,transcriber ,note ,emphasis denoted as ,italics and ,bold4 ,whole and fractional parts of numbers as #abc-d_/e4 ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,geology ,illustration3 ,megalosaurus ,total length about #be feet4 7,remains found in ,england1 ,france1 ,south ,africa1 and ,india47 ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,geology ,,describing ,,in ,,simple ,,but ,,exact ,,language ,,the ,,making ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,,with ,,some ,,account ,,of ,,prehistoric ,,animal ,,life ,,by ,e4 ,s4 ,,grew1 ,m4,a4 ,,editor ,,of ,,knowledge ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,far ,,east ,c41 ,c4 ,,with ,,twenty-,,five ,,illustrations ,,london ,,seeley ,,and ,,co4 ,,limited #ch ,,great ,,russell ,,street #aiji ,,uniform ,,with ,,this ,,volume ,,the ,,library ,,of ,,romance ,extra ,crown #hvo4 ,with many illustrations4 #es4 each ,splendid volumes4--the ,outlook4 ,this series has now won a considerable and well deserved reputation4--,the ,guardian4 ,each volume treats its allotted theme with accuracy1 but at the same time with a charm that will commend itself to readers of all ages4 ,the root idea is excellent1 and it is excellently carried out1 with full illustrations and very prettily designed covers4--,the ,daily ,telegraph4 ,by ,prof4 ,g4 ,f4 ,,scott ,,elliot1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc4 ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,savage ,,life ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,plant ,,life ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,early ,,british ,,life ,by ,,edward ,,gilliat1 ,m4,a4 ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,sieges ,by ,,john ,,lea1 ,m4,a4 ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,bird ,,life ,by ,,john ,,lea1 ,m4,a41 ,h4 ,,coupin1 ,d4,sc4 ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,animal ,,arts ,,and ,,crafts ,by ,,sidney ,,wright ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,world',s ,,fisheries ,by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,c4 ,,lambert1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d4 ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,missionary ,,heroism ,by ,g4 ,,firth ,,scott ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,polar ,,exploration ,by ,,archibald ,,williams1 ,b4,a4 7,oxon471 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,early ,,exploration ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,exploration ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,mechanism ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,invention ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,engineering ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,locomotion ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,mining ,by ,,charles ,r4 ,,gibson1 ,a4,i4,e4,e4 ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,photography ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,electricity ,by ,,edmund ,,selous ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,world ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,insect ,,life ,by ,,agnes ,,giberne ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,mighty ,,deep ,by ,e4 ,s4 ,,grew1 ,m4,a4 ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,geology ,,seeley ,,co41 ,,limited ,grateful acknowledgment is due to ,mr4 ,henry ,r4 ,knipe for his kind permission to reproduce some of the illustrations of extinct animals contained in his scholarly work entitled1 ,from ,nebula to ,man 7,j4 ,m4 ,dent and ,co474 ,,contents ,,page ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,building ,,of ,,the ,,earth #ag ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,earth',s ,,shape #bi ,,chapter ,,iii ,,effects ,,of ,,weather ,,on ,,the ,,earth',s ,,history #ci ,,chapter ,,iv ,,records ,,left ,,by ,,rivers #ej ,,chapter ,v ,,records ,,left ,,by ,,the ,,sea #ei ,,chapter ,,vi ,,cold ,,and ,,ice ,,on ,,the ,,earth #fg ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,fire-,,hardened ,,rocks #gh ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,earth ,,at ,,its ,,beginning #ij ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,childhood ,,of ,,the ,,earth #ih ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,earth ,,as ,,the ,,abode ,,of ,,life #ajh ,,chapter ,,xi ,,life ,,in ,,other ,,worlds #aah ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,hardening ,,of ,,rocks #abh ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,earthquakes ,,in ,,geology #acg ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,some ,,famous ,,earthquakes #adh ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,causes ,,of ,,earthquakes #afe ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,volcanoes ,,and ,,mountain ,,formation #agi ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,families ,,of ,,rocks ,,and ,,their ,,descendants #aig ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,how ,,the ,,coal ,,beds ,,were ,,laid ,,down #bab ,,chapter ,,xix ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,reptiles #bbf ,,chapter ,,xx ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,reptiles 7continued7 #bce ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,the ,,chalk ,,period #bde ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,mammals #bef ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,the ,,ice ,,age #bfi ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,man #bhd ,,index #bic ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,page ,,megalosaurus ,frontispiece ,,map ,,showing ,,districts ,,of ,,world-,,shaking ,,earthquakes #ae ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,colossal ,,natural ,,bridges ,,of ,,utah #dj ,,the ,,garden ,,of ,,the ,,gods1 ,,colorado #dd ,a ,,curious ,,rock ,,greatly ,,revered ,,by ,,the ,,natives #df ,,the ,,grand ,,ca,,on ,,of ,,arizona #eb ,,cleopatra ,,terrace1 ,,yellowstone ,,park1 ,u4,s4,a4 #ef ,a ,,petrified ,,tree #eh ,,the ,,crater ,,of ,,an ,,extinct ,,volcano #ajd ,,the ,,pinnacled ,,castle-,,like ,,peaks ,,of ,,the ,,ramshorn ,,mountains ,,of ,,wyoming #acj ,a ,,geyser ,,in ,,action #adj ,a ,,curious ,,eruption ,,of ,,mount ,,asama1 ,,japan #aed ,a ,,house ,,destroyed ,,by ,,an ,,earthquake #aeh ,,the ,,ruins ,,of ,,the ,,magnificent ,,city ,,hall ,,of ,,san ,,francisco #afj ,,the ,,track ,,of ,,an ,,earth ,,wave #aff ,a ,,geyser ,,at ,,rest ,,in ,,yellowstone ,,park1 ,u4,s4,a4 #agj ,,the ,,new ,,spine ,,of ,,mont ,,pel,e #ahd ,,the ,,dead ,,city ,,of ,,st4 ,,pierre1 ,,martinique #ahf ,a ,,yorkshire ,,pot-,,hole3 ,,showing ,,the ,,effects ,,which ,,can ,,be ,,produced ,,in ,,limestone ,,by ,,underground ,,water #aif ,,plesiosaurs #bch ,,diplodoci ,,carnegiei #bdj ,,arch,,opteryx ,,and ,,compsognathus #bdb ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,head1 ,,proboscis1 ,,nostrils1 ,,and ,,tusks ,,of ,,the ,,elephant #bfj ,,two ,,arsinoitheriums ,,at ,,bay ,,before ,a ,,pack ,,of ,,hy,,nodons #bff ,,diprotodon #bgh ,illustration3 ,the ,number of world-shaking earthquakes from #ahii to #aijh which have originated in districts marked ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 c41 are shown by figures4 7,see pp4 #aga and #agb47 ,,errata ,transcriber ,note3 ,corrections have been applied6 ,page #ai1 line #i4 ,for ,sir ,thomas ,holdich1 read ,sir ,thomas ,holditch4 ,page #be1 line #ag4 ,read1 they are always1 as it were1 imperceptibly quivering2 and they are always liable1 if the strain on them should be increased in the slightest degree1 to give way1 or to resettle the weight on their shoulders in some way4 ,page #bi1 line #aa4 ,for a greasy spot1 read a greasy shot4 ,page #ce1 line #e4 ,for evidence1 read existence4 ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,geology ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,building ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,everybody who has ever been to the coast of these islands has become aware that changes in the outline of the land are continually taking place4 ,in some parts of the east coast of ,england1 such as that which lies between ,harwich and ,walton-on-the-,naze1 the sea appears to be slowly encroaching on the land1 so that places which were grazing-fields twenty or thirty years ago are now covered by the sea at high tide1 and at low tide are mere sandy wastes threaded by rivulets of sea-water4 ,on the south coast of the ,isle of ,wight1 between ,sandown and the ,culver ,cliff1 which is the most easterly point1 the same loss of land is going on in another way4 ,some years ago a fort stood rather near the edge of the cliff1 and it would have been possible to climb round the seaward wall of the fort4 ,it is not possible now1 for the outer sea-wall of the fort has long ago slipped into the sea2 so have some of the inner fortifications3 and it has been necessary to dismantle the whole of this fort lest every part of even the inner landward wall should follow the outer parts and slip with the solid ground down the cliff4 ,it is easy to see what is happening here4 ,the wind and the waves are undermining and honeycombing the cliff4 ,they are weakening its base and its body1 and so the upper crust on which the fort was built1 and into which its foundations were dug1 is slipping away4 ,if we imagine for a moment that nothing was done to save the fort or protect the cliff1 but that all was left to nature to deal with1 it would not be hard to picture what would happen4 ,the cliff would gradually be eaten away3 its gravel and clay would be drawn into the sea1 and the ,isle of ,wight would become a little smaller4 ,the same thing is going on at a good many places along the coast of the ,british ,isles1 as well as on the coast of ,florida and in the ,gulf of ,california in ,america4 ,the little islet of ,heligoland in the ,north ,sea1 which once belonged to ,great ,britain1 but was some years ago handed over to ,germany1 is so fiercely attacked by the sea in this way1 that it almost has to be armour-plated in order to preserve its integrity4 ,it is fenced in stone in order to protect it4 ,what is happening on the coasts of islands like ,england and ,heligoland is happening all over the world4 ,it has always happened4 ,if it had not happened in past ages there would be no ,british ,isles at all1 because once ,england and ,scotland and ,ireland were joined to ,europe1 and it would have been possible to walk across the ,north ,sea from ,harwich to the ,hook of ,holland4 ,the ,north ,sea was once dry land4 ,but the sea encroached on it from the north1 and the ,atlantic ,ocean battered a way through on the south1 till the ,english ,channel was bored through into the shallow waters of the newly-formed ,north ,sea1 and the lands that had once been part of ,europe became these sceptred isles set in the silver sea4 ,this is not all the story4 ,what the sea takes away it gives again4 ,sir ,thomas ,holditch is our authority for saying that on some parts of the ,pacific coast of ,america you may at some points see on the one hand dry land which by the shells found on it shows that the sea once flowed over it2 while side by side with this raised land you may sail a boat over forests now sunk beneath the sea4 ,the loss of bits and corners of ,england is serious--so serious that a ,royal ,commission on ,sea ,erosion1 as the process is called1 was appointed to inquire into the extent of the loss and the means by which it might be remedied4 ,but in some parts of our coast the land is not losing1 but gaining4 ,if the sea takes away sand and gravel1 chalk and shale and clay from the cliffs1 these materials are not lost4 ,something is done with them4 ,they must at some points1 where the tides and currents of the sea deposit them1 make the sea more shallow4 ,perhaps the sea lays them down as beds or sand-banks4 ,perhaps it carries them round the coast to some other point and there drops them4 ,can you not see that in this way the sea which at one point is dragging down the coast may at other points be building it up1 or may be even constructing breakwaters made out of these stolen materials8 ,the sea is not the only carrier which is thus laying down beds of material4 ,the rivers are doing the same thing4 ,every shower of rain washes some dirt--by which we mean sand or gravel or loam or chalk--from the land into the nearest rivulet4 ,the rivulet hurries with it down to the neighbouring river1 and the river carries it down to the sea4 ,if the river is going very fast it carries most of its dirt along with it1 and we generally find the river muddy after rain4 ,but when the river slackens its pace1 as it usually does when it nears the sea and meets the sea's tides1 then it lets the dirt fall2 and thus at the river's mouth we find mud-banks or sand-banks4 ,if a river is left long enough to its own devices1 these sand-banks will so increase in bulk that the mouth of the river will become shallower and shallower and will spread4 ,it silts up1 and when a river is needed for the navigation of ships large sums of money have to be spent1 as in the ,scheldt or at the mouth of the ,thames1 in dredging this mud so as to keep the channels clear4 ,there are many striking examples of this land-building by rivers2 and the deltas of rivers1 so called from their resemblance to the ,greek letter 1 form in some instances great areas4 ,the ,mississippi1 the ,nile1 and the ,ganges1 for example1 are surrounded by great tracts of land at their mouths1 which are formed entirely from matter brought down by the rivers and deposited at lower levels than those at which the rivers originated4 ,the ,mississippi1 which drains a river basin of #a1adg1jjj square miles1 has an annual discharge of sediment of no less than #g1dei1bfg1bjj cubic feet4 ,the ,italian ,river ,po1 draining an area of #cj1jjj square miles1 discharges #a1eaj1acg1jjj cubic feet of sediment annually4 ,this is equivalent to a lowering of its whole drainage area by #a_/gbith of a foot per annum1 so that in a thousand years the whole area over which it flows has been lowered by the river by more than a foot4 ,the ,thames alone carries down #e1jjj1jjj tons of material each year4 ,all this must be redeposited somewhere4 ,where the redeposition takes place we find new land forming1 new beds1 new strata1 in which in ages to come the future tenants of the globe may find relics of the people and animals living to-day4 ,thus there are several evident ways in which the coast-line of a country might be altered1 either in the direction of enlarging its boundaries by additions to it made by the sea or by rivers2 or in the direction of losing parts of its territory by wear and tear4 ,but there are other changes going on which are not so easy to perceive1 and which are not so easy to account for4 ,the thing hardest to explain is why what is now dry land should have risen out of the sea1 as certainly it did4 ,the white cliffs of ,dover are made of chalk1 and chalk is made of innumerable shells of tiny animals which once lived in the sea and which at their death sank to the sea's bottom4 ,they steadily accumulated there for ages in a grey ooze1 and in course of time this grey ooze rose above the waves4 ,it dried and became land4 ,but chalk is not found in cliffs by the sea only4 ,it is found far inland4 ,it is found1 for example1 in the ,north ,downs1 which run from ,guildford to ,reigate and from ,reigate to ,limpsfield and ,westerham--a great ridge of chalk1 at some points #fjj to #hjj feet high4 ,that ridge must at one time have been at the sea bottom4 ,and if we were to examine the whole of ,england and sink borings in it1 we should at one point or another come to some remains of rocks1 or some strata1 as they are called1 which are of such make and material that we can only believe them to have been laid down at the sea bottom4 ,the only conclusion we can come to1 therefore1 is that by some means or other1 and at some time or other1 the islands of ,england were slowly lifted above the sea1 and that at some other time the sea was slowly lifted above them4 ,what is true of ,england is true of nearly all the regions of the world that have been closely examined by geologists4 ,everywhere there is the evidence of different stages of existence in the land's history--stages when it was covered by the sea2 stages when it was dry land again2 perhaps stages when it was covered by lakes1 by vast forests2 stages when it may have been covered by ice2 stages when it was desert4 ,some of these stages show far vaster upheavals than others1 and the changes wrought were of far greater extent4 ,everybody has heard that the great ,saharan desert was perhaps once the bed of an ocean4 ,that is an assertion to which1 perhaps1 we may be a little chary of committing ourselves2 but there is excellent reason for believing that once some of the great ,african lakes were connected with the sea2 and we are quite certain that once ,africa was an island4 ,so that in the case of that vast continent we know that it must have seen periods of great depression and elevation2 ages when it was much lower than it is now1 and ages when it was higher4 ,we will not at this moment stop to give further examples4 ,we will only try to see whether there is any explanation which would make it possible to understand why there should be these slow upheavals and subsidences of the earth's surface4 ,the chief and most important reason is that the earth is not so solid as it looks1 and not so solid as it feels4 ,it would be easier to realise this if1 instead of living in a part of the earth like ,great ,britain1 where there are very few earthquakes1 we lived in ,japan1 or ,central ,america1 or in the archipelago of islands which runs from ,java to ,borneo and further south4 ,in these places1 where never a year passes but that the earth can be felt to quiver beneath one's feet1 and where earthquakes which wreck houses are at least as common as eclipses of the moon1 it is easier to believe that the earth is a rather shaky body2 or1 as scientific men would call it1 a rather unstable body4 ,but if1 like those scientific men who take up the study of earthquakes1 or seismology1 we equipped ourselves with instruments to measure or record earthquakes1 we should perceive even in ,england that the earth is nearly always quivering4 ,something is always snapping or giving way in its interior1 and producing trembling fits that sometimes can be felt hundreds of miles away1 and sometimes can be felt all over the earth4 ,there are on the average at least twenty earthquakes a year which make the whole of this round globe tremble4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 that either these shocks or breakages in the earth's crust1 or the earth's interior1 must be very great indeed1 or else that the earth must be composed of rather shaky materials4 ,well1 perhaps both these suppositions are true4 ,we spoke just now of the instruments which seismologists use to record earthquakes4 ,they are known as seismometers1 and a great many of them are used in ,japan and on the ,californian or ,pacific coast of ,america4 ,now it is perhaps scarcely necessary to say here 7when we recollect how many cyclones and anticyclones ,england receives from the ,atlantic7 that a storm or rainy weather is usually heralded or accompanied by a fall in the barometer1 or a depression4 ,now when there is a depression in the barometer that means that the weight of air above the barometer is less than it was before1 though it is not so great a difference that human beings could tell it1 unless it were accompanied by other signs4 ,but the earth can tell it1 and the mere fall of the barometer1 owing to changes of the air1 will make the earth tremble or quiver slightly1 as if it were a jelly4 ,we cannot perceive it2 but the delicate seismometers can2 and when a storm is coming to ,japan or to ,california from the ,pacific1 the instruments show that the earth feels the passage of it4 ,the comparison of the earth to a jelly--a very stiff jelly--is on the whole a useful one4 ,if a very tall jelly is allowed to stand for some time1 or if the table on which it stands is shaken a good deal1 then1 as we know1 rifts will sometimes appear in the jelly4 ,the reason for these breakdowns in the jelly's composition is that owing to the distribution of its weight it is always in what we call a state of strain2 and it is sometimes not strong enough to support this strain1 and1 almost without apparent cause1 will sometimes give way4 ,much more solid bodies than jelly act in the same way4 ,the great bridge near ,quebec which collapsed in #aijg was to all appearance quite sound and strong2 but there were strains in the iron girders1 and without warning these strains suddenly produced rifts in the iron and steel framework and it broke down4 ,similarly the towers of churches and cathedrals1 which are built on arches1 will give away quite suddenly after standing to all appearance quite firm for hundreds of years4 ,there is an architect's maxim which runs1 ,the arch never sleeps4 ,that means that the arches on which the great weight of a church or cathedral tower rests are always in a state of strain2 they are always1 as it were1 imperceptibly quivering2 and they are always liable1 if the strain on them should be increased in the slightest degree1 to give way1 or to resettle the weight on their shoulders in some way4 ,the whole of the great globe which we call the earth is in this state of strain2 and it is always liable to rifts within itself and to readjustments of the weights of its own parts4 ,it is not so easy to understand how a great globe spinning through space can be in a state of strain1 or can attempt to readjust the weight of its parts1 as in the instances we have just given of the quivering jelly or the solid cathedral tower4 ,perhaps another illustration may help us4 ,we will presume that nearly everybody is acquainted with the modern rubber-cored golf ball4 ,the modern golf ball1 as those who are aware who either intentionally or unintentionally have cut through its outer cover1 consists first of a small hard core4 ,round this is wound very tightly some two hundred yards of elastic4 ,the tighter this is wound the better1 or at any rate the more bouncing will be the resulting ball of india-rubber elastic4 ,but consider what is the usual condition of this rubber-wound ball4 ,like our jelly it is always in a state of stretch or strain4 ,even when covered with the outer shell which completes the golf ball1 the whole ball is still1 we might say1 in a state of strain or tension4 ,that is one of the reasons why it bounces1 and why it flies better than the old solid ball off the face of a golf club4 ,but if you were to keep a golf ball for a hundred years these strains in its interior would alter and adjust themselves4 ,one result would certainly be that the golf ball might lose its elasticity4 ,another result would be that its shape would slightly alter4 ,now a golf ball1 however carefully it is made1 is not always evenly made4 ,it weighs a little more on one side than another2 and the best golf balls1 those which fly truest and farthest1 are those which are most evenly made3 so that we might say of them that the centre of their weight was exactly the same as the centre of the ball4 ,if it is not1 then the strains in the ball are always pulling it a little more out of shape2 and the ball1 as golfers say1 flies badly4 ,now the earth is like a badly made golf ball4 ,the centre of its weight1 or1 as we call it1 the centre of gravity1 is not quite at the centre of the earth4 ,moreover1 owing to the enormous pressures which exist right through the earth1 and which are by no means the same at every place inside the earth1 but are1 in fact1 continually changing1 owing to hundreds of causes1 the whole of the earth's interior is in a state of unequal strain4 ,what is the consequence that you would expect8 ,is it not that the earth should always be making efforts to adjust its weight1 and1 as it were1 to distribute it evenly8 ,it has been doing this for millions of years4 ,it has not yet finished4 ,lastly1 the cover of a golf ball is comparatively a stiff and unyielding substance which does not betray on its surface1 if it is allowed to lie at rest1 the tensions and strains of the rubber core inside4 ,but the crust of the earth1 which we have compared to the golf ball's cover1 is not unyielding or rigid4 ,it is practically a part of the case of the earth2 and it does show and reflect the strains and tensions of the movements and rifts of the core4 ,so that as in the course of ages the straining core changes1 and gives way1 alters itself and adjusts itself--so the crust of the earth alters with it4 ,some of these changes are sudden and violent4 ,some of them take place very slowly1 occupying thousands or hundreds of thousands of years in the gradual process of change2 and then perhaps for ages the earth's crust will be slowly sinking in one place and slowly rising in another4 ,thus1 what was once a depression in the earth's surface may be now an elevation2 what was once below the level of the sea may be now a continent of land2 and what was once land may now have sunk beneath the incoming sea4 ,thus1 what was sandstone rock of the earth's surface may become covered with forest1 and the forest may sink below the sea1 only to be pushed up again and become dry land a million years later4 ,each of these changes will leave its mark1 each will be accompanied by deposits4 ,the deposits may be vegetable matter1 trees and mosses1 and the growth of swamps1 such as coal was first made of2 or they may be the ocean sludge1 which at last became chalk or limestone4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,earth',s ,,shape ,we have compared the earth to a golf ball1 and as it spins through space1 impelled by a force millions of times greater than the strongest driver ever imparted to the best-made ,haskell1 its flight and general appearance are not unlike those of the rubber-cored ball4 ,the earth1 for one thing1 is not smooth2 it has roughnesses and corrugations all over its surface1 similar to those of a golf ball1 though much less regular1 and it spins as it flies4 ,but let us now consider the differences4 ,suppose the golf ball had a spot of water clinging to it as water clings to a greasy shot4 ,where would the water lie8 ,the first answer that occurs to one is that the water would be shaken off the ball in the course of its flight2 and that is1 indeed1 very likely4 ,but suppose the water were very sticky1 or were very much attracted by the golf ball 7which is another way of stating the same supposition71 where would it lie then8 ,to that we can only say that there does not seem any very evident reason why it should lie on one part of the flying golf ball more than on any other--if the golf ball were perfectly round4 ,that is1 on the whole1 a reasonable answer4 ,but apply the same reasoning to the question of where the waters of the earth in the shape of oceans ought to lie as they cling to the spinning globe4 ,they cling to the globe1 not because they are sticky1 but because of the attraction which we say is due to gravity--the force which makes everything in nature attract every other thing1 and which makes everything tend to fall to the earth 7and to stay there74 ,they do so because the earth1 being so very heavy and bulky in comparison with anything in its neighbourhood1 has such an enormous pull4 ,how great that pull is may be dimly gathered from the reflection that though the earth is spinning at the rate of a thousand miles an hour1 nothing is ever shaken off4 ,the oceans are not shaken off4 ,they cling4 ,but why is it that they are not equally distributed all over the face of the earth8 ,if a map of the earth be examined1 or still better a globe with the oceans and continents correctly drawn on it1 it will be found that there is a great mass of land all lying grouped together on one side of the earth1 and a great basin of waters on the other4 ,let the reader imagine himself a thousand miles above the earth1 looking down at a point in it about midway between ,madeira and the ,bermudas4 ,what would he see8 ,he would see the ,atlantic ,ocean1 but all around it would be grouped great masses of land--,europe1 ,africa1 ,north ,america1 ,asia--and if it were his first sight of the earth and he knew nothing of its geography1 he would be likely to suppose that the earth was nearly all land1 with one comparatively small stretch of unfrozen ocean4 ,but now let the reader move round the earth to a point exactly opposite that at which he took his first observations and look down again4 ,he will now see the ,australian continent and the land which covers the ,south ,pole1 but except for the pointed tail of ,south ,america1 and perhaps a glimpse of the blunter point of ,south ,africa1 he will be looking down on a globe which seems to be largely covered with water4 ,why should this be8 ,it must be due to the shape of the earth4 ,the fact is1 the earth would make a very bad golf ball4 ,it is by no means of that perfection of symmetry which they say enables a golf ball to fly well and to run true on the putting greens4 ,the earth is1 in fact1 not perfect as a sphere1 either within or without4 ,its centre is not in the same place as the centre of its weight1 and it is not round in shape4 ,everybody has heard that the earth is slightly flattened at the poles2 but its irregularity goes much further than that4 ,if we could strip it of its oceans1 which fill up a good many of its imperfections1 we should find its shape not that of a neat1 round golf ball at all4 ,the earth's actual shape without its oceans1 its geoid1 as it is called1 is that of a pear4 ,the stalk of the pear is in the southern part of ,australia1 and contains ,australasia and the ,antarctic continent4 ,this is surrounded on all sides but one 7towards ,south ,america7 by a sort of belt of depression in which the waters lie4 ,that is the waist of the pear4 ,this again is surrounded on all sides but one 7towards the east of ,japan7 by a belt of elevation4 ,that is the protuberant part of the pear1 and here the great continental land areas rise4 ,finally1 we find the nose of the pear in the central ,atlantic1 between the ,madeiras and the ,bermudas4 ,of course1 the resemblance to a pear is not a very marked one4 ,our observer a thousand miles above the earth would not be able to perceive it1 nor would the astronomers in the moon1 if any astronomers existed there4 ,but the earth is pear-shaped to a small extent nevertheless1 and in the case of such an enormous mass a very slight deviation from rotundity will produce very great effects4 ,most of us have played at such ball games as bowls or billiards2 and ,i have assumed that everybody knows something about golf4 ,what happens in a game at bowls to the bowl which is not evenly weighted all through8 ,it will not run straight4 ,it has a bias4 ,what happens to a billiard ball which is not perfectly round1 or has lost its symmetry through age8 ,it wobbles4 ,and what happens to a badly made golf ball8 ,that performs all sorts of exasperating antics4 ,it ducks1 it soars1 it curls1 it takes a slice4 ,it also wobbles4 ,now that is exactly what the spinning1 unevenly shaped globe which we call the earth has been doing for millions of years4 ,it has been wobbling2 and as we showed in the last chapter1 it has always been trying to right itself4 ,thus the two poles have not always been in the same position2 the oceans have not always been where they are4 ,the waters have sometimes crawled up the land towards the poles and sometimes receded4 ,regions that have sometimes been frozen and cold have become warmer1 and have covered themselves now with oceans1 and now with forests1 and now with deserts4 ,there is no corner of the whole world which has not undergone changes of climate4 ,these changes are very slow4 ,there is no reason for supposing1 in spite of the laments we sometimes hear about the loss of old-fashioned winters and old-fashioned summers1 that the climate of ,england1 for example1 has changed in the least since ,csar's legions landed on its shores4 ,the ,roman settlers in ,britain doubtless experienced sloppy winters and wet summers now and again1 just as we do2 and ,king ,arthur's knights1 no doubt1 had their saddening experiences of ,november fogs4 ,yet slowly and surely changes of climate do take place1 and nothing except the winds influence them more than does the presence of a neighbouring sea or ocean4 ,most of us reckon the warmth of a locality's climate by the distance it is from the pole4 ,that is1 however1 a very rough and ready method4 ,vladivostok is roughly the same distance from the ,north ,pole as ,venice2 but there is a good deal of difference in the temperature of the two places4 ,in ,manchuria when the ,russians and ,japanese were entrenched before ,mukden men died of cold and were frozen at their posts at a time when other people in ,mentone and ,monte ,carlo1 at the same distance from the ,arctic ,circle1 were complaining of the heat4 ,so that we see that it must not be assumed that a place like ,england 7where for two thousand years we occasionally have had winters that would kill trees like eucalyptus or fig trees1 and where oranges could never ripen in the open air7 was always equally cold4 ,it may have been1 in fact we know it must have been1 warm enough once to encourage and support what resembled a tropical vegetation4 ,it must also have been at one time as cold as ,siberia in the winter4 ,therefore we should expect to find1 if we digged down in the earth1 or in any portion of the earth which had undergone these changes1 some traces of them4 ,for example1 if at one time the sea covered ,england for thousands or hundreds of thousands of years1 depositing the remains of millions of animals on the sea's bottom during that period1 we should expect to find some traces of these remains--perhaps in the form of chalk1 seeing that the bones and shells of fishes dwelling in the sea contain a good deal of lime4 ,or again1 if a forest covered ,england and grew and decayed there1 not merely for a period like that which has elapsed since the ,romans first set foot in ,britain1 but for a hundred times as long1 we should expect to find some sort of vegetable deposit1 hardened most probably by other layers above it4 ,do we8 ,well1 coal is a vegetable deposit4 ,if there was a time when ice covered the land we should expect to find traces of that2 if a time when the land was desert2 or when it was a lake--each and every one of these periods ought to leave some remains1 some epitaph of itself4 ,so they do4 ,let us for a moment consider with ,sir ,archibald ,geikie#a the subsoil beneath cities that have been inhabited for many centuries4 ,in ,london1 for example1 when excavations are made for drainage1 building1 and other purposes1 there are sometimes found1 many feet below the level of the present streets1 mosaic pavements and foundations1 together with earthern vessels1 bronze implements1 ornaments1 coins1 and other relics of ,roman time4 ,now if we knew nothing from actual authentic history of the existence of such a people as the ,romans these discoveries deep beneath the surface of modern ,london would prove that long before the present streets were built the site of the city was occupied by a civilised race which employed bronze and iron for the useful purposes of life1 had a metal coinage1 and showed not a little artistic skill in its pottery1 glass1 and sculpture4 ,but down beneath the rubbish wherein the ,roman remains are embedded lie gravels and sands from which rudely fashioned human implements of flint1 arrow-heads1 hammers1 and the like have been obtained4 ,from that we learn that before the ,romans came an earlier race had been there which employed weapons and instruments of roughly chipped flint4 ,footnote #a3 ,sir ,archibald ,geikie's ,introduction to ,geology4 ,we have no doubt that this was the order of the successive peoples occupying the site of ,london4 ,it is obvious4 ,why is it8 ,we see that there are1 broadly1 three layers or deposits4 ,the upper layer is that which encloses the foundations and rubbish of our own era and times4 ,next below is that which encloses the relics of ,roman occupation4 ,at the bottom lies that which encloses the scanty traces of the early flint-folk4 ,the uppermost deposit is necessarily the newest1 for it could not be laid down until after the accumulation of those below it2 and those below it must be progressively older1 as they are traced deeper from the surface4 ,by the mere fact that the layers lie one above the other we are furnished with a simple clue which enables us to determine the order of their formation4 ,we may know nothing whatever as to how old they are1 measured by years or centuries4 ,but we can be absolutely certain that the bottom layer came first1 and the top layer came last4 ,this kind of observation will enable us to find proofs everywhere that the surface of the land has not always been what it is to-day4 ,in some districts1 for example1 when the dark layer of soil in which vegetables grow is turned up1 there may be found beneath it sand and gravel full of smooth1 well-rounded stones4 ,such materials are to be seen in course of formation where water keeps them moving to and fro1 as on the beds of rivers1 the margins of lakes1 or the shallow shores of the sea4 ,wherever smooth-rolled pebbles occur they point to the influence of moving water1 so that we conclude1 even though the site is now dry1 that water once moved above it4 ,again1 below the soil in other regions lie layers of oysters and other sea shells4 ,pits1 quarries1 and mines that cut down still deeper into the earth and lay it bare bring before our eyes most impressive testimony regarding the ancient changes of the land4 ,suppose1 by way of further illustration1 that underneath a bed of sand full of oyster shells there lies a dark brown band of peat4 ,this substance1 composed of mosses and other water-loving plants1 is formed in boggy places by the growth of marshy vegetation4 ,below the peat there might occur a layer of soft white marl full of lake shells1 such as may be observed on the bottom of many lakes at the present time4 ,these three layers--oyster beds1 peat1 and marl--would be like a family pedigree showing the history of the place4 ,the bottom layer of white marl would show that there was once a lake4 ,the next layer of peat would show that by the growth of marshy vegetation the lake became choked up and was gradually changed into a swamp and then a morass4 ,the other layer of oyster shells would show that the ground was afterwards submerged by the sea4 ,the present condition of the ground would show that the sea at last retired1 and the place passed into dry land as it is to-day4 ,by such a method of examination we may frame for ourselves pictures of the earth's surface long before history began1 or before man roamed the earth4 ,it is for this reason that geology has been called the science that investigates the history of the earth4 ,the records in which this history is chronicled are the soils and rocks underneath our feet4 ,it is the task of the geologist so to arrange and interpret these records as to show through what successive changes the globe has passed1 and how the dry land came to wear the aspect which it presents at the present time4 ,to do this efficiently the geologist has to learn many things4 ,he has to observe very closely the changes which are going on about him on the world's surface4 ,only in so far as he makes himself acquainted with these sudden changes can he hope to follow intelligently and successfully the story of earlier phases in the earth's progress4 ,nor is it sufficient to observe1 however closely1 inanimate things4 ,if he did not know the peculiarities of fresh-water shells1 how would he be able to say the shells in the marl deposit were fresh-water animals 7and that therefore a lake once lay there7 and not sea shells4 ,if the labour of the geologist were concerned merely with the former changes of the earth's surface--how sea and land have changed places1 how rivers have altered their courses1 how valleys have been dug out1 and how mountains have been carved1 how plains have been spread out1 and how all these things have been written on the framework of the earth--he would still feel one very great want1 the want of living interest4 ,but that also his science gives him1 for in these past eras living things dwelt and moved and had their being4 ,and it is one of the most entrancing pursuits of the geologist to trace their lives1 their descent and ascent1 and the relics of themselves that they left4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,effects ,,of ,,weather ,,on ,,the ,,earth',s ,,history ,the same causes that produced the layers of peat or sand1 or limestone1 or clay1 which we find by examination of the earth's surface1 are acting to-day4 ,coal is forming now2 and so is limestone2 and so is sandstone2 so even is granite4 ,but these layers or strata form very slowly1 so that since man has kept historical records the thickness of new strata laid down could be measured in inches4 ,consequently we are only able to see the beginnings of the processes4 ,after the materials were laid down by water or the shifting winds1 or by the decay of other materials already in position1 they underwent various changes4 ,for example1 many layers1 instead of consisting of loose materials such as gravel1 sand1 or mud1 are now hard stone4 ,sometimes this consolidation has been the result of pressure4 ,as bed was piled over bed those at the bottom would be more and more compressed by the increasing weight of those laid down upon them2 the water would be squeezed out2 the particles would stick closer together4 ,mud1 for example1 might thus turn into clay2 and clay1 pressed harder and harder1 might be converted into mudstone or shale4 ,but there is another agency at work4 ,we have all seen mortar hardening and binding bricks together2 or cement hardening into concrete4 ,similarly sedimentary deposits are bound together by cements1 of which there are many which exist naturally4 ,for example1 silica is a natural cement2 and so is carbonate of lime2 and so is peroxide of iron4 ,all these will bind other particles together4 ,but how do they arrive at the layers of particles8 ,by the same action which lays down the particles themselves4 ,they are rubbed off the places where they exist by the wind or by water4 ,perhaps they were laid down among the deposited particles of mud or sand4 ,perhaps they were brought to them by streams or rivers or lakes1 and sank with the water into them4 ,in a red sandstone1 for example1 the quartz grains of the rock may be often observed to be coated with earthy iron peroxide1 which serves to bind them together into a rather hard stone4 ,on the other hand1 the process is often being reversed4 ,the weather frequently conspires by frost and wind and rain to remove the binding cement1 and thereby to allow the stone to return to its original condition of loose sediment4 ,illustration3 ,one of the ,colossal ,natural ,bridges of ,utah ,this is an instance in which water has hollowed out the lower strata1 leaving a harder upper stratum partially intact4 ,for millions of years the winds have blown over the surface of the earth1 the rain has fallen on it1 the sun heated it by day1 the frost cracked it4 ,consider the winds that have circled the earth4 ,all movements of the air are due in the first place to the sun which heats the atmosphere and causes it to expand4 ,the sun's rays passing through the air do not heat it at once1 or directly1 but heat the land and the sea1 which absorb some of the rays and reflect others and so warm the air in contact with them4 ,but1 as will readily be understood1 the land and the sea do not absorb and reflect the heat rays in the same way or to the same extent2 nor do the sun's rays fall equally or constantly on all portions of the earth's surface4 ,so that from various causes one part of the earth is always being warmed in a different way from other parts1 and the air above the earth is being warmed in an immeasurable number of different ways4 ,even if the earth's surface were all water or all land1 we should expect therefore that there would be movements of the air due to unequal heating4 ,if1 however1 the earth's surface were quite even and uniform1 we should expect that there would be a certain evenness and uniformity about the movements of the air4 ,these movements would be due partly to the regular heating and regular cooling of the surface1 and partly due to the fact that the earth is spinning round taking the air with it--but not taking it quite evenly4 ,the air does not fit tightly on to the earth4 ,it is rather like a loose1 baggy envelope with a tendency to slip as the earth moves round4 ,furthermore1 a point situated on the ,equator has much farther to travel in twenty-four hours as the earth spins round than a point situated in the ,arctic ,circle1 where a tape measure placed along one of the parallels of latitude 7let us say the eighty-sixth parallel1 where ,nansen turned back in his search for the ,pole7 would show the earth's girth there to be1 not twenty-four thousand miles1 but only so many hundreds4 ,this also would make a difference in the way the air would be whirled round the earth2 but we could take this point into consideration1 and should be able1 if1 as we have said1 our earth were quite uniform1 to say always and at all times of the year in what direction the prevailing wind should blow4 ,even with all the earth's irregularities we do know a good deal with certainty about the earth's prevailing winds3 the trades2 the anti-trades2 the south-west monsoon1 which sets in so regularly in ,india that year by year its advent hardly varies by more than a day2 and1 in the descending scale of regularity1 the east winds that usually sweep ,england in ,march1 and the prevailing south-westerly to westerly winds which bend most of the young trees of the country a little to the north-east4 ,besides these regularly or irregularly defined winds1 there are certain paths along the earth's surface where the winds always move like a trout stream with eddies in it4 ,these eddies of the air we call cyclones1 and they are continually travelling in one direction4 ,no doubt they arise from the air in one place becoming hotter or moister than in the surrounding regions4 ,as the air grows hotter it becomes lighter and ascends1 while the heavier air round it pours in4 ,these eddies always travel eastwards and incline in the northern hemisphere towards the north4 ,they usually originate somewhere on the ,north ,american continent1 and move across the ,atlantic about the pace of a slow railway train1 winds whirling round them all the time at a much greater pace4 ,usually the centres of these eddies bear northward past the north coast of ,scotland to the north-west of ,norway4 ,sometimes1 however1 they take a more southerly course1 keeping to the south of the ,british ,isles and passing over ,central ,europe on to ,siberia1 where they appear to die away4 ,such are the cyclones which are in the main part responsible for ,british weather2 and the winds that accompany them vary a great deal in strength4 ,they depend on the size of the eddy4 ,if the eddy is a very big one 7and sometimes the eddies are thousands of miles across7 the winds will not be so strong as in the smaller ones4 ,it is1 therefore1 the smaller ones which cause the violent storms4 ,in the tropical regions whirling eddies of a rather different character occur4 ,to quote ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,n4 ,stephenson3 ,instead of being measured by some hundreds or even thousands of miles1 they are usually only some hundreds of yards across2 and as we found that the smaller the cyclone the more violent the wind1 we shall not be surprised that the wind in these is more violent than anything we ever experience in this part of the world4 ,they are called by many different names2 in the ,west ,indies they are known as hurricanes1 in the south-east of ,asia as typhoons1 and in ,north ,america as tornadoes4 ,these hurricanes or tornadoes travel much faster than the larger cyclones1 and the winds blowing into them are so violent that everything--trees1 houses1 bridges--are swept before them1 and so strong is the in-draught of air in the centre that strong walls are sucked in just as a piece of paper is in front of a grate when the fire begins to blaze up2 and even heavy metal objects are carried upwards4 ,fortunately these tornadoes do not travel continuously along the ground but bump along it1 so to speak1 sometimes passing harmlessly overhead1 then striking the earth again and causing more havoc4 ,where they pass over the surface of the sea the water is sometimes sucked in just in the same way1 causing what is known as a waterspout4 ,these may do even more damage than a tornado on land1 for the water is sometimes carried bodily on to the land1 sweeping everything away in a deluge4 ,this happened many years ago in the delta of the ,ganges1 when thousands of people perished4 ,now let us see how these winds might leave traces in the geological record4 ,when soil is exposed to the sun its surface becomes dust1 and the wind carries it off4 ,even where turf protects the surface1 bare places may always be found whence this covering has been removed4 ,rabbits and moles bring up the earth to the surface2 the earthworms sometimes bring as much as ten tons of earth to the surface of a single acre of turf in the course of a year4 ,the earthworms bring up only the finest particles of mould2 and these1 of course1 are the very particles readily converted into dust and borne away by the wind if they are not washed away by rain4 ,in tropical countries the white ant conveys a prodigious amount of fine earth up into the open air1 building walls sometimes sixty feet high4 ,although1 therefore1 the layer of vegetable soil which covers the land appears to be a permanent protection1 it does not really prevent a large amount of material from being removed even from grassy ground4 ,the wind carries this fine dust far and wide over the land1 and over the sea as well4 ,after the eruption of the island of ,krakatoa in #ahhc1 the dust which was the product of that mighty explosion was carried round the world1 and even in ,england we saw the dust particles furnishing extraordinary colours in sunset skies4 ,illustration3 ,stereo ,copyright1 ,underwood ,u4 ,london and ,new ,york ,the ,garden of the ,gods1 ,colorado ,these peaks exhibit the gradual wearing away of hard rocks by the action of rain and wind4 ,in dry countries1 especially in the large tracts of ,central ,asia and of ,africa1 the air is often so thick with a fine yellow dust that the sun's light struggles through it as through a ,london fog4 ,the dust settles on everything1 and after many centuries a deposit1 which may be hundreds of feet deep1 is thus accumulated on the surface of the land4 ,some of the ancient cities of the old world1 ,nineveh and ,babylon for example1 after being long abandoned by man1 have gradually been buried under the fine soil which the wind blew over them4 ,even in ,england the ,roman town of ,silchester1 not far from ,reading1 after falling into decay when its inhabitants left it1 has been buried under the accumulations of two thousand years1 and its walls and floors now lie underground and have to be carefully unearthed in order to lay them bare4 ,but we need not seek these exceptional cases in order to perceive what the wind is doing with sand and the fine dust of the earth's uppermost layers4 ,at many places round the coast are sand-dunes4 ,on sandy shores1 exposed to the winds that blow off the sea1 the sand is dried and carried away from the beach1 gathering into long mounds or ridges which run parallel to the coast-line4 ,these ridges are often fifty or sixty feet1 sometimes even more than #bej feet high1 with deep troughs and irregular hollows between them1 and they sometimes form a strip several miles broad bordering the sea4 ,these sand-hills creep farther inland1 till their progress is stopped by the fields or woods they encounter1 or till1 by seeds finding a root1 vegetation springs up on them and they harden and consolidate under the influence of their own vegetation and move inland no farther4 ,but in many parts of ,western ,europe and ,eastern ,america the dunes are marching inland at the rate of twenty feet a year4 ,off the coast of ,friesland and ,north ,germany the danger has grown so threatening that scientific attention has been given to the problem2 and the ,german scientific men have employed ingenious devices of planting wind-stakes--something like the wooden breakwaters that are to be found along every seaside beach1 but arranged at different angles1--of forcing the sand-dune to heap itself up so as to form an obstruction to further arrivals2 or of sowing those plants in the sand that will bind its particles together1 in order to preserve the land from further invasion4 ,illustration3 ,stereo ,copyright1 ,underwood ,u4 ,london and ,new ,york ,a ,curious ,rock greatly revered by the ,natives ,this is the ,dance ,rock of the ,walpi ,indians of ,arizona4 ,its curious shape is the result of weathering4 ,what goes on along the coast finds a parallel in the interior of continents where1 as in ,arizona1 in ,america1 or by the desert of ,gobi1 in ,asia1 or in the ,karroo of ,south ,africa1 or in ,central ,australia and ,africa1 there is great dryness of climate and a continual disintegration of the surface rocks4 ,sometimes the dust or sand remains and gradually consolidates or hardens4 ,more often it is only a temporary visitor4 ,wind and rain are continually removing it1 sometimes in vast quantities1 into the sea2 and in the course of time the most astounding changes are wrought in the surface and appearance of the land4 ,the softer rocks are worn down2 the harder ones are left sticking out4 ,gradually the surface is carved out into heights and hollows4 ,the harder rocks become the hills and ridges2 the softer rocks are worn into valleys and plains4 ,if there were no water left on the earth's surface a great deal of this process would still go on4 ,in some respects it might become more violent1 for owing to the absence of moisture the winds of the earth would always be laden with fine particles2 and every one who has seen a sand-blast at work1 or even the modified sand-blast which is sometimes used for cleaning the stonework of some of our cities1 will appreciate what a tornado laden with sand grains might do in the way of destroying the surface of any rock on which it was playing4 ,but1 as a matter of fact1 the action of water in carving the surface of the earth is the most important of all the factors we have at present to consider4 ,as rain falls from the clouds it absorbs the gases of the air1 including oxygen and carbonic acid4 ,now both these are what we call corroding agents4 ,if water is allowed to fall on a steel knife the knife rusts2 but it has been shown by ,dr4 ,gerald ,moody1 during the last few years1 that if there were no acid gas present1 the rusting would not take place4 ,oxygen and carbonic acid will rust other things beside metal2 they will rust stone4 ,moreover1 when the rain reaches the earth it absorbs any other acids of the soil which rotting vegetation may afford1 and reinforced by these it goes on to attack the stones over which it flows4 ,when it rolls along as a brook or a river it is no doubt attacking in this way the rocks and stones of its channel1 though this action is not very strikingly shown4 ,but sometimes the rusting or dissolving action of water is very evident4 ,when it issues from a peat bog1 for example1 and is consequently highly charged with acid1 it will make a very great impression on any limestones it may encounter2 for as any schoolboy knows who has ever put a piece of chalk in vinegar1 or in any of the stronger acids of the school laboratory1 all the limestones are peculiarly susceptible to this form of chemical attack4 ,peat-water eats into limestone rapidly1 while the limestone above the stream escapes1 though it is a little 7and much more slowly7 dissolved by rain4 ,hence arise some curious features in the scenery of limestone districts4 ,the walls of limestone above the water are not eaten away so fast as their base over which the water flows4 ,consequently they are undermined and are sometimes cut into tunnels and caverns and caves4 ,the rivers carry away the dissolved material4 ,the carbonate of lime is taken to the sea2 and this substance1 of which sea shells1 for example1 are principally formed1 is constantly supplied to the sea by the rivers that transport it from the land4 ,the rivers of ,western ,europe have been known to convey one part of dissolved mineral matter in every #ejjj parts of water1 and of this mineral matter one half is carbonate of lime4 ,the ,rhine alone bears enough carbonate of lime to the sea every year to make #ccb1jjj1jjj1jjj oyster shells of the usual size4 ,the ,thames conveys #ahj1jjj tons of sulphate of lime past ,london every year4 ,it has been computed that more than #h1jjj1jjj tons of dissolved mineral matter are removed from the rocks of ,england and ,wales in one year4 ,that is equivalent to a general lowering of the surface of the country1 by chemical solution alone1 at the rate of one foot in #ac1jjj years4 ,that is not much1 it may seem2 but in a million years1 which is not a long period in geological time1 half the present towns of ,england would be sunk under water by this cause alone4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,records ,,left ,,by ,,rivers ,when we come to examine more closely the work which rivers do in removing mineral substances from the land by washing particles of them from the surface1 we find that the records they leave in geological history must be plainly marked4 ,every stream1 large or small1 is always busy carrying mud1 sand1 or gravel4 ,rivers are the navvies of geology4 ,when they are swollen by rain they sweep large stones away with them4 ,if we look at the bed of a mountain torrent we shall often see huge blocks of stone that have fallen from the cliffs on either side blocking the pathway of the stream4 ,to all appearance the stream is quite powerless to remove these blocks1 and has to circumnavigate them4 ,but visit such a torrent when the snows are melting1 or heavy rain has fallen1 and you will hear the stones knocking against each other or on the rocky bottom as they are driven downwards by the flood4 ,it is not easy to estimate the driving power of water4 ,m4 ,gustave le ,bon has furnished an illustration of its power which is very curious4 ,in the south of ,france a stream is led downwards from the mountains to drive the turbine of some machinery at a manufactory4 ,it comes down several thousand feet4 ,in the manufactory there is a vent-hole1 out of which the water can be allowed to shoot4 ,the vent-hole is about an inch in diameter2 and the water rushes out with such swiftness and force that the water-jet becomes as rigid as steel4 ,it is impossible to cut through this water-jet2 and if any one were to try to do so with a sword1 the sword might break but it could never pierce or pass through those swiftly moving particles of water4 ,a more commonplace illustration is the use that is sometimes made of water-jets to break up the surfaces of rock in quarries2 nor must it be forgotten that horse-power of great value and extent for electric lighting and other purposes is always being drawn from waterfalls4 ,thus as a mechanical force merely the river can be immensely powerful2 and must leave marks of its power on the rocks4 ,the aspect of its force with which we are1 however1 most concerned is that which is directed to lowering gradually the surface of the land4 ,in the last chapter we showed how much mineral might be dissolved in the waters of rivers4 ,if we are to include also the amount of mud1 sand1 and other things classed altogether as silt which a river carries down1 the figures become much more imposing4 ,sir ,archibald ,geikie says that1 taking the ,mississippi as a typical river 7it is as good an example as would be found1 because in its great length it passes through many different kinds of land1 soil1 and climate71 we may assume that the average amount of sediment carried down by a river is one part of sediment to every #aejj parts of water4 ,if now1 says he1 we assume that all over the world this is the amount carried down1 we can see how seriously the level of the land is lowered by rivers4 ,the ,mississippi carries from the land it drains every year the #a_/fjjjth part of a foot of rock4 ,if we take the general height of the land of the whole globe to be #bajj feet1 and suppose it to be continuously wasted at this rate1 then the whole dry land would be carried into the sea in #ab1fjj1jjj years4 ,or if we assume the average height of the continent of ,europe to be #idj feet1 and to be lowered by its rivers at the same rate1 then the last vestige of ,europe would have disappeared in #h1fdj1jjj years4 ,such figures are of course not exact2 and it must always be remembered that the rivers are merely robbing ,peter to pay ,paul1 and whatever they take away are always putting somewhere else1 but we may learn from the foregoing considerations that the lowering of the land is much more rapid than is sometimes supposed4 ,another thing about the excavating work of rivers has to be remembered4 ,the torrents carry sand1 shingle1 and rock with them1 and these very materials act as agents of destruction on the beds of the water-courses4 ,if we want to polish brass or steel we mix emery powder 7or something finer or coarser7 with the polishing liquid4 ,the torrent or river uses sand or shingle as its polishing powder4 ,it then wears out the rock over which it travels1 and sometimes carves it into holes or caverns1 gorges or ravines4 ,sometimes the process is varied1 as when a stream finds its way over a hard rock which overlies a softer rock4 ,if the arrangement is like that of a series of steps 7there may be only one or two steps7 it is possible for the river as it foams in a waterfall over the hard step at the top to eat its way into the lower softer step4 ,the lower softer step will gradually disappear1 