!r ,a be+ ,b or ,e be+ ,f is a case ( ,c be+ ,d4 4'4 ,"s case ( ei!r ,a be+ ,b or ,e be+ ,f is a case ( ,c be+ ,d4 ,! desc5t "h f 'e' to '"s' takes ! place ( ! transition f hypo!sis to fact4 #gii4 ,aga9 ! complex de/ructive may be read ?us-- ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d2 & if ,e is ,f1 ,g is ,h1 4'4 ,x n be+ true t ,c is ,d & ,g is ,h1 x is n true t ,a is ,b & ,e is ,f1 :i* may be resolv$ into two /eps ( imm$iate inf]5ce1 namely1 conv]sion by contraposition foll[$ by subalt]nation-- ,all cases ( ,a be+ ,b & ,e be+ ,f are cases ( ,c be+ ,d & ,g be+ ,h4 4'4 ,:atev] is n a case ( ,c be+ ,d & ,g be+ ,h is n a case ( ,a be+ ,b & ,e be+ ,f4 4'4 ,"s case :i* is n "o ( ,c be+ ,d & ,g be+ ,h is n a case ( ,a be+ ,b & ,e be+ ,f4 ,,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,( ,tra9s ( ,reason+4 #hjj4 ,! =mal logician is only conc]n$ to exam9e :e!r ! conclusion duly foll[s f ! premisses3 he ne$ n conc]n himself ) ! tru? or falsity ( 8 data4 ,b ! premisses ( "o syllogism may !mselves be conclusions d$uc$ f o!r syllogisms1 ! premisses ( :i* may 9 _! turn h be5 e/abli%$ by yet e>li] syllogisms4 ,:5 syllogisms are ?us l9k$ toge!r we h :at is call$ a ,tra9 ( ,reason+4 #hja4 ,x is pla9 t all tru?s _c be e/abli%$ by reason+4 ,= ! attempt to d s w\ld involve u 9 an inf9ite regress1 :]e9 ! numb] ( syllogisms requir$ w\ld increase at ea* /ep 9 a geometrical ratio4 ,to e/abli% ! premisses ( a giv5 syllogism we %\ld require two prec$+ syllogisms2 to e/abli% _! premisses1 f\r2 at ! next /ep backw>ds1 eight2 at ! next1 sixte52 & s on ad inf9itum4 ,?us ! v possibility ( reason+ implies tru?s t are kn[n to u prior to all reason+2 &1 h[ev] long a tra9 ( reason+ may be1 we mu/ ultimately come to tru?s :i* are ei!r self-evid5t or are tak5 = grant$4 #hjb4 ,any syllogism :i* e/abli%es "o ( ! premisses ( ano!r is call$ 9 ref]5ce to t o!r a ,pro-syllogism1 :ile a syllogism :i* has = "o ( its premisses ! conclusion ( ano!r syllogism is call$ 9 ref]5ce to t o!r an ,epi-syllogism4 ,! ,epi*eirema4 #hjc4 ,! "n ,epi*eirema is giv5 to a syllogism ) "o or bo? ( its premisses support$ by a reason4 ,?us ! foll[+ is a d\ble epi*eirema-- ,all ,b is ,a1 = x is ,e4 ,all ,c is ,b1 = x is ,f4 4'4 ,all ,c is ,a4 ,all virtue is praisewor?y1 = x promotes ! g5]al welf>e4 ,g5]osity is a virtue1 = x prompts m5 to po/pone self to o!rs4 4'4 ,g5]osity is praisewor?y4 #hjd4 ,an epi*eirema is said to be ( ! fir/ or second ord] accord+ z ! major or m9or premiss is ?us support$4 ,! d\ble epi*eirema is a comb9ation ( ! two ord]s4 #hje4 ,an epi*eirema1 x w be se51 consi/s ( "o syllogism fully express$ toge!r ) "o1 or1 x may be1 two en?ymemes 7 #eeg74 ,9 ! above in/ance1 if ! reason+ :i* supports ! premisses 7 set =? at full l5g?1 we %\ld h1 9 place ( ! en?ymemes1 ! two foll[+ pro-syllogisms-- 7i7 ,all ,e is ,a4 ,all ,b is ,e4 4'4 ,all ,b is ,a4 ,:atev] promotes ! g5]al welf>e is praisewor?y4 ,e virtue promotes ! g5]al welf>e4 4'4 ,e virtue is praisewor?y4 7#b7 ,all ,f is ,b4 ,all ,c is ,f4 4'4 ,all ,c is ,b4 ,:atev] prompts m5 to po/pone self to o!rs is a virtue4 ,g5]osity prompts m5 to po/pone self to o!rs4 4'4 ,g5]osity is a virtue4 #hjf4 ,! en?ymemes 9 ! in/ance above giv5 are bo? ( ! fir/ ord]1 hav+ ! major premiss suppress$4 ,b !re is no?+ to prev5t "o or bo? ( !m f be+ ( ! second ord]-- ,all ,b is ,a1 because all ,f is4 ,all ,c is ,b1 because all ,f is4 4'4 ,all ,c is ,a4 ,all ,mahometans are fanatics1 because all ,mono!i/s are4 ,^! m5 are ,mahometans1 because all ,p]sians are4 4'4 ,^! m5 are fanatics4 ,"h x is ! m9or premiss 9 ea* syllogism t is suppress$1 namely1 7#a7 ,all ,mahometans are ,mono!i/s4 7#b7 ,^! m5 are ,p]sians4 ,! ,sorites4 #hjg4 ,! ,sorites is ! neate/ & mo/ comp5di\s =m t c be assum$ by a tra9 ( reason+4 #hjh4 ,x is sometimes m appropriately call$ ! *a9-argum5t1 & map be def9$ z-- ,a tra9 ( reason+1 9 :i* "o premiss ( ea* epi-syllogism is support$ by a pro-syllogism1 ! o!r be+ tak5 = grant$4 ,?is is its inn] ess5ce4 #hji4 ,9 its outw>d =m x may be describ$ z--,a s]ies ( propositions1 ea* ( :i* has "o t]m 9 common ) t :i* prec$$ x1 :ile 9 ! conclusion "o ( ! t]ms 9 ! la/ proposition becomes ei!r subject or pr$icate to "o ( ! t]ms 9 ! fir/4 #haj4 ,a sorites may be ei!r-- 7#a7 ,progressive1 or 7#b7 ,regressive4 ,progressive ,sorites4 ,all ,a is ,b4 ,all ,b is ,c4 ,all ,c is ,d4 ,all ,d is ,e4 4'4 ,all ,a is ,e4 ,regressive ,sorites4 ,all ,d is ,e4 ,all ,c is ,d4 ,all ,b is ,c4 ,all ,a is ,b4 4'4 ,all ,a is ,e4 #haa4 ,! usual =m is ! progressive2 s t ! sorites is commonly describ$ z a s]ies ( propositions 9 :i* ! pr$icate ( ea* becomes ! subject ( ! next1 :ile 9 ! conclusion ! la/ pr$icate is affirm$ or d5i$ ( ! fir/ subject4 ,! regressive =m1 h[ev]1 exactly rev]ses ^! attributes2 & w\ld require to be describ$ z a s]ies ( propositions1 9 :i* ! subject ( ea* becomes ! pr$icate ( ! next1 :ile 9 ! conclusion ! fir/ pr$icate is affirm$ or d5i$ ( ! la/ subject4 #hab4 ,! regressive sorites1 x w be obs]v$1 consi/s ( ! same propositions z ! progressive "o1 only writt5 9 rev]se ord]4 ,:y !n1 x may be ask$1 d we give a special "n to x1 ?\gh we d n consid] a syllogism diff]5t1 if ! m9or premiss happ5s to prec$e ! major8 ,x is because ! sorites is n a m]e s]ies ( propositions1 b a compress$ tra9 ( reason+2 & ! two tra9s ( reason+ may be resolv$ into _! compon5t syllogisms 9 su* a mann] z to exhibit a real diff]5ce betwe5 !m4 #hac4 ,! ,progressive ,sorites is a tra9 ( reason+ 9 :i* ! m9or premiss ( ea* epi-syllogism is support$ by a pro-syllogism1 :ile ! major is tak5 = grant$4 #had4 ,! ,regressive ,sorites is a tra9 ( reason+ 9 :i* ! major premiss ( ea* epi-syllogism is support$ by a pro-syllogism1 :ile ! m9or is tak5 = grant$4 ,progressive ,sorites4 7i7 ,all ,b is ,c4 ,all ,a is ,b4 4'4 ,all ,a is ,c4 7#b7 ,all ,c is ,d4 ,all ,a is ,c4 4'4 ,all ,a is ,d4 7#c7 ,all ,d is ,e4 ,all ,a is ,d4 4'4 ,all ,a is ,e4 ,regressive ,sorites4 7#a7 ,all ,d is ,e4 ,all ,c is ,d4 4'4 ,all ,c is ,e4 7#b7 ,all ,c is ,e4 ,all ,b is ,c4 4'4 ,all ,b is ,e4 7#c7 ,all ,b is ,e4 ,all ,a is ,b4 4'4 ,all ,a is ,e4 #hae4 ,"h is a concrete example ( ! two k9ds ( sorites1 resolv$ ea* into its compon5t syllogisms-- ,progressive ,sorites4 ,all ,bide=d m5 are ,devon%ire m54 ,all ,devon%ire m5 are ,engli%m54 ,all ,engli%m5 are ,teutons4 ,all ,teutons are ,aryans4 4'4 ,all ,bide=d m5 are ,aryans4 7#a7 ,all ,devon%ire m5 are ,engli%m54 ,all ,bide=d m5 are ,devon%ire m54 4'4 ,all ,bide=d m5 are ,engli%m54 7#b7 ,all ,engli%m5 are ,teutons4 ,all ,bide=d m5 are ,engli%m54 4'4 ,all ,bide=d m5 are ,teutons4 7#c7 ,all ,teutons are ,aryans4 ,all ,bide=d m5 are ,teutons4 4'4 ,all ,bide=d m5 are ,aryans4 ,regressive ,sorites4 ,all ,teutons are ,aryans4 ,all ,engli%m5 are ,teutons4 ,all ,devon%irem5 are ,engli%m54 ,all ,bide=d m5 are ,devon%irem54 4'4 ,all ,bide=d m5 are ,aryans4 7#a7 ,all ,teutons are ,aryans4 ,all ,engli%m5 are ,teutons4 4'4 ,all ,engli%m5 are ,aryans4 7#b7 ,all ,engli%m5 are ,aryans4 ,all ,devon%irem5 are ,engli%m54 4'4 ,all ,devon%irem5 are ,aryans4 7#c7 ,all ,devon%irem5 are ,aryans4 ,all ,bide=d m5 are ,devon%irem54 4'4 ,all ,bide=d m5 are ,aryans4 #haf4 ,:5 exp&$1 ! sorites is f\nd to conta9 z _m syllogisms z !re are propositions int]m$iate betwe5 ! fir/ & ! la/4 ,?is is evid5t also on inspection by c\nt+ ! numb] ( middle t]ms4 #hag4 ,9 exp&+ ! progressive =m we h to comm5ce ) ! second proposition ( ! sorites z ! major premiss ( ! fir/ syllogism4 ,9 ! progressive =m ! subject ( ! conclusion is ! same 9 all ! syllogisms2 9 ! regressive =m ! pr$icate is ! same4 ,9 bo? ! same s]ies ( means1 or middle t]ms1 is employ$1 ! diff]5ce ly+ 9 ! extremes t are comp>$ ) "o ano!r ?r\gh !m4 ,illu/ration #hah4 ,x is app>5t f ! figure t 9 ! progressive =m we "w f )9 outw>ds1 9 ! regressive =m f )\t inw>ds4 ,9 ! =m] we fir/ employ ! t]m ',devon%irem5' z a mean to connect ',bide=d m5' ) ',engli%m5'2 next we employ ',engli%m5' z a mean to connect ! same subject ',bide=d m5' ) ! wid] t]m ',teutons'2 &1 la/ly1 we employ ',teutons' z a mean to connect ! orig9al subject ',bide=d m5' ) ! ultimate pr$icate ',ayrans4' #hai4 ,rev]sely1 9 ! regressive =m we fir/ use ',teutons' z a mean :]eby to br+ ',engli%m5' "u ',aryans'2 next we use ',engli%m5' z a mean :]eby to br+ ',devon%irem5' "u ! dame pr$icate ',aryans'2 &1 la/ly1 we use ',devon%irem5' z a mean :]eby to br+ ! ultimate subject ',bide=d m5' "u ! orig9al pr$icate ',aryans4' #hbj4 ,a sorites may be ei!r ,regul> or ,irregul>4 #hba4 ,9 ! regul> =m ! t]ms :i* connect ea* proposition 9 ! s]ies ) its pr$ecessor1 t is to say1 ! middle t]ms1 ma9ta9 a fix$ relative position2 s t1 if ! middle t]m be subject 9 "o1 x w always be pr$icate 9 ! o!r1 & vice v]s4 ,9 ! irregul> =m ?is symmetrical arrangem5t is violat$4 #hbb4 ,! syllogisms :i* compose a regul> sorites1 :e!r progressive or regressive1 w always be 9 ! fir/ figure4 ,9 ! irregul> sorites ! syllogisms may fall into diff]5t figures4 #hbc4 ,= ! regul> sorites ! foll[+ rules may be laid d[n4 7#a7 ,only "o premiss c be p>ticul>1 namely1 ! fir/1 if ! sorites be progressive1 ! la/1 if x be regressive4 7#b7 ,only "o premiss c be negative1 namely1 ! la/1 if ! sorites be progressive1 ! fir/1 if x be regressive4 #hbd4 ,pro( ( ! ,rules = ! ,regul> ,sorites4 7#a7 ,9 ! progressive sorites ! proposition :i* /&s fir/ is ! only "o :i* appe>s z a m9or premiss 9 ! exp&$ =m4 ,ea* ( ! o!rs is us$ 9 its turn z a major4 ,if any proposition1 !re=e1 b ! fir/ 7 p>ticul>1 !re w\ld be a p>ticul> major1 :i* involves undi/ribut$ middle1 if ! m9or be affirmative1 z x mu/ be 9 ! fir/ figure4 ,9 ! regressive sorites1 if any proposition except ! la/ 7 p>ticul>1 we %\ld h a p>ticul> conclusion 9 ! syllogism 9 :i* x occurr$ z a premiss1 & s a p>ticul> major 9 ! next syllogism1 :i* aga9 is inadmissible1 z involv+ undi/ribut$ middle4 7#b7 ,9 ! progressive sorites1 if any premiss be=e ! la/ 7 negative1 we %\ld h a negative conclusion 9 ! syllogism 9 :i* x occurs4 ,?is w\ld necessitate a negative m9or 9 ! next syllogism1 :i* is inadmissible 9 ! fir/ figure1 z involv+ illicit process ( ! major4 ,9 ! regressive sorites ! proposition :i* /&s fir/ is ! only "o :i* appe>s z a major premiss 9 ! exp&$ =m4 ,ea* ( ! o!rs is us$ 9 its turn z a m9or4 ,if any premiss1 !re=e1 b ! fir/ 7 negative1 we %\ld h a negative m9or 9 ! fir/ figure1 :i* involves illicit process ( ! major4 #hbe4 ,! rules above giv5 d n apply to ! irregul> sorites1 except s f> z t only "o premiss c be p>ticul> & only "o negative1 :i* foll[s f ! g5]al rules ( syllogism4 ,b !re is no?