,transcrib]'s ,notes3 ,text enclos$ by und]scores is 9 italics 7italics71 & text enclos$ by equal signs is 9 bold 7bold74 ,additional ,transcrib]'s ,notes are at ! end4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,road 99 99 99 99 99 ,pr(it1 ,conv5i5cy1 & ,pleasure1 to ! :ole ,nation4 ,be+ a %ort ,rational ,disc\rse1 lately pres5t$ to ,8 ,maje/y1 ,conc]n+ ! ,high-ways ( ,,engl&3 ,_! ,badness1 ! ,causes !re(1 ! ,reasons ( ^? ,causes1 ! impossibility ( ev] hav+ !m ,well-m5d$ accord+ to ! ,old way ( m5d+4 ,b may mo/ c]ta9ly be done1 & = ev] s ma9ta9$ 7accord+ to ,?is ,new way7 sub/antially1 & ) v mu* ,ease4 ,& s1 ,t 9 ! v dep? ( ,w9t] !re %all n be mu* ,dirt1 no ,deep-,c>t-rutts1 or ,high-ridges2 no ,holes1 or ,unev5 ,places2 nor s mu* z a loose /one 7! v ,wor/ ( ,evils bo? to ,man & ,horse7 9 any ( ! ,horse-,tracts4 ,nor %all any ,p]son h cause to be once put out ( 8 way 9 any hundr$ ( miles ,rid+4 ,to m5d ,high-ways1 loe ,"h ! way is %ewn1 ,no bett] way ?an ,?is1 %all e're be kn[n3 ,a ,firm & ,c]ta9 way1 ( no great ,co/1 ,9 all wayes else _! ,lab\r's :olly lo/4 ,! ,old way ne're c\ld d't1 'twas me] ,deceit1 ,z may be prov'd1 x 0 a v ,*eat4 ,pr9t$ = a ,publick good 9 ! ,ye> #afge4 ,,an ,,old ,,title ,,page %[+ ! antiquity ( ! ,road ,problem 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,road ,by ,,hilaire ,,belloc ,pr9t$ ,publi%$ = ,,! ,,briti% ,,re9=c$ ,,concrete ,,eng9e]+ ,,co4 ,,ltd4 ,by ,,*>les ,w4 ,,hobson1 ,/4 ,james's ,sq41 ,,man*e/] #aibc ,,! ,,cont5ts ,i ,,! ,,road ,,9 ,,g5]al ,page ,,*apt] ,i ,! ,orig9 ( ,roads ,h[ ,did ! ,road ,come into ,exi/5ce3 ,! ,exp]im5tal or ! ,sci5tific ,me?od3 ,! ,haphaz>d ,road3 ,! ,case = ,design 9 ,road ,con/ruction #c ,,*apt] ,,ii ,! ,cross+ ( ,m>% & ,wat] ,physical ,factors ,modify+ ! ,=mula ( ! ,road3 ,m>% z ! ,*ief ,ob/acle to ,travel3 ,! ,political ,results ( ,m>%es3 ,! ,cross+ ( ,wat] ,c\rses3 ,! ,orig9 ( ! ,bridge3 ,! ,effect ( ,bridges ^u ,roads3 ,! ,creation ( a ,nodal ,po9t3 ,! ,function ( ! ,nodal ,po9t 9 ,hi/ory #ac ,,*apt] ,,iii ,passability ,! ,*oice ( ,soils3 ,foll[+ ! ,gravel or ! ,*alk3 ,conditions 9 ! ,s\? & ,ea/3 ,! ,ob/acle ( ,gradi5t3 ,! ,e>ly ,vogue ( ,/eep ,gradi5ts3 8,! ,o!r ,side ( ! ,hill03 ,! ,mod]n ,importance ( ,gradi5t3 ,passes or ,gaps 9 ,hill ,c\ntry #cc ,,*apt] ,,iv ,! ,ob/acle ( ,vegetation ,! ,special ,exp5diture due to ,=e/3 ,roads :i* ,skirt ,woodl&s3 ,roads :i* h be5 ,deflect$ by ,=e/3 ,proximity ( ,mat]ial z a ,f9al ,ma9 ,cause ,modify+ ! ,trajectory ( a ,road3 ,co/ ( ,transport+ ,mat]ial & its ,effects 9 ,anci5t & ,mod]n ,times #dg ,,*apt] ,v ,political ,influ5ces ,! ,factor ( ,co/ ,result+ 9 ! 8,/rangl+ ( ,communication03 ,conge/ion :i* leads to decay3 ,a ,great ,mod]n ,problem3 ,! ,compulsory ,acquisition ( ,l&3 ,old ,roads ,s]v+ ,new ,objects #ef ,,*apt] ,,vi ,! ,reaction ( ! ,road ,! ,physical ,effects ( ,roads3 ,! ,way 9 ,:i* ! ,road ,compels ,communication to foll[ x3 ,! ,=mation ( ,urban ,c5tres & ! ,urban ,habit3 ,! ,spread ( ,ideas by ,means ( ,roads3 ,hi/ory ,deflect$ by ! ,deflection ( ! ,road3 ,! ,example ( ,%rewsbury & ,*e/]3 ,t[ns :i* are ,ma9ta9$ by ,roads3 ,! ,road 9 ,milit>y ,hi/ory3 ,results ( ! ,decay ( ,roads3 ,! ,road z a ,b\nd>y #fc ,,ii ,,! ,,engli% ,,road ,,*apt] ,,vii ,! ,road 9 ,hi/ory ,?r\gh ! ,dim ,ages3 ,! ,*>act]i/ics ( ! ,engli% ,road3 ,abs5ce ( ,plan3 ,a ,local in/ead ( a ,national ,sy/em ,lead+ to ! ,pres5t ,crisis #ha ,,*apt] ,,viii ,! 8,bl9dness0 ( ,engli% ,roads ,! ,two ,causes ,gov]n+ ! ,developm5t ( ,engli% ,roads--,wat]ways & ,dome/ic ,peace3 ,! ,relation ( ! ,engli% ,road to ,milit>y ,/rategy #ib ,,*apt] ,,ix ,five ,/ages ,! 8,pot5tial0 9 ,political ,geography ,examples3 ,! ,primitive ,trackways3 ,! ,roman ,road ,sy/em3 ,! ,e>li] ,m$iaeval ,p]iod3 ,! ,lat] ,m$iaeval ,p]iod3 ,! ,turnpike ,era #ajg ,,*apt] ,x ,! ,trackways ,! ,?ree ,divisions ( ! ,briti% ,pre-,roman ,road ,sy/em--! ,sy/em ( :i* ,salisbury ,pla9 0 ! 8,hub03 ,! ,sy/em ,connect$ ) ,london3 ,cross-,c\ntry ,communications--,! ,?ree ,factors :i* ,h ,det]m9$ ,travel 9 ,brita9 #aaf ,,*apt] ,,xi ,! ,mak+ ( ! ,roman ,road ,! ,great ,initiative3 ,! ,m>k ( ! ,roman ,milit>y ,eng9e]3 ,! ,!ory & ,practice ( ! ,/raight ,l9e3 ,modifications ( ! ,/raight ,l9e3 ,h[ x 0 ,c>ri$ ,out3 ,! ,me?od ( ,odds & ,ev5s #acc ,,*apt] ,,xii ,! ,d>k ,ages ,! ,decl9e ( ! ,roman ,road3 ,! ,p]iod at its ,occurr5ce3 ,gaps3 ,roman ,roads :i* ,fell into ,disuse3 ,! ,relation%ip ( ! ,mod]n to ! ,roman ,sy/em3 ,watl+ ,/reet3 ,/ane ,/reet3 ,! ,%ort ,cut ,betwe5 ,p5kridge & ,*e/]3 ,p$d>s ,way3 ,! ,com+ ( ! ,new ,civilization 9 ! ,twelf? ,c5tury #adg ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,:eel$ ,traffic & ! ,mod]n ,road ,! ,transition f ! ,horse to ! ,vehicle3 ,! ,di/9ctive ,m>k ( ! ,lat] ,sev5te5? ,c5tury3 ,! ,turnpike ,sy/em3 ,! ,und]ly+ ,idea ( ! ,turnpike3 ,its ,decl9e & ! ,fir/ ,em]g5ce ( ! ,g5]al ,national ,sy/em 9 #ahaj3 ,?omas ,tel=d & ,8 ,"w3 ,! ,movem5t ,connect$ ) ! ,"n ( ,macadam3 ,! ,com+ ( ! ,locomotive & its ,results on ,canals & ,roads #agi ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,! ,future ,a ,new ,vehicle ,compell+ u to ,make ,new ,roads3 ,art]ial ,roads = ! ,new ,traffic3 ,! ,five ,necessities ( ^! ,roads3 ,ways & ,means3 ,a ,national ,fund3 ,taxation accord+ to ,fuel ,us$3 ,! ,"q ( ! ,l& ,contigu\s to ! ,new ,roads #aid ,,! ,,illu/rations ,page ,,frontispiece3 ,an old ,title ,page %[+ ! antiquity ( ! ,road ,problem #d ,,icknield ,,/reet #bg ,,typical ,,engli% ,,lane #hg ,,! ,,e>lie/ ,,road #aaa ,,wel% ,,section1 ,,holyhead ,,road #abc ,,d]elict ,,road1 ,,scotti% ,,highl&s #aea ,,erm9e ,,/reet ,,ne> ,,roy/on #aga ,,toll ,,h\se ,,on ,,! ,,ba? ,,road #aha ,! text is also elucidat$ by fifte5 maps & diagrams ,,au?or',s ,,introduction ,we are arriv$ at a *ief turn+-po9t 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,engli% highway4 ,new in/rum5ts ( locomotion1 a great] volume ( traffic1 a great] weight 9 loads1 & va/ly increas$ rapidity 9 road travel h betwe5 !m br\ght u to an issue3 ei!r "s v consid]able & imm$iate *ange 9 ! "* ( ! ,road1 or a s]i\s & increas+ h&icap 9 our rivalry ) o!r nations ?r\gh ! /ra9 & exp5se ( an out-worn sy/em4 ,! mom5t !re=e calls = "s exam9ation ( ! ,road1 its !ory & hi/ory4 ,t ne$ has prompt$ me to write ?is essay2 b ,i mu/ say at ! outset t ,i approa* my task ) no exp]t qualification4 ,my only equipm5t = ! g5]al sket* ,i int5d is hi/orical read+ & ! exp]i5ce acquir$ 9 ! writ+ ( c]ta9 monographs ^u ! topography ( ! ,road 9 ! pa/4 ,i c d no m ?an sugge/ l9es ( ?\ght :i*1 if !y lead to practice1 ne$ a detail$ sci5ce ,i d n possess4 ,! ,road is "o ( ! great fundam5tal in/itutions ( mank9d4 ,we =get ?is because we take x = grant$4 ,x seems to be s necess>y & natural a "p ( all human life t we =get t x ev] _h an orig9 or developm5t1 or t x is z mu* ! creation ( man z ! city & ! laws4 ,n only is ! ,road "o ( ! great human in/itutions because x is fundam5tal to social exi/5ce1 b also because its v>i$ effect appe>s 9 e dep>tm5t ( ! ,/ate4 ,x is ! ,road :i* det]m9es ! sites ( _m cities & ! gr[? & n\ri%m5t ( all4 ,x is ! ,road :i* controls ! developm5t ( /rategics & fixes ! sites ( battles4 ,x is ! ,road t gives its frame-"w to all economic developm5t4 ,x is ! ,road :i* is ! *annel ( all trade &1 :at is m important1 ( all ideas4 ,9 its mo/ humble function x is a necess>y guide )\t :i* progress f place to place w\ld be a ceaseless exp]im5t2 x is a su/5ance )\t :i* organiz$ society w\ld be impossible2 ?us1 & ) ^? o!r *>act]s ,i h m5tion$1 ! ,road moves & controls all hi/ory4 ,a road sy/em1 once e/abli%$1 develops at its po9ts ( conc5tration ! n]ve c5tres ( ! society x s]ves2 & we rem>k t ! mat]ial rise & decl9e ( a /ate are bett] measur$ by ! condition ( its communications--t is1 ( its roads--?an by any o!r crit]ion4 ,! con/ruction1 ! trace1 & ! :ole "* ( ! ,road *ange ) new social ne$s & habits1 ) ! facilities ( natural sci5ce1 _! rise & decl9e4 ,b ?is p]petual *ange1 :i* affects ! ,road z x does ar*itecture & e o!r "w ( man1 is specially m>k$ by c]ta9 critical phases1 "o ( :i*1 z ,i said at ! op5+ ( ?is1 we h n[ ent]$4 ,!re are mom5ts 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,road 9 any society :]e ! :ole use ( x1 ! con/ruction ( x1 & its "* h to be trans=m$4 ,"o su* mom5t1 = in/ance1 0 :5 ! :eel$ vehicle fir/ appe>$3 ano!r :5 !re fir/ appe>$ l>ge organiz$ armies4 ,x occurr$ :5ev] "s new me?od ( progression succe$$ ! old4 ,x occurr$ at simil> critical turn+-po9ts 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,road n only :5 any ( ^! ?+s arose1 b also :5 !y decl9$ or disappe>$4 ,! appe>ance ( great cities1 _! sudd5 expansion or _! decay1 or ! new ne$s ( a new type ( comm]ce--& its disappe>ance--br+ a :ole road sy/em to "o ( ^! revolution>y po9ts4 ,we h _h 7z ,i %all develop 9 m detail7 five great mom5ts ( ?is k9d 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,engli% road sy/em3 ! mom5t :5 ! ,briti% trackway 0 sup]s$$ by ! ,roman milit>y road2 ! mom5t :5 ! latt] decl9$ 9 ! ,d>k ,ages2 ! mom5t :5 ! m$iaeval sy/em ( local roads grew up on ! basis ( ! old ,roman trunk roads & ar\nd !m2 ! mom5t :5 ?is 9 its turn decl9$ 9 ! lat] sixte5? & sev5te5? c5turies2 & ! re-ca/+ ( ! road sy/em by ! turnpikes ( ! eighte5? & e>ly n9ete5? c5turies4 ,to-day ! six? great *ange is ^u u4 ,x is incumb5t ^u u !n to-day to get ourselves cle> ^u ! !ory & ! hi/ory ( ! ,road1 & ,i propose 9 ?is essay to take !m 9 two sections3 fir/1 ! ,road 9 g5]al2 next1 t special in/itution ! ,engli% ,road4 ,a ,,preface ,! ,briti% ,re9=c$ ,concrete ,eng9e]+ ,co4 ,ltd4 rec5tly became acqua9t$ ) ! fact t ,mr4 ,hilaire ,belloc 0 engag$ 9 ! production ( an essay on ! hi/ory ( ,briti% ,roads4 ,9 num]\s writ+s ,mr4 ,belloc has treat$ v>i\s aspects ( ,road hi/ory1 & 8 le>n+ on ! subject & 8 me?od ( communicat+ x are 9 high repute among wide circles ( read]s4 ,he is1 9 fact1 an out/&+ lit]>y au?ority on ! topic4 ,x !re=e seem$ to ! ,company t if !y c\ld acquire ! copyright ( ! "w1 9 :i* ,mr4 ,belloc 0 treat+ ! :ole subject n indirectly1 b directly & sy/ematically1 & if !y c\ld issue ?is "w to p :o are pr(essionally engag$ 9 ! con/ruction ( roads1 a v consid]able s]vice w\ld be done to ! cause ( road developm5t 9 ! c\ntry4 ,! future always becomes a little cle>] if we ?or\ghly und]/& ! pa/1 & ! ,company feel t ev]ybody :o is giv+ mu* ( 8 m9d & life to road problems w be glad to h 9 8 possession a book :i* br+s out ! hi/orical & social1 n to say ! romantic1 int]e/ :i* lies b5ea? ! surface ( ! ,engli% highway4 ,mr4 ,belloc 0 accord+ly approa*$ on ! subject & agre$ to sell ! publi%+ rights ( 8 "w to ! ,briti% ,re9=c$ ,concrete ,eng9e]+ ,co4 ,ltd41 :o n[ h great pleasure 9 issu+ x to ! survey+ & civil eng9e]+ pr(ession1 believ+ t x w at once assi/ & beguile ! "w ( ^? to ^: h&s ! future ( ! ,engli% ,roads1 & ) x mu* ( ! economic & social prosp]ity ( ! c\ntry1 is l>gely entru/$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,road ,i ,,! ,,road ,,9 ,,g5]al ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,orig9 ,,( ,,roads ,h[ ,did ! ,road ,come ,into ,exi/5ce3 ,! ,exp]im5tal or ! ,sci5tific ,me?od3 ,! ,haphaz>d ,road3 ,! ,case = ,design 9 ,road ,con/ruction4 i ,9 ord] to und]/& any matt]1 especially if we h to und]/& x = a practical end1 we mu/ beg9 by ! !ory ( ! ?+3 we mu/ beg9 by ?9k+ out :y & h[ x has come into exi/5ce1 :at its function is1 & h[ be/ x c fulfil t function4 ,next we mu/ note its effect1 once x is =m$1 & ! results ( ! fulfilm5t ( its function4 ,:at !n1 to beg9 )1 is ! orig9 ( ! ,road8 ,:y did ?is human in/itution come into exi/5ce1 & h[ does x t5d to develop8 ,h[ may x be/ be design$ to fulfil its function8 ,:5 we h decid$ t we c g on to ! next po9t1 :i* is3 h[ does ! ,road1 once =m$1 react ^u its environm5t2 :at physical & 7mu* m important7 political results fl[ f its exi/5ce8 ,! answ] to ! fir/ "q1 8,h[ did t human in/itution1 ! ,road1 come into exi/5ce1 & :y80 is simple1 & w be giv5 9 mu* ! same t]ms by anyone to :om x is address$4 ,! ,road is an in/rum5t to facilitate ! movem5t ( man betwe5 two po9ts ^u ! e>?'s surface4 ,if ! surface ( ! e>? 7 uni=m 9 quality & 9 gradi5t--t is1 if x 7 ( ! same /uff ev]y:]e1 ( ! same degree ( moi/ure ev]y:]e1 & ev]y:]e level--! ,road betwe5 any two po9ts w\ld cle>ly be a /raight l9e 7to be accurate1 ! arc ( a great circle7 jo9+ ^? two po9ts4 ,= :5 we say t ! ,road exi/s 89 ord] to facilitate0 travel ov] ! surface ( ! e>? f "o po9t to ano!r ! ^w 8facilitate0 includes1 ( c\rse1 rapidity 9 progression1 & ! /raight l9e is ! %orte/ l9e betwe5 any two po9ts4 ,b ! surface ( ! e>? is highly div]sifi$ 9 quality z 9 gradi5t4 ,!re=e ! trajectory or c\rse ( ! ,road is n 9 practice1 & %\ld n be 9 !ory1 a /raight l9e f po9t to po9t4 ,t /raight l9e has to be modifi$ if we are to give to ! ,road an ultimate =m su* t x %all be/ s]ve its end2 & :5 we come to look into ! problem we %all see t x is "o ( v great complexity inde$4 ,t is :]e ! /udy ( ! !ory ev5 9 its mo/ elem5t>y =m becomes ( su* value to ! execution 9 practice4 ,we discov] by /udy+ ! !ory ( ! ,road h[ _m & h[ v>i$ are ! elem5ts ( ! =mula we h to e/abli%4 ,we become prep>$ 9 t /udy = ! discov]y1 9 ea* new p>ticul> problem1 ( any numb] ( novel modifications n pres5t 9 problems previ\sly attack$4 ,s true is ?is t ! :ole hi/ory ( progress 9 road-mak+ is a hi/ory ( discov]+ me?ods = deal+ ) ob/acles ei!r novel 9 "* or only appreciat$ aft] l5g?y use4 ,let u beg9 at ! beg9n+1 ) ! v elem5ts ( ! affair4 ,! fir/ elem5t 9 ! !ory ( ! ,road may be put ?us3 ,to f9d a =mula ( m9imum exp5se 9 en]gy = communication betwe5 two giv5 geographical po9ts "u giv5 conditions ( travel & c>riage4 ,! div]sity ( geographical circum/ance m\lds ! =mula into its f9al %ape ?r\gh balanc$ modifications ( ! direct l9e4 ,! mo/ obvi\s modifications to a direct trajectory arise f ! two prim>y circum/ances ( surface & gradi5t4 ,x is easi] to g ov] "o k9d ( soil ?an ano!r2 easi] to g ov] "o k9d ( surface 9 summ] & ano!r 9 w9t]2 easi] to g ov] "o k9d ( surface 9 wet1 & ano!r 9 dry wea!r2 easi] to g ov] "o k9d ( surface ) a heavy load & ano!r ) a light load2 ov] "o ) sumpt] animals1 ov] ano!r on :eels1 & s on4 ,aga91 x is = all k9ds ( travel easi] to g ^u ! flat ?an uphill1 & ?is elem5t ( gradi5t is mu* m complicat$ ?an at fir/ x w\ld appe>4 ,?us travel ( "o k9d--travel on foot1 = in/ance--c take a %>p gradi5t = ! sake ( a %ort trajectory m easily ?an c traffic ) burd5s2 & traffic ) burd5s c>ri$ by animals c take a %>p] gradi5t ) advantage ?an c :eel$ traffic2 & :eel$ traffic diff]s accord+ to ! "* ( ! vehicle 9 ?is respect4 ,aga91 a road ( div]se use mu/ /rike a compromise 9 its =mula betwe5 ! v>i\s ne$s subs]v$4 ,if ! great bulk ( its use is to provide = rapid milit>y advance by m>*es1 y mu/ sacrifice to %ortness "s ( ! easi] gradi5ts :i* w\ld be dem&$ = traffic ma9ly civilian1 yet if ( ?ree ma9 us]s ev5 ! lea/ important is incapable ( m ?an a giv5 gradi5t1 y\r =mula c nev] exce$ t gradi5t1 & s =?4 ,s we h ev5 9 ?is simple/ & mo/ prim>y ( all analyses ( ! ,road consid]able elem5ts ( complexity appe>+4 ,z ! /udy progresses an indef9ite s]ies ( fur!r complexities arises1 & "o soon rea*es t crux 9 ! !ory ( ! ,road :i* has l$ to s mu* discussion & :i* "s /ill call unsolv$3 :e!r ! =mula ( ! ,road is be/ left to ! unconsci\s or half-consci\s action ( exp]im5t1 :i* 9 "t %\ld lead to an exact m9imum ( exp5se 9 en]gy1 or :e!r x is be/ to arrive at x by a fully consci\s1 exact1 & 7z we say to-day7 8sci5tific0 exam9ation ( all ! conditions & a delib]ate & imm$iate conclusion ^u !m4 ,%\ld ! road gr[ or %\ld x be plann$8 ,! discussion is n idle4 ,! cla% ( op9ion ^u x is at ! root ( ! contra/ betwe5 national sy/ems1 & a "r answ] w make all ! diff]5ce betwe5 success & failure 9 our approa* to a new road sy/em su* z is n[ ^u u4 ii ,i ma9ta9 t ( ! two !ories ! second is j3 t a gradual exp]im5tal gr[? 9 its roads1 a me?od co9cid5t ) local caprice1 burd5s ) imp]fect communication ! society adopt+ x2 t consci\s design is ess5tial to effici5cy4 ,& ?is ,i propose to illu/rate by a s+le example4 ,take two po9ts ,a & ,b1 su* t a l9e jo9+ !m mu/ lead across a m>%1 a riv]1 & a range ( hills4 ,let "s primitive w&]] make 8 way f ,a to ,b1 kn[+1 :5 he is at ,a1 ! direction ( ,b by1 let u say1 a di/ant peak ov]topp+ ! range betwe54 ,t primitive w&]] w\ld fir/ ( all skirt ab\t ! m>% &1 f9d+ its n>r[e/ place at ,c1 w\ld set to "w & make 8 causeway !re4 ,hav+ cross$ x1 he w\ld come to ! riv]4 ,he mu/ ei!r swim or =d x4 ,suppos+ him to pref]1 ?r\gh ! necessity ( a pack or :at n1 to =d x1 he ca/s ab\t = a =d4 ,he f9ds "o at ,d1 & p]haps he also1 if he takes "t to look ab\t him1 f9ds ano!r deep] "o at ,e & ano!r at ,f1 b z 8 causeway is ne> ,d he takes t =d4 ,illu/ration3 ,sket* ,i4 ,!n he has to make = ! hills4 ,we w suppose t ! peak direct+ him f beyond ,b is /ill visible4 ,he takes 8 new direction f x & looks t[>ds ! base ( ! hills at ,g4 ,!re1 9 ! direct l9e to ! peak1 ! cont\rs are s /eep t ! tr\ble ( gett+ up w\ld m ?an c\nt]balance ! %ortness ( ! cut4 ,he ca/s ab\t = a bett] *ance1 & at la/ f9ds a gradi5t j wor? 8 :ile at ,h4 ,he climbs up t2 b ?\gh ! gradi5t is easy on ! ,a side at ,h on ! f> side x is v difficult1 s he turns along ! ridge to ,k1 :]e he f9ds an easi] d[n gradi5t3 a spur leads him on by its g5tle slope1 & f ! bottom ( ! spur he makes /raight = ,b1 :i* is n[ "r 9 front ( him & pla9 sail+4 ,n[1 look at t track z e/abli%$ by our primitive w&]] & see h[ l5g?y & inconv5i5t x is1 h[ ill fulfill+ ! object ( ! travell] comp>$ ) :at w\ld h be5 e/abli%$ by ev5 a mod]ately intellig5t & cursory survey ( ! gr\nd z a :ole & ! mak+ ( a plan4 ,to beg9 )1 x w\ld h paid our travell] to take a little m tr\ble 9 cross+ ! r wid] gap 9 ! m>% at ,l & ! r deep] =d at ,f1 because he w\ld h ga9$ v mu* 9 "t & space ) comp>atively slight extra ef=t _h he survey$ ! :ole gr\nd & ?\ght ?+s out4 ,he 0 only l$ on to ! =d at ,d because x 0 sugge/$ by ! cross+ ( ! m>% at ,c4 ,! fir/ opportunity made ! second4 ,b to cont9ue ! plan3 ,f is ne>ly opposite ! easi] up gradi5ts ( ! hills1 b1 hav+ survey$ t bad /eep on ! f> side1 he slightly modifies 8 road1 cross+ ! ridge at ,m beh9d a summit :i* hid ?is way f ! fir/ travell]4 ,!n he goes d[n ! practicable1 ?\gh /eep1 slope at ,n1 & s rea*es ,b4 ,! fir/ road produc$ haphaz>d by successive *ances gives ! l5g?y & r\ndab\t trajectory ,a--,c1 ,d1 ,h1 ,k--,b4 ,! second1 ) v little extra lab\r1 gives him ! f> %ort] & bett] trajectory ,a--,l1 ,f1 ,m1 ,n--,b4 ,we see f ?is elem5t>y example h[ ! ?9k+ out ( ! !ory ( ! ,road is ( advantage 9 practice4 ,x may be urg$ t ! discov]y ( advantages z "t goes on gradually improves ! ,road1 & 9 ?is way half-consci\s developm5t w always give y ! be/ road 9 ! long run )\t /udy+ its !ory4 ,b hi/ory is aga9/ t view4 ,europe is full ( roads ?us e/abli%$ haphaz>d1 confirm+ !mselves by use & by exp5diture1 & = c5turies neglect+ opportunities :i* w\ld h be5 pres5t to ! eye ( ! mo/ cursory & mod]ately intellig5t survey4 ,?is conflict ( pr9ciple betwe5 gr[? & design 9 ! creation ( ! ,road is at ! root ( half our mod]n crises 9 road-mak+4 ,! real issue is betwe5 ^? :o w\ld gradually add to or develop f cu/om & ^? :o w\ld radically impose new plans1 & on a "r decision ! economic future ( ?is c\ntry may well dep5d4 ,:5 we come to consid] ev5 ! fir/ ( succe$+ modifications we see /ill m cle>ly ! complexity ( any road-=mul & ! correspond+ advantage ( plan ov] habit4 ,! m>%1 ! riv]1 & ! hill are b ! beg9n+ ( ! affair4 ,!re is a modification due to ! fact t ! m>% may n be p]man5t1 nor ! dep? ( ! riv]2 t ! ,road may be ( special use at mom5ts :5 ! riv] is %all[ or flood$1 :5 ! m>% is dry or1 exceptionally1 impassable4 ,!re is ! modification ( surface4 ,clay1 = in/ance1 is fairly good go+ 9 dry wea!r1 b ! wor/ 9 wet4 ,!re is ! modification due to vegetation3 ! balanc+ ( ! ef=t involv$ 9 go+ r\nd a d5se scrub aga9/ t ( cutt+ ?r\gh x & ( ma9ta9+ ! cutt+ :5 x is e/abli%$4 ,!re is ! modification introduc$ by ! in/rum5ts & sci5ce available = con/ruction & = cutt+4 ,9 "o /age ( developm5t x w pay to take a road by a bridge across a deep riv] :]e 9 e>li] /ages ( developm5t x w\ld h be5 necess>y to seek a =d4 ,9 "o /age ( developm5t x w\ld pay to make a cutt+ ?r\gh a sc> too /eep to climb :]e1 9 a l[] civilization1 x w\ld h paid to g r\nd x4 ,! :ole =mula increases 9 complexity ! m we exam9e x4 ,x is a =mula = ! discov]y ( a m9imum ( ef=t4 ,b 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( t m9imum y h to consid] n only a v great numb] ( factors1 b ! respective value ( ea* to ! :ole1 & y\r success 9 e/abli%+ ! ,road dep5ds ^u ! accuracy ( y\r judgm5t bo? z to ! pres5ce & z to ! comp>ative value ( all ^? factors4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,cross+ ,,( ,,m>% ,,& ,,wat] ,physical ,factors ,modify+ ! ,=mula ( ! ,road3 ,m>% z ! ,*ief ,ob/acle to ,travel3 ,! ,political ,results ( ,m>%es3 ,! ,cross+ ( ,wat] ,c\rses3 ,! ,orig9 ( ! ,bridge3 ,! ,effect ( ,bridges ^u ,roads3 ,! ,creation ( a ,nodal ,po9t3 ,! ,function ( ! ,nodal ,po9t 9 ,hi/ory4 i ,s mu* = ! fir/ pr9ciple ( all3 t ! ,road1 l all o!r human in/itutions1 is be/ made ) bra9s1 & = t second imm5sely valuable1 b too (t5 =gott51 political pr9ciple3 t if y beg9 by mak+ y\r ?+ wrong x is likely to take root & to rema9 wrong4 ,a catalogue ( ! m important physical factors modify+ ! =mula ( ! ,road 7,i w come to ! political & economic 9 a mom5t7 is z foll[s3 ,m>% to be trav]s$2 wat] c\rses to be trav]s$2 diff]5ces ( surface o!r ?an m>% & wat] c\rses2 gradi5ts to be dealt )2 ! ob/acle ( vegetation to be dealt )4 ,to ^! five "o may add a factor common to all1 & to ! mak+ ( e road1 ev5 9 its mo/ primitive /ages3 7#f7 ! proximity ( mat]ial 7mean+ by 8proximity0 ! cong]ies ( all ! factors :i* make = ! *eapness ( mat]ial1 = ! advantage ( us+ x 9 a p>ticul> place74 ,let u take ^! physical po9ts 9 _! ord]4 99 99 99 99 99 ii ,,m>%4 ,x is n always appreciat$ t ! *ief ob/acle to travel f ! beg9n+ ( "t has be5 & /ill rema9s m>%1 :i* may be def9$ z soil too sodd5 = travel1 z di/+ui%$ f ! l&s :i* are boggy 9 wet wea!r b passable4 ,m>% is less /rik+ to ! eye1 especially to ! mod]n eye1 ?an a /ret* ( wat]1 mu* less /rik+ ?an ! app>5t ob/acle ( ! sea1 or ( a bold hill range3 x is nev]!less ! *ief problem pres5t$ to ! mak+ ( a road1 because ( all natural ob/acles x is ! only "o :olly untrav]sable by unaid$ man4 ,man unaid$ c climb hills1 swim wat]1 "w 8 way ?r\gh d5se und]gr[?4 ,b m>% is impassable to him3 x is ! great orig9al ob/acle to progress4 ,if ?is has n be5 recogniz$ 9 ! pa/1 & is /ill little recogniz$1 x is n only because m>% is less /rik+ to ! eye ?an wat] or hills1 b /ill m because1 ! orig9al roads e/abli%$ by man 9 =m+ 8 cities1 m>kets1 & all ! re/ ( x1 be+ compell$ to avoid m>%1 we d n (t5 come across ! problem ev5 to-day4 ,p>tly1 also1 because v ext5sive m>% is a r>e ph5om5on1 especially 9 ,we/]n ,europe4 ,b if we look at ! map & at hi/ory we %all see :at t ob/acle means4 ,x 0 m>% :i* cut (f ,lanca%ire f ! ,s\? ( ,engl&1 & left ,lanca%ire ! /ronghold ( old in/itutions1 especially aft] ! ,re=mation4 ,x 0 ! m>% ( ! ,l[] ,?ames e/u>y1 n[ ^u ! "r1 n[ ^u ! left bank ( ! riv]1 :i* =bade a cross+ bel[ ,london4 ,x 0 m>% :i* protect$ ! gr[? ( ,v5ice at ! e>lie/ & mo/ dang]\s mom5t ( its exi/5ce4 ,x 0 m>% :i* cut (f ! ,we/]n 7,poli%7 civilization f ! ,ea/]n 7,russian7 civilization1 & 0 ! ma9 geographical cause ( t %>p division 9 culture :i* has affect$ ! :ole ( lat] ,european hi/ory4 ,we may say t ! ,russian ,or?odox ,*ur* & ! la/ ,revolution w\ld nei!r h be51 save = ! ,p9sk ,m>%es4 ,to take less] examples1 we c see to-day ! way 9 :i* ev5 our mod]n ways avoid m>%4 ,! l>ge di/rict ( ,g>gano 9 ,s\!rn ,italy has rema9$ l>gely isolat$ ?r\gh m>% ^u its flanks4 ,y may see all ov] ,europe1 & ev5 9 ?is well-dra9$ c\ntry1 primitive roads deflect$ ?r\gh m>% z !y are n by any o!r ob/acle1 & ?is deflection /amps our road sy/em to ?is day1 9 spite ( our enorm\sly increas$ opportunities ( road con/ruction4 ,we %all see on a lat] page ! way 9 :i* m>% deflect$ 9 ! d>k ages ,roman roads at ! riv] cross+s 9 ?is isl&4 ,if a special example be requir$ ( a road hav+ gr[n up & rema9$ on an uneconomic trajectory on acc\nt ( m>% m\ld+ its e>li] hi/ory1 "o ( ! be/ 9 ,engl& is t ( ! ,arundel road s\? ( ,pulbor\gh4 ,seaw>ds f ,pulbor\gh 7a l&+ & cross+-place on ! upp] ,riv] ,arun ( great antiquity7 ! next consid]able inhabit$ spot 0 ! port & =tifi$ spur ( ,arundel4 ,! di/ance z ! cr[ flies is a %ort day's m>* or less1 "s t5 miles4 ,n[1 ! road c\ld h be5 tak5 9 a fairly direct l9e & ev]y:]e ^u ! level _h x n be5 = m>%4 ,! m>%es bord]+ ! ,arun prev5t$ su* a con/ruction 9 e>ly times3 ! road _h to keep to a high1 dry bank1 !n to climb "r up to ! top ( ! ,d[ns & fall aga9 ^u ,arundel4 ,s x rema9$--hav+ tak5 root--?r\gh all ! advances 9 sci5ce3 s x /ill /&s to-day4 ,! railway takes ! obvi\s l9e1 b ! road1 e/abli%$ c5turies ago1 rema9s on its =m] trajectory1 climbs up _m hundr$s ( feet1 & !n drops d[n aga9 to ,arundel1 involv+ 9 ! %ort di/ance ( t5 miles gradi5ts ( "o 9 eight & heavy hill-climb+ ov] m ?an half ! di/ance4 ,a neighb\r+ example ( ! extreme importance ( ! fir/ exp]im5t 9 ! hi/ory ( a road is se5 at ,bramb]1 9 ! next valley ea/w>d4 ,!re a simil> situation--! approa* l&w>ds f ! port ( ,%oreham--avoids ! hills1 because at "s unkn[n b v e>ly p]iod a causeway 0 built at ,bramb] to negotiate ! m>%2 & t 0 because ! isolat$ hill at ,bramb] af=d$ su* a good opportunity ( =tification & block+ ! pass t a road 0 b\nd to rea* x1 & ev5 "u primitive conditions m5 7 at ! lab\r ( mak+ an embankm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,sket* ,,ii iii ,,wat] ,,c\rses4 ,! cross+ ( wat] c\rses does n seem to h be5 orig9ally 9 ! ma9 a se>* = a =d4 ,x seems to h be5 r a se>* = good tak+-(f places ^u ei!r side1 h[ev] deep ! wat] 9 betwe54 ,! =d 0 us$1 ( c\rse1 :]ev] x c\ld be1 & 9 x also ! h>dness ( ! passage "u wat] 0 ( ev5 m importance ?an ! dep? ( wat]3 bel[1 say1 #d feet4 ,b ! po9t to note is t (t51 & probably 9 ! majority ( cases1 man 9 ! e>ly times took 8 %ort cut across wat] ei!r by swimm+ or by tak+ advantage ( float+ mat]ial1 & 0 mu* m conc]n$ ) ! h>d bank ^u ei!r side ?an ) ! dep? ( ! /ream4 ,if y take su* a v old road z t ( ! primitive ,briti% trackway ^: two bran*es1 f ,/oneh5ge & ,w9*e/]1 unite 9 :at is call$ ! 8,pilgrim's ,way0 & make = ! ,/raits ( ,dov]1 y f9d ?is trackway cross+ ! ,mole1 ! ,wey1 & ! ,m$way1 z also ! ,d>5?1 at places :]e ! obvi\s consid]ation has be5 a dry approa* ^u ei!r side1 & n ! local %all[ness ( ! /ream4 7,we mu/ rememb] 9 ?is connection t ! ^w 8=d0 is us$ at pl5ty ( places :]e ! /ream is too deep = cross+ on foot3 x means simply 8a go+40 ,a false etymology "h has misl$ _m hi/orians47 ,( m importance to ! fir/ mak]s ( ! ,road ?an ! dep? ( a wat] c\rse 0 its swiftness4 ,we h 9 ?is c\ntry few examples ( swift /reams ( any magnitude1 & none ( /reams s swift z to be impassable or passable ) great difficulty1 b :]e su* examples occur abroad x is easy to see :at a b\nd>y & ob/acle a rapid curr5t af=d$4 ,x works 9 all mann] ( ways to ! disadvantage ( travel1 x makes bo? swimm+ & f]ry+ m difficult 7or impossible71 x makes bridg+ ei!r m difficult or 79 e>ly times7 impossible1 x usually connotes great diff]5ces ( level1 sudd5 floods1 etc41 & x also usually connotes *anges & v>iety ( curr5ts1 z well z ! de/ruction ( ! banks4 ,at an e>ly /age 9 ! developm5t ( ! ,road came ! use ( ! bridge1 & ) ! bridge ! orig9al *ief consid]ation--a dry approa* f ei!r side--0 emphasiz$4 ,x is true t =ds 7 bridg$ z roads develop$1 b ! bridg+ ( a =d is n ! normal orig9 ( ! bridge4 ,! normal orig9 ( ! bridge1 if we judge by any "o ( ! orig9al great roads ( ,europe1 is ! replac+ ( a f]ry4 ,m5 took ! ob/acle ( a riv] 7on acc\nt ( its l5g?7 z some?+ h>dly to be turn$1 save p]haps 9 its high] rea*es4 ,!y made /raight = x1 seek+ only firm gr\nd f :i* to emb>k & disemb>k1 & e/abli%$ a boat cross+4 ,to ?is r ?an to ! =d ! bridge succe$$4 ,!y bridg$ x ) increas+ success z _! mat]ial sci5ce increas$ 9 p[]1 & y may see all ov] ,europe ! great bridges ?r[n1 n :]e ! riv] 0 %all[e/ nor :]e x 0 easie/ to trav]se = any o!r reason1 b *iefly :]e ! ma9 road l$4 ,9 o!r words1 ! bridge is a function ( ! ,road r ?an ! ,road ( ! bridge4 ,two out/&+ examples ( ?is 9 ,europe are ,london ,bridge1 p]haps prehi/oric1 c]ta9ly n mu* less ?an two ?