and then the waterfall1 still eating its way in1 will begin to undermine the hard top step1 and when that has gone on long enough the hard top step will fall down and the waterfall will have to begin a little farther up the stream4 ,in this way a waterfall1 gorge1 or ravine can be constructed by a river4 ,illustration3 ,stereo ,copyright1 ,underwood ,u4 ,london and ,new ,york ,the ,grand ,caon of ,arizona ,the ,colorado ,river at this point is nearly #bjj feet wide4 ,the man is seated about #abjj feet above the river's level4 ,this whole caon up to the top of the mountains in the distance has been worn away by prehistoric current2 and the river has gradually cut its bed deeper4 ,the ,falls of ,niagara are an illustration of this method4 ,the river flows from ,lake ,erie through a level country for a few miles1 then begins to go faster as the path becomes steeper1 and finally plunges over a hard limestone precipice4 ,beneath the hard limestone 7the top step7 are softer beds of shale and sandstone4 ,as the water eats into them and removes them1 large portions of the face of the limestone precipice on the top fall into the stream below4 ,thus gradually the ,falls of ,niagara are eating their way back to ,lake ,erie1 and have been doing so for hundreds of thousands of years4 ,in the process of doing so the ,niagara ,river has cut out below the ,falls a gorge which is not less than seven miles long1 from two hundred to four hundred yards wide1 and from two hundred to three hundred feet deep4 ,there is no reason to doubt that the ,niagara gorge has been entirely cut out in this way1 and that at first the river fell over cliffs seven miles farther down its course at ,queenstown4 ,the amount of rock thus tunnelled would make a rampart about twelve feet high and six feet thick going round the world at the ,equator4 ,still more gigantic are the gorges or caverns of the ,colorado and its tributaries in ,western ,america4 ,the ,grand ,caon of the ,colorado is three hundred miles long1 and in some places more than six thousand feet deep4 ,the country traversed by it is a network of deep ravines1 at the bottom of which flow the streams that have dug themselves down from the top of the ,colorado tableland4 ,now suppose that the river has dug itself in as far as it can go4 ,there must be a limit1 and the limit is reached when the slope of the bed has been made so slight that the current can only go on languidly4 ,in that case it cannot sweep along stones1 or shingle1 or even coarse gravel2 and then the river so far from deepening its channel begins to raise it by allowing more of the transported sediment to settle down4 ,if a fast stream meets a slower one deposition of material will take place2 and the same thing will occur when the rivers meet a lake or a sea4 ,whatever checks the swiftness of a current weakens its carrying power and causes it to drop some of its sediment to the bottom4 ,therefore accumulations of sediment occur at the foot of torrent slopes along the lower and more level ground4 ,these deposits we call alluvium1 and sometimes when the mountain torrent ends abruptly in the plain they may stand up in cones of silt4 ,they are sometimes called alluvium cones or fans4 ,quitting the steep descents1 and reinforced by tributaries on either side1 the stream ceases to be a torrent and becomes a river4 ,it goes fast enough at first to carry still coarse gravel2 but the big angular blocks of rock have been dropped1 and the stones it now leaves in its bed are smaller1 and become rounded and smoothed as it goes farther and farther across the plain4 ,at many places it deposits gravel or sand1 more especially at the inner side of the curves which the stream makes as it winds down the valley4 ,when the stream runs low in summer1 strips of bare sand and shingle are seen at each of these bends2 and the stones are always well smoothed and lie on the whole regularly4 ,those that are oblong are so placed that the greater length of the stone points across the stream2 those that are flat usually slope upstream4 ,these facts1 though apparently insignificant1 are really of importance1 because they point to us a method by which geology can determine1 after a river has disappeared1 the slope of the bed and the direction of the curves which once it had4 ,if we examine the steep banks or cliffs by the side of a river the layers of gravel or shingle in the strata may be found to lie not flat on one another but in sloping planes4 ,that at once will furnish a clue to the direction of the river4 ,another thing of great importance are the terraces which a river forms by the side of itself4 ,when it overflows in floods it deposits mud on either side1 and when after the flood it subsides the mud is left4 ,if the reader will imagine the river in the course of ages sinking lower into its bed he will see that successive eras of flood-levels will leave their mark in a series of steps1 or river terraces as they are called1 on either side of the channel4 ,but besides the stones and gravel and mud carried down by a river1 we must also consider the fate of the remains of plants and animals that are swept along by it1 especially in flood-time4 ,in any ordinary flood trees and shrubs1 and the smaller animals like mice and moles and rabbits1 are drowned by the flood4 ,in greater floods birds and even large animals are drowned1 and their remains are buried in the sediment4 ,if they are quite covered over they may perhaps be preserved1 and their bones may last for an indefinite period4 ,if1 further1 the mud deposit hardens1 these remains may be preserved so well and so long that they become the fossil records of creatures which lived before man emerged to dwell in the world and to become the arbiter of many of its destinies4 ,what we have said of rivers is true also of lakes4 ,rivers pour into lakes1 bringing with them1 especially in flood-time1 enormous freights of gravel1 sand1 and mud1 and mingled with them the remains of vegetation and of animal life4 ,hundreds of thousands of tons may be swept down by one storm4 ,to the ,lake of ,lucerne1 for example1 the ,river ,reuss1 which comes down from the ,st4 ,gothard1 brings seven million cubic feet of sediment every year with it4 ,since the time of the ,romans the ,rhone has so filled up part of the ,lake of ,geneva that the ,roman harbour1 ,port ,valais1 is now nearly two miles from the edge of the lake4 ,the ground between it and the ,lake first became marsh4 ,it is now farm land4 ,and though these accumulations are most marked where the rivers drain into the lake1 there are deposits always taking place from the hills all round the lake4 ,thus lake bottoms become most interesting and valuable receptacles of the life that has for ages lived by or near their shores4 ,these deposits are in many ways peculiar4 ,the snails that live in lake waters are distinct from the land snails of the adjoining shores4 ,their dead shells gather at the bottom of some lakes in such numbers as to form there a deposit of white crumbling marl1 sometimes many yards in thickness4 ,on the sites of lakes that have been gradually filled up1 or artificially drained1 this marl shows at once where the lake borders were1 and1 roughly1 the period of the lake4 ,in some lakes also are found concretions of iron-oxide1 which are formed by the chemical action of the water on some of the rocks by the lake-side2 and in several ,swedish lakes this ironstone forms so fast that the lakes are regularly dredged for it4 ,illustration3 ,stereo ,copyright1 ,underwood ,u4 ,london and ,new ,york ,cleopatra ,terrace1 with its ,mirror-like ,pools1 ,yellowstone ,park1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,these beautiful basins are formed of incrustations of volcanic limestone4 ,they are of all colours3 pink1 orange-yellow1 green1 and blue4 ,the water in them is of a brilliant blue1 caused by the growth of water plants 7alg71 which live in water with as high a temperature as #aej ,f4 ,thus among the rocks which form the dry lands of the globe there occur masses of limestone1 sand1 marl1 and other materials which we know were deposited in lakes1 because they contain types of plants and animals like those found in the lakes of our own time4 ,from this kind of evidence we can mark out the places of great lakes that have long ago vanished from the face of ,europe and ,north ,america4 ,there are also the so-called ,salt ,lakes to consider4 ,these are generally the lakes that have no outlet and into which a small amount of water now flows1 but never enough to cause the lake now to overflow1 whatever it may have done in past times4 ,the water that now runs in escapes merely by evaporation4 ,but just as the bottom of a kettle in which hard water is constantly boiled gradually becomes furred1 so a lake bottom into which water is continually pouring1 bringing dissolved in it all sorts of mineral salts1 becomes coated with sediment4 ,the mineral salts are not evaporated1 consequently the lakes become gradually more mineral--or1 for convenience1 let us say1 become salter4 ,among the mineral salts common salt and gypsum are most important2 but some bitter lakes contain sodium carbonate or magnesium chloride4 ,the ,dead ,sea and the ,great ,salt ,lake of ,utah show by the deposits round them how they have changed their shape and depth4 ,in the upper terraces of the ,great ,salt ,lake1 #ajjj feet above the present level of the water1 fresh-water shells occur1 showing that the basin was at first fresh4 ,the valley bottoms around salt lakes are now crusted with gypsum1 salt1 or other deposits1 and their waters are without sign of life4 ,such conditions help us to understand how great deposits of salt or gypsum were once laid down in ,england1 ,poland1 and ,germany1 and in many other places where now the climate would not permit of the necessary evaporation and condensation of the water4 ,illustration3 ,stereo ,copyright1 ,underwood ,u4 ,london and ,new ,york ,a ,petrified ,tree ,this magnificent fossil is in the ,petrified ,forest of ,arizona2 and it affords one of the most striking examples known of the solidification and petrifaction of material by the infiltration of mineral salts4 ,the trunk is now not merely encrusted with stone3 it is permeated by silica1 and is1 in fact1 itself a stone as hard as flint4 ,,chapter ,v ,,records ,,left ,,by ,,the ,,sea ,we have already spoken of the story which the sea writes in the annals of geology4 ,it is a story with two plots4 ,in the first place1 the sea is always wearing away the land4 ,in the second place1 it is arranging on its own bed the materials which it takes from the land1 either directly or indirectly4 ,as a sequel to both stories1 the materials all neatly ranged1 packed1 and folded are revealed when the sea subsides from them1 or when1 in process of one of those great geological changes1 the origin of which we have already attempted to account for1 the sea bottom is raised to become the land of a continent4 ,the first part of the sea's belligerent story is written so plainly for all eyes to see that one scarcely need dwell on it4 ,every strip of coast around these islands bears witness to it4 ,off ,shetland masses of rock twelve or thirteen tons in weight have been cut out from the cliff seventy feet above the smooth-water level4 ,the sea's battering-rams are the masses of shingle1 gravel1 and loose blocks of stone which it carries with it2 but it has subtler methods in the corrosive action of its salts1 for just as it rusts or wears away iron1 so its salts and acids must eat their way into many rocks4 ,but1 after all1 the coast-line of the world is a small fraction of the whole land surface of the globe2 and a smaller fraction of the sea's own wide area4 ,on that area are flung all the records and treasures which the sea has wrested from the land4 ,the rivers1 as we have already several times repeated1 are the chief carriers of deposits to the sea4 ,by their deltas they may be known4 ,the deltas of the ,ganges and ,brahmaputra cover an area as large as that of ,england and ,wales4 ,the delta has been bored through to a depth of nearly five hundred feet1 and has been found to consist of numerous alternations of fine clays1 marls1 and sands or sandstones1 with occasional layers of gravel4 ,in all this accumulation of sediment there are no traces of marine animals2 but land plants and the plants and animals of the river and of the surrounding land have been discovered in quantity4 ,the sea most often destroys land2 but it sometimes deposits beaches2 and1 we might almost say1 silts up the land4 ,at ,romney ,marsh1 for example1 a tract of eighty square miles which was marsh in ,julius ,csar's time is now dry land1 and has become so partly by the natural increase of shingle thrown up by the waves4 ,the coarsest shingle usually accumulates towards the upper part of the beach1 and the rest arranges itself generally according to size and weight1 that which is finest being nearest to low-water mark4 ,it is often long before the stuff brought down by the rivers settles on the floor of the ocean4 ,the finer particles may be carried out to sea for three hundred miles or more before they settle4 ,within this three-hundred-mile zone the land-derived materials are distributed over the floor in orderly succession4 ,nearer the land we shall find coarse gravel and sand4 ,beyond there will be tracts of finer sand and silt1 with patches of gravel here and there4 ,still farther off will come fine blue and green muds1 which are made of the tiny particles of such materials as form the ordinary rocks of the land4 ,but when we are once past this zone of land material we come upon deposits which are the ocean's own freehold--materials which it does not derive from the continents1 but which may be called oceanic in origin4 ,first there are vast sheets of exceedingly fine red and brown clay4 ,whence comes it8 ,it is by far the most common deposit in all the deeper parts of the ocean4 ,it may either be the dust of volcanic fragments washed away from volcanic islands1 or 7which is much more likely7 it may be supplied by eruptions under the sea4 ,for it must be remembered that the sea floor is two to five miles nearer the hot rocks that are in the interior of the earth than the land surface is1 and that consequently the water coming into contact with them may cause explosions arising from the action of steam4 ,this is a question we shall have to consider later1 and for the present we must ask the reader to accept the fact--and read on4 ,there is one very curious thing about this red clay1 and it is that the accumulations of it appear to be built up very slowly4 ,where it occurs farthest from land great numbers of sharks' teeth with ear bones and other bones of whales have been dredged up from it4 ,some of these relics are quite fresh2 others are coated with a crust of brown peroxide of manganese4 ,some are covered with this material and hidden in it4 ,one haul of an ocean dredge will bring up the bones in all these states1 so that they must be lying side by side4 ,the bones are probably those of many generations of animals1 and it must take a long time to cover them with the manganese deposit4 ,but the clay is deposited even more slowly than the manganese1 so that it must fall very slowly indeed4 ,but besides these things the bottom of the sea receives deposits of the remains of all kinds of shells1 corals1 and all sorts of marine creatures1 great and small4 ,as the countless myriads of the animals of the sea die1 the shells with which they are covered1 or the bones which form their framework1 fall continually to the bottom of the oceanic gulfs in which they dwell4 ,then the ocean floor is covered with the remains of tiny animals incomparably more numerous than the stars of the sky2 and this grey slimy ooze of organic matter hardens by pressure into sedimentary rock4 ,in the course of ages1 when the slow decline of the water lays it bare1 it may become part of the land on which men dwell4 ,but it is always forming1 has always been forming1 since life first appeared on the earth4 ,it is on this ocean floor that man to-day lays his telegraph cables4 ,mr4 ,rudyard ,kipling1 in his verses ,the ,deep ,sea ,cables1 has drawn a vivid picture of the bed of the deep ocean3-- ,the wrecks dissolve above us3 their dust drops down from afar-- ,down to the dark1 to the utter dark where the blind white sea-snakes are4 ,there is no sound1 no echo of sound1 in the deserts of the deep1 ,on the great grey level plains of ooze1 where the shell-burred cables creep4 ,it is in these silent depths that for uncounted and innumerable years the crust of the earth has been forming and has been growing outwards1 while it has been slowly hardening inwards above the fires of its unplumbed interior4 ,it has been calculated that in a square mile of the ocean down to a depth of one hundred fathoms there exist more than sixteen tons of carbonate of lime in the form of the bones or shells of living animals4 ,a continual fine snow-storm of dead chalky animals is therefore falling on to the bottom4 ,here and there1 especially among volcanic islands1 portions of the sea-bed have been raised up into land and masses of modern limestone4 ,though these rocks are full of the same kinds of shells as are still living in the neighbouring sea1 they have been cemented into hard rock4 ,this cementing is due to the water which has penetrated and permeated the stone1 dissolving chalky matter from the outside shells1 and depositing it once more lower down and farther in1 like a fine mortar1 so as to bind the mass together4 ,every one has heard of coral reefs4 ,they are one of the best and most familiar examples of the way in which great masses of solid rock can be built up by the dead bodies of animals4 ,in the warmer seas of the earth1 and notably in the track of the great ocean currents1 various kinds of coral polyps1 as they are called1 take root on the edges and summits of submerged rocks and peaks1 as well as on the shelving shores of islands4 ,the coral polyp is a jelly-like creature1 but it has a hard chalky skeleton inside its transparent body4 ,it is a great colonist1 with no liking for a solitary life1 but with1 on the contrary1 a great fancy for its neighbours2 in fact1 the polyps grow and thrive in clumps1 and the clumps unite to form communities1 and the communities increase to colonies and nations1 till they unite to form what is called a reef4 ,the coral polyps are rather exigent in the choice of their residential neighbourhoods4 ,they cannot live at a greater depth than fifteen or twenty fathoms1 and in defiance of the inclinations which rule human beings1 they have the strongest distaste for sun and air2 in fact1 they die when exposed to it4 ,now when the polyp dies its skeleton remains behind it1 and millions upon millions of these coral skeletons make a layer of coral4 ,these layers of coral gradually lift the generations of polyps upwards to the surface of the water4 ,but as we have seen1 the living polyps die when they get so far1 and consequently the reef then spreads outwards4 ,on the outer edges of the reef the coral polyps flourish in the most vigorous way4 ,there they are as completely provided for as in a ,county ,council ,utopia4 ,the breakers bring them the food on which they live2 the water and the climate suit them exactly4 ,the only blot on their lives are the occasional storms which break off fragments of the coral foundation on which they live4 ,but even this1 while it is disastrous to the individual polyp1 is for the good of the community1 because these blocks as they roll down form a new foundation on which new generations of polyps can grow and feed4 ,moreover1 it is better for the polyp to take the risks of these evictions than to vegetate inside the reef1 for there in the calmer water he will not have enough to eat1 and will dwindle and die4 ,thus the tendency of all reefs must be to grow seawards1 and to increase in breadth4 ,perhaps their breadth may tell us roughly how old they are4 ,but there is another possibility to be taken into consideration1 which is that while the polyps are building the sea bottom or island foundation may be slowly sinking4 ,in that case it is quite likely that the coral builders might just keep pace with the subsiding foundations of their home1 and build up a great thickness of coral rock during the countless years of change4 ,sir ,archibald ,geikie has called attention to the swiftness with which the structure of the coral polyp's skeleton is effaced from the foundation and a compact mass of rock put in its place4 ,the sea-water's chemical and dissolving action1 and the vast amount of mud and sand produced by the breakers are chiefly responsible for this4 ,as the rock is being formed it is always being cemented4 ,on the portion of a reef laid dry at low water1 the coral rock looks in many places as solid and old as some of the ancient white limestones and marbles of the land4 ,in pools where a current of water keeps the grains of coral sand in motion1 each grain may be seen to be rounded4 ,this is because on each particle of coral the dissolved carbonate of lime in the water is always being deposited 7like the sediment in the bottom of a kettle74 ,a mass of these rounded or egg-like grains all gathered together in a lump is called oolite1 from the ,greek word oon 7,latin ovum71 an egg4 ,in many limestones1 now forming parts of agricultural land1 this oolitic structure is strikingly shown1 and there can be no doubt that in such cases it was produced just as now coral reefs are being formed before our eyes4 ,in the coral tracts of the ,pacific ,ocean there are nearly three hundred coral islands1 besides extensive reefs round volcanic islands4 ,others occur in the ,indian ,ocean4 ,coral reefs abound in the ,west ,indian seas1 where in many of the islands they have been upraised into dry land--in ,cuba to a height of #aajj feet above the sea-level4 ,the ,great ,barrier ,reef that fronts the north-eastern coast of ,australia is #abej miles long and from ten to ninety miles broad4 ,it will thus be seen that1 apart from any other consideration1 the animals of past ages leave permanent records of their existence merely by the accumulation of their dead bodies4 ,nevertheless1 alike on land and on sea1 the proportions of organic remains thus sealed and preserved is only a small part of the total population of plants and animals living at any given time4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,cold ,,and ,,ice ,,on ,,the ,,earth ,the astronomers who look at the planet ,mars tell us that at the ,northern and ,southern ,poles there are great areas of snow1 very much greater than the arctic regions of the earth1 for the south polar area alone occupies #aa1ccj1jjj square miles4 ,but the geological records of the earth show that our own arctic regions once extended very much farther than they do at present1 a fact which need not in any way surprise us1 for as we have already remarked1 snow and ice are very largely a matter of the nearness of the sea to the land4 ,we may put the same thing in another way by saying that winter cold and summer heat depend largely on the distribution of sea and land4 ,thus ,venice1 which is not very much farther from the ,north ,pole than ,vladivostok1 has an altogether different climate1 and inhabitants of the ,shetland ,isles have a very different kind of climatic experience from those who delve by the frozen ,yukon4 ,there is another consideration which is sometimes overlooked4 ,we do not think of the earth as a very warm body4 ,but at its very coldest part1 where the thermometer goes down to seventy or ninety degrees below freezing1 it is several hundreds of degrees warmer than the space outside the earth4 ,midway between the earth and the moon the temperature must be #dcj ,f4 below freezing2 so that if we take the surface of the earth as a whole we may say that it is between four hundred and five hundred degrees warmer than the space by which it is surrounded4 ,every one knows what is happening when he warms his hands at a fire4 ,the fire being hotter than its surroundings is giving out heat towards them1 and the hands catch some of this radiated heat4 ,similarly the earth is radiating heat1 and the atmosphere round the earth catches some of it4 ,so also do the seas4 ,while therefore it is certain that the heat of the sun warms the earth and the air and the sea1 and so gives rise to currents of air and perhaps of water1 so also is it likely that the heat of the earth causes warm air to rise1 and so plays its part in forming the winds1 the currents of air1 and the currents of water4 ,when the earth was warmer than it is now it had more and greater effects in this direction4 ,it caused more evaporation of the water1 more clouds1 and therefore more rain1 and in winter more snow4 ,suppose1 then1 a period when there was very much more snow in winter than now4 ,as the snow accumulated layer on layer the lower part would become squeezed into a mass half ice1 half snow2 and it is quite likely that the heat of the summer sun 7especially if1 as we have supposed1 the atmosphere was much cloudier then than now7 would be unable to dissolve it4 ,thus the snow age would gradually merge into an ice age1 and we can imagine a period when a great deal of ,europe was covered with snow or ice as ,greenland is to-day4 ,what records would it leave behind8 ,now1 on slopes the sheet of snow would tend to slip just as it slips from sloping house-roofs4 ,in doing so it would push before it any loose material which lay in front of it2 and trees or bushes1 stone or soil1 would be gradually pushed downhill4 ,if the slopes were steep enough the snow-sheets would occasionally break off and sweep down as avalanches4 ,sometimes these great masses are many thousands of square yards in area and fifty feet thick1 and in the late winter and early spring often do immense damage1 carrying away houses1 trees1 and great masses of rocks in their progress4 ,they leave their imprint not only in ground swept bare1 but in huge mounds of debris piled up in the valleys below4 ,but when the snow has taken the form of a glacier its record is left in more unmistakable characters4 ,imagine a great mass of snow and ice descending between the clefts of mountains to lower levels4 ,as it slips slowly down its valley1 like a very slow river--slower than a river of thickest mud or pitch or lava would be--earth1 sand1 mud1 gravel1 boulders1 and masses of rock sometimes are washed down on its surface from the slopes on either side4 ,avalanches will occasionally bring other contributions4 ,nearly all this rubbish accumulates on the edges of the glacier nearest the slopes1 and it is slowly borne to the journey's end on the glacier's shoulders4 ,some of it falls into rents or crevasses in the ice1 and may be imprisoned there and carried down as an inside passenger1 or it may reach the rocky floor over which the ice is sliding4 ,its progress then resembles that of the ,irish gentleman who was travelling in a ,sedan chair out of which the seat and the bottom had fallen1 and who said that if 'twere not for the fashion of the thing he'd as lief walk4 ,the rubbish borne onward on the surface of the glacier is known as moraine-stuff1 and the mounds of it at the edge of the glacier are called lateral moraines4 ,where two glaciers unite like two rivers1 their moraines1 right-hand and left-hand1 will join1 and in the new glacier a new moraine will appear running down the middle1 and so called a medial moraine4 ,where a glacier has many tributaries bearing a good deal of moraine-stuff1 its surface may be like a bare plain so covered with stones that the ice beneath can hardly be discerned except here and there4 ,at the end of the glacier where the ice melts1 the heaps of stones1 ever adding to their numbers1 are deposited in heaps1 to which are given the name of the terminal moraine4 ,with such tokens of their existence as this1 glaciers1 as will readily be understood1 leave visiting-cards in history that cannot easily be mistaken4 ,even existing glaciers tell strange stories4 ,nowadays glaciers are carefully measured and examined both in ,switzerland and in ,canada4 ,during the last decade of the nineteenth century and the first decade of the twentieth the ,swiss glaciers were found to show signs of receding farther up their valleys4 ,the same thing has been observed about some of the ,canadian glaciers4 ,there are several plausible reasons for this4 ,professor ,schaeberle says that the earth is growing cooler1 and that in the temperate regions the winter rainfall 7which would turn to falls of snow in the mountains7 is less than it has been4 ,it is certain that a shortage of winter rain over a number of years in succession would account for the shrinkage of the glaciers1 but it is not by any means certain that a number of dry winters will not be followed by wet ones1 in which case the glaciers would increase again4 ,some of the glaciers show that during their existence they have shrunk and lengthened alternately like gutta-percha in a variable climate4 ,how do we know that they have shrunk and lengthened8 ,the moraines of which we have spoken give us the testimony4 ,as a glacier shrinks either in length or in breadth and depth it leaves the blocks of rock at its edges stranded on the sides of the valley4 ,such perched blocks or erratics are the best of glacier marks1 and their great size1 some of them as large as a cheap villa residence1 is such that no current of water could have brought them there4 ,they are often poised on the tops of crags1 on the very edges of precipices1 or on steep slopes1 where they could never have been left by any flood1 even had the flood been able to move them4 ,the only thing that could have carried them must have been a vehicle that moved very1 very slowly and deposited them very1 very gently--in fact1 glacier ice4 ,we can see blocks like this on the glaciers now1 and others stranded at the sides4 ,in the ,swiss valleys the scattered ice-borne boulders may be seen by hundreds far above the glaciers and far beyond the places where the glaciers end4 ,we know they must have been left by glaciers1 and by inference we surmise that when we find a valley filled with them1 then1 though the valley may have no glacier now1 it must have once been occupied by one4 ,these erratic blocks1 now found all over ,europe1 tell us a good deal about the ice on which they were transported4 ,the blocks that fall on the edges of the glacier remain on the side where they descend4 ,hence1 if there is any notable difference in the composition of the rocks on either side of the valley1 the existence of this difference will be preserved in the moraines4 ,if1 therefore1 in a country where the glaciers have disappeared we can trace the scattered blocks up to their sources among the mountains1 we can say what was the track followed by the prehistoric glaciers4 ,in ,europe there are several examples of the uses of this detective evidence4 ,thus the peculiar blocks of the ,valais mountains can be traced right on to ,lyons2 and this shows us that the glacier from which the ,river ,rhone sprang extended once right across the east of ,france to ,lyons1 and probably farther4 ,it was therefore once at least #agj miles longer4 ,similarly1 blocks which are exactly like the characteristic rocks peculiar to ,southern ,scandinavia are found in ,northern ,germany1 ,belgium1 and ,east ,anglia2 and we therefore believe that a great sheet of ice once filled up the ,baltic and the ,german ,ocean1 carrying with it immense numbers of northern erratics4 ,in our own country1 in fact1 glacier boulders are found in nearly every county1 and show that once the greater part of the country was buried under ice4 ,but1 as we have said1 it is not only on its shoulders1 but in its interior and beneath its base that a glacier rolls and pushes its rubbish along4 ,it is not all stones4 ,clay and earth mingle with it1 often enclosing the stones2 and the debris left by extinct glaciers of ages ago is sometimes called the boulder-clay4 ,this is the deposit1 earthy and stony1 that the glacier leaves on the floor of the valley as it shrinks--unless the river which usually springs from the end of glaciers sweeps it away4 ,most of the stones thus left are smoothed or polished and covered with scratches or ruts1 such as would be made by rubbing against other hard pointed fragments of stone4 ,this is to be explained by the fact that these stones as they were carried on by the glacier were rubbed on the floor of rock over which the glacier was slipping4 ,if their journey was long enough1 they stood a chance of being rubbed away altogether and of finishing their existence as sand or mud4 ,what the valley did to the glacier's stones1 the stones did to the valley4 ,they scratched it and scored it4 ,every promontory of rock which stood in the path of the ice had its angles and corners ground away4 ,the polish and the directions of the scratches are especially remarkable1 because1 whether the marks are mere lines or deep-worn ruts1 they are all on smooth surfaces1 and they all run one way4 ,that way is the direction in which the glacier moved4 ,how high a degree of polish or how deep the markings may be depends a good deal on the kind of rock over which the glacier moved4 ,tough1 close-grained rocks1 such as hard limestone1 are sometimes polished to look like marble4 ,but there is a great deal of difference between the smoothing effected by a river or a torrent and that which is produced by a glacier1 because the river tosses the rocks and stones in all directions1 polishes them on every side1 and leaves no distinctive parallel scratches or grooves on them4 ,that can only be done by glaciers which hold the rocks1 the rubbers and the rubbed1 pressed firmly together and grind them continually in the same way4 ,these scratchings or striations of rocks1 the smoothed and grooved surfaces1 and the deposited boulder-clay and boulders enable us to trace the march of great ice-sheets over regions of the earth which are now of totally different aspect4 ,from this kind of evidence we have been able to find that the whole of ,northern ,europe was once buried under a great expanse of snow and ice4 ,the sheet was1 as we should expect1 thickest in the north and west1 and thinned away southward and eastward4 ,over ,scandinavia it was between #fjjj and #gjjj feet in thickness--as we can tell from the scratches on the sides of the high mountains4 ,similar marks #cjjj feet above the sea-level in the ,scottish ,highlands lead us to believe that over ,scotland the glaciers were #ejjj feet thick1 and even as far south as the ,hartz ,mountains in ,germany it could not have been far short of #aejj feet in thickness4 ,imagine this great mass of ice ever slowly moving and ever creeping solemnly down to the sea4 ,by the markings it left we can trace where the greater glaciers slid grandly along4 ,in ,scandinavia it swept westwards to the ,atlantic and eastwards to the ,gulf of ,bothnia1 then frozen as solid as the ,pole4 ,southward the ice ground its way across ,denmark to the ,low ,countries and ,north ,germany4 ,the ,baltic was choked with ice1 and so was the ,north ,sea as far south as ,london4 ,ice in that day flowed in glaciers from the ,british ,isles1 eastwards from ,scotland into the hollow of the ,north ,sea1 and westwards down all the clefts of the mountains1 burying the western isles and breaking off in icebergs that drifted far into the ,atlantic4 ,sir ,archibald ,geikie says that the western margin of the ice-fields from the south-west of ,ireland to the ,north ,cape of ,norway must have presented a vast wall of ice #abjj to #aejj miles long and hundreds of feet high--like that great barrier which the ,antarctic explorers tell us frown on the waters that lap the boundaries of the south polar land4 ,northern ,europe must have been like ,north ,greenland of to-day4 ,the rock scratches tell us 7since even the southern coast of ,ireland is intensely ice-worn7 that the edge of ice must have extended some distance beyond ,cape ,clear1 rising out of the sea with a precipitous front that faced to the south4 ,thence the ice-cliff swung eastwards1 passing probably along the line of the ,british ,channel and keeping to the north of the valley of the ,thames4 ,its southern margin ran across what is now ,holland and skirted the high grounds of ,westphalia1 ,hanover1 and the ,hartz ,mountains--which probably barred its further progress southward4 ,there is evidence that the ice swept round into the lowlands of ,saxony up to the chain of the ,erz1 ,riesen1 and ,sudenten ,mountains1 whence its southern limit turned eastward across ,silesia1 ,poland1 and ,galicia1 and then swung round to the north1 passing across ,russia by way of ,kieff and ,nijni ,novgorod to the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,in ,north ,america there are similar traces of the great ice-sheet1 one of the branches of which streamed southward into the basin of the ,mississippi1 the second moving westward from ,hudson ,bay to the ,rockies1 and southward to ,iowa1 and the third setting out from the great mountain ranges of ,british ,columbia4 ,right across ,north ,america to-day for thousands of miles stretch accumulations and mounds of rock which were pushed forward by the ice1 and were dropped by the glaciers when they reached farthest south4 ,these accumulations are called1 from their origin1 the great terminal moraines of the ,north ,american ,ice ,age4 ,it must not be thought that these great ice-sheets of both hemispheres remained constant in extent and thickness4 ,there were periods of retreat and advance1 of progress and shrinking1 and the shrinkings of these took place on a large scale1 and perhaps lasted for hundreds or thousands of years2 so that mixed with the strata of boulder-clay1 which are the characteristic strata of the glacial periods1 are other strata of sand1 ordinary clay1 and even peat4 ,remains of plants and animals are found in these strata1 showing that sometimes the glaciers retreated so far and for so long that vegetation sprang up and animals lived on the ground that they had covered--in the intervals when the cold of centuries was replaced by other centuries of mild and equable climate4 ,at last1 after many of these swallow-like retreats and advances1 the warmer climate at length came to stay1 and the ice retreated farther and farther to the north4 ,it still remained among the mountains1 so that we might describe the glaciers of the ,alps and of the ,canadian ,rockies as the last relics existing to-day of the great ,ice ,age of the past4 ,the retreat to the ,arctic ,circle left many other relics behind it1 the great lakes1 for example1 like ,winnipeg and ,manitoba1 and the ,great ,salt ,lake of ,utah4 ,all were once mightier sheets1 because during the ,ice ,age their waters were held back4 ,other smaller lakes formed by the dumping-heaps or terminal moraines of the glaciers still exist1 and are especially noticeable in ,finland4 ,during the later stages of the ,ice ,age the level of the land was lower than it is now in ,western ,europe4 ,when the ground began to rise--in slow upheavals with long pauses for rest--it left its impress in raised beaches1 which can be seen on both sides of ,scotland and on the ,norwegian coast4 ,the climate grew gradually milder1 the animals and the plants followed in the train of the retreating ice1 and even the traces of man's existence began to appear4 ,the change was not sudden2 it was so gradual that the ,ice ,age slipped as imperceptibly as its own glaciers into the age in which ,man's activities in ,europe began4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,fire-,,hardened ,,rocks ,so far we have been considering the deposits laid down1 for the most part1 in a leisurely and orderly manner1 by the action of air and water2 by floods1 rivers1 lakes1 the sea1 or by the slow movements of ice4 ,if these1 however1 had been the only agents by which the earth's strata were accumulated1 then it is clear that for the most part these deposits and these strata would lie evenly1 one on top of the other1 like the lines of print on this page4 ,but as a matter of observation the earth's strata do not lie like that4 ,if we were to tear this page out and crumple it up in a ball1 first having torn it in half and shredded a few irregular pieces out of it1 we should get a truer picture of the way in which many of the earth's strata are contorted1 crumpled1 and displaced4 ,they have not been so distorted by the action of the sea1 violent as are some of the sea's assaults on the land2 nor would the heat of the sun at its greatest ever produce such effects4 ,they must have taken place from some causes which arise in the earth itself4 ,these causes can be summed up in one word--fire4 ,some of the strata of which we have spoken1 and which are called sedimentary strata1 although they were composed of soft materials to begin with1 have become very hard since1 in some cases owing to the enormous pressure of the accumulated deposits above them1 in other cases because of chemical action4 ,in a few cases they have become hardened not so much by losing their water1 as by direct heat4 ,but the hardest of them is not so hard as another class of rocks with which we are all acquainted--rocks like granite1 or quartz1 or basalt4 ,and it will be evident to any one who thinks about the subject for a moment that no amount of pressure would make a rock as hard as a diamond4 ,now how have these rocks been made8 ,the answer is that they have been made in some interior furnace of heat deep down in the earth4 ,sometimes they have boiled up1 and we can trace them bursting their way through the sedimentary strata above them4 ,we do not know very much about the furnaces or cauldrons whence they have come2 in fact1 we know very little about the depths of the earth4 ,the deepest mine-shaft known is near ,lake ,superior1 and is only #ejjj feet in depth4 ,in ,silesia a bore-hole has been made by the ,austrian ,government of a mile and a quarter in depth4 ,it would be by no means an easy task to sink a great boring4 ,the ,hon4 ,charles ,parsons has described some of the difficulties4 ,the shaft would have to be sunk in a neighbourhood where it would not be likely to encounter water on its way down1 because otherwise there would be the necessity of pumping operations4 ,in order to be of value for purposes of observation1 the shaft would be of the size usual in ordinary mines and coal-pits4 ,it would be sunk in stages each of about half a mile in depth1 and at each stage there would be placed the hauling and other machinery for dealing with the next stage below4 ,this machinery1 in order to economise space and limit the heat of the workings1 would be electrical4 ,even so there would have to be special arrangements for cooling2 and the depth of each stage in the boring would be restricted to half a mile in order to avoid great cost in the hauling arrangements1 great weight of rope1 and the great cost of keeping the machinery and workings cool4 ,at each second or third mile down there would be air-locks to prevent the air-pressure from becoming excessive1 owing to the weight of the superincumbent air4 ,for when we got between two and three miles down below the surface of the earth the atmospheric pressure there would be double what it is at the earth's surface1 or1 therefore1 about thirty pounds to the square inch4 ,it would not be easy to work under greater air-pressure than that1 firstly because of the strain on the workmen1 and secondly because of the rise of temperature which this increased air-pressure would cause4 ,therefore special chambers would have to be constructed to relieve the pressure1 as well as special pumps to provide ventilation1 and other machinery to carry the superfluous heat to the surface4 ,this last-named machinery would be of the nature of brine-filled pipes1 in which a freezing mixture would always be kept circulating4 7,the arrangements suggested by ,mr4 ,parsons for keeping the underground workings cool are rather too complicated for description here2 but no doubt the means he suggests would be effective1 and it would be possible1 though with great difficulty1 to keep the workings cool47 ,when the borings extended to a depth of some miles it would be necessary to freeze the bottom of the shaft4 ,this is a thing which is sometimes now done when a shaft is being sunk through quicksands that may be encountered on its way down4 ,round the circle of the main shaft a number of small bore-holes are driven1 and into them is poured very cold brine1 which freezes the material through which the shaft is to be driven4 ,in the case of the great boring we are considering this would have to be done not only at the bottom of the shaft but also for some time on the newly pierced shaft sides1 until the surrounding rock has been cooled for some distance from the face4 ,what would such a shaft cost8 ,how long would it take to build8 ,what would the temperature be that it encountered on the way down8 ,the following is the estimate offered by ,mr4 ,parsons3-- ,cost ,time in ,temperature ,years of ,rock ,for #b miles depth from the surface #ejj1jjj #aj #abb ,f4 #d #a1ajj1jjj #be #aeb #f #a1hjj1jjj #dj #ahb #h #b1gjj1jjj #ee #bab #aj #c1gjj1jjj #gj #bdb #ab #e1jjj1jjj #he #bgb ,but this estimate does not include the cost of cooling the shaft or of providing it with air-locks4 ,mr4 ,parsons in delineating the scheme remarked on the vast amount of information with which such a boring would furnish engineers1 miners1 and geologists2 but the point that we wish to make is that even with this enormous expenditure of time1 industry1 and money we should be as far as ever from knowing anything about the core of the earth4 ,we should have only gone about a third of the way through what geologists call the earth's crust4 ,here1 again1 we are in a condition of difficulty4 ,how thick is the earth's crust8 and what is there beneath it8 ,well1 as we are still such a long way from exploring it we can only give a rather doubtful answer2 and we must therefore try to show not only what is thought about the earth's interior but why we think it4 ,from ,mr4 ,charles ,parsons' table it will be seen that he calculates that as the boring went deeper it would find a higher and higher temperature among the rocks4 ,at two miles down it would be hotter than the hottest summer's day at the earth's surface2 at eight miles down water would boil by itself2 at twelve miles down1 unless the cooling arrangements were extremely good1 the workmen would die like flies4 ,how does ,mr4 ,parsons know that there would be these temperatures1 seeing that the deepest boring hitherto made is only a mile8 ,he bases his calculations on what we know already of the ascending temperature at deepening levels4 ,for ten years ,professor ,agassiz took observations concerning a very deep mine in the ,united ,states called the ,calumet and ,hecla ,mine4 ,he and ,professor ,chamberlin1 after examining all the observations very carefully1 came to the conclusion that in going down from the earth's surface the temperature rose at a rate of about #a of heat 7,fahrenheit7 for every #abe feet4 ,at the ,north ,garden ,gully ,mine1 ,bendigo1 ,australia1 and at the ,new ,chum ,mine a temperature of #ii ,f4 was reached at #cjjj feet1 and #ajg at #cfde feet4 ,the rate of increase of temperature was reckoned to be #a of heat 7,fahrenheit7 for every #hj feet4 ,this rate of #a for #hj feet was also found at a ,south ,german mine1 ,maldon1 as well as at a ,ballarat mine1 and at a mine near ,port ,jackson4 ,in a ,french mine more than #cjjj feet deep1 at the collieries of ,ronchamp1 the rate of increase was as high as #a in #ej feet4 ,in the ,north ,staffordshire mines ,mr4 ,atkinson1 ,h4,m4 ,inspector of ,mines1 found the increase to be on the average #a in #fe feet2 whereas in the ,south ,staffordshire ,hamstead ,colliery ,mr4 ,f4 ,g4 ,meachem found that the increase was #a ,f4 for every #aaj feet4 ,the same rate was obtained at the ,baggeridge ,wood ,colliery1 ,south ,staffordshire4 ,in ,south ,wales1 in the neighbourhood of ,rhondda and ,aberdare1 the rate is #a for #ie feet2 at ,dowlais1 in the ,merthyr coalfield1 it was #a in #ic feet2 at the ,niddrie ,collieries1 near ,edinburgh1 the increase is at the rate of #a in #ii feet4 ,it will thus be seen that all over the world there is an increase of temperature at a rate which1 on the average1 is about #a for every #ajj feet4 ,there are #ebhj feet in a mile2 therefore1 if this rate of increasing temperature were maintained1 at a depth of #ajj miles the temperature would be perhaps #ejjj ,f42 a temperature at which steel would melt and boil away into vapour4 ,at a depth of #bjj miles the heat would be greater than that of the surface of the sun4#b ,footnote #b3 ,according to the calculations made by the late ,mr4 ,w4 ,e4 ,wilson1 ,f4,r4,s41 in ,ireland1 #eggc ,centigrade above the lowest temperature which is possible in space1 or about #aj1ejj ,f4 ,now at temperatures like that everything we know on the surface of the earth would melt4 ,something else would happen to it besides that4 ,those of our readers who have ever seen experiments at the ,royal ,institution in ,london by ,sir ,james ,dewar or ,sir ,william ,crookes will know that if metals are made hot enough they will not only melt but will boil away into vapour as water boils into steam4 ,and perhaps we need tell no one that air1 if it be subjected to a low enough temperature1 can be made a solid like ice4 ,in fact1 everything in nature1 whether we generally know it as a solid 7like iron71 or a liquid 7like water71 or a gas 7like air71 can be made to assume either of the two other forms4 ,thus the solid iron can be turned into a liquid or a gas1 and the liquid water can be turned into a gas by boiling1 or into ice by freezing4 ,the gaseous air can be turned into a liquid by lowering its temperature to some #cjj ,f4 or more below the point at which water turns into ice2 while if we lower the temperature to about #cij ,f4 below freezing1 it will turn into a solid4 ,at a temperature of about #dij ,f4 below freezing everything in nature1 whether gaseous or liquid1 would become a solid1 and that temperature1 which is the lowest that can possibly exist1 is called ,absolute ,zero4 ,but just as every gas becomes a solid at that temperature1 so there are temperatures at which every solid becomes a gas4 ,gold1 for instance1 begins to be a liquid at about #aijj ,f41 and if we heat it to #bjjj it will become a gas4 ,therefore it will be seen that if we were to suppose that the earth grew steadily hotter all the way down to its centre1 we should comparatively soon come to a point when everything would be trying to turn into a gas4 ,but there is one other thing to be thought of4 ,imagine what the pressure of the weight of the rocks themselves must be4 ,at a depth of a mile pressure from above arising from the weight of the overlying rock is about #fjjj lb4 to the square inch4 ,at three miles the weight has increased to #ah1jjj lb41 at four miles to about #bd1jjj lb41 and at five miles to about #cj1jjj lb4 to the square inch4 ,now the average strength required to crush rocks has been shown to be about #be1jjj lb4 to the square inch for granite1 for limestones about #af1jjj lb4 to the square inch1 and for the sandstones about #fjjj lb4 to the square inch4 ,at a depth of five miles1 therefore1 the weight above must be equal if not greater than the resisting power of the rock4 ,what will happen lower than that8 ,an experiment shown some years ago by ,sir ,william ,roberts ,austen at the ,royal ,institution gives us some idea of what might happen4 ,he subjected iron to very great hydraulic pressure1 and he arranged the experiment in such a way that the spectators could see an image of what was happening projected by a beam of light on to a kind of magic-lantern screen4 ,the iron began to move like slowly melting pitch1 or very thick gum4 ,in fact1 at depths of about six1 seven1 or eight miles1 it is supposed by many geologists that if the lower rocks had room to move they would have a tendency to flow4#c ,footnote #c3 ,geology3 ,earth ,history1 p4 #abg4 ,chamberlin and ,salisbury4 ,suppose1 however1 they cannot flow1 that there is no room for them to flow1 and that the pressure is not merely thirteen or fifteen tons to the square inch1 as it would be at depths between five and six miles1 but a hundred times that amount1 as it might be between five and six hundred miles down4 ,what would happen then8 ,we can only imagine what does happen by stating what does not happen4 ,it used to be supposed as late as half a century ago that the earth consisted of a crust of hard rocks perhaps thirty to fifty miles in thickness1 and that below this crust the whole earth was a mass of red-hot or white-hot molten stuff with flaming gases mixed with it4 ,if that were the case it would explain a good deal of what we see around us4 ,it would explain the volcanoes1 for instance1 which belch out fire and lava and ashes and molten rock1 and sometimes great fragments of rock4 ,perhaps some of our readers may remember the great eruption of ,mount ,pele1 which took place in ,martinique some years ago4 ,at one stage of the eruption a great obelisk of rock a thousand feet high was pushed upwards out of the crater1 and eventually sank back again4 ,it came out of the depths of the earth4 ,it was like a vent-peg plugging some boiling mass below4 ,similarly we might suppose that all volcanoes were vent-holes for the tremendous commotion of boiling fiery rocks below the earth's surface4 ,the only thing we can urge is that they do not seem big enough for the purpose1 if the earth were indeed all molten except for a thin crust--thirty miles thick4 ,for that would leave a molten ocean more than #gijj miles across any way it was measured3 #gijj miles deep1 #gijj miles broad1 #gijj miles long1 if we take the diameter of the earth to be #hjjj miles4 ,we all know what great tides the ,moon and ,sun by their attraction raise in the earth's outer ocean of water4 ,think what tides they would raise in this inner ocean of molten rock and metal4 ,the earth's crust would not be able to hold such tides in4 ,the molten stuff would be always breaking through the flimsy thirty miles of outer solid rock as if it were egg-shell4 ,twice a day there would be outbreaks of lava vast enough to submerge continents4 ,no1 that will not do4 ,we will not confuse our readers by telling them all the theories that have been formed1 but will only state what the late ,lord ,kelvin believed1 and most of the present generation of geologists believe4 ,it is that the heat of the earth's crust continues to increase only for a certain distance of the way down1 and that owing to pressure the earth is solid 7though very hot except towards the surface7 for two thousand miles down4 ,there remains a thickness of another four thousand miles on either side of the earth's centre to be considered4 ,that might be molten1 but the pressure would be so great that it would behave as if it were a solid4 ,we know the earth cannot be solid all through because it does not weigh enough4 ,the earth cannot1 of course1 be weighed in any scales1 but there are methods of weighing it nevertheless4 ,one of two methods is by seeing how strongly it attracts bodies to itself4 ,but these things belong rather to the romance of astronomy than to that of geology4 ,we need only trouble ourselves at present about the results4 ,one word more about the deep interior of the earth4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,j4 ,see1 an ,american astronomer1 has found how heavy and how hard the earth is1 taken as a whole4 ,he finds that if it were built from surface to surface of hardened steel it would be just about as heavy and as hard--or as rigid4 ,the steel would be like that used for the armour-plate of battleships4 ,dr4 ,see is not prepared1 however1 to discard the idea that the earth has a large fluid interior4 ,if it were fluid1 yet it would be subjected to such enormous pressure by its own weight1 that if there were a moderately thick earth-crust1 its tidal surgings would be so cabin'd1 cribbed1 confined1 that they would be comparatively ineffectual4 ,we must not run away with the idea 7against which ,dr4 ,see specially warns us71 that there is any free circulation of currents within the fluid interior4 ,the rigidity produced by pressure 7or weight7 is too great for that4 ,indeed1 this pressure is so great that1 as another scientific authority1 ,professor ,arrhenius1 has pointed out1 the matter at the core of the earth might even be gaseous2 and yet would be so compressed by pressure that it would possess a rigidity equal to the hardest steel4 ,the earth may be partly solid1 partly liquid1 partly gaseous1 but for all practical purposes ,professor ,see would have us regard it as a solid sphere having an average hardness and weight and rigidity greater than that of ordinary steel4 ,we are still some way off an explanation of how the many igneous rocks which were and are being boiled up in some inner molten cauldron came to the surface2 but the better to understand that we must ask our readers to carry their imagination back to the very beginning of the world when it was without form and void4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,earth ,,at ,,its ,,beginning ,if we look up at the sky with the eye of knowledge we can read in the celestial objects with which it is strewn something of the history of our earth4 ,we can only read it dimly even with the aid of the greatest telescopes1 and it is quite possible that in some respects we may read it wrongly4 ,let us1 however1 consider what the eye and the telescope will reveal to us4 ,the eye will see the ,sun--a great ball1 into which the earth might sink without greatly altering the ,sun's appearance1 and surrounded with flaming gases hotter than the hottest furnace man has ever been able to contrive4 ,in that heat every solid thing on the earth would melt and be turned into vapour4 ,the eye will also perceive the ,moon--another ball1 much smaller than the earth1 surrounded by no gases at all1 having as far as can be seen no water2 and being so cold during its long nights that all gases and liquids of which we know would be frozen solid there4 ,the eye can also see a myriad of stars of varying brightness1 but for the most part only thus distinguishable4 ,if the telescope be now called in to aid1 the eye will1 however1 be able to discern differences and distinctions in the stars4 ,it will see that some are balls like the ,earth1 the ,sun1 and the ,moon4 ,if these balls are studied attentively we shall discover that one of them1 ,jupiter1 is a great deal hotter than the earth1 though a great deal cooler than the ,sun2 and that another of them1 ,mars1 is a great deal colder than the earth1 but a great deal warmer than the ,moon4 ,perhaps we might now begin to surmise that the ,sun coming first1 ,jupiter next1 the ,earth next1 ,mars next1 and the ,moon last1 were all like stages in the history of one of these balls2 and that1 for example1 any one ball began by being as hot as the ,sun1 and ended1 after passing through stages like ,jupiter1 the ,earth1 and ,mars1 in being as cold and lifeless as the ,moon4 ,but if one had a very good telescope1 and could examine those more distant specks of light which we call stars1 we perhaps could spy a little earlier into the history of these great balls4 ,for example1 among the blazing lights of the heavens--the stars which we know to be suns--there are others which are not balls at all4 ,there are the ,pleiades1 for instance1 of whom the ,prophet ,amos wrote1 ,seek ,him that maketh the seven stars and ,orion 7,amos v4 #h74 ,the seven stars 7in the ,authorised ,version rendered ,pleiades71#d when seen through a great telescope1 are caught in a mesh or a veil of something that may be starry matter1 but of the exact nature of which we are uncertain4 ,in other parts of the sky there are great masses of this starry mist2 and to these bright patches astronomers have given the name of nebul4 ,the most wonderful of them all is the great nebula in ,orion2#e and one of the most beautiful is the great spiral nebula of ,andromeda4 ,these objects are not only wonderful and beautiful2 they also give us a hint as to what might have been the earliest state of our earth1 and of the ,sun itself in those almost inconceivably distant ages before order took the place of chaos4 ,footnote #d3 ,it has been cogently suggested that by the seven stars the biblical writer meant the constellation of the ,great ,bear2 but ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,maunder1 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 of ,greenwich ,observatory1 is of opinion that the ,pleiades were signified4 ,footnote #e3 ,god maketh ,arcturus1 ,orion1 and ,pleiades1 and the chambers of the south 7,job ,,ix4 #i74 ,let us ask the reader to imagine what would take place if the earth were to come into collision with another planet4 ,some of our readers1 at any rate1 will know that the ,sun and all its planets--the earth among them--is moving swiftly to some unknown destination among the stars4#f ,suppose that some great planet1 not of the ,solar ,system1 barred our path4 ,we should not be taken wholly unawares1 for astronomers would know of the approach of the star and our earth to one another months1 and perhaps years1 beforehand4 ,that would be because the light of the ,sun falling on it would be reflected1 just as the reflection of the ,sun's rays light up the ,moon for our eyes4 ,if the strange planet were a very large body1 like the sun for bigness1 it would become visible far beyond the confines of the ,solar ,system4 ,it might first be taken for a new star such as sometimes blazes up in the sky and then sinks into darkness again4 ,but its steadiness would make it an object of suspicion4 ,there would be another brief period in which it might be taken for a comet2 but comets have a light quite different from that of reflected sunlight4 ,so that anxious expectation would be dissipated1 and the world would begin to recognise the monster for what it really was4 ,if its size were the same as that of the ,sun1 then it would first become visible to us when #ae1jjj1jjj1jjj miles distant1#g or let us say #afjj times