,,hi/ology ,,( ,,m$ic9al ,,plants ,,by ,,william ,,mansfield1 ,a4,m41 ,,ph>4,d4 ,pr(essor ( ,hi/ology & ,ph>macognosy1 ,college ( ,ph>macy ( ! ,city ( ,new ,york ,columbia ,univ]sity ,,total ,,issue1 ,,f\r ,,?\s& ,,new ,,york ,,john ,,wiley ,,sons1 ,,inc4 ,,london3 ,,*apman ,,hall1 ,,limit$ ,copyright1 #aiaf1 by ,,william ,,mansfield ,,preface ,! object ( ! book is to provide a practical sci5tific c\rse 9 vegetable hi/ology = ! use ( tea*]s & /ud5ts 9 s*ools & colleges4 ,! m$ic9al plants are /udi$ 9 great detail because !y con/itute "o ( ! mo/ important gr\ps ( economic plants4 ,! cells f\nd 9 ^! plants are typical ( ! cells occurr+ 9 ! vegetable k+dom2 !re=e ! book %\ld prove a valuable text-book = all /ud5ts ( hi/ology4 ,! book conta9s mu* t is new4 ,9 ,"p ,,ii1 :i* is devot$ l>gely to ! /udy ( cells & cell cont5ts1 is a new sci5tific1 yet practical1 classification ( cells & cell cont5ts4 ,! au?or believes t 8 classification ( ba/ fibres & hairs w cle> up mu* ( ! confusion t /ud5ts h exp]i5c$ :5 /udy+ ^! /ructures4 ,! book is replete ) illu/rations1 all ( :i* are f orig9al draw+s made by ! au?or4 ,z mo/ ( ^! illu/rations are diagno/ic ( ! plants 9 :i* !y occur1 !y w prove especially valuable z ref]5ce plates4 ,! mat]ial ( ! book is ! outgr[? ( ! exp]i5ce ( ! au?or 9 tea*+ hi/ology at ! ,college ( ,ph>macy ( ! ,city ( ,new ,york1 ,columbia ,univ]sity1 & ( ye>s ( practical exp]i5ce ga9$ by exam9+ p[d]$ drugs 9 ! laboratory ( a l>ge import+ & export+ :olesale drug h\se4 ,! au?or is indebt$ to ,erne/ ,leitz & ,baus* ,lomb ,optical ,company = ! use ( cuts ( microscopic app>atus us$ 9 ,"p ,i ( ! book4 ,! au?or also desires to express 8 appreciation to ,pr(essor ,walt] ,s4 ,cam]on1 :o has r5d]$ him mu* valuable aid4 ,,william ,,mansfield4 ,,columbia ,,univ]sity1 ,septemb]1 #aiaf4 ,,cont5ts ,,"p ,i ,,simple ,,& ,,comp\nd ,,microscopes ,,& ,,microscopic ,,te*nic ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,simple ,,microscopes ,,page ,simple microscopes1 =ms ( #d ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,comp\nd ,,microscopes ,comp\nd microscopes1 /ructure ( #g ,comp\nd microscopes1 me*anical p>ts ( #g ,comp\nd microscopes1 optical p>ts ( #i ,comp\nd microscopes1 =ms ( #ab ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,microscopic ,,measurem5ts ,ocul> micromet] #ai ,/age micromet] #ai ,me*anical /age #ba ,micromet] eye-pieces #ba ,cam]a lucida #bb ,draw+ app>atus #bc ,microphotographic app>atus #bd ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,h[ ,,to ,,use ,,! ,,microscope ,illum9ation #bf ,micro lamp #bg ,c>e ( ! microscope #bh ,prep>ation ( specim5s = cutt+ #bh ,p>aff9 imb$d+ ov5 #cj ,p>aff9 blocks #ca ,cutt+ sections #ca ,h& microtome #ca ,ma*9e microtomes #cb ,,*apt] ,v ,,reag5ts ,reag5t set #ci ,measur+ cyl9d] #dj ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,h[ ,,to ,,m\nt ,,specim5s ,tempor>y m\nts #da ,p]man5t m\nts #da ,cov] glasses #dc ,glass slides #dd ,=ceps #de ,ne$les #df ,scissors #df ,turntable #df ,label+ #dg ,pres]vation ( m\nt$ specim5s #dh ,slide box #dh ,slide tray #dh ,slide cab9et #di ,,"p ,,ii ,,tissues1 ,,cells ,,& ,,cell ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,cell ,typical cell #ec ,*anges 9 a cell und]go+ division #ee ,orig9 ( multicellul> plants #eg ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,epid]mis ,,& ,,p]id]m ,leaf epid]mis #ei ,te/a epid]mis #fc ,plant hairs #ff ,=ms ( hairs #fg ,papill #fg ,unicellul> hairs #fi ,multicellul> hairs #gb ,p]id]m #hj ,cork p]id]m #hj ,/one cell p]id]m #he ,p>5*yma & /one cell p]id]m #he ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,me*anical ,,tissues ,ba/ fibres #hi ,cry/al be>+ ba/ fibres #ij ,por\s & /riat$ ba/ fibres #ib ,por\s & non-/riat$ ba/ fibres #if ,non-por\s & /riat$ ba/ fibres #if ,non-por\s & non-/riat$ ba/ fibres #if ,occurr5ce ( ba/ fibres 9 p[d]$ drugs #ajc ,wood fibres #ajd ,coll5*yma cells #ajf ,/one cells #aji ,endod]mal cells #aaf ,hypod]mal cells #aah ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,absorption ,,tissue ,root hairs #aba ,,*apt] ,v ,,conduct+ ,,tissue ,vessels & tra*eids #abf ,annul> vessels #abg ,spiral vessels #abg ,scl>i=m vessels #abh ,reticulate vessels #aca ,pitt$ vessels #aca ,pitt$ vessels ) bord]$ pores #aca ,sieve tubes #acf ,sieve plate #ach ,m$ull>y bundles1 rays & cells #ach ,m$ull>y ray bundle #aci ,! m$ull>y ray #aci ,! m$ull>y ray cell #ada ,/ructure ( ! m$ull>y ray cells #adb ,arrangem5t ( ! m$ull>y ray cells 9 ! m$ull>y ray #adb ,latex tubes #adb ,p>5*yma #add ,cortical p>5*yma #adg ,pi? p>5*yma #adg ,leaf p>5*yma #aej ,aquatic plant p>5*yma #aej ,wood p>5*yma #aej ,phloem p>5*yma #aej ,palisade p>5*yma #aej ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,a]at+ ,,tissue ,wat] pores #aea ,/omata #aea ,relation ( /omata to ! surr\nd+ cells #aed ,l5ticels #aeg ,int]cellul> spaces #aeh ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,syn!tic ,,tissue ,photosyn!tic tissue #afc ,gl&ul> tissue #afd ,gl&ul> hairs #afd ,secretion cavities #aff ,s*izog5\s cavities #afh ,lysig5\s cavities #afh ,s*izo-lysig5\s cavities #afh ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,/orage ,,tissue ,/orage cells #agc ,/orage cavities #agf ,cry/al cavities #agf ,mucilage cavities #agf ,latex cavities #agf ,oil cavity #agh ,gl&ul> hairs z /orage organs #agh ,/orage walls #agi ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,cell ,,cont5ts ,*lorophyll #ahb ,leucopla/ids #ahc ,/>* gra9s #ahc ,occurr5ce #ahd ,outl9e #ahe ,size #ahe ,hilum #ahe ,nature ( hilum #ahh ,inul9 #aid ,mucilage #aid ,hesp]id9 #aif ,volatile oil #aif ,tann9 #aif ,aleurone gra9s #aig ,/ructure ( aleurone gra9s #aig ,=m ( aleurone gra9s #aig ,description ( aleurone gra9s #aih ,te/s = aleurone gra9s #aih ,cry/als #bjj ,micro-cry/als #bjj ,raphides #bjj ,rosette cry/als #bjb ,solit>y cry/als #bje ,cy/oli?s #baj ,=ms ( cy/oli?s #baj ,te/s = cy/oli?s #bae ,,"p ,,iii ,,hi/ology ,,( ,,roots1 ,,rhizomes1 ,,/ems1 ,,b>ks1 ,,woods1 ,,fl[]s1 ,,fruits ,,& ,,se$s ,,*apt] ,i ,,roots ,,& ,,rhizomes ,cross-section ( p9k root #bai ,cross-section ( ruellia root #bai ,cross-section ( spigelia rhizome #bbc ,cross-section ( ruellia rhizome #bbf ,p[d]$ p9k root #bbg ,p[d]$ ruellia root #bbg ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,/ems ,h]bace\s /ems #bcc ,cross-section1 spigelia /em #bcc ,ruellia /em #bce ,p[d]$ horeh\nd #bcg ,p[d]$ spuri\s horeh\nd #bcg ,insect fl[] /ems #bda ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,woody ,,/ems ,bu*u /em #bdb ,mature bu*u /em #bdb ,p[d]$ bu*u /em #bde ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,b>ks ,:ite p9e b>k #bdh ,p[d]$ :ite p9e b>k #bej ,,*apt] ,v ,,woods ,cross-section quassia #bed ,radial-section quassia #bed ,tang5tial-section quassia #beh ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,leaves ,klip bu*u #bfj ,p[d]$ klip bu*u #bfb ,m\nta9 laurel #bfd ,trail+ arbutus #bfd ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,fl[]s ,poll5 gra9s #bgj ,non-sp9y-wall$ poll5 gra9s #bgc ,sp9y-wall$ poll5 gra9s #bgc ,/igma papill #bgd ,p[d]$ insect fl[]s #bgh ,op5 insect fl[]s #bhj ,p[d]$ :ite daisies #bhb ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,fruits ,cel]y fruit #bhe ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,se$s ,sweet almonds #bhi ,,*apt] ,x ,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,vascul> ,,bundles ,types ( fibro-vascul> bundles #bib ,radial vascul> bundles #bib ,conc5tric vascul> bundles #bie ,collat]al vascul> bundles #bie ,bi-collat]al vascul> bundles #bih ,op5 collat]al vascul> bundles #bih ,,index ,,table ,,( ,,illu/rations ,,page ,,fig4 #a4 ,tripod ,magnifi] #d ,,fig4 #b4 ,wat*mak]'s ,l\pe #d ,,fig4 #c4 ,fold+ ,magnifi] #d ,,fig4 #d4 ,read+ ,glass #d ,,fig4 #e4 ,/e9heil ,aplanatic ,l5s #e ,,fig4 #f4 ,dissect+ ,microscope #e ,,fig4 #g4 ,comp\nd ,microscope ( ,rob]t ,hooke #h ,,fig4 #h4 ,comp\nd ,microscope #aj ,,fig4 #i4 ,abb ,cond5s] #aa ,,fig4 #aj4 #aa ,,fig4 #aa4 #aa ,,fig4 #ab4 ,objectives #aa ,,fig4 #ac4 #ab ,,fig4 #ad4 #ab ,,fig4 #ae4 ,eye-,pieces4 #ab ,,fig4 #af4 ,ph>macogno/ic ,microscope #ab ,,fig4 #ag4 ,rese>* ,microscope #ad ,,fig4 #ah4 ,special ,rese>* ,microscope #ad ,,fig4 #ai4 ,gre5\gh ,b9ocul> ,microscope #ae ,,fig4 #bj4 ,pol>ization ,microscope #af ,,fig4 #ba4 ,ocul> ,micromet] #ai ,,fig4 #bb4 ,/age ,micromet] #ai ,,fig4 #bc4 ,micromet] ,eye-,piece #bj ,,fig4 #bd4 ,micromet] ,eye-,piece #ba ,,fig4 #be4 ,me*anical ,/age #bb ,,fig4 #bf4 ,cam]a ,lucida #bb ,,fig4 #bg4 ,cam]a ,lucida #bb ,,fig4 #bh4 ,draw+ ,app>atus #bc ,,fig4 #bi4 ,microphotographic ,app>atus #bd ,,fig4 #cj4 ,micro ,lamp #bg ,,fig4 #ca4 ,p>aff9-emb$d+ ,ov5 #cj ,,fig4 #cb4 ,p>aff9 ,blocks #ca ,,fig4 #cc4 ,h& ,microtome #ca ,,fig4 #cd4 ,h& ,cyl9d] ,microtome #cd ,,fig4 #ce4 ,h& ,table ,microtome #cd ,,fig4 #cf4 ,base ,sl$ge ,microtome #ce ,,fig4 #cg4 ,m9ot ,rot>y ,microtome #cf ,,fig4 #ch4 ,reag5t ,set #ci ,,fig4 #ci4 ,measur+ ,cyl9d] #dj ,,fig4 #dj4 ,/a9+ ,di% #dj ,,fig4 #da4 ,r\nd ,cov] ,glass #dd ,,fig4 #db4 ,squ>e ,cov] ,glass #dd ,,fig4 #dc4 ,rectangul> ,cov] ,glass #dd ,,fig4 #dd4 ,glass ,slide #dd ,,fig4 #de4 ,hi/ological ,=ceps #de ,,fig4 #df4 ,=ceps #de ,,fig4 #dg4 ,slid+-p9 ,=ceps #de ,,fig4 #dh4 ,dissect+ ,ne$le #df ,,fig4 #di4 ,scissors #df ,,fig4 #ej4 ,scalpels #dg ,,fig4 #ea4 ,turntable #dg ,,fig4 #eb4 ,slide ,box #dh ,,fig4 #ec4 ,slide ,tray #dh ,,fig4 #ed4 ,slide ,cab9et #di ,,plate #a ,,! ,,onion ,,root #ef ,,plate #b ,,leaf ,,epid]mis #fj ,,plate #c ,,leaf ,,epid]mis #fa ,,plate #d ,,te/a ,,epid]mal ,,cells #fd ,,plate #e ,,te/a ,,cells #fe ,,plate #f ,,papill #fh ,,plate #g ,,unicellul> ,,solit>y ,,hairs #gj ,,plate #h ,,clu/]$ ,,unicellul> ,,hairs #ga ,,plate #i ,,multicellul> ,,unis]iate ,,non-,,bran*$ ,,hairs #gc ,,plate #aj ,,multicellul> ,,multis]iate ,,non-,,bran*$ ,,hairs #ge ,,plate #aa ,,multicellul> ,,unis]iate ,,bran*$ ,,hairs #gf ,,plate #ab ,,non-,,gl&ul> ,,multicellul> ,,hairs #gh ,,plate #ac ,,multicellul> ,,multis]iate ,,bran*$ ,,hairs #gi ,,plate #ad ,,multicellul> ,,multis]iate ,,bran*$ ,,hairs #ha ,,plate #ae ,,multicellul> ,,multis]iate ,,bran*$ ,,hairs #hb ,,plate #af ,,p]id]m ,,( ,,casc>a ,,sagrada 7,rhamnus pur%iana1 ,d4,c47 #hd ,,plate #ag ,,m&rake ,,rhizome & ,,:ite ,,c9namon #hf ,,plate #ah ,,p]id]m ,,( ,,:ite ,,oak 7,qu]cus alba1 ,l47 #hg ,,plate #ai ,,cry/al-,,be>+ ,,fibres ,,( ,,b>ks #ia ,,plate #bj ,,cry/al-,,be>+ ,,fibres ,,( ,,b>ks #ic ,,plate #ba ,,cry/al-,,be>+ ,,fibres ,,( ,,leaves #id ,,plate #bb ,,bran*$ ,,ba/ ,,fibres #ie ,,plate #bc ,,por\s ,,& ,,/riat$ ,,ba/ ,,fibres #ig ,,plate #bd ,,por\s ,,& ,,non-,,/riat$ ,,ba/ ,,fibres #ih ,,plate #be ,,non-,,por\s ,,& ,,/riat$ ,,ba/ ,,fibres #ii ,,plate #bf ,,non-,,por\s ,,& ,,non-,,/riat$ ,,ba/ ,,fibres #aja ,,plate #bg ,,gr\ps ,,( ,,ba/ ,,fibres #ajb ,,plate #bh ,,wood ,,fibres #aje ,,plate #bi ,,catnip ,,/em & ,,mo!rwort ,,/em #ajg ,,plate #cj ,,coll5*yma ,,cells #ajh ,,plate #ca ,,bran*$ ,,/one ,,cells #aaj ,,plate #cb ,,por\s ,,& ,,/riat$ ,,/one ,,cells #aac ,,plate #cc ,,por\s ,,& ,,non-,,/riat$ ,,/one ,,cells #aad ,,plate #cd ,,c9namon1 ,,ruella ,,root1 ,,casc>a & ,,c9namon #aae ,,plate #ce ,,cross-,,sections ,,( ,,endod]mal ,,cells ,,( #aag ,,plate #cf ,,longitud9al ,,sections ,,( ,,endod]mal ,,cells #aai ,,plate #cg ,,hypod]mal ,,cells #abj ,,plate #ch ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,s>sap>illa ,,root 7,smilax (fic9alis1 ,kun?7 #abc ,,plate #ci ,,root ,,hairs 7,fragm5ts7 #abd ,,plate #dj ,,annul> ,,& ,,spiral ,,vessels #abi ,,plate #da ,,spiral ,,vessels #acj ,,plate #db ,,scl>i=m ,,vessels #acb ,,plate #dc ,,reticulate ,,vessels #acc ,,plate #dd ,,pitt$ ,,vessels #acd ,,plate #de ,,vessels #ace ,,plate #df ,,sieve ,,tube #acg ,,plate #dg ,,radial ,,longitud9al ,,section ,,( ,,:ite ,,s&alwood 7,santalum album1 ,l47 #adj ,,plate #dh ,,kava-,,kava ,,root & ,,:ite ,,p9e ,,b>k #adc ,,plate #di ,,black ,,indian ,,hemp & ,,black ,,indian ,,hemp ,,root #ade ,,plate #ej ,,latex ,,vessels #adf ,,plate #ea ,,p>5*yma ,,cells #adh ,,plate #eb ,,gr9delia ,,/em 7longitud9al7 & ,,gr9delia ,,/em 7cross-section7 #adi ,,plate #ec ,,aconite ,,/em & ,,pepp]m9t ,,/em #aeb ,,plate #ed ,,types ,,( ,,/oma #aec ,,plate #ee ,,leaf ,,epid]mi ,,) ,,/oma #aee ,,plate #ef ,,belladonna ,,leaf1 ,,de] ,,tongue ,,leaf & ,,:ite ,,p9e ,,leaf #aef ,,plate #eg ,,eld] ,,b>k #aei ,,plate #eh ,,int]cellul> ,,air ,,spaces #afj ,,plate #ei ,,irregul> ,,int]cellul> ,,air ,,spaces #afa ,,plate #fj ,,gl&ul> ,,hairs #afe ,,plate #fa ,,/alk$ ,,gl&ul> ,,hairs #afg ,,plate #fb ,,calamus ,,rhizome & ,,:ite ,,p9e ,,b>k #afi ,,plate #fc ,,canella ,,alba ,,b>k & ,,klip ,,bu*u ,,leaf #agj ,,plate #fd ,,bitt] ,,orance ,,peel & ,,:ite ,,p9e ,,leaf #aga ,,plate #fe ,,c9namon1 ,,calumba1 ,,p>5*yma1 ,,s>sap>illa1 ,,lept&ra1 ,,quebra*o1 ,,blackb]ry #agd ,,plate #ff ,,mucilage ,,& ,,res9 #age ,,plate #fg ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,skunk-,,cabbage ,,leaf 7,symploc>pus ftidus1 ,l4 ,nutt47 #agg ,,plate #fh ,,res]ve ,,cellulose #ahj ,,plate #fi ,,res]ve ,,cellulose #aha ,,plate #gj ,,/>* #ahf ,,plate #ga ,,/>* #ahg ,,plate #gb ,,/>* #ahi ,,plate #gc ,,/>* #aij ,,plate #gd ,,/>* #aia ,,plate #ge ,,/>* ,,gra9s #aib ,,plate #gf ,,/>* ,,masses #aic ,,plate #gg ,,inul9 7,inula hel5ium1 ,l47 #aie ,,plate #gg;a ,,aleurone ,,gra9s #aii ,,plate #gh ,,micro-,,cry/als #bja ,,plate #gi ,,raphides #bjc ,,plate #hj ,,rosette ,,cry/als #bjd ,,plate #ha ,,inclos$ ,,rosette ,,cry/als #bjf ,,plate #hb ,,solit>y ,,cry/al #bjg ,,plate #hc ,,solit>y ,,cry/als #bjh ,,plate #hd ,,solit>y ,,cry/als #bji ,,plate #he ,,solit>y ,,cry/als #baa ,,plate #hf ,,solit>y ,,cry/als #bab ,,plate #hg ,,rosette ,,cry/als ,,& ,,solit>y ,,cry/als ,,occurr+ ,,9 #bac ,,plate #hh ,,cy/oli?s #bad ,,plate #hi ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,root ,,( ,,spigelia ,,m>yl&ica1 ,l4 #bbj ,,plate #ij ,,ruellia ,,root 7,ruellia ciliosa1 ,pur%474 #bbb ,,plate #ia ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,rhizome ,,( ,,spigelia ,,m>yl&ica1 ,l4 #bbd ,,plate #ib ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,rhizome ,,( ,,ruellia ,,ciliosa1 ,pur%4 #bbe ,,plate #ic ,,p[d]$ ,,spigelia ,,m>yl&ica1 ,l4 #bbh ,,plate #id ,,p[d]$ ,,ruellia ,,ciliosa1 ,pur%4 #bbi ,,plate #ie ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,/em ,,( ,,spigelia ,,m>yl&ica1 ,l4 #bcd ,,plate #if ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,/em ,,( ,,ruellia ,,ciliosa1 ,pur%4 #bcf ,,plate #ig ,,p[d]$ ,,horeh\nd 7,m>rubium vulg>e1 ,l74 #bch ,,plate #ih ,,spuri\s ,,horeh\nd 7,m>rubium p]egr9um1 ,l47 #bci ,,plate #ii ,,p[d]$ ,,insect ,,fl[] ,,/ems 7,*rysan!mum c9]>iifolium1 ,trev41 ,vis47 #bdj ,,plate #ajj ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,bu*u ,,/ems 7,b>osma betul9a ,b]g41 ,b>?1 & ,w5dl47 #bdc ,,plate #aja ,,bu*u ,,/em & ,,lept&ra ,,rhizome #bdd ,,plate #ajb ,,p[d]$ ,,bu*u ,,/ems 7,b>osma betul9a ,b]g41 ,b>?4 & ,w5dl474 #bdf ,,plate #ajc ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,unross$ ,,:ite ,,p9e ,,b>k 7,p9us /robus1 ,l47 #bdi ,,plate #ajd ,,p[d]$ ,,:ite ,,p9e ,,b>k 7,p9us /robus1 ,l47 #bea ,,plate #aje ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,quassia ,,wood 7,picrna excelsa ,sw41 ,l9dl47 #bee ,,plate #ajf ,,tang5tial ,,section ,,( ,,quassia ,,wood 7,picrna excelsa ,sw41 ,l9dl47 #bef ,,plate #ajg ,,radial ,,section ,,( ,,quassia ,,wood 7,picrna excelsa ,sw41 ,l9dl47 #beg ,,plate #ajh ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,klip ,,bu*u ,,j ,,ov] ,,! ,,ve9 #bfa ,,plate #aji ,,p[d]$ ,,klip ,,bu*u #bfc ,,plate #aaj ,,cross-,,section ,,m\nta9 ,,laurel 7,kalmia latifolia1 ,l47 #bfe ,,plate #aaa ,,cross-,,section ,,trail+ ,,arbutus ,,leaf 7,epiga rep5s1 ,l47 #bff ,,plate #aab ,,p[d]$ ,,insect ,,fl[] ,,leaves #bfh ,,plate #aac ,,smoo?-,,wall$ ,,poll5 ,,gra9s #bga ,,plate #aad ,,sp9y ,,wall$ ,,poll5 ,,gra9s #bgb ,,plate #aae ,,papill #bge ,,plate #aaf ,,papill ,,( ,,/igmas #bgf ,,plate #aag ,,papill ,,( ,,/igmas #bgg ,,plate #aah ,,p[d]$ ,,clos$ ,,insect ,,fl[] #bgi ,,plate #aai ,,p[d]$ ,,op5 ,,insect ,,fl[] #bha ,,plate #abj ,,p[d]$ ,,:ite ,,daisies 7,*rysan!mum leucan!mum1 ,l47 #bhc ,,plate #aba ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,cel]y ,,fruit 7,apium graveol5s1 ,l47 #bhf ,,plate #aba ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,cel]y ,,fruit 7,apium graveol5s1 ,l47 #bhf ,,plate #abc ,,cross-,,section ,,sweet ,,almond ,,se$ #bij ,,plate #abd ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,a ,,radial ,,vascul> ,,bundle ,,( ,,skunk ,,cabbage ,,root #bic ,,plate #abe ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,a ,,phloem-,,c5tric ,,bundle ,,( ,,calamus ,,rhizome 7,acorus calamus1 ,l47 #bid ,,plate #abf ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,a ,,clos$ ,,collat]al ,,bundle ,,( ,,m&rake ,,/em 7,podophyllum peltatum1 ,l47 #bhf ,,plate #abg ,,bi-,,collat]al ,,bundle ,,( ,,pumpk9 ,,/em 7,curcurbita pepo1 ,l47 #big ,"p ,i ,,simple ,,& ,,comp\nd ,,microscopes ,,& ,,microscopic ,,te*nic ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,simple ,,microscopes ,! con/ruction & use ( ! simple microscope 7magnifi]s7 und\bt$ly date back to v e>ly times4 ,!re is suffici5t evid5ce to prove t sph]es ( glass 7 us$ z burn+ sph]es & z magnifi]s by p ant$at+ ! ,greeks & ,romans4 ,! simple microscopes ( to-day h a v wide range ( application & a correspond+ v>iation 9 /ructure & 9 appe>ance4 ,simple microscopes are us$ daily 9 classify+ & /udy+ crude drugs1 te/+ l95 & o!r clo?1 repair+ wat*es1 9 read+1 & id5tify+ insects4 ,! m complex simple microscopes are us$ 9 ! dissection & classification ( fl[]s4 ,! wat*mak]'s l\pe1 ! l95 te/]1 ! read+ glass1 ! engrav]'s l5s1 & ! simple/ fold+ magnifi]s consi/ ( a d\ble convex l5s4 ,su* a l5s produces an erect1 enl>g$ image ( ! object view$ :5 ! l5s is plac$ s t ! object is )9 its focal di/ance4 ,! focal di/ance ( a l5s v>ies accord+ to ! curvature ( ! l5s4 ,! great] ! curvature1 ! %ort] ! focal di/ance & ! great] ! magnification4 ,! m complicat$ simple microscope consi/s ( two or m l5ses4 ,! d\ble & triple magnifi]s consi/ ( two & ?ree l5ses respectively4 ,:5 an object is view$ ?r\gh ?ree l5ses1 ! magnification is great] ?an :5 view$ ?r\gh "o or two l5ses1 b a small] "p ( ! object is magnifi$4 ,,=ms ,,( ,,simple ,,microscopes ,,tripod ,,magnifi] ,! tripod magnifi] 7,fig4 #a7 is a simple l5s m\nt$ on a me*anical /&4 ,! tripod is plac$ ov] ! object & ! focus is obta9$ by means ( a screw :i* raises or l[]s ! l5s1 accord+ to ! degree x is magnifi$4 ,,wat*mak]',s ,,l\pe ,! wat*mak]'s l\pe 7,fig4 #b7 is a "o-l5s magnifi] m\nt$ on an ebony or metallic tap]+ rim1 :i* c be plac$ ov] ! eye & held 9 position by fr[n+ or contract+ ! eyelid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,tripod ,magnifi] ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,wat*mak]'s ,l\pe ,,fold+ ,,magnifi] ,! fold+ magnifi] 7,fig4 #c7 ( "o or m l5ses is m\nt$ 9 su* a way t1 :5 n 9 use1 ! l5ses fold up l ! blade ( a knife1 & :5 s fold$ are effectively protect$ f abrasion by ! upp] & l[] surfaces ( ! fold]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,fold+ ,magnifi] ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,read+ ,glass ,,read+ ,,glasses ,read+ glasses 7,fig4 #d7 are l>ge simple magnifi]s1 (t5 six in*es 9 diamet]4 ,! l5s is encircl$ ) a metal b& & provid$ ) a h&le4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,/e9heil ,aplanatic ,l5s ,,/e9heil ,,aplanatic ,,l5ses ,/e9heil aplanatic l5ses 7,fig4 #e7 consi/ ( ?ree or f\r l5ses cem5t$ toge!r4 ,! comb9ation is su* t ! field is l>ge1 flat1 & a*romatic4 ,^! l5ses are suitable = field1 dissect+1 & pocket use4 ,:5 su* l5ses are plac$ 9 simple hold]s1 !y make good dissect+ microscopes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,dissect+ ,microscope ,,dissect+ ,,microscope ,! dissect+ microscope 7,fig4 #f7 consi/s ( a ,/e9heil l5s & an elaborate /&1 a firm base1 a pill>1 a rack & p9ion1 a glass /age1 b5ea? :i* !re is a groove = hold+ a metal plate ) "o black & "o :ite surface4 ,! nature ( ! object "u obs]vation det]m9es :e!r a plate is us$4 ,:5 ! plate is us$ & :5 ! object is /udi$ by reflect$ light x is sometimes desirable to use ! black & sometimes ! :ite surface4 ,! mirror1 :i* has a concave & a pla9 surface1 is us$ to reflect ! light on ! glass /age :5 ! object is /udi$ by transmitt$ light4 ,! dissect+ microscope magnifies objects up to tw5ty diamet]s1 or tw5ty times _! real size4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,comp\nd ,,microscopes ,! comp\nd microscope has und]gone wond]ful *anges s9ce #affg1 ! days ( ,rob]t ,hooke4 ,:5 we consid] ! crude con/ruction & ! limitations ( ,rob]t ,hooke's microscope1 we m>vel at ! /ructural p]fection & ! unlimit$ possibilities ( ! mod]n in/rum5t4 ,! advancem5t made 9 mo/ sci5ces has foll[$ ! gradual p]fection ( ?is in/rum5t4 ,! illu/ration ( ,rob]t ,hooke's microscope 7,fig4 #g7 w convey to ! m9d m eloqu5tly ?an words ! crud5ess ( ! e>ly microscopes1 especially :5 x is comp>$ ) ! pres5t-day microscopes4 ,,/ructure ,,( ,,! ,,comp\nd ,,microscope ,! p>ts ( ! comp\nd microscope 7,fig4 #h7 may be gr\p$ into--fir/1 ! me*anical1 &1 secondly1 into ! optical p>ts4 ,,! ,,me*anical ,,p>ts #a4 ,! foot is ! basal "p1 ! "p :i* supports all ! o!r me*anical & optical p>ts4 ,! foot %\ld be heavy en\gh to balance ! o!r p>ts :5 !y are incl9$4 ,mo/ mod]n in/rum5ts h a ?ree-p>t$ or tripod-%ap$ base4 #b4 ,! pill> is ! v]tical "p ( ! microscope atta*$ to ! base4 ,! pill> is jo9$ to ! limb by a h+$ jo9t4 ,! h+es make x possible to incl9e ! microscope at any angle1 ?us l[]+ its height4 ,9 ?is way1 %ort1 m$ium1 & tall p]sons c use ! microscope ) facility4 ,! "p ( ! pill> above ! h+e is call$ ! limb4 ,! limb may be ei!r /raight or curv$4 ,! curv$ =m is pref]able1 s9ce x (f]s a m suitable surface to grasp 9 transf]r+ f box or %elf to ! desk1 & vice v]sa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,comp\nd ,microscope ( ,rob]t ,hooke #c4 ,! /age is ei!r /ation>y or movable1 r\nd or squ>e1 & is atta*$ to ! limb j above ! h+e4 ,! upp] surface is made ( a composition :i* is n easily attack$ by moi/ure & reag5ts4 ,! c5tre ( ! /age is p]=at$ by a circul> op5+4 #d4 ,! sub-/age is atta*$ bel[ ! /age & is = ! purpose ( hold+ ! iris diaphragm & ,abb cond5s]4 ,! rais+ & l[]+ ( ! sub-/age are accompli%$ by a rack & p9ion4 #e4 ,! iris diaphragm1 :i* is held 9 ! sub-/age bel[ ! ,abb cond5s]1 consi/s ( a s]ies ( metal plates1 s arrang$ t ! light ent]+ ! microscope may be cut (f completely or its am\nt regulat$ by mov+ a control p94 #f4 ,! f9e adju/m5t is locat$ ei!r at ! side or at ! top ( ! limb4 ,x consi/s ( a f9e rack & p9ion1 & is us$ 9 focus+ an object :5 ! l[-p[] objective is 9 position1 or 9 f9d+ & focus+ ! object :5 ! high-p[] objective is 9 position4 #g4 ,! co>se adju/m5t is a rack & p9ion us$ 9 rais+ & l[]+ ! body-tube & 9 f9d+ ! approximate focus :5 ei!r ! high- or l[-p[] objective is 9 position4 #h4 ,! body-tube is ! pa? travel$ by ! rays ( light ent]+ ! objectives & leav+ by ! eye-piece4 ,to ! l[] "p ( ! tube is atta*$ ! nose-piece1 & re/+ 9 its upp] "p is ! draw-tube1 :i* holds ! eye-piece4 ,on ! out] surface ( ! draw-tube !re is a scale :i* indicates ! di/ance x is drawn f ! body-tube4 #i4 ,! nose-piece may be simple1 d\ble1 or triple1 & x is protect$ f du/ by a circul> piece ( metal4 ,d\ble & triple nose-pieces may be revolv$1 & l ! simple nose-piece !y hold ! objectives 9 position4 ,,! ,,optical ,,p>ts #a4 ,! mirror is a sub-/age atta*m5t "o surface ( :i* is pla9 & ! o!r concave4 ,! pla9 surface is us$ ) an ,abb cond5s] :5 ! s\rce ( light is di/ant1 :ile ! concave surface is us$ ) in/rum5ts )\t an ,abb cond5s] :5 ! s\rce ( light is ne> at h&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,comp\nd ,microscope ,eyepiece ,draw ,tube ,body ,tube ,co>se ,adju/m5t ,revolv+ ,nosepiece = ?ree ,objectives ,f9e ,adju/m5t ,/age ,objectives ,limb ,abbi ,cond5s] ,iris ,diaphragm ,h+e = ,incl9+ ,sub/age ,atta*m5t ,mirror ,pill> ,foot #b4 ,! ,abb cond5s] 7,fig4 #i7 is a comb9ation ( two or m l5ses1 arrang$ s z to conc5trate ! light on ! specim5 plac$ on ! /age4 ,! cond5s] is locat$ 9 ! op5+ ( ! /age1 & its upp]mo/ surface is circul> & flat4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i--;,abb ,cond5s] #c4 ,objectives 7,figs4 #aj1 #aa1 & #ab74 ,!re are l[1 m$ium1 & high-p[] objectives4 ,! l[-p[] objectives h few] & l>g] l5ses1 & !y magnify lea/1 b !y %[ m ( ! object ?an d ! high-p[] objectives4 ,!re are ?ree *ief types ( objectives3 ,fir/1 dry objectives2 second1 wet objectives1 ( :i* !re are ! wat]-imm]sion objectives2 & ?ird1 ! oil-imm]sion objectives4 ,! dry objectives are us$ = mo/ hi/ological & ph>macogno/ical "w4 ,= /udy+ small] objects ! wat] objective is sometimes desirable1 b 9 bact]iological "w ! oil-imm]sion objective is almo/ exclusively us$4 ,! globule ( wat] or oil1 z ! case may be1 increases ! am\nt ( light ent]+ ! objective1 because ! oil & wat] b5d _m rays into ! objective :i* w\ld o!rwise escape4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,objectives4 #d4 ,eye-pieces 7,figs4 #ac1 #ad1 & #ae7 are ( v>iable l5g?1 b /ructurally !y are some:at simil>4 ,! eye-piece consi/s ( a metal tube ) a black5$ inn] tube4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ?is tube !re is a small diaphragm = hold+ ! ocul> micromet]4 ,9 ! l[] end ( ! tube a l5s is fa/5$ by means ( a screw4 ,?is1 ! field l5s1 is ! l>g] l5s ( ! ocul>4 ,! upp]1 small] l5s is fa/5$ 9 ! tube by a screw1 b !re is a project+ coll> :i* re/s1 :5 9 position1 on ! draw-tube4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,eye-,pieces4 ,! long] ! tube ! l[] ! magnification4 ,= in/ance1 a two-in* ocul> magnifies less ?an an in* & a half1 a "o-in* less ?an a ?ree-f\r?s ( an in*1 etc4 ,! great] ! curvature ( ! l5ses ( ! ocul> ! high] w be ! magnification & ! %ort] ! tube-l5g?4 ,,=ms ,,( ,,comp\nd ,,microscopes ,! foll[+ descriptions ref] to ?ree diff]5t models ( comp\nd microscopes3 "o :i* is us$ *iefly z a ph>macogno/ic microscope1 "o z a rese>* microscope /&1 :ile ! ?ird type repres5ts a rese>* microscope /& ( highe/ ord]1 :i* is us$ at ! same "t = tak+ microphotographs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,ph>macogno/ic ,microscope ,,ph>macogno/ic ,,microscope ,! ph>macogno/ic microscope 7,fig4 #af7 is an in/rum5t :i* embodies only ^? p>ts :i* are mo/ ess5tial = ! exam9ation ( p[d]$ drugs1 bact]ia1 & ur9>y s$im5ts4 ,?is microscope is provid$ ) a /age ( ! dim5sions #aje #aje mm4 ,?is factor & ! di/ance ( #hj mm4 f ! optical c5tre to ! h&le arm r5d] x available = ! exam9ation ( ev5 v l>ge objects & prep>ations1 or prep>ations susp5d$ 9 glass di%es4 ,! /& is furni%$ ) a side micromet]1 a f9e adju/m5t hav+ knobs on bo? sides1 !reby p]mitt+ ! manipulation ( ! micromet] screw ei!r by left or "r h&4 ,! illum9at+ app>atus consi/s ( ! ,abb cond5s] ( num]ical ap]ture ( #a4bj1 to :i* is atta*$ an iris diaphragm = ! prop] adju/m5t ( ! light4 ,a worm screw1 m\nt$ 9 connection ) ! cond5s]1 s]ves = ! rais+ & l[]+ ( ! cond5s]1 s t ! cone ( illum9at+ p5cils c be arrang$ 9 accordance to ! objective employ$ & to ! prep>ation "u obs]vation4 ,! objectives necess>y are ^? ( ! a*romatic type1 possess+ a focal l5g? ( #af4b mm4 & #c mm4 ,ocul>s :i* r5d] ! be/ results 9 reg>d to magnification 9 connection ) ! two objectives m5tion$ are ! ,huygh5ian eye-pieces ,,ii & ,,iv s t magnifications are obta9$ v>y+ f #fb to #fbe4 ,x is advisable1 h[ev]1 to h ! microscope equipp$ ) a triple revolv+ nose-piece = ! objectives1 s t provision is made = ! addition ( an oil-imm]sion objective at any "t lat] %\ld ! microscope become available = bact]iological inve/igations4 ,,! ,,rese>* ,,microscope ,! rese>* microscope us$ 9 rese>* "w 7,fig4 #ag7 mu/ be equipp$ m elaborately ?an ! microscope especially design$ = ! use ( ! ph>macognosi/4 ,:ile ! simple =m ( microscope is suppli$ ) ! small type ( ,abb cond5s]1 ! rese>* microscope is furni%$ ) a l>ge illum9at+ app>atus ( :i* ! iris diaphragm is m\nt$ on a rack & p9ion1 all[+ displacem5t obliquely to ! optical c5tre1 also to increase resolv+ p[] 9 ! objectives :5 obs]v+ ^? objects :i* _c be reveal$ to ! be/ advantage ) c5tral illum9ation4 ,ano!r iris is furni%$ above ! cond5s]2 ?is iris becomes available ! in/ant an object is to be obs]v$ )\t ! aid ( ! cond5s]1 9 :i* case ! upp] iris diaphragm all[s prop] adju/m5t ( ! light4 ,! mirror1 "o side plane1 ! o!r concave1 is m\nt$ on a movable b>1 along :i* x c be slid--ano!r conv5i5ce = ! adju/m5t ( ! light4 ,! microscope /age ( ?is /& is ( ! r\nd1 rotat+ & c5tr+ patt]n1 :i* p]mits a limit$ motion to ! object slide3 ,! rotation ( ! microscope /age furni%es ano!r conv5i5ce 9 ! exam9ation ( objects 9 pol>iz$ light1 all[+ ! prep>ation to be rotat$ 9 ord] to di/+ui% ! pol>ization prop]ties ( ! objects "u obs]vation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,rese>* ,microscope ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,special ,rese>* ,microscope ,,special ,,rese>* ,,microscope ,a special rese>* microscope ( ! highe/ ord] 7,fig4 #ah7 is suppli$ ) an extra l>ge body tube1 :i* r5d]s x ( special advantage = micro-photography4 ,o!rwise 9 its me*anical equipm5t x resembles v closely ! m$ium-siz$ rese>* microscope /&1 ) ! exception t ! /& is l>g] 9 its design1 !re=e (f]+ univ]sal application4 ,9 reg>d to ! illum9at+ app>atus1 x is advisable to m5tion t ! "o 9 ! l>ge rese>* microscope /& is furni%$ ) a ?ree-l5s cond5s] ( a num]ical ap]ture ( #a4dj1 :ile ! m$ium-siz$ rese>* /& is provid$ ) a two-l5s cond5s] ( a num]ical ap]ture ( #a4bj4 ,! /age ( ! microscope is provid$ ) a cross motion--! backw>d & =w>d motion ( ! prep>ation is secur$ by rack & p9ion1 :ile ! side motion is controll$ by a micrometric worm screw4 ,9 cases :]e l>ge prep>ations are to be photograph$1 ! draw-tube ) ocul> & ! slid] 9 :i* ! draw-tubes glide are remov$ to all[ ! full ap]ture ( wide-angle objectives to be made use (4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,gre5\gh ,b9ocul> ,microscope ,,b9ocul> ,,microscope ,! ,gre5\gh b9ocul> microscope1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ai1 consi/s ( a microscope /age ) two tubes m\nt$ side by side & mov+ on ! same rack & p9ion = ! focus+ adju/m5t4 ,ei!r tube c be us$ )\t ! o!r4 ,! ocul>s are capable ( m or less sep>ation to suit ! eyes ( diff]5t obs]v]s4 ,9 ea* ( ! drub-l m\nt+s1 ne> ! po9t :]e ! ocul>s are introduc$1 porro-prisms h be5 plac$1 :i* erect ! image4 ,?is microscope gives mo/ p]fect /]eoscopic images1 :i* are erect in/ead ( inv]t$1 z 9 ! monocul> comp\nd microscopes4 ,! ,gre5\gh b9ocul> microscope is especially adapt$ = dissection & = /udy+ objects ( consid]able ?ickness4 ,,pol>ization ,,microscope ,! pol>ization microscope 7,fig4 #bj7 is us$ *iefly = ! exam9ation ( cry/als & m9]al sections z well z = ! obs]vation ( organic bodies 9 pol>iz$ light4 ,x c1 h[ev]1 also be us$ = ! exam9ation ( regul> biological prep>ations4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,pol>ization ,microscope ,if comp>$ ) ! regul> biological microscope1 ! pol>ization microscope is f\nd *>act]i/ic ( ! foll[+ po9ts3 x is suppli$ ) a pol>ization arrangem5t4 ,! latt] consi/s ( a pol>iz] & analyz]4 ,! pol>iz] is situat$ 9 a rotat+ m\nt b5ea? ! cond5s+ sy/em4 ,! microscope1 ( :i* ! diagram is %[n1 possesses a triple 8,ahr5s0 prism ( calcite4 ,! ent]+ light is divid$ into two pol>iz$ p>ts1 situat$ p]p5dicul>ly to ea* o!r4 ,! s-call$ 8ord9>y0 rays are reflect$ to "o side by total reflection1 :i* takes place on ! inn] cem5t$ surface ( ! triple prism1 all[+ ! s-call$ 8extraord9>y0 rays to pass ?r\gh ! cond5s]4 ,if ! prism is adju/$ to its focal po9t1 x is s situat$ t ! vibration plane ( ! extra-ord9>y rays are 9 ! same position z %[n 9 ! diagram ( ! illu/ration4 ,! analyz] is m\nt$ )9 ! microscope-tube above ! objective4 ,situat$ on a slid+ plate1 x c be %ift$ into ! optical axis :5ev] necess>y4 ,! analyz] consi/s ( a pol>ization prism aft] ,glan-,?ompson4 ,! pol>ization plane ( ! active extraord9>y rays is situat$ p]p5dicul>ly to ! plane z %[n 9 ! diagram4 ,! pol>ization prisms are ord9>ily cross$4 ,9 ?is position ! field ( ! microscope is d>k5$ z long z no sub/ance ( a d\ble refractive index has be5 introduc$ betwe5 ! analyz] & pol>iz]4 ,9 rotat+ ! pol>iz] up to ! m>k #ij1 ! pol>ization prisms are m\nt$ p>allel & ! field ( ! microscope is light$ aga94 ,imm$iately above ! analyz] & atta*$ to ! m\nt+ ( ! analyz] a l5s ( a comp>atively long focal l5g? has be5 plac$ 9 ord] to ov]come ! diff]5ce 9 focus creat$ by ! introduction ( ! analyz] into ! optical rays4 ,! cond5s+ sy/em is m\nt$ on a slid]1 &1 fur!rmore1 c be rais$ & l[]$ along ! optical c5tre by means ( a rack-&-p9ion adju/m5t4 ,if l[]$ suffici5tly1 ! cond5s+ sy/em c be ?r[n to ! side to be remov$ f ! optical rays4 ,! cond5s] consi/s ( ?ree l5ses4 ,! two upp] l5ses are sep>ately m\nt$ to an arm1 :i* p]mits !m to be tilt$ to "o side 9 ord] to be remov$ f ! optical rays4 ,! complete cond5s] is us$ only 9 connection ) high-p[] objectives4 ,z f> z l[-p[] objectives are conc]n$1 ! l[] cond5s+ l5s alone is made use (1 & ! latt] is f\nd m\nt$ to ! pol>iz] sleeve4 ,bel[ ! pol>iz] & above ! l[] cond5s+ l5s an iris diaphragm is f\nd4 ,! microscope table is graduat$ on its p]iph]y1 &1 fur!rmore1 c>ries a v]ni] = m exact read+4 ,! pol>ization microscope is n furni%$ ) an objective nose-piece4 ,e objective1 h[ev]1 is suppli$ ) an individual c5tr+ head1 :i* p]mits ! objective to be atta*$ to an objective clut*-*ang]1 situat$ at ! l[] end ( ! microscope-tube4 ,! c5tr+ head p]mits ! objectives to be p]fectly c5tr$ & to rema9 c5tr$ ev5 if ano!r objective is introduc$ into ! objective clut*-*ang]4 ,at an angle ( #de degrees to ! pol>ization plane ( pol>iz] & analyz]1 a slot has be5 provid$1 :i* s]ves = ! introduction ( comp5sators4 ,betwe5 analyz] & ocul>1 ano!r slot is f\nd :i* p]mits ! ,amici-,b]tr& l5s to be introduc$ into ! optical axis4 ,! slid] = ! ,b]tr& l5s is suppli$ ) two c5tr+ screws :]eby ?is l5s c be p]fectly & easily c5tr$4 ,! ,b]tr& l5s s]ves ! purpose ( obs]v+ ! back focal plane ( ! microscope objective4 ,9 ord] to all[ ! ,b]tr& l5s to be focus$1 ! tube c be rais$ & l[]$ = ?is purpose4 ,an iris diaphragm is m\nt$ above ! ,b]tr& l5s4 ,if ! ,b]tr& l5s is %ift$ out ( ! optical axis1 "o c obs]ve ! prep>ation plac$ ^u ! microscope /age &1 dep5d+ on its ?ickness or its d\ble refraction1 ! int]f]5ce color ( ! specim54 ,?is int]f]5ce figure is call$ ! or?oscopic image &1 accord+ly1 "o speaks ( ! microscope z be+ us$ z an 8or?oscope40 ,aft] ! ,b]tr& l5s has be5 introduc$ into ! optical axis1 ! int]f]5ce figure is visible 9 ! back focal plane ( ! objective4 ,ea* po9t ( ?is int]f]5ce figure corresponds to a c]ta9 direction ( ! rays ( ! prep>ation itself4 ,?is arrangem5t p]mits obs]vation ( ! *ange ( ! reflection ( light tak+ place 9 ! prep>ation1 ?is 9 accordance ) ! *ange ( ! direction ( ! rays4 ,?is int]f]5ce figure is call$ ! conoscopic image1 &1 accord+ly1 ! microscope is us$ z a 8conoscope40 ,_m types ( pol>ization microscopes h be5 con/ruct$2 ^? ( a m elaborate =m are us$ = rese>* inve/igations2 o!rs ( small] design = r\t9e inve/igations4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,microscopic ,,measurem5ts ,9 mak+ critical exam9ations ( p[d]$ drugs1 x is frequ5tly necess>y to measure ! elem5ts "u obs]vation1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! case ( />*es & cry/als4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,ocul> ,micromet] ,,ocul> ,,micromet] ,microscopic measurem5ts are made by ! ocul> micromet] 7,fig4 #ba74 ,?is consi/s ( a circul> piece ( transp>5t glass on ! c5tre ( :i* is et*$ a "o- or two-millimet] scale divid$ into "o hundr$ or two hundr$ divisions respectively4 ,! value ( ea* l9e is det]m9$ by /&>diz+ ) a /age micromet]4 ,,/age ,,micromet] ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,/age ,micromet] ,! /age micromet] 7,fig4 #bb7 consi/s ( a glass slide ^u :i* is et*$ a millimet] scale divid$ into "o hundr$ equal p>ts or l9es3 ea* l9e has a value ( "o hundr$? ( a millimet]4 ,,/&>dization ,,( ,,ocul> ,,micromet] ,,) ,,l[-,,p[] ,,objective ,hav+ plac$ ! ocul> micromet] 9 ! eye-piece & ! /age micromet] on ! c5tre ( ! /age1 focus until ! l9es ( ! /age micromet] are cle>ly se54 ,!n adju/ ! scales until ! l9es ( ! /age micromet] are p>allel ) & directly "u ! l9es ( ! ocul> micromet]4 ,asc]ta9 ! numb] ( l9es ( ! /age micromet] cov]$ by ! "o hundr$ l9es ( ! ocul> micromet]4 ,!n calculate ! value ( ea* l9e ( ! ocul>4 ,?is is done 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,if ! "o hundr$ l9es ( ! ocul> cov] sev5ty-five l9es ( ! /age micromet]1 !n ! "o hundr$ l9es ( ! ocul> micromet] are equival5t to sev5ty-five "o-hundr$?s1 or ?ree-f\r?s1 ( a millimet]4 ,"o l9e ( ! ocul> micromet] w !re=e be equival5t to "o-hundr$? ( sev5ty-five "o-hundr$?s1 or 4#jjge "p ( a millimet]1 & z a micron is ! unit = measur+ microscopic objects1 ?is be+ equival5t to "o "o-?\s&? ( a millimet]1 ! value ( ea* l9e ( ! ocul> w !re=e be #g4e microns4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,micromet] ,eye-,piece ,) ! high-p[] objective 9 place1 asc]ta9 ! value ( ea* l9e ( ! ocul>4 ,if "o hundr$ l9es ( ! ocul> cov] only twelve l9es ( ! /age micromet]1 !n ! "o hundr$ l9es ( ! ocul> are equival5t to twelve "o-hundr$?s ( a millimet]1 ! value ( "o l9e be+ equival5t to "o "o-hundr$? ( twelve "o-hundr$?s1 or twelve t5-?\s&?s ( a millimet]1 or 4#jjab1 or #a4b4 ,x w !re=e be se5 t objects z small z a ?