\s& ye>s old1 & ! bridge at ,cologne1 to :i* "o might add ! bridge at ,r\5 & ! bridges ( ! ,isl& ( ,p>is1 :i* we "k to be m ?an two ?\s& ye>s old4 ,b x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! bridg+ ( a riv]1 ev5 9 primitive times1 0 ! next easie/ ?+ to a f]ry1 & 9 "s circum/ances easi] ev5 ?an a f]ry4 ,a bridge ne$ n be built ( piles4 ,x may be built ( boats1 & 9 pr9ciple1 ev5 ov] a broad /ream1 once y c\ld build a boat bridge at all y c\ld build x ( almo/ indef9ite l5g?4 ,:at w\ld militate aga9/ ! ef=t to make a pile bridge 7 dep? & rapidity ( /ream1 b ev5 ^!1 unless ! rapidity 7 v great inde$1 did n prev5t ! ?r[+ ( a bridge ( boats4 ,! bridge z an elem5t 9 ! ,road plays a v l>ge "p :i* ne$s "s detail$ exam9ation3 x develops a :ole s]ies ( results4 ,! object ( a bridge is to give cont9uity & security to travel across an ob/acle ( dep?3 usually an ob/acle ( runn+ wat]1 sometimes a dry rav9e4 ,x is b r>ely t a bridge is ess5tial to ! m]e trajectory ( a road4 ,9 mu* ! great] numb] ( cases its function c be suppli$1 ?\gh f> less p]fectly1 by a f]ry1 or a =d1 or a grad$ way d[n into & up f a depression4 ,:at ! bridge does is to p]mit ( cont9u$ traffic1 especially cont9u$ :eel$ traffic1 across su* ob/acles )\t delay & )\t trans-%ipm5t1 & at ! same "t to add1 up to a maximum ( weight1 to security2 = x is obvi\sly an in/rum5t m secure ?an ! f]ry or ! =d1 especially = heavy weights4 ,b ! bridge has always repres5t$ a special economic ef=t1 great] y>d = y>d ?an t ( ! av]age ( ! road ( :i* x 0 a "p2 & t is :y y almo/ always f9d x ! m>k ( civilization4 ,a primitive culture c exi/ = c5turies )\t bridges4 ,! proportion ( bridge-build+ ef=t to road-build+ ef=t v>ies v mu* ) ! physical sci5ce ( v>i\s times4 ,x is less to-day1 & 0 less 9 ,roman times1 ?an 9 primitive times & 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 because we1 l ! ,roman eng9e]s1 exp5d a f> great] economic ef=t ^u ! av]age ( ! ,road1 s t ! comp>ative co/ ( ! bridge is less4 ,9 primitive times ! bridge 0 some?+ ( a feat1 its con/ruction z measur$ 9 ef=t 0 equival5t to _m miles ( road1 its build] a public b5efactor1 & its build+ an ev5t ( note4 ,?is is s true t 9 "s languages :i* h come d[n b little *ang$ f primitive times ! ^w = 8bridge0 is f\nd to be a =eign ^w1 z ?\gh ! in/itution 7 n suffici5tly common be=e ! adv5t ( "s civiliz$ conqu]or to h acquir$ a special "n2 & 9 all primitive societies ! bridge is r>e4 ,?is comp>atively high co/ ( ! bridge has _h c]ta9 effects on ! hi/ory & 9 ! appe>ance ( our roads :i* are wor? not+4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! bridge t5ds to be a 8gut40 ,:5 ! ?r[+ ( a bridge 0 equival5t 9 exp5se to sev]al miles ( ! exi/+ road x 0 a great sav+ to make x n>r[3 only "o vehicle to pass at a "t1 ) side refuges at ! piles :5 ! passage ( two vehicles 9 oppos+ directions 0 unavoidable4 ,aga91 bridges t5d$1 especially 9 times ( l[ economic developm5t1 to introduce a sudd5 high gradi5t4 ,! elliptical ar* 01 if n unkn[n1 at any rate v r>e be=e ! ,r5aissance1 & :]e ! pla9 semi-circul> ar* alone 0 us$ a flat bridge involv$1 if ! cross+ 7 ( any wid?1 a great numb] ( piles1 & !re=e an add$ exp5se4 ,! difficulty 0 met 9 ! majority ( cases by less5+ ! numb] ( piles1 especially t[>ds ! c5tre1 :]e !re 0 a great] dep?1 consequ5tly increas+ ! span !re1 & consequ5tly1 9 a semi-circul> ar*1 increas+ its height correspond+ly4 ,! result 0 t ! bridge introduc$ a sudd5 hillock into ! ,road1 & t feature y f9d all ov] ,we/]n ,europe up to q mod]n times1 ) _m survivals rema9+1 especially 9 ,spa94 ,9 "s ( ! v e>ly bridges 9 ! poor] di/ricts1 or on ! less us$ roads1 ! exagg]ation is fanta/ic4 ,i "k ( "o ov] ! ,gallego1 ne> ,huesca1 :]e ! pit* is s /eep t x baulks a c>4 ,!re 7 p>ticul> /ructures--t ( ,london is an example 9 po9t--:]e ! disadvantage ( a gradi5t 0 avoid$ at great exp5se because a mass ( traffic & m]*&ise made x wor? :ile4 ,london ,bridge 0 c>ri$ on a great numb] ( ar*es precisely 9 ord] to avoid ?is elem5t ( gradi5t4 ,a side-effect ( ?is 0 ! block+ ( ! /ream & great difficulty = boats 9 8%oot+0 ! ar*es on a tide2 b ?is drawback to riv] traffic 0 ?\ght wor? :ile z ! price ( a level road4 ,ano!r reason :i* (t5 l$ to ! exp5sive flat /one bridge 0 its replac+ an old wood5 pile bridge4 ,! wood5 pile bridge _h no cause = creat+ a gradi5t4 ,on ! :ole x 0 *eap] to keep x exactly level1 & z l[ z possible consi/5t ) ! rise ( ! wat]4 ,:]e su* a /ructure _h prec$$ a /one bridge ! habit ( a level road 0 cont9u$1 ev5 at ! exp5se ( _m piles & ar*es4 ,a ?ird effect ( ! bridge ^u ! ,road1 also due to its comp>ative exp5se1 0 ! conv]g5ce ( roads t[>ds bridges1 e/abli%$ or ev5 only plann$4 ,y w p]petually f9d up & d[n ,europe ! approa*es to a t[n f two or m directions m]g$ into a common road j at ! entry to a bridge1 9 ord] to save ! exp5se ( two cross+s1 ?\gh at an extra exp5se ( space & "t2 ?us1 ,abbeville1 ,ca5 7a v /rik+ example1 ) ?ree conv]g+ roads on ea* side ( ! bridge71 ,london--! *ief example 9 ,europe--,s>agossa1 ) ! two ma9 roads f s\? & we/ conv]g+ on its bridge--all 8ga!r0 roads aft] ?is fa%ion4 ,b ! effects ( ! bridge ^u ! m]e trajectory ( a road1 ^u its surface & cont\r1 7 f> less ?an 7 its political & milit>y effects4 ,?\gh l& armies 7 always ti$ to roads m or less1 x 0 possible to leave ! road = %ort di/ances "u /ress or = ! sake ( /rategy4 ,cavalry cont9ually did s = great /ret*es1 & infantry c\ld d s occasionally4 ,b a bridge act$ l a magnet4 ,! def5ce ( a bridge 0 ! def5ce ( a po9t :i* an army 9 =ce 0 always compell$ to use1 & ! t]m 8bridge head0--t is1 ! hold+ ( ! space on ! fur!r side ( ! bridge1 ?us comm&+ ! passage--is an example ( its p]man5t milit>y function4 ,a bridge 01 = ! same reason1 a natural place ( toll4 ,m]*&ise _h to use x1 & ! same requirem5t ( cont9ual repair :i* (t5 entail$ a p]man5t po/ at a bridge gave ! opportunity = us+ t po/ = ! rais+ ( taxation4 ,all ?r\gh ! end ( ! ,roman ,empire & ! ,d>k & ,middle ,ages ?is function ( ! bridge is mo/ prom95t4 iv ,b mo/ important ( all ! effects ( ! bridge is its creation ( a nodal po9t1 t is1 a knot or cross+ ( ways4 ,! bridge effects ?is 9 two fa%ions3 fir/ly by t t5d5cy to a conv]g5ce ( roads ^u ! bridge :i* ,i h j not$1 & secondly1 & mu* m important1 by ! transv]se ( ! bridge & ! riv]4 ,a riv] is also a high road if x is 9 any way navigable4 ,!re=e1 :]ev] a l& road crosses a riv] & e/abli%es a bridge y get a crossways ( communications4 ,at su* a po9t1 :]e _m av5ues ( approa* meet1 & :5ce opportunities ( travel to diff]5t places radiate1 y h :at is call$ 9 political geography a ,nodal ,po9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,icknield ,,/reet 9 ! ,ox=d%ire ,*ilt]ns ,n[1 ! nodal po9t is ( su* importance t x m]its p>ticul> att5tion4 ,! nodal po9t1 especially if x is e/abli%$ by a bridge1 has two great functions 9 hi/ory4 ,x det]m9es ! /rategy ( campaigns 7& alt]s ev5 ! tactics ( actions71 x det]m9es ! gr[? ( t[ns4 ,x has be5 said t ,london 0 made by its bridge4 ,:e!r !re 0 a settlem5t 7!re probably 07 ^u ! gravelly hill :i* approa*$ ! riv] f ! nor?1 be=e any bridge 0 ?r[n across ! tidal ,?ames1 we d n "k2 b x is c]ta9 t ! ?r[+ ( ?is bridge gave ,london its opportunity = developm5t1 & :at is true ( ,london is true ( ,p>is1 ( ,r\51 ( ,mae/ri*t1 ( ,cologne1 & ( tw5ty o!r great urban c5tres 9 our civilization4 ,/rategically1 a comm&] hold+ a nodal po9t reta9s ! opportunity ( mov+ along any "o ( _m l9es ( movem5t1 & at ! same "t d5ies ! opportunity ( junction to 8 enemies4 ,to put x 9 its simple/ =m1 a comm&] hold+ a nodal po9t & conc5trat$ !re c prev5t ! conc5tration ( two fractions ( 8 enemy along any two roads radiat+ f t nodal po9t4 ,he c himself m>* up ea* ( ^! consecutively & defeat ! two fractions ( 8 enemy 9 detail4 ,t is ! simple/ possible case1 & x c be develop$ into any am\nt ( detail & intricacy4 ,! bridge is ! po9t :]e ! comm]ce up & d[n /ream crosses ! road-comm]ce transv]sely to ! riv]-comm]ce1 & ! nodal po9t ( ! bridge e/abli%es a m>ket4 ,b t nodal po9t has o!r *>act]s ev5 m important to civilian life4 ,x creates a po9t ( trans-%ipm5t1 :]e goods mu/ be transf]r$ f ! wat] vehicle to ! l& vehicle4 ,9 _! transf]5ce y h ! political opportunity ( exam9ation & toll1 &1 if necess>y1 int]ception2 & y also h1 ( c\rse1 ! :ole ( ! middleman bus9ess ( deal+ ) & pass+ ?r\gh ! goods--y h ! depot & ! w>eh\s+ & all ! adjuncts ( a built-up comm]cial c5tre & a m>ket4 ,b ! bridge z a nodal po9t has yet ano!r occasional function :i* has m>k$ all hi/ory4 ,t function x ex]cises :5 x is ! l[e/ bridge ^u a great navigable riv]4 ,su* a bridge--! bridge ( ,rome = in/ance1 ! bridge ( ,london1 ! bridge ( ,gl\ce/]1 ! bridge ( ,newca/le1 etc4--has be5 ! mak+ ( inl& ports4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t be=e ! adv5t ( ! railway1 or at any rate be=e ! organization ( rapid & easy road travel1 x 0 to ! int]e/ ( sea-borne trade to p5etrate into ! he>t ( ! c\ntry z f> z possible4 ,y avoid$ ! co/ ( trans-%ipm5t1 & y _h a mu* *eap] means ( conveyance ?an any?+ t w5t by l&4 ,b ! fir/ p]man5t bridge across a wat]way block$ ! fur!r progress up-/ream ( sea-borne traffic4 ,!re=e !re 0 a t5d5cy to keep ?is fir/ bridge well up-/ream4 ,fur!r1 :5ev] x 0 made1 x t5d$ to create a glut ( traffic at ?is po9t ( section4 ,! c>goes f ! sea came "h & c\ld g no fur!r1 & ?is la/ function ( ! bridge is p]haps ( all its hi/orical functions ! mo/ important4 ,ev5 :]e a riv] is v rapid1 z ! ,tib]1 ! fir/ bridge has "s effect4 ,:]e x is tidal x is1 ( c\rse1 z 9 ! cases we h j quot$1 ( ! greate/ effect1 & usually on ! great tidal wat]ways ! fir/ bridge w be f\nd n inde$ at ! limit ( ! tide1 = !re ! wat] w\ld be too %all[1 b 9 ! la/ rea*es4 ,!re are cases 7,ro*e/] is "o7 :]e ! road has prov$ m important ?an ! /ream1 :]e a bridge 0 impos$ v l[ d[n 9 ! tideway1 b x has !re fulfill$ ! same function ( creat+ a m>ket & a t[n4 ,!re are cases 7,antw]p1 ,bordeaux1 & ,philadelphia are examples7 :]e a secure h>b\r & good :>fage made ! inl& m>ket & t[n 9 ! abs5ce ( su* an ob/acle z ! fir/ bridge2 b 9 ! great] numb] ( navigable riv]s1 ev5 9 s n>r[ a /ream z t ( ,seville1 ! bridge makes ! port & ! t[n1 z "o c see by add+ to ! examples already giv5 ,nantes1 ,montreuil1 ,glasg[1 etc4 ,!re is a little note on ! cross+ ( wat] c\rses :i* is curi\s & int]e/+ 9 ! hi/ory ( roads4 ,s9ce ! cross+ is always an ef=t1 or1 9 economic t]ms1 an exp5se1 to be avoid$ z mu* z possible1 ! ,road naturally avoids a d\ble cross+1 b1 on ! o!r h&1 an isl& is a /ronghold1 & ev5 a p59sula :]e two riv]s meet is a pot5tial /ronghold4 ,!re=e y h 9 ! hi/ory ( all e>ly ,european roads a sort ( dilemma1 ! fir/ travell]s debat+1 z x 71 :e!r ! occasion 7 suffici5tly important to w>rant ! d\ble cross+ ( ! /ream4 ,at ,read+1 ,lyons1 ,melun1 notably at ,p>is1 & 9 doz5s ( o!r places1 ! pres5ce ( ! /ronghold made x wor? :ile = ! ,road to visit ! place 9 spite ( ! d\ble cross+1 :e!r to an isl& or to ! meet+ ( two /reams4 ,b 9 mu* ! majority ( cases ! ,road 0 deflect$ f its simple/ l9e to a po9t bel[ ! meet+ ( two /reams s z to avoid ! d\ble ef=t1 & ! occasion expla9s _m a deflection :i* o!rwise w\ld seem to h no reason4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,passability ,! ,*oice ( ,soils3 ,foll[+ ! ,gravel or ! ,*alk3 ,conditions 9 ! ,s\? & ,ea/3 ,! ,ob/acle ( ,gradi5t3 ,! ,e>ly ,vogue ( ,/eep ,gradi5ts 8,! ,o!r ,side ( ! ,hill03 ,! ,mod]n ,importance ( ,gradi5t3 ,passes or ,gaps 9 ,hill ,c\ntry4 i ,to ! next physical factor modify+ ! =mula ( ! ,road we h giv5 ! "n3 ,,diff]5ces ,,( ,,surface ,,o!r ,,?an ,,m>% ,,& ,,wat] ,,c\rses4 ,! diff]5ces ( surface o!r ?an m>% or wat] c\rses affect ! trajectory ( a road 9 sev]al ways3 fir/ & orig9ally 9 its passability to human travel on foot or ) bea/s ( burd51 or lat] ) :eel$ vehicles1 & "h ! two factors 7 h>dness & ev5ness4 ,b !re 0 a great contra/ 9 ! ob/acles ( ! ,nor? & ! ,s\? ( our civilization4 ,9 ! ,nor?1 & especially 9 ,engl&1 damp 0 ! enemy4 ,= a trajectory to be us$ 9 all seasons & 9 all wea!r s& & *alk at once sugge/$ !mselves4 ,clay c be us$ only 9 ! dry season4 ,! v>i\s soils det]m9$ ! fir/ trackway & impose !mselves visibly ^u ! map ( our olde/ roads4 ,= in/ance1 ! road d[n ! upp] ,wey to ,f>nham is1 9 its olde/ =m1 a delib]ate pick+ out ( long gravelly /ret*es 9 ! b$ ( ! valley4 ,on a geological map y c trace ?is road pick+ its way f gravel pat* to gravel pat* almo/ z a man crosses a /ream by /epp+ /ones4 ,x leaps1 z x 71 f "o gravelly /ret* to ano!r1 & 9 ea* keeps to ! gravel z long z x c4 ,= ! same reason a primitive road w foll[ ! ,s\?1 or sunny1 side ( a wood or ( a ridge ( l&1 s t ! surface may dry z soon z possible aft] ra94 ,:5 ! use ( artificial mat]ial = ! surface ( ! track became common ?is "q ( quality ( soil 0 some:at modifi$1 b its ess5tial 0 reta9$2 = :at made bad go+ 79 ! ,nor?1 & p>ticul>ly 9 ,brita97 be+ heavy soil1 t same k9d ( l&1 :i* int]f]$ ) foot or pack-horse travel1 swall[$ up mat]ial4 ,x 0 a less grave inconv5i5ce ?an 9 ! times be=e artificial mat]ial 0 us$1 b x 0 /ill an inconv5i5ce express$ 9 ! %ape ( exp5se2 & ne>ly all ! orig9al trackways cont9u$ to take acc\nt ( ?is factor long aft] ! use ( artificial mat]ial _h be5 introduc$4 ,! e>lie/ ( all1 ( c\rse1 foll[ ! dry ridges1 & 9 p>ticul> ! *alk4 ,"o may say1 ) slight exagg]ation1 t ! *alk 0 ! ess5tial factor 9 ! build+ up ( ,briti% communications be=e ! ,roman civilization came4 ,if y take a geological map ( ,engl& y may see ! great *alk ridges radiat+ 9 a sort ( :orl f a c5tre 9 ,salisbury ,pla91 & provid+ dry go+ to ! ,*annel1 ! ,/raits ( ,dov]1 & across ! ,?ames valley at ,/reatley "r on to ,norfolk4 ,ano!r example ( a road tak+ advantage ( dryness ( surface is ! /raight l9e lead+ to ,l9coln nor?w>ds1 ev]y:]e foll[+ t peculi> isolat$ ridge1 ) l[-ly+ gr\nd ^u ! left & m>% ^u ! "r4 ,ano!r v /rik+ "o is ! ,hog's ,back1 :]e f "o l[-ly+ po9t to ano!r 7,guild=d to ,f>nham7 ! primitive track delib]ately rises & foll[s ! summit ( a high hill betwe5 r ?an ! wett] gr\nd ^u ! slopes1 ?\gh "h !re is an alt]native ^u ! s\!rn1 or sunny1 slope :]e ! trackway leads ?r\gh to ,/4 ,ca!r9e's ,*apel4 ,?is is a mod]n example ( ! way 9 :i* a primitive track imposes itself ^u po/]ity4 ,to ?is day y\r motori/ climbs up t ro( ( a h\se out ( ,guild=d & goes d[n ! /eep on to ,f>nham because c\ntless g5]ations ago 8 ance/or c\ld only be c]ta9 ^u t height ( dry gr\nd4 ,9 ! ,s\? 7:i* does n conc]n ?is essay7 ! great ob/acle 9 ! way ( soil is n m>%1 b s&4 ,t is some?+ ( :i* we h "h no exp]i5ce1 b ! tracks ( ne>ly all ,we/]n ,islam are dep5d5t ^u x4 ,drift s& is n s impassable z m>% by any means1 b x is t]rible go+4 ,nor? & ,s\? ( ,atlas ! k ( h[ ?is k9d ( soil may be avoid$ is half ! bus9ess ( e/abli%+ a primitive road4 ,an int]e/+ case ( surface 7b "o :i* is r>ely met ) 9 ?is c\ntry7 common 9 dry c\ntries :]e ! r>e ra9fall is sudd5 & int5se1 & :]e tempor>y wat] c\rses c>ve out ! friable soil1 is ! inconv5i5ce due to :at are call$ 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,ea/ 8nullahs0--t is1 ! dry b$s ( su* wat] c\rses or ! sudd5 depressions made by :at 7 =m]ly wat] c\rses n[ dri$ up ?r\gh a *ange ( climate4 ,! banks ( ^! are (t5 s /eep & _! dep? s consid]able t ! mak+ ( a pla91 /raight trajectory across su* a c\ntry w\ld1 ev5 "u mod]n conditions1 n be wor? ! lab\r exp5d$4 ,x w\ld mean cont9ual bridg+1 or cont9ual embankm5t4 ,"o ( ! effects ( ?is type ( surface is ! inord9ate w9d+ ( all ! roads1 & ev51 alt]natively1 ! abs5ce ( roads p]p5dicul> to ! fall ( ! l&1 & ! e/abli%m5t ( communications along ! l9e ( fall r ?an across x4 ,"o c see ?is v conspicu\sly 9 ,morocco1 :]e !re are :ole di/ricts1 a c\ple ( days' m>* across1 ! trails ( :i* are det]m9$ by ?is accid5t4 ,a special example ( ! same k9d ( ?+ is to be f\nd 9 any hill range :]e a numb] ( n>r[ spurs project t[>ds ! pla94 ,! ,road h>dly ev] runs p>allel to ! range across ^! spurs4 ,x ne>ly always runs d[n ! valleys or along ! pla9 at _! foot1 & t al?\gh !re be1 z !re usually are1 9 ea* valley c5tres ( population :i* ne$ to be l9k$ up ) ! neighb\r+ p>allel valleys4 ii ,,gradi5ts4 ,! ob/acle ( gradi5t ! 8m9imum ( v]tical ef=t0 is ! mo/ evid5t ( all ! factors :i* modify ! trajectory ( a road2 yet x is1 ^u ! :ole1 ! mo/ complex4 ,to det]m9e ! m9imum ( ef=t y h to f9d a =mula consi/+ ( _m factors1 "s ( :i* ,i h already enum]at$ 9 ! op5+ words ( ?is essay4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 y h to consid] ! av]age nature ( ! travel to be s]v$4 ,! ,road us$ by m5 on foot )\t burd5s1 by m5 on foot ) burd5s1 by pack animals1 by :eel$ vehicles1 etc41 mu/ con=m itself1 on ! :ole1 to ! lea/ gradi5t useful to ^? :o travel by x1 b t 8on ! :ole0 lea/ gradi5t is a factor by no means easy to det]m9e4 ,x dep5ds n only ^u ! nature ( ! in/rum5ts ( travel1 b ^u habit1 ^u vig\r1 & to "s ext5t ^u surface4 ,x dep5ds also on ! proportionate use ( ! ,road4 ,y _c sacrifice n9ety-n9e travell]s to ! special weakness ( "o4 ,!re is also ! "q ( durability4 ,a primitive road1 tak+ a v /eep gradi5t1 w be m durable ?an "o tak+ a less] gradi5t r\nd ! slopes ( a hill & subject to falls f above & to degradation d[n ! slope bel[2 x w ne$ less upkeep1 = x is always %ort]--& ?is la/ consid]ation expla9s :at w\ld o!rwise be inexplicable3 ! extraord9>ily /eep gradi5ts :i* primitive roads & ev5 ! roads ( a high civilization w take4 ,"o ( ! be/ examples ( ?is 9 ,engl& is ! behavi\r ( ! ,fosse ,way 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,rad/ock 9 ,som]set4 ,"h ! orig9al road 0 presumably a prehi/oric track1 b we "k t x 0 c>efully remodell$ by ! high ,roman civilization4 ,x mu/ h be5 us$ = ! great mass ( travel dur+ f\r hundr$ ye>s f ! fir/ occupation ( ! ,we/ ( ,engl& by ! ,romans ab\t ,a4,d4 #ej to ! breakd[n ab\t #dej1 & "r on into ! ,d>k ,ages--t is1 = n less ?an "o ?\s& ye>s4 ,dur+ ! fir/ half ( ?is "t 7& especially dur+ ! fir/ ?ird7 x _h to c>ry ! travel ( a v full1 well-develop$1 & complex society to "o ( ! mo/ important c5tres ( its weal?1 ! t[n ( ,ba?4 ,yet ! road goes up ! mo/ a/oni%+ gradi5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,sket* ,,iii ,someh[ or o!r1 ^! gradi5ts 7 normally us$--b x is a puzzle to say h[4 ,! mod]n road has frankly ab&on$ ! ef=t1 & takes a long sweep r\nd bo? sides ( ! valley at a gradi5t ( ab\t #a 9 #ab4 ,ev5 s1 x is q /eep en\gh = our mod]n me?ods ( travel4 ,! "q ( gradi5t is complicat$1 aga91 by ano!r v>iable :i* makes ! solution ( ! problem mu* m intricate ?an ! discov]y ( m9imum ef=t ^u a p>ticul> gradi5t4 ,y h to consid] n only ! uphill or d[nhill ^u a giv5 slope1 b ! type ( fur!r uphill & d[nhill to :i* y\r road1 once e/abli%$ on t slope1 is lead+ y4 ,x is n en\gh to det]m9e y\r be/ =mula "u su* & su* conditions ( travel = ov]com+ "o side ( ! ob/acle4 ,y h also to ask y\rself :e!r1 hav+ got y\r be/ uphill road1 y may n h l$ ! travell] to an impossible position on ! fur!r side4 ,extreme cases ( ?is "o (t5 sees 9 ! ,jura range1 :]e ! hills are %ap$ l waves 9 a /orm3 a /eep esc>pm5t ^u ! ea/]n side1 v difficult to g up or d[n1 & an easy slope ^u ! we/]n4 ,"h y h to balance ! advantage ( y\r gradi5t ^u ! "o side ) ! advantage ( ! gradi5t t y w f9d ^u ! o!r1 &1 ( c\rse1 to direct y\r l9e pr9cipally ) a view to travel on ! m difficult /eep] side4 ,t is :y y (t5 f9d y\rself foll[+ 9 ! ,jura a road :i* goes up ! easy we/]n side by an app>5tly ov]-/eep trajectory3 y wond] :y ! road does n take "s obvi\sly easi] l9e :i* lies bel[ y4 ,! reason y only discov] ^u rea*+ ! summit & see+ ! precipit\s esc>pm5t ov]hang+ ! ea/]n valley--y\r road has made = "s exceptional advantage d[n ?is cliff1 "s cleft1 :i* an easi] advance f ! we/ w\ld n h hit4 ,a balance has to be /ruck betwe5 ! advantage ( gradi5ts on bo? sides ( ! hill1 save 9 ! r>e cases :]e a range 7su* z ! ,vosges7 is symmetrical & gives y equal gradi5ts ^u ei!r slope4 ,t balance is always a matt] ( c>eful calculation4 ,:]e x has be5 br\ght to a f9e art is1 ( c\rse1 9 survey+ = a mod]n railroad1 = !re ! slighte/ diff]5ces ( gradi5t make su* a va/ diff]5ce 9 ! exp5se ( work+ t ! discov]y ( a true m9imum ov] an ob/acle ( hill c\ntry is ( ! fir/ importance4 iii ,!re is h>dly any factor 9 connection ) ! !ory ( ! road :i* ne$s m mat]ial modification z civilization *anges ?an ?is factor ( gradi5t4 ,! %>pe/ contra/ 9 ! :ole ( hi/ory is t :i* ,i h j m5tion$3 t ( ! railroads4 ,m5 sudd5ly f\nd !mselves possess$ ( a new in/rum5t :i* enorm\sly multipli$ _! p[] on ! flat & yet 0 q incapable ( any?+ l ! old gradi5ts4 ,go+ level or on v slight gradi5ts x c\ld give !m travel f> m rapid & inexp5sive ?an any t _h be5 kn[n be=e1 b "o 9 fifty bo!r$ x badly1 "o 9 ?irty 0 :olly unnatural1 & ! exi/+ gradi5ts ( "o 9 t51 eight1 six1 7 out ( ! "q4 ,fur!r1 ! lea/ incl9ation increas$ all difficulties1 & ! addition ( incl9ation produc$ ^! difficulties 9 m ?an a geometrical progression4 ,! result 0 ! revolution ^: effects we see ab\t u ev]y:]e3 ! tunnel1 ! cutt+1 ! embankm5t4 ,to-day1 a c\ple ( g5]ations aft] t revolution1 !re comes ! new problem ( ! int]nal-combu/ion eng9e1 :]e ! gradi5t aga9 appe>s 9 a new light4 ,! motor takes gradi5ts f> /eep] ?an ! rail4 ,its difficulties are n increas$ 9 ! same ratio4 ,b x _c always deal ) ! horse road4 ,lynton & ,lynm\? & _! ,devon%ire valley =m p]haps ! be/ example ( ?is 9 ,great ,brita94 ,y h "h t]rible gradi5ts :i* 7 j possible = ! horse vehicle & are h>dly possible = ! motor vehicle1 & y h ! new road r\nd by ,wat]smeet attempt+ p>tially1 b n entirely1 to solve ! problem4 ,a special case 9 ?is g5]al category ( gradi5ts1 & "o mu* m complex ?an appe>s at fir/ sight1 is ! case ( ! pass1 or gap4 ,m5 h always naturally made = any not* 9 a l9e ( hills to save !mselves ! ef=t ( high] climb+4 ,x began ) foot travel1 & has cont9u$ "r on ?r\gh\t ! hi/ory ( ! ,road4 ,9 high m\nta9s provid$ ) l[ passes ! use ( a saddle 9 ! range 0 obvi\s & (t5 necess>y2 b !re 7 disadvantages ev5 9 t app>5tly unexceptionable rule4 ,"o 0 ! "q j dealt ) ( ! d\ble slope3 ! consid]ation ( ! o!r side--! mo/ obvi\s pass f ! "o side did n necess>ily lead to ! be/ desc5t ^u ! o!r4 ,ano!r 0 ! con=mation ( _m ranges1 :i* is su* t ! approa* to ! ridge is mu* /eep] at ! summit ( a 8col0 or pass ?an x is by tracks to "o side4 ,?is is a p>adox :i* p liv+ 9 easy hill-l&s h difficulty 9 appreciat+4 ,! ,alps especially %[ roads :i* puzzle u 7:o are ( a g5tl] l&scape7 :5 we foll[ !m3 yet ! pr9ciple is simple & dep5d5t ^u ! geological =mation ( mo/ new m\nta9 ranges1 :i* pres5t a h>d core1 =m+ _! c5tral ridge4 ,! s(t] gr\nd we>s away on ei!r side ( ! valley3 ! ridge rema9s4 ,! effect is t a direct approa* to ! not* 9 ! range w\ld give impossible gradi5ts 9 ! la/ few hundr$ y>ds1 & !re=e ! road mu/ gradually curve r\nd by a side ( ! valley4 ,a ?ird exceptional case is t ( trajectories :]e ! m9imum ( ef=t is only to be f\nd by go+ "r ov] ! v summit ( ! highe/ hill 9 y\r neighb\rhood4 ,la/ly1 !re is ! curi\s case ( a pass :]e x is to ! advantage ( ! road to avoid ! l[e/ passage ( ! range & to take a l9e to "o side above x4 ,z examples ( ^! la/ two p>adoxical po9ts ,i may quote ! pass ( ,sall5t 9 ! ,pyr5ees & ! exce$+ly important road f ! valley ( ! ,moselle to ! valley ( ,bel=t 9 ! ,vosges4 ,9 ! case ( ! pass ( ,sall5t !re 0 an obvi\s not* 9 ! range1 :i* 0 us$ f ! v e>lie/ times till j ! o!r day4 ,x 0 ?r\gh ?is t ! armies ( ! ,moors p\r$ 9 ! eigh? c5tury = _! attempt$ conque/ ( ,europe1 :5 !y invad$ ,france & ne>ly rea*$ ! ,loire4 ,s late z )9 liv+ memory x 0 ! regul> track f ! valley ( ! ,gallego to t ( ,gabas4 ,n[1 ! mod]n road1 aft] c>eful survey1 has be5 con/ruct$ to cross ! m\nta9 summit some:at to ! we/1 & a good ?ree hundr$ feet high] ?an ! old pass4 ,:y 0 ?is8 ,x 0 because ! not* ( ,sall5t _h a v /eep approa* 9 ! la/ few hundr$ y>ds ^u ei!r side1 & ! m9imum ( ef=t1 at any rate = :eel$ vehicles ( ! mod]n type1 0 f\nd 9 tak+ a less] gradi5t to "o side1 al?\gh x involv$ a mu* high] climb4 ,! case ( ! road f ! ,moselle valley to ,bel=t 9 ! ,vosges is ev5 m rem>kable1 = "o w\ld h said at fir/ ask+ t no su* case c\ld exi/3 "o w\ld h said t a m9imum ( ef=t c\ld nev] be rea*$ by go+ ov] ! v highe/ summit 9 y\r neighb\rhood1 b x is s :5 y deal ) :at ,i w call a 8/>0 m\nta91 z w be se5 at once f ! foll[+ elem5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,sket* ,,iv ,"h ! cont\rs are su* t _h ! road deflect$ to ! we/ or ! ea/ 9 ord] to avoid ! highe/ summit1 x w\ld h be5 compell$ ei!r to a v long det\r 7involv+ 9 any case ne>ly z high a climb7 or to a s]ies ( /eep & pr(\nd ups & d[ns ov] ! spurs ( ! m\nta94 ,! l9e tak5 f ! ,moselle to ,bel=t on ! o!r side goes )9 a few feet ( ! highe/ po9t on ! hill1 & is yet ! l9e ( lea/ ef=t f "o po9t to ! o!r4 ,x is an excell5t example ( ! way 9 :i* ! =mula ( m9imum ef=t1 :5 x is ?\ght out1 may be q diff]5t f :at m]e habit w\ld h produc$4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,ob/acle ,,( ,,vegetation ,! ,special ,exp5diture due to ,=e/3 ,roads :i* ,skirt ,woodl&s3 ,roads :i* h be5 ,deflect$ by ,=e/3 ,proximity ( ,mat]ial z a ,f9al ,ma9 ,cause ,modify+ ! ,trajectory ( a ,road3 ,co/ ( ,transport+ ,mat]ial & its ,effects 9 ,anci5t & ,mod]n ,times4 i ,! ob/acle ( vegetation1 :i* is our next cause modify+ ! trajectory ( a road1 is two-fold4 ,!re is ! ob/acle pres5t$ by =e/s or p]man5t vegetation 7:i* includes 9 "s climates v high grasses7 & ! ob/acle pres5t$ by int]mitt5t gr[?s4 ,we are n1 9 ?is c\ntry & 9 mod]n times1 well acqua9t$ ) ! ob/acle ( vegetation to a road & ) ! modification ( trajectory :i* x imposes4 ,we h no l>ge =e/s left3 we h1 9 common ) all ,nor!rn ,europe1 no exub]ance ( gr[?4 ,! d5se population & v high road mileage ( mod]n ,engl& h put ?is factor 9 ! developm5t ( communication out ( sight1 & x is s unrecogniz$ t ! m5tion ( x "h may seem sup]flu\s4 ,b x is /ill a grave elem5t 9 ! calculation ( a road ev5 9 ! ,european _w1 & a grav] "o 9 ! new c\ntries4 ,& x has _h its "p 9 fram+ our own sy/em 9 its e>li] /ages4 ,9 damp tropical c\ntries x is all important1 & ev5 9 temp]ate climates :]e l>ge =e/s exi/ x has its place4 7a7 ,=e/4 ,two special exp5ditures atta* to ?is ob/acle3 ,fir/ ! ef=t ( cle>+ a way1 second ! ef=t ( ma9t5ance1 & p>ticul>ly ?r\gh ! effect ( wood ^u surface4 ,! ef=t ( cle>+1 always an exp5se1 made ! =e/ 9 v e>ly times an insup]able ob/acle to any great or consid]able road4 ,! =e/ _h tracks1 b ! ma9 road 0 compell$ to skirt ! d5s] woodl&1 or at ! lea/ to take a tortu\s trajectory = ! advantage ( natural cle>+s4 ,) ! developm5t ( civilization t difficulty disappe>$1 & x disappe>$ e>ly1 al?\gh ,i c call to m9d no broad primitive track ?r\gh any d5se woodl&4 ,! ,roman roads hew$ _! way ?r\gh =e/s :]e x 0 necess>y1 & f\nd 9 ! value ( ! timb] fell$ an economic comp5sation = ! ef=t made4 ,b ev5 ) !m1 & ev5 ) mod]n roads1 x rema9s true t ! =e/ gov]ns & modifies road con/ruction4 ,!re is case aft] case :]e a ,roman road1 & ev5 a mod]n road1 w skirt a =e/ r ?an be at ! ef=t ( ov]com+ ! ob/acle3 = in/ance1 ! case ( ! =e/ ( ,mormal 9 ,nor!rn ,france4 ,"h ! ma9 ,roman road f ! c5tre ( ,nor!rn ,gaul to ! cross+s ( ! ,rh9e cuts along ! edge ( ! great wood l a knife1 ) no gr[? on its we/]n side4 ,fur!r1 cause & effect react+ on "o ano!r1 ! lack ( roads prev5t+ cle>+1 & ! lack ( cle>+ keep+ d[n habitation & s ways1 !re is no great =e/ possess+ a sy/em ( roads any:]e 9 ,europe4 ,all consid]able /ret*es ( woodl&1 :]e agriculture or o!r economic ef=t has n cle>$ !m1 h a m9imum ( roadway4 ,9 our nor!rn climate1 ! l>g] /uff once fell$1 upkeep is n a grave economic matt]4 ,! use ( artificial mat]ial1 :i* comes 9 at ! v fir/ /ages ( road-mak+1 r5d]s ! problem "h ev5 less important4 ,b 9 o!r climates1 & p>ticul>ly 9 ! tropics1 x becomes ! dom9at+ factor4 ,!re are :ole di/ricts--z1 = in/ance1 on ! ,amazon bas91 or1 aga91 9 ,c5tral & ,we/ ,africa--:]e ! problem ( communication consi/s n 9 ! cutt+ ( ! orig9al track1 exp5sive z t is1 b 9 its ma9t5ance2 & 9 ! great] "p ( ^? di/ricts ev5 mod]n civilization1 ) its imm5se mat]ial advantages1 & ) its /rong economic inducem5t to ! transport ( tropical mat]ial1 has be5 unable or unwill+ to make & ma9ta9 =e/ roads1 at any rate = ord9>y :eel$ traffic4 ,) ! railways x is o!rwise4 ,! economic ef=t requir$ = ! con/ruction ( ! track is su* t ! add$ exp5se ( cle>+ ! =e/ is a mu* small] fraction ( ! :ole1 & ! type ( b$ :i* has to be e/abli%$ = ! track p>tially solves 7b only p>tially7 ! "q ( upkeep4 ,ev5 ! railway c be ov]come by ! vig\r ( tropical vegetation1 b x has a bett] economic basis 9 ! d5sely wood$ c\ntry ?an has ! ,road4 ,"o ( ! mo/ curi\s facts 9 ! hi/ory ( roads due to ! ob/acle ( wood is ! deflection ( ! ,roman ,road ?r\gh ?is cause aft] ! decl9e ( civilization4 ,"o c f9d _m in/ances ( ?is ev5 9 ,engl&1 light z is ! af=e/+ ( ?is c\ntry1 & small z are ! di/ricts affect$4 ,?us ! ,great ,nor? ,road mak+ = ,/am=d is a broad1 unmi/akable way rais$ high above ! neighb\r+ c\ntry1 & look+ l "s great d\ble ramp>t1 f ! cross+ ( ! ,well& = miles to ! nor? & we/4 ,x approa*es a small pat* ( wood on a hill & disappe>s4 ,x rema9s lo/ = a mile aft] its de/ruction by ! wood1 & is n f\nd aga9 9 any?