+ to prev5t any "o premiss f be+ p>ticul> or any "o premiss f be+ negative1 z ! subjo9$ examples w %[4 ,bo? ! in/ances *os5 belong to ! progressive ord] ( sorites4 7#a7 ,b>b>a4 ,all ,b is ,a4 ,all ,c is ,b4 ,all ,c is ,a4 ,all ,b is ,a4 ,all ,c is ,b4 ,"s ,c is ,d4 ,all ,d is ,e 4'4 ,"s ,a is ,e ,illu/ration 7#b7 ,disamis4 ,"s ,c is ,d4 ,all ,c is ,a4 ,"s ,a is ,d4 7#c7 ,d>ii4 ,all ,d is ,e ,"s ,a is ,d4 ,"s ,a is ,e4 7#a7 ,b>b>a4 ,all ,b is ,c4 ,all ,a is ,b4 ,all ,a is ,c4 ,all ,a is ,b4 ,all ,b is ,c4 ,no ,d is ,c4 ,all ,e is ,d4 4'4 ,no ,a is ,e4 ,illu/ration 7#b7 ,ces>e4 ,no ,d is ,c4 ,all ,a is ,c4 4'4 ,no ,a is ,d4 7#c7 ,came/res4 ,all ,e is ,d4 ,no ,a is ,d4 4'4 ,no ,a is ,e4 #hbf4 ,a *a9 argum5t may be compos$ consi/+ ( conjunctive in/ead ( simple propositions4 ,?is is subject to ! same laws z ! simple sorites1 to :i* x is imm$iately r$ucible4 ,progressive4 ,regressive4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d4 ,if ,e is ,f1 ,g is ,h4 ,if ,c is ,d1 ,e is ,f4 ,if ,c is ,d1 ,e is ,f4 ,if ,e is ,f1 ,g is ,h4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d4 4'4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,g is ,h4 4'4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,g is ,h4 ,,*apt] ,,xxx4 ,( ,fallacies4 #hbg4 ,aft] exam9+ ! conditions on :i* correct ?\ghts dep5d1 x is exp$i5t to classify "s ( ! mo/ famili> =ms ( error4 ,x is by ! treatm5t ( ! ,fallacies t logic *iefly v9dicates its claim to be consid]$ a practical r ?an a speculative sci5ce4 ,to expla9 & give a "n to fallacies is l sett+ up s _m sign-po/s on ! v>i\s turns :i* x is possible to take (f ! road ( tru?4 #hbh4 ,by a fallacy is meant a piece ( reason+ :i* appe>s to e/abli% a conclusion )\t really do+ s4 ,! t]m applies bo? to ! legitimate d$uction ( a conclusion f false premisses & to ! illegitimate d$uction ( a conclusion f any premisses4 ,!re are errors incid5tal to conception & judgem5t1 :i* might well be br\ght "u ! "n2 b ! fallacies ) :i* we %all conc]n ourselves are conf9$ to errors connect$ ) inf]5ce4 #hbi4 ,:5 any inf]5ce leads to a false conclusion1 ! error may h aris5 ei!r 9 ! ?\ght itself or 9 ! signs by :i* ! ?\ght is convey$4 ,! ma9 s\rces ( fallacy !n are conf9$ to two-- 7#a7 ?\ght1 7#b7 language4 #hcj4 ,?is is ! basis ( ,ari/otle's division ( fallacies1 :i* has n yet be5 sup]s$$4 ,fallacies1 accord+ to him1 are ei!r 9 ! language or outside ( x4 ,outside ( language !re is no s\rce ( error b ?\ght4 ,= ?+s !mselves d n deceive u1 b error arises ow+ to a mis9t]pretation ( ?+s by ! m9d4 ,?\ght1 h[ev]1 may err ei!r 9 its =m or 9 its matt]4 ,! =m] is ! case :]e !re is "s violation ( ! laws ( ?\ght2 ! latt] :5ev] ?\ght disagrees ) its object4 ,h5ce we arrive at ! important di/9ction betwe5 ,=mal & ,mat]ial fallacies1 bo? ( :i*1 h[ev]1 fall "u ! same negative head ( fallacies o!r ?an ^? ( language4 ,9 ! language 79 ! signs ( ?\ght7 ,fallacy - --,9 ! ,=m4 --,outside ! language - 79 ! ?\ght itself7 --9 ! ,matt]4 #hca4 ,!re are !n ?ree heads to :i* fallacies may be ref]r$-namely1 ,=mal ,fallacies1 ,fallacies ( ,language1 :i* are commonly kn[n z ,fallacies ( ,ambiguity1 &1 la/ly1 ,mat]ial ,fallacies4 #hcb4 ,ari/otle himself only goes s f> z ! fir/ /ep 9 ! division ( fallacies1 be+ cont5t to class !m accord+ z !y are 9 ! language or outside ( x4 ,aft] t he proce$s at once to enum]ate ! infim species "u ea* ( ! two ma9 heads4 ,we %all pres5tly imitate ?is proc$ure = reasons ( exp$i5cy4 ,= ! :ole phraseology ( ! subject is d]iv$ f ,ari/otle's treatise on ,sophi/ical ,refutations1 & we mu/ ei!r keep to 8 me?od or break away f tradition altoge!r4 ,suffici5t confusion has already aris5 f reta9+ ,ari/otle's language :ile neglect+ 8 mean+4 #hcc4 ,mod]n writ]s on logic d n approa* fallacies f ! same po9t ( view z ,ari/otle4 ,_! object is to discov] ! mo/ f]tile s\rces ( error 9 solit>y reason+2 8 0 to enum]ate ! v>i\s tricks ( refutation :i* c\ld be employ$ by a sophi/ 9 controv]sy4 ,ari/otle's classification is an app5dix to ! ,art ( ,dialectic4 #hcd4 ,ano!r cause ( confusion 9 ?is "p ( logic is ! id5tification ( ,ari/otle's two-fold division ( fallacies1 commonly kn[n "u ! titles ( ,9 dictione & ,extra diotionem1 ) ! division into ,logical & ,mat]ial1 :i* is bas$ on q a diff]5t pr9ciple4 #hce4 ,ari/otle's division p]haps all[s an undue importance to language1 9 mak+ t ! pr9ciple ( division1 & s ?r[+ =mal & mat]ial fallacies "u a common head4 ,accord+ly ano!r classification has be5 adopt$1 :i* conc5trates att5tion f ! fir/ ^u ! process ( ?\ght1 :i* ought c]ta9ly to be ( prim>y importance 9 ! eyes ( ! logician4 ,?is classification is z foll[s4 #hcf4 ,:5ev] 9 ! c\rse ( our reason+ we are involv$ 9 error1 ei!r ! conclusion foll[s f ! premisses or x does n4 ,if x does n1 ! fault mu/ lie 9 ! process ( reason+1 & we h !n :at is call$ a ,logical ,fallacy4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! conclusion does foll[ f ! premisses1 ! fault mu/ lie 9 ! premisses !mselves1 & we !n h :at is call$ a ,mat]ial ,fallacy4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 ! conclusion w appe> to foll[ f ! premisses until ! mean+ ( ! t]ms is exam9$1 :5 x w be f\nd t ! appe>ance is deceptive ow+ to "s ambiguity 9 ! language4 ,su* fallacies z ^! are1 /rictly speak+1 non-logical1 s9ce ! mean+ ( words is extrane\s to ! sci5ce :i* deals ) ?\ght4 ,b !y are call$ ,semi-logical4 ,?us we arrive by a diff]5t road at ! same ?ree heads z be=e1 namely1 7#a7 ,=mal or ,purely ,logical ,fallacies1 7#b7 ,semi-logical ,fallacies or ,fallacies ( ,ambiguity1 7#c7 ,mat]ial ,fallacies4 #hcg4 ,= ! sake ( di/9ctness we w place ! two divisions side by side1 be=e we proce$ to enum]ate ! infimae species4 --,9 ! language 7,fallacy ( ,ambiguity7 ,fallacy- --,9 ! ,=m4 --,outside ! language - --,9 ! ,matt]4 --,=mal or purely logical4 --,logical - ,fallacy- --,semi-logical 7,fallacy ( ,ambiguity74 --,mat]ial #hch4 ,( "o ( ^! ?ree heads1 namely1 =mal fallacies1 x is n necess>y to say mu*1 z !y h be5 amply treat$ ( 9 ! prec$+ pages4 ,a =mal fallacy arises f ! brea* ( any ( ! g5]al rules ( syllogism4 ,consequ5tly x w\ld be a =mal fallacy to pres5t z a syllogism any?+ :i* _h m or less ?an two premisses4 ,"u ! latt] v>iety comes :at is call$ 'a woman's reason1' :i* ass]ts ^u its own evid5ce some?+ :i* requires to be prov$4 ,s*oolboys also h be5 kn[n to resort to ?is =m ( argum5t--',y're a fool4' ',:y8' ',because y are4' ,:5 ! conclusion ?us m]ely reass]ts "o ( ! premisses1 ! o!r mu/ be ei!r abs5t or irrelevant4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 !re are m ?an two premisses1 ei!r !re is m ?an "o syllogism or ! sup]flu\s premiss is no premiss at all1 b a proposition irrelevant to ! conclusion4 #hci4 ,! rema9+ rules ( ! syllogism are m able to be brok5 ?an ! fir/2 s t ! foll[+ s*eme pres5ts ! v>ieties ( =mal fallacy :i* are commonly enum]at$-- --,f\r ,t]ms4 ,=mal ,fallacy---,undi/ribut$ ,middle4 --,illicit ,process4 --,negative ,premisses & ,conclusion4 #hdj4 ,! ,fallacy ( ,f\r ,t]ms is a violation ( ! second ( ! g5]al rules ( syllogism 7 #ehb74 ,"h is a palpable in/ance ( x-- ,all m5 :o write books are au?ors4 ,all educat$ m5 c\ld write books4 4'4 ,all educat$ m5 are au?ors4 ,"h ! middle t]m is alt]$ 9 ! m9or premiss to ! de/ruction ( ! argum5t4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! actual writ+ ( books & ! p[] to write !m is precisely ! diff]5ce betwe5 "o :o is an au?or & "o :o is n4 #hda4 ,s9ce a syllogism consi/s ( ?ree t]ms1 ea* ( :i* is us$ twice ov]1 x w\ld be possible to h an app>5t syllogism ) z _m z six t]ms 9 x4 ,! true "n = ! fallacy !re=e is ! ,fallacy ( ,m ?an ,?ree ,t]ms4 ,b x is r>e to f9d an attempt$ syllogism :i* has m ?an f\r t]ms 9 x1 j z we are seldom t5d]$ a l9e z an hexamet]1 :i* has m ?an sev5 feet4 #hdb4 ,! ,fallacies ( ,undi/ribut$ ,middle & ,illicit ,process h be5 treat$ ( "u #ehe1 #ehf4 ,! head+ ',negative ,premisses & ,conclusion' cov]s violations ( ! ?ree g5]al rules ( syllogism relat+ to negative premisses 7 #eij-eic74 ,"h is an in/ance ( ! p>ticul> =m ( ! fallacy :i* consi/s 9 ! attempt to extract an affirmative conclusion out ( two negative premisses-- ,all salmon are fi%1 = nei!r salmon nor fi% belong to ! class mammalia4 ,! accid5t ( a conclusion be+ true (t5 helps to conceal ! fact t x is illegitimately arriv$ at4 ,! =mal fallacies :i* h j be5 enum]at$ f9d no place 9 ,ari/otle's division4 ,! reason is pla94 ,8 object 0 to enum]ate ! v>i\s modes 9 :i* a sophi/ might snat* an app>5t victory1 :]eas by op5ly violat+ any ( ! laws ( syllogism a disputant w\ld be simply c\rt+ defeat4 #hdc4 ,we n[ rev]t to ,ari/otle's classification ( fallacies1 or r ( ,modes ( ,refutation4 ,we w take ! species he enum]ates 9 _! ord]1 & notice h[ mod]n usage has dep>t$ f ! orig9al mean+ ( ! t]ms4 ,let x be borne 9 m9d t1 :5 ! deception 0 n 9 ! language1 ,ari/otle did n tr\ble himself to det]m9e :e!r x lay 9 ! matt] or 9 ! =m ( ?