\s&? ( a millimet] c be accurately measur$ by ! ocul> micromet]4 ,9 mak+ microscopic measurem5ts x is only necess>y to f9d h[ _m l9es ( ! ocul> scale are cov]$ by ! object4 ,! numb] ( l9es multipli$ by ! equival5t ( ea* l9e w be ! size ( ! object 9 microns1 or micromillimet]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,micromet] ,eye-,piece ,,micromet] ,,eye-,,pieces ,micromet] eye-pieces 7,figs4 #bc & #bd7 may be us$ 9 mak+ measurem5ts4 ,^! eye-pieces ) micromet] comb9ations are pref]r$ by "s work]s1 b ! ocul> micromet] w meet ! ne$s ( ! av]age work]4 ,,me*anical ,,/ages ,mov+ objects by h& is tiresome & unsatisfactory1 fir/1 because ( ! possibility ( los+ sight ( ! object "u obs]vation1 & secondly1 because ! field _c be cov]$ s sy/ematically z :5 a me*anical /age is us$ = mov+ slides4 ,! me*anical /age 7,fig4 #be7 is fa/5$ to ! /age by a screw4 ,! slide is held by two clamps4 ,!re is a rack & p9ion = mov+ ! slide to left or "r1 & ano!r rack & p9ion = mov+ ! slide =w>d & backw>d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,me*anical ,/age ,,cam]a ,,lucida ,! cam]a lucida is an optical me*anical device = aid+ ! work] 9 mak+ draw+s ( microscopic objects4 ,! in/rum5t is p>ticul>ly necess>y 9 rese>* "w :]e x is desirable to reproduce an object 9 all its details4 ,9 fact1 all reproductions illu/rat+ orig9al "w %\ld be made by means ( ! cam]a lucida or by microphotography4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,cam]a ,lucida ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,cam]a ,lucida ,a great _m diff]5t types ( cam]a lucidas or draw+ app>atus are obta9able1 v>y+ f simple-inexp5sive to complex-exp5sive =ms4 ,figs4 #bf1 #bg1 & #bh %[ simple & complex =ms4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,draw+ ,app>atus ,,microphotographic ,,app>atus ,! microphotographic app>atus 7,fig4 #bi71 z ! "n implies1 is an app>atus con/ruct$ 9 su* a mann] t x may be atta*$ to a microscope :5 we desire to photograph microscopic objects4 ,x consi/s ( a metal base & a poli%$ metal pill> = hold+ ! bell[s1 slide hold]1 gr\nd-glass obs]vation plate1 & eye-piece4 ,9 mak+ photographs1 ! small end ( ! bell[s is atta*$ to ! ocul> ( ! microscope1 ! focus adju/$1 & ! object or objects photograph$4 ,m uni=m results are obta9$ 9 mak+ su* photographs if an artificial light ( an unv>y+ c&le-p[] is us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,microphotographic ,app>atus ,!re are obta9able m elaborate microphotographic app>atus ?an ! "o figur$ & describ$1 b = mo/ work]s ?is "o w prove highly satisfactory4 ,x is possible1 by incl9+ ! tube ( ! microscope1 to make good microphotographs ) an ord9>y plate cam]a4 ,?is is accompli%$ by remov+ ! l5s ( ! cam]a & atta*+ ! bell[s to ! ocul>1 focus+1 & photograph+4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,h[ ,,to ,,use ,,! ,,microscope ,9 beg9n+ "w ) ! comp\nd microscope1 place ! base ( ! microscope opposite y\r "r %\ld]1 if y are "r-h&$2 or opposite y\r left %\ld]1 if y are left-h&$4 ,incl9e ! body s t ! ocul> is on a level ) y\r eye1 if necess>y2 b if n1 "w ) ! body ( ! microscope 9 an erect position4 ,9 view+ ! specim51 keep bo? eyes op54 ,use "o eye = obs]vation & ! o!r = sket*+4 ,9 ?is way x w n be necess>y to remove ! obs]vation eye f ! ocul> unless x be to complete ! details ( a sket*4 ,le>n to use bo? eyes4 ,mo/ work]s1 h[ev]1 accu/om !mselves to us+ "o eye2 :5 !y are sket*+1 !y use bo? eyes1 al?\gh x is n necess>y to d s4 ,op5 ! iris diaphragm1 & incl9e ! mirror s t :ite light is reflect$ on ! ,abb cond5s]4 ,place ! slide on ! c5tre ( ! /age1 & if ! slide conta9s a section ( a plant1 move ! slide s z to place ?is specim5 ov] ! c5tre ( ! ,abb cond5s]4 ,!n l[] ! body by means ( ! co>se adju/m5t until ! l[-p[] object1 :i* %\ld always be 9 position :5 "w is begun1 is )9 "o-f\r? ( an in* ( ! /age4 ,!n raise ! body by means ( ! co>se adju/m5t until ! object1 or objects1 9 case a p[d] is be+ exam9$1 is se54 ,op5 & close ! iris diaphragm1 f9ally adju/+ ! op5+ s t ! be/ possible illum9ation is obta9$ = br++ out cle>ly ! /ructure ( ! object or objects view$4 ,!n regulate ! focus by mov+ ! body up or d[n by turn+ ! f9e adju/m5t4 ,:5 /udy+ cross-sections or l>ge p>ticles ( p[d]s1 x is sometimes desirable to make l[-p[] sket*es ( ! specim54 ,9 mo/ cases1 h[ev]1 only suffici5t "t %\ld be sp5t 9 /udy+ ! specim5 to give an idea ( ! size1 /ructure1 & g5]al arrangem5t or plan or /ructure if a section ( a plant1 or1 if a p[d]1 to note its /rik+ *>act]s4 ,all ! f9] details ( /ructure are be/ br\ght out ) ! high-p[] objective 9 position4 ,9 plac+ ! high-p[] objective 9 position1 x is fir/ necess>y to raise ! body by ! co>se adju/m5t2 !n op5 ! iris diaphragm1 & l[] ! body until ! objective is )9 ab\t "o-eigh? ( an in* ( ! slide4 ,n[ raise ! tube by ! f9e adju/m5t until ! object is 9 focus1 !n gradually close ! iris diaphragm until a cle> def9ition ( ! object is obta9$4 ,n[ proce$ to make an accurate sket* ( ! object or objects be+ /udi$4 ,9 us+ ! wat] or oil-imm]sion objectives x is fir/ necess>y to place a drop ( di/ill$ wat] or oil1 z ! case may be1 imm$iately ov] ! specim51 !n l[] ! body by ! co>se adju/m5t until ! l5s ( ! objective t\*es ! wat] or ! oil4 ,raise ! tube1 regulate ! light by ! iris diaphragm1 & proce$ z if ! high-p[] objectives 7 9 position4 ,! wat] or oil %\ld be remov$ f ! objectives & f ! slide :5 n 9 use4 ,aft] ! high]-p[]$ objective has be5 us$1 ! body %\ld be rais$1 & ! l[-p[] objective plac$ 9 position4 ,if ! draw-tube has be5 drawn out dur+ ! exam9ation ( ! object1 replace x1 b be sure to hold "o h& on ! nose-piece s z to prev5t scrat*+ ! objective & ,abb cond5s] by _! com+ 9 =ceful contact4 ,la/ly1 clean ! mirror ) a s(t piece ( l954 ,9 return+ ! microscope to its case1 or to ! %elf1 grasp ! limb1 or ! pill>1 firmly & c>ry z ne>ly v]tical z possible 9 ord] n to dislodge ! eye-piece4 ,,illum9ation ,! illum9ation = microscopic "w may be f natural or artificial s\rces4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,micro ,lamp ,x has be5 g5]ally suppos$ t ! be/ possible illum9ation = microscopic "w is diffus$ sunlight obta9$ f a nor!rn direction4 ,no matt] f :at direction diffus$ sunlight is obta9$1 x w be f\nd suitable = microscopic "w4 ,9 no case %\ld direct sunlight be us$1 because x w be f\nd bl9d+ 9 its effects ^u ! eyes4 ,natural illum9ation--diffus$ sunlight--v>ies s greatly dur+ ! diff]5t mon?s ( ! ye>1 & ev5 dur+ diff]5t p]iods ( ! day1 t individual work]s are resort+ m & m to artificial illum9ation4 ,! p>ticul> advantage ( su* illum9ation is due to ! fact t its quality & int5sity are uni=m at all times4 ,!re are _m ways ( secur+ su* artificial illum9ation1 no "o ( :i* has any p>ticul> advantage ov] ! o!r4 ,"s work]s use an ord9>y gas or electric light ) a color scre5 plac$ 9 ! sub-/age bel[ ! iris diaphragm4 ,9 o!r cases a globe fill$ ) a weak solution ( copp] sulphate is plac$ 9 su* a way betwe5 ! s\rce ( light & ! microscope t ! light is focus$ on ! mirror4 ,mod]n me*anical +5uity has devis$1 h[ev]1 a numb] ( m conv5i5t micro lamps 7,fig4 #cj74 ,^! lamps are a comb9ation ( light & scre54 ,9 "s =ms a numb] ( diff]5t scre5s come ) ea* lamp1 s t x is possible to obta9 :ite-1 blue-1 or d>k-gr\nd illum9ation4 ,! type ( ! scre5 us$ w be v>i$ accord+ to ! nature ( ! object /udi$4 ,,c>e ,,( ,,! ,,microscope ,if possible1 ! microscope %\ld be /or$ 9 a room ( ! same temp]ature z t 9 :i* x is to be us$4 ,9 any case1 avoid /or+ 9 a room t is cool] ?an ! place ( use1 because :5 x is br\ght into a w>m] room1 moi/ure w cond5se on ! ocul> objectives & mirrors4 ,be=e beg9n+ "w remove all moi/ure1 du/1 etc41 f ! inn] & out] l5ses ( ! ocul>1 ! objectives1 ! ,abb cond5s]1 & ! mirror by means ( a piece ( s(t1 old l954 ,:5 ! "w is f9i%$ ! optical p>ts %\ld be ?or\ghly clean$4 ,if reag5ts h be5 us$1 be sure t none has got on ! objectives or ! ,abb cond5s]4 ,if any reag5t has got on ^! p>ts1 wa% x (f ) wat]1 & !n dry !m ?or\ghly ) s(t l954 ,! inn] l5ses ( ! eye-pieces & ! "u l5s ( ! ,abb cond5s] %\ld occasionally be clean$4 ,! me*anical p>ts ( ! /& %\ld be clean$ if du/ accumulates1 & ! movable surfaces %\ld be oil$ occasionally4 ,nev] attempt to make new comb9ations ( ! ocul> or objective l5ses1 or transf] ! objectives or ocul> f "o microscope to ano!r1 because ! l5ses ( any giv5 microscope =m a p]fect l5s sy/em1 & ?is w\ld n be ! case if !y 7 transf]r$4 ,keep clean clo?s 9 a du/-pro( box4 ,"u no circum/ances t\* any ( ! optical p>ts ) y\r f+]s4 ,,prep>ation ,,( ,,specim5s ,,= ,,cutt+ ,mo/ drug plants are suppli$ to ph>maci/s 9 a dri$ condition4 ,x is necess>y1 !re=e1 to boil ! drug 9 wat]1 ! "t v>y+ f a few m9utes1 9 ! case ( ?9 leaves & h]bs1 up to a half h\r if ! drug is a ?ick root or woody /em4 ,if a gre5 7undri$7 drug is "u exam9ation1 ?is fir/ /ep is n necess>y4 ,if ! specim5 to be cut is a leaf1 a fl[]-petal1 or o!r ?91 flexible "p ( a plant1 x may be plac$ betwe5 pieces ( eld] pi? or slices ( c>rot or potato be=e cutt+4 ,,%ort ,,p>aff9 ,,process ,9 mo/ cases1 h[ev]1 m p]fect sections w be obta9$ if ! specim5s are emb$d$ 9 p>aff91 by ! quick p>aff9 process1 :i* is easily c>ri$ out4 ,aft] boil+ ! specim5 9 wat]1 remove ! excess ( moi/ure f ! out] surface ) filt] pap] or wait until ! wat] has evaporat$4 ,next make a m\ld ( /iff c>dbo>d & p\r melt$ p>aff9 7melt+ at #ej or #fj degrees7 into ! m\ld to a height ( ab\t "o-half in*1 :5 ! p>aff9 has solidifi$4 ,?is may be ha/5$ by float+ x on cool or ic$ wat] in/ead ( all[+ x to cool at room temp]ature4 ,! specim5s to be cut are n[ plac$ on ! p>aff91 ) glue1 if necess>y1 to hold !m 9 position1 & melt$ p>aff9 p\r$ ov] ! specim5s until !y are cov]$ to a dep? ( ab\t "o-f\r? ( an in*4 ,cool on ic$ wat]1 trim (f ! out] p>aff9 to ! desir$ dep?1 & ! ,specim5 w be 9 a condition suitable = cutt+4 ,good workable sections may be cut f specim5s emb$d$ by ?is quick p>aff9 me?od4 ,aft] a little practice ! entire process c be c>ri$ out 9 less ?an an h\r4 ,?is me?od ( prep>+ specim5s = cutt+ w meet e ne$ ( ! ph>macognosi/4 ,,long ,,p>aff9 ,,process ,9 ord] to br+ out ! /ructure ( ! protopla/ 7liv+ "p ( ! cell71 x w be necess>y to beg9 ) ! liv+ "p ( ! plant & to use ! long p>aff9 me?od or ! collodion me?od4 ,small fragm5ts ( a leaf1 /em1 or root-tip are plac$ 9 *romic-acid solution1 acetic alcohol1 picric acid1 *romacetic acid1 alcohol1 etc41 dep5d+ ^u ! nature ( ! specim5 "u obs]vation4 ,! object ( plac+ ! liv+ specim5 9 su* solutions is to kill ! protopla/ sudd5ly s t ! p>ts ( ! cell w be> ! same relation%ip to ea* o!r t !y did 9 ! liv+ plant1 & to fix ! p>ts s kill$4 ,aft] ! fix+ process is complete1 ! specim5 is fre$ ( ! fix+ ag5t by wa%+ 9 wat]4 ,f ! wat]-ba? ! specim5s are transf]r$ successively to #aj1 #bj1 #dj1 #fj1 #gj1 #hj1 #ij1 & f9ally #ajj p] c5t alcohol4 ,9 ?is #ajj p] c5t alcohol-ba? ! la/ traces ( moi/ure are remov$4 ,! l5g? ( "t requir$ to leave ! specim5s 9 ! diff]5t p]c5tages ( alcohols v>ies f a few m9utes to tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 dep5d+ ^u ! size & ! nature ( ! specim54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,p>aff9-emb$d+ ,ov5 ,aft] dehydration ! specim5 is plac$ 9 a cle>+ ag5t--*lor(orm or xylol--bo? ( :i* are suitable :5 emb$d+ 9 p>aff94 ,! cle>+ ag5ts replace ! alcohol 9 ! cells1 & at ! same "t r5d] ! tissues transp>5t4 ,f ! cle>+ ag5t ! specim5 is plac$ 9 a weak solution ( p>aff91 dissolv$ xylol1 or *lor(orm4 ,! /r5g? ( ! p>aff9 solution is gradually increas$ until x consi/s ( pure p>aff94 ,! temp]ature ( ! p>aff9-emb$d+ ov5 7,fig4 #ca7 %\ld n be mu* high] ?an ! melt+-po9t ( ! p>aff94 ,! specim5 is n[ ready to be emb$d$4 ,fir/ make a m\ld ( c>dbo>d or a lead-emb$d+ frame 7,fig4 #cb71 melt ! p>aff91 & !n place ! specim5 9 a mann] t w facilitate cutt+4 ,remove ! excess ( p>aff9 & cut :5 desir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,p>aff9 ,blocks ,9 us+ ! collodion me?od = emb$d+ fibr\s specim5s1 z wood1 b>k1 roots1 etc41 ! specim5 is fir/ fix$ ) picric acid1 wa%$ ) wat]1 cle>$ 9 e!r-alcohol1 emb$d$ successively 9 two1 five1 & twelve p] c5t e!r-alcohol collodion solution1 & f9ally emb$d$ 9 a pure collodion ba?4 ,,cutt+ ,,sections ,specim5s prep>$ z describ$ above may be cut ) a h& microtome or a ma*9e microtome4 ,,h& ,,microtome ,9 cutt+ sections by a h& microtome1 x is necess>y to place ! specim51 emb$d$ 9 p>aff9 or held betwe5 pieces ( eld] pi?1 c>rot1 or potato1 ov] ! second jo9ts ( ! f+]s1 !n press ! fir/ jo9ts firmly ^u ! specim5 ) ! ?umb press$ aga9/ x4 ,if !y are correctly held1 ! specim5s w be j above ! level ( ! f+] & ! end ( ! ?umb1 & ! jo9t w be bel[ ! level ( ! f+]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--;,h& ,microtome ,hold ! section cutt] 7,fig4 #cc7 firmly 9 ! h& ) ! flat surface next to ! specim54 ,:ile cutt+ ! section1 press y\r arm firmly aga9/ y\r *e/1 & b5d ! wri/ ne>ly at "r angles to ! arm4 ,pu% ! cutt+ edge ( ! microtome t[>d ! body & ?r\gh ! specim5 9 su* a way z to secure z ?9 a section z possible4 ,d n expect to obta9 nice1 ?9 sections dur+ ! fir/ or second trials1 b cont9u$ practice w enable "o to become q effici5t 9 cutt+ sections 9 ?is mann]4 ,:5 ! exam9ation ( drugs is a daily occurr5ce1 ! above me?od w be f\nd highly satisfactory4 ,,ma*9e ,,microtomes ,:5 a numb] ( sections are to be prep>$ f a giv5 specim51 x is desirable to cut ! sections on a ma*9e microtome1 p>ticul>ly :5 ! sections are to be prep>$ = ! use ( /ud5ts1 9 :i* case !y %\ld be z uni=m z possible4 ,great c>e %\ld be ex]cis$ 9 cutt+ sections ) a ma*9e microtome--fir/1 9 ! selection ( ! type ( ! microtome2 & secondly1 9 ! /yle ( knife us$ 9 cutt+4 ,= s(t tissues emb$d$ 9 p>aff9 or collodion1 ! rot>y microtome ) v]tical knife w give be/ results4 ,! ?ickness ( ! specim5 is regulat$ by me*anical means1 s t 9 cutt+ ! sections x is only necess>y to turn a crank & remove ! specim5s f ! knife-edge1 unless !re is a ribbon-c>ri] atta*m5t4 ,if ! sections are be+ cut f a specim5 emb$d$ by ! quick p>aff9 me?od1 x is be/ to drop ! section 9 a metal cup p>tly fill$ ) w>m wat]4 ,?is w cause ! p>aff9 to /raight5 out1 & ! specim5 w uncoil4 ,aft] suffici5t specim5s h be5 cut1 ! cup %\ld be plac$ 9 a boil+-wat] ba? until ! p>aff9 surr\nd+ ! sections melts & floats on ! wat]4 ,be=e remov+ ! specim5 f ! wat]-ba?1 x is advisable to %ake ! glass vigor\sly 9 ord] to cause z _m specim5s z possible to settle to ! bottom ( ! cup4 ,! cup is !n plac$ 9 ic$ wat] or set aside until ! p>aff9 has solidifi$4 ,! cake-l mass is !n remov$ f ! cup1 & ! sections adh]+ to its "u surface are remov$ by lift+ !m c>efully (f ) ! flat side ( ! knife & transf]r+ !m1 toge!r ) ! sections at ! bottom ( ! cup1 to a wide-m\? bottle1 & cov]$ ) alcohol1 glyc]9e1 & wat] mixture2 or if x is desir$ to /a9 ! specim5s1 !y %\ld be plac$ 9 a weak alcoholic solution4 ,specim5s hav+ a h>d1 woody texture %\ld be cut on a slid+ microtome by means ( a special wood knife1 :i* is especially temp]$ to cut woody sub/ances4 ,woody roots1 wood1 or ?ick b>k may be cut readily on ?is microtome :5 !y h be5 emb$d$ by ! quick p>aff9 process4 ,! knife 9 ! slid+ microtome is plac$ 9 a horizontal position1 slant+ s t ! knife-edge is drawn gradually across ! specim54 ,aft] cutt+1 ! sections are treat$ z describ$ above4 ,! ?ickness ( ! sections is regulat$ by me*anical means4 ,aft] a section has be5 cut1 ! block conta9+ ! specim5 is rais$ by turn+ a ?umb-screw4 ,9 ?is microtome ! knife1 z 9 ! rot>y type1 is fix$1 & ! block conta9+ ! specim5 is movable4 ,if ! specim5 has be5 infiltrat$ )1 & emb$d$ 91 p>aff9 or collodion1 ! treatm5t ( ! sections aft] cutt+ %\ld be diff]5t4 ,9 ! case ( p>aff91 ! sections are fa/5$ directly to ! slide1 & ! p>aff9 is dissolv$ by ei!r *lor(orm or xylol4 ,! specim5 is !n plac$ 9 #ajj1 #ie1 & #de p] c5t alcohol1 & !n wa%$ 9 wat]4 ,^! sections are n[ /a9$ ) wat]-/a9s1 br\ght back ?r\gh alcohol1 cle>$1 & m\nt$ 9 ,canada balsam4 ,if alcoholic /a9s are us$1 x w n be necess>y to dehydrate be=e /a9+1 & ! dehydration aft] /a9+ w also be elim9at$4 ,sections infiltrat$ ) collodion are ei!r /a9$ directly )\t remov+ ! collodion or aft] removal4 ,,=ms ,,( ,,microtomes ,! h& cyl9d] microtome 7,fig4 #cd7 consi/s ( a cyl9drical body4 ,! clamp = hold+ ! specim5 is ne> ! top bel[ ! cutt+ surface4 ,at ! l[] end is atta*$ a micromet] screw ) a divid$ mill$ head4 ,:5 mov$ =w>d "o division1 ! specim5 is rais$ #j4ja mm4 ,?is micromet] screw has an upw>d movem5t ( #aj mm4 ,! cutt+ surface consi/s ( a cyl9drical glass r+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,h& ,cyl9d] ,microtome ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,h& ,table ,microtome ,! h& table microtome 7,fig4 #ce7 is provid$ ) a clamp1 by :i* x may be atta*$ to ! edge ( a table or desk4 ,! cutt+ surface consi/s ( two sep>at$ b p>allel glass b5*es4 ,! object is held by a clamp & is rais$ by a micromet] screw1 :i*1 :5 mov$ ?r\gh "o division by turn+ ! divid$ head1 raises ! specim5 #j4ja mm4 ,! slid+ microtome has a track ( #bej mm4 ,! object is held by a clamp & its height regulat$ by h&4 ,! disk regulat+ ! micromet] screw is divid$ into "o hundr$ p>ts4 ,:5 ?is is turn$ ?r\gh "o division1 ! object is rais$ #j4jje mm4 or #e microns1 at ! same "t a clock-spr+ 9 contact ) tee? regi/]s by a click+ s\nd4 ,if ! disk is turn$ ?r\gh two divisions1 !re w be two clicks1 etc4 ,9 ?is way is regulat$ ! ?ickness ( ! sections cut4 ,:5 ! micromet] screw has be5 turn$ ?r\gh ! "o hundr$ divisions1 x mu/ be unscrew$1 ! specim5 rais$1 & ! /eps ( ! process repeat$4 ,! knife is movable & is drawn across ! specim5 9 mak+ sections4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--;,base ,sl$ge ,microtome ,! base sl$ge microtome 7,fig4 #cf7 has a heavy iron base :i* supports a slid+-way on :i* ! object-c>ri] moves4 ,! object-c>ri] is m\nt$ on a solid mass ( metal1 & is provid$ ) a clamp = hold+ ! object4 ,! object is rais$ by turn+ a knob :i*1 :5 turn$ once1 raises ! specim5 "o to tw5ty microns1 accord+ to h[ ! fe$+ me*anism is set4 ,sections ?ick] ?an tw5ty microns may be obta9$ by turn+ ! knob two or m times4 ,! knife is fix$ & is support$ by two pill>s1 ! base ( :i* may be mov$ =w>d or backw>d 9 su* a mann] t ! knife c be arrang$ ) an oblique or "r-angl$ cutt+ surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--,m9ot ,rot>y ,microtome ,! ,m9ot rot>y microtome 7,fig4 #cg7 has a fix$ knife1 held 9 position by two pill>s1 & a movable object-c>ri]4 ,! object is firmly secur$ by a clamp1 & x is rais$ by a micromet] screw4 ,! screw is atta*$ to a :eel hav+ five hundr$ tee? on its p]iph]y4 ,a pawl is adju/$ to ! tee? 9 su* a way t1 :5 mov$ by turn+ a :eel to :i* x is atta*$1 specim5s v>y+ f "o to tw5ty-five microns 9 ?ickness may be cut1 accord+ to ! way ! adju/+ disk is set4 ,:5 ! me*anism has be5 regulat$ & ! object adju/$ = cutt+1 x is only necess>y to turn a crank 9 cutt+ sections4 ,,c>e ,,( ,,microtomes ,:5 n 9 use1 microtomes %\ld be protect$ f du/1 & all p>ts liable to friction %\ld be oil$4 ,microtome knives %\ld be hon$ z (t5 z is necess>y to insure a prop] cutt+ edge4 ,aft] cutt+ objects1 ! knives %\ld be remov$1 clean$1 & oil$4 ,x %\ld be kept cle>ly 9 m9d t special knives are requir$ = cutt+ collodion1 p>aff91 & froz5 & woody sections4 ,! cutt+ edges ( ! diff]5t knives v>y consid]ably1 z is %[n 9 ! prec$+ cuts4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,reag5ts ,little att5tion is giv5 9 ! pres5t "w to micro-*emical reactions = ! reason t _! value has be5 mu* ov]rat$ 9 ! pa/4 ,a few reag5ts w be f\nd useful1 h[ev]1 & ^! few are giv51 z well z _! special use4 ,!y are z foll[s3 ,,li/ ,,( ,,reag5ts ,di/ill$ ,wat] is us$ 9 ! alcohol1 glyc]9e1 & wat] mixture z a g5]al m\nt+ m$ium4 ,x is us$ :5 w>m z a te/ = inul9 & x is us$ 9 prep>+ v>i\s reag5ts4 ,glyc]9e is us$ 9 prep>+ ! alcohol1 glyc]9e1 & wat] mixture1 9 te/+ = aleurone gra9s1 & z a tempor>y m\nt+ m$ium4 ,alcohol is us$ 9 prep>+ ! alcohol1 glyc]9e1 & wat] mixture1 9 te/+ = volatile oils4 ,acetic ,acid4 ,bo? dilute & /rong solutions are us$ 9 te/+ = aleurone gra9s1 cy/oli?s1 & cry/als ( calcium oxalate4 ,hydro*loric ,acid is us$ 9 connection ) phlorogluc9 z a te/ = lign9 & z a te/ = calcium oxalate4 ,f]ric ,*loride ,solution is us$ z a te/ = tann94 ,sulphuric ,acid is us$ z a te/ = calcium oxalate4 ,t9cture ,alkana is us$ :5 fre%ly prep>$ by mac]at+ ! granulat$ root ) alcohol & filt]+1 z a te/ = res94 ,sodium ,hydroxide4 ,a five p] c5t solution is us$ z a te/ = sub]9 & z a cle>+ ag5t4 ,copp] ,ammonia is us$ z a te/ = cellulose4 ,ammonical ,solution ( ,pota% is us$ z a te/ = fix$ oils4 ,! solution is a mixture ( equal p>ts ( a saturat$ solution ( potassium hydroxide & /rong] ammonia4 ,oil ( ,cloves is us$ z a cle>+ fluid = sections prep>atory to m\nt+ 9 ,canada balsam4 ,canada ,balsam is us$ z a p]man5t m\nt+ m$ium = dehydrat$ specim5s1 & z a cem5t = r++ slides4 ,p>aff9 is us$ = g5]al emb$d+ & infiltrat+4 ,lugol's ,solution is us$ z a te/ = />* & = aleurone gra9s & proteid matt]s4 ,osmic ,acid4 ,a two p] c5t solution is us$ z a te/ = fix$ oils4 ,alcohol1 ,glyc]9e1 & ,wat] ,mixture is us$ z a tempor>y m\nt+ m$ium & z a qualitative te/ = fix$ oils4 ,*lorz9c ,iodide is us$ z a te/ = sub]91 lign91 cellulose1 & />*4 ,anal9e ,*loride is us$ z a te/ = lignifi$ cell walls ( ba/ fibres & ( /one cells4 ,phlorogluc94 ,a "o p] c5t alcoholic solution is us$ 9 connection ) hydro*loric acid z a te/ = lign94 ,hmatoxyl9-,delifields is us$ z a te/ = cellulose4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,reag5t ,set ,,reag5t ,,set ,ea* work] %\ld be provid$ ) a set ( reag5t bottles 7,fig4 #ch74 ,su* a set may be select$ accord+ to ! ta/e ( ! individual1 b exp]i5ce has %[n t a #cj c4c4 bottle ) a gr\nd-9 pipette & a rubb] bulb is pref]able to o!r types4 ,9 su* =ms ! pipettes are readily clean$1 & ! rubb] bulbs c be replac$ :5 !y become old & brittle4 ,! entire set %\ld be protect$ f du/ by keep+ x 9 a case1 ! cov] ( :i* %\ld be clos$ :5 ! set is n 9 use4 ,,measur+ ,,cyl9d] ,9 ord] accurately to measure micro-*emical reag5ts1 x is necess>y to h a /&>d #ej c4c4 cyl9d] 7,fig4 #ci7 graduat$ to c4c4's4 ,su* a cyl9d] %\ld =m a "p ( ! reag5t set4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,measur+ ,cyl9d] ,,/a9+ ,,di%es ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,/a9+ ,di% ,!re is a great v>iety ( /a9+ di%es 7,fig4 #dj71 b = g5]al hi/ological "w a glass /a9+ di% ) groves = hold+ six or m slides & a glass cov] is mo/ desirable4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,h[ ,,to ,,m\nt ,,specim5s ,! me?od ( proc$ure 9 m\nt+ specim5s = /udy v>ies accord+ to ! nature ( ! specim51 its prelim9>y treatm5t1 & ! "* ( ! m\nt to be made4 ,z to duration1 m\nts are ei!r tempor>y or p]man5t4 ,,tempor>y ,,m\nts ,9 prep>+ a tempor>y m\nt1 place ! specim5 9 ! c5tre ( a clean slide & add two or m drops ( ! tempor>y m\nt+ m$ium1 :i* may be wat]1 or a mixture ( equal p>ts ( alcohol1 glyc]9e1 & wat]1 or "s micro-*emical reag5t1 z weak ,lugol's solution1 solution ( *loral hydrate1 etc4 ,cov] ?is ) a cov] glass & press d[n g5tly4 ,remove ! excess ( ! m\nt+ m$ium ) a piece ( blott+ pap]4 ,n[ place ! slide on ! /age & proce$ to exam9e x4 ,su* m\nts c ( c\rse be us$ only = %ort p]iods ( /udy2 & :5 ! p]iod ( obs]vation is f9i%$1 ! specim5 %\ld be remov$ & ! slide wa%$1 or ! slide wa%+ may be def]r$ until a numb] ( su* slides h accumulat$4 ,at any rate1 :5 ! m\nt+ m$ium dries1 ! specim5 is no long] suitable = obs]vation4 ,,p]man5t ,,m\nts ,p]man5t m\nts are prep>$ 9 mu* ! same way z tempor>y1 b ( c\rse ! m\nt+ m$ium is diff]5t4 ,! k9d ( p]man5t m\nt+ m$ium us$ dep5ds ^u ! previ\s treatm5t ( ! specim54 ,if ! specim5 has be5 pres]v$ 9 alcohol or glyc]9e & wat]1 x is usually m\nt$ 9 glyc]9e jelly4 ,if ! specim5 9 "q is a p[d]1 x is plac$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! slide & a drop or two ( glyc]9e1 alcohol1 & wat] mixture add$1 unless ! p[d] 0 already 9 susp5sion 9 su* a mixture4 ,cut a small cube ( glyc]9e jelly & place x 9 ! c5tre ( ! p[d] mixture4 ,lift up ! slide by means ( pli]s1 or grasp ! two edges betwe5 ! ?umb & f+] & hold ov] a small flame ( an alcohol lamp1 or place on a /eam-ba? until ! glyc]9e jelly has melt$4 ,next /]ilize a dissect+ ne$le1 cool1 & mix ! p[d] ) ! glyc]9e jelly1 be+ c>eful n to lift ! po9t ( ! ne$le f ! slide dur+ ! op]ation4 ,if ! mix+ has be5 c>efully done1 few or no air-bubbles w be pres5t2 b if !y are pres5t1 heat ! ne$le1 & :ile x is :ite hot t\* ! bubbles ) its po9t1 & !y w disappe>4 ,n[ take a pair ( =ceps &1 aft] secur+ a clean cov] glass ne> ! edge1 pass !m ?ree times ?r\gh ! flame ( ! alcohol lamp4 ,:ile hold+ x 9 a slant+ position1 t\* "o side ( ! p[d] mixture & sl[ly l[] ! cov] glass until x comes 9 complete contact ) ! mixture4 ,n[ press g5tly ) ! end ( ! ne$le-h&le1 & set x aside to cool4 ,:5 x is cool1 place a neatly trimm$ label on "o end ( ! slide1 on :i* write ! "n ( ! specim51 ! numb] ( ! s]ies ( :i* x is to =m a "p1 etc4 ,any excess ( glyc]9e jelly1 :i* may h be5 press$ out f ! edges ( ! cov] glass1 %\ld n be remov$ at once1 b %\ld be all[$ to rema9 on ! slide = at lea/ "o mon? 9 ord] to all[ = %r9kage due to evaporation4 ,at ! end ( a mon? remove ! glyc]9e jelly by fir/ pass+ ! blade ( a knife1 held 9 a v]tical position1 ! back ( ! knife be+ next to ! slide1 ar\nd ! edge ( ! cov] glass4 ,aft] turn+ ! knife-blade s t ! flat side is 9 contact ) slide1 remove ! jelly outside ( ! cov] glass4 ,any rema9+ fragm5ts %\ld be remov$ ) a piece ( old l95 or cotton clo?4 ,f9ally1 r+ ! edge ( ! cov] glass ) microscopical cem5t1 ( :i* !re are _m types to be _h4 ,if ! clean+ has be5 done ?or\ghly1 !re is no bett] r++ cem5t ?an ,canada balsam4 ,9 m\nt+ cross-sections1 ! me?od ( proc$ure is simil> to ! above1 ) ! exception t ! glyc]9e jelly is plac$ at ! side ( ! specim5 & n 9 ! c5tre4 ,:ile melt+ ! jelly1 incl9e ! slide 9 ord] to all[ ! melt$ glyc]9e jelly to fl[ gradually ov] ! specim51 ?us replac+ ! air conta9$ 9 ! cells & int]cellul> spaces4 ,f9i% ! m\nt+ z direct$ above1 b "u no conditions %\ld y /ir ! glyc]9e jelly ) ! section4 ,if specim5s1 aft] hav+ be5 emb$d$ 9 p>aff9 or collodion1 are cut1 cle>$1 /a9$1 & dehydrat$1 !y are usually m\nt$ 9 ,canada balsam4 ,a small drop ( ?is sub/ance1 :i* may be obta9$ 9 collapsible tubes1 is plac$ at "o side ( ! specim54 ,:ile incl9+ ! slide1 g5tly heat until ! ,canada balsam cov]s ! specim54 ,secure a cov] glass by ! aid ( pli]s1 pass x ?r\gh ! flame ?ree times1 & l[] x sl[ly :ile hold+ x 9 an incl9$ position4 ,press g5tly on ! cov] glass ) ! ne$le-h&le1 & keep 9 a horizontal position = tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 !n place directly 9 a slide box or cab9et1 s9ce no seal+ is requir$4 ,glyc]9e is sometimes us$ to make p]man5t m\nts1 b x is unsatisfactory1 because ! cov] glass is easily remov$ & ! specim5 spoil$ or lo/1 unless r+$--a proc$ure :i* is n easily accompli%$4 ,if ! specim5 is to be m\nt$ 9 glyc]9e1 x mu/ fir/ be plac$ 9 a mixture ( alcohol1 glyc]9e1 & wat]1 & !n transf]r$ to glyc]9e4 ,lactic acid is ano!r p]man5t liquid-m\nt+ m$ium1 :i* is unsatisfactory 9 ! same way z glyc]9e1 b l glyc]9e1 !re are c]ta9 special cases :]e x is desirable to use x4 ,:5 ?is is us$1 ! slides %\ld be kept 9 a horizontal position1 unless r+$4 ,,cov] ,,glasses ,great c>e %\ld be us$ ,9 ! selection ( cov] glasses1 h[ev]1 n only z reg>ds _! %ape b z to _! ?ickness4 ,! /&>d tube l5g? ( ! diff]5t manufactur]s makes an all[ance ( a def9ite ?ickness = cov] glasses4 ,x is necess>y1 !re=e1 to use cov] glasses made by ! manufactur] ( ! microscope 9 use4 ,cov] glasses are ei!r squ>e or r\nd4 ,( ea* !re are f\r diff]5t ?icknesses & two diff]5t sizes4 ,! /&>d ?icknesses are3 ,! small size is designat$ ?ree-f\r?s & ! l>ge size sev5-eigh?s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,r\nd ,cov] ,glass ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,squ>e ,cov] ,glass ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,rectangul> ,cov] ,glass ,cov] glasses are circul> 7,fig4 #da71 squ>e 7,fig4 #db71 or rectangul> 7,fig4 #dc7 pieces ( transp>5t glass us$ 9 cov]+ ! specim5s m\nt$ on glass slides4 ,a few ye>s ago mu* difficulty 0 exp]i5c$ 9 obta9+ uni=mly ?ick & transp>5t cov] glasses1 b no su* difficulty is exp]i5c$ to-day4 ,! type ( cov] glass us$ dep5ds l>gely ^u ! "* ( ! specim5 to be m\nt$4 ,! squ>e & rectangul> glasses are select$ :5 a s]ies ( specim5s are to be m\nt$1 b 9 m\nt+ p[d]$ drugs & hi/ological specim5s ! r\nd cov] glasses are pref]able because !y are m sightly & m readily clean$ & r9s$4 ,,glass ,,slides ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--;,glass ,slide ,glass slides 7,fig4 #dd7 are rectangul> pieces ( transp>5t glass us$ z a m\nt+ surface = microscopic objects4 ,! slides are usually ?ree in*es long by "o in* wide1 & !y %\ld be compos$ ( :ite glass1 & !y %\ld h gr\nd & bevel$ edges4 ,slides %\ld be ( uni=m ?ickness1 & !y %\ld n become cl\dy ^u /&+4 ,,slide ,,& ,,cov]-,,glass ,,=ceps ,slides & cov] glasses %\ld be grasp$ by _! edges4 ,to ! beg9n] ?is is n easy4 ,9 ord] to facilitate hold+ slides & cov] glasses dur+ ! m\nt+ process1 "o may use a slide & a cov]-glass =ceps4 ,! slide =ceps consi/s ( wire b5t & twi/$ 9 su* a way t x holds a slide firmly :5 atta*$ to its two edges4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,hi/ological ,=ceps ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,=ceps ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,slid+-p9 ,=ceps ,!re are v>i\s =ms ( cov]-glass hold]s1 b only two types z f> z ! me?od ( secur+ ! cov] glass is conc]n$4 ,fir/1 !re are ! bact]iological & ! hi/ological =ceps 7,fig4 #de71 :i* are self-clos+4 ,! two blades ( su* =ceps mu/ be =c$ ap>t by pressure 9 secur+ ! cov] glass4 ,! second type ( =ceps is t 9 :i* ! two blades are normally sep>at$ 7,fig4 #df71 x be+ necess>y to press ! blades to ei!r side ( ! cov] glass 9 ord] to secure & hold x4 ,!re is a modification ( ?is type ( =ceps :i* enables "o to lock ! blades by means ( a slid+ p9 7,fig4 #dg71 aft] ! cov] glass has be5 secur$4 ,x is well to accu/om oneself to "o type1 = by s do+ "o may become dext]\s 9 its use4 ,,ne$les ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--;,dissect+ ,ne$le ,two dissect+ ne$les 7,fig4 #dh7 %\ld =m a "p ( ! hi/ologi/'s m\nt+ set4 ,! h&les may be ( any mat]ial1 b ! ne$le %\ld be ( temp]$ /eel & ab\t two in*es long4 ,,scissors ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,scissors ,almo/ any sort ( scissors 7,fig4 #di7 w d = hi/ology "w1 b a small scissors ) f9e po9t$ blades1 are pref]r$4 ,scissors are useful 9 trimm+ labels & 9 cutt+ /rips ( leaves & sections ( fibr\s roots t are to be emb$d$ & cut4 ,,scalpels ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,scalpels ,scalpels 7,fig4 #ej7 h /eel blades & ebony h&les4 ,^! v>y 9 reg>d to size & quality ( mat]ial4 ,! *eap] grades are q z satisfactory1 h[ev]1 z ! m exp5sive ones1 & = g5]al use a m$ium-siz$ blade & h&le w be f\nd mo/ useful4 ,,turntable ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,turntable ,mu* "t & en]gy may be sav$ by r++ slides on a turntable 7,fig4 #ea74 ,!re is a flat surface ^u :i* to re/ ! h& hold+ ! bru% ) cem5t1 & a revolv+ table ^u :i* ! slide to be r+$ is held by means ( two clips4 ,9 r++ slides1 x is only necess>y to revolve ! table1 & at ! same "t to transf] ! cem5t to ! edge ( ! cov] glass f ! bru% held 9 ! h&4 ,,label+ ,!re are _m ways ( label+ slides1 b ! be/ me?od is to place on ! label ! "n ( ! specim51 ! p[d] numb]1 & ! box1 ! tray or cab9et numb]4 ,= example3 ,p[d]$ ,arnica ,fl[]s ,no4 #hj--;,box ,a--#fjj4 ,,pres]vation ,,( ,,m\nt$ ,,specim5s ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,slide ,box ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,slide ,tray ,accurately m\nt$1 label$1 & r+$ slides %\ld be fil$ away = future /udy & ref]5ce4 ,su* fil+ may be done 9 slide boxes1 9 slide trays1 or 9 cab9ets4 ,slide boxes are to be _h ( a hold+ capacity v>y+ f "o to "o hundr$ slides4 ,= g5]al use1 slide boxes 7,fig4 #eb7 hold+ "o hundr$ slides w be f\nd mo/ useful4 ,"s work]s pref] trays 7,fig4 #ec71 because ( ! sav+ ( "t 9 select+ specim5s4 ,trays hold tw5ty slides arrang$ 9 two r[s4 ,! cov] ( ! tray is divid$ into two sections s t1 if desir$1 only "o r[ ( slides is uncov]$ at a "t4 ,slide cab9ets 7,fig4 #ed7 are p>ticul>ly desirable = /or+ l>ge individual collections1 p>ticul>ly :5 ! slides are us$ frequ5tly = ref]5ce4 ,l>ge selections ( slides %\ld be numb]$ & c>d index$ 9 ord] to facilitate f9d+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,slide ,cab9et ,"p ,,ii ,,tissues ,,cells1 ,,& ,,cell ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,cell ,! cell is ! unit ( /ructure ( all plants4 ,9 fact ! cell is ! plant 9 _m ( ! l[] =ms--s call$ unicellul> plants4 ,all plants1 !n1 consi/ ( "o or m cells4 ,:ile cells v>y greatly 9 size1 =m1 color1 cont5ts1 & function1 /ill 9 c]ta9 respects _! /ructure is id5tical4 ,,typical ,,cell ,! typical vegetable cell is compos$ ( a liv+ portion or protopla/ & an ext]nal cov]+1 or wall4 ,! protopla/ includes ev]y?+ )9 ! wall4 ,x is made up ( a numb] ( p>ts1 ea* "p p]=m+ c]ta9 functions yet h>moniz+ ) ! "w ( ! cell z a :ole4 ,! protopla/ 7protoplasm7 is a viscid sub/ance resembl+ ! :ite ( an egg4 ,! protopla/1 :5 un/a9$ & unmagnifi$1 appe>s /ructureless1 b :5 /a9$ ) dyes & magnifi$1 x is f\nd to be highly organiz$4 ,! two mo/ /rik+ p>ts ( ! protopla/ are ! cytoplasm & ! nucleus4 ,! "p ( ! protopla/ l9+ ! inn]mo/ "p ( ! wall is ! ectopla/1 :i* is less granul> & slightly d5s] ?an mo/ ( ! cytoplasm4 ,! cytoplasm is decid$ly granul> 9 /ructure4 ,9 ! cytoplasm occurs "o or m cavities1 vacuoles1 fill$ ) cell sap4 ,emb$d$ 9 ! cytoplasm are num]\s *romatophores1 :i* v>y 9 color 9 ! diff]5t cells1 f colorless to yell[1 to r$1 & to gre54 ,! nucleus is ! seat ( ! vital activity ( ! cell1 & ! seat ( h]$ity4 ,! :ole life & activity ( ! cell c5tre1 !re=e1 9 & ab\t ! nucleus4 ,! out] portion ( ! nucleus consi/s ( a ?9 membrane or wall4 ,! membrane encloses num]\s granul> p>ticles--*romat9--:i* are highly susceptible to organic /a9s4 ,among ! granules are ?read-l p>ticles or l994 ,ne> ! c5tre ( ! nucleus are "o or m small r\nd$ nucleoli4 ,! liquid portion ( ! nucleus1 fill+ ! membranes & surr\nd+ ! *romat91 l991 & nucleoli1 is ! nucle> sap4 ,o!r cell cont5ts *>act]i/ic ( c]ta9 cells are cry/als1 />*1 aleurone1 oil1 & alkaloids4 ,! detail$ discussion ( ^! sub/ances w be def]r$ until a lat] *apt]4 ,! cell wall :i* surr\nds ! protopla/ is a product ( its activity4 ,! /ructure & composition ( ! wall ( any giv5 cell v>y accord+ to ! ultimate function ( ! cell4 ,! walls may be ?9 or ?ick1 por\s or non-por\s1 & color$ or colorless4 ,! composition ( cell walls v>ies greatly4 ,! majority ( cell walls are compos$ ( cellulose1 9 o!r cells ( l991 9 o!rs ( cut91 & 9 /ill o!rs ( sub]91 etc4 ,9 ! majority ( cells ! walls are laid d[n 9 a s]ies ( lay]s "o ov] ! o!r by apposition1 simil> to ! mann] ( build+ a pile ( pap] f sep>ate %eets4 ,! fir/ lay] is deposit$ ov] ! prim>y wall1 =m$ dur+ cell division2 to ?is is add$ ano!r lay]1 etc4 ,a modification ( ?is mann] ( gr[? is t 9 :i* ! lay]s are built up "o ov] ! o!r1 b ! build+ is gradually done by ! deposit ( m9ute p>ticles ( cell-wall sub/ance ov] ! old] deposits4 ,su* walls are nev] /riat$1 z is likely to be ! case 9 cell walls =m$ by ! fir/ me?od4 ,9 o!r cells ! walls are increas$ 9 ?ickness by ! deposition ( new wall mat]ial 9 ! old] membrane4 ,! cell walls w be discuss$ m fully :5 ! diff]5t tissues are /udi$ 9 detail4 ,,indirect ,,cell ,,division 7,,k>yok9esis7 ,! purpose ( cell division is to increase ! numb] ( cells ( a tissue1 an organ1 an organism1 or to increase ! numb] ( organisms1 etc4 ,su* cell divisions involve1 fir/1 an equal division ( ! protopla/ &1 secondly1 ! =mation ( a wall betwe5 ! divid$ protopla/s4 ,! fir/ *anges 9 /ructure ( a cell und]go+ division occur 9 ! nucleus4 ,,*anges ,,9 ,a ,,cell ,,und]go+ ,,division ,! l99 ?reads become ?ick] & %ort]4 ,! *romat9 granules increase 9 size & am\nt2 ! ?reads & *romat9 granules sep>ate into a def9ite numb] ( segm5ts or *romosomes 7,plate #a1 ,fig4 #b74 ,! nucle> membrane becomes inve/$ ) a fibr\s protoplasmic lay] :i* lat] sep>ates & passes into ei!r end ( ! cell1 !re =m+ ! pol> caps 7,plate #a1 ,fig4 #c74 ,! nucle> membrane & ! nucleoli disappe> at ab\t ?is "t4 ,two fibres1 "o f ea* pol> cap1 become atta*$ to opposite sides ( ! individual *romosomes4 ,o!r fibres f ! two pol> caps unite to =m ! sp9dle fibres1 :i* ?us ext5d f pole to pole4 ,all ^! sp9dle fibres =m ! nucle> sp9dle 7,plate #a1 ,fig4 #e74 ,! *romosomes n[ pass t[>d ! division c5tre ( ! cell or equatorial plane & =m1 collectively1 ! equatorial plate 7,plate #a1 ,fig4 #e74 ,at ?is po9t ( cell division1 ! *romosomes are ,u-%ap$1 & ! curv$ "p ( ! *romosomes faces ! equatorial plane4 ,! *romosomes f9ally split into two equal p>ts 7,plate #a1 ,fig4 #f74 ,! actual sep>ation ( ! halves ( *romosomes is br\ght ab\t by ! atta*$ pol> fibres1 :i* contract t[>d ! pol> caps 7,plate #a1 ,fig4 #g74 ,! *romosomes are f9ally drawn to ! pol> caps 7,plate #a1 ,fig4 #h74 ,! *romosomes n[ =m a r\nd$ mass4 ,!y !n sep>ate into l99 ?reads & *romat9 granules4 ,nucleoli reappe>1 & nucle> sap =ms4 ,f9ally1 a nucle> membrane develops4 ,! sp9dle fibres1 :i* /ill ext5d f pole to pole1 become ?ick5$ at ! equatorial plane 7,plate #a1 ,fig4 #h71 & f9ally _! edges become unit$ to =m ! cell-plate 7,plate #a1 ,fig4 #i71 :i* ext5ds across ! cell1 ?us completely sep>at+ ! "m cell into two daught] cells4 ,aft] ! =mation ( ! cell-plate1 ! sp9dle fibres disappe>4 ,! cell becomes modifi$ to =m ! middle lamella1 on ei!r side ( :i* ! daught] protopla/ adds a cellulose lay]4 ,! ultimate composition ( ! middle lamella & ! composition & /ructure ( ! cell wall w diff] accord+ to ! function :i* ! cell w f9ally p]=m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #a ,n9e figures1 %[+ /ages 9 ! cell-division common to ! onion root 7,allium cepa1 ,l47 ,,orig9 ,,( ,,multicellul> ,,plants ,all multicellul> plants are built up by ! repeat$ cell division ( "o orig9al cell4 ,if ! cells =m$ are simil> 9 /ructure & function1 !y =m a tissue4 ,9 multicellul> plants _m diff]5t k9ds ( tissues w be =m$ z a result ( cell division1 s9ce !re are _m diff]5t functions to be p]=m$ by su* an organism4 ,:5 sev]al ( ^! tissues become associat$ & _! functions are correlat$1 !y =m an organ4 ,! association ( sev]al organs 9 "o =m makes an organism4 ,! oak-tree is an organism4 ,x is made up ( organs kn[n z fl[]s1 leaves1 /ems1 roots1 etc4 ,ea* ( ^! organs is 9 turn made up ( sev]al k9ds ( tissue4 ,9 "s cases x is difficult to designate a s+le function to an aggregation ( cells 7tissue74 ,9 fact1 a tissue may p]=m diff]5t functions at diff]5t p]iods ( its exi/5ce or x may p]=m two functions at "o & ! same "t2 z an example1 /one cells1 ^: prim>y function is me*anical1 9 _m cases function z /orage tissue4 ,! cells =m+ ! tissues ( ! plant1 9 fact1 %[ great adaptability 9 reg>d to ! function :i* !y p]=m4 ,nev]!less !re is a pr$om9at+ function :i* all tissues p]=m1 & ! /ructure ( ! cells =m+ su* tissues is s uni=m t x is possible to classify !m4 ,! functional classification ( tissues is *os5 = ! purpose ( demon/rat+ ! adaptation ( cell /ructure to cell function4 ,if ! cells p]=m+ a