+ l its e>li] %>pness ( outl9e till ,/am=d is rea*$4 ,t is because ! upkeep ?r\gh ! wood became too difficult 9 ! ,d>k ,ages1 & m5 turn$ ! ob/acle by develop+ a new road r\nd x4 ,ano!r v cle> example is to be f\nd on ! ,/ane ,/reet nor? ( ,e>?am1 :]e ! great ,nore ,wood ?r\gh :i* ! ,roman road 0 driv5 usurp$ x 9 lat] times1 ov]grew x1 & deflect$ ! mod]n road r\nd by ,duncton ,hill4 ,we h "h probably n s mu* a case ( keep+ d[n ! new gr[? z ( ! wetness ( ! track :5 artificial mat]ial ceas$ to be us$1 & ( ! difficult go+ ?us made betwe5 ! trees4 ,! occasional fall ( trees across ! road left unremov$1 & ! dang] 9 su* times f any close cov] mu/ n be neglect$4 ,b1 :atev] ! cause1 woodl& p]petually deflects a ,roman road aft] ! breakd[n ( ! old civilization4 ,x deflects x almo/ z (t5 z does ! m>% ( a riv] valley4 7b7 ,! ob/acle to ! mak+ ( a road due to int]mitt5t vegetation is "o :i* plays no "p 9 our sy/em1 & is unkn[n to our climatic conditions4 ,nor is x ( any great effect save 9 a few special highly *>act]iz$ regions ( ! _w4 ,! track1 once e/abli%$1 c commonly keep d[n ev5 ! riot ( spr+ vegetation 9 op5 l&4 ,su* exceptions z !re are1 due to ! exceptional developm5t ( grasses1 affect no "p ( ! _w :]e communications ne$ high developm5t4 ,! factor exi/s1 b ne$s no m ?an a m5tion4 ii ,! la/ ma9 cause modify+ ! trajectory ( a road is ! relative proximity ( mat]ial = its con/ruction1 us+ ! ^w 8proximity0 9 ! wid] s5se to include all economic ef=t3 :at to-day we call ! 8*eapness0 ( ! mat]ial4 ,ev5 9 ! v simple/ & mo/ primitive =m ( roadwork mat]ial ent]s4 ,!re is always ! necessity ( h>d5+ "s bit ( s(t gr\nd or ( smoo?+ "s bit ( unev5ness1 & f ! beg9n+ ( travel y h _h ! transportation ( mat]ial to ! e/abli%$ road = ! improvem5t ( its surface1 = ! bridg+ ( its wat] ob/acles or floor+ ( =ds1 = ! mak+ ( its causeways ov] m>%es4 ,9 :at may be call$ ! middle p]iod ( road con/ruction--t is1 9 p]iods ( high civilisation1 b civilisation n provid$ ) mod]n in/rum5ts--! imm$iate neighb\rhood ( mat]ial introduc$ a consid]able modify+ factor into ! trajectory ( a road4 ,?is 0 (t5 mask$1 f ! fact t ! same soil :i* provid$ good go+ & !re=e develop$ e>ly tracks usually also provid$1 9 ! nature ( ?+s1 good mat]ial = h>d5+ ! surface1 = ! build+ ( causeways1 & ev5 = ! ?r[+ ( bridges4 ,x 0 also mask$ by ! fact t ! bridge1 if x 7 to be built ( wood1 c\ld get its mat]ial f a consid]able di/ance1 z ! riv] 0 its av5ue ( supply4 ,b ?\gh transport ( mat]ial has gone ?r\gh a revolution 9 ! la/ hundr$ ye>s1 & mat]ial = road-mak+ is n[ br\ght half across ! _w 7e4g4 ,colonial wood pavem5t71 yet ! way neighb\rhood ( mat]ial tells c /ill be se5 ev]y:]e ^u ! road map ( ,europe4 ,?us ! abs5ce ( ma9 roads 9 ! ,f5s = c5turies 0 n only due to ! necessity ( cont9ual artificial "w1 embankm5ts1 & bridges 7?is w\ld n h det]r$ ! ,roman road-mak]s nor ! great ef=t ( ! e>ly ,middle ,ages f attempt+ a full network ( roads74 ,x 0 r due to ! abs5ce ( h>d mat]ial4 ,& y h ! same ph5om5on 9 ! ,l&es ( ,s\?-we/]n ,france1 :]e to ?is day only "o great road s]ves an imm5se di/rict ^: loose & s&y soil fails to provide a *eap & suffici5t mat]ial4 ,! travell] 9 ,holl& notices ! same ?+3 "h are roads ultimately dep5d+ ^u brick pav+ & n>r[1 :]e1 _h !re be5 abundant mat]ial available1 !y w\ld h be5 broad1 = !y _h to c>ry a great deal ( traffic4 ,! alt]native wat] traffic by _! side 0 l>gely develop$ by ! difficulty ( mak+ ! road4 ,! ,romans f\ght ?is difficulty ) s+ul> t5acity4 ,!y made all _! great public con/ructions to la/1 z x 71 = ev]2 & !y made _! roads ) su* a /rong political & milit>y object t !y w\ld n be det]r$ save1 z 9 ! ,f5l&s1 by ! grave/ difficulties 9 ! obta9+ ( mat]ial4 ,?us 9 su* ( _! roads z />t any:]e ne> a sea-bea* ( %+le y w f9d !m us+ t mat]ial up-c\ntry = miles1 & !y w make deep f\ndations = roads t h to cross clay1 us+1 sometimes1 h>d /one br\ght ov] a c\ple ( hundr$s ( miles ( sea & "s ?irty ( l& travel4 ,x is a difficulty :i* has n disappe>$ to-day4 ,x has be5 v greatly less5$ by mod]n means ( transport1 b x /ill appe>s4 ,we see x ?r\gh\t mod]n ,europe3 = in/ance1 9 ! v>y+ surfaces ( ! diff]5t soils4 ,! ideal surface ( brok5 granite is n ne>ly univ]sal ev5 9 ,engl&1 z "o w\ld ?9k mod]n transport w\ld h made x long ago1 ov] su* a small area ) su* masses ( granite close at h& & accessible by sea4 ,! relative co/ ( transport /ill makes div]sity ( surface ! rule4 ,"o c make a sort ( economic b>omet] bas$ on ! use ( granite4 ,x ext5ds f>!r & f>!r f ! s\rces ( supply z public weal? exp&s1 & rec$es t[>ds !m z public weal? dim9i%es4 ,we h a fir/-class example ( ?is 9 ! case ( fl9t v]sus granite4 ,fl9t has its advantages ov] all o!r mat]ial 9 h>d5+ a roadway4 ,x is at once h>d & easily brok53 x is sup]ficial1 & !re=e *eap3 x is abundant 9 supply 9 ! di/ricts :]e x is us$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x has ! grave/ possible disadvantage = mod]n motor traffic1 :i* is its effect ^u ! tyres indisp5sable to t traffic4 ,"o c\ld draw a graph1 ,i ?9k1 to cov] ! la/ t5 ye>s %[+ ! fluctuations ( ?is mat]ial & granite ^u ! ma9 roads ( ,s\!rn ,engl&1 & ! curve w\ld foll[ ! opportunities ( supply & ( public exp5diture z affect$ by ! ,great ,w>4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,political ,,influ5ces ,! ,factor ( ,co/ ,result+ 9 ! 8,/rangl+ ( ,communication03 ,conge/ion :i* ,leads to ,decay3 ,a ,great ,mod]n ,problem3 ,! ,compulsory ,acquisition ( ,l&3 ,old ,roads ,s]v+ ,new ,objects4 i ,s f> we h be5 consid]+ ! mat]ial conditions ( ! ,road3 ! physical circum/ances :i* det]m9e its trajectory4 ,b ^! alone d n completely acc\nt = its trace 9 practice or !ory4 ,!re is ano!r category affect+ ?is1 ! political or moral category3 ! v>i\s effects ( society 9 modify+ :at1 b = !m1 w\ld be ! =mula ( lea/ ef=t4 ,^! political causes ( modification are ( less effect ?an ! physical1 b !y m]it a brief m5tion4 ,! political factors modify+ ! trajectory ( a road 7t is1 ! factors due to man's social action & n to mat]ial causes alone7 are ?ree 9 numb]4 ,fir/ly1 ! factor ( co/--:i* is1 ! economic t5d5cy to avoid z f> z possible ! de/ruction ( old economic values 9 ! mak+ ( a road2 secondly1 legal re/ra9ts aga9/ ! ,road's foll[+ its l9e ( lea/ resi/ance2 & ?irdly1 ! pres5ce ( a v>iety ( objects to be s]v$1 :i* v>iety aga9 int]f]es ) ! simple rule ( f9d+ ! trajectory ( m9imum ef=t4 ,! fir/ ( ^! political factors1 ! factor ( co/1 y f9d ev5 9 ! primitive road1 :i* avoids ! cultivable l& if x c1 or crosses x at ! n>r[e/ po9t available1 & y f9d x at ! o!r end ( ! scale 9 our complicat$ mod]n _w1 :]e ! ,road t5ds to avoid ! de/ruction ( economic values 9 highly conc5trat$ t[n life & ?us keeps n>r[ :5 x is e/abli%$1 & also fails to develop new communications4 ,! effect ( ?is political re/ra9t is con/ant ?r\gh\t hi/ory1 great 9 all p]iods1 b increas+ cumulatively ) ! increase ( weal? & ! economic developm5t ( society4 ,!re foll[s f ?is a mo/ int]e/+ hi/orical ph5om5on1 :i* ,i %all deal ) at great] l5g? 9 my second section--8,! ,engli% ,road0--because x w\ld appe> to be ^u ! po9t ( recurr+ 9 ?is isl&4 ,t ph5om5on is ! 8/rangl+ ( communications0 9 ! old age ( a weal?y /ate f ! v effect ( its weal?4 ,x is a p>adox ( pr(\nd effect :i* y get ov] & ov] aga9 9 ! hi/ory ( great m]cantile cities3 _! weal?--:i* %\ld be _! be/ advantage 9 develop+ & *ang+ communication--cry/allizes !m4 ,_! ways are laid out = a p>ticul> phase ( traffic4 ,! l& on ei!r side ( ! /reets becomes enorm\sly valuable4 ,! traffic *anges 9 "*4 ,new ways are dem&$ by ! new conditions1 b !y are n built because ! comp5sation requir$ = di/urbance t]rifies ! re=m]4 ,!re foll[s a phase dur+ :i* y h heavy conge/ion ( traffic1 & !n1 unless re=m comes 9 "t1 a succe$+ phase ( decay4 ,x is v r>e 9 ! hi/ory ( great urban c5tres to f9d ! problem tackl$ at ! "r mom5t & solv$3 to f9d gov]nors ( suffici5t d>+ to take ! economic plunge4 ,! ,gov]nm5t ( ,napoleon ,,iii did s to "s ext5t 9 ! case ( mod]n ,p>is 7?\gh x left a great numb] ( conge/$ /reets unreliev$71 & !re are n a few mod]n ,italian t[ns :]e simil> action has _h its effect3 = in/ance1 ,b>i4 ,b ! g5]al rule 9 hi/ory is t a city hav+ rea*$ its highe/ po9t ( weal? becomes conge/$1 refuses to accept its only rem$y1 & passes on f conge/ion to decay4 ,h[ /rong ! influ5ce is y may obs]ve 9 "o p>ticul> hi/orical example :]e its influ5ce is m cle>ly discov]$ ?an 9 any o!r--t is1 ! example ( ! ,city ( ,london aft] ! ,great ,fire ( #afff4 ,"h 0 ! f9e/ opportunity = rebuild+ t ev] a ,gov]nm5t _h4 ,x might h done :at 0 done at ,tur9 & laid out a new city altoge!r4 ,two m5 ( g5ius1 ,sir ,william ,temple & ,sir ,*ri/oph] ,wr51 produc$ magnific5t plans ) broad ways1 r\nd places = ! cross+s1 & a c>efully ?\ght-out s*eme ( transv]se /reets4 ,ve/$ int]e/ & economic p]il prov$ too /rong = !m4 ,! city 0 rebuilt on its old l9es ) n>r[ lanes & alleys1 c\rts1 tortu\s trace1 ! m>k ( all :i* x c>ries to-day4 ,!re is a good side to ?is1 ( c\rse4 ,no "o c regret ! cons]vation ( tradition4 ,ev]yone :o knew ! old ,p>is m\rn$ = ! antiquity :i* 0 swept away "u ,napoleon ,,iii1 & ev5 9 our slight *anges 9 mod]n ,london we are %ock$ at ! desecration !y involve4 ,i confess t ,i myself h nev] got ov] ! loss ( ,temple ,b>1 ?\gh ,i only knew x z a *ild4 ,if ?is 7 ! ma9 motive at "w "o w\ld criticize less /rongly ! hesitation to make our t[n /reets meet ! mod]n great *ange4 ,b x is n ! ma9 motive4 ,! ma9 motive is a blund] 9 ! sci5ce ( economics4 ,x is ! idea t ! de/ruction ( a numb] ( imag9>y economic values 78imag9>y0 because !y =m no "p ( ! total real weal? ( ! ,/ate71 to wit1 ! urban site values1 is 9 "s way an exp5diture ( real weal?4 ,s f> is ?is f be+ ! case t !re is p]haps no example 9 all hi/ory ( a conge/$ /reet-sy/em be+ re=m$ )\t ! weal? ( ! city increas+ aft] ! *ange4 ,( ! m9or political que/ions :i* confront u to-day 9 ,engl& ?is /&s 9 ! fir/ rank4 ,if we d n re=m our ma9 roads we %all h&icap ourselves aga9/ our competitors1 b if we d n broad5 & *ange our t[n /reets we may rapidly /rangle & atrophy our mo/ vital c5tres ( comm]ce4 ii ,! effect ( ! second po9t1 legal re/ra9t 9 modify+ ! l9e ( lea/ resi/ance1 w be f\nd "u two =ms3 ! fir/ is negative2 ! lack ( public p[]s ( co]cion = ! acquirem5t ( l& by :i* a road %\ld pass4 ,! second is positive2 legal re/ra9t aga9/ ! road ?r\gh own]%ip or privilege4 ,?is political factor 9 ! modification ( roads1 ! negative & positive effect ( legal re/ra9t1 works 9 an opposite fa%ion to t we h j exam9$4 ,! old]1 ! weal?i]1 ! m complex a civilization ! less ?is modify+ factor is pres5t4 ,?us 9 ,engl& = _m c5turies we _h no compulsory p[] 9 ! h&s ( public au?ority = ! mak+ ( a new road4 ,su* p[]s are1 z we %all see :5 we come to ! /ory ( ! ,engli% ,road1 a comp>atively mod]n developm5t4 ,on ?is acc\nt ! ,road 01 until mod]n legislation br\ght 9 a new sy/em1 compell$ to foll[ exi/+ e/abli%$ ways4 ,x c\ld n ev5 be broad5$1 let alone a new trajectory en=c$2 & ! only compulsory p[]s 9 ! h&s ( ! au?orities 7 ^? p]mitt+ ! levy+ ( lab\r1 & lat] ( money1 = repair4 ,! same is true ( ! second =m ( legal re/ra9t1 ?\gh 9 less] degree4 ,privilege 7su* z ! deflection ( an old l9e ( road by ,act ( ,p>liam5t 9 ord]1 = in/ance1 to add to ! privacy ( a p>k--!re 7 n a few examples ( ?is "s g5]ations ago7 & ! positive legal re/ra9t impos$ by exi/+ "r ( own]%ip obvi\sly decay p>i passu ) ! developm5t ( public p[]s = driv+ new roads or broad5+ exi/+ ones4 ,! ?ird political factor modify+ ! trajectory ( roads is t ( a v>iety ( objects impos$ ^u communications by v>i$ social uses4 ,z society gr[s m complex & at ! same "t weal?i]1 z new c5tres ( population arise1 new =ms ( travel & new ne$s to be satisfi$ by travel1 ! simple =mula ( ! l9e ( lea/ ef=t f "o po9t to ano!r suff]s increas+ modification4 ,y h to consid] n only ! l9e ( lea/ ef=t betwe5 two t]m9als1 b ! due weight to be giv5 to int]v5+ po9ts :i* d n lie precisely ^u t l9e4 ,z a rule1 ( c\rse1 ^! new c5tres ex]cise _! pressure or attraction automatically1 & y get a deflection aris+ n f plan b f gradual necessity4 ,! same ?+ happ5s ) new ne$s 7z1 comm]ce replac+ arms71 b x is curi\s to note h[ sl[ly ! modification takes place4 ,we h a good example ( ?is along ! s\?-ea/]n coa/ ( ,engl&4 ,our ance/ors felt no attraction = liv+ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! sea4 ,to use ! %ore z a recreation & ! sea air z a rem$y is q a mod]n idea4 ,! result is t all ! old roads connect$ ) ! sea z a t]m9al ran p]p5dicul>ly to ! coa/1 unit+ a port to ! inl& c\ntry4 ,!re is n a ma9 road 9 ,engl& ov] "o hundr$ ye>s old & lead+ f ! sea :i* does n />t f a port4 ,= good communication connect+ up a l9e ( ports lat]ally !re 0 little ne$4 ,! result is t to ?is day1 :5 ! s\? coa/ has become "o long l9e ( great wat]+-places1 _m ( :i* are fully develop$ mod]n t[ns on a v l>ge scale1 !re is /ill no complete lat]al communication4 ,_m ( ! port bridges1 z ,i po9t out else:]e 9 ?is essay1 are b rec5tly e/abli%$1 _m sections ( ! l9e are s]v$ by imp]fect1 ill-kept pieces ( road2 9 "o or two places x fails altoge!r 7z r\nd ,selsey71 :ile 9 o!rs x is built up 7z at ,romney ,m>%7 ( pat*work--old lanes runn+ criss-cross to ea* o!r haphaz>d to make ! mod]n l9e4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,reaction ,,( ,,! ,,road ,! ,physical ,effects ( ,roads3 ,! ,way 9 :i* ! ,road ,compels ,communication to foll[ x3 ,! ,=mation ( ,urban ,c5tres & ! ,urban ,habit3 ,! ,spread ( ,ideas by ,means ( ,roads3 ,hi/ory ,deflect$ by ! ,deflection ( ! ,road3 ,! ,example ( ,%rewsbury & ,*e/]3 ,t[ns :i* are ,ma9ta9$ by ,roads3 ,! ,road 9 ,milit>y ,hi/ory3 ,results ( ! ,decay ( ,roads3 ,! ,road z a ,b\nd>y4 i ,s f> we h consid]$ ! orig9 & developm5t ( ! ,road3 t is1 ! effect ( its environm5t ^u ! ,road4 ,we mu/ turn1 9 conclusion1 to ! conv]se aspect1 :i* may be call$ 8,! ,reaction ( ! ,road0--t is1 ! effect ( ! ,road ^u its environm5t4 ,a road once =m$ imm$iately beg9s to affect 9 "s degree ! physical circum/ances surr\nd+ x1 & 9 a v mu* great] degree ! human relations :i* x subs]ves4 ,! physical effects ( ! ,road are few & may be briefly m5tion$4 ,!y are all connect$ ) ! action ( wat]1 save = v r>e in/ances :]e a p>ticul> cutt+ has precipitat$ a l&slide & "o or two o!r exceptions ( ! sort4 ,! effect ( ! made road ^u physical circum/ances is1 9 fact1 dep5d5t ^u ! conflict ) precipitation 9 :i* x is engag$4 ,x is a g5]al rule 9 all man's economic activity t ! human ef=t is at odds ) ! g5]al t5d5cy ( nature4 ,nature p]petually t5ds to reass]t h]self1 & to undo :at man has done 9 h] despite4 ,! ,road is no exception to ?is rule1 & ! p>ticul> way 9 :i* x works y c see by exam9+ typical cases4 ,"o ( ^! we %all come across m p>ticul>ly lat] on :5 we discuss ! ,roman roads ( ,brita91 b x may be wor? :ile to give its g5]al "* "h4 ,! ,road1 f9d+ a small /ream1 crosses x by a culv]t3 ! ,road1 f9d+ a rav9e ) too %>p a gradi5t on ei!r side1 trav]ses x by an embankm5t2 & !n1 ev5 if !re is no /ream at ! bottom ( ! rav9e1 x leaves a culv]t or o!r dra9 = ! wat] accumulat$ aft] ra9fall to soak ?r\gh4 ,n[1 :5 human ef=t slack5s & ! upkeep ( a road is no long] suffici5t ! culv]t gets block$ & ! ,road beg9s to act z a dam4 ,! lake s =m$ w 9 "t de/roy ! ob/acle1 b be=e ?is ! ,road w *ange ! c\ntryside by ! creation ( su* a lake succe$$ by p]man5t m>%4 ,to-day ! ph5om5on passes unnotic$ because we are /ill liv+ 9 a high civilization4 ,b x has affect$ hi/ory /rongly 9 ! pa/4 ,:5ev] civilization breaks d[n y beg9 to get a s]ies ( m>%es1 ) all _! accompanim5ts ( fev] & ! re/ gr[+ up along ! roads4 ,! greate/ examples ( ! gr[? ( m>% dur+ ! ,d>k ,ages 7 f\nd 9 ,italy1 b !re are c\ntless examples ( ! same ?+ all ov] ! nor? & we/ ( ! ,roman ,empire1 & ?is spread+ ( m>% 7due also to o!r causes1 su* z ! ab&onm5t ( dra9s 9 ! f5s & ! breakd[n ( locks & sluices on riv] ways7 is l>gely caus$ by ! special action ( ! ,road4 ,! same ?+ on a less] scale is to be se5 :]e a bridge falls out ( repair4 ,! ru9s w (t5 half-block ! curr5t & make an ov]fl[ on ei!r side1 :]e1 if ! l& is flat1 a wide belt ( m>% spreads & ! approa*es are ru9$2 s t :at 0 a po9t ( special opportunity =1 becomes a po9t ( special ob/acle to1 communication4 ii ,on ! political side--t is1 9 relation to its human s]vice--! reactions ( ! ,road are exce$+ly important1 & !y are n always z cle>ly notic$ z !y might be4 ,!re is a :ole gr\p ( hi/orical social ph5om5a :i* c\ld be connect$ "u ! "o head+ ( ! 8attraction0 ( ! ,road1 mean+ by ! ^w 8attraction0 ! way 9 :i* ! ,road compels communication to foll[ x once x is e/abli%$4 ,?is attraction produces a quantity ( effects c\nt]+ or cross+ g5]al economic t5d5cies1 & x acts 9 c\ntless ways4 ,"o int]e/+ aspect ( ?is is ! dra9+ ( population d[n on to ! ,road4 ,:5 a map is drawn up %[+ ! d5sity ( population we see ^u x sep>ate areas ( d5sity1 sometimes f> ap>t1 & betwe5 !m areas m>k$ by less] d5sity or ev5 void4 ,b if "o %\ld make an accurate population map ( any "o mom5t1 plott+ d[n e individual ^u x1 y w\ld n get ?is effect ( isolat$ d5se di/ricts2 y w\ld n get ! effect ( an ar*ipelago1 b ( a network2 = ^u ! communications betwe5 ^! di/ricts w\ld be m>k$ a d5se *a9 ( units 9 progress f ! "o to ! o!r3 & "o w\ld at once grasp h[ p]man5t less] nuclei arise betwe5 ! two t]m9al t[ns4 ,?is aspect ( ! ,road sugge/s a f> m important "o4 ,! ,road--9 ! s5se ( a means ( communication--9 proportion to its excell5ce diff]5tiates human society 7a7 ,into areas ( d5sity & void2 7b7 ,into ! urban political habit & ! agricultural political habit4 ,?is is a v important reaction ( ! ,road1 :i* mu/ be all[$ = 9 e hi/orical & contempor>y problem4 ,grant$ an urban c5tre1 ) its special opportunities = int]-communication betwe5 human be+s1 = exp]im5t & = :at may be call$ 8! cross-f]tilization ( k10 ! gr[? ( su* a c5tre is1 ( c\rse1 dep5d5t ^u _m ?+s3 its economic basis1 ei!r z a m>ket or z ! capital ( a productive area1 or1 m commonly1 z bo?2 ! physical surr\nd+s :i* may1 z 9 ! case ( ,g5oa or ,v5ice = in/ance1 /rictly limit t gr[?1 etc4 ,b among ! causes affect+ x1 & *ief among !m1 is ! ,road3 ! degree ( excell5ce 9 communication4 ,! gr[? ( a t[n is a direct function ( ?is1 ! mo/ conspicu\s example1 ( c\rse1 9 ! :ole ( hi/ory be+ ! imm5se gr[? ( ,london foll[+ on ! supplem5t+ ( ! old roads by ! railway4 ,9 direct connection ) ?is y h a mass ( subsidi>y effects1 all ( ! highe/ importance to ! ,/ate4 ,! ,road hav+ caus$ ! gr[? ( ! city1 aft] a c]ta9 po9t a high diff]5tiation arises betwe5 urban & rural life4 ,! diff]5tiation may become s great t y arrive at a cla% ( fundam5tal int]e/s 9 :i* "o ( ! two is defeat$4 ,y c]ta9ly h _h t 9 mod]n ,engl& dur+ ! la/ two g5]ations4 ,! t[ns became s mu* ! m important "p ( ,engli% life t ! agricultural life 0 entirely sacrific$ to !m--& ! ,road 0 ! ultimate cause4 ,aga91 y get ! curi\s developm5t ( :at may be call$ 8res]ve0 t[ns3 t[ns l ,brighton & ,blackpool1 :i* are ! playgr\nds ( ! great] cities at a di/ance2 ! l>ge urban c5tre bre$s1 z x 71 a less] "o aft] its own patt]n4 ,y h got 9 mod]n times t fur!r curi\s reaction due to gr[+ excell5ce ( communications--t is1 due to ! gr[? ( ! ,road--! pulse ( ! great mod]n city4 ,cr[ds ( human be+s p\r out ( ,victoria or ,liv]pool ,/reet into ,london & p\r back f ,london 9 ! ev5+4 ,! /ation ( ,/4 ,laz>e 9 ,p>is is1 9 ,europe1 ! mo/ /rik+ visual evid5ce ( ?is /range mod]n developm5t1 great floods ( human be+s cascad+ into ! city at ! op5+ day & ebb+ back at its close4 ,at bottom1 l s _m o!r human arrangem5ts1 ?is 8pulse0 is a negation ( its own pr9ciples--a sub-consci\s effect :i* a fully ?\ght-out plan c\ld h avoid$4 ,!re is no true economic basis = x1 or1 at any rate1 n = ! mo/ ( x4 ,!re w always be advantages1 ( c\rse1 9 ! c5tral po9t1 & always "s t5d5cy 9 m5 to seek t c5tral po9t 9 ord] to enjoy ^? advantages4 ,t5 m5 may desire to seek daily ! c5tral po9t :i* has only habitation-room = "o1 & t w lead to ! 8pulse0 ( :i* ,i speak4 ,b ! necessity = seek+ x daily is already v l>gely an artificial necessity & is becom+ m & m artificial e day4 ,! same "w c be done p]fectly well at a di/ance z is n[ done 9 c5tres1 & 9 a r\ndab\t way t tru? is impress+ itself ?r\gh an economic effect4 ,! r5ts become s high 9 ! cr[d$ c5tre t :ole gr\ps ( activities :i* d n really ne$ a c5tral position t5d to disp]se !mselves to ! out] b\nd>ies4 ,! pr9t+ trade1 9 ^? bran*es :i* are n hurri$ 7! pr9t+ ( books1 = in/ance71 is a good example ( ?is4 ,:5 m5 debate ! probable future ( our great cities !y (t5 omit "o v likely developm5t1 :i* is ! creation ( a numb] ( suburban c5tres :i*1 if ! mat]ial side ( our civilization decl9es1 w become indep5d5t t[ns & ! probable decay ( ! c5tral nucleus out ( :i* !y all gr[4 ,x is a speculation wor? exam9+4 iii ,! reaction ( ! ,road ^u society1 its political reaction1 has _m o!r dep>tm5ts4 ,= in/ance1 9 ! communication ( ideas ! trace ( a road w give y ! advance ( "s religi\s developm5t o!rwise inexplicable4 ,i h po9t$ out ?r\gh m ?an "o hi/orical allusion 9 o!r "w h[ ! spread ( ! ,*ri/ian religion may be directly foll[$ along ! trace ( ! *ief ,roman roads1 & especially ( ! great trunk road ( ! ,empire runn+ f ,egypt to ! ,wall 9 ,nor?umb]l&4 ,y h only to make a li/ ( names /&+ on t trunk road to %[ t x corresponds to a li/ ( dates & names 9 ! /ory ( ! conv]sion ( ,europe--,alex&ria1 ,j]usalem1 ,damascus1 ,antio*1 ,t>sus1 ,ephesus1 ,a!ns1 ,br9disi1 ,naples1 ,rome1 ,lyons1 ,autun1 ,cant]bury1 ,london1 ,/4 ,albans4 ,aga91 a road :i* = "s reason has become e/abli%$ along an artificial l9e1 a l9e n directly dictat$ by ! =mula ( m9imum ef=t1 w 8canalize0 traffic1 s t1 ev5 :5 an alt]native & bett] way has be5 provid$1 in/itutions & t[ns & all t goes = human activity w h tak5 root along ! old way & all hi/ory w be deflect$ by ! deflection ( ! ,road4 ,we h a v int]e/+ example ( ?is "h 9 ,engl& 9 ! case ( ! great road to ! nor?-we/4 ,9 ! e>lie/ times ,*e/] 0 ! "o t]m9al & ,london ! o!r4 ,*e/] 0 ! port = ,irel&1 &1 because x 0 mu* easi] go+ along ! coa/ ?an ov] ! m\nta9s1 ,*e/] 0 also ! base po9t ( dep>ture = ! p5etration ( ,nor? ,wales4 ,*e/] 0 also ! great g>rison :5ce troops c\ld be deta*$ = ! ,lanca%ire pla9 & = ! we/]n end ( ! ,wall4 ,nev]!less1 ,*e/]1 ?\gh x ma9ta9$ = c5turies its inevitable importance1 _h a rival 9 ! ,roman t[n ( ,uriconium1 "u ! ,wrek93 "o ( ! v few ,roman t[ns :i* h disappe>$--?\gh x has its mod]n c\nt]p>t 9 ,%rewsbury4 ,! campaigns aga9/ ! ,wel% 7 bas$ = hundr$s ( ye>s z mu* on ?is middle section ( ,%rewsbury z on ! nor!rn "o ( ,*e/]4 ,f9ally1 :5 mod]n eng9e]+ made possible a direct trajectory ?r\gh ! m\nta9s1 ?is middle ,%rewsbury section fix$ ! ,holyhead road1 :i* w\ld o!rwise h gone r\nd by ,*e/]4 ,! ma9 railway sy/em to ! nor?-we/1 z we "k1 has be5 compell$ to foll[ ! coa/1 & b = ! deflection ( ! anci5t road r\nd by ,%rewsbury t road w\ld h done exactly :at ! mod]n railway does4 ,n[1 :y 0 !re ?is /range b5d we/w>d & s\?w>d t[>ds ,%rewsbury 9 ! road mak+ ultimately = ,*e/]8 ,x 0 because1 :5 ! ,roman ,empire 0 at ! height ( its mat]ial p[]1 :5 ?+s 7 work+ be/ & public works 7 mo/ en]getically creat$ & ma9ta9$1 ! ,romans _h n fully conqu]$ ! ,nor?4 ,!re=e _! *ief tr\ble ) ! ,wel% m\nta9e]s dur+ t e>li] mom5t 0 ) ^? ( ! ,c5tral m\nta9s r ?an ( ! ,nor?4 ,!y _h1 x is true1 e/abli%$ _! g>rison 9 ,*e/]4 ,b 9 mak+ _! fir/ great trunk road !y _h be5 compell$ to *oose a m s\!rn t]m9al1 h5ce :at is /ill call$ ! ,watl+ ,/reet curls r\nd by ,p5kridge 7a ,roman "n desc5d$ f ! ,roman place-"n ( ! ,it9]>y7 & !n makes we/w>d4 ,lat]1 :5 ! conque/ 0 m complete1 a bran* 0 ?r[n out f ,%rewsbury nor?w>d to ,*e/]4 ,long aft] a %ort cut 0 driv5 f ,p5kridge to ,*e/] direct4 ,we h gr\nds = belief t ?is la/ road 0 ( lat] & inf]ior "w1 because1 ?\gh ! traces ( x survive1 ! ma9 "w has almo/ :olly disappe>$4 ,x /&s to reason t ! orig9al trackway be=e ! ,romans came w\ld h run pretty directly f ,london to ,*e/] )\t go+ r\nd by ! ,%rewsbury di/rict2 &1 inde$1 ! c\rse to :i* all ! fir/ "p ( ! ,watl+ ,/reet po9ts is evid5ce ( t4 ,:5 ! ,roman milit>y eng9e]s began _! ?or\gh rebuild+ ( ! roads 79 ! mo/ p]man5t fa%ion 9 ! _w7 !y 7 at fir/ conf9$ to ! s\!rn pla91 9 :i* alone !y felt secure1 & h5ce 0 t deflection r\nd we/w>d t[>ds ,%rewsbury creat$ :i* has affect$ ! :ole ( ,engli% hi/ory4 ,y may next obs]ve ! ,road produc+ ! economic effect ( ma9ta9+ t[ns1 & especially ports4 ,a road be+ driv5 f an exi/+ port to "s inl& t]m9us & ! port lat] becom+ less & less useful1 ei!r ?r\gh ! build+ ( %ips too deep = x or silt+ up or :at n1 ! m]e exi/5ce ( ! ,road t5ds to make m5 cl+ to ! port 9 spite ( its disadvantages4 ,!y w1 z a rule1 f ! effect ( cu/om & ( ve/$ int]e/1 f ! attraction ( ! po9ts already e/abli%$ on ! ,road1 exp5d 9 ! ma9t5ance ( ! port m en]gy ?an w\ld h be5 requir$ to build an alt]native road to "s new & bett] port4 ,! effect ( ?is is v m>k$ 9 ,nor!rn ,france4 ,b\logne 0 n only ! great ,roman port ( ! *annel because x /ood 9 ! ,n>r[s2 x 0 also ( su* importance because x 0 9 antiquity a v broad1 secure1 l&-lock$ e/u>y1 /ret*+ ov] :at is n[ all dry l& up above ! t[n ?ree miles t[>ds ,pont-de-,briques4 ,c5turies ago ! h>b\r silt$ up1 & if x _h be5 left alone x w\ld be h>dly s]viceable at all4 ,b e ef=t has be5 made to ma9ta9 t po9t4 ,b\logne h>b\r has be5 /eadily ma9ta9$ artificially = c5turies because ! road l$ to x & ne$$ x1 & ! alt]native use ( ! f> sup]ior e/u>y ( ! ,se9e1 ) ! correspond+ gr[? ( ,havre1 only came q late 9 hi/ory4 ,! ,road has ! same canaliz+ effect :]e x ov]comes an ob/acle su* z a broad riv]1 or a m\nta9 *a91 or a belt ( d5se woodl&4 ,= in/ance1 ! f]tile l[l& fr+e ( ,s\? ,wales & ! correspond+ f]tile l& to ! ea/ ( ! ,sev]n 7 connect$1 :5 primitive me?ods alone c\ld be us$1 by ! bridge at ,gl\ce/]1 high up ! riv]4 ,! l[] rea*es 7 too mu* = ! e>li] eng9e]s1 especially 9 ! face ( su* a tide z runs on !m4 ,z a result ! :ole ( t l9e ( communications rema9$ = #bjjj ye>s highly deflect$1 & only q rec5tly has !re be5 "s attempt at ! m natural l9e by ! pi]c+ ( ! ,sev]n tunnel4 ,?is effect ( ! ,road 9 canaliz+ human ef=t is specially m>k$ 9 ! case ( armies4 ,! say+ 8an army is ti$ to ! road0 is a tru? :i* hi/orians %\ld always keep 9 m9d4 ,!re h be5 great cavalry raids 9 hi/ory--n (t5 ( p]man5t effect--:i* m>*$ on a broad front1 almo/ free ( roads1 & dep5d5t only ^u a suffici5cy ( =age4 ,!y h come f ! graz+ gr\nds ( ,asia1 z a rule1 & swept ov] ! pla9s ( ,ea/]n ,europe2 b ! organiz$ & discipl9$ =ces :i* h m\ld$ hi/ory h always ( necessity foll[$ ! ,road4 ,an army is n an isl&4 ,x is an organism connect$ by a /alk ) its base & dep5d5t on ?is /alk = its fe$+ & equipm5t1 its pass+ back ( its prison]s & its w\nd$1 & all its life4 ,all ^! dep5d ^u ! ,road4 ,!re are ev5 cases 9 hi/ory--m num]\s ?an "o might imag9e--:]e ! fir/ creation ( ! ,road has be5 due to milit>y action alone4 ,i believe t ! ,unit$ ,/ates %[ examples ( ?is1 especially along ! bord] betwe5 ! nor!rn & s\!rn /ates ea/ ( ! ,mississippi4 ,c]ta9ly ,europe %[s !m 9 /rik+ fa%ion3 x 0 a milit>y necessity :i* made ! great roads l9k+ up ! /ations on ! ,rh9e ) ! t[ns ( ,gaul & ! re/ ( ! ,empire2 x 0 a milit>y necessity :i* made ! regul> roads ov] ! ,alp9e passes4 ,y c h>dly say t !re 0 a comm]cial necessity = ! great trunk road :i* /ruck ! ,rh9e at ,cologne1 & :i* !re lat] creat$ ! fir/ bridge across ! riv]4 ,! c\ntry beyond 0 b>b>\s1 & ?