,transcriber's ,notes3 ,underscores 80 before and after a word or phrase indicate italics in the original text4 ,small capitals have been converted to ,,solid capitals4 ,illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs4 ,the advertisement for the book 8,,architecture ,,of ,,the ,,metropolis0 has been moved from the beginning of the book to the end of the book4 ,,rudimentary ,,architecture3 ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,beginners4 ,,the ,,orders1 ,,and ,,their ,,sthetic ,,principles4 ,,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,leeds1 ,,esq4 ,london3 ,,john ,,weale1 ,,architectural ,,library1 #ei1 ,,high ,,holborn4 ,m4,,dccc4,,xlviii4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,the ,orders generally #c ,first ,order3 ,ancient ,doric #ad ,modern ,do4 #be ,tuscan #bh ,second1 or ,voluted-capital1 ,order3 ,greek ,ionic #cj ,roman and ,modern #df ,third1 or ,foliaged-capital ,order3 ,corinthian #ec ,composite #fb ,columniation3 ,forms and ,denominations of ,temples and ,porticoes #fh ,intercolumniation #gg ,glossarial ,index #hb ,,preface4 ,it is important that an elementary treatise1--more particularly if it profess to be a popular one1 intended for the use of beginners as well as for professional students1--should not only give rules1 but explain principles also2 and unless the latter be clearly defined1 the memory alone is exercised1 perhaps fatigued1 owing to the former being unsupported by adequate reasoning4 ,to confine instruction to bare matter-of-fact is not to simplify1 much less to popularize it2 since such mode entirely withholds all that explanation which is so necessary for a beginner1 who will else probably feel more disheartened than interested4 ,any study which is presented in its very driest form by being divested of all that imparts interest to the subject1 will soon become dry and uninteresting in itself1 and prejudice may thus be excited against it at the very outset4 ,those who pursue the profession of ,architecture must of course apply themselves to the study of it technically1 and acquire their knowledge of it1 both theoretical and practical1 by methods which partake more or less of routine instruction4 ,others neither will nor even can do so4 ,if the public are ever to become acquainted with ,architecture1--not1 indeed1 with its scientific and mechanical processes of construction1 but in its character of ,fine ,art and ,design1--other methods of study than those hitherto provided must be furnished1 as it appears to have been assumed that those alone who have been educated to it professionally can properly understand any thing of even the ,art of ,architecture1--a fatal mistake1 which1 had it clearly perceived its own interest1 the ,profession itself would long since have attempted to remove2 it being clearly to the interest of ,architects that the public should acquire a taste and relish for ,architecture4 ,the study of ,architecture1 it may be said1 has of late years acquired an increased share of public attention2 but it has been too exclusively confined to the ,medival and ,ecclesiastical styles1 which have consequently been brought into repute and general favour1--a result which strongly confirms what has just been recommended1 namely1 the policy of diffusing architectural taste as widely as possible4 ,as yet1 the taste for ,architecture and the study of it1 so promoted1 has not been duly extended2 for next to that of being acquainted with the ,medival1 the greatest merit1 it would seem1 is that of being ignorant of ,classical ,architecture and its ,orders2 which last1 however ill they may have been understood1 however greatly corrupted and perverted1 influence and pervade1 in some degree1 the ,modern ,architecture of all ,europe1 and of all those countries also to which ,european civilization has extended4 ,nevertheless1 no popular ,manual on the subject of the ,orders has yet been provided1--a desideratum which it is the object of the following pages to supply4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,leeds4 ,,rudimentary ,,architecture4 ,,the ,,orders4 ,although this little treatise is limited to the consideration of ,ancient and ,classic ,architecture1 we may be allowed to explain briefly what is to be understood by ,architecture in its quality of one of the so-called ,fine ,arts1 if only to guard against confused and erroneous notions and misconceptions4 ,it will therefore not be deemed superfluous to state that there is a wide difference between ,building and ,architecture1--one which is apparently so very obvious that it is difficult to conceive how it can have been overlooked1 as it generally has been1 by those who have written upon the subject4 ,without building we cannot have architecture1 any more than without language we can have literature2 but building and language are only the matriel1--neither1 the art which works upon that matriel1 nor the productions which it forms out of it4 ,building is not a fine art1 any more than mere speaking or writing is eloquence or poetry4 ,many have defined architecture to be the art of building according to rule3 just as well might they define eloquence to be the art of speaking according to grammar1 or poetry the art of composing according to prosody4 ,infinitely more correct and rational would it be to say that architecture is building greatly refined upon1--elevated to the rank of art by being treated sthetically1 that is to say1 artistically4 ,in short1 architecture is building with something more than a view to mere utility and convenience2 it is building in such a manner as to delight the eye by beauty of forms1 to captivate the imagination1 and to satisfy that faculty of the mind which we denominate taste4 ,further than this we shall not prosecute our remarks on the nature of architecture1 but come at once to that species of it which is characterized by the ,orders4 ,in its architectural meaning1 the term ,,order refers to the system of columniation practised by the ,greeks and ,romans1 and is employed to denote the columns and entablature together2 in other words1 both the upright supporting pillars and the horizontal beams and roof1 or trabeation1 supported by them4 ,these two divisions1 combined1 constitute an ,order2 and so far all ,orders are alike1 and might accordingly be reduced to a single one1 although1 for greater convenience1 they are divided into three leading classes or families1 distinguished as ,doric1 ,ionic1 and ,corinthian4 ,it was formerly the fashion to speak of the ,,five ,,orders1 and also to treat of them as if each ,order were reduced to a positive standard1 admitting of very little deviation1 instead of being in reality included in many subordinate varieties1 which1 however they may differ from each other1 are all formed according to one common type1 and are thereby plainly distinguished from either of the two other ,orders4 ,the vulgar ,five ,orders' doctrine is1 it is to be hoped1 now altogether exploded2 for if the so-called ,tuscan1 which is only a ruder and bastard sort of ,doric1 and of which no accredited ancient examples remain1 is to be received as a distinct ,order1 a similar distinction ought to be established between the original ,ancient or ,grecian and the derivative ,roman and ,italian ,doric1 which differ from the other quite as much1 if not more so1 than the ,tuscan does from either4 ,even the ,grecian ,doric itself exhibits many decided varieties1 which1 though all partaking of one and the same style1 constitute so many ,doric ,orders4 ,the ,pstum-,doric1 for instance1 is altogether dissimilar from the ,athenian or that of the ,parthenon4 ,again1 if the ,composite is to be received as a distinct ,order from the ,corinthian1 merely on account of its capital being of a mixed character1 partaking of the ,ionic1 inasmuch as it has volutes1 and of the ,corinthian in its foliage1 the ,corinthian itself may with equal propriety be subdivided into as many distinct ,orders as there are distinct varieties2 and the more so1 as some of the latter vary from each other very considerably in many other respects than as regards their capitals4 ,except that the same general name is applied to them1 there is very little in common between such an example of the ,corinthian or foliaged-capital class as that of the monument of ,lysicrates1 and that of the ,temple at ,tivoli1 or between either of them or those of the ,temple of ,jupiter ,stator and the ,pantheon1 not to mention a great many others4 ,instances of the so-called ,composite are1 moreover1 so exceedingly few1 as not even to warrant our calling it the ,roman ,order1 just as if it had been in general use among the ,romans in every period of their architecture4 ,with far greater propriety might the ,corinthian itself1 or what we now so designate1 be termed the ,roman ,order1 being not only the one chiefly used by that people1 but also the one which they fairly appropriated to themselves1 by entering into the spirit of it1 and treating it with freedom and artistic feeling4 ,in fact1 we are indebted far more to ,roman than to ,grecian examples for our knowledge of the ,corinthian2 and it is upon the former that the moderns have modelled their ideal of that ,order4 ,what has been said with regard to striking diversity in the several examples of the ,corinthian1 holds equally good as to those of the ,ionic ,order1 in which we have to distinguish not only between ,roman and ,grecian ,ionic1 but further1 between ,hellenic and ,asiatic ,ionic4 ,nor is that all3 there is a palpable difference between those examples whose capitals have a necking to them1 and those which have none1--a difference quite as great1 if not greater1 than that which is recognized as sufficient to establish for the ,composite the title of a distinct ,order from the ,corinthian2 inasmuch as the necking greatly enlarges the proportion of the whole capital1 and gives increased importance to it4 ,the ,ionic capital further admits of a species of variation which cannot possibly take place in those of either of the other two ,orders3 it may have either two faces and two baluster sides1 or four equal and similar sides1--the volutes being1 in the latter case1 turned diagonally1 the mode chiefly practised by the ,romans2 but by the ,greeks1 and that not always1 in the capitals at the ends of a portico1 by placing the diagonal volute at the angle only1 so as to obtain two outer faces for the capital1 one in front1 the other on the #8return' or flank of the portico4 ,it is therefore unnecessary to say1 that to divide the ,orders into ,five1 as has been done by all modern writers1 until of late years1 and to establish for each of them one fixed1 uniform character1 is altogether a mistake2 and not only a mere mistake as regards names and other distinctions1 but one which has led to a plodding1 mechanical treatment of the respective ,orders themselves1 nothing being left for the ,architect to do1 so far as the ,order which he employs is concerned1 than merely to follow the example which he has selected1--in other words1 merely to copy instead of designing1 by imitating his model with artistic freedom and spirit4 ,our view of the matter1 on the contrary1 greatly simplifies and rationalizes the doctrine of the ,orders1 and facilitates the study of them by clearing away the contracted notions and prejudices which have been permitted to encumber it2 and owing to which1 mere conventional rules1 equally petty and pedantic1 have been substituted for intelligent guiding maxims and principles4 ,having thus far briefly explained the rationale of the ,orders with regard to the division of them into three leading classes1 each of which1 distinct from the other two1 yet comprises many varieties or species1--which1 however much they may differ with respect to minor distinctions1 all evidently belong to one and the same style1 or what we call ,order1--we have now to consider their constituent parts1 that is1 those which apply to every ,order alike4 ,hitherto it has been usual with most writers to treat of an ,order as consisting of three principal parts or divisions1 viz4 pedestal1 column1 and entablature4 ,the first of these1 however1 cannot by any means be regarded as an integral part of an ,order4 ,so far from being an essential1 it is only an accidental one1--one1 moreover1 of ,roman invention1 and applicable only under particular circumstances4 ,the pedestal no more belongs to an ,order than an attic or podium placed above the entablature4 ,in the idea of an ,order we do not include what is extraneous to the ,order itself3 it makes no difference whether the columns stand immediately upon the ground or floor1 or are raised above it4 ,they almost invariably are so raised1 because1 were the columns to stand immediately upon the ground or a mere pavement1 the effect would be comparatively mean and unsatisfactory2 the edifice would hardly seem to stand firmly1 and1 for want of apparent footing1 would look as if it had sunk into the ground1 or the soil had accumulated around it4 ,with the view1 therefore1 of increasing height for the whole structure1 and otherwise enhancing its effect1 the ,greeks placed their temples upon a bold substructure1 composed of gradini or deep steps1 or upon some sort of continuous stylobate2 either of which modes is altogether different from1 and affords no precedent for1 the pedestal of modern writers4 ,and here it may be remarked1 that of the dignity imparted to a portico by a stylobate forming an ascent up to it in front1 we have a fine example in that of ,st4 ,george's ,church1 ,bloomsbury1 which so far imitates the celebrated ,maison ,carre at ,nismes4 ,nevertheless1 essential as some sort of stylobate is to the edifice itself1 it does not properly belong to it1 any more than that equally essential--in fact more indispensable part--the roof4 ,it is not without some regret that we abandon1 as wholly untenable1 the doctrine of the pedestal being an integral part of an ,order3 it would be so much more agreeable to say that the entire ,order consists of three principal divisions1 just the same as each of the divisions themselves4 ,as regards the entire structure1 such triplicity1 that of #8beginning1 middle1 and end1' was observed4 ,for #8beginning1' there was substructure1 however denominated1 or whether expressly denominated at all1 or not2 for #8middle1' there were the columns2 and for #8end' or completion1 the entablature4 ,for the whole of a structure1 there is or ought to be such #8beginning1 middle1 and end2' but from the ,order itself we exclude one of them1 as not being dependent upon it either for character or treatment4 ,the pedestal being discarded as something apart from the ,order itself1 the latter is reduced to the two grand divisions of column and entablature1 each of which is subdivided into three distinct parts or members1 viz4 the column1 into base1 shaft1 and capital2 the entablature1 into architrave1 frieze1 and cornice2 so that the latter is to the entablature what the capital is to the column1 namely1 its crowning member1--that which completes it to the eye4 ,yet1 although the above divisions of column and entablature hold good with regard to the general idea of an ,order1 the primitive ,greek or ,doric one does not answer to what has just been said1 inasmuch as it has no base1--that is1 no mouldings which distinctly mark the foot of the column as a separate and ornamented member4 ,hence it will perhaps be thought that this ,order is not so complete as the others1 since it wants that member below which corresponds with the capital above4 ,still the ,grecian ,doric column is complete in itself3 it needs no base1--in fact1 does not admit of such addition without forfeiting much of its present character1 and thus becoming something different4 ,were there a distinct base1 the mouldings composing it could not very well exceed what is now the lower diameter or actual foot of the column2 because1 were it to do so1 either the base would become too bulky in proportion to the capital1 or the latter must be increased so as to make it correspond in size with the enlarged lower extremity4 ,even then that closeness of intercolumniation 7spacing of the columns71 which contributes so much to the majestic solidity that characterizes the genuine ,doric1 could not be observed2 unless the columns were put considerably further apart1 the bases would scarcely allow sufficient passage between them4 ,the only way of escaping from these objections and difficulties is by making the shaft of the column considerably more slender1 so that what was before the measure of the lower diameter of the shaft itself1 becomes that of the base4 ,that can be done--has been done1 at least something like it2 but the result is an attenuated ,roman or ,italian ,doric1 differing altogether in proportions from the original type or order4 ,the shaft no longer tapers visibly upwards1 or1 what is the same thing1 expands below4 ,before we come to speak of the ,orders severally and more in detail1 there are some other matters which require to be noticed2 one of which is the origin of the ,greek system of columniation1 or the prototype upon which it was modelled4 ,following ,vitruvius1 nearly all writers have agreed to recognize in the columnar style of the ancients the primitive timber hut1 as furnishing the first hints for and rudiments of it4 ,such theory1 it must be admitted1 is sufficiently plausible1 if only because it can be made to account very cleverly for many minor circumstances4 ,unfortunately1 it does not account at all for1 or rather is in strong contradiction to1 the character of the earliest extant monuments of ,greek architecture4 ,timber construction would have led to very different proportions and different taste4 ,had the prototype or model been of that material1 slenderness and lightness1 rather than ponderosity and solidity1 would have been aimed at2 and the progressive changes in the character of the ,orders would have been reversed1 since the earliest of them all would also have been the lightest of them all4 ,the principles of stone construction have so evidently dictated and determined the forms and proportions of the original ,doric style1 as to render the idea of its being fashioned upon a model in the other material little better than an absurd though time-honoured fiction4 ,infinitely more probable is it1 that the ,greeks derived their system of architecture from the ,egyptians2 because1 much as it differs from that of the latter people with regard to taste and matters of ornamentation1 it partakes very largely of the same constitutional character4 ,at any rate the doctrine of a timber origin applies as well to the ,egyptian as to the ,hellenic or ,grecian style4 ,indeed1 if there be any thing at all that favours such doctrine1 it is1 that construction with blocks of stone would naturally have suggested square pillars instead of round ones2 the latter requiring much greater labour and skill to prepare them than the others4 ,but1 as their pyramids and obelisks sufficiently testify1 the most prodigal expenditure of labour was not at all regarded by the ,egyptians4 ,that1 it will perhaps be said1 still does not account for the adoption of the circular or cylindrical form for columns4 ,we have therefore to look for some sufficiently probable motive for the adoption of that form2 and we think that we find it in convenience4 ,in order to afford due support to the massive blocks of stone placed upon them1 the columns were not only very bulky in proportion to their height1 but were placed so closely together1 not only in the fronts of porticoes1 but also within them1 that they would scarcely have left any open space4 ,such inconvenience was accordingly remedied by making the pillars round instead of square4 ,should such conjectural reason for the adoption of circular columns be rejected1 it is left to others to propound a more satisfactory one1 or to abide1 as many probably will do1 by the old notion of columns being so shaped in order to imitate the stems of trees4 ,it is enough that whatever accounts for the columns being round in ,egyptian architecture1 accounts also for their being the same in that of the ,greeks4 ,among other fanciful notions entertained with regard to columns and their proportions1 is that of the different orders of columns being proportioned in accordance with the human figure4 ,thus the ,doric column is said to represent a robust male figure1 and those of the two other ,orders1 female ones1--the ,ionic1 a matron2 the ,corinthian1 a less portly specimen of feminality4 ,now1 so far from there being any general similitude between a ,grecian ,doric column and a robust man1 their proportions are directly opposite1--the greater diameter of the column being at its foot1 while that of the man is at his shoulders4 ,the one tapers upwards1 the other downwards4 ,if the human figure and its proportions had been considered1 columns would1 in conformity with such type1 have been wider at the top of their shafts than below1 and would have assumed the shape of a terminus1#a or of a mummy-chest4 ,with regard to the other two ,orders1 it is sufficient to observe1 that if so borrowed at all1 the idea must have been preposterous4 ,we happen to have a well-known example of statues or human figures1 and those1 moreover1 female ones1 being substituted for columns beneath an entablature2 and so far are they from confirming the pretended analogy between the ,ionic column and the proportions of a female1 that they decidedly contradict it1 those figures being greatly bulkier in their general mass than the bulkiest and stoutest columns of the ,doric ,order4 ,at any rate1 one hypothesis might satisfy those who will not be satisfied without some fancy of the kind1 because two together do not agree3 if columns originated in the imitation of stems of trees1 we can dispense with the imitation of men and women1 and vice vers4 #a ,the species of statue so called1 and consisting of the upper part of a human figure growing out of a pedestal which tapers downwards1 and appears to enclose the rest of the body4 ,some may think that it is hardly worth while to notice such mere fancies2 yet it is surely desirable to attempt to get rid of them by exposing their absurdity1 more especially as they still continue to be gravely brought forward and handed down traditionally by those who write upon the ,orders1 or who1 if they do not actually write1 repeat what others have written4 ,it is worth while to clear away1 if possible1 and that1 too1 at the very outset of the study1 erroneous opinions1 prejudices1 and misconceptions4 ,we do not pretend to explain and trace1 step by step1 the progress of the ,doric ,order1 and of the columnar system of the ,greeks1 from their first rudiments and formation4 ,we have only the results of such progressive development or formation2 of the actual formation itself we neither know nor can now ever know any thing4 ,the utmost that can now be done is to take the results themselves1 and from them to reason backwards to causes and motives4 ,adopting such a course1 we may first observe1 that there is a very striking and characteristic difference between ,egyptian and ,grecian taste and practice in one respect3 in the former style the columns are invariably cylindrical1 or nearly so1--in the other they are conical1 that is1 taper upwards1 and in some instances so much so1 that were they prolonged to double their height1 they would be almost perfect cones1 and terminate like a spire4 ,this tapering greatly exceeds that of the stems of trees1 taking for their stem the trunk1 from above which the branches begin to shoot out4 ,it appears to have been adopted for purely artistic reasons1 certainly not for the sake of any positive advantage1 since the diminution of the shaft1 and the great contraction of the diameter just below the capital1 must rather decrease than at all add to the strength of the column4 ,what1 then1 are the artistic qualities so obtained8 ,we reply1--variety and contrast1 and the expression of strength without offensive heaviness4 ,the sudden or very perceptible diminution of the shaft1--it must be borne in mind that our remarks refer exclusively to the original ,greek style or ,doric ,order1--produces a double effect2 it gives the column an expression of greater stability than it otherwise would1 combined with comparative lightness4 ,what is diminution upwards1 is also expansion downwards2 and similar difference and contrast take place also with respect to the intercolumns1 although in a reverse manner1 such intercolumns being wider at top than at bottom4 ,so far the principle of contrast here may be said to be twofold1 although one of the two sorts of contrast inevitably results from the other4 ,were it not for the great diminution of the shaft1 the columns would appear to be too closely put together1 and the intercolumns much too narrow1 that is1 according1 at least1 to the mode of intercolumniation practised by the ,greeks in most of their structures in the ,doric style2 whereas such offensive appearance was avoided by the shaft being made considerably smaller at top than at bottom1--consequently the intercolumns wider above than below1 in the same ratio2 so that columns which at their bases were little more than one diameter apart1 became more than two1 that is1 two upper diameters apart at the top of their shafts1 or the neckings of their capitals4 ,in this style every thing was calculated to produce a character of majestic simplicity1--varying1 