,transcriber's ,notes3 ,underscores 80 before and after a word or phrase indicate italics in the original text4 ,equal signs 80 before and after a word or phrase indicate bold in the original text4 ,small capitals have been converted to ,,solid capitals4 ,illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs4 ,typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected4 ,pages #agj and #aga are missing4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,sculpture ,,apollo3 ,,an ,,illustrated ,,manual ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,art ,,throughout ,,the ,,ages1 ,,by ,,salomon ,,reinach1 ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,institute ,,of ,,france1 ,,translated ,,by ,,florence ,,simmonds ,m4 ,reinach's manual has been welcomed with enthusiasm in every ,european country4 ,it has been translated into every civilised tongue4 ,never before have the treasures of all the great galleries been laid under such contribution1 and thus ,m4 ,reinach's book claims a distinctive place among students' manuals4 ,the new edition has been revised and corrected throughout by the author with the utmost care4 ,some new illustrations have been added1 certain unsatisfactory blocks have been replaced by new ones1 and the bibliographies have been expanded and brought up to date4 ,interpolations in the text in connection with ,english works of art or artistic possessions are added by the translator and approved by the author4 8,to criticise it would be much the same as to criticise one's #8,bradshaw'--it is unique and it is a necessity40--,bookman4 ,new and ,cheaper ,edition1 with over #fjj ,illustrations4 ,price #fs4 net4 ,illustration3 ,the ,virgin ,from ,michael ,angelo's 8,pieta01 ,st4 ,peter's4 ,rome4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,sculpture ,,by ,,ernest ,h4 ,,short ,,with ,,numerous ,,illustrations ,illustration ,,london ,,william ,,heinemann #aijg ,copyright #aijg by ,william ,heinemann ,,to ,,mistress ,,katie ,,gibbs ,,in ,,token ,,of ,,the ,,author',s ,,affectionate ,,regard ,,preface ,much that might properly occur in the preface of this book will be found in its opening chapter4 ,i there set out the ground to be covered1 and define the point of view from which ,i have treated my facts4 ,these few remarks will1 accordingly1 be addressed to any who may think that a work bearing the title 8,a ,history of ,sculpture0 requires a word of introduction4 ,my justification for the title and1 indeed1 for the work as a whole1 is that ,i have not attempted to write a new text-book4 ,in my view1 all great art is essentially national art4 ,it can therefore only be understood in the light of national and international history4 ,for this reason1 ,i have given much more attention to the artistic interpretation of historical events and social circumstances than most1 historians of the arts have deemed necessary4 ,throughout ,i have written from the standpoint of one who believes that the great schools of sculpture were created1 not1 by individuals of genius1 but by the peoples to whom they appealed4 ,a work written on these lines can fairly claim to be 8,a ,history of ,sculpture40 ,this general scheme has entailed several consequences4 ,i am conscious that ,i have dealt curtly with pre-,hellenic art--particularly with that of the ,mycenan age4 ,my reason is that ivory work and goldsmithery1 by which ,mycenan art can best be illustrated1 do not come within the scope of the book4 ,references to such schools as the modern ,german and the ,american have been omitted in the belief that they would have added little to the strength of my main argument4 ,for the same reason ,i have devoted comparatively little space to biographical details concerning individual artists--even of the first class--and have referred to only the most characteristic of their works4 ,i trust1 however1 that ,i have mapped out the main facts which are essential to a right judgment in sculpture4 ,the list of books will indicate sources of more detailed information about particular schools and artists4 ,seeing that ,i have dealt with general propositions rather than particular facts1 ,i have not burdened my pages with continual references to 8authorities40 ,any of my readers who regret the absence of the 8notes0 so dear to many ,englishmen1 will1 ,i am convinced1 be out-numbered by those who will welcome this small relief4 ,i have purposely confined my bibliography to small limits1 and1 as a rule1 have only included books likely to be of use to ,english readers4 ,i have taken care to choose those which are well illustrated4 ,in the absence of 8notes0 and an extensive bibliography1 ,i can only make a general acknowledgment of my obligation to the many writers who have dealt with various aspects of the art4 ,i wish1 however1 to record the deep debt of gratitude ,i owe to my friend1 ,dr4 ,emil ,reich4 ,i am indebted to him for that broad1 large-hearted view of general history which is essential to the right understanding of any art4 ,with his name ,i should like to couple that of my wife1 upon whose sympathetic help ,i have relied from first to last4 ,i have to thank my father1 ,mr4 ,charles ,short1 and ,mr4 ,edwin ,preston1 for their kindness in reading my proofs1 and ,mr4 ,h4 ,l4 ,weinberg for his help while this book has been passing through the press4 ,,ernest ,h4 ,,short4 #f1 ,,pitt ,,street1 ,,kensington4 ,,contents ,,part ,i4--,,hellenic ,,sculpture ,,chap4 ,,page ,i4 ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,greek ,,sculpture ,,and ,,the ,,athletic ,,sculptures ,,of ,,greece #c ,,ii4 ,,the ,,parthenon ,,and ,,the ,,temple ,,statuary ,,of ,,greece 7#dgj ,b4,c4 to #dbj ,b4,c47 #be ,,iii4 ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,scopas ,,and ,,praxiteles 7#djj ,b4,c4 to #ccj ,b4,c47 #dd ,,iv4 ,,lysippus ,,and ,,the ,,fourth-,,century ,,realists2 ,,with ,a ,,note ,,on ,,modern ,,sculptural ,,criticism #fe ,,part ,,ii4--,,hellenistic ,,and ,,roman ,,sculpture ,v4 ,,the ,,post-,,alexandrian ,,art ,,of ,,the ,,empire ,,of ,,seleucus1 ,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,pergamus1 ,,of ,,rhodes1 ,,and ,,of ,,alexandria 7#cjj ,b4,c4 to #ej ,b4,c47 #hc ,,vi4 ,,the ,,hellenistic ,,sculpture ,,of ,,greece 7#cjj ,b4,c4 to #ej ,b4,c47 #ii ,,vii4 ,,the ,,portrait ,,sculpture ,,of ,,rome 7#ej ,b4,c4 to ,a4,d4 #ccj7 #aag ,,part ,,iii4--,,the ,,sculpture ,,of ,,the ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,viii4 ,,the ,,gothic ,,sculptors ,,and ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,italian ,,sculpture ,,at ,,pisa 7,a4,d4 #ajjj to #acej7 #ade ,,ix4 ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,naturalism--,,ghiberti1 ,,donatello1 ,,verocchio1 ,,etc4 7,a4,d4 #adjj-aejj7 #aei ,x4 ,,michael ,,angelo ,,and ,,the ,,flood ,,tide ,,of ,,renaissance ,,sculpture 7,a4,d4 #adij-aecj7 #ahc ,,xi4 ,,italian ,,sculpture ,,from ,a4,d44 #aebg ,,to ,a4,d4 #afej--;,,cellini1 ,,giovanni ,,bologna1 ,,and ,,bernini #aih ,,part ,,iv4--,,modern ,,sculpture ,,xii4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,monarchical ,,france1 ,,from ,,francis ,i4 7,a4,d4 #aeae7 ,,to ,,the ,,french ,,revolution 7#aghi7 #bba ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,neo-,,classical ,,revival3 ,,european ,,sculpture ,,of ,,the ,,revolution ,,and ,,the ,,reaction 7,a4,d4 #aghi-ahdh7 #bdf ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,modern ,,french ,,school 7,,after #ahdh7 #bfc ,,xv4 ,,the ,,modern ,,british ,,school 7,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century7 #bhj ,,list ,,of ,,books #cje ,,index #cji ,,list ,,of ,,plates ,to face page ,,the ,,virgin4 ,from ,michael ,angelo's 8,pieta40 ,st4 ,peter's1 ,rome ,frontispiece ,,diana 7,archaistic74 ,the ,national ,museum1 ,naples #ab ,,dedicatory ,,statue 7,archaic74 ,the ,acropolis ,museum1 ,athens #ab ,,harmodius4 ,national ,museum1 ,naples #ad ,,the ,,charioteer4 ,delphi ,museum #ad ,,the ,,spartan ,,girl4 ,the ,vatican1 ,rome #ah ,,the ,,doryphorus4 ,national ,museum1 ,naples #ah ,,myron',s ,,discobolus4 ,the ,ashmolean1 ,oxford #bb ,,theseus4 ,british ,museum4 ,a figure from the ,eastern ,pediment of the ,parthenon #cj ,,the ,,three ,,fates4 ,british ,museum4 ,a group from the ,eastern ,pediment of the ,parthenon #cj ,from ,,the ,,parthenon ,,frieze4 ,british ,museum4 ,scenes from the ,panathenaic ,procession #cb ,,zeus4 ,the ,vatican1 ,rome4 ,found at ,otricoli #cf ,,hera4 ,terme ,museum1 ,rome4 ,from the ,villa ,ludovisi #cf ,,hera4 ,the ,vatican1 ,rome #dj ,,the ,,mausoleum ,,charioteer4 ,british ,museum1 ,london #dh ,,niobe4 ,the ,glyptothek1 ,munich #ej ,,menelaus ,,and ,,patroclus4 ,loggia de ,lonzi1 ,florence #eb ,,ares ,,ludovisi4 ,the ,vatican1 ,rome #eb ,,the 8,,dexileus0 ,,relief4 ,the ,ceramicus1 ,athens #ed ,,the ,,hermes 7head74 ,by ,praxiteles4 ,olympia #eh ,,the 8,,eros0 ,,torso4 ,the ,vatican1 ,rome4 ,found at ,centocelle #fj ,,aphrodite ,,of ,,cnidus4 ,the ,vatican1 ,rome #fb ,,the ,,apoxyomenus4 ,the ,vatican1 ,rome #fh ,,meleager4 ,the ,vatican1 ,rome #fh ,,the ,,sarcophagus ,,of ,,alexander4 ,constantinople #gd ,,phocion4 ,the ,vatican1 ,rome #gf ,,pericles4 ,british ,museum #gh ,,the ,,head ,,of ,,alexander 7after ,lysippus74 ,british ,museum #gh ,,the ,,tyche ,,of ,,antioch4 ,the ,vatican1 ,rome #hf ,,the ,,dying ,,gaul4 ,the ,capitoline ,museum1 ,rome #hh ,,the ,,triumph ,,of ,,athena4 ,from the ,altar of ,zeus1 ,pergamus4 ,berlin #ib ,,the ,,laocoon ,,group4 ,the ,vatican1 ,rome #id ,,the ,,nile4 ,the ,vatican1 ,rome #if ,,the ,,farnese ,,hercules4 ,national ,museum1 ,naples #ajj ,,the ,,cerigotto ,,bronze4 ,the ,museum1 ,athens #ajb ,,the ,,apollo ,,belvedere4 ,the ,vatican1 ,rome #ajf ,,venus ,,of ,,medici4 ,the ,uffizi1 ,florence #ajf ,,venus ,,of ,,milo4 ,the ,louvre1 ,paris #aab ,,boy ,,strangling ,a ,,goose4 ,the ,louvre1 ,paris #aad ,,child ,,with ,,lantern4 ,terme ,museum1 ,rome #aad ,,the ,,boxer 7,bronze74 ,terme ,museum1 ,rome #abj ,,orestes ,,and ,,electra 7pseudo-archaic74 ,national ,museum1 ,naples #abh ,,augustus4 ,the ,vatican1 ,rome #abh ,,nerva 7,head74 ,the ,vatican1 ,rome #acb ,,antinous4 ,the ,vatican1 ,rome #acf ,,marcus ,,aurelius4 ,rome #ach ,a ,,gothic ,,panel3 8,,the ,,last ,,judgment40 ,a bas-relief from the porch of ,bourges ,cathedral #aej ,,giovanni ,,pisano3 8,,the ,,adoration ,,of ,,the ,,magi40 ,a panel from the pulpit of the ,pisan ,duomo4 ,now in the ,museo ,civico1 ,pisa #aej ,,niccola ,,pisano3 8,,the ,,pulpit ,,at ,,pisa0 #aef ,,lorenzo ,,ghiberti3 8,,the ,,gates ,,of ,,paradise40 ,the ,baptistery1 ,florence #afd ,,donatello3 8,,saint ,,george40 ,from the church of ,or ,san ,michele1 ,florence #agb ,,donatello3 8,,david40 ,the ,bargello1 ,florence #agd ,,jacopo ,,della ,,quercia3 ,,the ,,tomb ,,of ,,ilaria ,,del ,,carretto4 ,the ,cathedral1 ,lucca #agf ,,luca ,,della ,,robbia3 8,,the ,,visitation40 ,pistoja #agh ,,andrea ,,verocchio3 8,,the ,,doubting ,,thomas40 ,a group for the exterior of ,or ,san ,michele1 ,florence #ahj ,,verocchio ,,and ,,leopardi3 ,,the ,,colleoni ,,monument4 ,venice #ahb ,,michael ,,angelo3 8,,david40 ,academy of ,fine ,arts1 ,florence #ahd ,,michael ,,angelo3 8,,the ,,pieta40 ,st4 ,peter's1 ,rome #ahf ,,michael ,,angelo3 ,,monument ,,of ,,lorenzo4 ,medici ,chapel1 ,florence #ahf ,,michael ,,angelo3 8,,moses40 ,a figure designed for the ,tomb of ,julius ,,ii4 #ahh ,,michael ,,angelo3 ,,lorenzo1 ,,duke ,,of ,,urbino4 ,the ,medici ,chapel1 ,florence #aib ,,michael ,,angelo3 8,,night40 ,from the monument to ,giuliano1 ,duke of ,nemours4 ,the ,medici ,chapel1 ,florence #aid ,,michael ,,angelo3 8,,dawn40 ,from the monument to ,lorenzo1 ,duke of ,urbino4 ,the ,medici ,chapel1 ,florence #aid ,,benvenuto ,,cellini3 8,,perseus40 ,the ,loggia dei ,lanzi1 ,florence #bjd ,,giovanni ,,bologna3 8,,mercury40 ,the ,bargello1 ,florence #bjd ,,giovanni ,,bologna3 8,,the ,,rape ,,of ,,the ,,sabine ,,women40 ,the ,loggia dei ,lanzi1 ,florence #bjh ,,giovanni ,,bernini3 8,,apollo ,,and ,,daphne40 ,from the ,borghese ,gallery1 ,rome #baj ,,giovanni ,,bernini3 8,,the ,,ecstatic ,,vision ,,of ,,st4 ,,theresa40 ,the church of ,s4 ,maria della ,vittoria1 ,rome #baj ,,peter ,,vischer3 8,,king ,,arthur40 ,innsbruck #bbd ,,goujon3 8,,the ,,diana0 ,,from ,,anet4 ,the ,louvre1 ,paris #bcj ,,puget3 8,,the ,,immaculate ,,conception40 ,genoa #bcd ,,girardon3 8,,apollo ,,and ,,nymphs40 ,versailles #bcf ,,pigalle3 8,,mercury40 ,the ,louvre1 ,paris #bch ,,falconet3 8,l',,amour ,,mena,,ant40 ,the ,louvre1 ,paris #bch ,,clodion3 8,,satyr ,,with ,,flute0 #bdj ,,houdon3 8,,diana40 ,the ,louvre1 ,paris #bdb ,,houdon3 8,,voltaire0 7bust74 ,the ,louvre1 ,paris #bdd ,,antonio ,,canova3 ,,pauline ,,borghese ,,as 8,,venus ,,victrix40 ,villa ,borghese1 ,rome #bdh ,,antonio ,,canova3 8,,cupid ,,and ,,psyche40 ,villa ,carlotta1 ,lake of ,como #bdh ,,bertel ,,thorvaldsen3 8,,venus40 ,devonshire ,collection1 ,chatsworth #beb ,,fran,,ois ,,rude3 ,,the ,,marseillaise ,,relief4 ,paris #bed ,,john ,,flaxman3 8,,satan ,,and ,,the ,,archangel ,,michael40 ,from the model in ,south ,kensington #bfj ,,antoine ,,barye3 8,,centaur ,,and ,,lapith40 ,the ,louvre1 ,paris #bfd ,,jean ,,baptiste ,,carpeaux3 8,,the ,,dance40 ,opera ,house1 ,paris #bfh ,,antoine ,,idrac3 8,,mercury ,,inventing ,,the ,,caduceus40 ,the ,luxembourg1 ,paris #bgj ,,paul ,,dubois3 8,,st4 ,,john ,,the ,,baptist40 ,the ,luxembourg1 ,paris #bgj ,,jules ,,dalou3 8,,the ,,triumph ,,of ,,silenus40 ,jardin du ,luxembourg1 ,paris #bgb ,,auguste ,,rodin3 8,,the ,,kiss40 ,the ,luxembourg1 ,paris #bgf ,,auguste ,,rodin3 8,,the ,,thinker40 ,the ,pantheon1 ,paris #bgh ,,john ,,gibson3 8,,hylas ,,and ,,the ,,nymphs40 ,tate ,gallery1 ,london #bhb ,,alfred ,,stevens3 ,,figure ,,from ,,the ,,fireplace1 ,,dorchester ,,house1 ,,london #bhf ,,lord ,,leighton3 8,,athlete ,,and ,,python40 ,tate ,gallery #bhh ,,thomas ,,brock3 8,,eve40 ,the ,tate ,gallery1 ,london #bij ,,hamo ,,thornycroft3 8,,the ,,mower40 ,liverpool #bij ,,meunier 7,belgian ,school73 8,,the ,,mower0 #bib ,,alfred ,,gilbert3 8,,saint ,,george40 ,from the ,clarence ,memorial1 ,windsor #bif ,,onslow ,,ford3 8,,egyptian ,,singer40 ,the ,tate ,gallery1 ,london #bih ,,harry ,,bates3 8,,pandora40 ,the ,tate ,gallery1 ,london #cjj ,j4 ,m4 ,,swan3 8,,orpheus0 #cjj ,,george ,j4 ,,frampton3 8,,mysteriarch0 #cjb ,,part ,i ,,hellenic ,,sculpture ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,greek ,,sculpture ,,and ,,the ,,athletic ,,sculptures ,,of ,,greece ,nowadays sculpture is not an acknowledged queen in the ,tourney of the ,arts4 ,the writer who has thrust her colours into his casque and would break a lance on her behalf1 struggles for some unstoried damsel about whose very existence he has been playfully twitted by the champions of the reigning beauties4 ,rightly considered1 art is but a form of speech--sculpture speaking through words formed from chiselled marble and moulded bronze4 ,such a language can only have lost its meaning if the men of to-day differ fundamentally from those of the past4 ,but is this the case8 ,can any one doubt that human thought and action are ever substantially repeating themselves1 since men and women are at all times actuated by substantially the same passions8 ,the twentieth century simply requires to realise that sculpture throbs with the thought and emotion astir in itself4 ,though it cannot be claimed that the art is popular in the sense that music and painting are popular1 our firm conviction is that its peculiar thrill only needs to be felt1 for sculpture to become as widely appreciated as the sister arts4 ,dancing may be a lost art2 we are assured sculpture is not4 ,under these circumstances1 honesty compels us to preface this book with a confession4 ,it is a history of sculpture with a purpose4 ,it seeks to entice a few men and women into the belief that sculpture is1 essentially1 a living art4 ,its one object is to marshal the evidence in favour of the proposition that the marbles and bronzes of the great sculptors are not dead things which may well be left to gather dust in national museums and unfrequented corners of public galleries4 ,though marble and bronze have not lost their potency1 it would be folly to regard all sculpture as equally vital4 ,much has only an archological or antiquarian interest in these latter days4 ,consequently1 though building from the bricks of the past1 everything which has lost its meaning for the men of to-day will be ruthlessly excluded4 ,our purpose is to write a history of the art itself1 to show how its various manifestations arose from social and political circumstances1 to trace the emotions and thoughts which stimulated the artists to produce their greatest works and to gauge the action and interaction which created the various national styles4 ,on the one hand is the sculptor expressing what appears to be his own thoughts and emotions4 ,on the other1 the men of his country and time providing him with the raw material of thought and feeling1 and compelling the production of works which could never have seen the light had he dwelt on a column in the desert after the manner of some ,alexandrian mystic4 ,nor is this all4 ,in addition1 there is the influence which the sculptor exerts upon those around him1 and particularly upon his fellow craftsmen4 ,out of the reciprocal modification arises a body of sculptural production1 endowed with a definite national style4 ,the task of estimating these actions and counteractions and their effects cannot be an easy one4 ,it calls for heart as well as mind1 both from writer and reader4 ,it would be fatal to treat the bronzes of ,polyclitus1 the marbles of ,phidias1 ,donatello1 and ,michael ,angelo1 as too many historians do the documents from which they presume to create the past4 ,even if political history can be profitably reduced to a dull catalogue of charters and enactments--which we deny--the history of an art cannot4 ,that must take human passion and emotion into account1 and must be written by those who are not afraid to feel or ashamed of their feelings4 ,from any other standpoint1 art becomes divorced from life4 ,the reader is denied a glimpse of its most potent force--its mysterious power of arousing echoes in his own heart4 ,fortunately1 the ground to be covered is pregnant with interest4 ,the story of the meteoric rise of the art in ,greece1 so sudden that a paltry half-century separated the dead work of the sixth century from the vitalised marbles of the ,parthenon1 will be followed by an account of the 8,golden ,age10 in which sculpture expressed the whole nature--physical1 mental1 and spiritual--of the most complete men who have ever lived4 ,thence to the art of the ,alexandrian and ,roman ,empires1 leading up to the great revival of sculpture in the city states of ,northern ,italy4 ,finally1 a consideration of the sculpture of ,monarchical1 ,imperial1 and ,republican ,france will lead up to the works of our own time and the final problem--how near such a sculptor as ,rodin is to assimilating and expressing the strange and wonderful experiences arising from the stress of modern life4 ,in the nature of things all our correlations will not be equally exhaustive or correct4 ,the philosophical method is more open to errors arising from individual prejudice than the more strictly scientific one1 which is content to collect and group examples4 ,in some cases1 moreover1 peculiarities of style and subject will depend upon circumstances extremely remote from present-day experience1 and1 therefore1 peculiarly difficult to express adequately4 ,nevertheless1 we hope to suggest a method1 and to lay a foundation upon which our readers will be able to build4 ,though we shall base our generalisations upon a comparatively few examples1 we shall seek to provide niches into which practically all the greater works of sculpture can be fitted4 ,,the ,,early ,,beginnings 7#ajjj ,b4,c4 ,,to #eej ,b4,c47 ,bearing in mind that our only concern is with what may be termed 8vital sculpture0--art with a message for the twentieth century--we may ask1 where should a beginning be made8 ,unfortunately1 the art of sculpture1 unlike history1 has never been blessed with an ,archbishop ,ussher willing to vouch for the day and hour of its birth in some year after #djjd ,b4,c4 ,as a craft1 of course1 sculpture dates from the very earliest times4 ,while the prehistoric painter was scratching his first rude picture in the sands about his doorway1 his sculptor brother was whittling a stick into the semblance of a human figure1 or roughly moulding the river clay to his fancy4 ,the results interest the archologist1 and rightly find a place in our museums rather than in our art galleries4 ,but they are not what we have in mind when we speak of 8paintings0 or 8sculpture40 ,how far then must we go back to find the birth of the art of sculpture8 ,in other words1 when did man first awaken to a sense of the real beauty of human form2 and1 under the impulse of this feeling1 when did he first seek to perpetuate the fleeting beauties he saw around him1 and the still more fleeting imaginations which these beauties evoked8 ,where must we begin if we would determine the various human influences--social1 political1 and religious--which have determined the course of sculpture as an art8 ,the man in the street answers readily enough--and he is quite right--8,fifth ,century ,greece40 ,he is satisfied that1 speaking in general terms1 it was not until after ,marathon and ,salamis that 8,human hands first mimicked1 and then mocked ,with moulded limbs more lovely than its own1 ,the human form1 till marble grew divine40 ,the average man1 who has none of the yearnings of the archologist1 sees the interest of some of the plastic art of the earlier civilisations4 ,he even grants it a certain beauty4 ,yet he knows that it is not what he expects to find in a gallery of sculpture4 ,in ,babylonia1 the art was too closely identified with architecture to ever attain a vigorous independent growth4 ,in ,egypt1 the conventionalities that resulted from the influence of an all-powerful priesthood and an extremely narrow emotional and intellectual experience1 proved too strong for the native sculptor4 ,the brilliant civilisation that existed during the second millennium in pre-,hellenic ,greece and the islands and coasts of the gean1 was too short-lived to allow of any art reaching maturity4 ,it was only when the final defeat of the ,persians permitted the ,greeks to devote their great intellectual gifts to the task that the workers proved the full capabilities of stone and bronze as mediums of emotional expression1 and 8marble grew divine40 ,but the efflorescence of the sculptor's art in fifth-century ,greece can only be realised by reference to the efforts of an earlier age4 ,in comparison with poetry1 sculpture developed late in ,greece4 ,homer had lived and died4 ,his epics had been chanted by the minstrels of the feudal courts for hundreds of years2 but it was not until the tribal organisation became weakened1 and the ,greek trading and manufacturing cities arose1 that men looked to marble and bronze to give material form to their fleeting imaginations4 ,the case of ,greece is1 however1 typical4 ,the sculptor1 like the dramatist1 needs the atmosphere of a city and the vivifying effects of a city's ever-changing influences to kindle the vital spark4 ,both are inspired1 not by the appreciation of the few1 but by the homage of the many4 ,so long as the ,greek husbandmen met by tens to honour ,dionysus1 the god's feast was the occasion of a rude medley of rustic song and dance4 ,when thousands gathered in the theatre below the ,acropolis at ,athens1 an schylus showed that an art1 using the same elements1 could sound the depths of all hearts and imaginations4 ,so1 in the spot where a few rustics offered up their prayers and their praises for the increase of their herds1 a rude wooden image was sufficient to mark the resting-place of the god4 ,but when the ,athenian populace gathered near the shrine of ,athene1 the goddess was symbolised by the great ivory and gold statue of ,phidias4 ,the earliest ,hellenic images were of wood hewn into the rough semblance of human figures4 ,there was no attempt at more than vaguely indicating the limbs4 ,the heavy blocks were1 however1 covered with richly embroidered dresses which served to hide some of their rudeness4 ,when stone began to be used instead of the more perishable wood1 the masons did not conceive the possibility of any great improvement4 ,yet these painted wooden images were not the first instances of the sculptor's art in the gean peninsula4 ,six hundred years before1 the ,mycenan civilisation in the south of the ,peloponnesus and in the island of ,crete1 which the excavations of ,dr4 ,schliemann and ,sir ,arthur ,evans have recently revealed1 had given birth to work far nearer to nature than any produced in the eighth and ninth centuries4 ,but during the years following the so-called ,dorian invasion this was lost4 ,mycen1 ,tiryns1 and ,cnossus became vague memories--the dwelling-places of mythical kings and heroes--invaders and natives1 settling down to an agricultural life in a not-too-fruitful country4 ,the bare necessities of life were hard to come by4 ,there was no leisured class such as alone could support an art like sculpture4 ,but this is scarcely a sufficient explanation of the extreme roughness of the early temple images of ,greece before the sixth century4 ,we still ask why a race in which the artistic instinct was so strong1 and which had already inspired a great epic poem1 did not produce more natural representations of the deities they had evidently clearly imaged mentally4 ,an answer is suggested by an analogous case in early ,egyptian history4 ,among the temple shrines of the ,nile ,valley1 natural flints have been found that had evidently been selected on account of their rough resemblance to some animal form4 ,limestone figures have been found alongside these1 the workmanship of which is almost as rough4 ,these carved lumps of limestone are rather the result of improving natural forms than of actual modelling4 ,applying this analogy to the case of ,greece1 the early temple images seem to have been chosen1 in the first place1 on account of some fancied resemblance to a human or superhuman figure4 ,the temptation to commit a pious fraud by adding a nostril1 or an eye1 or a suggestion of drapery would be very great1 but it could not be carried too far4 ,beauty or naturalism were not aimed at or desired4 ,the suggestion that the extreme rudeness of the early ,hellenic religious sculptures was deliberate1 becomes still more probable when we turn to the history of ,renaissance art1 two thousand years after the age of which we speak4 ,at a time when the artists of ,italy were lavishing all their imagination and technical skill upon figures of the ,madonna1 the old symbolic representations of the ,byzantine type were still preserved as precious relics in church and cathedral4 ,of the ,italians of his day1 for instance1 no man realised the beauty of physical form and the possibility of expressing it by means of pigment and brush1 more than ,guido1 the father of ,italian painting4 ,yet he did not worship at the foot of one of his own pictures of the ,madonna4 ,week by week he knelt before the little ,madonna della ,guardia from the ,east1 black with age as it was4 ,he felt instinctively that1 for all the sheer beauty that he was striving to impart to his pictures of the ,mother of ,christ1 they lacked the spiritual appeal of this old work4 ,and so it was long after the time of ,guido4 ,seeing that the ,italian worshipper1 who saw the most lovely representations of the ,divine ,motherhood in every church1 still regarded the old conventional types with awe1 we need not be surprised that the ,greek peasant was content to worship the rough wood or stone image which he was told was heaven sent4 ,if this explanation is correct1 the image would be an object of awe on account of the very artlessness which is surprising in a race so gifted as the ,greeks4 ,we escape the difficulty of believing that such a temple image as the 8,hera of ,samos10 in the ,louvre1 was the highest stage that the craftsmanship and the imagination of the ,greek sculptor could then attain4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,naturalism 7#eej ,b4,c4 ,,to #dhj ,b4,c47 ,the ,ionic ,colonies in ,asia ,minor were the first of the ,greek-speaking races to acquire material prosperity1 and it was there that the sculptor first began to shake off the old conventional shackles4 ,the ,ionians were in touch with the civilisations of ,babylonia and ,egypt1 and merchandise from the ,east flowed through their markets for ,greece and the ,grecian ,colonies in the far west4 ,sculpture1 in which the ,oriental influence was strongly marked1 flourished there considerably earlier than in ,argos or ,attica4 ,about the middle of the seventh century ,b4,c4 these ,ionian ,colonies began to influence ,greece strongly1 and ,athens in particular4 ,this is evidenced by the manner in which the ,ionic linen chiton1 or sleeved tunic1 gradually superseded the woollen peplos which the ,athenians had worn earlier4 ,at this time the ,greeks were becoming richer2 their ,colonies continued to demand ever increasing quantities of their manufactures1 and to send more and more of the raw materials4 ,the greater cities were able to replace the old shrines of brick and wood1 which had contained the wooden images of their gods1 by new stone structures4 ,during the second half of the sixth century1 temples were erected all over the ,greek-speaking world1 the ruins of those at gina and ,selinus still remaining to show us the general type4 ,sculpture was the twin sister of architecture4 ,pediments1 metopes1 and friezes were all adorned with marble groups or reliefs4 ,in ,greece proper1 the tyrants1 who had usurped the power in many ,states1 spent vast sums on beautifying their capitals4 ,such a one as ,pisistratus turned to ,ionia for the craftsmen he needed1 and1 particularly1 to the school of sculpture in the island of ,chios4 ,many ,ionians skilled in the working of marble from ,naxos and ,paros settled in ,athens1 and they instructed their ,athenian brethren4 ,with the increasing facility that resulted from the greater number of workmen who could give their lives to mastering its technical difficulties1 sculpture gradually lost its conventionalities4 ,by this time the art had made immense strides beyond the rude wooden images of the earlier age1 as can be seen from the well-known archaistic 8,diana10 in the ,national ,museum1 ,naples4 ,this particular work was executed in ,roman times under the influence of a strong tendency to reproduce the prominent characteristics of the archaic style4 ,but though it dates from a time when sculpture was once more falling into lifeless conventionalism1 it gives a good idea of the results of the first earnest efforts after truthful representation4 ,the sculptor is not yet master of his material4 ,note the strange expression known as 8the archaic smile10 a direct consequence of the craftsman's inability to represent correctly the human eye in profile4 ,illustration3 ,,dedicatory ,,statue 7,,archaic7 ,acropolis ,museum1 ,athens ,illustration3 ,,diana 7,,archaistic7 ,national ,museum1 ,naples ,a number of painted archaic sculptures have been unearthed in recent years on the ,athenian ,acropolis1 which show the originals upon which the archaistic style of the 8,diana0 at ,naples was formed4 ,they were buried during the improvements consequent upon the rebuilding after the ,persian ,wars4 ,many of these were dedicatory offerings4 ,the increasing custom of substituting such statues for the tripods and craters dedicated in earlier days1 did much to provide artists at the end of the sixth1 and the beginning of the fifth century1 with opportunities for experiment4 ,in such work the artist had only to satisfy the donor4 ,private individuals were less insistent upon conventional forms than the temple priests4 ,under these influences the drapery gradually became less angular1 and the set smile of the older statues gave place to a dignified repose4 ,the illusion of form became more and more complete1 and there was less and less insistence upon the reproduction of the detail in every fold of the elaborate ,ionic drapery4 ,in other words1 the artist was no longer a slave to his material4 ,he was learning how to make the marble express what he had in mind4 ,the numerous discoveries of these archaic statues illustrate the gradual change and1 particularly1 the growing beauty after which the ,athenian artists were striving4 ,incidentally1 they afford interesting evidence of the practice of painting marble which was general in ,greece4 ,from the remains of the actual pigments used1 it can be seen that the hair was coloured1 and the brow1 lashes1 pupil and iris of the eye indicated4 ,the borders of the dress too were strongly marked1 so that one garment could be readily distinguished from another4 ,with the growing naturalism even portrait statues became possible4 ,for instance1 after the dismissal of the sons of ,pisistratus1 a group in honour of ,harmodius and ,aristogiton1 who had headed an insurrection against the tyrant1 was erected in the ,agora by their democratic admirers4 ,when this was carried off by ,xerxes1 it was replaced by a group1 the work of ,critius and ,nesiotes1 a marble copy of which can be seen in the ,national ,museum at ,naples4 ,we have chosen the statue of 8,harmodius0 as an illustration of the earliest ,greek iconic statuary4 ,it will be seen that it entirely lacks the ideality of treatment which was to be the leading characteristic of the art fifty years later4 ,,the ,,athletic ,,sculptures 7#dhj ,b4,c4 ,,to #djj ,b4,c47 ,the magnificent full length 8,charioteer10 reins in hand1 excavated by the ,french ,expedition at ,delphi1 is not only the finest pre-,phidian bronze in existence1 but marks the 8border line between dying archaism and the vigorous life of free naturalism40 ,the statue may have formed part of a chariot group set up as a dedicatory offering by ,polyzalus1 the brother of ,hieron of ,syracuse1 in honour of a victory in the games at ,delphi4 ,the entire work portrayed a high-born youth1 waiting in a chariot at the starting-post4 ,a companion was at his side1 grooms1 no doubt1 standing at the horses' heads4 ,the driver's chiton is gathered across the shoulders by a curious arrangement of threads1 run through the stuff in order to prevent the loose garment fluttering in the wind4 ,it dates from about #dgj ,b4,c4 ,the bronze is representative of the highest achievements of ,greek art before the advent of the three great sculptors of the fifth century4 ,traces of archaic workmanship are most noticeable in the face and drapery4 ,the arms and the feet1 however1 are beautifully natural4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,charioteer 7,,bronze7 ,delphi ,museum ,illustration3 ,,harmodius ,national ,museum1 ,naples ,still the stiffness and conventionality of the archaic period died hard4 ,even in the works of ,myron1 whose reputation was established by the middle of the fifth century1 there are still traces of archaic treatment1 as in the hair4 ,but in such a statue as his 8,discobolus10 with its truthfulness to nature1 its rhythmic grace of design and its triumphant mastery over all technical difficulties1 we can realise how far the sculpture of his age was ahead of the best work possible fifty years earlier4 ,the mention of ,myron1 the earliest artist to benefit by the freeing of the plastic arts from the shackles of conventionalism1 brings us upon one of the prime problems of ,greek sculpture4 ,practically1 the history of ,greek sculpture depends upon the connections which can be established between the art and three leading ideals4 ,the difficulty of really understanding it depends upon the distance we moderns have progressed--pardon us the term--from those three dominating ideas4 8,how we jabber about the ,greeks6 ,what do we understand of their art1 the soul of which is the passion for naked male beauty80 ,so says ,nietzsche4 ,and he proceeds to point out that for this very reason the ,greeks had a perspective altogether different from our own4 ,nothing can be truer2 nor can anything be more certain than that this truth must be realised absolutely by all who would penetrate beyond the outer courts of the temple of ,hellenic sculpture4 ,but though we cannot look at a ,greek statue with the understanding of a ,hellene1 though classic sculpture is1 as it were1 written in an alien tongue1 the historian can readily enumerate the influences by which the art was fostered1 and the ideals which it sought to embody4 ,the first was a civic pride so intense that no ,greek of the best period hesitated to sacrifice all individual considerations for the sake of the common weal4 ,to the true ,hellene1 life was life in the ,greek city-state4 ,the second was a realisation of the extent and limit of human powers so complete that it left little room for the idea of the extra-mundane ,god which ,christian nations have found so satisfying4 ,the immediate consequence was a religious tolerance so complete that we ,christians1 who are apt to estimate religious fervour by proselytising energy1 too often regard it as proceeding from a mere poetical philosophy4 ,the third was a love1 amounting to worship1 for the human physical frame--for the actual bone1 flesh and muscle1 which make the man4 ,every ,greek statue owes its greatness to the intensity of the artist's attachment to one or other of these dominating beliefs4 ,the ,panathenaic frieze on the ,parthenon was1 primarily1 the result of the first2 the great temple statues of ,zeus1 ,hera1 ,athena and ,asclepius represent the fruits of the second2 the glorious series of athletic statues by ,hellenic sculptors of every period witness to the potency of the third4 ,like most ultimate problems1 the puzzle goes back to a question of morality4 ,to-day1 virtue is personal1 morality is practically a bargain between man and man and between the individual creature and his ,creator4 ,we cannot easily realise the position of the fifth-century ,hellene1 whose moral sense did not depend upon the promptings of an individual conscience1 but upon the influence of an unwritten1 but unbending1 civil code4 ,there was not one such code in ,greece1 but a hundred and fifty4 ,each city-state had its own fixed ideals4 ,greatly as these differed1 all agreed that the interests of the individual were as nothing compared with those of the city4 ,and to this all added as the second great commandment1 8,thou shalt love thy body as thyself40 ,to-day1 we appoint ,degeneration ,commissions4 ,in ,greece they went to the root of the matter and made a well-proportioned and strong body a prime condition of citizenship4 ,in ,sparta every child was submitted to the inspection of the heads of the tribe1 whose task it was to decide if any bodily weakness or deformity was present or seemed likely to develop4 ,if so1 the verdict was death4 ,at seven the ,spartan boy left home and entered the state schools1 his life1 until he reached manhood at thirty1 being a continual round of exercises1 athletic and military4 ,and so it was with the fairer sex4 ,the one end of the education and training of a ,spartan woman was to give birth to perfectly-proportioned sons4 ,each girl attended the public gymnasium4 ,nor were these customs peculiar to ,sparta4 ,the maidens of the ,greek world had their athletic festivals1 under the guardianship of the goddess ,hera4 ,a typical example1 the ,hera of ,elis1 was celebrated once in every ,olympiad1 and was presided over by the sixteen matrons who had woven the sacred peplos of the goddess4 ,the principal solemnity was the race of the maidens in the ,olympic stadium4 ,the course1 however1 was much shorter than that of the ,olympian games1 in fact a sixth part4 ,the girls were divided into three classes according to age1 their prize being the garland of wild olive awarded at ,olympia4 ,the victors were allowed to set up statues of honour1 and a marble copy of one of these bronzes1 often called 8,the ,spartan ,girl10 has come down to us4 ,the forearms have been wrongly restored1 but the statue evidently represents a maiden of about sixteen years of age at the starting-point1 waiting for the signal4 ,she is clad in the short linen chiton1 reaching to the knees4 ,but to return to the main thread of our argument4 ,the ,spartan system was not singular but typical4 ,it is true that no other ,greek state called upon its parents to expose their halt1 maimed1 and blind weaklings on the wild slopes of ,mount ,taygetus4 ,so drastic a method was only necessary where military considerations were paramount4 ,but every ,greek city relied upon the physical fitness of its citizens1 and any ,greek commander might confidently have followed the example of the officer who stripped the rich robes and jewels from his ,persian captives and exposed their unmanly limbs to his company4 8,such plunder as this10 he cried1 8and such bodies as those60 ,the ,hellenic belief in the prime importance of physical fitness and the worship of bodily beauty to which it gave rise explain why the school of 8,athletic0 sculptors1 who first shook off the chains which had hampered the progress of the plastic arts1 made such an immediate impression4 ,these men appealed to more than the sense of physical beauty4 ,they touched a chord in the ,greek heart which was in a very true sense 8religious40 ,an ,athenian of the time of ,pericles must have inspired ,mr4 ,arthur ,balfour when in answer to the query 8,what do you mean by a beautiful soul80 he replied1 8,well1 to tell you the truth1 my dear lady1 ,i mean a beautiful body40 ,the mythological religion of ,greece had retarded1 as we have seen1 the progress of the sculptor4 ,in its early stages the art1 of course1 owed much to its position as a handmaiden of religion4 ,the first artists found the priests1 and still more those making dedicatory offerings at the shrines of the great gods1 their chief patrons4 ,when1 however1 the craftsmen proved the possibility of not only a truthful but even an ideal representation of nature1 and were ready to discard the meaningless conventionalities of the earlier stage1 these religious influences proved a bar rather than an aid to progress4 ,when a city desired to erect a new statue in its chief temple1 it offered the commission1 not to the daring innovator1 but to one of the old school1 or at least to an artist who was willing to confine his experiments to other classes of subjects4 ,illustration3 8,,the ,,spartan ,,girl0 ,vatican1 ,rome ,illustration3 ,,the ,,doryphorus ,,of ,,polyclitus ,national ,museum1 ,naples ,in this plight the sculptor1 consciously or unconsciously1 sealed an alliance with the worshipper at the shrine of bodily beauty4 ,the results were immediate4 ,after the middle of the sixth century it became customary to erect statues in honour of victors in the national games4 ,they were frequently set up by the victor's colony or state in the sacred grove of ,zeus at ,olympia1 in honour of their subject's success4 ,an iconic statue was the peculiar privilege of one who had proved the winner on at least three occasions1 but others were erected of a more general character4 ,these portrayed the pick of the youth of the ,grecian world in all the varied attitudes of the different sports4 ,no subjects could have offered better opportunities to an artist appealing to a race with the characteristics we have sketched4 ,moreover1 the circumstances under which his work was given to the world were ideal4 ,compare the sculpture-rooms at ,burlington ,house with the sacred grove of ,zeus at ,olympia1 compare the average private-view 8crowd0 with the gathering of ,greeks every four years for the ,olympian festival1 and one can see why men speak of sculpture as 8a lost art40 ,,the ,,olympian ,,games ,when the ,olympian games started they were confined to the south of ,greece1 and grew up under the patronage of ,sparta4 ,as early as #ggf ,b4,c4 the meetings determined the chronological system of ,greece4 ,a few years later the festival had established itself so firmly in the ,hellenic social system that it became the occasion of a national assembly of the ,greek-speaking world4 ,at all other times the distinction between ,athenian and ,spartan1 between ,argive and ,theban1 was absolute4 ,during the ,olympian games the ,greek escaped from the grinding effort to preserve his civic individuality--the price he paid for citizenship in such a state as ,athens or ,sparta4 ,under the shadow of ,mount ,cronus1 at the time of the second full moon after ,midsummer ,day1 the competitors and spectators came together from ,italy1 ,sicily1 ,asia ,minor1 and the islands of the gean4 ,a sacred armistice had been proclaimed by the ,olympian heralds in all the states of ,greece4 ,the deputies from every part vied with one another in the splendour of their equipment and the value of their offerings to the state of which they were the guests4 ,remembering that we are endeavouring to account for the rise of one of the great arts of all time1 let us call to mind the scene on the plain between the ,alpheus and the ,cladeus on one of the five days during which the festival lasted4 ,with one exception--the ,priestess of ,demeter--there is no woman in the vast assembly4 ,it is the fourth day of the games4 ,the judges can be seen1 clad in the purple robes of their office4 ,near by1 in the brilliant sunshine1 his naked form standing out in clear outline1 is one of the competitors in the ,pentathlon4 ,this comprises leaping1 running1 wrestling1 and hurling the spear and discus4 ,all who enter must excel in each4 ,victory is not certain until three of the five events have been won4 ,the most famous ,pentathli are light men--not bulky wrestlers4 ,of all the competitions1 this needs the finest physique and is most calculated to develop that elasticity and harmonious balance which the ,greek prizes in his youth4 ,well might ,aristotle call the ,pentathli 8the most handsome of all athletes40 ,the youthful figure1 on a space raised slightly above the ground1 is of pure ,hellenic blood4 ,he rests on his right foot1 his knee bent and his body leaning forward4 ,in his hand is the stone discus1 ten or twelve inches in diameter1 which reaches half way up his forearm4 ,in front1 in the distance1 stands a friend ready to mark the spot where the stone falls4 ,the eyes of ,greece are upon the discobolus4 ,his only reward is the right to lay the crown of leaves in the shrine of the god of his native town4 ,can it be wondered that the artists of ,greece were inspired to their grandest achievements by such sights8 ,it would have been strange indeed if their finest works had not included the representations of the winners of the garland of wild olive4 ,but the truth goes deeper than this4 ,without such inspirations ,greek sculpture would never have risen to the heights it did attain4 ,and without the achievements of the ,hellene1 can we be sure that ,michael ,angelo would have ever been more than a struggler8 ,he might have painted the ,sistine ceiling1 but would he have modelled the ,david or carved the monuments in the ,medici ,chapel8 ,the festival at ,olympia and the gymnasia in every ,greek city were surely necessary if the art which depends upon 8the passion for naked male beauty0 was to come to its own4 ,in no other way could 8every limb present0--we are quoting from ,schopenhauer--8its plastic significance to criticism and to comparison with the ideal which lay undeveloped0 in the imaginations of men4 ,under circumstances less strenuous the dull anticipation of bodily beauty would never have been raised 8to such distinct consciousness that men would have become capable of objectifying it in works of art40 ,we have seen that the initiation of the ,olympian games was due to ,sparta and its ,peloponnesian allies4 ,moreover1 the custom of laying aside all clothing for the various sports was first adopted by the ,peloponnesians1 and only spread slowly through the other ,greek city-states4 ,these facts1 together with the location of ,olympia in the centre of the ,peloponnese1 suggest why the 8,dorian0 sculptors devoted particular attention to such subjects as the ,olympian festivals offered4 ,in the fifth century ,argos was second only to ,athens as an artistic centre1 and ,polyclitus of ,argos1 who headed 8the ,dorian ,school10 was considered the equal of ,phidias himself4 ,the ideal for which ,polyclitus worked was the portrayal of the healthy human form in its most complete and harmonious development1 and1 particularly1 the preservation of a due proportion between the various parts of the body4 ,his success may be judged from the fact that his statue1 the 8,doryphorus0--spear-bearer--was adopted by his artistic successors as the standard of perfection of the youthful male figure1 and was known as 8,the ,canon40 ,the bronze originals of the 8,doryphorus0 and its companion1 the 8,diadumenus10 which depicts a youth binding the diadem of victory about his brow1 have perished4 ,we are therefore compelled to gauge the genius of ,polyclitus by the marble copies4 ,there is a famous copy of the 8,doryphorus0 in the ,national ,museum at ,naples4 ,illustration3 ,photo4 ,holliday1 ,oxford ,,myron',s ,,discobolus ,the ,ashmolean1 ,oxford ,the chief point of interest in the ,dorian school1 however1 arises from a comparison of the works produced under its direct influence with the better-known examples of the ,attic school4 ,early in the fifth century the school of sculpture located around ,argos seems to have been one of the most influential in ,greece4 ,the ,argive ,ageladas1 under whom ,polyclitus was a student1 is credited with having instructed the two other early masters--,myron and ,phidias4 ,however this may be1 the ,argive influence was not all-powerful amongst the ,athenian sculptors4 ,the variation between the two schools is more noticeable than the resemblance4 ,and this is of vital interest1 depending as it does upon the entirely different mental and emotional atmosphere in the two city-states4 ,if the two well-known statues of discoboli are compared with the 8,doryphorus0 of ,polyclitus1 the characteristic differences between the ,athenian and ,dorian schools are clear4 ,the standing 8,discobolus0 may well be a copy of the 8,pentathlon ,winner0 of ,alcamenes1 a co-worker with ,phidias1 who reached his prime about #dbj ,b4,c4 ,it shows the athlete holding the discus in his left hand4 ,he is measuring the ground with his eye1 testing the elasticity of his limbs and the sureness of his footing as he does so4 ,the 8,discobolus0 of ,myron represents the ,pentathlete in the act of throwing the discus4 ,lucian speaks of 8the discus-thrower1 bending into position for the cast3 turning towards the hand holding the discus1 and all but kneeling on one knee1 he seems as if he would straighten himself up at the throw40 ,the statue is a consummate proof of ,myron's skill in the rendering of vigorous movement4 ,the copies in the ,vatican and the ,british ,museum are in marble4 ,in the original bronze the discus-thrower looked back1 not at the ground1 as in the restoration4 ,the correct attitude can be seen in the recently discovered replica1 now in the possession of the ,italian ,government1 or1 still better1 in the fine bronze cast in the ,ashmolean ,museum at ,oxford1 which dispenses with the disfiguring support necessary in a marble copy4 ,both these statues of discoboli are distinguished above all for the rhythm of their composition--a rhythm which is the expression in bronze of the beautifully balanced and magnificently full lives of the ,athenians of the ,periclean age4 ,polyclitus invested his figures with a natural vigour and dignity which won for him the suffrages of his ,peloponnesian countrymen4 ,but even allowing for the fact that we judge the ,argive from late copies1 while such originals as the ,parthenon frieze remain to witness to the achievements of the rival school1 it cannot be doubted that the ,athenian ideal was the nobler and its attainment worthier of praise4 ,nor can we attribute the difference to anything else than the more vitalising atmosphere in which ,athenian art was nourished--a fact which will be clear when we have estimated the circumstances which led to the erection of the ,parthenon4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,parthenon ,,and ,,the ,,temple ,,statuary ,,of ,,greece 7#dgj ,b4,c4 ,,to #dbj ,b4,c47 ,on the vast canvas of recorded history one half-century has always stood out4 ,the clearer the vision of the observer and the larger his view1 the more every line in the composition has appeared to converge upon and lead up to that central point4 ,ever and again the imagination of man1 fascinated by some new beauty1 has been tempted away4 ,it has always returned with a new wonder4 ,the advance of knowledge has changed the world's estimate of this and that part of the glowing record of human action and endeavour4 ,but the relative importance of those fifty years has been preserved throughout the ages4 ,this1 we believe1 represents the true position of ,athens during the fifth century before our era in the scheme of general history4 ,but a great art is only the expression of a nation's moods4 ,as the ,greek epigram puts it3 8,i sang those songs that gain so much renown3 ,i1 ,phbus2 ,homer merely wrote them down40 ,we have therefore only to alter a few phrases to arrive at the real position of ,athenian sculpture between #dgj and #dbj ,b4,c4 in the scale of artistic achievement4 ,the proposition may need qualification4 ,if so1 we may well prepare ourselves for the task by the most generous appreciation of this--the ,golden ,age of ,sculpture4 ,so much for panegyric4 ,what are the facts8 ,how closely was sculpture connected with the every-day and all-day lives of the ,athenian citizens8 ,we shall find that the art was interwoven with all that was most vital in the nation's history2 that its roots struck down deep into the hearts of the people4 ,the victory at ,marathon1 which broke the spell of ,persian invincibility1 and the brilliant sea fight at ,salamis1 which settled the future course of civilisation in ,western ,europe1 had made ,athens the principal city in ,greece4 ,the smaller states in her vicinity and the great trading cities of ,asia ,minor1 attracted by the position of ,athens as a sea power1 joined the ,confederation of which she was the leading spirit4 ,even those which refrained from a political alliance could not withhold their admiration from the men who had done so much to save ,greece from the dreaded hordes from the ,east4 ,the ,athenians had1 however1 only attained this position at the cost of the destruction of their city4 ,xerxes had sacked and burnt ,athens during the second campaign of #dhj ,b4,c4 ,directly peace was assured the ,athenians set to work to rebuild the town4 ,cimon1 the aristocrat1 and ,pericles1 the democrat1 vied with each other in ensuring that the new city should outshine the capital of any state in ,greece4 ,with fresh markets opening up every year the material prosperity of ,attica increased by leaps and bounds4 ,produce poured in from ,asia ,minor1 the islands of the gean1 the colonies in ,sicily and ,italy1 and the settlements on the shores of the ,black ,sea4 ,directly the absolutely necessary rebuilding had been accomplished and the defences of the town were sufficiently sure1 the ,athenians prepared to make their city worthy of the headship of the ,panhellenic ,league4 ,in bringing this about they were to do honour to the goddess to whose fostering care they ascribed their victory over the great conqueror of the ,east4 ,as we have seen1 no lack of means hampered the accomplishment of the ,athenian ambition4 ,about #dej ,b4,c4 a temple was erected on the south-west of the ,acropolis to the honour of ,athena ,nike--the giver of ,victory4 ,a year or two later the colossal bronze statue of ,athena was erected in front of the spot where the ,parthenon was to be built in the following year4 ,,the ,,parthenon ,in the early days of ,athens the ,acropolis had been a rocky eminence which served as a natural retreat1 on which the dwelling of the chiefs was erected with the shrine of the tribal deity4 ,its precipitous cliffs enabled a body of determined defenders to keep an enemy at bay2 so that those living at its foot soon obtained a commanding position among the village tribes of ,attica from their ability to offer a place of safety in time of stress4 ,in course of time these tribes became united in the common worship they paid to the ,virgin ,athena who gave her name to the leading settlement1 and all offered their gifts at her shrine in the centre of the fortress when her inspiration gave them the victory4 ,now1 however1 ,athens was to put the ,acropolis to another use4 ,cimon levelled its rugged plateau1 and1 by building extensive walls around its slopes and filling in the gaps between the walls and the rock1 considerably increased its area4 ,on the top arose the buildings which were to make ,athens one of the wonders of the world4 ,the chief of these was1 of course1 the ,parthenon--the temple of the virgin goddess ,athena4 ,on this all the genius of ,attica was lavished4 ,ictinus1 the greatest architect in ,greece1 furnished the design4 ,phidias was by common consent the most fitted to beautify the buildings with the marble groups and reliefs which were now the great feature of every public building in ,greece4 ,under him were placed the most accomplished bronze-workers and stone-cutters of the day4 ,born about #ejj ,b4,c41 ,phidias was a boy when ,miltiades and his eleven thousand ,athenians and ,platans drove the army of ,darius to its boats at ,marathon4 ,like ,sophocles1 he may have borne arms at ,salamis4 ,he had grown up in an atmosphere saturated with his countrymen's successes and ambitions4 ,in temperament1 the embodiment of the ,attic spirit1 ,phidias was the very man to compose the pan in marble which should cry his country's prowess to the world when every ,grecian voice was stilled4 ,the others were to carry out his designs for the decoration of the temple1 but his own work was to be the great ivory and gold statue of ,athena which the ,parthenon was to enshrine4 ,ten years later 7#dch ,b4,c47 the work was finished4 ,when the second statue of ,athena was unveiled the goddess was found to be no longer the warlike maiden who1 spear in hand1 led those who bore her name to victory4 ,phidias' colossal figure1 some forty feet high1 portrayed the virgin in her robes of triumph1 with the symbol of victory in her hand4 ,from her shoulders hung the gis wherewith her father ,zeus had destroyed his foes1 from the centre of which the dreaded gorgon's head stared out4 ,the face1 arms and feet of the goddess were of ivory1 the dress being decorated with gold4 ,this statue of ,athena ,parthenos has been lost to the world since the coming of ,christianity to ,athens about #dcj ,a4,d41 but the accounts of classical travellers and some rude reproductions enable us to reconstruct the masterpiece of ,phidias1 at least in imagination4 ,the ,parthenon itself was built from the golden-hued marble of ,pentelicus1 quarried from the mines near ,athens4 ,its architecture was of the simple yet stately ,doric order4 ,the principal chamber of the temple--the cella--in which the statue of ,athena ,parthenos stood1 was surrounded by a colonnade of ,doric pillars4 ,the metopes1 or square panels above the colonnade1 were filled with groups sculptured in high relief1 the outside of the cella being decorated with a frieze in low relief4 ,in judging this it is important to remember that these reliefs stood forty feet above the floor of the colonnade4 ,colour was added to increase their effect1 while the bridles and other appointments of the horses were of metal4 ,the triangular pediments above the porticos were filled with two great groups sculptured in the round4 ,throughout the series of sculptured marbles with which the ,parthenon was decorated1 ,phidias' aim was to illustrate the greatness of the goddess of the ,athenians4 ,in the pedimental groups the artist showed ,athena's miraculous birth and her victory in the contest with ,poseidon4 ,the eastern pediment pictured ,olympus just after the axe of ,hephaestus had freed ,athena from her father's head4 ,the virgin stood fully armed by the side of ,zeus in the midst of the wondering gods4 ,the design for the western pediment portrayed a scene even more closely connected with ,athenian history4 ,poseidon had claimed the right to give a name to the city of the sons of ,cecrops1 a demand to which ,athena would not agree4 ,it was decided that the one who1 in the opinion of ,zeus1 produced the more serviceable gift for mankind1 should secure the privilege4 ,phidias chose the moment when ,zeus had awarded the right to ,athena on the ground that the olive tree1 which had sprung up on the ,acropolis at her command1 was of more value to the human race than the horse--the emblem of war--upon which ,poseidon had relied4 ,the carvings of the metopes represented the overthrow of the personifications of the powers of evil of which it was the mission of the goddess of wisdom to rid the world4 ,in some were depicted the victory of the ,greeks over the ,eastern amazons1 in others the victory of the gods over the earth-born giants1 and in the rest the contests of ,centaurs and ,lapiths4 ,they were all in very high relief4 ,it is certain that ,phidias had less to do with this portion of the decoration of the temple than with the sculptures in the pediments or the frieze1 and the work is of varying merit4 ,in the low relief on the frieze within the colonnade the sculptor depicted perhaps the most ,athenian scene of all--the panathenaic procession4 ,the festival of which this was the culmination was instituted in honour of ,athena ,polias--the ,protectress of the ,city4 ,every town in ,attica and each colony and subject town contributed its share to the sacrifices in honour of the occasion4 ,on the last day the whole population of the ,state1 some on foot1 some on horseback or in chariots1 marched in procession to lay the peplos of the goddess in her temple4 ,the concourse included a band of the noblest maidens of the city carrying baskets of offerings1 the right to be one of these being the greatest honour to which an ,athenian girl could aspire4 ,to adorn the frieze1 ,phidias imaged this great procession divided into two long lines1 running along the north and south sides of the cella respectively4 ,both met in the eastern face4 ,at this spot the sculptor showed the ,athenian maidens with the vessels of sacrifice and the gods1 who1 though invisible1 were among their people on that day4 ,a priest stood in the centre possibly receiving the embroidered robe of the goddess from a little boy4 ,on the right and left were seated the chief divinities of ,hellas--on the one side ,athena1 ,hephaestus1 ,poseidon1 and ,dionysus1 and on the other ,zeus and ,hera attended by ,isis4 ,illustration3 8,,theseus0 ,british ,museum ,illustration3 8,,the ,,three ,,fates0 ,british ,museum ,enough remains of the various parts of the ,parthenon decorations to enable us to judge of the supreme gifts of the artist to whose imagination they were due and under whose direction they were fashioned4 ,an hour in the ,elgin room of the ,british ,museum1 where the larger part are enshrined1 should be sufficient to convince the greatest sceptic4 ,the magnificent group 8,the ,three ,fates0 show the marvellous skill of the ,athenian sculptors in dealing with drapery4 ,there is an ideal nobility in such a figure as that familiarly known as 8,the ,theseus0 which places it on a higher plane of art than either the beautifully proportioned forms of ,polyclitus or the rhythmical translations of nature by ,myron4 ,the wonderful fertility of invention1 which is1 perhaps1 the most noticeable feature of the whole of the ,parthenon designs1 would have been an impossible achievement for the steady imagination of the ,argive sculptor4 ,it needed the temperament of an ,athenian artist working under the inspiration of his subject and certain of the appreciation of his countrymen4 ,it is one of the tragedies of art that one who had deserved the esteem of his fellows so fully did not retain it4 ,phidias died in exile at ,elis4 ,an accusation of misappropriating the gold voted for the statue1 together with a charge of sacrilege for engraving his own portrait and that of ,pericles on the shield of ,athena1 caused the great sculptor to leave the city he had served so well4 ,he died about #dcb ,b4,c4 ,so far we have spoken of ,phidias1 the sculptor1 and ,ictinus1 the architect4 ,our modern ideas incline us to associate the artist with the work--,wren with ,st4 ,paul's and ,raphael with the 8,sistine ,madonna40 ,in reality1 the foundation-stone of the ,parthenon should be inscribed thus3 8,pericles and the people of ,athens made me40 ,a work of art so great1 which exemplified the struggles and aspirations of a race so completely1 could not but owe the largest debt to the political leader of the ,state4 ,all the forces of ,athens were united to beautify the ,acropolis1 and these were marshalled1 naturally enough1 not by an artist but by a politician4 ,the real creator of the temple of ,athena was ,pericles4 ,he realised that the greatness of his countrymen depended1 not upon the breadth of their dominions1 but upon the healthy development of every citizen1 physically1 mentally1 and emotionally4 ,he divined that the proud boast 8we love the beautiful without extravagance and knowledge without exaggeration0 was incompatible with strivings after empire4 ,to engage the ,athenian imagination1 and to wean it from the road which eventually led to ruin1 ,pericles bethought him of the erection of the series of monuments witnessing to the glory of the first city of ,greece4 ,his was the conception in its entirety1 he found the means1 and1 above all1 he never permitted the enthusiasm of his countrymen to flag4 ,illustration3 ,,group ,,of ,,gods ,from the ,parthenon ,frieze ,illustration3 ,,boy ,,with ,,peplos ,from the ,parthenon ,frieze ,these are the chief facts4 ,they prove that the