simil> function 9 ! diff]5t plants 7 id5tical 9 numb]1 di/ribution1 =m1 color1 size1 /ructure1 & cell cont5ts1 !re w\ld n be a sci5ce ( hi/ology ^u :i* ! art ( microscopic ph>macognosy is bas$4 ,x may be said1 h[ev]1 ) c]ta9ty1 t ! cells =m+ c]ta9 ( ! tissues ( any giv5 species ( plant w diff] 9 a recognizable degree f cells p]=m+ a simil> function 9 o!r species ( plants4 ,(t5 a tissue is pres5t 9 "o plant b abs5t 9 ano!r4 ,= example1 _m aquatic plants are devoid ( me*anical fibr\s cells4 ,! b>ks ( c]ta9 plants h *>act]i/ic /one cells1 :ile 9 _m o!r b>ks no /one cells occur4 ,_m leaves h *>act]i/ic tri*omes2 o!rs are free f tri*omes1 etc4 ,yet all cells p]=m+ a giv5 function w /ructurally resemble ea* o!r4 ,9 ! pres5t "w ! nucleus & o!r p>ts ( ! liv+ protopla/ w n be consid]$1 = ! reason t ^! p>ts are n 9 a condition suitable = /udy1 because mo/ drugs come to m>ket 9 a dri$ condition1 a condition :i* elim9ates ! possibility ( /udy+ ! protopla/4 ,! g5]al /ructure ( ! cells =m+ ! diff]5t tissues w fir/ be consid]$1 !n _! v>iation1 z se5 9 diff]5t plants1 & f9ally _! functions4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,epid]mis ,,& ,,p]id]m ,! epid]mis & its modifications1 ! hypod]mis & ! p]id]m1 =m ! d]mal or protective out] lay] or lay]s ( ! plant4 ,! epid]mis ( mo/ leaves1 /ems ( h]bs1 se$s1 fruits1 floral organs1 & "y woody /ems consi/s ( a s+le lay] ( cells :i* =m an imp]vi\s out] cov]+1 ) ! exception ( ! /oma4 ,,leaf ,,epid]mis ,! cells ( ! epid]mis v>y 9 size1 9 ?ickness ( ! side & end walls1 9 =m1 9 arrangem5t1 9 "* ( outgr[?s1 9 ! nature ( ! surface deposits1 9 ! "* ( wall--:e!r smoo? or r\gh--& 9 size4 ,9 cross-sections ( ! leaf ! "* ( bo? ! side & end walls is easily /udi$4 ,9 surface sections--! view mo/ frequ5tly se5 9 p[d]s--! side walls are m conspicu\s ?an ! end wall 7,plates #b & #c74 ,?is is s because ! light is consid]ably ret>d$ 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! entire l5g? ( ! side walls1 :ile ! light is ret>d$ only slightly 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! end wall4 ,! light 9 ?is case passes ?r\gh ! wid? 7?ickness7 ( ! wall only4 ,! out] walls ( epid]mal cells are *>act]i/ic only :5 !y are /riat$1 r\gh1 pitt$1 color$1 etc4 ,9 ! majority ( leaves ! out] wall ( ! epid]mal cells is n diagno/ic 9 p[d]s1 or 9 surface sections4 ,! ?ickness ( ! end & side walls ( epid]mal cells diff]s greatly 9 diff]5t plants4 ,z a rule1 leaves ( aquatic & %ade-lov+ plants1 z well z ! leaves ( mo/ h]bs h ?9n] wall$ epid]mal cells ?an h ! leaves ( plants gr[+ 9 soil "u normal conditions1 or ?an h ! leaves ( %rubs & trees4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #b ,,leaf ,,epid]mis #a4 ,uva-ursi 7,arcto/aphylos uva-ursi1 ,l4 ,spr+74 #b4 ,boldus 7,peumus boldus1 ,mol9a74 #c4 ,catnip 7,nepeta cat>ia1 ,l474 #d4 ,digitalis 7,digitalis purpurea1 ,l474 #d-;,a4 ,orig9 ( hair4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #c ,,leaf ,,epid]mis #a4 ,upp] /riat$ epid]mis ( *irata leaf 7,sw]tia *irata1 ,roxb4 ,ham474 #b4 ,gre5 hellebore leaf 7,v]atrum viride1 ,ait474 #c4 ,boldus leaf 7,peumus boldus1 ,mol9a74 #d4 ,"u epid]mis ( ,india s5na 7,cassia angu/ifolia1 ,vahl474 ,! wide/ possible range ( cell-wall ?ickness is !re=e f\nd 9 ! m$ic9al leaves1 because ! m$ic9al leaves are collect$ f aquatic plants1 h]bs1 %rubs1 trees1 etc4 ,! out] wall is always ?ick] ?an ! side walls4 ,ev5 ! side walls v>y 9 ?ickness 9 "s leaves1 ! wall next to ! epid]mis be+ ?ick] ?an ! l[] or inn]mo/ portion ( ! wall4 ,frequ5tly ! out]mo/ "p ( ! side walls is unequally ?ick5$4 ,?is is ! case 9 ! bead$ side walls *>act]i/ic ( ! epid]mis ( ! leaves ( laurus1 myrcia1 boldus1 & capsicum se$1 etc4 ,! ?ickness ( ! side walls ( ! epid]mal cells ( mo/ leaves v>ies 9 ! diff]5t leaves4 ,9 mo/ leaves !re are five typical =ms ( arrangem5t ( epid]mal cells3 ,fir/1 ^? ov] ! ve9s :i* are elongat$ 9 ! direction ( ! l5g? ( ! leaf2 &1 secondly1 ^? on o!r p>ts ( ! leaf :i* are usually sev]al-sid$ & n elongat$ 9 any "o direction4 ,if ! epid]mis ( ! leaf has /oma1 !n !re is a ?ird type ( arrangem5t ( ! epid]mal cells ar\nd ! /oma2 f\r?ly1 ! cells surr\nd+ ! base ( hairs2 & fif?ly1 outgr[?s ( ! epid]mis1 non-gl&ul> & gl&ul> hairs1 etc4 ,x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t 9 ea* species ( plant ! five types ( arrangem5t are *>act]i/ic = ! species4 ,! "* ( ! out] wall ( ! epid]mal cells diff]s greatly 9 diff]5t plants4 ,9 mo/ cases ! wall is smoo?2 s5na is an example ( su* leaves4 ,9 c]ta9 o!r leaves ! wall is r\gh1 ! r\ghness be+ 9 ! =m ( /riations4 ,9 "s cases ! /riations occur 9 a regul> mann]2 belladonna leaf is typical ( su* leaves4 ,9 o!r in/ances ! wall is /riat$ 9 an irregul> mann] z %[n 9 *irata epid]mis4 ,v (t5 an epid]mis is r\gh1 b ! r\ghness is n due to /riations4 ,9 ^! cases ! epid]mis is unev5ly ?ick5$1 ! ?9 places appe>+ z slight depressions1 ! ?ick places z slight elevations4 ,boldus has a r\gh1 b n a /riat$ surface4 ,surface deposits are n ( common occurr5ce 9 m$ic9al plants2 waxy deposits occur on ! /em ( sumac1 on a species ( raspb]ry1 on ! fruit ( bayb]ry1 etc4 ,res9\s deposits occur on ! leaves & /ems ( gr9delia species1 & on y]ba santa4 ,9 c]ta9 leaves !re are two or ?ree lay]s ( cells b5ea? ! epid]mis t are simil> 9 /ructure to ! epid]mal cells4 ,^! are call$ hypod]mal cells1 & !y function 9 ! same way z ! epid]mal cells4 ,hypod]mal cells are v likely to occur on ! m>g9 ( ! leaf4 ,uva-ursi leaf has a /ructure typical ( leaves ) hypod]mal m>g9al cells4 ,uva-ursi1 l o!r leaves ) hypod]mal cells has a great] numb] ( hypod]mal cells at ! leaf m>g9 ?an at any o!r "p ( ! leaf surface4 ,! cut9iz$ walls ( epid]mal cells are /a9$ r$ ) saffran94 ,,te/a ,,epid]mis ,te/a epid]mal cells =m ! epid]mal lay]s ( su* se$s z lobelia1 h5bane1 capsicum1 paprika1 l>kspur1 belladonna1 scopola1 etc4 ,9 surface view ! end walls are ?ick & wavy 9 outl9e2 frequ5tly ! l9e ( union--middle lamella--( two cells is indicat$ by a d>k or light l9e1 :ile 9 o!rs ! wall betwe5 two cells appe>s z a s+le wall4 ,! walls are por\s or non-por\s1 & ! color ( ! wall v>ies f yell[ to br[n1 to colorless4 ,^! cells always occur 9 masses1 compos$ p>tially ( entire & p>tially ( brok5 fragm5ts4 ,9 lobelia se$ 7,plate #d1 ,fig4 #b7 ! l9e ( union ( adjac5t cell walls appe>s z a d>k l9e4 ,! walls are wavy 9 outl9e1 ( a yell[i%-r$ color & n por\s4 ,9 h5bane se$ 7,plate #d1 ,fig4 #c7 ! l9e ( union betwe5 ! cells is sc>cely visible2 ! walls are decid$ly wavy1 m s ?an 9 lobelia1 & no pits are visible4 ,9 capsicum se$ 7,plate #d1 ,fig4 #a7 ! cells are v wavy & decid$ly por\s1 ! l9e ( union betwe5 ! cell walls be+ m>k$ ) irregul> spaces & l9es4 ,9 belladonna se$ 7,plate #e1 ,fig4 #a7 ! walls betwe5 two adjac5t cells are non-/riat$ & non-por\s1 & extremely irregul> 9 outl9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #d ,,te/a ,,epid]mal ,,cells #a4 ,capsicum se$ 7,capsicum frutesc5s1 ,l474 #b4 ,lobelia se$ 7,lobelia inflata1 ,l474 #c4 ,h5bane se$ 7,hyoscyamus nig]1 ,l474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #e ,,te/a ,,cells #a4 ,belladonna se$ 7,atropa belladonna1 ,l474 #b4 ,/>-anise$ 7,illicium v]um1 ,hook]74 #c4 ,/ramonium se$ 7,datura /ramonium1 ,l474 ,9 />-anise se$ 7,plate #e1 ,fig4 #b7 ! walls are irregul>ly ?ick5$ & wavy 9 outl9e4 ,9 /ramonium se$ 7,plate #e1 ,fig4 #c7 ! walls are v ?ick1 wavy 9 outl9e1 & /riat$4 ,,plant ,,hairs 7,,tri*omes7 ,9 hi/ological "w plant hairs are ( great importance1 z !y (f] a ready means ( di/+ui%+ & diff]5tiat+ betwe5 plants1 or p>ts ( plants1 :5 !y occur 9 a brok5 or f9ely p[d]$ condition4 ,!re is no o!r elem5t 9 p[d]$ drugs :i* is ( s great a diagno/ic value z ! plant hair4 ,! same plant w always h ! same type ( hair1 ! only noticeable v>iation be+ 9 ! size4 ,9 microscopical drug analysis ! pres5ce ( hairs is always not$1 & 9 _m cases ! purity ( ! p[d] c be asc]ta9$ f ! hairs4 ,botani/s seem to h giv5 little att5tion to ! /udy ( plant hairs4 ,?is acc\nts = ! fact t in=mation conc]n+ !m is v meagre 9 botanical lit]ature1 &1 z f> z ! au?or c le>n1 no "o has attempt$ to classify !m4 ,9 sy/ematic "w1 plant hairs c\ld be us$ to great advantage 9 sep>at+ g5]a & ev5 species4 ,hairs are1 ( c\rse1 a factor n[ 9 sy/ematic "w4 ,! lack ( hairs is indicat$ by ! t]m glabr\s4 ,_! pres5ce is indicat$ by su* t]ms z hispid1 vill\s1 etc4 ,9 c]ta9 cases ! t]m indicates position ( ! hair z ciliate :5 ! hair is m>g9al4 ,:5 hairs influ5ce ! color ( ! leaf1 su* t]ms z c9]\s & canesc5t are us$4 ,9 all ! cases cit$ no m5tion is made ( ! real nature ( ! hair4 ,9 sy/ematic "w1 z 9 ph>macognosy1 we mu/ "w ) dri$ mat]ial1 & x is only ^? hairs :i* reta9 _! =m "u su* conditions :i* are ( classification value4 ,hairs are ! mo/ common outgr[?s ( ! epid]mal cells4 ,!y are classifi$ z gl&ul> or non-gl&ul>1 accord+ to _! /ructure & function4 ,! gl&ul> hairs w be consid]$ "u syn!tic tissue4 ,ea* gr\p is aga9 subdivid$ into a numb] ( second>y gr\ps1 dep5d+ ^u ! numb] ( cells pres5t1 _! =m1 _! arrangem5t1 _! size1 _! color1 ! "* ( _! walls1 :e!r r\gh or smoo?1 :e!r bran*$ or non-bran*$1 :e!r curv$1 twi/$1 /raight1 or twi/$ & /raight1 :e!r po9t$1 blunt1 or =k$4 ,,=ms ,,( ,,hairs ,,papill ,papill are epid]mal cells :i* are ext5d$ outw>d 9 ! =m ( small tubul> outgr[?s4 ,papill occur on ! foll[+ p>ts ( ! plant3 fl[]-petals1 /igmas1 /yles1 leaves1 /ems1 se$s1 & fruits4 ,papill occur on only a few ( ! m$ic9al leaves4 ,! "u surface ( bo? ,truxillo 7,plate #f1 ,fig4 #c7 & ,huanuca coca h v small papill4 ,! out]mo/ wall ( ^! papill are mu* ?ick] ?an ! side walls4 ,! papill ( klip bu*u 7,plate #f1 ,fig4 #d71 an adult]ant ( true bu*u1 has l>ge ?ick-wall$ papill4 ,! velvety appe>ance ( mo/ fl[]-petals 7,plate #f1 ,figs4 #b & #e7 is due to ! pres5ce ( papill4 ,! papill ( fl[]-petals are v v>iable4 ,9 cal5dula fl[]s 7,plate #f1 ,fig4 #a7 !y are small1 yell[i% 9 color1 & ! out] wall is m>k$ ) p>allel /riations :i* appe> z small tee? 9 cross-section4 ,! ray petal papill ( an!mis consi/ ( r l>ge1 broad1 blunt papill ) slightly /riat$ walls4 ,! papill ( ! ray petals ( ! :ite daisy consi/ ( papill :i* h m$ium siz$1 cone-%ap$ papill ) f9ely /riat$ walls4 ,! papill ( ! fl[] /igma v>y greatly 9 diff]5t fl[]s4 ,9 "s cases two or m types ( papill occur1 b ev5 9 ^! cases ! papill are *>act]i/ic ( ! species4 ,! papill diff] greatly 9 ! case ( ! fl[]s ( ! composit1 :]e two types ( fl[]s are normally pres5t--namely1 ! ray fl[]s & ! disk fl[]s4 ,9 all cases obs]v$ ! papill ( ! /igma ( ! ray fl[]s are always small] ?an ! papill ( ! /igma ( ! disk fl[]s4 ,x w\ld appe> f ext5d$ obs]vation t ! papill ( ! ray fl[] /igma are be+ gradually abort$4 ,! papill ( ! /yle are always diff]5t f ! papill ( ! /igma4 ,! /yle papill are always small]1 & !y are ( a diff]5t =m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #f ,,papill #a4 ,cal5dula fl[]s 7,cal5dula (fic9alis1 ,l474 #b4 ,:ite daisy ray fl[] 7,*rysan!mum leucan!mum1 ,l474 #c4 ,coca leaf 7,ery?roxylon coca1 ,lam>ck74 #d4 ,klip bu*u4 #e4 ,an!mis ray petal 7,an!mis nobilis1 ,l474 ,,unicellul> ,,non-,,gl&ul> ,,hairs ,true plant hairs are tubul> outgr[?s ( ! epid]mal cell1 ! l5g? ( ^! outgr[?s be+ sev]al times ! wid? ( ! hair4 ,! unicellul> hairs are common to _m plants4 ,! two gr\ps ( non-gl&ul> unicellul> hairs are1 fir/1 ! solit>y2 & secondly1 ! clu/]$ hairs4 ,solit>y unicellul> hairs occur on ! leaves ( *e/nut1 y]ba santa1 lobelia1 cannabis indica1 ! fruit ( anise1 & ! /em ( allspice1 s5na1 & c[age4 ,*e/nut hairs 7,plate #g1 ,fig4 #a7 h smoo? yell[i%-color$ walls1 & ! cell cavity conta9s r$di%-br[n tann94 ,^! hairs occur solit>y or clu/]$2 ! clu/]$ hairs normally occur on ! leaf1 b 9 p[d]+ ! drug1 individual hairs ( ! clu/] become sep>at$ or solit>y4 ,y]ba santa hairs 7,plate #g1 ,fig4 #d7 are twi/$1 ! lum5 or cell cavity is v small1 & ! walls1 :i* are v ?ick1 are grayi%-:ite4 ,lobelia hairs 7,plate #g1 ,fig4 #e7 are v l>ge4 ,! walls are grayi%-:ite1 & ! out] surface ext5ds 9 ! =m ( small elevations :i* make ! hair v r\gh4 ,! hair tap]s gradually to a solid po9t4 ,cannabis indica hairs 7,plate #g1 ,fig4 #f7 are curv$4 ,! apex tap]s to a po9t & ! base is broad1 & x frequ5tly conta9s deposits ( calcium c>bonate4 ,! walls are grayi%-:ite 9 appe>ance1 & r\gh4 ,! r\ghness increases t[>d ! apex4 ,! hairs ( anise 7,plate #g1 ,fig4 #g7 are mo/ly curv$2 ! walls are ?ick1 yell[i%-:ite1 & ! out] surface is r\gh2 ?is is due to ! num]\s slight c5trifugal projections ( ! out] wall4 ,allspice /em hairs 7,plate #g1 ,fig4 #b7 h smoo? walls4 ,! cell cavity is r$di%-br[n4 ,! hair is curv$4 ,! hair ( s5na 7,plate #g1 ,fig4 #aj7 is light gre5i%-yell[ ) r\gh papillose walls4 ,! hair is usually curv$ & tap]+1 & x does n h any *>act]i/ic cell cont5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #g ,,unicellul> ,,solit>y ,,hairs #a4 ,*e/nut leaf 7,ca/anea d5tata1 ,m>% ,borkh74 #b4 ,allspice /ems 7,pim5to1 (fic9alis1 ,l9dl474 #c4 ,c[age4 #d4 ,y]ba santa 7,eriodictyon cali=nicum1 ,h4 & ,a4 ,gre5e74 #e4 ,lobelia 7,lobelia inflata1 ,l474 #f4 ,cannabis indica 7,cannabis saliva1 ,l474 #g4 ,anise fruit 7,pimp9ella anisum1 ,l474 #h4 ,hesp]is matronalis 7,hesp]is matronalis1 ,l474 #i4 ,galphimia glauca 7,galphimia glauca1 ,cav474 #aj4 ,s5na 7,cassia angu/ifolia1 ,vahl474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #h ,,clu/]$ ,,unicellul> ,,hairs #a4 & #b4 ,european oak 7,qu]cus infectoria1 ,olivi]74 #c4 ,kamala 7,mallotus philipp95sis1 ,lam4 ,muell4 ,arg474 #d4 ,wit*-hazel leaf 7,hamamelis virg9iana1 ,l474 #e4 ,al!a leaf 7,al?a (fic9alis1 ,l474 ,c[age hairs 7,plate #g1 ,fig4 #c7 are lance-%ap$1 & !y t]m9ate 9 a %>p po9t4 ,! out] wall conta9s num]\s recurv$ tee?-l projections4 ,! cell cavity is fill$ ) a r$di%-br[n cont5ts :i* are some:at fissur$4 ,clu/]$ unicellul> hairs occur on ! leaves ( *e/nut1 wit*-hazel1 al!a1 ,european oak1 etc4 ,9 ,european oak 7,plate #h1 ,figs4 #a & #b7 clu/]s ( two & ?ree hairs occur4 ,! walls are yell[i%-:ite1 smoo?1 & ! tip ( ! hair is solid4 ,9 kamala 7,plate #h1 ,fig4 #c7 clu/]s ( sev5 or m hairs occur2 ! walls are yell[i%1 & ! cell cavity is r$di%-br[n4 ,9 wit*-hazel leaf 7,plate #h1 ,fig4 #d7 clu/]s ( a v>iable numb] ( hairs occur4 ,! hairs1 :i* are ( v>i\s l5g?s1 h yell[i%-:ite1 ?ick1 smoo? walls1 & r$di% cell cont5ts4 ,9 al!a leaf 7,plate #h1 ,fig4 #e7 ! hairs are ne>ly /raight & ! walls are smoo?4 ,! basal portions ( ! hair are /rongly pitt$4 ,bran*$ solit>y unicellul> hairs occur on ! leaves ( hesp]is matronalis 7,plate #g1 ,fig4 #h71 & on galphimia glauca 7,plate #g1 ,fig4 #i74 ,! hair ( hesp]is matronalis has smoo? walls1 & ! two bran*es gr[ out ne>ly p>allel to ! leaf surface4 ,! hair ( galphimia glauca has r\gh walls1 & ! two bran*es gr[ upw>d 9 a bifurcat+ mann]4 ,,multicellul> ,,hairs ,multicellul> hairs are divid$ into ! unis]iate & ! multis]iate hairs4 ,bo? ( ^! gr\ps are divid$ into ! bran*$ & ! non-bran*$ hairs1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,unis]iate4 7,a7 ,non-bran*$4 7,b7 ,bran*$4 #b4 ,multis]iate4 7,a7 ,non-bran*$4 7,b7 ,bran*$4 ,multicellul> unis]iate non-bran*$ hairs occur on ! leaves ( digitalis1 ,we/]n & ,ea/]n skullcap1 pepp]m9t1 ?yme1 y>r[1 arnica fl[]s1 & sumac fruit4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #i ,,multicellul> ,,unis]iate ,,non-,,bran*$ ,,hairs #a4 ,digitalis leaf 7,digitalis purpurea1 ,l474 #b4 ,arnica fl[] 7,arnica montana1 ,l474 #c4 ,we/]n skullcap plant 7,scutell>ia canesc5s1 ,nutt474 #d4 ,ea/]n skullcap plant 7,scutell>ia lat]iflora1 ,l474 #e4 ,pepp]m9t leaf 7,m5?a pip]ita1 ,l474 #f4 ,?yme leaf 7,?ymus vulg>is1 ,l474 #g4 ,y>r[ fl[]s 7,a*illea millefolium1 ,l474 #h4 ,wormwood leaf 7,artemisia abs9?ium1 ,l474 #i4 ,sumac fruit 7,rhus glabra1 ,l474 ,digitalis hairs 7,plate #i1 ,fig4 #a7 are made up ( a v>y+ numb] ( unis]iate-arrang$ cells ( unequal l5g?1 frequ5tly plac$ at "r angles to ! cells above & bel[2 ! walls are ( a :iti% color1 & are r\gh or smoo?4 ,ea/]n skullcap 7,plate #i1 ,fig4 #d7 has hairs ) n m ?an f\r cells2 ^! hairs are curv$1 & ! walls are :iti%1 sometimes smoo?1 b usually r\gh4 ,9 ,we/]n skullcap 7,plate #i1 ,fig4 #c7 ! hairs h sometimes z _m z sev5 cells4 ,! walls are :ite & r\gh1 & ! individual cells ( ! hair are mu* l>g] ?an are ! cells ( ! hairs ( true skullcap4 ,pepp]m9t 7,plate #i1 ,fig4 #e7 has f "o to eight cells4 ,! hair is curv$1 & ! walls are v r\gh4 ,?yme 7,plate #i1 ,fig4 #f7 has %ort1 ?ick1 r\gh-wall$ tri*omes1 ! t]m9al cell usually be+ b5t at ne>ly "r angles to ! o!r cells4 ,y>r[ hairs 7,plate #i1 ,fig4 #g7 h a v>iable numb] ( cells4 ,9 all ! hairs ! basal cells are %ort & broad1 :ile ! t]m9al cell is greatly elongat$4 ,arnica hairs 7"o =m1 ,plate #i1 ,fig4 #b7 h frequ5tly z _m z f\r cells1 ! t]m9al cell be+ long] ?an ! basal cells4 ,! walls are :ite & smoo?4 ,sumac-fruit hairs 7,plate #i1 ,fig4 #i7 h sp9dle-%ap$1 r$di%-color$ hairs4 ,multicellul> multis]iate non-bran*$ hairs occur on cum9 fruit & on ! tubul> "p ( ! corolla ( cal5dula4 ,! hairs on cum9 fruit v>y consid]ably 9 size4 ,all ! hairs are spread+ at ! base & blunt or r\nd$ at ! apex4 ,! cells =m+ ! hair are n>r[ & ! walls are ?ick4 ,?ree diff]5tly siz$ hairs are %[n 9 ,plate #aj1 ,fig4 #a4 ,! hairs ( ! base ( ! ligulate petals ( cal5dula 7,plate #aj1 ,fig4 #b7 are bis]iate4 ,! hairs are v long & ! walls are v ?94 ,multicellul> unis]iate bran*$ hairs occur on ! leaves ( dittany ( ,crete1 mull51 & on ! calyx ( lav5d] fl[]s4 ,! dittany ( ,crete 7,plate #aa1 ,fig4 #c7 hair is smoo?-wall$1 & ! bran*es are alt]nate4 ,9 mull5 7,plate #aa1 ,fig4 #a7 ! hairs h :orl$ bran*es1 ! walls are smoo?1 & ! cell cavity usually conta9s air4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #aj ,,multicellul> ,,multis]iate ,,non-,,bran*$ ,,hairs #a4 ,cum9 7,cum9um cym9um1 ,l474 #b4 ,m>igold 7,cal5dula (fic9alis1 ,l474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #aa ,,multicellul> ,,unis]iate ,,bran*$ ,,hairs #a4 ,mull5 leaf 7,v]bascum ?apsus1 ,l474 #b4 ,lav5d] fl[]s 7,lav&ula v]a1 ,d4 ,c474 #c4 ,dittany ( ,crete 7,origanum dictamnus1 ,l474 ,! lav5d] hairs 7,plate #aa1 ,fig4 #b7 h mo/ly opposite bran*es1 & ! walls are r\gh4 ,?us ! multicellul> bran*$ hairs may be divid$ into subgr\ps :i* h alt]nate1 opposite1 :orl$1 or 9 c]ta9 hairs irregul>ly arrang$ bran*es4 ,ea* class may be aga9 subdivid$ accord+ to color1 "* ( cell t]m9ation1 etc41 z cit$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! *apt]4 ,occasionally multicellul> hairs assume ! =m ( a %ield 7,plate #ab1 ,fig4 #a72 9 su* cases ! hair is t]m$ peltate1 z 9 ! non-gl&ul> multicellul> hair ( %eph]dia canad5sis4 ,hairs gr[ out f ! surface ( ! epid]mis 9 a p]p5dicul>1 a p>allel1 or 9 an oblique direction4 ,hairs :i* gr[ p>allel or oblique to ! surface are usually curv$1 & ! out] curv$ "p ( ! wall is usually ?ick] ?an ! inn] curv$ wall4 ,! mature hairs ( "s plants consi/ ( dead cells4 ,9 o!r plants ! cells =m+ ! hair are liv+4 ,:5 dri$1 ^? hairs1 :i* 7 dead be=e dry+1 conta9 air2 :ile ^? hairs :i* 7 liv+ be=e dry+1 %[ great v>iation 9 color & 9 ! nature ( ! cell cont5ts4 ,! cont5ts are ei!r organic or inorganic4 ,! commone/ organic con/itu5t is dri$ protoplasm4 ,9 cannabis indica are deposits ( calcium c>bonate4 ,multicellul> multis]iate bran*$ hairs are ! ultimate division ( ! pappus ( erig]on1 aromatic gold5rod1 arnica1 gr9delia1 boneset1 & life-ev]la/+4 ,! hairs ( erig]on 7,plate #ac1 ,figs4 #a & #b7 are sl5d]2 ! walls are por\s4 ,ea* hair t]m9ates 9 two cells1 :i* are greatly ext5d$ & %>p-po9t$2 ! bran*es f ! basal "p ( ! hairs 7,plate #ac1 ,fig4 #a7 are ( ab\t ! same l5g? z ! apical bran*es4 ,! hairs ( aromatic gold5rod 7,plate #ac1 ,figs4 #c & #d7 are l>g] ?an ^? ( erig]on2 ! diamet] is great] & ! walls are non-por\s4 ,! apex ( ! hair t]m9ates 9 a gr\p ( ab\t f\r cells ( unequal l5g?1 :i* are %>p-po9t$4 ,! bran*es ( ! basal cells 7,plate #ac1 ,fig4 #c7 are simil> to ! bran*es ( ! apical cells4 ,! hairs ( arnica 7,plate #ad1 ,figs4 #a & #b7 h ?ick1 /rongly por\s walls2 ! bran*es t]m9ate 9 %>p po9ts4 ,! apex ( ! hair t]m9ates 9 a s+le cell4 ,! basal bran*es 7,plate #ad1 ,fig4 #b7 are mu* long] ?an special bran*es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ab ,,non-,,gl&ul> ,,multicellul> ,,hairs ,%eph]dia canad5sis1 ,l4 ,nutt4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ac ,,multicellul> ,,multis]iate ,,bran*$ ,,hairs #a4 ,basal hairs ( erig]on 7,erig]on canad5sis1 ,l474 #b4 ,apical hairs ( erig]on 7,erig]on canad5sis1 ,l474 #c4 ,basal hairs ( aromatic gold5rod 7,solidago odora1 ,ait474 #d4 ,apical hairs ( aromatic gold5rod 7,solidago odora1 ,ait474 ,! hair ( gr9delia 7,plate #ad1 ,figs4 #c & #d7 has v ?ick walls ) num]\s elongat$ pores4 ,! apex ( ! hair t]m9ates 9 a clu/] ( cells ) %ort1 free1 %>p-po9t$ ends4 ,! basal bran*es 7,plate #ad1 ,fig4 #d7 are long] ?an ! apical bran*es4 ,boneset hair 7,plate #ae1 ,figs4 #a & #b7 has non-por\s walls4 ,! apex ( ! hair t]m9ates 9 two blunt-po9t$ cells4 ,! t]m9al wall is ?ick] ?an ! side wall4 ,"s ( ! bran*es l[] d[n t]m9ate 9 cells ) v ?ick or solid po9ts4 ,! basal bran*es 7,plate #ae1 ,fig4 #a7 are long]1 b ! cells are n>r[] & m /rongly tap]+ ?an are ! bran*es ( ! apical "p ( ! hair4 ,life-ev]la/+ 7,plate #ae1 ,figs4 #c & #d7 has uni=mly ?ick5$ b non-por\s walls4 ,! hair t]m9ates 9 two blunt-po9t$1 greatly elongat$ cells4 ,! basal bran*es 7,plate #ae1 ,fig4 #d7 are n>r[]1 slightly tap]+1 & ! base ( ! bran*es frequ5tly curve d[nw>d4 ,! cell cavities ( ^! hairs are fill$ ) air4 ,! walls ( hairs are compos$ ( cut91 ( lign91 & ( cellulose4 ,,p]id]m ,! p]id]m is ! out] protective cov]+ ( ! /ems & roots ( mature %rubs & trees4 ,! p]id]m replaces ! epid]mis4 ,! p]id]m may be compos$ ( cork cells1 /one cell-cork1 or a mixture ( cork1 p>5*yma1 fibres1 /one cells1 etc4 ,,cork ,,p]id]m ,! typical p]id]m is made up ( cork cells4 ,cork cells v>y 9 appe>ance1 accord+ to ! "p ( ! cell view$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ad ,,multicellul> ,,multis]iate ,,bran*$ ,,hairs #a4 ,apical hairs arnica 7,arnica montana1 ,l474 #b4 ,basal hairs arnica 7,arnica montana1 ,l474 #c4 ,apical hairs gr9delia 7,gr9delia squ>rosa1 ,pur% ,dunal74 #d4 ,basal hairs gr9delia 7,gr9delia squ>rosa1 ,pur% ,dunal74 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ae ,,multicellul> ,,multis]iate ,,bran*$ ,,hairs #a4 ,apical hairs boneset 7,eupatorium p]foliatum1 ,l474 #b4 ,basal hairs boneset 7,eupatorium p]foliatum1 ,l474 #c4 ,apical hairs life-ev]la/+ 7,gnaphalium obtusifolium1 ,l474 #d4 ,basal hairs life-ev]la/+ 7,gnaphalium obtusifolium1 ,l474 ,on surface view 7,plate #af1 ,fig4 ,a7 ! cork cells are angl$ 9 outl9e & are made up ( f f\r to sev5 side walls2 five- & six-sid$ cells are m common ?an ! f\r-& sev5-sid$ cells4 ,surface sections ( cork cells %[ _! l5g? & wid?4 ,^! side walls usually appe> ne>ly :ite1 :ile ! end wall1 p>ticul>ly ( ! out]mo/ cork cells1 usually appe>s br[n or r$di%-br[n1 or 9 "s cases ne>ly black4 ,cork cells on cross-section are rectangul> 9 =m1 & !y are arrang$ 9 sup]impos$ r[s1 ! numb] ( r[s be+ gradually increas$ z ! plant gr[s old]4 ,su* an increase 9 ! numb] ( r[s ( cork cells is %[n 9 ! cross-section ( casc>a sagrada 7,plate #af1 ,fig4 ,c74 ,cork cells fit toge!r s closely t !re is no int]cellul> spaces betwe5 ! cells4 ,9 ?is case two r[s ( cork cells occupy no great] space ?an ! solit>y r[ ( cork cells imm$iately ov] & ext]nal to !m4 ,z a rule1 ! out]mo/ lay]s ( cork cells h a n>r[] radial diamet] ?an ! cork cells ( ! und]ly+ lay]s4 ,?is is due to ! fact t ^! out] cells are /ret*$ z ! /em increases 9 diamet]4 ,?is view %[s ! height ( cork cells1 b n always ! l5g?1 :i* w1 ( c\rse1 v>y accord+ to ! "p ( ! cell cut across4 ,9 a section a few millimet]s 9 diamet]1 h[ev]1 all ! v>iations 9 size may be obs]v$4 ,! color ( ! walls is ne>ly :ite4 ,! cavity may conta9 tann9 or o!r sub/ances4 ,:5 tann9 is pres5t1 ! cavity is ( a br[ni% or br[ni%-r$ color1 or x may be ne>ly black4 ,mo/ b>ks appe> devoid ( any color$ or colorless cell cont5ts4 ,! radial section 7,plate #af1 ,fig4 ,b7 ( cork cells %[s ! height ( ! cells & ! wid? ( ! cells at ! po9t cut across4 ,"s cells w be cut across _! longe/ diamet]1 :ile o!rs w be cut across _! %orte/ diamet]4 ,cork cells are1 !re=e1 small] 9 radial section ?an !y are 9 cross-section4 ,! color ( ! walls is :ite1 & ! color & nature ( ! cell cont5ts v>y = ! same reasons t !y v>y 9 cross-sections4 ,! numb] ( lay]s ( cork cells occurr+ 9 cross- & radial-sections v>ies accord+ to ! age ( ! plant1 to ! type ( plant1 & to ! conditions "u :i* ! plant is gr[+4 ,! numb] ( lay]s ( cork cells is n ( diagno/ic importance1 nor is ! surface view ( cork cells diagno/ic except 9 c]ta9 isolat$ cases4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #af ,,p]id]m ,,( ,,casc>a ,,sagrada 7,rhamnus pur%iana1 ,d4,c47 ,a4 #a1 ,outl9e ( cork cells2 #b1 ,l9e ( contact ( adjo9+ cork cells4 ,b4 ,radial longitud9al section ( casc>a sagrada4 #a1 ,cork cells2 #b1 ,phellog52 #c1 ,=m+ p>5*yma cells2 #d1 ,cortical p>5*yma cells4 ,c4 ,cross-section ( casc>a sagrada4 #a1 ,cork cells2 #b1 ,phellog52 #c1 ,=m+ p>5*yma cells2 #d1 ,cortical p>5*yma cells4 ,! pres5ce or abs5ce ( cork or epid]mal tissue 9 p[d]s mu/ always be not$4 ,! pres5ce ( cork enables "o to di/+ui% ,spani% f ,russian licorice4 ,9 l mann]1 ! pres5ce ( epid]mis enables "o to di/+ui% ! ph>macopial f ! un(ficial peel$ calamus4 ,! abs5ce ( epid]mis 9 ,jamaica g+] is "o ( ! means by :i* ?is v>iety is di/+ui%$ f ! o!r v>ieties ( g+]1 etc4 ,9 canella alba ! p]id]m is replac$ by /one cell-cork4 ,t is1 ! cells =m+ ! p]id]m are ( a typical cork %ape1 b ! walls are lignifi$1 unequally ?ick5$1 & ! inn] or ?ick] walls are /rongly por\s1 & ! walls are ( a yell[i% color4 ,/one cell-cork =ms ! p]id]m ( clove b>k also1 b ! cells are n>r[] & long]1 & ! inn] wall is n s ?ick or por\s z is ! case 9 canella alba b>k4 ,,/one ,,cell ,,p]id]m ,9 canella alba 7,plate #ag1 ,fig4 ,b7 cork p]id]m is frequ5tly replac$ by /one cells1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! old] b>ks4 ,^! /one cells =m ! p]id]m because !y replace ! cork p]id]m1 :i* fissures & scales (f z ! root increases 9 diamet]4 ,! side & end walls ( cork cells are ( ne>ly uni=m diamet]4 ,exceptions occur1 b !y are n common4 ,9 bu*u /em 7,plate #aja1 ,fig4 #c71 ! cork cells h ?ick out] walls1 b ?9 sides & inn] walls4 ,! cell cavity conta9s r$di%-br[n deposits ( tann94 ,,p>5*yma ,,& ,,/one ,,cell ,,p]id]m ,z ! trees & %rubs increase 9 diamet]1 cracks or fissures occur 9 ! p]id]m1 or corky lay]4 ,9 su* cases ! phellog5 cells divide & r$ivide 9 su* mann] z to cut (f a portion ( ! p>5*yma cells1 /one cells1 & fibres ( ! cortex :i* is inside ( & bel[ ! fissure4 ,all ! p>5*yma cells1 etc41 ext]ior to ! newly =m$ cork cells soon lose _! liv+-cell cont5ts1 s9ce _! food-supply is cut (f by ! imp]vi\s walls ( ! cork cells4 ,9 "t !y are =c$ outw>d by ! develop+ cork cells until !y p>tially or completely fill ! break 9 ! p]id]m4 ,9 :ite oak b>k 7,plate #ah71 z 9 o!r b>ks1 a l>ge "p ( ! p]id]m is compos$ ( dead & discolor$ cortical cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ag ,a4 ,cross-section ( ,m&rake ,rhizome 7,podophyllum peltatum1 ,l474 #a4 ,epid]mis4 #b4 ,phellog54 #c4 ,cortical p>5*yma4 ,b4 ,/one cell p]id]m ( :ite c9namon 7,canella alba1 ,murr474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ah ,,p]id]m ,,( ,,:ite ,,oak 7,qu]cus alba1 ,l47 #a4 ,out] lay] ( cork cells4 #b4 ,cortical p>5*yma cells4 #c4 ,/one cells4 #d4 ,phellog54 #e4 ,cortical p>5*yma cells4 ,,orig9 ,,( ,,cork ,,cells ,! cork cells are =m$ by ! m]i/imatic phellog5 cells1 :i* orig9ate f cortical p>5*yma4 ,^! cells divide into two cells1 ! out] *ang+ into a cork cell1 :ile ! inn] cell rema9s m]i/imatic4 ,9 o!r in/ances ! out] cell rema9s m]i/imatic1 :ile ! inn] cell *anges into a cortical p>5*yma cell4 ,! developm5t ( a cortical p>5*yma cell f a divid$ phellog5 cell is %[n 9 ,plate #aja1 ,fig4 #f4 ,bo? ! prim>y & second>y cork cells orig9ate f ! phellog5 or cork cambrium lay]4 ,cork cells d n conta9 liv+-cell cont5ts2 9 fact1 9 ! majority ( m$ic9al b>ks ! cork cells conta9 only air4 ,! walls ( typical cork cells are compos$1 at lea/ 9 "p1 ( sub]91 a sub/ance :i* is imp]vi\s to wat] & gases4 ,9 c]ta9 cases lay]s ( cellulose1 lign91 & sub]9 h be5 id5tifi$4 ,sub]91 h[ev]1 is pres5t 9 all cork cells1 & 9 "s cases all ( ! walls ( cork cells are compos$ ( sub]94 ,sub]iz$ cork cells are color$ yell[ ) /rong sodium hydroxide solutions & by *lorz9ciodide4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,me*anical ,,tissues ,! me*anical tissues ( ! plant =m ! framework ar\nd :i* ! plant body is built up4 ,^! tissues are con/ruct$ & plac$ 9 su* a mann] 9 ! diff]5t organs ( ! plant z to meet ! me*anical ne$s ( ! organ4 ,_m und]gr\nd /ems & roots :i* are subject$ to radial pressure h ! hypod]mal & endod]mal cells arrang$ 9 ! =m ( a non-compressible cyl9d]4 ,su* an arrangem5t is se5 9 s>sap>illa root 7,plate #ch1 ,fig4 #d74 ,! me*anical tissue ( ! /em is arrang$ 9 ! =m ( solid or holl[ columns 9 ord] to su/a9 ! enorm\s weight ( ! bran*es4 ,9 roots ! me*anical tissue is comb9$ 9 ropelike /r&s1 !reby effectively resi/+ pull+ /resses4 ,! epid]mis ( leaves subject$ to ! te>+ =ce ( ! w9d has epid]mal cells ) greatly ?ick5$ walls1 p>ticul>ly at ! m>g9 ( ! leaf4 ,! epid]mal cells ( mo/ se$s h v ?ick & lignifi$ cell walls1 :i* effectively resi/ cru%+ =ces4 ,! cells =m+ me*anical tissues are3 ba/ fibres1 wood fibres1 coll5*yma cells1 /one cells1 te/a epid]mal cells1 & hypod]mal & endod]mal cells ( c]ta9 plants4 ,! walls ( ! cells =m+ me*anical tissues are ?ick & lignifi$1 ) ! exception ( ! coll5*yma cells & a few ( ! fibres4 ,lignifi$ cells are z resi/ive to pull+ & o!r /resses z simil> siz$ fragm5ts ( /eel4 ,! h>dness ( _! wall & _! resi/ance to cru%+ expla9 ! fact t !y usually reta9 _! =m 9 p[d]$ drugs & foods4 ,,ba/ ,,fibres ,"o ( ! mo/ important *>act]s to be kept 9 m9d 9 /udy+ ba/ fibres is ! /ructure ( ! wall4 ,9 fact1 ! au?or's classification ( ba/ fibres is bas$ l>gely on wall /ructure4 ,su* a classification is logical & accurate1 because x is bas$ ^u p]man5t *>act]s4 ,ano!r "* us$ 9 classify+ ba/ fibres is ! nature ( ! cell1 :e!r bran*$ or non-bran*$4 ,9 fact1 ?is latt] "* is us$ to sep>ate all ba/ fibres into two fundam5tal gr\ps--namely1 bran*$ ba/ fibres & non-bran*$ ba/ fibres4 ,! ?ird important "* utiliz$ 9 classify+ fibres is ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( cry/als4 ,ba/ fibres are classifi$ z foll[s3 #a4 ,cry/al be>+4 #b4 ,non-cry/al be>+4 ,! cry/al-be>+ fibres are divid$ into two classes3 #a4 ,( leaves4 #b4 ,( b>ks4 ,! non-cry/al be>+ are divid$ into3 #a4 ,bran*$4 #b4 ,non-bran*$4 ,! bran*$ & non-bran*$ are divid$ into f\r classes3 #a4 ,non-por\s & non-/riat$4 #b4 ,por\s & non-/riat$4 #c4 ,/riat$ & non-por\s4 #d4 ,por\s & /riat$4 ,,cry/al-,,be>+ ,,ba/ ,,fibres ,! cry/al-be>+ fibres are compos$ 7#a7 ( gr\ps ( fibres1 7#b7 ( cry/al cells1 & 7#c7 ( cry/als4 ,9 ^! cases ! gr\ps ( fibres are l>ge1 & !y are frequ5tly completely cov]$ by cry/al cells1 :i* may or may n conta9 a cry/al4 ,! cry/als f\nd on ! fibres f ! diff]5t plants v>y consid]ably 9 size & =m4 ,z a rule1 ! fibres :5 sep>at$ are free ( cry/al cells & cry/als4 ,?is is s because ! cry/al cells are ext]ior to ! fibres1 & 9 sep>at+ ! fibres dur+ ! mill+ process ! cry/al cells are brok5 d[n & remov$ f ! fibres4 ,x is common1 !re=e1 to f9d isolat$ fibres & cry/als associat$ ) ! cry/al-be>+ fibres4 ,! fibres :i* are cry/al-be>+ may be /riat$ or por\s1 etc42 b ow+ to ! fact t ! gr\p+ ( ! fibres & cry/als is s *>act]i/ic1 little or no att5tion is paid to ! /ructure ( ! individual fibres4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ai ,,cry/al-,,be>+ ,,fibres ,,( ,,b>ks #a4 ,frangula 7,rhamnus frangula1 ,l474 #b4 ,casc>a sagrada 7,rhamnus pur%iana1 ,d4,c474 #c4 ,spani% licorice 7,glycyrrhiza glabra1 ,l474 #d4 ,wit*-hazel b>k 7,hamamelis virg9iana1 ,l474 ,cry/al-be>+ fibres occur 9 ! b>ks ( frangula 7,plate #ai1 ,fig4 #a72 casc>a sagrada 7,plate #ai1 ,fig4 #b72 wit*-hazel 7,plate #ai1 ,fig4 #d72 9 cocillana 7,plate #bj1 ,fig4 #a72 9 :ite oak 7,plate #bj1 ,fig4 #b72 9 quebra*o 7,plate #bj1 ,fig4 #c72 & 9 ,spani% licorice root 7,plate #ai1 ,fig4 #c74 ,! cry/al-be>+ fibres ( leaves are always associat$ ) vessels or tra*eids & ) cells ) *lorophyl4 ,! pres5ce or abs5ce ( cry/al-be>+ fibres 9 leaves %\ld always be not$4 ,! cry/al-be>+ fibres ( leaves are compos$ ( fragm5ts ( conduct+ cells1 fibres1 cry/al cells1 & cry/als4 ,! cry/al-be>+ fibres ( leaves occur 9 l>g] fragm5ts ?an ! o!r p>ts ( ! leaf1 because ! fibres are m resi/ant to p[d]+4 ,hav+ obs]v$ t a leaf has cry/al-be>+ fibres1 9 ord] to id5tify ! p[d] x is necess>y to locate "o ( ! o!r diagno/ic elem5ts ( ! leaf--z ! papill ( coca 7,plate #ba1 ,fig4 #a71 or ! hair ( s5na 7,plate #ba1 ,fig4 #c71 or ! vessels 9 eucalyptus 7,plate #ba1 ,fig4 #b74 ,bran*$ ba/ fibres occur 9 only a few ( ! m$ic9al plants1 notable examples be+ tonga root & sassafras root4 ,occasionally "o is f\nd 9 mez]eum b>k4 ,! ba/ fibre ( tonga root 7,plate #bb1 ,fig4 #b7 (t5 has sev5 bran*es1 b f\r- & five-bran*$ =ms are m common4 ,! walls are non-por\s1 non-/riat$1 & ne>ly :ite4 ,! ba/ fibre ( sassafras 7,plate #bb1 ,fig4 #a7 has ?ick1 non-por\s1 & non-/riat$ walls1 & ! bran*+ occurs usually at "o end only ( ! fibre4 ,mo/ ( ! ba/ fibres ( sassafras root are non-bran*$4 ,,por\s ,,& ,,/riat$ ,,ba/ ,,fibres ,por\s & /riat$ wall$ ba/ fibres occur 9 blackb]ry b>k ( root1 wild-*]ry b>k1 & 9 c9*ona b>k4 ,! fibres ( blackb]ry root b>k 7,plate #bc1 ,fig4 #a7 h di/9ctly por\s & /riat$ walls2 ! cavity1 :i* is usually great] ?an ! diamet] ( ! wall1 conta9s />*4 ,^! fibres usually occur z fragm5ts4 ,9 wild-*]ry b>k 7,plate #bc1 ,fig4 #b7 ! fibre has %ort1 ?ick1 unequally ?ick5$ walls1 :i* are por\s & /riat$4 ,mo/ ( ! fibres are unbrok54 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #bj ,,cry/al-,,be>+ ,,fibres ,,( ,,b>ks #a4 ,cocillana 7,gu>ea rusbyi1 ,britton ,rusby74 #b4 ,:ite oak 7,qu]cus alba1 ,l47 #c4 ,quebra*o 7,aspidosp]ma quebra*o-blanco1 ,s*le*t5dal74 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ba ,,cry/al-,,be>+ ,,fibres ,,( ,,leaves #a4 ,coca leaf 7,ery?roxylon coca1 ,lam474 #b4 ,eucalyptus leaf 7,eucalyptus globulus1 ,labill74 #c4 ,s5na leaf 7,cassia angu/ifolia1 ,vahl474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #bb ,,bran*$ ,,ba/ ,,fibres #a4 ,sassafras root b>k 7,sassafras v>iifolium1 ,salisb4 ,kuntze74 #b4 ,tonga root4 ,yell[ c9*ona b>k 7,plate #bc1 ,fig4 #c7 has v ?ick1 prom95tly /riat$ por\s-wall$ fibres1 ) ei!r blunt or po9t$ ends4 ,! cavity is n>r[1 & ! pores are simple or bran*$4 ,,por\s ,,& ,,non-,,/riat$ ,,ba/ ,,fibres ,por\s & non-/riat$ ba/ fibres occur 9 m>%mall[ root & e*9acea root4 ,! fibres ( m>%mall[ 7,plate #bd1 ,fig4 #c7 usually occur 9 fragm5ts4 ,! walls h simple pores1 & ! diamet] ( ! cell cavity is v wide2 ! pores on ! upp] or l[] wall are circul> or oval 9 outl9e 7end view74 ,! ba/ fibres ( e*9acea root 7,plate #bd1 ,fig4 #d7 are seldom brok52 ! walls are yell[1 ! pores are simple & num]\s4 ,! edges & surface ( ! fibres are frequ5tly cov]$ ) a black int]cellul> sub/ance4 ,,non-,,por\s ,,& ,,/riat$ ,,ba/ ,,fibres ,non-por\s & /riat$ ba/ fibres occur 9 elm b>k1 /ill+ia root1 & cundurango b>k4 ,! ba/ fibres ( elm b>k 7,plate #be1 ,fig4 #a7 occur 9 brok51 curv$1 or twi/$ fragm5ts4 ,! c5tral cavity is v small1 & ! walls are longitud9ally /riat$4 ,9 p[d]$ /ill+ia root 7,plate #be1 ,fig4 #b7 ! ba/ fibres are brok51 & ! wall is v ?ick & longitud9ally /riat$4 ,! c5tral cavity is small & usually n visible4 ,ba/ fibres ( cundurango 7,plate #be1 ,fig4 #c7 are brok5 9 ! p[d]4 ,! cavity is v n>r[1 & ! /riations are arrang$ spirally1 less frequ5tly transv]sely4 ,,non-,,por\s ,,& ,,non-,,/riat$ ,,ba/ ,,fibres ,non-por\s & non-/riat$ wall$ ba/ fibres occur 9 mez]eum b>k1 9 ,ceylon c9namon1 9 sassafras root b>k1 & 9 soap b>k4 ,! simple/ non-por\s & non-/riat$ wall$ ba/ fibres are f\nd 9 mez]eum b>k 7,plate #bf1 ,fig4 #d74 ,! individual fibre is v long4 ,x (t5 measures ov] ?ree millimet]s 9 l5g?1 s t 9 ! p[d] ! fibre is usually brok54 ,! wall is non-lignifi$1 :ite1 non-por\s1 & ( uni=m diamet]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #bc ,,por\s ,,& ,,/riat$ ,,ba/ ,,fibres #a4 ,blackb]ry root 7,rubus cuneifolius1 ,pur%474 #b4 ,wild *]ry 7,prunus s]ot9a1 ,ehrh474 #c4 ,yell[ c9*ona 7,c9*ona species74 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #bd ,,por\s ,,& ,,non-,,/riat$ ,,ba/ ,,fibres #a4 ,s>sap>illa root 7,hypod]m71 7,smilax (fic9alis1 ,kun?74 #b4 ,unicorn root 7,endod]m74 #c4 ,m>%mall[ root 7,al?a (fic9alis1 ,l474 #d4 ,e*9acea root 7,e*9acea angu/ifolia1 ,d4 ,c474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #be ,,non-,,por\s ,,& ,,/riat$ ,,ba/ ,,fibres #a4 ,elm b>k 7,ulmus fulva1 ,mi*aux74 #b4 ,/ill+ia root 7,/ill+ia sylvatica1 ,l474 #c4 ,cundurango root b>k 7,m>sd5ia cundurango1 ,triana ,ni*ols74 ,9 ,ceylon c9namon 7,plate #bf1 ,fig4 #b7 ! ba/ fibres measure up to 4#ijj mm4 9 l5g?1 s t 9 p[d]+ ! b>k ! fibre is r>ely brok54 ,^! ba/ fibres1 unlike ! ba/ fibres ( mez]eum1 h ?ick1 :ite walls & a n>r[ cell cavity4 ,bo? ends ( ! fibre tap] gradually to a long1 n>r[ po9t4 ,9 ,saigon c9namon ! ba/ fibres are n z num]\s z !y are 9 ,ceylon c9namon4 ,! individual fibres are ?ick] ?an 9 ,ceylon c9namon1 & ! walls are yell[i% & r\gh & ! ends bluntly po9t$4 ,^! fibres are r>ely ev] free f adh]+ fragm5ts ( p>5*yma tissue4 ,9 sassafras root b>k 7,plate #bf1 ,fig4 #c7 ! fibre has "o ne>ly /raight side--! side 9 contact ) ! o!r ba/ fibres--& an out] side ) a wavy outl9e1 caus$ by ! fibre's press+ aga9/ p>5*yma cells1 ! po9t ( highe/ elevation be+ ! po9t ( ! fibre's gr[? into ! int]cellul> space betwe5 two cells4 ,! out] "p ( ! wall tap]s gradually at ei!r end to a %>p po9t4 ,! walls are :ite1 ?ick1 & non-por\s4 ,9 soap b>k 7,plate #bf1 ,fig4 #a7 ! ba/ fibres h ?ick1 :ite1 wavy walls & a n>r[ cavity4 ,"o end ( ! cell is frequ5tly some:at blunt :ile ! opposite end is slightly tap]+4 ,! bran*$ /one cells ( wild-*]ry b>k h ?ree or m bran*es4 ,! pores are small & usually non-bran*$1 & ! /riations are v f9e & difficult to see unless ! iris diaphragm is ne>ly clos$4 ,! c5tral cavity is v n>r[ & frequ5tly conta9s br[n tann94 ,! bran*$ /one cells ( hemlock b>k are v l>ge2 ! walls are :ite & di/9ctly por\s bord]+ on ! cell cavity1 :i* conta9s bright r$di%-br[n masses ( tann94 ,9 cross-section ba/ fibres occur s+ly or isolat$1 z 9 ,saigon c9namon 7,plate #cd1 ,fig4 #a72 or 9 gr\ps1 z 9 m5isp]mum 7,plate #bg1 ,figs4 #a & #b72 or 9 ! =m ( cont9u\s b&s1 z 9 bu*u /em 7,plate #ajj1 ,fig4 #e74 ,ba/ fibres are se5 9 longitud9al view 9 p[d]$ drugs4 ,! cell cavity %[s ?r\gh\t ! l5g? ( ! fibre4 ,?is cavity diff]s greatly 9 diff]5t fibres4 ,9 soap b>k 7,plate #bf1 ,fig4 #a7 !re is sc>cely any cell cavity1 :ile 9 mez]eum b>k 7,plate #bf1 ,fig4 #d7 ! cell cavity is v l>ge4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #bf ,,non-,,por\s ,,& ,,non-,,/riat$ ,,ba/ ,,fibres #a4 ,soap b>k 7,quillaja sapon>ia1 ,mol9a74 #b4 ,ceylon c9namon b>k 7,c9namomum zeylanicum1 ,nees74 #c4 ,sassafras root b>k 7,sassafras v>iifolium1 ,salisb4 ,kuntze74 #d4 ,mez]eum b>k 7,daphne mez]eum1 ,l474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #bg ,,gr\ps ,,( ,,ba/ ,,fibres #a4 ,m5isp]mum rhizome 7,m5isp]mum canad5sis1 ,l474 #b4 ,al!a root 7,al?a (fic9alis1 ,l47 %[+ two gr\ps ( ba/ fibres4 ,! pores1 :i* are abs5t 9 _m drugs1 are1 :5 pres5t1 ei!r simple1 z 9 e*9acea root 7,plate #bd1 ,fig4 #d71 or !y are bran*$1 z 9 yell[ c9*ona 7,plate #bc1 ,fig4 #c74 ,9 ea* ( ! above fibres ! l5g? & wid? ( ! fibre are %[n4 ,! fibres also h pores ( v>iable l5g?4 ,su* a v>iation is common to mo/ fibres ) pores4 ,t "p ( ! wall imm$iately ov] or bel[ ! cell cavity %[s ! end view or diamet] ( ! pore1 z 9 ! fibre ( m>%mall[ root 7,plate #bd1 ,fig4 #c74 ,z a rule1 h[ev]1 ! pores %[ indi/9ctly on ! upp] & l[] wall4 ,,occurr5ce ,,9 ,,p[d]$ ,,drugs ,9 p[d]$ drugs ba/ fibres occur s+ly or 9 gr\ps4 ,! individual fibres may be brok51 z 9 mez]eum & elm b>k1 or !y may be entire1 z 9 ,ceylon c9namon & 9 sassafras b>k 7,plate #bf1 ,figs4 #b & #c74 ,! lignifi$ walls ( ba/ fibres are color$ r$ by a solution ( phloroguc9 & hydro*loric acid1 & ! walls are /a9$ yell[ by anil9e *loride4 ,9 fact1 few ( ! fibres f\nd 9 individual plants occur 9 a brok5 condition4 ,isolat$ ba/ fibres are circul> 9 outl9e4 ,ba/ fibres1 :5 =m+ "p ( a bundle1 h angl$ outl9es :5 !y are completely surr\nd$ by o!r ba/ fibres2 b :5 !y occur on ! out] "p ( ! bundle1 & :5 9 contact ) p>5*yma or o!r cortical cells1 !y are p>tly angl$ & p>tly undulat$ 9 outl9e4 ,9 ! ba/ fibres ! pores are plac$ at "r angles to ! l5g? ( ! fibre4 ,! side walls %[ ! l5g? ( ! pore 7,plate #bd1 ,fig4 #c72 :ile ! upp] or l[] wall %[s ! outl9e1 :i* is circul>1 & ! pore1 :i* is v m9ute4 ,mo/ ba/ fibres h no cell cont5ts4 ,9 "s cases1 h[ev]1 />* occurs1 z 9 ! ba/ fibres ( rubus4 ,! color ( ! ba/ fibres v>ies1 be+ colorless1 z 9 ,ceylon c9namon2 or yell[i%-:ite1 z 9 e*9acea2 or bright yell[1 z 9 bayb]ry b>k4 ,ba/ fibres reta9 _! liv+-cell cont5ts until fully develop$2 !n !y die & function l>gely 9 a me*anical way4 ,! walls ( ba/ fibres are compos$ ( cellulose or ( lign94 ,mo/ ( ! ba/ fibres occurr+ 9 ! m$ic9al plants give a /rong lign9 reaction4 ,,wood ,,fibres ,wood fibres always occur 9 cross-sections associat$ ) vessels & wood p>5*yma1 f :i* !y are di/+ui%$ by _! ?ick] walls1 small] diamet]1 & by ! nature ( ! pores1 :i* are usually oblique & few] 9 numb] ?an ! pores 9 ! walls ( wood p>5*yma1 & diff]5t 9 =m f ! pores ( vessels4 ,! wood fibre on cross-section 7,plate #aje1 ,fig4 #d7 %[s an angl$ outl9e1 except 9 ! case ( ! fibres bord]+ ! pi?