farther away from us than we are from the ,sun4 ,we and it would approach slowly at first4 ,it would be nearly ten years before the distance had been reduced to #f1jjj1jjj1jjj of miles1 and the intruder had begun to be visible to the naked eye4 ,in fourteen years it would have reached the outer edge of the ,solar ,system1 and would be the brightest star in the heavens4 ,in another year it would be twice as bright as ,venus at her brightest1 and would be coming nearer with appalling swiftness4 ,in less than two months it would be as near the ,sun as we are4 ,in a week more it would have plunged into the ,sun at the rate of #djj miles a second1 and in the awful heat born in that collision1 ,sun and earth and planets would be molten1 and the ,solar ,system overwhelmed ,in unremorseful folds of rolling fire4 ,footnote #f3 ,it is usually supposed that this movement1 amounting to perhaps ten miles a second1 is in the direction of the constellation of ,vega4 ,footnote #g3 ,see an article by ,mr4 ,ellard ,gore in ,knowledge1 ,november1 #aije4 ,the object would not be visible at this distance except through large telescopes4 ,suppose that this catastrophe were to take place4 ,would that be the end of all things8 ,no4 ,out of the fiery mist many millions of miles across--like one of those great nebul which the telescopes reveal to us--order would be evolved4 ,two things would at once begin to happen1 since in the ,universe nothing stands still4 ,the fiery mist would be giving out heat all about it1 sending out heat-waves as a fire or a red-hot poker will do4 ,the red-hot poker cools2 so1 too1 would the fiery nebula4 ,then the nebula would begin to condense2 not quite in the same way that a cloud of steam does1 for it would be whirling all the time1 and its fiery particles would be all trying to fall inwards1 just as anything dropped from our hands tends to fall towards the centre of the earth4 ,as this whirling mass of gas condensed some great masses of it would become detached1 and would begin to enjoy separate existences of their own4 ,let us imagine1 for the sake of argument1 that a mass of gas vast enough1 when it condensed1 to form the earth itself became detached from the parent nebula4 ,suppose we follow its history4 ,at first it may have been a globe hardly distinguishable from a whirling flame4 ,in brightness it was like the ,sun1 and like the ,sun1 it was covered with elemental gases4 ,it was1 in fact1 in its earliest days a sphere of gas continually giving out heat1 and continually cooling1 till from a sphere like the ,sun it became a ball like ,jupiter4 ,it had an intermediate stage when its gases were condensing into liquids1 as steam condenses into water2 for though the nebula as a whole was hot it was always travelling through cold space4 ,gradually the earth became partly liquid and partly gas4 ,for millions of years it continued to revolve as a ball of liquid--still cooling--still being pressed very hard at its central parts by the weight of all the gases and liquids round it1 till at last the first crust of solid matter began to form on the liquid surface4 ,this crust continued to thicken1 but it was subject to many appalling catastrophes and breakages4 ,we have already used the occurrence of the tides of the earth as an instance of the ,sun's attraction4 ,the ,sun 7and the ,moon7 attract the waters of the earth1 pulling them up towards themselves4 ,so would they also attract the molten materials of which the early earth was composed4 ,the liquid mass would be continually surging like a tide against its wall of solid crust1 and the liquid would now and again burst through4 ,there must have been a time when the thin solid crust covering the molten interior became1 owing to the solidification and contraction of the crust1 much too small to contain the liquid material4 ,the lava would then break through1 and would form huge craters1 not unlike some of those which we see on the ,moon4 ,we can faintly imagine these terrible outbreaks in which the molten tide rose not thirty or forty feet but many miles high6 ,later1 after some relief had been given by these outbreaks and the crust thickened1 the interior regions of the earth by cooling shrank away from the solid shell1 which was now too large4 ,this solid shell being insufficiently supported sometimes caved in1 and other great outflows of lava resulted4 ,these lava floods dissolved the original solid shell whenever they came in contact with it4 ,the earth probably once had gigantic craters like those which we can see in their extinct form on the ,moon2 but they were destroyed by these outflows of lava of which we have spoken4 ,then1 still cooling1 the earth's crust grew thicker and thicker4 ,the great outflows and eruptions of molten elements from underneath grew fewer1 and more liquid elements cooled into solids1 and more gases condensed into liquids4 ,there was another thing happening of which1 as conscientious recorders of the history of the earth's geology1 we must take note2 and it is that in those early days meteorites were falling on the earth in vastly greater numbers than they do to-day4 ,meteorites are masses of cooled rock flying through space which still occasionally fall on the earth1 and specimens of them are still to be found1 many of them preserved in museums1 such as the ,natural ,history ,museum in ,cromwell ,road1 ,london4 ,but the earth in its path has swept most of them up1 as the housemaid's dusting-pan collects the fragments of dust4 ,when the earth was young there were incomparably more fragments to collect1 and they fell on the earth like rain4 ,meanwhile the cooling water vapour became the oceans2 clouds and rain and cool winds and eventually snow and ice became possible2 and the hardening lavas1 or fire-born rocks1 became subject to their influences1 till above them were raised the stratified rocks1 of which we have spoken in our earlier chapters1 and the lineage and descent of which is part of the study of geology4 ,on the earth most of the traces of its earlier history have been removed1 but there are some signs of them perceptible to the comprehending eye4 ,the earth is probably seamed with great cracks that do not now reach to the surface1 but which are indicated by the presence of chains of volcanoes4 ,the volcanoes of the great chains of the ,andes lie along a straight crack reaching from ,southern ,peru to ,terra del ,fuego1 #bejj miles in length4 ,the volcanoes of the ,aleutian ,islands lie along a curved track equally long4 ,other shorter lines of volcanoes are very numerous1 and since countless others existed in former times1 the cracks in the earth's crust must be exceedingly numerous4 ,there is one crack which comes to the surface in various places in ,eastern ,asia and ,western ,africa1 and stretching from the ,dead ,sea to ,lake ,nyassa1 reaches the enormous length of #cejj miles4 ,from this brief sketch of the formation of the earth1 its progress and processes1 and from the hints which the volcanoes and earthquakes of to-day afford us1 we may obtain some idea of the underworld that lies far beneath our feet4 ,not much1 however1 for we are ignorant of the actual conditions which exist towards the centre of the earth4 ,but there seems a strong case for supposing that there is an outer solid crust of earth and an inner molten core of very great heat4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,childhood ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,let us now sum up the various stages in the early growth of the earth1 as most geologists believe them to have occurred4 ,the first stage was that when the earth1 shining like a star1 existed as a fluid globe surrounded by heavy vapours of great thickness1 which contained the future waters of the globe4 ,then began the second era of the earth's existence1 when it was a hot solid globe--solid at any rate at the surface1 and with a temperature of about #bejj ,f4 ,the globe's atmosphere still contained all the waters of the earth4 ,it contained all the carbonic acid gas which now exists in the limestones and in coal and other minerals containing carbon4 ,it contained also all the oxygen since shut up in the rocks and in vegetation and in animal substances4 ,such an atmosphere was probably at least two hundred times as great as the atmosphere which now surrounds the earth4 ,then followed an epoch when great volcanic action set in4 ,we have partially described it already4 ,just a thin solid crust was all that covered the molten interior of the globe4 ,it was too thin always to contain the boiling liquid1 and ,titanic explosions1 followed by enormous overflows of lava1 continually broke up the crust4 ,the pressure was relieved by these explosions1 and gradually the earth would settle down again to its process of consolidation4 ,another explosion would follow2 again a great flow of lava2 and again the effects of the catastrophe would subside4 ,after each explosion and outflow the earth's crust would grow a little thicker4 ,all this time1 and for long succeeding ages1 the earth was attracting to itself1 as a magnet attracts iron filings1 all the small bodies which it encountered on its path round the ,sun4 ,these little rocks or masses of matter1 some great and some small1 would each add something to the size of the earth1 and1 by the shock of collision with it1 something to the earth's heat--just as a bullet flattening itself against a target melts in the heat of collision4 ,just also as the bits of matter which we call shooting-stars are set on fire by friction as they rush into the earth's atmosphere4 ,these meteorites1 as they are called when they are comparatively small bodies1 or planetismals1 as they are called when they are large1 still exist4 ,but the earth1 in the millions on millions of years which it has been coursing round the ,sun1 has swept up all the large ones that are likely to fall into it1 and there remain only the small ones which occasionally cross its path4 ,these are called ,leonids or ,lyrids or ,perseids1 and these meteor showers occur at nearly the same time every year when the earth runs through a swarm of them on its pathway round the ,sun4 ,but they are very small4 ,some of them are no bigger than a slate pencil4 ,few are as big as brickbats1 and nearly all are burnt up by the air-friction before they reach the earth's surface4 ,larger ones still fall on the earth1 however1 and it is calculated that many hundreds reach us in fragments every year4 ,but when the earth was young many thousands fell every day4 ,to this era1 or immediately before it1 belongs the birth of the ,moon4 ,it is a subject of interest to geologists1 because it is admitted that the materials of which the ,moon is constituted are similar to those of the earth2 and it is believed that its history up to a certain point was very like that of the earth4 ,it had its great volcanic era such as we have described2 but its development closed shortly afterwards4 ,we are considering1 however1 at this moment its origin4 ,it was once part of the earth4 ,all of us have read of those little animals1 of which one form is the amba and another form the white corpuscles of the blood4 ,if we watch them under the microscope we may see one of them slowly lengthen out1 then break in two1 and each part go swimming away by itself1 a perfect animal4 ,it was ,sir ,g4 ,h4 ,darwin1 ,f4,r4,s41 who proved mathematically in #ahgi that the origin of the ,moon was such that we may properly compare it to the splitting up of the little animals just described4 ,the date of this event cannot be fixed even approximately--beyond saying that as astronomical events go it must have been rather recent1 though not less than fifty million years ago4 ,the ,moon is therefore one of the younger members of the ,solar ,system4 ,but no other catastrophe1 either before or since1 has occurred on the earth to compare with its prodigious birth4 ,five thousand million cubic miles of material left the earth's surface never again to return to it4 ,whether it all left at once or whether the action was prolonged we do not know1 but we may try in vain to imagine the awful uproar and fearful volcanic phenomena exhibited when a planet was cleft in twain and a new moon was born into the ,solar ,system4 ,then1 life still being absent from the earth1 the ,oceanic ,era began4 ,the waters condensed into an ocean over the earth1 or else collected in some great oceanic depression4 ,lands presently emerged from it4 ,it was a hot ocean1 steaming no doubt1 for its temperature was perhaps about #ejj ,f4 ,some one may ask--,why1 then1 did it not steam away into clouds8 ,the answer is that the atmosphere was still very heavy in that past era1 probably still exerting a pressure as much as fifty times as great as to-day4 ,the pressure of the atmosphere at the earth's surface to-day is usually about fifteen pounds to the square inch4 ,in such circumstances water boils rapidly away at the temperature of #bab ,f4 ,but if the water be taken up to the top of ,mont ,blanc1 where the air pressure is less than that at the sea-level 7or if1 which amounts to the same thing1 we reduce the pressure on the water's surface by placing it under the receiver of an air-pump and partially exhaust the air71 it will boil at a lower temperature than this4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we increase the pressure on the surface of the water by any means1 such1 for example1 as by placing it in a chamber of compressed air1 the water can be heated to a higher temperature without boiling away4 ,in the bygone era of which we are speaking the pressure of the atmosphere on the water's surface was #gjj lb4 or #hjj lb4 to the square inch2 and therefore it could be heated up to a high temperature without evaporating rapidly4 ,another thing began to happen in those days4 ,all bodies in space attract one another2 the ,sun attracts its planets2 the planets attract the ,sun and their satellites2 and the satellites in their turn attract the planets4 ,ages before the earth had a moon these forces were at work4 ,but the attractions of solid bodies for one another do not bring about any very perceptible alterations in their shapes2 though if the bodies are spinning they effect slow changes in their speed of rotation4 ,it is different when the bodies are liquid1 or if they have liquid surfaces4 ,then the attractions of a sun or a moon on a planet begin to draw up the waters of the planet and produce tides4 ,the attraction of the earth would produce tides on the ,moon if an ocean existed there2 and1 it is suspected1 do produce something resembling tides on the present surface of the ,sun4#h ,as soon1 therefore1 as oceans appeared on the earth the waters began to ebb and flow in tides4 7,another consequence of this constant ebb and flow was that the friction of these movements began to diminish the speed of the earth's rotation--just as a string that was placed round the circumference of a spinning-top would1 if constantly pulled backwards and forwards1 gradually help to slow down the top47 ,then oceanic waves and currents would begin to eat a way into the land that was on their borders1 or which was emerging from their depths4 ,rivers would begin to arise1 and they would carry on the work of erosion4 ,other causes tending to break up the rocks would be the gases in the air--the excessive quantities of carbonic acid and oxygen would be active chemical agents in this work4 ,before the close of this era the limestones and iron carbonates began to form2 sediments arose in the lifeless oceans1 and thus began the first formation of those sedimentary rocks and strata which have been dealt with in the earlier chapters4 ,footnote #h3 ,a paper read by ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,maunder before the ,royal ,astronomical ,society in #aijg gave reasons for believing that the earth has perceptible effects on the movements of sun-spots4 ,after the lifeless era began the age when the lowest forms of life came into existence4 ,the initial stage was perhaps the ,era of the ,first ,plants1 ,alg1 and later still aquatic fungi or bacteria4 ,this began when the general temperature of the ocean may have been as high as #aej ,f4 7some water plants can now live in waters up to and above #ahj ,f474 ,limestones began to form from the secretions of plants1 and deposits of silica from silica secretions4 ,also where the conditions were favourable there were large sedimentary deposits and accumulations4 ,in the second part of this on the earth1 still continuing to cool1 and going down in temperature to #aae1 gave opportunity to animal life4 ,at the end of this era the general temperature of the earth and its oceans was as low as #ij ,f4 ,the first animal life had begun to appear2 its activity greatly increased under what were favourable conditions for it4 ,this increase of animal life had its effect on the earth's crust4 ,we have already spoken of the formation of limestones from the bodies of sea animals4 ,this was going on in those ages millions of years ago before any of the higher forms of life had appeared on the earth1 and though it was not going on so rapidly1 still it must be remembered that at some point of the world's history the oceans were of greater extent than now1 and consequently the deposits of lime and the accumulations of sediment were more widespread4 ,the sedimentary rocks grew faster and faster1 especially on the floors of the oceans4 ,it will be understood by those who have read the foregoing two chapters closely that the igneous or fire-born rocks must lie underneath the sedimentary ones4 ,but that is only true in general terms1 for a double reason4 ,in the first place1 owing to the inestimable forces which for millions of years were still continually effective below the earth's crust1 the igneous rocks over and over again were able to burst their way through the slow-forming sediment of other rocks laid down above them4 ,in the second place1 the igneous rocks1 owing to their composition and superior hardness1 were much less worn by wind and weather than the less compact sedimentary rocks1 and these remained1 showing themselves at the surface as coast-lines of oceans and in mountain ranges1 after the sandstones and shales and limestones had disappeared4 ,illustration3 ,stereo ,copyright1 ,underwood ,u4 ,london and ,new ,york ,the ,crater of an ,extinct ,volcano ,this is the entrance to the long extinct volcano of ,red ,mountain1 ,arizona4 ,the memorials of volcanic action remain1 we had almost said permanently1 among the decay of other rocks1 though1 of course1 even hard volcanic or igneous rocks will be worn down in time4 ,in many cases volcanoes themselves are left1 though they may have been for ages extinct4 ,in some volcanic regions where no great central cones have existed the vast floods of lava that were poured forth extend to-day as vast black plains of naked rock1 mottled with shifting sand-hills1 or as undulating tablelands carved by running water into valleys and ravines1 between which the successive sheets of lava are exposed in terraced hills4 ,beyond the limits over which the lava sheets have spread there are often great veins or parapets or sunken walls of lava to which are given the names of igneous or volcanic dykes4 ,dykes vary from less than a foot to one hundred feet in breadth1 and often run in nearly straight courses sometimes for many miles4 ,they consist usually of very hard rock like basalt1 andesite1 or diabase4 ,they were fissures in the earth's surface1 and1 after the manner we have described1 the molten rock welled forth through these fissures1 and spread out sheet after sheet1 till like a rising lake it has not only overflowed the lower grounds but even buried all the minor hills4 ,lava eruptions of this kind have taken place in recent years in ,iceland4 ,on a small scale they can be seen to take place in the island of ,hawaii1 where the outflows of lava reproduce for us1 like models in miniature1 the great outbreaks of the past4 ,on the largest possible scale similar effects may be seen on the great lava plains of the ,moon1 where the giant craters that we can see through telescopes are not the mouths of extinct volcanoes1 but the banked-up edges and shores of lava outflows4 ,on a much smaller scale than this1 but still on a gigantic scale1 the same thing took place in ,western ,north ,america1 where there are vast tracts of land which are best to be explained by supposing that there were once great outbreaks and overflows4 ,the area which has there been flooded with lava has been estimated to be larger than that of ,france and ,great ,britain put together1 and the depth of the total mass erupted reaches in some places as much as #cgjj feet4 ,some rivers have cut gorges in this plain of lava1 laying bare its component rocks to a depth of #gjj feet or more4 ,along the walls of these ravines we see that the lava is arranged in parallel beds or sheets often not more than ten or twenty feet thick1 each of which1 of course1 represents a separate outpouring of molten rock4 ,these are comparatively modern lava plains1 although1 of course1 the outpourings in ,north ,america occurred ages before historic time1 or1 indeed1 before there are any traces of man's existence on the earth4 ,such lava outflows can only occasionally be examined--as in the instance just quoted when rivers have cut deep into them4 ,consequently we have to speculate on the connection between the dykes and fissures and the lava flood itself4 ,but in various parts of the world lava plains of much older date have been so eaten into and worn by the action of the elements that not only the successive sheets of lava are exposed but the rock floor over which they poured4 ,exposed also are the abundant dykes which served as the channels by which the lava rose to the surface4 ,in ,western ,europe important examples of this structure occur from the north of ,iceland through the inner ,hebrides and the ,faroe ,islands to ,iceland4 ,this volcanic belt presents a succession of lava sheets1 which even yet1 in spite of enormous waste1 are in some places more than #cjjj feet thick4 ,these sheets are nearly flat and rise in terraces over one another into green grassy hills or into the dark fronts of lofty sea-washed precipices4 ,where sheets have been stripped off or worn down by wind and weather thousands of volcanic dykes are exposed4 ,these dykes are1 as it were1 the roots of which the lava sheets were the branches2 and even where the whole of the material that gushed up to the surface has been worn away the dykes remain as evidence of the vigour and energy of the volcanic forces4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,earth ,,as ,,the ,,abode ,,of ,,life ,in the last chapter we spoke of the formation of the atmosphere of the earth and of the growth of the oceans4 ,we must now consider the formation of these more closely1 and we must distinguish between the great vaporous clouds which rolled about the earth in its molten state and the settled atmosphere which formed about it when it grew cooler4 ,after the earth had begun to solidify it was at first covered with a collection of porous fragments of rock covering the earth like a shell and containing the elements of water4 ,such materials in general appearance would be not unlike the pumice stone which is expelled from volcanoes to-day4 ,those who have never had the fortune to see volcanic eruptions for themselves usually imagine that the volcano throws out nothing but fire and smoke4 ,as a matter of fact it throws out vast quantities of vapour1 of which1 according to ,sir ,archibald ,geikie1 #iii parts in #ajjj are steam4 ,at the great eruption of ,mount ,pele the cloud of steam continually arising from the volcano for months in succession was several cubic miles in measurement4 ,consequently it will be seen that the porous volcanic rocks with which the young earth was covered contained all the materials for water-manufacture within themselves4 ,as the water began to form1 squeezed out of the porous rocks as we can squeeze it out of a sponge 7or as we might steam it out if we put the moist sponge in an oven71 it gathered itself into reservoirs underground4 ,as it increased in bulk it rose nearer to the surface2 because1 of course1 owing to the heat of the inner portions of the earth it could never succeed in sinking below a certain depth4 ,doubtless it first appeared at the bottom of the pits which had been sunk by volcanoes or volcanic action4 ,there must have been innumerable depressions in the earth's surface as widespread and deeper than those which we can perceive on the rugged surface of the ,moon4 ,we may gain an idea on a very minute scale of what the first pits of water were like from the examples 7formed1 however1 at a much later period and probably in a different way7 of the crater lakes that are left to-day4 ,some curious examples of crater lakes are to be found in the ,eifel district of ,germany1 an ancient volcanic region which lies in the triangle formed by the junction of the ,rhine and the ,moselle at ,coblenz4 ,one of the pleasing peculiarities of this district is that1 owing to the volcanic nature of the soil1 the neighbourhood is seldom dusty1 even in ,august or ,september1 after the dry continental summer4 ,it is well worth visiting for its castles as well as for its crater lakes and other volcanic relics1 and it is the scene of ,r4 ,l4 ,stevenson's romance ,prince ,otto4 ,the chief crater lakes are between ,daun and ,manderscheid4 ,there are1 of course1 many other and larger crater lakes in existence1 but we select these because they are so easily accessible4 ,the flow of the lakes into one another followed4 ,innumerable lakelets developed into rivers or chains of lakes on the surface of the young planet1 continually becoming larger bodies of water1 till they developed into the vast irregular oceans of to-day4 ,this evolution is of great importance from a geological point of view1 because it leads the way to the origin of the ocean basins and the great platforms of land which we call continents4 ,it is easy to see that because of the weight of water in the depressions the earth under the waters tended to become more and more depressed1 so that the water areas tended to grow larger and deeper4 ,the wash of earths from the land tended to build its borders out into the water basins1 but the deepening and spreading of the water basins is believed to have been the most marked feature of the earth's early growth4 ,all this time the earth was growing in diameter and circumference4#i ,when this growth ceased other causes and effects came into play1 and the proportions of sea and land became better balanced4 ,footnote #i3 ,for reasons which are a little too complex to be considered here4 ,we can only indicate the general line of reasoning by saying that the central heat as it moved outwards from the rocks nearer the surface expanded them4 ,there is nothing in our human knowledge to tell us with certainty when or how life first appeared on the earth4 ,we have already spoken of animal and vegetable remains that for ages are preserved in the rocks4 ,but clearly no such remains could ever be found in the volcanic or molten rocks of the earliest stages of the earth's life4 ,think for a moment of what the simplest forms of life are4 ,a great deal has been heard of microbes and bacteria during recent years1 and we may therefore assume that every one has some knowledge of the structure of these simplest living things4 ,they may be compared to tiny bladders of jelly--so small that the microscope is necessary in order to see them1 and sometimes so much smaller than this that the best microscopes cannot distinguish them4 ,such forms of life are called unicellular organisms1 because they consist of a single cell1 which contains the jelly-like substance called protoplasm1 and a smaller body1 smaller even than these tiny cells themselves1 which is called the nucleus4 ,these are the simplest forms of life4 ,but all the higher forms of life1 and we may say1 roughly speaking1 any form of life that the unaided eye can see1 is made up not of one cell but of many cells4 ,a human being1 for example1 is made up of uncounted millions of cells2 and millions of cells go to the formation of a worm1 a fish1 a gnat1 or indeed to the formation of the simplest well-known animal that the ordinary person could name4 ,similarly millions of cells go to the formation of a leaf or a twig4 ,these higher forms of life are called multicellular organisms1 because they have many cells1 and most often many different kinds of cells4 ,for instance1 in the body of a man there are different kinds of cells to form the skin1 or the lining of the mouth1 or the substance of the eyes1 or the red or white corpuscles of the blood1 or the grey matter of the brain1 or the roots of the hair--to name only a few4 ,thus we see how complicated the structure of animals has become since life first made its appearance on the earth4 ,the cells joined themselves to form tissues2 and the tissues joined themselves to form organs2 and these things had to happen before anything like a complete animal of the higher type1 or even a complete vegetable1 made its appearance4 ,suppose by some great cataclysm1 not so great as that which we have imagined in an earlier chapter1 but still world-wide in its effects1 the whole world should once again be swept by a great outbreak of lava and molten rocks1 which of all the living things would leave traces of its existence8 ,perhaps a few of the animals with great bones1 or the great trees1 might leave an impress of themselves in the depths of the overwhelming rocks1 just as we can stamp the impress of the skin of our finger-tips on hot sealing-wax2 but it is fairly evident that all the soft-tissued animals and vegetables would disappear entirely and leave not a trace behind--certainly no trace that anybody could recognise many millions of years afterwards4 ,it is still more certain that the simplest forms of life1 the unicellular organisms1 would leave no trace at all4 ,we know that side by side with the complicated organisms that we can see the simplest organisms exist now2 and must have existed at the beginning of life4 ,yet when we examine the records of living things in the rocks which were formed in the youth of the world1 and go back right to the earliest of these forms of life that have ever been discovered1 we find that such specimens are all of the rather higher 7if not of the highest forms of life74 ,from that we infer that life must have existed many ages before the period of such remains1 though1 as we should have expected1 all examples of the earlier forms have disappeared4 ,where did this life come from8 ,lord ,kelvin once rashly committed himself to the notion that life might have been brought to the earth on one of those flying pieces of rock1 which we have already spoken of1 which are named meteorites1 or on a fragment of some other planetary body that had been cast out into space4 ,the speculation is not so wildly improbable as it has sometimes been considered to be1 because recent researches have shown that it is not impossible for life to survive at the very low temperatures which a meteorite would experience on its way through space1 and also that the time which a small body would occupy in travelling1 let us say from ,mars to the earth1 would not be too great for the prolonged existence of some germ of life on the meteorite4 ,on the other hand1 there is nothing in known meteorites to suggest that they came from worlds where conditions exist suitable for life as we know it2 and1 moreover1 even if we shut our eyes to these improbabilities1 we are no nearer to a solution of the problem of where and how life began4 ,to say that it was brought to earth on a meteorite is merely to throw back the problem another stage1 for we have still to ask how life began on the meteorite and on the planet from which it came4 ,the indirect evidence regarding the probable beginning of the era of life on the earth is also extremely difficult to examine1 and we can only say that the best geological authority leans to the idea that the conditions when life would have been possible on the earth were finished long before the earth had finished growing1 and that these conditions may have existed when the earth was about the size of ,mars4 ,consequently the first beginnings of life may have existed at depths hundreds of miles below the earth's surface of to-day4 ,the life was then1 however1 only of the very simplest kind2 it was probably vegetable life4 ,probably also the first life appeared in the ocean1 though it is not altogether unlikely that it may have begun1 and have gone on developing1 in fresh water--in those great pits which were first formed by volcanoes and which afterwards became lakes and then seas4 ,for our purpose1 however1 it will be sufficient to say that life began in the great bodies of water which were accumulating on the globe1 and which owing to the washing down by rain and rivers and stream and wave action of land materials were becoming saltier1 or more highly charged with mineral salts of various kinds4 ,the early forms of life were of the nature of jelly-fish1 or simple organisms which were permeated by the fluid in which they dwelt4 ,the sea was then warmer than it is now1 and there are reasons for believing that it was something above #ajj ,f41 perhaps higher--perhaps rather hotter than we should now care to bathe in4 ,it was also at the beginning an ocean which was much less salt and had much less lime in it than now4 ,its water was a good deal softer4 ,it was1 however1 becoming much more hard1 more like the ,dead ,sea1 which1 as everybody knows1 is a body of water so charged with mineral salts and accumulations that a bather cannot sink in it1 and will emerge from his bath encrusted with salty deposits4 ,as the early ocean became more and more saturated 7with lime and carbonates1 etc471 the more vigorous of the living forms in the water began to resist the change in various ways4 ,they tried to meet it1 or to alter themselves so as not to be incommoded by it4 ,this is a very familiar occurrence in natural life and evolution4 ,perhaps the commonest example of it that we can select is the formation of corns on the human feet and hands4 ,a corn1 properly considered1 is the defence raised by the skin against unusual or discommoding pressure or friction4 ,when a boot is too tight1 or when a plough handle or a cricket bat or a golf club is continually clasped tightly1 a callosity or horn-like defence is formed4 ,in some cases a blister is antecedent to the corn2 and we may regard this not only as showing the need for the hardening of the skin1 but as being a stage preliminary to it4 ,there are many other instances4 ,hair is formed as a protection to the body1 and owing to nature's economies is not usually formed when clothing takes its place or heat renders it unnecessary4 ,if the heat is too great1 or the light beating on the unprotected skin is too strong1 then another form of protection takes the place of hair4 ,why is it that races living near the ,equator wear the burnished livery of the burning sun1 and show black or brown pigmentation of the skin8 ,it is because this pigmentation arrests the penetration of the rays of the sun more effectively than a garment4 ,lately ,dr4 ,sambon has pointed out that the white linen clothes which ,europeans generally wear in the tropics1 though they look cool1 are not sufficient screens against the rays of light and heat1 and has suggested that white men's clothes1 to be properly protective against the sun1 ought to be woven of threads of two colours1 so that the garments should be white outside and black inside4 ,apply these principles to animals in sea-water1 who were distressingly affected by conditions to which they had never been subjected4 ,what would happen8 ,the weaker would probably be killed by the change in the conditions1 just as some fresh-water fishes and animalcul would be killed now if plunged into sea-water4 ,the stronger would1 however1 become acclimatised1 and would in the course of successive generations struggle to adapt their bodies to the new conditions4 ,thus the living organisms in the earth's early sea contrived to cut themselves off from being bathed with the novel carbonaceous water4 ,they cut themselves off from it in the course of generations by closing themselves off from it with skin or membrane4 ,many of them stirred up their cells to secrete lime and exude it so as to form for themselves a more or less impervious covering or shell4 ,finally1 as they grew to like the mineral water less1 they continually made fresh experiments to avoid it1 and the more enterprising and adventurous got out of the ocean altogether1 and migrated to the air or the land1 perhaps by way of the shore sands and muds4 ,this period1 when the ocean seems to have passed its best stage for supporting all forms of life1 appears to have been that which is geologically known as the ,cambrian4 ,after this period there was a wealth of ferns1 of animals able to leave hard traces of themselves in the fossil records4 ,before this period there was no physiological need for either skin or shell4 ,but once the skin and shell had been developed1 primarily as a defence against the sea-water1 their great advantages for purposes of the struggle for life among all forms of animals soon made themselves felt1 and so they were retained4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,life ,,in ,,other ,,worlds ,if life was not brought to the earth from another planet1 then life was created1 or originated1 on the earth4 ,some of the conditions which attended its birth have been considered1 and they amount to this3 that the temperature of the earth1 the elements of the earth1 the conditions of the earth's surface1 oceans1 and atmosphere were exactly those which favoured the origination1 the continuance1 and the development of living things4 ,the earth1 among all the heavenly bodies which we can examine at all closely1 is probably the only one on which life1 as we know it1 would have much chance of survival4 ,the ,sun as an abode of life we may at once put out of the question4 ,taking the planets in order of distance from the ,sun3 of ,mercury we know very little1 but astronomers like ,schiaparelli and ,lowell have pronounced it to be an airless1 dead planet with a surface cracked in cooling untold ages ago4 ,venus is believed to be much like the earth1 not differing greatly in size1 and probably having an atmosphere of considerable extent2#aj but its appearance is so bright1 viewed from the earth1 that it has been surmised that what we see is not the planet itself but its atmosphere always charged with clouds or possibly snow4 ,of ,mars as an abode of life1 and of the ,moon1 which is the body nearest to us1 we shall speak more fully in the present chapter4 ,coming to the outer major planets1 the giant ,jupiter--with a bulk more than a thousand times as great as the earth--has a constitution by no means so solid4 ,for many reasons the belief seems justified that ,jupiter must be a still hot1 and almost gaseous body1 without a solid crust4 ,if ,jupiter's comparatively small weight for its size and its wonderful and varying system of cloud coverings are evidence of an early stage of development and a high internal temperature1 still more is this the case with ,saturn4 ,in bulk it is not far inferior to ,jupiter2 but it is so much lighter than water that if some of its fragments fell into one of the earth's oceans they would float there4 ,its outer coverings or envelopes must consist of heated gases in active circulation4 ,of ,uranus and ,neptune1 still farther off1 we know very little1 and the progress of knowledge concerning them is very slow2 but it is more probable that they are in the early stage of development attributed to ,jupiter and ,saturn than in the solid stage of planets like the earth4 ,so that we may fairly dismiss the probability of the existence of life as we know it on any of them--and neglect incidentally1 therefore1 any possibility that life could have been carried in a meteorite from them to us4 ,whether there are other forms of life than any we know is a question hardly needing discussion4 ,footnote #aj3 ,w4 ,w4 ,bryant1 ,a ,history of ,astronomy 7,methuen71 #aijg4 ,there remains the question of the probability of life on the ,moon or on ,mars2 and the question of possible life on the ,moon is specially worth consideration1 because the earth's satellite was once part of the earth's mass4 ,we may first repeat briefly the explanation which ,sir ,g4 ,h4 ,darwin has given of the ,moon's separation from the earth4 ,if a flexible hoop or ring is spun very rapidly it will be seen to flatten itself at top and bottom 7or1 as we might say1 at its poles7 and broaden itself out at its middle or equator4 ,the semi-liquid earth once rotated so rapidly that its swelling equatorial belt was almost at the point of separation from the parent body4 ,before this occurred1 however1 the tension was so great that one large portion of the protuberance1 where it was weakest1 broke away1 and began to move around the earth at a considerable distance from it4 ,there are several estimates of the bulk of the earth thus shot off2 but we may assume that about one-fiftieth of the earth escaped thus4 ,it must have consisted of a considerable portion of the earth's solid crust1 and a much larger quantity of the molten rocks of the earth's interior4 ,the ,moon is much lighter than the earth4 ,the earth taken as a whole weighs about five and a half times as much as water4 ,if we consider its surface alone1 this weighs rather more than two and a half times the weight of water--from which it can be seen that the interior of the earth is very much denser than the earth's surface crust4#aa ,the ,moon weighs rather less than three and a half times its bulk in water4 ,this shows clearly that the ,moon is composed of material scraped off from the outer surface of the earth1 rather than of matter obtained from a considerable depth4 ,at the same time the layer of material removed had an appreciable thickness4 ,the volume of the ,moon is equivalent to a solid body whose surface is equal to the area of all the earth's oceans1 and whose depth would be thirty-six miles4 ,it seems probable1 therefore1 that at the time when the ,moon was torn off1 or shot off1 from the earth1 the parent body had a solid crust averaging at least thirty-six miles in thickness1 while beneath this crust the temperature was so high that the materials underneath were molten or liquid1 and in other places were only kept solid by the enormous pressure of the material above them4 ,when the ,moon separated from the earth three-quarters of this crust was carried away4 ,it has sometimes been supposed that the remainder was torn into two parts1 one of which formed the great land area of the ,eastern ,hemisphere and the other the great land area of which ,north and ,south ,america are the relics in the ,western ,hemisphere4 ,these two great areas1 at that time1 floated on the semi-liquid surface like two large ice-floes4 ,but they were1 of course1 a good deal heavier than ice1 and the molten stuff on which they floated was a good deal heavier than water4 ,later on this liquid stuff cooled and hardened4 ,but its bottom was still a good deal lower than the surface of the great areas of land which had floated on it2 and therefore it formed great depressions all about and surrounding them4 ,thus the depressions were there ready formed1 into which the waters of the earth1 beginning as rain and ending as rivers or lakes1 could flow as into reservoirs4 ,on the whole scientific men incline to believe that1 according to a popular tradition1 the ,moon may have been torn from the earth where the ,pacific ,ocean now lies1 and may have left that hollow behind it when it went4 ,footnote #aa3 ,the figures are3 earth's specific gravity #ef4 ,the specific gravity of the surface material ranges from1 in general1 between #bb and #cb1 with an average of #bg4 ,the specific gravity of the ,moon is #cd4 ,many people1 scientific men and astronomers among them1 have imagined the possibilities of life on the ,moon4 ,in his clever romance1 ,the ,first ,man on the ,moon1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells has gathered together all the more reasoned speculations on the subject4 ,they all turn on one point--,is there an atmosphere on the ,moon which would support life8 ,there are gases of some kind on the ,moon4 ,there must be gases1 for example1 shut up in the moon's rocks2 there may be gases in the ,moon's interior4 ,mr4 ,wells imagined that there was a good deal of gas inside the ,moon2 indeed1 he went so far as to suppose that the ,moon was partly hollow4 ,if it were we should perhaps be able to accept that as an explanation of the fact that the ,moon is1 bulk for bulk1 considerably lighter than the earth1 and is1 in short1 rather lighter than we should expect it to be4 ,if the ,moon were hollow there might be an atmosphere and water inside it1 and a race of beings might live there--in the underworld of the ,moon4 ,the ,selenites1 as ,mr4 ,wells called them1 would probably be not in the least like human beings1 though they might be immeasurably more intelligent1 because1 seeing that the earth cooled at a later period than the moon1 life might have begun earlier on the ,moon1 and would have had1 perhaps1 many hundreds of thousands of years in which to develop4 ,mr4 ,wells therefore imagined the ,selenites to resemble in some respects a race of very large insects with enormous brains4 ,however1 we need pursue these romantic speculations no further1 but must turn to inquire not whether life might exist in the interior of the ,moon 7which we can never see71 but what would be the kind of life that could exist on the part of the ,moon that we can see4 ,in the first place1 we believe that the atmosphere there would be very1 very thin2 as thin as the atmosphere which is left in the bell-receiver of an ordinary air-pump when the experimenter has done the best he can to exhaust it of air altogether4#ab ,in the second place1 the atmosphere would not be one of oxygen and nitrogen as that of the earth is1 but of some heavy gas like carbon-dioxide 7which will not support animal life74 ,the question is whether it would support vegetable life4 ,several astronomers 7no less eminent a one than ,w4 ,h4 ,pickering1 of ,harvard ,university1 among them7 have supposed that it might1 and they have imagined great jungles of vegetation springing up on the surface of the ,moon under the influence of the ,sun's rays--jungles which are stricken down again when they are four days old under the oncoming of night4 ,for the ,moon's day is equal to several of ours1 and when night comes there the temperature sinks to a level colder far than that of the earth's ,arctic regions2 so cold1 in fact1 that even gases would be turned to liquid and then frozen solid4 ,it is by no means certain that the gases we have mentioned would support vegetable life1 but assuming that they would1 we should then expect the vegetation to spring up with extraordinary rapidity--because it would be so little hampered by its own weight--when the vertical rays of the ,sun were beating down on the ,moon4 ,when that was the case the temperature there would be from #ejj 7,f47 to #fjj 7,f47 higher than during the night4 ,footnote #ab3 ,the exhaustion produced by an ordinary air-pump is never a complete vacuum4 ,exhaustion which leaves only #a_/bjjjth of the original air is unusually efficient4 ,perhaps we may here explain some of the reasons why vegetation would be little hampered by its own weight on the ,moon4 ,it is similar to the reasons why light gases escape from the ,moon4 ,the mass of the ,moon--that is to say1 the amount of matter it contains--is #a_/hjth that of the earth4 ,therefore since the weight of a body means the measure of the force by which gravity attracts it 7to the earth or to the ,moon71 bodies on the ,moon's surface are much lighter than they are here4 ,the ratio is almost exactly one-sixth2 consequently a man weighing #ahj lbs4 on the earth if transplanted to the ,moon would find that he only weighed #cj lbs4 there1 and could carry two men at once on his back for twenty miles much more easily than he could walk that distance without a load here4 ,he could throw a stone six times as far as on the earth1 and jump six times as high4 ,indeed1 jumping over a moderate-sized house would be a gymnastic feat scarcely worth mentioning on the ,moon4 ,after consideration of all these facts2 and despite the belief of some distinguished astronomers that changes are sometimes perceptible on the ,moon's surface2 and that hoar frost can be perceived there2 and perhaps volcanic eruptions--the general conclusion arrived at by astronomical authority is that organic life does not exist either on the ,moon or in it2 and we may conclude this outline of the speculations concerning it by quoting the ,american astronomer1 ,professor ,n4 ,s4 ,shaler3 ,it is naturally painful to conclude that the ,moon is and always has been deprived of those features of existence which we deem the nobler2 that it has never known the stir of air or water or the higher life of beings who inherit the profit of experience1 and thereby climb the way that has led upward to man4 ,that these large gifts have been denied to the nearest companion of the earth has its lesson for the naturalist4 ,how vast are the effects arising from the interrelation of actions4444 ,if the gases could have been retained in the ,moon 7by its attractive force7 there is no reason why it should not have had the history of a miniature earth4 ,as it is1 from the beginning it appears to have been determined that the ,sun should not warm it in the same way as the earth2 that rain should not fall on it1 nor the stirrings of life and energy be visible on it4 ,there is no imaginable accident that can alter its state4 ,just as it is1 our ,moon is likely to see the ,sun go out4 ,this chapter may be ended by a brief application of some of these considerations to the case of the planet ,mars4 ,next to the ,moon ,mars is our nearest neighbour1 and the erection of great telescopes in ,america1 one of them at ,flagstaff ,observatory1 ,arizona1 where the air is extraordinarily clear and telescopic vision unusually penetrating1 has stimulated the observation of the planet to a very great degree during recent years4 ,mars has an atmosphere not nearly so dense as that of the earth1 but still dense enough in all probability to support some form of organic life4 ,it may1 for example1 support vegetation4 ,in some other respects ,mars resembles the earth4 ,it has arctic circles2 it has clouds1 though whether these are of vapour or of dust is not quite certain2 and it has a less variable temperature by far than that of the ,moon4 ,there are1 at any rate1 some of the conditions to support and perhaps to encourage life2 and if we could be certain that the atmosphere in ,mars more nearly resembles that of the earth1 and that its temperature was such as to be sometimes above that of our ,arctic regions1 then it would be difficult to deny that life1 and probably intelligent beings1 existed there4 ,one very able and intelligent astronomer is convinced that life and intelligent beings do exist there4 ,this is ,professor ,lowell1 of ,flagstaff ,observatory1 who has devoted a number of years and a great deal of money to the careful observation of the planet4 ,he has brought forward many cogent arguments to show that ,mars might be inhabited1 and that great telescopes can discover signs on it1 and may discover further signs1 which are a reason for supposing it to be so4 ,it is not1 however1 within the range of this book to examine these reasons in detail2 and we need only say that in the first decade of the twentieth century most astronomers1 despite the close examination of ,mars and its markings1 which had been conducted for more than a generation1 were still not convinced that life as we know it could exist there4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,hardening ,,of ,,rocks ,after the time when the great overflows of lava took place1 spreading over continents and sometimes seas1 there was an era when the explosions and outbursts began to diminish in violence1 and the world slowly settled down to conditions something like those which we see in our own day4 ,the seas were forming2 there was rainfall and summer and winter on the earth4 ,the rains and the winds1 the summer heats and winter snows were more violent than now1 and the volcanic activity of which we have spoken was much more fierce than anything of which mankind has any recollection4 ,in the ,british ,isles the rainfall in a year averages something in the neighbourhood of thirty inches4 ,in some regions of the earth it is as much as four times that amount1 and deluges of fifteen inches have fallen in a day4 ,but in the era of which we have spoken deluging rains that were to be measured in feet rather than inches fell incessantly4 ,the air was saturated with moisture1 and it no sooner descended on the warm earth than it steamed back to the clouds again4 ,for reasons not unlike these1 nor unconnected with them1 the great currents of air fed by the constant transference of vapour from the earth to the skies1 and the condensation of the vapour to rain1 falling again on the earth1 were greatly magnified4 ,thus the rocks of the earth1 some of them only cooling and not yet hardened1 were subjected to weathering of a kind of which it is hard to form any sufficient idea4 ,the key to all geology is that what is going on now on the earth is similar to what always has been happening1 7differing in degree rather than in kind71 and that consequently the rocks of millions of years ago were washed by rivers down to the lower levels and were deposited as sediment in streams1 in lakes1 and in the sea4 ,thus the age of the sedimentary rocks began while the earth was still too warm to preserve any vestiges of life4 ,earthquakes much more violent than now and volcanic outbursts often upset the steady order of things1 but the earth was settling down4 ,during this settling-down process rocks1 as we have seen1 were being formed by deposits2 but they were very liable still to be invaded by bursts of volcanic activity from the inner cauldron of the earth1 and they were very apt to be twisted out of their regular shape by great earth movements4 ,they were also liable to be baked by the neighbourhood of the restless1 unconfined molten rocks1 nearer then to the surface than now4 ,geologists call the great period of time when all the rocks continually flowed out on to the surface of the earth1 and were1 in fact1 all molten before they solidified1 the ,archan ,era 7from a ,greek word signifying the beginning74 ,next in order to these rocks are those which were laid down in the agitated times when the earth was still warm1 and when the climate of the earth might be described as a continual thunderstorm4 ,in this period earthquakes still had a great deal to do with the formation of the rocks1 but then1 as now1 the sea and lakes and oceans laid them down4 ,geologists call this the ,proterozoic ,era4 ,there are great masses of these ,proterozoic rocks in ,north ,america4 ,in ,arizona the three periods of rock formation are sometimes visible together1 and may1 indeed1 be perceived in some of our photographs2 the ,archan all jumbled together being the lowest2 ,proterozoic lying crumpled or tilted over them1 and the later rocks resting more regularly on these strata4 ,in ,america1 however1 these separate ages of the ,proterozoic rocks can be identified1 and each age is represented by rocks thousands of feet in thickness4 ,three separate ages of rocks are found in this great era in ,north ,america4 ,it is not very important to remember their names1 which are merely those of the localities where these great deposits are most marked1 but it is important not to forget that each of these depositions of rocks represents a period in the earth's history older than the lifetime of a river or a lake and as old as the lifetime of a continent4 ,the lowest of these divisions consists of rocks that are much altered by the heat of the rocks below4 ,the topmost division is hardly altered at all4 ,in ,scotland we have similar rocks4 ,the ,torridonian sandstones1 #hjjj to #aj1jjj feet thick1 are believed to belong to this era4 ,in ,france also1 in ,spain1 ,germany1 ,finland1 ,sweden1 ,india1 and ,brazil1 the ,proterozoic rocks are found4 ,in the lowermost of them are no signs that living things ever existed1 but in the upper ones f life begin to appear4 ,we may see in them to-day the first fossils4 ,a fossil means literally a thing dug up1 and was a term applied at first to all kinds of mineral substances taken out of the earth4 ,we use the word now exclusively for the remains of plants and animals embedded in any kind of rock4 ,in later chapters of this volume a good deal will have to be said about fossils1 and of the way in which they tell us the kind of life that existed when they were first sunk in the rocks where now they are found1 and how also they give us information about the climate and the distribution of land and sea1 of lake and of river1 in those eras far in the backward and the dark abyss of time4 ,illustration3 ,stereo ,copyright1 ,underwood ,u4 ,london and ,new ,york ,the ,pinnacled ,castle-like ,peaks of the ,ramshorn ,mountains ,of ,wyoming ,the successive strata of sandstone are clearly evident in the peaks4 ,for the present1 however1 we may concern ourselves with the condition of the earth and its rocks in ,proterozoic times1 observing merely that the remains of animals which we find there are of an order 7,crustacea7 which shows that life had progressed a good deal from its earliest beginnings in the age when the rocks containing these crustacea were laid down4 ,after these rocks had been deposited they were subjected to many influences of which we have only dim conceptions4 ,in a previous chapter we have compared the layers of the undermost and harder rocks of the earth to the lines on a page of this book as they would appear if the pages were crumpled up into a ball4 ,sometimes the beds of solid rock have been so distorted that they look like waves of the sea2 sometimes they have been completely overturned2 hardly ever have they been suffered to lie down flat4 ,more than that has happened to them4 ,their very nature has been changed4 ,this was done partly by heat1 partly by pressure1 partly by shock4 ,let us consider the heat first4 ,when a mass of erupted molten rock forces its way through the earth's crust1 it produces effects which are quite easily recognised on the rocks it penetrates4 ,limestone becomes hard and crystalline4 ,rocks with silica in them become glassy and like quartz or other hard rocks which are sometimes polished to make ornaments4 ,clayey strata become baked into hard brick-like rocks4 ,the changes are not altogether due to the heat4 ,the eruption of rocks is accompanied by steam at high pressure and with all sorts of acids in the steam1 so that chemical changes are also produced4 ,it has been supposed by ,sir ,william ,crookes that diamonds1 which are crystals of carbon1 were produced by carbon being melted at some enormous heat under great pressure4 ,given the requisite conditions of heat and pressure1 the parts of rocks which by their chemical composition are susceptible to crystallisation will form into enormous crystals--not unlike the intrusive rocks themselves4 ,they can1 however1 be readily distinguished from the shapes which the intrusive rocks 7like basalt7 assume4 ,the basalt rocks which form1 for example1 the ,giant's ,causeway in ,ireland were volcanic lavas4 ,sometimes the lavas were masses which had solidified underground and had been thrust up by pressure from below or have been exposed by the weathering of the rocks above4 ,sometimes they have been lava poured out on the surface4 ,the black compact kinds most often are seen in forms like columns4 ,if these veins of volcanic rock have been thrust up through a bed of coal1 the coal is changed or metamorphosed where the basalt has pierced it4 ,sometimes it becomes hard coal like anthracite2 sometimes it is changed into graphite--the black rock of which pencils are frequently made4 ,limestone pierced by basalt becomes marble4 ,when sandstone is discovered in contact with ancient volcanic rock it is found to have lost its reddish colour1 and to have become white1 grey1 green1 or black4 ,it separates into crystals2 it becomes glassy and hard4 ,all these instances are those of rocks which we can perceive to have been altered by coming into contact with great heat4 ,but there is another kind of change of a very much more widespread character which can be perceived among the most ancient of those rocks which we know must have been first quietly laid down as sediments4 ,it is sometimes spoken of as general metamorphism4 ,this widespreading change may extend over great regions and vast extents of country4 ,the most striking series of such rocks was first described by ,sir ,w4 ,e4 ,logan1 ,director of the ,canadian ,geological ,survey2 and he estimated the thickness of them at #cj1jjj feet4 ,they lie beneath all the unaltered rocks1 and are 7in ,north ,america7 the rocks which were the base or foundation of the ,north ,american continent before the later sedimentary rocks were laid down on them4 ,they are called the ,laurentian rocks1 because they were first found in the neighbourhood of the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river2 but they exist in many places besides ,canada and ,north ,america2 and the foundations of ,scandinavia and of the ,hebrides are of the same texture and material4 ,now this change or metamorphism does not appear to be the same as that produced by the intrusion of hot eruptive rocks4 ,let us take a simple instance4 ,we have seen that limestone is changed by heat into marble4 ,sometimes its fossils are preserved2 sometimes they completely disappear4 ,sometimes it is threaded by veins of harder and more crystalline rocks4 ,but in the case of the white marble of ,carrara1 which was once a bed of coral1 the change seems to have taken place less violently1 less suddenly1 more gradually4 ,the change