however1 or rather progressing1 from heaviness and stern severity to comparative lightness of proportions1--for examples differ greatly in that respect3 in some of the earlier ones the columns are not more than four diameters in height1 while in some of the later they are upwards of six1 which last-mentioned proportions not only amount to slenderness1 but also destroy others4 ,the capital itself may be proportioned the same as before relatively to the diameter of the column1 but it cannot possibly bear the same ratio as before to its height4 ,the average proportions for that member are one diameter for its width at its abacus1 and half a diameter for its depth3 consequently1 if the entire column be only four diameters in height1 the capital is th of it1 or equal to th of the shaft2 whereas1 if the column be six or more diameters1 the capital becomes only _/th of the column1 or even less1 so that the latter appears thin and attenuated1 and the other member too small and insignificant4 ,yet though the original ,greek ,order or style exhibits considerable diversity with respect to mere proportions1 it was otherwise very limited in its powers of expression1 and moreover something quite distinct from the nominal ,doric of the ,romans and the ,italians1 as will be evident when we come to compare the latter with it4 ,before we enter upon this part of our subject1 and previous to an examination of the details of the several ,orders1 it should be observed that the diameter1 that is1 the lower diameter of the column1 is the standard by which all the other parts and members of an ,order are measured4 ,the diameter is divided into #fj minutes1 or into two halves or modules of #cj minutes each2 and those minutes are again subdivided into parts or seconds when extreme accuracy of measurement is required2 which two last are noted thus3 #e #aj1 for instance1 meaning five minutes and ten seconds4 ,,doric ,,order4 ,illustration ,it has been already observed1 that in the genuine ,doric the column consists of only shaft and capital1 which latter is composed of merely an echinus and abacus1 the first being a circular convex moulding1 spreading out beneath the other member1 which1 although a very important one1 is no more than a plain and shallow square block upon which the architrave rests1 not only firmly and safely1 but so that the utmost expression of security is obtained1 and pronounced emphatically to the eye4 ,such expression arises from the abacus being larger than the soffit or under surface of the architrave itself2 and as the former corresponds1 or nearly so1 with the lower diameter of the shaft1 it serves to make evident at a glance that the foot of the column is greater than the soffit of the architrave placed upon the columns4 ,thus1 as measured at either extremity1 the column is greater than the depth or thickness of the architrave1 and projects beyond the architrave and general plane of the entablature4 ,now this would produce a most unsightly effect were the columns of the same1 or nearly the same diameter throughout4 ,in such case they would appear not only too large1 but most clumsily so1 and the entablature would have the look of being set back in the most awkward and most unaccountable manner4 ,instead of which1 the architrave1 and consequently the general plane of the whole entablature1 actually overhangs the upper part of the shaft1 in a plane about midway between the smallest diameter of the column1 just below the capital and the face of the abacus4 ,even this1 the overhanging of the entablature1 would be not a little offensive to the eye1 were the abacus no larger than the architrave is deep2 whereas1 being larger1 it projects forwarder than the face of the architrave1 thereby producing a powerful degree of one species of sthetic effect1 namely1 contrast1--and if contrast1 of course variety also2 for though there may be variety without contrast1 there cannot be contrast without variety4 ,another circumstance to be considered is1 that were not such projection beyond the face of the architrave given to the abacus1 that and the rest of the capital could not correspond with the foot of the shaft1 and thus equalize the two extremities of the entire column4 ,as now managed1 all contradictions are reconciled1 and the different sorts of contrast are made to contribute to and greatly enhance general harmony4 ,in the outline of the column we perceive1 first1 contraction1--then expansion1 and that in both directions1--for in like manner as the column diminishes upwards and the capital expands from it1 its shaft may be said to expand and increase in bulk downwards1 so as to agree with the abacus or upper extremity4 ,though a few exceptions to the contrary exist1 the shaft of the ,doric column was generally what is technically called fluted1 that is1 cut into a series of channels touching each other1 and thus forming a series of ridges upon its surfaces1--a mode of decoration1 we may observe1 altogether the reverse of that which was practised by the ,egyptians1 some of whose columns exhibit1 instead of channels or hollows1 a series of convex mouldings that give them the appearance of being composed of very slender pillars or rods bound together4 ,many have attempted1 with perhaps pains-taking but idle inquiry1 to account for the origin of such fluting or channeling1 supposing1 among other things1 that it was derived from the cracks and crevices in the stems of trees1 or from the streakings occasioned by rain on the shafts of the columns4 ,most perverse ingenuity6 ,we do not find any thing like such marked streakings on columns even in this rainy ,english climate of ours2 much less would they have been at all visible in such a climate as that of ,greece4 ,others have supposed that these channels were at first intended to hold spears6 that is1 to prevent them from slipping and falling down when set up against a column2 than which idea it is hardly possible for the utmost stretch of ingenuity to go farther in absurdity4 ,we1 who are less ambitious1 content ourselves with supposing that the fluting of columns was introduced and adopted principally for the sake of effect4 ,if other motives for doing so existed1 we know them not1 nor need we care1 since study of effect alone suffices to account for such mode of decoration4 ,by multiplying its surfaces1 it gives variety to the shaft of the column1 and prevents it from showing as a mere mass4 ,with the same1 or very nearly the same bulk and degree of solidity as before1 it causes the column to appear much less heavy than it otherwise would do1 and contributes to a pleasing diversity of light and shade1 reminding us of ,titian's #8bunch of grapes4' ,being upon a curved surface1 the channels serve to render the circularity of the column more apparent1 since1 though they are all of the same width1 they show to the eye narrower and narrower on each side of the centre one1--no matter in what direction the column is viewed4 ,here then we have variety combined with uniformity1 and a certain apparent or optical irregularity with what we know to be perfect regularity4 ,in the ,doric ,order the number of channels is either sixteen or twenty1--afterwards increased in the other ,orders to twenty-four2 for they are invariably of an even number1 capable of being divided by four2 so that there shall always be a centre flute on each side of the column1 that is1 in a line with the middle of each side of the abacus4 ,doric flutings are much broader and shallower than those of the ,ionic or ,corinthian ,orders2--broader for two reasons1--first1 because they are fewer in number2 and secondly1 because there are no fillets or plain spaces left between them upon the surface of the shaft4 ,their proportionably much greater shallowness1 again1 may be accounted for equally well3 were the channels deeper1 not only would they seem to cut into the shaft too much1 and weaken it1 but also produce much too strong shadows2 and another inconvenience would be occasioned1 for the arrises or ridges between the channels would become very sharp and thin1 and liable to be injured4 ,the mode of fluting ,doric columns with mere arrises between the channels1 instead of fillets1 has been retained by the moderns as characteristic of the ,order2 but as the ,order has been treated by them1 it is little better than a mere distinction1 with very little regard to general character4 ,in the original ,doric almost every part is marked by breadth1 or by flatness1 or by sharpness4 ,there are no curved mouldings or surfaces1 except the cymatium of the cornice and the echinus of the capital1 which last is generally kept exceedingly flat4 ,the breadth and shallowness of the channels1 and the flat curves in which they commence and terminate1 are therefore in perfect keeping with the style in other respects2 so also are the sharp arrises or ridges between the channels or flutings on the surface of the shaft1 they being expressive of a severe simplicity4 ,the same remark applies to the horizontal annular narrower channels or incisions immediately beneath the echinus of the capital1 and lower down1 which last are just the reverse of the projecting astragal or convex moulding given to the ,doric capital by the moderns4 ,why such horizontal channels or grooves should have been cut in the very thinnest and weakest part of the column1 where they diminish instead of adding to strength1 it is not easy to say1 except that they were merely for the sake of effect1--of producing shadow1 and increasing the proportions of the capital1 to which they seem to belong4 ,we leave others1 should any be so disposed1 to object that the lowermost groove or grooves1 as the case may be1 give the capital the appearance of being a separate piece1 merely joined on to the shaft without such joining being concealed4 ,looking at it differently1 we will rather say that such groove is intended to mark to the eye the commencement of the capital1 the portion above it of the shaft being thereby converted into the hypotrachelium or necking of the capital itself1 which is thus enlarged in appearance without being actually increased1 and rendered unduly heavy4 ,it is not1 however1 every example of the ,order that has such necking3 while in some the groove separating the capital from the shaft is diminished to a mere line1--which looks like a joining not intended to show itself1--in others it is omitted altogether4 ,with respect to the echinus1 we have little more to remark than that its office--which it performs admirably--is1 by expanding out1 to connect the diminished upper end of the column with the overhanging abacus2 and the former being circular and the latter square1 but adapted to each other in size1 a beautiful combination is produced of a circle inscribed within a square2 and the result is variety1 contrast1 and harmony4 ,in its profile or section1--by which latter term is understood the contour of any moulding or other member1--it is usually very flat1 little more than a portion of a cone 7turned downwards71 with scarcely any perceptible degree of convexity1 except just beneath the abacus1 where it is suddenly rounded and diminished1 so that the abacus does not seem to press upon or compress it too much4 ,we arrive now at the entablature1 the first or lowermost division of which1 the architrave1 otherwise called by the ,greek name of epistylium 7from 1 upon1 and 1 column71 is no more than a plain surface whose height1 including the tnia or fillet which finishes it and separates it from the frieze1 is equal to the upper diameter of the column4 ,such1 at least1 may be considered its standard proportion1 that by means of which it conforms to and harmonizes with the column itself4 ,the second or middle division of the entablature1 namely1 the frieze1 constitutes in the ,doric style a very characteristic feature of the ,order1 being invariably distinguished by its triglyphs and metopes4 ,the former of these are upright channeled blocks1 affixed to or projecting from the frieze1 and are supposed to have been originally intended to represent the ends of inner beams laid upon the architrave transversely to it4 ,the metopes1 on the contrary1 are not actually architectural members1 but merely the intervals or spaces between the triglyphs2 so that without the latter there could not be the others1 because it is the triglyphs which produce the metopes4 ,with slight variations in different examples1 the frieze is of about the same height as the architrave1--a trifle less1 rather than more2 and the average proportion for the breadth of the triglyphs is the mean diameter of the column1 or that taken midway of the shaft4 ,the face of the triglyph has two glyphs or channels carved upon it1 and its edges beveled off into a half channel1 thus making what is equal to a third glyph1 whence the name triglyph1 or three-channeled4 ,we have till now reserved speaking of what1 although it shows itself upon the architrave1 belongs to the triglyph1 and is in continuation of it1 namely1 the fillet and gutt attached to the tnia of the architrave immediately beneath each triglyph1 and corresponding with it in width4 ,these small conical gutt or drops are supposed1 rather whimsically1 by some to represent drops of rain that have trickled down the channels of the triglyph1 and settled beneath the ledge of the architrave4 ,others suppose them to have been intended to indicate the heads of nails1 screws1 or studs4 ,leaving all such suppositions to those who have a taste for them1 we will be satisfied with discerning artistic intention and sthetic effect4 ,that member of the triglyph1--for such we must be allowed to consider it1--is of great value1 serving1 as it does1 to impart somewhat of decoration to the architrave1 to break the monotony of the otherwise uninterrupted line of the tnia1 and to connect1 to the eye at least1 the architrave and frieze together4 ,although in a much fainter degree1 the architrave is thus made to exhibit the same system of placing ornamental members at regular distances from each other1 as is so energetically pronounced in the frieze itself4 ,if it be asked why the same1 or something equivalent to it1 was not extended to the architrave in the other ,orders1 our answer is1 because a similar motive for doing it does not exist4 ,the triglyph being suppressed in the ,ionic and ,corinthian frieze1 the accompanying gutt beneath it were of necessity omitted also1 otherwise they would have made evident that the triglyph ought to have been shown likewise4 ,there is1 indeed1 one example1 the monument of ,thrasyllus1 of a ,grecian ,doric entablature1 whose frieze is without triglyphs 7wreaths being substituted for them71 and the gutt are nevertheless retained4 ,but how8--instead of being placed at intervals1 as if there were triglyphs1 they are continued uninterruptedly throughout1 so that the idea of triglyph disappears2 besides which1 the example here referred to is altogether so anomalous and exceptional as to be not so much a specimen of the ,doric ,order as of the ,doric style1 modified according to particular circumstances2 on which account it is highly valuable1 since we may learn from it that where peculiar circumstances required--at least admitted of peculiar treatment1 the ,greeks did not scruple to avail themselves of the liberty so afforded4 ,with regard to the arrangement of the triglyphs1 one is placed over every column1 and one or more intermediately over every intercolumn 7or space between two columns71 at such distance from each other that the metopes are square2 in other words1 the height of the triglyph is the measure for the distance between it and the next one4 ,in the best ,greek examples of the ,order there is only a single triglyph over each intercolumn1 whence that mode is sometimes called monotriglyphic or single-triglyphed intercolumniation2 which is the closest of all1 the distance from axis to axis of the columns being limited to the space occupied above by two metopes and two triglyphs1 i4 e4 one whole triglyph and two halves of triglyphs4 ,in such intercolumniation the number of the triglyphs is double the number of the columns1 minus one4 ,further1 it is evident that as there must be a triglyph over every column1 the triglyphs must regulate the intercolumniation4 ,the width of the intercolumns cannot be at all less than the proportion above mentioned2 neither can it be increased1 except by introducing a second triglyph1--and if a second triglyph1 a second metope also1 over each intercolumn1 thus augmenting the distance between the columns to half as much again1 which becomes1 perhaps1 too much1 the difference between that and the other mode being considerably more than the diameter of a column2 whereas in the other ,orders the intercolumns may be made1 at pleasure1 either a little wider or a little narrower than usual4 ,one peculiarity of the ,grecian ,doric frieze is1 that the end triglyphs1 instead of being1 like the others1 in the same axis or central line as the columns beneath1 are placed quite up to the edge or outer angle of the frieze4 ,in itself this is1 perhaps1 rather a defect than the contrary1 although intended to obviate another defect1--that of a half metope or blank space there1--for it produces not only some degree of irregularity1 but of sthetic inconsistency also1 the triglyph so placed being1 as it were1 on one side of1 instead of directly over the column4 ,one advantage attending it is1 that the extreme intercolumns become in consequence narrower than the others by half a triglyph1 and accordingly a greater degree and expression of strength is given to the extremities of a portico4 ,the ,doric ,cornice4--,the third and last division of the entablature which remains to be considered is1 although exceedingly simple1 strongly characteristic1 and boldly marked4 ,with regard to its proportions1 it is about a third or even more than a third less than the other two1 and may itself be divided into three principal parts or members1 viz4 the corona1 with the mutules and other bed-mouldings1 as they are termed1 beneath it and the epitithedas above it4 ,the mutules are thin plates or shallow blocks attached to the under side or soffit of the corona1 over each triglyph and each metope1 with the former of which they correspond in breadth1 and their soffits or under-surfaces are wrought into three rows of gutt or drops1 conical or otherwise shaped1 each row consisting of six gutt1 or the same number as those beneath each triglyph4 ,nothing can be more artistically disposed3 in like manner1 as an intermediate triglyph is placed over every two columns1 so is an intermediate mutule over every two triglyphs4 ,the smaller members increase in number as they decrease in size2 and in the upper and finishing part of the ,order1 the eye is led on horizontally1 instead of being confined vertically to the lines indicated by the columns below4 ,the corona is merely a boldly projecting flat member1 not greatly exceeding in its depth the abacus of the capital2 in some examples it is even less4 ,the epitithedas1 or uppermost member of the cornice1 is sometimes a cymatium1 or wavy moulding1 convex below and concave above2 sometimes an echinus moulding1 similar in profile to the echinus of the capital4 ,the cornice may be said to be to the entablature1 and indeed to the whole ,order1 what the capital is to the column1--completing and concluding it in a very artistic manner4 ,by its projection and the shadow which it casts1 the cornice gives great spirit and relief to the entablature1 which would else appear both heavy and unfinished4 ,in the horizontal cornice beneath a pediment1 the epitithedas is omitted1 and shows itself only in the sloping or raking cornices1 as they are called1 along the sides of the pediment4 ,illustration ,ant4--,pilasters1 as well as columns1 belong to an ,order1 and in modern practice are frequently substituted indifferently for columns1 where the latter would be engaged or attached to a wall4 ,in ,grecian architecture1 however1 the ant1--as they are thus termed1 to distinguish them from other pilasters1--are never so employed4 ,they are never placed consecutively1 or in any series1 but merely as a facing at the end of a projecting wall1 as where a portico is enclosed at each end by the walls forming the sides of the structure1 in which case it is described as a portico in antis4 ,although they accompany columns1 and in the case just mentioned range in the same line with them1 ant differ from them1 inasmuch as their shafts are not diminished2 for which reason their faces are not made so wide as the diameter of the columns1 neither are their capitals treated in the same manner1 as both shaft and capital would be exceedingly clumsy4 ,the expanding echinus of the column capital is therefore suppressed1 and one or more very slightly projecting faci1 the uppermost of which is frequently hollowed out below1 so as to form in section what is called the #8bird's beak' moulding4 ,in a portico in antis the want of greater congruity between the ant and the columns is made up for by various contrasts4 ,flatness of surface is opposed to rotundity1 vertical lines to inclined ones 7those of the outline and flutings of the column71 and uniformity1 in regard to light1 to the mingled play of light and shade on the shafts of the columns4 ,instead of attempting to keep up similarity as far as possible1 the ,greeks made a studied distinction between ant and columns1 not only in those respects which have been noted above1 but carried difference still further1 inasmuch as they never channeled the faces of their ant1 whereas the moderns flute their pilasters as well as columns4 ,hardly was such marked distinction a mere arbitrary fashion2 it is more rational to suppose that it was adopted for sufficient sthetic reasons and motives2 nor is it difficult to account1 according to them1 for the omission of channeling on the shafts of ant4 ,upon a plain surface the arrises between the channels would have occasioned an unpleasing harshness and dryness of effect1 as is the case with fluted ,doric pilasters1 and would have been attended with monotony also1 the lines being all vertical1 and consequently parallel to each other2 whereas in the column1 the channels diminish in breadth upwards1 and all the lines are inclined1 and instead of being parallel1 converge towards each other1 so that were the shaft sufficiently prolonged1 they would at last meet in a common point or apex similar to that of a spire4 ,owing to this convergency1 the lines on one side of a vertical line dividing the column1 or rather a geometrical drawing or elevation of it1 into two halves1 instead of being parallel1 are opposed to each other1 like the opposite sides of an isosceles triangle2 and this opposition produces correspondence4 ,,pediment4--,in addition to what has been already said relative to this very important feature of ,grecian architecture1 some further remarks will not be at all superfluous4 ,in the first place1 then1 the pediment proves to us most convincingly that a figure which1 considered merely in itself1 is generally regarded as neither beautiful nor applicable to architectural purposes1 may be rendered eminently beautiful and satisfactory to the eye4 ,reasoning abstractedly1 it would seem that if such figure is to be made use of at all1 the equilateral triangle would recommend itself in preference to any other1 as being obviously the most perfect and regular of all triangles4 ,for a pediment1 however1 such form would be truly monstrous2 and yet even the equilateral triangle1 or even one of still loftier pitch1 may1 under some circumstances1 become a pleasing architectural form1 as we may perceive from pyramids and ,gothic gables4 ,how1 then1 is this seeming inconsistency or contradiction to be explained8 ,it explains itself1 if we merely reflect1 as we ought to do1 that in architecture1 forms and proportions are beautiful not positively but only relatively4 ,were it not so1 the same forms and proportions would be beautiful1 and equally so under all circumstances1 without any regard to purpose or propriety4 ,it must also be taken into account that habit1 custom1 association of ideas1 or prejudice1 greatly influence our notions of architectural beauty4 ,we are prejudiced in favour of the low ,greek pediment1 if for no other reason1 because it is sanctioned by ,greek authority and is according to ,greek precedent4 ,in all probability1 had that people employed high-pitched instead of low-pitched pediments1 we should1 without inquiring further1 have admired the former rather than the latter4 ,what we have now to inquire is1 why lowness of pitch for the pediment best agrees with the ,greek system and its principles4 ,notwithstanding that the pediment forms no part of the ,order1 since the latter is complete without it1--and in fact the pediment occurs only at the ends of a sloping roof1--the pediment must1 when it does appear1 be in accordance with the ,order itself1 or that front of the building which is beneath the pediment2 consequently the pitch of the latter must be regulated by circumstances1--must be either greater or less1 according to the proportions of the front itself4 ,so far from being increased in the same ratio1 the wider the front1--the greater the number of columns at that end of the building1--the lower must the pediment be kept1 because the front itself becomes of low proportions in the same degree as it is extended or widened4 ,under all circumstances1 the height of the pediment must remain pretty nearly