temple of the ,virgin goddess and the marbles with which it was adorned1 played a part in the life of the fifth-century ,athenian1 for which there is no modern counterpart4 ,the ,parthenon brought heaven to earth4 ,it satisfied the individual ,athenian's craving for light as to his personal destiny4 ,but above all1 it stood for those social and political ideals which he estimated far above his own personal wants4 ,it spoke to his soul as the idea of ,empire speaks to the patriotic ,briton of to-day4 ,the pedimental groups1 too1 were more than decorations or mere pictures of the great gods2 they glowed with a message which we should deem inspired4 ,when the ,athenian's gaze wandered towards the ,acropolis--still more when1 during some high festival1 he stood before the temple marbles--he could forget the perpetual sacrifice of will1 liberty and individuality--things which we ,europeans deem altogether desirable--and say with all sincerity1 8it is worth while40 ,,the ,,temple ,,statuary ,one thing will have struck our readers throughout the foregoing argument4 ,it has been impossible to avoid a certain tendency towards confusing terms4 ,for instance1 stress has been laid upon three factors in ,greek life1 as exercising an immense influence upon ,hellenic sculpture--civic pride1 a deep tolerance in religious opinion1 and an intense feeling for physical strength and beauty4 ,yet1 directly we have come to grips with these conceptions1 they have appeared to be inextricably commingled4 ,the ,greek's pride in his city-state1 his absorption in physical beauty1 are religious in their fervour and in the way in which they are utilized to uphold a strenuous moral ideal4 ,again1 the actions which are most akin to what we term religion nowadays1 closely resemble philosophy in their rigid rejection of everything approaching mysticism4 ,in relating any art to the social and political circumstances which gave it birth1 it is all-important to remember that the distinctions between such terms as science1 art1 religion1 and philosophy are more or less arbitrary4 ,in the earliest times men did not distinguish between any of the four4 ,when the skin-clad dweller in the forests gazed upon the lightning flashing among the oak branches1 and imaged the angry ruler of earth and sky1 he did not separate the explanation of the natural phenomenon from the symbolical incarnation1 or both from the religious belief4 ,nor was this less so when the human mind rose to more complex conceptions4 ,the ,pueblo ,indian1 for instance1 recognizes a ,sky-god and an ,earth-goddess1 the parents of all living things4 ,the ,sky-god passes across the heavens with the blazing shield of the sun's disc in his hand1 to vanish beyond the portals of the dark underworld where the spirits of the dead are at rest4 ,this is at once the science1 the art1 and the religion of the ,pueblo ,indian4 ,it satisfies two elemental cravings of his nature4 ,in the first place it translates the phenomena of the natural world into terms which his reason can grasp4 ,in the second place it satisfies his yearning for some superior will--we call this ,god--to which he may attribute the purpose and order which he instinctively assumes in the world4 ,so it was in ,greece4 ,we may be convinced that the ,iliad and the ,odyssey should be described as art4 ,they are art to our way of thinking2 that is to say1 to our minds they are clearly more akin to 8,paradise ,lost0 than to the religious poetry of the ,jews4 ,but to the ,greek they were at once religion and art and philosophy4 ,exactly the same remark must preface our consideration of the third class into which the sculptures of fifth-century ,greece may be divided--the temple statues1 erected to such deities as ,zeus1 ,hera1 and ,athena4 ,for five hundred years or more the best elements in the religious faith of ancient ,greece had been fostered and sustained by the ,homeric poems4 ,these1 at least1 offered an antidote to the brutal temple myths which had gradually gathered around the names of the gods1 the nature of which can be realized from the pages of ,hesiod4 ,but the ,greeks must at times have hungered for more definite representations of the great gods and goddesses4 ,in the fifth century1 however1 the sculptors shook off the bonds of realism1 which had prevented the portrayal of such a purely ideal figure as the deity 8who dwelt in the heights of the air10 and whose voice could be heard in the rustling of the oak-leaves of ,dodona4 ,it was realized that a divine image1 as satisfying to the imagination of the ,greek as the word-pictures of ,homer1 was possible4 ,the success of the great artists of the fifth century was instantaneous4 ,within a short time all the great temples of the ,hellenic world were furnished with statues of the deities in whose honour they were erected4 ,the sculptors were content for the most part to follow the imaginations of the earlier poets4 ,they only sought to realize in the god-like forms their highest ideals of human beauty and dignity4 ,they avoided the example of the ,babylonians and ,egyptians who had emphasized the unworldliness of their deities by investing them with strange shapes and symbols4 ,the ,greek imagination was content to add to the human form a more than human majesty4 ,gradually these statues became so much a part of their imagination that the ,greeks found it impossible to picture the great gods apart from the artists' portrayals4 ,so widespread was the effect of sculpture on ,greek and ,roman religious thought that1 at length1 no other conception of the gods could be formed4 ,in the wall paintings of ,pompeii the deities are represented as of the colour and material of statues1 the sculptural effect being imitated as closely as possible4 ,lucian1 too1 in one of his dialogues1 pictures the assembly of the ,olympian deities who are dismayed that men no longer rest upon the faiths of their forefathers4 ,in the course of the dialogue1 ,zeus orders 8that the gods should be seated in order of merit4 ,the gold gods first1 then the silver1 then the ivory1 bronze1 and stone10 he commands1 8and give preference to any work of ,phidias1 or ,alcamenes1 or ,myron1 or ,euphranor1 or other artist of distinction40 ,the most famous of the religious statues of ancient ,greece were erected to ,zeus and ,hera4 ,other gods and goddesses were particularly identified with the various cities of ,greece1 such as ,athena with ,athens4 ,but for the whole ,greek world ,zeus and ,hera were the recognized rulers among the dwellers in ,olympus4 ,the chief temple of ,zeus was at ,olympia where1 as we have seen1 the ,pan-,hellenic ,games were held in his honour4 ,that of ,hera lay between ,argos and ,mycen4 ,to these the ,hellenic world came from time to time to honour the ,father of the gods and his chosen consort4 ,in the inner shrine of each stood a great 8chryselephantine0 statue--a term used to distinguish the wooden statues1 with their veneer of ivory and gold1 from the ordinary marbles and bronzes4 ,no trace of either remains to-day4 ,wood is perishable1 and the plunder of gold would doubtless have proved irresistible to the ,turk1 even had the ,christian been scrupulous enough to resist the temptation4 ,had they been cut from the cold marble it might have been otherwise4 ,they were1 however1 still in their places in the time of ,hadrian1 when ,pausanias wrote the greatest of all guide-books4 ,illustration3 ,,zeus ,vatican1 ,rome ,illustration3 ,,hera ,terme ,museum1 ,rome ,we can picture the great statue of ,zeus1 possibly the most remarkable creation of the sculptor's art in ,greece4 ,the features of the 8,father of the ,gods0 are majestic1 yet not unkindly2 the arms and the upper parts of the body are fashioned from the gleaming ivory1 the lower limbs being wrapped in the golden mantle4 ,in the days of ,pausanias there was a building outside the sacred ,grove1 which was still treasured by the people of ,elis as the workshop in which1 for five years1 the sculptor wrought the image piece by piece4 8,why10 says ,pausanias1 8the god himself bore witness to the art of ,phidias4 ,for when the image was completed ,phidias prayed that the god would give a sign if the work was to his mind1 and straightway1 they say1 the god hurled a thunderbolt into the ground at the spot where the bronze urn stood down to my time40 ,this second-century ,baedeker has given us the greater part of our knowledge of the works of antiquity1 which are now lost or survive only in ,roman copies4 ,he described the statue of ,zeus by ,phidias thus3 8,the god is seated on a throne3 he is made of gold and ivory3 on his head is a wreath made in imitation of sprays of olive4 ,in his right hand he carries a ,victory1 also of ivory and gold3 she wears a ribbon1 and on her head a wreath4 ,in the left hand of the god is a sceptre1 curiously wrought in all the metals3 the bird perched on the sceptre is the eagle4 ,the sandals of the god are of gold and so is his robe4 ,on the robe are wrought figures of animals and the lily flowers4 ,the throne is adorned with gold and precious stones1 also with ebony and ivory2 and there are figures painted and images wrought on it40 ,the statue of ,hera in the temple between ,argos and ,mycen was the work of ,polyclitus4 ,it was erected after #dbc ,b4,c41 when it was necessary to rebuild the shrine of the goddess owing to the burning of the older temple4 ,the goddess was seated on her throne2 the crown on her head was decorated with a design of the ,graces and the ,seasons in relief4 ,ivory was used to represent the flesh of the 8white-armed0 goddess1 and her rich garments were elaborately decorated with gold1 the finish of every detail being even more complete than was the case with the work of ,phidias4 ,if the statue of ,hera was second to that of ,zeus in its suggestion of god-like majesty and repose1 it was nevertheless remarkable for its stately beauty4 ,the head1 as would be expected from the hand of ,polyclitus1 was noticeable for the absolute symmetry of every feature4 ,the ripples of hair falling on either side of the central parting gave an impression of dignified calm to the face of the goddess4 ,the 8,zeus0 of ,phidias and the 8,hera0 of ,polyclitus are the most famous examples of the ,greek statues which we have designated as 8religious40 ,the term is1 however1 misleading4 ,religious art proper1 religious art in the modern sense of the term1 did not exist for the citizens of ,periclean ,athens3 8personal0 religion--with its intense subjectivity--was a closed book to him4 ,the mysticism--that yearning to be at one with the ultimate reality--which is the keynote of what we moderns deem religion1 would have been simply meaningless to the ,argive1 the ,spartan1 or the ,athenian of the fifth century4 ,no ,greek could ever have said with ,bacon1 8,our humanity were a poor thing but for the divinity that stirs within us40 ,such sentiments as those of the mystic1 ,antony1 the ,egyptian1 would have struck him as sheer nonsense4 8,he who sits still in the desert is safe from three enemies--from hearing1 from speech1 from sight2 and has to fight against only one--his own heart40 ,the ,greek had no conception of a 8personal0 and quasi-human intelligence working in and through the human agent4 ,human speech1 human sight1 and1 above everything1 the promptings of the heart1 were all in all to him4 ,we are1 therefore1 unable to correlate such a statue as the ,zeus of ,olympia with such an every-day human craving as that for communion with a personal creator and ruler of the universe which we experience4 ,it rather depends upon a desire for an all-embracing interpretation of the phenomenal world4 ,in other words1 such a statue might more rightly be called philosophical than religious4 ,with the rise of the city-states1 the growth of an intense desire for all knowledge brought a new light to bear upon the whole content of consciousness4 ,men began to distinguish between those impressions which came from outside1 and those which seemed rather to depend upon emotional interpretation supplied by the self4 ,the deductions that appeared to be correctly drawn from sense impressions came to be regarded as having a greater validity than the rest1 and science arose as a sphere of thought sufficient unto itself and governed by its own rules4 ,during the fifth century the scientists strove to relate the phenomena of the senses1 now to one natural force1 now to another4 ,but they never reached a unity that carried conviction4 ,the general law upon which they seemed to come ever and again was a constant and eternal flux4 8,strife is the father of all things10 said ,heraclitus4 ,but while ,greek science was growing there were many--say one half of the ,greek world--to whom its generalisations were simply uninteresting4 ,they were the men to whom the poet could appeal4 ,the mystery all desired to fathom was deeper than sense4 ,each felt1 rather than saw1 that3 8,something is or seems1 ,that touches me with mystic gleams1 ,like glimpses of forgotten dreams-- ,of something felt1 like something here1 ,of something done1 ,i know not where2 ,such as no language may declare40 ,to such men the 8realities0 of the scientists were but shadows behind which lay a more abiding truth4 ,the riddle they desired to solve was what relation the fictional realities of the scientists bore to the abiding truths beyond4 ,and the bolder spirits1 spurred on by the great intellectual and emotional flood which followed the ,persian wars1 started upon the quest4 ,these were craftsmen all--the artists proper4 ,in obedience to some unreasoned desire1 these men bethought them to fashion new representations of 8the all of things40 ,they took the ultimate conceptions of life4 ,for example3 8,him1 who from eternity1 self-stirred1 ,himself hath made by ,his creative word40 ,they strove to convey1 not only the impressions realised by their brothers1 the scientists1 but the emotions astir in their own hearts4 ,what matter if the scientists proved these 8ideal types0 to be mere lies4 ,the artists felt that the unconscious criticism of nature revealed truths far beyond those at which the conscious criticism of science stopped4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,barberine ,,hera ,vatican1 ,rome ,by the middle of the fifth century the ,greek artist had realized that his true task was not to strive to copy the known1 but1 8hungry for the infinite10 to seek the ideal whose home was in the unknown4 ,the inmost revelations vouchsafed to ,greek thought and imagination in the fifth century found expression in the great temple statues4 ,earlier they had been embodied in such poems as the 8,iliad0 and the 8,odyssey40 ,later they were to find expression in the dialogues of ,plato4 ,but between #dej ,b4,c4 and #djj ,b4,c4 the natural philosophy of the ,greek world was embodied in such sculptures as the 8,zeus0 of ,olympia and the 8,hera0 of ,argos4 ,that is why we call the second half of the fifth century 8the golden age of ,greek sculpture40 ,then1 and only then1 did it embody all ,greek thought2 then1 and only then1 were the workers in marble and bronze inspired to express the passion for physical beauty1 the fierce pride in citizenship1 as well as the deepest thoughts upon nature and humanity4 ,the passion for physical beauty found material expression in the great series of athletic sculptures of ,argos and ,athens4 ,the ,parthenon was the outcome of the ,hellene's civic pride4 ,the deepest philosophical beliefs of the fifth-century ,greek are to be found in such statues as the 8,zeus ,otricoli0 and the 8,hera ,ludovisi40 ,these are certainly the finest conceptions of the great god and goddess which have been preserved to us4 ,both are based on the statues of ,phidias and ,polyclitus1 though there are traces of a more sensuous and florid taste than would have been possible in the fifth century4 ,in the head of ,zeus1 for instance1 the suggestion of awful power is lacking4 ,the great sculptor working under the inspiration of ,homer's lines3 8,spake the ,son of ,cronus and nodded thereto with swart brows and the ambrosial lock of the ,king rolled backward from his immortal head and the heights of ,olympus quaked10 could not have missed this4 ,the two heads convey all the beauty of the first conceptions1 but they lack the serene austerity--the stern aloofness--that we may be sure characterized the work of ,phidias and ,polyclitus4 ,the fifth-century artists were appealing to men who preserved a measure of unreasoning faith in the gods of their fathers4 ,the beautiful full length 8,barbarian ,hera10 in the ,vatican ,collection1 represents a step further in the emphasizing of sensuous charm1 and consequently there is even less insistence upon the severe beauty which the fifth-century sculptor sought to portray4 ,to be understood the statue must be regarded as a work of the fourth century1 and be judged by the standards of ,scopas and ,praxiteles4 ,the ideal head of ,asclepius1 in the ,british ,museum1 which has been ascribed to ,thrasymedes of ,paros1 the sculptor of the great chryselephantine statue at ,epidaurus1 is a work bearing a strong resemblance to the 8,zeus ,otricoli40 ,it was found in the ,island of ,melos1 in a shrine dedicated to the ,physician of the ,gods1 hence the title4 ,the expression of the ,god of ,healing1 whose worship was so general in ,greece at one time that it threatened to become almost universal1 is1 however1 more kindly and human than that of ,zeus4 ,it is a beautiful example of the joyousness and sweet reasonableness which ,greek sculpture possessed through contact with a system of religious belief which left the intelligence unhampered and the human emotions free4 ,it is true that the religion of ancient ,greece lacked the driving power of other and more potent faiths4 ,it was not based upon such personalities as ,buddha1 ,moses1 or1 greatest of all1 the ,founder of the faith which eventually ,hellenized the ,western world4 ,but for a few short years the humane and tolerant religion of ,greece was all-sufficient4 ,any one who would have abundant proof has only to stand for a few minutes before the marbles which sum up and express the ,greek belief in an entirely reasonable and beautiful world4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,scopas ,,and ,,praxiteles 7#djj ,b4,c4 ,,to #ccj ,b4,c47 ,there is a wealth of worldy wisdom in the saying 8,close sits my shirt1 but closer my skin40 ,it reminds us that the relation of the individual to society answers many a riddle4 ,the ,athens of the fifth century has furnished us with one great type of individualism--that in which the citizen was willing simply to add his unit to the energy directed by the ,state4 ,in its sculpture we saw the consequences of a social system which rested upon a foundation essentially unselfish4 ,but1 after all1 such social altruism is unnatural4 ,individuality does stand for a dominant passion in humanity4 ,the ,athenian communal spirit lasted for a few short years4 ,then1 like many another truly great ideal1 it vanished1 and with it the school of sculpture to which it had given birth4 ,after #djj ,b4,c4 the ,hellenic sculptor found himself in a new world of thought and emotion4 ,the ,greek to whom he appealed looked to marble and bronze to express ideals entirely different from those which had been potent fifty years earlier4 ,it would not have been surprising had the sculptor of the later age been overwhelmed by the sense of the achievements of the earlier era4 ,we could have pardoned a half-century of decadent workmanship1 while a method suited to the new ideas was being evolved4 ,as a matter of fact1 the ,greek sculptor passed from one to the other without perceptible effort4 ,the succession of great artists was unbroken4 ,nevertheless1 the break with the old epoch was complete4 ,indeed1 it will ever be one of the mysteries of art how human craftsmanship could successfully express thoughts and emotions so diverse by the same medium4 ,there was the same sleepless criticism of nature1 the same overpowering impulse towards generalisation1 which gave the keynote to the sculpture of the fifth century4 ,but the younger school found fresh themes for plastic expression4 ,it drew new passions from the pulsating humanity in the city-states4 ,that the ,greek sculptor passed so easily from the one to the other is a sure proof of the natural bias of the ,hellenic genius towards sculpture4 ,it shows that for one century and a half1 at any rate1 ,greece was peopled by a race of sculptors4 ,many individuals lacked the technical resources of the craftsman1 but the average ,athenian thought in terms of marble or bronze4 ,denied an outlet in one direction1 the natural impulse found it elsewhere4 ,the result was a new melody1 a harmony equally perfect--so true is it that the poet-soul of a nation of artists has 8but to be struck1 and the sound it yields will be music40 ,it is by no means easy to distinguish thus strongly between the sculpture of the fifth-century ,greece and that of the fourth without1 in a measure1 appearing to depreciate the one or the other4 ,it is particularly easy to convey some such impression when we have to assert that ,scopas and ,praxiteles1 the typical sculptors of fourth-century ,greece1 failed to embody in their bronzes and marbles the inmost revelations vouchsafed to the ,greek imagination4 ,it is as true that ,greece owes to ,phidias and ,polyclitus the sculpture which is most truly ,hellenic1 as that we owe to ,shakespeare the drama which is most truly ,english4 ,but the appreciation of the art produced by the ,england of the twenty years after the ,armada does not necessitate our decrying such lyricists as ,herrick and ,rochester4 ,we know that our literature is the richer for both these elements4 ,we can spare neither the awful pathos of ,leah's recognition of ,cordelia1 nor ,herrick's 8,night ,piece to ,julia40 ,we must hold the scales at least as evenly between the art of ,phidias and the art of ,praxiteles4 ,in many ways the 8,niobe0 of ,scopas and the 8,hermes0 of ,praxiteles testify even more strongly to the vitality of the ,hellenic genius4 ,certainly the best work of the fourth-century sculptors appeals far more directly to us4 ,the period is that of the ,spartan and ,theban supremacy4 ,athens has practically acknowledged defeat in the struggle for the hegemony of ,greece4 ,instead of the all-pervading pride in citizenship1 the ,athenian is conscious of an increasing interest in himself as an individual4 ,the old absorption in the ideal citizenship vanishes4 ,for this very reason the sculptor strikes a note more akin to our nature4 ,the cold1 almost repellent1 beauty of the fifth-century sculpture is replaced by a new and more sensuous grace4 ,what were the historical circumstances which brought about this entire change in the ,greek artists' outlook upon life8 ,upon the withdrawal of the calm judgment and imaginative grip of ,pericles1 the ,athenian political system degenerated rapidly4 ,drunk with the lust for conquest1 ,athens forgot that no single town could hope to conquer and rule any large portion of the ,hellenic world4 ,under the influence of such firebrands as ,alcibiades1 ,athens pursued the mad phantom of ,empire4 ,defeat was inevitable1 and the catastrophe at ,syracuse in #dac ,b4,c4 was but a prelude to the final disaster nine years later4 ,there is perhaps no more awful page in the book of human history than that which pictures the scene in the ,pirus after gospotami1 when the last ,athenian fleet was destroyed by ,lysander in #dje ,b4,c4 8,that night not a man slept40 ,every ,athenian remembered the fate of ,demosthenes and ,nicias at the hands of the revengeful ,syracusans4 ,he called to mind the living death of his #gjjj countrymen condemned to a slavery in the stone quarries of ,achradina4 ,now that the final catastrophe had come1 his memory must have carried him back to his vote in #dbh ,b4,c41 when the ,assembly ordered the execution of the whole adult male population of ,mytilene and ,lesbos4 ,he recalled the sentence passed upon the inhabitants of the rebellious ,melos1 which ended in the death of every man of military age4 ,as these thoughts crowded in1 each man must have asked if the gods would save him as they had saved the men of ,mytilene1 or whether his fate would be the death he had meted out to the soldiers of ,melos and that of his wife and children the slavery that had befallen the rest of the islanders4 ,no pleasant picture4 ,but it is to these events that the world owes the sculptures of ,scopas and ,praxiteles4 ,accepting1 as we do1 the dictum of ,pericles1 8,athens is the school of ,hellas10 we have no hesitation in turning to her social and political history for an explanation of the essential difference between the sculpture of ,greece in the fifth and the fourth century4 ,the term 8,athenian0 cannot be used at will for 8,hellenic40 ,every city and state in ,greece contributed something to the ,hellenic genius4 ,each added its quota to the fund of intellectual and emotional experience upon which the great ,greek artists drew4 ,in these #aej city-states all types of political institutions and social customs flourished4 ,some developed their citizens in one direction1 others in another4 ,men of all types were created4 ,but ,athens alone absorbed and utilized all the artistic energies generated in the gean peninsula4 ,in the ,athenian character alone do we find those traits which1 for want of a better name1 we may term ,pan-,hellenic4 ,the first effect of the shattering of the imperial dream was to scatter ,athenian culture broadcast over the ,hellenic world4 ,the store-house of ,athenian genius was opened to all4 ,the typical ,greek of the new era was the cosmopolitan ,xenophon4 ,the ideal of ,pericles1 8my state right1 or my state wrong1 but my state1 right or wrong10 was sadly out of date4 ,phidias was an ,athenian1 born and bred4 ,his life-work was for ,athens1 and the one thing that ,athens shared with ,greece--the worship of ,zeus4 ,but ,scopas was a ,parian by birth and an ,athenian only by adoption4 ,he worked everywhere and for anybody--as a young man in ,tegea2 as an old man in ,asia ,minor upon the great mausoleum erected by the ,ephesian ,artemisia to her ,carian husband4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,mausoleum ,,charioteer ,british ,museum ,for thirty years after gospotami1 ,sparta1 with the help of ,persia1 ruled ,greece4 ,after the peace of ,callias in #cga ,b4,c4 came the domination of ,pher and ,thebes1 and the military supremacy of ,epaminondas4 ,during all this time ,athens looked on4 ,her commerce had suffered little4 ,the wealth of her capitalists had rather been increased than decreased by the abandonment of the luxury of empire4 ,but if the material difference was small1 the psychological difference was immense4 ,whereas ,demosthenes could cry of the ,athenian who had fought at ,salamis1 that he believed himself 8not born to his father and mother alone1 but also to his country10 the ,state in the fourth century came to be regarded as a joint stock corporation1 to be bled for the benefit of its most noisy members4 ,mercenaries took the place of citizen soldiers in the army of the ,state4 ,regardless of the necessity for providing against emergencies1 the citizens voted themselves largesses from the public funds4 ,a popular statesman was the man who lessened the cost of public administration1 and so could distribute ever increasing dividends of festival money to the proletariat4 ,this new regard for the individual was entirely foreign to the ideals which had dominated ,hellas fifty years earlier4 ,each man began to realise that apart from citizenship there was an entity which also claimed attention1 an 8,i0 with passions and emotions which required satisfaction and called for artistic expression4 ,the sculptor no longer rejected those subjects which derived their interest from the successful expression of individual emotion4 ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,scopas 7#djj ,b4,c4-#cej ,b4,c47 ,scopas was the first artist to realise the new necessity laid upon the plastic arts4 ,he was the chief architect of his day1 and in his work we can trace the effect of the new ideas before sculpture was divorced in great measure from architecture4 ,we have already mentioned his association with the ,mausoleum of ,halicarnassus--one of the 8,seven ,wonders40 ,the ,carian ruler ,mausolus died in #cec ,b4,c41 leaving his widow ,artemisia to rule4 ,she determined to erect a great monument to his memory1 and impressed the best known artists of ,magna ,grcia into her service for the purpose4 ,the restoration by ,c4 ,r4 ,cockerell in the ,mausoleum ,room at the ,british ,museum1 or1 still better1 that by ,oldfield 7,the ,antiquary1 vol4 liv41 pp4 #bgc-cfb71 give some idea of the great pyramidical building1 glowing with colour1 which stood on a lofty basement by the harbour side4 ,the whole was surmounted by a great chariot group by ,pythis1 containing the heroic figure of ,mausolus1 possibly accompanied by ,artemisia1 after the fashion of ,zeus and ,hera in the chariot of the gods4 ,to the art historian1 however1 the most interesting feature is the frieze4 ,the principal subject of the existing fragments in the ,british ,museum is a fight between ,greeks and ,amazons4 ,but the most beautiful section is perhaps a sadly-mutilated slab from a portion of the frieze whereon was pictured a chariot race4 ,it is known as the 8,mausoleum ,charioteer40 ,nothing could bring home more clearly the immense strides ,greek art has made than a comparison of this tiny marble fragment with the 8,bronze ,charioteer0 from ,delphi1 sculptured about one hundred and twenty years earlier4 ,the ,mausoleum figure is also clad in the long close-fitting robe of his calling4 ,but every trace of conventionalism has vanished4 ,even the calm restraint with which an ,alcamenes would have treated the subject has gone4 ,instead we find a passionate intensity which is altogether new4 ,as ,mr4 ,e4 ,a4 ,gardner reminds us1 the 8,mausoleum ,charioteer0 might well be of the company described by ,shelley1 who3 8,with burning eyes1 lean forth and drink ,with eager lips the wind of their own speed1 ,as if the thing they loved fled on before1 ,and now1 even now1 they clasped it40 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,niobe ,,group ,the 8,mausoleum ,charioteer0 is a beautiful illustration of the more individualistic melody which the early fourth-century sculptor drew from the great orchestra of ,greek genius4 ,but we can gauge the effects of the new sympathies still more clearly in the celebrated 8,niobe0 group4 ,even in classical times it was a moot point whether its author was ,scopas or ,praxiteles4 ,probably the question will never be settled4 ,modern criticism1 however1 generally favours its attribution to ,scopas4 ,the group certainly contains all the characteristics which we have associated with his influence4 ,the series was excavated in ,rome in #aehc ,a4,d41 near the ,church of ,st4 ,john ,lateran4 ,it was acquired by one of the ,medici family1 and placed in the garden of his villa1 where it remained until it was removed to its present resting-place in the ,uffizi ,palace1 ,florence4 ,the ,florentine 8,niobides0 are not from the chisel of a fourth-century craftsman4 ,they are probably copies of those described by ,pliny as having been brought to the ,temple of ,apollo ,sosianus in #ch ,b4,c4 ,indeed1 other ancient versions of the great group exist1 including a magnificent copy of the daughter of ,niobe--8,the ,chiaramonti0--now in the ,vatican4 ,the 8,niobides0 were almost certainly originally designed to serve an architectural purpose4 ,it has been surmised that they formed a pedimental group for a ,temple of ,apollo in ,asia ,minor4 ,to judge of their relation to the rest of ,greek art1 they must be compared with such a pedimental group as that of the ,parthenon1 and we have1 therefore1 preferred to illustrate them from the collection of casts at ,munich1 instead of from the marbles in ,rome or ,florence4 ,incidentally1 it is interesting to note that ,phidias was content to allow three or four figures in the centre of the group to tell the story4 ,we do not1 for instance1 even know whether the 8,theseus0 is a god1 a hero1 or merely a personification of one of the ,athenian rivers4 ,but in the ,niobe group every figure is concerned with the main theme4 ,regarded as an incident in the history of ,greek sculpture1 the 8,niobides0 brilliantly illustrate the fourth-century artist's success in the depiction of human expression and passion4 ,the ,theban ,queen is the incarnation of the belief that womanhood's greatest glory is to bring into the world 8full-breathed1 bright-eyed1 and happy-hearted human creatures40 ,she stands for the ,hellene's agreement with ,ruskin's doctrine that the true veins of wealth are purple--8not in rock but in flesh40 ,but her proud sense of the glory of motherhood has aroused the ire of the ,virgin ,artemis4 ,the sculptor chooses the moment when ,niobe and her fourteen children are suddenly faced with the dread vengeance of ,apollo and the goddess4 ,the unseen arrows have stricken some of the fearful boys and girls4 ,others are as yet unhurt4 ,a brother supports a sister4 ,the centre of the group is occupied by the unfortunate mother1 to whom the youngest daughter has fled in her terror4 ,these ,roman copies of the 8,niobides0 were carved long after the schools of ,pergamus and ,rhodes had shown the possibility of a far more realistic presentation of physical terror and bodily pain4 ,but they still retain evidence of the ,greek sculptor's determination not to be tempted beyond the limits set by bronze and marble4 ,a desire for dramatic expression does not interfere with that harmony of the planes which to the purest ,greek taste made for perfectly beautiful sculpture4 ,there are none of the nervous suggestions of muscular action whereby later artists conveyed ideas of dramatic intensity4 ,such figures as ,niobe with her shrinking girl rather display a desire to postpone physical to spiritual anguish4 ,upon analysis1 this can be traced to the sculptor's realisation of the impossibility of expressing the ultra-dramatic in terms of perfect beauty4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,ludovisi ,,ares 7,,page #ga7 ,vatican1 ,rome ,illustration3 ,,menelaus ,,and ,,patroclus ,loggia dei ,lanzi1 ,florence ,as we look upon the 8,niobe10 we feel at once that so dramatic a theme would have made no appeal to the generation before ,scopas4 ,but we must also feel that the fourth century has struck a new note--a note1 moreover1 to which marble can respond4 ,but what is most wonderful is the magnificent reserve1 the perfect moderation1 with which the artist has expressed emotions that had been considered beyond the range of the art4 ,the sculptor has not sacrificed that harmony and repose which he regards as essential to the idea of the beautiful4 ,the group usually called the 8,menelaus and ,patroclus0 displays in equal degree this balance between the expression of deep emotion and the perfect moderation which the ,greeks regarded as the hall-mark of the truly beautiful4 ,the limitations incidental to marble as a medium for emotional expression are borne in mind4 ,there is no effort to force the note of pathos4 ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,praxiteles 7#cfj ,b4,c4-#cbe ,b4,c47 ,if ,scopas may be regarded as the first ,greek to realise that marble and bronze could express the more passionate intensity of feeling which naturally followed the increasing importance of the individual and the individual's thoughts and emotions1 his successor1 ,praxiteles1 must be associated with the second great characteristic of fourth-century sculpture--its lyrical appeal4 ,greek sculpture had been epic4 ,it had concerned itself with the heroic myths of the race4 ,but as art became every year less a matter of communal concern1 it began to voice the growing self-assertion of the individual ,greek4 ,in other words1 sculpture became lyric4 ,almost any fourth-century work would illustrate what we mean1 but a beautiful practical example is furnished from the history of ,attic sepulchral sculpture4 ,any visitor to ,athens will remember the numerous dedicatory reliefs1 chapels and memorial stel still to be seen in situ in the ,ceramicus1 the cemetery near the ,dipylon ,gate4 ,reconstructing the scene at the time of ,praxiteles1 we must imagine the roads leading from the principal city gates as flanked with such sculptured memorials of the dead4 ,the ,sacred ,way to ,eleusis1 for instance1 became a favourite site4 ,to-day the ,ceramicus is in ruins1 but its monuments still present some of the finest examples of original ,hellenic sculpture extant4 ,there is the famous 8,relief of ,dexileus40 ,it depicts with magnificent vigour an ,athenian cavalry-man1 triumphing over a prostrate foe4 ,dexileus died in the war which ,athens waged unsuccessfully with the ,corinthians1 so the monument dates from about #cid ,b4,c41 the time when the youthful ,scopas was at work upon the pedimental groups at ,tegea4 ,the beautiful work often called the 8,death of ,socrates0 is only a few years earlier in date4 ,the connection with ,socrates is1 of course1 apocryphal1 the subject really being an ,athenian pouring a libation4 ,at the other side is the wife1 absorbed as was the wont of ,athenian wives in some domestic interest--her dress1 or her jewellery4 ,the third figure is a young slave holding the vessel filled with wine4 ,illustration3 8,,the ,,dexileus ,,relief0 ,ceramicus1 ,athens ,neither of the works memorialises any great political or social figure4 ,nothing could well be more individualistic than a monument erected to an unknown man by his friends or relations4 ,dating from about #djj ,b4,c41 both belong to an age when sculpture was divorcing itself from its close alliance with the ,state4 ,but the point to be realised is that a few years earlier such works would have been impossible4 ,sculptors of such power would not have been at the service of mere individuals1 however wealthy4 ,cicero 78,de ,legibus10 ii4 #bf7 tells that in the period after ,solon's death1 the ,athenians legislated against elaborate monuments in such cemeteries as the ,ceramicus4 ,no tomb was permitted unless it could be made by ten men in three days4 ,for many years public opinion approved of these sumptuary laws4 ,it was only when the fifth century was well advanced that they fell into disuse4 ,even then the transition was gradual4 ,the sepulchral monuments were small and stonemasons only were employed4 ,in the fourth century1 however1 the best known sculptors accepted such commissions4 ,pausanias1 describing the antiquities near the ,pirus ,gate1 says1 for instance3 8,not far from the gates is a tomb1 whereon stands a soldier standing by his horse2 who he was ,i know not1 but it was ,praxiteles who made both man and horse40 ,but the tendency towards an increased interest in the needs of the individual citizen is even more strongly exemplified by the growth of home life4 ,home life had been sacrificed to public life in the age of ,themistocles and ,pericles4 ,the victors of ,salamis lived in small houses1 which were particularly dark and uncomfortable owing to the lack of glass4 ,the poorer citizens lived in a single 8cella40 ,families of moderate means had two sets of rooms1 the upper floor for the women1 and the lower set apart for the men4 ,in the fifth century only a few rich men could afford the series of rooms grouped round the two courts which enabled the wealthy ,athenian to receive his friends and enjoy some of the privileges of home life4 ,under the circumstances1 we cannot wonder that the ,greek left his home early and preferred the gymnasium or the market-place1 the law courts or the covered corridors4 ,a few met in the courtyards of their friends but1 as a whole1 social life in ,athens was public4 ,in the fourth century1 however1 the richer members of the community began to build magnificent houses in the suburbs of ,athens4 ,attempts at decorating the interiors followed as a matter of course4 ,it is said that ,alcibiades was the first ,athenian to try1 calling in ,agatharchus1 the painter1 to his aid4 ,the poorness of the light in the majority of the houses doomed the painters' efforts to failure1 but the sculptor had a better chance4 ,his work could be used1 at any rate1 for the decoration of the courtyards4 ,he was employed to supply portrait busts and a host of single figures1 which1 appealing as they did to the individual taste alone1 would have had no place in the art of the preceding century4 ,the range of subjects was still further increased by the popular sculptor being no longer chiefly engaged upon huge chryselephantine statues of deities1 in which it was manifestly impossible to depart far from the popular types which had been fixed by sculptors like ,phidias and ,polyclitus4 ,moreover1 the sculptor was no longer compelled to spend most of his time in filling a triangular pediment1 a square metope1 or shaping his design to the long narrow frieze4 ,the consequence was the discovery of numbers of mythical subjects capable of objective realisation in bronze and marble4 ,the 8,hermes0 is a beautiful example of the use such a sculptor as ,praxiteles made of the new opportunities4 ,the place it occupies in the history of the art is unique4 ,whereas most sculptures of its class are ,roman copies1 the 8,hermes of ,praxiteles0 is an undoubted original4 ,the marble was found at ,olympia in #ahgg ,a4,d41 on the very spot where ,pausanias recorded having seen it4 ,the find was preceded by the identification of a dipteral temple with an ,heraion 7,temple of ,hera7 also described by ,pausanias4 ,but this was of small interest compared with the statue which the ,german excavators discovered embedded in a fragment of wall4 ,there was never any doubt as to its identity4 ,it was clearly 8the ,hermes of stone1 carrying the infant ,dionysus--a work moreover by ,praxiteles0--as ,pausanias had recorded4 ,every one has seen a cast of the statue4 ,the god is carrying the babe ,dionysus to the nymphs4 ,he has stopped for a moment's rest and is amusing his little charge1 may be with a bunch of grapes held in the right hand4 ,the perfect grace of the figure and the pose are essentially ,praxitelean4 ,the work illustrates the softer and more sensuous manner of imaging the lesser divinities which arose in the fourth century4 ,in this case the youthful god in the flush of early manhood must be contrasted with the 8bearded0 ,hermes of the age of ,phidias4 ,after the time of ,praxiteles there was no reversion to the earlier type4 ,he did for ,hermes and ,apollo what ,phidias and ,polyclitus had done for ,zeus and ,hera4 ,the influence of ,praxiteles can be traced in a hundred kindred works produced during the next few centuries4 ,in particular1 it led to a fuller appreciation of the value of marble as a medium4 ,previously most of these single male statues had been bronze4 ,the use of marble in turn led to increased technical skill4 ,take ,praxiteles' treatment of the hair in the 8,hermes10 for instance4 ,note the massing of the locks1 without an attempt at the realistic representation of the details1 and the skilful use of the play of light and shade which such free treatment makes possible4 ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,greek ,,womanhood ,but even these factors1 potent though they were1 do not account for the whole of the increased scope afforded to the fourth-century sculptor4 ,we have passed in review various circumstances1 political1 economic1 intellectual and moral4 ,but we have said nothing of a good half of ,greek society--the women4 ,yet the influence exerted by the fairer sex1 negatively upon fifth-century1 positively upon fourth-century1 sculpture was all-important4 ,it must not be overlooked if we would gain a complete understanding of either phase of ,hellenic art4 ,speaking generally1 women occupied a place in ,greek society which cannot be readily illustrated from our modern experience4 ,the earliest ,greek women is pictured in the pages of ,homer4 ,the typical wife is ,penelope2 the typical virgin is ,nausicaa4 ,to ,homer1 the wife is the trusted friend of her husband4 ,the current belief is that 8,the woman's cause is man's3 they rise or sink ,together1 dwarf'd or god-like1 bond or free40 ,illustration3 ,,hermes ,,of ,,praxiteles 7,,detail7 ,olympia ,but prosperity brought a change4 ,at the time of the rise of sculpture--in the early days of ,pericles--the interests of the citizens were entirely political4 ,at no time1 perhaps1 in the history of the world have men and women had so little in common4 ,the duty of an ,athenian wife was to stay at home1 to order the house economically1 and to control the numerous slaves4 ,wedded1 perhaps at fifteen1 after a childhood spent in strict seclusion1 she could not hope to be a companion to the active-minded ,athenian4 8,the best woman10 said ,thucydides1 8is she of whom least is said1 either in the way of good or harm40 ,towards the end of the fifth century1 the political interests became less absorbing1 as we have seen4 ,private affairs began to occupy the major part of the wealthy citizen's time4 ,it might have been expected that the ,athenian wife would have been gradually reinstated in the position of intimate companionship she had occupied before city life became general4 ,but the custom of centuries was too firmly rooted4 ,when the ,athenian once more looked for the pleasures that might arise from social contact with his womenfolk he found his wife entirely without charm4 ,naturally enough he turned to the ,hetaerae4 ,the word is too thoroughly ,hellenic to be translated4 ,demosthenes distinguished the class from the rest of the ,athenian women when he said3 8,by means of wives we become the fathers of legitimate children and maintain faithful guardians of our homes2 the ,hetaerae are meant to promote the enjoyment of life40 ,the 8female friends0 were usually captives made in war or1 at any rate1 strangers who found ,athens a convenient market for their physical and intellectual charms4 ,few ,athenian women dared to join their ranks4 ,every ,hetaera was an expert dancer4 ,she could play on the flute or lyre4 ,her wealth was often considerable4 ,the boast of ,phryne--the greatest feminine influence of her day in ,greece--did not appear absolutely beyond reason4 ,yet the courtesan offered to rebuild the walls of ,athens at her own cost4 ,not infrequently the ,hetaera's mental culture was sufficient to enable her to consort with the greatest philosophers and statesmen4 ,pericles himself imperilled his position in the ,state by his dealings with ,aspasia4 ,we are not called upon to pass judgment upon these social customs4 ,our task is rather to estimate the influence of such a state of society upon the child of his time--the artist4 ,looking the facts in the face1 we have simply to note that the old demand for manly vigour and civic unselfishness was giving place to a far less strenuous ideal4 ,the ,athenians could applaud a ,phryne who at a festival at ,eleusis1 let down her hair and descended into the sea in the sight of all the ,greeks1 after the manner of a sea-born ,aphrodite4 ,instead of ,zeus and ,hera1 men looked to ,dionysus1 the leader of the revels2 to ,apollo1 the chief of the ,muses2 to ,aphrodite1 the ,queen of ,desire1 who held in her cestus all the magic of passion4 ,the greatness of an artist does not rest upon opposition offered to current civic and social ideals4 ,on the contrary1 it depends entirely upon the perfect expression which he gives to the body of emotions experienced by the men and women around him4 ,the fame of ,praxiteles is due to his complete identification with the paramount influences of his age4 ,a true ,athenian1 the refined sensuality of his style picked him out as the artist to give objective form to the popular imaginations4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,eros ,,of ,,centocelle ,vatican1 ,rome ,praxiteles himself was closely associated with the ,hetaera1 ,phryne4 ,one of his most renowned works was the 8,eros0 which he carved as the artistic expression of his love for the beautiful courtesan1 and which was dedicated by ,phryne at ,thespiae about #cfj ,b4,c4 ,the ,epigrammatist said of the ,thespian 8,eros0 that it 8excited transports of love by hurling1 not darts1 but glances40 ,there have been many attempts to identify this statue with marbles that have come down to us4 ,it has been often suggested that the beautiful torso found at ,centocelle1 and now in the ,vatican1 may be a copy4 ,without dogmatising1 we can realise some of the qualities of ,praxitelean art from the 8,eros of ,centocelle40 ,we can see the dreamy melancholy with which the artist no doubt invested the graceful and tender form of the ,god of ,love4 ,it is strongly typical of the ,praxitelean imagination that ,eros is depicted as on the very verge of youth1 at the dawn of the first forebodings of passion4 ,praxiteles' 8,aphrodite of ,cnidus0 is equally associated with the memory of the ,hetaera1 ,phryne4 ,originally executed for the islanders of ,cos1 it was refused by them on account of the daring manner in which the sculptor had imaged the goddess--a manner which can be realised from the epigram to which it gave rise4 8,the ,paphian ,cytherea went down to the waters of ,cnidus desiring to behold her own image2 having beheld it1 #8,alas6 ,alas6' she cried1 #8where did ,praxiteles behold me thus8 ,i thought only three persons1 ,paris1 ,anchises1 and ,adonis had done so4'0 ,the people of ,cnidus differed from their brothers of ,cos4 ,as ,pliny suggests1 their acceptance of the statue made their island famous4 ,the marble was placed in the centre of a grove of myrtle1 and was approached by several paths so that it could be viewed from every side4 ,the ,vatican replica of the ,aphrodite is the best known copy of the work4 ,it is1 however1 at present disfigured by the addition of metal drapery which the taste of the last century considered necessary4 ,the ,praxitelean design can be realised from the copy at the ,glyptothek1 ,munich1 originally in the ,palace ,braschi4 ,there is also an undraped cast of the ,vatican statue in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,south ,kensington4 ,our own illustration is from a photo of the ,vatican copy taken for the ,hellenic ,society many years ago4 ,to the people of ,cnidus1 the statue was not marble white4 ,the eyes and hair of the goddess were coloured4 ,the drapery and the flesh were delicately tinted4 ,in exactly what manner this was done1 we do not know4 ,that such statues were painted is beyond argument4 ,pliny tells that the painter ,nicias assisted ,praxiteles4 ,he suggests that the sculptor considered the encaustic additions of prime importance and necessitating the greatest skill4 ,whatever the purpose of this colouring of statues may have been1 it is certain that there was no effort to secure greater realism by this addition4 ,the desire seems to have been to soften the harsher tones of the marble and to increase the decorative effect of the statue by distinguishing the principal masses of the composition4 ,for hundreds of years after it was set up in the myrtle grove in ,cnidus1 the 8,aphrodite0 was the most renowned statue in ,western ,europe4 ,this can only be attributed to the exquisite sense of artistic fitness with which ,praxiteles carried out his task1 together with the fact that he had enshrined in marble one of the ever potent human passions4 ,phryne had been ,praxiteles' model4 ,but the statue was by no means a realistic presentation of the erotic beauties of the ,hetaera4 ,no fault can be found with ,praxiteles' treatment of his theme on that ground4 ,illustration3 ,,aphrodite ,,of ,,cnidus ,vatican1 ,rome ,nevertheless the representation of a goddess in the guise of a woman shrinking from the revelation of her beauty to mankind argues the loss of a certain morality4 ,true1 the ,greek sculptor had never aimed at the inculcation of moral ideas4 ,but in an age before the religious sense of the ,greek had become dulled1 he would have confined himself to the creation of an atmosphere in which moral ideas could range without friction4 ,the 8,aphrodite of ,cnidus0 belongs to a time which made no such demand upon its artists4 ,the sculptor no longer believed that he owed a duty to the state in this particular respect4 ,every work now stood or fell by virtue of its innate truth and beauty4 ,but ,praxiteles was in no sense 8a brilliant exponent of decadent art40 ,on the contrary1 his sculptures bear witness to perhaps the most magnificent endowment of the ,attic brain--the fineness with which it felt4 ,to-day1 we are too apt to regard clarity of thought as the chief attribute of genius4 ,really genius depends upon the power to call up delicate tones of feeling1 of infinite subtlety of texture when compared with the ideas which we often regard as its sole endowment4 ,praxiteles has been described as 8,he who actually blended with his marbles the emotions of the soul40 ,the phrase is a fitting one with which to close our review of his art4 ,his abiding greatness depends less upon sheer beauty of line than upon the delicacy of the feelings which he made marble convey4 ,the play of the passing emotion on the face of the 8,hermes10 the dreamy passion of the 8,eros10 and the illusive charm with which the 8,aphrodite of ,cnidus0 shrinks from the revelation of her beauty--these are typical of what is most characteristic in the sculpture of ,praxiteles and his fellow workers4 ,he felt the emotional appeal of the feminine and the youthful male form rather than saw the beauties of line displayed in the new subjects offered for sculptural treatment4 ,it is far from true that the ,greek sculptor generally sought for beauty of form to the neglect of all the varied charm that lies in intellectual and emotional expression4 ,this might be said of ,phidias and ,polyclitus4 ,the insight of the sculptors of the following century into the depths of human emotion1 on the contrary1 was infinite4 ,scopas and ,praxiteles made marble speak the more delicate emotions of the soul to the last word4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,lysippus ,,and ,,the ,,fourth-,,century ,,realists ,,with ,a ,,note ,,on ,,modern ,,sculptural ,,criticism ,it needs little knowledge of human nature to realise that the idealisation of sensuous passion1 which was the keynote of the art of ,praxiteles1 could not express the whole nature of a composite civilisation1 and particularly the whole nature of a civilisation great enough to mother an ,alexander and a ,demosthenes4 ,the presence of a more strenuous ideal was inevitable4 ,the body social in this respect closely resembles the individual4 ,to the individual1 merely sensual pleasure is rarely entirely absorbing4 ,it is a matter of hours1 weeks--months1 it may be1 then the impulse weakens1 and 8,like the snow-falls in the river1 ,a moment white--then melts for ever60 ,it would1 therefore1 have been possible to diagnose the presence of the colder and more self-contained art hard by the warmly glowing art of ,praxiteles4 ,it is to be found in a large class of sculptures which we shall designate as ,lysippic4 ,these contain strongly marked characteristics1 and a moment's consideration will show that they must be traced to a social opinion entirely different to that pervading such works as the 8,olympian ,hermes10 the 8,aphrodite of ,cnidus10 and the 8,eros of ,centocelle40 ,but if a school of sculpture opposed to that of ,praxiteles was an artistic necessity1 a reaction against the social circumstances which had rendered a ,praxiteles possible was equally sure4 ,the art change indeed witnesses to the social revolution2 the social change to the artistic4 ,nor is the reaction in any sense the result of a merely passive objection to a dangerous method of living and feeling4 ,athens was impelled by misfortune into adopting sounder ideals4 ,such an incident as the sack of the shops in the ,pirus by the pirate vessels of ,alexander of ,pher after the battle of ,mantinea 7#cfb ,b4,c47 had rudely shaken the self-confidence of the ,athenians4 ,at the time1 the outrage led to no more vigorous step than the exiling of the ,athenian statesman1 ,callistratus4 ,but these rebuffs reached a climax in #cch ,b4,c4 when ,thebes and ,athens were routed by ,philip and ,alexander at ,chronea4 ,the impossible had happened4 ,with the victory of ,chronea1 the hegemony of ,greece had passed to ,macedonia--a non-,greek power4 ,the ,athenians prepared for root and branch reform4 ,as if to justify the taunt of ,demosthenes1 8the administration has risen from beggary to wealth1 while the ,treasury wants sustenance for one day's march10 such an incorruptible as ,lycurgus was elected to the ,ministry of the ,public ,revenue4 ,what is more he was permitted to act4 ,the ,navy was increased to #djj galleys4 ,the marble store-house for ships' gear 7the ,skeuotheke of ,philo7 was completed4 ,with grim irony1 the cases that lined the triple-aisled arcades were left open for public inspection1 8that those who passed might see all the gear in the gear-house40 ,it was almost a century since the seeds of decay had been sown in the city-state system4 ,it needed no ,demosthenes to prove that with all its faults it was to this system that ,athens owed its most enduring glories4 ,it had developed the powers of the citizens to the greatest extent4 ,faced with the possibility of the absolute monarchy embodied in the power of ,macedonia triumphing over the free commonwealth1 ,athens naturally looked to the past4 ,the rule of ,phocion and ,lycurgus was the result4 ,it was marked by a closer return to the ideals of the fifth century than had prevailed in ,athens since the death of ,pericles1 a century earlier4 ,many of the old shrines were restored1 and the theatre of ,dionysus rebuilt4 ,aided by the produce of the silver mines of ,laurion1 ,lycurgus was able to rebuild the ,lycan gymnasium and construct the ,panathenaic stadion4 ,but an even more signal proof of the reaction against the selfish policy of the previous fifty years is to be found in the effort made to rid ,athens of the mercenary system which was sapping the military strength of the state4 ,after ,chronea the youth of ,athens was once more trained to arms4 ,young men had to serve the state for at least two years4 ,these ,epheboi1 under the direction of a marshal and ten masters of discipline1 wore a common uniform1 lived together and dined frugally at a common mess4 ,the system was almost ,spartan in its simple temperance4 ,the ,epheboi were trained in the exercises of the hoplite4 ,at the end of the first half of their training they gave a public exhibition of athletic and military skill in the ,athenian theatre4 ,the ministry of ,lycurgus between #cch and #cbf ,b4,c4 was not a second golden age for ,athens4 ,but it was a faithful copy4 ,there was1 at least1 a partial return to the good old times when ,athenian lads ran races under the sacred olives1 redolent of convolvulus and whitening poplar1 8rejoicing in the sweet o' the year when the plane-tree whispers to the elm40 ,it was in a world dominated by these ideals that ,lysippus 7roughly #cge ,b4,c4 to #cjj ,b4,c471 the last of the great ,greek sculptors1 worked4 ,in place of the less virile type favoured by the age of ,praxiteles he aimed at the expression of natural manly beauty4 ,lysippus moulded his style upon that of ,polyclitus4 ,like ,polyclitus1 he preferred to work in bronze4 ,the preference is typical of his departure from the style of the ,athenian artists who had dominated sculpture during the forty years before ,chronea4 ,marble had proved the very medium for the portrayal of the softer graces of the human form and the delicate expression of emotion4 ,but it was inadequate for the representation of the more vigorous human forms which ,lysippus sought to portray4 ,lysippus1 however1 was no blind follower of ,polyclitus4 ,it is narrated that he once said1 8,polyclitus made men as they were1 but ,i make them as they appear to the eye40 ,lysippus added the truth of expression which the beautifully symmetrical but impassive figures of ,polyclitus lacked4 ,he aimed at imparting to his figures a lightness that those of the ,argive sculptor wanted4 ,the ,vatican 8,apoxyomenus0 is without doubt the finest statue extant embodying these tendencies4 ,this fine marble was excavated in ,april #ahdi from among the ruins of a large private house in the ,vicolo delle ,palme in ,transtevere4 ,it is doubtless a marble copy of the bronze which was one of the most popular works of art in ,rome during the ,empire4 ,in the bronze original the supports which are necessary for the marble copy were absent4 ,illustration3 ,,meleager ,vatican1 ,rome ,illustration3 ,,apoxyomenus 7,,school ,,of ,,lysippus7 ,vatican1 ,rome ,but what strikes us first is not the resemblance to the athletic sculptures of ,polyclitus1 but the marked difference4 ,the subject is of the genre order1 which in itself denotes a change4 ,wrestlers were wont to anoint their bodies with oil and besprinkle themselves with fine sand in order to afford a firm grip4 ,here we see the athlete scraping the oil-soaked sand from his limbs with a strigil4 ,but the difference goes still deeper4 ,a physique that would serve the ,state in good stead at any moment was clearly the essential to the youth who posed for the 8,diadumenus0 of ,polyclitus4 ,above all1 there was no suggestion of training for a single event4 ,the 8,apoxyomenus10 on the contrary1 rather recalls the system of our own day1 in which particular muscle1 rather than balanced strength1 is the prime desideratum4 ,to-day the athlete never loses sight of the fact that a definite contest has to be won on a fixed date4 ,mr4 ,k4 ,t4 ,frost1 in a delightful criticism of the 8,apoxyomenus0 from the point of view of the athletic anatomist1 couples the work with the well-known 8,fighting ,warrior0 of ,agasias1 now in the ,louvre4 8,both10 he says1 8have the physical characteristics which we associate with the thoroughbred40 ,comparing them with other ,greek athletic statues1 he shows that the back and trunk in the earlier works depend for strength upon the general solidity of the frame1 not on specially developed muscles4 ,this1 as he proves1 is not the case with the 8,apoxyomenus10 though the steel-like tendons and sinews prevent the resulting slimness from suggesting any lack of power4 ,,modern ,,sculptural ,,criticism ,the 8,apoxyomenus10 since its discovery in #ahdi1 has always been associated with the name of ,lysippus4 ,it certainly shows all the features which are usually associated with his style1 including the small head1 the long limbs1 and the life-like animation which he strove to express in his figures4 ,the attribution of these characteristics originally depended upon the interpretation placed upon various references to ,lysippus in the classical authors4 ,a passage in ,pliny1 for instance1 speaks of his 8,constantia10 and seems to suggest that a sleepless regard for truth in detail was a prime feature of the ,lysippic style4 ,when we add to this the passages relating to his pupils1 we can scarcely fail to regard ,lysippus as the founder of the realistic school1 which was opposed throughout the ,hellenistic age to the more fanciful and idealistic art based upon the marbles of ,praxiteles4 ,when we come to the consideration of the portraits of the ,lysippic school1 we shall see that realism to ,lysippus did not mean exactitude to life4 ,he always sought to add that rhythmic beauty which ,nature never supplies1 but which every true artist1 and especially every great ,greek sculptor1 is persuaded lies at the root of art4 ,it was upon such evidence as this that the 8,apoxyomenus0 was attributed to ,lysippus4 ,practically all the well-known and frequently copied sculptures are attributed to the famous sculptors of antiquity upon similar grounds4 ,in recent years1 however1 the archologists have sought to introduce a supplementary method whereby the authorship of well-known sculptures may be verified4 ,the method depends upon the minute examination of pieces of sculpture and the tabulation of their technical peculiarities4 ,the eye or the ear1 the nostril or the chin of a statue1 and especially of a ,greek original1 speaks volumes to the scientific critic4 ,aided by a collection of prints1 he arranges sculptures from any of the ,european collections into classes4 ,the hint of a date enables him provisionally to associate a class with a well-known craftsman1 and the identification of the authorship of masterpieces begins4 ,criticism of this kind looms largely in the literature of sculpture in these days4 ,even the amateur who is interested in art rather than archology must1 therefore1 have a clear idea of the type of evidence leading to the ascription of well-known sculptures to particular artists4 ,almost any famous work would serve to illustrate this4 ,critical struggles1 for instance1 have waged around the 8,venus of ,milo40 ,is it a fourth-century work1 or can it be roughly dated at #aej ,b4,c48 ,we have also referred to the critical mystery surrounding the authorship of the 8,niobides40 ,we1 however1 choose for the purpose of illustrating our point1 two famous works now in the ,vatican--8,the ,ares ,ludovisi0 and the 8,meleager40 ,both are generally acknowledged to be copies of fourth-century sculptures of the finest quality4 ,neither possesses the strongly marked characteristics of the style of ,praxiteles2 nor do they resemble the 8,apoxyomenus40 ,are they then to be ascribed to ,scopas8 ,that is the critical problem4 ,the 8,ares0 depicts the war-god as a youth4 ,this is a fourth-century variation from the robust1 bearded1 and fully armed type of an earlier period4 ,ares is pondering fresh feats of arms4 ,or may be1 as the ,roman copyist suggests by the introduction of the tiny ,eros1 he is solving some deep amatory problem set him by ,aphrodite4 ,at first sight the 8,ares0 seems to be by a sculptor who has imbibed some of the spirit of both ,scopas and ,praxiteles4 ,the sentiment strikes us as ,praxitelean1 the expression rather suggests ,scopas4 ,leubke1 noting the length of the limbs1 says that the 8,ares ,ludovisi0 reminds him of the style of ,lysippus4 ,dr4 ,waldstein1 however1 will have none of this4 ,he insists upon the claims of ,scopas4 ,to ,dr4 ,waldstein1 the overhanging brow which gives the pensive expression to the 8,apoxyomenus0 is the characteristic of ,lysippus4 ,its absence compels him to refer the 8,ares0 to ,scopas4 ,it all depends upon a wrinkle4 ,needless to say1 we do not propose to decide where doctors disagree4 ,but the archological method can be illustrated even more happily by the critical history of the ,vatican 8,meleager40 ,the stripling stands with his dog1 careless of any danger which the future may have in store4 ,the artist would seem to represent a youthful huntsman impatient for his quarry1 rather than the trusty hero who sailed with the ,argonauts and freed the chace of ,calydon from the devastating boar of ,artemis4 ,as is the case with most of the well-known ,greek sculptures1 no signature or inscription connects it with any particular artist4 ,the exceptional evidence present in the case of the 8,hermes0 of ,praxiteles is1 as we shall see1 also absent4 ,the first clue comes from the pages of ,pausanias1 who names ,scopas as the architect of the temple of ,athena ,alea at ,tegea1 and speaks of him as the sculptor of the pedimental groups4 ,pausanias goes on to describe the marbles1 and gives a list of the figures in the eastern pediment whereon was figured1 as he says1 8,the hunting of the ,calydonian boar40 ,these facts1 together with the emotional character of the 8,meleager10 justified the statue being associated with the sculptor of the ,tegean group4 ,but the evidence did not end here4 ,during recent excavations1 two heads1 which had evidently fallen from the eastern pediment1 were discovered4 78,journal ,hellenic ,studies10 vol4 xv47 ,they showed the passionate insistence upon vitality1 particularly in the intensity of the gaze of the eyes1 which we have already noted in the 8,mausoleum ,charioteer10 and which certainly characterises the 8,meleager0 at ,rome4 ,here was fair material for a dogmatic superstructure of really imposing dimensions4 ,the scientific critic had1 of course1 to seek for further instances of the sharply rounded eyeballs4 ,he had to find other cases in which the intensity of expression was clearly due to the deep setting of the eyes4 ,upon the results of these researches he could assign a certain number of the sculptures to ,scopas1 and by a process of exhaustion many another fourth-century work to the numerous sculptors mentioned in ,pliny and ,pausanias4 ,so far all was plain sailing4 ,the attributions were admittedly risky1 but the interest of the results seemed to justify the method4 ,unfortunately the matter did not end here4 ,while one party of excavators was working at ,tegea1 another party was unearthing a disconcerting inscription elsewhere4 ,this suggested that a statue known as the 8,agias10 a figure of an athlete found at ,delphi1 was a marble copy of a work by ,lysippus4 ,the discovery necessitated a fresh examination of fourth-century works1 and as a result1 such an authority as ,mr4 ,percy ,gardner now feels compelled to doubt whether the 8,meleager0 can be properly associated with the influence of ,scopas any longer4 ,guided by resemblances to the 8,agias10 he suggests that the 8,meleager0 is much more probably after a work by ,lysippus4 ,but again the critical argument takes a fresh lease4 ,for the 8,agias0 is found to resemble strongly the 8,heracles0 at ,lansdowne ,house4 ,moreover1 since neither possesses any of the strongly marked characteristics of the 8,apoxyomenus10 doubt is thrown upon the generally accepted attribution of that statue to ,lysippus4 ,what is the alternative8 ,mr4 ,percy ,gardner has a suggestion at once4 ,he turns to his ,pliny 78,nat4 ,hist40 xxxiv4 #hg74 ,the 8#8,apoxyomenus' is not a genuine fourth-century work2 it is rather ,hellenistic10 says he2 8it may well be a copy of the ,perixyomenus of ,diappus1 the son or pupil of ,lysippus40 ,we do not refer to the battle of the critics over ,scopas1 ,praxiteles1 and ,lysippus at this length on account of the intrinsic value of the critical spoils4 ,on the contrary1 the value of the accumulation of evidence seems to us to be entirely negative4 ,we are far from wishing to depreciate the value of such researches1 but candour compels us to remind the amateur that the modern methods of critical research are full of pitfalls4 ,one can scarcely steer too far from the hasty generalisation which can be so readily drawn from the necessarily flimsy evidence upon which the archologist is compelled to rely4 ,illustration3 8,,sarcophagus ,,of ,,alexander0 ,constantinople ,for ourselves we prefer to regard the work of the critical school as scaffolding which will doubtless lead to a permanent erection of ascertained fact4 ,the 8,ares10 the 8,meleager10 and the 8,apoxyomenus0 may be neither by ,scopas nor ,lysippus4 ,it is sufficient if we can honestly detect in them the general characteristics of particular phases of fourth-century sculpture4 ,the 8,mausoleum ,charioteer10 the 8,menelaus and ,patroclus10 and the 8,niobe0 group may none of them be the actual design or handiwork of ,scopas4 ,we cannot do more than detect in them the general characteristics of the period in which ,scopas was a dominating influence4 ,but there must have been a personality to popularise the new style--a brain and hand through whom the new artistic tendency first found expression4 ,with all the reservations that these remarks imply1 we give this personality the name of ,scopas1 and1 as we said before1 regard him as the first ,greek to realise that marble and bronze could express the more passionate intensity of feeling which naturally followed the increasing importance of the individual and the individual's thoughts and emotions4 ,so with ,lysippus4 ,the individual is not an essential element in the history of ,greek sculpture4 ,if he never lived1 another sculptor 8of the same name0 gave plastic expression to the more realistic ideals aroused by the triumph of ,macedonia4 ,some master inaugurated the realistic school1 which persisted beside the idealistic1 based upon the art of ,praxiteles4 ,whether ,lysippus1 ,diappus1 or an unknown sculptor of the ,hellenistic school moulded the 8,apoxyomenus0 is of small consequence4 ,moreover1 when all is said and done1 there is not much to choose between this position and that of ,mr4 ,percy ,gardner himself4 ,as ,mr4 ,frost has pointed out1 the length of limb and lightness of frame seen in the 8,apoxyomenus0 are only the tendencies of the 8,agias0 carried a step further4 ,when ,mr4 ,percy ,gardner goes on to suggest that the ,vatican statue is not by the master but by the pupil1 he practically accepts the general view we hold4 ,barring the 8,hermes0 of ,praxiteles1 it is practically impossible to attribute dogmatically any of the ,hellenic sculptures to the craftsmanship of particular artists4 ,inscriptions1 literary references1 and further ,greek originals1 or ,roman copies1 may yet be found4 ,for the present1 the art lover will do well to content himself with realising the methods which the critical schools have adopted1 and the path by which it seeks answers to the high problems it desires to solve4 ,we cannot pass from our consideration of the last effort of ,hellenic sculpture proper without a reference to one other work associated with the ,lysippic period4 ,we mean the magnificent sarcophagus now at ,constantinople1 and sometimes called the 8,sarcophagus of ,alexander40 ,this is clearly a ,greek original produced about #cjj ,b4,c4 ,it was found early in the last decade in the family vault of a ,sidonian king at ,saida1 with several sarcophagi of the finest style4 ,those who cannot see the original1 can gain a clear idea of the great work from the magnificent publication issued by ,hamdi ,bey1 the discoverer1 entitled 8,une ,necropole ,royale de ,sidon10 of which the ,british ,museum possesses a copy4 ,all sides of the sarcophagus are decorated with a wealth of sculptured design and ornament4 ,macedonians1 ,greeks1 and ,persians all take part in the scenes of battle and chase represented by the sculptor4 ,the work is in the finest preservation4 ,the silver bridles and weapons have been removed1 but in all other respects it is perfect4 ,one head is missing but this is due to an accident since its discovery4 ,even the original colours can be traced4 ,indeed1 any one wishing to obtain a clear idea of the use the ,greeks made of colour in sculpture cannot do better than study the fine coloured plates picturing the 8,sarcophagus of ,alexander0 prepared for ,hamdi ,bey4 ,illustration3 8,,phocion0 ,vatican1 ,rome ,,greek ,,portraiture ,so far few references to the portrait sculptures of ,greece either in the fifth or fourth century have been necessary4 ,we have now1 however1 to redeem the promise to make clear the use ,lysippus and his school made of realistic detail in this department of art4 ,the opportunity suggests a few general remarks upon ,hellenic portrait sculpture generally4 ,before the latter half of the fourth century there was no portraiture in ,greece1 in the modern sense of the word4 ,that is to say1 the sculptor made no effort to produce a realistic representation of the sitter4 ,he rather sought to present a type suggested by the individual4 ,take1 for instance1 the ,british ,museum bust of 8,pericles0--probably a copy of the statue by ,cresilas dedicated after the revolt of ,samos 7#ddj ,b4,c474 ,this stood on the ,acropolis1 hard by the ,lemnian 8,athena0 of ,phidias1 on the right-hand side as the ,athenian passed up through the ,propyla4 ,even such a well-known figure as the warrior statesman is not highly individualised4 ,the clear-cut brow and the broad mouth tell of the profound judgment and sober will needful to the man who gave ,athenian policy its deepest and most imaginative characteristics4 ,the voluptuous lips tell of the passionate emotionalism which brought ,pericles into sympathy with his fellow countrymen1 and which every true ,athenian would have considered it inhuman to crush4 ,but these characteristics are rather those of the ideal statesman which the ,athenian system sought to produce4 ,every trait applicable to ,pericles alone has been removed4 ,much the same may be said of the well-known 8,sophocles10 or the so-called 8,phocion0 in the ,vatican1 two of the finest ,greek portraits of the best style extant4 ,both have all the strongly idealistic qualities of ,hellenic portraiture before the ,alexandrian age4 ,neither the 8,sophocles0 nor the 8,phocion0 can be termed portraits in the sense that the ,roman busts are portraits4 ,both represent ideal types rather than individual personalities4 ,the ,greek thinker desired to look at everything from the universal point of view4 ,he sought to form general abstract conceptions about humanity and nature1 applicable to any and every part of the universe4 ,the task of the ,greek sculptor was1 therefore1 to produce figures embodying these types4 ,phocion was to him the incorruptible statesman4 ,sophocles was the typical ,athenian gentleman--sound in body as in mind4 ,so when ,lysippus set out to carve a portrait statue such as that preserved in the marble bust of 8,alexander0 in the ,british ,museum1 he did not picture the man or the king of ,macedon1 but the descendant of ,achilles1 whose mission it was to conquer the world4 ,he abstracted every trait that endured but for the moment1 and sought only to express the heroic side of the ,macedonian character4 ,plutarch 78,life of ,alexander07 tells of the impression this method made upon ,alexander himself4 ,we read3 8,when ,lysippus first made a portrait of ,alexander with his countenance uplifted to heaven1 just as ,alexander was wont to gaze with his neck gently inclined to one side1 some one wrote the following note in appropriate epigram3 #8,the man of bronze is as one that looks on ,zeus1 and will address him thus3 8,o ,zeus1 ,i place earth beneath my feet1 do thou rule ,olympus40' ,illustration3 ,,pericles ,vatican1 ,rome ,illustration3 ,,alexander ,after ,lysippus 8,for this reason ,alexander gave orders that only ,lysippus should make portraits of him1 since he alone1 as it would seem1 truly revealed his nature in bronze and portrayed his courage in visible form1 while others in their anxiety to reproduce the bend of the neck1 and the melting look of the eyes1 failed to preserve his masculine and leonine aspect40 ,the portraits of ,lysippus therefore differ from such an ideal figure as the 8,pericles0 in the skilful use made of realism4 ,the portrait is cast in an heroic mould1 but this is not obtained at the expense of all likeness4 ,note the way in which the peculiar eyes of the king and the turn of his neck have been utilised4 ,the change was not entirely for the better4 ,the passage from ,plutarch itself suggests where an artist of less than the front rank would fail4 ,the followers of ,lysippus were not content to make this sparing use of detail4 ,forgetful that general truths and general emotions can be embodied in marble and bronze most clearly and therefore most properly1 they made realistic detail an end in itself4 ,pliny tells of ,lysistratus of ,sicyon1 a brother of ,lysippus1 and says that he introduced the practice of 8life-like portraiture10 previous artists having sought 8to accentuate the more beautiful qualities of the sitter40 ,from this it was but a step to the work of ,demetrius of ,alopece1 whose portraits were so realistic that ,lucian called him 8the maker of men0 rather than the 8maker of statues40 ,lucian's phrase reminds us that we have brought our survey of ,hellenic sculpture to a close4 ,the downfall of the city-state system militated against those habits of thought which ever aimed at eliminating every trait applicable to the individual object1 and which were so essentially ,hellenic4 ,when the aristocratic or monarchical rule of the country-state was substituted1 the rural voter no longer troubled to exercise his franchise4 ,he left the duty of recording a vote to the townsmen on the spot4 ,the earlier constant contact with actuality became a thing of the past4 ,speaking of the essential quality of ,greek sculpture1 ,pater has said3 8,hellenic breadth and generality come of a culture1 minute1 severe1 constantly renewed1 and concentrating its impressions into certain pregnant types40 ,these words exactly describe the relation of ,greek sculpture to general culture during the fifth and fourth centuries4 ,when ,greece failed to withstand ,macedonia1 the entire current of social and political life changed4 ,a culture which had been ,hellenic became ,hellenistic4 ,,part ,,ii ,,hellenistic ,,and ,,roman ,,sculpture ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,post-,,alexandrian ,,art ,,of ,,the ,,empire ,,of ,,seleucus1 ,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,pergamus1 ,,rhodes1 ,,and ,,alexandria ,the life story of an idea--the flower of the spiritual world--presents many analogies to the vital phenomena of the natural world4 ,it is born1 it lives and1 maybe1 it suffers the 8sea-change0 we call death4 ,there are the weeks1 months1 or years which correspond to the time when the flowers are in their tiring rooms1 8,fast busy1 weaving1 in those still retreats1 ,the robes of rainbow dyes1 which they must wear40 ,then1 with the idea as with the flower1 comes the day when ,spring1 8,fast running o'er the drowsy earth1 ,taps at the closed portals of their homes1 ,and calls them forth1 fresh perfumed and new clad1 ,to the festival of ,nature40 ,and after the flower comes the seed and the scattering of the seed4 ,the blossoming time of the idea which we saw in bud three centuries earlier--,hellenism--was the age during which ,hellas consisted of a cluster of self-dependent cities in ,greece1 with their free colonies in ,sicily1 ,italy1 ,asia ,minor and elsewhere around the ,mediterranean basin4 ,phidias1 ,praxiteles1 and ,lysippus were the sculptors of the age when ,athens was still the centre of ,greek intellectual thought and artistic action4 ,the seedtime of ,hellenism--its second phase--is that in which the ,hellenic ideal is given to mankind4 ,magna ,grcia is no longer self-centred and self-contained4 ,the ,greek takes upon himself the task of showing the barbarian world the value of that clarity of thought and expression which is at once peculiarly ,hellenic and peculiarly sculpturesque4 ,this second phase is the ,hellenistic period4 ,it roughly dates from #cbc ,b4,c41 when ,alexander died1 until the ,roman occupation of ,syria in the first century before our era4 ,during this period independent schools of sculpture arose beyond the gean ,peninsula4 ,these were animated in the main by the ,hellenic spirit1 but the resulting works show abundant traces of the alien influences among which the seed was planted and grew up4 ,previously1 countries within reach of ,greek influence turned to such a centre as ,athens when they required artists of the first rank to design or decorate a temple or to adorn a public building4 ,moreover1 ,greek ideals had never penetrated into the vast countries ruled by ,persia4 ,but the union of the country between the ,adriatic and the ,indus into one ,hellenic-,oriental empire1 and the foundation of ,greek cities throughout the length and breadth of the vast territory1 changed all this4 ,workers in marble and bronze of the first rank arose at centres as remote from ,greece as ,pergamus and ,alexandria4 ,in ,greece itself1 the peculiar conditions which had produced ,hellenism passed away4 ,but a measure of the old artistic force remained1 and though the ,hellenistic sculptures possess definite characteristics of their own1 evidence of connection with the original stock can still be traced4 ,the first task--the purpose of the present chapter--is to realise the circumstances under which the experience of the ,hellenic sculptor was given to the non-,greeks4 ,the prime essential was1 of course1 an immense widening of the borders of the ,greek world4 ,in view of our sketch of fourth-century ,greece1 it is not surprising that the necessary energy came from a non-,hellenic power4 ,the rude force of a people1 who a generation earlier had been ploughmen and shepherds1 was naturally enough more potent in the task of carving the greater part of the then civilized world into a vast empire1 than the artistic instincts of ,greece4 ,nor is it wonderful that when the mere physical work of conquest was accomplished1 the non-,hellenic ,macedonians were found to lack the organising powers required to complete the task4 ,they wanted that experience which only comes after centuries of commercial and political struggle4 ,it was at once found that ,macedonia was entirely unequal to the work of administering ,alexander's vast empire4 ,thousands of ,athenian younger sons flocked into ,asia in search of careers4 ,twenty years after ,alexander's death1 the language and art of ,greece predominated in every country from the ,mediterranean to ,india4 ,in the more eastern portions of ,alexander's empire1 the ,greek predominance was short-lived4 ,but in the western countries1 a sure source of ,hellenic influence was present in the cities founded by the conqueror and the generals who followed him4 ,alexander's policy had been to bind the conquered provinces together by a stout chain of cities4 ,in each a garrison was left1 and with it a body of merchants to organize the civic life of the new town4 ,,the ,,empire ,,of ,,seleucus 7#cja ,b4,c4 ,,to #fe ,b4,c47 ,no one centre is entirely typical1 but a fair idea of the influences which favoured the spread of ,hellenic experience eastwards can be gained from the history of the ,empire of ,seleucus1 and1 particularly1 from the circumstances under which the city of ,antioch1 on the ,orontes1 was founded4 ,seleucus ,nicator was a ,macedonian noble1 and being only thirty-three on the death of ,alexander had his life's work before him4 ,after two years as commander of the household cavalry he became ,satrap in ,babylon4 ,it will be remembered that the general political situation was unstable in the extreme4 ,macedonia and ,greece had fallen to the lot of ,antipater2 ,antigonus had taken ,phrygia2 ,ptolemy1 ,egypt2 and ,lysimachus1 ,thrace4 ,a series of encounters ended in the defeat of ,antigonus by ,ptolemy1 ,lysimachus and ,seleucus at ,ipsus in #cja ,b4,c4 ,as the price of his aid1 ,seleucus claimed firm establishment in a kingdom bounded on the one side by the ,taxartes and the other by the ,euphrates4 ,but the star of ,seleucus continued in the ascendant for many years4 ,the crowning-point in his career of conquest was reached after the defeat of ,lysimachus at ,corupedion in #bha ,b4,c4 ,seleucus at this time held practically the entire ,empire of ,alexander1 except ,egypt4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,tyche ,,of ,,antioch ,vatican1 ,rome ,how then did ,seleucus seek to administer this vast agglomeration of peoples8 ,briefly he adopted the practice of ,alexander4 ,his schemes of military aggrandizement were shot through and through with efforts for the encouragement of commercial1 scientific and artistic enterprises4 ,he created centres of ,greek influence all over his ,empire4 ,the foundation of ,antioch1 on the ,orontes1 furnishes a typical instance of the method of the ,seleucid4 ,syria1 the stretch of fertile country which bridges ,europe and ,asia as well as ,africa and ,asia1 was clearly the keystone of the empire which ,seleucus sought to establish4 ,how could ,syria be converted into an ,asian ,macedonia8 ,as a first step ,seleucus planned three cities in the ,orontes ,valley1 through which the regular land-routes to ,babylonia and ,persia passed4 ,seleucia1 in ,pieria1 guarded the mouth of the ,orontes4 ,farther east was ,apamea4 ,at the spot where the ,orontes ceased to be navigable1 ,antioch arose4 ,seleucus peopled the new city with a mixed population drawn largely from ,macedonia and partly from ,crete and ,cyprus4 ,it became the first city in the western world at the time4 ,how close the contact with ,greek ideas was in such a town as ,antioch can be judged from the famous ,vatican marble known as the 8,tyche of ,antioch40 ,the figure with the mural crown represents the tutelar goddess of the city4 ,holding the symbols of fertility in her hand1 she sits upon the rocks above the ,orontes4 ,the sculptor1 ,eutychides of ,sicyon1 has carried out his task with the reserve and appreciation of formal effect which we should expect from a pupil or follower of ,lysippus4 ,but the whole conception lacks the emotional force of a really great ,hellenic work4 ,comparing it with1 say1 the 8,zeus ,otricoli0 or the 8,hera ,ludovisi10 we feel that centuries of time separate the two works4 ,the 8,tyche of ,antioch0 is a sound piece of work2 it can hardly be said to be profound4 ,it has the graces of a blossom reared in an alien soil4 ,the sculptor is not working under the impulse of an overpowering emotion4 ,indeed it is easy to see that the old civic pride which had found vent in the ,parthenon marbles was impossible in the ,seleucidean ,empire4 ,a vigorous political life was out of the question in the semi-oriental kingdom4 ,as rulers1 the ,seleucid princes have been likened to ,albanian chiefs4 ,their position certainly had the smallest resemblance to the democratic tyrants of earlier ,greece4 ,the coins of the ,seleucid rulers prove that even the facial type soon lost its ,hellenic purity4 ,the self-respect and self-control which had kept the actions of an ,athenian within bounds were lost4 ,we read of ,antiochus ,,iv4 being carried by mummers into his own banqueting-hall as 8a swaddled figure10 until1 8at the first note of the symphonia1 the figure started from its wrappings and there stood the king naked40 ,seeing that 8,nothing other than a noble aim ,up from its depths can stir humanity10 it seems unnecessary to search further for an explanation of the absence of a vigorous impulse seeking expression in sculpture in any country controlled by the ,seleucid4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,dying ,,gaul ,capitoline ,museum1 ,rome ,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,pergamus 7#bhc ,b4,c4 ,,to #acc ,b4,c47 ,but it was otherwise in the second great centre of ,greek influence in ,asia ,minor--the kingdom of ,pergamus4 ,the course of ,pergamene history led to one of those emotional outbursts which always find an outlet in national action and often in art4 ,in consequence1 evidence remains of a far greater body of sculptural achievement in ,pergamus than we find in the ,empire of the ,seleucid4 ,indeed1 the force and originality of ,pergamene sculpture raises it far above any artistic effort of its age4 ,this will be granted directly we recall that 8,the ,dying ,gaul10 of the ,vatican1 is a work in the finest ,pergamene style4 ,when ,byron wrote the two cantos in 8,childe ,harold0 the statue was known as the 8,dying ,gladiator40 8,i see before me the gladiator lie3 ,he leans upon his hand--his manly brow ,consents to death1 but conquers agony1 ,and his droop'd head sinks gradually low-- ,and through his side the last drops1 ebbing slow4 99 99 99 99 99 ,he reck'd not of the life he lost nor prize1 ,but where his rude hut by the ,danube lay1 ,there were his young barbarians all at play1 ,there was their ,dacian mother--he1 their sire1 ,butchered to make a ,roman holiday40 ,we now know that the ,pergamene sculptor sought to show one of his country's ,gaulish enemies in the agony of death4 ,the barbarian sinks back on to the narrow shield of his race4 ,at his side is his battle-horn4 ,round his neck the ,gallic torques4 ,the shaggy eyebrows and the matted hair all identify the figure with one of the rude savages whom the ,latin and ,greek historians describe as fighting naked and ignorant of the elements of military science4 ,another work that undoubtedly belongs to the school of ,pergamus is the well-known group in the ,villa ,ludovisi1 often called 8,paetus and ,arria40 ,a more correct title is 8,the ,gaul killing his ,wife40 ,the warrior realizes his defeat and has just plunged his sword into his breast4 ,he still supports the woman who sinks in death at his side4 ,the matted hair of the wife and the dress edged with fur are sufficient proof of her race4 ,but there is other evidence that 8,the ,dying ,gaul0 and the 8,gaul killing his ,wife0 have a similar origin4 ,both appear together in an inventory of ,cardinal ,ludovisi1 dated #afcc4 ,both are made from a marble found on the island of ,furni near ,samos4 ,it is evident that the two sculptures are copies of ,pergamene bronzes which stood in the open square surrounding the temple of ,athena ,polias on the ,acropolis of ,pergamus4 ,the two works represent a large number of similar marbles after ,pergamene originals scattered through the galleries of ,europe4 ,they lead us at once to inquire into the historical events they clearly incarnate4 ,the story of the foundation of ,pergamus is full of interest4 ,during the years following ,alexander's death1 ,lysimachus had accumulated a vast treasure in the impregnable ,acropolis of ,pergamus4 ,he placed his lieutenant ,philetairus in charge1 occupying himself with schemes of conquest4 ,but ,lysimachus was human and late in life took to himself a young wife4 ,to humour her he assented to the murder of a son by a former marriage4 ,the atrocity finally alienated ,philetairus4 ,he headed a rebellion1 seized the treasure under his charge and founded the kingdom of ,pergamus in #bhc ,b4,c4 ,the dynasty founded in this dramatic fashion was destined to a stormy history4 ,as early as #bhj ,b4,c4 fresh danger threatened from the hordes of ,gauls1 who began to pour across the passes of the ,balkans4 ,some of these barbarians marched upon ,greece4 ,others crossed the ,bosphorus at ,byzantium1 and eventually founded the ,gallo-,greek kingdom of ,galatia in the heart of ,phrygia4 ,but the king of ,pergamus felt that his safety depended upon checking the victorious career of the ,gauls4 ,allying himself with the ruling ,seleucus1 ,attalus ,i4 of ,pergamus inflicted a signal defeat4 ,this was about #bda ,b4,c4 ,the victory was not the only one gained by the kingdom of ,pergamus4 ,early in the second century1 ,eumenes ,,ii4 7#aig ,b4,c4-#aei ,b4,c47 gained fresh laurels for his countrymen4 ,the effect of these brilliant victories upon the imagination of the people of ,pergamus can only be realized by comparing it with that of ,marathon and ,salamis upon the fifth-century ,athenians4 ,all around them the ,pergamenes saw civilized communities acknowledging defeat at the hands of the ,gauls4 ,as the ,athenians stemmed the tide of ,persian invasion at ,marathon1 so the ,princes of ,pergamus saved the ,greeks in ,asia ,minor from the barbarian ,gauls who seemed destined to sweep away the newly planted ,hellenic civilization4 ,the victories made ,pergamus the rival of ,alexandria and ,antioch4 ,as had been the case after ,salamis1 a long series of public buildings and temples were erected1 until the ,acropolis at ,pergamus threatened to outshine even that at ,athens4 ,among the statues1 as we have said1 was the bronze original of 8,the ,dying ,gaul40 ,it was the second defeat of the ,gauls1 at the hands of ,eumenes ,,ii41 which led to the building of the great altar of ,zeus on the ,acropolis of ,pergamus4 ,it is worth while to reconstruct a picture of the huge edifice with the aid of our memory of the sister ,acropolis at ,athens4 ,the ,altar stood a little below the ,temple of ,athena1 on the south-west terrace1 and was surmounted by an ,ionic colonnade1 which enclosed the actual place of sacrifice4 ,the worshippers approached by a broad staircase cut from the west side of the great pile4 ,around the whole structure ran the frieze1 with its multitude of figures in the highest relief--the carvings1 of course1 being interrupted by the staircase4 ,the whole work serves to carry the history of ,pergamene sculpture beyond the stage when such a statue as 8,the ,dying ,gaul0 was produced4 ,the great frieze was discovered by a young ,german engineer named ,carl ,humann4 ,during a business visit to ,pergamus1 ,humann noticed the native workmen breaking up large fragments of sculptured marble1 burning them in lime kilns and building them into walls4 ,the exhibition of specimens in ,berlin led to systematic excavations in #ahgi4 ,all that remains of the great work is now exhibited in a specially designed gallery in ,berlin1 where the frieze can be seen in something approaching its original setting4 ,no single slab can convey an impression of the bewildering power of the carvings as a whole4 ,the best known is that called 8,the ,triumph of ,athena40 ,the colossal figures 7the frieze is almost nine feet high7 show the goddess seizing a young giant by the hair1 while the serpent of ,athena bites at her enemy's breast4 ,nike bears a laurel crown in token of ,athena's victory4 ,in the lower part of the slab1 the ,earth ,mother of the giants is seen in anguish4 8,the ,triumph of ,athena0 was the central group on the ,eastern side1 and1 therefore1 faced the square in which the people of ,pergamus met4 ,it was balanced by another mighty group1 representing ,zeus in conflict with three giants4 ,either affords a fine example of the theatrical style into which the later ,pergamene sculpture degenerated4 ,the artist is clearly more interested in the attempt to express excited action than in the more subtle phases of emotion4 ,nevertheless1 mutilated as it is1 a fragment like 8,the ,triumph of ,athena0 testifies to an extraordinary level of technical skill and a magnificent vigour of imagination1 even if it also proves an absence of the earlier emotional balance which gave 8,the ,dying ,gaul0 a deeper beauty4 ,illustration3 ,,triumph ,,of ,,athena ,from the ,altar of ,zeus1 ,pergamus 7,berlin7 ,,the ,,sculpture ,,of ,,rhodes ,,and ,,alexandria 7#cjj b4c4 ,,to #ej b4c47 ,if the fame of the school of sculpture at ,pergamus is inextricably connected with 8,the ,dying ,gaul10 the sister school at ,rhodes can claim the even more famous 8,laocoon ,group40 ,throughout the second and third centuries before ,christ1 ,rhodes was the meeting-place of commerce passing between ,asia and ,europe4 ,the ,rhodians were the finest seamen in the world at the time and to them fell the task of clearing the seas of pirates which had given ,athens so strong a position a century or two earlier4 ,indeed1 the commercial mantle of ,athens had fallen upon ,rhodes4 ,unlike the kingdoms of ,pergamus and of the ,seleucid1 the middle-class was paramount here4 ,rhodes1 like ,venice in later years1 was practically ruled by an aristocracy of merchants4 ,the vigorous schools of art and rhetoric depended in no small measure upon this4 ,such a social system provides that prime essential of vital literature and art--large numbers of citizens with the experience that comes from rubbing wit against wit and passion against passion in the market square and the forum4 ,rhodes was eminently the centre in ,hellenistic times which most closely approached the standard set in the days of the ,greek city-states4 ,this fact1 together with the traditions of ,hellenic sculptors which ,rhodes had received1 made 8,the ,laocoon ,group0 possible4 ,the statue was the work of three ,rhodian artists1 ,agesander1 ,polydorus1 and ,athenodorus1 who lived about #abe ,b4,c4 ,the group was found in the ,baths of ,titus in #aejf4 ,a recent discovery suggests that the present restoration of the right arm of ,laocoon is incorrect4 ,the serpent's coil should come up to the neck of ,laocoon1 and his right hand should clasp a coil close to his head4 ,ancient tradition held that the statue had been hewn from a single block of stone4 ,in reality1 it is constructed from six pieces1 though the joints are so cunningly concealed that even ,michael ,angelo could only detect three4 ,the sculptors display an extraordinary mastery over the problems of human anatomy which they have set themselves to solve1 while their treatment of the combination of physical tension and emotional stress is unsurpassed4 ,indeed the technical beauty of 8,the ,laocoon0 has never been questioned4 ,but 8,the ,laocoon ,group0 may be regarded from another point of view1 displaying yet a new facet of the genius of its authors4 ,consider the immense difficulty of visualizing such a scene so that the various parts form a complete design capable of translation into marble4 ,the version of the story in the neid is known to all4 ,the priest ,laocoon has violated the shrine of ,tritonia and unheedful of his doom is sacrificing a bullock at the altar of ,neptune4 ,suddenly1 as ,virgil pictures the scene1 the two great serpents rise from the sea4 ,their glaring eyes shot with blood and their jaws darting fire1 they make for the shore and move steadily upon ,laocoon4 ,his two small boys are taken first4 ,then the serpents gather the father himself in their mighty folds4 ,one coil grasps ,laocoon's body4 ,another part of the scaly chain winds twice round his neck4 ,in vain the priest tries to tear asunder the dreadful coil1 crying to ,heaven1 to use the ,virgilian simile1 like a bull who1 having escaped the sacrificial axe1 flies wounded from the altar4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,laocoon ,,group ,vatican1 ,rome ,the designers of the group have clearly followed an earlier version of the legend in which the younger son escapes4 ,but the difficulty of visualization and expression is the same4 ,it is comparatively easy to find words to convey the general impression4 ,but the three sculptors had to find the momentary action which would suggest the whole story4 ,yet the design of 8,the ,laocoon ,group0 tells everything4 ,we see 8,the father's double pangs1 both for himself ,and sons convulsed2 to ,heaven his rueful look1 ,imploring aid1 and half accusing1 cast2 ,his fell despair1 with indignation mixed1 ,as the strong curling monsters from his side ,his full-extended fury cannot tear40 ,none of the tragic horror of the scene is lost4 ,it can be said with absolute candour1 8,such passion here1 ,such agonies1 such bitterness of pain1 ,seem so to tremble through the tortured stone ,that the touched heart engrosses all the view40 ,none of us at once realize the reason we are so moved by a mere echo of an old myth4 ,when the truth dawns upon us1 we see that the awful admiration with which 8,the ,laocoon0 has always been regarded1 finds its source deep down in the human heart4 ,the emotions we experience do not depend upon the sufferings of the priest of ,neptune4 ,laocoon is mankind himself4 ,his fight with death is an emblem of the far more general struggle which every human being must share--the struggle which is the price we pay for life4 8,the ,laocoon0 is not unique in this respect4 ,on the contrary1 a similar dominating idea is enshrined in all the greatest examples of ,hellenic sculpture4 ,the 8,aphrodite of ,cnidus0 is more than a woman4 ,the statue is the incarnation of the idea of womanly love4 ,it is the presence of a dominating idea of this kind which distinguishes 8,the ,laocoon0 of ,rhodes from 8,the ,tyche of ,antioch40 ,admitting its presence places the sculpture beyond and above both criticism and praise4 ,a sentence1 however1 of ,walter ,pater suggests a point of critical vantage which the student of the history of sculpture cannot disregard4 ,he says3 8#8,the ,laocoon1' with all that patient science through which it has triumphed over an almost unmanageable subject1 marks a period in which sculpture has begun to aim at effects1 legitimate1 because delightful1 only in painting40 ,no man had a truer appreciation of ,greek art than ,walter ,pater1 and no opinion is more entitled to thoughtful consideration4 ,but in view of the fact that the extreme classical school of criticism has always tended to depreciate the value of all ,hellenistic art1 we may regret that ,pater's argument was not illustrated by a lesser work of the ,rhodian school4 ,the suggestion that the ,laocoon myth borders upon the illegitimate as far as sculptural treatment is concerned1 seems to demand the qualification that supreme success justifies the disregard of any canon of art4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,nile ,vatican1 ,rome ,pater's judgment1 however1 applies with real force to other works by sculptors of ,rhodes4 ,it might1 for instance1 be used of 8,the ,farnese ,bull10 now in the ,national ,museum at ,naples4 ,the group was found in the baths of ,caracalla at ,rome during the sixteenth century1 and has been so largely restored that criticism is1 perhaps1 unjust4 ,if the present work can be regarded as embodying the ideas of its authors1 we see a passion which has degenerated from the dramatic to the theatrical4 ,the subject of the statue is the punishment of ,dirce at the hands of ,amphion and ,zethus4 ,below1 the sculptors show the rocky ledges of ,mount ,cithron--the death-place of the unfortunate woman who is being bound to the horns of the bull4 ,this suggests nothing that can be called ennobling4 ,it is all merely horrible4 ,comparing 8,the ,farnese ,bull0 with 8,the ,laocoon0 or the figure of the 8,niobe0 mother1 we realize that the loss of reposeful beauty entailed in the treatment of such a subject is not compensated for in any other direction4 ,the great end of art has been forgotten3 8,that it should be a friend ,to soothe the cares and lift the thoughts of man40 ,the last great division of the post-,alexandrian ,greek world was the kingdom of the ,ptolemies which included ,egypt and ,phnicia4 ,the ,macedonian rulers of ,egypt soon made ,alexandria1 their capital1 a flourishing centre both for the arts and sciences4 ,but the genius of the place seemed to favour literature rather than sculpture4 ,the statue of 8,the ,nile10 excavated in ,rome during the pontificacy of ,leo ,x4 and placed in the ,vatican1 is a fine instance of ,hellenistic art produced under the influence of ,alexandrian civilization4 ,the statue is always associated with its companion work1 8,the ,tiber40 ,apparently both formed part of the decoration of a temple of ,isis in ,rome4 ,while 8,the ,nile0 was reproduced from a fine ,alexandrian original1 8,the ,tiber10 an inferior work1 was specially designed by a ,greek sculptor working in ,rome4 ,the ,alexandrian work proves1 however1 that statues of great beauty could be produced in essentially un-,hellenic surroundings4 ,the figure of the sea god is surrounded by a host of putti1 the number--sixteen--symbolizing the cubits which the river rises during a maximum inundation4 ,the delightful way in which the little figures are disposed in the design so that they shall not interfere with the lines of the central figure is worthy of all praise4 ,nevertheless1 the judgment we arrived at with regard to the sculpture of the ,seleucid applies to that of ,egypt4 ,the foreign bureaucracy which ,ptolemy organized1 and the tendency towards an imperial rule of the ,eastern pattern1 militated against the rise of a strongly differentiated style4 ,egypt was not favoured as either ,pergamus or ,rhodes had been4 ,these are the chief examples of ,hellenistic sculpture produced beyond the direct influence of the home of the ,hellenic idea4 ,we have next to consider the ,hellenistic sculpture of ,greece itself4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,hellenistic ,,sculpture ,,of ,,greece 7#cjj ,b4,c4 ,,to #ej ,b4,c47 8,the wren can soar as high as the eagle--once lodged upon the shoulders of the king of the skies40 ,so men say4 ,but the high gods only smile4 ,they know that emotions must arise and thoughts be nourished in hearts and minds great enough to contain them1 if they are to live in ethereal depths4 ,the sculptor or the painter1 with the wings of the wren1 must be content to flutter nearer to the flowers4 ,in this truth lies the key which unlocks the mystery of the sculpture of ,hellenistic ,greece1 one of the most elusive problems in the history of art4 ,before any marble of this age we feel we are face to face with the work of lesser spirits--men who cannot boast of the eagle wings of their brothers of the fourth and fifth centuries4 ,few can recall the name of a single ,greek sculptor of the later age4 ,there is certainly no ,scopas1 no ,praxiteles1 no ,lysippus4 ,yet the mere enumeration of the 8,farnese ,hercules10 the 8,belvedere ,apollo10 the 8,venus of ,milo10 and the 8,venus of ,medici10 witnesses to craftsmen of the highest technical skill4 ,what the sculpture of ,hellenistic ,greece lacks is the passionate enthusiasm for emotional and intellectual beauty which impressed the personality of such a man as ,praxiteles upon his age1 and made him not only a sculptor of note but a cosmic force4 ,praxiteles found sculptural expression for new loves and new hates4 ,this is the power which creates a school4 ,it is the absence of men possessed of this faculty1 together with the absence of the new loves and hates themselves1 which the historian of ,hellenistic ,greek sculpture must explain4 ,but1 first of all1 terms require definition4 8,hellenistic ,greece0 connotes both a period and a locality4 ,in point of time1 it roughly includes from #cjj ,b4,c41 when the immediate influence of ,lysippus was removed1 to1 say1 #ej ,b4,c41 when ,rome realized her task of ruling the ,western world4 ,in point of place1 the sculpture of ,hellenistic ,greece is to be sharply distinguished from that of ,rhodes1 ,pergamus1 and ,alexandria4 ,this is the more important1 as the term ,hellenistic is properly applicable to all these schools4 ,moreover1 there are many characteristics common both to the ,hellenistic sculpture of ,greece itself and the art of the various ,states of the ,alexandrian empire4 ,neither ,rhodes nor ,pergamus1 for instance1 gave rise to masterful spirits of the type which directed the course of ,hellenic art during the fourth and fifth centuries4 ,both ,pergamus and ,rhodes1 however1 were centres which had never encountered the full tide of ,hellenic civilisation4 ,it was not hard to correlate political and social circumstances which had no counterpart in fourth- and fifth-century ,greece with the characteristics which distinguished the 8,dying ,gaul0 and the 8,laocoon0 from the sculptures of ,praxiteles and ,scopas4 ,but in ,greece1 during the post-,alexandrian age1 the problem is far more complicated4 ,the old methods of life and thought lingered on4 ,the difference between 8,hellenic0 and 8,hellenistic0 is far more intangible than it is in countries where the ,greek city-state system had never taken root4 ,it is true that even in ,greece the peculiar political and social conditions which gave rise to ,hellenic sculpture passed away4 ,but1 once developed1 the body of ideas which arose from them continued to influence the sculptor and the public to whom he appealed4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,farnese ,,hercules ,national ,museum1 ,naples ,,the ,,followers ,,of ,,lysippus ,putting aside then for the moment the characteristics which distinguish the art of ,hellenistic ,greece from that of the earlier age1 let us fix our attention upon the long series of works which owe their inspiration to the great sculptors of the fourth century4 ,nowhere can any affinity with the works of ,phidias and the other fifth-century masters be detected4 ,the men of ,hellenistic ,greece were entirely out of sympathy with the ideals of ,periclean ,athens4 ,but they could realize the emotions aroused by ,scopas1 with his insistence upon the struggles of the individual soul4 ,they could seek to express for themselves the feminine graces of ,praxiteles4 ,above all they realized the value of the more strenuous ideals embodied in the sculpture of ,lysippus4 ,the 8,farnese ,hercules0 affords a striking instance of the effect of the ,hellenistic outlook upon a theme which had been closely identified with a ,hellenic sculptor of the first order4 ,lysippus had done for ,hercules what ,praxiteles had done for ,hermes4 ,he fixed the type4 ,the 8,farnese ,hercules10 however1 is the work of the ,athenian sculptor1 ,glycon1 and dates from the first century ,b4,c4 ,glycon has chosen the moment when the hero1 worn out by his labours1 stands with every muscle relaxed1 resting4 ,the keynote of his statue is to be found in 8,the spreading shoulders1 muscular and broad1 ,the whole a mass of swelling sinews40 ,to the imagination of the ,athenian of the age of ,lysippus1 this would have appeared forced4 ,the muscularity of the hero would have struck him as excessive4 ,lysippus indeed satisfied the craving for a deeper naturalism1 which arose from a surfeit of the sensuous idealism of ,praxiteles4 ,but his judgment would have avoided the pitfall of excessive realism which distinguishes ,glycon's conception of ,hercules from that which any fourth-century ,athenian would have formed4 ,a less significant example but in some respects an even more interesting one1 is to be found in the magnificent nude1 the 8,cerigotto ,bronze10 recovered1 near the island after which it is named1 about the year #aijj4 ,this derives its importance from the fact that it is a bronze original and not the work of a ,roman copyist as so many ,hellenistic marbles are4 ,the story of its romantic recovery would alone ensure this bronze becoming historic4 8,a thousand years it lay in the sea ,with a treasure wrecked from ,thessaly4 ,deep it lay 'mid the coiled sea-wrack40 ,the second chapter in its history opened when a party of sponge-fishers happened upon what they found to be the wreckage of an ancient vessel which had run upon the rocks to the east of the island of ,cerigotto and sunk in thirty fathoms of water4 ,the cargo had evidently been the property of a dealer in antiques1 the wreck probably dating from the second century ,b4,c4 ,a considerable portion of the cargo was brought to the surface4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cerigotto ,,bronze ,athens ,the marbles1 with one exception1 were unrecognizable4 ,but the bronzes had fared better4 ,in particular1 a life-sized statue of an athlete1 with right arm outstretched1 proved capable of complete restoration4 ,it now stands in the museum at ,athens4 ,the critical battle as to the date of its casting was a long one4 ,general opinion to-day regards it as an early ,hellenistic work based upon the ,lysippic style4 ,in the 8,cerigotto ,bronze10 the tendency towards excessive realism noted in the 8,farnese ,hercules0 has not proceeded so far4 ,but in the body1 and especially in the treatment of the abdominal muscles1 a departure from the idealistic standard approved by the great masters of the fourth century can be clearly detected4 ,instead of being content with a suggestion of the natural form1 the ,hellenistic sculptor aims at realistic representation4 ,he seeks to copy the human form1 regardless of the lesson afforded by every great sculptor of ,greece1 that the more indirect methods of idealism are far better calculated to arouse the uplifting emotions which every true man and woman must feel before the grandest object ,heaven ever made4 ,the classical art critics were fully aware of the snare which lay in this passion for extreme realism of detail4 ,they clearly recognized it to be a characteristic feature of much ,hellenistic sculpture4 ,they tell1 for instance1 of the statue of the 8,dying ,jocasta0 in which the ,hellenistic sculptor mingled silver with the bronze1 to denote the pallor of coming death4 ,pliny adds that the sculptor ,aristonidas of ,rhodes mixed iron with the metal from which he cast a statue of ,athamas--that the ruddy glow might suggest the blush of remorse which a father who had hurled his son from the rocks would naturally wear4 ,both these instances are narrated as mere eccentricities4 ,their interest for ourselves lies in the fact that they illustrate precisely the same tendency which distinguishes the 8,hercules0 of ,glycon from that which ,lysippus had made three centuries earlier or the 8,cerigotto ,bronze0 from a similar work by a fourth-century sculptor4 ,when analyzed1 this tendency towards realism points clearly to an absence of that fine critical faculty with which every supreme artist is endowed4 ,it argues a lack of moderation which in the end must lead to disaster4 ,the admixture of silver to the bronze 8,dying ,jocasta0 was no isolated case4 ,hellenistic ,greece proved itself open to a charge of immoderate folly on many another occasion4 ,the instance furnished by that 8,wonder of the ,world10 the ,rhodian ,colossus1 will occur to every one4 ,the great statue of the ,sun-god at ,rhodes measured #aje ft4 high4 ,it was cast hollow1 the separate pieces being set up1 one upon another1 around an inner structure of masonry4 ,pliny says of it3-- 8,the greatest marvel of all1 however1 was the colossal figure of the sun at ,rhodes made by ,chares of ,lindus1 a pupil of ,lysippus4 ,this figure was seventy cubits in height1 and after standing fifty-six years was overthrown by an earthquake4 ,but even as it lies prostrate1 it is a marvel4 ,few men can embrace its thumb4 ,its fingers are larger than most statues4 ,there are huge yawning caverns where the limbs have been broken40 ,,the ,,followers ,,of ,,praxiteles ,considered as a whole the sculpture of ,hellenistic ,greece exhibits an intensification of the characteristics which distinguish the sculpture of ,praxiteles and ,lysippus from that of ,phidias and ,polyclitus4 ,so far we have only traced the indebtedness of the ,hellenistic sculptor to ,lysippus4 ,we have seen how one branch of the ,hellenistic school continued to favour the virile subjects ,lysippus had preferred1 how it accentuated the natural realism which characterized his style4 ,the second branch1 which carried forward the traditions of ,praxiteles1 was equally potent4 ,though it cannot be said that these sculptors 8blended with their marbles the emotions of the soul10 as had been said of ,praxiteles1 yet the feeling for grace of line and sensuous beauty1 which were the keynotes of the ,praxitelean manner1 remained4 ,the finest work of this great division of ,hellenistic art is probably the celebrated 8,belvedere ,apollo0 in the ,vatican collection4 ,in these days1 the 8,apollo0 is1 perhaps1 not esteemed as highly as it was a century ago1 when opportunities for appreciating the true beauties of the sculpture of the age of ,phidias and ,pericles were wanting4 ,but it will never entirely lose its power of attraction4 ,the modelling of the hair and the short cloak show that the original was a bronze4 ,as to the motive of the statue1 ,james ,thomson1 in his 8,liberty10 writes3 8,all conquest-flushed1 from prostrate ,python1 came ,the ,quivered ,god4 ,in graceful act he stands1 ,his arm extended with the slackened bow3 ,light flows his easy robe1 and fain displays ,a manly-softened form4 ,the bloom of gods ,seems youthful o'er the beardless cheek to wave4 ,his features yet heroic ardour warms2 ,and sweet subsiding to a native smile1 ,mixed with the joy elating conquest gives1 ,a scattered frown exalts his matchless air40 ,for many years1 however1 the archologists have been battling1 proving and disproving the proposition that the god is really holding the gis with the head of ,medusa before his terror-stricken foes4 ,the suggestion is that the original of the ,belvedere was intended to be set up with a statue of ,artemis--the 8,artemis of ,versailles10 now in the ,louvre--at ,delphi1 in commemoration of the defeat of the ,gauls in #bgf ,b4,c4 ,it will be remembered that ,macedonia was invaded by the ,gauls about the year #bhj ,b4,c41 the time when the barbarians from the ,north overran ,asia ,minor and founded the kingdom of ,galatia after a severe defeat at the hands of ,attalus of ,pergamus4 ,sosthenes rallied the ,macedonian army1 but1 in spite of all his efforts1 the ,gauls under ,brennus continued to push south4 ,thermopyl was garrisoned as it had been at the time of the ,persian invasion4 ,the entire ,greek world sent contingents to repel the invaders4 ,finally1 legend tells that the raid was stayed by the divine interposition of ,apollo and ,artemis4 ,angered at the daring of ,brennus1 ,apollo called upon the forces of nature to defend the shrine at ,delphi4 ,an earthquake and a devastating storm forced ,brennus to retire4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,apollo ,,belvedere ,vatican1 ,rome ,illustration3 ,,the ,,venus ,,of ,,medici 7see p4 #aab7 ,uffizi1 ,florence ,until recently it was generally believed that the association between the 8,apollo0 and the defeat of the ,gaulish invaders was supported by the evidence of a bronze statuette belonging to ,count ,sargei ,stroganoff4 ,the bronze is undoubtedly a copy of the ,belvedere statue1 and the object in the god's hand is not a bow and might well represent the gis with the head of ,medusa4 ,archological opinion has1 however1 now veered round1 and since ,professor ,frtwangler has pronounced the ,stroganoff bronze a modern forgery1 it must be admitted that no trustworthy evidence remains for connecting the ,apollo ,belvedere with one of the few political crises which galvanized ,hellenistic ,greece into vigorous action4 ,the coincidence that the crisis was the very ,gaulish invasion which created ,pergamene art would certainly have afforded a valuable analogy4 ,the great products of the school of sculpture at ,pergamus were the direct outcome of the passions and fears aroused in a country where every man and woman stood face to face with death or a slavery worse than death4 ,in ,hellenistic ,greece the same dread--the selfsame chance of death or slavery--only stirred the individual4 ,there can be little doubt that this is why almost all ,hellenistic sculpture strikes us as wanting some material element4 ,the very refinement of the modelling of the 8,belvedere ,apollo10 compared with the strenuous naturalism of the ,pergamene artists1 argues an absence of vital feeling4 ,there is almost a feminine note in the smooth-limbed ,apollo1 when the sentiment of the ,hellenistic statue is contrasted with the vigorous manhood of the 8,hermes0 of ,praxiteles1 the product of an age which really knew what manhood was worth4 ,in a phrase1 the 8,apollo ,belvedere0 belongs to a time when individual ,greek sculptors were producing great bronzes and marbles but when ,greece itself had ceased to do so4 ,seeing that the emotions of an individual can never have the driving force which is given to the feelings and thoughts astir in nations1 the absence of this national stress stamps the 8,apollo ,belvedere0 as ,hellenistic--the product of a civilization which had lost that sense of communal fellowship which was peculiarly ,hellenic4 ,during the fifth century ,b4,c41 and1 in a great measure1 throughout the fourth century1 the individual ,greek had sacrificed everything to his membership in the city-state4 ,he cared nothing for individual pleasures and aspirations4 ,but when the civilization which had been ,hellenic became ,hellenistic1 the relationship between the citizen and the state1 between the citizen and his fellows1 changed entirely4 ,the rise of a new political power--the country-state--led to the abandonment of the intimate interest with which each member had followed every change in the political and social life around him4 ,roughly1 the new political situation in ,greece after the death of ,alexander amounted to this4 ,a city-state continued free and independent as long as it was content to remain poor4 ,but any accumulation of this world's goods was the signal for the descent of a ,macedonian garrison and a peremptory demand for a subsidy4 ,if the city-state determined to resist the ,macedonian demands1 two courses were open4 ,allies could be purchased or a federation of neighbouring cities could be formed4 ,the federation of neighbouring cities constituted the country-state1 which played so large a part in the history of ,hellenistic ,greece4 ,a typical league is the ,achan4 ,its early beginnings dated from #bha ,b4,c41 but it was thirty years later before a man of genius arose to make the dead arrangement a living force4 ,when ,aratus persuaded ,sicyon to join the ,league1 a really powerful body was created4 ,corinth joined in #bdc and finally ,argos and the rest of the states of ,north ,peloponnesus4 ,the ,achan ,league was by this time the chief political power in ,southern ,greece4 ,its counterpart in the ,north was the tolian ,league1 whose allies met periodically at ,thermus1 where the booty won in their piratical expeditions was stored4 ,nominally1 every citizen in the federation over the age of thirty could exercise his suffrage4 ,practically1 the distance from the seat of government caused the ,common ,assembly to become more and more a constitutional fiction4 ,the real power passed into the hands of the few who held positions upon the executive4 ,patriotism naturally lost much of its old force4 ,certainly it was no longer the one goad to artistic production as had been the case in the age of ,pericles4 ,nor was this all4 ,with the decay of the virile life in the city1 the exquisite sense of form and the power of imaginative generalization which sculpture had derived from continual discussion in the market-place and the law courts1 began to weaken4 ,the changed social and political circumstances necessitated an art with fresh methods and fresh ideals4 ,passing in review the numberless sculptures of ,greece produced after #cjj ,b4,c41 with a view to finding the intellectual and emotional atmosphere which shaped them1 we continually meet with a certain romantic subjectivity which is essentially modern4 ,it is this fact which makes much ,hellenistic sculpture peculiarly akin to the art of our own day4 ,hellenic sculpture implied a type of character and a body of ideas of which the twentieth-century man can have no first-hand experience4 ,the ,western ,european of to-day is a member of a community numbering between forty million and eighty million people4 ,he pays his rates and taxes--under protest4 ,there1 unless a system of universal military service prevails1 his civic duties end4 ,any very active sympathy with the member of a microscopic city-state is impossible4 ,the typical modern cannot be expected to realize clearly how a political or social event struck one whose chief joy was that he1 as an individual1 played a very real part in every national action4 ,during the ,hellenistic age1 however1 all this was changed4 ,an essentially twentieth-century individualism prevailed--an individualism which rejected the narrowing limits set by the love of a single city4 ,with the broadening of the individual sympathies1 a certain subjectivity replaced the marked objectivity of fourth- and fifth-century ,greek thought4 ,with it went much of the earlier depth of passion1 much of the old artistic initiative1 precisely as it has gone from the 8universe-loving0 art of to-day4 ,in the new philosophy the individual played a far larger rle4 ,his own thoughts and feelings1 as opposed to the thoughts and feelings of his fellow citizens1 became predominant4 ,private life and the interests arising from the family began to suggest a great majority of the themes of the sculpture by which the ,hellenistic ,greek expressed himself4 ,this can be beautifully illustrated by a brief survey of the ,hellenistic ,greek's treatment of woman as a theme for his sculptural art4 ,in dealing with ,praxiteles we dwelt upon the position which the women of ,greece occupied in fourth-century ,athens compared with her sister in the fifth century4 ,in the course of the next hundred years the position was reversed4 ,during the ,hellenistic period the social necessity for the sacrifice of the ,athenian woman vanished completely4 ,she was permitted to share the life of her husband and her sons to the full4 ,the whole of her womanly nature was developed4 ,nor were her energies confined to the larger sphere offered by the changed circumstances in the ,greek home4 ,woman in ,hellenistic times began to play a rle upon the world's stage which would have struck the old-fashioned ,greek of the ,periclean age as grotesque and immoral4 ,towns named after such women as ,laodicea1 ,berenice1 and ,arsinoe1 testify to the immense influence of a long line of princesses of the type of ,cleopatra of ,egypt in national and international politics4 ,unfortunately1 the ,greek woman sacrificed a good deal to gain the new liberty4 ,the mysterious respect with which she had been regarded in the fifth century became a thing of the past4 ,it had depended upon the fact that women lived in a world apart from men4 ,this social convention commenced to wane during the fourth century4 ,it vanished almost entirely during ,hellenistic times4 ,what was the effect of all this upon sculpture8 ,we can trace it most surely in the sculptor's treatment of the incarnation of true womanhood--,aphrodite or ,venus4 ,the fifth-century sculptor always depicted ,aphrodite clad in the full robe of every-day life4 ,in all fifth-century statues of women the girdle was placed low on the figure4 ,the idea was to emphasize the qualities of modesty and reserve which were the cardinal feminine virtues in such a city as ,athens at that time4 ,but in the following century1 under the influence of the more individualistic age of ,praxiteles1 the sculptor began to dwell upon the frankly physical attributes of womanhood4 ,the girdle was set well above the level of the natural waist4 ,we have also seen how ,praxiteles dared to lay aside drapery altogether when he carved his ,aphrodite for the islanders of ,cnidus4 ,but even the artistic courage of ,praxiteles dared not omit a plausible excuse for the change4 ,the robe in the hands of ,aphrodite gave the necessary suggestion to the ,greek imagination1 that womanhood had not put off all womanly reserve when it discarded its drapery4 ,the ,hellenistic sculptor1 however1 not only in ,greece but throughout the post-,alexandrian ,empire1 made no effort to restrain the tendency to insist upon the merely sensuous beauties of womanhood4 ,in the well-known slab from the altar frieze of the ,pergamene ,acropolis1 the girdle of the goddess ,athena is placed just beneath the breasts4 ,in the 8,venus of ,medici0--the typical embodiment of the womanhood of the ,hellenistic age--drapery is laid aside altogether4 ,in the sculptor's view1 he owes the world no explanation of the situation in which the goddess finds herself4 ,he is content to offer those external charms of youthful beauty which fascinate the senses but do not satisfy the human heart4 ,accepting his standpoint1 the 8,venus of ,medici0 is one of the most perfect statues in the world4 ,but the ,aphrodite of ,praxiteles and such a work as 8,the ,three ,fates0 of ,phidias1 remind us that the grace of form in the ,medicean ,venus is1 after all1 rather humanly human than humanly divine4 ,we feel that the suggestion of reserve to which the earlier sculptors clung only deepened the sensuous emotion which every sculptor seeks to arouse when he sets forth the physical charms of the ,goddess of ,love4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,venus ,,of ,,milo ,louvre1 ,paris ,from time to time during the ,hellenistic age there was doubtless a return to the older ideals4 ,the magnificent 8,venus of ,milo10 now in the collection at the ,louvre1 is a proof of this4 ,since its excavation in the island of ,melos during the nineteenth century1 the right of this magnificent marble to rank among the sculptural masterpieces of the world has never been challenged4 ,the motive of the design has always furnished the critics with occasion for controversy4 ,it may be that an exact restoration would give a further specimen of the type exhibited in the 8,venus of ,capua10 which depicts ,aphrodite with the shield of ,ares1 the goddess using the shield as a mirror4 ,the date of the production of the 8,venus of ,milo0 is as problematical as the subject4 ,at first it is difficult to believe that this statue is rightly assigned to so late a date as #aej ,b4,c4 ,there have always been1 and doubtless the critical conflict will continue1 differences of