was due1 therefore1 not to violent heat suddenly applied1 but to the penetrating action of water1 probably aided by sustained heat1 and certainly aided by pressure4 ,when a rock is subjected to sufficient pressure its very structure will alter2 its original constituents may be torn out of it1 pressed out of it1 filtered out of it1 and afterwards rearranged4 ,once more let us call attention to the astounding effects which great pressures can have4 ,if pressure enough be applied iron can be made to flow like treacle2 and the pressure of two or three miles of strata is enough to crumple or shear or tear any rock however hard4 ,now we have shown that in the earth's long history some regions are always being denuded of materials in order that these materials may be laid down as sediments elsewhere4 ,these movements may be compared to those of a pair of scales1 in which we are continually taking weight from the scale pan that is weighted in order to put it into the scale that is empty4 ,the scale that is weighted is the land from which material is being removed by the rains and the rivers2 the scale that is empty is the sea1 in which the eroded material is laid down to form beds and strata4 ,these two scales are never quite balanced4 ,but suppose a time comes when we have taken all the material we can from the weighted scale1 so as to make the hitherto unweighted one the heavier--what will happen8 ,the newly weighted scale will inevitably fall1 and we shall have to begin to reverse our system of taking from1 and adding to1 the scales4 ,similarly there will always come a time when there will be a flow of the earth-mass from the areas which have been receiving great loads of sediments1 towards the areas which have been robbed to supply them4 ,think for a moment how the weight of a mountain set up in a plain might act if we can imagine some giant force piling up the mountain higher and higher4 ,the mere weight of the mountain would tend to make it settle1 and begin to press outwards all round its base4 ,if you find a difficulty in seeing how this could be1 imagine the mountain to be made of pitch4 ,in such a case we can quite easily realise how it would spread4 ,similarly mountains1 or even great plains and plateaux1 of sediment built up for millions of years in the oceans1 would tend to spread2 and they would spread towards the land which in the first place had supplied them with materials4 ,at first1 of course1 the stiffness or rigidity of the land would resist this spreading4 ,but the masses thus built up would become so great and so heavy in the course of millions of years that no stiffness of the land could resist their spread4 ,they would begin to roll or slide towards the land2 the heavier parts must always roll towards the lighter4 ,the action would be as resistless as the slow moving onward motion of those masses of ice called glaciers2 or as the movement of the great ice plains in ,greenland2 or of those ice plains which in ,antarctic regions are always spreading towards the sea4 ,there are two views of it4 ,there is the outward pressure of the regions where the sediments of rock are being laid down4 ,there is the inward pressure towards the regions which have lost soil4 ,sometimes these two actions may conspire4 ,a region where great denudation is taking place may send its waste material towards the sea1 where it is deposited near the coast and not far from the highlands or mountains or plateaux which founded the soil4 ,the shallows near the shore become a belt which is being loaded2 the big mountains near by are a belt which is unloading2 and thus there are two strains set up together4 ,it is not hard to see the enormous crumpling effect which this would produce on the lower strata one or two miles beneath the surface of the sea and three or four miles below the topmost crests of the mountains4 ,these are circumstances which may not be common2 but the reader will find a quite sufficient explanation of some of the crumpling1 and many of the changes in composition and appearance of the deep-sunk rocks1 if he remembers the great pressure over them1 and the fact that the high regions may be supposed always to have a tendency to slip towards the lowlands4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,earthquakes ,,in ,,geology ,it is more than likely that earthquakes in the geological past were very much more violent1 widespread1 and frequent than they are now2 and they may have had a more potent effect in overturning the rocks of the earth4 ,even now their effects and the circumstances which accompany them are tremendous and terrifying4 ,when the great earthquake comes1 says ,major ,edward ,dutton in his book on ,earthquakes1 it comes quickly and is quickly gone4 ,its duration is generally a matter of seconds rather than of minutes1 though instances have been known in which it lasted from three to four minutes4 ,perhaps forty-five seconds would be a fair average4 ,the first sensation is a confused murmuring sound of a strange and even weird character4 ,almost simultaneously loose objects begin to tremble and clatter4 ,sometimes almost in an instant1 sometimes more gradually1 but always quickly1 the sound becomes a roar1 the clattering becomes a crashing4 ,the rapid quiver grows into a rude violent shaking of increasing amplitude4 ,everything beneath seems beaten with rapid blows of measureless power2 loose objects begin to fly about2 those that are lightly hung break from their fastenings4 ,the shaking increases in violence4 ,the floor begins to heave and rock like a boat on the waves4 ,plaster ceilings fall1 the walls crack1 the chimneys go crashing down1 everything moves1 heaves1 tosses4 ,huge waves seem to rush under the foundations as if driven by a gale4 ,the swing now becomes longer and still more powerful4 ,the walls crack open4 ,a sudden lurch throws out the front wall into the street1 or tears off or shakes down in rubble the whole corner of the building4 ,then comes a longer swaying motion1 not unlike a ship at sea1 but more rapid2 not alone from side to side1 but forward and backward as well1 and both motions combined with a wriggle which it seems impossible for anything to withstand4 ,it is this compound1 figure-#h motion which is so destructive1 rending asunder the strongest structures as if they were built of clay4 ,it is the culmination of the quake4 ,it settles into a more regular and less violent swing2 then suddenly abates and ceases4 ,out in the open country the signs and portents are of a different character4 ,the first intimation is a strange sound4 ,some have likened it to the sighing of pine trees in the wind1 or to falling rain2 others to the distant roar of the surf2 others to the far-off rumble of the railway train4 ,it grows louder4 ,the earth begins to quiver1 then to shake rudely4 ,soon the ground begins to heave4 ,then it is actually seen to be traversed by visible waves--something like waves at sea1 but of less height and moving much more swiftly4 ,the sound becomes a roar4 ,it is difficult to stand1 and at length becomes impossible to do so4 ,people fling themselves to the ground to avoid being dashed against it4 ,the trees are seen to sway violently1 sometimes so much that they touch the ground with their branches4444 ,as the waves rush past the ground opens in cracks and closes again4 ,as the cracks close the squeezed-out air blows out sand and gravel1 and sometimes sand and water are spurted high in air4 ,the roar becomes appalling4 ,through its din are heard loud1 deep1 solemn booms that seem like the voice of some higher ,power speaking out of the depths of the universe4 ,suddenly the storm subsides1 the earth comes speedily to rest1 and all is over4 ,and yet1 says ,major ,dutton1 this description suggests but a single instance1 or a few instances1 of what earthquakes are like4 ,in some the full vigour of the shock comes with explosive suddenness4 ,people find themselves suddenly thrown to the earth1 the ground swept from under their feet4 ,sometimes the rolling waves of earth are absent1 and the movement is a rude quiver1 rapidly vibrating in every direction--twisting1 contorting1 wrenching the ground as if in a determined effort to shake it into dust4 ,sometimes the most pronounced motion is up and down1 as if the earth beneath were being hammered with giant strokes4 ,sometimes the growth1 the climax1 the dying out of the earthquake movement are repeated before the first shocks have ceased1 or a few minutes afterwards1 or even with an interval of several hours4 ,the last-named case is1 however1 uncommon1 though after the first shocks of a great earthquake there are minor shocks and tremblings for days1 weeks1 or months afterwards4 ,some of these are of considerable force1 though they do not inflict the devastation of the principal earthquake4 ,the greatest earthquakes are not always those which wreak the largest amount of destruction4 ,evidently an earthquake1 the centre of which is situated near a great city1 is more appalling in its effects than one which takes place in some desert place like the steppes of ,siberia4 ,recent earthquakes in ,italy and near ,san ,francisco were regarded as great earthquakes because they took place in thickly populated neighbourhoods4 ,in cities1 writes ,professor ,w4 ,h4 ,hobbs1 to the rumbling of the earthquake is quickly added the crash of falling masonry1 and to this succeeds an uncanny grey darkness as the air becomes filled with the dust from broken bricks1 mortar1 and plaster4444 ,in places the ground opens and swallows the objects which lie upon it4 ,ponds are sucked down and disappear1 and great fountains of water gush out and flood the country4 ,during the ,new ,madrid earthquakes of #ahaa and #ahab water was shot upwards in vertical sheets and carried to the tops of the highest trees4 ,near ,lake ,baikal1 during the earthquake on ,january #bfth1 #ahfb1 the surface of the steppe1 over two hundred square miles1 was suddenly dropped2 fountains opened at many parts within the sunken area1 and water shot up to heights of twenty feet4 ,the water gushed also in great volume from the open wells1 and where these were tightly covered by wooden caps1 their lids were shot up into the air like corks from champagne bottles4 ,on the night of ,september #eth1 #ahif1 during heavy earthquake shocks in ,iceland1 a new warm spring suddenly opened to the accompaniment of loud roaring and whistling1 and threw water1 steam1 and fragments of rock to a height estimated at six hundred feet4 ,the force of the new geyser was1 however1 soon spent1 and ten days later it ceased to flow4 ,nearly all the ,icelandic geysers suffered changes during this earthquake1 and the famous ,strokkur1 which had been born during the earthquake of #aghi1 suddenly ceased its eruption and came to an end4 ,illustration3 ,stereo ,copyright1 ,underwood ,u4 ,london and ,new ,york ,a ,geyser in ,action ,in geysers the suggestion that the fountains of steam and hot water originate by the contact of water with hot rock is irresistible4 ,in steep-walled mountain valleys earthquakes nearly always cause landslips1 and these may completely block the course of a river4 ,the lake formed in this manner during the great earthquake of ,january #beth1 #acdh1 in ,carinthia destroyed no fewer than seventeen villages1 and to-day1 nearly six centuries afterwards1 the area is a great marsh4 ,after the earthquake near ,lake ,baikal in ,siberia1 of which we have spoken and in which the ground sank1 the sunken area was soon after invaded by the waters of the lake4 ,sometimes when the earthquake takes place near the mouth of a great river1 the channels of the streams are changed4 ,after the ,californian earthquake of #aheg the current of the ,river ,kern was turned upstream2 and the ,san ,gabriel ,river left its bed to follow a new course offered to it by an earthquake fissure4 ,after the ,japanese earthquake of #ahia a former lake was cut in half by one of the earthquake displacements1 and one half of the lake was left high and dry4 ,near ,flagstaff1 ,arizona1 there is an old earthquake crack along which the waters of several rivers which intersect it all disappear down the crevice4 ,the most remarkable revelation of the process of lake draining during earthquake shocks was furnished1 however1 according to ,professor ,hobbs1 by the former ,lake ,eulalie near ,new ,madrid4 ,after the shocks of #ahab the lake completely disappeared4 ,on the lake bottom thus exposed there was revealed a series of fissures down the funnel-shaped openings which the waters had disappeared4 ,it will be seen from many of the foregoing instances that whatever are the principal causes of earthquakes1 they must have played a great part in the shaping of events in the geological past2 and the only limitation which we can place in the importance of the part they played will depend on whether we regard the earthquake as having been caused by a movement of the underlying strata1 or whether we believe that the same cause which produces earthquakes may produce alterations in the lie of the strata themselves4 ,in the next chapter we shall describe some of the effects produced on land by earthquakes4 ,but impressive as some of these effects are1 it is by no means certain that the greatest earthquakes take place on land at all4 ,they may take place at sea1 deep underneath the ocean4 ,our opportunities for observing such quakes1 however1 are much smaller than are afforded by land earthquakes4 ,the instruments which have been devised for observing earth tremors will measure the smallest of such disturbances1 and will record earthquakes the centres of which are thousands of miles away4 ,these delicate instruments often record distant earthquakes1 the exact locality of which is never determined4 ,no doubt1 some of these distant tremors originate in the ocean bed2 but the seaquake can only be localised when the water is put into a state of vibration sufficiently energetic to rock the ship and its loose objects and thus affect the senses4 ,vast waves are sometimes rolled in on the shores of continents1 and are undoubtedly caused by some great disturbance beneath the ocean4 ,such waves have been known through a long period of history in the ,eastern ,mediterranean1 where they have ravaged the shores of ,syria and ,asia ,minor2 and it is sometimes supposed that the great deluge on which the ,ark of ,noah floated was accompanied by a mighty sea-wave1 rolled in upon the lands of ,chaldea from the ,persian ,gulf4 ,off the ,pacific coast of ,south ,america these waves arise most often and most mightily4 ,they have been especially formidable in the angle where the coast of ,peru meets that of ,chili1 and the harbours of ,pisco1 ,arica1 ,tacna1 ,iquique1 and ,pisagua have been repeatedly subjected to these destructive invasions4 ,usually they are foreshadowed by a violent earthquake1 and the inhabitants1 taking warning1 fly to the hills4 ,the sea-wave does not1 however1 always follow the earthquake1 but it appears often enough to arouse serious fear that it may come whenever the ground is strongly shaken4 ,the first sign of the coming disaster is the withdrawal of the sea from the shore1 leaving bare the bed of the harbour4 ,a few minutes later the sea returns in a high1 irresistible wave1 which overflows the adjoining lands4 ,again it withdraws and again returns1 and these oscillations may last for many hours1 slowly diminishing in the amount of rise and fall till they die out4 ,the most memorable seaquake of the ,chilian coast was that of ,august #acth1 #ahfh1 when the coast of ,south ,america was shaken from ,ecuador to ,valdivia4 ,in the town of ,arica most of the buildings were thrown down4 ,a few minutes later the sea began to retire slowly from the shore1 so that ships anchored in seven fathoms of water were left high and dry4 ,then the sea returned like a great wall of water1 which caught up the ships in the roadstead and swept them inland like chips of wood4 ,among them was the ,united ,states war vessel ,wateree1 which was carried inland nearly half a mile and was left1 little injured1 on dry land when again the wave receded4 ,the wave of this catastrophe was felt far away from ,chili4 ,it was perceived on the coasts of ,australasia1 ,japan1 ,kamchatka1 ,alaska1 and ,california4 ,in the harbour of ,hakodate1 in ,japan1 a series of waves was registered on the tide-gauge4 ,the ordinary tide in that port is only about two and a half to three feet4 ,on this occasion the water rose and fell a height of ten feet in twenty minutes4 ,it had taken the first wave twenty-five hours to travel the distance of #gfjj miles from ,south ,america4 ,on ,may #ith1 #ahgg1 another seaquake almost as great as this was felt in many of the same places4 ,this was on the occasion of the ,iquique earthquake4 ,at ,arica the stranded hulk of the ,wateree1 which had remained high and dry for nine years1 was picked up and swept farther inland4 ,like its predecessor1 the wave was felt all over the ,pacific4 ,at ,samoa the height of the waves varied from six to twelve feet2 in ,new ,zealand from three to twenty feet2 in ,japan from five to ten feet4 ,when a wave reaches shallow water it piles itself up to a height1 as any one knows who has watched the waves coming in on the sea-shore1 so that the height of a wave measured on the tide-gauge of a seaport is a good deal greater than that of the height of the wave when it is far out on the ocean4 ,in fact1 the mid-ocean height of the wave is likely to be inches while the in-shore wave is measured in feet4 ,an illustration of this can be seen on the coast of ,cornwall1 where sometimes1 on quite a calm day the sea that looks so still breaks on the shore in big rollers4 ,we cannot tell exactly how high an earthquake wave may be in mid-ocean1 but we know it cannot usually be very great1 though it travels at great speeds--sometimes as much as five miles a minute1 or three hundred miles an hour4 ,thus we should not expect that ships far out at sea would often notice seaquakes unless the quake took place very near them4 ,there are1 however1 some instances4 ,captain ,gales1 of the ship ,florence ,nightingale1 reported that on ,january #beth1 #ahei1 while near ,st4 ,paul's ,rocks1 not far from the ,equator1 we felt a strong shock of an earthquake4 ,it began with a rumbling sound like distant thunder and lasted about forty seconds4 ,i was quite well acquainted with earthquakes1 as ,i had experienced a good many on the west coast of ,america1 but never had ,i felt so severe a one4 ,glass and dishes rattled so vigorously that ,i was surprised to find them uninjured4 ,a good many objects fell down1 and it was as if the ship were grounding on a reef4 ,another report from a locality not far from this speaks of a strange submarine noise not unlike distant thunder1 or still more like the distant firing of heavy guns4 ,at the same time there was a vibration of the ship as though the anchor had been let go4 ,the foregoing are representative of the large majority of the reports of seaquakes4 ,the ship quivers1 vibrates2 loose objects clatter and tumble4 ,there is a strange thunderous noise in the sea4 ,the first impression is as if the ship were grinding upon the bottom1 and there is an instinctive rush of the crew to the deck to see if the ship is not on a reef4 ,in some instances there are some forcible disturbances4 ,m4 ,vulet d',aourst speaks of a seaquake so severe that the ,admiral feared the complete destruction of the corvette4 ,heavy objects1 including cannon and their carriages1 were thrown upon the deck4 ,the ship itself seemed to be hurled upwards4 ,one of the explanations offered of a phenomenon such as the last described is that the vessel has been near a submarine volcanic eruption of great power4 ,the places where some or most of the seaquakes have been observed have been charted1 and certain districts of the ocean have been found to produce more of these disturbances than others4 ,among the first to be thus determined were two1 located in the ,atlantic ,ocean1 very near the ,equator and nearly midway between ,cape ,palmas on the southeastern coast of ,liberia and ,cape ,st4 ,roque1 ,brazil4 ,one of them is the ,st4 ,paul's ,rocks district1 of which mention has already been made4 ,another district from which seaquakes have been reported with exceptional frequency is the ,north ,atlantic in the neighbourhood of the ,azores4 ,between these islands and the coast of ,portugal it may be remembered that the great quake originated which1 on ,november #ast1 #agge1 destroyed ,lisbon4 ,the ,west ,indian ,deep1 that profound basin of the ,atlantic lying north of the ,lesser ,antilles and east of the ,bahamas1 where the ,atlantic has its greatest depths and where its bottom has its greatest inequalities1 is another district from which an unusual number of seaquakes have been reported4 ,the usual explanation of their origin is that in these neighbourhoods1 owing to the great pressure of water above them1 there are continual slips and fractures of the sea bottom1 like landslips on land1 and that into the great cavities thus produced the water rushes1 and thus sets up disturbances which show themselves on the surface like waves1 very much in the same way that the water rushing through the escape of a bath produces small disturbances on the surface of the water in the bath4 ,to satisfy the requirements of such a wave as rolled in upon the ,south ,american coast at ,arica in #ahfh would require the sudden drop of many hundred square miles of sea bottom--perhaps of several thousand square miles4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,some ,,famous ,,earthquakes ,of all earthquakes perhaps the best known and remembered is that of ,lisbon on ,november #ast1 #agee1 and volumes have been written about it4 ,the first shocks of this earthquake came without other warning than a deep sound resembling thunder1 which appeared to proceed from beneath the ground1 and it was immediately followed by a quaking which threw down the entire city of ,lisbon4 ,in six minutes sixty thousand persons perished4 ,the day was almost immediately turned into night1 owing to the thickness of the dust from the ruined city4 ,a few minutes afterwards fire sprang up among the ruins4 ,the new ,lisbon quay1 which had been built entirely of marble1 suddenly sank down into the bay with an immense crowd of people1 who thronged to it for safety1 and it is said that none of the bodies of the drowned were ever seen again4 ,following hard on the first shocks the sea retired from the land1 carrying boats and other craft with it1 only to return in a great wave1 which completed the destruction in and about the city4 ,this great sea wave1 the mightiest that has ever been described in connection with an earthquake1 is said to have washed not only the coasts of ,portugal and ,spain1 but to have extended with destructive violence to other countries4 ,at ,kinsale1 in ,ireland1 it was strong enough to whirl vessels about in the harbour and to pour into the market-place1 and it was of great violence also at the island of ,madeira4 ,portions of the sea-coast between ,cape-da-,roca and ,cape ,carvociro fell away into the sea1 and the damage was very great along the coast between ,cape ,st4 ,vincent and the mouth of the ,guadiana4 ,the great ,sierra da ,estrella1 on the west of the ,tagus valley1 was split and rent in a most remarkable manner1 and threw down avalanches of rock into the valley4 ,the great earthquake which shook ,calabria and ,north-,eastern ,sicily in the year #aghc stands out in rather striking contrast with other disturbances of history1 because it was carefully studied by a great number of skilled observers4 ,among them were ,vivenzio1 the court physician of the ,king of ,naples1 who has supplied us with a narrative of the events2 ,grimaldi1 the ,minister of ,war1 who at the ,king's command visited the region and has left accurate measurements of the greater and lesser fissures associated with the earthquake2 ,pignaturo1 a physician1 who kept a record of the long-continuing shocks1 together with an estimate of their intensities2 the ,french geologist ,dolomieu2 and ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 who was the ,british ,ambassador at ,naples4 ,the ,academy of ,naples sent a special commission to the scene of the earthquake's destruction1 and prepared a bulky report of great scientific value4 ,calabria is a country which has many times been racked with earthquakes2 the disturbances being almost as conspicuous for number as in ,japan4 ,the areas shaken have not usually been great in extent1 but as regards the geological changes and the loss to life by which they have been accompanied1 they rank among the greatest in history4 ,the shocks of #aghc1 which cost thirty thousand lives1 came without warning on ,february #eth1 and in two minutes threw down the structures in hundreds of cities and villages scattered through ,calabria and ,north-,eastern ,sicily4 ,the great central granite formation of ,calabria1 which was but slightly disturbed by the first shock1 was more heavily shaken by those which followed2 and it was noted by the early writers on this earthquake that the mountains had been a little raised in comparison with the neighbouring plains at their bases4 ,the fact of the elevation of mountains by earthquakes or some other underground disturbance has been elsewhere noted4 ,on ,november #aith1 #ahbb1 a great earthquake shook the ,chilian coast for a distance of twelve hundred miles north and south4 ,the greatest energy was shown about one hundred miles north of ,valparaiso1 where the coast was found to have risen suddenly from three to five feet for a distance which has never been accurately ascertained1 but which is known to have exceeded thirty-five miles4 ,in #ahce and in #ahcg similar elevations of the coast were caused by earthquakes at ,concepcion1 about three hundred miles south of ,valparaiso1 and at ,valdivia1 about two hundred miles south of ,concepcion4 ,charles ,darwin1 in the ,voyage of the ,beagle1 says3 ,i have convincing proofs that this part of the continent of ,south ,america has been elevated near the coast at least from four to five hundred feet1 and in some parts from one thousand to thirteen hundred feet1 since the epoch of living shells4 ,darwin finds his evidence in the raised beaches near the coast on which these shells abound4 ,that this uplift has been going on by small and sudden movements1 from a foot to ten feet at each shock1 for more than two centuries is attested by good evidence4 ,the coast in many places is proven to be from twenty to thirty feet higher to-day than it was in the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 in his ,principles of ,geology1 gives a most interesting account of the sudden upheaval of a portion of a mountain range1 with the accompaniment of a great earthquake1 near ,wellington1 in ,new ,zealand1 in ,january1 #ahee4 ,both the ,north and ,south ,islands of that colony have been affected by upliftings during the nineteenth century1 and these movements have been attended by powerful and far-reaching earthquakes4 ,the changes wrought by these movements on the shores and farther inland as well have been remarkable during the last hundred years4 ,another example of the same kind of activity is seen in the occasional rise of islands from the sea2 but to this we shall refer again1 and for the present we may return to the ,calabrian earthquake1 which presented many curious and many characteristic features4 ,during the earthquake the surface of the country heaved in great undulations1 which were productive of a feeling of sea-sickness1 and which1 according to some observers1 made the clouds appear to stand still1 as they will sometimes seem to do from the deck of a tossing ship4 ,the fissures which appeared in the ground were numbered by thousands1 and sometimes the displacements of the earth amounted to as much as ten feet4 ,houses were lifted high up2 in other places the land or the sea-floor sank several feet4 ,many of the fissures opened1 spurted out sand or water1 and then closed again2 and some of the ,calabrian plains after the earthquake were found to be dotted with circular hollows1 on the average about the size of carriage wheels1 which were like wells1 but were sometimes filled with sand instead of water4 ,these were afterwards found to be ,v-shaped4 ,in addition to these hundreds of small cone-shaped hollows or wells there were other water basins more deserving the name of ponds or lakes4 ,one of these in the neighbourhood of ,seminara1 to which the name of ,lago di ,tolfilo was given1 was about a third of a mile in length1 and was so copiously fed by the springs ranged in a fissure in its bottom that all attempts to drain it proved useless4 ,near ,sitizam a valley was completely choked up by the landslip from opposite sides1 and behind this new dam a lake was formed which was about two miles in length and one mile in breadth4 ,vivenzio states that fifty lakes arose at the time of the earthquake1 and the ,government surveyors1 who included ponds1 counted no fewer than #bae4 ,the first effect of the more violent shocks was generally to dry up the rivers4 ,immediately afterwards many of their beds were so blocked up over them that the rivers overflowed4 ,from the rock of ,scylla opposite to ,charybdis1 in the ,straits of ,messina1 large sections of cliff were broken off1 in one instance for a whole mile's length of coast4 ,the sea and the neighbourhood was greatly disturbed2 and soon after the fall of the cliffs of ,scylla the sea rose to a height of twenty feet1 and the wave rolling over the coast-line drowned #aejj people4 ,japan is perhaps as unstable an area as anywhere exists on the earth1 and the records of its earthquakes are more complete than in any other country4 ,the number of destructive earthquakes recorded there in the last fifteen hundred years is #bbc4 ,since the beginning of the seventeenth century the records are fairly perfect1 and it is found that since then a destructive earthquake has occurred somewhere in the ,japanese islands nearly every two and a half years4 ,for the lighter shocks systematic observation has become necessary1 and the ,japanese1 with that development of the scientific spirit which is so remarkable an accompaniment of their progress during the last generation1 have organised an ,earthquake ,recording ,service--a ,seismological ,bureau--at which such conspicuous meteorologists as ,mr4 ,john ,milne and ,dr4 ,knott have worked1 and which has produced great seismologists among the ,japanese themselves4 ,as many of our readers are aware1 the earth is hardly ever still2 it trembles continually like a boiling kettle1 though not for the same reasons2 and the delicate instruments for measuring earthquakes1 which are called seismometers1 show continual earth tremors or earth shivers4 ,since #ahhh the earthquakes of all intensities recorded in ,japan give a yearly average of #addg shocks1 or a daily average of four4 ,until the great earthquake of #ahia1 the greatest shocks within the memory of living men were those of #ahed-e4 ,the earthquake of ,october #bhth1 #ahia1 shook an area of #bdc1jjj square miles1 or more than three-fifths of the entire area of ,japan1 though the greatest damage was done on the ,mino-,owari ,plain1 a broad expanse of country occupied by rice fields and surrounded by mountains4 ,without the least warning the blow came1 and in the first shock #bj1jjj buildings fell1 #gjjj people were killed and #ag1jjj were injured4 ,innumerable fissures great and small appeared all over the plain1 and the houses in the thickly packed villages fell like packs of cards4 ,the plain is one of ,japan's great gardens1 and supported almost #ajjj people to the square mile4 ,villages were thereabout continuous1 and a narrow lane of unusual destruction could be traced through them for twenty miles4 ,after the first shock there were numerous smaller ones1 and during the next five months no fewer than #bef shocks were recorded in all4 ,among the more remarkable effects of the earthquake was the actual shifting of the country4 ,along a crack many miles in length the plain after the earthquake was some feet lower on one side than on the other4 ,reservoirs and swamps were formed1 as well as sand pits and mud craters4 ,the most conspicuous effect1 however1 from a geological standpoint was the shifting and distortion of the strata4 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,g4 ,c4 ,niven ,the ,curious ,eruption of ,mount ,asama1 ,japan ,mount ,asama is nearly #hjjj feet high1 and the crater is nearly a mile across1 and has a depth of about #ajjj feet4 ,steam is being continually discharged4 ,the above display was photographed from about #h miles distance4 ,the discharge was about #a-a_/b miles high1 and shot up to that height in some ninety seconds4 ,the evident inference is either that water is being forced out of the rocks by volcanic action1 or that the eruptions are of the nature of steam explosions caused by water which comes in contact with molten rock4 ,a few years later1 on the #bfth and #bgth ,august1 #ahif1 occurred the remarkable ,icelandic earthquake1 which affected a triangular plateau1 bordered by high mountains1 including ,mount ,hecla and other well-known volcanoes1 in the south-western portion of the island4 ,during the shocks the earth's surface was thrown into waves1 so that neither man nor cattle could stand4 ,persons who were lying on the ground near a cliff were by the shock thrown bodily over the edge4 ,a high hill in the plain is described as shaken like a dog coming out of the water1 and a thick mantle of loose soil which had covered it was afterwards found distributed in heaps about its base4 ,the surface of the plain was scarred by open fissures or by rock walls which had been caused by the earth's rising on one side of a fissure4 ,one of the fissures was nine miles and another seven miles in length4 ,the mountains round the plains were riven by clefts1 and many landslips occurred4 ,as we have mentioned elsewhere1 a new geyser was formed1 throwing up water to an enormous height1 but soon spending its early force2 and many geysers and springs were violently disturbed4 ,an earthquake of a very different kind occurred the next year in the province of ,assam1 ,india 7,june #abth1 #ahig74 ,unlike the ,icelandic earthquake1 almost the whole damage was here the result of the first shock4 ,everything was destroyed within the first fifteen seconds of the earthquake1 and the heavy shocks had all passed before two and a half minutes had elapsed4 ,in this brief space of time an area of #a1gej1jjj square miles had been shaken and #aej1jjj square miles laid in ruins4 ,a member of the ,geological ,survey of ,india1 who was in the town of ,shillong1 says that a rumbling sound like near thunder preceded the shocks by a second or so and increased in loudness1 so that when masonry began to fall the noise and rattle of the falling stones were hardly to be perceived4 ,unable to stand on his feet1 this observer sat down on the ground1 and not only felt but saw the ground thrown into violent waves as if composed of soft jelly4 ,these waves seemed to run along the ground4 ,when the shocks had passed all the masonry houses in ,shillong had been levelled to the ground1 and over each hung a cloud of pink plaster particles and dust4 ,some of the shocks seem to have occurred with a kind of twist1 and stone monuments were given the appearance of corkscrews4 ,there were left many fissures and depressions in the ground1 and the rivers and lakes and streams were greatly affected4 ,thirty new lakes were formed2 along the great ,brahmaputra ,river rolled a great wave ten feet high4 ,one great rent in the geological strata at the earth's surface was twelve miles long4 ,important changes of level of great blocks of country were clearly shown by the alterations in the aspect of the landscape4 ,ranges of hills which before had not been visible from certain points now came into view for the first time1 while others had disappeared4 ,though the most destructive shock was that felt during the first few seconds1 there were others which followed1 lasting for nearly a week afterwards4 ,this earthquake is of special interest1 because it was the first one which was registered on the earthquake instruments set up in ,europe4 ,since that date these instruments have been set up all over the world1 and1 as we say elsewhere1 a great earthquake is now usually recorded on the seismometers and seismographic instruments set up in observatories stationed thousands of miles away4 ,all of our readers will recollect the ,jamaica earthquake which occurred comparatively recently4 ,port ,kingston1 in ,jamaica1 has had its share of earthquake disasters4 ,in the year #afib ,port ,royal1 the then chief city1 was destroyed1 and in rebuilding it the ,jamaicans moved it across the harbour1 because the old town site was largely submerged beneath the sea4 ,it was a recurrence of the settlement of the ground which in part produced the earthquake of ,january #adth1 #aijg4 ,there were slight shocks preceding the earthquake1 and subterranean rumblings4 ,the chief damage was done before thirty-five seconds had gone by1 and of course the catastrophe was greater because the shocks were felt in the neighbourhood of a city4 ,considered by itself the earthquake was not of the order of great earthquakes1 but many of the effects were most curious4 ,a statue of ,queen ,victoria on a pedestal was partly turned round2 a series of steep terraces was formed by the side of the harbour2 a small spring was converted into a stream eight feet wide2 and1 as we all know1 very great destruction was inflicted on life and property4 ,soundings which have since then been made in the harbour show that its depth has greatly increased in some parts1 in one instance by not less than twenty-seven feet4 ,the greatest depression occurred near ,port ,royal 7the old city71 where a hundred yards or more of the ground was submerged by water varying from eight to twenty-five feet in depth4 ,proceeding northwards from the ,antilles to ,north ,america1 we come to other famous areas of earthquake disturbance4 ,in #ahaa and #ahab there were earthquakes along the lower lands of the great ,mississippi ,river1 which were felt throughout the whole of the eastern portion of the ,united ,states and as far west as exploration had gone4 ,at ,new ,madrid1 which appears to have been near the centre of the disturbance1 subterranean thunder appears to have been heard frequently for many years preceding the earthquake1 though it had ceased for nearly a year4 ,about two o'clock in the morning of ,december #afth1 #ahaa1 there came a severe shock accompanied by a noise which was like near thunder1 and a few minutes afterwards the air was filled with sulphurous vapour4 ,people thought that the end of the world had come4 ,light shocks were felt till sunrise2 and then one more violent than the first occurred4 ,but this was not the end4 ,for three months the shocks went on1 and in that time no fewer than #ahgd shocks were recorded1 eight of them great ones4 ,the shock of ,january #bcrd1 though as violent as any that preceded it1 was surpassed by the so-called hard shock1 which came at about four o'clock in the afternoon of ,february #gth4 ,it was accompanied by a discharge of sulphurous vapour in the atmosphere1 and an unusual darkness which added greatly to the terror of the people4 ,illustration3 ,stereo ,copyright1 ,underwood ,u4 ,london and ,new ,york ,a ,house destroyed by an ,earthquake ,this was ,senator ,stanford's house at ,palo ,alto1 about #be miles from ,san ,francisco1 which is situated on a fault or ancient fracture of the earth's surface4 ,the ,mississippi seemed to recede from its banks1 and its waters gathered up like mountains1 leaving boats high up on the sands4 ,the waters then moved inwards with a front wall fifteen to twenty feet in height1 tearing the boats from their moorings and carrying them closely packed up a creek for a quarter of a mile4 ,the river fell as rapidly as it had risen1 and receded from its banks with such violence that it took with it a grove of cotton-woods which hedged its borders4 ,these trees were broken off with such regularity that it was hard to persuade people who had not witnessed the catastrophe that it had not been brought about by human agency4 ,during all the greater shocks the earth's surface was reported to have been raised in great crumplings1 the crests of which opened into fissures4 ,some of these were six hundred to seven hundred feet long and twenty to thirty feet wide1 and water and sand and even coal#ac were spouted out of them to a height of forty feet4 ,many craters and holes in the ground were formed1 surrounded by rings of sand2 and traces of them remain to this day1 a century-old monument of the destruction wrought4 ,notable changes in the level of the country were effected2 new lakes and new islands came into existence2 some lakes disappeared2 some of the lakes then formed remain to this day4 ,on the eastern bank of the ,mississippi a lake a hundred miles long1 six miles wide1 and ten to fifty feet in depth was formed2 and another lake1 known now as ,reelfoot ,lake1 which came then into existence1 is twenty miles long1 seven miles broad--larger than ,windermere1 and deeper4 ,the fishermen's boats to-day float over the top of eighteenth-century cypress trees4 ,in addition to sections of country which were depressed and submerged1 an area of some twenty miles in diameter was elevated into a low dune twenty to twenty-five feet above the level of the plain of the ,mississippi4 ,many years after the great shocks1 smaller ones were felt2 and even now scarcely a year passes without slight tremors in this region1 and small fissures are still formed in the ground4 ,footnote #ac3 ,or lignite1 a form of hard pitch4 ,it must be repeated that the great earthquakes are not those of which most is heard4 ,the earthquake of ,san ,francisco which did such widespread damage because it took place in the neighbourhood of a thickly populated city was1 after all1 less in magnitude than the ,sonora earthquake of #ahhg1 which took place in a great expanse of desert country in which few people lived and few towns had been built4 ,but this earthquake was felt all over the countries of ,mexico and the ,state of ,arizona2 and a range of mountains1 the ,sierra ,teras1 was uplifted between faults which opened upon either side4 ,millions of cubic feet of rock were thrown down from the slopes of the mountains into the deep caons and water-courses1 and cliffs of hard rock were shattered and split as though by a charge of giant powder4 ,the ,yakutat ,bay earthquake in ,alaska changed the whole face of the country over thousands of square miles during ,september1 #ahii2 and along the shore of the bay the shore showed that in some cases it had been lifted from five to thirty and in some cases even fifty feet4 ,new reefs and islands were formed2 and a study of the country and the coast-line seems to show that from time to time this neighbourhood1 like the beaches south of ,valparaiso1 is being lifted by some agency1 perhaps the gradual elevation of a continent1 perhaps by continuous earthquake action4 ,illustration3 ,stereo ,copyright1 ,underwood ,u4 ,london and ,new ,york ,the ,ruins of the ,magnificent ,city ,hall of ,san ,francisco ,the great earthquake of #aijf caused this destruction4 ,some of the distortive effects of an earthquake movement can be perceived4 ,but if the ,san ,francisco earthquake of ,april #ahth1 #aijf1 was not of itself a very great earthquake1 it brought about an enormous amount of damage4 ,the heavy shocks came without warning at about five o'clock in the morning of ,april #ahth4 ,they lasted about a minute1 and then went off into lighter quakes1 which were felt till evening1 and for many days after1 gradually growing smaller and smaller4 ,the loss of life1 though great1 was but a tenth of what it would have been had the worst shocks come at a later hour when men were at their places of business and the children in school4 ,as it was1 the greatest loss was due to the fire which was started by the earthquake1 and which was soon beyond control1 because the water-main had been snapped by the earth movement4 ,the cause of the earthquake has been generally assigned to the slipping of the strata of ,california4 ,athwart the whole state runs a straight furrow1 like an ancient earthquake crack of primeval times1 which is about four hundred miles long1 and the rocks about which are still liable to slip4 ,as we have said1 however1 the ,californian earthquake1 though accompanied by great destruction of property1 and by the characteristic accompaniments of fissures in the ground1 and slight elevations and depressions of the country over a line sixty miles long1 was not a very profound earthquake4 ,rather a curious coincidence may be here noted4 ,we have spoken of submarine earthquakes and volcanoes and of islands which are raised by something akin to volcanic action or earthquake action underneath the sea4 ,some weeks after the ,californian earthquake the officers and crew of the ,u4,s4 ,fish ,commission steamer ,albatross1 while on their way to investigate1 with ,professor ,charles ,h4 ,gilbert1 the fisheries of ,japan1 passed the group of islands known as the ,bogoslofs1 and to their astonishment perceived that a third island had been added to the other two4 ,professor ,gilbert1 in a letter concerning the first sight of the island1 on ,may #bhth1 wrote3 ,when ,i saw the ,bogoslofs in #ahij there were really two small islands about #a-a_/b miles apart1 one of them steaming and the other cooled off4 ,this has been the condition for a number of years1 so the hot one had received the name of ,fire ,island1 the cold one1 ,castle ,island4 ,when they came in sight yesterday1 we were astonished to find that ,fire ,island was no longer smoking1 and that a very large third island had arisen half-way between the other two4 ,it was made of jagged1 rugged lava1 and was giving off clouds of steam and smoke from any number of little craters scattered all over it4 ,around these craters the rocks were all crusted with yellow sulphur4 ,the new cone1 occupying much of the space between the two older ones1 was somewhat higher than either1 but was certainly far from #ijj feet high--#cjj feet would be an extreme figure4 ,there was no evidence of a central crater4 ,the steam and fumes were given off most abundantly from cracks and fumaroles on the slopes4 ,about these were heavy incrustations of sulphur4 ,we saw no indications of boiling water1 nor did we believe that landing would be impossible4 ,all three of these ,bogoslof islands1 which are about #abj miles south of the ,pribyloff ,islands1 belonging to ,russia in the ,behring ,sea1 have risen above the waters hot and steaming in the last #aej years4 ,the oldest ,bogoslof1 now called ,castle ,island1 rose from the sea in #agif2 and ,kotzebue describes the first glimpse of it1 as seen by a trader1 named ,krinkof1 who had been forced to seek refuge from a storm on a neighbouring island4 ,the birth of the volcanic islet was accompanied by an earthquake which shook the island where the trader had taken refuge1 and by an outburst of fire with thunderous explosions4 ,the island was said to emit fire for months afterwards1 and for eight years afterwards the water round it was warm and its ashes unbearably hot4 ,the eruption of #ahhc1 in which the second ,bogoslof1 called ,fire ,island1 was born1 had no witnesses2 but in ,september of that year great volumes of steam and smoke1 accompanied by showers of ashes1 were thrown out from the summit and through fissures in the sides and base1 the bright reflections from the heated interior being visible at night4 ,at the time of this eruption a severe earthquake was felt in the sea off ,cape ,mendocino1 apparently in the line of the ,californian furrow or rift4 ,the islands were visited in #ahhd by the officers of the ,u4,s4 revenue cutter ,corwin1 and ,lieutenant ,j4 ,c4 ,cantwell and ,surgeon ,h4 ,w4 ,yemans made the ascent of ,new ,bogoslof4 ,lieutenant ,cantwell thus describes his experience in the ,cruise of the ,corwin3-- ,the sides of ,new ,bogoslof rise with a gentle slope to the crater4 ,the ascent at first appears easy1 but a thin layer of ashes1 formed into a crust by the action of rain and moisture1 is not strong enough to sustain a man's weight4 ,at every step my feet crushed through the outer covering and ,i sank at first ankle deep1 and later on knee deep1 into a soft1 almost impalpable dust1 which arose in clouds and nearly suffocated me4 ,as the summit was reached the heat of the ashes became unbearable4444 ,on all sides of the cone there are openings through which steam escaped with more or less energy4 ,seven years after that ,drs4 ,merriam and ,mendenhall1 of the ,behring ,sea ,seal ,commission1 found the newer island still smoking1 steaming1 and occasionally roaring like a giant steam escape4 ,the older island had quite cooled1 and had become a sheer cliff or hill of cold ashes1 and was1 and is1 the home of countless sea birds1 as well as of a small herd of sea lions4 ,captain ,cook1 in the eighteenth century1 had passed by the neighbourhood of this island4 ,this was eighteen years1 however1 before it was born1 and he named a pillar of ash or rock which he found there ,ship ,rock4 ,ship ,rock fell in ruins five years after the birth of ,fire ,island4 ,since that time the new island has again sunk beneath the waves4 ,but it will probably rise again1 or another island somewhere in its neighbourhood will take its place1 for a great new submarine ridge of volcanic rocks is forming in this neighbourhood and has been forming for many hundreds of years4 ,the ,pribyloff ,islands are known to be volcanic from the materials of which they are composed1 and sprang up above the waves in the same way4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,causes ,,of ,,earthquakes ,now that we have before us some of the examples of the changes which historic earthquakes have brought about in the face of the country1 it is easy to see what an important effect they must have exerted in geological history4 ,but there are still weighty questions to be answered about earthquakes4 ,we have seen that an earthquake can contort1 upset1 and twist the surface strata of the earth as easily as we can crumple a sheet of cardboard4 ,we have yet to find whether the crumpling of the strata is always produced by earthquakes1 or whether an earthquake is the culminating symptom that some agency is at work crumpling the strata4 ,let us try to imagine an example on a small scale4 ,suppose we take the top of a pill-box1 and1 holding it in the crook between our thumb and forefinger1 compress it very tightly on all sides4 ,what will happen8 ,the lid of the pill-box1 being subjected to stress or strain on all sides1 will presently buckle and crack4 ,we shall have produced an earthquake on a small scale1 and there will be an earthquake fracture--perhaps an earthquake fissure4 ,if the whole pill-box had been used for the purpose of our experiment1 and had been packed to the brim with ointment or thick liquid1 and if it had been squeezed in a vice instead of in our hands1 then perhaps we should have provoked still more striking symptoms of an earthquake4 ,the ointment might have broken out through the lid4 ,perhaps even tiny jagged holes or craters would have been formed in the lid4 ,thus we see how strain may produce earthquakes4 ,take some more examples4 ,suppose a cork is very tightly fixed in a wine bottle1 and in order to get it out we employ a very powerful lever corkscrew4 ,the neck of the bottle1 under the effect of the too powerful pressure put on the inside surface of the glass1 will crack or break4 ,similarly if we screw down a microscope too hard on a slip of glass the glass will often crack suddenly4 ,both these instances recently occurred within the writer's experience1 and few readers can have escaped noticing one or other of them4 ,the breakage in these instances is always caused because a strain is set up somewhere in the glass--there is more pressure at one point than another1 and the glass1 unable to resist this unequal pressure1 gives way4 ,illustration3 ,stereo ,copyright1 ,underwood ,u4 ,london and ,new ,york ,the ,track of an ,earth ,wave ,showing portion of a street in ,san ,francisco after the terrible earthquake of #aijf4 ,the resemblance of the break in the ground to the appearance of a stationary wave should be noted4 ,what happens when it gives way8 ,to answer this question we had better carry our minds to the example of the pill-box lid4 ,if the top of the box were of very brittle material1 like pottery or glass1 then after the breakage we know that most likely one of the broken pieces would be a little higher than the other--would perhaps overlap it4 ,that is what we often see when examining the geological earth strata4 ,one stratum1 instead of lying evenly with another where a crack has occurred1 rests a little above it or below it4 ,this inequality or unevenness geologists call a fault4 ,now we can easily see that whenever1 and by whatever causes1 a fault is produced1 there is probably at the same time an earthquake4 ,the fault cannot be produced without a great and shaking disturbance4 ,mr4 ,john ,milne1 the most distinguished of ,british authorities on earthquakes1 says that all large earthquakes originate from the formation or extension of these faults or great cracks in the strata4 ,the occurrences of these faults are most frequent when the process of mountain building has been going on over the earth4 ,in other words1 if we imagine a period in which some great continental area of the world's surface was slowly rising above the oceans1 then at that time we should expect that there would have been great faults occurring in the strata1 and great earthquakes following them4 ,to quote his words3 ,if therefore we wish to know when earthquakes were greatest and most frequent1 we must turn to those periods in geological history when mountain ranges were built1 when volcanic activity was pronounced1 and when great 'faults' were made4 ,the first of these periods would be coincident with the creation of the ,ural ,mountains1 the ,grampians1 and other mountain ranges4 ,this took place in the earliest geologic times4 ,another period of mountain formation was when the ,himalayas and the ,alps were slowly but intermittently brought into existence4 ,in both these periods volcanic activity was pronounced1 and beds of coal were formed4 ,when the crust of the earth was crumbling1 mountains grew spasmodically--7they sprang up1 as it were1 from out of the giant forces which we have described earlier in this book7--'faults' gave rise to earthquakes1 volcanic forces found their vents1 and conditions existed which gave rise to the accumulation of materials to form coal4 ,but1 the reader will naturally inquire1 if faults gave rise to earthquakes1 and faults are the result of pressure1 what produces the pressure8 ,and what produces the mountains8 ,before we answer that we must again have recourse to examples taken from common experience4 ,a sheet of glass or of marble we usually regard as a thing that may break but does not bend4 ,but all of us have seen glass strips1 if they are long enough1 bend under their own weight2 and there are even marble mantelpieces which1 if examined1 show that the slab of marble has bent4 ,thus we can readily imagine that sometimes the strata of the earth will bend by reason of the weight put upon them4 ,if that weight is not put on them quite evenly the strata will be still more likely to bend2 it will go from bending to buckling1 and from buckling to breaking4 ,as soon as it breaks there will be a fault formed4 ,those who recollect what we have said about the enormous weight of the rocks one above the other will not have to search far for the cause of weight sufficient to bend or buckle the rock strata of the earth4 ,and those who have followed carefully all that has been written about the shifting of materials from the land to the sea by the processes of denudation and erosion set up by rain and wind and carried out by streams and rivers1 will easily discover where and how the shifting of great weights of the earth's surface goes on4 ,little by little great weights are taken from one place on the earth's surface to another1 as we might shift the weights in balanced scale-pans grain by grain1 till at last the heavier scale-pan goes down quickly1 or it may be with a crash1 and the fault occurs1 while the earthquake follows4 ,there remains another question1 however1 to be answered1 and it is1 ,how were the mountains formed8 ,mountains are very closely connected with earthquakes1 for nearly all the regions of the earth where the great disturbances take place are in the neighbourhood of great mountain ranges2 and many1 indeed most1 of the students of earthquakes believe this to be the case1 because the great weight of the mountains1 especially when near the deep sea1 induces pressure on the rocks1 and consequently slipping and faults4 ,but the causes of mountain formation are very difficult to show with certainty4 ,one such explanation1 that of the continual shifting of portions by weight of the earth1 we have already given4 ,there is another one which may perhaps supply an additional cause4 ,it is that just as faults produce earthquakes1 perhaps in some cases earthquakes produce faults4 ,in the illustration we gave of the bottle-neck being broken by continual pressure1 or the slide of a microscope suddenly breaking with a crash1 because the increasing pressure of a screw was greater than it could bear1 we have considered cases where the pressure was slowly applied4 ,but a tap with a hammer or any sudden shock would also produce a breakage--and faults1 and an earthquake on a small scale--and it is possible that some of the convulsions of nature and some of their permanent effects are caused by sudden and violent causes4 ,one such cause might be the violent and sudden formation of steam by the contact of water with rock at a very high temperature4 ,everybody knows what happens to the kitchen boiler after a severe frost4 ,the frost clogs the pipes with ice1 so that the kitchen boiler becomes dry because no water is reaching it2 but it continues to grow hotter and hotter till the iron plates or iron lining become red-hot4 ,then the frost perhaps gives way and a small amount of water finds its way into the red-hot boiler4 ,the water is converted instantly into steam2 and1 as a result1 the boiler1 if it is a weak one1 is blown out into the kitchen1 causing grave personal inconvenience to the cook4 ,if the boiler is a strong one1 it may merely crack4 ,now1 apply these considerations to the instance of the earth1 its oceans1 its thin crust1 and its hot rocks situated at a depth of not more than thirty miles1 and perhaps at a good deal less depth than that4 ,what would happen if the ocean leaked through into the strata of red-hot or molten rocks8 ,there would be enormous quantities of steam formed2 and if1 owing to the vast pressure of strata and water above1 these quantities of steam did not instantly produce violent explosions1 yet underneath there would be imprisoned1 peak1 forces of tremendous power which would only await a favourable opportunity in order to manifest themselves4 ,the hot steam until this favourable opportunity arose would be absorbed by the rocks1 just as hot steel can be shown to absorb gases4 ,illustration3 ,stereo ,copyright1 ,underwood ,u4 ,london and ,new ,york ,a ,geyser at ,rest in ,yellowstone ,park1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,the encrusted deposits of mineral salts should be observed4 ,we are thus face to face with the following situation1 as it is expressed by ,dr4 ,t4 ,j4 ,j4 ,see1 the ,american physicist3--,the internal temperature of the earth is extremely high with heated rocks quite near the surface1 while the crust is fractured and leaky everywhere1 and especially where the depth of the sea is greatest4 ,the sea covers three-fourths of the earth's surface1 and earthquakes are found to be most violent where the sea is deepest1 and volcanoes most numerous on the adjacent shores4 ,can we then suppose that both earthquakes and volcanoes depend on the explosive power of steam which has developed in the heated rocks of the earth's crust8 ,we have said that earthquakes and volcanoes are most common in regions where high mountains are near deep oceans--as on the westward of ,south and ,central ,america1 the ,aleutian ,islands1 the ,kurile ,islands1 ,japan1 ,sumatra1 ,java1 and other islands of the ,east ,indies bordering on the deep waters of the ,indian ,ocean1 ,new ,zealand1 and the ,lesser ,antilles in the ,west ,indies1 ,iceland1 ,italy1 and ,greece4 ,these are also the regions where1 owing to the existence of high mountains1 the weight1 the pressure1 the tear and stress on the underlying strata are greatest1 and where consequently there is the greater chance of strata slipping or bending or giving way4 ,mr4 ,john ,milne divides the world into eleven such great world-earthquake districts2 and he has endeavoured to show that all the great convulsions of the earth have their origin in one or other of these areas--where usually a great mountain range slopes steeply down to the sea4 ,there are eleven such world-earthquake districts4 ,there is the ,alaskan region1 where on the shore ,mount ,elias rises to a height of #ah1jjj feet and where the water is #gjjj feet deep sixty miles from the shore--altogether a drop of #be1jjj feet from the top of the mountain to the bed of the ocean in #bjj miles4 ,this drop1 without going into measurements1 may be taken as typical of the rest1 which are classified as the ,cordillerean region1 the ,antillean region 7in the earthquake district of which ,mount ,pele at ,martinique and the ,soufrire in ,st4 ,vincent are situated72 the ,andean district2 the ,japan district2 the ,javan district2 the ,mauritius district2 the ,antarctic district2 three submarine districts of sunken ridges in the ,north-,eastern ,atlantic1 the ,north-,western ,atlantic1 and the ,northern ,atlantic2 and one great land district1 distant from the sea1 which lumps together all the mountains of the ,alps1 the ,balkans1 the ,caucasus1 