\ght4 #hdd4 ,! foll[+ s*eme pres5ts ! ,ari/otelian classification to ! eye at a glance3-- --,equivocation4 --,amphiboly4 --,9 ! language ---,composition4 --,division4 --,acc5t4 --,figure ( ,spee*4 ,modes ( - ,refutation4 --,accid5t4 --,a dicto secundum quid4 --,ignoratio ,el5*i4 --,outside ! language ---,consequ5t4 --,petitio ,pr9cipii4 --,non causa pro causa4 --,_m ,que/ions4 ,footnote3 = ,9 ! language3 ,! ,greek is ,greek3 p>a t5 lex91 ! exact mean+ ( :i* is2 'due to ! /atem5t4' #hde4 ,! ,fallacy ( ,equivocation ,greek3 monuma consi/s 9 an ambigu\s use ( any ( ! ?ree t]ms ( a syllogism4 ,if1 = in/ance1 anyone 7 to argue ?us-- ,no human be+ is made ( pap]1 ,all pages are human be+s1 4'4 ,no pages are made ( pap]-- ! conclusion w\ld appe> p>adoxical1 if ! m9or t]m 7 !re tak5 9 a diff]5t s5se f t :i* x bore 9 its prop] premiss4 ,?is !re=e w\ld be an in/ance ( ! fallacy ( ,equivocal ,m9or4 #hdf4 ,= a gl>+ in/ance ( ! fallacy ( ,equivocal ,major1 we may take ! foll[+-- ,no c\rage\s creature flies1 ,! eagle is a c\rage\s creature1 4'4 ,! eagle does n fly-- ! conclusion "h becomes uns\nd only by ! major be+ tak5 ambigu\sly4 #hdg4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 to ! middle t]m t an ambiguity mo/ frequ5tly atta*es4 ,9 ?is case ! fallacy ( equivocation assumes ! special "n ( ! ,fallacy ( ,ambigu\s ,middle4 ,take z an in/ance ! foll[+-- ,fai? is a moral virtue4 ,to believe 9 ! ,book ( ,mormon is fai?4 4'4 ,to believe 9 ! ,book ( ,mormon is a moral virtue4 ,"h ! premisses s+ly might be grant$2 b ! conclusion w\ld probably be felt to be unsatisfactory4 ,nor is ! reason f> to seek4 ,x is evid5t t belief 9 a book _c be fai? 9 any s5se 9 :i* t quality c rightly be pron\nc$ to be a moral virtue4 #hdh4 ,! ,fallacy ( ,amphiboly 7,greek3 mphibola7 is an ambiguity atta*+ to ! con/ruction ( a proposition r ?an to ! t]ms ( :i* x is compos$4 ,"o ( ,ari/otle's examples is ?is-- ,greek3 t bole/hai laben me tos polemous :i* may be int]pret$ to mean ei!r '! fact ( my wi%+ to take ! enemy1' or '! fact ( ! enemies' wi%+ to take me4' ,! classical languages are especially liable to ?is fallacy ow+ to ! oblique con/ruction 9 :i* ! accusative becomes subject to ! v]b4 ,?us 9 ,lat9 we h ! oracle giv5 to ,pyrrhus 7?\gh ( c\rse1 if deliv]$ at all1 x mu/ h be5 9 ,greek7-- ,aio te1 ,a,eacida1 ,romanos v9c]e posse4 ,pyrrhus ! ,romans %all1 ,i say1 subdue 7,:ately71 ,footnote3 ,cic]o1 ,de ,div9atione1 ii4 #aaf2 ,qu9tilian1 ,in/4 ,orat4 vii #i1 #f4 :i* ,pyrrhus1 z ! /ory runs1 int]pret$ to mean t he c\ld conqu] ! ,romans1 :]eas ! oracle subsequ5tly expla9$ to him t ! real mean+ 0 t ! ,romans c\ld conqu] him4 ,simil> to ?is1 z ,%akspe>e makes ! ,duke ( ,york po9t out1 is ! wit*'s prophecy 9 ,h5ry ,,vi 7,second ,"p1 ,act i1 sc4 #d71 ,! duke yet lives t ,h5ry %all depose4 ,an in/ance ( amphiboly may be read on ! walls ( ,w9dsor ,ca/le--,hoc fecit ,wykeham4 ,! k+ mas inc5s$ ) ! bi%op = d>+ to record t he made ! t[]1 b ! latt] adroitly repli$ t :at he really meant to indicate 0 t ! t[] 0 ! mak+ ( him4 ,to ! same head may be ref]r$ ! fam\s s5t5ce--',i w we> no clo!s to di/+ui% me f my ,*ri/ian bre?r54' #hdi4 ,! ,fallacy ( ,composition ,greek3 diaresis is likewise a case ( ambigu\s con/ruction4 ,x consi/s1 z exp\nd$ by ,ari/otle1 9 tak+ words toge!r :i* ought to be tak5 sep>ately1 e4g4 ',is x possible = a man :o is n writ+ to write8' ',( c\rse x is4' ',!n x is possible = a man to write )\t writ+4' ,& aga9-- ',c y c>ry ?is1 t1 & ! o!r8' ',yes4' ',!n y c c>ry ?is1 t1 & ! o!r1'-- a fallacy aga9/ :i* horses w\ld prote/1 if !y c\ld4 #hej4 ,x is d\btless ?is la/ example :i* has l$ to a conv5i5t misuse ( ! t]m 'fallacy ( composition' among mod]n writ]s1 by :om x is def9$ to consi/ 9 argu+ f ! di/ributive to ! collective use ( a t]m4 #hea4 ,! ,fallacy ( ,division 7,greek3 diaresis71 on ! o!r h&1 consi/s 9 tak+ words sep>ately :i* ought to be tak5 toge!r1 e4g4 ,greek3 g s' teka dlon nt' let]on ,footnote3 ,evid5tly ! orig9al ( ! l9e 9 ,t]5ce's ,&ria1 #cg1--;feci ex s]vo ut esses lib]tus mihi41 :]e ! sep>ation ( ,greek3 dlon f ,greek3 ntra w\ld lead to an int]pretation exactly contr>y to :at is int5d$4 ,& aga9-- ,greek3 p5tkont' ndrn katn lpe dos *illes1 :]e ! sep>ation ( ,greek3 ndrn f ,greek3 katn leads to a ludicr\s error4 ,any read] ^: y\? may h be5 n\ri%$ on ',! ,fair*ild ,family' may possibly recollect a s5t5ce :i* ran some:at on ?is wise--',h5ry1' said ,mr4 ,fair*ild1 'is ?is true8 ,are y a ?ief & a li> too8' ,b ,i am afraid he w miss ! ke5 delight :i* c be extract$ at a c]ta9 age f turn+ ! tables ^u ,mr4 ,fair*ild ?us--,h5ry said1 ',mr4 ,fair*ild1 is ?is true8 ,are y a ?ief & a li> too8' #heb4 ,! fallacy ( division has be5 accommodat$ by mod]n writ]s to ! mean+ :i* !y h assign$ to ! fallacy ( composition4 ,s t by ! 'fallacy ( division' is n[ meant argu+ f ! collective to ! di/ributive use ( a t]m4 ,fur!r1 x is laid d[n t :5 ! middle t]m is us$ di/ributively 9 ! major premiss & collectively 9 ! m9or1 we h ! fallacy ( composition2 :]eas1 :5 ! middle t]m is us$ collectively 9 ! major premiss & di/ributively 9 ! m9or1 we h ! fallacy ( division4 ,?us ! fir/ ( ! two examples app5d$ w\ld be composition & ! second division4 7#a7 ,two & ?ree are odd & ev54 ,five is two & ?ree4 4'4 ,five is odd & ev54 7#b7 ,! ,g]mans are an intellectual p4 ,hans & ,fritz are ,g]mans4 4'4 ,!y are intellectual p4 #hec4 ,z ! possibility ( ?is sort ( ambiguity is n conf9$ to ! middle t]m1 x seems desirable to add t :5 ei!r ! major or m9or t]m is us$ di/ributively 9 ! premiss & collectively 9 ! conclusion1 we h ! fallacy ( composition1 & 9 ! conv]se case ! fallacy ( division4 ,"h is an in/ance ( ! latt] k9d 9 :i* ! m9or t]m is at fault-- ,any?+ ov] a hundr$weight is too heavy to lift4 ,^! sacks 7collectively7 are ov] a hundr$weight4 4'4 ,^! sacks 7di/ributively7 are too heavy to lift4 #hed4 ,! ambiguity ( ! ^w 'all1' :i* has be5 be=e comm5t$ ^u 7 #aai71 is a great assi/ance 9 ! ,engli% language to ! pair ( fallacies j spok5 (4 #hce4 ,! ,fallacy ( ,acc5t 7,greek3 prosoda7 is nei!r m nor less ?an a mi/ake 9 ,greek acc5tuation4 ,z an in/ance ,ari/otle gives ,iliad xxiii4 #cbh1 :]e ! anci5t copies ( ,hom] made nons5se ( ! words ,greek3 t mn o kataptetai mbro by writ+ ,greek3 o ) ! circumflex 9 place ( ,greek3 o ) ! acute acc5t4 ,footnote3 ,?is goes to %[ t ! anci5t ,greeks did n di/+ui% 9 pronunciation betwe5 ! r\gh & smoo? brea?+ any m ?an _! mod]n repres5tatives4 ,ari/otle rem>ks t ! fallacy is "o :i* _c easily occur 9 v]bal argum5t1 b r 9 writ+ & poetry4 #hef4 ,mod]n writ]s expla9 ! fallacy ( acc5t to be ! mi/ake ( lay+ ! /ress ^u ! wrong "p ( a s5t5ce4 ,?us :5 ! c\ntry p>son reads out1 ',?\ %all n be> false witness aga9/ ?y neighb\r1' ) a /rong emphasis ^u ! ^w 'aga9/1' 8 ignorant audi5ce leap sic to ! conclusion t x is n amiss to tell lies provid$ !y be 9 fav\r ( "o's neighb\r4 #heg4 ,! ,fallacy ( ,figure ( ,spee* ,greek3 t s*ma ts lxeos results f any confusion ( grammatical =ms1 z betwe5 ! diff]5t g5d]s ( n\ns or ! diff]5t voices ( v]bs1 or _! use z transitive or intransitive1 e4g4 ,greek3 giane9 has ! same grammatical =m z ,greek3 tmne9 or ,greek3 okodomen1 b ! =m] is intransitive1 :ile ! latt] are transitive4 ,a sophism ( ?is k9d is put into ! m\? ( ,socrates by ,ari/ophanes 9 ! ,cl\ds 7#fgj-hj74 ,! philosoph] is !re repres5t$ z argu+ t ,greek3 kpdopos mu/ be mascul9e because ,greek3 ,klenumos is4 ,on ! surface ?is is connect$ ) language1 b x is ess5tially a fallacy ( false analogy4 #heh4 ,to ?is head may be ref]r$ :at is kn[n z ! ,fallacy ( ,p>onym\s ,t]ms4 ,?is is a species ( equivocation :i* consi/s 9 slipp+ f ! use ( "o "p ( spee* to t ( ano!r1 :i* is d]iv$ f ! same s\rce1 b has a diff]5t mean+4 ,?us ?is fallacy w\ld be committ$ if1 />t+ f ! fact t !re is a c]ta9 probability t a h& at :i/ w consi/ ( ?irte5 trumps1 "o 7 to proce$ to argue t x 0 probable1 or t he _h prov$ x4 #hei4 ,we turn n[ to ! tricks ( refutation :i* lie outside ! language1 :e!r ! deception be due to ! assumption ( a false premiss or to "s uns\ndness 9 ! reason+4 #hfj4 ,! fir/ on ! li/ is ! ,fallacy ( ,accid5t 7,greek3 t sumbebeks74 ,?is fallacy consi/s 9 conf\nd+ an ess5tial ) an accid5tal diff]5ce1 :i* is n all[able1 s9ce _m ?+s are ! same 9 ess5ce1 :ile !y diff] 9 accid5ts4 ,"h is ! sort ( example t ,ari/otle gives-- ',is ,plato diff]5t f ,socrates 8' ',yes4' ',is ,socrates a man 8' ',yes4' ',!n ,plato is diff]5t f man4' ,to ?is we answ]--,no3 ! diff]5ce ( accid5ts betwe5 ,plato & ,socrates does n g s deep z to affect ! und]ly+ ess5ce4 ,to put ! ?+ m pla9ly1 ! fallacy lies 9 assum+ t :atev] is diff]5t f a giv5 subject mu/ be diff]5t f x 9 all respects1 s t x is impossible = !m to h a common pr$icate4 ,"h ,socrates & ,plato1 ?\gh diff]5t f "o ano!r1 are n s diff]5t b t !y h ! common pr$icate 'man4' ,! attempt to prove t !y h n involves an illicit process ( ! major4 #hfa4 ,! next fallacy suff]s f ! want ( a conv5i5t "n4 ,x is call$ by ,ari/otle ,greek3 t plos tde p lge/ai ka m kupos or1 m briefly1 ,greek3 t pls m1 or ,greek3 t p ka pls1 & by ! ,lat9 writ]s ',fallacia a dicto secundum quid ad dictum simplicit]4' ,x consi/s 9 tak+ :at is said 9 a p>ticul> respect z ?\gh x held true )\t any re/riction1 e4g41 t because ! nonexi/5t 7,greek3 t m n7 is a matt] ( op9ion1 t !re=e ! non-exi/5t is1 or aga9 t because ! exi/5t 7,greek3 t n7 is n a man1 t !re=e ! exi/5t is n4 ,or aga91 if an ,indian1 :o z a :ole is black1 has :ite tee?1 we %\ld be committ+ ?is species ( fallacy 9 decl>+ him to be bo? :ite & n-:ite4 ,= he is only :ite 9 a c]ta9 respect 7,greek3 p71 b n absolutely 7,greek3 pls74 ,m difficulty1 says ,ari/otle1 may arise :5 opposite qualities exi/ 9 a ?+ 9 ab\t an equal degree4 ,:51 = in/ance1 a ?+ is half :ite & half black1 are we to say t x is :ite or black8 ,?is "q ! philosoph] prop\nds1 b does n answ]4 ,! =ce ( x lies 9 ! impli$ attack on ! ,law ( ,contradiction4 ,x w\ld seem 9 su* a case t a ?+ may be bo? :ite & n-:ite at ! same "t4 ,! fact is--s subtle are ! ambiguities ( language--t ev5 su* a "q z ',is a ?