opinion as to the time of its production4 ,some have traced it back to the ,aphrodite of ,scopas4 ,there is1 however1 little reason to doubt the opinion generally held1 that it is really a work of ,hellenistic times4 ,assuming this to be the case1 the statue certainly exhibits a point of view which is in striking contrast to that offered by the 8,venus of ,medici40 ,the lofty sentiment of the 8,venus of ,milo0 marks it as essentially un-,hellenistic4 ,the sculptor throughout subordinates the physical beauties of the human form to the deeper sense of beauty which springs from the realization of the idea of the divinity of womanhood4 ,for this reason1 the statue stands in glorious solitude apart from the rest of the sculpture of its time4 ,there can be little doubt that1 as a rule1 the ,hellenistic age could not stand the intensity of emotion aroused by such a work as the 8,venus of ,milo40 ,the 8golden age0 of ,greece had passed away when every ,greek knew that it was good to be alive4 ,during ,hellenistic times ,greek citizenship became a doubtful blessing4 ,it chiefly served to remind its possessors of the lost glories of an earlier age4 ,can we be surprised that men looked to art to redress the balance1 and called for the works which would wean them for a few moments from the dreary truths of existence8 ,no single formula will explain all the facts1 but some connection between the degree of strenuousness in the political and social life of a state and the degree of strenuousness reached in its art1 is certain4 ,consider the case of ,homer--the direct outcome of the victorious struggle which the ,greeks waged with the barbarians upon the shores of the ,eastern gean4 ,in the ,athenian artists1 ,phidias1 ,polygnotus and ,sophocles1 we find the alliance of restful calm with the deepest thought and emotion which we should expect during a period of relative peace and prosperity1 following an intense though victorious struggle4 ,but how1 it may be asked1 did the long fight with ,sparta during the ,peloponnesian war affect ,athenian art8 ,the old emotional depth became unbearable4 ,comedy arose4 ,in sculpture1 ,praxiteles replaced ,phidias4 ,coming to our own artistic history1 we find an ,english audience answering to the deep emotional appeal of ,macbeth or ,lear in the years which followed the glorious victory over the ,armada4 ,the period after the severe self-repression of the puritanical era naturally enough produced such a comedy as ,congreve's ,way of the ,world4 ,but this antipathy to too strenuous an art is not the only factor which led to a great increase in the range of subjects open to the ,greek sculptor1 and presented a host of lighter themes to his chisel4 ,the 8,rape of the ,lock0 was the outcome of the boudoir experience upon which the fancy of ,pope was nourished4 ,the eighteenth century could not furnish the mental and emotional stimulus needful for the production of ,othello4 ,but it could and did suggest a perfectly charming poem to the 8unwhipt1 unblanketed1 unkicked1 unslain carcase0 we call ,alexander ,pope4 ,may this not have been the case in ,hellenistic ,greece8 ,previously 8,greek life had been too full to put frills on its thoughts10 as ,de ,quincey once said4 ,but the ,hellenistic age revelled in the very 8frills0 which the men of the fourth and fifth centuries had rejected4 ,allegory replaced natural symbolism4 ,instead of ,aphrodite--,cupid4 ,for ,aphrodite1 the goddess of ,love1 and ,eros1 the personification of the desire which makes powerless the limbs of men--,cupid1 the smiling embodiment of the love which flits from fancy to fancy4 ,illustration3 ,,boy ,,strangling ,a ,,goose ,louvre1 ,paris ,illustration3 ,,child ,,with ,,lantern ,terme ,museum1 ,rome ,it is not easy to illustrate this phase of ,hellenistic sculpture4 ,but there can be few finer examples than the large bronze statuette1 8,the ,winged ,cupid10 belonging to ,mr4 ,pierpont ,morgan1 long lodged in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,it once decorated a ,roman villa on the slopes of ,vesuvius1 and was excavated at ,boscoreale1 a village near ,naples at the foot of the volcano4 ,the bronze is much beautified by the wonderful bluish-green patina with which time has endowed it4 ,the perfectly poised figure1 springing forward with the burning torch of desire1 stands for an entirely new note in ,greek sculpture4 ,its frolicsome roguishness can be compared with nothing which the ,hellenic mind expressed in sculptural form4 ,a further instance of the same tendency is furnished by the well-known 8,boy strangling a ,goose10 by ,boethus of ,chalcedon4 ,this delightful work1 one of the few sculptural jokes1 is an obvious parody upon one of the adventures of the hero ,hercules4 ,lastly1 we may point to the charming 8,child with ,lantern10 recently taken from the ,tiber1 and now standing in the rose-decked cloisters of the ,terme ,museum4 ,these three unpretentious little works1 all remarkable for their easy and graceful humour1 happily complete our survey4 ,greek sculpture had learnt to smile4 ,it ended with the coming of the ,romans4 ,when the ,roman imperial rule finally extended over ,asia ,minor and ,egypt1 as well as over ,hellas itself1 ,greek art began to lose its individuality1 and a ,grco-,roman style was evolved which was finally merged into the distinctive sculpture of ,rome itself4 ,in #adf ,b4,c4 ,greece was conquered by ,mummius and became a ,roman province4 ,in #acc ,b4,c4 ,attalus ,,iii4 willed ,pergamus to ,rome4 ,in #fd ,b4,c4 ,pompey put an end to the ,seleucid rule in ,syria4 ,some thirty years later1 the sea fight at ,actium ended the ,ptolemaic rule in ,egypt1 and the last ,hellenistic stronghold fell4 ,an art impulse which had been predominant for five hundred years was at an end4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,portrait ,,sculpture ,,of ,,rome 7#ej ,b4,c4 ,,to ,,the ,,foundation ,,of ,,constantinople ,,in #ccj ,a4,d47 ,roman sculpture and ,roman imperialism--these two things are indissolubly connected4 ,that is the proposition1 expressed in the baldest terms1 that must now be established4 ,as long as the ,republican system sufficed for the needs of ,rome1 her sculpture was entirely ,hellenistic in character4 ,it was only with the advent of the ,augustan age 7between1 let us say1 #ej ,b4,c4 and the year of ,our ,lord7 that traces of a distinctively national spirit began to show themselves4 ,a complete imperial system had commenced to exert its influence upon society4 ,from that time onward1 and throughout the three following centuries1 characteristics can be traced which clearly differentiate the work of the ,roman sculptor from that of any ,hellenic or ,hellenistic artist4 ,it was only when 8the pale ,galilean0 triumphed and the ideals of ,christianity supplanted those of an outworn imperialism that 8,roman sculpture10 too1 became a thing of the past4 ,the how and the why suggested by our major proposition must be faced boldly4 ,reducing the problem to its elements1 we require1 in the first place1 to gain a clear idea of what 8,roman imperialism0 denotes4 ,in the second place we must distinguish clearly between 8,roman sculpture0 and1 an entirely different thing1 8sculpture produced in ,rome40 ,the one is organically ,roman4 ,the parentage of the other is ,greek2 its birthplace is an accident4 ,it precedes the national art of imperial times by at least a century4 ,that so widely diffused an appreciation of sculpture existed long before the growth of a native art is in itself highly significant4 ,an imported art is not a rare phenomenon in history1 but it rarely persists for the length of time it did in ,rome4 ,in the sixteenth century1 ,england welcomed an invasion of ,italian 8noveletti0 and romantic poetry4 ,in a very short while1 however1 the alien art was replaced by a vigorous national drama4 ,earlier in the same century1 ,france for a time suffered the ,italian school of painting 7the school of ,fontainebleau74 ,but the stranger never quite made herself at home1 and was finally supplanted by an artistic canon which was entirely ,french in spirit4 ,republican ,rome1 on the contrary1 was not only satisfied with her alien school of sculpture for a century and a half1 but borrowed at the same time an entire culture from ,greece--literature1 science and philosophy4 ,the ,roman boy was educated by ,greek teachers in ,rome4 ,during adolescence1 he passed over to ,athens for a course of philosophy or to ,rhodes for instruction in the accepted methods of rhetoric4 ,afterwards1 a year was spent upon 8the grand tour0 through ,greece and ,asia ,minor where the chief temples and monuments of the ,hellenic masters were still to be seen in situ4 ,this ,greek education by no means changed the ,roman ,republican into a ,hellenistic ,athenian4 ,the ,roman was never more ,roman than he was during the ,republican age4 ,yet the same art and philosophy served for both4 ,in other words1 peculiarly ,roman thought and emotion found no artistic expression whatever4 ,these facts compel us to retrace some of the ground covered in our last chapter4 ,both upon the historical and the artistic side we are forced back to the time when ,republican ,rome furnished the principal market for the wares of the ,hellenistic sculptor4 ,we shall1 however1 regard it from a different ground4 ,our review of ,hellenistic sculpture only interested us in as far as it affected ,greece4 ,we judged it from the standpoint of the ,greek artist4 ,now ,hellenistic sculpture calls for attention from the point of view of the ,roman patron4 ,during the later ,republican age--the period from the defeat of ,carthage to the rise of ,julius ,csar--,rome was filled with ,greek sculpture4 ,thousands of original ,hellenic and ,hellenistic works were carried there4 ,numberless ,grco-,roman sculptors spent their time in producing copies of ,greek masterpieces or designing variations upon well-known and popular designs4 ,the process of despoiling ,greater ,greece of its art treasures began as early as the fall of ,syracuse in #bab ,b4,c4 ,corinth was stripped in #adf ,b4,c4 by ,mummius4 ,delphi and ,olympia both suffered4 ,even ,athens itself was plundered by ,sulla in #hf ,b4,c4 during the war with ,mithridates4 ,chryselephantine statues like the 8,athena0 of ,phidias and the decorative sculptures of the great temples were left untouched1 but so many works of the ,greek masters were carried westward that ,myron1 ,phidias1 ,polyclitus1 ,praxiteles1 ,scopas1 and ,lysippus became household names in ,rome4 ,we moderns can only be grateful that ,roman taste did not prefer the productions of its own native sculptors4 ,had it done so1 the history of ,greek sculpture would have had to be reconstructed from stray works like the ,elgin and the ginetan marbles1 the 8,charioteer of ,delphi0 and the 8,hermes0 of ,olympia4 ,as matters stand1 we have such books as those of ,pausanias and ,pliny4 ,we are1 moreover1 furnished with numberless copies of the principal ,hellenic masterpieces4 ,true1 these 8copies0 are not 8the real thing40 ,in many cases they are marble translations from bronze originals1 giving us1 let us say1 that intimacy with the earlier ,greek works which the ,arundel ,society's prints1 or large-sized photo-gravures1 afford about the ,italian original paintings they reproduce4 ,in addition1 the ,roman preference for ,greek sculpture resulted in the production of many statues which1 though they cannot be directly connected with any original ,greek work1 are clearly little more than variations upon popular ,greek themes4 ,,the ,,gr,,co-,,roman ,,sculptors ,generally speaking1 throughout the first and second century ,b4,c4 none of the ,greek sculptors working in ,rome departed far from the accepted models4 ,some followed the general standards adopted by ,praxiteles2 some those of ,lysippus2 others again preferred the more romantic style of the school of sculpture at ,rhodes4 ,when new subjects presented themselves1 however1 ,roman taste began to exercise a direct influence upon the work of the ,hellenistic sculptors4 ,we dwelt upon some of the effects of the ,roman influence when considering the 8,farnese ,hercules0--the work of the ,grco-,roman ,glycon4 ,it is equally well illustrated by two fine bronzes which have been recently discovered and placed in the ,terme ,museum at ,rome4 ,the first is the life-sized warrior or athlete leaning on his spear1 usually called 8,the ,prince40 ,it closely resembles such a work as the 8,cerigotto ,bronze0 in general style4 ,nothing except the tendency towards an accentuation of muscular development and the fact that it apparently does not follow an earlier ,greek design mark its ,grco-,roman origin4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,seated ,,boxer ,terme ,museum1 ,rome ,the second is the 8,seated ,boxer10 a magnificently powerful presentation of an utterly ignoble theme4 ,the fighter is resting2 he is waiting for his call to another bout4 ,each hand is still cased in the leather cstus4 ,the bruised and swollen features of the man are given with savage truth4 ,by reason of its entirely un-,hellenic subject1 the 8,seated ,boxer0 affords as fine an illustration of the ,grco-,roman style at its best as can be given4 ,we see the grand technical skill which led the ,roman connoisseur to give his commissions to ,greek sculptors4 ,in the insistence upon realistic detail and the absence of a high ideal guiding the choice of subject1 we can trace the influence of a taste far removed from any that ,greek sentiment could have fostered4 ,hellenistic works showing the influence of ,roman taste as clearly as the 8,seated ,boxer0 are rare4 ,the ,roman collector1 as a rule1 was perfectly content with a work which was practically identical with some earlier ,greek design4 ,a close resemblance to a ,greek original was in itself a strong recommendation4 ,the faithfulness with which ,roman taste abided by ,hellenic sculpture is proved by the popularity of the pseudo-archaic school of ,pasiteles during the last days of the ,roman ,republic4 ,pasiteles was an ,italian ,greek4 ,pliny says of him that 8he never executed any work without first making a clay model40 ,excessive care and excessive emotional sobriety were the keynotes of his style4 ,it is peculiarly interesting to note in the works of this school an obvious revolt against both the sensuous tendencies of the followers of ,praxiteles and the theatrical propensities of the ,rhodians4 ,the pseudo-archaic sculptors and the patrons for whom they catered had sufficient insight to distinguish between the various epochs of ,greek sculpture1 that is to say1 between work imbued with ,hellenic qualities and work which was only ,hellenistic4 ,this can be seen at once in the group by ,menelaus known as 8,orestes and ,electra0 7,plate1 p4 #abh71 as good an example of the school of ,pasiteles as can be found4 ,the sculptor has evidently imitated the style of an ,argive artist living just before ,polyclitus4 ,in other words1 the 8,orestes and ,electra0 represents a reversion beyond even the purely ,hellenic style of ,polyclitus4 ,so successfully is this archaic manner imitated by the ,grco-,roman followers of ,pasiteles that modern experts can easily be in doubt1 in the case of particular statues1 whether the style is real or feigned4 ,dr4 ,murray1 for instance1 has suggested that the ,vatican 8,spartan ,girl10 which is usually assigned to the transitional period of ,hellenic sculpture ending with ,myron's 8,discobolus10 is actually by a follower of ,pasiteles4 ,the likeness of the 8,spartan ,girl0 to the works of the followers of ,pasiteles is obvious4 ,with characteristics like these1 how should statues of the school of ,pasiteles be classed8 ,that they are not ,hellenistic is plain4 ,equally clearly the resemblance to ,hellenic work is so close that it would be absurd to regard the style popularized by ,pasiteles as a movement towards a ,roman national art4 ,really a pseudo-archaic statue like the 8,orestes and ,electra0 represents a passing craze4 ,it is the outcome of the fancy of a few art collectors4 ,one may1 however1 argue that the popularity of such a school points to a dissatisfaction with the accepted ,hellenistic art of the latter ,roman ,republic4 ,be that as it may1 a genuinely ,roman school of sculpture arose directly after4 ,roman social and political circumstances began to influence sculpture soon after the year #ej ,b4,c4 ,one hundred and fifty years earlier1 the defeat of ,hannibal and the fall of ,carthage had left ,rome with the undisputed headship in ,western ,europe4 ,spain was in her hands and her frontiers stretched to the ,atlantic4 ,in the ,east1 however1 ,rome was faced with the ,hellenistic kingdoms of ,macedonia1 ,syria and ,egypt4 ,one by one these fell before her4 ,naturally1 so tremendous a success was not attained without social and political changes of the first order4 ,even before the ,punic ,wars the inner ring of the ,roman aristocracy had lost its long-established monopoly of the great offices of ,state4 ,at the time of the fall of ,carthage1 the ,senate was certainly the supreme authority in ,roman affairs1 the various magistrates being no more than its executive tools4 ,but the aristocracy had been compelled to recognize a new class of capitalist merchants which had established a claim to ,rome's regard by its ready aid during the ,punic wars4 ,the body which directed ,rome's expansion beyond the borders of ,italy was therefore composed of a blend of wealthy patricians and plebeians4 ,these were the patrons of the ,grco-,roman sculptors4 ,they were the men who composed 8the assembly of kings10 whose report the ambassadors of ,pyrrhus carried to their master4 ,for close upon a century a senate of this type guided the destinies of the ,roman ,republic4 ,by about #ajj ,b4,c4--we express time in the roundest of round numbers--it had become apparent that the political foundations upon which ,rome's career of conquest was based were radically unsound4 ,no body of men--even an 8assembly of kings0--could deal with the multitudinous problems which arose from an attempt to absorb the whole of the civilized world4 ,the first man to realize this1 and to attempt a practical solution of the difficulty1 was ,marius4 ,soon after #ajg ,b4,c4 he proved that he understood the essentials of the problem by reorganizing the ,republican armies4 ,he converted them into fit tools for the first 8adventurer of genius0 by ordaining that the soldiery should be paid by land grants and booty4 ,the reforms of ,marius were none too early4 ,between #hi ,b4,c4 and #fd ,b4,c4 the wars with ,mithridates of ,pontus showed ,rome its weakness4 ,mithridates overran ,asia ,minor1 ,macedonia and ,greece4 ,syria was only regained by a gigantic effort4 ,then came 8the adventurer of genius0--,julius ,csar--the founder of the ,roman ,imperial system4 ,he was followed by his son ,octavius 7,augustus ,csar71 the 8,organiser of ,roman ,imperialism40 ,these two men made ,roman sculpture possible4 ,on the day that ,csar and his eleven legions crossed the ,rubicon with the cry 8the die is cast10 ,roman sculpture was born4 ,the victory over ,pompey at ,pharsalia in #di ,b4,c4 left ,julius ,csar in supreme control4 ,brutus and ,cassius led the ,republican forlorn hope1 and ,csar himself was murdered in #dd ,b4,c41 but he had achieved his end4 ,he had pointed out the only method of consolidating ,rome's vast conquests and bringing peace to the sorely tried ,state4 ,augustus realized at once the impossibility of reverting to the discarded republican form of government4 ,in its place he set up a veiled despotism which enabled him to control all the energies and resources of ,rome's great empire4 ,as ,imperator1 ,augustus made himself commander-in-chief of the armies2 as ,princeps ,senatus1 he was leader of the ,legislative ,assembly of the ,senate2 as ,tribune1 he acted as the representative of ,roman democracy2 as ,chief ,pontiff1 he was the head of an all-powerful ecclesiastical organisation4 ,with the advent of peace ,rome was able to turn her energies to art4 ,the consequences were immediate in all departments of culture4 ,it was the patronage of ,mcenas1 the chief minister of ,augustus1 which placed ,virgil in a position to write the 8,georgics40 ,by #ai ,b4,c4 the 8neid0 was written in honour of ,augustus4 ,it was ,mcenas who provided ,horace with the farm among the ,sabine hills1 where the ,roman lyricist and satirist wrote all his later works4 ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,roman ,,portraiture ,the effects of this social and political revolution upon sculpture could not be more happily illustrated than by two portraits of the men who brought them to pass4 ,the 8,julius ,csar0 is the well-known portrait bust in the ,british ,museum2#a the 8,augustus0 is the equally famous life-sized figure in the ,vatican4 #a ,see ,furtwngler1 8,neuere ,flschungen von ,antiken10 p4 #ad4 ,in the first place1 both are portraits4 ,this emphasizes the prime fact that the branch of sculpture chiefly affected was portraiture4 ,it is not difficult to surmise why this was so4 ,in all other branches1 whether athletic statues1 dramatic groups or sculptures of the gods1 earlier ,hellenic and ,hellenistic artists had produced works which the unimaginative ,romans could never hope to equal4 ,the copies of1 and variations upon1 the works of the ,greek masters so fitted ,rome's needs that little or no effort was made to produce new works of the same class4 ,but in portraiture this was not the case4 ,in the nature of things portraits cannot be so directly affected by an earlier artistic method4 ,the sculptors of ,rome soon found that the methods of their ,hellenic masters would not yield the results required4 ,the true ,greek portrait sculptor had never aimed at the realistic and life-like representation which was the one desire of the matter-of-fact ,roman patron4 ,as we have seen1 the ,greek had refrained from elaborating expression4 ,he portrayed an ideal type rather than an individualized man or woman4 ,take any typical ,greek portrait as an illustration--the bust of 8,pericles10 in the ,elgin ,room at the ,british ,museum1 for instance4 ,compare it with the 8,julius ,csar0 in the same collection4 ,we see ,pericles in the perfection of physical force and mental energy4 ,the ruler of ,athens is more than a man4 ,he is an epitome of all that a ,greek would be4 ,there is no attempt at characterization4 ,the suggestion of voluptuousness in the lips1 which heightens the work so much1 is really not an individual trait4 ,it is rather an ,hellenic characteristic4 ,it is part of an effort to express a type4 ,but the ,roman sculptor of the 8,julius ,csar0 never dreamt of embodying a whole race in a single portrait--a philosophy in a statue4 ,he was content to give expression to the man before him4 ,for this very reason the finest ,roman portraits possess a vigorous vitality which an ,hellenic portrait study lacks4 ,as ,pater expressed it3 8,the seeking of the type in the individual1 the abstraction of all that because of its nature endures but for a moment1 this involves loss of expression40 ,that is why the 8,pericles0 is the portrait of a fifth-century ,athenian and the ,roman work is the portrait of ,julius ,csar4 ,exactly the same must be said of the great statue of 8,augustus addressing his ,soldiers10 in the ,vatican4 ,compared with the 8,phocion10 the 8,augustus0 is a carefully individualized character-study4 ,the tendency is not1 however1 carried to the extreme limit attained in later ,roman sculpture4 ,the artist evidently hesitates to break entirely with the idealistic method of the ,hellenes4 ,he willingly sacrifices the chance of creating an eternal type1 symbolizing the idea of ,roman imperialism incarnated in the first ,emperor1 preferring to convey the impression of life-like portraiture4 ,but he shows an ideal ,augustus4 ,the statue does not convey the sensation of a moment of time--good1 bad or indifferent--captured and fixed for ever1 which is so characteristic of ,roman portraits during the next century or two4 ,for this reason there is much to be said in favour of the view which regards ,augustan ,rome as the last ,hellenistic centre4 ,it is still an artist who is ,greek at heart who is at work4 ,but he differs from his predecessors inasmuch as he is striving to give his ,roman patrons a thrill which they will feel to be national--to be truly ,roman4 ,the ,vatican statue of ,augustus ,csar was discovered in #ahfc4 ,apart from its interest as a transitional work leading to the pure ,roman style1 it claims attention owing to the light it throws upon the much discussed problem of the colouring of marble statuary4 ,we have previously noted the fact that it is established beyond possibility of doubt that the great mass of ,greek and ,roman sculpture was freely coloured4 ,traces of pigment can still be found in numerous works1 but the evidence is insufficient to justify any really dogmatic utterances as to actual methods4 ,we have therefore preferred to do little more than allude to the practice4 ,the evidence furnished by the statue of ,augustus is so complete1 however1 that it suggests the desirability of a rather fuller reference4 ,the work was discovered in the ,villa of ,livia1 near ,prima ,porta4 ,otto ,jahn1 in his ,aus der ,alterthumswissenschaft1 published in #ahfh1 gives the following particulars as to its condition3 8,the tunic of ,augustus is crimson1 the mantle purple1 the fringe of the armour yellow2 on the nude portions of the body no traces of colour are noticeable1 except the indication of the pupils with a yellowish tint2 and the hair no longer shows colour4 ,but the relief decorations of the cuirass are painted with especial care1 although the flat surfaces are left without colour4 ,the god of heaven1 rising from the blue waves or clouds1 holds a purplish garment in both hands2 the chariot of the sun-god is crimson2 before him soars a female with outspread blue wings2 the goddess of the earth wears a wreath of wheat in her blonde hair4 ,apollo in a crimson mantle rides upon a griffon with blue wings2 the light haired ,diana1 in a crimson garment1 is borne by a reddish brown stag4 ,in the middle stands a ,roman ,commander in blue and red armour1 crimson tunic1 and purple mantle1 with a blue helmet4 ,a bearded warrior in crimson tunic and blue trousers holds up a ,roman standard with insignia painted blue4 ,the barbarian on the right1 with auburn hair1 in a purple mantle1 holds a war-trumpet2 the figure on the left is likewise light haired and clothed in a blue mantle40 ,illustration3 ,,orestes ,,and ,,electra 7,,school ,,of ,,pasiteles7 ,national ,museum1 ,naples ,illustration3 ,,augustus ,vatican1 ,rome ,we shall not refer to the problem of how generally ,greek and ,roman sculptures were coloured again4 ,m4 ,maxime ,collignon1 in his ,la ,polychromie dans la ,sculpture ,grecque1 has collected the evidence bearing upon the point4 ,the 8,augustus0 shows how elaborate the process must have been in many cases4 ,it will1 however1 be worth while to refer to two typical pieces of evidence supporting the view that the great bulk of ,greek and ,roman sculpture was coloured4 ,in a wall-painting1 once in ,pompeii1 now in the ,national ,museum at ,naples1 a picture represents a woman actually painting a statue4 ,it is a 8,herma10 one of the popular figures of ,dionysus set on a quadrilateral base4 ,the god's hair is dark brown1 the beard is grey and the mantle yellow4 ,a study of the wall paintings and mosaics unearthed at ,pompeii and ,herculaneum gives the following result4 ,out of eighty-one pictures of statues1 fifty-nine are coloured completely4 ,the male figures are painted a ruddy brown1 the female pink and white4 ,of the others1 fourteen are of a greeny brown tinge suggesting bronze4 ,returning once again to our main argument3 we have referred to ,julius ,csar1 as the father alike of ,roman imperialism and ,roman sculpture4 ,roman national art was created when ,csar and ,augustus established a political system which gave ,italy peace after close upon a hundred years of strife4 ,it is not difficult to realize the relief with which ,italy must have greeted the new era4 ,in the last few lines of the ,first 8,georgic10 ,virgil has drawn a picture of the ,roman world as it had been until the imperial visions of ,julius ,csar had become living realities for every ,roman citizen under ,augustus ,csar4 ,war was raging everywhere4 ,corruption was rife4 ,agriculture was languishing4 8,the crooked scythes are forged into rigid swords10 says ,virgil4 ,with the advent of peace came the same desire to build which followed the ,persian war in ,athens4 ,the ,augustan age changed ,rome--to use the well-worn metaphor--from a town of bricks to a city of marble4 ,the student of sculpture will do well to associate both events--the coming of peace to the sorely tried ,empire and the era of ,augustan building--with a slab of the great ,ara ,pacis which has been preserved by a strange chance4 ,the fragment shows ,augustus1 accompanied by his family and the leading citizens and senators1 going to the consecration ceremony on ,july #d1 #ac ,b4,c4--the ,independence ,day of ,roman ,imperialism4 ,the ,ara ,pacis was built to honour the ,goddess of ,peace1 in the style of the ,altar on the ,acropolis of ,pergamus4 ,just as the ,altar at ,pergamus memorized the delivery of the ,hellenistic state from the ,gauls1 the ,ara ,pacis enshrined the fact that ,rome was at last the acknowledged mistress of the civilized world4 ,men could now dream of an era of eternal peace2 ,rome set itself to enjoy the pleasures of intellectual existence in a way that had been impossible amid the perpetual march and remarch of armies and the rise and fall of factions4 ,it is true that the ,roman ,empire did not long remain at peace4 ,but ,italy1 at any rate1 did not experience the horrors of war for some centuries4 ,the years of struggle had aroused a strong sense of national feeling4 ,the imperial system organized by ,augustus set men free to cultivate the arts of peace4 ,patrons with national instincts and artists with the gift of expressing national feelings and thoughts arose4 ,in a few years1 the tendencies shadowed forth in such sculptures as 8,the ,julius ,csar0 and 8,the ,augustus10 became fixed1 and a national school of ,roman portraiture sprang up4 ,the characteristics of the national style became more and more strongly marked4 ,,the ,,height ,,of ,,roman ,,imperialism 7#if ,a4,d4 ,,to #aag ,a4,d47 ,the distinctively ,roman portrait1 untainted with any ,hellenic or ,hellenistic admixture1 is seen in the famous statue of the ,emperor ,nerva in the ,vatican collection4 ,here the artist has left the idealistic methods of the ,hellenic sculptors entirely behind4 ,he has depended upon the cunning use of realistic detail for his effect1 emphasizing the impression of life-like portraiture beyond anything attempted in the ,augustan age4 ,even the grace of a statue like 8,the ,augustus0 has been sacrificed in the search for vigorous actuality4 ,the ,english equivalent of the new ideal is 8,cromwell1 warts and all40 ,but one cannot but admire the magnificent judgment with which the realistic detail is managed4 ,there is nothing set down which does not add to the vivid sense of a living portrait4 ,as ,wickhoff says in his fine study of ,roman art1 8,they gave an exact reproduction of nature1 but with a terseness which produced the desired impression of cold distinction40 ,in the 8,nerva0 we have the ,roman ideal in its most concrete form4 ,not a word too much1 but sufficient to ensure the impression of intense and living reality4 ,exactly the same tendency can be observed when the languages of the two races are compared4 ,the ,roman--practical man--preferred a narrow and concrete vocabulary4 ,he willingly sacrificed flexibility of expression to a businesslike conciseness4 ,hence arose his system of inflectional speech1 which is to be contrasted with the analytical speech of the ,hellenes with its particles and definite article4 ,just as the inflectional language of ,rome would not have expressed a quarter of what the agile-minded ,greek desired to say1 so the methods of the ,roman portrait sculptor would have been valueless to the ,greek to whom philosophical aperus into the whole of human experience alone seemed worthy of incarnation in marble and bronze4 ,the ,roman sculptor1 however1 was quite satisfied with a narrow and concrete mode of expression4 ,he was content with an intensely concise method entirely unsuited to the abstract thought and emotion in which the ,greek had revelled4 ,our argument then has led us to this4 ,roman sculpture1 far from being a decadent anticlimax to ,greek sculpture1 is actuated by entirely new ideals--ideals which arise out of the ,roman nature4 ,it is1 therefore1 in the truest sense a national art4 ,it embodies a temperament bearing no possible relation to that of the ,greek4 ,for that very reason the characteristics of ,roman sculpture are most strongly accentuated at times when the ideals embodied are most potent4 ,the ,roman imperial spirit reached its climax in the age of ,trajan 7#if ,a4,d4 to #aag ,a4,d474 ,the statue of ,nerva dates from the early years of ,trajan's reign1 that is a little before #if ,a4,d41 when ,nerva1 who had raised his vigorous lieutenant to imperial rank1 died4 ,for close upon a century the tendency towards terse realism of the ,roman method of portraiture had been growing4 ,when we picture a characteristically ,roman figure during the height of the imperialistic wave we can readily see why4 ,illustration3 ,,nerva 7,,detail7 ,vatican1 ,rome ,what was the position at the time of ,trajan himself8 ,after securing his frontiers in ,northern ,europe1 ,trajan passed eastward4 ,he crossed the ,tigris and made a determined attempt to gain the control of the overland trade with ,india4 ,at the time of his death1 the ,roman empire included ,europe south of the ,rhine and the ,danube2 in ,asia it stretched to the ,euphrates4 ,what sort of men would be required to administer such an ,empire8 ,can we not picture them from our own experience of ,empire-building8 ,imagine for a moment that ,trajan had established a permanent occupation of the ,punjab4 ,it might well have been4 ,as it was1 he died after receiving a check at the hands of the ,parthians4 ,what would ,roman rule in ,india have entailed8 ,while the weaker states would have been absorbed1 many of the stronger ones would have entered the ,empire as subject kingdoms4 ,the allies of ,rome would1 doubtless1 have been rewarded with grants of territory at the expense of the harder fighters4 ,in other words1 the problem of government would have needed an infinity of administrative tact1 for all sorts and conditions of subject states would have had to be appeased or held in subjection4 ,the ,roman governor of the ,punjab would have been in the first place a soldier4 ,but he would only have been guided in his general conduct by a rough lex provinci1 so that in practice he would have had to combine with his military duties those of our ,lord ,chief ,justice4 ,it was not an age of cablegrams4 ,the decision upon a host of matters would necessarily have been in his hands4 ,so with his subordinates4 ,they1 too1 would have had to solve the nicest problems of practical administration every day--success being their only justification4 ,these were the duties which ,rome demanded of her sons4 ,she educated them for such posts as these4 ,the circumstances in which the ,romans lived and the characteristics which their lives engendered1 in turn1 reacted upon their art4 ,as ,mr4 ,dooley has told us1 various nations have various methods of treating 8what ,hogan calls th' ,muse10 when they ask her 8f'r to come up an' spind a week0 with them4 ,a country like ,rome doesn't expect her guest 8to set all day in th' hammock on th' front stoop1 singin' about th' bur-rds4 ,she's got to do th' week's washin'1 clane th' windows1 cook th' meals1 chune th' pianny1 dust th' furniture1 mend th' socks an' milk th' cow be day1 an' be night she's got to set up an' balance th' books iv an ,empire40 ,mr4 ,dooley1 of course1 has ,rudyard ,kipling in mind4 ,but the lines so exactly fit the case of the ,roman portrait sculptor1 that we may well pursue the analogy further4 ,kipling is himself the product of political circumstances4 ,he finds expression for the vigorous matter-of-fact vision of an imperialism that is nearly akin to that of ,rome4 ,kipling joined the ,civil and ,military ,gazette at ,lahore when he was seventeen4 ,he lived in ,india during the formative period4 ,at twenty-four he was back in ,england with the essential features of his style fixed4 ,the man the ,roman ,state required and for whom the ,roman sculptor worked1 was the man for whom ,kipling writes and whose ideals he expresses in throbbing prose and verse4 ,but we may pursue the analogy even further4 ,rudyard ,kipling and the sculptor of the 8,nerva30 ,does a comparison of the styles of these two artists reveal any innate resemblance8 ,in both we see an intense interest in strongly individualized humanity4 ,neither pays much heed to grace or beauty--in the ,hellenic sense of the word4 ,both are more concerned with actuality than with the more shadowy realms of the ideal4 ,but most striking fact of all1 the methods by which both express their body of thought and emotion are strangely similar4 ,compare a typical ,kipling portrait with the 8,nerva40 ,let us say ,miss ,minnie ,treegan's picture of ,captain ,gadsby4 8,he belongs to the ,harrar set4 ,i've danced with him but ,i've never talked to him4 ,he's a big yellow man1 just like a newly hatched chicken with an e-normous moustache4 ,he walks like this 7imitates ,cavalry swagger7 and he goes #8,ha-,hmm6' deep down in his throat1 when he can't think of anything to say4 ,mamma likes him4 ,i don't60 ,this sketch gives us the heart of the ,kipling style4 ,certain as the day--cocksure1 some might say4 ,photographically true8 ,in a sense only4 ,emphatic8 ,as emphatic as capitals and apostrophes can make it4 ,imaginative8 ,yes4 ,if imagination be the faculty for creating a mental image4 ,these are the characteristics alike of the ,kipling portrait and the statue of 8,nerva40 ,the sculptor is as emphatic in his message and as certain in his delivery as the poet of ,english ,imperialism4 ,he has not given a transcript of reality but has deepened the essential lines until they speak with telling effect4 ,it is true that we miss the philosophical calm with which a ,greek sculptor would have treated such a subject as the imperial jurist ,nerva4 ,but1 in some ways we must admit that the ,roman portraitist is to be rated higher4 ,if the impression that one is gazing upon reality is the proper object of the portrait sculptor1 the ,roman gives us the more life-like picture4 ,but if the artist's first function is to show us nature1 so that we may form our own judgment as to what is essential and organic by the aid of his insight1 then the ,greek who carved the very soul of men was the truer artist4 8,do you remember your mother1 my dear80 was the question put to the under-fed1 under-clothed1 ,bermondsey waif4 8,yes1 she was a stout woman1 what beat me40 ,it was a ,roman answer1 ,roman in its magnificent brevity and extraordinary directness4 ,it typifies the artistic method of a society which can spend no energy upon the production of men devoted to pigment mixing and marble cutting for no better purpose than to dream dreams4 ,something had to be sacrificed4 ,the price ,rome chose to pay was that broad view of the world of nature and humanity which alone produces an idealistic art like that of ,greece4 ,this is why when ,rome finally began to express its thoughts and emotions through marble and bronze it chose a very different method to that of the ,hellene4 ,in ,greece1 the sculptor had needed men and women1 gods and heroes2 ,rome contented herself with one branch of the art--that of sculpture-portraiture4 ,instead of expressing herself by means of flesh and muscle1 limbs and trunk1 ,rome concentrated all her attention upon the human face4 ,,the ,,reaction ,,under ,,hadrian 7#aag ,a4,d4 ,,to #ach ,a4,d47 ,surely it will be admitted that the facts and the historical explanation fall beautifully into line4 ,if further proof of the direct connection between the ideas fostered by ,roman imperialism and the national school of portraiture is necessary1 it is to be found in the tendency to revert to a more ,hellenic style when the imperialistic wave recedes4 ,illustration3 ,,antinous ,vatican1 ,rome ,trajan was succeeded by ,hadrian in #aag ,a4,d4 ,the former's intensely imperial policy had overtaxed ,rome's strength4 ,the keynote of ,hadrian's method was reaction against the forward policy which had been paramount4 ,hadrian stopped the ,parthian war4 ,he abandoned ,armenia and the provinces beyond the ,euphrates4 ,all ,rome's efforts were concentrated upon the task of finding out how to hold as opposed to how to gain4 ,there is abundant artistic material in which to trace the effects of this reactionary spirit1 for ,hadrian was one of the greatest of the ,roman builders4 ,his efforts to beautify the cities of his ,empire were continuous4 ,temples and monuments were set up2 theatres and baths erected4 ,the grand scale upon which he worked can be judged from ,pausanias' statement that the ,library of ,hadrian was decorated with one hundred columns of ,phrygian marble--the walls of the surrounding porticoes being similarly decorated4 ,or again1 take the case of the ,city of ,antinopolis which ,hadrian erected on the banks of the ,nile to the memory of his famous ,antinous4 ,the walls of ,antinopolis enclosed a rectangular space three miles in length4 ,the great avenues that ran through it were bordered by porticoes decorated with ,corinthian columns1 the principal thoroughfares being ornamented with statues1 fountains1 and votive monuments4 ,upon examination it is found that the leading characteristic of the great artistic wave of the age of ,hadrian was a reversion to ,greek models4 ,the ,maison ,carre at ,nmes was erected at this time--the most perfectly preserved temple in the ,greek style now extant4 ,during the years #acb and #acc ,a4,d41 which ,hadrian passed in ,athens1 he spent immense sums upon rebuilding the city4 ,surely an additional proof of his devotion to ,greek art and culture4 ,in all his tastes ,hadrian was a philo-,hellene--a 8grculus10 as the ,romans called him4 ,when in ,athens he had himself initiated into the ,eleusinian mysteries4 ,his very appearance witnesses to his preference for ,greece and things ,greek4 ,instead of the clean-shaven face of his imperial predecessors1 ,hadrian wore a beard after the ,hellenic fashion4 ,turning to the portrait sculpture of the age of ,hadrian we can see the influence of the ,emperor's instinctive preference for ,greek modes of thought and expression very clearly4 ,the most typical pieces are to be chosen from the numberless statues of ,antinous1 in whose honour ,antinopolis was built4 ,hadrian's love for the beautiful ,bythinian youth was in itself rather ,greek than ,roman4 ,looking at the 8,antinous0 in the ,vatican collection1 and comparing it with the statue of 8,nerva10 the reaction against the ,roman preference for a vigorous actuality is apparent at once4 ,the 8,antinous0 is not a portrait as much as the incarnation of a type4 ,the expression of brooding melancholy1 rather than the features of the man ,antinous1 characterizes all the statues of the ,bythinian youth scattered through the galleries of ,europe4 ,this is the ,greek1 not the ,roman method4 ,illustration3 ,,marcus ,,aurelius ,rome ,,post-,,hadrian ,,sculpture ,the last ,roman sculpture to which reference need be made is the well-known equestrian statue of ,marcus ,aurelius in ,rome4 ,the highest praise that can be accorded to it1 is1 that it can bear comparison with the finest equestrian statue the world possesses--that of ,colleoni at ,venice1 the joint work of ,verocchio and ,leopardi4 ,a melancholy interest attaches to the 8,marcus ,aurelius0 for the reason that it signalizes the close of an artistic movement that had run its course for more than eight hundred years4 ,the transition from ,greek to ,roman sculpture had been uninterrupted4 ,now1 the art of sculpture was to pass into the shades for almost the same period4 ,even in the days of ,marcus ,aurelius himself1 the world had dim forebodings of the ,dark ,ages which were approaching4 ,the effort with which ,aurelius arrested the flow of ,germanic invasion was far from reassuring4 ,to an ,emperor such as ,trajan it would have spelt disaster4 ,every ,roman capable of bearing arms was enrolled in the forces defending ,italy itself4 ,the outposts of the ,empire--the ,danubian provinces1 for instance--were only saved by the efforts of the barbarians4 ,a ,roman ,elijah might have warned the ,empire of what ,alaric's boastful cry would be when asked what ransom ,rome should pay4 8,all your gold1 all your silver1 the choicest of your treasures40 8,what then will you leave us80 8,your lives60 ,as the third century of our era advanced1 the system upon which the ,roman ,empire had been founded showed even clearer signs of breaking down4 ,the supply of capable administrators proved insufficient4 ,roman citizens no longer took the keen interest in political affairs they had of old4 ,the men who had furnished the brains of the state in earlier times abandoned themselves to lives of luxury and idleness4 ,the concentration of power in the hands of the few governors of real ability and vigour led to a state of perpetual insurrection4 ,on the contrary1 the counter-check of subdivision of provinces and powers1 devised by ,diocletian and ,constantine1 led to the rise of a bureaucracy which got entirely out of hand4 ,the ideals of ,roman imperialism passed away4 ,with them went the art of portraiture which they had fostered4 ,an effete empire led to an effete art4 ,as we have said many centuries were to pass before the ,catholic ,church1 which fathered the next great school of national sculpture--the ,gothic--realized the possibility of embodying its thoughts and feelings in marble and bronze4 ,the early ,christians could never disassociate sculpture from the religious beliefs of the ,romans4 ,the art was too closely allied with a pagan faith to be acceptable to the new church4 ,this more or less accounts for the absence of a vigorous school of sculpture in ,italy between the fourth and the thirteenth centuries ,a4,d4 ,the circumstances in ,constantinople were not more favourable4 ,during the early years of the ,eastern ,empire ,greek and ,roman sculpture never lacked appreciation4 ,constantine made his new capital an immense museum of classical art4 ,but when the ,byzantine artist sought to express the ideals of ,christendom by means of sculpture he failed4 ,all ,byzantine art tended to become more and more abstract and symbolical4 ,it finally became completely divorced from naturalism--the only sure ground upon which a sculptor can stand4 ,at the same time ,christian thought and feeling1 which the ,byzantine artist might have expressed1 passed under the control of a ,church which would not recognize the rights of any artist4 ,no other explanation of the absence of a vigorous school of sculpture during the ,dark ,ages is required than the recital of the following decision of the ,council of the ,church at ,nica4 ,it refers to painting4 ,a similar decree issued by the ,empress ,theodora1 however1 forbade any sculpture save low relief4 ,sculpture in the round was denounced as entirely pagan4 ,the ,nican decree may1 therefore1 be accepted as applying to any art effort4 ,it ran3 8,the composition of the figures is not the invention of the painters but the law and tradition of the ,catholic ,church4444 ,nor is this purpose and tradition the part of the painter 7for his is only the craft7 but is due to the ordination and disposition of ,our ,father40 ,principles such as these ruled until about the tenth century1 when circumstances led to their gradual decay and the consequent rise of a new school of sculpture4 ,we shall see that this found a wealth of material in ,christian myths and personalities which had suggested nothing to the craftsmen of ,rome and ,byzantium4 ,,part ,,iii ,,the ,,sculpture ,,of ,,the ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,gothic ,,sculptors ,,and ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,italian ,,sculpture ,,at ,,pisa4 7#ajjj ,a4,d4 ,,to #acej ,a4,d47 ,the period between the fall of the ,roman ,empire and the rise of communal life in the ,netherlands1 ,normandy1 and ,lombardy1 saw sculpture at a lower ebb than at any time for #abjj years4 ,such buildings as ,santa ,sophia in the ,eastern ,empire and the basilicas of ,ravenna in the ,western1 stand to witness that the artistic sense itself was still alive4 ,but no great political or social force called forth the craftsmanship of the sculptor4 ,as the ,dark ,ages drew to a close1 however1 a change came about4 ,mankind once more sought to find expression for its deepest imaginations and beliefs through sculptured marble and bronze4 ,we may roughly fix the date of the rebirth of sculpture at #ajjj ,a4,d4 ,scientific accuracy would perhaps demand references to ,charlemagne4 ,the historian of art1 however1 seeks causes of the greatest magnitude4 ,he must point to vast eruptions of human energy and emotion1 not to brick upon brick erections of paltry feelings1 if he is to really account for the creation of a great art4 ,we are1 therefore1 safe in starting from the feverish anxiety with which ,christendom awaited the advent of the year #ajjj after our ,lord4 ,the ,millennium had expired4 ,satan was to be loosed4 ,men knew not what to expect4 ,he who made a will or executed a deed started with such a phrase as 8,seeing that the end of the world is at hand40 ,the very indefiniteness of the fears only served to increase the terror4 ,month after month crept by4 ,nothing untoward happened4 ,at last the mystic year passed4 ,the revulsion of feeling was immense1 the immediate result being an enormous devotional impulse1 the evidence of which remains to-day in the great number of ecclesiastical buildings erected in the eleventh and twelfth centuries4 ,let us not be misunderstood4 ,the year #ajjj ,a4,d4 was not the cause of the new spirit4 ,it simply marks the time4 ,to understand why the men of these centuries instinctively lavished wealth and labour upon the cathedrals and abbeys and their sculptured decorations1 we must picture the social and political state of ,western ,europe at the time4 ,during the years following the break up of the ,empire hordes of heathen invaders had poured into the ,roman world4 ,the torrent was not stayed until the age of ,charles the ,great4 ,the first result of the beating of this human tide upon the rocks of the old civilization had been a fund of nervous energy unequalled since the struggle with ,carthage had produced vital force sufficient to enable ,rome to conquer and rule the ,western world4 ,but this fund of energy needed concentration and direction4 ,politically1 ,western ,europe in the eleventh century was a heterogeneous collection of feudal states4 ,it was soon evident that the only common interests were those aroused by the belief in a common religious creed4 ,in the midst of a general social chaos1 the only really organized community was the ,catholic ,church4 ,what wonder then that1 in search for some sure resting-place1 ,christendom submitted itself to ,rome8 ,by the time of ,gregory ,,vii4 7#ajgc ,a4,d47 the occupant of the ,chair of ,st4 ,peter had become all-powerful4 ,hobbes' picture of the ,papacy--the ghost of the ,empire sitting crowned on its own grave--had been realized to the full4 ,as the ,festival at ,olympia had been the rallying-point for the ,greek world1 so the meeting at ,clermont1 where the ,first ,crusade was inaugurated1 witnessed to the only unity ,christendom could then imagine4 ,this is why the artistic energies of ,western ,europe after #ajjj ,a4,d4 followed channels suggested by the ,roman ,church4 ,,the ,,gothic ,,sculptors ,for one reason and another1 the first country to drag itself from the intellectual torpor which had affected ,western ,europe for hundreds of years was ,france4 ,the commercial classes1 particularly in the north-west1 shook themselves free from the dominion of the feudal lords earlier than their brethren1 say1 in ,northern ,italy4 ,as material wealth increased1 the ,french bourgeoisie naturally sought for a means of expressing its pride in the communal life which it had created4 ,but in doing so1 it could not rid itself of the memory of the even deeper emotions aroused by the realization of the co-ordinating power of the ,catholic ,church4 ,the cry1 8,a cathedral for ,amiens1 a city church for ,rouen10 made much the same appeal to the imaginations of these ,frenchmen as the idea of a ,parthenon had made to the ,athenians #aejj years earlier4 ,previously the religious buildings had mostly been abbeys1 and the property of the religious orders4 ,now the laity desired to do what they could4 ,the finest ,french cathedrals were built by the great lay guilds4 ,their foundations were planted in the very centre of social and communal life4 ,in this respect1 the great ,gothic churches of ,france differ markedly from those of our own island4 ,ntre ,dame1 ,bayeux1 ,chartres1 ,bourges1 ,rheims1 and the rest are to be contrasted with such a typical ,english ,cathedral as ,lichfield1 which nestles among the trees and makes1 with the ,close1 a little world entirely apart from the clatter and chatter of the market square4 ,just because a ,french cathedral was so direct an expression of popular emotion1 it was as a rule a less balanced artistic creation4 ,the builders of ,salisbury were not driven by the pricking desire to out-top the topmost which impelled the ,french ,gothic architects and masons4 ,but the ,french cathedral voiced more truly the inner feelings of the people to whose heart-burnings and soul-aspirations it was due4 ,turning now to sculpture1 the circumstance common to the ,greek temple with its marbles and the ,french ,gothic cathedral with its stone decorations1 strikes us at once4 ,in both cases1 the prime impulse was civic pride4 ,this is important4 ,but it is even more necessary to realize the essential difference--that the ,gothic cathedral owed even more to the inspiration of a great church and an all-powerful priesthood4 ,at the very outset we come upon the fact that whereas the growth of ,greek sculpture largely depended upon such a purely human feeling as the passion for physical beauty1 sculpture in the ,middle ,ages was required to incarnate an entirely extra-mundane emotion--the craving for an all-ruling and ever-living deity4 ,it was to this ,coleridge referred when he said that 8the principle of ,gothic architecture is infinity made imaginable40 ,just as the ,doric temple--8,simple1 erect1 severe1 austere1 sublime0--was an echo of the ,greek spirit2 so the ,gothic cathedral1 with its vast spaces and its complex schemes of columns1 aisles and chapels1 ministered to that mysticism which distinguished the ,christian religion of ,western ,europe from the crystal clear faith of ,ancient ,greece4 ,some will remember ,william ,watson's lines 8,upon a prelude or a fugue of ,bach40 8,contentedly1 with strictest strands confined1 ,sports in the ,sun that oceanic mind2 ,to leap their bourn these waves did never long1 ,or roll against the stars their rock-bound song40 ,that is the ,greek view4 ,how different is the ,gothic4 ,again we turn to ,william ,watson--four lines upon 8,the ,gothic ,spire03 8,it soars like hearts of hapless men who dare ,to sue for gifts the gods refuse to allot2 ,who climb for ever toward they know not where1 ,baffled for ever by they know not what40 ,it is not an exaggeration to say that no great sculpture was produced under the influence of the ,gothic passion for mystic communion with the ,unseen4 ,no one now remembers the name of a single ,gothic sculptor4 ,certainly1 no one can recall a single statue of the period as a 8joy for ever10--the test of a work of art of the first order4 ,may we not infer that the art by which the religious instinct most naturally finds expression is architecture1 or1 as experience has since shown1 music8 ,the absence of sculpture of real beauty was not due to any lack of opportunity4 ,there were thousands of stone workers4 ,as had been the case with the ,greek temples1 the great ,gothic cathedrals provided abundant opportunities for sculptural decoration4 ,in ,france the faades of the great churches were often literally covered with carved reliefs1 and rows upon rows of statues4 ,the purely architectural work served merely as a background to one huge composition of statuary4 ,the deeply recessed portals and the galleries and columns of the interior were equally designed to receive a profusion of sculptural decoration4 ,the triple portal of the west front at ,chartres contained some #gbj figures1 large and small1 the tympanum in the centre depicting ,our ,lord in ,glory4 ,attached to the pillars of the doorways were numerous large carvings representing the ancestors of ,christ4 ,the transept porches were decorated with a similar profusion of statuary4 ,but whereas the sculpture of the ,parthenon not only served perfectly as an architectural decoration1 but was also 8a thing of beauty0 in itself1 it was otherwise with the plastic decoration of a ,gothic cathedral4 ,the ,gothic architect had not the slightest scruple in sacrificing the beauty of any statue for the architectural effect as a whole4 ,at times the ,gothic sculptor's deviations from nature were almost uncanny4 ,in his choice of a subject1 and in his method of representation1 he was only concerned with the realistic presentation of the beliefs of the ,roman ,church4 ,his task was to translate the mysteries of life and death into a language which the humblest worshipper could not misunderstand4 ,the well-known alto-relievo in ,bourges ,cathedral affords a fine illustration of this phase of ,gothic art4 ,the scene represents the torturing of the souls of the damned4 ,we are spared nothing4 ,everything is set down in all its naked horror4 ,the ,gothic sculptor had his virtues4 ,one was that he always told his story clearly4 ,he sought to suggest the ideals revealed by the ,man ,christ as he understood them4 ,his only aim was to give form to the new emotions and thoughts which he believed arose from the teachings of the ,church4 ,can we help admiring the grand sincerity with which he kept his aim ever in the foreground1 and the wonderful fertility of his invention in presenting the ideas he had to portray8 ,illustration3 ,,gothic ,,panel ,,the ,,last ,,judgment ,a bas-relief from the porch of ,bourges ,cathedral ,illustration3 ,,giovanni ,,pisano ,,the ,,adoration ,,of ,,the ,,magi ,a panel from the pulpit of the ,duomo at ,pisa1 now in the ,museo ,civico1 ,pisa ,though the ,gothic sculptor cannot be denied his meed of praise1 an equal candour compels us to admit that these are not the virtues of a great artist4 ,they are too utilitarian4 ,art lends its aid to make religious ideas more persuasive1 but it is1 properly1 neither religious nor ethical4 ,we realize this at once when we compare the ,gothic ideal with that which actuated the ,greek in the days of ,phidias4 ,how altered are the circumstances under which the two schools worked4 ,let us catalogue them for the last time4 ,the balance which the ,greek preserved between emotion and intellect was no longer regarded as desirable4 ,it was not even considered4 ,men had ceased to believe that a right judgment accepted the limitations to human endeavour set by the threescore years and ten of human life4 ,instead1 there was an overmastering passion to enter into conscious relation with a mysterious power endowed with the faculty of controlling human destiny4 ,in place of the sunny myths of ancient ,hellas1 the ,gothic sculptor drew upon the superstitious perversions of ,scripture which his age accepted4 ,the ,church loved to dwell upon the wrath of ,god4 ,the sculptor could only follow4 ,whereas the ,greek had realized to the full the beauty of the human body1 and its possibilities as an emotional agent1 the ,gothic artist appealed to men who had no reverence for the human form1 rather to those who despised it4 ,asceticism was rampant4 ,drapery was used1 not to display the beauties of the human figure1 but to hide them4 ,the art of sculpture1 which depends upon the perfectly developed human body and the balanced human mind and heart for all the more impressive notes in its song1 could not flourish in such an atmosphere4 ,the differences between ,northern ,france in the eleventh and twelfth centuries ,a4,d4 and ,greece in the fifth century ,b4,c4 at once show why we must look elsewhere for a social state in which the art of the sculptor could find sustenance4 ,as we should expect we find this in a country where ,gothic architecture never achieved the brilliant success that attended it in ,france and ,england4 ,we mean1 of course1 ,italy4 ,the culture of ,gothic architecture never bore transplanting from ,french to ,italian soil satisfactorily4 ,many so-called ,gothic cathedrals were erected4 ,but the ,italian architects always leant towards the ,roman simplicity1 and never multiplied the niches and columns in the way the ,french architect did4 ,as a consequence the opportunities for marble and bronze decorations were greater than in the north1 and the art of sculpture at once took a firmer position4 ,but the chief reason for the immediate growth of sculpture in ,italy was not material but psychological4 ,it depended not upon opportunity but upon the mental and emotional temper of those to whom it appealed4 ,the ,gothic architect in ,italy did not adopt the methods by which his ,french brother appealed to the mystic instincts of his countrymen1 simply because the ,italian temperament was less eager to 8dwell overmuch among desired illusions40 ,with a far fuller emotional and intellectual experience1 the ,italian did not feel1 in the same degree1 what ,matthew ,arnold has called 8that passionate1 turbulent1 indomitable reaction against the despotism of fact40 ,for many years the population of ,northern ,italy had been victimized by the continual invasions which the ,holy ,roman emperors made against the ,pope4 ,at first there were constant efforts to form leagues of townships to combat ,emperor or ,pope4 ,but the cities could not put large bodies of fighters in the field1 and their condition was deplorable4 ,the great struggle between ,henry ,,iv4 of ,germany and the ,papacy aided by ,matilda and the ,normans1 brought matters to a head4 ,the remedy was found towards the end of the eleventh century1 when each town discovered that it could best serve its interests by acting alone4 ,in other words1 the conception of a city-state was reached4 ,during the struggle in which bishop was pitted against feudal lord1 feudal lord against bishop1 and both or either against ,emperor or ,pope1 each city developed a political individuality4 ,genoa became distinguished from ,pisa1 and both from ,milan in marked fashion4 ,nor was this all4 ,it was soon realized that the bond of citizenship was an asset that could be used with magnificent effect4 ,as had been the case in ,greece1 a city with a few thousand burghers found it could safely face a power apparently vastly stronger4 ,the enthusiasm of every citizen was fired in a manner unequalled since a similar concatenation of circumstances had given ,phidias and ,praxiteles to the gean ,peninsula4 ,finally1 this civic ideal did not entail the jettisoning of a hundred human ambitions and emotions which were entirely foreign to the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,a social philosophy began to arise in which human interests predominated4 ,here was the very condition for lack of which ,gothic sculpture had been still-born4 ,,the ,,pisani ,the city of ,pisa is particularly identified with the rise of ,italian sculpture4 ,near the town lay the marble mines of ,carrara4 ,the ,crusades1 by opening up the markets of the ,east and1 particularly1 ,byzantium1 had done much to increase its material prosperity4 ,the citizens of ,pisa1 for instance1 had contributed largely to the success of the second ,crusade4 ,their reward for assistance in the capture of ,jerusalem was a series of trading privileges extending over a great part of the ,east4 ,pisan banks and warehouses arose in every port4 ,material prosperity freed social life from many hampering conventions4 ,economic independence proved the first step towards the consciousness of intellectual liberty which was so striking a characteristic of the ,renaissance4 ,pisa was only nominally a republic4 ,its aristocrats wielded power1 and they realized1 as ,pisistratus had done in ancient ,athens1 that their tenure of authority was held at the price of magnificent schemes of public utility4 ,the ,cathedral was consecrated in #aaah1 and forty years later the ,baptistery was finished4 ,during this time the ,republic1 owing to its successful campaigns against ,genoa and ,lucca1 became more and more powerful4 ,one of the principal results following the opening up of the ,eastern world was a revelation of the grace and beauty of the sculpture of the ancients4 ,the ,pisans evinced a strong interest in the few works of antiquity that could be found4 ,the merchants eagerly competed for one of the carved ,roman sarcophagi which the ,pisan fleets occasionally brought over from the ,east4 ,under these influences1 the sculptors who were engaged upon the decoration of ,gothic cathedrals in ,italy found themselves called upon to add a beauty to their work which was not required in ,north-west ,europe4 ,in their search for this beauty1 the harmonious naturalism lacking in the plastic arts prior to the thirteenth century was attained4 ,craftsmen from ,byzantium and architects and masons from the ,north came to such a town as ,pisa to educate a band of local artists4 ,they1 too1 drank deep at the well of ,hellenic genius4 ,the sculptors of ,italy still