\gh a l>ge numb] ( ,roman m]*ants p5etrat$ x & a correspond+ am\nt ( trade 0 done1 ! ma9 necessity = ,cologne 0 a milit>y necessity4 ,milit>y necessity :i* drove ! great road f ! he>t ( ,nor!rn ,france to ?is isolat$ po9t & s op5$ up ! wild wood$ region 9 betwe54 iv ,! negative effect ( ! ,road1 ! effect ( its breakd[n1 especially at ! bridges & 9 ! causeways ov] m>%y l&1 is equally indisputable 9 human relations4 ,we h ! typical case ( ,sussex rema9+ hea!n = "o hundr$ ye>s aft] ! conv]sion ( its neighb\rs1 because ! ma9 road f ! nor? ) its causeway ev]y:]e cross+ ! clay & pi]c+ ! scrub ( ! weald fell into decay1 & because ! bridge at ,alfoldean broke d[n4 ,x is mo/ significant t ! great battle ( ,ockley 0 f\ght nor? ( ?is break 9 communications4 ,! ,danes1 m>*+ f ,london aga9/ ! ,engli% army1 c\ld get d[n z f> s\? z ?is1 & ! ,engli% army com+ up f ,hamp%ire c\ld int]cept !m z f> s\? z ?is1 b all ! ,dani% attack on ,sussex1 su* z x 0 7& x 0 v slight71 came f ! sea4 ,ano!r v conspicu\s example ( ! breakd[n ( ! ,road & ( ! political effect !re( is ! *aos y get 9 ! ,balkan p59sula aft] ! decay ( ! great ,roman trunk roads4 ,if ! ,greek ,*ur* is to-day sep>ate f ! ,lat9 ,*ur* to ! we/ x is due n only to ! ob/acle ( ! ,p9sk ,m>%es 9 ! nor?1 b to ! gradual decl9e 9 ! s\? ( ! ma9 art]y betwe5 ,durazzo & ,con/ant9ople4 ,= c5turies old & new ,rome communicat$ by ! great trunk road d[n to ,brundusium & !n across ! n>r[ sea to ,dyrac*ium & ,byzantium4 ,:5 t traffic began to be int]rupt$ ! contra/ betwe5 ! ea/ & ! we/ 0 f\nd$ & increas$4 ,a la/ m9or effect ( ! ,road ^u human society is ! use ( ! ,road z a b\nd>y4 ,t is a use1 ( c\rse1 :i* h>dly ev] develops 9 a high civilization4 ,on ! contr>y1 a road ( its nature %\ld run transv]se to b\nd>ies4 ,x is built to unite t[ns ! t]ritories ( :i* h b\nd>ies naturally p]p5dicul> to ! ,road4 ,! road f ,cant]bury to ,london1 = in/ance 7! fir/ great ma9 road 9 ?is isl&71 is transv]se to ! ,d>5t fronti]1 & all ! great roads f ! ,fr5*-speak+ to ! ,g]man-speak+ c\ntry on ?is side ( ! ,rh9e are transv]se to ! language b\nd>y4 ,x is 9 ! v function ( a road to be ?us transv]se to political limits4 ,b ) ! decay ( civilization ! rema9s ( a great1 well-built road l5d !mselves at once to ! idea ( a b\nd>y4 ,m5 ne$ some?+ to :i* !y c p]petually ref] :i* w be a p]man5t m>k & :i* w be indisputable4 ,a riv] is ?us (t5 s *os52 sometimes1 b mu* m r>ely1 a range ( hills1 especially :]e ! cre/ is p>ticul>ly /eep & m>k$4 ,b ! ,road1 :5 ! use ( docum5ts decl9es & :5 record is ) difficulty ma9ta9$--! ,road1 especially if x has be5 built to endure1 comes 9 to fulfil ?is artificial function4 ,"h 9 ,engl& we h m examples ( ?is ?an 9 any o!r "p ( ,europe4 ,v (t5 y c recov] a ,roman road fir/ by not+ on ! map ! p>i% b\nd>ies runn+ on /raight l9es1 :i* are ! prolongation "o ( ! o!r1 & ! survival ( a ,roman road us$ 9 ! ,d>k ,ages to def9e a p>o*ial limit4 ,! ,road is ?us also us$ z a b\nd>y n only = p>i%es b = /ates1 n only = /ates b = realms4 ,! ,roman road to ! nor?-we/ ( ,london 0 "p ( ! great b\nd>y e/abli%$ betwe5 ,wessex & ! ,dani% t]ritories ( ! nor? & ea/4 ,"o c\ld quote hundr$s ( cases ) a little rese>*1 b be/ ( all p]haps is t ( ! b\nd>y ( ,we/m9/]1 :i* dates f ! he>t ( ! ,d>k ,ages4 ,! nor!rn limit ( ! manor 0 fix$ by ! great ,roman milit>y road :i* to ?is day survives & is ! b\nd>y ( ,hyde ,p>k on ! nor?4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,road ,,ii ,,! ,,engli% ,,road ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,road ,,9 ,,hi/ory ,?r\gh ! ,dim ,ages3 ,! ,*>act]i/ics ( ! ,engli% ,road3 ,abs5ce ( ,plan3 ,a ,local in/ead ( a ,national ,sy/em ,lead+ to ! ,pres5t ,crisis4 i ,! g5]al !ory ( ! ,road hav+ be5 discuss$1 we may next turn to ! p>ticul> case ( ,,! ,,engli% ,,road1 my second & conclud+ section4 ,! ,engli% ,road has1 z we %all see1 highly-m>k$ *>act]i/ics ( its own :i* are ( imm$iate conc]n to u at ?is revolution>y mom5t 9 ! economic hi/ory ( ! ,/ate4 ,! =tunes ( ! ,engli% ,road foll[$1 ( c\rse1 ! /ory ( all ! o!r ma9 ,engli% in/itutions 9 _! outl9e4 ,j z y _h ! pre-,roman b>b>ic p]iod1 !n ! ,roman p]iod1 !n ! ,d>k ,ages 9 ! g5]al hi/ory ( ! ,/ate1 s y _h ! ,briti% trackway1 ! ,roman ,road1 & ! cont9u$ use dur+ ! cont9u$ decl9e ( ! latt] z mat]ial civilization fell away aft] ! fif? c5tury4 ,! spr+ ( ! ,middle ,ages gave y ! r5aissance ( ! ,road4 ,! ,black ,dea?1 :i* is ! wat]%$ ( ! ,middle ,ages1 breaks ! hi/ory ( ! ,road j z x breaks ! hi/ory ( ! language4 ,fr5* dies out3 all ,engl& is speak+ ,engli% 9 ! g5]ation aft] ! ,black ,dea?1 & !re is a great *ange ?r\gh\t society4 ,t *ange is m>k$ on ! roads by a consid]able decl9e 9 travel1 c\pl$ ) ! use ( bett] means ( transport--a p>adox to :i* our times are n accu/om$4 ,b y get a good deal ( t 9 ! ,middle ,ages4 ,y h1 = in/ance1 a decl9e ( weal? 9 ! mona/]ies1 & yet m detail$ build+ 9 ! mona/]ies2 a bad decl9e 9 manuscript writ+1 bo? ) reg>d to accuracy & legibility1 & yet an increase 9 ! am\nt writt54 ,s f> z we c judge f our v imp]fect evid5ce1 aft] ! ,black ,dea? 7! middle ( ! f\rte5? c5tury7 ! volume ( traffic ^u ! roads ( ,engl& t5ds to get less1 & p]haps ! surface also det]iorates1 ?\gh t is m d\btful4 ,! ,re=mation1 & especially ! dissolution ( ! mona/]ies1 is ! next great date4 ,! viol5t revolution impos$ ,a4,d4 #aecf-dj on e dep>tm5t ( ! national life affects ! roads z x affects all else4 ,9 g5]al1 ! ,re=mation1 especially ?r\gh ! dissolution ( ! mona/]ies1 _h ! foll[+ economic effects ^u ,engl&3 7#a7 ,cu/om>y economic action t5d$ to be replac$1 aft] ! *ange1 by competitive economic action2 7#b7 ,corporate action t5d$ to be replac$ by individual action2 7#c7 ,! pr9cipal l&-own+ class--! squires--became mu* weal?i] ?an !y _h be5 9 proportion to ! re/ ( ! community4 ,! accommodation ( ^! ?ree ma9 economic facts _h ! g5]al result ( sub/itut+ m & m /atutory duties 9 local affairs = cu/om>y duties1 & x affect$ ! roads ?us3 :]e ! local community _h1 9 a cu/om>y fa%ion1 kept up ! local road z "p ( ! old social habit ! new lay own] refus$4 ,he 0 av]se to ! outlay1 ! ,cr[n _h less control ov] him1 & z he 0 runn+ ! :ole ?+ on an idea ( pr(it & loss e outlay 0 cut by him z mu* z possible4 ,!re 0 at ! same "t a revolution 9 agriculture1 a fall+ (f ( population1 ! ?r[+ toge!r ( small hold+s1 ! gr[? ( graz+1 & ! decl9e ( tillage4 ,y consequ5tly get1 ?r\gh ! common action ( all ^! influ5ces comb9$1 9 ! middle ( ! ,re=mation p]iod ! fir/ int]f]5ce ( ! c5tral ,gov]nm5t by direct /atute 9 ! mak+ & cons]vation ( ! ,engli% road sy/em4 ,?is fam\s piece ( legislation 7#b & #c ,philip & ,m>y1 ,cap4 ,,viii7 is famili> to all :o deal ) ! law & hi/ory ( ! highway4 ,x gov]n$ ! con/itution & ma9t5ance ( ,engli% roads "r d[n to ! great mod]n *ange 9 ! same :i* falls "u ! g5]al t]m 8turnpike40 ,^! are ! ma9 /ages 9 ! /ory ( ! ,road 9 ?is isl& up to ! pres5t mom5t1 :51 app>5tly1 ano!r /age has op5$4 ,we h = ^! sev5 *apt]s v diff]5t in=mation3 on ! fir/ no?+ b conjecture1 on ! second a consid]able body ( evid5ce1 on ! ?ird aga9 conjecture1 & on ! f\r? conjecture1 ?\gh conjecture fill$ 9 f ! indirect evid5ce ( hi/orical ev5t4 ,= ! second m$iaeval p]iod we h ev5 less evid5ce ?an = ! fir/4 ,our k beg9s to gr[ aft] ! increase ( :eel$ traffic1 & ) ! e>ly eighte5? c5tury becomes = ! fir/ "t full & detail$4 ii ,we w n[ foll[ ?is developm5t4 ,! ,engli% ,road has a "* ( its own :i* cle>ly diff]5tiates x f ! o!r road sy/ems ( ,we/]n ,europe4 ,s %>p is ! di/9ction t1 s9ce mod]n travel recov]$ ! use ( ! road ?r\gh petrol traffic1 ! new type ( road he discov]s is1 aft] ! language1 ! mo/ /rik+ novelty affect+ ! =eign] on 8 arrival4 ,illu/ration3 ,"p ,,ii1 ,sket* ,i1 ,di/rict ( ,,typical ,,engli% ,,road ,,sy/em4 ,wid?s exagg]at$4 ,l[] "p ( ,sket* ,i 7,"p ,,ii71 ,di/rict ( ,,typical ,,fr5* ,,road ,,sy/em4 ,wid?s exagg]at$4 ,same scale z above ,abroad1 ! ,fr5* model--recov]$ f ! ,roman tradition1 remodell$ 9 ! late sev5te5? c5tury1 & va/ly develop$ 9 ! n9ete5?--has impress$ itself ev]y:]e3 ! ,road is !re built up on a framework ( v broad1 /raight ma9 ways1 c>efully grad$1 proce$+ ev]y:]e ^u "o plan4 ,^! are connect$ by a subsidi>y net ( c\ntry ways less direct & less broad1 b all c>efully plann$ & grad$1 & ^! 9 turn by local lanes ( all surfaces & gradi5ts & gauges1 dep5d5t ^u p>i% rates & betray+ by _! irregul>ity _! indep5d5ce ( ! national sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,,typical ,,engli% ,,lane ,"h ! s*eme is contradict$ at e po9t4 ,a long /ret* dead /raight is v r>e3 :5 x is f\nd x is due to "s accid5t ( local *oice4 ,! surface diff]s n z betwe5 ! ma9 road & local road1 b indiscrim9ately3 a small p>i% way w (t5 h a bett] surface ?an ! ma9 road x jo9s4 ,! gauge is haphaz>d3 ! ma9 road betwe5 ! capital & "s great port w g ?r\gh ! mo/ surpris+ *anges 9 bread?1 "h appe>+ z ! n>r[ high /reet ( a suburb1 & !re1 a few miles on1 spread+ to #ej feet ^u an op5 hea?1 !n aga9 turn+ abruptly r\nd ! %>p "r-angle corn]s & betwe5 ! irregul> frontages ( a village4 ,! ,engli% roads are f> m num]\s1 ! mileage ( good road surface to ! hundr$ squ>e miles f> great]1 ?an abroad4 ,yet n "o ( !m is plann$ ?r\gh\t4 ,!y all twi/1 ! less] ones w9d+ p]petually & usually )\t any reason ( _! own1 compell$ to su* anomalies by ! cu/om ( old] pa?s1 by enclosures1 by encroa*m5ts4 ,= ! mo/ "p ^! roads1 f ! mo/ important to ! lea/1 are 8bl9d10 t is1 b\nd$ by ob/acles :i* mask ! approa* ( corn]s & conceal ! c\ntry on ei!r side3 a v pron\nc$ national *>act]i/ic1 due ma9ly to ! use ( h$ges ^u ! m f]tile l&4 ,! grad+ is nev] cont9u\s--! ma9 roads 9 :i* ?is feature has be5 mo/ ?or\ghly look$ to yet h a/oni%+ exceptions ( #a 9 #i1 #a 9 #h4 ,! bridges are ( v>y+ /r5g?1 half ( !m be>+ w>n+s t !y are dang]\s to heavy vehicles4 ,:5 we seek ! orig9 ( ?is /range mixture ( s]viceable & uns]viceable 9 ! ,engli% road sy/em we discov] x 9 ! political hi/ory ( ! c\ntry4 ,! ,engli% h$g$ roads yield _! m pleas+ l&scape1 !y h m l5g? to ! squ>e mile ?an ^? abroad1 !y are haphaz>d 9 gauge & gradi5t 7only half plann$71 !y h su* excell5t surface 7& t indep5d5tly ( _! importance71 su* a /range assortm5t ( bridges1 su* abrupt & bl9d corn]s--all because ! ,road1 l e o!r in/itution1 is a function ( society1 & because ,engli% society proce$$ on special political l9es ( its own aft] ! ,re=mation4 ,l ! road sy/ems ( e o!r c\ntry1 t ( ,engl& arose f ! great ,roman milit>y ways4 ,x w5t ?r\gh exactly ! same phases ( decl9e z ^? ( ! neighb\r+ ,cont95t1 x _h ! same new developm5t 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 x ran ?r\gh op5 fields ma9ly4 ,a man put d[n on an ,engli% road ( ,h5ry ,,viii or ,elizabe?'s day w\ld h m>k$ no great di/9ction betwe5 its "* & ^? ( a ,fl&]s or a ,breton or a ,prov5al road1 or ! roads ( ! ,rh9e4 ,b ) ! sev5te5? c5tury ! pr(\nd *ange :i* _h work$ = a hundr$ ye>s ?r\gh\t all ,engli% life appe>$ 9 ! ,road4 ,! mon>*y fell4 ,a national road sy/em became impossible4 ,! local l&lords took comm& ( society4 ,! local road 0 ! only basis = developm5t4 ,commons 7 enclos$1 co-op]ative village f>m+ gradually disappe>$1 ! h$ges ev]y:]e increas$ 9 numb]1 cutt+ up ! old op5 fields4 ,any ext5sion ( communication c\ld only come ?r\gh ! l9k+ up ( tortu\s village ways4 ,!n came ! indu/rial revolution1 ! exploitation ( bett] surface ?r\gh ! turnpike1 ! epo* ( ,tel=d & ,macadam4 ,la/ly1 ! huge increase ( ! great t[ns 9 ! middle & lat] n9ete5? c5tury1 ! com+ ( ! int]nal combu/ion eng9e1 & ! pres5t crisis4 ,= we h come to a crisis to-day 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,engli% ,road4 ,x mu/ be *ang$--or supplem5t$--"u p]il ( su* conge/ion z w /rangle travel & int]*ange3 t is ! int]e/ ( ! subject to-day4 ,i propose1 !re=e1 9 :at foll[s to consid]1 fir/1 h[ ?is p>ticul> "* 9 ! ,engli% ,road develop$3 :at 7 ! ag5cies :i* gradually made x s diff]5t f ! road ( ! neighb\r+ ,cont95t3 next1 to sket* v briefly & only 9 its b>e outl9e ! hi/ory ( ! ,engli% ,road1 & to conclude ) an exam9ation ( ! re=ms :i* we %\ld und]take & ! crisis 9 travel & ! use ( ! ,road :i* has l$ to t duty4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,! 8,,bl9dness0 ,,( ,,engli% ,,roads ,! ,two ,causes ,gov]n+ ! ,developm5t ( ,engli% ,roads--,wat]ways & ,dome/ic ,peace3 ,! ,relation ( ! ,engli% ,road to ,milit>y ,/rategy4 i ,( _m ( ! features ( ! ,engli% ,road we c det]m9e ! orig9s at once1 = !y are ( common k4 ,! 8bl9dness0 ( ! ,engli% ,road is due to ! enclosures & ! consequ5t increase 9 h$ges s9ce ! sev5te5? c5tury1 c\pl$1 z ,i h said1 ) ! dy+ out ( 8*ampion0 or 8co-op]ative0 op5-field f>m+4 ,x is 9 "p due1 also1 to t :i* has also be5 allud$ to & has affect$ ! ,engli% ,road 9 all its aspects 7surface1 v>iation ( gauge & gradi5t1 tortu\sness1 etc471 ! gov]nm5t ( ! squires foll[+ on ! defeat ( ! mon>*y ne>ly ?ree hundr$ ye>s ago4 ,i %all t\* on ?is aga9 :5 ,i come to ! hi/ory ( ! ,engli% ,road4 ,b1 ap>t f ^! obvi\s & well-kn[n causes1 two causes mu* less famili>--& yet ( ! fir/ importance--two causes peculi> to ?is isl& 9 all ,europe1 h gov]n$ its developm5t3 wat]ways & dome/ic peace4 ,! ,engli% road sy/em has be5 s p[]fully affect$ by ^! two ag5cies--! "o physical1 ! o!r political--z to h become :olly diff]5tiat$ by !m f ! sy/ems ( ! ,we/]n ,cont95t4 ,! natural feature !n is ! omnipres5ce ( wat]ways ?r\gh\t ! isl&2 & ! political feature is dome/ic peace--t is ! abs5ce s9ce ! mod]n developm5t ( roads began 7dur+ ! la/ #bej ye>s7 ( /rategical necessities on a l>ge scale4 ii ,i w take ^! two ?+s 9 _! ord]4 ,! way 9 :i* ! :ole hi/ory ( ,engl& has be5 modifi$ by ! pres5ce ( wat] is a topographical po9t ( capital importance to ! und]/&+ ( ! national life4 ,!re is no o!r l>ge isl& 9 ! _w :i* has riv]s 9 any?+ l ! same proportion z we h1 ei!r 9 numb] or 9 disposition4 ,mo/ ( ! l>ge isl&s h no navigable riv]s at all4 ,sicily has none1 ,icel& has none1 nor ,crete1 nor ,cyprus1 nor ,s>d9ia1 nor ,corsica4 ,n only h we a ho/ ( navigable riv]s1 b !y are s dispos$ t !y p5etrate ! v he>t ( ! c\ntry4 ,! ,tr5t1 = in/ance1 is ! mo/ arre/+ ?+ ^u ! map4 ,x looks almo/ z ?\gh x _h be5 specially design$ to make ! inmo/ he>t ( ,engl& p5etrable to comm]ce & travel 9 ! ea/4 ,! ,?ames1 9 ! same way1 goes "r into ! he>t ( s\!rn c5tral ,engl&2 & ev5 ! ,sev]n1 ! rapidity ( :i* has militat$ aga9/ its mod]n use1 _h a consid]able use 9 ! pa/ & 0 an art]y 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 ev5 = upw>d traffic1 to ! neighb\rhood ( ,w5lock ,edge4 ,! great riv]s alone1 h[ev]1 d n acc\nt = ! mo/ ( ?is "*4 ,x is ! mass ( small b navigable /reams1 bo? tribut>y to ! ma9 sy/ems & isolat$ along ! coa/1 :i* h s pr(\ndly affect$ our hi/ory4 ,if y take "o ( ^? outl9e maps ( ,engl& ) ! wat]ways only m>k$1 su* z are sold = use 9 s*ools1 & plot out ! highe/ po9t ^u a /ream to :i* a fairly load$ boat c p5etrate1 y w be a/oni%$ to f9d h[ small a c5tral area is left out4 ,"o might say t ! :ole ( ,engl&1 outside ! hill c\ntry ( ! ,p5n9es1 ! ,lakes1 & ! bord]1 is s p5etrat$ by wat] c>riage t if !re 7 no roads at all its life c\ld1 "u primitive conditions1 be c>ri$ on by wat]ways alone4 ,n[ ?is univ]sal pres5ce ( wat]ways1 :i* meant e opportunity = int]nal traffic & also = approa* f outside ! isl&1 has _h two effects ^u ! ,road4 ,fir/1 x has made = div]sion--t is1 = ! modification ( ! ,engli% ,road f a direct to an indirect & s9u\s l9e4 ,secondly1 x has int]rupt$ :at w\ld o!rwise be ma9 l9es ( travel 9 ! necessity "u :i* m5 f\nd !mselves ( turn+ aside = ! l[e/ bridge ^u ea* /ream4 ,z to ! fir/ ( ^! po9ts1 x w at once be obs]v$ t unless y h "s /rong compell+ motive = driv+ a simple /raight l9e y w1 9 a c\ntry ( _m riv]s1 avoid su* a s*eme & seek = ! *eape/ cross+ ( ea* wat]4 ,y mu/ seek a =d1 or n>r[1 or a place ) specially h>d banks1 & n m]ely take haphaz>d t "p ( ! /ream :i* lies on y\r direct l9e1 & see+ t su* num]\s wat]ways involve also long num]\s flats along ! /reams1 valley floors subject to flood or =m$ ( boggy soil1 ! t5d5cy to div]sion 9 a road sy/em "u su* conditions is int5sifi$ by ! m>%es :i* ab\nd 9 a c\ntry s wat]$4 ,if y look at ! ,roman road sy/em y w see h[1 = ! consid]ations :i* ,i w deal ) lat]1 x usually2 if n always1 neglects special opportunities & takes ! wat] z x comes1 pref]r+ an exp5sive /raight l9e to a *eap] w9d+ l9e2 b ev]y?+ done s9ce ! ,roman road sy/em has be5 affect$ by ! p]petual consid]ation ( ! easie/ riv] cross+s inl&1 :ile ! same influ5ce has deflect$ ! road r\nd ! great] e/u>ies & ports4 ,illu/ration3 ,"p ,,ii1 ,sket* ,,ii ,! l[e/ bridge ov] a riv] is a po9t ( trans=mation4 ,x /ops traffic f ! sea go+ any high]4 ,b to c>ry on y\r j\rney f ! sea z f> z possible is obvi\sly an economic advantage1 especially 9 e>ly days ( exp5sive & sl[ road traffic4 ,!re=e a nation deal+ ) ! sea & l>gely liv+ ?r\gh sea-trade ca/s its fir/ bridge z f> up /ream z possible1 & t is exactly :at y f9d ^u all ! riv]s ( ,engl& = c5turies4 ,ev5 to ?is day ! t5d5cy to build bridges l[] d[n ?an ! old fir/ bridge is *eck$1 9 spite ( ! v /rong motive we h 9 ! developm5t ( ! railway sy/em4 ,take a map 7,sket* ,,ii71 & look r\nd ! coa/ & see h[ true ?is is4 ,! l[e/ old bridge ( ! ,tyne 0 at ,newca/le2 ( ! ,tr5t1 ,i believe1 at ,ga9sbor\gh2 ( ! ,?ames1 ( c\rse1 "r up inl& at ,london2 ( ! ,/\r1 at ,cant]bury2 ( ! ,sussex ,ouse1 at ,lewes2 ( ! ,arun1 at ,arundel2 ( ! ,exe1 at ,exet]4 ,! deep arms ( ,plym\? ,s\nd 7 unbridg$ until ! railway came2 s ,f[ey riv] & ! ,fal1 unbridg$ to ?is day2 ! ,sev]n is n bridg$ at all till ,gl\ce/]1 nor 0 ! ,dee till ,*e/]4 ,n[ ?is _h ! effect ev]y:]e ( *eck+ a direct road sy/em & deflect+ ! ways ev]y:]e to suit ! conv5i5ce ( ! ports4 ,& !re aga9 we f9d1 = reasons :i* w be giv5 9 a mom5t1 ! ,roman roads directly cross+ e/u>ies1 b e subsequ5t road sy/em go+ r\nd !m4 ,take two examples4 ,! ,roman road to ! nor?1 :i* runs all along ! ridge ( ,l9coln%ire1 /rikes ! ,humb] :]e t /ream is f #bjjj to #cjjj y>ds wide1 crosses by a f]ry1 & cont9ues on ! f> side4 ,! ,roman road sy/em ( ,k5t did ! same ?+ ov] ! ,wansum :5 t /ream 0--z ,rice ,holmes has prov$--a broad e/u>y #cjjj y>ds across1 ) ,ri*bor\gh z an isl& 9 its mid/4 ,! ,roman road f ,dov] & ! "o f ,cant]bury met at a po9t opposite ,ri*bor\gh1 :5ce a f]ry took p across to ,ri*bor\gh4 ,aga91 ! ,roman road to ! lead m9es ( ! ,m5dips ends at ! wide m\? ( ! ,sev]n1 & is c>ri$ on aga9 on ! f> ,wel% side4 ,b e road sy/em s9ce has gone "r r\nd by ,gl\ce/]1 & ! inconv5i5t effects ( ?is1 z road travel develops & wat] c>riage decl9es1 are v noticeable to-day4 ,9 all t s\!rn coa/ ( ,devon betwe5 ,lyme ,regis & ! ,exe1 if y want to get r\nd to ! m>itime s\?-we/]n bulge ( ! c\nty y mu/ make an elb[ ?r\gh ,exet]4 ,simil>ly ! ,sussex coa/1 n[ s cr[d$1 has only be5 l9k$ up q rec5tly by bridges3 ! "o at ,%oreham 0 built )9 liv+ memory1 ! sw+ bridge at ,littlehampton is an affair ( ! la/ few ye>s1 z also ! sw+ bridge at ,ne:av5 ( ?is g5]ation4 ,= #aejj ye>s no "o c\ld proce$ along t coa/ cont9u\sly f1 say1 ,portsm\? by ,littlehampton1 ,%oreham1 ,sea=d 7lat] ,ne:av571 ,ha/+s1 ,rye1 )\t turn+ inl& to cross at ,arundel1 at ,bramb]1 at ,lewes1 at ,rob]tsbridge4 ,"o ( ! subsidi>y effects ( ?is int]ruption 0 ! comp>ative ease ) :i* ! coa/ c\ld be attack$ f ! sea1 = ! difficulty ( rapid conc5tration ^u any "o po9t1 9 ! lack ( lat]al communication1 h&icapp$ ! def5d+ =ce by l&4 ,all ?r\gh m$iaeval hi/ory ! ,sussex coa/ 0 raid$ f ! sea4 ,s mu* = ! effect ( wat]ways1 ! ma9 physical cause ( div]sion 9 ! ,engli% ,road4 iii ,! political cause ( div]sion has be51 z ,i say1 ! negative effect ( an abs5ce ( gr& /rategy 9 mod]n times4 ,!re has be5 no gr& /rategy 9 ?is c\ntry s9ce ! ,romans1 because !re has be5 no fight+ ( a highly-organiz$ type )9 ! isl& dur+ ! :ole ( its po/-,roman hi/ory4 ,!re 0 a great deal ( b>b>ic fight+ 9 ! ,d>k ,ages1 & a great deal ( feudal fight+ 9 ! ,middle ,ages4 ,ev5 9 ! beg9n+ ( mod]n organiz$ w>f>e y _h 7on a v small scale1 x is true7 ! civil w>s4 ,b s9ce !n--t is1 dur+ ! :ole ( ! p]iod 9 :i* mod]n road sy/ems h develop$ 7#affj onw>ds7--!re has be5 no necessity = /rategical consid]ations to affect ! ,engli% road sy/em at all1 &1 !re=e1 no political =ce /rong en\gh to compel direct roads 0 pres5t 9 opposition to ! /rong economic motive = div]sion4 ,! result is an anomaly t might well become s]i\s if we _h to dep5d ^u our road sy/em "u ! ?reat ( invasion4 ,look1 = in/ance1 at ! two great h&icaps1 ! ,humb] & ! ,?ames4 ,a =ce /&+ up to meet a ?reat5$ l&+ :i* might be direct$ aga9/ ,k5t or aga9/ ,ea/ ,anglia w\ld be divid$ into two sections1 depriv$ ( road communication save r\nd ?r\gh ,london4 ,dur+ ! ,w> a tempor>y bridge 0 ?r[n across ! ,?ames 79 ! neighb\rhood ( ,tilbury1 if ,i rememb] aright71 b1 ( c\rse1 ) a gate = traffic4 ,9 normal times y c\ld n h su* a ?+4 ,! wat] traffic is too great & too confus$4 ,b :at y c\ld h w\ld be a tunnel1 & ?\gh ! necessity = x may nev] arise x is also true t %\ld x arise we %all bitt]ly regret n hav+ driv5 t tunnel4 ,! same rem>k applies ) ev5 great] =ce to ! ,humb]4 ,an attempt$ l&+ on ! nor?-ea/ coa/ ( ,engl&1 ?reat5+ alt]natively ! ,l9coln%ire & ,york%ire coa/s1 w\ld f9d ! def5d+ =ce cut 9 two1 & 7 ! /rategics ( ?is position to become acute we %\ld regret ! lack ( a road tunnel "u ! ,humb]1 j z we %\ld regret ! lack ( a road tunnel "u ! ,?ames4 ,! ?ird pr9cipal case1 t ( ! ,sev]n1 is p>tially met by a railway tunnel--! ,sev]n ,tunnel1 f> bel[ ,gl\ce/]4 ,a road tunnel w\ld h>dly sugge/ itself "h4 ,!re is n a suffici5t 8pot5tial0 = x on ei!r side ( ! /ream4 ,b "h aga9 x might well happ5 t "u ! p>ticul> circum/ances ( w> we %\ld regret ! abs5ce ( x4 ,?is negative factor1 ! abs5ce ( a /rategic 8driv+ motive10 has also left ! w9d+s ( ! int]nal road sy/em at ! m]cy ( ! easie/ cross+s ( ! riv]s1 & we see h[ diff]5t ! ?+ w\ld h be5 "u a /rategic s*eme4 ,consid] ! ,roman contra/4 ,! ,roman roads ( ,brita9 7 pr9cipally milit>y4 ,! :ole s*eme ( ,roman gov]nm5t 0 milit>y1 & ! life ( all t civilization 0 f\nd$ on ! army4 ,) ! m>*+ ( m5 rapidly & easily f place to place z ! ma9 motive ( ! build]s1 ! roads foll[ ^? great /raight l9es :i*1 :ile duly seek+ a =mula ( m9imum ef=t1 nev] sacrific$ to x directness ( plan4 ,z we h se51 ev5 at ! great e/u>ies ,roman eng9e]s pref]r$ a supplem5t>y f]ry to cont9ue ! road r ?an deflect+ x r\nd by ! fir/ bridge4 ,9 ?is connection1 h[ev]--t ( e/u>ies--!re is "o case :i* is puzzl+3 ! case ( ! ,?ames4 ,an explanation c1 ,i ?9k1 be f\nd1 ?\gh at fir/ x looks anomal\s4 ,! ,romans dealt ) ! e/u>y ( ! ,sev]n & ( ! ,humb] by f]ries2 !y dealt by long bridges ) less] ob/acles4 ,9 ! same fa%ion !y c>ri$ ! nor? road ov] ! ,tr5t by a direct l9e )\t deflection = a special cross+4 ,!y c>ri$ x across ! ,tyne at deep wat] approa*$ /eeply4 ,!y c>ri$ x across ! ,?ames at ,/a9es ) a sole reg>d to ! direction ( _! road & )\t consid]+ special opportunities ( cross+4 ,!y did ! same at ,dor*e/]2 & in/ances c\ld be multipli$ all ov] ! k+dom4 ,b app>5tly !y did n attempt to attack ! ,?ames e/u>y4 ,:5 "o consid]s ! nature ( ! e>ly fight+ dur+ ! fir/ conque/ ( ! isl& by ! ,romans ?is is a/oni%+4 ,all ! campaigns began 9 ,k5t1 & ! m s]i\s ( !m 7 c>ri$ on into ,ea/ ,anglia4 ,! great ris+ "u ,n]o 0 an ,ea/ ,anglian ris+1 & ! ,roman armies beat5 !re _h to be rapidly re9=c$ f ,k5t4 ,= #djj ye>s troops p\r$ 91 "u any special em]g5cy1 f ,dov]1 came up ?r\gh ,k5t1 & any imm$iate necessity ( rea*+ a po9t ea/ ( ,london necessitat$ a dt\r by ,london ,bridge3 ?\gh "t might be vital1 ! deflection 0 suff]$4 ,:y did ! ,romans n solve ! difficulty & e/abli% at lea/ a f]ry across ! l[] ,?ames8 ,( c\rse1 !y may h done s4 ,y c nev] argue f ! abs5ce ( traces to-day t a ,roman road did n exi/1 = x is a/oni%+ h[ ?or\ghly "t elim9ates su* ?+s4 ,!re are :ole great t[ns l ,aquilea & ,hippo ( :i* n ev5 ! f\ndations rema9 to-day4 ,ev5 9 ,engl&1 :]e ,roman survival is mo/ m>k$1 two t[ns1 ,sil*e/] & ,uriconium1 h gone save = a few ru9s2 & !re are great /ret*es ( ,roman road 9 e c\ntry ( ,we/]n ,europe :i* h my/]i\sly & :olly disappe>$ )\t leav+ a trace ( ! trem5d\s "w und]tak5 to build !m2 = in/ance1 ! miles aft] ,epsom racec\rse4 ,/ill1 x does look z ?\gh no direct ,roman l9e connect$ ,cant]bury1 = in/ance1 ) ,col*e/]4 ,& ,i say aga91 h[ are we to acc\nt = x8 ,i ?9k ! explanation lies 9 ! disposition ( ! m>% l&s on ! l[] ,?ames4 ,if y take ! map ( ! ,?ames bel[ ! ,isle ( ,dogs & m>k ^u x all t mu/ h be5 primeval m>% 7includ+ mu* t is /ill m>%7 y w see t :]ev] h>d l& is f\nd ^u "o bank x is fac$ by ext5sive swamp ^u ! o!r4 ,!re 0 no good position = a p]man5t cross+ ev5 by f]ry1 & 9 ! :ole milit>y hi/ory ( ,engl& we only "k "o d\btful case 9 :i* a junction 0 effect$ f s\? to nor?1 :i* is 9 ! pursuit ( ! defeat$ ,briti% army by ! ,romans 9 ,a4,d4 #dc "u ,aulus ,plautius4 ,if1 z is probable 7?\gh n c]ta971 t battle took place at ,ro*e/]1 !n ! pursuit 0 c>ri$ on by a direct cross+ ( ! l[] ,?ames2 b ) t exception ,i c call to m9d no milit>y action 9 ! :ole ( our hi/ory :]e ! l[] ,?ames did n prove a p]man5t ob/acle4 ,x is an amus+ speculation to ?9k :at w\ld h happ5$ to ! road sy/em ( ,engl& if /rategic necessity _h appe>$ aga9 dur+ ! mod]n p]iod4 ,! ?+ is purely hypo!tical1 b ,i might make a few sugge/ions4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we %\ld c]ta9ly h _h a road l9k+ up ! s\!rn coa/2 next1 we %\ld c]ta9ly h _h "s =m ( cont9u\s traffic ov] ! l[] ,sev]n & ! l[] ,?ames & ! ,humb]2 next1 )\t d\bt1 !re w\ld h be5 pi]c$ a broad1 cont9u\s1 & fairly direct road f ! pla9 ( ,york%ire to ! pla9 ( ,lanca%ire across ! ,p5n9es2 next1 we %\ld h _h1 ( c\rse1 a broad5+ ( all ! ways lead+ to ! ma9 ports4 ,t w\ld h be5 ess5tial1 & p>ticul>ly to ! ports ( ! ,/raits ( ,dov]4 ,b1 z ,i h said1 ! :ole ?+ is a dream1 because n t /rategic motive1 b n[ a purely economic motive is compell+ u to revise our sy/em4 iv ,ap>t f ^! two ma9 causes ( wat]ways1 & ( ! abs5ce ( /rategic necessity caus+ ! div]sion ( ! ,engli% ,road1 & ap>t f all o!r causes ( local gov]nm5t :i* h l$ to su* extraord9>y div]sity1 lack ( regul> gradi5t1 lack ( regul> gauge1 etc4 7z di/+ui%$ f ! road sy/em "u ! mon>*ical & c5traliz$ gov]nm5ts ( ! ,cont95t1 & especially ( ,france71 we h c]ta9 o!r elem5ts :i* h /amp$ ! ,engli% ,road ) its p>ticul> "*4 ,!y may be briefly recapitulat$ )\t develop+ any "o ( !m4 ,we %all meet mo/ ( !m aga9 9 ! hi/orical sket* ( ! ,engli% ,road4 ,!re is ! dampness ( ! climate2 !re is ! extraord9>y div]sity ( soil )9 a comp>atively small area1 s t road-mak+ mat]ial cont9ually diff]s )9 a few miles--= ,engl& is1 ( all ,european c\ntries1 t 9 :i* !re is cr[d$ ^u a small space ! greate/1 %>pe/1 & mo/ frequ5t div]sity ( soil & l&scape2 !re is ! increas+ d5sity ( population 9 mod]n times1 :i* has _h a pr(\nd effect ^u our road sy/em4 ,!re is ! political factor ( ,p>liam5t2 = s9ce ! defeat ( ! mon>*y 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury no direct ord] c\ld be imm$iately obey$ until !re q rec5tly grew up ! new p[]s ( adm9i/ration4 ,betwe51 say1 #affj & ! ,premi]%ip ( ! late ,"l ,salisbury we may say t any important public "r1 includ+ ! mak+ ( a new way & expropriation ( l& = x1 fell "u no imm$iate au?ority b _h to be ref]r$ to ! l5g?y & exp5sive process ( a ,committee1 call$ ,p>liam5t>y1 ?r\gh :i* ! olig>*y ( ,great ,brita9 work$4 ,all ^! ?+s h affect$ ! developm5t ( ! ,engli% ,road1 b mo/ ( all1 let x always be rememb]$1 ^! two ma9 causes1 :i* h be51 9 my op9ion1 f> too little recogniz$--! wat]ways1 peculi> to ?is isl&1 & ! abs5ce ( mod]n /rategic necessity1 also peculi> to ?is isl&4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,five ,,/ages ,! 8,pot5tial0 9 ,political ,geography ,examples3 ,! ,primitive ,trackways3 ,! ,roman ,road ,sy/em3 ,! ,e>li] ,m$iaeval ,p]iod3 ,! ,lat] ,m$iaeval ,p]iod3 ,! ,turnpike ,era4 i ,let u next turn to a v r\gh sket* ( ! developm5t ( ! hi/ory ( ! ,engli% ,road3 ! /ages ?r\gh :i* its developm5t has pass$1 measur$1 n f cause to effect1 b 9 "t4 ,be=e turn+ to ?is ,i w\ld fir/ def9e ! use ( a c]ta9 ^w already us$ :i* w recur & may be unfamili> to "s ( my read]s4 ,x is a ^w tak5 z a metaphor f physical sci5ce1 & "o ( ! utmo/ value 9 political geography4 ,x is ! ^w 8pot5tial40 ,we talk ( ! 