+ :ite or n-:ite8' /raight=w>d1 z x seems1 is n really a fair "o4 ,we are entitl$ sometimes to take ! bull by ! horns1 & answ] ) ! adv5tur\s int]locutor 9 "o ( ,plato's dialogues--',bo? & nei!r4' ,x may be bo? 9 a c]ta9 respect1 & yet nei!r absolutely4 #hfb4 ,! same sort ( difficulties atta* to ! ,law ( ,exclud$ ,middle1 & may be met 9 ! same way4 ,x might1 = in/ance1 be urg$ t x c\ld n be said ) tru? ( ! /atue se5 by ,nebu*adnezz> 9 8 dream ei!r t x 0 made ( gold or t x 0 n made ( gold3 b ! app>5t plausibility ( ! objection w\ld be due m]ely to ! ambiguity ( language4 ,x is n true1 on ! "o h&1 t x 0 made ( gold 79 ! s5se ( be+ compos$ entirely ( t metal72 & x is n true1 on ! o!r1 t x 0 n made ( gold 79 ! s5se ( no gold at all ent]+ into its composition74 ,b let ! ambigu\s proposition be split up into its two mean+s1 & ! /r+5cy ( ! ,law ( ,exclud$ ,middle w at once appe>-- 7#a7 ,x mu/ ei!r h be5 compos$ entirely ( gold or n4 7#b7 ,ei!r gold mu/ h ent]$ into its composition or n4 #hfc4 ,by "s writ]s ?is fallacy is treat$ z ! conv]se ( ! la/1 ! fallacy ( accid5t be+ assimilat$ to x "u ! title ( ! ',fallacia a dicto simplicit] ad dictum secundum quid4' ,9 ?is s5se ! two fallacies may be def9$ ?us4 ,! ,fallacy ( ,accid5t consi/s 9 assum+ t :at holds true z a g5]al rule w hold true "u "s special circum/ances :i* may entirely alt] ! case4 ,! ,conv]se ,fallacy ( ,accid5t consi/s 9 assum+ t :at holds true "u "s special circum/ances mu/ hold true z a g5]al rule4 ,! man :o1 act+ on ! assumption t alcohol is a poison1 refuses to take x :5 he is ord]$ to d s by ! doctor1 is guilty ( ! fallacy ( accid5t2 ! man :o1 hav+ _h x prescrib$ = him :5 he 0 ill1 cont9ues to take x morn+1 noon1 & night1 commits ! conv]se fallacy4 #hfd4 ,!re ought to be add$ a ?ird head to cov] ! fallacy ( argu+ f "o special case to ano!r4 #hfe4 ,! next fallacy is ,ignoratio ,el5*i ,greek3 lg*\ gnoia4 ,?is fallacy arises :5 by reason+ valid 9 itself "o e/abli%es a conclusion o!r ?an :at is requir$ to upset ! adv]s>y's ass]tion4 ,x is due to an inadequate conception ( ! true nature ( refutation4 ,ari/otle !re=e is at ! pa9s to def9e refutation at full l5g?1 ?us-- ',a refutation ,greek3 leg*os is ! d5ial ( "o & ! same--n "n1 b ?+1 & by means1 n ( a synonym\s t]m1 b ( ! same t]m1 z a necess>y consequ5ce f ! data1 )\t assumption ( ! po9t orig9ally at issue1 9 ! same respect1 & 9 ! same relation1 & 9 ! same way1 & at ! same "t4' ,! ,,el5*us !n is ! exact contradictory ( ! oppon5t's ass]tion "u ! t]ms ( ! law ( contradiction4 ,to e/abli% by a syllogism1 or s]ies ( syllogisms1 any o!r proposition1 h[ev] slightly diff]5t1 is to commit ?is fallacy4 ,ev5 if ! sub/ance ( ! contradiction be e/abli%$1 x is n en\gh unless ! id5tical words ( ! oppon5t are employ$ 9 ! contradictory4 ,?us if 8 !sis ass]ts or d5ies some?+ ab\t ,greek3 lpion1 x is n en\gh = y to prove ! contradictory ) reg>d to ,greek3 mtion4 ,!re w be ne$ ( a fur!r "q & answ] to id5tify ! two1 ?\gh !y are admitt$ly synonym\s4 ,su* 0 ! rig\r ) :i* ! rules ( ! game ( dialectic 7 en=c$ among ! ,greeks6 #hff4 ,"u ! head ( ,ignoratio ,el5*i x has become usual to speak ( v>i\s =me ( argum5t :i* h be5 labell$ by ! ,lat9 writ]s "u su* names z 'argum5tum ad hom9em1' 'ad populum1' 'ad v]ecundiam1' 'ad ignorantiam1' 'ad baculum'--all ( !m oppos$ to ! 'argum5tum ad rem' or 'ad judicium4' #hfg4 ,by ! 'argum5tum ad hom9em' 0 p]haps meant a piece ( reason+ :i* avail$ to sil5ce a p>ticul> p]son1 )\t t\*+ ! tru? ( ! "q4 ,?us a quotation f ,scripture is suffici5t to /op ! m\? ( a believ] 9 ! inspiration ( ! ,bible4 ,hume's ,essay on ,miracles is a notewor?y in/ance ( ! 'argum5tum ad hom9em' 9 ?is s5se ( ! t]m4 ,he insi/s /rongly on ! evid5ce = c]ta9 miracles :i* he knew t ! prejudices ( 8 he>]s w\ld prev5t _! ev] accept+1 & !n asks triumphantly if ^! miracles1 :i* are decl>$ to h tak5 place 9 an enlight5$ age 9 ! full gl>e ( publicity1 are palpably impo/ure1 :at cr$5ce c be atta*$ to acc\nts ( extraord9>y occurr5ces ( remote antiquity1 & connect$ ) an obscure corn] ( ! globe8 ,! 'argum5tum ad judicium' w\ld take miracles z a :ole1 & endeav\r to sift ! am\nt ( tru? :i* may lie 9 ! acc\nts we h ( !m 9 e age4 ,footnote3 ,on ?is subject see ! au?or's ,attempts at ,tru? 7,trubn] ,co471 pp4 #df-ei4 #hfh4 ,9 ord9>y disc\rse at ! pres5t day ! t]m 'argum5tum ad hom9em' is us$ = ! =m ( irrelevancy :i* consi/s 9 attack+ ! "* ( ! oppon5t in/ead ( combat+ 8 argum5ts1 z illu/rat$ 9 ! well-kn[n in/ructions to a b>ri/]--',no case3 abuse ! pla9tiff's attorney4' #hfi4 ,! 'argum5tum ad populum' consi/s 9 an appeal to ! passions ( "o's audi5ce4 ,an appeal to passion1 or to give x a less "q-begg+ "n1 to feel+1 is n necess>ily amiss4 ,! he>t ( man is ! in/rum5t ^u :i* ! rhetorician plays1 & he has to answ] = ! h>mony or ! discord t comes ( 8 p]=mance4 #hgj4 ,! 'argum5tum ad v]ecundiam' is an appeal to ! feel+ ( rev]5ce or %ame4 ,x is an argum5t mu* us$ by ! old to ! "y & by ,cons]vatives to ,radicals4 #hga4 ,! 'argum5tum ad ignorantiam' consi/s simply 9 trad+ on ! ignorance ( ! p]son address$1 s t x cov]s any k9d ( fallacy t is likely to prove effective ) ! he>]4 #hgb4 ,! 'argum5tum ad baculum' is unque/ionably a =m ( irrelevancy4 ,to knock a man d[n :5 he diff]s f y 9 op9ion may prove y\r /r5g?1 b h>dly y\r logic4 ,a sub-v>iety ( ?is =m ( irrelevancy 0 exhibit$ lately at a sociali/ lecture 9 ,ox=d1 at :i* an und]graduate1 unable or unwill+ to meet ! argum5ts ( ! speak]1 uncork$ a bottle1 :i* _h ! effect ( in/antane\sly disp]s+ ! audi5ce4 ,?is might be set d[n z ! 'argum5tum ad nasum4' #hgc4 ,we n[ come to ! ,fallacy ( ! ,consequ5t1 a t]m :i* has be5 m hopelessly abus$ ?an any4 ,:at ,ari/otle meant by x 0 simply ! ass]tion ( ! consequ5t 9 a conjunctive proposition1 :i* am\nts to ! same ?+ z ! simple conv]sion ( ,a 7 #dhi71 & is a fallacy ( di/ribution4 ,ari/otle's example is ?is-- ,if x has ra9$1 ! gr\nd is wet4 4'4 ,if ! gr\nd is wet1 x has ra9$4 ,?is fallacy1 he tells u1 is (t5 employ$ 9 rhetoric 9 deal+ ) presumptive evid5ce4 ,?us a speak]1 want+ to prove t a man is an adult]]1 w argue t he is a %[y dress]1 & has be5 se5 ab\t at nights4 ,bo? ^! ?+s h[ev] may be ! case1 & yet ! *>ge n be true4 #hgd4 ,! ,fallacy ( ,petitio or ,assumptio ,pr9cipii ,greek3 t n r* ate/ai or lambne9 to :i* we n[ come1 consi/s 9 an unfair assumption ( ! po9t at issue4 ,! ^w ,greek3 ate/ai1 9 ,ari/otle's "n = x po9ts to ! ,greek me?od ( dialectic by means ( "q & answ]4 ,?is fact is r disguis$ by ! my/]i\s phrase 'begg+ ! "q4' ,! fallacy w\ld be committ$ :5 y ask$ y\r oppon5t to grant1 ov]tly or cov]tly1 ! v proposition orig9ally prop\nd$ = discussion4 #hge4 ,z ! "q ( ! precise nature ( ?is fallacy is ( "s importance we w take ! words ( ,ari/otle himself 7,top4 viii4 #ac4 #b1 #c74 ',p seem to beg ! "q 9 five ways4 ,fir/ & mo/ gl>+ly1 :5 "o takes = grant$ ! v ?+ t has to be prov$4 ,?is by itself does n readily escape detection1 b 9 ! case ( synonyms1 t is1 :]e ! "n & ! def9ition h ! same mean+1 x does s m easily4 ,footnote3 ,"s light is ?r[n ^u ?is obscure passage by a comp>ison ) ,cat4 ,i4 #c1 :]e 'synonym' is def9$4 ,to take ! ^w "h 9 its lat] & mod]n s5se af=ds an easy int]pretation1 :i* is c\nt5anc$ by ,alex&] ,aphrodisi5sis1 b x is flat aga9/ ! usage ( ,ari/otle1 :o else:]e gives ! "n 'synonym1' n to two names = ! same ?+1 b to two ?+s go+ "u ! same "n4 ,see ,tr5del5b]g on ! passage4 ,secondly1 :5 "o assumes univ]sally t :i* has to be prov$ 9 p>ticul>1 z1 if a man und]tak+ to prove t !re is "o sci5ce ( contr>ies1 7 to assume t !re is "o sci5ce ( opposites g5]ally4 ,= he seems to be tak+ = grant$ along ) sev]al o!r ?+s :at he ought to h prov$ by itself4 ,?irdly1 :5 "o assumes ! p>ticul>s :]e ! univ]sal has to be prov$2 = 9 s do+ a man is tak+ = grant$ sep>ately :at he 0 b\nd to prove along ) sev]al o!r ?+s4 ,aga91 :5 "o assumes ! "q at issue by splitt+ x up1 = in/ance1 if1 :5 ! po9t to be prov$ is t ! art ( m$ic9e deals ) heal? & disease1 "o 7 to take ea* by itself = grant$4 ,la/ly1 if "o 7 to take = grant$ "o ( a pair ( necess>y consequ5ces1 z t ! side is incomm5surable ) ! diagonal1 :5 x is requir$ to prove t ! diagonal is incomm5surable ) ! side4' #hgf4 ,to sum up briefly1 we may beg ! "q 9 five ways-- 7#a7 ,by simply ask+ ! oppon5t to grant ! po9t :i* requires to be prov$2 7#b7 by ask+ him to grant "s m g5]al tru? :i* involves x2 7#c7 by ask+ him to grant ! p>ticul> tru?s :i* x involves2 7#d7 by ask+ him to grant ! compon5t p>ts ( x 9 detail2 7#e7 by ask+ him to grant a necess>y consequ5ce ( x4 #hgg4 ,! fir/ ( ^! five ways1 namely1 t ( begg+ ! "q /raight (f1 l&s u 9 ! =mal fallacy already spok5 ( 7 #hch71 :i* violates ! fir/ ( ! g5]al rules ( syllogism1 inasmu* z a conclusion is d]iv$ f a s+le premiss1 to wit1 itself4 #hgh4 ,! second1 /range to say1 gives u a s\nd syllogism 9 ,b>b>a1 a fact :i* c\nt5ances ! blasphem]s ( ! syllogism 9 ! *>ge !y br+ aga9/ x ( conta9+ 9 itself a petitio pr9cipii4 ,c]ta9ly ,ari/otle's expression might h be5 m gu>d$4 ,b x is cle> t 8 qu>rel is ) ! matt]1 n ) ! =m 9 su* an argum5t4 ,! fallacy consi/s 9 assum+ a proposition :i* ! oppon5t w\ld be entitl$ to d5y4 ,else:]e ,ari/otle tells u t ! fallacy arises :5 a tru? n evid5t by its own light is tak5 to be s4 ,footnote3 ,greek3 tan t m d ato gno/n d ato tis pi*eira deiknnai1 tt' atetai t x r*s44 ,anal4 ,pr4 ,,ii4 #af4 ,i ad f94 #hgi4 ,! ?ird gives u an inductio p] enum]ationem simplicem1 a mode ( argum5t :i* w\ld ( c\rse be unfair z aga9/ an oppon5t :o 0 d5y+ ! univ]sal4 #hhj4 ,! f\r? is a m prolix =m ( ! fir/4 #hha4 ,! fif? re/s on ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce by ,relation 7 #ecd74 #hhb4 ,"u ! head ( petitio pr9cipii comes ! fallacy ( ,argu+ 9 a ,circle1 :i* is incid5tal to a tra9 ( reason+4 ,9 its mo/ compress$ =m x may be repres5t$ ?us-- 7#a7 ,b is ,a4 ,c is ,b4 4'4 ,c is ,a4 7#b7 ,c is ,a4 ,b is ,c4 4'4 ,b is ,a4 #hhc4 ,! ,fallacy ( ,non causa pro causa 7,greek3 t m ation or ,greek3 ato97 is ano!r1 ! "n ( :i* has l$ to a complete mis9t]pretation4 ,x consi/s 9 import+ a contradiction into ! discussion1 & !n fa!r+ x on ! position controv]t$4 ,su* argum5ts1 says ,ari/otle1 (t5 impose ^u ! us]s ( !m !mselves4 ,! in/ance he gives is too recondite to be ( g5]al int]e/4 #hhd4 ,la/ly1 ! ,fallacy ( ,_m ,que/ions 7,greek3 t t do rotmata n poien7 is a deceptive =m ( int]rogation1 :5 a s+le answ] is dem&$ to :at is n really a s+le "q4 ,9 dialectical discussions ! respond5t 0 limit$ to a simple 'yes' or 'no'2 & 9 ?is fallacy ! "q is s fram$ z t ei!r answ] w\ld seem to imply ! acceptance ( a proposition :i* w\ld be repudiat$4 ,! old /ock in/ance w d z well z ano!r--',come n[1 sir1 answ] yes or no4 ,h y left (f beat+ y\r "m yet8' ,ei!r answ] leads to an app>5t admission ( impiety4 ,a late ,s5ior ,proctor once enrag$ a man at a fair ) ?is =m ( fallacy4 ,! man 0 exhibit+ a blue horse2 & ! di/+ui%$ /rang] ask$ him--',) :at did y pa9t y\r horse8' ,,ex]cises4 ,^! ex]cises %\ld be supplem5t$ by direct que/ions ^u ! text1 :i* x is easy = ! /ud5t or ! tea*] to supply = himself4 ,,"p ,i4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,classify ! foll[+ words accord+ z !y are categorematic1 syncategorematic or acategorematic2-- come p]adv5ture :y ?r\gh inord9ately p%aw !re=e circumspect puss gr& inasmu* /op t\* sam5ess back cage disconsolate c&le4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,classify ! foll[+ ?