worked under the inspiration of the ,catholic ,church4 ,but1 fired by the achievements of ,greece1 their work displayed a natural grace far in advance of the realistic fables in stone which the ,northern artist fashioned or the symbolic pictures which the ,byzantium craftsman produced4 ,niccola ,pisano 7#abje-abgh ,a4,d47 was the greatest ,italian architect of his day and the wealth of his native town early furnished him with opportunities for exercising his skill both as an architect and as a sculptor4 ,from ,pisa1 ,niccola's reputation spread through ,italy4 ,as a sculptor he was influenced strongly by ,grco-,roman art4 ,being intended for ,gothic buildings1 his sculptural work has many of the characteristics of the ,french style1 but it shows the clearest signs of classical feeling4 ,it is true that he crowds the space he has to fill with a multitude of figures1 where the taste of the ,greek would have suggested a simpler scheme4 ,his figures and drapery are heavy when compared with the graceful forms of the ,hellenic artists4 ,but all ,niccola ,pisano's later work proves how thoroughly he appreciated1 and how earnestly he strove to attain1 the stately beauty that pervaded the art of ,hellas4 ,giovanni1 a son of ,niccola ,pisano1 worked between #abgj and #accj ,a4,d4 ,giovanni ,pisano1 like his father1 was a brilliant architect4 ,as a sculptor1 however1 he lacked ,niccola's sense of beauty1 and he clung too closely to the fantastic exaggerations of the ,gothic artists4 ,he abandoned the ideal of tranquillity and self-restraint which his father had learnt from the ,hellenic example4 ,but his technical skill was so great and his efforts to give a passionate realization of the scriptural scenes were so sincere that ,giovanni's best work shows a force lacking in the sculptures of ,niccola ,pisano4 ,on the whole1 the works of ,giovanni prove that the influence of ,niccola was not very potent4 ,this seems to be due to the fact that to the time of his death the taste for sculpture was not general4 ,it was rather eclectic4 ,it appealed to few beyond the ranks of the aristocrats4 ,moreover1 though ,niccola had realized that 8art must anchor in nature1 or be the sport of every breath of folly10 the conviction was not general4 ,the feeling for the beauties of the natural world was only growing slowly4 ,it came to the flood early in the thirteenth century1 and found its most intense expression in the sermons of ,francis of ,assisi 7#aahb-abbf74 ,it is idle to inquire whether the 8,first of the ,friars0 taught the world to look once more for the beauties of nature beneath the hard crudities of external phenomena4 ,certain it is that he was one 8,who heard the tale ,the low wind tells1 ,who read the rune ,of moorland wells40 ,illustration3 ,,niccola ,,pisano ,,the ,,pulpit ,,at ,,pisa ,saint ,francis never reached the modern conception of nature as the embodiment of the divine spirit such as is found in the poems of ,wordsworth4 ,it could not be said of him 8,none inlier taught how near to earth is heaven1 ,with what vast concords ,nature's harp is strung40 ,but his passion for the beauties of nature added a new note to the prevalent interpretation of ,scripture4 ,consciously or unconsciously1 it led him to a far more human conception of the ,godhead4 ,as a result of the preaching of ,st4 ,francis and that of his followers1 all ,italy clamoured for representations of the ,christ and the ,saints in the new manner4 ,the demand was first satisfied by the painter ,giotto 7#abff-accg74 ,under the influence of ,st4 ,francis1 ,giotto translated the new ,christian thought and emotion into terms of flesh and blood4 ,he pictured this living reality upon the walls of such a building as the ,upper ,church at ,assisi4 ,he did for ,italy what ,phidias and ,polyclitus did for ,greece when they gave material form to the ,zeus and ,hera of ,homer4 ,the sculptor most closely identified with ,giotto was ,andrea ,pisano 7#abgj-acdh74 ,a pupil of ,giovanni1 ,andrea carried the principles of sculpture enunciated by ,niccola to ,florence4 ,the city1 at the time1 was one of the richest and most enlightened in ,italy4 ,it was1 moreover1 the centre from which the naturalism of ,giotto was spreading4 ,andrea was always greatly influenced by his friend ,giotto1 and upon the latter's death carried through the architectural works upon which he was engaged4 ,but the words of ,andrea show that ,giotto's influence upon sculpture was not entirely for good4 ,for some time after the great painter's death a distinctly pictorial character pervaded the works of the ,italian sculptors4 ,andrea ,pisano1 for instance1 himself spent many years in fashioning one of the great bronze doors of the ,florentine ,baptistery4 ,this contains some of the finest bronze work in the world4 ,each panel is decorated with a scene from the life of ,john the ,baptist and each tells its story simply and clearly4 ,but it is at once obvious that the ideal at which ,andrea was aiming was rather pictorial than sculptural4 ,at his death sculpture was no longer on the free road of progress started by ,niccola ,pisano4 ,our study of three centuries has therefore brought us to the following conclusion4 ,after centuries of effacement and years of struggle1 the art of sculpture has once more discovered the possibility of natural expression4 ,but it is still hampered by its ancient alliance with sacerdotalism4 ,this must be abandoned1 and the sculptor must devote himself wholly and freely to ,mother ,nature1 and ,mother ,nature's most magnificent achievement--the human form4 ,by no other means can a standard approaching the ,hellenic be reached4 ,we are now to learn how the bonds fashioned by the ,roman ,church were shaken off by the ,italian sculptors of the fifteenth century4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,naturalism--,,lorenzo ,,ghiberti1 ,,donatello1 ,,verocchio1 ,,etc4 7#adjj-aejj ,a4,d47 ,it will be remembered that the rise of ,greek sculpture was a matter of fifty or1 at the most1 seventy years4 ,the ,muse of the art did not spring fully grown from the head of ,apollo1 it is true4 ,but within half a century the ,greek craftsman realized the possibilities of his materials2 he discovered what subjects could be treated most properly1 and fitted himself to express the profoundest thoughts and emotions of his countrymen4 ,the result was ,phidias and the ,parthenon4 ,yet by #adjj ,a4,d4 we have by no means reached the zenith of ,italian sculpture4 ,in other words1 after tracing the growth of the art for a century we find that another hundred years is necessary before an ,italian ,parthenon is possible4 ,to what was the slower evolution of sculpture in ,italy due8 ,it might be suggested that marble and bronze were not the fittest media to embody the teeming experience of fourteenth-and fifteenth-century ,italy4 ,this is probably true4 ,seeing1 however1 that the sister art of painting had lagged behind in similar fashion1 we must trace the deliberate growth of ,italian sculpture to the lesser intensity of the energizing force4 ,the ,italians were not stirred to the depths by one heart-searching struggle like that between the ,persians and the ,hellenes4 ,the contention between city and city was1 however1 incessant4 ,within the town walls1 too1 the strife between class and class was constant4 ,apart1 therefore1 from the question of degree1 we find in the ,italian city-states between #acej and #adjj ,a4,d4 the same restless vortices of intellectual and emotional energy which were the first consequences of ,marathon and ,salamis4 ,as in ,greece1 these vortices were not of one type nor the creation of a single centre4 ,florence certainly played the part in ,italian culture that ,athens did in the growth of ,hellenism4 ,of all the cities of ,italy1 she was most completely in touch with the diverse influences which humanized the arts4 ,but the movement was not a matter of ,florentine culture4 ,just as had been the case in ,greece1 a hundred centres produced personalities--men and women of every stamp4 ,the theocracy of ,rome1 the democracy of ,florence1 the monarchy of ,naples1 the aristocracy of ,venice1 and the tyranny of ,milan1 all did their part4 ,all assisted to mould that grand complexity which we call the ,italian ,renaissance ,the leaders of public opinion in all these centres1 men and women alike1 were continually moving about4 ,artists were invited now to one court now to another2 scholars and poets were welcomed at ,siena and ,ferrara as they were at ,milan and ,florence4 ,hence that all-embracing experience of men and things1 which must lie at the foundation of every art which is not only to grow1 but to live and bear fruit4 ,but it is one thing to realize the presence of a number of factors favourable to a great art4 ,it is a more difficult thing to estimate the circumstances under which a large measure of this force and experience was diverted into channels which made a ,michael ,angelo not only possible but certain4 ,the inquiry we are embarking upon is the counterpart of that which we undertook with reference to the evolution of ,hellenic sculpture between #dhj and #dej ,b4,c4 ,apart from the longer period occupied1 we shall find that the most significant feature is the resemblance between the circumstances which led up to ,phidias and those which led up to ,michael ,angelo4 ,this is not surprising4 ,indeed1 were not many circumstances attending pre-,angelesque sculpture identical with those in the first half of the fifth century ,b4,c41 our entire critical method would be endangered4 ,as a matter of fact1 the identity of circumstance is remarkable4 ,what is even more important is that where there is a really striking variation we can correlate it with a corresponding one in the result4 ,in other words1 we can recognize and account for the characteristics which distinguish the sculpture of the ,italian renaissance from that of ,greece #aijj years earlier4 ,,ghiberti ,,and ,,the ,,gates ,,of ,,the ,,florentine ,,baptistery ,turning to the facts3 the new spiritual atmosphere1 with its strong artistic potentialities1 which followed the preaching of ,st4 ,francis1 was much more favourable to the painter's art than to that of the sculptor4 ,we have seen that ,giotto was able to give adequate expression to the dominant ideas of his age with much greater freedom than such an artist as ,andrea ,pisano4 ,this general tendency unfavourable to the growth of a vigorous school of ,italian sculpture1 continued for a long time4 ,its effect in turning the budding artist's dreams towards painting or influencing his work in unsculpturesque fashion cannot be doubted4 ,perhaps this can be most fully illustrated by the subsequent history of the doors of the ,florentine baptistery4 ,it will be remembered that ,andrea ,pisano had erected the first of the three bronze doors seventy years earlier4 ,the political difficulties in the latter part of the fourteenth century prevented the ,florentines completing the work4 ,in #adjc1 however1 as a thank-offering after the great plague of #adjj1 the ,guild of ,florentine merchants decided to complete the bronze doors of the baptistery4 ,the commission was offered for public competition and advertized throughout ,italy4 ,the account left by ,lorenzo ,ghiberti1 the eventual winner1 enables us to realize the effect of the news4 ,ghiberti had been born in #acha1 so that he was barely out of his teens when the announcement of the ,florentine ,guild was published4 ,he had been educated as a goldsmith1 a craft which always flourishes when wealth is accumulating1 civil disorders are frequent and banking systems insecure4 ,it provides a ready means of hoarding a small store against a time of stress4 ,but to an artist of ardent imagination and real ambition like the youth ,ghiberti1 the narrow limits set by goldsmithery were cramping4 ,reading between the lines1 we can see that he was seriously contemplating abandoning his own art for the more expressive art of painting4 ,he had indeed taken the first step4 ,in a passage from his own manuscript in the ,magliabecchian ,library1 he narrates3 8,in my youth1 anno ,christi #adjj1 moved both by the corrupted air of ,florence and the bad state of the country1 ,i fled with a worthy painter who had been sent for by ,signor ,malatesta of ,pesaro1 and he gave us a room to paint1 which we did with great diligence4 ,my soul was at this time much turned towards painting1 partly from the hope of the works in which ,signor ,malatesta promised to employ us2 and partly because my companion was always showing me the honour and utility which would accrue to me4 ,nevertheless1 at this moment1 when my friends wrote to me that the governors of the baptistery were sending for masters whose skill in bronze working they wished to prove1 and that from all ,italian lands many maestri were coming to place themselves in this strife of talent1 ,i could no longer forbear1 and asked leave of ,signor ,malatesta who let me depart40 ,coming to ,florence1 ,ghiberti found himself opposed to six of the best sculptors of ,italy4 ,there was ,filippo ,brunelleschi1 who afterwards became famous as the architect of the dome of the ,florentine ,cathedral4 ,there was also ,jacopo della ,quercia1 the ,sienese sculptor1 to whom we shall refer again4 ,each competitor received 8four tables of brass10 and a year was given to prepare a panel representing the 8,sacrifice of ,isaac40 ,at the end of the time it was evident that the contest had resolved itself into a duel between ,ghiberti and ,brunelleschi4 ,nor was there any doubt as to the winner4 ,the panels of both men can still be seen side by side in the ,national ,museum at ,florence4 ,they witness to the truth of ,ghiberti's boast3 8,the palm of victory was conceded to me by all the judges and by those who competed with me4 ,universally the glory was given to me without any exception40 ,the commission was dated ,november #bc1 #adjc4 ,the ,merchants' ,guild agreed to pay all expenses--the sum eventually expended upon the pair of gates being #bb1jjj ducats4 ,the wages of his assistants1 who included ,donatello1 ,gozzoli and ,uccello1 were defrayed by the ,guild4 ,lorenzo himself received #bjj florins a year1 for which he agreed to give all his time4 ,he was bound to design the panels and execute 8the nudes1 draperies1 and all the artistic parts with his own hand40 ,upon the completion of the first pair of gates1 those executed by ,andrea ,pisano 7#acca-accd7 were taken down and ,ghiberti's gates erected in the place of honour facing the ,cathedral4 ,nor was this all4 ,twenty-five years had been spent already4 ,yet he was ordered to furnish another pair--those which ,michael ,angelo called 8,the ,gates of ,paradise40 ,they were unveiled in #adeb1 when they in their turn displaced the earlier gates of ,ghiberti4 ,the 8,gates of ,paradise0 represent the zenith that sculpture could attain1 following the path indicated by the ,pisani1 who had been compelled to work largely in relief owing to the necessity laid upon them of being primarily illustrators of the ,scriptures4 ,ghiberti's last pair of gates1 therefore1 merit a detailed examination4 ,there are ten panels1 five on each door4 ,upon these are pictured scenes from ,old ,testament history from the ,creation to ,solomon4 ,in some of the reliefs ,ghiberti put as many as a hundred figures4 ,yet the panels never appear crowded4 ,throughout there is a fine appreciation of the story to be depicted4 ,the beauty of the drawing of the nudes and of the soft flow of the drapery is extreme4 ,it is almost impossible to select a panel which will illustrate all the charms of design and beauties of technique with which the 8,gates of ,paradise0 abound4 ,if one must choose1 the panel upon which ,ghiberti depicts the ,creation of ,adam and ,eve1 the ,temptation and the ,expulsion from ,eden1 seems to suggest itself4 ,from it we can judge ,ghiberti's treatment of the male and female nude4 ,we can see how marvellously the sense of aerial perspective is rendered by the gradual diminution of relief4 ,the figures nearest the eye are in high relief1 the more distant forms being raised to a less and less degree1 until 8the multitude of the heavenly host0 melt imperceptibly into the bronze background4 ,illustration3 ,,lorenzo ,,ghiberti 8,,the ,,gates ,,of ,,paradise0 ,baptistery1 ,florence ,technically--judged from the standpoint of workmanship in bronze--8,the ,creation ,panel0 is beyond criticism4 ,comparing it with a painting by ,giotto1 or1 to take an artist of a later date1 by ,fra ,angelico1 we feel1 however1 that something is lacking4 ,though the subjects depicted are biblical1 ,ghiberti's work lacks the spirituality which an artist working under the influence of ,giotto1 consciously or unconsciously1 infused into his work4 ,italy in the fifteenth century had realized the fallacies that underlay the narrow creed of the ,church and the too rigid philosophy of the ,scholastics4 ,ghiberti1 like many another ,italian artist1 could not accept the judgment of the extreme ascetics who saw in the beauties of the human form only snares set by the devil to catch the souls of men4 ,whatever may have been ,ghiberti's personal religious belief1 as an artist he knew that such a creed was impossible4 ,he saw that the beauties which the eye could see were his raw material4 ,the mystical artists of the ,giottesque school would have cried with ,watts1 8,i paint ideas1 not things40 ,ghiberti worked upon the principle that an artist holding such a creed only approaches success when he forgets his predilection for ideas in the interest aroused by the beauties of the natural world and particularly by the beauties of the human form4 ,at the very root of our argument lies the fact that these broader and more human views are traceable to the growing influence of the democracy in the ,italian cities4 ,it must never be forgotten that such a work as the 8,gates of ,paradise0 was in every sense a public work4 ,its general design and its detailed progress were continually supervised by the hard-headed burghers of ,florence4 ,when1 for instance1 ,ghiberti was instructed on ,january #b1 #adbe1 by the consuls of the ,guild of ,merchants to commence the third pair of gates1 he was not free to choose his own subjects4 ,here is an extract from the letter of ,leonardo ,bruni d',arezzo1 the ,chancellor of the ,republic1 who actually drew up the general scheme4 ,after detailing the subjects he added3 8,it is necessary that he who has to design them should be well instructed in every story1 so that he may dispose the characters and scenes to the best effect4444 ,i have no doubt that the work as ,i have designed it will succeed well1 but ,i should like to be near the artist that ,i may interpret to him the many meanings of the scenes40 ,it was no small task which the good ,chancellor set ,ghiberti4 ,imagine the feelings of a twentieth-century sculptor suddenly faced with a demand to give expression to the following subjects in ten panels1 within the limits set by a single door4 ,i ,,ii ,creation of ,adam4 ,adam1 ,eve1 and children4 ,creation of ,eve4 ,the two sacrifices4 ,temptation4 ,death of ,abel4 ,expulsion from ,eden4 ,curse of ,cain4 ,,iii ,,vii ,noah leaving ,ark4 ,moses on ,sinai4 ,noah's sacrifice4 ,noah's drunkenness4 ,,iv ,,viii ,abraham and the ,angels4 ,joshua marching round ,jericho4 ,the sacrifice of ,isaac4 ,the ,fall of ,jericho4 ,v ,,ix ,isaac4 ,david and ,goliath4 ,esau hunting4 ,defeat of ,philistines4 ,the blessing of ,jacob4 ,,vi ,x ,sale of ,joseph4 ,queen of ,sheba at ,solomon's ,court4 ,pharaoh's dream4 ,joseph's brethren in ,egypt4 ,yet ,ghiberti's ingenuity was sufficient not only to make the designs but to overcome the immense technical difficulties incidental to carrying them out in bronze4 ,truth to tell1 the commission should never have been given to a sculptor4 ,in addition to the difficulties connected with his own art1 ,ghiberti was faced with the necessity of adding architectural and landscape backgrounds to his reliefs4 ,he strove to solve problems of perspective which even the painters of his day had not mastered4 ,indeed1 for the designer of the ,baptistery gates1 sculptural relief was rather a branch of the graphic arts than a part of the plastic arts1 governed by the rules and subject to the limitations of sculpture4 ,ghiberti's life's work landed his art in a blind alley4 ,for further progress it was necessary that sculpture should be once more informed with its own definite spirit4 ,ghiberti1 or rather his patrons1 had failed to realize that sculpture as a descriptive medium has its limitations4 ,it cannot hope to rival painting in the multiplicity of subjects which it can depict with success4 ,it must1 therefore1 confine itself to subjects which it can express clearly and vigorously4 ,,donatello ,,and ,,the ,,church ,,of ,,or ,,san ,,michele ,what was denied to ,ghiberti was given to his assistant ,donatello--the foremost sculptor of the transitional period which preceded ,michael ,angelo4 ,by his example ,donatello re-defined the proper limits and the fittest objects of the art of sculpture4 ,his life's work was one continued reiteration of the ,hellenic lesson that sculpture is the concrete expression of man's joyful interest in the human form4 ,to the end1 his figures never possessed the ideal grace with which ,ghiberti endowed a hundred forms in the ,baptistery panels4 ,but ,donatello had the essential quality of a true sculptor within him4 ,he put aside all desire to rival the painter4 ,he willed to express himself by form and form only4 ,this fact alone invests his work with an importance and interest in the history of pure sculpture which the more graceful productions of ,ghiberti cannot claim4 ,donato di ,betto ,bardi1 to give ,donatello his correct title1 was the son of a wool-comber4 ,he had entered ,ghiberti's studio as an assistant in #adje1 at the age of nineteen4 ,his experience with ,ghiberti gave him the technical skill to carry out an ambition that dated from boyhood4 ,before ,donatello was thirty1 the chances of the age gave him a series of unique opportunities of making his dreams realities4 ,as we have seen1 a new class of patrons had arisen in ,italy with fresh ambitions and ideals4 ,in ,florence1 for instance1 the mercantile class had gradually ousted the ,german nobles who had ruled in fief of the ,emperor4 ,by #abhc the wealthier guilds had established a form of government delegating all power to members of their own class4 ,under this ,florence became more and more powerful4 ,by #adjf ,pisa was captured1 and the last stronghold of the feudal party in ,tuscany had fallen4 ,during the last years of the fourteenth century ,florence had prospered greatly4 ,trade developed4 ,the manufacture of silk and wool brought a large measure of material prosperity4 ,the pride of the burghers in their city increased correspondingly4 ,the erection of the ,baptistery gates must be regarded as only a single instance of a general tendency4 ,all over ,italy the case was the same4 ,the appreciation of sculpture was no longer confined to a few score merchants and princes1 as had been the case at ,pisa4 ,it had spread from the cloister and castle to the market square and the ,guildhall4 ,the result of similar circumstances in the earlier history of sculpture will be remembered4 ,in fifth-century ,greece a keen appreciation of sculpture had been developed among a burgher population4 ,just as the proceeds of the commissions for athletic sculptures provided livelihoods for the budding artists of ,greece1 so the orders of the ,florentine burghers offered at least a competence to a struggling ,italian sculptor with a belief in the possibilities of his particular art4 ,what the commission for the ,baptistery gates did for ,ghiberti1 similar commissions did for ,jacopo della ,quercia1 ,donatello and the rest4 ,in dwelling upon the importance of such material considerations as these1 we are in no way depreciating the zeal of either the ,italian or the ,hellenic sculptor1 by his old patrons1 the ,guild of ,merchants4 ,it was followed by a long series of similar commissions4 ,the ,guild of ,moneychangers realizing the credit which attached to its rival1 desired ,ghiberti to furnish a companion figure1 8,saint ,matthew10 which was in its place by #adbb4 ,finally1 the ,guild of ,wool ,merchants employed ,ghiberti to produce a 8,st4 ,stephen0 for a third niche4 ,long before this1 other ,florentine ,guilds had joined in the public-spirited competition4 ,moreover1 other sculptors were discovered4 ,in #adaf ,donatello had been commissioned by the ,guild of ,armourers to model a figure for ,or ,san ,michele4 ,the result was the well-known 8,saint ,george40 ,it was followed by the statue of 8,saint ,mark10 of which ,michael ,angelo said 8it would have been impossible to reject the ,gospel from so straightforward a witness40 ,the 8,saint ,mark0 is a typical work of ,donatello's first period 7#adje to #adbe74 ,the whole conception of the ,apostle is based upon a foundation of stern realism4 ,gothic strength rather than ,attic grace is aimed at4 ,comparing it with such a work as ,ghiberti's 8,saint ,matthew10 we see at once that an immense step forward has been taken4 ,the opportunity is nothing to ,ghiberti4 ,his deep knowledge of perspective is valueless1 of course4 ,his ingenuity in the elaboration of detail proves a drawback rather than an advantage4 ,he produces a graceful lay figure4 ,so with the 8,saint ,george40 ,donatello revels in the chance of sculpturing a life-sized figure4 ,he makes the masses and lines of the body tell4 ,the ideal aimed at is the ideal of the ,greek sculptor1 who felt that his true medium of expression was the human form4 ,donatello has found the essentials common to all great sculpture--the basis upon which the greatness of ,greek art depends4 ,he has rediscovered the a b c of the language of marble and bronze which every sculptor must realize1 whatever differences of thought and emotion he seeks to express4 ,illustration3 ,,donatello ,,saint ,,george ,from ,or ,san ,michele1 ,florence ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,platonists ,this brings us to the great problem of fifteenth-century ,italian sculpture--its relationship to the art of ,greece or ,rome4 ,donatello is frequently cited as the pioneer of the reviving interest in classical sculpture4 ,following ,vasari1 the text-books tell of his visit to ,rome with ,brunelleschi in #adjc4 ,they dwell upon the statement that ,donatello spent much time in arranging the collection of ancient sculpture in the ,medici gardens4 ,recent investigation1 however1 shows conclusively that ,donatello's first visit to ,rome was made in #adcc4 ,in any case1 an honest critic must admit that little evidence of direct ,greek and ,roman influence can be observed in his works4 ,comparing the 8,saint ,mark0 with such a ,hellenic statue as the 8,phocion0 in the ,vatican or the 8,sophocles0 in the ,lateran1 what strikes us most strongly is the entire difference in the spirit animating the later work4 ,and this is equally true of the 8,saint ,george0 of ,or ,san ,michele1 or1 to use a clearer example1 the nude bronze 8,david10 now in the ,bargello at ,florence4 ,technically1 ,donatello's 8,david0 can be compared with any nude male figure1 let us say the beautiful bronze 8,narcissus0 found at ,pompeii1 and now in the ,naples ,museum4 ,it is sculptured 8in the round40 ,it is complete in itself4 ,it proves that at last the ,italian sculptor is on the high road for complete success4 ,but in sentiment it is utterly un-,hellenic4 ,it possesses none of those external resemblances to ,greek statuary which we detect in the sculpture of ,canova or ,thorvaldsen1 for instance4 ,truth to tell1 the effort to trace evidences of a direct traffic between one great art and another is based upon a total misapprehension4 ,no great artist can 8lift0 any considerable idea from a work produced in an entirely different mental and emotional atmosphere4 ,what really happened was that a wave of enthusiasm for ,hellenic art and literature broke over ,italy4 ,the sculptors shared in the humanizing effects of the realization of the true greatness of ,greek culture4 ,one cannot point to the treatment of a fold of drapery here1 or to the pose of a torso there1 and refer it to a ,greek original4 ,but in the ,italian sculpture of the fifteenth century we can trace a breaking away from ideals which had held sway for centuries4 ,inspired by the revelation of what liberty of thought and action had done for the ,greek1 the ,italian no longer prostrated himself before the idols of ,catholic dogma and scholasticism4 ,before ,donatello's death the appreciation of classic culture was no longer confined to a few wealthy dilettanti1 as had been the case at ,pisa a century earlier4 ,admiration for the productions of the ,attic philosophers and artists threatened to become a religious force capable of engulfing ,christianity4 ,the consequences were tremendous4 ,consider1 for instance1 the immense difference between the educational methods and ideals4 ,compare those which operated during the later years of ,donatello's life with those of the earlier age1 when education was entirely in the hands of the ,roman ,church4 ,take a typical ,italian schoolmaster1 such as ,vittorino of ,feltre4 ,picture his typical ,renaissance school1 8,the ,house of ,joy10 on the shores of the ,mantuan ,lake4 ,the spot was hallowed by the memory that it had been the birthplace of ,virgil4 ,nature had lavished upon it avenues of planes and acacias4 ,but dominating all was the grand aim of ,vittorino1 8,i want to teach my pupils how to think1 not to split hairs40 ,illustration3 ,,donatello ,,david ,bargello1 ,florence ,born at ,feltre1 ,vittorino went as a youth to ,padua1 one of the leading humanistic centres at the end of the fourteenth century4 ,after a period as ,professor of ,rhetoric1 the ruling ,gonzaga invited ,vittorino to ,mantua to educate his children4 ,this was in #adbe1 and ,vittorino remained there until his death in #addf4 ,his first step was to abolish the luxury which had environed the young ,gonzagas4 ,he made 8,the ,house of ,joy0 a seat of plain living and regular study4 ,youths from other courts flocked to ,mantua4 ,at his own expense1 ,vittorino maintained a number of poor scholars1 who lived near the villa and shared in all the privileges of the school4 ,music and such elementary sciences as geometry and astronomy were taught1 in true ,hellenic fashion4 ,the ,latin classics were studied without the fantastic pedantries of the ecclesiastical era4 ,the grand truth was accepted that every man was possessed of a free but responsible personality4 ,each one saw that his task in this world was to mould his individuality1 and by the exercise of his own free will to prove how far he was above the brutes4 ,the one end of education was to make the boy or girl1 not a specialist1 but a perfectly developed man or woman4 ,the expert had no place in ,italy in those days4 ,throughout the ,renaissance all education aimed at the production of all-round men and women1 physically1 emotionally1 and intellectually sound4 ,it needs little imagination to see the effect of this general acceptance of ,greek ideals of life and conduct upon sculpture4 ,it rendered possible the production of hundreds of statues which would have been meaningless a century earlier4 ,beyond this we may not go4 ,every vital art must be largely indebted to the ,greek tradition1 and ,renaissance sculpture was no exception4 ,but1 in the end1 a great style cannot be transferred4 ,a second-hand style1 like a second-hand coat1 is apt to be an ill-fit4 ,taking a few typical fifteenth-century sculptures we do not say 8how ,greek they are40 ,on the contrary1 it is at once apparent that the difference underlying ,italian and ,greek sculpture is far more noticeable than any external resemblance4 ,when once we realize the cause1 it is easy to see that it could not be otherwise4 ,in ,italy1 the relation of the individual to society differed entirely from that in any ,greek state4 ,whereas the individuality of the ,greek was constantly sacrificed to the interests of his state1 in ,italy everything tended to the free emergence of individual personalities4 ,the ,italian was in touch with no overpowering political unity4 ,nothing hampered the attainment of personal ambition or the satisfaction of personal passions4 ,what he desired was not civic or national success1 but the foundation of a new age of art and culture in which every type of individuality would have its place4 ,the ,italian longed for individual fame1 for individual power4 ,this could not but entail the loss of that grand unity of aim which was the great glory of ,athenian art4 ,instead1 it led to the growth of a wonderful diversity of character and an extraordinary variety of interests4 ,whereas the ,greek had been content to portray a few supreme types1 the artist of the ,italian ,renaissance wished to show humanity in every aspect4 ,he was not even content with the limits set by the bounds of grace and beauty4 ,the expression of spiritual tension and mental energy could not be indicated without a departure from that harmony of the planes which the ,hellenic sculptor regarded as essential4 ,the ,italian boldly adopted other means4 ,he depicted with cruel emphasis the play of muscles and tendons which accompanies physical and mental tension4 ,his mission was to present strongly individualized character4 ,to him every human energy was fit for sculptural treatment4 ,illustration3 ,,jacopo ,,della ,,quercia ,,tomb ,,of ,,ilaria ,,del ,,caretto ,lucca ,cathedral ,reviewing our argument we find that by the last quarter of the fifteenth century the art of sculpture was in this position4 ,a long series of remunerative public and private commissions had educated bands of sculptors of real talent in several ,italian centres but particularly in ,florence4 ,their work was held in such public esteem that they no longer regarded themselves as mere artizans4 ,moreover1 while the sculptor had been making himself more and more capable of expressing the thoughts and emotions of his countrymen1 they1 for their part1 were deepening and widening their experience4 ,not only had they come to realize the manifold beauties of nature1 but they were learning man's intimate relation with it4 ,at the same time the revelation of what the ,greeks had done and what ,hellenic culture really meant was leading to an entirely new regard for mankind and a desire to cultivate the whole1 as opposed to a mere fragment1 of the human capital4 ,in other words1 while the sculptor was increasing his power of interpretation1 thoughts of the highest value and emotions of real depth were being aroused4 ,comparing the sculpture of ,ghiberti1 ,donatello1 ,quercia1 della ,robbia and the rest1 with that of the ,pisani a century earlier1 it is seen that the essential difference depends upon the general adoption of a new philosophical standpoint4 ,previously1 both the artist and his public viewed man from the heavens and found him a drowning mite in an ocean of divinity4 ,now both looked man in the face and recognized a brother1 set for a time in the world to witness to the abiding beauty of the ,eternal ,reality4 ,in the light of this conception1 what had been negligible became of prime importance4 ,the shameful became entirely satisfying4 ,the truth of this proposition is seen at once if we look at a few typical fifteenth-century works4 ,take1 as the first instance1 the beautiful tomb of 8,ilaria del ,carretto10 by ,jacopo della ,quercia 7born #acgd74 ,it was erected about #adjf4 ,the young wife of ,paolo ,guinigi lies in simple garb upon the bier--the dog at her feet an emblem of womanly faithfulness4 ,comparing the work with1 let us say1 the ,pisan ,pulpit by ,niccola ,pisano1 we are struck by the beautiful simplicity of the design4 ,the over-crowded detail has vanished4 ,instead we have a scheme of monumental breadth4 ,the difference in spirit is even greater4 ,the nude children1 with their wreaths of flowers1 which decorate the bier1 witness to the transition from the ,gothic gloom to the ,renaissance joy in the beauties of the natural world4 ,illustration3 ,,luca ,,della ,,robbia ,,the ,,visitation ,pistoja ,turning to the works of an entirely different type1 we note the same tendency in the delightfully human bas-reliefs of the della ,robbias4 ,no review of the art of sculpture would be complete without a reference to ,luca della ,robbia's marble ,singing ,gallery4 8,the ,cantoria0 was begun in #adca and was placed in the ,cathedral at ,florence in #adch4 ,the taste of the seventeenth century1 however1 demanded the substitution of large balconies of carved and painted wood1 and this singing gallery1 together with that of ,donatello1 was taken down4 ,luca's carved panels finally found their way to the ,museo di ,santa ,maria del ,fiore4 ,looking at the panels1 we first of all note the immense advance in technical skill which enabled ,luca della ,robbia to represent the very poetry of rhythmic motion in stone4 ,we note this4 ,but we are moved by the human beauty of the whole conception4 ,it is in a very real sense a religious work4 ,the sculptor has taken as his theme the one hundredth and fiftieth psalm3 8,praise ye the ,lord 444 ,praise him upon the loud cymbals2 praise him upon the high-sounding cymbals40 ,but the religion of ,luca is essentially human4 ,the figures from the 8,singing ,gallery0 are so well known that we have preferred to illustrate the art of ,luca della ,robbia by the beautiful 8,visitation0 at ,pistoja1 particularly as it is a terra-cotta and1 therefore1 recalls the medium in which the artist made his most constant appeal to his countrymen4 ,the 8,visitation0 is a comparatively early work and shows that from the beginning ,luca's genius had little in common with that of ,donatello4 ,he gives us no hint of the restless search for knowledge which was the first consequence of the ,italian's realization of the powers of humanity4 ,luca stands to ,donatello1 the apostle of realism1 as an ,umbrian painter like ,perugino stands to ,signorelli4 ,but his quiet self-restraint witnesses to a human virtue at least as noble--a trusting belief in the ultimate reign of peace and love4 ,the last fifteenth-century sculptor to whom reference must be made is ,andrea del ,verocchio 7#adce-adhh74 ,his 8,doubting ,thomas0 still stands in the niche of ,or ,san ,michele1 where it attracted all ,florence #djj years ago4 ,it is a fine example of what a first-rate technique apart from the fire of genius can produce4 ,the lines of the drapery perhaps1 incline to angularity2 the figures are somewhat rigid1 but the group is of real beauty and is conceived by a true sculptor4 ,whatever his shortcomings1 the artist realizes sculpture to be the medium of man's joy in the beauty of the human form4 ,the fame of ,verocchio might well rest upon the 8,doubting ,thomas40 ,the name of the ,florentine sculptor is1 however1 associated with another work--the equestrian statue of the ,venetian commander1 ,bartolomeo ,colleoni at ,venice4 ,that1 at any rate1 is a work of the very highest order4 ,it was unfinished at ,verocchio's death1 and was completed by the ,venetian1 ,leopardi4 ,no one can fairly judge what measure of the success of the statue is due to ,verocchio's earnest technique and how much to ,leopardi's fervid genius4 ,in any case the ,colleoni monument fitly closes this review of ,italian sculpture during the fifteenth century4 ,no more certain evidence of the capacity of the pre-,angelesque sculptors could be adduced4 ,to this day1 the nobility of the pose of horse and rider and the grandly martial spirit pervading the work1 mark it as the greatest equestrian statue in the world4 ,verocchio was born in #adce4 ,he died when ,michael ,angelo was still a boy4 ,the period of his life must1 therefore1 contain the answer to the final problem4 ,why was the acme of ,italian sculpture reached at the end of the fifteenth century8 ,it can be no mere chance that ,michael ,angelo produced his finest sculptures between #adie and #aecj4 ,why could it not have been fifty years earlier8 ,some factor was clearly present at the later date which had not been present when ,verocchio was a boy4 ,if it had been there1 it had not acquired its subsequent force4 ,reverting for the last time to the ,hellenic analogy we find the clue4 ,neither the material factors--such as the commissions for public works and memorial monuments--nor such a psychological factor as the broadened sphere of human activity exhaust the circumstances which finally gave ,italy its ,phidias and its ,scopas4 ,the last thing required was a series of dominating personalities able to focus the emotion and intellectual forces generated by the age4 ,florence1 in fact1 needed a ,pericles4 ,illustration3 ,,verocchio 8,,the ,,doubting ,,thomas0 ,or ,san ,michele1 ,florence ,these final co-ordinating factors were not denied4 ,as in ,greece1 the personalities were in the first place politicians4 ,the outstanding feature in the history of ,italy during the fifteenth century is the number of political1 military and commercial figures of real vigour and ability who rose to power4 ,in one state after another they assumed complete control of affairs4 ,we have only to name the ,visconti and the ,sforzas at ,milan1 the ,gonzagas at ,mantua1 the ,bentivoglio and ,este families at ,bologna and ,ferrara1 and the ,montefeltro family at ,urbino1 to bring home their influence upon art4 ,most potent of all were1 of course1 the ,medici1 who centralized the artistic enthusiasms of ,florence4 ,as had been the case in ,athens1 the domination of the ,medici family commenced with the harnessing of the forces of ,florentine democracy4 ,the power of the ,medici began when ,giovanni de ,medici succeeded in making the lesser guilds the rulers of ,florence at the end of the fourteenth century4 ,giovanni had made an immense fortune by trade and had established banks all over the peninsula which he readily turned to advantage in furthering his political aims4 ,cosimo1 his son1 succeeded to ,giovanni's popularity with the lower classes1 and by carefully concealing the mailed fist in the velvet glove reduced ,florence to the position of ,athens when ,cimon and ,pericles ruled as the nominal representatives of the people4 ,the climax was reached when ,lorenzo the ,magnificent succeeded ,cosimo in #adfi4 ,he so altered the constitution of ,florence that it became a republic only in name4 ,a few years later he seized control of the public purse and hypnotized the political judgment of his subjects4 ,lorenzo was the ,pericles of the ,italian ,renaissance4 ,the energies and interest of the ,florentine burghers were focused around his personality1 and he it was that directed their efforts4 ,as had been the case with ,pericles1 the great glory of ,lorenzo was the unfailing tact which never interfered with the perfect freedom of action of the varied natures with which he surrounded himself--the skill with which he persuaded them that their intellectual interests were his own4 ,his ,court was frequented by a brilliant band of scholars1 and any youth of ability was assured of patronage4 ,what was even more important1 the young painters or sculptors were brought into daily contact with the men and women who were moulding public opinion and shaping history4 ,artists who had lived for a few years in the ,court of 8the ,magnificent0 were far more than craftsmen4 ,they were cultivated men of the world1 abreast of all the practical knowledge of their time4 ,it was among men like these that the sculptor was found1 able to give vital expression to even the manifold energies of the ,italian ,renaissance4 ,illustration3 ,,verocchio ,,and ,,leopardi ,,the ,,colleoni ,,monument ,venice ,,chapter ,x ,,michael ,,angelo ,,and ,,the ,,flood ,,tide ,,of ,,renaissance ,,sculpture #adij-aecj ,a4,d4 ,the year #adge ,a4,d4 has been reached4 ,we have seen the conclusion of the struggle of the sculptors to make marble and bronze bear once more the impress of every imagination of the human heart4 ,nothing now remains save to estimate the fruits of the victory--a task which entails the appreciation of one man1 ,michael ,angelo4 ,there is no exaggeration in focussing our attention on one artist4 ,the apotheosis of ,italian sculpture connects itself as inevitably with ,michael ,angelo as the topmost peak of ,elizabethan drama--,shakespeare--connects itself with the dramatic hills and hillocks which led up to it4 ,the first fifty years of ,angelo's life were to ,renaissance sculpture what the age of ,phidias and ,polyclitus had been to ,greek art4 ,he and he alone found means to express in marble the deepest thoughts upon nature and humanity which the ,italian ,renaissance had aroused4 ,as had been the case with the ,greek sculptors before ,salamis1 the pre-,angelesque artists had never quite made their message articulate4 ,indeed1 the whole fifteenth century was a period of probation and experiment4 ,in the sister art of painting1 the draftsmen and colourists were realizing the possibilities of line and paint4 ,the consequences of their efforts were ,raphael1 ,leonardo1 ,titian and ,correggio4 ,what ,angelico1 ,mantegna1 ,botticelli and ,bellini were to the great painters1 ,ghiberti1 della ,robbia1 ,donatello1 ,pollaiuolo and ,verocchio were to ,michael ,angelo4 ,but for the fact that ,donatello and ,ghiberti had raised the plastic arts for the time far above the graphic1 it might well have been that sculpture would have been only a minor art to ,michael ,angelo4 ,as things were in his boyhood1 though painting was every year reducing the lead of the sister art1 sculpture had still a far greater body of achievement to its credit4 ,from the first it was clear that sculpture was the art by which his nature most naturally expressed itself4 ,in after life he was wont jestingly to remind his friends of his earliest years among the mill-stone quarries of ,settignano4 ,he had been given to the wife of a stonecutter to be nursed1 and1 as he put it1 8with the milk of my foster-mother ,i sucked in the chisels and mallets wherewith ,i now make my figures40 ,we do not propose to attempt the narration of even the main events of ,angelo's life4 ,we can put aside all that is merely personal4 ,our object is rather to show how he came into contact with the main political and social factors of his age1 and how these1 in turn1 reacted upon his art4 ,three circumstances single themselves out as all-important--the sculptor's connection with the ,medici family in his early youth1 with the city of ,florence in his early manhood1 and with the ,papacy in the prime of life4 ,illustration3 ,,michael ,,angelo ,,david ,academy of ,fine ,arts1 ,florence ,these three powers practically brought into being all that is greatest in ,italian art4 ,from our sculptor's association with them we can understand the influences which were spurring ,angelo's few compeers and his many inferiors to their greatest efforts4 ,,the ,,florentine ,,period ,like many another scholar and artist1 ,michael ,angelo entered the household of ,lorenzo de ,medici1 the merchant-despot of ,florence1 as a boy4 ,until his patron's death he fared like a scion of the family4 ,while it would have been impossible for an impressionable youth to grow up without imbibing something of the spirit of the place1 ,angelo never thoroughly absorbed the influence of the ,medicean court4 ,the time was too short4 ,before he was twenty it was a thing of the past4 ,but for some years the memory of these joy-days persisted1 and it was under their inspiration that the earliest of ,angelo's great works were produced4 ,of these1 the 8,david10 begun in #aeja and finished in #aejc1 stands out pre-eminently as embodying the humanist creed4 ,but the statue of the great loose-limbed youth has an even more vital interest4 ,nothing could more happily illustrate the relation a great ,renaissance artist bore to his countrymen than the circumstances attending the carving of the 8,david40 ,it was commissioned by the ,state of ,florence4 ,the first contract signed by the sculptor and the representative of the town sets forth that 8the worthy master1 ,michael ,angelo1 son of ,lodovico ,buonarroti1 ,citizen of ,florence1 has been chosen to fashion1 complete1 and perfectly finish the male statue1 already rough-hewn and called #8,the ,giant1' #ac feet #f inches high1 now existing in the workshop of the ,cathedral1 badly blocked out aforetime by ,master ,agostino di ,duccio of ,florence40 ,in other words1 ,angelo's 8,david0--one of the masterpieces of the world--was cut from a great block of marble that had been so maltreated by an earlier worker that no artist of rank could be found to risk his reputation in finishing it4 ,this alone would be sufficient proof of the immense technical skill of this youth of twenty-six4 ,in addition1 ,michael ,angelo did not even model a full-sized clay figure4 ,he worked with no guidance except a few drawings and wax models some eighteen inches high4 ,his remuneration for this was fixed at #b #fs4 a month--workmen1 scaffolding1 c41 being supplied4 8,when the said statue is finished10 continues the contract1 8the consuls and operai shall estimate whether he deserve a larger recompense1 and this shall be left to their consciences40 ,history does not record whether the art committee of the ,florentine ,county ,council eventually did add to the rather meagre remuneration mentioned in the contract4 ,we have ample evidence1 however1 that the representatives of the citizens did not shirk their critical duties4 ,vasari tells of a certain ,gonfaloniere1 who essayed to justify the opinion that the nose of the ,david was too big4 ,angelo listened for a while1 and then ascended the scaffolding under which his critic was standing4 ,taking a chisel in the one hand and a few pinches of marble-dust in the other1 the sculptor began to tap lightly around the doubtful spot4 ,from time to time he let fall a little of the dust1 but of course did not alter the nose4 8,look at it now10 cried ,angelo to the ,gonfaloniere below4 8,you have given it life10 replied his victim1 rubbing the dust out of his eyes4 ,illustration3 ,,michael ,,angelo ,,monument ,,of ,,lorenzo ,medici ,chapel1 ,florence ,illustration3 ,,michael ,,angelo 8,,the ,,pieta0 ,st4 ,peter's1 ,rome ,on ,january #be1 #aejc1 a solemn conclave of artists resident in ,florence met in the ,opera del ,duomo to decide where the great figure should be placed4 ,piero di ,cosimo--readers of ,romola will remember him--,cosimo ,rosselli1 ,botticelli1 then a man of sixty-six1 ,filippino ,lippi1 and ,da ,vinci were among those present4 ,francesco ,monciatto1 a wood-carver1 began by advancing the proposition that the statue should be put up before the ,duomo1 the site proposed for the original work in fact4 ,cosimo ,rosselli and ,botticelli supported the proposal4 ,giuliano di ,san ,gallo then suggested the ,loggia dei ,lanzi as an alternative on the ground that the marble had been softened by exposure and might not last4 ,the 8,second ,herald0 objected to this1 fearing that ceremonies in the ,loggia would be interfered with1 and his remarks called ,leonardi da ,vinci to his feet4 ,finally ,piero di ,cosimo1 a man of the soundest common sense in spite of his reputation for freakishness1 with the aid of ,salvestro1 a jeweller1 and ,filippino ,lippi1 carried the proposal that the choice should be left to the sculptor himself on the ground that 8he would know better how it should be40 ,angelo's decision was for the steps at the entrance of the ,palazzo ,vecchio4 ,the curious may see it in position in the portrait of ,francesco ,ferruccio1 the ,florentine general1 in which ,cosimo used the square in front of the ,palace as a background4 ,the work is numbered #hie in the ,national ,gallery collection4 ,but let us return for a moment to the ,court of ,lorenzo de ,medici and its galaxy of scholars and artists4 ,the creed of the ,court of the ,magnificent is summed up for ever in the great right hand of the 8,david40 ,the sculptor purposely emphasized its size4 ,michael ,angelo desired to lay stress upon the part which the boy took in the struggle rather than to portray him as a mere instrument4 ,to have been at one with the spirit of the biblical narrative1 the weakness of the human agent would have been emphasized--as it was1 indeed1 in the 8,david0 of ,donatello4 ,but the right hand of ,angelo's 8,david0 stands for a new view--the ,greek view--of the part mankind must play in the world4 ,human endeavour1 rather than divine interference1 is now to perfect man4 ,by his own effort1 by the exercise of his own free will1 man is to work out his end4 ,the influence of this new conception upon the art of ,michael ,angelo is equally noticeable in the 8,pieta10 a rather earlier sculpture1 and the first work of our artist's maturity4 ,the ,virgin ,mother is seated upon the stone on which the cross had been erected4 ,the dead ,christ lies before her4 ,the scene corresponds with nothing in the biblical account4 ,it illustrates no single verse4 ,but it does more4 ,it breathes the very spirit of the ,christian narrative1 for it interprets its inner meaning in its most vital and useful sense4 ,we can see at once that ,angelo would have been false to his art had he been more faithful to the current conception of ,christian truth4 ,he was no preacher4 ,he was not expounding a faith4 ,what he took from the ,bible story was the divine grief of a mother for an all-perfect son4 ,his task was to translate that without the loss of one iota of physical or moral beauty4 ,condivi tells us that there were many who complained that the mother was too young when compared with her son1 and that he himself laid the matter before ,michael ,angelo for explanation4 ,the sculptor's answer is an example of what a perfect humanist--and that is very near to saying a perfect man--would have said4 ,it is so characteristic of the sculptor that no apology for quoting it at length is necessary4 8,one day10 says ,condivi1 8,i was talking to ,michael ,angelo of this objection40 ,illustration3 ,,michael ,,angelo ,,moses 7,,tomb ,,of ,,julius ,,ii47 8,do you not know10 he said1 8that chaste women retain their fresh looks much longer than those who are not chaste8 ,how much more1 therefore1 a virgin in whom not even the least unchaste desire ever arose8 ,and ,i tell you1 moreover1 that such freshness and flower of youth besides being maintained in her by natural causes1 it may possibly be that it was ordained by the ,divine ,power to prove to the world the virginity and perpetual purity of the ,mother4 ,it was not necessary in the ,son2 but rather the contrary2 wishing to show that the ,son of ,god took upon himself a true human body1 subject to all the ills of man1 excepting only sin2 he did not allow the divine in him to hold back the human1 but let it run its course and obey its laws1 as was proved in his appointed time4 ,do not wonder then1 that ,i have for all these reasons1 made the most ,holy ,virgin1 ,mother of ,god1 a great deal younger in comparison with her ,son than she is usually represented4 ,to the ,son ,i have allotted his full age40 ,the 8,pieta0 and the 8,david0 are the typical works of ,angelo's first period--that in which the influences of humanism were paramount4 ,but it is in the sculptures of his second period that we can detect the workings of the deep philosophical poetry which inspired the most characteristic of his works--the tomb of ,julius ,,ii4 and the monuments in the ,medici chapel at ,florence4 ,neither was ever finished4 ,the ,medici monuments are the more complete1 for the majesty of the sculptor's first conception for the tomb of ,julius ,,ii4 can now be only guessed from a few rough sketches1 half a dozen measurements and the well-known 8,moses40 ,yet it occupies a unique place in the history of ,italian art as the foremost work by an ,italian sculptor which arose directly out of the ambition of the ,church to make the ,pope's temporal authority equal his spiritual4 ,the principle of utilizing the painter1 the sculptor1 and the architect for this purpose had been enunciated fifty years earlier4 ,recognizing that the earlier aim1 which had sought to enforce a spiritual despotism by making the belief in a ,god-inspired pontiff universal1 had failed1 ,nicholas ,v4 determined to try the effect of making the ,pope into a king4 ,his court was to be the centre of ,european culture4 ,with the aid of the vast wealth poured into the papal coffers during the ,jubilee of #adej1 ,nicholas began by making the ,vatican quarter of ,rome a veritable stronghold for the sovereign pontiff4 ,his full ambition was disclosed when his will was read to the princes of the church assembled round his deathbed4 ,in this ,nicholas ,v4 showed that the ,popes could be secured from internal revolution and external force by one thing only4 ,that was by making the seat of the papacy so splendid in the eyes of ,christendom that it would possess the sanctity that had attached to ,imperial ,rome itself4 ,it was this great aim that ,michael ,angelo spent the best years of his life in forwarding4 ,the personal ambition of each ,pope interfered with the free progress of the great ideal1 but it furnished a strong motive for many years1 and actuated both of ,angelo's great patrons1 ,julius ,,ii4 and ,leo ,x4 ,after finally settling in ,rome ,michael ,angelo's first task was the sculptured mausoleum of ,julius ,,ii4 ,nicholas himself had started to rebuild the old basilica of ,st4 ,peter1 in which ,julius designed to set up his great tomb4 ,angelo suggested a great marble monument symbolical of the victory of human energy over death4 ,upon the lower tiers of a great pyramid the sculptor showed the arts and sciences which the ,pope had loved to patronize4 ,above were the prophets and graces1 of which the great statue of 8,moses0 was one4 ,the apex of the pyramid was a group in which the earth and the heavens upheld the open tomb where the dead pope awaited the ,resurrection hour4 ,in all forty figures4 ,the vastness of the conception can best be realized from the fact that the sculptor spent eight months among the marble mines at ,carrara quarrying the necessary stone4 ,the space covered by the design was about twenty-five feet by forty4 ,it was soon found that the basilica was not large enough to contain the monument4 8,what would be the cost of rebuilding80 asked ,julius4 8#ajj1jjj scudi10 said the sculptor4 8,let it be #bjj1jjj40 ,and ,michael ,angelo set to work4 ,this great dream was never realized4 ,the sculptor worked upon it for some years and then ,julius was persuaded to entrust him with a task at least as great--that of decorating the vault of the ,sistine ,chapel in the ,vatican4 ,,the ,,medici ,,tombs ,for almost twenty years ,michael ,angelo produced no great sculpture4 ,then came what are perhaps the greatest works of ,renaissance sculpture1 the monuments in the ,medici ,chapel at ,florence4 ,they were executed at the command of ,clement ,,vii41 the second ,medicean pope4 ,his purpose was to build an abiding testimony to the greatness of his house1 which had now become supreme in ,italy by making itself as powerful in ,rome as it had been in ,florence4 ,evicted from ,florence1 the ,medici had turned to ,rome4 ,leo ,x41 a son of the ,magnificent1 had succeeded ,julius4 ,he in turn was followed by ,clement ,,vii4 ,to ,clement came the idea of building a sacristy in ,san ,lorenzo in honour of the ,medici family4 ,his intention was that monuments of ,cosimo1 ,lorenzo1 ,giuliano1 ,duke of ,nemours1 ,lorenzo1 ,duke of ,urbino1 ,leo ,x4 and himself should be placed in the sacristy4 ,only two--those to the ,dukes of ,nemours and ,urbino--were finished4 ,a grim commentary upon the ,medicean record1 this4 ,the two groups actually completed are identified1 not with the memory of ,lorenzo the ,magnificent and ,leo ,x41 but with two illegitimate scions of the house4 ,the whole building was designed by ,michael ,angelo himself and was panelled to receive the sculptures1 every architectural feature being planned to enhance the emotional effect of the great marble groups4 ,in these1 ,michael ,angelo cast aside the pretty compliments upon which he had exercised his fancy when planning the vast tomb of ,julius ,,ii4--the sorrowing arts and sciences1 for instance4 ,his aim was to create a perfectly beautiful resting-place for the mighty dead4 ,this1 and nothing more4 ,let us endeavour to follow the train of ,michael ,angelo's imagination as it gradually found the definite forms which were to realize its deepest beliefs3 8,a perfectly beautiful resting-place for the mighty dead40 ,could anything be more fraught with all the mingled emotions and thoughts which human philosophy has tried in vain to unravel8 ,yet ,michael ,angelo was never surer of anything than that sculptured marble was capable of expressing it all4 ,even the feelings aroused by this mystery of mysteries--death--were not beyond the cold stone and hot chisel of the sculptor4 ,allied to this faith--that there was no thought too profound for marble to express--was his favourite fancy that the form of his finished work dwelt in the rough block4 ,his chisel did but release it from its marble tomb4 ,he was not the author1 only the agent through whom his work saw the light4 ,as he himself wrote in one of the sonnets3 8,the best of artists hath no thought to show ,which the rough stone in its superfluous shell ,doth not include2 to break the marble spell ,is all the hand that serves the brain can do40 ,illustration3 ,,michael ,,angelo ,,the ,,duke ,,lorenzo ,the ,medici ,chapel1 ,florence ,moreover1 he held that this could be done without the use of symbolism4 ,the simplest natural objects1 transfigured by the artist-poet1 would carry the profoundest truth4 ,let us see how ,michael ,angelo proved his belief in the all-sufficiency of the art of sculpture in this respect4 ,choose two typical figures from the groups we are considering4 8,marble griefs1 ,hewn from a ,titan's heart10 some one has called them4 ,say those of 8,dawn0 and 8,night40 ,both are female nudes1 and illustrate a vital feature in ,michael ,angelo's technique--his preference for the male over the female form4 ,the ,greek sculptors before ,praxiteles had the same preference4 ,the male form made a more vital appeal to them than the female4 ,with its infinitely greater variety of surface and its greater diversity of posture1 it expressed more directly the vast complexity of human energies which their age had seen spring into being4 ,two thousand years later the times gave rise to thoughts no less profound and to emotions of no less intensity4 ,and ,michael ,angelo found that they were too heavy a burden for a woman's form to bear4 ,that the full sentiment aroused by his conception of 8,night0 may find expression1 the sculptor has lengthened the trunk and the limbs4 ,he has twisted the torso upon the hips4 ,he has added1 as it were1 a masculine character to the feminine form4 ,he has treated the female nude in the male key4 ,this is a direct reversion of the ,praxitelean method by which profoundly beautiful sensuous effects were obtained through treating the male figure in the female key--the 8,hermaphroditus10 for instance4 ,and yet it cannot be denied that the ,praxitelean method is what we should have expected ,angelo to follow4 ,if the figure of 8,dawn0 had conveyed nothing save the virgin fairness of form which ,giorgione's 8,venus0 at ,dresden embodies1 it would have been more in accord with the popular taste of the first quarter of the sixteenth century4 ,as the political and social situation in ,italy grew more desperate 7and it was never more desperate than during the years in which the monuments in the ,medici chapel were being carved7 painting and sculpture had become more joyous4 ,the themes which the artists treated became less and less religious and more and more pagan4 ,this has always been the case4 ,in times of the greatest stress1 when the enemy is beating at the very gates1 men cannot sustain the soul-tearing emotions which they welcome in their art during times of prosperity4 ,the defeat of the ,athenians at gospotami did not bring to birth a greater schylus who should give shape to the fearful emotions which the men of the earlier age had been spared4 ,no6 tragedy vanished4 ,comedy arose4 ,so it was with sculpture4 ,men turned from the griefs of a ,niobe and found consolation in the sheer sensuous beauty of ,praxiteles' 8,aphrodite40 ,they preferred the manly charms of ,hermes to the awful sublimity embodied in the brow of ,phidias' ,zeus4 ,and so in our period1 when the horrors which had overtaken the ,greek cities were threatening their heirs in ,italy1 the same thing took place4 ,we find that the typical work is not the brooding figure of 8,lorenzo of ,urbino0 or the 8,night10 which ,michael ,angelo sculptured beneath the figure of ,giuliano1 but the melodious dreams that floated from the brush of a ,correggio4 ,at this very time ,allegri was at work upon the decoration of the great chamber of the ,abbess of the ,convent of ,st4 ,paul1 ,parma4 ,he chose to depict no titanic forms charged with emotion1 but covered his ceiling with a vast trellis of vine-leaves and fruit1 and in the oval apertures which these formed he placed his groups of genii toying with the implements of the chase4 ,correggio's was the manner of his time4 ,his end was sensuous delight and through it1 not the dramatic1 but the lyrical note1 continually sounds4 ,illustration3 ,,michael ,,angelo ,,night ,illustration3 ,,dawn ,from ,the ,medici ,chapel1 ,florence ,but ,michael ,angelo was too true a man to dole out lies which should pander to a joyous carelessness4 ,it was his task to echo1 not one emotion1 but all the emotions which had stirred the ,italy of his age4 ,as a mere boy he had seen the men and women who flocked to the ,duomo at ,florence to listen to the denunciations of ,savonarola4 ,he had seen them pass from the ,church speechless--8more dead than alive0--because of the great fear which was upon them4 ,before he was twenty1 he had witnessed the coming of the 8,scourge10 which the fate had foretold4 ,then he had passed to 8the ,eternal ,city10 the home of the ,princes of the ,church1 the centre of ,christendom1 only to find that1 to borrow ,symonds's phrase1 8the very popes rose from the beds of harlots to unlock or bolt the gates of heaven and purgatory40 ,it has been said that ,michael ,angelo worked upon the ,medici tombs during the siege of ,florence in #aebh4 ,he may have been carving these marbles when the artillery of a ,medicean army was actually thundering against the ,florence that ,lorenzo had made immortal4 ,as his thoughts were thrown back by his subject upon his boyhood days1 memories of ,savonarola--the ,jeremiah of the ,renaissance--must have come back in a flood4 ,well may the sculpture in the sacristy of ,san ,lorenzo have been termed 8,marble griefs1 ,hewn from a ,titan's heart40 ,we shall not attempt to translate ,angelo's message into words1 but a happy chance has preserved a story which enables us to realize what the sculptor intended to convey by the figure of the sleeping woman we call 8,night40 ,we might have guessed that the firm hips1 contrasting as they do with the long limbs and narrow form of the virgin 8,dawn10 symbolized the end of a life of suffering4 ,those worn breasts have suckled many1 and the mother1 who has watched her children struggling through the cruel breakers of life1 is now herself at rest4 ,the figure of 8,night0 was never intended to carry the gay1 sunny message that a ,botticelli felt and longed to give forth when he painted such a picture as the 8,birth of ,venus0 or the 8,coming of ,spring40 ,the story goes that ,giovanni ,battista ,strozzi wrote the following epigram1 which he placed beneath the marble figure4 ,it ran3 8,the ,night1 that thou seest so sweetly sleeping1 ,was by an angel carved in the rude stone4 ,sleeping1 she lives2 if thou believ'st it not1 ,wake her1 and surely she will answer thee40 ,angelo1 seeing this1 wrote in reply3 8,sweet is my sleep1 more sweet to be mere stone1 ,so long as ruin and dishonour reign4 ,to hear nought1 to feel nought1 is my great gain2 ,then wake me not2 speak in an undertone40 ,it is by the light of such an agonized philosophy that we must interpret the life-work of ,michael ,angelo4 ,he lived in the midst of a society that was morally rotten4 ,he saw a foreign foe at the very gates of his native city4 ,could one1 to whom 8,art's the witness of what is behind this ,show10 throw out careless hints as to the struggle the spirit of man must face before it is released8 ,the almost unnatural poses in such sculptures as those in the ,medici ,chapel tell of the vehement emotion with which the soul of their author contemplated the 8riddle of this painful world40 ,michael ,angelo would have been false to his mission had he been content to aim at the graceful repose which satisfied ,praxiteles4 ,his glory was to make sculpture--the most limited of the arts in this respect--a vehicle for the expression of the greatest of emotions and passions of which the human heart is capable4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,italian ,,sculpture ,,from #aebg ,,to #afej ,a4,d4 ,,cellini1 ,,giovanni ,,bologna1 ,,and ,,bernini ,the aftermath of ,italian sculpture is indissolubly connected with two craftsmen of genius and an historical movement of the first order4 ,the men1 ,benvenuto ,cellini and ,giovanni ,bologna1 stand for all that is best in ,italian sculpture during the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,the movement--the ,catholic ,reaction--dominated the following seventy-five years4 ,dating the periods a little more precisely1 the genesis of the earlier may be associated with the ,sack of ,rome in #aebg ,a4,d4 ,the beginning of the second period may be roughly fixed by the ,pontificacy of ,gregory ,,xiii41 let us say the year #aehj ,a4,d4 ,it reached a climax with the advent of ,bernini1 the exponent par excellence of the ,baroco style1 whether in architecture or sculpture4 ,to bring to birth a ,michael ,angelo and to nurture his titanic genius was the supreme effort of the ,italian ,renaissance in the cause of the plastic arts4 ,that is why post-,angelesque sculpture must be associated with the rather depressing image of 8the second harvest40 ,compared with the productions of the time of ,donatello or the fifty years during which the influence of ,michael ,angelo was all-potent1 the ,italian sculpture of the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries shows a marked declension4 ,the enthusiasm which had brought the genius of ,donatello and ,michael ,angelo to fruition was waning4 ,art was no longer imbued with the old intensity of purpose and fervour of imagination4 ,for this very reason the century which followed the ,sack of ,rome is of far less importance in the history of sculpture than that which preceded it4 ,but1 as many of the phenomena of health are only clear in the light of experience gathered from disease1 the circumstances which gave rise to the post-,angelesque sculpture of ,italy possess a unique interest4 ,against the background of comparative failure1 the essentials necessary to the production of vital sculpture stand out in the clearest outline4 ,starting from the premises that such an art as sculpture expresses the deepest conviction of the people in which it arises1 we are led at once from the works to the social circumstances in which the emotions arose4 ,the briefest study of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century ,italy1 shows that all the factors which had lifted sculpture to the summit operated no longer4 ,the free burghers who had built and decorated the ,church of ,or ,san ,michele or commissioned the ,baptistery ,gates had been forced to acknowledge the tyranny of a selfish nobility4 ,a source of inspiration like ,lorenzo de ,medici was replaced by the crew of degenerates who represented the ,house of ,medici in the sixteenth century4 ,in the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 too1 the ,reformation called forth sterner qualities and less sunny energies4 ,the ,papacy was forced to relinquish the ideals of ,julius ,,ii4 and ,leo ,x41 at any rate for a time4 ,above all1 intellectual life was entirely divorced from national feeling4 ,politics--8the art of leading the majority1 not where they wish1 but where they ought to go0--interested the individual1 not1 as in the earlier age1 the mass of the people4 ,we have then at our hand the key to the problem4 ,a picture of ,italy between #aebg and #aehj will give us the source of the characteristics of the art of ,cellini and ,giovanni ,bologna4 ,a sketch of the political and social consequences of the ,catholic ,reaction will explain the popularity of ,bernini1 the typical sculptor of our second period4 ,first1 the politics of sixteenth-century ,italy4 ,the outstanding feature of political life at this time was its utter instability4 ,with the solitary exception of ,venice1 every principality and city was in a condition of constant ferment4 ,state after state ceased to possess the essential elements of political stability4 ,they had been ruined1 for the most part1 by the attempt to combine freedom within the city walls with dominion beyond4 ,during the first quarter of the sixteenth century1 the success attending the methods of ,csar ,borgia had suggested that a combination of moral agility and political knavery might produce the needful balance of power4 ,the advent of the ,french1 the ,germans1 and later of the ,spaniards1 destroyed even this semblance of political stability4 ,italian liberty became a thing of the past4 ,the old absorbing interest in politics vanished1 and with it the clarity of thought and logicality of form which public political discussion does so much to foster4 ,in such a country art exists4 ,it does not live4 ,as ,mazzini said two hundred years later3 8,without a country and without liberty we might perhaps produce some prophets of art but no vital art4 ,therefore it is better for us to consecrate our lives to the solution of the problem1 #8are we to have a country8' and turn at once to the political question4 ,if we are successful1 the art of ,italy will bloom and flourish over our graves40 ,so much for the political state of ,italy between #aebg and #aehj4 ,the social was even more anarchical4 ,no reference need be made to the moral code adopted by the leaders of thought and action--to the organized murder by hired bravi1 to the general winking at adultery1 to the convent intrigues4 ,a low standard of morals by no means involves a low standard of art4 ,but the peculiar viciousness of the morality of sixteenth-century ,italy seems to depend upon the connection of this degraded moral sense with a general chaos of social order4 ,the condottieri of the age of ,cosimo de ,medici were replaced by banditti in the pay of feudal nobles4 ,the old respect for trade disappeared4 ,with the growth of the aristocratic ideals of ,spain1 the wealthy burgher class1 which had been the most stable element in towns like ,florence and ,milan1 vanished4 ,monopolies were granted to all and sundry4 ,the agents of the ,italian princes and the ,pope1 together with the ,spanish viceroys1 placed imposts upon all sorts of goods1 regardless of the necessities of commerce4 ,the prosperity of the great art centres of ,italy decreased rapidly4 ,take the case of ,rome4 ,a passage from the official report of the ,venetian envoy in #aefe1 ,giacomo ,soranzo1 furnishes a striking contrast between the condition of ,rome in the mid-sixteenth century and ,rome when ,michael ,angelo was in his first vigorous youth4 ,in #aefe the aristocracy consisted of a fluctuating nobility and priesthood depending upon the largesses of the chief members of the ,papal ,court4 ,at times the population totalled #ajj1jjj4 ,during an unpopular pontificacy it fell as low as #dj1jjj4 8,the ,court of ,rome10 writes ,soranzo1 8is no longer what it used to be either in the quality or the numbers of the courtiers4 ,this is principally due to the poverty of the cardinals and the parsimony of the popes4 ,in the old days1 when they gave away more liberally1 men of ability flocked from all quarters4 ,this reduction of the ,court dates from the ,council2 for the bishops and beneficed clergy being now obliged to retire to their residences1 the larger portion of the ,court has left ,rome4 ,to the same cause may be ascribed a diminution of the numbers of those who serve the ,pontiff1 seeing that since only one benefice can now be given and that involves residence1 there are few who care to follow the ,court at their own expense and inconvenience without hope of greater reward4 ,the poverty of the cardinals springs from two causes4 ,the first is that they cannot now obtain benefices of the first class1 as was the case when ,england1 ,germany1 and other provinces were subject to the ,holy ,see1 and when1 moreover1 they could hold three or four archbishoprics apiece together with other places of emolument1 whereas they now can only have one apiece4 ,the second cause is that the number of the cardinals has been increased to seventy-five1 and that the foreign powers have ceased to complement them with large presents and benefices1 as was the wont of ,charles ,v4 and the ,french ,crown40 ,the consequence can be readily realized4 ,there was the old demand for pictures and sculptures4 ,but quick returns rather than sound accomplishment were required by the artists and their patrons4 ,a delayed commission would stand but a poor chance of payment4 ,for it would not fulfil its main purpose--the aggrandizement of a prince or cardinal whose term of power depended upon the life of the ,pope or the tenure of office by such a ruler as one of the ,medicean tyrants of ,florence4 ,nor was this all4 ,not only were the circumstances less favourable but the artists themselves were unfitted for the accomplishment of the greatest tasks4 ,the age1 not the earthly parent1 is the real father of the man4 ,lesser spirits attempted to wield a giant's tools and struggled with themes which ,michael ,angelo oftentimes failed to make articulate4 ,they sought to obtain his sublime effects by insistence upon such accidents of his style as the exaggerated muscular development or contorted poses of his figures4 ,immense monuments1 suggested by the achievements of the earlier age1 were called for4 ,a striving after exaggerated effect replaced the former determination to base every work of art upon the accurate observation of nature and the definite proportion of part and part4 ,the later artists lacked the simple reserve which is only given to men who see life steadily and see it whole4 ,in place of the deeps of ,angelo1 we find the shallows of ,giovanni ,bologna and his even less gifted contemporaries4 ,just because they are shoals1 the turmoils surrounding them oftentimes appear tempestuous4 ,but they never suggest the tremendous power which evidences the oceanic depths of the passions of a man who is not only a sculptor but a seer4 ,,benvenuto ,,cellini ,the character of a typical sixteenth-century ,italian artist has been preserved to us in the 8,autobiography0 of ,cellini4 ,from its pages we can conjure up the lives of the men who made this fifty years of ,italian sculpture4 ,cellini1 be it remembered1 is no ,bohemian hanging around the outskirts of the artistic world4 ,on his death in ,february #ac1 #aega1 his brothers of the ,accademia delle ,belle ,arti record3 8,messer ,benvenuto ,cellini was buried with great funeral pomp in our ,chapter ,house at the ,annunziata in the presence of our ,academical ,body and the ,company40 ,but the 8,autobiography0 pictures a born swaggerer1 a swashbuckler--a bully1 if you like--though a gay-hearted genius withal4 ,let us examine ,cellini's life story rather more closely4 ,when little more than a youth ,cellini was banished from ,florence on account of an affray with a party of his fellows4 ,returning1 a second affair necessitated a flight to ,rome1 where he took part in the celebrated defence of the town against the ,constable de ,bourbon in #aebg4 ,once more restored to favour in his native ,florence1 ,cellini took upon himself to avenge his brother's death4 ,a murderous affray with a notary and an ultra-energetic manner of dealing with a rival goldsmith1 ended in the two years' confinement in the ,castle of ,saint ,angelo with which all readers of the 8,autobiography0 are familiar4 ,and in all these excitements1 ,cellini is never in the wrong4 8,what ,i have done1 ,i have done in defence of that body which ,god has lent me40 ,adopting the apologia which he attributes to one of the numerous ,popes with whom he came in contact1 ,cellini calls upon the world to recognize 8that men like myself1 unique in their profession1 are subject to no laws40 ,illustration3 ,,giovanni ,,bologna ,,mercury 7p4 #baj7 ,bargello1 ,florence ,illustration3 ,,benvenuto ,,cellini ,,perseus ,loggia dei ,lanzi1 ,florence ,these darker times heralded the halcyon days of ,cellini's life1 which began when he exchanged the dungeons of ,saint ,angelo for the court of ,francis ,i4 ,with a salary of #gjj golden scudi a year and the title of 8,seigneur10 ,cellini joined the painters1 sculptors and goldsmiths whom ,il ,rosso had gathered together for ,francis ,i4 7the school of ,fontainebleau74 ,cellini's work at this time is of small interest to the student of the history of sculpture4 ,in those days he was a goldsmith4 ,the great bronze personification of a water nymph1 now in the ,louvre1 shows that ,cellini had already dreamt of fame as a sculptor4 ,it equally shows that as yet his conceptions would not bear the scrutiny a life-sized design necessarily challenges4 ,cellini's 8,water ,nymph0 is a glorified piece of goldsmithery4 ,but on his return to ,florence in #aede1 ,cellini started upon a work that was to silence all doubt as to his capacity to succeed in the realm of pure sculpture4 ,by this time ,francis ,i4 had tired of the hot-tempered ,florentine4 ,coming home1 ,cellini persuaded the reigning ,medicean prince to entrust him with a commission for a 8,perseus0 for the ,loggia dei ,lanzi4 ,the 8,autobiography0 gives a vivid account of the sculptor's four years' struggle with circumstance4 ,now1 the interest of the ,duke and his ,duchess waned4 ,now1 money1 material1 or both1 were wanting4 ,the promised salary was not forthcoming4 ,qualified assistants were denied4 ,constant quarrels with rivals added to these general difficulties4 ,we can realize a measure of ,cellini's troubles from his story of the casting of the 8,perseus0--one of the most vigorous romances in the history of art4 ,we take up the tale where the cast has been placed in the furnace and the metal introduced4 ,disaster follows disaster4 ,whether the details have been coloured by the vivid imagination of the artist or no matters little4 ,we hear how the heat sets fire to the shop on the one hand4 ,on the other1 a rain-storm threatens to cool the furnace1 in spite of the stacks of pine that have been piled around the statue and its metal casing4 ,in the midst of the excitement ,cellini is suddenly attacked by a violent intermitting fever4 8,in short1 ,i was so ill that ,i was forced to take to my bed40 ,cellini therefore left his ten assistants to carry on as best they could4 8,in this manner did ,i continue for two hours in a violent fever1 which ,i every moment perceived to increase1 and ,i was incessantly crying out1 #8,i am dying1 ,i am dying6' 8,my housekeeper1 whose name was ,mona ,fiore da ,castel del ,rio1 was one of the most sensible and affectionate women in the world2 she rebuked me for giving way to vain fears1 and at the same time attended me with the greatest kindness and care imaginable2 however1 seeing me so very ill and terrified to such a degree1 she could not contain herself1 but shed a flood of tears which she endeavoured to conceal from me4 ,whilst we were both in this deep affliction1 ,i perceived a man enter the room who in his person appeared to be as crooked and distorted as a great ,s1 and began to express himself in these terms1 with a tone of voice as dismal and melancholy as those who exhort and pray with persons who are going to be executed3 #8,alas6 poor ,benvenuto1 your work is spoiled1 and the misfortune admits of no remedy4' 8,no sooner had ,i heard the words uttered by this messenger of evil1 but ,i cried out so loud that my voice might be heard to the skies1 and got out of bed4 ,i began immediately to dress1 and giving plenty of kicks and cuffs to the maidservants and the boy as they offered to help me on with my clothes1 ,i complained bitterly in these terms3 #8,o you envious and treacherous wretches1 this is a piece of villainy contrived on purpose2 but ,i swear by the living ,god that ,i will sift it to the bottom1 and before ,i die give such proofs who ,i am as shall not fail to astonish the whole world4' ,having huddled on my clothes1 ,i went with a mind boding evil to the shop1 where ,i found all those whom ,i had left so alert and in such high spirits1 standing in the utmost confusion and astonishment4 ,i thereupon addressed them thus3 #8,listen all of you to what ,i am going to say2 and since you either would not or could not follow the method ,i pointed out1 obey me now that ,i am present2 my work is before us1 and let none of you offer to oppose or contradict me1 for such cases as this require activity and not counsel4' ,hereupon one ,alessandro ,lastricali had the assurance to say to me3 #8,look you1 ,benvenuto1 you have undertaken a work which our art cannot compass1 and which is not to be effected by human power4' 8,hearing these words ,i turned round in such a passion1 and seemed so bent upon mischief that both he and all the rest unanimously cried out to me3 #8,give your orders1 and we will all second you in whatever you command2 we will assist you as long as we have breath in our bodies4' ,these kind and affectionate words they uttered1 as ,i firmly believe1 in a persuasion that ,i was upon the point of expiring4 ,i went directly to examine the furnace1 and saw all the metal in it concreted4 ,i thereupon ordered two of the helpers to step over the way to ,capretta1 a butcher1 for a load of young oak which had been above a year drying1 and had been offered me by ,maria ,ginevra1 wife to the said ,capretta4 8,upon his bringing me the first bundles of it1 ,i began to fill the grate4 ,this sort of oak makes a brisker fire than any other wood whatever2 but the wood of alder-trees and pine-trees is used in casting artillery1 because it makes a mild and gentle fire4 ,as soon as the concreted metal felt the power of this violent fire1 it began to brighten and glitter4 ,in another quarter ,i made them hurry the tubes with all possible expedition1 and sent some of them to the roof of the house to take care of the fire1 which through the great violence of the wind had acquired new force2 and towards the garden ,i had caused some tables with pieces of tapestry and old clothes to be placed1 in order to shelter me from the rain4 ,as soon as ,i had applied the proper remedy to each evil1 ,i with a loud voice cried out to my men to bestir themselves and lend a helping hand2 so that when they saw that the concreted metal began to melt again1 the whole body obeyed me with such zeal and alacrity that every man did the work of three4 ,then ,i caused a mass of pewter weighing about sixty pounds to be thrown upon the metal in the furnace1 which with the other helps1 as the brisk wood fire1 and stirring it sometimes with iron and sometimes with long poles1 soon became completely dissolved4 ,finding that1 contrary to the opinion of my ignorant assistants1 ,i had effected what seemed as difficult as to raise the dead1 ,i recovered my vigour to such a degree that ,i no longer perceived whether ,i had any fever1 nor had ,i the least apprehension of death4 ,suddenly a loud noise was heard1 and a glittering of fire flashed before our eyes1 as if it had been the darting of a thunderbolt4 ,upon the appearance of this extraordinary phenomenon1 terror seized on all present1 and on none more than myself4 ,this tremendous noise being over1 we began to stare at each other1 and perceived that the cover of the furnace had burst and flown off1 so that the bronze began to run4 ,illustration3 ,,giovanni ,,bologna ,,rape ,,of ,,the ,,sabines ,loggia dei ,lanzi1 ,florence 8,i immediately caused the mouths of my mould to be opened1 but finding that the metal did not run with its usual velocity1 and apprehending that the cause of it was that the fusibility of the metal was injured by the violence of the fire1 ,i ordered all my dishes and porringers1 which were in number about two hundred1 to be placed one by one before my tubes1 and part of them to be thrown into the furnace2 upon which all present perceived that my bronze was completely dissolved1 and that my mould was filling2 they now with joy and alacrity assisted and obeyed me4 ,i1 for my part1 was sometimes in one place1 sometimes in another1 giving my directions and assisting my men1 before whom ,i offered up this prayer3 #8,o ,god1 ,i address myself to ,thee1 who1 of ,thy divine power1 didst rise from the dead and ascend in glory to heaven4 ,i acknowledge in gratitude this mercy that my mould has been filled3 ,i fall prostrate before ,thee1 and with my whole heart return thanks to ,thy divine ,majesty4' ,my prayer being over1 ,i took a plate of salad which stood upon a little bench1 and ate with a great appetite4 ,i then drank with all my journeymen and assistants1 and went joyful and in good health to bed1 for there were still two hours of night2 and ,i rested as well as if ,i had been troubled with no manner of disorder40 ,all that splendid energy and craftsmanship could do1 ,cellini did4 ,the 8,perseus0 was finished in #aeed and placed in its present position in the ,loggia dei ,lanzi amid the enthusiastic plaudits of the ,florentines4 ,of the vigour of the design there can be no doubt4 ,the beauty of much of the decoration of the base may be admitted4 ,the figure of the ,gorgon at the feet of ,perseus is instinct with passion4 ,note the manner in which the right arm lies inert1 while the lower limbs are still palpitating with life4 ,but one cannot but feel the loss of intellectual beauty and breadth of outlook which might have enshrouded a more philosophical conception of the ,greek hero4 ,there can be no question about ,cellini's full-blooded1 self-assertive vitality4 ,at any rate1 the sculptor of the 8,perseus0 was no copyist4 ,but he lived in an age when the first spontaneous outburst of imaginative enthusiasm had spent itself4 ,italy had given up thinking and feeling4 ,so ,cellini could express nothing beyond his own passionate personality4 ,he would have approached ,michael ,angelo if he could have echoed the prayer which ,socrates sent up in that plane-tree glade on the banks of the ,ilissus4 8,beloved ,pan1 and all ye other gods who haunt this place1 give me beauty in the inward soul2 and may the outward and inward man be at one40 ,giovanni da ,bologna1 or ,john of ,douay1 as he is also called1 was a sculptor of even greater natural talent than ,cellini4 ,he was equipped with almost every gift that a sculptor can desire4 ,it has been well said of him that he had 8the power of seeing a definite idea incorporated in a form which is the distillation of all the related sensations which go to make up the idea40 ,this is the ,hellenic gift--the essential characteristic of a man who has to express himself by means of marble and bronze4 ,with it went1 in the case of ,giovanni ,bologna1 a wonderful feeling for the beauty of line4 ,technically1 his finest endowment was1 perhaps1 his unique power of expressing swift movement--the best known example of which is the well-known 8,mercury0 now in the ,bargello4 ,giovanni images the ,messenger of the gods as borne on a light zephyr through space4 ,the figure is the very embodiment of energetic action4 ,yet the harmony which is essential to sculptural beauty is never sacrificed4 ,illustration3 ,,bernini ,,apollo ,,and ,,daphne ,borghese ,gallery1 ,rome ,illustration3 ,,bernini ,,saint ,,theresa ,s4 ,maria della ,vittoria1 ,rome ,but ,giovanni ,bologna1 like ,cellini1 worked at a time when the force of the humanistic revival had spent itself4 ,he lacked two things1 either of which might have placed him among the immortals4 ,one was the perfection of taste which kept ,praxiteles in the straight way4 ,the other was the philosophic depth which saved ,michael ,angelo from overstepping the bounds that separate noble from ignoble art4 ,as it was1 ,giovanni ,bologna's craftsmanship continually led him astray4 ,he preferred to master a technical difficulty rather than to find the one design which would vitalize an idea or emotion of real worth4 ,the consequence was such a work as the well-known 8,rape of the ,sabine ,women40 ,primarily this group is a study in the contrast between the strength and vigour of the male form and the shrinking softness of the female4 ,the knotty muscles of the man are sharply contrasted with the soft flesh of the woman whom he bears off4 ,the work is full of beauties1 whether we regard it as a design or a piece of modelling4 ,it was the precursor of a long line of similar statues1 particularly in ,france1 where the influence of ,giovanni ,bologna was considerable4 8,the ,rape of ,proserpine0 by ,girardon at ,versailles is a good example4 ,but ,giovanni ,bologna's 8,rape of the ,sabines10 considered as an incident in the history of sculpture1 is superfluous4 ,the world is surfeited with examples of the magnificent conquest of technical difficulties4 ,looking at it critically1 we are struck with the qualities it lacks rather than with the qualities it possesses4 ,in a sentence1 it witnesses to the characteristics of the age for which ,giovanni ,bologna worked--its material outlook1 and its utter neglect of that side of human experience which1 for want of a better word1 we call spiritual or divine4 ,it is with ,giovanni ,bologna as with ,benvenuto ,cellini4 ,some source of inspiration is lacking4 ,both have lost the habit of artistic worship4 ,they no longer regard every blow of the chisel as in a very real sense forwarding some extra human end4 ,the statue to them is a statue--nothing more4 ,this had not always been the case4 ,as we know it was no empty phrase when ,michael ,angelo began one of his sonnets with the words3 8,when that which is divine in us doth try ,to shape a face1 both brain and hand unite ,to give1 from a mere model frail and slight1 ,life to the stone by ,art's free energy40 ,,bernini ,,and ,,the ,,catholic ,,reaction ,angelo really did believe in the divinity of his art4 ,so did the artists of the age succeeding ,cellini1 ,giovanni ,bologna1 and ,sansovino4 ,and it is this fact which adds an absorbing interest to the sculpture of the period dominated by the counter reformation which the sculpture of the previous half-century did not possess4 ,the painters and sculptors who came under the influence of the wave of religious enthusiasm known as the ,catholic ,reaction fully realized that their efforts were forwarding a great ideal4 ,the patrons for whom they worked1 and the men and women to whom they appealed also felt that art which dealt with such matters was of real consequence4 ,looking at the problem after the centuries have cleared the air of the dust of dogmatic discussion1 we can see that a lasting settlement of the religious controversy had become a necessity for every country of ,europe4 ,we now know that1 for one reason and another1 peace could only be secured upon a foundation of ,protestantism in ,scandinavia1 in ,northern ,germany1 ,england1 and ,scotland4 ,over the greater part of ,southern ,europe1 ,catholicism was finally proved to be essential4 ,spain1 ,italy1 ,france1 ten of the seventeen provinces of the ,united ,netherlands1 ,poland1 ,bohemia and ,south ,germany either declined to be seduced from the authority of the ,pope1 or eventually returned to the fold4 ,the fact that the problem was of ,european rather than national importance1 and the memory of the position the ,church of ,rome had held throughout the middle ages1 explains why its regeneration was felt to be a social and political event of the greatest significance4 ,during the first half of the sixteenth century a king like ,francis ,i41 and an emperor like ,charles ,v41 had reduced the occupant of the ,papal chair to the position of little more than a counter in the political game4 ,now the ,roman ,church threatened to lead ,european thought and action as it had during the ,crusades4 ,the seeds of this regeneration were planted in #aedb1 when ,paul ,,iii4 empowered ,caraffa to establish the ,inquisition in ,rome4 ,at the same time ,paul ,,iii4 sanctioned the ,company of ,jesus4 ,caraffa himself became ,pope in #aeee4 ,his whole policy was inspired by a determination to re-establish the political dominion of the papacy4 ,caraffa's successor ,pius ,,iv41 made an immense step forward when he obtained the sanction of the ,general ,council of the ,church to the principle of papal absolutism4 ,a more militant policy was at once possible4 ,added to this1 ,pius ,,iv4 suggested a return to the older and more subtle forms of political intrigue which the ,papacy had used with such effect during the middle ages4 ,the change ushered in an age of emotions4 ,note the religious origin of the numberless wars which convulsed ,western ,europe at this time4 ,is it surprising that the circumstances which brought this great change about added a passion1 an imaginative glow1 to the art of the later sixteenth and earlier seventeenth centuries8 ,for several reasons1 the religious enthusiasm which revivified ,italian painting and sculpture proved a poor substitute for the civic enthusiasm of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries which it replaced4 ,the point we are making now is that for good or ill1 the ,catholic ,reaction added a vitality to art in general1 and to sculpture in particular1 which had been absent for half a century4 ,the effects of the ,catholic ,reaction began to be felt upon ,italian art about #aehj ,a4,d4 ,painting quickly offered its aid in spreading the new ideals4 ,some time1 however1 elapsed before a sculptor of sufficient genius arose to express the regenerated enthusiasm for ,catholicism by means of the chisel and the marble block4 ,giovanni ,bernini 7#aeih-afhj71 who was born in the full tide of the ,catholic ,reaction1 made sculpture once more a living1 social force4 ,the influence he exercised over his age is comparable with that exercised by ,michael ,angelo4 ,bernini was a favourite of ,maffeo ,barberini 7,pope ,urban ,,viii47 and played a great part in the reconstruction of ,st4 ,peter's4 ,he had a large school and with the aid of his assistants produced numberless works4 ,he brought an art which had become alienated from every-day life back to the people4 ,bernini's services to sculpture may be likened to those of ,giotto to the sister art4 ,what ,giotto did for painting by allying his art with the ideals of the ,seer of ,assisi1 and the ,franciscans in the thirteenth century1 ,bernini did for sculpture by cementing an alliance with the ideals of ,ignatius of ,loyola and the ,order of ,jesus4 ,in both cases it is impossible to separate the artist from the general body of thought and emotion which it was his life's work to express4 ,let us look more closely into the ideals which arose with the returning political power of the ,church of ,rome1 and which were destined to find expression in the marbles and bronzes of ,bernini4 ,the necessities imposed upon the men who waged the battle of the ,roman church can be gathered from the fourth vow of the ,order of ,jesus4 8,that the members will consecrate their lives to the continual service of ,christ and of the ,popes1 and will fight under the banner of the ,cross1 and will serve the ,lord and the ,roman pontiff as ,god's vicar upon earth1 in such wise that they shall be bound to execute immediately and without hesitation1 or excuse1 all that the reigning ,pope or his successors may enjoin upon them for the profit of souls or for the propagation of the faith1 and shall do so in all provinces whithersoever he may send them1 among ,turks or any other infidels1 to furthest ,ind1 as well as in the region of heretics1 schismatics or unbelievers of any kind40 ,so far the ideals of the ,jesuits were those of the earlier missionary orders of the ,roman ,church--implicit obedience and whole-hearted devotion4 ,but ,ignatius ,loyola realized that the times had created a fresh set of circumstances4 ,these circumstances called for a new 8regula40 ,in a letter to ,francis ,borgia in #aedh1 the founder of the ,jesuit ,order wrote-- 8,it is better to strengthen your stomach and other faculties1 than to impair the body and enfeeble the intellect by fasting4 ,god needs both our physical and mental powers for ,his service2 and every drop of blood you shed in flagellation is a loss40 ,in other words1 for the sake of enlisting the sympathy of those beyond the bounds of the ,catholic ,church1 ,loyola was willing to jettison convictions which had been held most strongly in an earlier age4 ,it is all important to realize that these were the very convictions which had militated against a vigorous school of sculpture during the previous papal dominion before the ,renaissance4 ,the fresh body of ideals and impulses led to the creation of a new style--the ,baroco4 ,taught by failure1 the ,jesuit advisers of the ,pope now sought the close alliance with the arts exemplified in the sculptures of ,bernini4 ,no more apposite example could be taken than ,bernini's group of 8,st4 ,theresa0 in ,s4 ,maria della ,vittoria at ,rome4 ,it is an example of all that is best and worst1 and most characteristic1 in the sculpture of the ,catholic ,reaction4 ,on the one hand1 its striving after the expression of passionate emotion tells of the intensity of faith which animated the militant section of the ,church at that time4 ,on the other hand1 the vividness with which the scene is portrayed tells of the determination to attract attention and compel comprehension1 whatever might be the sthetic sacrifice4 ,it is almost impossible for a twentieth-century ,englishman to describe the 8,st4 ,theresa0 group sympathetically4 ,bernini shows the saint sinking back in an ecstatic swoon on to a marble cloud behind4 ,on one side an angel is discharging an arrow from the quiver of divine love4 ,perhaps the real spirit of the sculptured scene can be best realized from one of 8,the ,advices which the ,holy ,mother ,theresa of ,jesus gave to her children during her life10 which tells of one of these spiritual trances4 8,once0 7says the ,saint7 8when ,i was in the hermitage of ,nazareth at the convent of ,st4 ,joseph in ,avila1 it being the vigil of ,pentecost2 and while ,i was reflecting on the exceeding great favour which our ,lord had bestowed upon me on that same day twenty years before1 ,i was seized with an ecstasy1 and with strong impetuous and interior movements1 which quite suspended all my senses4 8,while ,i was in this wonderful rapture1 ,i heard our ,lord speaking40 ,it is no exaggeration to say that the true ,hellene would have shuddered at the very idea of visualizing such a scene4 ,to have translated it into marble would have seemed to the ,hellenic sculptor in the last degree immoral4 ,but it was otherwise with the seventeenth-century ,italian4 ,for the sake of the message--for the sake of the spiritual thrill conveyed by such a group as the 8,st4 ,theresa0--he was willing to dispense with the repose which had been everything to his ,hellenic forerunner4 ,the historical critic can only accept the position4 ,to say that ,bernini did wrongly1 that his influence made for ill1 is really beside the point4 ,the times were against him4 ,but we can truly say that1 in view of the experience furnished by the ,hellenic and ,florentine sculptors1 an art other than sculpture could have more properly expressed such scenes as the ecstatic transports of ,saint ,theresa--possibly poetry1 possibly music1 certainly not sculpture4 ,bernini's reputation1 fortunately1 does not depend entirely upon works executed as directly under the influence of the ,catholic ,reaction as the 8,saint ,theresa0 of ,s4 ,maria della ,vittoria4 ,in estimating his genius we are not compelled to rely entirely upon the long series of colossal groups packed with half-draped nudes in wildly fluttering draperies which issued from his studio4 ,his early work1 8,apollo and ,daphne10 is an effort of extraordinary ability4 ,the design was wonderfully graceful1 and the technical skill with which it was worked out promised more abundant result than ,bernini's life's work eventually showed4 ,for the rest the admirer of ,bernini can point to the magnificent series of fountains which he designed and erected4 ,of these1 the 8,fountain of ,trevi0 stands supreme4 ,the death of ,giovanni ,bernini in #afhj marks the end of the last effort to keep ,italian sculpture alive4 ,the works of ,donatello1 of ,angelo1 of ,cellini1 of ,bologna1 live to-day4 ,but vital sculptures embodying national or civic aspirations or the ideals of that truly ,italian institution1 the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 were produced no longer4 ,for more than a century1 ,italian art effort practically ceased4 ,foreigners came to the great sources of inspiration in ,italy1 drank1 and returned to carry a measure of the precious fluid to their homes in the ,north4 ,but the ,italian knew that 8the outward and the inward man0 were not at 8one40 ,he felt that 8,beloved ,pan0 would not bestow that 8beauty in the inward soul0 which had made ,greek sculpture a joy for ever4 ,a single sentence of ,mazzini gives the historical explanation3 8,the ,pope clutches the soul of the ,italian nation2 ,austria the body1 whenever it shows signs of life2 and on every member of that body is enthroned an absolute prince1 viceroy in turn under either of these powers40 ,,part ,,iv ,,modern ,,sculpture ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,monarchical ,,france 7,,from ,,francis ,i41 #aeae ,a4,d41 ,,to ,,the ,,french ,,revolution1 #aghi7 ,among the commonplaces uppermost in latter-day thought is that which usually finds expression in the phrase1 8,for ,east is ,east1 and ,west is ,west1 and never the twain shall meet40 ,whether this dogma be ultimately true or not it certainly enshrines a far-reaching truth4 ,the difference between the typical ,eastern and the typical ,western mind goes down to the deepest philosophical beliefs of both4 ,the circumstances under which the two types have been moulded differ so widely that they hardly appear to move on the same mental plane4 ,but the ,eastern and the ,western are not the only types which offer the strongest contrast the one to the other4 ,between the ,north and the ,south1 too1 there is a great gulf fixed--a vital historical fact which ,heine has expressed with unforgettable vividness in two short stanzas4 ,in the first1 he pictures the black fir-tree on the bald hill-brow of the ,north4 ,he speaks of its icy garb1 and shows it sleeping and dreaming amid the eternal snows3 8,it sleeps and dreams of a palm-tree1 ,far off in the morning land1 ,lonely and silent1 pining ,on a cliff o'er the shimmering sand40 ,for thousands of years the great mountain chains of mid-,europe cut off the man in the ,north from the man in the ,south1 as completely as the barren steppes of ,eastern ,europe and ,western ,asia divided ,east from ,west4 ,to this very day the long winters and cool summers1 the sombre skies and deep forests1 have operated to produce a body of thought and emotion in the ,north of ,europe that differs entirely from that nourished under the clear skies and in the warm winds of ,italy and ,greece4 ,the mysticism of the ,northman1 his yearning to be at one with the ,ultimate ,reality1 is foreign to the typical ,southern intellect--as foreign as the dim forests1 in which the mystical gloom of the ,northern imagination arose1 are to the fruitful plains in which the sunnier creed of the ,southerner had its birth4 ,these general considerations prepare the way naturally enough for a review of the history of sculpture in ,northern ,europe4 ,hitherto we have considered the progress of the art in ,italy and ,greece4 ,the sunny human creed of the ,southern temperament1 at any rate1 was able to find full expression in marble and bronze4 ,can we say as much for the mystical philosophy of such countries as ,germany1 ,france1 ,holland and ,england8 ,the influence of the prevailing trend of thought can be clearly traced in several northern arts--in architecture and music1 for instance--or1 again1 in a ,rembrandt portrait4 ,surely this is as typical a product of the northern imagination1 with its mysticism and gloom1 as a picture by ,botticelli or ,correggio1 with its wealth of fancy and its delight in light and space1 is of the southern temperament4 ,but1 turning to the work of the northern sculptors1 we cannot say this4 ,the deepest emotions of the northern artist have found more natural expression in the drama1 in poetry1 music and painting4 ,the reason is not far to seek4 ,all these arts are far more universal in their range4 ,sculpture depends entirely upon so human a thing as the body of a man or a woman4 ,it is naturally more fitted for the exposition of a creed in which mankind occupies the chief place4 ,equally naturally1 the other arts serve better for the unfolding of a belief which bases everything upon the will of an extra-mundane ,god1 manifesting ,himself not in man alone but in the whole of the natural world4 ,be that as it may1 it is certain that when we turn to the sculpture of the ,north1 we find few traces of the mystical outlook upon life which is implicit in other northern art4 ,by the time the sculptors of the ,north had acquired the technical skill to express their thought and emotion they apparently found themselves unable to embody their deepest belief in their works4 ,this1 no doubt1 explains why sculpture has never been a popular art in any ,northern country1 why it has never occupied the place there which it did in ,greece or ,rome2 why it has always been a stranger art1 making its appeal to the few and not to the many4 ,it must not be imagined that the failure of sculpture to take a strong hold upon the popular imagination of the ,north has been due to the absence of craftsmen of the first order4 ,directly the ,renaissance in ,italy made itself felt in the countries beyond the ,alps1 a vigorous school of sculpture arose4 ,nothing could exceed the technical skill and the sincerity of purpose displayed in ,peter ,vischer's 8,king ,arthur10 one of the twenty-eight colossal figures surrounding the tomb of ,maximilian at ,innsbruck4 ,but seeing that the sculptor died in #aebi1 and that the best years of his working life practically correspond with the age of ,luther's ,reformation1 surely something more than earnestness of purpose and profound technical skill might have been shown4 ,the ,maximilian memorial certainly proves that the leading ,german sculptors of the ,reformation era had progressed beyond the ,gothic decorators whom they succeeded4 ,but why has not the 8,king ,arthur0 the vital interest of a ,durer engraving8 ,why does it lack the inspiration of a really fine ,holbein portrait8 ,surely it is because the sculptor had never realized the true meaning of the word 8humanity40 ,he lacked that passionate delight in the beauty of the human body which lay at the root of the ,hellenic sculptor's success4 ,the vital element of a vigorous school of sculpture was wanting4 ,under these circumstances it is not wonderful that even the standard of craftsmanship attained by ,peter ,vischer was not maintained by the ,german sculptors who followed him4 ,the conversion of ,germany to ,protestantism entailed a general discouragement of all art effort4 ,as had been the case in the early history of the ,christian ,church1 the leaders of the religious movement sternly opposed anything that satisfied the sthetic cravings of mankind4 ,illustration3 ,,peter ,,vischer ,,king ,,arthur ,the ,maximilian ,tomb1 ,innsbruck ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,francis ,i4 ,fortunately this sternly anti-humanistic creed was not adopted throughout ,northern ,europe4 ,in particular1 it failed to find acceptance among the ,frenchmen who made their country the first power in ,western ,europe during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries4 ,as in ,germany1 the growth of an independent school of sculpture in ,france dated from the early years of the sixteenth century when the influence of the ,italian ,renaissance began to spread beyond the peninsula4 ,the ,french equivalent of ,peter ,vischer was ,michel ,colombe4 ,colombe was the tailleur d'images to three kings of ,france1 ,louis ,,xi41 ,charles ,,viii41 and ,louis ,,xii4 ,his best known work is the tomb of ,francis ,,ii41 ,duke of ,brittany1 at ,nantes4 ,but it is rather as the founder of the school of sculpture at ,tours that ,colombe claims our attention4 ,early in the sixteenth century ,tours was the foremost art centre in ,france4 ,fouquet1 the miniaturist1 who died about #adhj ,a4,d41 was a native of the town4 ,jean ,clouet 7,janet71 the portrait painter1 also lived at ,tours for some time4 ,about #aebj there was an official studio in the town1 presided over by ,babou de la ,bourdaisire with a full complement of sculptors1 jewellers1 engravers1 and painters4 ,the chief product of the school of sculpture at ,tours was the long series of ,royal ,tombs at ,st4 ,denis1 set up by the ,french kings of the sixteenth century4 ,it is here that we can best estimate the capacity of the earliest native ,french sculptors4 ,the similarity in the general design of the royal tombs at ,st4 ,denis is so marked that almost any example would be equally illustrative4 ,in many respects the most representative is that of ,henri ,,ii41 upon which ,germain ,pilon worked for sixteen years4 ,it is remarkable for the magnificent kneeling figures of the ,french ,king and ,catherine of ,medici4 ,but1 perhaps1 from the historical standpoint1 a more instructive example is the tomb of ,louis ,,xii41 by ,jean ,juste4 ,this was removed from ,tours to ,st4 ,denis in #aeca4 ,it therefore represents the sculpture of a period midway between ,michel ,colombe and ,germain ,pilon4 ,jean ,juste's design is of a highly conventional character4 ,as in the tomb of ,germain ,pilon1 the central figures are the nude corpses of the ,king and ,queen1 rendered with a realistic fidelity which1 at any rate1 commands respect4 ,above the tomb ,louis and ,anne of ,brittany figure again4 ,this time they are pictured as in life and fully dressed4 ,the keynote of ,jean ,juste's work--its vigorous truth--is the same as that pervading ,peter ,vischer's 8,king ,arthur40 ,like the work of the ,nuremburg sculptor1 it is devoid of real charm4 ,it entirely lacks the emotional quality which attracts us in ,quercia's 8,tomb of ,ilaria del ,caretto10 though five hundred years have passed since it was set up in the ,cathedral at ,lucca4 ,unlike the ,italian sculptor1 the ,french artist has failed to realize the peculiar power of marble and bronze as a medium of artistic expression4 ,even in the days of ,jean ,juste 7about #aecj71 however1 a change was beginning4 ,it became an accomplished fact a few years later1 when the ,french sculptors finally abandoned the effort to express the thoughts and emotions of the masses and accepted the lesser responsibility of catering for the needs of the few4 ,the importance of ,french sculpture during the sixteenth1 seventeenth1 and eighteenth centuries arises entirely from its association with the dominating factor in the history of the time4 ,the age in which ,france was the first power in ,europe was an age of the few1 not of the many4 ,this fact entailed the loss of much that might have been stimulating4 ,but1 at any rate1 it enabled the sculptor to appeal to those who were shaping the history of their time4 ,roughly1 the political situation was as follows3 ,as the sixteenth century advanced it became evident that ,france could only preserve its place in the councils of ,europe through an all-powerful monarchy4 ,the earliest ,french king to realize this was ,francis ,i41 who succeeded to the throne in #aeae ,a4,d4 ,he was then twenty-one years of age4 ,he proved to be the first ,renaissance king of ,france1 as ,louis ,,xii41 his predecessor1 had been the last medival monarch4 ,francis' experience during the early years of his reign showed the absolute necessity of concentrating the resources of ,france into the hands of the king4 ,his first step was naturally to deprive the ,french nobility of the power it had exercised in the past4 ,the effect of this general policy upon sculpture was instantaneous4 ,if ,julius ,csar and ,augustus were the fathers of ,roman portraiture1 ,francis ,i4 was the creator of what we term ,french sculpture4 ,in the first place1 ,francis was forced to create an imposing ,court where his turbulent nobles could be tamed into courtiers4 ,this required the building of palaces where the reformed ,court could meet4 ,in other words1 circumstances compelled ,francis ,i4 to be a great builder4 ,the fortresses1 which had been necessities during earlier centuries1 were needed no longer4 ,these were either suffered to fall into disrepair or the gloomy buildings with their turrets and moats were replaced by manorial chteaux with their lawns and their bowers4 ,naturally the king led the way4 ,equally naturally the necessity of building compelled him to become an energetic patron of the decorative arts4 ,when ,francis started to put up the ,chteau of ,chambord he employed such sculptors as ,goujon1 ,bontemps1 ,cousin and ,germain ,pilon as a matter of course4 ,francis' greatest effort was the building of the ,palace of ,fontainebleau4 ,it was begun in #aebh4 ,in a very short while he found that he could not rely upon ,french native talent for the extensive decorative scheme which he had planned4 ,the discovery was not a new one4 ,as early as #adie ,charles ,,viii4 of ,france brought 8makers of ceilings and turners of alabaster0 from ,florence and ,milan4 ,cardinal d',amboise1 the minister of ,louis ,,xii41 persuaded a number of ,italian artists to try their fortune in ,paris4 ,he also installed several others at the ,chteau de ,gaillon4 ,in those days the art instinct in ,france was dead4 ,at the time when ,raphael was working in the ,vatican1 the walls of the ,cardinal d',amboise's castle at ,gaillon were decorated with leathern hangings or simply-patterned cloths4 ,no ,frenchmen had considered the possibility of decorating his living rooms with pictures4 ,under these circumstances ,francis ,i4 was compelled to turn to ,italy4 ,first ,rosso and ,primaticcio were summoned4 ,a few years later1 in #aecg1 ,cellini accepted an invitation and spent some time at the ,french court4 ,we can judge of the artistic enthusiasm of the kind and the marked change in the general appreciation of art owing to the growth of ,court life from a spirited chapter in ,cellini's 8,autobiography40 ,while ,cellini was in ,france1 ,primaticcio had been sent to ,italy to collect art treasures on behalf of the king4 ,the painter returned with the moulds of some of the most celebrated statues of antiquity4 ,bronze castings were made from these at the foundry at ,fontainebleau and the statues were finally set up in the long gallery at ,fontainebleau ready for the king's inspection4 ,they included the ,vatican 8,ariadne10 the 8,apollo ,belvedere10 the 8,laocoon10 the 8,aphrodite of ,cnidus0 and the 8,hercules ,commodus40 ,cellini had certainly some ground for complaint when he found his silver statue of ,jove placed in such a company1 and it is not surprising that he attributed the chance to the envy of his rival1 the painter4 ,readers of the 8,autobiography0 will remember the wealth of artistic detail intended to 8add verisimilitude to an otherwise bald and unconvincing narrative0 with which ,cellini narrates how the malice of ,francis' mistress1 ,mme4 d',estampe1 was used against him4 ,the visit of ,francis to the gallery was delayed until evening in the hope that ,cellini's silver statue would appear mean among the ancient masterpieces with which it was to be shown4 ,of course the wayward ,florentine was fully equal to the emergency4 ,he placed a great torch in the hand of ,jove and ordered his assistant to avoid lighting it until the king had passed the rest of the statues and was inspecting the silver one4 ,the flood of light produced the effect which ,cellini had anticipated4 ,it was the modern statue1 not the old-time bronzes which appeared the more effective4 ,the experience of ,cellini at the ,court of ,francis ,i4 proves that sculpture in ,france had now a body of influential and appreciative patrons--the first essential of a strong art movement4 ,as we have seen1 these patrons had very solid reasons for the interest they extended to the artists they employed4 ,francis' marked preference for painting and sculpture of the ,italian manner was not1 however1 without drawbacks4 ,by selecting ,rosso and ,primaticcio to supervise the decoration of the palace at ,fontainebleau1 ,francis practically endowed a foreign style4 ,no doubt his judgment was sound4 ,the native sculptors and painters had neither the experience nor the skill to carry out a scheme so foreign to anything upon which they had worked before4 ,in a very short while1 however1 the example of the ,italians and the heavy premium placed upon any artistic talent led to the rise of native sculptors of distinction4 ,the first ,french sculptor of supreme ability was ,jean ,goujon4 ,the name first occurs in the building accounts of ,st4 ,maclou at ,rouen in #aedj4 ,by #aedg ,jean ,goujon had entered the service of ,francis ,i4 ,two years later he was at work upon the ,fountain of the ,innocents of ,paris4 ,the most instructive example of ,goujon's work is1 however1 the famous 8,diana0 now in the ,louvre4 ,the statue originally surmounted a fountain in the courtyard of ,diana of ,poitiers' ,castle of ,anet1 built by ,henry ,,ii4 for his mistress4 ,the marble rested upon a sarcophagus raised upon tier after tier of carved decorative work4 ,it was1 therefore1 intended to be viewed at an elevation1 as can be seen in the well-known drawing by ,goujon himself at the ,british ,museum4 ,in estimating the genius of ,goujon1 the fact that he was first and foremost an architect must never be forgotten4 ,the full beauty of his statues can only be properly appreciated when considered in connection with the sites for which they were designed4 ,when we realize the decorative scheme of which a statue like 8,diana0 was intended to be the culminating-point1 we can see that the claims of ,goujon to be considered as the founder of modern ,french sculpture are not ill-founded4 ,in addition to its fine decorative effect1 the 8,diana0 possesses that balance which has always been a feature in the finest ,french art4 ,for the rest1 ,goujon owes some prominent characteristics of his style to ,cellini and the painters of the ,fontainebleau school4 ,note1 for instance1 the elongated limbs and the over-slender proportions of his figures which ,goujon has accentuated in his endeavour to endow his statues with all possible grace4 ,the justification for the inclusion of ,goujon among the great masters of sculpture depends upon the fact that he was the first ,french sculptor to introduce the nude figure as an object of sthetic admiration into ,french decorative art4 ,in doing so he freed ,french sculpture from the bonds of asceticism1 and showed how its eventual greatness was to be secured4 ,illustration3 ,,jean ,,goujon ,,diana 7,,from ,,the ,,fountain ,,at ,,anet7 ,louvre1 ,paris ,nor does this exhaust the interest attaching to ,goujon's 8,diana40 ,it equally emphasizes the second great characteristic of ,french sculpture--its connection with the feminine element1 which has always been a dominant factor alike in ,french art and ,french social life4 ,it is said that in the statue of 8,diana10 ,goujon has portrayed the form of his patroness1 ,diana of ,poitiers4 ,and1 indeed1 the cold nude figure of the goddess of ,chastity might well serve as a character-sketch of the passionless beauty who captivated the ,dauphin ,henry when he was half her age1 ruled ,france for half a decade1 and--a poseuse to the last--died leaving large sums to found a home for repentant ,magdalens of ,paris4 ,almost every prominent ,french artist during the sixteenth1 seventeenth1 and eighteenth centuries was closely connected with one or other of the ,court favourites4 ,in the case of ,goujon it was ,diana of ,poitiers4 ,his career was immensely helped by the friendly aid of the mistress of ,henry ,,ii4 ,the part played by ,diana of ,poitiers in the career of ,goujon can be paralleled from the history of almost every prominent ,french artist4 ,indeed1 women played so great a part in ,french ,court life that it would be strange if traces of their influence could not be readily found4 ,french sculpture was in the first place an art of the ,court4 ,it was equally an art of the boudoir4 ,for the market-place and the forum of the ,hellene1 the ,frenchman substituted the bedroom4 ,here policies were discussed and shaped2 here culture grew and the arts were moulded4 ,a complete history of the relationship between ,french sculpture and ,french womanhood would certainly prove that the influence of the ,french ,court beauties upon sculpture was at least as potent as that of the 8blue stockings0 led by ,madame de ,rambouillet upon literature4 ,one thing1 however1 must be remembered4 ,this influence differed entirely from that which ,phryne exercised over the art of ,praxiteles1 ,la ,bella ,simonetta over ,botticelli1 or ,emma ,hamilton over ,romney4 ,it was not emotional1 but material4 ,the impulse behind it was not love1 but a desire for power4 ,indeed1 the same thing may be said of the influence of the ,court beauties upon ,french life in general4 ,when the ,marquise de ,montespan set herself to attract the attention of ,louis ,,xiv41 she knew that he did not love her4 8,he knows that he owes it to himself to possess the most beautiful woman in ,france40 ,this holds true of most of the other women who exercised such power throughout this period of ,french history4 ,montesquieu has summed up the motives inspiring their efforts in a sentence in the 8,persian ,letters03 8,do you think1 ,ibben1 that a woman consents to be the mistress of a minister for love of him8 ,what an idea6 ,it is in order that she may lay before him every morning five or six petitions40 ,the far-seeing ,frenchman enables us to grasp what the blackguardly old father-in-law of the ,marquise de ,montespan meant when he heard of his daughter's success1 and cried1 8,here's fortune knocking at my door at last40 ,had the influence of the women of ,france been of a more emotional character1 ,french sculpture would doubtless have approximated much more closely to that of ,greece during the age of ,praxiteles4 ,as it was1 it leaves us cold4 ,it has the feminine grace but not the feminine passion4 ,it seems to be inspired by a love which would stop at flirtation1 fearing to lose itself in the depths of complete surrender4 ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,louis ,,quatorze ,the insistence upon the social circumstances which moulded the earliest phase of ,french sculpture is justified when it is remembered that they were no less important during the two following epochs4 ,until the coming of the ,revolution1 ,france was ruled by an absolute monarch1 and practically all the artistic life of the country centred around him4 ,throughout this time ,french sculpture was dominated by its connection with a great court1 and by the feminine influences which were so potent in ,french ,court life4 ,the great revival of sculpture during the reign of ,louis ,,xiv41 which now claims consideration1 is at once explained when it is correlated with the fact that political considerations forced ,france to accept an even more absolute monarchical rule1 and an even more complete centralization of ,french culture than had been necessary in the time of the ,valois kings4 ,at the end of the sixteenth century ,henry ,,iv4 had settled the religious difficulties in ,france1 and had proved how heartily the advent of a monarchy able and willing to vindicate its authority was welcomed4 ,the administrative zeal of ,sully1 ,henry's minister1 and the taxation reforms which he carried through1 laid the foundations of the vast wealth which ,louis ,,xiv4 controlled4 ,without this the great efflorescence of art1 a few years later1 would not have been possible4 ,but the complete supremacy of the ,french king in the seventeenth century was due rather to pressure from surrounding nations than to internal considerations4 ,the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 was the age in which ,europe reconstructed her political system upon the principle of territorialism under a system of absolute monarchy4 ,the natural complement of ,sully1 with his maxim1 8,plough and cow--these are the breasts of ,france whereat she sucks10 was ,richelieu1 with his vigorous foreign policy4 ,richelieu carried the ideals of ,francis ,i4 and ,henry ,,iv4 to their furthest limit4 ,in everything ,richelieu was pro-,louis--never pro-,france4 ,he was not satisfied until the whole financial and judicial administration had been brought under royal control by means of a bureaucracy depending entirely upon royal favour4 ,the brilliant success of ,richelieu's policy was evident when the peace of ,westphalia left ,france with an ,eastern frontier bordering on the ,rhine4 ,the ,frankish kingdom of ,charles the ,great1 for which ,france had been struggling for centuries1 was secured4 ,in #affa1 after the death of ,mazarin1 ,louis found that he could carry the policy of centralization one step further4 ,as he himself put it1 8,in future1 gentlemen1 ,i shall be my own ,prime ,minister40 ,illustration3 ,,pierre ,,puget ,,the ,,immaculate ,,conception ,church of ,st4 ,philip of ,neri1 ,genoa ,one of ,louis' first acts as a complete autocrat was to commence building the ,palace at ,versailles4 ,the place lay ten miles out of ,paris1 and the king had visited it in #afea when a lad of thirteen4 ,the ,chteau evidently engaged his fancy1 for between #affb and #affi he did much to adorn the parks4 ,at the end of this time he started to build in real earnest4 ,the magnitude of the work can be realized from the fact that #cf1jjj men were still at work in the palace and park when the ,court moved in on ,may #f1 #afhb4 ,some twenty million pounds sterling were spent in twenty years4 ,but expense1 after all1 was a small consideration4 ,the palace at ,versailles was not a luxury but a necessity4 ,it was to ,louis ,,xiv4 what ,fontainebleau had been to ,francis ,i4 ,the first impulse of the courtly party had been to make the ,louvre the headquarters of ,louis4 ,colbert1 ,louis' financial adviser at the time1 was an ardent advocate of the ,louvre4 ,so much importance did he attach to the scheme that in #affe the great ,bernini was summoned from ,italy to advise as to extension of the ,louvre4 ,louis' judgment was sounder than that of ,colbert's in this matter4 ,he saw that a ,court in the centre of ,paris was out of the question4 ,the nobles composing it would have been far too easily influenced by intrigues started amongst the restless bourgeoisie of the ,french capital4 ,moreover1 apart from this political objection1 there was the practical difficulty caused by the absence of sufficient space4 ,room for a great palace was not the only requirement4 ,if the nobility were to be permanently settled around the king1 a small township was essential4 ,the hotels de ,richelieu1 de ,cond1 de ,soissons1 de ,noailles1 du ,plessis1 de ,guise1 and de ,saint ,simon1 which eventually arose at ,versailles1 had to be provided for4 ,yet ,colbert1 who realized the difficulty of meeting the heavy expenditure1 was very insistent4 ,in a last effort to dissuade ,louis from the enterprise he wrote3 8,your ,majesty knows that1 apart from brilliant