-p>5*yma1 etc41 9 :i* case !y are r\nd$ on _! out] surface1 b angl$ at ! po9ts 9 contact ) o!r fibres4 ,! pore ( wood fibres is "o ( ! ma9 *>act]i/ics :i* enable "o to di/+ui% ! wood fibres f ba/ fibres4 ,! pores are slant+ or /rongly oblique 7,plate #bh1 ,fig4 #b71 & !y %[ = _! entire l5g? on ! broade/ "p ( ! wall--i4e41 ! upp] or ! l[] surface--:ile 9 ! side wall !y are oblique2 b !y are n s di/9ct z !y are on ! broad "p ( ! wall4 ,frequ5tly ! pores appe> cross$ :5 ! upp] & ! l[] wall are 9 focus1 because ! pores are spirally arrang$1 & ! pore on ! "u wall ?r[s a %ad[ across ! pore on ! upp] wall1 or vice v]sa4 ,wood fibres always occur 9 a brok5 condition 7,plate #bh1 ,fig4 #a7 9 p[d]$ drugs4 ,^! brok5 fibres usually occur bo? s+ly & 9 gr\ps 9 a giv5 p[d]4 ,! color ( wood fibres v>ies greatly 9 ! diff]5t m$ic9al woods4 ,fragm5ts ( wood are usually adh]+ to wit*-hazel1 black haw1 & o!r m$ic9al b>ks4 ,9 ea* ( ^! cases ! wood fibres are ne>ly colorless4 ,9 b>b]ry b>k adh]+ fragm5ts ( wood & ! individual fibres are gre5i%-yell[4 ,! wood fibres ( santalum album are :iti%-br[n2 ( quassia1 :iti%-yell[2 ( logwood & santalum rubrum1 r$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #bh ,,wood ,,fibres #a4 ,:ite s&alwood 7,santalum album1 ,l474 #b4 ,quassia wood 7,picrna excelsa1 ,sw>tz ,l9dl474 #c4 ,logwood ) cry/als 7,hmatoxylon campe*ianum1 ,l474 #d4 ,black haw root 7,viburnum prunifolium1 ,l474 ,"s wood fibres function z /orage cells4 ,9 quassia ! wood fibres frequ5tly conta9 /orage />*4 ,! wood fibres ( logwood & r$ saund]s conta9 color+ sub/ances1 :i* are p>tially 9 ! cell cavity & p>tially 9 ! cell wall4 ,! walls ( wood are compos$ l>gely ( lign94 ,,coll5*yma ,,cells ,coll5*yma cells =m ! pr9cipal m$ic9al tissue ( /ems ( h]bs1 petioles ( leaves1 etc4 ,9 c]ta9 h]bs ! coll5*yma =ms sev]al ( ! out] lay]s ( ! cortex ( ! /em4 ,9 mo!rwort1 horeh\nd1 & 9 catnip ! coll5*yma cells occur *iefly at ! angles ( ! /em4 ,9 mo!rwort 7,plate #bi1 ,fig4 ,b7 !re are twelve bundles1 "o l>ge bundle at ea* ( ! f\r angles1 & two small bundles1 "o on ei!r side ( ! l>ge bundle4 ,9 catnip 7,plate #bi1 ,fig4 ,a7 !re are f\r l>ge masses1 "o at ea* angle ( ! /em4 ,coll5*yma cells diff] f p>5*yma cells 9 a numb] ( ways3 fir/1 ! cell cavity is small]2 secondly1 ! walls are ?ick]1 ! great] am\nt ( ?ick5+ be+ at ! angles ( ! cells--t is1 ! "p ( ! cell wall :i* is opposite ! usual int]cellul> space ( p>5*yma cells1 :ile ! wall common to two adjo9+ cells usually rema9s un?ick5$4 ,9 horeh\nd /em 7,plate #cj1 ,fig4 #b7 ! ?ick5+ is s great at ! angles t no int]cellul> space rema9s4 ,9 ! side column ( mo!rwort /em 7,plate #cj1 ,fig4 #a7 ! ?ick5+ betwe5 ! cells has tak5 place to su* an ext5t t ! cell cavities become greatly sep>at$ & arrang$ 9 p>allel conc5tric r[s4 ,! coll5*yma ( ! out] angle ( mo!rwort /em 7,plate #cj1 ,fig4 #c7 is greatly ?ick5$ at ! angles4 ,!re are no int]cellul> spaces betwe5 ! cells1 & cell cavity is usually angl$ 9 outl9e in/ead ( circul>1 z 9 ! cells ( horeh\nd4 ,9 c]ta9 plants int]cellul> spaces occur betwe5 ! cells1 & ! walls are /riat$ in/ead ( be+ non-/riat$1 z 9 ! /ems ( horeh\nd1 mo!rwort1 & catnip4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #bi ,a4 ,diagrammatic sket* ( ! cross-section ( catnip /em 7,nepeta cat>ia1 ,l474 #a4 ,coll5*yma occurr+ at ! f\r angles ( ! /em4 ,b4 ,diagrammatic sket* ( ! cross-section ( mo!rwort /em 7,leonurus c>diaca1 ,l474 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,twelve masses ( coll5*yma tissue occurr+ at ! f\r sides ( ! /em4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #cj ,,coll5*yma ,,cells #a4 ,cross-section ( a side column ( ! coll5*yma ( mo!rwort /em 7,leonurus c>diaca1 ,l474 #b4 ,cross-section ( ! coll5*yma ( horeh\nd /em 7,m>rubium vulg>e1 ,l474 #c4 ,cross-section ( ! coll5*yma ( ! out] angle ( mo!rwort /em4 ,coll5*yma cells reta9 _! liv+ cont5ts at maturity4 ,_m coll5*yma cells1 p>ticul>ly ( ! out] lay]s ( b>k & ! coll5*yma ( ! /ems ( h]bs1 conta9 *lorophyll4 ,! walls ( coll5*yma consi/ ( cellulose4 ,,/one ,,cells ,/one cells1 l ba/ fibres1 are bran*$ or non-bran*$4 ,ea* gr\p is !n sep>at$ into subgr\ps accord+ to wall /ructure 7:e!r /riat$1 or pitt$ & /riat$1 etc471 ?ickness ( wall & ( cell cavity1 color ( wall & ( cell cont5ts1 abs5ce ( color & ( cell cont5ts1 etc4 ,,bran*$ ,,/one ,,cells ,bran*$ /one cells occur 9 a numb] ( drugs4 ,9 wit*-hazel b>k 7,plate #ca1 ,fig4 #b7 ! walls are ?ick1 :ite1 & v por\s4 ,9 "s cells ! bran*es are ( equal l5g?2 9 o!rs !y are unequal4 ,9 ! tea-leaf 7,plate #ca1 ,fig4 #a7 ! walls are yell[i% :ite & f9ely por\s4 ,:5 ! l[] wall is br\ght 9 focus1 x %[s num]\s circul> pits4 ,^! pits repres5t ! pores view$ f ! end4 ,! bran*es frequ5tly bran* or =k4 ,bran*$ /one cells also occur 9 coto b>k1 ac] spicatum1 />-anise1 wit*-hazel leaf1 hemlock1 & wild-*]ry b>ks4 ,non-bran*$ /one cells are divid$ into two ma9 gr\ps1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,por\s & /riat$ /one cells1 &1 #b4 ,por\s & non-/riat$ /one cells4 ,,por\s ,,& ,,/riat$ ,,/one ,,cells ,por\s & /riat$ wall$ /one cells occur 9 ruellia root1 w9t]'s b>k1 bitt] root1 allspice1 & aconite4 ,^! /one cells are %[n 9 ,plate #cc1 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 & #e4 ,! /one cells ( ruellia root 7,plate #cb1 ,fig4 #a7 are greatly elongat$1 rectangul> 9 =m1 ) ?ick1 :ite1 /rongly por\s walls4 ,! c5tral cavity is n>r[ & is m>k$ ) prom95t pores & /riations4 ,! /one cells ( w9t]'s b>k 7,plate #cb1 ,fig4 #b7 v>y f elongat$ to ne>ly isodiametric4 ,! pores are v l>ge1 ! light yell[i% wall is irregul>ly ?ick5$1 & ! c5tral cavity is v l>ge4 ,! pores are prom95t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ca ,,bran*$ ,,/one ,,cells #a4 ,tea leaf 7,!a s95sis1 ,l474 #b4 ,wit*-hazel b>k 7,hamamelis virg9iana1 ,l474 #c4 ,hemlock b>k 7,tsuga canad5sis1 ,l4 ,c>r74 #d4 ,wild-*]ry b>k 7,prunus s]ot9a1 ,ehrh474 ,! /one cell ( bitt] root 7,plate #cb1 ,fig4 #c7 is ne>ly isodiametric4 ,! walls are yell[i% :ite & /rongly por\s & /riat$4 ,! c5tral cavity is ab\t equal to ! ?ickness ( ! walls4 ,! /one cell ( allspice 7,plate #cb1 ,fig4 #d7 is mo/ly r\nd$ 9 =m1 & :5 ! out] wall only is 9 focus x %[s num]\s r\nd & elongat$ pores4 ,! c5tral cavity is fill$ ) masses ( r$di%-br[n tann94 ,! /riations are v prom95t4 ,! diagno/ic /one cell ( aconite 7,plate #cb1 ,fig4 #e7 is rectangul> or squ>e 9 outl9e2 ! walls are yell[i% & ! c5tral cavity has a diamet] _m times ! ?ickness ( ! wall4 ,! side & surface view ( ! pores is prom95t1 & ! /riations are v f9e4 ,,por\s ,,& ,,non-,,/riat$ ,,/one ,,cells ,por\s & non-/riat$ /one cells occur 9 ,ceylon c9namon1 9 calumba root1 9 dogwood b>k1 9 cubeb1 & 9 e*9acea root4 ,! diagno/ic /one cells ( ,ceylon c9namon 7,plate #cc1 ,fig4 #a7 are ne>ly squ>e 9 outl9e2 ! walls are /rongly por\s & ! l>ge c5tral cavity frequ5tly conta9s />*4 ,! /one cells ( calumba root 7,plate #cc1 ,fig4 #b7 v>y 9 %ape f rectangul> to ne>ly squ>e1 & ! walls are gre5i% yell[1 unequally ?ick5$1 & /rongly por\s4 ,! typical /one cells conta9 sev]al prisms1 usually f\r4 ,! /one cells ( dogwood b>k 7,plate #cc1 ,fig4 #c7 h ?ick1 :ite walls ) simple & bran*$ pores4 ,! c5tral cavity frequ5tly bran*es & appe>s black :5 rec5tly m\nt$1 ow+ to ! pres5ce ( air4 ,! /one cells ( cubeb 7,plate #cc1 ,fig4 #d7 are v small1 mo/ly r\nd$ 9 outl9e1 ) a great numb] ( v f9e simple pores :i* ext5d f ! out] wall to ! c5tral cavity4 ,! wall is yell[ & v ?ick4 ,! /one cells ( e*9acea root 7,plate #cc1 ,fig4 #e7 are v irregul> 9 =m2 ! walls are yell[i% & por\s1 & ! c5tral cavity is v l>ge4 ,a black int]cellul> sub/ance is usually adh]+ to portions ( ! out] wall4 ,! color ( ! walls ( ! diff]5t /one cells is v v>iable4 ,9 ,ceylon c9namon & ruellia ! walls are colorless2 9 zan?oxylium1 light yell[2 9 rumex1 deep yell[2 9 casc>a sagrada1 gre5i% yell[4 ,! pores ( /one cells1 l ! pores ( ba/ fibres1 are ei!r simple or bran*$1 & !y may or may n ext5d ?r\gh ! entire wall4 ,_m ( ! %ort] pores ext5d = only a %ort di/ance f ! cell cavity4 ,! wid? ( ! cell cavity v>ies consid]ably 9 ! /one cells ( ! diff]5t plants4 ,9 aconite 7,plate #cb1 ,fig4 #e71 9 calumba 7,plate #cc1 ,fig4 #b71 & 9 ,ceylon c9namon 7,plate #cc1 ,fig4 #a71 ! cell cavity is sev]al times great] ?an ! ?ickness ( ! cell wall4 ,9 allspice 7,plate #cb1 ,fig4 #d71 9 bitt] root 7,plate #cb1 ,fig4 #c71 ! diamet] ( ! cell cavity & ! ?ickness ( ! wall are ab\t equal4 ,9 cubeb 7,plate #cc1 ,fig4 #d71 9 ruellia 7,plate #cb1 ,fig4 #a71 ! wall is ?ick] ?an ! diamet] ( ! cell cavity4 ,! cavity ( _m /one cells conta9s no *>act]i/ic cell cont5ts4 ,9 o!r /one cells ! cell cont5ts are z *>act]i/ic z ! /one cell4 ,! /one cells ( bo? ,saigon & ,ceylon c9namon 7,plate #cc1 ,fig4 #a7 conta9 />*2 ! /one cells ( calumba 7,plate #cc1 ,fig4 #b7 conta9 prisms ( calcium oxalate2 ! /one cells ( allspice & sweet-bir* b>k conta9 tann94 ,9 cross-sections1 /one cells occur s+ly1 z 9 ,saigon c9namon 7,plate #cd1 ,fig4 #a71 ruellia 7,plate #cd1 ,fig4 #b72 9 gr\ps1 z 9 casc>a sagrada 7,plate #cd1 ,fig4 #c72 & 9 cont9u\s b&s1 z 9 ,saigon c9namon 7,plate #cd1 ,fig4 #d74 ,9 p[d]$ drugs1 /one cells1 l ba/ fibres1 occur s+ly1 z 9 ruellia1 calumba1 etc42 or 9 gr\ps1 z 9 casc>a sagrada1 wit*-hazel b>k1 etc4 ,9 mo/ p[d]s !y occur bo? s+ly & 9 gr\ps4 ,! individual /one cells are mo/ly entire1 z 9 ruellia1 calumba1 allspice1 e*9acea1 etc4 ,9 casc>a sagrada _m ( ! /one cells are brok5 :5 ! closely cem5t$ gr\ps are torn ap>t 9 ! mill+ process4 ,_m ( ! bran*$ /one cells ( wit*-hazel b>k & leaf1 wild *]ry1 etc41 also occur brok5 9 ! p[d]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #cb ,,por\s ,,& ,,/riat$ ,,/one ,,cells #a4 ,ruellia root 7,ruellia ciliosa1 ,pur%474 #b4 ,w9t]'s-b>k 7,drimys w9t]i1 ,=/474 #c4 ,bitt]root 7,apocynum &rosmifolium1 ,l474 #d4 ,allspice 7,pim5ta (fic9alis1 ,l9dl474 #e4 ,aconite 7,aconitum napellus1 ,l474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #cc ,,por\s ,,& ,,non-,,/riat$ ,,/one ,,cells #a4 ,ceylon c9namon 7c9namomum zeylanicum1 ,nees74 #b4 ,calumba root 7,jateorhiza palmata1 ,lam4 ,mi]s74 #c4 ,dogwood root b>k 7,cornus florida1 ,l474 #d4 ,cubeb 7,pip] cubeba1 ,l41 f47 #e4 ,e*9acea 7,e*9acea angu/ifolia1 ,d4,c474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #cd #a4 ,saigon c9namon4 #b4 ,ruellia root 7,ruellia ciliosa1 ,pur%474 #c4 ,casc>a sagrada 7,rhamnus pur%iana1 ,d4,c474 #d4 ,saigon c9namon4 ,! walls ( all /one cells are compos$ ( lign94 ,! =m ( /one cells v>ies greatly2 9 aconite ! /one cells are quadrangul>2 9 ruellia !y are rectangul>2 9 pim5ta1 !y are circul> or oval 9 outl9e2 9 mo/ /one cells !y are polygonal4 ,! lignifi$ walls ( /one cells are /a9$ r$ ) a solution ( phlorogluc9 & hydro*loric acid1 & ! walls are /a9$ yell[ by anil9e *loride4 ,,endod]mal ,,cells ,! endod]mal cells ( ! diff]5t plants v>y greatly 9 =m1 color1 /ructure1 & composition ( ! wall1 yet ^! diff]5t endod]mal cells may be divid$ into two gr\ps3 fir/1 ?9-wall$ p>5*yma-l cells1 & secondly1 ?ick-wall$ fibre-l cells4 ,9 ! ?9-wall$ endod]mal cells ! walls are compos$ ( cellulose1 & ! cell t]m9ations are blunt or r\nd$4 ,:5 ! drug is p[d]$1 ! cells break up into small diagno/ic fragm5ts4 ,9 ! ?ick-wall$ endod]mal cells1 ! walls are lignifi$ & por\s1 & ! ends ( ! cell are frequ5tly po9t$ & resemble fibres4 ,s>sap>illa root1 triticum1 convall>ia1 & aletris h ?ick-wall$ endod]mal cells4 ,,/ructure ,,( ,,endod]mal ,,cells ,! endod]mal cells ( s>sap>illa root 7,plate #ce1 ,fig4 #a7 are nev] m ?an "o lay] 9 ?ickness4 ,! walls are por\s & ( a yell[i%-br[n color4 ,alt]nat+ ) ! ?ick-wall$ cell is a ?9-wall$ cell1 :i* is frequ5tly ref]r$ to z a passage cell4 ,! endod]mal cells ( triticum 7,plate #ce1 ,fig4 #b7 are yell[i%1 & ! walls are por\s & /riat$4 ,!re are "o or two lay]s ( cells4 ,! cells =m+ ! out] lay] h v ?9 out] b ?ick inn] walls1 :ile ! cells =m+ ! inn] lay] are m uni=m 9 ?ickness4 ,! endod]mal cells ( convall>ia 7,plate #ce1 ,fig4 #c7 are yell[i% :ite 9 color1 & ! walls are por\s & /riat$4 ,! out] wall ( ! lay] ( cells is ?9n] ?an ! inn] wall4 ,! inn]mo/ lay] ( cell is m uni=mly ?ick5$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ce ,,cross-,,sections ,,( ,,endod]mal ,,cells ,,( #a4 ,s>sap>illa root 7,smilax (fic9alis1 ,kun?74 #b4 ,triticum 7,agropyron rep5s1 ,l474 #c4 ,convall>ia 7,convall>ia majalis1 ,l474 #d4 ,aletris 7,aletris f>9osa1 ,l474 ,! endod]mal cells ( aletris 7,plate #ce1 ,fig4 #d7 are yell[i% br[n1 slightly por\s & /riat$4 ,!re are "o or two lay]s ( ^! cells1 & two ( ! small] cells usually occupy a space simil> to t occupi$ by ! radically elongat$ s+le cell4 ,on a longitud9al view1 ! endod]mal cells ( s>sap>illa triticum1 convall>ia1 & aletris appe> z foll[s3 ,^? ( s>sap>illa 7,plate #cf1 ,fig4 #a7 are greatly elongat$1 ! ends ( ! cells are blunt or slightly po9t$1 & ! walls appe> por\s & /riat$4 ,^? ( triticum 7,plate #cf1 ,fig4 #b7 are elongat$1 ! walls are por\s & /riat$1 & ! out] wall is mu* ?9n] ?an ! inn] wall4 ,! end wall betwe5 two cells frequ5tly appe>s common to ! two cells4 ,^? ( convall>ia 7,plate #cf1 ,fig4 #c7 are elongat$1 & ! end wall is usually blunt4 ,! out] wall is ?9n] ?an ! inn] wall4 ,^? ( aletris 7,plate #cf1 ,fig4 #d7 are fibre-l 9 appe>ance2 ! ends ( ! cells are po9t$ & ! wall is /rongly por\s4 ,! longitud9al view ( ^! cells is %[n 9 plate #cf4 ,,hypod]mal ,,cells ,hypod]mal cells occur 9 s>sap>illa root & 9 triticum4 ,9 ! cross-section ( s>sap>illa root 7,plate #cg1 ,fig4 #a7 ! hypod]mal cells are yell[i% or yell[i% br[n4 ,! out] wall is ?ick] ?an ! inn] wall1 & ! cell cavity is mo/ly r\nd$1 & conta9s air4 ,! walls are por\s & f9ely /riat$4 ,on longitud9al view1 ! hypod]mal cells ( s>sap>illa 7,plate #cg1 ,fig4 #b7 are greatly elongat$1 & ! out] & side walls are ?ick] ?an ! inn] walls4 ,! ends ( ! cells are blunt & di/9ct f ea* o!r4 ,9 cross-section1 ! hypod]mal cells ( triticum 7,plate #cg1 ,fig4 #c7 are ne>ly r\nd$ 9 outl9e1 & ! walls are ( ne>ly uni=m ?ickness4 ,9 longitud9al view 7,plate #cg1 ,fig4 #d7 ! same cells appe> p>5*yma-l1 & ! walls betwe5 any two cells appe> common to ! two cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #cf ,,longitud9al ,,sections ,,( ,,endod]mal ,,cells #a4 ,s>sap>illa root 7,smilax (fic9alis1 ,kun?74 #b4 ,triticum 7,agropyron rep5s1 ,l474 #c4 ,convall>ia 7,convall>ia majalis1 ,l474 #d4 ,aletris 7,aletris f>9osa1 ,l474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #cg ,,hypod]mal ,,cells #a4 ,cross-section s>sap>illa root 7,smilax (fic9alis1 ,kun?74 #b4 ,longitud9al section s>sap>illa root 7,smilax (fic9alis1 ,kun?74 #c4 ,cross-section triticum 7,agropyron rep5s1 ,l474 #d4 ,longitud9al section triticum 7,agropyron rep5s1 ,l474 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,absorption ,,tissue ,mo/ plants obta9 ! great] "p ( _! food1 fir/1 f ! soil 9 ! =m ( a wat]y solution1 &1 secondly1 f ! air 9 ! =m ( a diffusible gas4 ,9 a few cases all food mat]ial is obta9$ f ! air1 z 9 ! case ( epiphytic plants4 ,9 su* plants1 ! a]ial roots h a modifi$ out] lay]--velam5--:i* functions z a wat]-absorb+ & gas-cond5s+ tissue4 ,_m x]ophytic plants absorb wat] ?r\gh ! tri*omes ( ! leaf4 ,su* absorption tissue enables ! plant to absorb any moi/ure t may cond5se ^u ! leaf & t w\ld n o!rwise be available to ! plant4 ,! wat]-absorb+ tissue ( roots is re/rict$ to ! root hairs1 :i* are f\nd1 ) few exceptions1 only on "y develop+ roots4 ,,root ,,hairs ,root hairs usually occur a %ort di/ance back ( ! root cap4 ,!re is1 9 fact1 a def9ite zone ( ! epid]mis on :i* ! root hairs develop4 ,?is zone is progressive4 ,z ! root elongates ! root hairs cont9ue to develop1 ! zone ( hairs always rema9+ at ab\t ! same di/ance f ! root cap4 ,) ! developm5t ( new zones ( gr[? ! hairs on ! old] zone die (f & f9ally become replac$ by an epid]mis1 or a p]id]m1 except 9 ! case ( s>sap>illa root1 & possibly o!r roots t h p]si/5t root hairs4 ,ea* root hair is an outgr[? f an epid]mal cell 7,plate #ch1 ,fig4 #c74 ,! l5g? ( ! hair & its =m dep5d ^u ! nature ( ! soil1 :e!r loose or compact1 & ^u ! am\nt ( wat] pres5t4 ,a root hair is =m$ by ! ext5sion ( ! p]iph]al wall ( an epid]mal cell4 ,at fir/ ?is wall is only slightly papillate1 b gradually ! end wall is ext5d$ f>!r & f>!r f ! surface ( ! root1 caus$ by ! developm5t ( side walls by ! gr[+ tip ( ! root hair until a tube-l /ructure1 root hair1 is produc$4 ,! root hair is !n a modifi$ epid]mal cell4 ,! protopla/ l9es ! cell1 & ! c5tral "p ( ! root hair consi/s ( a l>ge vacuole fill$ ) cell sap4 ,! wall ( ! root hair is compos$ ( cellulose1 & ! out]mo/ "p is frequ5tly mucilag9\s4 ,z ! root hairs develop1 !y become b5t1 twi/$1 & ( unequal diamet]1 z a result ( gr[+ ?r\gh n>r[1 w9d+ soil passages4 ,dur+ _! gr[?1 ! root hairs become firmly atta*$ to ! soil p>ticles4 ,! walls ( root hairs give an acid reaction caus$ by ! solution ( ! c>bon dioxide excret$ by ! root hair4 ,! acid "* ( ! wall attracts moi/ure1 & 9 addition has a solv5t action on ! insoluble comp\nds conta9$ 9 ! soil4 ,x w ?us be se5 t ! me?od ( gr[?1 /ructure1 composition1 & reaction ( ! wall ( ! root hair is p]fectly suit$ to c>ry on ! "w ( absorb+ ! enorm\s quantities ( wat] ne$$ by ! gr[+ plant4 ,x is a well-kn[n fact t :5 two solutions ( unequal d5sity are sep>at$ by a p]meable membrane1 ! less d5se liquid w pass ?r\gh ! membrane to ! d5s] liquid4 ,! wall ( ! root hair acts l an osmotic membrane4 ,! less d5se wat]y solution outside ! root hair passes ?r\gh its wall & into ! d5s] cell sap solution4 ,z ! solution is absorb$1 x passes f ! root hair into ! adjo9+ cortical p>5*yma cells4 ,x is a fact t root hairs are seldom f\nd 9 abundance on m$ic9al roots4 ,?is is due to ! fact t root hairs occur only on ! small] bran*es ( ! root1 & t :5 ! root is pull$ f ! gr\nd ! small] roots ) _! root hairs are brok5 (f & left 9 ! soil4 ,= ?is reason a k ( ! /ructure ( root hairs is ( m9or importance 9 ! /udy ( p[d]$ drugs4 ,an occasional root hair is f\nd1 h[ev]1 9 mo/ p[d]$ roots1 b root hairs h little or no diagno/ic value1 except 9 false unicorn root & s>sap>illa4 ,:5 false unicorn root is collect$1 mo/ ( ! root hairs rema9 atta*$ to ! num]\s small fibr\s roots1 ow+ to ! fact t ^! roots are easily remov$ f ! s&y soil 9 :i* ! plants gr[4 ,! root hairs ( false unicorn are s abundant & s l>ge t !y =m d5se mats1 :i* are readily se5 )\t magnification4 ,^! hairs are1 !re=e1 macroscopically z well z microscopically diagno/ic4 ,! root hairs ( false unicorn 7,plate #ci1 ,fig4 #b7 h :ite1 wavy1 (t5 decid$ly ind5t$ walls4 ,! t]m9al1 or end wall1 is r\nd$ & mu* ?ick] ?an ! side walls4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ch ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,s>sap>illa ,,root 7,smilax (fic9alis1 ,kun?7 #a4 ,epid]mal cell develop+ into a root hair4 #b4 ,develop+ root hair4 #c4 ,ne>ly mature root hair4 #d4 ,hypod]mal cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ci ,,root ,,hairs 7,fragm5ts7 #a4 ,s>sap>illa root 7,smilax (fic9alis1 ,kun?74 #b4 ,false unicorn root 7,helonias bullata1 ,l474 ,9 s>sap>illa 7,plate #ci1 ,fig4 #a7 ! root hairs are curv$ & twi/$4 ,! end wall is ?ick] ?an ! side walls4 ,9 "s hairs ! walls are z ?ick z ! walls ( ! ?9-wall$ ba/ fibres4 ,?is acc\nts = ! fact t ! root hairs are p]si/5t on ev5 ! old] portions ( s>sap>illa root1 & x s]ves also to expla9 :y ^! root hairs rema9 on ! root ev5 aft] be+ pull$ f ! firmly pack$ e>? 9 :i* ! root gr[s4 ,,wat] ,,absorption ,,by ,,leaves ,9 _m x]ophytic t]re/rial plants1 ! tri*omes occurr+ on leaves act z a wat]-absorb+ tissue4 ,9 su* plants ! walls ( ! hairs are compos$ l>gely ( cellulose4 ,x is obvi\s t ^! hairs absorb ! wat] ( cond5sation caus$ by dew & light ra9s--wat] :i* c\ld n rea* ! plant except by su* means4 ,!re is no special tissue set aside = ! absorption ( gases f ! air4 ,c>bon dioxide1 :i* contributes ! elem5t c>bon to ! />* =m$ by photosyn!sis1 ent]s ! leaf by way ( ! /oma & l5ticels4 ,! /ructure & ! *ief functions ( ^! w be consid]$ "u arat+ tissue4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,conduct+ ,,tissue ,all cells ( :i* ! prim>y or second>y function is t ( conduction are includ$ "u conduct+ tissue4 ,x w be und]/ood h[ important ! conduct+ tissue is :5 ! enorm\s quantity ( wat] absorb$ by a plant dur+ a gr[+ season is consid]$4 ,x w !n be realiz$ t ! conduct+ sy/em mu/ be highly develop$ 9 ord] to transport ?is wat] f "o organ to ano!r1 &1 9 fact1 to all ! cells ( ! plant4 ,special att5tion mu/ be giv5 to ! occurr5ce1 ! /ructure1 ! direction ( conduction1 & to ! nature ( ! conduct$ mat]ial4 ,! cells or cell gr\ps compris+ ! conduct+ tissue are vessels & tra*eids1 sieve tubes1 m$ull>y ray cells1 latex tubes1 & p>5*yma4 ,,vessels ,vessels & tra*eids =m ! pr9cipal upw>d conduct+ tissue ( plants4 ,!y receive ! soil wat] express$ f ! cortical p>5*yma cells locat$ 9 ! region ( ! root1 imm$iately back ( ! root hair zone4 ,?is soil wat]1 ) dissolv$ crude inorganic & organic food mat]ials1 aft] ent]+ ! vessels & tra*eids passes up ! /em4 ,! cells ne$+ wat] at ! diff]5t heights absorb x f ! vessels1 ! excess f9ally rea*+ ! leaves4 ,:5 ! /em bran*es1 ! wat] passes into ! vessels ( ! bran*es & f9ally to ! leaves ( ! bran*4 ,9 c]ta9 special cases ! vessels conduct upw>d soluble food mat]ial4 ,9 spr+ sug>y sap fl[s upw>d ?r\gh ! vessels ( ! sug> maple4 ,vessels are tubes1 (t5 ( great l5g?1 =m$ f a numb] ( sup]impos$ cells1 9 :i* ! end walls h become absorb$4 ,! vessels !re=e (f] little resi/ance to ! transf]5ce ( wat] f ! roots to ! leaves ( a plant4 ,! comb9$ l5g? ( ! vessels is ab\t equal to ! height ( ! plant 9 :i* !y occur4 ,! l5g? ( ! individual vessels v>ies f a fraction ( a met] up to sev]al met]s4 ,,annul> ,,vessels ,! annul> vessels are ?ick5$ at int]vals 9 ! =m ( r+s 7,plate #dj1 ,fig4 #a71 :i* ext5d outw>d f & ar\nd ! inn] wall ( ! vessel4 ,9 fact1 x is ! inn] wall :i* is ?ick5$ 9 all ! diff]5t types ( vessels4 ,! r+-l ?ick5+ usually sep>ates f ! wall :5 ! drug is p[d]$4 ,su* sep>at$ r+s occur frequ5tly 9 p[d]$ digitalis1 belladonna1 & /ramonium leaves4 ,annul> vessels are n1 h[ev]1 ( diagno/ic importance1 because m *>act]i/ic cells are f\nd 9 ! plants 9 :i* !y occur4 ,n infrequ5tly a vessel w h annul> ?ick5+s at "o end & spiral ?ick5+s at ! o!r4 ,su* vessels are f\nd 9 ! pumpk9 /em 7,plate #dj1 ,fig4 #a74 ,vessels are di/+ui%$ f o!r cells by _! arrangem5t1 by _! l>ge size :5 se5 9 cross-section1 & by ! ?ick5+ ( ! wall :5 se5 9 longitud9al sections ( ! plant or 9 p[d]s4 ,! side walls ( vessels are ?ick5$ 9 a numb] ( /rik+ yet uni=m ways4 ,! *ief types ( ?ick5+ ( ! wall1 beg9n+ ) "o t is ! lea/ ?ick5$1 are annul>1 spiral1 scl>i=m1 pitt$1 & pitt$ ) bord]$ pores4 ,,spiral ,,vessels ,9 ! spiral vessel ! ?ick5+ occurs 9 ! =m ( a spiral1 :i* is readily sep>at$ f ! side walls4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly ! case 9 p[d]$ drugs1 :]e ! spiral ?ick5+ s frequ5tly sep>ates f ! cell wall4 ,!re are ?ree types ( spiral vessels3 ^? ) "o 7,plate #da1 ,fig4 #a71 ^? ) two1 & ^? ) ?ree spirals4 ,s+le spirals occur 9 mo/ leaves2 d\ble spirals occur 9 _m plants 7,plate #da1 ,fig4 #b71 b !y are p>ticul>ly /rik+ 9 p[d]$ squills4 ,triple spirals are *>act]i/ic ( ! eucalyptus leaf 7,plate #da1 ,fig4 #c72 9 fact1 !y =m a diagno/ic feature ( ! p[d]4 ,frequ5tly a spirally ?ick5$ wall indicates a developm5tal /age ( ! vessel4 ,_m su* vessels are spirally ?ick5$ at fir/1 b lat]1 :5 mature1 an increas$ am\nt ( ?ick5+ occurs & ! vessel becomes a reticulate or pitt$ vessel4 ,_m mature vessels1 h[ev]1 are spirally ?ick5$ z indicat$ above4 ,9 h]bace\s /ems & 9 c]ta9 roots & leaves spiral vessels are associat$ ) ! scl>i=m reticulate & pitt$ type4 ,9 c]ta9 cases a s+le spiral b& w bran* z ! vessel matures4 ,!re is a great v>iation 9 ! am\nt ( spiral ?ick5+ occurr+ 9 a vessel4 ,9 leaves1 p>ticul>ly1 ! spiral appe>s loosely coil$2 :ile 9 squills & o!r rhizomes & roots ! spiral appe>s z a s]ies ( r+s4 ,:5 view$ by high p[] only half ( ea* spiral b& is visible4 ,at ei!r side ( ! cell ! exact size & =m ( ! ?ick5+ appe> 9 two p>allel r[s ( d>k circles or projections f ! walls4 ,?is ?ick5+ ( ! wall is r5d]$ visible f ! fact t ! light is ret>d$ z x passes ?r\gh t portion ( ! spiral ext5d+ f ! upp] to ! "u side ( ! spiral2 :ile ! light readily trav]ses ! upp] & l[] cross b&s ( ! vessel4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$ t1 :5 ! upp] "p ( ! spiral vessel is 9 focus1 ! b&s appe> to b5d 9 a direction away f ! eye2 :ile :5 ! "u side ( ! b&s are 9 focus1 ! b&s appe> to b5d t[>d ! eye4 ,^! facts w %[ t x is necess>y to focus on bo? ! upp] & l[] walls 9 /udy+ spiral vessels4 ,9 d\ble spiral vessels ! spirals are frequ5tly coil$ 9 opposite directions2 !re=e ! b&s appe> to cross "o ano!r4 ,9 eucalyptus leaf ! ?ree b&s are coil$ 9 ! same direction4 ,9 all cases ! ?ick5+ occurs on all sides ( ! wall4 ,its appe>ance w1 !re=e1 be ! same no matt] at :at angle ! vessel is view$4 ,,scl>i=m ,,vessels ,scl>i=m vessels h int]rupt$ b&s ( ?ick5+ on ! inn] walls4 ,two or m su* b&s occur betwe5 ! two side walls4 ,! s]ies ( b&s are sep>at$ by uni=mly ?ick5$ portions ( ! wall ext5d+ p>allel to ! l5g? ( ! vessel4 ,scl>i=m vessels are usually q broad1 s t x is necess>y to *ange ! focus sev]al times 9 ord] to br+ ! diff]5t s]ies ( b&s 9 focus4 ,! s]ies ( b&s are usually ( unequal wid? & l5g?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #dj ,,annul> ,,& ,,spiral ,,vessels #a4 ,pumpk9 /em 7,cucurbita pepo1 ,l474 #b4 ,two *>act]i/ic views ( spiral vessels4 #c4 7,a7 ,upp] "p ( spiral vessel 9 focus4 7,b7 ,"u "p ( spiral vessel 9 focus4 #d4 ,spiral vessel ( ! disk petal matric>ia 7,matric>ia *amomilla1 ,l474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #da ,,spiral ,,vessels #a4 ,s+le spiral vessel ( pumpk9 /em 7,cucurbita pepo1 ,l474 #b4 ,d\ble spiral vessel ( squill bulb 7,urg9ea m>itima1 ,l4 ,bak]74 #c4 ,triple spiral vessel ( eucalyptus leaf 7,eucalyptus globulus1 ,labill74 ,scl>i=m vessels occur 9 male f]n 7,plate #db1 ,fig4 #b71 calamus1 tonga root 7,plate #db1 ,fig4 #c71 & s>sap>illa 7,plate #db1 ,fig4 #a74 ,9 ea* !y are *>act]i/ic4 ,scl>i=m vessels1 ) ^! few exceptions1 d n occur 9 drug plants4 ,9 fact1 drugs d]iv$ f dicotyl$ones r>ely h scl>i=m vessels4 ,!y occur *iefly 9 ! f]ns & drugs d]iv$ f monocotyl$5\s plants4 ,_! pres5ce or abs5ce %\ld1 !re=e1 be not$ :5 /udy+ p[d]$ drugs4 ,,reticulate ,,vessels ,reticulate vessels are ( common occurr5ce 9 m$ic9al plants4 ,9 fact1 !y occur m frequ5tly ?an any o!r type ( vessel4 ,! basic /ructure ( reticulate vessels 7,plate #dc1 ,fig4 #a7 occurr+ 9 diff]5t plants is simil>1 b !y v>y 9 a recognizable way 9 diff]5t plants 7,plate #dc1 ,fig4 #b74 ,! walls ( reticulate vessels are ?ick5$ to a great] ext5t ?an are ! walls ( spirally ?ick5$ vessels4 ,,pitt$ ,,vessels ,pitt$ vessels are met ) mo/ frequ5tly 9 woods & wood-/emm$ h]bs4 ,!re are two di/9ct types ( pitt$ vessels--i4e41 simple pitt$ vessels & pitt$ vessels ) bord]$ pores4 ,! pitt$ vessel repres5ts ! highe/ type ( cell-wall ?ick5+4 ,! entire wall ( ! vessel is ?ick5$1 ) ! exception ( ! places :]e ! pits occur4 ,! numb] & size ( ! pits v>y greatly 9 diff]5t drugs4 ,9 quassia 7,plate #dd1 ,fig4 #a7 ! pits are num]\s & v small1 & ! op5+s are ne>ly circul> 9 outl9e4 ,9 :ite s&alwood 7,plate #dd1 ,fig4 #c74 ! pits are few 9 numb]1 b :5 !y d occur !y are mu* l>g] ?an are ! pits ( quassia4 ,,pitt$ ,,vessels ,,) ,,bord]$ ,,pores ,pitt$ vessels ) bord]$ pores are ( common occurr5ce 9 ! woody /ems & /ems ( _m h]bace\s plants 7,plate #de1 ,figs4 #c & #d74 ,9 su* vessels ! wall is un?ick5$ = a %ort di/ance ar\nd ! pits4 ,?is un?ick5$ portion may be ei!r circul> or angl$ 9 outl9e1 a giv5 =m be+ con/ant to ! plant 9 :i* x occurs4 ,! pits v>y f oval to circul>4 ,pitt$ vessels ) bord]$ pores occur 9 belladonna & aconite /ems4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #db ,,scl>i=m ,,vessels #a4 ,s>sap>illa root 7,smilax (fic9alis1 ,kun?74 #b4 ,male f]n 7,dryopt]is m>g9alis1 ,l4 ,a4 ,gray74 #c4 ,tonga root4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #dc ,,reticulate ,,vessels #a4 ,hydra/is rhizome 7,hydra/is canad5sis1 ,l474 #b4 ,musk root 7,f]ula sumbul1 ,kauffm4 ,hook41 f474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #dd ,,pitt$ ,,vessels #a4 ,quassia1 l[ magnification 7,picrna excelsa1 ,sw>tz ,l9dl474 #b4 ,quassia1 high magnification4 #c4 ,:ite s&alwood 7,santalum album1 ,l474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #de ,,vessels #a4 ,reticulate vessel ( calumba root 7,jateorhiza palmata1 ,lam4 ,mi]s74 #b4 ,reticulate tra*eid ( hydra/is rhizome 7,hydra/is canad5sis1 ,l474 #c4 ,pitt$ vessel ) bord]$ pores ( belladonna /em4 #d4 ,pitt$ vessel ) bord]$ pores ( aconite /em 7,aconitum napellus1 ,l474 ,vessels & tra*eids lose _! liv+-cell cont5ts :5 fully develop$4 ,9 ! vessels ! cell cont5ts disappe> at ! p]iod ( dissolution ( ! cell wall4 ,! walls ( vessels & tra*eids are compos$ ( lign91 a sub/ance :i* prev5ts ! collaps+ ( ! walls :5 ! surr\nd+ cells press ^u !m1 & :i* also prev5ts ! te>+ ap>t ( ! wall :5 ! vessel is fill$ ) asc5d+ liquids "u great pressure4 ,lign9 ?us enables ! vessel to resi/ successively compression & te>+ =ces4 ,tra*eids are =m$ f sup]impos$ cells ) oblique p]=at$ end walls4 ,! side walls ( tra*eids are ?ick5$ 9 a mann] simil> to ^? ( vessels4 ,! tra*eids 9 gold5 seal are ( a bright-yell[ color1 & gr\ps ( ^! %ort tra*eids scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! field =m ! mo/ *>act]i/ic "p ( ! p[d]$ drug4 ,9 ipecac root ! tra*eids are ( a porcela9-:ite1 transluc5t appe>ance1 & !y are mu* long] ?an are ! tra*eids ( gold5 seal4 ,! cellulose walls ( p>5*yma cells are /a9$ blue ) hmatoxyl9 & by *lorz9ciodide4 ,cellulose is completely soluble 9 a fre% copp] ammonia solution4 ,,sieve ,,tubes ,sieve tubes are d[nw>d-conduct+ cells4 ,!y conduct d[nw>d proteid food mat]ial4 ,?is fact is easily demon/rat$ by add+ iod9e to a section conta9+ sieve tubes1 9 :i* case ! sieve tubes are turn$ yell[4 ,develop+ sieve tubes h all ! p>ts common to a liv+ cell2 b :5 fully mature1 h[ev]1 ! nucleus becomes disorganiz$1 b a lay] ( protoplasm cont9ues to l9e ! cell wall4 ,sieve tubes 7,plate #df1 ,fig4 #a7 are compos$ ( a great numb] ( sup]impos$ cells ) p]=at$ end walls & ) non-por\s cellulose side walls4 ,! end walls ( two adjo9+ cells are greatly ?ick5$ & ! pores pass ?r\gh bo? walls4 ,?is ?ick5$ "p ( ! por\s end walls ( two sieve cells is call$ ! sieve plate1 & x may be plac$ 9 an oblique or a horizontal position4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #df #a4 ,longitud9al section ( sieve tube 7,cucurbita pepo1 ,l474 #b4 ,cross-section ( sieve tube j above an end wall--sieve plate4 ,9 a longitud9al section ! sieve tubes are se5 to be slightly bulg+ at ! sieve plate1 & ?r\gh ! pores ext5d protoplasmic /r&s4 ,! /r&s are unit$ on ! upp] & l[] side ( ! sieve plate to =m ! protoplasmic /r&s ( ! liv+ sieve tubes & ! callus1 lay]s ( dri$ plants4 ,?is callus is frequ5tly yell[i% 9 color1 & 9 all cases is sep>at$ f ! cell wall4 ,9 c]ta9 plants ! sieve plate occurs on ! side walls ( ! sieve tubes 9 contact ) o!r sieve tubes4 ,,sieve ,,plate ,sieve plates on cross-section 7,plate #df1 ,fig4 #b7 are polygonal 9 outl9e1 & ! pores are ei!r r\nd or angl$4 ,l>ge sieve tubes & sieve plates occur 9 pumpk9 /em2 b1 almo/ )\t exception1 9 drug plants ! sieve tubes are small & ! sieve plate is inconspicu\s4 ,:5 ! drug is p[d]$1 ! sieve tubes break up into undiagno/ic fragm5ts4 ,:5 /udy+ sections ( ! plants1 ! ext5t1 size1 & arrangem5t ( ! sieve tubes mu/ always be not$4 ,,m$ull>y ,,bundles1 ,,rays1 ,,& ,,cells ,function ,! m$ull>y ray cells are ! lat]al conduct+ cells ( ! plant4 ,!y conduct outw>dly ! wat] & inorganic salts br\ght up f ! roots by ! vessels & tra*eids2 & !y conduct inw>dly t[>d ! c5tre ( ! /em ! food mat]ial manufactur$ 9 ! leaves & br\ght d[n by ! sieve cells4 ,! m$ull>y rays ?us di/ribute ! inorganic & organic food to ! liv+ cells ( ! plant1 & !y conduct ! res]ve food mat]ial to ! /orage cells1 &1 la/ly1 !y function 9 c]ta9 plants z /orage cells4 ,occurr5ce ,! =m1 size1 wall /ructure1 & ! di/ribution ( ! m$ull>y ray bundles1 rays1 & cells are be/ asc]ta9$ by /udy+3 fir/1 ! cross-section ( ! plant2 secondly1 ! radial section2 &1 ?irdly1 ! tang5tial section4 ,/ud5ts %\ld be c>eful to di/+ui% betwe5 ! m$ull>y ray bundle1 ! m$ull>y ray1 & ! m$ull>y ray cell4 ,9 "s plants ! bundles are only "o cell wide1 b 9 o!r plants ! m$ull>y ray bundle is m ?an "o cell wide1 frequ5tly sev]al cells wide4 ,,! ,,m$ull>y ,,ray ,,bundle ,! m$ull>y ray bundle is made up ( a great _m m$ull>y ray cells4 ,^! bundles 7,plate #ajf1 ,fig4 #e7 are ( v>iable l5g?1 height1 & wid?4 ,! bundles are isolat$1 & !y occur among & sep>ate ! o!r cells ( ! plants 9 :i* !y occur4 ,tang5tial sections %[ ! m$ull>y ray bundle 9 cross-section4 ,su* sections are l5s-%ap$1 & !y %[ bo? ! wid? & ! height ( ! m$ull>y ray bundle4 ,! l5g? ( ! m$ull>y ray bundle is %[n 9 cross-sections4 ,,! ,,m$ull>y ,,ray ,! m$ull>y ray 7,plate #dg7 is a t]m us$ to indicate t "p ( a m$ull>y ray bundle :i* is se5 9 cross-sections & 9 radial sections4 ,9 cross-sections ! l5g? ( ! ray w be z great z ! l5g? ( ! bundle1 & ! wid? ( ! ray w be z great z ! wid? ( ! m$ull>y ray bundle at ! po9t cut across4 ,9 longitud9al sections ! m$ull>y ray w diff] 9 height accord+ to ! ?ickness ( ! bundle at ! po9t cut4 ,:5 ! m$ull>y rays ext5d f ! c5tre ( ! /em to ! middle b>k1 !y are t]m$ prim>y m$ull>y rays2 :5 !y ext5d f ! cambium circle to ! middle b>k1 !y are t]m$ second>y m$ull>y rays4 ,z ! plant gr[s1 ! diamet] ( ! organ becomes great] & ! numb] ( m$ull>y rays are increas$4 ,9 ea* ( ^! cases ! m$ull>y rays may be "o or m ?an "o cell wide1 accord+ to :e!r ! m$ull>y ray bundle is "o or m ?an "o cell wide4 ,ev5 9 ! same plant ! wid? ( ! m$ull>y rays w v>y if ! bundle is m ?an "o cell wide1 accord+ to wid? ( ! m$ull>y ray bundle at ! po9t cut across4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #dg ,,radial ,,longitud9al ,,section ,,( ,,:ite ,,s&alwood 7,santalum album1 ,l47 #a4 ,m$ull>y ray4 #b4 ,wood fibres & wood p>5*yma4 ,on cross-section ! m$ull>y rays are se5 to v>y greatly4 ,9 _m plants !y are m or less /raight radial l9es1 z 9 quassia 7,plate #aje1 ,fig4 #b72 :ile 9 o!r plants !y =m wavy l9es :]e !y b5d or curve ar\nd ! conduct+ cells1 z 9 pip] me?y/icum1 kava-kava 7,plate #dh1 ,fig4 ,a74 ,9 ! /udy ( p[d]$ drugs ! radial view ( ! m$ull>y rays is mo/ frequ5tly se54 ,9 a p]fect radial section 7,plate #ajg1 ,fig4 #b7 ! m$ull>y rays are se5 z ti]s ( cells 9 contact ?r\gh\t _! long diamet]1 & !y run at "r angles to ! long diamet] ( ! o!r cells4 ,?is view ( ! rays %[s ! l5g? & height ( ! m$ull>y ray4 ,9 logwood ! rays are (t5 =ty cells high4 ,9 p[d]$ b>ks1 woods 7,plate #dg71 & woody roots ! radial view ( ! m$ull>y rays is frequ5tly diagno/ic4 ,9 guaiacum (ficianale wood ! m$ull>y rays are "o cell wide on cross-section1 & up to six cells high on ! tang5tial section4 ,9 santalum album ! rays are f "o to ?ree cells wide on cross-section1 & up to six cells high on tang5tial section4 ,9 ! great] numb] ( plants ! rays are m ?an "o cell wide4 ,,! ,,m$ull>y ,,ray ,,cell ,! m$ull>y ray cell 7,plate #dh1 ,fig4 #a7 is "o ( ! individual cells mak+ up ! m$ull>y ray bundle & ! m$ull>y ray4 ,! cross-sections ( ! cells :i* are se5 9 tang5tial sections %[ ! cells to be mo/ly circul> 9 outl9e :5 !y occur 9 ! c5tral portion ( m$ull>y ray bundles ( m ?an two cells 9 wid?2 b !y are m irregul> 9 outl9e :5 ! m$ull>y ray bundle is only "o cell wide4 ,ev5 ! cells ( ! ?ree or m cell-wide bundles h irregul>1 outl9$ cells at ! ends ( ! bundle & on ! sides 9 contact ) ! o!r tissues4 ,! l5g? & height ( ! m$ull>y ray cell are %[n 9 radial sections2 :ile ! wid? & l5g? ( ! m$ull>y ray cells are %[n 9 cross-sections4 ,/ructure ( ,cells ,! /ructure ( ! individual cells =m+ ! m$ull>y rays diff]s greatly 9 diff]5t plants1 b is m or less con/ant 9 /ructure 9 a giv5 species4 ,! m$ull>y rays ( ! wood usually h /rongly pitt$ side & end walls1 :ile ! m$ull>y rays ( mo/ b>ks are n at all1 or only slightly1 pitt$4 ,9 mo/ plants ! cells are ( ne>ly uni=m size4 ,frequ5tly1 h[ev]1 ! cells v>y 9 size 9 a giv5 ray1 z %[n 9 ! cross-section ( kava-kava4 ,arrangem5t ( ! ,cells 9 a ,ray ,! union ( any two cells 9 a ray is also ( importance4 ,9 quassia ! m$ull>y ray cells h oblique end walls1 s t on cross-section ! l9e ( union betwe5 two cells is an oblique wall4 ,9 mo/ plants ! m$ull>y ray cells h blunt or squ>e or oblique end walls1 s t ! l9e ( union is a /raight l9e4 ,9 mo/ plants ! cells are mu* long] ?an broad1 b ! cells ( sassafras b>k are ne>ly z broad z long4 ,! walls ( ! cortical m$ull>y ray cells & ! m$ull>y rays ( mo/ roots & /ems ( h]bs are compos$ ( cellulose2 :ile ! walls ( m$ull>y ray cells occurr+ 9 woods are frequ5tly lignifi$4 ,!re is a great v>iation 9 ! "* ( ! cell cont5ts ( m$ull>y rays4 ,9 :ite p9e b>k 7,plate #dh1 ,fig4 ,b#a7 are deposits ( tann92 9 quassia wood1 />*2 9 canella alba1 rosette cry/als ( calcium oxalate1 etc4 ,,latex ,,tubes ,liv+ latex tubes1 l sieve tubes1 h a lay] ( protoplasm l9+ ! walls1 &1 9 addition1 h num]\s nuclei4 ,9 drug plants ! nuclei are n di/+ui%able1 b ! protoplasm is always cle>ly disc]nible4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #dh ,a4 ,cross-section ( kava-kava root 7,pip] me?y/icum1 ,=/41 f474 #a4 ,unequal diamet] m$ull>y ray cells4 #b4 ,vessels4 #c4 ,wood p>5*yma4 #d4 ,wood fibres4 ,b4 ,cross-section ( :ite p9e b>k 7,p9us /robus1 ,l474 #a4 ,wavy m$ull>y rays ) tann94 #b4 ,p>5*yma cells4 #c4 ,sieve cells4 ,latex tubes function bo? z /orage & z conduct+ cells4 ,!y1 l ! sieve tubes1 conta9 proteid sub/ances *iefly1 yet frequ5tly />* is f\nd4 ,! cells bord]+ ! latex tubes absorb f !m1 z ne$$1 ! soluble food mat]ial4 ,:ile our k conc]n+ ! function ( latex 9 "s plants is meagre1 /ill 9 o!r plants x is practically c]ta9 t ! latex is compos$ ( nutritive sub/ances :i* are utiliz$ by ! plant z food4 ,9 c]ta9 o!r plants ! latex appe>s to be us$ z a means ( resi/+ insect attacks & z a protection aga9/ injury4 ,!re are two types ( latex tubes common to plants1 namely1 latex cells & latex vessels4 ,latex tubes develop+ f a s+le cell d n diff] mat]ially f a latex tube orig9at+ f ! fusion ( sev]al cells4 ,9 ea* case ! latex tube bran*es to su* an ext5t t x be>s no resemblance to ord9>y cells4 ,x w\ld seem t ! ultimate bran*es are =m$ & develop 9 mu* ! same mann] z root hairs--t is1 by a gr[+ tip ( ! bran*4 ,a mature plant may !re=e h latex tubes ) almo/ numb]less bran*es 7,plate #ej1 ,fig4 #a7 & be ( v great l5g?4 ,! bran*es ( latex tubes develop 9 su* an irregul> mann] t x is possible to obta9 a cross & a longitud9al section ( ! latex tubes by mak+ a cross-section ( /em4 ,su* a section is %[n 9 ! draw+ ( ! cross-section ( ! rhizome ( black ,indian hemp 7,plate #di1 ,fig4 ,b74 ,! color ( ! latex 9 m$ic9al plants v>ies f a gray :ite 9 papaw 7c>ica papaya71 aromatic sumac1 black ,indian hemp1 & bitt] root1 to :ite 9 ! opium poppy1 light orange 9 cel&9e1 & deep orange 9 bloodroot 7,plate #ej1 ,fig4 #b74 ,9 ea* ( ^! cases x is ! latex :i* yields ! important m$ic9al products4 ,,p>5*yma ,! l>g] am\nt ( plant tissue is compos$ ( p>5*yma cells4 ,^! cells v>y f squ>e to oblong1 or !y may be irregul> & bran*$4 ,! end walls are squ>e or blunt1 & ! wall is compos$ ( cellulose1 ) ! exception ( ! wood p>5*yma1 :i* has lignifi$ walls4 ,!re are sev5 *>act]i/ic types ( p>5*yma cells3 7#a7 cortical p>5*yma1 7#b7 pi? p>5*yma1 7#c7 wood p>5*yma1 7#d7 leaf p>5*yma1 7#e7 aquatic plant p>5*yma1 7#f7 endosp]m p>5*yma1 7#g7 phloem p>5*yma4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #di ,a4 ,cross-section ( black ,indian hemp 7,apocynum cannab9um1 ,l474 #a4 ,longitud9al section ( a latex tube4 #b4 ,cross-section ( latex tube4 #c4 ,p>5*yma4 ,b4 ,cross-section ( a "p ( black ,indian hemp root4 #d4 ,cross-section ( a l>ge latex tube4 #e4 ,p>5*yma4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ej ,,latex ,,vessels #a4 ,radial-longitud9al section ( d&elion root 7,t>axacum (fic9ale1 ,web]74 #b4 ,cross-section ( sangu9>ia root 7,sangu9>ia canad5sis1 ,l474 #c4 ,cross-section ( d&elion root4 ,p>5*yma cells1 cortical1 pi?1 aquatic plant1 leaf1 fl[]1 & endosp]m1 conduct 9 all directions--upw>d1 d[nw>d1 & lat]ally4 ,! direction ( conduction dep5ds ^u ! ne$s ( ! diff]5t cells =m+ ! plant4 ,! fluids pass f ! cell ) an abundance ( cell sap to ! cell ) less cell sap4 ,9 ?is wall all cells are provid$ ) food4 ,p>5*yma cells conduct wat] absorb$ by ! roots & soluble c>bohydrate mat]ial *iefly4 ,! walls ( all ! diff]5t types ( p>5*yma cells are compos$ ( cellulose ) ! exception ( ! wood p>5*yma cells1 ! walls ( :i* are lignifi$4 ,! end walls ( non-bran*$ p>5*yma cells & ! cell t]m9ations ( bran*$ cells are v blunt4 ,,cortical ,,p>5*yma ,cortical p>5*yma 7,plate #ea7 diff]s greatly 9 size1 ?ickness ( ! walls1 & arrangem5t4 ,a /udy ( ! longitud9al sections ( diff]5t p>ts ( m$ic9al plants reveals ! fact t ! cortical p>5*yma cells =m sup]impos$ lay]s 9 :i* ! end walls are ei!r p>allel1 9 :i* case ! arrangem5t resembles t ( sev]al r[s ( boxes /&+ on end1 or ! end walls ( ! cells alt]nate ) ea* o!r1 9 :i* case ! arrangem5t is simil> to t ( ! arrangem5t ( ! bricks 9 a build+4 ,9 c]ta9 plants ! cortical p>5*yma cells are long & n>r[ & rectangul> 9 %ape1 :ile 9 o!r plants ! cells1 al?\gh /ill rectangul> 9 outl9e1 are v broad & approa* ! squ>e =m4 ,all typical cortical p>5*yma cells h uni=mly ?ick5$ non-pitt$ walls4 ,9 mo/ b>ks ! p>5*yma cells b5ea? ! b>k are elongat$ tang5tially1 b are v n>r[ radially4 ,! cells are always arrang$ ar\nd int]cellul> spaces1 :i* v>y f triangul>1 quadrangul>1 etc41 accord+ to ! numb] ( cells bord]+ ! int]cellul> space4 ,,pi? ,,p>5*yma ,pi? p>5*yma 7,plate #eb7 diff]s f cortical p>5*yma cells *iefly 9 ! "* ( ! walls1 :i* are usually ?ick] & always pitt$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ea ,,p>5*yma ,,cells #a4 ,longitud9al section ( ! cortical p>5*yma ( cel&9e root 7,*elidonium majus1 ,l47 #b4 ,cross-section ( ! cortical p>5*yma ( s>sap>illa root 7,smilax (fic9alis1 ,kun?74 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #eb ,a4 ,longitud9al section ( ! pi? p>5*yma ( gr9delia /em 7,gr9delia squ>rosa1 ,pur% ,dunal74 #a4 ,cell cavity4 #b4 ,cross-section ( ! por\s end wall4 #c4 ,surface view ( ! por\s side wall4 ,b4 ,cross-section ( ! pi? p>5*yma ( gr9delia /em4 #a4 ,cell cavity4 #b4 ,por\s walls4 #c4 ,pitt$ end walls4 ,,leaf ,,p>5*yma ,! p>5*yma cells 7,plate #aji1 ,fig4 #a7 ( leaves1 ( fl[] petals1 & ! p>5*yma cells ( "s aquatic plants are bran*$2 t is1 ea* cell has m ?an two cell t]m9ations4 ,^! cell t]m9ations are frequ5tly q att5uat$ & usually v blunt4 ,su* a cell /ructure provides = a great] am\nt ( int]cellul> space & a maximum exposure ( surface4 ,?is arrangem5t makes x possible = ! p>5*yma cells ( ! leaf to absorb m readily ! enorm\s am\nt ( c>bon dioxide ne$$ 9 ! photosyn!tic process4 ,,aquatic ,,plant ,,p>5*yma ,! p>5*yma ( aquatic plants 7,plate #ei7 has l>ge int]cellul> spaces =m$ by ! *a9s ( cells4 ,,wood ,,p>5*yma ,wood p>5*yma 7,plate #aje1 ,fig4 #c7 cells are ! n>r[e/ p>5*yma cells occurr+ 9 ! plant4 ,_! walls are always lignifi$ & /rongly pitt$1 & 9 "s cases ! end walls common to two cells are obliquely plac$4 ,,phloem ,,p>5*yma ,phloem p>5*yma 7,plate #ajj1 ,fig4 #h7 cells are usually associat$ ) sieve cells4 ,!y are v long1 n>r[1 & h ?91 non-pitt$ walls4 ,! ?9ness ( ! walls und\bt$ly enables ! cells to conduct diffusible food sub/ance m quickly ?an ! cortical p>5*yma cells4 ,,palisade ,,p>5*yma ,palisade p>5*yma ( leaves is ( ! typical p>5*yma %ape & ! end walls are plac$ ne>ly on a plane1 ev5 :5 m ?an "o lay] is pres5t4 ,! cells are v small1 h[ev]1 & ! walls are v ?9 & non-pitt$4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,a]at+ ,,tissue ,! a]at+ tissue ( ! plant p]=ms a ?reefold function3 fir/1 x p]mits ! ex*ange ( gases dur+ photosyn!sis2 secondly1 x p]mits ! entrance ( oxyg5 & ! exit ( c>bon dioxide dur+ respiration2 &1 ?irdly1 x p]mits ! exit ( ! excess ( wat] absorb$ by ! plant4 ,! above functions are c>ri$ on by ! /omata1 ! wat]-pores1 ! l5ticels1 & ! int]cellul> spaces ( ! plant4 ,! /oma functions z ! *ief *annel = ! passage ( ,,co-lad5 air into ! leaf & ( oxyg5-lad5 air f ! leaf to ! atmosph]e4 ,! /oma also functions z an organ ( transpiration1 s9ce ?r\gh ! /oma a l>ge "p ( ! excess wat] ( ! plant passes (f into ! air4 ,,wat]-,,pores ,9 c]ta9 plants ! prim>y epid]mis is provid$ ) op5+s resembl+ /omata1 b unlike /omata ! orifice rema9s op51 & in/ead ( be+ locat$ on ! upp] or l[] surface ( ! leaf1 !y are locat$ on ! m>g9 ( leaves imm$iately outw>d f ! ve9s4 ,wat] is giv5 (f to ! atmosph]e f ^! op5+s4 ,su* an op5+ is usually designat$ z a wat]-pore4 ,,/omata ,! *ief ext]nal op5+s ( ! epid]mis ( leaves1 ( h]bs1 & ( "y wood /ems are kn[n z /omata4 ,surr\nd+ ! /oma are two cells kn[n z gu>d cells4 ,gu>d cells diff] greatly 9 =m1 9 size1 9 arrangem5t1 9 occurr5ce1 9 association1 9 abundance 7,plates #ec1 #ed1 & #ee71 & 9 color4 ,! gu>d cells surr\nd+ ! /oma v>y 9 =m f circul> to l5s-%ap$4 ,9 mo/ leaves ! outl9e ( ! gu>d cells is r\nd$ or has a curv$ outl9e2 b 9 a few cases ! gu>d cells h angl$ outl9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ec #a4 ,/oma & surr\nd+ cells ( aconite /em 7,aconitum napellus1 ,l474 #b4 ,/oma & angl$ /riat$ wall$ surr\nd+ cells ( pepp]m9t /em 7,m5?a pip]ita1 ,l474 #c4 ,/oma & elongat$ surr\nd+ cells ( lobelia /em 7,lobelia inflata1 ,l474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ed ,,types ,,( ,,/oma #a4 ,"u epid]mis ( %ort bu*u 7,b>osma betul9a1 ,b]g4 ,b>tl+ & ,w5dl41 f47 %[+ /oma & deposits ( hesp]id94 #b4 ,"u epid]mis ( ,alex&ria s5na 7,cassia acutifolia1 ,delile7 %[+ /oma & ?ick-angl$ wall$ surr\nd+ cells4 #c4 ,upp] epid]mis ( eucalyptus leaf 7,eucalyptus globulus1 ,labill47 %[+ sunk5 /oma & slightly bead$ wall$ surr\nd+ cells4 #d4 ,"u epid]mis ( belladonna leaf 7,atropa belladonna1 ,l47 %[+ /oma & wavy1 /riat$1 wall$ epid]mal cells4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! surr\nd+ cells ( ! /oma is "o ( ! mo/ important *>act]i/ics ( ! diff]5t leaves4 ,z a rule ! numb] ( surr\nd+ cells ab\t a /oma is con/ant = a giv5 species4 ,9 s5na leaves 7,plate #ed1 ,fig4 #b7 !re are normally two surr\nd+ cells ab\t ea* gu>d cell1 :ile 9 coca !re are f\r 7,plate #ee1 ,fig4 #a74 ,9 s5na ! long diamet] ( ! surr\nd+ cells is p>allel to ! long diamet] ( ! gu>d cells2 b 9 coca ! long diamet] ( two surr\nd+ cells is at "r angles to ! long diamet] ( ! gu>d cells1 :ile two cells are p>allel to ! long diamet] ( ! gu>d cells4 ,9 mo/ leaves !re are m ?an two cells ar\nd ! gu>d cells4 ,! =m & size ( ! surr\nd+ cells mu/ always be consid]$4 ,9 mo/ leaves !y are v>iable 9 size & =m4 ,gu>d cells occur fir/1 ev5 ) ! surface ( ! leaf 7,plate #ef1 ,fig4 ,a72 secondly1 above ! surface ( ! leaf 7,plate #ef1 ,fig4 ,b72 &1 ?irdly1 bel[ ! surface ( ! leaf4 7,plate #ef1 ,fig4 ,c74 ,only "o ( ! above types occurs 9 a giv5 species ( plant4 ,t is1 plants ) /omata above ! surface ( ! leaf d n h /omata on a level ) or bel[ ! leaf surface4 ,! numb] ( /omata on a giv5 surface ( a diff]5t leaf v>ies consid]ably4 ,9 _m ( ! m$ic9al leaves /omata occur only on ! "u surface ( ! leaf4 ,9 o!r leaves /omata occur on bo? surfaces ( ! leaf2 b 9 su* cases !re are a great] numb] on ! "u surface4 ,9 c]ta9 leaves ! long diamet] ( ! gu>d cells is p>allel to ! l5g? ( ! leaf2 9 o!r cases ! long diamet] ( ! /oma is arrang$ at "r angles to ! l5g? ( ! leaf4 ,9 o!r leaves ! arrangem5t is /ill m irregul>1 ! gu>d cells assum+ all sorts ( positions 9 relation to ! l5g? ( ! leaf4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ee ,,leaf ,,epid]mi ,,) ,,/oma #a4 ,"u epid]mis ( coca leaf 7,ery?roxylon coca1 ,lam47 ) /oma on a level ) ! surface4 #b4 ,"u epid]mis ( false bu*u 7,m>rubium p]egr9um1 ,l47 ) /oma bel[ ! level ( ! surface4 #c4 ,upp] epid]mis ( de] tongue 7,trilisa odoratissima1 ,walt4 ,cass47 ) /oma above ! leaf surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ef ,a4 ,cross-section ( belladonna leaf 7,atropa belladonna1 ,l474 #a1 ,epid]mal cells2 #b1 ,gu>d cells ev5 ) ! leaf surface2 #c1 ,surr\nd+ cells2 #d1 ,air space bel[ ! gu>d cells2 #e1 ,palisade cells2 #f1 ,mesophyll cells4 ,b4 ,cross-section ( de] tongue leaf1 #a4 ,epid]mal cells2 #b1 ,gu>d cells above ! surface ( ! leaf2 #c1 ,surr\nd+ cells2 #d1 ,air space bel[ ! gu>d cells2 #e1 ,hypod]mal cells4 ,c4 ,cross-section ( :ite p9e leaf 7,p9us /robus1 ,l474 #a1 ,epid]mal & hypod]mal cells2 #b1 ,gu>d cells bel[ ! leaf surface2 #c1 ,surr\nd+ cells2 #d1 ,air space bel[ ! gu>d cells2 #e1 ,p>5*yma cells ) project+ inn] walls4 ,! relation ( ! /oma to surr\nd+ cells is be/ %[n 9 cross-sections ( ! leaf4 ,9 p[d]s ! relation%ip ( ! /oma to ! surr\nd+ cells is1 h[ev]1 readily asc]ta9$4 ,if ! gu>d cells come 9 focus fir/1 !y are above ! surface2 if ! gu>d cells & ! surr\nd+ cells come 9 focus at ! same "t1 ! /omata are ev5 ) ! surface2 if ! /omata come 9 focus aft] ! surr\nd+ cells1 !y are bel[ ! surface ( ! leaf4 ,! relation%ip ( ! /oma to ! surr\nd+ cells %\ld always be asc]ta9$1 n only 9 cross-sections ( ! leaf1 b also 9 p[d]s4 ,!re is ! greate/ possible v>iation 9 ! size ( gu>d cells4 ,?is fact mu/ always be kept 9 m9d :5 /udy+ leaves4 ,?is v>iation 9 ! size ( ! gu>d cells is cle>ly illu/rat$ by coca1 s5na1 & by de]'s-tongue4 ,9 coca ! /omata are v small2 9 s5na !y are l>g]2 :ile 9 de]'s-tongue ! /omata are v l>ge4 ,! wid? & l5g? ( ! /oma or op5+ betwe5 ! gu>d cells are ( a "* :i* mu/ n be ov]look$4 ,g5]ally speak+1 ^? leaves :i* h l>ge gu>d cells w h correspond+ly l>ge /omata4 ,! gu>d cells usually conta9 *loropla/s %[+ v>i\s /ages ( decomposition4 ,9 bay-rum leaf ! gu>d cells are ( a bright r$di%-br[n color1 b 9 mo/ leaves ! gu>d cells are colorless4 ,,l5ticels ,l5ticels are small op5+s occurr+ 9 ! b>k ( plants4 ,! l5ticels be> ! same relation%ip to ! /em t ! /omata d to ! leaves4 ,l5ticels1 l /omata1 h a ?reefold function--namely1 ex*ange ( gases 9 photosyn!sis1 9 respiration1 & ! giv+ (f ( wat]4 ,l5ticels are macroscopically z well z microscopically important4 ,:5 unmagnifi$ ! l5ticels are circul>1 l5s-%ap$1 or irregul> 9 outl9e4 ,!y are arrang$ 9 p>allel longitud9al l9es or p>allel transv]se l9es1 or !y are irregul>ly scatt]$4 ,! latt] is ! usual arrangem5t4 ,9 mo/ cases !y are elevat$ slightly above ! surface ( ! b>k4 ,9 root b>ks p>ticul>ly ! l5ticels /& out prom95tly f ! surface ( ! b>k & 9 _m cases appe> /alk$4 ,! color ( ! l5ticels diff]s greatly 9 ! diff]5t plants4 ,9 ac] spicatium !y are br[n2 9 wit*-hazel !y are gray2 9 xan?oxylium !y are yell[i%2 & la/ly1 ! numb] ( l5ticels occurr+ 9 a giv5 surface ( ! b>k %\ld always be consid]$4 ,on cross-sections ! l5ticel 7,plate #eg1 ,fig4 #b7 is se5 to h a c5tral depress$ portion made up ( loosely arrang$ cells4 ,bord]+ ! cavity are typical cork cells4 ,! cork cells imm$iately surr\nd+ ! l5ticels are usually d>k] 9 color1 & _m ( ! cells are p>tly brok5 d[n4 ,! size ( l5ticels w v>y accord+ to ! type ( ! l5ticel4 ,9 /udy+ sections m att5tion %\ld be paid to ! "* ( ! cells =m+ ! l5ticels ?an to ! size ( ! l5ticel4 ,on cross-section ! int]cellul> spaces 7,plate #eh7 are triangul>1 quadrangul>1 or irregul>4 ,! spaces betwe5 equal diamet] p>5*yma cells is triangul> if ?ree cells surr\nd ! space1 & quadrangul> if f\r cells surr\nd ! space1 etc4 ,^! spaces are 9 direct contact ) simil> spaces t trav]se ! tissue at "r angles to its long axis4 ,! bran*$ mesophyll cells ( ! leaf & aquatic plant p>5*yma 7,plate #ei7 are arrang$ ar\nd irregul> cavities4 ,9 leaves & aquatic plants ^! spaces run p>allel to ! long axis ( ! organ4 ,9 ea* ( ! above cases ! cavity is =m$ by ! sep>ation ( ! cell walls4 ,!re is /ill ano!r type ( irregul> cavities :i* is =m$ by ! dissolution or te>+ ap>t ( ! cell walls4 ,su* cavities are f\nd 9 ! /ems & roots ( _m h]bs4 ,! pi? cells 9 ! /ems ( _m h]bs become torn ap>t dur+ ! gr[? ( ! /em1 ) ! result t l>ge irregul> cavities are =m$4 ,^! cavities are usually fill$ ) circulatory air4 ,9 ! /ems ( conium1 cicuta1 angelica1 & o!r l>g] h]bace\s /ems ! pi? sep>ates into lay]s4 ,:5 a longitud9al section is made ( su* a /em x is se5 to be compos$ ( alt]nat+ air spaces & masses ( pi? p>5*yma4 ,! int]cellul> spaces are v l>ge 9 leaves :]e enorm\s quantities ( c>bon dioxide are vitaliz$ 9 photosyn!sis4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #eg ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,eld] ,,b>k 7,sambucus canad5sis1 ,l474 #a4 ,p]id]m4 #b4 ,l5ticel4 #c4 ,phellog54 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #eh ,,int]cellul> ,,air ,,spaces ,a4 ,cross-section ( uva-ursi leaf 7,arcto/aphylos uva-ursi1 ,l4 ,spr5g474 #a4 ,irregul> int]cellul> air spaces4 ,b4 ,cross-section ( ! cortical p>5*yma ( s>sap>illa root 7,smilax (fic9alis1 ,kun?74 #a1 ,triangul> int]cellul> spaces2 #b1 ,quadrangul> int]cellul> air spaces2 #c1 ,p5tagul> int]cellul> air spaces4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ei ,,irregul> ,,int]cellul> ,,air ,,spaces #a4 ,skunk-cabbage 7,symploc>pus ftidus1 ,l4 ,nutt47 #b4 ,calamus rhizome 7,acorus calamus1 ,l474 ,9 ! rhizome ( calamus & o!r aquatic plants ! int]cellul> spaces are v l>ge4 ,! cells ( ^! plants are arrang$ 9 ! =m ( bran*+ *a9s ( cells :i* ?us provide = l>ge int]cellul> spaces4 ,! cells ( ! middle lay] ( fl[] petals1 l ! mesophyll ( leaves1 is loosely arrang$ ow+ to ! peculi> bran*+ =m ( ! cells4 ,se$s & fruits conta91 z a rule1 few or no int]cellul> spaces4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,syn!tic ,,tissue ,"u syn!tic tissue are gr\p$ all tissues & cells :i* =m sub/ances or comp\nds o!r ?an protoplasm4 ,su* comp\nds are /or$ ei!r 9 special cavities or 9 ! cells ( ! plant1 z ! gl&ul> hairs2 int]nal secret+ cavities ( b>ks1 /ems1 leaves1 fruits1 se$s1 & fl[]s2 photosyn!tic cells or cells ) *lorophyll1 & ! p>5*ymatic cells :i* =m />*1 sug>1 fats1 alkaloids1 etc4 ,,photosyn!tic ,,tissue ,! mo/ important non-gl&ul> syn!tic tissue is ! photosyn!tic tissue1 :i* is compos$ ( ! *lorophyll-be>+ cells ( ! plant4 ,^! are ! s-call$ gre5 cells ( leaves1 ( /ems ( h]bs1 ( "y woody /ems1 & 9 ! old] woody /ems ( plants l wild *]ry1 bir*1 etc4 ,! great] "p ( ! tissue ( leaves is compos$ ( *lorophyll-be>+ cells4 ,leaves collectively con/itute ! greate/ syn!tic manufactur+ plant 9 ! _w1 because ! gre5 cells ( ! leaf produce mo/ ( ! food ( m5 & animals4 ,! two comp\nds utiliz$ 9 ! manufacture ( food are c>bon dioxide 7,,co7 & wat] 7,h,o74 ,^! two comp\nds are comb9$ by *lorophyll ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( light into />*4 ,*emically ?is reaction may be express$ z foll[s3 #f;,,co #e;,h,o #b;,c,h,o #f,o4 ,dur+ ! day a l>ge quantity ( />* is =m$4 ,at night ?r\gh ! action ( a f]m5t ! excess ( />* rema9+ 9 ! leaf is conv]t$ into sug> 7,c,h,o7 - ,c,h,o ,h,o ,c,h,o4 ,9 ?is =m x is di/ribut$ to ! liv+ cells ( ! plant4 ,! pres5ce or abs5ce ( />* 9 leaves is easily asc]ta9$ by plac+ ! leaf 9 hot alcohol to remove ! *lorophyll1 & by add+ ,lugol's solution4 ,if />* is pres5t1 ! cont5ts ( ! cells w become blui% black2 b if no />* is pres5t1 ! cells rema9 colorless4 ,,gl&ul> ,,tissue ,! gl&ul> tissue ( ! plant is divid$ into two gr\ps1 accord+ to :]e x occurs4 ,^! gr\ps are1 fir/1 ext]nal gl&ul> tissue1 & secondly1 int]nal gl&ul> tissue4 ,! mo/ important ext]nal gl&ul> tissue is compos$ ( ! gl&ul> hairs4 ,^! are divid$ into two gr\ps3 fir/1 unicellul>2 & secondly1 multicellul> gl&ul> hairs4 ,,unicellul> ,,gl&ul> ,,hairs ,! unicellul> gl&ul> hairs are ei!r sessile or /alk$4 ,sessile unicellul> hairs occur 9 digitalis leaves4 ,/alk$ unicellul> hairs ( digitalis are %[n on ,plate #fj1 ,fig4 #b4 ,unicellul> unis]iate /alk$ gl&ul> hairs occur on ! /ems ( ! common h\se g]anium 7,plate #fa1 ,fig4 #b71 on ! leaves ( butt]nut1 ! leaves & /ems ( m>rubium p]egr9um 7,plate #ih1 ,fig4 #e71 & 9 arnica fl[]s4 ,! /alk v>ies f two to t5 cells2 9 eriodictyon ! cells v>y f f\r to eight cells4 ,unicellul> multis]iate /alk$ gl&ul> hairs are n ( common occurr5ce4 ,,multicellul> ,,gl&ul> ,,hairs ,multicellul> gl&ul> hairs are divid$ into two gr\ps3 fir/1 sessile2 & secondly1 /alk$ hairs4 ,multicellul> sessile gl&ul> hairs occur on ! leaves ( pepp]m9t 7,plate #fj1 ,fig4 #c71 horeh\nd 7,plate #ig1 ,fig4 #g71 & 9 hops 7,plate #fj1 ,fig4 #d74 ,9 ea* ( ^! hairs !re are eight secretion cells4 ,/alk$ gl&ul> hairs are divid$ into two gr\ps3 fir/1 unis]iate /alk$2 & secondly1 multis]iate /alk$ gl&ul> hairs4 ,multicellul> unis]iate /alk$ gl&ul> hairs occur on ! leaves ( tobacco 7,plate #fa1 ,fig4 #d71 belladonna 7,plate #fa1 ,fig4 #a71 & digitalis 7,plate #fj1 ,fig4 #b71 & ( ! fruit ( rhus glabra4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #fj ,,gl&ul> ,,hairs #a4 ,kamala 7,mallotus philipp95sis1 ,lam4 ,muell4 ,arg474 #b4 ,digitalis leaf 7,digitalis purpurea1 ,l474 #c4 ,pepp]m9t leaf 7,m5?a pip]ita1 ,l474 #d4 ,lupul94 #e4 ,cannabis indica leaf 7,cannabis saliva1 ,l474 ,multicellul> multis]iate /alk$ gl&ul> hairs occur on ! /ems & leaves ( cannabis indica 7,plate #fj1 ,fig4 #e74 ,9 ! gl&ul> hair ( kamala 7,plate #fj1 ,fig4 #a7 ! numb] ( secretion cells is v>iable & papillate 9 =m1 & ! cuticle is sep>at$ f ! secretion cells4 ,9 ! gl&ul> hair ( hops ! out] wall or cuticle is torn away f ! secretion cells1 & ! cavity ?us =m$ s]ves z a /orage cavity4 ,?is di/5d$ cuticle ( ! hops %[s ! outl9e ( ! cells f :i* x 0 sep>at$4 ,9 ! gl&ul> hairs ( ! m9ts ! secret$ products 7volatile oils7 are /or$ betwe5 ! secretion cells & ! out] deta*$ cuticle4 ,?is cuticle is ela/ic1 & x becomes greatly di/5d$ z ! volatile oil increases 9 am\nt4 ,9 _m ( ! s-call$ gl&ul> hairs1 tobacco1 belladonna g]anium1 etc41 ! syn!tic products are reta9$ 9 ! gl&ul> cells1 !re be+ no special cavity = _! /orage4 ,^! hairs usually conta9 an abundance ( *lorophyll4 ,! division wall ( multicellul> gl&ul> hairs may be v]tical1 z 9 ! two-cell$ hair ( digitalis 7,plate #fj1 ,fig4 #b72 z 9 horeh\nd 7,plate #ig1 ,fig4 #f71 & z 9 pepp]m9t 7,plate #fj1 ,fig4 #c72 9 ?is case !re are eight cells1 & !y =m a m or less flat plate ( cells4 ,9 o!r hairs ! division wall is horizontal2 ?is produces a *a9 ( sup]impos$ secret+ cells1 z 9 "s ( ! gl&ul> hairs ( belladonna leaf 7,plate #fa1 ,fig4 #a71 etc4 ,9 o!r hairs ! division walls are bo? v]tical & horizontal1 z 9 tobacco 7,plate #fa1 ,fig4 #d71 h5bane 7,plate #fa1 ,fig4 #c71 belladonna 7,plate #fa1 ,fig4 #a74 ,o!r *>act]s to be kept 9 m9d 9 /udy+ gl&ul> hairs are ! foll[+3 ,color ( cell cont5ts2 size ( ! cells1 :e!r uni=m or v>iable2 "* ( wall1 :e!r smoo? or r\gh4 ,,secretion ,,cavities ,secretion cavities are divid$ into ?ree gr\ps1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! orig9 ( ! cavity3 fir/1 s*izog5\s cavities1 :i* orig9ate by a sep>ation ( ! walls ( ! secretion cells2 secondly1 lysig5\s cavities1 :i* arise by ! dissolution ( ! walls ( c5trally locat$ secretion cells2 & ?irdly1 s*izo-lysig5\s cavities1 :i* orig9ate s*izog5\sly1 b lat] become lysig5\s ow+ to ! dissolution ( ! out] lay]s ( ! secretion cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #fa ,,/alk$ ,,gl&ul> ,,hairs #a4 ,belladonna leaf 7,atropa belladonna1 ,l474 #b4 ,g]anium /em 7,g]anium maculatum1 ,l474 #c4 ,h5bane leaf 7,hyoscyamus nig]1 ,l474 #d4 ,tobacco leaf 7,nicotiana tabacum1 ,l474 ,,s*izog5\s ,,cavities ,s*izog5\s cavities occur 9 :ite p9e b>k 7,plate #fb1 ,fig4 ,b74 ,! cells l9+ ! cavity are mo/ly tang5tially elongat$1 & ! wall ext5ds into ! cavity 9 ! =m ( a papillate projection4 ,imm$iately back f ^! cells are two or ?ree lay]s ( cells :i* resemble cortical p>5*yma cells1 except t !y are small] & _! walls are ?9n]4 ,9 :ite p9e b>k !re is a s+le lay] ( ?9-wall$ cells l9+ ! cavity4 ,imm$iately surr\nd+ ! secretion cells is a s+le lay] ( ?ick-wall$ fibr\s cells4 ,9 klip bu*u 7,plate #fc1 ,fig4 ,b71 z 9 :ite p9e leaf 7,plate #fd1 ,fig4 ,b71 !re is a s+le lay] ( ?9-wall$ secretion cells :i* are surr\nd$ on ?ree sides ) p>5*yma cells & on ! out] side by epid]mal cells4 ,,lysig5\s ,,cavities ,lysig5\s cavities occur on ! r9d ( citrus fruits--bitt] & sweet orange1 lemon1 grapefruit1 lime1 etc41 & 9 ! leaves ( g>d5 rue1 etc4 ,9 bitt] orange peel1 7,plate #fd1 ,fig4 ,a7 ! cavity is v l>ge1 & ! cells bord]+ ! cavity are brok5 & p>tially dissolv$4 ,! entire cells back ( ^! are :ite1 ?9-wall$1 tang5tially elongat$ cells4 ,!re is a great v>iation 9 ! size ( ^! cavities1 ! small] cavities be+ ! rec5tly =m$ cavities4 ,,s*izo-,,lysig5\s ,,cavities ,s*izo-lysig5\s cavities are =m$ 9 :ite p9e b>k & _m o!r plants ow+ to ! increase 9 diamet] ( ! /em4 ,9 su* cases ! walls ( ! secret+ cells break d[n4 ,! result+ cavity resembles lysig5\s cavities4 ,unicellul> secretion cavities occur 9 g+]1 aloe1 calamus1 & 9 canella alba b>b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #fb ,a4 ,cross-section ( calamus rhizome 7,acorus calamus1 ,l474 #a1 ,int]cellul> space2 #b1 ,p>5*yma cells2 #c1 ,secretion cavity4 ,b4 ,cross-section ( :ite p9e b>k 7,p9us /robus1 ,l474 #a1 ,p>5*yma2 #b1 ,secretion cavity2 #c1 ,secretion cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #fc ,a4 ,cross-section ( a portion ( canella alba b>k 7,canella alba1 ,murr474 #a4 ,excretion cavity4 ,b4 ,cross-section ( a portion ( klip bu*u leaf4 #a4 ,epid]mal cells4 #b4 ,secretion cavity4 #c4 ,secretion cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #fd ,a4 ,cross-section ( bitt] orange peel 7,citrus aurantium1 am>a1 ,l474 #a1 ,int]nal secretion cavity =m$ by ! dissolution ( ! walls ( ! c5tral secret+ cells2 #b1 ,secretion cells4 ,b4 ,cross-section ( :ite p9e leaf 7,p9us /robus1 ,l474 #a1 ,epid]mal & hypod]mal cells2 #b1 ,p>5*yma cells ) protrud+ inn] walls2 #c1 ,endod]mis2 #d1 ,secretion cavity2 #e1 ,secretion cells4 ,9 calamus 7,plate #fb1 ,fig4 ,a7 ! cavity is l>g] ?an ! surr\nd+ cells2 x is r\nd$ 9 outl9e1 & x conta9s oleores94 ,^! cavities are 9 contact ) ! ord9>y p>5*yma cells1 f :i* !y are easily di/+ui%$ by _! l>g] size & r\nd$ =m4 ,! unicellul> oil cavity ( canella alba 7,plate #fc1 ,fig4 ,a7 is r\nd$ or oval 9 cross-section & is _m times l>g] ?an ! surr\nd+ cells4 ,! wall1 :i* is v ?ick1 is ( a yell[i% color4 ,secretion cavities v>y greatly 9 =m1 accord+ to ! "p ( ! plant 9 :i* !y are f\nd4 ,9 fl[] petals & leaves !y are sph]ical2 9 b>ks !y are usually elliptical2 9 umbellif]\s fruits !y are elongat$ & tube-l4 ,mucilage cavities are n ( common occurr5ce 9 m$ic9al plants4 ,!y occur1 h[ev]1 9 ! /em & root b>k ( sassafras1 ! /em b>k ( slipp]y elm1 ! root ( al!a1 etc4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,/orage ,,tissue ,mo/ drug plants conta9 /orage products because !y are collect$ at a p]iod ( ! ye> :5 ! plant is /or+1 or has /or$1 res]ve products4 ,^! products are /or$ 9 a numb] ( *>act]i/ic ways & 9 diff]5t types ( tissue4 ,! mo/ important ( ! diff]5t types ( /orage tissue t occurs 9 plants are ! /orage cells1 ! /orage cavities1 & ! /orage walls4 ,,/orage ,,cells ,sev]al diff]5t types ( cells function z /orage tissue4 ,^! cells1 :i* are giv5 9 ! ord] ( _! importance1 are p>5*yma1 cry/al cells1 m$ull>y rays1 /one cells1 wood fibres1 ba/ fibres1 & epid]mal & hypod]mal cells4 ,,cortical ,,p>5*yma ,cortical p>5*yma ( bi5nial rhizomes1 bulbs1 roots1 & ! p>5*yma ( ! endosp]m ( se$s /ore mo/ ( ! res]ve economic food products ( ! high] plants4 ,pi? p>5*yma ( s>sap>illa root 7,plate #fe1 ,fig4 #d7 & ! pi? p>5*yma ( ! rhizome ( memsp]mun1 l ! pi? p>5*yma ( mo/ plants1 function z /orage cells4 ,,wood ,,p>5*yma ,wood p>5*yma1 p>ticul>ly ( ! old] wood1 function z /orage tissue4 ,! wood p>5*yma ( quassia1 l ! wood p>5*yma ( mo/ woods1 conta9 /or$ products4 ,9 "s cases ! wood p>5*yma conta9 />*1 9 o!rs cry/als1 & 9 o!rs color+ matt]1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #fe #a4 ,/one cells ) />* ( ,ceylon c9namon 7,c9namomum ceylanicum1 ,nees474 #b4 ,/one cells ) solit>y cry/als ( calumba root 7,jateorhiza palmata1 ,lam4 ,mi]s74 #c4 ,p>5*yma cells1 ) />* ( casc>illa b>k 7,croton elut]ia1 ,l4 ,b5n474 #d4 ,cortical p>5*yma ) />* ( s>sap>illa root 7,smilax (fic9alis1 ,kun?74 #e4 ,cortical p>5*yma1 ) />* ( lept&ra rhizome 7,lept&ra virg9ica1 ,l4 ,nutt474 #f4 ,cry/al cells1 ) solit>y cry/als ( quebra*o b>k 7,s*le*t5dal74 #g4 ,ba/ fibre ( blackb]ry root ) />* 7,rubus cuneifolius1 ,pur%474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ff ,,mucilage ,,& ,,res9 #a4 ,cross-section ( elm b>k 7,ulmus fulva1 ,mi*aux7 %[+ two cavities fill$ ) p>tially swoll5 mucilage4 #b4 ,mucilage mass f sassafras /em b>k 7,sassafras v>iifolium1 ,l474 #c4 ,mucilage mass f elm b>k4 #d4 ,res9 mass f :ite p9e b>k 7,p9us /robus1 ,l474 ,9 _m plants1 h[ev]1 ! p>5*yma cells conta9 cry/als4 ,! p>5*yma cells ( rhub>b conta9 rosette cry/als1 :ile ! p>5*yma cells ( ! cortex ( s>sap>illa & false unicorn root conta9 bundles ( raphides4 ,9 e case obs]v$ ! raphides are surr\nd$ by mucilage4 ,?is is true ( squills1 s>sap>illa1 false unicorn1 etc4 ,:5 cells ) raphides & mucilage are m\nt$ 9 a mixture ( alcohol1 glyc]9e1 & wat]1 ! mucilage fir/ swells & f9ally disappe>s4 ,,/orage ,,cavities ,p>ticul> att5tion %\ld be giv5 to /orage cavities :5ev] !y occur 9 plants1 = ! reason t !y are usually fill$ ) /orage products1 & = ! add$ reason t /orage cavities are n common to all plants4 ,/orage cavities occur 9 roots1 /ems1 leaves1 fl[]s1 fruits1 & se$s4 ,,cry/al ,,cavities ,*>act]i/ic cry/al cavities occur 9 _m plants4 ,su* a cavity conta9+ a bundle ( raphides is %[n 9 ! cross-section ( skunk cabbage leaf 7,plate #fg74 ,,secretion ,,cavities ,9 :ite p9e b>k !re are a great numb] ( secretion cavities :i* are p>tially or completely fill$ ) oleores94 ,9 ! cross-sections ( :ite p9e b>k ! secretion cavities are v conspicu\s1 & !y v>y greatly 9 size4 ,?is v>iation is due1 fir/1 to ! age ( ! cavity1 ! m rec5tly =m$ cavities be+ small]2 & secondly1 to ! nature ( ! section1 :i* w be long] 9 longitud9al section1 :i* w be ?r\gh ! l5g? ( ! secretion cavity1 & %ort] on transv]se section4 ,su* a section %[s ! wid? ( ! secretion cavity4 ,*>act]i/ic mucilage cavities occur 9 sassafras root1 /em b>k1 elm b>k 7,plate #ff1 ,fig4 #a71 m>%mall[ root1 etc4 ,^! cavities =m a conspicu\s feature ( ! cross-section ( ^! plants4 ,! pres5ce or abs5ce ( mucilage cavities 9 a b>k %\ld be c>efully not$4 ,,latex ,,cavities ,! latex tube cavities are *>act]i/ic 9 ! plants 9 :i* !y occur4 ,^! cavities z expla9$ "u latex tubes are v irregul> 9 outl9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #fg ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,skunk-,,cabbage ,,leaf 7,symploc>pus ftidus1 ,l4 ,nutt47 #a4 ,cry/al cavity4 #b4 ,bundle ( raphides4 ,,oil ,,cavity ,canella alba conta9s an oil cavity resembl+ 9 =m ! mucilage cavity ( elm b>k4 ,secretion cavities occur 9 mo/ ( ! umbellif]\s fruits4 ,= ea* fruit !re is a m or less con/ant numb] ( cavities4 ,anise has tw5ty or m1 f5nel usually has six cavities1 & p>sley has six cavities4 ,9 poison hemlock fruits !re are no secretion cavities4 ,9 c]ta9 cases1 h[ev]1 ! numb] ( secretion cavities c be made to v>y4 ,?is 0 prov$ by ! au?or 9 ! case ( cel]y se$4 ,he f\nd t cultivat$ cel]y se$1 f :i* /alks are gr[n1 conta9s six oil cavities 7,plate #abb1 ,fig4 #b71 :ile wild cel]y se$ 7,plate #ajb1 ,fig4 #a71 gr[n = its m$ic9al value1 always conta9s m ?an six cavities4 ,mo/ ( ! wild cel]y se$s conta9 twelve cavities4 ,_m leaves conta9 cavities = /or+ secret$ products4 ,su* /orage cavities occur 9 fragrant gold5rod1 bu*u1 ?yme1 sav>y1 etc4 ,! leaves 9 :i* su* cavities occur are designat$ z pellucid-punctate leaves4 ,su* leaves w1 :5 held betwe5 ! eye & ! s\rce ( light1 exhibit num]\s r\nd$ transluc5t spots1 or /orage cavities4 ,,gl&ul> ,,hairs ,! gl&ul> hair ( pepp]m9t 7,plate #fj1 ,fig4 #c7 & o!r m9ts consi/s ( eight secretion cells1 arrang$ ar\nd a c5tral cavity & an out] wall :i* is free f ! secretion cells4 ,?is out] wall becomes greatly di/5d$ :5 ! secretion cells are active1 & ! space betwe5 ! secretion cells & ! wall s]ves z ! /orage place = ! oil4 ,:5 ! m9ts are collect$ & dri$1 ! oil rema9s 9 ! /orage cavity = a long "t4 ,,/one ,,cells ,! /one cells ( ! diff]5t c9namons 7,plate #fe1 ,fig4 #a7 /ore />* gra9s2 ^! gra9s (t5 completely fill ! /one cells4 ,! yell[ /one cells ( calumba root 7,plate #fe1 ,fig4 #b7 usually conta9 f\r prisms ( calcium oxalate1 :i* may be ne>ly uni=m or v unequal 9 size4 ,,ba/ ,,fibres ,! ba/ fibres ( ! diff]5t rubus species 7,plate #fe1 ,fig4 #g7 conta9 />*4 ,! m$ull>y rays ( quassia 7,plate #ajg1 ,fig4 #b7 conta9 />*2 :ile ! m$ull>y rays ( canella alba conta9 rosette cry/als4 ,9 a cross-section ( canella alba 7,plate #ha1 ,fig4 #c7 ! cry/als =m p>allel radiat+ l9es :i*1 ^u clos] exam9ation1 are se5 to be m$ull>y rays1 9 ea* cell ( :i* a cry/al usually occurs4 ,! epid]mal & hypod]mal cells ( leaves s]ve z wat]-/orage tissue4 ,^! cells usually appe> empty 9 a section4 ,! b>ks ( _m plants--i4e41 quebra*o1 wit*-hazel1 casc>a1 frangula1 ! leaves ( s5na & coca1 & ! root ( licorice--conta9 num]\s cry/als4 ,^! cry/als occur 9 special /orage cells--cry/al cells 7,plate #fe1 ,fig4 #f7--:i* usually =m a completely envelop+ lay] ar\nd ! ba/ fibres4 ,^! cells are usually ! smalle/ cells ( ! plant 9 :i* !y occur1 & ) b few exceptions ea* cell conta9s b a s+le cry/al4 ,! epid]mal cells ( s5na leaves & ! epid]mal cells ( mu/>d are fill$ ) mucilage2 ! walls ev5 consi/ ( mucilage4 ,su* cells are always diagno/ic 9 p[d]s4 ,,/orage ,,walls ,/orage walls 7,plates #fh & #fi7 occur 9 col*icum se$1 saw palmetto se$1 areca nut1 nux vomica1 & ,sa9t ,ignatius's bean4 ,9 ea* ( ^! se$s ! walls are /rongly & *>act]i/ically ?ick5$ & pitt$4 ,9 no two plants are !y alike1 & 9 ea* plant !y are important diagno/ic *>act]s4 ,/orage cell walls consi/ ( res]ve cellulose1 a =m ( cellulose :i* is r5d]$ soluble by f]m5ts1 & utiliz$ z food dur+ ! gr[? ( ! se$4 ,res]ve cellulose is h>d1 bony1 & ( a waxy lu/re :5 dry4 ,^u boil+ 9 wat] ! walls swell & become s(t4 ,! /ructure ( ! res]ve cellulose v>ies greatly 9 ! diff]5t se$s 9 :i* x occurs 9 ! ?ickness ( ! walls & 9 ! numb] & "* ( ! pores4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #fh ,,res]ve ,,cellulose #a4 ,saw palmetto 7,s]5oa s]rulata1 ,mi*aux ,hook41 f474 #b4 ,areca nut 7,areca cate*u1 ,l474 #c4 ,col*icum se$ 7,col*icum autumnale1 ,l474 #c-;,a4 ,por\s side wall4 #c-;,b4 ,cell cavity above ! side wall4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #fi ,,res]ve ,,cellulose #a4 ,endosp]m ( nux vomica 7,/ry*nos nux vomica1 ,l474 #b4 ,endosp]m ( ,/4 ,ignatia bean 7,/ry*nos ignatii1 ,b]g474 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,cell ,,cont5ts ,! cell cont5ts ( ! plant are divid$ into two gr\ps3 fir/1 organic cell cont5ts2 & secondly1 inorganic cell cont5ts4 ,! organic cell cont5ts include pla/ids1 />* gra9s1 mucilage1 inul91 sug>1 hesp]id91 alkaloids1 glucocides1 tann91 res91 & oils4 ,,*lorophyll ,! *loropla/s ( ! high] plants are gre51 & !y v>y some:at 9 size1 b !y h a simil> /ructure & =m4 ,*loropla/s are mo/ly oval 9 longitud9al view & r\nd$ 9 cross-section view4 ,ea* *lorophyll gra9 has an extremely ?9 out] wall1 :i* encloses ! protoplasmic sub/ance1 ! gre5 granules1 a gre5 pigm5t 7*lorophyll71 & a yell[ pigm5t 7xan?ophyll74 ,frequ5tly ! wall includes />*1 oil drops1 & prote9 cry/als4 ,*loropla/s are arrang$ ei!r 9 a regul> p]iph]al mann] along ! walls1 or !y are diffus$ ?r\gh\t ! protopla/4 ,! palisade cells ( mo/ leaves are pack$ ) *lorophyll gra9s4 ,9 ! mesophyll cells ! *lorophyll gra9s are n s num]\s1 & !y are arrang$ p]iph]ally ar\nd ! inn]mo/ "p ( ! wall4 ,*loropla/s multiply by fission--t is1 ea* *loropla/ divides into two equal halves1 ea* ( :i* develops into a normal *loropla/4 ,*lorophyll occurs 9 ! palisade1 spongy p>5*yma1 & gu>d cells ( ! leaf2 9 ! coll5*yma & p>5*yma ( ! cortex ( ! /ems ( h]bs & ( "y woody /ems1 &1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 9 rhizomes & roots expos$ to light4 ,almo/ )\t exception "y se$s & fruits h *lorophyll4 ,9 p[d]$ leaves1 /ems1 etc41 ! *lorophyll gra9s occur 9 ! cells z gre5i%1 m or less /ructureless masses4 ,yet cells ) *lorophyll are readily di/+ui%$ f cells ) o!r cell cont5ts4 ,9 wit*-hazel leaf ! *lorophyll gra9s appe> br[ni% 9 color4 ,p[d]$ leaves & h]bs are readily di/+ui%$ f b>k1 wood1 root1 & fl[] p[d]s4 ,leaves & ! /ems ( h]bs are ( a bright-gre5 color4 ,) ! exception ( ! gu>d cells1 ! *loropla/s occur "o or m lay]s bel[ ! epid]mis2 b1 ow+ to ! transluc5t nature ( ! out] walls ( ^! cells1 ! out] cells ( leaves & /ems appe> gre54 ,wild *]ry1 sweet bir*1 &1 9 fact1 mo/ trees ) smoo? b>ks h *loropla/s 9 sev]al ( ! out] lay]s ( ! cortical p>5*yma4 ,:5 ! ?9 out] b>k is remov$ f ^! plants1 ! und]ly+ lay]s are se5 to be ( a bright-gre5 color4 ,,leucopla/ids ,leucopla/ids1 or colorless pla/ids1 occur 9 ! und]gr\nd portions ( ! plant2 !y may1 :5 ^! organs 9 :i* !y occur are expos$ to light1 *ange to *loropla/ids4 ,leucopla/s are ! build]s ( />* gra9s4 ,!y take ! *emical sub/ance />* & build or m\ld x into />* gra9s1 /orage />*1 or res]ve />*4 ,o!r *>act]i/ic *romopla/s f\nd 9 plants are yell[ & r$4 ,yell[ *romopla/s occur 9 c>rot root & na/urtium fl[] petals4 ,r$ pla/ids occur 9 ! ripe fruit ( capsicum4 ,,/>* ,,gra9s ,! *emical sub/ance />* 7,c,h,o7 is =m$ 9 *loropla/s4 ,! />* ?us =m$ is remov$ f ! *loropla/s to o!r p>ts ( ! plant because x is ! function ( ! *loropla/s to manufacture & n to /ore />*4 ,! />* =m$ by ! *loropla/s is act$ ^u by a f]m5t :i* adds "o molecule ( wat] to ,c,h,o1 ?us =m+ sug> ,c,h,o4 ,?is sug> is readily