and the ,himalayas4 ,in thirteen years1 from the time in which earthquake investigation has become a science1 #gej great earthquakes originated in these districts4 ,on the average1 about sixty great earthquakes occur every year1 or a little more than one a week4 ,in addition to these world-shaking effects there are about #cj1jjj small earthquakes every year1 ,england's annual contribution to this number being about half a dozen4 ,what is the meaning of a great earthquake1 and how do we define small earthquakes8 ,a small earthquake is one such as we have described as taking place in the valley of the ,mississippi1 and which1 even though it may produce considerable disturbance in its neighbourhood1 is not perceptible at any great distance away4 ,a great earthquake is one which sends its vibrations thousands of miles4 ,a very large earthquake1 originating in any part of the world1 may be recorded in any other part of the globe4 ,although only a few people in ,great ,britain have been privileged to feel a home-made earth tremor1 every one of us is very many times a year moved by earthquakes4 ,we do not perceive them because the back-and-forth motion of the ground is performed too slowly1 while if there is a movement of the ground the undulations are so very flat that they cannot be perceived4 ,but at several places in ,england and at earthquake observatories 7seismological stations7 all over the world1 from ,japan to ,australia and from ,south ,africa to ,greenland1 instruments are set up which are sensitive enough to record these tremors1 though not always to locate them4 ,sometimes when ,professor ,behar in ,germany1 or ,mr4 ,milne from his observatory in the ,isle of ,wight1 telegraphs to the newspapers that signs of a great earthquake have appeared on their instruments1 the world hears no more of these disturbances4 ,they have occurred we are certain1 but the place where the great cataclysm which has thus shaken the whole round world took place has been fortunately remote from inhabited portions of the earth1 and has very likely been beneath the waters of some ocean4 ,earthquake waves start out from the great area where the cataclysm took place1 and begin to disturb the earth in all directions1 just as if we were to put a row of marbles on a table and were to strike the end marble of the row4 ,the marble farthest from it would presently receive the shock as it travelled along the row of marbles4 ,any one of our readers who has ever seen a train of luggage wagons being shunted is familiar with the way in which the shock of a sudden pull or push on the part of the engine travels all down the line of wagons1 and we may think of the shock of an earthquake as travelling along and through the earth in the same way4 ,observation1 however1 shows that these waves are propagated farthest in one particular direction4 ,for example1 the chief movement following the ,san ,francisco earthquake1 which originated from fault lines running parallel to the coast of ,california1 was much more marked in countries lying to the east or west of ,california than in countries lying towards the south4 ,england and ,japan obtained large records of the disturbance1 while in ,argentina the records were extremely small4 ,in the case of the ,jamaica earthquake1 where the lines of origin ran east and west1 the phenomenon was reversed4 ,toronto received a large quantity of motion1 and ,england a very little4 ,another peculiarity of this phase of earthquake motion is that it may be propagated in one direction round the world to a greater distance than in an opposite direction4 ,the suggestion is that the initial impulse was delivered in the direction towards which motion was propagated farthest4 ,that which happens corresponds to what we see if we dip the blade of a spade in water and suddenly push the blade in some particular direction4 ,the water waves thus created travel farthest in the direction of the impulse4 ,another curious phenomenon connected with the large waves of certain earthquakes is that they may be very marked for one thousand miles round their origin1 and may be perceived on the exactly opposite side of the earth 7though1 of course1 much reduced in size71 but cannot be recorded on the earthquake instruments of the regions in between4 ,for example1 an earthquake originating near ,new ,zealand may be recorded in that country1 but not in ,india1 ,egypt1 ,west ,asia1 or east of ,europe1 though in ,britain it may make itself evident on the seismometer's record4 ,the phenomenon may be compared to a water wave running down an expanding estuary4 ,at the mouth of such an estuary it may have become so flat that it is no longer recognisable4 ,should it1 however1 run up a second estuary1 we can imagine concentration taking place1 so that near the top of the second estuary it would eventually become recordable on instruments4 ,in these antipodean survivors we see the final efforts of a dying earthquake4 ,it is only occasionally that the precursors and the followers of these large waves have sufficient energy to reach their antipodes4 ,they die en route4 ,from the earliest times philosophers have held that the causes of earthquakes were associated with the contact between fire and water4 ,plato1 ,aristotle1 ,strabo1 and ,pliny all held that water and air penetrate into the earth through hollows1 fissures1 and crevices1 thus developing in the heated interior great vapour1 a part of which is expelled from volcanoes4 ,aristotle correctly associated seismic sea waves with earthquakes1 and even ,homer assigned these great disturbances of the sea to ,poseidon's trident1 which was also the means employed for raising up islands from the sea bottom4 ,the withdrawal of the water from the shore after an earthquake and its return as a great wave were familiar to ,aristotle1 and are implied in his description of the sinking of ,helike in #cgc ,b4,c4 ,before leaving the subject of earthquakes we may quote some passages from ,mr4 ,john ,milne on the influence which these great disasters have exercised on the emotions4 ,immediately after the ,kingston earthquake we read of the dazed and almost insane condition of the people4 ,many were affected with an outburst of religious ecstasy1 thinking the last day had come4 ,the negro population camped on the racecourse and spent their time in singing hymns4 ,somewhat similar scenes took place in ,chili2 men and women ran hither and thither1 mad with terror and devoid of reason4 ,amid shrieks and sobs and the wailing of a multitude an ,ora pro nobis or a ,pater noster might now and then be heard4 ,in early civilisations underground thunderings have so far excited the imagination that subterranean monsters or personages have been conjured into existence1 and these in many instances have played a part in primitive religions4 ,at the time of an earthquake in ,japan the children are told that the shaking is due to the movement of a fish which is buried beneath their country1 and in ,japan we find references to this fish in the pictorial art1 pottery and carving1 literature1 and everyday conversation1 all of which would be unintelligible if we did not know the story of the earthquake fish4 ,in other countries the subterranean creature will be a pig1 a tortoise1 an elephant1 or some other animal4 ,the most interesting myths1 however1 relate to underground personages4 ,the forty-five ,grecian ,titans1 who were of gigantic stature and of proportionate strength1 were confined in the bowels of the earth4 ,according to the poets1 the flames of ,etna proceeded from the breath of ,enceladus1 and when he turned his weary body the whole island of ,sicily was shaken to its foundations4 ,neptune was not only a god of the oceans1 rivers1 and fountains1 but with a blow of his trident he could create earthquakes at pleasure4 ,the worship of ,neptune was established in almost every part of the ,grecian world4 ,the ,livians1 in particular1 venerated him1 and looked upon him as the first and greatest of the gods4 ,the ,palici were born in the bowels of the earth1 and were worshipped with great ceremonies by the ,sicilians4 ,in a superstitious age the altars of the ,palici were stained with the blood of human sacrifices4 ,in ,roman mythology two very familiar deities are ,pluto and ,vulcan4 ,these and a host of other deities1 the outcome of imagination1 excited by displays of seismic and volcanic activity1 we meet with every day in picture galleries1 in museums1 in literature1 and in our daily papers4 ,earthquakes have led to the abolition of oppressive taxation1 the abolition of masquerades1 the closing of theatres1 and even to the alteration in fashions4 ,a ,new ,england paper1 of #agbg1 tells us that a considerable town in this province has been so far awakened by the awful providence in the earthquake that the women have generally laid aside their hooped petticoats4 ,in the next chapter we shall consider more particularly the terrible effects of earthquakes on geological history4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,volcanoes ,,and ,,mountain ,,formation ,the great prominence which we have given in the preceding pages to earthquakes is owing to the growing belief in the influence of earthquakes on the appearance and structure of those portions of the world's crust which are known to us4 ,there are two views which we can take of earthquakes4 ,one is to regard the larger number of them as being caused by slipping movements of the earth's crust4 ,looking at things in this way we should say that whenever there was a sudden break in the earth's strata1 such as might occur 7in accordance with an illustration given in a previous chapter7 if all the level strata were broken up like a crumpled page of type--then that an earthquake would result4 ,so that whenever we saw what geologists call a fault in strata we should know that an earthquake had occurred there4 ,and why did it occur8 ,well1 if we had a massive column of steel or of granite five miles high1 the steel or granite at the bottom of the column would have to sustain such an enormous weight of material above it that it would begin to spread4 ,if we had a pyramid of the same materials five miles high1 the tendency to spread would not be so great1 but still it would be there4 ,consequently1 wherever there are high mountains there is a tendency of the earth strata beneath them to spread1 perhaps slowly1 but inevitably2 and if there is any weakness in the structure of the rocks near the base of the mountain1 then these will give way with a crash4 ,a great fault will be produced1 and with it an earthquake4 ,people living on the earth will only see the results of the earthquake on the ground just immediately below their feet2 and there these results are often very destructive to life and property2 yet if they were all that happened1 we should expect them to be covered up in time1 and the geological record of an earthquake would not be a very important or even discernible thing a million years after it had happened4 ,but are these things1 which the eye of man can perceive1 the only things that are happening during an earthquake8 ,is nothing happening underneath the earth which will leave its mark thousands of years after man has left the spot where the earthquake took place8 ,may it not be that the earthquake is the outcome of some mighty force deep down in the earth2 and may not this force cause both the earthquake and the geological fault which remains as the witness of its occurrence8 ,if this be the case then the earthquake may be of enormous importance in geology4 ,we regard an earthquake1 as we see it1 as a destructive force4 ,that is because it destroys the works of man4 ,but earthquakes are doing constructive work as well2 or1 at any rate1 they are usually present when constructive work is being done4 ,destructive forces1 such as erosion1 are wearing down the structure of the globe1 while earthquakes are the only known forces that are building it up4 ,it is true that when an earthquake occurs rocks often fall1 loose sediment is shaken down1 and other settlements occur1 but the real constructive work consists in upheavals1 little by little1 as it may be1 of beaches1 islands1 coasts1 plateaux1 and perhaps larger areas4 ,these elevations are actually witnessed in certain earthquakes4 ,many islands in the sea have been raised from time to time within even living memory4 ,the south-western part of the island of ,crete has been elevated within the historical period4 ,the region about ,pozzuoli and the ,bay of ,naples has suffered both elevation and depression4 ,there is the famous instance cited by ,sir ,charles ,lyell nearly eighty years ago of the ,temple of ,jupiter ,serapis4 ,this temple had many columns2 and they are now situated on dry land4 ,the pillars are forty-two feet in height1 and for twelve feet upwards they are of smooth undisfigured marble4 ,then for another twelve feet they are pitted with the holes made by a marine shell-fish called ,lithodomus1 the stone-dweller4 ,what are we to judge from this8 ,the temple was first built on dry land4 ,then the land sank taking the temple with it1 and the columns were submerged in sea sediment to a depth of some thirty feet above their pedestals4 ,the lower portions of these pedestals were preserved intact1 but the marine shell-fish found a home in the upper part of the marble columns1 and pierced them with the channels and grooves4 ,after this had gone on for a number of years the elevation of the land lifted the temple and its columns clean out of the sea again1 and the marine shell-fish could no longer live in the columns4 ,but the traces of their habitation remain4 ,the elevation of this coast was actually witnessed at the time of the eruption of ,monte ,nuovo in #aech4 ,moreover1 the raising of the land was perceived on a larger scale round the whole of the ,bay of ,naples during the eruption of ,vesuvius in ,april1 #agjf4 ,professor ,lorenzo found the elevation of the land at ,pozzuoli to be six inches1 and at ,portici one foot4#ad ,the foundations of both ,etna and ,vesuvius were ages ago laid in the sea4 ,footnote #ad3 ,the coast about ,pozzuoli is now sinking again4 ,in almost every part of the world there are raised beaches1 such as we have already mentioned in the neighbourhood of ,valparaiso1 on the ,chilian coast4 ,the idea has been put forward by ,dr4 ,t4 ,j4 ,see that the same cause which produces earthquakes produces these elevations of the land and produces also volcanoes4 ,there are many circumstances which favour this idea4 ,let us consider what is happening at the bed of the sea4 ,some years ago1 when certain officers of the ,united ,states ,navy were making ocean surveys1 it was found that if hollow balls of thick glass were sunk to great depths in the ocean1 they came up more and more completely filled with water in proportion as the depth increased1 though no breakage or cracking of the glass had occurred1 and no holes in it could be discovered even by the best microscopes4 ,in other words1 it became evident that the water had been slowly but bodily forced through the thick walls of the glass 7under a pressure of less than #ae1jjj lb4 to the square inch7 in less than an hour's time4 ,evidently1 then1 even such a substance as glass will be penetrated by water if the pressure is great enough4 ,to make a practical application of these principles1 what shall we now say with respect to the ocean bottoms8 ,in deep places the pressure of the sea-water on them is very great1 sufficient to force water through glass4 ,obviously most of these bottoms will leak1 and leak at a rapid rate under the enormous pressure operating in the greatest depths of the sea4 ,the bed of the ocean will not leak with equal rapidity in all places2 but almost universal leakage will certainly develop1 and the water will be driven back into the earth at various rates4 ,where the rock is volcanic and badly fractured1 or sandy1 the leakage will be most rapid2 and where the bed is made of clay or unbroken granite the leakage will be much more gradual4 ,it will also depend on the depth of the sea1 and will be greatest where the ocean is deepest1 and quite insignificant in shallow water4 ,a rapid rate of leakage would mean that large quantities of water quickly come in contact with the heated rock1 and develop correspondingly great steam pressure in the crust which underlies that part of the ocean4 ,one case in which we may suppose a rapid leakage to be taking place is in the case of volcanoes near the sea4 ,in the case of lava pouring from a volcano1 it is observed that the molten rock emits vast quantities of vapour1 of which1 according to ,sir ,archibald ,geikie1 #iii parts in #ajjj are steam4 ,the enormous volume of these has been brought home to us in recent years by the behaviour of the volcano ,mount ,pele1 from which for several years after the great eruption which devastated ,port au ,prince the vapours rose in clouds that were to be measured in cubic miles4 ,similar observations about the quantities of vapour ejected by volcanoes have been made in ,japan4 ,while speaking of ,mount ,pele we may recall another phenomenon connected with it1 which also appears to bear out the supposition that in the volcano's activity the action of steam takes a very large share4 ,after its first outburst ,mount ,pele continued to pour out lava and great quantities of vapour1 as if like some gigantic cauldron it were being fed with fresh supplies of water2 and there in the early ,march of the following year a most amazing thing took place1 under the very eyes of a celebrated investigator of volcanoes1 now dead1 ,professor ,angelo ,heilprin1 who was remaining on the island4 ,a great obelisk of andesite 7a stone not unlike basalt7 was forced up from the crater4 ,it rose rapidly1 as much as five feet a day2 and it reached altogether a height of #hdj feet above the crater's lip4 ,it was calculated to be about #cjj feet in diameter at its base4 ,it continued to push itself up for some months1 sometimes sinking a little1 sometimes rising like a colossal piston above a steam boiler4 ,its greatest height was #aajj feet above the height of ,mount ,pele1 and therefore at a height of #eadc feet above the sea-level4 ,illustration3 ,the ,new ,spine of ,mont ,pele1 showing ,fissures and ,vertical ,grooves ,photographed on ,march #aeth1 #aijc4 ,the spine was then #hb feet lower than it became ten days later4 ,illustration3 ,the ,new ,spine of ,mont ,pele1 viewed from the ,basin of the ,lac des ,palmistes ,the apex1 #aagd feet above the rim directly in front2 the remains of ,morne la ,croix on the edge of the crater at the right4 ,a violent eruption would reduce its mass and its steeple-like pinnacle2 but after its losses it generally pushed up again4 ,professor ,heilprin at last got near enough to observe it1 and the obelisk was found to be not of pumice stone1 as had at first been suspected1 but of the hard rock we have mentioned4 ,it had1 in fact1 been comparable to a ,titanic cork of rock which had closed up some vent far down in the crust of the earth1 and which had at last been lifted by the steam pressure beneath it4 ,it finally sank back into the crater1 but it was replaced by a dome of rock which underwent similar changes in height1 though on a smaller scale1 to those of the obelisk4 ,the dome of rock was1 however1 on a more massive scale even than the obelisk1 and at one period of its career a spine1 #ajj feet in height1 like a smaller obelisk1 was pushed up through its middle4 ,this dome was examined by the explorers1 the ,abb ,yvon and ,m4 ,beaufroy1 who found that the dome was a great mass of andesite1 while about it were fragments of the rock of which the obelisk had been composed4 ,they wrote at the time3-- ,it is an error to suppose that there exists in the bottom of ,mount ,pele a hole from which lava and gases have come out4 ,at present there is a tremendous cork of andesite1 which is called the ',dome1' and which must have as its dimensions a diameter half a mile across at its base and a height of about #abjj feet4 ,on all sides of the dome there are fumaroles 7small cone-like craters71 some of which throw out a reddish smoke1 others of which discharge white smoke1 and others are still surrounded with a carpet of sulphur several yards in depth4 ,after the great eruption of ,mount ,pele in #aijb it was found by measurement that a considerable portion of the adjacent sea bottom had sunk down many fathoms4 ,it is impossible to believe that this sinking had been caused by the mere shaking of the earthquakes accompanying that eruption4 ,we must1 therefore1 suppose that after the dreadful explosions which destroyed ,st4 ,pierre and devastated ,martinique a subsidence near the roots of the mountain 7which is just by the sea7 took place4 ,what we should judge to have happened is that by some means an explosion took place below the sea bottom2 that parts of the molten rock1 moved by the forces of the explosion1 were moved towards the mountain 7,mount ,pele71 which thereupon broke into eruption1 acting as an outlet for the imprisoned rocks4 ,when these molten rocks were thus removed a great cavity was formed in the bed of the sea1 which accordingly caved in4 ,a similar explanation would account for the raising of the ,chilian coast-line after the great earthquakes of #ahce1 of which we have already spoken4 ,the coast and1 indeed1 the whole country back to the ,andes was slightly raised4 ,this could only be explained by the pushing in or forcing in of a corresponding bulk of lava under the land2 and this lava could come from nowhere except from under the bed of the great trough in the adjacent sea4 ,after an explosion 7which is caused by the sea penetrating through to the molten rocks7 the trough1 where the accident first took place1 would naturally deepen4 ,illustration3 ,stereo ,copyright1 ,underwood ,u4 ,london and ,new ,york ,the ,dead ,city of ,st4 ,pierre1 ,martinique ,the town of ,st4 ,pierre was perhaps the most beautiful in the ,west ,indies4 ,the volcano of ,mont ,pele1 which is seen in the background1 and which is five miles away1 suddenly belched out deadly gases1 dust1 steam1 and boiling mud1 which overwhelmed the town and completely destroyed it4 ,the houses were reduced to ruins1 and the people were killed by the wave of hot gases sweeping down from the volcano4 ,moreover1 if we suppose that after a time the water again penetrates1 and again comes into contact with rocks that have again become heated up1 there will be another explosion1 and yet others4 ,each of these explosions will push along the ejected streams of lava1 step by step1 till they reach the land1 and even till they reach the mountains bordering the sea4 ,the forces thus arising would cause upheavals1 even if they did not cause earthquakes4 ,such forces might bend strata1 contort the rocks1 and cause faults4 ,but why1 the reader may ask1 do you suppose that all these explosions of lava are directed to the land8 ,we do not suppose that they are4 ,the lava may be forced away from the land4 ,then if that occurs a ridge may be upheaved1 or possibly a submarine volcano4 ,at the ,hawaii ,islands on #beth ,february1 #ahgg1 writes ,sir ,archibald ,geikie1 masses of pumice during a submarine volcanic explosion were ejected to the surface1 one of which struck the bottom of the boat with considerable violence and then floated4 ,at the same time1 when we reflect to what a considerable extent the bottom of the great ocean basin is dotted over with volcanic cones1 rising often solitary from profound depths1 we can understand how large a proportion of the actual eruptions may take place under the sea4 ,the foundations of these volcanic islands doubtless consist of submarine lavas and fragmentary materials1 which in each case continue to accumulate to a height of two or three miles1 till the pile reaches the surface of the water and appears above it4 ,the immense abundance and wide diffusion of volcanic ash1 pumice1 etc41 over the bottom of the ,pacific and ,atlantic oceans1 even at distances remote from land1 as has been made known by the voyage of the ,challenger1 may indicate the prevalence and persistence of submarine volcanic action4 ,it is fairly clear1 therefore1 that the sea bottom is leaky1 and that volcanoes which are a consequence of it are scattered freely over the deep ocean floor4 ,in some places1 of course1 very few eruptions occur1 either because the underlying rocks are less leaky or the sea is too shallow for pressure4 ,we have pictured the water of the oceans thus sinking down into the hot rocks4 ,it will not always cause an explosion at once4 ,the steam may not immediately become free1 but will become absorbed in the hot rocks till the lava grows so fully saturated by the hot vapour that it swells and requires more space4 ,when the tension becomes great enough the crust begins to shake and the paroxysm continues till the steam-saturated lava moves along the nearest break or fault or vent4 ,when the underlying molten rock has thus obtained more space the agitation ceases till the tension again becomes too powerful for the crust to withstand1 when another readjustment takes place4 ,a familiar illustration of this process is seen in the lid of a tea-kettle when the steam pressure accumulates till it sets the lid quivering4 ,as the steam escapes at the sides the agitation slowly dies down and the lid then remains quiet till the accumulating pressure again requires relief1 when the shaking is renewed4 ,thus the process is periodic1 and the period depends on the rapidity with which the steam is developed4 ,in the case of earthquakes1 as already remarked1 the steam is not free1 but absorbed in the molten rock1 and when the agitation begins this gives a similar quivering motion to the block of the earth's crust overlying it1 and ceases only when readjustment occurs--usually by the neighbouring fault slipping in some way so as to give more space to the swelling lava beneath4 ,of course1 many of the cracks caused by this swelling are never seen2 and the molten lava seldom reaches the surface except when through volcano vents or cracks in mountains that are near the sea-shore2 but such outbreaks are probably more common in the deep sea4 ,to see how effective the pressure arising from the depths of the ocean may be in driving water into the crust of the earth1 we may observe that the tendency to penetrate is everywhere proportional to the depth of the sea4 ,now everybody knows that if a cistern be placed at the top of a house and connected with a fountain in the garden the fountain ought to throw a jet as high as the cistern because water1 as the saying goes1 always rises to its own level4 ,as a matter of practice the water does not rise so high because of the resistance of the air4 ,but for theoretical purposes we may consider the proportion true1 and we might similarly say that the pressure in a sea one mile deep would thus throw a stream a mile high2 in a sea two miles deep1 two miles high2 and so on4 ,now some of the ocean depths exceed five miles1 the greatest1 near ,guam1 being #ebfi fathoms1 almost exactly six miles4 ,is it therefore any wonder that the deeps east of ,japan1 near the ,aleutian ,island1 west of ,south ,america1 near ,guam1 between ,samoa and ,new ,zealand1 give rise to enormous leakage of the sea bottom1 and consequently many world-shaking earthquakes8 ,a comparatively feeble pressure of water1 such as hydraulic engineers use in mining1 rapidly cuts away hills and washes out all their gold2 in the same way the waters of ,niagara1 falling through only #afj feet1 slowly wear away the solid rock over which they pour4 ,what1 then1 may be expected of a constant water pressure which will throw a jet five miles high8 ,such is the pressure all over the bed of the ,tuscarora ,deep1 and it continues from year to year1 century to century4 ,it is this pressure which forces the water so rapidly into the earth1 and gives rise to all the great earthquakes and sea-waves with which ,japan is afflicted4 ,no stone on earth1 however thick its layers1 could withstand such a pressure2 nay1 under it the water would go through the hardest metals1 and sink down deeper and deeper into the bowels of the earth4 ,thus subterranean steam would arise beneath the crust and accumulate till relief was afforded by a shaking of the earth4 ,thus we see how immensely important the same causes that give rise to earthquakes may be in moulding the outlines and contours of the rocks and the everlasting hills4 ,in the present state of geological knowledge we cannot say that these steam explosions are the sole causes of mountain building1 but it is evident that they must play a great part in them4 ,the action of the submarine explosions may be compared to a man digging out a trench4 ,as he digs along the trench1 the earth that he excavates he throws on to either side of the trench1 so that a ridge appears on each side of the excavation4 ,the result is the same in the case of the continuous lava explosions in deep seas1 especially in those deep seas like the waters off the west coast of ,south ,america1 where a great range of mountains runs parallel to an ocean that is of great depth only a short distance from the land4 ,a trough or trench is cut downwards by successive explosions and expulsions of lava4 ,as the trough is arched downwards like a broad letter ,u1 the steam pressure from beneath cannot easily force it upwards4 ,what will therefore happen8 ,imagine what would happen in a steam saucepan or kettle if the vapour could not get out at the top or lid4 ,it would tend to blow out at the sides4 ,or if you think of a slab of dough rising under the effect of yeast4 ,suppose the baker presses a flat board on the top of the rising dough1 and presses down on it so that it cannot force its way upwards4 ,it will then naturally spread out to the sides4 ,similarly the rising yeasty lava under the curved ocean bed has to force its way sideways under the crust4 ,it forces its way partly towards the land--where the mountains run along the coast as in the case of the ,andes--or farther out underneath the ocean4 ,generally the movement of the lava will be towards the mountains till the trough gets broad and deep and the mountains very far away1 and so high that their weight offers unexpectedly great resistance to the underground stream of lava4 ,then the release will at length become easier towards the ocean by the forcing up of ridges or volcanoes along the other margin of the trough4 ,ridges with peaks in them will usually result1 and this is the beginning of a new range of mountains in the sea1 which are destined to rise slowly from it parallel to the great range of mountains on the shore4 ,there may thus be two parallel ridges1 perhaps hundreds of miles apart1 with a valley between them4 ,this valley may be drained in the course of ages1 or filled in by the processes of erosion which we have described in the earliest chapters of this volume4 ,it will be of interest to quote at this point what ,pliny nearly two thousand years ago said in his ,natural ,history 7,book ,,ii7 on islands which have been uplifted from the ,mediterranean1 evidently as the result of volcanic causes3-- ,land is sometimes formed in a different manner1 rising suddenly out of the sea1 as if nature was compensating the earth for its losses1 restoring in one place what she had swallowed up in another4 ,delos and ,rhodes1 islands which have now been long famous1 are recorded to have risen up in this way4 ,more lately there have been some smaller islands formed3 ,anapha1 which is beyond ,melos2 ,nea1 between ,lemnos and the ,hellespont2 ,halone1 between ,lebedos and ,teos2 ,thera and ,therasia1 among the ,cyclades1 in the fourth year of the #aceth ,olympiad4 ,and among the same islands1 #acj years afterwards1 ,hiera1 also called ,automate1 made its appearance2 also ,thia1 at the distance of two stadia from the former1 #aaj years afterwards1 in our own times1 when ,m4 ,junius ,silanus and ,l4 ,balbus were consuls1 on the #hth of the ,ides of ,july4 ,opposite to us1 and near to ,italy1 among the olian ,isles1 an island emerged from the sea2 and likewise one near ,crete1 #bejj paces in extent1 and with warm springs in it2 another made its appearance in the third year of the #afcrd ,olympiad1 in the ,tuscan ,gulf1 burning with a violent explosion4 ,there is a tradition1 too1 that a great number of fishes were floating about the spot1 and that those who employed them for food immediately expired4 ,it is said that the ,pithecusan ,isles rose up in the same way in the ,bay of ,campania1 and that shortly afterwards the mountain ,epopos1 from which flame had suddenly burst forth1 was reduced to the level of the neighbouring plain4 ,in the same island it is said that a town was sunk in the sea2 that1 in consequence of another shock1 a lake burst out1 and that1 by a third1 ,prochytas was formed into an island1 the neighbouring mountains being rolled away from it4 ,there are1 no doubt1 other causes which warp and bend strata4 ,we have compared the earth to the core of a tightly wound golf ball--always in a state of strain4 ,the strain at great depths below the surface might amount to several tons to the square inch1 and it can easily be understood that breaks might occur in consequence1 especially if some slight additional shock set the rocks into vibration4 ,in the deep copper mines of the northern peninsula of ,michigan the behaviour of the whole earth1 with respect to earthquakes and stresses due to other causes1 is well illustrated on a small scale4 ,at certain times during each day blasts are set off in the solid rock at various places in each mine4 ,each battery of blasts is a miniature earthquake4 ,in that particular spot1 the earthquake centre1 the rock is fractured within a space limited by a radius of a few feet4 ,within a large space1 limited by a radius of a few hundred feet1 elastic vibrations are set up in the solid rock which are sufficiently violent to be perceptible to the touch and to the hearing4 ,within this larger space no fracture of the rock occurs4 ,feebler vibrations doubtless extend out for miles from the point of fracture1 just as vibrations extend over the whole earth from an earthquake centre4 ,now it also happens that in the lower levels of these deep mines1 at a mile below the surface of the earth1 the solid rock is slowly yielding1 in a non-elastic manner1 under the influence of the great weight above it1 so that the larger openings are gradually closing up4 ,this is so clearly recognised and progresses so rapidly that it is proposed as routine practice1 at the deep levels in these mines1 to take out the ore at the distant end of each drift first4 ,the miners will then work back slowly toward the shaft from which the drift is entered1 while the spaces in which they have recently laboured gradually close up behind them4 ,the gradual collapse known to be in progress occurs apparently by imperceptible flow and by minor fracturing1 but not1 as a rule1 by catastrophes which close up any opening suddenly4 ,in this respect it is an epitome of what is taking place every year in the failing earth as it yields under such stresses4 ,there may be local tremors due to causes which are less immense and world-wide4 ,one such cause might be the collapse of cavities in the earth4 ,we are well acquainted with some such caves near the surface of the earth4 ,these caves1 especially in limestone1 are commonly caused by the action of springs4 ,even pure water will dissolve a minute quantity of the substance of many rocks1 and rain water is far from being chemically pure water4 ,it takes oxygen and carbonic acid out of the air as it falls1 and it abstracts acids out of the soil through which it sinks4 ,the presence of this acid gives the water a greatly increased power of attacking carbonate of lime4 ,now limestone is a rock almost entirely composed of carbonate of lime4 ,it occurs in most parts of the world1 covering sometimes tracts of hundreds or thousands of square miles1 and often rising into groups of hills and ranges of mountains4 ,the abundance of this rock offers ample opportunity for the display of the dissolving action of subterranean water4 ,the water trickles down the vertical fissures along the planes below the limestone beds4 ,as it flows on it dissolves and removes the stone till in the course of centuries these passages are gradually enlarged into clefts1 tunnels1 and caverns4 ,the ground becomes honeycombed with dark subterranean chambers1 and running streams fall into these chambers and continue their course underground4 ,in ,england there are famous pot-hole caverns in ,yorkshire and the west of ,england4 ,the ,peak ,cavern in ,derbyshire is believed to be #abjj feet long1 and in some places #abj feet high4 ,the caverns of ,adelsberg near ,trieste have been explored to a distance of several miles4 ,the ,river ,poik has broken into one part of the labyrinth of chambers through which it rushes before emerging again to the light4 ,narrow tunnels1 says ,sir ,archibald ,geikie1 expand into spacious halls1 beyond which egress is again afforded by low passages into other lofty recesses4 ,the most stupendous chamber measures #ffi feet in length1 #fcj feet in breadth1 and #aaa feet in height4 ,from the roof hang white stalactites which uniting with the floor form pillars showing endless varieties of form and size4 ,still more gigantic is the system of subterranean passages in the ,mammoth ,cave of ,kentucky1 the accessible parts of which are believed to have a combined length of about #aej miles4 ,the caverns of ,luray1 in ,virginia1 are scarcely less wonderful2 and in their case ,american ingenuity has hit on the idea of sucking the pure1 dustless air out of these caverns in order to ventilate a sanatorium4 ,indeed1 a book might easily be written on the wonders of the limestone caverns of the world1 but our only purpose in mentioning them in this chapter is to indicate how the rocks of the earth may be made unstable1 so that a slight shock may precipitate a catastrophe in them--a kind of subterranean landslip which in its turn may give rise to some of the symptoms of earth tremors4 ,illustration3 ,a ,yorkshire ,pot-,hole3 showing the ,effects which can be ,produced in ,limestone by ,underground ,water ,the immense depth may be better realised by comparing the pot-hole with the ,nelson ,monument1 which is #afb feet in height4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,families ,,of ,,rocks ,,and ,,their ,,descendants ,thus far1 in accordance with the principles of the great geologists from ,sir ,charles ,lyell onwards1 we have tried to disclose the history of the earth's crust by observing the processes which are going on to-day under our eyes4 ,that is not1 however1 the only way in which history has to be written4 ,the documents on which history rests are often lamentably incomplete4 ,the records have great gaps in them1 and very often the gaps have to be filled by that exercise of the imagination which ,bishop ,creighton once described as the rearrangement of facts4 ,we shall later in this book show how naturalists can reconstruct the skeleton and even the general appearance of an animal which for ages has not been seen alive on the earth1 from a consideration of fragments of the bony structure4 ,similarly the archologists who inquire into the history of forgotten peoples can picture to us their lives and habits and manners from a consideration of the fragmentary weapons and pottery and architecture which they left in their buried cities2 and similarly the geologist1 knowing1 or partly knowing1 how the forces of nature are at work to-day1 can attempt to describe the conditions under which rocks were laid down before man ever trod them4 ,in speaking or writing of the earliest stages of the world's history we have to adopt what seems to be the most likely history1 modestly qualifying what we say by adding that these speculations are only the fruits of an inquiry that man has pushed beyond the ascertained facts4 ,but we are on firmer footing when we come to deal with that portion of the globe which we can examine4 ,the crust of the earth has been found to consist of successive layers of rock which1 though far from constant in their occurrence1 and though often broken and crumpled by subsequent disturbances1 have been recognised over a large portion of the globe4 ,they are the earth's own chronicle of its history4 ,had these rocks of the ,geological ,record remained in their original positions we should have known little of them1 because only the most recent would have been visible4 ,owing1 however1 to the way in which the earth's crust has been twisted and cracked and broken1 portions of the bottom layers have been pushed up to the surface1 and the lower rocks have been inclined so that we can examine their upturned edges4 ,instead1 therefore1 of being restricted to examining a few hundred feet of earth crust we can examine many thousand feet4 ,the total thickness of the rocks of ,europe which contain fossil remains has been estimated at #ge1jjj feet1 or fourteen miles4 ,this vast depth of rock has been laid open to our observation by disturbances1 twists1 contortions1 upsettings of the crust4 ,we shall not press on the reader in a volume of this kind any detailed classification of the strata1 but he will like to know the names of the five great periods into which geologic time is divided4 ,the first period was the ,archan1 embracing the periods of the earliest rocks wherein few or no traces of life occur4 ,the second period was the ,palozoic 7ancient life7 or ,primary1 which includes the long succession of ages during which the earliest types of life existed4 ,the third period was the ,mesozoic 7middle life71 comprising a series of ages when more advanced types of life flourished4 ,the fourth period was the ,cainozoic 7recent life7 or ,tertiary period1 when such types of life as we know and see now appeared4 ,this period1 however1 does not include man4 ,the fifth period is the ,quaternary or ,post-,tertiary and ,recent1 and includes the time since man appeared on the earth4 ,these divisions were not of the same length4 ,the ,palozoic ages were probably far1 far longer than those of any other division1 while the ,quaternary period is shorter than any of those which preceded it4 ,each of these main divisions is divided further into systems or shorter periods 7just as the dynasties of ancient ,egypt could be subdivided into reigns74 ,though the broad outlines of the sequence of the living things which existed in those periods has been the same all over the world1 many local differences may be traced in the nature and grouping of the sedimentary materials in which the remains of the living things of these epochs have been preserved4 ,to find the oldest rocks1 we must seek those which lie at the bottom or underneath all the others4 ,judged by this test1 the oldest rocks in ,great ,britain are certain hard rocks 7like gneiss1 or the material of which volcanic veins are composed7 which crop out in the north-west of ,scotland1 and which form the outer ,hebrides4 ,they are also known in ,anglesea1 and in the extreme west of ,wales1 at ,st4 ,david's4 ,similar strata form the ,malvern ,hills of ,worcestershire1 the ,longmynd ,hills1 ,caer ,caradoc and the ,wrekin ,hills of ,shropshire1 and the hilly district of ,charnwood ,forest in ,leicestershire4 ,for a long time the ,cambrian rocks of ,wales1 so called from ,north ,wales's ancient name of ,cambria1 were believed to be the oldest on the face of the earth4 ,up to the year #ahcj even these rocks had no name or recognition1 for geologists believed that it was impossible to classify them4 ,but in #ahca ,professor ,adam ,sedgwick1 of ,cambridge1 began the diligent study of the rocks in ,north ,wales1 and after five years' work he was able to announce in #ahcf that he had determined the general order of succession in that district of a certain ancient group of slaty1 gritty1 and flaggy strata4 ,however1 eighteen years later1 in #ahed1 ,sir ,william ,logan1 who was then engaged in mapping the rocks of ,canada1 found along the ,river ,st4 ,lawrence an enormous thickness 7#cj1jjj feet or more7 of gneiss1 quartzite1 schist1#ae limestone1 etc41 these rocks underlying--and being1 therefore1 older than--the ,cambrian strata1 which are also well developed in that country4 ,to these bottom rocks ,logan gave the name of ,laurentian4 ,for some time afterwards the same name was also applied to the somewhat similar rocks which were found to underlie the ,cambrian formation in ,britain1 but it was felt safer to give the ,english rocks a more general name4 ,they are therefore now usually called ,pre-,cambrian1 which simply means older than the ,cambrian strata1 or ,archan4 ,footnote #ae3 ,hard rocks are sometimes composed of different minerals1 which are arranged in a way that reminds us of a bed of fallen leaves1 and are called foliated1 from the ,latin word folium1 a leaf4 ,gneiss is a good example of a foliated rock4 ,it is composed of the three minerals1 quartz1 felspar1 and mica1 arranged in this foliated manner4 ,mica schist1 talc schist1 and other rocks have a similar structure1 and are sometimes briefly called schists4 ,in ,canada the total thickness of the ,laurentian1 ,pre-,cambrian1 or ,archan rocks is now estimated at #ej1jjj feet4 ,in ,britain it is nothing like so great as this 7though still considerable72 but the thickness of these extremely old and altered rocks is a very difficult matter to determine1 for all signs of the original stratification in them have often been destroyed1 and the rocks have been so bent and folded that it is possible the same beds may have been measured more than once in the same section4 ,it will be understood from some of the foregoing sentences that the task of dating or classifying these early rocks is one which is far from simple1 and which has given rise to many different opinions4 ,we may here give another example4 ,during the years between #ahca and while ,sedgwick was occupied in studying the rocks of ,north ,wales1 writes ,mr4 ,w4 ,jerome ,harrison1 another geologist1 ,mr4 7afterwards ,sir7 ,roderick ,murchison1 was engaged in the examination of the strata which occupy the south-east of ,wales and the adjoining border counties of ,england4 ,to these rocks ,murchison gave1 in #ahce1 the name of ,silurian1 from the ancient ,british tribe of the ,silures1 who inhabited that part of the country when the ,romans invaded ,britain4 ,later in last century1 in order to distinguish more clearly the periods of the rocks which began or ended in these areas1 the name of another ancient ,british tribe was called into requisition--the ,ordovics2 and thus for certain strata which were neither ,silurian nor ,cambrian ,professor ,lapworth proposed the name ,ordovician4 ,let us1 however1 now leave these geological controversies1 enthralling as they are to those who have taken part in them1 to consider briefly what was the aspect of the earth during the ages when these rocks were being laid down4 ,the earliest rocks do not generally contain fossils1 though there is no doubt that life existed during the later part of the time when they were laid down4 ,the few fossils that have been preserved are those of crustacea 7the species from which shrimps1 for example1 are derived71 and there are certain tracks of two kinds of burrowing worms4 ,it is noticeable that crustacea1 the oldest definite fossils yet found1 belong to a family which is well up in the animal kingdom1 and therefore we know that lower forms of life must have been long in existence4 ,since we can only draw conclusions of the climate of a period from its fossil remains1 and as these fossil remains are so scarce1 we cannot say really anything of value about the world's climate in the earliest eras4 ,when we come to the ,cambrian1 however1 we are on firmer ground4 ,in the ,cambrian rocks there is1 for the first time1 a fair preservation in fossil form of the life of the period4 ,even here the record is far from complete1 but it is an immeasurable advance on the records of previous periods4 ,the most striking thing about this comparatively plentiful appearance of life is that while the animal kingdom is fairly well represented the plant remains are hardly to be recognised at all4 ,yet there must have been plants if only to feed the animals1 and we have very good reasons for believing that the surface of the land was clothed with some form of vegetation4 ,not a few of the ,cambrian animals were fixed to the bottom of the sea1 and therefore there must have been enough matter of some organic kind floating in the water to bring them their daily food4 ,possibly many of the plants were of the minute kind which forms scum on rivers and ponds1 and so would not readily leave fossil impressions4 ,turning to the record of animal life1 it appears that nearly every division of the animal kingdom1 except such as had backbones1 had some kind of a representative in ,cambrian times4 ,crustaceans1 molluscs1 worms1 corals1 jelly fish1 sponges1 quite a large variety of sea-animals1 suddenly make their appearance1 and although no traces of land animals have yet been found1 we have reason to believe that some land animals may have existed4 ,our reason is that in the next era but one 7,silurian7 scorpions and insects appear1 and these are such highly developed forms of land-life that they probably had some primitive ancestors in the ,cambrian4 ,no real fish have been found in the ,cambrian rocks1 but they appeared in the next era 7,ordovician74 ,it is the trilobite which is the characteristic animal of the ,cambrian times4 ,they were crustaceans2 they had eyes2 and they gave the promise of development2 but there is no reason for believing that they were as high in the order of creation as the commonest lobster of the sea-shore4 ,nothing remains to us of them except their bony structure1 but we believe that they could both swim and walk on the sea-bottom2 that some were swift of movement1 and that they acquired the habit of moulting their shell4 ,they may have been sociable animals1 for the shells of trilobites are sometimes found together in large numbers1 occasionally closely packed1 spoon fashion1 and though these may be moulted shells1 we are warranted in supposing that the early trilobites lived in colonies1 hunted for food1 and made war like their descendants millions of years after4 ,what were the actual conditions of life in this world of ,cambrian days we do not know positively4 ,the first beginnings of life1 the simple one-celled plants1 may have first dwelt in the deep ocean4 ,the land was barren1 its lakes unfitted to support life4 ,on the other hand1 it is equally likely that the first beginnings of life may have been the simple plants growing in inland waters and gradually spreading down to the sea4 ,we do not know1 but it is most probable that life began in some great body of water1 where plants and insignificant animals grew together1 perhaps fought together1 and certainly in this environment became more and more fitted for the business of living4 ,in ,mr4 ,henry ,r4 ,knipe's scholarly and well-informed volume1 ,nebula to ,man 7,j4 ,m4 ,dent ,co471 to which we are indebted not only for several of our illustrations but for many extremely valuable suggestions1 the struggle for existence in the early ocean is well summed up3-- ,thus through the brine life manifold proceeds1 ,impelled to higher states by growing needs2 ,and all these early life-types in the seas ,will branch in time to many species2 ,and some amid conditions too severe1 ,must1 after stress and struggle1 disappear4 ,and when a species falls from ,life's domain ,it never gains a place on ,earth again4 ,we may speculate with some approach to certainty on the general appearance of the earth in those days4 ,there was far more water on the surface of the globe2 the land surfaces were small and infrequent4 ,the seas may have been shallower than those which we know1 but they were far greater in extent4 ,there must have been far more rain and a very much greater number of violent storms arising from the constant condensation of the waters by the rays of the sun4 ,the sun was probably seen far less often in those days1 and there are some geologists who believe the earth to have been perpetually covered with cloud1 as the planet ,venus is now4 ,europe as a continent did not exist4 ,a few islands showed their heads above the waves where ,germany and ,switzerland1 ,eastern ,france and ,spain now stand4 ,scotland's rocky islets were probably visible1 on the extreme west1 though these islands were destined to sink again below the waves4 ,thence the ocean stretched without a break1 as at present1 to ,canada4 ,a great part of ,canada's bleak lands was above the waters2 but the ,united ,states1 except for a few great islands1 were submerged4 ,in the southern hemisphere ,south ,america1 split into numerous long reefs and islands1 gave promise of the continent to be2 and there were great stretches of land over ,brazil1 extending to the west where the great chains of mountains now rise4 ,asia was largely covered with shallow waters1 and the whole extent of the northern plains of ,africa was sea4 ,so far as we are able to judge the distinctions of climates were less marked then than now1 and the conditions seem to have been much more uniform over all the northern hemisphere4 ,this equality of climate lasted into the next or ,ordovician period4 ,the ,ordovician period glides insensibly into the ,cambrian4 ,there was no distinct break in the succession of life4 ,the species seem to have slowly extended and developed from one of these great periods into another4 ,but the life of the ,ordovician era1 which has been preserved for us1 is much more abundant4 ,land was beginning to emerge from the sea in greater bulk2 life was springing up on the land and was emerging from the sea1 perhaps to take up its habitation there4 ,the first insect life appears in the ,ordovician4 ,it is not an imposing relic except when seen through the eye of imagination4 ,it is just an obscure wing of an insect which was found impressed on some shales found in the upper ,ordovician rocks of ,sweden1 and all we can say of it is that it belonged to the same class of insects as lady-birds4 ,the existence of this insect shows that there must have been land vegetation and an atmosphere which was suited to active air-breathing things4 ,the other appearance of great interest in the ,ordovician rocks is that of the first fish4 ,they were found in ,colorado1 but they are very much shattered and tell us very little about the animals they represent4 ,these fish were covered with plates1 and were evidently thus defended against attack1 so that we may surmise the existence of some other animal that preyed on fishes4 ,whether these fishes were themselves ferocious we cannot1 however1 say4 ,but that which was the chief characteristic of the ,ordovician era was the climax of the trilobite4 ,more than half of all the known trilobites were present in ,ordovician times4 ,only a few of these came over from the ,cambrian1 while the others make their first appearance in this period4 ,in the next period 7,silurian7 their numbers fell to one half1 and in later periods declined still further1 till they disappeared altogether at the close of the ,palozoic era4 ,some of these curious animals appear to have been able to move very quickly2 others would roll themselves up like hedgehogs to defend themselves against attack2 and some of the larger ones were from eighteen inches to two feet in length4 ,next to these in interest were the cephalopod types1 marine animals1 that may have resembled the swimming nautilus of to-day in some of their developments4 ,they attained to enormous sizes1 some of the shells being twelve to fifteen feet in length and a foot in greatest diameter4 ,from this maximum they ranged down to forms smaller than a pipe-stem4 ,their habits are to be gathered only from their structure and from the habits of their relations in the present seas4 ,perhaps they floated1 shell uppermost1 or crawled upon the bottom and preyed on a variety of the weaker forms of life4 ,there appear to have been fewer worms1 perhaps because the muddy and chalky sea bottoms of the ,ordovician period were less congenial to them than the ,cambrian sands4 ,the changes in the structure of the earth's crust which brought the ,ordovician period to an end marked also the beginning of the ,silurian period4 ,these changes affected sometimes small areas and were very intense2 sometimes they affected larger areas more slightly4 ,it must not be assumed1 however1 that these changes were necessarily sudden or violent4 ,in examining the rocks now1 we see merely the effects1 and of these effects it is the more remarkable alone which have survived the march of ages4 ,there was more water on the earth's surface then than now2 and side by side with continuous storms of tropical violence1 it is extremely likely that volcanoes and earthquake movements were more frequent and more considerable in their effects4 ,the tide of movement by material things may have been faster2 and certain it is that the land was now lifting itself up above the shallow seas4 ,mountains were being built along the coast-lines2 behind the coast-lines the continents were shouldering their way upwards in large land areas4 ,north ,america began to show in this period the first signs of becoming a continent2 ,europe's countries1 or some of them1 assumed a distinct existence4 ,with the advent of mountains came streams and rivers2 and the streams1 fed by the abundant rainfalls1 rushed down to the seas in torrents that performed the work of erosion with a rapidity perhaps unequalled by even the greatest rivers of our present-day knowledge--though at first the land areas were not large enough to give rise to streams as long as great rivers like the ,amazon or ,mississippi4 ,we cannot say exactly what the areas and localities of the water and the land were2 but it is safe to assume that at the beginning of the ,silurian period beds of sediment brought down by the rivers and the rain were accumulating about the borders of the land1 and as far out as the waves and currents were able to convey the earth materials4 ,the climate was still equable and was much the same over great areas of the world's surface1 for the forests of warm temperate latitude are1 in part1 the same as those in ,arctic regions4 ,certain parts of the land appear to have been desert4 ,life began to change a great deal in ,silurian times4 ,the extensive withdrawal of the sea from great stretches of submerged surface reduced the area of shallow water available for the forms of life that had so richly peopled it during the ,ordovician period4 ,then there came an age during which the sea invaded some of the regions of the earth's crust1 and again withdrew1 leaving behind it great stretches of water which gradually grew more intensely salt4 ,all these things had naturally a great effect on the development of the plants and animals of ,silurian times4 ,we cannot in a brief summary of this kind do more than indicate some of the more conspicuous features4 ,corals began to spread through the clearer seas3 and reef building on a great scale took place1 generally some distance from the shores of the land4 ,other life in great abundance and variety gathered upon or about these reefs1 and they became rich depositories of the animals of their day4 ,the ,crinoids1 which1 though animals1 are sometimes called the lilies of the sea1 developed strongly2 sea urchins appeared1 and forms akin to barnacles4 ,the ancestors of the pearl oyster and the mussel date from ,silurian times2 and so do the first ,ammonites1 those creatures known to the youngest collectors of fossils1 and deriving their names from the ,canaanitish god ,ammon1 which had a ram's head4 ,sea scorpions1 sand fleas1 king crabs1 sea squirts1 and worms and fishes of various kinds haunted the ,silurian seas4 ,the ,silurian fish were most of them armed for defence1 some with plates of bone2 some of them had their tails stiffly joined to their backbones2 some had skin like a prickly pear2 some were not unlike the modern shark4 ,the plants have left us many records--liverworts1 ferns1 and club-like mosses4 ,the growing vegetation gave a new impulse to insect life--plant-lice and cockchafers and the scorpions we have named3 and the vastness of their numbers is shown by the fact that they have outlasted the changes and vicissitudes of a myriad generations4 ,we may conclude this chapter by saying what we imagine of the general appearance of our own islands to have been4 ,at the close of the ,silurian period ,britain was probably an archipelago1 ranging over ten degrees of latitude1 like many of the island groups now found in the great ,pacific ,ocean2 the old gneissic hills of the western coast of ,scotland1 culminating in the granite range of ,ben ,nevis1 and stretching to the ,southern ,grampians1 forming the nucleus of one island group2 the ,south ,highlands of ,scotland1 ranging from the ,lammermuir ,hills1 another2 the ,pennine chain and the ,malvern ,hills1 the third and most easterly group2 the ,shropshire and ,welsh mountains1 a fourth2 and ,devon and ,cornwall stretching far to the south and west4 ,every spot of the island lying now at a lower elevation than #hjj feet above the sea was under water at the close of the ,silurian period1 except in those instances where depression by subsidence has since occurred4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,how ,,the ,,coal ,,beds ,,were ,,laid ,,down ,in following the history of the rocks1 we shall have presently to speak of that period which embraces the strata which contain coal4 ,the geologists who lived in the early part of last century--,william ,smith and others--noticed that beneath the coal-bearing strata there lay a considerable thickness of red sandy beds containing the remains of fresh-water fishes1 shells1 and plants1 while above the coaly strata they found another thick mass of red sandstone4 ,to the lower and older red rocks they consequently gave the name of ,old ,red ,sandstone1 and to the upper and newer ones the name of the ,new ,red ,sandstone4 ,the ,old ,red ,sandstone formation1 therefore1 lies between the ,silurian rocks below and the rocks of the coal period above4 ,but in ,devonshire