the same1 and be determined1 not by width or horizontal extent1 but by the height of what is beneath it4 ,the height of the pediment or its tympanum 7the triangular surface included between the horizontal cornice of the ,order1 and the two raking cornices of the pediment7 never greatly exceeds the depth or height of the entablature2 for were it to do so1 the pediment would become too large and heavy1 would take off from the importance of the ,order1 and appear to load its entablature with an extraneous mass which it was never calculated to bear4 ,we hardly need observe that it was1 if not a constant1 a very usual practice with the ,ancients to fill in the whole of the tympanum of the pediment with sculpture1 and also the metopes of the frieze1 by which the latter1 instead of being mere blank spaces between the triglyphs1 were converted into highly ornamental features4 ,,modern ,,doric4 ,of the ,roman and the modern varieties of this ,order we shall treat much more briefly1 because our remarks may be confined to comparison and the notice of differences4 ,certain it is that the original character of the ,order was gradually lost sight of more and more1 till at length it was converted into something quite different from its ,greek type4 ,the few circumstances in which ,modern ,doric1 as we may call it1 resembles the original one1 are little more than the mode of fluting with arrises instead of fillets1--the general form of capital composed of echinus and abacus1 and the triglyphs upon the frieze4 ,the differences are1 if not greater1 far more numerous4 ,the column becomes greatly elongated1 being increased from six to eight diameters4 ,the sunk annulets beneath the capital were omitted or converted into fillets2 the capital was increased in depth by a distinct necking being given to it1 divided from the shaft by a projecting moulding1 which in that situation is called an astragal4 ,the abacus1 too1 is made shallower1 and has mouldings added to it4 ,one of the greatest changes of all1 as far as the column is concerned1 is the addition of a base to it1 which is partly both consequence and cause of the greater slenderness of the shaft2 for were the shaft not reduced in diameter1--which is the same as being made more diameters in height1--the base added to it would enlarge the foot of the column3 so again1 on the other hand1 were only the shaft decreased in thickness1 without any mouldings for a base being added to it1 that end of the column would be as much too small4 ,the base best adapted to the ,order1 as being the most simple1 though not uniformly made use of1 is that which consists of merely a torus1 or large circular and convex-sided block1 and two shallow fillets above it4 ,it may here further be noticed1 that besides the base itself1 or the base proper1 the moderns have1 for all the ,orders alike1 adopted an additional member1 namely1 a rather deep and square block1 which1 when so applied1 is termed a plinth2 and beneath this is frequently placed another and deeper one1 called a sub-plinth4 ,contrary as this is to the practice of the ,greeks1 it is by no means an unwarrantable license1 for had no greater liberty been taken with the ,orders and the modes of applying them1 they would have remained comparatively quite pure4 ,in apology for the plinth beneath a base1 it may be said to produce a pleasing agreement between both extremities of the column1--in the ,doric ,order at least1 where the square plinth beneath the circular torus of the base answers to the square abacus 7which is itself another plinth1 though differently named7 placed upon the circular echinus of the capital4 ,passing over several particulars which our confined limits will not permit us to notice1 we may remark1 that if greatly altered1 not to say corrupted1 from its primitive character1 the ,doric ,order1 as treated by the moderns1 has been assimilated to the other ,orders1--so much so as1 though still differing from them in its details1 to belong to the same general style4 ,one advantage1 if no other1 of which is1 that it may1 should occasion require1 be used along with the other ,orders2 whereas the original or ,grecian ,doric is so obstinately inflexible that it cannot be made to combine with any thing else1 or to bend to modern purposes4 ,so long as a mere portico or colonnade1 and nothing more1 is required1 backed by a wall unperforated by windows1 its character and characteristic system of intercolumniation can be kept up1 but no longer2 or if it is to be done1 it is more than has yet been accomplished4 ,nothing could be more preposterous1 or show greater want of proper sthetic feeling1 or greater disregard of sthetic principles1 than the attempt to combine1 as was done by ,nash in the ,park faade of ,buckingham ,palace1 a ,grecian ,doric ,order with a ,corinthian one4 ,so totally irreconcileable are the two styles1 that it was like placing ,tudor or florid ,perpendicular ,gothic upon the early ,lancet style4 ,besides1 in that instance1 the ,doric1 though affecting to be ,greek1 was depravated most offensively1 as may still be seen in what is now left in the two low wings1 the architrave and frieze being thrown together into one blank surface4 ,,tuscan ,,order4 ,illustration ,this1 as already stated1 is not entitled to rank as a distinct ,order1 being1 in fact1 nothing more than a simplified1 if not a spurious and debased variety of the ,doric4 ,no authentic examples of it exist3 it is known only from what ,vitruvius says of it1 following whose imperfect account1 modern writers and architects have endeavoured to make out something answering to it4 ,yet what has been so produced is to all intents and purposes ,doric1--though not ,grecian ,doric1--excepting that the shafts are unfluted and the frieze quite plain2 which last circumstance1 and much more1 as has just above been intimated1 is a mere trifling discrepancy1 since not the triglyphs merely1 but the frieze may1 it seems1 be omitted without thereby forfeiting the character of ,doric for the ,order4 ,though the ,tuscan is spoken of1 it is not practised4 ,almost the only example of what is called by that name in this country is ,inigo ,jones's portico of ,st4 ,paul's1 ,covent ,garden1 which1 though not devoid of character and effect1 is remarkable chiefly for the great width of the intercolumns1 and the great projection of its very shallow1 and therefore too shelf-like cornice1 which1 if no other part1 must be admitted to differ widely from the comparatively slightly projecting and massive ,doric cornice4 ,the ,tuscan has1 however1 been treated differently by different ,architects1 and some of them have given it what is merely a modification of the ,doric cornice without its mutules4 ,their ,tuscan becomes1 in fact1 very little more than a plainer sort of their own ,doric1 distinguished from it chiefly1 and that only negatively1 by the omission of triglyphs on the frieze4 ,one thing which the ,moderns have done1 both in their ,doric and their ,tuscan1 is to assimilate pilasters to columns1 giving to the former precisely the same bases and capitals as the others have1 and also generally diminishing their shafts in the same manner4 ,still all the differences here pointed out1 together with many minor ones besides1 do not constitute different ,orders1 unless they are to be multiplied by being subdivided into almost as many distinct ,orders as there are varieties of one and the same class4 ,all the ,dorics and the ,tuscan agree in having the echino-abacus capital4 ,therefore1 if we want a quite different and distinct ,order1 we must turn1 as we now do1 to the voluted-capital class of columns1 or that which bears the name of the ,,ionic ,,order4 ,illustration ,how this ,order originated1--what first led to the adoption of volutes as a suitable decoration for the capital1--whether they were mere decoration1 or were at first intended to express some meaning1--whether they were intentionally devised for the latter purpose1 or grew out of some accidental hint1--must now be entirely matter of conjecture4 ,of one thing we may be quite certain1 that the ,order as we now find it in the best and best known examples1 was not struck out all at once1 but must have passed through several stages till it was ultimately matured into perfection4 ,although the capital is the indicial mark of the ,order1--that by which the eye immediately recognizes and distinguishes it1--the entire column is of quite a different character from the ,doric4 ,besides having the addition of a base1 the shaft is of more slender or taller proportions1 and consequently made much less visibly tapering2 for if it diminished in the same degree as the ,doric shaft does1--the ,ionic being about two diameters longer1--the upper one would1 in consequence of such tapering1 become much too small2 and a further consequence would be that the foot and base of the column would appear much too large1--perhaps clumsily so4 ,not knowing expressly to the contrary1 we are at liberty to suppose that it was the altered form and character of the capital itself which first led to the formation of a base or series of mouldings at the bottom of the shaft1 in order to produce such degree of finish below as would correspond with and balance the richness and flow of outline given to the capital4 ,and it must be allowed that the swelling contours of the base are admirably in keeping1 and harmonize with the play of curves in the volutes2 whereas1 were the shaft to stand immediately upon the floor or pavement without any base1 as in the ,doric ,order1 although such treatment is in perfect correspondence with the character of that echino-abacus ,order1 it would be just the reverse in the voluted one4 ,there would be a harshness and abruptness below1 in grating discord with the graceful flow of lines in the capital above4 ,this feeling dictated the necessity for a corresponding base1 which1 although generally spoken of as an addition to the shaft1 may with far greater propriety be said to have been taken out of it4 ,any actual addition to the foot of the shaft would have been the same as an enlargement of it1 producing disproportion1 and therefore deformity4 ,the most rational explanation therefore is1 that the original diameter for the foot of the shaft was retained1 but the foot itself shaped into mouldings1 and the portion immediately above it pared away or reduced1 so that the column became more diameters in height than before4 ,that being done1 and a distinct base so obtained1 it was found necessary to make a further change1 for the sharp arrises of the ,doric mode of fluting occasioned a degree of harshness quite at variance with the greater delicacy aimed at in other respects4 ,those arrises were accordingly converted into fillets1 which are not actual members1 but merely spaces left between the channels or flutes themselves1 which last are consequently narrower than in the ,doric column2 and their comparative narrowness is further increased by their being augmented in number1 from that of twenty to twenty-four4 ,thus the change from the ,doric to the ,ionic column may be accounted for1 rationally at least1 and sthetically1 if not historically4 ,we do not1 indeed1 profess to know and determine the actual origin of the volutes of the capital1 and therefore leave those who put faith in ,vitruvius to believe1 if they can1 that they were derived from the imitation of the curls in a lady's head-dress2 or1 as others will have it1 that the idea was borrowed either from rams' horns1 or the slender and flexile twigs of trees placed upon the capital for ornament6 ,we also leave those who are not satisfied with our way of accounting for the base given to the ,ionic column to fancy that this member was intended to imitate the ancient chaussure or sandals4 ,the ,ionic capital is far more complex than that of the ,doric1 and not only more complex1 but more irregular also3 instead of showing1 like the other1 four equal sides1 it exhibits two faces or fronts parallel to the architrave above it1 and two narrower baluster sides1 as they are termed1 beneath the architrave4 ,some consider this irregularity a defect1 which1 if such it be1 is to be got over only by either turning the volutes diagonally1 as in some ,roman and modern examples1 or by curving concavely the faces of the capital1 instead of making them planes1 so as to obtain four equal faces or sides1 as is done in the capitals of the inner ,order of the ,temple of ,apollo at ,bass4 ,at least that method1 and the other one of turning the volutes diagonally1 are the only methods that have been practised for giving perfect regularity to the ,ionic capital by means of four equal faces2 for1 though difficult1 it is possible to accomplish the same purpose differently1 by making the abacus quite square1 as in the ,doric ,order1 and letting the volutes grow out of it on each side or face1 their curvature commencing not on the upper horizontal edge1 but descending from the vertical edges of the abacus4 ,in fact1 the volutes might be fancied to have originated in a prolonged abacus1 first falling down on each side beneath the architrave1 and then coiled up on the back and front of the column for the two faces1 which thus became greater in width2 after which a smaller ornamental abacus was introduced as a crowning member1 immediately beneath the architrave4 ,as it is now treated1 the great extent of the two flat voluted faces prevents the capital from being square4 ,let us endeavour to explain this3 as average measurement1 we may put down #ej minutes1 or #aj less than the lower diameter1 for that of the upper diameter of the shaft2 #fe for the sides of the abacus2 from #ef to #fj for the soffit of the architrave1 which last accordingly overhangs the upper part of the shaft2 and #ij minutes1 that is1 three modules1 or a diameter and a half1 for the faces of the capital1 measured across the volutes4 ,now1 were the capital square--as deep from back to front as it is wide in front--its bulk would be excessive1 and out of proportion with the column and other parts of the ,order1 and inconsistent with the delicacy aimed at in all respects4 ,the mere lateral expansion of the capital1 on the contrary1 as viewed in front1 does not occasion any appearance of heaviness1--rather that of richness2 more especially as the bulk is greatly diminished by the following ingenious expedient4 ,instead of the baluster side being made cylindrical by being kept of the same diameter throughout1 and equal to the face of the volute1 it is gradually diminished from each face2 so that the side of the capital thus becomes in a manner hollowed out2 and not only that1 but great play of form is imparted to it1 and its curvature both contrasts and harmonizes with the curves of the volutes themselves4 ,if there be not the same completeness with respect to uniformity in all the four sides as is obtained in the ,doric and ,corinthian capitals1 at any rate the most admirable artistic contrivance and propriety are exhibited4 ,the only thing to be objected against the ,ionic capital is1 that in the end columns of a portico the form of capital just described occasioned obvious if not offensive irregularity1 because on the return or side of the building the baluster side showed itself beneath the face of the architrave3 yet even this was of little consequence if there was merely a single row of columns in front2 but where the colonnade was continued along the flanks of the building also1 a very unsightly sort of irregularity was produced2 for while all the other columns on those flanks showed the faces of their capitals1 the end one would show its baluster side4 ,here then a difficulty presented itself that demanded some ingenuity to overcome it2 and hardly can we sufficiently admire the happy expedient by which it was surmounted4 ,it was necessary to give the capital at the angle two adjoining voluted faces1 so that it should agree with those of the other columns both in front and on the flank of the building4 ,this was accordingly effected by placing the volute at the angle1 diagonally1 so as to obtain there two voluted surfaces placed immediately back to back1--a most happy and simple contrivance1 which1 now that it has been applied1 every one is at liberty to fancy he could have found out for himself4 ,nevertheless it is not every one that approves of it1 for there are some who affect to regard that disposition of the volute at the angle as a defect4 ,if it be strictly considered merely in itself1 it may1 perhaps1 be objected to such capital that in itself it is irregular1 one of the volutes in each of its faces being turned obliquely and foreshortened1 while the other volute in the same face is seen directly in front1 as in all the other capitals4 ,yet surely such partial and trifling irregularity may very well be excused1 instead of being imputed as a defect1 since it obviates far greater irregularities1 and contributes so effectively to general harmony and symmetry4 ,at all events1 it is incumbent upon those who make the objection to show how much better they could have managed matters4 ,so far are we from objecting to it1 that we do not see why the same diagonal disposition of the volutes should not1 occasionally at least1 be employed for all the capitals alike1 thereby giving them1 although in all other respects perfectly ,greek as to style1 four uniform faces1 as in some of the ,roman and ,italian examples of the ,order4 ,how little modern ,architects are capable of modifying the ,ionic capital1 and adapting it to particular circumstances1 may be seen in the colonnades of the faade of the ,british ,museum1 where1 at the re-entering or internal angle formed by colonnades at right angles to each other1 the column at the angle has two adjoining voluted faces given to it2 but as a re-entering or inner angle is circumstanced quite differently from an external one1 the consequence is that each of those faces falls opposite the baluster side of the columns ranging with it either way4 ,we explain this briefly in two simple diagrams1 in which f indicates the face or voluted side of the capital1 and b the baluster side4 ,in an external angle1 or the return of a portico1 the faces and sides are arranged thus1 so that b b b b come opposite each other2 but in an internal or re-entering angle1 the reverse takes place2 for we have then this disposition of the faces and sides of the capitals1 in which a voluted face comes opposite to the baluster side of the next capital1--a most unsightly irregularity1 and one all the more unpardonable because it could have been got over1 if in no other way1 by converting that column 7a7 into a square pillar1 which would besides give strength1 or the expression of it1 where such expression is very desirable4 ,illustration ,illustration ,if these observations on the ,ionic capital seem to detain us too long1 we cannot help it3 they are nothing less than indispensable for a proper understanding of its nature1 and the peculiarity of circumstances attending it4 ,what remains to be observed is1 that owing to its complexity1 that capital admits of very great diversity of character and decoration4 ,it is sometimes without1 and sometimes has a necking to it1 which may either be plain or decorated1 as may best accord with the particular expression1 either as to richness or quiet simplicity1 which is aimed at as the characteristic of the entire design4 ,the capital may be modified almost infinitely in its proportions2 first1 as regards its general proportion to the column2 secondly1 as regards the size of the volutes compared with the width of the face4 ,in the best ,greek examples the volutes are much bolder and larger than in those of the ,roman and ,italian1 in some of which they are so greatly reduced in size1 and become consequently so far apart from each other1 as to be insignificant in themselves1 and give the whole capital an expression of meagreness and meanness4 ,the spirals forming the volute supply another source of variety1 since they may be either single or manifold4 ,in what is called the ,ilissus ,ionic capital there is only a single spiral1 or hem1 whose revolutions form the volute1 which mode1 indeed1 prevails in all the ,roman and modern ,ionics2 but in the capitals of the ,temple of ,erechtheus at ,athens1 there are1 besides that principal spiral1 other intermediate ones which follow the course of its revolutions4 ,again1 the cathetus1 or eye of the volute1 where the spiral or spirals terminate1 admits of being made smaller or larger4 ,it is1 besides1 sometimes flat1 sometimes convex1 and occasionally carved as a rosette4 ,all these variations are independent of the general composition of the capital1 and though not all equally good1 they both suggest and authorize other modifications of the ,ionic type1 and fresh combinations4 ,illustration ,one exceedingly interesting example1 highly valuable as suggestive study1--one quite sui generis1 and perhaps on that account viewed with more of prejudice than relish1 is the internal ,order of the ,temple of ,apollo at ,bass1 delineated and described by ,mr4 ,t4 ,l4 ,donaldson1 in the supplementary volume to ,stuart's #8,athens4' ,this example1 which seems to have found favour only in the eyes of ,mr4 ,c4 ,r4 ,cockerell1 who has employed it on more than one occasion1 has1 as already intimated1 four similar faces2 yet if it so far agrees with many ,roman and modern ,ionic capitals1 it differs from them totally in every other respect4 ,while the faces of the latter are formed rather by merely sticking on the volutes diagonally1 instead of turning them1 so in the example now under notice1 each face may be said to be arched1 since it curves downwards on each side from the middle of its upper edge1 instead of being there straight or horizontal beneath the architrave4 ,owing to this circumstance the faces of the capital have the look of being rather affixed to than properly connected with the abacus1 and there is a certain degree of incongruousness and want of finish4 ,so far1 then1 there is room for improvement1 and perhaps in some other respects also2 yet upon the whole there is much to approve of and admire in this capital1 among whose peculiarities it deserves to be noted that the space between the volutes is not above half the width of the volutes themselves4 ,nor is it for its capital alone this that example of the ,order is remarkable1 its base being equally peculiar1 on account of its simplicity of form1 and still more so1 perhaps1 on account of its very great expansion1 spreading out below to considerably more than two upper diameters of the shaft2 which perhaps causes the capital to appear rather too small in comparison with it4 ,this base is all the more remarkable because it differs entirely from what is called the ,ionic base1 although not employed by the ,european ,greeks for that ,order1 who made use of what is styled the ,attic base1 consisting of two tori and a scotia1 or deep curved hollow1 between them4 ,the proper ,ionic base1 or what is so called1 differs from every other form of that member1 being greatly contracted in its lower mouldings1 which1 if not a deformity1 is not a particular beauty1 as it gives the base too much the appearance of being reversed or turned upside down2 and hence it is difficult to assign any probable or sufficient motive for such conformation of mouldings in the foot of a column4 ,perhaps the only modern instance of the application of that base occurs in the tetrastyle 7four-columned7 portico of ,hanover ,chapel1 ,regent ,street1 whose ,order is copied from the ,temple of ,minerva ,polias at ,priene1 in ,asia ,minor2 to which example we shall presently have occasion to refer again when we come to speak of the ,ionic entablature4 ,before so doing we have to call attention to another peculiarity in the columns within the ,temple at ,bass1 whose base is above shown3 we allude to the mode in which the shafts are fluted1 which seems to indicate a transition from the ,doric to the ,ionic style1 the fillets being exceedingly narrow1 and the channels shallow and very slightly curved1 which gives the shaft altogether a different character from that attending the usual mode of fluting practised for this ,order4 ,although it is a modern composition1 derived from the study of ,greek fragments1 yet certainly not on that account the less meritorious than if it were an express copy from some one particular example1 we may be allowed to speak of the ,order1 or rather the columns of the hexastyle 7six-columned7 portico of the ,church in ,regent ,square1 ,gray's ,inn ,road1 erected between twenty and thirty years ago by ,mr4 ,inwood1 soon after the completion of ,st4 ,pancras' ,church1 whose portico so admirably exemplifies the florid and elaborately wrought ,ionic of the ,temple of ,erechtheus at ,athens4 ,the columns of the ,regent ,square ,church1--and it is on account of the columns alone that we allude to it1--differ from all other known examples2 not only in their bases and capitals1 but also in the very peculiar mode of fluting1 or rather striating1 employed for their shafts4 ,not having detailed drawings1 or any drawings at all to assist us1 we cannot pretend to enter into description1 but can only say that base1 shaft1 and capital are unlike all received examples1 and at the same time so well adapted to each other as to produce artistic unity and consistency of character2 and that character is stamped by breadth and simplicity4 ,with respect to the fluting1 it partakes of what may be called