+s accord+ z !y are sub/ances1 qualities or relations2-- ,god lik5ess weight blu5ess grass imposition ocean introduction ?9ness man air _s ,socrates raill]y heat mortality plum fire4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 #a4 ,give six in/ances ea* (-attribute1 ab/ract1 s+ul>1 privative1 equivocal & relative t]ms4 #b4 ,select f ! foll[+ li/ ( words su* z are t]ms1 & /ate :e!r !y are 7#a7 ab/ract or concrete1 7#b7 s+ul> or common1 7#c7 univocal or equivocal3-- van table h[ev] ent] decid$ly tiresome v butt ,solomon infection bluff ,cz> %ort al?\gh ,caes>ism di/ance eld]ly ,nihili/4 #c4 ,:i* ( ! foll[+ words are ab/ract t]ms8-- quadrup$ ev5t ?r\gh hate desirability ?or\gh fact expressly ?or\ghness faction wi% light inconv5i5t w g>d5 inconv5i5ce volition gr9d4 #d4 ,ref] ! foll[+ t]ms to _! prop] place "u ea* ( ! divisions 9 ! s*eme3-- horse husb& ,london free lump empty lib]ty rational capital impot5t reason ,capitol impetuosity irrationality grave impulsive d\ble calf4 #e4 ,give six in/ances ea* ( prop] names & designations4 #f4 ,give six in/ances ea* ( connotative & non-connotative t]ms4 #g4 ,give ! ext5sion & int5sion (-- s]mon animal sky clock squ>e gold sport fi% elem5t bird /ud5t fluid art riv] l9e gas s]vant language ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,arrange ! foll[+ t]ms 9 ord] ( ext5sion--c>nivor\s1 ?+1 matt]1 mammal1 organism1 v]tebrate1 cat1 sub/ance1 animal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,give a "n to ea* ( ! foll[+ s5t5ces3-- 7#a7 ,oh1 t ,i _h w+s l a dove6 7#b7 ,! m1 ! m]ri]4 7#c7 ,come re/ 9 ?is bosom1 my own /rick5 de]4 7#d7 ,is !re balm 9 ,gilead8 7#e7 ,he>ts may be trumps4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,analyse ! foll[+ propositions into subject1 copula & pr$icate3-- 7#a7 ,he be+ dead yet speake?4 7#b7 ,!re are fooli% politicians4 7#c7 ,little does he c>e4 7#d7 ,!re is a l& ( pure delight4 7#e7 ,all's well t ends well4 7#f7 ,sweet is ! brea? ( morn4 7#g7 ,n[ x came to pass t ! begg> di$4 7#h7 ,:o runs may read4 7#i7 ,great is ,diana ( ! ,ephesians4 7#aj7 ,su* ?+s are4 7#aa7 ,n m ?an o!rs ,i des]ve4 7#ab7 ,! day w come :5 ,ilium's t[]s %all p]i%4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 #a4 ,express 9 logical =m1 affix+ ! prop] symbol3-- 7#a7 ,"s swans are n :ite4 7#b7 ,all ?+s are possible to !m t believe4 7#c7 ,no politicians are unpr9cipl$4 7#d7 ,"s /ones float on wat]4 7#e7 ,! sn[ has melt$4 7#f7 ,eggs are edible4 7#g7 ,all k+s are n wise4 7#h7 ,mo?s are n butt]flies4 7#i7 ,"s m5 are born great4 7#aj7 ,n all :o are call$ are *os54 7#aa7 ,x is n good = man to be alone4 7#ab7 ,m5 ( tal5ts h be5 kn[n to fail 9 life4 7#ac7 ',tis none b a madman w\ld ?r[ ab\t fire4 7#ad7 ,e bullet does n kill4 7#ae7 ,among/ ,unioni/s are ,:igs4 7#af7 ,n all tru?s are to be told4 7#ag7 ,n all y\r ef=ts c save him4 7#ah7 ,! :ale is a mammal4 7#ai7 ,cotton is gr[n 9 ,cyprus4 7#bj7 ,an hone/ man's ! noble/ "w ( ,god4 7#ba7 ,no news is good news4 7#bb7 ,no fri5ds are l old fri5ds4 7#bc7 ,only ! ignorant affect to despise k4 7#bd7 ,all t tru/ 9 ,him %all n be a%am$4 7#be7 ,all is n gold t glitt]s4 7#bf7 ,! sun %9es ^u ! evil & ^u ! good4 7#bg7 ,n to g on is to g back4 7#bh7 ,! k+1 m9i/]1 & g5]al are a pretty trio4 7#bi7 ,among/ dogs are h\nds4 7#cj7 ,a fool is n always wrong4 7#ca7 ,alex&] 0 magnanim\s4 7#cb7 ,food is necess>y to life4 7#cc7 ,!re are ?ree ?+s to be consid]$1 7#cd7 ,by p5it5ce ! ,et]nal's wra?'s appeas$4 7#ce7 ,money is ! mis]'s end4 7#cf7 ,few m5 succe$ 9 life4 7#cg7 ,all is lo/1 save hon\r4 7#ch7 ,x is mean to hit a man :5 he is d[n4 7#ci7 ,no?+ b coolness c\ld h sav$ him4 7#dj7 ,books are g5]ally useful4 7#da7 ,he envies o!rs' virtue :o has none himself4 7#db7 ,?ankless are all su* (fices4 7#dc7 ,only doctors und]/& ?is subject4 7#dd7 ,all h] guesses b two 7 correct4 7#de7 ,all ! m5 7 twelve4 7#df7 ,gossip is seldom *>itable4 #b4 ,give six examples ( indef9ite propositions1 & !n quantify !m accord+ to _! matt]4 #c4 ,compose ?ree propositions ( ea* ( ! foll[+ k9ds3-- 7#a7 ) common t]ms = subjects2 7#b7 ) ab/ract t]ms = subjects2 7#c7 ) s+ul> t]ms = pr$icates2 7#d7 ) collective t]ms = pr$icates2 7#e7 ) attributives 9 _! subjects2 7#f7 ) ab/ract t]ms = pr$icates4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 #a4 ,po9t out :at t]ms are di/ribut$ or undi/ribut$ 9 ! foll[+ propositions3-- 7#a7 ,! ,*9ese are indu/ri\s4 7#b7 ,! angle 9 a semi-circle is a "r angle4 7#c7 ,n "o ( ! crew surviv$4 7#d7 ,! wea!r is sometimes n propiti\s4 ,! same ex]cise may be p]=m$ ^u any ( ! propositions 9 ! prec$+ li/4 #b4 ,prove t 9 a negative proposition ! pr$icate mu/ be di/ribut$4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,affix its prop] symbol to ea* ( ! foll[+ propositions3-- 7#a7 ,no lov] he :o is n always fond4 7#b7 ,!re are ,iri%m5 & ,iri%m54 7#c7 ,m5 only disagree1 ,( creatures rational4 7#d7 ,"s wise m5 are poor4 7#e7 ,no ,popes are "s fallible be+s4 7#f7 ,"s /ep-mo!rs are n unju/4 7#g7 ,! mo/ orig9al ( ! ,roman poets 0 ,lucretius4 7#h7 ,"s ( ! imm$iate inf]5ces are all ! =ms ( conv]sion4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 #a4 ,give six examples ( t]ms /&+ "o to ano!r z g5us to species4 #b4 ,to :i* ( ! heads ( pr$icables w\ld y ref] ! foll[+ /atem5ts8 ,& :y8 7#a7 ,a circle is ! l>ge/ space t c be conta9$ by "o l9e4 7#b7 ,all ! angles ( a squ>e are "r angles4 7#c7 ,man alone among animals possesses ! faculty ( laught]4 7#d7 ,"s fungi are poison\s4 7#e7 ,mo/ natives ( ,africa are negroes4 7#f7 ,all democracies are gov]nm5ts4 7#g7 ,que5 ,anne is dead4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 #a4 ,def9e ! foll[+ t]ms-- ,sun inn-keep] tea-pot hope ang] virtue bread diplomacy milk c>pet man dea? s9c]ity telescope m\nta9 pov]ty ,s5ate novel4 #b4 ,def9e ! foll[+ t]ms z us$ 9 ,political ,economy-- ,commodity b>t] value weal? l& price money lab\r r5t int]e/ capital wages cr$it dem& pr(its4 #c4 ,criticise ! foll[+ z def9itions-- 7#a7 ,noon is ! "t :5 ! %ad[s ( bodies are %orte/4 7#b7 ,gramm> is ! sci5ce ( language4 7#c7 ,gramm> is a bran* ( philology4 7#d7 ,gramm> is ! art ( speak+ & writ+ a language ) propriety4 7#e7 ,virtue is act+ virtu\sly4 7#f7 ,virtue is t l9e ( conduct :i* t5ds to produce happ9ess4 7#g7 ,a dog is an animal ( ! can9e species4 7#h7 ,logic is ! art ( reason+4 7#i7 ,logic is ! sci5ce ( ! inve/igation ( tru? by means ( evid5ce4 7#aj7 ,music is an exp5sive noise4 7#aa7 ,! sun is ! c5tre ( ! sol> sy/em4 7#ab7 ,! sun is ! brighte/ ( ^? heav5ly bodies t move r\nd ! e>?4 7#ac7 ,ru/ is ! r$ desquamation ( old iron4 7#ad7 ,cavi>e is a k9d ( food4 7#ae7 ,life is ! opposite ( dea?4 7#af7 ,man is a fea!rless bip$4 7#ag7 ,man is a rational bip$4 7#ah7 ,a g5tleman is a p]son :o has no visible means ( subsi/5ce4 7#ai7 ,fame is a fanci$ life 9 o!rs' brea?4 7#bj7 ,a fault is a quality productive ( evil or inconv5i5ce4 7#ba7 ,an olig>*y is ! supremacy ( ! ri* 9 a /ate4 7#bb7 ,a citiz5 is "o :o is qualifi$ to ex]cise delib]ative & judicial functions4 7#bc7 ,l5g? is t dim5sion ( a solid :i* w\ld be measur$ by ! longe/ l9e4 7#bd7 ,an ecc5tricity is a peculi> idiosyncrasy4 7#be7 ,delib]ation is t species ( inve/igation :i* is conc]n$ ) matt]s ( action4 7#bf7 ,memory is t :i* helps u to =get4 7#bg7 ,polit5ess is ! oil t lubricates ! :eels ( society4 7#bh7 ,an acute-angl$ triangle is "o :i* has an acute angle4 7#bi7 ,a cause is t )\t :i* some?