8pot5tial0 betwe5 two comm]cial c5tres1 or betwe5 a capital & a port1 or betwe5 a m9]al produc+ region & an agricultural region1 or betwe5 a region :5ce b>b>ians desire to invade f]tile civiliz$ l& & ! c5tre ( ! f]tile civiliz$ l& :i* desires to def5d itself1 etc41 etc41 & our use ( ?is ^w 8pot5tial0 is drawn f ! doctr9e ( physical sci5ce t en]gy 9 op5 %ape1 en]gy at "w1 is giv5 its opportunity by ! t5d5cy ( two po9ts to e/abli% a communication3 ! t5d5cy ( two sep>ate situations to e/abli% unity1 ! t5d5cy ( a hi!rto 8pot5tial0--t is1 only 8possible10 n yet 8actual0--=ce to realize itself4 ,= in/ance1 y w h a highly *>g$ electrical area t5d+ to dis*>ge itself by ! l9e ( be/ conduction4 ,y w h a head ( wat] creat+ a 8pot5tial03 a res]voir a hundr$ feet above ! valley has to be connect$ ) ! floor ( ! valley by a tube to turn ! pot5tial en]gy into actual en]gy & to drive a turb9e4 ,n[1 9 ! developm5t ( ! road sy/em we metaphorically use ?is ^w 8pot5tial0 9 j ! same fa%ion4 ,= in/ance3 !re 0 orig9ally no bridge across a riv] because ! p 9 ! t[n on "o side ( x _h no p>ticul> reason to cross to b>r5 l& ^u ! o!r4 ,! t[n gradually develop$ into a holiday resort4 ,! only place = a good golf l9ks 0 on ! f> side ( ! riv]1 & visitors :o liv$ 9 ! t[n dur+ _! holidays want$ to g dur+ "p ( ! day to ! golf l9ks4 ,a 8pot5tial0 0 e/abli%$4 ,?us !re has always be5 a mo/ p[]ful 8pot5tial0 betwe5 ,london & ,dov]1 betwe5 ! great comm]cial c5tre ( ! isl& & ! port ne>e/ to ! ,cont95t4 ,t is a 8pot5tial0 :i* has work$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ,engli% hi/ory4 ,we c wat* o!r pot5tials at "w 9 diff]5t p]iods aris+ & dy+ out aga94 ,= in/ance1 dur+ ! ,norman & e>ly ,angev9 p]iod !re 0 a v /rong 8pot5tial0 betwe5 ! middle nor? coa/ ( ,france & ! coa/ ( ,sussex1 ) a correspond+ developm5t ( traffic4 ,! pr9cipal p 9 ,engl& 7 also great l& own]s & (ficials on ! coa/ imm$iately opposite4 ,t 8pot5tial0 di$ d[n until ! revival ( mod]n /eam traffic4 ,aga91 !re is a 8pot5tial0 to-day betwe5 any coal field & any c5tre ( consumption ( weal? di/ant f t coal field4 ,s !re is betwe5 any coal field & any great port4 ,aga91 y w h a /rategic 8pot5tial40 ,a p>ticul> po9t ( no economic value may be ( ! utmo/ /rategic value4 ,! hold+ ( x may make all ! diff]5ce to ! def5d]s ( ! fronti]s1 & 9 t case a 8pot5tial0 exi/s :i* is ! driv+ motive = a road betwe5 ! capital & ! po9t 9 "q4 ,) ?is note 9 m9d we c proce$ to "s sket* ( ! hi/ory ( ! ,engli% ,road4 ii ,! developm5t ( ! ,engli% ,road up to ! pres5t turn+-po9t 9 its hi/ory1 foll[+1 z we h se51 ! political /ory ( ! isl&1 falls into five divisions4 ,a4--,fir/ came ! primitive trackways1 ! *ief ( :i* mu/ h be5 artificially /r5g!n$1 & "s ( :i* may h be51 9 sections at lea/1 true roads up to ! ,roman invasions4 ,b4--,next came ! ,roman road sy/em1 :i* 0 presumably develop$ 9 ! second c5tury ( our era4 ,?is is ! framework ( all t foll[$4 ,all our roads f t date 7eighte5 hundr$ ye>s ago7 to mod]n times h sprung f & h gr[n 9 connection ) ?is orig9al set plan or framework4 ,t is true1 no d\bt1 ( all we/]n c\ntries1 b x is especially true ( ,engl&4 ,! ,engli% road sy/em is ! product 9 e age ( ! great ,roman s*eme1 ! relics ( :i* are m m>k$ 9 ,engl& ?an !y are any:]e else 9 ! _w4 ,?is po9t is ! ma/] po9t ( ! :ole /ory4 ,x is a po9t ^u :i* popul> hi/ory has completely lo/ its way4 ,popul> hi/ory repres5ts ! ,roman occupation ( ?is isl& z an accid5t1 a sort ( int]lude betwe5 ! native ,briti% p]iod & a lat] & sep>ate 8,engli%0 p]iod :i* arose ^u ! invasion ( ! c\ntry by ,g]man tribes f beyond ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,t is n ! hi/ory ( ,engl& at all4 ,! hi/ory ( ,engl& is ! hi/ory ( a ,roman prov9ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,e>lie/ ,,road ,engl& began by be+1 l ev]y?+ else 9 ! ,nor? & ,we/1 b>b>ic4 ,x 0 civiliz$ f ! ,m$it]ranean & made a "p ( ! ,roman ,empire--t is1 ( "o common civilization--"o great /ate /ret*+ f ! ,grampians to ! ,euphrates1 & f ! ,sah>a to ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,?is civiliz+ impr9t ( ! ,roman ,empire ,brita9 has nev] lo/4 ,our civilization fell into decay1 z did t ( ! :ole ( ! re/ ( ,europe4 ,! decay 0 n due to ! pirate raids f ,nor? ,g]many & ,holl& any m ?an x 0 due to ! raids ( ! ,scotti% ,highl&]s1 :i* 7 j z frequ5t & viol5t1 or ! raids ( ,iri% pirates f ! we/1 :i* 7 at "o mom5t s sev]e z to put up a sep>ate realm on ! we/ coa/ ( ?is isl&4 ,! hi/ory ( ,engl& is cont9u\s1 & its f\ndation1 f :i* we get all our in/itutions1 m ?an half our language1 all our ideas & religion & ! re/ ( x1 is 9 ! #djj ye>s ( high civilization betwe5 ! l&+ ( ! ,roman armies & ! breakd[n ( ! imp]ial sy/em 9 ! ,we/4 ,! ,roman ,road is ! true & only root ( ! road sy/em ( ,brita94 ,all our local roads c be f\nd develop+ sl[ly f ! ,roman roads ( ! di/rict :i* _h prec$$ !m1 & x is ne>ly always possible to trace ! causes :i* l$ to ea* p>ticul> local sy/em4 ,9 ea* y f9d ! ,roman ,road is ! backbone ( ! affair1 & ! lat] local roads exi/+ only z developm5ts ( & *anges f ?is basic ,roman plan4 ,c4--,! ?ird division is "o = :i* we h little direct1 b pl5ty ( indirect1 evid5ce1 & ! rema9s ( :i* are ) u ^u e side4 ,x is ! gr[? 9 ! ,e>ly ,middle ,ages1 presumably f ab\t ! ,angev9 p]iod1 ( ! m$iaeval road sy/em :i* 0 ! deflection & ext5sion ( ! old ,roman road sy/em4 ,at ! end ( ! ,empire1 dur+ ! ,d>k ,ages 7i4e4 f ! fif? to ! elev5? c5tury71 ?\gh ! ,roman road sy/em _h rema9$ ! only available "o1 x _h decay$1 & num]\s modifications ( x _h already appe>$2 b ) ! ,e>ly ,middle ,ages ^? modifications seem to h gr[n prodigi\sly1 & ! indirect network ( local roads w\ld !n seem to h aris54 ,d4--,! f\r? *apt] is ev5 m obscure4 ,x is a p>tial decl9e1 only affect+ c]ta9 di/ricts1 & affect+ "s mu* m ?an o!rs3 a decl9e :i* corresponds m or less to ! end ( ! sixte5? & ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,x w5t ) ! flood+ ( ! f5 l&s1 ) ! breakd[n ( c5tral au?ority1 ! increase ( local int]e/s1 & s on4 ,e4--,! fif? *apt] is ! great revolution 9 road plann+ & con/ruction :i* may be call$ ! turnpike era3 beg9n+ e>ly 9 ! eighte5? c5tury & fl\ri%+ at its close4 ,! turnpike sy/em cont9u$ to develop ) cont9ual *anges ?r\gh ?ree or f\r g5]ations4 ,x surviv$ ! competition ( ! railroads4 ,x 0 va/ly improv$ by ! new local legislation ( f =ty to tw5ty ye>s ago4 ,x left u ) ! road sy/em we n[ enjoy1 :i* mu/1 "u ! pressure ( q rec5t *anges1 be modifi$ if our communications are to be sav$1 or1 at any rate1 to keep pace ) ! pres5t conditions ( travel4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,! ,,trackways ,! ,?ree ,divisions ( ! ,briti% ,pre-,roman ,road ,sy/em--,! ,sy/em ( :i* ,salisbury ,pla9 0 ! 8,hub03 ,! ,sy/em ,connect$ ) ,london3 ,cross-,c\ntry ,communications--,! ,?ree ,factors :i* ,h ,det]m9$ ,travel 9 ,brita94 i ,! orig9 ( ! trackways is1 ( c\rse1 unkn[n1 & c only be guess$ at by inf]5ce2 b _! "*1 & especially ! geographical causes :i* det]m9$ _! trace1 we c e/abli% on ! l>ge/ l9es ) "s accuracy4 ,we mu/ n lose ourselves 9 t k9d ( speculation :i* has be5 s de> to ! academies1 & :i* is usually v futile4 ,z to ! ord] 9 :i* ! developm5t took place we h no evid5ce :atev]3 = in/ance1 z to ! date ( ! f\nd+ ( ,london1 or ( its size be=e ! ,roman occupation2 nor h we simil> evid5ce ) reg>d to any ( ! c5tres ( ,engl& = ! unit+ ( :i* roads w\ld arise4 ,b we h relics ( ! trackways be=e u4 ,we h ! geographical conditions almo/ un*ang$1 & we h ! indication ( ,roman roads cle>ly bas$ ^u p>ticul> exi/+ trackways1 & !re=e sugge/+ :at ! s*eme 0 be=e ! ,roman eng9e]s set to "w4 ,r\ghly speak+1 ! ,briti% pre-,roman road sy/em fell into ?ree divisions4 ,!re 01 fir/ ( all1 a division 7possibly ! e>lie/ to develop ( all7 :i* _h = its 8hub0 ,salisbury ,pla91 & f t c5tre a :orl1 r ?an a :eel1 ( div]g+ approa*es to ! coa/4 ,!re 01 secondly1 ! sy/em turn+ ^u ! cross+ ( ! ,?ames at ,london z a 8hub40 ,x is ?is second sy/em :i* 0 s l>gely develop$ 9 ! hi/orical p]iod & :i* /ill gov]ns our ma9 roads & railways to-day4 ,?irdly1 !re 0 ! s]ies ( cross-communications1 ( :i* ! mo/ important by f> 0 ! track leav+ ! ,exe & mak+ = ! ,humb]4 ,! ,briti% trackways =m$ along ^! ?ree sy/ems discov]$ & us$ ! be/ passages ( ! riv]s1 "s ( :i* ! ,romans *ang$1 to :i* !y add$ a c]ta9 numb]1 b :i*1 9 ! ma91 !y reta9$4 ,!y also indicate1 ?\gh less c]ta9ly1 ! t[n c5tres :i* h rema9$ ?r\gh ! c5turies ! same1 & !y 7 also det]m9$ by ! ma9 c5tres ( agricultural population &1 to a mu* less ext5t1 by ! pres5ce ( m9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,"p ,,ii1 ,sket* ,,iii1 ,probable s*eme ( ,,ma9 ,,orig9al ,,trackways 9 ,,b>b>ic ,,engl& ,! sy/em ( :i* ,salisbury ,pla9 appe>s to h be5 ! 8hub0 we presume to be ! e>lie/ because x 0 dep5d5t almo/ entirely ^u surface3 good go+ ov] dry l&4 ,x is to be presum$ t ! e>lie/ sy/em w\ld be t preval5t :5 m5 7 less able to give artificial aid to ! ,road1 to h>d5 x1 to con/ruct causeways or approa*es2 :5 !y 7 less able to dra9 m>%es2 :5 !y _h n yet cle>$ =e/s4 ,n[1 ( all ! soils :i* make up ! surface ( ,brita9 *alk is ! be/ surface = ?is purpose4 ,x has two *>act]s :i* give x ?is "*4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is self-dra9$ & always passable ev5 9 our wette/ seasons2 &1 9 ! second place1 x does n c>ry tangl$ und]gr[?1 & ev5 its woods 7:i* are n z a rule cont9u\s7 are commonly ( bee*--! easie/ ( all woods to pass ?r\gh 9 travel1 f ! abs5ce ( scrub b5ea? ! bran*es4 ,x s happ5s t ! *alk is1 9 ?is c\ntry1 di/ribut$ 9 great cont9u\s l9es & compact areas :i* l5d !mselves admirably to ! developm5t ( an e>li] track sy/em4 ,y c foll[ *alk ) little int]ruption f ! op5 c5tral space1 ,salisbury ,pla91 s\?-ea/w>d to ! ,*annel1 to ! ,dorset coa/ 78,dorset0 f ! c\ntry ( ! 8,durotriges10 a ,briti% tribe ^: "n survives 9 t ( ! mod]n c\nty#a71 & ! fir/ 9 ord] ( ! tracks l$ !re4 ,! *alk c\ld equally be foll[$ to ! neighb\rhood ( ,s\?ampton ,wat]4 ,a ?ird l9e l$ along ! confus$ ,hamp%ire *alk to ! def9ite ridge ( ! ,sussex ,d[ns1 & s to ! h>b\rs ( ! ,sussex coa/ & ( ,k5t4 ,! f\r?1 ) "s int]ruption1 l$ along ! nor? d[ns to ,cant]bury1 :5ce tracks w\ld radiate to ! ports ( ,k5t4 ,a fif? foll[$ ! ,b]k%ire ,d[ns & ! ,*ilt]ns1 & s l$ on to ! ,wa% & e>li] p>ts ( ! ,norfolk coa/1 :i* h n[ app>5tly disappe>$ 9 erosion4 ,! six? l9e l$ ) m difficulty 7& has be5 m oblit]at$ by lat] ,roman "w7 directly we/w>d to ! m9es ( ! ,m5dips1 & to ! bord]s ( ! ,sev]n e/u>y4 ,x c\ld n take advantage ( ! *alk beyond ,wilt%ire1 b x _h fairly dry go+ along ! ridge ( ! ,m5dips4 ,! sev5?1 x mu/ be presum$1 ?\gh ! traces are l>gely lo/1 us$ ! height ( ! ,cotswolds2 b "h ! soil1 be+ oolitic & n *alk1 0 mu* less fav\rable & ! ext5sion nor?w>d ceas$ e>li]4 ,?is sy/em1 !n1 we reg>d z ! e>lie/ ( all4 ii ,! second sy/em1 z ,i h said1 seems to h be5 connect$ ) ,london1 b "h ! lat] track ( ! ,roman eng9e]s & ! cont9u\s developm5t ( ne>ly tw5ty c5turies has left u little to g on save conjecture4 ,!re are po9ts 9 t conjecture1 h[ev]1 :i* are fairly c]ta94 ,b !re seems to h be51 f ! e>lie/ "t1 communication betwe5 nor? & s\? on ! l[e/ cross+ ( ! ,?ames4 ,n[1 ! l[e/ p]man5t cross+ ( ! ,?ames1 ev5 be=e a bridge1 0 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,london4 ,! cross+ ( a riv] is det]m9$ by ! h>dness ( ! l& ^u ei!r bank1 z we h se51 m ?an by any o!r factor4 ,! l[] ,?ames ev]y:]e _h ext5sive m>%es ei!r ^u "o side or ! o!r1 & usually ^u bo?4 ,at ,grays1 ,tilbury1 ,eri?1 etc41 ! h>d gr\nd approa*$ "r up to "o bank1 b 0 always c\nt]$ by ext5sive m>%es on ! o!r1 or by m>% beh9d gravel1 =m+ a sort ( isl& ( h>d l& :i* c\ld n be us$ = cont9u\s travel4 ,! fir/ good cross+-place 0 at ,lambe?1 & x is g5]ally assum$ t ! e>lie/ ( all ! tracks took ! /ream "h1 = ! alignm5t ( ! ma9 approa* f ,k5t ?r\gh ,cant]bury1 ,ro*e/]1 & ,%oot]s' ,hill does n po9t at ! c5tre ( ,london1 b at ,lambe?4 ,?is1 x is presum$1 0 ! track foll[$ by :at is n[ ,p>k ,lane1 & s ultimately nor?-we/w>d by ! ,edgw>e ,road & its cont9uations to ,*e/]1 ) a bran* ?r[n (f ?r\gh ! pass betwe5 ! m>%es ( ! ,m]sey & ! ,p5n9e range 9 ! di/rict ( ,man*e/]1 & s on ?r\gh ,lanca%ire4 ,b at "s v e>ly /age !re 0 e/abli%$ a cross+ bel[ ,lambe? 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,london ,bridge1 ev5 be=e t bridge came into exi/5ce4 ,x is true t !re is "h a belt ( m>% on ! "r bank1 b ! consid]able gravelly hill on ! left1 or nor?1 bank !re w\ld give an opportunity n to be lo/4 ,x _h ?ree great advantages3 x 0 a l>ge area ( dry l& = settlem5t2 x _h def5ces all r\nd x--m>%y l& to ! nor?1 ! ,fleet to ! we/1 ! ,lea to ! ea/2 x _h a consid]able area = ! draw+ up ( boats1 & a /eep %ore = :>fage4 ,"u ^! conditions1 :5ev] m5 c\ld fir/ con/ruct a causeway x w\ld h be5 wor? :ile to h be5 at t lab\r across ! ,s\?w>k m>%es 9 ord] to e/abli% a p]man5t cross+ by f]ry1 & lat] by a bridge1 ^u ! site ( ,london ,bridge4 ,at any rate1 f t c5tre--,london ,bridge--at "s v e>ly p]iod y get trackways radiat+4 ,!re is ! ma9 "o1 9 ! fir/ place1 ?r\gh ,cant]bury to ,dov] & ! ,k5ti% ports4 ,next1 !re is ! ea/]n "o to ,col*e/]1 along :i* ! *ief ,roman invasion m>*$ to ! capture ( t t[n1 :i* 0 ! capital ( ! enemy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,wel% ,,section1 ,,holyhead ,,road iii ,next1 we may presume 7= evid5ce is lo/1 especially "u ! lat] ,roman "w7 !re 0 a track t[>ds ! c5tre ( ,norfolk4 ,next !re 0 "s great road go+ nor?w>d ea/ ( ! ,p5n9es1 foll[+ ! dry l& :i* skirts ! ,f5s & rea*+ ! great f]tile pla9 ( ,york1 & s on nor?w>d ?r\gh ,durham up to ! cross+s ( ! ,tyne4 ,:]e ?is orig9al ma9 track w5t we _c say4 ,we "k ! trace ( ! ,roman road :i* foll[$ x4 ,we may presume t ! divagations & modifications ( ?is road ( ! ,d>k ,ages & ! ,middle ,ages1 :i* ultimately built up our ma9 road to ! nor?1 rev]t$ 9 "s degree to ! orig9al track4 ,b ! :ole ?+ is guess-"w4 ,"o ?+ seems fairly c]ta93 ?is ea/]n road to ! nor? 7! tw9 to ! great nor?-we/]n road by ,*e/] to ,lanca%ire7 mu/ h split ab\t half way to ,york1 "o bran* mak+ directly to ! pla9 ( ,york itself1 ! o!r obvi\sly runn+ along ! inevitable ridge :i* po9ts "r nor? ?r\gh ,l9coln%ire to ! ,humb]4 ,!re is "h no bridge possible4 ,x is n too broad = a f]ry4 ,b ?\gh ! ,roman road1 sup]s$+ ! e>li] trackway1 w5t on nor?w>d1 x is a fair guess t ! orig9al trackway /opp$ at ! riv]4 ,( cross roads we h fragm5ts1 ( c\rse1 9 ! ,p5n9es1 b we "k no?+ ( _! hi/ory4 ,x is cle> t ! ma9 cross communications betwe5 ! peopl$ area ( ! ,york%ire ,pla9 & t ( ! ,lanca%ire ,pla9 mu/ h gone ov] by ,%ipley--! obvi\s gap 9 ! *a94 ,b m we _c tell4 ,t is ! natural way1 & !re 01 s to speak1 no avoid+ x4 ,:at 0 ma9ly us$ fur!r s\? we _c tell4 ,x 0 a tangl$ l&4 ,!re is no cle> & c]ta9 trace ( cross communications :i* mu/ h exi/$ across ! ,midl&s s\? ( ,tr5t4 ,we d n "k :at great pat*es ( wood may "h h det]m9$ ! w9d+s ( an orig9al road4 ,!re are no s]i\s ob/acles 7x is high l& & dry1 ) no m>%es or l>ge wat]c\rses71 b !re 0 less reason = cont9ual traffic "h f ea/ to we/ ?an !re 0 = traffic f nor? to s\?2 !re=e !re 0 less 8pot5tial0 ?an 0 creat$ by ! traffic on cross communications fur!r s\?4 ,! orig9al sy/em ( tracks radiat+ f ,salisbury ,pla9 0 simple4 ,!y l$1 9 radiat+ l9es /raight & curv$1 directly to ! l[] ,?ames1 to ! ports ( ! ,*annel1 to ! s\!rn e/u>ies1 to ! nor?-ea/--t is1 to ! ,wa%--& to ! nor? direct by ! ,cotswolds4 ,b true cross communication 0 lack+ to ?is set1 & 0 provid$ by ! great road f ! ,exe to ! ,humb]1 :i* /ill survives 9 ! =m ( ! ,fosse ,way4 ,x runs ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( our hi/ory1 f v long be=e ! fir/ records ne>ly to ! pres5t day1 & is to-day traceable ?r\gh\t1 & us$ 9 _m places z a h>d road4 ,?is ma9 track 0 "o ( ! dom9ant factors 9 ! "* ( ,engli% travel4 ,x has decay$ "u mod]n conditions because its 8pot5tial0 has gone4 ,!re is no driv+ p[] to-day urg+ travel f s\?-we/ to nor?-ea/1 & x is only 9 p>tial exp]im5ts & ! l9k+ up ( sep>ate l9es t ev5 our railway sy/em s]ves t end4 ,b be=e mod]n times ! ,fosse ,way play$ a v great "p4 ,= "s reason !re 0 a p]petual necessity = pass+ f ! s\?-we/--,devon & ,dorset--to ! nor?-ea/ coa/4 ,two p]man5t pot5tials1 t betwe5 nor? & s\? & t betwe5 ea/ & we/1 help to expla9 ! ,fosse ,way4 ,engl& has always t5d$ to fall into two cross divisions--a nor!rn & a s\!rn "o1 sep>at$ at fir/ by climate 7! nor!rn m rude1 ! s\!rn m g5tle71 !n by agricultural conditions1 ! nor!rn f> less peopl$1 ! s\!rn m peopl$ & m weal?y2 & to an ea/]n & we/]n division sep>at$ by type ( l&scape1 to "s ext5t by climate1 always to "s ext5t by soil1 diff]5ce 9 race1 emphasiz$ :5ev] an invasion came f ! ,wel% l&s on ! "o side or f ! ,nor? ,sea on ! o!r4 ,! ,fosse ,way broke bo? ^? cross divisions & 0 a sort ( 8re9=cem5t0 7z !y say 9 mod]n concrete71 tak+ ! /ra9 ( cross t5sion across ! isl&4 iv ,9 ?is %ort sket* ( :at 7 9 "s cases c]ta9ly1 9 o!rs only presumably1 ! orig9al ,briti% ma9 tracks we h to note ?ree factors :i* h always det]m9$ travel 9 ,brita93 ! c5tres ( int]nal economic production1 ! ports1 & ! ,*annel cross+s4 ,be=e ! mod]n indu/rial sy/em ! economic c5tres ( production 7 ! :eat l&s1 & ^! 7 ! op5 l& ( :i* ,w9*e/] 0 ! c5tre1 ! ,dor*e/] c5tre1 ,som]set1 c]ta9 sep>ate c5tres 9 ! ,midl&s 7sep>at$ by great woods :i* h disappe>$ & _! exact site n c]ta971 ! ,*e%ire ,pla91 ! ,lanca%ire ,pla91 ! great ,york%ire ,pla91 & la/1 & mo/ important ( all1 ,ea/ ,anglia--! c5tral ,ea/]n pla9 7,essex 9 p>ticul>7 0 ! gran>y ( ! e>ly "t 9 ,engl&4 ,tracks connect$ all ^! places3 !y also connect$ ! c5tres ( population ) ! ports4 ,e "o ( ! tracks makes ultimately f port to port4 ,y h a connection ?r\gh ,london 7e>li] p]haps1 z we h se51 ?r\gh ,lambe?7 betwe5 ! port ( ,k5t & ! nor?-we/]n ports 7( :i* ,*e/] is ! great orig9al example & ,liv]pool ! mod]n72 betwe5 ! nor?-ea/]n ports ( ! ,humb] & ! ,tyne1 & ! s\?-we/]n ports at ,s\?ampton ,wat] & ,poole 7:i* 0 ( great e>ly importance1 & :5ce we %all f9d a ,roman road />t+74 ,fur!r we/ ! m\? ( ! ,exe 0 a m important approa* to ,brita9 9 ! pa/ ?an x is n[4 ,y h also ! e/u>y ( ! ,sev]n1 ill provid$ ) natural h>b\rs b =m+ 9 its upp] rea*es a h>b\r ( its own1 ) ! peculi> advantage ( ! l[] ,avon1 ) a secure pool at ,bri/ol approa*$ by ! curi\s & exceptional gorge at ,clifton4 ,la/ly1 y h ! great port =m$ by ! cross+ place at ,london1 made1 z we h se51 by ! t5d5cy ( e>ly travel1 "r up to ! appe>ance ( railways1 to p5etrate a c\ntry z f> z possible by its wat]ways & to c>ry c>goes well inl&1 because wat] c>riage 0 s mu* *eap] ?an l& transport4 ,! ?ird factor--t ( riv] cross+--also has its effect1 ?\gh a less] "o1 ^u ! trace ( ! old ,briti% ways4 ,if1 = in/ance1 y c>ry along any "o ( ! tracks :i* foll[ ! *alk y w see h[ c>efully ! wat] cross+s 7 pick$4 ,x is ! *>act]i/ic ( *alk t ! riv]s lie transv]se to x1 cutt+ gorges ?r\gh ! hills1 & ea* ( ^! cross+ places 0 *os5 :]e h>d l& approa*$ f ei!r side4 ,! *alk 7& ! s& associat$ ) x7 provides at c]ta9 po9ts 9 ! valleys tw9 spurs approa*+ ! wat] on ei!r side2 h5ce y h ! track along ! nor? d[ns cross+ ! ,wey at ,/4 ,ca!r9e's ,*apel 7& alt]natively by ,guild=d72 &1 aga91 ! ,mole at ,pixham1 ne> ,dork+1 & ! ,m$way at ,snodl& 7) an alt]native at ,ro*e/]74 ,! s\!rn track along ! ,hamp%ire & ,sussex ,d[ns takes ! ,arun at a simil> advantage & opportunity at ,h\ghton1 & alt]natively at ,arundel4 ,x takes ! ,adur at ,bramb]1 ! ,ouse at ,lewes4 ,?is vague sket* ( ! old trackways is all t we c lay d[n s f> z _! ma9 l9es are conc]n$1 & x is v imp]fect1 b we mu/ be> x 9 m9d 9 ord] to und]/& ! ,roman sy/em1 :i* 0 l>gely bas$ ^u ^? trackways & :i* sup]s$$ !m4 ,!re 0 "o k9d ( soil1 & "o only1 :i* c\ld compete ) ! *alk z good go+ = primitive travel1 & t 0 s&4 ,_h we s& 9 cont9u\s l9es 9 ,brita9 x w\ld h giv5 a dry passage = ! trackways1 & "h & !re advantage is tak5 ( x by su* trackways4 ,b s&1 9 po9t ( fact1 is n to be f\nd 9 ^! cont9u\s l9es4 ,x comes 9 pat*es1 & h5ce we _c talk ( any "o ( ! great trackways z dep5d5t ^u a s&y soil4 ,! *ief exception t ,i c call to m9d 9 ?is respect is ! run ( ! old ,pilgrims' ,way--a prehi/oric track f ! neighb\rhood ( ,f>nham to ! cross+ ( ! ,mole1 ne> ,dork+4 ,?\gh *alk lay on ! ma9 direction1 x seems to h pref]r$ ! s\!rn dry s& to ! *alk imm$iately nor? ( x1 & x keeps to ! s& until ! cessation ( t =mation a %ort di/ance we/ ( ! ,mole4 ,!re is "h a curi\s piece ( political geology :i* has be51 ,i ?9k1 ( great effect ^u ! hi/ory ( ,engl&4 ,_h ! ridges ( s& ?r\gh ! weald ( ,sussex be5 cont9u\s1 ! weald w\ld h be5 develop$ e>ly4 ,its iron indu/ry w\ld h furni%$ a basis = export1 & x w\ld h become "o ( ! c5tres ( population4 ,!re are ridges ( s& :i* y c trace all ! way ?r\gh ! weald f close by ! ,hamp%ire *alk 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,midhur/ "r away to ! valley ( ! ,ro!r4 ,b !y are n cont9u\s1 & ! int]ruptions are =m$ ( deep clay1 impossible to pass 9 w9t]4 ,! result ( t lack ( cont9uity has be5 t no su* track ev] develop$ ?r\gh ! weald ( ,sussex4 ,sussex1 !re=e1 ow+ to ! /iff clay ( its weald1 rema9$ cut (f f ! re/ ( ,engl&1 & t ?r\gh\t all ! ,d>k ,ages4 ,x falls out ( ! national hi/ory4 ,inde$1 ! l9k+ up ( ,sussex ) ! nor? 0 only effect$ by ! ,romans at ! co/ ( great lab\r ?r\gh ! artificial causeway ( ! ,/ane ,/reet betwe5 ,*i*e/] & ,london2 & aft] ! breakd[n ( we/]n civilization 9 ! fif? c5tury !re 0 no regul> approa* to ! s\!rn coa/ f ! ,?ames valley 9 a direct l9e4 ,! traffic ei!r w5t we/w>d d[n t[>ds ,s\?ampton1 ,hamp%ire1 ,dorset1 & ,devon or ea/w>d to ! ,/raits ( ,dov]4 ,! ,norman ,conque/ & ! rule ( ! ,angev9s re/or$ ,sussex to some?+ ( its rightful place 9 ,engli% communications because ! coa/ ( t c\nty lay imm$iately opposite ! c5tre ( ! =eign region :i* !n gov]n$ ,engl&1 b ! int]lude 0 n l5g?y4 ,9 ! lat] ,middle ,ages & on to q mod]n times 7to ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury7 ! int]ruption due to ! clay made itself felt aga91 & only ! railway & great increase ( population h be5 able betwe5 !m to re/ore direct & frequ5t communication betwe5 ! ,?ames valley & ?is "p ( ! s\!rn coa/4 ,,footnote3 #a ,our %ires 7 probably orig9ally ,briti%1 & lat] ,roman1 divisions4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,! ,,mak+ ,,( ,,! ,,roman ,,road ,! ,great ,initiative3 ,! ,m>k ( ! ,roman ,milit>y ,eng9e]3 ,! ,!ory & ,practice ( ! ,/raight ,l9e3 ,modifications ( ! ,/raight ,l9e3 ,h[ x 0 ,c>ri$ ,out3 ,! ,me?od ( ,odds & ,ev5s4 i ,! mak+ ( ! great ,roman roads 0 ! "o great initiative 9 ! /ory ( ,engli% communications3 x orig9at$ all t foll[$1 & !re 0 no new real developm5t1 no ess5tially new dep>ture betwe5 ! plann+ ( t milit>y s*eme & ! com+ ( ! railway4 ,x c only be comp>$ to :at ! future may h to %[ if we f9d ourselves able to re=m our roads z !y %\ld be re=m$ = ! new conditions ( mod]n travel1 & ev5 ?is *ange w\ld n be any?+ l z great z ! *ange made by ! ?r[+ ( ^? great highways to /& = ev] across a c\ntry :i* _h hi!rto be5 half b>b>\s4 ,! ,roman ,road _h a /ructure & "* ( its own :i* x has reta9$ to ! pres5t day1 s t ev5 :]e x 0 only ! /raight5+ & ! /r5g!n+ ( an old trackway ^u :i* x 0 f\nd$ x w\ld foll[ ! m>k ( ! ,roman eng9e]s ?r\gh\t all t rema9$ ( its c\rse4 ,x 0 ess5tially a piece ( build+1 & 9 ?is ! ,roman ,road diff]$ f e o!r =m ( communication be=e ! mod]n railways4 ,x _h to be ( ?is k9d on acc\nt ( two ?+s :i* ! ,roman milit>y eng9e]s p>ticul>ly desir$ to s]ve1 bo? ( !m connect$ ) ! milit>y "* ( ! we/4 ,fir/1 !y want$ a plat=m1 rais$1 z a rule1 above ! surr\nd+ c\ntry1 s t troops pass+ along x %\ld be ! less liable to attack3 s t a view c\ld be _h f x ov] ! imm$iate surr\nd+s1 :i* 7 cle>$3 & s t any sudd5 /roke aga9/ a m>*+ column c\ld be *eck$4 ,! rais+ ( ! way _h o!r objects1 ( c\rse--x kept ! surface dry1 = in/ance--b ! ma9 object 0 t ( security ^u ! m>*1 & ! same object 0 "o ( ! reasons = mak+ ! roads z a rule 9 /raight l5g?s or limbs1 sometimes two1 ?ree1 or ev5 f\r days' m>* 9 ext5t4 ,a road 0 plann$ )\t w9d+s1 s z to be saf] f ambu% & surprise1 & :]e x _h c\pl$ to its /raightness its elevation above ! surr\nd+ c\ntry ! *ance ( ambu% or surprise 0 almo/ elim9at$4 ,illu/ration3 ,"p ,,ii1 ,sket* ,,iv1 ,! ,,roman ,,road ,,s*eme ,b ! habit ! ,roman milit>y eng9e]s _h ( driv+ _! roads 9 ^! great /raight limbs1 :i* are /ill s cle>ly m>k$1 s]v$ _m o!r purposes besides ?is milit>y "o ( :i* ,i speak4 ,x has be5 condemn$ z a wa/e ( ef=t1 = x is cle> t a w9d+ road1 avoid+ /eep gradi5ts & turn+ difficulties ( m>% or wood1 requires less ef=t to con/ruct1 mile = mile1 ?an an artificially /raight "o2 & t ev5 :5 y h all[$ = ! extra l5g? ( a w9d+ road1 ! =mula ( lea/ ef=t w nev] give y a long /raight4 ,b y\r /raight road has ! great advantage ( rapid plann+4 ,! ,roman eng9e]s1 especially 9 ! nor?--t is1 9 ,belgium1 ,gaul1 & 9 ,brita9--7 work+ "u campaign conditions1 or 9 c\ntries b rec5tly occupi$4 ,!y 7 "u an imp]ative necessity ( provid+ good communications z quickly z possible1 & = t object ! /raight road 0 obvi\sly ! be/4 ,once y _h det]m9$ ! two po9ts :i* y _h to jo91 y e/abli%$ a track betwe5 !m & c>ri$ x ov] all b ! wor/ ob/acles1 tak+ all b ! wor/ gradi5ts4 ,if y met m>%1 y built a causeway2 :5ev] y came to a riv] cross+1 y ?rew y\r bridge2 :5 y came to a %>p1 n>r[ ridge y made a cutt+4 ,all t meant lab\r1 b z 9 any case y 7 int5d+ to make a great built1 con/ruct$1 rais$ /ructure along ! :ole trajectory ! extra lab\r involv$ 9 a /raight trace 0 n proportionally z heavy z x w\ld be = "o ( our ephem]al mod]n roads4 ,9 o!r words1 ! ,roman eng9e]s set out ^u a plan necess>ily exp5sive4 ,!y set out to make a great public monum5t1 z x 72 & ! extra exp5se ( its /raightness did n weigh 9 ! bill4 ii ,a modification ( ?is t5d5cy to /raight l9es is f\nd proce$+ f ?ree causes4 ,fir/1 :]e & :5 an e/abli%$ track already exi/$ & ! ,roman "w 0 only requir$ to h>d5 & /r5g!n x4 ,ev5 !re ! ,roman eng9e]s w\ld /raight5 portions :i* 7 too w9d+ to fit 9 _! s*eme4 ,b1 app>5tly1 :]e ! track 0 fully e/abli%$ !y tol]at$ a good _m curves1 especially if _! "w came "s "t aft] ! conque/1 :5 ! l& 0 settl$4 ,! second modification ( ! plan is to be f\nd 9 hilly c\ntries4 ,9 ! m\nta9s or v hilly regions ! ,roman eng9e]s ( necessity gave up ! /raight l9e1 & z ^! regions 7 also ! di/ricts :]e on ! heights l>ge g>risons 7 lea/ necess>y !y 7 ! bett] able to ab&on _! g5]al milit>y plan4 ,if y look at a detail$ map ( ! ,roman road sy/em 9 ,gaul or ,brita9 y w see h[ ! mom5t x comes to a brok5 di/rict ! /raight l9es are replac$ by a wav+ trace su* z y w\ld h 9 a mod]n ,engli% road4 ,= in/ance1 beyond ! ,fosse 9 ,dorset%ire & ,devon ! ,roman coa/ road is z w9d+ z any mod]n road c be4 ,! same is true ( ! cross+s ( ! ,ap5n9es1 &1 ( c\rse1 ( ! cross+s ( ! ,alps & ! ,pyr5ees4 ,x seems to be equally true ( ! ,ard5nes gorges1 b ! trace "h is (t5 s mu* oblit]at$ t x is difficult to say exactly h[ ! ,romans dealt ) t mix$ problem ( wood & rav9e4 ,! ?ird modification 0 t ( gradi5t4 ,! ,roman ,road w\ld take a v /eep gradi5t inde$2 b !re 0 a limit1 & :5 ! slope 0 too /eep ! road div]g$ or zig-zagg$1 or took a combe 9 a great curve1 or swept r\nd ! base ( a hill4 ,we h examples ( all ^! po9ts ^u ! map ( ,engl&1 ! be/ ( :i*1 ,i ?9k1 are ! great sweep ( ! ,/ane ,/reet on ,bignor ,hill 9 ,sussex & ! great loop r\nd ,d[n ,b>n1 nor? ( ,&ov]1 on ! road f ,w9*e/] to ,glo'/]4 ,! greate/ +5uity 0 %[n by ! plann]s ( ! ,roman roads 9 ! *oice ( trace4 ,grant$ t y 7 to make a trajectory ( _m days' m>* 9 l>ge /raight limbs1 ea* limb _h to be ?\ght out v c>efully1 /raight ?\gh x 01 to yield some?+ l a m9imum ( ef=t4 ,y _h to make y\r turn+-po9ts1 or h+es1 9 ! sy/em at places :]e ! /raight l9es jo9+ !m w\ld cross wat] or hilly c\ntry to ! be/ advantage1 & x is a/oni%+ ) :at skill ^! t]m9al po9ts ( ! /raight limbs 7 *os54 ,= in/ance1 t "o road ( !m all :i* has be5 mo/ c]ta9ly ( purely milit>y use & design$ to jo9 ,*i*e/] ) ,london 7all ( :i* ,i h work$ out "s ye>s ago & on :i* ,i h writt5 a monograph71#b has its fir/ b5d f ,*i*e/]1 j aft] ! end ( ! fir/ day's m>* at ! cross+ ( ! ,arun on ,burgh ,hill4 ,! angle ( ! b5d is "o ( sev5te5 degrees1 ! direction is nor? by tw5ty-two degrees ea/4 ,n[1 ?is direction ( ! two limbs :i* jo9 at ,burgh ,hill exactly secures two ?+s ess5tial to ! m9imum ( ef=t4 ,"o pla9 /raight f ,*i*e/] to ,lei? ,hill w\ld h involv$ heavy ef=t 9 gradi5ts & wat]4 ,?is plan ( two limbs meet+ at ! ,arun cross+ gives e advantage3 7#a7 ,x makes ! road cross ! int]v5+ range ( ! d[ns j :]e1 by a slight curve1 a reasonable gradi5t c be us$2 7#b7 ,x makes x cross wat] & m>% at ! n>r[e/ po9t betwe5 ,h>dham & ,pulbor\gh1 & at ! same "t j avoids ! d\ble wat] cross+ ( ! ,arun & ! ,ro!r4 ,x is true t !re is "h some?+ ( a co9cid5ce1 b x 0 plan & survey :i* discov]$ t co9cid5ce4 iii ,h[ 7 ^! great /raight limbs plott$ out8 ,t is a "q :i* has be5 fully debat$ b n yet settl$4 ,:]e two ends ( a trajectory 7 9 sight "o f ! o!r ! matt] 0 simple en\gh2 b :at 0 ! me?od us$ :5 ! /raight l9e exce$$ ! horizon3 :5 x 0 c>ri$ on1 = in/ance1 = m ?an ?irty miles1 z is ! case ov] & ov] aga9 9 ! great nor?