we find a considerable thickness of shales1 slates1 and limestones containing marine fossils1 and these also lie between these two formations1 and must therefore be somewhere about the same period1 or geological age1 as the ,old ,red ,sandstone4 ,the name ,devonian has therefore been given to these shales1 slates1 and limestones1 which were evidently being deposited in an open sea at or about the same time at which the ,old ,red ,sandstone strata were being laid down on the floors of inland fresh-water lakes4 ,in the west of ,england the ,old ,red ,sandstone stretches from ,hereford and ,monmouth into the neighbouring ,welsh counties of ,brecknock and ,glamorgan4 ,it is here at its greatest thickness of nearly two miles4 ,the lower part consists of red and yellow sandstones1 marls1 and shales1 with a certain kind of limestone concrete4 ,the red colour is due to iron1 and wherever this is abundant fossils are scarce1 though remains of fishes have been found in it4 ,scotland is the classic ground of the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 for it was here that ,hugh ,miller1 when a working mason at ,cromarty1 first collected its wonderful fossil fishes4 ,hugh ,miller's discovery is one of the romances of geological annals4 ,let any one picture to himself1 wrote the late ,mr4 ,bristow1 the surprise he would feel should he1 on taking his first lesson in geology1 and on first breaking a stone--a pebble1 for instance1 exhibiting every external sign of a water-worn surface--find1 to appropriate ,archdeacon ,paley's illustration1 a watch1 or any other delicate piece of mechanism1 in its centre4 ,now this1 many years ago1 is exactly the kind of surprise that ,hugh ,miller experienced in the sandstone quarry opened in a lofty wall of cliff overhanging the northern shore of the ,moray ,frith4 ,he had picked up a nodular mass of blue ,lias limestone1 which he laid open by a stroke of the hammer1 when1 behold6 an exquisitely shaped ,ammonite was displayed before him4 ,it is no surprising that henceforth the half mason1 half sailor1 and poet1 became a geologist4 ,he sought for information1 and found it2 he found that the rocks among which he laboured swarmed with the relics of a former age4 ,he pursued his investigations1 and found1 while working in this zone of strata all around the coast1 that a certain class of fossils abounded2 but that in a higher zone these familiar forms disappeared1 and others made their appearance4 ,he read and learned that in other lands--lands of more recent formation--strange forms of animal life had been discovered2 forms which in their turn had disappeared1 to be succeeded by others1 more in accordance with beings now living4 ,he came to know that he was surrounded1 in his native mountains1 by the sedimentary deposits of other ages2 he became alive to the fact that these grand mountain ranges had been built up grain by grain in the bed of the ocean1 and the mountains had been subsequently raised to their present level by the upheaval of one part of its bed1 or by the subsidence of another4444 ,the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 a book which was the result of ,hugh ,miller's researches1 is a geological classic4 ,there are three other regions in ,england and ,scotland where the ,old ,red ,sandstone is conspicuous1 and all of them were probably old fresh-water lakes of great extent in which sands accumulated4 ,sir ,archibald ,geikie has named them the ,welsh ,lake1 ,lake ,cheviot1 ,lake ,caledonia1 ,lake ,arcadie1 ,lake ,lorne4 ,there are similar sandy deposits in ,russia1 in ,north ,america1 near the ,catskill ,mountains1 and in many parts of ,canada2 and there is little doubt that in all these places there were great lakes which gradually became the depositories of rivers and developed a life of their own4 ,the most remarkable fossils of these deposits were the fishes4 ,the fishes began to appear in the later ,silurian3 they are strikingly abundant in ,devonian times4 ,the most remarkable of them are fishes which are only just like fishes after having been developed out of1 or perhaps descending from1 some other form of life4 ,these fishes are now called the ,ostracoderm group1 and they bear strange resemblance to some of the trilobites and the king crabs of previous eras4 ,the ,pteraspis is one of the earliest of these strange creatures1 and its fins1 very much developed1 were used as oars4 ,perhaps the most curious of all these strange creatures were the ,pterichthyds or winged fish2 though it is not at all likely that the appendages we call wings were used for aerial flight4 ,these fishes were all small2 their forms were clumsy and their powers of moving about small4 ,they had poor mouths and eyes1 and they probably ploughed the soft bottoms of the sluggish waters1 above which little besides their peculiarly placed eyes and the backs of their plated bucklers were habitually exposed4 ,another strange class of fish-like creatures was represented by a little creature which was found in ,scotland and is sometimes supposed to be the ancestor of the lamprey4 ,besides the fresh-water fishes there were some which dwelt in the sea2 but in the ,devonian era the fresh-water fishes were far more numerous4 ,we cannot mention them all4 ,the fish called ,coccosteus and its allies had great bony plates of considerable thickness on its head and shoulders 7some fine examples are to be seen at the ,natural ,history ,museum1 ,cromwell ,road1 ,london71 but its tail and middle body were left unprotected4 ,the sharks of to-day had their representatives among the ,devonian fishes4 ,sharks have throughout geological time nearly always been sea-dwellers1 though they still occasionally live in fresh water1 as in ,lake ,baikal in ,siberia and ,lake ,nicaragua4 ,it seems clear1 however1 that in the ,devonian period they lived in the open sea4 ,but their remains are found in the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 and therefore it is likely that they lived in fresh and brackish waters also4 ,in the same strata as these remarkable fishes there are found some large and peculiar crustaceans1 something like our modern king crabs1 but reaching the enormous length of six feet4 ,there have also been mussels found and a few water plants1 but not many4 ,in the ,devonian relics the land vegetation has for the first time been fairly well preserved4 ,the huge club mosses made good their tenure on the land2 and along the flats and low-lying lands by the rivers there were dense brakes of reedy calamites and masses of true ferns4 ,the club mosses and the calamites diminished from their giant size eventually1 but the ferns went on increasing1 and ancestral types of the pines and the yews began to appear4 ,the vegetation of ,devonian times was sombre2 there could have been no flowers1 and the insects were not of the kind that speed from bloom to bloom4 ,insects there were1 gigantic dragon-flies and insects akin to the many flies that haunt the water2 but the myriad buzz of insect life as we know it in field and forest was not yet heard4 ,it is rather an interesting fact that unmistakable evidence has been collected of the existence in ,devonian times of those smallest of living things1 the bacteria4 ,of the general distribution of the land we cannot speak with great certainty4 ,the violent disturbances of ,silurian times seem to have ceased1 but movements of the land did not cease4 ,great parts of ,england were rising from the water1 and stretching out above the waves to ,belgium and ,northern ,france4 ,there was no ,german ,ocean and no ,st4 ,george's ,channel at the end of the period2 and ,scotland1 also rising above the waves1 was accumulating deposits of volcanic ash and lava4 ,while1 however1 the ,british ,isles and great parts of ,belgium1 ,denmark1 ,scandinavia1 and ,western ,russia1 and smaller areas in mid-,france1 mid-,germany1 and the ,balkans were rising the rest of ,europe was submerged beneath the waters4 ,in the ,united ,states there were similar risings and sinkings of the land1 but1 on the whole1 the course of geological history seems to have been more peaceful across the ,atlantic4 ,in ,europe1 as in ,america1 there do not seem to have been notable changes at the end of the ,devonian1 though there was some alteration in level in ,russia1 ,bohemia1 and ,great ,britain4 ,the rolling waste of waters south of the ,bristol ,channel began to deepen4 ,the continental area in which the ,old ,red ,sandstone lakes lay 7a kind of far ,western ,europe without a ,russia7 began now to sink in its turn4 ,all of the ,british ,isles1 except a very thin slice just cut across the ,midlands from ,north ,wales to ,norfolk1 was sunk beneath the sea4 ,the lakes disappeared1 and above their deposits1 as above the rest of ,england and nearly all ,europe except ,scandinavia and patches of ,spain1 ,italy1 and the ,balkans1 a deep ocean rolled1 and for many thousands of years deposited a grey ooze of limestone4 ,this limestone is called the ,carboniferous or ,mountain ,limestone4 ,but as time went on this old sea floor began to be slowly raised1 and in the shallower waters a great quantity of coarse sand and stones and conglomerate--the ,millstone ,grit1 as it is called--was deposited4 ,limestone denotes clear seas2 but the borders of clear seas are often the sites of accumulation of land rocks1 and the clear waters of the early ,carboniferous sea which stretched from ,ireland to the north of ,europe were bordered by shores along which mud and shale1 gravel and sand were deposited4 ,the end of this period was marked in ,europe by great disturbances of the earth's crust--though perhaps these disturbances1 as we have shown in a previous chapter1 were not sudden or violent1 but were slow upheavals1 lasting hundreds of thousands of years4 ,it was at this time that a great system of mountains1 sometimes referred to as the ,palozoic ,alps1 began to rise4 ,this system of mountains crossed the central part of ,europe from the ,western ,islands to the ,sudetes ,mountains in the east4 ,their remnants are seen in the ,vosges ,mountains1 the ,hartz ,mountains1 and the ,black ,forest at the present time2 and the development of the ,ural ,mountains was contemporaneous with them4 ,during this time a mild climate spread all over ,europe1 and as far north as ,spitzbergen the waters were warm enough to support coral reefs and plants which we associate with the seas of genial latitudes4 ,in time the ,carboniferous sea became quite filled up2 and its floor was raised up to or a little above the waters4 ,then in great swamps1 marshes1 and low lands1 the burgeoning vegetable life of the northern hemisphere entered on its long-deferred reign4 ,it was then that the coal which we burn in our grates to-day was laid down4 ,let us consider the circumstances in which coal is to be found4 ,the coal formations1 as we know them1 are found in the same state1 and evidently laid down in the same era1 from the ,equator up to ,melville ,island in the ,arctic regions1 where in our day it is always freezing4 ,they stretch from ,nova ,zembla to the middle of ,china2 and they are much the same in ,new ,zealand and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,therefore the first conclusion we draw was that nearly all over the globe the climate was the same--hot1 close1 moist1 muggy4 ,whatever the climate was the growth of vegetation was tremendous4 ,we shall have presently to say a little more about the vegetation2 but for the present we need only say that it was very different from the vegetation with which most of us are familiar4 ,imagine a hot1 damp atmosphere1 a kind of perpetual warm fog through which the rays of the sun struggled with difficulty1 and where rain fell on most days of the year--a perpetual steaming hothouse4 ,there was little variety in the appearance of the vast forest swamps4 ,it certainly possessed1 wrote ,louis ,figuier1 the advantage of size and rapid growth2 but how poor it was in species--how uniform in appearance6 ,no flowers yet adorned the foliage or varied the tints of the forests4 ,eternal verdure clothed the branches of the ,ferns1 the ,lycopods 7club mosses71 and ,equiseta1 which composed to a great extent the vegetation of the age4 ,the forests presented an innumerable collection of individuals1 but very few species1 and all belonging to the lower types of vegetation4 ,no fruit appeared fit for nourishment2 none would seem to have been on the branches4 ,suffice it to say that few land animals seem to have existed yet2 while the vegetable kingdom occupied the land1 which at a later period was more thickly inhabited by air-breathing animals4 ,a few winged insects gave animation to the air while exhibiting their variegated colours2 and many mollusca 7such as land-snails7 lived at the same time4 ,ultimately all this richness of vegetation became by decay1 by compression1 by submergence1 perhaps by being buried under earthquake movements and volcanic outbreaks1 converted into coal2 and we may now ask how long did this process take4 ,a vigorous growth of vegetation has been estimated to yield annually about one ton of dried vegetable matter per acre1 or #fdj tons to the square mile4 ,if this annual growth of vegetable matter were all preserved for #ajjj years1 and compressed till it was as dense and heavy as coal1 it would form a layer about seven inches thick4 ,but a large portion of the vegetable matter even in peat bogs escapes as gas in the making of coal4 ,four-fifths of it escapes in this way4 ,if this be true the seven-inch layer would be reduced to less than one and a half inches1 and a layer a foot in thickness would require between #hjjj and #ijjj years4 ,the aggregate thickness of coal is frequently as much as #ajj feet 7when all the thicknesses of the seams are added together71 and sometimes as much as #bej feet4 ,at the foregoing rate of accumulation periods ranging from #a1jjj1jjj to #b1ejj1jjj years would be needed for the accumulation of such thicknesses of coal4 ,it must be borne in mind that much depends on the rate of growth of ,carboniferous vegetation1 which may have been1 and probably was1 much more rapid than any we know outside tropical forests4 ,on the other hand1 we have been speaking of the aggregate thickness of the coal beds only4 ,the greater part of the coal-bearing strata consists of shale and sandstone with layers or seams of coal like streaky bacon4 ,of the shale and sandstone there are thousands of feet1 even where the sediments are fine and their accumulations therefore probably slow4 ,for1 as we have said1 this was a period of great change1 in which the forests were always sinking and rising again1 being submerged by lakes1 being covered by the sea1 and again emerging as islands1 to be overrun by vegetation4 ,as sinks some sylvan scene in all its pride ,changed to lagoons of overflowing tide1 ,assiduous labours ,land to win again ,her leafy breadths1 invaded by the main4 ,down bring the rivers to the flooded shore ,cargoes of shale and silt that slow restore ,the sunken glebes1 till they again can hold ,thick ferny brakes1 and forests as of old4 7,h4 ,r4 ,knipe47 ,it would hardly seem unreasonable to suppose that these depositions1 and the changes that brought them about1 might have occupied as much time as the formation of the coal beds4 ,this would double the figures1 and make this period last something between two million and five million years4 ,in the coal as we know it are the remains of great forest trees2 gigantic tree-ferns for the most part1 and of many small plants forming a close thick sod1 partially buried in whole countries of marsh land4 ,every one knows those marsh plants1 which bear the vulgar name of mare's-tail4 ,these humble plants were represented during the coal period by trees from twenty to thirty feet high and four to six inches in diameter4 ,their trunks have been preserved to us3 they bear the name of ,calamites4 ,the ,lycopods of our age are humble plants1 scarcely a yard in height1 and most commonly creepers2 but those of the ancient world were trees of eighty or ninety feet in height4 ,their leaves were sometimes twenty inches long1 and their trunks a yard in diameter4 ,such are the dimensions of some specimens which have been found4 ,another ,lycopod of this period attained dimensions still more colossal4 ,the ,sigillarias sometimes exceeded #ajj feet in height4 ,herbaceous ,ferns were also exceedingly abundant and grew beneath the shade of these gigantic trees4 ,it was the combination of these lofty trees with the undergrowth of smaller vegetation which formed the forests of the ,carboniferous period4 ,what could be more surprising1 exclaims ,figuier1 than the aspect of this exuberant vegetation1 these immense trees1 these elegant arborescent ferns with airy foliage1 fine cut1 like delicate lace4 ,nothing at the present day can convey to us an idea of the prodigious and immense extent of never-changing verdure which clothed the earth1 from pole to pole1 under the high temperature which everywhere prevailed over the whole terrestrial globe4 ,in the depths of these inextricable forests parasitic plants were suspended from the trunks of the great trees1 in tufts or garlands1 like the wild vines of our tropical forests4 ,they were nearly all pretty1 fern-like plants1 they attached themselves to the stems of the great trees1 like the orchids of our times4 ,the margin of the waters would also be covered with various plants with light and whorled leaves1 belonging1 perhaps1 to the ,dicotyledons4 ,before leaving the subject of the plants of the coal measures1 we should perhaps mention as one of the most interesting discoveries of the present generation that whereas the links between the fern-like trees of those days and the cycads1 or early group of seed-bearing plants1 were for long missing1 they have been found by the researches of ,professor ,f4 ,w4 ,oliver1 ,f4,r4,s41 who has identified in the ,lyginodendron a seed-bearing fern from the coal measures4 ,we must now turn to the less interesting but not less important topic of the animal life of the ,carboniferous period4 ,at the beginning of the period when only a small portion of the ,british ,isles was above the waters1 and an ocean rolled from ,ireland to ,china1 the life of which the most important relics were left was that of the sea4 ,in the early ,carboniferous seas the rhizopods1 some small as dust1 laid down with their tiny shells the foundations of mountains yet to be2 the sea lilies were at the height of their pride1 occupying vast areas in the flowing tide2 forms like the present-day nautilus began to appear1 and the lamp-shells attained their greatest size4 ,the trilobites1 hitherto the most conspicuous and noticeable animals of the earth's childhood1 were beginning to die out1 vanquished in the struggle for life by more adaptable forms1 and the big sea scorpions were waning fast4 ,the king crabs and the water fleas still throve1 and the fishes1 though most of them not very large1 were growing larger1 some of them taking the appearance of the dog-fish1 some of the ray1 some of the shark2 and1 what is more important than the fact of size1 the fishes were growing speedier and more capable of attacking weaker creatures4 ,in the course of these ages the sea invaded the land2 and shores where land-snails and millipedes and centipedes1 beetles and scorpions1 spiders and cockroaches had found a home became entirely changed1 not only in their appearance and character1 but in the type which subsisted on them4 ,it is possible 7for something of the kind has been noticed in our own days in the ,west ,indies1 where a sea-crab species is showing signs of becoming a land animal7 that some of the forms of water animals became used to living in shallower and shallower water as the generations went on till they became partly land and partly water animals--amphibians1 as they are called4 ,thus small newt-like beings1 moving clumsily through the swamps1 made their appearance1 and others with stronger limbs pushed onwards through the forest4 ,others in form resembling snakes crept through the mud and lived among the swamps by the side of the sea4 ,not much is known of the food and life-habits of any of these amphibians4 ,from their teeth we may perhaps judge that they lived on fish1 crustaceans1 insects1 and on one another1 and their predatory life sometimes led them to climb trees in search of food4 ,what1 however1 is most important about the amphibian is that they were the pioneers of the march of those creatures which had backbones--the vertebrates--from the sea to the land4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,reptiles ,we have already said that in the many hundreds of thousands of years which went by during ,carboniferous times the sea sometimes advanced and sometimes receded1 and nothing shows this better than the great thickness of the deposits in which the coal lies in seams4 ,in ,america1 as in ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa1 ,australia1 and ,new ,zealand1 ,south and ,central ,america1 the ,carboniferous system is found4 ,in ,arkansas1 in ,north ,america1 the coal measures attain the remarkable thickness of #ah1jjj feet2 in the ,wasatch ,mountains the ,carboniferous strata have been estimated to be #ac1jjj feet thick1 and in silver-bearing ,nevada #aj1jjj feet4 ,the formations of the ,western ,european coal measures1 like those of ,eastern ,north ,america1 consist principally of shales and clays1 with smaller amounts of sandstone and limestone4 ,they attain great thickness1 and1 including #eejj feet of the ,millstone ,grit1 are #ac1ejj feet thick in ,lancashire and several thousand feet thick in many parts of ,great ,britain and ,ireland4 ,the extraordinary thicknesses show that near our islands must have been a very extensive and lofty area of land4 ,in ,germany the same strata1 thickly seamed with coal1 are #aj1jjj feet thick4 ,there must also have been considerable volcanic or earthquake action as we know1 because in ,germany1 near the ,hartz ,mountains and elsewhere1 there are many igneous rocks thrust into the strata1 and also because in ,belgium and in ,france the coal strata are very much twisted and contorted4 ,the same or similar beds are found in ,siberia1 in ,japan1 and in ,china1 where the coal beds are said to be thicker than anywhere else in the world4 ,the ,carboniferous system is also found in ,africa1 in the north1 south-east1 and south of the continent2 and in ,australia and ,new ,zealand ,carboniferous strata to the thickness of #aj1jjj feet are indicated4 ,at the close of this period the changes ever taking place transformed the conditions of life in a way the reverse of that which we have hitherto been examining4 ,so far each age has shown an increase of life on the age preceding it4 ,but when the great outburst of carboniferous activity began to wane it was followed by a lessening of the wave of life4 ,as we said in the last chapter1 there lie on the top of the coal-bearing strata beds to which the older geologists gave the name of ,new ,red ,sandstone4 ,but in #ahda the ,new ,red ,sandstone was divided into two distinct geological formations4 ,to the lower and older part ,murchison gave in #ahda the name of ,permian 7from ,perm or ,permia1 an ancient kingdom in ,russia1 where red sandy rocks of this age form nearly all the surface71 but in ,germany it is more frequently called the ,dyas 7from ,lat4 duo1 two71 because in that country it is composed of two well-marked divisions--red sandstones below and magnesian limestones above4 ,thus there are two types of this ,permian formation3 the ,permian type proper--a mixed series of red sandstones1 marls1 shales1 and limestones1 with some thin beds of coal1 as found in ,russia2 and the ,dyassic type1 as seen in ,germany4 ,we do not know what brought about the change3 though we do know that during it there was great volcanic activity over ,europe and that the waning forests of vegetation and the steaming swamps gave place to desert plains4 ,vegetation sank lower and lower4 ,the forests disappeared or dwelt only in clusters4 ,the soft sappy trees gave place to hardy pines which clung to the plains and the mountains1 and other sterner types began to appear1 allied to the spruces1 yews1 and ginkgo4 ,the ginkgo tree is one of the oldest of the tree type which now has a living representative4 ,any reader interested enough in the matter to walk along ,royal ,hospital ,road1 ,chelsea1 will find a ginkgo tree just outside the ,old ,physic ,garden2 and of course a good many other examples are preserved in botanic gardens4 ,the cycads1 offshoots of the ferns1 through the strange group of trees known as the cycado-filices1 spread through the woods4 ,the trilobites1 to turn to animal life1 all but disappeared1 though one elegant example remained2 the corals were changing2 and the lamp-shells were dropping out4 ,there were a few new species of fishes1 but none of any great strength or capacity1 and all preserving still the tail which is part of the backbone4 ,there was an all-round impoverishment of life--so great1 indeed1 that the early geologists used to believe that a complete destruction of all life followed this1 the closing stage of the ,palozoic era1 and that a re-creation followed4 ,they would have been confirmed in this belief had they but known that intense cold and glaciation were setting in where the tropics were situated and that the dryness of vast deserts was sweeping away life elsewhere4 ,but we now know that life was not entirely lost2 that many species survived1 and that others1 altering to suit altering conditions1 became stronger in the process4 ,nevertheless1 life was greatly impoverished4 ,a census made a few years ago gave the known animal species of the ,carboniferous period as #aj1jjj1 while those of the ,permian period were only #cjj1 or three per cent4 ,possibly the percentage was larger than that1 but still it was small4 ,but if the ,permian was poor in life it was very interesting4 ,the amphibians had been growing in strength during the later stages of the ,carboniferous age1 and may possibly have been more numerous then than at any other time1 for the vast swamps were very favourable for them4 ,they diminished in the ,permian1 though the ,permian amphibians showed some advances1 and began to assume a likeness to reptiles4 ,perhaps the reptiles may have first appeared in the ,carboniferous1 but they declared themselves in the ,permian age4 ,two great branches of reptiles seem already to have defined themselves2 perhaps they had never formed a common group as reptiles1 but had separated while still amphibians4 ,the one bore resemblance to1 and were perhaps the forerunners of1 the great hosts of lizards1 crocodiles1 dinosaurs1 ichthyosaurs1 and flying saurians1 which are the most pronounced of the reptiles1 and of which we shall have a great deal to say presently4 ,the other group were perhaps the ancestors of the turtles and plesiosaurs which appeared later1 and possibly led the way to the mammals4 ,this rapid and diverse spreading out of the reptiles in a period when life as a whole was at a low ebb is not a little remarkable4 ,these creatures seem to show the arrival of a more pronounced form of air-breathing animal2 and that may have been the consequence of the presence of more oxygen in the earth's atmosphere4 ,of the ,permian amphibians1 one of the most interesting was like the ,sphenodon1 which still creeps about the northern islands of ,new ,zealand4 ,the most striking of the reptiles was the ,naosaurus1 a beast-like creature with a high back of spines webbed together like a solid porcupine4 ,it was from three to ten feet in length4 ,all these changes were brought about by the general withdrawal of the sea1 both in the ,north ,american continent and in ,europe4 ,in both continents there are beds which accumulated fresh water2 in both beds which were laid down in salt lakes or inland seas2 and in both beds which were laid down on the floor of seas washing the continents4 ,great areas seem to have been sometimes dry and sometimes submerged2 other and greater areas1 bordered by ice and sometimes swept by icy blasts1 or subject to burning sun in summer1 were deserts such as we are aware of now in ,asia or ,north ,africa or mid-,australia1 but much larger in extent than any of these4 ,it was in conditions such as these that the ancient or ,palozoic rocks came to an end and the ,mesozoic or ,middle ,period began4 ,the ,middle period of strata and of the life which those strata have preserved has usually been separated from the older rocks because1 owing to the great period of arid desert conditions1 the character of life changed a great deal2 but fuller knowledge shows that the links were still there1 and that ceaseless adaptation of animals to their surroundings was ceaselessly going on4 ,we need not follow closely all the changes and relationships1 and only much greater knowledge than geologists yet possess will enable them to trace all the alterations of the land and sea4 ,but we may trace the alterations in the appearance of the continents in broad outline4 ,nearly the whole extent of the ,british ,isles was now above the sea1 and was enjoying a climate perhaps as cold as present-day ,iceland4 ,to the south and east of ,scotland was a great shallow inland lake1 while north of ,great ,britain a huge plain stretched across ,europe4 ,to the south of the lake was a belt of land1 and farther south still the sea had invaded ,italy and reached to ,southern ,germany1 and in this sea was being laid down the limestone which in later eras was to be elevated into the mountains of the ,apennines1 the ,alps1 and the ,pyrenees4 ,north ,africa was under water1 but farther south the uplifted lands were joining hands with ,india4 ,sea swept part of ,asia1 but ,north ,america was larger and broader than it is now1 her western coast stretching farther out into the ocean4 ,in this period1 which is called the ,triassic 7the name given to it by the ,german geologist ,bronn because of the three distinct beds he found in it1 though the middle of these1 a shelly limestone1 does not exist in ,great ,britain71 there was a wide development of large reptiles and amphibians4 ,we cannot enumerate them all1 for not one chapter nor one volume would suffice to deal adequately with the reptiles of the ,trias formations and of the ,jurassic rocks which followed them1 and of the ,permian which preceded them4 ,but we may speak of some of them4 ,one of the most striking was the ,pareiasaurus1 which has been found in the ,jurassic sandstones and limestones of ,south ,africa1 of ,russia1 of ,india and ,scotland1 and of middle ,england4 ,the skeleton of the ,pareiasaurus looks like that of a gigantic pug dog eight feet long2 but it was a comparatively harmless animal1 the teeth of which show that it largely fed on vegetable food4 ,in ,sir ,e4 ,ray ,lankester's lectures on ,extinct ,animals he described the finding of a great many of these fossil reptiles by ,professor ,amalitzky on the banks of the ,river ,dwina1 near ,archangel4 ,there is a cliff of ,permian strata on the banks of the ,dwina1 and in this cliff there is a peculiar pocket or accumulation of sandy matter with large hard nodules embedded in it4 ,these nodules are removed and broken up for mending the roads4 ,the pocket seems to be in a fissure and of ,triassic age1 later1 that is to say1 than the ,permian rocks on either side of it4 ,however that may be1 the nodules are usually removed for road-mending1 and four or five years ago ,professor ,amalitzky on visiting the spot was astounded and delighted to find that when broken each nodule was seen to contain the skeleton or skull of a great reptile4 ,the ,russian geologist determined to make a most thorough investigation of this wonderful deposit1 and for years spent several thousand pounds in having the nodules dug out by the peasants after the year's farming work was over1 and in removing them to the ,university of ,warsaw1 where with the finest instruments and greatest care the nodules are opened1 and each bone removed in fragments is put together from its more or less broken parts1 and firmly cemented and set up in its natural position as a complete skeleton4 ,these ,pareiasaurs reconstructed by ,professor ,amalitzky were about as big as well-grown cattle1 but not so high on the legs4 ,living at the same time1 and its skeleton now found near them1 was an enormous and truly terrible flesh-eating animal1 with a skull two feet long and enormous tiger-like teeth4 ,this creature was named ,inostransevia4 ,no doubt the vegetarian herds of ,pareiasaurus1 whose small peg-like teeth indicate their harmlessness1 were preyed on by the terrible ,inostransevia1 as were their brethren in ,south ,africa devoured by other carnivorous reptiles of that remote ,triassic age4 ,so we see the co-existence of blood-sucker and victim--of the destructive oppressor and the helpless oppressed--forced on our attention in these two localities1 ,russia and ,south ,africa1 in days long before man was4 ,other land forms were grotesque and curious in shape1 the ,chelonians for example1 big birds and crocodiles rolled into one1 and clothed in lizard-like skin--queer pear-shaped brutes with huge hind limbs1 short fore limbs1 narrow chests1 and pigmy skulls4 ,both branches of the reptilian horde1 those representing the saurians and those which were the forerunners of the mammals1 sent delegations to the sea before the close of the ,triassic period4 ,the ,ichthyosaurs represented the more pronounced reptilian line2 the ,plesiosaurs were the representatives of the coming mammals4 ,it is not difficult to find good reason for this movement to the sea4 ,besides the inevitable tendency of every masterful race to invade all accessible realms1 the renewed extension of the sea that set in during the ,triassic period and became pronounced before its close1 especially invited this1 for the shallow waters creeping out upon the land with their now prolific life set tempting morsels before the voracious reptiles1 on the one hand1 while on the other1 the reduction of the land area and the restriction of their feeding-grounds1 intensified by the multiplication of the reptiles themselves1 forced a resort to the sea4 ,one of the reptiles of this period1 the ,lariosaurus1 shows by its development how the change affected the reptiles4 ,in the earlier stages of the ,trias it resembled a rather swollen alligator with four limbs symmetrically situated and used for crawling4 ,in the later forms of these reptiles the limbs were modified with paddles1 and all power to move about on land was lost4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,reptiles 7,continued47 ,the ,triassic period in its later stages was very like the earlier period of the era which followed it1 and the reptiles which were characteristic of the close of the first were continued in some cases with only slight differentiation in the second4 ,the ,plesiosaurs and ,ichthyosaurs are associated with the ,trias1 and we may therefore describe them now4 ,though some of these large aquatic creatures must have measured thirty feet from snout to tail1 they do not equal in size the great aquatic mammals of to-day--the whales4 ,in life the ,plesiosaur had a body like the hull of a submarine with four great paddles attached--the fore and the hind legs4 ,it had a long neck like a gigantic swan1 and an elongated head provided with powerful jaws armed with numerous pointed teeth4 ,it probably could swim under water as well as on the surface1 and when floating could snap small lizards from the land4 ,the paddles have a definite structure like legs1 with five toes1 wrist or ankle1 forearm or foreleg1 and upper arm or thigh4 ,a great number of these ,plesiosaurs have been found in the ,lias formation of the south of ,england2 and slabs containing whole skeletons have frequently been obtained4 ,they and two similarly embedded and flattened skeletons of different kinds of ,ichthyosaurs may be seen in quantity on the wall of the gallery of fossil reptiles in the ,natural ,history ,museum at ,south ,kensington4 ,the ,ichthyosaurs were much more fish-like or whale-like in form than the ,plesiosaurs4 ,they were1 indeed1 says ,sir ,e4 ,ray ,lankester1 singularly like the porpoises and grampuses among living whales and stand in the same relation to land-living reptiles that the porpoises do to land-living mammals4 ,their fish-like appearance and fins are not primitive characters and do not indicate any closer blood relationship to fishes than that possessed by other reptiles4 ,they are the offspring of four-legged terrestrial reptiles which have become specially modified and adapted to submarine life4 ,like many whales1 they had a fin on the back devoid of bony support4 ,the ,ichthyosaur had a ring of bony plates supporting the eyeball 7as birds also have71 and these are often preserved in the fossil specimens4 ,at the end of the ,triassic period some strata were laid down which have been called ,beds of passage4 ,we have seen that the ,triassic strata were probably deposited1 altogether or in part1 in extensive salt lakes or inland seas4 ,at the close of the ,triassic period the waters of the ocean were admitted to these areas by the sinking of the land at some point or other of their margins4 ,with the sea-water came many living things--fishes1 shells1 etc4--and the very scanty life of the ,triassic lake was replaced by an abundance of marine life4 ,these beds were called the ,rhtic beds because they were first found in the old ,roman province of ,rhtia1 which occupied an ,alpine district between ,bavaria and ,lombardy4 ,here they were thickest1 #cjjj feet of limestones and shales2 but they have since been found either thicker or thinner everywhere in ,england1 and in the ,united ,states1 as well as in other parts of ,europe wherever we can find the ,lias lying on the ,trias4 ,they are especially interesting1 because they contain the teeth of the earliest known traces of the highest division of the animal kingdom--the mammals4 ,these early mammals belonged to the lowest of all the mammalian tribes--the ,marsupials1 or pouched animals1 now so common in ,australia4 ,the little banded ant-eater of ,south ,america1 which lives upon insects and is about the size of a rat1 is probably something like the first mammal1 the ,microlestes1 in habit and appearance4 ,let us now return1 however1 to the reptiles of the ,jurassic period4 ,it is so called from the ,jura ,mountains which occupy the north-west of ,switzerland1 separating that country from ,france4 ,they are composed of a thick series of clays1 shales1 and limestones1 to which1 in #ahbi1 the name ,jurassic was given by the ,french geologist ,brogniart4 ,it was soon found1 however1 that the lower rocks of this period were very different from the upper4 ,the lower rocks were very shaly and clayey with thinnish layers of limestone4 ,these were called ,lias4 ,the name ,lias is derived from layers--pronounced broadly by the ,somerset quarrymen as lyers--a very suitable name for the lower beds of the ,lias especially1 since the alternation of thin beds of limestone and of shale gives to the rock a banded or ribbon-like appearance1 which may well cause the workmen to describe it as occurring in lyers4 ,to the upper ,jurassic beds1 which contained much more limestone and also occasional beds of sandstone1 the name of ,oolite was given4 ,the ,oolitic strata have a special interest for ,english geologists1 for it was in them that ,william ,smith1 the west of ,england surveyor1 first made out 7about the year #agij7 the order of succession of the strata1 and by this was led to his great discovery that strata could be identified by their organic remains1 that is by their fossils4 ,he noticed that some of the limestone beds of the strata we are about to describe consisted of small rounded grains1 which made them resemble the roe of a fish--indeed1 they were called roestone by the workmen4 ,hence ,smith--when seeking a name for this set of strata--bethought himself of the term ,oolite1 which means egg-stone 7,gr4 oon1 an egg1 and lithos1 a stone74 ,where the grains are very large the limestone is called pea-grit or pisolite 7,lat4 pisum1 a pea74 ,some beds which contain numerous and irregularly shaped fragments of shells1 corals1 etc41 are called rag-stones4 ,illustration3 ,plesiosaurs ,different species ranged from ten to forty feet in length4 ,the ,jurassic strata of ,great ,britain were sediments laid down in warm seas surrounding an archipelago of which ,dartmoor1 ,wales1 and ,cumberland formed some of the islands4 ,the whole of ,western ,europe was sinking and had sunk2 and the waters of the open ocean were admitted into and mingled with the salt mineral waters of the great ,triassic lakes4 ,the change was at first very like what would happen at the present day if the coast of ,palestine were depressed1 so that the waters of the ,mediterranean flowed into the ,dead ,sea4 ,the few fish of the salt lakes were killed2 and as the land continued to sink1 the sea at last flowed all over ,central and ,west ,england1 bringing with it an abundance of marine life4 ,but the reptiles were far from being finished with2 and the progress of the small mammals was extremely slow4 ,first1 as to the reptiles4 ,the whale-shaped ,ichthyosaurs continued to develop in the seas1 and grew larger and larger till some of which we have found traces reached a length of forty feet4 ,the long-necked ,plesiosaurs also advanced from strength to strength1 and some types grew larger4 ,but by this time new breeds were developing1 with shorter necks and larger heads 7and consequently larger brain-power71 which had a better chance of surviving in the struggle for existence than the unwieldy and slow-witted reptiles which preceded them4 ,the ,ichthyosaurs became more and more fish-like1 and some of them developed the habit of breeding at sea instead of having to return to the land to deposit their eggs1 as do the sea-going turtles and crocodiles4 ,descended from quite a different stock1 the ,plesiosaurs adapted themselves to sea life in their own fashion4 ,instead of adopting the flowing lines of a fish1 the body took on a form more like that of a turtle1 while the lengthened neck gave rise to the description applied to him since that they had the body of a turtle strung on a snake4 ,at their longest their necks had as many as seventy-six bones1 or vertebr1 which is more than any other animal living or extinct ever possessed4 ,a smaller order of crocodiles appeared and flourished for a time2 and the ancestors of the sea turtles1 which were to enjoy so long a reign1 began to make their first appearance4 ,among the land animals the ,dinosaurs#af 7or the fearful saurians7 attained remarkable size and diversity1 and their dominant species were easily lords of the reptile horde4 ,they developed not only as flesh-eating monsters1 but also in vegetable-eating species4 ,of the flesh-eaters the ,ceratosaurus was the most terrific4 ,it was only seventeen feet long1 but when standing on its powerful hind legs it could have looked in at most first-floor windows1 and it used its cruel fore limbs for seizing and holding prey4 ,imagine a kangaroo with the teeth of a crocodile1 the size of an elephant1 and the ferocity of a tiger and you will have a fair idea of what you would have met in a ,ceratosaurus4 ,footnote #af3 ,from ,gr4 deinos1 fearful4 ,the vegetarian ,dinosaurs first became known in this system1 but their development was so extraordinary that they soon outranked the flesh-eaters both in size and diversity4 ,among these the ,brontosaurus attained the extraordinary length of sixty feet1 and possibly more4 ,it walked on its four legs1 and is one of the largest known of all land animals4 ,this enormous creature in spite of all its size and bulk was yet rather weak than strong4 ,its general organisation was unwieldy2 the head was very small1 and the brain hardly bigger than a walnut4 ,the task of providing food for such a body must have been a severe tax on so small a head4 ,the inconvenience of its bulkiness was perhaps reduced by living in and about water2 but from the excellent preservation of some of the skeletons it has been thought that its life was often ended by sinking in some quicksand or shoal1 from which its own massiveness forbade that the ,brontosaurus should extricate itself4 ,illustration3 ,ornitholestes ,diplodoci ,carnegiei ,from skeletons found in ,jurassic strata in ,wyoming1 ,u4,s4,a4 7,these reptiles attained a length of about #hj feet47 ,not greatly removed in habit or appearance from the ,brontosaurus was the ,diplodocus1 a magnificent specimen of which has been set up in ,pittsburg1 and a fine replica1 owing to the generosity of ,mr4 ,andrew ,carnegie1 in the ,natural ,history ,museum4 ,the ,diplodocus1 a harmless placid beast1 was over eighty feet from the tip of his snout to the end of his enormous tail4 ,it has been calculated that impulses travel along the nerves to the brain at the rate of about twelve yards a second4 ,the rate may have been less in the case of the sluggish ,diplodocus1 but in any case it would evidently take at least two seconds for a nerve impulse to travel the length of this reptile2 so that if any enemy attacked him at the end of his tail it would be two seconds before the ,diplodocus would realise the fact1 and perhaps four seconds before he could begin to turn round to defend himself4 ,even larger than these was the tremendous ,brachiosaurus1 who weighed as much as a steam-engine and whose thigh-bone was nearly eight feet high4 ,these were the largest reptiles ever known1 and may be taken as reaching the point when bulk becomes a burden1 and as signalising an approach to the limit of evolution in the line of size4 ,less bulky than these were the ,stegosaurs1 which were also four-footed4 ,they were curiously armoured1 and formed a group of very remarkable creatures found in ,england and ,western ,america4 ,while they were less gigantic than some of those we have just described1 they found compensation in protective plates1 spines1 and similar modes of defence4 ,a ,stegosaurus found in ,wyoming was probably the most hideous to look upon2 but like his relatives he had an extraordinarily small head and brain1 and was a sluggish creature depending on his ugliness and armour for protection4 ,very likely this small size of the brain of great extinct reptiles had to do with the fact of their ceasing to exist4 ,animals with bigger and ever-increasing brains outdid them in the struggle for existence4 ,it has already been noted that the crowding of the land may have led some reptiles to take to the sea4 ,the same influence may have led others to take to the air and thereby escape the monsters of the swamps1 jungles1 and forests4 ,whatever the cause1 the most striking and wonderful feature of this period was the development of flying reptiles4 ,they had just been seen in the ,trias4 ,in the ,jurassic they appeared fully developed4 ,they doubtless sprang from some agile hollow-boned saurian1 more or less akin to the slender leaping ,dinosaurs4 ,between the ponderous ,brontosaurs and the airy ,pterodactyls was the most striking of contrasts4 ,at first these bird-like reptiles were small1 but later their wings had a spread of as much as twenty feet1 veritable flying dragons4 ,they were not adorned with feathers1 but like bats had leathery membranes stretched from the fore limbs to the body and to the hind limbs4 ,their heads were bird-like1 and their jaws at first were set with teeth4 ,they had true powers of flight1 as is shown by the discovery of their remains in places where they must have been far out at sea when they sank and were buried4 ,later ,pterodactyls had no teeth1 and were1 perhaps1 milder in habits4 ,illustration3 ,archopteryx 7the earliest known fossil bird71 and ,compsognathus 7a small ,dinosaur7 ,it seems natural to pass from the fossil reptiles to the birds4 ,but as a matter of fact the birds are not very closely related to the ,pterodactyls1 and seem to have been descended from some other very special form of reptiles1 so peculiar as to be considered a distinct class4 ,it may actually have been descended from those reptiles among the ,dinosaurs which walked on their hind legs and had only three toes to the foot4 ,the first bird found belongs to ,jurassic times2 and its skeleton1 found in some slate remains at ,solenhofen in ,bavaria1 is now to be seen in the ,natural ,history ,museum4 ,there is another one in ,berlin4 ,this bird1 called the ,archopteryx1 was of the size of a large pigeon1 had a short head apparently without a beak1 and its jaws were armed with teeth4 ,whereas living birds have the fingers of their hands tied together in their wings1 this bird has three distinct fingers at the corner of its wings1 each armed with a claw4 ,its legs were like those of living birds1 and it had four toes4 ,its tail was unlike that of any living bird1 and like that of a lizard4 ,whereas the bony part of the tail of living birds is very short and bears the tail feathers set across it fanwise1 the ,archopteryx had a long bony tail made up of many bones1 and the feathers were set in a series one behind the other till the tail looked like the leaf of a date palm in shape4 ,strange as this little creature appears it was a genuine bird1 for it had these feathers well developed1 as the two fossil specimens showed4 ,there are two sets of feathers forming the wings1 and the thighs were also covered with feathers4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,the ,,chalk ,,period ,once again the ,european continent and with it ,great ,britain began to sink4 ,great ,britain at the beginning of the era which followed the ,jurassic system1 was joined to ,france1 but south of this barrier was a great fresh-water lake1 into which rivers and streams poured from the north and the east4 ,great forests grew on its borders1 forests still crowded with ferns and cycads as in previous ages1 but affording scope for pine trees to grow as well4 ,on its borders flourished the giant ,iguanodon1 a great lizard-like animal which could raise itself on its hind legs and lift a fifteen-foot body so as to feed on the branches of the trees4 ,the ,iguanodon is a specially interesting fossil reptile1 because it was one of the first to be discovered4 ,the first bones and teeth of the ,iguanodon were found seventy years ago by a celebrated and most delightful explorer of the earth's crust1 ,dr4 ,gideon ,mantell1 in the strata known as the ,wealden1 in ,sussex1 just below the chalk4 ,dr4 ,mantell was only a country practitioner1 and when he first produced before the ,geological ,society his ,iguanodon remains1 and suggested that they were those of a reptile1 some doubt was thrown on this conclusion1 because geologists believed from the appearance of the teeth that the animal must be of some other animal family4 ,but ,dr4 ,mantell found that a little lizard living in ,south ,america had teeth like those he had discovered in his reptile remains1 and he persisted in his view4 ,many years later a wonderful find was made near ,brussels in a coal mine near ,bernissart1 the skeletons of no fewer than twenty-two huge ,iguanodons were found complete and embedded in a fairly soft clay-like rock4 ,the authorities of the ,government ,museum took charge of the place and most carefully removed the skeletons to ,brussels1 where the complete skeletons of seven were with enormous difficulty and care removed bit by bit from the rock and set up as entire skeletons in the ,brussels ,museum1 where they may be seen4 ,a replica of one of them is at ,south ,kensington4 ,the fore feet of the ,iguanodon had five fingers1 but the hind foot was very much like that of a bird1 and had only three toes1 and the bones of the pelvis or hip girdle were extraordinarily like those of a bird4 ,when ,professor ,huxley examined the first fragments of the ,iguanodon's remains he was inclined to believe them to be those of a gigantic bird2 and it is generally believed now that it is from this extraordinary reptile stock that the birds were derived4 ,but the great lake with all its varied stores was doomed to sink lower and lower1 till the great sea overwhelmed ,england4 ,another ocean joining it to the east overwhelmed ,germany2 and the whole of ,europe1 south of a line drawn through ,scotland1 ,christiania1 and ,moscow1 became sunk under salt water4 ,there were patches standing up here and there--,ireland1 ,brittany1 ,cornwall1 ,spain or a good part of it1 ,switzerland1 part of ,italy 7and also part of what is now the ,western ,mediterranean71 and most of ,turkey and ,hungary4 ,but elsewhere marine animals succeeded the reptiles1 and the foundations of all the chalk hills and cliffs of modern ,europe were laid4 ,of what were they made8 ,we may borrow a capital suggestion from ,mr4 ,jerome ,harrison1 of ,birmingham ,university4 ,take1 he says1 a piece of chalk and brush it vigorously with a tooth-brush in a glass of water until the liquid looks quite milky4 ,allow the greater part of the sediment to subside1 and then pour away the water and wash the material which has sunk to the bottom of the glass by pouring water on it two or three times4 ,put the whitish powder which finally remains under a microscope2 and examine it with1 say1 the quarter-inch power1 which will magnify about #cjj diameters4 ,the greater part of the white powder will then be seen to be composed of the minute shells of creatures called ,foraminifera--little specks of jelly-like matter which secrete for themselves a shell or covering from the carbonate of lime dissolved in the sea-water in which they live4 ,countless millions of foraminifera inhabit the waters of the ,north ,atlantic 7and of other deep seas7 at the present day2 and of these at least one species--,globigerina bulloides--cannot be distinguished from one of the commonest species found in the ,white ,chalk4 ,when these tiny animals die their soft parts soon decay and disappear1 and their skeletons 7or shells7 fall on the sea floor1 where they form a whitish mud or 'ooze4' ,the time required for the accumulation of so thick a deposit composed of the remains of organised beings--the ,white ,chalk is in ,norfolk quite #abjj feet thick--must have been very great4 ,if we allow that the tiny shells of the foraminifera may have accumulated at the rate of two feet in thickness in a century1 then it would have required #ej1jjj years to form the chalk of the south-east of ,england1 whose thickness we have estimated at #ajjj feet4 ,every one who has been on a chalk cliff or hill has found1 and perhaps thrown1 chalk flints4 ,flints are made of mineral called silica1 and very often these flints1 or nodules of silica1 surround some organism like a sponge or a shell4 ,during the formation of the chalk the sea floor appears to have been covered at intervals by a growth of sponges1 which were composed of siliceous matter1 and their death and decay produced most of the flint4 ,sometimes flint is found in bands1 in which case it may have been deposited by siliceous water trickling through fissures or cracks in the chalk4 ,in the sea which thus existed the ,plesiosaurs and ,ichthyosaurs still pursued the even tenor of their way1 growing larger and larger4 ,they were of many shapes1 and probably of many habits4 ,some were certainly fish-eaters1 and with their enormous jaws must have been most undesirable neighbours4 ,probably1 however1 they had plenty of diversity in their lives1 and may have had many a bitter struggle with equally ferocious sea animals of other types4 ,the scaly saurians1 for example1 were beginning to come on2 and began in this era to assume the size and appearance that have occasionally since been attributed to sea serpents4 ,these reptiles1 known as ,dolichosaurs1 were long-necked1 lizard-like reptiles in the beginning of their career1 and grew longer and longer in succeeding generations1 till at last their descendants were so long and snaky that geologists have called the later specimens serpents4 ,these sea serpents were from fifteen to forty-five feet in length1 and their remains have been found in the valley of the ,meuse4 ,they do not seem to have had a very long career1 for they do not appear after the ,chalk ,age1 and no direct descendants are known2 but while they lived they ranged from ,north and ,south ,america to ,europe and ,new ,zealand4 ,the first true sea turtles appeared and lived and extended their families in great variety4 ,they had broad flat forms1 their shells only just covering their ribs like a short ,eton jacket2 but they were very large4 ,the greatest of them1 ,archelon1 had a skull larger than that of a horse1 and must have measured fully twelve feet across the shell4 ,we may consider the birds at the same time as the sea animals or sea reptiles1 since they1 perhaps1 were relations4 ,moreover1 while the birds of ,jurassic times were land birds1 those of the ,chalk period were aquatic4 ,these birds belonged to two widely different classes1 one consisting of large birds which did not fly1 the other of small birds with great strength of wing and great powers of flight4 ,of the first kind was the ,hesperornis4 ,this was a large flightless bird1 specially adapted to diving4 ,its wings hardly existed1 for they had only one bone left2 and that implies the passage of a very long flight of time1 during which the wings once in existence had become more and more useless1 till they had dwindled to a mere nothing4 ,but the ,hesperornis had enormously strong legs1 which were used as paddles1 and their efficiency was increased by the bones of the foot being so joined to the leg as to turn edgewise in the water when brought forward4 ,any one who has ever paddled a ,canadian canoe will appreciate the advantage of this4 ,but this was not all1 for the legs were so joined to the body-frame as to stand out nearly at right angles 7like a pair of oars71 instead of standing under the body as walking legs do4 ,apparently walking as well as flying had been abandoned1 and this bird had become a diver and swimmer merely4 ,the head1 neck1 and body were long1 and admirably shaped for plunging through the water4 ,favoured by the powerful hind limbs1 the ,hesperornis must have been very swift both on and under the water1 and a formidable enemy to the fishes on which it preferred to feed4 ,its jaws were armed with teeth set in a groove1 and1 like the jaws of snakes1 were separable so as to admit large prey4 ,as these strange birds were sometimes six feet long1 they must have been able to account for fish and reptiles of considerable size4 ,they probably lived nearly altogether on and in the water4 ,the second type of bird1 ,ichthyornis1 were small birds1 scarcely larger than pigeons and a little like terns in appearance4 ,they were splendid fliers1 and were armed with teeth set in sockets4 ,their legs and feet were small and slender1 but their wings very strongly developed4 ,they frequented the same seas and places as the ,hesperornis1 and yet the two were farther apart in structure than any two types of birds now living4 ,compared with the ,archopteryx1 both these types of birds show progress in the shortening of the long1 curiously feathered tail and the loss of the fingers and claws2 but both retained the teeth of primitive birds4 ,we may perhaps be allowed to depart from the strict adherence to geologic chronology by tracing here1 instead of in the next chapter1 the subsequent history of the early birds4 ,in the strata of the next era remains of various birds were found4 ,one of great interest1 on account of its enormous size1 was the ,pharorachus of ,america4 ,it was rather like1 in type1 a living bird known as the ,cariama or ,screamer4 ,but if the extinct bird 7of which the skull only has been found7 had the general proportions and habits of the ,cariama it must have been a terrible monster1 standing some twelve feet high1 and far exceeding the most powerful eagles and vultures in strength and the size of its beak and claws4 ,great extinct wingless birds are found in the quite recent alluvial deposits in ,new ,zealand and ,madagascar4 ,something more than half a century ago a piece of bone was sent to ,sir ,richard ,owen by a visitor to ,new ,zealand who had just arrived there1 and who had found it in his garden4 ,professor ,owen1 on examination1 was able to say1 from the general make and structure of the bone1 that it was the bone of a bird4 ,it was about seven or eight inches long4 ,on examining the ridges and various marks on the bones1 ,owen was able to say that it was identical with the middle of the thigh-bone of an ostrich4 ,he ventured then to publish that this bone was a proof that there existed formerly in ,new ,zealand a huge land bird like the ostrich1 only bigger4 ,after a few years more bones were sent to ,owen from ,new ,zealand1 which entirely confirmed what he said2 and in the course of a few years he was able to put together from the bones sent a skeleton with enormous legs and neck--the skeleton of the ostrich-like bird the ,moa of ,new ,zealand4 ,since that time a great number of these birds have been found buried in the morasses and swamps of that country4 ,the ,moa is allied to the ostriches of ,africa1 the emus and cassowaries of ,australia1 and the rheas of ,south ,america4 ,the ,moa of ,madagascar was smaller1 and is known as the pyornis4 ,but it lays the largest egg known1 a tremendous thing as big as a ,rugby football4 ,it was this very large egg which inflamed the imagination of ancient navigators1 and led to the vast exaggeration in describing the so-called ,roc1 which ,sindbad met with in the ,arabian ,nights4 ,in concluding these brief notes on extinct birds we must also mention the present-day kiwi in ,new ,zealand1 which resembles in some respects the ,apteryx1 or most ancient of birds4 ,let us now return to the land reptiles of the ,chalk period4 ,these are chiefly found in ,america1 which was not submerged1 as the greater part of ,europe was1 beneath the ocean4 ,the incursion of the sea was more limited in the western hemisphere1 and the land area was large enough to allow the continued progress of the land reptiles1 though even here the sea reptiles seem to have done best4 ,the great ,dinosaurs still kept in the forefront1 but they were not quite so pre-eminent as heretofore4 ,the flesh-eating forms were less abundant1 