+ w\ld n be4 7#cj7 ,a cause is ! inv>iable antec$5t ( a ph5om5on4 7#ca7 ,necessity is ! "m ( inv5tion4 7#cb7 ,peace is ! abs5ce ( w>4 7#cc7 ,a net is a collection ( holes /rung toge!r4 7#cd7 ,prud5ce is ! balla/ ( ! moral vessel4 7#ce7 ,a circle is a plane figure conta9$ by "o l9e4 7#cf7 ,sup]/ition is a t5d5cy to look = con/ancy :]e con/ancy is n to be expect$4 7#cg7 ,bread is ! /aff ( life4 7#ch7 ,an attributive is a t]m :i* _c /& z a subject4 7#ci7 ,life is bottl$ sun%9e4 7#dj7 ,eloqu5ce is ! p[] ( influ5c+ ! feel+s by spee* or writ+4 7#da7 ,a tomb/one is a monum5t erect$ ov] a grave 9 memory ( ! dead4 7#db7 ,:it5ess is ! prop]ty or p[] ( excit+ ! s5sation ( :ite4 7#dc7 ,figure is ! limit ( a solid4 7#dd7 ,an ar*deacon is "o :o ex]cises ar*idiaconal functions4 7#de7 ,hum\r is ?9k+ 9 je/ :ile feel+ 9 e>ne/4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 #a4 ,divide ! foll[+ t]ms-- ,soldi] end book *ur* good oration apple cause s*ool %ip gov]nm5t lett] vehicle sci5ce v]se4 #b4 ,divide ! foll[+ t]ms z us$ 9 ,political ,economy-- ,requisites ( production1 lab\r1 consumption1 /ock1 weal?1 capital4 #c4 ,criticise ! foll[+ z divisions-- 7#a7 ,great ,brita9 into ,engl&1 ,scotl&1 ,wales1 & ,irel&4 7#b7 ,pictures into sacr$1 hi/orical1 l&scape1 & my?ological4 7#c7 ,v]tebrate animals into quadrup$s1 birds1 fi%es1 & reptiles4 7#d7 ,plant into /em1 root1 & bran*es4 7#e7 ,%ip into frigate1 brig1 s*oon]1 & m]*ant-man4 7#f7 ,books into octavo1 qu>to1 gre51 & blue4 7#g7 ,figure into curvil9e> & rectil9e>4 7#h7 ,ends into ^? :i* are ends only1 means & ends1 & means only4 7#i7 ,*ur* into ,go?ic1 episcopal1 high1 & l[4 7#aj7 ,sci5ces into physical1 moral1 metaphysical1 & m$ical4 7#aa7 ,libr>y into public & private4 7#ab7 ,horses into race-horses1 hunt]s1 hacks1 ?or\ghbr$s1 ponies1 & mules4 #d4 ,def9e & divide-- ,meat1 money1 virtue1 triangle2 & give1 z f> z possible1 a prop]ty & accid5t ( ea*4 ,,"p ,,iii4 ,,*apt]s ,i-,,iii4 #a4 ,:at k9d ( influ5ce h we "h8 ,! au?or ( ! ,iliad 0 unacqua9t$ ) writ+4 ,hom] 0 ! au?or ( ! ,iliad4 4'4 ,hom] 0 unacqua9t$ ) writ+4 #b4 ,give ! logical opposites ( ! foll[+ propositions-- 7#a7 ,k is nev] useless4 7#b7 ,all ,europeans are civilis$4 7#c7 ,"s monks are n illit]ate4 7#d7 ,happy is ! man t f9de? wisdom4 7#e7 ,no mat]ial sub/ances are devoid ( weight4 7#f7 ,e mi/ake is n culpable4 7#g7 ,"s ,iri%m5 are phlegmatic4 #c4 ,grant+ ! tru? ( ! foll[+ propositions1 :at o!r propositions c be inf]r$ by opposition to be true or false8 7#a7 ,m5 ( sci5ce are (t5 mi/ak54 7#b7 ,he c't be wrong1 ^: life is 9 ! "r4 7#c7 ,sir ,walt] ,scott 0 ! au?or ( ,wav]ley4 7#d7 ,! s\l t s9ne? x %all die4 7#e7 ,all wom5 are n va94 #d4 ,grant+ ! falsity ( ! foll[+ propositions1 :at o!r propositions c be inf]r$ by opposition to be true or false8-- 7#a7 ,"s m5 are n mortal4 7#b7 ,air has no weight4 7#c7 ,all actors are improp] *>act]s4 7#d7 ,none b dead languages are wor? /udy+4 7#e7 ,"s elem5ts are comp\nd4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 #a4 ,give1 z f> z possible1 ! logical conv]se ( ea* ( ! foll[+ propositions-- 7#a7 ,en]gy comm&s success4 7#b7 ,mortals _c be happy4 7#c7 ,!re are mi/akes :i* are crim9al4 7#d7 ,all's well t ends well4 7#e7 ,envi\s m5 are dislik$4 7#f7 ,a t]m is a k9d ( ^w or collection ( words4 7#g7 ,"s ,fr5*m5 are n vivaci\s4 7#h7 ,all ?+s 9 heav5 & e>? 7 hateful to him4 7#i7 ,! squ>e ( ?ree is n9e4 7#aj7 ,all _c receive ?is say+4 7#aa7 ,p /ruck ,q4 7#ab7 ,amas4 #b4 ',m ?+s may be conta9$ 9 my philosophy ?an exi/ 9 heav5 or e>?3 b ! conv]se proposition is by no means true4' ,is ! t]m conv]se "h us$ 9 its logical mean+8 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,p]mute ! foll[+ propositions-- 7#a7 ,all j acts are exp$i5t4 7#b7 ,no display ( passion is politic4 7#c7 ,"s clev] p are n prud5t4 7#d7 ,"s philosoph]s h be5 slaves4 ,! same ex]cise may be p]=m$ ^u any ( ! propositions 9 ! prec$+ li/s4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 #a4 ,give ! conv]se by negation (-- 7#a7 ,all wom5 are lovely4 7#b7 ,"s /atesm5 are n practical4 7#c7 ,all lawy]s are hone/4 7#d7 ,all doctors are skilful4 7#e7 ,"s m5 are n rational4 #b4 ,give ! contrapositive (-- 7#a7 ,all solid sub/ances are mat]ial4 7#b7 ,all ! m5 :o d n r[ play cricket4 7#c7 ,all impeccable be+s are o!r ?an human1 7#d7 ,"s prejudic$ p]sons are n di%one/4 #c4 ,prove indirectly ! tru? ( ! contrapositive ( ',all ,a is ,b4' #d4 ,criticise ! foll[+ z imm$iate inf]5ces-- 7#a7 ,all wise m5 are mode/4 4'4 ,no immode/ m5 are wise4 7#b7 ,"s ,g]man /ud5ts are n indu/ri\s4 4'4 ,"s indu/ri\s /ud5ts are n ,g]mans4 7#c7 ,absolute diff]5ce excludes all lik5ess4 4'4 ,any lik5ess is a pro( ( sam5ess4 7#d7 ,none b ! brave des]ve ! fair4 4'4 ,all brave m5 des]ve ! fair4 7#e7 ,all discont5t$ m5 are unhappy4 4'4 ,no cont5t$ m5 are unhappy4 7#f7 ,books be+ a s\rce ( in/ruction1 our k mu/ come f our libr>ies4 7#g7 ,all ,jews are ,semitic4 4'4 ,"s non-,semitic p are n ,jews4 #e4 ,%[ by :at k9d ( inf]5ce ea* ( ! subjo9$ propositions foll[s f ,all discont5t$ m5 are unhappy4 7#a7 ,all happy m5 are cont5t$4 7#b7 ,"s discont5t$ m5 are unhappy4 7#c7 ,"s cont5t$ m5 are happy4 7#d7 ,"s unhappy m5 are n cont5t$4 7#e7 ,no discont5t$ m5 are happy4 7#f7 ,"s happy m5 are cont5t$4 7#g7 ,"s cont5t$ m5 are n unhappy4 7#h7 ,"s unhappy m5 are discont5t$4 7#i7 ,no happy m5 are discont5t$4 7#aj7 ,"s discont5t$ m5 are n happy4 7#aa7 ,"s happy m5 are n discont5t$4 7#ab7 ,none b unhappy m5 are discont5t$4 ,f h[ _m ( ^! propositions c ! orig9al "o be d]iv$8 ,& :y n f all8 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,:at k9d ( inf]5ce h we "h8-- 7#a7 ,none b ! ignorant despise k4 4'4 ,no wise man despises k4 7#b7 ,a is sup]ior to ,b4 4'4 ,b is inf]ior to ,a4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,fill up ! foll[+ en?ymemes1 m5tion+ to :i* ord] !y belong1 & /ate :i* ( !m are express$ 9 problematic =m-- 7#a7 ,i am fond ( music3 = ,i always l a comic song4 7#b7 ,all m5 are born to suff]+1 & !re=e y mu/ expect y\r %>e4 7#c7 ,job mu/ h committ$ "s secret s9s3 = he fell into dreadful mis=tunes4 7#d7 ,lat9 0 ! language ( ! ,ve/als1 & !re=e no lady ne$ be a%am$ ( speak+ x4 7#e7 ,none b physicians came to ! meet+4 ,!re 7 !re=e no nurses !re4 7#f7 ,! human s\l ext5ds ?r\gh ! :ole body1 = x is f\nd 9 e memb]4 7#g7 ,no traitor c be tru/$1 & y are a traitor4 7#h7 ,:atev] has no p>ts does n p]i% by ! dissolution ( its p>ts4 ,!re=e ! s\l ( man is imp]i%able4 ,is ! suppress$ premiss 9 any case disputable on mat]ial gr\nds8 ,,*apt]s ,,ix-,,xviii4 ,ref] ! foll[+ argum5ts to _! prop] mood & figure1 or %[ :at rules ( syllogism !y violate4 7#a7 ,no mis] is a true fri5d1 = he does n assi/ 8 fri5d ) 8 purse4 7#b7 ,gov]nm5ts are good :i* promote prosp]ity4 ,! gov]nm5t ( ,burmah does n promote prosp]ity4 4'4 ,x is n a good gov]nm5t4 7#c7 ,l& is n prop]ty4 ,l& produces b>ley4 4'4 ,be] is intoxicat+4 7#d7 ,no?+ is prop]ty b t :i* is ! product ( man's h&4 ,! horse is n ! product ( man's h&4 4'4 ,! horse is n prop]ty4 7#e7 ,"s ,europeans at lea/ are n ,aryans1 because ! ,f9ns are n4 7#f7 ,saturn is visible f ! e>?1 & ! moon is visible f ! e>?4 ,!re=e ! moon is visible f ,saturn4 7#g7 ,"s m5 ( self-comm& are poor1 & !re=e "s noble *>act]s are poor4 7#h7 ,sp>+ ! rod spoils ! *ild3 s ,john w turn out v good1 = 8 "m beats him e day4 7#i7 ,"s effects ( lab\r are n pa9ful1 s9ce e virtue is an effect ( lab\r4 7#aj7 ,! c\rage\s are confid5t & ! exp]i5c$ are confid5t4 ,!re=e ! exp]i5c$ are c\rage\s4 7#aa7 ,no tale-be>] is to be tru/$1 & !re=e no great talk] is to be tru/$1 = all tale-be>]s are great talk]s4 7#ab7 ,socrates 0 wise1 & wise m5 alone are happy3 !re=e ,socrates 0 happy4 ,,ii4 #a4 ,f ! major ',no matt] ?9ks' draw1 by supply+ ! m9or1 ! foll[+ conclusions-- 7#a7 ,"s "p ( man does n ?9k4 7#b7 ,! s\l ( man is n matt]4 7#c7 ,"s "p ( man is n matt]4 7#d7 ,"s sub/ance does n ?9k4 ,"n ! figur$ mood into :i* ea* syllogism falls4 #b4 ,con/ruct syllogisms 9 ! foll[+ moods & figures1 /at+ :e!r !y are valid or invalid1 & giv+ y\r reasons 9 ea* case-- ,,aee 9 ! fir/ figure2 ,,eao 9 ! second2 ,,iai 9 ! ?ird2 ,,aii 9 ! f\r?4 #c4 ,prove t ',brass is n a metal1' us+ z y\r middle t]m 'comp\nd body4' #d4 ,con/ruct syllogisms to prove or disprove-- 7#a7 ,"s taxes are necess>y4 7#b7 ,no m5 are free4 7#c7 ,laws are salut>y4 #e4 ,prove by a syllogism 9 ,bok>do t ',"s ,sociali/s are n unselfi%1' & r$uce y\r syllogism directly & indirectly4 #f4 ,prove ! foll[+ propositions 9 ! second figure1 & r$uce ! syllogisms y use to ! fir/-- 7#a7 ,all negroes are n av]se to education4 7#b7 ,only murd]]s %\ld be hang$4 #g4 ,prove 9 ,b>oko & also 9 ,f]io t ',"s ,iri%m5 are n ,celts4' #h4 ,con/ruct 9 words ! same syllogism 9 all ! f\r figures4 #i4 ,inv5t in/ances to %[ t false premisses may give true conclusions4 ,,iii4 #a4 ,:at moods are peculi> to ! fir/1 second1 & ?ird figures respectively8 #b4 ,:at moods are common to all ! figures8 #c4 ,:y c !re be no subalt]n moods 9 ! ?ird figure8 #d4 ,:at is ! only k9d ( conclusion t c be drawn 9 all ! figures8 #e4 ,%[ t ,,ieo violates ! special rules ( all ! figures4 #f4 ,9 :at figures is ,,aee valid8 #g4 ,%[ t ,,aeo is sup]flu\s 9 any figure4 #h4 ,prove t ,o _c be a premiss 9 ! fir/ figure1 nor a m9or premiss any:]e b 9 ! second4 #i4 ,%[ t 9 ! fir/ figure ! conclusion mu/ h ! quality ( ! major premiss & ! quantity ( ! m9or4 #aj4 ,:y d ! premisses ,,ea yield a univ]sal conclusion 9 ! fir/ two figures & only a p>ticul> "o 9 ! la/ two8 #aa4 ,%[ t ,,aai is ! only mood 9 ! f\r? figure 9 :i* x is possible = ! major t]m to be di/ribut$ 9 ! premiss & undi/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion4 #ab4 ,:y are ! premisses ( ,fesapo & ,fresison n transpos$ 9 r$uction l ^? ( ! o!r moods ( ! f\r? figure8 ,,iv4 #a4 ,:y is x suffici5t to di/ribute ! middle t]m once only8 #b4 ,prove t f two affirmative premisses y _c get a negative conclusion4 #c4 ,prove t !re mu/ be at lea/ "o m t]m di/ribut$ 9 ! premisses ?an 9 ! conclusion4 #d4 ,prove t ! numb] ( di/ribut$ t]ms 9 ! premisses _c exce$ ^? 9 ! conclusion by m ?an two4 #e4 ,prove t ! numb] ( undi/ribut$ t]ms 9 ! premisses _c exce$ ^? 