striating1 the fillets showing themselves rather as narrow surfaces raised upon the shaft1 than the channels as positive hollows between them4 ,the capital is at once graceful and simple1 and derives much of its peculiar character from the enlarged eye of the volute1 which is occupied by a rosette ornament4 ,interesting as it would be to particularize other examples1 we cannot do so here1 which is the less to be regretted because mere verbal remarks1 unaccompanied by drawings on such a scale as to fully show all their minuti1 would not be very satisfactory4 ,perhaps we shall be thought to have already dwelt rather too long on the mere column1 for we have not yet quite done with that part of the ,order4 ,it remains to be observed1 that notwithstanding its situation is such as to render detail there hardly noticeable1 the baluster side of the capital was always enriched4 ,in ,greek examples it had a series of wide channels with broad fillets between them1 and where great richness was affected1 as in the ,ionic of the ,temple of ,erechtheus1 the fillets had an additional moulding upon them1 carved into beads4 ,in the ,asiatic examples1 on the contrary1 and ,roman ones also1 the baluster side is usually cut into the form of leaves1 bound together1 as it were1 in the centre by a broad moulded ring1 which produces an exceedingly good effect2 and indeed1 in several instances1 much better taste is manifested in that obscure part of the capital than in the face itself4 ,although it is repetition to say that the base usually given to this ,order by the ,greeks was the ,attic one1 consisting of two tori1 divided by a scotia1 we here refer to that part of the column again for the purpose of noting a species of enrichment applied to it1 the upper torus being sometimes fluted horizontally1 at others cut to resemble an interlaced chain-like ornament1 now called a guilloche4 ,modern ,architects1 however1 invariably leave the upper torus of the base quite plain1 even when they scrupulously copy every other part of the column4 ,the only instance of channeling upon the upper torus1 to which we can point1 is that of the portico of ,st4 ,pancras' ,church1 which building well deserves to be carefully examined and studied by those who would acquire a correct idea of the exquisite finish and richness of ,grecian ,ionic details1 and their effect in execution4 ,for ,ionic ,ant a few words will suffice4 ,without exactly agreeing with that of the column1 the base does not differ very materially from it1 except1 indeed1 in the ,ilissus example1 where it is lower than the other1 and consists only of a shallow scotia with a channeled torus above it4 ,in the ,erechtheum example it is distinguished from the column base chiefly by both lower and upper torus being channeled4 ,the capital1 or1 as it is more commonly termed1 anta-cap1 on the contrary1 is differently shaped from that of the column1 in consequence of having no volutes2 wherefore it is not by any means so wide1 neither is it so deep4 ,the mouldings1 too1 though of the same character1 are differently disposed4 ,still the anta-cap corresponds with the capital as to plainness or enrichment1--being either carved or not1 as those of the latter happen to be2 and if the capital has an ornamented necking1 so also has the anta4 ,one singularity in the treatment of ,ionic ant1 is that of the face of the anta1 a slight break being made down the middle of it1 which causes it to appear composed of two very narrow faces put together side by side1 but not exactly flush with each other4 ,this kind of ant1 in imitation of those of the ,erechtheum--perhaps the only precedent for it--has been adopted for ,st4 ,pancras' ,church4 ,what could have led to it is rather difficult to conjecture1 since there does not appear to be any adequate motive for it1 or any purpose gained by it4 ,,ionic ,,entablature4--,as expressed in the terms of the diameter of the column1 that is1 measured by it1 the entablature exceeds that of the ,doric ,order4 ,in the ,parthenon the entire height of the entablature is not more than #b diameters2 while in both the ,ionic and ,erechtheum it is #b diameters and #ag parts1 or the third of a diameter more2 whereas it would seem that the ,ionic column being much slenderer1 the entablature ought to be less than #b diameters in height1 instead of being more4 ,and so it is1 and less in a considerable degree3 it is the height1 not the diameter1 of the column which regulates the height of the entablature2 in other words1 the height of the latter must be in proportion to that of the former4#b ,now #b diameters for the entablature is much less in proportion to a column #h or #i diameters high1 than #b diameters for the entablature is to one that is only #f diameters high4 ,in the latter case the entablature is equal to one-third of the column1 and one-fourth of the whole ,order2 but in the other1 #b diameters amount to only a fourth1 or thereabouts1 of the height of the column1 and consequently to only about a fifth of the entire ,order4 #b ,the necessity for agreement in this respect between the column and its entablature will be rendered apparent by the preposterous effect produced in two instances where the columns have been prolonged to an absurd height without the entablature being deepened in the same degree2 namely1 the portico of the ,admiralty1 and that within the court of ,furnival's ,inn2 the first of which is bad enough1 the other far worse in every respect4 ,the ,ionic architrave does not differ materially from that of the ,doric4 ,its average or standard height is the upper diameter of the column4 ,in the plainer examples of ,ionic1 such as the ,ilissus one1 the face of the architrave is quite plain1 as in the preceding ,order1 and distinguished from it only by the ,doric tenia being converted into a moulding of a plain bead and small echinus1 surmounted by a narrow tenia or broad fillet4 ,in more decorated examples1 as that of the ,erechtheum1 the face of the architrave is divided into three surfaces or courses1 called faci1 which very slightly project before or overhang each other1 and the moulding between the architrave and frieze is increased in depth2 there is a greater number of mouldings1 and some of them are enriched by being carved1 or1 as it is termed1 cut4 ,as to the ,ionic frieze1 triglyphs being discarded for it1 and no other characteristic members substituted for them1 it becomes no more than a plain surface interposed between the architrave and cornice1 unless1--as is now never done1 although it was1 in all probability1 generally done by the ,ancients1--it is enriched with figures in bas-relief or other sculpture4 ,yet as mere sculpture of that kind1 however essential to effect1 is not taken into account1 or considered to belong even to the character of an ,order1 but to be something quite extraneous that may either be introduced or omitted at pleasure1 it is omitted accordingly2 whereby the frieze is reduced to a mere blank surface1 which leaves nothing more to be said concerning it4 ,the ,ionic cornice affords but little scope for further observation1 more particularly in the ,athenian examples1 in which it consists of little more than the corona and cymatium above it1 and some narrow bed-mouldings beneath the former member1 partly got out of its hollowed soffit or under surface4 ,consequently the whole cornice looks rather meagre and poor1 especially if the richer form of capital with a necking to it be employed for the columns4 ,in such case there is no corresponding degree of richness and increased importance in what is1 nevertheless1 the completing member or division of the entire ,order1 and ought accordingly to be treated as such4 ,on this account we hold the cornice of the ,erechtheum example to be very unsatisfactory1 and to derogate from what is the character of the ,order in all other respects3 while the capital is particularly ornate1 luxuriant1 and complicated in design1 the cornice1 which1 as has been before remarked1 is to be considered as the capital of the entire ,order1 is particularly simple and severe2 and owing to the want of a sufficiency of bed-mouldings beneath it1 the corona appears to jut out too abruptly immediately over the frieze1 without due preparation for it4 ,were the frieze sculptured1 such enrichment would1 perhaps1 without any thing further1 confer an adequate degree of ornateness upon the whole entablature1 and bring it into keeping with the highly finished columns4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the frieze is to be left plain1 the best way would be to reduce its height a little1 and perhaps that of the architrave also1 and enlarge the cornice by introducing dentels into it4 ,these last-mentioned members1--which1 although considered by modern writers to be characteristic of the ,ionic ,order1 and to be to its cornice what mutules are to the ,doric1 and modillions to the ,corinthian1 do not appear to have been so regarded by the ,greeks themselves1--consist of a series of narrow upright blocks 7supposed to represent the ends of joists71 placed closely together1 so that the spaces between them1 which are only about half as wide as the blocks themselves1 appear to indent that portion of the cornice1 which1 when introduced without being so ornamented1 is called an uncut dentel band4 ,the ,priene example1 to which we referred when speaking of ,ionic bases1 offers what1 in our opinion at least1 is a far better model for an ,ionic cornice than that of the ,erechtheum1 and which1 with perhaps some modification of it1 might very well be applied to the more florid ,athenian ,order2 and though to do so would be contrary to precedent1 that would matter little1 so that the change itself were in conformity with artistic effect and sthetic principles4 ,the ,temple of ,jupiter at ,aizani in ,asia ,minor exhibits a remarkable example of the ,ionic ,order1 the details of which were recently published1 for the first time1 by ,m4 ,texier4 ,in its general conformation the base resembles the ,priene example2 but the entablature is quite different4 ,the architrave is divided into three faci1 separated by a cut moulding2 and the upper faci is surmounted by an exceedingly deep and highly enriched course of mouldings4 ,the frieze1 too1 is ornamented in a very unusual fashion1 acanthus leaves being placed upon it at intervals1 somewhat after the manner of triglyphs1 and connected together with scrolls4 ,the cornice has both dentels and modillions and a narrow corona1 but a deep cymatium or epitithedas1 enriched with carving4 ,we will not pursue our notice of the ,greek or ,ancient ,ionic any farther1 but here conclude it with observing1 that notwithstanding its decided superiority to the ,roman1 c41 especially in its capital1 the former has not been adopted by the ,italian and ,french ,architects of the present day4 ,in this country1 on the contrary1 the ,greek ,ionic has been employed almost to the entire exclusion of the other1 from the time of its being first made known to us by means of ,stuart and ,revett's #8,antiquities of ,athens1' and the #8,ionian ,antiquities2' to which publications may be added the #8,unedited ,antiquities of ,attica1' which contains other specimens of the ,order1 found at ,eleusis1 remarkable for their refined simplicity and also their gracefulness4 ,not the least important lesson to be derived from these and similar publications is1 we permit ourselves to say1 the learning from them that the ,greeks treated their ,orders with artistic spirit and freedom1 conforming to a certain type or general standard for each1 but varying their details and modifying their proportions4 ,for examples of ,grecian ,doric and ,ionic which may be seen in ,london1 and which the student would therefore do well to look at and carefully examine for himself1 since he will from these learn more than he possibly can do from books alone1 we refer to the following buildings3 for ,doric1 the tetrastyle portico of ,covent ,garden ,theatre1 and the hexastyle one of the ,colosseum in the ,regent's ,park2 which latter shows the ,order to much greater advantage than the other1 owing to its being free from such disturbing and very un-antique additions as several doors and windows within it1 which inevitably destroy all breadth and repose2--it has also the advantage of a west aspect1 by which the full effect of light and shade is produced4 ,for ,ionic examples1 we refer to ,st4 ,pancras' ,church1 ,new ,road1 whose order is a faithful transcript from that of the ,erechtheum2 the same building also affords an instance of the application of a caryatid order of female figures in the porch1 or rather the porch-like structure1 on its north and south sides1--the idea of which is taken from a similar small structure attached to the ,athenian ,temple2--the ,university ,club ,house1 ,pall ,mall ,east1 where the same ,order is applied upon a much smaller scale1 and raised upon a basement floor2--the ,chapel in ,south ,audley ,street2--the portico of the ,post ,office1 and the faade of the ,british ,museum2--the portico of the ,college of ,surgeons1 ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields1 whose columns1 proportioned according to the ,ilissus example1 were originally plain1 but were fluted1 and the mouldings of the entablature cut1 when the building was altered and greatly improved some years ago1 by ,mr4 ,barry2--the portico of ,hanover ,chapel1 ,regent ,street1 which1 as the reader is already aware1 shows the ,priene ,ionic2--and lastly1 for we will not further extend this list1 the portico of the ,india ,house1 ,leadenhall ,street1 which is remarkable for its frieze being sculptured1 and its pediment also filled in with figures in relief4 ,of similar decoration for the ,doric ,order we cannot point out any instance here1 both the metopes of the frieze1 and the pediment1 being left plain in all our ,english specimens of that ,order4 ,,roman ,,and ,,modern ,,ionic4 ,to elucidate this part of our subject at all satisfactorily would require a great number of drawings2 accordingly we must make shift as well as we can without them1 leaving the student to turn to other works for examples1--should he1 as we trust he will1 have imbibed from our remarks any relish for the study of the ,orders by accurate comparison of various examples of one and the same ,order4 ,neither the ,romans nor their modern successors appear to have comprehended the genius of the ,ionic ,order any more than of the ,doric4 ,their best imitations1 both of the one and the other1 were of but a bungling kind4 ,they certainly had no great affection for either1 for we find comparatively very few instances of them in ,roman remains4 ,as treated by them1 the ,ionic capital was not only greatly impoverished1 but deformed also1--impoverished by the volutes being greatly reduced in size1 and consequently in importance also1 as characteristic marks of the ,order1--and deformed1 owing to the tasteless treatment of it in other respects4 ,instead of the gracefully flowing festoon hem1 or mouldings over the echinus1 which seems to connect the two volutes or sides of the face of the capital together1 there is a straight line without any moulding to it1 and the echinus1 projecting before it1 produces an appearance of clumsiness--of the several members not being properly adjusted to each other4 ,as in all the ,greek examples1 the echinus of the capital1 which passes behind the volutes1 is invariably carved with that sort of pattern which workmen call #8eggs and darts1' ova or egg-shaped ornaments1 almost naturally resulting from the contour of the moulding before it is cut2 and the echinus of the ,ionic1 being always so carved1 is on that account distinguished by the name of ovolo1--not because its section or profile is any portion of an oval or elliptic curve2 for among other things the ,roman style differs from the ,greek in having all its moulding1 both convex and concave1 formed of portions of circles1 by which its details become less elegant in contour4 ,but we cannot enter into such niceties in a mere rudimentary work4 ,even in the best ,roman and modern examples1 the volutes are decidedly inferior to ,greek1 being comparatively tame and meagre1 yet coarse also4 ,italian ,architects have sometimes made them so small and insignificant that they give scarcely any character to the capital1 or render it distinguishable1 at a little distance1 from the ,doric1 its general mass being no greater4 ,the spiral makes fewer revolutions1 and the hem or moulding which forms it is flat1 as is also the inter-spiral or general surface of the volute1 which has never any secondary spirals upon it1 though that and the intervolute are sometimes enriched with foliage4 ,of the ,roman ,ionic ,order1 as a whole1 we know very little1 there being only three accredited examples of it1 viz4 the ,theatre of ,marcellus1 the ,temple of ,fortuna ,virilis1 and the ,temple of ,concord4 ,of the first of these1 the capital is the simplest and plainest1 and also the smallest in its proportions2 that of the second is by very far the best1 its volutes retaining most of the ,greek character2 and that of the third is remarkable1 if not for its ugliness in other respects1 for its volutes being turned outwards diagonally1 so as to present four equal faces1--a mode afterwards re-invented and brought up as a novelty by ,scamozzi1 in honour of whom it has since been distinguished by the name of the ,scamozzi capital4 ,but if there are few ancient buildings remaining of the ,roman ,ionic ,order1 there are numerous detached specimens of it in antique columns that have been preserved by having been made use of in other buildings1 or deposited in collections of sculpture4 ,many of these have been delineated and published by ,piranesi and others2 and they are so numerous and so varied that we cannot pretend either to classify them1 or to particularize even the principal ones4 ,all that we can here say is1 that although they fall far short of the refined taste exhibited in ,greek examples1 some of them possess considerable merit1 and supply ideas for other and better varieties4 ,they also serve to convince us that1 like the ,greeks1 the ,romans did not abide by a single stereotype pattern for each ,order3 the attempt to establish such uniformity and conformity to rule was reserved for the ,palladios and ,vignolas of the #afth century4 ,there is a fine antique example of the kind in the ,british ,museum1 in which the volutes are placed diagonally1 and beneath each face of the capital there is not a mere flat mask1 but a head1 cut out in bold relief1 all of them different from each other4 ,the whole is excellently well composed1 and highly interesting as a study4 ,one of the varieties of ,ionic capitals shown by ,piranesi is that from a column in the ,church of ,santa ,maria ,transtevere at ,rome1 which is ornamented on its face with a small head or bust upon the face of the intervolute and abacus1 and the eye of the volutes themselves is unusually large1 and contains a small half-length female figure carved upon it1--which1 though it can be distinctly seen in a drawing1 can be hardly perceptible in the column itself4 ,the only other variety of or invention for the ,ionic capital that we can notice is one that has frequently been practised by ,italian ,architects1 and which may be distinguished as the festoon or festooned capital1 the volutes being turned diagonally1 and a festoon being suspended from the eye one volute to that of the other beneath each face4 ,this not only gives variety and richness to the capital1 but by increasing its volume or bulk1 increases its importance also1 and produces great play of light and shade3 there is harmony together with diversity in the combination of forms1 the curve of the festoon being1 though dissimilar1 in agreement with the outline of the volutes4 ,the columns of the circular portico to the ,church in ,langham ,place have capitals of this description1 in which cherub heads are introduced into the festoons2 and so far as the mere capitals go1 that specimen of ,ionic is entitled to much praise3 the misfortune is1 that the ,order is not satisfactory as a whole2 for the increased richness of the capitals requires that there should be a corresponding degree of richness given to the entablature4 ,at present there is no proportion--that is1 with regard to decoration--observed2 for the same entablature1 or cornice at least1 which is in keeping with a smaller and plainer capital1 cannot be equally adapted to a larger and more ornate one1 but partakes of either excess1 or the #8too much' in the one case1 or of deficiency1 or the #8too little' in the other1--not perhaps as to size1 but in regard to the quantum of embellishment4 ,to obviate the meagreness and insignificance of the usual ,italian ,ionic capital1 ,sansovino and some others have frequently given it a necking1 either plain or enriched1 which1 even when plain1 greatly improves the general appearance of the column by increasing the depth of the capital and reducing the height of the shaft4 ,to make this the clearer1 let us1 without pretending at all to exactness1 call the column nine diameters high1 and the capital either half a diameter1 or a whole one1 accordingly as it is without or with a necking3 now in the first case the capital will be to the shaft 7base included7 only as one to seventeen1 whereas in the other it becomes as one to eight2 which is not at all too much1 while the other way the shaft is much too lanky1 and the capital too low1--as is probably felt by those who cannot explain the cause of such disagreement and disproportion4 ,,entablature4--,there is not much to say1 at least there is no occasion for saying much1 relative to this part of the ,roman and ,modern ,ionic ,order4 ,the ancient examples of it are by far too few to admit of any general laws for it being derived from them2 nor are the examples themselves very satisfactory4 ,that of the ,ionic of the ,theatre of ,marcellus is1 perhaps1 the best upon the whole1 and seems to have been that which has guided the ,moderns in the composition of their entablature1 although they have very greatly diminished the proportions of the cornice1 which is there nearly equal to both architrave and frieze together4 ,in the ,athenian ,ionic we may set down the architrave1 frieze1 and cornice as about #ej1 #ej1 and #ce minutes respectively1 making altogether two diameters and #ae minutes 7or a quarter of a diameter72 therefore the cornice is to each of the other two divisions of the entablature only as #ce to #ej4 ,in the ,roman ,ionic1 on the contrary1 the cornice is by much the largest division3 in the ,fortuna ,virilis example the measures are1--architrave #ch'1 frieze #ai'1 cornice #gj'2 in that of the ,theatre of ,marcellus1 #dc'--cf'--ff'1 making the entire entablature #abg'1 or #b diameters #g'4 ,although modern ,architects vary from these proportions1 and some of them make the frieze equal to or more than the architrave1 they all agree--in doctrine at least1 if not in practice--in making the cornice the largest division of the entablature2 and as the projection is usually equal to its height1 or thereabouts1 the cornice thus gains in importance both ways1 and1 as far as its mere proportions are concerned1 becomes an adequate finishing to the entire ,order4 ,this latter mode certainly appears more in accordance with artistic principle3 shall we then presume to say that the ,greeks were wrong in their treatment of the ,ionic cornice8--,well1 let us say then1 that they were not quite so right as they might have been4 ,to us1 the ,asiatic ,ionic cornice 7for instance that of the ,priene ,order7 is far more satisfactory than either the ,hellenic or ,athenian2 and in our opinion it would require a cornice richer still1 to correspond with the highly elaborated ,erechtheum capital1 and maintain due artistic keeping in the whole of that ,order4 ,these remarks partake1 perhaps1 too much of digression3 we will therefore dismiss them1 and the cornice also1 merely adding that either dentels1 or larger plain blocks1 placed rather wide apart from each other1 are considered the proper characteristic marks of the ,ionic cornice4 ,there is nothing in either the architrave or the frieze that calls for observation1 except that the ,moderns have frequently given to this ,order1 by way of distinction1 a convex frieze1 technically termed a pulvinated one from its fancied resemblance to a cushion 7pulvinar71 whose sides swell out by compression when sat upon4 ,a frieze of the kind occurs in what is otherwise a very corrupt specimen of the ,order1 in the ,baths of ,diocletian4 ,it would be absurd to suppose that such form of frieze originated in an imitation of the thing after which it is now named2 and there are two motives1 either of which1 or both combined1 may have led to it4 ,the first of them is1 that such curvature in the face of the frieze may have been thought very suitable for the ,ionic ,order1 as agreeing with the curved forms predominating in the character of the capital1 namely1 the volutes4 ,the second is1 that a convex surface produces greater diversity of light and shade than a plain one2 and coming between the architrave and cornice1 is sufficiently distinguished by contour alone4 ,still it must be admitted that such form is somewhat too arbitrary and fanciful to be in accordance with strict architectural principles4 ,it is well enough suited for interiors1 or for entablatures upon a small scale1 such as those of doors and