soluble 9 ! cell sap1 & is conduct$ to all p>ts ( ! plant4 ,! sug> n utiliz$ 9 cell metabolism is /or$ away 9 ! =m ( res]ve />* or />* gra9s by colorless pla/ids or amylopla/s4 ,! amylopla/s *ange ! sug> into />* by extract+ a molecule ( wat]4 ,?is /ructureless mat]ial 7/>*7 is !n =m$ by ! amylopla/ into />* gra9s hav+ a def9ite & *>act]i/ic =m & /ructure4 ,/>* grams v>y greatly 9 diff]5t species ( plants1 ow+ probably to ! v>iation ( ! *emical composition1 d5sity1 etc41 ( ! protopla/1 & to ! environm5tal conditions "u :i* ! plant is gr[+4 ,,occurr5ce ,/>* gra9s are simple1 comp\nd1 or aggregate4 ,simple />* gra9s may occur z isolat$ gra9s 7,plates #gj1 #ga1 & #gb71 or !y may be associat$ z 9 c>damon se$1 :ite pepp]1 cubeb1 & gra9s ( p>adise1 :]e ! simple gra9s /ick toge!r 9 masses1 hav+ ! outl9e ( ! cells 9 :i* !y occur4 ,^! masses are kn[n z aggregate />*4 ,aggregate />* 7,plate #gf7 v>ies greatly 9 size1 =m1 & 9 ! nature ( ! />* gra9s =m+ ! aggregations4 ,comp\nd />* gra9s may be compos$ ( two or m p>ts1 & !y are designat$ z #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 etc41 comp\nd 7,plate #ge74 ,! p>ts ( a comp\nd gra9 may be ( equal size 7,plate #ge1 ,fig4 #d71 or !y may be ( unequal size 7,plate #ge1 ,fig4 #b74 ,9 mo/ p[d]s l>ge numb]s ( ! p>ts ( ! comp\nd gra9s become sep>at$4 ,! "p 9 contact ) o!r gra9s %[s plane surfaces1 :ile ! ext]nal "p ( ! gra9 has a curv$ surface4 ,!re w be "o plane & "o curv$ surface if ! gra9 is a half ( a two-comp\nd gra92 two plane & "o curv$ surface if ! gra9 is a "p ( a ?ree-comp\nd gra91 etc4 ,! simple />* gra9s =m+ ! aggregations become sep>at$ dur+ ! mill+ process & occur s+ly1 s t 9 ! drugs cit$ above ! />* gra9s are solit>y & aggregate4 ,_m plants conta9 bo? simple & comp\nd />* gra9s 7,plate #gd1 ,fig4 #c74 ,9 "s =ms--e4g41 belladonna root 7,plate #ge1 ,fig4 #b7 ! comp\nd gra9s are m num]\s2 :ile 9 sangu9>ia ! simple gra9s are m num]\s1 etc4 ,,outl9e ,! outl9e ( />* gra9s is made up ( 7#a7 r\nd$1 7#b7 angl$1 & 7#c7 r\nd$ & angl$ surfaces4 ,/>* gra9s ) r\nd$ surfaces may be ei!r sph]ical1 z 9 ,plate #gd1 ,fig4 #c1 or oblong or elongat$1 z 9 ,plate #ga1 ,fig4 #a4 ,o!r />*es ) r\nd$ surfaces are %[n on ,plates #gb & #gc4 ,angl$ outl9$ gra9s are common to c>damon se$1 :ite pepp]1 cubebs1 gra9s ( p>adise 7,plate #gf1 ,fig4 #d71 & to corn 7,plate #gj1 ,fig4 #c74 ,! outl9es ( all comp\nd gra9s are made up p>tly ( plane & p>tly ( curv$ surfaces4 ,,size ,! size 7greate/ diamet]7 ( />* v>ies greatly ev5 9 ! same species1 b = ea* plant !re is a normal v>iation4 ,9 sph]ical />* gra9s ! size ( ! individual gra9s is inv>iable1 b 9 elongat$ />* gra9s & 9 p>ts ( comp\nd gra9s ! size w v>y accord+ to ! "p ( ! gra9 measur$4 ,9 z$o>y />* 7,plate #ga1 ,fig4 #d71 = in/ance1 ! size w v>y accord+ to :e!r ! end1 side1 or surface ( ! />* gra9 is 9 focus4 ,! p>ts ( comp\nd gra9s (t5 v>y greatly 9 size4 ,su* a v>iation is %[n 9 ,plate #ge1 ,fig4 #b4 ,,hilum ,! hilum is ! />t+-po9t ( ! />* gra9 or ! fir/ "p ( ! gra9 laid d[n by ! amylopla/4 ,! hilum w be c5tral if =m$ 9 ! middle ( ! amylopla/1 & exc5tral if =m$ ne> ! surface ( ! amylopla/4 ,x has be5 %[n t ! develop+ />* gra9 ) ecc5tric hilum usually ext5ds ! wall ( ! amylopla/ if x does n actually break ?r\gh ! wall4 ,/>* gra9s ) exc5tral hilums are !re=e long] ?an broad4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #gj ,,/>* #a4 ,calab> bean 7,physo/igma v55osum1 ,balf\r74 #b4 ,m>%mall[ root 7,al?a (fic9alis1 ,l474 #c4 ,field corn 7,zea mays1 ,l474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ga ,,/>* #a4 ,galanga root 7,alp9ia (fic9>um1 ,hance74 #b4 ,kola nut 7,cola v]a1 ,k4 ,s*um474 #c4 ,g]anium rhizome 7,g]anium maculatum ,l474 #d4 ,z$o>y root 7,curcuma z$o>ia1 ,rosc474 #d-;,a4 ,surface view ( />* gra94 #d-;,b4 ,side view ( />* gra94 #d-;,c4 ,end view ( />* gra94 ,9 c5tral hilum />* gra9s ! gra9 is laid d[n ar\nd ! hilum 9 ! =m ( conc5tric lay]s4 ,^! lay]s are ( v>iable d5sity4 ,! d5se lay]s are =m$ :5 pl5ty ( sug> is available1 & ! less d5se lay]s are =m$ :5 little sug> is available4 ,! unequal d5sity ( ! diff]5t lay]s gives ! /riat$ appe>ance *>act]i/ic ( s _m />* gra9s4 ,9 ecc5tric hilum />* gra9s ! />* w be deposit$ 9 lay]s :i* are outside ( & successively f>!r f ! hilum4 ,! t]m hilum has come to h a broad] mean+ ?an =m]ly4 ,hilum includes at ! pres5t "t n only ! />t+-po9t ( ! />* gra91 b ! fissures :i* =m 9 ! gra9 ^u dry+4 ,9 all cases ^! fissures orig9ate 9 ! />t+-po9t1 hilum1 & 9 "s cases ext5d = "s di/ance f x4 ,! hilum1 :5 exc5tral1 may occur 9 ! broad end ( ! gra91 galanga1 & g]anium 7,plate #ga1 ,figs1 #a & #c71 or 9 ! n>r[ end ( ! gra91 z$o>y 7,plate #ga1 ,fig4 #d74 ,,nature ,,( ,,! ,,hilum ,! hilum1 :e!r c5tral or exc5tral1 may be r\nd$ 7,plate #ge1 ,fig4 #a72 or simple cleft1 :i* may be /raight 7,plate #ga1 ,fig4 #a72 or curv$ cleft 7,plate #ga1 ,fig4 #b72 or ! hilum may be a multiple cleft 7,plate #gd1 ,fig4 #c74 ,9 /udy+ />*es use cold wat] z ! m\nt+ m$ium1 because 9 cold wat] ! =m & /ructure are be/ %[n1 & because !re is no *emical action on ! />*4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! =m & /ructure w v>y consid]ably if ! />* is m\nt$ 9 hot wat] or 9 solutions ( alkalies or acids4 ,! hilum appe>s colorless :5 9 %>p focus1 & black :5 out ( focus4 ,/>* gra9s1 :5 boil$ ) wat]1 swell up & f9ally dis9tegrate to =m />* pa/e4 ,/>* pa/e turns blue ^u ! addition ( a few drops ( weak ,lugol solution4 ,^u heat+1 ?is blue solution is decoloriz$1 b ! color reappe>s ^u cool+4 ,if a /rong solution ( ,lugol is us$ 9 te/+1 ! color w be blui% black4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #gb ,,/>* #a4 ,orris root 7,iris flor5t9ia ,l474 #b4 ,/ill+ia root 7,/ill+ia sylvatica1 ,l474 #c4 ,calumba root 7,jateorhiza palmata1 ,lam4 ,mi]s474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #gc ,,/>* #a4 ,male f]n 7,dryopt]is m>g9alis1 ,l4 ,a4 ,gray74 #b4 ,african g+] 7,z+ib] (fic9alis1 ,rosc474 #c4 ,yell[ dock 7,rumex crispus1 ,l474 #d4 ,pleurisy root 7,asclepias tub]osa1 ,l474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #gd ,,/>* #a4 ,kava-kava 7,pip] me?y/icum1 ,=/41 f474 #b4 ,pok]oot 7,phytolacca am]icana1 ,l474 #c4 ,rhub>b 7,rheum (fic9ale1 ,baill474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ge ,,/>* ,,gra9s #a4 ,bryonia 7,bryonia alba1 ,l474 #b4 ,belladonna root 7,atropa belladonna1 ,l474 #c4 ,val]ian root 7,val]iana (fic9alis1 ,l474 #d4 ,col*icum root 7,col*icum autumnale1 ,l474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #gf ,,/>* ,,masses #a4 ,aggregate />* ( c>damon se$ 7,elett>ia c>damomum1 ,maton74 #b4 ,aggregate />* ( :ite pepp] 7,pip] nigrum1 ,l474 #c4 ,aggregate />* ( cubebs 7,pip] cubeba1 ,l41 f474 #d4 ,aggregate />* ( gra9s ( p>adise 7,amomum melegueta1 ,rosc474 ,,inul9 ,inul9 is ! res]ve c>bohydrate mat]ial f\nd 9 ! plants ( ! composite family4 ,! m$ic9al plants conta9+ inul9 are d&elion1 *icory1 elecampane1 pyre?rum1 & burdock4 ,plate #gg1 ,figs1 #a & #b %[ masses ( inul9 9 d&elion & pyre?rum4 ,9 ^! plants ! inul9 occurs 9 ! =m ( irregul>1 /ructureless1 grayi%-:ite masses 7,plate #gg74 ,9 p[d]$ drugs inul9 occurs ei!r 9 ! p>5*yma cell or z irregul> isolat$ fragm5ts ( v>iable size & =m4 ,inul9 is /ructureless & ! inul9 f "o plant _c be di/+ui%$ microscopically f ! inul9 ( ano!r plant4 ,= ?is reason inul9 has little or no diagno/ic value4 ,! pres5ce or abs5ce ( inul9 %\ld always be not$1 h[ev]1 9 exam9+ p[d]$ drugs1 because only a few drugs conta9 inul94 ,:5 cold wat] is add$ to a p[d] conta9+ inul9 x dissolves4 ,solution w take place m quickly1 h[ev]1 9 hot wat]4 ,inul9 occurs 9 ! liv+ plant 9 ! =m ( cell sap4 ,if fre% sections ( ! plant are plac$ 9 alcohol or glyc]9e1 ! inul9 precipitates 9 ! =m ( cry/als4 ,,mucilage ,mucilage is ( common occurr5ce 9 m$ic9al plants4 ,*>act]i/ic mucilage cavities fill$ ) mucilage occur 9 sassafras /em 7,plate #ff1 ,fig4 #b71 9 elm b>k 7,plate #ff1 ,fig4 #a71 9 al!a root1 9 ! out] lay] ( mu/>d se$1 & 9 ! /em ( cactus gr&iflorus4 ,9 addition1 mucilage is f\nd associat$ ) raphides 9 ! cry/al cells ( s>sap>illa1 squill1 false unicorn1 & polygonatum4 ,:5 drugs conta9+ mucilage are add$ to alcohol1 glyc]9e1 & wat] mixture1 ! mucilage swells slightly & becomes di/9ctly /riat$1 b x w n dissolve = a long "t4 ,ref] to ,plate #gi1 ,fig4 #f4 ,mucilage1 :5 associat$ ) raphides1 swells & rapidly dissolves :5 add$ to alcohol1 glyc]9e1 & wat] mixture4 ,! mucilage is1 !re=e1 diff]5t f ! mucilage f\nd 9 mucilage cavities1 because x is m readily soluble4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #gg ,,inul9 7,inula hel5ium1 ,l47 #a4 ,inul9 9 ! p>5*yma cells ( d&elion root4 #b4 ,inul9 f ,roman pyre?rum root 7,anacyclus pyre?rum1 ,l4 ,d4 ,c474 ,9 co>se-p[d]$ b>k & o!r mucilage conta9+ drugs ! mucilage masses are mo/ly sph]ical or oval 9 outl9e 7,plate #ff1 ,figs4 #b & #c7 ! =m be+ simil> to ! cavity 9 :i* ! mass occurs4 ,acacia1 tragacan?1 & ,india gum consi/ ( ! dri$ mucilag9\s excretions4 ,,hesp]id9 ,hesp]id9 occurs 9 ! epid]mal cells ( %ort & long bu*u4 ,x is p>ticul>ly *>act]i/ic 9 ! epid]mal cells ( ! dri$ leaves ( %ort bu*u4 ,9 ^! leaves ! hesp]id9 occurs 9 masses :i* resemble rosette cry/als 7,plate #ed1 ,fig4 #a74 ,hesp]id9 is insoluble 9 glyc]9e1 alcohol1 & wat]1 b x dissolves 9 alkali hydroxides1 =m+ a yell[i% solution4 ,,volatile ,,oils ,volatile oils occur 9 c9namon /em b>k1 sassafras root b>k1 fl[]s ( cloves1 & 9 ! fruits ( allspice1 anise1 f5nel1 c>away1 cori&]1 & cum94 ,9 none ( ^! cases is ! volatile oil diagno/ic1 b its pres5ce mu/ always be det]m9$4 ,:5 a p[d]$ drug conta9+ a volatile oil is plac$ 9 alcohol1 glyc]9e1 & wat] mixture ! volatile oil conta9$ 9 ! tissues w accumulate at ! brok5 end ( ! cells 9 ! =m ( r\nd$ globules1 :ile ! volatile oil adh]+ to ! surface ( ! fragm5ts w dissolve 9 ! mixture & float 9 ! solution ne> ! "u side ( ! cov] glass4 ,volatile oil is ( little importance 9 hi/ological "w4 ,,tann9 ,tann9 masses are usually r$ or r$di% br[n4 ,tann9 occurs 9 cork cells1 m$ull>y rays ( :ite p9e b>k 7,plate #dh1 ,fig4 ,b71 /one cells1 & 9 special tann9 sacs4 ,! /one cells ( hemlock & tam>ac b>k & ! m$ull>y rays ( :ite p9e & hemlock b>k conta9 tann94 ,tann9 associat$ ) prisms occurs 9 tann9 sacs 9 :ite p9e & tam>ac b>k4 ,^! sacs are frequ5tly sev]al millimet]s 9 l5g? & conta9 a great numb] ( cry/als surr\nd$ by tann94 ,deposits ( tann9 are color$ blui% black ) a solution ( f]ric *loride4 ,,aleurone ,,gra9s ,aleurone gra9s are small granules ( v>iable /ructure1 size1 & =m1 & !y are compos$ ( res]ve prote9s4 ,!y occur 9 cel]y1 f5nel1 cori&]1 & anise1 fruits1 9 sesame1 sunfl[]1 curcas1 ca/or oil1 croton oil1 bitt] almond1 & o!r oil se$s4 ,9 _m ( ! se$s ! aleurone gra9s completely fill ! cells ( ! endosp]m1 embryo1 & p]isp]m4 ,9 :eat1 rye1 b>ley1 oats1 & corn ! aleurone gra9s occur only 9 ! out] lay] or lay]s ( ! endosp]m1 ! rema9+ lay]s 9 ^! cases be+ fill$ ) />*4 ,9 p[d]$ drugs ! aleurone gra9s occur 9 p>5*yma cells or free 9 ! field4 ,,/ructure ,,( ,,aleurone ,,gra9s ,aleurone gra9s are v v>iable 9 /ructure4 ,! simple/ gra9s consi/ ( an undiff]5tiat$ mass ( proteid sub/ance surr\nd$ by a ?9 out] membrane4 ,9 o!r gra9s ! proteid sub/ance encloses "o or m r\nd$ d5s] proteid bodies kn[n z globoids4 ,9 o!r gra9s a cry/alloid--cry/al-l proteid sub/ance--is pres5t 9 addition to ! globoid4 ,9 "s gra9s are cry/als ( calcium oxalate1 :i* may occur z prisms or z rosettes4 ,all ! diff]5t p>ts1 h[ev]1 d n occur 9 any "o gra94 ,9 ca/or-oil se$ 7,plate #gg;a1 ,fig4 #h7 are %[n ! membrane 7,a71 ! gr\nd mass 7,b71 ! cry/alloid 7,c71 & ! globoid 7,d74 ,,=m ,,( ,,aleurone ,,gra9s ,mu* att5tion has be5 giv5 to ! /udy ( ! special p>ts ( ! aleurone gra9s1 b "o ( ! mo/ important diagno/ic *>act]s has be5 ov]look$1 namely1 t ( comp>ative =m4 ,= ! purposes ( comp>+ ! =ms ( diff]5t gra9s1 !y %\ld be m\nt$ 9 a m$ium 9 :i* ! gra9 & its v>i\s p>ts are insoluble4 ,oil ( c$> is su* a m$ium4 ,! v>iation 9 =m & size ( ! aleurone gra9s :5 m\nt$ 9 oil ( c$> is %[n 9 ,plate #gg;a4 ,,description ,,( ,,aleurone ,,gra9s ,! aleurone gra9s ( curcas 7,plate #gg;a1 ,fig4 #a7 v>y 9 =m f circul> to l5s-%ap$1 & ea* gra9 conta9s "o or m globoids4 ,! globoids are l>g] :5 !y occur s+ly4 ,9 sunfl[] se$ 7,plate #gg;a1 ,fig4 #b7 ! gra9s v>y f r5i=m to oval1 & "o or m globoids are pres5t2 _m occur 9 ! c5t] ( ! gra94 ,! aleurone gra9s ( flaxse$ 7,plate #gg;a1 ,fig4 #c7 resemble 9 =m ^? ( sunfl[] se$1 b ! gra9s are uni=mly l>g] & "s ( ! gra9s conta9 z _m z five globoids4 ,9 bitt] almond 7,plate #gg;a1 ,fig4 #d7 ! aleurone gra9s are mo/ly circul>1 b a few are ne>ly l5s-%ap$4 ,a few ( ! l>ge1 r\nd$ gra9s conta9 z _m z n9e globoids2 9 su* cases "o ( ! globoids is likely to be l>g] ?an ! o!rs4 ,! aleurone gra9s ( croton-oil se$ 7,plate #gg;a1 ,fig4 #e7 are circul> 9 outl9e1 v>iable 9 =m1 & ea* gra9 conta9s f "o to sev5 globoids4 ,9 sesame se$ 7,plate #gg;a1 ,fig4 #f7 ! typical gra9 is angl$ 9 outl9e & ! l>ge globoid occurs 9 ! n>r[ or con/rict$ end4 ,! aleurone gra9s ( ca/or-oil se$ 7,plate #gg;a1 ,fig4 #g7 resemble ^? ( sesame se$1 b !y are mu* l>g]1 & _m ( ! gra9s conta9 ?ree l>ge globoids4 ,:5 ^! gra9s are m\nt$ 9 sodium-phosphate solution1 ! cry/alloid becomes visible4 ,,te/s ,,= ,,aleurone ,,gra9s ,aleurone gra9s are color$ yell[ ) nitric acid & r$ ) ,millon's reag5t4 ,! proteid sub/ance ( ! mass ( ! gra91 ( ! globoid1 & ( ! cry/alloid1 reacts diff]5tly ) diff]5t reag5ts & dyes4 ,! gr\nd sub/ance & ! cry/alloids are soluble 9 dilute alkali1 :ile ! globoids are insoluble 9 dilute alkali4 ,! gr\nd sub/ance & cry/alloids are soluble 9 sodium phosphate1 :ile ! globoids are insoluble 9 sodium phosphate4 ,calcium oxalate is insoluble 9 alkali & acetic acid1 b x dissolves 9 hydro*loric acid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #gg;a ,,aleurone ,,gra9s #a4 ,curcas 7,jatropha curcas1 ,l474 #b4 ,sunfl[] se$ 7,helian?us annuus1 ,l474 #c4 ,flaxse$ 7,l9um usitatissimum1 ,l474 #d4 ,bitt] almond 7,prunus amygdalus1 am>a1 ,d4,c474 #e4 ,croton-oil se$ 7,croton tiglium1 ,l474 #f4 ,sesame se$ 7,sesamum indicum1 ,l474 #g & #h4 ,ca/or-oil se$ 7,ric9us communis1 ,l474 ,,cry/als ,calcium oxalate cry/als =m "o ( ! mo/ important inorganic cell cont5ts f\nd 9 plants1 because ( ! p]man5cy ( ! cry/als1 & because ! =ms common to a giv5 species are inv>iable4 ,by means ( calcium oxalate cry/als x is possible to di/+ui% betwe5 diff]5t species4 ,9 butt]nut root b>k1 = in/ance1 only rosette cry/als are f\nd1 :ile 9 black walnut root b>k--a common sub/itute = butt]nut b>k--bo? prisms & rosettes occur4 ,?is is only "o ( ! _m examples :i* c\ld be cit$4 ,^! cry/als1 = purposes ( /udy1 w be gr\p$ into f\r pr9cipal classes1 dep5d+ ^u =m & n ^u cry/al sy/em4 ,^! classes are micro-cry/als1 raphides1 rosettes1 & solit>y cry/als4 ,,micro-,,cry/als ,micro-cry/als are ! smalle/ ( all ! cry/als4 ,"u ! high p[] ( ! microscope !y appe> z a ,v1 a ,y1 an ,x1 & z a ,t4 ,!y are1 !re=e1 ?ree- or f\r-angl$ 7,plate #gh74 ,! ?ick] portions ( ^! cry/als are ! p>ts usually se51 b :5 a close obs]vation ( ! cry/als is made ! ?9 portions ( ! cry/al connect+ ! ?ick] p>ts may also be obs]v$4 ,micro-cry/als %\ld be /udi$ ) ! diaphragm ( ! microscope ne>ly clos$ & ) ! high-p[] objective 9 position4 ,:ile obs]v+ ! micro-cry/als1 raise & l[] ! objective by ! f9e adju/m5t 9 ord] to br+ out ! /ructure ( ! cry/al m cle>ly4 ,micro-cry/als occur 9 p>5*yma cells ( belladonna1 scopola1 /ramonium1 & bitt]sweet leaves2 9 belladonna1 9 horse-nettle root1 9 scopola rhizome1 9 bitt]sweet /ems1 & 9 yell[ & r$ c9*ona b>k1 etc4 ,! cry/als 9 ea* ( ! above p>ts ( ! plant are simil> 9 =m1 ! only obs]v$ v>iation be+ t ( size4 ,_! pres5ce or abs5ce %\ld always be not$ :5 /udy+ p[d]s4 ,,raphides ,raphides1 :i* are usually se5 9 longitud9al view1 resemble d\ble-po9t$ ne$les4 ,!y are circul> 9 cross-section1 & ! l>ge/ diamet] is at ! c5tre1 f :i* !y tap] gradually t[>d ei!r end to a %>p po9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #gh ,,micro-,,cry/als #a4 ,horse-nettle root 7,solanum c>ol95se1 ,l474 #b4 ,scopola rhizome 7,scopolia c>niolica1 ,jacq474 #c4 ,belladonna root 7,atropa belladonna1 ,l474 #d4 ,bitt]sweet /em 7,solanum dulcam>a1 ,l474 #e4 ,scopola leaf 7,scopola c>niolica1 ,jacq474 #f4 ,tobacco leaf 7,nicotiana tabacum1 ,l474 #g4 ,belladonna leaf 7,atropa belladonna1 ,l474 ,raphides occur 9 bundles1 z 9 false unicorn root 7,plate #gi1 ,figs4 #f1 ,a1 ,b1 & ,c71 r>ely z solit>y cry/als4 ,9 ipecac root ! cry/als are usually solit>y4 ,9 s>sap>illa root1 squill1 etc41 ! raphides occur bo? 9 clu/]s1 "p ( bundle1 or 9 bundles1 & z solit>y cry/als4 ,9 mo/ drugs ! cry/als are entire2 b 9 squills1 :]e ! raphides are v l>ge1 !y are brok54 ,9 phytolacca 7,plate #gi1 ,fig4 #a7 & 9 hydrangea ! raphides are usually brok51 ow+ to ! fact t ^! drugs conta9 l>ge quantities ( fibres :i* break !m up into fragm5ts :5 ! drug is mill$4 ,!re is ! greate/ possible v>iation 9 ! size ( raphides 9 ! same & 9 diff]5t drugs1 b ! l>g] =ms are con/ant 9 ! same species4 ,raphides are deposit$ 9 p>5*yma cells & 9 special raphides sacs4 ,^! cry/als are always surr\nd$ ) mucilage4 ,,rosette ,,cry/als ,rosette cry/als are comp\nd cry/als compos$ ( an aggregation ( small cry/als arrang$ 9 a radiat+ mann] ar\nd a c5tral core4 ,?is core appe>s ne>ly black1 & ! :ole mass is ne>ly sph]ical4 ,! free ends ( ! cry/als are %>p-po9t$ or blunt4 ,*>act]i/ic rosette cry/als occur 9 frangula b>k1 spik5>d root1 wahoo /em1 root b>k1 rhub>b1 etc4 7,plate #hj1 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 & #f74 ,^! cry/als are v v>iable 9 size4 ,?is v>iation is illu/rat$ by ! cry/als ( ,plate #hj4 ,usually !re is a v>iation 9 size ( ! cry/als occurr+ 9 a giv5 plant1 b = ea* plant !re is a m or less uni=m v>iation4 ,= in/ance1 ! l>ge/ rosette cry/al occurr+ 9 wahoo root b>k 7,plate #hj1 ,fig4 #e7 is small] ?an ! l>ge/ cry/al occurr+ 9 rhub>b 7,plate #hj1 ,fig4 #f71 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #gi ,,raphides #a4 ,phytolacca root 7,phytolacca am]icana1 ,l474 #b4 ,squills 7,urg9ea m>itima ,l4 ,bak]74 #c4 ,hydrangea root 7,hydrangea arboresc5s1 ,l474 #d4 ,convall>ia 7,convall>ia majalis1 ,l474 #e4 ,c>?agean ipecac 7,cephlis acum9ata ,k>/47 #f4 ,bundle ( raphides f false unicorn root4 ,a4 ,bundle surr\nd$ ) mucilage4 ,b4 ,mucilage exp&$ & p>tially dissolv$4 ,c4 ,bundle free ( mucilage4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #hj ,,rosette ,,cry/als #a4 ,frangula b>k 7,rhamnus frangula1 ,l474 #b4 ,:ite oak b>k 7,qu]cus alba1 ,l474 #c4 ,spik5>d root 7,aralia racemosa1 ,l474 #d4 ,wahoo /em b>k 7,euonymus atropurpureus1 ,jacq474 #e4 ,wahoo root b>k 7,euonymus atropurpureus1 ,jacq474 #f4 ,rhub>b 7,rheum (fic9ale1 ,baill474 ,! prisms =m+ ! rosette cry/als1 l all prisms1 decompose :ite light1 ) ! result t rosette cry/als frequ5tly appe> v>i\sly color$4 ,rhub>b cry/als1 = in/ance1 are blue or violet4 ,mo/ ( ! small] rosette cry/als1 h[ev]1 appe> grayi% :ite ) a d>k]-color$ c5tre4 ,rosette cry/als occur 9 p>5*yma cells 7,plate #ha1 ,fig4 #d7 & 9 m$ull>y rays 7,plate #ha1 ,fig4 #c74 ,,solit>y ,,cry/als ,solit>y cry/als are ! mo/ v>iable ( all ! =ms ( calcium oxalate4 ,!y usually occur 9 cry/al cells associat$ ) ba/ fibres & /one cells1 less frequ5tly 9 /one cells 7,plate #cc1 ,fig4 #b74 ,!re are _m diff]5t & *>act]i/ic =ms ( prisms4 ,! m common are3 #a4 ,rectangul>3 ,a4 ,p>allelepip$s4 ,b4 ,cubes4 #b4 ,polyh$rons3 ,a4 ,irregul> polyh$rons4 ,i4 ,flat bases4 7a7 ,non-not*$4 7b7 ,not*$4 ,,ii4 ,tap]+ bases4 ,b4 ,octoh$rons4 ,! cry/als occurr+ 9 ,batavia c9namon & h5bane leaves are p>allelopip$s 7,plate #hb1 ,figs4 #a & #b74 ,! cry/als occurr+ 9 cactus gr&iflorus1 hemlock b>k1 kram]ia root1 & soap b>k are irregul> polyh$rons 7,plate #hc74 ,!y are long] ?an broad1 & ! ends are tap]+4 ,! cry/al ( cactus gr&iflorus has ! n>r[e/ diamet] ( ^! f\r1 :ile ! cry/als ( soap b>k h ! wide/ diamet]4 ,9 coca leaf1 xan?oxylum b>k1 elm b>k1 ,spani% licorice1 & 9 :ite oak 7,plate #hd71 & 9 cocill9a b>k 7,plate #hb1 ,fig4 #d7 ! cry/als are all irregul> polyh$rons ) flat bases4 ,!y are mo/ly long] ?an broad & !y are all wide/ 9 ! c5tre2 9 ea* a few cry/als are not*$1 b mo/ ( ! cry/als are n not*$4 ,! cry/als 9 quassia wood1 uva-ursi leaf1 & mo/ ( ^? ( quebra*o & wild *]ry b>k 7,plate #hf1 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 & #d7 are irregul> polyh$rons ) flat ends4 ,!y are long] ?an broad1 wide/ at ! c5tre1 & non-not*$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ha ,,inclos$ ,,rosette ,,cry/als #a4 ,hops 7,humulus lupulus1 ,l474 #b4 ,bracts ( cannabis indica 7,cannabis sativa1 v>iety ,indica1 ,lam>ck74 #c4 ,m$ull>y rays ( canella alba4 #d4 ,p>5*yma cells ( m&rake 7,podophyllum peltatum1 ,l474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #hb ,,solit>y ,,cry/al #a4 ,batavia c9namon 7,c9namomum burmanni1 ,nees74 #b4 ,h5bane leaves 7,hyoscyamus nig]1 ,l474 #c4 ,morea nutgalls4 #d4 ,cocillana b>k 7,gu>ea rusbyi ,britton1 ,rusby74 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #hc ,,solit>y ,,cry/als #a4 ,cactus gr&iflorus 7,c]eus gr&iflorus ,l41 ,britton & ,rose74 #b4 ,hemlock b>k 7,tsuga canad5sis ,l41 ,c>r474 #c4 ,kram]ia root 7,kram]ia tri&ra1 ,ruiz & ,pav474 #d4 ,soapb>k 7,quillaja sapon>ia1 ,mol9a74 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #hd ,,solit>y ,,cry/als #a4 ,coca leaf 7,ery?roxylon coca1 ,lam>ck74 #b4 ,xan?oxylum b>k 7,zan?oxylum am]icanum1 ,mill]74 #c4 ,elm b>k 7,ulmus fulva1 ,mi*aux74 #d4 ,spani% licorice root 7,glycyrrhiza glabra1 ,l474 #e4 ,:ite oak b>k 7,qu]cus alba1 ,l474 ,cubes occur 9 s5na1 casc>a sagrada1 frangula1 :ite p9e1 tam>ac 7,plate #he71 quassia1 uva-ursi1 quebra*o1 & 9 wild *]ry 7,plate #hf74 ,! cry/als ( morea nutgalls 7,plate #hb1 ,fig4 #c7 are octah$rons1 & !y resemble ! cry/als ( calcium oxalate f\nd 9 ur9>y s$im5ts4 ,:ile /udy+ ! prisms1 focus fir/ on ! upp] surface & !n d[n to ! "u surface 9 ord] to obs]ve ! =ms accurately4 ,!re are sev]al plants 9 :i* m ?an "o =m ( cry/al occur4 ,rosette cry/als & prisms are associat$1 = in/ance1 9 casc>a sagrada1 frangula1 condurango1 dogwood1 & pleurisy root 7,plate #hg1 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 & #e74 ,an important factor to be kept 9 m9d 9 /udy+ cry/als is ! numb]--:e!r abundant1 z 9 rhub>b1 or sp>+ly pres5t1 z 9 m&rake1 etc4 ,v>iation 9 ! numb] ( cry/als is n uncommon1 ev5 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! same plants4 ,9 wahoo /em b>k1 = in/ance1 !re are sev]al times z _m rosette cry/als z !re are 9 ! root b>k4 ,cry/als ( calcium oxalate are freely soluble 9 dilute hydro*loric acid )\t eff]vesc5ce2 b !y are insoluble 9 acetic acid & 9 sodium & potassium hydroxide solutions4 ,) sulphuric acid !y =m cry/als ( calcium sulphate4 ,,cy/oli?s ,cy/oli?s consi/ ( calcium c>bonate deposit$ ov] & ar\nd a framework ( cellulose4 ,,=ms ,,( ,,cy/oli?s ,! =ms ( cy/oli?s diff] greatly 9 ! diff]5t plants 9 :i* !y occur4 ,9 ! rubb]-plant leaf1 ! cy/oli? resembles a bun* ( grapes & is /alk$2 9 ruellia root 7,plate #hg1 ,fig4 #a7 ! cy/oli?s v>y f ne>ly circul> to n>r[ly cyl9drical1 & no /alk is pres5t2 also ! cy/oli? ne>ly fills ! cell 9 :i* x occurs4 ,9 ! hair ( cannabis indica 7,plate #hh1 ,fig4 #c71 ! cy/oli? v>ies 9 =m accord+ to ! size & %ape ( ! hair1 b 9 all ! hairs ! cy/oli? appe>s to be atta*$ to ! upp] curv$ "p ( ! inn] wall ( ! hair4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #he ,,solit>y ,,cry/als #a4 ,india s5na 7,cassia angu/ifolia1 ,vahl474 #b4 ,casc>a sagrada b>k 7,rhamnus pur%iana1 ,d4 ,c474 #c4 ,frangula b>k 7,rhamnus frangula1 ,l474 #d4 ,:ite p9e b>k 7,p9us /robus1 ,l474 #e4 ,tam>ac b>k 7,l>ix l>ic9a ,du ,roi1 ,ko*74 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #hf ,,solit>y ,,cry/als #a4 ,quassia 7,picrna excelsa ,sw>tz41 ,l9dl474 #b4 ,uva-ursi leaf 7,arcto/aphylos uva-ursi ,l41 ,spr+474 #c4 ,quebra*o b>k 7,aspidosp]ma quebra*o-blanco1 ,s*le*t5dal74 #d4 ,wild-*]ry b>k 7,prunus s]ot9a1 ,ehrh474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #hg ,,rosette ,,cry/als ,,& ,,solit>y ,,cry/als ,,occurr+ ,,9 #a4 ,casc>a sagrada b>k 7,rhamnus pur%iana1 ,d4,c474 #b4 ,frangula b>k 7,rhamnus frangula1 ,l474 #c4 ,cundurango b>k 7,m>sd5ia cundurango1 ,triana ,ni*ols74 #d4 ,dogwood root b>k 7,cornus florida1 ,l474 #e4 ,pleurisy root 7,asclepias tub]osa1 ,l474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #hh ,,cy/oli?s #a4 ,ruellia root 7,ruellia ciliosa1 ,pur%474 #b4 ,pellionia leaf4 #c4 ,cannabis indica 7,cannabis sativa1 v>iety ,indica1 ,lam474 ,cy/oli?s occur1 !n1 9 special cavities1 9 p>5*yma cells 7rubb]-plant leaf1 fig1 pellionea1 & mulb]ry71 & 9 non-gl&ul> hairs 7cannabis indica74 ,9 p[d]$ ruellia root ! cy/oli?s occur 9 or are sep>at$ f ! p>5*yma cells4 ,,te/s ,,= ,,cy/oli?s ,:5 dilute hydro*loric acid or acetic acid is add$ to cy/oli?s a brisk eff]vesc5ce takes place ) ! evolution ( c>bon dioxide gas4 ,"p ,,iii ,,hi/ology ,,( ,,roots1 ,,rhizomes1 ,,/ems1 ,,b>ks1 ,,woods1 ,,fl[]s1 ,,fruits1 ,,& ,,se$s ,9 ,"p ,,ii ! diff]5t types ( cells & cell cont5ts f\nd 9 plants h be5 /udi$4 ,9 ,"p ,,iii x w be %[n h[ ^! diff]5t cells are associat$ & ! nature ( ! cell cont5ts 9 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! plant4 ,^! p>ts are ! root1 ! rhizome1 ! /em ( h]bs1 b>k & wood ( woody /ems1 ! leaf1 ! fl[]1 ! fruit1 & ! se$4 ,,*apt] ,i ,,roots ,,& ,,rhizomes ,"s fifty-five roots1 rhizomes1 & rhizomes & roots are (ficial 9 ! ph>macopia & national =mul>y4 ,ab\t #e ( ^! are obta9$ f monocotyl$on\s plants1 & #ej f dicotyl$on\s plants4 ,9 /udy+ ! /ructure ( roots & rhizomes1 !n1 x mu/ fir/ be det]m9$ :e!r ! root 9 "q is monocotyl$on\s or dicotyl$on\s4 ,?is fact is asc]ta9$ by det]m9+ ! type ( ! fibro-vascul> bundle4 ,! bundle is ( ! op5 collat]al type 9 all rhizomes & roots obta9$ f monocotyl$on\s plants1 b x is clos$1 radial1 or conc5tric 9 ! monocotyl$on\s type4 ,9 bo? ( ^! gr\ps ! cellul> plan ( /ructure is simil>1 ! *ief v>iation be+ ! abs5ce ( "o or m types ( cells1 ! v>iation 9 ! am\nt1 9 arrangem5t1 9 ! anatomical /ructure1 9 ! color1 & 9 ! cell cont5ts ( ! individual cells4 ,^! facts w be impress$ on ! m9d :ile /udy+ ! rhizomes & ! roots4 ,,cross-,,section ,,p9k ,,root ,! cross-section ( p9k root 7,plate #hi7 has ! foll[+ /ructure3 ,epid]mis4 ,! epid]mal cells are small1 ne>ly z long z broad1 & ! out] wall is ?ick] & d>k] 9 color ?an ! side & inn] walls4 ,! cells usually conta9 air4 ,cortex4 ,! cortical p>5*yma cells are v l>ge & some:at r\nd$ 9 outl9e1 & ! walls are :ite4 ,!re are ab\t twelve r[s ( ^! cells1 & ea* cell conta9s num]\s small1 r\nd$ />* gra9s4 ,endod]mis4 ,! endod]mal cells are tang5tially elongat$1 & ! walls are v ?9 & :ite4 ,!re are two or ?ree lay]s ( endod]mal cells2 ! cells' out] lay]s are l>g] ?an ! cells ( ! inn] lay]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #hi ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,root ,,( ,,spigelia ,,m>yl&ica1 ,l4 #a4 ,epid]mis4 #b4 ,cortical p>5*yma4 #b4 ,int]cellul> space4 #c4 ,endod]mis4 #d4 ,p]icycle4 #e4 ,cambium4 #f4 ,xylem4 #g4 ,pi?4 ,p]icycle4 ,! cells =m+ ! p]icycle are sieve cells & phloem p>5*yma4 ,! sieve cells are small1 angl$ cells ) extremely ?91 :ite walls4 ,! phloem p>5*yma resemble ! sieve cells1 except t !y are l>g]4 ,cambium4 ,! cambium cells are rectangul> 9 %ape2 ! walls are ?9 & :ite4 ,xylem4 ,! xylem is compos$ ( tra*eids1 wood p>5*yma1 & wood fibres4 ,tra*eids4 ,! tra*eids are ! l>ge/ diamet] cells ( ! c5tre ( ! root4 ,! walls are ?ick & ! cells are slightly angl$ 9 outl9e4 ,wood ,p>5*yma4 ,! wood p>5*yma cells surr\nd+ ! tra*eids are five to sev51 angl$1 & ! walls are n s ?ick z ! walls ( ! tra*eids4 ,m$ull>y ,rays4 ,! m$ull>y ray cells resemble ! /ructure ( ! wood p>5*yma cells1 b !y are radially elongat$4 ,pi? ,p>5*yma4 ,! cells =m+ ! pi? p>5*yma are l>g] ?an ! cells ( wood p>5*yma1 b _! /ructure is simil>4 ,,cross-,,section ,,ruellia ,,root ,! cross-section ( ruellia root 7,plate #ij7 %[s ! foll[+ /ructure4 ,x %\ld be c>efully not$ h[ ! /ructure diff]s f t ( p9k root3 ,epid]mis4 ,! epid]mal cells are angl$ & v>iable 9 size2 _m ( ! epid]mal cells are modifi$ z root hairs4 ,hypod]mis4 ,! cells ( ! hypod]mis are "o lay] 9 ?ickness & _! /ructure is simil> to ! epid]mal cells4 ,cortex4 ,! cortex conta9s p>5*yma & /one cells4 ,! out] lay]s ( ! cortical p>5*yma cells are r\nd 9 outl9e1 & !y conta9 d>k-br[n cell cont5ts1 :ile ! cortical p>5*yma cells bord]+ on ! endod]mis are small & !y are free ( d>k-br[n cont5ts4 ,_m ( ! inn] p>5*yma cells conta9 amorph\s deposits ( calcium c>bonate4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ij ,,ruellia ,,root 7,ruellia ciliosa1 ,pur%474 #a4 ,epid]mis ) root hair4 #b4 ,p>5*yma cells ) d>k cont5ts4 #c4 ,scl]id4 #d4 ,p>5*yma )\t d>k cell cont5ts4 #e4 ,endod]mis4 #f4 ,ba/ fib]s & phloem4 #g4 ,cambium4 #h4 ,xylem4 #aj4 ,pi?4 ,! /one cells are por\s & /riat$1 & ! walls are ?ick & :ite4 ,endod]mis4 ,! endod]mal cells are tang5tially elongat$1 & ! walls are ?9 & :ite4 ,p]icycle4 ,! cells =m+ ! p]icycle are ! sieve cells1 ba/ fibres1 & phloem p>5*yma4 ,! sieve cells are small1 angl$ cells ) ?91 :ite walls4 ,! phloem p>5*yma cells resemble ! sieve cells1 b !y are l>g]4 ,! ba/ fibres occur s+ly or 9 gr\ps ( two or ?ree4 ,!y are r\nd$ 9 outl9e1 & ! walls are :ite1 non-por\s1 & non-/riat$4 ,xylem4 ,! xylem is compos$ ( vessels1 wood p>5*yma1 & wood fibres4 ,vessels4 ,! vessels are r\nd$ 9 outl9e & few 9 numb]4 ,wood ,p>5*yma4 ,! wood p>5*yma cells are v>iable 9 size & %ape1 b all ! cells are angl$ 9 outl9e4 ,m$ull>y ,rays4 ,! m$ull>y ray cells are n cle>ly di/+ui%able4 ,pi? ,p>5*yma4 ,! pi? p>5*yma cells ( ! c5tre ( ! root resemble ! cortical p>5*yma cells4 ,t ! /ructure ( rhizomes is simil> to ! /ructure ( roots is %[n by ! draw+s ( spigelia rhizome 7,plate #ia71 & by ruellia rhizome 7,plate #ib74 ,,cross-,,section ,,spigelia ,,rhizome ,! cross-section ( spigelia rhizome 7,plate #ia7 is z foll[s3 ,epid]mis4 ,! epid]mal cells are ne>ly angl$ & free ( cell cont5ts4 ,cortex4 ,! cortical p>5*yma cells are usually slightly tang5tially elongat$4 ,! cells ( ! out] lay]s are l>g] ?an ! cells ( ! inn] lay]s4 ,phloem4 ,! phloem conta9s sieve cells & phloem p>5*yma4 ,! sieve cells are small1 angl$ cells ) ?91 :ite walls4 ,! phloem p>5*yma cells resemble ! sieve cells1 b !y are l>g]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ia ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,rhizome ,,( ,,spigelia ,,m>yl&ica1 ,l4 #a4 ,epid]mis4 #b4 ,cortical p>5*yma4 #c4 ,phloem4 #d4 ,cambium4 #e4 ,xylem4 #f4 ,int]nal phloem4 #g4 ,pi? ) />*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ib ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,rhizome ,,( ,,ruellia ,,ciliosa1 ,pur%4 #a4 ,epid]mis4 #b4 ,cy/oli?4 #c4 ,/one cell4 #d4 ,cortical p>5*yma4 #e4 ,ba/ fibres4 #f4 ,p]icycle4 #g4 ,xylem4 #h4 ,pi?4 ,cambium4 ,! cambium cells are rectangul>1 & !y are usually n cle>ly se5 because ! walls are p>tially collaps$4 ,xylem4 ,! xylem is compos$ ( vessels1 wood p>5*yma1 m$ull>y rays1 & pi? p>5*yma4 ,vessels4 ,! vessels are slightly angl$ 9 outl9e & few 9 numb]4 ,wood ,p>5*yma4 ,! wood p>5*yma cells are small & angl$4 ,m$ull>y ,rays4 ,! m$ull>y ray cells are tang5tially elongat$1 b 9 /ructure resemble ! wood p>5*yma cells4 ,pi? ,p>5*yma4 ,! pi? p>5*yma cells are r\nd$ 9 outl9e & conta9 small1 simple1 r\nd$ />* gra9s4 ,,cross-,,section ,,ruellia ,,rhizome ,! cross-section ( ruellia rhizome 7,plate #ib7 diff]s f ! /ructure ( spigelia rhizome4 ,x is z foll[s3 ,epid]mis4 ,! epid]mal cells v>y 9 %ape f ne>ly squ>e to oblong1 & !y are fill$ ) d>k-br[n cell cont5ts4 ,cortex4 ,! cortex conta9s p>5*yma & /one cells4 ,! out] lay] ( ! cortical p>5*yma cells are v>iable 9 size & _m ( ! cells conta9 deposits ( calcium c>bonate & d>k cell cont5ts2 ! inn] p>5*yma cells are l>g] & !y are free ( ! d>k-br[n cell cont5ts1 b _m ( ! cells conta9 deposits ( calcium c>bonate4 ,/one cells ) ?ick1 :ite1 por\s1 & /riat$ walls occur 9 among ! cortical p>5*yma cells4 ,phloem4 ,! phloem conta9s sieve cells1 phloem1 p>5*yma1 & ba/ fibres4 ,! sieve cells are small & ) ?91 :ite1 angl$ walls4 ,! phloem p>5*yma cells resemble ! sieve cells1 b !y are l>g]4 ,! ba/ fibres occur s+ly or 9 gr\ps ( two or ?ree4 ,! walls are :ite1 non-por\s1 & non-/riat$4 ,cambium4 ,! cambium lay] is compos$ ( rectangul>ly %ap$ cells1 :i* are frequ5tly oblit]at$4 ,xylem4 ,! xylem conta9s vessels1 wood p>5*yma1 & m$ull>y rays4 ,! vessels are l>ge1 r\nd$ cells ) ?ick walls4 ,! wood p>5*yma consi/s ( ?ick-wall$ cells ( irregul> size & =m4 ,! m$ull>y rays are tang5tially elongat$ & rectangul> 9 =m4 ,pi? p>5*yma4 ,! pi? p>5*yma cells are r\nd$ 9 outl9e & z l>ge z ! cortical p>5*yma cells4 ,,p[d]$ ,,p9k ,,root ,:5 ! roots & rhizomes ( spigelia are p[d]$ 7,plate #ic7 !y %[ ! foll[+ /ructure3 ,! epid]mal cells are small & br[ni% on surface view1 v>y+ 9 size f #ac by #ah micromillimet]s to #ca by #dj micromillimet]s4 ,:5 associat$ ) p>5*yma !y appe> z black masses4 ,! cortical p>5*yma cells are r\nd$ & v>y 9 size f #bc by #bf micromillimet]s to #cg4e by #ij micromillimet]s4 ,_m ( ! cells f ! root conta9 l>g] quantities ( m9ute s+le r\nd$ />* gra9s v>y+ 9 size f #a micromillimet] to #d micromillimet]s4 ,! l>g] r\nd s+le />* gra9s are f\nd 9 bo? ! cortical & pi? p>5*yma ( ! rhizome4 ,!y v>y 9 size f #e micromillimet]s to #ah micromillimet]s4 ,! conduct+ elem5ts are pitt$ tra*eids v>y+ f #aj micromillimet]s to #ch micromillimet]s 9 diamet]4 ,a few pitt$ & annul> vessels are also f\nd4 ,! only fibres occurr+ are f\nd 9 ! xylem4 ,!y are n a prom95t feature ( ! p[d]1 z _! walls break up into m9ute fragm5ts4 ,! pi? p>5*yma v>ies 9 size f #ac by #ai micromillimet]s to #ge by #hb4e micromillimet]s4 ,x is 9 ^! cells t ! l>ge/ />* gra9s occur4 ,di/+ui%+ diagno/ic *>act]s ( ! p[d]3 #a4 ,p>5*yma ) />*4 #b4 ,d>k masses ( epid]mal tissue4 #c4 ,spigelia %\ld conta9 />*1 & x %\ld n conta9 cy/oli?s1 /one cells1 or long1 :ite-wall$ ba/ fibres4 ,,p[d]$ ,,ruellia ,,root ,:5 ! roots ( ruellia root & rhizome are p[d]$ 7,plate #id7 !y %[ ! foll[+ /ructure3 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ic ,,p[d]$ ,,spigelia ,,m>yl&ica1 ,l4 #a4 ,epid]mis & cortical p>5*yma4 #b4 ,tra*eids & fibres4 #c4 ,p>5*yma cells ( ! root conta9+ ! small />* gra9s1 longitud9al view4 #d4 ,p>5*yma ( ! rhizome conta9+ ! l>ge />* grams1 transv]se view4 #e4 ,tra*eids4 #f4 ,surface view ( ! epid]mal cells4 #g4 ,/>* scatt]$ ?r\gh ! field4 #h & #h4 ,d>k masses ( epid]mal & und]ly+ tissue4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #id ,,p[d]$ ,,ruellia ,,ciliosa1 ,pur%4 #a4 ,%ort1 broad cy/oli?s f ! rhizome1 #a4 ,long cy/oli?s f ! root4 #b & #b4 ,long1 n>r[1 :ite-wall$ ba/ fibres4 #c4 ,tra*eal tissue f ! xylem ( ! /em4 #d4 ,root p>5*yma4 #e4 ,tra*eal tissue f ! xylem ( ! root4 #f4 ,cortical p>5*yma cells f ! rhizome ) %ort1 broad cy/oli?s4 #g & #g4 ,long1 ?ick-wall$ scl]ids f ! root4 #h4 ,%ort1 broad scl]ids f ! /em4 #i4 ,pitt$ pi? p>5*yma f ! /em ) int]cellul> space4 #aj4 ,p>5*yma ( ! root ) scl]id & cy/oli?1 longitud9al view4 ,! epid]mal cells v>y f #g4h by #ae4f micromillimet]s to #ae4a by #af4f micromillimet]s4 ,! cell cont5ts are d>k & ! walls are light4 ,a few r[s ( ! out] cortical p>5*yma cells ( bo? ! rhizome & ! root h d>k cell cont5ts & :ite walls4 ,! d>k cont5ts disappe> t[>d ! phloem4 ,! cortical cells v>y f #ac4f by #ad4c micromillimet]s to #hi4e by #ij4i micromillimet]s4 ,9 ! cortical p>5*yma cells ( ! rhizome are f\nd ! %ort1 broad cy/oli?s measur+ up to #eb by #fb micromillimet]s4 ,9 ! correspond+ cells ( ! root are f\nd ! long1 n>r[ cy/oli?s :i* measure up to #fh4d by #ahg4b micromillimet]s4 ,scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! p[d] are se5 ?ree di/9ct types ( scl]ids 7/one cells7 :i* are associat$ ) ! cortical p>5*yma ( bo? ! /em & ! root4 ,mo/ ( !m are f\nd1 h[ev]1 9 ! roots4 ,fir/1 ! %ort1 broad /one cells f ! /em basis h squ>e ends2 ! walls v>y f #ac to #ai4e micromillimet]s 9 ?ickness ) bran*+ pores :i* ext5d t[>d ! adjac5t cell4 ,^! scl]ids v>y 9 size f #eb by #ed4f micromillimet]s to #de by #acj micromillimet]s4 ,secondly1 ! long /one cells f ! root v>y f #cb by #if micromillimet]s to #de4e by #edb4e micromillimet]s ) walls #af micromillimet]s ?ick4 ,! wid? ( ! cell & ! ?ickness ( ! wall v>y b little ?r\gh\t _! entire l5g?4 ,! ?ird type ( /one cell also f ! root has unequally ?ick5$ walls & ! ends are squ>e or blunt4 ,a few long1 n>r[1 colorless1 ?9-wall$ ba/ fibres also occur4 ,!y are #ac micromillimet]s wide1 ) walls #c4i micromillimet]s ?ick4 ,annul> spiral & pitt$ vessels are also f\nd scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! p[d]4 ,! diagno/ic *>act]s ( ! p[d] are3 #a4 ,! %ort1 broad1 & long1 n>r[ cy/oli?s4 #b4 ,! %ort1 broad1 & long1 n>r[ scl]ids4 #c4 ,! long1 n>r[1 ?91 :ite-wall$ ba/ fibres4 ,9 poke root1 ipecac1 s>sap>illa1 & v]atrum are raphides4 ,9 belladonna & horse-nettle roots are micro-cry/als4 ,9 calumba1 /ill+ea1 kram]ia1 licorice1 scamony root are prisms4 ,9 sapon>ia1 jalap1 al!a1 spik5>d1 rumex1 rhub>b are rosette cry/als4 ,9 pleurisy roots bo? prisms & rosettes occur4 ,9 g5tian1 s5ega1 symphytuns1 lovage1 p>sley1 inula1 e*9acea1 angelica1 burdock1 & *icory no cry/als ( any k9d occur4 ,root hairs occur 9 cross-sections ( s>sap>illa root & false unicorn1 b ) ^! exceptions3 root hairs d n occur on roots1 because ! y\ng] "p ( ! root ) root hairs is n remov$ f ! soil :5 ! drug is collect$4 ,9 s>sap>illa root !re are sev]al lay]s ( hypod]mal cells2 9 mo/ roots !re are no hypod]mal cells4 ,9 ! non-woody roots or ! roots ( h]bs ! p>5*yma cells =m ! great] "p ( ! tissues ( ! root4 ,9 ruellia root are /one cells2 9 spigelia root & _m o!r roots !re are no /one cells4 ,9 ruellia root are ba/ fibres2 9 spigelia1 g5tian1 ipecac1 *icory1 d&elion1 symphytum1 & lovage no ba/ fibres occur4 ,9 all ! woody roots !re is a p]id]m consi/+ ( typical cork cells1 z 9 black haw2 or /one cells1 z 9 asclepias2 or ( a mixture ( lifeless p>5*yma1 m$ull>y rays1 etc41 z 9 ,oregon grape root4 ,woody roots h a phellog5 lay] :i* is abs5t 9 ! non-woody roots4 ,! numb]s ( lay]s ( cortical p>5*yma diff] 9 ! same root accord+ to its age1 b = a giv5 root !re is a normal v>iation4 ,! numb] ( lay]s ( cortical p>5*yma 9 proportion to o!r cells is less 9 woody roots4 ,9 woody roots !re is no endod]mis4 ,! cambium 9 ^! cases %[s cle>ly betwe5 ! phloem & ! xylem "p ( ! fibro-vascul> bundle4 ,9 woody roots ! wood fibres are well develop$ & =m a l>ge "p ( ! root1 & ! m$ull>y rays h pitt$ side & end walls4 ,! description giv5 above ( ruellia root is n typical ( all roots1 b ! /ructure repres5ts ! great] numb] ( ! elem5ts t x is possible to f9d 9 a root4 ,9 _m roots1 = in/ance1 !re are no /one cells1 9 o!rs no epid]mis & no endod]mis4 ,9 asclepias1 aconite1 & calumba /one cells occur4 ,9 symphytum1 *icory1 d&elion1 burdock1 elecampane1 pyre ?rum1 g5tian1 & s5ega no /one cells occur4 ,9 aconite1 al!a1 asclepias1 belladonna1 bryonia1 columba1 ipecac1 jalap1 kram]ia1 s>sap>illa1 scamony1 /ill+ea1 & rumex are *>act]i/ic />* gra9s4 ,symphytum1 *icory1 d&elion1 burdock1 elecampane1 & pyre?rum conta9 inul91 b no />*4 ,9 sapon>ia1 g5tian1 & s5ega nei!r />* nor inul9 occurs4 ,:5 /udy+ roots ! nature ( ! epid]mis or ! p]id]m mu/ be consid]$1 z also ! numb] ( lay]s ( cortical p>5*yma2 ! occurr5ce1 di/ribution1 & am\nt ( /one cells :5 pres5t2 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ! endod]mis2 ! occurr5ce & /ructure ( ba/ fibres :5 pres5t2 ! nature ( ! cambium cells2 ! wid? & /ructure ( ! m$ull>y rays1 ! size ( ! wood fibres & wood p>5*yma1 & ! nature ( ! cell cont5ts & ! arrangem5t ( ! fibro-vascul> bundle4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,/ems ,:5 /udy+ /ems x %\ld fir/ be det]m9$ :e!r !y 7 d]iv$ f monocotyl$on\s or dicotyl$on\s plants4 ,?is fact is asc]ta9$ by det]m9+ ! type ( ! fibro-vascul> bundle4 ,see ,*apt] ,,xi4 ,! next fact to det]m9e is :e!r ! /em is f an h]b or f a woody plant4 ,?is fact is readily det]m9$ because h]bace\s /ems h a true epid]mis1 masses ( coll5*yma at ! angles ( ! /em4 ,! cortical cells conta9 *lorophyll1 & ! pi? is v l>ge4 ,woody /ems h a corky lay]1 a phellog5 lay]1 & ! pi? is v small except 9 ! v "y woody /ems4 ,hav+ det]m9$ ^! facts1 a /udy %\ld be made ( ! arrangem5t1 =m1 /ructure1 color1 & ! cell cont5ts ( ! diff]5t cells 9 ord] to det]m9e ! species ( plant f :i* ! /em 0 obta9$4 ,,h]bace\s ,,/ems ,! great v>iation 9 ! /ructure ( h]bace\s /ems is %[n 9 ! cross-sections ( spigelia 7,plate #ie72 9 ruellia 7,plate #if72 9 ! *>ts ( p[d]$ g5u9e horeh\nd1 p[d]$ spuri\s horeh\nd1 & 9 ! *>t ( p[d]$ insect fl[] /ems4 ,,cross-,,section ,,spigelia ,,/em ,spigelia /em 7,plate #ie7 has ! foll[+ *>act]i/ic /ructure3 ,epid]mis4 ,! epid]mal cells are papillate4 ,cortex4 ,! cortical p>5*yma cells consi/ ( tang5tially elongat$ cells :i* are oval 9 outl9e4 ,phloem4 ,! phloem consi/s ( sieve cells1 phloem p>5*yma1 & ( ba/ fibres4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ie ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,/em ,,( ,,spigelia ,,m>yl&ica1 ,l4 #a4 ,papillate epid]mis4 #d4 ,phloem4 #g4 ,inn] phloem4 #b4 ,cortical p>5*yma4 #e4 ,cambium4 #h4 ,pi?4 #c4 ,ba/ /]eome4 #f4 ,xylem4 ,! sieve cells are small1 & ) ?91 :ite1 angl$ walls4 ,! phloem p>5*yma resembles ! sieve cells1 b !y are l>g]4 ,! ba/ fibres are r\nd$ 9 outl9e & ! walls are ?ick1 :ite1 non-por\s1 & non-/riat$4 ,cambium4 ,! cambium cells are rectangul> 9 %ape or ! walls are collaps$ & ! cells indi/9ct4 ,xylem4 ,! xylem conta9s vessels1 wood p>5*yma1 m$ull>y rays4 ,! vessels are small & angl$1 ! walls are ?ick & :ite4 ,wood p>5*yma4 ,! cells are v>iable 9 size & %ape1 & ! walls are ?ick4 ,! m$ull>y ray cells are small1 n>r[1 & tang5tially elongat$4 ,int]nal ,phloem4 ,ext]nal to ! pi? p>5*yma are isolat$ gr\ps ( int]nal phloem consi/+ ( sieve cells4 ,pi? ,p>5*yma4 ,! pi? p>5*yma cells are oval 9 =m & irregul>ly plac$4 ,! cells conta9 small1 simple />* gra9s4 ,,ruellia ,,/em ,! cross-section ( ruellia /em 7,plate #if7 is z foll[s3 ,epid]mis4 ,! epid]mal cells are v>iable 9 %ape & v l>ge4 ,!re are no cell cont5ts4 ,cortex4 ,! cortex consi/s ( coll5*yma & p>5*yma cells & /one cells4 ,! coll5*yma cells h v small1 angl$ cavities & v ?ick walls4 ,^! cells make up ! great] "p ( ! cortex4 ,! cortical p>5*yma cells are v>iable 9 size & %ape4 ,! /one cells occur s+ly or 9 gr\ps4 ,! walls are ?ick1 :ite1 por\s1 & /riat$1 & ! c5tral cavity is frequ5tly q l>ge4 ,phloem4 ,! phloem conta9s sieve cells1 phloem p>5*yma1 & ba/ fibres4 ,! sieve cells h ?91 :ite1 angl$ walls4 ,! phloem p>5*yma cells are frequ5tly tang5tially elongat$1 o!rwise !y resemble ! sieve cells4 ,! ba/ fibres occur alone or 9 gr\ps4 ,! walls are ?ick1 :ite & por\s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #if ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,/em ,,( ,,ruellia ,,ciliosa1 ,pur%4 #a4 ,epid]mis4 #b4 ,coll5*yma4 #c4 ,p>5*yma4 #d4 ,scl]ids4 #e4 ,ba/ fibres4 #f4 ,phloem4 #g4 ,cambium cells4 #h4 ,xylem4 #aj4 ,pi? p>5*yma4 ,cambium4 ,! cambium cells are rectangul> 9 %ape & ! walls are ?94 ,xylem4 ,! xylem conta9s vessels1 wood p>5*yma1 & m$ull>y rays4 ,! vessels are l>ge2 ! walls are ?ick1 :ite1 & angl$4 ,! wood p>5*yma cells are v>iable 9 size & %ape & ! walls are angl$4 ,! m$ull>y ray cells are radially elongat$ & rectangul> 9 %ape4 ,pi? ,p>5*yma4 ,! pi? p>5*yma cells are l>ge & r\nd$ 9 %ape4 ,,p[d]$ ,,horeh\nd ,! /ructure ( p[d]$ horeh\nd is %[n 9 ,*>t #ig4 ,! epid]mal cells ( ! leaf 7#a7 are wavy 9 outl9e1 ! gu>d cells are elliptical1 ! /oma l5s-%ap$1 ! epid]mis (t5 %[+ hairy outgr[? z 9 ! illu/ration4 ,! epid]mal cells ( ! petals 7#b7 h irregul>ly ?ick5$ bead$ walls4 ,! non-gl&ul> hairs f ! calyx 7#c72 ! long1 ?9-wall$1 multicellul> non-gl&ul> twi/$ hairs 7#d7 f ! leaves & /ems2 long1 ?9-wall$1 unicellul> hairs 7#e7 f ! tube ( ! corolla2 ! gl&ul> hairs 7#f7 ) a "o-cell$ /alk & ) two secret+ cells divid$ by v]tical walls2 ! eight-cell$ gl&ul> hair 7#g7 z se5 9 surface & side view2 ! spiral & reticulat$ conduct+ cells 7#h72 ! ?ick1 :ite-wall$ fibres f ! /em 7#i72 ! poll5 gra9s 7#aj7 ) ne>ly smoo? walls4 ,! diagno/ic elem5ts ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,p4 horeh\nd are ! long1 twi/$1 multicellul> hairs 7#d71 ! gl&ul> hairs 7#g71 & ! poll5 gra9s 7#aj74 ,,p[d]$ ,,spuri\s ,,horeh\nd ,m>rubium p]egr9um1 :i* is a relat$ species ( horeh\nd & :i* is a common adult]ant ( horeh\nd1 has ! foll[+ /ructure 7,plate #ih73 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ig ,,p[d]$ ,,horeh\nd 7,m>rubium vulg>e1 ,l74 #a4 ,epid]mis ( leaf %[+ ! wavy epid]mal cells1 /oma1 & a clu/]$ hair4 #b4 ,surface view ( ! petal epid]mis4 #c4 ,non-gl&ul> hair f ! calyx or corolla4 #d4 ,long1 ?9-wall$1 twi/$1 non-gl&ul> hairs f ! leaves & /em4 #e4 ,unicellul> non-gl&ul> hair f ! tube ( ! corolla4 #f4 ,gl&ul> hairs ) a "o-cell$ /alk & ) two secret+ cells divid$ by v]tical walls4 #g4 ,surface & side view ( ! eight-cell$ gl&ul> hairs4 #h4 ,conduct+ cells4 #i4 ,fibres f ! /em4 #aj4 ,poll5 gra9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ih ,,spuri\s ,,horeh\nd 7,m>rubium p]egr9um1 ,l47 #a4 ,surface view ( ! leaf epid]mis4 #b4 ,view ( ! petal epid]mis4 #c4 ,non-gl&ul> multicellul> bran*$ hair f ! /em1 leaves1 or fl[]s ) a few ( ! l[] bran*es brok54 #d4 ,brok5 pieces & bran*es f ! comp\nd hairs scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! field4 #e4 ,unicellul> gl&ul> hair ) a two-cell$ /alk4 #f4 ,"u-surface view ( an eight-cell$ gl&ul> hair4 #g4 ,side view ( eight-cell$ gl&ul> hair4 #h4 ,long1 po9t$1 unicellul>1 non-gl&ul> hair f ! corolla1 ! wall irregul>ly ?ick5$ ne> ! apex4 #i4 ,fibres4 #aj4 ,poll5 gra9s1 #aa4 ,conduct+ cells ( leaf4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ii ,,p[d]$ ,,insect ,,fl[] ,,/ems 7,*rysan!mum c9]>iifolium1 ,trev41 ,vis47 #a4 ,surface view ( epid]mis4 #b4 ,cross-section ( epid]mis4 #c4 ,hairs4 #d4 ,fibres4 #e4 ,cross-section ( fibres4 #f4 ,longitud9al view ( pi? p>5*yma4 #g4 ,cross-section ( pi? p>5*yma4 #h4 ,conduct+ cells4 ,! wavy leaf epid]mis 7#a7 ) /oma2 ! bead$ wall petal epid]mis 7#b72 ! non-gl&ul>1 multicellul> bran*$ hairs 7#c7 f ! /em leaves or fl[]s2 ! brok5 pieces & bran*es ( ! comp\nd hairs 7#d7 scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! field2 ! gl&ul> hairs 7#e7 ) a two-cell$ /alk2 ! eight-cell$ gl&ul> hair 7#g7 se5 9 surface view & a side view 7#h7 ( a simil> hair2 ! long1 po9t$1 unicellul> non-gl&ul> hair f ! tube ( ! corolla1 ! wall irregul>ly ?ick5$ ne> ! apex2 ! fibres 7#i7 f ! /em2 ! poll5 gra9s 7#aj7 ) prom95t c5trifugal projections2 ! conduct+ cells4 ,! diagno/ic elem5ts ( m>rubium p]egr9um are ! multicellul> bran*$ hairs 7#c7 :i* occur on all p>ts ( ! plant1 usually mu* brok5 9 ! p[d]1 ) walls _m times ?ick] ?an ! walls ( ! hairs f\nd 9 ,u4 ,s4 ,p4 horeh\nd2 ! poll5 gra9s 7#aj7 ) c5trifugal projections & ! /alk$ gl&ul> hairs 7#e74 ,,insect ,,fl[] ,,/ems ,insect fl[] /ems are ! *ief adult]ant ( insect fl[]s4 ,until ! passage ( ! insecticide law1 x 0 a common practice to sell 7= insect p[d]7 a mixture ( p[d]$ /ems & fl[]s4 ,s9ce ! passage ( ! law1 ! pres5ce ( ! /ems 9 a p[d] is suppos$ to be decl>$ on ! label4 ,9 spite ( ! p5alties atta*$1 _! pres5ce 9 a p[d] is frequ5tly n decl>$1 z evid5c$ by a microscopical exam9ation ( ! insect p[d]s obta9$ 9 ! op5 m>ket4 ,! /ructure ( p[d]$ insect fl[] /ems 7,*>t #ii7 is z foll[s3 ,! epid]mal cells ( ! /ems are prom95tly m>k$ ) /oma & angl$1 /riat$ wall cells 7,fig4 #a74 ,on cross-section 7,fig4 #b7 ! /em is se5 to be made up ( epid]mal cells ) ?ick out] & ?9 side walls 7,fig4 #b74 ,! ,t-%ap$ hairs 7,fig4 #c7 are long] ?an ^? f\nd on any o!r "p ( ! plant4 ,! fibres 7,fig4 #d7 are ! mo/ *>act]i/ic "p ( ! p[d]4 ,!y are elongat$1 & ! walls are :ite & slightly por\s & ( ne>ly uni=m ?ickness4 ,!y occur free 9 ! field or 9 gr\ps ( two or m4 ,! cross-section view ( ^! fibres is %[n 9 ,fig4 #e4 ,! pi? p>5*yma 7,fig4 #f7 is abundant & is compos$ ( ?ick1 por\s-wall$ cells4 ,on cross-section ! cells are r\nd$ & are sep>at$ by int]cellul> spaces4 ,! conduct+ cells 7,fig4 #h7 v>y f spiral to reticulate4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,woody ,,/ems ,,bu*u ,,/em ,! cross-section ( a bu*u /em 7,plate ,c71 #a4f millimet]s 9 diamet]1 %[s a few ( ! epid]mal cells modifi$ into ?ick-wall$1 r\ghi%1 unicellul> tri*omes 7#a74 ,! rema9+ epid]mal cells h a ?ick1 wavy out] wall 7#b74 ,b5ea? ! epid]mis are sev]al r[s ( cortical p>5*yma cells 7#c7 :i* ext5d to ! ba/ bundles & 9 :i* are f\nd ! secretory cavities ) ! ?9-wall$ secretory cells 7#d74 ,! ba/ fibres 7#e7 occur 9 cont9u\s b&s1 v>y+ greatly 9 size2 ! walls are :iti% & ( v>iable ?ickness4 ,inside ! ba/ fibres1 ! small irregul> sieve cells 7#f7 occur 9 gr\ps1 surr\nd$ by ! phloem p>5*yma 7#h74 ,! radially elongat$ cells ( ! m$ull>y rays 7#g7 ext5d outw>d f ! xylem1 increas+ 9 numb] 9 ! out] portions ( ! wood1 & ext5d+ ne>ly to ! ba/ fibres4 ,no di/9ct cambium lay] is visible4 ,! conduct+ cells 7#i7 occur ?r\gh\t ! xylem surr\nd$ by ! wood fibres & wood p>5*yma 7#aj74 ,! latt] is n v abundant 9 bu*u4 ,! m$ull>y rays bord] on ! conduct+ cells & ext5d outw>d to ! phloem4 ,! pi? p>5*yma cells are ne>ly circul> 9 outl9e & (t5 %[ a p]=at$ end wall :5 a cell happ5s to be cut j above or bel[ t po9t4 ,,mature ,,bu*u ,,/em ,9 ,plate #aja-;,a is %[n ! cork =mation or second>y gr[? z se5 9 ! old]1 l>g] bu*u /ems4 ,! wavy epid]mis 7#a71 :i* is ! prim>y epid]mis & :i* has disappe>$ on _m portions ( ! /em1 has ?9 side walls & d>k cell cont5ts 7#b74 ,next to ! epid]mal cells occur sev]al r[s ( peculi>ly ar*$ cork cells ) ?ick1 :ite out] walls 7#c7 & r$di%-br[n cell cont5ts 7#d74 ,! cork cambium 7#e7 is typical 9 =m1 & x has =m$ "o or two lay]s ( phellod]m cells 7#f7 :i* h ! same =m z ! cambium cells b ) ?ick] walls4 ,next to ! phellod]m occur ! cortical p>5*yma cells4 ,! rema9+ /ructure ( ! mature /em is id5tical ) t ( ,fig4 #b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ajj ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,bu*u ,,/ems 7,b>osma betul9a ,b]g41 ,b>?1 & ,w5dl47 #a4 ,hairs4 #b4 ,wavy epid]mis4 #c4 ,cortical p>5*yma4 #d4 ,secretion cells & cavity4 #e4 ,gr\p ( ba/ fibres4 #f4 ,sieve cells4 #g4 ,m$ull>y rays4 #h4 ,phloem p>5*yma4 #i4 ,vessels4 #aj4 ,wood fibres1 & wood p>5*yma4 #aa4 ,pi? p>5*yma4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #aja ,a4 ,cross-section ( bu*u /em 7,b>osma betul9a ,b]g41 ,b>?4 & ,w5dl474 #a1 ,out] wall ( epid]mis2 #b1 ,cell cavity ( epid]mal cell2 #c1 ,wall ( cork cell2 #d1 ,cavity ( cork cell2 #e1 ,phellog5 lay]2 #f1 ,divid$ phellog5 cell *ang+ into a cortical p>5*yma cell2 #g1 ,cortical p>5*yma cell4 ,b4 ,cross-section ( lept&ra rhizome 7,lept&ra virg9ica ,l41 ,nutt474 #a1 ,p>5*yma cells und]go+ *ange 9 ! composition ( _! walls2 #b1 ,a break 9 ! epid]mal tissue2 #c1 ,p>5*yma cells und]go+ division4 ,,p[d]$ ,,bu*u ,,/em ,p[d]$ bu*u /em 7,plate #ajb7 has _m /rik+ features :i* make x easy ( id5tification :5 mix$ ) bu*u leaves4 ,a few unicellul>1 r\gh1 ?ick1 :ite-wall$ tri*omes 7#a7 occur di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! field4 ,!y are /raight or slightly curv$ & v>y 9 l5g? f #dj to #ajj microns2 9 ?ickness at ! ba/ !y measure f #aj to #bb microns4 ,! c5tral cavity v>ies greatly1 & 9 "s tri*omes seems to h disappe>$ entirely4 ,! epid]mal cells 7#b7 are v *>act]i/ic1 occurr+ s+ly or 9 gr\ps ( two or m4 ,! cells f ! old] /ems (t5 appe> r$di% br[n by transmitt$ light1 :ile ! epid]mal cells f ! y\ng] /ems appe> :iti% opaque 7porcela9-l74 ,!y are usually six-sid$ & angul> 9 outl9e4 ,! cortical p>5*yma cells 7#c7 on transv]se view h a r\nd$ cell cavity & int]cellul> spaces betwe5 ! walls4 ,! d\ble walls v>y 9 ?ickness1 ! greate/ ?ickness be+ ab\t #i microns4 ,! p>5*yma cells 7#c7 on longitud9al view %[ squ>e ends & (t5 conta9 sphro-cry/all9e masses ( hesp]id94 ,! ?9-wall$ sieve cells & ! surr\nd+ cells are sc>cely ev] se5 9 ! p[d]4 ,! :ite-wall$ po9t$ /]eomes 7#d7 are a *>act]i/ic feature ( ! p[d]2 !y v>y greatly 9 l5g?1 9 diamet] & 9 ! ?ickness ( _! walls4 ,9 a numb] eighty p[d] ! fibres are mo/ly brok54 ,! greate/ l5g? ( ! unbrok5 fibres is #a4be microns4 ,! ?icke/ wall measur$ #e microns & ! greate/ obs]v$ wid? 0 #be microns4 ,! spiral reticulate & scal>i=m ?ick5$ conduct+ cells occur scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! p[d]4 ,! reticulate & scal>i=m cells usually occur ) wood fibres4 ,x is an int]e/+ fact t ! spiral ?ick5+ 9 conduct+ cells is usually sep>ate f ! side wall & ne>ly always appe>s z indicat$ at #e4 ,an occasional rosette cry/al ( calcium oxalate 7#f7 is se5 9 ! field4 ,! wood p>5*yma 7#g71 :i* makes up a v small p]c5tage ( ! xylem1 is n readily f\nd 9 ! p[d]4 ,! pi? p>5*yma cells 7#h7 h ?ick1 por\s side walls & p]=at$ side walls4 ,! wood fibres 7#i7 usually occur 9 masses surr\nd+ ! conduct+ cells2 :5 occurr+ s+ly1 ! oblique pores readily di/+ui% !m f ! ba/ fibres4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ajb ,,p[d]$ ,,bu*u ,,/ems 7,b>osma betul9a ,b]g41 ,b>?4 & ,w5dl474 #a4 ,hairs4 #b4 ,epid]mal cells1 ! l>g] pieces r$di%-br[n2 ! small] aggregations :ite4 #c4 ,transv]se cortical p>5*yma4 #c' ,longitud9al cortical p>5*yma ) sphro cry/all9e masses ( hesp]id94 #d4 ,ba/ fibres4 #e4 ,spiral1 scl>i=m1 & reticulate vessels4 #f4 ,rosette cry/als ( calcium oxalate4 #g4 ,wood p>5*yma4 #h4 ,pi? p>5*yma ) por\s side & end walls4 #i4 ,wood fibres4 ,! diagno/ic elem5ts ( p[d]$ bu*u /ems are3 ,fir/1 tri*omes2 secondly1 r$di%-br[n & :ite-angl$ epid]mal cells2 ?irdly1 ! long1 :ite ba/ fibres4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,b>ks ,b>ks are all obta9$ f dicotyl$on\s plants4 ,9 /udy+ b>ks !re %\ld be asc]ta9$ ! ?ickness1 arrangem5t1 =m1 /ructure1 color1 & cell cont5ts ( ! cells occurr+ 9 ! out]1 middle1 & inn] b>ks4 ,! out] b>k includes ! cork cells & ! phellog5 lay]4 ,! middle b>k includes all ! cells occurr+ betwe5 ! phellog5 lay] & ! beg9n+ ( ! m$ull>y rays4 ,! inn] b>k includes ! m$ull>y ray cells & all cells associat$ ) !m4 ,! plan ( /ructure ( all b>ks is simil>1 b 9 ea* species ( plant ! /ructure ( ! b>k is uni=m & *>act]i/ic = ! species4 ,a great numb] ( drugs consi/ ( ! b>k ( woody plants2 = ?is reason ! b>k is consid]$ 9 a sep>ate *apt] f ! /em4 ,,:ite ,,p9e ,,b>k ,! cross-section ( :ite p9e b>k 7,plate #ajc7 has ! foll[+ /ructure3 ,out] ,b>k4 ,! p]id]m consi/s ( sev]al lay]s ( r$di%-br[n cork cells 7#a7 :i* are n>r[1 elongat$1 & ) ?9 walls4 ,middle ,b>k4 ,! cells =m+ ! middle b>k are p>5*yma & secretion cells4 ,! p>5*yma cells v>y greatly 9 size1 =m1 & ?ickness ( ! walls4 ,! cells b5ea? ! cork cells & ar\nd ! secretion cells are tang5tially elongat$ & oval 9 %ape1 :ile ! o!r p>5*yma cells are m irregul> 9 %ape4 ,! secretion cells are arrang$ ar\nd ! s*izog5\s secretion cavities4 ,! cells are tang5tially elongat$1 & ! walls1 :i* are slightly papillate1 are :ite4 ,inn] ,b>k4 ,! cells =m+ ! inn] b>k are m$ull>y rays1 p>5*yma1 sieve cells1 & /orage cavities4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ajc ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,unross$ ,,:ite ,,p9e ,,b>k 7,p9us /robus1 ,l47 #a4 ,cork cells ( ! epid]mis4 #b4 ,p>5*yma cells fill$ ) *lorophyl4 #c4 ,int]cellul> space4 #d4 ,secretion cavity ) res94 #e4 ,secretion cells4 #f1 ,"o or m circles ( p>5*yma fill$ ) *lorophyl4 #g4 ,p>5*yma4 #h4 ,m$ull>y rays4 #i4 ,sieve cells4 #aj4 ,/orage cavities4 ,! m$ull>y rays =m wavy l9es4 ,! m$ull>y ray cells are radially elongat$1 rectangul> 9 %ape1 & !y conta9 granul> cell cont5ts4 ,! sieve cells are ei!r squ>e or rectangul> 9 %ape4 ,! walls are ?9 & :ite4 ,! /orage cavities are ei!r fill$ ) />* or ) prisms & tann94 ,,p[d]$ ,,:ite ,,p9e ,,b>k ,:ite p9e b>k 7,plate #ajd7 :5 p[d]$ %[s ! foll[+ *>act]i/ic elem5ts3 ,! microscopic /ructure ( a p[d]$ :ite p9e is z foll[s3 ,! epid]mis 7#a7 consi/s ( r$di%-br[n masses1 irregul> 9 outl9e4 ,! out] p>5*yma cells are ( a bright-gre5 color1 ow+ to ! pres5ce ( *lorophyll4 7,! above elem5ts are n usually f\nd 9 ! ross$ b>k47 ,! p>5*yma 7#c7 ) />* usually occurs 9 longitud9al sections accompani$ ) sieve cells4 ,(t5 ! tissue sep>ates transv]sely1 %[+ ! m$ull>y rays 7#d7 ) _! granul> cell cont5ts 7#i7 & ! inn] p>5*yma cells fill$ ) />* & ! surr\nd+ sieve cells4 ,! cry/als are ne>ly p]fect cubes & occur s+ly 7#e7 or 9 gr\ps 7#f74 ,on ! longitud9al section ( ! b>k ! cry/als occur 9 p>5*yma cells surr\nd$ by a r$di% cell cont5t & =m p>allel r[s :i* are v *>act]i/ic4 ,! res9 occurs ei!r z :ite1 angl$ fragm5ts 7#g7 9 a wat] m\nt1 or z globul> mass 7#h7 or z r$di%-br[n pieces 7#aj74 ,! />* is v abundant & is di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! field4 ,! diagno/ic gra9 is l5s-%ap$1 ) a cleft hilum1 :i* is ne>ly /raight1 or slightly curv$1 & runs p>allel to ! long diamet] ( ! gra94 ,! addition ( f]ric *lorid ,t4 ,s4 w %[ ! pres5ce ( tann9 by =m+ a d>k coloration4 ,! id5tification ( ! />* is facilitat$ by ! addition ( a weak ,lugol's solution1 :i* imp>ts a blue coloration to ! />* gra94 ,! =m1 am\nt1 & di/ribution ( ! cells compos+ ! b>k diff] greatly 9 diff]5t plants4 ,9 cramp b>k ! cork & phellog5 cells are v l>ge1 :ile 9 casc>a sagrada ! phellog5 & ! cork cells are v small4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ajd ,,p[d]$ ,,:ite ,,p9e ,,b>k 7,p9us /robus1 ,l47 #a4 ,epid]mis4 #b4 ,p>5*yma cells4 #c4 ,p>5*yma ) />*4 #d4 ,m$ull>y rays4 #e4 ,solit>y cry/als4 #f4 ,solit>y cry/als & tann94 #g1 #h & #aj4 ,res9 masses4 #i4 ,/>*4 ,9 canella alba b>k ! p]id]m is compos$ ( /one cell cork or /one cells arrang$ 9 sup]impos$ r[s1 :i* =m ! out] lay]s ( ! b>k4 ,9 :ite oak & mo/ b>ks f woody trees ! p]id]m consi/s ( lifeless p>5*yma1 m$ull>y rays1 sieve cells1 ba/ fibres1 & 9 "s cases /one cells & ( phellog5 cells4 ,9 "y wild *]ry1 casc>a sagrada1 & frangula are sev]al lay]s ( tang5tially elongat$ coll5*yma cells ) *lorophyll4 ,9 ! old] b>ks ( ! above & 9 _m o!r b>ks no coll5*yma cells occur4 ,9 cramp b>k & 9 tulip tree b>k ! out] lay]s ( ! cortical p>5*yma cells are bead$4 ,9 mo/ b>ks !re is no bead$ wall$ p>5*yma4 ,! out] lay]s ( mo/ cortical p>5*yma cells are tang5tially elongat$ :ile ! inn] p>5*yma cells are mo/ly circul> 9 outl9e4 ,9 :ite oak1 casc>a sagrada & prickly a% are gr\ps ( /one cells2 9 ! c9namon b>ks are b&s ( /one cells2 9 c9*ona b>k are isolat$ /one cells4 ,9 cramp b>k1 mez]um1 elm1 & :ite p9e b>k no /one cells occur4 ,9 frangula1 casc>a sagrada1 cocill9a1 c9namon1 c9*ona1 sassafras1 & wild *]ry b>ks ! ba/ fibres occur 9 gr\ps4 ,9 frangula1 casc>a sagrada1 & cocill9a ! ba/ fibres are surr\nd$ by cry/al cells ) cry/als4 ,9 sassafras b>k mucilage cells occur4 ,9 canella alba1 :ite p9e1 & sassafras b>ks secretion cells occur2 b 9 mo/ b>ks no secretion cells occur4 ,9 sassafras b>k ! m$ull>y ray cells are ne>ly z broad z long2 9 cramp b>k !y are elongat$ & oval 9 %ape4 ,9 casc>a sagrada1 z 9 mo/ b>ks1 ! cells are long] ?an broad & rectangul> 9 %ape4 ,9 casc>a sagrada ! sieve cells are v l>ge2 9 granatum b>k ! sieve cells are v small4 ,9 cassia c9namon & 9 canella alba b>k ! walls ( ! sieve cells h collaps$1 ) ! result t ! sieve cells h become p>tly oblit]at$4 ,9 wit*-hazel1 m\nta9 maple1 will[1 & black walnut are f\nd prisms2 9 cramp b>k1 black haw1 wahoo1 pomegranate1 & cotton root b>k are f\nd rosette cry/als2 9 ! c9namon b>ks are f\nd raphides2 9 c9*ona b>k1 micro-cry/als4 ,9 cocill9a1 frangula1 casc>a sagrada1 :ite oak1 popl> & ,jamaica dogwood b>ks are f\nd cry/al-be>+ fibres 7,plates #ai & #bj74 ,:5 /udy+ b>ks we mu/ consid] ! k9d1 /ructure1 & am\nt ( ! p]id]m2 ! nature ( ! phellog52 ! nature & am\nt ( ! cortical p>5*yma2 ! occurr5ce1 di/ribution1 & am\nt ( /one cells1 :5 pres5t2 ! occurr5ce & /ructure ( ! ba/ fibres2 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( secretion cells2 ! wid?1 di/ribution1 & /ructure ( ! m$ull>y rays4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,woods ,q a numb] ( drugs consi/ ( ! wood ( woody plants2 su* drugs are quassia1 r$ saund]s1 :ite s&alwood1 & guaiac4 ,:5 /udy+ woods x is necess>y to obs]ve ! cross1 tang5tial1 & radial sections4 ,su* sections ( quassia are %[n 9 ,plates #aje1 #ajf1 & #ajg4 ,:5 /udy+ ^! sections x %\ld be rememb]$ t :ile ! types ( cells =m+ quassia wood are simil> to ! cells =m+ o!r woods1 /ill _! /ructure1 arrangem5t1 & am\nt w v>y 9 a recognizable way 9 ! diff]5t woods4 ,,cross-,,section ,,quassia ,plate #aje is a cross-section ( quassia4 ,x has ! foll[+ /ructure3 ,vessels4 ,! vessels occur s+ly or 9 gr\ps ( two to eight cells4 ,! cells are v>iable 9 size & %ape4 ,! walls are yell[i% :ite & por\s4 ,m$ull>y ,rays4 ,! m$ull>y rays v>y f "o to five cells 9 wid?4 ,! m$ull>y ray cells are radially elongat$ & ! walls are /rongly por\s4 ,wood ,p>5*yma4 ,! wood p>5*yma cells h ?91 yell[i%-:ite1 angl$ walls4 ,wood ,fibres4 ,! wood fibres h ?ick1 yell[i%-:ite1 angl$ walls4 ,^! cells are small] 9 diamet] ?an ! wood p>5*yma cells4 ,,radial ,,section ,,quassia ,! radial section ( quassia 7,plate #ajg7 is z foll[s3 ,vessels4 ,! vessels appe> z 9 ! tang5tial section4 ,m$ull>y rays4 ,! m$ull>y rays v>y f t5 to tw5ty cells 9 height accord+ to ! "p ( ! m$ull>y ray bundle cut across4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #aje ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,quassia ,,wood 7,picrna excelsa ,sw41 ,l9dl47 #a4 ,vessels4 #b4 ,m$ull>y rays4 #c4 ,wood p>5*yma4 #d4 ,wood fibres4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ajf ,,tang5tial ,,section ,,( ,,quassia ,,wood 7,picrna excelsa ,sw41 ,l9dl47 #a4 ,vessel4 #b4 ,wood p>5*yma4 #c4 ,wood fibre4 #d4 ,end wall ( m$ull>y ray cell4 #e4 ,m$ull>y ray bundle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ajg ,,radial ,,section ,,( ,,quassia ,,wood 7,picrna excelsa ,sw41 ,l9dl47 #a4 ,%[+ ! height & l5g? ( ! m$ull>y rays & cells4 #b4 ,cells ) />*4 #c4 ,wood p>5*yma & wood fibres4 ,! m$ull>y ray cells exhibit _! height & l5g?4 ,! walls ( ! cells are yell[i% :ite & /rongly por\s4 ,wood ,p>5*yma4 ,! wood p>5*yma cells h yell[i%1 ?9 walls & blunt end walls4 ,wood ,fibres4 ,! wood fibres h ?ick1 yell[i%-:ite walls1 & ! end ( ! cells are /rongly tap]+4 ,,tang5tial ,,section ,,quassia ,! tang5tial section ( quassia 7,plate #ajf7 %[s ! foll[+ /ructure3 ,vessels4 ,! vessels are v long & broad & ! yell[ walls are m>k$ ) cle>ly def9$ pits4 ,m$ull>y ,rays4 ,! tang5tial section %[s ! cross-section ( ! m$ull>y ray bundle & ! cross-section ( ! m$ull>y ray cell4 ,! m$ull>y ray bundle v>ies 9 wid? f "o to five cells4 ,! ends ( ! bundles are always "o cell 9 wid?1 :ile ! c5tral "p ( ! bundle is frequ5tly five cells 9 wid?4 ,! m$ull>y ray cell v>ies 9 size1 /ructure1 & %ape accord+ to ! "p ( ! cell cut across4 ,! cells cut across ! c5tre %[ holl[ spaces1 b ! cells cut j above or bel[ ! end wall %[ a /rongly pitt$ surface4 ,! cells =m+ ! end ( ! bundle are l>g] ?an ! cells =m+ ! c5tre ( ! bundle4 ,wood ,p>5*yma4 ,! wood p>5*yma cells are greatly elongat$ & ! walls are ?9 & yell[i% :ite4 ,! ends ( ! cells are blunt4 ,wood ,fibres4 ,! wood fibres are elongat$1 ! walls are ?ick & ! cells are /rongly tap]+4 ,9 quassia1 :ite s&alwood1 r$ s&alwood1 & guaiac wood are *>act]i/ic cry/als4 ,9 quassia ! vessels are f9ely pitt$1 yell[i%1 & di/9ct2 9 :ite s&alwood ! vessels are co>sely & sp>+ly pitt$ & :ite transluc5t2 9 r$ saund]s ! vessels are co>sely pitt$1 bright r$ & di/9ct4 ,:5 /udy+ woods we mu/ consid] ! wid? ( ! m$ull>y rays1 ! /ructure & cell cont5ts ( ! m$ull>y ray cells2 ! /ructure1 color1 & cell cont5ts ( ! wood p>5*yma2 also ! wood fibres4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,leaves ,leaves collectively con/itute ! greate/ manufactur+ plant 9 ! _w4 ,mo/ ( ! food1 clo?+1 & m$ic9e us$ by man is =m$ z a result ( ! "w ( ! leaf4 ,! cell cont5ts1 /ructure1 & arrangem5t ( ! diff]5t cells ( ! leaf diff] 9 a m>k$ degree f ! cell cont5ts1 /ructure1 & arrangem5t ( ! cells 9 ! o!r organs ( ! plant4 ,?is acc\nts = ! pres5ce ( ! l>ge am\nt ( *lorophyll 9 ! leaf1 ! pres5ce ( /omata1 & ! peculi> arrangem5t ( ! cells4 ,x %\ld be asc]ta9$ if ! /omata are above1 ev5 )1 or bel[ ! epid]mis2 ! nature ( ! epid]mal cells1 &1 :5 pres5t1 ! nature ( ! hypod]mal cells2 ! numb] ( lay]s ( palisade p>5*yma & :e!r x is pres5t on bo? surfaces ( ! leaf1 & ! nature ( ! outgr[?s f ! epid]mal cells4 ,,klip ,,bu*u ,! cross-section ( klip bu*u 7,plate #ajh7 has ! foll[+ /ructure3 ,epid]mis4 ,! epid]mal cells ( klip bu*u are modifi$ to =m papill1 ! walls are yell[i% :ite1 & ! papillate portion ( ! cell is ne>ly solid4 ,hypod]mis4 ,! hypod]mal cells are nev] intact because ! mucilage conta9$ 9 ! cells swells :5 plac$ 9 wat] & breaks ! ?9 side walls4 ,upp] ,palisade ,p>5*yma4 ,! palisade p>5*yma is two lay]s 9 ?ickness4 ,! cells ( ! out] lay] are greatly elongat$ & are pack$ ) *lorophyll4 ,! inn] lay] ( palisade cells is m irregul>1 & ! cells are mu* %ort] ?an ! cells ( ! out] palisade lay]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ajh ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,klip ,,bu*u ,,j ,,ov] ,,! ,,ve9 ,a4 ,papillate upp] epid]mis4 ,b4 ,hypod]mal cells ) brok5 side walls1 due to expansion ( mucilage cont5ts4 ,c4 ,palisade cells1 %[+ two cells fill$ ) *lorophyll4 ,d4 ,palisade l mesophyll4 ,e4 ,endod]mis4 ,f4 ,vascul> /r& ( ve94 ,g4 ,conduct+ cells ) spirally ?ick5$ walls4 ,h4 ,*>act]i/ic leaf mesophyll4 ,i4 ,%ort1 ?ick palisade cells on ! "u side ( leaf1 j "u ! ve94 ,j4 ,"u hypod]mal cells4 ,k4 ,papillate "u epid]mis4 ,spongy ,p>5*yma4 ,! spongy p>5*yma cells are bran*$2 !re=e1 l>ge int]cellul> spaces occur betwe5 ! cells4 ,"u ,palisade ,p>5*yma4 ,! palisade cells ( ! "u epid]mis are %ort & broad1 & !y conta9 few] *lorophyll gra9s ?an ! upp] palisade cells ( ! upp] epid]mis4 ,^! cells occur only "u ! ve9s4 ,"u ,hypod]mis4 ,! "u hypod]mal cells are %ort] & broad] ?an ! upp] hypod]mal cells4 ,"u ,epid]mis4 ,! "u epid]mal cells are modifi$ to =m papill :i* are simil> to ! papill ( ! upp] epid]mis4 ,fibro-,vascul> ,bundle4 ,! cells compos+ ! vascul> bundle are sieve cells1 vessels1 & fibres4 ,! sieve cells are small & ! walls are :ite & angl$4 ,! vessels h ?ick1 :ite1 angl$ walls4 ,! ba/ fibres are r\nd$ 9 outl9e & ! walls are ?ick & :ite4 ,endod]mis4 ,! endod]mal cells encircle ! fibro-vascul> bundles4 ,! cells are l>ge1 ?9-wall$1 & oval 9 %ape4 ,secretion ,cells4 ,ne> ! edges ( ! leaf are s*izog5\s secretion cavities surr\nd$ by ?9-wall$ secretion cells4 ,,p[d]$ ,,klip ,,bu*u ,:5 ! leaf is p[d]$ 7,plate #aji71 ! cells are q z *>act]i/ic 9 appe>ance4 ,! upp] epid]mal cells 7#a7 h ?ick-bead$1 yell[i%-:ite walls & papillate out] walls4 ,no /omata occur on ! upp] surface4 ,! "u epid]mis 7#b7 ) num]\s /omata1 is surr\nd$ by ! *>act]i/ic gu>d cells4 ,! end walls are bead$ z on ! upp] surface4 ,! palisade cells 7#c7 appe> z 9 ! cross-section4 ,! conduct+ cells 7#d & #d7 are ( ! spiral & pitt$ type4 ,! papill 7#e & #e7 are v abundant 9 ! p[d] & v *>act]i/ic4 ,! fragm5ts ( ! epid]mis 7#f7 are also abundant4 ,! mesophyll 7#g7 is *>act]i/ic1 z x reta9s its =m :5 p[d]$4 ,! fibres 7#h7 are usually associat$ ) ! conduct+ cells2 occasionally !y are f\nd free z 9 ! illu/ration4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #aji ,,p[d]$ ,,klip ,,bu*u #a4 ,upp] epid]mis4 #b4 ,"u epid]mis4 #c4 ,palisade cells ) *lorophyll4 #d & #d4 ,conduct+ cells4 #e & #e4 ,papill4 #f4 ,fragm5ts ( ! epid]mis4 #g4 ,mesophyll4 #h4 ,fibres4 ,,m\nta9 ,,laurel ,epid]mis4 ,! epid]mal cells ( m\nta9 laurel are occasionally modifi$1 z unicellul> hairs 7,plate #aaj1 ,fig4 #a71 p>ticul>ly 9 ! region ( ! ve9s4 ,! ord9>y epid]mal cells h ?ick out] walls & ?9 inn] walls4 ,b5ea? _m ( ! epid]mal cells are l>ge air-spaces4 ,upp] ,palisade ,p>5*yma4 ,! palisade p>5*yma v>y f f\r to five lay]s4 ,! inn] palisade cells are %ort] & broad] ?an ! out] lay] ( cells4 ,p>5*yma4 ,! p>5*yma cells 7,fig4 #d7 are r\nd$ 9 =m & !y are arrang$ 9 ! =m ( columns :i* are "o cell 9 ?ickness above1 b two to ?ree cells 9 ?ickness ne> ! "u epid]mis4 ,betwe5 ea* *a9 ( cells is a l>g] int]cellul> space 7,fig4 #f74 ,9 a few ( ! cells are l>ge rosette cry/als4 ,"u ,epid]mis4 ,! "u epid]mal cells are uni=mly small] ?an ! upp] epid]mal cells4 ,x is ?us se5 t m\nta9 laurel leaf has no hypod]mal cells2 no spongy p>5*yma2 no "u palisade cells2 no "u hypod]mal cells1 & no secretion cavities4 ,,trail+ ,,arbutus ,epid]mis4 ,! epid]mal cells ( ! trail+ arbutus 7,plate #aaa1 ,fig4 #b7 are v>iable 9 size4 ,_m ( ! cells are modifi$1 z gu>d cells 7,fig4 #a74 ,p>5*yma4 ,! p>5*yma cells are r\nd & !y are compactly arrang$ 7,fig4 #c7 on ! upp] side ( ! leaf1 b on ! "u side !y are arrang$ 9 r\nd1 small1 int]cellul> spaces 7,fig4 #e74 ,9 "s ( ! int]cellul> spaces are rosette cry/als 7,fig4 #g74 ,"u ,epid]mis4 ,! "u epid]mal cells are small] ?an ! upp] epid]mal cells4 ,x w be se5 t ! /ructure ( trail+ arbutus leaf is v simple & t its /ructure is diff]5t f t ( klip bu*u & m\nta9 laurel4 ,! /ructure ( p[d]$ leaves is v v>iable1 yet *>act]i/ic = a giv5 species4 ,! leaves f ! insect fl[] plant are collect$ ) ! /ems1 & gr\nd & sold z a sub/itute = insect fl[]s4 ,^! leaves1 :5 p[d]$1 %[ ! foll[+ /ructure 7,plate #aab73 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #aaj ,,cross-,,section ,,m\nta9 ,,laurel 7,kalmia latifolia1 ,l47 #a4 ,hair4 #b4 ,epid]mis4 #c4 ,palisade p>5*yma4 #d4 ,p>5*yma4 #e4 ,"u epid]mis4 #f4 ,int]cellul> space4 #g4 ,rosette cry/al4 #h4 ,*lorophyll4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #aaa ,,cross-,,section ,,trail+ ,,arbutus ,,leaf 7,epiga rep5s1 ,l47 #a4 ,/omata4 #b4 ,epid]mis4 #c4 ,p>5*yma4 #d4 ,cell ) *lorophyll4 #e4 ,int]cellul> space4 #f4 ,"u epid]mis4 #g4 ,rosette cry/al4 ,bo? ! upp] & l[] epid]mis h /omata 7,figs4 #a & #b71 b !y diff] 9 t ! surr\nd+ cells ( ! upp] epid]mis are wavy1 :ile ! correspond+ cells ( ! "u epid]mis are simil>1 ?\gh ! "u epid]mis has _m atta*$ hairs 7,figs4 #c & #d74 ,! ,t-%ap$ hairs =m ! mo/ abundant elem5t ( ! p[d]4 ,!y are simil> 9 /ructure to ^? f\nd on ! scales & /em4 ,fragm5ts ( ! mesophyll h r\nd cells & conta9 *lorophyll 7,fig4 #f74 ,! conduct+ cells are spiral or reticulate4 ,! diff]5t cells ( ! leaf diff] greatly 9 /ructure1 9 am\nt1 & 9 arrangem5t4 ,9 uva-ursi1 boldus1 piloc>pus1 eucalyptus1 & *imaphila leaves ! out] walls ( ! epid]mal cell is v ?ick4 ,9 uva-ursi leaves ?is ?ick wall appe>s blui% gre5 :5 view$ "u l[ p[] ( ! microscope4 ,9 belladonna1 /ramonium1 h5bane1 pepp]m9t1 spe>m9t1 digitalis1 & horeh\nd1 ! out] wall ( ! epid]mal cells is ?94 ,9 wit*-hazel1 /ramonium1 coca1 phytolacca1 & pepp]m9t !re is a s+le lay] ( palisade p>5*yma on ! upp] surface only ( ! leaf4 ,9 s5na !re is "o lay] ( palisade p>5*yma on ! upp] & "o lay] on ! "u side ( ! leaf4 ,9 matico & tea leaves !re are two lay]s ( spongy p>5*yma on ! upp] side ( ! leaf4 ,9 *e/nut leaves !re are ?ree lay]s ( palisade p>5*yma on ! upp] side ( ! leaf4 ,9 eucalyptus leaves ! entire c5tral "p ( ! leaf1 ) ! exception ( ! secretion cells & fibro-vascul> bundle1 is made up ( ! palisade p>5*yma4 ,9 "s leaves no palisade p>5*yma occurs4 ,trail+ arbutus 7,plate #aaa7 is an example ( su* a leaf4 ,9 /ramonium leaves ! spongy p>5*yma is /rongly bran*$2 9 m\nta9 laurel ! spongy p>5*yma is mo/ly non-bran*$ & circul> 9 =m1 z 9 trail+ arbutus 7,plate #aaa1 ,fig4 #c71 & z occurs 9 ! midrib portion ( mo/ leaves4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #aab ,,p[d]$ ,,insect ,,fl[] ,,leaves 7,*rysan!mum c9]>iifolium ,trev41 ,vis47 #a4 ,upp] epid]mis4 #b4 ,"u epid]mis %[+ /oma & hair sc>4 #c4 ,cross-section ( "u epid]mis ) atta*$ hair4 #d4 ,cross-section ( upp] epid]mis4 #e4 ,hairs4 #f4 ,mesophyll ) *lorophyll bodies4 #g4 ,conduct+ cells4 ,9 /ramonium & *e/nut are f\nd rosette cry/als4 ,9 h5bane1 coca1 & s5na are f\nd prisms4 ,9 belladonna1 scapola1 & tobacco leaves are f\nd micro-cry/als4 ,9 mo/ leaves no cry/als occur4 ,9 wit*-hazel & tea leaves /one cells occur1 b 9 mo/ leaves !re are no /one cells4 ,9 eucalyptus1 ?yme1 jabor&i1 bu*u1 rosem>y1 & :ite p9e leaves are secretion cells2 :ile 9 belladonna1 /ramonium cells occur4 ,9 s5na & coca leaves are cry/al-be>+ fibres2 mo/ leaves d n h cry/al-be>+ fibres4 ,9 *imaphila & uva-ursi !re are no outgr[?s f ! epid]mal cells4 ,9 s5na1 wit*-hazel1 *e/nut1 & coca1 num]\s non-gl&ul> hairs occur on ! epid]mis4 ,9 tobacco1 belladonna1 h5bane1 p5nyroyal1 pepp]m9t1 & spe>m9t bo? gl&ul> & non-gl&ul> hairs occur on ! epid]mis4 ,:5 /udy+ leaves !re %\ld be consid]$ ! abs5ce or pres5ce ( outgr[?s & _! nature2 ! nature ( ! epid]mis &1 :5 pres5t1 ! numb] ( lay]s ( ! hypod]mis2 ! nature ( ! /oma1 :e!r rais$ above1 ev5 )1 or bel[ ! level ( ! epid]mis2 ! numb] ( lay]s1 & ! di/ribution1 :5 pres5t1 ( ! palisade p>5*yma2 ! =m & am\nt ( ! spongy p>5*yma2 ! abs5ce or pres5ce ( secretion cells2 ! nature & =m ( ! fibro-vascul> bundles1 & ! nature & am\nt ( ! organic & inorganic cell cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,fl[]s ,! hi/ological /ructure ( fl[]s is readily se5 9 ! p[d]2 !re=e1 9 /udy+ fl[]s1 x is n necess>y to section ! v>i\s p>ts4 ,ea* "p ( ! fl[] %\ld be isolat$ & p[d]$ sep>ately & ea* sep>at$ "p /udi$4 ,9 ea* case ! p[d]s w conta9 surface1 cross-1 & radial sections ( ! p>ts p[d]$4 ,:ile /udy+ fl[]s1 special att5tion %\ld be giv5 to ! poll5 gra9s1 to ! papill ( ! petals1 to ! papill ( ! /igma1 &1 9 c]ta9 fl[]s1 to ! /yle tissue4 ,9 ! composite fl[]s special att5tion %\ld also be giv5 to ! involucre scales1 to ! scales ( receptacle1 &1 :5 pres5t1 to ! pappus4 ,9 addition1 att5tion mu/ be giv5 to secretion cavities1 z 9 cloves4 ,,poll5 ,,gra9s ,poll5 gra9s are "o ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic elem5ts f\nd 9 p[d]$ fl[]s1 because !y are s small t !y are n brok5 up :5 ! drug is mill$4 ,! two pr9cipal gr\ps ( poll5 gra9s are1 fir/1 ^? ) non-sp9y walls 7,plate #aac72 &1 secondly1 ^? ) sp9y walls 7,plate #aad71 z %[n 9 ! two *>ts4 ,9 lav5d] fl[]s ! poll5 gra9s h six con/rictions ( ! out] wall4 ,?is wall is slightly /riat$ & ! cell cont5ts are granul>4 ,9 clov] fl[]s ! poll5 gra9s are mo/ly r\nd$ 9 outl9e1 ! wall is uni=mly ?ick5$1 & cell cont5ts are co>sely granul>4 ,9 belladonna fl[]s ! poll5 gra9s t]m9ate 9 ?ree blunt po9ts4 ,9 ,spani% saffron ! poll5 gra9s are sph]ical & ! cell cont5ts are granul>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #aac ,,smoo?