-ea/]n road f ,p>is to ,cologne1 & 9 ! road f ,ami5s to ,b\logne8 ,:at 0 ! me?od :51 ev5 = less] di/ances1 "o end ( ! trajectory c\ld n be se5 f ! o!r on acc\nt ( int]v5+ hills1 or :]e 9 flat l& =e/s 7 suffici5t to imp$e ! view8 ,"o !ory has be5 t ( smoke signals1 a me?od :i* has be5 f\nd ( use1 ,i believe1 9 b>b>\s c\ntries 9 our own day4 ,we mu/1 ,i ?9k1 c]ta9ly reject x 9 su* a climate z ours4 ,su* signals c\ld only "h be us$ ^u a few days 9 ! ye>1 specially pick$1 & ! ,roman eng9e]s w\ld n h dep5d$ ^u ! caprice ( ! wea!r4 ,!re has also be5 sugge/$ 7,i adopt$ t sugge/ion myself 9 ! monograph ( :i* ,i h j spok57 ! use ( high movable plat=ms1 b ,i n[ ?9k t ?is also %\ld be reject$ on acc\nt ( its clums9ess1 & ( ! fact t 9 an uncle>$ c\ntry x w\ld (t5 be q impractical4 ,! mo/ probable me?od 0 sugge/$ to me by a correspond5t "s ye>s ago1 bas$ ^u 8 own exp]i5ce 9 ! plann+ ( roads 9 new c\ntries4 ,x is ! me?od ( odds & ev5s1 & requires "s description ) ! aid ( a simple plan4 ,suppose t y h to con/ruct a /raight l9e f ,a to ,b1 ,a & ,b n be+ visible "o f ! o!r1 & ! di/ance betwe5 !m be+ consid]able4 ,if y h pl5ty ( m5 ) :i* to "w 7& ! ,roman milit>y comm&]s did n lack ^!71 y w proce$ z foll[s3 ,y s5d out y\r m5 f ei!r end1 9 two *a9s z x 71 ea* individual easily 9 sight ( 8 next neighb\r1 b n ne>] to him ?an is necess>y = ! obs]vation ( signals4 ,^! *a9s ( m5 are ei!r direct$ f ! two ends ( ! l9e1 or1 if y c "w only f "o end1 y s5d !m out f t end1 in/ruct+ ! head ( ! *a9 :5 he comes 9 sight ( ! o!r end to "w t[>ds x & e/abli% himself !re4 ,at ! end ( ! process1 :e!r y h be5 work+ ) two l9es approa*+ ea* o!r f ei!r end & jo9+ h&s 9 ! middle1 or f "o end only1 y w end up ) a l9e :i* w c]ta9ly n be /raight--on ! contr>y1 v irregul>--b :i* w at lea/ jo9 y\r two goals4 ,probably1 if y _h be5 work+ f bo? ends1 ,a & ,b1 y w\ld h some?+ l sket* ,,vi2 :ile if y be work+ f "o end only--,a--! head ( y\r column w\ld probably be widely out at ! conclusion ( y\r exp]im5t4 ,y\r column w\ld h to d\ble back %>ply on to its goal :5 at la/ x 0 caught sight (1 & y w h "s su* trace z on sket* ,v4 ,illu/ration3 ,"p ,,ii1 ,sket* ,v ,"p ,,ii1 ,sket* ,,vi ,at any rate1 hav+ e/abli%$ ?is r\gh w9d+ l9e1 y next make ! m5 numb] !mselves z a l9e does :5 x is dress+1 by odds & ev5s1 or by ones & twos1 s t ! fir/1 ?ird1 fif?1 sev5? man1 etc41 c\nt+ f "o end make "o lot1 or all ! ones make "o lot1 if y are go+ by ones & twos--& ! second1 f\r?1 six?1 eigh? man1 & s on1 make ano!r lot4 ,y bid "o ( ^! sets--say ! odds--to face t[>ds "o goal--say ,b--& ! o!r set to face t[>ds ! o!r goal--,a4 ,la/ly1 y bid !m space !mselves out s t any individual ( "o set c at lea/ cle>ly see 8 fell[ 9 ! same set along ! direction to :i* he faces1 & ! man ( ! o!r set 9 betwe54 ,= in/ance1 ,no4 #ci1 look+ s\? t[>ds ,b1 mu/ be able to see ,no4 #cg1 :o is fac+ ! same way z he is1 & mu/ at ! same "t be able to see ,no4 #ch1 :o is fac+ t[>ds him2 simil>ly1 ,no4 #ch mu/ be able to see ,no4 #dj cle>ly1 & ,no4 #ci 9 betwe54 ,x is cle> t 9 ?ick1 8bl9d0 c\ntry 7z1 = in/ance1 9 woods or 9 tumbl$ l&7 y\r m5 w h to /& fairly close toge!r4 ,b 9 op5 c\ntry !y c be at consid]able di/ances--up to half a mile or m2 s long z e unit c see ! next unit ( ! same set cle>ly1 & h 8 signals receiv$ by ! unit ( ! o!r set 9 betwe51 ! conditions are satisfi$4 ,y\r l9e be+ ?us in/ruct$ 7&1 z anyone may discov] 9 practice1 x is n a v long bus9ess once ! fir/ r\gh *a9 has be5 e/abli%$71 ! numb]s ( ea* set signal to ! int]v5+ numb]s ( ! o!r set alt]natively to move to "r or left until a /raight l9e is locally e/abli%$4 ,illu/ration3 ,"p ,,ii1 ,sket* ,,vii ,"p ,,ii1 ,sket* ,,viii ,= in/ance1 9 sket* ,,vii y beg9 ) ! 8ev5s10 look+ nor?w>d4 ,no4 #ch1 look+ nor? t[>ds ,no4 #dj1 sees t ,no4 #ci 7:o faces him1 look+ s\?7 is some:at too mu* to ! ea/ & does n /& prop]ly betwe5 him & ,no4 #dj4 ,he signals to ,no4 #ci to move we/w>d z along ! dots until ,no4 #ci is at a new position1 %[n by ! dott$ circle exactly betwe5 ,no4 #ch & ,no4 #dj4 ,next1 ,no4 #cf signals to ,no4 #cg1 :o is too mu* to ! we/1 until ,no4 #cg is exactly betwe5 himself & ,no4 #ch4 ,:5 ?is has be5 done all along ! l9e by ! ev5s ! ord] is giv5 to ! odds to repeat ! process f _! new positions4 ,no4 #ci1 look+ s\?w>d f 8 new position at ! dott$ circle1 sees t ,no4 #ch is too f> to ! ea/ to be 9 p]fect alignm5t ) ,no4 #ci's next odd neighb\r ,no4 #cg1 at :om he is look+1 s\?w>d4 ,no4 #ci signals1 !re=e1 to ,no4 #ch1 :o is look+ nor?w>d1 to move we/w>d1 & ,no4 #ch does s until ! signal /ops him1 :5 he is j 9 l9e betwe5 ! new positions ( ,no4 #ci & ,no4 #cg4 ,x w be evid5t t aft] ?is fir/ /age ( ! process ! orig9al irregul> l9e betwe5 ,a & ,b w h be5 mu* /raight5$4 ,y h b to repeat ! manuvre half a doz5 or a doz5 times to get ! :ole body ( m5 into a /rictly /raight l9e betwe5 ! two extremities _m miles ap>t1 & t al?\gh ^? 9 ! middle _c see ei!r extreme & nei!r extremity c see ! o!r4 ,9 !ory ?is me?od c be us$ = an indef9ite ext5t ( c\ntry4 ,9 practice x seems to h be5 us$ 7if x 7 inde$ t ^u :i* ! ,roman eng9e]s reli$7 = spaces sometimes z great z a ?ree days' m>*1 & q (t5 z great z "o day's m>* or m4 iv ,! s*eme ( ,roman roads1 foll[+ 9 ! ma9 ^! great /raight limbs1 cov]$ ! :ole c\ntry1 & 0 = ! mo/ "p complet$1 we may presume1 by ! end ( ! second c5tury4 ,x mu/ n1 ( c\rse1 be imag9$ t ^! great milit>y ways 7 ! only means ( communication 9 ,roman times4 ,_m hi/orians h fall5 into t grotesque error1 ) ! result t hi/ory becomes mean+less to _! read]s4 ,^! great ways 7 only ! ma9 art]ies1 :i* 7 l9k$ up 9 all ! int]v5+ spaces by a mass ( local ways n specially con/ruct$ or eng9e]$--mo/ ( !m presumably aborig9al1 & also ma9ta9$ presumably by a local au?ority4 ,,footnote3 #b ,! ,/ane ,/reet4 ,con/able & ,co4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,! ,,d>k ,,ages ,! ,decl9e ( ! ,roman ,road3 ,! ,p]iod at its ,occurr5ce3 ,gaps3 ,roman ,roads :i* ,fell into ,disuse3 ,! ,relation%ip ( ! ,mod]n to ! ,roman ,sy/em3 ,watl+ ,/reet3 ,/ane ,/reet3 ,! ,%ort ,cut ,betwe5 ,p5kridge & ,*e/]3 ,p$d>s ,way3 ,! com+ ( ! ,new ,civilization 9 ! ,twelf? ,c5tury4 i ,! next phase 9 ! developm5t ( ! ,engli% ,road is ! v gradual breakd[n ( ! great ,roman ways4 ,! ,d>k ,ages--t is1 ! #ejj or #fjj ye>s betwe5 ! fif? & ! t5? or elev5? c5turies--=m$ ! p]iod dur+ :i* ?is process took place4 ,! ,roman ,road 9 ,engl& suff]$ ! fate ( all our anci5t civilization4 ,x v sl[ly decl9$ & co>s5$1 b x rema9$ ! "o necess>y means ( communication4 ,we h no dates & no contempor>y record aft] ! f\r? c5tury = ,brita91 b we h ! analogy ( ,nor!rn ,france1 9 :i* we "k t ! upkeep & repair ( ! great ,roman roads cont9u$ until well into ! sev5? c5tury1 & we h ! evid5ce ( ! ,roman roads z !y n[ /& be=e u1 ) ! result ( _! v gradual & only p>tial breakd[n 9 a use ( c5turies4 ,we h also ! fact t mu* ! mo/ ( ! great battles took place on or ne> ! ,roman roads until ! twelf? c5tury1 t mo/ ( ! new great mona/ic & o!r h\ses 7 built ne> !m1 or on !m1 & t ! ports mo/ commonly us$ 9 ! ,d>k ,ages 7 ne>ly always ports ) a ,roman road s]v+ !m4 ,we c !reby r\ghly judge 7al?\gh we h no direct evid5ce7 :at happ5$ to ! sy/em4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! ,roman ,road 0 s solidly built t c5turies ( neglect did n entirely de/roy its usefulness4 ,sections ( ea* road disappe>$3 "s f causes :i* are easily explicable1 "s "u ! mo/ obscure conditions ! causes ( :i* x seems impossible to discov]4 ,e great ,roman road 9 ,europe1 & ev5 ^? 9 ,brita9 7:i* are bett] pres]v$ ?an ^? 9 ! mo/ "p ( ! ,cont95t7 %[s ^! gaps4 ,sometimes a :ole great section ( road w almo/ entirely disappe>--m (t5 x is a /ret* ( a few miles4 ,?us ! :ole ( ! %ort cut ?r\gh ,p5kridge to ,*e/]1 :i* c]ta9ly exi/$ & "s elem5ts ( :i* c be recon/itut$1 has disappe>$2 s t mo/ maps ( ,roman ,brita9 errone\sly m>k ! connection betwe5 ,london & ,*e/] z go+ r\nd by ,%rewsbury4 ,z an example ( a %ort "p utt]ly disappe>+1 "o c take any "o out ( hundr$s2 ! be/ example ne> ,london 7typical ( _m o!rs7 is ! gap 9 ! ,roman road betwe5 ! ,epsom racec\rse & ,m]ton4 ,! road is evid5t z a cle>ly m>k$ high embankm5t above ! /eep rise at ,junip] ,hill ne> ! ,dork+ road to )9 a mile ( ,epsom racec\rse4 ,!n x sudd5ly ceases4 ,!re is no *ange 9 ! soil4 ,x is on *alk be=e & aft] its disappe>ance2 & yet1 j "h1 at ab\t a mile f ,epsom racec\rse1 x completely & totally disappe>s4 ,!re is no trace ev5 ( its f\ndation left f !nce onw>ds nor?w>ds until y get to ! site at ,m]ton 7:i* 0 /ate l& & almo/ c]ta9ly ! la/ camp & halt+-place on ! road be=e ,london74 ,h[ ! road cross$ ! m>%es ( ! ,w&le we c only conjecture1 z we c only conjecture :]e x lay exactly betwe5 ,epsom & ^? m>%es4 ,:y x %\ld disappe> 9 ! m>%es is evid5t en\gh4 ,! causeway sank 94 ,:y x %\ld disappe> "u ! pl\gh to ! s\? ( ! m>%es1 z ,roman roads ne>ly always d on arable l&1 c also be expla9$4 ,b :y x %\ld :olly disappe> on ! la/ mile or two ( *alk is inexplicable4 ,"o !ory put =w>d is t 9 ! great w>s ( ! ,d>k ,ages portions ( ! road 7 delib]ately de/roy$ to imp$e ! progress ( an enemy1 j z a railway may be de/roy$ 9 mod]n w>f>e4 ,b ?is !ory w h>dly hold wat]4 ,! gaps t h disappe>$ ?us1 (t5 come j :]e y h ! be/ soil = m>*+ indep5d5tly ( artifice1 & :]e1 !re=e1 an int]ruption ( !m w\ld lea/ incommode an advance4 ,= in/ance1 !y are p]petually f\nd on high *alk2 &1 fur!r1 ! disappe>ance is h>dly ev] connect$ ) a def5sive position4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( ! developm5t ( ! ,engli% road sy/em mu* ! mo/ int]e/+ po9t 9 ! fate :i* befell ! ,roman roads is to be f\nd at ! cross+s ( riv]s1 especially ( riv]s :i* h m>%y banks or fl[ ?r\gh wood or sodd5 valleys4 ,! neglect$ ,roman embankm5t across ! m>% fell out ( use 9 ! ,d>k ,ages4 ,probably ! bridge fir/ broke d[n1 & ! b>b>\s "t _h n ! en]gy or skill to repair x2 !n ! m]e process ( "t caus$ ! swall[+ up ( ! ,roman viaduct1 unreliev$ by repair1 9 all m>%y l&4 ,x is difficult to affirm a negative1 b ,i c recall n "o example ( a long ,roman viaduct /ill :olly 9 use across su* an approa* to wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,d]elict ,,road ,,scotti% ,,highl&s ,:at happ5$1 !n1 9 ^! sections 0 ?is4 ,! bridge & ! viaduct disappe>$ 9 ! ,d>k ,ages--t is1 "s "t betwe5 ! f\r? & ! elev5? c5turies4 ,sometimes ?is gap l$ to ! complete isolation ( ! di/rict imm$iately conc]n$4 ,! be/ example ,i "k ( ?is is ! breakd[n ( ! cross+ ( ! ,arun at ,romans ,wood1 9 ! c\nty ( ,sussex4 ,!re ! ,roman road 0 a h>d causeway ov] v ?ick clay l&1 q impassable = armies 9 w9t]1 & rapidly ov]gr[n by oak scrub & ?orn :5 neglect$4 ,! result ( ! break+ d[n ( ! ,roman bridge at ! 8,romans ,wood0 cross+ 0 to isolate ,we/ ,sussex4 ,!re 0 no o!r way f ! nor?1 = ! clay & ?orn scrub rapidly arose & oblit]at$ ! road4 ,x 0 9 use z f> s\? f ,london z ,ockley2 b ! breakd[n ( ! bridge at ,alfoldean broke ! cont9uity fur!r on1 & t1 ,i believe1 is "o ( ! reasons :y ,sussex 0 s isolat$ z only to be conv]t$ to ! ,*ri/ian religion a hundr$ ye>s lat] ?an ! re/ ( ! c\ntry4 ,b to return to ! behavi\r ( ! ,roman ,road 9 ! m>%y approa*es ( a riv]4 ,i say t ! embankm5t hav+ be5 swall[$ up & ! bridge brok51 ! m5 ( ! ,d>k ,ages _h to f9d = !mselves "s new way ( cross+1 & x is int]e/+ to note t !y "h fell back ^u ! primitive me?ods common be=e ,roman civilization came4 ,!y ab&on$ ! /raight l9e & pick$ _! way by ! drie/ bits !y c\ld f9d1 s t ! new cross+ ( ! m>%y di/rict grew up s9u\s & haphaz>d4 ,lat]1 :5 ! new road sy/em develop$ ) ! ,middle ,ages1 ?is new road 0 (t5 /raight5$ & a new bridge ?r[n across ! riv] ^u its l9e2 b1 save = a v few exceptions1 ! ,roman approa* _h disappe>$4 ,!re are scores ( examples ( ?is up & d[n ! c\ntry4 ,! mo/ prom95t usually be> su* names z ,/am=d1 ,/an=d1 ,/af=d1 ,/rat=d1 ,/ret=d1 etc41 all ( :i* come ei!r f ! ^w 8/reet0 or ! ^w 8/one10 c\pl$ ) ! ^w 8=d40 ,!y ?us signify t 9 ! valleys ( ! riv] ! 8go+0 or passage _h be5 h>d5$ artificially ) /one d]iv$ f ,roman "w4 ,a v good example ( ! way 9 :i* ! new] track replac$ ! old] "o is to be f\nd at ,/am=d1 9 ,nor?ampton%ire4 ,! accompany+ sket* %[s ! trace ( ! ,roman road f its leav+ ,burghley ,p>k to ! old cross+ ( ! riv] & beyond4 ,!re are /ill brok5 traces ( ! old embankm5t on ! nor? side ( ! /ream1 b x is cle> t ?is /raight l9e across ! m>% broke d[n1 t a new way 0 pick$ out & sl[ly h>d5$1 & a new bridge built to suit x4 ,:at ! m5 ( ! ,d>k ,ages did "h 0 to keep to ! dri] pat*es to ! ea/ :]e a =d cross$ ! riv]1 & !n curve r\nd aga9 we/w>d1 aga9 to jo9 ! road on ! heights nor? ( ! riv]4 ,?is new passage took ov] ! "n ( ! 8,/one0 =d1 :]e ! old road _h cross$4 ,a bridge 0 ?r[n 9 due "t across ! new =d1 & ! t[n %ift$ t[>ds ! new bridge & acquir$ its new "n f ! cross+4 ,illu/ration3 ,"p ,,ii1 ,sket* ,,ix ,"o =m ( ! ,roman ,road1 & "o only--a v r>e =m--nev] disappe>s3 x is ! cutt+ ?r\gh h>d s&4 ,"h & !re 9 ,engl&--,i "k n h[ (t51 b ,i h myself f\nd few traces ( !m2 ,i %\ld d\bt if !re 7 mu* m ?an a doz5--y get a cle> cutt+ ^u a ,roman road s]v+ no mod]n or useful purpose1 & almo/ c]ta9ly dat+ f ! con/ruction ( ! way4 ,!re is ! trace ( ! "o at ,a%ur/1 ne> my home--t ) :i* ,i am mo/ famili> & :i* ,i h measur$ mo/ c>efully4 ,if ! cutt+ be made 9 dry s&y soil ( fair consi/5cy & h>dness1 x c rema9 almo/ indef9itely ) an unmi/akable outl9e4 ,!re may naturally h be5 _m o!r cutt+s orig9ally 9 s(t] or m yield+ soils :i* h got fill$ up1 b ! only ones ,i "k are ?r\gh s&1 :i* soil also t5ds to =m ^? %>p ridges ?r\gh :i* a cutt+ might sugge/ itself z m economical ?an a too /eep gradi5t4 ii ,! ,roman ,road n only disappe>s ?r\gh causes :i* ,i h call$ inexplicable & "u ! obvi\s influ5ce ( m>% or ( cultivation1 x also fell into disuse1 ev5 :]e x did n disappe>1 = reasons bo? explicable & inexplicable4 ,!re are cases :]e ! fall+ into disuse is frankly n to be expla9$1 ?\gh ^! ,i h f\nd ma9ly ^u ! ,cont95t4 ,= in/ance1 9 ! road f ,rheims to ,*alons y h ! ,roman road runn+ almo/ p>allel to ! lat] road1 ! lat] trace hav+ be5 made = no reason t we c discov]--n s]v+ any new t[ns or villages--a m]e duplicate ( ! old way4 ,b !re are m cases :]e ! disuse ( a section ( ! ,roman ,road c cle>ly be expla9$ by ! ne$ = visit+ c5tres ( population1 production1 & comm]ce4 ,! ,roman sy/em = ! s]v+ ( places (f ! ma9 /raight road 0 by side roads p]p5dicul> to ! ma9 road4 ,! relics ( ^! y /ill see on _m ( ! ,cont95tal roads--a direct p]p5dicul> lane or av5ue jo9+ up ! *teau & its dep5d5cies or ! neighb\r+ t[n ) ! ma9 highway4 ,:5 ! ,d>k ,ages came & ! ma9 roads degrad$1 ! by-lanes & pa?s :i* _h gr[n up z (f%oots to !m & :i* l$ to ! e/ates & villages & t[ns & ports & qu>ries1 etc41 to "o side or ! o!r ( ! ,road came to be us$ m frequ5tly4 ,! ma9 travel betwe5 di/ant t[ns 0 less1 ! local travel grew m important 9 proportion4 ,& z ?is developm5t proce$$ sections ( ! ,roman ,road t5d$ to fall into disuse4 ,! local roads w\ld be ma9ta9$ & ! section ( ma9 road w\ld be left unrepair$4 ,we h se5 t ! ma9 cause ( ! break+ d[n ( ! ,roman ,road 0 m>% & ! cross+ ( riv] valleys4 ,n only 0 ?is process true ( natural m>%es1 especially at ! sides ( a riv]1 x 0 true ( a special case :i* is reproduc$ ov] & ov] aga9 on ! map ( ,engl&1 & = :i* ,i w take z a p>ticul> example a v f9e case ne> ,norton ,p>k1 9 ,nor?ampton%ire4 ,illu/ration3 ,"p ,,ii1 ,sket* ,x ,"h ! ,watl+ ,/reet1 ! great ,roman road f ,london to ! nor?-we/1 cross$ ! valley ( an insignificant /ream2 !re 0 no m>% orig9ally1 & !re is none to-day4 ,!re 0 only a small runn+ ( wat]1 ov] :i* a culv]t 0 ?r[n4 ,! /ream ran "u ! ma9 ,roman embankm5t ?r\gh ?is culv]t4 ,n[1 :5 ! ,d>k ,ages came & ! roads fell into disrepair ! fir/ ?+s to g1 naturally1 7 ! culv]ts4 ,!y got block$ up4 ,once !y got block$ up ! wat] damm$ up on ! high] side & began to und]m9e ! embankm5t4 ,by ! "t ?is _h made ! road1 ?\gh /ill /&+1 impassable1 travel _h f\nd a new way1 usually d[n ! /ream away f ! m]e ?us =m$4 ,fur!r c5turies & ! recov]y ( civilization cle>$ ! gr\nd3 ! embankm5t ei!r 0 wa%$ away or swall[$ up 9 ! m]e & its subsequ5t m>%1 ! /ream resum$ its orig9al c\rse1 ! dry gr\nd reappe>$1 b ! trace ( ! ,roman road ^u ei!r side across ! depression 0 lo/ = ev] & !re 0 sub/itut$ = x ! mod]n road1 mak+ a curve out ( ! direct l9e & only recov]+ x aga9 aft] ! ob/acle _h be5 pass$4 iii ,! gradual decay ( ! ,roman ,road 9 ! ,d>k ,ages 0 n ev]y:]e ! same1 & ! consequ5ce is t ! rema9+ fragm5ts ( ,roman roads are connect$ 9 diff]5t ways ) ! mod]n road sy/em :i* gradually grew out ( !m4 ,!re are f\r types--ov]lapp+1 ( c\rse--( ! fate atta*+ to ! ,roman roads ( ?is c\ntry4 ,!y are1 z ,i h said1 ! root ( all our road sy/em4 ,all ,engli% roads subsequ5t to ! p]iod ( ! ,roman occupation h gr[n out ( ! great network laid d[n = ev] by ! ,roman eng9e]s4 ,b ! =tune :i* ! orig9al road suff]$1 ! way 9 :i* a mod]n sy/em develop$ f x1 7 n uni=m4 ,!re 7 f\r div]g5t developm5ts1 :i* ran ?us3 7#a7 ,! ,roman ,road is pres]v$ z a basis ( ! mod]n road1 & rema9s a ma9 art]y3 ( ?is ! great example is ! ,watl+ ,/reet1 9 ! fir/ few days' m>*es nor?-we/ ( ,london4 7#b7 ,! ,roman ,road rema9s cle>ly ! basis ( ! sy/em ( local roads :i* develop$ f x1 &1 ?\gh disappe>+ 9 sections1 is1 ^u ! :ole1 pres]v$2 ( ^! ! great example is ! ,/ane ,/reet road f ,*i*e/] to ,london4 7#c7 ,! ,roman ,road1 hav+ produc$ a sy/em ( local roads bas$ ^u x1 has almo/ entirely disappe>$ & has left ! local sy/em alone to witness to its orig9al importance1 j z filigree "w rema9s aft] y h melt$ away ! core ( wax ^u :i* x 0 built4 ,examples ( ?is are v difficult to discov]1 precisely because ! orig9al c\ntry has gone4 ,b ! process c be foll[$ "h & !re by a c>eful exam9ation1 & ,i ?9k t1 ^u ! :ole1 ! be/ example is t ( ! s]ies ( roads :i* grew up out ( ! %ort cut betwe5 ,p5kridge & ,*e/]4 7#d7 ,! ,roman ,road rema9s1 9 "s p>ts at lea/1 b1 its orig9al purpose hav+ be5 su* t x 0 ( no cont9ual use 9 ! ,d>k ,ages1 ! local sy/em ( roads c only indirectly be ref]r$ to x4 ,( ?is ! great example is ! fam\s ,p$d>s ,way1 runn+ ?r\gh ,ea/ ,anglia4 iv 7#a7 ,! pres]vation ( ! ,watl+ ,/reet z an example ( a cont9u\sly us$ ,roman road = sev]al days' m>* nor?-we/ ( ,london is due to v>i\s causes4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x 0 v little int]rupt$ by m>%4 ,x ran ev]y:]e on dry l&1 & ! ma9 cause ( breakd[n--! swall[+ up ( a causeway aft] ! de/ruction ( its bridge--did n affect x4 ,b ?is is ! lea/ ( ! causes :i* h pres]v$ ?is piece ( road4 ,second1 & m important1 0 ! e/abli%m5t along x ( set /ations :i* rema9$ inhabit$1 & ! *a9 ( :i* 0 n int]rupt$ by active w>f>e4 ,watl+ ,/reet "h pres5ts v int]e/+ evid5ce ( :at really happ5$ dur+ ^? e>ly pirate raids :i* are g5]ally1 b errone\sly1 call$ ! ,anglo-,saxon ,conque/4 ,!y did n s s]i\sly di/urb ! life ( ! c\ntry z to break d[n ?is ma9 art]y ( communication4 ,x lies transv]se to ! raids1 & yet x 0 ma9ta9$4 ,& 9 ?is connection we mu/ also note ! cont9u$ importance ( ,london4 ,great ,roman t[ns suff]$1 ( c\rse1 f ! pirate raids betwe5 7some:at be=e7 ! ye> #ejj & ! ye> #fjj1 z did all ! re/ ( ! isl&4 ,!y suff]$ n only f ^? raids ( pirates across ! ,nor? ,sea1 b also f ! raids ( pirates f ,irel&1 & also f ! raids ( ,highl&]s com+ ov] ! wall f ! nor?4 ,b ?\gh !y suff]$ !y kept _! place 9 ! national s*eme4 ,no prov9ce 9 ! ,roman ,empire lo/ less ( its t[n sites 9 ! ,d>k ,ages ?an did ,engl&4 ,no "p ( ,europe has s l>ge a numb] ( old t[ns bas$ ^u ,roman f\ndations3 & ,london 0 ! *ief ( !m all4 ,london may h be5 di/urb$ by ! raids--x probably 04 ,!re 0 probably a c]ta9 am\nt ( loot+ f "t to "t1 & a good deal ( fight+ outside its walls1 b x always ma9ta9$ its p]man5ce1 its "* ( be+ ! economic c5tre ( ! isl&4 ,x is p>ticul>ly noticeable t e great ,roman road out ( ,london has rema9$ intact1 & ,watl+ ,/reet beyond o!rs4 ,! ?ird cause ( survival 0 probably ! excell5ce ( ! orig9al con/ruction1 ?\gh "h we mu/ hesitate a little because we _c b note t ! ,great ,nor? ,road to ,york1 :i* 0 q z important & :i* 0 tw9 to ! nor?-we/]n road1 has suff]$ v griev\s modification inde$4 ,b !re c be no d\bt t ! con/ruction ( ! ,watl+ ,/reet 0 v ?or\gh1 & t ?is exp5diture ( economic ef=t pres]v$ x ?r\gh ! ,d>k ,ages z mu* z any?+ did4 ,oddly en\gh1 :at is 9 mo/ cases ! /ronge/ motive ( all = ! pres]vation ( a road 0 "h entirely abs5t1 & t is :at ,i h call$ ! 8pot5tial0 betwe5 ! two t]m9als4 ,:5 !re is a long & cont9u$ motive = jo9+ up two t]m9al po9ts ! ,road has a cause ( survival sup]ior to any o!r4 ,!re 01 & rema9s to ?is day1 an extremely /rong 8pot5tial0 ( ?is k9d betwe5 ! ports s]v+ ! ,*annel /raits1 ) _! nucleus at ,cant]bury1 & ! economic capital inl& at ,london4 ,x !re=e1 z ! ,roman road betwe5 ! "o t]m9al & ! o!r1 rema9$ p]man5t ?r\gh\t ! c5turies1 ) ! exception ( ! deflection t[>ds ! ,?ames :i* grew up 9 ! ,d>k ,ages to s]ve ! l&+ places at ,graves5d4 ,b su* a 8pot5tial0 is entirely lack+ = ! nor?-we/]n road communication--s f> z we "k--to g betwe5 ,london & ,*e/]4 ,! trade ) ,irel& ceas$ almo/ dur+ ! e>ly ,d>k ,ages4 ,! nor?-we/]n road l$ n[h]e4 ,if x 0 pres]v$1 !re=e1 z x has be5 pres]v$1 x mu/ h be5 due to o!r causes :i* escape u4 ,!re x runs1 h[ev]1 /ill almo/ un9t]rupt$ly us$1 f ! ,m>ble ,ar* 9 ,london to ,oak5gates 9 ,%rop%ire1 & 9 places /ill acts z "p ( ! ma9 art]y lead+ f s\?-ea/ to nor?-we/4 v 7#b7 ,,/ane ,,/reet4 ,! ,/ane ,/reet 7:i* ,i mu/ be excus$ = quot+ s cont9u\sly z ,i "k x 9 great detail7 is1 ,i ?9k1 ! lead+ example ( a road /ill rema9+ = ! mo/ "p & cle>ly %[+ h[ ! lat] sy/ems 7 built up ^u a ,roman backbone4 ,i w take ! lib]ty ( recapitulat+ "h my argum5t1 develop$ at great] l5g? 9 my monograph on ?is ,way4 ,! orig9al motive ( ! ,/ane ,/reet 0 ! connect+ ( ! ,*i*e/] ,h>b\rs1 & indirectly ( ,portsm\? ,h>b\r1 ) ,london by a road :i* %\ld ov]come ! difficulties ( ! ,weald4 ,! ,weald is a mass ( /iff clay1 impassable to g5]al traffic = six mon?s ( ! ye> unless "o uses artificial means4 ,left to itself x turns rapidly into a wa/e ( oak & ?orn scrub3 save 9 ! dry mon?s1 !re is no go+ ov] x 9 its natural /ate = armies or bodies ( :eel$ vehicles4 ,its wat]c\rses are num]\s1 muddy1 difficult ( approa*1 & s(t at bottom4 ,x produces no?+ save 9 mom5ts ( high civilization1 :5 x c be heavily capitaliz$ by dra9+ & p5etrat$ by exp5sive artificial communications4 ,! supply ( good wat] is r>e & caprici\s4 ,! ,weald 01 !re=e1 ! great ob/acle betwe5 ! s\? coa/ & ! ,?ames4 ,because x 0 su* an ob/acle ! ,romans drove _! fir/ great road f ! ma9 h>b\r ( ,portsm\? to ! capital r\nd we/w>d by ,w9*e/]1 ,sil*e/]1 & ,/a9es2 b !y ne$$ a supplem5t>y road1 = two reasons4 ,fir/1 !y want$ a %ort cut to s]ve ,portsm\? & ! less] inlets collectively call$ ,*i*e/] ,h>b\rs 7,bo%am appe>s to h be5 an (ficial port ?r\gh\t ! ,d>k ,ages72 &1 secondly1 !y want$ to be able to rea* quickly = purposes ( travel & comm]ce ! v f]tile sea pla9 ( :i* ,*i*e/] is ! capital4 ,!re=e did !y con/ruct ! mo/ purely milit>y & mo/ direct ( all ! ,roman roads 9 ! isl&1 ! ,/ane ,/reet4 ,x ran f ! ea/ gate ( ,*i*e/] 9 a direct l9e to ! cross+ ( ! ,arun at ,pulbor\gh1 ) a camp at ! end ( ?is fir/ day's m>* to def5d x2 !nce x made 9 ano!r great /raight limb = ! %\ld] ( ,lei? ,hill1 ) a camp at ! second cross+ ( ! upp] ,arun at ,romans ,wood2 !nce by a s]ies ( mu* %ort] limbs to ! ?ird camp at ,dork+2 !nce ov] ! ,mole at ,bur=d ,bridge & ov] ! ,epsom ,d[ns pa/ ! racec\rse to ! f\r? camp at ,m]ton1 & !nce to ,london ,bridge--a five-m>* /age4 ,9 ! ,d>k ,ages ! ,weald became impassable aga91 ! causeway on ! ,arun m>%es broke d[n & 0 swall[$ up4 ,! bridge at ,alfoldean broke d[n1 & ,sussex 0 isolat$ f ! nor?4 ,fur!r1 ) ! abs5ce ( any exit = direct & rapid communication betwe5 ,*i*e/] & ,london ! mean+ w5t out ( ! road betwe5 ,dork+ & ,m]ton4 ,m]ton 0 close en\gh to ,london to give ! road vitality aga91 & betwe5 ?is & ,london x 0 nev] lo/4 ,x runs to ?is day1 & is ! ma9 l9e ( tramways ^u :i* p /ill travel f ,/rea?am & ,balham to ! ,bor\gh4 ,x is only deflect$ at ! end by ! intricacies ( ! ,s\?w>k /reets4 ,n[1 if y look at ! pres5t s*eme ( roads surr\nd+ ?is orig9al ,roman core !y look at fir/ z ?\gh !y _h no connection ) x1 b :5 y exam9e !m 9 detail ! way 9 :i* !y grew up out ( ! ,roman road is cle>4 ,e deflection c be acc\nt$ =1 & ! developm5t ( ! local sy/ems f ! orig9al cont9u\s backbone becomes evid5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,"p ,,ii1 ,sket* ,,xi ,fir/ y h all ,sussex s\? ( ,pulbor\gh ,m>%1 & aga9 s\? ( ,alfoldean ,bridge1 isolat$4 ,:at happ5s8 ,!re rema9$ no reason = us+ ! ,/ane ,/reet z a cont9u\s l9e4 ,x n[ l$ n[h]e4 ,:5 x meets ) its fir/ great ob/acle go+ nor?1 ! woods ne> ,e>?am1 x makes = ! next c5tre ( population--,petwor?1 :]e !re 0 a =tifi$ po/ go+ back to "s v e>ly "t4 ,! wood deflects ! road t[>ds ,duncton ,hill 7,i h quot$ ?is example 9 my section on vegetation 9 ! e>li] "p ( ?is essay74 ,beyond ,petwor? x _h little function1 s ?is fir/ t5 miles ( ! ,/ane ,/reet becomes ! p>5t ( ! local ,*i*e/]-,petwor? road :i* grew up out ( x1 leav+ a gap :]e ! woods int]v5$4 ,next y mu/ note ! local roads beyond ?is gap4 ,pulbor\gh ,bridge probably surviv$1 b ! causeway c\ld n be kept up1 or 0 ill kept up4 ,9 its orig9al l9e1 :5 x s]v$ ! camp at ,h>dham1 x ran ov] a wide "p ( ! m>%4 ,9 ! ,d>k ,ages m5 pick$ _! way ov] ! n>r[e/ "p ( ! m>% & !n foll[$ ! h>d bank above ! ,arun-flood$ levels1 l9k+ up ! villages z f> z ,bignor4 ,b !re ! use ( ! road end$4 ,! 8pot5tial0 0 f ,pulbor\gh to ! ne>e/ seaport1 :i* 0 !n ,arundel4 ,& all t ! ,roman road did 9 ?is section 0 to ?r[ out ?is b[ or curve ( lat]al road ea/w>d betwe5 ,pulbor\gh & ,bignor1 ! l9e ( ma9 local travel be+ div]t$ f ,bury ov] ,arundel ,hill & s seaw>d4 ,9 ! section nor? ( ,pulbor\gh ! ,roman road /ill s]v$ a few scatt]$ home/eads 9 ! ,d>k ,ages up to ,bill+%ur/ at lea/1 b aga9 x l$ n[h]e because ! bridge at ,romans ,wood 0 brok5 d[n & ! high weald beyond 0 a mass ( scrub gr[+ on /iff clay4 ,! road pet]$ out & began aga9 ) h>d] go+ ne> ,ockley4 ,b x 0 n us$ ov] ! %\ld] ( ,lei? ,hill1 because t trace subs]v$ no local use & yet compell$ ! travell] to /eep gradi5ts4 ,travel 0 deflect$ r\nd ! base ( ! hills to ,dork+1 l9k+ up ! m populat$ "p :]e ! wat] spr+s 74 ,?is new trace1 gr[+ up obvi\sly out ( ! ,roman road1 op5s up to ! ea/w>d = a mile or two ( ! way until x jo9s up 9 ! he>t ( ,dork+ itself1 :]e ! ?ird camp 01 out ( :i* ! t[n ( ,dork+ has gr[n1 & :]e 9 ! *ur*y>d ! ,roman road c /ill be trac$ pass+ ?r\gh4 ,f ,dork+ onw>ds "o might h imag9$ t x w\ld h surviv$ all ! way to ,london4 ,:y did x n d s8 ,x 0 a matt] ( gradi5ts & ( c5tres ( population4 ,9 ! ,d>k ,ages1 :5 !re 0 little necessity = mak+ a direct l9e betwe5 ,dork+ & ,london--no cont9ual m>*+ ( great ,roman =ces1 no convey+ ( ord]s f a c5traliz$ gov]nm5t--m5 took ! easi] way4 ,!y ab&on$ ! up-&-d[n ( ! spur ( l& ly+ imm$iately nor? ( ,dork+ & w5t r\nd by its base to save ! tr\ble ( ! little climb4 ,!y us$ ! ,roman bridge 7:i* app>5tly surviv$ at ,bur=d71 b ! v /eep leap up on to ! ,epsom ,d[ns !y ab&on$1 especially z ! fur!r progress ( ! road ov] ! *alk connect$ no c5tres ( population4 ,! way curl$ r\nd by ,mi*elham & ,lea!rhead & came r\nd to ,epsom--all places suitable = c5tres ( population ) l[ wat] levels & no heavy gradi5ts 9 betwe54 ,! ,roman road on ! high wat]less *alk above 0 left ab&on$4 ,:at happ5$ betwe5 ,epsom & ,m]ton has be5 already describ$4 ,!re is only "o div]g5ce 9 ?is section1 :i* is :]e ! road ( ! ,d>k ,ages deflect$ some:at to ! left & 0 us$ to avoid ! l[ wet gr\nd bel[ ,clapham ,common4 ,= ! re/ x ma9ta9$ its use4 ,illu/ration3 ,,erm9e ,,/reet ,,ne> ,,roy/on 7#c7 ,! be/ example ,i "k1 z ,i h said1 ( a ,roman road ! evid5ces ( :i* h ne>ly disappe>$1 b r\nd :i* local roads h gr[n & :i* c /ill be id5tifi$ z ! core ( ^!1 is ! %ort cut betwe5 ,p5kridge & ,*e/]4 ,x is v puzzl+ :y ! ,roman road %\ld "h h disappe>$4 ,x is p]haps be/ to be expla9$ by ! cont9ual fight+ betwe5 ! ,ea/]n & ! ,we/]n troops1 :i* mu/ h ravag$ all t c\ntry betwe5 ! fir/ ( ! raids & ! full conv]sion ( ,engl& to civilization & ! ,*ri/ian religion :i* 0 ! "w ( ! sev5? c5tury4 ,b1 :atev] ! cause or circum/ances1 ! ph5om5on is q pla94 ,! local roads develop$ = purely local purposes on ei!r side ( ! orig9al ,roman l9e1 & t l9e1 s9ce !re is no long] requir$ any cont9u\s traffic along x1 disappe>s4 vi 7#d7 ,la/ly1 we h ! ,p$d>s ,way4 ,x has pres5t$ a v difficult problem to all hi/orians1 b ,i ?9k a solution is to be guess$ at1 ?