9 ! conclusion by m ?an "o4 #f4 ,prove t :]ev] ! m9or premiss is negative1 ! major mu/ be univ]sal4 #g4 ,prove t :]ev] ! m9or t]m is di/ribut$1 ! major premiss mu/ be univ]sal4 #h4 ,if ! middle t]m be twice di/ribut$1 :at mood & figure are possible8 #i4 ,if ! major t]m ( a syllogism be ! pr$icate ( ! major premiss1 :at d we "k ab\t ! m9or premiss8 #aj4 ,:5 ! middle t]m is di/ribut$ 9 bo? premisses1 :at mu/ be ! quantity ( ! conclusion8 #aa4 ,prove t if ! conclusion be univ]sal1 ! middle t]m c only be di/ribut$ once 9 ! premisses4 #ab4 ,%[ h[ x is sometimes possible to draw ?ree diff]5t conclusions f ! same premisses4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 #a4 ,conv]t ! foll[+ propositions-- 7#a7 ,if a man is wise1 he is humble4 7#b7 ,:]e !re is s9c]ity !re is no affectation4 7#c7 ,:5 night-dogs run1 all sorts ( de] are *as$4 7#d7 ,! ne>] ! ,*ur*1 ! fur!r f ,god4 7#e7 ,if !re 7 no void1 all w\ld be solid4 7#f7 ,n to g on is sometimes to g back4 #b4 ,express 9 a s+le proposition-- ,if he 0 div9e1 he 0 n covet\s2 & if he 0 covet\s1 he 0 n div9e4 #c4 ,exhibit ! exact logical relation to "o ano!r ( ! foll[+ pairs ( propositions-- 7#a7 ,if ! conclusion be false1 ! premisses are false4 ,if ! conclusion be true1 ! premisses are n necess>ily true4 7#b7 ,if "o premiss be negative1 ! conclusion mu/ be negative4 ,if ! conclusion be negative1 "o ( ! premisses mu/ be negative4 7#c7 ,! tru? ( ! univ]sal involves ! tru? ( ! p>ticul>4 ,! falsity ( ! p>ticul> involves ! falsity ( ! univ]sal4 7#d7 ,f ! tru? ( ! p>ticul> no conclusion foll[s z to ! univ]sal4 ,f ! falsity ( ! univ]sal no conclusion foll[s z to ! p>ticul>4 7#e7 ,if ! conclusion 9 ! f\r? figure be negative1 ! major premiss mu/ be univ]sal4 ,if ! major premiss 9 ! f\r? figure be p>ticul>1 ! conclusion mu/ be affirmative4 7#f7 ,if bo? premisses be affirmative1 ! conclusion mu/ be affirmative4 ,if ! conclusion be negative1 "o ( ! premisses mu/ be negative4 #d4 ',! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t /&s on ! gr\nd t :atev] circum/ance c be elim9at$ is n connect$ ) ! ph5om5on by any law2 ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce /&s on ! gr\nd t :atev] circum/ance _c be elim9at$ is connect$ ) ! ph5om5on by a law4' ,d ^! two pr9ciples imply "o ano!r8 ,,*apt]s ,,xx-,,xxviii4 #a4 ,fill up ! foll[+ en?ymemes1 & /ate ! exact nature ( ! result+ syllogism-- 7#a7 ,if ,livy is a faultless hi/orian1 we mu/ believe all t he tells u2 b t x is impossible to d4 7#b7 ,if !y /ay abroad1 ! wife w die2 :ile ! husb&'s lungs w n /& ! ,engli% climate4 ,x is to be fe>$ !re=e t "o mu/ fall a victim4 7#c7 ,he is ei!r v good1 v bad1 or commonplace4 ,b he is n v good4 7#d7 ,ei!r a slave is capable ( virtue or he is n4 4'4 ,ei!r he ought n to be a slave or he is n a man4 7#e7 ,does n 8 feebl5ess ( "* indicate ei!r a bad tra9+ or a natural imbecility8 7#f7 ,^? :o ask %an't h2 ^? :o don't ask don't want4 7#g7 ,if a man be mad1 he deviates f ! common /&>d ( intellect4 4'4 ,if all m5 be alike mad1 no "o is mad4 7#h7 ',i _c dig2 to beg ,i am a%am$4' #b4 ',! inf9ite divisibility ( space implies t ( "t4 ,if ! latt] !re=e be impossible1 ! =m] mu/ be equally s4' ,=mulate ?is argum5t z an imm$iate inf]5ce4 #c4 ,exam9e ! foll[+ argum5ts-- 7#a7 ,if we h a du/y spr+1 !re is always a good :eat h>ve/4 ,we %all !re=e h a poor h>ve/ ?is ye>1 = ! spr+ has n be5 du/y4 7#b7 ,virtues are ei!r feel+s1 capacities1 or /ates2 & z !y are nei!r feel+s nor capacities1 !y mu/ be /ates4 7#c7 ,ev]y?+ mu/ be ei!r j or unju/4 ,ju/ice is a ?+1 & is n unju/4 4'4 ,ju/ice is j4 ,simil>ly ju/ice is holy4 ,b ! virtues ( k1 ju/ice1 c\rage1 temp]ance1 & hol9ess 7 decl>$ to be diff]5t f "o ano!r4 4'4 ,ju/ice is unholy & hol9ess unju/4 ,,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,=mulate ! foll[+ tra9s ( reason+1 resolve !m into _! compon5t p>ts1 & po9t out any violations ( ! rules ( syllogism :i* !y may conta9-- 7#a7 ,no ,*ur* ,in/itutions are useful2 = !y tea* religi\s matt]s1 n bus9ess matt]s1 :i* latt] are useful1 be+ pr(itable4 7#b7 ,mr4 ,d>w9 long ago taught u t ! clov] crop is dep5d5t on ! numb] ( maid5 ladies 9 ! di/rict4 ,= ! ladies keep cats1 & ! cats de/roy ! field-mice1 :i* prey on ! bees1 :i*1 9 _! turn1 are all-important ag5ts 9 ! f]tilisation ( ! clov] fl[]s4 7#c7 ,a?letic games are duties2 = :atev] is necess>y to heal? is a duty1 & ex]cise is necess>y to heal?1 & ^! games are ex]cise4 7#d7 ,! iron-trade leads to ! improvem5t ( a new c\ntry2 = furnaces require to be f$ ) fuel1 :i* causes l& to be cle>$4 7#e7 ',is /one a body8' ',yes4' ',well1 is n an animal a body8' ',yes1' ',& are y an animal8' ',x seems s4' ',!n y are a /one1 be+ an animal4' 7#f7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d4 ,if ,e is ,f1 ,g is ,h4 ,b if ,a is ,b1 ,e is ,f4 4'4 ,if ,c is ,d1 ,g is sometimes ,h4 7#g7 ,! s\l is n matt]4 ,my arm is n myself4 7#h7 ,hone/y des]ves rew>d & a negro is a fell[-creature4 ,!re=e an hone/ negro is a fell[-creature des]v+ ( rew>d4 ,,*apt] ,,xxx4 #a4 ,po9t out any ambiguities :i* und]lie ! foll[+ propositions-- 7#a7 ,e "o :o has read ! book 9 ,fr5* w recomm5d ^? :o h n to read x 9 ,engli%4 7#b7 ,i w n d ?is because he did x4 7#c7 ,^! are all my books4 7#d7 ,by an old /atute ( ! date ( ,edw>d ,,iii x 0 accord$ 't ,p>liam5t %\ld be hold5 e ye> once or m (t5 if ne$ be4' 7#e7 ,!y f\nd ,m>y & ,joseph & ! babe ly+ 9 a mang]4 7#f7 ,! k+ & 8 m9i/] are feeble & unscrupul\s4 7#g7 ,h]es meus uxori meae trig9ta pondo vasorum arg5teorum dato1 quae volet4 #b4 ,exam9e ! foll[+ argum5ts1 =mulat+ !m :5 s\nd1 & ref]r+ !m1 :5 uns\nd1 to ! prop] head ( fallacy-- 7#a7 ,we "k t ?\ art a tea*] come f ,god2 = no man c d ^! signs t ?\ doe/1 except ,god be ) him4 ,s4 ,john iii4 #b4 7#b7 ',sir ,walt] ,scott's novels h ceas$ to be popul>4' ',well1 t's only because nobody reads !m4' 7#c7 ,:at we produce is prop]ty4 ,! %]iff produces a prison]4 4'4 ,a prison] is prop]ty4 7#d7 ,z all metals are n necess>ily solid1 we may expect "s metals to be liquid4 7#e7 ,moses 0 ! son ( ,ph>aoh's daught]4 4'4 ,moses 0 ! daught] ( ,ph>aoh's son4 7#f7 ,if ,aes*9es took "p 9 ! public rejoic+s ov] ! success ( my policy1 he is inconsi/5t 9 condemn+ x n[2 if he did n1 he 0 a traitor !n4 7#g7 ,x is wrong to /ick knives into p4 4'4 ,surgeons ought to be puni%$4 7#h7 ,if a ?+ admits ( be+ taught1 !re mu/ be bo? tea*]s & le>n]s ( x4 4'4 ,if !re are nei!r tea*]s nor le>n]s ( a ?+1 t ?+ does n admit ( be+ taught4 7#i7 ,x is unnecess>y to l5d books1 if !y are common1 & wrong to l5d !m1 if !y are r>e4 ,!re=e books %\ld n be l5t f public libr>ies4 7#aj7 ,see+ is believ+4 4'4 ,:at is n se5 _c be believ$4 7#aa7 ,/4 ,paul 0 n ( ,jewi% blood1 = he 0 a ,roman citiz54 7#ab7 ,to call y an animal is to speak ! tru?4 ,to call y an ass is to call y an animal4 4'4 ,to call y an ass is to speak ! tru?4 7#ac7 ,pa9 *a/5s folly4 ,a life ( ease mu/ !re=e be "o ( folly incurable4 7#ad7 ,we _c be happy 9 ?is _w2 = we mu/ ei!r indulge our passions or combat !m4 7#ae7 ,x mu/ be cle> to ! mo/ unlett]$ m9d t1 z all ?+s 7 orig9ally creat$ by ! ,deity1 includ+ ! hair on our heads & ! be>ds on our faces1 !re c be no su* ?+ z prop]ty4 7#af7 ,! crime 0 committ$ by ! crim9al4 ,! crim9al 0 committ$ by ! magi/rate4 4'4 ,! crime 0 committ$ by ! magi/rate4 7#ag7 ,g5]al c\ncils are z likely to err z ! fallible m5 ( :om !y consi/4 7#ah7 ,dead dogs are heavi] ?an liv+ ones1 because vitality is buoyant4 7#ai7 ,delib]ation is conc]n$ ) actions4 ,actions are means4 4'4 ,delib]ation is conc]n$ ) means4 7#bj7 ',no bea/ s fi]ce b has a t\* ( pity2 ,b ,i h none3 !re=e ,i am no bea/4' 7#ba7 ,practical pursuits are bett] ?an !oretical4 4'4 ,ma!matics are bett] ?an logic4 7#bb7 ,dea? mu/ be a good4 ,= ei!r ! s\l1 ceas+ to be1 ceases ta suff]1 or1 cont9u+ to be1 lives 9 a bett] /ate4 7#bc7 ,:at is "r %\ld be en=c$ by law4 4'4 ,*>ity %\ld be s en=c$4 7#bd7 ,all animals 7 9 ! ,ark4 4'4 ,no animals p]i%$ 9 ! ,flood4 7#be7 ,if he robs1 he is n hon\rable4 ,if he pays all 8 dues1 he does n rob4 4'4 ,if he pays all 8 dues1 he is hon\rable4 7#bf7 ,a dove c fly a mile 9 a m9ute4 ,a swall[ c fly fa/] ?an a dove4 4'4 ,a swall[ c fly m ?an a mile 9 a m9ute4 7#bg7 ',i mu/ soap myself1 because x's ,sunday4' ',!n d y only soap y\rself on ,sunday4' 7#bh7 ,if ! *>ge is false1 ! au?or ( x is ei!r ignorant or malici\s4 ,b ! *>ge is true4 ,!re=e he is nei!r4 7#bi7 ,all ! angles ( a triangle are equal to two "r angles4 ,! angle at ! v]tex is an angle ( a triangle4 4'4 ,x is equal to two "r angles4 7#cj7 ,si gravis sit dolor1 brevis e/2 si longus1 levis4 ,ergo =tit] f]5dus4 7#ca7 ,y are n :at ,i am4 ,i am a man4 4'4 ,y are n a man4 7#cb7 ,! ext5sion ( ! fran*ise is necess>y1 = x is imp]ative t ! "r ( vot+ %\ld be grant$ to classes :o h hi!rto n possess$ ?is privilege4 7#cc7 ,if ,hannibal is really victori\s1 he does n ne$ supplies2 :ile1 if he is delud+ u1 we ought c]ta9ly n to enc\rage him by s5d+ !m4 ,livy1 xxiii4 #ac4 #e4 7#cd7 ,laws mu/ puni%1 & puni%m5t hurts4 ,all laws !re=e are hurtful4 7#ce7 ,! sun is an ins5sible ?+4 ,! ,p]sians wor%ip ! sun4 4'4 ,! ,p]sians wor%ip an ins5sible ?+4 7#cf7 ,"s ores are n metals2 = !y are n fluids1 & "s metals are n fluids4 7#cg7 ,all ! ,grecian soldi]s put ! ,p]sians to flight4 4'4 ,e ,grecian soldi] c\ld r\t ! ,p]sians4 7#ch7 ,! resurrection ( ,jesus ,*ri/ is ei!r an isolat$ fact or else admits ( p>allel4 ,b if x be an isolat$ fact1 x _c be r5d]$ probable to "o :o d5ies ! au?ority ( ,*ri/ianity2 &1 if x admit ( p>allel1 x no long] proves :at is requir$4 ,!re=e x is ei!r incapable ( be+ sub/antiat$ or else makes no?+ = ! tru? ( ,*ri/ianity4 7#ci7 ,! resurrection ( ,*ri/ 9 ! fle% & 8 asc5sion into heav5 7 ev5ts ei!r intr9sically incr$ible 9 _! nature or n4 ,if ! =m]1 ! preval5t belief 9 !m c only be acc\nt$ = by miracles2 if ! latt]1 !y ought to be believ$ ev5 )\t miracles4 ,/4 ,aug4 ,de ,civ4 ,dei1 xxii4 #h4 7#dj7 ,only cont5t$ p are wise4 ,!re=e ! tramp cont5t$ 9 8 rags is necess>ily a wise man4 7#da7 ,f\r-legg$ ?+s are brutes4 ,tables are f\r-legg$ ?+s4 4'4 ,tables are brutes4 7#db7 ,! app>5t volcanoes 9 ! moon are n volcanoes2 = eruptions are produc$ by gases only1 & !re are no gases 9 ! moon4 7#dc7 ,to read ! ,scriptures is our duty4 ,!re=e ! ,capta9 0 wrong 9 puni%+ ! helmsman = read+ ! ,bible at ! "t :5 ! %ip /ruck4 7#dd7 ,! div9e law ord]s t k+s %\ld be hon\r$4 ,l\is ,quatorze is a k+4 4'4 ,! div9e law ord]s t ,l\is ,quatorze %\ld be hon\r$4 7#de7 ,^? :o desire ! same object are unanim\s4 ,caes> & ,pompey bo? desire ! same object1 namely1 supreme p[]4 4'4 ,!y are unanim\s4 7#df7 ,ei!r ! m9i/]s left at home w be ciph]s or !y w n be ciph]s4 ,if !y are ciph]s1 cab9et gov]nm5t1 :i* is equival5t to con/itutional gov]nm5t1 w receive a rude bl[4 ,if !y are n ciph]s1 ! cab9et w be consid]+ matt]s ( ! utmo/ importance 9 ! abs5ce1 & ! gratuit\s abs5ce1 ( two ( its mo/ important memb]s4 ',! ,/&>d1' ,w$4 ,june #e1 #ahgh4 7#dg7 ,"o pat5t /ove saves half ! ord9>y am\nt ( fuel4 ,!re=e two w\ld save x all4 7#dh7 ,"o numb] mu/ w9 9 ! lott]y4 ,my ticket is "o numb]4 4'4 ,x mu/ w94 7#di7 ,all good %eph]ds are prep>$ to lay d[n _! lives = ! %eep4 ,few 9 ?is age are s prep>$4 4'4 ,few 9 ?is age are good %eph]ds4 7#ej7 ,y _c def9e ! sun2 = a def9ition mu/ be cle>] ?an ! ?