actions in war1 nothing marks better the grandeur and genius of princes than their buildings1 and that posterity measures them by the standard of the superb edifices which they erect during their lives4 ,oh1 what a pity that the greatest ,king1 and the most virtuous1 should be measured by the standard of ,versailles40 ,louis1 however1 had his way1 and ,colbert was forced to find the necessary funds4 ,could the subtle relation between art and politics be more aptly illustrated8 ,the connection between the patronage of ,louis and the growth of ,french sculpture in the latter half of the seventeenth century is equally clear4 ,perhaps the best known sculptor who depended upon the patronage of ,louis ,,xiv4 was ,pierre ,puget1 who came to the ,court in #afhh1 late in his career4 ,illustration3 ,,francis ,,girardon ,,apollo ,,and ,,the ,,nymphs ,the ,gardens1 ,versailles ,the 8,milo of ,crotona10 in the ,louvre1 is often cited as ,puget's most typical work4 ,an equally good illustration is the colossal group 8,perseus and ,andromeda40 ,both were commissioned by ,louis ,,xiv41 and the anecdotes relating to the statues prove the close interest the king took in their execution4 ,the story runs that after seeing the 8,milo10 ,louis proposed that the sculptor should start upon another work1 8if he is not too old to undertake it10 he added4 ,the remark was repeated to ,puget1 who replied characteristically3 8,i am in my sixtieth year1 but ,i still have ample force and vigour1 for great works sustain me40 ,the 8,perseus and ,andromeda0 took two years4 ,finally ,puget sent his son to present it to ,louis4 8,your father is great and illustrious2 there is no man in ,europe to equal him0 was ,louis' verdict4 ,even more attractive is ,puget's 8,immaculate ,conception10 which dates from about #affe1 and was designed for the ,oratory of ,saint ,philip of ,neri at ,genoa1 where it still remains4 ,at fourteen years of age ,puget had started by carving the ornamental decorations of the galleys at ,marseilles4 ,a few years later1 however1 he visited ,italy1 where he fell under the spell of the ,italian artists of the ,catholic ,reaction and1 particularly1 of ,bernini4 8,the ,immaculate ,conception0 represents ,puget in his ,bernini mood4 ,the ,french sculptor never altogether escaped from ,bernini's tendency towards theatrical restlessness1 but when his statues are compared with the passionless and artificial productions of most of the ,french sculptors of his day1 it is clear that the ,marseilles artist represents a real advance4 ,for the rest1 ,puget introduced into sculpture the sensuous representation of flesh--the suggestion of the living texture--which the ,italians term morbidezza4 ,in this respect1 he has fathered a long progeny of sculptors1 ending with such ultra-modern artists as ,jules ,dalou and the ,belgian1 ,jef ,lambeaux4 ,if ,pierre ,puget was closely connected with ,louis ,,xiv41 ,francis ,girardon 7#afbh-agae71 the second great sculptor of the seventeenth century1 was equally identified with ,versailles4 ,the decoration of the palace proceeded under the general direction of ,charles ,lebrun1 the painter4 ,girardon acted as chief inspector of sculpture under ,lebrun4 ,the post was no sinecure4 ,in all1 ninety-five sculptors were employed1 and about half a million sterling was spent upon sculptural decorations4 ,the greater part of this was expended upon the fountains in the gardens4 ,the elaborate nature of these garden decorations can be realized from ,girardon's great group 8,apollo and the ,nymphs40 ,this is still at ,versailles1 but it has been moved to the grotto in which it is now to be seen--the so-called ,temple of ,thetis4 ,but the greatness of the seventeenth-century sculptors of ,france cannot be properly appreciated from any single work4 ,the keynote of the ,louis ,quatorze style is the fact that the work was intended to enhance the effect of the room or garden in which it was placed4 ,alone it is as meaningless as a ,greek pedimental group away from the temple it was designed to decorate4 ,a just judgment of the genius displayed in ,girardon's 8,apollo and the ,nymphs0 presupposes a mental picture of the ,gardens at ,versailles4 ,they were designed by ,andr le ,notre4 ,when ,louis commenced to rebuild the old chteau the gardens consisted of two groves4 ,the rest was practically an uncultivated wood4 ,it is told that after ,andr le ,notre had satisfied himself as to the general scheme to be followed he laid it before ,louis4 ,the king wandered with the great garden-architect through the grounds talking the matter over4 ,as le ,notre explained his ideas ,louis became more and more enthusiastic4 8,i give you #bj1jjj francs10 he cried4 ,andr le ,notre moved on to another point and developed a new aspect of his scheme4 8,i give you another #bj1jjj francs10 exclaimed the delighted ,louis4 ,after the third or fourth repetition ,andr began to feel hurt4 8,your ,majesty10 he said1 8if ,i tell you more you will be a ruined man4 ,you must leave the rest to me40 ,illustration3 ,,pigalle ,,mercury ,,putting ,,on ,,his ,,sandal ,louvre1 ,paris ,illustration3 ,,falconet ,l',,amour ,,mena,,ant ,louvre1 ,paris ,the results must have more than reached the king's anticipations4 ,in those days1 the gardens were studded with statuary4 ,there was1 for instance1 the early ,fountain of the ,dragon4 ,water spouted from the beast's mouth to a height of twenty-eight metres4 ,around sported four dolphins1 while the design was completed by the cupids seated on swans1 which darted their arrows at the dragon in the centre4 ,similar groups arose from every basin4 ,two of these were set up on the terrace4 ,a double flight of stairs1 richly ornamented with statuary1 led thence to the grounds4 ,here the wanderer came upon such a beauty spot as the ,alle d',eau1 with its border of pines and its hundred and four copper vases set with yew-trees4 ,throughout the ,walk were groups of statues4 ,or1 maybe1 he visited ,girardon's 8,pyramid40 ,this consisted of four superimposed basins4 ,the highest was supported on four cray fish1 the second on four dolphins and the others on tritons1 the lowest tier rising from the four larger tritons who swam in the great basin4 ,the lavish expenditure upon the sculpture at ,versailles may be judged from the payment of #adjj livres in #afga to the painter-gilder ,bailly 8on account of the gilding and bronzing applied to the fontaine en pyramide40 ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century ,if a clear realization of the gardens at ,versailles is necessary for the true appreciation of such a work as ,girardon's 8,apollo and the ,nymphs10 the interior of a ,french palace must be pictured if the smaller sculptures of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are to be understood4 ,the sculptors worked with the knowledge that their works were eventually to be placed in such rooms as the ,salon of ,venus at ,versailles with its marble walls1 its green velvet hangings and silver chandeliers1 or the ,throne ,room1 with its decorations of crimson and gold1 its ceiling by ,delafosse and pictures by ,titian1 ,guido ,reni1 ,rubens and ,van ,dyck1 or even the great ,galrie des ,glaces1 #bdj feet in length1 with its seventeen great windows framed by ,corinthian pilasters1 and faced by the seventeen mirrored arches running along the opposite side4 ,many sculptures of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 which we rightly consider insipid and unsatisfying1 may well have served their purpose at the time4 ,they cannot1 however1 be properly judged apart from the richly decorated salons which they were designed to complete4 ,this is true of a portion of the sculpture of ,louis ,quatorze4 ,it is even more true of practically all the sculpture of ,louis ,quinze and ,louis ,seize4 ,if the seventeenth century was the period of the great decorative sculptors1 the characteristic of the eighteenth century was its demand for smaller works4 ,the reign of ,louis ,quatorze had been a building age4 ,in the main1 it called for architectural sculpture4 ,eighteenth-century taste1 however1 ran in the direction of the single-figured statue and the statuette4 ,the tendency was exactly that which1 in the art of painting1 produced a ,watteau and a ,fragonard in place of a ,nicholas ,poussin and a ,charles ,lebrun4 ,the growing popularity of smaller statues was the equivalent of the increased demand for easel pictures4 ,under the circumstances it is not to be wondered that the eighteenth-century ,french sculptors lost the fine sense of decorative effectiveness with which the school of ,louis ,,xiv4 had been endowed4 ,as a consequence they were far less successful in carrying out the larger public works which every nation demands from time to time4 ,on the contrary1 the smaller works produced in the eighteenth century were often instinct with vivacity and charm4 ,it was only when they essayed the greater tasks that the sculptors failed to throw off completely what may be termed the boudoir manner4 ,illustration3 ,,clodion ,,satyr ,,with ,,flute ,muse ,cluny1 ,paris ,our meaning may be illustrated from the history of the tomb of the ,marshal de ,saxe in the church of ,st4 ,thomas1 at ,strasbourg4 ,it was designed in #agef1 by ,jean ,baptiste ,pigalle--then the foremost sculptor in ,france4 ,marshal de ,saxe was1 of course1 the victor at ,fontenoy1 and ,pigalle depicts ,death welcoming the hero while ,france vainly attempts to stay ,death's hand4 ,the scattered trophies1 as well as the ,austrian eagle1 the ,belgian lion1 and the ,english leopard1 speak of the ,marshal's success as a soldier4 ,the work is clearly a national memorial1 and1 had it been the work of a great national sculptor1 would have suggested national feeling and pride in every line and mass4 ,in point of fact it is evident that it does nothing of the kind4 ,the sculptor1 finding himself unable to feel the design as a whole1 has been content with 8building up0 the memorial4 ,being a competent craftsman he naturally produced a satisfactory1 if uninspired1 work4 ,there is a quaint little story concerning the inception of the ,saxe ,memorial which happily illustrates the mood in which ,pigalle designed the work4 ,the ,marshal's reputation for gallantry was by no means confined to military affairs4 ,he was1 perhaps1 the only commander who ever entered into a campaign accompanied by a first-rate opera company4 ,pigalle was well aware of this4 ,that no side of the dead commander's character might be unrepresented1 he added the figure of ,love with torch reversed4 8,the ,marshal cared equally for love and war4 ,love must figure among the mourners10 he explained4 ,the ,marshal's friend objected1 and finally ,louis ,,xv4 was asked to intervene4 ,to satisfy all parties1 the ,king decreed that ,cupid should wear a helmet--8the insignia of the genius of war10 as he explained4 ,but ,pigalle was not to be moved1 8,aujourd'hui10 he said2 8je plie1 mais je me redresserai bientot40 ,it will be seen that ,pigalle proved right4 ,to this day ,love is without his helmet4 ,moreover1 the tiny god is perhaps the most charming figure in the great monument1 a lasting reminder that the genius of the eighteenth-century sculptor dealt more naturally with the dainty and the graceful than with the great and the sublime4 ,pigalle's own reputation depends much more upon his charming 8,mercury putting on his ,sandal0 7,the ,louvre7 than it does upon the far more ambitious memorial at ,strasbourg4 ,this is equivalent to saying that ,pigalle was at his best when he was most interested4 ,the same remark applies to his fellow sculptors4 ,seeing that men's interests had moved in the direction of the boudoir1 a boudoir art naturally followed4 ,the demand for smaller works increased as the eighteenth century went on4 ,no sculptor reached the height attained by ,watteau and ,fragonard in the sister art of painting1 but an immense amount of fine sculpture was produced4 ,the typical ,louis ,quinze and ,louis ,seize style is well represented by the work of the ,parisian sculptor1 ,etienne ,maurice ,falconet 7#agaf-agia71 a pupil of ,lemoyne4 ,his 8,l'amour ,menaant0 is a charming instance of the skill with which the eighteenth-century sculptors adapted themselves to the wider range of subjects created by the new demand4 ,illustration3 ,,houdon ,,diana 7,,bronze7 ,louvre1 ,paris ,falconet shows the god of ,love1 with a finger of caution at his lips4 ,the idea of the hand slyly stealing round to the quiverful of arrows slung across his shoulder is expressed with delightful art4 ,the dainty work is remarkable for its grace and the vivacity of expression animating it4 ,it is significant that the work was commissioned by ,madame de ,pompadour in #agef4 ,two more sculptors call for notice before we close this chapter--,clodion and ,houdon4 ,both were followers of ,pigalle and both lived to a good old age and worked well into the nineteenth century4 ,but in essence their work was dominated by the factors which moulded the rest of the sculpture of ,louis ,,xv4 and ,louis ,,xvi4 ,the lesser of the two men1 ,claude ,franois ,michel1 called ,clodion1 was to sculpture what ,boucher was to painting4 ,his favourite subjects were satyrs and bacchantes1 as1 for instance1 in the 8,satyr with ,flute10 with which we illustrate his art4 ,some of his most delightful works are at the ,muse ,cluny4 ,there is also a fine 8,satyr and ,nymph0 in the ,wallace collection at ,hertford ,house1 ,london4 ,with rare exceptions1 all ,clodion's works were designed for the drawing-room or the dancing-hall4 ,he was a master of the statuette and1 perhaps1 without a rival in the skilful use of terra-cotta4 ,it is easy to cavil at the frankly sensuous style of ,clodion but1 after all1 his justification is complete4 ,it depends upon the success with which he carried out that at which he aimed4 ,on the whole1 the great body of eighteenth-century ,french sculpture defies criticism by the same triumphant grace and vivacity and the same plea that what was aimed at has been done4 ,there are times when 8,eternal smiles its emptiness betray ,as shallow streams run dimpling all the way40 ,but1 judging it by its own standard and looking for neither deep feeling nor high thinking1 it amply justifies its place among the art movements which have given humanity a fresh thrill4 ,houdon 7#agda-ahbh71 the last of the eighteenth-century ,french sculptors1 was a far greater artist than either his master ,pigalle or ,clodion4 ,he lived throughout the sculptural period dominated by ,canova1 and might1 on that account1 claim consideration in our next chapter4 ,houdon as an artist1 however1 seems to have been little impressed by the events of the ,french ,revolution1 so we have chosen to represent him by two of his earlier works4 ,like many other ,french sculptors of genius1 ,houdon won the ,grand ,prix at the outset of his career and directly after visited ,italy4 ,while there he modelled the well-known 8,st4 ,bruno10 of which ,clement ,,xiii4 said 8he would speak were it not that the rules of his order enjoin silence40 ,a little later came the celebrated 8,diana10 perhaps the most remarkable work by an eighteenth-century ,french sculptor in view of the originality of its design and the skill with which the technical difficulties incidental to such a pose are overcome4 ,there are various replicas of the 8,diana40 ,the ,hermitage copy is in marble1 and dates from #aghj4 ,the ,louvre bronze was cast in #agij4 ,houdon's 8,voltaire0 is equally famous4 ,this1 too1 exists in more than one state4 ,there is the seated figure belonging to the ,comdie ,franaise--recently moved to the ,louvre--as well as the bust which we have preferred to reproduce4 ,the latter represents the old cynic during the last weeks of his life4 ,it is a magnificent instance of ,houdon's unrivalled power in the expression of mental vivacity4 ,it is said that the sculptor had complained to a friend1 the ,marquis de ,villevieille1 that the old wit's face had lost every vestige of life4 ,villevieille realizing that ,houdon's sitting might well result in failure1 bethought himself of the crown which ,brizard1 the actor1 had placed on ,voltaire's head during his triumph at the ,franais4 ,the next day while ,houdon was working before his model1 ,villevieille suddenly placed the crown on the old man's head4 ,for a moment the ancient fire returned4 ,it was only for a moment4 ,bursting into tears1 ,voltaire cried3 8,what are you doing1 young man80 ,then he added bitterly3 8,my tomb is already prepared2 put it on that40 ,illustration3 ,,houdon ,,voltaire ,fortunately the momentary impression was sufficient4 ,houdon was able to fix for all time the insight which chance had given him into the secret of the man who1 perhaps1 did more to prepare the way for the ,french ,revolution than any other thinker4 ,houdon's 8,voltaire0 appropriately closes the history of the sculpture of the ,french ,court4 ,equally appropriately it ushers in the history of ,european sculpture during the ,revolutionary era4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,neo-,,classical ,,revival3 ,,european ,,sculpture ,,of ,,the ,,revolution ,,and ,,the ,,reaction 7#aghi-ahdh ,a4,d47 ,the period we are now to consider1 covering the last few years of the eighteenth century and the early years of the nineteenth1 is one of the most elusive in the history of sculpture4 ,that is to say1 it evades characterization4 ,moreover1 when its individual qualities are stated1 it is still more difficult to correlate these with the very definite ideas and emotions astir during a time which includes the ,french ,revolution and the consequent ,reaction4 ,the difficulty in tracing the connection between such men as ,canova1 ,thorvaldsen1 ,flaxman1 and the age in which they worked1 seems to be due to the necessity for first abandoning the method which has served us hitherto4 ,in dealing with ,greek and ,roman1 ,italian and ,french sculpture1 we have appealed to national history--national circumstances4 ,now we are concerned with a body of thought and feeling which is not national but ,european4 ,instead of thinking in states1 we have to think in continents4 ,the men who created the sculpture of the ,revolution and ,reaction were essentially cosmopolitans2 ,winckelmann--,saxon2 ,raphael ,mengs--half-,dane1 half-,bohemian2 ,canova--,venetian2 ,thorvaldsen--,danish2 ,flaxman and ,gibson--,englishmen1 long resident in ,rome4 ,they did not drift towards ,rome as the ,hellenistic sculptors had done1 because the city was the centre of the political force of the age4 ,nor did they come with the purpose of ,michael ,angelo1 that they might add to the glory of a universal church seeking to extend its power over the known world4 ,far from this being the case1 in the early part of the nineteenth century ,rome was a no-man's land4 ,if it stood for anything1 it was for a disintegrated ,italy and an enfeebled ,papacy4 ,at the very time ,canova was working there1 ,italy was powerless to prevent ,napoleon stripping it of its choicest art treasures4 ,anything approaching a national stimulus to sculptural production was entirely lacking4 ,the first result was the rise of the essentially eclectic style which we recognize in the sculptures of ,canova and ,thorvaldsen4 ,nominally1 it was based upon a return to the ,greek example4 ,in reality1 it was no more than a borrowed ,hellenism1 misunderstood and misapplied by men who did no more than steal 8,the livery of the ,court of ,heaven40 ,we shall not be misunderstood4 ,no one can deny--it is impossible to do so--the graceful beauty of very many statues of the later eighteenth and earlier nineteenth centuries4 ,indeed1 no school of sculpture has produced a larger number of popular works--in the best sense of that rather dubious term4 ,but our criticism is justified by the fact that such men as ,canova and ,thorvaldsen deliberately set out to interpret their experience in the terms of classic art4 ,they rightly judged this to be the highest achievement attained by the sculptor4 ,unfortunately1 they only filched the ,hellenic externals4 ,strange to say1 this fervid adoption of a bastard ,hellenism coincided with the re-discovery of the principles at the root of ,greek art1 and1 in consequence1 with a renewed appreciation of the best qualities in ,hellenic sculpture4 ,throughout the ,renaissance and until the middle of the eighteenth century1 ,europe did not understand ,greek sculpture4 ,even the best judges rated the 8,apollo ,belvedere0 above the 8,theseus0 of the ,parthenon pediment4 ,a truer standard was advanced by ,johann ,joachim ,winckelmann 7murdered #agfh74 ,his dictum1 8,greek art has been perpetuated by ,roman copies10 revealed the error which had vitiated all earlier criticism4 ,aided by the poet-philosopher ,lessing1 ,winckelmann led men to distinguish between the ,roman and the ,greek elements in classic sculpture--between the ,hellenic and the ,hellenistic4 ,winckelmann's 8,history of ,greek ,art10 published in #agfd1 enunciated all the great principles we now recognize in the best ,greek sculpture--its truth to nature1 its almost austere reserve1 the preference accorded to the typical as opposed to the particular4 ,the 8,history of ,greek ,art0 in turn led to ,lessing's 8,laocoon0 and the magnificent exposition of ,hellenism in the works of ,goethe4 ,through these three men the very soul of ,greek sculpture lay bare to the later eighteenth-century artists4 ,illustration3 ,,canova ,,cupid ,,and ,,psyche ,villa ,carlotta1 ,lake of ,como ,illustration3 ,,pauline ,,borghese ,borghese ,gallery1 ,rome ,,canova ,,and ,,thorvaldsen ,the first really gifted sculptor to absorb the new revelation and give expression to it in marble and bronze was ,antonio ,canova4 ,born in #ageg1 ,canova came of a family of sculptors4 ,in his youth he manifested a facility as a modeller which was sufficient to lead his patron1 the ,senator ,falieri1 to make it possible for him to visit ,rome4 ,coming there at the age of twenty-two1 ,canova encountered the full tide of the ideas enunciated by ,winckelmann and his school4 ,like most successful sculptors1 the ,venetian was a man of boundless energy4 ,his patrons and rivals in ,rome soon became impressed with the belief that ,canova was capable of founding a school of sculpture worthy of comparison with those of classic times4 ,indeed1 to-day1 it is quite easy to realize the intense enthusiasm aroused by the works of ,canova4 ,such a statue as the beautiful 8,cupid and ,psyche10 produced in the year #aghg1 has not yet lost its power to charm4 ,canova has chosen the moment when ,cupid comes to aid the unfortunate girl who has opened the box of ,proserpine and has sunk fainting to the earth4 ,it is characteristic of ,canova's sentimental method that he should choose the moment when ,psyche1 throwing back her head1 discovers the god-youth bending over her4 ,an equally fine example of ,canova at his best is the famous statue of 8,pauline ,borghese10 a work of later date than the 8,cupid and ,psyche40 ,the light-hearted sister of ,napoleon is represented as ,venus1 despite the fact that she was the wife of ,prince ,borghese1 the ruler of ,piedmont4 ,the story runs that a friend remonstrated with her and ended with the question whether ,pauline had not found the ordeal 8a trying one40 8,trying1 not at all10 replied the ,princess1 8there was a stove40 ,the anecdote serves to illustrate the difference between ,canova and his ,greek predecessors4 ,comparing the story of ,pauline ,borghese with that of the ,hetaera ,phryne1 the difference between the spirit animating ,hellenic art and that animating the imitation ,greek art of two thousand years later is unmistakable4 ,praxiteles' statue of ,phryne was the incarnation of womanhood as he felt it4 ,pauline ,borghese merely suggested to ,canova a number of graceful lines and masses1 which his sense of form enabled him to combine in a pleasing fashion4 ,he willingly preserved a sufficient likeness to compliment the fair model1 who had risked a physical and spiritual chill in the cause of art4 ,but the difference between the lasting value of ,canova's 8,venus0 and that of ,praxiteles' 8,aphrodite of ,cnidus0 can be estimated exactly4 ,it is that which separates the idea of womanhood from the idea of the princely light-o'-love--,pauline ,borghese4 ,canova's work has not a suggestion of that contact with the eternal verities which is the very essence of a great ,greek statue4 ,no one can doubt that both the 8,cupid and ,psyche0 and the 8,pauline ,borghese0 are the works of a man who feels the full beauty of pure line4 ,if formal grace were the best that sculpture could give us1 there would be no more to be said4 ,but the achievements of the ,greek masters prove that this is not the case4 ,a work of sculpture can convey a sense of palpitating life1 of vigorous emotion1 which is worth far more than the graceful beauty with which ,canova has endowed his conception of ,cupid and ,psyche1 and the ,goddess of ,desire4 ,it cannot be said that ,canova lacked any opportunity vouchsafed to the earlier sculptors4 ,before he died1 his reputation rivalled that of the great artists of the ,renaissance4 ,in #ahjb he was appointed curator of the ,vatican art treasures1 a post resembling that held by ,raphael and ,michael ,angelo4 ,like ,bernini1 he was called to ,france4 ,instead of a bust of ,louis ,,xiv41 ,canova's task was to model a colossal statue of ,napoleon4 ,if ,canova had had it in him1 he might have been a ,michael ,angelo4 ,as it was1 he lived and died ,antonio ,canova4 ,if our estimate of ,canova is correct1 can more be said for his rival1 the ,danish sculptor1 ,thorvaldsen8 ,thorvaldsen was born about the year #aggj1 his father being a journeyman wood-carver of ship's figure-heads4 ,as a boy he worked on the quays at ,copenhagen1 much as ,puget had done a century earlier at ,marseilles4 ,in #agic ,thorvaldsen1 then a youth of twenty-three1 won the ,copenhagen ,academy's gold medal and a travelling scholarship1 which made a visit to ,rome possible4 ,four years later1 in #agig1 ,thorvaldsen came to ,rome4 ,between ,may and ,december of the previous year1 ,italy had been overrun by the ,french4 ,in ,october #agig the ,venetian territories were divided by ,austria and ,france4 ,in the following ,february ,pius ,,vi4 was deposed by ,napoleon4 ,italy had never stood lower in the scale of nations4 ,perhaps for that very reason ,rome was able to welcome artists from all parts of ,europe1 and imbue them with entirely non-national ideals1 drawn from the treasures of art stored in the ,eternal ,city4 8,i was born on ,march #h1 #agig10 said ,thorvaldsen himself4 8,up to that time ,i did not exist40 ,the ,dane's scholarship only amounted to #bd a year1 insufficient for the bare necessities of life4 ,but the young sculptor struggled along until #ahjc1 when his 8,jason0 was purchased by the ,english banker1 ,thomas ,hope1 and he was relieved from his most pressing difficulties4 ,a little later ,thorvaldsen found himself the talk of artistic ,rome4 ,the ,baron de ,schubart1 ,danish ,ambassador at ,naples1 had commissioned a 8,cupid and ,psyche40 ,the sculptor was in the midst of the work when his studio at ,montenero was struck by lightning4 ,the only model which escaped destruction was the ,baron's 8,cupid and ,psyche40 ,thorvaldsen himself was in ,rome at the time1 and the pretty little story naturally ran the round of the studios4 ,the tale caught the fancy of the smart set1 ever on the look-out for an excitement1 and 8the miracle of the marble0 became the sensation of the hour4 ,a flood of sonnets and epigrams resulted4 ,thorvaldsen found himself suddenly recognized as the coming sculptor--second only to ,canova4 ,there is no finer example of the genius of ,thorvaldsen than his 8,venus40 ,there is certainly no statue upon which he lavished more care4 ,it exists in several forms1 including a fine marble copy in the ,duke of ,devonshire's collection at ,chatsworth4 ,starting in #ahje1 he took ten years to complete the design to his satisfaction4 ,not that ,thorvaldsen was a slow worker4 ,he had no love for the actual carving1 and left the greater portion of the marble-work to his assistants4 ,but in the clay he worked with extreme facility1 and few sculptors have excelled him in the number and variety of his designs4 ,a statue like the 8,venus0 proves that he also possessed qualities of breadth and emotional austerity1 which cannot be claimed for the prettier works of ,canova4 ,but1 judging the life-work of the ,danish sculptor in its broadest aspects1 the only possible verdict is that which must also be passed upon ,canova4 ,both men preferred to echo an earlier art4 ,they made no attempt to realize nature afresh4 ,this acceptance of a purely artificial creed1 based upon their admiration for their ,greek predecessors1 entailed an abandonment of the personal standpoint which alone gives an art the highest value4 ,illustration3 ,,thorvaldsen ,,venus ,duke of ,devonshire's ,collection1 ,chatsworth ,,the ,,sculpture ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,revolution ,why ,canova and ,thorvaldsen should have found this necessary in an age which was full of pregnant thought and feeling1 is hard to say4 ,one can only note a similar tendency in other branches of ,european activity in the latter years of the eighteenth century4 ,the painter ,david1 for instance1 was content to work to a pseudo-,greek standard1 instead of constructing a fresh one1 fitted to the new state of things in ,france4 ,the great picture in the ,louvre1 8,the ,intervention of the ,sabine ,women10 is almost icy on account of the artist's pre-occupation with the externals of classical art4 ,were it not for the evidence of ,david's portraits one would regard the painter of the 8,sabine ,women0 as entirely lacking in human emotion4 ,as it is1 we know that the assumption of classical externals is merely the outcome of a bad habit4 ,a similar tendency to pose in the outworn robes of an earlier civilization was a common fault among the men and women who sought to bring the ideals of the ,french ,revolution home to ,europe4 ,witness the days which the ,national ,assembly devoted to the unending wrangle over the precise wording of the 8,rights of ,man40 ,the time was wasted1 not because the ,declaration really forwarded the ideal of equality before the law and the abolition of all class distinctions1 but because the founders of the ,american ,republic had framed a similar ,declaration of ,rights4 ,the civic dinners in ,paris in imitation of the ,spartan manner were equally mere poses4 ,parisians sat1 surrounded by their servants1 at tables spread in the very streets1 while fashionable hostesses called upon passers-by to note 8how we love equality40 ,the tendency which led the ,parisians to such follies1 led ,canova1 ,thorvaldsen1 and ,flaxman to follow a pseudo-classic style instead of allowing the passions and thoughts astir in their souls to find an adequate method of expression4 ,this initial error deprived even their most ambitious works of that almost mystical appeal which gives the statuary of the greatest ,hellenes and ,florentines its unique value4 ,though full of grace and charm1 their marbles impress us at once as devoid of either deep feeling or high thinking4 ,the one sculptor1 who absorbed the patriotic spirit generated by the ,french ,revolution1 and also found means to express it in marble1 was ,franois ,rude 7#aghd-ahee74 ,unlike ,thorvaldsen1 ,canova and ,flaxman1 ,rude never lived in ,rome4 ,he was ,french to the marrow4 ,indeed1 when he won the ,grand ,prix in #ahab1 he did not take advantage of the opportunity to visit ,italy4 ,the son of a ,dijon blacksmith1 ,rude came to ,paris in #ahjg with #af in his pocket4 ,he had nothing except an invincible determination to become a sculptor1 to ensure success4 ,however1 he secured work and joined the cole des ,beaux ,arts4 8,seven lost years10 was ,rude's opinion of the time he spent in this centre of academical method4 ,rude had always been an ardent politician1 and the support he gave to ,napoleon during 8,the ,hundred ,days0 led to his exile4 ,after twelve years in ,brussels1 he returned to ,paris--aged forty-three4 ,the exhibition of the 8,neapolitan ,fisher ,boy0 in #ahcc1 established ,rude's reputation4 ,the work is now in the ,louvre4 ,the circumstances under which it was carved recall those under which ,michael ,angelo produced his 8,david40 ,rude was furnished with an odd prism-shaped piece of marble4 ,the delightful ingenuity with which he has used the happy pose arising from the boy's crossed legs is worthy to be remembered along with the achievement of ,michael ,angelo himself4 ,illustration3 ,,rude 8,,the ,,marseillaise0 ,,relief ,arc de ,triomphe1 ,paris ,charming as the 8,neapolitan ,fisher ,boy0 is1 ,rude's genius is more completely illustrated by his great bas-relief in the ,arc de ,triomphe at ,paris4 ,thiers was ,louis ,philippe's minister at the time1 and he gave ,rude the commission for all the 8grande sculpture0 upon the ,arch4 ,the intrigues of rivals1 however1 resulted in half of the work being handed over to ,etex1 and finally1 ,rude only contributed a single group4 ,this was the 8,chant du ,dpart10 generally known as 8,the ,marseillaise40 ,the magnificent force and vigour with which ,rude has carried out the purpose of the memorial is beyond praise4 ,his task was to perpetuate the fame of the ,imperial armies which cowed ,europe and won such fights as ,marengo1 ,austerlitz1 ,jena1 and ,friedland4 ,surely the difference between the emotion expressed in ,rude's 8,chant du ,dpart10 and any works by the more highly endowed ,canova and ,thorvaldsen is beyond question4 ,surely it is equally certain that the difference can only be traced to one thing4 ,the ,frenchman was expressing what he felt1 whereas1 the other two men were only expressing what ,wincklemann and ,lessing had proved to be correct4 ,rude was able to infuse his marble with the passion it contains because he had lived through a stirring age4 ,the 8,chant du ,dpart0 only nominally dates from the 'thirties of the last century4 ,really1 it was carved in the year #agic1 when ,rude as a boy of nine1 marched up and down the squares of ,dijon1 with his child-companions in the ,royal ,bourbon ,regiment of the ,national ,guard1 and felt his loyal little heart burning within him as he sang the ,marseillaise before the bust of ,marat or ,robespierre4 ,it makes us feel that it is the direct outcome of real feeling--experienced at first hand4 ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,english ,,sculpture ,the sculpture of ,rude leads naturally enough to that of ,great ,britain--the only other country in ,europe with national emotions capable of being translated into a vital art at that time4 ,unfortunately1 no lover of sculpture1 writing in ,english can turn from the art of ,france to that of his own country without a pang4 ,for hundreds of years1 the sculptor met with no encouragement in ,great ,britain4 ,the land which had nourished the genius of a ,shakespeare1 a ,milton and a ,wren1 of a ,gainsborough and a ,reynolds1 could only advance a list of shadowy names against the tangible achievements of its great rival on the other side of the ,channel4 ,in the early days of the ,renaissance1 there was some promise that sculpture might obtain a foothold in ,england as it was doing in ,france4 ,henry ,,viii4 and ,wolsey took a keen interest in the infant art1 and persuaded several ,italian artists to take up their abode in ,england4 ,such a tomb as that of ,henry ,,vii4 in the ,abbey1 the contract for which was made in #aeab1 affords an interesting comparison with the tombs of the ,french kings of the sixteenth century4 ,it was the work of the ,italian ,torrigiano1 best known nowadays as the breaker of ,michael ,angelo's nose4 ,unfortunately1 ,torrigiano was the greatest1 and not the least1 of the band of foreign artists who came to ,england in those days4 ,consequently1 our native sculptors never had the advantage of seeing men like ,leonardo da ,vinci and ,andrea del ,sarto working among them4 ,torrigiano and ,antonio ,toto were poor substitutes for ,cellini and ,primaticcio4 ,no one can say what would have happened had a more vigorous artistic impulse been received from the country of ,michael ,angelo and ,donatello4 ,but this is certain4 ,neither sculpture nor painting in ,england became the living things they were in ,france4 ,while ,francis ,i4 and the three ,louis were purchasing statues by ,goujon and ,pajou1 the ,english kings and nobles preferred to repeat lyrical snatches by such men as ,lovelace and ,rochester4 ,almost the only ,british sculptures from the end of the ,tudors to the middle of the reign of ,george ,,iii4 were the memorial monuments which still decorate our older churches4 ,for the rest1 there was such a work as the ,nightingale monument by the foreigner ,roubilliac1 the still-life carvings of ,grinling ,gibbons1 and the fine tombs by ,nicholas ,stone in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,the profound difference between the ,english character and the ,french accounts1 in great measure1 for ,britain's slowness to develop a national school of sculpture4 ,the temperament which really feels that pure form can adequately express the emotional experience of mankind is rare at any time4 ,it is far less likely to develop among men who prefer positive1 concrete mental images than among those who seek the definite1 abstract conceptions which the ,french mind creates4 ,moreover1 during the century after ,shakespeare1 ,britain was fully occupied in settling her religious and political difficulties1 and upon such tasks as the absorption of ,ireland and ,scotland4 ,during the seventeenth century and the early part of the eighteenth ,england should be pictured by the aid of ,arnold's magnificent image3 8,the weary ,titan1 with deaf ,ears1 and labour-dimm'd eyes1 ,regarding neither to right ,nor left 444 ,staggering on to her goal40 ,the ,scottish ,revolution of #agde marked the conclusion of the period of political and social stress4 ,by the middle of the eighteenth century ,great ,britain had 8found itself40 ,the foundations of a system of party government had been laid4 ,the rule of ,walpole1 8the first ,prime ,minister of ,england10 had indicated the direction in which the future of ,english politics lay4 ,for the first time the country was able to devote a portion of its spare energy to an art which was admittedly not quite attuned to the national temperament4 ,the establishment of the ,british ,museum was an early indication of the new mood4 ,the ,royal ,academy1 founded in #agfh1 with ,reynolds as its first president1 indicated the public recognition that a national school of sculpture was possible4 ,finally1 society--with a capital ,s--condescended to interest itself in classical art4 ,the influence of this upon ,english sculpture can be happily illustrated from the history of the 8,society of ,dilettanti40 ,at the time of the foundation of the ,society of ,dilettanti1 between #agcc and #agce1 young ,british noblemen were wont to make the 8,grand ,tour0 through ,france and ,italy1 much as the ,roman aristocrats had visited ,greece and ,asia ,minor1 during the later days of the ,republic and the ,empire4 ,usually the ,englishman was accompanied by a tutor1 who enabled his young charge to acquire the rudiments of a classical art education4 ,the youth came back to ,london equipped as an arbiter in all matters of taste4 ,the ,society of ,dilettanti only admitted such men as these1 and its avowed object was to cultivate a taste for works of art which had attracted them during their tours4 ,at first the ,society of ,dilettanti was little more than a dining club4 ,horace ,walpole1 writing in #agdc1 sneered3 8,the nominal qualification is having been in ,italy2 the real one being drunk40 ,as the ,society became more staid1 with the advancing years of its founders1 more ideal methods were adopted4 ,several of the promoters took leading positions in ,english life4 ,sir ,francis ,dashwood1 for instance1 became ,bute's ,chancellor of the ,exchequer4 ,the fourth ,earl of ,sandwich not only enriched the language with a new term and a novel article of diet1 but posed as a leader in all branches of ,english activity from gambling and theatricals to art criticism4 ,in course of time such men as these had the spending of very considerable funds accumulated by the society4 ,the sources whence the ,society derived its income make amusing reading4 ,there was1 for instance1 the 8face money10 levied under a rule which ordained that every member's portrait should be painted by ,kneller for the benefit of the ,society4 ,still larger sums accrued from the 8,rule ,ann4 ,soc4 ,undec40 ,this set forth that any member who was fortunate enough to secure an advance in his salary should contribute one per cent4 of the first year's rise to the ,dilettanti coffers4 ,in the ,annals1 under date ,january #f1 #agdd-e1 one finds the following3 8,received of the ,duke of ,bedford eleven guineas for having received the place of the first ,commissioner of the ,admiralty40 ,on the whole1 the funds of the ,society of ,dilettanti were expended with good judgment4 ,students' scholarships were endowed in connection with the ,royal ,academy schools4 ,finely illustrated works dealing with various antiquarian subjects were published from time to time4 ,excavations were encouraged4 ,above all1 a body of public opinion was created which took a real interest in classic sculpture4 ,proofs of a sincere appreciation of classical art among the leaders of ,english society in the second half of the eighteenth century could be readily multiplied4 ,we might instance the case of ,charles ,lennox1 third ,duke of ,richmond1 who celebrated his ,italian tour by setting up a collection of painting1 sculptures and casts in a gallery of his house in ,whitehall and establishing schools of art there under ,cipriani1 the painter1 and ,wilton1 the sculptor4 ,but the supreme evidence of the value of the system is furnished by the case of ,thomas1 ,earl of ,elgin4 ,that nobleman was engaged about #ahjb upon a mission to the ,ottoman ,porte4 ,he was fortunate enough to obtain a firman to examine and remove certain 8inscriptions0 from the ,acropolis of ,athens1 at that time a ,turkish fortress4 ,his agents1 under this firman1 collected the ,elgin marbles1 which were conveyed to ,england in #ahab and finally purchased by the ,british ,government in #ahaf4 ,even at this date1 in spite of the writings of ,lessing and ,winckelmann1 public opinion was in grave doubt as to the desirability of paying the beggarly #ce1jjj which the ,earl of ,elgin asked for his treasures4 ,he had spent upwards of #gj1jjj1 so the offer was an exceptionally generous one4 ,even a man like ,flaxman was doubtful as to the real value of the marbles4 ,like many art-lovers of his age1 he preferred ,raphael to ,rembrandt--the 8,venus of ,medici0 to the 8,three ,fates40 ,illustration3 ,,flaxman ,,michael ,,and ,,satan 7,,sketch7 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,south ,kensington ,flaxman was the first ,english sculptor of ,european reputation4 ,he was born in #agee and died in #ahbf1 so his career practically coincided with that of ,canova4 ,the son of a manufacturer of plaster of ,paris casts1 the boy ,flaxman was terribly handicapped by a threatened deformity4 ,but when he laid aside his crutches at ten years of age1 his natural bent towards art began to display itself definitely4 ,in #aggj he won the silver medal for sculpture at the ,royal ,academy4 ,patrons1 however1 proved few and far between and the necessity for making a living drove ,flaxman to accept the commissions for the classical designs made famous through their association with ,wedgwood pottery4 ,his real career as a sculptor began in #aghg4 ,like ,thorvaldsen he could have said3 8,i was born when ,i first saw ,rome4 ,before ,i merely existed40 ,when ,flaxman returned to ,england eight years later1 his future was assured4 ,he became an ,a4,r4,a4 in #agig and an ,r4,a4 in #ahjj4 ,perhaps no modern artist has produced work more nearly approaching the sculpture of ,greece in spirit4 ,in ,flaxman's best known work1 the 8,michael and ,satan10 we can trace a severe restraint which is foreign to the more florid styles of ,canova and ,thorvaldsen and which brings the ,englishman far closer to the masters of the ,hellenic school whom he sought to follow4 ,he equalled either ,canova or ,thorvaldsen in fertility and purity of design1 particularly in bas-relief4 ,but ,flaxman also suffered as they had done from a too close adherence to the eclectic influences derived from ,winckelmann4 ,when ,flaxman sought to portray the intense passions1 his borrowed style betrayed him4 ,if intensity of emotion was of little moment in sculpture1 ,flaxman would rank among the immortals4 ,as a fact1 we know that it constitutes its very life4 ,consequently1 one can only regret that it was not given to the first great ,english sculptor to emulate the achievements of ,gainsborough and ,reynolds1 and evolve a style capable of expressing the manifold energies of his age in marble1 as truly as they did on canvas4 ,as it was1 the genius of ,flaxman only served to perpetuate a false ideal4 ,his ,english followers made no effort to rid themselves of the methods which had marred even the finest work of the earlier masters of their school4 ,truth to tell1 ,flaxman's reputation depends much more upon his non-sculptural work than it does upon his marbles--upon his ,homeric illustrations1 upon his drawings1 with their mysterious reminiscences of ,blake1 for instance4 ,flaxman's facility in design was so tremendous that it alone made him stand out far above his fellow sculptors4 ,added to this1 there is a certain natural austerity in his sculptures which distinguishes them from the conventional theatricalities of the earlier eighteenth-century artists and the ,georgian and early ,victorian sentimentalities which followed4 ,but it would be untrue to suggest that as a sculptor he rose superior to his age4 ,weighed in the scale of ,european art1 ancient and modern1 the life-work of ,flaxman contains the same lesson as that of ,canova and ,thorvaldsen4 ,it stands as a perpetual memorial of the eternal law1 that no living art can be built upon a borrowed style--even though that style be ,greek4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,modern ,,french ,,school 7,,after #ahdh7 ,we are now approaching the end of our task4 ,it only remains to gather together the various strands of our argument1 with a view to the solution of the final problem--the position of sculpture in our own times4 ,though we shall first deal with the art of ,france and then turn to that of ,england1 the sequence of events will be found to be practically the same in both countries4 ,a single super-title--8,the ,renascence of ,individualism0--might properly characterize both chapters4 ,speaking roughly1 the pseudo-,hellenic style of ,canova and his followers persisted until the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,so long as it lasted1 the sculptor chose to fit his thoughts and emotions into an entirely alien form4 ,it was a form of his own choosing1 it is true1 but it could scarcely be said to be of his own making4 ,now1 we have seen again and again1 that the production of vital sculpture1 whether by the nation or the individual1 depends upon absolute sincerity4 ,it must spring from the deep-felt emotions of the artist4 ,the class of work--portraiture or what not--matters little4 ,the subject matters even less4 ,what is all-important is that the design in which the sculptor seeks to embody his ideas shall grow spontaneously from his experience in the world of ,nature4 ,apart from that--n'importe6 8,there are nine-and-sixty ways of constructing tribal lays1 ,and-every-single-one-of-them-is-right40 ,but the adoption of an alien form was not the only obstacle to a revival of sculpture4 ,during the greater part of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 the prevailing philosophy had condemned the intellectuals of ,western ,europe to the suppression of all natural passion and emotion4 ,a cataclysm like the ,french ,revolution was necessary to regain for mankind the right to feel4 ,once this right had been asserted1 the results were immediate4 ,at first1 individualism took a political form4 ,napoleon arose--the incarnation of the ,frenchman's desire to impress his newly discovered social ideas upon the civilized world4 ,when the ,emperor fell in #ahae1 the passion for individual expression took artistic shape4 ,what ,napoleon did in the world of politics1 ,shelley and ,victor ,hugo1 ,delacroix and ,turner did in the world of art4 ,romance in action became ,romance in imagination4 ,criticism1 which had been academic1 became individual2 thought became profoundly subjective4 ,the philosopher was no longer content with a few abstractions and an elaborate terminology2 he sought to know the import of the broad earth and the still broader heaven4 ,these were times 8,in which the meagre1 stale1 forbidding ways ,of custom1 law1 and statute1 took at once ,the attraction of a country in romance4 99 99 99 99 99 ,bliss was it in that dawn to be alive1 ,but to be young was very ,heaven40 ,illustration3 ,,antoine ,,barye ,,lapith ,,and ,,centaur ,louvre1 ,paris ,numberless emotions and ideas1 glowing with a strange and unearthly light presented themselves for artistic expression--emotions and ideas which art had entirely lost sight of during the previous century and a half4 ,it is1 therefore1 evident that the effects of the ,romantic ,movement upon sculpture call for immediate definition by all who seek to formulate the circumstance which led to the modern revival4 ,we propose to start with ,france4 ,in spite of the strong lead which ,rude gave his fellows1 the whole body of ,french sculptors were slow to realize the importance of the new vistas of experience opening before them4 ,a few1 ,david d',angers for instance1 expressed a measure of the revolutionary spirit in their art4 ,but1 in the main1 the elegant grace of a philo-,hellene like ,pradier was appreciated above the vigorous naturalism of ,rude and ,david4 ,it was not until the genius of ,barye and ,carpeaux forced itself upon the public notice that a definite step forward was made4 ,of the two1 ,antoine ,barye 7#agie-ahge7 was the first in point of time1 though the second in point of influence4 ,in many ways1 however1 ,barye marks1 more clearly than ,carpeaux himself1 the gulf separating the typically modern school from that which contented itself with ringing the changes upon an endless series of mythological abstractions4 ,barye was first and foremost a sculptor of wild animals4 ,the famous exhibit in the ,salon of #ahca1 which first brought him into notice1 could only have been modelled by one who knew the anatomy of the beasts of the forest as completely as the ,greeks knew the human form4 ,the group represented a death struggle between a crocodile and a tiger4 ,barye showed the crocodile clutching1 in mortal agony1 at the neck of the tiger4 ,the tiger1 with gleaming eyes1 bites fiercely into its enemy's body4 ,when we compare such a subject with the ,venuses and ,apollos with which his fellows concerned themselves1 ,barye's connection with the ,romanticists is at once evident4 ,the pith and marrow of ,romanticism is a distrust of the commonplace and a longing to bring new worlds of experience within the ken of the artist4 ,take a few of the leaders of the ,romantic ,movement at random4 ,in literature1 ,scott1 ,byron1 ,heine1 and ,victor ,hugo4 ,in painting1 ,gericault1 ,turner1 and ,delacroix4 ,one and all sought to arouse the world from a state of contentment which ,ruskin adroitly illustrated by the image of the happiness of the squirrel in his circular prison4 ,the end of their endeavour was to extend the sphere of art beyond the graceful1 the fanciful1 and the commonplace4 ,but the mere discovery of a fresh field for the sculptor is only a part of the debt which we moderns owe to ,barye4 ,his supreme gift lay in his power to treat the new subjects without ever transgressing the limits set by his medium4 8,a genius in his conception of art and by his power of expressing it10 is the verdict of his pupil1 ,rodin4 ,the truth of this can be seen at once in any of ,barye's famous works--the 8,lion0 in the courtyard of the ,louvre1 for instance1 or the brilliant 8,centaur and ,lapith10 in the same collection4 ,nothing to be compared with them as studies in animal life1 had been given to the world since the days of the ,assyrian sculptors1 who worked with the knowledge that only a race of hunters can possess4 ,barye's supreme skill in his own sphere militated against his influence ever becoming as general as it deserved4 ,as a rule he confined himself to small works4 ,in the nature of things1 he could not expect the numerous commissions which an equally gifted craftsman with a larger range of subject would have secured4 ,hence1 though ,barye must be recognized as one of the pioneers of ,romanticism in his art1 only a pedant can regard him as the father of modern ,french sculpture4 ,this position belongs to ,carpeaux4 ,born in #ahbg1 ,jean ,baptiste ,carpeaux started his career under the most favourable circumstances4 ,he was a pupil of ,rude4 ,not only did he inherit the technical skill of his master1 but he carried away something of the fine human sympathy which characterized the great sculptor of the ,revolutionary period4 ,carpeaux was wont to say that he 8never passed ,rude's #8,chant du ,dpart' without raising his hat40 ,winning the ,prix de ,rome in #ahed1 ,carpeaux proved that a new force had arisen in ,french sculpture when he exhibited his 8,neapolitan ,fisher ,lad0 in #aheh1 a work which strongly recalls ,rude's very similar study4 ,carpeaux's full power was revealed three years later1 when he finished his famous group of 8,ugolino and his ,sons10 now in the ,louvre at ,paris4 ,perhaps no work contains more of the spirit of ,carpeaux than the delightful high relief1 8,flora40 ,it comes from the ,pavilion of ,flora1 in the ,palace of the ,tuileries4 ,the very conventionality of the subject emphasizes the originality of ,carpeaux's treatment4 ,the ,goddess of the ,spring is surrounded by a band of dimpled putti1 dancing attendance upon her4 ,whether we like it or whether we do not1 we recognize that the relief strikes an individual note4 ,it owes nothing to philo-,hellenism4 ,carpeaux has treated the subject in a particular manner for one reason only--that is how he saw and felt it4 ,an equally good example of ,carpeaux at his best is furnished by the famous group1 8,the ,dance10 on the faade of the ,opera ,house in ,paris4 ,when it was unveiled in #ahfi1 8,the ,dance0 was greeted with a storm of angry protest4 ,small wonder4 ,what we have come to regard as the great charm of the group--the insistence upon the joy of motion--must have seemed sheer impertinence to an age which regarded a graceful calm as the one end of sculpture4 ,no doubt1 ,carpeaux's critics really believed that1 in 8,the ,dance10 ,genius1 in truth1 danced a bacchanal2 in their view1 he crowned 8,the brimming goblet1 seized the thyrsus1 bound ,his brows with ivy1 rushed into the field ,of wild imagination and there reeled1 ,the victim of his own lascivious fires1 ,and1 dizzy with delight1 profaned the sacred wires40 ,the saner judgment of to-day sees that ,carpeaux resolved for his generation one of the ultimate difficulties of his art4 ,he showed how marble might be robbed of its specific gravity4 ,in 8,the ,dance0 it leaps4 ,the sculptor has deprived stone of its essential deadness4 ,his figures live4 ,illustration3 ,j4 ,b4 ,,carpeaux ,,the ,,dance ,from the ,opera ,house1 ,paris ,,the ,,academic ,,sculptors ,the technical tradition established by ,carpeaux has never been lost4 ,to this day1 ,france boasts of a band of sculptors who can make marble 8dance0 and 8live10 as surely as ,carpeaux himself4 ,in this respect1 the ,french school is far better endowed than the ,english4 ,the technical superiority is1 in great measure1 traceable to the cole des ,beaux ,arts4 ,before we embark upon the inevitable criticism1 let us render our meed of praise4 ,the cole des ,beaux ,arts was founded as far back as #afdh4 ,it is open to ,frenchmen of all classes1 entrance being by an examination consisting of modelling in clay from 8the life40 ,the test occupies two hours daily for a week--twelve hours in all4 ,the aim of every sculptor at the cole des ,beaux ,arts is the ,prix de ,rome1 which has been held by most of the famous ,french ,masters and brings with it the very tangible advantage of a four years' residence in ,italy at the ,government's expense4 ,the school employs a large staff of highly gifted professors and provides technical instruction which is worthy of all praise4 ,few men of talent leave its walls without1 at any rate1 knowing how to model and what sculptural design actually means4 ,unfortunately the cole des ,beaux ,arts does not escape the fault of all academies4 ,its system reduces the chance of failure to a minimum1 but it does nothing to increase the proportion of supreme successes4 ,the insistence upon tradition which is inseparable from academic teaching1 seems to prevent those who accept its methods from ever expressing their full individuality4 ,to find what is most vital in ,french sculpture one has therefore to look beyond the ranks of those who have been trained in the cole des ,beaux ,arts4 ,nevertheless1 no record of modern ,french art would be complete without some reference to the sculptures to be seen in every salon1 which clearly owe their finest qualities to the teaching of that school4 ,the task of selecting two or three typical examples is an invidious one4 ,the general level of sculptural achievement in ,france is so high1 and the sculptors who claim inclusion in the first rank are so numerous1 that it is almost impossible to single out one man without remembering that another has at least an equal claim to notice4 ,bearing this proviso in mind1 few will be found to object to the inclusion of ,antoine ,idrac4 ,no finer choice can be made than his beautiful 8,mercury inventing the ,caduceus0 in the ,luxembourg collection at ,paris4 ,graceful1 suave1 restrained1 it shows ,french academic art at its very best4 ,another instructive instance can be found among the works of ,paul ,dubois 7born #ahbi71 a sculptor with rather less of the ,greek and a little more of the fervid ,italian in his temperament4 ,his most famous work is the monument to ,general de la ,moricire in the ,cathedral at ,nantes1 but ,dubois' art is equally well represented by the charming 8,st4 ,john0--in the ,luxembourg4 ,the early date of this work--it was modelled during the sculptor's stay in ,florence in #ahfj--perhaps saves it from an accusation which may be levelled against the greater portion of the sculpture of the academic school4 ,too often1 its only fault is its faultlessness4 ,for a time the senses are satisfied1 but after a second and third visit we come 8,to loathe the taste of sweetness1 whereof a little ,more than a little is by much too much40 ,in connection with this phase of modern ,french art1 reference must be made to the work of ,falguire4 ,apart from its intrinsic merit1 ,falguire's influence among the younger ,french sculptors is enormous4 ,the wonderful facility in modelling which is so common in ,france is in large measure due to his teaching and example4 ,illustration3 ,,dubois ,,saint ,,john ,luxembourg1 ,paris ,illustration3 ,,idrac ,,mercury ,,inventing ,,the ,,caduceus ,luxembourg1 ,paris ,from these illustrations it will be plain that the whole of the ,french academical school inclines to sacrifice too much to the graces4 ,aided by an almost perfect technique1 its masters have little difficulty in securing their one aim--abstract beauty4 ,but they fail to avoid showing in their marbles and bronzes a marked lifelessness obviously due to the adoption of a foreign convention4 ,in these days1 the ,french sculptor does not follow ,canova4 ,he forms his style upon semi-,italian1 semi-,greek lines1 laid down by an entity--the cole des ,beaux ,arts4 ,for this reason1 it is no coincidence that the two foremost sculptors in ,france not only failed to gain anything from the cole des ,beaux ,arts1 but can actually trace their supreme position to this very fact4 ,jules ,dalou succeeded in securing admission to the cole's classes1 but agreed that 8in the end they did him no good40 ,rodin actually sat for the entrance examination three times4 ,on each occasion he failed to persuade the authorities that his talent was worth fostering4 ,had the cole des ,beaux ,arts succeeded in dragging these two men into their all-enfolding net1 the world would certainly be the poorer by the very qualities which give the sculpture of ,dalou and ,rodin its unique value4 ,of the two1 ,jules ,dalou approaches most closely to the academic ideal4 ,he is the link between the cole des ,beaux ,arts and ,rodin4 ,the coupling of the two names must not be taken to suggest any close similarity between the two men4 ,in his general view of the world1 ,dalou is far more akin to his master1 ,carpeaux1 than he is to ,rodin4 ,the historical connection between ,dalou and his more famous contemporary arises from the evidence of a revolt against the high conventionalism of the academic school to be found in his work4 ,moreover1 like ,rodin's1 ,dalou's figures never suggest the model2 on the contrary1 they are utterly unlike those of the 8realists10 who also oppose the teachings of the cole des ,beaux ,arts4 ,this can be seen in such a work as ,dalou's great group--8,the ,triumph of ,silenus10 in the ,jardin du ,luxembourg4 ,the statue has the exuberant strength1 the irresistible gusto for the living flesh1 of a ,rubens painting4 ,dalou's sculpture has a peculiar interest for ,englishmen4 ,he is perhaps better known in ,england than any other ,french sculptor4 ,he had to fly from ,paris after the ,commune1 owing to having accepted the ,curatorship of the ,louvre during the troublous times4 ,in the course of his eight years exile in ,england1 he became professor of sculpture at ,south ,kensington4 ,dalou was1 throughout his career1 a man of strenuous purpose1 able and willing to drive home the ideals which he had made his own4 ,it would be difficult to exaggerate the influence of his instruction and example upon the younger school of ,english sculptors4 ,illustration3 ,,jules ,,dalou ,,triumph ,,of ,,silenus ,jardin du ,luxembourg1 ,paris ,,auguste ,,rodin ,rodin--,dalou's comrade in the fight against the influence of the cole des ,beaux ,arts--is a man of equally vigorous personality4 ,even more than ,dalou1 he has come to his own in spite of circumstances4 ,born in #ahdj1 ,rodin is now sixty-seven years of age4 ,at fourteen1 he started to earn a living as a maker of ornaments1 managing1 however1 to find time for classes at a ,parisian art school and lessons from the veteran ,barye4 ,little trace can now be found of the influence of the great animal sculptor upon his more famous pupil1 but ,rodin has put on record his indebtedness to ,barye4 8,it was he10 he said1 8who1 by fixing my attention upon ,nature1 carried my artistic education to a point from which ,i could pursue it alone40 ,truth to tell1 ,rodin owes his success to no one except himself4 ,he is essentially the sculptor of modern individualism in its most intense form4 ,a few years later ,rodin engaged himself as a workman in the studio of the fashionable sculptor1 ,carrier-,belleuse1 prior to emigrating to ,brussels1 as assistant to the ,belgium sculptor1 ,van ,rasbourg4 ,thirteen years were spent in these employments4 ,it was not until ,rodin returned to ,paris1 aged thirty-one1 that his career as an independent sculptor commenced4 ,in #ahgg1 he sent the famous male nude1 8,the ,age of ,brass10 to the ,salon4 ,the story of its reception is well known4 ,the jury1 astonished at its realism1 admitted the works4 ,but so perfect did they consider its modelling1 that they refused to believe that the sculptor had not taken a cast from the life4 ,fortunately1 a friend was at hand--,m4 ,turquet1 of the ,ministry of ,fine ,arts--who secured the statue for the ,luxembourg collection4 ,the struggle continued until #ahhj1 when officialdom finally decided to approve the purchase of the 8,age of ,brass0 and withdrew an entirely unjustifiable charge4 ,in the same year1 the ,state purchased the 8,st4 ,john ,baptist10 a fine bronze replica of which can be seen at ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,at the age of forty1 when many men have abandoned all hope1 ,rodin found the path to fame open4 ,the long struggle over the 8,age of ,brass0 had brought notoriety1 no small matter in an age of advertisement4 ,events soon proved that it had done much more4 ,a dogmatic revolutionary like ,rodin only required to realize how utterly his ideals clashed with those of his rivals to cling to them with fourfold energy4 ,the treble rejection by the cole des ,beaux ,arts and the cruel struggle with the ,salon ,jury turned a sculptor who would only have been a mediocre academician into a reactionary of genius4 ,rodin's reputation as a fighter has led many to believe that his work is essentially uncouth4 ,his technical powers matured slowly1 but to-day no ,french sculptor is more richly endowed4 ,when he pleases1 ,rodin can render1 say1 the velvety softness of a woman's flesh with an ease and delicate grace that any sculptor might envy4 ,a beautiful example of this side of ,rodin's genius is furnished by the 8,fallen ,danaid0 7#ahhh74 ,the girl has fallen1 in a paroxysm of grief1 on a rocky stretch--the very roughness of the setting offering a beautiful contrast to the soft modelling of the limbs4 ,the face is half buried4 ,the dishevelled hair trails amid the broken fragments of the water jar4 ,as we said of ,carpeaux's 8,flora10 the 8,danaid0 is a subject which might occupy the chisel of the most academic sculptor4 ,but there is not a suggestion of an earlier imagination in ,rodin's rendering4 ,he has simply felt the thing