-,,wall$ ,,poll5 ,,gra9s #a4 ,cloves 7,eug5ia c>yophyllata1 ,?unb474 #b4 ,santonica 7,artemisia pauciflora1 ,web]74 #c4 ,eld] 7,sambucus canad5sis1 ,l474 #d4 ,c5tury m9or 7,ery?ra c5taurium ,l41 ,p]s474 #e4 ,pi*i 7,fabiana imbricata1 ,r4 & ,p474 #f4 ,cyani4 #g4 ,lav5d] 7,lav&ula (fic9alis1 ,*aix474 #h4 ,clov] 7,trifolium prat5se1 ,l474 #i4 ,belladonna 7,atropa belladonna1 ,l474 #aj4 ,spani% saffron 7,crocus sativus1 ,l474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #aad ,,sp9y ,,wall$ ,,poll5 ,,gra9s #a4 ,an!mis 7,an!mis nobilis1 ,l474 #b4 ,arnica 7,arnica montana1 ,l474 #c4 ,cal5dula 7,cal5dula (fic9alis1 ,l474 #d4 ,cassia fl[]s4 #e4 ,am]ican saffron 7,c>?amus t9ctorius1 ,l474 #f4 ,blue malva fl[]s 7,malva sylve/ris1 ,l474 ,! non-sp9y-wall$ poll5 gra9s diff] n only 9 microscopic appe>ance1 b also 9 size4 ,clove poll5 gra9s are ! smalle/1 :ile ,spani% saffron poll5 gra9s are ! l>ge/4 ,,non-,,sp9y-,,wall$ ,,poll5 ,,gra9s ,9 cloves ! poll5 gra9s %[ a six-sid$1 angl$ cavity & an out] wall :i* t]m9ates 9 ?ree slightly po9t$1 n>r[ly not*$ portions1 sep>at$ by ne>ly /raight walls4 ,9 santonica ! poll5 gra9s h smoo?1 unequally ?ick5$ walls1 :i* are /rongly con/rict$ at ?ree po9ts1 ! outl9e resembl+ ?ree half-circles plac$ toge!r4 ,9 eld] fl[]s ! poll5 gra9s appe> circul> or ?ree-p>t$4 ,! wall is ( ne>ly uni=m ?ickness1 ev5 at ! con/rict$ "p ( ! gra94 ,9 c5tury m9or ! poll5 gra9s %[ ?ree pron\nc$ re/rictions4 ,! wall at ^! po9ts is v ?94 ,9 pi*i fl[]s ! poll5 gra9s are ei!r circul> or ?ree-sid$ & ?ree-po9t$4 ,inside ( ea* po9t !re is a ne>ly :ite pore4 ,9 "s ( ! gra9s ! poll5 tube has gr[n out ( "o ( ! pores4 ,9 cyani fl[]s ! poll5 gra9s are long] ?an broad & ! cell cont5ts appe> to be divid$ into two end portions & an elevat$ middle portion4 ,,sp9y-,,wall$ ,,poll5 ,,gra9s ,9 an!mis ! poll5 gra9s h unequally ?ick5$ walls con/rict$ 9 ?ree places4 ,! sp9es are %ort1 broad at ! base1 & %>p-po9t$4 ,9 arnica fl[]s ! poll5 gra9s %[ ?ree light-color$ pores & num]\s %ort sp9es4 ,9 cal5dula fl[]s ! poll5 gra9s %[ "o or m pores1 typically ?ree pores4 ,^! pores appe> z :ite spots1 & ! wall imm$iately ov] ! pore is smoo? & ?9n] ?an ! rema9+ "p ( ! wall2 ! sp9es are v num]\s4 ,9 cassia fl[] poll5 gra9s ! out] wall is ext5d$ into a numb] ( r\nd$ projections :i* are frequ5tly arrang$ 9 sets ( f\rs4 ,9 ,am]ican saffron fl[]s ! poll5 gra9s %[ "o1 two1 or ?ree light-color$ pores2 ! sp9es are %ort & broad4 ,9 blue malva fl[]s ! poll5 gra9s are sph]ical & ! out] wall ext5ds into num]\s sp9elike projections4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! sp9y-wall$ poll5 gra9s diff] greatly 9 size1 ! smalle/ be+ ! poll5 gra9 ( an!mis & ! l>ge/ be+ ! poll5 gra9 ( blue malva fl[]s4 ,9 matric>ia are num]\s1 gre5i%-br[n1 sp9y-wall$ poll5 gra9s4 ,9 an!mis are multicellul>1 unis]iate non-gl&ul> hairs ) ?ree or f\r %ort1 broad1 yell[-wall$ basal cells & a greatly elongat$1 ?91 gray-wall$ apical cell4 ,9 arnica are multis]iat$ bran*$ hairs ( ! pappus1 & num]\s l>ge1 yell[i%1 sp9y-wall$ poll5 gra9s4 ,,/igma ,,papill ,! papill ( ! /igma ( mo/ fl[]s =m a *>act]i/ic elem5t ev5 :5 ! fl[] is p[d]$4 ,9 ! case ( composite fl[]s ! papill ( ! disk & ray fl[]s diff]4 ,9 ,am]ican saffron ! papill ( ! /yle diff] 9 a recognizable way f ! papill ( ! /igma4 ,! papill ( ! /igma ( ! ray & disk fl[]s ( arnica1 an!mis1 matric>ia1 & insect fl[]s diff] greatly4 ,ev5 ! papill ( ! /igma ( ! ray & disk fl[]s diff]4 ,9 all cases obs]v$ ! papill ( ! ray fl[]s are small] ?an ! papill ( ! disk fl[]s4 ,! papill ( ! /igma ( saffron 7,plate #aae1 ,fig4 #c7 are long & tubul>4 ,^! papill are ne>ly uni=m 9 diamet]1 & ! apex is blunt & r\nd$4 ,! wall is slightly granul> 9 appe>ance4 ,! papill ( ! /igma ( ,am]ican saffron 7,plate #aaf1 ,fig4 #b7 are %ort & tubul>4 ,ea* papilla is broade/ at ! base & tap]s to a sl5d] po9t4 ,! papill ( t "p ( ! /yle :i* em]ges f ! corolla 7,plate #aaf1 ,fig4 #a7 are l>ge & curv$1 & ! walls are v ?ick4 ,! apex ( ! papilla is frequ5tly solid4 ,! papill ( ! /igma ( ! ray fl[]s ( an!mis 7,plate #aag1 ,fig4 #a7 h ?91 slightly /riat$ walls2 :ile ! papill ( ! /igma ( ! disk fl[]s 7,plate #aag1 ,fig4 #b7 are long]1 ! walls are ?ick]1 & ! cell cont5t is d5s]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #aae ,,papill #a4 ,arnica ray fl[]s 7,arnica montana1 ,l474 #b4 ,insect fl[] disk 7,*rysan!mum c9]>iifolium ,trev41 ,vis474 #c4 ,true saffron 7,crocus sativus1 ,l474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #aaf ,,papill ,,( ,,/igmas #a4 ,/igma papill ( ,am]ican saffron 7,c>?amus t9ctorius1 ,l47 f t "p ( ! /yle t em]ges f ! corolla4 #b4 ,papill f ! upp] "p ( ! /igma ( ,am]ican saffron4 #c4 ,papill ( ! /igma ( ! disk fl[]s ( arnica 7,arnica montana1 ,l474 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #aag ,,papill ,,( ,,/igmas #a4 ,/igma papill ( ! ligulate fl[]s ( an!mis 7,an!mis nobilis1 ,l474 #b4 ,/igma papill ( ! tubul> fl[]s ( an!mis4 #c4 ,/igma papill ( ! ligulate fl[]s ( matric>ia 7,matric>ia *amomilla1 ,l474 #d4 ,/igma papill ( ! disk fl[]s ( matric>ia4 #e4 ,/igma papill ( ! ligulate fl[]s ( insect fl[] 7,*rysan!mum c9]>iifolium ,trev41 ,vis474 ,! papill ( ! /igma ( ! ray 7,plate #aag1 ,fig4 #c7 & disk fl[]s 7,plate #aag1 ,fig4 #e7 ( matric>ia are simil> 9 /ructure1 b ! papill ( ! disk fl[]s are l>g]4 ,! papill ( ! /igma ( ! ligulate fl[]s ( insect fl[]s 7,plate #aag1 ,fig4 #e7 are tubul>2 ! walls are /riat$1 & 9 ea* papilla !re is a small yell[ globule1 :ile ! papill ( ! disk fl[]s 7,plate #aae1 ,fig4 #b7 are long & tubul>1 & ! walls are ?ick4 ,! papill ( ! /igma ( ! ray fl[]s ( arnica 7,plate #aae1 ,fig4 #a7 are v %ort & tubul>4 ,! walls are ?9 & ! cell cont5ts appe> z small1 bright-yell[ globules1 :ile ! papill ( ! /igma ( ! disk fl[]s 7,plate #aaf1 ,fig4 #c7 are broade/ at ! base1 ! apex is po9t$1 & ! yell[ globules are l>g]4 ,! solit>y hairs are divid$ into ! bran*$ & non-bran*$ hairs4 ,,p[d]$ ,,insect ,,fl[]s ,! microscopic exam9ation ( insect p[d] is difficult = ! reason t !re are s _m elem5ts to be con/antly kept 9 m9d4 ,! p>ts ( ! fl[] :i* contribute *>act]i/ic cells are ! /em1 involucre1 ray fl[]s1 disk fl[]s1 & ! receptacle4 ,9 ea* ( ^! p>ts !re are _m diff]5t types ( cells4 ,!re are practically two types ( fl[]s f\nd 9 insect p[d] ( comm]ce3 fir/1 clos$ or immature fl[]s1 & secondly1 op5 or mature fl[]s4 ,z expla9$ above1 ! half-op5 fl[]s consi/ l>gely ( ! two above-nam$ v>ieties4 ,let u fir/ consid] ! /ructure ( ! clos$ insect fl[]s z illu/rat$ 9 ,plate #aah4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #aah ,,p[d]$ ,,clos$ ,,insect ,,fl[] 7,*rysan!mum c9]>iifolium1 ,trev4 ,vis47 #a4 ,edge ( scale4 #b4 ,fibre ( scale4 #c4 ,hairs4 #d4 ,upp] epid]mis ( ray fl[]4 #e4 ,"u epid]mis ( ray fl[]4 #f4 ,cross-section ( ray petal4 #g4 ,p>5*yma ( ray fl[]s ) cry/als4 #h4 ,lobe ( disk petal4 #i4 ,filam5t tissue4 #aj4 ,calyx tissue1 #aa4 ,lobe ( /am54 #ab4 ,poll54 #ac4 ,papill ( /igma4 #ad4 ,secretion cavity ) surr\nd+ cells4 #ae4 ,p>5*yma ( ! receptacle4 ,! involucre has _m *>act]i/ic cells4 ,! m prom95t ones se5 9 ! p[d] are ! edge ( ! scale ) ! atta*$ hair 7,fig4 #a74 ,^! hairs 7,fig4 #c7 are ,t-%ap$4 ,! t]m9al cell is exp&$ lat]ally1 & x t]m9ates 9 two po9ts4 ,connect+ ! t]m9al cell ) ! epid]mis are two or ?ree cells :i* are slightly long] ?an broad4 ,9 ! p[d] ! t]m9al cell is usually atta*$ to fragm5ts only ( ! support+ cells4 ,fibres ( ! bracts h ?ick1 wavy1 por\s walls1 & !y h a t5d5cy to occur 9 masses4 ,! upp] epid]mis 7,fig4 #d7 ( ! ray-fl[] petal is prom95tly papillate4 ,! "u epid]mis consi/s ( wavy cells )\t papill4 ,ano!r view ( ! papill is %[n 9 ,fig4 #f4 ,! p>5*yma ( ! ray fl[]s 7,fig4 #g7 conta9 cubical cry/als4 ,! lobe ( ! disk-fl[] petal 7,fig4 #h7 is papillate at ! end1 ! t]m9al cells h ?ick out] & ?9 inn] walls4 ,! filam5t tissue 7,fig4 #i7 is compos$ ( ne>ly squ>e cells4 ,! calyx tissue 7,fig4 #aj7 is made up ( ?9-wall$ cells ) slightly papillate m>g9s4 ,! lobe ( ! /am5 7,fig4 #aa7 consi/s ( ne>ly uni=m epid]mal cells :i* are 9 contact ?r\gh\t _! long diamet]1 :ile ! hypod]mal cells are ?9-wall$ & angl$4 ,! poll5 gra9s 7,fig4 #ab7 are d>k yell[i% gre51 ?91 & ! wall does n appe> p]=at$ by pores4 ,! papill ( ! /igma 7,fig4 #ac7 are clu/]$1 club-%ap$1 & ne>ly :ite 9 color4 ,!y are usually f\nd deta*$ 9 ! p[d]4 ,all p>ts ( ! pi/il conta9 secret+ cells1 b ! mo/ conspicu\s secret+ cavities 7,fig4 #ad7 are ^? ( ! ov>y4 ,^! cavities appe> br[ni% 9 color & are surr\nd$ by small cells :i* appe> indi/9ct on acc\nt ( ! great numb] ( sup]impos$ cells4 ,! p>5*yma ( ! receptacle occurs 9 fragm5ts :i* h /rongly m>k$ por\s walls4 ,,op5 ,,insect ,,fl[]s ,_m ( ! /ructures ( op5 insect fl[]s 7,plate #aai7 are simil> to ^? f\nd 9 ! clos$ fl[]4 ,!re is practically no diff]5ce 9 ! edge ( ! scale 7,fig4 #a72 or ! fibre ( ! scale 7,fig4 #b72 or ! ,t-%ap$ hairs 7,fig4 #c72 or ! upp] epid]mis ( ! ray fl[] 7,fig4 #d72 or ! "u epid]mis ( ! ray fl[] 7,fig4 #e72 or ! cross-section ( ! ray petal 7,fig4 #f72 or ! lobe ( ! disk petal 7,fig4 #g72 or ! filam5t tissue 7,fig4 #h72 or ! lobe ( ! /am5 7,fig4 #i72 or ! papill ( ! /igma 7,fig4 #ab72 or ! p>5*yma ( ! receptacle 7,fig4 #ae74 ,! diff]5ce 9 /ructure is f\nd1 fir/1 9 ! involucre scales1 :i* are m fibr\s ?an ! scales ( ! clos$ fl[]s2 secondly1 9 ! poll5 7,fig4 #aa71 :i* is less abundant ?an 9 ! clos$ fl[]2 x is also light] 9 color & usually %[s ! wall p]=at$ by ?ree pores2 ?irdly1 ! out] lay]s ( ! a*5e consi/ ( ?ick1 por\s-wall$ /one cells 7,fig4 #ac71 :i* occur s+ly or 9 gr\ps2 f\r?ly1 ! secretion cavity is broad] & d>k] 9 color 7,fig4 #ad74 ,^! diff]5ces enable "o at once to di/+ui% betwe5 ! clos$ & op5 insect fl[]s4 ,n[1 s9ce ! half-clos$ fl[]s consi/ almo/ :olly ( a mixture ( equal p>ts ( clos$ & op5 fl[]s1 x foll[s t ! elem5ts ( ^! two fl[]s w be mix$ 9 ab\t equal proportions4 ,?us we are able to di/+ui% microscopically ! ?ree comm]cial v>ieties ( insect p[d]--namely1 clos$ insect fl[]s1 op5 insect fl[]s1 & half-op5 insect fl[]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #aai ,,p[d]$ ,,op5 ,,insect ,,fl[] 7,*rysan!mum c9]>iifolium1 ,trev4 ,vis47 #a4 ,edge ( involucre scale4 #b4 ,fibres ( involucre scale4 #c4 ,hairs4 #d4 ,upp] epid]mis ( ray fl[]4 #e4 ,"u epid]mis ( ray fl[]4 #f4 ,cross-section ( ray petal4 #g4 ,lobe ( disk fl[]4 #h4 ,filam5t tissue4 #i4 ,lobe ( /am54 #aj4 ,calyx tissue1 #aa4 ,poll54 #ab4 ,papill ( ! /igma4 #ac4 ,/one cells f ! a*5e & cross-section ( a*5e4 #ad4 ,secretion cavity ) surr\nd+ cells4 #ae4 ,p>5*yma ( ! receptacle4 ,insect fl[]s are ! mo/ valuable vegetable insecticide kn[n2 yet mu* ( its effectiv5ess is de/roy$ by ! adult]ants :i* are s readily id5tifi$ by ! comp\nd microscope4 ,,p[d]$ ,,:ite ,,daisies ,a common adult]ant f\nd 9 op5 insect fl[]s is ! fl[]-heads ( ,european daisy 7,c4 leucan!mum74 ,exam9ation ( p[d]$ fl[]s export$ f ,europe %[s t ! entire fl[]-head is gr\nd & mix$ ) ! insect fl[]s4 ,9 ! *eap] v>ieties ( op5 fl[]s1 only ! tubul> fl[]s are add$ aft] !y h be5 sep>at$ f ! heads by cru%+ & sift+4 ,^! tubul> fl[]s s closely resemble ! tubul> fl[]s ( ! true insect fl[]s t x is practically impossible to di/+ui% betwe5 !m macroscopically4 ,! quicke/ & sure/ way to id5tify !m is to r$uce a portion ( ! fl[]s to a f9e p[d] & exam9e x microscopically4 ,c]ta9 /ructures ( ! :ite daisies 7,plate #abj7 are some:at simil> to ^? f\nd 9 insect fl[]s4 ,^! /ructures are ! papill ( ! ray petal 7,figs4 #c1 #e1 & #ac71 ! lobe ( ! disk petal 7,fig4 #ad71 & ! lobe ( ! /am5 & ! poll5 7,fig4 #h74 ,! diff]5ces are z foll[s3 ,! "u epid]mis ( ! ray fl[]s is compos$ ( wavy cells :i* are m elongat$ ?an ! ray fl[]s ( ! "u epid]mis ( ! ray petal ( insect fl[]4 ,! filam5t tissue is made up ( slightly bead$ cells in/ead ( smoo?-wall$ cells4 ,! papill ( ! /igma are small] ?an ! papill ( insect fl[]s4 ,! mo/ /rik+ diff]5ce is f\nd 9 ! /ructure ( ! a*5e4 ,! epid]mal tissue ( ! a*5e is compos$ ( palisade cells 7,fig4 #aj71 :i* 9 ! mature =m h ?ick :ite walls & sc>cely any cavity4 ,^! cells swell p]ceptibly :5 plac$ 9 wat]4 ,! o!r /rik+ feature ( ! a*5e is ! bright r$ res9 masses :i* occur free 9 ! field4 ,ev5 a small trace ( daisies 9 insect p[d] c be id5tifi$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #abj ,,p[d]$ ,,:ite ,,daisies 7,*rysan!mum leucan!mum1 ,l47 #a & #b4 ,scale tissue4 #c1 #e & #ac4 ,papill ( petals4 #d4 ,scale tissue4 #f4 ,lobe ( ray petal4 #g4 ,filam5t tissue4 #h4 ,poll54 #i4 ,papill ( /igma4 #aj4 ,palisade cells ( a*5e4 #aa4 ,res9 masses4 #ab4 ,p>5*yma ( receptacle4 #ad4 ,lobe ( di% petal4 ,:5 /udy+ fl[]s !re %\ld be consid]$ ! numb] & /ructure ( poll5 gra9s2 ! nature ( ! papill ( ! /igma & ! petals2 ! nature ( ! hairs ( ! corolla & calyx1 :5 pres5t4 ,9 ! composite fl[]s we %\ld also consid] ! /ructure ( ! involucre scales1 &1 :5 pres5t1 ! /ructure ( ! receptacle scales1 z 9 ! case ( an!mus1 & ( ! pappus hairs1 z 9 ! fl[]s ( arnica1 boneset1 gr9delia1 & aromatic gold5rod4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,fruits ,!re is great v>iation 9 ! /ructure ( fruits1 su* a v>iation1 9 fact1 t no "o fruit has a /ructure typical ( all ! o!r fruits4 ,ea* fruit1 h[ev]1 has a p]ic>p & "o or m se$s4 ,! am\nt & /ructure ( ! cells =m+ ! p]ic>p & ! se$s ( fruits diff] 9 diff]5t fruits1 b = ea* fruit !re is a normal am\nt (1 & a *>act]i/ic1 cellul> /ructure4 ,ne>ly all ! important m$ic9al fruits are cremoc>ps or umbellif]\s fruits4 ,! plan ( /ructure ( cremoc>ps is simil>1 b !y all h a diff]5t cellul> /ructure4 ,! epid]mis may be simple or modifi$ z papill or hairs4 ,! secretion cavities may be abs5t 7conium71 or1 :5 pres5t1 v>iable 9 numb]--cultivat$ cel]y se$ has six1 wild cel]y se$ up to twelve1 & anise up to tw5ty4 ,! vascul> bundles may be l>ge or small4 ,! endoc>p cells may be two or m lay]s 9 ?ickness4 ,! sp]mod]m may be ?9 or ?ick4 ,! endosp]m cells may v>y 9 size & ! cell cont5ts may v>y4 ,,cel]y ,,fruit ,! fruit ( cel]y 7,plate #aba71 l o!r umbellif]\s fruits1 is compos$ ( ! p]ic>p & ! se$4 ,! p]ic>p is compos$ ( epic>p cells1 mesoc>p cells1 endoc>p cells1 & 9 ea* rib a vascul> bundle4 ,! se$ is compos$ ( ! sp]mod]m1 endosp]m1 & embryo4 ,ea* ( ^! p>ts has a *>act]i/ic /ructure4 ,epic>p4 ,! cells ( ! epic>p 7,fig4 #a7 are papill & ! out] wall is /riat$4 ,! papill d n %[1 h[ev]1 unless ! cell is cut across ! c5tre1 :i* is ! po9t at :i* ! papill are locat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #aba ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,cel]y ,,fruit 7,apium graveol5s1 ,l47 #a4 ,epic>p4 #b4 ,mesoc>p4 #c4 ,vascul> bundle4 #d4 ,endoc>p4 #e4 ,sp]mod]m4 #f4 ,endosp]m4 #g4 ,secretion cavity4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #abb ,,diagrammatic ,,draw+ ,,( ,,! #a4 ,cross-section ( wild cel]y se$ 7,apium graveol5s1 ,l474 #b4 ,cross-section ( cultivat$ cel]y se$ 7,apium graveol5s1 ,l474 ,mesoc>p4 ,9 ! rib "p ( ! mesoc>p 7,fig4 #b7 is a vascul> bundle1 & betwe5 ! ribs "o or m secretion cavities4 ,! vascul> bundles are small & are surr\nd$ by irregul>-%ap$ mesoc>p cells4 ,! secretion cavities 7,fig4 #g7 are oval 9 =m & ! tissue bord]+ ! cavity is r$di% br[n 9 color4 ,! mesoc>p cells ar\nd ! secretion cavities are m elongat$ ?an ! o!r mesoc>p cells4 ,endoc>p4 ,! endoc>p cells are ?ree lay]s 9 ?ickness4 ,^! cells are elongat$ transv]sely 7,fig4 #d74 ,sp]mod]m4 ,! cells ( ! sp]mod]m are indi/9ct1 compress$1 & d>k br[n 9 color 7,fig4 #e74 ,endosp]m4 ,! endosp]m cells 7,fig4 #f7 make up ! great] "p ( ! fruit4 ,! walls :i* are common to two cells are ?ick1 non-bead$1 & non-pitt$1 & ! cavities ( ! cells are fill$ ) aleurone gra9s4 ,embryo4 ,! embryo cells1 :i* %[ only 9 c]ta9 sections1 are simil> to endosp]m cells4 ,9 anise1 hops1 sumac1 & cum9 fruits are *>act]i/ic hairs4 ,9 /> anise1 sabal1 allspice1 cubeb1 pepp]1 junip]1 buck?orn1 & phytolacca fruits are /one cells4 ,9 cubeb1 pepp]1 & c>damon are *>act]i/ic masses ( aggregate />*4 ,9 sabal1 allspice1 & junip] are *>act]i/ic secretion cells4 ,9 all ! umbellif]\s fruits1 ) ! exception ( conium1 are yell[ to br[n secretion cavities4 ,9 cubeb & pepp] is aggregate />*4 ,colocyn? conta9s _m s+le & d\ble spiral vessels4 ,bitt] orange conta9s solit>y cry/als & spongy p>5*yma4 ,:5 /udy+ fruits we mu/ consid] ! nature ( ! epic>p cells--:e!r simple or modifi$ z papill or hairs2 ! =m & /ructure ( ! mesoc>p cells2 ! numb]1 size1 & /ructure ( ! vascul> bundle2 ! size & numb] ( ! secretion cells or cavities2 ! numb] ( lay]s & ! /ructure ( ! endoc>p cells2 ! numb] ( lay]s ( /one cells--:5 pres5t2 ! color & wid? ( ! sp]mod]m lay]2 ! /ructure & cell cont5ts ( ! endosp]m cells2 ! nature ( ! embryo cells1 & ! nature ( ! cell cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,se$s ,se$s are v v>iable 9 /ructure1 s mu* s1 9 fact1 t sc>cely any two se$s h a simil> /ructure4 ,x is necess>y1 !re=e1 :5 exam9+ se$s1 to comp>e ! /ructure ( ! se$ "u exam9ation ) au!ntic plates or ) ! section ( a g5u9e se$4 ,! lay]s ( ! se$ are ! sp]mod]m1 p]isp]m1 endosp]m1 & embryo4 ,9 "s se$s ! sp]mod]m =ms ! great] "p ( ! se$2 9 o!rs ! p]isp]m is greate/ 9 am\nt2 9 /ill o!rs ! cotyl$ons make up mo/ ( ! se$1 z 9 ! mu/>ds4 ,! cells =m+ ^! diff]5t lay]s diff] 9 =m1 /ructure1 & numb]2 !re=e x is n difficult to di/+ui% & to diff]5tiate betwe5 ! diff]5t se$s :5 view$ z a section or z a p[d]4 ,almond is /udi$ because x has mo/ ( ! lay]s & cells f\nd 9 se$s4 ,,sp]mod]m ,! sp]mod]m is ! ?91 br[n1 granul>-appe>+ sk9 ( ! almond4 ,! lay]s ( ! sp]mod]m are ! epid]mis1 ! hypod]m1 ! middle lay]s1 & ! inn] epid]mis4 ,! epid]mis consi/s ( radially elongat$1 ?ick-wall$ /one cells :i* occur alone or 9 gr\ps ( two or m1 b seldom z a cont9u\s lay]4 ,! upp] or out] "p ( ! /one cells is non-por\s1 b ! inn] walls are /rongly por\s 7,plate #abc1 ,fig4 #a74 ,! hypod]m4 ,! cells =m+ ! hypod]m are compress$1 ! wall /ructure is practically indi/+ui%able1 & ! :ole mass is r$di% br[n 7,plate #abc1 ,fig4 #b74 ,occurr+ 9 ?is br[n lay] are sev]al vascul> bundles 7,plate #abc1 ,fig4 #c74 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #abc ,,cross-,,section ,,sweet ,,almond ,,se$ #a4 ,epid]mis4 #b4 ,hypod]m4 #c4 ,vascul> bundle4 #d4 ,middle lay]4 #e4 ,inn] epid]mis4 #f4 ,endosp]m4 #g4 ,out] lay] ( ! embryo4 #h4 ,inn] lay]s ( ! embryo4 ,! middle lay]s4 ,! cells =m+ ! middle lay]s 7,fig4 #d7 h ?91 wavy1 light-color$ walls :i* are frequ5tly compress$1 & x is ) mu* difficulty t _! outl9es are made out4 ,! inn] epid]mis4 ,! cells =m+ ! inn] epid]mis are rectangul> 9 =m1 & !y conta9 r$di%-br[n cell cont5ts 7,plate #abc1 ,fig4 #e74 ,,endosp]m ,! endosp]m4 ,! cells =m+ ! endosp]m are l>ge1 rectangul> 9 outl9e1 usually "o lay] ?ick1 & !y conta9 aleurone gra9s4 ,,embryo ,! embryo4 ,! cells =m+ ! out] lay] ( ! embryo are small] ?an ! inn] lay]s1 & !y are imm$iately inw>d f ! lay] ( endosp]m cells 7,plate #abc1 ,fig4 #g74 ,! cells =m+ ! great] "p ( ! embryo are l>ge1 r\nd$1 & !y conta9 aleurone gra9s & fix$ oil 7,plate #abc1 ,fig4 #h74 ,9 :ite & black mu/>d are *>act]i/ic mucilage & palisade cells4 ,9 mix vomica1 /ropan?us1 & ,/4 ,ignatius's bean are *>act]i/ic hairs4 ,9 physo/igma & kola are *>act]i/ic />* gra9s4 ,9 h5bane1 capsicum1 /ramonium1 lobelia1 & belladonna se$s are *>act]i/ic epid]mal cells4 ,9 areca nut1 col*icum1 saw palmetto1 & nux vomica are *>act]i/ic ?ick-wall$1 res]ve cellulose cells4 ,9 c>damon se$ are aggregate />* masses ) irregul> outl9es4 ,9 bitt] & sweet almond1 l9se$1 pepo1 & /ropan?us are aleurone gra9s4 ,9 bitt] & sweet almonds are /one cells4 ,9 l9se$1 qu9ce se$1 & 9 :ite & black mu/>d are epid]mal cells ) mucilag9\s walls & cont5ts1 etc4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,vascul> ,,bundles ,hav+ famili>iz$ ourselves ) ! diff]5t types ( me*anical & conduct+ cells1 we %all n[ consid] ! diff]5t ways 9 :i* ^! cells are associat$ to =m ! vascul> & fibro-vascul> bundles4 ,! simple/ =m ( ! vascul> bundle occurs 9 petals1 floral bracts1 & leaves4 ,9 ^! p>ts ! vascul> bundle is made up ( conduct+ cells only4 ,9 ! great majority ( cases1 h[ev]1 ! conduct+ cells are associat$ ) me*anical cells to =m ! fibro-vascul> bundle4 ,! fibro-vascul> bundle is made up (1 fir/1 ! phloem1 :i* consi/s ( sieve tubes1 companion cells1 ba/ fibres1 & p>5*yma2 secondly1 ( ! xylem1 compos$ ( vessels & tra*eids1 wood fibres & wood p>5*yma2 ?irdly1 ( m$ull>y rays 7re/rict$ to c]ta9 types72 & f\r?ly1 ( ! bundle %ea? 7re/rict$ to c]ta9 types74 ,,types ,,( ,,fibro-,,vascul> ,,bundles ,!re are ?ree well-def9$ types ( ! fibro-vascul> bundle1 namely1 ! radial1 ! conc5tric1 & ! collat]al types4 ,,radial ,,vascul> ,,bundles ,! radial type ( bundle is met ) mo/ frequ5tly 9 monocotyl$on\s roots4 ,9 ?is =m 7,plate #aad7 ! xylem =ms radial b&s ( tissue :i* alt]nate ) isolat$ gr\ps ( phloem4 ,! space betwe5 ! phloem & xylem is fill$ 9 ) ei!r p>5*yma or fibres1 or bo?4 ,9 "s cases ! vessels ( ! xylem meet 9 ! c5tre ( ! root1 :ile 9 o!r cases ! c5tre ( ! /em is occupi$ by pi? p>5*yma4 ,ea* bundle is surr\nd$ by p>5*yma cells1 & 9 iris1 calamus1 & v]atrum1 rhizomes1 & endod]mis1 surr\nds ! bundles locat$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! /em1 consi/+ ( ?9-wall$ 7me*anical7 cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #abd ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,a ,,radial ,,vascul> ,,bundle ,,( ,,skunk ,,cabbage ,,root 7,symploc>pus ftidus ,l41 ,nutt47 #a4 ,vessels4 #b4 ,bundle %ea?4 #c4 ,p>5*yma4 #d4 ,sieve cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #abe ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,a ,,phloem-,,c5tric ,,bundle ,,( ,,calamus ,,rhizome 7,acorus calamus1 ,l47 #a4 ,vessels4 #b4 ,sieve cells4 #c4 ,phloem p>5*yma4 #d4 ,p>5*yma surr\nd+ ! bundles4 ,9 s>sap>illa root1 ! pi? is compos$ ( ?ick-wall$1 por\s pi? p>5*yma cells ) />*4 ,outside ! pi? are arrang$ radial b&s ( oval vessels :i* decrease 9 size t[>d ! p]iph]y4 ,betwe5 ! ends ( ^! b&s occur isolat$ gr\ps ( sieve cells4 ,surr\nd+ ! sieve cells & vessels are ?ick-wall$1 angl$ fibres4 ,ext]nal to ^! cells is an endod]mis compos$ ( lignifi$ br[ni%-color$ cells "o lay] 9 ?ickness4 ,,conc5tric ,,vascul> ,,bundles ,!re are two pr9cipal types ( ! conc5tric bundle1 namely1 xylem-c5tric1 9 :i* ! xylem is c5tric & ! phloem is p]iph]al1 z 9 v]atrum root2 & phloem-c5tric 7,plate #abe71 9 :i* ! phloem is c5tric & ! xylem p]iph]al1 z 9 calamus rhizome4 ,,collat]al ,,vascul> ,,bundles ,!re are ?ree types ( collat]al vascul> bundles--namely1 clos$ collat]al1 bi-collat]al1 & op5 collat]al4 ,9 ! clos$ collat]al bundle ! phloem & xylem are n sep>at$ by a cambium lay]1 & 9 _m cases ! bundle is surr\nd$ by ?ick1 angl$ wall$ fibres1 z 9 palm /em4 ,! t]m clos$ bundle ref]s to ! fact t !re is no cambium betwe5 ! xylem & phloem1 !re=e ! bundle is 8clos$0 to fur!r gr[?1 & n to ! fact t x is frequ5tly surr\nd$ by fibres :i* prev5t fur!r gr[?4 ,9 podophyllum /em 7,plate #abf7 ! xylem portion ( ! bundle faces ! c5tre ( ! /em & ! phloem portion ( ! bundle faces ! epid]mis4 ,! xylem & phloem are sep>at$ by a cambium lay]1 & bo? are surr\nd$ by ?ick-wall$ angl$ fibres :i* are ! *ief me*anical cells ( ! /em4 ,?is bundle is1 9 fact1 me*anically clos$1 b n physiologically because a cambium is pres5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #abf ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,a ,,clos$ ,,collat]al ,,bundle ,,( ,,m&rake ,,/em 7,podophyllum peltatum1 ,l47 #a4 ,vessels4 #b4 ,sieve cells4 #c4 ,cambium4 #d4 ,fibres4 #e4 ,p>5*yma4 #f4 ,int]cellul> space4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #abg ,,bi-,,collat]al ,,bundle ,,( ,,pumpk9 ,,/em 7,curcurbita pepo1 ,l47 #a4 ,vessels4 #b4 ,sieve tubes4 ,,bi-,,collat]al ,,vascul> ,,bundles ,9 ! bi-collat]al vascul> bundle 7,plate #abg7 ! xylem is 9 betwe5 two gr\ps ( phloem--namely1 an inn] gr\p & an out] gr\p4 ,9 pumpk9 /em a bundle occurs 9 ea* angle ( ! /em4 ,! entire bundle is surr\nd$ by p>5*yma cells4 ,9 an individual bundle ! xylem consi/s ( l>ge circul> vessels & a phloem conta9+ l>ge sieve cells1 _m ( :i* %[ ! yell[ por\s sieve plates4 ,,op5 ,,collat]al ,,vascul> ,,bundles ,9 ! op5 collat]al bundle 7,plate #ajj7 ! xylem & phloem are sep>at$ by ! cambium lay]1 :i*1 ?r\gh its divisions1 causes ! /em to increase 9 ?ickness ea* ye>4 ,?is type ( bundle is *>act]i/ic ( ! /ems & roots ( dicotyl$on\s plants4 ,! bi-collat]al bundle occurs 9 _m leaves4 ,! xylem 9 su* cases is c5tral1 ! phloem /r&s occupy+ upp] & l[] p]iph]al positions4 ,,index ,abb cond5s]1 illu/ration1 #aa ,absorption tissue1 introduction1 #aba tissue ( leaves1 #abe ,a]at+ tissue1 introduction1 #aea ,annul> vessels1 illu/ration (1 #abi ,b>k1 ( :ite p9e p[d]$1 description (1 #bej ( :ite p9e p[d]$1 illu/ration (1 #bea unross$ :ite p9e1 cross-section1 illu/ration (1 #bdi ,b>ks1 description (1 #bdh diagno/ic /ructures (1 #bec /ructural v>iations (1 #beb ,base sl$ge microtome1 #ce sl$ge microtome1 illu/ration1 #ce ,ba/ fibres1 #hi bran*$1 #ib bran*$1 illu/rations1 #ie cry/al be>+1 #ij1 #ib description (1 #ajj gr\ps (1 illu/rations1 #ajb non-por\s & non-/riat$1 #if non-por\s & non-/riat$1 illu/rations1 #aja non-por\s & /riat$1 #if occurr5ce 9 p[d]$ drugs1 #ajc ( b>ks1 illu/rations1 #ia1 #ic1 #id ( klip bu*u leaf1 #bfb ( ruellia rhizome1 #bbf ( ruellia root1 #bbc ( ruellia /em1 #bce ( spigelia /em1 #bce por\s & non-/riat$1 illu/rations1 #ih por\s & /riat$1 #ib por\s & /riat$1 illu/rations1 #ig /orage function (1 #agi /riat$ & non-por\s1 illu/rations (1 #ii ,bi-collat]al vascul> bundles1 description (1 #bih ,bu*u /ems1 cross-section1 illu/ration (1 #bdc cross-section1 illu/ration (1 #bdd p[d]$1 description (1 #bde p[d]$1 illu/ration (1 #bdf ,cambium ( p9k root1 #bba ( ruellia rhizome1 #bbf ( ruellia /em1 #bcg ( spigelia rhizome1 #bbc ( spigelia /em1 #bce ,cam]a lucida1 #bb illu/rations1 #bb ,c>e ( microscope1 #bh ,cel]y fruit1 diagrammatic draw+ (1 #bhg ,cell cont5ts1 #ahb aleurone gra9s1 #aig aleurone gra9s1 description (1 #aih aleurone gra9s1 =m (1 #aig aleurone gra9s1 /ructure (1 #aig aleurone gra9s1 te/s =1 #aih *lorophyll1 #ahb cry/als1 #bjj cry/als1 composition (1 #bjj cry/als1 micro-1 #bjj cry/als1 raphides1 #bjj cry/als1 rosette1 #bjj cry/als1 solit>y1 v>iation (1 #bje cy/oli?s1 #baj cy/oli?s1 =ms (1 #baj cy/oli?s1 occurr5ce (1 #bae cy/oli?s1 te/s =1 #bae hesp]id91 #aif hesp]id91 te/ =1 #aif inul91 #aid inul91 te/s =1 #aid leucopla/ids1 #ahc mucilage1 #aid mucilage associat$ ) raphides1 te/s =1 #aid mucilage1 te/s =1 #aid organic1 #ahb />* gra9s1 =mation (1 #ahc />* gra9s1 hilum nature (1 #ahh />* gra9s1 hilum (1 #ahe />* gra9s1 m\nt+ (1 #ahh />* gra9s1 occurr5ce (1 #ahd />* gra9s1 outl9e (1 #ahe />* gra9s1 size (1 #ahe />* gra9s1 te/s =1 #ahh tann91 #aif tann91 occurr5ce (1 #aif tann91 te/ =1 #aig volatile oil1 te/ =1 #aif volatile oils1 #aif ,cell division common to onion root1 #ef ,cell plate1 #ee ,cell sap1 #ec ,cell1 typical1 #ec ,cell wall1 #ec ,*romat91 #ed ,*romat9 granules1 #ee ,*romatophores1 #ec ,*romosomes1 #ee ,clos$ collat]al bundles ( m&rake /em1 cross-section illu/ration (1 #bif ,collat]al vascul> bundles1 #bie ,coll5*yma cells1 composition ( walls1 #aji illu/rations1 #ajh occurr+ 9 catnip & mo!rwort1 illu/rations1 #ajg ( ruellia /em1 #bce /ructure (1 #ajf ,comp\nd microscope1 illu/ration1 #aj microscope1 me*anical p>ts (1 #g1 #h microscope ( ,rob]t ,hooke1 illu/ration1 #h microscope1 optical p>ts (1 #i1 #aa1 #ab microscopes1 introduction1 #g ,conc5tric vascul> bundles1 #bie ,conduct+ tissue1 introduction1 #abf ,cork cells1 orig9 (1 #hh ,cortical p>5*yma1 conduction by1 #adg ( ruellia /em1 #bce ,cortex1 ( p9k root1 #bai ( ruellia rhizome1 #bbf ( ruellia root1 #bba ( ruellia /em1 #bce ( spigelia rhizome1 #bbc ( spigelia /em1 #bcc ,cov] glasses1 #dc illu/rations1 #dd ,cry/al cavities1 #agf cells1 /orage function (1 #agi ,cutt+ sections1 #ca ,cy/oli?s1 illu/rations (1 #bad ,cytoplasm1 #ec ,daisies1 :ite1 p[d]$1 description (1 #bhb illu/ration (1 #bhc ,dissect+ microscope1 illu/ration1 #e ne$les1 #df ne$les1 illu/ration1 #df ,draw+ app>atus1 illu/ration1 #bc ,ectopla/1 #ec ,embryo1 diagno/ic /ructures (1 #bia ,endoc>p ( cel]y fruit1 #bhh ,endod]mal cells1 illu/rations ( longitud9al sections1 #aai illu/rations ( cross-sections1 #aag introduction1 #aaf /ructure (1 #aaf1 #aah ,endod]mis1 ( klip bu*u leaf1 #bfb ( p9k root1 #bai ( ruellia root1 #bbc ,endosp]m ( cel]y fruit1 #bhh ( se$s1 #bia ,epic>p ( cel]y fruit1 #bhe ,epid]mal cells ( leaves1 /orage function (1 #agi ,epid]mis1 surface deposits (1 #fb ( h]bace\s /ems1 illu/rations (1 #aeb ( klip bu*u leaf1 #bfj ( leaves1 illu/rations (1 #aee ( m\nta9 laurel1 #bfd ( p9k root1 #bai ( ruellia rhizome1 #bbf ( ruellia root1 #bba ( ruellia /em1 #bce ( se$s1 #bhi ( spigelia rhizome1 #bbc ( spigelia /em1 #bcc ( te/a1 #fc ,epid]mis ( trail+ arbutus1 #bfd ,equatorial plane1 #ee plate1 #ee ,fibro-vascul> bundles1 composition (1 #bib ( klip bu*u leaf1 #bfb types (1 #bib ,fl[]s1 diagno/ic /ructures (1 #bhd p>ts (1 #bgj ,fold+ magnifi]1 #d illu/ration1 #d ,fruits1 cellul> /ructure (1 #bhe diagno/ic *>act]i/ics (1 #bhh diagno/ic /ructures (1 #bhh ,gl&ul> hairs ( pepp]m9t1 #agh illu/rations (1 #afe multicellul>1 #afd multicellul>1 multis]iate /alk$1 #aff multicellul>1 multis]iate /alk$1 description (1 #aff multicellul>1 multis]iate /alk$1 occurr5ce1 #aff multicellul> sessile1 #afd multicellul> /alk$1 #afd multicellul>1 unis]iate /alk$1 #afd /alk$1 illu/rations (1 #afg /orage function (1 #agh unicellul>1 #afd unicellul>1 multis]iate /alk$1 #afd unicellul> sessile1 #afd unicellul> /alk$1 #afd unicellul>1 unis]iate /alk$1 #afd ,gl&ul> tissue1 introduction1 #afd ,glass slides1 #dd illu/rations1 #dd ,gre5\gh b9ocul> microscope1 #ae illu/ration1 #ae ,gu>d cells1 #aea ,hairs1 multicellul>1 multicellul> non-bran*$1 illu/ration1 #ge multicellul>1 multis]iate bran*$1 ( ,%eph]dia1 #gh multicellul>1 multis]iate bran*$1 #gg1 #hb multicellul>1 multis]iate bran*$1 illu/rations1 #gi1 #ha multicellul>1 multis]iate non-bran*$1 #gd multicellul>1 unis]iate bran*$1 illu/ration1 #gf multicellul>1 unis]iate non-bran*$1 #gb multicellul>1 unis]iate non-bran*$1 illu/rations (1 #gc ,h& cyl9d] microtome1 illu/ration1 #cd microtome1 #ca microtome1 illu/ration1 #ca table microtome1 #cd table microtome1 illu/ration1 #cd ,horeh\nd1 p[d]$1 description (1 #bcg p[d]$1 illu/ration (1 #bch spuri\s1 p[d]$1 description (1 #bcg spuri\s1 p[d]$1 illu/ration (1 #bci ,hypod]m ( se$s1 #bhi ,hypod]mal cells1 ( leaves1 /orage function (1 #agi illu/rations1 #abj /ructure (1 #aah ,hypod]ms1 ( klip bu*u leaf1 #bfj ( ruellia root1 #bba ,illum9ation = microscope1 #bf ,indirect cell division1 #ed1 #ee ,inn] b>k ( :ite p9e1 #bdh epid]mis ( se$s1 #bia ,insect fl[] leaves1 p[d]$1 illu/rations (1 #bfh /ems1 description (1 #bda /ems1 p[d]$1 illu/ration (1 #bdj ,insect fl[]s1 clos$1 p[d]$1 illu/ration (1 #bgi op51 description (1 #bhj op51 p[d]$1 illu/ration (1 #bha p[d]$1 description (1 #bgh ,int]cellul> spaces1 #aeh illu/rations (1 #afj1 #afa ,int]nal phloem1 ( spigelia /em1 #bce ,inul91 illu/rations (1 #aie ,k>yok9esis1 #ed1 #ee ,klip bu*u1 cross-section1 illu/ration (1 #bfa p[d]$1 description (1 #bfb p[d]$1 illu/ration (1 #bfc ,label+1 #dg ,latex cavities1 #agf tube cavities1 #agf tubes1 #adb1 #add tubes1 illu/ration (1 #ade vessels1 illu/rations (1 #adf ,leaf epid]mis1 #ei illu/rations1 #fj1 #fa ,leaf p>5*yma1 conduction by1 #aej ,leaves1 diagno/ic /ructures (1 #bfg /omata1 #bfj ,l5ticel1 illu/ration ( cross-section1 #aei ,l5ticels1 rat+ function (1 #aeg /ructure (1 #aeh ,l991 #ed ,long p>aff9 process1 #bi ,ma*9e microtomes1 #cb ,measur+ cyl9d]1 #dj illu/ration1 #dj ,me*anical /age1 #ba /age1 illu/ration1 #bb tissue1 #hi ,m$ull>y ray1 #aci bundle1 #aci bundle 9 tang5tial-section ( quassia wood1 #beh cell1 #ada cell1 arrangem5t (1 9 ! ray1 #adb cell1 /ructure (1 #adb cells1 9 cross-section ( quassia wood1 #bed cells1 9 radial-section ( quassia wood1 #beh cells1 9 tang5tial-section ( quassia wood1 #beh cells1 ( ruellia /em1 #bcg ,m$ull>y rays1 illu/ration ( cross-sections (1 #adc illu/ration ( longitud9al section1 #adj 9 cross-section ( quassia wood1 #bed 9 radial-section ( quassia wood1 #bed ( p9k root1 #bba ( ruellia rhizome1 #bbg ( ruellia root1 #bbc ( spigelia rhizome1 #bbf ( :ite p9e b>k1 #bej ,mesoc>p ( cel]y fruit1 #bhe ,me?od ( m\nt+ specim5s1 #da ,micro-cry/als1 illu/rations (1 #bja lamp1 #bg ,micromet] eye-pieces1 #ba illu/rations1 #bj1 #ba ,microphotographic app>atus1 #bd illu/ration1 #bd ,microscope1 h[ to use1 #be ,microscopic measurem5ts1 #ai ,microtome1 c>e (1 #cf ,middle b>k ( :ite p9e1 #bdh lamella1 #ee lay]s ( se$s1 #bia ,m9or rot>y microtome1 #cf illu/ration1 #cf ,m\nta9 laurel1 cross-section1 illu/ration (1 #bfe ,mucilage cavities1 #agb1 #agf ,multicellul> hair1 #gb ,nucle> membrane1 #ee sp9dle1 #ee ,nucleoli1 #ee ,nucleus1 #ec ,objectives1 illu/rations1 #aa ,ocul> micromet]1 #ai illu/ration1 #ai ,oil cavities1 occurr5ce1 #agh ( leaves1 #agh ( se$s1 #agh unicellul>1 #agb ,op5 collat]al vascul> bundles1 description (1 #bih ,orig9 ( multicellul> plants1 #eg ,out] b>k ( :ite p9e1 #bdh ,palisade p>5*yma1 conduction by1 #aej ,papill1 #fg illu/rations (1 #bge ( /igmas1 illu/rations (1 #bgf1 #bgg /igma1 description (1 #bgd ,p>aff91 blocks1 #ca emb$d+ ov51 illu/ration1 #cj ,p>5*yma1 aquatic plant1 #aej cells ( :ite p9e1 #bdh conduction by1 #add cortical1 illu/rations (1 #adh ( m\nta9 laurel1 #bfd ( trail+ arbutus1 #bfd pi?1 illu/rations (1 #adi ,p]icycle ( p9k root1 #bba ( ruellia root1 #bbc ,p]id]m1 #hj cork1 #hj illu/rations (1 #hf ( casc>a sagrada1 illu/rations1 #hd ( :ite oak b>k1 illu/ration (1 #hg p>5*yma & /one cells1 #he /one cells1 #he ,p]man5t m\nts1 #da ,ph>macogno/ic microscope1 illu/ration1 #ab ,phloem1 c5tric bundle ( calamus1 cross-section1 illu/ration (1 #bid ( ruellia rhizome1 #bbf ( ruellia /em1 #bce ( spigelia rhizome1 #bbc ( spigelia /em1 #bcc ,phloem p>5*yma1 conduction by1 #aej ( p9k root1 #bba ( ruellia rhizome1 #bbf ( ruellia root1 #bbc ( ruellia /em1 #bce ( spigelia rhizome1 #bbc ( spigelia /em1 #bce ,photosyn!tic tissue1 #afc ,p9k root1 description (1 #bbg ,pi? p>5*yma1 conduction by1 #adg ( p9k root1 #bba ( ruellia rhizome1 #bbg ( ruellia root1 #bbc ( ruellia /em1 #bcg ( spigelia rhizome1 #bbf ( spigelia /em1 #bce ,pitt$ vessels1 ) bord]$ pores1 illu/ration (1 #ace illu/rations (1 #acd ,plant hairs1 =ms (1 #fg introduction1 #ff ,pol> caps1 #ee ,pol>ization microscope1 #af illu/ration1 #af ,poll5 gra9s1 #bgj non-sp9y-wall$1 description (1 #bgc smoo?-wall$1 illu/rations (1 #bga sp9y-wall$1 description (1 #bgc sp9y-wall$1 illu/rations (1 #bgb ,prep>ation ( specim5s = cutt+1 #bh ,protopla/1 #ec ,quassia wood1 cross-section1 illu/ration (1 #bee radial-section1 illu/ration (1 #beg ,radial vascul> bundles1 #bib skunk cabbage root1 cross-section1 illu/ration (1 #bic ,raphides1 illu/rations (1 #bjc ,read+ glass1 #d illu/ration1 #d ,reag5t set1 illu/ration1 #ci ,reag5ts1 li/ (1 #ch ,rese>* microscope1 #ac illu/ration1 #ad ,res]ve cellulose1 illu/rations (1 #ahj-aha ,reticulate vessels1 illu/rations (1 #acc ,root hairs1 #aba1 #abb1 #abe illu/ration (1 #abc illu/ration ( fragm5ts1 #abd ,roots & rhizomes1 #bai diagno/ic /ructures (1 #bbg ,rosette & solit>y cry/als1 illu/rations (1 #bac cry/als1 illu/rations (1 #bjd cry/als1 inclos$1 illu/rations (1 #bjf ,ruellia ciliosa1 ,pur%41 p[d]$1 illu/ration (1 #bbi ciliosa1 ,pur%41 rhizome1 cross-section1 illu/ration (1 #bbe ciliosa1 ,pur%41 /em1 cross-section1 illu/ration (1 #bcf root1 description (1 #bbg root1 illu/ration (1 #bbb ,scalpels1 #df illu/ration1 #dg ,scissors1 #df illu/ration1 #df ,scl>i=m vessels1 illu/rations (1 #acb ,se$s1 p>ts (1 #bhi ,secretion cavities1 ( cel]y fruit1 #bhh description (1 #agf illu/rations (1 #afi-aga introduction1 #aff lysig5\s1 #afh s*izog5\s1 #afh s*izo-lysig5\s1 #afh unicellul>1 #afh ,secretion cells1 ( klip bu*u leaf1 #bfb ( :ite p9e1 #bdh ,%ort p>aff9 process1 #bi ,sieve cells1 ( klip bu*u leaf1 #bfb ( p9k root1 #bba ( ruellia rhizome1 #bbf ( ruellia root1 #bbc ( ruellia /em1 #bce ( spigelia /em1 #bce ,sieve plate1 #ach illu/ration (1 #acg ,sieve tube1 illu/ration (1 #acg tubes1 introduction1 #acf tubes1 /ructure1 #acf ,simple microscope1 introduction1 #c ,slide box1 #dh box1 illu/ration1 #dh cab9et1 #di cab9et1 illu/ration (1 #di =ceps1 #de =ceps1 illu/rations1 #de tray1 #dh tray1 illu/ration1 #dh ,solit>y cry/als1 illu/rations (1 #bjg-bji1 #baa1 #bab unicellul> hairs1 #fi ,special rese>* microscope1 #ad illu/ration1 #ad ,specim5s1 pres]vation (1 #dh ,sp]mod]m1 ( cel]y fruit1 #bhh ( se$s1 #bhi ,spigelia m>yl&ica1 p[d]$1 illu/ration (1 #bbh rhizome1 cross-section1 illu/ration (1 #bbd root1 cross-section1 illu/ration (1 #bbj /em1 cross-section1 illu/ration (1 #bcd ,sp9dle fibres1 #ee ,spiral vessels1 illu/rations (1 #abi1 #acj ,spongy p>5*yma ( klip bu*u1 #bfj ,/age micromet]1 #ai illu/ration1 #ai ,/a9+ di%1 #dj illu/ration1 #dj ,/&>dization ( ocul> micromet]1 #ai ,/>* gra9s1 illu/rations (1 #ahf1 #ahg1 #ahi-aic ,/e9heil l5s1 #e illu/ration1 #e ,/ems1 diagno/ic /ructures (1 #bcc dicotyl$on\s1 #bcc h]bace\s1 #bcc monocotyl$on\s1 #bcc ,/omata1 rat+ function (1 #aea illu/rations ( cross-section1 #aef relation to surr\nd+ cells1 #aed types (1 #aec ,/one cells1 ( ruellia root1 #bbc bran*$1 #aji bran*$1 illu/rations (1 #aaj description1 91 #aab introduction1 #aji occurr5ce1 illu/rations1 #aae por\s & non-/riat$1 #aaa por\s & non-/riat$1 illu/rations (1 #aad por\s & /riat$1 #aji por\s & /riat$1 illu/rations (1 #aac /orage function (1 #agh ,/orage cavities1 #agf cavities1 illu/rations (1 #agg cells1 #agc cells1 cortical p>5*yma1 #agc cells1 illu/rations (1 #agd cells1 pi? p>5*yma1 #agc cells1 wood p>5*yma1 #agc tissue1 #agc walls1 description (1 #agi ,/or$ mucilage & res91 illu/rations (1 #age ,surr\nd+ cells1 arrangem5t (1 #aed ,syn!tic tissue1 introduction1 #afc ,tempor>y m\nts1 #da ,te/a cells1 #fe epid]mal cells1 illu/rations1 #fd ,tra*eids ( p9k root1 #bba ,trail+ arbutus leaf1 cross-section1 illu/ration (1 #bff ,tripod magnifi]1 #d illu/ration1 #d ,turntable1 #df illu/ration1 #dg ,"u epid]mis ( klip bu*u leaf1 #bfb epid]mis ( m\nta9 laurel1 #bfd ( trail+ arbutus1 #bfd hypod]mis ( klip bu*u leaf1 #bfb palisade p>5*yma ( klip bu*u leaf1 #bfb ,unicellul> clu/]$ hairs1 #gb clu/]$ hairs1 illu/rations1 #ga non-gl&ul> hairs1 #fi solit>y bran*$ hairs1 #gb solit>y hairs1 illu/rations1 #gj ,upp] palisade p>5*yma ( klip bu*u leaf1 #bfj palisade p>5*yma ( m\nta9 laurel1 #bfd ,vacuoles1 #ec ,vascul> bundles1 arrangem5t (1 #bib occurr5ce (1 #bib ,vessels1 annul>1 #abg & tra*eids1 introduction1 #abf 9 cross-section ( quassia wood1 #bed 9 radial-section ( quassia wood1 #bed 9 tang5tial-section ( quassia wood1 #beh ( ruellia rhizome1 #bbf ( ruellia root1 #bbc ( ruellia /em1 #bcg ( spigelia rhizome1 #bbf pitt$1 #aca pitt$ ) bord]$ pores1 #aca reticulate1 #aca scl>i=m1 #abh spiral1 #abg ,wat] pores1 a]at+ function (1 #aea ,wat*mak]'s l\pe1 #d illu/ration1 #d ,wood fibres1 color (1 #ajd illu/rations1 #aje 9 cross-section ( quassia wood1 #bed 9 radial-section ( quassia wood1 #beh 9 tang5tial-section ( quassia wood1 #beh introduction1 #ajd /ructure (1 #ajd ,wood p>5*yma1 conduction by1 #aej 9 cross-section ( quassia wood1 #bed 9 radial-section ( quassia wood1 #beh ( p9k root1 #bba ( ruellia rhizome1 #bbg ( ruellia root1 #bbc ( ruellia /em1 #bcg ( spigelia rhizome1 #bbf ( spigelia /em1 #bce ,woods1 description (1 #bed diagno/ic /ructures (1 #beh ,woody /ems1 bu*u /em1 description (1 #bdb mature bu*u /em1 #bdb ,xylem1 ( p9k root1 #bba ( ruellia rhizome1 #bbf ( ruellia root1 #bbc ( ruellia /em1 #bcg ( spigelia rhizome1 #bbf ( spigelia /em1 #bce ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,! ,table ( ,illu/rations at ! beg9n+ ( ! book 0 creat$ by ! transcrib]4 ,inconsi/5cies 9 hyph5ation su* z 8extra-ord9>y0_/8extraord9>y0 h be5 ma9ta9$4 ,m9or punctuation & spell+ errors h be5 sil5tly correct$ &1 except = ^? *anges not$ bel[1 all misspell+s 9 ! text1 especially 9 dialogue1 & inconsi/5t or ar*aic usage1 h be5 reta9$4 ,page #ec3 8,! out] portion ( ! nucelus0 *ang$ to 8,! out] portion ( ! nucleus04 ,page #ed3 8! c5tre ( ! nucelus0 *ang$ to 8! c5tre ( ! nucleus04 ,page #fb3 8typical =ms ( arrangem5t ( epid]mal calls0 *ang$ to 8typical =ms ( arrangem5t ( epid]mal cells04 ,page #ajd3 8( logwood & santalum rubum0 *ang$ to 8( logwood & santalum rubrum04 ,page #ajg3 8! cross-section ( catnip /em 7,nepeta cat]ia0 *ang$ to 8! cross-section ( catnip /em 7,nepeta cat>ia04 ,page #abj3 8,cross-section s>sap>illa root 7,smilex (fic9alis0 *ang$ to 8,cross-section s>sap>illa root 7,smilax (fic9alis04 ,page #aej3 8cells are ! n>r[e/ p>5*yma cells occur+0 *ang$ to 8cells are ! n>r[e/ p>5*yma cells occurr+04 ,page #aee3 8,upp] epid]mis ( de] tongue 7,trilisia odoratissima0 *ang$ to 8,upp] epid]mis ( de] tongue 7,trilisa odoratissima04 ,page #aga3 8,p>5*yma cells ) protud+0 *ang$ to 8,p>5*yma cells ) protrud+04 ,page #aic3 8gra9s ( p>adise 7,amomum meleguetta0 *ang$ to 8gra9s ( p>adise 7,amomum melegueta04 ,page #bcg3 8,m>rubium p]igr9um1 :i* is a relat$ species ( horeh\nd0 *ang$ to 8,m>rubium p]egr9um1 :i* is a relat$ species ( horeh\nd04