\gh n to be too /rongly affirm$4 ,! ,p$d>s ,way runs z a ma9 art]y "r ?r\gh ,suffolk & ,norfolk4 ,its orig9 0 cle>ly ,/rat=d ,/4 ,m>y's1 on ! s\!rn edge ( ,suffolk1 & x 0 built to l9k up t wat] cross+ ) "s h>b\r n[ disappe>$ on ! ,wa%4 ,its use has dropp$ out2 local roads are only conc]n$ ) x 9 a %ort section1 & m5 argue ?us3 :y 0 x ev] made1 &1 if made1 :y did x fail z a means ( communication8 ,i ?9k ! answ] is milit>y4 ,! ,p$d>s ,way nev] l9k$ up any c5tres ( population4 ,x goes ?r\gh l& :]e m5 h nev] built cities or ev5 l>ge villages4 ,b :at x w\ld d z a milit>y road1 :at ,i ?9k x 0 design$ to d1 0 ! hold+ ( all t solid block ( ,ea/ ,anglia :i* app>5tly exactly corresponds ) ! t]ritory ( ! ,ic5i4 ,= we mu/ rememb]1 z ,i h said above1 t our c\nty sy/em is probably ,roman 9 orig91 & mo/ ( x corresponds to tribal divisions e>li] ev5 ?an ! ,roman adm9i/ration4 ,x is a po9t t has (t5 be5 d5i$1 b ^? :o d5y x fail to rem>k ! analogy ( ! ,cont95t1 ! evid5ce ( ,k5t1 ,sussex1 ,dorset%ire1 & ,essex1 ap>t f ! /rik+ li/ ( t mass ( c\nties :i* all c5tre r\nd a ,roman t[n or a t[n gr[n up z ! suburb ( a ,roman t[n--,leice/]%ire1 ,worce/]%ire1 ,hunt+don%ire1 ,gl\ce/]%ire1 etc4 ,! ,p$d>s ,way cuts "r across ,ea/ ,anglia ?r\gh its v c5tre1 s t a *a9 ( /ations along x comm&s ! :ole t]ritory4 ,x fur!r divides t t]ritory into two--a t]ritory :i* 0 ! sc5e ( a great revolt 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ,roman occupation4 ,x cont9u$ to subs]ve a c]ta9 function to ! v end1 because f x z a base "o c radiate to ?reat5$ po9ts ^u ! coa/ :5 ! pirate raids began 9 ! middle ( ! ,roman occupation4 ,:51 9 ! ,d>k ,ages1 ! :ole isl& fell into di/ricts1 fight+ "o aga9/ ! o!r1 ea* ) its local k+1 ! :ole a *aos & a welt]1 ! ,p$d>s ,way entirely lo/ its mean+ & value4 ,!re 0 no long] "o gov]nm5t or "o army4 ,!re 0 no ne$ = ! controll+ ( a subject populace1 = ! populace _h ceas$ to be subject save to its local *iefs4 ,su* few m5 z /ill came ov] ! ,nor? ,sea 7 n1 until ! ,dani% invasion1 enemies1 & z ! ,p$d>s ,way s]v$ no l9e ( villages or ( t[ns x fell completely out ( use4 ,!re is "o v curi\s puzzle ab\t ?is fam\s road1 & :i* has nev] be5 settl$1 & to :i* ,i (f] no m ?an an attempt at solution4 ,we are fairly c]ta9 t "o ( ! great ,roman /ations = ! repell+ ( raids lay at ,branca/]1 ^u ! ,wa%4 ,yet ! ,p$d>s ,way does n make = ,branca/]1 b = a po9t ab\t f\r miles to ! ea/ along ! coa/4 ,:y is ?is8 ,!re has be5 sugge/$ a f]ry across ! ,wa%1 b t hypo!sis _c be ent]ta9$4 ,! di/ance is "o ( elev5 miles ov] v difficult wat]1 & lead+ to no important di/rict4 ,we h1 ,i ?9k1 ! key to ! position 9 ! pres5ce ( a h>b\r :i* has be5 de/roy$ by erosion4 ,all t coa/ has be5 modifi$ p]petually dur+ ! la/ two ?\s& ye>s ?r\gh ! vag>ies ( ! sea4 ,( ! great h>b\rs ( ! ,middle ,ages1 ,dunwi* to ! s\? has disappe>$1 ,or=d is block$ & is decay$4 ,y>m\?1 on ! o!r h&1 has gr[n up f a %+le bank into a t[n1 & ,breydon ,wat] has *ang$ f an e/u>y into a l&-lock$ broad4 ,i _c d\bt t !re 0 "s h>b\r at ! end ( ! ,p$d>s ,way :i* ! sea has de/roy$4 ,branca/]1 ! milit>y po/1 0 e/abli%$ ne> x1 b n actually )9 its conf9es1 = "s local reason1 ! "* ( :i* we h n[ lo/4 ,we mu/ rememb] t ,branca/] is a late =tification & ! ,p$d>s ,way 0 settl$ be=e ,branca/] came into be+4 vii ,we mu/ imag9e ?is process ( gradual local developm5t cont9u+ un9t]rupt$ly ?r\gh\t ! ,d>k ,ages1 ! ,roman roads s]v+ local purposes gradually ceas+ to h cont9u\s use save = ! ,fosse ,way1 ! ,watl+ ,/reet1 & "o or two ( ! o!r great] roads3 ! local ways1 v ill ma9ta9$1 gr[+ up out ( ! ,roman sy/em4 ,:5 ! ,d>k ,ages came to an end1 & :5 ! m$iaeval civilization succe$$ x--t is1 9 ! five great c5turies betwe5 ! ,conque/ & ! ,re=mation--?is new sy/em ( local ways 0 h>d5$ & became ! national sy/em :i* we /ill inh]it4 ,:5 ,i say ! m$iaeval sy/em ,i mean ! sy/em :i* mu/ h _h its orig91 or1 at any rate1 its ma9spr+1 9 ! twelf? c5tury1 & :i* sub/itut$ = ! use ( ! decay$ ,roman roads a compet+ sy/em ( roads no long] id5tical ) !m1 ?\gh orig9ally bas$ ^u !m z a framework4 ,"h aga9 we h no direct records1 b we h indirect evid5ce suffici5t = our purpose4 ,! twelf? c5tury 0 ! mom5t :5 civilization 0 aris+ aga9 ev]y:]e ?r\gh\t ! we/1 & n[h]e m /rongly ?an ,brita94 ,t 0 true ( ! ar*itecture & t[n life & education1 & ( lett]s1 &1 we may ju/ly presume1 ( ! road sy/em z well4 ,aga91 f t date onw>ds y beg9 to get sites unconnect$ ) ! old ,roman road sy/em1 & _! numb] increases rapidly z ! ,middle ,ages advance4 ,aga91 we le>n f any am\nt ( evid5ce ! comp>ative rapidity ( travel aft] ! ,d>k ,ages1 & t ev5 ov] roads :i* c]ta9ly 7 n ,roman4 ,we c trace x 9 ! m>*+ ( armies1 ! transport ( gra9 & o!r provisions1 & ! travel ( individuals4 ,we may take almo/ any di/rict 9 ,engl& & discov] = ourselves by a little /udy h[ ! m$iaeval road sy/em1 :i* cont9u$ to develop until ! *ange 9 its use by ! turnpike1 grew up out ( ! ,roman ,road1 & we c ?us %[ h[ ! ,roman road sy/em is at ! f\ndation ( all our ,engli% ways4 ,!re 0 no regul> plan or ord] 9 all ?is4 ,local usage1 local necessity develop$ ! tortu\s network1 & has left its /amp ^u ! face ( ,engl&4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,:eel$ ,,traffic ,,& ,,! ,,mod]n ,,road ,! ,transition f ! ,horse to ! ,vehicle3 ,! ,di/9ctive ,m>k ( ! ,lat] ,sev5te5? ,c5tury3 ,! ,turnpike ,sy/em & ! ,mak+ ( ! ,mod]n ,engli% ,road3 ,! ,und]ly+ ,idea ( ! ,turnpike & its ,effects = ,good & ,ill3 ,its ,decl9e & ! ,fir/ ,em]g5ce ( ! ,g5]al ,national ,sy/em 9 #ahaj3 ,?omas ,tel=d & ,8 ,"w3 ,! ,movem5t ,connect$ ) ! ,"n ( ,macadam3 ,! ,com+ ( ! ,locomotive & its ,results on ,canals & ,roads4 i ,! next great *ange came ) ! *ange 9 local gov]nm5t to :i* ,i h allud$4 ,x gave u ! fir/ ,acts ( ,p>liam5t1 tak+ ! place ( ! old cu/om>y upkeep ( ! roads1 b act+1 oddly en\gh1 at a p]iod dur+ :i* ! road 0 decl9+ ev]y:]e4 ,ev5 ! civil w>s did little to am5d :at _h become a badly decay$ s*eme ( communication4 ,"o ( ! reasons = ?is 0 t ! great arm ( ! civil w>s 0 ! cavalry1 & cavalry is n ti$ to roads z infantry is4 ,ano!r & bett] reason 0 ! comp>atively small numb]s engag$4 ,! civil w>s loom l>ge 9 our political hi/ory because !y m>k$ ! de/ruction ( ! mon>*y & ! beg9n+ ( ari/ocratic gov]nm5t1 b 9 milit>y hi/ory !y are no v great affair3 a sort ( local epilogue to ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w> & ! great religi\s /ruggle ^u ! ,cont95t4 ,:at did make a diff]5ce 0 ! sudd5 increase ( :eel$ traffic ) ! end ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,!re has be5 a great deal ( exagg]ation 9 ?is matt]4 ,sundry hi/orians h writt5 z ?\gh :eel$ traffic 7 unkn[n until v mod]n times4 ,t1 ( c\rse1 is nons5se4 ,b ! di/9ctive m>k ( ! lat] sev5te5? c5tury & e>ly eighte5? 0 ! gradual sub/itution ( ord9>y pass5g] traffic by :eel in/ead ( on horseback4 ,! public vehicle comes 9 mu* at ! same "t z ! private vehicle1 develop$ by ! new great l&lord class = _! conv5i5ce 9 _! c\ntry r\nds4 ,z has be5 ! case ) ! int]nal combu/ion eng9e 9 our own "t1 ! in/rum5t prec$$ ! *ange 9 ! road4 ,z :eel$ traffic = pass5g]s becomes m common y get increas+ compla9ts on ! condition ( ! roads & increas+ motive = improv+ !m1 & out ( t gr[s ! turnpike sy/em1 :i*1 ) its lat] developm5t1 has c>ri$ u on to ! pres5t day4 ,illu/ration3 ,,toll ,,h\se ,,on ,,! ,,ba? ,,road ii ,,! ,,turnpike ,,sy/em1 by a process :i* orig9at$ 9 small beg9n+s & end$ ) a revolution 9 g5]al communications1 made ! mod]n ,engli% ,road4 ,x sprang f t "* 9 ! economic society ( ,brita9 7closely connect$ ) ! new ari/ocratic gov]nm5t ( ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies7 :]eby1 9 ! de/ruction ( ! mon>*y1 individual action became supreme4 ,! same =ce :i* _h =bidd5 great national roads to rise1 to wit1 ! abs5ce ( a c5tral all-p[]ful au?ority 7su* z 0 ! ,fr5* mon>*y j ov] ! ,*annel1 ) its great roads plann$ & con/ruct$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole realm on "o model7--:i* _h ma9ta9$ local div]sity & local usage & kept back ! prop] developm5t ( ! road--made = a *ange :i* %\ld be due to private ent]prise4 ,we all "k ( :at value ?is individuali/ & ari/ocratic economic sy/em 0 to ! expansion ( ,engli% trade ov]seas1 & h[ x is at ! f\ndation ( :at is to-day call$ 8! ,empire40 ,9 dome/ic affairs x meant1 ( c\rse1 ! sacrifice ( ! int]e/s ( ! community to a comp>atively small weal?y class1 b t did n prev5t ?is weal?y class f act+ v effici5tly "u ! opportunity = ga9 )9 its own sph]e4 ,! mass ( ,engli%m5 became1 & h rema9$1 impov]i%$1 b ! total weal? ( ! c\ntry & its population h va/ly increas$4 ,! idea ( ! turnpike 0 to give a small body ( capitali/s ! "r to exploit c]ta9 sections ( road4 ,!y w\ld improve ! surface & broad5 ! gauge :]e necess>y1 etc41 b !y w\ld put up gates :]e !y c\ld *>ge = ! passage ( all & sundry & ?us e>n ! int]e/ ^u _! money4 ,!y _h also p[]s to borr[4 ,!y _h c]ta9 p[]s = us+ ! public rates1 etc41 & 9 g5]al1 ?r\gh ?is sy/em1 ! roads ( ! c\ntry 7 m & m giv5 ov] to :at we call to-day capitali/ exploitation3 = al?\gh v (t5 ! sections ( road ?us exploit$ 7 %ort !y =m$ an int]ruption to g5]al travel4 ,popul> res5tm5t aga9/ su* an innovation 01 ( c\rse1 bitt]1 especially :5 x ext5d$ to l>ge areas4 ,!re 7 p]iods ( riot 9 :i* ! toll-gates 7 de/roy$1 & !re 0 some?+ l a little civil w> 9 ! matt] 9 ,s\? ,wales1 b ! int]e/s ( ! weal?i] class 7 supreme1 ! populace 0 suppress$1 & ! sy/em cont9u$4 ,x also va/ly ext5d$4 ,:ile x _h ! social disadvantages j m5tion$1 x _h ! economic advantage ( creat+ bit by bit long] & long] sections ( really good road up & d[n ! c\ntry4 ,to ! turnpike sy/em we owe t developm5t ( ! ,engli% roads :i* made ,engli% coa*+ & gave u1 9 ! g5]ation be=e & dur+ ! ,napoleonic w>s1 on ! :ole1 ! be/ sy/em ( local communications 9 ,europe1 ?\gh we /ill griev\sly lack$ cont9u\s national communications betwe5 di/ant c5tres4 iii ,! date to :i* mu/ be ref]r$ ! great *ange 9 ?is respect--! date f :i* we mu/ c\nt ! gr[? ( g5]al national communications cont9u\s ?r\gh\t ! isl&--is ! ye> #ahaj4 ,! turnpike sy/em did inde$ die sl[ly & only mu* lat]4 ,x l+]$ on to well )9 liv+ memory1 & ^? :o are curi\s to wat* ! rise & decay ( in/itutions may ev5 argue t "s relics ( x rema9 among u /ill4 ,b 9 practice #ahaj is ! date ( ! fir/ exp]im5tal *ange :i* 0 ultimately to produce ! road sy/em ( to-day4 ,if we consid] ! use & "* ( ! ,road1 its texture & appe>ance1 its effect ^u ! l&scape1 its connection ) society z di/9ct f ! legislation connect$ ) x1 #ahaj is mu* m ( a pivotal date ?an su* dates z #aeee or #ahbb1 :i* m>k ! political *anges 9 ! /atutory p[]s ( deal+ ) roads4 ,already /age coa*es driv5 f ! box1 & e ye> increas+ ! rate ( travel1 _h be5 ^u ! road = a g5]ation--= tw5ty-six ye>s2 & already great l5g?s ( turnpike tru/ roads _h come to a suffici5t excell5ce ( surface to p]mit travel at an av]age rate ov] ^? bran*es ( t5 miles an h\r4 ,b1 z ,i h said1 !re 0 n z yet "o cont9u\s piece ( road design$ to connect two important t]m9i1 ( equal value ?r\gh\t1 & ord]$ 9 all its l5g? t[>ds t "o end ( mak+ equable & rapid transit possible betwe5 ! two extremities4 ,t is ! po9t4 ,! ?+ _h n exi/$ 9 ?is isl& 7save 9 ! 8f\r ,regal ,ways07 s9ce ! breakd[n ( ! ,roman c5tral gov]nm5t 9 ! fif? c5tury4 ,:at happ5$ 9 #ahaj1 & :at makes x su* a memorable date1 is ! appo9tm5t1 "u ! pressure ( ! ,po/ma/]-,g5]al1 ( a /onemason :o _h ris5 to ! practice ( road eng9e]+--,?omas ,tel=d--to ! ov]look+ ( ! ,holyhead ,road4 ,! initiative came f ! ,po/ ,(fice ,dep>tm5t3 ! adm9i/rative & eng9e]+ g5ius came f ,tel=d4 ,incid5tally1 we %\ld rem>k1 z "o ( ! innum]able examples ( un=ese5 & exce$+ly important side developm5ts 9 hi/ory1 ! fact t ?is great revolution 9 ,briti% roads ultimately d]iv$ f ,pitt's ,act ( ,union ) ,irel&1 :i* 0 already n9e ye>s old4 ,x 0 ! necessity ( communication betwe5 ,london & ,holyhead1 & especially ( po/al communication1 :i* did ! bus9ess4 ,tel=d _h be5 9 ! employm5t = "s ye>s pa/ ( ! ,highl& ,roads ,commission4 ,he _h !re=e prov$ 8 capacity1 & f x he 0 appo9t$ to a ,gov]nm5t position 9 ! re-e/abli%m5t ( ! ,holyhead ,road aft] ! affair _h be5 exam9$ by a ,p>liam5t>y ,committee 9 ?is ye> 7#ahaj74 ,x 0 n only ,tel=d's skill1 x 0 /ill m 8 en]gy & int5se application to detail :i* wr\ght ! *ange4 ,8 nom9al ma/]s 7 t5 ,commission]s & ?ree ,m9i/]s at _! head2 8 real *ief 0 ,p>nell1 lat] ,"l ,congleton4 ,b x 0 ,tel=d1 by 8 ceaseless travell+ & inve/igation & ov]look+ ( ev]y?+1 :o pu%$ ! ?+ ?r\gh4 ,! :ole di/ance to be reorganiz$ 0 "o ( #aid miles4 ,( ?is ! l>g] "p1 #aji miles1 fell "u sev5te5 ,engli% ,tru/s2 ! rema9+ #he miles 7 "u six ,wel% ,tru/s1 ! latt] ) f> less local traffic to provide !m ) income1 &1 x w\ld seem1 also ( less g5]al effici5cy4 ,tel=d's task may be appreciat$ :5 we rememb] t ! new policy gave him no direct /atutory p[] to ov]ride tru/s4 ,ea* "o _h to be argu$ )1 b>ga9$ )1 & p]suad$4 ,?is at lea/ 0 true ( ! ,engli% ,tru/s & ! six ,wel% ,tru/s4 ,! ,commission]s1 or r ,tel=d & ,p>nell1 despair$4 ,! tru/s controll$ s v mu* ! l>g] "p ( ! trajectory t x 0 necess>y 9 "s way to dispose ( !m4 ,m ?an sev5 ye>s pass$ be=e ?is c\ld be done4 ,b ,p>nell succe$$ 9 p]suad+ !m1 by indu/ri\s att5dance be=e v>i\s meet+s1 to accept an ,act ( ,p>liam5t :i* ca/ !m all into "o body ( fifte51 & !y 71 by /atute1 compell$ to employ a pr(essional civil eng9e]1 :o 01 ( c\rse1 ,tel=d4 ,! #he rema9+ miles 7 tak5 ov]1 sci5tifically divid$ into sections "u assi/ant surveyors & =em5 bel[ !m1 & by #ahcj1 aft] ! lab\r ( tw5ty ye>s1 ! :ole ?+ 0 done4 ,a susp5sion bridge _h be5 ?r[n ov] ! ,m5ai ,/raits1 ,holyhead ,h>b\r _h be5 improv$4 ,^!1 ) ! recon/ruction ( ! road1 _h drawn f ,p>liam5t grants ( ?ree-qu>t]s ( a million4 ,f t mom5t !re exi/$ at lea/ "o complete road 9 ,brita91 unit+ two def9ite t]m9i & ev]y:]e mak+ possible ! rapid travel at ! "t4 ,! tolls 71 ( c\rse1 ma9ta9$4 ,_! co/ 0 increas$ by "o-half4 ,! anomalies1 complexities1 & corruptions involv$ 9 ! sy/em 7 no m done away ) on ! ,holyhead ,road ?an on any o!r1 except 9 s f> z a clos] sup]vision help$ to alleviate ?+s & 9 s f> z amalgamation ( tru/s also help$4 ,b1 at any rate1 !re 0 at lea/ "o cont9u\s & excell5t road f ! capital to a di/ant port1 & we h ! date #ahcj = ! completion ( ! great task :i* 0 begun 9 #ahaj4 iv ,contempor>y ) ?is fir/ great complete model ( a road 9 ,engl& w5t ! movem5t connect$ ) ! "n ( ,macadam4 ,x 0 f> less ( a revolution ?an has s9ce be5 repres5t$4 ,! ,cont95t _h made exp]im5ts simil> to ^? ( ,macadam long be=e him1 & :at he effect$ ov] "h 0 no m ?an an improvem5t1 = x 0 n :olly novel4 ,! real po9t ( ,macadam 9 our road hi/ory is 8 int5se devotion to 8 task4 ,he 0 "o ( ^? m5 :o1 hav+ se5 cle>ly a pr9ciple :i* o!rs h also se51 & :i*1 inde$1 %\ld be obvi\s1 s emphasizes x & repres5ts x t he br+s x into practice :]e o!r m5 w\ld h ab&on$ x4 ,! obvi\s pr9ciple :i* ,macadam grasp$ & reit]at$ to we>9ess 0 ! pr9ciple t p]petual legislation & exp]im5t 9 ! type ( vehicle be/ suit$ to a road 0 ( less importance ?an ! surface & weight-c>ry+ capacity ( ! ,road4 ,get ! be/ road y c fir/1 & aft] t discuss ! traffic along x4 ,9 c]ta9 te*nical details po/]ity has criticiz$ x--9 its insuffici5t all[ance ( f\ndation1 = in/ance2 9 its po/ulate t a well-dra9$ natural surface 0 suffici5t to be> any?+ 9 ! way ( road traction4 ,su* criticism c only be conduct$ by exp]ts1 b x is c]ta9ly true t ,macadam trans=m$ ! surface ( ! ,engli% ,road1 n p]haps by any special or novel conception ( 8 own ei!r 9 ! mat]ial or 9 ! sizes ( t mat]ial1 b r 9 ! unique insi/5ce ) :i* he c>ri$ on 8 :ole task4 ,j z ! ,po/ ,(fice _h be5 ! ,gov]nm5t dep>tm5t = us+ ,tel=d1 s ! ,bo>d ( ,works 0 ! ,gov]nm5t dep>tm5t back+ ,macadam4 ,^! two m5 betwe5 !m1 & ^! two dep>tm5ts betwe5 !m1 _h remade ! ,engli% ,road1 & ! sy/em 0 fairly laun*$ t[>ds su* a *ange z w\ld p]haps h giv5 u a completely trans=m$ road sy/em1 ! value ( :i* we %\ld h appreciat$ :5 ! new traffic ( ! int]nal combu/ion eng9e pres5t$ u ) ! problems ( ! pres5t day4 ,= in/ance1 ,tel=d himself _h sugge/$--& !re 0 ne>ly a*iev$--a re=m$ /ret* ( ! ,great ,nor? ,road betwe5 ,pet]bor\gh & ,york on a /raight l9e1 avoid+ ! w9d+s ( ! old trace1 & tw5ty miles %ort]3 wor?y to rank 9 e way ) ! great roads ( ! ,cont95t4 ,?is1 _h x be5 realiz$1 might well h prov$ only ! fir/ ( a great numb] ( simil> con/ructions1 until we %\ld h _h all ! great c5tres ( ,engl& unit$ 9 ! same fa%ion & a habit ( broad1 /raight1 & excell5t roads e/abli%$4 ,un=tunately1 a great hi/orical accid5t int]v5$ to sidetrack ! :ole bus9ess4 ,x 0 an example ( ! way 9 :i* ! advantages ( spontaneity & inv5tiv5ess1 mak+ normally = ! b5efit ( ! community z a :ole1 w1 if !re is no c5tral direction1 d incid5tal hurt :i* has lat] to be repair$1 if at all1 at great exp5se ( en]gy4 ,! reason we h to-day ! innum]able n>r[ w9d+ roads ( ,engl&1 ! lack ( any g5]al sy/em1 ! abs5ce ( any sy/em ( good roads f ,london to ! ports 7to ?is day half ! exits f ,london are block$ by absurd 8bottle necks10 ! mo/ notori\s ( :i*1 ( c\rse1 is t on ! ,we/ road1 :i* is n[ at la/ be+ rem$i$71 is t ! ,engli% g5ius produc$ ! locomotive4 v ,/eph5son's great revolution 0 begun 9 #ahbi4 ,! great ,holyhead ,road 0 complet$ 9 #ahcj4 ,! co9cid5ce ( dates is significant4 ,engl& develop$ imm$iately an imm5se sy/em ( railways4 ,n only 0 %e tw5ty ye>s ahead ( ! re/ ( ! _w 9 ! bus9ess1 b %e alone1 = a long "t1 c\ld produce railways4 ,! railways on ! ,cont95t _h to be built (t5 by ,engli% eng9e]s & always ^u an ,engli% model4 ,! trans=mation :i* ?is effect$ 9 ! national life 0 s rapid t x w>p$ judgm5t4 ,m5 began to talk z ?\gh ! road w\ld fall out ( use4 ,x 0 ! same sort ( exagg]ation z l$ p ab\t t5 ye>s ago to tell u t %ortly horses w\ld no long] be se5 9 ! /reets ( ,london or ev5 on ! c\ntry roads4 ,! introduction ( ! railway _h two deplorable effects ^u ! economic life ( ,engl&1 ea* ( :i* 0 grave1 & "o ( :i* we mu/1 if we c1 imm$iately rem$y on p]il ( decl9e4 ,nei!r ( !m c be rem$i$ save at a new exp5se ( en]gy3 7#a7 ,x kill$ ! canals1 7#b7 ,x kill$ all ! s*emes = wid5+1 /raight5+1 & rebuild+ ! national road sy/em2 :ile ^u ! ,cont95t1 & especially 9 ,france1 ! great broad1 /raight roads ( ! eighte5? c5tury =m$ ! model cont9u\sly appli$1 s t ! mo/ rec5t examples to-day are 9 ! same tradition z ^? ( two hundr$ ye>s ago & yet amply fulfil _! function4 ,"h ! :ole /ory ( our roads f ! middle & ! end ( ! n9ete5? c5tury & on to ! beg9n+ ( ?is c5tury is ! /ory ( improv+ ! surface :ile keep+ to ! old w9d+ & n>r[ness4 ,"h & !re we h _h ext5sions ( space :i* create really new roads 9 ! neighb\rhood ( t[ns1 especially z exits f t[ns1 b n[h]e z yet h we a complete s*eme = ! remodell+ ( a road 9 ! fa%ion :]eby1 a c5tury ago1 ! great ,holyhead ,road 0 remodell$4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,! ,,future ,a ,new ,vehicle ,compell+ u to ,make ,new ,roads3 ,art]ial ,roads = ! ,new ,traffic3 ,! ,five ,necessities ( ^! ,roads3 ,ways & ,means3 ,a ,national ,fund3 ,taxation accord+ to ,fuel ,us$3 ,! ,"q ( ! ,l& ,contigu\s to ! ,new ,roads4 i ,we h come to ! po9t :]e "s great initiative is imp]atively ne$$ = ! re-e/abli%m5t ( communications correspond+ to mod]n ne$s4 ,b :ile all feel ?is1 no "o z yet has1 ,i believe1 ?\ght out ! ma9 elem5ts ( ! s*eme4 ,we _c remake all ! ways ( ,engl&1 nor ev5 *ange ! ma9 "p ( !m to suit ! new k9d ( traffic4 ,we h be5 8tak5 aback10 z !y say 9 sail+1 & 8caught all /&+40 ,our *>m+1 n>r[1 h$g$1 tortu\s lanes1 our haphaz>d c\nty communications1 ev5 our ma9 ways1 h sudd5ly prov$ grossly inapt to ! new traffic2 & our t[ns1 unaffect$ by ! great ,cont95tal movem5t 7:i* ,i h he>d call$ ! 8b\lev>d0 movem5t7 ( ! middle n9ete5? c5tury1 are 9 ! same case4 ,if we _c--& obvi\sly we _c--remodel ! :ole ?+1 :at c we d8 ,s f> z ,i c see1 we c proce$ ^u c]ta9 ma9 pr9ciples1 ) :i* ,i propose to conclude4 ,i di/+ui% betwe5 ! problem ( ! /reet traffic 9 ! t[ns1 ) :i* ,i am n conc]n$1 & t ( ! ma9 road4 ,z x seems to me1 :at we ne$ is1 & t imm$iately1 a c]ta9 numb]--q a l>ge numb]--( great art]ial roads v broad & /raight ) a special surface1 conf9$ to motor traffic alone4 ,^!1 includ+ circul> ways r\nd ! t[ns to avoid ! pres5t unnecess>y & conge/$ passage ?r\gh ! t[ns1 w\ld act z dit*es act 9 a f54 ,!y w\ld ga!r t[>ds !m ! ma9 /reams ( traffic1 z su* dit*es ga!r t[>ds !m & dra9 ! moi/ure ( a f54 ,t hav+ be5 done1 ! rema9+ difficulties ^u ! by-roads w\ld be cut d[n to a qu>t] or less ( _! pres5t evil4 ,i w develop ?is4 ii ,x is cle> t our new vehicle1 ! int]nal combu/ion eng9e1 w compel u to new roads1 j z ! vehicul> traffic = pass5g]s at ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5te5? c5tury compell$ ! creation ( ! turnpike4 ,f>-see+ m5 grasp$ ?is ! mom5t t ! int]nal combu/ion eng9e appe>$ 9 our lives4 ,i h myself he>d ! details ( an idea :i* v ne>ly mat]ializ$ & :i* 0 on ! po9t ( becom+ law--an exp]im5tal road to be driv5 f "o great c5tre to ano!r1 to be res]v$ entirely to ! new traffic & to be made specially = ^! new necessities4 ,private int]e/ defeat$ ! s*eme1 & 9 my op9ion t defeat 0 a v bad ?+ = ! g5]al developm5t ( ! c\ntry4 ,b ?\gh ! fir/ attempt fail$1 ! v fruitful & s5sible idea und]ly+ x is wor? describ+4 ,a v few great art]ial roads jo9+ up ! ma9 c5tres ( population w\ld h f> m effect ^u our pres5t difficulties ?an _! m]e mileage w\ld seem to w>rant4 ,!re c\ld be no "q ( /opp+ ! new =m ( traffic ^u ! ord9>y roads rema9+1 :i* 9 l5g? might be tw5ty or fifty times ^? ( ! new roads4 ,b x w\ld be ( su* advantage = long-di/ance travel to use ! great art]ies t at ! exp5diture ( great] mileage y w\ld f9d ! new traffic seek+ !m at ! ne>e/ po9t ^u "o side & cl++ to !m = z long z possible4 ,suppose1 = ! sake ( hypo!sis1 a simple case4 ,suppose a great art]ial road to be built jo9+ ! he>t ( ,london & ! he>t ( ,birm+ham 9 a /raight l9e3 x w\ld pass j by ,tr+ & ,buck+ham & !n on ?r\gh ! gap betwe5 ,leam+ton & ,w>wick4 ,a man liv+ at ,w9dsor & desir+ to rea* ,cov5try1 & us+ ! new me?od ( fa/ travel1 w\ld seek ?is ma9 road at its ne>e/ po9t & leave x aga9 at ! ne>e/ po9t to 8 t]m9us4 ,x w\ld be a less picturesque1 b a mu* saf] & quick] way ( do+ 8 bus9ess4 ,x w\ld add a doz5 miles to 8 total trajectory1 b x w\ld save a mu* m ?an correspond+ am\nt ( /ra9 & exp5se ( en]gy 9 foll[+ ! s]ies ( n>r[ & w9d+ roads mo/ ne>ly connect+ ! two po9ts4 ,! same w\ld be true ( any o!r trajectory n directly s]v$ by ! new roads4 ,! advantage ( safe & rapid travel on a fir/-class surface ( v broad gauge1 free ( horses & p$e/rians1 w\ld make p take a 8,z0 to include z mu* z possible ( su* a road r ?an cl+ to ! %ort] l9e4 ,! f9al effect w\ld be ! relief ( conge/ion ^u ! typically n>r[ w9d+ roads :i* cov] ! surface ( ,engl&4 ,!y w\ld be reliev$1 9 ! case we h quot$1 n only ( ! great mass ( urban traffic betwe5 ,london & ,birm+ham2 !y w\ld be also reliev$ ( ! v consid]able local traffic--n entirely reliev$1 ( c\rse1 b reliev$ 9 a proportion l>ge en\gh to make a v s5sible diff]5ce to mod]n communications4 ,?\gh ! ?+ /ill rema9s pure !ory & ?\gh ! political & social ob/acles to x are v s]i\s inde$ 7any trajectory y "n 9 ?is cr[d$ isl& w\ld de/roy mu* :i* all our p--let alone ! own]s--love to pres]ve71 yet x is wor? :ile to analyse ! conditions ( su* roads1 because only ?us c we e/abli% ! ma9 rules :i*1 "u :atev] modification1 mu/ ultimately gov]n ! *ange t %\ld come4 iii ,we ne$ five ?+s3 7#a7 ,a v /rong f\ndation1 ^u :i* dep5ds-- 7#b7 ,a p]man5tly good surface2 7#c7 ,! avoidance ( sudd5 curves 79 :i* is includ$ ! avoidance ( ob/acles hid+ ! approa*es to any curve72 7#d7 ,great wid?2 7#e7 ,a fif? po9t1 almo/ z important z ^! fir/ f\r1 ! necessity = ! provid+ ( cross+s4 ,! great art]ial road res]v$ to ! int]nal combu/ion eng9e w\ld be1 = p :o _h to cross x1 an ob/acle a great deal worse ?an a railway4 ,our =efa!rs protect$ 9 all sorts ( fa%ions ! road cross+ ! railway at a level cross+--by insi/+ on gates & an att5dant1 by compell+ ! road1 if possible1 to pass above ! railway ^u a bridge1 & s on4 ,m att5tion 0 paid to ?is po9t 9 ,engl& ?an 9 any ,cont95tal c\ntry1 & we b5efit by ! results ( t c>e to-day4 ,b ! art]ial road w\ld be f> m dang]\s4 ,x w\ld h a cont9ual /ream ( v rapid vehicles 9 bo? directions1 & ! s*eme _h bett] n be envisag$ at all if ! co/ ( provid+ = cross traffic is n fac$4 ,! problem is by no means an easy "o4 ,x means1 necess>ily1 embankm5ts = bridges1 or tunnell+1 at e cross+1 & ^! w h to be m num]\s ?an ! road cross+s3 !y w h to s]ve rights ( way & private approa*es z well4 ,i ?9k x w be f\nd1 :5 ! s*eme is fir/ attempt$1 t ?is ob/acle w prove ! mo/ s]i\s ( all4 ,x is = exp]ts 9 ! sci5ce 7( :i* ,i "k no?+1 & allusion to :i* ,i h !re=e kept c>efully out ( ?is essay7 to decide :at ^! details ( surface1 wid?1 f\ndation1 etc41 mean 9 practice3 _! exp5se & "*4 ,!y "k f exp]im5ts made :at mat]ials & f\ndation may be be/1 :at m9imum wid? sugge/s itself 7,i h occasionally he>d ! m9imum wid? ( #ajj feet sugge/$72 b :atev] ! detail$ practice1 :5 ! exp]ts set to "w on ! new motor roads x mu/ be ) ^! five ma9 provisions be=e !m4 ,!re are m9or consid]ations4 ,y h1 ) ! new traffic1 to consid] a gradi5t some:]e betwe5 ! old road gradi5t & ! railway gradi5t4 ,!re1 aga91 x is = exp]ts to det]m9e :at ! maximum useful gradi5t %\ld be4 ,! tr\ble 9 our pres5t road sy/em is t 9 any trajectory y w h "o or two places :]e ! new traffic is p]il\s4 ,!re are ev5 exceptional po9ts 9 ,engl& :]e x is almo/ prohibit$ by excessive gradi5ts4 ,ano!r po9t 9 connection ) su* great art]ial roads is ! capital "o ( exit f ! great urban c5tres4 ,x is ( little use to relieve traffic1 to dim9i% ! /ra9 & exp5se ( en]gy connect$ ) x1 & ! p]il1 & all ! re/ ( x1 betwe5 two urban c5tres if ! exit & entry f & into ea* are block$4 ,n[1 ! tr\ble "h is a purely economic tr\ble4 ,urban sites h a special value1 ev5 9 ! outskirts4 ,!y are n1 z a rule1 sites to :i* anyone is atta*$1 b ! co/ ( buy+ !m up has made re=m]s hesitate to drive ! art]ial ways :i* are s urg5tly ne$$4 ,once y\r great road has rea*$ ! inn] r+ ( a l>ge t[n its traffic disp]ses & !re is no ne$ = cont9u+ its dim5sions4 ,b ! new sy/em c be ( no real s]vice if1 on ! approa* to a great t[n1 we reta9 ! n>r[s & guts :i* disfigure1 = example1 ! we/]n road out ( ,london4 ,x might ev5 be said t f ! political /&po9t x w\ld be bett] to beg9 ) ! assurance ( good exits & entrances ?an ) ! plann+ ( ! ,road z a :ole4 ,at pres5t we h1 9 ! p>ticul> case ( ,london1 "o1 & only "o1 good entry4 ,t is ! entry f ! nor?-we/4 ,all ! o!rs are hopelessly conge/$4 iv ,!re w occur 9 connection ) all ?is discussion ( ! necessity = a mod]n *ange 9 ! ,road ! po9t ( ways & means4 ,somebody mu/ pay4 ,h[ %all ! paym5t be made8 ,x has already become a matt] ( politics4 ,pretty well all t c be said ^u x has be5 said1 b z yet !re is no agreem5t4 ,i w\ld ma9ta9 7v t5tatively1 h>dly z m ?an a sugge/ion7 t we %all nev] get a satisfactory settlem5t until we f\nd ourselves ^u ?ree ma9 pr9ciples3 7#a7 ,! mak+ ( a few great art]ies1 c\pl$ ) ! mak+ ( prop] exits f ! great t[ns & ( by-ways r\nd ! urban c5tres1 is a national conc]n4 ,y _c1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( society1 reg>d x z local1 nor ev5 z *iefly conc]n+ ! direct us]s ( ! ,road1 = ev5 ^!1 :o are app>5tly ! p ^u :om ! burd5 %\ld mo/ ju/ly fall1 develop by _! travel ! di/rict ?r\gh :i* !y pass4 ,i sugge/1 !re=e1 t y mu/ />t 9 ?is case ) ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( a national fund1 & a national fund n proce$+ f e>-m>k$ receipts alone1 b also drawn f g5]al taxes4 7#b7 ,! second pr9ciple :i* ,i %\ld sugge/ is t 9 s f> z y tax travel = ! purposes ( ?is fund y %\ld tax x n by any complicat$ comb9ation ( weight1 p[]1 fuel1 & s =?1 b ?r\gh "s "o factor alone1 o!rwise y w be p]petually remodell+ y\r s*eme & z p]petually caus+ a grievance4 ,n[1 ! mo/ obvi\s factor is fuel4 ,"o way & ano!r1 ! fuel a man uses = 8 ma*9e is ! ne>e/ te/ to ! use he makes ( ! ,road4 ,a heavy weight ne$s m fuel1 great spe$ & consequ5tly great] we> & te> ne$s m fuel1 & great] horse-p[] ne$s m fuel4 ,! curves are1 ( c\rse1 n p>allel4 ,y c get equal spe$s betwe5 heavy & light = ne>ly ! same consumption ( fuel4 ,"o type ( ma*9e w d m h>m to ! road surface = e gallon ( fuel ?an ano!r1 & s on4 ,b if y want to h easy rev5ue simplicity 9 taxation is vital3 surely ! taxation ( fuel is ! simple/ & mo/ direct me?od4 ,x is easily collect$4 ,x does away ) all *ance ( confusion4 ,x c be impos$ at s\rce & 9 bulk1 & x has t invaluable quality :i* has be5 (t5 lo/ sight ( 9 ! la/ two g5]ations3 t x is paid gradually & at w & yet paid inevitably4 ,s long1 ( c\rse1 z a false di/9ction is ma9ta9$ betwe5 ! comm]cial & ! private use ( vehicles y w h gross anomalies & inju/ice4 ,to draw ! l9e betwe5 economic wa/e 9 ! use ( ! mod]n int]nal combu/ion eng9e & :at is "p ( ! g5]al & normal life ( ! community is impossible4 ,x w\ld be bett] 7 ! di/9ction to be :olly remov$4 ,we d n ask a man :o takes a ticket f ,birm+ham to ,london :e!r he is go+ = fun or folly1 = bus9ess or necessity4 ,m5 pay ! same price = ! ticket :atev] ! motive ( _! j\rney4 ,x is an absurd anomaly z ?