afresh and expressed himself in the manner which seemed most suitable4 ,the 8,danaid0 represents one side of ,rodin's genius1 but perhaps the life-work of the sculptor can be most readily appreciated from some account of the mysterious 8,gate of ,hell10 which looms so largely in all biographical notices of the sculptor4 ,the commission for the 8,gate of ,hell0 7the ,porte de l',enfer7 dates from #ahhj1 and was a direct consequence of the settlement of the controversy which arose out of the 8,age of ,brass40 ,the original idea was to provide an entrance to the projected ,muse des ,arts ,dcoratifs1 which1 if it did not vie with1 would at least recall ,lorenzo ,ghiberti's 8,gate of ,paradise10 in the ,baptistery at ,florence4 ,the original site for the ,muse in the ,cour des ,comptes has1 however1 since been utilized for a railway station1 and the ,french ,government has1 accordingly1 never required the completion of its contract4 ,for twenty-seven years the 8,gate of ,hell0 has stood in ,rodin's studio in the ,rue de l',universit--subject to constant modification and elaboration4 ,no one who has ever been absorbed in a particular art will find it difficult to realize the consequences of this chance4 ,the 8,gate of ,hell0 has become the store-house from which ,rodin draws his sculptural inspiration4 ,all his thoughts and emotions which call for sculptural expression seem to spend themselves upon it4 ,rodin's philosophy is a mixture of ,dante and ,baudelaire4 ,consequently1 the 8,gate of ,hell0 has practically become a twentieth-century paraphrase of the teachings of the two men1 expressed in terms of sculpture4 ,some of ,rodin's ideas1 naturally1 fail to find a convenient niche in the gate4 ,others prove capable of translation into individual works on a larger scale4 ,for instance1 the first idea for the well-known group in the ,luxembourg1 8,the ,kiss0 7,le ,baiser71 was designed for the ,porte de l',enfer1 and showed ,paolo and ,francesca falling hellward1 in the very throes of their guilty passion4 ,in the larger marble1 the idea has been purged of its ,dantesque character1 and ,rodin gives us a picture of the eternal beauty of true passion4 ,primarily1 8,the ,kiss0 is a study in vigorous manhood1 though ,rodin is no less successful in his treatment of the softer form of the woman4 ,neither is reminiscent of the model4 ,but while ,rodin has idealized the figures1 he has never reached the false idealism which spells convention4 ,but the real worth of 8,the ,kiss0 does not lie in its technical achievement1 but in the pure1 human emotion with which the work is suffused4 ,note--it is only a minor point--the hand on the woman's thigh1 quivering with passion4 ,compare it with the unresponsive fingers of the other hand which rest upon the stony rock4 ,when finished1 the 8,gate of ,hell0 is to be of bronze1 and it will be executed in high relief after ,ghiberti's model4 ,at present it consists of a two-leaved door1 with a frieze1 a tympanum1 and two lateral columns4 ,in the panels and upon the wide uprights are a multitude of figures--perhaps #ajj--;also in high relief4 ,the whole gate will be at least twenty feet high4 ,crowning the whole design will be the famous figure of the 8,thinker40 ,as in the case of 8,the ,kiss10 ,rodin has translated the 8,thinker0 into a larger size1 and the replica now stands in front of the steps of the ,pantheon4 ,the nude figure rests his right arm on his left knee1 the hand supporting the chin of the dreamer4 ,in the 8,thinker0 we may see the father of men1 uncultured and uncouth1 brooding over the mad doings of his children4 ,these roll below in the panels and framework of the gate1 the victims of all the passions to which mankind is heir4 ,illustration3 ,,auguste ,,rodin 8,,the ,,kiss0 7,,le ,,baiser7 ,luxembourg1 ,paris ,there is no affectation in reading a profound philosophy into the sculptures of such an artist as ,rodin4 ,the nature of the greatest art is such that profundity of thought cannot be divorced from a supreme work4 ,he is not a conscious preacher and moralist4 ,but he is impelled to bear witness to the eternal verities which manifest themselves in nature in the form of beauty4 ,a ,turner feels their message in the light and colour of the sky and sea1 a ,correggio in the glint of the hair or the soft skin of a woman4 ,a sculptor like ,rodin gazes upon a well-shaped throat1 follows the lines of a well-poised trunk or the bend of a strong man's loins1 and cries1 with ,john ,addington ,symonds3 8,i know not anything more fair than thou4-- ,god give me strength to feel thee1 power to speak ,through this dumb clay and marble all the thoughts ,that rise within my spirit while ,i gaze6-- ,what saith the ,scripture8 #8,in ,his image ,god ,shaped man1 and breathed into his nostrils breath ,of life4'--,here then1 as nowhere else1 shines ,god2 ,the ,thought made flesh1 the world's soul breathing soft ,and strong1 not merely through those lips and eyes1 ,but in each flawless limb1 each mighty curve1 ,each sinew moulded on the moving form40 ,with such a belief ,rodin1 naturally1 rarely drapes his figures4 ,he holds that not only the head and the hand1 but every part of the body1 expresses human emotion4 ,again he says3 8,i never give my model a pose4 ,it is my habit to let them wander about the studio as they will4 ,they rest or move as their mood may dictate4 ,i thus become familiar with every natural1 unforced movement of the human body40 ,in his 8,st4 ,john the ,baptist10 ,rodin worked from a model who had never posed before4 ,before he commenced1 he asked the man to raise his arm and begin walking4 ,a moment later he cried3 8,there now1 stop40 ,the result was a statue organically true1 and showing a fine spontaneity which is in the strongest contrast to the highly conventionalized figures of the academics4 ,finally1 ,rodin's technique and1 particularly1 the quality in his modelling which has earned him the title of the 8,first of the ,impressionist ,sculptors40 ,the absence of sharp definition which characterizes ,rodin's later work is evidently based upon principles closely allied to those of the impressionist painter4 ,by relying upon masses of colour1 light and shade1 the latter secures breadth and an impression of unity which a too rigid adherence to line often destroys4 ,by exaggerating the contour in one place1 and by lessening the outline here and sharpening it there1 ,rodin seeks to get closer to the natural effect produced by the action of light and shadow upon the natural object than a sculptor who relies upon pure form alone4 ,the case of the sculptor1 however1 differs considerably from that of the painter4 ,it is1 of course1 obvious that form is1 in a sense1 a mere convention1 whether in painting or sculpture4 ,no one can argue that the eye has any immediate knowledge of form1 any more than it can be said that lines really exist in nature4 ,but form is a convention which every sculptor1 from ,phidias to ,donatello1 and from ,michael ,angelo to ,houdon1 has accepted4 ,true1 no sculptor is concerned with form and form only4 ,michael ,angelo did not forget that his formal arrangements--to describe the figures of 8,dawn0 and 8,night0 in the baldest possible terms--would be seen by the aid of the sun and through the ,florentine atmosphere4 ,but it is a long cry from this intelligent use of light and shade to the ultra-modern justification for the distorted grotesques of such a sculptor as ,rosso4 ,here are ,rosso's words3 8,art must be nothing else than the expression of some sudden sensation given us by light4 ,there is no such thing as painting or sculpture4 ,there is only light40 ,illustration3 ,,auguste ,,rodin ,,the ,,thinker ,the ,pantheon1 ,paris ,it cannot be denied that if ,rosso's works are viewed from a given distance1 the proportions are rectified by the play of light and shade1 and that the result is a surprising illusion of life4 ,but1 regarded as statues1 the things are little more than fascinating tricks4 ,in such an absolute sense as this1 the term 8impressionist0 cannot properly be applied to ,rodin4 ,it may1 however1 be used in another and broader sense as indicating an artist who seeks to express the synthesis of things as he sees them under the influence of a mood4 ,rodin knows that he is neither a contemporary of ,phidias nor ,donatello4 ,he rightly refuses to confine himself to forms which the ,athenians and the ,florentines happened to find most suitable for the expression of their experience4 ,this is the simple justification for much that is regarded as iconoclastic in his artistic creed4 ,when he cries3 8,sculpture is the art of the hole and the lump1 not of the clean1 well-smoothed1 unmodelled figures10 ,rodin merely asserts a closer kinship with the ,gothic than the ,greek ideal4 ,whether ,phidias1 ,scopas1 and ,praxiteles are right and ,rodin wrong1 matters little4 ,the all-important question is whether ,rodin's reliance upon the ridges which express spiritual tension1 and his willingness to utilize tortuous poses which a ,greek would have rejected1 have enabled him to sound a new note of passion in sculpture4 ,we hold that they have4 ,it is too early to judge of the value of this new note4 ,a hundred years hence the world will be able to give a decision4 ,a contemporary can only see a man who expresses what he feels1 strongly and fearlessly4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,modern ,,british ,,school ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century ,this is an ,english book4 ,it is written for men and women who look upon the world from the distinctive standpoint arising from the use of a common language4 ,at the head of a chapter devoted to sculpture in modern ,england1 let it be said1 definitely and defiantly1 that there is an ,english school4 ,the proposition is by no means as sure of general acceptance as it should be4 ,there are many critics who appear to doubt the existence of ,english sculpture4 ,they seem to regard ,paris as the only source of modern work and the ,english school as a mere branch of the ,french4 ,the real truth is that1 apart from technique1 the ,english sculptor has little to learn from his ,continental neighbour4 ,we are not writing of clay-thumbers or marble-chippers1 who work for the promise of a measure of material prosperity4 ,we have in mind earnest craftsmen who turn to sculpture naturally--joying in an art which enables them to give form to the thoughts and feelings astir around them4 ,great ,britain has no cause to fear a comparison between the number of such men working in ,england and ,france4 ,owing to the lack of a gallery like the ,luxembourg and the absence of the magnificent facilities offered by the ,salons1 the quality and the quantity of the work produced by the ,english school is hard to gauge4 ,nevertheless1 it exists4 ,when the ,english ,national ,gallery is rebuilt according to ,barry's design and the two glazed loggie1 flanking the main entrance and each running for #cjj feet by #ae along the face of the building1 are filled with ,british sculpture1 doubt will be impossible4 ,nor is this all4 ,english sculpture is1 in a very true sense1 a national art4 ,not as we should apply the term to the art of seventeenth-century ,holland or ,ancient ,athens1 but in the sense that modern ,french sculpture is national4 ,in both ,england and ,france1 a body of sculptors has arisen1 able and anxious to express to the full individualities which have been moulded by the influences among which it works4 ,as we have seen1 this became possible in ,france about the middle of the last century4 ,in ,england the growth of a similar movement may be traced back some thirty years4 ,a convenient date is #ahgg1 when ,sir ,frederic ,leighton exhibited his epoch-making bronze 8,athlete struggling with a ,python40 ,after the death of ,flaxman1 the ,english sculptors drifted into the same blind alley in which most of the ,frenchmen found themselves4 ,for fifty years they made little or no effort to rid themselves of the false canons of ,canova and the philo-,hellenes4 ,westmacott1 ,mac,dowell1 and ,wyatt1 to mention three ,english sculptors1 all based their style upon that of the ,venetian master4 ,arguing from the supreme achievements of the ,greeks1 they chose to imitate the classic manner as closely as possible4 ,their technique was ,greek2 their subjects were ,greek2 everything was ,greek except their habits of thought and feeling4 ,to ,canova and ,thorvaldsen1 the ideas of ,winckelmann and ,lessing had come with the freshness of a newly discovered truth4 ,they had the stimulating force of novelty4 ,during the following fifty years1 however1 the pseudo-,greek canon was merely accepted as a convenient form which at least had the merit of sparing the artist the trouble of fresh invention4 ,the consequences1 as far as ,english sculpture is concerned1 can best be realized from a visit to the ,gibson ,gallery at ,burlington ,house1 ,london4 ,gibson1 who was born in #agij1 was1 perhaps1 the most popular of ,canova's ,english pupils--assuming that he did not forfeit all claim to be regarded as an ,englishman during his twenty-seven years' stay in ,rome4 ,upon his death1 in #ahff1 he bequeathed the contents of his studio to the ,british public1 and they are now housed in the ,diploma ,gallery at the ,royal ,academy4 ,gibson is perhaps best known through his 8,venus40 ,it created a stir at the time of its first exhibition1 owing to the sculptor's attempt to popularize 8tinted0 sculpture1 in imitation of the classical fashion4 ,the statue was designed to stand in a pale purple-blue niche4 ,the hair and eyes of the goddess were decidedly coloured1 the body being stained a rose tint4 ,gibson1 however1 failed to persuade the public and the sculptors of his age that any departure from an absolute dependence upon pure form was desirable4 ,the 8,tinted ,venus0 was the first and the last of its race4 ,illustration3 ,,john ,,gibson ,,hylas ,,and ,,the ,,nymphs ,tate ,gallery1 ,london ,an equally illuminating example of ,gibson's style can be seen at the ,tate ,gallery4 ,this is the group1 8,hylas and the ,nymphs10 modelled in #ahbf4 ,the technical industry of the sculptor and his feeling for sculptural form are obvious at once4 ,but no one1 comparing the 8,hylas0 with the modern works of the ,british school which surround it1 can fail to see the sickly conventionalism with which it is imbued4 ,notice1 for instance1 the modelling of the limbs of the two nymphs1 and compare them with those of the boy4 ,surely any imaginative sculptor of the modern school would insist1 above all1 upon the obvious contrast between the male and the female form1 seeing that the story of ,hylas itself depends upon this very point4 ,gibson1 however1 practically models the male and the female limbs1 the male and the female flesh1 alike4 ,hylas has not the legs of a youth1 nor have the nymphs1 who have been smitten by his beauty1 the legs of women4 ,gibson has chosen to adopt a conventional compromise1 unrelated to anything in nature1 and selected for no other reason than a fancied resemblance to the ,greek style4 ,the three figures are graceful enough4 ,but they are unsatisfying in the last degree to all who have felt the far more potent emotions arising from a rigid adherence to nature4 ,hence 8,hylas and the ,nymphs0 and the works in the ,gibson ,gallery remain as perpetual memorials of all that the artists of our own day had to rid themselves before the rebirth of ,english sculpture was possible4 ,matters improved very little during the thirty years following the production of ,gibson's 8,hylas40 ,what can we learn from the exhibitions of #ahea and #ahfb1 which may be fairly taken to represent the apotheosis of mid-,victorian artistic taste8 ,in his official guide to the ,fine ,art ,section of #ahfb the editor1 ,f4 ,t4 ,palgrave--of 8,golden ,treasury0 fame--refers to sculpture as 8the forlorn hope of modern art10 and proceeds to answer the question 8whence this deathly decline80 ,the exhibition contained examples of all that was best in ,english sculpture to that time4 8,the ,falling ,titan10 by ,banks1 now in the ,diploma ,gallery2 the 8,thetis and ,achilles0 relief1 now in the ,tate ,gallery2 ,nollekens' 8,cupid and ,psyche0 ,joseph's 0,wilberforce0 7,westminster ,abbey71 and works by ,flaxman1 ,westmacott1 ,chantrey1 ,wyatt1 ,watson and ,park represented the earlier masters4 ,sculptures by ,armstead1 ,baily1 ,foley1 ,gibson1 ,mac,dowell1 ,marshall1 ,woolner and the younger ,westmacott witnessed to the achievements of the living4 ,yet ,palgrave could only grieve over the decline in natural taste and the entire absence of that healthy severity and earnestness of spirit in which sculpture flourishes4 8,serious as the subject claims to be10 says ,palgrave1 8,i confess it is difficult to think of ,nollekens' #8,venus1' ,canova's #8,venus1' ,thorvaldsen's #8,venus1' ,gibson's #8,venus1' everybody's #8,venus' with due decorum4 ,one fancies one healthy1 modern laugh would clear the air of these idle images--one agrees with the honest old woman in the play who preferred a roast duck to all the birds in the heathen mythology40 ,in the 8,albert ,memorial0 erected in ,kensington ,gardens1 ,london1 8by the ,queen and people of a grateful country10 we have a concrete example of what was in ,palgrave's mind when he wrote4 ,prince ,consort was himself a man of real artistic perception4 ,by his magnificent work in connection with the #ahea ,exhibition he had done an immense amount to raise the standard of taste in ,england4 ,funds were not wanting4 #ej1jjj was subscribed by the nation and at least another #fj1jjj was raised by public subscription4 ,the ,eleanor ,cross was designed by ,sir ,gilbert ,scott and all the leading sculptors were invited to co-operate4 ,if the mid-,victorians had had it in them to produce a noble work1 surely we should have seen the result in the 8,albert ,memorial40 ,an examination only confirms the general impression which every ,londoner has about the monument4 ,the 8,asia0 by ,foley1 for instance2 the 8,africa0 by ,theed2 the 8,agriculture0 by the elder ,thornycroft--in none of these can we see any clear evidence that the sculptors had yet rid themselves of the conventions which had been hampering them for at least fifty years4 ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,naturalism ,nevertheless1 among those engaged upon the ,albert ,memorial were men who were to see the advent of a new spirit4 ,foley himself1 who died in #ahgd1 lived to carve the fine equestrian statue of ,sir ,james ,outram4 ,this was one of the earliest works to show a clear trace of the return to the observation of nature1 which was necessary if the ,english sculptors were to follow the lead given by ,carpeaux in ,france4 ,even in ,h4 ,h4 ,armstead's work upon the frieze running round the podium of the ,albert ,memorial there are traces of a largeness and vigour of treatment indicative of better things4 ,both1 however1 were born too early to give ,english sculptors a decisive lead4 ,strangely enough at the very time the sculptors of ,england were working upon the ,albert ,memorial1 one of the greatest geniuses in the history of ,english sculpture was working upon another national monument4 ,we mean ,alfred ,stevens1 the sculptor of the 8,wellington ,memorial0 in ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral--the most complete piece of decorative sculpture ever set up in this country4 ,born in #ahag1 ,stevens went to ,italy in #ahcc4 ,he spent a portion of the nine years he lived there in ,thorvaldsen's studio1 but his first study was painting4 ,on his return to ,england he became a teacher of architectural drawing at ,somerset ,house and then started a career as a decorative designer4 ,helped by such followers as ,godfrey ,sykes and ,moody1 who carried his principles into the ,government art school1 ,stevens founded a school of domestic decorators which influenced decorative art in ,england through the remainder of the nineteenth century4 ,a brilliant example of this side of ,stevens's genius is furnished by the magnificent 8,fireplace0 at ,dorchester ,house4 ,stevens's great chance as a sculptor came in #ahef when he secured the commission for the ,wellington ,memorial4 ,such a group as the 8,truth tearing out the tongue of ,falsehood0 is alone sufficient to prove how far ,stevens was ahead of the ,english sculptors of his time in originality of treatment and breadth of design4 ,it is true that the sculptor's indebtedness to ,michael ,angelo is obvious1 but the work of ,stevens does not show any slavish copying of the great ,florentine4 ,the ,english sculptor has merely solved his problem by the light of ,angelo's experience4 ,he has sought to reach the boldness of mass and line which he found in the master's sculpture4 ,a certain naturalism1 also derived from his study of ,renaissance art1 together with its magnificently bold design and architectural fitness1 gives the ,wellington ,memorial a unique place in the history of ,english sculpture4 ,nevertheless1 ,alfred ,stevens was the ,baptist of ,english ,naturalism4 ,he died--a voice crying in the wilderness4 ,so little was his work esteemed that the ,wellington ,memorial itself was not brought up from the crypt and placed in the nave of the ,cathedral1 where it could be seen1 until long after the sculptor's death in #ahge4 ,illustration3 ,,alfred ,,stevens ,,figure ,,from ,,the ,,fireplace1 ,,dorchester ,,house1 ,,london ,in spite of ,stevens's apparent failure1 the elements of a regenerated school of ,english sculpture existed4 ,it only needed a man of real artistic influence and established reputation to focus attention upon the possibility of better things4 ,in view of the position which the sister art of painting held in ,england1 it is not surprising that the lead came from two painters4 ,both were men of commanding personality1 and both were in the very prime of their artistic careers4 ,the one was ,g4 ,f4 ,watts1 the other1 of course1 was ,frederic ,leighton4 ,watts's bronze bust1 8,clytie10 was modelled some years before ,leighton's 8,athlete ,struggling with a ,python10 and never aroused the enthusiastic admiration which fell to the later work4 ,nevertheless1 the 8,clytie0--it can be seen at the ,tate ,gallery--was a work of real beauty and power4 ,moreover1 it displayed a naturalism which distinguished it from almost all the plastic art produced in ,england earlier in the century4 ,this alone entitles ,g4 ,f4 ,watts to an honourable place in the history of the renascence of ,english sculpture4 ,leighton's 8,athlete and ,python0 was a far more ambitious work than ,watts's 8,clytie40 ,it began as a small study1 and the story goes that ,dalou--some say ,legros--persuaded ,leighton to carry out the design in life-size4 ,three years later it was ready4 ,probably sheer beauty of formal design was ,leighton's chief aim4 ,but what struck his contemporaries was the finely vigorous pose1 the splendid rendering of energetic movement and the magnificent naturalism with which an unfamiliar subject was rendered4 ,the man holds the creature at arm's-length1 striving to prevent the thrust of the ugly jaws1 which threaten death if once they can bring the full weight of the crushing coils to bear4 ,the reception accorded to ,leighton's 8,athlete and ,python0 was such that it is no exaggeration to date the model school of ,english sculpture from its exhibition4 ,appropriately enough1 it became the first purchase under the bequest of the sculptor1 ,chantrey4 ,but all great artistic revivals are two-sided4 ,there must be a spiritual stimulus as well as a technical4 ,if the first may be credited to ,leighton as far as the revival of ,english sculpture is concerned1 the improvement in technique is undoubtedly traceable to ,jules ,dalou1 the ,french sculptor4 ,our readers will remember how ,dalou fled from ,paris1 on account of his connection with the ,commune4 ,during his stay in ,england he was persuaded to conduct the modelling class at ,south ,kensington4 ,the influence of his technical example and forceful personality began to show itself at once4 ,dalou made ,south ,kensington one of the first centres of sculptural training in the world4 ,when he returned to ,paris1 he was succeeded by ,professor ,lanteri--the sculptor of the virile 8,head of a ,peasant10 in the ,tate ,gallery--whose influence has since rivalled that of ,dalou4 ,both were magnificently facile workers in clay4 ,by continued practical demonstration they proved to the younger ,english sculptors the inestimable value of ease in modelling4 ,the ,english school1 as a whole1 is still behind the ,french in facility of execution1 but ,dalou and ,lanteri have done very much to remedy the defect4 ,the ,dalou influence was continued in the second great training school of ,london--the ,lambeth ,school of ,art--by his pupil1 ,w4 ,s4 ,frith4 ,the success of ,mr4 ,sparks' school may be judged from the fact that ,alfred ,gilbert1 ,frampton1 ,goscombe ,john1 ,harry ,bates1 ,pomeroy and ,roscoe ,mullins all graduated there4 ,indeed1 at one time1 studentship at ,lambeth seemed a necessary preliminary for all sculptors of ambition4 ,year after year1 the gold medal at the ,royal ,academy and the #bjj travelling scholarship were taken by ,lambeth students4 ,illustration3 ,,lord ,,leighton ,,athlete ,,struggling ,,with ,,python ,tate ,gallery1 ,london ,if ,south ,kensington and ,lambeth have shared the honour of laying the foundations of the art education of the younger ,english sculptors1 there are few cases in which the ,academy schools cannot claim to have completed the task4 ,the fact is often forgotten by the ,academy's many detractors4 ,under the present system1 any sculptor of real promise can practically command a complete art education4 ,the schools are free1 the professors being the members of the ,academy1 who take monthly turns in the schools4 ,admission is by examination--that for a sculptor entailing the presentation of an anatomical drawing1 showing bones and muscles1 a model in the round of an undraped antique1 and a life-sized medallion from the living model4 ,in many respects the ,academy system is superior to that of the cole des ,beaux ,arts4 ,such a judge as ,mr4 ,edwin ,abbey has even recommended ,american art students to choose ,london in preference to ,paris on this account4 8,in ,paris10 he says1 8all the personality is rubbed out of a student4 ,french methods and technique are hammered into him so unceasingly that he departs a mere reflection of the movement of the latest school4 ,in ,london there is more catholicity in art matters2 originality is strongly encouraged1 and the student1 particularly at the ,royal ,academy1 is given every chance to develop along individual lines40 ,this is proved by the fact that almost all the foremost ,english sculptors have been trained in the ,academy schools4 ,in ,france1 men of pronounced originality like ,rodin and ,dalou become anti-,academic by instinct4 ,in ,england1 some men leave the beaten track which every academic course must follow1 more readily than others4 ,but even the most pronounced innovators seem able to benefit from the influence of the ,academicians during their studentship4 ,still the distinction between the sculptors who preserve the academic spirit throughout their careers and those who prefer to rely upon their native individuality does exist4 ,it furnishes a convenient method for dividing the modern ,english school into two distinct parts4 ,among the first may be reckoned ,thomas ,brock and ,hamo ,thornycroft1 while the second1 and more important class1 is headed by ,alfred ,gilbert1 and includes ,onslow ,ford1 ,harry ,bates1 ,frampton and ,swan4 ,thomas ,brock was born in #ahdg4 ,he was a pupil of ,foley and1 therefore1 came sufficiently under the influence of the mid-,victorian school to mark a transition rather than a break from the older traditions4 ,to-day he is pre-eminently the 8safe0 man in ,english sculpture--a fact which accounts for his receiving the commission for the ,queen ,victoria ,memorial to be erected in front of ,buckingham ,palace4 ,but ,brock's 8safeness0 does not prevent him executing work of real beauty4 ,the 8,eve10 in the ,tate ,gallery1 is a work which any school of sculpture would be proud to claim4 ,it shows the ,mother of ,men as a frail girl4 ,she realizes for the first time what the loss of primal innocence entails and1 with bowed head1 moves slowly from the garden4 ,the design is one of the most beautiful in ,english sculpture4 ,the grace of line displayed in the treatment of the abdomen--so beautiful in womanhood--and the pose of the lower limbs are beyond criticism4 ,if the 8,eve0 has a fault it is that the subject is clearly susceptible of highly dramatic treatment4 ,in ,mr4 ,brock's statue there is no attempt to express the intensity of passion which a sculptor of the temper of ,rodin would have regarded as the one thing worth rendering4 ,illustration3 ,,thomas ,,brock ,,eve ,tate ,gallery1 ,london ,illustration3 ,w4 ,,hamo ,,thornycroft ,,the ,,mower ,walker ,art ,gallery1 ,liverpool ,if ,thomas ,brock stands for the ,english academic ideal on its romantic side1 ,hamo ,thornycroft represents the more naturalistic side of the same movement4 ,w4 ,hamo ,thornycroft--who must be distinguished from his father1 the sculptor of a group on the ,albert ,memorial--was born in #ahej4 ,his first exhibited work dates from #ahga4 ,a year later1 he entered the ,academy schools1 gaining the gold medal in #ahgd1 with his group 8,a warrior bearing his ,wounded ,son from ,battle10 one of the very finest works which ever gained a studentship4 ,it was no empty triumph4 ,the young ,thornycroft defeated no less an opponent than ,alfred ,gilbert1 and his design challenged attention against such an exhibit as ,stevens's model for the ,wellington ,memorial4 ,a man capable of such work in his student days was bound to go far4 8,the ,mower0 7,walker ,art ,gallery1 ,liverpool7 shows to what the virile naturalism of ,thornycroft led4 ,there is no sculpture which contains more of the thoroughly ,british spirit4 ,englishmen have little natural affection for the ,whistler method of dashing off a 8,harmony0 in a couple of days and charging #cjj guineas for it4 ,they like to detect some definite proof of high thinking and strenuous workmanship in their art as in everything else4 ,a sculpture of ,thornycroft always leaves this impression4 ,added to that we feel that the artist is working towards a definite end1 sufficiently ideal to demand effort1 yet near enough to earth to come within his powers4 ,in the original sketch model of 8,the ,mower10 the upper part of the figure was draped4 ,thornycroft1 however1 finally discarded the shirt4 ,he evidently felt that the subject could be treated in a thoroughly modern manner without departing altogether from the classical method4 ,he succeeded in producing a statue which is neither conventional nor iconoclastic4 ,whether this is to be counted a virtue or a vice depends upon the critic's temperament1 but the question is1 perhaps1 worthy of examination4 ,meunier1 the ,belgian sculptor1 has modelled a bronze 8,mower10 which ,thornycroft's statue irresistibly recalls4 ,a comparison of the two works not only throws a searching light upon the whole school of sculpture which the ,englishman represents1 but1 incidentally1 brings into relief the leading characteristics of ,meunier's own work4 ,no excuse is1 therefore1 necessary for interrupting our general survey of ,british sculpture with a reference to a sister school which really merits a chapter to itself4 ,meunier is a man who has devoted himself to themes suggested by the colliery and artizan life of his country4 ,brought up in the ,belgian ,black ,country1 the sombre gloom of the life there became part of his very being4 ,after a period of continuous struggle against poverty and sickness1 he turned to sculpture at the age of fifty1 under the influence of the achievements of ,rodin4 ,as a result1 we see in ,meunier's 8,mower0 the thought and emotion of a man who feels the beautiful misery of labour in the depths of his soul4 ,the intense human pathos enshrined in the bronze is something which the ,english sculptor neither feels nor seeks to express4 ,illustration3 ,,meunier 7,,belgian ,,school7 ,,the ,,mower ,in saying this we are in no sense disparaging ,mr4 ,thornycroft's work4 ,true1 he makes no attempt to suggest the vague poetry with which ,meunier invests his ,flemish or ,walloon labourers4 ,but1 at any rate1 the classic severity with which he has treated an essentially modern theme strikes us as thoroughly honest4 ,there is no trace of a pose4 ,thornycroft has set down what he saw and what he felt4 ,the hint of the ,greek manner in the representation of the ,english labourer only reminds us that the sculptor who would express the beauty of the male form to-day is faced with the very task which the ,athenian essayed #bjjj years ago4 ,leighton's 8,athlete and ,python10 ,brock's 8,eve0 and ,thornycroft's 8,mower0 must1 then1 be compared with the works of such ,frenchmen as ,chapu1 ,idrac and ,dubois4 ,from the three ,englishmen we turn naturally enough to the sculptors who represent the movement in ,english art corresponding to the anti-academic revolt in ,france4 ,the characteristic common to ,leighton1 ,brock1 and ,thornycroft is a certain emotional restraint4 ,they seem to content themselves with the truthful representation of natural beauty4 ,from none of the three do we gain the impression of a forceful individuality striving after self-expression4 ,nevertheless1 there is a movement in ,english art comparable with the anti-academic revolt in ,france4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,individualism ,alfred ,gilbert is the ,carpeaux and the ,rodin of ,english sculpture4 ,the analogy must not be pressed too closely4 ,but1 as the first sculptor to widen the bounds of his art by arousing his fellows to a sense of fresh technical possibilities1 the influence of ,alfred ,gilbert may rightly be compared with that of ,carpeaux4 ,through the constancy and power with which he has asseverated his belief in sculpture as a means of emotional expression1 ,gilbert ranks as the ,english ,rodin4 ,unlike ,rodin1 ,gilbert has never severed his connection with the academic school4 ,indeed1 the ,professorship of ,sculpture at the ,royal ,academy was actually revived in his favour in #aija4 ,but ,gilbert's artistic creed is essentially ,rodinesque4 ,again and again he has preached from the text3 8,be your own star40 ,again and again he has impressed upon the sculptors of to-morrow the vital truth--that the future lies with men who will dare to put themselves into marble and bronze4 ,he has never tired of reiterating his belief that for the sculptor3 8,strength is from within1 and one against the world will always win40 ,born in #ahed1 ,alfred ,gilbert realized his vocation in early youth4 ,as a boy it is said that he carved heads of walking sticks for his schoolmates4 ,he confesses himself that he hired a small room near ,aldenham ,school at #as4 a week as a studio4 ,coming up to ,london1 he finally entered the ,royal ,academy schools and joined ,sir ,edgar ,boehm--,queen ,victoria's sculptor in ordinary--as an 8improver40 ,after losing the ,r4,a4 ,gold ,medal to ,thornycroft1 he crossed to ,paris1 studying at the cole des ,beaux ,arts4 ,gilbert has put on record his reasons for leaving ,france4 ,they are thoroughly typical of the sculptor4 ,finding the influences at work were too potent to allow of the due assertion of his own personality1 he determined to go to ,italy--a stronghold of individualism4 8,in ,florence10 he tells us1 8,i saw1 for the first time in my life1 the works of the fathers of the ,renaissance1 and ,i was struck by the absolute independence and freedom of thought and truthful representation of the ideas they possessed4 ,so impressed was ,i with the fact that their representations were not mere photographs and yet so true to nature1 that they seemed to reveal to me what ,i then understood as style1 but which ,i have since learnt to regard as the expression of an individuality40 ,this is the essence of the artistic philosophy of ,alfred ,gilbert4 ,it adumbrates a high ideal1 but allied with sane craftsmanship1 it is one which has always served the sculptor who honestly strove to put its precepts into practice4 ,what has been the outcome in ,gilbert's case8 ,there is a strain of pathos in the answer4 ,no sculptor of our day has had more abundant opportunities4 ,yet1 somehow1 ,fortune has proved a fickle jade to ,gilbert4 ,this is particularly the case with his larger works4 ,the ,shaftesbury ,memorial1 in ,piccadilly ,circus1 should be regarded by every ,londoner as an epoch-making work4 ,it compares with ,stevens's monument to the ,duke of ,wellington in the wealth1 imagination and craftsmanship lavished upon it4 ,in point of fact1 it is held in universal disregard4 ,not one ,londoner in a thousand even troubles to remember the name of the sculptor4 ,the ,shaftesbury ,memorial was conceived under an unlucky star4 ,alfred ,gilbert was about thirty years of age when the commission reached him4 ,he accepted it as the chance of a lifetime4 ,the design has always been admitted to be a masterpiece1 but throughout its erection1 the ,memorial was dogged by misfortune1 until1 as it stands to-day it can hardly be said to represent the sculptor's idea at all4 ,this is due to causes largely outside his control4 ,it is true that the aluminium figure of the archer which surmounts it has darkened and has lost its first silvery lightness4 ,it may be alleged that ,gilbert should have foreseen the eventuality4 ,but in several material respects the ,memorial differs entirely from what he proposed4 ,at the very last moment a new base was added at the request of a party of humanitarians who were anxious that the thirsty ,londoner might not be disappointed4 ,alfred ,gilbert's design did not contemplate this1 but the ,london ,county ,council held that1 since the monument had taken the form of a fountain1 it was only logical--logical1 forsooth6--that water should be there for man and beast4 ,later the design was shorn of its ground-floor--which was to have been a bronze basin4 ,this space is now occupied by the steps4 ,the sculptor contemplated the water from the fountain playing into the basin4 ,the change actually reduced the structure by six feet4 ,finally1 the cry of a too large water bill was raised1 and the jets of all shapes and forms1 which were to have played among the fishes that form the principal part of the decorative scheme1 were reduced to the present trickle4 ,our readers may remember how the artists of ,florence turned out to debate what site the 8,david0 of the youthful ,michael ,angelo was to occupy4 ,a less tragic note would sound through the story of the ,shaftesbury ,memorial if the sculptor had had to deal with a similar body of men1 instead of a committee chosen for its ability to collect subscriptions and a soulless corporation like the ,london ,county ,council4 ,illustration3 ,,alfred ,,gilbert ,,saint ,,george ,from the ,clarence ,memorial1 ,windsor ,in the nature of things it is hard to illustrate the whole of a full and vigorous personality from one or two of his works4 ,perhaps ,gilbert1 in his double capacity of craftsman and imaginative designer1 can best be judged from the ,tomb of the late ,duke of ,clarence1 in the ,memorial ,chapel1 ,windsor4 ,it has a double interest1 inasmuch as it reveals at once the strength and the weakness of his method4 ,directly after the sad death of the ,prince in #ahib1 the sculptor was called to ,sandringham4 ,he arrived on the ,saturday and learnt the wishes of the present ,king and ,queen4 ,during the ,sunday night ,gilbert conceived and designed the whole monument4 ,three days later he submitted the completed sketch4 ,he knew the ,wolsey ,chapel in which the tomb was to be placed to be of ,gothic design and1 consequently1 determined upon a sarcophagus1 surrounded by an open-work grille1 such as ,peter ,vischer might have chosen4 ,as it is to be seen to-day1 the recumbent figure of the ,prince lies upon the bier4 ,two angels kneel1 the one at the head1 the other at the feet4 ,with beautiful fancy1 ,gilbert has carved the first holding a crown above the dead man's head--the crown of immortality1 which prince1 peer and peasant can earn4 ,the angel at the base of the sarcophagus places a broken wreath on the feet--in memory of a death upon the eve of marriage4 ,the figure of the 8,saint ,george0 is one of a series of ,patron ,saints introduced into the grille4 ,st4 ,nicholas1 ,st4 ,edward the ,confessor1 ,st4 ,barbara1 and ,st4 ,george are included1 the selection depending upon some legendary connection with the ,royal ,house of ,britain4 ,the 8,saint ,george0 was exhibited in the form of a statuette at the ,royal ,academy4 ,the poetical design and fine craftsmanship aroused general enthusiasm4 ,what could be more charming1 for example1 than the grace with which ,gilbert has played with his pretty fancy of basing the armour of the ,saint upon forms suggested by the sea-shells8 ,yet there is nothing oppressive in the sculptor's use of this idea4 ,it is never permitted to interfere with the main lines of the figure4 ,the insistence upon the shell-like forms has1 rather1 a fugal charm1 the fancy being treated now in one part of the design1 now in another1 a slightly varying form here1 answering a similar one there1 until all have been interwoven into one beautiful complexity4 ,unfortunately1 the praise that is due to a work as beautiful as the 8,saint ,george0 cannot be given to the ,clarence ,memorial as a whole4 ,indeed1 in its place1 the effect of the statuette1 instead of being heightened1 is diminished4 ,the instance is typical of the impression left by the complete work4 ,brilliantly imaginative as the general conception was1 the original ideas have not fused into that grand unity which is the last test of the greatest works of art4 ,between the first conception of a great memorial--say the ,medici ,chapel1 the ,tomb of ,maximilian1 or the ,clarence ,memorial--and the final result1 there is a great gulf fixed4 ,more than imaginative craftsmanship is required to bridge this4 ,the task calls for unswerving patience and not a little business tact4 ,in one or another of these faculties1 ,gilbert seems to be lacking4 ,the imagination and craftsmanship which produce a work like the 8,saint ,george0 flag before a commission of the first magnitude is completed4 ,an artistic creed like ,alfred ,gilbert's is a magnificent thing4 ,but it needs to be allied with strength of character and a rigid self-criticism4 ,had the ,english sculptor added a measure of the nature of ,michael ,angelo to the strain of rich poetry and high artistic ideality with which he has been endowed1 ,england would have been able to boast a genius of the first order4 ,as things are1 it can be grateful for--an ,alfred ,gilbert4 ,illustration3 ,,onslow ,,ford ,,egyptian ,,singer ,tate ,gallery1 ,london ,the sculptor who shared with ,alfred ,gilbert the honour of having been the earliest ,englishman to express through marble and bronze the whole of a rich poetical philosophy was ,onslow ,ford4 ,born in #aheb and sending his first work of sculpture to the ,academy in #ahge1 ,onslow ,ford received his early training as a painter4 ,indeed1 he never had any systematic instruction as a sculptor4 ,he came into notice by winning the 8,rowland ,hill0 competition1 the result being the statue which stands behind the ,royal ,exchange1 within a stone's-throw of ,dalou's charming bronze fountain1 8,maternity40 ,very shortly after he carved the magnificent marble 8,henry ,irving as ,hamlet10 now at the ,guildhall1 the property of the ,corporation of ,london4 ,the 8,henry ,irving0 is one of the most complete efforts in ,english art4 ,the beauty of the design and the powerful modelling of the face and hands1 place the statue in the very forefront of modern ,english sculpture4 ,added to this is the magnificent realism with which the sculptor has preserved the sense of theatrical portraiture4 ,the figure is not ,henry ,irving2 nor is it ,hamlet4 ,the imaginative insight of the artist has been able to reach an absolute fusion of the two ideas4 ,it really is 8,henry ,irving as ,hamlet40 ,no reference to the genius of ,onslow ,ford would be complete without a word as to his statuettes1 particularly as 8sculpture in little0 may well prove to be the means whereby the ,english sculptor will regain the attention of the art-buyer in the near future4 ,one of ,onslow ,ford's most charming efforts in this direction is the delightfully whimsical 8,folly40 ,it represents a figure with the adolescent charms of budding womanhood balancing herself on the edge of a precipitous rock4 ,toes clutching at the slippery edge--a fancy which is characteristic of ,onslow ,ford--8,folly0 is calling to the foolish to follow the dream picture she can see in the distance4 ,the charm of the little work lies in the freshness of the conception1 the perfect balance of the figure and the beautiful realism with which form and flesh have been rendered4 8,the ,egyptian ,singer0 7,tate ,gallery7 is an equally charming example of the sculptor's art4 ,onslow ,ford died in #aija4 ,a sculptor of almost equal genius1 though of less prolific accomplishment1 was lost to ,english sculpture at an equally early age4 ,we are referring to ,harry ,bates 7#ahdg-ahii74 ,there are two fine examples of his work at the ,tate ,gallery1 ,london4 ,note the grace with which the artist's imagination has given a new turn to so hackneyed a theme as the myth of ,pandora3 ,bates's 8,pandora0 is less an illustration of the ,greek story than it is of an episode in the life-history of a woman of to-day4 ,a sweet1 virginal figure1 she is opening the box in which ,fate has hidden the unknown1 without a premonition of the sorrows which must attend the revelation of the secret4 ,the equally well-known 8,hounds in ,leash10 was sculptured by ,bates to prove that he was as much at home in treating a subject requiring the expression of vigorous action as he was in the treatment of figures at rest4 ,illustration3 ,,harry ,,bates ,,pandora ,tate ,gallery1 ,london ,illustration3 ,j4 ,m4 ,,swan 8,,orpheus0 ,there are many sculptors in ,england at the present time who would claim attention were our survey an exhaustive one4 ,this1 of course1 is not our purpose4 ,it will therefore suffice to recall two other works in proof of the intense individualism of latter-day sculpture in ,great ,britain4 ,the first is ,j4 ,m4 ,swan's charming statuette 8,orpheus10 exhibited in the ,royal ,academy of #ahie4 ,j4 ,m4 ,swan is1 of course1 the painter4 ,he studied first at ,lambeth1 then at the ,academy and finally at ,paris1 where he came under the influence of ,frmiet1 the animal sculptor4 ,it is as a sculptor of animals that ,swan has made his reputation4 ,indeed he may be roughly labelled as the ,english ,barye4 ,note how delightfully the sinuousness of the lithe figure of the 8,orpheus0 is rendered4 ,here we have the spirit1 not the echo1 of the ,greek myth4 ,like ,barye1 ,swan is a realist1 though his method is the reverse of realistic1 since he is more concerned with the masses than the details4 ,swan's supreme gift lies in his power to detect character in the whole of the human and animal form4 ,his charm depends on the delightfully individualistic methods by which he expresses his insight4 ,none of his statuettes ever strike us as coming from another man's studio4 ,an equally strong individualistic note is struck in ,george ,frampton's 8,mysteriarch40 ,this beautiful marble was exhibited in the ,academy of #ahic4 ,it affords a fine example of the sculptor's art at its best4 ,the bust is set in front of a gilded disc supported upon an architecturally treated screen1 the figure being cut1 ,florentine fashion1 just below the shoulders4 ,the treatment of the subject is in a high degree imaginative1 while the subtlety with which the serene severity of the face is rendered proves the possession of fine technical powers4 ,george ,frampton was born in #ahfj4 ,he studied1 like ,harry ,bates1 under ,mr4 ,frith at ,lambeth1 passed on to the ,academy school1 and finished by gaining the ,gold ,medal in #ahhg4 ,he has since acted as an art adviser to the ,technical ,education ,board of the ,london ,county ,council1 a position which has enabled him to give a wide currency to very definite artistic ideals4 ,he is one of the men with whom the future of ,english sculpture rests4 ,this brief sketch of modern ,british sculpture completes our task4 ,our aim has been to map out the entire history of the art4 ,in our view the study of the development of sculpture in terms of isolated craftsmen would have involved a basic fallacy4 ,the individual is no more than the crest of a wave in the sea of mental1 emotional and physical energy1 whence art arises4 ,we have1 therefore1 been content to note the various forms in which a common temper has found expression4 ,doubtless it would have been possible to trace an international traffic in thought and emotion4 ,its main channels might have been correlated with the manifestations of an international art spirit4 ,we have preferred to avoid the standpoint of cosmopolitanism and individualism alike1 choosing the middle position--that of nationalism4 ,the proposition that every great art is essentially a national art may be disputed4 ,but it has the merit of not requiring actual demonstration4 ,most of us feel that the artist must draw the greater part of his inspiration from the men and women with whom he lives and to whom he appeals4 ,the only thing to avoid is a too narrow use of the word4 8,national0 does not connote a merely territorial or a supposed racial bond4 ,coleridge defined the term for all time when he wrote3 8,i1 for one1 do not call the sod under my feet my country2 but language1 religion1 laws1 government1 blood1 identity in these make men of one country40 ,illustration3 ,,george ,,frampton 8,,mysteriarch0 ,that art alone is truly living which is a record and an interpretation of national life--an epitome of the loves and the hates1 the sorrows and the joys1 the caprices and the enthusiasms1 of men like ourselves4 ,we have demonstrated that the marbles and the bronzes of the greater schools of sculpture of the past answer to this supreme test4 ,surely this justifies the proposition with which we started--8that they are not dead things which may be left to gather dust in unfrequented museums and galleries40 ,one further claim upon the affection and regard of this restless century may be made4 ,much of the greatest sculpture speaks of other days than ours4 ,it tells of times 8,before this strange disease of modern life1 ,with its sick hurry1 its divided aims1 ,its heads o'ertax'd1 its palsied hearts1 was rife40 ,,list ,,of ,,books ,,bibliography ,,sturgis 7,russell74 ,annotated ,bibliography of ,fine ,art1 ,boston 7,mass474 #ahig ,,quaritch 7,bernard74 ,catalogue of ,works on the ,fine ,arts 7,london74 #aijd ,,jellinek 7,arthur ,l474 ,art ,bibliography4 #aijb ,,greek ,,sculpture ,,in ,,general ,,jones 7,henry ,stuart74 ,select ,passages from ,ancient ,writers illustrative of the ,history of ,greek ,sculpture 7with a ,translation74 #ahie ,,frazer 7,j4 ,g474 ,pausanias 7translated74 #aijj ,,gardner 7,percy7 and ,,imhoof-,,blumer4 ,a numismatic ,commentary on ,pausanias1 c4 #ahhg ,,gardner 7,ernest ,arthur74 ,ancient ,athens 7,illustrated74 #aijb ,,collignon 7,maxime74 ,la ,polychromie dans la ,sculpture ,grecque4 #ahih ,,collignon 7,maxime74 ,manual of ,mythology in relation to ,greek ,art4 #ahij ,l,,wy4 ,inschriften griechischer ,bildhauer4 #ahhe ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies4 ,society for the ,promotion of ,hellenic ,studies4 #ahhj1 c4 ,american ,journal of ,archology 7,baltimore74 #ahhe1 c4 ,,furtwaengler 7,adolf74 ,masterpieces of ,greek ,sculpture ,translated by ,eugnie ,sellers 7,illustrated74 #ahie ,,gardner 7,ernest ,arthur74 ,a ,handbook of ,greek ,sculpture4 #aije ,,collignon 7,maxime74 ,histoire de la ,sculpture ,grecque 7,illustrated74 #ahib-ic ,,murray 7,alexander ,stuart74 ,a ,history of ,greek ,sculpture 7,illustrated74 #ahij ,,amelung and ,,holtzinger4 ,museums and ,ruins of ,rome 7edited by ,mrs4 ,strong7 ,,british ,,museum4 ,official ,guide to ,sculpture ,galleries4 ,,murray 7,a4 ,stuart74 ,greek ,bronzes 7,portfolio74 #ahii ,,walters 7,henry ,beauchamp74 ,catalogue of the ,bronzes ,british ,museum 7,illustrated74 #ahii ,,perrot 7,georges7 and ,,chipiez 7,charles74 ,histoire de ,l',art dans ,l',antiquit4 #ahia ,les ,fouilles de ,delphes1 vol4 ii4 ,sculpture ,,paris 7,pierre74 ,polyclete 7,les ,artistes ,clbres74 #ahie ,,murray 7,a4 ,stuart74 ,the ,sculptures of the ,parthenon 7,illustrated74 #aijc ,,waldstein 7,charles74 ,essays on the ,art of ,phidias4 #ahhe ,,collignon 7,maxime74 ,phidias 7,les ,artistes ,clbres74 #ahhf ,,defrasse 7,a474 and ,,lechat 7,h47 pidaure--,restauration et description des principaux monuments du ,sanctuaire d',asclpios 7,illustrated74 #ahie ,,gardner 7,percy74 ,sculptured ,tombs of ,hellas 7,illustrated74 #ahif ,,perrot 7,george74 ,praxitle 7,les ,grands ,artistes ,series7 7,illustrated74 #aije ,,curtius 7,e47 and ,,adler 7,f474 ,olympia 7,illustrated74 #ahih ,,hamdi ,,bey and ,,reinach 7,t474 ,necropole la ,royale ,sidon 7,illustrated74 #ahib-f ,,collignon 7,maxime74 ,lysippe 7,les ,grands ,artistes ,series7 7,illustrated74 #aije ,,post-,,alexandrian ,,and ,,roman ,,sculpture ,,bevan 7,e4 ,r474 ,house of ,seleucus4 #aijb ,,collignon 7,maxime74 ,pergame 7,restauration par ,e4 ,pontremoli7 7,illustrated74 #aijj ,,torr 7,c474 ,rhodes in ,ancient ,times4 #ahhe ,,mahaffy 7,j4 ,p474 ,empire of ,ptolemies4 #ahie ,,wickhoff 7,franz74 ,roman ,art4 ,translated by ,mrs4 ,s4 ,a4 ,strong 7,illustrated74 #aijj ,,mrs4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,strong4 ,roman ,art 7,illustrated74 #aijg ,,symonds 7,j4 ,a474 ,antinous1 from ,italian ,sketches and ,studies4 #ahih ,,italian ,,sculpture ,,in ,,general ,,vasari4 ,the ,lives of the ,painters and ,sculptors4 ,,symonds 7,j4 ,a474 ,renaissance in ,italy 7vol4 iv4 ,the ,fine ,arts74 #ahgg ,,venturi 7,a474 ,storia dell ,arte ,italiana 7,illustrated74 #aija ,,bode 7,wilhelm74 ,renaissance ,bronzes 7,illustrated74 #aijg ,,perkins 7,c4 ,c474 ,italian ,sculpture4 #ahhc ,,reymond 7,marcel74 ,la ,sculpture ,florentine 7,illustrated74 #ahig ,,freeman 7,l4 ,j474 ,italian ,sculpture of the ,renaissance4 #aija ,,the ,,pisani ,,and ,,the ,,fifteenth ,,century ,,conway 7,w4 ,martin74 ,early ,tuscan ,art4 ,from the ,twelfth to the ,fifteenth ,centuries 7,illustrated74 #aijb ,,weir 7,j4 ,p474 ,photographs of ,baptistery ,gates 7,l4 ,ghiberti71 ,yale ,college4 #ahgc ,,douglas 7,r4 ,l474 ,history of ,siena4 ,chapter upon ,jacopo della ,quercia ,,lord ,,balcarres4 ,donatello 7,illustrated74 #aijc ,,crutwell 7,maud74 ,luca and ,andrea della ,robbia 7,illustrated74 #aijb ,,michael ,,angelo ,,and ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century ,,symonds 7,j4 ,a474 ,life of ,michael ,angelo 7,illustrated74 #ahic ,,holroyd 7,c74 ,michael ,angelo1 with translation of ,life by ,condivi4 #aijc ,,benvenuto ,,cellini4 ,autobiography4 ,translated by ,j4 ,a4 ,symonds ,,desjardins4 ,jean ,bologne--,la ,vie et l'uvre ,,fraschetti 7,s74 ,il ,bernini 7,illustrated74 #aijj ,,sculpture ,,of ,,monarchical ,,france ,,headlam 7,cecil74 ,peter ,vischer 7,handbook of the ,great ,craftsmen74 #aijf ,,gonse 7,louis74 ,french ,sculpture in the ,fourteenth ,century4 #ahie ,,gonse 7,louis74 ,chefs d'uvres des ,muse de ,france 7,illustrated74 #aijj-d ,,pattison 7,mrs4 ,e4 ,f4 ,s47 7,lady ,dilke74 ,renaissance of ,art in ,france 7,illustrated74 #ahgi ,,lister 7,reginald74 ,jean ,goujon 7,illustrated74 #aijc ,,auquier 7,philipe74 ,pierre ,puget 7,les ,grands ,artistes ,series7 7,illustrated74 ,,pattison 7,mrs4 ,e4 ,f4 ,s47 7,lady ,dilke74 ,french ,sculptors of the ,eighteenth ,century 7,illustrated74 #aijj ,,tarb 7,prosper74 ,vie et uvres de ,pigalle 7,illustrated74 #ahei ,,thirion 7,henri74 ,les ,adam et ,clodion 7,illustrated74 #ahhe ,,dierks4 ,life of ,houdon 7,in ,german74 #ahhg ,,post-,,revolutionary ,,sculpture ,,cicognara4 ,works of ,canova 7,illustrated74 #ahgf ,,plon 7,eugene74 ,thorvaldsen4 ,life and ,works4 ,translated by ,mrs4 ,cashel ,hoey 7,illustrated74 #ahgd ,,hamerton 7,p4 ,g474 ,life of ,rude 7,modern ,frenchman74 #ahgh ,,fourcaud 7,l4 de474 ,life of ,rude 7,illustrated74 #aijd ,,scott 7,w4 ,b474 ,british ,school of ,sculpture4 #ahgb ,,colvin 7,sidney74 ,flaxman4 #ahgf ,,modern ,,sculpture ,,brownell 7,w4 ,c474 ,french ,art4 #aijb ,,clar,,tie 7,j474 ,contemporary ,sculpture 7,illustrated74 #ahha-g ,,ars,,ne 7,alexandre74 ,life of ,a4 ,l4 ,barye 7,illustrated74 #ahhi ,,chesnau 7,e474 ,le ,statuaire de ,j4 ,b4 ,carpeaux 7,illustrated74 #ahhj ,,dreyfous 7,m474 ,dalou4 ,la vie et son uvre 7,illustrated74 #aijc ,,lawton 7,f474 ,life of ,rodin 7,illustrated74 #aijf ,,mauclair 7,c474 ,rodin4 #aije ,,spielmann 7,m4 ,h474 ,british ,sculptures and ,sculptors of ,to-day 7,illustrated74 #aija ,,hatton 7,joseph74 ,alfred ,gilbert4 ,art ,journal 7,illustrated74 #aijc ,,armstrong 7,w474 ,life of ,stevens4 #ahha ,,stannus 7,hugh74 ,alfred ,stevens 7,illustrated74 #ahia ,,willard 7,a4 ,r474 ,history of ,modern ,italian ,art 7,illustrated74 #aijj ,,taft 7,l474 ,history of ,american ,sculpture 7,illustrated74 #aijc ,,destree 7,o4 ,g474 ,sculpture in ,belgium 7,portfolio7 7,illustrated74 #aije ,,lemonnier 7,camille74 ,constantin ,meunier 7,illustrated74 #aijd ,,wiegand 7,otto74 ,german ,sculpture4 ,,index ,abbey1 ,edwin1 #bhi ,academy1 ,royal ,foundation of1 #beh1 #bfa ,schools1 #bhi1 #bij1 #bid ,medals1 #bfa1 #bhi1 #bia1 #bid1 #cjb ,exhibits at1 #big1 #bii1 #cja ,accademia delle ,belle ,arti1 #bjd ,achan ,league1 #ajh ,acropolis at ,athens1 #ab1 #bg1 #gg1 #bfj ,at ,pergamus1 #ia gospotami1 #dg1 #aid schylus1 #h1 #aid tolian ,league1 #aji 8,africa10 by ,theed1 #bhe ,agasias1 #fi ,agatharchus1 painter1 #ef ,ageladas1 #bc 8,age of ,brass10 by ,rodin1 #bgc1 #bge ,agesander1 #id 8,agias0 of ,lysippus1 #gc ,agostino di ,duccio1 #ahf 8,agriculture10 by ,thornycroft 7the elder71 #bhe ,alaric1 #aci ,albert ,memorial1 #bhd1 #bhe ,alcamenes1 #cf1 #ej 8,pentathlon ,winner0 of1 #bc ,alcibiades1 #ef ,alexander the ,great1 #ff ,portrait by ,lysippus1 #gh ,alexander of ,pher1 #ff ,alexandria1 sculpture of1 #ig1 #ih 8,the ,nile10 #ig1 #ih ,conquest by ,rome1 #aaf ,alexandrian ,empire1 #hd1 #he ,alle d',eau at ,versailles1 #bci ,altar of ,zeus4 ,see ,zeus ,aluminium1 #bif ,aldenham ,school ,alfred ,gilbert at1 #bid ,amboise1 ,cardinal of1 #bbh ,american sculpture4 ,see ,preface ,amphion1 #ig ,anet1 ,castle of1 #bcj ,angelico1 ,fra1 #afe1 #ahd ,angelo4 ,see ,michael ,angelo ,angers1 ,david d'1 #bfe ,anne of ,brittany1 #bbf ,antigonus1 #hf ,antinopolis1 #acg ,antinous1 #acg1 #ach ,antioch1 on the ,orontes1 #hf1 #hg ,antiochus ,,iv41 #hh ,antipater1 #hf ,apamea1 ,city of1 #hg ,aphrodite ,hellenistic conception of1 #aaa 8,aphrodite of ,cnidus10 #fa-fd1 #if1 #bbh ,comparison with 8,venus of ,medici10 #aab ,compared with ,canova's 8,venus10 #bdi1 #bej ,apollo ,type fixed by ,praxiteles1 #eg 8,apollo ,belvedere10 #aje1 #ajh1 #bbh ,count ,stroganoff's statuette1 #ajf-ajg ,comparison with ,pergamene style1 #ajg ,popularity in eighteenth century1 #bdh 8,apollo and ,daphne0 by ,bernini1 #bah 8,apollo and the ,nymphs10 by ,girardon1 #bcg-bci 8,apoxyomenus0 of ,lysippus1 #fh-gj1 #gd1 #ge ,ara ,pacis1 of ,augustus1 #acj ,aratus1 #ajh ,archaistic art1 #ab1 #abb ,architecture1 #ab1 #bi1 #ade1 #adf1 #adi1 #aeb1 #aih1 #bbb 8,ares ,ludovisi10 #ga ,argos1 #ajh ,second to ,athens as an artistic centre1 #bb1 #ca 8,ariadne0 in ,vatican1 #bbh ,aristogiton1 #ac ,aristonidas of ,rhodes1 #ajc ,armourers1 ,guild of1 ,florence1 #agb ,armstead1 ,h4 ,h41 #bhd1 #bhe ,artemesia1 #dh1 #di 8,artemis of ,versailles10 #ajf ,asceticism ,in ,gothic art1 #aeb ,in ,italian ,renaissance1 #afe1 #agc1 #agg ,in ,french sculpture1 #bca 8,asclepius10 ,british ,museum1 #db 8,asia10 by ,foley1 #bhe ,aspasia1 #fj ,assisi1 ,francis of1 #aef-aeg1 #afa ,assisi1 ,upper ,church at1 #aeg 8,athamas10 ,statue by ,aristonidas1 #ajc ,athena1 #bg ,polias1 #cj ,parthenos1 #h1 #bh-cb1 #ce1 #aai 8,lemnian ,athena10 of ,phidias1 #gg 8,triumph of ,athena10 at ,pergamus1 #ib1 #aab ,athenodorus1 #id ,athens1 #h1 #bb1 #dd1 #gg1 #hd ,influence of ,ionia1 #aa1 #ab ,painted dedicatory statues from ,acropolis1 #ab-ac ,superiority over ,dorian ,school1 #bb-bd ,effects of ,persian invasion1 #be1 #bh ,parthenon1 #bg-cc ,decline of ,empire1 #dd-di 8,athens1 the school of ,hellas10 #dg1 #dh ,ceramicus at1 #ed-ee ,growth of individualism in1 #ec-ef ,women in1 #eh-fj1 #aaj-aab ,historical circumstances 7#cfb-cch ,b4,c471 #ff-fh ,influence upon ,alexandrian ,empire1 #hd1 #he ,in ,hellenistic times1 #aja-ajb1 #aad ,plundered by ,sulla1 #aai ,visited by ,roman ,republicans1 #aah ,rebuilt1 by ,hadrian1 #acg1 #ach ,athens ,museum1 #ab1 #ac1 #ajc 8,athlete struggling with ,python10 by ,leighton1 #bha1 #bhg1 #bhh1 #bic ,athletic statuary ,influence upon ,hellenic art1 #ad-bd1 #afi ,in fourth century1 #fg-fi ,attalus ,i41 #ia ,augustus ,csar1 #abd1 #aca ,augustan ,rome last ,hellenistic centre1 #abg 8,organiser of ,roman ,imperialism10 #abd1 #abe1 #abi1 #acj ,statue of1 in ,vatican1 #abe1 #abg1 #abh ,ara ,pacis of1 #acj ,aurelius1 ,marcus ,equestrian statue of1 #aci ,german invasion under1 #aci ,austrian ascendency in ,italy1 #bjj1 #bah ,autobiography of ,cellini1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bje-bji1 #bbh-bbi ,avila1 ,convent of ,st4 ,joseph1 #bag ,babou de la ,bourdaisire1 #bbe ,babylonia1 #g1 #aa1 #ce1 #bff ,baily1 ,e4 ,h41 #bhd ,banks1 ,thomas1 #bhd ,baptistery at ,florence1 #afb1 #aii1 #bge ,barbara1 ,st41 #big ,barberini ,maffeo1 #bad ,bargello1 #agc1 #baj ,baroco style4 ,also see ,bernini1 #baf ,barye1 #bfe1 #bfg1 #cja 8,centaur and ,lapith10 #bff ,bates1 ,harry1 #bhh1 #bij1 #cjb 8,pandora10 #cjj ,baudelaire1 #bge ,bayeaux1 #adh ,bedford1 ,duke of1 #bei ,belgian school1 #bcg1 #bib1 #bic ,bellini1 ,giovanni1 #ahd 8,belvedere ,apollo40 ,see ,apollo ,bentivoglio1 #aha ,berlin ,museum1 #ib ,bernini and the ,catholic reaction1 #aih1 #bjj1 #bab-bah ,rebuilds ,st4 ,peter's1 #bad 8,st4 ,teresa10 by1 #baf-bag 8,apollo and ,daphne10 by1 #bah ,fountains by1 #bah ,visit to ,france1 #bce ,influence upon ,puget1 #bcg 8,birth of ,venus10 by ,botticelli1 #aif ,boehm1 ,sir ,edgar1 #bid ,boethus of ,chalcedon1 #aae ,bologna1 #aha ,bologna1 ,giovanni1 #aih1 #bjj1 #bjc1 #bah 8,mercury10 by1 #baj 8,rape of ,sabine ,women10 by1 #baa ,influence upon ,french ,school1 #baa ,characteristics of his art1 #baj-bab ,bontemps1 #bbg ,borghese1 ,pauline1 #bdi-bej ,borgia1 ,csar1 #bjj ,borgia1 ,francis1 #bae ,boscoreale1 #aae ,botticelli1 #ahd1 #ahg1 #aif1 #bbb1 #bcb ,boucher1 #bdc ,bourges1 #adh1 #aej 8,boy strangling ,goose10 #aae ,brennus1 #ajf ,british ,museum1 #gg1 #bcj1 #beh ,british school1 #bef-bfb1 #bhj-cjb ,northern art1 characteristics of1 #bba-bbd ,italian influence in sixteenth century1 #bef-beg ,historical circumstances during seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1#beg1 #beh ,society of ,dilettanti1 #beh-bfj ,pseudo-,greek canon1 effects of1 #bfj-bfb1 #bha1 #bic ,mid-,victorian1 #bhc-bhe ,comparison with ,french1 #beg1 #bhj1 #bha1 #bic ,naturalistic revival1 #bhe-bic ,growth of individualism1 #bic-cjb ,brock1 ,thomas1 #bij1 #bic 8,eve10 #bij ,victoria ,memorial1 #bij ,bronze1 #bd1 #ajc1 #aje1 #abj1 #aba ,compared with marble1 #fh ,original ,greek1 #ajb1 #aae1 #aba ,casting of ,cellini's 8,perseus10 #bje-bji ,brotherhood of ,san ,michele1 #aga ,brunelleschi1 ,filippo1 #afc1 #agc ,bruni d',arezzo1 ,leonardo1 #aff 8,bruno1 ,st40 by ,houdon1 #bdd ,buonarroti1 ,ludovico1 #ahe ,burlington ,house1 #bhb ,byron1 #hi1 #bff ,byzantine art1 #adj1 #ada1 #aee ,csar1 ,julius1 #aai ,founder of ,roman ,imperialism1 #abd1 #abi ,portrait bust1 #abe1 #abf1 #acj ,calydonian boar1 #gb ,canova1 #bdd-bef1 #bfb ,his ,hellenism compared with ,donatello's1 #agd ,a borrowed ,hellenism1 #bdg1 #bed1 #bfb1 #bha 8,cupid and ,psyche10 #bdi 8,pauline ,borghese10 #bdi1 #bej ,napoleon1 statue of1 #bej ,flaxman compared with1 #bfa1 #bfb ,french ,school1 influence on1 #bfc1 #bga ,british ,school1 influence on1 #bha-bhd 8,cantoria10 by ,luca della ,robbia1 #agh1 #agi ,by ,donatella1 #agh ,caracalla1 ,baths of1 #ig ,carpeaux1 #bfe1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #bga1 #bhe ,art training1 #bfg 8,flora10 by1 #bfg1 #bgd 8,dance10 by1 #bfh ,caraffa1 #bac ,carrara marble mines1 #aed1 #aia ,carrier-,belleuse1 #bgc ,catholic ,church ,attitude of early ,church towards sculpture1 #adj1 #ada ,gothic ,art1 influence on1 #adf-aeb1 #afe ,italian ,platonists1 #agd ,patrons of sculptors in fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 #aij1 #aia1 #aii ,catholic reaction1 #aih1 #bjj1 #bab-bah ,historical circumstances1 #bab-bad ,effect on sculpture1 #bad-bah ,ideals of1 #bae-baf ,effect on sculpture1 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,hera at ,argos1 #cf ,asclepius at ,epidaurus1 #db ,cimon1 #bf1 #bg1 #aha ,cipriani1 #bfj ,cithron1 #ig ,city-state system ,civic pride in fifth-century ,greece1 #ae1 #af1 #bf1 #bg1 #cc1 #da1 #ajh1 #aec ,necessity for physical fitness in ,greece1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #fg1 #fh1 #fi ,decline of civic pride1 #df1 #dh1 #di1 #fg ,political circumstances in fourth century1 #df1 #dg1 #fg ,effects on sculpture1 #fi1 #gi1 #hj ,hellenistic age1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aaj ,in ,france1 #adg1 #adh ,in ,northern ,italy1 #aec1 #aed1 #afj1 #aff1 #afi1 #aha1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bad ,clarence1 ,duke of1 #big ,clarence ,memorial1 ,windsor1 #big-bii ,clement ,,vii41 #aia1 #aib ,clement ,,xiii41 #bdd ,clermont1 #adg ,clodion 7,claude1 ,franois ,michel71 #bdc ,cluet1 ,jean1 #bbe ,cluny ,museum1 #bdc ,cnidus4 ,see ,praxiteles' ,aphrodite ,cockerell1 ,c4 ,r41 #ej ,colbert1 #bce1 #bcf ,colleoni ,monument1 by ,verocchio and ,leopardi1 #aci1 #ahj ,collignon1 ,maxime1 #abi ,colombe1 ,michel ,tomb of ,francis ,,ii4 of ,brittany1 #bbe 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