windows1 but not for a large external ,order4 ,the pulvinated frieze occurs frequently in the ,cinque-cento and ,renaissance styles1 and in our own ,english ,renaissance1 or ,elizabethan4 ,an instance of it may be seen in that well-known and celebrated piece of architecture by ,jones1 the front of ,whitehall ,chapel1 whose ,ionic ,order generally will convey an idea of the ,italian mode of treating it4 ,and it so happens that the tasteful little screen front of ,dover ,house 7added by ,holland to the original mansion71 on the opposite side of the street1 offers an example of the ,ilissus ,ionic1 whereby immediate comparison between the two styles may easily be made4 ,another specimen of ,italian ,ionic1 and of ,italian ,doric1 is the new portion lately added to the ,carlton ,club ,house1 ,pall ,mall1 which is all but a literal copy from ,sansovino's ,library of ,st4 ,mark at ,venice4 ,sansovino seems there to have aimed at the greatest possible richness for both ,orders2 and in his building the ,doric metopes are sculptured1 but are left plain in the ,club ,house1 although such decoration for them would have been novelty here1 and would have brought that lower ,order more into keeping with the upper one4 ,the shafts of the columns are not fluted as in the ,italian building1 but for very sufficient reason3 being of dark polished granite1 they would have acquired no great richness in consequence of their being so cut2 on the contrary1 the effect of the material itself would have been impaired4 ,the ,ionic capitals have an ornamented necking1 which is here not only a beauty but a great propriety1 because without it the capitals would have looked diminutive1 more especially beneath such a greatly exaggerated entablature4 ,tested by ordinary rules1 this last must be pronounced monstrous1 licentious in the extreme1 perhaps downright barbarous2 and1 no doubt1 would be so1 were it not protected by the name of ,sansovino4 ,his ,english copyist has therefore sufficient authority for it1--not so1 ,sansovino himself3 whence1 then1 did he get his precedent8 ,well1 he dispensed with precedent1 and using the privilege of a ,master in his ,art1 ventured beyond its written rules and conventionalities1--ventured where he might have failed1 and exposed himself to derision1--but succeeded1 and has been crowned by applause4 ,in ,art1 as in other things1 success sanctifies enterprize3 if you fail1 the world calls you a madman or fool2 if you succeed1 it bows down to you as a genius4 ,it must be confessed that such an entablature as ,sansovino has there given his ,ionic ,order would be nothing less than monstrous1 did the ,order itself constitute the edifice1 as in the antique temple2 instead of which1 the two ,orders there introduced are no more than ornamental accessories1 and the greatly enlarged entablature of the upper one is to be regarded as proportioned with reference not so much to its own columns as to the general mass of the entire faade4 ,it may be as well to remark here1 that both the ,carlton ,club ,house and ,whitehall ,chapel are instances of super-columniation1 or two ,orders placed one over the other--in the former building1 an ,ionic over a ,doric--in the latter1 a ,corinthian over an ,ionic ,order4 ,and in both cases the columns are attached or engaged1 as is said of columns which are united to the face of a wall so as not to project from it as much as their diameter1 but only about half or three-quarters of it1 and are therefore termed respectively half or three-quarter columns4 ,,corinthian ,,order4 ,illustration ,we now arrive at the third and last of the ,orders1 or that which is distinguished from the other two1 more by its deep and foliaged capital than by its proportions1--at least it is chiefly so distinguished from the ,ionic1 with which it has in other respects many points in common2 for the columns of both have bases differing but little from each other1 and their shafts are fluted in the same manner4 ,how this ,order came to obtain the name of ,corinthian is not very clear2 nor is it1 architecturally1 of any moment whether such name be right or wrong4 ,all that is certain is1 that examples of this ,order have not been found at ,corinth itself1 where1 judging from its name1 it would seem to have been the prevalent style of building1 and there brought to perfection4 ,there is a pretty legend relative to the origin of the ,corinthian capital1 which1 if not true1 has at least probability in its favour1 and is many degrees less nonsensical than the supposed origin of the ,ionic one4 ,nay1 it is even valuable and instructive1 as showing how well a skilful artist can derive hints from trivial or accidental circumstances1 and by improving upon them1 turn them to account4 ,as the story goes1 the sculptor ,callicrates was so struck by the graceful forms into which the leaves of an acanthus plant had grown up around a tall basket covered by a square slab1 that he sketched it1 and conceived the idea of fashioning the capital of a column after it4 ,it must be owned that the anecdote seems itself to be an invention intended to account poetically for the origin of such form of capital1 and perhaps on no better grounds than that of a fancied general resemblance1--just as some dreamers have detected the origin of the ,gothic style in an avenue of lofty over-arching trees1 or in the interlacing stems of a framing of wicker-work4 ,unluckily for the credit of so respectable a legend1 the earliest examples exhibit1 instead of the strongest and most direct resemblance to the presumed prototype1 the faintest and most vague of all4 ,the ,corinthian capital seems rather to have developed itself gradually out of the ,doric one2 first1 by its necking being deepened and ornamented with a row of leaves1 and then afterwards the echinus suppressed1 and the whole body of the capital made to expand in a concave curve up to the abacus1 with a second row of plain and flatter leaves above the first one4 ,at least the capitals to the small columns of the porches of the ,tower of the ,winds at ,athens1 and others discovered at ,miletus and elsewhere1 seem to favour such hypothesis2 and in further evidence of such ,doric derivation is the circumstance of the columns of the ,tower of the ,winds being without bases4 ,it will be argued1 perhaps1 that such examples do not all answer to the character afterwards established and adhered to for capitals belonging to that ,order4 ,very true3 but then they may surely be received as incipient efforts and attempts towards the formation of a third class of capitals2 and in the instances just referred to1 the overhanging square abacus without any foliage or curling tendrils spreading out to support its extremities1 points1 in our opinion1 clearly enough to a derivation from the ,doric capital1 considerably enlarged downwards1 and also greatly enriched4 ,however1 we leave others either to adopt or reject this notion1 just as they may be disposed4 ,at the best1 all such questions are little better than matters of idle curiosity1 and must always remain questions after all4 ,to quit conjecture for fact1 the fact is the ,corinthian ,order does not appear to have been ever matured into a distinct style and complete system by the ,greeks4 ,there is1 indeed1 one solitary ,athenian example of ,corinthian1 which exhibits the utmost refinement of exquisite richness attempered by exquisite delicacy4 ,in the ,lysicrates capital1--as we will for convenience call it 7the example alluded to being that of the monument of ,lysicrates1 otherwise called the ,lantern of ,demosthenes1 at ,athens71--foliation may be said to have attained its culminating point3 rivalled it may be1 but hardly surpassed4 ,still it must be confessed1 as a whole1 that ,order leaves much to be desired for it1 there being nothing of corresponding beauty and luxuriance in the rest of it4 ,the cornice1 for instance1 is only a simple dentelled ,ionic one1 nor are any of the mouldings of the entablature cut4 ,there was1 however1 in that particular case1 above the entablature1 what fully counterbalances and carries out the idea and expression of the capitals1 namely1 the ornamental roofing1 and the matchless finial which crowns the structure1 and produces a full climax of beauty and of grace4 ,charming as the original itself is1 or1 more correctly speaking1 was1 it has perhaps been more blunderingly copied and imitated than almost any other antique structure4 ,although the whole--its lofty-proportioned basement included--is not above #cf feet high1 a copy of it1 or what calls itself such1 has sometimes been hoisted up on the top of a lofty tower1 or raised on a modern church or chapel to serve as its belfry2 or else the columns and entablature have been taken just verbatim1 and applied1 by way of change1 as an ,order1 upon a scale for which the capitals1 at least1 were never intended4 ,the ,strand front or entrance of ,exeter ,hall consists of a loggia with lofty columns of the kind1 whose capitals1 being placed at such a height1 show as no better than heavy sculptured masses whose details it is impossible1 or at least requires great patience1 to make out4 ,more preposterously still1 the ,girard ,college at ,philadelphia plumes itself upon exhibiting an exact copy of this ,order1 where the columns are magnified to the height of between fifty and sixty feet1 so that all that can be made out of the capital is1 that it is exceedingly rich1--by very far too much so for any other part or feature in the building2--and that is called being classical6 ,let us now consider the ,corinthian ,order in its general and prominent characteristics1 belonging to all varieties of it alike4 ,although the ,order itself is the most delicate and lightest of the three1 the capital is the largest1 being considerably more than a diameter in height1--upon the average1 about a diameter and a quarter4 ,this1 however1 will cause the reader no surprise1 if he bears in mind what has been before said as to the proportion to be observed between the column and its capital4 ,the taller the former is1 the taller must be the latter also1 and so far bulkier2 although1 while actually increasing its bulk1 its tallness corrects the appearance of heaviness by giving the proportion of slenderness4 ,a capital whose height is only half a diameter is1 of course1 by no means positively so bulky as one which is upwards of an entire diameter in height1 but then it is much bulkier or broader in its proportions1 being about twice as broad as it is high1--whereas the other is much higher than it is wide4 ,this explanation makes1 we hope1 the matter sufficiently clear1 and that after it the reader will not feel himself at all puzzled about it4 ,the capital has two rows of leaves1 eight in each row1 so disposed that of the taller ones composing the upper row1 one comes in the middle1 beneath each face of the abacus1 and the lower leaves alternate with the upper ones1 coming between the stems of the latter2 so that in the first or lower tier of leaves there is in the middle of each face a space between two leaves occupied by the stem of the central leaf above them4 ,over these two rows is a third series of four leaves1 turned so as to support the small volutes which1 in turn1 support the angles of the abacus4 ,besides these outer volutes1 which are invariably turned diagonally1 as in the four-faced ,ionic capital1 there are two other smaller ones1 termed caulicoli1 which meet each other beneath a flower on the face of the abacus4 ,the abacus itself is differently shaped from what it is in either of the other two ,orders4 ,in the ,doric it is1 as we have seen1 merely a thick square slab1 fitting the echinus beneath it1 and left perfectly plain4 ,in the ,ionic it is square1 but its sides are moulded1 whether they are carved or not4 ,the ,corinthian abacus1 on the contrary1 is not1 properly speaking1 a square1 although it may be said to be so in its general form1 inasmuch as it possesses squareness1 having four equal sides4 ,instead of being straight1 the sides of the abacus are concave in plan1 being curved outwards so as to produce a sharp point at each corner1 which is accordingly cut off4 ,thus we find that the abacus here assumes a very different shape from its original one2 yet merely to know this is to know very little4 ,such form of it is of course a distinction1 but it was not for the sake of distinction that it was adopted4 ,it grew out of intention and purpose3 it was dictated by necessity--by artistic necessity at least1 which requires that the abacus should be adjusted to and conform to the upper part of the capital1 so that they fit each other4 ,now a square abacus would not at all suit a capital whose foliage spreads out so widely at its angles4 ,we have spoken of the capitals of the ,tower of the ,winds1 as1 according to our opinion1 showing the earliest formation of what we now call the ,corinthian capital4 ,in that example the abacus is square1 and the upper row of leaves are of the kind called water-leaves1 from their resemblance to those of water-plants1 being broad and flat1 and merely carved upon the vase or body of the capital4 ,the next stage of progress or transition was to add larger curling leaves and volutes to support the angles of the abacus2 but then if the abacus remained square as before1 it would either overhang the capital too much in the centre of each face of it1 or would not cover the enlarged sweep of the leaves and volutes at the angles4 ,consequently1 it was necessary to effect both extension and reduction for the abacus1--extension at its angles1 and reduction as regards its general bulk1 which beforehand apparently very difficult1 if not impossible feat1 was accomplished in the simplest manner possible1 by merely curving the sides of the abacus4 ,thus not only is the abacus expressly shaped in conformity with the great projection of the leaves1 c41 at the four angles of the capital1#c but a beautiful contrast1 contributing to general harmony1 ensues in consequence1--the concave sides of the abacus corresponding antithetically--in other words1 contrasting with the general convexity of the capital4 ,the general structure and configuration of the ,corinthian capital are now described1 and1 it is to be hoped1 understood also4 ,it may be as well1 however1 just to recapitulate3 the body of the capital is surrounded by two rows of leaves1 eight in each row2 besides which there are four leaves1 which1 with the volutes over them1 serve to support the four angles of the abacus1 which is fashioned as we have just been explaining4 ,simple and limited as these elementary and constitutional forms may be thought to be1--insufficient for any great variety or range of character1 the ,corinthian capital admits of almost infinite modification4 ,putting entirely aside all details and their minuti1 the capital of this ,order is susceptible of very great diversity of character in regard to its general proportions alone1 as may be seen by a comparison of a few--and they but a very few--examples given in a note below4#d #c ,for similar reason1 the same concavity in the sides of the abacus takes place in the four-faced ,ionic capital1 the abacus being so shaped in order that it may subtend over and cover the diagonally turned volutes4 #d ,we place these examples according to their respective proportional heights1 beginning with the highest1 and descending to the lowest1 and note their measurements in minutes rather than in diameters and fractional parts1 as being the most direct and convenient mode of comparison4 ,the height of the capital is taken exclusive of the astragal which divides it from the shaft of the column2 and as the expansion of the capital upwards has also to be considered1 the extreme width of the abacus is also indicated4 ,height of ,diagonal of capital4 abacus4 ,lysicrates example #hg' #id' ,nerva do4 7columns of the ,forum of ,nerva7 #gc' #ij' ,pantheon at ,rome #fi' #ij' ,jupiter ,stator1 ,temple of1 #ff' #ig' ,tivoli1 ,temple of the ,sibyls1 #fj' #ha' ,almost every antique example is marked by something peculiar to itself2 wherefore1 properly to analyze them and compare them all1 would require not only some scores1 but some hundreds of drawings1 and hundreds might be multiplied into thousands1 were we to collect together all the varieties of the descendants of the ,corinthian or foliaged-capital column that are to be found in buildings of the so-called ,byzantine style1 when the original idea of an ,order had been entirely lost sight of4 ,in fact1 all the compositions that have been produced with the intention of producing a new1 and what as such ought to be a perfectly distinct ,order1 congruent in all its parts1 have consisted of little more than variations of the ,corinthian capital2 as if difference in the details of the capital sufficed to constitute a different and quite distinct ,order4 ,properly understood1 ,order is1 if not exactly so1 little more than another word for style2 and a new style is not to be invented or established1 like the alteration from old to new style of the almanac by ,act of ,parliament4 ,style must of necessity grow up gradually3 the ideas of many minds must contribute to its formation4 ,from the examples whose proportions are stated in the preceding note1 it will be seen that the height of the capital varies from #fj'1 or just a diameter1 to #hg'1 or nearly half as much again2 although it must be allowed that the latter is a very unusual degree of height1 nor does that example 7the ,lysicrates one7 belong1 like the others1 to the ,roman ,corinthian class4 ,reserving our remarks on one or two particular specimens of the latter till after we have spoken generally of the other parts of the ,order1 we continue by saying that the proper ,corinthian base differs from that of the usual ,ionic or ,attic in having two smaller scoti1 separated by two astragals3 however1 both kinds are employed indiscriminately1 and the ,attic is that which is generally used1 except a greater degree of delicacy and richness than ordinary be required4 ,as the shaft is fluted similarly to that of the ,ionic column1 viz4 with twenty-four channels1 there is nothing for notice or remark there1 unless it be that the flutes are sometimes cabled1 as it is called1 that is1 the channels are hollowed out for only about two-thirds of the upper part of the shaft1 and the remainder cut so that each channel has the appearance of being partly filled up by a round staff or piece of rope1 whence the term cabling4 ,though not approved by puritan critics1--who1 nevertheless1 wink at1 or else are blind to much greater licenses1--this mode of fluting certainly gives an expression of greater strength to the lower part of the column1 and1 by contrast1 that of greater delicacy to the upper one4 ,although fluting1 for the columns1 seems to have been considered by the ,ancients essential to the character of this ,order1 the ,moderns appear to consider it quite a matter of indifference1 and what may be omitted at discretion4 ,undoubtedly there are several antique examples exceedingly richly decorated in all other respects1 yet with the shafts of the columns unfluted2 but then that was for very good reason1 the shafts being either of polished granite1 or precious marble1 whose intrinsic value and beauty fully supplied the place of further embellishment4 ,,entablature4--,the architrave is generally divided into three faci1 7the lower one much narrower than the others1 which is rather contrary to architectonic principle1 the weaker member being placed under heavier ones17 with mouldings between them1 which1 though frequently left plain1 are properly enriched in the best and most consistently finished-up examples4 ,we pass over the frieze1 that being merely a single surface1 either plain or sculptured4 ,the cornice is very much larger than in the other ,orders1--larger as to height1 and consequently as to projection also2 which increased height and projection1 and we may add1 increased richness1 are demanded by the greatly enlarged bulk of the capital and its more elaborate decoration4 ,examples vary so greatly that we can give only approximating mean and average proportions1 which may be set down at about #b diam4 #ab' for the whole entablature1 and #ed'1 or something less than a diameter1 for the cornice2 but it is in many instances more1 in others as much less4 ,as may be supposed from this greatly increased depth of the cornice1 it consists of a greater number of mouldings beneath the corona1 for that and the cymatium over it invariably retain their places as the crowning members of the whole series of mouldings4 ,to the dentels of the ,ionic cornice is added a row of modillions1 immediately beneath and supporting the corona4 ,these modillions are ornamental blocks1 curved in their under surface somewhat after the manner of the letter ,s turned thus symbol2 and between them and the dentels1 and also below the latter1 are other mouldings1 sometimes cut1 at others left plain4 ,sometimes a plain uncut dentel band is substituted for dentels2 sometimes1 in simpler cornices1 that is omitted altogether1 and plainer blocks are employed instead of modillions2 or else both dentels and modillions are omitted1 as in the ,temple of ,antoninus and ,faustina1 notwithstanding that it is considerably enriched1 even the face of the corona being fluted4 ,illustration ,besides the several varieties of the ,corinthian shown in the whole composition of the ,order1 or the columns and entablature together1 there are numerous fragmentary examples existing1 either in single columns or capitals alone1 or in cornices and other parts of entablatures2 some of which display such prodigality of decoration and such difference of character from the usual ,corinthian1 that they might very well pass for belonging to a distinct ,order1 if that variety which is classed as a separate one1 under the name of ,,composite1 can with any propriety be reckoned such1 merely because the volutes at the angles of the capital are expanded into the proportions of those in the ,roman ,ionic capital4 ,the very dissimilar varieties to be met with1 all belonging to one and the same ,order1 show plainly enough that the ,architects of antiquity considered themselves at liberty to design their own detail1 and to treat an ,order as a composition marked out for them in its leading forms and general proportions1 but which they might fashion nearly ad libitum in other respects4 ,modern ,architects adopt a contrary course1 which1 if not particularly artistic1 or even rational1 is certainly convenient2 although in spite of all precaution to secure conformity and maintain architectural orthodoxy1 grievous licentiousness will creep in4 ,it is something to get what is only a faithful copy of an ancient example1 but it is only very rarely we get even that4 ,for instance1 fluting is omitted for the columns where such decoration may be required1 in order to make them correspond with the degree of richness given to the entablature2 or else it is the latter with which wholesale liberty is taken1--mouldings which in the cornice of the original are more or less enriched1 being left plain1 or a bare frieze substituted for a sculptured one1 and other little liberties of that kind1 which are considered perfectly allowable1 and to make hardly any real difference1 although they in fact alter the character of the whole composition4 ,either the original is itself faulty1 or it must suffer by piecemeal alteration4 ,it will1 perhaps1 bear to be somewhat reduced in richness1 or1 vice vers1 to have a greater degree of decoration given it2 but in whichever way such kind of alteration takes place1 it should be conducted uniformly for the whole composition4 ,no excellence of proportions can atone for disproportion in regard to consistency of embellishment1 and for the general disharmony of the whole composition4 ,italian ,architects not unfrequently either overload their compositions with ornament1 or leave them quite bare1 and make no scruple of putting a cornice of the most meagre description1 without either dentels or modillions1 to an ,order whose capitals denote it to be intended for ,ionic or ,corinthian4 ,it was1 perhaps1 fortunate both for ,sir ,john ,soane1 and that example of the ,corinthian which he employed for the ,bank of ,england1 that it was not an invention of his own1 or it would1 in all probability1 have been ridiculed as a monstrosity2 and he would have been thought to have there out-,soaned himself in whimsicality and capriciousness4 ,as it happens to be1 however1 an express copy from the circular ,temple at ,tivoli1 people are at liberty to admire it1 more especially as the mere application of it for the first time in this country--the only one where it has been adopted--does not exalt ,soane into the successful inventor of a #8new ,order4' ,in the system of the ,orders it may certainly be regarded as a newly-discovered planet1 being so distinct from every other example of the foliaged-capital class2 distinct not only in the capital itself1 but in all its members1 in all its proportions1 in the style of all its details1 and1 consequently1 in its character4 ,the height of the column is only #ibe' diameters2 the capital1 measured from above the astragal1 only #a diameter1 and the entablature only #adb' diameter4 ,these proportions give the whole ,order a certain expression of masculine simplicity1 more especially as the column is hardly diminished at all1 the difference between the upper and lower diameter