though among them an enormous kangaroo-like reptile1 fifteen feet long1 made its appearance4 ,the ,dryptosaurus must have been speedy1 very powerful1 and its habits must have made it appear like an ogre in seven-league boots to its smaller inoffensive neighbours4 ,the ,spoonbill ,dinosaurs 7,hadrosaurus7 were very curious creatures1 who also faintly resembled a kangaroo1 but had enormous lower parts and crocodile-like tails4 ,but the most singular development appeared in the ,ceratops family of the vegetarian reptiles1 particularly in the genus called ,triceratops4 ,these were very large quadrupeds with enormous skulls which stretched back over the neck and shoulders in an enormous cape or hood of bone4 ,added to this was a sharp parrot-like beak1 a stout horn on the nose1 a pair of large pointed horns on the top of the head1 and a row of projections round the edge of the cape4 ,the ,triceratops wanted all the protection it could get1 for it had no intelligence worth mentioning4 ,professor ,marsh remarks that they had the largest heads and the smallest brains of the reptile race4 ,the heavy armour of the head of the ,triceratops must have been developed for purposes of attack and defence1 but we do not know whether it was for fighting their own species or for protection against the carnivorous reptiles4 ,so long1 says ,professor ,f4 ,a4 ,lucas1 as ,triceratops faced an adversary he must have been practically invulnerable1 but1 as he was the largest animal of his time1 it is probable that his combats were mainly with those of his own kind1 and the subject of dispute some fair female upon whom rival suitors had cast covetous eyes4 ,what a sight it would have been to have seen two of these big brutes in mortal combat1 as they charged upon each other with all the impetus to be derived from ten tons of infuriate flesh6 ,we may picture to ourselves horn clashing upon horn1 or glancing from each bony shield until some skilful stroke or unlucky slip placed one combatant at the mercy of his adversary4444 ,a pair of ,triceratops's horns in the ,national ,museum 7at ,washington7 bears witness to such encounters1 for one is broken midway between tip and base2 and that it was broken during life is evident from the fact that the stump is healed and rounded over1 while the size of the horns shows that their owner reached a ripe old age4 ,in connection with the concluding part of the last sentence it should be mentioned that reptiles1 like fishes1 but unlike birds and mammals1 continue to grow throughout their entire span of life1 so that unusually large bodily size is1 at all events as a rule1 an indication of advanced age4 ,as regards general appearance ,triceratops may1 perhaps1 be best described as a reptilian rhinoceros1 with the proviso that the tail was much larger and thicker than in that group of animals1 and passed insensibly into the body1 as in reptiles generally1 while the number and arrangement of the horns were different4 ,the ,pterosaurs1 or flying reptiles1 made1 as we have said elsewhere1 a great advance4 ,williston regards them as having come to excel all other flying vertebrate animals4 ,some attained a wing-spread of twenty feet1 and they could fly far and fast4 ,they were all short-tailed2 some of them probably could scarcely walk1 and the larger of them had no teeth4 ,their bills resembled those of modern birds1 and they have been styled the kingfishers of the ,cretaceous seas4 ,terrific to look upon1 they were probably not very deadly animals except to small fishes4 ,the lizards did not make much progress2 but the snakes made their first appearance1 though they remained small2 and the mammals showed little progress from the forms which were found in the previous era of the ,jurassic4 ,at the close of the geological period whose natural physiognomy we have thus traced1 ,europe was still far from displaying the configuration which it now presents4 ,a map of the period would represent the great basin of ,paris 7with the exception of a zone of ,chalk71 the whole of ,switzerland1 the greater part of ,spain and ,italy1 the whole of ,belgium1 ,holland1 ,prussia1 ,hungary1 ,wallachia1 and ,northern ,russia as one vast sheet of water4 ,a band of ,jurassic rocks still connected ,france and ,england at ,cherbourg--which disappeared at a later period1 and caused the separation of the ,british ,islands from what is now ,france4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,mammals ,the ,geological ,record is not perfect4 ,there are breaks in it such as have not and may never be filled up2 and it is because of these breaks that some of the divisions are made in geologic time4 ,at present the earth's crust has only been scratched for fossils4 ,great parts of ,asia and of ,africa and of ,south ,america remain to be explored1 and they may in some future generation fill the gaps of our knowledge and render superfluous some of the divisions which geologists now place in the eras of the rocks and of the fossils4 ,but so far as we know at present there were real breaks in the history of the continents1 perhaps not swift or sudden1 but wholly changing the appearance and the life1 vegetable and animal1 of half a world1 perhaps the whole world at a time4 ,many geologists believe that the secret of these changes lies in the core of the earth2 and that1 to use our old simile of the golf ball1 when the tension and pressures inside the earth grow too much for its strength something gives way1 and the whole world begins to change1 the continents sinking under the oceans and new lands arising4 ,we shall not again consider this idea in all its bearings1 or ask whether there is any simpler explanation to be found in the never-ceasing explosive tremors of the crust2 but we shall only say that the last of these great changes set in at the end of the ,chalk age4 ,after that era we arrive at the period among the rocks which1 with all its subdivisions1 ,eocene1 ,miocene1 ,pliocene1 ,quaternary1 is classed as ,cainozoic or ,modern4 ,let us sum up the changes broadly4 ,the ,tertiary period1 which now begins1 has been called the ,age of ,lakes3 but this merely means that there were great lake deposits1 and it is true to say that as contrasted with a period of great waters1 the ,tertiary is to be considered as the period of land4 ,that does not mean that there were in all the hundreds of thousands of years which it embraces no advances and retreats of the sea1 no submergings and uprisings of the land4 ,there certainly were4 ,but the land was dominant1 and it is the land animals and the land vegetation that are the most important and progress most4 ,after the earth movements which occurred at the end of the ,mesozoic or ,secondary period there appears to have followed a period of quiet4 ,there was a considerable area of land standing high above the waters2 and there began one of the minor but considerable encroachments of the sea in ,north ,america4 ,it is probable that the ,pacific and the ,atlantic joined between ,north and ,south ,america4 ,at the end of this first period the sea withdrew again1 and what is called the ,miocene period began with a lowering of the temperature of the waters of the ,atlantic2 and lastly followed the great extension of the land towards the north1 the great withdrawal of the sea of ,pliocene times1 and the growing cold which led to the glacial era of the ,pleistocene period4 ,in ,europe and in ,asia we may note that the great areas which are now covered by the ,alps and the ,himalayas were at the beginning of the ,tertiary period still under water and only a few signs 7in the form of islands7 of these mighty ranges were beginning to appear4 ,pre-eminently the age which comprises all these periods is the ,age of ,mammals4 ,but one of the changes which ,european geologists first noticed was the surprising change which took place in the marine fossils4 ,the animals of the sea which were familiar during the ,chalk period nearly all disappeared and were replaced by new ones4 ,the great saurian reptiles1 from the monsters of the land to the mososaurus serpents of the sea1 disappeared1 and most other reptiles showed profound changes1 showing a revolution in the animals of the land corresponding to that of the sea4 ,lastly1 in this first period1 the ,eocene1 mammals suddenly appear in force and occupy the first place among the animals4 ,the vegetation did not change so much as might have been expected4 ,whence came the mammals8 ,that1 again1 is one of the questions which time alone can completely answer4 ,but the opinion of most geologists is that they arose and developed in ,asia first of all1 and then spread to other continents4 ,the rise of the mammals1 which1 unlike the reptiles1 bring forth their young relatively mature and nourish and protect them1 was contributing to the downfall of the reptiles1 though it cannot be considered an actual cause4 ,the mammals' young had a better chance of living and surviving than had the eggs of reptiles4 ,moreover1 the mammals began with superior agility and higher brain-power4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that the invasion of the mammals resulted in the clumsy1 affectionless1 small-brained reptiles being driven either into extinction1 or into the sedges and rushes1 the swamps and lagoons1 the coverts of the jungles1 the crevices of the rocks1 and the various by-ways which the mammals cared least to frequent1 and that they have been kept there to this day4 ,at first the mammals were not very different in habit or type from one another4 ,small animals1 which1 like the shrews1 moles1 and hedgehogs lived on insects were among the earliest4 ,there were others whose toes were turning to hoofs in order to fit them for fleetness2 and there were some curious creatures called ,coryphodons1 which were like the modern tapir1 though they were tusked like boars4 ,the ,coryphodon was a slow beast1 with toes like those of an elephant1 though it was much smaller4 ,in ,america appeared a small animal not much bigger than a fox-terrier1 which was the ancestor of the horse1 and of which we shall have more to say4 ,the birds increased1 and forms like those of the heron mingled in the swamps with other goose-like birds that kept in their serrated bills some traces of the teeth of their early ancestors4 ,others1 like kingfishers1 flitted over the streams2 and the emu1 ostrich1 and moa1 as well as the albatross1 find their earliest representatives in the ,eocene times4 ,it is impossible for us to follow1 or even to enumerate1 all the varied ancestral lines which sprang up1 some of them already vigorous1 in the early ,tertiary times1 and which developed so mightily in the successive ages4 ,we can only trace the careers of a few such as are better and more popularly known1 while admitting that there are many others equally interesting from a scientific or from any other point of view4 ,from a geologist's point of view the most important1 perhaps1 of all the mammal developments was that of the elephant4 ,the first mammal which geologists discovered that was like the elephant was the ,mastodon1 the ,american variety of which is called ,tetrabelodon4 ,but this ,mastodon had no proper trunk as has the elephant4 ,instead of that he had a very long upper lip which apparently rested on his projecting upper tusks4 ,mr4 ,kipling once suggested that the elephant's trunk was originally formed by an accident--an unfortunate young elephant before the days of trunks having stopped to drink at a pool1 and his nose being seized by a crocodile1 who pulled and pulled till the nose lengthened out a trunk4 ,there certainly was some reason for the elephant's trunk1 which has developed1 we do not quite know how1 from a long nose4 ,but a great deal has been found out about the early development of the elephant by ,dr4 ,andrews of the ,british ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,evolution of the ,head1 ,proboscis1 ,nostrils1 and ,tusks of the ,elephant ,the drawings are to the same scale2 the nostrils indicated by the letter ,n1 the upper lips by ,l1 and the tusks by ,t4 #a4 ,mritherium of ,eocene ,libya1 with a flexible upper lip and the small incisor tusks4 #b4 ,palomastodon of ,eocene ,libya1 with a short proboscis and powerful upper and lower tusks4 #c4 ,mammoth 7,elephas ,columbi7 from the ,state of ,indiana1 with gigantic upper tusks or ivories1 and long proboscis with nostrils at the tip4 ,dr4 ,andrews was travelling in ,egypt some years ago1 and joined a party of officers of the great survey of ,egypt in a visit to the ,great ,western ,desert1 the rainless1 sandy waste west of the ,nile1 not very far from what is now called the ,fayoum1 and where in ,roman days was the great ,lake ,mris1 now dried up to a mere brine pool1 in the salt water of which the fresh-water fishes of the ,nile still live4 ,the surveying party intended to determine the geological age of these sands1 which stretch for hundreds of miles1 often rising into cliffs which are cut sharp by the wind and show horizontal stratification4 ,the geologists determined that the sands of this region were of ,eocene and ,miocene ,age1 and from them ,dr4 ,andrews brought home some very interesting bones4 ,these included the remains of a more primitive ,mastodon than any as yet known1 and of an animal which he called ,meritherium1 which is a connecting link between elephants and other mammals4 ,the collection included also remains of great flesh-eating beasts1 and of sea cows1 of tortoises1 and of a snake sixty feet long6 ,however1 in regard to the history of elephants1 the upshot of ,dr4 ,andrews' most important discoveries is that we find living here in the ,upper ,eocene period 7which is older than the age in which the ,tetrabelodon ,mastodon was found7 an elephant ancestor of the kind to which ,dr4 ,andrews gave the name of ,palomastodon or ancient mastodon4 ,we thus arrive at an ancestral elephant-like creature which serves to join the elephant stock on to more ordinary mammals4 ,this beast was not so very big1 perhaps about the same size as an ordinary cart-horse4 ,dr4 ,andrews' further triumph was the additional discovery of the rather smaller animal which he called the ,meritherium1 and which was undoubtedly an elephant of sorts1 though at first sight it has no resemblance to one1 and probably had no trunk at all4 ,it certainly had no big tusks2 but its teeth make us certain that it belonged to the elephant family4 ,here1 then1 says ,sir ,e4 ,ray ,lankester1 we have arrived at a form which undoubtedly was closely related to the ancestors of all the elephants1 if not actually itself that ancestor1 and in it we see the origin of the elephants peculiar structure4 ,from this comparatively normal pig-like ,meritherium1 the wonderful elephant1 with his upright face1 his dependent trunk1 and his huge spreading tusks has been gradually1 step by step1 produced4 ,and we have seen some1 at least1 of the intermediate steps--the lengthening of the jaws and the increase in the size of the teeth in the ,palomastodon--carried still further on by the ,tetrabelodon1 and then followed by a shrinkage of the lower jaw and final evolution of the middle part of the face and upper jaw into the drooping1 wonderful1 prehensile trunk4 ,the long-chinned elephant requires1 however1 a few moments' consideration from an altogether different point of view4 ,this species appears to have had the widest geographical distribution of any member of the family1 of which it may be regarded as the great colonising or emigrant representative4 ,first developed in ,north ,africa1 where its remains occur in the early ,miocene strata of ,mogara and ,tunisia1 this species ranged right across ,europe to the confines of ,north-,western ,india1 having probably reached ,italy from ,africa by means of a land-bridge by way of ,sicily1 and thence travelling through ,greece into ,asia4 ,on the latter continent it appears to have given rise to the modern elephants1 as remains of the former are unknown in any other part of the world4 ,if this be true1 it follows that elephants of the modern type subsequently migrated into ,europe and thence to ,africa1 while in the other direction they wandered by way of ,behring ,strait to ,america4 ,hence we are led to the remarkable conclusion that while the first elephants appeared in ,africa1 the modern ,african elephant is of ,asiatic parentage1 and a comparatively recent immigrant into the land of its forefathers4 ,next to man and the carnivora1 elephants appear to have been the greatest travellers the world has ever produced1 for1 starting from their ,north ,african birthplace1 they reached by the ,behring ,strait route nearly to the extremity of ,south ,america1 while to the north they penetrated the ,arctic circle1 and to the south1 on their return journey1 reached the coast in the neighbourhood of ,cape ,town4 ,another great traveller was the horse4 ,the first undoubted horse-like animal was ,eohippus1 a little creature about eleven inches in height at the shoulder1 and in general rather more like the flesh-eaters than the horses of the present day4 ,the back was arched1 the head and neck were short1 and the limbs of moderate length1 showing no remarkable adaptation for speed4 ,this genus had a remarkable range1 having apparently originated in ,england 7then a part of ,western ,europe71 and migrated by way of ,europe and ,asia1 and what is now ,behring ,strait1 to ,america1 where it got as far east as ,new ,mexico4 ,this migration of ,eohippus shifted the scene of evolution to the western hemisphere1 for while examples of it are continually and continuously found there in succeeding strata it only appears occasionally in ,europe1 as if the remains there had been those of mere emigrants4 ,later on the horse developed in ,america1 growing larger till it was first as big as a collie-dog1 with signs of being more adapted for speed4 ,it then had four toes on its foot4 ,it continued1 though very gradually1 to grow larger1 and even more gradually its unnecessary toes grew fewer and fewer till at last they disappeared4 ,at length appeared the horse which had only one toe4 ,this type1 that of the modern horse1 first becomes known in the ,upper ,pliocene beds of ,europe1 and represents the culmination of the race4 ,the completeness of the record of the evolution of the horse tells us something of the enormous numbers of ancestral forms which must have existed in the more than two million years that have elapsed since the first diminutive horse appeared in ,north ,america4 ,while not strongly given to migration1 in the course of time these animals wandered over the entire world1 with the exception of such inaccessible places as ,australia and the ,oceanic ,islands4444 ,it would seem that the original stock was of ,eurasian derivation1 though the great theatre of the evolutionary drama was soon transferred to ,north ,america1 the ,eurasian1 ,african1 and ,south ,american horses which appear from time to time being in all probability of ,north ,american origin4 ,the ultimate fate of the horses in both ,north and ,south ,america was extinction1 all wild horses of our own time1 including the asses and zebras1 being confined to ,asia and ,africa4 ,the apparently wild bands of the ,american western plains1 and those which roam over the pampas of ,south ,america1 are the descendants of domestic horses that have escaped from human bondage1 largely from the early ,spanish explorers4 ,the rhinoceroses of to-day1 the one-horned ,indian variety and the two-horned ,african rhinoceros1 were preceded by a whole regiment of rhinoceroses in the ,tertiary period4 ,one such was dug out in ,fleet ,street during the excavation for the ,daily ,chronicle office4 ,this rhinoceros had a hairy coat like the ,mammoth which lived much later1 and in ,siberia is found sometimes side by side with the later quadruped4 ,many of the extinct rhinoceroses had two horns like the ,african square-mouthed rhinoceros1 which is sometimes misleadingly called the white rhinoceros4 ,one great extinct beast1 the ,elasmotherium1 allied to them1 had a great horn carried on a huge boss in the middle of its head instead of on the nose1 while another still huger animal called the ,titanotherium and found in ,north ,america had a pair of horns perched on either side of its nose4 ,as large as the rhinoceros but having a very different arrangement of the bones of its ankles and wrists and very different teeth and horns are the extraordinary creatures known as ,dinoceras1 whole skeletons of which have been disinterred from the ,eocene strata of ,wyoming in the ,united ,states by ,professor ,marsh4 ,these creatures had three pairs of horns on the top of the head and a pair of great tusks as well4 ,nearly all these animals1 though they were more brainy than the reptiles1 had much smaller brains in proportion to their size than the bulk of the animals which now roam the earth1 from which we may surmise that though a small brain suffices to guide a great animal machine in established ways1 yet in order to learn new things in its lifetime an animal must have a big brain4 ,the last great mammal we must mention in this series is the ,arsinoitherium1 which was found only a few years ago by ,dr4 ,andrews in ,egypt1 in the same strata whence he obtained the fossil ancestors of the elephant4 ,it was so called because it was found near the palace of ,arsino1 the name of the ,egyptian queen of ,greek race4 ,but ,arsinoitherium was far from being a graceful ladylike creature1 and1 resembling in general appearance a rhinoceros1 had two enormous bones1 which grew out of its nose on either side of it4 ,the bones were hollow and were probably covered with skin in life2 and ,arsinoitherium had a wonderful and wonderfully even set of teeth4 ,to conclude1 we must add a representative mammal of this period1 the ,sivatherium1 found in ,india1 and the ,samotherium1 found in the ,isle of ,samos1 which were like giraffes1 and the beginning of the sloth-like animals1 whose appearance we must1 however1 deal with in another chapter4 ,illustration3 ,two ,arsinoitheriums 7,prehistoric ,rhinoceros7 at ,bay before a ,pack of ,hynodons ,the ,arsinoitherium stood #e feet #i inches at the withers1 and measured #i feet #i inches from snout to rump4 ,the hynodons 7hyna toothed7 were no relation of the modern hyna4 ,they had bodies like the ,tasmanian wolf1 and were wonderfully adapted to capture both land and water living prey4 7,drawn under the direction of ,prof4 ,osborn47 ,the whales whose remains are found in the ,pliocene rocks differ little from those now living2 but the observations geologists have been able to make upon these gigantic remains of the ancient world are too few to allow of any very precise conclusion4 ,it is certain1 however1 that the fossil differs from the existing whale in certain characteristics perceptible in the bones of the skull4 ,the discovery of an enormous fragment of a fossil whale1 made at ,paris in #aggi1 in the cellar of a wine merchant in the ,rue ,dauphine1 created a great sensation4 ,science pronounced1 without much hesitation1 on the true origin of these remains2 but the public had some difficulty in comprehending the existence of a whale in the ,rue ,dauphine4 ,it was in digging some holes in his cellars that the wine merchant made this interesting discovery4 ,his workmen found1 under the pick1 an enormous piece of bone buried in a yellow clay4 ,its complete extraction caused him a great deal of labour1 and presented many difficulties4 ,little interested in making further discoveries1 our wine merchant contented himself with raising1 with the help of a chisel1 a portion of the monstrous bone4 ,the piece thus detached weighed #bbg lbs4 ,it was exhibited in the wine-shop1 where large numbers of the curious went to see it4 ,lamanon1 a naturalist of that day1 who examined it1 conjectured that the bone belonged to the head of a whale4 ,as to the bone itself1 it was purchased for the ,teyler ,museum1 at ,haarlem4 ,lastly1 we must not omit to mention that in the ,old ,world the first true apes1 ,oreopithecus and ,dryopithecus1 appeared4 ,the first of these united some of the characteristics of apes and monkeys2 the second1 about the same size1 was more closely related to the chimpanzee and gorilla4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,the ,,ice ,,age ,for some reason or reasons concerning which there has been a great deal of speculation but not a large amount of agreement1 the closing stages of the last geologic era which precedes our own and which links the great past to the present1 were distinguished by great cold and by widespread fields of ice4 ,ice-sheets spread over six or eight million square miles of the earth's surface where not long before mild climates had prevailed4 ,were it not for this great ,ice ,age and for its far-reaching effects on the conditions under which ,man has developed1 this period1 which is sometimes called the ,pleistocene1 7from ,greek words meaning the most recent71 would be more properly joined to the era which we have just been discussing1 the two periods constituting a single period of great land elevation and of ocean-shrinking4 ,this period1 however1 is now thought to be much more important than it was formerly1 and perhaps longer in duration4 ,more than half the ice-covered land lay in ,north ,america and more than half the rest in ,europe4 ,the glaciation1 therefore1 was probably confined to certain parts of the world and did not stretch all over the planet4 ,but the whole world felt its effects2 even in tropical regions ice and glaciers occurred on mountains where they did not exist before and do not exist now1 and on mountains which now have glaciers the ice descended to levels #ejjj feet below the point where it now stops4 ,the southern hemisphere was affected as well as the northern1 but to a much less degree4 ,in ,patagonia and ,new ,zealand glaciers crept down from the mountains and spread out on the plains4 ,glaciers formed on the mountainous tracts of ,tasmania and ,australia where none exist now4 ,most of the higher mountains of the southern hemisphere bore glaciers4 ,the ,antarctic regions were presumably buried beneath ice and snow as they are at present1 but of that we are not certain4 ,in ,asia ice-fields far greater than those existing to-day affected the higher mountains1 and from the ,lebanon to the ,caucasus and from the ,himalayas to ,siberia and ,china traces of glaciers are found where they are not to be seen now4 ,yet on the plateaux and lowlands of ,asia ice-sheets were far less extensive than in ,europe and in ,north ,america4 ,in ,europe there were large glaciers in the southern mountains and extensive ice-sheets on the southern plains4 ,radiating from the ,scandinavian highlands a succession of great ice-sheets crept forth on the lowlands of ,russia1 ,germany1 ,denmark1 ,holland1 and ,belgium1 and crossing the shallow basin of the ,north ,sea touched the shores of ,great ,britain1 where they were met by ice radiating from the mountains of these isles4 ,from the ,alps gigantic glaciers descended to the lowlands in all directions4 ,then the ,rhine glacier moved out far beyond the mountains and joined with the glaciers of ,savoy and ,dauphiny on the plains of ,france1 while from the ,southern ,alps glaciers invaded the fertile plains of ,italy4 ,glaciers of similar size and extent descended into the valleys of the ,rhine and ,danube4 ,the ,pyrenees1 some of the higher mountains of the ,spanish plateau1 the higher mountains of ,france1 the ,apennines1 the ,carpathians1 the ,balkans1 the ,urals1 all had their ice-sheets4 ,iceland and the ,faroe ,islands were buried under ice1 and even ,corsica had snowfields and glaciers1 some of which were not small4 ,nearly one half of ,north ,america was buried in ice4 ,strangely enough1 it was not the whole northern half1 but the north-eastern half that was specially ice-invaded1 and1 more strangely still1 not so much the mountainous portions1 though these were affected1 as the plains4 ,alaska was largely free from ice except on or about the mountains3 and there was less ice on the western plains than in the valley of the ,mississippi4 ,much the greater part of the four million square miles of ice-field lay on the plains of ,canada and in the upper ,mississippi valley4 ,the ,missouri and ,ohio rivers like two great arms embraced the borders of the ice-fields to which they owe their origin4 ,we do not propose to examine the several theories which have been proposed to account for this extraordinary cold1 for none is completely acceptable or accepted1 but we may just mention them4 ,dr4 ,croll a century ago suggested that the cold may have been due to the alterations in the shape of the earth's orbit1 alterations which astronomers tell us take place regularly1 though very slowly and at intervals of millions of years4 ,if so1 this glacial period was only the last of many glacial periods2 the traces of the earlier ones having1 however1 been for the most part obliterated and destroyed4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell has urged that geographical changes 7elevations and subsidences7 would of themselves be sufficient to bring about a glacial period1 which 7he says7 would be the result of a great continent being formed round the ,north ,pole while oceanic conditions prevailed at the ,equator4 ,another theory is that the heat given out by the sun is not always equal1 being sometimes more 7when even polar countries enjoy a warm climate7 and sometimes less 7when only the equatorial regions are habitable74 ,the objection to this theory is1 of course1 that we have no proof that our sun is of greatly variable heat4 ,whatever may have been the cause of the glacial period1 we know as a proved fact that a long time ago 7as measured by years1 although the event itself is among the latest of the many changes recorded in the geological history of the earth7 the climate of the ,british ,isles was so intensely cold that the greater part of this country was covered with ice and snow1 and we know also that this intense cold was sufficient to change in many respects the habits and appearance of the animals and vegetation of the earth4 ,how much this was the case can be gathered from the fact that in the period which preceded it animals which now live in the tropics roamed in the ,arctic circle1 and figs and magnolias grew in ,greenland4 ,the last word we shall have to say on the climatic conditions of this period is that the ,ice ,age had its sub-periods and divisions like all other epochs and in them the ice sometimes retreated1 and consequently in parts of the earth where there had been snow and ice1 and where there were to be ice and snow again1 the wintry conditions retreated 7for centuries1 perhaps1 at a time71 and the valleys and plains basked during these intervals in sun and rain and warmth4 ,these epochs are called inter-glacial epochs4 ,the life of the regions not much affected by the rigours of snow and ice is gradually being ascertained by geologists now4 ,one of its most marked features was the retreat of the northern and ,asiatic animals before the advancing ice towards the warmer tropics and ,equator2 these animals journeyed back northward again whenever the retreating ice would let them4 ,the great ,proboscideans1 the ,mastodon and the ,mammoth were members of this group1 and so were the bear1 the bison1 the musk ox4 ,with these mingled towards the south several types 7which were gradually becoming extinct in ,north ,america7 such as the horse1 tapir1 llama1 and the sabre-tooth cat4 ,a second prominent feature was a southern group in the western hemisphere1 consisting of gigantic sloths1 armadillos1 and water-hogs2 and now for the first time the interest of animal life shifts to ,south ,america4 ,there are many instances1 says ,sir ,edward ,ray ,lankester in his book on ,extinct ,animals1 in which small living animals were represented in the past by gigantic forms very close in structure to the little living beasts1 but of much greater size4 ,hence it is concluded that these particular living animals are the reduced and dwindled representatives of a race of primeval monsters4 ,there is some truth in this1 as may be seen from the history of the living sloths and armadillos of ,south ,america1 as compared with the extinct gigantic sloths and armadillos dug up in that country4 ,but it is a great mistake to conclude from this that it is a law of nature that recent animals are all small and insignificant as compared with their representatives in the past4 ,that is simply not true4 ,recent horses are bigger than extinct ones2 recent elephants are much bigger than their earlier elephantine ancestors4 ,there never has been any creature of any kind--mammal1 reptile1 bird1 or fish--in any geological period we know of1 so big as some of the existing whales1 the ,sperm ,whale1 the great ,rorqual1 and the whalebone whales4 ,it is true that there were enormous reptiles in the past1 far larger than any living crocodiles1 standing fourteen feet at the loins1 and measuring eighty feet from the tip of the snout to the end of the tail2 but their bodies did not weigh much more than a big ,african elephant1 and were small compared with whales4 ,so let us be under no illusions as to extinct monsters1 and proceed to look at those of ,south ,america with simple courage and confidence in our own day4 ,the peculiar productions of ,south ,america in the way of animals appear to be the members of the group of mammals called ,edentata found nowhere else4 ,when1 however1 ,south ,america1 which once was an island1 joined on to ,north ,america1 numbers of animals1 mastodons1 horses1 tigers1 and tapirs1 emigrated from north to south1 and perhaps proved too much for the aboriginal or native beasts4 ,at any rate1 all the big ,south ,american mammals died out1 and now there are left only the small tree sloths1 the small armadillos1 and the strange-looking ant-eaters4 ,but in quite late geological deposits of ,south ,america we find the bones of gigantic armadillos and of gigantic ground sloths1 which lasted on till the time when man appeared on the scene4 ,the ,glyptodon1 of which there were several different kinds1 was an enormous armadillo as big as an ox4 ,like their small1 puny1 modern descendants1 they carried on their backs a hard case of bones1 something like the shell of a tortoise4 ,the modern armadillo's shell1 however1 is jointed so that the little animal can roll itself up into a ball1 and in this direction1 therefore1 the armadillo1 though it has decreased so much in size1 has advanced in adaptability4 ,the ,megatherium was nearly as big as an elephant1 and its skeleton1 though so much larger1 is very similar to those of the small sloths of present-day ,south ,america4 ,its teeth also are very much like theirs4 ,but whereas the living sloths climb trees1 as they have learnt to do1 the ,megatherium's method was more primitive though quite as effective4 ,it stood on the ground and pulled the trees down in order to eat the young branches4 ,the ,mylodon1 which lived at the same time1 was not so big1 and its habits were similar4 ,it had a number of little bony pieces scattered in its skin in the region of the back1 like the pieces forming the bony case of the ancient armadillos2 but the pieces in this case were not closely fitted together4 ,it was supposed that the ,mylodon1 like all the peculiar gigantic animals of ,south ,america1 had become extinct as long ago as the ,mammoth 7of which we shall say more presently7 or of the woolly rhinoceros which used to haunt ,fleet ,street4 ,all these extinct ,south ,american animals were distinguished by peculiarly shaped teeth1 and had no teeth at all in front4 ,they are called1 therefore1 ,edentata1 and their representatives to-day are much smaller4 ,but some years ago ,dr4 ,nordenskjold1 a ,scandinavian traveller1 while exploring in ,patagonia1 found a vast cavern called the ,ultima ,speranza cave1 on the western coast4 ,from this cavern the settlers who lived close by had removed an enormous piece of skin covered with greenish-brown hair1 and studded on its inner side with little knobs of bone4 ,the skin was dry but sound4 ,when it was placed in water it gave out a smell which1 though unpleasant1 was very interesting1 for it showed that the animal which had worn it could not have been dead thousands or even many hundreds of years4 ,it was1 in fact1 evidently a piece of the skin of a ,mylodon1 which had survived in this region until modern times4 ,further explorations were made in the cavern by ,dr4 ,moreno1 of ,la ,plata1 and other naturalists1 and an immense quantity of bones was obtained1 and more portions of the skin of ,mylodon with the hair on4 ,the cavern had been inhabited probably several centuries ago by ,indians1 for human bones and weapons were obtained4 ,the remains of as many as twenty ,mylodons have been obtained from the cavern1 and many of the bones are cut or broken in a way which leads us to suspect that the human inhabitants of the cave cut up the dead ,mylodons for food1 and split their bones to obtain the marrow6 ,some of the ,mylodon bones1 skulls1 jaw-bones1 leg-bones1 etc41 are smeared with blood and have pieces of cartilage and tendon attached4 ,there are other evidences which go to show that the ,indians may have kept the ,mylodons alive in the cave and fed them with hay brought from the outside4 ,anybody who would care to see the last of the great extinct animals can inspect some of these remains at the museum in ,cromwell ,road1 ,london4 ,besides the relics of the ,mylodon and of ,man the cavern has yielded bones and teeth1 and many horny hoofs belonging to a kind of extinct horses2 and this constitutes one of the puzzling things about this cave treasure4 ,the cave is in a part of the country very difficult to reach1 and though ,sir ,thomas ,holdich and ,mr4 ,hesketh ,prichard made efforts to reach it again and explore it systematically and scientifically1 there is a great deal about it that seems likely to remain unexplained4 ,the bones that were found are not buried in lime or any preserving stone2 but lie in sand where one would expect them to have perished long ago if they had been of any great age4 ,yet side by side with them are the bones of a long-extinct horse2 and there is no tradition among the ,indians to-day of any huge beast corresponding to the ,mylodon4 ,sir ,e4 ,ray ,lankester has pointed out that the whole of ,south ,america has been submerged and has risen 7and is rising still7 for many centuries4 ,possibly the rocks and high lands where the ,mylodon cavern occurs formed an island during the submergence1 where a number of early animals took refuge and survived until the re-elevation of the land--and so lived on in the present condition of the land surface until fifty or a hundred years ago4 ,the great land tortoises 7like the ,galapagan#ag tortoise7 have similarly survived on a few equatorial islands4 ,possibly1 though it does not seem very likely1 the ,mylodon is still living in similar caverns in this region1 as yet unvisited by man4 ,footnote #ag3 ,of the ,galapagos ,islands4 ,in ,australia1 the land of the marsupials or mammals with pouches1 the bones of many gigantic creatures belonging to that tribe of animal have been found4 ,giant kangaroos1 twice as tall as the biggest living kangaroo1 wombats and voles as big as a rhinoceros1 have been discovered4 ,one of these is the ,diprotodon1 which ,sir ,richard ,owen reconstructed much in the same way that he reconstructed the ,moa1 and of which ,dr4 ,stirling has since found complete specimens in a morass in ,south ,australia4 ,illustration3 ,diprotodon ,equal in size to a large rhinoceros4 7,remains found in ,australia47 ,last of all of the great extinct mammals which we shall mention is the ,mammoth1 which has a peculiar interest because1 like the ,mylodon1 it certainly survived until man was on the earth1 as there are many more evidences to prove4 ,in one of the caves of ,france inhabited by prehistoric men and thickly strewn with the chipped flints which they used as tools and weapons1 as well as with the bones of extinct animals which they ate1 a piece of ,mammoth's tusk has been found on which is rudely but cleverly carved1 evidently by the men who lived there1 the picture of a ,mammoth4 7,there are besides1 antlers on which a reindeer is very cleverly and artistically outlined4 ,even the tuft of hair below the chin is shown1 and the great feet and the extra toes are correctly pictured4 ,clearly the men who drew this reindeer lived with the reindeer2 and besides the reindeer1 living near these men in the south of ,france1 was the great ,mammoth47 ,the ,mammoth was like an ,indian elephant1 but with a coarse hairy pelt4 ,it was rather bigger than the big ,indian elephant1 and its tusks had a different curvature2 but we may dispose of the popular idea that it was bigger than any elephant4 ,no ,siberian ,mammoth has yet been found higher at the shoulders than nine feet six inches1 whereas the ,african elephant stands eleven feet and sometimes more at the shoulders4 ,among the fossil elephants of ,southern ,europe and of ,north ,america 7,elephas imperator7 there are two which stood from twelve to thirteen feet high4 ,the remains of the ,mammoth are left all over the north of ,europe and ,asia and of the countries which were subjected to glacial influences4 ,even in ,england its teeth and tusks are constantly found1 and in the ,natural ,history ,museum there is a whole skull with enormous tusks1 which was dug up in a brickfield at ,ilford4 ,probably this animal continued to exist longer in ,asia and ,siberia than in our own part of the world3 and the cold and ice preserved their remains so well that whole carcases have been dug up4 ,one such instance is historic4 ,in #agii a native chief near ,lake ,onkoul1 in ,siberia1 while seeking for ,mammoth teeth1 perceived a great shapeless mass among the ice4 ,he watched it for some years1 till at the end of the fifth year the ice melted and disclosed the carcase of a whole ,mammoth4 ,in the month of ,march1 #ahjd1 ,schumakhoff cut off the horns 7the tusks71 which he exchanged with the merchant ,bultunof for goods of the value of fifty roubles 7not quite eight pounds sterling74 ,it was not till two years after this that ,mr4 ,adams1 of the ,st4 ,petersburg ,academy1 who was travelling with ,count ,golovkin1 sent by the ,czar of ,russia on an embassy to ,china1 having been told at ,yakutsk of the discovery of an animal of extraordinary magnitude on the shores of the ,frozen ,ocean1 near the mouth of the ,river ,lena1 betook himself to the place4 ,he found the ,mammoth still in the same place1 but very much mutilated4 ,the ,yakuts of the neighbourhood had cut off the flesh1 with which they fed their dogs2 wild beasts1 such as white bears1 wolves1 wolverenes1 and foxes1 had also fed upon it1 and traces of their footsteps were seen around4 ,the skeleton1 almost entirely cleared of its flesh1 remained whole1 with the exception of one foreleg4 ,the spine of the back1 one scapula1 the pelvis1 and the other three limbs were still held together by the ligaments and by parts of the skin2 the other scapula was found not far off4 ,the head was covered with a dry skin2 one of the ears was furnished with a tuft of hairs2 the balls of the eyes were still distinguishable2 the brain still occupied the cranium1 but seemed dried up2 the point of the lower lip had been gnawed and the upper lip had been destroyed so as to expose the teeth2 the neck was furnished with a long flowing mane2 the skin1 of a dark-grey colour1 covered with black hairs and a reddish wool1 was so heavy that ten persons found great difficulty in transporting it to the shore4 ,there was collected1 according to ,mr4 ,adams1 more than thirty-six pounds weight of hair and wool which the white bears had trod into the ground while devouring the flesh4 ,this ,mammoth was a male1 so fat and well fed1 according to the assertion of the ,tungusian chief1 that its belly hung down below the joints of its knees4 ,its tusks were nine feet six inches in length1 measured along the curve1 and its head without the tusks weighed four hundred and fourteen pounds avoirdupois4 ,mr4 ,adams took every care to collect all that remained of this unique specimen of an ancient creation1 and forwarded the parts to ,st4 ,petersburg1 a distance of #aa1jjj versts 7#gccj miles74 ,he succeeded in repurchasing what he believed to be the tusks at ,yakutsk1 and the ,emperor of ,russia1 who became the owner of this precious relic1 paid him #hjjj roubles4 ,the skeleton is deposited in the museum of the ,academy of ,st4 ,petersburg1 and the skin still remains attached to the head and the feet4 ,a very curious example of the ,siberian ,mammoth was discovered only a few years ago by a ,lamut of one of the ,arctic villages1 and through the energy of ,dr4 ,herz was eventually removed in pieces to ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,in the ,zoological ,museum there the reconstructed ,mammoth now crawls out of a huge pit1 for it was by falling into a pit that this fine beast met his death hundreds of generations ago4 ,it was sunk in frozen ground1 and this cold-storage treatment had preserved it in an extraordinary manner4 ,if the ,siberian natives who discovered it partially buried in alluvial deposit had not uncovered it1 so that the sun was able to play on the carcase and produced decay1 this wonderful primeval monster might almost have been got out whole4 ,as it was the frozen ground had so kept the remains that ,dr4 ,herz found well-preserved fragments of food between the teeth1 and the remains of a hearty meal in the stomach4 ,there is no doubt that the ,mammoth fell into the crevice or pit and damaged himself so much in the fall that he could not crawl out4 ,one cannot help feeling some relief that he died after a short death-struggle4 ,a good deal of the very old meat of this body was eagerly eaten by the native dogs4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,man ,the greatest zoologist of his time1 ,sir ,e4 ,ray ,lankester1 has said that man has differed from all other inhabitants of the animal kingdom in being able to resist the pressure of circumstances which have altered and destroyed them4 ,in all the cases of the animals which we have been considering1 these creatures have been limited by the conditions of geography2 they have been killed by extremes of heat and cold2 they have been subject to starvation if one kind of diet were unobtainable2 and they have constantly altered in shape1 structure1 and appearance1 according to the requirements of the new conditions in which they found themselves4 ,but man's mind and will have enabled him to cross rivers and oceans by rafts and boats1 to clothe himself against cold1 to shelter himself from heat and rain1 to prepare an endless variety of food by fire1 and to increase and multiply as no other animal without change of form1 and without submitting to the terrible axe of selection wielded by ruthless circumstance over all other living things on this globe4 ,and as he has more and more obtained this control over his surroundings1 he has expanded that unconscious protective attitude towards his mature offspring which natural selection had already favoured and established among the mammals into a conscious and larger love for his tribe1 his race1 his nationality1 and his kind4 ,he has developed speech1 the power of communicating1 and1 above all1 of recording from generation to generation his thought and knowledge4 ,he has formed communities1 built cities1 and set up empires2 and at every step of his progress man has receded farther and farther from the ancient rule exercised by nature over the lower animals4 ,whence comes this power8 ,when and how did it arrive8 ,that we do not know4 ,for the early beginnings of man we can only grope among the relics of his progress which he has left for the speculation of his more intelligent descendants1 in the shape of the rude implements and dwellings which he used in the childhood of the race4 ,from time to time actual remains of early man are found buried among the uppermost strata1 and from them we can make some guesses at his age4 ,virtually three links have been found in the chain of human ancestry4 ,the earliest is represented by the ,trinil ,man of ,java1 found by ,dubois in #ahij1 and named the ,pithecanthropos erectus1 in reference to its likeness both to man as we know him and to the great anthropoid apes1 although it had a much more erect carriage than any of them4 ,this relic1 man or some other creature as it may have been1 stands midway between the chimpanzee and the more typical ,neandarthal ,man1 the skull of which was found in a cave of the ,neander ,valley1 near ,dusseldorf1 in #ahef4 ,thirty years later the skulls of the ,spy men of the same type as this were found in ,belgium4 ,this type lived in what we call the early ,stone ,age1 and was a low type of meat-eating hunter4 ,the next higher type1 the third type of man1 is that identified with what geologists and anthropologists call the ,gibraltar skull1 from the place where the skull was found4 ,but all we know of these types of man we must judge from their skulls and from the stone implements and the animals found near them4 ,the skulls of primitive men and of modern men show a certain difference in shape4 ,if we take two skulls1 that of a man and a monkey1 and draw a line from the region just over the nose to the place at the back of the skull just above where it joins the backbone1 there is left above the line a great dome in the human skull1 whereas in the monkey the place left above is much flatter and much shallower4 ,now the skull of the ,pithecanthropos erectus found in ,java resembles the monkey's skull in this shallowness2 and the skulls of the ,neandarthal and the ,spy men also had shallower brain-pans than the men of to-day4 ,they may1 therefore1 be either different creatures or they may merely have had smaller brains4 ,we can only say that the creature called ,man suddenly appears among the lower animals with a brain some five or six times the bulk 7in proportion to his size and weight7 of that of any surviving ape4 ,great as is the difference1 it is one of the most curious facts in the history of man's development that the bulk of his brain does not seem to have continued to increase in any very marked degree since the early ,ages of ,stone4 ,what were the ,stone ,ages8 ,in the long years before primitive man learned to weld iron or bronze he formed his weapons and his tools from stone and flint2 and geologists and antiquarians have discovered several of these ,ages of ,stone of different periods4 ,for example1 the ,stone ,age which our grandfathers spoke of is now called the ,neolithic ,age2 and in the second quarter of the last century it became gradually admitted that man had existed earlier than that and had swung hammers and chipped edges in what we now call ,palolithic times4 ,that would put man back to the age of the ,mammoth4 ,but in the last quarter of last century a new claim arose4 ,the ,palolithic stone weapons and tools were made #aej1jjj years ago1 and were manufactured with great skill and even artistic feeling4 ,within the last ten years much rougher flint implements of peculiar types have been found in gravels which are #ejj to #gjj feet above the level of the existing rivers--in the drift of which ,palolithic implements were found4 ,to these older1 clumsier weapons and tools--if1 indeed1 implements they be--the name ,eoliths was given by ,mr4 ,j4 ,allen ,brown4 ,these ,eoliths of the south of ,england and of ,belgium indicate a race of men of less developed skill than the makers of the ,paloliths1 and carry the antiquity of man at least as far back beyond the ,paloliths as these are from the present day4 ,so much for speculation4 ,but are the ,eoliths truly implements1 or are they1 as a determined school of anthropologists assert1 merely flints which fortuitously resemble the rougher variety of true ,palolith8 ,the strongest attack made on their authenticity comes from ,professor ,boule and ,m4 ,laville1 of the ,french ,school of ,mines1 who say that in the flint waste of a cement factory at ,mantes they have discovered pseudo-,eoliths which are made by the action of the water of the mill1 and which resemble every known variety of the so-called ,eolith4 ,their suggestion is that ,eoliths were not made by man at all but were produced by the action of running water4 ,to which the ,eolithic anthropologists retort that ,eoliths ought surely to be produced by running water now1 and that some ,seine-made ,eoliths would be more convincing4 ,the differences between the ,mantes specimens and the true ,eolith cannot be detected by the untrained eye2 but1 spite of the ,french sceptics1 the school of believers in the genuineness of the ,eolith is growing4 ,we need not enter further into these controversies1 and we need only say that flint implements of various kinds are found all over the world1 in ,egypt before the ,pharaohs1 in ,australia1 in ,south ,africa1 and indeed in every continent4 ,they are being made even to-day by aborigines in ,australasia1 and there is even a flint knapping industry which survives to-day at ,brandon1 in ,suffolk1 though these flints are not intended for use as spear-heads or arrow-heads or anything so primitive4 ,there is little geological evidence to show the place where man first appeared2 but what we know of his frame and constitution induces us to believe that somewhere in the warm climate of ,southern ,asia was his first habitation4 ,from this1 or from some similar tract in that quarter of the globe1 there seems to have been four great migratory movements4 ,these were complicated by reverse movements1 by cross migrations1 and by wanderings1 which we shall probably never altogether understand2 and so we can only sum up briefly the chief features of them4 ,the greatest movement appears to have been north-eastward between the great desert and mountain tract of ,central ,asia on the one hand1 and the ,pacific on the other1 attended by divergences eastward to many islands 7as they are now7 of the ,pacific4 ,when the emigrants got too far north to wish to explore further1 they spread out to east and west1 forming a belt below the ,arctic regions and sending a branch down the whole length of the ,american ,continent4 ,this movement embraced the ,mongoloid races1 and included the old ,american ,indians and the ,malayan races4 ,before the disturbing influences of man's later development1 this branch had three notable centres of civilisation3 the ,chinese in ,asia1 the ,mexican in ,north ,america1 and the ,peruvian in ,south ,america4 ,a second and much less numerous band of emigrants struck out to the south-east1 and reaching the southern hemisphere gave rise to the ,australian and ,new ,zealand aboriginal races--all peoples who never rose very much or developed notable power4 ,to a third movement to the south-west is assigned the peopling of ,africa south of the ,sahara with the negro and similar races1 which have become very numerous but never very powerful or intelligent4 ,the fourth movement was north-westward across or around the barriers of desert and mountain to ,western ,asia1 ,europe1 and ,north ,africa4 ,these emigrants were the true adventurers1 hardy1 progressive1 and energetic2 and their descendants have developed into the strongest and most vigorous of the human family4 ,the less progressive of them remain still on the further side of the mountains of ,western ,asia4 ,the three passage-ways used by the original emigrants seem to have been 7#a7 the ,red ,sea ,nile-,valley path1 in which the dusky white and the ,ethiopian races mingled2 7#b7 the ,euphrates ,valley1 down which the ,semitic races moved2 and 7#c7 the tracts of the more northerly plateau1 across which moved the ancestral ,aryan races4 ,it is also quite certain that some races moved backwards by this route and returned to ,india to give rise to the ,brahmins1 the most learned race of that country4 ,we have thus traced1 so far as our limited knowledge will allow us1 the geographical spread of man's dominance4 ,but we cannot associate him with the history that in previous chapters we have roughly traced1 of the development of the lower members of the animal kingdom4 ,the qualities which have developed in ,man are of such an unprecedented power and so far dominate everything else in his characteristics and surroundings that they justify the view that he forms a new departure in the gradual unfolding of this world's predestined scheme4 ,knowledge1 ,reason1 ,self-consciousness1 ,will1 are the attributes of ,man4 ,he goes on from strength to strength1 and in the ,divine purpose which created him may lie the possibility that in the future he may attain a fuller knowledge than any he yet possesses4 ,the great poet of the ,victorian ,age wrote of ,knowledge3-- ,flower in the crannied wall ,i pluck you out of the crannies2 ,i hold you there1 root and all1 in my hand1 ,little flower--but if ,i could understand ,what you are1 root and all1 and all in all1 ,i should know what ,god and man is4 ,the nearer approach to that understanding is the greatest and truest aim of scientific investigation4 ,the ,end ,,index ,adelsberg1 ,caverns of1 #aie pyornis1 ,the1 #beb ,age of ,lakes1 ,the1 #beg ,air1 how it may become solid1 #hd ,aleutian ,islands1 ,volcanoes of the1 #ig ,alg1 #ajc ,alluvium1 #ed ,america in the ,devonian ,period1 #bag2 in the ,glacial ,period1 #bga ,ammonites1 #baj ,amba1 ,the1 #ajj ,andes1 ,volcanoes of the1 #ig ,andesite1 #ahd ,andromeda1 #ib ,animal ,life1 ,the first1 #ajd ,animal ,species of the ,carboniferous ,period1 #bbi ,ant1 ,white1 ,the work of the1 #dd ,anthracite1 #acc ,apes1 ,the first1 #bfh ,apteryx1 ,the1 #beb ,archan ,era1 #abi1 #aii ,archopteryx1 ,the1 #bdc ,archelon1 ,the1 #bdi ,arches1 ,the strain on1 #be ,aristotle and ,earthquakes1 #agf ,armadillos1 #bge ,arrhenius1 ,prof41 ,theory of1 #hh ,arsinoitherium1 ,the1 #bff ,assam1 ,earthquake in1 #aee ,atmosphere1 has the ,moon one8 #abc2 of ,mars1 #abf ,atmospheric pressure1 #hj1 #aja ,attraction of bodies1 #ajb ,austen1 ,sir ,w4 ,r41 his experiment1 #he ,avalanches1 #fi ,babylon1 #de ,bacteria in ,devonian ,period1 #bag ,baikal1 ,lake1 effects of earthquake1 #adj ,baltic1 ,ice in the1 #gd ,barometer1 ,the use of the1 #bd ,basalt ,rocks1 #acb ,beds of ,passage1 #bcf ,birds of the ,jurassic ,period1 #bdc ,bogoslof ,islands1 #afb ,borings1 ,deep1 #gi ,boulder-clay deposited by glaciers1 #gc ,brachiosaurus1 ,the1 #bda ,brahmaputra1 ,the delta of the1 #fj ,britain in the ,silurian ,period1 #baa2 in the ,mesozoic ,period1 #bca ,british ,isles1 ,ice in the1 #ge ,brontosaurus1 ,the1 #bdj ,cainozoic ,period1 ,the1 #aii ,calabria1 ,earthquake in1 #adi ,calamites1 #bbb ,calumet and ,hecla ,mine1 ,temperature of1 #hb ,cambrian ,hills1 ,the1 #bjj ,cambrian ,period1 #aag2 life in the1 #bjb2 surface of the globe in1 #bje ,carbonate of ,lime1 #dj1 #dh ,carbonic ,acid1 ,the action of1 #dg ,carboniferous or ,mountain ,limestone1 #bah ,carboniferous ,period1 ,the atmosphere of1 #bai2 insects1 mollusca1 vegetation1 #bbj2 fish1 #bbd2 strata1 #bbf2 animal species1 #bbi ,carboniferous ,system1 ,extent of the1 #bbg ,cariama1 ,the1 or ,screamer1 #bea ,carinthia1 ,earthquake in1 #ada ,carrara marble1 #acd ,cephalopod types1 #bjg ,ceratosaurus1 ,the1 #bdj ,chalk1 what it is1 #ba1 #bdh ,chelonians1 ,the1 #bcc ,climate1 ,the changes of1 #cc ,coal1 #bai ,coccosteus1 ,the1 #bae ,collision of planets1 ,a1 #ic ,constructive work of earthquakes1 #aha ,coral ,islands1 #ff ,coral reefs1 #fc ,coral reefs in the ,silurian ,age1 #baj ,coryphodon1 ,the1 #bei ,cracks in the crust of the ,earth1 #ig ,crater ,lakes1 #aji ,crinoids1 ,the1 #baj ,crustacea1 #aca1 #bjb ,crust of the ,earth1 ,the study of the1 #aih ,cyclones1 #db ,dead ,sea1 ,the1 #eh ,deltas of rivers1 #bj ,deposits1 how they are made1 #bj1 #de ,depths of the sea1 #ahi ,devonian ,period1 #bab2 fishes of the1 #baf2 vegetation1 #baf2 insects1 #baf2 ,europe and ,america1 #bag ,diamonds1 how they are produced1 #acb ,dinoceras1 ,the1 #bff ,dinosaurus1 ,the1 #bdj ,diplodocus1 ,the1 #bda ,dolichosaurs1 #bdi ,dover1 ,the chalk cliffs of1 #ba ,dredging1 ,the necessity for1 #bj ,dryopithecus1 ,the1 #bfh ,dryptosaurus1 ,the1 #bec ,dwina1 ,fossils in the banks of the1 #bcb ,dykes1 #aje ,earth1 ,the1 not so solid as it looks1 #bc2 its resemblance to a golf ball1 #be2 its uneven surface1 #ca ,earth1 ,weighing the1 #hh ,earthquake districts1 #aga ,earthquake1 ,the sensation of an1 #acg2 the cause of an1 #aff1 #agj ,earthquake waves1 #agd ,earthquakes1 #bc2 ,san ,francisco1 #adj2 ,new ,madrid1 #adj2 ,lake ,baikal1 #adj2 ,iceland1 #ada2 ,carinthia1 #ada2 ,japan1 #ada2 ,ocean1 #adc2 ,lisbon1 #adh2 ,sicily1 #adi2 ,chili1 #aej2 ,assam1 #aef2 ,jamaica1 #aeg2 the ,mississippi1 #aeh2 ,sonora1 #afj2 ,yakutat ,bay1 #afj ,earthquakes1 ,great and ,small1 #agb2 their constructive and destructive work1 #aha ,earthworm1 ,the work of the1 #dd ,edentata1 ,the1 #bge ,egg-stone1 #bcf ,eifel ,district1 ,crater ,lakes of the1 #aji ,elasmotherium1 ,the1 #bfe ,elephant1 ,the1 #bfj ,elephas ,imperator1 #bhj ,emu1 ,the1 #bfj ,encroachment of the sea on the shores of the ,british ,isles1 #ag ,eocene ,period1 ,the1 #beg ,eohippus1 ,the1 #bfc ,eoliths1 #bhg ,era of the ,first ,plants1 #ajc ,erosion1 ,sea1 #ai ,erratic blocks deposited by glaciers1 #gb ,eulalie1 ,lake1 effect of earthquake on1 #adb ,europe in the ,devonian ,period1 #bag ,evolution1 #aae ,excavations and what they reveal1 #cd ,faults1 #afg ,fish in the carboniferous period1 #bbd ,flint1 #bdh ,flint implements1 #bhh ,florida1 ,encroachment of the sea on the coast of1 #ah ,flying ,reptiles1 #bdb ,foliated rocks1 #bjj ,foraminifera1 #bdg ,forests covered by the sea1 #ai ,fossils1 #aca2 in the banks of the ,dwina1 #bcb ,fossil records1 #ef ,fumaroles1 #ahe ,ganges1 ,the ,delta of the1 #bj ,gases1 ,how metals may be converted into1 #hd ,general ,metamorphism1 #acc ,geologist1 ,the work of the1 #cg ,geology1 #cg ,germany1 ,sand-dunes in1 #df2 ,ice in1 #gd ,geysers1 #ada ,giant's ,causeway1 #acb ,gibraltar ,skull1 ,the1 #bhf ,ginkgo ,tree1 #bbh ,glacial ,period1 ,the1 theories concerning1 #bgb ,glaciers1 #fi1 #bgj ,globigerina bulloides1 #bdg ,glyptodon1 ,the1 #bge ,gneiss1 #bjj ,grand ,caon of the ,colorado1 #ed ,graphite1 #acc ,great ,barrier ,reef1 #ff ,great ,salt ,lake1 #eg ,hadrosaurus1 ,the1 #bec ,harwich1 ,encroachment of the sea at1 #ag ,hawaii1 ,lava eruptions in1 #aje1 #ahg ,heat and ,cold1 #fh ,heligoland1 ,encroachment of the sea on1 #ah ,hesperornis1 ,the1 #bdi ,horse1 ,the1 #bei1 #bfd ,hurricanes1 #dc ,ice in ,scandinavia1 ,scotland1 ,germany1 #gd1 #bgj ,iceland1 ,eruptions in1 #ajf2 ,earthquakes in1 #ada1 #aed ,ichthyornis1 ,the1 #bej ,ichthyosaurs1 ,the1 #bcd1 #bci ,igneous rocks1 #ajd ,iguanodon1 ,the1 #bde ,inostransevia1 ,the1 #bcc ,insect life in the ,ordovician ,period1 #bjf2 in the ,devonian ,period1 #baf ,inter-glacial epochs1 #bgc ,interior of the ,earth1 ,theories concerning the1 #hg ,isle of ,wight1 ,encroachment of the sea in1 #ag ,jamaica1 ,earthquake in1 #aeg ,japan1 ,earthquake in1 #ada1 #aec ,jupiter1 #ia2 as an abode of life1 #aai ,jupiter ,serapis1 ,the ,temple of1 #aha ,jurassic ,period1 ,reptiles of the1 #bcg ,kelvin1 ,lord1 ,theory of1 #hg2 concerning ,life1 #aac ,kern1 ,river1 ,effect of earthquake on1 #ada ,kingston1 ,jamaica1 ,earthquake at1 #agf ,kipling1 ,rudyard1 #fb ,kiwi1 ,the1 #beb ,krakatoa1 ,the eruption of1 #de ,lago di ,tolfilo1 #aeb ,lakes1 ,deposits in1 #ef ,lakes produced by earthquakes1 #aeb1 #aei ,land and ,water1 ,the distribution of1 #ca ,lariosaurus1 ,the1 #bcd ,laurentian ,rocks1 #acc1 #bja ,lava eruptions1 #aje2 in ,n4 ,america1 #ajf2 plains1 #ajg ,layers of strata which show the history of a place1 #cg ,leakage of the sea bottom1 #aij ,leonids1 ,lyrids1 or ,perseids1 #ii ,lias formation1 ,the1 #bce1 #bcg ,life1 ,the simplest forms of1 #aaa2 theories concerning its origin1 #aac2 early forms1 #aad2 in the ,cambrian ,period1 #bjb2 in the ,silurian ,period1 #bjc2 in the ,ordovician ,period1 #bjd ,lisbon1 ,earthquake at1 #adh ,llama1 ,the1 #bgc ,london1 ,what excavations have revealed concerning the site of1 #ce ,luray1 ,caverns of1 #aif ,lycopods1 #bbb ,lyginodendrons1 #bbc ,mammals1 ,the development of1 #bcd1 #beh ,mammoth1 ,the1 #bgi ,mammoth ,cave of ,kentucky1 #aif ,man1 #bhd ,marble1 how it is produced1 #acc ,marl in lakes1 #eg ,mars1 #ia2 as an abode of life1 #aai2 atmosphere1 #abf ,marsupials1 #bcg ,martinique1 ,devastation of1 by volcano1 #ahf ,mastodon1 ,the1 #bfj ,megatherium1 ,the1 #bge ,mercury as an abode of life1 #aah ,meritherium1 ,the1 #bfa ,mesozoic ,period1 ,the1 #aii1 #bca ,metals may be converted into gases1 #hd ,meteorites1 #if ,microbes and ,bacteria1 #aaa ,microlestes1 #bcg ,migrations of the human race1 #bij ,miller1 ,hugh1 #bac ,millstone ,grit1 #bah ,miocene ,period1 ,the1 #beg ,mississippi1 ,the ,delta of the1 #bj2 sediment deposited1 #ea2 earthquake in region of1 #aei ,moa1 ,the1 #beb1 #bfj ,monsoons1 #db ,moon1 ,the1 #ij2 its birth1 #ajj1 #abj2 volcanoes in1 #ajf2 as an abode of life1 #aai2 weight1 #abj2 temperature1 #abd ,moraines1 #gj ,moraine-stuff1 #gj ,mountain formation1 #afg ,mud-banks1 how they are made1 #ai ,mussels1 #baj ,mylodon1 ,the1 #bgf ,myths concerning earthquakes1 #agg ,naosaurus1 ,the1 #bcj ,neandarthal man1 #bhe ,nebul1 #ib ,negroes1 ,nature's reason for the dark pigmentation of1 #aaf ,neolithic ,age1 ,the1 #bhg ,neptune1 #aai ,new ,chum ,mine1 ,temperature of1 #hc ,new ,madrid1 ,earthquake at1 #adj ,niagara ,falls1 ,the work of the1 #eb ,nile1 ,the ,delta of the1 #bj ,nineveh1 #de ,north ,america1 ,ice in1 #gf ,north ,garden ,gully ,mine1 ,temperature of1 #hc ,north ,sea1 ,the1 how it was formed1 #ai ,north ,sea1 ,ice in the1 #ge ,ocean deposits1 #fa2 life1 #aad ,oceanic ,era1 ,the1 #aja ,old ,red ,sandstone1 #bab ,oolite1 #ff1 #bch ,ordovician ,period1 ,life in the1 #bjd2 surface of the earth in the1 #bjf2 insect life in the1 #bjf2 fish in the1 #bjg2 the ,trilobite1 #bjg ,ordovician rocks1 #bjb ,oreopithecus1 ,the1 #bfh ,organisms1 ,multicellular and ,unicellular1 #aaa ,orion1 #ib ,ostracoderm group1 ,the1 #bae ,ostrich1 ,the1 #bfj ,oxygen1 ,the action of1 #dg ,palolithic ,age1 ,the1 #bhg ,palomastodon1 ,the1 #bfa ,palozoic ,period1 ,the1 #aii ,palozoic ,alps1 ,the1 #bai ,pareiasaurus1 ,the1 #bcb ,parsons1 ,hon4 ,charles1 on the difficulties of deep boring1 #gi ,pea-grit1 #bch ,peak ,cavern in ,derbyshire1 #aie ,pearl-oyster1 ,the1 #baj ,peat-water1 ,the action of1 #dh ,pele1 ,mount1 #hf1 #ajh2 the obelisk1 #ahd ,permian or ,dyas formation1 #bbg ,peroxide of ,iron1 #dj ,perseids1 #ii ,pharorachus1 ,the1 #bea ,pithecanthropos erectus1 #bhe ,planetismals or ,meteorites1 #ii ,plant life in the ,silurian ,period1 #baj ,plants1 ,era of the first1 #ajc ,pleiades1 ,the1 #ia ,pleistocene ,period1 ,the1 #bfi ,plesiosaurus1 ,the1 #bcd1 #bci ,pliny on the upheaval of land1 #aib ,pliocene ,period1 ,the1 #beg ,po1 ,sediment deposited by the ,river1 #bj ,polyps1 ,coral1 #fe ,pot-holes in ,yorkshire1 #aie ,pre-,cambrian1 #bja ,pressure1 of air1 #hj2 of the ocean1 #aij ,pressure and weight of rocks1 #he2 astounding effects of1 #acd ,pribylof ,islands1 #afd ,proboscideans1 ,the1 #bgc ,proterozoic era1 ,the #acj ,pteraspes1 ,the1 #bae ,pterichthyds1 ,the1 #bae ,pterodactyls1 #bdb ,pterosaurs1 ,the1 #bee ,quartzite1 #bjj ,quaternary ,period1 ,the1 #aii ,quebec1 ,collapse of the bridge of1 #be ,rag-stone1 #bch ,rain1 ,the influence of1 #dg ,rainfall on the ,british ,isles1 #abh ,raised ,beaches1 #aea ,red clay deposit in the ocean1 #fa ,red ,sandstone ,formation1 #bab ,reptiles and ,amphibians of the ,triassic ,period1 #bcb2 of the ,jurassic ,period1 #bcg ,reptiles in the ,carboniferous ,period1 #bbi ,rhinoceros1 ,the1 #bfe ,rhizopods1 ,the1 #bbd ,rhtic beds1 #bcg ,rivers and ,streams in the ,silurian ,age1 #bji ,river ,terraces1 #ee ,rivers1 ,work done by1 #bj2 records left by1 #ej ,rocks1 how they are made1 #gi2 igneous and sedimentary1 #ajd1 #abi2 foliated1 #bjj ,rocks1 ,pressure and weight of1 #he ,roestone1 #bch ,romney ,marsh1 #fj ,rorqual1 ,the1 #bge ,royal ,commission on ,sea ,erosion1 #ai ,sabre-toothed ,cat1 ,the1 #bgc ,saharan desert1 ,the1 #bb ,st4 ,pierre1 ,destruction of1 by volcano1 #ahf ,salt ,lakes1 #eg ,sambon1 ,dr41 #aaf ,samotherium1 ,the1 #bff ,san ,francisco1 ,earthquake at1 #adj1 #afa ,san ,gabriel ,river1 effect of earthquake on1 #ada ,sand-banks and mud-banks1 how they are made1 #bj ,sand-dunes1 how they are made1 #de ,saturn as an abode of life1 #aai ,scaly ,saurians1 #bdh ,scandinavia1 ,ice in1 #gd ,schist1 #bjj ,scotland1 ,ice in1 #gd ,sea1 depths of the1 #ahi2 in the ,silurian ,age1 #baj ,sea1 ,the1 encroachment on land1 #ag2 ,isle of ,wight1 #ag2 ,british ,isles1 #ag2 ,florida1 #ah2 ,heligoland1 #ah2 ,erosion1 #ai2 its work1 #ai ,seaquakes1 #adc2 ,chilian coast1 #add2 the ,florence ,nightingale1 #ade2 sensation of1 #ade2 origin of1 #adg ,sea-water1 ,the action of1 #fe ,sediment deposited by rivers1 #bj1 #ea ,sedimentary rocks1 #ajd1 #abi ,see1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,j41 his theory concerning the interior of the earth1 #hh ,seismology1 #bc2 in ,japan1 #aec ,seismometers1 #bd1 #aec ,shape of the ,earth1 ,the1 #ca ,sharks1 #baf ,shingle1 how it accumulated1 #fj ,shells found on dry land1 #ai2 forests covered by1 #ai ,shells in lakes1 ,deposit of1 #eg2 in the ocean1 #fc ,shetland ,islands1 ,action of the sea on the1 #ei ,sigillarias1 #bbb ,silchester1 #de ,silica1 #dj ,silurian ,period1 ,scorpions and insects in the1 #bjc2 surface of the earth in the1 #bjh2 rivers and streams1 #bji2 coral reefs1 #baj2 fish1 #baj2 plant life1 #baj2 ,britain1 #baa ,silurian rocks1 #bjb ,sivatherium1 ,the1 #bff ,snail-shells in lakes1 #eg ,snakes1 ,first appearance of1 #bee ,snow and ,ice ,age1 #fh ,sonora1 ,earthquake at1 #afj ,sperm ,whale1 ,the1 #bgd ,sphenodon1 ,the1 #bcj ,spy men1 #bhf ,stars1 ,the1 #ia ,steam a cause of earthquakes ,stegosaurus1 ,the1 #bdb ,stone ,age1 ,the1 #bhg ,stones smoothed by water1 #ee ,strata1 ,the earth's1 #gh ,strokkur geyser in ,iceland1 #ada ,submarine volcanoes1 #ahg ,subterranean caves1 how caused1 #aie ,sun1 ,the1 #ij2 as an abode of life1 #aah ,tapir1 ,the1 #bgc ,temperature of borings1 ,the1 #hc2 of the ,moon1 #abd2 of ,mars1 #abf ,temperature1 ,changes of1 #cc ,terminal moraines1 #gf ,tertiary ,period1 ,the1 #beg ,tetrabelodon ,mastodon1 ,the1 #bfj ,thames1 ,sediment deposited by the1 #ba ,tides1 #hg1 #ajb ,titanotherium1 ,the1 #bfe ,tornadoes1 #dc ,torrents1 ,the action of1 #eb ,torridonian ,sandstones1 #acj ,trade ,winds1 #db ,triassic ,period1 ,the1 #bca ,triceratops1 ,the1 #bec ,trilobite1 ,the1 #bjd2 in the ,ordovician ,period1 #bjg ,trinil ,man1 ,the1 #bhe ,typhoons1 #dc ,ultima ,speranza ,cave1 ,the1 #bgf ,upheaval of land1 #aea1 #aha ,uranus1 #aai ,valais ,mountains glacier1 #gb ,valparaiso1 ,earthquake at1 #afj ,vegetation on the ,moon1 #abd2 of the ,devonian ,period1 #baf2 of the ,carboniferous ,period1 #bbj2 of the ,jurassic ,period1 #bde ,venus as an abode of life1 #aah ,vertebrates1 ,evolution of the1 #bbe ,volcanoes of the ,andes1 #ig2 in the ,moon1 #ajf ,water1 ,the action of1 #dg2 its power1 #ea ,water1 ,the formation of1 #aji ,wateree1 ,the1 carried inland by a vast wave1 #add ,waterspouts3 how they are caused1 #dd ,waves caused by earthquakes1 #adc1 #add1 #ade2 the ,chilian coast1 #add2 ,hakodate1 #add2 the ship ,wateree1 #add2 ,arica1 #add2 ,samoa1 #ade2 ,n4 ,zealand1 #ade2 ,japan1 #ade2 speed of1 #ade2 ,lisbon1 #adh ,weather1 ,the influence of the1 #dj ,whales1 #bfg ,weighing the earth1 #hh ,wind-stakes for stopping sand1 #df ,wind1 ,the work of the1 #dj ,,william ,,brendon ,,and ,,son1 ,,ltd4 ,,printers1 ,,plymouth 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,library ,,of ,,romance ,lavishly ,illustrated4 ,ex4 ,crown #hvo4 #e_/- each volume ,splendid volumes4--,the ,outlook ,gift ,books whose value it would be difficult to over-estimate4--,the ,standard ,these popular ,natural ,history ,publications are written by competent authorities1 and besides being entertaining are instructive and educative4 ,liverpool ,courier ,this series has now won a considerable and well-deserved reputation4 ,the ,guardian ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,mechanism ,,animal ,,arts ,,crafts by by ,,archibald ,,williams ,h4 ,,coupin1 ,d4,sc1 ,j4 ,,lea1 ,b4,a4 ,b4,a41 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,with twenty-seven illustrations ,with thirty illustrations ,a charming subject well set ,a genuinely fascinating book4 forth4 ,liverpool ,courier ,athenum ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,exploration ,,early ,,exploration by by ,,archibald ,,williams ,,archibald ,,williams ,b4,a41 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,b4,a41 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,with twenty-six illustrations ,with sixteen illustrations ,a mine of information and ,vivid and vigorous4 stirring incident4--,scotsman ,glasgow ,herald ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,electricity ,,missionary ,,heroism by by ,,charles ,r4 ,,gibson1 ,a4,i4,e4,e4 ,,john ,c4 ,,lambert1 ,b4,a41 ,d4,d4 ,with forty-five illustrations ,with thirty-nine illustrations ,admirable 444 clear and concise4 ,a most entrancing volume4 ,the ,graphic ,expository ,times ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,insect ,,life ,,plant ,,life by by ,,edmund ,,selous ,g4 ,f4 ,,scott ,,elliot1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc4 ,with twenty illustrations ,with thirty-four illustrations ,well merits its alluring title4 ,intensely interesting4 ,daily ,telegraph ,leeds ,mercury ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,early ,,british ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,world by ,by ,,edmund ,,selous ,g4 ,f4 ,,scott ,,elliot1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc4 ,with sixteen full-page illustrations ,with thirty illustrations ,a very fascinating book4 ,graphic ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,bird ,,life ,,of ,,modern ,,geology by by ,,john ,,lea1 ,m4,a4 ,e4 ,s4 ,,grew1 ,m4,a4 ,with thirty illustrations ,with twenty-five illustrations ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,seeley ,,company ,,limited ,each volume profusely ,illustrated4 ,ex4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,savage ,,life ,,the ,,world',s ,,fisheries ,describing the ,habits1 ,customs1 ,with descriptions of the ,many and ,everyday ,life1 ,arts1 ,crafts1 ,curious ,methods of ,fishing in all ,games1 ,adventures and ,sports of parts of the world ,primitive ,man ,by ,,sidney ,,wright ,by ,prof4 ,g4 ,f4 ,,scott ,,elliot ,with twenty-four illustrations ,m4,a4 7,,cantab471 ,b4,,sc4 7,,edin471 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 ,f4,l4,s41 ,c4 ,with forty illustrations ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,sieges ,,modern ,,photography ,describing the ,personal ,its ,discovery and its ,applications ,adventures1 ,resource and ,daring of ,besiegers and ,besieged in all ,by ,,charles ,r4 ,,gibson1 ,a4,i4,e4,e4 parts of the world ,author of ,the ,romance of ,modern ,by the ,rev4 ,,edward ,,gilliat ,electricity c41 c4 ,sometime ,master at ,harrow ,school1 ,with sixty-three illustrations ,author of ,in ,lincoln ,green1 c4 ,with sixteen illustrations ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,invention ,,modern ,,engineering ,containing interesting ,containing interesting descriptions in non-technical descriptions in non-technical language of ,wireless ,telegraphy1 language of the ,nile ,dam1 the ,liquid ,air1 ,modern ,artillery1 ,panama ,canal1 the ,tower ,bridge1 ,submarines1 ,dirigible ,torpedoes1 the ,brooklyn ,bridge1 the ,trans- ,solar ,motors1 ,airships1 etc4 etc4 ,siberian ,railway1 the ,niagara ,falls ,power ,co41 ,bermuda ,floating ,dock1 etc4 etc4 ,by ,,archibald ,,williams ,by ,,archibald ,,williams ,b4,a41 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,b4,a41 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,with twenty-five illustrations ,with many illustrations ,there is no boy but will keenly ,graphic and absorbing enjoy this admirable volume4 descriptions of the wonderful ,standard inventions of our day4 ,graphic ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,locomotion ,,mining ,containing interesting ,containing interesting descriptions of the rise and descriptions of the ,methods of development of the railroad ,mining for ,minerals in all parts systems in all parts of the world of the ,world ,by ,,archibald ,,williams ,by ,,archibald ,,williams ,b4,a41 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,b4,a41 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,with twenty-five ,illustrations ,with twenty-four illustrations ,crisply written1 brimful of ,we cannot praise this book too incident4 ,to intelligent lads highly4--,british ,weekly should be as welcome as a ,ballantyne story4 ,glasgow ,herald ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,polar ,,exploration ,,the ,,mighty ,,deep ,adventures ,arctic and ,antarctic1 ,a popular account of the ,ocean1 from the ,earliest ,times to the the ,laws by which it is ruled1 ,voyage of the ,discovery its wonderful powers and strange inhabitants ,by ,g4 ,,firth ,,scott ,by ,,agnes ,,giberne ,with twenty-four illustrations ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,with illustrations ,thrillingly interesting4 ,most fascinating2 admirably ,liverpool ,courier adapted for the young4 ,daily ,news ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,seeley ,,company ,,limited ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,savage ,,life ,,describing ,,the ,,habits1 ,,customs1 ,,everyday ,,life1 c41 ,,of ,,primitive ,,man ,by ,prof4 ,g4 ,f4 ,,scott ,,elliot1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc41 c4 ,with ,thirty ,illustrations4 ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,mr4 ,scott ,elliot has hit upon a good idea in this attempt to set forth the life of the primitive savage4 ,on the whole1 too1 he has carried it out well and faithfully4444 ,we can recommend the book as filling a gap4--,athenum4 ,a readable contribution to the excellent series of which it forms a part4 ,mr4 ,scott ,elliot writes pleasantly444he possesses a sufficiently vivid imagination to grasp the relation of a savage to his environment4--,nature4 ,there are things of remarkable interest in this volume1 and it makes excellent reading and represents much research4--,spectator4 ,,the ,,romance ,,plant ,,life ,,describing ,,the ,,curious ,,and ,,interesting ,,in ,,the ,,plant ,,world ,by ,prof4 ,g4 ,f4 ,,scott ,,elliot1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc1 c4 ,with ,thirty-four ,illustrations4 ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,the author has worked skilfully into his book details of the facts and inferences which form the groundwork of modern ,botany4 ,the illustrations are striking1 and cover a wide field of interest1 and the style is lively4--,athenum4 ,in twenty-nine fascinating1 well-printed1 and well-illustrated chapters1 ,prof4 ,scott ,elliot describes a few of the wonders of plant life4 ,a very charming and interesting volume4--,daily ,telegraph4 ,mr4 ,scott ,elliot is of course a well-known authority on all that concerns plants1 and the number of facts he has brought together will not only surprise but fascinate all his readers4--,westminster ,gazette4 ,,seeley ,,co41 ,ltd41 #ch ,great ,russell ,street ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,world ,,describing ,,the ,,curious ,,and ,,interesting ,,in ,,natural ,,history ,by ,,edmund ,,selous ,with ,sixteen full-page ,illustrations ,mr4 ,selous takes a wide range in ,nature1 he has seen many wonders which he relates4 ,open the book where we will we find something astonishing4--,spectator4 ,it is in truth a most fascinating book1 as full of incidents and as various in interest as any other work of imagination1 and1 beyond the pleasure in the reading there is the satisfaction of knowing that one is in the hands of a genuine authority on some of the most picturesque subjects that natural history affords4 ,mr4 ,selous method is strong1 safe1 and sound4 ,the volume has numerous illustrations of a high order of workmanship and a handsome binding of striking design4--,school ,government ,chronicle4 ,this is a very fascinating volume1 full of picturesquely written descriptions of the life1 habits1 and customs of a number of birds and beasts1 including beavers1 seals1 bears1 penguins1 crocodiles1 and a host of other creatures4--,graphic4 ,a fund of information and amusement will be found in the pages of this handsomely bound book4 ,from the lowest animals of all1 the ,infusoria1 to the lion and the elephant1 all come within the range of ,mr4 ,selous' observation1 and he builds up out of the vast material at his disposal a very readable narrative4 ,the illustrations are carefully drawn1 and are very true to nature4--,education4 ,the volume would make an excellent present for an intelligent boy1 being full of interesting and sometimes thrilling stories from the wide field of natural history4 ,it is well written in a clear1 easy style which is to be commended4 ,mr4 ,edmund ,selous has made a most interesting collection of striking facts1 and the book has one of the prettiest covers that ,i have seen4--,daily ,news4 ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,exploration ,,with ,,descriptions ,,of ,,curious ,,customs1 ,,thrilling ,,adventures1 ,,and ,,interesting ,,discoveries ,,of ,,explorers ,,in ,,all ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,world ,by ,,archibald ,,williams1 ,b4,a4 7,oxon471 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,with ,twenty-six ,illustrations ,a mine of information and stirring incident4--,scotsman4 ,mr4 ,williams is most catholic in his choice1 taking his readers to soar in a balloon with the luckless ,andree1 to wander in ,african forests and ,australian deserts1 to seek for the ,north ,pole with ,nansen1 and even to note such an up-to-date expedition as that of the ',discovery' in the ,antarctic ,regions1 to cite but the most prominent4 ,mr4 ,williams has done this work most judiciously1444a book which will delight both young and old alike4--,graphic4 ,the book unites strong natural attractiveness with valuable geographical information to a degree probably unequalled by any other that might be offered as appropriate for the purpose of a gift book or the recreative library4--,school ,government ,chronicle4 ,it is a kind of epitome of the best travel books of our time1 and is exceedingly well done4--,academy4 ,,seeley ,,co41 ,ltd41 #ch ,great ,russell ,street ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,insect ,,life ,,describing ,,the ,,curious ,,interesting ,,in ,,the ,,insect ,,world ,by ,,edmund ,,selous ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,world1 ,,etc4 ,with ,sixteen ,illustrations4 ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,an entertaining volume1 one more of a series which seeks with much success to describe the wonders of nature and science in simple1 attractive form4--,graphic4 ,offers most interesting descriptions of the strange and curious inhabitants of the insect world1 sure to excite inquiry and to foster observation4 ,there are ants white and yellow1 locusts and cicadas1 bees and butterflies1 spiders and beetles1 scorpions and cockroaches--and especially ants--with a really scientific investigation of their wonderful habits1 not in dry detail1 but in free and charming exposition and narrative4 ,an admirable book to put in the hands of a boy or girl with a turn for natural science--and whether or not4--,educational ,times4 ,both interesting and instructive4 ,such a work as this is genuinely educative4 ,there are numerous illustrations4--,liverpool ,courier4 ,with beautiful original drawings by ,carton ,moore ,park and ,lancelot ,speed1 and effectively bound in dark blue cloth1 blazoned with scarlet and gold4--,lady4 ,admirably written and handsomely produced4 ,mr4 ,selous's volume shows careful research1 and the illustrations of insects and the results of their powers are well done4--,world4 ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,mechanism ,,interesting ,,descriptions ,,in ,,non-,,technical ,,language ,,of ,,wonderful ,,machinery1 ,,mechanical ,,devices1 ,,marvellously ,,delicate ,,scientific ,,instruments ,by ,,archibald ,,williams1 ,b4,a4 7,oxon471 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,exploration1 ,,etc4 ,with ,twenty-six ,illustrations4 ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,no boy will be able to resist the delights of this book1 full to the brim of instructive and wonderful matter4--,british ,weekly4 ,this book has kept your reviewer awake when he reasonably expected to be otherwise engaged4 ,we do not remember coming across a more fascinating volume1 even to a somewhat blas reader whose business it is to read all that comes in his way4 ,the marvels1 miracles they should be called1 of the modern workshop are here exploited by ,mr4 ,williams for the benefit of readers who have not the opportunity of seeing these wonders or the necessary mathematical knowledge to understand a scientific treatise on their working4 ,only the simplest language is used and every effort is made1 by illustration or by analogy1 to make sufficiently clear to the non-scientific reader how the particular bit of machinery works and what its work really is4 ,delicate instruments1 calculating machines1 workshop machinery1 portable tools1 the pedrail1 motors ashore and afloat1 fire engines1 automatic machines1 sculpturing machines--these are a few of the chapters which crowd this splendid volume4--,educational ,news4 ,it is difficult to make descriptions of machinery and mechanism interesting1 but ,mr4 ,williams has the enviable knack of doing so1 and it is hardly possible to open this book at any page without turning up something which you feel you must read2 and then you cannot stop till you come to the end of the chapter4--,electricity4 ,this book is full of interest and instruction1 and is a welcome addition to ,messrs4 ,seeley and ,company's ,romance ,series4--,leeds ,mercury4 ,a book of absorbing interest for the boy with a mechanical turn1 and indeed for the general reader4--,educational ,times4 ,an instructive and well-written volume4--,hobbies4 ,,seeley ,,co41 ,ltd41 #ch ,great ,russell ,street ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,electricity ,,describing ,,in ,,non-,,technical ,,language ,,what ,,is ,,known ,,about ,,electricity ,,many ,,of ,,its ,,interesting ,,applications ,by ,,charles ,r4 ,,gibson1 ,a4,i4,e4,e4 ,,author ,,of ,,electricity ,,of ,,to-,,day1 ,,etc4 ,extra ,crown #hvo4 ,with #cd ,illustrations and #aa ,diagrams4 #es4 ,everywhere ,mr4 ,charles ,r4 ,gibson makes admirable use of simple analogies which bespeak the practised lecturer1 and bring the matter home without technical detail4 ,the attention is further sustained by a series of surprises4 ,the description of electric units1 the volt1 the ohm1 and especially the ampere1 is better than we have found in more pretentious works4--,academy4 ,mr4 ,gibson's style is very unlike the ordinary text-book4 ,it is fresh1 and is non-technical4 ,its facts are strictly scientific1 however1 and thoroughly up to date4 ,if we wish to gain a thorough knowledge of electricity pleasantly and without too much trouble on our own part1 we will read ,mr4 ,gibson's ',romance4'--,expository ,times4 ,a book which the merest tyro totally unacquainted with elementary electrical principles can understand1 and should therefore especially appeal to the lay reader4 ,especial interest attaches to the chapter on wireless telegraphy1 a subject which is apt to 'floor' the uninitiated4 ,the author reduces the subject to its simplest aspect1 and describes the fundamental principles underlying the action of the coherer in language so simple that anyone can grasp them4--,electricity4 ,contains a clear and concise account of the various forms in which electricity is used at the present day1 and the working of the telephone1 wireless telegraphy1 tramcars1 and dynamos is explained with the greatest possible lucidity1 while the marvels of the ,x-rays and of radium receive their due notice4 ,now that electricity plays such an all-important part in our daily life1 such a book as this should be in the hands of every boy4 ,indeed1 older people would learn much from its pages4 ,for instance1 how few people could explain the principles of wireless telegraphy in a few words if suddenly questioned on the subject4 ,the book is well and appropriately illustrated4--,graphic4 ,mr4 ,gibson sets out to describe in non-technical language the marvellous discoveries and adaptation of this pervasive and powerful essence1 and being a most thorough master of the subject1 he leads the reader through its mazes with a sure hand4 ,throughout he preserves a clear and authoritative style of exposition which will be understood by any intelligent reader4--,yorkshire ,observer4 ,a popular and eminently readable manual for those interested in electrical appliances4 ,it describes in simple and non-technical language what is known about electricity and many of its interesting applications4 ,there are a number of capital illustrations and diagrams which will help the reader greatly in the study of the book4--,record4 ,,seeley ,,co41 ,ltd41 #ch ,great ,russell ,street ,,the ,,library ,,of ,,adventure4 ,with #af ,illustrations4 ,extra ,crown #hvo4 ,each #es4 ,delightful books of adventure1 beautifully printed and tastefully got up4--,educational ,times4 ,among the more interesting of gift-books--the kind of material that suits the manly boy4--,athenum4 ,,adventures ,,on ,,the ,,high ,,mountains4 ,by ,richard ,stead1 ,b4,a41 ,f4,r4,hist4,s41 author of ,adventures on the ,great ,rivers1 c4 ,,adventures ,,in ,,the ,,great ,,forests4 ,by ,g4 ,w4 ,f4 ,hyrst1 author of ,adventures in the ,great ,deserts1 c4 ,,adventures ,,in ,,the ,,great ,,deserts4 ,by ,g4 ,w4 ,f4 ,hyrst4 ,mr4 ,hyrst writes vigorously and well in this admirable book4 ,thoroughly absorbing and extremely readable4--,liverpool ,courier4 ,,adventures ,,on ,,the ,,great ,,rivers4 ,by ,richard ,stead1 ,b4,a41 ,f4,r4,hist4,s4 ,attractive and fascinating4 ,from beginning to end the volume is crowded with extraordinary stories of heroism and adventure4 ,it is capitally illustrated4--,western ,daily ,press4 ,,heroes ,,of ,,the ,,world ,,library ,each volume fully illustrated4 ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,,heroes ,,of ,,missionary ,,enterprise4 ,true stories of the intrepid bravery and stirring adventures of ,missionaries in all parts of the world4 ,by the ,rev4 ,claud ,field1 ,m4,a41 sometime ,c4,m4,s4 ,missionary in the ,punjaub4 ,with #bd illustrations4 ,,heroes ,,of ,,pioneering4 ,by the ,rev4 ,edgar ,sanderson1 ,m4,a41 ,scholar of ,clare ,college1 ,cambridge1 author of ,outlines of the ,world's ,history1 c4 ,,seeley ,,co41 ,ltd41 #ch ,great ,russell ,street4 ,,events ,,of ,,our ,,own ,,time4 ,a ,series of ,volumes on the most ,important ,events of the last ,half-,century1 each containing #cbj pages or more1 with ,plans1 ,portraits1 or other ,illustrations1 in extra ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth1 #es4 ,,the ,,war ,,in ,,the ,,crimea4 ,by ,general ,sir ,edward ,hamley1 ,k4,c4,b4 ,with ,five ,maps and ,plans1 and ,four ,portraits on ,copper4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,,the ,,indian ,,mutiny ,,of #aheg4 ,by ,colonel ,malleson1 ,c4,s4,i4 ,with ,three ,plans1 and ,four ,portraits on ,copper4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,,the ,,afghan ,,wars ,,of #ahci-ahdb ,,and #ahgh-ahhj4 ,by ,archibald ,forbes4 ,with ,five ,maps and ,plans1 and ,four ,portraits on ,copper4 ,third ,edition4 ,,the ,,refounding ,,of ,,the ,,german ,,empire4 ,by ,colonel ,malleson1 ,c4,s4,i4 ,with ,five ,maps and ,plans1 and ,four ,portraits on ,copper4 ,,the ,,liberation ,,of ,,italy1 #ahae-ahgj4 ,by the ,countess ,martinengo ,cesaresco4 ,with ,portraits on ,copper4 ,second ,edition4 ,,our ,,fleet ,,to-,,day ,,and ,,its ,,development ,,during ,,the ,,last ,,half-,,century4 ,by ,rear-,admiral ,s4 ,eardley ,wilmot4 ,with many ,illustrations4 ,new ,edition4 ,uniform with the above4 ,,the ,,war ,,in ,,the ,,peninsula4 ,by ,alexander ,innes ,shand4 ,with ,four ,portraits on ,copper1 and ,six ,plans4 #es4 ,admirably lucid and well proportioned4--,glasgow ,herald4 ,,great ,,britain ,,in ,,modern ,,africa4 ,by ,edgar ,sanderson1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,four ,portraits on ,copper1 and a ,map4 #es4 ,undoubtedly the best summary of modern ,african history that we have had4--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 ,,seeley ,,co41 ,ltd41 #ch ,great ,russell ,street4 ,,popular ,,science4 ,,the ,,great ,,world',s ,,farm4 ,some ,account of ,nature's ,crops and ,how they are ,grown4 ,by ,selina ,gaye4 ,with a ,preface by ,professor ,boulger4 ,with ,sixteen ,illustrations4 ,second ,edition4 #es4 ,a fascinating volume of popular science4--,times4 ,,sun1 ,,moon1 ,,and ,,stars4 ,a ,book on ,astronomy for ,beginners4 ,by ,agnes ,giberne4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 ,twenty-fifth ,thousand4 #es4 ,,the ,,world',s ,,foundations4 ,geology for ,beginners4 ,by ,agnes ,giberne4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,seventh ,thousand4 #es4 ,the exposition is clear2 the style simple and attractive4--,spectator4 ,,the ,,ocean ,,of ,,air4 ,meteorology for ,beginners4 ,by ,agnes ,giberne4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,fifth ,thousand4 #es4 ,miss ,giberne can be accurate without being formidable1 and unites a keen sense of the difficulties of beginners to a full comprehension of the matter in hand4--,saturday ,review4 ,,among ,,the ,,stars2 or1 ,wonderful ,things in the ,sky4 ,by ,agnes ,giberne4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 ,seventh ,thousand4 #es4 ,an attempt to teach astronomy to small children 444 it is very well done4--,saturday ,review4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,hills3 ,a ,popular ,account of ,mountains and ,how they were ,made4 ,by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,n4 ,hutchinson1 ,f4,g4,s4 ,with many ,illustrations4 #es4 ,a charmingly written and beautifully illustrated account of the making of the mountains4--,yorkshire ,post4 ,,wireless ,,telegraphy4 ,popularly ,explained4 ,by ,richard ,kerr1 ,f4,g4,s4 ,with ,preface by ,sir ,w4 ,h4 ,preece1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s41 and many ,illustrations4 ,sixth ,edition1 ,revised4 #as4 #f;d4 ,the author has achieved conspicuous success in his attempt to give the general public a good understanding of the principles underlying the various systems of wireless telegraphy4 ,capitally illustrated4--,athenum4 ,,seeley ,,co41 ,ltd41 #ch ,great ,russell ,street4 ,,works ,,by ,c4 ,j4 ,,cornish4 ,,the ,,naturalist ,,on ,,the ,,thames4 ,with ,thirty-eight ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,will give great delight to any lover of natural history4444 ,it is a most fascinating volume1 and is illustrated in a manner worthy of the text4--,scotsman4 ,,animals ,,of ,,to-,,day3 ,their ,life and ,conversation4 ,with ,illustrations from ,photographs by ,c4 ,reid1 of ,wishaw4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,quite one of the brightest books of popular natural history which have appeared in recent years is ,mr4 ,cornish's fascinating studies of ',animals of ,to-day4'--,leeds ,mercury4 ,,nights ,,with ,,an ,,old ,,gunner1 and other ,studies of ,wild ,life4 ,with ,sixteen ,illustrations4 #fs4 ,cannot fail to be interesting to any lover of wild nature4 ,the illustrations are numerous and excellent4--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 ,,animals ,,at ,,work ,,and ,,play3 ,their ,emotions and ,activities4 ,illustrated from ,photographs by ,gambier ,bolton1 ,f4,z4,s41 and others1 and from ,drawings4 ,third ,edition4 #fs4 ,such a book as ,mr4 ,cornish's shows how much there is to repay the intelligent observer of ,nature4--,times4 ,,wild ,,england ,,of ,,to-,,day1 and the ,wild ,life in ,it4 ,illustrated with ,original ,drawings by ,lancelot ,speed1 and from ,photographs4 ,third ,edition4 #fs4 ,those of us who are left in town in the dull days will seem1 in reading these pages1 to sniff the fresh sea-breezes1 to hear the cries of the sea-bird and the songs of the wood-bird1 to be conscious of the murmuring stream and waving forests1 and all the wild life that is therein4--,st4 ,james's ,gazette4 ,,life ,,at ,,the ,,zoo4 ,notes and ,traditions of the ,regent's ,park ,gardens4 ,illustrated from ,photographs by ,gambier ,bolton1 ,f4,z4,s4 ,fifth ,edition4 #fs4 ,every lover of animals will find abundance of attraction and entertainment in ,mr4 ,cornish's delightful volume4--,times4 ,,the ,,new ,,forest4 ,with many ,illustrations4 ,new ,edition4 #afmo4 ,cloth1 #bs4 net2 or leather1 #cs4 net4 ,also super royal #hvo4 ,with ,four ,copper-plates4 ,half-linen4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,the ,,isle ,,of ,,wight4 ,with ,four ,copper-plates and many other ,illustrations4 ,super royal #hvo4 ,half-linen4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,seeley ,,co41 ,ltd41 #ch ,great ,russell ,street4 ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,a4 ,j4 ,,church4 ,,helmet ,,and ,,spear3 ,stories from the ,wars of the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,with ,eight ,illustrations by ,g4 ,morrow4 #es4 ,,stories ,,of ,,charlemagne1 ,,and ,,the ,,twelve ,,peers ,,of ,,france4 ,from the ,old ,romances4 ,with ,eight ,illustrations in ,colour by ,g4 ,morrow4 #es4 ,,heroes ,,of ,,chivalry ,,and ,,romance4 ,with ,illustrations by ,g4 ,morrow4 ,second ,edition4 #es4 ,,with ,,the ,,king ,,at ,,oxford3 ,a ,story of the ,great ,rebellion4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 ,sixth ,thousand4 #es4 ,,the ,,count ,,of ,,the ,,saxon ,,shore3 ,a ,tale of the ,departure of the ,romans from ,britain4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,fourth ,thousand4 #es4 ,,the ,,hammer3 ,a ,story of ,maccabean ,times4 ,by ,a4 ,j4 ,church and ,richmond ,seeley4 ,with ,illustrations4 #es4 ,,the ,,crusaders4 ,a ,story of the ,war for the ,holy ,sepulchre4 ,with ,eight ,coloured ,illustrations by ,george ,morrow4 ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,an enthralling romance4--,athenum4 ,,to ,,the ,,lions3 ,a ,tale of the ,early ,christians4 ,sixth ,thousand4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,stories ,,from ,,english ,,history4 ,with many ,illustrations4 ,cheaper ,edition1 ,revised1 #cs4 ,gd4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,last ,,days ,,of ,,jerusalem ,,from ,,josephus4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 ,ninth ,thousand4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,three ,,greek ,,children4 ,a ,story of ,home in ,old ,time4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,ninth ,thousand4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,stories ,,of ,,the ,,iliad ,,and ,,the ,,neid4 ,with ,illustrations4 #as4 #f;d4 ,a ,,traveller',s ,,true ,,tale4 ,from ,lucian4 ,with ,illustrations4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,heroes ,,and ,,kings4 ,stories from the ,greek4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,seeley ,,co41 ,ltd41 #ch ,great ,russell ,street4 ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,a4 ,j4 ,,church4 ,,the ,,children',s ,,neid4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 #es4 ,,the ,,children',s ,,odyssey4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 #es4 ,,the ,,children',s ,,iliad4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 #es4 ,,stories ,,from ,,homer4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 ,twenty-seventh ,thousand4 #es4 ,,stories ,,from ,,virgil4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 ,nineteenth ,thousand4 #es4 ,,stories ,,from ,,the ,,greek ,,tragedians4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 ,twelfth ,thousand4 #es4 ,,stories ,,from ,,the ,,greek ,,comedians4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 #es4 ,,stories ,,of ,,the ,,east ,,from ,,herodotus4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 ,tenth ,thousand4 #es4 ,a very quaint and delightful book4--,spectator4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,persian ,,war ,,from ,,herodotus4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 ,sixth ,thousand4 #es4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,iliad4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 #es4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,odyssey4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 #es4 ,one of the most beautiful pieces of prose in the ,english language4--,spectator4 ,,stories ,,from ,,livy4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 ,seventh ,thousand4 #es4 ,a genuine classical treasure4--,scotsman4 ,,roman ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,days ,,of ,,cicero4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 ,seventh ,thousand4 #es4 ,,the ,,burning ,,of ,,rome4 ,a ,story of ,nero's ,days4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,cheaper ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,seeley ,,co41 ,ltd41 #ch ,great ,russell ,street4 ,,historical ,,stories4 ,,caedwalla3 or1 ,the ,saxons in the ,isle of ,wight4 ,by ,frank ,cowper4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,third ,edition4 #es4 ,a perusal of the book will give boys a truer idea of the manners and customs of their rough forefathers than any other with which we are acquainted4--,standard4 ,,the ,,island ,,of ,,the ,,english3 ,a ,story of ,napoleon's ,days4 ,by ,frank ,cowper4 ,with ,illustrations by ,george ,morrow4 ,cheaper ,edition1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,a rattling story of old seafaring and naval days4--,academy4 ,,for ,,the ,,honour ,,of ,,the ,,flag4 ,a ,story of our ,sea ,fights with the ,dutch4 ,by ,commander ,robinson1 ,r4,n41 and ,john ,leyland4 ,with ,illustrations by ,lancelot ,speed4 #es4 ,as reliable in its character of historical novel as it is interesting and exciting as a story of adventure4--,spectator4 ,,the ,,siege ,,of ,,norwich ,,castle3 ,a ,story of the ,last ,struggle against the ,conqueror4 ,by ,m4 ,m4 ,blake4 ,with ,illustrations4 #es4 ,,the ,,city ,,in ,,the ,,sea4 ,stories of the ,deeds of the ,old ,venetians1 from the ,chronicles4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 ,by the ,author of ,belt and ,spur4 #es4 ,a beautiful volume1 instructive as well as entertaining4--,graphic4 ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,e4 ,,gilliat4 ,,forest ,,outlaws2 or1 ,st4 ,hugh and the ,king4 ,with ,sixteen ,illustrations4 ,third ,edition4 #es4 ,we cannot too strongly recommend this book4 ,it is interesting from the first page to the last4--,school ,guardian4 ,,wolf',s ,,head3 ,a ,story of the ,prince of ,outlaws4 ,with ,eight ,illustrations4 #es4 ,bright1 cheery1 and always entertaining1 ,mr4 ,gilliat's clever tale can be thoroughly recommended4--,world4 ,,the ,,king',s ,,reeve and ,how ,he ,supped with his ,master4 ,with ,illustrations by ,sydney ,hall4 #es4 ,we have read no other historical story so fascinating since we closed ',in ,lincoln ,green4'--,st4 ,james's ,gazette4 ,,in ,,lincoln ,,green3 ,a ,merrie ,tale of ,robin ,hood4 ,illustrated by ,ralph ,cleaver4 ,second ,edition4 #es4 ,one of the very best boy' books we have taken up for many a year4 ,here is a story of the outlaws which positively rings with the merriment of greens4--,daily ,chronicle4 ,,seeley ,,co41 ,ltd41 #ch ,great ,russell ,street4 ,,seeley',s ,,illustrated ,,pocket ,,library4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth1 gilt top1 #bs4 net2 also in lambskin1 #cs4 net1 buffed leather yapp1 in box1 #es4 each4 ,,country ,,stories4 ,by ,mary ,russell ,mitford4 ,with ,sixty-eight ,illustrations by ,george ,morrow4 ,,the ,,spectator ,,in ,,london4 ,essays by ,addison and ,steele4 ,with ,fifty-six ,illustrations by ,ralph ,cleaver1 and ,headpieces by ,w4 ,a4 ,atkin ,berry1 ,clough ,bromley1 etc4 ,,stratford-,,on-,,avon4 ,from the ,earliest ,times to the ,death of ,shakespeare4 ,by ,sidney ,lee4 ,with ,fifty-two ,illustrations by ,herbert ,railton and ,e4 ,hull4 ,,the ,,temple4 ,sacred ,poems and ,ejaculations by ,george ,herbert4 ,the ,text reprinted from the ,first ,edition4 ,with ,seventy-six ,illustrations after ,albert ,drer1 ,holbein1 and other ,masters4 ,,the ,,british ,,seas4 ,by ,w4 ,clark ,russell and other writers4 ,with many ,illustrations4 ,,oxford4 ,by ,andrew ,lang4 ,with many ,illustrations by ,a4 ,brunett ,debaines and ,h4 ,toussaint4 ,,the ,,inns ,,of ,,court4 ,by ,w4 ,j4 ,loftie4 ,with many ,illustrations by ,herbert ,railton4 ,,cambridge4 ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,clark4 ,registrary of the ,university of ,cambridge4 ,with many ,illustrations4 ,,paris4 ,by ,p4 ,g4 ,hamerton1 ,author of ,round my ,house1 etc4 ,with many ,illustrations4 ,,seeley ,,co4 ,ltd41 #ch ,great ,russell ,street4 ,books for ,young ,people ,,published ,,by ,,seeley ,,co4 ,,limited ,,the ,,library ,,of ,,romance ,with very numerous ,illustrations4 ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #es4 each ,splendid volumes4--,the ,outlook ,this series has now won a considerable and well-deserved reputation4--,the ,guardian ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,photography ,its ,discovery and its ,applications ,with #fc ,illustrations ,by ,,charles ,r4 ,,gibson1 ,a4,i4,e4,e4 ,quite an excellent book4--,western ,press ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,sieges ,by the ,rev4 ,e4 ,,gilliat1 sometime ,master at ,harrow ,school ,with #af ,illustrations ,we have come across few more fascinating books than this4--,northern ,whig ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,savage ,,life ,by ,professor ,g4 ,f4 ,,scott ,,elliot1 ,m4,a4 7,cantab471 ,b4,sc41 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,with #de ,illustrations ,a perfect present for a boy4--,daily ,mirror ,illustration3 ,,rat ,,kangaroos ,,building ,,their ,,home ,from ,romance of ,animal ,arts ,crafts ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,world',s ,,fisheries ,by ,,sidney ,,wright ,with #bd ,illustrations ,teems with interesting descriptions4--,dundee ,courier ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,animal ,,arts ,,and ,,crafts ,by ,h4 ,,coupin1 ,d4,sc41 ,j4 ,,lea1 ,b4,a4 ,with #bg ,illustrations ,extremely fascinating4--,liverpool ,courier ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,missionary ,,heroism ,by ,,john ,c4 ,,lambert1 ,b4,a41 ,d4,d4 ,with #ci ,illustrations ,about #cej pages of the most thrilling missionary lives ever collected in one volume4--,methodist ,times ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,plant ,,life ,by ,prof4 ,g4 ,f4 ,,scott ,,elliot1 ,m4,a4 7,cantab71 ,b4,sc41 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,with #cd ,illustrations ,besides being entertaining1 instructive and educative4--,liverpool ,courier ,continued on next page ,,seeley ,,co41 ,,limited1 #cc ,,great ,,russell ,,street1 ,w4,c4 ,,gift ,,books ,,for ,,young ,,people ,,the ,,library ,,of ,,romance--continued ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #es4 each ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,mechanism ,by ,,archibald ,,williams1 ,b4,a4 7,oxon47 ,with #cj ,illustrations ,a splendid gift book4--,scotsman ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,insect ,,life ,by ,,edmund ,,selous ,with #bj ,illustrations ,mr4 ,selous1 the well-known naturalist1 writes in purely informal style1 and will be liked all the better for it4--,globe ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,electricity ,by ,,charles ,r4 ,,gibson1 ,a4,i4,e4,e4 ,with #cd ,illustrations ,admirable 444 clear and concise4444 ,the various forms in which electricity is used are explained with the greatest possible lucidity4--,the ,graphic ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,world ,by ,,edmund ,,selous ,with #af ,illustrations ,mr4 ,selous takes a wide range in nature1 and he has seen many wonders which he relates4 ,open the book where we will1 we find something astonishing4--,spectator ,illustration3 ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,exploration ,specimen of ,romance ,library ,binding1 which is in crimson1 white1 and gold1 on a rich blue cloth ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,mighty ,,deep ,by ,,agnes ,,giberne ,with ,illustrations ,most fascinating2 admirably adapted for the young4--,daily ,news ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,exploration ,by ,,archibald ,,williams1 ,b4,a4 7,oxon471 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,with #bf ,illustrations ,a kind of epitome of the best travel books of our time1 and exceedingly well done4--,academy ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,early ,,exploration ,by ,,archibald ,,williams1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,with #af ,illustrations ,a companion volume to ',the ,romance of ,modern ,exploration1' and if possible1 more full of ,romance4--,evening ,standard ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,polar ,,exploration ,by ,g4 ,,firth ,,scott ,with #bd ,illustrations ,thrillingly interesting1 excellently illustrated4--,liverpool ,courier ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,invention ,by ,,archibald ,,williams1 ,b4,a4 7,oxon47 ,with #bj ,illustrations ,there is no boy but will keenly enjoy this admirable volume4--,standard ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,engineering ,by ,,archibald ,,williams1 ,b4,a4 7,oxon47 ,with #bd ,illustrations ,graphic and absorbing descriptions of the wonderful inventions of our day4--,graphic ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,modern ,,locomotion ,by ,,archibald ,,williams1 ,b4,a4 7,oxon47 ,with #bf ,illustrations ,crisply written1 brimful of incident4 ,to intelligent lads should be as welcome as a ,ballantyne story4--,glasgow ,herald ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,mining ,by ,,archibald ,,williams1 ,b4,a4 7,oxon47 ,we cannot praise this book too highly4--,british ,weekly ,,seeley ,,co4 ,,limited1 #ch ,,great ,,russell ,,street1 ,w4,c4 ,,gift ,,books ,,for ,,young ,,people ,,the ,,library ,,of ,,adventure ,with many ,illustrations4 ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #es4 each ,delightful books of adventure1 beautifully printed and tastefully got up4--,educational ,times ,,adventures ,,in ,,the ,,great ,,deserts ,by ,g4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,hyrst4 ,with #af ,illustrations ,as stirring as any story of fictitious adventure4--,glasgow ,herald ,illustration3 ,,he ,,never ,,knew ,,how ,,he ,,escaped ,,its ,,feet ,from ,adventures on the ,great ,rivers ,,adventures ,,on ,,the ,,great ,,rivers ,by ,,richard ,,stead1 ,b4,a41 ,f4,r4,hist4,s4 ,with #af ,illustrations ,a wealth of healthy excitement and genuine enjoyment4--,northern ,whig ,,adventures ,,in ,,the ,,great ,,forests ,by ,g4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,hyrst4 ,with #af ,illustrations ,,adventures ,,on ,,the ,,high ,,mountains ,by ,r4 ,,stead1 ,b4,a41 ,f4,r4,hist4,s4 ,with #af ,illustrations ,heroes of the ,world ,library ,each volume fully ,illustrated4 ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,illustration3 ,,fight ,,with ,a ,,serpent ,from ,heroes of ,missionary ,enterprise ,,heroes ,,of ,,missionary ,,enterprise ,by the ,rev4 ,,claud ,,field1 ,m4,a4 ,sometime ,c4,m4,s4 ,missionary in the ,punjaub ,true stories of the intrepid bravery and stirring adventures of ,missionaries with uncivilized people1 wild beasts1 and the forces of nature in all parts of the world ,with #bd ,illustrations4 ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,every chapter is an inspiration4--,northern ,whig ,,heroes ,,of ,,pioneering ,by the ,rev4 ,,edgar ,,sanderson1 ,m4,a4 ,scholar of ,clare ,college1 ,cambridge ,true ,stories of the bravery and daring adventures of pioneers with uncivilized man1 wild beasts1 and the forces of nature the world over ,with #af ,illustrations4 ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,a splendid collection of true stories4--,dundee ,courier ,,seeley ,,co4 ,,limited1 #ch ,,great ,,russell ,,street1 ,w4,c4 ,,gift ,,books ,,for ,,young ,,people ,by ,,rev4 ,,alfred ,j4 ,,church ,formerly ,professor of ,latin in ,university ,college1 ,london ,professor ,church's skill1 his overflowing knowledge1 and above all1 that cultured simplicity of style1 in respect of which he has absolutely no rival among contemporary writers for boys1 enable him to overcome all obstacles4--,spectator ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #es4 each4 ,with many ,illustrations ,,the ,,children',s ,,iliad4 ,told for ,little ,children4 ,with #ab ,illustrations in ,colours ,,the ,,children',s ,,odyssey4 ,told for ,little ,children4 ,with #ab ,illustrations in ,colours ,,the ,,crown ,,of ,,pine4 ,a ,story of ,corinth and the ,isthmian ,games ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cyclops ,from ,the ,children's ,odyssey ,the illustrations in the book are printed in three colours of delicate tone ,,the ,,count ,,of ,,the ,,saxon ,,shore ,,stories ,,of ,,charlemagne ,,and ,,the ,,twelve ,,peers ,,of ,,france ,,the ,,crusaders ,,stories ,,from ,,the ,,greek ,,tragedians ,,stories ,,of ,,the ,,east ,,stories ,,from ,,the ,,greek ,,comedians ,,the ,,hammer4 ,a ,story of ,maccabean ,times ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,persian ,,war ,,heroes ,,of ,,chivalry ,,and ,,romance ,,greek ,,story ,,helmet ,,and ,,spear ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,iliad4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 ,also thin ,paper ,edition1 cloth1 #bs4 nett2 leather1 #cs4 nett4 ,cheap ,edition1 #f;d4 nett2 also cloth1 #as4 ,,roman ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,days ,,of ,,cicero4 ,with ,illustrations ,,stories ,,from ,,homer ,,stories ,,from ,,livy ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,odyssey4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 ,also thin ,paper ,edition1 cloth1 #bs4 nett2 leather1 #cs4 nett4 ,cheap ,edition1 #f;d4 nett4 ,also cloth1 #as4 ,,stories ,,from ,,virgil4 ,also ,cheap ,edition1 sewed1 #f;d4 nett ,,with ,,the ,,king ,,at ,,oxford4 ,a ,story of the ,great ,rebellion ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,with many ,illustrations ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,athens ,,the ,,burning ,,of ,,rome4 ,also ,cheaper ,edition ,,three ,,greek ,,children ,,the ,,last ,,days ,,of ,,jerusalem4 ,also a ,cheap ,edition1 sewed1 #f;d4 ,,stories ,,from ,,english ,,history ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 each4 ,with many ,illustrations ,,to ,,the ,,lions4 ,a ,tale of the ,early ,christians4 ,and at #as4 #f;d4 ,,heroes ,,of ,,eastern ,,romance ,a ,,young ,,macedonian ,,in ,,the ,,army ,,of ,,alexander ,,the ,,great ,,the ,,chantry ,,priest4 ,a ,story of the ,wars of the ,two ,roses ,,seeley ,,co4 ,,limited1 #ch ,,great ,,russell ,,street1 ,w4,c4 ,,gift ,,books ,,for ,,young ,,people ,,by ,,emma ,,marshall ,mrs4 ,marshall's imaginative pictures of the ,england of other days are in reality prose poems4--,literature ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,with many ,illustrations ,,in ,,four ,,reigns4 ,the ,recollections of ,althea ,allingham1 #aghe-ahdb ,,in ,,the ,,choir ,,of ,,westminster ,,abbey4 ,a ,story of ,henry ,purcell's ,days ,,in ,,the ,,east ,,country ,,with ,,sir ,,thomas ,,browne1 ,knight ,,in ,,colston',s ,,days4 ,a ,story of ,old ,bristol ,,in ,,the ,,service ,,of ,,rachel1 ,,lady ,,russell4 ,a ,story of #afhb-id ,a ,,haunt ,,of ,,ancient ,,peace4 ,memories of ,little ,gidding ,,kensington ,,palace4 ,in the ,days of ,mary ,,ii ,,the ,,master ,,of ,,the ,,musicians4 ,a ,story of ,handel's ,day ,,the ,,parson',s ,,daughter1 and ,how ,she was ,painted by ,mr4 ,romney ,,penshurst ,,castle4 ,in the ,days of ,sir ,philip ,sidney4 ,also a ,cheap ,edition4 ,demy #hvo1 #f;d4 ,,winchester ,,meads4 ,in the ,days of ,bishop ,ken4 ,also a ,cheap ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #f;d4 ,,under ,,salisbury ,,spire4 ,in the ,days of ,george ,herbert4 ,also a ,cheap ,edition4 #f;d4 ,,under ,,the ,,dome ,,of ,,st4 ,,paul',s4 ,in the ,days of ,sir ,christopher ,wren ,,under ,,the ,,mendips4 ,a ,tale of the ,times of ,hannah ,more ,,constantia ,,carew ,illustration3 ,,temple ,,bar ,from ,under the ,dome of ,st4 ,paul's ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 each ,,castle ,,meadow4 ,a ,story of ,norwich ,,edward',s ,,wife ,,an ,,escape ,,from ,,the ,,tower ,,joanna',s ,,inheritance ,,now-,a-,,days ,,life',s ,,aftermath4 ,also a ,cheap ,edition1 ,demy #hvo1 #f;d4 ,,on ,,the ,,banks ,,of ,,the ,,ouse ,,the ,,white ,,kings ,,daughter ,,winifrede',s ,,journal ,,by ,,beatrice ,,marshall ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,with many ,illustrations ,,his ,,most ,,dear ,,ladye4 ,a ,story of ,sir ,philip ,sidney's ,sister ,,the ,,siege ,,of ,,york ,,an ,,old ,,london ,,nosegay ,,old ,,blackfriars4 ,in the ,days of ,van ,dyck ,,the ,,queen',s ,,knight-,,errant4 ,a ,story of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh4 ,,seeley ,,co4 ,,limited1 #ch ,,great ,,russell ,,street1 ,w4,c4 ,,gift ,,books ,,for ,,young ,,people ,,the ,,prince',s ,,library ,a ,series of particularly handsome ,gift ,books for ,young ,people4 ,with a handsome binding designed by the ,carlton ,studio ,with a ,coloured ,frontispiece and many other ,illustrations ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,illustration3 ,,diana ,,sank ,,down ,,beside ,,the ,,spinning-,,wheel ,from ,diana ,polwarth1 ,royalist ,,the ,,last ,,of ,,the ,,white ,,coats4 ,a ,story of ,cavaliers and ,roundheads4 ,by ,g4 ,i4 ,whitham ,,diana ,,polwarth1 ,,royalist4 ,by ,j4 ,r4 ,m4 ,carter ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,athens4 ,by ,prof4 ,a4 ,j4 ,church1 ,m4,a4 ,,the ,,king',s ,,reeve4 ,by ,edward ,gilliat1 ,m4,a4 ,,the ,,cabin ,,on ,,the ,,beach4 ,by ,m4 ,e4 ,winchester ,,the ,,captain ,,of ,,the ,,wight4 ,by ,,frank ,cowper ,,the ,,golden ,,reciter4 ,recitations ,readings in ,prose ,verse from ,rudyard ,kipling1 ,r4 ,l4 ,stevenson1 ,conan ,doyle1 ,maurice ,hewlett1 ,christina ,rossetti1 ,thomas ,hardy1 ,austin ,dobson1 ,a4 ,w4 ,pinero1 c4 c4 ,with an ,introduction by ,cairns ,james1 ,professor of ,elocution at the ,royal ,college of ,music and the ,guildhall ,school of ,music4 ,also ,thin ,paper ,edition for the ,pocket1 with gilt edges and silk marker4 ,small ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,an admirable collection in prose and verse4--,the ,spectator ,,the ,,olive ,,library ,a ,series of ,story ,books for ,boys and ,girls ,with ,three-colour ,frontispieces and many other ,illustrations ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 each ,volume #a4 ,a ,,young ,,macedonian4 ,by ,rev4 ,a4 ,j4 ,church #b4 ,,heroes ,,of ,,eastern ,,romance4 ,by ,rev4 ,a4 ,j4 ,church #c4 ,,violet ,,douglas4 ,by ,mrs4 ,marshall #d4 ,,the ,,old ,,gateway4 ,by ,mrs4 ,marshall #e4 ,,lionhearted4 ,the ,story of ,bishop ,hannington's ,life4 ,by ,rev4 ,e4 ,c4 ,dawson #f4 ,,oliver ,,of ,,the ,,mill4 ,by ,miss ,charlesworth #g4 ,,england',s ,,yeomen4 ,by ,miss ,charlesworth #h4 ,,the ,,chantry ,,priest ,,of ,,barnet4 ,by ,rev4 ,a4 ,j4 ,church1 ,m4,a4 #i4 ,,ministering ,,children4 ,by ,miss ,charlesworth #aj4 ,,the ,,sequel ,,to ,,ministering ,,children #aa4 ,,to ,,the ,,lions4 ,by ,rev4 ,a4 ,j4 ,church4 #ab4 ,,millicent ,,legh4 ,by ,mrs4 ,marshall #ac4 ,,helen',s ,,diary4 ,by ,mrs4 ,marshall ,this series has proved very popular in its exceptionally handsome and striking binding4 ,all the volumes are of outstanding merit and the authors of the first rank4 ,,seeley ,,co4 ,,limited1 #ch ,,great ,,russell ,,street1 ,w4,c4 ,,gift ,,books ,,for ,,young ,,people ,,the ,,pink ,,library ,a ,series of ,books for ,boys and ,girls ,with many ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo4 #as4 #f;d4 each volume #a4 ,,lionhearted4 ,the ,story of ,bishop ,hannington's ,life told for ,boys and ,girls4 ,by ,rev4 ,e4 ,c4 ,dawson #b4 ,,the ,,old ,,looking-,,glass ,,and ,,the ,,broken ,,looking-,,glass4 ,by ,m4 ,l4 ,charlesworth4 ,in one volume #c4 ,,to ,,the ,,lions4 ,a ,tale of the ,early ,christians4 ,by ,rev4 ,a4 ,j4 ,church ,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,child ,from1 ,the ,world before the ,flood #d4 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,a ,,bear4 ,with #af ,illustrations #e4 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,an ,,elephant4 ,with #af ,illustrations #f4 ,,only ,a ,,dog4 ,by a ,humble ,friend4 ,with #h ,illustrations #g4 ,,agathos1 ,,the ,,rocky ,,island1 ,,other ,,sunday ,,stories4 ,by ,bishop ,wilberforce #h4 ,,dame ,,wynton',s ,,home4 ,a ,tale illustrative of the ,lord's ,prayer4 ,by ,mrs4 ,carey ,brock #i4 ,,brothers ,,and ,,sisters4 ,by ,emma ,marshall #aj4 ,a ,,greek ,,gulliver4 ,by ,rev4 ,a4 ,j4 ,church #aa4 ,,the ,,world ,,before ,,the ,,flood4 ,simple ,bible ,stories for the ,young4 ,by ,e4 ,seeley #ab4 ,,the ,,wild ,,man ,,of ,,the ,,woods4 ,by ,e4 ,berthet #ac4 ,,brook ,,silvertone4 ,by ,mrs4 ,marshall ,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,child ,from1 ,the ,world before the ,flood ,,by ,,agnes ,,giberne ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,mighty ,,deep4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,extra ,crown #hvo1 #es4 ,most fascinating4--,daily ,news ,,among ,,the ,,stars2 or1 ,wonderful ,things in the ,sky4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 ,eighth ,thousand4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,,the ,,ocean ,,of ,,air4 ,meteorology for ,beginners4 ,illustrated4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,,the ,,starry ,,skies4 ,first ,lessons on ,astronomy4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 #as4 #f;d4 ,,sun1 ,,moon1 ,,and ,,stars4 ,astronomy for ,beginners4 ,with a ,preface by ,professor ,pritchard4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 ,twenty-sixth ,thousand4 ,revised and ,enlarged4 ,crown #hvo1 #es4 ,,the ,,world',s ,,foundations4 ,geology for ,beginners4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 #es4 ,,duties ,,and ,,duties4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,,father ,,aldur4 ,a ,water ,story4 ,illustrated4 ,crown #hvo1 #es4 ,,the ,,curate',s ,,home4 ,crown #hvo1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,seeley ,,co4 ,,limited1 #ch ,,great ,,russell ,,street1 ,w4,c4 ,,gift ,,books ,,for ,,young ,,people ,the ,illustrated ,scarlet ,library ,large ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 gilt4 ,each volume with ,eight ,original ,illustrations by ,h4 ,m4 ,brock1 ,lancelot ,speed1 and other leading ,artists ,price #bs4 per volume ,,the ,,pilgrim',s ,,progress4 ,by ,john ,bunyan ,,the ,,wide1 ,,wide ,,world4 ,by ,susan ,warner ,,uncle ,,tom',s ,,cabin4 ,by ,h4 ,beecher ,stowe ,,ben ,,hur4 ,by ,general ,lew ,wallace ,,little ,,women ,,and ,,good ,,wives4 ,by ,l4 ,m4 ,alcott ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,henry ,,esmond4 ,by ,w4 ,m4 ,thackeray ,,westward ,,ho6 ,by ,charles ,kingsley ,,john ,,halifax4 ,by ,mrs4 ,craik ,,robinson ,,crusoe4 ,by ,daniel ,defoe ,,the ,,swiss ,,family ,,robinson ,,hans ,,andersen',s ,,fairy ,,tales ,,don ,,quixote4 ,by ,cervantes ,,grimm',s ,,fairy ,,tales ,a ,new ,translation ,,gulliver',s ,,travels ,by ,jonathan ,swift ,,the ,,days ,,of ,,bruce ,by ,grace ,aguilar ,,poe',s ,,tales ,,of ,,mystery ,,imagination ,,tom ,,brown',s ,,schooldays4 ,by ,thomas ,hughes ,,tales ,,from ,,shakespeare4 ,by ,charles ,lamb ,,the ,,arabian ,,nights' ,,entertainments ,,the ,,scalp ,,hunters4 ,by ,captain ,mayne ,reid ,,ministering ,,children4 ,by ,miss ,charlesworth ,illustration3 ,,christian',s ,,conflict ,,with ,,apollyon ,from ,the ,pilgrim ,progress ,,seeley ,,co4 ,,limited1 #ch ,,great ,,russell ,,street1 ,w4,c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber ,note ,minor typos have been corrected4 ,to prevent illustrations from splitting paragraphs1 they were moved4 ,three very long paragraphs 7pp4 #aeh1 #agj and #ahe7 were split to accommodate placement of anillustration4 ,the two pages of advertising which were placed at the front of the printed volume have been moved just below the end of the text with the remaining advertisements4 ,formatting within the advertisements has been standardized4