+ def9$1 & no?+ c be cle>] ?an ! s\rce ( all light4 7#ea7 ,to give ! monopoly ( ! home m>ket to ! produce ( dome/ic indu/ry 444 mu/ 9 almo/ all cases be ei!r a useless or a hurtful regulation4 ,if ! produce ( dome/ic c be br\ght !re z *eap z t ( =eign indu/ry1 ! regulation is evid5tly useless2 if x _c1 x is g5]ally hurtful4 ,adam ,smi?1 ,weal? ( ,nations1 ,bk4 iv4 *4 #b4 7#eb7 ,v]b]>e e/ actio4 ,ergo et vapul>e4 7#ec7 ,! ages ( all ! memb]s ( ?is family are ov] #aej4 ,! baby is a memb] ( ?is family4 4'4 ,its age is ov] #aej4 7#ed7 ,romulus mu/ be an hi/orical p]son2 because x is n at all likely t ! ,romans1 ^: memory 0 only burd5$ ) sev5 k+s1 %\ld h =gott5 ! mo/ fam\s ( !m1 namely1 ! fir/4 7#ee7 ,all sci5tific treatises t are cle> & true des]ve att5tion4 ,few sci5tific treatises are cle> & true4 4'4 ,few sci5tific treatises des]ve att5tion4 7#ef7 ,! ,cons]vative ,gov]nm5t is an exp5sive "o2 =1 on _! go+ out ( ,(fice1 !re 0 a deficit4 7#eg7 ,a man is =bidd5 to m>ry 8 bro!r's wife1 or1 9 o!r words1 a woman is =bidd5 to m>ry h] husb&'s bro!r1 t is1 a woman is directly =bidd5 to m>ry two bro!rs4 ,!re=e a man may n m>ry two si/]s1 s t a man may n m>ry 8 wife's si/]4 ,,index4 ,! ref]5ces ref] to ! sections4 ,ab/raction1 #ig4 ,acategorematic words1 #ga4 ,acc5t1 ,fallacy (1 #hee4 ,accid5t1 #cah4 ,accid5t1 ,fallacy (1 #hfj4 ,a dicto secundum quid1 ,fallacy (1 #hfa4 ,amphiboly1 ,fallacy (1 #hdh4 ,antec$5t ( a complex proposition1 #bab4 ( an inf]5ce1 #dbh4 ,a po/]iori ,tru?1 #bcb4 ,a priori ,tru?1 #bca4 ',a' ,propositions1 #bfj4 conv]sion (1 #dhi4 ,argu+ 9 a circle1 #hhb4 ,argum5tum ad hom9em1 etc41 #hfg4 ,art1 #bj4 ,attribute1 #ha sqq4 ,ess5tial & non-ess5tial1 #cbj4 ,attributives1 #hh sqq4 ,basis ( ,division1 #cia4 ,categorematic words1 #ga4 ,circulus 9 def9i5do1 #chb4 ,common ,t]ms1 #aje4 h[ =m$1 #ii4 nature (1 #dh4 ,complex ,proposition1 #bji4 conv]sion (1 #gji4 conv]sion by contraposition (1 #gbh4 conv]sion by negation (1 #gba4 divid$ into conjunctive & disjunctive1 #bad4 p]mutation (1 #gah4 ,complex ,syllogism1 #gca4 mix$ =m (1 #ggh4 ,composition1 ,fallacy (1 #hdi4 ,concept1 #cf1 #dj sqq4 ,conception1 #cc4 ,conceptuali/s1 #ea4 ,conclusion1 #edj4 pr$icate (1 #edb4 subject (1 #edb4 ,conjunctive ,syllogisms1 #gcc4 canon (1 #gdb4 r$uction ( p>tly1 #gdd4 p>tly conjunctive syllogisms z an imm$iate inf]5ce1 #gec4 ,connotation ( ,t]ms1 #adh4 ,consequ5t ( a complex proposition1 #bac4 ( an inf]5ce1 #dbh4 ,consequ5t1 ,fallacy (1 #hgc4 ,cont+5t1 #ag4 ,contradiction1 ,law (1 #be sqq4 ,contradictory ,propositions1 #deh4 ,t]ms1 #abi4 ,contr>y ,propositions1 #deh4 ,t]ms1 #acj4 ,conv]se1 #dhj4 ,conv]sion1 #dgi4 ( complex propositions1 #gji4 by contraposition1 #eaf4 illative1 #dha4 by negation1 #ejd4 p] accid5s1 #dhg4 simple1 #dhf4 rules (1 #dhb4 ,conv]t5d1 #dhj4 ,copula1 #eh1 #fd1 #ahf sqq4 modality (1 #aif4 ,correlatives1 #adb4 ,d$uction & ,induction1 diff]5ce (1 #dca sqq4 ,d$uctive ,inf]5ce1 #ddb4 ,d$uctive ,logic1 def9ition (1 #d4 ,def9ition ( ,t]ms1 #cdg sqq4 ( ,ari/otle 7,greek3 risms71 #ccf4 f9al1 #cgd4 nom9al1 #cge4 provisional1 #cgd4 real1 #cge4 rules (1 #cgh4 ,d5otation ( ,t]ms1 #aeb4 ,description1 #cfj4 ,designations1 #aab4 ,det]m9ation1 #afg4 ,dictum de omni et nullo1 #efi4 de div]so1 #fda4 de exemplo et excepto1 #fdb4 ,diff]5ce1 #cah1 #ceh4 g5]ic1 #daj4 specific1 #dji4 ,dilemma1 #gcb1 #ggi4 rebutt$1 #gib4 r$uction (1 #gif4 reg>d$ z an imm$iate inf]5ce1 #gih4 ,disjunctive ,syllogism1 #gfj4 canon (1 #gfe4 r$uction (1 #gff4 reg>d$ z an imm$iate inf]5ce1 #ggj4 ,di/9ction1 #dbd4 ,di/ribution ( ,t]ms1 #bgd4 f\r rules =1 #bic4 ,divid$ :ole1 #cic4 ,divid+ memb]s1 #cid4 ,division1 #che sqq4 by di*otomy1 #dab4 rules (1 #cie4 ,division1 ,fallacy (1 #hea4 ,division ( ,propositions1 #bjf4 ( t]ms1 #hf4 ( ?+s1 #gg4 ,en?ymeme1 incorrectly s-call$1 #eeg4 ,enum]ation1 #chg1 #dbb4 ,epi*eirema1 #hjc4 ,episyllogism1 #hjb4 ',e' ,propositions1 #bfj4 conv]sion (1 #dij4 ,equivocation1 ,fallacy (1 #hde4 ,exclud$ ,middle1 ,law (1 #be sqq41 #ejb4 ,ext5sion ( ,t]ms1 #adi sqq41 #aff sqq4 ,fallacy1 #hbg sqq4 ( ambiguity1 #hca4 def9ition (1 #hbh4 =mal1 #hch4 logical1 #hcf4 mat]ial1 #hca1 #hcf4 ( undi/urb$ middle1 #ehe4 ,figure ( ,spee*1 ,fallacy (1 #heg4 ,figures1 ( a ,syllogism1 #eeh4 special canons (1 #fcc4 special rules (1 #fjf4 special uses (1 #fdh4 ,=mal ,logic1 #af4 ,f\r ,t]ms1 ,fallacy (1 #hdj4 ,fundam5tum ,divisionis1 #cia4 ,g5]alisation1 #afh4 ,g5us1 #cah4 z us$ by ,ari/otle1 #ccf4 cognate1 #djh4 proximate1 #dbj4 subalt]n1 #djf4 summum1 #afg1 #djd4 ,heads ( ,pr$icables1 #cac4 z giv5 by ,ari/otle1 #ccf4 ',ideas' ( ,plato1 #eb4 ,id5tity1 ,law (1 #be sqq4 ,ignoratio ,el5*i1 ,fallacy (1 #hfe4 ,ignotum p] ignotius1 #chc4 ,illicit ,process1 ,fallacy (1 #ehf4 ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce1 #ddb sqq4 by add$ det]m9ants1 #ece4 by complex conception1 #ecg4 appli$ to complex propositions1 #gja4 ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce1 comp\nd =ms (1 #ejc4 p>tly conjunctive syllogisms reg>d$ z1 #gec4 by conv]sion1 #dgi4 disjunctive syllogisms reg>d$ z1 #ggj4 by opposition1 #dfb4 by p]mutation1 #dif4 ,induction1 diff]+ f ,d$uction1 #dcj sqq4 ,inductive ,logic1 #b1 #bjd4 ,inf]5ces 9 g5]al1 #dbf4 classification (1 #dda4 d$uctive1 #ddb4 inductive1 #dcj4 ,intimae species1 #dje4 ,int5sion ( ,t]ms1 #aej1 #aff4 ,intuition1 #bcb4 ,inv]se ,v>iation1 ,law (1 #aff4 ',i' ,propositions1 #bfj4 conv]sion (1 #dij4 ',judgem5t1' v>i\s mean+s (1 #cb1 #cf4 ',law1' ambiguities ( ! ^w1 #g sqq4 ,major ,premiss1 #edd4 ,major ,t]m1 #edb4 ,_m ,que/ions1 ,fallacy (1 #hhd4 ,m$iate ,inf]5ces or ,syllogisms1 #ddd1 #edj sqq4 axioms (1 #egf4 ,membra ,divid5tia1 #cid4 ,middle ,t]m1 #eda4 position (1 9 a syllogism1 #efc4 ,m9or ,premiss1 #ede4 ,m9or ,t]m1 #edb4 ,modality1 ,"q (1 #aif4 ,mode1 !1 #aif4 ,moods ( a ,syllogism1 #eeh4 det]m9ation ( ! legitimate1 #eii4 subalt]n1 #fbh4 valid 9 ! ,f\r ,figures1 #fba4 mnemonics (1 valid 9 ,f\r ,figures1 #fbi4 ,"n1 def9ition (1 #fa4 ,negative ,premisses & ,conclusion1 ,fallacy (1 #hdb4 ,nom9ali/s1 #ej1 #ed4 ,non causa pro causa1 ,fallacy (1 #hhc4 ,n\ns1 #fb4 ,opposition1 #ddi sqq4 contradictory1 #deg4 contr>y1 #ded4 laws (1 #dfd4 subalt]n1 #def4 sub-contr>y1 #dee4 ',o' ,propositions1 #bfj4 conv]sion (1 #dia4 ,p>tition1 #dbc4 ,p]mutation1 #dif sqq4 ( ,complex ,propositions1 #gah4 ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 ,fallacy (1 #hgd4 ,pr$icable1 #cad4 ,pr$icate ( a ,proposition1 #eh1 #ahd4 read 9 ext5sion1 #cjg4 quantification (1 #bie sqq4 quantity (1 #bha1 #did4 ,pr$ication1 #aid4 9 quid or 9 quale1 #ccb4 ,premisses1 #edj4 major1 #edd4 m9or1 #ede4 ,prim>y ,exi/5ces1 #ee4 ,problema1 !1 #eef4 ,prop] ,names1 #aac4 ,prop]ty1 #cah4 g5]ic1 #daa4 specific1 #daa4 ,proposition1 #agb sqq4 accid5tal1 #bch4 affirmative1 #beh4 complex or conditional1 #bji4 conjunctive or hypo!tical1 #bad1 #gjd4 conv]sion (1 #dgi4 def9ition (1 #agh4 disjunctive1 #bad4 divisions (1 #bjf4 ess5tial1 #bch4 exceptive1 #bgj4 exclusive1 #bff4 ext5sive1 #bfd4 g5]al1 #bea4 indef9ite1 #bdd4 int5sive1 #bfd4 modal1 #bje4 negative1 #beh4 p>ticul>1 #bdj4 pure1 #bje4 quality (1 #beh4 quantity (1 #bdf4 real or syn!tical1 #bbg4 simple or categorical1 #bjg4 s+ul>1 #bej4 tautolog\s or id5tical1 #bgc4 univ]sal1 #bci4 v]bal or analytical1 #bbd4 ,proprium1 #ccf4 ,pro-syllogism1 #hjb4 ,quae/io1 !1 #eef4 ,quality1 a1 #hb4 ,quality ( ! matt]1 #bjd4 ( propositions1 #beh4 ,quantification ( ! ,pr$icate1 #bie sqq41 #dic4 ,quantity ( propositions1 #beh4 ( t]ms1 #adh4 ,reali/s1 #di4 ,real ,k9ds1 #cga4 ,reason+ or ,inf]5ce1 #ce4 ! canon (1 #efj4 tra9s (1 #hjj4 ,r$uction ( propositions1 #ffg4 ( ! dilemma1 #gif4 ( disjunctive syllogisms1 #gff4 indirect1 #fia4 mnemonics =1 #fig4 o/5sive or direct1 #fgc4 ( p>tly conjunctive syllogisms1 #gdd4 ,relation1 a1 #hc1 #add4 ,relation1 imm$iate inf]5ce by1 #dfb4 compatible & incompatible1 #dfb4 ,sci5ce1 #bj4 ,second>y ,exi/5ces1 #ee4 ,simple ,appreh5sion1 #cc4 ,sorites1 !1 #hjg sqq4 ,specialisation1 #afg4 ,species1 #cah4 cognate1 #djg4 infimae1 #dje4 subalt]n1 #djf4 ,subalt]nant1 #deh4 ,subalt]nate1 #deh4 ,subalt]nation1 #deh4 ,subalt]ns1 #deh4 ,sub-contr>ies1 #deh4 ,sub-division1 #dja4 ,subject1 #eh1 #ahc4 h[ us$1 #bfd4 quantity (1 #bgi4 ,sub/ance1 #hj1 #hd4 ,summum ,g5us1 #afg1 #djd4 ,suppositio ,mat]ialis1 #gf4 ,syllogism1 #edf sqq4 complex1 #gca4 9 common disc\rse1 #eeg4 conjunctive1 #gcc4 def9ition (1 #eeb4 disjunctive1 #gfj4 g5]al rules (1 #ehb4 figures (1 #efj1 #efc4 ) ?ree figures1 #fef4 legitimate moods (1 #eii sqq4 mnemonics =1 #eih4 moods (1 #eei1 #efb4 ,syncntegorematic words1 #gj4 ,synonym1 #cde4 ,t]m1 #eg sqq4 absolute1 #adj4 ab/ract1 #ie4 analog\s1 #aci4 attributive1 #hh4 collective1 #aah4 common1 #aje4 concrete1 #if4 connotative1 #adg4 contradictory1 #abi4 contr>y1 #acj4 def9ition (1 #cdg4 ,t]ms1 di/ribution (1 #bge4 di/ributive & collective use (1 #aai4 division (1 #hf4 equivocal1 #acg4 incompatible1 #ace4 individual1 #aba4 major1 middle1 & m9or1 #edb4 negative1 #abf4 non-connotative1 #adg4 positive1 #abf4 privative1 #abf4 quantity (1 #adh4 ,t]ms1 relative1 #ada4 repugnant1 #ace4 s+ul>1 #dc1 #ajd4 subject1 #hg4 undi/ribut$1 #bgg4 univocal1 #acg4 ,univ]sals1 nature (1 #dh1 #ee4 ',u' ,propositions1 #big4 ,v]b1 #fd4 ,words1 _! relation to t]ms1 #fe sqq1 ,,! ,,end4