amounting to no more than #d'1 or only _/th of the larger diameter1 that being of course #fj'1 and the other #ef'4 ,the base consists of two tori1 but instead of the usual scoti between1 there is merely a narrow plain fillet1 and a second broader one1 overhung by the upper torus4 ,besides which1 another peculiarity is1 that the lower torus is somewhat detached from the surface on which the column stands1 by a very narrow but deep incision beneath it1--a mode of treatment quite different from the usual one of placing the base upon a square plinth1 but which1 different as it is1 does not produce1 as might be supposed1 any appearance of weakness1 the incision being no more than a mere line--a delicate artistic touch4 ,the fluting 7at least the mode in which the flutes are terminated7 is not a little remarkable2 for below1 they and the fillets are continued1 and die into the upper edge of the base2 while above1 they are terminated horizontally instead of by a semicircular curve1 as in all other examples of both ,ionic and ,corinthian fluting4 ,the capital is so exceedingly peculiar in conformation and detail as to defy verbal description4 ,the leaves have nothing in common with those of the usual acanthus2 the volutes are of peculiar shape1 and the flower which ornaments the abacus is as singularly large1 and descends to the top of the upper leaf3 boldness and breadth of parts characterize the whole composition1 and also that of the entablature4 ,as all its mouldings are uncut1 this last would be much too plain to be in keeping with the column1 were not the frieze sculptured with rich and #8bossy' festoons in the same energetic style as the capitals4 ,such ornamentation of the frieze is absolutely part and parcel of the ,order2 and the value of it will be best understood by comparing those parts of the ,bank1 in which it is retained1 with others in which it is omitted4 ,the same ,order1 with the frieze enriched1 has also been since employed in the front of ,st4 ,paul's ,school1 ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard2 but there1 owing to windows and other disturbing circumstances1 its effect is greatly impaired1 as is the case even in the centre of the south front of the ,bank itself1 where it differs widely from the beautiful loggia at the north-west angle of that edifice1 and compared with which it manifests in the part first mentioned a sad falling off1 becoming no better than a dull1 spiritless1 prosaic version of its real self4 ,in a word1 it is out of its element4 ,illustration ,the next1 and it must be the last example which can here be noticed1 is that of the so-called #8,jupiter ,stator1' which may be said to exhibit ,corinthianism in its fullest luxuriance4 ,great as is the dissimilarity between this and the preceding example of the ,order1 they are alike in one respect1 each being perfect in its way1 complete1 and harmonious in all its parts2 and we ought to be thankful that two such opposite specimens of one and the same--namely1 the foliaged-capital style--have been preserved to us for our admiration1 and for our instruction also1 as if on purpose to convince us what opposite kinds of beauty may be arrived at where1 though the general configuration of the ,order is adhered to1 a different spirit and character are infused into it4 ,of the example now referred to1 the character is elaborate richness subdued by refined taste4 ,though of lower proportions than usual1 the capital is singularly ornate1 and a corresponding degree of ornateness is diffused over the entire ,order4 ,the second or middle facia of the architrave1 and all the members of the cornice1 except the dentels and the cymatium over the corona1 are sculptured1 and the whole is consistently finished up in every part4 ,the first application among us of this superb example of the ,corinthian was in ,holland's beautiful portico to ,carlton ,house1 where1 instead of being moderated1 its richness was even augmented1 the bases of the columns being carved1 and the frieze sculptured4 ,that portico has disappeared3 the columns1 indeed1 still remain1 having been used for the portico of the ,national ,gallery1 but the ,order itself exists no more--at least not there4 ,another copy of it we now have in the ,treasury ,buildings1 ,whitehall1 where it was applied by ,soane1 but with no great judgment or taste1 his building being quite at variance with the ,order he selected for it1 the former being any thing but ,corinthian in character4 ,perhaps he selected it1 as we have done1 for the purpose of exhibiting in two of his works such very distinct styles of ,corinthian as are the ,tivoli and the ,jupiter ,stator ,orders4 ,as now altered by ,mr4 ,barry1 the ,treasury ,buildings have received a great accession of richness1 and the frieze1 which was before plain1 is now ornamented4 ,but the ,order itself is not improved1 at least does not show itself to the same advantage as before1 by being raised so much higher above the eye than it was at first2 it looks comparatively diminished1 and the beauty of its details is lost4 ,we have1 indeed1 the ,order2 and nothing is wanting but that impressiveness and effect which gave such charm to the portico of ,carlton ,house4 ,as to that variety of the ,corinthian which passes under the name of ,composite1 the reader may now1 after what has been said and shown1 be left to judge whether it can with any propriety be classed as a distinct ,order1 instead of being reckoned merely as a variety of the other1 and by no means the most striking variety of that foliaged-capital class4 ,the difference between the two extends to no more than a part of the detail of the capital1 the general normal character or ,corinthianism of which is no way affected4 ,and if the ,ionic ,order be allowed to comprehend many decidedly marked varieties of the voluted-capital type1 there surely can be no necessity for splitting ,doric and ,corinthian1 and getting out of them the ,tuscan and ,composite ,orders4 ,it will1 perhaps1 be fancied by some that by thus reducing the number of the ,orders to three1 we in some degree limit the resources which the ,architect derives from them4 ,the fact1 however1 is precisely the reverse2 for although we limit them in number1 we set no limits to their respective powers4 ,a hundred different examples1 each marked by individual character1 or peculiarity of treatment1 may yet all belong to the same generic type or order4 ,ancient examples are not to be considered merely as patterns1 to be copied mechanically1 but as studies for the ,architect's guidance and instruction4 ,,columniation4 ,columns and entablatures in themselves do not1 properly speaking1 constitute an ,order1 although they serve as specimens of it4 ,they must enter into and regulate the organization of a structure before they can become by composition what is1 strictly speaking1 an ,order4 ,as exhibited in their temples1 the system of columniation practised by the ,ancients was strictly organic and natural4 ,instead of being something accessory1 supplementary to1 and independent of the fabric1 that might be either omitted or applied at pleasure1 as commonly practised in ,italian and modern composition1 the ,order itself constituted the exterior of the building1 at least of that side or front of it where it was introduced1 when it was not continued throughout2 so that the ,order and its dimensions once established1 and the mode of intercolumniation determined1 the edifice shaped itself4 ,before we enter upon the subject of intercolumniation1 it will be desirable to explain the various forms of temples1 and the technical terms by which they are distinguished4 ,the naos1 or cella1 as it is more usually called1 or temple itself1 was comparatively small1 even where the entire mass was of considerable size1 gradual extension of plan being produced not so much by any great enlargement of the interior as by external columniation and its gradual development4 ,it is probable that the earliest ,greek temples consisted of the naos only1 and were accordingly plain ,,astylar buildings1 or without columns1 except in front or at the entrance end1 where an enclosed porch was formed by introducing columns1 by continuing the side walls1 and placing columns between them in antis1 that is1 between the two ant or pilasters forming the ends of those walls4 ,the next step seems to have been to advance the porch before the main building1 instead of keeping it recessed within the side walls1 thereby converting it from a portico in antis1 into a prostyle1 or projecting line of columns3 thus a distyle in antis1 or a portico consisting of two columns between ant1 consequently of three intercolumns1 or open spaces between the ant and columns1 would become a tetrastyle1 or projecting portico of four columns and three intercolumns4 ,by the other end of the building being similarly treated1 the temple became amphiprostyle1 or prostyle at both ends1 in rear as well as in front1 the sides still remaining astylar4 ,the next and last style of advancement was to continue columniation all round1 enclosing the cella within colonnades along its sides as well as at its ends1 which disposition of plan is expressed by the terms peristyle1 or peristylar1 and peripteral1 which of necessity produces two columns and two intercolumns more in front2 for what would otherwise be merely a tetrastyle prostyle1 with four columns and three intercolumns 7the number of the latter being always one less than that of the others71 becomes by the colonnades being continued along the side1 a hexastyle 7six columns and five intercolumns72 or if originally a prostyle hexastyle1 it would be rendered an octastyle 7eight columns and seven intercolumns71 and so on4#e ,it should be observed1 too1 that a building cannot at the same time be peristylar and have a prostyle portico1 the latter being merged in the general columniation1 instead of projecting from the rest of the edifice as a distinct feature4 ,of peristylar temples there were two sorts1 viz4 those with a single row of columns on each side1 and those which have two1 which last are distinguished by the term dipteral1 i4 e4 having two wings or aisles on each side4 ,although it did not at all affect the general external appearance1 notwithstanding that it extended the plan by adding two more columns and intercolumns to the front1 this last-mentioned mode was attended with greater richness of columniation1 and the inner columns contributed not a little to variety of effect and play of perspective2 besides which1 greater sheltered space was gained for ambulatories2 whereas in the usual simple peristyle1 where the space between the outer columns and the walls of the cella was limited to the width of a single intercolumn1 the side colonnades were mere narrow passages1 very little wider--at least in ,doric temples--than the diameter of the columns themselves1 consequently of very little actual service4 ,in what is called the pseudo-dipteral mode1 more of clear space within the colonnades was provided by omitting the inner columns1 which mode reduced the plan to that of a simple peristyle1 the only difference being1 that instead of the width of a single intercolumn1 a clear space1 equal to two intercolumns and one column1 was gained for the ambulatories4 ,the ,temple of ,jupiter at ,selinus was of this description1 and being only octastyle in front1--the least possible width for a dipteral or pseudo-dipteral plan1--of the seven front intercolumns1 four 7i4 e4 two on each side7 were given to the lateral colonnades1 and only three left for the breadth of the cella1 which must have looked like a smaller edifice standing within a colonnaded and covered enclosure4 #e ,by way of illustrating these terms more directly by instances taken from well-known modern porticoes which answer to the respective denominations and distinctions above noted1 we here give a classified list of some of them3 ,distyle ,two columns ,st4 ,paul's1 ,covent ,garden4 in antis4 two ant4 ,three inter- ,hanover ,chapel1 ,regent ,street4 ,tetrastyle4 ,four columns4 columns4 99,covent ,garden ,theatre4 ,st4 ,george's ,church1 ,bloomsbury4 99,st4 ,george's1 ,hanover ,square4 ,st4 ,martin's ,church4 ,five 99,st4 ,pancras' ,church4 ,hexastyle4 ,six columns4 inter- ,india ,house4 columns4 ,post ,office4 99,college of ,surgeons4 99,college of ,physicians4 99,colosseum4 ,seven ,national ,gallery4 ,octastyle4 ,eight columns4 inter- ,royal ,exchange4 columns4 ,british ,museum4 ,nine ,decastyle4 ,ten columns4 inter- ,london ,university ,college4 columns4 ,the porticoes marked with the 99 are simple prostyles1 or monoprostyle1 advancing only a single intercolumn forwarder than the rest of the building2 while the others are diprostyle1 or show two open intercolumns on their flanks2 except ,hanover ,chapel1 whose portico is partly prostyle and partly recessed1 and that of the ,india ,house1 which is entirely recessed1 although its elevation is not a composition in antis2 had it been such1 it would have been a tetrastyle in antis1 that and a hexastyle having the same number of intercolumns1 viz4 five4 ,the above few and simple arrangements of plan are nearly all the varieties that the ,greek temple style offers2 and some of them are little better than distinctions without differences1 inasmuch as the differences do not affect general external appearance4 ,peripteral1 dipteral1 and pseudo-dipteral1 all agree in the main point1 and the two latter answer to the name of peripteral as well as the first1 being merely modifications of it4 ,great as were its sthetic beauties1 ,greek ,architecture was--why should we scruple to confess it8--exceedingly limited in its compass and power of expression3 what it did1 it did admirably1 but it confined itself too much to one idea4 8,when you have seen one green field10 says ,johnson1 8you have seen all green fields20 and so we may say of ,greek temples1--when you have seen one or two of them1 you have seen all of them4 ,however they may differ from one another as to the treatment of the ,order adopted for them1 the number of their columns1 and mere particulars of that kind1 they resemble each other very nearly in all leading points4 ,not only were their plans invariably parallelograms1 but alike also as to proportion1 forming a double square1 or being about twice as much in length as in breadth2 for so exceedingly methodical was the ,greek system1 that the number of columns on the flanks or sides of a peripteral temple was regulated and determined by the number of those in front4 ,the number of the columns in front was invariably an even one1 as otherwise there would be no middle intercolumn2 but on the flanks of the edifice1 where there was no entrance1 the number of the intercolumns was an even1 and that of the columns an uneven one1 so that a column came in the centre of these side elevations4 ,as to the mode in which the front influenced the sides by determining the number of columns for them1 the established rule seems to have been to give the flanks twice as many intercolumns as there were columns at each end3 thus the ,parthenon1 which is octastyle1 has sixteen intercolumns1 consequently seventeen columns1 on each flank4 ,in like manner1 a hexastyle temple would have twelve intercolumns and thirteen columns on its sides4 ,there are1 however1 exceptions2 for instance1 the temple at ,selinus1 which has been mentioned as an example of the pseudo-dipteral mode of columniation1 is an octastyle1 with sixteen1 or just twice as many columns on its sides as in front2 consequently the intercolumns are only fifteen1 and being uneven in number1 there is a middle one1 as in the front itself4 ,after all1 the difference caused by there being an intercolumn more or less than usual is but a very slight one1 such as is to be ascertained only by counting the columns1 and such as not to occasion any perceptible difference in the general physiognomy of the building4#f #f ,should the reader be quite fresh to the subject1 he is recommended to draw out for himself1--merely roughly mark down1--the several dispositions of columns which have been spoken of2 for by compelling him to consider them carefully1 he will be better able to understand them1 and have them distinctly impressed upon his memory4 ,the annexed may serve as a specimen of such short-hand architectural notation1 in asterisks4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,peripteral ,hexastyle1 99 99 #ab intercolumns 99 99 on sides4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,besides the restriction as to general proportion of plan1 namely1 the fixed relationship between the length and the breadth of the building1 proportion with regard to height was limited in a different way1 and in such a manner that the character of increased richness and importance derived from a greater number of columns was attended1 not indeed by decreased height1 but by decreased loftiness1 or proportional height1 that is1 height as measured by either breadth or length4 ,paradoxical as this may sound at first1 nothing can be more clear when once explained4 ,discarding nicety of measurement1 we will call a tetrastyle portico about a square in height1 that is1 about as high as wide2 but add four more columns1 extend it from a tetrastyle to an octastyle1 so that it becomes about a double square in breadth1 or twice as wide again1 and the inevitable consequence is1 that it is then only half as high as wide2 that is1 as to proportion1 only half as lofty as it was before4 ,the expression of loftiness1 in which altitude greatly predominates over breadth1 was quite beyond the reach of the ,greek system4 ,their temples might be planted on lofty eminences1 but the structures themselves never towered upwards4 ,as far as it went1 their system was perfect1--so complete indeed in itself as to be unfit for almost any other purposes than that for which it was expressly framed4 ,if the ,romans corrupted the ,greek ,orders1 the ,doric and ,ionic1 they developed and matured the ,corinthian ,order1 and also worked out a freer and more complex and comprehensive system of ,architecture4 ,to say nothing of their introduction and application of those important elements of both construction and design1 the arch and vault--which hardly belong to a mere treatise on the ,orders--it is to the ,romans that we are indebted for varieties and combinations of plan that will be sought for in vain among ,grecian structures4 ,of the ,romans it may be said1 8,mutant quadrata rotundis10--circular forms and curves displaying themselves not only in elevation and section1 but in plan2 and while1 among the ,greeks1 ,architecture was confined almost exclusively to external appearance and effect1 in the hands of the ,romans it was made to minister to internal display of the most enchantingly picturesque kind1 as would be amply attested by the ,pantheon alone4 ,in that edifice1 and ,hadrian's ,mausoleum 7now barbarized into the ,castello di ,s4 ,angelo71 the cylindrical form was exhibited upon an imposing scale2 in the ,temple at ,tivoli1 in far lesser dimensions1 but with most captivating taste2 and again in the ,tomb of ,ccilia ,metella1 we have a fine example of an unbroken astylar circular mass4 ,in such structures as the ,colosseum and other ,roman ,amphitheatres1 a different form of curvature1 namely1 the ellipsis1 was employed with admirable propriety and effect4 ,in interiors1 again1 we find the hemicycle or concave semicircular form both frequently and variously applied by the ,romans in such edifices as their ,baths1 which afford many excellent studies for combinations of plan4 ,to enter into the system of ,roman ,architecture as the subject itself would require1 would very far exceed our present purpose and limits2 much less can we pretend to treat here of the still more varied and complex ,italian or ,modern-,european system1 into which fenestration so largely enters1 columniation being1 more frequently than not1 subordinate4 ,were we to touch upon the last-mentioned style and its various elements1 it could be only so superficially as to be more disappointing than instructive4 ,better that the reader should admire our forbearance than complain of our unsatisfactory jejuneness4 ,we may1 however1 permit ourselves to throw out one or two general remarks2 the first of which is1 that it is a great error to confound with the ,italian the two ,ancient ,classical styles1 applying to them alike the epithet #8,grecian1' merely in contradistinction to ,gothic or ,medival ,architecture4 ,it is absurd1 too1 to pretend to test by the ,greek style1 one so totally differently constituted as the ,italian2 an error that could hardly have been fallen into but for the practice of applying the same names to very different things4 ,the term #8,order' has quite a different meaning1 as applied to the original classical mode of the ,art1 from what it has in the other4 ,in ,italian composition1 an ,order is more frequently than not1 mere decoration in the shape of columns and entablatures1 fashioned secundum artem 7a very different thing from artistically71 so as to resemble in detail and certain conventional distinctions those of the ,ancients4 ,infinitely better would it have been1 if1 instead of allowing themselves to be misled by the pedantry of ,vitruvius1 the ,architects of the so-called ,revival1 who showed much happiness of invention in other respects1 had treated the ,orders freely2 or perhaps still better1 had they worked out ideas of their own for columns and entablatures1 whenever they had occasion for them either as matters of necessity1 or as mere decoration4 ,had the ,italians allowed themselves greater latitude in that respect1 they would1 in all probability1 have been far less licentious upon the whole than they frequently were1 and their buildings would have been more homogeneous--more of a piece4 ,but they must1 forsooth1 be ,doric1 ,ionic1 or ,corinthian1 ofttimes all the three at once1 and a very great deal else into the bargain4 ,therefore the affecting to retain the ancient ,orders in their purity served no other purpose than that of making all the more evident how completely their first intention and character had been lost sight of4 ,the clinging with scrupulous punctilio to what had become dead-letter forms after the system which had produced them had been abandoned and exchanged for another and widely different one1 was merely superstition and pedantry4 ,it might show acquaintance with traditional learning and the writings of ,vitruvius2 but it also showed dulness of sthetic feeling1 or1 what is not much better1 deficiency of sthetic power4 ,there was1 however1 one mode of applying columns1 which1 although generally regarded as the most licentious and unorthodox1--nay1 even preposterous1 because quite contrary to all classical practice and precedent1--has at least one propriety1 that of being rational1 since columns there officiate as columns--as real supports2 whereas in a great deal of ,modern ,architecture that is admired for the correct taste it displays1 columns and their entablatures are mere expletives1 instead of actual component parts of the fabric1 and simulate a mode of construction neither required for nor practised in the fabric itself4 ,the particular mode here alluded to is that in which arches are not only introduced together with columns1 but the arches and columns are so indissolubly married together that they cannot be divorced1 inasmuch as the arches are supported by the columns themselves1 the former springing immediately from the capitals of the latter4#g ,such combination1 it might be supposed1 would be gladly admitted as sufficiently legitimate1 both because in accordance with rational architectonic principles1 and because it greatly extends the resources of the ,art2 nevertheless1 such is the omnipotence of prejudice1 that instead of being welcomed and adopted by us1 it has been decried as a barbarism4 ,as an irresistible and crushing argument against it1 we are told that columns were not originally intended to be so applied2--admirable logic1 truly6 ,there are a great many other things besides columns which have in course of time come to be applied to uses not originally contemplated4 ,in regard to that combination of columns and arches according to which the latter spring immediately from the others1 and are supported by them1 there are two questions3 the first and practical one is2 ,do the columns afford sufficient support8--the second and sthetic one is2 ,is there also appearance of sufficient support2 or1 is there any thing contradictory to principle1 to judgment1 and good taste8 ,the first question needs no answer1 since it answers itself1 it being an indisputable fact that columns so employed do answer the purpose to which they are turned4 ,the other question is not so easily answered3 the prejudiced will of course answer it according to their own contracted taste and narrow notions1 condemning the mode alluded to1 without any inquiry into its merits and advantages1 merely on the ground of its being quite at variance with the classical system of trabeated columniation1 that is1 with columns supporting a horizontal architrave and entablature1 or general horizontal trabeation4 ,that by the substitution of arches for architraves1 the character of the ,greek system is forfeited1 cannot be denied2 but then another character is established1 whose difference from the original one ought not to be made its condemnation4 ,to demand of a different mode that it should resemble and conform to