+s n[ /& t ! man :o travels 9 a little ,=d c> f "o t[n to ano!r )1 say1 two memb]s ( 8 family--& travels !re=e mu* m *eaply ?an he c\ld ^u ! railway--%\ld pay ! r5t ( a h\se = ! privilege ( hav+ 8 c>1 :ile ! heavy vehicle ( a tradesman :o is di/ribut+ adv]tis+ matt]--%e] economic loss to ! community--%\ld te> up ! road = no?+4 7#c7 ,! grant = ! new roads %\ld include ! pur*ase1 if n ( a cont9u\s belt along ea* side1 at lea/ ( blocks ( l&1 especially 9 ! neighb\rhood ( exi/+ communications1 ne> railway /ations1 ne> villages or o!r c5tres n[ e/abli%$1 etc4 ,! price to be det]m9$ by arbitration ^u ! old price basis be=e ! s*eme ( ! ,road 0 develop$4 ,if ?is 7 done ! great difficulty = c]ta9 purposes 7n resid5tial1 b o!r7 ( us+ ^! sites w\ld accrue to ! public purse & w\ld gradually relieve ! co/ ( con/ruction4 ,?is project t\*es1 ( c\rse1 ^u "o ( ^? political !ories :i* h be5 debat$1 z h all political !ories 9 our "t1 ) too mu* viol5ce & ) too mu* g5]ality4 ,if x be cont5d$ t we "h introduce ! pr9ciple ( ! 8s+le tax0 & ( ! nationalization ( l&1 ,i c only say t no?+ is fur!r ei!r f my ?\ghts 9 ?is essay or f my g5]al politics--z any numb] ( my public pron\ncem5ts suffice to prove4 ,b we h "h a v special case4 ,^! new roads1 if we drive !m 7z we ought to drive !m soon7 betwe5 ! ma9 po9ts ( ! isl&1 w1 unless "s su* s*eme is adopt$1 make a direct & imm$iate pres5t ( millions to ! *ance own]s ( l& ^u _! trajectory4 ,x w\ld be a gross case ( actual end[m5t at ! exp5se ( ! community4 ,conv]sely1 ! res]vation ( l& on ei!r side ( ! way = ! purpose ( help+ to pay = ! new s*eme w\ld be ( direct advantage to ! community & ( disadvantage to no "o4 ,at any rate1 j z we mu/ soon h a re=m ( ! road sy/em or suff] decl9e 9 our communications & !re=e 9 our national life1 s we mu/ soon settle a re=m 9 ! matt] ( road ma9t5ance & road taxation4 ,= ! new ma9 art]ies t %\ld be built we mu/ dep5d ^u ! g5]al res\rces ( ! community1 :ile = special taxes ^u traffic we mu/ e/abli% z soon z possible a simple & univ]sal sy/em4 ,i ne$ n add1 = x is obvi\s1 t su* a s*eme ( new roads w\ld involve a c]ta9 am\nt ( individual h>d%ip4 ,x is impossible to avoid t1 b x is 9 ! temp] ( ?is nation to compromise closely & 9 detail ^u all su* ?+s4 ,nor ne$ x be add$ t ! s*eme w\ld h to proce$ by trial & error1 & c\ld only be1 at fir/1 t5tative & appli$ exp]im5tally to "o or two *os5 trajectories4 ,b ,i ?9k t x is ^u ^! l9es t ! problem c be solv$4 ,,index ,,abbeville1 bridge at & road conv]g5ce1 #be ,,act ,,( ,,union 7,pitt's7 & effect on ! ,holyhead ,road1 #ahg ,,adur1 ,,riv]1 cross+ ( at ,bramb]1 #acj ,,alex&ria1 #gj ,,alfoldean ,,bridge1 #gf1 #aec2 effect ( breakd[n (1 #aff2 & ,/ane ,/reet1 #afg ,,alps1 !1 passes (1 #dd2 ,roman roads 91 #ach ,,angev9s1 !1 & ,sussex1 #acb ,,antw]p1 #ca ,,antio*1 #gj ,,ap5n9es1 !1 ,roman roads 91 #ach ,,aquilea1 #ajc ,,ard5nes1 !1 ,roman roads 91 #ach ,,armies1 necessity ( road =1 #gd-f ,,art]ial ,,roads conf9$ to motor traffic1 ne$ =1 #aie ,,art]ial ,,road1 example ( a typical1 f ,london to ,birm+ham1 & h[ us$1 #aif-g ,,art]ial ,,roads1 five ess5tials (1 #aih-bjj2 problem ( exit f d5se urban c5tres1 #bjj-ja2 sugge/$ f9ance (1 & legislation reg>d+1 #bja-e ,,arun1 ,,riv]1 effect ( m>%es (1 #ag-ah2 l[e/ bridge ov]1 at ,arundel1 #ig2 cross$ by ! s\!rn track1 #acj2 cross+ ( at ,h\ghton1 #acj2 at ,burgh ,hill1 #aci2 at ,romans ,wood1 #aec1 #aff2 at ,pulbor\gh1 #aff ,,arundel1 road f ,pulbor\gh to1 #ag1 #ah2 cross+ ( ,arun at1 #ig1 #ii1 #acj ,,arundel ,,hill1 #afi ,,a%ur/1 ,roman road on s& at1 #aef ,,a!ns1 #gj ,,aulus ,,plautius1 #ajd ,,autun1 #gj ,,avon1 ,bri/ol1 !1 & ,briti% trackways1 #abi ,,balham & ,/ane ,/reet1 #afg ,,balkan ,,p59sula1 !1 political *aos due to decay ( ,roman trunk roads1 #gf-g ,,b>i1 road plann+ 91 #eh ,,ba? & ! ,fosse ,way1 #ci ,,bee*1 woods1 & *alk1 #aai ,,bel=t1 #dd1 #de1 #df ,,belgium1 ,roman road build+ 91 #acf ,,b]k%ire ,,d[ns1 ! trackway on1 #abj ,,bignor & ,/ane ,/reet1 #ach1 #afi ,,bill+%ur/ & ,/ane ,/reet1 #afi ,,black ,,dea?1 !1 a date 9 ,engli% road hi/ory1 #ha-b ,,blackpool1 a 8res]ve0 t[n1 #fh ,,bo>d ,,( ,,works & macadam1 #aij ,,bordeaux1 #ca ,,bor\gh1 !1 & ,/ane ,/reet1 #afg ,,bo%am dur+ ! ,d>k ,ages1 #afe 8,,b\lev>d0 movem5t1 #aid ,,b\logne1 h>b\r (1 #gc ,,b\nd>y1 road z a1 #gg2 in/anc$1 #gg-h ,,bramb]1 causeway at1 #ah2 cross+ ( ,adur at1 #ii1 #acj ,,branca/]1 ,roman /ation at1 & ,p$d>s ,way1 #agf ,,breydon ,,wat]1 *ange f e/u>y to a broad1 #agf ,,bridge1 !1 & road developm5t1 #ab2 build+ ( at diff]5t p]iods1 #bb-c2 significance ( t]m 9 "s languages1 #bb-c2 co/ ( & effect1 #bb-c2 ar*itecture (1 #bc2 function 9 mak+ inl& ports1 #cj-ca2 m>%es creat$ by disrepair (1 #fe1 #aeh-i2 at ,cologne1 #ge2 l[e/ on riv]1 effect (1 on sea traffic1 #if-g2 normal orig9 (1 #bj2 in/anc$ at ,london1 ,cologne1 ,r\51 ,isle ( ,p>is1 #ba2 ( piles1 #ba2 ( boats1 #ba2 object (1 #ba-b2 high gradi5ts ( "s1 #bc-d2 effect ( *ange f pile to /one1 #bd2 conv]g5ce ( roads t[>ds1 #be2 milit>y importance (1 #be2 paym5ts ( toll at1 #bf2 creation ( a nodal po9t at1 #bf-ca2 on ,engli% roads1 #hi ,,bridge ,,head1 ! t]m1 #be ,,brighton1 a 8res]ve0 t[n1 #fh ,,br9disi1 #gj1 #gg ,,brita91 its place 9 ! ,roman ,empire1 #aac ,,bur=d ,,bridge & ,/ane ,/reet1 #agj ,,burgh ,,hill1 #aci ,,burghley ,,p>k1 ne> ,/am=d1 #aed ,,bury1 #afi ,,ca51 bridge at1 & road conv]g5ce1 #be ,,cant]bury & ,*ri/ianity1 #gj2 l[e/ bridge ov] ,/\r at1 #ig2 & ,ri*bor\gh1 #ih2 & ,col*e/]1 #ajc2 & ! e>ly trackways1 #abj1 #aba1 #abb2 z nucleus ( ,*annel ports1 #afc ,,*alk1 road c\rses ov]1 #cd-e2 *>act]i/ics (1 #aai2 di/ribution 9 ,engl&1 #aai-bj2 & ! e>ly trackways1 #aai-bj1 #acj1 #aca ,,*alons1 disuse ( ,roman road f ,rheims to1 #aeg ,,*annel1 ,engli% 7see ,engli% ,*annel7 ,,*e%ire ,,pla91 !1 #abh ,,*e/]1 t]m9al ( nor?-we/ road1 #gj1 #aba2 ,roman g>rison t[n1 #ga2 road f to ,p5kridge1 #gb1 #adh1 #afa1 #agc2 bridge at1 #ig2 & e>ly trackways1 #abi ,,*i*e/] & ,/ane ,/reet1 #acb1 #aci-dj1 #afj1 #aff2 h>b\rs & ,/ane ,/reet1 #acb ,,*ilt]ns1 !1 e>ly trackway on1 #abj ,,*ri/ian ,,religion1 spread (1 along ,roman roads1 #gj2 9 ,we/ ,sussex1 #aec ,,clapham ,,common & ,/ane ,/reet1 #agc ,,clay1 effect ( wea!r on1 #aa-ab2 road c\rses ov]1 #cc2 ,roman road-build+ on1 #ed2 9 ! ,weald1 effect ( on communications1 #aca-b1 #afe2 & on ,we/ ,sussex dur+ ,d>k ,ages1 #aec ,,clifton ,,gorge1 #abi ,,climate1 dampness ( ,engli%1 #aje ,,coa/ ,,roads1 features ( on s\? coa/ ( ,engl&1 #ih-i ,,col*e/]1 #ajc2 trackway f ,london to1 #abb ,,cologne1 bridge at1 #ba1 #bi1 #ge2 ,roman road f ,p>is to1 #adj ,,con/ant9ople1 #gg ,,co/1 factor ( 9 influ5c+ numb]1 size1 & c\rse ( roads1 #ef-fj2 & ! 8/rangl+ ( communication10 #eg ,,cotswolds1 ! e>ly trackway on1 #abj1 #abf ,,crete1 #ic ,,cyprus1 #ic ,,damascus1 #gj ,,danes1 !1 9 ,sussex1 #gf ,,d>5?1 ,,riv]1 #ai ,,d>k ,,ages1 !1 use ( ,roman roads 91 #adg-h2 disappe>ance ( sections ( road dur+1 #adh-ej2 breakd[n ( ,roman riv] cross+s dur+1 #aej-ee2 ,roman roads on ,cont95t dur+1 #aef-g2 =mation ( disrepair ( roads dur+1 #aeh-i2 pirates' raids dur+1 #afb-c2 disuse ( ,p$d>s ,way 91 #age2 & ! gr[? ( a local road sy/em1 #agg ,,dee1 ,,riv]1 bridge ov]1 at ,*e/]1 #ig ,,devon1 roads along s\? coa/ (1 #ih1 #ach2 & ! ,fosse ,way1 #abg2 & traffic dur+ ,d>k ,ages1 #acb ,,dor*e/] 7,oxon71 bridge ov] ,?ames at1 #ajb2 a :eat-gr[+ c5tre1 #abh ,,dork+ & ,/ane ,/reet1 #aff1 #afi-gj ,,dorset1 trackway f ,salisbury ,pla9 to1 #aai2 d]ivation ( "n1 #aai2 & ! ,fosse ,way1 #abg1 #ach2 & traffic dur+ ,d>k ,ages1 #acb ,,dov]1 ,roman road to ,ri*bor\gh f1 #ih2 port = ,roman troops1 #ajc2 & ,london1 #ajh2 e>ly trackway ?r\gh ,cant]bury to1 #abb2 ,/raits ( 7see ,/raits ( ,dov]7 ,,d[n ,,b>n1 ne> ,&ov]1 loop 9 road at1 #ach ,,d[ns1 ,sussex1 ,wilt%ire1 c41 7see "u ^! names7 ,,duncton ,,hill & ,/ane ,/reet1 #afg ,,dunwi* & coa/al erosion1 #agf ,,durazzo1 road f ,con/ant9ople to1 #gg ,,durham1 #abe ,,e>?am & ,/ane ,/reet1 #ea1 #afg ,,ea/ ,,anglia1 ,roman campaigns 91 #ajb2 :eat gr[+ 91 #abh2 & ,p$d>s ,way1 #agd-e ,,edgw>e ,,road1 site ( trackway1 #aba ,,egypt1 ,roman trunk road f to ,nor?umb]l&1 #gj 8,,enclosure10 effect ( on roads1 #ij ,,engl&1 nor? & s\?1 t5d5cy ( division into1 #abg-h ,,engli% ,,*annel1 !1 & ! ,*alk ridges1 #ce1 #abf ,,engli% ,,roads on s\? coa/1 #fb2 phases 9 ! hi/ory (1 #ha-d2 *>act]i/ics (1 #hd-ia2 & ! ,fr5* road comp>$1 #hd-f2 !1 effect ( political hi/ory on1 #hi-ij2 & ! ,indu/rial ,revolution1 #ij1 #ia2 !1 8bl9dness0 (1 #ib2 div]sion & int]ruption ( by wat]ways1 #ic-i2 effect ( abs5ce ( /rategy on1 #ii-aje2 !1 & dampness ( climate1 #aje2 & div]sity ( soil1 #aje-f2 & increas+ d5sity ( population1 #ajf2 & legislation1 #ajf2 !1 effect ( 8pot5tial0 9 its developm5t1 #ajg-i2 its five /ages ( developm5t1 #aji-ae2 ,briti% pre-,roman trackways1 #aaj1 #aaf-cb2 !1 & ! ,roman road sy/em1 #acc-df2 dur+ ! ,d>k ,ages1 #adg-gg2 dur+ ! ,m$iaeval p]iod1 #agg-h2 !1 turnpike sy/em (1 #ahc-e2 #ahaj a pivotal date (1 #ahe-f2 & ,tel=d1 #ahf-i2 improvem5t ( surface (1 by ,macadam1 #ahi-ia2 effect ( railroads ^u1 #aib-c2 !1 pres5t ne$ = new art]ial roads 7q4v471 #aid-e ,,ephesus1 #gj ,,epsom & ,/ane ,/reet1 #agj ,,epsom ,,d[ns1 #agj ,,epsom ,,race-,,c\rse1 gap 9 ,roman road betwe5 ,m]ton &1 #ajc1 #adi ,,eri?1 #aba ,,exe ,,riv]1 importance ( bridge at ,exet]1 #ig-h2 trackway f to ,humb]1 #aag1 #abf1 #abi ,,exet] & ! ,exe1 #ig-h ,,fal1 ,,riv]1 #ig ,,f>nham1 road to 9 ,wey ,valley1 #cd2 to ,guild=d1 #ce2 & ! ,pilgrims' ,way1 #aca ,,f5s1 !1 =m] abs5ce ( ma9 roads 91 #ec-d2 & trackway to ! nor?1 #abe ,,f]ries1 use ( by ,romans1 #ajb ,,f]ry1 !1 r ?an =d prec$es bridges1 #bj-ba ,,fleet1 ,,riv]1 #abb ,,fl9t1 use ( 9 road con/ruction1 #ee2 disadvantages to motor traffic1 #ee ,,=d1 & ! bridge1 #ab1 #bj2 etymology ( t]m1 #ai2 significance ( z p>ticle ) 8/one0 & 8/reet0 9 place-names1 #aed ,,=e/1 influ5ce ( on c\rse ( road1 #dg-ea2 ( ,mormal1 #di2 9 ! tropics1 #di2 & ! railroad1 #ej2 & ! ,roman road1 #ej-ea ,,fosse ,,way1 !1 gradi5ts ( 9 ,som]set1 #ch-i2 survival ( e>ly trackway f ,exe to ,humb]1 #abf-g2 allud$ to1 #ach2 use ( 9 ,d>k ,ages1 #agg ,,f[ey1 ,,riv]1 #ig ,,france1 ,nor!rn1 ,roman roads 91 #adg-h ,,fr5* ,,road1 !1 *>act]i/ics (1 #hd-f ,,fuel1 taxation (2 simple/ me?od ( collect+ a road tax1 #bjb-c ,,gabas1 valley (1 #dd ,,ga9sbor\gh1 bridge at1 #ig ,,gallego1 #dd2 bridge ov] ne> ,huesca1 #bd ,,g>gano1 isolation ( by m>%1 #ae ,,gaul1 milit>y roads (1 #ge-f2 ,roman road build+ 91 #acf-g ,,g5oa1 #fg ,,glasg[1 #ca ,,gl\ce/]1 bridge (1 #gd2 function ( 9 mak+ an inl& port1 #cj2 & ! ,sev]n cross+1 #ih2 road f ,w9*e/] to1 #ach ,,gradi5ts ( bridges1 #bc2 factors det]m9+1 #cg-h2 ( ! ,fosse ,way 9 ,som]set1 #ch-i2 ( ! roads 9 ! ,jura1 #dj2 & ( ! ,vosges1 #da2 ( railroads1 #da-b2 & ! int]nal-combu/ion eng9e1 #db2 at ,lynton & ,lynm\?1 #db2 ( ! m\nta9 pass1 #dc-f2 ( ,engli% roads1 #hi2 /raightness ( ,roman roads modifi$ by1 #ach ,,granite1 use ( 9 road con/ruction1 #ed-e ,,gravel1 road c\rses ov]1 #cc-d2 example 9 ,wey ,valley1 #cd ,,graves5d1 #afd ,,grays1 #aba ,,great ,,nor? ,,road1 #ej1 #afc1 #aia ,,guild=d1 #ce1 #acj ,,hamp%ire1 *alk ridge (1 #aai2 ease ( communication ?r\gh1 #acj-ca ,,hamp%ire ,,d[ns1 #acj ,,h>dham & ,/ane ,/reet1 #aci1 #afh ,,ha/+s1 #ii ,,havre1 #gd ,,highl&s ,,roads ,,commission & ,tel=d1 #ahg ,,hills1 effect ( on c\rse ( roads1 #g-aa ,,hippo1 #ajc ,,hog',s ,,back1 !1 track ov]1 #ce ,,holl&1 roads (1 #ec-d ,,holmes1 ,,rice1 #ih ,,holyhead ,,road1 !1 #ga-b2 & ,tel=d1 #ahf-i2 completion (1 #aib-c ,,h\ghton1 #acj ,,huesca1 bridge ne>1 #bd ,,humb] cross$ by ,roman road1 #ih1 #ajb2 /rategical consid]ation (1 #ajj-ja1 #ajd2 trackway f ,exe to1 #aag1 #abe-f1 #abi ,,hyde ,,p>k1 #gh ,,icel&1 #ic ,,ic5i1 !1 #agd ,,indu/rial ,,revolution1 !1 & ! turnpike road1 #ij ,,int]nal-,,combu/ion ,,eng9e & gradi5ts1 #db2 makes a crisis 9 road build+1 #ia2 & ! ne$ = new roads1 #ahj1 #aie-f2 dang] ( cross+ roads conf9$ to1 & solution ( difficulty1 #aih-i ,,irel&1 ,*e/] once ! port =1 #gj ,,iron ,,indu/ry1 ! ,weald51 #aca ,,islam1 ,we/]n1 influ5ce ( drift s& on roads (1 #cf ,,italy1 m>%es creat$ by ! ,road 91 #fe ,,j]usalem1 #gj ,,junip] ,,hill1 ne> ,dork+ road1 #adi ,,jura1 !1 gradi5ts ( roads 91 #dj ,,k5t1 ,roman road sy/em 91 #ih2 ,roman campaigns 91 #ajb-c2 e>ly trackways ?r\gh1 #abj-bi2 approa* to ,london f1 #aba ,,lambe?1 cross+ ( ,?ames at1 #aba2 & e>ly trackway1 #abi ,,lanca%ire1 effect ( m>% on1 #ae2 pla9 (1 #aje1 #abf2 communication ( ) ma9 trackway1 #abb ,,l&es1 !1 sc>city ( roads 91 #ec ,,lea1 ,,riv]1 #abb ,,lea!rhead & ,/ane ,/reet1 #agj ,,legislation1 road1 #fj-fa1 #hc1 #ajf1 #aae1 #ahf-h2 sugge/$ = art]ial roads1 #bja-e ,,lei? ,,hill & ,/ane ,/reet1 #aci1 #aff1 #afi ,,lewes1 l[e/ old bridge at1 #ig2 & ! s\? coa/ road1 #ii ,,l9coln1 #ce ,,l9coln%ire1 #abe ,,littlehampton1 sw+ bridge at1 #ih-i ,,liv]pool1 #abi ,,liv]pool ,,/reet ,,/ation1 #fh ,,locomotive 7see ,railroad7 ,,london1 cross+ ( ,?ames at1 #ae2 plans = rebuild+ aft] ,great ,fire1 #eh-i2 gr[? ( due to railroads1 #fg-h2 & spread ( ,*ri/ianity1 #gj2 pot5tial betwe5 ,dov] &1 #ajh2 c5tre ( a s]ies ( trackways1 #aaf-g1 #abj-b1 #abi2 & ,/ane ,/reet1 #acb1 #afe-f2 & ,watl+ ,/reet1 #adj1 #afb-d2 road entries into1 #bja2 & ,*e/]1 #gj1 #gb1 #adh2 lack ( pot5tial betwe51 #afd ,,london ,,bridge1 old1 #ba2 avoidance ( high gradi5t & result1 #bd2 conv]g5ce ( roads to1 #be2 effect ( on developm5t ( ! city1 #bi2 function ( 9 mak+ an inl& port1 #cj2 l[e/ old bridge on ! ,?ames1 #ig2 & necessity ( det\rs by ,roman troops1 #ajc2 advantage ( site (1 #abb ,,lyme ,,regis1 #ih ,,lynton ,,& ,,lynm\?1 gradi5ts at1 #db ,,lyons1 d\ble cross+ ( /reams at1 #cb2 spread ( ,*ri/ian religion to1 #gj ,,macadam1 #ij2 & ! improvem5t ( road surface1 #ahi-ij ,,mae/ri*t1 #bi ,,man*e/]1 #abb ,,m>ble ,,ar* & ,watl+ ,/reet1 #afd ,,m>%1 effect ( on c\rse ( roads1 #g-aj2 impassability (1 #ad-ae2 divid$ ,lanca%ire f ,s\!rn ,engl&1 #ae2 ,?ames e/u>9e1 #ae2 protect$ ,v5ice1 #ae2 & ,russian ,*ur*1 #ae2 & ,russian ,revolution1 #ae2 isolation ( ,g>gano due to1 #ae2 effect ( on c\rse ( road f ,pulbor\gh to ,arundel1 #ag2 & ,ea/]n & ,we/]n ,european civilisation1 #ae2 at ,bramb]1 #ah2 creat$ by roads1 #fd-e2 ,p9sk1 #gf-g2 ( ,?ames e/u>y1 #aba-b2 effect ( on ,roman roads1 #ajc-d2 =mation ( dur+ ,d>k ,ages by disrepair ( ,roman road at riv] cross+s1 #aeh-i ,,m>%es1 disappe>ance ( section ( ,roman roads 9 dur+ ,d>k ,ages1 #adi-ee ,,mat]ial = road con/ruction1 influ5ce ( proximity on c\rse & numb] ( roads1 #ad1 #eb-e2 div]sity ( 9 ,engl&1 #aje-f ,,m$way1 !1 #ai2 cross+ ( at ,snodl&1 #acj2 at ,ro*e/]1 #acj ,,melun1 d\ble cross+ ( /reams at1 #cb ,,m5ai ,,/raits1 susp5sion bridge ov]1 #ahh ,,m5dips1 lead m9es (1 #ih2 trackway to1 #abj ,,m]sey1 ,,riv]1 m>%es (1 #abb ,,m]ton1 gap 9 ,roman road betwe5 ,epsom race-c\rse &1 #adi2 & ,/ane ,/reet1 #aff-gj ,,mi*elham & ,/ane ,/reet1 #agj ,,middle ,,ages1 !1 & bridge build+1 #bb2 & ! bridge z a place ( toll1 #bf2 road sy/em (1 #aad1 #aed1 #agg-h ,,midhur/1 #aca ,,milit>y ,,roads1 ,roman roads design$ z1 #acc-g2 9 ,u4,s4,a41 #ge2 on ! ,rh9e1 #ge2 ,alp9e1 #ge ,,mole1 ,,riv]1 #ai2 cross+ ( by ,pilgrims' ,way1 #aca ,,montreuil1 #ca ,,morocco1 effect ( 8nullahs0 91 #cf-g ,,moselle1 valley (1 #dd-f ,,motor ,,vehicle1 ! 7see ,int]nal-combu/ion ,eng9e7 ,,naples1 #gj ,,n]o1 #ajb ,,newca/le1 bridge (1 #ig2 function 9 mak+ an inl& port1 #cj ,,ne:av51 sw+ bridge at1 #ii ,nodal ,po9ts1 def9ition (1 #bf2 creation ( by bridges1 #bf-i2 & milit>y /rategy1 #bi2 & m>kets1 #bi-cj ,nore ,wood & ,/ane ,/reet1 #ea ,,norfolk1 trackway to1 #abe2 & ,p$d>s ,way1 #agd ,,norman ,,conque/1 !1 & ,sussex1 #acb ,,nor?umb]l&1 ,roman wall 91 end ( road f ,egypt1 #gj ,,norton ,,p>k 7,nor?ants71 example ( m>% =mation ?r\gh breakd[n ( culv]t1 #aeh-i2 map1 #aei 8,,nullahs10 effect ( on road build+1 & example 9 ,morocco1 #cf-g ,,oak5gates 7,%rop%ire7 & ,watl+ ,/reet1 #afd ,,ockley & ,/ane ,/reet1 #aec-fi2 ,battle (1 #gf ,odds & ,ev5s1 me?od ( 9 plann+ long /ret*es ( /raight road1 #ada-e2 sket* plans1 #ada-c ,,or=d1 decay (1 #agf ,,ouse1 ,sussex1 cross+ ( at ,lewes1 #ig1 #acj ,,p>is1 effect ( bridge on developm5t (1 #bi2 road plann+ ( "u ,napoleon ,,iii41 #eh-i2 ,/4 ,laz>e ,/ation1 #fh2 ,roman road f to ,cologne1 #adj2 ,isl& (1 bridges (1 #ba ,,p>k ,,lane1 site ( trackway1 #aba ,,p>liam5t1 #fa1 #ajf ,,p>nell 7,"l ,congleton7 & ! ,holyhead road1 #ahg-h ,,passes1 ,alp9e1 roads due to milit>y necessity1 #ge2 m\nta91 gradi5ts (1 #dc-f2 ( ! ,alps1 #dc2 ,pass ( ,sall5t1 #dd-e2 f ,valley ( ,moselle to ,bel=t1 #dd-f ,,p$d>s ,,way1 #afa2 problem ( its build+1 #agc-d2 disuse dur+ ,d>k ,ages1 #age2 its t]m9al po9t on ! ,wa%1 #age-f ,,p5kridge1 ,roman road to ,*e/] f1 #gb1 #adh2 local sy/em develop$ f1 #afa2 disappe>ance (1 #agc ,,p5n9es1 !1 #aje1 #abb2 trackways (1 #abe-f ,,pet]bor\gh to ,york1 ,tel=d's sugge/$ re=m ( road f1 #aia ,,petwor? & ,/ane ,/reet1 #afg ,,philadelphia1 #ca ,,pilgrim',s ,,way1 !1 #ai1 #aca ,,p9sk ,,m>%es1 !1 #ae1 #gf-g ,,pirates1 raids ( on ,engl& dur+ ,d>k ,ages1 #afb-c ,,pixham1 ne> ,dork+1 #acj ,,plym\? ,,s\nd1 #ig ,,poli% & ,russian civilisations1 diff]5ces due to m>%1 #ae ,,poole1 #abi ,,population1 effect ( increas+ d5sity on road sy/em1 #ajf ,,ports1 pres]vation ( unsuitable by roads1 #gc2 in/anc$ 9 ,b\logne1 #gc-d ,,portsm\?1 #ii ,,portsm\? ,,h>b\r & ,/ane ,/reet1 #afe ,,po/ ,,(fice & appo9tm5t ( ,tel=d1 #ahf 8,,pot5tial10 def9ition ( t]m1 #ajg-h2 z appli$ to developm5t ( road sy/em1 #ajh-i2 *ange ( in/anc$ 9 ,fosse ,way1 #abf-g2 example ( 9 ,*annel ports1 #afc-d ,,primitive ,,societies & bridge build+1 #bb-c ,,public ,,au?orities1 p[]s ( ) reg>d to road con/ruction1 #fj-fa ,,pulbor\gh1 #ag1 #aci2 & ,/ane ,/reet1 #aff-i ,pulse1 !1 ( a mod]n city1 #fh-i ,,pyr5ees1 ! ,pass ( ,sall5t 91 #dd2 ,roman roads 91 #ach ,,railroad1 effect ( gradi5ts on con/ruction (1 #dj-b2 & =e/ regions1 #ej2 & gr[? ( ,london1 #fg-h2 effect ( on developm5t ( road sy/em1 #aib-c ,,read+1 d\ble cross+ ( /reams at1 #cb ,,re=mation1 ,,!1 9 ,engl&1 economic effects (1 #hb-c ,,rheims1 disuse ( ,roman road to ,*alons f1 #aeg ,,rh9e1 ,,riv]1 #ge ,,ri*bor\gh & ! cross+ ( ! ,wansum1 #ih ,,riv] ,,cross+s1 effect ( on c\rse ( roads1 example1 #g-aj2 g5]al effect 9 ,engl&1 #ic-i2 on ! ,?ames1 #aba2 & ,briti% trackways1 #abi-cj2 fate ( ,roman roads at dur+ ! ,d>k ,ages1 #aej-ec2 in/anc$ by ,arun at ,romans ,wood1 #aec2 new cross+s made1 #aec-d2 dur+ ,middle ,ages1 #aed2 significance ( p>ticle 8/reet0 or 8/one0 9 place-names at1 #aed2 in/anc$ by ,/am=d 7,nor?ants71 #aed-e ,,road1 ,,!1 purpose (1 #d2 trajectory or c\rse (1 #d2 /atem5t ( =mula =1 #e1 #f1 #aa-ac2 effect ( surface & gradi5t1 #e2 wea!r & surface1 surface & type ( load1 gradi5ts & "* ( traffic1 #f2 diff]5ce betwe5 civilian & milit>y ne$s1 #f2 exp]im5tal gr[? on plann+1 #g2 in/anc$1 #g-ab2 design or gr[?1 #aa2 physical factors influ5c+ c\rse (1 #ab2 & ! bridge1 #ba2 avoids a d\ble cross+1 #cb2 influ5ce ( soils on c\rse (1 #cc-g2 & ! factor ( gradi5t1 #cg-df2 influ5ce ( =e/ on c\rse (1 #dg-ea2 influ5ce ( int]mitt5t vegetation on c\rse (1 #ea-b2 proximity ( mat]ial =1 #eb-e2 effect ( co/ on c\rse (1 #ef-fj2 ! p[]s ( public au?orities reg>d+1 #fj-fa2 influ5ce ( privileges ^u1 #fa2 physical effects ( 9 creat+ m>%1 #fc-e2 compels communication to foll[ x1 #fe-f2 & d5sity ( population1 #ff2 & ! gr[? ( t[ns1 #fg-h2 cause ( diff]5tiation betwe5 rural & urban life1 #fg-h2 & 8canalization0 ( traffic1 #gj-gf2 & ! communication ( ideas1 #fi-gj2 in/anc$ by spread ( ,*ri/ian religion1 #gj2 effects ( decay or breakd[n1 #gf-g2 use z a b\nd>y1 #gg-h2 & idea ( 8pot5tial10 #afc-d ,,road ,,ma9t5ance1 #hc-d ,,road-,,mak+1 mod]n1 conflict ( pr9ciple reg>d+1 #aa ,,roads1 art]ial 7see ,art]ial roads72 conv]g5ce ( at bridges1 #be2 ,engli% 7see ,engli% roads72 milit>y 7see ,milit>y roads72 ,roman 7see ,roman roads7 ,,rob]tsbridge1 #ii ,,ro*e/]1 #ca1 #ajd1 #aba1 #acj2 & ,watl+ ,/reet1 #adj ,,roman ,,empire1 ext5t (1 #aac ,,roman ,,road1 !1 & =e/1 #ej-ea2 ,london to nor?-we/1 us$ z a b\nd>y betwe5 ,wessex & ! ,danelagh1 #gh2 z a b\nd>y 9 ,we/m9/]1 #gh2 recov]$ f p>i% b\nd>ies1 #gh2 & ! ,humb]1 #ih2 to lead m9es ( ,m5dips & ! ,sev]n1 #ih2 !1 9 ,brita91 milit>y nature (1 #acd-e2 /raightness (1 #acf-g2 /raightness (1 modifi$ by exi/+ tracks1 #acg2 by hilly c\ntry1 #acg-h2 by /eep gradi5ts1 #ach2 ! plann+ (1 9 /raight limbs1 #ach-adj2 on h>d s&1 p]man5ce (1 #aee-f2 !1 div]g5t developm5ts ( our mod]n road sy/em f1 #afj-fa2 sy/em1 #ie2 & /reams1 #ig-h2 sy/em ( ,k5t1 & ! ,r4 ,wansum1 #ih2 sy/em 9 ,engl&1 #aaj-ad2 map1 #ace ,,roman ,,roads1 & spread ( ! ,*ri/ian religion1 #gj2 9 ,balkan ,p59sula1 #gf-g2 milit>y basis ( & result+ directness1 #aja-b2 & f]ries1 #ajb-d2 dur+ ,d>k ,ages1 breakd[n ( riv] cross+s on1 #aej-ed2 in/anc$ 9 ,/am=d1 #aed-e2 map1 #aee2 use ( 9 ,d>k ,ages1 #adg-h2 sectional disappe>ance (1 #adh2 in/anc$ 9 ,p5kridge to ,*e/]1 ,epsom race-c\rse to ,m]ton1 #adh-i2 !ories to acc\nt = disappe>ance1 #adi-ej2 dur+ ! ,d>k ,ages1 sectional disappe>ance ( on ! ,cont95t1 #aef-g2 ,watl+ ,/reet1 #gb1 #aeh1 #afa-d2 ,/ane ,/reet1 #acb1 #afd-gc2 ,p5kridge to ,*e/]1 #agc2 ,p$d>s ,way1 #agc-f ,,romans1 ,,!1 & bridge build+1 #bb2 & ! bridge z a place ( toll1 #bf2 z road build]s1 #ec-d2 & ,wales1 #ga-b ,,romans ,,wood1 cross+ ( ,arun at1 #aec1 #aff1 #afi ,,rome1 #gj1 #gg2 bridge (1 & function 9 creat+ an inl& port1 #cj ,,romney ,,m>%1 #fb ,,ro!r1 !1 valley (1 #aca1 #aci ,,r\51 bridge at1 #ba1 #bi ,,russian & ,poli% civilisations due to m>%1 #ae2 ,or?odox ,*ur*1 !1 & ! ,p9sk ,m>%es1 #ae2 ,revolution & ! ,p9sk ,m>%es1 #ae ,,rye1 #ii ,,/4 ,,albans1 #gj ,,/4 ,,ca!r9e',s ,,*apel1 #ce1 #acj ,,salisbury ,,pla9 & ! *alk ridges1 #ce2 c5tre ( a sy/em ( trackways1 #aag-bj1 #abf ,,sall5t1 ,pass (1 #dd ,,s&1 road c\rses ov]1 #cc2 drifts 9 ,we/]n ,islam1 #cf2 9 ,sussex ,weald1 discont9u\s nature (1 & influ5ce on iron indu/ry1 #aca-b2 h>d1 p]man5ce ( ,roman roads cut 91 #aef ,,s>agossa1 bridge at1 & road conv]g5ce1 #be ,,s>d9ia1 #ic ,,sea=d1 #ii ,,selsey1 #fb ,,sev]n1 bridg$ at ,gl\ce/]1 #gd2 tunnel1 #gd2 use ( 9 ,middle ,ages1 #id1 #abi2 cross+ by ,roman road1 #ih2 /rategical consid]ation (1 #aja2 e/u>y (1 & ! ,romans1 #ajb2 traffic ov] l[]1 9 ev5t ( invasion1 #ajd ,,%ipley1 #abf ,,%ires1 orig9 (1 #aai 7note71 #agd ,,%oot]s' ,,hill1 #aba ,,%oreham1 #ah2 bridge at1 #ih-i ,,%rewsbury & ! ,holyhead road1 #ga-c2 & ,roman road ,london to ,*e/]1 #adh ,,sicily1 #ic ,,sil*e/]1 #ajc1 #afe ,,snodl&1 #acj ,,soils1 effect ( on c\rse ( road1 #cc-g2 div]sity ( 9 ,engl&1 #aje-f 7see also "u ,*alk1 ,gravel1 ,clay1 & ,s&7 ,,s\?ampton ,,wat] & ! trackway f ,salisbury ,pla91 #aai1 #abi2 traffic to dur+ ,d>k ,ages1 #acb ,,spa91 high-gradi5t bridges 91 #bd ,,/age ,,coa*es1 #ahf ,,/a9es1 #ajb1 #afe ,,/am=d & ! ,great ,nor? ,road1 #ej2 in/ance ( new track replac+ old] "o on riv] cross+ at1 #aed-e2 map1 #aee ,,/ane ,,/reet1 example ( h9drance ( vegetation at ,nore ,wood on1 #ea2 & ! ,weald5 clay1 #acb2 curve on at ,bignor ,hill1 #ach2 example ( ,roman road z basis ( mod]n local sy/em1 #afj2 motive (1 #afd-e2 & ! ,weald1 #afe2 /ages (1 #aff2 developm5t ( local sy/ems f1 #afg-gc2 !1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,belloc's ref]5ces to1 #aci1 #afd ,,/eph5son & ! railroad1 #aib 8,,/one10 significance (1 c\pl$ ) 8=d0 z a p>ticle 9 place-names1 #aed ,,/oneh5ge1 #ai ,,/\r1 bridge ov] at ,cant]bury1 #ig ,,/raightness ,,( ,,roman ,,roads1 *>act]i/ics1 #acd-g2 modifications (1 #acg-h2 plann+1 #ach-dj2 me?od ( plann+1 #aci-de ,,/raits ,,( ,,dov]1 #ai1 #ce1 #aje1 #acb 8,,/rangl+ ,,( ,,communication10 #eg ,,/rategy1 ,,milit>y1 & ! ,engli% road sy/em1 #ii-aja2 7see also ,milit>y roads7 ,,/rat=d ,,/4 ,,m>y',s1 orig9 ( ,p$d>s ,way1 #agd ,,/rea?am & ,/ane ,/reet1 #afg ,,/reatley1 ,?ames valley at1 #ce 8,,/reet10 significance (1 c\pl$ ) 8=d0 z a p>ticle 9 place-names1 #aed ,,suffolk & ,p$d>s ,way1 #agd ,,surface 7see "u ,soil1 ,*alk1 ,clay1 ,gravel1 ,s&7 ,,sussex1 effects ( decay ( ma9 road 91 #gf2 coa/ (1 #ih2 trackways ?r\gh1 #abj2 ,d[ns1 #ag1 #acj2 ,weald1 !1 s& ridges 91 #aca2 iron indu/ry 91 #aca2 clay 91 #aca2 isolation ( f ! ,nor?1 #aff2 ,we/1 isolation ( dur+ ! ,d>k ,ages due to breakd[n ( ,roman bridge ov] ! ,arun1 #aec2 coa/1 an example ( road div]sion due to wat]ways1 #ii2 & raids1 #ii ,,tel=d1 ,,?omas1 #ij2 & ! road f ,london to ,holyhead1 #ahf-i2 & ! ,great ,nor? ,road1 #aia ,,temple ,,b>1 #ei ,,temple1 ,,sir ,,william1 #ei ,,?ames1 ,,riv]1 & its cross+ at ,london1 #bi1 #ig1 #aba-b2 provides easy means ( p5etration into ,engl&1 #id2 /rategical consid]ations (1 #ajj-ja2 & ! trackways1 #aag1 #abf2 & communication ) s\? coa/1 #acb1 #afe2 & ,graves5d dur+ ! ,d>k ,ages1 #afd2 e/u>y (1 effect ( m>%es 91 #ae1 #ajb-d ,,tib]1 ,,riv]1 curr5t (1 #ca ,,tilbury1 tempor>y bridge at dur+ ! ,great ,w>1 #ajj2 h>d approa* to ,?ames at1 #aba ,,toll1 paym5t ( at bridges1 #bf ,,t[ns1 problem ( road conge/ion 91 #eg-fj2 8res]ve10 #fh ,,trackways1 ,,briti%1 ,,pre-,,roman1 ! ,pilgrim's ,way1 #ai2 ! fir/ /age ( road developm5t1 #aaj2 ,exe to ,humb]1 #aag1 #abf-g2 f ,salisbury ,pla91 #aag1 #aah-bj1 #abf2 f ,london1 #abj-bb2 to c5tre ( ,norfolk1 #abe2 to ! ,tyne1 #abe2 by ,%ipley1 #abf2 & position ( :eat l&s1 #abh2 & ! ports1 #abi2 & riv] cross+s1 #abi-cj2 & *alk1 #acj-ca2 & s&1 #aca-b ,,tr5t1 ,,riv]1 #ic-d1 #ajb2 old l[e/ bridge ov]1 #ig ,,tur91 rebuild+ (1 #ei ,,turnpike ,,sy/em1 #aae1 #ahj2 made ! mod]n ,engli% road1 #ahc2 basis (1 #ahd2 e>ly res5tm5t aga9/1 #ahd2 n a national sy/em1 #ahe ,,tyne1 ,,riv]1 cross+ ( by ,romans1 #ajb2 & ! trackways1 #abe1 #abi ,u4,s4,a4 & milit>y roads1 #ge ,,uriconium1 #ga1 #ajc ,,vegetation 7see ,=e/72 int]mitt5t1 influ5ce ( on c\rse ( road1 #ea-b ,,v5ice1 protection by m>%1 #ae2 limitation ( gr[? by m>%1 #fg ,,victoria ,,/ation1 ,london1 #fh ,,vosges1 !1 gradi5ts ( roads 91 #da2 ,valley ( ,bel=t 91 #dd-e ,,wales1 ,roman campaigns 91 #ga-b2 ,s\?1 riots aga9/ turnpikes 91 #ahd ,,wall1 ! ,roman 7,hadrian's71 #gj-ga ,,w&le1 ,,riv]1 m>%es (1 disappe>ance ( ,roman causeway 9 dur+ ,d>k ,ages1 #adi ,,wansum1 ,,riv]1 cross$ by ,roman road1 #ih ,,wa%1 ,,!1 trackway to1 #abj1 #abf2 & ,p$d>s ,way1 #agd-e ,,wat] ,,c\rses1 fir/ cross+s (1 =ds1 #ah-bj2 tak+-(f places1 #ah-ai2 effect ( rate ( curr5t1 #ai-bj2 f]ries1 #bj2 bridges1 #bj-cb2 d\ble cross+s at1 #ca-b 7see also ,riv] ,cross+s7 ,,watl+ ,,/reet1 at ,p5kridge1 #gb2 betwe5 ,ro*e/] & ,london1 #adj2 at ,norton ,p>k1 #aeh2 z ! basis ( a mod]n road1 #afj2 causes ( pres]vation (1 #afa-d2 use ( dur+ ,d>k ,ages1 #agg ,,weald1 !1 z an ob/acle to communication1 #afe-f ,,well&1 ,,riv]1 #ej ,,w5lock ,,edge1 #id ,,we/m9/]1 nor!rn b\nd>y (1 a ,roman road1 #gh ,,wey1 ,,riv]1 & ,pilgrim's ,way1 #ai2 road 9 ,valley ( ,upp]1 #cc2 cross+ at ,/4 ,ca!r9e's ,*apel1 #acj2 at ,guild=d1 #acj ,,:eat ,,l&s & e>ly trackways1 #abh ,,:eel$ ,,traffic1 sudd5 increase ( at end ,,xvii c5tury1 #ahj ,,wilt%ire1 #abj ,,w9*e/]1 & ! ,pilgrim's ,way1 #ai2 z c5tre ( :eat gr[+1 #abh2 to ,gl\ce/]1 road f1 #ach2 to ,london1 ,roman road f1 #afe ,,wr51 ,,sir ,,*ri/oph]1 #ei ,,y>m\?1 gr[? (1 #agf ,,york1 ,tel=d's sugge/$ re=m ( road to ,pet]bor\gh f1 #aia 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s ,notes3 ,footnotes h be5 mov$ to ! end ( ea* *apt] & relabel$ consecutively ?r\gh ! docum5t4 ,illu/rations h be5 mov$ to p>agraph breaks ne> :]e !y are m5tion$4 ,punctuation has be5 made consi/5t4 ,v>iations 9 spell+ & hyph5ation 7 reta9$ z !y appe> 9 ! orig9al publication1 except t obvi\s typographical errors h be5 correct$4