the laws of that from which it differs1 is absurdity in the extreme1 for it is requiring that it should be at once a different one and the same4 ,to compare different styles is a very useful sort of study2 but to make any one style the criterion or standard by which others are to be judged1 is preposterous4 #g ,this mode of uniting together columns and arches is perfectly legitimate1 whereas that in which a fragment of the usual entablature is left sticking or added to each column1 7as1 for instance1 in the interior of ,st4 ,martin's ,church17 is decidedly solecistical1 since it is injuriously reminiscent of epistylar construction or trabeation1--is in itself unmeaning1 and causes the columns to appear to have been too short1 and therefore to have been eked out in height by blocks upon them1 fashioned to resemble so many detached bits of an entablature4 ,the style in which the arch and column enter into direct combination with each other1 and for which there is no specific name1 has at all events some economical recommendations1 inasmuch as shorter columns1 and fewer of them1 are required1 than would be necessary for the same height and length according to the trabeated mode4 ,in itself1 too1 it possesses much #8capability2' yet1 as is the case with every other style1 the merit of the works produced in it depends upon the manner in which it is treated1 and the talent brought to it4 ,there is no style of the ,art so poetical that the flattest prose may not be made out of it2 and hardly any so utterly prosaic as to be incapable of being kindled into poetry by the ,promethean torch of geniality--artistic treatment1 and1 con amore1 sthetic feeling4 ,,intercolumniation4 ,although ,intercolumniation consists only in regulating and determining the spaces between the columns1 and consequently does not affect the nature of the composition1--for a tetrastyle1 hexastyle1 c41 would still be such1 no matter how narrow or wide the intercolumns or intervals between the columns may be1--very much depends upon it1 with regard to expression and effect4 ,how intercolumniation is regulated in the ,doric ,order has been already explained at page #bj3 in that1 the distances between the columns is governed entirely by the triglyphs of the frieze1 so that there can be no medium between monotriglyphic and ditriglyphic intercolumniation1 accordingly as there is either one or two triglyphs over each intercolumn4 ,but in the other ,orders there is no such restriction2 in them the intercolumns may be made wider or narrower1 as circumstances require1 but of course under the guidance of judgment and good taste2 for what is left discrtion is not always very discreetly used4 ,vitruvius and his followers1 however1 have not cared to trust to individual discretion or indiscretion1 but have fixed certain positive and distinct modes of intercolumniation1 viz4 five1--perhaps out of compliment to the five ,orders1 to wit3 ,pycnostyle1 or closely set1 in which the intercolumns are one diameter and a quarter1 or a half1 in width4 ,systyle1 in which they are two diameters wide4 ,eustyle1 or well spaced1 in which they are two diameters and a half4 ,diastyle1 in which they are three diameters4 ,arostyle1 or thinly set1 in which they are four diameters4 ,let us repudiate for ,architecture all such formal act-of-parliament legislation1 and take pycnostyle and arostyle as the greatest allowable degree of closeness or of distance at which the columns can be placed2 and it follows that between such maximum and minimum any intermediate measure is admissible1 and that there is no occasion to fix it positively and arithmetically1 and make distinctions which are1 after all1 only arbitrary4 ,there are a great many matters in design which must be left to the ,architect1 and intercolumniation is one of them4 ,it is not possible to have precise rules for every thing1 neither is it desirable2 for if every thing in it could be done by rule1 ,architecture would forfeit its nature as one of the ,fine ,arts1 and be reduced to a merely mechanical one4 ,what is done by rule can be done by one man just as well as by another4 ,excepting the terms pycnostyle and arostyle1 which are useful as expressing the greatest degree of closeness or of openness of intercolumniation consistent with well-proportioned arrangement1 the others may be dispensed with4 ,to designate one mode as eustyle1 par excellence1 is very much like saying that the proportions assigned to it1 viz4 #bcj or #b diameters1 are the very best1 and all the rest comparatively defective2 according to which doctrine1 the monotriglyphic mode of intercolumniation usually employed by the ,greeks in their ,doric temples1 and which answers to the character of pycnostyle1 is not so well proportioned as what is emphatically called eustyle4 ,let it be whatever it may1 as expressed in terms of the diameter of the columns1 intercolumniation should always deserve the name of eustyle1 or well-proportioned1 by being such as satisfies the eye1 and contributes to the particular character that befits the occasion and harmonizes with the other proportions of the structure4 ,pycnostyle1 or close spacing1 carries with it the expression of both richness and strength1 the solids or columns being very little less than the voids or intercolumns4 ,arostyle1 or wide spacing1--and ditriglyphic ,doric intercolumniation may be called such1--produces an effect of openness and lightness1 but also partakes of meagreness and weakness1 owing to the want of sufficient apparent support for the entablature1--a very frequent fault in ,modern ,architecture1 where frugality as to columniation has often been allowed to produce a degree of poverty which contrasts very disagreeably with that of the decoration affected by the ,order itself4 ,intercolumniation ought to be made to depend in some measure upon the nature of the composition3 a tetrastyle portico1 for instance1 or a distyle in antis1 admits of wider intercolumniation than would be suitable for an octastyle1 because pycnostyle1 where there are only three intercolumns1 would produce too great narrowness of general proportions for a portico4 ,hardly is there need for observing1 that be their proportions what they may1 the intercolumns in a colonnade or portico must be all alike2 nevertheless in a ,grecian ,doric portico there is1 as we have seen1 some difference1 the two extreme intercolumns being there narrower by the width of half a triglyph4 ,there is1 besides1 another exception from the general principle1 for the centre intercolumn of a portico was frequently made somewhat wider than the others1 in order to mark the entrance1 and the better to display and afford greater space for access to the door within4 ,one mode of columniation and intercolumniation which remains to be spoken of1 is that which has sometimes been practised by ,modern ,architects1 and combines the two extremes of pycnostyle1 or still closer intercolumniation1 and arostyle4 ,this consists in coupling the columns and making a wide intercolumn between every pair of columns1 so that as regards the average proportion between solids and voids1 that disposition does not differ from what it would be were the columns placed singly4 ,although denounced by some critics1 more especially ,algarotti1 as altogether licentious and indefensible1 and although it is not to be especially recommended1 or indeed practicable on every occasion1 the coupling of columns may1 under some circumstances1 be not only excusable1 but advisable and proper4 ,as is the case with almost every thing else in matters of art1 all depends upon how it is done1 and whether with or without sufficient reason4 ,that there is no classical authority for it1 is no valid reason against it2 in the constitution of the ancient temples there was nothing to require or motive it4 ,it may be conceded1 however1 that coupled columns1 forming a prostyle surmounted by a pediment1 are objectionable2 because where so strong a resemblance to the antique model is preserved in other respects1 a departure from it in regard to the disposition of the columns has a disagreeably disturbing effect4 ,having gone through the ,classical ,orders1 and explained their elements and constitution1 we have performed as much as we purposed1 or as we promised4 ,within the same compass we might1 no doubt1 have touched upon a great deal besides that belongs to the study of ,greek and ,roman ,architecture1 by restricting ourselves to bare matter-of-fact1 and suppressing all comment1 and so treating the subject drily and superficially4 ,proceeding upon the principle of multum haud multa1 we have aimed at nothing more than to initiate the reader in such manner as to excite interest in the subject1 and stimulate to further inquiry4 ,should we have effected that1 and should we have disabused him of the prejudices and contracted notions generally entertained in regard to the ,orders1 or else armed him against them1 we shall have accomplished the multum--the main point of all4 ,much shall we have taught1 and much will he have learnt1 should he now reject the fatal doctrine of the ,five ,orders1 and relinquish it to school-boys and school-masters1--to the plodders who work by pattern1 and design by rote and by routine4 ,much1 very much indeed1 will have been learnt1 by the reader1 should he have learnt or have been put in the way of learning1 to look upon those various compositions in the three several styles of columniation1 which are called ,orders1 not with the eyes of a ,builder or a ,mechanic1 but with the intuition and the feeling of an ,artist2 in short1 to look upon them as general types to be diligently studied1 and then imitated with congenial gusto4 ,,glossarial ,,index4 ,we here make one alphabetical arrangement serve the double purpose of an ,index referring to the pages where the respective matters are treated of1 and of a ,glossary affording explanation1 or further remark1 as may be1 where required4 ,this latter is by no means to be considered a complete or general ,glossary of ,architectural ,terms1 but merely as an accompaniment to the present ,treatise1 and a specimen1 perhaps1 of what is still a desideratum1 namely1 a real ,lexicon--that is1 one which explains things as well as terms--of ,ancient and ,modern ,architecture1 similar to what has been provided with regard to the ,medival ,styles of the ,art4 ,,abacus4--,the plate or shallow block forming the uppermost member of a capital is so called for the sake of distinction1 for when a similar one is placed beneath the base of a column1 it is called a plinth4 ,the ,doric abacus is spoken of at page #ad1 and is here shown in a plan of the capital and architrave2 a a a a being the angles of the soffit or underside of the abacus which overhang the echinus e e e e2 and s s the soffit of the architrave4 ,from this1 the relation between the abacus and architrave1 and how much the former exceeds or projects out beyond the latter1 will be better understood than by the engraving at page #ad1 where the capital is shown only in elevation4 ,illustration ,the next figure is still more indispensable for understanding the conformation of the ,ionic capital4 7,see page #cb47 ,here the abacus shows itself only in front at f f1 over the two voluted faces1 the rest being concealed by the baluster sides b b of the capital1 which extend beyond the abacus1 and convert the general plan into more than a square4 ,although the channels and other details of the baluster sides are omitted1 and only their general shape shown1 the engraving explains how those sides are reduced 7p4 #cc7 by being hollowed out or curved concavely on the plan4 ,illustration ,in the next1 or ,corinthian ,order1 a similar curvature is given to the abacus itself on all its four sides2 the capital of this ,third ,order having that in common with the ,first one1 that it is quite regular4 ,one great point of difference between the ,doric and ,corinthian abacus is1 that in the former the angles are unsupported1 and overhang the circular body of the capital1 while in the ,corinthian they are extended outwards diagonally1 as a a a a in the figure1 and supported by the caulicoli or small volutes1 which they in turn serve to cover4 ,the letters f f f f indicate the rosettes or flowers on the four faces of the abacus4 ,illustration ,,sthetics--,,sthetic4--,a modern architectural writer condemns these terms as #8silly and pedantic' ones that have #8lately come into use in the ,arts1' and as #8useless additions to the nomenclature' and language of art-criticism4 ,in what respect #8sthetics' is at all more pedantic than #8,optics1' #8,mathematics1' #8,physics1' and other words of a similar class now familiar to ,english ears1--although they are all of them essentially ,greek1--or more pedantic than a great many architectural terms which are not only ,greek but altogether technical1 it is not easy to divine2 while as to silliness1 there seems to be far greater silliness in rejecting1 or objecting to1 than in adopting terms which are not only highly expressive and convenient1 but have found their way into every ,european language1 from that of ,russia to that of ,spain4 ,the term sthetics implies the perception and the study of those qualities which constitute the beautiful and artistic1 and form the finer essence of all productions of ,fine ,art4 ,it carries with it1 therefore1 a more exact and philosophic meaning than the word ,taste4 ,in its adjective form1 in which it more frequently occurs1 it is particularly useful1 as no adequate epithet can be substituted for #8sthetic4' ,thus we speak of the #8sthetic sense1' of #8sthetic feeling1' or #8study1' or #8principles1' c42 but we cannot say the #8tasteful sense1' or #8tasteful study4' ,as to the species of study just alluded to1 no term may be required to designate it1 because study of the kind is generally dispensed with for ,architecture1 an historical and technical knowledge of it being deemed sufficient1 without any acquaintance with those comprehensive sthetic principles of the ,art which can guide us where technical rules stop short1 and mere rules abandon us to error or to doubt4 ,,ant1 ,doric1 #bb4 --------1 ,ionic1 #dj4 ,,antefix4--,called by some1 ,greek ,tiles1--upright ornamental blocks placed at intervals on the cornice along the side of a roof1 to conceal or rather terminate the ridges formed by the overlapping of the roof tiles4 ,,ar,,ostyle4--,the widest mode of intercolumniation1 #gh4 ,,astragal4--,a small convex moulding4 ,the term is applied chiefly to that which is employed to separate the capital from the shaft of a column4 ,,astylar4--,from the ,greek privative 1 and 7stylos71 a column3 columnless or without columns1 a term that expresses the absence of columns or pilasters1 where they might otherwise be supposed to occur4 ,,attic4--,this is usually defined to be a small ,order placed over a principal one2 from which it might be supposed that it differed from the ,orders in general chiefly by being applied on a smaller scale2 instead of which it has nothing of columniation and trabeation in it4 ,there is far greater analogy between an attic and a stylobate1 or continuous pedestal1 both of them consisting of base1 a dado or die1 and a simple cornice1 and the difference between them consisting chiefly in their application1 the stylobate being below1 and the attic above the ,order4 ,attics are either plain or pilastered accordingly as the building itself is astylar or the contrary2 but what are called attic pilasters are no more than slight breaks or projections on the general surface1 with the mouldings above and below breaking round them1 without any sort of capital1 but just after the manner of pedestals3 their faces1 however1 are sometimes distinguished from the intermediate surfaces by being panelled and otherwise enriched1 as is done1 for instance1 in the faade of the new ,treasury ,buildings3 another mode of decoration is to place either a statue1 or else a caryatid figure1 before each break in the front of the ,attic1 an example of which occurs in the ,strand front of ,somerset ,house4 ,when introduced only over particular portions of a faade1 such as the centre or extremities1 the ,attic is an exceedingly useful element in composition1 inasmuch as it serves not only to give such parts greater importance1 but also to produce play of outline or sky-line2 whereas1 if continued throughout1 it is apt to produce heaviness as well as monotony1 and some degree of feebleness of expression also1 its cornice forming1 in comparison with the principal cornice below1 but a very insignificant finish to the general structure4 ,,axis4--,an imaginary line through the centre of a column1 c41 or its geometrical representation4 ,where different members are placed over each other1 so that the same vertical line1 on the elevation1 divides them equally1 they are said to be on the same axis1 although they may be on different planes4 ,thus1 triglyphs and modillions are so arranged that one coincides with the axis or line of axis of each column4 ,in like manner1 the windows or other openings in the several stories of a faade must all be in the same respective axis1 whether they are all of the same breadth or not4 ,,baluster side of ,ionic capital1 #cc4 ,,bed-,,mouldings4--,this may be understood as a collective term for all the mouldings beneath the corona or principal projecting member of a cornice1 which1 without bed-mouldings1 would appear too much like a mere shelf4 ,,cabled fluting1 #fj4 ,,capital4--,the capitals of the columns constitute the principal and most obvious indicial mark of the respective ,orders4 ,for those of each of the ,three ,classes or ,orders a certain character conformably with the rest of the ,order is to be observed2 but that attended to1 further restriction is unnecessary4 ,between several examples1 all decidedly referable to one and the same ,order1 very great special differences occur1 and there might easily be a very great many more4 ,although the capital itself is indispensable1 it is so only sthetically1 and not out of positive necessity4 ,the necessity is only artistic3 decoration of the kind there must be1 but the express mode of it is one of those matters which should be left to design1 to which it properly belongs4 ,capitals are just as legitimate subjects for the exercise of taste and invention as any thing else in decorative design4 ,the capital is only an ornamental head to the column1 and therefore admits of being as freely designed as any other piece of ornament1 on the conditions of its being accordant in character with the rest of the ,order1 and of forming an agreeable transition from the shaft of the column to the architrave4 ,,caryatides4--,anthropostylar pillars or human figures 7usually female ones7 employed instead of columns to support an entablature4 ,such figures ought always to be perfectly free from all attitudinizing1 and to appear to support their burden without any effort4 ,some very matter-of-fact critics object to caryatides as being at the best only beautiful absurdities2 as if statues so applied were particularly liable to be mistaken for living persons subjected to a more severe punishment than that of being posted up in a niche1 or on the top of a building4 ,,columniation1 #fh4 ,,corinthian1 or ,third ,order1 #ec2 ,lysicrates example1 #ee2 ,tivoli1 #fe2 #8,composite1' or ,ionico-,corinthian1 #fb4 ,,cornice4--,doric1 #ba2 ,ionic1 #db2 ,corinthian1 #fa4 ,,corona4--,that part or member of a cornice which projects out over and protects the bed-mouldings 7see ,bed-,mouldings71 and throws off the rain from the rest of the entablature4 ,,cymatium4--,a moulding whose section or profile is convex below and concave above4 ,see ,mouldings4 ,,dado4--,the general plane surface of a pedestal or stylobate between the upper and lower mouldings4 ,,dentels4--,the series of small upright blocks introduced among the bed-mouldings of a cornice4 ,they are supposed to be peculiarly characteristic of the ,ionic cornice1 but are also employed for the ,corinthian one1 beneath the modillions1 which latter are the principal characteristic of the ,corinthian cornice1 as dentels alone of the ,ionic4 ,,diameter4--,the lower diameter of the column is taken as the proportional measure for all the other parts and members of an ,order1 for which purpose it is subdivided into #fj parts1 called minutes1 or into two modules of #cj minutes each2 but the module is quite an unnecessary distinction1 not being1 like the diameter1 the constant measure of any one member of the ,order1 and the use of it merely adding to the terms of computation4 ,it is surely much more simple and convenient to write #adj1 meaning #a diameter and #dj minutes1 than #a;d4 #am4 #aj4 ,being proportional measures1 diameters and minutes are not fixed ones1 like feet and inches1 but are variable as to the actual dimensions which they express--larger or smaller1 according to the actual size of the diameter of the column4 ,for instance1 if the diameter be just #e feet1 a minute1 being _/1 will be exactly #a inch2 if #b feet1 the minute will be half an inch2 or if the diameter be only one foot1 the minute is _/ of a foot1 or of an inch4 ,,die4--,see ,dado4 ,,dimensions4--,in architectural description1 some positive dimensions or approximation to them should always be stated4 ,such mere epithets as large1 lofty1 spacious1 c41 mean nothing1--convey only an exceedingly vague1 general idea according to the particular notions of those who employ them2 and1 like all epithets1 they are liable to the most shameful abuse4 ,,echinus4--,a large convex moulding1 generally of elliptical or eccentric contour in the ,greek style1 and forming the quarter of a circle in the ,roman4 ,the echinus is the indicial mark of and constitutes the principal portion of the ,doric capital1 the other being the abacus2 at least the term echinus is applied especially to that member of the capital1 although in many ,greek examples its profile has scarcely any convexity1 but more resembles a portion of an inverted cone 7#ah74 ,in ,roman and ,modern ,architecture the echinus is usually called the ovolo4 ,see ,mouldings4 ,,elevation may be defined to be the upright plan of a building1 or any part of a building1 showing its exact form and dimensions as they actually exist2 whereas in perspective the forms are shown not as they exist1 or are in themselves1 but merely as they appear to the eye1 according to the station of the spectator4 ,elevations are of two kinds1 viz4 geometrical and perspective4 ,in the former1 the whole is projected upon the same plane1 the remote parts are shown of their full size1 and distance can be expressed only by shadow thrown upon the second plane by parts in the nearest one2 whereas ,perspective elevation partakes of parallel perspective1 and the parts beyond the first plane are shown diminished by distance1 and also come into view1 although they may be behind others on the first plane by which they would be concealed in a geometrical representation4 ,for instance1 supposing a portico to have a second row of columns in the same axes as those in front1 that circumstance would not be at all apparent in a geometrical elevation1 but could be understood only by means of the plan1 the inner columns being concealed by those before them2 but in a perspective elevation they would show themselves1 as would also the ceiling and floor4 ,,entablature4--,the horizontal portion of an ,order2 the trabeation or system of beams supported by the columns4 ,there may1 however1 be entablature without columns1--where the latter are suppressed1 as on the flanks of an apteral temple2 or omitted entirely1 as in astylar building4 ,for the entablatures of the respective ,orders1 see pages #ah1 #da1 #fj4 ,,entasis4--,a slightly convex curvature given in execution to the outline of the shaft of a column1 just sufficient to counteract and correct the appearance1 or fancied appearance1 of curvature in a contrary direction 7i4 e4 concavely71 which might else take place and cause the middle of the shaft to appear thinner than it really is4 ,entasis is therefore nothing positive3 it is not intended to show itself1 for were it to do so1--were there to be any visible swelling1--it would be a deformity2 yet such deformity has been studiously adopted by many ,modern ,architects1 merely1 it would seem1 for the sake of making evident that at all events they took pains to guard against an imaginary defect4 ,the subject of entasis has been made one of those nug difficiles which those who can do nothing else make great parade with4 ,to such1 then1 be left all such sublimated transcendental niceties4 ,if a column only #cj or #dj feet high would appear thinner in the middle than it really is1 unless there made somewhat thicker than it would be were its profile a straight line1 the same appearance would take place in any other lofty object1 and in a greater degree in proportion to actual height2 so that a tower of great loftiness1 both positively and proportionally1 ought--unless entasis were given it1 to look thinner in the middle than at top and bottom4 ,if such appearance really does take place1 it is one perfectly in accordance with the laws of vision1 therefore no more than a natural and perfectly proper one4 ,in all such cases the judgment corrects the eye1 and prevents mistakes4 ,it would1 in fact1 require a very great stretch of imagination to fancy what we know to be straight1 and of the same breadth throughout1 is not so3 if we can fancy that1 we can also fancy that the further end of a building is not so high as the nearer one1 and that instead of being horizontal1 the cornices slope downwards4 ,so much for the fuss made about entasis1 including that about the hypothetical curvature in the horizontal lines of the ,parthenon1 where curvature was administered1 if administered at all1 in an exceedingly homopathic ratio4 ,,epistylium4--,the architrave or horizontal course resting immediately upon the columns4 ,hence we should denote as ,epistylar ,arcuation that system in which columns support arches instead of horizontal architraves and entablatures4 ,see p4 #ge4 ,,epitithedas4--,a term applied by some writers1 by way of distinction1 to the cymatium on the sloping or raking cornices of a pediment1 which superimposed moulding 7as its name implies7 was frequently largely developed1 and enriched with an ornamental pattern4 ,,fenestration1 termed by the ,germans ,fenster-architektur1 is1 in contradistinction from columniation1 the system of construction and mode of design marked by windows4 ,fenestration and ,columniation are so far antagonistic and irreconcileable1 that fenestration either interferes with the effect aimed at by columniation with insulated columns1 as in a portico or colonnade1 or reduces it1 as is the case with an engaged ,order1 to something quite secondary and merely decorative4 ,astylar and ,fenestrated ought1 therefore1 to be merely convertible terms2 but as they are not1 we may be allowed to invent that of columnar-fenestrated1 to denote that mode of composition which unites fenestration with the semblance1 at least1 of the other4 ,employed as a collective term1 ,fenestration serves to express the character of a building or design with regard to the windows generally3 thus we say1 the ,fenestration is excellent1 or the contrary1--ornate or meagre1--well arranged or too crowded1--which last circumstance is a very common fault1 and is destructive both of grandeur and of repose4 ,si quris exemplum1 circumspice4 ,,fillet4--,any narrow flat moulding or surface is so termed4 ,fillets are used either to separate or finish other mouldings4 ,the intervals or spaces between the flutes on the shaft of a column are also called fillets1 although not actual members1 but merely the surface left between the hollowed channels or flutes themselves4 ,,fluting4--,the collective term for the channels cut on the shafts of columns4 ,hitherto this has been restricted to little more than two modes1 viz4 with arrises or sharp ridges1 as in the ,doric ,order 7p4 #ag71 or with fillets4 ,a different mode of striating the shafts of columns is described at page #ci1 and many others might easily be devised4 ,,frieze4--,the middle one of the three divisions of an entablature4 ,it derives its name from the ,italian ,fregio1 ornament1 as being that part of the entablature especially appropriate for sculptural embellishment1 yet1 in contradiction to such signification1 the frieze is all but invariably made a mere plain surface by ,modern ,architects2 except the ,order employed happens to be ,doric1 and then triglyphs are introduced as matter of course1 but the metopes left blank1 even though ornateness is studied in other respects1 and in parts not comprehended in the ,order itself4 ,for the ,ionic ,order1 ,modern ,architects have sometimes employed the so-called pulvinated frieze 7p4 #ej71 that is1 one whose face is curved convexly2 but upon what principle they have appropriated such form of the frieze to that ,order in particular1 when it is just as suitable for the ,corinthian1 is not said1 and not to be guessed4 ,,hypotrachelium4--,the necking of a capital introduced between the capital itself and the shaft of the column4 ,in the ,grecian ,doric1 the hypotrachelium is little more than nominal1 being marked only by one or more horizontal channels or incisions1 and the flutings continued through them2 whereas to the ,modern ,doric capital a distinct necking is given by the astragal which separates the capital from the shaft1 and marks its commencement4 ,but that is considered an essential part of the capital1 and as to the ,corinthian capital it does not admit of any necking2 wherefore the ,ionic one possesses a great advantage over either of them1 inasmuch as it may have a distinct necking or not1 and it may be either plain or enriched4 ,,intercolumn and ,,intercolumniation4--,the subject of ,intercolumniation is treated of at page #gg1 c4 ,these two terms are generally confounded together2 or rather1 the second is very improperly substituted for the other1 contrary to all analogy of language and distinctness of meaning4 ,having only a general collective import1 ,intercolumniation can1 like ,columniation1 be used only in the singular4 ,we may say of a portico1 c41 that its intercolumniation is good or poor1 close or straggling1 but not that it consists of so many intercolumniations 7according as the number may be71 since such mode of expression is no better than a solecistical vulgarism4 ,we might just as well describe a tetrastyle portico as having four columniations1 as say that it has three intercolumniations4 #8,,lysicrates' ,,capital1 #ee4 ,,metope4--,the spaces between the triglyphs of the ,doric frieze1 which in the ,parthenon1 for instance1 were filled in with sculpture2 but in modern porticoes that pique themselves upon being after the ,parthenon1 they are mere blanks4 ,,minute4--,the sixtieth part of the diameter of the column as a proportional measure4 ,minutes are written thus1 #aj1 i4 e4 ten minutes4 ,,modillion4--,the small bracket-shaped members or ornaments in the ,corinthian cornice are termed modillions4 ,see page #fa4 ,,module4--,the semi-diameter of the column1 or #cj minutes4 ,see ,diameter4 ,,mouldings4--,the principal mouldings and the difference of their profiles in the ,grecian and ,roman styles are here exhibited4 ,illustration3 ,greek4 ,roman4 ,echinus or ,ovolo4 ,illustration3 ,cyma ,recta4 ,illustration3 ,cyma ,reversa4 ,illustration3 ,scotia4 ,illustration3 ,torus4 ,,monotriglyphic4--,that mode of intercolumniation in the ,doric ,order according to which there is only a single triglyph over each intercolumn1 #bj4 ,,mutules4--,the small blocks or plates attached to the soffit of the corona in the ,doric cornice4 ,,necking4--,see ,hypotrachelium4 ,,ovolo4--,see ,echinus4 ,,pedestal4--,no constituent or essential part of an ,order1 but merely a casual addition to it1 #g4 ,,pediment answers to the ,gable in ,gothic ,architecture1 c41 it being the vertical triangular plane at the end of a roof which slopes downwards on each side from its ridge4 ,the ,pediment differs from the ,gable in having a tympanum1 or clearly defined triangular surface with a horizontal cornice below and two sloping or raking cornices4 ,see page #bd4 ,,pilaster4--,unknown to ,greek ,architecture1 in which only ant 7see ,ant7 were admitted3 ,pilasters are employed by the ,moderns as substitutes for an ,order in engaged columns1 and are1 perhaps1 even preferable to the latter1 inasmuch as they combine better and more naturally with the wall to which they are attached4 ,,plan4--,a plan may be familiarly described as an architectural map1 or map of a building3 therefore only those who cannot comprehend a geographical or topographical map--a degree of obtuseness hardly credible--can be at any loss to understand an architectural one1 the latter being precisely of the same nature as the others1 with this difference in its favour1 that it is much less conventional4 ,to define it more exactly1--a plan is a horizontal section supposed to be taken on the level of the floor through the solid parts of the fabric--walls1 columns1 c41 so as to show their various thicknesses and situations1 the dimensions of the several spaces or rooms1 the position of the doors by which they communicate with each other1 and various particulars that cannot otherwise be explained4 ,studying buildings without plans is like studying geography without maps4 ,nevertheless1 most persons ignore--affect a genteel ignorance of such vulgar and technical drawings as plans4 ,plan frequently costs the ,architect more study than all the rest of his design4 ,very much mistaken are they who suppose that convenience alone has chiefly to be considered4 ,convenience is1 of course1 or ought to be1 made a sine qu non2 yet it is not so much a positive merit in itself1 as the want of it is a positive defect4 ,mere convenience is not an artistic quality3 from that to beauty of plan1--to striking combinations1 and studied effects1 and varied play of arrangement1 the distance is very great4 ,a common-place plan is but a very dull uninteresting affair4 ,it is no more than what any builder can accomplish2 but a plan replete with imagination1 piquant play1 and well-imagined contrasts1 is no every-day matter4 ,,podium4--,a continued pedestal2 a dwarf pedestal wall2 a closed parapet employed instead of an open balustrade4 ,,polystyle4--,having a number of columns4 ,where columns occur behind columns1 as where a portico has inner columns1 like that of the ,royal ,exchange1 such portico may be termed polystyle4 ,,porch4--,any small portico considerably lower than the main structure to which it is attached may be so termed1 in contradistinction from one carried up the height of the building1 or as high as the principal cornice4 ,,portico4--,for the different plans and denominations of porticoes1 see p4 #fi4 ,,profile4--,the outline of a series of mouldings1 or of any other parts1 as shown by a section through them4 ,,proportion4--,the magnitude of one part as compared with some other4 ,the term #8proportion' is used absolutely in the sense of #8good proportion2' although every thing that has shape has proportions of some kind or other4 ,the subject of ,proportions has been greatly mystified by writers who have laid down certain fixed proportions as the best of all on every occasion1 and as the ne plus ultra of artistic taste4 ,but fixed proportions can be followed mechanically by every one alike2 whereas it requires ability to deviate successfully from routine measurement1 and apply the poco piu or the poco meno as the particular occasion or the particular effect aimed at may require--at least justify4 ,it is the eye that takes cognizance of proportions2 and the ,architect's own eye ought to be quite as correct as that of other people4 ,,prostyle4--,a portico which projects from the body of a building1 or the rest of a faade4 ,see page #fi4 ,,pulvinated4--,a frieze whose face is convex instead of plain is said to be pulvinated1 from its supposed resemblance to the side of a cushion1 which swells out when pressed upon4 ,see page #ej4 ,,raking ,,cornices4--,a term1 rather unmeaning in itself1 applied to the inclined cornices on the sloping sides of a pediment4 ,,rustication4--,although ,rustication is not spoken of in this treatise1 the term is here inserted for the purpose of remarking that what is so called might frequently be more correctly described as ,decorative ,masonry1 since1 so far from expressing rudeness or coarseness1 it may be made to display the most studied nicety and elaborate finish4 ,rustication1 no doubt1 originated in a very rude mode of construction2 but what was at first clumsiness and irregularity1 was afterwards refined into an artful and symmetrical disposition of the stones and courses of masonry1 by a similar sthetic process to that which converted the original amorphous stone pillar into the ,doric column4 ,to call such masonry1 as some have done1 only cicatrizing and gashing1 betrays a loss for both arguments and words4 ,decorative masonry is most assuredly not according to ,greek taste or practice2 for the ,greeks affected to suppress the appearance of articulation in masonry1 and thereby to give their buildings1 as far as possible1 the look of not being fabricated1 but carved out of one block of solid material4 ,yet it does not therefore follow that the other mode of decidedly articulating and pronouncing the joints and courses of the stones is bad1 because it is an opposite one4 ,so far from being unsthetic1 it possesses much that recommends it artistically1 for it gives colour1 and produces richness of surface where there would else be blankness4 ,a wall whose face is so decorated forms an admirable ground to columns or pilasters1 which it serves to relieve very effectively1 as is exemplified in the screen faade of ,dover ,house1 that little architectural gem by ,holland1 which1 though by no means faultless1 has more of genuine artistic quality than any other building of its time in the whole ,metropolis4 ,,section4--,a vertical plan of the interior of a building1 showing it as it would appear upon an upright plane cutting through it4 ,though rarely shown1 sections are almost as indispensable as plans1 like which1 they show the thicknesses of the walls2 and in addition those of the ceilings and floors2 and show also heights1 both of the rooms themselves1 and of doors and windows2--moreover1 the forms of the ceilings1 whether flat1 or coved1 or vaulted4 ,in one respect1 too1 a section partakes of the nature of an elevation1 the plane parallel to the line of section being an elevation of the interior1 or rather consisting of as many elevations as there are separate rooms or divisions4 ,sections may be described as either furnished or unfurnished2 the former show only construction and the strictly architectural parts1 wherefore1 if the side of a room happens to be quite plain1 without door1 chimney-piece1 or other feature1 that side or space will be a blank1 or little better4 ,furnished sections1 on the contrary1 exhibit1 besides what strictly belongs to the ,architecture and its decoration1 mirrors1 pictures1 statues1 furniture1 draperies1 and all other accessories4 ,the number of sections required depends upon the nature of the plan1 and what there is worth showing4 ,if the design be worthy of it1 there should be as many sections as will suffice to show every side of every principal apartment2 though it may not be necessary to repeat the entire section through every floor4 ,sections are the delici of architectural illustration1 and1 it would seem1 far too precious to be frequently exhibited4 ,,soffit4--,from the ,italian soffitto1 a ceiling2 the under surface of any projecting moulding or member4 ,,style1 in the sense of a column 7from the ,greek 1 a column71 enters into a great number of useful compound terms referring to matters connected with columniation1 and which may here be grouped together1 so that any word ending in #8style' may be found here1 though passed over in its alphabetical order4 ,the number of columns in the front of a pedimented portico is briefly expressed at once by any of the following terms3 ,distyle in antis1 two columns and two ant4 ,tetrastyle 0 four columns4 ,hexastyle 0 six 0 ,octastyle 0 eight 0 ,decastyle 0 ten 0 almost the greatest number that can be placed beneath a pediment4 ,as regards ,intercolumniation1 we have--,pycnostyle--,eustyle--,arostyle1 #gi4 ,the terms descriptive of the plans and columniation of ancient temples are--,prostyle--,amphiprostyle--,peristy le1 #fi4 ,also1 ,monoprostyle1 a prostyle with one intercolumn on its flanks4 ,diprostyle 0 0 two 0 0 ,triprostyle 0 0 three 0 0 ,to which may be added-- ,heterostyle1 composed of different ,orders1 as where one ,order is employed for the centre of a composition1 and another for the wings4 ,macrostyle denotes a large ,order1 that is1 one forming the height of the building4 ,microstyle1 on the contrary1 denotes a lesser ,order1 belonging only to some low division of the building1 as for instance1 a porch4 ,thus porticoes are macrostylar1 porches microstylar4 ,in ,italian composition1 microstylar doors and windows1 i4 e4 doors and windows decorated with small columns1 are of frequent occurrence4 ,,stylobate4--,that part of a structure on which an ,order is raised1 and on which the columns immediately stand4 ,the term is1 however1 restricted to what partakes of the character of a pedestal1 and not to a mere plinth or socle on the one hand1 or to a lower fenestrated floor on the other4 ,,volute4--,the characteristic ornaments and indicial marks of the ,ionic capital formed by circumvolving spiral mouldings are termed volutes4 ,the small circle in which the spiral or springs terminate is called the eye of the volute4 ,illustration ,printed by ,hughes ,robinson1 ,king's ,head ,court1 ,gough ,square4 ,,architecture ,,of ,,the ,,metropolis4 ,a ,new and considerably ,enlarged ,edition1 with many additional ,subjects and ,plates4 ,it is proposed to publish1 in #bj ,monthly ,parts1 this very important work1 to contain #ahj plates and #hjj pages of letterpress description of the ,public ,buildings of ,london4 ,each ,part will contain #i plates and #dj pages of text1 ,price #bs4 #f;d41 to be ready for delivery on the ,magazine day of each month1 beginning with 7,december #ca1 #ahdh7 ,january #a1 #ahdi4 ,to the ,architect1 ,builder1 the ,student in ,architecture1 and the ,amateur1 this desirable work for professional use and study is offered at an extremely small charge1 and published at such intervals as to be convenient for all classes1 entitled ,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,public ,,buildings ,,of ,,london3 ,originally edited by the late ,,augustus ,,pugin1 ,,jos4 ,,gwilt1 ,,britton1 and others4 ,,newly ,,edited ,,and ,,enlarged ,,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,leeds4 ,manifold as are the publications which represent the various structures of the metropolis1 this is the only work which describes them1 not ad libitum1 in views which1 even when perfectly correct1 show no more than the general aspect and locality of each building from a certain point1 and consequently afford no information beyond mere external appearance--but exhibits them architecturally by means of plans1 elevations1 and occasionally both sections and interior perspective views4 ,thus a far more complete and correct knowledge may be obtained of each edifice1 in its entire arrangement in all its parts and dimensions1 than by pictorial views of them4 ,as studies for the ,architect1 the subjects contained in these volumes strongly recommend themselves1--more particularly so1 as of the majority of them no plans and elevations are to be met with in any other publication1 which materially enhances the interest of this collection1 and it preserves to us authentic and tolerably complete records of many buildings which no longer exist4 ,among these are ,,carlton ,,house1 illustrated with several plates1 including sections1 and a plan of the private apartments2 the late ,,english ,,opera ,,house2 ,,mr4 ,,nash',s ,,gallery1 which has since been dismantled of its embellishments2 ,,the ,,royal ,,exchange1 and the ,,board ,,of ,,trade4 ,among the new subjects introduced in this new edition will be found3--,the ,new ,plan and ,elevation of the ,,british ,,museum--,,new ,,houses ,,of ,,parliament--,,royal ,,exchange--,,army ,,and ,,navy ,,club--,,new ,,conservative ,,club--,,reform ,,club--,,museum ,,of ,,economic ,,geology--,,mansion ,,of ,,the ,,earl ,,of ,,ellesmere 7,bridgewater ,house72 together with several ,plans of ,basements1 showing kitchens and domestic offices1 and conveniences not hitherto given4 ,list of ,plates and short abstract of ,subjects4 ,adam1 ,r41 architect4--,all ,saints' ,church1 ,poplar4--,all ,souls' ,church1 ,langham ,place4--,ancient ,theatres4--,astley's ,amphitheatre4 ,beazley1 ,s41 architect4--,berlin1 theatre at4--,bordeaux1 theatre at4--,st4 ,bride's ,church1 ,fleet ,street2 spire1 interior1 and altar-piece4--,burton1 ,decimus1 architect4 ,chelsea1 church of ,st4 ,luke at4--,churches1 remarks on galleries in4--,cockerell1 ,c4 ,r41 architect4--,colosseum4--,covent ,garden1 ,st4 ,paul's ,church4--,covent ,garden ,theatre4 ,dimensions of domes4--,diorama4--,domes1 table of dimensions of the principal ones4--,drury ,lane ,theatre4--,dunstan's1 ,st41 in the ,east1 tower of4--,dunstan's1 ,st41 in the ,west1 ,fleet ,street4 ,elmes1 ,mr41 his plan for improving the area around ,st4 ,paul's4--,english ,opera ,house4 ,gallery1 ,royal1 and staircase1 ,house of ,lords4--,george's1 ,st41 in the ,east4--,george's1 ,st41 ,bloomsbury1 its steeple4--,gibbs1 ,james1 architect4 ,halls1 dimensions of4--,hanover ,chapel4--,hardwick1 ,t41 architect4--,hawksmoor1 ,nicholas1 architect4--,haymarket ,theatre4--,henry the ,seventh's ,chapel4--,hosking1 ,mr4--,hope1 ,mr4--,house of ,lords1 staircase1 and ,royal gallery4 ,inwood1 ,messrs41 architects4 ,james's1 ,st41 ,piccadilly4--,james's1 ,st41 ,theatre4--,jones1 ,inigo1 architect4 ,knights ,templars4--,knights ,hospitallers4 ,law ,courts1 ,westminster4--,lyceum ,theatre4 ,mary1 ,st41 ,woolnoth1 church of4--,mary-le-bone ,church1 account of4--,mary-le-,bow1 ,st41 church1 steeple4--,mikhaelov1 architect4--,moller1 architect4--,monuments1 at ,st4 ,paul's4 ,nash1 ,j41 architect4--,newman1 ,j41 architect4 ,opera ,house1 ,italian4 ,paul's1 ,st41 ,cathedral2 description of the former cathedral2 history of the present edifice2 description2 compared with ,st4 ,peter's2 monumental sculpture4--,paul's1 ,st41 ,covent ,garden4--,peter-le-,poor1 ,st41 church of4--,porticoes1 remarks on1 by ,j4 ,b4 ,papworth4--,pugin1 ,a41 architect4 ,ralph1 his opinion on ,st4 ,stephen's1 ,walbrook2 ,st4 ,paul's1 ,covent ,garden4--,repton1 ,g4 ,s41 architect4--,royal ,amphitheatre1 ,westminster4 ,savage1 ,james1 architect2 his justification of the tower of ,chelsea ,church4--,shaw1 ,j41 architect4--,smirke1 ,sir ,r41 architect4--,soane1 ,sir ,j41 architect4--,spires1 remarks on4--,stephen's1 ,st41 ,walbrook4 ,temple ,church1 history2 monuments2 description4--,theatres1 remarks on1--,thomond1 architect4 ,walbrook1 ,st4 ,stephen's4--,walpole1 ,horace1 his opinion of ,st4 ,paul's1 ,covent ,garden4--,westminster ,abbey4--,westminster ,hall4--,willement1 ,t41 painted window by1 in ,st4 ,dunstan's ,west4--,wilson1 ,e4 ,j41 remarks on spires by2 description of ,westminster ,hall4--,wren1 ,sir ,christopher4--,wyatt1 ,benjamin1 architect4 99 99 99 99 99 ,abraham1 ,r41 architect4--,adam1 ,robert1 architect4--,arch1 ,green ,park4--,ashburnham ,house4 ,bank of ,england1 account of2 ,new ,dividend ,pay ,office--,basevi1 ,g41 architect4--,banqueting ,house1 ,whitehall4--,barry1 ,c41 architect4--,barry1 ,james1 painter4--,belgrave ,square4--,bethlehem ,hospital4--,blackfriars' ,bridge4--,bonomi1 ,jos41 architect4--,bridges1 ,london ,bridge4--,british ,museum1 account of2 description of the new building4--,brooks1 ,w41 architect4--,burlington ,house--,burton1 ,d41 architect4 ,carlton ,palace4--,chambers1 ,sir ,w41 architect4--,christ's ,hospital1 new ,hall4--,club ,house1 ,travellers'4--,club ,house1 ,union4--,club ,house1 ,university4--,cockerell1 ,c4 ,r41 architect4--,college of ,physicians1 ,warwick ,lane4--,college of ,physicians1 ,pall ,mall ,east4--,column1 the ,york4--,corn ,exchange4--,cornwall ,terrace4--,county ,fire ,office4--,custom ,house4--,cunningham1 ,allan4 ,dance1 ,mr41 architect4--,dodd1 ,ralph1 engineer4 ,eaton ,square4 ,fishmongers' ,hall2 former building2 new ,hall2 interior described4--,freemasons' ,hall4 ,galleries1 dimensions of various4--,gandy-,deering1 architect4--,george's1 ,st41 ,hospital4--,george's1 ,st41 ,bloomsbury1 portico of4--,grecian architecture1 modern1 remarks on4--,greenough's1 ,mr41 ,villa4 ,holkam ,house4--,holland1 ,h41 architect4--,hope's1 ,mr41 ,house4--,horse-,guards4--,hospital1 ,bethlehem4--,hospital1 ,st4 ,george's4 ,india ,house4--,intercolumniation1 remark on the term4 ,jones1 ,inigo4--,jupp1 ,r41 architect4 ,kendall1 ,h4 ,e41 architect4--,kent1 ,w41 architect4--,king's ,college4 ,labelye1 architect4--,lewis1 ,j4 architect4--,libraries1 dimensions of some4--,london ,institution--,london ,university4--,london ,bridge1 the old one2 the new one4 ,mansion ,house4--,mark's1 ,st41 ,north ,audley ,street4--,museum1 ,british4--,museum1 ,soanean4--,mylne1 ,r41 architect4 ,nash1 ,j41 architect4--,nash's1 ,j41 ,house and ,gallery4--,national ,gallery4--,newgate4 ,palace1 ,buckingham2 interior2 sculpture gallery2 state apartments4--,papworth's remarks on ,somerset ,house2 on ,english ,villas4--,pimlico ,institution1 portico of4--,pitts1 ,w41 sculpture by4--,ponz1 remark by1 on the ,royal ,exchange4--,portico1 ,st4 ,george's ,hospital2--,national ,gallery2 ,london ,university2 ,st4 ,martin's2 ,st4 ,george's1 ,bloomsbury2 ,carlton ,palace4--,post ,office4--,privy ,council ,office1 c41 account of4 ,ralph1 ,mr4--,regent's ,park4--,rennie1 ,j41 engineer4 --,roberts1 ,h41 architect4--,royal ,exchange2 destruction of the building by fire4--,russell ,institution4 ,sandby1 ,t41 architect4--,saunders1 ,g41 architect4--,shaw1 ,j41 architect4--,sion ,park ,gateway4--,smirke1 ,sir ,robert1 architect4--,smith1 ,g41 architect4--,soane1 ,sir ,j41 architect1 his ,house and ,museum4--,society of ,arts4--,somerset ,house4--,southwark ,bridge4 ,taylor1 ,sir ,r41 architect4--,telford1 ,mr41 his opinion of the ,mansion ,house4 ,temple ,bar4--,terraces in ,regent's ,park4--,travellers' ,club ,house4 ,vardy1 ,mr41 architect4--,vauxhall ,bridge4--,villa1 ,mr4 ,burton's4--,villa1 ,mr4 ,greenough's4--,villa1 ,mr4 ,kemp's4 ,union ,club ,house4--,university ,club ,house4--,uxbridge ,house4 ,walpole1 ,horace1 his character of ,lord ,burlington3 remark on ,burlington ,house4--,ware1 ,s41 architect4--,waterloo ,bridge4--,westminster ,bridge4--,wellington ,house4--,wilkins1 ,w41 architect4--,wren1 ,sir ,c41 architect4 ,york ,column4--,york ,stairs ,water-gate1 c4